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2 INCLUDING THE }
STRUCTURE, CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES,
USES, AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS
BY
ROBERT BENTLEY, F.L.S., M.R.C.S. Enc.
FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY
OF GREAT BRITAIN ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL ASSOCIATION ;
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY; MEDICAL
ASSOCIATE OF KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON; PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN KING’S
COLLEGE, LONDON; PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND MATERIA MEDICA TO
THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN; PROFESSOR
OF BOTANY IN THE LONDON INSTITUTION; ONE OF THE
THREE EDITORS OF THE ‘ BRITISH PHARMACOPGIA’ 1885
BOTANICAL
GARDEN
PIFTH EHDITION
LONDON
foo A. CHURCHILL
11 NEW BURLINGTON STREET
1887
Go
.
HENRY BOWMAN BRADY, F.RS., ELS, GS, &e,
A FORMER. PUPIL,
WHO HAS HIGHLY DISTINGUISHED HIMSELF
BY HIS RESEARCHES
ESPECIALLY ON THE FORAMINIFERA
Ghis Work is Dedicated
WITH EVERY FEELING OF REGARD AND ESTEEM
AND IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OF AN UNBROKEN FRIENDSHIP
THROUGH A LONG SERIES OF YEARS
BY HIS VERY SINCERE FRIEND
THE AUTHOR
§ sy
dbs AR Y
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
GARDEN
PREFACE
TO
eee FIFTH EDITION.
In the Preface to the First Edition of this Manual, the author
fully explained the objects he had more especially in view in
its preparation, and the principal sources from whence he had
derived the materials necessary for its compilation. That such
a work was needed, is proved ina marked degree by the sale
of four very large editions ; and in issuing this Fifth Edition,
the Author cannot but express the gratification he feels at the
satisfactory results which have attended his labours, and he
also takes this opportunity of again returning his sincere thanks
to many kind friends and correspondents for the assistance they
have rendered him, by their suggestions, and by the communi-
cation of many valuable facts. :
In the last edition attention was especially directed to the
fact that, in consequence of the very great advances made
within the last few years in the science of Botany on the Con-
tinent of Europe, and more especially in Germany, the work
as been very carefully revised throughout, and in the subjects
f Histology, Physiology, and the Reproductive Organs of the
ebiyivitieamia’ * almost rewritten. The great and continued ad-
vances in these subjects since the last edition have again
“frendered it necessary to make numerous changes and altera-
C.»ytions in these portions, and to add several new woodcuts ;
i jand in so doing the author has to express his obligations to
CO) Mr. J. W. Groves, Curator of the Anatomical Museum, and
vi ' PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
Demonstrator of Practical Biology in King’s College, London,
for the valuable assistance he has rendered generally, but more
especially for, in a great degree, revising the Third Book on
Physiology. In this edition, so far as the above subjects are
concerned, the standard works of Sachs, De Bary, Eichler,
Strasburger, Van Tieghem, Luerssen, Vines, and Bower have
been more particularly consulted, besides a large number of
original memoirs published in this country and elsewhere.
In the part treating of the properties and uses of plants,
many alterations have been also rendered necessary by the pro-
gress of science, and the recent issue of a new edition of the
‘British Pharmacopeeia.? The very large number of plants to
be here noticed has compelled the author to be very brief in
his descriptions of them individually ; but so far as the principal
plants employed in medicine are concerned, those readers who
require more detailed information are referred to Bentley and
Trimen’s ‘ Medicinal Plants,’ where coloured figures, botanical
descriptions, and other fall particulars may be found ; and to
Fliickiger and Hanbury’s ‘ Pharmacographia.’
While the work in all the above particulars has awe been
very carefully revised, the most marked change that will be
noticed is in the part relating to the Classification of Plants,
which, so far as the Phanerogamia are concerned, has been very
materially modified, and in some parts rewritten, in order to
adapt it in all essential particulars to the arrangement adopted
in the great work on that subject, the ‘Genera Plantarum’ of
Bentham and Hooker, which has been published in a complete
form since the last edition of this Manual was issued; and
which cannot fail to be the standard work on the subject for
many years. Important changes have also been made in the
Classification of the Cryptogamia, but, so faras these plants are
concerned, their arrangement at present must be regarded as
transitional ; and hence, as their full description is beyond the
scope of this Manual, advanced students must refer to special
treatises for detailed notices of the arrangement and characters
of the several groups of the Cryptogamia, and more especially
of the Thallophytes,
The present edition having been thus carefully revised in all
its parts, adapted, as far as possible, to the present state of
botanical science, and supplemented by very copious and care-
fully prepared indexes, which have been kindly prepared for
a
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. Vii
him by a friend, the author confidently believes that it will,
even better than the preceding editions, serve as a convenient,
intelligible, and correct as well as comprehensive Manual for
students ; and will also be very useful as a work of reference to
those engaged in commercial pursuits, who, having constantly
to make use of substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom,
require accurate and condensed information on the Properties
and Uses of Plants.
Lonpon : January, 1887.
“Rep
PREFACE
TO
THE FIRST EDITAGe
THE principal design of the author in the preparation of the
present volume was, to furnish a comprehensive, and at the
same time a practical, guide to the Properties and Uses of
Plants, a part of Botany which in the majority of manuals is
but very briefly alluded to. He hopes that in this respect the
present Manual may serve as an introduction to works devoted
particularly to Materia Medica and Economic Botany, and thus
form a text-book of especial value to medical and pharmaceutical
students ; as well as a work of reference generally for those
engaged in commercial pursuits who have daily to make use of
substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom.
Another prominent motive of the author was, to furnish the
pupils attending his lectures with a class-book, in which the
subjects treated of should be arranged, as far as possible, in
the same order as followed by him in the lectures themselves.
It may be noticed that this order differs in several respects from
that commonly followed, but long experience as a teacher has
convinced him that it is the most desirable one for the student.
Great pains have been taken in all departments to bring the
different subjects treated of down to the present state of science ;
and much care has been exercised in condensing the very nu-
merous details bearing upon each department, and in arranging
them for systematic study.
The author makes no claims for this work to be regarded
as a complete treatise on the different departments of Botany ;
it is only intended as a guide to larger and more comprehensive
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ix
works ; but he trusts, at the same time, that it will be found to
contain everything which the student of Botany really requires,
whether he is pursuing it as a branch of professional or general
education, or for pleasure and recreation.
The vast number of facts, observations, and terms necessarily
treated of, in the departments of Structural, Morphological, and
Systematic Botany, have compelled the author to give but a brief
account of the Physiology of Plants ; he hopes, however, that,
even here, all the more important subjects bearing upon the
education of the :nedical practitioner and pharmacist will be
found sufficiently comprehensive. Those who require a more
complete knowiedze of this department, he would refer to the
Second Part «f Balfour’s ‘ Class-Book of Botany,’ in which
valuable work full details upon Physiological Botany will be
found.
The author had a great desire, also, to include in the present
volume an Appendix upon Descriptive Botany, and a Glossary
of Botanical Terms ; but the Manual having already exceeded
the limits desired, he is unable to do so. The Index itself will,
however, serve as a glossary by referring to the pages in which
the different terms are defined and explained ; and with regard
to Descriptive Botany, the author would especially recommend
every reader of this work to obtain a small but very valuable
work on that subject which has been recently published by Dr.
Lindley.
In compiling this volume the author has been necessarily
compelled to refer to many works and original memoirs on
botanical science, and he hopes that in all cases he has given
full credit to the different authors for the assistance they have
afforded him. If he has omitted to do so in any instance, it has
arisen from inadvertence, and not from design. To the valuable
works of Mohl, Jussieu, Schleiden, Mulder, Hofmeister, Asa
Gray, and Schacht, among foreign botanists; and to those of
Lindley, Balfour, Henfrey, Hooker, Berkeley, Pereira, and
Royle, among British botanists, he begs to express his obligations.
To his friend, Daniel Hanbury, he is also indebted for much
valuable information communicated during the progress of the
work. To Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom,’ Pereira’s ‘ Materia
Medica,’ and to the many valuable articles upon the Anatomy of
Plants in Griffith and Henfrey’s ‘ Micrographic Dictionary ’ by
the lamented Henfrey, the author is more especially indebted.
x PREFACE TO THE FIRST, EDITION.
The last three works will always bear ample testimony to the
great research and abilities of their respective authors.
The author has further to express his obligations to his
spirited publisher, for the numerous woodcuts which he has liber-
ally allowed him, and to Mr. Bagg for the great skill he has shown
in their execution. A large number of these woodcuts have
been taken from Le Maout’s ‘ Atlas élémentaire de Botanique,’
several from Jussieu’s ‘ Cours élémentaire de Botanique ;’ others
have been derived from the works of Schleiden, Mohl, Hof-
meister, Lindley, Henfrey, Balfour, &c. ; and many are from |
original sources. By the judicious use of these woodcuts in the
text of the volume, it is believed that the value of the work as
a Class-book of Botanical Science has been materially icreased.
Lonpon : May 1, 1861.
CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
DEPARTMENTS OF Borany
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS, Pinas, AND Migeuin ;
BOOK . I.
MORPHOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL MorpHoLoGY OF THE PLANT .
Cryptogamous Plants or Cryptogams
Phanerogamous Plants or Phanerogams
1. Organs of Nutrition .
a. The Root
b. The Stem or Caulome
c. The Leaf or Phyllome
2. Organs of Reproduction .
a. The Flower Stalk or Peduncle
b. The Flower ; :
c. The Fruit and Seed
CHAPTER 2
ELEMENTARY STRUCTURE OF PLANTS, OR VEGETABLE HisTouocGy .
Section 1.
OF THE CELL AS AN INDIVIDUAL
1. Nature of the Cell and its Contents
1. The Cell-wall :
2. The Protoplasm
3. The Nucleus
4. The Cell-Sap . , ?
Chlorophyll and Chlorophyll Granules
a. Chlorophyll : 4
b. Chlorophyll Granules
PAGE
X1i CONTENTS.
Starch ; 5 : ‘ ‘ ;
Development of Starch
Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Starch
Raphides . : : A
Aleurone Grains, Crystalloids, and ‘Globoids : ,
2. Forms and Sizes of Cells. ; :
1. Forms of Cells
2. Sizes of Cells . F :
3. General Properties and Structure of the Cell- wall
Pitted or Dotted Cells
Cells with Bordered Pits or Disc- bearing Wood- cells .
Fibrous Cells . Z
SECTION 2.
OF THE KINDS OF CELLS AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH ONE ANOTHER
1. Parenchyma .
a. Round or Elliptical Parenchyma
b. Stellate or Spongiform Parenchyma .
c. Regular or Polyhedral Parenchyma
d. Elongated Parenchyma
e. Tabular Parenchyma
2. Prosenchyma
a. Woody Tissue
b. Disc-bearing Woody Tissue :
c. Woody Tissue of the Liber or Bast Tissue
3. Vessels. : : é
. Pitted or Dotted Vessels
Spiral Vessels
Annular Vessels
1. Reticulated Vessels
Scalariform Vessels
Sieve-tubes or Sieve-vessels
Laticiferous Vessels
h. Vesicular or Utricular Vessels :
4. Epidermal Tissue .
a. Kpidermis .
b. Cuticle
c. Stomata or Stomates .
5. Appendages of the Epidermis
1. Hairs or Trichomes .
2. Glands é
a. External Glands
b. Internal Glands
6. Intercellular System
AUS os
Sa TAS
Intercellular Passages or Canals and Intercellular
Spaces
Air Cavities ;
Receptacles of Secretion
Intercellular Substance .
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER 3.
OrGANS OF NUTRITION OR VEGETATION
Section 1.
THE STEM OR CAULOME
1. Internal Structure of the Stem in general
A. Exogenous or Dicotyledonous Stem
1. Pith or Medulla
2. The Medullary Sheath .
3. The Wood or Xylem
Duramen and Alburnum
Age of Dicotyledonous Trees
Size of Dicotyledonous Trees
4. Cambium-layer or Cambium
5. Medullary Rays :
6. The Bark or Cortex .
a. The Liber, Inner Bark, or Phlogm_
b. The Cellular Envelope, Green Layer,
Phelloderm
Corky or Suberous Layer
Growth of the Bark
B. Endogenous or Monocotyledonous Stem
Internal Structure :
Origin and Growth of the Fibro- vascular Bundles
Growth by Terminal Buds
Anomalous Structure of Monocoty ledonous Stems :
Age of Monocotyledonous Trees
C. Acrogenous Stem, or the Stem of Cormophy tes .
Internal Aimcture of Fern Stems
Growth by Terminal Buds
2. Buds and Ramification .
A. Leaf-buds or Buds
B. Ramification or Branching .
1. Non-development of the Regular Buds
2. Adventitious Buds P
Embryo Buds . : p
3. Accessory Buds. :
3. Of the Forms and Kinds of Stems and Paehes:
Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees . : J
Kinds of Stems and Branches . :
1. Aerial Modifications of Stems and Branches
a. The Runner or Flagellum .
b. The Offset .
c. The Stolon . : ;
d. The Sucker .
e. The Rhizome or Boateng.
2. Subterranean Modifications of the Stem aad ata ie
a. The Creeping Stem
or
Xill
Xiv CONTENTS.
PAGE
b. The Tuber f : 3 ' , : ; . Teo
2 ne ibalp : ‘ : ‘ J , » = Was
d. The Corm 3 2 ; ‘ ; 9 : (Se
SECTION 2.
THE ROOT OR DESCENDING AXIS . s .' tae
1. True or Primary Root. ; ; 2 4
Distinctive Characters of Stems mad Hoots : , _ eas
2. Adventitious or Secondary Root 2 : ; ; Se aS
Aerial Roots : ‘ : : : ; : ., £80
Epiphytes or Air Plants 4 : : : : <> sees
Parasites . F 3 A ; : ; Ra e's
Duration of Roots . s > ‘ : : : : . » ees
1. Annual Roots ; : ; : ; i : «| eee
2. Biennial Roots . 3 : . 2 ‘ ; ae
3. Perennial Roots . . s° kd@a
Roots of Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Acrogens . xf see
1. The Root of Dicotyledons . ; ; : ; . Sof
2. The Root of Monocotyledons . A ; . cee
3. The Root of shin tag or Acrogens : Z ; ee
Forms of Roots . ‘ é : 2 ae
SEcrIon 3.
THE LEAF OR PHYLLOME . : : . 140
1. General Description and Parts of the Leaf ’ ; ow, ES.
Duration and Fall of the Leaf . ‘ ; : f ae
Parts of the Leaf . 5 ‘ ; ae o
9. The Internal Structure of Tenree A ; ‘ : cs ae
1. Aerial Leaves . : m : ; : ; =. ee
A. The Petiole . : : : : : : . 143
B. The Lamina . : : ‘ . tae
1. Fibro-vascular System ; ; j ; i “i432
2. Parenchyma or Mesophyll : P ; 7 see
Submersed Leaves ; : 4 , : « A145
ae a and es) ied of Rear es : 5 ‘ ee
1. Insertion ; .. 146
2. Arrangement of heey es on ne Stent, or ‘Phy llotaxy . . 146
Alternate Leaves. 3 - J - . +8
Opposite and Whorled eae es , 7 i~ta en
Phyllotaxis in different Natur al Orders, Sa ; ait) oe
3. Arrangement of the Leaves in the Bud, or Vernation 4 Be
a, aan or Blade ; A . . : ; ee ee 3 |
Venation or Nervation ° ° Pie ay}
1. Varieties of Reticulated o or Netted Venation ah ees
A. Feather-veined or Pinnately-veined 6 . 138
B. Radiated or Palmately-veined : ee
2. Varieties of Parallel Venation ; A : -» LGB
Venation of the Leaves of Cormophytes . F . ame
——_ a
CONTENTS.
sepa
1. Simple Leaves
1. Margins .
2. Incision .
3. Apex :
4. General Outline or Figure :
5. Form :
2. Compound Leaves
1. Pinnately-veined Compound Leaves
2. Palmately-veined Compound Leaves
5. Petiole or Leaf-stalk é ‘
Forms of the Petiole
6. Stipules ;
Kinds of Stipules
7. Anomalous Forms of Leaves
Spines of Leaves
Tendrils of Leaves.
Phyllodes or Phyllodia .
Ascidia or Pitchers . ,
8. General View of the Leaves of Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons,
and Cormophytes : : :
1. Leaves of Dicotyledons .
2. Leaves of Monocotyledons
3. Leaves of Cormophytes .
CHAPTER 4.
OrGANS OF REPRODUCTION IN THE PHANEROGAMIA
Section 1.
INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS
1. The Bract
Arrangement and Duration of Bracts
Varieties of Bracts :
9. The Peduncle or Flower-stalk
Kinds of Peduncle :
Forms of Peduncle
Insertion
Duration ; .
3. Kinds of Inflorescence :
1. Indefinite, Indeterminate, ¢ or Axillary Inflor escence
cd. Kinds of Indefinite cr Indeterminate Inflorescence
with an Elongated Primary Axis .
. The Spike :
. The Amentum or Carkin
The Spadix . ;
. The Locusta or Spikelet
The Cone . ,
The Strobile .
TS ASS
XV
AGH
162
163
163
165
169
169
173
174
174
176
179
181
182
183
185
185
186
187
188
189
189
189
190
190
TOT.
191
193
193
197
197
198
199
200
200
201
202
202
202
203
203
203
204
xvi CONTENTS.
q: The Raceme
h. The Corymb
a. The Panicle.
2. Kinds of Indefinite or Indeterminate TniHorescesie
with a Shortened or Dilated Primary Axis
a. The Capitulum, Anthodium, or Head
b. The Umbel .
2. Definite, Determinate, or Terminal Infloreseeuee :
Kinds of Definite or Determinate Inflorescence
a. The Cyme ;
b. Helicoid or Scorpioid Cyme
c. The Fascicle or Contracted Cyme
d. The Glomerule ‘
e. The Verticillaster
3. Mixed Inflorescence .
SecTIon 2.
OF THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER; AND THEIR APRANGEMENT
IN THE FLOWER-BUD
1. Parts of the Flower . ; : . 7
2. Adstivation or Prefioration . } :
1. Varieties of Circular Aistivation ©
2. Varieties of Imbricated or Spiral Aistiv ation
Section 3.
THE FLORAL ENVELOPES
1. The Calyx
1. Polysepalous, Polyphyllous, or 1 Dialysepalous Calyx :
2. Monosepalous or Gamosepalous Calyx .
Appendages of the Calyx .
Duration of the Calyx
2. The Corolla
1. Polypetalous or Dialypetalous Corolla
A. Regular Polypetalous Corollas
1. Cruciform or Cruciate .
2. Caryophyllaceous
3. Rosaceous
B. Irregular Polypetalous Corollas.
The Papilionaceous . ,
2. Monopetalous or Gamopetalous Corollas
A. Regular acy aia Corollas .
1. Tubular . :
2. Campanulate or Bell- shaped
3. Infundibuliform or Funnel-shaped .
4. Hypocrateriform or Salver-shaped
5. Rotate or Wheel-shaped .
6. Urceolate or Urn-shaped
B. Irregular Monopetalous Corollas .
CONTENTS.
1. Labiate, Bilabiate, or Lipped
2. Personate or Masked :
3. Ligulate or Strap-shaped
3. Appendages of the Corolla
Duration of the Corolla
0 Srcrron 4.
%
1. The Andrecium .
1. The Filament
Form .
Length, Colour, and Direction
Duration P : :
2. The Anther
lis Parts ;
Its Development and Structure ;
Attachment of the Filament to the iter
Connective
Form of the athens yo eee ak of the Anthier
Colour of the Anther
Dehiscence of the Anther
1. Longitudinal or Sutural
2. Transverse
3. Porous or Apical .
4. Valvular or Opercular
The Stamens generally, or the Andrvecium
1. Number .
2. Insertion or Baeihiou.s
3. Union or Cohesion .
4. Relative Length .
(he: Pollen |.
Formation of aoe Bolen
Structure of the Pollen :
1. Wall or Coats of the Paice! alae
2. Contents of the Pollen-cell
3. Forms and Sizes of the Pollen- ceme
2. The Disk
3. The Gynecium or Pistil ‘
The Carpel. :
Nature of the Carpel .
Structure of the Carpel .
The Gynecium or Pistil
1. Apocarpous Pistil
2. Synecarpous Pistil .
Compound Oy ary
1. The Ovary
Placentation ;
1. Kinds of Pigccwehion
2. Origin of the Placenta
THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION
XVili CONTENTS.
2.. The Style
Form and Surface of the Style
3. The Stigma ;
4. The Thalamus
Srctron 5.
THE FRUIT
Nature of the Fruit
Changes produced in the Ov ary i in the Course of its Dev elopment
Gener ral Characters of the Fruit
Composition of the Fruit .
_ Pericarp
Sutures
Dehiscence
1. Valvular Dehiscence
A. Septicidal Dehiscence
B. Loculicidal Dehiscence
C. Septifragal Dehiscence ‘
2. Transverse or Circumscissile Dehiscence
3. Porous Dehiscence
Kinds of Fruit .
1. Fruits for med by a ‘Single Flow er
a. Simple Fruits :
1. Legume or Pod
2. Lomentum .
3. Drupe
4. Utricle
b. Apocarpous Fruits
1. The Follicle :
2. The Achenium or Achene
3. The Eterio
c. Synearpous Fruits
1. Superior Syncarpous I" rnits F j 3
a. With a Dry Indehiscent Pericarp . Ae
1. The Caryopsis
2. The Samara
3. The Carcerule
4. The Amphisarca
b. With a Dry Dehiscent Periearp
1. The Capsule
2. The Siliqua .
3. The Silicula
c. With a Fleshy Indehiscent Pericarp
1. The Hesperidium ;
2. The Tryma .
3. The Nuculanium
2. Inferior Synearpous Fruits
a. With a Dry Indehiscent Pericarp :
1. The Cremocarp
PAGE
286
289
290
292
295
295
296
297
298
290
300
301
302
303
303
305
307
308
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314
314
315
315
315
316
316
317
317
318
318
318
318
319
319
319
"eS SL aye ba
‘ 7 .
CONTENTS.
2. The Cypsela .
3. The Glans or Nut
b. With a Dry Dehiscent Pericarp
Diplotegia .
c. With a Fleshy Indehiscent Peri icarp
1. The Bacca or Berry ,
2. The Pepo ,
3. The Pome
4. The Balausta
2. Fruits formed by the Combination of Seeral Flowers Z
. The Cone
. The Galbulus . :
. The Strobilus or Strobile
. The Sorosis
. The Syconus
OUR Che
SEcTION 6.
THE OVULE AND SEED
1. The Ovule
Number and Poniine a: the Gyulee
a. Number . ;
b. Position
Development and Structure of the Ov ule
Relation of the Hilum, Chalaza, and Micropyle to each
other
2. The Seed
Nature and General Characters of the Seed as ; compared
with the Ovule
Forms of Seeds
Structure of the Seed.
1. The Integuments or Coats _
a. Testa, Episperm, or Outer Coat .
Colour, Texture, and Surface of the Testa
b. Tegmen, Endopleura, or Internal Coat
Arillus ; ;
Caruncules or Str ophioles
2. The Nucleus or Kernel
a Albumen, Endosperm, Perisperm
6. The Embryo
a. The Monocotyledonous Embryo
b. The Dicotyledonous Embryo
Relation of the Embryo to the other Parts of
the Seed, and to the Fruit.
SEcTION 7.
THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OR GENERAL MORPHOLOGY
OF THE FLOWER
“a2
xix
PAGE
319
319
319
319
320
320
320
321
321
321
322
322
323
323
324
324
324
325
325
326
327
330
330
333
334
334
335
3030
339
337
337
338
339
341
341
342
345
346
048
Xx
i
pea
~
~
~]
He UD bo
CONTENTS.
Secrion 8.
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER
The Changes due to Union or Adhesion of Parts
a. Coalescence .
b. Adnation or Maheson
. Addition or Multiplication of Parts
a. Augmentation
b. Chorisis or Deduplication
. Suppression or Abortion .
a. Suppression or Abortion of one or more Whorls
b. Suppression of one or more Organs of a Whorl
. Irregularity
a. Unequal Growth, and Unequal Degree of Union of
the Members of a Whorl .
b. Abnormal Development of the Thalamus or r Axis of
the Flower
CHAPTER 5.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA OR
FLOWERLESS PLANTS
Section 1.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CORMOPHYTES .
. Filices or Ferns
. Equisetacee or Horsetails
Lycopodiace or Club-mosses
. Selaginellacez or Selaginellas .
. Marsileacesze or Pepperworts
. Musci or Mosses
. Hepaticacez or Liverw orts
SECTION 2.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THALLOPHYTES
. Fungi or Mushrooms
1. Phycomycetes
2. Hypodermie.
3. Basidiomycetes .
4. Ascomycetes .
Bacteria
. Lichenes or Lichens
. Characesz or Charas.
. Algee or Seaweeds .
Nostoe
Spirogyra
Vaucheria
Fucus
(Edogonium
2. z
. Orders or Natural eee
. Classes
CONTENTS.
BQO +11.
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, OR THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
SEcTION 1.
SPECIES, GENERA, ORDERS, AND CLASSES.
. Species
Varieties or Sub- _species
Races : ;
Genera
SECTION 2.
CHARACTERS, NOMENCLATURE, ABBREVIATIONS, AND SYMBOLS
. Characters
. Nomenclature
a. Species
b. Genera .
c. Orders
4 Classes . ; Z
Sub-kingdoms, Divisions, ac.
é Retesiations and Symbols .
a. Abbreviations
b. Symbols
CHAPTER 2.
SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
Section 1.
ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
Linnean System
Tabular View of the Linnean Sy stem.
SECTION 2.
NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
Natural Systems . ? é : 2
Ray’s Natural System : ; : : ; :
Jussieu’s Natural System : : A
Axi
PAGE
410
411
414
412
414
416
416
417
De Candolle’s Natural System
Endlicher’s Natural System
Lindley’s Natural System
Bentham and Hooker’s System
CONTENTS.
Natural System adopted in this Manual
CHAPTER 3.
ARRANGEMENT, CHARACTERS,
DISTRIBUTION,
UssEs oF THE NATURAL ORDERS
Sub-kingdom 1.—Phanerogamia
Division 1.—Angiospermia
Class 1.—Dicotyledones
Sub-class 1.—Polypetale
Series 1.—Thalamiflore
Cohort 1. Ranales bt.
Order PAGE
1. Ranunculacese . : 429
Y. Dilleniaceze 433
3. Calycanthacez 433
4. Magnoliacez . 434
5. Schizandraceze 435
6, Anonacez 436
Cohort 2. Parietales . é
1. Sarraceniaceze 443
2. Papaveracee . 444
3. Fumariacez 446
4. Cruciferze 447
5. Capparidacee 452
6. Resedaceze 453
7. Cistaceze 454
Cohort 3. Palygalinea
1, Poly galaceze 459
2; Vochysiacez . 462
wwe
oe CON
Cohort 4. Car ese yllinee :
. Caryophyllacez 463
. Paronychiacez 465
. Scleranthaceze 466
Cohort 5. Guttiferales .
. Elatinaces . 467
. Hypericacee . 468
. Reaumuriacese 468
. Guttifere or Clusiacee . . 469
. Ternstroemiacez or Camelliaceze 471
Cohort 6. Malvales
. Malvaceze A 475
. Sterculiaceze 479
coOND
Order
Nympheacez
. Nelumbiaceze
. Violacez
. Sauvagesiacere .
. Canellacez
. Bixaceze
. Pittosporaceze
. Tremandracez .
3. Frankeniacez
on yf
3.
. Portulacaceze
. Tamaricacee .
. Maregraaviaceze
. Rhizobolacez
. Dipteracee .
. Chleenacee .
Tiliacez
PROPERTIES, AND
. Menispermacez ;
. Berberidaceze
. Lardizabalaceze
. Cabombaceze
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Series Thalamiflore .
wa et oka
CONTENTS. Xxlll
PAGE
Series 2.—Disciflore . é ; f 488
Cohort 1. Geraniales P a : f , , 488
Order PAGE Order
1. Linacez 3 : 488 10. Oxalidaceze , 3 ‘ 497
2. Malpighiacez . 491 11, Rutaceze . 498
3. Humiriacee é A 492 12. Simarubacez 504
4. Zygophyllaceze : : 492 13. Ochnacee . . 505
5, Geraniacez - 5 494 14. Burseracez or Amyridacez. . 506
6. Balsaminaceze 495 15. Meliacez 3 Z : 508
7. Vivianiaceze 496 16. Cedrelaceze . ; ~ 509
8. Tropzeolaceze A 496 17. Chailletiaceze . - . 510
9. Limnanthaceze . 497
Cohort 2. Olacales : ; s ‘ ; 510
1. Olacaceze t - 510 | 4. Phytocrenacez . : 511
2. Icacinacee . : 510 5. Aquifoliacez or Ilicacez Ri atl
3. Cyrillaceze 511
Cohort 3. Celastrales ° : ; ‘ ; ‘ 512
1. Celastraceze 512 4, Rhamnacee . é 514
2. Hippocrateaceze 513 5. Vitacee < “ 516
3. Stackhousiacez 514
Cohort 4. Sapindales . : ; , : : 517
1. Sapindacee . 517 5, Anacardiacee . 522
2. Aceracee . 520 6. Coriariaceze . 524
3. Staphyleacez 521 7. Moringaceze + BZD
4, Sabiacee . : B21
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Series Disciflore . : : : 525
Series 3. Calyciflore . ; : cy
ohort 1. Rosales : s : ; 528
1. Connaracez 528 a o Cunoniacee . 548
2. Leguminose . 528 Ribesiacez 548
3. Rosaceze 539) | 1 Crassulacez . 549
4. Saxifragacee . 545 | 13. Droseracez 550
5, Francoacee. 546 | 14, Hamamelidacee . Pei tip !
. Escalloniacee . 547 | 15. Bruniaceze . 551
. Philadelphacez . 547 16. Haloragacez 552
8. Hydrangeaceze 547 17. Callitrichacee . 552
2, Hensloviacez 548 |
Cohort 2. Myrtales ; ‘ : * ‘ : 552
1. Rhizophoracez . : - 552 | §. Chamezlauciacez 208
2. Combretaceze : 3 553 | 7. Belvisiacee . 558
3. Myrtaceze 5 ‘ : ‘ 554 | 8, Melastomacee . . 558
4. Lecythidaceze ; 557 | 9. Lythraceze 559
5. Barringtoniaceze 557 | 10. Onagraceze 560
Cohort 3. Passiflorales P ; : 561
1. Samydaceze . . ; 561 | 6, Malesherbiacez 563
2. Homaliaceze s 562 7. Papayaceze 564
3. Loasaceze - 562 8. Cucurbitaceze 564
4. Turneraceze : 2 a 562 9. Begoniacez . 568
5. Passifloracee . : . 563 10. Datiscacez 568
XXIV CONTENTS.
PAGE
Cohort 4. Ficoidales . 4 ‘ : ; , . Seep
Order PAGE Order
1. Cactacez : 4 : - 569 2. Mesembryanthaceew or Ficoi-
dace . > . - eryovu
Cohort 5. Umbellales : : 2 ; ; . Ape
1. Umbelliferze . - : Seine eh! 4, Garryacee . , 5 : » 079
2. Araliaceze . : : 577 5. Alangiaceze . : - 579
3. Cornaceze ; F 5 5 578
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Series Calyciflore . : : . -» eR
Sub-class 2..-Gamopetale or Corolliflore . . 583
4
(
Series 1.—Infere or Epigyne . 583 |
Cohort 1. Rubiales : . 583 |
l, Caprifoliaceze 583 | 2. Rubiacez 585
Cohort 2. Asterales ; : 5 7 Bo
L. Valerianaceze 589 3. Calyceraceze « ool
2. Dipsaceze 2 590 4, Composite - 592
Cohort 3. Campanales . : . 600
1. Stylidiaceze . 600 3. Campanulaceze . 600
2. Goodeniacez . 600 4, Lobeliaceze - 601
Series 2.—Supere . 602
Cohort 1. Ericales . : : : ; . 602
1. Vacciniacez 602 3. Monotropacez . 605
2. Ericaceze : . 603 4, Epacridacez Sse UD
Cohort 2. Primulales . . 606
1. Plumbaginacee . 606 | 3. Myrsinaceze 608
2. Primulaceze 607 |
Cohort 3. Ebenales ; , ; . 609
1. Sapotaceze 609 3. Styraceze Paes wesc) sh
2. Ebenaceze 610
Serjes 3.—Dicarpie or Bicarpellate Pe 1) &)
Cohort 1. Gentianales : : : ; ? Pies Ts
1. Oleaceze z 5 ; 7 OZ 4. Asclepiadaceze H 616
2. Salvadoraceze . 614 5. Loganiacez 4 618
3. Apocynaceze 614 6. Gentianaceze : 620
Cohort 2. Polemoniales ‘ ; ; . 622
1. Polemoniacee . - 622 6. Ehretiacez . ++ 624
2. Diapensiacee . ° - 622 7. Cordiacez . . = - 624
3. Stilbaceze 2 =» 622 8. Nolanacez eee nae
4. Hydrophyllacee . . 622 9. Convolvulacez . 3 = 625
5, Boraginaceze 623 10, Solanaceze ares 627
1. Seropbulariacez ~
2.
3. Lentibulariaceze
4,
a.
1
2.
3.
He Choe
whe
Cohort 3. Personales
Order
Orobanchacez
Columelliacez
Gesneraceze
Cohort 4. DLamiales
Selaginacez .
Verbenaceze
Myoporacez .
Sub-class 3.—Monochlamydee or Incomplete
CONTENTS.
Cohort 1. C prorales
. Nyctaginaceze
. Amarantaceze
. Chenopodiaceze
. Basellacee .
. Batidaceze
Cohort 2. Laurales
. Monimiaceze
. Atherospermacez
Cohort 3. a
. Thyme'acee .
. Aquilariaceze
Cohort 4. Uvrticales
. Urticaceze
. Moraceze
. Cannabinacez
Cohort 5. Amentales
. Betulacez .
. Platanacez .
. Myricacee .
Cohort 6. aa biales
. Euphorbiacez
. Scepaceze
Empetracee .
Cohort 7. Piperales
. Piperaceze
. Saururaceze .
648
649
645
651
6do4
Cohort 8. NV. 5 come
. Nepenthaceze
|
|
6.
ea
or
Order
Crescentiaceze
Bignoniacez
Pedaliaceze
9, Acanthaceze
4,
5.
D.
6.
a
‘,
2
ae
Heo ,
ao,
He OO
Labiatee
Plantaginacez
Series 1.—Supere . :
Phytolaccacee
Petiveriacez .
Polygonaceze
Orders of Dubious Affinities .
Podostemacez
. Myristicacee .
. Lauraceze
. Eleagnacese
. Proteacez
. Artocarpacese
. Ulmacez
. Casuarinacese
. Salicaceze
. Stilaginaceze
. Penzeaceze
. Lacistemacez
. Chloranthacez
. Ceratophyllacez
" Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Sub-class Gamopetale or Corolliflore 644
648
648
648
651
652
652
654
654
654
655
656
659
Sebo
661
661
665
666
668
670
670
Xxvl CONTENTS.
PAGE
Series 2.—Inferz or Epigyne . : Pree
Cohort 1. Asarales . ‘ 4 e 4 : : . 681
Order PAGE Order
1. Aristolochiaceze ; 5 SA OSL 3. Rafflesiaceze ; 2, . 683
2, Cytinaceze : 5 star, G82
Cohort 2. Quernales . : ; % ‘ vive: GBS
1. Juglandacee . : . - . 684 | 2. Corylacez or Cupulifere . . 685
Cohort 3. Santalales . : ; ’ : f : . 687
. Loranthaceze : - : Sp teil 3. Balanophoracee.. . . . 688
- Santalaceze . ; ci oy ie BOO
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Sub-class Monochlamydex or Incom-
plete . : : : : ~ i+ —69
Ne
Class 2.—Monocotyledones . ; . ‘ . 2 DS
Sub-class 1.—Petaloidee . ; : 2 Pamper
Series 1.—Infere or Epigyne é 2 A
Cohort 1. Hydrales AS : ; ; : + ee?
1. Hydrocharidaceze : : < . F R 4 ‘ J ° . 693
Cohort 2. Amomales . ; a ; E : : . «693
1. Zingiberacee or Scitaminaceze . 693 3. Musaceze ‘ j : ope DD:
2. Marantacez or Cannacee . . 695 4. Bromeliacez : : > . 696
Cohort 3. Orchidales . : : : ; : ct! ky ORE
1. Orchidacez . : - . . 697 | 2. Apostasiaceze » < ; mats 00
Cohort 4. Taccales . : ; 2 : . ; . 400
1, Burmanniacez - : oe 1000;* | 2. (Paceacess mae : ; ; . 700
Cohort 5. Narcissales . ; ; ; : _ = hateeee
1. Iridacee . : , 5 eo. HOU 3. Heemodoraceze A - go ane
2. Amaryllidacee . : 5 =e
Cohort 6. Dioscorales : ‘ i k ‘ : Ee
1. Dioscoreacez 3 3 : . = ‘ Ys : 4 5 : eer (Ui
Series 2.—Supere . , : : 2/2
Sub-series 1.—Apocarpe : ‘ See
Cohort 1. Triwrales 2 ; 2 : : . ee
1. Triuridaceze ‘ “ : ‘ : 3 . : : : : p Pee (Ue
Cohort 2. Potamales . f . : 3 ; . . een
. Butomaceze L - : aoe TAU 3. Juncaginacee . : P . 708
2. Alismaceze 4 A “ oe 108 4, Naiadaceze . : : 5 era Oe
_
———
; so,
a? €.
CONTENTS, XXvll
: PAGE
Sub-series 2.— Syncarpze s° 720
Cohort 1. Palmales . - ~) 010
Order
1. Palmacee . 5 3 A 710
Cohort 2. Arales . ; ; ; , : Pied «i
PAGE Order
1. Pandanacez * - x role pa 8. § 3. Aroidaceze 715
2. Typhaceze F toe Eres a 2G, 4. Lemnaceze (ae
Cohort 3. Liliales . ? + ie ~ ‘ES
1, Liliacee . reg Blts! 4, Roxburghiace 725
2. Colchicacez or Melanthacex na eee 5. Philesiaceze > ¢25
3. Smilacez . 2 724 6. Juncaceze 725
Cohort 4. Pontederales . 2 : : - 726
1. Pontederacee . 727 | 2. Philydracez 727
Cohort 5. Commely nia : ; ee
1. Commelynacee . PB 727 | -3. Xyridacez ET i Ac!
2. Mayaceze : : nae. TOF
Cohort 6. Restiales : : : 2 328
1. #riocaulacese . : F ieee, 3. Desvauxiaceze 729
2. Restiaceze . \ P ; on t20
Sub-class 2.— Glumaceze 2’ tae
Cohort 1. Glumales . ; : : Bora (51)
1. Cyperacee .. } - 730 | 2. Graminaceze - 732
Arifcial Analysis of the Ordérs in 1 the
Class Monocotyledones , - 739
Division 2.—Gymnospermia . ; : ; -. GAL
1. Coniferze or Pinaceze . : . 741 | 3. Gnetacez 745
2, Taxacez . ~ ; : . . 744 | 4, Cycadacez : 746
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the
Gymnospermia . , 746
Sub-kingdom 2.—Cryptogamia . ; re iY
Division 1.—Cormophyta 4 GAT
Class 1.— Vasculares so TAF
Sub-class 1.—Isosporia 3 747
1. Filices . 3 ; 747 3. Lycopodiacez - 750
2. Equisetaceze . 2 “ Pare iad
Sub-class 2.—Heterosporia . ; ot ad WhO
1. Selaginellacez : - Sie, cod 2, Marsileacezw or Rhizocarpee . 752
Class 2.—Muscinee . ‘ ‘ A 53:
ie Muse, «'. - a - . . 753 | 2. Hepaticaceze Ge
Division 2.— ener ta d ; 756
ISMN ei. - A ; ah, 23000 3, Characese 763
2. Lichenes . _ 4 : reheat 4, Alge 764
XXVIll CONTENTS.
BQO Tat.
PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS, OR PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
CHAPTER 1.
PAGE
SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES AND
OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION . . Pea sit,
Section 1.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES se uc
1. Functions of Parenchymatous Cells. : ; ; >, Ae
1. Formation of Cells. ‘ ; ; F ; 2”, fale
A. Free Cell-formation : ; - 172
a. Free Cell-formation from ; a nucleus: : 7 ee
b. Free Cell-formation without a previous nucleus 772
B. Cell-division . 774
a. Cell-division without absor ption of the Ww alls of
the parent cell : 774
b. Cell-division with absorption of the Ww alls of the
parent cell : ; : ! ; ey i
c. Rejuvenescence . : ‘ ; : ey a) hae
d. Conjugation . ; AS 3
e.- Indirect Division of the Nuclei ‘of Cells ee!
Rapidity of Cell-production . ; : : =, aoe
2. Absorption and Transmission of Fluids . : : inthe
3. Movements in the Contents of Cells : 2 , . ee
4, Elaboration of the Cell-contents ; : : Mera
2. Functions of Prosenchymatous Cells. : 4 : . 785
3. Functions of Vessels A : ; : : Sis
Functions of Laticiferous Vessels 5 ‘ : : ey k= 13)
4. Functions of Epidermal Tissue ; : : : ee
Origin and Development of Stomata . : ; ; . 788
5. Functions of the Appendages of the Epidermis : <7 Cae ee
6. Functions of the Intercellular System . : ‘ : » $89
SECTION 2.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION . -7 ee
1. Of the Root or Descending Axis : : : . : > = hate
Absorption by the Root ; ; ’ ; ; . 790
Selection of Food by Roots . : : : : : ig ee
Excretion by Roots. ; é : : : 2 age
Storing of Nutriment by Roots ; ; : 2 a iad arene
Development of Roots : : : : ; ; » Tes
2. Of the Stem or Caulome . 7 eto
A, Special Functions of the Differ ent Parts of the Stem stk Toe
a. The Medulla or Pith : ; ; : . 4 hE
b. The Wood or Xylem . : ; : : oe
= ——~
bo
CONTENTS, RIX
° PAGE
Formation of Wood 794
c. The Medullary Rays 795
d. The Bark ‘ 795
B. Development of the Stem 795
3. Of the Leaves or Phyllomes 796
1. Exhalation of Watery Vapour by Leaves 796
2. Absorption of Fluids by Leaves 799
3. Absorption and Exhalation of Gases by Leaves 799
4. Formation of Organic Compounds by Leaves 804
5. Effects of Gases generally upon Leaves 805
Wardian Cases . ‘ 806
6. Colour of Leaves 807
7. Defoliation, or the Fall of the Leaf 810
8. Development of Leaves 811
CHAPTER 2.
GENERAL PuysroLoay, oR LIFE oF THE WHOLE PLANT 812
Section 1.
FOOD OF PLANTS AND ITS SOURCES 813
. The Organic or Volatile Constituents, and their Sources . Sit
. The Inorganic Constituents or Ash, and their Sources . 816
Rotation of Crops 817
SECTION 2.
LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT, OR THE PLANT IN ACTION 818
. Absorption 5 818
. Distribution of Fluid Matters ‘through the Plant, ‘and their
Alteration in the Leaves : 4 819
A. Ascent of the Sap . 820
B. Changes of the Crude Sap i in the Leaves 822
C. Descent of the Sap . j 825
CHAPTER 3.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION . 826
Functions of Bracts and Floral Envelopes 896
Colour of Flowers ; 828
Development of the Floral Env elopes : R28
. Functions of the Essential Organs of Reproduction 829
Sexuality of Plants. : ; 829
1. Reproduction of the Cryptogamia 829
A. Reproduction of Thallophytes 29
1. Reproduction of Algz 830
a. Conjugation . , 830
b. Impregnation of Naked Spores or Gaze
Corpuscles by Ciliated Antherozoids .
2. Reproduction of Characex
XXX CONTENTS.
PAGE
B. Reproduction of a a tes. ; ; . 831
1 Hepaticacee . : : - ~ 882
2. Musei . : y : . 832
3. Marsileacez or Rhizocarpee , j ote ee
4. Selaginellacee . : s , : . 833
5. Lycopodiacex : ; Reto > «ee? eh ee
6. Equisetacee . : : ; : ; . 834
7 wileer ts «. : ; <b. eee
2. Reproduction of the Phanerogamia : : . 836
A. Reproduction of the Gymnospermia : . ks ee
B.. Reproduction of the Angiospermia_ . ; . 839
Hybridisation or eau ; : : 6 ee
3. Of the Fruit . , ; 3 : . 846
Chemical Constitution of Fruits. : . : ‘ . As ee
Ripening of Fruits. ; 3 : 2 ae a? ee
4. Of the Seed . ; : : ; : J : eee
Vitality of Seeds : : - ; . 850
Preservation and Transpor tation of Seeds ; : <7 Sec
Germination . ; : ‘ 852
Length of Time required for Germination 5 ° » « Gag
Conditions requisite for Germination : = : . 852
Process of Germination . : : j ” . . 80a
Direction of Plumule and Radicle 854
Differences between the Germination of “‘Dicotyledonous
and Monocotyledonous Seeds . ; : : : . 854
1. Monocotyledonous Germination ‘ : eR i
2. Dicotyledonous Germination . é ; . 855
CHAPTER 4.
SPECIAL PHENOMENA IN THE LIFE OF THE PLANT. . 855
1. Development of Heat by Plants . : - ; . 2. Boe
2. Luminosity of Plants . : : ; ; ; : . 858
3. Electricity of Plants. ; 858
Effect of the Electric Light on the Growtal of Plants and
Production of Chlorophyll . : : : . - 858
4. Movements of Plants : 2 sos ee
1. Movements depending on External Influences ; . 860
a. Periodical . ‘ E ; : ; : ere |)
b. Not Periodical ‘ ; : ‘ : ; . 862
Irritability.—Carnivorous Plants ; 863
2. Movements independent, at least to some extent, ‘of
External Influences . ; : ‘ : . . 864
a. Periodical : : , ‘ : 2 : . 864
b. Not Periodical . ; ; ; : é «~~ Ee
5. Odours of Plants . - ; ; ; ; : : . 865
GENERAL AND GLossAaRIAL INDEX ro MoRPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL,
AND PuystoLocicaL Botany ; é 2 : : Ze SEE
InpEx To Systematic Botany . } . : . ‘ . 880
CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.
Page 189, line 24 from the top, before LEAVES, add GENERAL VIEW OF THE
282, line 5 from the top, after marginal, add or sutural,
368, line 6 from the bottom, before cone, erase scale,
424, line 6 from the top, after series, add in the Monochlamydex
and Monocotyledones (see pages 648 and 692)
490, line 10 from the bottom, after eye, add and teeth, &c.
537, between Parkinsonia and Poinciana, insert —
Piscidia Erythrina, Jamaica Dogwood.—The bark of
the root is employed in the West Indies to catch fish. It
is said to be a powerful narcotic like opium, and especially
useful in neuralgic affections.
608, bottom line, for Algicera. read Aigiceras.
616, between Rowpellia and Tabernemoniana, insert--
Strophanthus.—The seeds of one or more species of
this genus from Equatorial and Western Africa, have been
lately introduced into medical practice. Strophanthus
exerts a much more powerful action upon the heart, and
a less energetic action upon the blood-vessels, than digitalis.
It is also a good diuretic. The seeds of S. hispidus are
also said by Fraser to be the active constituents of the
Kombé arrow poison.
676, line 15 from the bottom, after which, add as here defined.
752, line 16 from the top, for 100, read 350.
MANUAL OF BOTANY.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
THE various bodies which are situated on the surface of the
earth, or combined so as to form its substance, are naturally
arranged, both by the common observer and scientific investi-
gator, in three great divisions, called, respectively, the Animal,
Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms; and as those comprised in the
two former are possessed of life, they form the Organic creation ;
while those of the latter, not being endowed with life, constitute
the Inorganic creation. It is our province in this work to treat
of the lower members of the organic world, called Plants or Vege-
tables. The science which has this for its object is termed
Botany, from the Greek word Sordvy signifying an herb or grass.
DEPARTMENTS OF Botany.—Botany in its extended sense
embraces everything that has reference to plants either in a
living or fossil state. It investigates their nature ; their in-
ternal structure ; their outward forms ; the laws by which they
are enabled to grow and propagate themselves; and their
relations to one another, and to the other bodies by which they
are surrounded. As a science, therefore, it is of vast extent,
and one which requires for its successful prosecution the most
careful and systematic study. It may be divided into the
following departments :—1. Morphological Botany, or the Com-
parative Anatomy of Plants: this comprises everything which
relates to the outward forms of plants and their various parts
or organs. 2. Structural Botany: this treats of plants and
their organs in reference to their internal structure, including
the description of elementary structure, or Vegetable Histology.
3. Physiological Botany : this comprises the study of plants, and
their organs, in a state of life or action. 4. Systematic Botany :
this considers plants in their relations to one another, and com-
prehends a knowledge of the principles upon which they are
described, and of their arrangement and classification. 5. Geo-
graphical Botany is that department which explains the laws
B
2 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN
which regulate the distribution of plants over the surface of the
earth at the present time. And 6, Palxontological or Fossil
Botany is that which describes the nature and distribution of
the plants which are found in a fossil state in the different
strata of which the earth is composed. The first four de-
partments are those only that come within the scope of the
present work ; the two latter being of too special and extensive
a nature to be treated of inthis Manual. There are also several
departments of what may be called Applied Botany, which are
founded on a knowledge of the above departments, such as
Descriptive Botany, Vegetable Materia Medica, Agricultwral,
Horticultural, and Economic Botany. To these special works are
commonly devoted ; but, so far as the Properties and Uses of
Plants are concerned, they will be particularly referred to in
this work under Systematic Botany.
DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS.—
Botany being the science which treats of plants, it would natu-
rally be expected that we should commence our subject by
defining a plant. No absolute definition of a plant can, how-
ever, be given in the present state of our knowledge of the
organic world, neither is it probable that, as our knowledge
increases, such will ever be the case ; for hitherto the progress
of inquiry has shown that there is no distinct line of demarca-
tion between plants and animals, the one passing gradually and
imperceptibly into the other. Indeed, until quite recently, it
was believed by many that there existed certain organisms
which were plants at one period of their lives and animals at
another. Thus De Bary, in the year 1859, described the
germinating spores of Avthalium as producing naked, motile,
protoplasmic bodies, which eventually coalesced to form amaoe-
boid masses of protoplasm (plasmodiwm), which were destitute
of a cell-wall, were able to creep over the surface of the
substance upon which they were growing, and to take into
their interior and digest solid matters, after the fashion of a
true Ameba, of the animal nature of which there can be no
doubt ; and so while in this stage he regarded A?thalium as an
animal. After a time, however, the plasmodium becomes
quiescent, divides into an immense number of small portions,
each of which clothes itself with a wall of cellulose, and becomes
a spore ; and in this later stage he regarded A’thalium as a
plant. Butas the more recent researches of De Bary and others
show that this amoeboid condition is of frequent recurrence in
certain stages of many organisms, of the plant nature of which
there can be no possible question, Athaliwm is now relegated
to the Vegetable Kingdom alone. Nevertheless, even if the
belief in the double nature (plant and animal) of certain orga-
nisms does not now exist, naturalists are far from agreeing as to
what in all cases shall be regarded as a plant or as an animal.
Thus, while Stein looks upon such a complex structure as
©
ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS. 3
Volvox as undoubtedly animal, other authors of equal repute
acknowledge it as a plant.
There are, indeed, even some naturalists who believe that
there is no line of demarcation between plants and minerals,
but that simple organisms can be, and are, formed out of in-
organic matter; but, notwithstanding the ability and ingenuity
with which these views have been supported, we hold such
notions oe 08 purely speculative, and continue to maintain that
the possesston of individual life and power of reproduction in
the former, constitute at once, without further investigation,
a broad and well-marked line of demarcation from the latter.
Even when we compare plants with animals, so long as we
confine our researches to the higher members of the two king-
doms, the distinctions are evident enough; difficulties only
occur when we look deeply into the subject and compare
together those bodies which are placed lowest in the scale of
creation, and stand as it were on the confines of the two
kingdoms. It is then that we find the impossibility of laying
down any certain characteristics by which all the members of
the two kingdoms may be absolutely distinguished. We shall
at present, therefore, confine our attention to those characters
by which plants may as a general rule be distinguished from
animals, but to which exceptions may be found when we com-
pare particular individuals, leaving the more extended investi-
gation of the subject to the future pages of this volume.
In the first place, we find that plants hold an intermediate
position between minerals and animals, and derive their nourish-
ment from the earth and the air or water by which they are
surrounded, and that they alone have the power of converting
this inorganic or mineral matter into organic. Animals, on the
contrary, live on organic matter, and reconvert it into inorganic.
In other words, plants produce organic matter, and animals
consume it.
Secondly, plants are generally fixed to the soil, or to the
substance upon which they grow, and derive their food immedi-
ately by absorption through their external surface; while animals,
being possessed of sensation and power of voluntary motion,
can wander about in search of the food that has been prepared
for them by plants and by other animals, and which they receive
into an internal cavity or stomach. Plants are, therefore, to
be regarded as destitute of sensation and power of voluntary
motion, and as being nourished from without ; while animals
are possessed of such attributes, and are nourished from within.
Thirdly, the action of plants and animals on the atmosphere
is different. Thus, during the process of what has been called
assimilation, plants decompose the carbon-dioxide of the air
or water in which they are growing, and, uniting the carbon,
which is obtained from this decomposition, with the elements
of water, to form starch or some other carbohydrate, restore
B2
4 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
the oxygen to the atmosphere or water. Animals, on the
contrary, during the process of respiration take into their
tissues free oxygen, and return, in its place, to the surrounding
medium in which they live, carbon-dioxide, the result of the
combination of the superfluous carbon in the animal system
with the oxygen which has been inhaled. Plants, therefore, in
assimilation absorb carbon-dioxide and eliminate oxygen ; while
animals in respiration absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon- —
dioxide.
Fourthly, while all plants and animals are made up of cells,
those of the latter do not develop upon their exterior any sub-
stance materially differing from the more internal protoplasm ;
but the whole substance of the cell is more or less homogeneous,
and consists throughout of matter which is essentially composed
of the four elements, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen,
together with some Sulphur and Phosphorus. The protoplasmic
mass of the cells of plants, which is also essentially composed of
the same constituents, on the other hand, sooner or later, as a
general rule, becomes changed on its outer surface, where a
membranous covering is developed termed the cell-wall, com-
posed of cellulose, and therefore consisting entirely of the three
elements, Carbon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen. Plants, then, are
made up of cells, the protoplasm of which is enclosed in a cell-
wall of cellulose, while animals are made up of cells which
have no such cell-wall.
Fifthly, the presence of starch was also formerly considered
as a diagnostic character of plants; but it is now known that
this substance, or at least one isomeric with, and presenting the
same general appearances as it, is also to be found in the tissues
of animals.
In reference to the above distinctive characters, therefore, it
should be especially noticed that they are only general, namely,
those derived from comparing together, as a whole, the members
of the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms ; and that to all such
characters some exceptions may be found when we compare
particular individuals. We arrive accordingly at the conclusion
that it is impossible to give a complete and perfect definition of
a plant, or, in other words, to lay down any single character by
which plants can in all cases be distinguished from animals. In
determining, then, whether an organism under investigation be
a plant or an animal, the naturalist must first take into his con-
sideration, not any one character alone, but the sum of all the
characters which it may exhibit.
Since there are many organisms which it is very difficult to
assign with any certainty either to the Vegetable or Animal
Kingdom, as some of their characters indicate that they belong
to the one and some to the other kingdom, Haeckel proposes
that all these should be grouped together into a third kingdom
to be called ‘ Protista.’
Be) We * ih.
MORPHOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
ee
THE most superficial examination by the unassisted eye of any
of the more highly developed plants enables us to distinguish
various parts or organs, as root, stem, leaves, and the parts of
the flower. A similar examination of plants of lower organisa-
tion presents to our notice either the same organs, or organs of
an analogous nature to those of the higher plants. By a more
minute examination of these several organs by the microscope,
it will be found that they are all made up of others of a simpler
kind, in the form of little membranous closed sacs, called cells,
and elongated tubular bodies, of various forms, sizes, and ap-
pearances, which are combined in various ways. Hence, in
describing a plant we have two sets of organs to allude to,
namely, the compound organs or those which are visible to the
naked eye, and the elementary structures of which they are
composed. A knowledge of these elementary structures or
building materials of plants is absolutely essential to a complete
and satisfactory acquaintance with the compound organs ; but,
previously to describing them, it will materially assist our in-
vestigations if we give a general sketch of the compound organs
and of the plants which are formed by their union. According
to the number of these compound organs, and the greater or
‘less complexity which they exhibit, so, in a corresponding de-
gree, do plants vary in such particulars. Hence we find plants
exhibiting a great variety of forms ; that part of Botany which
has for its object the study of these forms and their component
organs is called Morphology; while that part which relates to
their internal structure, including the description of elementary
structure or Vegetable Histology, is commonly termed Structural
Botany. These two parts together constitute what has been
termed Organography. These parts are most conveniently
studied together; we shall therefore, after describing the
general morphology of the plant, and the elementary structures
which are common to all parts of plants, proceed to consider
separately the different organs which are made up of these elemen-
tary structures both with reference to their outward forms and
internal stucture.
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE PLANT,
THE simplest plants, such as the Red Snow (Protococcus), or
Gleocapsa, consist of a single membranous sac, or cell as it is
termed, which in form is more or less spherical or oval. In
Protococcus (fig. 1) the cells separate almost as soon as formed,
while in Gleocapsa they remain bound together by an environing
capsule of gelatinous matter, formed from the cell-wall, for a
dives 1 Rieu.
AES Sd ee
Fig. 1. Several Red Snow plants (Protococcus (Palmelia) nivalis), magnified.
Fig. 2. Two plants of Oscillutoria spiralis.
longer or shorter period. As, however, this matter absorbs
more water, it is gradually dissolved away and the cells are set
free. In plants immediately above these in point of complexity
we find the cells still all alike, but instead of being separated
and each forming a distinct plant, they are joined end to end and
form a many-celled filament which is either straight or variously
curved, as in Oscillatoria (fig. 2). All these plants—so far at
least as is known—multiply by division of their cells only ; but
a little higher in the scale we meet with plants in which certain
of their cells perform the function of nutrition, while others
are set apart for the purpose of reproduction. Thus, in the
Moulds, such as Mucor (fig. 3), or Penicillium (fig. 4), the cells
which serve as organs of nutrition are elongated simple or
branched filaments, termed hyphx (see page 49), which le
upon the surface of the substance furnishing the plants with
food; while those destined to reproduce the individual are de-
veloped in globular cavities (sporangia), as in Mucor (fig. 3);
or are arranged in necklace-like branches at the end of special
filaments, as in Penicillium (fig. 4).
Yet a little higher in the scale of vegetable life we find the
cells so combined as to form leaf-like expansions (fig. 5), or solid
axes (fig. 6), as well as special organs of reproduction (fig. 5, t, t).
‘>
THALLOPHYTES OR THALLOGENS. 7
But these cells are all more or less alike, so that no true distine-
tion can be drawn between the often very different looking parts
we meet with in such
plants as a sea-weed or Fig. 3. Fie. 4.
a mushroom. Such a
combination of similar
cells, whatever the
precise form may be,
which presents no dif-
ferentiation of leaf,
stem, and root, is called
a thallus or thallone,
and every thallus-pro-
ducing plant is there-
fore termed a Thal-
lophyte or Thallogen.
Under the head of
Thallophytes we com- Fig. 3. A species of Mou'd (Mucor), with branched
: : mycelium (hyphal tissue or hyphe) below, from
prise all those simpler which two stalks are seen to arise, each of which
forms of plants which is terminated by asac (sporangium or ascus), from
are commonly known which a number of minute bodies (spores) are
Al Li 4 ae escaping.—Fiig. 4. Another Mould (Penicillium
as Se, ichens, all glaucum), with branched mycelium (hyphal tis-
Fungi. sue), and a stalk bearing several rows of cells,
which are the germinating spores (conidia).
Bre. 5.
; Fig. 6. The common Mushroom (Aga7icus
Fig. 5. Thallus or thallome of campestris). There are three receptacles
the common Bladder Sea-weed ( fructification), arising from the mycelium,
(Fucus vesiculosus). t, t. The my, below : one young and nearly globular,
fructification. v, v. Bladders of and two mature. a. Pileus. 0. Lamelle, c.
air. Annulus.
Again, as all Thallophytes are composed of cells which
8 CELLULAR AND VASCULAR PLANTS,
approach more or less closely to the spherical or oval form, or if
elongated are thin-walled and commonly flexible, they are also
Fic. 9. Fia. 10.
Fig.7. A portion of the flat thallus-like stem of Marchantia polymorpha,
showing an antheridial receptacle, 7, supported on a stalk, s.——Fig. 8.
Jungermannia bidentata. The stem is creeping, and bears numerous
small imbricated leavyes.——Fig. 9. Female plant of the Hair-moss
(Polytrichum commune), with its leaves, stem, and fructification.— Fig.
10. The male plant of the same, with its stem and leaves, and terminated
by the male organs (aéntheridia).
termed Cellular Plants, in contradistinction to those above
them in order of development, which are called Vascular Plaits,
on account of their commonly possessing, in addition to these
LIVERWORTS.—MOSSES.—CLUB-MOSSES. 9
cells which are termed parenchymatous, elongated thick-walled
cells, called prosenchymatous or wood-cells (see page 39); and
also, in most cases, except in the in-
termediate orders of Liverworts and
Mosses, variously formed tubular organs
which are known under the name of
vessels.
From the Thallophytes, by various
intermediate stages, through an order
of plants called Liverworts, we arrive
at another order—the Mosses. In the
lower forms of the Liverworts, e.g. Mar-
chantia (fig. 7}, we have a green flat
thallus-like stem bearing upon its under-
surface scale-like appendages, the first
representatives of true leaves. In the
higher forms, as Jungermaniia (fig. 8),
the stems and leaves are both more
highly developed. In the Mosses, e.g.
Polytrichum (figs. 9 and 10), the stems
often contain elongated cells, which are
to a certain extent thickened, and differ
little from the true wood-cells met with
in the more highly developed plants ;
this tissue, too, is often prolonged into
the leaf, when it forms a midrib. Cor-
related with this greater development
of the organs of nutrition we find the
reproductive apparatus similarly ad-
vanced in complexity of structure. The
female element, or oosphere, consists of
a mass of protoplasm, called the germ
or embryonic cell, situated in the interior
of a flask-shaped cellular organ, the
archegonium, and this is fertilised
by small spirally-wound filaments
or antherozoids, which are developed in
cells, termed sperm-cells (fig. 11, c),
formed inside a cellular sac-like struc-
ture called the antheridiwm (fig. 11, a).
The result of this fertilisation is what is
commonly termed the fructification (jig.
9), which will be hereafter described.
The Liverworts and Mosses are,
however, destitute of true roots and
vessels, such as exist in the next and
all the higher groups of plants.
eee le be
aces
“
Fig. 11. Antheridium, a,of the
Hair-moss (Polytrichum),
containing a number of
cells, c, in each of which
there isa single antherozoid.
p. Paraphyses, surrounding
the antheridium,— Fig. 12.
The common Club - moss
(Lycopodium clavatum).
Fig. 13. Fructification of
the Great Water Horse-
tail (Equisetum maximum),
forming a cone-like mass at
the end of the stem.
Still ascending, we find in the Club-mosses (fig. 12), Sela-
ginellas, Pepperworts, Horsetails (jig. 13), and Ferns (jig. 14),
10 HORSETAILS.—FERNS.
a continued advancement in complexity of structure, vessels of
different kinds make their appearance for the first time, and
the stems are frequently of considerable size and height. Cala-
“ay Ny
Wve? od
ee
ih <=
aA
A’
Fig. 14. The Male Fern (Aspidinm Filix-mas).—Fig. 15. A Tree-fern, show-
ing a tuft of leaves (fronds) at the apex of a cylindrical stem, which is
enlarged at its base, 7a, by the development of a mass of aerial adven-
titious roots.
mites, an order of plants nearly allied to the Horsetails, and
which were extremely abundant during the formation of our coal
measures, would appear to have reached the height of our loftiest
CRYPTOGAMS.—PHANEROGAMS. 11
trees ; while at the present day in the tropics and warmer parts
of the earth Ferns will frequently attain the height of twenty
feet (fig. 15), and sometimes even as much as forty feet, bearing
on their summit a large tuft of leaves, or, as they are commonly
called, fronds, a term applied to leaves which, like those of
Ferns, bear their fructification or organs of reproduction. In
these plants true roots first also appear, but they are generally
broken up into numerous small fibres and never become en-
larged as in the tap-roots (jig. 20, r), of the higher flowering
plants.
Cryptogamous Plants or Cryptogams.—In all the plants above
- mentioned we have no evident flowers as in the higher plants,
hence they are called Flowerless ; but their organs uf reproduc-
tion are very small and inconspicuous, and therefore they are
also termed Cryptogamous, that is to say, plants with concealed
or invisible reproductive organs. These Cryptogamous plants,
or Cryptogams as they are commonly termed, are again divided
into two groups, called Cormophytes and Thallophytes ; the latter
comprising the simpler forms of plants, which, as previously
noticed, are commonly known as Algz, Fungi, and Lichens,
and which present no distinction of root, stem, and leaf (figs. 5
and 6); and the former group those plants, such as the Liver-
worts (figs. 7 and 8), Mosses ( figs. 9 and 10), Club-mosses (jig.
12), Selaginellas, Pepperworts, Horsetails (fig. 13), and Ferns
(figs. 14 and 15), which present us with an evident stem, bearing
leaves, and also, except in the Liverworts and Mosses, true roots
and vessels of different kinds.
Phanerogamous Plants or Phanerogams.—All plants above
the Cryptogams, from possessing evident flowers or reproductive
organs, are termed Phanerogamous, Phanerogams, or Flowering.
These latter plants are also reproduced by true seeds instead of
spores, as is the case in all Cryptogams which possess reproduc-
tive organs ; a seed being essentially distinguished from a spore,
from containing within itself in a rudimentary condition all the
essential parts of the future plant in the form of an embryo
(fig. 16); while a spore merely consists of a single cell, or of
two or more united, and never exhibits any distinction of parts
until it begins to develop in the ordinary process of vegetation,
and then only in certain cases.
These Phanerogams also present two well-marked divisions,
called respectively the Angiospermia and Gymnospermia: the
former including those plants in which the ovules are enclosed
in a case called an ovary (jig. 33, 0, 0); and the latter, such
plants as the Fir and Larch, in which the ovules are naked
(fig. 17, ov) or not enclosed in an ovary. In the Phanerogams
we have the highest and most perfect condition of vegetation,
and it is to these that our attention will be more especially
directed in the following pages. But before proceeding to
describe in detail the elementary structures of these and other
12 SEED.—GERMINATION.
plants and the different parts or organs which they form by
their combination, it will be necessary for us to give a general
sketch of the nature and characters of these compound organs,
and to explain the meaning of the various technical terms which
are employed for their description.
We have already stated that a seed contains an embryo, in
which the essential parts or organs of the future plant are
present ina rudimentary state. The embryo of the common Pea
may be taken for the purpose of illustration (jig. 16). Here we
find a distinct central axis, f, which is sometimes termed the
tigellum or tigelle, the lower part of which is called the radicle,
yr; and its upper extremity, which is terminated by two or more
rudimentary leaves, is termed the plwmule or gemmule, n.
This axis is united to two fleshy lobes, c, c, whose office is of
a temporary nature, and to which the name of cotyledons has
been given. But some seeds only contain one cotyledon in
Pies Ave
Fig. 16. Dicotyledonous embryo of the Pea, laid open (magnified). #». The
radicle. ¢. The axis (tigellum), terminated by the plumule, m. c¢,c. The
cotyledons. Fig. 17. Bract or carpellary leaf, sc, of a species of Pinus,
bearing two naked ovules, ov, at its base. mic. The micropyle or foramen.
their embryo, (fig. 19, c), instead of two as just described in the
Pea (jig. 16, c, c); and hence we divide the Phanerogams,
or those plants which are reproduced by seeds, into two great
classes, called, respectively, Dicotyledones (two cotyledons), and
Monocotyledones (one cotyledon). The two great divisions of
plants are, therefore, the Cryptogamia and the Phanerogamia ;
the former being again subdivided into the Thallophyta and
Cormophyta ; and the latter into Angiospermia and Gymno-
spermia, if reference be made to the position of their ovules,
or into Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones, if we regard the
number of cotyledons.
When a seed is placed under favourable circumstances
(which will be treated of hereafter in speaking of the process
of germination), its embryo begins at once to develop (jigs.
18 and 19); the lower part of its axis, t, or radicle, or one
or more branches from it, growing in a downward direction,
GERMINATION.—ORGANS OF THE PLANT. 13
while the upper part elongates upwards, carrying the plumule
with it, and at the same time the cotyledonary portion becomes
developed and forms the first leafy organs. This development
of the embryo is termed germination ; the office of the coty-
ledonary portion is, however, only of a temporary nature,
being simply designed to afford nutriment to the rudimentary
parts of the future plant in the early stages of their growth ;
but by the development of the central axis in two opposite
directions we have formed a lower portibn which is called the
descending axis or root (fig. 18, 7), and an upper part termed
the ascending axis or stem. Upon this ascending axis or its
Fig. 18. Fie. 19.
Fig.18. Germination of the Haricot or French Bean, a Dicotyledonous plant,
7. The roots, springing from the lower end of the axis, ¢ (tigellum). c, c.
The cotyledons. d, d. The leaves. Fig.. 9. Germination of Maize, a
Monocotyledonous plant. ¢. The axis, giving off roots from its lower
extremity. c. The cotyledon. g. The leaves and young stalk.
divisions all the future organs of the plant are arranged ; those
which immediately succeed the cotyledons, c, c, constitute the
first true leaves of the plant, d, d ; and all which succeed the
leaves in the order of development, such as the flower and its
parts, are merely modifications designed for special purposes of
those organs which have preceded them. Hence these three
organs, namely, root, stem, and leaves, which originally exist
in the embryo in a rudimentary state, or are developed as soon
as germination commences, form the fundamental organs of the
plant. They are commonly called organs of nutrition, because
they have for their object the nutrition and growth of the
plant to which they belong ; while the flower and its parts,
14 ORGANS OF NUTRITION.—ROOT.—STEM.
having assigned to them the office of reproducing the plant by
the formation of seeds, are termed organs of reproduction.
In like manner, a spore in the course of its growth either
simply develops parts which, as we have seen, perform equally
both nutritive and reproductive functions ; or a certain special
apparatus is designed for the latter purpose, as is the case in by
far the larger number of Cryptogams. We have here, there-
fore, as in Phanerogams, two manifestly distinct series of
organs, one adapted for nutrition, and another for reproduction.
Hence in treating of the different organs of plants, both in
reference to their structure and functions, we arrange them in
two divisions, namely: 1. Organs of Nutrition ; and 2. Organs of
Reproduction. But before proceeding to describe these in detail,
it is necessary that we should briefly define them, and explain
the terms used in describing their principal modifications.
1. Orcans or Nurrition. a. The Root.—The root (fig. 20,
r)is that part of a plant which at its first development in the
embryo takes a downward direction,
Fie. 20. and is hence called the descending axis,
avoiding the light and air, and fixing
the plant to the earth or to the sub-
stance upon which it grows ; or it is sus-
pended in the water when the plant is
placed upon the surface of, or in, that
medium. The divisions of aroot, which
are given off irregularly and without any
symmetrical arrangement, are termed
branches (jig. 20, r).
b. The Stem or Caulome.—The stem
(fig. 20, t) is that organ which at its
first development passes upwards, and
is hence termed the ascending axis,
seeking the light and air, and bearing
on its surface leaves, f, f, and other
leafy appendages. The leaves are always
developed at regular points upon the
Fg er toa: surface of the stem, which are called
mon Stock. 7. The root modes, and in the axil of every leaf (that
es oa he is, in the angle produced by the junction
Leaf-buds. ’"" of the base of the upper surface of the
leaf with the stem) we find, under
ordinary circumstances, a little conical body called a leaf-bud
(figs. 20, b, b, and 22, b). From these leaf-buds the branches
are subsequently produced, and hence, in the stem, these are
symmetrically arranged, and not irregularly, as in the root,
where there is no such special provision for their formation.
It is in the presence of leaves and leaf-buds that we find the
essential characteristics of a stem, as both these organs are
absent in the root.
LEAF OR PHYLLOME.—ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 15
c. The Leaf or Phyllome.—The leaf is commonly a more or
less flattened expansion of the stem or branch (figs. 21 and 22).
As already stated, the point from which it arises is called a
node ; and the space between two nodes is therefore termed an
mternode. In its highest state of development the leaf con-
sists of three parts ; namely, of an expanded portion, which is
usually more or less flattened (figs. 21, 1, and 22,1), called the
lamina or blade ; of a narrower portion, by which the lamina is
connected with the stem, termed the petivle or leaf-stalk (figs.
21, p, and 22, p); and of a third portion at its base, which either
_ exists in the form of a sheath (fig. 21, d) encircling the stem,
or as two little leaf-like appendages on each side, which are
called stipules (fig. 22, s,s). These three portions are by no
Bre, 21.
2ETS
Fr
Fig. 21. Leaf and piece of stem of Polygonum Hydropiper. 1. Lamina or
blade. p. Petiole. d. Sheath or stipular portion.— /fig, 22. Leaf and
portion of a branch of Sulix aurita. 7. Branch. 6. Leaf-bud. J. Lamina
with the upper portion removed, and attached by a petiole, p, to the
stem, s, s. Caulinary stipules,
means always present, for it frequently happens that one or two
of them are absent; and in such cases, when the petiole is
absent, the leaf is said to be sessile, and if the stipulate portion
is wanting the leaf is described as exstipulate. When a leaf
becomes thick and fleshy, instead of presenting its ordinary
flattened appearance, it is termed succulent.
2. OrGANS OF ReEpropuction.—As already noticed, the
parts of a flower are only leaves in a modified condition adapted
for special purposes ; and hence a flower-bud is analogous to a
leaf-bud, and the flower itself to a branch the internodes of
which are but slightly developed, so that all its parts are situated
in nearly the same plane.
a. The Flower-stalk or Pedwncle.—The stalk which bears a
solitary flower, as in the Tulip, or several sessile flowers (jig. 23,
jt)—that is, flowers without individual stalks—is called the flower
J
i
16 PEDUNCLE.—BRACTS,
stalk or peduncle (fig. 23, p); or if the stalk branches and each
branch bears a flower, the main axis is still called a pedwnele, and
the stalk of each flower a pedicel (fig. 24, ped, ped) ; or if the axis ©
be still further subdivided, the general name of peduncle is applied
Fig. 24,
Zeit a
sali ane
7.
aS SS DS
LZ us;
a ~
Coa Pelt =.
Fig. 23. Inflorescence of a species of Broom-rape (Orobanche). p. Peduncle.
b, b. Bracts. jl. Flower. The flowers are sessile on the peduncle, and form
that kind of inflorescence which is termed a spike.——Fig. 24. Inflor-
escence of Rampion (Campanula Rapunculus), p. Peduncle. ped, ped.
Pedicels. 6, 6. Bracts. Fig. 25. Flower of the common Wallflower
(Cheiranthus Cheiri). ce. Calyx, composed of parts called sepals. p, p.
Petals of which there are four arranged in a cruciform manner, the whole
forming the corolla. e. Summit of the stamens, which enclose the pistil.
to the whole, with the exception of the stalks immediately sup-
porting the flowers, which are in all cases called pedicels. The
leaves which are placed upon the flower-stalk, and from the axils
ot which the flower-buds arise, are termed bracts (figs. 23 and 24, _
7
=
THE FLOWER.—CALYX.—COROLLA. 17
b, b). In some cases these bracts are of a green colour, and in
other respects resemble the ordinary foliage leaves, but usually
they are distinguished from the leaves of a branch by differences
of colour, outline, and other peculiarities. The flowers are vari-
ously arranged upon the peduncle, and to each mode of arrange-
ment a special name is applied; the term inflorescence being
used in a general sense to include all such modifications.
b. The Flower.—A flower in its most complete state of de-
velopment (fig. 25) consists of four distinct series of organs, that
is, of two internal or essential organs of reproduction (fig. 26),
enclosed in two particular envelopes, which are especially de-
~ signed for their protection, termed floral envelopes (fig. 25).
The essential organs are called the Andreciwin (fig. 26, ec, ec),
and Gyneciwm ( figs. 26, sti, and 32, 0, sti); and the floral en-
velopes are termed Calyx (fig. 25, c), and Corolla, p, p. The
extremity of the peduncle or pedicel upon which the parts of
the flower are placed, is called the Thalamus or Receptacle ( figs.
26, r, and 31, r); but the latter term is more properly applied
in a special sense, as will be explained hereafter when treating of
the Peduncle in detail. The four series of organs thus form-
ing the flower are arranged as four circles, or whorls as they
are commonly termed, in the following order, from without
inwards :—1. Calyx, 2. Corolla, 3. Androecium, 4. Gyncecium.
The Calyx (fig. 25, c) is the whorl or circle of leaf-like
organs forming the outer envelope of the flower. Its parts are
called sepals, and these are generally green, and of a less deli-
cate texture than those constituting the corolla. In texture,
appearance, and other characters they bear commonly a great
resemblance to the true or foliage leaves.
The Corolla (fig. 25, p, p), is the whorl or whorls of flattened
organs situated within the calyx, and forming the inner enve-
lope of the flower. Its parts, which are called petals, are fre-
quently decorated with the richest colours ; by which character,
and by their more delicate nature, they may be usually known
from those of the calyx.
The calyx and corolla are sometimes spoken of collectively
under the name of Perianth. This term is more particularly ap-
plied to the flowers of Monocotyledons where the floral envelopes
generally resemble each other, and are usually of other colours
than green, i.e. petaloid in their nature (fig. 28). The Tulip,
the Iris, and the Crocus may be taken as familiar examples.
The floral envelopes are also called the non-essential organs
of the flower, because their presence is not absolutely necessary
for the production of the seed. Sometimes there is only one
floral envelope, as in the Goosefoot (jig. 29) ; this is then pro-
perly considered as the calyx, whatever be its colour or other
peculiarity, and the flower is described as apetalous, or it is
technically said to be Monochlamydeous. Some botanists, how-
ever, use the term perianth in this case, as will be described
c
18 : FLORAL ENVELOPES, “
*
hereafter in treating of the Calyx in detail. At other times, as
in the Ash (jig. 30), and Willow (figs. 34 and 35), both the
floral envelopes are absent, when the flower is termed naked or
Fie. 26.. Fic. 27. Fia. 28. _
Fig. 26. Flower of the Wallflower with the calyx and corollaremoved, in order
to show the essential organs of reproduction. 7. Thalamus. gl. Glands.
ec, ec. Stamens, of which there are six, four long and two short, the whole .
forming the andrecium. sfi. Stigma, the summit of the gyncecium or
pistil.— Fig. 27. One of the stamens of the Wallflower. j/. Filament.
a. Anther. p. Pollen, whichis being discharged througha slit in the anther.
—Fig.28. Flower of a species of Squill (Scilla italica). The parts com-
posing the floral envelopes here closely resemb!e one another, and form
collectively the perianth.
Achlamydeous. When both floral envelopes are present the
flower is said to be Dichlamydeous.
The Andrecium constitutes the whorl or whorls of organs
Fie. 30.
Fic. 29. }
Fig. 29. Flower of Goosefoot (Chenopodium), with only one floral envelope
(monochlamydeous ).—Fig. 30, Flower of the common Ash (Frazcinus), in
which both floral envelopes are absent (achlamydeous),
situated on the inside of the corolla (fig. 26, ec, ec). Its parts
are called stamens. Each stamen consists essentially of a case
or bag, called the anther (fig. 27, a), which contains in its inte-
ANDRG&CIUM.—GYNCECIUM. 19
®
rior a powdery, or more rarely waxy, substance, called the pollen,
p. This pollen, the nature of which can only be seen when
highly magnified, is found to be formed of innumerable minute
grains, or more properly cells, the pollen grains or pollen cells,
each of which encloses a granular fluid protoplasm, the fovilla,
which constitutes the male fertilising element. The pollen
when ripe is discharged, as represented in the figure, through
little slits or holes formed in the anther. The anther with
its contained pollen is the only essential part of a stamen ; but
it generally possesses in addition a little stalk, called the jila-
ment, f, which then supports the anther on its summit. When
the filament is absent, the anther is said to be sessile. The
staminal whorl is termed the Andreciwm, from its constituting
the male system of Flowering Plants.
RG. ove BPIGs oa;
Fig. 31. Gyncecium of Columbine (Aguwilegia vulgaris). p. Peduncle. 7.
Thalamus. ¢. Carpels, each with an ovary, 0; style, sty; and stigma, stig.
— Fig.32. Gyncecium of Poppy ( Papave7'), with one stamen arising from
below it. o. United ovaries. sti. Stigmas, Fig, 33. Vertical section of
the gyncecium of the Pansy (Viola tricolor). c. Remains of the calyx.
d. Ovary. p. Placenta, 0, 0. Ovules. s, Stigma on the summit of a short
style.
The Gynecium (or Pistil as it is also called) is the only
remaining organ ; it occupies the centre of the flower (jig. 26,
sti), all the other organs being arranged around it when these
are present. It is termed the gyneciwm from its constituting
the female system of Flowering Plants, and ccnsists of one or
more parts, called carpels, which are either distinct from each
other (apocarpous), asin the Columbine (fig. 31, ¢), or combined
into one body (syncarpous), as in the Poppy (fig. 32). Each
carpel consists of a hollow inferior part, called the ovary (figs.
31, 0, and 33, d), in which are placed one or more little bodies
called ovules (fig. 33, 0, 0), attached to a part cailed the placenta,
p, and which ultimately by fertilisation from the pollen become
the seeds ; and of a stigma, or space of variable size, which is
either placed directly on the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy
c2
20 FRUIT AND SEED.
(fig. 32, sti), or it is situated on a stalk-like portion prolonged
from the ovary, called the style (jig. 31, sty). The only essential
parts of the carpel are the ovary and stigma; the style being no
more necessary to it than the filament is to the stamen.
The andreecium and gyncecium are called essential organs
because the action of both is necessary for the production of the
seed. It frequently happens, however, that either the gynoecium
or androecium is absent from a flower, as in the Willow (figs. 34
and 35), in which case the flower is termed wnisexual; and it is
then still further characterised as staminate or male (fig. 34), or
pistillate, carpellary, or female ( fig. 35), according as it possesses
one or the other of these organs.
Fig. 34. Staminate flowers of a species of Willow
(Salix), —— Fig. 35, Pistillate or carpellary
flowers of the same,
ce. The Fruit and Seed.—Ata certain period the anther opens
(fig. 27, a), and discharges the pollen, p, which is then carried
to the stigma by insects, or borne by the wind; this is called
pollination, and is the first step in the process which subse-
quently takes place, which is properly termed fertilisation, and
which consists in the commingling of the fovilla or male fertilising
element of the pollen with the female element of the ovule—the
oosphere. After fertilisation has been effected, important changes
take place in the pistil and surrounding organs of the flower, the
result being the formation of the fruit, which consists essenti-
ally of the mature ovary or ovaries, containing the impregnated
or fertilised ovule or ovules, then termed seeds. But in some
cases, besides the mature ovary or ovaries, other parts of the
flower, and even the peduncle, as will be explained hereafter
when describing the fruit in detail, also become a part of
the fruit. The fruit, when perfectly formed, whatever be
its composition, consists of two parts: namely, the shell or
os ss
————
ELEMENTARY STRUCTURE.—THE CELL. 21
pericarp, and the seed or seeds contained within it. At vary-
ing periods, but commonly when the fruit is ripe, the pericarp
opens so as to allow the seeds to escape; or it remains closed,
and the seeds can only become free by its decay. Inthe former
case the fruit is said to be dehiscent ; in the ;
latter, indehiscent. Fie. 36.
The seed, as already noticed, is the
fertilised ovule. It consists essentially of
two parts ; namely, of a nucleus or kernel
(fig. 36, emb, alb), and inteywments, int.
- There are usually two seed-coats or in-
teguments, the external of which is com-
monly designated as the testa or episperm,
and the inner as the tegmen or endoplewra. _. ; ‘
The nucleus or kernel may either consist 7, 36. Vertical pirete
wholly of the embryo, which is alone of Poppy (Papave7).
essential to it (fig. 16), or of the embryo — i”. Tnteguments. el
(fig. 36, emb), enclosed in nourishing or endosperm. The
matter, called the endosperm or albumen, Parts within the inte-
lb guments form what is
ial a commonly termed the
The parts of the embryo having been __ nucleus of the seed.
already described, we have now finished rue,
our general sketch of plants in different degrees of organisation,
together with the compound organs which they respectively
present, and are, therefore, now able to proceed with the descrip-
tion in detail of the elementary structures of which they are
composed.
CHAPTER 2.
ELEMENTARY STRUCTURE OF PLANTS, OR VEGETABLE
HISTOLOGY.
Section 1. Or THE CELL As AN INDIVIDUAL.
Tue description of the elementary structure of plants is termed
Vegetable Histology.
All the lower kinds of plants, as we have seen (pp. 6-9),
are made up of one or more membranous closed sacs called cells ;
and all other plants, however complicated in their appear-
ance and structure, are also made up of these simple bodies,
variously modified in form, size, and texture, and in their
modes of combination, according to the different surrounding
conditions in which they are placed, and the functions which
they have to perform (see page 37). The cell is therefore the
only elementary organ possessed by a plant, and hence neces-
sarily demands our first and particular attention. We shall begin,
22 NATURE OF THE CELL AND ITS CONTENTS.
then, by first describing the nature of the cell and its contents ;
and then pass on to a more detailed exaniination of its various
forms, sizes, and structure.
I. NatTuRE OF THE CELL AND ITs ContENTs.—In the very
earliest stage of a plant’s existence—in, for example. the ger-
minal vesicle (oosphere) of the higher plants—the cell consists.
only of a naked mass of a semifluid substance to which the name
of protoplasm has been given. Ina few cases the cell remains in
this condition, and is then termed a primordial cell. But asa
general rule this protoplasm very shortly surrounds itself on the
outside with a thin transparent skin of cellulose—the cell wall—
and in this condition three distinct parts can be observed in the
cell (fig. 87): (1) the cell wall, a; (2) the internal protoplasm
above mentioned, b ; .and (3) the nucleus, c, which is a rounded,
denser portion lying in the midst of the protoplasm, At first
the protoplasm completely fills the cavity, but as the cell grows
larger, cavities (vacuoles) containing a clear watery fluid (which
in the very young cells is generally diffused), called the cell-sap
(figs. 38 and 39, s’, s’), make their appearance in it, and the
nucleus, k’, is then suspended in the cell and connected to the
protoplasm lining its inner wall by slender threads or bands of
the same substance (fig. 39, p’, p’). (De Vries has stated recently
that these vacuoles are enclosed by a distinct membrane, and he
regards this vacuole membrane as a special organ to which he
has given the name of tonoblast, and which has for its function
the production of turgidity in the cell.) As the cell continues to
enlarge, these vacuoles coalesce and form a single central sap-
cavity (fig. 39, s, s), and the protoplasm is then confined to a
thin layer lining the interior of the cell-wall—the primordial
utricle, p, with the nucleus, k, k, showing asa denser mass in an
enlargement of the protoplasm on one side. In this perfect cell,
as it may be termed, we distinguish, (1) the cell-wall, (2) the pro-
toplasm, (3) the nucleus, (4) the cell-sap. These structures may
be well seen in Vallisneria.
Such is the nature of cells so long as they retain their active
vital state, but after a time the protoplasm with its contained
nucleus disappears, leaving the cell filled with air alone or water.
Those cells only which contain protoplasm can grow, form
chemical combinations, and produce new cells ; while all others,
as the cells of the wood and bark, are of use only in virtue of
their physical properties, as, for example, giving firmness, and
acting as protecting envelopes to the living cells beneath, and in
other ways. We must now describe the parts of the cell in the
order as placed above.
1. THe CeLi-waLt (figs. 37, a, and 39, h).—We have just
seen that the original cell, from the after divisions of which the
future structure is built up, consists of protoplasm alone—-that,
in other words, it has no cell-wall. Very shortly, however, this
condition of things disappears; for the protoplasm, having
THE CELL-WALL.—CELLULOSE. 23
elaborated molecules of cellulose (C,H,,0-.), passes them to its
outer surface, where they form a thin, colourless, transparent,
continuous membrane. This membrane increases in thickness
by the intussusception of new molecules between the older ones,
and eventually there are generally developed upon it various
markings, which may either be protuberances as in the case of
some pollen-cells (fig. 73), and frequently of the cells forming the
hairs on the surface of plants ; or internal depressions, as may be
seen in spiral, annular, reticulated, scalariform, and pitted cells
(see pp. 42-46). Those cells which are isolated, or on the surface
of the plant, have the various markings on their outer or free
surface, while those that are united to form tissues have them on
Bac. oc.
Fig. 37. Acell from the root of the Lizard Orchis (Orchis hircina). a. The
cell-wall. 6. The protoplasm contracted by alcohol, ec. The nucleus with
anucleolus. After Thome. Fig. 38. Cell with nucleus and nucleolus and
vacuoles. Fig. 39. Cells from the root of Fritillavia imperialis. h. Cell-
wall. &’. Nucleus. #, %. Nucleus with nucleoli. p. Primordial utricle.
p', p’. Protoplasmic threads. s, s. Cell-sap cavity. s/, s’. Vacuoles. After
Sachs.
the internal surface of their cell-wall. The former is termed
centrifugal thickening ; the latter centripetal thickening.
This cellulose is insoluble both in cold and in boiling water,
also in alcohol, ether, and dilute acids; but entirely soluble in
an ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper. By the action of
strong sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures, the cellulose is
disintegrated and converted into dextrin, and then, if water be
added and the mixture boiled, the dextrin is converted into
24 THE PROTOPLASM,
glucose. When cellulose is steeped in dilute sulphuric acid, and
then treated with a solution of iodine, or if it is acted upon by
Schulze’s solution of iodine in zine chloride, it acquires a more
or less blue colour. The cell-wall contains in addition to the
molecules of cellulose a small quantity of mineral ash.
li rarely happens that cellulose can be found pure, as, in addi-
tion to the mineral ash above mentioned, it generally is rendered
more or less impure by the protoplasm which remains after the
death of the cell. That which is furnished by the cells of hairs,
such as Cotton, is generally the most free from extraneous
matters. The cell-wall is frequently hardened by the conversion
of its cellulose into a substance called lignin. This lignification
takes place where hardness or strength is required, as in the
tissue forming the shell of nuts, or in the elongated cells of the
wood of trees. The outer walls of cells also, which he on the
surface of plants, and are consequently exposed to more active
chemical influences, usually become cuticularised (see page 59),
as in the epidermis of leaves and in the cork cells of the bark ;
the cell-wall in such cases becomes thickened and impervious
to moisture, and it is owing to this circumstance that delicate
plants are enabled to withstand the scorching and withering
heat of the hot sun; itis also this cuticularisation of the cork
cells of the bark which protects the internal living parts of trees
from the damaging influence of frost in winter,
Besides the above-mentioned changes which take place in
the cell-wall, others occur which are the result of degradation.
The mucilage of plants, as that of the Mallow, or the slimy sub-
stance given off by Seaweeds, or the gelatinous matrix of such
organisms as Nostoc and Gleocapsa, are examples of this ; gums
and resins are also the products of the degradation of the cell-
walls of special cells of the wood of the trees in which they occur.
2. THe Prortoptaso is the only part of the cell, and there-
fore of the whole plant, which is possessed of life ; and the differ-
ences in the form, size, and nature of cells is due to the vital
energy which it is capable of exerting. If this energy is exerted
equally in all directions, and there are no other counterbalancing
forces, such as pressure from neighbouring cells, the form which
the cell will assume will be one approaching to a sphere (jig. 62).
If, on the other hand, this energy is exerted in one direction only,
the cell will assume an elongated form (jig. 70). If again in two
directions, flattened or tabular cells will be the result (fig. 68)
(see Forms of Cells). This internal energy, which is peculiar to
living protoplasm, is frequently spoken of as vital force.
The appearance of protoplasm is as varied as is the form of
the cells which it produces. It may be granular and somewhat
opaque, or perfectly transparent ; it may be almost fluid, or of
the consistency of dough ; or again it may be stiff or even brittle ;
generally, however, it is of a light grey colour and more or less
granular ; but it is never a true fluid. In those cases where
ae 2 te ee ne | pel, De
MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM. 25
the protoplasm is granular it consists of an outer thin denser
layer or film called the ectoplasm, which is transparent and free
from granules ; and of an inner portion known as the endoplasm,
in which there are numerous minute particles or granules (micro-
somata) and fibrillee so arranged as to form a kind of network.
According to Sachs, that matter only ought to be regarded as
protoplasm which is perfectly transparent, and the granules where
they occur are to be looked upon as ‘probably finely divided,
assimilated food-material.’
Fic. 40.
Fig. 40. Three cells of one of the hairs of the common Potato plant (Solanum
tuberosum), showing the circulation of the contents of each cell in reticu-
lated currents. Inthe central cell the direction of the currents is in part
indicated by arrows. After Schleiden.——Fig. 41. Cells of the leaf of
Vallisneria spiralis, showing rotation of the protoplasm. A, A. Cells in
which some chlorophyll corpuscles are passing up one side of each cell,
across, and down on the other side. The direction of the currents is
indicated by the arrows. 7, 7, N,N. Nuclei. c¢, c. Chlorophyll corpuscles,
After J. W. Groves.
The Movements of Protoplasm.—Doubtless during the whole
time that the cells are growing the protoplasm is in a constant
state of motion, although in many cases too slow to be observed ;
but in some cells, such as those forming the hairs of certain
plants—e.g. in those of the Potato (fig. 40), and those on the
filaments of Tradescantia; or again in the cells forming the
leaves of many water-plants, e.g. Vallisneria (fig. 41), Nitella,
&c,—this motion is readily observable. It would seem as though
26 CONTINUITY OF PROTOPLASM.—PRIMORDIAL UTRICLE.
these movements existed for the purpose of bringing every part
of the living matter into constant communication with the
nutriment-bearing sac.
In most cases the presence of protoplasm may be readily
detected by the use of reagents. Alcohol and weak acids cause
it to shrink from the cell-wall (jigs. 87 and 42); a solution of
iodine colours it brown, while sugar and sulphuric acid make
it assume a pink colour. Protoplasm is extremely rich in
albuminoids, which chemically con-
sist chiefly of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phos-
phorus, the most distinctive element
being that of nitrogen. The gluten
of Wheat is a good example of an
albuminoid, and may be easily ob-
tained by washing ordinary flour in
a coarse muslin bag till all the starch
has been got rid of, It then appears
as a pale, grey, sticky substance,
Fig. 42. Cell of the leaf of Junger- and when burnt gives off an offen-
mannia Taylori, showing the gjye odour like that of burnt meat.
protoplasm contracted by alco - Pecunl lok tl joi
ok gkttes Mobil. rotoplasm also frequently contains
globules of oil, granules of starch,
and other similar substances.
It has been recently shown by Gardiner, Hillhouse, Russow,
Bower, and others, that in many plants the protoplasm of one
cell is in communication with that of the cells around it, by means
of threads of protoplasm which pass through the cell walls ( fig.
43); and in many other instances where the continuity has not
yet been clearly demonstrated, threads are found to pass from
the main mass of the cell protoplasm to adjacent parts of the
adjoining walls (fig. 44, 1), and this may occur where there are no
pits nor pores as well as where such thin or pervious spets exist.
‘fo what extent the continuity of protoplasm may by-and-by be
found to obtain, itis useless to speculate, as at present it has only
been proved in some parts of certain plants ; though these plants
have widely different classificatory value, some being Phanero-
gams (fig. 44, 1, 2, 3), while others are so low as the Alge (jigs.
43 and 44, 4).
The Primordial Utricle (fig. 39, p), as has already been ob-
served, isthe thin layer of protoplasm which lines the cell-wall
and forms the boundary of the central cavity filled with cell-sap.
It is frequently so thin and transparent that it cannot be detected
without the aid of reagents, which either colour it or cause it
to separate from the cell-wall as mentioned above (fig. 42).
Whilst living the primordial utricle is always in organic connex-
ion with the cell-wall, which latter indeed is only matter that
has been manufactured by the protoplasm, and then deposited
upon its outer surface. By some authors the primordial utricle
Se SS es oe
Poke
=
ee
THE NUCLEUS.—CELL-SAP. 27
is differently characterised, and defined as the onter thin homo-
geneous layer or ectoplasm of the protoplasm. This is the sense
in which it was essentially understood by Mohl.
3. Tue Nuctevs, which exists in all the cells of the higher
plants, and is absent from only a few of the lower forms, is
differentiated from the surrounding protoplasm as a denser por-
tion of the same substance (figs. 37, c, and 38). It appears to
consist of a homogeneous matrix termed achromatin, in which
a network of fibrille (chromatin) is contained. It usually
presents a more or less rounded outline, and contains one (figs.
Fic. 43. Fic. 44.
Fig. 43. Semi-diagrammatic longitudinal section of an old and stout portion
of Ceramium rubrum, showing continuity between the protoplasmic con-
tents of the axial or central cells, a, a, at their ends; and laterally with
the cortical cells, b, by protoplasmic threads, and also that of the corti-
cal cells inter se by threads radiating from the central mass in each
cell, After T. Hick. ——Fig. 44. 1. Endosperm cell of Sirychnos Ignatia,
swollen up in water, showing threads of protoplasm (plasmolytic threads)
running to the cell-wall, p. 2.The lumen of two endosperm cells of
Strychnos Nux-Vomica, showing plasmolytic threads passing into intra-
mural ones, thus demonstrating continuity. 3. Plasmolytic threads from
endosperm of S. Jgnatia. 4. Top of a branch of Callithamnion sv., show-
ing cell junctions and continuity of protoplasm. After Le M. Moore.
37, c, and 38), or more (fig. 39, k’, k’), much smaller bodies,
called aueleoli. It is always situated in, and more or less en-
closed by, the protoplasm, as we have already seen, and never
lies loose in the cell cavity. Itis, when present, the most vitally
active part of the living substance or protoplasm. (See also
‘Formation of Cells,’ in the Physiology of Plants.)
4, Tue CELL-sap is the watery fluid which is found in the
interior of the cell ; it contains dissolved or suspended in it ali
those food materials which are necessary for the life and growth
28 CONTENTS OF CELLS.—CHLOROPHYLL.
of the cell. In the early stages of the cell’s life, as we have
already seen (page 22), before any vacuoles have appeared, the
cell-sap as a substance distinct from the protoplasm does not
occur, but is diffused generally through it and the cell-wall,
and it is only as the cell enlarges that it first appears in vacuoles
in the protoplasm (fig. 38 and 39, s’, s’), and which by ulti-
mately coalescing form a single cavity filled with sap, s, s. Be-
sides containing substances which are necessary to the life of
the cell, it contains also many things which have been thrown
out from the protoplasm as no longer serviceable. Of this
nature are the crystals of calcium carbonate and calcium oxalate;
hence the cell-sap may be regarded from one point of view as
the food upon which the protoplasm lives, and from another
point of view as the reservoir into which it pours out certain of
its waste products.
Beside the fluid cell-sap, there are other important cell-con-
tents, some of which, such as chlorophyll, starch, raphides, alewrone
grains, and crystalloids, now require description.
CHLOROPHYLL AND CHLOROPHYLL GRANULES. a. Chlorophyll.
This is the colouring material which gives to leaves their
well-known green appearance. its chemical composition, owing
to the great difficulty there is of obtaining it pure, is not posi-
tively known ; but there seems much reason to believe that it is
closely allied to wax. It is not soluble in water, but is readily
so in alcohol, ether, or benzole. By soaking leaves in any of
these substances a beautiful green solution is obtained when
viewed by transmitted light, but which is red when observed
by reflected light. If a weak alcoholic solution of chlorophyll
is shaken up with an excess of benzole, the mixture separates
into two distinct layers, the upper one of benzole which is
coloured bright green, and the lower one of alcohol which is
coloured bright yellow ; by which it would seem that chlorophyll
is not a simple substance, but is a mixture made up of two or
more colouring principles. Thus, according to Frémy, chloro-
phyll is composed of two colouring principles—one blue, called
phyllocyanin, and the other yellow, termed phyllozanthin ; while
the more recent investigations of Michell, Stokes, Miller,
Pringsheim, and others, render it probable that chlorophyll is
even a more complex substance, as will be described hereafter
when treating of the Physiology of Plants.
In many fruits, such as the Cherry, Tomato, and common
Arum, the chlorophyll of the pericarp becomes first changed to
yellow and then red, as the fruit approaches maturity. In many
plants, such as the brown Seaweeds, e.g. Fucus, the green chloro-
phyll is obscured by an olive-green pigment, melanophyll ; or
again in the red Seaweeds, such as Ceramium, by a red pigment,
phycoerythrin. In these cases the pigments are more readily
soluble in alcohol than the chlorophyll, so that by steeping
portions of the plants for a short time in spirit, the colouring
matters which veiled the chlorophyll are dissolved out, and the
CHLOROPHYLL GRANULES.—STARCH. 29
presence of chlorophyll made manifest. Again, in some of the
lower plants, such as Oscillatoria and Nostoc, there exists a blue
pigment, phycocyan ; this may be obtained by soaking well-
bruised specimens in cold water, to which it imparts a beautiful
blue colour when viewed by transmitted light, and a beautiful
red when seen by reflected light.
b. Chlorophyll Granules.—It is not to be supposed that the
chlorophyll exists indiscriminately in every part of the cell, for,
on the contrary, it is confined to special portions of the proto-
plasm which have been differentiated from the general mass.
These portions of protoplasm are the so-called chlorophyll
granules or chlorophyll grains, or, as they are also termed,
chlorophyll bodies and chlorophyll corpuscles ; hence these struc-
tures are granules of protoplasm coloured by chlorophyll.
These granules appear as soft, doughy, more or less rounded
masses, which are always enveloped by the surrounding proto-
plasm and never lie loose in the cell cavity. Ifa plant is grown
in the dark or etiolated, these granules remain pale coloured ;
but if it is exposed to sunlight, they speedily become coloured
green by chlorophyll (hence light is necessary, with rare ex-
ceptions, for the formation of chlorophyll) ; and when so coloured
they have the power of breaking up the carbon dioxide of the
air or the water in which they are growing, and, returning the
oxygen to the air, retain the carbon, which they are able to
mix with the elements of water in such proportions as to build
up a molecule of starch, C,H,,O., and some other carbo-
hydrates. This process of building up starch and other carbo-
hydrates out of the carbon dioxide of the air or water has been
termed assimilation. (See ‘ Formation of Organic Compounds
by Leaves,’ in the Physiology of Plants.)
It has been said that chlorophyll is confined to the proto-
plasm forming the chlorophyll granules; this is true in all the
higher plants, but there are some plants amongst the lower
orders in which the green-coloured portions form plates or
spiral bands, as in Spirogyra ; or the whole protoplasm, with the
exception of the ectoplasm, may be capable of being coloured,
as in Gleocapsa and Oscillatoria.
Srarcu.—There is no substance contained in the cells which
has given rise to more discussion as to its origin and nature
than starch. It is, with the exception of protoplasm, the most
abundant and universally distributed of all the cell-contents,
occurring as it does, more or less, in all parenchymatous cells
(fig. 45) except those of the epidermis. In its fully developed
state it is, however, most abundant in the matured structures
of plants, as the pith of stems, and in seeds, roots, and other
internal and subterranean organs which are removed from the
influence of light. In these respects it presents a marked con-
trast to chlorophyll, which, as we have seen, occurs only in
young and vitally active structures placed near the surface of
plants, and directly exposed to light.
30 STARCH GRANULES.—FORMS AND SIZES. ‘
Starch is not only widely distributed through, the different
parts of a plant, but it also occurs ya varying quantity in all.
classes of plants with the exception of the Fungi. West Indian
Arrow-root (fig. 46), Sago (fig. 47), Tous-les-mois (fig. 48), and
Potato starch (fig. 49) may be mentioned as familiar examples
of starches derived from different plants. In all cases starch is
a transitory product stored up for future use, resembling in
this respect the fat of animals. When thus required for the
nutrition of the plant, it is converted previously, as will be
afterwards seen, into dextrin and sugar, which are soluble sub-
stances, and can therefore be at once applied to the purposes of ~
nutrition, which is not the case with starch in its unaltered
condition, as it is then insoluble.
When fully formed starch is found floating in the cell-sap
(fig. 45) in the form of colourless granules or grains, which are
either distinct from one another as is usually the case (figs. 46
and 47), or more or less combined so as to form compound
granules (fig. 50), as described on page 38.
Fie. 45. Fic. 47.
Fig. 45, Cell of the Potato containing starch granules.——Fig. 46. West-
India Arrowroot ( x 250).——Fig, 47. Sago meal (x 250).
In form the separate granules are always spherical or nearly
so in their earliest condition. In some cases this form is nearly
maintained in their mature state, as in Wheat starch (fig. 51)
but the granules frequently assume other forms, as ovate,
elliptical, more or less irregular, club-shaped, or angular (figs.
46-49 and 52). Such forms arise from the unequal development
of the sides of the granules, or from mutual pressure—the same:
causes, indeed, as we shall see, which give rise in a great measure
to the varying forms of the cells in which they are contained.
Starch granules vary also extremely in size in different plants,
and even in the same cell of any particular plant. The largest
granules known appear to be those of Canna starch, or, as it is
commonly termed, ‘ Tous-les-mois,’ where they are sometimes
as much as the 555 of an inch in length (fig. 48); while the
smallest granules, among which may be mentioned those of Rice
starch (jy. 52), are frequently under 4; of an inch in length.
9 DEVELOPMENT OF STARCH. 31
Development of Starch_—Starch first makes its appearance as
minute colourless granules in the interior of the chlorophyll
grains when exposed to sunlight, as previously noticed at page
_ 29. These primary starch granules rarely grow to any con-
siderable size, but are dissolved, chemically altered, and poured
~ outinto the sap, of which they then form a part. A part of
_ this primary starch may be used by the protoplasm of the cell
in which it is formed for the manufacture of its cell-wall, but
by far the greater part is handed down from one cell to another
Fia. 48. Fig. 49.
Fig. 48. Tous-les-mois ( x 250). Fig. 49. Potato starch (x 250).
till it arrives at particular parts of the plant, when it becomes
reorganised and stored up for future use. In this latter state
starch assumes its more characteristic appearance. Thus ina
well-developed Tous-les-mois or Potato granule (figs. 48 and 49),
we may observe a roundish dark spot, which is termed the
mucleus or lilum, situated near one end of the granule; and
Fie; 50. Fie. 51. Fig. 52:
Fig. 50. Compound starch granules of West-India Arrowroot. After Schlei-
den.— Fig. 51. Wheat starch (x 250). Fig. 52, Rice starch (x 250).
surrounding this a variable number of faint lines which alter-
nate with other darker ones, so that the whole presents the
appearance of a series of more or less irregular concentric
Shells placed around a common point. The cause of these
appearances has given rise to much discussion ; thus at first
32 DEVELOPMENT OF STARCH. .
sight it is almost impossible to help believing that the granule
must have been built up in the same manner as a crystal,
namely, by the deposition of fresh matter over the older, or,
in other words, that the outer rings of the starch granule have
been deposited over those which are more internal, and that
therefore they are the youngest portion of the granule. But
the observations of Nageli have proved this not te be the case,
for he has shown that the appearance of stratification in the
starch granule is really due to the difference in the quantity of
water which exists in the different parts of the granule, and he
has also proved that the outermost layer, instead of containing
the greatest amount of water, as it ought to do if it was the
youngest part of the granule, contains the least, while the
nucleus on the other hand is the most watery of all. Nageli
concluded from these observations that the growth of the starch
granule was precisely the same as that of the cell-wall (see page
42); namely, by intussusception of fresh particles of the starch-
compound between those of an older date ; and hence that the
regular alternation of dense layers with more watery ones around a
nucleus or hilum produces the peculiar
appearances of starch granules. That
the different layers vary in density
may be at once proved by the action
of polarised light, when each granule
usually exhibits a black cross. Seein
then that the growth of the arch
granule is by intussusception, it will
be readily understood why it is that
this growth cannot be carried on ex-
cept so long as the granule is imbedded
in the substance of the living proto-
plasm, and that as soon as the proto-
plasm of the cells in which the starch
is being formed is used up or killed,
all further development of starch be-
comes impossible.
In some cases, as for instance in
the Huphorbiacee, starch granules are
found floating in the contents (latex)
of the laticiferous vessels (fig. 53), and
Ree eorousrcerel — this would seem to be in contradiction
liste opiiiusstarch granules to the above-mentioned law that
of a peculiar dumb-bell and starch granules can only be formed
eee while enveloped in protoplasm, but
the mode of formation of these gra-
nules has not been observed.
The starch granules of different plants vary very much in the
character of their hilum and in the distinctness and general
arrangement of their concentric lines, in the same way, as we
a
al
COMPOSITION AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF STARCH. 33
have seen, they vary much in form and size under the same
circumstances ; those, however, which are derived from the
same plant are more or less uniform in appearance, so that a
practised observer may distinguish under the microscope the
different kinds of starch and refer them to the particular plants
from whence they have been derived. Sometimes there is more
than one hilum in a starch granule, and then as growth takes
place round each, compound granules are formed, as mentioned
on page 30.
Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Starch, 0,H,,9;.
—The starch granule consists of the true starch-compound and
water, The starch-compound is again formed of two substances,
which are intimately blended together, viz. granwlose and cellu-
lose. The granulose makes up by far the greater part of the
starch-compound, being in the proportion of 95 to 5 of the cellu-
lose. It is capable of being dissolved out of the cellulose by
saliva and dilute acids, and it is to this granulose that the
starch granule owes the violet-blue colour which it assumes
when treated with a solution of iodine. The cellulose on the
other hand, being not soluble, is left behind as a skeleton, and
is not coloured blue by the iodine solution.
Starch is, therefore, composed chemically of carbon and the
elements of water; it never occurs, however, naturally in a
perfectly pure condition, but always contains a very small
quantity of mineral constituents, and also a certain proportion
of the peculiar secretions of the plant from whence it has been
derived. These impurities can never, under ordinary circum-
stances, be entirely removed, and from their varying amount
in commercial starches arises in a great degree the differences
in their value for food and other purposes.
Starch is insoluble in cold water, alcohol, ether, and oils.
By the action of boiling water it swells up and forms a mucilage
or paste ; and if to this when cooled iodine be added, a deep
blue colour is produced ; but this colour is at once destroyed
again by the application of heat or alkalies. If starch be ex-
posed to a temperature of about 320° F. for a short time, it is
converted into a soluble gummy substance, called dextrin or
British gum. A similar change is produced in starch by the
action of diluted sulphuric acid, and also by diastase, a peculiar
nitrogenous substance occurring in germinating seeds. Starch
was formerly considered as peculiar to plants, and its presence
therefore was regarded as an absolute distinctive mark between
them and animals. Of late years, however, as already noticed
(page 4), a substance presenting the chemical reactions and
general appearance of starch has been found in some animal
tissues. Such a distinctive character, therefore, can be no
longer absolutely depended upon.
Rapuipes.—This name is now more generally applied to all
inorganic crystals of whatever form which are found in the cells
D
34 RAPHIDES.
of plants, although the term raphides (which is the Greek for
needles) was originally given to those only that had the form
of a needle (figs, 56 and 57). Raphides may be found more
or less in nearly all orders of plants, and in all their organs ;
generally, however, they are most abundant in the stems of
herbaceous plants, in the bark of woody plants, and in leaves
and roots. In some plants they occur in such enormous quan-
tities that they exceed in weight the dried tissue in which they
are deposited: this may be specially observed in some Cactacez ;
thus Edwin Quekett found in the dried tissue of the stem of
the Old-man Cactus (Cereus senilis) as much as 80 per cent. of
crystals. Professor Bailey also found in a square inch of Locust
bark of the thickness of ordinary writing paper, more than a
million and a half of these crystals. The dried root of that kind of
Rhubarb now known as China Rhubarb, commonly contains
from 35 to 40 per cent., and hence when chewed it is very
Fia. 56.
Bre. 54. Fre. do.
esi) CRF
lml
Fig. 54. Solitary crystals or raphides in the cells of the inner bark of the
Locust tree. After Gray. Fig. 55. Conglomerate raphides or sphz-
raphides of the Beet. Fig. 56. Acicular or true raphides of a species
of eee Two cells contain raphides, and three of them chlorophyll
granules,
gritty ; and as this variety of Rhubarb usually contains a larger
proportion of raphides than other kinds, this grittiness has been
employed as one means of distinguishing it from them. The
raphides are usually contained in cells, in which starch, chloro-
phyll, and other granular structures are absent (fig. 56), although
this is by no means necessarily the case. These crystals are more
commonly found in the cavities of the cells, but they also occur
in their walls; in all cases, however, they are mineral salts
which have crystallised naturally out of the cell-sap. They
may be especially found in the walls of cells in the Coniferze and
Gnetaceze.
The raphides occur either singly in the cells, as in those of
the inner bark of the Locust tree (fig. 54); or far more commonly
there are a number of crystals in the same cell. In the latter
case they are usually either placed side by side, as in the stem
“
:
f
_
<
r
7
:
va
CYSTOLITHS OR LITHOCYSTS. 35
of Rumex (fig. 56); or in groups radiating from a common
point, and then assuming a clustered or conglomerate appear-
ance, as in the stem of the common Beet (fig. 55). The former
have been termed acicular raphides, and the latter conglomerate
raphides.
In some interesting researches into the nature of raphides
made several years since by Professor Gulliver, he has distin-
guished the acicular crystals (fig. 56), which he called true
raphides, from those which occur either singly (fig. 54), or in
more or less globular or conglomerate masses (jig. 55), which he
has termed Sphexraphides. He believes that the presence or
absence of the former or true raphides, and their comparative
abundance, afford characters by which the species of certain
orders may be distinguished at once from the allied species of
neighbouring orders. He has instanced the plants of the Ona-
grace, especially, as being in this way readily distinguished
from the plants of allied orders. Gulliver speaks very strongly
upon this point as follows : ‘No other single diagnosis for the
orders in question is so simple, fundamental, and universal as
this; and the orders to which it applies should be named
raphis-bearing or raphidiferous.’
With regard to Spheeraphides, Gulliver believes that there
are few, if any, orders among Phanerogams in which they do
not exist; hence it is questionable how far their distribution
might be rendered available as a means of distinguishing plants
from one another. ‘Their presence, however, he finds universal
in every species of the orders Caryophyllaceze, Geraniacez,
Paronychiacex, Lythracez, Saxifragaceze, and Urticacez ; hence
he regards the presence of Spheraphides as especially charac-
teristic of these orders.
In the common Arum, where raphides are very abundant,
and in some other Aracez, the cells which contain the raphides
are filled with a thickened sap, so that when they are moistened
with water endosmose take place, by which they are distended
and caused ultimately to burst and discharge their crystals from
an orifice at each end (fig. 57). Such cells were called Biforines
by Turpin, who erroneously regarded, them as organs of a special
nature. :
In many plants belonging to the families of the Urticacee,
Morace:e, and Acanthacez, there may be frequently observed
just beneath the surfaces of the leaves, or sometimes more
deeply situated, peculiar crystalline structures, to which the
name of Cystoliths or Lithocysts has beenapplied. These consist
of an enlarged cell containing commonly a globular (fig. 58), or
somewhat club-shaped (jig. 59) mass of crystals, suspended from
the top by a kind of stalk formed by an ingrowth of the cell-wall,
upon which the crystals are deposited as upon a nucleus.
Crystals of various composition have been described as
occurring in different plants, but more accurate observations
D2
36 ALEURONE GRAINS, CRYSTALLOIDS, GLOBOIDS.
show that all the crystals hitherto found are composed of cal-
cium carbonate, as those in the cystoliths, and in some of the
lower Fungi ; or of calcium oxalate. The latter salt crystallises
in two forms according to the proportion of water it contains.
Thus in the one case when the crystals contain six equivalents
of water of crystallisation, they form octahedra (fig. 55), as in
the conglomerate raphides or sphzeraphides ; and, on the other
hand, when there are only two equivalents of water of crystal-
lisation, then bundles of acicular crystals or true raphides are
produced (figs. 56 and 57).
Fie. 57. Fie. 58. Fre. 59.
Fig. 57. True or acicular ravhides of an Arum being discharged through
endosmose under the influence of water.—Fig. 58. Cystolith, from
Parietaria officinalis ——Fig. 59, Cystolith, from the leaf of Ficus elastica.
After Henfrey.
ALEURONE GRAINS, CRYSTALLOIDS, AND: GLOBoTDS.—Besides
the inorganic crystals just described, it frequently happens that
some of the protoplasmic matter in the cells, more generally in
those of the albumen and cotyledons of ripe seeds—that is, in
those cells in which reserve food material is stored up—assumes
a crystalline form and becomes cubical, octahedral, tetrahedral,
rhomboid, &c. (fig. 60). These are not however true crystals,
as is seen by their angles not being very clearly defined by the
action of various reagents, such as dilute caustic potash, which
causes them to swell up and increase very much in volume,
These crystalline masses are known as erystallcids or proteime
crystals. They are readily seen when a transverse section of
the albumen of the Castor-oil seed is placed in dilute glycerine
and water (fig. 60).
In the cells again of the albumen and cotyledons of ripe
seeds we have, in addition to starch and oily matter, small
roundish and colourless albuminous grains, which are termed
proteid or alewrone grains (fig. 61, a, a). They are especially
abundant in oily seeds, as in those of the Castor-oil plant, where
they appear to replace starch ; but in those seeds where starch
is abundant, these grains may be seen between the starch-grains,
as in the Pea (fig. 61, a, a), Bean, Sweet Chestnut, and Grasses.
In these grains the erystalloids just described are frequently
found imbedded, and also peculiar small rounded bodies termed
FORMS OF CELLS. 37
globoids (fig. 60), which are composed of double phosphate of
calcium and magnesium.
The aleurone grains and crystalloids are evidently reservoirs
of protein, to be used when growth becomes active in the process
of germination, in the same way as starch and oily matters are
reservoirs of hydrocarbons for use in a like manner. Aleurone
grains are insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzole, or chloroform,
but soluble in water. They are coloured brown by iodine, and
other re-agents show that they are of an ‘albuminoid nature.
The experiments of Weyl and Sidney Vines indicate that the
proteids exist in these grains as globulins, which hitherto have
been known only to occur in animals, that is, as myosin-globulin
and vitellin-globulin. Vines has also found in the aleurone
grains of the Pony a large quantity of hemialbumose, a sub-
stance allied to the peptones.
Fic. 60. Fie. 61.
Fig. 60. Cell from the endosperm or albumen of the seed of the Castor-oil
plant ( Ricinus communis) in dilute glycerine, showing large transparent
proteid or aleurone grains, with crysta loids and globoids imbedded in
them, After Sachs.—/Fig. 61, Cells of a very thin section through a
. cotyledon of the embryo in a ripe seed cf the common Pea (Pisum
sativum). a,a.Aleurone grains, st. Starch granules. i, i. Intercellular
spaces. After Sachs.
IJ. Forms anp Sizes or Crxis.—Having now described
the nature of cells and their contents, we proceed to give a de-
tailed account of the various forms and sizes which they are
found to assume in different plants, and in various parts of the
same plant.
1. Forms of Cells.—Cells are of various forms ; thus, in the
first place, as we have already partially seen on page 24, when
the growth is uniform, or nearly so, on all parts of the cell-wall,
we have a spherical or rounded cell (fig. 62); but when it is
greater at the two extremities than at the sides, the form is
oval or oblong (fig. 63). In the above cases, also, the cells are
38 FORMS OF CELLS.
almost, or entirely, free from pressure. But, under other cir-
cumstances, in consequence of the mutual pressure of surround-
ing cells, they assume a polygonal form (figs. 64 and 65), the
number of the angles depending upon the number and arrange-
ment of the contiguous cells. Thus, in a perfectly regular ar-
rangement, when the contiguous cells are of equal size, we have
dodecahedral cells, presenting, when cut transversely, an hexa-
gonal appearance (jig. 66). Itis rarely, however, that we find
Fic. 62. Fic. 65. Fia. 64, Fia, 65.
Fig. 62. Rounded cells.——Fig. 63. Elliptic or ob'ong cell.—Figs. 64, 65.
Polygonal cells in combination : those of the latter figure being pitted,
cells of this regular form, since, in consequence of the unequal
size of the contiguous cells, the polygons which result from their
mutual pressure must be mcre or less irregular, and exhibit a
variable number of sides (generally from three to eight).
Secondly, when the growth is nearly uniform on all sides of
the cell-wall, but not equally so at all points of its surface, we
have cells which maintain a rounded form in the centre, but
having rays projecting from them in various directions, by which
they acquire a more or less star-like appearance (jigs. 67 and
Fic. 66. Fic. 67.
mM
ai ITT
So
WO
AN
ST
Fig. 67. Stellate cells.
Fig. 66. Transverse section of regular polygonal cells.
93) ; and hence such cells are called stellate. These rays may be
situated in one plane, or project from all sides of the cell. Itis
rarely the case that such cells have the rays at regular intervals,
or all of one length, but various degrees of irregularity occur,
which lead to corresponding irregular forms in such cells.
Thirdly, when the growth takes place chiefly in one direction,
we have cells which are elongated, either horizontally or verti-
PARENCHYMATOUS AND PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 39
cally. Among the forms resulting from an extension of the cell
in an horizontal direction, we need only mention tabular cells
( figs. 68 and 94), that is, six-sided flattened cells, with the upper
and lower surfaces parallel, or nearly so. Of those cells, which
are extended in length or vertically, we have such forms as the
cylindrical (fig. 69) and fusiform (fig. 70), and which, by the
mutual pressure of contiguous cells, often become prismatic. |
In the Fungi and Lichens again we have a very marked form.
Thus the cells are here thin-walled and very long and thread-
like, and either simple or branched (jig. 71). Such cells are
sometimes termed fibrilliform, (see page 48).
The cells, when in combination with other cells so as to form
a tissue, are generally bounded by more or less flattened ( jigs.
65, 66, 68, and 69) or rounded surfaces (figs. 62 and 72); but
Fic. 70.
‘Fia.68. Tabular cells.— Fig. 69. Cylindrical cells. The small rounded body
in the interior of three of these cellsis the nucleus. Fig. 70. Elongated
fusiform cells.——fig. 71. Fibrilliform cells (hyphe).
when in combination also with the vessels of the plant, so as to
form what are called the fibro-vascular bundles, they are elon-
gated, and have pointed extremities (fig. 70). These variations
in the condition of the cells lead to corresponding differences
in their arrangement ; thus, in the former case, the cells are
placed one upon another (jig. 69), or side by side (fig. 68) ;
while in the latter their tapering extremities overlap each
other, and become interposed between the sides of the cells
which are placed above and below them (jig. 70). From this
circumstance cells have been divided into parenchymatous and
prosenchymatous ; parenchymatous being the term applied to
those cells which are placed end to end or side by side; and
prosenchymatous to those which are attenuated, and overlap
40 CILIATED AND BRANCHED CELLS.
one another when combined together to formatissue. Another
distinction commonly observed between parenchymatous and
prosenchymatous cells arises from the condition of their cell-
walls ; thus, those of parenchymatous cells are usually thin (figs.
66 and 69), while those of prosenchymatous cells are more or
less thickened (figs. 96 and 97). These latter cells are com-
monly termed fibres. The above distinctions between paren-
chymatous and prosenchymatous cells are evident enough in the
extreme forms of the two divisions, but various transitional
states occur which render it impossible to draw, in many cases,
a distinct line of demarcation between them.
When cells are so placed as to be uncombined with other
cells, or with the vessels of the plant, or but partially so, they
Bie. wes
Fig. 72. A portion of the frond of Witophyllum laceratum. a, a. Cell walls.
b, b. Contents of the cells. After H. B. Brady.
are more or less unrestrained in their development ; but even in
such circumstances, as in their combined state, their typical
form is to be more or less rounded. This form is, however,
rarely maintained as they grow older, although instances of such
occur in many of the lower Algz, as Protococcus (jig. 1) ; in
pollen cells (fig. 73) ; and in spores ; but more frequently, in
such cases, the cells assume a more or less elongated form and
become oblong (fig. 77), cylindrical (fig. 74), &c. Insuch cells,
again, we frequently find that certain points of the cell-wall
acquire a special development (see page 23), and become elevated
from its general surface as little papille (fig. 73), warty projec-
tions (fig. 74), or cilia (figs. 75, 76, and 77); or are prolonged
into tubular processes, or branched in various ways (jig. 78).
The hairs which are produced on the surface of plants afford good
SIZES OF CELLS. 41
illustrations of cells which are more or less unrestrained in
their development (figs. 137-143) ; other instances occur in the
germination of most spores, and strikingly so in those of many
Alge, as Botrydiwm (jig. 78); also when the pollen cells fall
upon the stigma ; and in numerous other cases.
2. Sizes of Cells.—The cells vary much in size in different
plants, and in different parts of the same plant. The parenchy;
matous cells, on an average, vary from about 535 to ygo5 Of an
inch in diameter ; others again are not more than 35,3; while
in some cases they are so large as to be visible to the naked eye,
being as much as 3, or even 5 of an inch in diameter. The
largest occur in the pith of plants, in succulent parts, and in water
‘plants.
: The dimensions of prosenchymatous cells generally afford a
Fig. 73. Fie. 75. Fia. 76.
Oo \
Pre. 74. Bie. 77.
Fig. 73. Spherical pollen cell with small projections or papille on its outer
surface.——/ig. 74. Cylindrical cell covered with warty projections.——
Figs. ie Ciliated cells. Fig. 78. Branched cell (Botrydium granu-
datum).
striking contrast to those of the parenchymatous, for while we
find that their transverse diameter is commonly much less,
averaging about ;2;, of an inch, and frequently not more than 3,55;
they become much more extended longitudinally, some having
been measured as much as } of an inch or more long, and ac-
cording to Schleiden, those of the inner bark are often four, five,
or more inches in length. The prosenchymatous cells of the wood
and inner bark of trees generally vary, however, from about the
35 to the ;5 of an inch in length.
Those cells again which have an unrestrained development
are frequently also far more extended in length. Thus, the cell
of which each filament of cotton is formed (fig. 157, a) is
sometimes as much as one or two inches long ; while in some of
42 STRUCTURE OF THE CELL-WALL.
the Cryptogamous water plants, as Chara, the cells are also
much elongated.
III. GENERAL PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURE OF THE CELL-
waLu.—As has been already stated (page 23), the cell-wall of
young cells is very thin, colourless, transparent, smooth, and
free from any openings or visible pores, so that each cell is a
perfectly closed sac. The cell-wall, however, although free
from visible pores, is readily permeable by fluids.
As the cell-wall increases in age, however, it becomes thick-
ened by the intussusception or incorporation of new matter into
its substance, and then alterations occur
by which it becomes variously marked
and sculptured on its inner surface,
This increase in thickness may be speci-
ally observed in the prosenchymatous
cells of the wood and inner bark, and
in the hard cells of the stone of the
Peach, Cherry, and other similar fruits.
This thickening, however, of the cell-
wallis by no means confined to the pro-
Fig. 79. Transverse section of senchymatous cells of the wood, or the
wiraa et open PLune other cases above mentioned, but it
Mohl. may be observed more or less in all cells
where active changes are going on; thus
it may be especially seen in those of the pith of Hoya carnosa
(fig. 79). A section of one of these cells gives an appearance as
if the walls had been formed by concentric layers of cellulose
with branching capillary tubes or canals stretching from the
cavity of the cell to its periphery (fig. 79). The irregular ringed
appearance is due to the difference in the degree of hydration,
such as was seen in the case of the starch granule (page 32) ;
while the canals are true passages, which have been caused by
the passage of the sap during the life of the cell preventing the
deposition of cellulose. In these cells the membrane has been
still further changed by the conversion of the cellulose into
lignin. It is to these two conditions that the firmness of the
wood of plants and the hardness of the stones of many fruits
are due, and hence the name of Sclerenchymatous (from a Greek
word signifying hardness) has been given to such cells.
Pitted or Dotted Cells.—When the cell-wall has thus become
thickened it commonly presents (instead of the smooth and
homogeneous appearance as is the case, as we have seen, when
it is in a young condition) a greater or less number of dots or
slits of various kinds (figs. 80 and 81, e, e). These dots and
slits were formerly considered as actual openings in the walls of
the cells, and hence such cells were called porous cells ; but, when
carefully examined, it may be readily discovered that these
markings are caused by canals which run from the cavity of the
cell to the inside of its wall, and are closed (always at least in
Fic. 79.
PITTED CELLS.—DISC-BEARING WOOD-CELLS. 43
their young state) by the originally thin membrane of which it
is at such points composed (figs. 79 and 81, a, a), and thus
give to the parts of the cell-wall in which they are found, when
viewed by transmitted light under the microscope, a more
transparent appearance than that possessed by the thickened
membrane surrounding them. Such cells are, therefore, im-
properly called porous, and hence are now correctly termed
pitted or dotted cells. These canals thus terminating in the
wall of one cell correspond exactly with the ends of those of
the adjoining cells ; and thus the sap can readily pass through
the intervening cell-wall notwithstanding the general thicken-
ing which the walls have otherwise undergone (jig. 81). It
frequently happens that two or more canals unite together at
varying distances from the wall of the cell, and thus form a
eommon opening into its cavity (jig. 79).
Although, as thus shown, the dotted appearance is not caused
by holes or perforations in the original walls of the cells, yet as
the latter advance in age, and lose their active vitality, they
Fre. 81.
Fic. 80.
Fig. 80, Pitted cells—— Fig. 81. Thick-walled cells from the fruit of a Palm,
a,a. Cell-walls. 6b, b. Concentric layers of thickening. c. Canals extend-
’ ing from the central cavity to the inside of the wall of the cell. d. Cavity
of the cell, e, e. External dotted appearance, From Unger.
frequently become perforated, in consequence of their thin pri-
mary wall becoming more or less absorbed, or breaking away.
Such perforations are well seen in the Sphagnum, where they
are sufficiently large to allow of the passage through them of
minute granular matters.
Cells with Bordered Pits or Disc-bearing Wood-cells.—In the
cell-walls of the wood-cells of certain trees we find, in addition
to the ordinary pits, large circular discs which encircle them so
that each pit looks as if it had a ring surrounding it (fig. 82) ;
hence such cells have been termed cells with bordered pits or
disc-bearing wood-cells. This appearance is produced by circular
patches of the cell-wall remaining thin after the general thicken-
ing has commenced and the rim growing obliquely inwards,
leaving only a narrow orifice in the centre; or, in other words,
the opening of the canal into the interior is narrow, while the
44 CELLS WITH BORDERED PITS.
outer opening by the cell-wall is broad (fig. 83, a, b,c). As
these thickenings occur always in twos, that is, one on each side
of the cell-wall, they appear as two watch-glasses would do if
placed rim to rim, and separated by a thin sheet of paper. To
carry out the comparison, however, completely, the watch-glasses
must be supposed to be perforated in their centres (jig. 83, b).
The central lighter spot when examined by transmitted light is
caused by the light having to pass only through the thin un-
thickened cell-wall or membrane (jig. 83, c, w), while the darker
colour of the border is caused by the light having to pass through
the thicker substance of the rim. It frequently happens that
this intervening membrane (fig. 83, b and d) becomes absorbed,
and then direct communication takes place between the adjoiming
cells.
These bordered pits or discs occur either in single rows (fig.
Fic. 82. Fic. 83.
OO
JOO ©
5
fig. 82. Bordered pits of the wood-cells of the Pine, with a single row of
discs on each cell.——Fig. 83. Bordered pits of the wood cells of the Pine
(diagram). a. Young stage with unthickened cell-wall or membrane,
6. Older stage where the intervening membrane has been absorbed. ec,
Semi-profile view, showing position of membrane, w. d. The same where
the membrane has been absorbed. After Sachs.
82), or in double (figs. 84 and 85), or triple rows (fig. 86).
In those cases where there is more than one row of bordered
pits, those in each row may be either on the same level, as is
more commonly the case (fig. 84), or at different levels, and
hence alternate to each other, as in the Araucarias and allied
trees (figs. 85 and 86).
Cells presenting such a characteristic appearance are of
universal occurrence in the wood of the Conifer and Taxacez,
where they are also most distinctly observed. But somewhat
similar bordered pits of smaller size may also be found in many
of the Phanerogamia.
Fibrous Cells.—It frequently happens that the thickening of
the cell-wall (instead of taking place so as to give the appear-
FIBROUS CELLS. 45
ance of a perforated membrane, and thus giving rise to the pitted
cells just described), forms delicate threads or bands of vary-
ing thickness -called fibres, which assume a more or less spiral
direction upon its inner surface (figs. 87-89), and thus give rise
to what are called fibrous cells. Such cells occur in various plants
and parts of plants ; thus in the leaves of Sphagnum, the hairs
of many Cacti and other plants, in the integuments of some
}
Fie. 85. Fic. 86.
©
©
©
ck
©)
QOOCOS
Y@OdD0O©
Fig. 84. Cells with bordered pits or disc-hearing wood-cells of the Pine,
with a double row of discs, which are on the same level, or opposite to
each other, After Nicol.—RFig. 85. Cells with bordered pits or disc-
bearing wood-cells of Araucaria excelsa, with double rows of discs, which
are alternate with each other.—Fig. 86. Cells with bordered pits or
disc-bearing wood-cells of Araucaria, with double and triple rows of
alternate discs. After Nicol.
seeds and fruits, as those of Salvia (fig. 152), Cobeea scandens,
and Collomia, inthe spore-cases of certain Flowerless plants,
in the inner lining of all anthers, in the root-sheath of the aerial
roots of many Orchids, and in several other instances.
These fibrous cells also present some differences of appear-
ance as regards the distribution of their fibres. Thus, in some
cells the fibre forms an uninterrupted spiral from one end to the
Fic. 87. Fie. 88. Fie. 89. Fie. 90. Fie. 91.
Fig. 87. Spiral cell Fig. 88. Annular cell.— Fig. 89. Reticulated cells.
— Fig. 90. Pitted and reticulated cell.—— Fig. 91. Wood-cells of the Yew
(Taxus baccata), After Mohl,
other (figs. 87 and 152): such are termed spiral cells. In other
cases the fibre is interrupted at various points, and assumes the
form of rings upon the inner surface of the cell-wall (fig. 88),
and hence such cells are called annular, Instances also occur
even more frequently, in which the fibres are so distributed as
46 KINDS OF CELLS.
to produce a branched or netted appearance (fig. 89) ; in which
case the cells are termed reticulated. It is also by no means an
uncommon circumstance to find in the same cell intermediate
conditions of all these forms.
The fibres in most cases are wound from left to right,
although instances occur where they have a contrary direction.
The turns of the fibre, or the rings, may be nearly in contact,
or more or less separated by intervals of cell-wall ; this latter
appearance is probably due to the growth of the cell-wall after
the deposition of the fibre. The turns of the fibre, or of the
rings, again, may be either intimately attached to the cell-wall,
or but slightly adherent, or altogether free. As a general rule,
the less the cell-wall grows after the deposition of the fibre,
the more firmly is it attached to it.
In some cases, again, as in the Yew (jig. 91), we find a
spiral fibre or fibres developed in addition to the pits; such
cells have been sometimes termed tracheides.
These different kinds of fibrous cells are connected by a
number of intermediate forms (fig. 90) with the pitted cells
already treated of, but all are formed on the same plan. That
is, by the living protoplasm secreting the cellulose out of its
own substance, and depositing it upon its external surface in
different parts in varying thicknesses.
Section 2. Or THE KINDS oF CELLS, AND THEIR CONNEXION
WITH ONE ANOTHER,
WE have already seen (page 39), that if the cells are of such
forms that when combined together they merely come in con-
tact with one another without perceptibly overlapping, they are
called parenchymatous ; but that when elongated and pointed at
their ends, so that in combination they overlap one another,
they are termed prosenchymatous. We have also seen that such
extreme forms are connected by all sorts of transitional ones.
But, besides these elongated prosenchymatous cells, other
lengthened tubular organs are also found in plants, which are
termed vessels (see Vessels, page 51). Formerly, all these elon-
gated organs were supposed to have an entirely distinct origin
from the ordinary parenchymatous cells, and were described
under the names of Woody Fibres, and Vessels or Ducts ; but
it is now known that they are all derived originally from such
cells, and owe their peculiar appearances either to various
modifications in form, which the latter undergo in the course of
growth, or to their combination and union with one another.
This common origin of the Woody Fibres of old authors and of
the Vessels with the parenchymatous cells, is proved by the fact,
that gradual transitional forms from the one to the other may
be commonly observed ; and also by tracing their development,
TISSUES.—PARENCHYMA, 47
when it will be found that all these organs, however modified in
form and appearance, are derived originally from one or more
of the ordinary cells. All the observations made previously,
therefore, as to the chemical and general] properties of cell-mem-
brane, as well as to its mode of growth and thickening, apply
equally to the Vessels. We have already stated this to be the
case with regard to the Woody Fibres, which we have spoken
of under the names of Prosenchymatous ,cells and Wood-cells.
By the combination of the different kinds of cells and vessels,
we have various compound structures formed which are called
Tissues ; the most important and the most abundant of tiem
all is parenchyma, which must therefore be first alluded to.
1. ParencHyMA.—This is composed of comparatively thin-
walled cells, whose length comnionly does not exceed their
Fic. 93.
Fig. 92. Round or oval parenchyma. In two of the cells a nucleus with a
nucleolus may be seen. Fig. 93. Stellate or spongiform parenchyma,
composed of stellate cells with three-cornered intercellular spaces, Fig.
94, Muriform parenchyma, Fig. 95. Transverse section of the petiole of
a species of Begonia. e. Epidermis with cuticle above and hypoderma
below, the latter formed vf collenchymatous cells cl, cl, with thickened
angles v, v. chi. Chlorophyll granules. p. General parenchyma, below
hypoderma. After Sachs.
breadth, or in which the proportion of the two diameters does
not vary to any remarkable extent. There are several varieties
of parenchyma, depending chiefly upon the forms of the com-
ponent cells, and their modes of combination ; the following are
the more important :—
a. Round or Oval Parenchyma (figs. 62 and 92).—This is
formed of rounded, or more or less oval cells, with small spaces
betweenthem. It commonly occurs in succulent plants, and also
in those parts where the tissues are of a lax nature. It is
connected by various transitional forms with—
b. Stellate or Spongiform Parenchyma, which consists of
48 VARIETIES OF PARENCHYMA,
stellate cells (figs. 67 and 93), or of cells with an irregular out-
line produced by projecting rays, and in contact only by the
extremities of such rays, so as to leave large irregular spaces
between them (fig. 124, c). This occurs commonly in the tissue
on the under surface of most leaves ; and frequently in the air-
passages of plants, particularly in the stems and leaf-stalks of
such as grow in water, or in marshy places, e.g. the Rush and
Water-lily.
ce. Regular or Polyhedral Parenchyma.—This is formed of
polyhedral cells, the faces of which are frequently nearly equal
(figs. 65 and 66), and so combined as to leave no interspaces.
It is commonly found in the pith of plants.
d. Elongated Parenchyma.—This is composed of cells elon-
gated in a longitudinal direction so as to become fusiform (fig.
70), cylindrical (fig. 69), or prismatic, and closely compacted.
It occurs frequently in the stems of Monocotyledonous plants.
e. Tabular Parenchyma is that which consists of tabular,
closely adherent cells. It is found in the epidermis and other
external parts of plants (figs. 68, 95, e, and 125-125). A variety
of this kind of parenchyma is called muriform, because the cells
of which it is composed resemble in their form and arrangement
the courses of bricks in a wall (fig. 94); this variety occurs in
the medullary rays of the stems of Dicotyledons.
Such are the commoner varieties of parenchyma, all of which
are connected in various ways by transitional forms ; but other
special kinds also occur. Thus, in the tissue which is placed
below the epidermis of plants, which has been termed the
hypoderma, we sometimes find the parenchyma composed of
cells which are especially thickened at their angles (fig. 95,
cl, cl); and these thickened portions swell up considerably
when such cells are placed in water. This kind of parenchyma
is called collenchyma; it never becomes lignified. Another
variety of parenchyma is termed sclerenchyma ; this consists of
cells which have become much hardened by thickening layers
and lignified, as in the stem of Palms (see page 95). When the
parenchymatous cells become thickened so as to form pitted or
fibrous cells, the tissues formed by their combination constitute
respectively the Pitted Cellular Tissue and Fibro-cellular Tissue,
of some authors.
In some of the lower orders of plants there is a kind of
tissue present which is quite as distinct from parenchyma as
this is from prosenchyma and the tissues formed by the vessels
of plants. To this the names of Tela contextu and Interlacing
fibrilliform Tissue have been given. It occurs in the Fungi
(figs. 3 and 4), and Lichens (fig. 71), and consists of very long
thread-like cells, or strings of cells, simple or branched, with
either thin, soft, readily destructible walls, as in Fungi; or dry
and firm ones, as in Lichens ; the whole inextricably inter-
woven or entangled with each other so as to form a loose fibril-
HYPHAL TISSUE. PROSENCHYMA. 49
liform tissue (fig. 71). This tissue, which is usually known under
the name of hyphx or hyphal tissue, constitutes, as a general
rule, the vegetative portion of all Fungi and Lichens ; and in the
larger Fungi this same tissue also forms a more compact structure
at certain parts, as on their surface, where it is arranged as a
kind of skin, and then constitutes what is termed pseudo-paren-
chyma. Hyphal tissue is also found in the thallus of some Algee.
The varieties of parenchyma as just described constitute the
entire structure of the lower orders of plants, or Thallophytes,
such as the Algze, Fungi, and Lichens, which are hence fre-
quently termed Cellular Plants ; while all plants above them,
which contain, commonly, vessels and prosenchymatous wood-
cells, in addition to parenchymatous cells, are called Vascular
Plants (see page 8). In these higher orders of plants, parenchy-
matous cells constitute all the soft and pulpy parts ; and in cul-
Fie. 96. Fic. 97. Fie. 98. Fie. 99. Fira. 100. Bres toi.
Fig. 96. Prosenchymatous or wood-
cells. Fig.97. Transverse section Fig. 99. Upper end of a liber cell.—¥
of prosenchymatous cells, showing Fig.100. Branched liber cell. After
the thickness of their walls. Schleiden.— fig. 101. Transverse
Fig. 98. Prosenchymatous cells in section of liber-cells, showing the
combination, thickness of their walls.
tivating plants or parts of plants for culinary purposes and for
food generally, the great object aimed at is to develop this
kind of tissue as much as possible. Parenchyma is connected
by various intermediate conditions with prosenchyma, which must
now be described.
2. Pros—ENcHYyMA.—The most perfect form of prosenchyma
is that commonly termed Woody Tissue or Woody Fibre. This
tissue consists of very fine cells, elongated and tapering to their
extremities, their walls being much thickened (fig. 96), and
when in contact with one another overlapping by their pointed
ends, so that they are firmly compacted together and leave no
E
50 WOODY TISSUES.
interspaces (jig. 98). The woody portions of all plants consist -
in a great part of this form of tissue. It is also found in the
liber or inner bark mixed with parenchyma and certain vessels,
and in the veins of leaves and those of other appendages of the
stem and its divisions.
Three kinds of prosenchymatous cells may be described
which enter into the composition of Woody Tissues ; namely, the
ordinary Wood-cells, Disc-bearing Wood-cells or Cells with Bor-
dered Pits, and Liber-cells; these form respectively, by their
combination, ordinary Woody Tissue, Disc-bearing Woody Tissue,
and Woody Tissue of the Liber.
a. Woody Tissue.—This, the ordinary kind of woody tissue,
is composed of prosenchymatous cells or fibres of moderate
length and lignified (fig. 96). A transverse section of these
cells shows the thickening matter of their walls to be arranged
in concentric layers, which are often so numerous as to almost
obliterate their cavities (fig. 97). This kind of tissue occurs in
the wood of most trees, except that of the Conifer and most
other Gymnospermous plants ; and in the veins of some leaves,
and those of certain parts of the flower. The peculiar manner in
which these wood-cells are arranged with respect to one another,
overlapping at their pointed extremities, and thus becoming
firmly cemented, as it were, together, combined with the thick-
ness of their walls, renders this tissue very strong and tough,
and thus admirably adapted for those parts of plants in which
it is found, and where such qualities are especially required.
b. Disc-bearing Woody Tisswe—This tissue is composed of
those wood-cells called cells with bordered pits, which have been
already described on page 43 (figs. 82-86). This tissue consti-
tutes generally nearly the whole of the wood of the Coniferz and
most other Gymnospermous plants, as well as a portion of the
wood of some other plants (see pages 44 and 83). These disc-
bearing wood-cells are much larger than the other kinds of wood-
cells, being often as much as 545 or 535 of an inch in diameter ;
while the latter are frequently not more than 545, or on an
average about ;3;; of an inch in diameter.
c. Woody Tissue of the Liber or Bast Tissuwe.—This consists of
cells much longer than ordinary wood-cells (figs. 99 and 157 b), with
very thick walls (fig. 101), and owing to their not being lignified,
or but partially so, they are softer, tougher and more flexible ;
hence these are regarded as a peculiar kind of cell, and have re-
ceived the distinctive name of Liber-cells, from their common
occurrence in the inner bark or liber of Dicotyledonous stems.
Such cells are also termed bast-fibres, and the tissue formed of
them bast-tisswe, because the inner bark is also commonly termed
bast. These cells are rarely branched (fig. 100). Besides the
common occurrence of this tissue in the liber, it also occurs as a
constituent of the jibro-vascular bundles of Monocotyledonous
stems ; and of the fibrous coats of fruits. The veins which
VESSELS OR DUCTS.—PITTED VESSELS. bl
form the framework of leaves are also in part composed of this
kind of tissue.
These bast-fibres are called bast-tubes by some botanists, who
regard them not as elongated cells, but as true vessels formed
like them by the coalescence of rows of cells, the partition walls
between them having become absorbed, so that their cavities
communicate and form a continuous canal. These liber-cells,
bast-fibres, or bast-tubes, must not be confounded with sieve-
vessels or sieve-twhes (see page 55), which are also frequently
termed bast-vessels from their common occurrence in the liber.
From the peculiar qualities of the woody tissue of the liber it
is admirably adapted for various manufacturing purposes ; thus
Hemp, Flax, New Zealand Flax, Pita Flax, Sunn, Jute, China
Grass, and many other fibres, are all composed of the liber
tissue of different plants, and will afford good illustrations of the
value of such fibres as textile materials. This Jiber tissue also
when macerated so as to separate the cells from one another is
made into a mash from which the best kinds of paper are made.
Inferior sorts of paper are prepared from the ordinary woody
tissue of many plants, but they lack the toughness of papers
made from the liber, and are brittle and tear more easily.
The different kinds of woody tissue are commonly associated
with other organs, which are also of an elongated tubular
character, but larger than the prosenchymatous cells of which
the woody tissues are composed. These constitute the vessels
of plants, and must now be described.
3. VESSELS.—These have also been frequently termed ducts
by authors. The essential character of a vessel is that it is
composed of several cells, which are united end to end, and the
septa dividing them more or less completely absorbed. The
component cells may be either very long and narrow, or they
may be short and broad.
There are several varieties of these vessels, which are known
as pitted, spiral, annular, reticulated, and scalariform, the char-
acters of which depend upon the component cells out of which
they have been formed, and which have already been described.
They contain air or water.
But besides these vessels we have also other varieties, which
are commonly distinguished under the names of sieve-tubes or
sieve-vessels, laticiferous vessels, and vesicular or utricular vessels.
These are closely related to one another from the nature of their
contents, their chief function being to act as reservoirs of
nutrient fluids or secretions, and also as carriers of the nutri-
ent fluids to those parts of plants where they are required.
a. Pitted or Dotted Vessels.—A pitted vessel is formed from
a row of cylindrical pitted cells placed end to end (fig. 102), the
intervening partitions of which have become more or less ab-
sorbed, so that their cavities communicate and form a continuous
canal (fig. 103). The origin of pitted vessels from a row of cells
E 2
52 PITTED VESSELS3—TYLOSES.—SPIRAL VESSELS.
of a similar pitted nature is clearly shown in many instances by
the contractions which their sides exhibit at various intervals,
by which they acquire a beaded appearance (fig. 102) ; for these
contractions evidently correspond to the
points where the component cells come in
contact, and in some cases even we find
the intervening membrane not completely
absorbed between the cavities, but re-
maining in the form of a network or sieve-
like partition (fig. 103). Pitted vessels
generally terminate obliquely (fig. 103),
and when they combine with neighbouring
vessels, the oblique extremities of the
latter are so placed as accurately to cor-
respond with the former. In some cases,
however, where the pitted vessels are
pointed at the ends, they overlap more or
less by these points. Pitted vessels may
be commonly found in the wood of Dico-
Fig.102. Beaded pitted ves- tyledons ; they are mixed here with the
sel. Fig. 108. Pitted :
vessel terminating ob. Ordinary wood-cells, but are much larger
ee and Pre than these, as may be seen by making a
as been dace cis transverse section of the wood of the
absorbed. Oak, Chestnut, and other trees, when the
holes then visible to the naked eye are
caused by their section (fig. 183, v, v, v). The pitted vessels are
generally among the largest occurring in any tissue.
It sometimes happens that when a pitted or other vessel has
lost its fluid contents, the neighbouring parenchymatous cells
push bladder-like portions of their membrane through pores which
are then formed in its wall, and then multiply by division and
form a cellular mass which may cowpletely fill it—to this intra-
cellular tissue the name of tyloses or thyloses has been given. It
may be well observed in the wood of the Oak, in that of Robinia
Pseud-acacia, in Periploca, and in the stem of Cucumis sativus.
b. Spiral Vessels.—This name is applied to vessels with
tapering extremities, having either one continuous spiral fibre
running from end to end, as is commonly the case (fig. 104), or
two or more fibres (jig. 105) running parallel to one another.
Those with only one spiral fibre are sometimes termed Simple
Spiral Vessels; those with more than one, Compound Spiral
Vessels. The latter kind are well seen in the stem of the Banana
and other allied plants, in the young shoots of the Asparagus,
and in the Pitcher Plant. The fibre contained within the spiral
vessel is generally so elastic as to admit of being uncoiled when
the vessel is pulled asunder, in which case the wall is ruptured
between the coils. This appearance may be commonly seen by
the naked eye by partially breaking the young shoots, flower-
stalks, or leaf-stalks of almost any plant ; or the leaves of the
SPIRAL VESSELS.—ANNULAR VESSELS. 53
Hyacinth, Banana, and others, and gently pulling asunder the
two ends, when the uncoiled fibres appear likea fine cobweb. In
most cases the coils of the fibre are close together, so that the en-
closing membrane cannot be observed between them ; but in other
instances they are more or less separated by portions of membrane
(fig. 104). The latter appearance is probably caused by the growth
of the cell-wall after the thickening which forms the fibre has
taken place, by which the coils become extended and separated
from one another. The fibre is generally turned to the right as
in the ordinary spiral cells, although instances occur in which it
is wound in the opposite direction. When spiral vessels come
in contact they overlap more or less at their ends (fig. 104), and
frequently the membrane between their cavities then becomes
absorbed so that they communicate with each other. Spiral
vessels sometimes present a branched appearance; this is gene-
rally occasioned by the union of separate vessels in a more or less
Fre, 104. Fre: 105. Fie. 106. Fic. 107.
Fig.104. Simple spiral vessels.—Fig. 105. Compound spiral vessel.——
Fig. 106. Branched spiral vessel.——ig. 107, Union of spiral vessels in an
oblique manner,
oblique manner (fig. 107), or occasionally, it is said, as in the
Gourd and some other plants, by a division of the fibres of dis-
tinct vessels (fig. 106).
Spiral vessels occur in the sheath surrounding the pith of
Dicotyledons (figs. 179, s, s’, and 185 B, d), in the fibro-vascular
bundles of Monocotyledons (jig. 181, sv), and in some of the
Cormophytes, as the Lycopodiacee. They also exist in the
petiole and veins of leaves, and in those of all other organs
which are modifications of leaves, as bracts, sepals, petals, and
other parts of the flower. They may be also frequently found
in roots. In size they vary from the 54; to 5,45 of an inch in
diameter. The average size is about the 54,5. Spiral vessels
are sometimes called Trachee or Trachenchyma, from their re-
semblance to the trachee or air-tubes of insects.
c. Annular Vessels.—In these vessels the fibre is arranged in
the form of rings more or less regularly arranged upon their
of ANNULAR VESSELS.
inner surface (figs. 108, 7, 109, and 110). Sometimes the whole
of the vessel presents this ringed appearance (figs. 109 and 110),
while in other vessels we find two rings connected by one or
more turns of a spiral, the two forms irregularly alternating with
Fria. 108. Fic. 109. Fia. 110. Fia. 111.
0
J
ti
\\
iN
‘
YK
b
\
S|]
iy
Fig. 108. Piece of an annular vessel from Zea Mays.
h. The thin cell-wall; 7, the annular thickening of
the cell-wall ; 7’, vertical section of one of the rings,
showing, y, the inner substance, and, 7, the denser
layer over the inner side of the ring projecting into
the cavity of the cell. After Sachs.— Figs. 109,
110, Annular vessels.——Fig. 111. Vessel showing a
combination of rings and spiral fibres,
each other (fig. 111). In size they vary from about ;3, to =},
of an inch in diameter. Annular vessels occur especially in
the fibro-vascular bundles of the stems of soft, rapidly growing
herbaceous plants among Dicotyledons, also in those of Mono-
Fia. 112,
ip ces tile! Bie. 115;
Fig. 112. Reticulated vessel. Fig. 113. Prismatic scalariform vessels of
a Fern. Fig. 114, Cylindrical scalariform vessels of the Vine.— Fig.
115. Vessel showing a combination of spiral and reticulated fibres, and
scalariform markings,
cotyledons, and in those of some Cormophytes. In the latter
they exist especially, and of a very regular character, in the
Equisetacee (fig. 109).
RETICULATED—SCALARIFORM—AND SIEVE VESSELS. 55.
d. Reticulated Vessels—In these vessels the convolutions
are more or less irregular, and connected in various ways by
cross or oblique fibres, so as to produce a branched or netted
appearance (fig. 112). Thes@ vessels are generally larger than
the annular, and of much more frequent occurrence. They are
found in similar situations.
e. Scalariform Vessels—The peculiar appearance of these
vessels is owing to their walls being marked by elongated trans-
verse pits or lines, arranged over one another like the steps of a
ladder, whence their name (jigs. 113 and 114). They are some-
times cylindrical tubes like the other vessels, as in the Vine
(fig. 114), and in many other Dicotyle-
dons, in which condition they are ap-
parently but slight modifications of re-
ticulated vessels ; but in their more perfect
state, scalariform vessels assume a pris-
matic form, as in Ferns (jig. 113), of which
they are then very characteristic, though
sometimes they may be found elsewhere.
The anwilar, reticulated, and scalari-
form vessels constitute the spwrious trachee
of some authors. These vessels have
commonly tapering points like the true
spiral vessels ; and thus overlap at their
extremities when they come in contact
(fig. 113). But in other instances they
terminate more or less obliquely, or by
flattened ends, like most pitted vessels.
We frequently find in the same vessel
one or more of the above forms combined
with the spiral (figs. 111 and 115), and
thus forming intermediate states of each
other.
f. Sieve-tubes or Sieve-vessels.—These
are vessels in which thickening of the
Fig. 116.
Fig. 116. Young sieve-
tubes or. sieve-vessels
cell-walls of their component cells does
not take place uniformly over their whole
surface, but only at the ends of the cells,
that is, where they are in contact with
others of a similar nature. At these ends
it forms a kind of network, sculptured in
relief as it were on the wall (fig. 116, q);
and when in such cases, the unthickened
part of the walls of contiguous cells
becomes absorbed so that their cavities
are continuous, we have formed what
are commonly known as sieve-tubes or sieve-vessels.
from the longitudinal
section of the stem of
Cucurbita Pepo. q.
Transverse view of
the sieve-like partition
walls. si. Sieve-plate on
the side-wall. x, Thin-
ner parts of the side-
wall. ps. Contracted
protoplasmic contents,
lifted off the transverse
septum at sp, After
Sachs.
Some have
also sieve-like openings through their side walls (fig. 116, si).
These vessels are very constantly present in the inner bark or
56 LATICIFEROUS VESSELS.
phloém of Dicotyledons, and also in the fibro-vascular bundles
of some Monocotyledons, and elsewhere. If the partition walls
between the component cells are not really perforated, but only
thickened in a sieve-like mannef, the name of sieve, lattice,
or clathrate, is applied to the component cells.
g. Laticiferous Vessels.—These constitute the Milk-vessels of
the old authors. They consist usually of long-branched tubes
lying in no definite position with regard to the other tissues (figs.
117 and 118), and anastomosing or uniting freely with one
another like the veins of animals, from which peculiarity they
may be at once distinguished from the other vessels of plants.
When first formed these vessels are exceedingly minute and
their walls are very thin; they become, however, large and
Fig. 119.
Fia. 117. Fie. 118.
Figs. 117, 118. Laticiferous vessels.
——Fig. 119. Laticiferous vessel
from Luphorbia splendens : the latex
contains starch granules of a pecu-
liar form, After Thomé.
thick-sided as they increase in age, but even then rarely pre-
sent any pits or spiral deposits in their interior, as is the
case in the thickened cells and vessels already described. A
common size is the ;4,; of an inch in diameter. They derive
their name from containing a fluid called latex, which when
exposed to the air becomes milky, and is either white, as in the
Dandelion, Spurge, Opium Poppy, Indiarubber, Lettuce, and
’ many other plants ; or coloured, as is well seen in the Celandine,
where it is yellow; or it may be of other colours. The latex ~
has a number of granules or globules floating in it, which are
composed of caoutchouc or analogous gum-resinous matters, &c.,
and occasionally mixed with them may be observed peculiar-
shaped starch granules (page 32), as in Euphorbia splendens
VESICULAR VESSELS.—EPIDERMAL TISSUE. o7
(fig. 119) ; or it may be mucilaginous, or gummy, or contain
active secretions, &c. Laticiferous vessels, from their containing
some of the so-called secretions of the plant, are closely allied
to the Receptacles of Secretion, and are frequently placed with
them. (See page 72.) Laticiferous vessels occur especially
in the inner bark of many Dicotyledons, in the pith, and in the
petiole and veins of leaves; but they are also to be found in
other plants. ;
They are formed, like other vessels, from rows of cells
arranged in various directions with respect to one another, the
yartitions between their cavities being more or less absorbed
so that they communicate freely together.
Besides the above more common characteristics of laticiferous
vessels, there are numerous other varieties ; indeed, from the
very great variety in structure, contents, and position of these
vessels, and the many and various transitions between them and
vesicular vessels, now to be described, Sachs has proposed that
these laticiferous and vesicular vessels should be included under
the common name of latex-sacs.
h. Vesicular or Utricular Vessels.—These resemble laticiferous
vessels in one particular, as they contain latex (which, however,
is clear or milky, but always contains true raphides) : while, on
the other hand, they are unbranched and analogous to sieve-
tubes in form, consisting as they do of long broad cells with
sieve-like septa. They were first noticed by Hanstein in the
scales of the bulb of Alliwm, and have since been observed in
the leaves and other parts of Monocotyledons, and in some
Dicotyledons.
We have now described all the different kinds of cells, and
the modifications they undergo, and the combinations of them
which take place so as to form vessels. The different kinds of
vessels and woody tissues are more or less combined together,
and have always a tendency to develop and arrange them-
selves in longitudinal or vertical bundles in the parts of the
plant where they are found, and thus they may be readily dis-
tinguished from the parenchyma in which they are placed, both
in their form and mode of elongation. We thus find it con-
venient to speak of the tissue formed of these bundles under
the collective name of Fibro-vascular Tissue, or the Fibro-vascu-
lar, Vertical, or Longitudinal System, to distinguish it from the
ordinary cellular tissue, which constitutes the Parenchymatous,
Cellular, or Horizontal System.
4, Eprermat Tissv—E.—In Cormophytes and in all Flower-
ing plants, the cells situated on the surface of their young
parts and organs (see page 60) which are exposed to the air, vary
in form and in the nature of their contents from those placed
beneath them, and are so arranged as to constitute a firm layer
which may commonly be readily separated as a distinct mem-
brane. To this layer the term Epidermal Tissue is given. It
58 EPIDERMAL TISSUE.—EPIDERMIS.
is generally described as consisting of two parts; namely, of an
inner portion called the Epidermis, and of an outer thin pellicle
to which the name Cuticle has been given.
a. Epidermis.—This consists of one (figs. 95, e, and 123, a),
two (fig. 124, a, a), three (fig. 125, a), or more layers of cells,
firmly united together by their sides, and forming a continuous
structure, except at the points where it is perforated by the
stomata, presently to be described (jigs. 131, s, and 132, s).
These cells are generally of a flattened tabular character (figs.
Fic. 120. Fic. 121. Fie. 122.
Fig. 120. Epidermal tissue from the leaf of the Iris (Iris germanica). p, p.
Cuticle. s, s,s. Oval stomata, e, e. Epidermal cells. After Jussieu.
Fig. 121. Epidermis of the Maize. a, a. Oval stomata. 06, 6. Zigzag reti-
culations formed by the sides of the cells, Fig. 122. Sinuous epidermis
with stomata, from the garden Balsam.
123-127), the sides of which vary much in their outline ; thus,
in the epidermis of the Iris, and many other plants, they are
elongated hexagons (fig. 120, e, e); in that of the Maize they are
zigzag (fig. 121, b, b) ; while in the garden Balsam, Madder, and
Fie. 1: the common Polypody, they are
1G. 123. . .
very irregular or sinuous (fig.
g g 122); and in the epidermis of
other plants we find them
square, rhomboid, &c.
Ordinarily in European plants
and in those generally of cold
and temperate climates, the epi-
Fig. i geonlon of thie leaf of dermis is formed of but one row
tie Maize showing theepitermis¢-4 of cells ; but in tropical plants
jecting hairs, g, g. we frequently find two, three, or
more rows of cells, by which
provision such plants are admirably adapted, as will be after-
wards explained, for growth in hot dry climates.
The upper walls of the epidermal cells are generally much
thickened and chemically altered, or cuticularised as it is termed
EPIDERMIS. 59
(see Cuticle), by which the cell-walls are rendered impervious
to moisture, and thus adapted to protect the more tender cells
beneath from an undue loss of moisture from the scorching heat
Fie. 124, Pre. 125;
Fig. 124. Vertical section through the leaf of a Banksia. a, a. Epidermis
with two rows of cells. c. Spongiform parenchyma, 6. Hairs which are
contained in little depressions on the under surface of the leaf, and at
whose base peculiar stomata are found. After Schleiden.— Fig. 125,
Vertical section through the leaf of Oleander, showing the epidermis, «,
composed of three layers of thick-sided cells, and placed above a compact
parenchyma of oblong cells, After Brongniart,
of the sun. This thickening of the upper walls of the epidermal
cells may be especially observed in Jeaves of a leathery or
hardened texture, as in those of the Oleander (jig. 125, a),
Aloes, Hoya (fig. 126, a), Box, and Holly, and in the succu-
lent green stems of the Cactacez (jig. 127, a).
Fie. 126. Hicai2%,
Fig. 126. Vertical section of the epidermis of Hoya carnosa treated with
caustic potash. a. The detached cuticle. 6. The thickened cuticularised
layers of the outer walls of the epidermal cells. After Mohl. Fig.
127. Vertical section through the epidermis of the stem of a Cactus, a.
The thickened cuticularised upper walls of the epidermal cells,
The epidermal cells are generally colourless, but in some
cases they contain coloured fluids, and very rarely chloro-
phyll; hence the green and other colours which leaves and
other organs assume are due to colouring matters of various
60 EPIBLEMA.—CUTICLE.
kinds which are contained in the cavities of the subjacent
parenchymatous cells, and which show through the transparent
epidermal cells. In the walls, however, of the epidermal cells
of many plants, waxy matter is contained ; in those of Chara
and Nitella; carbonate of lime; and in those of the species of
Equisetum, and of the Grasses generally, silica is met with in
such abundance that, if the organic matter be removed by the
agency of heat or acids, a perfect skeleton of the structure will
be obtained.
The epidermis covers all the young parts of plants which
are directly exposed to the air, except the stigma in Flowering
Plants, and it is in all cases absent from those
Fie, 128, which live under water. No true epidermis
is to be found in Thallophytes. The epider-
mis which at first covers the young stem and
branches of trees is replaced at a subsequent
period by the corky layer of the bark.
The roots of plants are invested by a
modified epidermal tissue to which the term
Epiblema has been given by Schleiden ; this
name is, however, now but rarely used. It
consists of cells with thin walls, without
stomata, but possessing cellular hair-like pro-
longations termed fibrils or root-hairs (fig. 128).
b. Cuticie.—This consists generally of a
thin transparent pellicle, which covers the
entire surface of the epidermal cells (figs. 120,
p, p, and 126, a) with the exception of the
openings called stomata (fig. 129); and it
Fig. 128. Fibrils or also forms a sheath over the hairs (fig. 129).
root-hairs on the Not unfrequently the cuticle becomes of
surface of a young : : : : =
root, considerable thickness, as in the epidermis
of the upper surface of the leaf of Cycas (fig.
130, a). The cuticle is formed on the outer walls of those cells
which are exposed to the chemical influences of air and light.
Fie. 129. Fre. 130,
Fig. 129, Cuticle of the Cabbage, showing that it is perforated by the
stomata, and forms sheaths over the hairs.——Fig. 130. Vertical section
through the epidermis, b, of Cycas revoluta, showing that itis covered bya
thickened cuticle, a. After Schleiden.
The cell-wall in such a position becomes greatly thickened and
altered in its texture ; so much so that the outer part is clearly
. STRUCTURE OF STOMATA. 61
defined from the inner cuticularised layers, and can be stripped
off as a distinct layer or cuticle (fig. 126, a).
c. Stomata or Stomates.—These are orifices situated between
the sides of some of the epidermal cells, and opening into the
intercellular cavities beneath, so as to allow a free communication
between the internal tissues and the external air (figs. 132, s, and
133, 8s). The orifices are surrounded by cells with thinner walls
and of a different form from those of the epidermis ; they also
usually contain some chlo-
rophyll grains. There are Fig. 181.
generally but two cells sur-
rounding the orifice, and
these are commonly of a
more or less semilunar form
(fig. 120), so that the whole
has some faint resemblance
to the lips and mouth of an
animal, and hence the name
of stoma applied to these
structures, from ord pa, a Hig. yas bp Becton of a portion of the
° ronda of Marchantia polymorpha. 9, J.
mouth. These bordering Stoma divided perpendicularly. h, h. Tiers
cells are called ‘stomatal of cells forming its walls, After Carpenter.
cells, ‘pore - cells,’ and
‘guard-cells,’ and have the power of opening or closing the
orifice which they surround according to circumstances, as will
be explained hereafter when treating of the functions of stomata
Fie. 132. Fic. 134. Fie. 135.
Fie. 133.
Fig. 132. Vertical section of the epidermis of Lewcadend7on decorum, showing,
e, e, the epidermal cells, with the stomatal cells, s, with elevated margins,
m, m.——Fig. 133. Vertical section of the epidermis of the Iris. s. The
stoma. e,ée. Epidermis. p. Parenchyma beneath the epidermis. J. In-
tercellular space into which the stoma opens. Fig. 134. Epidermis of
Rumex acetosa, with rounded stomata, a—-Fig. 135. Square stoma, a,
of Yucca gloviosa.
in the part devoted to the Physiology of Plants. Instead of two
stomatal cells, we sometimes, although bué rarely, find four, or
even more; thus, in some of the Liverworts, the stomata are
rounded apertures between the epidermal cells, surrounded by
62 FORMS, ARRANGEMENT, AND NUMBER OF STOMATA.
three or more tiers of stomatal cells, each tier being itself com-
posed of four or five cells, the whole forming a kind of funnel
or chimney (fig. 131).
Upon making a vertical section through a stomate we usually
find that the stomatal cells are placed nearly or quite on a level
with those of the epidermis. In other cases, however, and
especially when situated upon leaves of a leathery or hardened
texture, the stomatal cells are below the epidermal ones, while
in some rare instances, again, they are above them.
The stomata vary in form and position in different plants,
and in different parts of the same plant, but they are always the
same in any particular part of a plant.
The more common form is the oval
(figs. 120, s, s, and 121, a, a); but in
other instances they are round (fig.
134, a); and in some cases square (fig.
135, a). They are either placed singly
upon the epidermis, at regular (jig.
120) or irregular intervals (fig. 134) ;
or in clusters, the intervening epider-
mis having none (jig. 156). The former
is the more common arrangement. In
the Banksia we find little cavities be-
Fig. 136. Epidermis of the leaf Ne Heater ea me be, = er coe:
AF ok Gucd * Saritraoe, Luce Of the leaves which contain a num-
dissin cubensis eee ber of hairs (fig. 124, b), and between
s, with intervening spaces, them, at their base, very small stomata.
é, €, in which they are ab- °
ee 4 The number of stomata also varies
considerably. The following table will —
give some idea of their abundance in leaves, and it will be ob-
served that the number of stomata is usually greatest in those
leaves where they are entirely absent from their upper surface.
Fie. 136.
Stomata in one square inch of surface.
Upper surface Lower surface
Mezereon ; : none 4,000"
Peony . : none 13,790
Vine. ; , none 13,600
Olive . : , none 57,600
Holly: - : none 63,600
Laurustinus . ; none 90,000
Cherry-Laurel ' none 90,000
Tilae: « , : none 160,000
Hydrangea . : none 160,000
Mistletoe ; ; 200 200
Tradescantia . : 2,000 2,000
House Leek . .», 10,74) 6,000
Garden Flag . . 11,572 11,572
APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS.——HAIRS OR TRICHOMES. 63
Upper surface Lower surface
Be) ye 2 gs 25,000 20,000
Wucea,. . ; . 40,000 40,000
Clove Pink . - 98,500 38,500
Stomata are not found upon all plants. Thus they are
absent from all Thallophytes, but in the higher orders of Cor-
mopbytes, as the Ferns and their allies,,they abound, while in
the Liverworts and Mosses they are confined to certain parts.
They exist more or less upon all Flowering Plants and their
organs. But they are far more abundant upon those organs
which are green ; thus they are found especially upon leaves, as
we have seen, but more particularly on their under surface.
On the floating leaves of water plants, as in the Water-lily, how-
ever, we find them only on the upper surface ; while in vertical
leaves the stomata are equally distributed on the two surfaces.
They occur also on the young green stem and branches of plants ;
and on the parts of the flower. In those plants which have no
foliage leaves, as the Cactacex, they abound upon the green
succulent stems. They are commonly only found on those parts
which are furnished with a true epidermis, and are accordingly
absent, as a rule, from roots and all submersed parts of plants.
Sachs and others have pointed out that there is a connexion be-
tween the distribution of stomata on leaves and their protection
from wet by the wax-like coating commonly known as ‘ bloom;’
and recently this has formed the subject of an interesting series
of investigations by Francis Darwin (see Journ. Linn. Soc.
(Bot.), vol. xxii. p. 99).
5. APPENDAGES OF THE EpimpERMIS.—Upon the surface of
the epidermis, or in the sub-epidermal tissue, there are fre-
quently to be found certain structures consisting of one or more
cells of different forms, variously combined, and containing
various substances. These are termed, collectively, Appendages
of the Epidermis; and, as their name implies, they have no
connexion with the fibro-vascular tissue of the leaves, branches,
or stem. We shall treat of them under the two heads of Hairs
and Glands ; although in many cases we can draw no distinct
line of demarcation between these structures. ;
(1.) Hairs or Trichomes.—These are thread-like prolonga-
tions externally of the epidermal cells covered by cuticle (jigs.
123, g, g, and 129). They may either consist of a single cell,
when they are called simple hairs (figs. 137-141), or of several
cells, when they are termed compound (figs. 144 and 145).
Simple hairs may be undivided (jig. 137), or forked (fig. 138),
or branched (jig. 139). A beautiful form of simple hair is
that called stellate, as seen in Deutzia scabra, Alyssum, &c.
(figs. 140 and 141) ; this is formed by a cell dividing horizontally
into a number of parts which are arranged in a star-like form.
Compound hairs may be also undivided, as is more frequently
64 FORMS OF HAIRS.
the case (figs. 144 and 145), or branched (figs. 142 and 143).
The component cells of compound hairs may be also variously
arranged, and thus give a variety of forms to such hairs. Com-
monly their cells are placed end to, end in a single row, so that
the hairs assume a more or less cylindrical form ; but when the
component cells are contracted at the points where they come
in contact, they become moniliform or necklace-shaped ( figs. 144
and 145). When the cells below are larger than those above, so
that the hairs gradually taper upwards to a point, they become
conical ; or when gradually larger from the base to the apex, the
WiGs iol. Fia. 138. Fie. 139.
} \ Fic. 140.
2 “al ii
i
Fia. 141. ra
AANA
Ca i
it
Fic. 142. Fia. 143.
Fig. 137. Simple unbranched hair of the common Cabbage.——Fig. 138.
Forked hairof Whitlow-grass (Draba).——Fgs. 139, 140. Branched stellate
hairs of Alyssum. Fig. 141. Stellate hairs from Althea officinalis.—
Fig. 142. Branched hair of a species of Marrubium.——Fig. 143. Branched
hair of Alternanthera axillaris. From Henfrey.
hairs are clavate or club-shaped (fig. 146); or when suddenly
enlarged at their apex into a rounded head, capitate (fig. 147).
When the terminal cell of a hair is terminated by a hook on
one side pointing downwards, such hairs are termed wneimate or
hooked (fig. 148) ; or if ending in two or more hooks at the
apex, they are glochidiate or barbed (fig. 149). Hairs, again, in-
stead of being erect, or placed obliquely upon the epidermis,
may develop horizontally in a more or less circular manner, and
form stellate hairs, as in the Ivy (fig. 150) ; or two of the com-
ponent cells may develop in opposite directions from another
ae
cell raised above the level of the epidermis, so as to produce
what is termed a shield-like or peltate hair (fig. 151). Many of
the above forms occur equally in simple hairs as in compound
ones, and the figures are taken indifferently from either kind.
Many hairs have one or more spiral fibres in their interior, as
those on the testa of the seeds of Acanthodiwm, and of the outer
coat (epicarp) of the fruit of certain species of Salvia, as in that
of Salvia Horminum (fig. 152).
When the divisions of stellate hairs are closely connected by
cuticle or otherwise, they form scales or scwrf ; such epidermal
appendages are, therefore, simply modifications of stellate hairs.
A scale may be defined as a flattened membranous more or less
rounded plate of parenchymatous tissue, attached by its centre,
Fic. 144. Fie. 146. Fre. 147. Fia. 148.
Fic. 145. Fie. 149. Fie. 150.
Fie. 151.
Fig. 144. Moniliform hair of the Virginian Spiderwort (Tradescantia vir-
ginica).——Fig. 145. Moniliform hair of the Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis
Jalapa).— Fig. 146. Clavate hairs. Fig. 147. Capitate hairs. —— Fig.
148. Hooked hairs. Fig. 149. Glochidiate or barbed hairs. Fig. 150.
Stellate hair from the Ivy.—Fig. 151. Peltate hairfrom Malpighia urens.
and presenting a more or less irregular margin from the unequal
prolongation of its component cells (fig. 153). These scales are
particularly abundant on the surface of some plants, to which
they communicate a scurfy or silvery appearance, as in the
Hleagnus. Such a surface is said to be lepidote, from lepis, the
Greek term for a scale.
Other modifications of hairs which are allied to the above,
are the ramenta or ramentaceous hairs so frequently found upon
the stem and petioles of Ferns. These consist of a layer of cells
(fig. 155) combined so as to form a brownish flattened scale
F
66 SETZ.—PRICKLES. —EMERGENCES.
attached by its base to the surface of the epidermis from whence
it grows (fig. 154). .
When the hairs are composed of cells which are short, and
have their internal walls thickened so that they form stiffened
processes, they are then called sete or bristles, and the surface is
termed setose or setaceous. These, slightly modified, form prickles,
which may be defined as large multicellular hairs springing
Fie. 152, Fie. 153, Fie. 155;
ws FOOSE
ELIAS Lewes
7 ace y
Fig. 152. Hairs, each having a spira! fibre in its interior, from the epicarp
of the fruit of Salria Horminum.—Fig. 153, Scale of the Oleaster
(Elcagnus).—Fig. 154. Ramenta from the petiole of a Fern. Fig, 155.
Ramentaceous hair, showing its component cells.—Fig. 156. Prickles
on a Rose-branch,
from the epidermis and layer of cells beneath, the walls of
which are hardened by the deposition of lignin, and which
terminate in a sharp point (fig. 156). They are especially abun-
dant on the stems of the Rose and Bramble. Prickles and some
other allied structures, as warts, &c., which arise from the sub-
epidermal tissue as well as the epidermis, have been termed Hmer-
genes. They should be carefully distinguished from spines, to be
hereafter alluded to when speaking of branches. (See page 107.)
LYMPHATIC AND GLANDULAR HAIRS. 67
The ordinary hairs above described are either empty, or they
contain fluid of a watery nature, which may be colourless or
coloured. Such have been therefore termed by some botanists
lymphatic hairs, to distinguish them from other hair-like appen-
dages which are filled with special secretions, and hence have
been called glandular hairs. The latter will be again alluded to
under glands, to which variety of epidermal appendage they
properly belong.
Hairs occur upon various parts of plants, and, according to
their abundance and nature, they give varying appearances to
their surfaces, all of which are distinguished in practical Botany
by special names. The more common position of hairs is upon
HIG. 157. Rie. 158; Fria. 159.
Le
: 7 SS
Fig. 157. a, Cotton. 6, Fiax fibres (liber-
cells)——F'ig. 158. Pistil of the Bell-
flower (Campanula), with its style
y covered with collecting hairs. Fig.
159. Magnified representation of two of
the collecting hairs of the Bell-flower.
a, The hair in its normal position. b. The
hair with the upper part partially drawn
within its lower. From Schleiden.
the leaves, stem, and young branches, but they may also be
found on the flower-stalks, bracts, parts of the flower, the fruit,
and the seed. The substance called cowhage consists of the
hairs covering the legumes of Mucuna pruriens ; while cotton
is the hair covering the seeds of the species of Gossypium.
Cotton may be readily distinguished under the microscope
from the liber-cells already described (page 50), from the cell
of which it is formed, not possessing any stiff thickening layers,
and thus collapsing when dry, so that it then resembles a more
or less twisted band with thickened edges (fig. 157, a); while
liber-cells, such as those forming flax fibres, from having thick
walls, always maintain their original cylindrical form and taper-
ing extremities (jig. 157, b).
On young roots we find also cells prolonged beyond the sur-
face which are of the nature of hairs, and have therefore been
termed root-hairs or fibrils (fig. 128) (see Roots). The hairs
F2
68 COLLECTING HAIRS.—GLANDS.
which occur on the parts of the flower frequently serve an in-
direct part in the process of fertilisation by collecting the pollen
which falls from the anthers ; hence such are termed collecting
hairs (fig. 158). The collecting hairs, which occur on the style
of the species of Campanula ( jig. 159, a) are peculiar from their
upper end, b, retracting within their lower, at the period of fer-
tilisation.
Fic. 160. Fie. 161. Fie. 162. Fie. 163:
Ny @ GR
Fig. 160. Stalked unicellular gland of Salvia.—Fig. 161. Stalked unicel-
lular glands of Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus).—Fig. 162. Stalked
many-celled gland of Ailanthus glandulosa. From Meyen.— Fig, 163.
Stalked many-celled gland from Begonia platanifolia. From Meyen.
(2.) Glands.—This name properly applies only to cells which
secrete a peculiar matter, but it is also vaguely given to some
other epidermal and sub-epidermal appendages. Glands have
been variously arranged by authors ; thus, by some, into exter-
Fic. 164. Fie. 165. Fic. 166. Fic. 167.
|
Fig. 164, Stalked gland of Snapdragon, terminated at its summit by two
secreting cells.— Fig. 165. Stalked gland with four secreting cells at its
apex. From Meyen. Fig. 166. Sessile many-celled gland.— Fig. 167.
One-celled sessile glunds, termed papule or papille.
nal and internal ; by others, into simple and compound ; while
others, again, have adopted different modes of arrangement.
We divide them into external and internal.
a. External Glands.—These may be again divided into stalked,
and sessile or not stalked. The stalked glands are those which are
frequently called glandular hairs (see page 67). They are either
formed of a single cell, dilated at its apex by the peculiar fluid
.
SESSILE GLANDS.—STINGS. 69
it secretes (figs. 160 and 161), or of two (fig. 164), or more ( fig.
165) secreting cells placed at the end of a hair ; or they congiat
of a mass of secreting cells (figs. 162 and 163).
Sessile Glands present various appearances, and consist, like
the former, of either one secreting cell (fig. 167), or of two, or
more (fig. 166). Those with one secreting cell placed above the
level of the epidermis are frequently termed papille (fig. 167) ;
and it is to their presence upon the surface of the Ice-plant
(Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) that the peculiar crystalline
appearance of that plant is due. When sessile glands are com-
posed of cells containing solid secretions so that they form
hardened spherical or other shaped appendages upon the surface
of the epidermis, they are termed warts ; these are now, however,
commonly placed among the Emergences (see page 66).
Fic. 168. Fia. 169.
(>
Fig. 168. Sting of a species of Malpighia.
e. Epidermis. 06, 6, g. Glandular appa-
ratus. Fig. 169. Sting of the common
Nettle (Urtica dioica), consisting of a
single cell with a bulbous expansion at
its base, 6, and terminated above by a
swelling, s, and containing a granular
irritating fluid, 7, 7 we. Epidermal
cells surrounding its base,
When a sessile gland contains an irritating fluid, and is
prolonged above into one or more hair-like processes, which
are placed horizontally (jig. 168), or vertically (jig. 169), we
have a sting formed. Stings are sometimes arranged under the
head of stalked glands ; we place them here because their secre-
ting apparatus is at the base, and not at the apex, as in stalked
glands.
In the Nettle (fig. 169), the sting consists of a single cell,
enlarged at its base, b, by the irritating fluid f, Ff, which it con-
tains, and tapering upwards. to near the apex, when it again
expands into a rounded head, s. The enlarged base is closely
invested by a dense layer of epidermal cells, we, which forms
a kind of case toit. In touching a nettle lightly, the knob-like
head, s, is broken off, and the sharp point of the sting then left
enters the skin, while the irritating fluid is pushed up at the
same time into the wound by the pressure occasioned by the
70 INTERNAL GLANDS.
elastic force of the surrounding epidermal cells, we. If anettle,
instead of being thus touched lightly, be grasped firmly, the
sting becomes crushed, and as it cannot then penetrate the skin,
no irritation is produced. :
b. Internal Glands.—These are cavities containing secretions
situated below the epidermis, and surrounded by a compact
layer of secreting cells (fig. 170, J, g). They are closely allied
in their nature to receptacles of secretion (see page 72), from
Fic. 170. Fie. 171.
a a BB 5588 SPH TAIN IO INA
Eee
Qos ~ Vf Was
0UG ay
orn | sb y) 4
mA r
VSI 6
Aso ees
fa ESSERE
oPSos0
Fig.170, Internal gland from the leaf of the common Rue (Ruta graveolens).
g. Gland surrounding a cavity, /, and itself surrounded by the epidermis,
e,and the ordinary cells of the leaf, we.——Fig. 171. 7, 7. Internal glands
from the rind of the Orange.
which, in fact, in many cases, it is difficult to distinguish them,
and amongst which, therefore, they are frequently placed. In
some cases they are of small size, as those in the leaves of the
Rue (fig. 170, g, 1), Myrtle, Orange, and St. John’s Wort. In
these leaves they may be readily observed by holding them be-
tween the eye and the light, when they appear as little trans-
parent spots ; hence such leaves are termed dotted. This dotted
Fie. 172. Fie. 173. Fie. 174.
Fig. 172. Petal of a species of Ranureulus with a nectary at its base,
covered by a scale. Fig. 173. Petal of Crown Imperial (#7itillaria im-
perialis), with a nectariferous gland at its base. Fig. 174, Air cavities
from the stem of Limnocharis Plumieri.
«
transparent appearance is due to the oily matters they con-
tain refracting the light in a different manner to that of the
other parts of the leaf. In other instances these glands are of
large size (fig. 171, 7, 7), and project more or less beyond the
surface in the form of little excrescences, as those in the
rind of the Orange, Lemon, and Citron. Internal glands are
NECTARIES.—INTERCELLULAR SYSTEM. 71
very common in many other plants besides those already men-
tioned: thus in all the Labiate Plants, as Mint, Marjoram,
Thyme, Rosemary, Sage, &c. ; and it is to the presence of
the secretions they contain that such plants owe their value
as articles of domestic economy, or as perfumes, or medicinal
agents.
Holding a sort of intermediate position between the internal
and external glands as above described, are the true nectaries
of flowers, which being strictly of a glandular nature will be
most properly alluded to here under the name of nectariferous
glands. ‘They are well seen at the base of the petals of the
species of Ranunculus (fig. 172) and in the Crown Imperial
(fig. 173). These glands consist of a pore or depression into
which a honey-like fluid or nectar is secreted, or rather ex-
creted, by the surrounding cells. The tissue of the stigma of
Flowering Plants is also covered by a viscid secretion or
excretion at certain periods, and may be considered therefore
as of a glandular nature. The surface of the ovary and other
parts are also sometimes more or less covered by a similar sac-
charine fluid, and are then described as nectariferous.
When glands or other receptacles containing peculiar secre-
tions arise from the separation of uninjured cells from one
another, they are termed schizogencus ; when from the absorption
of a mass of tissue, lysigenous (fig. 171, 7, 7).
6. INTERCELLULAR System. — Having now described the
different kinds of cells, and the modifications which they
undergo when combined so as to form the tissues, we have in the
next place to allude to certain cavities which are placed between
their walls, or produced by the destruction of some of their
component cells. These constitute the Intercellular System.
a. Intercellular Passages or Canals and Intercellular Spaces.—
The cells being, in the great majority of cases, bounded by
rounded surfaces, or by more or less irregular outlines, it must
necessarily happen that when they come in contact with one
another they can only touch at certain points, and therefore
interspaces will be left between them, the sizes of which will
vary, according to the greater or less roundness or irregularity
of their surfaces. When such spaces exist as small angular
canals running round the edges of the cells and freely commu-
nicating with one another, as is especially evident in round
or elliptical parenchyma (jig. 62), they are called intercellular
passages or canals ; but when they are of large size, as in stellate
or spongiform tissue, they are termed intercellular spaces (figs.
93 and 124, c). In most cases these spaces and canals are filled
with air, and when they occur in any organ exposed to the
atmosphere in which stomata are found, they always communi-
cate with them (fig. 132, 1), by which means a free passage is
kept up between the atmosphere and the air they themselves
contain.
72 RECEPTACLES OF SECRETION.
b. Air Cavities.—In water-plants the intercellular spaces are
frequently of large size, and bounded by a number of small cells
regularly arranged (jig. 174), by which they are prevented from
communicating with one another, or with the external air; they
are then commonly termed air cavities. In such plants these
cavities fulfil the important services of enabling them to float,
and of supplying their interior with air. In other instances we
find large air cavities, as in the stems of Grasses and Umbelli-
ferous plants, which have been formed by the destruction of their
internal tissues by the more rapid growth of the outer portions ;
these large cavities are termed lacunx, and appear to have no
special functions to perform.
c. Receptacles of Secretion.—In many plants, again, the in-
tercellular canals or spaces act as receptacles for the peculiar
secretions of the plant ; in which case they are termed Recep-
tacles of Secretion. In many instances these are closely allied
to the internal glands (figs. 170 and 171) already described,
and are frequently confounded with them ; indeed, some regard
them as highly developed forms of internal glands. These
receptacles vary much in form, but are usually more or less
BireAt7o-
fig. 175. Fruit of Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). A. Dorsalsurface. a.b.b.c. ¢
Primary ridges. 1, 2, 3, 4, Vittae. B. Horizontal section of the fruit.
The letters and figures refer to the same parts as in A. In Jig A. the
vitte are readily seen by noticing that they are shorter than, and alter-
nate with, the ridges, a, 6, b, ¢, c.
elongated. They are formed by certain cells separating from
each other as they are developed (schizogenous), by which means
canals and spaces of various kinds are formed in the surrounding
tissue. In the Coniferee they contain turpentine, and have
therefore been termed turpentine vessels. In the plants of this
order they occur especially in the wood (fig. 186, la) and bark :
those in the wood forming elongated tubular passages. In the
pericarp of the fruit of Umbelliferous Plants they form the
receptacles of oil, which are commonly termed vitte ( Jig. 175,
1,2, 3,4, Aand B). The receptacles of secretion are found es-
pecially in certain orders of plants, to which from the nature of
THE STEM OR CAULOME. 73
their contents they communicate important properties. (See
also Laticiferous Vessels, page 57).
d. Intercellular Substance.—A peculiar substance which was
termed, from its position, intercellular substance, was formerly sup-
posed to be universally distributed between the walls of the cells,
glueing them together as it were ; and in some plants occurring
in great abundance, as in many Alge, the horny albumen or
endosperm of some seeds, and in the collenchymatous cells of
the common Beet, Begonia (fig. 95, cl, cl), &c. But in all these
cases this appearance is due to alterations and changes which
have taken place in the cellulose forming the cell-wall and in the
contents of the cell. Thus, in the Sea Wrack, it is caused by
the enormous imbibition of water, which makes the outer part
of the cell-wall swell up, and eventually to be converted into
mucilage. Hence this special intercellular substance does not
exist in plants.
CHAPTER 3.
ORGANS OF NUTRITION.
HAvine now considered the elementary structures of plants, we
proceed to describe in detail the various compound organs
which they form by their combination. These, as already
noticed (page 13), are arranged in two divisions, namely: 1.
Organs of Nutrition; and 2. Organs of Reproduction. The root,
stem, and leaves form those of nutrition, and the flower and
its parts those of reproduction. Upon the whole, it is most
convenient to commence our notice of the organs of nutrition
with the stem.
Section 1. THe Srem orn CAULOME.
The stem may be defined as that part of the axis which at
its first development in the embryo takes an opposite direction
to the root, seeking the light and air, and hence termed the
ascending axis, and bearing on its surface the leaves and other
leafy appendages (jig. 20, ¢). This definition will, in numerous
instances, only strictly apply to astem at its earliest development,
for it frequently happens that, soon after its first appearance,
instead of continuing to take an upward direction into the air,
it will grow along the ground, or even bury itself beneath the
surface, and thus by withdrawing itself from the light and air
it resembles, in such respects, the root, with which organ such
stems are, therefore, ordinarily confounded. In these cases,
however, a stem is at once distinguished from a root by bearing
74 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS.—EXOGENOUS,
scales or cataphyllary leaves, each of which has also the power
of forming a leaf-bud in its axil. The presence of leaves with
leaf-buds in their axils is therefore the essential characteristic of
a stem, in contradistinction to a root, in which such structures
are always absent.
All Flowering plants, from the mode in which their axis is
developed from the embryo in germination (page 13), must ne-
cessarily have a stem, although such stem may be very short.
Those which have this organ clearly evident are called caulescent,
while those in which it is very short or inconspicuous are termed
acaulescent or stemless. In Flowerless plants the stem is not
necessarily present; thus it is absent in all Thallophytes, as
already noticed (page 7).
1. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE STEM IN GENERAL.—A stem
in its simplest condition consists merely of parenchymatous cells,
with occasionally a central vertical cord of slightly elongated,
somewhat thickened cells. Examples of such a stem may be
commonly seen in Mosses (jigs. 9 and 10). Such a structure
however would be unsuited to plants except those of low organ-
isation, and we accordingly find, as a rule, that in all plants
above the Mosses the stem is made up partly of parenchymatous
cells, and partly of woody tissue and vessels of different kinds,
by which the requisite strength and toughness are produced.
In such stems therefore we distinguish two systems as already
noticed (page 57), namely, a Parenchymatous or Cellular, and a
Fibro-vascular ; and as the fibro-vascular tissue is arranged in
longitudinal bundles in the midst of the parenchymatous, it has
also been termed the Vertical or Longitudinal System, while the
parenchymatous has been called the Horizontal System.
In their internal structure the stems of plants are sub-
ject to numerous modifications, all of which may be, however,
in their essential particulars, reduced to three great divisions,
two of which are found in the Phanerogamia, and one in the
Cryptogamia. As illustrations of the two former, we may
take an Oak and a Palm stem; of the latter, that of a Tree-
fern.
Upon making a transverse section of an Oak (fig. 176), we
observe that the two systems of which the stem is composed are
so arranged as to exhibit a distinct separation of parts. Thus
we have a central one, m, called the pith ; an external one, ¢ e, or
bark ; an intermediate wood, r, arranged in concentric layers
or annual rings ; and little rays, b, connecting the pith and the
bark, termed medullary rays. Such a stem grows essentially in
diameter by annual additions of new wood on the outside of the
previous wood, and hence it is called Exogenous (from two Greek
words signifying outside growers).
In a Palm stem no such distinction of parts can be noticed
(fig. 177), but upon making a transverse section we observe a
mass of parenchyma, m, distributed throughout it, and the
ENDOGENOUS.—ACROGENOUS. 79
fibro-vascular system arranged vertically in this in the form of
separate bundles, f, which have no tendency to form concentric
Fia. 176. Fie. 177.
iar)
“ON
Zi Pra
a eTtitdl
vi
CO
AE
o oO:
ole
=A yiseoe
x
. 399058
Fig. 176. Transverse section of an Oak-branch six years old. m. The me-
dulla or pith. c,c. The bark. 7. The wood, arranged in concentric layers.
b, Medullary rays. —— Fig. 177. Transverse section of the stem of a Palm.
m. The parenchyma. j.The fibro-vascular bundles. 0, The rindor false
bark,
layers of wood ; the whole being covered externally by a fibrous
and parenchymatous layer, b, which, as will be hereafter seen,
is formed essentially by the ends
of the fibro-vascular bundles, and Fic. 178.
which is termed the false bark or
rind. This structure is called En-
dogenous (from two Greek words
signifying inside growers), as such
stems grow by the addition of
new fibro-vascular bundles which
are at first directed towards their
interior. These two structures,
the Exogenous and Endogenous,
are characteristic of Flowering
plants.
If we now turn our attention
to the Cryptogamia, and make a
transverse section of a Tree-fern
(fig. 178), we observe the centre, Fig, bes ce a penton of ie
m, to be either hollow or filled tnatous cells, which are wanting in
with parenchyma, the fibro-vas- the centre. v, ¥, v. Fibro-vascular
cular bundles being arranged in Puniles. e. Rind.
irregular sinuous plates around it,
v, v, v, and forming a continuous or interrupted circle near the
circumference, which consists of a rind, e, inseparable from the
wood beneath. This structure is termed Acrogenous (from two
Greek words signifying swmmit growers), because the fibro-vascu-
lar bundles of such a stem grow oniy by additions to their apex.
76 INDEFINITE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES.
The characteristic peculiarities thus found to exist in the in-
ternal appearance and growth of these three kinds of stem are
due to corresponding differences in their component parts, or, as
they are commonly called, their fibro-vascular or vascular bundles.
Thus, the fibro-vascular bundle of an Exogenous stem (fig. 179)
consists in the first year of growth of a layer of spiral vessels
(s, s’, and fig. 180, sv), surrounding the pith (p’, and fig. 180, p) ;
on the outside of this layer there are subsequently developed, in
perennial plants, pitted vessels (p, p, and fig. 180, d) and wood-
cells (w’, w, and jig. 180, w), which together form the wood. But
in herbaceous plants annular and reticulated vessels are also found
Fie. 179;
c SU. SE ph
im
ee
LD
Has
soir
v2
%
/ “09, 2 )
ral
5 is i oa i
yy . i}
ae \, |
‘ ae h
Fy ae: 4 et
Weer 3
Lat x, 5
agate eee:
Natal eres
bear aon aaa e | |
Fig.179. Radial vertical section though an indefinite fibro-vascular bundle
from the stem of the Sunflower. p’. Pith. s,s’. Spiral vessels. w’, w. Wood-
cells. p, p. Pitted vessels. c. Cambium. st, st. Sieve tubes. ph. Liber-
cells, m. Bundle-sheath, CO’. Cellular layers of the bark. After Prantl.
intermixed with the wocd-cells. The wood is covered externally
by a layer of vitally active or generating cells (figs. 179, c, and
180, c), called the cambiwm (see page 88), on the outside of which
are the liber (figs. 179, st, ph, and 180, 1), the cellular parts of
the bark (figs. 179, C’, and 180, ¢ e), and the epidermis (jig.
180, ¢). The different kinds of tissue which are placed within
the cambium, or cambium layer as it is frequently termed, form
what has been called the «xylem or woody portion of the bundle,
and those outside the cambium forming the liber, that portion
which has been termed the phloém; so that the fibro-vascular
bundle has the pith (jig. 180, p), on its inner surface, and is
covered externally by the cellular layers, ce, of the bark. In the
stem of some plants, as in the above, a single special layer of cells,
Si ee
DEFINITE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. ri
termed the bundle-sheath (fig. 179, 1), forms the innermost layer
of the cellular portions of the bark, and thus investing the fibro-
vascular bundle. In these bundles the growth of the different
parts is progressive, the inner part of each being first formed,
and growth gradually proceeding to the outside, and as they
always contain a cambium layer they are capable of further
growth, and thus form periodically new layers of xylem and
phloém, and are therefore called indefinite or open fibro-vascular
bundles. It also necessarily follows from the cambium layer
Fie. 180. Fie. 181.
/
Fig. 180. Transverse section of an indefinite fibro-vascular bundle of an Exo-
genous stem (Melon), p. Pith. sv. Spiral vessels. m7. Medullary ray.
w. Wood-cells. d. Pitted vessels. c. Cambium layer. J. Liber or phloém.
ce. Cellular portions of the bark. e. Epidermal tissue. Fig. 181. Trans-
verse section of a definite fibro-vascular bundle of an Endogenous stem
(Palm), the upper portion being directed to the centre. w. Wood-cells.
sv. Spiral vessels. c. Cambium-like cells. d. Pitted vessels. p. Paren-
chyma (ground tissue), surrounding the bundle. 7, Liber-cells,
being placed between the xylem and the phloém, that the layers
of increase to these parts of the bundle are in continuity with
the previous ones.
In Endogenous stems the fibro-vascular bundles (fig. 181)
consist internally of wood-cells, w, and spiral vessels, sv; on the
outside of which other spiral vessels are formed, as well as
pitted, d, and other vessels; these are succeeded by a number
of delicate parenchymatous cells, c, corresponding to cambium
cells, which are gradually converted into thick-walled prosenchy-
matous cells, /, resembling those of the liber of Exogenous
stems, together with some sieve-tubes ; and the whole bundle is
surrounded by parenchyma, p. In this case the development
of the fibro-vascular bundles, hke those of Exogenous stems, is
78 EXOGENOUS OR DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM.
gradual, the inner part of each being first formed, and growth
proceeding progressively to the outside: hence these also are
progressive bundles; but, as such bundles have no special layer
of generating cells resembling the cambium layer, no additions
to them can be made in successive seasons, as is the case in the in-
definite fibro-vascular bundles of Exogenous stems. Hence the
new bundles are not developed in continuity with the old, but
remain distinct and of limited size, and are therefore named
definite or closed fibro-vascular bundles,
In Acrogenous stems the jfibro-vascular bundles are chiefly
made up of vessels of the scalariform, annular, or spiral type,
according to the different orders of Cormophytes from whence
they have been derived; these are surrounded by delicate
tubular cells, and the whole is enclosed by a firm layer of
parenchymatous cells the walls of which have undergone a
thickening and hardening process, and to which the name of
sclerenchyma has been given, and forming what has been called
the bundle-sheath. Such bundles only grow by additions to
their summit ; and as these bundles, like those of Endogenous
stems, have no special layer of cambium cells, they are also said
to be closed or definite.
The distinctive appearances and modes of growth which we
have thus seen to occur in the stems of the two Flowering
Plants above noticed are also accompanied by certain differences
in the structure of their embryo. Thus plants with Exogenous
stems have an embryo with two cotyledons (figs. 16, ¢, c, and
18, c, c); those with Endogenous stems have but one cotyledon
in their embryo (fig. 19, c). Hence Exogenous stems are also
termed Dicotyledonous ; and Endogenous stems Monocotyledon-
ous. For reasons which we shall describe hereafter, the latter
terms are in some cases to be preferred to the former. In the
succeeding pages we shall use them indiscriminately. Acro-
genous stems are also sometimes termed Cryptogamous, because
they are only found in Flowerless plants. With these general
remarks on the internal structure of the three kinds of stems
we now proceed to describe them respectively in detail.
A. ExoGENnous or DicoryLeponous StTEM.—AIll the trees
and large shrubs of this country, and with rare exceptions those
of temperate and cold climates, are exogenous in their growth.
In warm and tropical climates such plants occur associated with
those possessing endogenous and acrogenous structure; but
Dicotyledonous plants are far the most abundant even in these
parts of the world.
In the embryo state, the Exogenous stem is entirely com-
posed of parenchyma, But as soon as growth commences, some
of its parenchymatous cells become developed into vessels and
wood-cells, so as to form the indefinite fibro-vascular bundles
which are characteristic of such a stem. ‘These woody portions
(fig. 182, t) are at first separated from each other by large
PARTS OF AN EXOGENOUS OR DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 79
intervening spaces of parenchyma, but as growth proceeds they
continue to enlarge, while at the same time new fibro-vascular
elements are developed between them, so that they ulti-
mately form at the end of the first
year’s growth a ring of vessels and
wood-cells round the central mass of
parenchyma, m, interrupted only at
certain points by projections of this
parenchyma in the form of radiating
lines, r. This ring is also surrounded
by an external layer, b, of parenchy-
matous and liber tissues, which is
connected with the central parenchy-
ma by the radiating lines, r, already
alluded to. The stem then presents
the following parts (jig. 182): 1. A
central mass of parenchyma, m,
which is called the Medulla or Pith ;
2. Aninterrupted sheath of spiral ves-
sels, t, called the Medullary sheath ;
3. An interrupted ring of wood-
cells and vessels, forming the Wood ;
4. A layer of very delicate thin-
walled cells, the Cambiwm or Cam-
Fre. 182.
Fig. 182. Transverse section of the
first year’s stem of an Exogenous
or Dicotyledonous stem. m. Pith.
r. Medullary rays. ¢. Spiral
vessels forming the medu'lary
sheath on the outside of which
are the other elements of the
wood and the liber. 0, Cellular
layers of the bark,
biwm layer; 5. Radiating lines, r, connecting the pith with
the cambium layer and bark, the Medullary rays; and 6. The
Bark, b, a mass of parenchyma surrounding the whole stem,
Fia. 183.
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fio § Woke. tm
Fig. 183. Transverse section from the centre to the circumference of the
stem of the Maple, three years old, m. Pith. ¢. Spiral vessels. 4, v, v.
Pitted vessels. f, 7, 7. Wood-cells.
c. Cambium or cambium layer. s.
Corky layer; within which may be observed the other cortical layers,
marked / pl, p l, p l.
me. Newly forming bark. The figures 1, 2, 3, refer
to the three successive years’ growth of the wood.
and containing in its interior liber-cells, &c., and invested on
its onter surface by the Epidermis.
The stems of plants which live more than one year, as those
80 EXOGENOUS STEM.—PITH.
of trees and shrubs, at first resemble those which are herbaceous
or die yearly, except that the wood in such plants is generally
firmer and in larger proportion. As growth proceeds in the
second year, a new ring of wood is formed on the outside of
the one of the previous year (fig. 183, 2), while at the same
time a new fibrous layer is added to the inside of the bark, /.
These layers are developed out of the cells of the cambium
layer, already alluded to as being situated between the xylem.
and the phloém of the indefinite fibro-vascular bundles which
form the stems of Exogenous plants (figs. 179, c, and 180, c).
The medullary rays (fig. 185, A, 7, 1), at the same time increase
by addition to their outside, and thus continue to keep up the
connexion between the pith and the bark. In_ succeeding
years we have in hike manner new layers of wood and liber,
one of each, as a rule, for every year’s growth (fig. 183, 3), while
the medullary rays also continue to grow
Fia. 184. from within outwards. Hach succeeding
year’s growth is therefore essentially a re-
petition of that of the first year, except as
regards the pith and spiral vessels ; the former
of which does not increase in size after the
first year, and the latter are never repeated,
so that in old stems we have no more dis-
tinct regions than in those of the first year.
We have consequently in all Exogenous
stems the following parts, namely, pith,
medullary sheath, wood, medullary rays, cam-
bium layer, and bark—which we shall now
describe in the order in which they are placed.
1. Pith or Medulla (figs. 182, m, and 185,
B, a, a).—This consists essentially of paren-
chyma, and it forms a more or less cylin-
drical or angular column which is situated
commonly at, or towards, the centre of the
Fig. 184. Young stem. As a general rule the pith is not
branch of Walnut continued into the root, but it is always in
Cae connexion directly with the terminal bud
the discoid pith. of the stem, and also at first indirectly by
the medullary rays with all the lateral leaf-
buds ; as the latter, however, continue to develop, their con-
nexion with the central pith is cut off, as will be explained
hereafter in speaking of their structure and origin. The paren-
chyma of which the pith is composed is generally that kind
which is known as regular (fig. 65), so that when a section is
made of it, and examined microscopically, it presents an hex-
agonal (figs. 66 and 185, B, a, a) or polyhedral appearance.
In the earliest stages of the plant’s existence the whole of it
consists of parenchyma ; and out of this tissue, by the differen-
tiation of special cells, the more elaborate spiral and other
MEDULLARY SHEATH.—WOOD OR XYLEM. 81
vessels, and wood-cells are developed. As, however, these
elements of the fibro-vascular bundles increase in number,
they encroach upon the parenchyma, and thus circumscribing
the central portion till it assumes the appearance of a central
continuous column or pith (jig. 182, m), filling the interior of the
stem, and giving off the medullary rays, 7, as flattened plate-like
processes which connect the pith with the cellular layers of the
bark, b. That portion of the parenchyma which thus remains,
including the pith, medullary rays, and cellular layers of the
bark, is called the fundamental or ground tissue.
Instead of continuing to form an uninterrupted column, the
pith, in after years, owing to the external parts growing rapidly,
becomes more or less broken up ; and even in many herbaceous
plants, such as the Hemlock and others, which grow with great
rapidity, it is almost entirely destroyed, at an early period of
the plant’s life, merely remaining in the form of ragged portions
attached to the interior of the stem ; and thus large central air-
cavities or lacunz are formed. In some plants, such as the
Walnut (fig. 184) and Jessamine, the pith is broken up regularly
into horizontal cavities separated only by thin discs of its sub-
stance. It is then termed discoid.
The diameter of the pith varies much in different plants.
Thus it is generally very small in hard-wooded plants, as in the
Ebony and Guaiacum ; while in soft-wooded plants, as the Elder
and Ricepaper Plant (Tetrapanaz (Aralia) papyrifera), it is large.
The diameter not only varies in different plants, but also in
different branches of the same plant ; but when once the ring of
wood of the first year is fully perfected, the pith which it sur-
rounds can no longer increase, and it accordingly remains of the
same diameter throughout the life of the plant.
The pith, as we have just seen, is essentially composed of
parenchyma. It also frequently contains laticiferous vessels, as
may be readily observed by breaking asunder a young branch of
the Fig-tree, when a quantity of milky juice at once oozes out
from their laceration.
2. The Medullary Sheath (jig. 185, B, d) consists of spiral
vessels which are situated on the innermost part of the wedge
of wood which forms the first year’s growth. These vessels do
not form a continuous sheath to the pith, but spaces are left be-
tween them, through which the medullary rays pass outwards
(fig. 182, t). As the spiral vessels are never repeated after the
first year’s growth, the medullary sheath is consequently the
only part of the stem in which they normally occur.
3. The Wood or Xylem.—This is situated between the pith
on its inside, and the bark on its outer surface (jig. 176, 7),
and it is separated into wedge-shaped bundles by the passage
through it of the medullary rays, b. We have seen that in the
first year’s growth of an exogenous stem the wood is deposited
G
$2 THE WOOD OR XYLEM.
in the form of an interrupted ring immediately surrounding the
pith (fig. 182, t). That portion of the ring which is first developed
consists, as we have also seen, chiefly of spiral vessels ( figs. 182, t,
183, t, and 185, B, d), which form the medullary sheath.
On the outside of the medullary sheath, the rg of wood
forming the first year’s growth (jig. 185, B, 1) consists of woody
tissue, c, among which are distributed, more or less abundantly,
some vessels, b, chiefly of the kind called pitted in perennial
plants ; although in herbaceous plants we have also annular and
Bre. S85; I h
aesstec
tPiLL pot
epeqeete
UU
i
at
ff
wvenanue
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eZ
ae
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Eh ES ‘oe Tht ) =!
aa Pee ed |
1
b alle «leo fac} EE: EE
Hae
! —- ; C. OF4
Rages
UO
pawkss
ile wllip cl? o
Fig. 185. Diagram showing the structure of an Exogenous stem three years
old. A. Transverse section. B. Vertical section. The figures 1, 2, 3,
refer to the years of growth of the wood, and the letters mark similar
parts in both sections. «a, a. Medulla or pith. d. Spiral vessels. 8, , 6.
Pitted vessels. ¢, c,c. Wood-cells. e. Cambium layer. 7. Inner layer of
bark or liber (phloém). g. Middle layer of bark. h. Outer layer of bark.
i, i. Medullary rays. After Carpenter.
other vessels. When the stem lasts more than one year a second
ring of wood is formed, as we have seen, from the cells of the
cambium layer which are placed on the outside of the first ring.
This second ring (fig. 185, 2) resembles in every respect that of
the first year, except that no medullary sheath is formed ; it
consists therefore entirely of woody tissue and pitted vessels,
c, b. In the third year of growth another zone of wood is
produced precisely resembling the second (fig. 185, 3), and the
same is the case with each succeeding annual ring as long as the
STRUCTURE OF WOOD IN GYMNOSPERMS. 83
plant continues to live. It is in consequence of each succeeding
layer of wood being thus deposited on the outside of those of
the previous years, that these stems are called exogenous. In
the stems of the Conifer and most other Gymnosperms, as those
of the Fir, Yew, and Cypress, the annual rings of wood which
are well marked (jig. 186), instead of being formed of ordinary
woody tissue, and pitted vessels, consist essentially of wood-
cells, with large bordered pits (see pages 44 and 50).
The pitted vessels, which as we have seen form an essential
portion of the annual layers of the wood of all exogenous stems,
except those of the Gymnospermia, as mentioned above, are so
large in the Oak, Ash, and other plants, that they may readily
be seen by the naked eye upon making a transverse section of
the wood of such trees ; and in all cases, upon examining under
the microscope a transverse slice of any common exogenous
stem, the pitted vessels may be at once distinguished from the
Fic. 186.
epee
peer aerate at
=, ~ = “cr ote see
cons SE
. See ae pee
ge
twee
oan
Std
Fig. 186. Transverse section of the stem of a Fir three years old. The
figures 1, 2, 3, refer to the annual layers of wood. Ja, la. Cavities contain-
ing oleo-resinous secretions (7eceptacles of secretion).
wood-cells by the larger size of their openings (figs. 183, v, v, 7
and 185, A, b, b, b).
But in those Gymnosperms where the wood is made up, as just
noticed, of disc-bearing woody tissue, or cells with large bordered
pits, though the openings of the cells are larger than those of
ordinary woody tissue, they will be observed to be nearly of the
same size, but at the same time those formed earliest in the
year in each ring are larger and have thinner walls than those
which have been formed at the end of the year (jig. 186). The
pitted vessels in ordinary trees are also commonly more abun-
dant on the inner part of each annual ring, the wood-cells
forming a compact layer on the outside (fig. 185, A, c, c, c). In
such cases the limits of each ring are accurately defined. In
those trees which have the pitted vessels more or less diffused
- throughout the wood-cells or woody tissue, as in the Lime and
Maple, the rings are by no means so evident, and can then
G 2
84 ANNUAL RINGS OF THE WOOD.
only be distinguished by the smaller size of the wood-cells on
the outside of each, which appearance is caused by their dimin-
ished growth towards the end of the season.
The distinction between the annual rings is always most
evident in trees growing in temperate and cold climates, where
there is a more or less lengthened winter in which no growth
takes place, followed by rapid vegetation afterwards in the
spring and other seasons. In the trees of tropical climates the
rings are not so clearly defined, because there is no complete
season of repose in such regions, although to a certain extent
the dry season here leads to a cessation of growth, but the alter-
nation of the growing season and that of rest is not so well
marked as in colder climates. As alternations of growth and
seasons of repose may thus be shown to produce the appearance
of annual rings, we can readily understand that if a plant were
submitted to such influences several times in a single year it
would produce a corresponding number of rings ; and this does
really occur in some plants of temperate climates, particularly
in those which are herbaceous, where growth is more rapid than
in hard-wooded perennial plants, so that the influence of such
alternations is more evident. In tropical climates the production
of two or more rings in a year is probably even more frequent
than in temperate regions. In other trees, again, we have only
one ring produced as the growth of several years, as in the
Cycas ; and lastly, there are instances occurring in which no
annual rings are formed, but the wood forms a uniform mass
whatever be the age of the plant, as in certain species of Cacti.
Such appearances as the two latter are, however, totally inde-
pendent of climate, but are the characteristic peculiarities of
certain plants, and even of entire natural orders.
The annual layers of different trees vary much in thickness,
thus they are much broader in soft woods which grow rapidly,
than in those which are harder and of slower growth. The in-
fluence of different seasons, again, will cause even the same tree
to vary in this respect, the ‘rings being broader in warm seasons
than in cold ones, and hence we find the trees as we approach the
poles have very narrow annual rings. The influence of soil and
other circumstances will also materially affect the thickness of
the annual rings in the same tree. We find also that the same
ring will vary in diameter at different parts, so that the pith,
instead of being in the centre of the wood, is more or less eccen-
tric, owing to the rings being thicker on one side than on the
other. This irregular thickness of the different parts of the
annual rings is owing to several causes, but the greater growth
on one side is chiefly due to the fact of its being more exposed
to light and air than the other.
The annual rings also vary in thickness in the same tree,
according to the age of that tree. Thus when a tree is in full
vigour it, will form larger rings than when that period is past,
DURAMEN AND ALBURNUM. 85
and it begins to get old. The age in which trees are in full
vigour varies according to the species ; thus the Oak, it is said,
will form most timber from the age of twenty to thirty, and that
after sixty years of age the amount formed will be much less
considerable. Again, in the Larch, the vigour of growth appears
to diminish after it is forty years of age ; in the Elm after fifty
years ; in the Beech after thirty years ; in the Spruce Fir after
forty ; and in the Yew after sixty years.
Duramen and. Alburnwm.—When the annual rings are first
formed, the walls of their component wood-cells and vessels
are pervious to fluids, and very thin, and their cavities gorged
with sap, which they transmit upwards from the root to the
leaves. As they increase in age, however, their walls become
so thickened by various deposits from the contained sap, that
their cavities are ultimately almost or entirely obliterated, and
they are thus rendered nearly or entirely impervious to fluids.
This change is especially evident in the wood of those trees in
which the thickening layers are coloured, as in the Ebony,
Mahogany, Rosewood, and Guaiacum. Such coloured deposits
are generally most evident in tropical trees, although they
also occur more or less in most of the trees of cold and tem-
perate regions. In some of the latter, however, as the Poplar
and the Willow, the whole of the wood is nearly colourless, and
exhibits no difference in this respect in the appearance of the
internal and external rings. The value of wood as timber
depends chiefly upon the nature of this incrusting matter, and
is commonly in proportion to its colour ; hence those woods,
as Ebony, Ironwood, and Mahogany, which are deeply coloured,
are far harder and more durable than white woods, such as the
Poplar and the Willow.
From the above characters presented by the wood according
to its age, we distinguish in it two parts: namely, an internal
portion, in which the wood-cells and vessels have thickened
walls, are impervious to fluids, hard in texture, of a dry nature,
and commonly more or less coloured, which is called the Dura-
men or Heart-wood ; and an outer portion, in which the wood-
cells and vessels have thin sides, are pervious to, and full of
sap, soft in texture, and pale or colourless, to which the name
of Alburnwm or Sap- wood is given.
Age of Dicotyledonous Trees.—As each ring of wood in an
Exogenous stem is produced annually, it should follow that by
counting the number of rings in a transverse section of a tree
presenting this structure, we é6ught to be able to ascertain its
age, and this is true with a few exceptions, when such trees are
natives of cold climates, because in these, as we have seen, the
annual rings are usually distinctly marked. In Dicotyledonous
trees, however, of warm climates it is generally difficult, and
frequently impossible, to ascertain their age in this manner, in
consequence of several disturbing causes: thus, in the first
86 AGE OF DICOTYLEDONOUS TREES.
place, the rings are by no means so well defined ; secondly,
more than one ring may be formed in a year; thirdly, some
trees, as already noticed (page 84), such as Zamias and the species
of Cycas, only produce one ring as the growth of several years ;
fourthly, some plants, as certain species of Cacti, never form
annual rings, but the wood, whatever its age, only appears as a
uniform mass ; while lastly, in some, such as Guaiacwm, the
rings are not only indistinct, but very irregular in their growth,
It is commonly stated that the age of a Dicotyledonous tree
may not only be ascertained by counting the annual rings in a
transverse section of its wood, but that the mere inspection of a
fragment of the wood of such atree of which the diameter is
known, will also afford data by which the age may be ascertained.
The manner of proceeding in such a case is as follows :—Divide
half the diameter of the tree divested of its bark by the diameter
of the fragment, and then, having ascertained the number of rings
in that fragment, multiply this number by the quotient pre-
viously obtained. Thus, suppose the diameter of the fragment to
be two inches, and that of half the diameter of the wood twenty
inches ; then, if there are eight rings in the fragment, by mul-
tiplying this number by ten, the quotient resulting from the
division of half the diameter of the tree by that of the fragment,
we shall get eighty years as the supposed age. Now, if the thick-
ness of the rings was the same on both sides of the tree, and
the pith consequently central, such a result would be perfectly
accurate, but it happens from various causes, as already noticed
(page 84), that the rings are frequently much thicker on one
side than on the other, and the taking therefore of a piece from
either side indifferently would lead to very varying results. A
better way therefore to calculate the age of a tree by the inspec-
tion of a fragment, is to make two notches, or remove two pieces
from its two opposite sides, and then, having ascertained the
number of rings in each, take the mean of that number, and
proceed as in the former case. Thus, suppose two inches, as be-
fore, removed from the two opposite sides of a tree, and that in
one we have eight rings, and in the other twelve; we have ten
rings as the mean of the two. If we now divide, as before, half
the diameter, twenty inches, by two, and multiply the quotient
ten which results, by ten, the mean of the number of rings in the
two notches, we get one hundred years as the age of the tree
under consideration. Such a rule in many cases will no doubt
furnish a result tolerably correct, but even this will frequently
lead to error, from the varying*thickness of the annual rings
produced by a tree at different periods of its age.
It is probable that De Candolle and others, in calculating the
ages of different trees, have been led into error by not sufficiently
taking into account the variations in the growth of the annual
rings at different periods of their age, and their varying thick-
ness on the two sides of the tree; and, when we consider
i
SIZE OF DICOTYLEDONOUS TREES. 87
that some trees were estimated by De Candolle to be more than
5,000 years of age, we cannot but believe that such calculations
give an exaggerated result. But, however erroneous they may
have been, still there can be no doubt but that Dicotyledonous
trees do live to a great age ; in fact, when we consider that the
new rings of wood are developed from the cambium cells which
are placed on the outside of the previous rings, and that it is in
these new annual rings that all the active functions of the plant
are carried on, there can be, under ordinary circumstances, no real
limit to their age. Mohl believes that there is a limit to the age
of all such trees, arising from the increasing difficulty of convey-
ing the proper amount of nourishment to the growing point, as
the stem elongates from year to year. We cannot, however,
attach much importance to this opinion, because some trees, as
the Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea, exist in California as much
as 450 feet in height, and species of Hucalyptus may also be
found in Australia which have reached nearly or quite the same
height.
The following table is given by Lindley of the age of some
trees, all of which, he states, can be proved historically :—
An Ivy near Montpellier . ‘ : . 433 years.
Lime trees near Freiburg . ‘ . . 1230
», Neustadt . : f OU)
Larch : ‘ ‘ . 5976
Cedars, on Mount Lebanon , . 600—800
Oaks . ; , ‘ : . at least 1000
There can be no doubt, therefore, but that such trees will
live beyond the above periods. Other trees, such as the
Sequoia, Yew, and Olive, may be added to the above list ; thus,
it is probable that the former will live at least 3,000 years ; and
it seems certain that the Yew will attain the age of 1,200 years,
and the Olive at least 800 years.
Size of Dicotyledonous Trees.—As there is no assignable limit
to the age of Dicotyledonous trees in consequence of their mode
of growth, so in hike manner the same circumstance leads, in
many cases, to their attaining a great size. Thus the Sequoia
gigantea has been measured 116 feet in circumference at the
base ; the Chestnut tree (Castanea vesca) of Mount Etna is 180
feet in circumference ; ; a Plane tree (Platanus orientalis) near
Constantinople is 150 feet in circumference ; the Ceiba tree
(Bombax pentandrum) is said to be sometimes so large that it
takes fifteen men with their arms extended to embrace it ; even
Oaks in this country have been known to measure more than
50 feet in circumference ; and many other remarkable examples
might be given of such trees attaining to an enormous size,
which circumstance is of itself also an evidence of their great age.
4. Cambium-layer or Cambium (figs. 179, ¢, and 185, A, and B,
e).—On the outside of each annual ring of wood, aswe havealready
88 CAMBIUM LAYER.—MEDULLARY RAYS.
seen, a layer of vitally active cells is placed, to which the name
of cambium-layer or cambiwm has been given. It is from these
cambium cells that the new layers of wood and phloém are
formed, and from the fact of the cambium-layer being situated
between the xylem and the phloém of the indefinite fibro-vas-
cular bundles of which Exogenous stems are composed, it follows
that the layers of increase to these parts of the bundle are in
continuity with the previous layers. The cells composing the
cambium-layer are of a very delicate nature, and consist of a
thin wall of cellulose, containing a nucleus, protoplasm, and
watery cell-sap ; in fact, they contain all the substances which
are present in young growing cells. These cells, from their be-
coming changed into the matured woody tissues and phloém, were
called cambium-cells, hence the origin of the names cambiwm and
cambium-layer applied to this portion of the stem. This layer
is dormant during the winter, at which time the bark is firmly
attached to the wood beneath, but it is in full activity in the
spring, when it becomes charged with the materials necessary
for the development of new structures, and then the bark may
be readily separated from the wood beneath, but such separa-
tion can only be effected by the rupture of the cells of which it
is composed. The cambium layer is called a formative or gene-
rating tissue, or meristem, because its component cells are capable
of dividing and forming permanent tissue, or that in which the
cells have ceased to divide, and have assumed their definite form.
5. Medullary Rays.—We have already seen that at first the
stem consists entirely of parenchyma, but that in a short time
fibro-vascular portions are developed, so that at the end of the
first year’s growth, in consequence of the development of the
wood and phloém, this parenchyma becomes separated into two
regions—an internal or pith, and an external forming the cel-
lular layers of the bark ; the separation, however, not being com-
plete, but the two being connected by tissue of the same nature
as themselves, to which the name of medullary rays has been
applied (jigs. 176, b, and 182, r).
The cells forming these medullary rays, like those of the
pith, are part of the fundamental tissue of the stem (page 81) ;
but, unlike the cells of the pith, which remain of a more or
less rounded form, they differ from them in form, and become
much flattened in a radial direction (jigs. 94, and 185, B, 7, 7),
owing to the pressure which the neighbouring wedges of the
wood have exerted upon them. As new rings of wood are
formed in successive years, fresh additions are made to the
ends of the medullary rays from the cambium, so that, how-
ever large the space between the pith and the cellular layers
of the bark ultimately becomes, the two are always kept in
connexion by their means. Besides the medullary rays which
thus extend throughout the entire thickness of the{wood, others
are also commonly developed between them in each succeeding
wy ®
MEDULLARY RAYS.—BARK OR CORTEX. 89
-
_
year, which extend from the rings of those years respectively
to the bark ; these are called secondary medullary rays. In the
Cork-oak both kinds may be well seen in a transverse section
(fig. 187, 1, 2, 3, 4).
The medullary rays are composed of flattened six-sided cells,
which are placed one above the other in one or more rows, like
the bricks in a wall, hence the tissue which they form is termed
muriform parenchyma ( figs. 185, B, 7, %, and 94 ). Itis a
variety of tabular parenchyma, as already noticed (page 48).
The tissue formed by the medullary rays is not continuous
from one end of the wood to the other, but the rays are
more or less interrupted by the passage between them of
the fibro-vascular tissue forming the wood, so that they are
Fic. 187. Fic. 188. Fie. 189.
HL iltl
(rayon)
Fig. 187. Transverse section of a portion of the stem of the Cork-oak
(Quercus Suber), four years old. m. Pith. 1. Medullary ray of the first
year’s growth. 2, 3, 4. Medullary rays of successive years. pe. Liber and
cellular envelope. s. Cork layers. Fig. 188. Surface of the stem of a
Dicotyledonous tree from which the bark has been removed. Fig.189,
Vertical section of a branch of the common Maple, perpendicular to the
medullary rays. ji, fl. Fibro-vascular tissue forming the wood. 7m, 7m,
Medullary rays.
split up vertically into a number of distinct portions (jigs.
188 and 189, rm). This arrangement may be observed by
examining the surface of a stem from which the bark has
been removed (jig. 188), or still better by making thin sections
of the wood perpendicular to the rays,—that is, tangential to
the circumference of the stem (fig. 189). In some stems, such
as those of the species of Aristolochia, and also in many plants
of the natural order Menispermacez, and in other orders, the
medullary rays are very conspicuous, forming large plates
between the wedges of wood. In other plants, such as the Yew
and Birch, they are comparatively small. The medullary rays
constitute the silver grain of cabinet-makers and carpenters, as
it is to their presence that many woods, such as the Plane and
Sycamore, owe their peculiar lustre.
6. The Bark or Cortex. —The bark is situated on the
outside of the stem, surrounding the wood, to which it is
90 THE LIBER OR PHLOEM.
organically connected by means of the medullary rays and
cambium-layer (jig. 176, c, c). When the stem is first formed
the bark is entirely composed, like the pith, of parenchyma ;
but as soon as the wood begins to be developed on the
outside of the pith, certain cells which le nearer the surface
of the stem make their appearance, which develop into liber-
cells and certain vessels (jig. 190, d). Externally to these
lie other parenchymatous cells, the inner ones of which form
the green layer of the bark, c, whilst the outer cells become
developed into the cork tissue, b, and these again are invested
by colourless cells forming the epidermis, a, so that the
Fra. 190. bark, when fully formed,
consists of two distinct sys-
tems ; namely, an imternal
or fibro-vascular, and an ex-
ternal or parenchymatous.
Further, the parenchyma-
tous system, as just noticed,
also exhibits, in all plants
which are destined to live
for any period, a separation
into two portions ; and the
whole is covered externally
by the epidermis already
described (fig. 190, a).
The fully developed bark
accordingly presents three
distinct layers, in addition
Fig. 190. Transverse section of a portion of aes epidermis, which is
the bark of an Exogenous stem, a. Epi- Common to it and the
dermis. 6. Corky layer. c. Cellular en- other external parts of
velope. d. Liber or Phloém. plants. The three layers
proper to the bark are
called, proceeding from within outwards : 1. Liber, Inner Bark,
or Phloém (figs. 190, d, and 185, A, and B, f, f) ; 2. Cellular
Envelope, Green Layer, or Phelloderm (figs. 190, c, and 185,
g, 9); and 8. Corky Layer, Suberous Layer, or Outer Bark (figs.
190, b, and 185, h, h).
a. The Liber, Inner Bark, or Phloém (figs. 190, d, and 185,
A, and B, f, f).—This is composed of true bast tissue, or, as it
is also called, woody tissue of the ber, as it consists of narrow
elongated cells with thickened and flexible walls ; mixed with
parenchymatous (cambiform) tissue and sieve-tubes filled with
albuminous matters, and frequently laticiferous vessels. The
phloém therefore belongs to the fibro-vascular system, and forms
the portion of the indefinite fibro-vascular bundles outside
the cambium (page 76). The portion formed of bast tissue is
sometimes termed hard bast, and the cambiform parenchyma and
sieve tubes together constitute what is then called the soft bast.
=~
PHELLODERM.—PERIDERM. 91
The liber-cells of which it is essentially composed are either
placed side by side in a parallel direction, and thus form by
their union a continuous layer, as in the Horsechestnut tree ;
or far more frequently they present a wavy outline, and only
touch each other at certain points, so that numerous interspaces
are left between their sides, in which the medullary rays con-
necting the cellular layers of bark and the pith may be observed.
From this circumstance the inner bark when macerated in water
commonly presents a netted appearance, as may be especially
seen in that of the Lace-bark tree (Lagetta lintearia) of Jamaica,
_and of other plants belonging to the same natural order.
b. The Cellular Envelope, Green Layer, or Phelloderm (fig.
190, c, and 185, g, g).—This layer lies between the liber and
corky layer, and hence the name middle layer which is also applied
to it. It is connected on its inner surface with the medullary
rays. It consists of thin-sided, usually angular or prismatic,
parenchymatous cells (jig. 190, c), which are loosely connected,
and thus leave between their walls a number of interspaces.
The cells of which it is composed contain an abundance of
chlorophyll, which gives the green colour to young bark, and
hence the name of geen layer, by which it is also commonly
distinguished. It is also sometimes known under the name of
phelloderm. This layer and the next belong to the fundamental
tissue, and form together the parenchymatous system of the bark.
ce. Corky or Suberous Layer (figs. 190, b, and 185, h, h).—
This is the outer layer of the bark, and is invested by the
epidermis (jig. 190, a). It has also received
the name of periderm ; this term is, however,
sometimes used in a general sense to indicate
the dead portion of the bark, or that which
has ceased to perform any active part in the
life of the plant ; which is commonly the case,
as we shall presently see, in a few years with
the two outer layers (see page 92). In this
sense the periderm may consist of the corky
layer alone, or of phelloderm chiefly, or of por-
tions of both, or even in some cases ofa portion
of the phloém also. Those botanists who
adopt this nomenclature commonly apply the
term derm to the inner living portion of the
bark. Other botanists also use the term peri-
derm to indicate the inner portion of the corky
layer, and which consists of cells with thicker _,,.
wells and less elastic than true cork cells. ae ia
The corky layer consists of one or more /, /. Lenticels. ¢, ¢.
layers of tabular cells (fig. 190, b), elon- 22%
gated more or less in a horizontal direction, and which in
most cases ultimately become dried up and filled with air, and
form by their union a compact tissue, or one without inter-
Bre. 1915
92 GROWTH OF THE BARK,
spaces. It is this layer which gives to the young bark of trees
and shrubs their peculiar hues, which are generally brownish
or some colour approaching to this; or sometimes it possesses
more vivid tints. In some plants, as in the Cork-oak (fig.
187, s), this layer becomes excessively developed and forms the
substance called cork, and hence the name corky layer which
is commonly applied to it. Large developments of cork also
occur on some other trees, as various species of Elm.
On the young bark of most plants may be observed little
circular or somewhat oval brownish or whitish specks, which have
been called lenticels (fig. 191, 1,1). They are formed of loosely
agyregated cork-cells, separated by intercellular spaces, and
serving, hke stomata, to admit air to the living cortical tissues
beneath.
Growth of the Bark.—-The bark, except the middle layer,
develops in an opposite direction to that of the wood, for while
the latter increases by additions to its outer surface, the former
increases by additions to its inner. The bark is therefore
strictly endogenous in its growth; while the wood is exogenous.
Each layer of the bark also grows separately ; thus the liber by
the addition of new matter from the cambium-layer on its in-
side ; and the phelloderm and corky layer from a special meri-
stem, which is termed the cork-cambiwm or phellogen. This
phellogen is placed between the phelloderm and corky layer, so
that it develops cork-cells on its outside and the cells of the
phelloderm on its inner surface. The formation of cork-cells,
however, is not always of the same character, and in some cases
itis very complex. When the soft tissues of a plant are wounded,
a callus of cork-cells is also commonly produced, and thus forms
a protection to the wounded tissues. But when wood is well
developed, and the plant wounded so deep as the cambium, cork
is not directly formed, but a callus of parenchymatous tissue is
produced from all the living cells bordering on the wound.
The two outer layers which together constitute the paren-
chymatous or cellular system of the bark generally cease growing
after a few years, and become dead structures on the surface of the
tree ; but the inner bark continues to grow throughout the life
of the individual, by the addition of a new layer annually on
its inner surface from the cambium. They are commonly so
thin when separated that they appear like the leaves of a book,
and hence the supposed origin of the term liber applied to the
inner bark. The name liber is, however, sometimes considered
to be derived from the inner bark of trees having been formerly
used for writing upon. In some trees, as in the Oak, these
layers may be readily observed up to a certain age; but this dis-
tinction of the liber into layers is generally soon lost, in conse-
quence of the pressure to which it is subjected from the growth
of the wood beneath.
The outer cellular layers of the site after a certain period in
PARTS OF THE DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 93
their life, which varies in different plants, generally become cracked
in various directions in consequence of the pressure which is
exerted upon them by the growth of the wood and liber be-
neath, and thus assume a rugged appearance, as in the Eim
and Cork-oak. In some trees, as the Beech, the bark, however,
always retains its smoothness, which circumstance arises, partly
from the small development of the parenchymatous layers, and
partly from their great distensibility. Other smooth-barked
stems, such as those of the Holly and Ivy, owe their peculi-
arities in this respect to similar causes. When the bark has
thus become cracked and rugged, it is commonly thrown off in
large pieces, or in plates or layers of various sizes and appear-
ance. The epidermis in all cases separates early, and is
replaced by cork-cells. By this separation and peeling off of
portions of the bark, its thickness is continually diminished.
This decaying and falling away of the outer layers of the old
bark does not in any way injure the tree ; hence, it is evident
that the old cellular layers of the bark, like the pith and inner
rings of the wood, have nothing to do with its life and growth after
a certain period. The new rings of wood, the cambium-layer,
and the recently formed liber, are the parts of an exogenous stem
which are alone concerned in its active development and life.
Having now described the different parts which enter into
the structure of an Exogenous or Dicotyledonous stem, we will,
in conclusion, recapitulate them, and place them in a tabular
form :—
1. Pith or Medulla, belonging to the parenchymatous system.
2. Medullary Sheath, consisting of spiral ,
vessels. These belong to the
fibro-vascular sys-
tem, and together
form the wood
(xylem) properly
so called.
3. Wood, composed of interrupted rings,
one of which is developed annually
on the outside of the previous
rings, and consisting ordinarily in
perennial plants of wood-cells and
pitted vessels.
a
4, Medullary Rays, composed of muriform parenchyma con-
necting the pith and the parenchymatous layers of the bark.
5. Cambium-layer, consisting of vitally active or generating cells
containing protoplasm, &c., from which additions are made
annually to the wood and liber.
6. The Bark, composed of two systems—
1. Inner Bark, Phloém, or Liber, formed essentially of liber-
cells and sieve-tubes, and thus belonging to the fibro-
vascular system ; and increasing by the annual addition
of a new layer on its inner surface.
94 THE ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM.
2. Outer Bark, composed of parenchyma, and hence belong-
ing to the parenchymatous system, and consisting of —
a. Cellular Envelope or Phelloderm, composed of more or
less angular cells, with interspaces, and giving the
green colour to bark.
b. Corky Layer or Suwberous Layer, composed of tabular
cells, forming a compact tissue, and giving the pecu-
liar hues to the young bark.
7. The Epidermis, investing the bark of young stems, and re-
placed after a certain age by the corky layer.
Fie. 192.
Fig. 192. Diagram of a Monocotyledonous stem. A. Transverse section.
B. Vertical section. a, a. Parenchymatous tissue. 6, 0. Pitted vessels.
ec. Wood and liber cells. d, d. Spiral vessels. (The letters mark similar
parts in both sections.) After Carpenter.
B. Enpocenovs or Monocoryteponovus Stem.—In this
country we have no indigenous trees or large shrubs which ex-
hibit this mode of growth, although we have numerous herba-
ceous plants, such as Grasses, Rushes, and Sedges, which are
illustrations of endogenous structure. In our gardens, again,
we have various kinds of Lilies, Hyacinths, Tulips, and other
bulbous plants, which are also endogenous in their growth. But
it is in the warmer regions of the globe, and especially in the
tropics, where we find the most striking and characteristic illus-
trations of such stems, and of all such the Palms are by far the
most remarkable.
ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. 95
Internal Structure.—When we make a transverse section of
a Palm stem, it presents, as we have seen (page 75), no such
separation of parts into pith, wood, medullary rays, and bark,
as we have described as existing in an exogenous stem ; but the
fibro-vascular system is seen to consist of bundles (figs. 177, f,
and 192, A, b, c, d), which have no tendency to collect together
so as to form rings of wood as in exogenous stems, but are
arranged separately from one another in the mass of parenchy-
matous cells (figs. 177, m, and 192, A, a, a), of which the ground
substance or fundamental tissue is composed. The whole is
covered externally by a fibrous and parenchymatous layer, which
is called the false bark or rind (fig. 177, b); because this is not
a distinct and parallel formation to the wood, as is the case with
the bark of exogenous stems, but is formed essentially by the
ends of the fibro-vascu-
lar bundles, as will be Fic. 193. Fie. 194.
presently noticed, and
cannot. therefore be’ { ¢
separated from the mass
beneath (see page 96).
In annual or herba-
Fia. 195.
ceous monocotyledonous * :
stems the parenchyma
between the fibro-vas-
cular bundles is soft and : 4
delicate ; but in trees
which grow to any
height, as Palms, the
cell-walls become thick-
ened and hardened, and ° ja
thus form the tissue
termed sclerenchyma,
which ultimately binds
the original separate
pone les a into a_ solid Figs. 193 and 194, Diagrams showing the course
aradenead mass TreseM- of the fibro-vascular bundles in a monocotyle-
bling wood. donous stem. 4a, 0, & d, Fibro-vascular bundles,
ints ‘ Fig. 193. Exhibits the course of the bundles as
Origin and Growth formerly supposed. fig. 194. According to
of the Fibro-vascular Mohl’s view, as now proved to be correct.
Bundles. — The struc- — Fig. 195. Vertical section of the stem of
; s a Palm, showing(/v) the fibro-vascular bundles
ture of the fibro-vascu- intersecting each other as they pass down-
lar bundles thus distri- — wards.
buted in the parenchy-
matous system has been already referred to under the name
of definite or closed (page 77); but we have still to describe their
origin and direction through the stem. It was formerly supposed
that these bundles, as they were successively developed, were
at first directed towards the centre of the stem, and continued
their course in the same direction down to its base as seen
96 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES,
in fig. 193, a, b, c, d, the last-formed bundles being the most
internal, and gradually pushing towards the circumference those
which had previously been developed. Hence the origin of
the name endogenous or inside growers, applied to these stems.
The researches of Mohl first showed that the above mode of
growth was not correct, but that the fcllowing is that which
really takes place:—the fibro-vascular bundles have their
origin in the punctum vegetationis of the stem, and are fully
developed with its growth upwards and outwards into the leaves,
and downwards and outwards towards the circumference of the
stem. In other words, to render it more simple, the bundles
may be traced to the leaves, from which organs they are at first
directed towards the interior of the stem (jig. 194, a, b, ¢, d),
along which they descend generally for some distance, and then
gradually curve outwards again and terminate close to the
circumference, where they anastomose and thus form a net-
work with the ends of other bundles. When we make a vertical
section therefore of an endogenous stem, we find these fibro-
vascular bundles intersecting each other in various ways as shown
in fig. 195.
When the fibro-vascular bundles thus pass from the stem into
the leaves at their upper ends, they are termed common bundles,
namely, common to both leaf and stem—those portions coming
from, or continuous with, the leaves, being called leaf-traces.
The fibro-vascular bundles in their course down the stem
generally become more attenuated, which circumstance arises
from certain differences which take place in their structure as
they descend. Thus when they first originate they consist, as
we have seen (see page 77), of spiral, pitted, and other vessels,
mixed with parenchymatous and woody tissues (fig. 192, B,
b, c,d). In their descent they gradually lose their spiral and
other vessels, so that when they terminate close to the circum-
ference they consist chiefly of a net-work of liber-cells bound
together and covered by a more or less developed cortical
parenchyma. The rind or false bark (fig. 177, b) of endogenous
stems is thus chiefly formed of the ends of the fibro-vascular
bundles which originate in the leaves, and hence we see the
principal reason why this rind cannot be separated, as the bark
of exogenous stems, from the tissues beneath.
It follows from the mode of growth of the fibro-vascular
bundles, as indicated above, that the term endogenous, commonly
applied to such stems, is not altogether correct, as the bundles
are only endogenous for a portion of their course, terminating
as they do ultimately close to the circumference. On this account
the name endogenous has been generally discarded of late years
by botanists, who use instead that of monocotyledonous, aterm, as
already noticed (page 78), which is derived from the fact that the
embryo of plants which possess such stems has but one cotyledon.
In this volume we have employed both terms, and so long as that
GROWTH OF THE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES. 97
of endogenous is properly understood, it can lead to no confusion
in its application.
As the fibro-vascular bundles of an endogenous stem, in the
course of their successive development, are always directed at
first towards the centre, it must necessarily follow that those
previously formed will be gradually pushed outwards, for which
reason the outer part of a transverse section will always exhibit
a closer aggregation of bundles than the inside (jigs. 177, f, and
192, A, b, c, d). In such stems, therefore, the hardest part is
on the outside, and the softest inside, directly the reverse of
what occurs in those of exogenous growth. The lower portion
of such stems also, in consequence of the descent of the fibro-
vascular bundles, the constituents of which become, moreover,
more or less thickened in their interior, will be harder than the
Fic. 196. Fig. 197. Fia. 198.
Fig. 196. The Dragon Tree of Teneriffe (Dracena Draco), now destroyed.
——Fig. 197. Dicotyledonous stem, with a woody twining plant aroundit.
—Fig. 198. Monocotyledonous stem encircled by a woody twiner.
upper. Therind in like manner, at the lower part, will become
harder, from the greater number of liber-cells which terminate
init. As endogenous stems increase in diameter, partly by the
formation of fibro-vascular bundles in their interior, and partly
by the general development of the parenchymatous tissue in
which they are placed, it follows that as soon as the rind has
become thus hardened by the liber-cells and other causes, it is
not capable of further distension, and the stem will conse-
quently become at length choked up by the bundles which con-
tinue to descend, and further growth is then impossible. It
is evident, therefore, that endogenous stems, unlike those of
H
98 FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES IN DRACAINAS, ~
exogenous growth, cannot increase in diameter beyond a certain
limit, and that from the same causes also they cannot live beyond
a certain age.
Although, as a general rule, the stems of Palms and most
other Monocotyledons are thus limited in size and life, there
are some remarkable exceptions to this, as for instance in
Yuccas, and the Dracenas or Dragon-trees (fig. 196); in these
the rind is always
soft and capable of
distension, and the
fibro-vascular bun-
dles, after having
reached it, are con-
tinued downwards as
fibrous layers be-
tween it and the
original fibro - vascu-
lar bundles, and thus
form a sort of wood
beneath, in success-
ive layers, somewhat
after the manner that
layers of wood are
produced by the cam-
bium layer of an exo-
genous stem. Such
endogenous stems,
like those of exoge-
nous growth, have
necessarily no limit
either to their size
or age.
It is in conse-
quence of the com-
paratively small in-
Fie. 199,
Se een crease in diameter
<A Sm Ne Ps A te bs
aN ogee ca which most endoge-
Fig. 199. 1. Unbranched stem of the Cocoa-nut Palm Nous stems undergo
(Cocos nucifera), witha tuft of leavesatthesummit. after they have ar-
2. Branched stem of Pandanus odoratissimus, with a i wed’ene bas &
number of aerial roots arising from its lower part, rived a a cer aln age,
and each branch terminated by a tuft of leaves. that twining plants
The figures are placed at the base to give some “
idea of the height of the trees. which encircle them
after that period has
arrived, do them no injury, frequently not even producing the
slightest swelling on their surface; thus proving incontestably
that such stems do not increase in diameter after a certain age.
The effect of such twining plants is well seen in fig. 198. If we
compare this figure with that of an exogenous stem (jig. 197),
with a woody twiner encircling it, we find a striking difference ;
. GROWTH BY TERMINAL BUDS. 99
for here we observe extensive swellings produced, which show
the increase in the diameter of the stem after the twiner has
encircled it. Such a comparison shows, in a very striking and
conclusive manner, the characteristic peculiarities of the growth
of exogenous and endogenous stems.
Growth by Terminal Buds.—In Palms (fig. 199, 1), and most
commonly in other Monocotyledons, there are no branches,
the stems of such plants having no power of forming lateral
buds, from which branches can alone be produced (see page
106). These plants, which frequently rise to the height of
150 feet or more, therefore grow simply by the development
of a terminal bud, which when it unfolds crowns the summit
with a tuft of leaves, which are commonly of great size.
Monocotyledonous stems are consequently exposed throughout
their whole length to, as far as
possible, the same influeces as
regards their increase in dia-
meter, and we find accordingly,
that, as a rule, such stems are
almost uniformly cylindrical
from below upwards, being of
the same diameter throughout
(fig. 199, 1), instead of conical,
as in trees of exogenous growth.
In such plants, therefore, the
destruction of the terminal bud
necessarily leads to their death,
as they are then deprived of all
further mode of increase. In
some monocotyledonous trees,
however, more than one bud is
developed ; thus in the Doum
Palm of Egypt two buds are
formed, sothatthestemisforked _
above (fig. 200); each branch
again develops two other buds Fig. 200, The Doum Palm of Egypt
at its apex in like manner, and (Hyphene pete J, showing forked
: : : stem and branches.
this mode of growth is continued
with the successive branches, which are therefore also forked
(false dichotomy). In other Monocotyledons we have lateral
buds formed as in those of Dicotyledons; this is the case
in the Asparagus, the Screw Pine (fig. 199, 2), and the Dra-
ceenas (fig. 196); and as the lower part of such stems receives
more fibro-vascular bundles than the upper, they are necessarily
larger in their diameter at their base, and thus these stems are
conical or taper upwards like those of Dicotyledons.
Anomalous Structure of Monocotyledonous Stems.—Some
monocotyledonous stems present an anomalous structure ;
thus, in most Grasses the stem is hollow (fig. 201, «), except
H 2
Fie. 200.
y Bai
100 ANOMALOUS STRUCTURE OF MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEMS.
at the nodes, b, where the leaves arise, at which parts solid
partitions are formed across the cavity, by which it is divided
into a number of separate portions. Such stems when exa4
mined at their first development present the usual endogenous
structure, but in consequence of their growth in diameter taking
place more rapidly than new matter can be deposited in their
interior, the central tissue becomes ruptured, and they soon
become hollow.
In the stems of some other Monocotyledons we have a more
striking deviation from the ordinary structure. Thus the
species of Sarsaparilla and some allied plants have aerial stems
which are strictly endogenous in structure, and underground
stems which have the fibro-vascular bundles arranged in a ring
Fre. 201. Fre. 202.
>
Fig. 201. Transverse section of the stem of the common Reed. a, Cavity
closed at the bottom by a partition. 6. Annular scar indicating the
point (node) where the leaf was attached——/ig. 202. Half of a trans-
verse section of the underground stem of a species of Sarsaparilla.
a. Epidermal tissue. 06, c, d. The cortical portion, e. Woody ring.
jf. Central parenchyma.
(fig. 202, e), around a central parenchyma, f, like the wood about
the pith of an exogenous stem : such fibro-vascular bundles have,
however, no cambium layer lke that which forms the rings of
wood of an exogenous stem, and have consequently no power
of indefinite increase like them.
Age of Monocotyledonous Trees.—There is nothing in the
internal structure of endogenous stems by which we can.ascer-
tain the age of monocotyledonous trees as in those of exo-
genous structure. It is supposed that the age of a Palm tree
is indicated by the annular scars (jig. 199, 1) which are produced
on the external surface of its stem by the fall of the terminal
tufts of leaves; for, as one tuft only is commonly produced
annually, each ring marks a year’s growth, and hence the number
of annular scars corresponds to the number of years the tree
has lived. Although it is true that in some few cases such a
AGE OF MONOCOTYLEDONS.—ACROGENOUS STEMS. 101
rule may enable us to ascertain the age of a Palm, and probably
also that of some other monocotyledonous trees, not the slightest
dependence can be placed upon it in any particular instance,
for there are frequently several rings produced on the stems of
monocotyledonous plants in one year, and these again often
disappear after having existed for a certain period. The best
means of ascertaining the age of Palms is by noting their
increase in height in any one year’s growth, and then, as such
stems grow almost uniformly in successive years, by knowing
their height we can determine their age. This mode, however,
of calculating their age is very liable to error, and can be moreover
but of limited application from the absence of data to work upon ;
hence we must come to the conclusion that at present we possess
no trustworthy means of determining the age of Monocotyle-
dons.
CO. AcrocENovus STEM, OR THE STEM OF CoRMOPHYTES.—The
simplest form of stem presented by Cryptogamous plants is that
seen in Liverworts (jig. 8), and in Mosses (figs. 9and 10). In
such a stem we have no vessels, but the whole is composed of
ordinary parenchyma, with occasionally a central cord of slightly
elongated cells with somewhat thickened walls. In the stems of
Club-mosses (Lycopodiacee) (fig. 12), Selaginellas (Sedaginellacee),
Pepperworts (Marsileacex), and Horsetails (Hquisetacee) (fig. 13),
we have the simplest forms of acrogenous stems, and the com-
position of the fibro-vascular bundles, of which they are com-
posed, and their mode of growth, have been already described
(see page 78). The vessels found in the fibro-vascular bundles of
the Lycopodiaceze are commonly spiral, and in those of the
Equisetacez annular ; and as these bundles grow by additions to
their apex, the stems of Cormophytes are termed acrogenous.
In the Ferns (Filices) we have the acrogenous stem in the
highest state of development. The Ferns of this country are
comparatively but insignificant specimens of such plants, for in
them the stem merely runs along the surface of the ground, or
burrows beneath it, sending up its leaves, or fronds as they are
commonly called, into the air, which die down yearly (fig. 14).
In warm regions, and more especially in the tropics, we find such
plants much more highly developed. Here the stem rises into
the air to the height of sometimes as much as forty feet (jig. 15),
and bears on its summit a tuft of fronds. In their general ap-
pearance externally these Tree-ferns have great resemblance to
monocotyledonous trees, not only in bearing their foliage like
them at the summit, but also in producing no lateral branches,
and being of uniform diameter from near their base to their apex.
The outside of the stem of a Fern is marked with a number
of scars, which have a more or less rhomboidal outline (jig.
203). The surface of these scars presents little hardened
projections, c, or darker-coloured spots, which appearance is
produced by the rupture of some of the elements of the fibro-
102 STRUCTURE OF FERN STEMS.
vascular bundles proceeding to the leaves, by the fall of which
organs the scars have been produced.
Internal Structure of Fern Stems.— Upon making a transverse
section of a Tree-fern it presents, as we have already briefly
noticed (see page 75), the following parts :—Thus in the centre,
when young, a parenchyma (jig. 178, m), the cells of which have
thin walls ; but in old stems this central parenchyma is destroyed,
so that the stem becomes hollow. Towards the outside of this
parenchyma, and just within the rind, we find the so-called
wood (fibro-vascular bundles), arranged in the form of irregular,
sinuous, or wavy plates, v, v, v. These masses of wood have
generally openings between them, by means of which the
parenchyma beneath the rind and that of the centre of the stem
communicate ; but in other cases these woody masses or plates
touch each other at their margins, and thus form a continuous
circle within the rind. These masses, as already noticed, consist
Fie. 203. Fie. 204.
Fig. 203. Rhizome of Male Fern (Aspidium Filixr-mas), marked externally by
rhomboidal scars, which present dark-coloured projections, ¢.——Fig. 204.
Vertical section of the dichotomous or forked stem of a Tree-fern.
of closed fibro-vascular bundles, the vessels of which are chiefly
scalariform in their character ; these are situated in the centre
of the bundles, where they may be readily distinguished by
their pale colour (fig. 178, v, v, v). External to them are
usually a few layers of parenchymatous cells, which contain
starch in the winter, and amongst which are situated some wide
sieve or lattice-cells. The whole is surrounded by a single
layer of cells, the walls of which are usually more or less lignified
and dark-coloured, thus constituting the tissue termed scleren-
chyma, and forming what has been called the bwndle-sheath.
The tissues external to the fibro-vascular bundles constitute
collectively what has been termed the rind (fig. 178, e).
Growth by Terminal Buds.—We have already stated that
Tree-ferns have no branches (fig. 15). This absence of branches
arises from their having, like Palms, no provision for lateral
buds: hence the cylindrical form of stem which is common to
them as with the stems generally of Monocotyledons. For the
BUDS AND RAMIFICATION. 103
same reason, also, they are rarely of great diameter. Some
Ferns, however, become forked at their apex (jig. 204) ; which
forking is produced by the division of the terminal bud into
two (true dichotomy), from each of which a branch is formed (see
page 109). But such branches are very different from those of
dicotyledonous stems, which are produced from lateral buds, for,
as they arise simply from the splitting of one bud into two, the
diameter of the two branches combined is only equal to that of
the trunk, and in all cases where acrogenous stems branch, the
diameter of the branches combined is only equal to that of the
axis from whence they are derived. As acrogenous stems only
grow by the development of a terminal bud, the destruction of
that bud necessarily leads to their death (page 106). There is
nothing in the internal structure or external appearance of such
stems by which we can ascertain their age.
2. Bups anp Ramirication.—We have already stated (page
14) that the presence of leaves and leaf-buds is the essential
characteristic by which a stem may be distinguished from a
root. The leaves will be treated of hereafter, but we have
now to allude to the parts of the stem from whence they arise,
and to describe the nature of leaf-buds, and the mode in which
branches are formed.
Leaves are always developed at regular points upon the
surface of the stem, which are called nodes (fig. 208, c, c, c), and
the intervals between them are termed internodes, d, d. Gene-
rally the arrangement of the tissue of the stem at the nodes is
somewhat different to that in the internodes; thus at a node it
exhibits a more or less contracted or interrupted appearance,
which arises from a portion of its fibro-vascular tissue being given
off to enter into the structure of the leaf. This appearance
is most evident in those cases where the internodes are clearly
developed and especially if under such circumstances the leaf
or leaves which arise encircle the stem, as in the Bamboo and
other Grasses ; in such plants each leaf causes the formation of
a hardened ring externally (fig. 201, b), and thus produces the
appearance of a joint or articulation, and indeed, in some cases,
the stem does readily separate into distinct portions at these
joints, as in the common Pink, in which case it is said to be jointed
or articulated.
A. Lxrar-Bups or Bups.—Under ordinary circumstances we
have developed in the axil of every leaf a little more or less
conical body called a leaf-bud, or simply a bud (jig. 205, a, a).
In like manner, the apex of a stem, as well as of all its main
branches and twigs which are capable of further elongation, is
also terminated bya similar bud (jig. 207). Ina Dicotyledonous
plant each bud, whether lateral or terminal, is produced by an
elongation of the parenchymatous system of the stem or one of
its divisions, and consists at first of a minute conical central
parenchymatous mass (jig. 206, i), which is connected with the
104 LEAF-BUDS OR BUDS.
pith, a; around this spiral and other vessels and wood cells are
soon developed, also in connexion with similar parts of the wood,
b, b; and on the outside of these, in a parenchymatous mass
which ultimately becomes the bark, we have little cellular pro-
jections developed, which are the rudimentary leaves. As growth
proceeds these parts become more evident, and a little more or
less conical body is ultimately produced at the apex of the stem
or branch (fig. 207); or laterally in the axil of the leaves, c, and
the formation of the bud is completed. In like manner the
buds of Monocotyledonous and Acrogenous plants are connected
Fie. 205. Fic. 206.
b%pe
Fig. 205. Branch of Oak with alternate leaves and leaf-buds in their axils.
a, a. Buds. 6, 6. Leaves.——Fig. 206. Vertical section through the end of
a twig of the Horsechestnut (_“sculus Hippocastanum), before the bursting
of the bud. After Schleiden. a. The pith. 6, b, The wood. c,c. The
bark. d, d. Scars of leaves of former years. e, e. The fibro-vascular
bundles of those leaves. 7, 7. The axillary buds of those leaves, with their
scales and fibro-vascular bundles. g. Terminal bud of the twig ending in
a rudimentary flowering panicle. h, hk. Scars formed by the falling off of
the lowest scales of the bud, and above these may be seen the closed
scales with their fibro-vascular bundles. 7. Medullary mass leading from
the pith, a, into the axillary bud, s, 7, /.
with both the parenchymatous and fibro-vascular systems of
their stems ; but in these plants, as we have seen, there are, as
a general rule, no lateral buds.
The buds of temperate and cold climates, which remain
dormant during the winter, and which are accordingly exposed
to all its rigours, have generally certain protective organs de-
veloped on their outer surface in the form of modified leaves
(cataphyllary), which are commonly called scales (page 140).
These are usually of a hardened texture, and are sometimes
STRUCTURE OF LEAF-BUDS. 105
covered with a resinous secretion, as in the Horsechestnut and
several species of Poplars ; or with a dense coating of soft hairs
or down, as in some Willows. Such scales, therefore, by inter-
posing between the tender rudimentary leaves of the bud and
the air a thick coating of matter which is a bad conductor of
heat and insoluble in water, protect them from the influence
of external circumstances, by which they would be otherwise
injured, or even destroyed. Buds thus protected are sometimes
termed scaly. In the buds of tropical regions, and those of
herbaceous plants growing in temperate climates which are not
thus exposed to the influence of a winter, such protective organs
would be unnecessary, and are accordingly absent, and hence all
Fic. 207. Fig. 208. Fic. 209.
Fig. 207. A shoot one year old of the Horsechestnut, with terminal bud.
a. Sear produced by the falling off of the bud-scales of the previous year,
b, 6. Scars caused by the falling off of the petioles of the leaves of the
present year, with buds, c, in their axils.——Fig. 208. Diagram to illus-
trate the growth of the shoot from the bud. e¢, c, c. The nodes where the
leaves are situated. d,d. The internodes developed between them,——
Fig. 209. Shoot of the Lilae (Syringa vulgaris), showing suppression of
the terminal bud, and two lateral buds in its place ( false dichotomy).
the leaves of these buds are nearly of the same character. Such
buds are called naked. In a few instances we find even that
the buds of perennial plants growing in cold climates, and
which are exposed during the winter, are naked like those of
tropical and herbaceous plants. Such is the case, for instance,
with the Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus Frangula), and those of
some species of Vibwrnwm.
These protective organs of the bud are commonly, as we have
just mentioned, termed scales, but they have also received the
name of teymenta. That such scales are really only modified
leaves adapted for a special purpose, is proved not only by their
position with regard to the true leaves, but also from the gradual
transitional states, which may be frequently traced from them
to the ordinary leaves of the bud. These scales have only a
106 GROWTH OF LEAF-BUDS.
temporary duration, falling off as soon as the growth of the bud
commences in the spring.
The bud thus contains all the elements of a stem or
branch ; in fact it is really the first stage in the development
of these parts, the axis being here so short that the rudimentary
leaves are closely packed together, and thus overlap one an-
other. When growth commences in the spring, or whenever
vegetation is reanimated, the internodes between the leaves be-
come developed (jig. 208, d, d, d), and these therefore become
separated from one another, c, c, c, and thus the stem or branch
increases in length, or a new branch isformed. In other words,
the leaves, which in a bud state overlap one another and sur-
round a growing point or axis, by the elongation of the inter-
nodes of that axis become separated and dispersed over a branch
or an elongation of the stem, much in the same way as the
joints of a telescope become separated from one another by
lengths of tube when it is drawn out. The branch, therefore,
like the bud from which it is formed, necessarily contains the
same parts as the axis upon which it is placed, and these parts
are also continuous with that axis, with the exception of the
pith, which, although originally continuous in the bud state,
ultimately becomes separated by the development of tissue at
the point where the branch springs from the axis. But when
a branch becomes broken off close to the wood, and there are
no buds upon it to continue its growth, it becomes ultimately
enclosed by the successive annual layers of wood, and thus a
knot is formed.
From the above circumstances it follows that a bud resembles
in its functions the embryo from which growth first commenced,
and it has accordingly been termed a fixedembryo. There is this
difference, however, between them :—a bud continues the in-
dividual, while the embryo continues the species. A stem is
therefore really made up of a number of similar parts or buds,
called phytons, which are developed in succession, one upon the
summit of the other. Hence, by the development of a terminal
bud, the stem increases in height ; and by those situated late-
rally branches are produced. A tree may thus be considered as
a compound body, formed of a series of individuals which mu-
tually assist one another, and benefit the whole mass to which
they belong. In Dicotyledonous trees, which form lateral or
axillary buds, the destruction of a few branches is of no con-
sequence, as they are soon replaced ; but in Palms, and most
other monocotyledonous trees, and also in those of Cormophytes,
which develop only from terminal buds, the destruction of these
under ordinary circumstances, as we have seen (pages 99 and
103), leads to their death.
The buds or similar parts, of which a tree, or other Dicotyle-
donous plant, may thus be shown to be made up, being thus
distinct individuals, as it were, in themselves, are also capable
BUDDING, GRAFTING, LAYERING.—SPINES OR THORNS. 107
of being separated from their parents and attached to other in-
dividuals of the same, or even of nearly allied species ; or a
branch with one or more buds upon it may be bent down into
the earth (fig. 230). The operations of Budding, Grafting, and
Layering depend for their success upon this circumstance ; and
in some plants buds naturally separate from their parents, and
produce new individuals. These operations are of great import-
ance in horticulture, because all plants raised by such means
propagate the individual peculiarities of their parents, which is
not the case with those raised from seed, which have merely a
specific identity.
1t sometimes happens that a leaf-bud, instead of developing
as usual, so as to form a symmetrical leaf-bearing branch, be-
Fic. 210. Ley PAE Pres22.
Fig. 210. Branching spine of the Honey Locust (Gleditschia). Fig. 211.
Spine of a species of Thorn.— ig. 212. Leafy spines of the common Sloe.
comes arrested in its growth, and forms a hardened simple or
branched projection terminating in a more or less acute point,
and usually without leaves, as in Thorns (fig. 211), Gle-
ditschia (fig. 210), and many other plants. Such an irregularly-
developed branch is cailed a spine or thorn. That the spines
are really modified branches is proved not only by their struc-
ture, which is exactly the same as the stem or branch upon
which they are placed, but also by their position in the axil of
leaves ; by their sometimes bearing leaves, as in the Sloe (fig.
212) and Spiny Rest-harrow ; and by their being frequently
changed into ordinary leaf-bearing branches by cultivation, as
in the Apple and Pear. Spines are sometimes confounded
with prickles, already described (page 66), but they are readily
distinguished from these by their structure and connexion
with the internal parts of the stem ; the prickles being merely
108 TENDRILS.— RAMIFICATION
formed of hardened parenchyma, arising immediately from, and
in connexion only with, the epidermal tissue and layer of cells
beneath.
Another irregularly developed branch is the tendril or cir-
rhus : this term is applied to a thread-like leafless branch, which
is twisted ina spiral direction, as in the Passion-flower (jig. 213,
v, v). It is one of those contrivances of nature by means of
which weak plants are enabled to rise into the air by attaching
themselves to neighbouring bodies for support. Tendrils may
be also observed in the Vine (fig. 214, v, v, v), where they are
regarded by many botanists as the terminations of separate axes,
or as transformed terminal buds.
Eres 2s: Fic. 214.
Fig. 213. Aportion of the stem of Passifiora quadrangularis. v, v. Tendrils,
— Fig. 214. Part of the stem of the Vine. », v, v. Tendrils,
Both spines and tendrils are occasionally produced from
leaves and some other organs of the plant ; these peculiarities
will be referred to hereafter, in the description of those organs
of which they are respectively modifications.
B. RamiricaTIon oR Brancuine.—In the same way as
branches are produced from buds placed on the main axis or
stem, so in like manner from the axils of the leaves of these
branches other buds and branches are formed ; these again will
form a third series, to which will succeed a fourth, fifth, and so
on. The main divisions of the stem are called branches, while
the smaller divisions of these are commonly termed twigs.
The general arrangement and modifications to which these are
liable are commonly described under the name of ramification
or branching, which may be defined as the lateral development
RAMIFICATION OR BRANCHING.—SYMPODIUM. 109
of similar parts. Thus the divisions of a stem or root are
branches ; but the lateral development from a stem or branch of
leaves, or other dissimilar parts, such as hairs, is not branching.
There are two principal types of branching, the monopodial
and the dichotomous. Thus, when the axis continues to develop
in an upward direction by a terminal bud or growing point, so
as to form a common foot or podiwm for the branches, which
are produced from below upwards, or acropetally from lateral
buds ( fig. 205, a, a), the branchingis called monopodial. This is,
probably, the universal system of branching in the Angiospermia,
although there ere some apparent exceptions. But when the
terminal bud or growing point bifurcates, and thus produces
Hie. 215. Fig. 216.
rv"
rw T
PYLE 2
A
Fig. 215. Diagram of normal or true dichotomous branching, showing the
two branches equally developed in a forked manner, and each branch di-
viding in succession in a similar way.— ig. 216. Diagrams of sympodial
dichotomous branching. A. Bostrycoid or Helicoid dichotomy. B,
Cicinal or Scorpioid dichotomy. In A, the left-hand branches, J, J, J, of
successive dichotomies are much more developed than the right, 7, 7, 7, 7,
In B, the left-hand branches, 7, 7, and those of the right-hand, 7, 7, are
alternately more vigorous in their growth. After Sachs,
two shoots, so that the foot or podium bears two branches
arranged in a forked manner (jig. 215), the branching is termed
dichotomous. This form is common in many of the Cryptogamia
(fig. 204).
In dichotomous branching we have also two forms: one
which is termed true or normal dichotomy, in which the two
branches continue to develop equally in a forked manner—that
is, each becomes the podium of a new dichotomy (jig. 215) ; and
a second, in which one branch grows much more vigorously than
the other, when it is called sympodial (fig. 216, A and B). In
this latter case, owing to the unequal growth of the branches,
the podia of successive bifurcations form an axis which is termed
the pseud-axis or sympodium, on which the weaker fork-branches
or bifurcations appear as lateral branches (fig. 216, A, r, r, r,r,
and B, r, l, r, J, r). This branching might at first sight be
confounded with the monopodial form, where we have a con-
tinuous axis giving off lateral branches ; but it differs in the
110 SYMPODIAL AND MONOPODIAL BRANCHING,
fact that here the apparent primary axis consists of a succession
of secondary axes.
In sympodial branching, again, the sympodium may be
either formed of the fork-branches of the same side (left or
right) of successive dichotomies (fig. 216, A, I, 1, 1); or it may
consist alternately of the left and right fork-branches or bifur-
cations (fig. 216, B, 1, 7,1, 7). In the former case it is called
helicoid or bostrycoid dichotomy ; in the latter, scorpioid or cicimal
dichotomy.
Of the monopodial branching there are also two forms, the
racemose and the cymose. In the first the primary axis continues
to develop upwards and gives off acropetally lateral branches
from axillary buds; which also give off lateral branches in a
similar manner; but in the second form the lateral axes at an
early age develop much more vigorously than the primary axis
and become more branched than it. IJt is in this way—that in
some plants, by the suppression of the terminal bud, and the
subsequent vigorous growth of the closely arranged lateral buds
forming two shoots apparently radiating from a common point,
as if caused by the division of the terminal bud, as in true
dichotomous branching—an apparent but false dichotomy is
produced, which is called a dichasiwm or false cyme. This sup-
pression of the terminal bud may occur naturally, as in the
Lilac (fig. 209), or accidentally from frost or other injury.
These modes of branching will be again alluded to under the
head of Inflorescence, in which their more practical application
arises.
All lateral or axillary buds are called regular or normal, and
their arrangement in such cases is necessarily the same as that
of the leaves. Again, as branches are formed from buds thus
placed, it should foliow that their arrangement should also cor-
respond to that of the leaves. This corresponding symmetry,
however, between the arrangement of the branches and that of
the leaves is interfered with from various causes. Thus, in the
first place, by many of the regular buds not being developed,
Secondly, by the development of other buds which arise irregu-
larly at various other points than the axils of leaves: these are
called, from their abnormal origin, adventitious. And, thirdly,
by the formation of accessory buds.
1. Non-development of the Regular Buds.—This frequently
takes place irregularly, and is then altogether owing to local or
special causes ; thus, want of light, too much crowding, or bad
soil, may cause many buds to become abortive, or to perish
after having acquired a slight development. In other instances,
however, this non-development of the buds takes place in the
most regular manner ; thus, in Firs, where the leaves are very
closely arranged in a spiral manner, the branches, instead of
presenting a similar arrangement, are placed in circles around
the axis, at distant intervals. This arises from the non-deve-
ADVENTITIOUS BUDS. —PROLIFEROUS LEAVES, 111
lopment of many of the buds of the leaves forming a spire,
which is followed by the development of the buds in the axils of
other leaves successively ; and as such leaves are thickly placed,
we are unable, after the development of the branches, to trace
clearly the turns of the spire, so that they appear to grow in a
circle.
- 2. Adventitious Buds.—These have been found on various
parts of the plant, as on the root, the woody part of the stem,
the leaves, and other organs. Thus, when a tree is pollarded,
that is, when the main branches and the apex of the trunk are
Bre. 217. Fig. 218.
~
Fig. 217. Leaf of Bryophyllum calycinum with buds on its margins.—— Fig, 218.
End of the leaf of Malaxis paludosa, with buds, b, b, on its margins,
cut off, the latter becomes so gorged with sap that a multitude
of adventitious buds are formed from which branches are deve-
loped. The branches thus produced by pollarding are, however,
to a certain extent, also caused by the development of regular
buds which had become latent from some cause having hitherto
interfered with their growth.
In every instance the adventitious buds, like the normal
ones, take their origin from parenchymatous tissue. Thus, if pro-
duced on the stem or branches, they come from
the ends of the medullary rays; or when de- Fie. 219.
veloped upon leaves, they may arise from their
margins, as in Malaxis paludosa (fig. 218, b, b),
and Bryophyllum calycinum ( fig. 217) ; or from
their surface, as in Ornithogalum thyrsoidewm
(fig. 219, b, b, b). Leaves thus bearing buds
are called proliferous. Such buds are naturally
formed on the leaves of the above-named
plants, and occasionally on others ; but they
may also be produced artificially on various /¥. 219. A portion
leaves, such as those of species of Gesnera, ivi Togdeindl. thie:
Gloxinia, and Achimenes, by the infliction of — soideum, showing
wounds, and then afterwards placing them in Die ee ee
a moist soil, and exposing them to the other
influences which are favourable for the growth of buds. The
buds developed on the leaves, in such cases, ultimately form inde-
pendent plants, and this process is therefore constantly resorted
to by gardeners as a means of propagation. These adventitious
112 EMBRYO-BUDS.—ACCESSORY BUDS.
buds differ from those commonly produced in the axils of leaves,
or at least from those which remain dormant during the winter,
in being smaller, and having no external protective organs or
scales.
Embryo-Buds.—In some trees the adventitious buds, instead
of being developed on the outside of the stem or branch, are
enclosed in the bark ; such have been called embryo-buds or
embryo-nodules. They may be readily observed in the bark of
certain trees, such as the Cork-oak, the Beech, and the Cedar of
Lebanon, in which they produce externally little swellings,
which, when examined, are found to be owing to the presence
of these nodules, which have a more or less irregular ovoid ( fig.
220) or spheroidal form, and woody texture. Upon making a
transverse or vertical section of one of them (fig. 221), we
observe a central pith surrounded by a variable number of
concentric rings of wood according to its age, as in the wood
of ordinary trees, and traversed by medullary rays ; in fact, it
has all the structural parts found in the branch or trunk
Fie. 220.
Fig. 220. Embryo-bud or embryo-nodule of the Cedar.— Fig. 221. A vertical
section of the same surrounded by the bark.
of a Dicotyledonous tree. In the course of their develop-
raent, these embryo-buds frequently reach the wood, with the
growth of which they then become confounded, and thus form
what are called knobs. In other cases a number of nodules
raeeting together on the surface form an excrescence. That such
nodules are analogous to buds is further proved by the fact of
their sometimes producing a short branch from their summit,
as in the Cedar of Lebanon and Olive. Those of the latter
plant, under the name of Uovili, are really employed for its
propagation.
3. Accessory Buds.—The third cause of irregularity in the
distribution and appearance of branches arises from the multi-
plication of buds in the axils of leaves. Thus instead of one
bud, we have in rare cases two, three, or more, thus situated
(figs. 222-224) ; such are called accessory buds. These buds
may be either placed one above the other, or side by side.
Thus, in certain Willows, Poplars, and Maples, we have three
buds placed side by side (fig. 222, a), which frequently give rise
FASCIATED BRANCHES.—EXTRA-AXILLARY BRANCHES. 113
to a corresponding number of branches. In some Aristolochias,
in Walnuts (jig. 223, b), in the Tartarian Honeysuckle (jig.
224, b), and other plants, the accessory buds are arranged one
‘above the other. Sometimes the uppermost bud alone develops
(fig. 223, b), as in the Walnut, and thus the branch which is
formed arises above the axil of the leaf, in which case it is said
to be extra-axillary. In the Tartarian Honeysuckle (fig. 224,
b), the axillary or lowest bud is that which forms the strongest
branch, over which a number of smaller branches are placed,
arising from the development of the accessory buds. In some
trees, as the Larch, and Ash, and frequently in herbace-
ous plants, these accessory buds, instead of forming separate
branches, become more or less united, and the branches thus
HIG. oes PIG. 2235 Bie. 224.
(2.
ry
Fig. 222, Branch of a species of Maple with three buds,
a, placed side by side. Fig. 223. A piece of a
branch of the Walnut-tree. p. The petiole having
in its axil a number of buds placed one above the
other, the uppermost, b, most developed. Fig. 224,
A piece ofa branch of the Tartarian Honeysuckle
( Lonicera tartarica), bearing a.leaf,7, with numerous
buds, b, in its axil, placed above one another, the
lowermost being the most developed.
produced then assume a more or less flattened or thickened
appearance. Such abnormal branches are commonly called
fasciated. These branches may, however, be produced by a
single bud developing in an irregular manner.
Besides the above three principal sources of abnormal or
irregular development of the branches, some minor ones also
arise from the formation of extra-axillary branches in other ways
than those just alluded to. Thus the stem may adhere to the ’
lower part of the branch, which then appears to arise from above
the axil of the leaf ; or to the petiole, when it appears to arise
from below it. Other irregularities also occur, but they are of
little importance compared with those already mentioned.
3. Or THE Forms AND KINDS OF STEM AND BRANCHES.—In
form the stem is usually more or less cylindrical, while in other
I
114 FORMS AND KINDS OF STEM.
cases it becomes angular, and in some plants, particularly in
those of certain natural orders, as the Cactaceze, Orchidacez,
Euphorbiaceew, &c., it assumes a variety of anomalous forms.
Thus in many epiphytical Orchids it becomes more or less®
oval or rounded, and has received the name of Pseudobulb
(fig. 256, b, b) ; in the Melon-cactus it is globular ; and in other
Cacti it is columnar, more or less flattened, or jointed. In the
Tortoise or Elephant’s-foot Plant (Testudinaria elephantipes), it
forms a large rough irregular mass.
WiG.w220: Fic. 226. Figs 22%
Fig, 225, Climbing stem of the
Ivy. a, a, Aerial roots.
Fig. 227, Twining stem of a
species of Convolvulus,
Fig, 226. Twining stem of Honeysuckle,
In general, stems possess a firm texture, and can therefore
readily sustain themselves in an upright position ; but at other
times they are too weak to support themselves, and then either
trail along the ground, or attach themselves to some other plant
or neighbouring object. In such cases, if they trail on the
ground, they are said to be procwmbent or prostrate ; or if when
thus reclining they rise towards their extremity, they are decwm-
bent ; or if they rise obliquely from near the base, ascending.
But if, instead of resting on the ground, they take an erect
position and cling to neighbouring plants or other objects for
support, they are called climbing if they proceed ina more or less
HERBS.—SH RUBS.—TREES. 115
rectilineal direction, as in the Passion-flower (fig. 213), where they
adhere to other bodies by means of little twisted ramifications
called tendrils, v, v; or in the Ivy, where they emit little aerial
roots from their sides, by which they cling to neighbouring
bodies (fig. 225, a, a). Or if such stems twist round other
bodies in a spiral manner they are said to be twining ; and this
twining may take place either from right to left, as in some
Convolvuli (fig. 227), French Bean, and Dodder ; or from left
to right, as in the Honeysuckle (jig. 226), Hop, and Black
Bryony ; or first in one direction and then in another, irregu-
larly, as in the White Bryony. The climbing and twining
stems of cold and temperate regions are generally herbaceous
or die annually, although we have exceptions in those of the
Ivy, Clematis, and Honeysuckle, which are woody. In tropical
climates these woody climbing and twining stems often occur ;
these are called lianas or lianes, and they frequently ascend to
the tops of the loftiest trees, and then either descend to the
ground again, or pass to the branches of neighbouring trees.
The stem has received many names according to its nature.
Thus it is called a cawlis in plants which are herbaceous, or die
down annually to the surface of the ground; a trunk, as in
trees, where it is woody and perennial ; a culm, as in most
Grasses and Sedges, where it presents a jointed appearance ;
and a caudex or stipe, as in Tree-ferns and Palms.
Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees.—From the nature, duration, and
mode of branching of stems, plants have been arranged from the
earliest periods in three divisions, called, respectively, Herbs,
Shrubs, and Trees. Thus, those plants which have stems that die
down annually to the surface of the ground are called herbs ;
while those with perennial aerial woody stems are denominated
trees or shrubs according to circumstances, as described below.
Herbs are also further characterised as annual, biennial, and
perennial. Thus they are annual when they only live through one
season, that is, between the spring and winter ; biennial, when
they spring from seed in one season, and die in the second, after
producing flowers, fruit, and seed ; and perennial, when they ger-
minate from seed in one season, and continue to live through
a succession of years, and annually send up an herbaceous
stem. The term tree is applied if the branches are perennial
and arise from a trunk. When the branches are perennial and
proceed directly from, or near to, the surface of the ground, with-
out any trunk, or where this is very short, a shrub is formed ;
this when low and branched very much at the base, is denomi-
nated abush. The term wndershrub is also applied to a small shrub
which is intermediate in its characters between an ordinary
shrub and an herb; thus, when some of its branches generally
perish annually, while others are more or less permanent. All
the above kinds of stems are connected by intermediate links,
so that in many cases they are by no means well defined.
12
116 KINDS OF STEM.
If the terminal bud of a stem is continually developed, the
axis upon which it is placed is prolonged upwards from the ©
earth to its summit, giving off branches from its side, as in most
Firs ; such a stem has been termed excwrrent. When the main
stem is arrested in its growth by the process of flowering,
or some other cause, and the lateral buds become the more
vigorously developed, so that the stem appears to divide into a
number of irregular branches, it is said to be deliquescent. These
different kinds of growth influence materially the general form
of trees. Thus, those with excurrent stems are usually more or
less conical or pyramidal ; while those with deliquescent stems
are rounded or spreading. The general appearance of trees also
depends upon the nature of the lateral branches, and upon the
angle which they make with the stem from which they arise.
Thus, if the branches are firm, and spring at an acute angle to
the stem, as.in the Cypress and Lombardy Poplar, they are
erect, and the tree is more or less narrowed ; if they come off at
a right angle, the branches are spreading, as in the Oak and
Cedar ; if the angle is very obtuse, or if the branches bend
downwards from their origin, as in the Weeping Ash and Weep-
ing Elm, they are termed weeping or pendulous ; or in other cases
this weeping appearance arises from the weakness and flexibility
of the branches, as in the Weeping Willow and Weeping Birch.
The relative length also of the upper and lower branches will
give rise to corresponding differences in the general appearance
of trees. Thus, if the lower branches are the longest and be-
come shorter as they approach the top, the whole will take the
form of a cone or pyramid, as in the Spruce Fir ; if the middle
branches are longer than those of the base and apex, the general
appearance will be rounded or oval, as in the Horsechestnut ;
if those of the top are the most developed, the form will be
umbrella-like, as in the Italian Pine.
Kinps oF STEM AND BrancHEes.—We have seen that the
stem (page 73), when first developed, always passes upwards,
while the root at the same time passes downwards. In many
instances this original direction of the stem is continued more or
less throughout its life, but in other plants the terminal bud
either acquires an irregular development, and the stem runs
along, or remains under, the surface of the ground; or it
perishes altogether at a very early period, and an axillary
branch takes its place, which also, by developing laterally, will
likewise continue near the surface of the ground, or burrow
beneath it. From these peculiarities in the direction and growth
of stems and branches, we have a number of modifications which
we now proceed to describe. These are best treated of, in a
practical point of view, under two heads, namely, those which
are aerial, and those which are subterranean. We can, however,
by no means draw a distinct line between the modifications of
stem which these two divisions respectively contain, as certain
THE RUNNER.—THE OFFSET. bh 4
forms occasionally pass from one into the other, thus being both
subterranean and aerial at different points, or at different
periods of their course.
1. Aerial Modifications of the Stem and Branches.—Of these
the more important are the runner, the offset, the stvlon, the
sucker, and the rhizome.
a. The Runner or Flagellum (fig. 228).—This is an elon-
Fic, 228, ~ }
Fic. 229,
Fig.228, A portion of the common Strawberry plant. a’. An axis producing
a tuft of leaves atits extremity, the upper of which, 7, are well developed
and green, and the lower rudimentary. From the axil of one of the latter
a second axis or runner, «”, arises, bearing a rudimentary leaf, 7’, near the
middle, and a cluster of leayes, 7, at Its end, a”, A third axis produced
in a similar manner to the former. 7,7. Roots or rootlets, Fig. 229.
Offset of Sempervivum. Fig, 230. Plant showing the process of layering.
gated, slender, prostrate branch, a’, sent off from the base of
the stem, and giving off at its extremity leaves, 7, and roots, f,
and thus producing a new plant, which extends itself in a similar
manner. This is well seen in the common Strawberry.
b. The Offset (fig. 229).—This is a short, prostrate, more or
118 STOLON.—SUCKER.—RHIZOME.
less thickened branch, which produces at its apex small roots
and atuft of leaves, and thus forms an independent plant, which
is capable of producing other offsets in alike manner. It is well
seen in the Houseleek. This differs very little from the ordinary
runner, except in being shorter, somewhat thicker, and its leaves
distinctly tufted.
c. The Stolon.—This is a branch given off above the surface
of the earth, but which curves or proceeds downwards towards
it, and when it reaches a moist spot it sends rootlets into the
ground, and a stem upwards into the air, and being thus
capable of acquiring food independently of its parent, it ulti-
mately forms a new individual. The Currant, Gooseberry, and
other plants, multiply in this way. All such plants are said to
be stoloniferous. Gardeners imitate this natural formation of
new individuals when they lay down a branch into the earth,
from which a new plant is ultimately formed; this process is
technically called layering (fig. 230).
Mire Heit Hig. 2328
Figs. 231 and 232. Suckers of species of Mentha.
d. The Sucker (figs. 231 and 232).—This is a branch which
arises from the stem below the surface of the earth, and which,
after proceeding in a horizontal direction for a certain distance,
and giving off little roots or rootlets in its course, turns upwards
into the air, and ultimately forms an independent plant. Plants
thus producing suckers are said to be swrculose. Good examples
of this kind of stem are seen in the Rose, the Raspberry, and
the Mint. The sucker can scarcely be said to differ in any
essential particulars from the stolon, except that it is originally
subterranean, and ultimately aerial; whereas the stolon is first
aerial, and then subterranean.
e. The Rhizome or Rootstock (figs. 233 and 234).— This is a
prostrate thickened stem or branch running along the surface of
the ground, or more generally partly beneath it, and giving off
small roots or rootlets from its lower side, and leaves and buds
RHIZOME.—CREEPING STEM. 119
from itsupper. These stems sometimes creep for along distance
in this way, and have their upper surface then marked by scars
(fig. 234, c, c), which are caused by the falling off of former
leaves, or of aerial herbaceous branches or flower-stalks, by which
character they may be commonly distinguished, even when in a
dried state, from true roots. Such stems are found in the Iris,
Sweet-flag, Ginger, Turmeric, Solomon's Seal, Fern, and many
other plants. In some cases these rhizomes are placed in a
vertical direction in the earth (erect rhizomes), and they then
bear a great resemblance to roots, as in the Devil’s-bit Scabious
(Scabiosa succisa), where such a rhizome is commonly known as
a premorse root (fig. 272). The rhizome being generally, as we
have seen, partly beneath the surface of the ground, forms there-
fore a natural transition to the description of subterranean stems.
Fic. 233.
(
\\, '
\
|
ae
Fig. 233. A portion of the rhizome of a species of J7is.——Fig. 234. A por-
tion of the rhizome of the Solomon’s Seal (Polygonatum multifiorum). 6.
Remains of the flowering stem of the present year. 0b’, Terminal bud.
c, c. Sears produced by the decay of the flowering stems of the two pre-
ceding years. 7, 7. Rootlets.
2. Subterranean Modifications of the Stem and Branches.—A\
these modifications of the stem and branches were formerly con-
founded with roots, and they are still thus designated in common
language. They are distinguished, however, from roots, either
by the presence of buds, or by scales (cataphyllary leaves), or by
the presence of scars on their surface which are produced by the
falling off of former leaves or buds. The different kinds of aerial
stems described above, when partially subterranean, may be also
distinguished in a similar manner from roots.
a. The Creeping Stem (fig. 235).—This kind of stem is called
in common language a creeping root. It is a slender branch
which runs along beneath the surface of the earth, emitting small
roots from its lower side, and buds from its upper, in the same
manner as the rhizome, and it is considered by many botanists
as a variety of that stem. The only differences existing between
the creeping stem as defined above and the rhizome, are its
120 CREEPING STEM.—TUBER.
more slender form, its commonly greater length, and its
entirely subterranean course. The Sand Sedge (Carex arenaria)
( fig. 235), and the Couch Grass (Triticwm repens), afford
good examples of this stem. In some instances such stems
serve important purposes in nature ; thus those of the Sand
Sedge or Carex, by spreading through the sand of the sea-
shore, and in this way binding it together, prevent it from being
washed away by the receding waves. Others, like those of the
Couch Grass, are the pest of the agriculturist, who finds it very
difficult to destroy such stems by cutting them into pieces, for
as every node is capable of developing a leaf-bud and roots,
each of the pieces into which they will then be divided may
become an independent individual ; and therefore such a
Bree 23h.
Fig. 235. Creeping stem of the Sand Carex (Carer arenaria). 1. Terminal
bud by which the stem continues to elongate, 2, 3, 4. Shoots produced
from former buds.
process, instead of destroying such plants, only serves the
purpose of still further multiplying them by placing the
separated parts under more tavourable circumstances for
development.
b. The Tuber (figs. 236 and 237).—This is a subterranean
stem or branch, arrested in its growth, and excessively enlarged
by the deposition of starch or other nutritious substance in its
tissue. It has upon its surface a variable number of little
buds, or eyes as they are sometimes called, from which new
plants are ultimately formed. The presence of these’ buds
indicates its nature asa kind of stem. This stem-like nature
of the tuber is also clearly proved by the practice commonly
adopted for propagating potatoes, the tuber being cut into
pieces, each piece containing one or more buds. When these
pieces are placed under favourable circumstances for develop-
ment, the buds are at first nourished by the matter which
surrounds them, and are thus enabled to put forth roots and
—————————
TUBER. —TUBERCULE. 121
obtain nourishment for themselves, and in this manner to form
independent plants. The Potato (fig. 236), and Jerusalem
Artichoke (jig. 237), are good illustrations of tubers. A case
was reported in the Gardener’s Chronicle of a Potato plant in
which the buds in the axils of the true leaves above ground
Fig. 286.
Fig. 236, Tubers of the common Potato (Solanum tuberosum).
showed a tendency to form tubers (fig. 238), by which their
analogy to stems was also clearly indicated. The stem-like
nature of the tuber is likewise corroborated by the common
experience of gardeners, who, by surrounding the lower part
Pie. 237. Fig. 238.
Fig. 237. Tubers of the Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus),——
Fig. 238. A monstrous branch or bud of the common Potato. From the
Gurdener’s Chronicle.
of the aerial stems of the Potato with earth, convert the
buried buds (which under usual circumstances would have pro-
duced ordinary branches) into tubers, and thus increase their
number.
The tubercules of certain terrestrial Orchids and other plants
122 KINDS OF BULBS.
(figs. 261-263), which are described by us as enlarged roots, are
considered by some botanists as tubers. The tuber, however,
as defined above, is well characterised, and, in practice at least,
should be distinguished from them.
ce. The Bulb.—This is a sh8rtened, usually subterranean
stem or branch, generally in the form of a rounded or flattened
plate or disc (figs. 239-241, a), which bears on its surface a
number of fleshy scales or cataphyllary leaves ; or it may be
considered as a subterranean bud of a scaly nature which sends
off roots or rootlets from below (fig. 241, b), and a flowering
stem upwards (fig. 239, p, and figs. 240 and 241, d). The scales
are generally more or less thickened by deposition of nutritive
matters ; these, therefore, serve as reservoirs of nutriment for
the future use of the plant, just as in other cases the enlarged
stems and roots serve a similar purpose. The true bulb is only
Fig. 239. Fia. 240. Fic. 241.
Fig. 239. Vertical section of the scaly bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or
stem. 0. Lateral bulb or clove. p. Flowering stem. c. Scales.—Fig.
240. Vertical section of the scaly bulb of the Lily. Fig. 241. Scaly bulb
of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem. }. Fibrous roots. ¢, Scales. d.
Flowering stem, The letters refer to the same parts in the two latter
figures,
found in Monocotyledons, as in the Lily (figs. 240 and 241),
Onion (fig. 242), and Tulip. The scales of a bulb, like the
leaves of a branch, have the power of developing in their axils
new bulbs (fig. 239, b); these are called by gardeners cloves, and
their presence is an additional proof of the analogy of a bulb
to a branch or bud.
There are two kinds of bulbs commonly distinguished by
botanists, namely, the twnicated (fig. 242), and the scaly (figs.
240 and 241). The tunicated bulb is well seen in the Onion (jig.
242) and Squill. In this kind of bulb the inner scales, which
are thick and fleshy, enclose each other in a concentric manner,
and are covered externally by thin and membranous ones,
which form a covering or twnic to them, and hence the name
timicated or coated, which is applied toit. In the scaly, or naked
bulb, as it is also called (figs. 240 and 241), there are no outer
BULB.—BULBLETS.—CORM. 123
dry scales ; but it is entirely composed of thick, fleshy, more or
less flattened ones, which simply overlap one another.
The young bulbs (cloves) (fig. 259, b), which are developed in
the axils of the scales of bulbs, either remain attached to their
parent, which they then commonly destroy by absorbing all its
stored-up nutriment ; or more commonly they become separated
in the course of growth, and form independent plants.
In the axils of the leaves of certain plants, such as some
species of Lily (fig. 243, a, a), the Coralwort (Dentaria bulbifera),
and Pilewort (Ranwuneuius Ficaria), small conical or rounded
fleshy bodies are produced, which are of the nature of bulbs,
and are hence called aerial bulbs from their position, or from
their smaller size bulbils or bulblets. They differ from ordinary
buds in their fleshy nature, and by spontaneously separating
Hines 249: Fic. 245.
Fig. 242. Tunicated bulb of the Onion. Fig. 243. Stem of a species of Lily
(Lilium bulbiferum) bearing bulbils or bulblets, a, a, in the axils of its
leaves,
from their parent, and producing new individuals when placed
under favourable circumstances ; and from true bulbs from their
small size and aerial position. These aerial bulbs are not con-
fined, as is the case with true bulbs, to Monocotyledons, as may be
seen by the examples given.
d. The Corm.—This form of stem, like the true bulb, is only
found in Monocotyledons, as, for example, the Colchicum (iy.
246), and Crocus (figs. 244 and 245). It is an enlarged solid
subterranean stem, of 2 more or less rounded or oval figure, and
commonly covered externally by a few thin membranous scales
or cataphyllary leaves. By some botanists it is considered as
a kind of bulb, in which the stem is much enlarged, and the
scales reduced to thin membranes. Practically a corm may
124 THE CORM.
be distinguished from a bulb by its solid nature (fig. 245, a, b),
the bulb being formed of flattened imbricated or concentrically
Fie. 244. Fie. 249.
Fig. 244, Corms of Crocus sativus. a, b. The new corms, arising from c, the
apex of the old or parent corm. Fig. 245, Vertical section of the former.
The letters refer to the same parts.
arranged scales. The corm is known to be a kind of stem by
producing from its surface one or more buds, in the form of
young corms, as in the Crocus (fig. 244, a, b),
where they proceed from the apex, ¢, and ulti-
mately destroy their parent by feeding upon
its accumulated nutriment. These new corms,
in a future year, also produce others near
their apex, and these by developing at the
expense of their parents also destroy them
in like manner, and these again form other
corms by which they are themselves destroyed.
In this manner the new corms, as they are
successively developed from the apex of the
old corms, come gradually nearer and nearer
to the surface of the earth.
In the Colchicum (jig. 246), the new corm
a’ is developed on one side of the old corm
Fig. 246, Colchicum. near its base, instead of from the apex, as in
Fes ets or T°" the Crocus. This also feeds upon its parent,
Shrivelled remains and ultimately destroys it, and is in like
eer ere manner destroyed the next year by its own
present year. qa”, progeny. Thus, in taking up such a corm
AS ortega gat of carefully, we find (jig. 246), a, the shrivelled
vee OF BEXt Gorm of last year ; and a’, that of the present
i season, which, if cut vertically, shows @’”, the
corm in a young condition for the next year. Adl corms, like
bulbs, contain starch or other nutritious matters, which are
stored up for the future use of their offspring.
Fic. 246.
THE TRUE OR PRIMARY ROOT. 125
Section 2. Tur Root or DeEscEeNDING AXIS.
Tue root is defined as that part of the axis which at its first
development in the embryo takes an opposite direction to the
stem, avoiding the light and air, and hence called the descend-
ing axis, and fixing the plant to the soil or to the substance upon
which it grows, or suspended in the water when the plant is
placed on the surface of, or in, that medium. That part of the
root which joins the stem is called the base, and the opposite
. extremity the apex.
We distinguish two varieties of roots, namely, the Tvrwe or
Primary, and the Adventitious or Secondary.
RTE VEEL
Fig. 247. Root apex (Polygonum Fagopyrum), median longitudinal section,
v. Rudiment of a vessel. pc, Pericambium—the outside boundary of the
plerome or procambium. e, Dermatogen, between which and pe is the
periblem. h, Root-cap or pileorhiza. «a. Apical cells, After De Bary.
1. TRvuE oR Primary Root.—The true root, which, except in
rare cases, can only exist in Dicotyledons (page 134), is formed
at first by additions made within the extremity of the radicle
(fig. 248, a) of the embryo; and the mode in which it takes place
may be thus stated :—Growth commences by the multiplication -
of cells by division just within the apex of the radicle; the mass
of cells thus formed becomes gradually differentiated into three
layers, an outer, inner, and intermediate. From the inner layer,
126 GROWTH OF THE ROOT.
which is termed the plerome or procambium (fig. 247), is subse-
quently developed the fibro-vascular portion of the root, 1,
the cortical layers being formed from the intermediate layer or
periblem, whilst the outer single layer of cells, known as the
dermatogen, e, in addition to giving rise to the epidermis, forms
the cap-shaped mass of tissue called the root-cap or pileorhiza,
h, by which the growing apex of the root is always clothed.
All roots (fig. 248, a) and the branches of a root grow in length
in a similar manner to the radicle as above described; hence
roots do not grow throughout their entire length like stems, but
only within their extremities, which are continually pushed
forward and renewed. Thus the apex of the root is always
clothed by a layer of denser tissue which is commonly known
Fre. 249,
eee
NG
=
i:
4
Fig. 248. Young root of the Maple, magnified. a.The part where growth
is taking place. 6. The original extremity. c,c. Fibrils or root-hairs.
After Gray. Fig. 249. Highly magnified vertical section of an Orchis
root. sp. The so-called spongiole, c, c, Parenchymatous cells. fv. Wood-
cells and vessels.
as the root-cap (fig. 248, 6). All the branches of a root are
likewise terminated by a similar cap (fig. 250, h, h). This cap
forms in fact a sort of protecting shield to the young extremities
of the root; and its external cells are commonly thrown off as new
cells are formed within them. (See also Development of Roots,
in Physiological Botany.) These cap-like coverings at the extre-
mities of the root were formerly regarded as special organs, and
called spongioles or spongelets (fig. 249, sp), under the idea that
they absorbed fluid for the use of the plant, in the same manner
as a sponge sucks up water. But it will be seen from the above
description of the growth of roots that such structures have no
existence. Roots increase in diameter by the formation of annual
layers of wood, much in the same manner as stems.
At first the elongating growing extremities of the root con-
STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT. 127
sist entirely of parenchymatous cells (figs. 248, a, and 249, c);
wood-cells and vessels (fig. 249, fv), however, soon make their
appearance, and are constantly added to below by the new tissue
formed as the root continues to lengthen. When the root is fully
developed, these vessels and wood-cells generally form a central
mass of wood (figs. 249, fv, and 250, f), in which there is com-
monly no pith, and no medullary sheath, but the medullary rays
exist as in the stem. Roots, however, differ from stems in the
arrangement of the parts of their fibro-vascular bundles. Thus
in roots, the phloém or liber portions alternate with the xylem or
woody portions, instead of being placed external to them as in
stems ; and some other minor differences also occur. Externally
there is a true bark or cortex (fig. 250, 7, 7), which is also
covered when young by a modified epidermis without stomata
(fig. 128), and which, as we have seen, is sometimes called
epiblema (page 60). This epidermis is also furnished with hair-
like prolongations, which are termed root-hairs or fibrils (figs.
128, and 248, c, c). The latter are especially evident upon young
growing roots, and as these ad-
vance in age they perish, while
the tissue from which they were
prolonged becomes at the same
time harder and firmer, and is
converted gradually into cork-
tissue.
Roots have no leaves, and
normally no buds, hence they
have no provision for regular
ramification ; but they appear to
divide and subdivide according
to circumstances without any
definite order; hence while the
branches of the stem have a
more or less symmetrical ar-
rangement, as already described,
those of the root are unsymme- 4
trical. The branches of the root Fig. 250. Longitudinal section of the
are also always developed endo- root of the common Bean (faba vul-
Fic. 250.
; garis), magnified five times. 7, 7.
genously (fig. 250, n, 1), thatis,
they are deep-seated, being de-
rived from the pericambium (ig.
247, pc) or outer layer of the
Cortex of the main root. jf. Fibro-
vascular bundles. , n, 2, . Lateral
roots in different stages, developing
from the pericambium and ultimately
bursting through the cortex. h, h.
Root-cap, or pileorhiza, of the lateral
plerome or procambium. As they
increase in length they ultimately
push through the tissues which are superficial to them, namely,
the cortical layers and epidermis of the main root, which are
therefore not continuous with the similar tissues of the branches
(fig. 250, 7, 7). The branches are thus merely repetitions of
the original axis from which they are developed, and grow,
roots. After Prantl.
128 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF STEMS AND ROOTS.
as already noticed, in a similar manner, and, like it, have
commonly neither buds nor leaves. To this latter character,
however, there are many exceptions, for although the root has
no power of forming regular buds, yet adventitious buds may
be developed, in the same manner as we have seen that under
certain circumstances they may be produced from any paren-
chymatous tissue (page 111). The power which the root thus
possesses of producing adventitious buds may be observed in
the Plum-tree, the Moutan Peony, the Japan Anemone, and
many other plants. The latter plant especially exhibits this
tendency in a remarkable degree.
Distinctive Characters of Stems and Roots.—From the above
general description which has been given of the growth, struc-
ture, and characteristics of the true or primary root, we find
that the chief distinctive characters between it and the stem in
Dicotyledons may be summed up as follows:—1st. The ten-
dency of the root at its first formation to develop in an opposite
direction to the stem, and thus withdraw from the light and air.
2nd. By not growing throughout the entire length of its newly
formed parts like a stem, but only by additions just within its
apex, which is covered by a root-cap or pileorluza. 3rd. The root
under ordinary circumstances, when fully developed, has no pith
or medullary sheath. 4th. It has no true epidermis with stomata,
but in place of this an integument composed of cells without
stomata, to which the name of epiblema has been given. 5th.
It has no foliage leaves, or scales (cataphyllary leaves). 6th. It
has no regular buds, and has consequently no provision for a
regular ramification.
2. ADVENTITIOUS OR SEcoNDARY Roots.—This name is ap-
plied to all roots which are not produced by the direct elonga-
tion of the radicle of the embryo; because such roots, instead
of proceeding from a definite point as is the case with the true
or primary root, are, to a certain extent at least, accidental in
their origin, and dependent upon favourable external circum-
stances for their development. All branches of a true root,
except those originally produced from its apex, are of this nature,
as are also those of the different modifications of the stem, such
as the rhizome, runner, sucker, stolon, corm, bulb, &c. ; those of
slips and cuttings of plants, &c. ; and those of nearly all Mono-
cotyledons and of Acrogens or Cormophytes. In some plants
roots are also developed from the stem or branches of plants
in the air, and are hence called Aerial Roots. Such roots are
likewise necessarily of an adventitious nature.
The adventitious roots of Monocotyledons make their first
appearance as little more or less conical bodies formed by divi-
sion and subsequent growth of the cells constituting the
pericambium or outer layer of the plerome or procambium ;
these soon break through the tissue which envelops them, and
appear externally, at first as parenchymatous elongations, but
ADVENTITIOUS OR SECONDARY ROOTS. 129
ultimately having a similar structure to that of a monocotyle-
donous stem. Where they break through they are surrounded at
the base by a kind of sheath or collar called a coleorhiza (fig. 251,
co). They also grow by additions within their extremities like
true roots, and are terminated like them by a root-cap or pileo-
rhiza. In the adventitious aerial roots of the Screw-pine (jig.
199, 2), and some other plants, the pileorhiza may be well seen in
the form of a cap-like covering at the extremity of each root
or branch of aroot. The pileorhiza of a monocotyledonous root,
like that of a true root, is commonly thrown off as development
takes place behind it; but in certain aquatic plants, as in the
Duckweed (jig. 252), it is persistent, and appears in the form
of along sheath over the end of the root; and is continually
pushed onwards by the development of the cells within the apex.
ETE Jol Fic. 252. Fig. 253.
Fig. 251. Germinating embryo of the Oat. 1. Rootlets, each with a sheath
(coleorhiza), co, at its base. c. Cotyledon, g. Young stem.— Fig. 252.
Magnified plants of the Lesser Duckweed (Lemna minor), with the roots
covered by a long root-cap (pileorhiza). Fig. 253. Lower part of the stem
and root of the common Stock, 7. The tap-root with its branches. c. The
base of the root or point of union between the stem and root which was
formerly termed the neck. ¢. Thestem. j, 7. Leaves. 6,0. Buds in process
of development into branches,
The adventitious roots of Dicotyledons arise in a somewhat
similar manner to those of Monocotyledons, making their first
appearance as little conical bodies formed from the substance of
the pericambium, and ultimately breaking through the bark and
appearing on the surface. They also grow by additions within
their extremities, and each is protected by a pileorhiza, and has
at its base a coleorhiza. They have under ordinary circum-
stances a similar structure to that of true roots.
K
130 TAP-ROOT.—AERIAL ROOTS.
Adventitious roots generally, like true roots, have no leaves
or buds, and when subterranean have no epidermis furnished
with stomata; hence when derived from Dicotyledons, they are
distinguished from the stem by the same characters as that of
the true root. The adventitious roots of Monocotyledons and
of Cormophytes have a similar structure to their respective
stems, as will be afterwards noticed. Aerial roots are, however,
from their exceptional position, frequently furnished with a true
epidermis and stomata, and are sometimes of a green colour;
but in other respects they resemble ordinary adventitious roots.
The true or primary root, from its being formed by direct
elongation from the radicle, by additions made within its
extremity, generally continues to grow downwards for some
Fie. 254.
Fig. 254, The Banyan-tree (Ficus indica).
time at least, and hence forms a main trunk or axis from which
the branches are given off (fig. 253, 7). Such a root is termed
a tap-root, and may be commonly observed in Dicotyledons.
On the contrary, the roots of Monocotyledons and Cormophytes,
which are adventitious, are usually of nearly equal size, and
given off in variable numbers from the radicle (fig. 251, 7).
Some adventitious roots, such as those called aerial, require a
more particular notice.
Aerial Roots.—The simplest forms of aerial roots are seen in
the Ivy (jig. 225, a, a), and some other climbing plants. In
these plants they are essentially intended for mechanical support,
and not to obtain food : this they obtain by their ordinary roots
fixed in the soil. It is probable, however, that in the Ivy and
other climbing plants some food may be taken up by these roots.
In many other plants the aerial roots which are given off by the
EPIPHYTES OR AIR PLANTS. 131
stem or branches descend to the ground, and fixing themselves
there, not only act as mechanical supports, but also assist the
true root in obtaining food. Such roots are well seen in the
Screw-pine (fig. 199, 2), in the Banyan or Indian Fig-tree
(fig. 254), and in the Man-
grove-tree (fig. 255). In the
latter tree these aerial roots
frequently form the entire
support of the stem, both me-
chanically and otherwise, in
consequence of this decaying
at its lower part.
Epiphytes or Air-plants.—
In these plants none but aerial
roots are produced (fig. 256,
a, a), and as these never reach
the soil they cannot obtain any
food from it, but must draw
their food entirely from the air
in which they are developed ;
hence the name of air-plants
which is applied tothem. They
are also called epiphytes, be-
cause they commonly erow Fig. 255, The Mangrove-trce (Ithizophora
upon other plants. Most Or- a ea
chids (fig. 256) and Tillandsias afford us illustrations of epiphy-
tical plants. The roots of such plants are commonly green, and
possess a true epidermis and stomata ; in which particulars, there-
Fie. 255.
Fie. 256. £
if i" |
iy ZL
Fig, 256. Orchidaceous plants, to show their mode of growth. a, a. Aerial
roots. 0, 6. Pseudobulbs.
fore, these aerial roots present exceptions, as already noticed, to
what is commonly observed in other roots. The aerial roots of
Orchids have also a layer of usually very delicate fibrous cells
K 2
132 PARASITES.
(page 45), placed over the true epidermis, to which the name of
root-sheath (velamen radicunv) has been applied by Schleiden,
who also calls such roots coated roots. .
Besides these epiphytes, there is another very interesting class
of plants which are called narasites : these we must now notice.
Parasites.—These are plants which not only grow upon
others, but which, instead of sending their roots into the air
and deriving their food from it, as is the case with the epi-
phytes, send them into the tissues of the plants upon which
they grow, and obtain nutriment from them. The plant which
they thus penetrate and feed upon is termed their host; and
their sucking roots are termed haustoria. The Mistletoe (Vis-
cum album), Broom-rapes (Orobanche), Dodders (Cuscuta) (fig.
Fic. 2957.
Fig. 258.
Fig. 257. Cuscuta or Dodder-plant.
Fig. 258. Flower and flower-bud
of Rafiesia Arnoldi, a parasitic plant
of Sumatra,
257), and Rafflesia Arnoldi (fig.258), may be cited as examples
of such plants. These parasites are of various natures: thus
some have green foliage, as the Mistletoe ; while many others
are pale, or brownish, or possess other tints than green, as the
Broom-rapes and Rafflesia. The latter plant is especially inter-
esting from its producing the largest flowers of any known
plant : thus the first flower which was discovered measured nine
feet in circumference, and weighed fifteen pounds.
Parasitical plants also vary in the degree of their parasitism ;
thus the Mistletoe and the greater number of parasites are, so
far as their roots are concerned, entirely dependent upon the
plants on which they grow for their food. Others, as the
Dodders, obtain their food at first, like other plants, by means
of the ordinary roots contained in the soil; but after having
arrived at a certain age, these perish, and they then derive their
food entirely from roots which penetrate the plants upon which
—
SAPROPHYTES.
DURATION OF ROOTS. 133
they grow ; others, again, continue throughout their life to derive
a portion of their food by means of roots imbedded in the soil.
It will thus be seen that parasites differ from other plants in
the fact that they do not live like them entirely on inorganic
matters, but derive at least some of their food in an assimilated
state from the plants on which they grow. Thus, when green
like the Mistletoe, they obtain a portion of their food, like
ordinary plants, from the air ; but if of other colours than green,
all their food is derived by their roots from the plants on which
they grow. It must also necessarily happen that parasites, by
living partially or entirely upon those plants on which they are
placed, frequently injure, and even destroy them, and in this
way great damage is done to Clover, Flax, and other crops in
this country and elsewhere.
Besides the parasites just described, there is also another
class of plants called saprophytes, which, whilst agreeing with
ordinary parasites in deriving their food from already formed
organic material, differ from this latter class in growing on dead
organic substances, and therefore assimilating such matter which
is in a state of decomposition or decay. Such plants as Mono-
tropa Hypopithys, Corallorhiza innata, Epipogium Gmelini, and
Neottia Nidus-avis, together with the greater number of Fungi,
are examples of Saprophytes.
Duration OF Roots.—Having now described the general
characters and structure of the true or primary root, and of the
adventitious or secondary root, we have in the next place to
allude to certain differences which roots present depending upon
their duration. Roots are thus divided into annual, bienwal,
and perennial.
1. Annual Roots.—These are produced by plants which grow
from seed, flower, and die the same year in which they are
developed. In such plants the roots are always of small size,
and either all spring from a common point as in annual Grasses
(fig. 259), or the true root is small, and gives off from its sides
a number of small branches. Such plants, in the process of
flowering and ripening their fruits and seeds, exhaust all the
nutriment they contain, and thus necessarily perish.
2. Biennial Roots.—These are produced by plants which
spring from seed one year, but which do not flower and ripen
their seeds till the second year, when they perish. Such roots
are commonly enlarged in various ways at the close of the first
season, in consequence of their tissues becoming gorged with
nutritious matters stored up for the support of the plant during
its flowering and fruiting the succeeding season. The Carrot
(fig. 267), and Turnip (fig. 269), afford us good examples of
biennial roots.
3. Perennial Roots.—These are the roots of plants which live
for many years. In some such plants, as the Dahlia (fig. 263),
and Orchis (figs. 261 and 262), the roots are the only portions
134. ROOTS OF DICOTYLEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS.
of the plant which are thus perennial, their stems dying down
to the ground yearly. Perennial roots are either of woody
consistence, or more or less fleshy as in those of biennial plants.
In the case of fleshy roots such as the Dahlia and Orchis, the
individual roots are not in themselves perennial, but usually
perish annually ; but before doing so, they produce other roots
from some point or points of their substance ; hence, while the
root as a whole is perennial, any particular portion may perish.
Woody roots are commonly perennial in themselves, and are
not renewed.
Roots oF DicoryLEpONS, MoNnocoryLEpons, AND ACcRO-
GENS.—We have already seen that the stem of Dicotyledons,
Monocotyledons, and Cormophytes, possesses certain character-
istic differences in its internal structure. The roots of such
plants in like manner possess similar distinctive struc-
tural characters, and also some others, which, although gene-
rally referred to previously, had better be briefly summed up
here.
1. The Root of Dicotyledons.—The root of these plants is
formed, as we have seen (page 125), by the direct elongation
of the radicle of the embryo from the formation of new tissue
just within its apex. Such a mode of root-development has
been called exorhizal, and a root thus formed is called a true
root.
It follows from this mode of development that Dicotyledons
have generally a tap-root (page 130) or descending axis (fig. 253,
v), from which branches are given off in various directions,
in the same manner as such plants have also an ascending axis
or stem, t, from which its branches arise. These tap-roots do
not, however, commonly descend far into the ground, but their
branches become much developed laterally ; in some cases even
more so than those of the stem ; while in others, as in plants of
the Gourd tribe, and commonly in succulent plants, to a less
extent.
In its internal structure the fully developed root essentially
resembles the stem, except that, as already noticed (page 127),
it has no pith or medullary sheath: hence the fibro-vascular
tissue forms acentral axis. This absence of pith and medullary |
sheath is general in herbaceous Dicotyledons ; but there are
some trees, as, for instance, the Walnut and Horsechestnut,
where the pith is prolonged downwards for some distance into
the root.
2. The Root of Monocotyledons.—In these plants the
radicle does not itself, except in rare cases, become prolonged
to form the root, but it generally gives off above its base one or
more branches of equal size, which separately pierce the radi-
cular extremity of the embryo, and become the roots (fig. 251,
v); and each of these roots is surrounded at its base, where it
pierces the integuments, with a kind of cellular collar, termed
ROOT OF CORMOPHYTES. 135
the coleorhiza, co. Such a mode of root-development has been
termed endorlizal. The roots of Monocotyledons are therefore
to be regarded as adventitious or secondary.
From their mode of development it rarely happens that the
plants of this class have tap-roots, but they have instead a
variable number of roots of nearly equal size (fig. 259), which
are accordingly often termed compound. There are, however,
exceptions to this, as for instance in the Dragon-tree (fig. 196),
which has a descending axis resembling the ordinary tap-root of
Dicotyledons.
Aerial roots are much more common in Monocotyledons than
in Dicotyledons. We have already referred to them in the
Screw-pine (jig. 199, 2), and other plants of this class. In
many Palms they are developed in great abundance towards the
base of the stem, by which this portion assumes a conical appear-
ance, which is at once evident by the contrast it presents to the
otherwise cylindrical stem of such trees. In its internal struc-
Bre. 259.
Fie. 260.
Fig. 259. Fibrous roots of a Grass.
Fig. 260. Coralline root.
ture the root of a Monocotyledon corresponds to that of the stem
in the same class of plants.
3. The Root of Cormophytes or Acrogens.—Such plants, as we
have seen (page 11), have no true seeds containing an embryo,
but are propagated by spores, from which roots are developed in
a very irregular manner ; and hence this mode of root-develop-
ment has been called heterorhizal. Such roots are therefore all
adventitious ; and resemble those of Monocotyledons in being
compound. When the stem has become developed it soon also
gives origin to other aerial adventitious roots, by which such
plants are often chiefly supported. Hence aerial roots are very
common in Acrogenous plants, as they are in Monocotyledons ;
indeed, in Tree-ferns, as in many Palms, these roots are so
abundant at the base of the stem, that they sometimes double,
triple, or still further increase its normal thickness (jig. 15, ra),
and hence give to the lower part of such stems a conical form.
136 FORMS OF ROOTS.
The internal structure of the root of Acrogenous plants in all
essential characters resembles that of the stem in the same class
of plants.
Forms oF Roots.—When a root divides at once into a
Fie. 262.
Fye. 261.
Fig. 261. Tubercular roots of an Orchis. Fig. 262, Palmated tubercules
of an Orchis.
Fic. 263. Fia. 264.
Fig. 263, Fasciculated roots of the Dahlia.—-VFig. 264. Nodulose root of the
common Dropwort (Spircwa Filipendula ).
number of slender branches or rootlets, or if the primary root
is but little enlarged, and gives off from its sides a multitude of
similar branches, itis called fibrous. Such roots occur commonly
FIBROUS AND TUBERCULATED ROOTS. 137
in annual plants, and may be well seen in annual Grasses (ig.
259), and in bulbous plants (jigs. 241 and 242). Coralline
Root.—This name is applied to a root which consists of a
number of succulent branches of nearly equal size, and arranged
like a piece of coral (jig. 260), as in Corallorhiza innata.
Tuberculated Root.—When some of the divisions of a root
become enlarged so as to form more or less rounded, oval, or
ovoid expansions (fig. 261), the root is said to be tuberculated,
and each enlargement is called a tubercule. Such a root occurs
in various terrestrial Orchids, the Jalap plant, &c. These
tubercules should not be confounded with tubers (page 120),
which have been already described as subterranean modifi-
Fic. 266. Exe. 267.
Fie. 265.
Fig. 265. Moniliform or beaded root.—— Fig. 266. Annulated root
ot Ipecacuanha ( Cephaélis Ipecacuanha).— Fig. 267. Conical
root of the common Carrot (Daucus Carota).
cations of the stem. The presence of buds on the latter at
once distinguishes them. In many Orchids, as for instance
Orchis maculata, the tubercules are divided at their extremities,
so that the whole somewhat resembles the human hand ( Jig.
262) ; they are then said to be palmated, and the root is also
thus termed. Or when a number of tubercules arise from a
common point, as in the Dahlia (jig. 263), and Bird’s-nest
Orchis (Neottia Nidus-avis), the root is said to be fasciculated or
tufted.
When the branches of a root are expanded only at certain
138 CONICAL, FUSIFORM, AND NAPIFORM ROOTS,
points, other terms are applied. Thus, when the branches are
enlarged irregularly towards the ends, as in the Common Drop-
wort, the root is nodulose (fig. 264); when the branches have
alternate contractions and expansions, so as to present a beaded
appearance, as in Pelargonium triste, the root is moniliform,
necklace-shaped, or beaded (fig. 265); and when the root has a
number of ring-like expansions on its surface, as in Ipecacuanha,
it is annulated (fig. 266).
The above forms of roots, with few exceptions, are those
which are commonly observed in plants which have no true tap-
root. Those which have now to be described owe their epenial
forms to modifications of the latter kind of root.
Fic. 268.
Fie, 269. Fic. 270.
Fig. 268. Fusiform root of the
common Radish (Raphanus
sativus),—§ Fig. 269. Napi-
form root of the Turnip
(Brassica Rapa). ——Fig.
270. Placentiform root of
the Sow-bread (Cyclamen
europeUum ).
Conical Root.—When a tap-root is broad at its base, and
tapers towards the apex, it is termed conical. The roots of
Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus), Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), and
Carrot (Daucus Carota) (fig. 267), are familiar examples of this
form of root. Fusiform Root.—This term is applied to a tap-
root which swells out a little below its base, and then tapers
upwards and downwards (jig. 268). The common Radish,
and Beet (Beta vulgaris), may be taken as examples. Napiform
Root.—This name is given to a root which is much swollen
at its base, and tapers below into a long point, the upper part
being of a somewhat globular form (fig. 269). It occurs in
CONTORTED AND PREMORSE ROOTS. 139
a variety of the common Radish—which is hence called the
Turnip-radish, in the common Turnip, and in some other plants.
When what would be otherwise a napiform root becomes com-
pressed both at its base and apex so that it has no tapering ex-
tremity, it is sometimes termed placentiform (fig. 270). It occurs
in the Sow-bread (Cyclamen ewropxum).
Some botanists regard the roots of the Radish, the Turnip,
the Cyclamen, and others, as really enlarged stems. We have,
however, placed them here, in accordance with the more com-
monly accepted views of their nature, and on account of
their importance in Practical Botany. The two next described
forms of roots are also more properly rhizomes, but it is conve-
nient to notice them here, and so long as their nature is under-
stood no confusion can arise.
line Oe BiG. 272.
Fig. 271. Contorted root or rhizome of Bistort (Polygonum Bistorta).—
Fig. 272. Przemorse root or vertical rhizome of the Devil’s-bit Scabious
(Scabiosa succisa). ;
Contorted or Twisted Root.—When a tap-root, instead of
proceeding in a more or less straight direction, becomes twisted,
as in the Bistort (jig. 271), the root is said to be contorted or
twisted. Premorse Root.—When the main root ends abruptly,
so as to present the appearance of having been bitten off, it is
called abrupt, truncated, or premorse (fig. 272). We have a
good example of this form of root in the Devil’s-bit Scabious,
which plant has received its common name from a superstitious
opinion connected with this peculiar bitten-off appearance of its
root.
140 THE LEAF OR PHYLLOME,
Section 3. Tue LEAF oR PHYLLOME.
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND PARTS OF THE LEAF,
THE leaf may be defined as a lateral development of the
stem or branch. In the lowest leaf-bearing plants, as Mosses,
it consists entirely of parenchyma; but in the higher classes
of plants the leaf usually contains, in addition to the paren-
chyma, a framework or skeleton, consisting of wood-cells or
liber-cells, or both, and vessels of different kinds, all of which
structures are in direct connexion with similar parts of the
stem or branch. We distinguish therefore, in such leaves, as
in the stem and branch, both a parenchymatous and a fibro-
vascular system—the former constituting the soft parts, and
the latter the hard parts, which act as a mechanical support to
the leaf, and, by their ramification, form what are called veins
or nerves. The leaf is therefore an appendicular organ of the
stem, but it differs from the latter organ in the order of its
development ; for while in the stem or branch the apex is the
youngest part, the reverse is the case in the leaf, where the
apex is first formed and consequently the oldest, and is gradu-
ally pushed outwards by the formation of the other parts between
it and the stem.
The leaves are usually of a green colour and of a more or
less flattened nature; but in the Stonecrop, Aloes, and many
other plants, they are thick and fleshy, when they are said to be
succulent. In other cases, as in the scales of the bud, the thin
membranous coverings of tunicated bulbs and corms, the fleshy
scales of bulbs, and the leaves of Broom-rapes, &c., they are
colourless, or of a yellowish or brownish colour, and of simple
structure ; they are then termed scales or cataphyllary leaves,
the ordinary leaves being called foliage leaves.
The part of the stem or branch from which a leaf arises is
called a node, and the space between two nodes an iternode.
The portion of the leaf next the stem is termed its base, the
opposite extremity the apex, and the lines connecting the base
and apex the margins. The leaf being commonly of a flattened
nature, has only two surfaces; but when succulent it has
frequently more than two surfaces. The terms upper and
lower are applied to the two surfaces of ordinary leaves, because
in by far the greater number of plants such leaves are placed
horizontally, so that one surface is turned upwards, and the
other downwards. There are certain leaves, however, which
are placed vertically, as those of some species of Acacia and
Eucalyptus, in which case the margins are turned upwards and
downwards instead of the surfaces. The angle formed by the
union of the upper surface of the leaf with the stem is called the
axil, and everything which arises out of that point is said to be
GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND PARTS OF THE LEAF. 141
axillary to the leaf; or, if from the stem above, or below the
axil, it is extra-axillary ; or, as more generally described when
above, supra-axillary ; if below, infra-axillary.
Duration and Fall of the Leaf.—The leaf varies as regards
its duration, and receives different names accordingly. Thus,
when it falls off soon after its appearance, it is said to be
fugacious or caducous; if it lasts throughout the season in
which it is developed, it is deciduous or annual; or if beyond
a single season, or until new leaves are developed, so that the
plant is never without leaves, it is persistent, everyreen, or
perennial.
When a leaf separates from the stem or branch, it either does
so by decaying upon it, when it is said to be non-articulated ; or by
an articulation, in which case it is articulated. The remains of a
non-articulated leaf, as they decay upon the stem, or branch, are
Fic. 273.
Rie. 274.
Fig. 273. Leaf and piece of the stem of Polygonum Hydropiper. 1. Lamina
or blade. p. Petiole. d. Sheath.—Fig. 274, Leaf and portion of a
branch of Saliz aurita. 7. Branch. 6. Bud, J. Lamina with the upper
portion removed, and attached by a petiole, p,to the stem. s,s. Caulinary
stipules.
sometimes called reliquix or induvie, and the stem or branch is
said to be induviate. Whena leaf separates by an articulation, it
leaves a scar or cicatrix (fig. 207, b, b).
Parts of the Leaf.—The leaf in the highest state of develop-
ment consists of three distinct parts ; namely, of an expanded
portion, which is usually more or less flattened (jigs. 273 and
274, 1), called the lamina, or blade; of a narrower portion,
by which the lamina is connected with the stem, termed the
petiole or leaf-stalk (p); and of a third or stipular portion,
which is situated at the base of the petiole, and which either
exists in the form of a sheath (fig. 275, d), encircling the stem,
or as two little leaf-like appendages on each side, which are
called stipules (fig. 274, s, s).
These three portions are by no means always present, though
142 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.
such is frequently the case. Thus, the leaves of the Water
Pepper (fig. 273), and of the Trailing Sallow (fig. 274), may be
taken as illustrations of the most highly developed leaves,
namely, those in which all the parts are
found ; but in many plants one of these
parts is absent, and in some two, so that
the leaf is in such cases reduced to but two,
or one of its portions only. The petiole
and the sheath or stipules are those parts
which are more commonly absent. When
the petiole is absent, the leaf is said to be
sessile (fig. 286); when the stipules are
absent, it is exstipulate (fig. 290). The
lamina or blade is that part which is most
generally present. The leaf is called
simple if there is but one blade (figs. 275
and 274), or compound if this is divided
into two or more separate parts (fig.
275). The lamina of the leaf is usually
that part also which is most developed,
which performs the most important func-
Fig. 275. Compound leaf of tions of the leaf, and which is also in ordi-
Robinia Pseud - acacia, nary language known under the name of
eh iigas: inystipules atits Jeaf tis the part, therefore, which will
come more particularly under our notice ;
but before we proceed to describe it and the other parts of the
leaf separately, it will be necessary for us to treat of the internal
structure of leaves, and of their insertion and arrangement.
Pre. 210s
2. THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.
Leaves with reference to their structure are divided into
aerial and submersed ; by the former is to be understood those
that are developed and live entirely or partially in the air ; by
the latter, those that are formed and dwell wholly immersed in
water.
1. Arrtat Leaves.—In the lowest leaf-bearing plants, such
as Mosses, the leaves consist, as we have seen, simply of paren-
chymatous tissue, formed by the growing outwards of the
parenchyma of the circumference of the stem or branch ; while
in the majority of the higher plants they contain, in addition
to this parenchyma, a framework or skeleton formed of wood-
cells or liber-cells, or of both, and vessels of different kinds, all
of which are in direct connexion with corresponding parts of
the fibro-vascular system of the stem or branch. We distinguish
therefore, in such leaves, as in the stem and branch, both a
parenchymatous and a fibro-vascular system, the former consti-
tuting the soft parts or the parenchyma of the leaf; the latter
STRUCTURE OF AERIAL LEAVES. 143
the hard parts, which by their ramification form what are called
the veins or nerves.
A. The Petiole.—This when present consists of fibro-vascular
tissue (fig. 276), surrounded by parenchyma, and the whole
covered by epidermis, which commonly contains a variable
number of stomata, and is frequently furnished with hairs and
other epidermal appendages. The parenchyma immediately
below the epidermis is sometimes specially modified and forms
the tissue known as collenchyma (fig. 95), which is one form
of what has been termed the hypoderma (see pages 48 and 145),
The fibro-vascular tissue varies in its nature in the leaves of
the different classes of plants, being merely prolongations of
that of the three kinds of stems already fully described.
Thus in Dicotyledons the fibro-vascular tissue (jig. 276) com-
monly consists of spiral, and pitted, annular, or some other
vessels, and also of sieve-tubes, and
wood and liber-cells, that is, of the
same elements essentially as the wood
and liber—the spiral vessels and the
other structures belonging to the
xylem being placed above those of the
phloém or liber.
B. The Lamina.—The whole of
the lamina is covered by the epider-
mis, which is furnished with stomata |
in the manner already described. |
The stomata are, however, almost |
confined to that portion of the epider-
mis which corresponds to the paren-
chyma of the leaf. The epidermis is
also frequently furnished with various
appendages, as Hairs, Glands, and
their several modifications. The epi-
dermis with its stomata and appen-
dages having been already fully de-
scribed under their respective heads,
Fic. 276.
Fig. 276. Fibro-vascular tissue
passing from a branch, 3}, of
an herbaceous Dicotyledon
into the petiole, p, surrounded
by parenchyma. «a, Articu-
it now remains only to allude to the
fibro-vascular and parenchymatous
systems of the lamina which are
situated between the epidermis of its
lation between the petiole
and the branch from which it
arises, ¢, 7. Spiral and annu-
lar vessels. 7,7. Wood-cells,
Z, 1. Liber cells.
upper and lower surfaces.
1. Fibro-vascular System.—This is in direct connexion with
that of the stem or branch in the three great divisions of plants
respectively. We shall direct our attention more especially to
that of the leaves of Dicotyledons. The fibro-vascular system
of such plants in by far the majority of cases consists of an
upper layer which is in connexion with the fibro-vascular system
of the wood and petiole when present (fig. 276, t, f); and of a
lower which is continuous with the liber (/). The upper layer
144 STRUCTURE OF AERIAL LEAVES.
therefore corresponds in its structure to the wood, and the lower
to the liber ; hence the former is composed of spiral and pitted
vessels in perennial plants, and of spiral and annular or some
other vessels in herbaceous plants (fig. 276, t, t), and also in all
cases, of wood-cells, f, besides the above-named vessels ; while
the latter consists essentially of liber-cells, /, 1, and sieve-tubes.
The ramifications of the fibro-vascular elements in the lamina of
the leaf form the veins or nerves, and will be described presently
under the head of venation (see page 157). The number and
size of the elements of the bundle diminish however as they
continue to ramify, so that the ultimate degrees of ramification
commonly consist of spiral vessels alone. The two layers of the
fibro-vascular system are usually readily seen in what are called
skeleton leaves. Thus the leaves lying in a damp ditch in the
winter will afford us good illustrations of these, and those which
have been artificially prepared by maceration for a sufficient
time in acidulated water, or in other ways.
Rie ii.
St
{
Fig. 278.
Fig. 277. Vertical section of a leaf of the Melon, highly magnified. es. Epi-
dermal tissue of the upper surface furnished with hairs, p, and stomata,
st. ei. Epidermal tissue of the lower surface, with the hairs arising from
it. ps. Three layers of parenchymatous cells below the epidermis of the
upper surface. pi. Parenchymatous cells below the epidermal tissue of
the lower surface. jv, fv. Fibro-vascular tissue forming the veins. m, m,
Cavities connected with the stomata. J, 7. Cavities between the loose
spongiform parenchyma,——Fig. 278. Vertical section of a leaf of the
White Lily highly magnified, showing the epidermis of both the upper
and lower surfaces, with the intervening parenchyma,
2. Parenchyma or Mesophyll.—By this we understand the
parenchymatous tissue which is situated between the epidermis
of the upper and lower surfaces of the lamina (fig. 277, ps, pi),
and which surrounds the ramification of the fibro-vascular
system or veins, fv, fv. The parenchymatous tissue which is
STRUCTURE OF SUBMERSED LEAVES. 146
immediately beneath the epidermis of the upper surface of the
leaf is sometimes specially modified, as in the leaves of the
Coniferze, where its cells become elongated and sclerenchyma-
tous, when it constitutes a form of the hypoderma (see pages 48
and 143). The parenchyma varies in amount in different leaves;
thus, in ordinary leaves it is moderately developed, and the
leaves are then thin and flattened ; while in other leaves it is
formed in large quantities, when they become thick and fleshy,
and are termed succulent. In ordinary flat leaves all the cells
composing the parenchyma are commonly green from containing
chlorophyll granules ; but in succulent leaves the cells in the
centre of the parenchyma are usually colourless.
The parenchyma also varies in the form and arrangement of
its component cells in different parts of the same leaf: thus in
ordinary flat leaves we find beneath the epidermis of the upper
surface one (fig. 278), two, or three layers of closely packed
oblong or somewhat elongated cells (jig. 277, ps), and forming
the tissue which has been termed palisade parenchyma. The
form and arrangement of the cells beneath the epidermis of the
lower surface are commonly entirely different ; thus, here the
cells (fig. 278) are loosely connected and have numerous large
spaces between them ; they are also frequently very irregular
in form, presenting commonly two or more projecting rays,
which become united with similar projections of the cells next
them, and thus leave numerous interspaces which communi-
cate freely with each other, and form a spongiform parenchyma
(fig. 124, c). These interspaces are also connected with the
stomata, which, as we have already seen, are generally most
abundant on the epidermis of the lower surface, and thus a
free communication is kept up between the interior of the leaf
and the external air, which is essential to the due performance
of its functions.
Such is the general arrangement of the parenchyma in the
blades of aerial leaves, but it is subject to various modifications
in those of different plants. Thus in blades which have their
margins turned upwards and downwards instead of their sur-
faces, the arrangement of the parenchyma is similar beneath
the epidermis of both the surfaces ; while in succulent blades
the parenchyma is composed of cells which are usually larger
than those in the blades of ordinary leaves, and closely com-
pacted, or with but few interspaces. In the floating leaves of
aquatic plants, again, the spongiform parenchyma is beneath
the epidermis of the upper surface of the blades, and the com-
pactly arranged cells next that of the under surface, the position
of the parts being here therefore completely reversed.
2. SuBMERSED LEAvEs.—The petiole when present in these
leaves is solely formed of parenchymatous cells, which are,
however, frequently elongated ; and the blades are therefore
also necessarily entirely formed of parenchyma, the so-called
L
146 INSERTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES,
veins being composed simply of more or less elongated’ paren-
chymatous cells. The blades of such leaves are generally very
thin, only containing two or three layers of cells, so that all the
cells are nearly in contact with the water in which they are
placed. The cells are disposed very regularly and have no in-
terspaces, but all contain chlorophyll granules. In submersed
leaves, however, which are thickened, we find large cavities
Fic. 279 ee
Yi
?
Fig. 279. Vertical section of a leaf of a Potumogeton, highly magnified.
i i. Air cavities. 7, Parenchymatous cells containing chlorophyll
granules.
which are very regular in their form and arrangement (fig. 279,
7, 1) ; these contain air, by which the specific gravity of the leaf
is diminished, and it is thus enabled to float in the water. Sub--
mersed leaves have no true epidermal layer, and no stomata,
both of which would be useless from their being always exposed
to similar hygrometric conditions.
3. INSERTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.
1. InseRTION.—The point by which a leaf is attached to the
stem or branch is called its insertion. Leaves are inserted on
various parts of the stem and branches, and receive different
names accordingly. Thus the first leaves which are developed
are called cotyledons (fig. 18, c, c) or nursing leaves. The coty-
ledons are usually very different in their appearance from the
ordinary leaves which succeed them. The first leaves which
appear after the cotyledons are termed primordial (fig. 18, d, d);
these, and the cotyledons, generally perish as soon as, or shortly
after, the development of the other ordinary leaves. Leaves
are called radical when they arise at, or below, the surface of
the ground, and thus apparently from the root, but really from
a shortened stem, or crown of the root as it is commonly called.
Leaves are thus situated in what are termed acaulescent plants,
such as the Dandelion and Primrose. The leaves which arise
from the main stem are called cauline ; those from the branches
ramal ; and the modified leaves arising from the base of, or
upon the flower-stalks, bracts or hypsophyllary leaves (figs. 23
and 24, b, b).
When a leaf arises from the stem by means of a petiole it is
said to be stalked or petiolate (fig. 274, p) ; when the blade of a
VARIETIES OF INSERTION IN LEAVES. 147
leaf is fixed to the petiole by a point more or less within its
margins, as in the Indian Cress (fig. 280), and Castor-oil plant
(fig. 332), the leaf is termed peltate ; when the petiole is absent,
Fie. 281,
Fic. 280.
Fig. 280. Peltate leaf of
the Indian Cress (770-
peolum).—Fig. 281.
Amplexicau! petiole of
Angelica,
so that the blade arises directly from the stem, it is said to be
sessile (fig. 286) ; when a leaf is enlarged at its base and clasps
the stem from which it springs, it is amplexicaul, clasping, or em-
Fic. 282. Fie. 284,
Fig. 282. Sheathing leaf of a Grass.
of Thistle.—— Fig. 284. Perfoliate leaf of a species of Hare’s-ear ( Bupleu-
rum rotundifolium).—— Fig. 285. Connate leaves of a species of Honey-
suckle (Lonicera Caprifolium).
Fig. 283. Decurrent leaf of a species
bracing ( fig. 281), as in Fool’s Parsley ; or if it forms a complete
sheath around it, as in Grasses generally (figs. 282 and 37 4, q), it
is said to be sheathing. When a leaf is prolonged from its base,
so as to form a winged or leafy appendage, down the stem, as in
L 2
148 ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.
Thistles, it is decurrent (fig. 283); when the two sides of the
base of a leaf project beyond the stem, and unite, as in the
Hare’s-ear (fig. 284), it is said to be perfoliate, because the
stem then appears to pass through the blade ; or when two
leaves placed at the same level on opposite sides of the stem
unite more or less by their bases, they are said to be connate,
as in the Teasels and some species of Honeysuckle (fig. 285).
2. ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM OR PHYLLO-
TAXIS.—The term phyllotaxis is used in a general sense to
indicate the various modes in which leaves are arranged on the
stem or branches. The following are the more important
varieties. Thus, when only one leaf arises from a node, the
leaves as they succeed each other are placed alternately on
different sides of the stem, and are then said to be alternate
(fig. 289). When two leaves are produced at a node, they are
usually situated on opposite sides of the stem, in which case
Fic. 286.
Fig. 286. Whorled leaves of a species of Galium.—Fig. 287, Decussate
leaves of Pimelea decussata.
they are described as opposite (fig. 287) ; or when three or more
leaves arise from the stem so as to be arranged around it at the
same level in the form of a circle, they are called verticillate or
whorled (fig. 286), and each circle is termed a verticil or whorl.
When leaves are opposite, the pairs as they succeed each other
usually cross at right angles, in which case they*are said to
decussute (fig. 287), and the arrangement is called decussation.
When different whorls succeed each other it also frequently
happens that a somewhat similar arrangement occurs ; thus the
leaves of one whorl correspond to the intervals of the whorl
below it. There are, however, commonly great irregularities
in this respect, and in some cases the number of leaves in the
successive whorls vary, by which their arrangement becomes
still more complicated. This is the case, for instance, in Lysi-
machia vulgaris.
PITYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF ARRANGEMENT. 149
Only one leaf can arise from the same point, but it some-
times happens that, by the non-development of the internodes
of an axillary branch, all the leaves of that branch are brought
close together, in which case they form a tuft or fascicle ( fig.
288), and the leaves are then said to be tufted or fascicled, Such
an arrangement is well seen in the Barberry and Larch. That
fascicled leaves are thus produced is rendered evident by the
fact that in the young branches of the Larch the internodes be-
come elongated and the leaves are then separated from each
other.
The laws which regulate the arrangement of leaves upon the
stem have of late years been carefully investigated ; and when
we consider that all the organs of the plant which succeed the
leaves are formed on the same plan, and follow similar laws, the
determination of these laws must be considered to be a matter
of much importance. It has been supposed by some that the
Fic. 288. Fic. 289.
Fig. 288. Fascicled or tufted leaves of the
Larch. Fig. 289. A portion of a branch
of the Cherry-tree with six leaves, the
sixth of which is placed vertically over
the first. The right-hand figure is the
same branch magnified, the leaves
having been removed, and numbers
placed to indicate the points of their
insertion,
arrangement of the leaves varies in the different classes of
plants : thus, that in Dicotyledons where the cotyledons or first
leaves which are developed are opposite, the regular arrange-
ments of the leaves in such plants is to be opposite or whorled
also; and that when they become alternate, this arises from
the prolongation or extension of the nodes; while in Mono-
cotyledons, on the contrary, which have normally but one
cotyledon, that the regular position of the leaves is alternate,
and that when they become opposite or whorled, this arises from
the non-development or shortening of the successive internodes.
The investigations, however, of Bonnet, nearly a century ago,
tended to prove that all leaves and their modifications have nor-
mally a spiral arrangement on the stem ; and he was led to this
belief by observing that if a line be drawn from the bottom to the
top of a stem or branch, so as to touch in succession the base of
the different leaves upon its surface, it would describe a spiral
159 PHYLLOTAXIS OF ALTERNATE LEAVES,
around it. He found also, that the relation of the leaves to one
another was constant, each being separated from the other by an
equal distance, so that if we started with any particular leaf and
waited until another leaf was reached which corresponded ver-
tically with it, and then proceeded to the leaf beyond this, we
should find that this would also correspond vertically with the
one next above that which we started from, and so on, each
successive leaf would be placed vertically over one of the leaves
below, but that in all cases in the same plant, the number of
leaves between the one started from, and that which corre-
sponded vertically with it, would be always the same. Thus if
we take a branch of the Apple or Cherry-tree (fig. 289), and
commence with any particular leaf which we will mark 1, and
then proceed upwards, connecting in our course the base of
each succeeding leaf by a line or piece of string, we shall find
that we shall pass the leaves marked 2, 3, 4, and 5, but that
when we reach the one marked 6, that this will correspond
vertically with the 1st ; and then proceeding further, that the
7th will be directly over the 2nd, the 8th over the 3rd, the 9th
over the 4th, the 10th over the 5th, and the 11th over the 6th
and 1st; so that in all cases when the sixth leaf is reached,
including the one started from, a straight line might be drawn
from below upwards to it, and that consequently there were five
leaves thus necessary to complete the arrangement. Bonnet
also discovered other more complicated arrangements in which
more leaves were necessary for the purpose. His ideas were
little attended to at the time; but of late years by the re-
searches of Schimper, Braun, Bravais, and others, his views
have been confirmed and considerably extended, and it has
been shown that the spiral arrangement is not only universal,
but that the laws which regulate it may be reduced to mathe-
matical precision, the formule representing the relative position
of leaves in different plants varying, although always constant
for the same species. The examination of these laws further
than to show that the regular arrangement of leaves and their
modifications is in the form of a spiral around the stem, having at
present no very practical bearing in Botany, however interesting
they may be in a mathematical point of view, would be out of
place here ; we shall confine ourselves to the general discussion
of the subject, and as alternate leaves are those which will
enable us to do so with most facility, we shall allude to them
first.
1. Alternate Leaves.—If we refer again to the arrangement
of the leaves in the Cherry or Apple, we shall find that before
we arrive at the sixth leaf (fig. 289), which is over the first,
the string or line used to connect the base of the leaves will have
passed twice round the circumference of the branch. The point
where a leaf is thus found, which is placed in a straight line, or
perpendicularly over the first, shows the completion of a series
PENTASTICHOUS AND DISTICHOUS ARRANGEMENTS, 151
or cycle, and thus in the Cherry and Apple the cycle consists of
five leaves. As the five leaves are equidistant from each other,
and as the line which connects them passes twice round the stem,
the distance of one leaf from the other will be 2 of its circum-
ference. The fraction 2, therefore, is the angular divergence, or
size of the are interposed between the insertion of two succes-
sive leaves, or their distance from each other expressed in parts
of the circumference of the circle, that is 2 of 360°=144° ; the
numerator indicates the number of turns made in completing the
cycle, and the denominator the number of leaves contained in it,
The successive leaves as they are produced on the stem, as we
have seen, are also arranged in similar cycles. This arrange-
Fie. 290. Fie. 291.
Fig. 290. Portion of a branch of the Lime-tree, with four leaves arranged in
a distichous or two-ranked manner.— Fig. 291. Portion of a branch with
the base of the leaves of a species of Carex, showing the tristichous or three-
ranked arrangement. The numbers indicate the successive bases of the
leaves.
ment in cycles of five is by far the most common in Dicotyle-
dons. Itis termed the quincuncial, pentastichous, or five-ranked
arrangement. .
A second variety of arrangement in alternate leaves is that
which is called distichous or two-ranked. Were the second leaf
is above and directly opposite to the first (fig. 290), and the
third being in like manner opposite to the second, it is placed
vertically over the first, and thus completes the cycle, which
here consists of but two leaves ; the fourth leaf again is over the
second, and the fifth over the third and first, thus completing a
second cycle ; and so on with the successive leaves. Here one
turn completes the spiral, so that the angular divergence is } the
circumference of a circle, or } of 860°=180°. This arrangement
is the normal one in all Grasses, and many other Monccotyle-
dons ; and the Lime-tree (fig. 290), and other Dicotyledons,
‘exhibit a similar arrangement.
152 TRISTICHOUS AND OCTASTICHOUS ARRANGEMENTS,
A third variety of arrangement in alternate leaves is the
tristichous or three-ranked ( fig. 291). Thus, if we start with any
leaf, and mark it No. 1, and then pass to 2, 3, and 4, we shall
find that we shall make one turn round the stem, and that the
fourth leaf is vertically over the first, and thus completes a cycle
composed of three leaves. In hike manner, the fifth leaf will be
over the second, the sixth over the third, and the seventh over
the fourth and first, thus completing a second cycle ; and so on
with the succeeding leaves. Here the angular divergence is 4,
or one turn and three leaves, that is, + of 360°=120°. This
arrangement is by far the more common one among Monocotyle-
dons, and may be considered as the most characteristic of that
class of plants, just as the pentastichous arrangement is of
Dicotyledons.
Fia. 292.
Fie. 293,
hee
Fig, 292, Pineapple fruit (Sorosis), surmounted by a crown of empty bracts,
Fig. 293. Cone or fruit of the Scotch Fir.
A fourth variety of Phyllotaxis in alternate leaves is the
octastichous or eight-ranked. Examples of this variety occur in
the Holly and Aconite. In this the ninth leaf is over the first,
the tenth over the second, the eleventh over the third, and so
on; thus taking eight leaves to complete the cycle; and, as
the spiral line here makes three turns round the stem, the
angular divergence will be 2 of the circumference, that is, 3 of
360° = 135°.
The above are the more common varieties of Phyllotaxis ; :
but a number of others also frequently occur, as i sy 33, 21,
&e. Other yarieties met with are i, 1, 2, <7) sh» ay Ke. ; also
3, 2, 3, 8, 8, 22, &c.; as also others of a rarer occurrence.
PHYLLOTAXIS OF OPPOSITE AND WHORLED LEAVES. 1538
These become more complicated as the number of leaves, &c.,
in the spire is increased ; but in those cases where the leaves,
&c., are so numerous as to be close to each other, as in the
Screw-pine, the Pineapple (fig. 292), and in the fruit of
Coniferous plants (fig. 293), the spiral arrangement is at once
evident.
By placing the fractions representing the angular divergence
in the different varieties of Phyllotaxis side by side in a line,
thus -—4, 4, $B) 159 Fi 349 35, WC. 5 4) Fo Tn a5. 37) We., we
see at once that a certain relation exists between them ; for the
numerator of each fraction is composed of the sum of the
numerators, and the denominator of the sum of the denomina-
tors of the two preceding fractions ; also in the first series, that
the numerator of each fraction is the denominator of the next
but one preceding. By applying this simple law therefore we
may continue the series of fractions representing the angular
divergence, &c., thus: 24, 3%, #5, &e. It should be mentioned
with respect to the laws of Phyllotaxy, that they are frequently
interfered with by accidental causes which produce corresponding
interruptions of growth, so that it is then difficult, or altc gether
impossible, to discover the regular condition.
All the above varieties of Phyllotaxis in which the angular
divergence is such that by it we may divide the circumference
into an exact number of equal parts, so that the leaves com-
pleting the cycles must be necessarily directly over those
commencing them, are called rectiserial ; while those in which
the divergence is such that the circumference cannot be
divided by it into an exact number of equal parts, and thus no
leaf can be placed precisely in a straight line over any pre-
ceding leaf, but disposed in an infinite curve, are termed
curviserial. The first forms of arrangement are looked upon as
the normal ones ; the latter will show the impossibility of bring-
ing organic forms and arrangements, in all cases, under exact
mathematical laws.
We have thus endeavovred to show that when leaves are al-
ternate, the successive leaves form a spiral round the axis. The
spire may either turn from right to left, or from left to right.
In the majority of cases, the direction in both the stem and
branches is the same, and it is then said to be homodromous ;
but instances also occasionally occur in which the direction is
different, when it is called heterodromous.
2. Opposite and Whorled Leaves.—We have already observed
with regard to these modifications of arrangement, that the suc-
cessive pairs, or whorls, of leaves, as they succeed each other
(page 148), are not commonly inserted immediately over the
preceding, but that the second pair (fig. 287), or whorl, is placed
over the intervals of the first, the third over those of the second,
and so on. Here, therefore, the third pair of leaves will be
directly over the first, the fourth over the second, the fifth over
154 PHYLLOTAXIS IN DIFFERENT NATURAL ORDERS, ©
the third, and so on. This arrangement occurs in plants of the
Labiate and Olive orders, and is called decussation, as previously
noticed. In some cases the succeeding pairs, or whorls, are not
thus placed directly over the intervals of those below, but a little
on one side, so that we shall have to pass to some higher pair or
whorl than the third, before we arrive at one which is placed
directly over the first. Such arrangements, therefore, clearly
show that the successive pairs and whorls of leaves are arranged
in a spiral manner with regard to each other. Opposite leaves
may be thus looked upon as produced by two spirals proceeding
up the stem simultaneously in two opposite directions ; and the
whorl as formed of as many spirals as there are component
leaves.
3. Phyllotaxis in different Natwral Orders, &c.—The alterna-
tion or opposition of leaves is generally constant in the same
species, and even in some cases throughout entire natural orders.
Thus, the Borage order (Boraginaceex) have alternate leaves ; the
Pink order (Caryophyllacex), opposite ; the Labiate order (La-
biatx), opposite and decussate ; the Leguminous order (Legu-
minose), alternate; the Rose order (Rosacex), alternate, &c.
While the opposition or alternation of leaves may be thus shown
to be constant throughout entire natural orders, yet the change
from one arrangement to another may be sometimes seen upon
the same stem, as in the common Myrtle and Snapdragon.
Other opposite-leaved plants also often exhibit an alternate
arrangement at the extremities of their young branches when
these grow very rapidly. In other cases alternate leaves may
become opposite, or whorled, by the non-development of the
successive internodes by interruptions of growth; or, if the
whole of the internodes of a branch become non-developed, the
leaves become tufted or fascicled (fig. 288), as already noticed.
Generally, however, the relative position of leaves is so con-
stant in the same species that it forms one of its characteristic
distinctions.
The arrangement of leaves probably influences, in some de-
gree at least, the form of the stem and branches. Thus, a cer-
tain amount of alternation commonly leads to a rounded form
of stem or branch ; an opposite or whorled arrangement, to an
angular stem or branch: for instance, the Labiate order of plants,
in which the leaves are opposite and decussate, have commonly
square stems and branches ; in the Neriwm Oleander, where the
leaves on the young branches are placed in whorls of three, the
stem has three angles ; and in the species of Galiwm and Rubia,
which have whorled leaves, the stems and branches are always
angular. M. Cagnat and others have also endeavoured to show
that the arrangement of the leaves has a direct influence upon
the forms of the wood, bark, and pith ; either upon one of these
parts only, or sometimes upon them all; but, although some
curious relations have been found to exist between the arrange-
VERNATION OR PRAFOLIATION. 155
ment of the leaves and the form of certain parts of the stem, yet
it is not possible at present to deduce any general laws regulating
the relations between them.
3. ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES IN THE Bup, OR VERNA-
T1on.— Having now described the general arrangement of leaves
when in a fully formed and expanded state upon the stem or
branch, we have in the next place to allude to the different
modes in which they are disposed while in a rudimentary and
unexpanded condition in the bud. To these modifications the
general name of Vernation (the spring state), or Prefoliation has
been applied. Under this head we include :—1st, The modes in
which each of the leaves considered independently of the others
is disposed ; and, 2nd, The relation of the several leaves of the
same bud taken asawhole to oneanother. In the first place we
shall consider the modes in which each of the leaves considered
separately is disposed. We arrange these again in two divi-
Bie 294. Fie. 295. Fie. 296. Fig. 297. Fic. 298.
Fig. 294. Vertical section of a reclinate leaf. Fig. 295, Transverse section
of a conduplicate leaf. Fig. 296. Transverse section of a plaited or pli-
cate leaf, Fig. 297. Vertical section of a circinate leaf. Fig. 298.
Transverse section of a convolute leaf. Fig. 299. Transverse section of
a revolute leaf.—— Vig. 300. Transverse section of an involute leaf,
sions :—I1st, Those in which the leaf is simply bent or folded ;
and 2nd, Those where it is rolled. Of the first modification we
have three varieties :—Thus, Ist, the upper half of the leaf may
be bent upon the lower, so that the apex approaches the base
( fig. 294), as in the Tulip-tree, it is then said to be reclinate or
inflered ; 2nd, the right half may be folded upon the left, the
ends and midrib or axis of the leaf remaining immovable (jig.
295), asin the Oak and Magnolia, when it is called conduplicate ;
or, 3rd, each leaf may be folded up a number of times like a
fan (fig. 296), as in the Sycamore, Currant, and Vine, when it
is plaited or plicate. Of the second modification we have four
varieties :—1st, the apex may be rolled up on the axis of the
leaf towards the base, like a crosier (fig. 297), as in the Sundew
and Ferns, when it is circinate; 2nd, the whole leaf may be
156 VARIETIES OF VERNATION.
rolled up from one margin into a single coil, with the other
margin exterior (jig. 298), as in the Apricot and Banana, in
which case it is convolute ; 3rd, the two margins of the leaf may
both be rolled inwards on the upper surface of the leaf, towards
the midrib, which remains, immovable (fig. 300), as in the
Violet and Water-lily, when it is involute; or, 4th, the two
margins may be rolled outwards or towards the midrib on the
lower surface of the leaf (jig. 299), as in the Dock and Azalea,
in which case it is revolute.
We pass now to consider, secondly, the relation of the several
leaves of the same bud taken as a whole to one another. Of
this we have several varieties which may also be treated of in
two divisions :—1st, those in which the component leaves are
flat or slightly convex ; and 2nd, where they are bent or rolled.
Of the first division we shall describe three varieties :—1st, that
Fic. 301. Fie. 302. Fia. 303.
~~
Fie. 304, Fie. 305. Fic. 306. Fic. 307.
Fig. 301, Transverse section of a bud to show the leaves arranged in a val-
vate manner. Fig. 302. Transverse section of a bud to show imbricate
vernation. Fig. 303. Transverse section of a bud to show twisted or
spiral vernation. Fig. 304, Transverse section of a bud to show indu-
plicate vernation. Fig. 305. Transverse section of a bud showing equi-
tant vernation. Fig.306 Transverse section of a bud showing obvolute
vernation,— Fig. 307. Transverse section of a bud showing supervolute
vernation.
in which the leaves are placed nearly in a circle or at the same
level, and in contact by their margins only, without overlapping
each other (fig. 301), when they are valvate ; 2nd, that in which
the leaves are placed at different levels, and the outer succes-
sively overlap the inner to a greater or less extent by their mar-
gins (fig. 302), as in the Lilac, and in the outer scales of the
Sycamore, when they are said to be imbricate ; and 3rd, if when
leaves are placed as in imbricate vernation, the margin of one
leaf overlaps that of another, while it, in its turn, is overlapped
by a third (fig. 303), the vernation is twisted or spiral, Of the
second division, viz. where the component leaves of the bud are
LAMINA.—VENATION OR NERVATION. 157
bent or rolled, we shall describe four varieties :—1st, when in-
volute leaves are applied together in a circle without over-
lapping (fig. 304), they are said to be induplicate ; 2nd, if the
leaves are conduplicate, and the outer successively embrace and
sit astride of those next within them as if on a saddle (fig.
305), as in the Privet, and the leaves of the Iris at their base, they
are equitant ; 3rd, if the half of one conduplicate leaf receives
in its fold the half of another folded in,the same manner (jig.
306), as in the Sage, the vernation is half-equitant or obvolute ;
and 4th, when a convolute leaf encloses another which is rolled
up in a like manner (jig. 307), as in the Apricot, the vernation
is supervolute.
The terms thus used in describing the different kinds of ver-
nation are also applied in like manner to the component parts
of the flower-bud, that is, so far as the floral envelopes are con-
cerned, under the collective name of exstivation or prxfloration.
We shall have therefore to refer to some of them again, together
with others, not found in the leaf-bud, when speaking of the
flower-bud.
4. LAMINA OR BLADE.
We have already seen that the leaf (jigs. 273 and 274) in its
most highly developed state consists of three parts ; namely, of
a lamina or blade, a petiole or stalk, and of a stipular portion.
We have now to describe each of these portions in detail, com-
mencing with the lamina or blade.
VENATION OR NeERvatIon.—The term venation is applied
generally to indicate the various modes in which the veins are
distributed throughout the lamina. These veins have also been
called nerves, and their distribution nervation ; but the latter
terms, by indicating an analogy which does not exist between
them and the nerves of animals, are better avoided ; hence we
shall in future always use the terms veins and venation.
In some plants, as Mosses, and those living under water, &c.,
the leaves have no fibro-vascular skeleton, and consequently no
true veins, and are hence said to be veinless ; while in succulent
plants the veins are hidden more or less from view, in consequence
of the great development of parenchyma, in which case the leaves
are termed hidden-vined.
In those leaves where the veins are well marked, they are
subject to various modifications of arrangement, the more im-
portant of which need only be mentioned here. Thus, when
there is but one large central vein, proceeding from the base to
the apex of the lamina, and from which all the other veins pro-
ceed, such a vein is called the midrib or costa (fig. 308); or
when there are three or more large veins, which thus proceed
from the base to the apex (fig. 309), or to the margins (fig. 310),
of the lamina, the separate veins are then termed 7.bs. The
158 VARIETIES OF VENATION.
divisions or primary branches of the midrib, or of the separate
ribs, are commonly called veins ; and their smaller ramifications
veunlets.
There are two marked modifications of venation. In the
Fic. 308. Fre. 310;
Fie. 311.
SS
SSS
aD
SSS
AN
SSS
ss
ey
R wees
NSSSs
I)
SS
Fig. 308. Leaf of the Cherry with lamina, petiole, and stipules. The lamina
has serrate margins, and a large central vein or midrib is seen to proceed
from the petiole to the apex of the leaf, and to give off from its sides the
other veins (vinnately-veined ).—Fiig. 309. Ribbed leaf of Cimnamon with
entire margins. Fig. 310. Leaf of the Melon with dentate margins,
The venation is said to be radiated or palmately-veined.—/Fig. 311. a.
Parallel venation of a grass; this variety of venation is commonly called
straight-veined. 6. A variety of parallel yenation sometimes termed
curve-veined, as seen in the Banana,
first modification the fibro-vascular tissue as it enters the lamina
is either continued as the midrib (fig. 308), or it divides into
two or more ribs (figs. 309 and 310); and from this midrib or
ribs other veins are given off ; and from them, in like manner,
VARIETIES OF RETICULATED VENATION. 159
smaller ramifications or veinlets arise, which unite with one
another so as to form a kind of network. Or, in the second
modification, the fibro-vascular tissue is either continued as a
midrib from the base to the apex of the lamina, giving off from
its sides other veins, which run parallel to the margins, and
which are simply connected by unbranched veinlets (jigs, 311,
b, and 318) ; or it divides at once into several veins or ribs, which
proceed from the base to the apex (jig. 316), or margins (fig.
317) of the blade, more or less parallel to one another, and are
in like manner connected only by simple parallel unbranched
veinlets (fig. 311, a). The leaves which exhibit the first modi-
fication of venation are called reticulated or netted-veined leaves,
and occur universally in Dicotyledons ; and those which present
the second modification are termed parallel-veined leaves, and
are characteristic with some few exceptions of Monocotyledons.
These two modifications are also subject to certain variations,
some of which must now be noticed.
1. Varieties of Reticulated or Netted Venation.
There are two principal varieties of this kind of venation,
namely, the feather-veined or pinnately-veined, and the radiated
or palmately-veined.
Fie. 312. Pre, 313. Fie. 314. Fic. 315.
Fig. 312. Feather-veined leaf of the Spanish Chestnut.——Fig. 313. Feather-
veined leaf of the Oak. Its lobes are arranged in a pinnatifid manner.——
Fig. 314, Leaf of the Dead-nettle. The venation is the true netted, andits
margins are serrate. Fig. 315. a. Linear leaf, 06, Triple-ribbed leaf of
the common Sunflower,
A. Fetther-veined or Pinnately-veined.—In this variety the
midrib either gives off lateral veins which proceed at once to
160 VARIETIES OF PARALLEL VENATION.
the margins (figs. 312 and 313), and are connected by numerous
branching veinlets, as in the leaves of the Beech, Spanish
Chestnut, Holly, Oak ; or the midrib gives off branches from
its sides, which proceed at first towards the margins, and then
curve towards the apex, terminating finally within the margins,
with which they are connected by small veins, as in the Dead-
nettle (fig. 314), and Lilac. The latter modification of arrange-
ment is sometimes termed true netted venation.
B. Radiated or Palmately-veined.—This name is applied to a
leaf which possesses two or more ribs that arise from at or near
the base of the lamina, and diverge from one another towards
its margins, and are connected by branching veins, as in the
Melon (fig. 810) and Castor-oil plant (jig. 332). The ribbed
venation, as seen inthe Cinnamon ( fig. 309), is but a modification
of this variety, in which the ribs, instead of diverging from one
another, run in a curved manner from at or near the base of the
blade to the apex, towards which they converge, such ribs being
connected together by branching veins. If a ribbed leaf has
three ribs proceeding from the base, it is said to be three-ribbed
or tricostate ; if five, five-ribbed or quinquecostate ; if more than
five, many-ribbed or multicostate. If the midrib of such a leaf
gives off on each side, a little above its base, another rib, it is
said to be triple-ribbed or triplicostate, as in the common Sun-
flower (fig. 315, b) ; or if two such ribs arise on each side of the
midrib, it is termed quintuple-ribbed or quintuplicostate. These
ribbed leaves have frequently a great resemblance to parallel-
veined leaves, from which, however, they may be at once dis-
tinguished by their ribs being connected by branching veins.
2. Varieties of Parallel Venation.
The term parallel-veined is not strictly applicable in all cases,
for it frequently happens that the veins are radiated ; but from
the difficulty of finding a name which will comprise all the
modifications to which such leaves are liable, it must be under-
stood that we apply the term parallel-veined to all leaves in
which the main veins of the lamina are more or less parallel and
only connected by unbranched parallel veinlets.
There are certain characteristic variations of parallel vena-
tion. Thus, the main veins may either proceed in a somewhat
parallel direction from the base to the apex of the lamina, to
which point they converge more or less (fig. 316), as in the
ordinary ribbed variety of reticulated leaves already noticed,
and are connected by simple unbranched transverse veinlets ;
or they diverge from one another towards the circumference of
the blade (fig. 317), as in the radiated-veined variety of reti-
culated leaves, and are likewise united by cross-veinlets. The
leaves of Grasses, Lilies, and the common Flag, may be taken
VENATION OF MONOCOTYLEDONS AND CORMOPHYTES. 161
as examples of the first variety ; and those of many Palms (jig.
317) of the second.
Or, the leaves may have a prominent midrib, as in the
feather-veined variety of reticulated venation, giving off from
its sides along its whole length other veins, which proceed par-
allel to each other in a straight or curved direction towards,
and lose themselves in, the margins (figs. 318 and 311, b) ; and
are connected, as in the last variety, by unbranched veinlets.
EPXGsol 7. Fic. 318.
Fie. 316.
Fig. 316. Leaf showing the variety of parallel venation usually called
straight-veined; the margins are entire.——Fig. 317. Straight-veined
variety of parallel venation, as seen in the leaf of the Fan Palm (Chame-
rops).—Fig. 318. Curve-veined variety of parallel venation, as seen in
the Banana,—Fig. 319. Forked venation of a Fern leaf (frond); the
margins are crenate.
The Banana, the Plantain, and allied plants, furnish us with
examples of this variety. This latter variety is sometimes
distinguished as the cwrve-veined, the former being commonly
known as the straight-veined or parallel-veined.
Venation of the Leaves of Cormophytes.—Besides the above
varieties of reticulated and parallel venation as found in Dicoty-
_ledons and Monocotyledons, the leaves (fronds) of Ferns, and
those of other Cormophytes which have veins, present us with a
third variety ; thus, in these the primary venation may be feather-
veined or radiated-veined, but the whole of their principal veins
M
162 COMPOSITION OF LEAVES.
either divide afterwards in a forked manner (jig. 319), or their
terminal ramifications are thus divided. Such a variety of vena-
tion has therefore been called Furcate or forked.
The leaves of these three great divisions of plants present us,
therefore, with three different varieties of venation: thus, those
of Dicotyledonsare reticulated ; those of Monocotyledons parallel ;
and those of Cormophytes forked. But the venation of Cormo-
phytes is not so generally characteristic as that of Dicotyledons
and Monocotyledons.
Composition.—Leaves are divided into simple and compound.
Thus a leaf is called simple if it has only one blade (figs. 308
and 309), however much this may be divided, so that the divi-
sions do not extend to the midrib (fig. 325), or petiole (figs.
331 and 332) ; or in some cases the divisions may even extend
to the midrib, or petiole, but the leaf is still called simple when
the parts into which the lamina is divided are attached by a
broad base, as in fig. 326. (See Incision, page 165.) A leaf is
termed compound, when the petiole divides so as to separate the
blade into two or more portions, each of which bears the same
relation to the petiole as the petiole itself does to the stem or
branch from whence itarises (fig. 275). The separated portions
of acompound leat are then called leaflets or
Fic, 320, Jfolioles ; and these may be either sessile (figs.
364-366), or have stalks (fig. 378), each of which
is then termed a petiolule, stalklet, or partial
petiole, and the main axis which supports them,
the rachis or common petiole.
The leaflets of a compound leaf may be
generally at once distinguished from the sepa-
rate leaves of a branch, from the fact of their
being all situated in the same plane ; there are,
however, to this character many exceptions.
Another mode of distinguishing a simple from
a compound leaf arises from the fact that a
simple leaf has never more than one articula-
tion, which is placed at the point where it joins
the stem ; but a compound leaf frequently pre-
sents two or more articulations: thus, besides
Fig, 320, Leaf of the common articulation to the stem, each of
Orange (Citrus the separate leaflets may be also articulated to
stele the common petiole. (See also page 180.) This
articulatedtothe character frequently forms a good mark of dis-
lamina, 1. tinction between simple and compound leaves,
for although it is quite true that many com-
pound leaves only present one articulation, and can then only be
distinguished from those simple leaves which are divided to
their midribs or petioles by the greater breadth of attachment
of the divisions in the latter instances ; yet, if such leaflets are
ratciulated to the common petiole, their compound nature is
SIMPLE LEAVES.—MARGINS, 163
at once evident. The presence of more than one articulation
is, therefore, positive proof as to the compound nature of a
leaf, but the absence of such articulation does not necessarily
prove it to be simple, as is sometimes stated. We thus look
upon the leaf of the common Orange, which consists of only a
single blade (fig. 320, /), as compound, because its petiole, p,
is not only articulated to the stem, but the blade is also articu-
lated to the petiole. There are, however, numerous instances
of leaves in a transitional state between simple and compound,
so that it is impossible in all cases to draw a distinct line of
demarcation between them. We shall now treat in detail of
simple and compound leaves.
1. Stmete Leaves.—The modifications which simple leaves
present as regards their margins, figure or shape, form, and
other variations of their blades, are extremely numerous ; hence
we require a corresponding number of terms to define them.
These terms are also applied in a similar sense to describe like
modifications of the other compound organs of the plant which
possess a definite figure and form, as the parts of the calyx,
corolla, &c. ; and also to those of the stipules, and the leaflets
of a compound leaf. It is absolutely necessary therefore that
the student should become thoroughly acquainted at once with
the more important modifications to which the blades of leaves
are subject. It was thought by De Candoile that the figure of
the lamina depended upon the distribution and length of the
veins, and the extent of parenchyma which is developed between
them ; the general outline or figure being determined by the
former, and the condition of the margins by the latter. But
although these views have been proved to be incorrect in a
scientific point of view, still, if this be borne in mind, it is con-
venient, to say the least, to study the almost infinite modifica-
tions of the lamina of leaves with reference to his views, as it is
always found that there is a mutual adaptation between the
venation of the leaf and its general outline. We shall there-
fore describe the various modifications of the lamina to some
extent after this manner, and in doing so we shall divide our
subject into five heads as follows :—1. Margins ; 2. Incision;
3. Apex ; 4. General Outline ; 5. Form.
1. Margins.—We have already stated that the condition of
the margins is dependent upon the extent to which the paren-
chyma is developed between the veins of the lamina. Thus, if
the parenchyma completely fills up the interstices between the
veins, so that the margins are perfectly even, or free from every
kind of irregularity, the leaf is entire (figs. 316 and 320), as in
those of the Orchis order. But when the parenchyma does not
reach the margins, but terminates at a short distance within them,
so that the margins are uneven, we have several modifications,
which are distinguished by characteristic terms. Thus, if the
margins present sharp indentations like the teeth of a saw, and
M 2
164 MODIFICATIONS OF THE MARGINS OF LEAVES,
all point to the apex, the leaf is serrate (figs. 314 and 348), as in
the common Dead-nettle ; or, if similar teeth point towards the
base, the leaf is described as retroserrate ; if these teeth are .
themselves serrate, itis biserrate (figs. 321, b, and 337), as in the
Elm, and Nettle-leaved Bell-flower; or when the margins are
minutely serrate they are termed serrulate, as in Barosma serra-
Fic. 321.
a b c
Fig. 321. Diagram of the margins of leaves. a. Bicrenate, 6b, Biserrate.
c. Duplicato-dentate.
tifolia. When the teeth are sharp, but do not point in any
particular direction, and are separated by concavities, the leaf
is dentate or toothed (figs. 310 and 343), as in the Melon, and
the lower leaves of the Corn Bluebottle ; or when the teeth are
themselves divided in a similar manner, it is duplicato-dentate
(fig. 321, c). When the teeth are rounded (figs. 319 and 349)
the leaf is crenate, asin the Horseradish, and Ground Ivy ; or if
these teeth are themselves crenate it is bicrenate (fig. 321, a) ; or
when the leaf is minutely crenate it is said to be crenulated.
When the margins present alternately deep concavities and con-
vexities it is sinuated, as in some Oaks (fig. 322). This kind
of leaf is sometimes placed under the head of Incision ; it may
Fic. 322: Fig. ozas
Qy
Fig. 322, Sinuated leaf of the Oak.——Fig. 323. Spiny leaf of the Holly (Jlex
Aquifolium), with wavy margins.
be regarded as an intermediate condition between a toothed leaf
and one that is pinnatifid (fig. 313). When the margins are slightly
sinuous or wavy, as in the Holly (jig. 323), they are said to be
wavy or undulated ; or when the margins are very irregular,
being twisted and curled, as in the Garden Endive, Curled
INCISION OF LEAVES 165
Dock, and Curled Mint, they are called crisped or curled (fig.
324).
Incision.—This term is employed when the margins of the
blades are more deeply divided than in the above instances, so
that the parenchyma only extends about midway or a less dis-
tance between them and the midrib, or petiole. The divisions
are then commonly called lobes. It is usual, however, to give
different names to these lobes, according to the depth of the
incisions by which they are produced ; thus, if they reach to
about midway between the margins and midrib (jig. 313), or
petiole (fig. 331), they are properly called lobes, and the inter-
Fic. 324. Fic. 325. Fig. 326.,
7)
Up
Fig. 325,
Pinnatipartite leaf of a species of Valerian (Valeriana dioica ).— Fig.
326. Pinnatisected leaf of a species of Poppy (Papaver Argemone),
Fig. 324, Crisped or curled leaf of a species of Mallow (Malva).
vals between them fissures, or in composition the term -fid is
used, and the leaf is also said to be -cleft: if nearly to the
base, or midrib (fig. 325), they are termed partitions, and the
leaf is -partite ; if quite down to the base, or midrib, they are
called segments (fig. 326), and the leaf is dissected, or in compo-
sition -sected. The segments of the latter differ from the leaf-
lets of compound leaves, as already noticed (see page 162), in
not being articulated ; and also in being united to the midrib,
or petiole, by a broad base.
In describing the above incised leaves we say that they are
bifid or two-cleft, trifid or three-cleft, quinquefid or five-cleft,
septemfid or seven-cleft, and multifid or many-cleft, according to
the number of their fissures; or two-lobed, three-lobed, fowr-
lobed, &c., from the number of their lobes. Or, a leaf is also
said to be tripartite or trisected, &c., in the same manner,
—
166 MODIFICATIONS OF INCISED LEAVES.
according to the number of partitions, or segments. The above
terms are more especially used with palmately-veined simple
leaves.
The divisions of the lamina are, however, always arranged
in the direction of the principal veins. Thus, those of feather-
veined or pinnately-veined leaves are directed towards the
midrib (figs. 313, 325, and 326); while those of palmately or
radiated-veined leaves are directed towards the base of the
lamina (figs. 331 and 532). Hence, instead of using terms
indicating the number of lobes, partitions, and segments of the
lamina, others are generally employed that define the leaf more
Fic. 327. Fic. 328. Fie $29,
NTA
QYy>
Soy
é i PE
nore
: r veh
Fic. 330 Z
re
&
J
Fig. 327. Pectinate or comb-shaped leaf.—VFig. 328. Lyrate leaf of the
common Turnip (Brassica Rapa)—Fig. 329. Runcinate leaf of the
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). —— Fig. 330, Fiddle-shaped leaf of
Rumex pulcher.
accurately, which are derived from the mode of venation com-
bined with that of incision. Thus, if the lamina is feather-
veined, and the divisions consequently arranged in that manner,
the leaf is said to be pinnatifid (fig. 313), as in the common
Oak ; or pinnatipartite (fig. 825), as in Valeriana dioica ; or
pinnatisected (fig. 326), as in Papaver Argemone, according to
their depth, as already described. If the divisions are them-
selves incised in a similar manner to the original divisions of
the lamina itself, the leaf is said to be bipinnatifid, bipinnati-
partite, or bipinnatisected. Or, if the sub-divisions of these
MODIFICATIONS OF INCISED LEAVES. 167
are again divided in a similar manner, tripinnatiyid, tripinnati-
partite, or tripinnatisected. Or, if the lamina is still further
divided, the leaf is said to be decomposed or laciniated.
Certain modifications of these varieties have also received
special names ; thus, when a pinnately-veined leaf is deeply
divided, and the divisions are very close and narrow like the
teeth of a comb (fig. 327), it is said to be pectinate, as in the
Water Milfoil ; when the terminal lobe of a pinnately-veined
leaf is large and rounded, and the lateral lobes which are also
more or less rounded become gradually smaller towards the
base, it is lyrate or lyre-shaped, as in the common Turnip (fig.
328) ; when the terminal lobe is triangular, and the other lobes
which are also more or less of the same shape have their points
directed downwards towards the base of the lamina, as in the
Fie. 332%
Fig. 331.
Fig. 331. Palmate leaf of a species of Passion-flower (Passiflora).
Fig. 332. Palmatifid leaf of the Castor-oil Plant (Ricinus communis).
Dandelion (fig. 329), the leaf is said to be runcinate ; or when
a lyrate leaf has but one deep recess on each side, so that it
resembles a violin in shape, it is termed panduriform or fiddle-
shaped, as in the Fiddle Dock (fig. 380).
The above terms are those which are employed to define
incised feather-veined leaves ; but when the blades are palmately-
veined and incised, other terms are used according to the degree
of division. In describing such leaves, the terms bifid, trifid,
quinquefid, &c., bipartite, tripartite, &c., bisected, trisected, &c.,
are employed according to the number of their lobes, partitions,
or segments, as already noticed; or the terms palmatifid,
pumatipartite, palmatisected, derived from the direction of the
veins, combined with that of incision, are used. Special names
are also applied to certain modifications of these palmately-
veined Jeaves as with those which are pinnately-veined. Thus,
when the blade of such a leaf has five spreading lobes united at
168 MODIFICATIONS OF INCISED LEAVES.
their base hy a more or less broad expansion of parenchyma, so
that the whole has a resemblance to the palm of the hand with
spreading fingers, the leaf is termed palmate, as in some species
of Passion-flower (fig. 331); or when there are more than five
lobes, the leaf is described as palmatifid or palmately-cleft, as
in the Castor-oil Plant (jig. 332). Some writers, however, use
Fie. 333.
Fig. 333. Dissected leaf of the Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis),
the terms palmate and palmatifid indifferently to describe
either of the above modifications of incised leaves, but the
sense in which they are defined above is more precise, and
should alone be used. When the lobes are less spreading,
narrower, and somewhat deeper than in a true palmate leaf,
the leaf is digitate ; or when there are more than five lobes of
a a similar character, asin the Bitter
Fre. 334. Cassava, it is sometimes termed
digitipartite, or even digitate
(though improperly so), by some
authors. When the lamina is
divided nearly to its base into
numerous narrow thread-like divi-
sions, as in the submersed leaves
of the Water Crowfoot (fig. 335),
the leaf is said to be dissected.
When the lateral lobes, partitions,
Fig. 334, Pedatipartite leaf, or segments, of what would be
otherwise a palmate leaf are them-
selves divided into two or more divisions (fig. 334), as in the
Stinking Hellebore and Sawromatum quttatum, so that the
whole bears some resemblance to a bird’s foot, the leaf is
termed pedatifid, pedatipartite, or pedatisected, according to the
depth of the divisions. The term pedate is by some botanists
applied generally to these modifications of the palmate leaf, but
SIMPLE LEAVES.—APEX OF LAMINA. 169
such a term ought properly to be reserved for a compound leaf
when the leaflets are arranged in a pedate manner (page 178).
Besides the above modifications of palmately-veined leaves,
other variations also occur, in consequence of the lobes, parti-
tions, or segments of the lamina becoming themselves divided,
either in a pinnately-veined or palmately-veined manner, and
terms are used accordingly, the application of which will be at
once evident from what has been already stated.
3. Apex.—This varies much in the blades of different
leaves. Thus the apex is obtuse or blunt, when it is rounded
(figs. 344 and 346), as in the Primrose ; it is retwse when it is
obtuse, with a broad shallow notch in the middle, as in the
Red Whortleberry (Vaccinium Vitis-idxa) and the leaflets of
Logwood ; or when under the same circumstances the notch is
sharp, or nearly triangular, it is emarginate, as in some species
Fic. 335. Fra. 336.
Fig. 335, Leaflet of a species of Cassia, It is obovate in figure or outline,
somewhat oblique at the base, and emarginate at its apex. Fig. 336.
Branch of the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) with flower and leaves.
' The latter terminate abruptly, hence they are said to be truncate.
of Cassia (fig. 335), and in the common Box (Buxus semper-
virens). When the lamina terminates very abruptly, as if it
had been cut across in a straight line, the apex is truncate, as
in the leaf of the Tulip-tree (fig. 336) ; or if under the same
circumstances the termination is ragged and irregular, as if it
had been bitten off, it is premorse, as in the leaf of Caryota
wrens. When the apex is sharp, so that the two margins form
an acute angle with each other (jigs. 338 and 345), it is acute or
sharp-pointed ; when the point is very long, and _ tapering
(fig. 343), 1t is acuminate or taper-pointed, as in the leaf of
the White Willow and common Reed; or when it tapers
gradually into a rigid point, it is cuspidate, as in many Rubi.
When the apex, which is then commonly rounded, has a
short hard or softened point standing on it, it is mucronate
(fig. 342), as in the leaf of Statice mucronata and Lathyrus
pratensis.
4. General Outline or Figure.—By the general outline or
170 FIGURES OR SHAPES OF LEAVES,
shape of the lamina we mean the superficial aspect or figure
which is described by its margins. The development of veins
and parenchyma is usually nearly equal on the two sides of the
midrib or petiole, so that the lamina of the leaf is in most
instances nearly symmetrical and of some regular figure; in
which case the leaf is said to be equal (figs. 343--346). When,
HiGacots Fic. 338. Fic. 339. Fic. 340.
s
vs
S
<
Fig. 3438. Fig. 344. Fie. 345. Fie. 346.
Fig.337. Leaf of Elm, with its margins biserrate, and the lamina unequal at
its base. Fig. 338. Unequal or oblique leaf of a species of Begonia. ——
Fig. 339, Linear leaf of Goose-grass (Galium Aparine).——§ Fig. 340, Lance-
olate leaf.——Fig, 341. Acerose or needle-shaped leaves of Juniper (/uni-
perus communis ).—Fig. 342, A cuneate and mucronate-pointed leaf,—— .
Fig, 343. Cordate and acuminate leaf, with its margins dentate.——Fig.
344. Oblong leaf of Bladder-Senna (Colutea arborescens). Fig, 345, Ovate
leaf, with its margins serrate-——Fig. 346. Obovate leaf,
as occasionally happens, the lamina of the leaf is more de-
veloped on one side than on the other, the leaf is termed
unequal or oblique (figs. 335 and 337); this is remarkably the
case in the species of Begonia (fig. 338). Generally speaking,
the leaves with ribbed, parallel, or feather-veined venation,
are longer than broad; while those which are radiated or
FIGURES OF LEAVES. 171
palmately-veined are more or less rounded, or broader than
long.
ile the lamina of a leaf is nearly of the same breadth at
the base as near the apex, narrow, and with the two margins
parallel (figs. 315, a, and 339), the leaf is called linear, as in
the Marsh Gentian (Gentiana Pnreumonanthe) and most Grasses ;
when a linear leaf terminates in a sharp rigid point like a
needle, as in the common Juniper (fig. 341), and many of our
Firs and Larches, it is acerose or needle-shaped. When the
blade of a leaf is very narrow and tapers from the base to a
very fine point, so that it resembles an awl in shape, as in the
common Furze (Ulex ewropeus), the leaf is subulate or awl-
shaped. When the blade of a leaf is broadest at the centre,
three or more times as long as broad, and tapers perceptibly
Fic. 348. Fie. 349.
Fig. 347.
oak
Fig. 347. Spathulate leaf. Vig. 348. Oval
or elliptical leaf of Pear-tree (Pyrus com-
munis), with serrate margins,—Fig. 349.
Reniform leaf of Ground Ivy (Nepeta Gle-
choma), with crenate margins. Fig. 350.
Trifoliate leaf with obcordate leaflets.
from the centre to both base and apex, as in the White Willow
(Salix alba), the leaf is lanceolate (fig. 340) ; when it is longer
than broad, of about the same breadth at its base and apex,
and slightly acute at these points, it is oval or elliptical (fig.
348), as in the Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis) ; or if
under the same circumstances it is obtuse or rounded at each
end (fig. 344), it is oblong. By many botanists, however, the
term oval is applied to a leaf which is only two or three times,
and oblong, to one which is four or more times, as long as
broad ; and in both cases either rounded or acute at the two
extremities. If the lamina of a leaf is more or less rounded at
the base and broader at this part than at the apex, so that the
whole is of the shape of an egg cut lengthwise, the leaf is ovate
or egg-shaped (fig. 345), as in the Lilac; or if of the same figure,
172 FIGURES OF LEAVES.
but with the apex broader than the base (fig. 346), it is obovate
or inversely egg-shaped. When the lamina is broad at the apex,
and abrupt-pointed, and tapers towards the base (fig. 342), as
in some Saxifrages, the leaf is cwneate or wedge-shaped ; or if
Fie. 351. Fie. 354,
min.
Fic. 352.
=
———
=<
2
>
y-
ED
Z2
Oot
ZZ
s
SL licor
Db
4
ye
a ML
SN
>
=a
Fig. 355. Fig. 356,
Fie. 353.
Fig. 351. Lunate or crescent-shaped leaf.——Fig, 352. Sagittate leaf,——
Fig. 353. Hastate leaf.—Fig. 354. A portion of the stem of the Woody
Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara ), bearing flowering stalk and an auricu-
late leaf.—RFig, 355, A sub-rotund or rounded leaf, with entire margins.
—Fig. 356. Orbicular peltate leaf,
the apex is broad and rounded, and tapers down to the base
(fig. 347), it is spathulate, as in the Daisy. When the lamina is
broad and hollowed cut at its base into two rounded lobes, and
FORMS OF LEAVES. 173
more or less pointed at the apex, so that it somewhat resembles
in shape the heart in a pack of cards, the leaf is cordate or
heart-shaped (fig. 343), as in the Black Bryony (Tamus com-
munis) ; or if of the same shape, but with the apex broader
than the base, and hollowed out into two rounded lobes, it is
obcordate or inversely heart-shaped (fig. 350). When a leaf
resembles a cordate one generally in shape, but with its apex
rounded, and the. whole blade usually, shorter and broader
(fig. 349), it is reniform or kidney-shaped, as in the Asarabacca
(Asarum europeum); when a leaf is reniform but with the
lobes at the base of the lamina pointed, so that it resembles
the form of a crescent (fig. 351), it is luwnate or crescent-shaped,
as in Passiflora lunata. When the blade is broad and hollowed
out at its base into two acute lobes, and pointed at the apex, so
that it resembles the head of an arrow (jig. 352), the leaf is
sagittate or arrow-shaped, as in the Arrowhead (Sagittaria
sagittifoiia) ; when the lobes of such a leaf are placed horizon-
tally, instead of passing downwards, it is hastate or halbert-
shaped (fig. 353), as in Sheep’s Sorrel (Rumex <Acetosella) ; or
when the lobes are entirely separated from the blade, as in the
upper leaves of the Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara),
it is awriculate or hastate-auricled (fig. 354). When the blade is
perfectly round, the leaf is orbicwlar (fig. 356), a figure which
is scarcely or ever found ; but when it approaches to orbicular,
as in Pyrola rotundifolia, the leaf is subrotund or rounded
(fig. 359). Ben.
It frequently happens, that a leaf does not distinctly present
any of the above-described figures, but exhibits a combination
of two of them, in which case we use such terms as ovate-lance-
olate, linear-lanceolate, cordate-ovate, cordate-lanceolate, elliptico-
lanceolate, roundish-ovate, &c., the application of which will be
at once evident.
In many cases we find leaves of different figures on the same
plant ; under which circumstance the plant is said to be hetero-
phyllous. Thus, in the Hairbell (Campanula rotundifolia), the
radical leaves are cordate or reniform, and the cauline leaves
linear; and this difference of outline between the radical and
stem leaves is by no means uncommon. In water plants, again,
where some of the leaves are submersed, while others float
on the water, or rise above it into the air, as in the Water
Crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis), and Arrowhead (Sagittaria
sagittifolia), the leaves thus differently situated frequently vary
in shape.
5. Form.—By this term we understand the solid configuration
of the lamina, that is, including its length, breadth, and thick-
ness. The terms used in defining the various forms are there-
fore especially applicable to thick or succulent leaves—namely,
those which are produced when the veins are connected by a
large development of parenchyma. Such leaves either assume
174 COMPOUND LEAVES.
some regular geometrical forms, as cylindrical, pyramidal,
conical, prismatic, &c., and receive corresponding names; or
they approach in form to some well-known objects, and are
hence termed acicular, ensiform, acinaciform, dolabriform, clavate,
linguiform, &c. The above terms need no further description.
In other instances, the lamina, instead of having its veins en-
tirely connected by parenchyma, is more or less hollowed out
in its centre, when the leaf is said to be tubular, hood-shaped,
urn-shaped, &c. Various other singular forms are also found,
some of which will be hereafter alluded to under the head of
Anomalous Forms of Leaves (page 185).
Besides the above described modifications which the blades
of leaves present in reference to their Margins, Incision, Apex,
Outline, and Form, they also present numerous other variations
as regards their surface, texture, colour, &c. For an explanation
of these we must refer to the contents generally of this Manual ;
and more especially to that part which treats of the Appendages
of the Epidermis.
2. Compounp Lraves.—We have already defined a com-
pound leaf (page 162). Its separate leaflets are subject to
similar modifications of their margins, incision, apex, outline,
form, texture, surface, colour, &c., as the blades of simple
leaves, and the same terms are accordingiy used in describing
Pie nos iGo ote
Fig. 357, Imparipinnate or unequally pinnate leaf
of Robinia, with spiny stipules.—— Fig, 358,
Equally or abruptly pinnate leaf,
them. We have therefore only now to speak of compound
leaves as a whole, and the terms which are employed in
describing their special modifications. We divide them into
two heads, namely: 1. Pinnately or feather-veined Compound
Leaves ; and 2. Palmately or radiated-veined Compound Leaves.
1. Pinnately-veined Compound Leaves.—When a leaf present-
VARIETIES OF PINNATE LEAVES. 175
ing this kind of venation is separated into distinct portions or
leaflets, it is termed pinnate (figs. 357-360) ; and the leaflets are
then termed pinne. The leatlets are arranged either in an
opposite or alternate manner along the sides of the rachis or
Fie. 359. Fig. 361.
Fic. 360.
Fie. 3862,
Fig. 359. Interruptedly pinnate leaf of the Potato (Solanum tuberosum ).—
Fig. 360, Lyrately pinnate leaf, — Fig. 361. Bipinnate leaf of a species of
Gleditschia. — Fig. 362. A tripinnate leaf. Some of the leaflets are, how-
ever, only bipinnate.
common petiole in pairs, and according to their number the
leaf is said to be wnijugate or one-paired, as in several species
of Lathyrus (fig. 385); bijugate or two-paired ; trijugate or three-
176 VARIETIES. OF PINNATE LEAVES.
paired ; and multijugate or many-paired ( fig. 357). Several
kinds of pinnate leaves have also been distinguished by special
names. Thus, when a pinnate leaf ends in a solitary leaflet
(jig. 357), as in the Rose and Elder, it is imparipinnate or wn-
ee equally-pinnate, or pinnate with an
a odd leaflet ; it is equally or abruptly
Y pinnate, or paripinmnate, when it ends
Nf in a pair of leaflets or pinne (fig.
ie 358), as in some species of Cassia,
the Mastich plant (Pistacia Lentiscus),
Logwood (Hematoxylon campechia-
num), and Orobus tuberosus ; and it
is interruptedly pinnate (fig. 359)
when the leaflets are of different sizes,
so that small pinne are regularly or
irregularly intermixed with larger
ones, as in the Potato (Solanum
tuberosum) and Silver Weed (Poten-
tilla anserina). Or, when the terminal
leaflet of a pinnate leaf is the largest,
and the rest gradually smaller as they
approach the base (fig. 360), it is
lyrately pinnate, as in the common
Turnip. This leaf and the true lyrate
Fig. 363. A decom pound leaf. (page 167 and fig. 328) = frequently
confounded together by botanists,
and the two kinds often run into one another, so that it is
by no means uncommon to find both varieties of leaf on the
same plant, as in the common Turnip and Yellow Rocket.
When the leaflets of a pinnate leaf become themselves
pinnate, or, in other words, when the partial petioles which
are arranged on the common petiole exhibit the characters of
an ordinary pinnate leaf, it is said to be bipumnate (fig. 361) ;
the leaflets borne by the partial or secondary petioles are then
commonly termed pinnules. When the pinnules of a bipinnate ~
leaf become themselves pinnate, it is tripimnate (fig. 362), as
in the Meadow Rue (Thalictrwm minus), and the common
Parsley ; it commonly happens, however, that in these leaves
the upper leaflets are less divided, asin fig. 362. If the division
extends beyond this, the leaf is decompownd (fig. 363), as in
many Umbelliferous plants.
2. Palmately-veined Compound Leaves.—Such a leaf is formed
when the ribs of a palmately-veined leaf bear separate leaflets ;
and hence these leaves are readily distinguished from those of
the pinnate kind by their leaflets coming off from the same
point, instead of, as in them, along the sides of a common
petiole. We distinguish several kinds of such leaves ; thus, a
leaf is said to be binate, bifoliate, or wiijugate, if it consists of
only two leatlets springing from a common point (fig. 364), as
PALMATELY-VEINED COMPOUND LEAVES. 177
in Zygophyllum ; it is ternate or trifoliate if it consists of three
leaflets arranged in a similar manner (jigs. 350 and 365), as in
the genus Trifoliwm, which receives its name from this circum-
stance ; it is guadrinate or quadrifoliate if there are four leaflets
Fie. 366.
Fic. 364.
Fie. 369. Fic. 370.
Fig. 364. A binate or bifoliate leaf.—— Fig. 365. Ternate or trifoliate leaf.
—— Fig. 366. Quadrifoliate leaf of Marsilea quadrifolia.— Fig. 367. Quin-
ate or quinquefoliate leaf.—/ig. 368. Septenate leaf of the Horsechest-
nut (#sculus Hippocastanum).— Fig. 369. Multifoliate leaf of a Lupin.
— Fig. 370. A biternate leaf.
(fig. 366) ; it is quinate or quinquefoliate if there are five (fig.
367), as in Potentilla argentea and P. alba; it is septenate or
septemfoliate, if there are seven (fig. 368), as in the Horse-
ee
178 VARIETIES OF PALMATELY-~VEINED COMPOUND LEAVES.
chestnut and some Potentillas ; and it is maultifoliate if there are
more than seven (fig. 369), as in many species of the Lupin.
The term digitate is sometimes employed to characterise a com-
pound leaf of five leaflets, but this name should be confined to
a simple leaf, and used in the sense already noticed (page 168).
In speaking of palmately-veined compound leaves in a general
Fie. ovl.
\\
Fig. 371, Triternate leaf of Baneberry (Acta).
sense, they are also commonly, although improperly, termed
palmate or digitate ; but when the leaflets of a palmately-veined
leaf are arranged in a pedate manner, the leaf is properly termed
pedate (page 168).
Palmately-veined compound leaves may become still more
divided. Thus, if the common petiole divides at its apex into
three partial ones, each of which bears three leaflets (jig. 370),
as in the Masterwort (Imperatoria Ostruthium), the leaf is
termed biternate; or when the common petiole divides at its
apex into three partial ones, and these again divide into three
others, each of which bears three leaflets, as in the Yellow
Fumitory (Corydalis lutea) and Epimedium, the leaf is triternate
(fig. 871); or when such a leaf is still further divided, it is said
to be decompound,
hl
STRUCTURE OF THE PETIOLE. 179
5. PETIOLE OR LEAF-STALK.
The petiole or leaf-stalk is that part which connects the
blade of the leaf with the stem or branch (figs. 273, p, and 274, p).
It is frequently absent, and the leaf is then said to be sessile
(fig. 286). It consists, as already described (page 143), of fibro-
vascular tissue (jig. 372, fv), surrounded by parenchmya pce, and
the whole covered by epidermis, which contains a variable number
of stomata, and is frequently furnished with hairs and other epi-
dermalappendages. The fibro-vascular tissue varies in its nature
in the leaves of Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Cormophytes,
being in structure essentially the same in each case as that of the
Fic. 374,
Bie. 302. Fie. 373.
Serer
suaeres
Fig. 372. Vertical section of a portion of the stem and the base of a leaf,
showing the passage of the fibro-vascular tissue, fv, into the petiole. pe, pe.
Parenchymatous tissue of the stem and petiole. c. Pulvinus. jf. Articu-
lation between theleafand stem. 5. Leaf-bud in the axil of the petiole. m.
Pith Fig. 373. A portion of a branch and leaf of the Sensitive Plant,
showing pulvinus at the base of the petiole-——Fig. 374. A portion of
the stem of aGrass with a leaf attached, 7. Blade. g. Sheathing petiole.
lig. Ligule.
three kinds of stem already fully described ; thus, in Dicoty-
ledons, the fibro-vascular tissue (fig. 276), consists of spiral,
pitted, annular, or some other vessels (see page 143), and sieve
tubes, and wood and liber cells, that is, of the same elements
essentially as the wood and liber. The distribution of this fibro-
vascular tissue in the lamina forms the veins, which have been
already described under the head of Venation (page 157).
The petiole is either simple or undivided, as in all simple
Ww 2
180 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PETIOLE.
leaves, and in those of a compound character in which the leaflets,
are sessile ; or it is compound, as in the Rose, when it divides
into two or more portions, each of which bears a leaflet (fig. 378),
or it is still more compound when the blade is further divided.
The branches of the petiole or the stalks of the leaflets are then
called petiolules, stalklets, or partial petioles; while the main
petiole is termed the rachis or common petiole.
The petiole is frequently more or less contracted at the base
where it joins the stem owing to the presence of an articulation
or joint (fig. 372, f). Leaves thus furnished with an articulated
petiole fall away from the stem after they have performed their
functions ; and in doing so they leave a scar or cicatria (fig. 207,
b, b). This cicatrix commonly exhibits on its surface several
little points, which are produced by the rupture of the fibro-
vascular tissue of the petiole. The outline of the cicatrix and the
arrangement of its ruptured fibro-vascular tissue vary much in
different species of plants, and thus frequently form characters
by which we may distinguish one plant from another after the
leaves have fallen ; thus the varying appearance of these scars
may be well seen by comparing a branch of the Ash with that of
the Horsechestnut.
In compound leaves the petiole is not only generally arti-
culated to the stem, but the partial petioles are also frequently
jointed to the common petiole, so that each leaflet becomes
detached separately when the leaf begins to decay, as in the
Sensitive Plant. By many botanists, indeed, no leaf is con-
sidered truly compound unless it presents this characteristic ;
consequently all leaves however much divided, and apparently
compound, but which have not their separate portions articu-
lated, are considered simple. Such a distinctive character cannot,
however, be well carried out in practice, and when we consider
that the presence of an articulation is by no means constant
even in simple leaves, we can see no sufficient grounds for in-
sisting upon this character in the separate portions of a leaf as
evidence of its compound nature. The distinctive characters of
simple and compound leaves as adopted in this Manual have been
already fully treated of under the head of Composition of Leaves.
(See page 162.)
The presence of an articulation is to some extent a character
of distinction between the three great divisions of plants. Thus
the leaves of Dicotyledons are in the majority of instances
articulated ; while those of Monocotyledons and of Cormophytes
are non-articulated. Hence the leaves of the two latter, when
they have performed their functions, instead of falling away and
leaving a cicatrix as the former, decay gradually upon their re-
spective plants, to the stems and branches of which they thus give
a ragged appearance. There are many instances, however, in
which the leaves of Dicotyledons are not articulated, asin the Oak.
In such cases, the leaves, although dead, remain attached to their
FORMS OF THE PETIOLE. 181
respective plants frequently for months, which thus form a strik-
ing contrast in their appearance to the surrounding trees, which
have lost their leaves in consequence of these being articulated.
On the lower surface of the petiole at its base, the parenchyma
commonly forms a more or less evident swelling (figs. 372, c, and
373), to which the name of pulvinus has been given. A some-
what similar swelling may be also seen in many compound leaves
at the base of each partial petiole ; each of which is then termed
a struma. The compound pinnaie leaves of the Sensitive Plant
afford a good illustration of the presence of both pulvinus and
strume.
Forms of the Petiole.—The form of the petiole varies in
different leaves. It is usually rounded below, and flattened, or
more or less grooved above ; but in other cases it is cylindrical,
Fic. 376.
Fie. 375.
UAC, \4
\\ \ CZ RS
SMS WS
FB yy ; tes
Pris 2 \ \ WOW
yy \ ‘ \\ \ ) Be
Zz
ae
a
<
Fig. 375. A portion of the stem with some leaves of Venus’s Fly-trap
(Dioncea muscipula ye q. Lamina fringed with hairs, and hence said to be
ciliated. p. Winged petiole.— Fig. 376. Decurrent leaves of the Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale),
especially in the leaves of Monocotyledons ; while in other
plants of the same class, as in Grasses, it becomes widened
at its base, and surrounds the stem in the form of a sheath
(fig. 374, 7). This sheath in all true Grasses terminates above
in a membranous appendage (fig. 374, lig), which is entire,
or divided into two symmetrical portions, or incised in various
ways ; to this the name of ligule has been given, and is now
supposed by most authorities to be analogous to the stipules.
In the Aspen (Populus tremula), the petiole is flattened in a
line at right angles to the blade, and is thus one of the causes of
the peculiar mobility of such leaves ; while in other plants it is
flattened in a horizontal direction. In Water Plants the petiole
is frequently more or less dilated from the presence of a number
182 FORMS OF THE PETIOLE.
of air cavities, as in Pontederia; such petioles by diminishing the
specific gravity of the plants in which they are found, enable them
to float readily in the water. At other times the petiole becomes
flattened at its base, and embraces the stem, in which case the leaf
is said to be amplexicaul or clasping (fig. 281); this commonly
occurs in Umbelliferous Plants. Frequently the petiole presents
at its two edges a leaf-like border called a wing, when it is said to
be winged ; as in the Orange (fig. 320, p), Venus’s Flytrap (fig.
375, p), Sweet Pea (fig. 385), and many other plants. . In some
plants the winged expansion does not terminate at the base of
the petiole, but it is continued downwards along the stem ; in
which case the stem is also termed winged, and the leaf is said
to be decwrrent (fiys. 283 and 376). Besides the above forms
of petiole, others still more
Fic, 377. remarkable occur, which will
‘> be alluded to hereafter, under
ae 2, the head of Anomalous Forms
ne YP of Leaves (page 185).
Generally speaking, the
petiole is less developed than
VEZ) the lamina; it is also com-
“ monly shorter than it, and
iQ) f is of sufficient thickness to
Le support it without bending.
When the petiole is very long
or thin, or when the lamina
is very heavy, and in other
cases, it becomes more or
less bent downwards towards
the earth, and no longer
supports the blade in a hori-
zontal direction.
6. STIPULES.
Stipules are small leafy
bodies situated at the base,
and usually on each side of
the petiole of simple (fig. 274,
| 9
Fig. 377. A portion of the flowering stem of os 8), ae compound (fig. 377),
the common Pea, with a pinnate leaf ter- leaves. They have the same -
minated by a tendril, and having two gtructure as the blades of
large stipules at its base, the lower mar- ] d li 1bl eager
gins of which are dentate. eaves, and are Hable to Simit-
lar modifications as regards
venation, apex, incision, outline, margins, surface, &c. The
stipules are often wanting, and the leaves are then said to be
exstipulate; when present the leaves are stipulate. They are
often overlooked from their small size; while in other cases
they are very large, as in the Pansy (fig. 379), and in the common
KINDS OF STIPULES. 183
Pea (fig. 377). In the leaves of Lathyrus Aphaca, again ( fig.
386), there are no true blades, or leaflets, but the stipules, s, s,
are here very large and perform all their functions. It some-
times happens that the leaflets of a compound leaf possess little
stipules of their own, as in the Bean and Bladder Nut ; to these
the name of stipels has been given, and the leaf is then termed
stipellate.
Stipules either remain attached as long as the lamina, when
they are said to be persistent ; or they fall off soon after its ex-
pansion, in which case they are deciduous. In the Beech, the Fig,
the Magnolia, &c., they form the tegymenta or protective coverings
of the buds, and fall off as these open (page 105).
Bre. 379.
Fig. 378. A portion of a branch, 7, of the common Rose (Rosa canina). a.A
prickle. b. Bud in the axil of a compound leaf, 7, with stalked leaflets. p.
Petiole. s,’s. Adnate or adherent stipules.——/Fig. 379. Petiolate leaf of
Pansy (Viola tricolor) with large caulinary stipules at its base.
Kinds of Stipules.—The stipules vary in their position with
regard to the petiole and to each other, and have received
different names accordingly. Thus, when they adhere to each
side of the base of the petiole, as in the Rose (fig. 378, s, s)
they are said to be adnate, adherent, or petiolar. When they
remain as little leafy expansions on each side of the base of the
petiole, but quite distinct from it, as in many Willows (fig. 274,
s, s), and the Pansy (fig. 379), they are called caulinary. “When
the stipules are large, it sometimes happens that they meet on
the opposite side of the stem or branch from which the leaf grows
and become united more or less by their outer margins, and thus
184 KINDS OF STIPULES.
form one stipule, as in the Astragalus, they are then said to be
synochreate or opposite ( fig. 380, s) ; if under similar circumstances
they cohere by their inner margins, as in Melianthus annwus and
Houttuynia cordata (fig. 381, s), they form a solitary stipule
which is placed in the axil of the leaf, and is accordingly termed
axillary ; and if such stipules cohere by both outer and inner
Fie. 380. . Fie. 381.
Fig. 380. A portion of the stem, 7, and leaf, 7, of the Astragalus Onobrychis.
s. Synochreate or opposite stipule-—Fig. 381. A portion of the stem, 7,
and leaf, 7, of Houttuynia cordata. s. Axillary stipule.
margins so as to form a sheath which encircles the stem above
the insertion of the leaf (jig. 273, d), as in the Rhubarb, and
most other plants of the order Polygonacez, they form what is
termed an ochrea or intrafoliaceous stipule.
All the above kinds of stipules occur in plants with alternate
leaves, in which such appendages are far more common than in
Fig. 382,
Fig. 382. A portion of a branch, 7, with two opposite leaves, 7, 7, of Cephal-
anthus occidentalis. s. Interpetiolar stipule.
those with opposite leaves. When the latter plants have stipules
these are generally situated in the intervals between the petioles
on each side, and are hence termed interpetiolar. In such cases, it
frequently happens that the opposing stipules of each leaf cohere
more or less completely by their outer margins so as to form but
one interpetiolar stipule on each side of the stem (fig. 382, s),
as is the case in the Cinchonas, the Coffee, and most other
plants of the natural order Rubiacez to which they belong.
ANOMALOUS FORMS OF LEAVES.—SPINES. 185
Stipules, as we have already noticed, are not always present
in plants, but their presence or absence in any particular plant
is always constant, and although the appearance and arrange-
ment of them also vary in different plants, they are always uni-
form in those of the same species, and even, in some cases,
throughout entire natural orders, and thus they frequently
supply important distinctive characters in such plants and
orders. Thus the plants of the Loganiacez are distinguished
from those of the allied order Apocynacez by possessing inter-
petiolar stipules ; and the plants of the Polygonacez usually
from those of allied orders by intrafoliaceous stipules.
Stipules are very rare in Monocotyledons, except the ligule
is to be considered as analogous to them. The only orders
of Monocotyledons in which they undoubtedly occur are the
Naiadacez and Araceze. They are altogether absent in Cor-
mophytes.
7. ANOMALOUS FORMS OF LEAVES.
We have already seen that the branches of a stem sometimes
acquire an irregular development, and take the form of Spmes
or Tendrils (pages 107 and 108). In the same manner the parts
of a leaf may assume similar modifications, as well as some others
still more remarkable, which we now proceed to describe.
Fic. 383. Fie. 384.
Fig. 383. A portion of a branch of the Barberry (Ber beris vulgaris), bearing
spiny leaves. The upper leaf is composed entirely of hardened veins,
without any parenchyma between them, /ig. 384, A portion of a branch
of the Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia). jf, 7. Scars of former leaves, with
buds in their axils. c. Spine produced from the pulvinus.
Spines of Leqves.—Any part of the leaf may exhibit a spiny
character owing to the non-development or diminution of paren-
chyma, and the hardening of the veins. Thus,—I1st, in the
Holly (fig. 823) and many Thistles (jig. 283), the veins project
186 SPINES AND TENDRILS OF LEAVES.
beyond the blade, and become hard and spiny ; in some species
of Solanum the spines are situated on the surface of the lamina ;
while in the Barberry (jig. 383) the blade has little or no paren-
chyma produced between its veins, which are of a spiny cha-
racter, so that the whole lamina becomes spinous. Spines of
leaves may be readily distinguished from those already described
(page 107), which are moditied branches, because in the latter
case they always arise from the axil of the leaf, instead of from
the leaf itself. Spines may be also readily distinguished from
prickles by their internal structure and the other characters al-
luded to when speaking of the spines of branches (p. 107). 2nd.
The petiole may assume a spiny character, either at its apex, as in
some species of Astragalus ; or at its base fromthe pulvinus (fig.
384, c), asin the Gooseberry. And, 3rd. The stipules may become
transformed into spines, as in Robinia Pseud-acacia (fig. 275).
Tendrils of Leaves.—Any part of the leaf may also become
Fie. 385. Fic. 387.
Fic. 386.
Fig. 385, Leaf of a species of Lathyrus, showing a winged petiole, with two
half-sagittate stipules at its base, and terminated by a tendril.— Fig. 386.
A portion of the stem of Lathyrus Aphaca, with stipules, s, s,and cirrhose
petiole, v.— Fig. 387. A portion of the stem of Smilax, bearing a petiolate
leaf, and two tendrils in place of stipules.
cirrhose or transformed into a tendril. Thus,—I1st. The midrib
of the blade of a simple leaf may project beyond the apex, and
form a tendril, as in Glorivsa superba ; or some of the leaflets of
a compound leaf may become transformed into branched tendrils
(figs. 577 and 385), as in certain species of Lathyrus, and many
other Leguminosz. 2nd. The petiole may become cirrhose, as in
Lathyrus Aphaca (fig. 386, v), and numerous other plants of the
Leguminosee. And, 3rd. The stipules may assume the form of
PHYLLODES OR PHYLLODIA. 187
‘tendrils ; thus in many species of Smilax there are two tendrils,
one on each side of the base of the petiole (jig. 387), in place of
the ordinary stipules.
Phyllodes or Phyllodia.—In the leaves of certain plants, as in
some Australian Acacias (figs. 388 and 389), certain species of
Eucalyptus, and of other plants, the parts forming the fibro-
vascular tissue of the petiole, instead of remaining till they
reach the blade before separating, begin,to diverge as soon as
they leave the stem or branch and become connected by paren-
Fie, 389.
Fie. 388.
Fig. 388. A phyllode of an Austra-
lian Acacia.— Fig. 389. Leaf
of an Acacia (Acacia hetero-
phylia), the petiole of which as-
sumes the character of a phyl-
lode, and is terminated by a
bipinnate lamina. The venation
of the phyllode may be seen to
be parallel,
chyma as in the ordinary blade of a leaf; the petiole thus
assumes the appearance of a lamina and then performs all its
functions. To such a petiole the name of phyllode has been
applied. In some cases, as in Acacia heterophylia, the phyl-
lode is terminated by a true compound blade (jig. 389), and its
nature is thus clearly ascertained, but in most instances no
such blade is produced (fig. 388). These phyllodes may be
distingnished from true blades, not only by the occasional
production of a lamina as just mentioned, but also by other
188 PHYLLODES.— PITCHERS.
circumstances. Thus,—Ilst. By their venation, which is more or
less parallel (figs. 388 and 389) instead of reticulated, as is the
case generally in Dicotyledons, in which class of plants they alone
occur. 2nd. By their being placed nearly or quite in a vertical
direction—that is, turning their margins upwards and down-
wards instead of their surfaces. And 3rd. By their two sur-
faces resembling each other, whereas in true blades a manifest
difference is commonly observable between their upper and
lower surfaces.
Besides the true phyllodes thus described, there are some
others, as in certain species of Ranunculus, which do not present
such well-marked distinctive characters. In these phyllodes the
direction of the surfaces is horizontal as in true blades, and in
some other respects they resemble them ; they have, however,
more or less parallel venation instead of reticulated, and, be-
longing to Dicotyledons, this character will suffice to distinguish
them, as it is now become the rule with most botanists to con-
sider all organs occupying the place of leaves among Dicotyledons,
which are not reticulated, as phyllodes.
Ascidia or Pitchers. —These are the most remarkable of all
the anomalous forms presented by leaves. They may be seen
Fia. 390. TEs ails
Fic..392.
Fig. 390, Pitcher of a species of Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes distillatoria). p.
Pitcher closed by the lid, 7. Fig. 391. Pitcher of the Side-saddle Plant
(Sarracenia purpurea ). Fig. 392. Pitchers of Heliamphora,
in the species of Nepenthes or Pitcher Plants (fig. 390), in the
species of Sarracenia or Side-saddle Plants (fig. 391), and in
many others. These curious organs may be either formed from
the petiole, or the blade of the leaf. Thus in the Sarracenia
( fig. 391), the pitcher appears to be produced by the folding
LEAVES OF DICOTYLEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. 189
inwards of the two margins of a phyllode, which unite below,
and form a hollow body or pitcher ; but they are still separate
above, and thus indicate its origin. The origin of the pitcher
from the phyllode is, however, probably best seen in a species
of Heliamphora (fig. 392), in which the union of the margins
of the phyllode is even less evident than in the Sarracenia.
In the Nepenthes (fig. 390) again, the petiole first expands intoa
phyllode, then assumes the appearance of a tendril, and ulti-
mately forms a pitcher, p; this is closed above by a lid, J,
called an operculum, which is united to it by an articulation.
The lid is here commonly regarded as a remarkable transform-
ation of the blade; but some consider that the pitcher is
formed out of the lamina, and that the operculum is the
terminal lobe. This kind of pitcher is also looked upon by
others as a modification of such leaves as the Orange (jig.
320), and Venus’s Fly-trap (fig. 375), in which the petiole, p,
is articulated to the blade; thus, if we suppose the winged
petiole of such plants to fold inwards and unite by its margins,
a pitcher would be formed resembling that of Nepenthes, and
the jointed blade would then be seen to be clearly analogous to
the operculum or lid of that plant. In another of these plants,
the Dischidia, the pitchers are considered to be formed by the
folding inwards and union of the margins of the blades.
8. LEAVES OF DICOTYLEDONS, MONOCOTYLEDONS, AND
CORMOPHYTES.
We have already seen, in describing the structure and general
characters of stems and roots, that these organs present well-
marked distinctive characters in the above divisions of plants.
The leaves of plants in the corresponding divisions, as we have
noticed generally in their description, also present certain marked
differences, which may be summed up as follows :—
1. Leaves or DicoryLtepons.—In these the venation is
reticulated in consequence of the veins branching in various
directions and the divisions becoming united with one another,
so as to form a more or less angular network (jig. 314). But
in some plants, as Ranunculus Lingua and R. Flammula, the
so-called blades have parallel veins, and have been therefore
considered by some botanists as representing exceptions to the
ordinary reticulated venation of Dicotyledons ; but these, as we
have just seen (page 188), are not usually regarded as true blades,
but as phyllodes or transformed petioles, from which they only
essentially differ in being placed horizontally.
The leaves of Dicotyledons are also very commonly articu-
lated to the stem or branch, often compound, and variously in-
dented or incised at their margins. Stipules are also frequently
present.
2. Leaves oF MonocotryLepons.—In these the venation is
190 LEAVES OF MONOCOTYLEDONS AND CORMOPHYTES.
commonly more or less parallel: either from base to apex
(fig. 311, a); or they present one large central vein from which
veins are given off on each side, which proceed in a parallel
direction to the margins, as in the Banana (jigs. 311, b, and
318). But the leaves generally of plants of the Natural Orders
Smilacez (fig. 387), Dioscoreace, Trilliaceze, Roxburghiacez,
and Philesiaceze, as well as some in the order Aracex, pre-
sent exceptions to this character, for in them the veins branch
in various directions and form a network, as in the leaves of
Dicotyledons. Some of these plants, as the Smilacez and allied
orders, were therefore separated from other Monocotyledons
by Lindley, and placed in a class by themselves, called Dictyo-
gens, from the Greek word signifying a net. But this class has
not been accepted by botanists, and is not therefore adopted in
this Manual. We have already noticed (page 100) that such
plants also present certain ditferences in the structure of their
subterranean stems from those of other Monocotyledons.
In Monocotyledons the leaves are also commonly not arti- .
culated ; and the margins of their blades are usually entire or free
from toothings and incisions of every kind. They are also com-
monly simple, often sheathing at the base, and seldom have
stipules, unless the ligule (page 181) is to be considered as the
analogue of these organs.
3. LeAvEs oF CormMopHyTES.—In these plants, when the
leaves have veins, these may be arranged, at first, in a pinnate
or palmate manner, but the whole of their principal veins either
divide afterwards in a forked manner, or their terminal ramifi-
cations are thus divided (jig. 319). The leaves of Ferns are
usually called fronds; this term being commonly applied to
leaves or leaf-like structures which, like those of Ferns, bear
the fructification.
Such leaves are usually not articulated ; either sessile or
stalked ; frequently toothed or incised in various ways ; often
highly compound ; but never have stipules.
CHAPTER 4.
ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION IN THE PHANEROGAMIA.
Unver the head of Organs of Reproduction we include the
Flower and its Appendages. They are called reproductive organs
because they have for their office the reproduction of plants by
the formation of seed. Plants with conspicuous organs of re-
production, as already noticed (page 11), are called Phanero-
gamous or Flowering ; while those in which these parts are
concealed or obscure, are termed Cryptogamous or Flowerless.
INFLORESCENCE.—THE BRACT. 191
The parts of a flower (as will be particularly shown here-
after), are only leaves in a modified condition, or rather the ana-
logues of these organs, or, more properly, homologous formations
adapted for special purposes ; and hence a flower-bud is analo-
gous to a leaf-bud, and the flower itself to a branch the inter-
nodes of which are but slightly developed, so that all its parts
are situated in nearly the same plane. As flower-buds are thus
analogous to leaf-buds, they are subject to similar laws of
arrangement and development.
Section 1. INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHOTAXIS.
THE term inflorescence or anthotaxis is applied generally to
indicate the floral axis and its ramification, or the arrangement
of the flowers upon that axis. Under this head we have to ex-
amine—lIst, the Leaf from the axil of which the flower-bud
arises ; 2nd, the Stalk upon which the flower or flowers are
situated ; and 3rd, the Kinds of Inflorescence.
Fie. 393.
Fig. 393. Flowering stalk of the White Dead-nettle (Lamium album),
with leafy bracts and verticillasters in their axils,
1. THE BRACT.
We have just stated that flower-buds are analogous to leaf-
buds ; and this analogy is still further proved by their occupy-
ing similar situations to them ; thus they are placed either at the
192 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRACTS.
apex of the floral axis or branch, or laterally, and then commonly
in the axil of modified leaves. Flower-buds, therefore, like leaf-
buds, are terminal or axillary. In the latter case the modified
leaves from which they arise are called bracts or hypsophyllary
leaves. In strict language the term bract should be only applied
to the leaf from the axil of which a solitary flower or a floral axis
arises ; while all other leafy structures which are found upon
that axis between the bract and the flower properly so called,
should be termed bractlets or bracteoles (fig. 404, b, b). These
two kinds of bracts are, however, but
rarely distinguished in practice, the term
bract being generally alone used for
either variety, and in this sense we shall
hereafter, as a general rule, apply it.
Bracts vary much in appearance,
some of them being large, of a green
colour, and in other respects resembling
the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant
upon which they are placed, as in the
Fia. 394.
Pre: 395. Fie. 396.
Fig. 394, Flowering stalk of the Pimpernel (Anagallis
arvensis). 6, 6. Solitary flowers arising from the
axil of the leafy bracts, a, a. Fig. 395. Calyx of
the Marsh-mallow (Althea officinalis) surrounded
by an epicalyx or involucre.——Fig. 396. Flower
of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), surrounded by
an epicalyx or inyolucre.
White Dead-nettle (fig. 393) ; andin the Pimpernel ( fig. 394, a, a);
in which case they are called leafy bracts. Such bracts can only
be distinguished from the true leaves by their position with
regard to the flower-stalk or flower. In most cases, however,
bracts, although very commonly of a greenish colour, are smaller
than the foliage leaves ; and in many plants they may be known
from the ordinary leaves not only by their position, but also by
differences of colour, outline, texture, and other peculiarities.
Thus the bracts forming the cupule of the Oak are hard and
woody ; in the Hop they are membranous ; in certain plants
of the Aracez and Euphorbiacee coloured ; in the flower-heads
of the Compositze scaly ; and other modifications also occur.
ARRANGEMENT, DURATION, AND VARIETIES OF BRACTS. 193
Sometimes when the bracts are situated in a whorl imme-
diately below the calyx, it is difficult to determine whether they
should be considered as a part of the calyx or as true bracts ;
thus, in most flowers of the Mallow order (jig. 395), and many
of the Pink (fig. 474, b) and Rose orders (fig. 396), we have
a circle of leafy organs placed just below the calyx, to which the
term of epicalyx has been given by many botanists, but which
properly comes under the denomination of involucre (page 194).
Almost all inflorescences are furnished with bracts of some
kind or other ; it frequently happens, however, that some of
the bracts do not develop axillary flower-buds, just in the same
manner as it occasionally happens that the leaves do not produce
leaf-buds in their axils. In some cases the non-development of
flower-buds in the axil of bracts appears to arise simply from
accidental causes ; but in others it occurs as a regular law, thus
in the Purple Clary (Salvia Horminwm), and the common Pine-
apple (fig. 292), there are a number of bracts without flower-
buds placed at the apex of the inflorescence. Such bracts are
called empty. When bracts are absent altogether, as is usually
the case in the plants of the natural order Cruciferze, and those
of the Boraginacez, such plants are termed ebracteated ; when
bracts are present the inflorescence is said to be bracteated.
Arrangement and Duration of Bracts.—Bracts follow the same
laws of arrangement as true leaves, being opposite, alternate, or
whorled, in different plants. The bracts of the Pineapple fruit
(fig. 292), and those of Fir cones (figs. 293 and 420), show in a
marked manner a spiral arrangement.
Bracts vary in their duration; thus when they fall imme-
diately, or soon after the flower-bud expands, they are said to be
deciduous ; or when they remain long united to the floral axis,
they are persistent. In some plants they persist and constitute
a part of the fruit; thus, in the Hazel-nut and Filbert they
form the husk (fig. 401), in the Acorn they constitute the cup
(fig. 400), and in the Hop-fruit (jig. 421), in the Fir-cones
(figs. 293 and 420), and Pineapple (jig. 292), they persist as
membranous, woody, fleshy, or scaly appendages.
Varieties of Bracts.—Bracts have received special names
according to their arrangement and other characters. Thus the
bracts of that kind of inflorescence called an Amentum or
Catkin (see page 202), as seen in the Willow (fig. 416), Oak,
Hazel (fig. 397), Birch, and other plants, are usually of a scaly
nature, and are termed squame or scales; or the bracts are
described as squamous or scali;. The bracts of the pistillate
flowers of the Hop (fig. 421) are of like character.
When a circie or whorl of bracts is placed around one flower,
as in the Marsh Mallow (fig. 395) and Strawberry (fig. 396) ; or
around anumber of flowers, as in the Carrot (jig. 398) and most
other Umbelliferous plants, they form what is termed an invo-
lucre. Insome Umbelliferous plants, as for instance the Carrot,
)
194 VARIETIES OF BRACTS.—INVOLUCRE,
(fig. 398), there are two involucres, one at the base of the primary
divisions of the floral axis or general umbel, a ; and another at
Fic. 397. Fic. 398.
Fiy. 397, Staminate or male catkin of the Hazel ( Corylus A vellana), showing
a number of scaly bracts between the flowers.——Fig. 398. Compound
umbel of the Carrot (Daucus Carota). a. General involucre. 6, 6. Partial
inyolucres or involucels.
the base of each of the partial
umbels or umbellules, 6b, 6 ;
the former is then called the
general involucre; and each of
the latter an involucel or par-
tial involucre (see page 208).
In plants of the natural order
Composite, such as the Mari-
gold (fig. 399), Artichoke,
Chamomile, and Daisy ; and
of some of the allied orders, a
somewhat similar arrangement
of bracts takes place, and the
name of involucre is also ap-
plied in these cases. In the
involucres of the Compositze
there are frequently two or
three rows of bracts thus over-
lapping one another ; the con-
stituent bracts of these latter
i involucres have been termed
Mi day, showing the flowers enclosed in Prylaries. Sometimes the
an involucre. bracts of an involucre grow
together at their bases, and
form ultimately a sort of cup-shaped body surrounding the
fruit, as the cup of the Acorn (fig. 400), and the husk of the
VARIETIES OF BRACTS.—CUPULE. 195
Filbert or Hazel-nut (jig. 401); they then form what is called a
cupule.
Fic. 400, Fie. 401.
Fig. 400. Fruit of the Oak (Quercus Robur), surrounded by a cupule.—
Fig. 401. Fruit of the Hazel (Corylus Avellana), with a cupule at its base.
Fie. 402. Fic. 403.
Fig. 402. Flower of the Spring Snowflake (Leucojum vernum), arising from
the axil of a spathaceous bract or spathe,—— Fig, 403. Spadix of Cuckoo-
pint (Arum maculatum) enclosed in a spathe, a portion of which has been
removed to show the flowers within.
0 2
196 VARIETIES OF BRACTS.——SPATHE.
When a bract is of large size and sheathing, and surrounds
one, or a number of flowers, so as to completely enclose them
when in a young state, as in the Iris, Narcissus, Snowflake (fig.
402), the common Arum or Cuckoo-pint (fig. 403), and Palms
(fig. 417), it is called a spathe. The spathe is generally found
surrounding the kind of inflorescence called a spadix (page
203), as in the Arum (jig. 402), and Palm (fig. 417); and it
is also very common in other Monocotyledons. The spathe
may be either green like an ordinary leaf, as in the Cuckoo-
pint ; or coloured, as in Richardia exthiopica. In some Palms
these spathes are of great length, sometimes even as much as
twenty feet ; and as many as 200,000 flowers have been counted
in them. Sometimes the spa- .
dix of a Palm branches (jig. Fie. 405,
417), and then we frequently
find smaller spathes surround-
ing its divisions, which have
been named spathelle. Many
Fie. 404.
Fig. 404. Receptacle of the Chamomile (Anthemis nobilis), bearing tubular
flowers (florets), a, a, and bracteoles, b, bd: the latter are sometimes termed
Pales. (The receptacle is here drawn much too large at the apex, it
should be conical in form.) Vig. 405. Locusta or spikelet of the Oat
(Avena sativa). gl,gl. Glumes. ps, pi. Palee or Pales. a. Awnarising from
the dorsum of the outer pale, ps. js. An abortive flower,
botanists restrict the term spathe to the large enveloping bract
of the spadix, and call the other bracts of a like character,
which enclose only one or at most a few flowers, as frequently
found in Monocotyledons, spathaceous bracts.
Besides the bracts which surround the head of flowers of
the Compositz and form an involucre, it frequently happens
that the individual flowers or florets (fig. 404, a, a) are also
provided with little bracts or bracteoles, b, b, which are then
generally of a membranous nature, and colourless, as in the
Chamomile. These have received the name of palex, but as
this term is applied to certain special bracts found in Grasses
(see below), they are better named scales, or by some other
term which expresses their texture and character.
The only other bracts which have received special names
are those found in plants of the Grass and Sedge orders. Thus
GLUMES.—PEDUNCLE.—PEDICEL. 197
the partial inflorescence of a Grass, which is termed a locusta or
spikelet (page 203), has at its base one or two bracts, which are
called glumes (fig. 405, gl, gl); while in the Cyperaceze each
flower arises from the axil of one or two similar bracts. In the
Grasses we also find that each flower has two other bracts (fig.
405, ps, pi), which are commonly called pales or palex ; and
also frequently at the base of the ovary there are two or more
little scales, also of the nature of bracts, which are usually
termed squamule, glumellules, or lodicule (fig. 601, sp).
2. THE PEDUNCLE OR FLOWER STALK.
The term peduncle is applied to the stalk of a solitary flower,
whether axillary (jig. 394, 6, b), or terminal (fig. 402), or to a
floral axis which bears a number of sessile flowers (jigs. 413 and
414) ; or if the floral axis branches and each branch bears a
flower (figs. 422 and 423), the main axis is still called a peduncle,
and the stalk of each flower a pedicel ; or if the axis be still
further subdivided, the general name of peduncle (jig. 424) is
applied to the whole, with the exception of the stalks imme-
diately supporting the flowers, which are in all cases called
pedicels. When the floral axis is thus branched, it is better to
speak of the main axis as the primary axis (fig. 424, a’), its
divisions as the secondary axes a’’, and their divisions as the
tertiary axes a’”’, &e.
Kinds of Pedwncle.—Under certain circumstances pedun-
cles and pedicels have received special names. Thus, when a
Fic. 406. Fic. 407.
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° I Wiz y) SAD
cose yy ttt NE
:) |!
\
\\\
ily
Fig. 406. Hypanthodium of the \
Fig (Ficus Carica), showing ibe,
pear-shaped fleshy receptacle i |
bearing flowers on its inner |
surface. —— Fig. 407. Coen- I
anthium of a species of Dor- |
stenia.
peduncle is elongated, and gives off from its sides sessile flowers
(figs. 413 and 414), or branches bearing flowers (figs. 422-424),
198 KINDS AND FORMS OF PEDUNCLE.
it is called the rachis or axis ; butif, instead of being elongated,
it becomes more or less dilated, and usually bearing numerous
flowers, it is termed the receptacle. This receptacle varies very
much in form ; thus, it is flattened in the Cotton Thistle (fig.
427), conical in the Chamomile, concave and fleshy in the
Dorstenia (jig. 407), pear-shaped and hollowed out in the Fig
(fig. 406); or it assumes a variety of other intermediate forms.
The peculiar receptacle of the Dorstenia is sometimes termed a
cenanthium ; and that of the Fig ahypanthodium ; or both kinds
are sometimes characterised by the latter name.
It should be observed, that the term receptacle is also applied
by some botanists to the extremity of the peduncle or pedicel,
upon which the parts of the flower are placed, whether enlarged
or not, and whether bearing one or a number of flowers (see
Thalamus).
When plants which have no aerial stem bear flowers, the
peduncle necessarily arises at, or under, the ground, in which
case it is called a scape or radical peduncle (fig. 402), as in the
Spring Snowflake, Tulip, Hyacinth, Primrose, and Cowslip.
The scape may either bear one flower as in the Tulip, or several
flowers as in the Hyacinth.
Forms of Peduncle.—In form the peduncle is generally more
or less cylindrical, but besides the departure from this ordinary
Fic. 408. Fic. 409.
Fig. 408, Female plant of Vallisneria spiralis, with its flowers arranged on
spiral peduncles. ——/“ig. 409. Portion of a branch of the Butcher’s Broom
(Ruscus aculeatus), with phylloid pedicels (cladodes), bearing flowers, a.
appearance as exhibited by the receptacle just described, and
its modifications, it frequently assumes other forms. Thus, it
may become more or less compressed, or grooved in various
ways, or excessively enlarged during the ripening of the fruit,
as in the Cashew-nut ; or it may assume a spiral character, as
FORMS. AND INSERTION OF PEDUNCLE. 199
in the Vallisneria (fig. 408) ; or become spiny, or transformed
into a tendril; or it may be hollowed out at its apex, so
as to form a cup-shaped body, to which the lower part of the
calyx is attached, as in Eschscholtzia ; or other modifications
may occur.
In some cases the peduncle or pedicel becomes flattened and
assumes the form of a phyllode, in which case it is termed
foliaceous or phylloid ; or it is called a phylloclade or cladode.
Examples of this occur in the Butcher’s Broom (jig. 409),
where the flowers arise from its surface ; and in Xylophylla, in
which the flowers are attached to its margins. Sometimes the
peduncle, or several peduncles united, assume an irregular
flattened appearance, somewhat resembling the fasciated branch
Pie. 410. Binge
Fig. 410. Peduncle of the Lime-tree (Tilia europea) attached to the bract,
b.— Fig. 411. Branch of Woody Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara), with
extra-axillary peduncle, and auriculate leaf.
already described (page 113), and bear numerous flowers in a
sort of crest at their extremities, as in the Cockscomb ; and
in the Cauliflower, where the united fleshy branches of the
peduncle form a rounded mass bearing on its upper part abor-
tive flowers.
Insertion.—In speaking of the branches of a stem, we found
that in some cases, instead of arising in the axil of leaves, they
became extra-awillary (page 113) in consequence of adhesions of
various kinds taking place between them and the stem and
other parts. In like manner the peduncle may become eztra-
axillary by contracting adhesions. Thus, in the Lime-tree (jig.
410), the peduncle adheres to the midrib of the bract, b, for
200 KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE.
some distance, and then becomes free ; while Wang Solan-
acez, as in the Woody Nightshade (fig. 411), the peduncle also
becomes extra-axillary by forming adhesions to the stem or
branch in various ways.
Duration.—With respect to their duration the peduncle and
pedicel vary. Thus they are said to be caducous, when they
fall off soon after the opening of the flower, as in the staminate
or male flowers of a catkin ; they are deciduous, when they fall
off after the fruit has ripened, as in the Cherry; they are
persistent, if they remain after the ripening of the fruit and
dispersion of the seed, as in the Dandelion ; and they are said
to be excrescent, if they enlarge or continue to grow during the
ripening of the fruit, as in the Cashew-nut.
3. KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE.
The term inflorescence or anthotaxis is used in a general sense
to indicate the arrangement of the flowers upon the floral axis
or peduncle, in the same way as the term phyllotaxis is used in a
genera! sense to indicate the various modes in which the leaves
are arranged on the stem or branches, and that of vernation for the
arrangement of the component rudimentary leaves of leaf-buds.
As flowers are variously arranged upon the floral axis, we havea
number of different kinds of inflorescence, and to each mode of
arrangement a particular name is applied. These modifications
are always the same for the same species of plant, and frequently
for entire genera, and even natural orders, and hence their dis-
crimination is of much practical importance. All the regular
kinds may be arranged in two divisions : and if the general cha-
racters upon which they depend are understood, their several
modifications will be readily intelligible. These twoare usually
called Indefinite or Indeterminate, and Definite or Determinate
Inflorescence. The former is also sometimes termed Botryoid
or Botryose ; and the latter Terminal or Cymose Inflorescence.
In the former, the primary floral axis is terminated by a growing
point, analogous to the terminal leaf-bud of a stem or branch ;
hence such an axis has the power of either growing in an
upward direction, in the same manner as the terminal leaf-bud
of a stem or branch has the power of elongating, and thus
adding to its length ; or of dilating more or less horizontally.
There is consequently no necessary limit to the growth of such
an axis, and hence the name of Indeterminate or Indefinite
which is applied to it. Such an axis as it continues to grow
upwards develops on its sides other flower-buds, from which
flowers are produced, and these, like the buds of a stem or branch,
are commonly situated in the axil of leaves which are here called
bracts, as we have seen. All the flowers therefore of an Indefinite
Inflorescence must be necessarily lateral or axillary, and hence
this inflorescence is also termed axillary. The general characters
INDEFINITE OR INDETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE. 201
he
of Indefnith Indeterminate, or Axillary Inflorescence, depend
therefore upon the indefinite growth of the primary axis ; while
the secondary, tertiary, and other axes which are developed
from it, are terminated by flower-buds. In the Definite or
Determinate Inflorescence, on the contrary, the primary ayis is
terminated at an early period by the production of a flower-bud ;
such an axis has therefore a limit at once put to its growth in
an upward direction, and hence the names of Definite, Deter-
minate, or Terminal, applied to it. Each of these primary
divisions presents us with several modifications, which we now
proceed to describe.
1. INDEFINITE, INDETERMINATE, OR AXILLARY IJNFLORES-
cENCE.—The simplest kind of inflorescence in this class is that
presented by such plants as the Pimpernel (jig. 394), in which
solitary flowers, b, b, are deve-
loped in the axils of what are
commonly regarded as the or-
dinary foliage leaves of the
plant, a, a, although properly
leafy bracts, the primary axis
continuing to elongate in an
upward direction and bearing
other leaves and flowers; the
flowers are then said to be
seer eee enitlary. Wilen Fig. 412. Whorled leafy bracts and
such flowers are arranged mn solitary axillary flowers of Mare’s Tail
whorls round the stem, as in (Hippuris vulgaris).
the common Mare’s Tail, each
flower being axillary to a leafy bract (jig. 412), they are said to
be whorled.
When a number of flowers instead of a single one are de-
veloped upon anelongated, shortened, or dilated, peduncle placed
at the extremity of a branch, or in the axil of a bract, a number
of kinds of inflorescence arise. All these depend upon the extent
to which the floral axis branches, the mode in which the branch-
ing takes place, the comparative lengths of the flower-stalks,
and other subordinate circumstances. It will be convenient to
describe these various modifications under two heads—Ist, those
kinds of Indefinite Inflorescence with an Elongated Primary
Axis ; and 2nd, those witha Shortened or Dilated Primary Axis.
In all kinds of indefinite inflorescence it will be found that
the flower-buds always open in succession from the base to the
apex if the axis is elongated (jigs. 414 and 422), hence these
inflorescences have been also called acropetal or ascending ; or
from the circumference towards the centre if the axis is short-
ened or dilated (jig. 428), therefore such forms are also called
centripetal. This acropetal or centripetal order of expansion
necessarily arises from the mode of development of such kinds
of inflorescence ; thus, the flower-buds situated at the base of an
Fic. 412.
202 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—SPIKE.—AMENTUM.
elongated axis are those that are first formed and consequently
the oldest ; for as the axis elongates upwards it is continually
producing other flower-buds, the age of which continues to
decrease as we approach the growing point or apex; and as
flower-buds are necessarily most developed in the order of their
age, it follows that those at the base will open first, and that
the order of expansion will proceed gradually upwards towards
the apex, or acropetally. In the same way the flower-buds situated
Fre, 413 Fic. 414. — 2 the circumference of a shortened
ae) ; or dilated axis are first formed, and
those nearest the centre or growing
point last, and therefore their ex-
pansion will proceed from the cir-
cumference to the centre, or cen-
tripetally.
A. Kinds of Indefinite or In-
determinate Inflorescence with an
Hlongated Primary Azxis.—These
are as follows :—
a. The Spike.—This is a kind
of inflorescence in which the ped-
uncle is elongated and bears sessile
flowers, or flowers in which the
pedicels are very short, so as not
to be clearly distinguishable. Ex-
amples of it may be seen in the
Rib-grass (jig. 413), and Vervain
(fig. 414). In this kind of inflores-
cence it will be observed that the
flowers at the lower part of the
spike have passed into fruit (fig.
414), while those near the middle
are in full flower, and those at the
top are still undeveloped. Such an
inflorescence exhibits therefore, ina
Fig. 413. Spike of a species of marked degree, the acropetal order
Rib-grass (Plantago ).—— Fig. of expansion.
a ot Nee re There are five other kinds of
i indefinite inflorescence which are
simply modifications of the spike. These are the Amentum or
Catkin, the Spadix, the Locusta, the Cone, aud the Strobile.
b. The Amentwm or Catkin.—This is a kind of spike which
usually bears barren flowers—that is, only staminate (fig. 415),
or only pistillate (fig. 416) ones. The flowers of an amentum
are also usually separated from one another by scaly bracts, and
the whole inflorescence (at least as regards the staminate cat-
kins) commonly falls off in one piece, soon after the process of
flowering. The bracts have sometimes one, or at other times
several flowers in their axils. All plants with this kind of
SPADIX.—LOCUSTA.—CONE. 203
inflorescence are called amentaceous or amentiferous. Our trees
afford numerous examples, as the Oak, Willow, Birch, and
Poplar.
ce. The Spadix is a spike with a succulent peduncle, in
which the individual flowers have no special bracts, but the
’ whole inflorescence enclosed in that variety of bract which is
called a spathe. This is well seen in the Cuckoo-pint (fig.
403). Sometimes the spadix branches, as in Palms (fig. 417),
in which case it is called compownd or branching. The term
spadix is also usually applied to a succulent spike, whether
enveloped in a spathe or not, as in the Sweet Flag (Acorus
Calamus).
Fic. 415. Fic. 416.
itis
Fig. 415, Staminate amentum or catkin of a species
of Willow (Saliz)——Fig. 416. Pistillate or car-
pellary amentum of a species of Willow, with
bracts between the carpels.
d. The Locusta or Spikelet.—This name is given to the
partial inflorescence of Grasses (fig. 405), and of plants of the
Sedge Order. In grasses it is a spike with a few flowers, and
these destitute of a true calyx and corolla, their place being
occupied by palex or pales (fig. 405, ps, pi), and the whole in-
florescence surrounded at the base by one or two empty bracts
(glumes), gl, gl. These spikelets may be either arranged sessile on
the elongated peduncle or rachis (fig. 418), asin Wheat, or they
may be placed on a more or less branched axis, as in the Oat (jig.
419). Thespikelets of plants of the Sedge Order present certain
peculiarities, but they are essentially of the same nature as those
of Grasses,
e. The Cone.—This is a kind of spike, found in plants of the
order Conifer, as the Larch, Pine, and Fir (figs. 295 and 420).
It is composed of a collection of imbricated scales or open carpels
arising from the axils of bracts, and bearing two or more naked
ovules at their base (fig. 17, ov).
204 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—STROBILE.—RACEME,
The cone is sometimes regarded as the fruit or pseudocarp
of a single flower, and not an inflorescence or collection of
flowers as here described. Some, again, do not distinguish
between a cone anda strobile, but put the two inflorescences
together under the common name of cone or strobilus, which
they define as a collection of persistent woody or membranous
scales or bracts, each of which bears a pistillate flower at its
base.
Fie. 418. Fie, 419.
Fig. 417. Branched spadix of a Palm (Chamc7ops), enveloped in a spathe.
Fig. 418. Inflorescence of Wheat (Ziticum vulgare), consisting of
numerous sessile spikelets arranged on an elongated peduncle (7achis ),——
Fig. 419. Branched or panicled arrangement of the spikelets of the Oat
(Avena sativa).
f. The Strobile.—This is a kind of spike formed of persistent
membranous bracts or scales, each of which bears at its base a
pistillate flower. It is seen in the Hop (fig. 421).
All the kinds of indefinite inflorescence at present described
owe their essential characters to the flowers being sessile upon an
elongated axis. We now pass to describe others, in which the
axis is more or less branched, and the flowers consequently
situated upon stalks. The simplest of these is the Raceme.
g. The Raceme.—This name is applied to that form of inflores-
cence in which the elongated peduncle or rachis bears flowers
RACEME,.—CORYMB.—ANTHELA, 205
placed on pedicels of nearly equal length (fig. 422). It only
differs from the spike in the flowers being distinctly stalked
instead of sessile or nearlyso. Examples occur in the Currant,
Mignonette, Hyacinth, Laburnum, Barberry, and Fumitory.
Fie. 420.
Hie. 422:
Fig. 420. Cone of Hemlock Spruce (Pinus canadensis).—— Fig. 421. Strobile
of the Hop (Humulus Lupulus ).—Fig. 422, Raceme of a species of Cherry
(Prunus Padus).
h. The Corymb.—When the pedicels, instead of being of
nearly equal lengths on the rachis, as in the raceme, are of differ-
ent lengths (fig. 423), viz. those, a’ a’, at the base of the
primary axis, a’, longer than those towards and at the apex, so
that the whole form a level, or nearly level top, the inflorescence
is termed a corymb. Examples may be seen in some species of
Prunus (fig. 423). When the stalks or secondary axes of a
corymb (fig. 424, a’) instead of bearing flowers immediately,
divide and form tertiary, a” a’, or other axes, upon which the
flowers are then placed, it is termed compound or branching, as
in some species of Pyrus. This may also be called a panicled
corymb (see Panicle), to distinguish it from the former or simple
corymb, which is then termed a racemose corymb. It sometimes
happens that when the flowers are first developed they form a
corymb, butas the primary axis elongates a raceme is produced ;
this may be seen in many Cruciferous plants.
In several species of Juncus and Luzula, the pedicels of the
lower flowers are so long that they are elevated above the upper
ones, in which case the inflorescence is sometimes distinguished
by the term anthela.
206 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—PANICLE.
i. The Panicle.—This is a sort of compound raceme, that is
to say, a raceme in which the secondary axes, instead of pro-
Fie. 423. Fic. 424.
Fig. 423. Simple corymb of a species of Prunus (Cerasus), a’, Primary
axis, bearing bracts, 6, b, from the axis of which pedicels, a’’, a”, arise.
——Fig. 424. Compound or branching corymb of the Wild Service tree
(Pyrus torminalis), a’, Primary axis. a’, a’. Secondary axes, a”, a”,
Tertiary axes. 0, 6, 6. Bracts.
Fig. 425, Panicle.
ducing flowers directly, branch, and form tertiary axes, &c., the
ultimate subdivisions of which bear the flowers (jig. 425). Ex-
amples occur in the Yucca gloriosa, and in the general arrange-
CAPITULUM OR HEAD. 207
ment of the partial inflorescences of the Oat (fig. 419). When
the panicle is much branched and the flowers placed on short
pedicels, so that the whole inflorescence forms a compact cluster
of a somewhat pyramidal form, as in the Lilac and Vine, it is
sometimes termed a thyrsus or thyrse (fig. 426).
B. Kinds of Indefinite Inflorescence with a Shortened or Dilated
Primary Axis.—Of these we distinguish two varieties :—the
Capitulum or Anthodium, and the Umbel:
a. The Capitulum, Anthodiwm, or Head.—This inflorescence
was formerly called a Compound Flower ; and its involucre a
Common Calyx. Its constituent flowers from their small size are
commonly termed florets. This inflorescence is usually formed
Fic. 426.
Fic. 427.
Fig, 426, Thyrsus of Vine (Vitis vinifera).——Fig. 427, Capitulum of Cotton
Thistle (Onopordum Acanthium),
by a number of sessile florets crowded together on a receptacle,
and the whole surrounded by an involucre (fig. 399) ; but in some
cases the florets are but few in number, and in other capitula the
involucre is absent. The receptacle, as we have seen (page 198),
may be either flattened, as in the Cotton Thistle (fig. 427) ; or
slightly convex, as in the Dandelion; or conical, as in the
Chamomile; or globular, as in the American Button-bush ;
or elliptical, &c., by which a variety of forms is given to the
different capitula.
This kind of indefinite inflorescence, as well as all others
in this division with shortened or dilated primary axes, also
exhibit a centripetal order of expansion. This may be well
seen in the capitulum of the Scabious (jig. 428), where the outer
-
208 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—UMBEL.
florets are fully expanded, those within them less so, and those
in the centre in an unexpanded condition. Here therefore the
order of expansion is towards the centre—that is, centripetally.
The capitulum is the universal form of inflorescence in plants of
the natural orders Composite and Dipsacaceze ; and is also found,
more or less, in some orders allied to these. Capitula of a less
marked character are also to be seen in other orders ; as in the
species of Clover (Trifolium), and many Proteaceous plants ;
in these, however, the involucre is always absent.
The arrangement of the flowers in the Fig (fig. 406) and
Dorstenia (fig. 407) also closely resembles that of an ordinary
capitulum, and such arrangements are sometimes regarded as
special varieties of the capitulum ; but the involucre is in these
Fie. 428.
\
\
\
SN ‘i
Fig. 428. Capitulum of
Seabious (Scabiosa).
The outermost florets
may be observed to be
more expanded than
the inner.— Fig. 429.
Simple umbel of a
species of Allium,
inflorescences always absent, and the flowers are developed cen-
trifugally, as in the glomerule (page 216), to which kind of in-
florescence they therefore more properly belong.
b. The Umbel.—When the primary axis is shortened, and
gives off from its apex a number of secondary axes or pedicels of
nearly equal length, each bearing a flower, and the whole ar-
ranged like the ribs of an umbrella, an wmbel is formed (fig. 429),
as in the Onion and Cowslip. When the secondary axes them-
selves divide, and form tertiary axes, which are also arranged in
an umbellate manner, a compound wmbel is produced. This is
seen in the Carrot (jig. 398), the Fennel (jig. 430), and other
allied plants, which are hence called wmbelliferous, and give the
name to the natural order Umbelliferee. In the compound
umbel (fig. 430), the primary umbel a is called the general wnbel,
and the other umbels, b, b, b, formed by the divisions of this,
DEFINITE OR DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCES. 209
partial umbels or wmbellules. When the base of the general
umbel is surrounded by a whorl of bracts (fig. 398, a) they
constitute a general involucre ; and if other bracts, b, 6, are ar-
ranged in a similar manner around the partial umbels, each of
these whorls of bracts forms an involucel or partial involucre.
These varieties of arrangement have been already alluded to
when speaking of bracts (page 195).
Fie. 430.
Fig. 430. Compound umbel of Fennel. a. General umbel. 86, }, b. Partial
umbels or umbellules.—/Fg. 431. Portion of the floral axis of a species of
Gentian (Gentiana acaulis), terminated by a solitary flower, below which
are two bracts.
2. DEFINITE, DETERMINATE, OR TERMINAL INFLORESCENCE.
In all kinds of definite inflorescence the primary axis, as we
have seen, page 201, is arrested in its growth at an early age by
the development of a terminal flower-bud, and if the axis bears
no other flower this is called a solitary terminal flower, and is
the simplest form of this variety of inflorescence. Examples of
this may be seen in the Stemless Gentian (jig. 431), and in the
Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa). When other flowers are
produced on such an axis, they must necessarily arise from axil-
lary flower-buds placed below the terminal flower-bud ; and if
these form secondary axes (jig. 432, a’’), each axis will in like
manner be arrested in its growth by a terminal flower-bud f” ;
and if other axes @’”’ are developed from the secondary ones,
these also must be axillary, and will be arrested in a similar
manner by flowers f’”’”, and these axes may also form other axes
of a like character, and so on. Hence this mode of inflorescence
is definite, determinate, or terminal, in contradistinction to the
former or indefinite mode of inflorescence already described, where
the primary axis elongates indefinitely unless stopped by some
extraneous cause. Definite inflorescences are most common and
regular in plants with opposite or whorled leaves, but they also
1E
210 KINDS OF DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE,
occur in those which have alternate leaves, as for instance in the
species of Ranunculus (fig. 432). In definite inflorescences the
flower-buds necessarily follow a different order of expansion from
those of indefinite inflorescences, because in them the terminal
flower is the first developed and
JA consequently the oldest (fig.
Pe 452, f’), and other flower-buds
es are produced in succession
} from the apex to the base, if
the axis be elongated, f’ f’” ;
or if shortened or dilated, from
the centre to the circumfer-
ence. The uppermost flower-
bud of the elongated primary
axis (fig. 432, f’), and the
central one of the shortened
or dilated axis will accord-
ingly open first ; and the ex-
pansion of the other flower-
buds will proceed insuccession
downwards, or towards the
circumference, according to
the character of the primary
axis. Such an order of expan-
sion is called centrifugal or
regressive. Hence while the
indefinite kinds of inflores-
cences are characterised by
an acropetal, progressive, or
Peter 0 centripetal order of expan-
Fig. 432. A plant of Ranunculus bulbosus. sion ; those of definite infior-
w, a’. Primary axis terminated by a fully escences are regressive or cen-
expanded flower, 7’. a’’. Secondary axis, :
which is also terminated by a flower, 7”, trifugal.
not so fully developed asj’, a’’, Tertiary Kinds of Definite or Deter-
axis terminated by a flower-bud, 7”, which : I Th
is less developed than 7/ and 7”, minate nflorescence. a e€
kinds of definite inflorescence
are also termed cymose, as the general name of cyme is applied
to all such inflorescences. But some are also distinguished by
special names :—
a. The Cyme.—This term is applied generally to a definite
inflorescence which is more or less branched, the whole being
developed in a corymbose or somewhat umbellate manner, so
as to assume either a flattened head, as in the Laurustinus
(fig. 433), Dogwood, and Elder ; or a rounded one, as in the
Hydrangea ; or more or less spreading, as in the Chickweed (fig.
434) and Centaury (jig. 435). Inthe more perfect and compact
form of cyme, as found in the Laurustinus and Elder, the flower-
buds are all nearly perfect before any of them open, and then the
flowering takes place rapidly, commencing in the centre of the
THE CYME. 211
cyme, and then in the centre of each of its divisions, and thence
proceeding in an outward direction ; and as the central flower of
Fic. 433.
Fig. 434.
Fig. 434. Dichasial cyme or Dichasium of a species of Chickweed (Cerastium).
a’, Primary axis terminated by a flower. «w’, a’. Secondary axes, two in
number, arising from the axils of opposite bracts, 6, b, and terminated also
by flowers. a’, a", a’, a’, Tertiary axes, four in number, arising from
bracts, 6, and bearing other bracts, b, from which the quaternary axes,
eight in number, arise, a/’”’, a”, a", The flowers are more developed on
the primary axis than on the other axes; thus the one terminating that
axis is in the state of fruit; the flowers of the axes of a’ and a’” are also
in fruit, but less developed than that of a’, while in the axesa’’ the flowers
only are expanded. Fig. 435. Dichasial cyme or Dichasium of the Cen-
taury (Erythrea Centaurium). a’, a’, a’, a’. Floral axes. jf’, f"7'",
J". Flowers terminating those axes respectively. The flowers will be
observed to be most developed in proportion to their age; thus,’ is in
the state of fruit, 7”, 7’, expanded, 7”, J'’~,7'", aad the others still in bud,
P2
212 KINDS OF CYME.
each cluster corresponds to the apex of a branch, the expansion
of the whole is centrifugal. By attention to this order of ex-
pansion such cymes may be always distinguished from indefinite
kinds of inflorescence, such as the umbel or corymb, to which
otherwise they bear in many cases a great resemblance. In the
Chickweed (fig. 434), and many other plants, the formation of the
secondary, tertiary, and other axes a”, a’, a’’’”’, goes on through-
out the growing season, and in such cymes, which are usually
of a more or less spreading nature, the centrifugal order of
expansion may be well observed.
Fic. 437.
Fig. 436. Spiked cyme of Sedum, This is re-
garded by Sachs as a form of monochasial,
uniparous, or unilateral cyme.— Fig. 437.
Racemose cyme of a species of Campanula.
a’, Primary axis terminated by a flower, 7’,
which is already withering. «a, a’, a’.
Secondary axes, each ending in a flower,
iit, Gee
The above cymes are sometimes characterised according to
the number of their branches : thus they are dichotomous, as in
the common Centaury (jig. 435), when the primary axis @’ is
terminated by a flower 7’, at the base of which are two bracts,
each of which develops in its axil secondary axes a”, a”,
ending in single flowers, f’, f’ ; and at the base of each of
these flowers “there are also two other bracts, from which
tertiary axes a’”’, a’”’”, are developed, also terminated by flowers
Pent, Bnd AO on, and as the division in this case always takes
place into two branches, the cyme is said to be dichotomous.
The cyme of the Chickweed (fig. 434) is also dichotomous.
The dichotomous cyme is also called a biparous cyme or dicha-
sium. This is not a true dichotomous branching (see page
KINDS OF CYME.—-DICHASIUM. 213
110), but only apparently so, in consequence of the greater
development of the lateral branches as compared with that of
the terminal one.
Such cymes are also frequently characterised as corymbose,
or umbellate, from their resemblance, except in the order of
the expansion of their flowers, to the true corymb, or umbel ;
or as globose, linear, &c., according to their general form.
Again, when a definite inflorescence does not assume a more
or less corymbose or umbellate form, as in the ordinary cyme
just described, it is also best characterised by terms derived
from the kind of indefinite inflorescence to which it bears
a resemblance. Thus, when a cyme has sessile flowers, or
nearly so, as in the Sedum (fig. 436), 1t may be described as a
spiked cyme ; when it has its flowers on pedicels of nearly equal
length, as in the Campanula (fig. 437), as a racemose cyme ; or
when it assumes the form of a panicle, as in the Privet (jig.
438), as a panicled cyme. These latter terms, however, although
in many cases very characteristic, are but little employed.
These forms of cymes are readily distinguished from the true
racemes and other kinds of indefinite inflorescence, by the
terminal flowers opening first, and the others expanding in
succession towards the base, or in a centrifugal manner: while
in the true raceme, and the other kinds of indefinite inflores-
cence, the flowers open first at the base and last at the apex, or
centripetally.
Besides the ordinary cyme and its varieties now mentioned,
other kinds of cymose inflorescences have.also received particular
names, as the Helicoid or Scorpioid Cyme, the Fascicle, the Glome-
rule, and the Verticillaster : these we must now briefly describe.
b. Helicoid or Scorpwid Cyme.—This is a kind of cyme in
which the flowers are only developed on one side, and in which
the upper extremity is more or less coiled up in a circinate
manner, so as frequently to resemble a snail, or the tail of a
scorpion ; hence the names helicoid and scorpioid by which such
a cyme js distinguished. This kind of cyme is especially deve-
loped in plants of the Boraginacex, as the Forget-me-not (jig.
439), and the Comfrey (jig. 440). In these plants the bracts
are alternate ; but such a cyme may also occur in plants with
opposite bracts, and the manner in which it is most commonly
believed to be formed in the two cases, is as follows :—Thus,
in plants in which the bracts are opposite, it arises by the
regular non-development of the axes on one side, while those
on the other side are as regularly produced. This will be
readily explained by a reference to the diagram (fig. 441).
Here a represents the flower which terminates the primary
axis; at the base of this flower are two bracts, only one of
which develops a secondary axis b, which is in like manner
terminated by a flower, at the base of which are also two
bracts, only one of which, (i.e. that on the same side with the
214 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.
first) produces a tertiary axis c, also terminated by a flower
with two bracts at its base, one of which gives origin to another
Fic. 438. Fig. 439.
Fig. 438. Panicled cyme of the Privet
(Ligustrum vulgare). a’. Primary
axis. a’, a’, Secondary axes, a!”, a’.
Tertiary axes, c,c. The central flowers
of the respective clusters, which are
seen to be in a more expanded state
than those surrounding or below them.
— Fig. 489. Helicoid cyme of the
Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris).
Fia. 440.
\ \
Fig. 440. Helicoid cyme of Comfrey (Symphytum officinale),
HELICOID OR SCORPIOID CYME. 215
axis, d, placed in a similar manner, and so on. The place of
the axis which is undeveloped at each ramification is indicated
by a dotted line. In consequence of this one-sided (or as it is
called secwnd) manner in which the successive axes are pro-
duced, the direction of the inflorescence is constantly drawn to
one side at the formation of each axis, and that in proportion
to the size of the angle formed by it with the axis from which
it springs, and thus when the angle is large, and many flowers
are produced in succession, the upper extremity becomes com-
pletely coiled up in a circinate manner (fig. 441). In plants
with alternate bracts, the helicoid cyme arises from the primary
axis (fig. 442, 1) being terminated by a flower, and giving off
below it from the uppermost bract a secondary axis 2, which
Fig. 441. Fic. 442.
Fig. 441, Diagram to il‘ustrate the formation of a helicoid or scorpioid cyme
in a plant with opposite bracts. a. Flower terminating the primary axis.
b. Secondary axis. c. Tertiary axis. d. Quaternary axis, Hach axis is
terminated by a flower. The dotted lines represent the position of the
undeveloped axes. Fig. 442. Diagram to illustrate the formation of a
helicoid or scorpioid cyme in a plant with alternate bracts. The figures
represent the respective axes, and the dotted lines below the flowers the
position of the bracts,
also terminates in a flower, and gives off below it in like
manner from the same side as the former a third axis 3, which
likewise terminates in a flower, and so on as seen by the figures.
The place of the bracts is indicated by the dotted lines below
the flowers.
The terms helicoid and scorpioid are thus used by us in-
diffcrently to indicate the same form of wnilateral, monochasial,
or wriparous cyme. This is the sense in which we have em-
ployed them in previous editions of this Manual, and in which
we follow De Candolle, Le Maout, Decaisne, Hooker, and many
other botanists. We are still induced to do so, because their
nature is at present by no means well defined, and from the
synonymy being best understood and practically exemplified in
Descriptive Botany, at least in this country. But many Conti-
nental botanists distinguish two kinds of uniparous cymes,
216 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—FASCICLE.—GLOMERULE.
under the respective names of helicoid cyme or bostryx, and
scorpioid cyme or ciciunus. Thus in what is termed the helicoid
cyme, the successive lateral branches always arise from the
same side,—that is, either right or left of the main axis (see
page 110, and fiy. 216, 4), as in Hemerocallis ; while in the
scorpioid cyme the successive lateral axes are developed alter-
nately right and left of the main axis (see page 110, and fig.
216, B), as in the Rock Rose (Helianthemum), and Sundew
(Drosera).
Both helicoid and scorpioid cymes have been commonly re-
garded as sympodial inflorescences ; and to consist of a series of
single-flowered axes, all of which are developed on one side as in
the former, or alternately on opposite sides as in the latter. The
investigations, however, in recent years of Kraus, George Hen-
slow, Goebel, and other botanists, seem to prove that the scor-
pioid cyme is not a sympodial development, but a monopodial or
indefinite kind of inflorescence, or, in other words, a unilateral
raceme. —
Practically, the helicoid or scorpioid cyme, in the sense as de-
fined by us above, may be distinguished from the ordinary raceme,
at least when the bracts are developed, as follows :—thus, in the
raceme, the flowers always arise from the axil of the bracts,
while in the cyme they are placed opposite to the bracts (jig.
442), or, at all events, more or less extra-axillary. But in those
cases where the bracts are abortive, as in most plants of the
Boraginacee, its discrimination from the raceme is often difficult,
or even impossible, and its nature can only be ascertained by
comparison with allied plants.
Other views of the nature of these cymes have been also
entertained by botanists ; thus, Kaufmann and Warming believe
that bracteate scorpioid cymes arise from repeated dichotomy
of the apex of an axillary bud. The further discussion of
this subject, however, would be out of place in an elementary
manual, and therefore for more detailed particulars we must
refer our readers to Sachs’s ‘Text-Book of Botany,’ and to an
article in ‘Trimen’s Journal of Botany,’ for January 1881, on
‘The History of the Scorpioid Cyme,’ by Sydney H. Vines.
c. The Fascicle or Contracted Cyme.—This name is applied to
a cyme which is rather crowded with flowers placed on short
pedicels of nearly equal length, and arising from about the same
point, so that the whole forms a flattened top, as in the Sweet
William and some other plants of the Pink order to which it
belongs.
d. The Glomerule.—This is a cyme which consists of a few
sessile flowers, or of those where the pedicels are very short,
collected into a rounded head or short spike. Examples may be
seen in many Labiate plants, in species of Nettle, and in the Box
(fig. 443).
e. The Verticillaster.—This kind of cyme is seen in the
VERTICILLASTER.— MIXED INFLORESCENCES, 217
White Dead-nettle (jig. 395), and commonly in other plants of
the Labiate order to which it belongs. In it the flowers appear
at first sight to be arranged in whorls around the axis, but upon
examination it will be seen that in each apparent whorl there
are two clusters or glomerules axillary to two leafy bracts, the
central flowers of which open first, and hence the mode of ex-
pansion is centrifugal. To these false whorls, thus formed of
two axillary glomerules, the term verticillaster is frequently
applied ; but this variety of inflorescence is sometimes regarded
as a contracted form of the dichasium.
We have now finished our description of the different kinds
of regular inflorescence, and from what we have already stated,
Fie. 443.
= |:
Fig. 443, Inflorescence of the Box
(Burus sempervirens).— Fig.
444, Mixed inflorescence of a
species of Senecio.
it may be readily understood that they may be situated either at
the apex of the stem, or at the extremities of branches, or in the
axil of bracts. But besides the above regular kinds of inflor-
escence, all of which are comprehended under the two divisions
of indefinite and definite as now described, there is a third
division, which consists in a combination of these two forms, to
which the term mized inflorescence has been accordingly given.
3. Mixep InFLiorEescence.—This kind of inflorescence is by
no means uncommon. It is usually formed by the general in-
florescence developing in one way, and the partial or individual
inflorescences in another. Thus in plants of the natwal order
Compositze (fig. 444), the terminal capitulum is the first to ex-
pand, and the capitula, as a whole, are therefore developed in
218 PARTS OF THE FLOWER.—ZSTIVATION.
a centrifugal manner ; while the individual capitula open, as we
have seen (page 208), their florets from the circumference to the
centre, or centripetally ; hence, here the general inflorescence
is definite, and each partial inflorescence indefinite. In Labiate
plants we have a directly reverse arrangement, for here the in-
dividual verticillasters open their flowers centrifugally (fig. 393),
but the general inflorescence is centripetal ; hence the general
inflorescence is here indefinite, while each partial inflorescence is
definite.
Section 2. Or THE Parts OF THE FLOWER; AND THEIR
ARRANGEMENT IN THE FLOWER-BUD.
In common language, the idea of a flower is restricted to that
portion in which its bright colours reside ; but botanically, we
understand by the flower, the union of all the organs which con-
tribute to the formation of the seed. We have already stated
that the parts of the flower are only leaves in a modified condi-
tion, or rather, the analoques of those organs, or more properly
homologous formations adapted for special purposes ; and that
hence a flower-bud is to be considered as the analogue of a leaf-
bud, and the flower itself of a branch the internodes of which
are but slightly developed, so that all its parts are placed in
nearly the same plane. The detailed examination of this theo-
retical notion of a flower will be reserved till we have finished
the description of its different parts or organs, when we shall be
better able to understand it, as well as other matters connected
with its symmetry, and the various modifications to which it is
liable. (See General Morphology. )
1. PARTS OF THE FLOWER.
The parts of a flower have been already treated of in a general
manner. (See page 17.) But before describing them in detail
we must treat of their arrangement in the flower-bud—that is,
of estivation.
2. ESTIVATION OR PREFLORATION.
As the general arrangement of the rudimentary leaves of the
leaf-bud is called vernation (the spring state), or prefoliation, so
the mode in which the different parts of the flower are disposed
in the flower-bud is termed their estivation (the summer state),
or prefloration. The various modifications of eestivation are
generally the same as those of vernation, and the terms employed
in describing them are therefore similar: but the former pre-
sent some peculiarities, which renders it necessary for us briefly
to refer to their different arrangements. The terms used in
gestivation especially refer to the relative positions of the com-
VARIETIES OF CIRCULAR ASTIVATION. 219
ponent parts of the calyx and corolla, because the stamens and
carpels, from their peculiar forms, can give us no such arrange-
ments of their parts as are exhibited by the more or less
flattened floral envelopes.
In describing the modifications of zestivation, we have, as in
the case of vernation, to include : Ist, the disposition of each of
the component parts of the floral envelopes, considered inde-
pendently of the others; and 2nd, the relation of the several
members of either of the floral envelopes taken as a whole in
respect to one another. With regard to the disposition of each
of the component parts of the floral envelopes considered inde-
pendently of the others, the same terms are used as in similar
modifications of vernation (page 156), with the addition of the
crumpled or corrugated form, which is not found in the parts of
the leaf-bud. This latter variety may be seen in the petals of the
Poppy (Papaver), and Rock Rose (Helianthemim) ; and it derives
its name from the parts being irregularly contracted into wrinkled
folds.
With respect to the relation of the several members of either
of the floral envelopes taken as a whole to one another, various
Fig. 445. Fic. 446, Fic. 447. Fic. 448.
Aa Neo
Fig. 445, Diagram to illustrate valvate estivation.— Fig. 446, Diagram to
illustrate induplicate zstivation.— Fig. 447. Diagram to illustrate redu-
plicate zestivation.— /%g. 448, Diagram to illustrate contorted or twisted
zstivation.
modifications occur, all of which may be arranged in two divisions:
namely, the Circular, and the Imbricated or Spiral Aistivation.
The former includes all those varieties in which the component
parts of the whorl are placed in a circle, and in nearly the same
plane : and the latter those where they are placed at slightly
different levels in a more or less spiral manner, and overlap one
another.
1. Varieties of Circular Aistivation.—We distinguish three
well-marked varieties of circular zestivation, i.e. the valrate, in-
duplicate, and reduplicate. The valvate (fig. 445) may be seen in
the calyx of the Lime, and in that of Guazuma wlmifolia ; inthis
variety the component parts are flat or nearly so, and in contact
by their margins throughout their whole length without any
overlapping. This variety of zestivation may be generally dis-
tinguished, even when the flowers are expanded, by the margins
220 VARIETIES OF CIRCULAR ZXSTIVATION.
of its component parts being slightly thickened, or at all events
not thinner than the rest of the organ: whereas in all varieties
of imbricated or spiral zstivation, the overlapping margins are
usually thinner, as may be well seen in the sepals of the species
of Geranium. When the component sepals, or petals, instead of
being flattened, are folded inwards at the points where they
come in contact (fig. 446), the ezstivation is induplicate, as in
the petals of Guazwma wlmifolia, and in the sepals of some
species of Clematis. When the margins are turned outwards
under the same circumstances (jig. 447), the ezstivation is re-
duplicate, as in the sepals of the Hollyhock (Althea rosea), and
some other Malvaceous plants ; and in the petals of the Potato.
When the parts of a whorl are placed at the same height, or
apparently so, as in the ordinary forms of circular estivation,
and one margin of each part is directed obliquely inwards, and
is overlapped by the part adjacent on that side, while the other
margin covers the corresponding margin of the adjoining part
on the other side, so that the whole presents a more or less
twisted appearance (fig. 448), the ezstivation is contorted or
twisted. -It occurs very frequently in the corolla, but is very
rare in the calyx. Examples may be seen in the corolla of the
Hollyhock and other Malvaceous plants ; in that of the common
Flax (Linum usitatissimum), and generally in the order Linacee ;
in the St. John’s Wort (Hypericum) ; in the Periwinkle (Vinca),
and in many other plants of the order Apocynacez, to which
this plant belongs. Twisted zestivation may be regarded as
intermediate between the circular and imbricated forms.
When in this variety of estivation the component organs
become united, they may be variously plaited or plicate, as in
the corolla of the common Bindweed and of other Convolvu-
laceze, in which case the zstivation is usually termed plicate or
plaited.
2. Varieties of Imbricated or Spiral AAstivation.—We distin-
guish five varieties of this kind of estivation, i.e., the imbri-
cate, convolute or enveloping, quincuncial, cochlear, and vexillary.
The true imbricate zstivation, as seen for instance in the calyx
of Camellia japonica (fig. 449), is formed by the component
parts being placed at different levels, and overlapping each
other more or less by their margins like the tiles on the roof of
a house, the whole forming a spiral arrangement ; this is a very
common variety. When the parts, instead of merely overlap-
ping, completely envelope each other, as in those of the calyx of
Magnolia grandiflora, and in those of the corolla of Camellia japo-
nica, the wstivation is termed convolute by some botanists ; but
this term is now more frequently applied to the contorted variety
of estivation, when the parts overlap to a considerable degree,
as in the Wallflower. When the parts of a floral whorl are five
in number, and these arranged in such a manner that there are
two parts placed on the outside, two inside, and the fifth over-
VARIETIES OF IMBRICATED ASTIVATION, 221
lapping one of the internal by one margin, while it is itself
overlapped on its other margin by one of the external parts,
the xstivation is said to be qwincuncial (fig. 450). Familiar
examples of this form are afforded by the corolla of the Rose,
and the calyx of the Bindweed (Calystegia sepiwm). In this
kind of zestivation the spiral arrangement of the parts is well
seen, and is indicated in the diagram (fig. 450) by a dotted
line. The spiral cycle thus formed, which is the normal
one in pentamerous or quinary flowers (those with the parts
in fives), and which occurs in the majority of Dicotyledons,
corresponds to the =, pentastichows, or five-ranked arrangement
of leaves. When in a quincuncial arrangement the second part
of the cycle becomes wholly internal instead of being external,
the regularity of the quincunx is interrupted, and a variety of
wstivation occurs to which the name cochlear has been given
Fia. 449. Fia. 450. Fie. 451. Fic. 452.
aN
{ }
Fig. 449. Diagram to illustrate imbricate estivation. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, Show that the successive parts are arranged ina spiral manner.— Fig.
450. Diagram to illustrate quincuncial eestivation. 1 and 2 are external,
4 and 6 internal, and 3 is partly external and partly internal§@ Fig. 451.
Diagram to illustrate cochlear estivation. The part marked 2 in the
preceding diagram is here wholly internal instead of external as in the
quincuncial arrangement. The dotted line marked 2 indicates itsnormal
position in the true quincuncial variety of zestivation. Fig.452, Diagram
to illustrate vexillary zstivation. 1 and 2 form the ale or wings, 3 and
5 the carina or keel, 4 the vexillum. (See Papilionaceous Corolla.)
(fig. 451). Familiar examples of this are afforded by the Snap-
dragon (Antirrhinum majus), and other allied plants. Another
marked modification of imbricated ezstivation occurs in the
corolla of the Pea and other allied plants, where the superior
petal 4, which is generally the largest, and called the vexillum,
is folded over the others which are arranged face to face (fig.
452). This kind of estivation is commonly termed vewillary.
It frequently happens that the calyx and corolla exhibit
different kinds of estivation. Thus, in Guazwma ulmifolia the
calyx is valvate ; and the corolla induplicate. In Malvaceous
plants the calyx is valvate or some form of circular estivation ;
and the corolla twisted. In these two examples the different
varieties of zstivation, as exhibited by the two floral envelopes,
may be considered to belong to the same class of sestivation, i.e.
the circular. But instances also frequently occur where the
calyx and corolla present different modifications, and which
belong to both classes ; thus, in the Corn Cockle (Githago segetum),
222 RELATION OF PARTS OF THE FLOWER TO THE AXIS.
the species of St. John’s Wort (Hypericum), the Geranium,
and in many other plants, the calyx is quincwncial or imbricate ;
and the corolla twisted.
The kinds of eestivation above described are always constant
in the same individual, and frequently throughout entire genera,
and even natural orders ; hence they are of great importance in
Systematic Botany. For a similar reason they are also of much
value in Structural Botany, by the assistance they commonly
afford in enabling us to ascertain the relative succession and
position of the parts of the flower on the axis.
The term anthesis is sometimes used to indicate the period at
which the flower-bud opens. )
Besides the definite and constant relations which the parts
of the floral envelopes have to one another in the flower-bud,
they have also a definite and constant relation in the same
plant to the axis upon which they are placed. In describing
these positions we use the terms anterior or wmferior, swperior
or posterior, and lateral. Thus, we call that organ posterior or
superior, which is turned towards the axis ; and that next the
bract from the axil of which it arises, wmferior or anterwr.
When there are four organs in a whorl, one will be swperior,
one inferior, and two lateral, as in the petals of the Wallflower
(fig. 25, p, p). If there are five we have two arrangements.
Thus, in the calyx of the order Leguminose, two sepals are
superior, two lateral, and one inferior ; while in the corolla one
petal is superior, two inferior, and two lateral (figs. 452 and
477). But in plants of the order Rosacex we have a precisely
reverse position exhibited by the parts of the two floral enve-
lopes ; thus, here we have two sepals inferior, two lateral, and
one superior ; while in the corolla there are two petals swperior,
two lateral, and one inferior (fig. 476).
The same definite relation with respect to the axis also
holds good in many cases in the staminal and carpellary whorls,
by which important distinctive characters are frequently ob-
tained, as will be seen afterwards when treating of Systematic
Botany.
Section 3. THE FLorRAL ENVELOPES.
1. THE CALYX.
We have already stated that the calyx is the outermost
envelope of the flower, and that it is composed of one or more
leafy organs called sepals. These sepals are usually green like the
foliage leaves, by which character, as well as by their position and
more delicate texture, they may, in most cases, be distinguished
from the petals. There are numerous instances, however,
especially when the number of petals is much increased, in
which there is a gradual transition from the sepals to the petals,
FLORAL ENVELOPES.—THE CALYX. 223
so that it is difficult or almost impossible to say, in many cases,
where the calyx ends and the corolla begins. The White
Water-lily (fig. 453) affords a familiar and good illustration of
this. In some plants, again, the green colour disappears, and
the calyx becomes coloured with the same tints as the corolla,
or with some other bright hues. In such cases it is said to be
petaloid, and the chief distinctive character between it and the
corolla is then afforded by its position on the outside of the
latter organ. The Fuchsia, Indian Cress, Columbine, Lark-
spur, and Monkshood may be mentioned as affording fami-
har examples of a petaloid calyx amongst Dicotyledons. In
Monocctyledons generally, as in the Lily, Iris, Tulip, Crocus,
and Squill (jig. 28), as we have mentioned (page 17), the
Fig. 453. Flower of the White Water-lily (Vymphea alba) reduced in size,
After Jussieu. c,c,c,c. The four sepals. p,p,p, p. Petals. e. Stamens,
The parts on the rignt show the gradual transition from the calyx, ¢, to
the petals, p, and from these organs to the stamens, e. The stamensfrom
1 to 5 are gradually more distinctive,
two floral envelopes are usually coloured, although rarely green,
and in other respects so closely resemble each other, that
we then use the collective name of perianth to indicate the
two whorls taken together. When there is but one whorl of
floral envelopes, as in the Goosefoot (jig. 29), it is customary
with some botanists to call this the calyx, whether it is coloured
or green ; it is so termed in this volume. Other botanists,
however, under such circumstances, call the whorl that is
present a perianth. Those, again, who use the term perianth
in this sense also sometimes apply it, in all cases, to flowers
whether of Monocotyledons or Dicotyledons, when the true
floral envelopes are all coloured as in the Lily, or all green as
in the Dock. The term is also sometimes employed in a general
sense aS Synonymous with the floral envelopes.
In their structure, venation, and characters generally, the
sepals resemble the foliage leaves, and are covered like them with
r
224 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CALYX.
epidermis ; this is also frequently furnished on the lower or
outer surface with stomata. and also occasionally with hairs,
glands, or other appendages. From the duration of the sepals
being usually more transitory than that of the foliage leaves, the
veins which form their skeleton chiefly consist of spiral vessels,
and are commonly arranged like those of the leaves in the two
classes of plants respectively—that is, reticulated in Dicotyle-
dons, and parallel in Monocotyledons.
The sepals also exhibit various characters as regards their
figure, margins, apex, &c., although they are by no means so
Fia. 454.
Fic. 455. Fic. 456.
Fig. 454. Vertical section of the flower of the
Rose. 7, 7. Concave thalamus, upon which
are placed several carpels, 0, 0, each of which
is furnished with a style and stigma, s. @, e.
Stamens. ct. Tube of the calyx. cf, cf. Free
portions of the calyx divided at their margins.
Fig. 455. Calyx of Rumex uncatus, after
Jussieu. ce. Outer divisions of the calyx
which are entire. ci. Inner divisions with
hooked teeth at their margins. g. Swelling
on one of the inner divisions——fig. 456.
Flower of Strawberry (fraga7ia) witha regu-
lar polysepalous calyx surrounded by a whorl
of leafy organs, to which the name of epicalyx
or involucre is applied.—-—Fig. 457. Flower of
Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus), with an irre-
gular polysepalous calyx. The upper sepal is
petaloid, and hooded or helmet-shaped.
liable to the numerous variations in these particulars as the
blades of foliage leaves exhibit. The terms used in defining
these modifications are applied in the same sense as with the
blades of leaves.
Sepals are almost without exception destitute of a stalk, or,
in other words, they are sessile upon the thalamus. They are
also generally entire at their margins, although exceptions to
this latter character occasionally occur : thus, in the Pzeony and
Rose (figs. 454, cf, and 476, cf), the sepals are incised ; in many
species of Dock they are toothed (fig. 455, ci) ; in Chamalawcvum
POLYSEPALOUS CALYX.—-MONOSEPALOUS CALYX. 225
plumosum each sepal is divided into five deep lobes or partitions ;
and in Passiflora fetida the sepals are first pinnatisected, and
then each segment pinnatifid.
In their direction, the sepals are either erect or turned up-
wards ; connivent or turned inwards; divergent or patulous, when
spreading outwards; or reflexed, when their extremities are
turned downwards.
The sepals may be either distinct from each other, as in the
Poppy, Buttercup, Wallflower, and Strawberry (jig. 456) ; or
more or less united into one body (figs. 458-60), as in the
Pimpernel (fig. 458), Campion (fig. 459), and Henbane (jig.
461). In the former case, the calyx is usually termed polysepa-
lous, polyphyllous, or dialysepalous ; in the latter it is commonly
called monosepalous. But this latter term is incorrect, as it indi-
cates literally one sepal ; and hence many botanists use instead
the more correct term of gamosepalows calyx, which simply im-
plies that the sepals are united. The terms polysepalous and
monosepalous, however, from being in more general use, will be
ordinarily employed in this volume.
1. PoLysEpaLous, PoLyPHYLLOUS, OR DIALYSEPALOUS CALYX.
A polysepalous calyx may consist of two or more parts, the
number being indicated by the prefix of Greek numerals ;
as disepalous for a calyx composed of two distinct sepals, tri-
sepalous for one with three, tetrasepalous if it have four, penta-
sepalous if five, hexasepalous if six, heptasepalous if seven, and
So on.
A polysepalous calyx is called regular if it consist of sepals
of equal size and like figure or form, and arranged in a sym-
metrical manner, as in the species of Ranunculus (fig. 432),
and Strawberry ( fig. 456) ; and it is said to be irreqular when
these conditions are not complied with, as in the Monkshood
(fig. 457).
2. MoNnosEPALOUS OR GAMOSEPALOUS CaLyx.—When the
sepals are united so as to form a monosepalous calyx, various
terms are used to indicate the different degrees of union. Thus,
the union may only take place near the base, as in the Pimpernel
(fig. 458), when the calyx is said to he partite ; or it may take
place to about the middle, as in the Centaury (jig. 459), when
it is cleft or fissured ; or the sepals may be united almost to the
top, as in the Campion (fig. 460), when it is toothed ; or if the
union is quite complete, it is entire. The number of partitions,
fissures, or teeth, is indicated by the same prefixes as those
previously referred to as being used in describing analogous
divisions in the lamina of a leaf ; thus a monosepalous calyx
where the divisions are five, would be described as /five-partite
or quinquepartite, five-cleft or quinquefid, five-toothed or quinque-
dentate, according to the depth of the divisions. In like man-
ner the terms tripartite, trifid, or tridentate would indicate that
such a calyx was three-partite, three-cleft, or three-toothed, and
Q
226 MONOSEPALOUS OR GAMOSEPALOUS CALYX.
so on. The number of divisions in the majority of cases
corresponds to that of the component sepals of which the calyx
is formed ; although exceptions to this rule sometimes occur,
as for instance in those cases where the divisions are themselves
Fie. 458. Fie. 459. Fie. 460,
Fig. 458, Partite inferior calyx of the Pimpernel (Anagallis).—— Fig. 459.
Cleft or fissured calyx of the Centaury (Hrythrea).—Fig. 460, Dentate
or toothed calyx of Campion (Lychnis),
divided into others. A little care in the examination will,
however, generally enable the observer to recognise the primary
from the secondary divisions. When a monosepalous calyx is
entire, the number of sepals can then be ascertained by the
Fie. 461. Fic. 463.
TOM
Fig. 461, Urceolate calyx of the Henbane (Hyo-
scyamus ),——Fig. 462. Bilabiate calyx of the
Dead-nettle (Lamium).—VFig. 463. Vertical
section of the flower of the Myrtle (Myrtus
communis). cal, Tube of the calyx adherent
to the ovary, 0, s, Stamens,
venation, as the principal veins from which the others diverge
generally correspond to the midribs of the component sepals.
In a monosepalous calyx in which the union exists in a marked
degree, the part where the sepals are united is called the tube,
the free portion the limb, and the orifice of the tube the throat
or faux (figs. 460-462).
VARIETIES OF THE MONOSEPALOUS CALYX. 227
If the union between the sepals is unequal, or the parts are
of different sizes, or of irregular figures or forms, the calyx is
said to be irregular (fig. 462) ; if, on the contrary, the parts are
alike in figure and form, of the same size, and united so as
to form a symmetrical body, it is ,eqular (fig. 461). Some
varieties of the irregular and also of the regular calyx have
received special names. Thus in the Dead-nettle (jig. 462),
the irregular calyx is said to be labiate, bilabiate, or lipped,
because the five sepals of which it is composed are united in
such a manner as to form two lips. Of the regular forms of
the monosepalous calyx a number are distinguished under the
names of tubular, bell-shaped or campanulate, urceolate (fig.
461), conical, globose, &c. The application of these terms will
be also shown when speaking of the corolla, in which similar
forms occur, and in which they are usually more evident.
The tube of a monosepalous calyx, or of that of a perianth
(the parts of which, like the sepals, are frequently united to
a varying extent), sometimes p. 4g: Fre. 465, Fra. 466,
adheres more or less to the
ovary, as in the Iris, Goose-
berry, Currant, Myrtle (jig.
463, cal), in all the plants of
the order Composit, and in
those allied toit( figs. 464-466),
and in numerous other plants.
When this takes place, the
calyx is said to be adherent,
or, because it appears to arise
from the summit of the ovary,
it is termed superior; the
ovary in such a case is then a Wey
described as inferior. When NY \ Wa
the calyx is free, or quite Fig. 464, Calyx of the Madder (Rubia), ad-
distinct from the walls of the __ herent tothe ovary, with itslimb reduced
Bjary, os.in tho Pimpernel {9,0,ne12 Tims, Pi. $85, One of the
(jig. 458), Wallflower, Poppy, mum), The calyx is completely united to
and Buttercup, it is said to the ovary and presents no appearance of
b é Ahorent r a limb.— Fg. 466. One of the tubular
€ Sree, Non-adherent, OY ti- florets of the Sunflower (Helianthus). The
ferior ; and the ovary is then _limb of the adherent calyx is mem-
termed superior. Peau
When the calyx or perianth is thus adherent to the ovary,
its limb presents various modifications: thus in the Iris,
Crocus, and Orchids, it is petaloid ; in the Quince, foliaceous
(fig. 473) ; in the Sunflower (jig. 466), and Chamomile, it is
membranous ; in the Madder (fig. 464), it exists only in the form
of a circular rim ; while in the Ox-eye it is altogether absent
(fig. 465). In the two latter cases the calyx is commonly
described as obsolete. In many plants of the order Compositie
and the allied orders Dipsacaceze and Valerianacez, the limb
Q 2
228 SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR CALYX.—PAPPOSE CALYX.
of the calyx is only developed in the form of a circle or tuft of
bristles, hairs, or feathery processes, to which the name of
pappus is given, and the calyx under such circumstances is said
to be pappose. The pappus is further described as feathery or
plumose, and sim-
ple or pilose ; thus
it is feathery, as
in the Valerian
(fig. 467), when
each of its divi-
sions is cover-
ed on the sides
by little hair-like
projections ar-
ranged like the
barbs of afeather ;
and pilose, when
the divisions have
no marked pro-
jections from their
- sides, as in the
Fr ee
by a stalked pilose pappus. Scabious (fig.
468). The pap-
pus is also described as sessile when it arises immediately
from the tube of the adherent calyx, and thus apparently from
the top of the ovary or fruit, as in the Valerian (fig. 467) ;
and stalked or stipitate, if it is raised above the ovary or fruit,
on a stalk, as in the Dandelion and Scabious (jig. 468).
APPENDAGES OF THE CaLtyx.—The calyx, whether mono-
sepalous or polysepalous, is subject to various other irregu-
Fic. 467. Fic. 468,
Fic. 469. Fig. 470.-
Fig. 469. Flower of
the Indian Cress
(Tropwolum). ¢.
Spurred calyx.
— Fig. 470, Ca-
lyx of Hibiscus
surrounded by
an epicalyx or
involucre.
larities besides those already alluded to, which arise from the
expansion or growing outwards of one or more of the sepals
or the tube of a monosepalous calyx into appendages or pro-
cesses of different kinds. Thus in the Monkshood (fig. 457),
APPENDAGES OF THE CALYX.—DURATION OF THE CALYX. 229
the superior sepal is prolonged upwards into a sort of hood or
helmet-shaped process, in which case it is said to be hooded,
helmet-shaped, or galeate. In the Wallflower (fig. 25, c), and
other plants of the Cruciferze, the two lateral sepals are ex-
panded on one side at the base into little sacs, when they are
termed gibbous or saccate. If the calyx has one or more
tubular prolongations downwards, it is said to be spurred.
Only one spur may be present, as in the Indian Cress (fig.
469, c), where the spur is formed by three sepals ; or in the
Larkspur, where it is formed by one; or each of the sepals
may be spurred. In the Pelargonium, the spur instead of
being free from the pedicel, as in the above instances, is
united to it.
On the outside of the calyx of some flowers, as in those of
many plants of the Mallow (jig. 470), Pink (fig. 474, b), and
Rose orders (jig. 456), there is placed a whorl of leaf-like organs
which is considered by some botanists as an outer calyx, and to
which the name of epicalyx or calyculus has been accordingly
given ; but this outer whorl is evidently of the same nature as
the involucre already noticed (see page 193), and has been so
described in this volume.
DuRATION OF THE CaLtyx.—The duration of the calyx varies
in different flowers. Thus it is caducous or fugacious, when it
Fic. 473.
Fig.471. Flower of the Poppy, showing a caducous calyx.
Fig.472, Accres-
cent calyx of the Winter Cherry (Physalis Alkekengi).——Fig. 473. Ver-
tical section of the fruit of the Quince (Pyrus Cydonia), showing the
tube of the calyx adherent to the matured carpels, and forming a part of
the pericarp ; the free portion or limb being foliaceous.
falls off as the flower expands, as in the Poppy (jig. 471). In
the Hschscholtzia the calyx, which is caducous, separates from
the hollow thalamus to which it is articulated, in the form of a
funnel, or the extinguisher of a candle. A somewhat similar
separation of the calyx occurs in the Hucalyptus, except that
250 DURATION OF THE CALYX.—THE COROLLA.
here the part which is left behind after the separation of the
upper portion evidently belongs to the calyx, instead of to the
thalamus, as in the former instance. In these two latter cases
the calyx is said to be calyptrate or operculate. When the
calyx falls off about the same time as the corolla, as in the
Crowfoot or Buttercup, it is then called deciduous. In other
cases the calyx remains after the flowering is over, as in the
Henbane (jig. 461), and Mallow ; when it is described as per-
sistent. When the calyx is adherent or superior it is neces-
sarily persistent, and forms a part of the fruit, as in the Quince
(fig. 473), Apple, Pear, Gooseberry, Melon, and Cucumber.
When it is persistent and assumes a shrivelled or withered
appearance, as in the species of Campanula, it is marcescent ;
or, if it is persistent, and continues to grow after the flowering,
so as to form a bladdery expansion round the fruit, as in the
Winter Cherry, and other species of Physalis (fig. 472), it is
termed accrescent.
2. THE COROLLA.
The corolla is the inner envelope of the flower. It consists
of one or more whorls of leafy organs, called petals. In a com-
plete flower (fig. 25, p), it is situated between the calyx and
androecium, and is generally to be distinguished from the former,
as we have already seen, by its coloured nature and more deli-
cate structure. When there is but one whorl of floral envelopes,
as we have also before noticed (page 17), this is to be considered
as the calyx, and the flower is then termed apetaloid or mono-
chlamydeous. The corolla is usually the most showy and con-
spicuous part of the flower, and what in common language is
termed the flower. In some rare cases, however, it is green like
the calyx, asin certain Cobzas and some Asclepiadaceous plants.
The corolla is also, in the majority of flowers which possess
odoriferous properties, the seat of those odours. Sometimes,
as we have seen, there is a gradual transition from the sepals
to the petals, as in the White Water-lily (jig. 453); and in the
same plant there is also a similar transition from the petals to
the stamens.
In structure the petals resemble the sepals and leaves, being
composed of parenchyma, supported by veins which are chiefly
formed of spiral vessels; the venation is usually reticulated.
The whole petal is invested by epidermis, which is commonly
destitute of stomata, but these organs may be sometimes found
on the lower surface. The corolla is generally smooth, although
hairs occasionally occur, as inthe Bombax ; when they exist they
are usually coloured, as in the Buckbean, and on the inner whorl
of the perianth of the Iris, which corresponds in position to the
corolla. Petals are frequently narrowed below into a stalk-like
portion, which is analogous to the petiole of a leaf, as in the
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COROLLA. 231
Wallflower and Pink (fig. 475) ; the narrow portion is then termed
the wnguis or claw, 0, and the expanded portion the limb, 1, and
the petal is said to be wngwiculate or clawed. In this particular,
petals must be considered to resemble the leaves more than the
sepals do, as the latter organs are almost without exception
sessile, or destitute of claws.
The outline of the petals, like those of the sepals and leaves,
is subject to great variation. Thus, they,may be linear, oblong,
lanceolate, elliptic, ovate, cordate, &c. The application of these
terms having been already fully explained when speaking of
leaves, need not be further alluded to. The condition of their
margins also, the mode in which they are divided, and their
Fie. 474. Fic. 473.
Fig. 474. The flower of a species of Pink (Dianthus). 6b. Bracts, forming an
epicalyx or involucre. c. Calyx. p, p. Petals, the limbs of Which are
fringed at their margins. e. Stamens.—/%g. 475. One of the petals of
the same flower. o. Claw or unguis. J. Limb, which is fringed at the
margins.
terminations, are also indicated by the same terms as those
previously described under similar heads in our chapter on
Leaves. Thus the petals may be dentate, serrate ; cleft, partite,
sected ; acute, emarginate, &c. The petals are not however
liable to any further division than that of the primary one ; thus,
although sometimes pinnatifid, or pinatipartite, &c., they are
never bipinnatifid, or bipiniatipartite. One term is occasionally
used in describing the condition of the margins which has not
been alluded to when speaking of the leaves ; thus the petals are
said to be fimbriated or fringed, as in some species of Dianthus
(figs. 474 and 475, /), when they present long thread-like processes
at their margins.’
Again, the petals may be either flat, as is usually the case,
or concave, tubular, boat-shaped, &c. These terms sufficiently
explain their meaning; but a few anomalous forms of petals
232 | POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS.
will be described hereafter (page 237). In texture the petals
are commonly soft and delicate, but they sometimes differ widely
from this, and become thick and fleshy, as in the Stupelias ; or
dry and membranous, as in the Heaths; or stiff and hard, as
in Xylopia.
In describing their direction, we use the terms erect, connivent,
divergent, patulous, or refleved, in the same sense as already
described when speaking of similar conditions of the sepals (page
225).
The petals also, like the sepals, may be either distinct or
more or less united into one body. In the former case, the
corolla is said to be polypetalous or dialypetalous (figs. 474-477) ;
in the latter monopetalous or gamopetalous (figs. 478-495). The
same objection applies to the use of the term monopetalous
as to that of monosepalous already mentioned (page 225), but
we shall continue to employ it from its being the one more
commonly in use.
1. POLYPETALOUS OR DIALYPETALOUS CoroLLA.—The number
of petals which enter into the composition of the corolla is indi-
Fic. 476.
Fie. 477.
Fig. 476. Flower of the Rose. 6. Bract. et. Tube of the calyx. cf, cf, cf, cf,
cf. Divisions of the calyx. p, p, p, p, p. Petals.——Fig..477. The flower
of the Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus). c. Calyx. v. Vexillum, a, Ale or
wings. ca7. Carina or keel.
cated, as in the case of the polysepalous calyx, by the prefix of
the Greek numerals. Thus a corolla of two petals is said to be
dipetalous ; of three, tripetalous ; of four, tetrapetalous; of five,
pentapetalous ; of six, hexapetalous ; of seven, heptapetalous ; of
eight, octapetalous ; and so on,
When the petals are all of the same size, and of like figure
or form, and arranged in a symmetrical manner, the corolla is
termed regular, as in Rosaceous flowers (jigs. 456 and 476); but
when the petals vary in these particulars, as in the Pea and allied
plants (figs. 452 and 477), it is said to be irregular. Some varieties
of polypetalous corollas have received special names which we
MONOPETALOUS OR GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 233
will now proceed to describe under the two divisions of regular
and irregular.
A. Regular Polypetalous Corollas.—Of these we may mention
three forms, viz. the cruciform or cruciate ; the caryophyllaceous ;
and the rosaceous.
1. Cruciform or Cruciate.—This corolla gives the name to the
natural order Crucifere ; but it also occurs elsewhere. It con-
sists of four petals, usually with claws, as)in the Wallflower (fig.
25, p), and Stock ; but sometimes without claws, as in the Celan-
dine, and the whole arranged in the form of a cross.
2. Caryophyllaceous:—This consists of five petals, with long
claws enclosed in the tube of the calyx, and with their limbs
commonly placed at right angles to the claws, as inthe Campion,
Single Pink (figs. 474 and 475), and Carnation.
3. Rosaceows.—This is composed of five petals, without, or
with very short claws, and spreading in a regular manner, as in
the Strawberry (jig. 456), and Single Rose (fig. 476).
B. Irregular Polypetalous Corollas.—There are many anoma-
lous forms of irregular polypetalous corollas to which no particular
names are applied. There is one form, however, which is of much
importance, namely, the Papilionaceous.
This derives its name from the fancied resemblance which it
bears to a butterfly. It is composed of five petals (fig. 452), one
of which is superior or posterior, and commonly larger than the
others, and termed the vexillwm or standard (fig. 477, v) ; two
inferior or anterior, which are usually more or less united and
form a somewhat boat-shaped cavity, car, called the keel or carina;
and two lateral, a, called the wings or ale.
2. MonoPeraLous oR GAMOPETALOUS CoroLLA.— When the
petals unite so as to form a monopetalous corolla, various terms
are used as in the case of the monosepalous calyx to indicate
the degrees of adhesion ; thus the corolla may be partite, cleft,
toothed, or entire, the terms being employed in the same sense
as with the calyx (see page 225). The part also where union
has taken place is in like manner called the tube, t, the free
portion, the limé, 1, and the orifice of the tube, the throat or faux
(fig. 478).
The monopetalous corolla, like the monosepalous calyx, is
regular when its parts are of the same size, and of like figure
or form, and united so as to form a symmetrical body (jigs.
478-483) ; or if these conditions are not complied with it is
irregular (figs. 484-495). Some varieties of both regular and
irregular monopetalous corollas have received special names, as
follows :—
A. Regular Monopetalous Corollas.—Of these we may describe
the following :—
1. Tubular, where the form is nearly cylindrical throughout,
the limb not spreading ; as in Spigelia (fig. 478), and in the
234 FORMS OF REGULAR COROLLAS.
central florets of many Composite, as the Ox-eye (Chrysanthe-
mum), and Sunflower (Helianthus) (fig. 466). :
2. Campanulate or bell-shaped, when the corolla is rounded at
the base, and gradually enlarged upwards to the summit, so as
to resemble a bell in form, as in the Harebell (fig. 479).
Fic. 478. Fic. 479. Fic. 480.
Fig. 478. Flower of Spigelia marylandica
c. Calyx. ¢. Tubular corolla. 7. Limb of
the corolla. s. Summit of the style and
stigmas.—— Fig. 479. Flower of the Hare-
bell (Campanula rotundifolia), showing a
campanulate corolla. Fig. 480. Flower
of the Tobacco Plant (Nicotiana Tabacum )y
with infundibuliform corolla.
3. Infundibuliform or funnel-shaped, where the form of the
corolla is that of an inverted cone, like a funnel, as in the
Tobacco (fig. 480).
Fic. 481.
Fic. 482.
Fig. 481. Flower of a species of Primula. c. Calyx, within which is seen a
hypocrateriform corolla, p. t. Tube of the corolla. 7, Limb.—Fig. 482.
Flower of the Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris). p. Rotate corolla.
7. Scales projecting from its throat.
4. Hypocrateriform or salver-shaped (fig. 481), when the tube
is long and narrow, and the limb placed at right angles to it, as
in the Primrose.
FORMS OF REGULAR AND IRREGULAR COROLLAS. 235
5. Rotate or wheel-shaped, when the tube is short, and the
limb at right angles to it, as in the Forget-me-not (fig. 482) and
Bittersweet (Solanwm Dulcamara).
6. Urceolate or urn-shaped, when the corolla is swollen in
the middle, and contracted at both the base and apex, as in the
Purple Heath (fig. 483), and Bilberry (Vaccinwwm Myrtillus).
Fie 483. Fria. 484. Fic. 485.
Fig. 483. Flower of a species of Heath (Zrica). c. Calyx, within which is
an urceolate corolla, ¢, 1—-Fig. 484. Ringent or gaping corolla of the
Dead-nettle (Lamium album), showing the entire upper lip. Fig. 485.
Back view of the flower of a species of Teucrium, showing the bifid upper
lip of the corolla.
B. Irregular Monopetalous Corollas.—Of these we shall de-
scribe the following :—
1. Labiate, bilabiate, or lipped.—When the parts of a corolla
are so united that the limb is divided into two portions which
are placed superiorly and inferiorly, the upper portion overhang-
Fic. 486. Dies 4 Sis
Fig. 486. Flower of the Rosemary (Rosmarinus) with upper lip divided.——
Fig. 487, Front view of the labiate corolla of Galeobdolon, with trifid lower
lip.
ing the lower, and each portion so arranged as not to close the
orifice of the tube, thus resembling in some degree the lips
and open mouth of an animal (figs. 484-487), the corolla is
termed labiate, bilabiate, or lipped. The upper lip is composed
of two petals, which are either completely united, as in the
White Dead-nettle (jig. 484), or more or less divided, as in the
236 IRREGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS.
Rosemary (fig. 486) and Germander (Teucriwm) (fig. 485) ; and
the lower lip of three petals, which are also, either entire as in
the Rosemary (jig. 486), or bifid as in some species of Lamiwm,
or trifid as in Galeobdolon (fig. 487). When a labiate corolla has
its upper lip much arched, as in the White Dead-nettle (fig. 484),
it is frequently termed ringent or gaping. The labiate corolla
gives the name to the natural order Labiatez, in the plants
belonging to which it is of almost universal occurrence. It is
found also in certain plants belonging to some other orders.
2. Personate or Masked,—This form of corolla resembles the
labiate in being divided into two lips, but it is distinguished by
the lower lip being approximated to the upper, so as to close
the orifice of the tube or throat. This closing of the throat is
caused by a projection of the lower lip called the palate (fig.
488, 1). Examples occur in the Snapdragon (jig. 488), and the
Toadflax (jig. 489). In the species of Calceoluria the two lips
become hollowed out in the form of a slipper, hence such a
corolla, which is but a slight modification of the personate, is
sometimes termed calceolate.
Fic. 488, Fic. 489. Fig. 490,
(iN
J
Fig.488, Personate corolla of the Snapdragon (Antir-
rhinum). l. Lower lip. u. Upper lip. 6. Gibbous
base, Fig. 489. Personate corolla of the Toad-
flax (Linaria), spurred at its base. Fig. 490,
Ligulate corolla of a Composite flower, with five
teeth at its apex.
3. Ligulate or Strap-shaped.—lf what would otherwise be a
tubular corolla is partly split open on one side, so as to become
flattened like a strap above ( figs. 490 and 491), it is called ligulate
or strap-shaped. This kind of corolla frequently occurs in the
florets of the Composite, either in the whole of those constitu-
ting the capitulum, as in the Dandelion ( Leontodon) ; or only in
some of them, as in the outer florets of the Ox-eye ( Jig. 491).
The apex of a ligulate corolla has frequently five teeth indica-
ting the number of its component petals (fig. 490).
APPENDAGES OF THE COROLLA. 237
Besides the above described forms of regular and irregular
monopetalous corollas, others also occur, some of which are but
slight modifications of these, and arise from irregularities that
are produced in certain parts in the progress of their development.
Thus in the Foxglove (jig. 492), the general appearance of the
corolla is somewhat bell-shaped, but it is longer than this form,
Fic. 491. Fic. 492
~~
“ye \
i} a\
j
|
Fig. 491. Ligulate corolla of the Ox-eye (Chrysanthe-
mum). Fig. 492. Digitaliform or glove-shaped
Me corolla of the Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea ).——Fig.
493. Irregular rotate corolla of Speedwell ( Veronica).
and slightly irregular, and as it has been supposed to resemble
the finger of a glove, it has received the name of digitaliform
or glove-shaped. In the Speedwell (fig. 493), the corolla is nearly
rotate, but the divisions are of unequal size and shape, hence
it may be described as irregularly rotate ; and in the Red
Valerian the corolla is irregularly salver-shaped (jig. 495).
APPENDAGES OF THE CoroLtA.—The corolla, like the calyx,
whether polypetalous or monopetalous, is subject to various irre-
gularities, arising from the expansion or growing outwards of
one or more of the petals, or the tube of a monopetalous corolla,
into processes or appendages of different kinds. Thus in the
Snapdragon (fig. 488, b) and Valerian (fig. 494), the lower part
of the tube of the corolla becomes dilated on one side, so as to
form a little bag or sac; it is then termed saccate or gibbous,
this term being used in the same sense as previously described
(see page 229) when speaking of the calyx. At other times,
one or more of the petals, or the tube of a monopetalous corolla,
becomes prolonged downwards and forms a spur, in which case
the petal or corolla is described as spurred or calcarate. Ex-
amples of spurred petals or corollas may be seen in the Hearts-
ease, Columbine (jig. 497), Toadflax (fig. 489), and Red Valerian
238 APPENDAGES OF THE COROLLA.
(fig. 495). Only one spur may be present, as in the Heartsease,
or each of the petals may be spurred, as in the Columbine (fig.
497). The Yellow Toadflax, which usually only produces one
Fie. 494, Fia. 495.
Fig. 494. Flower of a species
of Valerian (Valeriana). c.
Calyx, adherent to the
ovary. 7, Limb of the calyx
rolled inwards. The corolla
has a projection towards its
base, and is hence said to
be gibbous. —— Fig. 495,
Flower of the Red Valerian
(Centranthus). The corolla
is irregularly salver-shaped
and spurred at its base.
spur, in rare instances is found with five. Such a variety was
termed by Linneeus Peloria, a name which is now frequently
applied by botanists to all flowers which thus pass from irre-
gularity to regularity. In the Monkshood (fig. 496), the two
Fia. 496. Fic, 497.
LZ>[PFYYAL\ Of
Fig. 496. A portion of the flower of the Monkshood (Aconitum), with nu-
merous stamens below, and two stalked somewhat horn-shaped petals
above. ——VSig. 497. Flower of the Columbine (Aguilegia vulgaris) with
each of its petals spurred,
petals which are situated under the helmet-formed sepals already
noticed (fig. 457) are each shaped somewhat like an irregularly
curved horn placed on a long channelled stalk,
APPENDAGES OF THE COROLLA AND PETALS. 239
The corolla is usually composed of but one whorl of petals,
and it is then termed simple ; but in some flowers there are two
or more whorls, as in the White Water-lily (jig. 453, p), in which
case it is called multiple. When the corolla is composed of but
Fie. 500.
Fic. 498. Fie. 499. ~~~:
Fig. 498. Petal of a Crowfoot with a nectariferous scale at its base.—/ig.
499. One of the petals of Mignonette ( Reseda ).-—~Fig. 500. A petal of the
Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) bearing afringed scale at its base.
one whorl, its parts in a regular arrangement alternate with the
sepals, although cases sometimes occur in which they are opposite
to them. The cause of these different arrangements will be
explained hereafter, under the head of the Symmetry of the
Flower.
Fic. 501. Fie. 502.
ety
Fig. 501. A petal of a species of Zychnis. 0. Claw. i. Limb. a. Scaly ap-
pendages.— Fig. 502. Flower of the Daffodil ( Varcissus Pseudo-narcissus).
The cup or bell-shaped process towards the centre is termed a corona.
On the inner surface of the petals of many flowers we may
frequently observe appendages of different kinds in the form of
scales or hair-like processes of various natures. These are com-
240 THE CORONA.—DURATION OF THE COROLLA.
monly situated at the junction of the claw and limb (fig. 501, a) ;
or at the base of the petals (figs. 498 and 500). Such appendages
may be well seen in the Mignonette (fig. 499), Crowfoot (fig.
498), Lychnis (fig. 501, a), and Grass-of Parnassus (jig. 500).
Similar scales may be also frequently noticed in monopetalous
corollas near the throat, as in many Boraginaceous plants, for
instance, the Comfrey, Borage, Forget-me-not (fig. 482, 7) ; and
also in the Dodder, and many other plants. Sometimes these
scales become more or less united and forma cup-shaped process,
as in the perianth of the Daffodil (fig. 502) and other species of
Narcissus ; to this the term corona is commonly applied, and the
corolla is then said to be crowned. By many botanists, how-
ever, this latter term is applied whenever the scales or appen-
dages are arranged in the form of a ring on the inside of the
corolla, whether united or distinct. The beautiful fringes on
the corolla of the Passion-flower are of a similar nature.
The origin of these scales is by no means clearly ascertained ;
by some botanists they are supposed to be derived from the
petals, by others to be abortive stamens ; but they are now
more commonly regarded as ligules (see page 182) developed
on the petals. Formerly many of these appendages were de-
scribed under the name of nectaries, although but few of them
possess the power of secreting the honey-like matter or nectar
from which they derived their names ; they were therefore im-
properly so termed. The nature of the so-called nectaries has
been already described under the head of Glands (see page 71).
DURATION OF THE CorotiA.—The duration of the corolla
varies like that of the calyx, but it is almost always more fugi-
tive than it. It is caducous if it falls as the flower opens, as in
the Grape-vine ; commonly it is deciduous, or falls off soon after
the opening of the flower. In rare instances it is persistent, in
which case it usually becomes dry and shrivelled, as in Heaths
and the species of Campanula (fig. 437), when it is said to be
marcescent.
Section 4. Tuer EssentTriaAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
THE essential organs of reproduction are the androecium and
gyncecium. and these together form the two inner whorls of the
flower. They are called the essential organs because the action
of both is necessary for the production of perfect seed.
Flowers which possess both these organs are called hermaphro-
dite or bisexual (fig. 518); when only one is present, they are wni-
sexwal or diclinoris, as in the species of Carex (fig. 503), and Salix
(figs. 415 and 416). The flower is also then further described as
staminate or staminiferous (figs. 415 and 503) when it contains
only a stamen or stamens ; and carpellary, pistillate, or pistilli-
ferous, when it has only a carpel or carpels (jig. 416). Whena
ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.—ANDRECIUM. 241
flower possesses neither andrcecium nor gyncecium, as is some-
times the case with the outer florets of the capitula of the Com-
ositze, it is said to be newter. When the flowers are unisexual
both staminate and pistillate flowers may
be borne upon the same plant, as in the Fic. 503.
Hazel, Oak, Cuckoo-pint (jig. 403), and the
species of Carex, in which case the plant is
stated to be monecious; or upon different ;
plants of the same species, as in the Willows i
(figs. 415 and 416), when the plant is said to i
be diwcious. In some cases, as in many Palms it
and in the Pellitory (Parietaria), staminate, ES Hii
pistillate, and hermaphrodite flowers are situ- IN] iti
ated upon the same individual, and then the
plant is called polygamous.
Like the sepals and petals, the stamens _ ||
and carpels are considered as homologous
with leaves, but they generally present much
less resemblance to these organs than the
component parts of the floral envelopes.
Their true nature is shown, however, by
their occasional conversion into leaves, and
by other circumstances, which will be de-
scribed hereafter when treating of theGeneral _ uf
Morphology of the Flower. C Maine auseetohn
species of Carex. The
filaments are long
1, THE ANDRECIUM. and capillary, and
the anthers pendu-
The andreecium, or male system of _lousand innate,
Flowering Plants, is the whorl or whorls of
organs which, in a complete flower, is situated between the
corolla (fig. 522) or perianth (jig. 28) on the outside. and the
gyneecium on the inside; or it is placed between the calyx
and gynoecium when the corolla is absent (jig. 29), as in
monochlamydeous flowers; or in achlamydeous flowers, it is
either outside the gyncecium (jig. 30) when those flowers are
bisexual, or it stands alone (jig. 34) when the flowers are uni-
sexual and staminate. It is composed of one or more parts
termed Stamens. Kach stamen consists generally of a thread-
like portion or stalk, called the filament (fig. 27, f), which is
analogous to the petiole of the leaf ; and of a little bag or case,
a, which is the representative of the blade, called the anther,
and which contains a powdery, or more rarely waxy, matter,
termed the pollen, p. The only essential part of the stamen,
however, is the anther with its contained pollen; but in rare
cases the pollen is absent, and as the stamen cannot then perform
its special functions, it is said to be abortive or sterile (fig.
517, ls) ; in other cases it is termed fertile. It not unfrequently
happens that flowers contain sterile filaments, that is, filaments
me
242 FORMS OF THE FILAMENT.
without anthers, in which case these structures are termed
staminodes. These commonly preserve a flattened appearance,
as in the flowers of the species of Canna. When, as is rarely
the case, the filament is absent, as in the Cuckoo-pint (fig. 504),
the anther is described as sessile.
1. Toe FiramMent.—In its structure the filament consists,
Ist, of a central usually unbranched bundle of spiral vessels ;
and 2nd, of parenchymatous tissue which sur-
rounds the bundle of spiral vessels, and which
is itself covered by thin epidermal tissue. The
epidermis occasionally presents stomata and
hairs ; and these hairs are sometimes coloured,
as in the Spiderwort and Dark Mullein. The
structure of the filament is thus seen to be
strictly analogous to that of the petiole of a
Fig. 504, Stamen leaf, which presents a similar disposition of its
aN 5 potckoo- component parts.
rn ae ue Bt The filament varies in form, length, colour,
sisting simply of and other particulars; a few of the more im-
x anc Sista portant modifications of which will be now
ss 1pon
the thalamus, alluded to.
Form.—As its name implies, the filament is
usually found in the form of a little thread-like or cylindrical
prolongation which generally tapers in an almost imperceptible
manner from the base to the apex, when it is described as jili-
form, as in the Rose; or if it is very slender, as in most Sedges
and Grasses, it is capillary y (figs. 503 and 505). In the latter case
the filament, instead of supporting the anther in the erect
position as it ‘usually does, becomes bent, and the anther is then
pendulous (figs. 503 and 505). At other times the filament
becomes enlarged, or it is flattened in various ways. Thus in
some cases, it is dilated gradually from below upwards lke a
club, when it is clavate or club-shaped, as in Thalictrum ; or it
is slightly enlarged at the base, and tapers upwards to a point
like an awl, as in the Flowering Rush (Butomus wmbellatus) ;
in other cases it is flattened at the base, the rest of the fila-
ment assuming its ordinary rounded form, asin Tamaria gallica
(fig. 506), and species of Campanula (fig. 507) ; or the whole of
the filament is flattened, and then it frequently assumes the
appearance of a petal, when it is described as petaloid, as in
the Water-lily (figs. 453, e, and 522), and in Canna and allied
plants.
Sometimes, again, the filament is toothed as in Alliwm (fig.
508), or forked asin Crambe (fig. 509); or furnished with various
appendages as in the Borage (fig. 510, a), in which case it is
said to be appendiculate.
Length, Colour, and Direction.—The length of the filament
varies much. Thus, in the Borage (fig. 510, f), and plants
generally of the order Boraginacez (fig. 511), the filaments are
Fie. 504.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE FILAMENT. 243
very short ; in the Primrose (fig. 543), and commonly in the
Primulacez, a similar condition also occurs. In the Fuchsia,
Lily, Grasses (fig. 505), and Sedges (jig. 503), the filaments are
usually very long.
In colour the filaments are generally white, but at other times
they assume vivid tints like the corolla or perianth ; thus in the
Spiderwort they are blue, in various species of Ranunewlus
and of (nothera yellow, in ‘some Poppies black, in Fuchsia
red, &c.
In direction the filaments, and consequently the stamens,
are either erect, incurved, recurved, pendulous, &c. ; these terms
being used in their ordinary acceptation. When the filaments are
all turned towards one side of the flower, as in the Horsechest-
Fria. 505. Fie. 506. Fie. 507. Fia. 508.
EN
Fig. 505. A locusta of Wheat ( 7riticum sativum), consisting of several flowers,
the stamens of which have very long capillary filaments, and versatile pen-
dulous anthers. The anthers are notched or forked at each extremity, and
thus resemble somewhat the letter x inform. Fig- 506. Three of the
stamens of Tamarix gallica, with their filaments flattened at the base and
united with each other. Fig.507. Pistilof aspecies of Campanula, with
a solitary stamen arising from the summit of the ovary. The filament
is flattened. Fig. 508. Dilated toothed filament of a species of Allium,
nut and Amaryllis, they are said to be declinate. Generally
speaking, their direction is nearly the same from one end of the
filament to the other, but in some cases the original direction is
departed from in a remarkable manner, and the upper part of
the filament forms an angle more or less obtuse with the lower,
in which case it is termed geniculate, as in Maherma. This
appearance sometimes arises from the presence of an articulation
at the point where the angle is produced, as in Euphorbia (fig.
512, a). In sucha case, or whenever an articulation exists on
the apparent filament, this is not to be considered as a true
filament, but to consist in reality of a flower-stalk supporting a
single stamen. The flower here, therefore, is reduced to a
single stamen, all the parts except it being abortive. This is
R2
244 DURATION OF THE FILAMENT.—THE ANTHER.
proved by the occasional production in some allied plants of one
or more whorls of the floral envelopes at the point where the
joint is situated. In the Pellitory (Parietaria), the filament
assumes a spiral direction.
Duration.—The filament usually falls off from the thalamus
after the influence of the pollen has been communicated to the
Fic. 509. Fie. 510. Fre, 51
Fic. 512.
b
a B %
Fig. 509. Gynoecium and andreecium of Crambe. The longer
P filaments are forked. Fig. 510, A stamen of the Borage
(Borago officinalis). jf. Filament. a. Curved appendage to
the filament. 7. Anther.— Aig. 511. Corolla of Myosotis
or Forget-me-not, laid open. There are five stamens with
very short filaments attached to the corolla and included
within its tube. Fig.512. Male flower of Euphorbia, con-
sisting of a solitary stamen, 6, without any floral envelopes surrcunding
it, hence it is said to be naked or achlamydeous, The anther is two-
lobed, and the connective very small. a. Articulation, indicating the
point of union of the true filament and peduncle, y.—Fig. 513. Trans-
verse section of a young anther of Weoftia picta. From Schleiden. A,
Back of the anther to which the connective is attached. B, B. The two
lobes of the anther. a. Vascular bundle of the connective. 6. Epidermal
layer or exothecium. c. Layer of fibrous cells which is commonly termed
the endothecium, and which is the mesothecium of the anther in an
earlier stage of development. d, d,d,d. The four loculi or cells of the
anther. Each lobe is seen to be divided into two loculi by a septum or
partition.
carpel, or is deciduous ; but in rare cases, as in the species of
Campanula, the filament is persistent, and remains attached to
the ovary in a withered condition.
2. Toe AntTHER.—Its Parts.—The different parts of which
the anther is composed may be best seen by making a trans-
verse section as shown in fig. 513. Thus here we observe two
parallel lobes, B, B, separated by a portion, A, a, called the con-
nective, to which the filament is attached. Each lobe is divided
THE ANTHER AND ITS PARTS. —~ 245
into two cavities, d, d, d, d, by a septum which passes from the
connective to the walls of the anther. The cavities thus formed
in the lobes of the anther are called cells or loculi. All anthers
in an early stage of development possess fowr loculi, and this
Fie. 514, Fie. 515. Bre ol.
Fie. 519.
x
\
Fig. 514, Four-celled anther of the Flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus),
a. Filament bearing an entire anther. 0. Section of the anther with its
four cells. — Fig. 515. Andrcecium of Milkwort (Polygala), with eight one-
celled anthers dehiscing at their apex. Fig.516. One of the stamens of
the Lady’s Mantle (Alchemilia). The anther is one-celled, and dehisces
transversely. Fig. 517. Stamen of the Sage (Salvia). jf. Filament. c.
Connective bearing at one end a cell, /f, containing pollen, when it is
said to be fertile; and at the other end a cell, 7s, without pollen, in
which case it is sterile. ——/ig. 518, The Essential Organs of Repro-
duction of the Vine (Vitis vinifera). a, Anther. ¢. Furrow in its face
which is turned towards the pistil or gynecium, 6. Suture or line of de-
hiscence. The anther is introrse. Fig. 519. The perianth cut open,
showing the stamens, of the Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale), with
the faces of their anthers turned towards the floral envelopes, and hence
termed extrorse.
is considered the normal state. When a fully-developed anther
exhibits a similar structure, as in the Flowering Rush, it is fowr-
celled or quadrilocular (figs. 514, b, and 537, 1) ; or when, as is far
_ 246 : MODIFICATIONS OF THE ANTHER.
more commonly the case, the partitions separating the two loculi
of each anther-lobe become absorbed, it is two-celled or bilocular
(fig. 536). In rare cases, the anther is wiilocular or one-celled,
as in the Mallow (jig. 535), Milkwort (jig. 515), and Lady’s
Mantle (fig. 516): this arises either from the abortion of one lobe
of the anther, and the absorption of the septum between the two
cells of the lobe that is left ; or by the destruction of the partition
wall of the two lobes as well as of the septa between the cells of
each lobe. In some plants, again, as in many species of Salvia,
the connective becomes elongated into a kind of stalk, each
end of which bears an anther lobe (fig. 517), in which case there
appear to be two wnilocular or one-celled anthers. When this
occurs one lobe only, lf, contains pollen; the other, ls, is sterile.
That surface of the anther to which the connective is attached
is called the back (fig. 513, a), and the opposite surface, B, B, is
the face. The latter always presents a more-or less grooved ap-
pearance (figs. 513 and 518, ¢), indicating the point of junction
of the two lobes. Each lobe also commonly presents a more or
less evident furrow (fig. 518, b), indicating the point at which the
mature anther will open to discharge the pollen ; this furrow is
termed the suture. By these furrows the face of the anther may
be generally distinguished from the back, which is commonly
smooth (fig. 513, a), and has moreover the filament attached to
it. The face is generally turned towards the gynoecium or centre
of the flower, as in the Water-lily (jig. 522), Vine (fig. 518),
and Tulip (fig. 528), in which case the anther is called introrse ;
but in some instances, as in the Iris, and Meadow Saffron (jig.
519), the face is directed towards the petals or circumference of
the flower, when the anther is said to be extrorse.
Its Development and Structure.—When first formed the an-
ther consists of parenchymatous cells of about the same size
and form; but ultimately each lobe presents two central masses
of cells which are termed parent or mother-cells, from being de-
voted to the formation of the pollen (fig. 520, em), and over which
we have three distinct layers of cells. The inner one, el,—that
is the layer immediately enclosing each central mass, is called the
endothecium or tapetum ; it is formed of but a single row of deli-
cate cells, which appear to contain nitrogenous matter, and sup-
posed to be concerned in the nourishment of the pollen-cells in
their early growth. This layer commonly disappears as the
pollen becomes matured, but it is persistent in those anthers
which have porous dehiscence. The layer, ci, immediately out-
side the endothecium, is termed the mesotheciwm. It is a per-
manent layer, and consists of one or more rows of cells, some of
which, except in the case of anthers opening by pores, contain
spiral, reticulated, or annularly arranged fibres. The third or
external layer, ce, is of an epidermal nature, with a well-marked
cuticle, and is called the exothecium, and upon which stomata are
frequently found.
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE ANTHER. 247
The anther in its mature form presents therefore, in nearly
all cases, but two coats, as shown in figs. 513 and 521, that is, an
exothecum (fig. 521, ce), or outer coat; and an endothecium, cf,
or inner coat, which corresponds in structure to the mesothecium
of the immature anther. The connective, as a general rule, has
a similar structure to the filament. Each lobe of the anther, as
already noticed, is divided at an early age into two cavities, by
the septum (fig. 515), which extends from the connective to the
suture. This septum, which forms the placentoid of Chatin, is
usually more or less destroyed when the pollen is matured, but
generally traces of it may be seen in the form of cellular projec-
tions from the connective, by which each cell of the anther is
Lels Ae
Fre. 520,
Fiy. 520. Vertical section of
a loculus or cell of a young
anther of the Melon. ce.
Epidermal layer constitut-
ing the exothecium or
outer covering of the an-
ther. ci. The parenchyma-
tous cells forming the meso-
thecium. cm, cm. The two
central masses of cells
which are placed in each
half or lobe of the anther,
in which the pollen is
formed, and hence they are
termed parent or mother cells. These cells are surrounded by a special
layer of cells, cl, forming the endothecium or tapetum. From Le Maout.
Fig. 521, Horizontal section of a portion of the wall of a mature anther of
Cobeea scandens at the time of dehiscence. It is composed of an external
epidermal layer, ce, forming the exothecium, and an internal layer of
fibrous cells, ef, which is commonly termed the endothecium, and which
is the mesothecium of the immature anther.
=
\\
mnntey
y
partly subdivided. To these processes the name of placentoids
was given by M. Chatin, under the impression that they assisted
in the nourishment of the pollen.
We have already shown that the floral envelopes are homo-
logous with leaves, representing them as they do in all their
essential characters (pages 224 and 230). We have now to ex-
amine the stamen with the view of ascertaining whether its parts
have in like manner any resemblance to those of the leaf. We
have no difticulty in recognising the filament as the homologue
of the petiole, as in its form, position, and structure it is essen-
tially the same (page 242). The connective of the anther, again,
is clearly analogous to the midrib of the blade, and hence we
248 ATTACHMENT OF THE FILAMENT TO THE ANTHER.
readily see that the two lobes of the anther correspond to the
two halves of the lamina folded upon themselves ; in fact, if we
take the blade of a leaf and fold it in the above manner, and then
make a transverse section, it will present a great resemblance to
the section of the anther already described (fig. 513). We may
therefore conclude: that the anther corresponds generally to the
lamina of the leaf, the connective to the midrib, the outer surface
to the epidermis of its lower side, and the septa to the epidermis
of the two halves of the upper surface of the lamina united and
considerably thickened. The pollen corresponds to the paren-
chyma situated between the epidermis of the upper and lower
surfaces of the lamina of the leaf.
Rig o22. Fig.d2a.
Fig. 522, A portion of the flower of the White Water-lily (Nympheea alba),
consisting of a gyncecium invested by a large fleshy disk which is pro-
longed fromthethalamus. The pistil is surrounded by some stamens which
have petaloid filaments and adnate introrse anthers; and by two petals.
Fig. 523. Gyncecium and andreecium of the Tulip. The stamens eé
and ce have introrse anthers, which dehisce longitudinally.
Attachment of the Filament to the Anther.—The mode in which
the anther is attached to the filament varies in different plants,
but it is always constant in the same individual, and frequently
throughout entire natural orders, and hence the characters
afforded by such differences are important in practical botany.
There are three modes of attachment which are distinguished
by special names. Thus: Ist, the anther is said to be adnate or
dorsifixed when its back is attached throughout its whole length
to the filament, or to its continuation called the connective, as
in the Magnolia (fig. 526), and Water-lily (fig. 522); 2nd, it
is innate or basifixed when the filament is only attached to its
base, and firmly adherent, as in the species of Carex (fig. 503) ;
and 3rd, it is versatile, when the filament is only attached by a
point to about the middle of the back of the connective, so that
the anther swings upon it, as in Grasses generally (fig. 505),
and in the Lily, Evening Primrose, and Meadow Saffron.
Connective.—The relations of the anther to the filament, as
well as its lobes to each other, are much influenced by the ap-
CONNECTIVE.—FORMS OF THE ANTHER. 249
pearance and size of the connective. Thus in all adnate anthers
the connective is large, and the lobes generally more or less
parallel to each other throughout their whole length (jig. 526).
In other cases the connective is very small, or altogether want-
ing, as in species of Huphorbia (fig. 524), so that the lobes of
the anther are then immediately in contact at their base. In
the Lime the connective completely separates the two lobes of
the anther (jig. 525). In the Sage (fig. 517) and other species
of Salvia, the connective forms a long stalk-like body placed
horizontally on the top of the filament, one end of which bears
Bie. 524. Bre. 525. Fie. 526. Fic. 527. Fie. 528.
Fig. 524. A male naked flower of a species of Zuphorbie, showing
the two lobes of the anther, and the almost total absence of the
connective.—Fig. 525. A stamen of the Lime (Tilia), showing
the large connective separating the lobes of the anther. Fig.
526. An inside view of a stamen of Magnolia glauca, showing the
adnate anther and prolonged connective. Fig. 527. Two sta-
mens of the Heartsease ( Viola t7icolo7’). The connective of one of
them is prolonged downwards in the form of a spur. Fig. 528.
Sagittate anther lobes of the Oleander (Nerium Oleander), and
the prolonged feathery connective.
an anther lobe, / f, containing pollen, the other merely a peta-
loid plate or abortive anther lobe, / s; it is then said to be dis-
tractile. Sometimes the connective is prolonged beyond the
lobes of the anther; either as a little rounded or tapering
expansion, as in the Magnolia (fig. 526), or as a long feathery
process, as in the Oleander (fig. 528), or in various other ways.
At other times, again, it is prolonged downwards and backwards
as a kind of spur, as in the Heartsease (jig. 527). Anthers with
such appendages are termed appendiculate.
Forms of the Anther Lobes and of the Anther.—The lobes of the
anther assume a variety of forms. Thus in Mercurialis annua
(fig. 530), they are somewhat rounded ; very frequently they are
more or less oval, as in the Almond and Lime (jig. 525) ; in the
Acalypha they are linear (fig. 529) ; in the Gourd tribe (fig. 531)
linear and sinuous; in the Solanwm (fig. 539) four-sided ; and
at other times pointed, or prolonged in various ways. These
250 FORMS OF THE ANTHER.
and other forms which they assume, combined with those of the
connective, determine that of the anther, which may be oval,
oblong, &c. ; or bifurcate or forked as in Vaccinium uliginoswm
Fic. 529. Fie. 530. Fie. 531,
Fig. 529. A stamen of a species of Acalypha in a young state. f. Filament.
7, Linear anther lobes. Fig. 530. A stamen of Mercurialis annua. /.
Filament. c¢. Connective. J,7. Rounded anther lobes dehiscing longitu-
dinally—Fig. 531. The linear and sinuous anther lobes, J, attached to
the filament, 7, of the common Bryony (B7yonia dioica). The above figures
are from Jussieu.
(fig. 533), or quadrifurcate ( fig. 534) as in Gualtheria procumbens,
or sagittate (fig. 528) as in the Oleander, or cordate-sagittate as
in the common Wallflower (figs. 26and 27). In the Grasses the
Fic. 532. Fie. 533. Fic. 534.
Fig. 532. Appendiculate anther attached to filament, 7, of the Fine-leaved
Heath (Erica cinerea). a. Appendage. J. Lobes. 7. Lateral short slit
where dehiscence takes place. Fig. 533. Bifurecate anther of Vaccinium
uliginosum attached to filament, 7. 7. Anther lobes. a. Appendages. p.
Points of the anther lobes where dehiscence takes place.-——Fig. 534.
Quadrifurcate anther of Gualtheria procumbens, attached to filament, /.
7, Anther lobes. The above figures are from Jussieu.
anthers are forked at each extremity (fig. 505), so as to resemble
somewhat the letter « in form.
The lobes of the anther also, like the connective, frequently
present appendages of various kinds. Thus in the Erica cinerea
COLOUR AND DEHISCENCE OF THE ANTHER. 251
they have a flattened leafy body at their base (fig. 532, a); at
other times the surface of the anther presents projections in the
form of pointed bodies (fig. 533, a), as in Vaccinium uliginosum,
or warts, &c. Such anthers, like those which present appendages
from the connective, are termed appendiculate.
Colowr of the Anther.—The anther when young is of a greenish
hue, but when fully matured it is generally yellow. There are
however many exceptions to this : thus itis dark purple or black
in many Poppies, orange in Hschscholtzia, purple in the Tulip,
red in the Peach, &c.
Dehiscence of the Anther.—When the anthers are perfectly ripe
they open and discharge their contained pollen (figs. 27, a, and
535); this act is called the dehiscence of the anther. Dehiscence
commonly takes place in the line of the sutures (jig. 518, b), and
at the period when the flower is fully expanded, and the pistil
consequently sufficiently developed to receive the influence of
the pollen: at other times, however, the anthers burst before
the flower opens and while the pistil is still in an imperfect state.
All the anthers may open at the same period, or in succession ;
and in the latter case the dehiscence may either commence with
the outer stamens, as is usually the case, or rarely with the
inner.
Dehiscence is produced, partly by the development and growth
of the pollen in the lobes of the anther pressing upon their
coats and causing an absorption of their tissue ; and partly by the
special action of the fibrous cells which form the lining of the
anther (fig. 521, cf); andit takes place commonly at the sutures,
because at these parts the endothecium is altogether wanting,
and the exothecium is also usually very thin, so that they are
the weakest points of the anther-walls.
The dehiscence of the anther may take place in four different
ways, which are respectively called: 1. Longitudinal ; 2. Trans-
verse; 3. Porous ; 4. Valvular.
1. Longitudinal or Sutwral.—This, the usual mode of dehis-
cence, consists in the opening of each anther-lobe from the base
to the apex in a longitudinal direction along the line of suture,
as in the Vine (jig. 518, b), the Wallflower (jig. 27, a), and Tulip
(fig. 523). ev
2. Transverse.—This kind of dehiscence mostly occurs in
unilocular anthers, as in those of Alchemilla (fig. 516), Lemna,
and Lavandula. It consists in the splitting open of the anther
transversely or in a horizontal direction, that is, from the con-
nective to the side. It sometimes happens that by the enlarge-
ment of the connective the loculus of a one-celled anther is placed
horizontally instead of vertically, in which case the dehiscence
when it takes place in the line of the suture would be apparently
transverse, although really longitudinal. An example of this
kind of dehiscence is afforded by the Mallow (fig. 535), and
other plants belonging to the natural order Malvacee. In
252 DEHISCENCE OF THE ANTHER.
practical botany such anthers, like the former, are said to dehisce
transversely.
3. Porous or Apical.—This is a mere modification of longi-
tudinal dehiscence. It is formed by the splitting down of the
Fie. 535.
Fie. 536. Fic. 537. Fic. 538. Fia. 539.
Fig. 535, Stamen of the Mallow (Malva), the anther of which has an appa-
rently transverse dehiscence.— Fig. 536. Two-celled anther of the Pyrola
rotundifolia, suaspendea from the filament, 7. 7. Loculi, each opening by
a pore, p.— Fig. 537. Quadrilocular anther of Poranthera, attached to
filament, f. J. Loculi, each opening by a pore, p.— Fig. 538. Anther of
Tetratheca juncea, opening by a single pore at the apex. These figures are
from Jussieu. Fig. 539. Anther lobes of a species of Solanum, each
opening by a pore at the apex.
anther lobes being arrested at an early period so as only to pro-
duce pores or short slits. In such anthers there is commonly
no trace of the sutures to be seen externally. The pores or slits
Fie. 541.
Fie. 540.
Fig. 540. Amnther of
Barberry (erberis
vulgaris), opening
by two valves.
Fig. 541. Stamen of
a species of Laurus.
jf. Filament, with
two glands, g, g, at
its base. J, J. Lo-
euli, of which there
are four. v. Valves.
may be either situated at the apex, as in the species of Sola-
num (fig. 589) and Milkwort (fig. 515); or laterally, as in the
Heaths (fig. 532, r). There may be either two pores, as is
NUMBER OF STAMENS.—INSERTION OF STAMENS. 253
usually the case (jig. 536, p), or four as in Poranthera (fig. 537, p),
or many as in the Mistletoe, or only one as in Tetratheca juncea
(fig. 538).
4, Valvular or Opercular.—This name is applied when the
whole or portions of the face of the anther open like trap-doors,
which are attached at the top and turn back asif ona hinge. In
the Barberry (jig. 540) there are but two such valves or lids ;
while in plants belonging to the Laurel order there are two or
four such lids (fig. 541, v), according as the anthers have two
or four cells.
THE STAMENS GENERALLY, OR THE ANDR@&cIUM.—Before de-
scribing the pollen which is contained within the anther, it will
be better to take a general view of the stamens as regards their
relations to one another, and to the other whorls of the flower.
We shall consider this part of our subject under four heads,
namely :—-1. Number ; 2. Insertion or Position; 3. Union ;
4. Relative Length.
1. Nwmber.—The number of stamens is subject to great
variation, and several terms are in common use to indicate such
modifications. In the first place, certain names are applied to
define the number of the stamens when compared in this re-
spect with the component parts of the floral envelopes. Thus
when the stamens are equal in number to the sepals and petals,
the flower is said to be isostemenous, as in the Primrose ; and if
they are unequal, as in the Valerians (jigs. 494 and 495), the
flower is anisostemenous. Or, when greater accuracy is required,
in the latter case, we say diplostemenous, if the stamens are
double the number, as in the Stonecrop ; meiostemenous, if fewer
in number, as in the Lilac; and polystemenous, if more than
double, as in the Rose.
Secondly, the flower receives different names according to
the actual number of stamens it contains, without reference to
the number of parts in the outer whorls. This number is
indicated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the word androus,
which means male, in reference to the function of the stamen.
Thus, a flower having one stamen is monandrous, two diandrous,
three triandrous, four tetrandrous, and so on. We shall have
to refer to these terms again when treating of the Linnzan
system of classification, as many of the classes in that system
are determined by the number of stamens contained in the
flower.
2. Insertion or Position.—When the stamens are free from
the calyx and pistil, and arise from the thalamus below the
latter organ, as in the Poppy (jig. 32) and Crowfoot (fig. 542),
they are said to be hypogynous, which signifies under the female
or pistil ; this is the normal position of the stamens. When
the stamens are attached to the corolla, as in the Primrose
(fig. 543), they are epipetalous. When the stamens adhere to
the calyx more or less, so that their position becomes somewhat
254 INSERTION OR POSITION OF THE STAMENS.
:
lateral to the pistil instead of below it, as in the Cherry (fig.
544), they, as well as the corolla, are said to be perigynous.
When the calyx is adherent to the ovary so that it appears to
Fie. 543. Fig. 544.
Fie. 542.
Fig. 542. Apocarpous pistil of the Crowfoot (Ranunculus), with two stamens
arising from the thalamus below it, or hypogynous. Fig. 543. Vertical
section of a flower of the Primrose (Primula), showing epipetalous stamens.
The pistil in the centre has an ovary witha free central placenta, one style,
and a capitate stigma. Fig. 544. Vertical section of the flower of the
Cherry, showing the perigynous stamens surrounding the pistil.
rise from its apex, the intermediate stamens and petals or corolla
are also necessarily placed on the summit, and are said to be
epigynous, as in the species of Campanula (fig. 545), and Ivy.
Fig. 545, Fie. 346. Fig. 547.
Fig. 545, Vertical section of the flower of a species of Campanula, with epi-
gynous stamens.— Fg. 546. Flower of O7chis mascula. The column in
the centre is formed by the union of the stamens and style-—/ig. 547.
The pistil and stamens of Birthwort (A7istolochia). The ovary is seen
below, and the stamens above united into a column with the style,
It sometimes happens that the stamens not only adhere to the
ovary or lower part of the pistil, as in the epigynous form of
insertion, but the upper part of the stamen or stamens and
UNION OR COHESION OF THE STAMENS. 205
pistil become completely united also, and thus form a column
in the centre of the flower, as in the Orchis (fig. 546), and Birth-
wort (fig. 547); this column is then termed the gynostemiwm,
and the flowers are said to be qynandrous.
3. Union or Cohesion.—When the stamens are perfectly free
and separate from each other, as in the Vine (fig. 518), they are
said to be free or distinct ; when united, as in the Mallow (jig.
549), they are coherent or connate.
When the stamens cohere, the union may take place either
by their anthers, or by their filaments, or by both anthers and
filaments. When the anthers unite, the stamens are termed
syngenesious or synantherous (fig. 548). This union occurs in
Brie. 548..= Fie. 549. Fie. 550.
Kies 55.
Fig. 548. Syngenesious anthers of a species of Thistle ( Carduus).— Fig. 549.
Monadelphous stamens of a species of Mallow (Malva).— Fig. 550. Mona-
delphous stamens of Wood Sorrel (Oxalis), forming a tube round the pistil.
— Fig. 551. Male flower of Jatropha Curcas. ¢. Calyx. p. Corolla. e.
Stamens united by their filaments into a tube, a, which occupies the centre
of the flower, as there is no pistil.
all the Composite, the Lobelia, and in some other plants.
When the anthers thus unite the filaments are commonly,
though not always, distinct. When union occurs between the
stamens, however, it is more common to see the filaments
united, and the anthers free. This union by the filaments may
take place in one or more bundles, the number being indicated
by a Greek numeral prefixed to the word adelphous, which
signifies brotherhood. Thus, when all the filaments unite to-
gether and form one bundle, as in the Mallow (jig. 549), and
Wood Sorrel (fig. 550), the stamens are said to be monadelphous.
When such a union takes place in a complete flower, the coherent
filaments necessarily form a tube or ring round the pistil placed
in their centre, as in the Wood Sorrel (fig. 550) ; but when the
pistil is absent, and the flower therefore incomplete, the united
filaments form a more or less central column, as in Jatropha
Curcas (fig. 551, a). When the filaments unite so as to form
256 RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE STAMENS,
two bundles, the stamens are termed diadelphous, as in the Pea
(fig. 552), Milkwort (fig. 515), and Fumitory ; in which case the
number of filaments in each bundle may be equal as in the Milk-
wort (fig. 515) and Fumitory ; or unequal as in the Sweet Pea
(fig. 552), where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of
them being united to form one bundle, while the other filament
remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments
into three bundles, they are triadelphous, as in most species
of St. John’s Wort (jig. 554) ; and when in more than three,
polyadelphous, as in the Orange (fig. 553). The term polyadel-
phous is applied by many botanists, in all cases, where there are
more than two bundles of stamens ; it was used in this latter
sense by Linnzus.
The union of the filaments in the above cases may either
take place more or less completely, and thus form a tube of
varying heights, as in the Mallow (jig. 549) and Wood Sorrel
Fig. 552. Diadelphous stamens of the Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus), sur-
rounding the simplepistil. There are ten stamens, nine of which are united
and one free. Fig. 553. Flower of the Orange divested of its corolla,
to show the polyadelphous stamens.
(fig. 550) ; or the union may only take place at the base, as in
the Tamarix gallica (fig. 506). The bundle or bundles, again,
may be either unbranched, as in the Mallow (fig. 549); or
branched, as in the Milkwort (fig. 515) and Castor-oil Plant
(fig. 555). When the union takes place so as to form a tube or
column, the term androphore has been applied to such a column,
as in the Mallow (fig. 549) and Wood Sorrel (fig. 550).
4. Relative Length.—There are two separate subjects to be
treated of here, namely, Ist, the relative length of the stamens
with respect to the corolla; and 2nd, their length with respect
to each other. In the first place, when the stamens are shorter
than the tube of the corolla so as to be enclosed within it, as
in the Forget-me-not (fig. 511), they are said to be meluded ;
and when the stamens are longer than the tube of the corolla so
as to extend beyond it, as in the Valerians (jigs. 495 and 556),
they are exserted or protruding.
RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE STAMENS. 257
Secondly, the relative length of the stamens with respect to
each other presents several peculiarities, some of which are im-
portant in Descriptive Botany. Thus, sometimes all the stamens
Fie. 554. Fic. 555. Fic. 556.
Y
aN
Fig. 554, The pistil, a, of Hypericum egyptiacum, surrounded by the stamens,
é, €, which are united by their filaments, 7, 7, into three bundles. Fig.
555. One of the branched bundles of stamens of the Castor-oil Plant (Ri-
cinus communis). 7. United filaments, Fig. 556. Flower of a species
of Valerian ( Valeriana), showing the stamens prolonged beyond the tube
of the corolla, or exserted, The corolla is gibbous at the base.
of the flower are nearly of the same length ; while at other times
they are very unequal. This inequality may be altogether ir-
Fie. 557. Fie. 558. Fic. 559.
als Be
Fig. 557, One of the bundles of stamens of Luhea paniculata, the inner sta-
mens on the right are longer than the others and are provided with
anthers: the shorter stamens are generally sterile. Fig. 558. Tetra-
dynamous stamens of the Wallflower ( Cheiranthus Cheirt).—§ Fig. 559.
Didynamons stamens of the Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea).
regular again, following no definite rule, or take place in a defj-
nite and regular manner ; thus, when the flowers are polysteme-
nous, the stamens nearest the centre may be longer than those
Ss
258 NATURE AND FORMATION OF THE POLLEN.
at the circumference, as in Liuhea paniculata (fig. 557); or the
reverse may be the case, as in many of the Rosaceze. In the
case of diplostemenous flowers, as with the Willow Herb (Epilo-
biwm), the stamens alternating with the petals are almost always
longer than those opposite to them. When the stamens are of
unequal length in the same flower, or in different flowers of the
same species, as in the Primrose, they are said to be dimorphic,
and will be afterwards alluded to in speaking of fertilisation.
When there is a definite relation existing between the long
and short stamens with respect to number, certain names are
applied to indicate such forms of regularity. Thus in the Wall-
flower (figs. 26 and 558), and Cruciferous plants generally, there
are six stamens to the flower, of which four are long and ar-
ranged in pairs opposite to each other, and alternating with two
solitary shorter ones ; to such an arrangement we apply the term
tetradynamous. When there are but four stamens, of which
two are long and two short, as in Labiate plants generally (jigs.
485 and 487), and in the Foxglove (jig. 559), and most other
Scrophulariaceous plants, they are said to be didynamous.
THE Potten.—The pollen consists of microscopic cells, which
correspond to the microspores of the higher Cryptogams. It has
also been stated, that the pollen was formed in certain cells de-
veloped originally in the centre of the parenchyma of the lobes
of the young anther (fig. 520, em); also that these cells were
enclosed in a special covering of their own, cl, and that in the
course of growth they pressed upon the coats of the anther, so
as to cause their more or less complete absorption, and finally
assisted in promoting the dehiscence of the anther (page 251).
We have now more particularly to describe the mode of forma-
tion and the structure of the pollen.
Formation of the Pollen.—The formation of the pollen may be
described as follows :—The large cells (fig. 520, em), which are
developed in the parenchyma of the young anther, and which
are destined for its formation, are called parent or mother cells ;
these are surrounded in the earlier stages of development by a
single stratum of thin-walled cells forming an internal epithelial
layer or tapetuwm, cl, which, however, becomes subsequently
pressed upon and absorbed. Usually these parent cells remain
connected to one another, but in some instances, and more espe-
cially in Monocotyledons, they become isolated and float free in
a more or less viscid material occupying the cavity of the anther.
As development proceeds the nucleus of each parent cell dis-
appears, and in its place four new nuclei are ultimately formed
(fig. 560, a). (See ‘ Karyokinesis ’in Physiology.) Then follows
an infolding of the protoplasm, or, according to Mohl, of the
primordial utricle, a, b, c, by which the mother-cell is either
divided at once into four parts; or first into two, and subse-
quently, each of these again divided into two others. The four
cells thus formed become each surrounded by a cellulose mem-
FORMATION OF THE POLLEN. 259
brane which is in direct connexion with the cellulose coat of the
mother-cell ; and thus constitute what are known as the ‘ special
mother-cells.’ Finally, each protoplasmic mass of the special
mother-cells separates from the cell-wall and secretes around
itself a membrane, so that ultimately we have four perfect cells,
d, which constitute the true pollen-cells, formed in each parent
cell.
As these pollen-cells progress in development, and increase
in size, they distend the wall of the mother-cell, and ultimately
cause its absorption; and subsequently, by their continued
growth, the walls of the special mother-cells are generally ab-
sorbed also, by which the pollen-cells are set free in the cells of
the anther. Sometimes the membrane of the special mother-
Fia. 560. Fic. 561. Fic. 562.
Fic. 563.
Fig. 560. Formation of the pollen in the Hollyhock (Althcea rosea). After
Mohl and Henfrey. a shows four nuclei in the parent cell, and four septa
commencing to be formed. The primordial utricle and cell-contents are
contracted by the action of alcohol. 6. The development of the septa more
advanced. c. The primordial utricle removed from the parent or mother
cell, but not yet completely divided into four parts. d. The division of
the parent or mother cell into four parts completed, and each part con-
taining one pollen-cell.—— Fig. 561. Pollen of Jaga anomala.— Fig. 562.
Pollen of Periploca greca. After Jussieu.— Fig. 563. Mass of spherical
pollen-cells from a species of Acacia.
cells is not completely absorbed, in which case the pollen-cells
of the mother-cel! are more or less connected, and form a com-
pound body consisting of four pollen-cells, as in Periploca greca
(fig. 562); or if the membranes of two or more united mother-
cells are also incompletely absorbed, we may have a mass con-
sisting of eight pollen-cells, as in Inga anomala (fig. 561); or
of some multiple of four, as in many species of Acacia (fig. 563).
In the Onagracez, the pollen-cells are loosely connected by long
viscid filaments or threads, which seem in this case to be wholly
derived from a secretion left by the imperfect solution of the
mother-cells; while in the Orchidacez the pollen-cells cohere
in a remarkable degree and form pollen-masses which are com-
$2
260 FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE POLLEN.
monly of a waxy nature, to which the name of pollinia has been
given (fig. 564, p). In the Asclepiadacez somewhat similar
masses occur (fig. 565, p, and b); but in the latter, the whole
surface of each pollen-mass is invested by a special cellular
covering. By a careful examination of these pollinia we find
that they are formed of compound masses agglutinated together,
and when separated, each of these masses is found to consist of
four pollen-cells. In the pollinia of the Orchidaceze we also
find other peculiarities ; thus each is prolonged downwards in
the form of a stalk called the cauwdicle (fig. 564, c), which adheres
commonly at the period of dehiscence to one or two little
glandular masses called retinacula (figs. 566, a, and 564, 7, 7),
Fic. 564, Fig. 565. Fic. 566.
Fig. 564. Pollinia, p, of a species of Orchis with their caudicles, c, adhering
to the retinacula, 7°, 7.— Jig. 565. Pistil of a species of Asclepias, with
the pollinia, p, adhering to the stigma,s. 6. Pollen-masses separated.
— Fig. 566. Upper part of the flower of an Orchis, showing the pollinia
adhering to the stigma by the retinacula, a.
which are placed on the upper surface of a little projection of
the stigma or style, called the rostellwm, which is situated at the
base of the anther.
Structure of the Pollen.—We must now more particularly
describe the structure of the pollen-cell, or pollen-grain as it is
more frequently called. We shall treat of it under three heads,
viz. :—1. Its Wall or Coats; 2. Its Contents ; and 3. Its Form
and Size.
1. Wall or Coats of the Pollen-Cell.—When mature the wall of
the pollen-cell generally consists of two membranes : an internal
or intine, and an external or extine. In rare cases the outer
coat appears to consist of two, or even three layers ; while in
Zostera, Zannichellia, and some other submersed aquatic plants,
there is but one membrane, which is of a similar nature to the
intine.
STRUCTURE OF THE POLLEN. 261
The itine is the first formed layer, and appears to be of the
same nature and appearance in all pollen-cells. It is usually
smooth, very delicate, and transparent, and is composed of pure
cellulose. {tis generally applied so as to form a complete lining
to the extine, except perhaps in those cases where the latter
presents various processes, as in (Hnothera, when Henfrey be-
leves that the intine does not extend into them in the mature
ollen.
, The extine is a hard thick resisting layer, forming a kind of
cuticle over the intine or proper cell-coat. While the intine
usually presents a similar appearance in the pollen of different
plants, the extine is liable to great variation ; thus it is some-
times smooth, at others marked with little granular processes
(fig. 73), or spiny protuberances (fig. 567), or reticulations (fig.
571). The nature of these markings is always the same for the
pollen of any particular species or variety of plant, but varies
much in that of different plants. The extine is generally
Fie. 567. Fic. 568. Fic. 569. Fie. 570.
Fig. 567. Pollen of Hollyhock (Althea rosea). Fig. 568. Elliptical pollen
of Milkwort (Polygala). e. Extine. f. Slits. Fig. 569. The same pollen
viewed from above.— Fg. 570. Pollen-cell of Dactylis glomerata. After
Jussieu,
covered by a viscid or oily secretion, which is commonly sup-
posed to be derived from matter remaining from the solution
or absorption of the walls of the parent-cells. The colour of
pollen-cells also resides in the extine. In by far the majority
of cases the pollen-cells are yellow, but various other colours are
also occasionally found; thus they are red in species of Ver-
bascum, blue in some species of Hpilobiwm, black in the Tulip,
rarely green, and occasionally of a whitish tint.
Besides the various markings just described as existing on the
extine, we find also either pores (fig. 570), or slits (figs. 568, f,
and 569, f), or both pores and slits, and which vary in number
and arrangement in different plants. At the spots where these
slits or pores are found, it is generally considered that the extine
is absent ; but some botanists believe that the outer membrane
always exists, but that it is much thinner at these points than
elsewhere. In the greater number of Monocotyledons there is
but one slit ; while three is a common number in Dicotyledons.
Sometimes there are six, rarely four, still more rarely two, and
262 WALL OR COATS OF THE POLLEN.
in some cases we find twelve or more slits. These slits are gene-
rally straight (jig. 568, f), but in Mimulus moschatus they are
curved ; and other still more complex arrangements occasionally
occur.
The pores, like the slits, also vary as to their number. Thus
we commonly find one in Monocotyledons, as in the Grasses ;
ie 7/16 Fig. 572. Fig. 573.
Fig. 571. Pollen of the Passion-flower (Passifiora), before bursting. 9, 9, 0.
Lid-like processes. Fig. 572. Pollen of the Gourd, at the period of
bursting. 0,0, Lid-like processes of the extine protruded by the projec-
tions, ¢, ¢, of the intine. From Jussieu.— /ig. 573. Trigonal pollen of the
Evening Primrose (@nothera biennis).
and three in Dicotyledons. Sometimes again the pores are
very numerous, in which case they are either irregularly dis-
} tributed, or arranged in a more or less
Fic. 044, regular manner. The pores, also, may
be either simple, or provided with little
lid-like processes, as in the Passion-
flower (fig. 571, 0, 0, 0), and Gourd (fig.
572). These processes (fig. 572, 0, 0)
are pushed off by corresponding pro-
jections of the intine, t, t, when the
pollen bursts, or when it falls upon the
stigma for the purpose of fertilising the
ovules; hence such pollen-cells have
been termed operculate.
The pollen of all Angiosperms is
usually regarded as a simple cell as
above described, but in Gymnosperms
Fig. 574. Pollen of Spruce Fir the pollen is not a simple cell, but it
phim s Ga is contains other small cells, which adhere
lateral cells, #1, which are to the inside of its internal membrane
simply vesicular protru- close to the point where the external
sions of the extine, e. 1. ' i
Intige. y. The apical celi Membrane presentsa slit. These minute
which forms the pollen- cells are termed daughter-cells. The
fasarc according to ste recent investigations of Elfving have
burger), of the male pro- also shown that in some cases, at least,
thallium incontact withthe the pollen-cell of Angiosperms is not
intine. After Schacht. ,
unicellular as generally regarded, but
that before it escapes from the anther there is formed in ita
mass of very smatl cells, which appear to be functionless, while
FOVILLA.—FORMS AND SIZES OF POLLEN. 263
the large cell produces the pollen-tube. (See ‘ Reproduction of
Gymnospermia,’ in Physiological Botany.)
2. Contents of the Pollen-cells.—The matter contained within
the coat or coats of the pollen-cell is called the fovilla. This
consists of a dense, coarsely-granular protoplasm, in which are
suspended very small starch granules, and what appear to be
oil globules. As the pollen-cell approaches to maturity, the fovilla
becomes more concentrated, and contains less fluid matter, and
more granules. Some of these granules are not more than
about 35455 of an inch in diameter, while the largest are about
zong OF sooo Of an inch. They vary also in form, some being
spherical, others oblong, and others more or less cylindrical
with somewhat tapering extremities. When water is applied to
the granular contents they become opaque. When viewed under
a high magnifying power, the starch granules at certain periods
(especially at the period of the dehiscence of the pollen) exhibit
a very active tremulous motion, moving to and fro in various
directions and appearing as if repelled by each other. This is
simply molecular motion, analogous to that of all other very
minute particles when suspended in a liquid. The fovilla is
without doubt the essential part of the pollen-cell, but the office
it performs will be explained hereafter.
3. Forms and Sizes of Pollen-cells.—Pollen-cells are found of
various forms. The most common forms appear to be the
spherical (jigs. 73 and 567), and oval (fig. 568) ; in other cases
they are polyhedral, as in Chicory (Cichoriwm Intybus) and
Sonchus palustris, or triangular with the angles rounded and
enlarged (trigonal), as in the Evening Primrose (nothera
biennis) and plants commonly of the order Onagracee (fig. 573),
or cubical as in Basella alba, or cylindrical as im Tradescantia
virginica, while in Zustera they are threadlike or of the form
of a lengthened tube or cylinder, and other forms also occur.
It should also be noticed that the form of the pollen is materi-
ally influenced according as itis dry or moist. Thus the pollen-
cells of the Purple Loosestrife (Lythrwm Salicaria) and some
species of Passion-flower are oval when dry, but when placed in
water they swell and become nearly globular: this arises from
osmotic action taking place between the thickened fovilla and the
water, by which some of the latter is absorbed, and the pollen-
cells consequently distended. Again, when spherical pollen-cells
are exposed to the air for some time they frequently assume a
more or less oval form. In size, pollen-cells vary from about
545 to zs, Of an inch in diameter ; their size, however, like their
form, is liable to vary according as they are examined in a dry
state or in water.
We have already stated that when the pollen-cells are placed
in water they become distended in consequence of osmotic action
taking place between their thickened contents and the sur-
rounding fluid. If this action be continued by allowing the
264 ACTION OF THE POLLEN UPON THE STIGMA.
pollen-cells to remain in the liquid, they must necessarily burst
at some point or other, and allow their contents to escape. Under
these circumstances, as the intine is very extensible, while the
extine is firm and resisting, it will be found that the former will
form little projections through the pores or slits of the latter, so
as to produce little blister-like swellings on its surface (fig. 575).
Ultimately, however, as absorption of fluid by endosmose still
goes on, the intine will itself burst and discharge the contents
of the pollen-cell in the form of a jet (fig. 575). These changes
will take place more rapidly if a little sulphuric or nitric acid be
first added to the water.
When the pollen is thrown upon the stigma in the process
of pollination (fig. 577, stig), the above described action be-
comes materially modified. In this case the pollen-cell does not
Fie.-577.
x, Wrie..575. Fic. 576.
Fig. 575. Pollen of the Cherry discharging its fovilla through an opening in
the intine.——Fig. 576, Trigonal pollen of @nothera with a pollen-tube.
Fig. 577. Vertical section of the stigma and part of the style of
Antirrhinum mujus. stig. Stigma, on which two pollen-cells have fallen,
each of which is provided with a pollen-tube, tp, which is passing through
the tissue of the style, styl.
burst, but its intine protrudes through one or more of the pores
or slits of the extine in the form of a delicate tube (figs. 576 and
577, tp), which is filled with the fovilla, and called the pollen-tube ;
this penetrates, as will be afterwards described, through the tissue
of the stigma (and style ( fig. 577, styl) also, when this is present),
to the placenta and ovules. This tube is frequently some inches
in length, and its formation is a true growth, caused by the
nourishment it derives from the stigma and conducting tissue
of the style in its passage downwards to the interior of the ovary.
(See page 271.)
Professor Duncan has proved that the pollen-tube is not,
(in all cases at least,) as formerly supposed, a continuous tube,
that is, having but one cavity ; but that in Tigridia conchiflora
and other Monocotyledons with long styles which he examined,
THE DISK.— STYLOPODIUM. 265
‘transverse inflexions of the tubular cell-wall of the pollen-
tube exist every now and then ;’ so that then ‘the pollen-tube
is really a tube formed by elongated cells’ ; and hence having
as many cavities as cells. In Dicotyledons, however, the pollen-
tube appears to be in all cases unicellular, and, therefore, to have
one continuous cavity.
2. THE DISK.
The term disk is variously understood by botanists : thus,
by some it is used as synonymous with thalamus, receptacle, or
torus (see page 292) ; by others, it is understood to include all
abnormal or irregular bodies of whatever form or character which
are situated on the thalamus between the androecium and gynce-
cium ; by others, again, it is defined as that part of the thalamus
which is situated between the calyx and the gyncecium, and
which forms a support to the corolla and andrcecium ; while
others, again, define the disk as the portion of the thalamus
situated between the calyx and gynecium, when that part
assumes an enlarged or irregular appearance ; and lastly, the
term disk is understood to include all bodies of whatever form
which are situated on the thalamus between the calyx and
gyncecium, or upon or in connexion with either of these organs,
but which cannot be properly referred to them. It is applied
in the latter sense in this volume.
Although the disk is not an essential organ of the flower, it
is best treated of in this place, as it is most commonly placed
between the andrcecium and gyncecium, and therefore comes next
in order as we proceed with our examination of the parts of the
flower. The disk seems, in many cases at least, to be merely a
modification of the andrcecium ; this appears to be proved not
only from its parts occasionally alternating with the stamens, as
in Gesnera, but also from the circumstance of portions of it when
highly developed becoming occasionally changed into them. It
is frequently of a nectariferous nature, and hence was treated of
by Linnzeus and many succeeding botanists under the head of
Nectaries. We have already referred to nectaries under Glands
(page 71) and Corolla (page 240).
The disk is developed in a variety of forms; thus, in the
Orange and Rue (jig. 579), it forms a fleshy ring surrounding
the base of the pistil; in the Tree Peony (fig. 580), it occurs
as a dark red cup-shaped expansion covering nearly the whole
of the pistil except the stigmas ; in the Rose and Cherry (jig.
544), it forms a sort of waxy lining to the tube of the calyx ;
and in Umbelliferous plants the disk constitutes a swelling on
the top of the ovaries adhering to the styles (jig. 578, d) ; this
latter form of disk has been termed the stylopodivm. In other
cases the disk is reduced to little separate glandular bodies, as
in Cruciferous plants (jig. 26, gl) ; or to scales, as in the Stone-
266 MODIFICATIONS OF THE DISK.
crop (fig. 581), and Vine (fig. 518); or to various petaloid
expansions, as in the Columbine.
When the disk is situated under the ovary, as in the Orange
Fic. 578. Fic. 579.
Fig. 578. Flower of the Fennel (Feniculwm capillaceum). The ovary is sur-
mounted by a disk, d.—Fig. 579. Flower of the Rue (Ruta graveolens).
The pistil is surrounded by a disk in the form of a fleshy hypogynous ring,
on the outside of which the stamens are inserted.
and Rue (fig. 579), it is termed hypogynous ; when it is attached
to the calyx, as in the Rose and Cherry (fig. 544), it is perigynous ;
or when on the summit of the ovary, as in Umbelliferous plants
Fic. 580. Fic. 581.
Fig. 580. Pistil of the Tree Peony (Pceonia Moutan or Moutan officinalis)
invested by a large cup-shaped expansion or disk. Fig. 581. Pistil of
Stonecrop (Sedum), consisting of five distinct carpels, on the outside of
each of which at the base a small scaly body may be noticed. The pistil
is compound and apocarpous.
(fig. 578, d), epigynous ; these terms being used in the sense
already described when treating of the insertion of the stamens
under the head of the Andrcecium.
3. THE GYNECIUM OR PISTIL.
We now arrive at the consideration of the last organ of the
flower, namely, the gyncecium or female system. The gyncecium,
or pistil as it is frequently called, occupies the centre of the
flower, the andrcecium and floral envelopes being arranged
around it when they are present (fig. 26) ; the floral envelopes
»
THE GYNCGCIUM. 267
alone in the ordinary pistillate flower ; or it stands alone when
the flower is pistillate and naked (fig. 35). The gyncecium
consists of one or more modified leaves called capels which are
either distinct from each other, as in the Stonecrop (fig. 581) ;
or combined into one body, as in the
Primrose (fig. 582) and Tobacco (fig. 584), Fre. 582.
When there is but one carpel as in the
Pea (fig. 603), Broom (fig. 583), and
Leguminous plants generally, the pistil is
said to be simple; when there is more
than one, whether distinct from each other,
as in the Stonecrop (fig. 581), or com-
bined into one body, as in the Tobacco
(fig. 584), and Primrose (fig. 582), it is
described as compound. Before proceed-
ing to examine the gyncecium or pistil
generally, it is necessary to describe the
parts, nature, and structure of the carpel,
of one or more of which organs it is com-
posed.
THE Carpet.—This name is derived
from a Greek word signifying the fruit,
because the pistil forms, as will be after-
wards explained, the essential part of that
organ. Each carpel, as we have already
noticed (page 19), consists, Ist, of a hol-
low inferior part arising from the thala-
mus, called the ovary (fig. 585, 0), con-
taining in its interior one or more little
somewhat roundish or oval bodies called
ovules, ov, and which are attached to a
projection on the walls termed the pla-
Fie. 584,
Fig.582. Pistil of Prim-
rose (Primulavulgaris ),
centa, p. 2nd, of a stigma or space of Connosed of several
variable size, composed of loose parenchy- united = carpels, and
matous tissue without epidermis; this hence termed com-
pound and syncarpous.
There is but one style,
whichis surmounted by
stigma is either placed directly on the
ovary, in which case it is said to be sessile,
asin the Barberry (fig. 585, st); or it is
elevated on a stalk prolonged from the
ovary, called the style, as in the Broom
(fig. 583, s). The only essential parts of
the carpel, therefore, are the ovary and
stigma, the style being no more necessary
to it than the filament is to the stamen.
The terms ovary, style, and stigma are ap-
a capitate stigma.
Fig. 583. Simple pistil
of Broom. 0. Ovary. 5.
Style. ¢. Stigma.
Fig. 584. Compound
synearpous pistil of
Tobacco (Nicotiana Ta-
bacum). t. Thalamus.
o. Ovary. s. Style. g.
Capitate stigma,
plied in precisely the same sense when speaking of a compound
pistil in which the parts are completely united (jigs. 32, 582, and
584), as with the simple carpel. The simple ovary (page 279)
has two sutures, one of which corresponds to the union of
268 <“ NATURE OF THE CARPEL.
the margins of the lamina of the carpellary leaf out of which
it is formed, and which is turned towards the axis of the plant ;
and another, which corresponds to the midrib of the lamina,
is directed towards the floral envelopes or to the circumference
of the flower; the former is called the ventral suture (fig.
586, vs), the latter the dorsal, ds. (See also page 300).
Fie. 585. Fia. 586.
Fig. 585, Vertical section of the ovary of the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris),
on the outside of which are seen a stamen dehiscing by two valves anda
petal. 0. Ovary. ov. Ovules attached to a projection called the placenta,
p. st. Sessile stigma.m—Fig. 586. Vertical section of the flower of the
Peony (Peonia). ds. Dorsal suture of the ovary. vs. Ventral suture.
Nature of the Carpel.—That the ecarpel is analogous to the
leaf is proved in various ways, some of which will be more
particularly mentioned hereafter, when treating of the General
Morphology of the Flower ; we shall here only allude to the
proofs of its nature which are afforded by the appearance it
sometimes presents in double or cultivated flowers ; and by tra-
cing its development. Thus, in a double flower of the Cherry
the carpels do not present a distinct ovary, style, and stigma, as
is the normal condition of the solitary carpel in the single flower
(fig. 590); but they either become flattened into green expan-
sions, each of which resembles the blade of a leaf (jig. 587), or
into organs intermediate in their nature between carpels and
leaves as represented by the figures 588 and 589. Here the
lower portion (fig. 589, l), representing the blade of the leaf,
is clearly analogous to the ovary of a complete carpel, and the
prolonged portion, s, to the style and stigma. The carpel of
the single-flowering Cherry being thus convertible into a leaf,
affords at once conclusive evidence of its being an analogous
structure. a
A second proof of the nature of the carpels is afforded by
tracing their development. Thus when first examined they ap-
pear on the thalamus as little slightly concave bodies of a green
colour like young leaves (fig. 591, car), in a short time they be-
come more and more concave (jig. 592), and ultimately the two
margins of the concavity in each unite (fig. 593), and thus form
a
<<
NATURE OF THE CARPEL. 269
a hollow portion or ovary, in which the ovules soon make their
appearance. This gradual transition of little leafy organs into
carpels may be well seen in the Flowering Rush.
Fic. 589. Fic. 590.
Fig. 587. Fie. 588.
\
Figs. 587-589. Carpellary leaves from the double flowers of the Cherry-tree
in different stages of development. 7. Lamina. p. Midrib. s. Prolonged
portion corresponding to the style and stigma of a perfectly formed
carpel.— Fig. 590. Carpel from the single flower of the Cherry. 0. Ovary.
t. Style. s. Stigma.
We have thus in the first place shown that carpels become
sometimes transformed into leaves, or into organs intermediate
in their characters between carpels and leaves, in the flowers of
cultivated plants; and secondly, that they make their first
Rre.o0 1: Fie. 592. Fie. 593.
car
Fig. 591. Young flower-bud of the Flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus).
The carpels, car, are still concave on the inside, and resemble small leaves.
— Fig. 592. The carpels in a more advanced state, but the folded mar-
gins still separated by a slit.——Fig. 593. The same carpels in a perfect
condition.
appearance in the form of little organs resembling leaves ; and
in both ways, therefore, we have proofs afforded us of their leaf-
like nature.
Structure of the Carpel.—The ovary being the homologue of
- the blade of the leaf, it presents, as might have been expected,
270 STRUCTURE OF THE CARPEL.—THE STYLE.
an analogous structure. Thus it consists of parenchyma, which
is often much developed, and through which the vascular bundles
composed of spiral and other vessels ramify, and either converge
towards the base of the style, or terminate at the upper part of
the ovary when the style is absent.
Fie. 594.
%
A
A
z
A=
|
s
i &
s
Fig. 594. Vertical
section of the
carpel of the Ap-
ricot. ov. Ovule,
which is enclosed
in an ovary. ep.
Epidermis, form-
ing the external
coat of the ovary.
me. Middle layer.
end. Inner coat
te. Style with a
canal in its cen-
The whole is covered ex-
ternally by a layer of epidermis ( fig.
594, ep). The parenchyma is usually
of a more lax nature as we proceed
towards the inside of the ovary,
where it forms avery delicate lining,
end, which is called by Schleiden
epithelium ; it corresponds to the
epidermis of the upper surface of
the blade of the leaf. The epidermis
on the outside of the ovary corre-
sponds to that of the lower surface
of the blade, and like it is frequently
clothed with stomata, and sometimes
with hairs. The parenchyma, me,
between the inner lining of the ovary
and epidermis, corresponds to the
general parenchyma of the lamina,
which is similarly placed. Where the margins of the blade of
the carpellary leaf meet and unite at the ventral suture (jig.
586, vs), a layer of parenchymatous tissue is developed, which
forms a more or less projecting line in the cavity of the ovary,
called the placenta (fig. 585, p), to which the ovule or ovules
are attached (fig. 628, pl). This placenta is essentially double,
the two halves being developed from the two contiguous
margins of the blade of the carpellary leaf. ?
The style has been considered by some botanists as a pro-
longation of the midrib of the blade (fig. 589, p, s), but from
the arrangement of its tissue it is to be regarded rather as a pro-
longation of its apex, the margins of which have been rolled
inwards and united. It consists of a cylindrical process of
parenchyma, traversed by vascular tissue, which is so arranged
as to form a sort of sheath at its circumference (fig. 596, ¥, v, v),
and is a continuation of that of the ovary ; it proceeds upwards
without branching towards the apex of the style, but always
terminates below that point. The style is invested by epidermis
continuous with that of the ovary, and furnished occasionally,
like it, with stomata and hairs.
Upon making a transverse (fig. 596), or vertical section (fig.
594), of the style, we find it is not a solid body as we might
have supposed, but that it is rarely traversed by a very narrow
canal (figs. 594 te, and 596, »), which communicates below with
the cavity of the ovary, and above with the stigma. This canal
is either always entirely open, or more or less obstructed, as in
Orchids (fig. 595, can), or far more commonly filled up by a
tre. st. Stigma.
STRUCTURE OF THE STYLE AND STIGMA. 271
number of variously formed very loosely aggregated cells (fig.
596, p). The walls of the canal also, in all cases, are formed of
a loose papillose parenchyma. This canal may be considered as
a prolongation of the cavity of the ovary, in an upward direc-
tion, consequently the loose tissue by which it is surrounded is
to be regarded as corresponding to the epidermis of the upper
surface of the lamina of the leaf, merely modified to adapt it-
self to the peculiar conditions under which it is placed. At the
period of fertilisation, these cells, as well as those of the stigma,
and canal of the style generally, secrete a peculiar viscid sac-
charine fluid, which is sometimes called the stigmatic flwid (see
Nectariferous Glands, page 71). Hence at this period the centre
of the style is filled with very loose humid tissue, to which the
Fic. 595. Fia. 596.
Fig. 595. Vertical section of the flower of Epipactis latifolia. a. One of the
divisions of the perianth. c.Stamen. e. Ovules. 2. Stigma. can. Canal
- leading from the stigma to the interior of theovary. From Schleiden.—
Fig. 596. Transverse section of the style of the Crown Imperial (Fritillaria
imperialis). p. Canal in its centre lined by projecting papille. v, v, v.
Vascular bundles corresponding to the three styles of which this com-
pound style is composed. From Jussieu.
name of conducting tissue has been given, because from its loose
nature and nourishing properties it serves to conduct (as it were)
the pollen-tubes (page 264) down the style (fig. 577, tp) to the
placenta and ovules, as will be explained hereafter in Physio-
logical Botany.
The Stigna.—The tissue of the stigma is analogous to that
found in the interior of the style, and just described under the
name of conducting tissue ; in fact, it seems to be nothing more
than an expansion of this tissue externally. It may be either
on one side of the style (figs. 600 and 602), or at its apex (jig.
597, 8), or on both sides (fig. 598, ss), the position depending
upon the point or points where the conducting tissue or canal ter-
minates. Its tissue is usually elongated into papille (fig. 597, s),
hair-like (fig. 599, s), or feathery processes (fig. 601). It is
never covered by epidermis. By means of the corresponding
conducting tissue of the style it is in direct continuity with the
placenta. At the period of fertilisation, as just noticed, it be-
comes moistened by a viscid fluid which renders the surface
7
272 THE GYN@CIUM OR PISTIL.
more or less sticky, and thus admirably adapted to retain the
pollen, which is thrown upon it in various ways in the process
of pollination (page 20).
Fre. 597. Fie. 598. Fre. 599.
oe Fic. 600. Fic. 601.
‘S@
Fig. 597. A portion of the pistil of Daphne Laureola. o. Sammit of the
ovary. ¢. Style terminated by a stigma, s. Fig. 598. A portion of the
pistil of Plantago saxatilis. o. Summit of the ovary. ¢. Style. s,s. Bi-
lateral stigma. The above figures are from Jussieu.— Fig. 599. Pistil of
the Periwinkle (Vinca). o. Ovary. ¢. Style. s. Hairy stigma. d. Disk.
Fig. 600. Ventral view of the pistil of /sopyrum biternatum, showing the
double stigma.—— Fig. 601. Pistil of Wheat ( 77riticum sativum ) surrounded
by three stamens, and two squamule, sp. Two feathery styles or stigmas
arise from the top of the ovary.
THE GyNe&crIUM or Pistrt.—Having now described the parts,
nature, and structure of thecarpel, we are in a position to examine
in a comprehensive manner the gyncecium or pistil generally,
which is made up of one or more of such carpels.
When the gyncecium is formed of but one carpel, as in the
Broom (fig. 583) and Pea (jig. 603), it is, as we have already
seen, called simple (page 267), and the terms gyncecium or pistil
and carpel are then synonymous ; when there is more than one
carpel, the pistil or gyncecium is termed compound ( figs. 581 and
582). In a compound pistil, again, the carpels may be either
separate from each other, as in the Stonecrop (fig. 581), and
Pheasant’s-eye (fig. 607); or united into one body, as in the
Primrose (fig. 582), Carnation (jig. 602), and Tobacco (fig.
584): in the former case the pistil is said to be apocarpous, in
the latter syncarpous.
When the pistil is apocarpous, the number of carpels of which
it is composed is indicated by a Greek numeral prefixed to the
termination yynia, which means woman or female, in reference
.
APOCARPOUS PISTIL. 273
to the function it performs in the process of fertilisation ; and
the flower receives corresponding names accordingly. In a
syncarpous pistil, the number of the styles, or of the stigmas if
the styles are absent, is also defined in a similar way. Thus, a
flower with one carpel, style, or stigma, is monogynous, with two
digynous, with three trigynous, and so on. These terms will be
more particularly referred to when we treat of the Linnzan
System of Classification, as inost of the Orders of that arrange-
ment are determined by the number of carpels, styles, or
stigmas, in the flower.
Fic. 602.
PN 2 Fic. 603.
: oe
Ss
+
Ey
j
Fig. 602. Pistil of Dianthus Caryophyllus
on a stalk, g, called the gynophore,
below which is the peduncle. On the
top of the ovary are two styles, the
face of each of whichis traversed by
a continuous stigmatic surface.
Fig. 603. Pistil of Lathyrus odoratus.
o. Ovary. c. Persistent calyx. On °
the top of the ovary is the style
and stigma, stig.
1. Apocarpous Pistil.—An apocarpous pistil may consist of
two or more carpels, and they are variously arranged accordingly.
Thus, when there are but two, they are always placed opposite
to each other ; when there are more than two, and the number
coincides with the sepals or petals, they are opposite or alternate
with them ; it is rare, however, to find the carpels corresponding
in number to the sepals or petals, they are generally fewer, or
more numerous. The carpels may be either arranged in one
whorl, as in the Stonecrop (jig. 581); or in several whorls
alternating with each other, and then either at about the same
level, or, as is more generally the case, at different heights upon
the thalamus so as to form a more or less spiral arrangement.
When an apocarpous pistil is thus found with several rows of
carpels, the thalamus, instead of being a nearly flattened top,
as is usually the case when the number of carpels is small, fre-
quently assumes other forms ; thus, in the Magnolia and Tulip-
tree, it becomes cylindrical (fig. 604); in the Raspberry (fig.
606, J), and Ranunculus (fig. 542), conical; in the Strawberry
( fig. 605), hemispherical ; while in the Rose ( fig. 454, r, r), it
becomes hollowed out like a cup, or urn, and has the carpels
i
274 SYNCARPOUS PISTIL.
arranged upon its inner surface. These modifications of the
thalamus, together with some others, will be more particularly
Fic. 604, Fic. 605. Fic. 606.
Fig. 604. Central part of the flower of the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera).
The thalamus, a, is more or less cylindrical. c¢,c. Carpels. e, e. Stamens.
Fig. 605. Section of the flower of the Strawberry. The thalamus is nearly
hemispherical, and bears a number of separate carpels on its upper por-
tion. Fig. 606. Section of the ripe pistil of the Raspberry, showing the
conical thalamus, /.
referred to hereafter under the head of Thalamus (page 292).
_ These varying conditions of the thalamus necessarily
Fie. 607. ead to corresponding alterations in the mutual
relation of the different whorls of carpels which
compose an apocarpous pistil, and modify very
materially the appearance of different flowers.
2. Syncarpous Pistil.—We have already seen, in
speaking of the floral envelopes and andrcecium,
that the different parts of which these whorls are
respectively composed may be distinct from each
other, or more or less united. From the position
of the carpels with respect to one another, and
Fig. 607. Apo- from their nature, they are more frequently united
carpous PStil than any other parts of the flower. This union
sant’s - eye may take place either partially, or entirely, and it
Aden). may commence at the summit, or at the base of the
carpels. Thus in the former case, as in Xanthoxylon fraxineuwm
( fig. 608), the carpels are united by their stigmas only ; in Dic-
tamnus Fraxinella (fig. 624) the upper parts of their styles are
united ; while in the Labiatie (jig. 609, s), and most Boraginaceze
(fig. 610, d), the whole of the styles are united. In all the
above cases the ovaries are distinct ; and in many Boraginacez,
the stigmas also; but in all Labiatz the stigmas are distinct.
These examples are to be considered, therefore, as transitional
states between apocarpous and syncarpous pistils.
It is far more common to find the carpels united by their
lower portions or ovaries, and this union may also take place to
COMPOUND OVARY. 275
various extents. Thus, in the Rue (fig. 611, ov), the union
only takes place at the base of the ovaries, the upper parts
remaining distinct, in which case the ovary is commonly
described as lobed. In Dianthus (fig. 602) the ovaries are
completely united, the styles being distinct ; while in the
Primrose (jig. 582), the ovaries, styles, and stigmas are all
united. When two or more ovaries are thus completely united
so as to form one body, the organ resulting from their union is
called a compound ovary.
Fie. 608. Fic. 609. Fic. 610. Fre. 611.
Fig. 608. Pistil of Xanthoxylon fraxineum supported on a gynophore, g.
The ovaries, 0, and styles are distinct, but the stigmas, s, are united.
Fig. 609. Pistil of Horehound (Marrubium vulgare), a Labiate plant. Its
ovaries, ov, are distinct, the styles, s, being united, and the stigmas
distinct. Fig. 610. Pistil of Myosotis,a Boraginaceous Plant. ov, Dis-
tinct ovaries. d. Styles united.—RFig. 611. Flower of the Rue (Ruta
graveolens), showing the ovaries, ov, united at their bases.
Compound Ovary.—The compound ovary formed as just
stated may either have as many cavities separated by partitions
as there are component ovaries ; or it may only have one cavity.
These differences have an important influence upon the attach-
ment of the ovules, as will be afterwards seen when speaking
of placentation. It is necessary for us, therefore, to explain at
once the causes which lead to these differences. Thus if we
have three carpels placed side by side (fig. 612, a), each of
these possesses a single cavity corresponding to its ovary, so
that if we make a transverse section of the whole, b, we neces-
sarily have three cavities, each of which is separated from those
adjoining by two walls, one being formed by the side of its own
ovary, and the other by that of the one next to it. Butif
these three carpels, instead of being distinct, are united by
their ovaries (jig. 613, a), so as to form a compound ovary, the
latter must necessarily also have as many cavities as there are
component carpels, b, and each cavity must be separated from
those adjoining by a wall which is called a dissepiment or parti-
tion. Each dissepiment must be also composed of the united
se
276 COMPOUND OVARY.— DISSEPIMENTS.—LOCULI.
sides of the two adjoining ovaries, and is consequently double,
one half being formed by one of the sides of its own ovary, the
other ky that of the adjoining ovary.
In the normal,arrangement of the parts of the ovary, it
must necessarily happen that the styles, (when they are dis-
tinct), must alternate with the
Fic. 612. Fie. 618. dissepiments, for as the former
are prolongations of the apices of
the blades of the carpellary
leaves, while the latter are formed
by the union of their margins,
the dissepiments must have the
same relation to the styles as the
sides of the blade of a leaf have
to its apex; that is, they must
be placed right and left of them,,.
or alternate.
The cavities of the compound.
ovary are called cells or loculi,
and such an ovary as that just
described would be therefore
termed three-celled or trilocular,
Fig. 612. a. Diagram of three carpels ae ut = formed of three united,
placed side by side, but not united, OVATles ; Or if formed of the
b, A transverse section Pg ag united ovaries of two, four, five,
Door Me sree eed united or many carpels, it would be de-
by their ovaries, the styles and gcribed respectively as two-celled
ane aN Pana eee MBs Pees or bilocular, fowr-celled or quadri-
same, locular, five-celled or quinguelocu-
lar, and many-celled or multilocu-
lar. As all dissepiments are spurious or false which are not
formed by the united walls of adjoining ovaries, it must neces-
sarily follow that a simple carpel can have no true dissepiment,
and is hence, under ordinary and normal circumstances, wnilo-
cular or one-celled.
From the preceding observations it must also follow that
when ovaries which are placed side by side cohere, and form
a compound ovary, the dissepiments must be vertical, and equal
in number to the ovaries out of which that compound ovary is
formed. When a compound ovary is composed, however, of
several whorls of ovaries placed in succession one over the
other, as in the Pomegranate, horizontal true dissepiments may
be formed by the ovaries of one whorl uniting by their base to
the apices of those placed below them (jig. 723).
We have just observed that all dissepiments are said to be
spurious except those which are formed by the union of the
walls of contiguous ovaries, and it occasionally happens that
such spurious dissepiments are formed in the course of growth,
by which the ovary acquires an irregular character. These
SPURIOUS DISSEPIMENTS. 277
false dissepiments commonly arise from projections of the
placentas inwards ; or by corresponding growths from some
other parts of the walls of the ovaries. Some of these are
horizontal, and are called phragmata, as in the Cassia Fistula
(fig. 614), where the ovary, after fertilisation, is divided by
a number of transverse dissepiments, which are projections
from its walls. Others are vertical, as in Cruciferous plants,
where the dissepiment, called a replwm (fig. 615, cl), is formed
from the placentas. Also, in Datura Stramoniwm, where the
ovary is formed of two carpels, and is hence normally two-
celled ; but instead of thus being bilocular, it is four-celled
below (jig. 616) from the formation of a spurious vertical dis-
sepiment, but towards the apex it is two-celled (fig. 617), the
Hresoides, Ere. 615. Fic. 617.
Fig. 614. Vertical section of a portion of the mature
ovary of Cassia Fistula, showing a number of trans-
verse spurious dissepiments (phragmata).— Fig.
615. Vertical section of the ovary of the Wallflower.
ov. Ovules, each attached by a stalk to the placenta,
cn. cl. Vertical spurious dissepiment called the re-
plum.— Fig. 616. Transverse section of the lower
part of the ovary of the Thorn-apple (Datura Stra-
monium), showing that the ovary is here four-celled.
Fig. 617. Transverse section of the same ovary
at its upper part, showing that it is here two-celled.
dissepiment not being complete throughout, and thus the true
nature of the ovary is there indicated. In the Gourd tribe
(fig. 721), also, spurious dissepiments appear to be formed in the
ovary in a vertical direction by projections from the placentas.
In the Flax, again (jig. 618, b), spurious incomplete vertical dis-
sepiments are formed in the ovary by projections from the dorsal
sutures. In the ovary of the Astragalus (fig. 619), a spurious
dissepiment is also formed by a folding inwards of the dorsal
suture ; while in Oxytropis and Phaca (fig. 620), a spurious
incomplete dissepiment is produced in the ovary of each by
a folding inwards of the ventral suture. Various other exam-
ples of the formation of spurious dissepiments might be quoted,
but the above will be sufticient for our purpose. It should be
noticed that in our description of spurious dissepiments, we
278 SPURIOUS DISSEPIMENTS.
have not confined our attention to those of compound ovaries
alone, but have also referred to those of simple ovaries, in which
they may equally arise. Thus the spurious dissepiments of
Cassia Fistula, Astragalus, Phaca,and Oxytropis are all examples
of such formations in simple ovaries.
Fia. 618. Fic. 619. Fic. 620.
Fig. 618. Transverse section of the ovary of the Flax (Linum usitatissimum),
showing five complete and true dissepiments, a, and five incomplete
spurious dissepiments, 6.—/ig. 619. Transverse section of the mature
ovary of Astragalus, showing spurious dissepiment proceeding from the
dorsal suture. Fig. 620. Transverse section of the mature ovary of
Phaca.
We have now to consider the formation of the compound
ovary which presents but one cavity, mstead of two or more, as in
that just alluded to. Such an ovary is formed either by the
union of the contiguous margins of the flattened open ovaries
Fie. 6233
Fic. 621.
Fig.621, Transverse section of the one-celled ovary of Mignonette (Reseda).
c. The lower flattened portion or ovary of one of the three carpels of which
it isformed. pl. One of the three parietal placentas. Fig. 622. Trans-
verse section of the one-celled ovary of an Orchis. ¢. The lower portion
or ovary of oneof the three carpels of which it is formed, slightly infolded.
pl. One of the three parietal placentas.——/ig. 623. Transverse section
of the ovary of a species of Poppy. ov. Ovules. plac, plac, Placentas,
which in the young ovary nearly meet in the centre, and thus the ovary
becomes almost many-celled, but as the ovary progresses in development
it is only one-celled,
of the carpels of which it is composed, as in the Mignonette
(fig. 621) and Cactus (fig. 631) ; or by the union of carpels the
ovaries of which are only partially folded inwards, so that all
their cavities communicate in the centre, and hence such a
compound ovary is really unilocular, as in the Orchis (fig. 622),
and Poppy (fig. 623).
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND OVARY. 279
Having now described the parts, nature, and structure of
the carpel, and of the gyncecium or pistil generally, we proceed
in the next place to allude separately to the constituent parts of
the carpel, both in a free and combined state, namely, the ovary,
style, and stigma.
1. THe Ovary.—The ovary, as already mentioned (page
275) is called compound when it is composed of two or more
ovaries combined together ; or, on the contrary, it is simple
when it constitutes the lower part of asimple pistil (jig. 583, 0),
or of one of the carpels of an apocarpous pistil (fig. 581). It
should be noticed, therefore, that the terms simple pistil and
simple ovary are not in all cases synonymous terms; thus, a
pistil is only said to be simple (jigs. 583 and 603), when it is
Fic. 624.
Fic. 625. Fic. 626.
Fig. 624. Pistil of Dictamnus Frazvinella. The ovary is supported on a gyno-
phore, g, and is superior.— Fig. 625. Vertical section of the flower of
a Saxifrage, showing the ovary partially adherent to the calyx. Fig.
626. Compound irregular mature ovary of Antir7hinum.
formed of but one carpel, the terms pistil and carpel being then
mutually convertible ; but an ovary is simple, as just noticed,
whether it forms part of a simple pistil, as in Leguminous
plants generally (jig. 603), or of one of the carpels of an
apocarpous pistil, as in the Stonecrop (jig. 581). An ovary is
also said to be monomerous when it is formed of only one
carpel ; or dimerous, trimerous, tetramerous or polymerous when
it is formed by the coherence of two, three, four, or many
carpels.
Generally speaking, the ovary is sessile upon the thalamus,
the carpellary leaves out of which it is formed having no stalks.
In rare cases, however, the ovary is more or less elevated above
the outer whorls, when it is said to be stalked or stipitate, as in
the Dictammus (fig. 624, g), and Dianthus (fig. 602, g); this
stalk has received the name of gynophore. We shall refer to the
gynophore again under the head of Thalamus (page 292).
280 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OVARY. wa
The ovary, whether simple or compound, may be either ad-
herent to the calyx or free from it (see page 227). In the former
case, as in the Myrtle (jig. 463), it is inferior or adherent, and
the calyx is superior ; in the latter, as in Dictammnus (fig. 624), it
is superior or free, and the calyx is inferior. In some flowers
the ovary is but partially adherent to the calyx, as in the species
of Saxifrage (fig. 625), in which case it is sometimes termed
half-adherent or half-inferior ; and the calyx is then said to be
half-superior ; the latter terms are, however, but rarely used,
the ovary being commonly described as inferior, whether its
adhesion to the calyx be complete, or only partially so, and vice
versa.
The student must be careful not to confound the inferior
ovary, as now described, with the apparently inferior ovaries of
such flowers as the Rose (fig. 454), where the thalamus, 7, 7, is
concave and attached to the tube of the calyx, ct, and bears a
number of carpels, 0, 0, on its inner walls. A transverse section
will at once show the difference ; thus, in the Rose, we should
then find a single cavity open at its summit, and its walls covered
with distinct carpels ; whereas, on the contrary, a true adherent
ovary would show, under the same condition, one or more cells
containing ovules. The ovaries of the Rose are therefore
superior or free.
Schleiden contends that the ovary is not always formed of
carpels, but sometimes also of the stem, and at other times of
the twocombined. His views are not however generally received
by botanists, and we need not therefore further allude to them.
It is probable, however, that the thalamus by becoming hollowed
out may, in some cases, form part of the ovary, in the same
manner as it occasionally, under similar circumstances, forms a
part of the calyx, as already noticed in Hschscholtzia. (See page
229.)
The ovary varies much in form and in the character of its
surface: when simple it is generally more or less irregular in
form; but when compound, it is commonly regular. Exceptions
to the regularity of compound ovaries may be seen in the Antir-
rhinum (fig. 626), and in other instances. In form, the com-
pound ovary is generally more or less spheroidal, or ovate. The
outer surface may be either perfectly even or uniform, thus
showing no trace of its internal divisions ; or it may be marked
by furrows extending from its base to the origin of the style
and corresponding to the points of union of its constituent
ovaries. When these furrows are deep, the ovary assumes a lobed
appearance, and is described as one, two, three, fowr, five, or
many-lobed, according to the number of its lobes. Sometimes
we find, in «addition to the furrows which correspond to the
points of union of the ovaries, others of a more superficial
character which correspond to the dorsal sutures. At the
latter points, however, it is more common to find slight projec-
: SURFACE OF THE OVARY.—PLACENTATION. 231
tions, which then give a somewhat angular appearance to the
ovary.
The epidermis covering the surface of the ovary may be either
perfectly smooth, or furnished in various ways with different
kinds of hairs ; or it may assume a glandular appearance. In
these cases the same terms are used as in describing similar
conditions of the surface of the leaves, or of the other organs
of the plant.
When the ovary is compound, the number of carpels of which
it is composed may be ascertained in one or more of the follow-
ing ways. Thus, when the styles (jig. 464), or stigmas (jig. 32),
remain distinct, the number of these generally corresponds to the
number of carpels. It does, however, occasionally happen, as in
Euphorbia (fig. 627), that the styles are themselves divided, in
which case they would of course indicate a greater number of
carpels than are actually present ; we must then resort to other
modes of ascertaining this point, such, for instance, as the fur-
Fic. 627. Fic. 628,
Fig. 627. Pistillate flower of a species of Euphorbia, with three forked styles.
—Fig. 628. Vertical section of the flower of the Stonecrop. pi. Placenta
of one of the ovaries arising from the ventral suture.
rows or lobes on the external surface of the ovary; or the
number of partitions or loculi which it contains, as these com-
monly correspond in number to the carpels of which that ovary
is composed. The mode of venation may in some cases also
form a guide in the determination ; while in others the manner
in which the ovules are attached must be taken into considera-
tion. We now pass to the examination of the latter point.
Placentation.—The term placenta is commonly applied to the
more or less marked projection occurring in the cavity of the ovary
(figs. 585, p, and 628, pl), to which the ovule or ovules are
attached. The placentas are variously distributed in the ovaries
of different plants, but their arrangement is always the same for
that of any particular species, and frequently throughout entire
genera, or even natural orders ; hence their accurate discrimi-
nation is of great practical importance (see page 286). The
term placentation is used to indicate the manner in which the
placentas are distributed. The placenta is called by Schleiden
the spermophore.
282 KINDS OF PLACENTATION.
1. Kinds of Placentation.—In the simple ovary the placenta
is always situated at the ventral suture or that point which
corresponds to the union of the two margins of the blade of
the carpellary leaf (figs. 585, 586, and 628), out of which it is
formed ; such a placenta is therefore usually termed marginal,
or sometimes axile from its being turned towards the axis of the
plant. The latter term is better reserved for the placentation
of certain compound ovaries, as described below.
In compound ovaries we have three kinds of placentation ;
namely, awile or central, parietal, and free central. The amile or
central occurs in all compound many-celled ovaries, because in
these each of the ovaries of the component carpels is placed in
a similar position to that of the simple ovary (figs. 612 and 613),
and hence the placentas situated at their ventral sutures will be
arranged in the centre or axis, as in the Lily (fig. 629), and
Campanula (fig. 630). By many botanists this mode of placen-
Fic. 629. Fic. 630.
Fig. 6381.
: _ Poa
Fiy. 629. Transverse section of the compound ovary of the Lily. The ovary
is three-celled (trilocular). The placentas, p/, are axile or central.
Fig. 630. Transverse section of the ovary of a species of Campanula. The
ovary is five-celled or quinquelocular, and the placentation, pl, axile or
central. Fig. 631. Transverse section of the ovary of aspecies of Cactus.
The oyary is one-celled and the placentation parietal.
tation is called central, and the term awile is restricted to the
form of placentation where the placenta is supposed to be a
prolongation of the axis. This will be afterwards alluded to
(page 285).
In a compound one-celled ovary there are two forms of pla-
centation, namely, the parietal, and the free-central. The pla-
centation is termed parietal, when the ovules are attached to
placentas either placed directly on the inner wall of the ovary,
as in the Mignonette (fig. 621, pl), and Cactus (jig. 631); or upon
incomplete dissepiments formed, as already noticed, by the par-
tially infolded ovaries, as in the species of Orchis (fig. 622, pl)
and Poppy (fig. 623, plac). In parietal placentation, the number
of placentas corresponds to the number of carpels of which the
ovary is formed. When the placentas are not attached to the
inner wall of the ovary, but are situated in the centre of the
cavity and perfectly unconnected with the wall, they form what
KINDS OF PLACENTATION. 283
is called a free central placenta, as in the Caryophyllaceze (figs.
633, pl, and 634, p), and the Primulacez (jig. 635, pl).
Besides the regular kinds of placentation just described, it
sometimes happens that the ovules are placed more or less
RIG. 630. Fic. 634.
Fie. 632.
7p
vpl, ;
ye
SS
Fig. 632. Transverse section of the young ovary of Campion (Zychnis), show-
ing five partitions proceeding from the walls of the ovary to the placentas
in the centre ; these partitions are destroyed by the growth of the ovary,
so that the placentation is ultimately free-——Fig. 633. Vertical section of
Cerastium hirsutum (Caryophyllacee). o. Ovary. p. Free central pla-
centa. g.Ovules. s. Styles and stigmas. Fig. 634, Transverse section
of the same with the two portions or sections separated. o. Ovary. p.
Placenta, g. Ovules. s. Styles and stigmas. From Jussieu.
irregularly in the cavity of the ovary. Thus, in the Flowering
Rush (fig. 636), they cover the whole inner surface of the ovary
Fig. 635. Fic. 636.
stig ,
Fig. 635. Vertical section of the pistil of Cyclamen (Primulacece). s. Sepals.
pl. Free central placenta. sf. Style. stig. Stigma.-Fig. 636. Vertical
section of the flower of the Flowering Rush ( Butomus umbellatus ), Showing
the inner surface of the ovaries covered all over with ovules.
except the midrib ; in which case the placentation is sometimes
described as superficial. Other irregularities also occur: thus, in
the Nymphxa, they are attached all over the dissepiments ; in
>
284 ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTA.
Cabomba, they arise from the dorsal suture ; and in the Broom-
rapes (Orobanche), from placentas placed within the margins of
the ventral suture.
2. Origin of the Placenta.—It is generally believed that the
placenta is, in most cases at least, a cellular growth developed
from the confluent margins of the carpels, or, more strictly
speaking, from the confluent margins of the blades of the
carpellary leaves. In some cases the placenta extends along
the whole line of union of the carpel (fig. 628, pl), or it may be
confined to its base or apex. Each placenta is therefore to be
considered as composed of two halves, one half being formed by
each margin of the carpel. Thus in simple ovaries the placenta
is developed by a single carpel ; in compound many-celled ovaries
the placentas are in hke manner formed from the contiguous
margins of each individual carpel of which it is composed ; while
in compound one-celled ovaries presenting parietal placentation,
each placenta is formed from the contiguous margins of two
carpels, and is hence produced by two adjoining carpels.
That the placentas are really developed in the above forms
of placentation from the margins of the carpels seems to be
proved in various ways. Thus, in the first place, the placentas
always correspond in regular kinds of placentation to the points
of union of the margins of the carpel or carpels, and hence
would naturally be considered as formed from them; and
secondly, we frequently find, that in monstrosities or abnor-
mal growths where the carpel is developed in a more or less
flattened condition, a placenta bearing ovules is formed upon
each of its margins. The productions of the ovules in these
cases may be considered as analogous to the formation of
buds on the margins of leaves, as in Bryophyllum calyeonum
(fig. 217), and Malaxis paludosa (fig. 218), already referred to.
The formation of the placentas from the margins of the carpels
in axile and parietal placentation may be considered, therefore,
as capable of being proved by direct observation, and from
analogy to what occurs in certain ordinary leaves.
But in reference to the origin of the free central placenta
two different views are entertained. Thus it was formerly
supposed that this also was a development from the margins of
the carpels. It was thought that the carpels of which the
compound ovary was formed originally met in the centre and
developed placentas from their margins in the same manner as
in ordinary axile placentation, but that subsequently the walls
of the ovary grew more rapidly than the dissepiments, so that
the connexion between them was soon destroyed ; and that
from this cause, and also from the great subsequent develop-
ment of the placenta, the septa ultimately became almost or
quite broken up, so that the placenta was left free in the cavity
of the ovary. ‘This theory is strengthened by the fact, that in
several of the Caryophyllaceze we often find dissepiments in the
.
ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTA. 285
young ovary (/ig. 632) ; and even traces of these at the lower
part of the mature ovary ; hence it may be concluded that these
are the remains of dissepiments which have become ruptured
on account of the unequal development of the parts of the
ovary. In the Primrose, however, and many other plants,
which have a free central placenta, no traces of dissepiments
ean be found at any period of the growth of the ovary.
Duchartre, and others also, who haye traced the development
of the ovary in the Primulacex, state that the placenta is free
in the centre from its earliest appearance ; that it is originally
a little papilla on the apex of the thalamus, and that the walls
of the future ovary grow up perfectly free, and ultimately
enclose it. The formation of such a free central placenta can-
not therefore be well explained upon the marginal theory, as
the carpels have never had any connexion with it except at
their bases. Hence this kind of placentation has been supposed
by many botanists not to be formed from the carpels at all, but
to be a prolongation of the axis, which bears ovules, instead of
buds as is the case with branches. This theory explains very
readily the formation of the free central placenta of Primula,
and hence such a placenta has been denominated axile by some
botanists ; but this name, as already noticed (page 282), having
been already applied to another kind of placentation, the adop-
tion of such a term cannot but lead to much confusion. The
free central placenta of Frimula can only be explained on the
marginal or carpellary theory of the formation of placentas, by
supposing, either that the placentas are only produced at the
base of the carpels, and subsequently elongate and enlarge ; or
that they are formed by a whorl of placentas developed sepa-
rately from the carpels by a process of chorisis (see Chorisis), and
that these afterwards become united in the centre of the ovary.
Schleiden, indeed, and some other botanists regard the
placenta in all cases as a development from the axis of the
plant. The axile and free central placentation are readily to be
explained by it, but the formation of the parietal placenta is by
no means so clear. It is supposed in the latter case that the
axis ramifies in the cavity of the ovary, and that the branches
curve directly from their origin towards the side, and become
blended with the margins of the two adjoining carpels on their
inner side, and form parietal placentas bearing ovules as lateral
buds. Schleiden thinks that the formation of the ovule in the
Yew, where it terminates a branch, and is naked, is incom-
patible with the marginal theory. He also believes that the
formation of the ovules generally in the Coniferze supports his
_ views of placentation. He regards the ovules in these plants
as being given off from the axis of the cone, which he calls
a placenta, and the scales, or bracts, which are situated between
them, he maintains are open carpellary leaves. Schleiden also
states, that no satisfactory explanation can be given by the
ae
oF
286 ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTA.
advocates of the marginal theory of placentation of the forma-
tion of the ovule and placenta in Armeria, in which the ovary
composed of five carpels surrounds a single ovule, which rises
from the bottom of the axis, supported on a stalk which curves
downwards at its apex, and thus sus-
Fie. 637. pends the ovule free in the centre of
the cavity (fig. 637). He accordingly
concludes, that the ovule and placenta
are developments of the axis. Many
other arguments in favour of the uni-
versal applicability of the axial theory
in the formation of the placenta have
been brought forward by Schleiden
and other botanists, but their further
discussion would be out of place here.
From all that has now been stated,
we may draw the following conclusions,
namely :—that no one theory suffi-
ciently accounts for the production of
mi i ene prac aes the ms Psa in all cases oe that the
rey : mie a“ contain euly axile and some forms of the free central
from » funioulas ot atalk, Placentation may be explained on beth
The ovule is here said to be hypotheses ; that the parietal placenta-
es tion is best explained upon the marginal
theory ; and that the formation of the
free central placenta of the Primulace, Santalacez, and some
other plants, can only be satisfactorily explained by considering
the placenta as a production of the axis.
In a practical point of view, the mode of production of the
placenta is of little importance. The accurate discrimination of
the different kinds is, however, of much value in Descriptive
Botany, by affording us constant, and hence important characters
for distinguishing plants. Some natural orders exhibit more
than one variety of placentation, and cannot be therefore distin-
guished by any particular kind ; hence, in such orders, the pla-
centation can only be applied in obtaining good characteristics
of the genera. In the majority of instances, however, we find
one kind of placentation occurring throughout all the plants of a
particular natural order. Thus, the Scrophulariacez, Ericacez,
and Campanulaceze present us with axile placentation ; the
Papaveraceze, Violaceze, and Cruciferze with parietal; and the
Caryophyllacere, Santalaceze, and Primulaceze, with free central
placentation.
2. Tue Styte.—We have already described (page 270) the
general nature and structure of the style in speaking of the
carpel. There are, however, certain other matters connected
with it still to be alluded to.
The style usually arises from the geometrical summit of
the ovary, of which it is a continuation in an upward direction,
THE STYLE.—GYNOBASE, 287
as in the Primrose ( fig. 582): it isthen termed apicilar or apical.
In other cases, the apex of the ovary becomes inflected towards
the side or base, from the carpel or carpels of which it is formed,
being folded like ordinary leaves in reclinate vernation, the style
then becomes lateral as in the Strawberry (jig. 638), or basilar
as in Alchemilla (fig. 639). In the two latter cases, therefore,
the geometrical and organic apices of the ovary do not correspond,
as the point of origin of the style always determines the latter.
The style is generally directly continuous with the ovary,
which gradually tapers upwards to it, as in Digitalis, in which
case it is more or less persistent, and then it forms a more or
less evident part of the fruit; at other times, however, there
is a kind of contraction or species of articulation at the point
where the style springs from the ovary, as in Scirpus, and then
Fic. 640.
Fic. 638. Fic. 639.
Fig. 638. One of the carpels of the Strawberry with a lateral style——
Fig. 639. Carpel of Alchemilla with a basilar style. The stigma is capitate.
— Fig. 640. The carpophore, c, of a species of Geranium, with the rolled-
back carpels, ca7’.
the style always falls off after the process of fertilisation is com-
pleted, in which case it is said to be deciduous, and has no con-
nexion with the fruit.
When the style is basilar or lateral, and the ovary to which
it is attached more or less imbedded in the thalamus, it fre-
quently appears to spring from the latter part ; such an arrange-
ment is called a gynobase, and the ovary is said to be gynobasic.
Thus in the Labiatz (jig. 609), and Boraginacez (fig. 610), the
ovaries are free, but the styles become connected and form
a central column, which appears therefore to be a prolongation
of the thalamus.
Such an arrangement must not be confounded with that of
288 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STYLE.
the ovaries and styles of the species of Geraniwm (fig. 640), and
some other plants, where the axis is prolonged in the form of a
beak-like process, to which the ovaries and styles become united,
and from which they separate when the fruit is ripe. This
prolongation of the thalamus is termed a carpophore. (See
Thalamus, page 294.)
We have already stated (page 281), that when the styles of a
syncarpous pistil are distinct, they usually correspond to the
number of carpels of which that pistil is composed. It some-
times happens, however, that the style of each carpel bifurcates
or becomes forked, as in some Euphorbiacez, either once ( figs.
627 and 642), or twice (jig. 641); in which case the apparent
number of the styles above is then double or quadruple that of
the carpels.
Fia. 641. Fic. 642.
Fig. 641. Female flower of one of the Euphorbiacee. c. Calyx. p, p. Petals.
¢, Membranous expansion round the ovary. o. Ovary with three styles,
s,each of which is twice forked. Fig. 642. Ovary of the Castor-oil Plant
(Ricinus communis), belonging to the Euphorbiacez. The styles in this
case are once-forked.
When two or more styles are united into one body, this is
termed a compound style. This adhesion may take place either
entirely as in the Primrose (jig. 582), when the style is impro-
perly termed simple (undivided or entire would bea better term) ;
or the union is more or less incomplete as we proceed towards its
apex, and corresponding terms are used accordingly. These
terms are similar to those previously mentioned in describing
the degrees of division of the other parts of the plant : thus the
style is said to be cleft, when the union between the component
styles extends to at least midway between their base and apex ;
and the style is said to be bifid, trifid, quadrifid, quinquefid, or
multifid, according as it is two, three, four, five or many-cleft. If
the union between the component styles does not extend to mid-
FORM AND SURFACE OF THE STYLE. 289
way between their base and apex, the style is partite, and is de-
scribed as bipartite, tripartite, quadripartite, &c., according to
the number of partitions.
Form and Surface of the Style.—In form the style is gene-
rally more or less cylindrical ; and either tapering from the base
to the apex, as is more frequently the case, or becoming en-
larged as it proceeds upwards. At other times the style is fili-
form, or more or less thickened, or angular ; and rarely thin,
coloured, and flattened like a petal, as in the species of Canna
and Iris (fig. 643), when it is said to be petaloid.
The surface of the style may be either smooth, or covered in
various ways with glands or hairs. These hairs when situated
on the style frequently serve the purpose of collecting the pollen
Fic. 643.
Fie. 644. Fie, 645.
Fig. 643. Pistil of a species of [7is. 0. Ovary. sty. Petaloid styles. svig.
Stigmas.—— fig. 644. Upper part of the style and stigma of Leschenaultia
formosa. t. Style. s. Stigma. 7. Indusium.— Fig. 645. Upper part of
the style, 7, of a Composite plant, dividing into two branches, which are
covered above by collecting hairs, pe. s. True stigma.
as it is discharged from the anther, and are hence termed col-
lecting hairs. The collecting hairs on the style of the species of
Campanula (figs. 158 and 159) are retractile ; they have been
already described under the head of Hairs (page 68). In the
Compositze the surface of the style is also more or less covered
with stiff collecting hairs (fig. 645, pc), and as the style is de-
veloped later than the stamens, it is at first shorter than these
organs ; but as growth proceeds, it breaks through the adhering
anthers, and thus the hairs on its surface come in contact with
the pollen and become covered with it. In some of the allied
orders to the Compositz, the hairs form a little ring below the
U
290 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA.
stigma (fig. 644, i), to which the term of indusiwm has been
iven
. 3. THE Stigma.—The stigma has been already described
(page 271), as being connected with the placenta by means of
the conducting tissue of the style ; hence it may be considered
as a portion of the placenta prolonged upwards, but differing
from it in not bearing ovules. If this be the proper view of
the structure of the stigma, it must be regarded, like the
placenta, as double, one half being formed by each margin of
the carpellary leaf, and hence each simple pistil or carpel has
necessarily two stigmas, the normal positions of which are lateral.
In many Rosaceze, as in the Rose, the stigma is notched on the
side corresponding to that from which the placenta arises, which
is another proof of its double nature.
The stigmas of a syncarpous pistil are generally opposite to
the cells, and alternate with the dissepiments, but it sometimes
happens, as in the Poppy (jig. 32, stv), that half the stigma of
one carpel unites with a similar half of that of the adjoining
carpel, and thus it becomes alternate with the cells, and oppo-
site to the dissepiments, which are here, however, imperfect
(fig. 623). ; ; '
The term stigma is only properly applied to that portion of
the style which is destitute of epidermis, and which secretes the
stigmatic fluid (page 271); but it is often improperly given to
mere divisions of the style. Thus in the species of Iris (fig.
643), the three petaloid portions of the style, sty, are by some
botanists termed petaloid stigmas ; whereas the stigma, stig, is
properly confined to a little transverse space near the apex of
each division. In many plants of the natural order Legumi-
nosx, such as Lathyrus (fig. 603, stig), the hairy part towards
the summit of the style has been termed a stigma, but the latter
is confined to the apex of that organ. In Labiate plants, also,
the style divides above into two branches (jig. 609), and these
have been called stigmas ; but the latter, as in the instances
just alluded to, are confined to the apices of the divided portions
of the style.
We have already seen that the stigma may be separated from
the ovary by the style (jigs. 582 to 584); or the latter organ
may be absent, in which case the stigma is said to be sessile, as
in the Barberry (fig. 585, st) and Poppy (fig. 32, sti). In Orchids
the stigma is sessile on the gynostemium (fig. 595, x), and
appears as a little cup-shaped viscid space just below the attach-
ment of the pollen-masses.
In a syncarpous pistil the stigmas may be either united to-
gether as in the Primrose (fig. 582), or distinct as in the Campa-
nula (fig. 507); in the latter case, instead of looking upon these
separate parts as so many distinct stigmas, it is usual to describe
them as if they were portions of but one ; thus we speak of the
stigma as bifid, trifid, &c., or as bilobate, trilobate, &c., accord-
ing to the number and character of its divisions. Thus the
MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA. 291
term lobe is usually applied when the divisions are thick, as in
the Lily (jig. 646) and Melon (fig. 647); or when these are
flattened and somewhat strap-shaped, as in the Composite (fig.
648), the stigma is fissured or cleft ; or when flattened into
Fic. 646. Fic. 647. Fig. 648.
Fig. 646. Pistil of a Lily, with one style and a
trilobate stigma.— Fig. 647. Lobed stigma
of the Melon.——F%g. 648. Pistil of a species
of Chrysanthemum, with one style and a
bifid stigma, the divisions with hairs at
their extremities.
plates or bands they are termed lamellx, as in the Bignonia (fig.
649) and Mimulus. The number of these divisions in the
majority of instances corresponds to the number of carpels of
Fic. 649. Fic. 650.
Fig. 649. Stigma, s, attached to style, ¢, of Bignonia arborea. In the left-
hand figure the /amellce are separate,in the other applied closely to
each other.— fig. 650. Flower of a species of Rumer, showing fringed
stigmas, pl.
which the pistil is composed; and if the latter organ is many-
celled, the number of cells will generally correspond also to the
divisions of the stigma. Thus the five-cleft stigma of some
Campanulas indicates that there are five cells to the ovary, and
U2
292 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA.—THE THALAMUS.
that the pistil is formed of five carpels. In the Graminacez
(jig. 601) and Compositee (figs. 645 and 648), however, we have
a bifid stigma, and but one cell in the ovary; but this arises
from the non-development in the ovary of one of the two carpels
of which the pistil in the plants of these orders is formed.
The lobes assume different appearances : thus, they may be
smooth, or thick and fleshy as in the Melon (fig. 647), or fea-
thery as in many Grasses (jig. 601), or fringed or laciniate as in
the Rumex (fig. 650, pl).
Fic. 651. Fic. 652. Fic. 653.
Fig. 651, s. Peltate or shield-shaped stigma surmounting the style, ¢, of a
species of A7butus.—Fig. 652. Pistil of Daphne. o. Ovary. st. Style.
stig. Stigma. Fig. 653. Pistil of Pansy (Viola tricolor). cal. Remains of
calyx, ov. Ovary. sty. Style, surmounted by an irregular hooded stigma.
When the stigmas are united, the number of parts in the
compound stigma is usually indicated by radiating furrows, or
grooves. When the stigmas unite and form a compound body
upon the top of the style, which is larger than it, this compound
stigma or head is said to be capitate; and this head may be
either globular as in Daphne (fig. 652, stig), or hemispherical
as in the Primrose (fig. 582), or polyhedral, or club-shaped, or
peltate or shield-shaped as in the Arbutus (fig. 651, s), and
Poppy (fig. 32, sti). In the Violet (fig. 653), the stigma pre-
sents an irregular hooded appearance.
4. THE THALAMUS.
The extremity of the peduncle or pedicel, or any part of
the axis upon which the parts of a solitary flower are arranged,
has been variously distinguished by botanists as the thalamus,
receptacle, and torus. The use of these names indifferently has
often led to much confusion ; and the uncertainty is still further
increased in consequence of the terms receptacle and torus
being also sometimes applied in a different sense. Thus, that
of receptacle is employed in a special manner, as already
mentioned (page 198), to indicate a more or less enlarged
peduncle bearing usually a number of flowers ; while the term
torus is used by some botanists as synonymous with disk (page
MODIFICATIONS OF THE THALAMUS. 293
265). To prevent confusion, therefore, it would be far better
to limit the terms receptacle and torus to their special applica-
tions ; and to employ the term thalamus only as defined above,
and as it is used in this work.
In the majority of plants the thalamus is a little flattened
surface or point, and accordingly presents nothing remarkable ;
Fig. 654. Fie. 655.
ul!
c \ re
Ta" MANNED YAN
AW” ,
Fy WEE f
“HG Was we,
= WZ
Fia. 656.
Fig. 654. thal. Thalamus of Nelumbium. carp. Carpels.
strous development of the flower of the Rose, showing the axis prolonged
Fig. 655. Mon-
beyond the flower and bearing foliage leaves. Fig. 656. Flower of a
species of Gynandropsis, belonging to the Capparidaces. cal, Calyx. cov’.
Corolla. thal. Prolonged thalamus or gynophore, supporting the stamens,
st, and ovary, ov.
but in other plants it becomes much enlarged, and then assumes
a variety of appearances, and thus modifies to a considerable
extent the form of the flower. Most of these forms of the
thalamus have been already referred to (page 273), when de-
scribing the apocarpous pistil, but it will be more convenient for
reference, &c., if we now speak again of these and all other
294 CARPOPHORE—-GYNOPHORE.—THE FRUIT.
essential modifications. In the species of Magnolia, Lirioden-
dron, and plants of the order Magnoliacee generally, the
thalamus is cylindrical (fig. 604, a); in plants also of the order
Anonacez, it usually acquires a somewhat similar form ; in the
Raspberry (jig. 606, 1), and species of Ranunculus (fig. 542) it
is conical; in the Strawberry (jig. 605) hemispherical; in
Nelumbium (fig. 654, thal) itis a large tabular expansion, in which
there are a number of cavities containing the separate carpels.
In the Rose it forms a concavity upon which the carpels are placed
(fig. 454, r, 1).
In the Primulacez, Santalacez, and in all cases where the
placenta is free from the wall of the ovary from its earliest
appearance, the thalamus becomes prolonged into the cavity of
the ovary and forms the placenta ( fig. 635). At other times the
thalamus becomes prolonged beyond the ovary, as in the Gera-
niacezeand Umbelliferz ; this prolongation is termed acarpophore.
In the species of Geranium (fig. 640, c), this carpophore forms
a long beak-like process to which the carpels, car, are attached,
and from which they separate when the fruit is ripe. In many
cultivated flowers, as in the Rose, the thalamus will frequently
acquire a monstrous development, and become extended beyond
the flower into a branch bearing foliage leaves (jig. 655). To this
prolongation of the axis beyond the flower the term median pro-
lification is usually applied.
In some plants the thalamus becomes prolonged beyond
the calyx, and forms a stalk to the ovary, to which the term
gynophore has been applied ; and upon this stalk the stamens
are also commonly placed, and in some cases the petals as well.
Examples of this may be seen in some of the Capparidacez
(fig. 656, thal); in the Pink (fig. 602, g), Dictamnus (fig.
624, g), and Xanthoxylon (fig. 608, g). This prolongation or
stalk of the ovary is by some considered to be formed by the
union of the petioles of the carpellary leaves of which that ovary
is composed.
Section 5. The Fruit.
WE have already seen that the ovary has in its interior one
or more little oval or roundish bodies called ovules, which ulti-
mately by fertilisation from the pollen become the seeds (page
19); their description, therefore, in a regular arrangement,
should follow that of the ovary. It is, however, far more con-
venient to examine, in the first place, the nature and general
characters of the fruit, as this is composed essentially of the
mature ovary or ovaries, and its description comes therefore
naturally at the present time, when the details connected with
the ovary are fresh in our memories. Such an arrangement has,
also, the further advantage of enabling us to describe the seed
NATURE OF THE FRUIT. 295
immediately after the ovule, as these two organs are, in like
manner, only different conditions of one body.
NaTuRE OF THE FRuit.—After the process of fertilisation
has been effected, important changes take place in the pistil and
surrounding organs of the flower, the result of which is the
formation of the fruit. The fruit consists essentially of the
mature ovary or ovaries, containing the fertilised ovule or
ovules, which are then termed seeds. The styles and stig-
mas mostly disappear, but the remains of
the style frequently exist in the form of
a little point on the fruit, which is then
commonly described as apicilar. Some
traces indeed of the style may be usually
observed, by which we are enabled to dis-
tinguish small fruits from seeds ; thus the
fruits of the species of Ranwniculus, those
of Labiate plants, the Boraginaceze, Umbel-
liferze, and others, may be in this way
commonly known from seeds. Generally
speaking, however, the style forms but a
very small portion of the fruit, the greater
part of it, together with the stigma, dying
away soon after the process of fertilisation
has been effected ; but in some cases the
style is not only persistent but continues to
grow, and it then forms a lengthened ap-
pendage to the fruit, as in the Traveller’s-
joy (fig. 657), and in the Pasque-flower
(fig. 700). The style in these two cases is
also hairy, and hence the fruit is called
caudate or tailed. :
Although the fruit may thus be de- la aaa an
scribed as consisting essentially of the Véalda). This fruit is
mature ovary or ovaries, other parts of the Syed au Achantams
flower are also frequently present, and en-
ter into its composition. Thus, in those cases where the calyx
is adherent to the ovary, as in the Apple, Quince (fig. 473),
Pear, Melon, and Gooseberry, it necessarily forms a part of the
fruit ; in the Rose the concave thalamus (fig. 454, r, 7), which
bears the carpels on its inner surface, and the adherent calyx-
tube, ct, become a portion of the fruit; in the Strawberry (jig.
661), the fruit consists of the succulent hemispherical thalamus,
bearing the carpels on its convex surface ; in the Acorn (fig.
400), Hazel-nut (jig. 401), and Filbert, it consists of pistil,
calyx, and bracts, combined together ; while in the Pineapple
(fig. 292), it is formed of the ovaries, floral envelopes, and
bracts of several flowers ; in the Fig also (jig. 406) we have
a fruit produced by a number of separate flowers enclosed in a
hollow fleshy receptacle. These examples, and a number of
296 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRUIT FROM THE OVARY.
others might be alluded to, will show, that although the fruit
consists essentially of the mature ovary or ovaries, enclosing the
fertilised ovules or seeds, yet the term is also applied to what-
ever is combined with the ovary, so as to form a covering to
the seed or seeds. All fruits which are not formed entirely
vut of the fertilised pistil, but which consist in part of other
portions of the flower, peduncle, or other parts, are now com-
monly termed spurious fruits or pseudocarps.
Changes produced wm the Ovary im the course of its Develop-
ment.—The fruit being essentially the ovary in a mature state, it
should correspond with it in structure. This is the case generally,
and we find the fruit therefore consisting of the same parts as
the ovary, only in a modified condition ; thus, the walls of the
ovary commonly alter in texture, and either become dry, mem-
branous, coriaceous, woody, &c. ; or, on the contrary, more or
less pulpy, fleshy, &c.
At other times more important changes take place during the
ripening of the ovary, which disguise the real structure of the
fruit. These changes either arise from the addition, abortion,
or alteration of parts. Thus, lst. The addition of parts is com-
monly produced by the formation of the spurious dissepiments
already alluded to. In Datwra Stramoniwm, for instance, we
have a two-celled ovary converted into an imperfectly four-cell
fruit by the formation of a spurious vertical dissepiment (figs. —
616 and 617) ; this dissepiment appears to be formed by the pro-—
jection of the placentas on the two sides which meet and be-
come united to corresponding projections from the dorsal sutures.
In Cassia Fistula, again (fig. 614), and some other fruits of a
similar nature, we have a one-celled ovary converted into a
many-celled fruit by the formation of a number of transverse
dissepiments. In Pretrea zanguebarica, a one-celled ovary is
converted into a six-celled fruit (fig. 658), by an extension and
doubling inwards of the placenta. In Tribulus terrestris the
ovary is five-celled ; but as it approaches to maturity, each cell
( figs. 659 and 660) becomes divided into as many divisions as there
are seeds contained within it, in consequence of a corresponding
number of projections from its walls. Other examples of the
formation of spurious dissepiments producing changes in the ovary
have been already mentioned when speaking of these processes
(see pages 277 and 278).
2nd. Other alterations are produced by the abortion or ob-
literation of parts, as the ovary ripens. Thus the ovary of the
Oak and Hazel consists of three cells, each of which contains
two ovules, but the fruit has only one cell and one seed, so that
in the course of development five ovules and one cell have
become obliterated. In the Birch we have an ovary with two
cells, containing one ovule in each, but the fruit is one-celled
and one-seeded, so that here one cell and one ovule have become
obliterated. In the Ash, Horsechestnut, Elm, and many other
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRUIT FROM THE OVARY. 297
plants, similar changes are produced in the matured ovary by the
abortion or obliteration of certain parts.
38rd. Other changes are caused in the ovary as it proceeds to
maturity, in consequence of the alteration of parts, as, for in-
stance, from a great development of succulent parenchyma. Thus,
as already noticed, the thalamus of the Strawberry (jig. 605)
becomes enlarged and succulent, and forms what is commonly
termed the fruit, but the real fruit consists of the small dry
carpels which are scattered over its surface (jig. 661). The pulp
of the Guava, Gooseberry, Tomato, and some other fruits, in
which the seeds are imbedded, appears to be produced from the
placentas ; and that of the Orange is of a similar nature.
Fie. 658. Fie. 689. Fia. 661.
Fie. 660.
SS
=
Fig. 658. Transverse section of the fruit of the Pretrea zanguebarica. From
Lindley. Fig. 659. A vertical section of a cell of the ovary of 77ibulus
terrestris. 0, 0,0. Ovules. ec. Projections from the wall which are com-
mencing to separate the ovules. Fig. 660. A vertical section of a cell of
the mature ovary or fruit of the same, in which the partitions, c, com-
pletely separate the seeds, g— Fig. 661. Fruit of the Strawberry.
From the above examples it will be evident that, although
the fruit consists essentially of the mature ovary or ovaries, yet
that in the progress of the latter towards maturity it becomes
frequently much altered from its original structure, so that in
order to have a clear idea of the nature of the fruit, it is impor-
tant to examine that of the ovary, and trace its development up
to the fruit.
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE FrRvuit.—The structure of the
fruit resembling in all important particulars that of the ovary,
the modifications which it presents, as to composition, position,
&c., are described by similar terms. Thus we may have simple
and compound fruits, as also apocarpous and syncarpous ones.
Simple fruits, like simple ovaries, are normally one-celled or
298 GENERAL CHARACTERS AND COMPOSITION OF THE FRUIT.
unilocular ; while a compound fruit may have one or more cells,
according as the dissepiments are absent or present, and the
number of cells is indicated by similar terms to those used when
speaking of the compound ovary (page 276).
The fruit, like the ovary, necessarily possesses a placenta,
to which the seeds are attached; and the same terms are
used in describing the different kinds of placentation, as with
those of the ovary ; these kinds are usually more evident in
the fruit.
The fruit, again, is described as superior or inferior, in the
same sense as these terms are used in speaking of the ovary.
Thus a fruit is inferior, when it is formed from an inferior ovary,
in which case the calyx necessarily enters into its composition,
as in the Melon, Apple, Pear, and Quince (jig. 473); or it is
superior, as in the Poppy (jig. 32) and Pea (jig. 668), when the
ovary is superior, and the calyx non-adherent.
The base of the fruit is that point by which it is united to
the thalamus ; the apex is indicated by the attachment of the
style, hence in those ovaries where the style is lateral or basilar,
as in many Rosacee (jigs. 638 and 639), Labiatze (jig. 609), and
Boraginaceve (jig. 610), the organic apex of the fruit will be also
thus situated, so that the geometrical and organic apices will
then be very different.
CoMPOSITION OF THE Fru1t.—The fruit when perfectly formed
consists of two parts; namely, the pericarp, and the seed or
seeds contained within it. In the majority of cases the peri-
carp withers, and the fruit does not ripen, when the seeds are
abortive. But there are many exceptions to this; thus, many
Oranges and Grapes produce no seeds, but the pericarp is never-
theless fully developed ; and in the Bananas, Plantains, and
Bread-fruit, the pericarps develop most extensively, and become
best adapted for food, when the seeds are chiefly or entirely
abortive. Generally speaking, however, the development of the
seeds and pericarp proceeds together after the process of ferti-
lisation has been etfected, and then only perfect fruit can be
formed ; for although in common language we apply the term
fruit in those instances where no seeds are produced, yet strictly
speaking such are not fully formed fruits, but only enlarged and
swollen pericarps.
Having now alluded to the seeds as a component part of the
perfect fruit, we must leave their particular examination till
we have become acquainted with the structure of the ovules, and
now proceed, therefore, to the description of the pericarp.
Pericarp.—In the majority of fruits the pericarp consists
simply of the walls of the ovary in a modified state ; but, when
the calyx is adherent, it necessarily presents a more complicated
structure. The pericarp exhibits three layers or regions (fig.
695), an external, called the epicarp or exocarp, ep; a middle,
the mesocarp, mt; and an inner, the endocarp, en. The middle
COMPOSITION OF THE FRUIT—PERICARP. 299
layer, being frequently of a fleshy or succulent nature, is also
then termed the sarcocarp ; while the inner layer, from its hard-
ness in some fruits, is likewise called the stone, putamen, or
pyrene. When the pericarp consists simply of the matured
walls of the ovary, its three parts correspond to the three paren-
chymatous layers of the lamina of the carpellary leaf: thus, the
epicarp represents the epidermis of the under surface, or that
on the outer surface of the ovary ;, the mesocarp corresponds
to the general parenchyma of the lamina, or of that of the
ovary ; and the endocarp to the epidermis of the upper surface,
or to the inner lining of the ovary. When the calyx is com-
pletely united to the ovary, the relation of parts must necessarily
differ, and probably somewhat vary according to circumstances.
Thus, in the Apple, which we may take as an illustration of an
inferior fruit, the epicarp corresponds to the epidermis of the
under surface of the calyx; the mesocarp to the rest of the
calyx, and the whole of the ovary except the inner lining, which
corresponds to the endocarp. The parenchyma of the fruit,
like that of the ovary and the blade of a leaf, is traversed by
fibro-vascular tissue.
Fic. 662.
Fig. 662. Foliaceous bladdery legume of the Bladder Senna (Colutea
arborescens).
In some cases the pericarp clearly indicates its analogy to the
blade by remaining in a condition not very dissimilar to that
part of a leaf folded inwards and united by its margins, as in
the Bladder Senna (jig. 662); such a fruit is described as folia-
ceous or leafy. Generally speaking, however, one or more of the
layers of the pericarp become more developed, by which its re-
semblance to the lamina of a leaf is rendered much less evident.
The epicarp usually retains an epidermal appearance, suffering
but little change, except in becoming slightly thickened. The
endocarp is more liable to alteration, and frequently differs
much in appearance from the corresponding part of the blade
of a leaf or ovary ; thus, its cells sometimes become hardened
by thickening layers in its interior and form a stony shell
surrounding the seed, which is commonly called the putamen.
The mesocarp is however the layer which commonly presents the
greatest development, and differs most in appearance and tex-
ture from the general parenchyma of the lamina of a leaf.
The above remarks will be rendered more intelligible by
being illustrated by a few examples taken from well-known
300 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PERICARP—SUTURES.
fruits. Thus in the Peach, Apricot, Cherry, Plum, and most
other drupaceous fruits (page 311), the separable skin is the
epicarp ; the pulpy part, which is eaten, the mesocarp or sarco-
carp; and the stone enclosing the seed, the endocarp or puta-
men. In the Almond, the seed is enveloped by a thin woody
shell, constituting the endocarp, which is itself surrounded by a
thin green layer, formed of the combined mesocarp and epicarp.
In the Apple and Pear, the skin is the epicarp ; the fleshy part,
which is eaten, the mesocarp or sarcocarp ; and the core con-
taining the seeds, the endocarp. A similar disposition of parts
occurs in the Medlar, except that here the core becomes of a
stony nature. In the Date the outer brownish skin is the
epicarp ; the thin paper-like layer enclosing the seed is the
endocarp ; and the intermediate pulpy part is the mesocarp or
sarcocarp. In the Walnut, the woody shell enveloping the
seed, which is commonly termed the nut, is the endocarp ; and
the green covering of this, called the husk, consists of the meso-
carp and epicarp combined. In the Orange, the outer separable
rind is composed of the mesocarp and epicarp ; aud the thin
membranous partitions which divide the pulp into separate
portions form the endocarp ; the edible pulp itself is a develop-
ment of succulent parenchyma from the inner lining of the ovary,
or probably from the placentas only. In the above fruits, and
numerous others might be quoted, the different layers of the
pericarp are more or less evident ; but in some fruits, as in the
Nut, these layers become so blended, that it is difficult, if not
impossible, to distinguish them. The examples of fruits now
mentioned, together with those previously alluded to, will show
in a striking manner the very varying nature and origin of the
parts which are commonly eaten.
Sutures.—In describing the structure of the carpel, we found
that the ovary presented two sutures (page 267) ; one of which
(fig. 586, vs), called the ventral suture, corresponded to the union
of the margins of the lamina of the carpellary leaf, and was con-
sequently turned towards the axis or centre of the flower ; and
the other, ds, termed the dorsal suture, corresponding to the
midrib of the lamina, which was directed towards its circum-
ference. The simple fruit being formed, in most cases, essenti-
ally of the mature ovary, also presents two sutures, which are
distinguished by similar names. These, like those of the ovary,
may be frequently distinguished externally, either by a more or
less projecting line, or by aslight furrow ; thusin the Peach (fig.
693), Cherry, Plum, and Apricot, the ventral suture is very evi-
dent, although the dorsal suture has become nearly effaced ;
while in the Bladder Senna (jig. 662), Pea, and other fruits of
the Leguminosz, both dorsal and ventral sutures are clearly
visible externally.
In a compound ovary with two or more cells, in which the
placentation is axile, it must be evident, of course, that the dorsal
DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS. 301
sutures can alone be observed externally, as the ventral sutures
of the component ovaries are turned towards, and meet in the
axis of the flower, and are hence removed from view ; it follows
also that the number of dorsal sutures will necessarily correspond
to the number of component ovaries of which such an ovary is
formed. In a fruit presenting similar characters, we find of
course a similar disposition of the sutures. When an ovary, on
the contrary, is formed of the blades of two or more carpellary
leaves, the margins of which are not inflected, or only partially
so, and therefore one-celled, and the placentation parietal or free
central, both ventral and dorsal sutures may be observed exter-
nally alternating with each other. The fruit, which is formed
in a similar manner, necessarily presents a similar alternation of
the sutures on its external surface.
Dehiscence.—The pericarp at varying periods, but commonly
when the fruit is ripe, either opens, so as to allow the seed or
seeds to escape ; or it remains closed, and the seeds can then
only become free by its rupture or decay. In the former case
the fruit is said to be dehiscent ; in the latter, indehiscent. Those
fruits, such as the Nut, Cherry, Apricot, Plum, and Date, which
have very hard or fleshy pericarps, are usually indehiscent.
Dehiscent fruits open in various ways :—Ilst. By splitting
longitudinally in the line of one or both of the sutures ; or at
the junction of the component carpels only ; or at these points
as well as at the dorsal sutures. In all the above cases the pieces
into which the fruit separates are called valves, and these valves,
when the fruit is normal in its structure, are either equal in
number to the cells, or component carpels, or they are twice as
numerous. Thus in fruits formed of a single carpel, which only
open by the ventral or dorsal suture, there will be only one valve
(figs. 666 and 667), corresponding to the one carpel ; but if the
carpels open by both sutures (jig. 668), there will be two valves.
In fruits formed of compound ovaries composed of several cells,
the valves will be equal in number to the component carpels, if
the dehiscence only takes place by the dorsal suture (figs. 672-
674), or in the line of union of the component ovaries (figs. 669-
671) ; or they will be double the number, if the dehiscence takes
place by both these parts. In compound one-celled fruits, the
valves will be equal in number to the component carpels, if the
dehiscence occurs only by the ventral ( fig. 680) or dorsal sutures
681); or double the number, if by both sutures. When there
is a distinct axis left after the separation of the valves, this is
called the columella (fig. 675, a). According to the number of
valves, the fruit is described as one-valved, two-valved, three-
valved, or many-valved.
2nd. Dehiscence, instead of taking place longitudinally, or in
a valvular manner, sometimes occurs in a transverse direction,
by which the upper part of the fruit separates from the lower
like the lid from a jar or box. And 3rd. It may take place in an
302 VALVULAR DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS.
irregular manner by little pores. We have thus three kinds or
classes of dehiscence, which are called respectively :—1l. Valvu-
lar ; 2. Transverse or Cirewmscissile ; and 3. Porous.
1. Vatvutar DeHiscENcE.—This may be either partial or
complete ; thus, in Dianthus (fig. 664), Lychnis (fig. 663),
and many other Caryophyllaceous plants, the dehiscence only
Fic. 663. Fic. 664. Fia. 665.
Fic. 668.
Fic. 666.
Fig. 663. Fruit of Lychnis——Fig. 664. Fruit of Dianthus— Fig. 665. Fruit
of Mignonette (Reseda),—Fig. 666. Follicle of Columbine (Agquwilegia),
dehiscing by ventral suture. Fig. 667. Follicles of Magnolia glauca,
each dehiscing by its dorsal suture. The seeds are suspended from the
fruits by long stalks or funiculi—RFig. 668. Legume of the Pea which
has opened by both dorsal and ventral sutures; hence it is two-valved.
c. Calyx. ep, Epicarp. pl. Placenta. ov. Seeds attached to the placenta by
a funiculus or stalk, f. en. Endocarp.
takes place at the upper part of the fruit, which then appears
toothed, the number of teeth corresponding to that of the valves
in complete dehiscence. A somewhat similar mode of partial
dehiscence occurs in certain Saxifrages, and in the Mignonette
( fig. 665); in the latter plant one large orifice may be observed
at the summit of the fruit at an early stage of its growth, and
long before the seeds are ripe. At other times the separation
SEPTICIDAL AND LOCULICIDAL DEHISCENCE, 303
of the fruit into valves is more or less complete, so that the
nature of the dehiscence is at once evident. There are various
modifications of these complete forms of valvular dehiscence.
Thus, in fruits which are formed of but one carpel, the dehis-
cence may take place by the ventral suture only, as in the
Columbine (jig. 666), and Aconite (fig. 698) ; or by the dorsal
suture only, as in some Magnolias ( fig. 667) ; or by both dorsal
and ventral sutures, as in the Pea (fig. 668), Bean, and many
other Leguminous plants. This form of dehiscence is commonly
known as sutwral.
In compound fruits having two or more cells, and therefore
with axile or central placentation, there are three principal
kinds of dehiscence, which are called respectively, septicidal,
loculicidal, and septifragal.
A. Septicidal Dehiscence.—In this the fruit is separated into
its component ovaries or carpels, by a division taking place
Fic. 669.
Fic. 670. Fig. 671.
V A
Fig. 669. Capsule of the Meadow Saffron (Colchi-
cum autumnale), showing septicidal dehiscence.
Fig. 670. Diagram of septicidal dehiscence
showing the placentas and seeds carried away
with the valves. Fig. 671. Diagram of septi-
cidal dehiscence, showing the valves breaking
away from a central column formed by the
union of the placentas.
between the two halves of each dissepiment (figs. 669-671). Ex-
amples may be seen in Colchicum and Rhododendron. Here
each valve corresponds to a carpel, and the valves are said to
have their margins turned inwards. In this dehiscence the pla-
centas with the seeds attached are either carried away with the
valves (fig. 670), as in Colchicum; or the valves break away
from the placentas, which remain united and form a central
column (fig. 671).
B. Loculicidal Dehiscence.—This is said to occur when each
carpel opens by its dorsal suture, or through the back of the
cells, the dissepiments remaining undivided (figs. 672-674).
Here each valve is composed of the united halves of two
adjoining carpels, and the valves are said to bear the dissepi-
Pos
304 LOCULICIDAL DEHISCENCE.—COCCI.
ments in the middle. Examples may be seen in the Iris (fig.
712) and Hibiscus (fig. 672). As in septicidal dehiscence, the
valves may either carry the placentas and seeds with them (jig.
673), as in the Hibiscus and Iris ; or they may break away from
the placentas, and leave them united in the form of a central
column (fig. 674) ; or each carpel may simply open at its dorsal
suture, and the valves bearing the dissepiments may remain
attached to the placentas.
In some forms of septicidal dehiscence the carpels separate
without opening, as in Scrophularia, in which case they may
Fic. 672. Fic. 673. Fic. 674. Fic. 676.
Fig. 672. Capsule of a species of Hibiscus, dehiscing loculicidally. ¥, v, v.
Valves. c. Dissepiments. g. Seeds.—/ ig. 673. Diagram of loculicidal
dehiscence, in which the valves carry the placentas with them.——Fig.
674, Diagram of loculicidal dehiscence, in which the valves have sepa-
ratedfrom the placentas which remain asacentral column with the seeds
attached. Fig. 675. Fruit of the Castor-oil Plant (Ricinus communis), de-
hiscing in a septicidal manner. ¢, ¢c,c. Carpels. a. Columella. sd. Dorsal
suture where each carpel ultimately opens. Fig. 676. Fruit of a species
of Geranium. c. Persistent calyx. a. Axis or carpophore from which the
ovaries, 0, 0, with their styles, ¢, ¢, are separating. s. Stigmas.
afterwards open by their dorsal sutures, that is, in a loculicidal
manner. Inother cases, the axis is prolonged in the form of a
columella or carpophore, as in the Mallow and Castor-oil Plant
(fig. 675, a), and in the Geraniacez (jig. 676, a), and Umbel-
liferze (fig. 717), and the carpels which are united to it also
separate without their ovaries opening. The ovaries of such
carpels frequently open afterwards by their dorsal sutures (jig.
675, sd). When such carpels separate with a certain amount of
elasticity from the axis to which they are attached, as in some
Euphorbiacex, they have been called cocci (fig. 675, ¢, ¢, ¢).
By some botanists, all carpels which thus separate from the axis
SEPTIFRAGAL DEHISCENCE. 305
in a septicidal manner are termed cocci, and the fruit is described
as dicoccous, tricoccous, &c., according to their number. In cer-
tain fruits, such as those of the Linwm cathurticum, the ovaries
open first by their dorsal suture, and then separate from each
other in a septicidal manner.
Some botanists call all fruits, the carpels of which separate
from each other without opening—schizocarps ; and term their
component carpels cocci if there are more than two, or if only
two in number, as in the Umbelliferze,—mericarps.
C. Septifragal Dehiscence.—In this form of dehiscence the
carpels open by their dorsal sutures, as in loculicidal dehiscence,
and at the same time the dissepiments separate from the walls
J
Bie. 677. Fic. 679.
Fic. 678.
QL
ol
Fig. 677. Capsule of Cedrela angustifolia, showing septifragal dehiscence.
v, v,v. Valves. a. Axis bearing the dissepiments, c,c, and seeds, g.
Fig. 678. Diagram illustrating septifragal dehiscence. Fig. 679. Capsule
of Datura Stramonium, showing septifragal dehiscence.
and remain united to each other and to the axis (jigs. 677 and
678), which in this case is generally more or less prolonged.
Here .each valve is composed of the two halves of adjoining
ovaries. This form of dehiscence may be seen in Datura
Stramoniwm (fig. 679), and Cedrela (fig. 677). The placentas
bearing the seeds are here attached to the axis, a, between
the dissepiments, ¢, c.
In compound fruits with one cell having parietal or free
central placentation, we have two forms of dehiscence ; these
are analogous to the ordinary septicidal and loculicidal kinds
just described. Thus, in compound fruits with parietal pla-
x
306 DEHISCENCE OF ONE-CELLED COMPOUND FRUITS.
centation, the dehiscence may take place either through the
confluent margins or sutures of the adjoining carpels, so that
each placenta is divided into its two lamellz, as in the species of
Gentian (fig. 680), in which case the dehiscence is analogous to
the septicidal form, and each valve, therefore, represents one of
the component carpels of the fruit ; or the dehiscence may take
place through the dorsal sutures, as in the Heartsease (fig. 681),
in which case it is analogous to the loculicidal form of dehis-
cence, and each valve is composed of the adjoining halves of
two carpels. These forms may be readily distinguished by the
varying attachment of the placentas and seeds in the two cases ;
thus, in the former instance, each valve will bear the placentas
and seeds on its two margins (fig. 630), and the valves are said
Fic. 680. Fic. 681. Fic. 682. Fie, 683.
i)
U
4
4,
vidi
A\
4
éh
rx
Fig. 680. One-celled fruit of a species of Gentian
dehiscing in a septicidal manner.——Fig. 681.
One-celled fruit of Heartsease (Viola tricolor’),
dehiscing in a loculicidal manner.——Fig. 682.
Fruit or siliqua of the Wallflower, showing the
separation of two valves from the replum.
Fig. 683. Fruit (ceratium) of Celandine (Chelido-
nium majus), with the valves separating from
the placentas,
to be placentiferous at their borders ; in the latter, the placenta
and seeds will be attached to the centre of each valve (jig.
681), and the valves are then said to be placentiferous in their
middle. It sometimes happens, as in the frnit of the Cheli-
doniwm (fig. 683), and Wallflower (jig. 682), that the placentas
bearing the seeds remain undivided, and the valves break away
from them, so that they are left attached to a frame or replum
(page 277).
In compound fruits with a free central placentation, the
same forms of dehiscence occur as in those with parietal pla-
centation, but here it is difficult in many cases to speak
positively as to the nature of the dehiscence. from the absence
of seeds or dissepiments upon the valves. The means usually
adopted in such cases is to count the number of the valves and
TRANSVERSE OR CIRCUMSCISSILE DEHISCENCE. 507
compare their position with the sepals or divisions of the calyx.
Thus, as the different whorls of the flower in a regular arrange-
ment alternate with one another, the component carpels of the
fruit should alternate with the divisions or sepals of the calyx.
If the fruit therefore separates into as many portions as there
are parts or sepals to the calyx, and if these valves are then
placed alternate to them, they represent the component carpels,
and the dehiscence is consequently analogous to the septicidal
form ; if, on the contrary, the valves are equal and opposite to
the sepals or divisions of the calyx, each valve is composed of
the adjoining halves of two carpels, and the dehiscence is
analogous to the loculicidal form. Sometimes the number of
valves is double that of the calycine segments or sepals, in
which case each valve is formed of half a carpel, the dehiscence
of the fruit having taken place both by its dorsal and ventral
sutures.
In all the above varieties of valvular dehiscence, the separa-
tion may either take place from above downwards, which is by
far the more usual form (figs. 669, 672, 677, and 679) ; or occa-
sionally from below upwards, as in the Celandine (fig. 683), and
universally in Cruciferous plants (fig. 682).
2. TRANSVERSE OR CIRCUMSCISSILE DEHISCENCE.—In this
kind of dehiscence the opening takes place by a transverse
fissure through the pericarp across the sutures,
so that the upper part is separated from the Fra. 684.
lower like the lid of a jar or box, as in
Hyoscyamus (fig. -684) and Anagallis (fig.
709). Sometimes the dehiscence only takes
place half round the fruit, as in Jeffersoiia,
in which case the lid remains attached to the
pericarp on one side, as by a hinge. The _ ape
fruits which present transverse dehiscence ” ae . ae
may be supposed to be formed either of car- = mus) with trans-
pellary leaves in which the lamine are articu- hae Me rin e
lated to the petioles, as.in the Orange (fig. ed a pyxis (page
320), and which become separated at the 316).
points of articulation, so that the united
petioles form the lower part of the fruit, and the united laminz
the upper ; or they may result from the prolongation and hollow-
ing out of the thalamus, and the articulation of the carpellary
leaves to its circumference, so that in the dehiscence the
lower part of the fruit is formed by the concave thalamus, and
the upper part by the carpellary leaves ; thus resembling the
separation of the calyx in Eschscholtzia (page 229) from the
thalamus.
In the Monkey-pot (fig. 685), the lower part of the ovary is
adherent to the tube of the calyx, and the upper portion is
free ; and when dehiscence takes place, it does so in a transverse
manner and at the part where the upper free portion joins the
X2
308 TRANSVERSE AND POROUS DEHISCENCE,
lower adherent one, so that it would appear as if the adherence
of the calyx had some effect in this case in producing the
transverse dehiscence. Such fruits are sometimes called oper-
culate, a term which is also applied by other botanists to all
forms of transverse dehiscence in
Fic. 685. Frc. 686. Which the upper portion of the peri-
carp separates from the lower in the
form of a lid or operculum.
Transverse dehiscence may also
occur in fruits which are formed by
a single ovary or carpel, as well as
in the compound ones mentioned
above. Thus, the legumes of Coro-
villa, Hedysarum (fig. 686), Orni-
thopus, &c., separate when ripe into
as many portions as there are seeds.
The separation taking place in these
cases has been supposed to be ef-
edt hal ae fected by a process called solubility.
eheeeedea for Some botanists regard such legumes
tions. as formed of folded pinnate carpel-
. lary leaves analogous to the ordinary
pinnate leaves of the same plants, the divisions taking place at
the points of union of the different pairs of pinne.
3. Porous Drniscence.—This is an irregular kind of dehis-
cence, in which the fruits open by little pores or slits formed in
Fig. 685. Pyxis of
the Monkey-pot
(Lecythis ollavia).
Fig. 686. Lo-
mentum of a
species of Hedy-
sarum separating
Lire (etel7/ Fic. 688.
Fig. 687. Immature fruit of a speciesof Campanula. p. Pericarp. 7¢, t. Pores
at the sides. c¢,c. Persistent calyx united below to the wall of the fruit
so as to form a part of the pericarp. Fig. 688. Fruit of a species of ,
Campanula dehiscing by pores at its base.
their pericarps by a process called rupturing. These openings
may be either situated at the apex, side, or base of the fruit,
hence they are described accordingly, as aprcular, lateral, or
basilar, Examples of this kind of dehiscence occur in the
KINDS OF FRUIT——SIMPLE FRUITS. * 509
Poppy, in which a number of pores are placed beneath the
peltate disc to which the stigmas are attached ; in the Antirrhi-
num (fig. 626), where there are two or three orifices, one of
which is situated near the summit of the upper cell or ovary,
and the other (one or two) in the lower ; and in various species
of Campanula (figs. 687, t, t, and 688). In the latter the calyx
is adherent to the ovary, and the pores, which have a very
irregular appearance at their margins, penetrate through the
walls of the pericarp formed by the adherent calyx and ovary ;
these pores correspond to the number of cells in the ovary, and
are either situated at the sides (fig. 687, t, t), or towards the
base (fig. 688).
Kuinps oF Fruir.—A number of different kinds of fruit
have been distinguished and named, and several classifications
of the same have been proposed at various times, but at present
there is little accordance amongst botanists upon this subject.
This is much to be regretted, as there can be no doubt that
a strictly definite phraseology of fruits, founded essentially
upon the structure and position of the ovary, would be of great
value in Descriptive Botany. The difficulties attending this
subject have been also much increased by the same names
having been given by authors to totally distinct kinds of fruits,
and even to different classes of fruits. In a work like the
present it would be impossible to describe all the kinds of
fruits which have received names. At the same time, the
subject is of too much importance to be hastily disposed of,
and as much space as possible will be therefore devoted to its
consideration. ‘The classification here adopted is founded upon
that given many years since in Lindley’s Introduction to Botany,
from which, however, it differs in some important particulars.
We have taken the gyncecium as our guide, and have accord-
ingly used the terms when applied to fruits in precisely the
same sense as previously defined in its description.
The leading divisions of the classificaticn here adopted are as
follow :—
1. Fruits formed by a Single Flower.
a. Simple Fruits.
b. Apocarpous Fruits.
c. Syncarpous Fruits.
2. Fruits formed by the combination of Several Flowers.
1. FRUITS FORMED BY A SINGLE FLOWER.
a. SIMPLE Fruits.—By a simple fruit, we mean one which is
formed of a single mature carpel or ovary, and only one produced
by a swmgle flower. By some botanists this term is used to
signify all fruits, of whatever nature, which are the produce of
a single flower; thus including the simple, apocarpous, and
syncarpous fruits of our classification. We describe four kinds
310 SIMPLE FRUITS— LEGUME.
of simple fruits :—namely, the Legume, the Lomentum, the
Drupe, and the Utricle.
1. Legume or Pod—This is a superior, one-celled, one or
many-seeded fruit, dehiscing by both ventral and dorsal sutures,
so as to form two valves, and bearing its seed or seeds on the
ventral suture. Examples occur in the Pea (jig. 668), Bean,
Clover, and most plants of the order Leguminosez, which has
derived its name from this circumstance. The lezume assumes
a variety of forms, but it is generally more or less convex on
its two surfaces and nearly straight ; at other times, however, it
becomes spirally contorted so as to resemble a screw (jig. 691), or
a snail twisted, asin some species of Medicago (fig. 690) ; or it is
coiled up like a caterpillar, as in Scorpiwrus sulcata (fig. 689) ;
Fie. 689. Fia. 691. Fie. 692.
Fig. 689. Coiled-up legume of Scorpiurus sulcata. Fig. 690. Snail-like
legume of Medicago orbiculata. Fig. 691. Spiral or screw-like legume of
Lucerne (Medicago ).—Fig. 692. Lomentum of a species of Acacia.
or curved like a worm, as in Cesalpinia coriaria ; or it assumes
a number of other irregular forms. Certain deviations from
the ordinary structure of a legume are met with in some
plants ; thus, in Astragalus (fig. 619), and Phaca (fig. 620), it
is two-celled, in consequence of the formation of a spurious
dissepiment, which in the first plant proceeds from the dorsal
suture, and in the latter from the ventral. (See page 277.)
At other times a number of spurious horizontal dissepiments
are formed, by which the legume becomes divided into as many
cells as there are seeds, as in Cassia Fistula (fig. 614). Another
irregularity also occurs in the latter plant, the legume being
here indehiscent, but the two sutures are clearly marked ex-
ternally. Other indehiscent legumes are also met with, as in
Arachis and Pterocarpus, in which there is sometimes no
evident mark of the sutures externally ; such legumes will,
however, frequently split into two valves like those of a pea,
LOMENTUM—DRUPE—- UTRICLE. 311
if a little pressure be applied as in the ordinary process of
shelling peas.
2. The Lomentum.—This is a kind of legume which is con-
tracted in a moniliform manner between each seed, as in Hedy-
sarum (fig. 686), Ornithopus, and Acacia Sophora ( fig. 692). It
is sometimes called a lomentaceous legume. This fruit, together
with the legume, characterise the plants of the Leguminose.
When the lomentum is ripe, it commonly separates into as many
pieces as there are contractions on its surface (fig. 686), or it
remains entire (fig. 692) ; in the latter case the seeds are sepa-
rately enclosed in cavities which are formed by the production
of as many internal spurious dissepiments as there are external
contractions.
3. The Drupe.—This is a superior, one-celled, one- or two-
seeded, indehiscent fruit, having a fleshy or pulpy sarcocarp, a
hard or bony endocarp or pyrene, and the pericarp altogether
separable into its component parts, namely, of epicarp, sarco-
Fie. 693. Fic. 694.
Fig. 693. Drupe of the Peach.— Fig. 624. The same cut vertically.
carp, and endocarp. The Drupe is sometimes called a stone-
fruit. Examples occur in the Peach (figs. 693 and 694), Apricot,
Plum, Cherry (fig. 695), and Olive. In the Almond, the fruit
presents all the characters of the drupe, except that here the
sarcocarp is of a toughish texture, instead of being succulent.
Many fruits, such as the Walnut and Cocoa-nut, are sometimes
termed drupes, but improperly so, as they are in reality com-
pound, or formed originally from two or more carpels or ovaries,
besides presenting other characters differing from simple fruits.
(See Tryma, page 318, and Glans, page 319.) A number of
drupes aggregated together on a common thalamus form collec-
tively a kind of Etzrio (see Er#rio). Any fruit which resembles
the drupe in its general characters is frequently termed drupa-
ceous or drupe-like.
4. The Utricle is a superior, one-celled, one or few-seeded
fruit, with a thin. membranous, loose pericarp, not adhering to
312 TTRICLE.— APOCARPOUS FRUITS—FOLLICLE. %
’ 7
4
the seed ; generally indehiscent, but rarely opening in a trans-
verse manner. Examples of this kind of fruit may be seen in
Amaranthus and Chenopodium (fig. 696).
Fic. 695 Fic. 696.
ene
<i
Fig. 695. Vertical section of the drupe of the Cherry. ep. Epicarp. en. En-
docarp. mt. Mesocarp. g. Seed with embryo.— fig. 696. Utricular fruit
of Chenopodium, surrounded by the persistent calyx.
b. Apocarpous Fruits.— Under this name we include those
fruits which are formed of a single matwre carpel or ovary, but of
which two or more are produced by a single flower. The simple
fruits just described are frequently placed by botanists under this
head, together with those to which we are now about to allude.
Apocarpous fruits are also sometimes called multiple, and this
latter term is again applied by others to those fruits which are
the produce of several flowers. We distinguish three kinds
of Apocarpous fruits :—The Follicle, the Achzenium, and the
Etzerio.
1. The Follicle.—This is a superior, one-celled, one- or many-
seeded fruit, dehiscing by one suture only, which is commonly
Fia. 697. Fic. 698. Fic. 699.
Fig. 697, Follicles of the Columbine (A qutlegia ).——Fig. 698. Fol-
licles of the Aconite (Aconitum).——Fig. 699. Follicles of the
Peony (Peonia).
the ventral, and is consequently one-valved (jig. 666). By the
latter character it is known at once from the legume, which
opens, as we have seen, by two sutures, and is two-valved ; in
CONCEPTACULUM—ACHANIUM—ETERIO. 313
other respects the two fruits are alike. In Magnolia glauca (fig.
667), and some other species of Magnolia, the follicle opens by
the dorsal suture instead of the ventral. Examples of the follicle
occur in the Columbine (jig. 697), Hellebore, Larkspur, and
Aconite (fig. 698), in all of which plants the fruit is composed
of three or more follicles placed in a whorled manner on the
thalamus ; in the Asclepias, Periwinkle, and Peony (fig. 699),
where each flower generally forms two follicles ; and in the Lirio-
dendron and Magnolia (fig. 667), where the follicles are nume-
rous, and arranged in a spiral manner on a more or less elongated
thalamus. It rarely happens that a flower produces but a single
follicle; this, however, sometimes occurs in the Peony and in
other plants. The two follicles of Asclepias are more or less
united at their bases, and the seeds, instead of remaining attached
to the ventral suture, as is the case in the true follicle, lie loose
in the cavity of the fruit. This double fruit has therefore by
some botanists received the distinctive name of Conceptaculum.
2. The Acheniwm or
Achene is a superior, one- Fia. 700. Fra. 701.
celled, one-seeded fruit, See
with a dry indehiscent OY
pericarp, which is separ- Se A
able from the seed, al- xX ae
though closely applied to ~/>
it. Linneus mistook as
some of these achzenia for iN
seeds, and called the
plants producing them
gymnospermous (naked-
seeded). Such fruits may
Fig. 700. Vertical section
of an achzenium of the
be, however, generally
distinguished from seeds
by presenting on some
point of their surface the
remains of the style.
This style is in some cases
very evident, as in the
Pasque-flower (Ane-
mone Pulsatilla). The
fruit is said to be tailed
in this instance in con-
sequence of being sur-
mounted by a feathery
style. Fig. 701.
Achenia of Bugloss
(Lycopsis ).
Clematis (jig. 657), and
Anemone (jig. 700). Ex-
amples may be seen in the Clematis and Anemone, as just
noticed, and in the plants of the orders Labiatze and Bora-
ginacez (jig. 701). In rare cases we find a flower producing
but a single achzenium.
3. The Etxrio.—When the achzenia borne by a single flower
are so numerous that they form more than a single whorl or
series, they constitute collectively an etario. Examples may be
seen in the species of Ranunculus and Adonis where the achenia
are placed upon a convex thalamus of a dry nature ; and in the
Strawberry (jig. 702), where they are situated upon a fleshy
314. CYNARRHODUM.—SYNCARPOUS FRUITS—CARYOPSIS.
thalamus. Hence, in the Strawberry, the so-called seeds are in
reality so many separate achznia, while the part to which the
Strawberry owes its value as a fruit is the succulent thalamus.
In the fruit of the Rose the achzenia, instead of being placed
upon an elevated thalamus, as in the ordinary etzerio, are situ-
ated upon a concave thalamus, to which the calyx is attached
( fig. 454, 7, 7). This modification of the ordinary etzerio has been
made a separate fruit by some botanists, to which the name of
Cynarrhodum has been given. A similar kind of fruit also occurs
Lae a) ere in Calycanthus.
ioe i 27 In the Raspberry (fig.
703) and Bramble, we have
a kind of etzerio formed of
a number of little drupes,
or drupels as these small
drupes are sometimes
termed, crowded together
upon a dry thalamus. The
etzerio and its modifica-
tions are placed by Lind-
Fig. 702, Fruit of the Strawberry. Fig. 703. ley under a class of fruits
Fruit (eterio) of the Raspberry (Rubus [deus). called by him aggregate
fruits, the characters of
which are ‘ Ovaria strictly simple; more than a single series
produced by each flower.’ The term aggregate is also by some
botanists applied to fruits which are the produce of several
flowers.
c. Syncarpous Fruits.— Under this head we include all fruits
which are formed by the more or less complete combination of two
or more mature carpels or ovaries, and where only one fruit is
produced by a single flower. In the two former classes the fruits
are formed of simple ovaries ; in this class from ovaries of a
more or Jess compound nature. In describing these fruits we
shall follow generally the classification of Lindley. Thus, in
the first place, we arrange them, from their superior or inferior
character, in two divisions ; and each of these divisions is again
separated into others, derived from the dry or fleshy nature of
the pericarp, and its dehiscent or indehiscent character.
Division 1. Superior Syncarpous Fruits.
ad. WITH A DRY INDEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. The Caryopsis is a superior, one-celled, one-seeded, inde-
hiscent fruit, with a thin dry membranous pericarp, completely
and inseparably united with the seed (jigs. 704 and 705). This
fruit resembles the achenium, but it is distinguished by the
oomplete union which exists between the pericarp and the seed.
SAMARA— CARCERULE—AMPHISARCA. 315
It is, moreover, generally considered as being of a compound
nature, from the presence of two or more styles and stigmas
on the ovary (fig. 601). It is found in the Oat, Maize, Rye,
Wheat, Barley, and generally in the Grass order. These fruits,
like the achznia, are commonly called seeds, but their true
nature is at once evident when they are examined in their early
state.
2. The Samara is a superior, two- or more celled fruit, each
cell being dry, indehiscent, one- or few-seeded, and having its
pericarp extended into a winged expansion. Examples may be
found in the Maple (fig. 706), Ash, and Elm. By some botanists
each winged portion of such a fruit is called a samara, and thus
such fruits as the Maple are considered to be formed of two
united samaree.
Fic. 706.
Bie tOts
Fig. 704. Caryopsis or fruit of the Oat.——
Fig. 705. The same cut vertically. o. Peri-
carp. ¢. Integuments of the seed. a. Al-
bumen or endosperm. c. Cotyledon. g.
Gemmule or plumule. 7. Radicle-— Fig.
706. Samara or fruit of the Maple.——Fig.
707. Carcerule or fruit of the Mallow
(Malva).
3. The Carcerule is a superior, many-celled fruit, each cell
being dry, indehiscent, and one- or few-seeded, and all the
cells more or less cohering by their united styles to a central
axis. The common Mallow (fig. 707) is a good example of this
fruit.
4. The Amphisarca is a ‘superior, many-celled, indehiscent,
many-seeded fruit, indurated or woody externally, pulpy in-
ternally.’ Examples, Omphalocarpus, Adansonia, Crescentia.
316 THE CAPSULE—PYXIS,.
b. WITH A DRY DEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. The Capsule is a superior, one or more celled, many-seeded,
dry, dehiscent fruit. The dehiscence may either take place
by valves, as in Colchicum (fig. 669) and Datura (fig. 679) ; or
by pores, as in the Poppy and Antirrhinum (fig. 626); or
transversely, as in the Pimpernel (fig. 709) and Henbane (fig.
Fic. 708. Fic. 709.
Fra. 710.
Fig. 708. Spiral capsule of a species of Helicteres, Fig. 709. Pyxis of
Pimpernel (Anagailis). Fig. 710. Capsule of a species of Sc7rophularia,
dehiscing in a septicidal manner,
684) ; or only partially, as in Mignonette (fig. 665), Dianthus
(fig. 664), and Lychnis (fig. 663). When the capsule dehisces
transversely the fruit has received the distinctive name of Pyzis.
Dies FAA Kies a2:
i,
Fig. 711. Fruit of Sandbox-tree (Hura erepitans). It is composed of fifteen
carpels which separate from the axis when ripe, and burst with great
force, Fig. 712. Inferior capsular fruit (diplotegia) of the Iris, opening
in a loculicidal manner,
The capsule is either one-celled as in the Mignonette (jig. 665),
Heartsease (fig. 681), and Gentian (fig. 680); or two-celled
as in the Scrophularia (fig. 710) ; or three- or more celled, as
in Colchicum (fig. 669), and Datura (fig. 679). It assumes
REGMA—SILIQUA—SILICULA. 317
various forms, some of which are remarkable, as in Helicteres
(fig. 708), where it is composed of five carpels twisted spirally
together, and Liliciwm anisatwm, where the carpels are arranged
in a stellate manner. The capsule is a very common fruit, and
is found almost universally in many natural orders, as Papaver-
acez, Caryophyllace, Primulacez, Scrophulariaceze, Liliaceze,
Gentianacee, &c., &e.
When a capsule consists of three or more carpels, which
separate from the axis, and burst with elasticity (cocci) (page
304), asin Ricinus (fig. 675) and Hura crepitans (fig. 711), it has
been termed a Regma.
When a fruit resembles the ordinary capsule in every respect,
except that it is inferior, as in the species of Iris (fig. 712) and
Campanula (figs. 687 and 688), it has received the name of
Diplotegia. (See Diplotegia, page
319.) In the natural orders we = Fic. 713. Fic. 714.
shall describe such a fruit as cap-
sular.
2. The Siliqua is a superior, one-
or two-celled, many-seeded, long,
narrow fruit, dehiscing by two valves
separating from below upwards, and
leaving the seeds attached to two
parietal placentas, which are com-
monly connected together by a
spurious vertical dissepiment, called
areplum (fig. 713). The placentas
are here opposite to the lobes of the
stigma, instead of alternate, as is the
case in all fruits which are regular
in structure. When the replum
extends entirely across the cavity,
the fruit is two-celled ; if only par-
tially, it is one-celled. Examples of
this fruit occur in the Wallflower (jig.
713), Stock, Cabbage, and a large
number of other Cruciferee. When afruit possesses the general
characters of the siliqua, but with the lobes of the stigma alter-
nate to instead of opposite the placentas, as in Chelidoniwm (fig.
683), it has been named a Ceratiwm or a siliqueform capsule.
The siliqua is sometimes contracted in the spaces between
each seed, like the lomentum (page 311), in which case it is
indehiscent, as in Raphanus sativus, and is then called a
lomentaceous siliqua.
.3. The Silicula.—This fruit resembles the siliqua in every
respect except as to its length ; and in usually containing fewer
seeds. Thus the siliqgwa may be described as long and narrow,
the silicula as broad and short. Examples occur in the Shep-
herd’s Purse (fig. 714) and Scurvy-grass.
Fig. 713. Fruit or
siliqua of the
Wallflower show-
ing the separa-
tion of the two
valves from the
replum. —— Fig.
714. Silicula of
Shepherd’s Purse
(Thlaspt).
318 HESPERIDIUM——TRYMA—NUCULANIUM.
The siliqua and silicula are only found in plants of the order
Crucifere. Both fruits are occasionally one-seeded, and inde-
hiscent.
Cc. WITH A FLESHY INDEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. The Hesperidium is a superior, many-celled, few-seeded,
indehiscent fruit, consisting of a separable pericarp, formed of
the epicarp and mesocarp combined together (fig. 715, p, e), and
having an endocarp, d, projecting internally in the form of mem-
branous partitions, which divide the pulp into a number of por-
tions or cells, which are easily separated from each other. This
pulp, as already noticed (page 300), is either a development of
succulent parenchyma from the inner lining of the ovary gene-
rally, or from the placentas only. The seeds, s, s, are imbedded
Fre. 715. Fie. 716.
Fig. 715. Transverse section of the fruit of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium).
p. Hpicarp. e. Mesocarp. d. Endocarp. s,s. Seeds. Fig. 716. Abnormal
development of the fruit of the Orange, in which the carpels, ce, and ¢i,
are more or less distinct instead of being united.
in the pulp, and attached to the inner angle of each of the por-
tions into which the fruit is divided. The fruits of the Orange,
Lemon, Lime, and Shaddock are examples of the hesperidium.
It is by no means uncommon to find the carpels of this fruit in
a more or less separated state (jig. 716), and we have then pro-
duced what are called ‘horned oranges,’ ‘ fingered citrons,’ &c.,
and the fruit becomes somewhat apocarpous instead of entirely
syncarpous.
2. The Tryma is a superior, one-celled, one-seeded, indehis-
cent fruit, having a separable fleshy or leathery rind, consisting
of epicarp and mesocarp, and a hard two-valved endocarp, from
the inner lining of which spurious dissepiments extend so as to
divide the seed into deep lobes. It ditfers but little from the
ordinary drupe, except in being formed from an originally com-
pound ovary. Example, the Walnut.
3. The Nuculanium.—This fruit, of which the Grape (jig.
720) may be taken as an example, does not differ in any impor-
tant characters from the berry, except in being superior. (See
BERRY.)
CREMOCARP— CYPSELA—-GLANS— -DIPLOTEGIA, 319
Division 2. Inferior Syncarpous Fruits.
ad. WITH A DRY INDEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. The Cremocarp is an inferior, dry, indehiscent, two-celled,
two-seeded fruit. The two cells or halves of which this fruit is
composed are joined face to face to a common axis or carpophore,
from which they separate when ripe} but to which they always
remain attached by a slender cord which suspends them (jiy.
717). Each half-fruit is termed a hemicarp or mericarp, and
the inner face the commissure. Each por-
tion of the fruit resembles an ach:enium, Fic. 717.
except in being inferior; hence the name
diachenium has been given to this fruit.
Examples of the cremocarp as above defined
are found universally in the plants of the
order Umbelliferze, but in no other order.
By Lindley, the definition of cremocarp is
extended so as to include fruits of a similar
nature, but which contain more than two
cells, as, for instance, those of Aralia.
2. The Cypsela.—This differs in nothing
essential from the achzenium, except in
being inferior and of a compound nature ,,,
(see Bae 292). It occurs in all plants of the ap re roy a
order Composite. When the calyx is pappose
it remains attached to the fruit, as in Salsafy and Dandelion.
3. The Glans or Nut is an inferior, dry, hard, indehiscent,
one-celled, one or two-seeded fruit, produced from an ovary of
two or more cells, with one or more ovules in each cell, all of
which become abortive in the progress of growth except one or
two (page 296). The three layers constituting the pericarp of
the nut are firmly coherent and undistinguishable, and the
whole is more or less enclosed by a cupule. The Acorn (fig.
400), and the Hazel-nut (fig. 401), may be taken as examples.
By some botanists the fruit of the Cocoa-nut Palm is called a
nut, but this differs in being superior, and in its pericarp
presenting a distinction into epicarp, mesocarp, aud endocarp.
(See Drupe, page 311.) Such a fruit is better described as nut-
like.
ae TT
TLE a A
att ar caepet see
ry 2
b. WITH A DRY DEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. Diplotegia.—This is the only kind of inferior fruit which
presents a dry dehiscent pericarp. It has already been stated
under the head of Capsule (page 317), that the diplotegia differs
in nothing from it, except in being inferior. The species of Iris
(fig. 712) and Campanula ( figs. 687 and 688) are examples of
this fruit. The diplotegia may open either by pores (fig. 688),
320 BACCA OR BERRY—-PEPO.
valves (fig. 712), or transversely (fig. 685) like the ordinary
capsule. In the latter case, as with the true capsule with
transverse dehiscence, the fruit is called a Pyxis.
Cc. WITH A FLESHY INDEHISCENT PERICARP.
1. The Bacca or Berry is an inferior, indehiscent, one- or
more celled, many-seeded, pulpy fruit (figs. 718 and 719). The
pulp is produced from the placentas, which are parietal (fig. 718,
pl), and have the seeds, s, s, at first attached to them ; but these
become ultimately separated and lie loose inthe pulp, p. Exam-
ples may be found in the Gooseberry and Currant. We have
already stated (page 318), that the fruit of the Grape is called
a Nuculanium (jig. 720), and that it differs in nothing essential
from the berry, except in being superior. The name baccate or
berried is applied by many botanists to any fruit of a pulpy nature,
and will sometimes be used in this sense in our description of
the natural orders.
Fie. 718. Fig. 719. Fie. 721.
Fig.718. Transverse section ofa berry of the Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia).
pl. Placentas. s,s. Seeds imbedded in pulp, p.—Fig. 719. Raceme of
berries of the Red Currant (Ribes rubrum) Fig. 720. Nueulanium or
fruit of the Vine (Vitis vinifera). Fig. 721. Transverse section of the
pepo of the Melon. cl, cl, cl. Carpels. pl, pl, pl, pl, pl, pl. Curved placentas,
sending processes, s, from the circumference, ¢, to the centre, and thus
causing the fruit to be spuriously three-celled.
2. The Pepo is an inferior, one-celled or spuriously three-
celled (fig. 721), many-seeded, fleshy or pulpy fruit. The seeds
are attached to parietal placentas, and are imbedded in pulp,
but they never become loose as is the case in the berry ; and
hence this fruit is readily distinguished from it.
There has been much discussion with regard to the nature of
the pepo. By some botanists the placentas are considered as
axile, and the fruit normally three-celled, as it is formed of three
POME—BALAUSTA. ANTHOCARPOUS FRUITS. 321
ovaries or carpels ; while by others the placentas are regarded
as parietal, and the fruit normally one-celled, as defined above.
Those who adopt the first view believe that each placenta sends
outwards a process towards the walls of the fruit, and that
these processes ultimately reach the walls and then become bent
inwards and bear the seeds on the curved portions. If these
processes remain, the fruit is three-celled ; if, on the contrary,
they become absorbed, it is only one-celled, and the placentas
are spuriously parietal. According to the view here adopted,
the placentas are parietal and send processes inwards which meet
in the centre, and thus render the fruit spuriously three-celled ;
or, if these are afterwards obliterated, or imperfectly formed,
the fruit is one-celled. This fruit is illustrated by the Melon,
Gourd, Cucumber, Elaterium, and other Cucurbitaceze. The
fruit of the Papaw-tree resembles a pepo generally, except in
being superior.
3. The Pome is an Fic. 723.
inferior, indehiscent,
two or more celled, few
seeded, fleshy fruit ;
the endocarp of which »
is papery, cartilagin-
ous, or bony, and sur-
rounded by a fleshy
mass consisting of me-
socarp and _ epicarp,
which is generally con-
sidered to be formed Fig. 722. Vertical section of the pome or fruit of the
by the cohesion of the Apple (Pyrus Malus).——Fig.723. Vertical section
general parenchyma of of the balausta or fruit of the Pomegranate.
the ovary with the tube
of the calyx. Some botanists, however, regard the fleshy portion
as consisting of the enlarged end of the flower-stalk, in which the
true carpels are imbedded. Examples may be seen in the Apple
(fig. 722), Pear, Quince (fig. 473), Medlar, and Hawthorn.
4. The Balausta is an inferior, many-celled, many-seeded,
indehiscent fruit, with atough pericarp. Itis formed of two rows
of carpels, one row being placed above the other, and surrounded
by the calyx ; the seeds being attached irregularly to the walls or
centre. The Pomegranate fruit (jig. 723), isthe only example.
2. FRUITS FORMED BY THE COMBINATION OF SEVERAL
FLOWERS.
These fruits have been termed Anthocarpous, as they
consist not only of the mature carpels of several flowers
united, but also usually of the bracts and floral envelopes in
combination with them, that is to say, the whole inflorescence
is blended to form the fruit. They have been also called
¥
322 COLLECTIVE FRUITS—-CONE—GALBULUS.
Multiple, Aggregate, and Collective fruits, and the two former
terms have also been applied in a different sense, as mentioned
under the head of Apocarpous fruits (pages 312 and 314). Some
botanists also term them Infrutescences or Confluent fruits.
Such fruits have been likewise termed polythalamic, to distinguish
them from fruits formed by single flowers, which are called
monothalamic. The following have received distinctive names :—
1. The Cone is a more or less elongated fruit, composed of a
number of indurated scales, each of which bears one or more
naked seeds (fig. 730) on its inner surface. This fruit is seen
in the Scotch Fir (fig. 724), Larch, Hemlock Spruce (jig.
420), and a great many other plants of the order Conifere ;
which derives its name from this circumstance. All plants also
of the Cycas family which possess fruit have one of a similar
structure, but here the seeds are more numerous and placed on
the borders of the scales. There are two viewsas to the nature
of the indurated scales : thus, by some botanists they are regarded
as carpels spread open, each representing a female flower ; by
Fic. 724,
1G. 725; Fre: 726, Fig. 727.
Fig. 724. Cone or fruit of the Scotch Fir.
Fig. 725. Galbulus or fruit of
the Juniper (Juniperus communis ).—Fig. 726. Galbulus or fruit of the
Cypress (Cupressus semp2rvirens ). Fig. 727. Sphalerocarpium or fruit
of Fe Yew ( Taxus baccata), surrounded by bracts at the base,
others, as bracts. They certainly more resemble the latter
organs in appearance, as they never present any trace of style
or stigma on their surface. Other botanists (see page 204) regard
the cone as the spurious fruit or pseudocarp of a single flower,
and not as a collection of fruits, as here described. Some again
make no distinction between a cone and a Strobilus (see Strobilus),
2. The Galbulus.—This fruit is but a modification of the Cone ;
differing only in being more or less rounded in form instead of
somewhat conical, and in having the heads of the scales much
enlarged. Itis seen in the Cypress (jig. 726), and in the Juniper
(fig. 725). In the latter the scales become fleshy, and are united
tovether into one mass, so that it somewhat resembles at first
sight a berry, bat its nature is at once seen by examining the
apex, when three radiating lines will be observed corresponding
SPHALEROCARPIUM—S&TROBILUS—SOROSIS, 325
to the three fleshy scales of which the fruit is formed, and which
are here but imperfectly united.
No other kind of fruits except the Cone and alii are
found in the natural orders Coniferze and Cycadacee.
In the Yew (Taxus baccata) (fig. 727) and other plants
belonging to the Taxaceze, an order closely allied to the Coni-
ferze and Cycadacezx, the so-called fruit is in reality not a fruit
at all, as it consists simply, as demonstrated by Sir Joseph
Hooker, of a naked seed, surrounded, except at the apex, by
a fleshy cup or aril. This so-called fruit has been termed a
Sphalerocarpium. _ Properly speaking, even if regarded as a
fruit, it does not belong to the class of Collective fruits at all,
as it is formed of but a single flower. We have placed it here,
following Lindley’s arrangement, and because, like the two
preceding fruits, its essential character consists in its naked
seed. Some other fruits are, however, included by Lindley and
others with this under the name of Sphalerocarpium.
The Cone must be carefully distinguished from Cone-like
fruits, such as those of the Magnolia (fig. 667) and Liriodendron.
“ne latter are not collective fruits at all, but they consist of
the mature carpels or follicles of a single flower, placed upon
an elongated thalamus.
3. The Strobilus or Strobile.-—The fruit of the Hop (Humulus
Lupulus) (fig. 421) is by some botanists considered as a kind of
Cone with membranous scales, to which the name of Strobilus
or Strobile has been given ; but the strobile differs essentially
from the cone, in having its seed distinctly enclosed in a carpel
placed at the base of each scale. We distinguish this fruit,
therefore, as a distinct kind,
under the above name. It Fic. 728, Fig, 729.
should also be noticed that the
term Strobilus is frequently
employed as synonymous with
Cone.
4. The Sorosis is a collective
fruit, formed of a number of
separate flowers firmly coherent
into a fleshy or pulpy mass with
the floral axis upon which they
are situated. Examples of this
may be seen in the Pineapple Jig. 728. Sorosis or fruit of the Mul-
berry (Morus nigra). Fig. 729.
(fig. 292), where each Be Uare Fruit (eterio) of the Raspberry (Rubus
portion represents a flower; and = deus).
the whole is surmounted by a
crown of empty bracts. The Bread-fruit and Jack-fruit are
other examples of the sorosis. The Mulberry (fig. 728) may
be also cited as another well-known fruit, which presents an
example of the sorosis. At first sight, the Mulberry appears
to resemble the Raspberry (jig. 729), Blackberry, and other
yY2
224 SYCONUS. THE OVULE.
fruits of the genus Rubus, but in origin and structure the latter
are totally different. Thus, as already noticed in speaking of
the Etzrio (page 314), the Raspberry, and other fruits of the
genus Rubus, consist of a number of drupes or fleshy achzenia
crowded together upon a dry thalamus, and are all the produce
of a single flower. But in the Mulberry, on the contrary,
each rounded portion of which the fruit is made up is de-
rived from a flower, the calyx of which has become succulent
and united to the ovary ; the combination of a number of flowers
in this case therefore forms the fruit, while in the Raspberry
the fruit is produced by one flower only.
4. The Syconus is a collective fruit, formed of an enlarged
and more or less succulent receptacle, which bears a number of
separate flowers. The Fig (jig. 406) is an example of a syconus.
Tn this, the flowers are almost entirely enclosed by the enlarged
hollow, pear-shaped receptacle, and what are commonly called
seeds are in reality one-seeded fruits resembling achzenia. The
Dorstenia (fig. 407) is another example of the syconus, although
it differs a good deal from that of the Fig in its general appear-
ance ; thus the receptacle is less succulent, and only slightly
concave except at its margins, so that the separate fruits are here
readily observed.
All the more important fruits which have been named and
described by botanists have now been alluded to, but in
practice only a few are in common use—such as the Legume,
Drupe, Achene, Follicle, Caryopsis, Siliqua, Silicula, Capsule,
Nut, Pome, Berry, and Cone. This has arisen, partly from
the same names having been given by different botanists to
totally distinct kinds of fruits; and partly from botanists in
many cases preferring to describe a particular fruit according to
the special characters it presents. It is, however, much to be
regretted that a comprehensive arrangement of accurately-named
and well-defined fruits should not be generally adopted, as it
cannot be doubted that, if such were the case, it would be
attended with much advantage, and save a good deal of unne-
cessary description and repetition.
4
Section 6. THE OvuLE AND SEED.
Havine now described the nature, structure, and general
characters of the gyncecium or unimpregnated pistil, and the
fruit or mature pistil, we pass to the description of the bodies
contained respectively within them, namely, the Ovule or
infertilised body, and the Seed or fertilised Ovule.
1. THE OVULE.
The ovule is a small, somewhat rounded or oval, pulpy
‘body, borne by the placenta, and which when fertilised becomes
the seed. It is either attached directly to the placenta, when
NUMBER OF THE OVULES, 324
it is said to be sessile (figs. 33, 0, 0, and 633, g) 3 or indirectly
by a stalk called the funiculus or funicle (figs. 615, ov, and
637), when it is described as stalked. The point of attachment
of the ovule to the placenta if sessile, or to the funiculus when
stalked, is termed the hilum. 'These terms are applied to the
seed in the same sense as to the ovule. The ovule has been com-
pared to a bud, and has been called the seed-bud by Schleiden
and others.
The ovules are commonly enclosed in an ovary (fig. 33, 0, ‘0),
but all plants of the Conifers, Cycadacez, and allied orders
are exceptions to this ; thus in the Cyca-
dacez they are situated on the margins
of leaves in a peculiarly metamorphosed
condition, and in the Conifere at the
base of indurated bracts or open carpel-
lary leaves (fig. 730, ov). Such ovules
are therefore termed naked, and as the
seeds of these plants are also naked, such
plants are called Gymnospermous ; while
those plants in which the ovules are dis-
tinctly enclosed in an ovary, are said to
be Aigiospermous. It should be noticed,
however, that there are some plants in
which the seeds become partially naked 7%. 730. Bract or carpellary
in the course of the development of the ae ea ee
ovary into the fruit, as in the Mignonette ovules, ov, at its base.
(fig. 665), Leontice, and Cuphea,inwhich 7 Mioropyle yor. Tora.
cases they are sometimes termed semi-
nude. True Gymnospermous plants, or those in which the
ovules are naked from their earliest formation, should be care-
fully distinguished from those with seminude ovules, as the
former character is always associated with important structural
peculiarities in the plants themselves, as we have already noticed
in treating of the stem and other organs. Other important
differences will also be described hereafter, and more especially
in the Physiological part of this volume, under the head of
Reproduction of Gymnospermia.
NUMBER AND PosITION OF THE OvuLES.—a. Number.—The
number of ovules in the ovary, or in each of its cells, varies
in different plants. Thus in the Polygonacez, Composite,
Thymelacez, and Dipsacacez, the ovary contains but a solitary
ovule ; in the Umbellifere and Araliaceze, there is but one
ovule in each cell. When there is more than one ovule in the
ovary, or in each of its cells, the number may be either few
and easily counted, when the ovules are said to be definite,
as in 4sculus ( fig. 735),—and the ovary or cell is then described
as biovulate, triovulate, quadriovulate, quinqueovulate, &e. ; or,
the ovules may be very numerous, when they are said to be
multiovulate or indefinite, as in the Pansy (fig. 33, ov).
Fie. 730.
326 POSITION OF THE OVULES.
b. Position.—The position of the ovules with regard to the
cavity or cell in which they are placed is also liable to vary.
Thus when there is but one ovule, this may arise at the bottom
HIG. fale
Fig. 731. Vertical section of the fruit
of a species of Rumex ( Polygonacece).
p. Enlarged calyx surrounding the
fruit. The fruit contains a single
erect orthotropous seed. The posi-
tion of the ovule in the ovary is
also described as erect and ortho-
tropous. The embryo is inverted
or antitropous.
of the ovary or cell and be directed
towards the summit, as in Com-
posite and Polygonaceze (fig.
731), when it is said to be erect ;
or it may be inserted at the sum-
mit of the ovary and be turned
downwards, as in Hippuris (fig.
732), in which case it 1s inverse or
pendulous ; or if it is attached a
little above the base, and directed
obliquely upwards, as in Parie-
taria (fig. 733), it is ascending ; or
if, on the contrary, it arises a
little below the summit, and is
directed obliquely downwards, as
in the Mezereon (fig. 734) and
Apricot, it is suspended; or if
from the side of the ovary, with-
out turning upwards or down-
wards, as in Crassula, it is hori-
zontal or peltate. In some plants, as in Armeria (fig. 637), the
ovule is suspended from the end of a long funiculus arising
ihieeyeye Fic. 7333
Fig. 732. Vertical section of the ovary of the Mare’s Tail (Hippuris vul-
garis). oO. Ovule, which is inverse or pendulous, and anatropous. s. Base
of the style. f. Funiculus. 7. Raphe. ec. Chalaza.—Fig. 733. Vertical
section of the ovary of the Pellitory (Pavietaria officinalis), with a single
ascending ovyule. The letters have the same references as in the last figure.
Fig. 734. Vertical section of the ovary of the Mezereon (Daphne Meze-
reum), containing a solitary suspended ovule. The letters refer as before.
From Jussieu.— Fig. 735. Vertical section of a cell of the ovary of a spe-
cies of @sculus containing two ovules, 0, 0, one of which is ascending and
the other suspended. mm, m. The micropyle or foramen in the two ovules.
s. Base of the style. From Jussieu.
from the base of the ovary; such an ovule is frequently termed.
reclinate.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVUWLE. 327
In the above cases the position of the ovule is in general
constant, and hence this character is frequently of much impor-
tance in distinguishing genera, and even natural orders. Thus,
in the Compositze the solitary ovule is always erect ; while in the
allied orders, the Valerianaceze and Dipsacacez, it is suspended
or pendulous ;—the two latter terms are frequently used in-
differently by botanists. In the Polygonacez (jig. 731), the
ovule is also always solitary and erect ; and in the Thymelace
(fig. 734), itis suspended. In other natural orders we find the
position varying in different genera, although generally constant
in the same ; thus, in the Rosacez, the genera Gewm, Alche-
mula, and others, have an ascending ovule, while those of
Poterium, Sanguisorba, &c., have it suspended, and in Potentilla
both ascending and suspended ovules are found. In the
Ranunculacez also we find the ovule varying in like manner as
regards its position.
We will now consider the position of the ovules when their
number is more than one. Thus when the ovary or cell has two
ovules, these may be either placed side by side at the same level
and have the same direction, as in Nuttallia, when they are said
to be collateral ; or they may be placed at different heights, and
then they may either follow the same direction, when they are
superposed, or one ovule may be ascending and the other sus-
pended, as in Asculus (fig. 735). The position of the ovules in
those cases where they are in definite numbers, is also usually
constant and regular, and similar terms are employed ; but
when the number of ovules in the ovary or cell is indefinite, the
relations are less constant, and depend in a great measure upon
the shape of the cell and the size of the placentas. Thus in the
long ovaries of many of the Leguminosz and Crucifere (jig. 615),
the ovules are superposed, and by not crowding each other they
will all be turned in the same direction ; while, on the contrary,
if the ovules are numerous, and developed in a small space, they
will necessarily press against each other, and acquire irregular
forms and varying positions, according to the direction of the
pressure. In describing these varying positions the same terms
are used as those referred to when speaking of the relations of
the solitary ovule. These terms are also applied in the same
sense to the relations of the seed in the pericarp.
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE OvuLE.—The ovule
first appears on the placenta as a little conical cellular projection,
which gradually enlarges and ultimately acquires a more or less
rcunded or oval form, which is sessile or stalked, andistermed the
nucellus or wucleus (fig. 738), and which may be regarded as corre-
sponding to the megasporangium of some of the vascular Crypto-
gams (page 369). This nucellus is at first perfectly uniform in
texture and appearance. presenting no cavities except those of
the ordinary parenchymatous cells of which it is composed, and
having no integuments or coats ; but as development proceeds
328 DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVULE.
a special cavity is formed at or near its apex (fig. 739, c), in
which the embryo or rudimentary future plant is developed
after fertilisation ; hence this cavity is called the embryo-sac. It
is analogous to the megaspore (page 370) of cryptogamous plants.
In rare cases, as in the Mistletoe, two or three embryo-sacs are
formed. This sac is produced by the special development of
one of the cells lying near the centre of the nucellus, which as it
continues to increase in size presses upon the surrounding
parenchymatous cells, and thus occasions their more or less com-
plete absorption, This sac sometimes causes the almost entire
absorption of the nucellus, and even projects beyond it, either
through the opening in its coats afterwards to be described,
called the micropyle (figs. 742, e, and 743, m), or through its
sides in various directions, by which one or more saccate pro-
cesses are formed. More usually, however, the tissue of the
nucellus is not entirely absorbed, but a variable proportion is
left surrounding the embryo-
Fic. 737, 8a¢. _ The sac contains at first
an abundance of watery cell-
sap and protoplasm, in which,
before fertilisation takes place,
there are usually three rounded
hy ess. i + or oval large nucleated cells
Pasi; formed at its apex, which have
ie Te been termed the germinal or
t, f? embryonic vesicles (fig. 737, b).
“>< Different views have been
Aa entertained of the structure
of these germinal vesicles.
But they are now universally
regarded as simply nucleated
Fig. 736. Apex of the embryo-sac in the
ovule of Polygonum divaricatum. 8s, 5S. masses of protoplasm, or, in
Synergide. e. Oosphere-——Fig. 737. other words, primordial cells,
The internal parts of the ovule a short 5S
time before fertilisation. «a. Inner coat as will be afterwards fully
of the ovule. s. Embryo-sac. b. Ger- explained when treating of the
minal vesicles. ¢. One of the antipodal Reproduction of the Angio-
py wee me spermia. Less frequently one,
three, or more of these cells make their appearance. Sometimes
the germinal vesicles are considerably elongated, being attached
to the wall of the embryo-sac by the narrower end, and projecting
by their free rounded extremity into the cavity of the sac.
The two upper of these germinal vesicles (jig. 736) have been
termed the synergide, s, s; and the third, which is placed
somewhat laterally lower down, is the oosphere or ovwm-cell, e,
which ultimately becomes the embryo, as will be explained
hereafter (see Reproduction of the Phanerogamia). Besides
these germinal vesicles, the embryo-sac usually contains, before
fertilisation has been accomplished, two or more small nucleated
cells which have been called antipodal cells (fig. 737, ¢), from
STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE. 329
being commonly situated at the opposite end of the sac to the
germinal vesicles, that is, at its base. These cells have a cell-
wall formed of cellulose ; but their purport is unknown, and
their existence is temporary, as they disappear after fertilisation.
Some ovules, as those of the Mistletoe ( jig. 739), consist simply
of the nucellus, 1, and embryo-sac, c,as above described, in which
case the nucellus is termed waked (fig. 738) ; but in almost all
plants it becomes enclosed in one or, two coats. Thus, in the
Walnut there is but one coat, which appears at first as a little
circular process around its base ; this gradually increases in size,
and by growing upwards ultimately forms a sheath or cellular
coat to the nucellus, which it entirely closes except at the apex,
where a small opening may be always observed (fig. 740, end).
The coat thus formed, where there is but one, is called the in-
tegumentum simplex, s; and the orifice, end, at the apex of the
nucellus, n, is termed the micropyle or foramen. Besides the
HIG. Vos. Fie. 739. Fie. 740. Fie. 741.
Fig. 738. Ovule of the Mistletoe (Viscum album), consisting of a naked
nucellus.— Fig. 739. The same ovule cut vertically to show the embryo-
sac, c, in the nucellus, n. Fig.740. Ovule of the Walnut (Juglans regia).
n. Projecting end of the nucellus. s. Coat covering the nucellus except
at the foramen, end.— Fig. 741. Ovule of a species of Polygonum. 7. End
of ovyule where it is attached to the placenta. p. Primine. s, Secundine,
ex. Exostome, end. Endostome. x. Projecting end of the nucellus.
Walnut, there is only one coat formed in the Compositze, Cam-
panulaceze, Lobeliacezx, and some other orders.
In most plants, however, the ovule has two coats, in which
case we observe two circular or annular processes around the
base of the nucellus, the inner one being first developed ; these
processes continue to grow upwards as before described, until
they also ultimately form two sheaths or coats, which entirely
enclose the nucellus except at its apex (jig. 741). The inner
coat is at first seen to project beyond the outer, but the latter
ultimately reaches and’ encloses it. The inner coat is usually
termed the secundine ( figs. 741, s, and 742, c), and the outer the
primine ; but some botanists, following the order of development
of the coats, term the inner coat the primine, and the outer the
secundine, thus reversing the order of names as above mentioned.
Others, to prevent confusion, more properly term the inner coat
or secundine, the integwmentwm internwm ; and the outer coat,
or primine, the integumentum externum. The orifice left at
330 RELATION OF HILUM, CHALAZA, AND MICROPYLE.
the apex of the nucellus, as in the former instance where only
one coat is present, is called the foramen or micropyle. The
Fie 0729; openings in the two coats commonly cor-
respond to each other, but it is sometimes
found convenient to distinguish them by
distinct names ; thus, that of the outer is
called the exostome (fig. 741, ex); that of
the inner, endostome, end. In some plants,
as in Welwitschia, the primine appears as
a prolonged tubular body beyond the apex
of the ovule, in which case it closely re-
Dd sembles a style.
/ The nucellus and its coat or coats are
Fig. 742. Section of an intimately connected at one point by a
ovule (diagrammatic). cellulo-vascular cord or layer, called the
om eee ote aE chaiuza (figs. 743, ch, and 744, ch); but at
Outer coat. e, Micro- the other parts of the ovule they are more
Bee es ee g- ov less distinct. This chalaza is the point
i ‘where the vessels pass from the placenta,
or when the ovule is stalked from the funiculus, into the ovule,
for the purpose of affording nourishment to it ; it is generally
indicated by being coloured, and of a denser texture than the
tissue by which it is surrounded. The chalaza is by some con-
sidered as the organic base of the ovule, and the micropyle as
the organic apex ; but it is better to speak of the hilum as the
organic base of the ovule, and the chalaza as the base of the
nucellus. Through the micropyle the influence of the pollen
is conveyed to the embryo-sac, as will be hereafter fully
described.
The development and structure of the ovules as described
above refer only to those of the Angiospermia ; those of the
Gymnospermia present some very striking differences, which
will be described hereafter, when speaking of their repro-
duction.
RELATION OF THE Hitum, CHALAZA, AND MICROPYLE TO ONE
ANOTHER. — When an ovule is first developed, the point of union
of its coats and nucellus, called the chalaza, is at the base or
hilum, close to the placenta or funiculus; in which case a
straight line would pass from the micropyle through the axis of
the nucellus and its coats to the hilum. In rare instances this
relation of parts is preserved throughout its development, as
in the Polygonaceze (fig. 743) ; when the ovule is termed ortho-
tropous, atropous, or straight. In such an ovule, therefore, the
micropyle, m, would be situated at its geometrical apex, or at
the end farthest removed from the hilum, in which case the
organic apex would correspond to the geometrical apex ; while
the chalaza, ch, would be placed at the base of the ovule or
hilum.
It generally happens, however, that the ovule, instead of
ORTHOTROPOUS AND CAMPYLOTROPOUS OVULES. aol
being straight as in the above instance, becomes more or less
curved, or even altogether inverted. Thus in the Wallflower
(fig. 744), and other plants of the order to which it belongs, as
well as in the Caryophyllacez and many other plants, the apex
of the ovule becomes gradually turned downwards towards its
base, and is ultimately placed close to it, so that the whole
Fic. 743. ; Fic. 744.
cK “Aue
Fig. 743. Vertical section of the orthotropous ovule of Polygonum. ch.
Chalaza. prim. Primine. sec. Secundine. mv. Nucellus. s. Embryo-sac.
m. Micropyle.——Fig. 744. Vertical section of a campylotropous oyule
of Wallflower (Cheiranthus). jf. Funiculus. ch. Chalaza. d. Primine. s.
Secundine. 7. Nucellus. mic. Micropyle. .
ovule is bent upon itself, and a line drawn from the micropyle,
mic, through the axis of the nucellus, m, and its coats, would
describe a curve ; hence such ovules are called campylotropous or
curved. In these ovules, the chalaza, ch, and hilum correspond
as in orthotropous ones, but the micropyle, mic, instead of being
at the geometrical apex of the ovule, is brought down close to
Fia. 740.
Fig. 745. The campylotropous ovule of the Mallow in its different stages of
development. From Le Maout. In @ the curvature is commencing, in }
it is more evident, in ¢ stil! more marked, and in d it is completed. /.
Funiculus. p. Primine. s. Secundine. m. End of nucellus. ev, Exostome.
end. Endostome.
the hilum or base. The progressive development of the campylo-
tropous ovule is well seen in the Mallow, as represented in figure
745, a, b,c, d. This kind of ovule appears to be formed by one
side developing more extensively than the other, by which the
micropyle is pushed round to the base.
In a third class of ovules the relative positions of parts is
ae2 ANATROPOUS AND AMPHITROPOUS OVULES.
exactly the reverse of that of orthotropous ones—hence such are
called anatropous or inverted ovules. This arises from the adhe-
rence of the funiculus to the outer coat of the ovule, so that
during its development the base of the nucellus is pushed up
and completely inverted, so that the chalaza (fig. 746, ch) is
removed from the hilum, h, to the geometrical apex of the
ovule ; the micropyle, f, being at the same time turned towards
the hilum, i. In anatropous ovules a connexion is always
maintained between the chalaza and the hilum by means of a
vascular cord or ridge called the raphe (fig. 746, 7), which is the
elongated funiculus adherent to the ovule. This raphe or cord
of nutritive vessels passing from the placenta or funiculus, and
which by its expansion forms the chalaza, is generally situated
in anatropous ovules on the side which is turned towards the
Fic. 746.
Fie. 747.
Fig. 746. Vertical section of the anatropous ovule of the Dandelion. i.
Hilum. jf. Micropyle or foramen. x. Nucellus. s. Base of the nucellus.
ch. Chalaza. 7, Raphe.——fig. 747. Longitudinal section of the amphi-
tropous or transverse ovule of Lemna trisulca. jf. Funiculus. 7.
Nucellus. p. Primine. sec. Secundine, s. Embryo-sac. ch. Chalaza, 7.
Raphe. m. Micropyle. From Schleiden.
placenta or funiculus. Anatropous ovules are very common ;
examples may be found in the Dandelion (fig. 746), Apple, and
Cucumber.
Besides the three kinds of ovules mentioned above there is
another kind more rarely met with which is intermediate between
orthotropous and anatropous, to which the name of amphitropous
has been given. In this ovule, which is also called heterotropous
or transverse, the hilum, f, is on one side, and the micropyle, m,
and chalaza, ch, are placed transversely to it (jig. 747), and
therefore parallel to the placenta. In this case the hilum is
connected to the chalaza by a short raphe, r.
The further development of the ovule will be described
hereafter under the head of Reproduction of the Phanerogamia.
NATURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE SEED. 333
2. THE SEED.
NATURE AND GENFRAL CHARACTERS OF THE SEED AS COM-
PARED WITH THE OvuLE.—The seed is the fertilised ovule.
Like the ovule, it is either attached directly to the placenta, in
which case it is described as sessile; or by means of a stalk,
called the funiculus or funicle (figs. 668, f, and 748, f), when it is
said to be stalked ; its point of attachment
is also termed the hilum. The position
of this hilum may be commonly seen on
seeds which have separated from the funi-
culus or placenta, by the presence of a scar,
or in a difference of colour to the sur-
rounding integument. The hilum varies
muchin size, being sometimes very minute,
while in other cases it extends for some
distance over the surface of the outer coat
of the seed, as in the Horsechestnut and
Calabar Bean. The centre of the hilum,
Fic. 748.
”
I
te! |
Ee” Pap pb
Fig. 748. The seed of a
Pea, with its integu-
ments removed on one
through which the nourishing vessels pass, side. p/. Placenta. f.
has been called the omphalodium. The
hilum, as in the ovule, indicates the base
of the seed, while the apex is represented
by the chalaza. This chalaza (fig. 748, ch)
is generally more evident in the seed than
in the ovule, and is frequently of a differ-
ent colour to the other parts. It is well
seen in the Orange, and commonly in all
anatropous seeds, in which case also the
Funiculus. 7ap. Raphe.
ch. Chalaza. m. Micro-
pyle. te. Testa or epi-
sperm. e. Endopleura
or tegmen. The part
within the endopleura
is commonly called the
nuc'eus of the seed, and
is formed of cotyle-
dons, ce, gemmule or
plumule, g, radicle, 7,
and ¢ stalk or tigellum
between the plumu'te
raphe may be generally noticed forming and radicle.
a projection on the face of the seed.
The micropyle also, although smaller and less distinct than
in the ovule, owing to a contraction of the surrounding parts,
may be frequently observed on the seed (fig. 748, m); its
detection is of some practical importance, as the radicle, r,
of the embryo, with a few exceptions, is directed towards
it. Itshould be noticed that while the micropyle constitutes
the organic apex of the ovule, the chalaza indicates that of
the seed.
The terms orthotropous, campylotropous, anatropous, &ce.,
are applied to seeds in the same sense as to ovules ; consequently
the hilum, chalaza, and micropyle have the same relations to
one another in the seed as in the ovule. Thus the hilum and
chalaza are contiguous to each other in an orthotropous seed,
and the micropyle is removed to the opposite end ; in a campy-
lotropous seed the hilum and chalaza are also near to each
other, and the micropyle is brought round so as to approach
the hilum ; in an anatropous seed the chalaza is removed from
334 FORMS OF SEEDS.
the hilum and placed at the opposite end, while the micropyle
and hilum correspond to each other ; while in amphitropous
seeds, the chalaza and micropyle are both removed from the
hilum, and placed transversely to it. ;
Almost all seeds, like ovules, are more or less enclosed in a
pericarp, the only real exceptions to this law being in Gymnosper-
mous plants, as already referred to (page 325) under the head of
the Ovue; and hence the division of Phanerogamous plants, as
already noticed, into the Gymnospermia and the Angiospermia.
The means of distinguishing small fruits from seeds have been
also already described. (See pages 295 and 313.)
In describing the position of the seed in the fruit, the same
terms are used as already mentioned (page 326) under the head
of the Ovute. Thus a seed may be erect, inverse, pendulous,
suspended, ascending, &c. The number of seeds contained in
the fruit or pericarp is also subject to variation, and corre-
sponding terms are employed accordingly ; thus we say the
fruit or pericarp is monospermous, bispermous, trispermous,
quadrispermous, quinquespermous, multispermous, &c.; or one-
seeded, two-seeded, three-seeded, fowr-seeded, five-seeded, many-
seeded, &c.
Having now alluded to those characters, &c., which the seed
possesses in common with the ovule, we pass to the considera-
tion of its special characteristics.
Forms oF SEEDS.—Seeds vary much in form, and, in de-
scribing these variations, similar terms are employed to those
used in like modifications of the other organs of the plant.
Fic. 749. Ere: 750; Fie. 7h. PiIGs woes
Fig. 749. Rounded seed of the Watercress (Nasturtium officinale). The
testa is reticulated or netted.— Fig. 750. Reniform seed of the Poppy
(Papaver), with an alveolate or pitted testa. Fig. 751. Obovoid seed of
the Larkspur (Delphinium), the testa of which is marked with ridges and
furrows. Fig. 752. Seed of Chickweed (Stellavia), the testa of which is
tuberculated.
Thus, a seed may be rounded, as in the Nasturtiwm (fig. 749) ;
ovoid, as in Polygala (fig. 759) ; oval, as in Asclepias (fig. 755) ;
obovoid, as in Delphinium (fig. 751) ; reniform, as in Papaver
(fig. 750), &e. &e.
STRUCTURE OF THE SEED.—The seed consists essentially of
two parts ; namely, of the inner substance or body of the seed,
which is commonly termed the Nucleus or Kernel (figs. 36, emb,
alb, and 757, N), and Inteyuments or Coats ( figs. 36, int, and 757, 7).
STRUCTURE OF THE SEED—THE INTEGUMENTS., 330
1. THe INTEGUMENTS OR Coats.—There are two seed-coats
orinteguments. These have been variously named by botanists ;
the terms employed in this volume, and those most frequently
used, are testa or episperm for the outer coat; and tegmen or
endoplewra for the inner.
a. Testa, Episperm, or Outer Coat (fig. 748, te).—This integu-
ment may be either formed of the primine of the ovule only, or,
as is more frequently the case, by the combined primine and
secundine. The testa is generally composed of ordinary paren-
chymatous cells ; but in some seeds, as in those of Acanthodiwm,
we have in addition a coating of hair-like cells containing spiral
fibres (see page 65). These cells are pressed closely to the
surface of the seed by a layer of mucilage ; hence if such seeds
be moistened with water, the mucilage which confines them
becomes dissolved, by which they are set free, and then branch
out in every direction. It frequently happens, also, that the
membrane of the cells is ruptured, and the elastic fibres which
they contain then becoming uncoiled, extend to a considerable
distance from the testa. The seeds of Collomia (see page 45)
and many other Polemoniaceous plants, &c., exhibit this curious
structure, and form beautiful microscopic objects.
Colour, Texture, and Surface of the Testa.—In colour, the
testa is more generally of a brown or somewhat similar hue, as
in the Almond, but it frequently assumes other colours ; thus,
in some Poppies it is whitish or yellowish, in others black,
in Indian Shot (Canna) and Peony also somewhat black, in
the Arnatto and Barricarri (Adenanthera) red, in French Beans
and the seeds of the Castor-oil plant beautifully mottled,
and various other tints may be observed in the seedsof different
lants.
a The testa also varies in texture, being either of a soft nature,
or fleshy and succulent, or more or less spongy, or membranous,
or coriaceous, or when the interior of its cell-walls is much thick-
ened, it assumes various degrees of hardness, and may become
woody, crustaceous, Xe.
The surface of the testa also presents various appearances,
and is often furnished with different appendages. Thus it may
be smooth, as in Adenanthera ; or wrinkled, as in Nigella ;
striated, as in Tobacco ; marked with ridges and furrows, as in
Delphinium (fig. 751); netted, as in Nasturtium (fig. 749) ;
alveolate or pitted, as in the Poppy (jig. 750) ; tuberculated, as
in Chickweed (fig. 752) ; spiny, as in the Mulberry, &. The
testa of some seeds is also furnished with hairs, which may
either cover the entire surface, as in the various species of
Gossypium where they constitute the material of so much value
called Cotton (see page 67), and in the Silk-cotton tree (Bom-
bax); or they may be confined to certain points of the surface,
as in the Willow (fig. 756), Asclepias (fig. 755), and Epilobium
(fig. 761). In the latter cases the tufts of hairs, thus contined to
‘
336 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE TESTA.
certain points of the testa, constitute what is called a coma, and
the seed is said to be comose.
Other seeds, again, have winged appendages of various
kinds ; thus, in the Sandwort (jig. 754), the testa is prolonged,
so as to form a flattened margin to the seed, which is then de-
Fie. 753.
Fig. 753. Seed of a species of Pinus, with a winged ap-
pendage, w.— Fig. 754. Marginate or bordered seed of
Sandwort (Arenaria).——Fig. 755. Comose oval seed of
Asclepias, — Fig.756. Comose seed of aspecies of Willow
(Salix).
scribed as marginate or bordered ; while in the seeds of the Pinus
(fig. 753, w), Catalpa, Bignonia, Swietenia, Moringa, &c., the
testa forms wings, and the seed is said to be winged. These
winged seeds must be carefully distinguished from samaroid
fruits, such as the Ash, Elm, and Maple (jig. 706), where the
wing is an expansion of
Vie. 757. | the pericarp instead of
= the testa. In like man-
ee “ds Sui Peele Set ee hairy seeds should
7 ~ ig. , ung ana- .
IN’ AE ON felis seed of theo. MOb i Be confounded with
FP. AoE White Water-Lily pappose fruits, such as
ATHEROS \ A (Numphea alba) cut those of the Compositze
BHR ree Ae XD } vertically. ¥F. Funi- : P
F ae RESTON \ culus, A, A. Gelati- Dipsacacez (fig. 468), and
I eee : ne - eaael Valerianacee (fig. 467),
SE A ENT = nents l seed, .
Bp ReNch| = Sita R. Raphe. where the hairy processes
1-8 Pyioe| Scat 3 ch. Ope late. M. Micro- belong to the calyx.
ARTES E pyle. Ss. Embryo-sac. ‘
NB oY Fl E. Rudimentary em- Beneath the testa, in
Nettet| Cee pryo. anatropous seeds (figs.
OE) SLRS s e
ch Suing 757, R, and 748, rap), and
Sinners the modification of these
SA
termed amplhitropous, the
raphe or vascular cord
connecting the hilum with the chalaza is found. Its situation
is frequently indicated by a projecting ridge on the surface
of the seed, as in the Orange, while at other times it lies in a
furrow formed in the substance of the testa, so that the surface
TEGMEN OR ENDOPLEURA.—ARILLUS. 337
of the seed is smooth, and no evidence is afforded externally of
its position.
The testa is also usually marked externally by a scar indi-
eating the hilum or point by which it is attached to the funi-
culus or placenta. The micropyle, as already noticed (page 333),
may be also sometimes seen on the surface of the testa, as in the
Pea (jig. 748, m) ; but in those cases where no micropyle can be
detected externally, its position can only be ascertained by dissec-
tion, when it will be indicated by the termination of the radicle ;
this being directed, as already alluded to (page 333), towards the
micropyle. In some seeds, as in the Asparagus, the situation of
the micropyle is marked by a small hardened point, which sepa-
rates like a little lid at the period of germination: this has been
termed the embryotegia.
On removing the testa, we observe the raphe, which fre-
quently ramifies over the inner coat, and where it terminates it
constitutes the chalaza (fig. 757, ch, and 774, ch). The structure
and general appearances of these different parts have been already
described. (See page 333.)
b. Tegmen, Endopleura, or Internal Coat (fia. 748, e).—The
inner membrane or coat of the seed is essentially parenchy-
matous like the outer. This integument usually appears to
originate either from the substance of the nucellus or from
the secundine of the ovule ; but sometimes in other ways. In
many cases, however, it seems to be altogether wanting, which
probably arises from its complete incorporation or adherence
to the testa. Sometimes the embryo-sac in the ripe seed
remains distinct from the albumen of the nucleus (fig. 762),
and remains in the form of a bag or sac which envelopes
the embryo, as in the Nymphzeaceze, Piperaceze, and Zingi-
beraceze. To this distinct membrane the name of vitellus has
been given.
When clearly distinguishable the tegmen is generally of a
soft and delicate nature, although sometimes it is of a fleshy
character either entirely or in part. It is usvally of a whitish
colour, and more or less transparent. This layer is closely ap-
plied to the nucleus of the seed, which it accompanies in all its
foldings and windings ; and in some cases even dips down into
the albumen of the nucleus, and thus divides it more or less
completely into a number of parts, as in the Nutmeg and Betel-
nut (fig. 763, p). (See ALBUMEN, page 341.) The testa may
either accompany the tegmen in its windings ; or, as more fre-
quently happens, especially when the nucleus is curved, the tegmen
alone follows the windings of the nucleus, the testa remaining in
an almost even condition.
Arillus.—Besides the two integuments described above as
those that are usually found in all seeds, we occasionally find
on the surface of some seeds an additional integument, which is
generally of a partial nature (fig. 757, a, A), and to which the
Z
338 ARILLUS.—CARUNCULE.
name of arillus or aril has been given. No trace of this structure
is present in the ovule till after the process of fertilisation has
taken place. Two kinds of aril have been described, which
have been respectively called the true arillus, and the false
arillus or arillode. These have an entirely different origin ;
thus, the true arillus arises in a somewhat similar manner to
the coats of the ovule already described (page 329), that is to
say, it makes its first appearance around the hilum in the form
of an annular process derived from the placenta or funiculus,
and gradually proceeds upwards, so as to produce a more or less
complete additional covering to the seed, on the outside of the
testa. This arillus is well seen in the Nymphcea (fig. 757, A, A).
But the false arillus or arillode arises from the micropyle, and
seems to be a development or expansion of the exostome,
which gradually extends itself more or less over the testa to
which it forms a covering, and after thus coating the seed, it
Fic. 758.
Fig. 758. Progressive development of the arillode in the seed of the Spindle-
tree (Euonymus). a. Arillode. f. Funiculus. 1, represents the youngest
seed; 2 and 3, the progressive development of the arillode; 4, the oldest
and fully developed seed.
may be even bent back again so as to enclose the micropyle.
The gradual development of the arillode in the seed of the
Spindle-tree is well shown in jig. 758. In the Nutmeg, the
arillus originates from both the hilum and the micropyle ; it
forms a scarlet covering to the testa, and is commonly known
in commerce when dried and preserved, under the name of
mace. According to Miers, the arillode in the Spindle-tree is
produced from the funiculus and not from the exostome, in
which case it would necessarily be an arillus, and not an arillode
as commonly described. In practical Botany both the true
arillus and arillode are commonly designated under the general
term of aril.
Caruncules or Strophioles.—These are small irregular protu-
berances which are found on various parts of the testa. They
are always developed, like the arillus and arillode, subsequent
to fertilisation, and are accordingly not found in the ovule. In
the Milkwort (jig. 759) they are situated at the base or hilum
of the seed ; in the Asarabacca (jig. 760) and Violet on the side,
CARUNCULES OR STROPHIOLES.—THE NUCLEUS. 339
in a line with the raphe ; while in the Spurge they are placed
at the micropyle. Some writers consider these caruncules as
forms of the aril, of which they then distinguish four varieties,
namely :—1. The true arillus, as in Nymplhea (fig. 757, a, a);
2. The arillode or micropylar arillus, as in Hwonymus (fig. 758);
3. The raphian arillus, as in Asarum (fig. 760); and 4. The
chalazal arillus, as in Epilobiwm (fig. 761), where the tuft of
hairs at one end of the seed is regarded as an aril. Other
writers again partially adopt these views, and define the carun-
cules as little protuberances growing from the raphe, and
therefore originating independently of the funiculus or micro-
pyle ; hence the caruncules of Milkwort and Spurge would be
regarded as true or false arils according to their respective origins,
and the appendages of Asarabacca and Violet would be true
earuncules. Other botanists again, instead of using the two terms
strophioles and caruncules as synonymous with each other, apply
Fie. 759.
Fig. 759. Ovoid seed of Milkwort (Polygala), with a caruncule at its base
or hilum.— Fig. 760. Seed of Asarabacca (Asarum), with a caruncule ou
the side, which is called by some a raphian arillus. Fig. 761, Section
of the comose seed of Epilobium. The tuft of hairy processes is some-
times called a chalazal arillus.
the former term only when the processes proceed from the hilum,
and the latter to those coming from the micropyle. Altogether,
there is a great ditference of opinion among botanists, as to the
application of the terms caruncules and strophioles ; but in this
country they are more commonly understood in the sense in
which we have first defined them.
2. THE Nuctevus or KERNEL ( figs. 36, emb, alb, and 757, nN).
In order to understand the structure of the body of the seed, or,
as it is commonly termed, the nucleus, we must brieHy narrate
the changes which the nucellus of the ovule undergoes after the
process of fertilisation has been effected. We have already
stated, that at an early period before impregnation has taken
place, a quantity of protoplasmic matter of a semi-fluid nature
is present in the embryo-sac. Very soon after fertilisation has
been accomplished in the Angiospermia, frequently even before
Z2
NUCLEUS OR KERNEL.
340 ALBUMEN.
any change is apparent in the oosphere, a number of cells are
produced by free cell-formation (see Cell-development) in the
protoplasm of the embryo-sac around the embryo. These cells,
which contain nutritive matters of various kinds, especially
designed for the nourishment of the embryo developed in the
sac, form what is usually termed endosperm. In the Gymno-
spermia the endosperm is formed before fertilisation. The cells
existing outside the embryo-sac, or those of the nucellus gene-
rally, also become filled with starch and other nutritive material
in rudimentary seeds, and form what has been called the peri-
sperm.
; The embryo, by absorbing the nourishment by which it is
surrounded, begins to enlarge, and in so doing presses upon the
parenchymatous cells by which it is enclosed,
and thus causes their absorption to a greater
or less extent, according to the size to which
it ultimately attains. In some cases, the
embryo continues to develop until it pro-
duces the destruction, not only of the paren-
chymatous tissue within the embryo-sac, as
well as the sac itself, but also of that of the
nucleus, and it then fills the whole interior of
the seed, and is coated directly by the integu-
ments. But at other times the embryo does
Fic. 762.
Fig. 762. Vertical
section of the seed
of the White Wa-
ter-lily, showing
the embryo en-
closed in the re-
mains of the em-
bryo-sac or vitel-
lus, and on the
outside of this
the albumen sur-
rounded by the
not develop to any such degree ; in which case
it is separated from the integuments by a mass
of parenchymatous tissue of varying thickness
which may be derived from that of the nucleus
itself, or from both that of the nucleus and
embryo-sac according to the extent to which
the embryo has developed. To the tissue which
thus remains and forms a solid mass round the
integuments,
< embryo, the name of albumen has been com-
monly applied ; but as the nature of this substance is different
from that called by chemists vegetable albumen, it is now often
designated as the perisperm or endosperm according to its origin
as described above. Both endosperm and perisperm may be seen
in the Nymphea (figs. 757 and 762). The general name of albu-
men will be alone generally employed in future in this volume,
as it is the one best understood, and so long as we recollect its
origin and nature, the adoption of such a name can lead to no
confusion.
From the above considerations it will be evident that the
nucleus of the seed may either consist of the embryo alone, as
in the Bean and Pea (fig. 748); or of the embryo enclosed in
albumen, as in the Poppy (jig. 775), Pansy (fig. 774, al), Oat
(fig. 705, a), and Nymphexa (fig. 762). We have two parts,
therefore, to describe as constituents of the nucleus, namely,
the albumen and the embryo.
KINDS OF ALBUMEN. 341
a. Albumen, Endosperm, Perisperm.—Those seeds which have
the embryo surrounded by albumen, that is, by either endo-
sperm or perisperm, or both, are said to be albwminous ; while
those in which it is absent are exalbuminous. The amount of
albumen will in all cases, as described above, be necessarily in
inverse proportion to the size of the embryo.
The cells of the albumen contain various substances, such as
starch, albuminoids, oily matters, &c., and thus act as reservoirs
of nutriment for the use of the embryo during the process of
germination.. The varying contents of the cells, together with
certain differences in the consistence of their walls, cause the
albumen to assume different appearances in ripe seeds, and thus
frequently to afford good characteristic marks of different seeds.
Thus, the albumen is described as mealy, starchy, or farinaceous,
when its cells are filled with starch-granules, as in the Oat and
other Cereal grains ; it is said to be fleshy, as in the Barberry
and Heartsease, when its walls are soft and thick ; or when its
cells contain oil-globules, as in the Poppy and Cocoa-nut, it is
oily ; or when the cells are soft, and chiefly formed of mucilage,
as in the Mallow, it is mucilaginous ; and when the cells are
thickened by layers of a hardened nature, so that they become
of a horny consistence, as in the seeds of the Vegetable Ivory
Palm and Coffee plant, the albumen is described as horny.
These different kinds of albumen are frequently more or less
modified in different seeds by the admixture of one with the
other.
Generally speaking, the albumen also presents a uniform ap-
pearance throughout, as in the seeds of the Vegetable Ivory
Palm ; but at other times it is more or less separated into dis-
Fic. 763 Fic. 764.
Fig. 763. Vertical section of the
fruit of the Betel-nut Palm
(Areca Catechu). c. Remains
of perianth. jf. Pericarp. p.
Ruminated albumen of the seed.
é. Embryo. Fig. 764. Embryo
of the Lime-tree (Tilia euro-
pea). ¢, ¢ Cotyledons, each
with five lobes arranged in a
palmate manner. 7. Radicle.
tinct compartments by the folding inwards of the tegmen as
already described (see page 337). In the latter case the albu-
men is sald te be ruminated, as in the Nutmeg and Betel-nut
(fig. 763, p).
b. The Embryo is the rudimentary plant, and is therefore
necessarily present in all true seeds ; it is the fertilised oosphere
342 THE EMBRYO AND ITS PARTS.
of the embryo-sac. The embryo being the rudimentary plant,
it is necessarily the most important part of the seed, and it con-
tains within itself, in an undeveloped state, all the essential
parts of which a plant is ultimately composed. Thus we dis-
tinguish, as already noticed in the first chapter, three parts in
the embryo ; namely, a radicle, plumule or gemmule, and one or
more cotyledons. These parts may be readily recognised in
many seeds; thus in the embryo of the Lime (fig. 764), the
lower portion, 7, is the radicle or portion from which the root is
developed ; the two expanded lobed bodies above, c, c, are the
cotyledons; and between these the plumule or gemmule is
placed. In the Pea, again (fig. 16), the two fleshy lobes, ¢, ¢,
are the cotyledons, between which there is situated a little axis,
t (tigellum), the upper part or bud-like portion of which is the
plumule, n, and the lower part, 7, the radicle.
Fia. 765. These parts are still better observed when the
embryo has begun to develop in the process
of germination ; thus in fig. 18, which repre-
sents the French Bean in that condition, ¢ is
the radicle from which the roots are being
given off below, the cotyledons are marked
ce, c, and the plumule is seen coming off from
between the cotyledons, and forming a direct
continuation of the axis from which the root
is developed below. The tigellwm or hypoco-
tyledonary axis is generally a mere point, but
at other times it forms a short stalk (figs. 16,
and 748, t). Plants which thus possess two
cotyledons in their embryo are called Dicoty-
ledonous. But there are plants in which, as
already neticed, there is commonly but one
cotyledon present (figs. 705, c, and 765, c),
and which are, accordingly, termed Monocoty-
ledonous. In rare instances, however, a mo-
nocotyledonous embryo has more than one
Fig. 765, Germina- cotyledon, and then the second cotyledon
GaE a pets alternates with the first, instead of being
coming through opposite to it, as is invariably the case with
hae ae Yo ts the two cotyledons of Dicotyledonous plants.
stem, By the difference thus presented in the em-
bryos of Flowering Plants, as already described
in the first chapter, these plants are divided into two great
classes, called respectively Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones.
(a) The Monocotyledonous Embryo.—The parts of the mono-
cotyledonous embryo are in general by no means so apparent
as those of the dicotyledonous. Thus the embryo at first sight,
externally, usually appears to be a solid undivided body of a
cylindrical or somewhat club-shaped form, as in Triglochin (fig.
767) ; but if this be more carefully examined, a litile slit, f, or
MONOCOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 343
chink, will be observed on one side near the base ; and if a ver-
tical section be made parallel to this slit, a small conical projec-
tion will be noticed, which corresponds to the plumule: and
now, by making a horizontal secticn, the cotyledon will be
noticed to be folded round the plumule, which it had thus
almost entirely removed from view, only leaving a little slit
corresponding to the union of the margins of the cotyledon ; and
which slit thus became an external indication of the presence of
the plumule. In fact, the position of’ the cotyledon thus rolled
round the plumule is analogous to the sheaths of the leaves in
most Monocotyledonous plants, which thus, in
a similar manner, enclose the young growing
parts of the stem.
In other monocotyledonous embryes the
different parts are more manifest ; thus, in
many Grasses, as, for instance, the Oat (fig.
705), the cotyledon, c, only partially encloses
the plumule, g, and radicle, 7; and thus these
parts may be readily observed in a hollow space
on its surface (jig. 704).
We have already stated (page 342) that a
monocotyledonous embryo has occasionally
more than one cotyledon, in which case the
cotyledons are always alternate, and hence such
embryos are readily distinguished from those
Fie.766. Fre. 767.
of Dicotyledonous plants, where the cotyledons
are always opposite to each other if there are
but two (jig. 773), or whorled (fig. 772, c¢)
when they are more numerous (page 344).
The inferior extremity of the radicle is
usually rounded (jig. 767, 7), and it is through
this point that the rootlets, 7, burst in germina-
tion (fig. 765). The radicle is usually much
shorter than the cotyledon, and generally
thicker and denser in its nature ; but in some
embryos it is as long, or even longer, in which
Fig. 766. Vertical
section of a mature
carpel of a species
of Triglochin. p.
Pericarp. s. Stigma.
g. Seed. 7. Raphe.
J.Funiculus. c.Cha-
laza.—Fig. 767. Em-
bryo of Tv7iglechin.
7 Radicle. 7. Slit
corresponding to
the plumule. .
Cotyledon. From
Jussieu.
case the embryo is called macropodous.
(b) The I%cotyledonous Embryo.—These embryos vary very
much in form : most frequently they are more or less oval, as in
the Bean and Almond (jig. 768), where the embryo consists of
two nearly equal cotyledons, c, between which is enclosed a
small axis or tigellum, t, the upper part of which, g, is the plu-
mule, and the lower, 7, the radicle. The tigellum upon ger-
mination appears as a little stalk (fig. 18, t), supporting the
cotyledons, and hence it is also termed the hypocotyledonary
axis (see page 342).
In by far the majority of cases the two cotyledons are nearly
of equal size, as in the Pea (jig. 16, c, c) ; but in some embryos,
as in Trapa, some Hirzas, Xe. (fig. 769, c’, c), they are very
344 DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO.
unequal. Again, while the cotyledons usually form the greater
part of the embryo (jig. 16, c, c) ; in other instances, as in Pekea
butyrosa (fig. 771, c), they form but a small portion. In Carapa
(fig. 770), again, the two cotyledons become united more or less
a Eh cee
Hies 770;
Fie. 769.
Fig. 768. The embryo of the Almond (Prunus Amygdalus), from which
one of the cotyledons has been removed. c. The cotyledon which has
been left. 7. Radicle. g. Plumule. f¢. Tigel'um. c’. Scar left by the
removal of the other cotyledon. Fig. 769. Vertical section of the
embryo of a species of Hivea. c’. Large cotyledon, ¢. Small cotyledon.
g. Plumule. 7. Radicle-——Fig. 770, Vertical section of the embryo of
Carapa guianensis, showing the atmost complete union of the cotyledons,
the line, ec, only dividing them. 7. Radicle. g. Plumule.— Fig. 771. The
embryo of Pekea butyrosa. t. Large tigellum. ec. Rudimentary cotyledons.
completely into one body, so that. the embryo appears to be
monocotyledonous ; but its nature is readily ascertained by the
different position of the plumule in the two cases ; thus, in the
monocotyledonous embryo the
plumule is situated just below
the surface (jig. 705, g); but here
(fig. 770), the plumule, g, is in the
axis of the cotyledons.
The cotyledons are sometimes
altogether absent, as in Cuscuta.
At other times their number is
increased, and this may either
occur aS an irregular character,
or as a regular condition, as in
many Coniferze (fig. 772, c), where
Fic. 772. PIG. Wios
c
Fig. 772. The so-called
polycotyledonousem-
bryo of a species of
Pinus beginning to
germinate. c. Cotyle-
dons. 7. Radicle. ¢.
Tigellum.—Fig. 773.
The embryo of Gera-
nium molle. c. Coty-
ledons, each of which
is somewhat lobed,
we frequently find six, nine, or
even fifteen cotyledons ; hence
such embryos have been termed
and furnished with a
Petiola gid Reais polycotyledunous. It seems, how-
,p. 7. :
ever, that this appearance of a
larger number of cotyledons than is usual in Dicotyledonous
plants, arises from the normal number becoming divided down
to their base into segments. In all cases where the number
of cotyledons is thus increased, they are arranged in a whorl
( fig. 772, c).
DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 845
The cotyledons are usually thick and fleshy, as those of the
Bean and Almond (jig. 768), in which case they are termed
fleshy ; at other times they are thin and leaf-like, as in the Lime
(fig. 764, c, c), when they are said to be foliaceows. The folia-
ceous cotyledons are frequently provided with veins, and stomata
may be also sometimes observed on their epidermis ; but these
structures are rarely to be found in fleshy cotyledons. Fleshy
cotyledons serve a similar purpose to the albumen, by acting as
reservoirs of nutritious matters for the use of the young plant
during germination ; hence, when the albumen is absent, the
cotyledons are generally proportionately increased in size.
The cotyledons are commonly sessile, and their margins are
usually entire, but exceptions occur to both these characters ;
thus, in Geraniwm molle (fig. 773, p), they are petiolate ; while
in the Lime (fig. 774, ¢, c) they are distinctly lobed ; and in the
Geranium (fig. 773, c), they are also somewhat divided or lobed
at their ends.
The cotyledons also vary in their relative positions to each
other. Generally they are placed parallel, or face to face, as in
the Almond (fig. 768), Pea (jig. 16), and Bean ; but they fre-
quently depart widely from such a relation, and assume others
analogous to those already described in speaking of the verna-
tion of leaves and the estivation of the floral envelopes. Thus
each of the cotyledons may be either reclinate, conduplicate, con-
volute, or circinate. These are the commoner conditions, and
in such instances both cotyledons are either folded or rolled in
the same direction, so that they appear to form but one body ;
or in rare cases they are folded in opposite directions, and be-
come equitant or obvolute; or other still more complicated
arrangements may occur.
Bren 74. iGo imos BiG F162
Fig. 774. Vertical section of the seed of the Pansy or Heartsease. 4. Hilum.
pl. Embryo with its radicle, 7, and cotyledons, co. ch. Chalaza. ad.
Albumen. 7a. Raphe. The embryo is erect or homotropouns. Fig. 775.
Vertical section of the seed of the Poppy, with the embryo slightly
curved in the axis of albumen. Fig.776. Vertical section of the seed of
Bunias, showing its spiral embryo.
The position of the radicle in relation to the cotyledons is
also liable to much variation. Thus the radicle may follow
the same direction as the cotyledons, or a different one. In the
former case, if the embryo be straight, the radicle will be more
346 DICOTYLEDONOTS EMBRYO.
or less continuous in a straight line with the cotyledons, as in
the Pansy (jig. 774, 7); if, on the contrary, the embryo is
curved, the radicle will be curved also (fig. 775), and sometimes
the curvature is so great that a spiral is formed, as in Bunias
(fig. 776). In the latter case, where the direction of the coty-
at fat ledons and radicle is different,
nets BiG. 4 ae. the latter may form an acute,
| obtuse, or right angle to them ;
or be folded back to such an
extent as to lie parallel to the
cotyledons, in which case the
radicle may be either applied to
their margins, as in the Wall-
flower (fig. 778, 7), when the coty-
ledons are said to be accwmbent ;
or against the back of one of them,
as in Isatis (fig. 777, 7), when they
are termed incumbent.
Fig. 777. Embryo of the Woad Having now described the
(Isutis tinctoria). 1. Undivided, general characters of the mono-
2, Horizontal section, ¢. Cotyle- eotyledonous and dicotyledonous
dons. 7. Radicle-—Fig. 778. :
Embryo of the Wallflower (Cheir- embryo, we have, in the last place,
anthus Cheiri). 1. Undivided. 2. to allude briefly to the relation
See Hee section. 7. Radicle.¢. which the embryo itself bears to
yledons.
the other parts of the seed, and
to the pericarp or cell in which it is placed.
Relation of the Embryo to the other Parts of the Seed, and to the
Frwit.—In the first place with regard to the albumen. It must
necessarily happen that when the albumen is present, the size
of the embryo will be in the inverse proportion to it ; thus in
Grasses (fig. 705, a) we have a large deposit of albumen and but
a small embryo, while in the Nettle (fig. 779) the embryo is large
and the albumen very small. The embryo may be either external
to the albumen (figs. 705 and 782), and thus in contact with the
integuments, as in Grasses, in which case it is described as ew-
ternal ; or it may be surrounded by the albumen on all sides,
except on its radicular extremity, as in the Pansy or Heartsease
(fig. 774), when itis internal. Sometimes the end of the radicle,
as in the Coniferze, becomes united to the albumen, and can no
longer be distinguished.
The embryo is said to be awile or axial when it has the same
direction as the axis of the seed, as in Heartsease (fiy. 774, pl);
or when this condition is not complied with, it is abawxile or
eccentric, as in Rwmex (fig. 780, pl). In the latter case, the
embryo is frequently altogether on the outside of the albumen,
and directly below the integuments, as in Mirabilis Jalapa
(fig. 781, e) and Lychnis (fig. 782, emb), when it is described as
peripherical.
We have already observed, that the radicle as a general
VARYING RELATIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EMBRYO. 347
character is turned towards the micropyle (fig. 780, 7), in which
case it is said to be homoblastic ; and the cotyledonary extremity
is then directed to the chalaza, ch. Some apparent excepti ns
to these relative positions occur in the Euphorbiacez, and a few
other plants, when the radicle is described as enantioblastic ;
but such are merely accidental deviations arising from certain
trifling irregularities in the course of the development of the
parts of the seed.
Fic. 780.’
Fic. 779.
Fig. 779. Vertical section of the fruit of the Nettle, containing a single
seed. ¢. Integuments of the seed. pl. Placenta. 7. Radicle. sf. Stigma.
Fig. 780. Vertical section of the fruit and solitary erect orthotropous
seed of the Dock (Rumer). ov. Pericarp. mic. Micropyle. pl. Embryo
which is inverted or antitropous, and turned towards one side of the albu-
men, alb. ch. Chalaza. 7. Radicle. Fig. 781. Vertical section of the
carpel of Mirabilis Jalapa, containing one seed. a. Pericarp. s. Style.
e. Peripherical embryo with its radicle, 7, and cotyledons, c. p. Albu-
men. ¢. Integuments of the seed. Fig. 782. Vertical section of the seed
of Lychnis dioica. te. Integuments. emb. Embryo on the outside of the
albumen, a/b, The embryo is amphitropous.
While the relation of the radicle and cotyledonary portion is
thus seen to be generally constant, it must necessarily happen
from the varying relation which the hilum bears to the micro-
pyle and chalaza, that its relation to the radicle and coty-
ledonary portion of the embryo must also vary in like manner.
Thus in an orthotropous seed, as Rumesw ( fig. 780), the chalaza
and hilum coincide with each other, and the radicle is then
turned towards the apex of the seed, and the cotyledonary
portion to the chalaza and hilum ; in this case the embryo is
said to be antitropous or inverted (figs. 731 and 780). In an
anatropous seed, as Heartsease (fig. 774), where the micropyle
is contiguous to the hilum, h, and the chalaza, ch, at the
opposite extremity, the radicle, 7, will point towards the hilum
or base of the seed, and then the embryo is said to be erect or
homotropous. In a campylotropous seed, where the chalaza and
micropyle are both near to the hilum, as in Lychnis (fig. 782),
e
348 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER.
the two extremities of the embryo, which in such cases is
generally peripherical, become also approximated, and it is said
to be amplhitropous. Thus, when we wish to know the direction
of the embryo, by ascertaining the position of the hilum, chalaza,
and micropyle, it is at once evident.
We have now lastly to explain the different terms which are
in use to express the relations which the embryo bears to the
cavity or cell in which it is placed. We have already described
the terms used in defining the position of the seed to the same
cavity (see page 334), which we found might be either erect,
inverse, suspended, pendulous, ascending, or horizontal, in the
same sense as previously mentioned when speaking of the ovule
(page 326). But as regards the radicle this is said to be
superior or ascending, as in the Nettle (fig. 779, r) and Rumex
(fig. 780, 7), when it is directed towards the apex of the cell or
pericarp ; wiferior or descending when it points to the base ;
centripetal if turned inwards towards the axis or centre ; and
centrifugal when it is turned towards the sides. The above
relations of the embryo to the other parts of the seed and to
the cavity or cell in which it is placed, are sometimes of much
practical importance.
Section 7. THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OR GENERAL MORPHOLOGY
OF THE FLOWER.
Havine now taken a comprehensive view of the different
organs of the flower, we are in a position to examine in detail
the theory which has been kept constantly in view in their
description, namely, that they are all modifications of one
common type,—the leaf. The germ of this theory originated
with Linnzeus, but the merit of having first brought it forward
in a complete form is due to the poet Goethe, who, as far back
as 1790, published a treatise ‘On the Metamorphoses of Plants.’
The appearance of Goethe’s treatise at once drew the attention
of botanists to this subject, and it is now universally admitted
that all the organs of the flower are formed upon the same plan
as the leaf, or, in other words, that they are homologous parts,
and that they owe their differences to special causes connected
with the functions which they have severally to perform.
Thus the leaf, being designed to elaborate nutriment for the
support of the plant, has a form, structure, and colour which
are adapted for that purpose ; while the parts of the flower,
being designed for the purpose of reproduction, have a structure
and appearance which enable them to perform their several
functions.
It was formerly said that the parts of the flower were
metamorphosed leaves, but this is stating the question too
broadly, because they have never been leaves ; they are to be
“< =, 7
THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER. 3849
considered only as homologous parts to leaves, or parts of the
same fundamental nature, that is, as well stated by Lindley,
‘constructed of the same elements arranged upon a common
plan, and varying in their manner of development, not on
account of any original difference in structure, but on account
of special, local, and predisposing causes: of this plan the leaf
is taken as the type, because it is the organ which is most
usually the result of the development of those elements,—is
that to which the other organs generally revert, when from any
accidental disturbing cause they do not sustain the appearance
to which they were originally predisposed,—and, moreover,
is that in which we have the most complete type of organisa-
tion,’ and, we may add, is that which can always be distinctly
traced by insensible gradations of structure into all the other
arts.
i Having first defined the general nature of the doctrine of
Morphology, or that doctrine which investigates the various
alterations of form, and other characters, which the different
parts of plants undergo in order to adapt them to the several
purposes for which they were designed, we shall then proceed
to prove that all the parts of a flower are homologous with
leaves. In doing so, we shall examine the several organs
of reproduction, both as they exist in a natural condition, and
in an abnormal state, commencing with the bract, and then
proceeding in a regular manner with the different whorls
of the flower, according to their arrangement from without
inwards.
In the first place, it is evident that the bract is closely allied
* to the leaf, from its structure, form, colour, and from the
ordinary development of one or more buds in its axil. But in
order to be perfectly convinced of this analogy, let anyone
examine the Foxglove, the Lilac, or the Peony, and then it
will be seen that all stages of transition occur between leaves
and bracts, so that it will be impossible to doubt their being
homologous parts.
That the sepals are homologous with leaves is proved, not
only by their colour and other characters, but also by the fact,
that many flowers exhibit in a natural condition a gradual
transition between sepals and bracts, and the latter, as already
noticed, are readily referable to the leaf as the type. Thus, in
the Camellia the transition between the sepals and bracts is so
marked, that it is almost impossible to say where the latter end
and the former begin. In the Marsh Mallow (fig. 395) and
Strawberry (fig. 396), again, the five sepals in the flowers of
the two plants respectively alternate with five bracts; and the
difficulty of distinguishing them is so great, that some botanists
call both sets of organs by the name of sepals. In many
flowers in a natural condition, therefore, there is a striking
resemblance between sepals and leaves; and this analogy is at
390 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER.
once proved to demonstration by the fact, that in monstrous
flowers of the Rose, Clover, Primrose (fig. 783), and other
plants, the sepals are frequently con-
Fré. 783: verted into true leaves.
We now pass to the petals, and
although these in the majority of
flowers are of a different colour to
leaves and sepals, yet in their flat-
tened character and general structure
they are essentially the same; and
their analogy to leaves is also proved
in many natural flowers by the gra-
dual transitions exhibited between
them and the sepals. This is remark-
ably the case in the White Water-lily
¥ Bette eto Lcaainto (fig. 453); also in the Magnolia and
true leaves. From Lindley. Calycanthus, where the flowers pre-
sent several whorls of floral envelopes,
which so resemble one another in their general appearance and
colour, that it is next to impossible to say where the sepals end
and the petals begin. In many other instances, also, there is no
other way of distinguishing between the parts of the calyx and
those of the corolla than by their different positions,—the calyx
being the outer series, the corolla the inner. The analogy
between petals and leaves is still further shown by the fact, that
the former are occasionally green, as in certain species of Cubxa,
in a variety of Ranunculus, and in one of Campanula rapuncu-
loides ; and also from their being occasionally converted, either
entirely or partially, into leaves. We therefore conclude that
petals like sepals and bracts are homologous with leaves.
The stamen is, of all organs, the one which has the least re-
semblance to the leaf. Jn describing the structure of the stamen
we have shown (page 247), however, that the different parts of
the leaf may be clearly recognised in those of the stamen. We
find, moreover, that in many plants the petals become gradually
transformed into stamens. This is remarkably the case in the
White Water-lily (fig. 453); thus in the flowers of this plant
the inner series of petals gradually become narrower, and the
upper extremity of each petal exhibits at first two little swell-
ings, which, in those placed still more internally, become true
anthers containing pollen. From the fact that the stamens can
thus be shown to be merely modified petals, while the latter
have been already proved to be modified leaves, it must neces-
sarily follow that the stamens are so also. If we now refer to
what takes place in many cultivated flowers, we have conclusive
evidence at once afforded to us of the leaf-like nature of stamens,
Thus, in what are called double flowers, the number of petals is
principally increased by the conversion of stamens into petals ;
hence the number of the latter increases as the former decreases.
THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER. 301
Thus, if a double Rose be examined, all sorts of transitions may
be observed between true petals and stamens. In other cases,
the stamens have been actually transformed into true leaves.
As far as the stamens, therefore, we have no difticulty in tracing,
both in the normal and abnormal conditions of the parts of the
flower, a regular and gradual transition from the ordinary leaves,
thus forming conclusive evidence of their being developed upon
a common type with them.
If we now pass to the carpel, we find that transitional states
between the stamen and carpel are unknown in the normal con-
dition of flowers, the difference in the functions performed by
them respectively being so opposite, that it necessarily leads to
corresponding differences in structure. We must, therefore,
look to monstrosities, or deviations from ordinary structure, for
examples of such conditions. Even these are by no means com-
mon. Such may, however, be occasionally found in the House-
leek, some Poppies, and in other plants. In a paper, published
by the author in the Pharmaceutical Journal for March, 1856,
a very remarkable instance of this transition from stamens
to carpels was described ; it occurred in Pupaver bracteatum.
In this case, several whorls of bodies, intermediate in their
nature between stamens and carpels, were found between the
true andreecium and gyneecium. The outer whorls of the in-
termediate bodies differed from the ordinary stamens, in their
colour, in being of a more fleshy nature, and in being enlarged
at their upper extremity and inner surface into rudimentary
stigmas ; in other respects they resembled the stamens, and
possessed well-marked anthers containing pollen. The whorls
next in succession gradually lost their anthers, became more
fleshy, bore evident stigmas, and on their inner surfaces, which
were slightly concave, they had rudimentary ovules. Still more
internally, the intermediate bodies, whilst resembling those just
described in their general appearance, became more concave on
their inner surface, and bore numerous perfect ovules: and
within these, the intermediate bodies had their two margins
folded completely inwards and united, and thus formed perfect
carpels. Such an example as this shows in a striking manner
that the stamens and carpels are formed upon a common type,
and hence, that the latter are, like the former, homologous
organs with leaves. The analogy of the carpel to the leaf is,
however, constantly shown in cultivated flowers, even in a more
striking manner than the stamen is thus proved to be a modified
condition of that organ. Thusin many double flowers, as Butter-
cups and Roses, the carpels, as well as the stamens, become
transformed into petals. It is by no means rare, again, to find
the carpels transformed into true leaves in cultivated Roses, &c.
A similar condition also occurs in the Double Cherry ( Jigs. 587—
589), and has been already fully described when speaking of the
earpel ; in which place we have also shown the analogy of the
392 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER.
carpel with the leaf, by tracing its development from a little
concave body but slightly differing in appearance from a leaf,
up to its mature condition as a closed cavity, containing one or
more ovules (see page 268). We have, therefore, as regards the
carpel, the most conclusive evidence of its being formed upon a
common type with the leaf, and that it is consequently homo-
logous with it.
The carpel being thus shown to be homologous with the leaf,
it must necessarily follow that the fruit is likewise a modified
condition of the leaf, since it is formed of
Fic. 784. one or more carpels in a matured state.
Further proof of the homologous na-
ture of the parts of the flower to the leaf
is afforded by the fact that the floral axis,
instead of producing flowers, will some-
times hear whorls of true leaves. In other
cases the axis becomes prolonged beyond
the flower, as in certain species of Hpacris,
and frequently in cultivated Roses (jig.
655), or beyond the fruit (jig. 784), and
beconies a true branch bearing leaves. To
this elongation of the axis the term median
prolification is usually applied.
Various other examples might be ad-
duced of the transformation of the floral
organs into more or less perfect leaves.
Thus, in the common White Clover, the
parts of the flower are not unfrequently
found in a leaf-like state. A similar con-
dition has also been observed in monstrous
Strawberry flowers. In fact, no one can
walk into a garden, and examine culti-
vated flowers, without finding numerous
instances of transitional states occurring
between the different organs of the flower,
Fig. 784, A monstrous ®ll of which necessarily go to prove their
or abnormally devel- common origin.
oped Pear, showing the When a sepal becomes a petal, or a
axis prolonged beyond
the fruit, and bearing petal a stamen, or a stamen a carpel, the
true or foliage leaves. changes which take place are said to he
owing to ascending or direct metamorphosis.
But when a carpel becomes a stamen, or a stamen a petal, ora
petal a sepal, or if any of these organs become transformed into
a leaf, this is called retrograde or descending metamorphosis.
We have thus proved by the most conclusive facts, that all
the organs of the flower are formed upon a common type with
the leaf, and differ only in their special development, or, in
other words, that they are homologous parts. Hence a flower-
bud is analogous to a leaf-bud, as we have already stated (page
. »
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER. 3038
218), and the flower itself to a branch the internodes of which
are but slightly developed, so that all its parts are situated in
nearly the same plane ; and, as flower-buds are thus analogous
to leaf-buds, their parts are also necessarily subject to similar
laws of development and arrangement, and hence a knowledge
of the latter gives the clue to that of the former.
The symmetrical arrangement of the parts of the flower
arising from their being homologous parts with the leaves, will
now be described, together with the various causes which inter-
fere to prevent or disguise it.
Section 8. SyMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.
THE term symmetry has been variously understood by differ-
ent botanists. As properly applied, a symmetrical flower is one
in which each whorl of organs hasan equal number of parts ; or
where the parts of one whorl are multiples of those of another.
Thus, in some species of Crassula (fig. 785), we have a sym-
Fie. 785. Fic. 786.
Fig. 785. Flower of Crassula rubens. c,c. Sepals. p, p. Petals. e, e, e.
Stamens. 0,0. Carpels, at the base of each of which is seen « scale, a, a.
— Fig. 786. Flower of a Sedum.
metrical flower composed of five sepals, five petals, five stamens,
and five carpels ; in Sedum (fig. 786) we have five sepals, five
petals, ten stamens in two rows, and five carpels ; in the Flax
we have five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and five carpels,
each of which is partially divided into two by a spurious dis-
sepiment (fig. 618); in the Circea (fig. 787) we have two organs
in each whorl ; in the Rue (figs. 611 and 579) we have four or
five sepals, four or five petals, eight or ten stamens, and a four-
or five-lobed pistil; and in the Iris there are three organs in
each whorl. All the above are therefore symmetrical flowers.
When the number of parts in each whorl does not correspond,
or when the parts of a whorl are not multiples of one another,
the flower is wisymmetrical, as in Verbena, where the calyx and
corolla have five parts in each whorl, and the andrecium and
gyncecium only four..
AA
B04 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.
A symmetrical flower in which the number of parts in each
whorl is the same, as in Crassula (fig. 785), is said to be isomerous,
or when the number is unequal, as in the Rue (figs. 579 and 611)
and Sedum (fig. 786), the flower is anisomerous. The number
of parts is indicated by a Greek numeral prefixed to the word
meros, signifying a part. Thus, when there are two parts in
the whorls, as in Circea ( fig. 787), the flower is dimerous, and
the symmetry is said to be binary or two-membered. This may
be considered either as answering to the distichous or two-ranked
arrangement of leaves (see page 151); each whorl forming a
cycle composed of two organs, the internodes between them not
being developed ; or to successive pairs of opposite leaves de-
cussating with each other. This arrangement is thus marked,
s/. When there are three parts in a whorl, as in the Squill
(fig. 28), Iris, and Lily, the flower is trimerous, and the
symmetry is ternary, trigonal, or triangular; it is indicated
thus, ./. This may be regarded, either as answering to the
tristichous arrangement of leaves (page 152), each whorl form-
ing a cycle of three organs, the internodes between them not
Fic. 787.
Fig.787. Diagram of the flower of Cirecea ——Fig.788. Diagram of the flower
of Staphylea pinnata,
being developed ; or to successive whorls of three organs in
each. When there are four parts in a whorl, as frequently in
the Rue (fig. 579), the flower is tetramerous, and the symmetry,
which is marked 4/, is quaternary or tetragonal ; the successive
whorls in such a flower may be compared directly with whorls
of leaves each consisting of four organs; or indirectly with
opposite decussating leaves combined in pairs, the internodes
not being developed. When there are five parts ina whorl, as in
Crassula rubens (fig. 785), the flower is said to be pentamerous,
and the symmetry, which is marked thus, 8/, quinary or penta-
gonal. Such a flower may be considered as answering to the
pentastichous arrangement of leaves (page 150) with the inter-
nodes undeveloped ; or to be composed of successive whorls of
five leaves, the internodes between each whorl being almost un-
developed, or very short.
Of the above arrangements, the pentamerous is most common
among Dicotyledons, althouzh the tetramerous is also by no
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER. 355
means rare ; while the trimerous is generally found in Mono-
cotyledons,
Although a symmetrical flower, as above described, neces-
sarily infers that the parts in each whorl are equal to, or some
multiple of one another, still it is very common for botanists to
call a flower symmetrical when the three outer whorls correspond
in such particulars, while the parts of the gyncoecium are unequal
to them ; as in Staphylea pinnata (fig. 788), where the three
outer whorls are pentamerous, while the pistil is dimerous. The
gyneecium of all the organs of the flower is that which less
frequently corresponds in the number of its parts to the other
whorls.
By some writers, again, a flower is said to be symmetrical,
when it can be divided into two similar halves, as in Crucifere,
where there are four sepals, four petals, six stamens, and two
carpels (figs. 25 and 26), and the whole so arranged that the flower
may be separated into two equal parts.
Various other terms are used in describing flowers, which will
be best alluded to here, although some have been previously
noticed. Thus a flower is said to be complete, when the four
whorls—calyx, corolla, andreecium and gyncecium—are present,
as in the Rue (jig. 611) ; where one or more of the whorls is
absent, the flower is ticomplete ( figs. 29 and 30). When the parts
of each whorl are uniform in size and shape, as in the Rue (jigs.
579 and 611), the flower is regular ; under other circumstances
it is irregular, as in the Pea (figs. 452 and 477). In a normal
arrangement of the parts of the flower, the successive whorls
alternate with each other, as shown in jigs. 785 and 787 ; thus
here, the sepals alternate with the petals, the petals with the
stamens, and the stamens with the carpels.
A perfectly normal and typical flower should possess a calyx,
corolla, androecium, and gyncecium, each of which should be
so arranged that its parts form but a single whorl ; the different
whorls should consist of an equal number of members ; the parts
of successive whorls should alternate with one another; and
the organs of each should be uniform in size and shape, and
distinct from each other and from the surrounding whorls. This
norma! and typical flower is, however, lable to various altera-
tions, arising from several disturbing causes, which modify and
disguise one or wore of their typical characters. Some of
these causes have been already alluded to in the description of
the different organs of the flower, but it will be necessary for
us to investigate them more fully here, and classify for syste-
matic study. All the more important deviations of the flower
from its normal character may be arranged under the following
heads :—
1st. The adhesion or union of the parts of the same whorl ;
or those of different whorls.
2nd. The addition of one or more entire whorls in one or
AAQ
356 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—UNION AND ADDITION.
more of the floral circles ; or increase in the number of parts of
a whorl.
3rd. The suppression or abortion of one or more whorls ; or
of one or more parts of a whorl.
4th. Irregularity produced by unequal growth, or unequal
degree of union of the members of the same whorl ; or by ab-
normal development of the thalamus or axis of the flower.
That part of Botany which has for its object the investigation
of the various deviations from normal structure, both in the
flower and other parts of the plant, is called Teratology.
1. THE CHANGES DUE TO UNION OR ADHESION OF PARTS.—We
arrange these in two divisions: one of which is characterised
by the more or less complete union of the members of the same
whorl ; and the other by the adhesion of the different whorls.
The first is frequently termed coalescence, cohesion, or concrescence ;
and the latter adnation or adhesion.
a. Ooalescence, Cohesion, or Conerescence.—This is of very
common occurrence in the members of the different whorls of the
flower. Thus it occurs in the calyx, when it becomes monose-
palous or gamosepalous; in the corolla, when it is monopetalous
or gamopetalous ; in the filaments, when it gives rise to mona-
delphous, diadelphous, and polyadelphous stamens ; in the anthers,
when they are syngenesious or synantherous ; and in the pistil,
when the carpels are syncarpous.
b. Adnation or Adhesion of the different whorls is also by no
means uncommon, ‘Thus the calyx may be united to the corolla,
or to the andrcecium, or to both; or all these whorls may be
united with the ovary. These different adhesions have been
already explained, under the terms perigynous, epigynous (page
254), as regards the stamens ; and superior (page 227) as applied
to the calyx. Again, the stamens may be united to the corolla,
when they are said to be epipetalous (page 253) ; or to the pistil,
when the term gynandrous is used (page 255). All the changes
due to union or adhesion of parts have been fully described in
treating of the different whorls of the flower.
2. ADDITION OR MULTIPLICATION OF Parts.—This may be also
considered under two heads :—I1st. The addition of one or more
entire whorls in one or more of the floral circles; and 2ndly,
the increase in the number of the parts of the whorl, which is
usually said to be due to the multiplication by division of
any or all of the organs of a whorl. The former is commonly
termed augmentation ; the latter chorisis, deduplication, or wi-
linin).
a Augmentation.—The increase in the number of whorls may
occur in one or more of the floral circles. Thus the Barberry
(fig. 789) has two whorls of sepals, two of petals, and two of
stamens ; in this flower, therefore, we have an addition of one
whorl of organs to each of the three external floral circles. In
the Poppy, we have a number of additional whorls of stamens
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—DEDUPLICATION. 397
(fig. 791). In the Magnolia order generally, the increase is
chiefly remarkable in the carpels (jig. 604, c, c). In Nymphea
(jig. 790), the petals and stamens are greatly increased in number.
In many of the Ranunculacez, as Clematis (fig. 792), the stamens
and carpels are very numerous, owing to addition of whorls. As
a rule, the increase in the number of whorls is most common
among the stamens. When the increase is not excessive, the
number of the organs so increased is, a multiple of the normal
Fie. 789. Fie. 790.
©
(
ask Me )
SY, Borie.
Fig. 789. Diagram of the flower of the Barberry (Berberis)—— Fig. 790.
Diagram of the flower of Vymphea.
—_
LoowN
G Da
ELON
By
’ ° ere nd 3
number of parts in each whorl ; thus in the Barberry (jig. 789)
the normal number is three, and that of the sepals, petals, and
stamens, six, so that in each of these whorls we have double the
normal number. When the addition of parts extends to beyond
three or four whorls, this correspondence in number is liable to
much variation ; and when the addition is very great, as in the
stamens of the species of Clematis (jig. 792), and the carpels of
Fic. 792.
Fig. 791. Diagram of the flower of the Poppy (Papaver).— Fig. 792. Dia-
gram of the flower of Clematis (Ranunculacee).
Liriodendron ( fig. 604, c, c), it cannot be well determined, and
the symmetry is then disguised or destroyed ; which is also the
case if the whorls are crowded together.
b. Chorisis or Deduplication.—This is generally looked upon
by botanists as another means of multiplication of the parts of a
flower. It consists in the division or splitting of an organ in
the course of its development, by which two or more organs are
produced in the place of one. Chorisis differs from augmenta-
308 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—TRANSVERSE CHORISIS.
tion in the fact, that it not only increases the number of parts,
but also interferes with their regular alternation ; for augment-
ation does not necessarily interfere with alternation, it only
obscures it when the number of additional parts is excessive, or
when the whorls are crowded together.
Chorisis may take place in two ways, either transversely,
when the increased parts are placed one before the other, which
is called vertical, parallel, or transverse chorisis ; or collaterally,
when the increased parts stand side by side, which is termed
collateral chorisis. Transverse chorisis is supposed to be of fre-
quent occurrence ; thus the petals of Lychiis (fig. 501, a) and
many other Caryophyllaceous plants, exhibit a little scale on
their inner surface at the point where the limb of the petal is
united to the claw. A somewhat similar scale, although less
developed, occurs at the base of the petals of some species of
Ranwnculus (fig. 498). The formation of these scales is supposed
by many to be due to the chorisis or unlining of an inner por-
tion of the petal from the outer. Other botanists consider these
appendages as abortive stamens, or glands (see page 240). Hach
petal of Parnassia (fig. 500) has at its base a petal-like append-
age divided into a number of parts, somewhat resembling sterile
stamens ; this is also stated to be produced by transverse cho-
risis.
In, plants of the orders Rhamnacez (fig. 793), and others,
the stamens are placed opposite to the petals, hence they are
supposed by many botanists to be produced
Fic. 793. by chorisis from the corolla; but others
explain this opposition of parts by sup-
posing the suppression of an intermediate
whorl (see page 360). Transverse chorisis
is also frequently to be found in the
andrceecium, but it is less frequent in the
gyncecium. Examples of transverse chorisis
in the gyncecium are furnished, however, by
Crassula (fig. 785), where each carpel has
Fig. 793. Diagram of at its base on the outside a little greenish
Ee OW er cy, scale, a, a, which is supposed by some to
articus), be due to it.
It will be observed, that in the above
cases of transverse chorisis, the parts which are produced do
not resemble those from which they arise, and this appears to
be a universal law in this form of chorisis.
Collateral Chorisis.—We have a good example of this form in
the Stock, Wallflower, and other plants of the order Crucifere.
In these flowers, the two floral envelopes are each composed
of four organs alternating with one another (jig. 794). Within
these we find six stamens, instead of four, as should be the
case in a symmetrical flower ; of these two are placed opposite
to the lateral sepals and alternate with the adjacent petals,
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—COLLATERAL CHORISIS. 359
while the other four are placed in pairs opposite the anterior
and posterior sepals; we have here, therefore, four stamens
instead of two, which results from the collateral chorisis of those
two. Insome Cruciferx, as Streptanthus (fig. 795), we have a
strong confirmation of this view presented to us in the fact that,
in place of the two stamens, as commonly observed, we have a
single filament forked at the top, and each division bearing an
anther, which would seem to arise from the process of chorisis
Fia. 795.
Fic. 794.
Fig. 795.
Flower of a species of Strveptanthus, with the floral envelopes removed,
showing a forked stamen in place of the two anterior stamens, From
Gray.—Fig. 796. Diagram of the flower of the Fumitory.
Fig. 794. Diagram of the flower of the common Wallflower.
being arrested in its progress. The flowers of the Fumitory are
also generally considered to afford another example of collateral
chorisis. In these we have two sepals (jig. 796), four petals in
two rows, and six stamens, two of which are perfect, and four
more or less imperfect ; the latter are said to arise from colla-
teral chorisis, one stamen here being divided into three parts.
Other examples of this form are by some considered to be af-
forded by the flowers of many species of Hypericum ( fig. 554,
f, f); in which each bundle of stamens is suppesed to arise from
the repeated chorisis of a single stamen.
Collateral chorisis may be considered as analogous to a com-
pound leaf which iscomposed of two or more distinct and similar
parts. Transverse chorisis is supposed by Gray and some other
botanists to have its analogue in the ligule of Grasses (fig. 374,
lig), as that appendage occupies the same position as regards the
leaf as the scales of Lychnis (fig. 501, a) and other plants do to
the petals (see page 239).
Lindley held that the whole theory of chorisis ‘is destitute
of real foundation, for the following reasons :—
‘1. There is no instance of unlining which may not be as
well explained by the theory of alternation.
‘2. It is highly improbable and inconsistent with the simpli-
360 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—SUPPRESSION.
city of vegetable structure, that in the same flower the multipli-
cation of organs should arise from two wholly different causes ;
viz., alternation at one time, and unlining at another.
‘3. As itis known that in some flowers, where the law of
alternation usually obtains, the organs are occasionally placed
opposite each other, it is necessary for the supporters of the un-
lining theory to assume that in such a flower a part of the organs
must be alternate and a part unlined, or at one time be all
alternate and at another time be all unlined, which is entirely
opposed to probability and sound philosophy.
‘4, The examination of the gradual development of flowers,
the only irrefragable proof of the real nature of final structure,
does not in any degree show that the supposed process of unlin-
ing has a real existence.’
According to Lindley’s view, therefore, whenever the organs
of adjacent whorls are opposite to each other instead of alter-
nate, this is supposed to arise from the suppression of a whorl
which should be normally situated between the two that are
present. '
3. SUPPRESSION OR ABORTION.— The suppression or abortion
of parts may either refer to entire whorls ; or to one or more
parts of a whorl. We shall treat this subject briefly under
these two heads.
a. Suppression or Abortion of one or more Whorls.—We have
already stated that a complete flower is one which contains
calyx, corolla, androecium, and gyncecium. When a whorl is
suppressed, therefore, the flower necessarily becomes incomplete.
This suppression may either take place in the floral envelopes ;
or in the essential organs. At:
Sometimes one whorl of the floral envelopes is suppressed, as
in Chenopodiwm (fig. 29), in which case the flower is apetalows
or monochlamydeous ; sometimes both whorls are suppressed,
as in the common Ash (fig. 30), when the flower is waked or
achlamydeous.
When a whorl of the essential organs is suppressed, the
flower is imperfect, as it then by itself cannot form seed. The
androecium or gyncecium may be thus suppressed, in either of
which cases the flower is wnisexwal ; or both andreecium and
gyncecium may be suppressed, as in certain florets of some of
the Composite, &c., when the flower is neuter. When the
stamens are abortive, the flower is termed pistillate (fig. 35) ;
or when the pistil is absent, staminate (figs. 34 and 503).
The terms monecious, diwcious, and polygamous, which have
reference to this point, have been already sufliciently explained
(see page 241).
Some botanists, as already noticed (page 358), consider that
when the organs of adjacent whorls are opposite to each other
instead of alternate, such an arrangement of parts arises from
the suppression of an intermediate whorl; but this view is
SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—SUPPRESSION. 361
manifestly insufficient to account for such a circumstance in all
cases. Thus in the Rhamnacez (fig. 793), the stamens are
opposite to the petals, and frequently united to them at the
base, and We cannot but regard them as produced by transverse
chorisis from the petals. In some cases, therefore, we regard
the opposition of the parts of contiguous whorls to be due to
suppression, and in others to chorisis.
b. Suppression of one or more Organs of a Whorl.—This is a
very common cause of deviation from normal structure ; we can
here only bring forward a few examples.
This suppression of parts is most frequent in the gyncecium.
Thus in the Crucifere (jig. 794), we have four sepals, four
petals, six stamens, and two carpels ; here two carpels are sup-
pressed. In the Heartsease (jig. 797), we have a pentamerous
re 7 97. Fia. 798. Fic. 799.
Fig. 797. Diagram of the flower of the Heartsease-——Fig. 798. Diagram
of a Leguminous flower.— Fig, 799. Diagram of the flower of Jmpatiens
parviflora.
flower, so far as the calyx, corolla, and andrcecium are con-
cerned, but only three carpels, two carpels being here suppressed ;
in Leguminous plants (fig. 798), we have five sepals, five petals,
ten stamens, and only one carpel, four of the latter being here
abortive ; in plants of the order Composit the calyx, corolla,
and androecium have each commonly five organs, but only one,
or, according to some botanists, two carpels.
In seme species of Impatiens (fig. 799), we have five carpels,
five stamens, and five petals, but only three sepals ; here two
sepals are suppressed ; in Tropxolum pentaphyllum (fig. 800),
there are five sepals, and but two petals, three of the latter
organs being here abortive. In the Labiatz and Scrophulariaceze
one of the stamens is commonly suppressed, and sometimes
three ; thus in the Lamiwm we have five parts to the calyx
and corolla, but only four stamens ; and in the Salvia we have
also five parts to the calyx and corolla, but only two perfect
stamens.
The abortion of whorls and parts of a whorl is well illus-
trated by plants of the Euphorbiacez, and the following diagram
362 SYMMETRY .OF THE FLOWER.—IRREGULARITY.
from Jussieu will show this fact in a remarkable manner (jig.
801). Thus, in No. 1 we have a flower consisting of but two
whorls, the petals and carpels being suppressed ; in No. 2, gee
the same whorls are present, one of the stamens is absent ;
No. 3 two stamens are abortive ; in No. 4 the calyx is seecntinds;
and one stamen, the place of the calyx being occupied by three
bracts ; while in No. 5 the place of the calyx is occupied by
two bracts, and there is only one stamen present ; this of itself
constitutes the flower, which is thus reduced to its simplest
condition.
Fie. 801.
Fic. 800.
z 2
-_—a. aN 3 4 S
PD ~ eelen)
a~ NEY, \e8) Oj
Fig. 800. Diagram of the flower of 7ropa@olum pentaphyl-
(¢ Q lum.— Fig. 801. Diagram of flowers of Euphorbia-
0) ceous plants becoming more and more simple. After
Jussieu.
Sos 3) 1. Staminate flower of 77 agia cannabina.
2. A “ Tragia volubilis.
3. - - Anthostema senegalense.
4. = - Adenopeliis colliguaya.
5. = an Euphorbia.
Besides the above examples of the suppression of parts,
there is another kind of suppression, to which the term abortion
more properly applies. This consists in the degeneration or
transformation of the parts of a flower. Thus in Scrophularia
the fifth stamen is reduced to a scale ; in the Umbelliferze the
limb of the calyx is commonly abortive, while in the Composite
it is either abortive (fig. 465), membranous (fig. 466), or re-
duced to a pappose form. Many of the so-called nectaries of
flowers are merely transformed stamens. In unisexual flowers
such as Tamus, the stamens are frequently present as little
scales. In cultivated semi-douwble flowers, such transformations
are very common ; thus we frequently find the stamens and
carpels partially transformed into petals ; or when the flowers
are entirely double, all the parts of the androecium and gyncecium
are thus converted into petals.
4. IrrEGULARITY.—This may be produced by three different
causes—namely, unequal growth of the members of a whorl ;
unequal degree of union; and abnormal development of the
thalamus or axis of the flower. The first two causes cannot
well be separated, and will be, therefore, treated of under one
head.
a. Unequal Growth and Unequal Degree of Union of the
Members of a Whorl.—From these causes such whorls become
irregular, and we have produced what are called irregular flowers.
These irregular forms have been already treated of in describing
the different floral organs. All the examples of irregular forms
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. 363
of calyx and corolla, therefore, which have been alluded to
under their respective heads, will afford good illustrations. The
stamens of plants belonging to the sub-order Papilionaceze of
the Leguminos will afford numerous examples of unequal
union in the staminal whorl ; and other illustrations will be
found under the heads of the Andrcecium and Gyneecium.
b. Abnormal Development of the Thalamus or Axis of the
Flower.—The irregular forms of flowers due to this cause have
been also alluded to when describing the thalamus. Thus the
flowers of the species of Neluwmbiwm (fig. 654), Liriodendron
(fig. 604), Strawberry (jig. 605), Raspberry (jig. 606), Ranwn-
culus (fig. 542), Rosa (fig. 454), Dianthus (fig. 602), Gynan-
dropsis (fig. 656), and Geraniwm (fig. 640), will furnish examples
of this form of irregularity.*
CHAPTER 5.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA OR FLOWERLESS
PLANTS.
THE nutritive organs of the Cryptogamia have been already
briefly alluded to in the chapter on the General Morphology of
the Plant, and in our descriptions of the stem, root, leaf, and
other parts. But their reproductive organs have, at present,
been only very generally referred to, hence we now proceed to
describe them as fully as our space will allow.
The reproductive organs of the Cryptogamia differ widely
from those of the Phanerogamia ; for, in the first place, they
have no flowers properly so called—that is to say, they have no
true andrceecium or gyncecium, the presence of which is essential
to our notion of a flower ; and hence such plants are termed
Flowerless. But although these plants have no flowers, and
therefore no true stamens or carpels, they have organs which
perform analogous purposes to them, and to which the names of
Antheridia, Pistillidia, Archegonia, and many others, have been
apphed. As these organs are, however, more or less concealed or
obscure, Flowerless plants have been also called Cryptogamous,
which signifies, literally, concealed sexes. The term asexval,
which was formerly applied, has now been proved to be generally
incorrect.
Secondly, as Cryptogamous plants, or Cryptogams as they
are commonly called, have no flowers, they do not produce
true seeds or parts containing a rudimentary plant or embryo ;
* For full details relating to the General Morphology and Symmetry of
the Flower, reference may be made to Masters’s ‘Vegetable Teratoloyy,’
and to Sachs’s ‘Text Book of Botany.’
364 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CORMOPHYTES.
but instead of seeds, they form reproductive bodies called
spores, Which in most cases consist of one cell, or rarely, two
or more, with commonly one or two coats, and enclosing
granular and other matters. The term spore is, however,
used in a very varied sense, as our sketch of the Reproductive
Organs of the Cryptogamia will show. As used above, it is
intended to apply to asexwal reproductive cells. A spore having
no embryo can have no cotyledonary body, which is an essential
part of the embryo, consequently flowerless plants have also
been called Acotyledonous. In germination again, as the spores
have no rudimentary stem or root, they have commonly no de-
finite growth, but this takes place by an indifferent extension of
one or both of their membranes. But some exceptions are
afforded to this latter peculiarity by certain spores which have
on their outer membrane certain spots or pores, through which,
in germination, little threads are protruded from an extension
of their inner membrane. This is exactly analogous to the pro-
duction of the tubes from pollen-cells ; indeed, in their general
structure, spores (especially those of the Fungi, which exhibit
the above growth) have a striking similarity to pollen-cells. It
should be noticed, however, that spores, although so similar
in structure to pollen, perform essentially differen’ functions.
The threads which are thus produced by the germination of
spores may either reproduce the plant directly, or give rise to
an intermediate body of varying form, called the prothalliwm or
prothallus (figs. 806 and 809), from which the fructiferous or
fruit-bearing frond or stem ultimately springs.
Such are a few of the chief distinctive characters of the re-
productive organs of Cryptogamous plants. The nature of these
organs in the different orders of flowerless plants is, however,
so remarkable, that, in order to become acquainted with them,
it will be necessary for us to describe the peculiarities of each
separately.
The Cryptogamia have been arranged, as already noticed (see
page 11), in two great divisions, called Cormophytes and Thallo-
phytes, under which heads we shall therefore give a sketch of
the reproductive organs of the different natural orders or groups
which are comprised respectively within them.
Section 1. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CORMOPHYTES.
CORMOPHYTES, or, as they have been also termed, Acrogens,
have been divided into several sub-divisions, which are com-
monly called Natwral Orders or Orders: these are the Filices,
Lquisetacex, Lycopodiacer, Selaginellacexr, Marsileacer, Musci,
and the Hepaticacex. These orders are differently arranged and
defined by botanists ; but as our object is only to give a general
sketch of their reproductive organs, we have adopted the above
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FILICES. 365
arrangementas perhaps, upon the whole, the simplest, and from
its being the one most commonly in use, at least in practical
Botany.
1 Friices or Ferns.—The fructification of these plants con-
sists of little somewhat rounded cases, called sporangia, capsuies,
or thecx (fig. 802, sp), containing spores in their interior, and
springing commonly from the veins on the under surface or
back of their leaves or fronds (figs. 802 and 803); or, in some
few instances, as in Acrostichwm, from their upper surface ; and
in others, as in Hymenophyllum, from. the margins. The
sporangia are arranged in little heaps called sori, which vary
much in form (figs. 802, sp, and 803, s); these are either naked,
as in Polypodium (fig. 802), or covered by a thin membranous
layer continuous with the epidermis, which is called the indusiwm
Fic. 802. Fic. 803. Fic. 804.
Fig. 802. A portion of a frond of the common Polypody (Polypodium vul-
gare), showing two sori springing from its veins. The sori are naked,
and consist of a number of sporangia or capsules, sp, in which the spores
are contained. 7g. 803. Portion of a frond of the Male-fern (A spidium
Filix-mas), with two sori, s, s, covered by an indusium. Fig. 804.
Portion of a frond of the Royal or Flowering-fern (Osmunda regalis),
with its sporangia or capsules arranged in aspiked manner on a branched
rachis.
or inwolucre, asin Aspidiwm Filix-mas (fig. 803). Sometimes the
sporangia are so densely compacted that no intervening paren-
chyma can be distinguished—the latter being destroyed by the
excessive development of the former ; in which case, instead of
being collected in sori on the back of the fronds, they appear as
little bodies arranged in a spiked manner on a simple or
branched rachis, as in Osmunda (fig. 804).
The sporangiwm or capsule is a little cellular bag or case (fig.
805, s), usually stalked, p, and more or less completely sur-
rounded by a ring or annulus; this ring is frequently elastic,
and thus causes the bursting of the sporangium when ripe, and the
escape of its contained spores. In some Ferns the ring is im-
periect, and in-others it is altogether wanting ; hence Ferns
366 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FILICES,
provided with a ring are called annulate, while those in which it
is absent are said to be exannulate.
The spores, which are all of one kind (isosporous or homo-
sporous), are usually somewhat angular in form, and have two
Fie. 805. Fie. 806,
i (e-
G
Fig. 805. Sporangia or capsules of a Fern (Marginaria
verrucosa). s. Sporangium supported on a stalk, p,
and surrounded by a ring or annulus, which is a
continuation of the stalk. One sporangium is repre-
sented as burst on its side, and the contained spores
in the act of being scattered.— Fig. 806. Under sur-
face of the prothallium of a Fern, showing archegonia
ar, antheridia an, and root hairs k. After Berg and
Schmidt.
coats like pollen-cells; and like them, also, the outer coat,
which has a yellowish or brownish colour, is either smooth or
furnished with little points, streaks, ridges, or reticulations.
In germination the inner coat is
first protruded in the form of an
elongated tube through an aper-
ture in the outer coat, which ultim-
ately bursts, and the tubular pro-
longation, by cell-division, forms
a thin flat green parenchymatous
expansion, called a prothallium
(fig. 806), from which one or
more root-hairs are commonly
produced in its earliest stage (fig.
806, h). On the under surface
of this body (fig. 806, ar, an) there
are soon produced two different
Fig. 807. Side view of an antheridium structures, called antheridia and
containing a number of sperm-cells archegonia which represent re-
or mother-cells, se. sp. Antherozoids , 2 :
escaping from the antheridium spectively the andrcecium and
after having burst the sperm-cells. gyncoecium of flowering plants ;
hence the prothallia are monce-
cious. The antheridia are cellular bodies (fig. 807) containing
other minute cells called sperm-cells, se, or mother-cells, in each
of which is developed a little spiral ciliated filament, sp, termed
KEPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF EQUISETACEA. 367
‘the antherozoid, which performs the same function as the pollen
of flowering plants. The archegonia (fig. 808) are little cellular
papille of a somewhat oval form, with a canal in their centre
leading to a cavity which has been called the embryo-sac, and in
which, before impregnation, is a cell termed the germ-cell or
Fig. 808. Fic. 809.
Fig. 808. Vertical section of an archegonium,
passing through the canal and embryo-sac,
After Henfrey.— Fig. 809. Prothallium, p, p,
of Adiantum Capilius-Veneris seen from below,
showing the Fern-plant developed from the fer-
tilised germ-cell of the archegonium. 06, First
frond. uw,’ wv.” Roots. A. Root-hairs, After
Sachs.
germ-corpuscle. Impregnation takes place by the contact of the
antherozoids with the germ-corpuscle, and from the development
of this, after fertilisation, ultimately the plant with fronds bear-
ing sporangia is produced (jig. 809).
The Ferns are thus seen to exhibit in their growth two
generations : in the first of which the spore produces a thalloid
expansion, with antheridia and archegonia—the prothalliwm or
sexual generation ; and in the second, a new plant resembling
the one from which the spore was originally derived—the ase.wal
or non-sexual generation (sporophore) or Fern proper. Thus,
Ferns exhibit an instance of what has been called alternation of
generations.
In some rare cases, as in Pteris cretica, no archegonia are
produced, although the antheridia are fully developed. The
Fern proper then arises from the prothallium in a simply vege-
tative manner ; this is known as apogamy.
2. EQuiseracE& or Horseraits.—In these plants the fully
developed fructification, found usually in the early spring, is
borne in cone-like or club-shaped masses at the termination of
the stem-like branches (fig. 13). Each mass is composed of a
number of peltate stalked scales, on the under surface of which
numerous spore-cases, called sporangia, or capsules, are arranged
(fig. 810). These capsules, when ripe, open by a longitudinal
fissure on their inner surface, and thus set free the contained
spores.
368. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LYCOPODIACE.
.
The spores, which are all of one kind, present a very curious
structure ; they are little rounded or somewhat oval bodies, with
three coats, the outer of which ultimately splits up, so as
to form four elastic filaments, which are attached at one end
to the smooth inner coats of the spore, and terminated at the
other by a club-shaped expansion (jigs. 811 and 812). These
Fie. 810. Eres oL1. Fic. 812.
WF ND
Fig. 810. Peltate stalked scale of a species of Horsetail (Hquisetum), bear-
ing on its lower surface a number of sporangia or capsules.—F’g. 811.
Spore of a Horsetail furnished with four elate7s, which are wound round
it. The elaters are terminated by a club-shaped expansion.—Fig.
812. The same spore in a dry state, showing the elaters in an uncoiled
condition.
spiral elastic filaments, which are called elaters, are at first
wound round the spore (fig. 811), but they ultimately uncoil
(fig. 812), and thus appear to assist in the dehiscence of the
sporangium, and in the dispersion of the spore to which they
are attached.
When these spores germinate, a little pouch-like process pro-
trudes from their surface by an elongation of their membrane ;
this ultimately forms a green lobed flattened expansion, the
prothallium, which differs however frum that of the Ferns in
usually being furnished only with antheridia or archegonia—the
prothallia therefore are said to be dicecious, instead of monoecious
as ordinarily in Ferns.
The male and female prothallia moreover differ somewhat in
size, the former being the smaller of the two. As in Ferns also,
from the germ-cell of the archegonium after impregnation by
the antherozoids, a new plant is ultimately produced resembling
in every respect that of the parent plant from which the spores
were derived. As is the case in Ferns, therefore, we have in
the Equisetacez also an instance of alternation of generations.
3. LycopopIAcEZ OR Cius-Mosses.—The sporangia or cap-
sules in the plants of this order are placed, like those of the
Selaginellacez, in the axils or at the base of the leaves or scales,
on short stalks. The leaves (jfig.12) thus bearing the sporangia
or fructification are frequently collected together into a kind
of scale, cone, or spike, while at other times they are scattered
along the stem. The spores, like those of the Filices and
Equisetaceze, are of one kind only, in which they differ from
the Selaginellaceze, to which in other respects they are closely
allied, the two orders until lately being placed together under
the common name of. Lycopodiacez.
tht
oe “ui
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF SELAGINELLACES. 369
The sporangia are somewhat reniform, two-valved cases
closely resembling the antheridium or microsporangiwm of the
Selaginellaceze, and containing a number of spores, the smaller
of which ultimately contain antherozoids (see Selaginellacez).
But little is known of the early development of the spores, but
they ultimately produce large prothallia, with root-hairs like the
Filices, and like them these prothallia are moncecious, bearing
antheridia and archegonia on their upper surface, and from the
sexual action of which new plants are formed. Hence the
Lycopodiacez, like the Filices and Equisetacez, also exhibit an
example of alternation of generations.
4. SELAGINELLACEZ OR SELAGINELLAS.—The sporangia or
capsules in the plants of this order are situated in the axils or at
Fie 813. Fig. 814. Fic. 815.
Fic. 816.
Fig. 813. Scale or leaf of Selaginella apoda, with macrosporangium in its
axil.—Fig. 814. Antheridium or microsporangium of the above, placed
in the axil of a leaf or scale. After Henfrey—Ffig. 815. Microsporan-
gium of a species of Selaginella. It is two-valved, and contains a number
of small spores or microspores. Fig. 816. Macrosporangium or mega-
sporangium of a species of Selaginella. This is atwo-valved, four-lobed sac,
and contains four large spores which are commonly called macrospores.
the base of the leaves (jigs. 815 and 814). The leaves thus
bearing the fructification are frequently collected together into
a kind of cone or spike, while at other times they are scattered
along the stem. The spores, like those of the Marsileacex, are
of two kinds (heterosporous), and are enclosed in separate cases.
These cases are variously named ; the names which would corre-
spond to those commonly used in describing the Marsileacez
would be sporangia and antheridia ; but the former are also
more frequently called megasporangia or macrosporangia (figs.
813 and 816), and the latter microsporangia (figs. 814 and 815).
The contents of the former are generally termed large spores,
megaspores, or macrospores (fig. 816); and those of the latter
small spores or microspores (fig. 815). FE
The megasporangia or macrosporangia are usually two-valved
As
bit ae BB
hes re oy
370 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MARSILEACEA.
cases (fig. 816) with four lobes, each of which contains one large
spore (macrospore) ; but in some cases they are 4-valved. The
macrospores OY megaspores are in number 2, 4, or 8.
The antheridia or microsporangia are somewhat reniform two-
valved cases (jig. 815), containing a large number of small spores
(microspores), in which antherozoids are ultimately produced.
The large spores are considered by Hofmeister and others as
the analogues of the ovules. The antheridia or microsporangia
are therefore to be considered as the male organs, and the
macrosporangia as the female.
In germination, the large spore produces a prothallium in its
interior, thus resembling the Marsileacez. In this archegonia
are soon developed, and ultimately a new plant is produced by
fertilisation taking place by means of the antherozoids.
An order called Isoétaceze, which includes the species of
Isoétes, is sometimes placed next to the Selaginellacez. It has
essentially the same characters, except as regards its nutritive
organs. ’
5. MARSILEACE® OR PEPPERWORTS.—In the plants of this
order the fructification is placed at the base of the leaf-stalks.
It consists usually of a two-valved stalked
Fic. 817. sporocarp (jig. 817, s), which is generally
many-celled, or sometimes only one-celled.
The contents of the sporocarps, and the mode
in which they are arranged, vary, however, in
the different genera of this order, and hence it
will be necessary for us to allude to them
separately.
In Marsilea, the fructification consists of a
stalked two-valved hardened sporocarp (jig.
817, s). The valves are held together by a
gelatinous ring, which is at first connected
with the stalk of the sporocarp, but when
the latter organ bursts, the ring becomes de-
tached from the stalk at one end, straightens,
and appears as a long gelatinous cord pro-
truding from the sporocarp (jig. ml P)s Ne
; bearing on its sides somewhat oblong spikes
PG Pats banca of fructification, f. These spikes are at first
Marsilea, s. Two- enveloped ina membrane, and are composed of
pee two distinct organs, called antheridia or micro-
Fructification. sporangia ; and macrosporangia, megasporangia
or sporangia. These organs are attached to
a sort of placenta, the antheridia being on one side, and the
sporangia on the other.
Each sporangium or female organ contains but one spore,
called an ovulary spore, macrospore, or megaspore. It consists of
a central nucleus, surrounded by a cellular coating except at
its apex, where there is alittle cavity. According to Hofmeister,
PILULARIA.—SALVINIA. O71
‘this cavity is gradually filled up with cellular tissue, constituting
a conical prothallium confluent with the nucleus. A single
archegonium is formed in the centre, the orifice of which corre-
sponds with the apex of the prothallium.’ Fertilisation takes
place by means of the antherozoids of the microspores.
The aitheridia or male organs contain a number of small
cells (fig. 818), which ultimately develop long spiral anthero-
zoids. These small cells are called pollen spores, small spores, or
microspores. ;
In Pilularia the fructification consists of stalked, pill-shaped,
hairy sporocarps. The interior of each sporocarp is divided
usually into four cells (fig. 819), and when ripe it opens by four
valves. In the interior of each cell there is a mucilaginous pro-
cess or placenta attached to the walls, upon which are placed
numerous antheridia and sporangia, as in Marsilea. The struc-
ture of these antheridia and sporangia resembles in all essential’
Fic. 818. Fie. 820.
Fie. 819.
Fig. 818. Antheridium of a species of Marsilea containing microspores. After
Le Maout. Fig. 819. Transverse section of the sporocarp or spore fruit
of Pilularia globulifera. After Henfrey.— Fig. 820. Vertical section of
the sporocarp of Salvinia, showing sporangia in one cavity, t, and anthe-
ridia in the other cavity, a.
particulars those of Marsilea. In fact, the only difference
between the fructification of Marsilea and Pilularia is the more
complicated nature of the sporocarps in Marsilea.
The fructification of Salviinia (fig. 820) appears to resemble
that of Marsilea and Pilularia, except that the antheridia, a,
and sporangia, b, are here contained in separate sacs, and are
attached to a sort of central cellular placenta. In germination,
also, the prothallium of Salvinia differs from that of Marsilea
and of Lilularia, in producing several archegonia, instead of
only one, as is the case with them. From these causes the
Marsileaceze are frequently divided into two orders, namely,
Marsileacez and Salviniaceze, the former including the genera
Pilularia and Marsilea, and the latter those of Salvinia and
Azolla. The common name of Rhizocarpez is also frequently
applied to the two combined orders.
BB2
12 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MUSCI.
In reviewing the fructification of the Marsileacez, we find
that it differs from the Filices, Equisetaceze, and Lycopodiaceze
in producing two distinct kinds of spores, and in the prothallium
not forming a distinct expansion on the outside of the spore, as
is the case with them, but being confluent with the spore.
These characters show that the Marsileacez are closely allied
to the Selaginellacez.
6. Muscr or Mosstes.—The reproductive organs of this order
are of two kinds, which are called antheridia (fig. 821), and
archegonia or pistillidia (fig. 822). These are surrounded ~by
leaves, called perichetial (fig. 824, f), which are usually of a
different form and arrangement to those of the stem; and in
some Mosses they have, in addition to the pericheetial leaves,
another covering formed of three or six small leaves, of a very
different appearance to them, termed perigonial, and constituting
collectively a perigone. The antheridia are regarded as the male
organs, and the archegonia or pistillidia as the female.
Fre. 82. Fie. 822.
aas}
Fig. 821. Antheridium, a, of
the Hair-moss _ (Polyt7i-
chum), containing a num-
ber of cells, c, in each of
which there is a single an-
therozoid. p. Paraphises,
surrounding the antheri-
dium. Fig. 822. Arche-
gonium or pistillidium of a
P Moss surrounded by pava-
physes.
eB.
ee.
ase
=)
o
C2
The antheridia and archegonia sometimes occur in the same
perigone, in which case such Mosses have been termed herma-
phrodite. More frequently, however, they are in different peri-
gones, and then both kinds of reproductive organs may occur
on the same plant, or on separate plants (figs. 9 and 10) ; in the
former case we apply the term monecious, in the latter diwcious.
The antheridium or male organ is a somewhat elliptical, more
or less rounded or elongated cellular sac (fig. 821, a), which is
filled at maturity with a number of minute cells, c, termed
sperm-cells or mother-cells; in each of which there is a single
spiral antherozoid. The antheridium opens by an irregular
perforation at its apex, and thus discharges the sperm-cells with
their antherozoids. Among the antheridia there are generally
to be found slender cellular jointed threads (jig. 821, p), called
paraphyses, which are probably nothing more than abortive
antheridia, as they appear to perform no special function.
The archegonia, like the antheridia, are also usually sur-
rounded by filamentous cellular bodies, called paraphyses, which
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MUSCI. 373
appear to be in this case abortive archegonia (fig. 822). The
archegonium or female organ is a flask-shaped cellular body with
a long neck, the whole somewhat resembling an ovary with its
style and stigma (jig. 822). The neck is perforated by a canal
which leads into a cavity, at the bottom of which is a single
cell, called the germ or embryonal cell. The case of the arche-
gonium is called the epigone. This germ-cell appears to be
fertilised, as in Ferns, by the antherozoids passing down the
canal until they reach it. In the case of Mosses, however, the
fertilised germ-cell does not directly develop a new plant like
its parent, but after fertilisation has taken place, the germ-cell
becomes gradually developed into a somewhat conical or more
Fic. 823. Fic. 824. Fig. 825. Fie. 826.
Fig. 823. Coscinodon pulvinalus. sp. Sporangium
enclosed in the calyptra. t. Seta or stalk,
v. Vaginule. From Henfrey. Fig. 824.
The Hygrometric Cord-moss (/unaria hygro-
metrica). jf. Pericheetial leaves. p. Stalks
or sete, each of which supports a sporan-
gium, wu, covered by a calyptra, ec. Fig. 825.
Sporangium of the Extinguisher-moss (F7-
calypta vulgaris) before dehiscence. wu. Spo-
rangium covered by a transparent calyptra,
c, and supported on a seta, s. Beneath the
calyptra is seen the lid or operculum, o.
Fig. 826. The sporangium, uw, of fig. 825 after
dehiscence. The calyptra c, and operculum oa,
being removed, the pevistome, p, may be seen.
or less oval body (fig. 823, sp) elevated on a stalk, ¢, and as it
grows upwards it bursts the epigone, and carries one portion of
it upwards as a kind of hood (fig. 824, c), while the other por-
tion remains below as a sort of sheath (fig. 823, v), round the
stalk. The central portion, formed by the development of the
embryonal cell, is called the sporangiwm (figs. 824, uw, and 825
w); the stalk the seta (figs. 824, p, and 825, s); the hood the
calyptra( figs. 824, c, and 825, c) ; and the sheath at the base the
vaginule (fig. 823, v).
The sporangium, or capsule, as it is also termed, when fully
formed, isa hollow urn-like case (figs. 827 and 828, w), the centre
of which is usually occupied by a cellular axis, called the colw-
mella (fig. 829), and the space between this axis and the walls
o74 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MUSCI.
of the sporangium is filled with free spores, which are small
cells with two coats and markings resembling those of pollen-
cells. The sporangium is either indehiscent ; or it opens by
four vertical slits so as to form four valves, as in the sub-order
Andreeez ; or more commonly by a transverse slit close to its
apex, like fruits with circumscissile dehiscence, by which a
kind of lid is produced, called the operculum (jigs. 826, 0, and
827) ; which is either persistent or deciduous. The sporangium
is sometimes much dilated at the base, where it joins the seta ;
this swelling is called an apophysis, or, if it only occurs on one
side, a struma.
The wall of the sporangium is commonly described as con-
sisting of three cellular layers, the outer of which forms the
operculum, just described, and the inner two layers the peristome.
iRiver Fig. 828. : Fig. 829
Fig. 827. Pottia truncata, showing the separation of the operculum from
the sporangium. From Henfrey. Fig. 828. Sporangium, wu, of the
Hair-moss, deprived of its calyptra and operculum. p. Peristome. e. Epi-
phragma or tympanum.—/ig. 829. Transverse section of asporangium
of the Hair-moss, showing the columella surrounded by free spores.
At the dehiscence of the sporangium the stoma or mouth is
entire, smooth, or unfurnished with any processes (fig. 827) ; or
it is surrounded by one or two fringes of teeth, called collectively
the peristome (fig. 826, »), which, as just stated, are formed from
the two inner layers of the wall of the sporangium. These teeth
are always four or some multiple of that number. Sometimes a
membrane from the inner wall is stretched across the mouth of
the sporangium, and forms what has been called the epiphragma
or tympanum (fig. 828, e). When the mouth is naked, the
Mosses in which such a sporangium is found are called gymno-
stomous or naked-mouthed ; when the mouth is surrounded by a
single row of teeth, they are said to be aploperistomous ; or,
when with two rows, they are diploperistomous. The different
appearances presented by the teeth, as well as their number
and degree of cohesion, form important distinctive characters
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF HEPATICACEA. 375
in the different genera of Mosses. The operculum, as already
stated, is formed by a projection of the outer layer of the wall
of the sporangium. At the point where the operculum separates
an elastic ring or annulus is produced, which encircles the mouth
of the sporangium.
In germination, the inner coat of the spore is protruded as
a tubular process, which ultimately produces a kind of pro-
thallium in the form of a green cellular branched mass, some-
what like a Conferva. This is called the Protonema, and upon
its threads are subsequently developed leafy shoots, upon which
archegonia and antheridia are afterwards developed. In Mosses,
therefore, we have another instance of alternation of generations.
7. Hepaticace& or Liverworts.—The reproductive organs
of Liverworts are of two kinds like those of Mosses, to which
this order is closely allied; they are called antheridia, and
Fie. 830. Fie. 831.
WW
Fig. 830. A portion of the thallus or thalloid stem of Marehantia polymorpha.
7. Receptacle, supported on a stalk, s. In the upper surface of the recep-
tacle the antheridia are imbedded.— Fig. 831. Antheridium of Mar-
chantia, discharging its small cellular contents (sperm-cells).
archegonia or pistillidia, and both kinds may be found on the
same plant, or on different plants; hence these plants are
either monecious or diwcious.
The antheridia or male organs are variously situated in the
different genera of this order ; thus, in the leafy plants they are
placed in the axils of leaves, as in some species of Jungermannia ;
in other plants they occur in the substance of the frond or thal-
loid expansion, as in ficcia and Fimbriaria ; and in others, as
in Marchantia, they are found imbedded in the upper surface
of peltate or discoid-stalked receptacles (fig. 830, 7). The an-
theridia are small, generally shortly stalked, cellular sacs, of an
oval (fig. 831) or somewhat flask-shaped form, in which are
376 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF HEPATICACEA.
contained a number of small sperm-cells; and their walls are
usually formed of a double layer of cells. When ripe the an-
theridium bursts and discharges its contents; the sperm-cells
also burst, and each emits a single antherozoid, in the form of a
spirai thread with two or three coils, somewhat like those of
Chara (fig. 857).
The archegonia or female organs, like the antheridia, are
differently arranged in different genera ; thus in Riccia they are
imbedded in the substance of the frond, while in Jungermannia
and Marchantia (fig. 832) they are imbedded in the undér sur-
Fic. 832. Fie. 833. Fic. 834.
Hy
\ i P
fo it
\ WR X
;
x
XN
NSS y
WS
Wo . 4
Fig. 832. A portion of the thallus orthalloidstem
of Marchantia polymorpha. r. Receptacle sup-
ported on a stalk, s, On the under surface of
the receptacle the archegonia are imbedded.
— Fig. 833. Arehegonium of Marchantia.
b. Perigone, open at its apex and surrounding
an inner cellular case or epigone. c,c. Para-
physes.—Fig. 834. Elaters, e, of Marchantic.
s, s. Spores.
face of the receptacles, 7, which are elevated above the thallus
on stalks, s. They are usually small flask-shaped bodies, each of
which consists of a cellular case or epigone (fig. 833), having a
canal in its upper elongated portion which leads to a cavity, at
the bottom of which a single free cell, called the germ or em-
bryonal cell, is developed. The yerm-cell is doubtless fertilised,
as in Ferns and Mosses, by the passage of the antherozoids down
the canal until they come in contact withit. The fully-developed
archegonia, like those of Mosses, have also at times an additional
covering surrounding the epigone, called the perigone, which
frequently grows up so as to form a.sort of cup-shaped covering
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF HEPATICACE., B17
(fig. 853, b). At the base of the perigone, a number of cellular
filaments, pericheetial leaves, or paraphyses, are also occasionally
to be found (fig. 833, ¢, c).
As in the case of Mosses, the fertilised germ-cell does not
directly develop a new plant like its parent, but after fertilisa-
tion the germ-cell enlarges and bursts through the epigone, and
forms a sporangium or capsule; the epigone either remaining as
a sort of sheath round the base of the sporangium, which is
called the vaginule, or its upper part is carried upwards as a sort
of hood or styloid calyptra.
The sporangia vary much in different genera. In Marchan-
tua they are formed of two layers of cells: one external, called
the cortical or peripheral layer; and one internal, in which the
spores, &c., are developed. The cells of the cortical layer
exhibit spiral fibres, like the cells constituting the inner lining
of the anthers in Flowering Plants. The cells forming the
internal layer are thus described by Henfrey :—‘ At an early
period the cells of the internal mass present the appearance of a
large number of filaments radiating from the centre of the spo-
rangium to the wall. ‘These soon become free from each other,
and it may then be perceived that some are of very slender
diameter, and others three or four times as thick. The slender
ones are developed at once into the long elaters (fig. 834, ¢)
characteristic of this genus, containing a double spiral fibre, the
two fibres, however, coalescing into one at the ends. The thicker
filaments become subdivided by cross partitions, aud break up
into squarish free cells, which are the parent cells of the spores,
four of which are produced in each.’ The sporangia in this
genus are situated on the under side of the receptacle (jig.
832, r), and vary in form; they burst by valves.
In Jungermannia the sporangia are elevated upon stalks
arising out of a vaginule; they are more or less oval in form,
and open by four valves which spread in a cross-like form ; they
contain spore-cells and elaters with a single spiral filament (jig. 8).
in Anthoceros the sporangia open by two valves, and have a
central axis or columella ; they are of an elongated, tubular, or
conical form, and are situated on a short stalk, and contain
spore-cells and elaters, but the latter have no spiral fibres in
their interior, and are much simpler in their structure than those
just described as found in Marchantia. In Riccia the sporangia
are imbedded in the substance of the frond, and have neither
elaters nor columella. They have no regular dehiscence.
The spores have usually two coats, like pollen-cells ; and the
outer coat also frequently presents markings of different kinds;
but in Marchantia the spores have but one coat. They mostly
germinate without any well-marked intermediate prothallium,
although some produce a kind of prothallium in the form of a
confervoid mass or protonema, like a Moss (see page 375),
3878 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI.—PHYCOMYCETES.
Section 2. RepropucTIVE ORGANS OF THALLOPHYTES.
Tue Thallophytes may be divided into four large groups,
ealled respectively, Fungi, Lichenes, Characeze, and Algz, in
each of which again several subordinate divisions have been
made. The general characters of the larger groups will be de-
scribed hereafter in Systematic Botany. At present we have
only to examine their reproductive organs, and of these even
we can only give a general sketch ; but for fuller information on
this subject the student is more especially referred to Sachs’s
‘Text Book of Botany,’ as printed at the Clarendon Press of
the University of Oxford.
1. Func1 on MusHrooms.—To give a detailed description
of the various modes of reproduction occurring in the different
sub-divisions of this order would be beyond the scope of this
volume, and we will therefore simply choose a few examples as
types of the different methods by which reproduction may take
place. For this purpose we will adopt the classification proposed
by De Bary, according to which the Fungi are divided into the
following groups, viz. :—(i) Phycomycetes, (11) Hypodermis,
(ii1) Basidiomycetes, (iv) Ascomycetes, after which we shall give
a short notice of the Bacteria, which are now generally regarded
as an order of the Fungi, called Schizomycetes.
(i) Phycomycetes.—As an example of this group we will
briefly describe the life history of Cystopus candidus, a fungus
which is commonly found growing upon Cruciferous plants. It
resembles closely in its morphological phenomena Vaucheria (the
life history of which is described under ‘ Algze,’ page 394), not
only in respect to its unicellular mycelium, but also in its forma-
tion of oogonia and antheridia.
On examining a plant infested by Cystopus, it will be seen
that the greatly elongated one-celled branched mycelium of the
fungus (jig. 835, A), is interwoven, as it were, among the cells
of its host, and draws nourishment from the latter by means
of little rounded projections or bladders, known as haustoria,
which penetrate the cell-walls of the host-plant. After vege-
tating for some time in this manner, erect branches grow out
beyond the surface of the epidermis, from which conidia are
formed by a process of budding. (The term conidia, when used
by us, indicates in all cases reproductive cells which are thus
produced asexually.) From these conidia, when moistened with
dew, rain, &c., zoospores are formed, and these settling down
upon a similar plant will, under favourable circumstances, again
develop the Cystopus mycelium.
But Cystopus can also produce zoospores by means of a sexual
process, which takes place in the interior of its host. The ends
of certain filaments of the mycelium swell up, forming oogonia
(fig. 835, A, og, 0g); whilst two club-shaped bodies, the anthe-
PHYCOMYCETES.—CYSTOPUS. 379
ridia (fig. 835, B, an), are formed by branches which arise from
near the base of the oogonium. In the course of its develop-
ment, the oogoniwm becomes of a more or less spherical form,
and at its base a septum is formed separating it from the general
cavity of the Cystopus mycelium, whilst the greater part of the
protoplasm contained in the oogonium arranges itself so as to
form a rounded inass known as the oosplere (jig. 835, B, 0s).
Fic. 835.
Fig. 835. A. Branched mycelium of Cystopus with young oogonia, 0g, og.
B. Portion of mycelium bearing oogonium, og, with the oosphere, os;
and antheridium, an. c. Mature oogonium, with os, the oospore. D.
Mature oospore. £, F. Formation of swarm-spores or zoospores, G, from
the oospores. i, i. Protruded endospore. After De Bary.
When fertilisation is about to take place, one or other of the
antheridia comes in contact with the oogonium (jig. 835, B, an),
and subsequently the protoplasm of the antheridium reaches
that of the oogonium by penetrating the membrane of the latter
(fig. 825, B). An oospore is thus formed (fig. 835, C, 0s), which
becomes surrounded by a rough dark brown coat or exospore,
and contains numerous starch granules (fig. 835, pD). After
lying dormant during the winter, the protoplasm of the oospore
becomes divided into numerous segments, the whole being
covered bya thin membrane known as the endospore (fig. 835 B,
i, and F, 1); and from each of the little segments of protoplasm
is formed a zoospore or swarm-spore (fig. 835, G). The endospore
ultimately forces itself like a bladder (fig. 835, E, 7, F, 7) through
the exospore, and then bursting, the zoospores, G, are set free,
380 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI.—HYPODERMIA,
each of which, like those from the conidia, may settle down and
produce a new Cystopus mycelium.
(ii) Hypodermix.—Puccinia graminis, which we will take as
the type of this group, is remarkable not only in showing a dis-
tinct alternation of generations, but also in the fact that each
generation is developed upon a different host, and thus affording
a good example of what has been called hetereecism, or changing
from host to host during different changes of development.
Thus in the spring, the fungus (jig. 836) may be seen in one
phase of its existence growing on the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris),
whilst in the summer, upon certain Grasses fungous growths
(figs. 837 and 838) may be seen which have been developed from
spores formed whilst the Puccinia was inhabiting the Barberry,
and which in fact constitute the second generation.
If a section be made
Fic. 836. through one of the yellowish
swellings seen on the leaf of
a Barberry plant which is
affected by the fungus, the
whole tissue of the leaf at
the spot in question will be
found to be permeated by
the mycelium of the Pue-
cinia, whilst two kinds of
fructification may be noticed,
one on either side of the
leaf. On the upper surface
(fig. 836, 0) are somewhat
rounded spaces, termed
spermogonia, sp, full of very
delicate hair-like bodies,
and from the floor of the
cavity very small spore-like
structures, the . spermatia,
Fig. 836. Section through leaf of the Bar- are formed. On the under
berry infested with Puccinia graminis, o. Surface are the much larger
Epidermis of upper surface of leaf. sp. seidium fruits or &xcidia,
Spermogonia. p, p. Layers of cells (peri- 7
dium), surrounding, a, a, the xcidium %, 4. These consist of
fruits. After Sachs. closely packed vertical
hyphee, from which, by a
process of continuous budding, a great number of conidia-like
spores are detached. It is by the germination of these spores
and their growth on Grasses, that what are known as the wredo-
frwits are produced.
These uredo-fruits consist of a dense mycelium (fig. 837, sh),
interwoven among the cells of the Grass leaf, from which
vertical branches shoot upwards bearing at their extremities
oval granular spores, the wredospores, wr. These uredospores,
germinating in other Grasses, again produce wredo-fruits, and
HYPODERMI4#.—BASIDIOMYCETES. | 381
this process may be carried on throughout the summer. But
towards autumn some of the older uredo-fruits produce what
are known as the teleuwtospores (figs. 837, t, and 838, t, t). These
are two-celled, somewhat elongated spores, which, germinating
upon the Barberry leaf, give rise to the ecidium fruits which
we have already described.
It will be noticed that as yet no sexual process has been
discovered to occur during the life history of Puccinia, Should
such be hereafter demonstrated, it will probably be found that
the «xcidia are formed in consequence of the fertilisation of
female organs by the spermatia.
Fic. 837. Fic. 838.
Fig. 837. Part of alayer of uredospores. sh. Hyphe or mycelium ramifying
among the cells of a leaf of the Couch Grass. u7. Uredospores. ¢. A
teleutospore. Fig. 838. e. Epidermal, and 6, inner layer of cells of the
infested leaf. ¢,¢. Teleutospores. After De Bary.
(iii) Basidiomycetes.—As an example of this group we will
briefly describe what is known of the life history of the common
Mushroom (Agaricus campestris). That which is ordinarily known
as the Mushroom is in reality the receptacle (fig. 6), fructifica-
tion, or spore-producing structure, growing from a mycelium, my,
which is vegetating underneath the surface of the ground or
other substance upon which the fungus may be growing. The
receptacle, in the case which we are considering, consists of two
parts (fig. 839, A), viz. :—the cap or pileus, p, and the stalk
or stipe, st. The former may be regarded as the essential part of
the receptacle, the spores being produced on its under surface,
whilst the stalk simply serves the purpose of raising the cap
some distance above the ground.
$82 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI.—AGARICUS.
In the earlier stages of development the young receptacle
consists of small, somewhat pear-shaped bodies ( fig. 839, B),
made up of a dense mass of hyphal tissue continuous with that
of the mycelium, m. As growth proceeds in these bodies, an
annular air cavity is formed near the upper part, the roof of
which forms the under side of the pileus, and, growing rapidly in a
transverse direction, ultimately becomes covered by a number
of closely set vertical folds placed in a radiating direction from
the centre to the margin; these are the lamelle or gills, and
collectively constitute the hymenium (jig. 6, b), upon whith the
spores are produced in a manner to be presently described.
The growth of the cap gradually causes the floor of the cavity,
Fic. 839.
Fig. 839. A. Vertical section of the common Mushroom (Agaricus campestyis).
my. Mycelium. vol. Remains of volva. st, Stipe. an. Annulus. 2. Hy-
menium with its gills or lamelle, la. p. The pileus.—Bs. m. Mycelium
of Agaricus, bearing numerous young receptacles in different stages of
development. After Sachs.
known as the veil or indusiwm, to give way from the margin, so
that it comes at last to hang from the stalk in the form of a
fringe or annulus (figs. 6, ¢, and 839, a, an).
In some species of Agaricus, as the present, the whole plant
is entirely enclosed at first in a kind of veil or covering (jig. 6),
called the volva, which ultimately becomes ruptured, and free
from the tissue forming the membrane on the upper surface of
the pileus ; but its remains may be seen at the base of the stalk
( fig. 839, A, vol).
If a transverse section of one of the lamelle of a mature
hymenium be made, it will be seen to consist of cells, greatly
elongated in the centre, constituting the trama (fig. 840, ft),
but being smaller and more or less rounded towards the peri-
phery, where they form what is known as the swb-hymenial layer,
BASIDIOMYCETES.— AGARICUS. 383
sh. Placed upon and derived from this layer are the densely
crowded club-shaped cells known respectively as the bastdia, s’,
s’, 8”, 8’, or paraphyses, q, according as they produce spores
or remain sterile.
From each basidium, in this species, two spores are pro-
duced, the process of their development being as follows :—On
the free rounded surface of the basidial cell there first appear
two little processes, s’, which quickly become swollen at their
extremities, s”. The swelling in each instance increases, and
finally a protoplasmic cell is produced, s’”’, which becomes
separated from the little stalk, s’””’, and forms a spore. The
Fic. 840.
Fig. 840, Transverse section of a lamella of the mature hymenium of Aga7é-
cus campestris, t.Trama. sh.Sub-hymeniallayer. q. Paraphyses. 5’, 3",
s'’, Basidia in different stages of development, showing formation of
spores. s’’, Basidium after the spores have fallen off. After Sachs.
spores, thus formed, when placed under favourable circum-
stances are capable of producing the mycelium, or dense net-
work of hyphee, from which again the fructification or receptacle
is developed. Judging from analogy, we would have expected
the fructification to be the result of a sexual process taking place
in the mycelium, thus giving rise to an alternation of genera-
tions, but from the latest researches on the subject this does
not seem to be the case.
(iv) Ascomycetes.—From this division of Fungi two examples
may be selected for description.
The first which we will consider is Claviceps purpurea, or the
Ergot Fungus. If we trace the development of this Fungus
upon the ovary of the affected Grass (Rye being the one more
884 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI.—ASCOMYCETES:
commonly selected), we find that it first produces what is known
as the sphacelia (fig. 842). On examining a section of an ovary
in this condition, it is seen to be almost completely surrounded
by a dense mass of hyphal tissue, which also penetrates more or
less into its interior, and gradually, in fact almost entirely,
takes the place of the proper structure of the ovary—this being
more particularly the case towards the base of the organ.
Fia. 841. Bie. 842:
sph
Fig. 841. Young sclerotium, c, of Claviceps growing up and supplanting the
old sphacelia, sph. = Pig: 842. Section through the junction of the
sphacelia with the sclerotium of Claviceps, showing formation of conidia.
Fia. 843. Fic. 844,
Fig. 843. Portion of the horn-shaped sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, or
the Ergot Fungus, bearing four stalked receptacles.—— Fig. 844. Longi-
tudinal section of a receptacle of the same, magnified, showing the peri-
thecia. After Tulasne.
From the free ends of the outer hyphez great numbers of
conidia (fig. 842) are produced by budding, which appear to
have the power of again producing sphacelia in other Grasses.
Finally, the hyphal tissue becomes much more dense, this taking
place gradually from the base to the apex, until the sclerotiwm
CLAVICEPS.— PEZIZA. 384
(fig. 841) or ergot, which is ultimately (fig. 843) a somewhat
horn-shaped body of a dark purple colour, is formed.
After remaining dormant during the winter, the Ergot or
Sclerotiwm produces spores (from which the sphacelia can again
be formed) in the following manner. Stalked receptacles ( Sig.
843) grow up from the tissue of the Ergot, in which are deve-
loped a number of perithecia (fig. 844). These perithecia are
somewhat flask-shaped cavities (fig. 845), which are filled with
asci ; the latter containing long slender spores ( Jig. 846), termed
ascospores, which again, by germinating on the Rye or allied
Grasses, give rise to the sphacelia.
Pexiza, our second example of the Ascomycetes, is a genus
of Fungi containing a great number of species, many of which
Fic. 845. Fie. 846.
Fig. 845. A single perithecinm of Claviceps purpurea, magnified, showing the
contained asci. After Tulasne. Fig. 846. Asci of the same, containing
the long slender ascospores. After Tulasne.
are very common, and may be seen growing upon the dead
trunks of trees, &c. Peziza is recognised as a small disc-
shaped body, slightly cupped on the upper surface and of a
reddish-purple colour. On close examination it is found that
this structure (which is in fact the fructification) is growing
from, and continuous with, a mycelium vegetating under the
surface of the wood, &c., upon which the Fungus is situated.
On examining a vertical section under the microscope, it is seen
to consist of numbers of elongated cells closely packed side by
side. Of these the greater number are very narrow and some-
what club-shaped at the extremities, whilst the others are
broader (fig. 847, a-f) and each contains eight oval spores in a
greater or less state of development. These latter cells are
known as the asci (the spores they produce being termed asco-
co
386 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI.—BACTERIA.
spores) ; whilst the former very narrow elongated cells are sterile
branchlets, which are known as the paraphyses. The ascospores
are produced by the process of free cell-formation.
That which we have been describing, however, is merely one
phase of the life-history of Peziza, as this is one of the Fungi in
which a clearly marked alternation of generations exists. Thus
at a certain period of the year there appear on the Peziza myce-
lium branches directed vertically upwards, which, after branch-
ing and rebranching, produce structures by means of which a
sexual process takes place. These consist of antheridiw (fig.
848, i), and what may be termed oogonia, a, the latter being
Fig. 847. Fic. 848.
=a
TO)
Pain ereds ©
4 Lode VEE a
ee ; a se
(SRNL Ge Os Dy
ID Lo
Zs cS
BE
On
Wary
OT a
> :
et SY
Fig. 847. sh. Sub-hymenial layer of the mycelium or hyphe of Peziza con-
vecula. a, b, c,d, e,f. Successive stages of development of the asci and
ascospores intermixed with slender paraphyses. After Sachs, ——Fig, $48.
h, h. Mycelium or hyphe of Peziza confluens. a. Oogonium with hooked
process, 7. %. Antheridium. After Tulasne.
ovoid vesicles placed at the extremities of the branchlets ; whilst
the former is an elongated club-shaped body rising from below
the base of the oogonium. The antheridium, 7, finally unites
with the oogonium, a, through the interposition of a hook-shaped
process, f, on the latter, and as a result of the fertilisation a
number of hyphee, h, h, shoot up from the base of the oogonium,
which ultimately develop so as to form the fructification which
we have already examined.
Bacteria.—A very large and important group of orgatlisms is
that of the Bacteria. Where these should be placed is still some-
what a matter of doubt ; but they are more commonly arranged
among the Fungi, forming the order Schizomycetes of the group
Protomycetes. Cohn includes them amongst the Algze, though
they differ materially from Algz in the fact that they will not live
in clean water, but require decomposable substances for their
FUNGI.—BACTERIA. 387
nutrition ; in this, and in that they do not contain chlorophyll,
they resemble Fungi, and should doubtless be considered as
Fungi, unless, indeed, they belong tothe lowest group of animals,
viz., Monads, as is maintained by some observers. Whether all
Bacteria have an envelope of
cellulose is questionable, for as Fic. 849
their structure cannot be made ine
out except under the highest a
powers of the microscope, what ,, /
appears to be cellulose may Uo i p i
really be nothing more than a 9 i;
halo produced by improper il- G /
lumination, indifferent staining, ) /
and other causes. The forms of
Bacteria vary considerably, some Fig. 849. Bacilli, showing development
being small spherical bodies, BrOR BEG Ee odes esan Teh
which may exist singly, or in
chains, or in masses, Micrococci (fig. 850, 5, 6, and 7) ; others are
somewhat oval in form, Bacteria (jig. 850, 2) ; others, again, rod-
shaped, Bacilli (fig. 849) ; while some have the form of a cork-
screw of one or more turns, Spirilla (fig. 850, 3 and 4), &c. Most
of the Bacteria are motile, the source of movement in many forms
Fic. 850.
awe |
rele)
°° 90 Fig. 850.
oe 1, Sarcine.
2. Bacteria.
3. Spirilla,
4, Spirillum, show-
ing flagella,
Micrococci in
{ strings, singly
andin groups.
.| After Cohn
and Sachs.
sO ES)
being flagella, generally one at each end (jig. 850, 4), while in
others the cause of movement has not yet been discovered.
Bacteria may be divided according to their morphology or their
physiology, some producing coloured secretions, chromogenous,
although they themselves are colourless ; others causing fermen-
tation, zymogenous ; while others are most probably the cause
of disease, pathogenous. It is this last group which has been
creating so much interest lately in connexion with phthisis,
cholera, hydrophobia, anthrax, &c. The methods of reproduc-
tion are fission, and in some cases the production of spores,
though both methods are most probably ayamogenic. in
co2
388 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LICHENES.
2. LIcHENES or LicHens.—Of late years Lichens have been
regarded by many botanists as, in reality, Ascomycetous Fungi,
parasitic upon Algz. But as the recent researches of Crombie
and others have shown that this view of their nature is highly
improbable, and as moreover Lichens present so many charac-
teristics peculiar to themselves, we shall describe them and
their modes of reproduction under a separate head. According
to the view that Lichens are species of Fungi, parasitic upon
Algze, the chlorophyll-containing cells or gonidia ( Sigs. 853,
Fig. &51. Fic. 858,
Wun al iu
Ey maa
Fig. 851. Thallus of Opegrapha atra, showing linear apothecia, termed
lirelle. Fig, 852. Portion of the thallus of Parmelia parietina, with
young round «apothecia, ap, and spermogonia, sp. After Henfrey.—Fig.
853. Section of the thallus through an apothecium of Cetravia islundica.
as. Asci, three of which contain ascospores. par. Paraphyses. gon.
Gonidia. After Berg and Schmidt.
gon, and 855, gon), found within the substance of their thal-
lus, and which used formerly to be regarded as special asexual
reproductive organs, are in reality Algz upon which the
Fungus is parasitic. Thus the thallus of a Lichen is a com-
pound structure, consisting of two elements, the fungal and the
algal.
The reproductive organs of Lichens are of three kinds :—(1)
Apothecia ; (2) Spermogonia ; and (3) Pyenidia.
The apothecia are of various forms, and have received different
names accordingly; the more usual are the round (fig. 852, ap)
and linear (fig. 851); the latter are commonly termed lirelle.
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LICHENES. 389
The apothecia may be either sessile or stalked ; the stalk, when
present, is termed the podetium. ‘The apothecium is either com-
posed of two parts, called the thalamiwm and excipulum, or, of
the former only; when the latter is found, it forms a partial or
entire covering to the thalamium. The body of the apothecium
constitutes the thalamiwm, and the layer of cells at the bottom
of this, upon which the thecze and paraphyses are placed, is
termed the hypothecium. When the apothecium is divided by a
vertical section, it is seen to contain a number of spore-cases called
asct (fig. 853, as), surrounded by thread-like or somewhat club-
shaped filaments, called paraphyses, par, which are usually re-
garded as abortive asci; the asci and the paraphyses are placed
perpendicularly upon the hypothecium. ‘The apothecia are fre-
quently of a different colour from the surrounding thallus ; this
is due either to the paraphyses or the excipulum. Each of the
ascl, as, generally contains eight spores, but in some cases only
four, and in others sixteen; thus the spores are commonly a
multiple of two, and the number is always constant for each
species. In rare cases the asci have a large number of spores,
and are hence said to be polysporous. The spores themselves
are usually termed ascospores. Some of these spores are of a very
complex structure, being divided into two, four, or many cells.
They are frequently coloured, and form beautiful objects under
the microscope.
In a very few genera of Lichens, as Abrothallus and Seutula,
certain structures have been discovered by Tulasne, called stylo-
spores. ‘They consist of isolated spores borne upon shortish
simple stalks. They are produced in conceptacles to which is
applied the name of pycnidia.’
The spermogonia were first discovered by Tulasne, but they
have now been found in a great number of Lichens, and probably
exist in all. They generally appear as little black specks near
the margins of the thallus, in the tissue of which they are
usually more or less imbedded (jig. 852, sp); but rarely, they
are quite free and above the thallus. The spermogonium varies
in form, and has one or more cavities, with a small orifice at the
top termed the ostiole or pore (fig. 854, os), with which all the
cavities communicate. The spermogonium, when mature, has
its interior filled with a number of bodies called spermatia (figs.
854, s, and 855, s), raised on stalks, termed sterzgmata or sper-
matophores (figs. 854, sp, and 855, sp). The form of the sper-
matophores varies much : according to Henfrey, ‘The simplest
are short slender stalks, simple or branched; or they are
articulated branches composed of a great number of cylindroid
or globular cells (fig. 855, sp); or the branches are reduced to
two or three elongated cells. The spermatia (fig. 855, s), are
terminal on the spermatophores, and consist of exceedingly
minute bodies, ordinarily linear, very thin, short or longish,
straight or curved, without appendages, and motionless, and lie
890 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CHARACES.
in a mucilage of extreme transparency. The spermatia are
commonly regarded as the analogues of the spermatozoids pro-
duced in the antheridia of the higher Cryptogams.’ When the
spermogonium is mature, the spermatia (fig. 854, s), are dis-
charged through the pore or ostiole, os, in vast numbers.
Fie. 854,
Fig. 854. Vertical section of a spermogo-
nium of Cladonia rangiferina. sp. Sper-
matophores. os. Ostiole or pore, from
which the spermatia, s, are escaping.
Fig. 855. Highly magnified frag-
ment from the wall of a spermogoninum
of Parmelia parietina. sp. Articulated
sterigmata or spermatophores. s. Sper-
matia. gon. Gonidia. After Henfrey.
Lichens may also be reproduced in a vegetative manner by
means of little detached portions of the thallus known as soredia.
These are regarded by those who maintain the compound nature
of Lichens as consisting of some of the Algze, through which the
Lichen derives its nutrition, connected and intermingled witha
weft of fine fungal hyphe. Such asoredium when placed under
favourable conditions is capable of growing into a Lichen of the
same nature as that from which it derived its origin.
3. CHARACE® OR CHARAS.—By many botanists the Charas
are classed among the Algze, but as they present in their structure
and mode of reproduction many points of difference from the
latter, we have placed them in a separate group immediately
preceding them. They may be regarded as a link connecting
the Algze with Cormophytes.
The reproductive organs are of two kinds, both of which
grow at the base of the branches, and either on the same or on
different branches of the same plant, or on different plants.
These organs are called respectively, globules and nucules.
The globule (fig. 856, a), which is regarded as an antheridium,
or male organ, is a globular body, usually placed immediately
below the nucule, s, but occasionally by its side. Of a green
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CHARACEZ. 391
eclour whilst young, it turns to a deep brick-red as it becomes
mature. It consists of eight valves, or, as they have been
termed, shield-cells, each of which is a flattened triangular
cell, curved so as to present a convexity to the outer surface
of the globule, and having its margins crenate or toothed,
so as to dovetail, as it were, with the adjoining shield-cells.
From the centre of each shield an oblong cell (jig. 858, c), the
manubrium, is given off in a perpendicular direction. The
Fic. 856. Fic. 857.
STR LA
i! iy ib it i sy aN
3
ith
hth
Fig. 856. A. Portion of the axis of Chara fra-
gilis. s. Nucule or pistillidium. a. Globule or
antheridium. 6b. Internode. c. Crown or co-
ronaof nucule. B. Abortive leaves. B’, B’’, 8”,
Sterile leaflets. B. sk. nucule, and a, globule,
both in an early stage of development. w. : Aas
Nodal cell of leaf. uw. Union cell between it —
and basal node of globule. J. Cavity of in-
ternode of leaf. 67. Cells of leaf covered with
cortex. After Sachs. Fig. 857. A portion
of a filament, jil, of jig. 858, in the cells of
which the antherozoids are developed ; with
a 2-ciliated antherozoid by its side.
Fig. 858. A globule cut in half to show the
oblong cells or manubria, c, and the septate
filaments, fil. After Henfrey.
eight cells from the eight shields converge in the centre of the
globule. A ninth cell of a similar form, but larger than the
others, also penetrates into the centre of the globule between
the four lower shield-cells; this is the stalk which fixes the
globule to the branch upon which it is placed. At the central
end of each manubrium is a rounded cell, which supports in
turn four other smaller cells, and from each of these latter four
confervoid filaments are given off (fig. 858, fil), in each cell of
which is produced a single spiral antherozoid (fig. 857), which
592 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALG.
is furnished with two very long ciliz of excessive fineness.
These antherozoids ultimately escape from the cell by a sudden
movement resembling the action of a spring, and may then be
seen to exhibit active movements in water.
The nucule is regarded as a pistillidium, archegonium, or
female organ. It is an oval sessile body, situated in the axil of
a branch (fig. 856, s) ; it consists of a central cell with a double
coat (jig. 860), surrounded by five cells, which are wound
spirally round it, and terminating
Fic. 859. Fie. 860. above in five or ten smaller cells the
ends of which remain free ( fig. 859,
a), and thus form a kind of crown
at the apex of the nucule (jigs. 856
A, ¢, and 859, a). Atanearly stage
of growth the cells are separated
from each other, and a canal is thus
left between them extending from
the crown towards the central cell.
This canal is supposed to form a
Fig. 859. Nacule or archegonium passage, by means of which the an-
an ena Hig-atb. therozoids reach the central cell of
Vertical section of a nucule. the nucule, by which its contained
oosphere is fertilised. Ultimately
the nucule drops off from its parent, remains at rest until the
following season, and when it germinates first produces a single
axial row of cells, forming a pro-embryo or pro-thallus from
which the leaf-bearing sexual plant ultimately grows.
4, Atca OR SEAWEEDS.—This order of plants, like the Fungi,
comprises a very large number of species, which vary exceed-
ingly in form, size, colour, and other peculiarities. They are
all either inhabitants of
water salt or fresh, or live
on moist surfaces; and
may be microscopic plants,
or growths of enormous
size. Adopting no special
classification of the Alge,
we willsimply describe the
processes of reproduction
occurring in certain ex-
? amples as types of the
Fig. 861. Filaments from a WVostoe colony. rest.
After Luerssen. Nostoc, a very common
Alga, is found living some-
times in water, though more frequently on the damp surfaces
of trees, stones, &c. It consists of a jelly-like substance, in
which are imbedded moniliform threads of cells (fig. 861), the
different filaments being interwoven with one another. The
greater number of the constituent cells contain chlorophyll ;
NOSTOC.—SPIROGYRA. 398
but usually there are also placed at definite distances from one
another larger colourless cells, which are not, like the others,
capable of division, and are ordinarily known as heterocysts
(jig. 861). By means of the growth and subsequent division of
the smaller cells, the Nostoc colony may become increased in
size, and new colonies also at certain times become formed in
the following manner. By means of the imbibition of water
the jelly of the old colony swells up and allows the Nostoc fila-
ments or rows of cells to become free. Each cell subsequently
grows rapidly in a transverse direction till the appearance is
presented by each filament of a number of disc-like bodies
placed side by side. Cell-division next takes place in a direc-
tion parallel to the axis of the filament, so that a number
Fic. 862. Fic. 863.
Fig. 862. Two filaments of Spirogyra about
to conjugate; each cell is seen to con-
tain chlorophyll arranged in spiral
bands with grains of stareh, oil glo-
bules, and a central nucleus, surrounded
by protoplasmic threads which extend
to the cell-wall. «a, b, e. Lateral pro-
trusions of the cell-walls of adjoining
cells, After Sachs. Fig. 863. A. Fila-
ments of Spivogy7'a conjugating. a. For-
mation of zygospore. b, Formed zy-
gospore. B. A filament in which are
young zygospores, ¢, and which contain
drops of oil. After Sachs,
of septate thread-like bodies are produced, which, joining by
their ends, grow so as to ultimately produce a new Nostoc colony.
At the same time the heterocysts are developed from cells which
previously differed in no apparent respect from the rest, and the
jelly-like envelope of the colony becomes also gradually formed.
Spirogyra, our next example of this order of plants, is one
in which the process of reproduction known as conjugation
very commonly takes place. Spirogyra is an Alga which may
be found in great quantities in most ponds towards the end
of summer, and is one of the prettiest objects which can be
394 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGA.—VAUCHEPIA.
examined under the microscope. Seen with the naked eye, it con-
sists of a mass of long, very slender green threads or filaments,
which float in the water where they are growing. Examined
with the microscope, each filament is seen to be more or less
cylindrical, and composed of a great number of similar cells
placed end to end (jig. 862). The chlorophylls arranged in
the parietal layer of protoplasm of the cell in a definite spiral
manner ; the name of some of the species being determined by
the number of such spirals in asingle cell. Each cell is capable
of growth and division, and by this means the bulk of the entire
plant is increased.
When con‘ugation is about to take place, two filaments ap-
proach each other, and from the sides of contiguous cells ( jig.
862, a, b, c), protrusions of the wall occur which meet in the
centre. The protruding ends of the wall then intervening
between the cavities of the two conjugating cells next become
absorbed (jig. 863, A, a), and the protoplasm of one cell separates
itself from its cell-wall, and gradually travels into the other cell,
where it becomes intimately mixed with the protoplasm existing
there ; the whole mass then becomes of a somewhat oval shape,
surrounds itself with a cell-wall, b, and in fact constitutes what
is called a zygospore. Later on its colour changes from green
to that of a deep red, and after remaining dormant during the
winter the zygospore germinates at the beginning of spring,
and so gives rise to a new Spirogyra plant.
Vaucheria, which we will now consider, exhibits true sexual
reproduction, in addition to the formation of asexual spores.
An irregular kind of alternation of generations exists in this
genus, inasmuch as asexual spores are usually produced by a
certain number of successive generations, the sexual process only
taking place in generations separated by a considerable interval
from one another. At the same time it must be noticed that
asexual spores may be formed in the same plant as that in which
sexual reproduction takes place.
Vaucheria may be found growing either in water or on moist
surfaces. Its thallus consists of one very elongated and greatly
branched cell, attached to some fixed object by means of a por-
tion of its thallus, which is much branched and perfectly trans-
parent (fig. 864, p, wv). The other, or non-transparent portion
of the cell contains protoplasm, chlorophyll grains, and fre-
quently numbers of small oil globules. The asexual spores are
formed in various ways in the different species, the more com-
mon method being that in which a small branch becomes sepa-
rated from the parent cell by division, the protoplasm thus shut
off secreting a cell-wall round itself, and thus forming a spore,
which ultimately germinating gives rise to a new Vawcheria
thallus. (M. C. Cooke and Bates have described the main
filaments or threads as much divided off by septa into cells
at the period of fructification ; and Cooke believes, from this
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALG#A.—VAUCHERIA. 395
circumstance and others, that zoogonidia may be produced in
Vaucheria in cells divided off for that purpose.)
Zoospores or Zoogonidia are also not unfrequently formed as
follows :—The contents of the branch, which has swollen into
‘a sporangium, contract, and escape as a primordial cell, or one
without a cell-wall, from a fissure at the apex (fig. 864, A, sp).
This primordial cell is densely covered by short cilia, and is
termed a zoospore or zoogonidiwm, which at first rapidly rotates ;
but it soon comes to rest, when the cilia disappear, and a
cellulose wall is produced (jig. 864, B). This spore then ger-
minates by putting out one (fig. 864, c) or two tubes ; or it forms
on the other side, at the same time, a branched root-like organ
(fig. 864, D, w).
Fia. 864.
Fig. 864. A. sp. Newly formed zoospore or zoogonidium of Vaucheria sessilis
escaping. 8B. Zoospore at rest after having lost its cilia. c. First stage of
germination. D. Filament of Vaucheria sessilis producing oogonia, 0g, 09,
and antheridium,h. w. Hyaline root-like process, forming a sort of
mycelium. sg. Zoospore, which by germinating has formed the filament.
After Sachs.
When sexual reproduction takes place, short branches of
the thallus or filament, which are in close proximity to each
other, become transformed into antheridia, h, and oogonia, og,
og (fig. 864, p). The branch which is to form the antheridium
is longer than that which forms the oogonium, and gener-
ally becomes more or less curved, and a division is made about
halfway from its base. The protoplasm in the upper part
becomes differentiated into antherozoids, which by means of the
bursting of the antheridium become free at the same time as
the rupture of the oogonium takes place.
The oogonia (fig. 864, D, og, og), of which there are fre-
quently two near to each other, are somewhat ovoid; they differ
from the antheridia in containing a good deal of chlorophyll,
and are separated from the cavity of the thallus or filament by
a septum situated at their base. The green and granular con-
tents finally collect in the centre of the oogonium, and colourless
t.-
*
396 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGZ.—FUCUS.
protoplasm is to be seen at its end ; the cell-wall then opens at
this point, and the contents at the same time retract from the
cell-wall and what is termed the oosphere is formed. The anthe-
ridium opens at the same time as the oogonium, and the anthe-
rozoids escape, reach the oosphere, mix with it, and then dis-
appear ; and the oosphere is transformed into an oospore. The
oospore thus formed acquires a distinct cell-wall of its own, and
its colour also changes to a reddish hue. By the germination of
the oospore, a new Vaucheria thallus may be formed.
Fucus.—This genus includes numerous species, which form
the various plants commonly known as Seaweeds. The thallus
(fig. 5) is usually long, very much branched, and of a greenish
brown colour. In structure, it is made up at the surface of
closely packed small cells, but towards the interior the cells are
more elongated, and joined end to end, so as to form filaments
Fic. 865.
Fig. 865. Vertical section of a female conceptacle of Fucus vesiculosus con-
taining oogonia and paraphyses. After Thuret,
which are interwoven amongst one another (fig. 865). The walls
of the constituent cells are peculiar in consisting of two parts,
an inner firm layer, and an outer one which is generally more
or less swollen by imbibition of water. (See page 73.)
Reproduction is effected by a sexual process, which takes
place in the following way :—Numerous little cavities, known
as conceptacles, appear sunk in the surface of large swollen recep-
tacles (fig. 5, t, t), on the ends of the longer forked branches of
the Fucus, and in these are contained the antheridia, or oogonia ;
or both of these organs, together with abortive filaments or
paraphyses. Some species, as Fucus platycarpus, are monoecious,
i.e. contain both antheridia and oogonia in the same conceptacle;
but in others, as Fucus vesiculosus, either only antheridia or
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALG#.—FUCUS. 397
oogonia conceptacles are produced in the same plant; such
species therefore are dicecious.
Taking Fucus vesiculosus as an example of the dicecious
species, on making a section through a female conceptacle, its
cavity is found to be of a more or less spherical form, and
marked off from the loose tissue of the interior of the thallus
by a thin layer of denser tissue resembling, and in fact being a
continuation of, that of the surface, which may be called the
epidermal layer (fiy. 865). Springing from all parts of the wall
of the conceptacle are slender jointed filaments, the paraphyses.
Amongst these paraphyses are the oogonia, which are produced
from certain cells of the lining, or epidermal layer of cells.
The antheridia in the moncecious species, as Fucus platyear-
pus, are developed in the same conceptacle as the oogonia ; and
Fic. 866. Fia. 867. Fic. 868.
Fig. 866. Antheridia, a, a,0n the branched hairs of the mate conceptacle.
After Thuret. Fig. 867. Oogonium with the oospheres fully separated,
and disengaging themselves from their coverings. After Thuret. Fig.
868. An oosphere without a cellulose coat being fertilised by antherozoids
so as to form an oospore.
in dicecious species in separate conceptacles, then termed male
conceptacles. These antheridia (fig. 866) are somewhat elliptical
bodies, a, a, formed on branched hair-like cells. When mature
the antheridium becomes a bright red colour, and contains a
number of smal! antherozoids (jig. 868), each of which is fur-
nished with a pair of cilia.
The oogonia are globular bodies borne upon a short one-
celled stalk, in which are produced eight oospheres by means
of the division of the contained protoplasm (jig. 867). These,
which are at first angular, become rounded off, and are ulti-
mately set free by the bursting of the oogonium membrane.
The antherozoids, which escape almost simultaneously with the
oospheres, gather round the latter and appear to become finally
blended with their substance (jig. 868). The oospore thus
398 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALG#.—(CDOGONIUM.
formed secretes around itself a cell-wall and very soon begins to
germinate. Growth and division proceed, and so a new Fucus
thallus is built up.
(Hdogoivium.—The thallus of Gdugoniwm consists of a long,
unbranched row of cells; and each cell is nucleated, and con-
tains chlorophyll granules imbedded in the parietal protoplasmic
layer. Reproduction is
effected either asexually
by means of zoospores; or
in a sexual manner by
antheridia and oogonia.
The former are produced
by means of the bursting
of a cell and the conse-
quent escape of the cell
contents in the form of
an ovate mass with a tuft
of fine cilia at the more
pointed extremity.
In the latter case the
antherozoids are formed in
special cells, and either
on the same filament as
the oogonia (fig. 869, 4,
n, og); which is then
termed a sexual filament ;
or on another filament
(fig. 869, c, 2, 2%), then
called a male filament.
Theantherozoids resemble
the zoospores or zoogoni-
dia, but are smaller. The
vogonia (fig. 869, A, og, og)
are oval bodies containing
a great deal of chlorophyll,
and are formed by the
enlargement of any of
the individual cells of the
filament. The contained
protoplasmic mass, or 00-
sphere, may be fertilised
Fic. 869.
Fig. 869. A. Middle part of asexual filament
of Bdogonium ciliatum. og, og. Oogonia
fertilised by the dwarf male plants, m, m,
developed from zoospores formed in the
cells, nm (antheridium ), at the upper part of
the filament. B. Ripe oospore. c. Piece
of male filament of a species of Ldogonium,
with production of antherozoids, z,z. D.
The four swarm-spores resulting from an
oospore. E. Swarm-spore at rest. After
Pringsheim.
in two different ways.
Hither the oosphere is
directly fertilised by con-
tact with the antherozoids
above described (fig. 869,
C, 2, 2); or by means of an antherozoid produced from a peculiar
form of swarm-spore known as an androspore (fig. 869, A, 1).
The androspore, which is preduced from cells resembling those
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGZ.—(CDOGONIUM. 399
of the antheridia, becomes attached to the oogonium, forming
what is known as a dwarf male plant (jig. 869, a, m, m), and
subsequently discharges its protoplasm in the form of an anther-
ozoid, by which the oosphere may be fertilised, and become
transformed into an cospore.
In either case the oospore after a short period of rest gives
rise to four swarm-spores (fig. 869, D), each of which (fig. 869,
E) subsequently grows into a swarm-spore-producing plant, so
that in Gidogonium we have another ‘example of alternation of
generations, similar to that which occurs in Vaucheria (page
394), viz., one in which a series of generations consists of the
swarm-spore-producing plant, whilst at more or less regular in-
tervals a sexual generation takes place. It should be noted
however that zoospores may be also produced in the same indi-
vidual plant as that in which the sexual process takes place.
BOOK 4
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, OR THE CLASSIFICATION
OF PLANTS.
——_# —_
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION,
Section 1.—Spxucres, GENERA, ORDERS, AND CLASSES.
Ovr attention has been hitherto directed to the examination of
the structure and forms of the various organs and parts of
plants. In doing so, we cannot but have noticed the almost
infinite varieties of forms which have thus been presented to
us, and also at the same time observed that, notwithstanding
such variations, there are some striking resemblances in the
structure of the organs of certain plants, by which a close
relationship is thus clearly indicated between them. It is the
object of Systematic Botany to take notice of such relation-
ships, and thus to bring plants together which are allied in
their forms and structure, and to separate those that are unlike ;
and in this way to take a comprehensive view of the whole
Vegetable Kingdom. In its extended sense, Systematic Botany
has for its object the naming, describing, and arranging of plants
in such a manner, that we may readily ascertain their names,
and at the same time get an insight into their affinities and
general properties.
At the present time there are at least 120,000 species of
plants known to exist on the earth. It is absolutely necessary
therefore, for the purpose of study, or in order to obtain any
satisfactory knowledge of such a vast number of plants,
that we should arrange them according to some definite and
fixed rules ; but before we proceed to describe the systems that
have been devised at various times for their arrangement, it
will be necessary to define the principal terms which are in
common use in such systems.
1. Sprcins.—By the term species we understand a collection
of individuals which resemble each cther more nearly than they
SPECIES.—VARIETIES OR SUB-SPECIES. 401
resemble any other plants, and which, taking Flowering Plants
as illustrations, can be reproduced by seed; so that we may
from analogy infer that they have all been derived originally
from one common stock. Thus, if we walk into a field of Beans,
Peas, or Clover, we observe thousands of individuals, which, al-
though differing to a certain extent in size, and in some other
unimportant characters, we at once associate together under a
common name. In like manner we commonly observe around
us, in the gardens and fields, similar collections of individuals.
Such collections of plants, thus seen to resemble one another
in all their important parts, constitute our first idea of a species ;
and that idea is at once confirmed if, by taking the seeds of such
plants and sowing them, we obtain other plants exactly resem-
bling those from which such seeds have been derived. Species
are, however, under special conditions, liable to variations, and
we have then formed what are termed varieties and races.
a. Varieties or Sub-species.—It has just been observed, that
if the seed of a species be sown, it will reproduce its parent, or,
in other words, produce a plant resembling its parent in all its
important parts. But this will only happen, when the new in-
dividual has been exposed to similar influences of soil, heat,
light, moisture, and other conditions, as its parent ; and hence
we tind that variations in such particulars will lead to certain
peculiarities in form, colour, size, and other minor characters,
in plants raised from the seeds of the same species. In this
manner we have produced what are termed varieties. In some
cases such variations are merely transient, and the individuals
presenting such peculiarities will in time return to their original
specific type, or perish altogether ; while in other instances they
are permanent and continue throughout the life of the indi-
vidual, the whole plant being, as it were, impregnated with
the particular variations thus impressed upon it, and hence
such variations may be perpetuated by the gardener in the
operations of Budding, Grafting, &c. (see page 107), as is the
case with many of our fruit trees and flowers. But even these
varieties cannot be propagated by seed ; for if their seeds be
sown, the individuals which will be produced will have a
tendency to revert to the original species from which such
varieties have been obtained, so that the nature of the plant
raised will depend upon the character of the soil in which it is
placed, and the other external conditions to which it is exposed.
Thus, if we sow the seeds of a number of different varieties of
Apples, the fruit subsequently produced by the new generation
of Apple trees will, instead of resembling that of their parents,
have a tendency to revert to that of the common Crab, from
which species all such varieties have been originally derived.
Hence a variety differs essentially from a species in the fact
that it cannot be propagated by seed.
b. Races.—-Besides the varieties just alluded to there are
DD
402 RACES. —HYBRIDS.—CROSS-BREEDS.
others, which are called permanent varieties or races, because
their peculiarities can be transmitted by seed. Familiar ex-
amples of such races are afforded by our Cereal grains, as Wheat,
Oats, and Barley ; and also by our culinary vegetables, as Peas,
Lettuces, Radishes, Cabbages, Cauliflowers, and Broccoli. How
such races of plants have originated, it is impossible fo say with
any certainty. In the first case they probably arose in an ac-
cidental manner, for it is found that plants under cultivation
are liable to produce certain variations or abnormal deviations
from their specific type, or to sport, as itis termed. By further
cultivation under the care of the gardener, such variations are
after a time rendered permanent, and can be propagated by seed,
These so-called permanent varieties, however, if left to them-
selves, or if sown in poor soil, will soon lose their peculiarities,
and either perish, or return to their original specific type ; it will
be seen, therefore, that races present well-marked characters
by which they are distinguished from true species. Hence,
although our cereal grains and culinary vegetables have become
permanent varieties by ages of cultivation and by the skill of
the cultivator, they can only be made to continue in that state
by a resort to the same means, for if left to themselves they
would, as just observed, either perish or revert to their origi-
nal specific type; and hence we see also, how important is the
assistance of the agriculturist and gardener in perpetuating and
improving such variations.
Another cause which leads to constant variations from the
specific type is hybridisation. The varieties thus formed, which
are called hybrids and cross-breeds, are, however, rarely trans-
mitted by seed—although, in some instances, such is the case
for a few generations—but they gradually revert to one or the
other parent stock. (See Hybridisation.)
We have now seen that species, under certain circumstances,
are liable to variations, but that all such varieties have a ten-
dency to revert to their original specific type. Hence, in a
practical point of view, species must be considered as permanent
productions of Nature, which are capable of varying within
certain limits, but in no cases capable of being altered so as to
assume the characters of another species. There is not the
slightest foundation for the theory, which has been advocated
by some naturalists, of a transmutation of species, All such
statements, therefore, that have been made, of the conversion
of Oats into Rye, or of any species whatever into another, are
entirely without foundation, and have arisen from imperfect
observation. *
* The above views as to the origin and nature of species and varieties
must be understood, as we have stated above, in a practical point of view,
although until the last few years they were, in every sense, almost uni-
versally entertained by naturalists ; but they are opposed to those now far
more generally adopted, and which were first developed in Darwin’s great
+
GENERA.— ORDERS. 408
In practice it is important that we should distinguish
varieties from true species, for nothing is so calculated to lead
to confusion in Descriptive Botany as the raising of mere
varieties to the condition of species. No individuals should be
considered as constituting a species unless they exhibit important
and permanent distinctive characters in a wild state, and which
can be perpetuated by seed. Great uncertainty still prevails in
our systematic works as to what is a species and what is a
variety ; and hence we find different authors, who have written
on British and other plants, estimate the number of species
contained in such genera as Rosa, Rubus, Saxifraga, Hieracium,
Salix, Snvilax, and others, very differently.
2. GENERA.—The most superficial observer of plants will
have noticed that certain species are more nearly allied to each
other than to other species. Thus, the different kinds of Roses,
Brambles, Heaths, Willows, may be cited as familiar examples
of such assemblages of species ; for, although the plants com-
prehended under these names present certain well-marked dis-
tinctive characters, yet there are at the same time also striking
resemblances between them. Such assemblages of species are
called genera. A genus, therefore, is a collection of species
which resemble each other in general structure and appearance
more than they resemble any other species. Thus, the various
kinds of Brambles constitute one genus, the Roses another, the
Willows, Heaths, Clovers, and Oaks form also, in like manner,
as many different genera. The characters of a genus are taken
exclusively from the organs of reproduction, while those of a
species are derived generally from all parts of the plant ; hence
a genus is defined as a collection of species which resemble each
other in the structure and general characters of their organs of
reproduction. Itis not necessary, however, that a genus should
contain a number of species, for, if a single species presents
peculiarities of a marked kind, it may of itself constitute a
genus.
It frequently happens that two or more species of a genus
have a more striking resemblance to each other in certain im-
portant characters than to other species of the same genus, in
which case they are grouped together into what is termed a sub-
genus, and further subdivisions of more nearly allied species,
such as sections, swb-sections, &c., may be made.
3. ORDERS OR NatTuRAL OrDERS.—If we regard collections of
genera from the same point of view as we have just done
those of species,—that is, as to their close resemblances,-—
work ‘ On the Origin of Species, and in other volumes by the same gifted
observer. This author contends that species, so far from being immutable,
are liable to change of almost any extent—in fact, that plants, by the
operation of causes acting over a long period of time, may become so altered,
that they preserve scarcely any apparent resemblance to those from which
-they were originally derived.
» DD 2
404 ORDERS.—SUB-ORDERS.—CLASSES.
we shall find that some of them also resemble each other more
than they do other genera. Thus, Mustards, Turnips, Radishes,
and Cabbages have a strong common resemblance, while they
are unlike Strawberries and Brambles; and even less so to
Hazels, Oaks, and Beeches; and still more unlike Larches,
Pines, Firs, and Cedars. Proceeding in this way throughout
the Vegetable Kingdom, we collect together allied genera, and
form them into groups of a higher order called Orders or Natural
Orders ; hence, while genera are collections of related species,
orders are collections of allied genera. Thus, Turnips, Radishes,
and Cabbages, all belong to different genera, but they agree in
their general structure, and are hence included in the order
Crucifere ; while Strawberries, Brambles, Roses, Apples, and
Plums, are all different genera, but from the general resem-
blance they bear to each other in their structure, they are placed
in one order, called Rosacex. Again : Oaks, Beeches, and Hazels
are different genera, but they belong to one order; also the
Pines and Cedars are different genera, but as the fruit of them
all is a cone, they are grouped together in one order, which is
termed the Conifere.
We find also that certain genera of an order, like certain
species of a genus, have a more striking resemblance to each
other than to other genera of the same order; hence such are
grouped together into what are called Sub-orders. Thus the
Chicory, Dandelion, Sow-thistle, Lettuce, Thistle, Burdock, and
Chamomile, all belong to the same order, but there is a greater
resemblance in the Chicory, Dandelion, Sow-thistle and Lettuce
to each other than to the remaining genera. Hence, while all
the above genera belong to the order Composite, they are at the
same time placed in two different sub-orders. Thus, one sub-
order, called the Liguliflore, includes the Chicory, Dandelion,
Sow-thistle, and Lettuce ; and the other sub-order, the Tubuli-
flore, that of the Thistle, Burdock, and Chamomile. In like
manner, while we find the Plum, Strawberry, Raspberry, Rose,
and Apple, all belonging to the same order Rosacex, some of
them have more resemblance to each other than to others.
Thus, the Plum has a drupaceous fruit, and is therefore placed in
a distinct sub-order, which is called Drupacezx ; the Strawberry,
Raspberry, and Rose are much more like each other than they
are to the Plum or Apple, hence they are put in a sub-order
called Rosex ; while the Apple, from the character of its fruit,
is placed in a sub-order termed Pomee.
It is also found convenient to subdivide sub-orders into
Tribes, Sub-tribes, &c., by collecting together into groups cer-
tain very nearly allied genera, but it is not necessary for us to
illustrate such divisions further, as the principles upon which
they depend have been now sufficiently treated of. ,
4, CiassEs.—By a class, we understand a group of orders
possessing some very important structural characters in common.
CLASSES.—SUB-KINGDOMS. 405
Thus we have the classes Monocotyledones and Dicotyledones,
which possess certain distinctive characters in their respective
embryos, &c.
The Classes are also divided into Suwh-classes, Series, Cohorts
or Alliances, and other divisions, in the same manner as the
orders, genera, and species are subdivided ; but as the names of
such divisions vary in different systems, and are all more or less
artificial, it is not necessary for us, in this place, to dwell upon
them further. The classes themselves, in different systems, are
also generally arranged in more comprehensive groups, which
have been variously named Sub-kingdoms, Groups, Divisions,
Regions, Sub-divisions, &c. But as these are also of different
extent and variously defined by botanists, we must refer to the
several systems for particulars respecting them.
The following table will include all the more important
groups we have alluded to; those in more general use being
indicated by capitals.
1. SuB-KINGDOMS oR DIVISIONS.
Sub-divisions.
2. CLASSES.
Sub-classes.
Series.
Cohorts or Alliances.
3. ORDERS.
Sub-orders.
Tribes.
Sub-tribes.
4. GENERA.
Sub-genera.
Sections.
5, SPECIES.
Varieties.
Races.
Section 2. CHaARAcTERS, NOMENCLATURE, ABBREVIATIONS,
AND SYMBOLS.
Descriptive Borany is the art of describing plants in tech-
nical language, so that they may be readily recognised when met
with by those to whom they were previously unknown, who pos-
sess a knowledge of the technical names of the different parts
and organs of plants and of their various modifications. This
subject is too extensive to be treated of here ; reference must
be made to special treatises for this purpose ; but it is necessary
for us to refer briefly to the Characters, Nomenclature, Abbre-
viations, and Symbols of Plants.
1. CHaracTers.—By the term character, we mean a list of
406 CHARACTERS.—NOMENCLATURE OF SPECIES.
all the points by which any particular variety, species, swbh-genus,
genus, sub-tribe, tribe, sub-order, order, sub-class, or class, &c., is
distinguished fromanother. We have also two kinds of characters,
which are called respectively essential and natural. By an essen-
tial character, we understand an enumeration of those points
only, by which any division of plants may be distinguished from
others of the same nature ; such may be also called diagnostic
characters. A natural character, on the other hand, is a com-
plete description of a given species, genus, order, class, &c.,
including an account of every organ from the root upwards,
through the stem, leaves, flowers, fruit, and seed. Such cha-
racters are necessarily of great length, and are not required for
general diagnosis, although of great value when a complete
history of a plant or group isrequired. Those characters, again,
which refer to a species are called specific, and are taken gene-
rally from all the organs and parts of the plant, and relate
chiefly to their form, shape, surface, division, colowr, dimension,
and duration ; or, in other words, to characters of a superficial
nature, and without reference to their internal structure. The
characters of a genus are called generic, and are taken from the
organs of reproduction. The characters of an order are termed
ordinal, and are derived from the general structure of the plants
in such groups, more especially of the organs of reproduction.
While the characters of a class, &c., as already mentioned, are
derived from certain important structural peculiarities which
the plants of such divisions exhibit. The essential character of
a genus, when indicated in Latin, is put in the nominative case,
while that of a species is placed in the ablative.
2. NoMENCLATURE.—It is the object of nomenclature to lay
down rules for naming the various kinds of plants and the dif-
ferent groups into which they are arranged in our systems of
classification ; in the same manner as it is the object of termi-
nology to find names for the different organs of plants, and the
modifications which those organs present.
a. Species.—The names of the species are variously derived.
Thus the species of the genus Viola, as shown by Gray in the
following paragraphs, exhibit the origin of many such names.
‘Specific names sometimes distinguish the country which a
plant inhabits: for example, Viola canadensis, the Canadian
Violet ; or the station where it naturally grows, as Viola
palustris, which is found in swamps, and Viola arvensis, in
fields ; or they express some obvious character of the species,
as Viola rostrata, where the corolla bears a remarkably long
spur, Viola tricolor, which has tri-coloured flowers, Viola ro-
tundifolia, with rounded leaves, Viola lanceolata, with lanceolate
leaves, Viola pedata, with pedately-parted leaves, Viola primu-
lefolia, where the leaves are compared to those of a Primrose,
Viola asarifolia, where they are likened to those of Asarwm,
Viola pubescens, which is hairy throughout, &c. Frequently
NOMENCLATURE OF GENERA AND ORDERS. 407
the species bears the name of its discoverer or describer, as
Viola Muhlenbergu, Viola Nuttalli, &e.
Specific names are written after the generic, as indicated
above in the different species of the genus Viola, and these
together constitute the proper appellation of a plant, in the
same way as the surnames and Christian names designate the
members of a family. The specific names should also in all
cases be adjectives, or substantives used adjectively; in the
former case they should agree in gender and case with the name
of the genus. Thus when a species is named after its discoverer
or describer, it is usually placed in the genitive case, as Viola
Muhlenbergii and V. Nuttallii ; but when such names are merely
given in honour of botanists who have had nothing to do with
their discovery or description, the specific names are generally
put in the adjective form, as Carex Hookeriana, Veronica
Lindleyana : such a rule is, however, frequently departed from.
Sometimes the specific name is a noun, in which case it does
not necessarily agree with the genus in gender; such specific
names are often old generic ones, as Dictamnus Fraxinella, Rhus
Cotinus, Lythrum Salicaria, Rhus Coriaria, Dianthus Armeria,
Rhamnus Frangula. In such cases the specific name should
begin with a capital letter : a similar rule should also be adopted
when it is derived from a person ; but in all other instances it is
better that the specific name should begin with a small letter.
The specific name was called by Linnzeus the trivial name ; thus,
in the particular kind of Violet called Viola palustris, Viola is
the generic, and palustris the specific or trivial name.
b. Genera.—The names of the genera are substantives, in
accordance with the rule laid down by Linneus as follows :—
Every species shall have a particular name, compounded of a
substantive and an adjective, whereof the former indicates the
genus, and the latter the species. This has already been re-
ferred to under the head of Species. The names of the genera
are derived in various ways : thus, either from the name of some
eminent botanist, as Linnza after Linnzeus, Smithia after Smith,
Hookeria after Hooker, Jussizea after Jussieu, Tournefortia after
Tournefort, Lindleyana after Lindley ; or from some peculiarity
of structure or habit of the plants comprised in them, and from
various other circumstances. Thus, Crassula is derived from
the genus comprising plants with succulent or thickened leaves ;
Sagittaria, from its arrow-shaped leaves ; Arenaria, from grow-
ing in sandy places ; Lithospermum, from its fruits (which were
formerly regarded as seeds) having a stony hardness ; Campa-
nula, from its corolla being in the form of a bell ; Lactuca, from
its milky juice ; and so on. Others, again, have derived their
generic names from supposed medicinal properties, such as Scro-
phularia, from its former use in scrofula ; Pulmonaria, from its
employment in pulmonary disease, &c.
c. Orders.—The names of the orders in the Artificial
408 NOMENCLATURE OF CLASSES AND SUB-KINGDOMS.
System of Linneus are chiefly derived from the various charac-
ters of the gyncecium and fruit. Those of Natural Systems are
usually taken from some well-known genus which is included
in any particular order, and which may be regarded as the type
of that order. Thus, the genus Ranunculus gives the name
Ranunewlacex to the order to which it belongs; the ‘genera
Papaver, Malva, Hypericum, Geranium, Rosa, Liliwm, Orchis,
and Jris, in like manner, give names respectively to the orders
Papareracex, Malvacex, Hypericacex, Geraniacee, Rosacex, Lili-
acex, Orchidacex, and Iridacex. At other times the names of the
orders are derived from some characteristic feature which the
plants included in them present. Thus, the order Crucifere is
so named because its plants have cruciate corollas ; the order
Leguminose comprises plants whose fruit is a legume ; the
Umbellifere are umbel-bearing plants; the Labiatey have a
labiate corolla ; the Conifere are cone-bearing plants ; and so on.
d. Classes. —The names of the classes are derived from
some important and permanent characters which the plants
comprised in them possess, relating either to their structure or
mode of development. Such names vary, however, according
to the views of different systematic botanists. Those which
have been more commonly used in this country are, Acotyledones,
Monocotyledones, and Dicotyledones—terms which are derived
from the structure and characters of the reproductive bodies
in the three classes respectively. Others, also in common use,
are derived from the mode of development and structure of the
stem: such are Exogens, Endogens, and Acrogens. The above
names are used especially in Natural Systems of Classification ;
while the names of classes in the Artificial System of Linnzeus
are derived chiefly from the number and other characters pre-
sented by the andrcecium.
e. Sub-kingdoms, Divisions, dc.—The names of these are
generally derived from the presence or otherwise of evident
flowers or reproductive organs, as those of Phanerogama and
Cryptogamia. The names of Cotyledones and Acotyledones, in-
dicating the presence or absence of an embryo, have been
also in common use. Others, again, have been employed,
having reference to their elementary structure, as Vasculares
and Cellulares; or to the presence or absence of a stem, as
Cormophyta and Thallophyta. The other sub-divisions are
variously named according to the views of different botanists.
3. ABBREVIATIONS AND SymBots.—It is usual in botanical
works to use certain abbreviations and symbols. A few of the
more important need alone be mentioned here.
a. Abbreviations. —The names of authors, when of more than
one syllable, are commonly abbreviated by writing the first
letter or syllable, &c., as follows :—
L. or Linn. means Linneeus ; Juss. is the abbreviation for
Jussieu; DC. or De Cand. for De Candolle; Br. for Brown ;
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. 409
Lindl. for Lindley ; Rich. for Richard ; Willd. for Willdenow ;
Hook. for Hooker ; With. for Withering ; Endl. for Endlicher ;
Bab. for Babington ; Berk. for Berkley, &c., &c.
It is common to put such abridged names after that of the
genus or species which has been described by them respectively.
Thus Hriocaulon, L. indicates that the genus Hriocaulon was
first described by Linnzus ; Miltonia, Lindl. is the genus Mil-
tonia as defined by Lindley ; Nuphar pumila, DC. is the species
of Nuphar defined by De Candolle, &c., Kc.
Other abbreviations in common use are Rad. for root ; Caul.
for stem ; Fl. for flower ; Cal. for calyx ; Cor. for corolla ; Per.
for perianth ; Fr. for fruit ; Ord. for order ; Gen. for genus ; Sp.
or Spec. for species ; Var. for variety ; Hab. for habitat ; Herb.
for herbarium, &c. Again—
V. v. c. (Vidi vivam cultam) indicates that the author has seen
a living cultivated plant as described by him.
V. v. s. (Vidi vivam spontaneam) indicates that the author has
seen a living wild plant.
V.s. c. (Vidi siccam cultam) indicates that a dried specimen of
the cultivated plant has been examined.
V.s.s. (Vidi siccam spontaneam) indicates that a dried speci-
men of the wild plant has been examined.
b. Symbols.—The mcre important symbols are as follow :—
©, O, @, or A, signifies an annual plant.
© ©, (), or B, means a biennial plant.
Y, A, or P, signifies a perennial.
hh or Sh. means a shrub.
T signifies a tree.
( twining to the right ; ) twining to the left.
& a staminate flower.
2 a pistillate flower.
© an hermaphrodite flower.
& - @ amoneecious plant.
& : @ a diccious species.
OS & @ a polygamous species.
© = signifies that the cotyledons are accumbent, and the
radicle lateral.
© || Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal.
O > Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal.
© || || Cotyledons twice folded, radicle dorsal.
© || || || Cotyledons three times folded, radicle dorsal.
? The note of interrogation is used to indicate doubt or uncer-
tainty as to the genus, species, locality, &c.
! The note of exclamation indicates certainty in the above par-
ticulars.
* The asterisk indicates that a good description is to be found
at the reference to which it is appended.
410 SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
CHAPTER 2.
SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 4
WE have already stated that Systematic Botany has for its object
the naming, describing, and arranging of plants in such a man-
ner that we may readily ascertain their names, and at the same
time get an insight into their affinities and general properties.
Every system that has been devised for the arrangement of
plants does not, however, comprise all the above points: for,
while some systems are of value simply for affording us a ready
means of ascertaining their names : others not only do this, but
at the same time give us a knowledge of their affinities and pro-
perties. Hence we divide the different systems of Classification
under two heads ; namely, Artificial and Natural,—the former
only necessarily enabling us to ascertain readily the name of a
particular plant ; while the latter, if perfect, should comprise
all the points which come within the object of Systematic
Botany. The great aim of the botanist, therefore should be the
development of a true Natural System; but in past times,
Artificial Systems, more particularly that of Linnzus, have
been of great value. Linnzeus himself never devised his system
with any expectation or desire of its serving more than a tem-
porary purpose, or as an introduction to the Natural System,
when the materials for its formation had been obtained.
In both artificial and natural systems, the lower divisions—
namely, the genera and species—are the same, the difference
between the systems consisting in the manner in which these
divisions are grouped into orders, classes, and other higher
groups. Thus in the Linnean and other artificial systems, one,
or, at most, a few characters are arbitrarily selected, and all the
plants in the Vegetable Kingdom are distributed under classes
and orders according to the correspondence or difference of the
several genera in such respects, no regard being had to any
other characters. The plants in the classes and orders of an
artificial system have, therefore, no necessary agreement with
each other except in the characters selected for convenience as
the types of those divisions respectively. Hence such a system
may be compared to a dictionary, in which words are arranged,
for convenience of reference, in an alphabetical order, adjacent
words having no necessary agreement with each other, except
in commencing with the same letter. In the Natural System,
on the contrary, all the characters of the genera are taken into
consideration, and those are grouped together into orders which
correspond in the greatest number of important characters ; and
the orders are again united, upon the same principles, into
ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL SYSTEMS. 411
groups of a higher order, namely, the classes and other divi-
sions. While it must be evident, therefore, that all the know-
ledge we necessarily gain by an artificial system is the name of
an unknown plant; on the other hand, by the natural system,
we learn not only the name, but also its relations to the plants
by which it is surrounded, and hence get a clue to its structure,
properties, and history. Thus, supposing we find a plant, and
wish to ascertain its name, if we turn to the Linnzan System,
and find that such a plant is the Menyanthes trifoliata, this
name is the whole amount of the knowledge we have gained ;
but by turning to the Natural System instead, and finding that
our plant belongs to the order Gentianacex, we ascertain at once
from its affinities that it must have the tonic and other proper-
ties which are possessed by the plants generally of that order,
and, at the same time, we also learn that it accords in its struc-
ture with the same plants ; and hence, by knowing the name of
a plant by the Natural System, we may at once learn all that is
most important in its history. It is quite true that all the
orders, as at present constituted, are by no means so natural
as that of the Gentianaceze, but this arises from the present im-
perfection of our systems, and can only be remedied as our
knowledge of plants extends ; even a system, devised as per-
fectly as possible one day, may be deficient the next, in conse-
quence of new plants being discovered which might compel us to
alter our views, for at present the Floras of many regions of the
globe are imperfectly known, and those of others almost entirely
unknown. Suflicient, however, is now known of plants to enable
us to establish certain great divisions according to a natural
method, and which after discoveries are not likely to affect to
any important extent. The present imperfections of the Natural
System are, therefore, comparatively unimportant, and will no
doubt disappear as our knowledge of the Flora of the globe
becomes extended.
Having now described the general characters upon which the
artificial and natural systems depend, and the particular merits
and disadvantages of the two kinds of systems respectively, we
proceed in the next place to describe the special characters
upon which such systems are founded, commencing with those
of an artificial nature, which, however, will be only treated of
very briefly.
Section 1. ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
THE first artificial system of any importance, of which we have
any particular record, is that of Cesalpinus, which was promul-
gated in 1583. Only 1520 plants were then known ; and these
were distributed into fifteen classes, the characters of which were
chiefly derived from the fruit. The next systematic arrangement
of an artificial character was that of Morison, about the year
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1670. He divided plants into eighteen classes, which were con-
structed according io the nature of the flower and fruit, and the
external appearance of the plants. The systems of Hermann and
others were also constructed upon somewhat similar principles,
while that of Camellus was framed from the characters presented
by the valves of the pericarp, and their number. In the system
of Rivinus, which was promulgated in the year 1690, plants were
divided into eighteen classes ; these were founded entirely upon
the corolla—its regularity or irregularity,.and the number of its
parts being taken into consideration. The system of Christian
Knaut was but a slight alteration of that of Rivinus. That of
Tournefort, which was promulgated about the year 195, was for
a considerable time the favourite system of all botanists. About
8,000 species of plants were then known, which were distributed
by Tournefort into twenty-two classes. He first arranged plants
in two divisions, one of which comprised herbs and wnder-shrubs,
and the other trees and shrubs ; and each of these divisions was
then divided into classes, which were chiefly characterised ac-
cording to the form of the corolla. Many other systems were
devised which were simply alterations of the foregoing, as that
of Pontedera. Magnolius, however, framed a system entirely
on the calyx ; while Gleditsch attempted one in which the classes
were founded on the position of the stamens. All the above
systems were, without doubt, useful in their day, and paved the
way for the more comprehensive one of Linnzeus, which we now
proceed to notice. ;
LinnazAN SystemM.—This celebrated system was first pro-
mulgated by Linneeus in his ‘Systema Nature,’ published in
the year 1735; and although it was somewhat altered by subse-
quent botanists, the Linnzean System, in all its essential charac-
ters, was that devised by Linnzeus himself; and although now
superseded by natural systems, it will be advisable for us to give
a general.sketch of its principal characteristics.
The classes and orders in the Linnzean System are taken ex-
clusively from the essential organs of reproduction, the sexual
nature of which Linneeus had clearly established: hence this
artificial scheme is commonly termed the Sexual System.
The table (pp. 412 and 413) of the Classes and Orders of the
Linnzan System. will show at a glance their distinctive cha-
racteristics so far as the Phanerogamia are concerned ; but the
Cryptogamia have been arranged according to the Natural
System.
Section 2, NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
THe object of all natural systems, as already noticed (page
411), is to group together those plants which correspond in the
greatest number of important characters, and to separate those
that are unlike. The mode in which this has been attempted
NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 416
to be carried out varies according to the particular views of
botanists as to the relative value of the characters furnished by
the different organs of plants ; but it must be evident to those
who desire to arrange plants according to their natural aftini-
ties, that those systems of classification will be the most natural
in which the organs of the highest value, and those least liable
to change, are especially relied on in the determination of the
affinities of plants.
Taking these principles as our guide, we should regard the
organs of reproduction as of the highest importance, and we find
accordingly that while some plants have flowers with evident
sexes, others have no flowers, and their sexual organs are more
or less concealed ; hence the former are called Phanerogamous
or Phzenogamous, and the latter Cryptogamous. The former
are also reproduced by true seeds containing an embryo, whilst
the latter are reproduced by spores in which we have no such
structure as an embryo; hence these characters are of the first
importance.
Next in importance comes the presence or absence of an
ovary, as such a difference is accompanied by essential structural
and functional peculiarities, and we have thus the two great
divisions of Angiospermous and Gymnospermous plants.
Next in value is the structure of the embryo itself, as it con-
tains within itself in a rudimentary condition all the essential
organs of a plant. Hence as the embryo varies in the number
of its cotyledons, cotyledonous plants are further divided into
two classes—those possessing one cotyledon being called Mono-
cotyledonous, and those with two, Dicotyledonous.
Next in importance is the presence or absence of a stem,
giving the names of Cormophytes and Thallophytes ; whilst in
those with stems the internal structure and development pre-
sents us with well-marked and important characters.
The characters founded upon the position and relation of
the stamens and carpels to each other, as also to the floral en-
velopes ; as well as the presence or absence of one or both of
the floral envelopes, and the union or otherwise of their con-
stituent parts, although not of the highest importance, are of
much value in the subordinate divisions.
The leaf also is of some importance as regards its venation :
thus, in Cormophytes the leaves or fronds have commonly a
forked venation ; those of Monocotyledonous plants are parallel-
veined ; while those of Dicotyledonous plants are net-veined or
reticulated. Again, stemless plants have no true leaves, but
produce a flattened cellular expansion or thallus, which has no
true veins.
Such are the general principles which should be attended to
by those who arrange plants according to their natural affinities ;,
but it must be borne in mind, that even in the best devised
natural systems there must be (at least at present) much that is
416 NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
artificial, so that all that we mean by a Natural System is, that
it expresses, as far as is possible only, the arrangement of plants
according to their natural affinities. (See page411.) This imper-
fection of our natural systems necessarily arises from our incom-
plete knowledge of existing plants ; for as our acquaintance with
new species is becoming every day extended, our views are liable
to be modified or changed, and even supposing plants be ever
so naturally arranged, we should be still unable to place them
in a linear series, for ‘ Different groups touch each other at
several different points, and must be considered as alliances con-
nected with certain great centres. We find also that it is by no
means easy to fix the limits of groups. There are constantly
aberrant orders, genera, and species, which form links between
the groups, and occupy a sort of intermediate territory. In
this, as in all departments of natural science, there are no sud-
den and abrupt changes, but a gradual transition from one
series to another. Hence exact and rigid definitions cannot be
carried out. In every natural system there must be a certain
latitude given to the characters of the groups, and allowances
must be made for constant anomalies, in so far as man’s defini-
tions are concerned.’
NatTurAL Systems.—We now proceed to give an abstract of
the more important natural systems. The first attempt at
arranging plants according to their natural affinities was by
our celebrated countryman, John Ray, in the year 1682; and
imperfect as any scheme must necessarily have been at that day,
when the number of plants known was very limited, still his
arrangement was in its leading divisions correct, and has formed
the foundation of all succeeding systems. He divided plants
thus :—
1. Flowerless.
2. Flowering ; these being again subdivided into
a. Dicotyledons.
b. Monocotyledons.
Ray still further grouped plants together into genera, which were
equivalent to our natural orders, many of which indicated a true
knowledge of natural affinities, and are substantially represented
at the present day by such natural orders as the Fungi, Musci,
Filices, Coniferze, Labiatze, Composite, Umbelliferze, and Legu-
minosz.
Next in order was the scheme propounded by the celebrated
author of the most perfect artificial system ever devised for the
arrangement of plants, namely, Linnzeus, who, about the year
1751, drew up a sketch of the natural affinities of plants under
the name of Fragments. Many of the divisions thus prepared by
_ Linnzeus are identical with natural orders as at present defined,
among which we may mention Orchidez, Gramina, Composite
(nearly), Umbellatee, Asperifoliz, Papilionacez, Filices, Musci,
and Fungi.
JUSSIEU'S NATURAL SYSTEM. 417
Juss1Ev’s Narurat System.—To Antoine Laurent de Jussieu,
however, belongs the great merit of having first devised a com-
prehensive natural system. His method was first made known
in the year 1789. It was founded upon the systems of Ray and
Tournefort, to which he made some important additions, more
especially in considering the position of the stamens with respect
to the ovary. The following table, which requires no explana-
tion, represents his arrangement.
Class.
1. Acotyledones.
(Stamens hypogynous. 2. Monohypogyne.
Monocotyledons - Stamens perigynous. 3. Monoperigyne.
Stamens epigynous. 4. Monoepigyne.
Stamens epigynous. 5. EHpistamine.
‘Apetalee - Stamens perigynous. 6. Peristaminez.
(Stamens hypogynous. 7. Hypostaminee.
8
9
0)
Acotyledons
. Hypocorolle.
Corolla hypogynous.
. Pericorolle.
Corolla perigynous.
i 10. Epicorolle Syn-
Geel antheree (anthers
coherent).
Corolla epigynous. ~ 11. Epicorolle Coris-
antherve (anthers
distinct).
Dicotyledons.
(Petals epigynous. 12. Epipetale.
Polypetalee oe hypogyrous. 13. Hypopetale.
Petals perigynous. 14. Peripetale.
Diclines irregulares 15. Diclines.
Under these fifteen classes Jussieu arranged 100 natural
orders or families. This was the first natural arrangement in
which an attempt was made to assign characters to natural
orders, but so admirably were these drawn up, that they have
formed the basis of all succeeding systematists. Indeed, the
limits of a great many of Jussieu’s natural orders are identical
with those of the present day.
De Canpouie’s NaturAL SystEM.—The next system of note
after that of Jussicu, was that of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle,
which was first promulgated in 1813. This system, modified,
however, in some important particulars, is that which is most
in use at the present day, and which, generally, in its essential
divisions, we shall adopt in this volume. In the first place, De
Candolle divided plants into two great divisions or sub-king-
doms, called Vasculares or Cotyledonez, and Cellulares or
Acotyledonez, the characters of which are as follows :—
Division 1. Vasculares, or Cotyledonex ; that is, plants possessing
both cellular (parenchymatous) tissue and vessels ;
and having an embryo with one or more cotyledons.
EE
418 DE CANDOLLE’S NATURAL SYSTEM.
Division 2. Cellulares, or Acotyledonex ; that is, plants composed
of cellular (parenchymatous) tissue only; and
whose embryo is not furnished with cotyledons.
The former division was again divided into two classes, called
Exogene or Dicotyledonez, and Endogenz or Monocotyledonez,
the essential characters of which may be thus stated :—
Class 1. Exogenex, or Dicotyledonex ; that is, plants whose vessels
are arranged in concentric layers, of which the
youngest are the outermost and the softest ; and
having an embryo with opposite or whorled cotyle-
dons.
Class 2. Endogenx, or Monocotyledonex ; that is, plants. whose
vessels are arranged in bundles, the youngest being
in the middle of the trunk ; and having an embryo
with solitary or alternate cotyledons.
These classes were again divided into sub-classes or groups.
Thus, under the Dicotyledonee were placed four groups, named
Thalamiflorze, Calyciflorze, Corollifloree, and Monochlamydez.
Under the Monocotyledonez two groups were placed, called
Phanerogamz and Cryptogame. The latter group, which in-
cluded the higher Cryptogamia, was placed under Monocotyle-
donez from a mistaken idea that the plants included in it pos-
sessed an embryo of a somewhat analogous character to that of
monocotyledonous plants. The Acotyledonez were also divided
into two groups, called Foliosz and Aphylle.
The following is a tabular view of De Candolle’s system.
Sub-kingdom 1. VAScULARES, OR COTYLEDONEX.
Class 1. Exogenx, or Dicotyledonex.
Petals distinct, inserted with
Sub-class 1.. Thalamiflore the stamens on the tha-
( lamus.
Petals distinct or more or
2. Calyciflore less united, and inserted on
the calyx.
eae united, and inserted on
the thalamus.
Having only a single circle of
floral envelopes, or none.
3. Corolliflore
4. Monochlamydex
Class 2. Endogenx, or Monocotyledonex.
Fructification visible, regu-
lar. |
Fructification hidden, un-
known, or irregular.
Sub-class 1. Phanerogame
2. Cryptogamex
ENDLICHER’S NATURAL SYSTEM. 419
Sub-kingdom 2. CELLULARES, oR ACOTYLEDONES.
. Having leaf-li i
Sub-class 1. Folios 2 ke expansions,
and known sexes.
Having no leaf-like expan-
sions, and no known sexes.
2. Aphylle
Under these sub-classes De Candolle arranged 161 Natural
Orders. The enumeration of these is unnecessary in an ele-
mentary volume ; we shall content ourselves with mentioning a
few only, as examples of the different groups. Thus, as exam-
ples of Thalamiflore—Cruciferze, Caryophyllez, and Malvacee ;
of Calycifore—Rosacez, Umbelliferze, and Composite ; of Corol-
liflore—Convolvulaceze, Solanez, and Labiatz ; of Moncchla-
mydex—Polygonez, Urticeze, and Amentacez ; of Phaneroqame
—Orchidez, Irider, and Graminez ; of Cryptogamx—Filices,
Equisetaceze, and Lycopodinez ; of Foliose—Musci and Hepa-
ticee ; and of Aphylle—Lichenes, Fungi, and Algze.
In this system it will be observed that De Candolle adopted
the primary divisions of Jussieu, but he reversed the order of
their arrangement ; for instead of commencing with Acotyle-
dons, and passing through Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons, he
began with the latter, and proceeded by the Monocotyledons to
Acotyledons.
Since the appearance of De Candolle’s system numerous
other arrangements have been proposed by botanists, as those
of Agardh, Perleb, Dumortier, Bartling, Lindley, Schultz,
Endlicher, and many others. As all these systems, with the
exception of those of Lindley and Endlicher, were never much
used, and are not adopted in great systematic works of the
present day, it will be unnecessary for us to allude to them
further. But the latter baving been used in important syste-
matic works, it will be advisable for us to give a general sketch
of their leading characters.
ENDLICHER’s NATURAL SysteM.—The system of Endlicher is
adopted in his ‘Genera Plantarum,’ published between the years
1836-1840. The following is a sketch of this system. He first
divided plants into two great divisions, which he denominated
Regions, and named Thallophyta and Cormophyta. These were
again divided into Sections and Cohorts, as follows :— |
Region 1. THattopHyta. Plants with no opposition of stem
and root; with no vessels and no sexual organs ;
and with germinating spores lengthening in all
directions.
Section 1. Protophyta. Plants developed without soil ; draw-
ing nourishment from the element in which
they grow ; and having a vague fructification ;
as in Algze and Lichenes.
EE 2
420 ENDLICHER’S NATURAL SYSTEM.
Section 2. Hysterophyta. Plants formed on languid or decay-
ing organisms ; nourished from a matrix ; all the
organs developing at once, and perishing in a
definite manner ; as in Fungi.
Region 2. Cormopuyta. Plants with stem and root in opposite
directions ; spiral vessels and sexual organs distinct
in the more perfect.
Section 3. Acrobrya. Stem growing at the point only, the
lower part being unchanged, and only used for
conveying fluids.
Cohort 1. Anophyta. Having no spiral vessels ; both sexes
perfect ; spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Hepaticze and Musci.
Cohort 2. Protophyta. Having vascular bundles more or
less perfect ; male sex absent. Spores free
in one- or many-celled spore-cases. Examples,
Filices and Equisetacez.
Cohort 3. Hysterophyta. Having perfect sexual organs ;
seeds without an embryo, polysporous ; para-
sitic. Example, Rhizanthez.
Section 4. Amphibrya. Stem growing at the circumference.
Examples, Graminez, Liliacez, [ridacez, Orchi-
dacez, and Palmacez.
Section 5. Acramphibrya. Stem growing at both the apex
and circumference.
Cohort 1. Gymnosperme. Ovutes naked, receiving impreg-
nation immediately by the micropyle ; as in
Conifere.
Cohort 2. Apetale. Calyx absent, rudimentary, or simple,
calycine or coloured, free or united to the
ovary. Examples, Cupuliferze, Urticacez,
and Polygonez.
Cohort 3. Gamopetale. Both floral envelopes present, the
outer calycine, the inner corolline, the latter
being monopetalous ; rarely abortive. Exam-
ples, Compositz, Labiatz, Scrophularinez,
and Ericacez.
Cohort 4. Dialypetale. Both floral envelopes present, the
outer being monosepalous or polysepalous,
free or united to the ovary, calycine or some-
times corolline ; the inner being corolline with
distinct petals, or rarely cohering by means of
the base of the stamens, and with an epigy-
nous, perigynous, or hypogynous insertion ;.,
rarely abortive. Examples, Umbelliferze, Ra-
nunculaceze, Cruciferee, Caryophyllee, Rosa-
cere, and Legumincse.
LINDLEY’S NATURAL SYSTEM. 421
Under these divisions Endlicher included 277 Natural Orders.
After Jussieu, he commenced with the simplest plants and gra-
dually proceeded to the more complicated, placing those of the
Leguminosz at the highest point of the series.
LinpDiey’s Naturat SysteEmM.—To Lindley especially belongs
the merit of having been the first botanist who made any serious
attempt to introduce a natural arrangement of plants into
use in this country. The first system proposed by him in 1830
was but aslight modification of that of De Candolle. Noattempt
was made in this system to form minor groups or divisions of
the tribes ; but in 1833, in a new system, Lindley arranged the
natural orders in groups subordinate to the higher divisions,
which were called Nixus (tendencies). These primary divisions
were again divided into Sub-classes, Cohorts, and Nixus or
eroups of nearly allied Natural Orders. In 1838, Lindley again
altered his arrangement so far as regarded Exogens; and finally,
in the year 1845, further modified his views, and proposed the
following scheme, which was that adopted by him in his great
work on ‘The Veyetable Kingdom.’
LINDLEY’S NATURAL SYSTEM.
' 1. ASEXUAL, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTs.
Stem and leaves undistinguishable . Class 1. Thallogens.
Stem and leaves distinguishable . . Class 2. Acrogens.
2. SExvAL, OR FLOWERING PLANTS.
Fructification springing from a thallus Class 3. Rhizogens.
Fructification springing from a stem.
Wood of stem youngest in the
centre ; cotyledon single.
Leaves parallel-veined, perma-
nent ; wood of the stem always
confused : : . Class 4. Endogens.
Leaves net-veined, deciduous ;
wood of the stem, when peren-
nial, arranged in a circle with
a central pith ‘ : . Class 5. Dictyogens.
Wood of stem youngest at the circum-
ference, always concentric; co-
tyledons two or more.
Seeds quite naked . : . Class 6. Gymnogens.
Seeds enclosed in seed vessels . Class 7. Exogens.
The Exogens were further divided into four sub-classes
thus :—
Sub-class 1. Diclinous Exogens, or those with unisexual flowers,
and without any customary tendency to form
hermaphrodite flowers.
422 BENTHAM AND HOOKER’S SYSTEM.
Sub-class 2. Hypogynous Exogens, or those with hermaphrodite
or polygamous flowers; and stamens entirely
free fromthe calyx and corolla.
Sub-class 3. Perigynous Exogens, or those with hermaphrodite
or polygamous flowers, and with the stamens
growing to the side of either the calyx or corolla ;
ovary superior, or nearly so.
Sub-class 4. Epigynous Exogens, or those with hermaphrodite or
polygamous flowers, and with the stamens grow-
ing to the side either of the calyx or corolla ;
ovary inferior, or nearly so.
Neither of the other classes are divided into sub-classes, but
of Endogens four sections are distinguished thus :—
1. Flowers glumaceous (that is to say, composed of bracts not~
collected in true whorls, but consisting of imbricated
colourless or herbaceous scales).
2. Flowers petaloid, or furnished with a true calyx or corolla, or
with both, or absolutely naked ; unisexual (that is, having
sexes altogether in different flowers, without half-formed
rudiments of the absent sexes being present).
3. Flowers furnished with a true calyx and corolla ; adherent to
the ovary ; hermaphrodite.
4. Flowers furnished with a true calyx and corolla, free from
the ovary ; hermaphrodite.
Under the above classes Lindley includes 303 Natural
Orders, which are arranged in fifty-six groups subordinate to
the sections, sub-classes, and classes, and which are termed
Alliances.
BENTHAM AND Hooxker’s System.—The essential features
of this system for the arrangement of the Phanerogamia, which
is adopted in their great work, ‘Genera Plantarum,’ are as
follow :—
Division I. PHANEROGAMIA.
Sub-division 1. ANGIOSPERMIA.
Class 1. Dicotyledones.
Sub-class 1. PoLyPETAL#.
Series 1. Thalamiflorz.
2. Disciflore.
3. Calyciflore.
Sub-class 2. GAMOPETALZ or MONOPETAL#.
Series 1. Inferze or Epigyne.
2. Supere.
3. Dicarpiz.
Sub-class 3. MonocHLAMYDE or INCOMPLETZ#.
Series 1, Curvembrye.
2. Multiovulatze aquatic.
BENTHAM AND HOOKER’S SYSTEM. 423
Series 3. Multiovulatz terrestres.
4. Micrembryz.
5. Daphnales.
6. Achlamydosporez.
7. Unisexuales.
8. Ordines anomali.
Class 2. Monocotyledones.
Series 1. Microsperme.
. Epigyne.
. Coronariez.
. Calycine:
. Nudiflore.
. Apocarpe.
. Glumacee.
“ID Ot Ob
Sub-division 2. GYMNOSPERMIA.
The series in the above system in the sub-classes Polypetalee
and Gamopetale are further divided into Cohorts as follows :—
Sub-class 1. PoLyPETALe.
Series 1. Thalamiflore.
Cohort 1. Ranales.
2. Parietales.
3. Polygalinee.
4. Caryophyllinee.
5. Guttiferales.
6. Malvales.
Series 2. Disciflore.
Cohort 1. Geraniales.
2. Olacales.
3. Celastrales.
4. Sapindales.
Series 3. Calyciflore.
Cohort 1. Rosales.
2. Myrtales.
3, Passifiorales.
4. Ficoidales.
5. Umbellales.
Sub-class 2. GAMOPETAL.E.
Series 1. Inferz or Epigyne.
Cohort 1. Rubiales.
2. Asterales.
3. Campanales.
Series 2. Superz.
Cohort 1. Ericales.
2. Primulales.
3. Ebenales.
Py ><,
424 — BENTHAM AND HOOKER’S SYSTEM.
Series 3. Dicarpice or Bicarpellatz.
Cohort 1. Gentianales.
2. Polemoniales.
3. Personales.
4, Lamiales.
No division of the series is made in ‘Genera Plantarum ;’
but in the English translation of Le Maout and Decaisne’s
‘Traité Général de Botanique,’ which was edited by Sir. J. D.
Hooker, the sub-class Monochlamydez and the class Mono-
cotyledones are divided as follows :—
Sub-class 3. MonocHLAMYDE.
Division 1. Ovary superior (Supere).
Cohort 1. Chenopodiales.
2. Laurales.
3. Daphnales.
4. Urticales.
5. Amentales.
6. Euphorbiales. .
7. Piperales.
8. Nepenthales.
Division 2. Ovary inferior (Inferz).
Cohort 1. Asarales.
2. Quernales.
3. Santalales.
Class 2. Monocotyledones.
Division 1. Ovary inferior (Inferx).
Cohort 1. Hydrales.
. Amomales.
. Orchidales.
Taccales.
. Narcissales.
. Dioscorales.
aor Whe
Division 2. Ovary superior (Supere).
Sub-division 1. Ovary apocarpous (Apocarpe).
Cohort 1. Triurales.
2. Potamales.
Sub-division 2. Ovary syncarpous (Syncarpe).
Cohort 1. Palmales.
. Arales.
Liliales.
. Pontederales.
Commelynales.
. Restiales.
. Glumales.
STS OTP 9 DO
NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANUAL. “425
For full particulars in reference to this system, reference
should be made to Bentham and Hooker’s ‘Genera Plantarum,’
and to the English translation of Le Maout and Decaisne’s
‘Traité Général de Botanique,’ edited by Sir J. D. Hooker.
The essential characters of the various divisions are also de-
scribed below under the head of ‘ Natural System adopted in this
‘Manual,’ and in the chapter describing the ‘ Arrangement,
Characters, &c., of the Natural Orders.’
Besides the above systems, others are now much used in
Germany, as those of A. Braun and Caruel of the Phanero-
gamia ; and those of Sachs and others of the Cryptogamia.
NATURAL SYSTEM ADOPTED IN THIS Manvau.—The natural
arrangement adopted in this volume, which is founded, so far
as the Phanerogamia are concerned, upon the systems of De
Candolle and Bentham and Hooker,—that of De Candolle being
the basis, is as follows :—
The Vegetable Kingdom is first divided into two sub-king-
doms, namely :—Phanerogamia or Flowering Plants; and Crypto-
gamia or Flowerless Plants.
Sub-kingdom 1. Phanerogamia or Flowering Plants.—This
includes plants which have evident flowers; and which are
reproduced by seeds containing an embryo with one or more
cotyledons.
Sub-kingdom 2. Cryptogamia or Flowerless Plants.—This
includes those plants which have no flowers ; and which are re-
produced by minute bodies termed spores, which have no embryo.
SuUB-KINGDOM J. PHANEROGAMIA or FLOWERING PLANTS.
These are divided as follows :—
Division I. Angiospermia, in which the ovules are distinctly
enclosed in an ovary ; and are fertilised indirectly
by the action of the pollen on the stigma.
Endosperm formed after fertilisation. It is
divided thus :—
Class 1. DicoryLepoNEs, in which the embryo is dicotyle-
donous ; the germination exorhizal; the stem ex-
ogenous ; the leaves with a reticulated venation ;
and the flowers commonly with a quinary or qua-
ternary arrangement. In this class we have three
sub-classes.
Sub-class 1. PotypetTan#, with usually bisexual flowers,
which are commonly furnished with a calyx
and corolla, and the latter composed of dis-
tinct petals. This is divided imto three
series as follows :—
Series 1. Thalamiflorze, that is, plants, the flowers of
which have usually the calyx, corolla, and
stamens distinct from one another ; ovary
superior ; and the stamens hypogynous.
426 NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANUAL.
Series 2. Disciflore.—Thalamus furnished with a disk,
which is hypogynous or adnate to the calyx
or ovary; or bearing a series of glands ;
stamens arising from the disk and either
hypogynous or perigynous ; ovary superior,
placentation usually axile. ;
Series 3. Calyciflore.—Calyx usually gamosepalous; petals
arising from the calyx or from a perigynous
disk ; stamens perigynous or epigynous,
ovary superior or inferior.
Sub-class 2. GAMOPETALZ or COROLLIFLOR#, with usually
bisexual flowers ; calyx commonly gamosepal-
ous ; corolla gamopetalous ; stamens inserted
on the corolla or ovary, or rarely separate
from the corolla, and arising directly from the
. thalamus ; ovary superior or inferior. Of this
sub-class we have three series, as follows :—
Series 1. Inferx or Epigynex, in which the calyx is ad-
herent and the ovary consequently inferior ;
stamens epigynous.
Series 2. Supere, in which the calyx is inferior; the
stamens inserted on the corolla, or rarely
on the thalamus; ovary superior (except in
Vacciniacex), and usually more than 2-
celled.
Series 3. Dicarpie or Bicarpellatx, in which the ovary is
usually superior, and composed of 2 carpels,
or rarely 1-3 ; stamens inserted on the corolla.
Sub-class 3. MonocHLAMYDEZ or INcoMPLETZ.—F lowers
either have a calyx only (nonochlamydeous),
or without both calyx and corolla (achlamy-
deous); often unisexual. Of this sub-class
we have two series, thus :—
Series 1. Supers, in which the ovary is superivr.
Series 2. Inferx or Epigyne, in which the ovary is inferior.
Class 2. MonocoryLEDONES, in which the embryo is monoco-
tyledonous ; the germination endorhizal ; the stem
endogenous; the leaves usually with a parallel
venation ; and the flowers with a ternary arrange-
ment. This class may, be divided into two sub-
classes as follows:— *
Sub-class 1. Petaloidew.—Leaves with a parallel venation,
or rarely reticulated, permanent or occa-
sionally deciduous; floral envelopes (perianth)
verticillate and usually coloured, rarely green
or scaly, and sometimes absent. This sub-
class may be divided into two series :—
NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANDAL. 427
Series 1. Infere or Epigynex, in which the ovary is inferior,
or rarely superior, as in some Bromeliacea:
and Hzemadoracez. Perianth usually in two
whorls and both coloured.
Series 2. Superx, in which the ovary is superior. Of
this we have two sub-series.
Sub-series 1. Apocarpe, in which the gyncecium is
usually al tala or rarely of one
carpel (simple).
Sub-series 2. Syncarpxe, where the gyncecium is syn-
carpous, or in some Palms apocarpous.
Sub-class 2. Glimacex.—Leaves parallel-veined, permanent ;
‘ 3 4
flowers glumaceous, that is, having no proper
perianth, but imbricate bracts instead.
Division I. Gymnospermia, in which the ovules are naked or
not enclosed in an ovary, and are fertilised directly
by the action of the pollen. Endosperm formed
before fertilisation.
Sus-KinGpom II. Cryprocamia or FLOWERLESS PLANTS are
those which have no proper flowers, that
is, having no floral envelopes, stamens, or
carpels, and which are reproduced by
minute bodies termed spores, which have
no embryo. This may be divided as fol-
lows :—
Division I. Cormophyta.—Plants with commonly roots, stems,
and leaves, and with vascular tissue ; or the latter
is imperfect or entirely absent. This may be
divided thus :—
Class 1. VascuLaRES or VascuLaR Cryprocams, or those
containing evident vascular tissue. Of this we
have two sub-classes as follows :—
Sub-class 1. Isosporia, producing spores of one kind only,
from which prothallia free from the spores
are developed, and containing both antheridia
and archegonia.
Sub-class 2. Heterusporia, producing spores of two kinds,
namely, megaspores or macrospores, and micro-
spores. The megaspores develop a prothallium
which «remains attached to the spores, and
which produces archegonia (female prothal-
lum); and the microspores form a smal]
rudimentary prothallium also confluent with
the spores, which produces only antherozoids
(male prothallium).
Class 2. Muscinr&, or CORMOPHYTAL CRYPTOGAMS without
vascular tissue, or in which the latter is imperfect.
428 NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANUAL.
Division Il. Thallophyta.—Plants without any distinction of
roots, stems, and leaves, and which are entirely
composed of parenchymatous tissue. This divi-
sion has been variously divided by botanists ;
but as their arrangement at present is very
transitional, reference must be made for full
particulars to special treatises.
The following is a tabular arrangement of the above system :—
Sub-kingdom I. Phanerogamia or Flowering Plants.
Division 1. Angiospermia.
Class 1. Dicotyledones.
Sub-class 1. Polypetale.
Series 1. Thalamiflorz.
2. Disciflore.
3. Calyciflorx.
Sub-class 2. Gamopetalee or Corollifioree.
Series 1. Inferz or Epigyne.
2. Superze
3. Dicarpiz or Bicarpellate.
Sub-class 3. Monochlamydez or Incompletz.
Series 1. Supere.
2. Inferz or Epigyne.
Class 2. Monocotyledones.
Sub-class 1. Petaloidee.
Series 1. Inferze or Epigyne.
2. Supere.
1. Apocarpe.
2. Syncarpe.
Sub-class 2. Glumacez.
Division 2. Gymnospermia.
Sub kingdom II. Cryptogamia or Flowerless Plants.
Division 1. Cormophyta.
Class 1. Vasculares.
Sub-class 1. Isosporia.
2. Heterosporia.
Class 2. Muscinez.
Division 2, Thallophyta.
PHANEROGAMIA.—THALAMIFLORA. 429
CHAPTER 3.
ARRANGEMENT, CHARACTERS, DISTRIBUTION, PROPERTIES
AND USES OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.
Havina now given a general sketch of the more important
Natural Systems—especially of that one which we propose to’
follow in this volume—and described the characters of its divi-
sions, we proceed to the description of the various natural orders
arranged under those divisions. Our attention will be chiefly
directed to the principal orders, and especial importance will be
given to their diagnostic characters,—-or those only which are
necessary for their distinction. In our notice of the natural
systems, we have seen that some authors, as Jussieu, Endlicher,
and Lindley, commence with the simplest forms of plants, and
end with the most complicated; while others, as Ray, De
Candolle, and Bentham and Hooker, take an opposite course,
and proceed from the most highly developed plants to the sim-
plest. We have adopted the latter plan here, because the more
highly developed plants are much better known than those of
lower organisation, and are of more general interest to the
majority of our readers.
SuB-KINGDOM I,
PHANEROGAMIA OR FLOWERING PLANTS.
Division J. ANGIOSPERMIA.
Class I. DicoryLEDONEs.
Sub-class I. Polypetale.
Series 1. Thalamifloree.
Cohort 1. Ranales.—Gyncecium apocarpous, or very rarely
syncarpous, or simple. Seeds usually albuminous.
Order 1. Ranuncutace#,. the Buttercup Order. —
Character.—Herbs, or rarely climbing shrubs, with a watery,
colourless, usually acrid juice. Leaves alternate or opposite,
generally much divided (figs. 333, 334, and 371), or sometimes
entire, with usually dilated and amplexicaul petioles. Stipules
generally absent, but rarely present, and then adnate. Inflor-
escence definite ( fig. 432) or indefinite. Calyx of 3-6, usually 5
(fig. 870) distinct sepals, regular (figs. 432 and 870) or irregular
(fig. 457), green or rarely “petaloid, deciduous or very rarely
persistent ; xstivation generally imbricate (fig. 870), sometimes
_valvate (jig. 792) or induplicate. Cvrolla of 3.15, usually 5
430 RANUNCULACEA.
(fig. 870) distinct petals, regular ( fig. 870) or irregular (fig. 496) ;
zestivation imbricate (jig. 870), sometimes absent (fig. 792).
Stamens numerous (figs. 792 and 870), or very rarely few,
hypogynous (figs. 542 and 871, e); anthers adnate (fig. 872),
bursting longitudinally. Carpels generally numerous (figs. 542
and 871, p), or rarely few or only 1, usually distinct and one-celled
(fig. 875, 0), or very rarely united so as to form a compound
many-celled ovary ; ovary with one (fig. 875, g) or many ovules ;
ovules anatropous, attached to the ventral suture (jig. 875);
styles simple (fig. 871, p). Fruit various, either consisting of
a number of dry achenes, or of one or more whorls of follicles
(fig. 873), which are sometimes united below, or sometimes
Fie. 870. Hie. Sil. Fic. 872.
Fig. 871.
Fig. 870. Diagram of the flower of a species of Ranunculus.
Vertical section of the flower of Ranunculus acris. c. Calyx. pe. Petals.
e. Stamens. p. Carpels. Fig, 872. Adnate anther of a Ranunculaceous
plant. Fig. 873. Numerous follicles of J7'rollius europceus. Fig. 874.
Vertical section of the seed of the Monkshood (Aconitum). sp. Coverings
of the seed. emb. Embryo. alb. Albumen.—Fiy. 875. Vertical section
of a carpel of Ranunculus acris. o. Ovary. g. Ovule. s. Stigma,
there is only one follicle ; or very rarely the fruit is baccate,
with one or more seeds. Seeds solitary or numerous, when
solitary, erect or pendulous ; embryo minute (fig. 874, emb), at
the base of homogeneous horny albumen, alb.
Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a colourless, watery,
and usually acrid juice. Sepals, petals, and stamens distinct,
hypogynous. Corolla with an imbricate estivation. Stamens
usually numerous; anthers adnate, bursting longitudinally.
Carpels, except in a very few instances, more cr less distinct.
RANUNCULACEA. 431
Seeds with a minute embryo, and homogeneous horny albumen,
anatropous.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order may
be divided into five tribes as follows :—
Tribe 1. Clematidex. Calyx valvate (fig. 792) or induplicate.
Fruit consisting of a number of achenes. Seed pendulous.
IWustrative Genus :—Clematis, Linn.
Tribe 2. Anemonex. Calyx imbricate, usually coloured. Fruit
consisting of a number of achenes. Seed pendulous. Jilus-
trative Genus:—Anemone, Haller.
Tribe 3. Ranwnewlex. Calyx imbricate (fig. 870). Fruit con-
sisting of a number of achenes. Seed erect. Illustrative
Genus :—Ranunculus, Linn.
Tribe 4. Helleborex. Calyx imbricate. Petals irregular or none.
Fruit consisting of one or more whorls of many-seeded follicles
( fig. 873), which are sometimes united below; or rarely baccate.
Illustrative Genera :—Aconitum, Linn. ; Cimicifuga, Ellictt.
Tribe 5. Pxoniex. Calyx imbricate. Fruit consisting of from
2-5 follicles, which are more or less surrounded at the base
by a cup-shaped disk (fig. 580). Illustrative Genus :—Pzeonia,
Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants occur chiefly in cold
damp climates, and are almost unknown in the tropics, except
on mountains. The order includes about 600 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order generally
abound in an acrid principle, which in some is even vesicant.
This acridity is, however, very volatile, so that in most cases it
is dissipated by drying, or by infusing them in boiling, or even
sometimes in cold water ; it varies also in different parts of the
same plant, and even in the same parts at different seasons.
Some plants contain in addition a narcotic principle ; and when
these principles are in excess they are virulent poisons. Gene-
rally the plants of this order are to be regarded with suspicion,
although some are simply bitter and tonic. ‘
Aconitum.—Some species of this genus are very virulent poisons. The
dried root of Aconitum ferox, which is known as Nepal or Indian aconite,
has been usually considered to be the sole source of the celebrated Indian
drug and poison, ‘ Bikh’ or ‘ Bish’ but this is also obtained indifferently
from A. Napellus, A. uncinatum, A. palmatum, and probably others.—
Aconitum Napellus, a European species, commonly called Monkshood, is the
official plant of the British Pharmacopeia. The leaves, flowering tops, and
root (more especially the latter), are poisonous, but when used in proper
doses they are sedative, anodyne, and diuretic. Several fatal cases of
poisoning have occurred from the root having been mistaken for Horse-
radish. The other European species are almost inert. The properties of
the above species are especially due to at least two powerful alkaloids, called
aconitine and pseud-aconitine. The official aconitine is a mixture of these
alkaloids, and probably others, in varying proportions, and has been much
used externally in neuralgia and chronic rheumatism, and also occasionally
internally in rheumatism and other diseases, but it is a dangerous remedy
for internal use. The fresh leaves and flowering tops, the dried root, and
432 RANUNCULACE#.
aconitine, are official in the British Pharmacopeia. Other species have
similar properties, as, for instance, the species yielding Japanese aconite
roots or tubers, now supposed to be A. Fischeri. These roots contain a
very powerful alkaloid named japaconitine. It is said to exceed in poisonous
properties both aconitine and pseud-aconitine. The Aconitum ferox contains
the largest amount of alkaloids of any known species. The root or rhizome
of Aconitum heterophyllum has no poisonous properties ; it is official in the
Pharmacopeia of India, and has a reputation in India as a tonic and
antiperiodic medicine. It is known in the Indian bazaars as Atis or Atees.
Acta spicata, Baneberry.—The rhizome of this plant, as shown by the
author, is a frequent adulteration in this country of Black Hellebore rhizome.
The same adulteration has also been noticed on the Continent, and in
America. The fruits are poisonous. (See Cimicifuga).
Cimicifuga.—The rhizome with the attached rootlets of Cimicifuga ( Actza)
racemosu has been long used in the United States as a remedy in acute
rheumatism, chorea, and various anomalous forms of nervous diseases. It
has been introduced into this country, and employed with some success in
similar diseases ; and is now official in the British Pharmacopeia. In the
form of a tincture it is also reputed to be a valuable external application
for reducing inflammation ; indeed, in such cases, it is said to be far more
efficacious than tincture of arnica. It is the source of the eclectic remedy
known in the United States as cimicifugin.
Clematis erecta and C. Flammula.—The leaves of these plants have been
used as rubefacients and vesicants. Some other species possess analogous
‘properties.
Coptis.—The root of Coptis trifoliata, Goldthread, which is a native of
North America, is a pure and powerful bitter, and is used as a stomachic
and tonic. The root of Coptis Teeta,commonly known in India as Coptis or
Tita root, is found in the bazaars of India; and is official in the Pharma-
copeeia of India. It is also known under the name of Mishmi Bitter or
Mahmira. It is intensely and powerfully bitter, and is a valuable tonic.
Both these drugs contain berberine.
Delphinium Staphysagria—The seeds of this plant were formerly em-
ployed for their emetic, purgative, and anthelmintic properties; but their
violent action has led to their internal disuse. They are commonly known
under the name of Stavesacre seeds. They contain an alkaloid, called
delphinine. They are, however, still much used externally in various skin
diseases, and are now official in the British Pharmacopeeia ; they are also
employed externally for destroying vermin. Delphinine has also been used
externally in neuralgia and rheumatism.—D. Consolidum.—The root and
seeds contain delphinine, and have similar properties to Stavesacre seeds.
Helleborus.—The rhizome and rootlets of Helleborus officinalis constituted
the Black Hellebore of the ancients, which was much used by them asa
drastic hydragogue purgative.—Helleborus niger is the Black Hellebore of
the present time; it is still occasionally employed in this country and else-
where, and possesses similar properties to the former (see Act#a).— Helle-
borus viridis and H. fetidus are also of a like nature, and may be used as
efficient substitutes ; indeed that of H. viridis is more powerful in its action.
Hydrastis canadensis.—The rhizome and rootlets, under the names of
Yellow Root and Golden Seal, are used in the United States for their tonic
properties ; and are also reputed to exercise an especial influence over mucous
surfaces. Their action is due to the presence of berberine and a peculiar
alkaloid called hydrustine. The drug used by the eclectic practitioners in
the United States under the name of hydrastine is obtainedfrom it. Hydras-
tis is also used by the Indians of the Western States of North America to
dye various shades of yellow.
Nigella sativa.—The seeds were formerly employed instead of pepper.
They are regarded in India as carminative. It is supposed that these
DILLENIACEHX.— CALYCANTHACEA, 433
seeds, or those of another species used by the Afghans for flavouring curries,
form the Black Cummin of Scripture (Isaiah xxviii. 25, 27).
Ranunculus.—R. sceleratus and R. Flammula are very acrid, which pro-
perty is also possessed to a certain extent by many other species.—R.
Ficaria has thickened roots which contain a good deal of starch; hence
they have been used as food.
Xanthorrhiza apiifolia.—The root has a pure bitter taste, and possesses
well-marked tonic properties. It is also used by the Indians in the southern
parts of the United States asa yellow dye. It contains berberine as a con-
stituent.
Many plants of the order are commonly cultivated in our gardens ; as
various species of Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Eranthis (Winter Aco-
nite), Helleborus (Christmas Rose), Aquilegia (Columbine), Delphinium
(Larkspur), Aconitum (Monkshood), Pxonia (Peony). Pwonia Moutan or
Moutan officinalis is the Tree Peony of China, which is remarkable for its
very large showy flowers, and for the number of its blossoms : thus, Fortune
mentions a plant in the neighbourhood of Shanghai which yearly produced
from 300 to 400 flowers.
Order 2. DILLENIACE, the Dillenia Order.— Character.
— Trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs. Leaves usually alternate, very
rarely opposite, generally exstipulate. Sepals 5, persistent, in
tworows. Petals5, deciduous, hypogynous, imbricate. Stamens
numerous, hypogynous. Carpels 2—5, rarely 1, more or less
distinct. Frwit formed of from 2—5 distinct or adherent carpels,
rarely 1. Seeds numerous, or 2 or 1 by abortion, anatropous,
arillate ; albumen homogeneous, fleshy ; embryo minute.
Diagnosis.—Stipules absent, except in rare cases. Sepals
and petals 5 each, hypogynous ; the former persistent in two
rows, the latter with an imbricate zstivation. Carpels more
or less distinct. Seeds numerous, arillate; albumen fleshy,
homogeneous.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order occur
chiefly in Australia, India, and equinoctial America ; a few species
have been also found in equinoctial Africa ; none occur in Europe.
Illustrative Genera :—Dillenia, Linn.; Candollea, Labill. There
are nearly 200 species belonging to this order.
Properties and Uses.—These plants have generally astringent
properties ; they have been used as vulneraries, and for tanning
in Brazil.
Dillenia.—The young calyces of some species have an acid taste and are
employed as an ingredient of curries in some parts of India. Some species
of Dillenia grow to a large size, and form hard durable timber.
Most of the Indian species belonging to the genus Di/lenia are remark-
able not only for their evergreen foliage, but also for the beauty of their
flowers. They are sometimes cultivated as stove or greenhouse plants in
this country.
Order 3. CALYCANTHACE®, the Calycanthus Order.—Dia-
gnosis.—These are shrubby plants resembling the Rosacex, but
they differ in having opposite leaves, which are always simple,
entire, and exstipulate ; in their sepals and petals being numer-
ous, and similar in appearance ; in having stamens whose anthers
are adnate, and turned outwards; and by having convolute
FF
434 MAGNOLIACEA.
cotyledons. They are placed here in accordance with the views of
Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are natives of Japan and
North America. Tilustrative Genera :—Calycanthus, Chimo-
nanthus. These are the only 2 genera, which include 6 species.
Properties and Uses. —The flowers generally are fragrant and
aromatic; and the bark of Calycanthus floridus, Carolina All-
spice, is sometimes used in the United States as a substitute for
Cinnamon bark,
Order 4. Maanoiace®&, the Magnolia Order.—Character.
—Treesor shrubs, with alternate leathery leaves (fig. 336), and with
usually large convolute stipules which enclose the leaf-bud and fall
off asitexpands. Sepals usually three to six, deciduous. Petals
three or more, hypogynous, in two or more rows. Stamens
numerous, hypogynous (fig. 604, e). Carpels several, one-celled,
often arranged upon an elongated thalamus (fig. 604, ce). Fruit
consisting of numerous dry or succulent, dehiscent (fig. 667)
or mdehiscent carpels, which are distinct or united at the base.
Seeds anatropous, with or without an aril, solitary or several,
often suspended from the fruit by a long funiculus (fig. 667) ;
embryo minute ; albumen fleshy, homogeneous.
Diagnosis.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, leathery.
Stipules usually present, and then large and enveloping the leaf-
bud, deciduous. Sepals and petals with a ternary arrangement
of their parts, hypogynous, the former deciduous, the latter
with an imbricate estivation. Carpels distinct or coherent at
the base. Albumen homogeneous.
Division of the Order.—The order may be divided into two
tribes :—
Tribe 1. Magnoliex.—Carpels distinct, arranged upon an
elongated thalamus in a cone-like manner (fig. 604, e). Leaves
not dotted or scarcely so. Tllustrative Genera :—Liriodendron,
Linn.; Magnolia, Linn.
Tribe 2. Winterex.—Carpels united at the base, and forming
but one whorl. Leaves dotted and often exstipulate. Illustra-
tive Genera :—Drimys, Forst.; Tlicium, Lini.
Distribution and Numbers.—The majority of the plants of
this order are found in North America. Some also occur in the
West Indies, Japan, China, India, South America, Australia,
and New Zealand. None have been found in Africa or any of
the adjoining islands, or in Europe. The order contains about
170 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable
for bitter, tonic, and aromatic properties.
Drimys Winteri.—The bark, which was formerly known under the name
of Winter’s Bark, has tonic, aromatic, antiscorbutic, and stimulant proper-
ties. It was often confounded with Canella Bark, which has been termed
Spurious Winter’s Bark. It was formerly much employed in this country,
but at present it is very rarely or ever used. The Winter’s Bark, as
now found in commerce, is commonly obtained from Cinnamodendron
SCHIZANDRACEA. 435
corticosum (see Cinnamodendron), a native of Jamaica.——Drimys grana-
tensis possesses similar properties,
Iilicium anisatum, Star-Anise.—The whole plant, particularly the fruit,
has the flavour and odour of the European Anise plant (Pimpinella Anisum).
Star-Anise fruit is used by the Chinese as an aromatic and carminative, and
also asa spice. A large portion of the Oil of Anise of commerce is now de-
rived from this fruit. This oil and the fruit from which it is obtained, are
official in the British Pharmacopeeia ; it is regarded as a superior oil to that
obtained in Europe from the fruit of Pimpinella Anisum, which is also
official, and was formerly the sole botanical source of Oil of Anise. The
species of I/icium which grows in Japan is regarded as distinct by Siebold,
and named J. religiosum, but more generally it is included by botanists under
I. anisatum. Husemann, Holmes, ‘and others, however, have recently given
reasons for believing them distinct. The fruits of Z. religiosum are occa-
sionally imported ; they have a faint aromatic odour and taste, which have
been regarded as resembling bay leaves or camphor, but are entirely devoid
of the characteristic anise taste and odour of the Chinese fruits. In Japan
they are termed Skimi, shikmi, or shikimi fruits; and the recent observa-
tions of Geerts and others have shown that they are poisonous, as well as
the oil which is obtained by expression from the seeds. This oil is used in
Japan as a cheap lighting material and for lubricating purposes.
Liriodendron tulipifera, Tulip-tree.—The bark possesses bitter and tonic
properties.
Magnolia.—M. glauca, Swamp Sassafras or Beaver Tree. The bark is
tonic and aromatic, somewhat resembling that of Cinchona in its action.
The unripe fruits of other species, as Magnolia Frazeri and M, acuminata,
have similar properties.
Michelia Champaca.—The flowers of this plant, which is a native of
India, yield a fragrant oil. (See Cananga, p. 436.)
Tusmannia aromatica.—The fruit is used in New Holland as a substitute
for pepper.
The plants of this order are also remarkable for the fragrance and beauty
of their flowers and foliage ; hence they are favourite objects of culture in
this country, either as hardy plants, ‘such as several Magnolias and the
Tulip-tree ; or as stove and greenhouse plants, such as species of Iiliciwm.
Order 5. SCHIZANDRACE®, the Schizandra Order.—C harac-
ter.—Trailing shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, simple, often
dotted. Flowers unisexual. Calyx and corolla with a ternary
arrangement of their parts, hypogynous, imbricate. Barren
flower :—Stamens numerous, monadelphous or distinct, hypo-
gynous ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse, with a thickened connective.
Fertile flower :—Carpeis numerous, 1-celled, distinct or united ;
ovules 2, pendulous. Frwits numerous, collected into a cluster,
baccate. Seeds with abundant homogeneous fleshy albumen ;’
embryo very minute. This order is made a tribe of Magnoliacex
by Beutham and Hooker.
Diagnosis.—Trailing shrubs, Leaves alternate, exstipulate,
simple. Flowers unisexual. Sepals and petals imbricate.
Stamens numerous, hypogynous. Ovules pendulous ; embryo
very minute, with abundant homogeneous albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—This small order only contains
12 species. These species occur in India, Japan, and the
southern parts of the United States. Illustrative Genera :—Schi-
zandra, L. C. Rich.; Hortonia, Wight.
FR2
436 ANONACER.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are insipid
and mucilaginous. Some have edible fruits.
Order6, ANONACE, the Custard-apple Order.—Character.
—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate. Calyx of
three sepals, generally united at the base, persistent. Corolla of six
petals, in two whorls, leathery; xstivation usually valvate, hypo-
gynous, rarely united, or more rarely altogetherabsent. Stamens
usually numerous, and inserted on a large hypogynous thalamus ;
connective enlarged, 4-angled ; anthers adnate. Carpels usually
numerous, distinct or united,or very rarely solitary, with one or
more anatropous ovules. Frwit composed of a number of dry or
succulent carpels, which are distinct, or united so as to form a
fleshy mass ; or rarely simple. Seeds one or more, anatropous ;
embryo minute ; albumen ruminated.
Diagnosis. —Trees or shrubs. Leavesalternate. No stipules.
Calyx of 3 sepals, persistent. Petals 6, in two rows, hypo-
gynous, usually valvate. Anthers adnate, with an enlarged 4-
cornered connective. Albumen ruminated.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
almost entirely confined to the tropical regions of Asia, Africa,
and America. Noneare found in Europe. Illustrative Genera :-—
Xylopia, Linn. ; Anona, Linn. ; Monodora, Dunal. There are
nearly 400 species in this order. j
Properties and Uses.—Generally aromatic and fragrant in all
their parts. Some have edible fruits, which are much esteemed.
Anona squamosa and A. muricata yield the agreeable succulent fruits of
the East and West Indies, called Custard-apples: the fruit of A. squamosa is
called Sweet-sop: that of A. muricata, Sour-sop. They are now frequently
imported into this country. Other species are also esteemed for their fruits,
as Anona reticulata, which yields the netted Custard-apple, and A. Cherimolia,
which produces the Cherimoyer of Peru. Another species, namely, A.
palustris, is the source of West Indian Cork-wood, so called from its elasticity
and lightness; the fruit is termed the Alligator Pear, but in consequence
of the presence of a narcotic principle it is not eaten. This must not be con-
founded with the true Avocado or Alligator Pear, which is in much repute
in the West Indies, and is derived from Persea gratissima. (See Persea.)
Celocline (Unona) polycarpa, DC.—The Berberine or Yellow-dve tree
of Soudan.—The bark of this tree yields a beautiful yellow colour, which is
much used as a dyeing material in certain parts of Africa. When reduced
to a coarse powder, it is also a topical remedy of great repute in the treat-
ment of indolent ulcers, and chronic leprous sores of the extremities. It
contains berberine, to which its medicinal virtues are probably due.
Cananga ( Unona) odorata.—The flowers yield a very fragrant oil, which
is known under the names of Jlang-ilang, Alanguilan, Oleum Unone, and
Oleum Anone. According to Guibourt, the oil known as Macassar Oil is
Cocoa-nut oil digested with the flowers of Michelia Champaca (see Michelia,
p- 435) and Cunanga odorata, coloured yellow by means of turmeric.
Duguetia quitarensis.—According to Schomburgk, the strong elastic wood
called Lance-wood, chiefly used by coachmakers, is furnished by this plant,
which is a native of Guiana.
Monodora Myristica, the Calabash Nutmeg, has somewhat similar aro-
matic qualities to the true Nutmeg of commerce. These nutmegs are also
commonly known as Jamaica or American nutmegs.
MENISPERMACEA, 457
Uvaria febrifuga.—The fruit of this species is supposed to be the one
which is used as a febrifuge by the Indians on the Orinoco ; according to
Martius, however, that is ‘obtained from the Sire grandiflora,
Xylopia.—X. aromatica (Habzelia xthiopica), DC., is commonly known
as Piper xthiopicum. The dried fruit is used by the African negroes on ac-
count of its stimulant and carminative effects, and also as a condiment.—
Xylopia undulata has nearly similar properties.—Xylopia glabra yields the
Bitter wood of the West Indies, which has tonic properties. The fruits of
X. longifolia are used as a febrifuge throughout the valley of-the Orinoco.
Order 7. MENISPERMACE®, the Moon-seed Order.—C harac-
ter. —Climbing or trailing shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple,
exstipulate, usually entire. Flowers generally dicecious, but
sometimes imperfectly unisexual, rarely perfect or polygamous.
Barren flower :—Calyx and corolla with a ternary arrangement
of their parts, generally in two whorls, imbricate or valvate.
Stamens usually distinct, sometimes monadelphous. Carpe’s
rudimentary or wanting. Fertile flower:—Sepals and petals
usually resembling those of the barren flower. Stamens imper-
fectly developed, or wanting. Carpels usually 3, sometimes 6,
commonly supported on a gynophore, distinct, 1-celled, each
containing onecurved ovule. Fruits drupaceous, curved around
a central placental process, l-celled. Seeds 1 in each cell, and
curved so as to assume the form of that cell; embryo curved ;
albumen present or absent ; when present homogeneous, or par-
tially divided into plates or convolutions by the projection in-
wards of the inner membranous covering of the seed.
Diagnosis.—Trailing or climbing shrubs. Leaves alternate,
simple, exstipulate. Flowers usually dicecious. Sepals, petals,
stamens, and carpels with a ternary arrangement, hypogynous.
Carpels distinct. Fruits 1-celled, curved. Seed solitary,
curved ; embryo curved ; albumen absent, or usually small in
amount, and then either homogeneous or somewhat ruminated.
Miers remarks, ‘that there is probably no family so com-
pletely heteromorphous as the Menispermacez, or which pre-
sents such extreme and aberrant features at variance with its
normal structure.’ Hence there is great difficulty in drawing
up a satisfactory diagnosis of this order.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
chiefly found in the forests of the tropical parts of Asia and
America. None occur in Europe. Illustrative Genera :—Jateo-
rhiza, Miers; Menispermum, Tourn. There are, according to
Lindley, about 300 species included in this order; but some
other botanists much reduce this number.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable
for their narcotic and bitter properties. A few are mucilaginous.
When the narcotic principle is in excess they are very DoSeaens
Some are valuable tonics.
Anamirta paniculata —The fruit of this plant, which is known as Coecu-
lus indicus, is poisonous. It has been extensively employed for a long
’ uv Pa =
period as a poison for taking fish and game, which it stupefies. It is also
438 MENISPERMACEX.— BERBERIDACE,
reputed to be used to a great extent (chiefly by publicans) to impart a
bitter taste to malt liquor, and to increase its intoxicating effects; but it
must be admitted that we have no very satisfactory evidence on this point.
The average annual imports of Cocculus indicus from India are about 50,000
Ibs., a quantity, it is said, sufficient to drug 120,000 tuns of beer. It has
been also employed externally to destroy vermin, and for the cure of some
skin diseases. It owes its active properties to a poisonous neutral principle
contained in the seed, called picrotoxin. The pericarp also contains two
isomeric alkaloids in minute quantity, which have been named menispermine
and paramenispermine, of which but little is known.
Chondrodendron tomentosum.—The root of this plant, which is a native
of Brazil, as shown by Hanbury, is the original Pareira brava, and is the
drug on which its reputation was founded. It is official in the British
Pharmacopeia. (See Cissampelos.) The stem possesses similar but less
powerful properties ; it is, however, frequently mixed with the root. Pareira
root contains an alkaloid which has been named cissampeline or pelosine,
but which Fliickiger has proved to be identical with beberine, the active
principle of Bebeeru bark. (See Nectandra.)
Cissampelos.—C. Pareira was official in the British Pharmacopeeia as the
botanical source of Pareira root. It possesses tonic and diuretic proper-
ties. The true Pareira root of commerce is not, however, derived from
Cissampelos Pareira, but from Chondrodendron tomentosum, as noticed
above in referring to that plant. Other spurious kinds of Pareira brava
are derived from Abutu rufescens, which yields White Pareira brava ; from
Abuta amara, Yellow Pareira brava ; and also from other Menispermaceous
plants.
Coscinium fenestratum.—The wood and bark of the stem possess tonic
and stomachic properties. The stems have been imported into this country
from Ceylon, and sold as true Calumba root ; they contain much berberine.
Jateorhiza—Jateorhiza Calumba is now official in the British Pharma-
copceia as the botanical source of Calumba root, so well known as a valuable
stomachic and tonic. The tonic and stomachic properties of Calumba root
are especially due to a peculiar neutral principle, called calumbin, It also
contains berberine and calumbic acid, to the presence of which its properties
are also, to some extent at least, due.
Menispermum canadense, Yellow Parilla or Moonseed.—The root yields
the eclectic remedy called menispermin, which is reputed to be alterative,
tonic, laxative, diuretic, and stimulant; and to be especially useful in
syphilitic, cutaneous, and rheumatic affections. This root has also been sold
in the United States under the name of Texas Sarsaparilla.
Tinospora cordifolia.—The root and stems are official in the Pharma-
copeeia of India, and are known under the name of Gulancha ; they possess
well-marked tonic, antiperiodic, and diuretic properties.
Order 8. BERBERIDACE, the Barberry Order.—Character.
—Shrubs or herbaceous perennial plants. Leaves alternate (fig.
383), compound, usually exstipulate. The leaves are frequently
apparently simple, but in such cases it will be found that the blade
is articulated to the petiole, which is evidence of their compound
nature. The stem is generally free from hairs and other appen-
dages of a similar character, but it is often spiny (jig. 383).
These spines are nothing more than the hardened veins of some
of the leaves, between which the parenchyma is not developed.
Sepals 3, 4, or 6, deciduous, in two whorls (jig. 876). Petals
equal to the sepals in number and opposite to them, or twice as
many, hypogynous. Stamens hypogynous (fig. 878), equal to
BERBERIDACE”X, 459
the petals in number, and opposite to them (fig. 876) ; anthers
2-celled, each opening by a valve from the bottom to the top
(figs. 540 and 585), except in Podophyllum where they dehisce
longitudinally. Curpels solitary, 1-celled (figs. 877 and 878) ;
style somewhat lateral (fig. 877); stigma orbicular ( Jig. 878) ;
cvwes anatropous, attached to a marginal placenta (figs. 877
and 878). Frwit baccate, or dry and capsular. Seeds (fig. 879)
usually with a minute embryo; albwmen between fleshy and
horny. )
Rie. 877.
Fig. 876. Diagram of the flower
of the Barberry (Be7beris).
Fig. 877. Vertical section of the
lower of Lpimedium. Fig.
878. Vertical section of the
ovary of Berberis. Fig. 879.
Vertical section of the seed of
Berberis, with the embryo in the
axis surrounded by albumen.
Diagnosis.—Leaves alternate, very often spiny. Sepals 3,
4, or 6, deciduous. Petals hypogynous, and opposite to the
sepals when equal to them in number. Stamens definite,
hypogynous, opposite to the petals; anthers 2-celled, each
opening by a recurved valve, except in Podophyllum where they
dehisce longitudinally. Carpel solitary ; placenta marginal ;
ovules anatropous. Seeds with albumen.
Distribution and Numbers. —They are found in the temperate
parts of Europe, America, and Asia, and are very common
in the mountainous parts of the North of India. Illustrative
Genera :—Berberis, Linn. ; Epimedium, Linn. ; Leontice, Linn.
The order includes about 100 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are generally acid,
astringent, and bitter; but some are purgative. Their acid
properties are due to the presence of oxalic acid.
Berberis vulgaris, the common Barberry.—The fruits of this and other
species are acid and astringent, and form a refreshing preserve. Its bark
440 LARDIZABALACEA,
and stem are very astringent, and are occasionally used by dyers in the pre-
paration of a yellow dye. The common Barberry bark is sometimes employed
to adulterate Pomegranate root-bark. It is said to be tonie in small doses,
and cathartie in large ones. It owes its properties more especially to berbe-
rine. The root-bark of B. Lycium, B. asiatica, and B. aristata, forms Indian
Barberry bark. This bark, which is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India,
possesses tonic, anti-periodic, and diaphoretie properties ; and its extract,
under the name of Rusot, is employed in India as a loeal application in
ophthalmia and other affections of the eyes. The properties of Indian
Barberry bark are especially due to the presence of the alkaloid berbe-
rine.
Caulophyllum thalictroides, Blue Cohosh.—The root (rhizome) has a repu-
tation among the eclectic practitioners in the United States in certain
uterine affections. It is regarded asa stimulating tonic and slight narcotic.
The eclectic remedy termed caulophyllin which is obtained from it, is
reputed to be antispasmodie, alterative, tonic, diuretic, and vermifuge.
Jeffersonia diphylla.—The root (rhizome) is popularly known as rheuma-
tism-root in the United States, from its reputed value in rheumatism. It is
commonly said to resemble senega root in its action, and to possess emetic,
tonic, and expectorant properties.
Podophyllum peltatum, May-apple.—The rhizome and rootlets possess
hydragogue cathartic properties, owing especially to the presence of a resin,
which is frequently termed incorrectly podophyllin. The rhizome 1s official
in the British Pharmacopeeia as the source of the official Resin of Podophyl-
lum, which is now largely used as a cholagogue, &c., in this country.
Order9. LARDIZABALACE, the Lardizabala Order.—C harac-
ter.—Shrubs of a twining habit. Leaves alternate, exstipulate,
compound. Flowers unisexual. Barren flower :—Calyx and corolla
with a ternary arrangement of their parts, each in one or two
whorls, deciduous. Stamens 6, opposite the petals, usually
monadelphous, sometimes distinct. Rudimentary carpels 2 or 3.
Fertile flower :—Calyx and corolla as before, but larger, hypogy-
nous. Stamens 6, very imperfect and sterile. Carpels distinct,
generally 3, rarely 6 or 9, 1-celled; ovules usually numerous,
rarely 1, imbedded on the inner surface of the ovary. Fruit
baccate, or sometimes follicular. Seed with usually a minute
embryo in a large quantity of homogeneous albumen. This
order is placed in Berberidacexe by Bentham and Hooker, and by
Baillon ; and by De Candolle in Menispermacee.
Diagnosis.—Twining shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate,
compound. Unisexual flowers. Carpels distinct, superior.
Seeds parietal, imbedded ; embryo usually minute, with abun-
dant homogeneous albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—There are about 15 species be-
longing to this order. According to Lindley, two genera in-
habit the cooler parts of South America ; one is a tropical form,
and the remainder are from the temperate parts of China.
Illustrative Genera :—Stauntonia, DC.; Lardizabala, Ruiz et Pav.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order appear to be
without any active properties. Some have edible fruits. Others
have been introduced into our greenhouses as evergreen
climbers.
CABOMBACEA.—NY MPH HACE.E. 441
Order 10. CaBoMBACE, the Water-shield Order.—C haracter.
—Aquatic plants, with floating peltate leaves. Sepals and petals
3 or 4, alternating with each other. Stamens definite or numer-
ous. Thalamus tlattened, small. Carpels 2 or more, distinct.
Fruit indehiscent. Seeds few; embryo minute, enclosed in a
vitellus, and outside of abundant fleshy albumen.
Diagnosis.—The only orders likely to be confounded with
this, are the Nymphzeaceze and Nelumbiacez. The plants be-
longing to the Cabombacez are distinguished from the Nym-
pheeaceze, by having distinct carpels, marginal placentas, few
seeds, no evident thalamus, and by the presence of fleshy instead
of farinaceous albwmen ; and from the Nelumbiacez, by their
small thalanys, by having more than one seed in each carpel,
by their minute embryo, and their abundant albumen. Both
Cabombaceer and Nelumbiacee are included in Nympheacex by
Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—There are but 3 species belonging
to this order. They occur in America, Australia, and India.
Illustrative Genera :—Cabomba, Aubl.; and Brasenia, Push, are
the only genera.
Properties and Uses.—They have no important properties.
Brasenia (Hydropeltis) purpurea is said to be nutritious.
Order 11. NympHmace&, the Water-lily Order.—Charac-
ter.—Aquatic perennial herbs. Leaves usually floating, peltate
or cordate. lowers solitary, large and showy. Sepals inferior,
Fic. 880. Fie. 881. Fie. 882.
Fig. 880. Flower of Yellow Water-lily (Vuphar
luteum). Fig. 881. Ovary of Vuphar with
numerous radiating stigmas. Fig. 882.
Vertical section of the seed of Vymphca
alba, showing the embryo enclosed in a
vitellus, and on the outside of albumen.
usually 4 (fig. 453, c, ¢, c, ¢), or rarely 5 (fig. 880), persistent,
generally petaloid on their inside. Petals numerous (fig. 453,
P, P; P, P), deciduous, often passing by gradual transition into
the stamens (fig. 453, p, e), in the same way as the sepals pass
into the petals ; inserted on a fleshy disk-like expansion of the
thalamus below the stamens (jig. 522), Stamens numerous,
placed upon the thalamus ; filaments petaloid (fig. 453, e, 1, 2,
3, 4,5); anthers adnate. Thalamus large, forming a disk-like
expansion more or less surrounding the ovary, and having
442 NELUMBIACE.
inserted upon it the petals and stamens (fig. 522). Carpels
numerous, united so as to form a compound ovary (fig. 869) ;
ovary many-celled (fig. 790) ; styles absent ; stigmas radiating on
the top (figs. 522 and 881), and alternate with the dissepiments.
Fruitindehiscent, many-celled. Seedsnumerous, attached all over
the spongy dissepiments; embryo minute, enclosed ina separate sac
or vitellus, and on the outside of farinaceous albumen ( fig. 882).
Diagnosis.—Aquatic perennial herbs with cordate or peltate
usually floating leaves. Thalamus large, and forming a disk-
like expansion more or less surrounding the ovary, and having
inserted upon it the petals and stamens. Sepals inferior, per-
sistent ; petals numerous; stamens numerous, with petaloid
tilaments and adnate anthers ; carpels united so as to form a
compound many-celled ovary ; stigmas radiating on the top, and
alternate with the dissepiments ; ovules numerous, and attached
all over the dissepiments. Embryo minute, on the outside of
farinaceous albumen, enclosed in a vitellus.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
chiefly found in quiet waters, throughout the whole of the
northern hemisphere ; they are, generally speaking, rare in
the southern hemisphere. Illustrative Genera :—Victoria, Lindl. ;
Nymphea, Linn. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants have bitter and astringent
properties. They have been also considered as sedative and
narcotic ; but there does not appear to be any foundation for
such an opinion. Many contain a large quantity of starch both
in their rhizomes and seeds ; hence, such parts are used for food
in some countries.
Victoria Regia.—This plant is a native of Equatorial America, and has
been introduced into this country, where it has excited much interest, both on
account of the beauty and size of its flowers, and its enormous and singularly
constructed leaves. The flowers when fully expanded are more than a foot
in diameter; and the leaves, which are turned up at their margins, vary _
from four to eight feet in diameter. The plant is commonly known in this
country as the Victoria Water-lily, and in South America under the name
of Water-maize, as the seeds are there used for food, for which purpose they
are commonly roasted with Maize or Indian Corn, The rhizomes also con-
tain a large quantity of starch.
Order 12. NELUMBIACE, the Water-bean Order.—C harac-
ter.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves peltate, rising above the water.
Flowers large and showy. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals numerous, in
several whorls. Stamens numerous, in several whorls; jila-
ments petaloid. Thalamus very large (fig. 654, thal), flattened
at the top, and excavated so as to present a number of cavities,
each of which contains a single carpel (fig. 654, carp). Fruit
consisting of the ripened nut-like carpels, which are half-buried
in the cavities of the thalamus. Seed solitary, or rarely 2; with-
out albumen; embryo large, enclosed in a membrane, with two
fleshy cotyledons, and a much-developed plumule. This order,
SARRACENIACEA. 445
as we have already stated, is included in Nymphxacex by Bentham
and Hooker.
Diagnosis.—Aquatic herbs with peltate leaves. Thalamus
very large, flattened at the top, and excavated so as to present
a number of cavities. Carpels distinct, and partially imbedded
in the large honeycombed thalamus. Fruit of numerous, usually
1-seeded, nut-like bodies. Albumen none; plumule very large.
Distribution and Numbers.—These beautiful water plants
are natives of stagnant or quiet waters of temperate and tropical
regions in the northern hemisphere ; they are most abundant in
the East Indies. Illustrative Genus :—There is but 1 genus,
Nelumbium ; which includes 3 species.
Properties gnd Uses.—The nut-like fruits of all the species
are edible, as well as their rhizomes, which contain starch like
those of Nymphezaceous plants.
Nelumbium speciosum.—The fruit of this plant is commonly considered to
have been the Egyptian Bean of Pythagoras; and the flower the sacred
Lotus so often represented on the monuments of E gypt and India. The
plant, however, is no longer found in Egypt, but it is common in India.
The leaves and peduncles contain a large number of spiral vessels ;
these, when extracted, are used for wicks, ‘which on great and solemn
occasions are burnt in the lamps of the Hindoos placed before the shrines of
their gods.’
Cohort 2. Parietales.—Gyncecium syncarpous ; placentation
parietal, or very rarely axile.
Order 1. SARRACENTACEX, the Side-saddle-flower Order. —
Character.—FPerennial herbs, growing in boggy places, with
radical hollow leaves, which are pitcher- or trumpet-shaped ( figs.
391 and 392). Sepals 4—6, usually 5, persistent, imbricate.
Petals 5, hypogynous, sometimes absent. Stamens numerous,
hypogynous ; anthers adnate, 2-celled. Carpels 3—5, united so
as to form a compound 3—5-celled ovary ; ovwles numerous ;
placentas axile ; style simple and truncate, or expanded at its
top into a large shield-like angular process with one stigma
beneath each of its angles. Capsule 3—5-celled, dehiscing
loculicidally. Seeds numerous, attached to large axile pla-
centas ; albwmen abundant.
Diagnosis.—Perennial boggy plants, with pitcher or trumpet-
shaped leaves. Calyx permanent, imbricate. Carpels united
so as to form a compound ovary, and a 3—5-celled dehiscing
fruit, with large axile placentas ; albumen abundant.
Distribution and Numbers.—There are 8 species, of which 6
are confined to the bogs of North America, 1 occurs in Guiana,
the other species is found in California. Tllustrative Genera:
—Sarracenia, Heliamphora.
Properties and Uses.—The pitchers are lined by glandular
hairy appendages ; these secrete a peculiar digestive fluid which
dissolves any insects that find their way into them. The solu-
444 PAPAVERACEA.
tion thus formed is ultimately absorbed, and appears to be
necessary for the healthy condition of these plants.
Sarracenia.—The rhizome, rootlets, and leaves of Sarracenia purpurea
were formerly vaunted as a specific in small-pox, but from extensive tria's
in the hospitals of this and other countries, they have been found to be
entirely useless.—S. variolaris and S. flava are reputed to be diuretic and
mildly purgative, and useful in dyspepsia, headache, &c. The properties,
however, of all the species seem to be unimportant.
Order 2. PAPAVERACEX, the Poppy Order.—C haracter. —
Herbs or shrubs, usually with a milky juice (white or coloured).
Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Sepals usually 2 (fig. 883) or
rarely 3, caducous (fig. 471). Petals 4 (figs. 883 and 884), or
rarely 6, or some multiple of 4, or very rarely wanting ; usually
crumpled in estivation (fig. 883), hypogynous. Stamens gene-
rally numerous (jigs. 883 and 884), hypogynous (jigs. 32 and
Fie. 884. Fie. 885.
Fig. 883. Diagram of the flower of the Poppy, with two sepals, four
crumpled petals, numerous stamens, and a compound one-celled
ovary with several parietal placentas projecting into lts interior
so as to nearly divide it into several cells. Fig. 884. Flower of
Celandine (Chelidonium majus). sti. Two stigmas on the apex ofa
lengthened or pod-like ovary.—Fig. 885. Siliqueform or pod-
shaped capsule (cevatium) of Celandine.
884) ; anthers 2-celled, innate (fig. 32). Ovary 1-celled, with
2 or more (figs. 623 and 883) parietal placentas, which project
more or less from the walls into its cavity, and in Romneya
actually adhere in the axis ; styles absent (fig. 32) or very short ;
stigmas 2 (fig. 884, sti), or many (fig. 32, sti), alternate with
the placentas, and opposite the imperfect dissepiments ; when
numerous, they form a star-like process on the top of the ovary
(fig. 32); ovules numerous (fig. 623). Fruit 1-celled, and either
pod-shaped with 2 parietal placentas (jig. 885), or capsular
with several placentas ; dehiscing by valves (jig. 885) or pores,
or sometimes indehiscent. Seeds usually numerous ; embryo in
fleshy-oily albumen (fig. 775).
Diagnosis. —Usually herbs with a milky juice. Leaves alter-
nate and exstipulate. Peduncles 1-flowered ; flowers regular
and symmetrical. Calyx and corolla with a binary or ternary
PAPAVERACE. 445
arrangement of their parts, deciduous, hypogynous. Stamens
numerous, hypogynous ; anthers 2-celled, innate. Ovary com-
pound, 1-celled, with parietal placentas, stigmas alternate to the
placentas. Fruit 1- celled, except in Romneya. Seeds numerous,
albuminous.
Instribution and Nwmbers.—Nearly two-thirds of the plants
of this order are natives of Europe, and are mostly annuals.
They are almost unknown in tropigal regions, and are but
sparingly distributed out of Europe in a wild condition. Tllus-
trative Genera:—Papaver, Linn. ; Chelidonium, Linn. The
order includes above 130 species.
Properties and- Uses.—The plants of this order are in almost
all cases characterised by weli-marked narcotic properties.
Some are acrid, while others are purgative. In a medicinal
point of view, this order must be regarded as the most impor-
tant in the Vegetable Kingdom, from its yielding Opium, un-
doubtedly the most valuable drug of the Materia Medica.
Argemone mexicana, Mexican or Gamboge Thistle-—The seeds have
narcotico-acrid properties. An oil may be obtained from them by expres-
sion, which possesses aperient and other properties, and has been recom-
mended as a remedy in cholera. In the West Indies, the seeds are also
used asa substitute for Ipecacuanha. In the East Indies, the oil is likewise
employed as an external application in certain skin diseases.
Chelidonium majus, Celandine.—The Celandine isa native of this country,
growing especially in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. It has an
orange-coloured juice of a poisonous nature, which is a popular external
application for the cure of warts, and has been used successfully in opa-
cities of the cornea. It has been alsoadministered internally, and is reputed
aperient, diuretic, and stimulant.
Papaver.—P. somniferum, Opium Poppy.—Opium is the juice obtained
by incisions from the unripe capsules of this plant, inspissated by sponta-
neous evaporation. It has been known from early times, having been
alluded to by Hippocrates, Diagoras, and Dioscorides. Various kinds of
opium have been described under the names of Turkey, Smyrna, or Asia
Minor, Egyptian, Persian, European, Indian, Chinese, and others. Opium
which is produced in Asia Minor is that most commonly used in this country,
and is alone official for all the preparations of the British Pharmacopeia,
except the alkaloids which may be obtained from other kinds of opium. Its
consumption is largely on the increase ; thus, in 1839, the quantity im-
ported into Great Britain was 41,000 pounds, and in 1852, 114,000 pounds,
and it is very much greater at the present time. Thus the average annual
exports of opium from Smyrna alone are now probably more than 300,000
pounds. But India is the great opium producing country, for here ‘the
quantity of opium produced annually is nearly 12,000, 000 pounds, Of
this enormous quantity at least 8,000,000 pounds are exported to and
consumed in China, representing a market value of about as many pounds
sterling. Opium is also now largely produced in China. Opium possesses
in a marked degree the narcotic “properties of the plants of the order from
which it is obtained. In large doses it is a narcotic poison. It is also
regarded as soporific, anodyne, ‘and antispasmodic. Its narcotic properties
are chiefly due to a peculiar alkaloid called morphine, which is combined
with meconic acid. Its properties are also due, to some extent at least, to
other peculiar principles which it contains, as ‘codeine, narcotine, narceine,
thebaine, meconine, and a number of others, the properties of which are
446 FUMARIACE.
but little known. The alkaloids codeine and morphine in the form of some of
its salts, and meconice acid, are official in the British Pharmacopeeia, While the
juice obtained from the unripe pericarp has been proved to possess such active
properties, the seeds are bland and wholesome. They yield by expression
an oil which is much used on the Continent and in this country, as a sub-
stitute for olive oil and for other purposes. It is one of the oils employed for’
the purpose of adulterating olive oil. The cake left after the oil has been
extracted may be used for fattening cattle. The dark-coloured seeds are
known as Maw seeds, and are largely eaten by birds. They are also used as
a medicine for them.—Papaver Rheas, the common Red or Corn Poppy, has
scarlet or red petals, as its name implies. A syrup prepared from the
fresh petals (which are official in the British Pharmacopeeia) is used as a
colouring ingredient by the medical practitioner. The fresh petals are also
supposed to possess slight narcotic properties.
Sanquinaria canadensis, Puccoon—The rhizome and rootlets of this
plant, which is a native of North America, contain a red juice, from which
circumstance it is commonly termed Blood-root. This so-called root is used
internally in large doses as an emetic and purgative, and in smaller: doses
as a stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant. It is also said by Eberle to
exercise a sedative influence on the heart, as certain as that of Digitalis.
When applied externally, it has been stated to have well-marked escharotic
properties, and has been used, combined with chloride of zine, as an external
application for the destruction of cancerous growths ; but from trials in this
country it has been proved valueless for such a purpose.
Many genera belonging to this order are commonly cultivated in our
gardens, as Papaver, Argemone, Remeria, Platystemon, E:schscholtzia, &c.
Order 3. Fumartace&, the Fumitory Order.—Character.
—Smooth herbs with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, much
divided, exstipulate. Sepals 2 (fig. 886), deciduous. Petals 4,
Fie. 886. Fic. 887. Fic. 888.
Savy @n sake ® @a
SSS G
Fig. 886. Diagram of the flower of Corydalis, with two sepals, four petals
in two whorls, six stamens in two bundles, anda one-celled ovary with two
parietal placentas. Fig. 887. Vertical section of the flower of Hypecoum.
Fig. 888. Upper or posterior petal of Corydalis, spurred at the base,
and a bundle of three stamens. Fig. 889. Vertical section of the seed
of Fumaria.
cruciate, very irregular, in two whorls (fig. 886) ; one or both of
the outer petals being gibbous or spurred (figs. 886 and 888), and
the two inner frequently united at the apex. Stamens hypo-
gynous, usually 6, diadelphous, the two bundles being opposite the
CRUCIFER A. 447
outer petals, and containing an equal number of stamens (jig.
886), the middle stamen of each bundle having a 2-celled anther
(jig. 886), the two outer with 1-celled anthers. (fig. 886) ; in rare
cases there are four stamens, which are then distinct and oppo-
site the petals. Ovary superior (fig. 887), 1-celled, with parietal
placentas (figs. 886 and 887) ; style short, or long ‘and filiform ;
stigma obtuse or lobed ; ovules amphitropous. “Fruit indehis-
cent and 1- or 2-seeded, or two-valved and dehiscent, or a
succulent indehiscent pod-like fruit ; in the two latter cases
containing a number of seeds. Seeds shining, crested ; embryo
abaxial, minute (fig. 889); albumen fleshy. This order is in-
cluded in Papaveracexr by Bentham and Hooker.
Diaqnosis.—Smooth herbs, with a watery juice, and alternate
exstipulate much-divided leaves. Flowers very irregular and
unsymmetrical, and either purple, white, or yellow. Sepals 2
deciduous. Stamens hypogynous, usually 6, diadelphous, or 4,
distinct ; always opposite to the petals. Ovary superior with
parietal placentas ; ovules amphitropous. Embryo minute, ab-
axial, in fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order prin-
cipally occur in thickets and waste places in the temperate
latitudes of the northern hemisphere. TIilustrative Genera :—
Dicentra, Borkh.; Fumaria, Tourn. There are about 110
species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants possess slightly bitter,
acrid, astringent, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and aperient pro-
perties. The rhizomes or tubers of Dicentra (Corydalis) formosa
are the source of corydalin, which is used by the eclectic prac-
titioners in the United States of America in syphilis, scrofula,
&c.; but the properties of this and other plants of the order
appear to be unimportant. Some species are cultivated in our
gardens and greenhouses. The most important of these is
Dicentra (Dielytra) spectabilis, which has very showy flowers,
but, like all other plants of the order, it is scentless.
Order 4. CruciFER®, the Cruciferous Order.—Character.
—Herbs, or very rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate,
exstipulate. lowers usually yellow or white, rarely purple, or
some mixture of these colours ; inflorescence racemose (fig. 891)
or corymbose ; usually ebracteated. Sepals 4 (fig. 890), deci-
duous ; xstivation imbricate or rarely valvate. Petals 4 ( figs.
25, p, and 890), hypogynous, arranged in the form of a
Maltese cross, alternate with the sepals, deciduous. Stamens 6,
tetradynamous (fig. 892, ec), iy Deg ynoMs Thalamus furnished
with small green glands (fig. 892, gl) placed between the sta-
mens. Ovary superior (fig. 892), “with two parietal placentas
( fig. 615 and 893), 1-celled, or more usually 2-celled (fig. 890)
from the formation of a spurious dissepiment called the replum
(fig. 615, cl) ; ovules generally numerous, arranged alternately
on twe parietal placentas so as to form a single row, amphitro-
448 CRUCIFER.
pous or campylotropous ; style none (fig. 892), or very short ;
stigmas 2 (fig. 893), opposite the placentas. Fruit a siliqua (figs.
682 and 893), or silicula (figs. 714, 894, and 895), 1- or 2-celled,
1- or many-seeded. Seeds stalked, generally pendulous (jigs.
893 and 894) ; embryo with the radicle variously folded upon the
cotyledons (figs. 776, 777, 778, 896, and 897) ; albwmen none.
Diagnosis.-—Generally ebracteated herbs. Inflorescence in-
definite ; racemose or corymbose. Sepals and petals 4, deciduous,
regular, the latter cruciate. Stamens tetradynamous. Ovary
with two parietal placentas ; stigmas 2. Fruita siliqua or silicula.
Seeds stalked, without albumen, and with the radicle variously
folded upon the cotyledons. No other order is likely to be con-
founded with this of ordinary care be taken, as tetradynamous sta-
mens only occur here, eacept in a very few plants belonging to the
order Capparidacee.
Fic. 890. Fic. 891.
Fig. 890. Diagram of a Cruciferous flower.—Fig. 891. Portion of the
flowering branch of the Wallflower.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This large and
truly natural order has been divided into sub-orders according
to the nature of the fruit, and also as to the mode in which the
embryo is folded. ‘The latter is the most natural arrangement.
The sub-orders founded on the nature of the fruit are as
follows :—
Sub-order 1. Siliquose.—Fruit a siliqua (fig. 682), opening by
valves longitudinally. Illustrative Genera :—Cheiranthus,
Linn. ; Brassica, Linn.
Sub-order 2. Siliculose latisepte —Fruit a silicula opening by
valves ; the replum in its broader diameter (fig. 895). Illus-
trative Genus :—Cochlearia, Linn.
Sub-order 3. Siliculose angustisepte.—Fruit a silicula opening
CRUCIFERA. 449
by valves ; the replum in its narrower diameter (fig. 894).
Illustrative Genera :—Capsella, Moench ; Iberis, Linn.
Sub-order 4. Nuewmentacex.—Fruit an indehiscent silicula ;
often 1-celled, owing to the absence of the replum. [Ilustra-
tive Genus :—Isatis, Linn.
Fie. 892. Fie. 893. Fie. 894.
Fic. 895. Fic. 896. Fic. 897.
Fig. 892. Essential organs of the Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri). 7. Tha-
lamus. gl. Glands. ec. Tetradynamous stamens. sft. Stigmas. Fig. 893.
An unripe siliqua of the Wallflower, with one of the valves removed to
show the replum, and the stalked pendulous seeds. Fig. 894. The sili-
cula of Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris) inthe act of dehiscing,
showing the stalked pendulous seeds. Fig. 895. Silicula of the Scurvy-
grass (Cochlearia officinalis) in the act of dehiscing.— /ig. 896. The em-
bryo of Bunias orientalis. Fig. 897. The embryo of the Cabbage plant
(Brassica oleracea). 1. Undivided. 2. Horizontal section. 7. Radicle.
c. Cotyledons.
Sub-order 5. Septulatex.—The valves of the fruit opening lon-
gitudinally and bearing transverse septa in their interior.
There are no examples among British plants.
Sub-order 6. Zomentacex.—Fruit a siliqua or silicula, dividing
transversely into 1-seeded portions, the true siliqua sometimes
barren ; the beak placed above it containing one or two seeds.
Illustrative Genera :—Cakile, Gaert.; Raphanus, Lini.
GG
450 CRUCIFER.
The arrangement of Bentham and Hooker is essentially the
same as’ the above.
The sub-orders founded on the mode in which the embryo is
folded are as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Plewrorhizexr (O = ) (fig. 778). —Cotyledons
accumbent, flat ; radicle lateral. Illustrative Genera :—Cheir-
anthus, Linn. ; Arabis, Linn.
Sub-order 2. Notorhizex ( © || ) (fig. 777).—Cotyledons in-
cumbent, flat ; radicle dorsal. Illustrative Genera :—Hesperis,
Linn. ; Isatis, Linn.
Sub-order 3. Orthoploceer (OC > ) (fig. 897).—Cotyledons con-
duplicate, longitudinally folded in the middle ; radicle dorsal,
within the fold. Illustrative Genera :—Brassica, Linn. ; Raph-
anus, Linn.
Sub-order 4. Spirolobex (© || || ) (figs. 776 and 896).—Cotyle-
dons twice folded, linear, incumbent. Illustrative Genus :—
Bunias, Linn. There are no examples among British plants.
Sub-order 5. Diplecolobex ( © || || || ).—Cotyledons thrice
folded, linear, incumbent. Tllustrative Genera :—Senebiera,
DC. ; Subularia, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order chiefly
inhabit temperate climates. A large number are also found in
the frigid zone, and a few in tropical regions, chiefly on moun-
tains. The order includes about 1,600 species.
Properties and Uses.—This order is generally characterised
by antiscorbutic and pungent properties, frequently combined
with acridity ; it is one of the most natural in the Vegetable
Kingdom, and does not contain a single poisonous plant. The
seeds frequently contain a fixed oil. Many of our commonest
culinary vegetables are derived from this order.
Anastatica hierochuntina, Rose of Jericho.—This plant, which is found
wild in the deserts of Egypt and Syria, is remarkable for its hygrometric
properties. Thus, when it is full grown, and its branches have become dry
and withered, it contracts and coils up, so as to assume the form of a ball,
and in this state it is blown about by the winds from place to place; but
if it be then exposed to moisture, it uncoils, and the branches expand again
as if restored to life. ‘Some superstitious tales are told of it, among which,
it is said to have first bloomed on Christmas Eve to salute the birth of the
Redeemer, and paid homage to His resurrection by remaining expanded till
Easter.’ In Palestine it is termed ‘ Kat Maryan,’ Mary’s Flower.
Brassica.—This genus contains several species which are commonly
cultivated as food for man and cattle.-—Brassica Rapa is the common
Turnip ; and the Swedish Turnip is probably a hybrid between Brassica
campestris and B. Rapa or B, Napus, but according to some it is derived from
B. campestris —B. Napus yields Rape, Cole, or Colza seeds, from which may
be expressed a large quantity of bland fixed oil, which is much employed
for burning and other purposes. The cake left after the expression of the
oil is also used as food for cattle, &c., under the name of Oil-cake. The
seeds of B. chinensis yield Shanghai Oil.—B. oleracea, the Wild Cabbage,
CRUCIFER. 451
is supposed to be the original species from which have been derived, by cul-
tivation, all the varieties of Cabbages, Kohl-Rabi, Greens, Broccoli, and
Cauliflowers. The Kohl-Rabi is produced by the stem enlarging above the
ground into a fleshy knob, resembling a turnip. Broccoli and Cauliflowers
are deformed inflorescences.—B. nigra and B. alba were formerly placed
under the genus Sinapis, L.; but this genus is now commonly included
in Brassica. The seeds of these two species are in common use in medicine
and for culinary purposes, and the seedlings are also emploved as salads ; those
of the former are dark-coloured, and are known as Black Mustard seeds; those
of the latter have a yellowish colour, and are termed White Mustard seeds—
both kinds are official. Flour of mustard, so extensively used as a condi-
ment, is prepared from a mixture of commonly two parts of powdered Black
and three of White Mustard seeds: the proportions, however, used by diffe-
rent manufacturers vary. Both the Black and White Mustard seeds contain
a large quantity of fixed oil, which is readily obtained by submitting them
to pressure ; this expressed oil is called fixed oil of mustard. It is remark-
able that we do not find ready formed in either Black or White Mustard
seeds the pungent acrid principle or principles for which mustard is especially
distinguished. But when Black Mustard seeds are distilled with water, they
yield a very acrid and pungent volatile oil, on which their virtues essen-
tially depend. The elements of this oil exist in the seed, in the forms of
myronate of potash or sinigrin and myrosin. These substances, when mixed
through the medium of water, cause the formation of the volatile oil of
mustard, which is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. But the active pro-
perties of White Mustard seeds are not due to the presence of a volatile oil,
as no such oil can be obtained from them by distillation with water, or other-
wise ; but they are owing to a fixed acrid oily principle, which is developed
under the influence of water, by the action of myrosin, one of its constitu-
ents, on a crystalline principle which it also contains, called sinalbin or
sulpho-sinapisin. Flour of mustard is given internally as a stimulant,
diuretic, and emetic ; and externally applied, it is irritant, rubefacient, &c.
The volatile oil is a powerful vesicant. White Mustard seeds are also taken
in an entire state as a stimulant in dyspepsia. The seeds of Sinapis juncea,
a native of India, possess similar properties to those of Black and White
Mustard seeds ; they are official in the Pharmacopeeia of India, under the
name of Sinapis indica.
Camelina sativa, Gold of Pleasure.-—The seeds are stated to be valuable
as food for cattle. They contain a large quantity of oil.
Cardamine pratensis, Cuckoo-flower.—The flowers were formerly much
used for their stimulant and diaphoretic properties, and have long been a
popular remedy for epilepsy in children.
Cochlearia.—C. Armoracia (Armoracia rusticana).—The root is the
common Horseradish, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of
poisoning have occurred from the substitution of Aconite or Monkshood
root for that of Horseradish, which it is supposed to resemble. Fresh Horse-
radish root is official in the British Pharmacopeia; it is used in medica
practice—erternally, as an irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, and internally
as a stimulant, diuretic, and masticatory. Its virtues depend upon the for-
mation of a small quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from
the supposed presence of the same principles as those contained in Black
Mustard seeds. (See Brassica.)—C. officinalis, Scurvy-grass, was leng
esteemed for its anti-scorbutic properties.
Crambe maritima, Sea-kale-——The stem and leaf-stalks of this plant, by
cultivation under diminished light, form a much esteemed vegetable. In
the wild state the plant possesses a good deal of acridity, but this is almost
entirely removed by cultivation as above.
Tsatis tinctoria, Woad—This plant yields a dark-blue dye, which was
formerly much used in this country and other parts of Europe, but it is
GiGi
452 . CAPPARIDACEA.
now rarely or ever employed, having been superseded by Indigo. In China
also, a blue dye is obtained from the fruits of Jsatis indigotica.
Lepidium sativum, Garden Cress.—This is well known as a pungent
salad ; it is commonly used for that purpose mixed with the seedlings of
the Mustard plants.
Nasturtium officinale—This plant is the common Watercress, so well
known as an excellent and wholesome salad. It has been highly spoken
of as a remedial agent in the treatment of cachectic diseases. According
to Mulder, it contains iodine.
Raphanus sativus.—This is the common Radish, so much employed as a
salad, &c. The siliques of Raphanus caudatus, when about half-grown, are
good as a boiled vegetable ; and in a still younger state they form an agree-
able salad, having a mild radish-like flavour.
Sinapis. —This genus is now commonly included in that of Brassica
(which see). .
Many plants of the order are favourite objects of culture in our gardens,
such as the Stock (Matthiola), Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri), Candy-
tuft (Lberis umbellata), Honesty (Lunaria bennis), &e.
Order 5. CAPPARIDACE®, the Caper Order.—Character.—
Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, or
rarely with spiny stipulate appendages. Sepals 4 (fig. 656, cal),
sometimes cohering more or less ; xstivation imbricate or valvate,
equal or unequal. Petals usually 4 (fig. 656, cor), cruciate,
imbricate, generally unequal and unguiculate, rarely 8, or some-
times none. Stamens numerous or definite, if 6, very rarely
tetradynamous, placed usually upon a prolonged thalamus or
stalk by which they are raised above the calyx and corolla (fig.
696, st). Ovary (fig. 656, ov) placed on a gynophore or sessile,
1-celled ; placentas 2 or more, parietal ; style filiform or wanting ;
ovules amphitropous or campylotropous. Frwit 1-celled, usually
many-seeded, very rarely 1-seeded, either pod-shaped and de-
hiscent, or baccate and indehiscent. Seeds generally reniform,
without albumen ; embryo curved ; cotyledons leafy.
Diagnosis.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with alternate leaves.
Sepals and petals 4 each, the latter cruciate, and generally un-
equal. Stamens usually numerous, very rarely tetradynamous,
commonly inserted on a stalk, which raises them above the calyx
and corolla. Ovary 1-celled, placentas parietal. Fruit dehis-
cent or indehiscent, 1-celled. Seeds generally reniform ; embryo
curved ; no albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order has
been divided, according to the nature of the fruit, as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Cleomex.—Fruit capsular and dehiscent. ilus-
tratiwe Genera :—Gynandropsis, DC. ; Cleome, DC.
Sub-order 2. Capparex.—Fruit baccate and indehiscent. Illus-
trative Genera :—Cadaba, Forsk. ; Capparis, Linn.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—The plants of the order are
found in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the globe. In
Africa they are especially abundant. The common Caper (Cap-
CAPPARIDACEA.—RESEDACE. 453
paris spinosa), which inhabits rocky places in the south of Europe,
is the only European species, and also that one which is found
farthest north. ‘The order contains about 360 species.
Properties and Uses.—In their properties these plants re-
semble in many respects the Cruciferze, being generally pun-
gent, stimulant, and antiscorbutic. Others are aperient, diuretic,
and anthelmintic. In some plants the pungent principle is
highly concentrated, or probably is in itself deleterious, so that
those in which it is found are very poisonous.
Cadaba indica.—The root is reputed to be aperient and anthelmintic.
Capparis.—The flower-buds of various species of this genus are used to
form the well-known pickle called Capers. Thus, Capparis spinosa is that
employed in the south of Europe, C. Fontanesii in Barbary, and C. egyptiaca
in Egypt. C. egyptiaca is stated to be the Hyssop of Scripture. Capers
are stimulant, antiscorbutic, and aperient. The fruit of C. coriacea has been
lately recommended as a valuable remedy in epilepsy, and generally for
nervous and hysterical affections —C. Sadada has a small fruit which pos-
sesses an acrid peppery taste, and is an important article of food in some
parts of Africa. The fruit of one species, said to be allied to C, pulcherrima,
and which is found in the neighbourhood of Carthagena, is extremely
poisonous.
Cleome.-—Some species are very pungent, and are used as condiments
like our mustard.
Cratzeva religiosa is commonly employed amongst the natives in India
as a stomachic and tonic. The root of C. gynandra, the Garlic Pear, is said
to be vesicant,
Gynandropsis pentaphylla, a native of India, is reputed to be antispas-
modic. The bruised leaves are rubefacient, and even vesicant; and its
seeds are used as a substitute for mustard, and, like mustard seeds, contain
a fixed oil.
Polanisia—sSome species of this genus are also employed like mustard,
The root of P. icosandra is used internally as a vermifuge, and externally as
a rubefacient, &c.
Order 6. REsEDACE#, the Mignonette Order.—Character.
—Herbs, or rarely small shrubs, Leaves alternate, entire or
divided, exstipulate, or with minute glandular stipules. Calyx
with from 4—7 divisions. Petals 2—7, entire or with a deeply
lobed or fringed limb (jig. 499), unequal. Disk fleshy, large,
hypogynous, one-sided. Stamens definite, inserted on the disk.
Ovary sessile, 1-celled (fig. 621); ovules amphitropous or cam-
pylotropous ; placentas (fig. 621, pl) parietal ; stigmas 3, sessile.
Fruit usually opening at the apex long before the seeds are
ripe (fig. 621), 1-celled. Seeds usually numerous, reniform ;
embryo curved, without albumen.
Diagnosis. —Usually herbs, with alternate leaves and unsym-
metrical flowers. Disk large, hypogynous, one-sided. Stamens
definite, not tetradynamous. Ovary sessile, 1-celled, with pari-
etal placentation ; stigmas 3, sessile. Fruit usually opening
at the apex before the seeds are ripe. Seeds generally numer-
ous, reniform, exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of
Kurope and the adjoining parts of Africa and Asia. A few
404 CISTACEA.
occur in the north of India, Cape of Good Hope, and California.
Illustrative Genera :—Reseda, Linn. ; Astrocarpus, Neck. There
are about 45 species in this order.
Properties and Uses.—But little is known of their properties.
The plants are generally somewhat acrid, and were formerly
supposed to be sedative.
Reseda.—Reseda odorata is the Mignonette plant, which is so much
esteemed for the fragrance of its flowers.—Reseda luteola, a common plant
in this country, and known under the name of Weld, yields a yellow dye.
Order 7. CistacEm®, the Rock-rose Order.—Character. —
Shrubs or herbs, often viscid. Leaves opposite or alternate, entire,
stipulate or exstipulate. Flowers showy. Sepals usually 5 (fig.
898), sometimes 3, persistent, unequal ; estiwation of the three
inner twisted. Petals usually 5 (fig. 898), very rarely 3, cadu-
cous, hypogynous, frequently corrugated in the bud, and twisted
in a reverse way to that of the sepals. Stamens (fig. 898) dis-
tinct, hypogynous, definite or indefinite. Ovary 1- (fig. 898) or
Fie. 898.
Fig. 898. Diagram of the flower of a species of Helianthemum.——Fig. 899.
Section of the seed of a species of Cistus, the pointed end being its apex.
many-celled from parietal septa ; ovules orthotropous; style single;
stigma simple. fruit capsular, usually 1-celled, with 3—5, or
rarely 10 valves ; or imperfectly 3—5—10-celled ; placentas pa-
rietal (fig. 898). Seeds definite or numerous, albuminous (jig.
899) ; embryo (fig. 899) curved or spiral, with the radicle remote
from the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Leaves entire. Sepals and petals with a ternary
or quinary arrangement, twisted in estivation ; the former per-
sistent, the latter caducous. Stamens hypogynous, distinct.
Ovary with parietal placentas and orthotropous ovules ; style
single; stigma simple. Fruit capsular. Seeds with mealy
albumen ; embryo inverted, curved or spiral.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are most abundant
in the south of Europe and the north of Africa. Some few
are found in other parts of the globe. Illustrative Genera :—
Cistus, Tourn. ; Helanthemum, Youwrn. There are about 200
species.
VIOLACEA. 456
Properties and Uses.—These plants have generally resinous
and balsamic properties. Some are regarded as stimulant, ex-
pectorant, and emmenagogue.
Cistus creticus—The fragrant resinous substance called Ladanum or
Labdanum is obtained from this plant in the Levant, and also from C.
ladaniferus, C. laurifolius, and C. salvifolius. Ladanum was formerly used
as a stimulant and expectorant ; and is still employed by the Turks asa
perfume, and for fumigation.
Order 8. VioLacex, the Violet Order. —Character.—
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, stipulate (jig. 379), with an in-
volute vernation, alternate or sometimes opposite. Sepals 5 (fig.
797), persistent, imbricate, usually prolonged at the base. Petals
5 (fig. 797), hypogynous, equal or unequal, one usually spurred.
Stamens equal in number to the petals (jig. 797), and usually
alternate with them, or rarely opposite, inserted on a hypo-
gynous disk, often unequal ; anthers 2-celled, sometimes united
Fie. 900.
Fic. 901.
Fig. 900. Essential organs of the Pansy ( Viola tricolor). st. Obliquely hooded
stigma. a. United anthers, two having long spurred appendages at the
base.——Fiig. 901. Vertical section of the seed.
(fig. 900), introrse ; filaments short and broad (fig. 900), and
elongated, so as to project beyond the anthers (fig. 527) ; when
the flowers are irregular, two of the anthers are spurred at the
base (figs. 527 and 900). Ovary 1-celled (jig. 33), with 3 pari-
etal placentas (fig. 797) ; style single, usually declinate (jig. 33) ;
stigma capitate, oblique, hooded (jig. 900, st); ovwes usually
numerous (fig. 33, 0,0). Fruit capsular, 3-valved, dehiscence
loculicidal ; placentas parietal, on the middle of the valves (jig.
681). Seeds usually numerous (fig. 681), sometimes definite ;
embryo straight, erect, in the axis of fleshy albumen (jig. 901).
Diagnosis.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, stipulate, and
with involute vernation. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5 each,
hypogynous. Stamens all perfect; anthers introrse with the
filaments prolonged beyond them, and sometimes having spur-
like appendages below. Ovary 1-celled, with 3 parietal pla-
centas.; style and stigma single. Fruit 1-celled, dehiscing by
456 VIOLACEZ.—SAUVAGESIACEX.
3 valves, each valve bearing a placenta in its middle. Seeds
having a straight erect embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order has
been divided as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Violex.—Having irregular flowers and appendaged
anthers. Illustrative Genera :—Viola, Linn. ; Ionidium, Vent.
Sub-order 2. Alsodex.—With regular flowers, and anthers not
furnished with spurred appendages. Illustrative Genera :—
Alsodeia, Thouars; Pentaloba, Lour.
Distribution and Numbers.—The herbaceous plants of the
sub-order Violeze are chiefly natives of Europe, Siberia, and
North America; the shrubby mostly of South America. The
Alsode are exclusively natives of South America, Africa, and
Malacca. There are about 300 species belonging to the order.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for emetic and purgative properties. A few also are
mucilaginous, and others have been reputed to be anodyne.
The emetic property is due to a peculiar alkaloid named violine,
which greatly resembles, if it be not identical with, emetine, the
active principle of the true Ipecacuanha root. (See Cephaélis.)
This principle is more especially found in some of the shrubby
South American species, but it also occurs, to some extent at
least, in many of the herbaceous European species,
Ionidium.—The root of I. Ipecacuanha, Woody Ipecacuanha, is the False
Ipecacuanha of Brazil; it is employed as an emetic in that region. Other
species of Tonidium, as I. parviflorum, I. Itubu, and others, possess similar
properties. The roots of J. parviflorum (I. microphyllum, Humb.) constitute
the Cuchunchully de Cuenca, which is much used in Venezuela as a remedy
for elephantiasis.
“iola—The flowers of V. odorata, the March or Sweet Violet, have been
always highly esteemed for their fragrance. An infusion or syrup of the
petals is a useful chemical test, as its violet or purplish colour is turned
red by acids, and green by alkalies. The syrup is employed partly on
account of its colour and odour, but chiefly as a laxative for very young
children. The flowers were formerly regarded as anodyne. The roots,
stems, and seeds have been also regarded as emetic and purgative. They
contain violine, a principle which, as just stated, is closely analogous to, if
not identical with, emetine.— V. pedata, a native of North America, possesses
similar properties to V. odorata.— Viola canina, the Dog Violet, is said to be
efficacious in certain cutaneous diseases.— Viola tricolor, a common indigenous
plant, is the species from which all our cultivated varieties of Pansies or
Heartsease have been derived. The Violets generally have been used on
the Continent as demulcent expectorants.
Order 9. SAUVAGESIACER, the Sauvagesia Order.—C harac-
ter.—This order is by some botanists considered as merely a
sub-order of Violaceze. It is distinguished by the flowers of its
species having either 5 perfect stamens alternate with 5 sterile
ones, or numerous stamens. If there are only 5 stamens, these
are also opposite the petals ; the amthers are likewise extrorse,
CANELLACE.Z.—BIXACE. 457
and have no appendages. The fruit also bursts septicidally,
and hence each valve bears the placentas at its margins.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—They are natives chiefly of South
America and the West Indies. Lllustrative Genera :—Sauva-
gesia, Linn. ; Lavradia, Velloz. There are about 15 species.
Properties and Uses.—But little is known of the properties
of the plants in this order. Sawvagesia erecta contains a good
deal of mucilaginous matter, and has been used internally as a
diuretic, and in inflammation of the bowels, and also externally
in diseases of the eye.
Order 10. CANELLACE®, the Canella Order.—Diagnosis.—
By some authors this small order is placed in Clusiacez ; it
is, however, at once distinguished from the Clusiacez, by its
general appearance ; alternate leaves ; longitudinal dehiscence
of anthers; absence of disk; presence of a style; and albu-
minous seeds. It is placed here in accordance with the views
of Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—This order contains but 2
genera and 3 species. They are natives of the West Indies
and continent of America.
Properties and Uses.——These plants have aromatic, stimulant,
and tonic properties ; being closely allied in these respects to
the Magnoliacee.
Canella alba, the Laurel-leaved Canella or Wild Cinnamon.—The inner
bark of this plant is the official Canella of the British Pharmacopeia. It
has been confounded, as already noticed, with Winter’s Bark, and hence
has been called Spurious Winter’s Bark. (See Drimys.) In its properties
it is a warm aromatic stimulant and tonic. In America it has been
employed as an antiscorbutic. In the West Indies, and in some parts of
Europe, it is used as a spice. It has an odour intermediate between cloves
and cinnamon. By distillation it yields a volatile oil, to the presence of
which its properties are, in a great measure, due ; it also contains a peculiar
bitter principle.
Cinnamodendron.—C. avillare, a native of Brazil, and C. corticosum, a
native of Jamaica, &c., have aromatic barks, which possess similar pro-
perties to the bark of Canella alba.—C. corticosum yields the so-called
Winter’s Bark, as now commonly found in commerce. (See Drimys.)
Order 11. Bixace®, the Arnatto Order.—Character.—
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, usually
entire and leathery, and very often dotted. Flowers poly-
petalous or apetalous ; usually hermaphrodite, but sometimes
unisexual. Sepals 4—7, somewhat united at the base. Petals
hypogynous, distinct, equal in number to the sepals and alter-
nate with them, or sometimes absent ; sometimes with scales
at the base. Stamens hypogynous, of the same number as the
petals, or some multiple of them. Ovary 1- or more celled,
sessile or slightly stalked ; placentas 2 or more, parietal, some-
times branched so as to form a network over the inner surface
of the ovary and fruit. Fruit 1-celled, dehiscent or indehiscent,
having a thin pulp in its centre. Seeds numerous, usually
458 BIXACEA.—PITTOSPORACE.
enveloped in a covering formed by the withered pulp ; albwmen
fleshy-oily ; embryo straight, axial ; radicle turned to the hilum.
The Pangiacez of some authors are included in this order, in
accordance with the views of Bentham and Hooker.
Diagnosis.—Shrubs or small trees, with alternate exstipulate
leaves. Flowers polypetalous or apetalous, rarely unisexual ;
petals hypogynous, sometimes with scales at the base. Stamens
hypogynous, equal in number to the petals or some multiple of
them. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent; placentas parietal.
Seeds numerous, albuminous; embryo axial, straight; radicle
towards the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
almost confined to the hottest parts of the East and West
Indies, and Africa. Illustrative Genera :—Bixa, Linn. ; Pan-
gium, Rumph. There are over 100 species.
Properties and Uses.—Many plants of the order are feebly
bitter and astringent, and have been used as stomachies ; others
are alterative, tonic, and emetic. The fruits of Oncoba and of
some of the Flacowrtias are edible and wholesome ; but those of
some other plants are poisonous. It is said, however, that by
boiling, and maceration afterwards in cold water, the poisonous
properties may, in some cases, be got rid of, as in the seeds of
Pangium edule, the kernels of which are then used as a condi-
ment, and for mixing in curries. But even these, according to
Horsfield, act as a cathartic upon those unaccustomed to their
use. The seeds of some species are employed as dyeing and
colouring agents.
Bixa Orellana.—The seeds of this plant are covered by a reddish pulp,
from which Arnatto or Annatto is made. This is used as a red dye, and for
colouring cheese, chocolate, butter, &c. The seeds are said to be cordial,
astringent, and febrifugal.
Cochlospermum Gossypium.—According to Royle, the trunk of this plant
yields the gum Kuteera, which in the North-western Provinces of India is
used as a substitute for Tragacanth.
Gynocardia odorata.—The seeds, which are official in the Pharmacopeia
of India, are known under the names of Chaulmugra, Chaulmogra, or
Chaulmoogra. They yield by expression a fixed oil in which their proper-
ties essentially reside. The oil and seeds have long been employed in-
ternally with success in India, in leprosy, scrofula, skin diseases, and in
rheumatism ; and the oil has also been of late years used with some success
in this country in similar diseases. The oil and seeds, in the form of an
ointment, have also been much employed as a local stimulant in various
skin diseases, ete.
Hydnocarpus.—The seeds of H. Wightiana and of H. venenata, both
of which species were formerly confounded together under the name of
H1. inebrians, also yield fixed oils, which have similar properties, and are
used both externally and internally in similar cases to the seeds and oil of
Chaulmugra. The fruit of H. venenatus is poisonous, and is employed in
Ceylon for poisoning fish.—H. anthelmintica is held in high esteem by the
Chinese as a remedy in skin diseases.
Order 12. Prrrosporace®, the Pittosporum Order.—C ha-
racter.—Trees or shrubs, with simple alternate exstipulate leaves.
TREMANDRACEA.—POLYGALACEZA, 459
Flowers regular. Sepalsand petals 4 or 5, hypogynous, imbricate,
deciduous. Stamens 5, hypogynous, alternate with the petals;
anthers 2-celled. Ovary superior ; style single; stigmas equal in
number to the placentas, which are 2 or more, and either axile
or parietal ; ovules anatropous, horizontal or ascending. Frwit
baccate, or aloculicidal capsule. Seeds numerous, with a minute
embryo in copious fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chietly Australian
plants ; but are occasionally found in Africa and some other
parts of the globe. None, however, occur in Europe or America.
Lllustrative Genera :—Pittosporum, Soland. ; Cheiranthera, Cun-
ningham. The order includes about 80 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable
for their resinous properties. Some have edible fruits, as cer-
tain species of Billardiera. A feware cultivated in this country
on account of their flowers, as Sollya, Billardiera, &c.
Order 13. TREMANDRACE®, the Porewort Order.—C harac-
ter.—Heath-like shrubs, with usually glandular hairs. Leaves
exstipulate, alternate or whorled. Flowers axillary, solitary,
pedicellate. Sepals 4 or 5, equal, slightly coherent, deciduous,
and with a valvate zstivation. Petals corresponding in number
to the sepals, deciduous, and with an involute estivation. Sta-
mens distinct, hypogynous, 8-—10, 2 being placed before each
petal ; anthers 2- or 4-celled, with porous dehiscence (fig. 537).
Ovary 2-celled ; ovules 1—3 in each cell, pendulous ; style 1 or 2 ;
stigmas 1—2. Fruit 2-celled, a capsule with loculicidal dehis-
cence. Seeds pendulous, hooked at the chalazal end; embryo
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen; radicle next the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—All are natives of New Holland.
Illustrative Genera:—Tetratheca, Smith; Tremandra, fh. Br.
The order includes about 16 species.
Properties and Uses.-—Altogether unknown.
Cohort 3. Polygalinex.—Gyncecium syncarpous ; ovary usually
2-3-celled ; placentation generally axile, or very rarely parietal.
Order1. PotyGaLace®, the Milkwort Order.—Character.
—Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alternate (fig. 902) or opposite,
exstipulate, and usually simple. -Pedicels bracteate. Flowers
irregular, unsymmetrical (figs. 902 and 903), and arranged in a
somewhat papilionaceous manner ; but here the wings are derived
from the calyx, whereas in the Leguminosz they belong to the
corolla. Sepals 5 (fig. 903, s), very irregular, usually distinct ;
of which 3 are placed exterior, and of these 1 is posterior and 2
anterior ; the 2 interior are lateral, usually petaloid (jig. 902),
and form the wings to the flower. Petals hypogynous, usually
3, more or less united, of which 1, forming the keel, is larger
than the rest, and placed at the anterior part of the flower ; the
keel is either naked, crested, or 3-lobed ; the other 2 petals
- i ae
460 POLYGALACEA.
are posterior, and alternate with the wings and posterior sepal
of the calyx, and are often united to the keel ; sometimes
there are five petals (fig. 903), and then the 2 additional ones,
pr, pr, are of small size, and alternate with the wings and
anterior sepals. Stamens hypogynous, 8 (figs. 903, e, and 907),
usually combined into a tube, unequal, the tube split on the
side next to the posterior sepal (fig. 907); anthers clavate,
innate, usually 1-celled (fig. 907), rarely 2-celled, opening by a
Fig. 902. Fie. 903. Fic. 904. Fie. 905.
Fig. 902. A portion of the stem of the common
Milkwort (Polygala vulga7is),with simple alter-
nate exstipulate leaves, and irregular flowers.
Fig. 903. Diagram of the flower of the
same. s. Sepals. ps, ps, ps. Posterior and
anterior large petals. p7, p7. Lateral petals.
e. Stamens, c., Carpels.——Fig, 904. Gyncecium
of the same. ov. Ovary. styl. Style. stig.
Stigma, Fig. 905, Fruitwith one cell opened.
per. Pericarp. gr.Seed. 7. Caruncula.— Fig.
906. Section of seed. fe. Testa. a7. Caruncula.
al. Albumen. pl, Embryo. Fig. 907. Androe-
cium of the same, with one-celled anthers
dehiscing at their apex,
pore at their apex, or rarely by valves. Ovary (figs. 908, c, and
904, ov) 2—38-celled, one cell being frequently abortive ; ovules
solitary or twin, suspended ; style simple (fig. 904, styl), curved,
sometimes hooded at the apex ; stigma simple (fig. 904, stig).
Fruit (fig. 905) varying in its nature and texture, indehiscent or
opening in a loculicidal manner, occasionally winged. Seeds
pendulous (fig. 905, gr), smooth or hairy, witha caruncule next
the hilum (jigs. 905, 7, and 906, ar) ; embryo straight or nearly
POLYGALACER. 461
so, in copious fleshy albumen, and with the radicle towards the
hilum (jig. 916, pl). (See Krameria).
Diagnosis (excluding Krameria).—Herbs or shrubs, with
simple exstipulate leaves. Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical.
Sepals and petals imbricate, not commonly corresponding in
number, and usually arranged in a somewhat papilionaceous
manner ; odd petal anterior; odd sepal posterior. Stamens
8, hypogynous, usually combined ; anthers generally 1-celled,
with porous dehiscence. Fruit flattened, usually 2-celled and
2-seeded. Seeds with abundant fleshy albumen, and with a
caruncule next the hilum.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Some genera of the order are
found in almost every part of the globe. The individual genera
are, however, generally confined to particular regions, with the
exception of the genus Polygala, which is very widely distributed,
being found in almost every description of station, and in both
warm and temperate regions. Illustrative Genera :—-Polygala,
Linn. ; Monnina, Ruiz et Pavon ; Soulamea, Zam. There are
over 500 species.
Properties and Uses.—The greater part of the plants of this
order are bitter and acrid, and their roots milky ; hence they
are frequently tonic, stimulant, and febrifugal. Some are
emetic, purgative, diuretic, sudorific, or expectorant. The
roots of the different species of Krameria are very astringent
from the presence of tannic acid; they are commonly known
under the name of Rhatany roots. A few species have edible
fruits, and others abound in a saponaceous principle.
Krameria.—(The species of this genus are sometimes separated from the
Polygalacez and placed in an order by themselves termed Krameriacez.
They are distinguished by their flowers not presenting a papilionaceous
arrangement ; in their stamens being 1, 3, or 4, and distinct ; in their ovary
being 1-celled, or incompletely 2-celled ; and in their exalbuminous seeds).
The root of Krameria triandra, a native of Peru, which is known as Peru-
vian, Payta, or Red Rhatany; and the root of another species, A. tomen-
tosa, St. Hil. (K. Lvina, var. granatensis, Triana), a native of New Granada
and Brazil, which is termed Savanilla, New Granada, or Violet Rhatany,
are official in the British Pharmacopeeia. A third kind of Rhatany, which
is said to be derived from K. argentea, is imported from Para ; it is known
as Brazilian or Para Rhatany, or from its colour Brown Rhatany. Other
species of Krameria also yield roots similar to Rhatany, but they are not
usually found in commerce; and Holmes has recently described a very
astringent root which has appeared in the London market as Rhatany, and
imported from Guayaquil, which he believes is obtained from a genus
nearly allied to Krameria. Rhatany root is used in medicine as an astrin-
gent, and is well adapted for all those diseases which require the employ-
ment of such medicines. It is also employed, mixed with equal parts of
orris rhizome and charcoal, as a tooth-powder. A saturated tincture of
Rhatany root in brandy is called wine colouring, and is used in Portugal
to give roughness to Port wines.
Monnina polystachya and M. salicifolia—The bark of the root of these
plants is especially remarkable for the presence of a saponaceous principle ;
it is used in Peru as a substitute for soap, and for cleaning and polishing
462 VOCHYSIACEH.— FRANKENIACE,
silver. It is moreover reputed to be a valuable medicine in diarrhcea and
similar diseases. The leaves are also reputed to be expectorant.
Polygala.—Many species of this genus have bitter properties, as P. amara,
P. rubella, P. vulgaris, and P. major; they have been used as tonies, stimu-
lants, diaphoreties, &e.—Polygala Senega, Senega root.—The root of this
species was first introduced into medicine as an antidote to the bites of snakes.
Various other species of Polygala have been reputed to possess similar pro-
perties, but they are generally regarded as altogether useless in such cases.
Senega root is official in the British Pharmacopeeia ; it is used in large doses
as an emetic and cathartic ; and in moderate doses as a sialagogue, expecto-
rant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and emmenagogue. - Its principal virtues are
due to the presence of a very acrid substance, which has been called Senegin
or Polygalic Acid: it is said to be a glucoside, and is in the form of a white
amorphous powder.—P. sanguinea and P. purpurea, in North America; P.
Serpentaria at the Cape; P. Chamxbuxus, in Europe; P. crotalarioides
and P. telephioides, in the Himalayas, and other species, are said to possess
somewhat similar properties ; and one species, P. venenosa, a native of Java,
has the acrid principle in so concentrated a state as to render it poisonous,—
P. tinctoria, an Arabian species, is used for dyeing.
Soulamea amara, a native of Malacca, is intensely bitter, and is regarded
as a valuable febrifuge ; it is also a medicine which has been employed with
very great success in cholera and pleurisy.
Order 2. VocHystacE&, the Vochysia Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs, with entire usually opposite leaves, which are
furnished at the base with glands or stipules. lowers very
irregular and unsymmetrical. Sepals 4—5, united at the base,
very unequal, the upper one spurred; e&xstivation imbricate,
Petals, 1, 2, 3, or 5, unequal, inserted upon the calyx ; xstivation
imbricate. Stamens 1 to 5, usually opposite the petals, or rarely
alternate, arising from the bottom of the calyx, most of them
sterile. Ovary superior or partially inferior, 3-celled, or rarely
1-celled ; placentas axile; style and stigma 1. Fruit usually
capsular, 3-cornered, 3-celled, with loculicidal dehiscence ; or
rarely indehiscent and 1-celled. Seeds usually winged, without
albumen, erect.
This order is, on account of its calycifloral character, fre-
quently placed near Combretacex, but it is readily distinguished
from it by its superior or nearly superior ovary. Lindley con-
siders it most nearly allied to the Violacex and the Polygalacee
—hence we place it here.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of equinoctial America.
Illustrative Genera :—Vochysia, Juss.; Salvertia, St. Hil. There
are about 50 species.
Properties and Uses.—Generally unimportant, although some
are said to form useful timber.
Order 3. WRANKENIACE, the Frankenia Order.—C harac-
ter.—Herbs or wndershrubs, much branched, with small opposite
exstipulate leaves, and sessile flowers. Calyx tubular, furrowed,
persistent. Petals unguiculate, 4-6, hypogynous. Stamens 4
or more, hypogynous, distinct, or connate at the base. Ovary
superior, 1-celled, with parietal placentas. rwit capsular, 1-
CARYOPHYLLACE. 463
celled, enclosed in the calyx, and dehiscing in a septicidal
manner. Seeds numerous, minute ; embryo straight, erect, in
the middle of mealy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
scattered over the globe, except in tropical India and North
America, but they chiefly occur in the south of Europe and
north of Africa, Illustrative Genera:—Frankenia, Liv. ;
Beatsonia, Roxb. There are about 24 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.) They have been reputed
mucilaginous and slightly aromatic. The leaves of a species of
Beatsonia are used at St. Helena as a substitute for tea.
Cohort 4. Caryophyllinex. — Gyncecium syncarpous ; ovary
ultimately 1-celled, with free central placentation, or very
rarely parietal.
Order 1. CARYOPHYLLACES, the Pink Order. —C haracter.—
Herbs. Stems swollen at the nodes. Leaves opposite, entire,
exstipulate, or with small membranous stipules, often connate
at their base. Inflorescence cymose (fig. 434). Flowers gene-
rally hermaphrodite, or rarely unisexual. Sepals 4 or 5 (fig.
908), distinct or united into a tube (fig. 460), persistent.
Petals equal in number to the sepals (jig. 908), hypogynous,
unguiculate (fig. 475, 0), often deeply divided (fig. 474, p),
sometimes absent, frequently raised above the calyx on a stalk
(fig. 909). Stamens equal in number to the sepals, and then
either alternate or opposite to them, or usually twice as numerous
(figs. 908 and 910), or rarely fewer, frequently attached with
the petals on a stalk above the calyx (jig. 909) ; filaments gene-
rally distinct (fig. 910), or sometimes united at the base, subu-
late ; anthers innate. Ovary sessile (fig. 910), or supported
with the petals and stamens on a short gynophore (figs. 602,
g, and 909), generally 1-celled, and with a free central placenta
(figs. 633 and 634), or rarely 2—5-celled (figs. 632 and 908) ;
styles 2 (fig. 602) to 5 (figs. 633, s, and 634, s), papillose on
their inner surface (jig. 602), and hence should be properly
regarded as stigmas; ovules few or numerous (figs. 633 and
634, g), amphitropous. Fruit a 1-celled capsule, opening by
2—5 valves, or by 4—10 teeth at the apex (jigs. 663 and 911),
and having a free central placenta (figs. 633 and 634, p), or
rarely 2—5-celled with a loculicidal dehiscence, and with the
placentas slightly attached to the dissepiments. Seeds usually
numerous, rarely few ; embryo curved round the albumen ( jigs.
782 and 912), which is of a mealy character, or rarely straight.
Diagnosis.—Herbaceous plants with the stems swollen at the
nodes, and opposite entire exstipulate leaves: or rarely with
small membranous stipules. Inflorescence cymose. Flowers
usually hermaphrodite. Sepals, petals, and stamens with a
quaternary or quinary arrangement, the petals sometimes
464 CARYOPHYLLACEA.
absent. Calyx persistent. Stamens hypogynous; anthers in-
nate. Ovary commonly 1-celled, styles 2—5. Capsule 1-celled,
or rarely 2—5-celled ; placenta usually free central, or in the
2—5-celled fruit slightly attached to the dissepiments. Seeds
with the embryo curved round mealy albumen; or rarely
straight.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order has
been divided into four tribes or sub-orders as follow :—
Tribe 1. Alsinex.—Sepals distinct, and opposite the stamens
when the latter are equal to theminnumber. Styles free (fig.
Fic. 908. Fic. 909.
\
Fic. 910. Fic. 911. : Rigs o12;
Fig. 908. Diagram of the flower of a species of Dianthus.—Fig. 909. Ver-
tical section of the flower of the same. Fig. 910. Essential organs of a
species of Stellaria.—Fig. 911. Capsule of a species of Dianthus, dehiscing
partially in a valyular manner so as to form four teeth at the apex.——
Fig. 912. Vertical section of the seed of Chickweed (Sfellavia media).
910). Stipules none, or small and membranous. L/lustrative
Genera :—Alsine, Wahlenb.; Stellaria, Linn. ; Spergula, Linn.
Tribe 2. Silenex.—Sepals cohering into a tube (fig. 460), and
opposite the stamens when the latter are equal to them in
number. No stipules. Illustrative Genera :—- Dianthus,
Linn. ; Liychnis, Linn. as
Tribe 3. Molluginex.—Sepals distinct or nearly so, and alter-
nate with the stamens when the latter are equal to them
in number. If the stamens are fewer than the sepals, they
are then alternate with the carpels. No stipules. Illustrative
Genera :—Mollugo, Linn. ; Coelanthum, £. Mey.
PARONYCHIACE. 465
Tribe 4. Polycarpex.—Sepals distinct. Ovary sessile. Styles
connate at the base. Stipules membranous. I/lustrative
Genus:—Polycarpon, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are natives chiefly of tem-
perate and cold climates. When found in tropical regions they
are generally on the sides and summits of mountains, commonly
reaching the limits of eternal snow. The order contains nearly
1,100 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order pene no
important properties. They are almost always insipid. Some
of the wild species are eaten as food by small aerate and
some have been said to increase the lacteal secretions of cows
fed upon them. This is supposed to be the case more parti-
cularly with Vaccarta vulgaris. Saponaria officinalis has been
used in syphilis ; it contains a peculiar principle called saponin.
This principle has also been found in species of Lychnis, Silene,
Cucubalus ; and more especially in Gypsophila Struthiwm, to
which latter plant it communicates well-marked saponaceous
properties : hence it is commonly termed Egyptian Soap-root.
The other species in which saponin is found also possess, to
some extent, similar properties. Saponin is reputed to be
poisonous in its nature.
Some of the plants have showy flowers, as the species of
Dianthus, Silene, and Lychivis: but they are generally insig-
nificant weeds. Dianthus barbatus is the Sweet-William of our
gardens; D. plumarius is the parent of all the cultivated
varieties of the common Pink; and D. Caryophyllus, the
Clove Pink, is the origin of the ‘Carnation and its cultivated
varieties, which are commonly known as Picotees, Bizarres,
and Flakes.
The three following Orders have been variously placed by
botanists, but they are closely allied to Caryophyllaceze, and we
put them here following Bentham and Hooker, except that the
Scleranthaceze are included by them in Paronychiacezx.
Order 2. PaRONYCHIACE®, the Knotwort Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs or shrubs, with entire, simple, alternate or
opposite leaves, and membranous stipules. Flowers minute.
Sepals 5, or rarely 3 or 4, distinct or more or less united. Petals
small or absent, perigynous. Stamens somewhat hypogynous,
either equal in number to the sepals and opposite to. them, or
more numerous, or rarely fewer. Ovary superior, 1- or 3-celled ;
styles 2—5. Fruit dry, 1- or 3-celled, dehiscent or indehiscent.
Seeds either numerous upon a free central placenta, or solitary
on a long funiculus arising from the base of the fruit; albumen
farinaceous ; embryo curved.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives chiefly of barren places
in the south of Europe and the north of Africa. Illustrative
HH
466 SCLERANTHACEX.—PORTULACACE &.—TAMARICACE 4.
Genera :—Illecebrum, Linn. ; Corrigiola, Linn. There are about
100 species.
Properties and Uses.—Slightly astringent.
Paronychia.—The flowers and leaves of Paronychia argentea and P. nivea
are used in the preparation of a kind of tea in France, which is employed
as a remedy for persons suffering from oppression of the chest, or from any
difficulty of digestion. It is known as Thé Arabe or Sanguinaire.
Order 3. SCLERANTHACES, the Scleranthus Order.—Diagnosis
&c.—This is a small order of inconspicuous herbs, generally
considered as a sub-order of Paronychiacex, but from which
its plants are distinguished by the want of stipules; by being
apetalous ; by the tube of their calyx becoming hardened and
covering the fruit, which is solitary and 1-celled ; and by their
stamens being evidently perigynous. They are valueless weeds
found in barren places in the temperate regions of the globe.
There are about 14 species, of which two species belonging to
the genus Scleranthus are natives of Britain. Their uses are
unknown.
Order 4. PoRTULACACE, the Purslane Order.—Character.
—Succulent herbs or shrubs, with entire exstipulate leaves.
Flowers unsymmetrical. Sepals 2, or rarely more, united at the
base. Petals usually 5, distinct or united. Stamens perigynous
or hypogynous, varying in number, sometimes opposite to the
petals ; filaments distinct ; anthers 2-celled, versatile. Ovary
superior, or rarely partially adherent. /'ruit capsular, usually
dehiscing transversely, or by valves ; sometimes indehiscent ;
placenta free central. Seeds numerous or solitary ; embryo curved
round farinaceous albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of waste dry places in
various parts of the world, but chiefly at the Cape of Good
Hope and in South America. Illustrative Genera :—Portulaca,
Tourn.; Claytonia, Linn. There are about 190 species.
Properties and Uses.—The fleshy root of Claytonia tuberosa
is edible. Portulaca oleracea has been used from the earliest
times as a pot-herb, and in salads. It possesses cooling and
antiscorbutic properties. Many of the plants have large showy
flowers.
Order 5. TAMARICACE®, the Tamarisk Order.—C haracter.
—Shiubs or herbs, with alternate entire scale-like leaves, and
spiked or racemose flowers. Caly« 4—5-partite, imbricate, per-
sistent. Petals distinct, and attached to the calyx, withering,
imbricate. Stamens hypogynous; anthers introrse. Ovary
superior, 1-celled, with 3 distinct styles. rwit 1-celled, with
3 parietal or basal placentas, and dehiscing loculicidally by 3
valves. Seeds numerous, comose, without albumen, and having
a straight embryo, with the radicle towards the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order usually
grow by the sea-side, or sometimes on the margins of rivers or
ELATINACE. 467
lakes. They are most abundant in the basin of the Mediter-
ranean, and are altogether confined to the northern hemisphere
of the Old World. Illustrative Genera:—Tamarix, Linn. ;
Myricaria, Desv. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—The bark of these plants is astringent,
slightly bitter, and tonic. The ashes of some species of Tamarix
contain much sulphate of soda.
Tamariz.—T. mannifera produces a saccharine substance, which is
known under the name of Mount Sinai Manna. This is considered by
Ehrenberg as an exudation produced by a species of Coceus, which inhabits
this plant.—T. gallica, T. orientalis, and some other species of Tamarix, are
liable to the attack of insects, which produce galls on their surface. These
galls are astringent, and are sometimes used in medicine, and as dyeing
agents where astringent substances are required,
Cohort 5. Guttiferales.—Calyx with imbricate estivation. Sta-
mens generally numerous. Gyncecium syncarpous. Seeds
usually exalbuminous. ;
Order 1. EnaTINAcE&, the Water-pepper Order. —Cha-
racter.—Little annual marsh plants, with hollow creeping
stems, and opposite leaves with interpetiolar membranous
Fie, 913. Fic. 914, Fig. 915.
Fig. 913. Diagram of the flower of a species of St. John’s Wort (ype7i-
cum ).——Fig. 914. Vertical section of the flower of the same,—— Fig. 915.
Vertical section of the seed,
stipules. Flowers small and axillary. Sepals and petals 3—5,
the latter, as well as the stamens, being distinct and hypogy-
nous. Ovary superior; styles 3—5; stigmas capitate. Fruit
capsular, 3—5-celled, placentation axile ; dehiscence loculicidal.
Seeds numerous, exalbuminous ; embryo straight. This order
has been variously placed, but it appears to be most nearly
related to Hypericacee, although in some respects resembling
the Alsinez in Caryophyllacez.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this small order
are scattered all over the world. Illustrative Genera :—Elatine,
Linn.; Merimea, Camb. Lindley enumerates 22 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are generally considered acrid,
hence the English name of the order.
HH 2
468 HYPERICACEA.— REAUMURIACEA.
Order 2. HyprricacE®, the St. John’s Wort Order. —Cha-
racter.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite or very rarely
alternate, exstipulate, simple, entire, often dotted and bordered
with black glands. Flowers regular. Sepals 4 or 5 (fig. 918), per-
sistent, unequal, distinct or united at the base, imbricate. Petals
(fig. 915) equal in number to the sepals, hypogynous, unequal-
sided (fig. 914), frequently bordered with black glands ; xstiva-
tion twisted. Stamens usually numerous, rarely few, hypogynous
(fig. 914), mostly polyadelphous (fig. 554), or rarely distinct,
or monadelphous, sometimes having glands alternating with the
bundles of stamens; filaments filiform ; anthers 2-celled, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 1-celled, formed of from 3—5
carpels, which are partially inflected so as to project into the
cavity ; or 3—5-celled by the union of the dissepiments in the
centre (jig. 913); styles equal in number to the carpels ; stigmas
usually capitate or truncate, rarely 2-lobed. Frwt capsular,
usually 3—5-celled, sometimes 1l-celled; placentas axile or
parietal, dehiscence septicidal. Seeds minute, numerous ; embryo
straight or curved, exalbuminous (jig. 915).
Diagnosis.—Leaves entire, often dotted, exstipulate. Flowers
regular. Sepals and petals hypogynous, with a quaternary or
quinary distribution ; the former with an imbricate estivation ;
the latter unequal-sided, commonly marked with black glands,
and having a twisted zstivation. Stamens hypogynous, usually
numerous and polyadelphous, rarely few, and then distinct or
monadelphous ; anthers 2-celled, opening longitudinally. Styles
several. Fruit 1-celled, or 5—5-celled. Seeds numerous, ex-
albuminous.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—The plants are generally dis-
tributed over the globe, inhabiting both temperate and hot
regions, and almost all varieties of soil. Illustrative Genera :——
Hypericum, Jann.; Vismia, Vell. There are about 280 species.
Properties and Uses.—They abound usually in a resinous
yellow juice, which is frequently purgative, as in Vismia
guianensis and V. micrantha. Other plants of the order, as
Hypericum perforatum and H. Androsemuwn, have tonic and
astringent properties, and Cratoxylon Hornschuchii is slightly
astringent and diuretic.
Order 3. REAUMURIACE, the Reaumuria Order.—This small
order was first instituted by Ehrenberg. The plants belonging
to it do not differ in any essential characters from Hypericaceze,
except that they have a pair of appendages at the base of the
petals, and shaggy seeds with a small quantity of mealy albumen.
Bentham and Hooker refer them to Tamaricaceer.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the coast of the
Mediterranean and the salt plains of Northern Asia. Illustrative
Genus :—Reaumuria, Hasselqg. There are 4 species.
Properties and Uses.—They contain much saline matter. A
GUTTIFERH OR CLUSIACEA. 469
decoction of the leaves of Reaumuria vermiculata is used inter-
nally ; and the bruised leaves as an external application for the
cure of scabies.
Order 4, GUTTIFER® or CLUSIACEH, the Gamboge or Man-
gosteen Order.—C haracter.—Tvees or shrwbs, sometimes para-
sitical, with aresinous juice. Leaves ( fig. 916) coriaceous, entire,
simple, opposite, exstipulate. Flowers usually perfect, sometimes
unisexual by abortion. Sepals 2, 4, 5) 6, or 8, imbricate, usually
persistent, frequently unequal and petaloid. Petals hypogy-
nous, equal in number to ( fig. 916), or a multiple of, the sepals,
sometimes passing by imperceptible gradations into them. Sta-
mens usually numerous, rarely few, hypogynous, distinct, mona-
delphous, or polyadelphous ; anthers adnate, not beaked, in-
trorse or extrorse, opening by a pore or transverse slit, 2-celled,
or sometimes I-celled. Disk fleshy, or rarely with five lobes.
Ovary superior, 1- or many-celled ; style absent ; stigmas peltate
or radiate (fig. 916); placentas axile. Fruit dehiscent or inde-
hiscent, 1- or many-celled. Seeds solitary or numerous, fre-
quently arillate, without albumen ; embryo large, straight, with
minute cotyledons.
Diagnosis.—Trees or shrubs with a resinous juice, and with
opposite, simple, coriaceous, exstipulate leaves. Sepals and
petals usually having a
binary arrangement of their Fie. 916.
parts ; the former imbricate
and frequently unequal ; the
latter equal and hypogy-
nous. Stamens almost al-
ways numerous; anthers
adnate, without a_ beak,
opening by a pore or trans-
versely. Disk fleshy or
lobed. Ovary superior, with
sessile radiate stigmas, and
axile placentas. Seeds ex-
albuminous ; cotyledons mi-
nute. Fig. 916. Flowering stem and fruit of the
Distribution and Num- Mangosteen plant (Garcinia Mangostanc).
bers.—Exclusively tropical,
and especially occurring in moist situations. The larger pro-
portion are natives of South America, but a few occur in
Madagascar and the African continent. illustrative Genera:
—Clusia, Linn.; Garcinia, Linn. There are about 250
species.
Properties and Uses.—-The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for yielding a yellow gum-resin of an acrid and
purgative nature. In many cases, however, the fruits are
edible, and are held in high estimation for their delicious
470 GUTTIFERZX OR CLUSIACEA.,
flavour. The seeds of some are oily, and other plants of the
order are good timber-trees.
Calophyllum.—C. Calaba is reputed to yield the resinous substance known
as East Indian Tacamahaca. This is useful as an application to indolent
ulcers.—C. Inophyllum and C. brasiliense also vield similar resins. From
the seeds of C. Znophyllum an oil is likewise obtained by expression ; this is
the Bitter Oil or Weandee of Indian commerce. It is in great repute
throughout the East Indies and Polynesia as a liniment in rheumatism,
pains in the joints, and bruises. The timber of the same plant is also
applied to several useful purposes.—C. angustifolium, the Piney tree, fur-
nishes valuable timber. :
Calysaccion longifolium.—The dried flower-buds of this tree constitute,
with those of Mesua ferrea, the Nag-kesar or Nag-kassar of the Indian
bazaars. (See Mesua.)
Clusia.— Clusia flava, C. alba, and C. rosea, yield a glutinous resinous
matter, which is used in some parts of the West Indies in place of pitch,
C. flava is called in Jamaica the Balsam-tree. In Nevis and St. Kitt’s the
three species are known indifferently under the names of Fat Pork, Monkey
Apple, and Mountain or Wild Mango. The flowers of C. insignis also yield
a resinous substance in Brazil.
Garcinia.—The official and well-known gum-resin Gamboge has been
shown by Hanbury to be the produce of Garcinia Morella, var. pedicellata,
now termed G. Hanburii ; it is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. Com-
mercial Gamboge is obtained principally from Siam; it is the only kind
used in Europe. Siam Gamboge occurs in two forms :—I1st, in the form of
cylinders, which are either solid or more or less hollow, and commonly
known as pipe or roll Gamboge; and, 2nd, in large cakes or amorphous
masses, called dump or cake Gamboge. The pipe Gamboge is the finest kind.
Gamboge is used in medicine as an active hydragogue and drastic purga-
tive. It is also an anthelmintic. It was the basis of the once celebrated
nostrum, termed Morrison's pills. In over-doses it acts as an acrid poison.
Gamboge likewise forms a valuable water-colour, and hence is much used in
painting; it is also employed to give a colour to the lacquer-varnish for
brass-work, &e. In India, a gum-resin resembling Siam Gamboge, and
identical with it in its properties, is obtained from G. pictoria. It is only
found in irregular masses. Good Gamboge is also obtained in Travancore
from G. travancorica.
The Mangosteen, which is reputed to be the most delicious of all fruits,
is obtained from G. Mangostana, a native of Malacca. This plant has
produced fruit in stoves in this country. The rind is astringent, and has
been substituted, as first noticed by the author, in this country, for Indian
Bael (see 42gle Marmelos). It has been employed with great advantage in
India inchronic diarrhoea, and in advanced stages of dysentery.— G. cornea,
G. Kydiana, and G. pedunculata, also yield fruits of a similar character to
the Mangosteen, although very inferior to it. The seeds of G. indica ( pur-
purea), upon being boiled in water, yield a concrete oil, called Kokum
Butter or Concrete Oil of Mangosteen. It is useful in chapped hands, &c.,
and might be employed in the preparation of suppositories, and for other
pharmaceutical purposes. The fruit has an agreeable acid flavour, and is
used in India for various purposes.
Mammea americana.—The fruit is highly esteemed in the West Indies
and South America. It is known under the names of the Mammee Apple
and the Wild Apricot of South America. The seeds are anthelmintic. A
spirit and a kind of wine may be also obtained from this plant—thus, from
the flowers a kind of spirit, and from the sap a wine.
Mesua.—The species of this genus are remarkable for their very hard
timber. Lindley remarks, ‘that the root and bark of these plants are bitter,
TERNSTR@MIACEZ OR CAMELLIACEA. 471
aromatic, and powerfully sudorific ; their leaves mucilaginous ; their unripe
fruit aromatic, acrid, and purgative. > ‘The flower-buds of Mesua Serrea
occur in the bazaars of India, with those of Calysaccion longifolium (see
Calysaccion), under the name of Nag-kassur; they are highly esteemed
for their fragrance, and are also used in Bengal, as well as the leaves of
the same plant, as antidotes to snake-poisons. Nag-kassar is also much
employed for dyeing silks. Nag-kassar was imported into England a few
years since. The flower-buds are ‘about the size of peppercorns, of a cinnamon-
brown colour, and have a very fragrant odour somewhat resembling that of
violets.
Pentadesma butyracea.—The fruit of this plant vields a fatty matter,
hence it is called the Butter or Tallow Tree of Sierra Leone.
Order 5. TERNSTROEMIACE or CAMELLIACEH, the Tea
Order.—Character.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves leathery, alter-
nate, usually exstipulate, and sometimes dotted. Flowers regu-
lar, and generally very showy, rarely polygamous. Sepals
or 7, coriaceous, imbricate, deciduous. Petals 5, 6, or 9, often
united at the base, imbricate. Stamens hypogynous, numerous,
distinct or united by their filaments into one or several bundles ;
anthers 2-celled, versatile or adnate. Ovary superior, many-
celled ; styles filiform, 3—7. Fruit capsular, 2—7-celled ; pla-
centas axile ; dehiscence various. Seeds few, sometimes arillate ;
albumen wanting or in very small quantity ; embryo straight or
folded ; cotyledons large and oily ; radicle towards the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Trees or shrubs, with alternate usually exstipu-
late leathery leaves. Sepals and petals imbricate in estiva-
tion, and having no tendency to a quaternary arrangement.
Stamens numerous, hypogynous ; anthers versatile or adnate.
Ovary superior; styles filiform. Seeds solitary or very few,
attached to axile placentas ; albumen wanting or in very small
quantity.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants, which are mostly
ornamental trees or shrubs, are chiefly natives of South America,
but a few are found in the East Indies, China, and North
America. One species only occurs in Africa. There are no
European species, although a few are cultivated in Europe.
Illustrative Genera :—Ternstreemia, Mut.; Camellia, Linn. The
order, as defined above, following Lindley, contains about 130
species.
Properties and Uses.—Generally speaking, we know but little
of the properties of the plants of this order; but some, as those
from which China Tea is prepared, are moderately stimulant,
astringent, and slightly soothing and sedative.
Camellia or Thea (see Thea).—Numerous varieties of Camellia japonica,
which is a large tree in its native country, are cultivated in our green-
houses, and are celebrated for the beauty of their flowers and foliage. The
seeds of C. oleifera yield by expression a good salad oil—C. Sasanqua has
fragrant flowers, which are said to be used in some districts to give flavour
and odour to Chinese Tea.
Freziera theoides.—The leaves of this shrub are used as a kind of tea in
Panama.
472 TERNSTREMIACEZ OR CAMELLIACEA.
Gordonia.--The bark is astringent, and is therefore useful in tanning,
for which purpose it is sometimes employed in the United States.
Kielmeyera speciosa.—The leaves of this plant, which is a native of Brazil,
contain much mucilage, and are used on that account for fomentations.
Thea or Camellia.—The genus Thea is now more generally regarded as
not really distinct from that of Camellia, and hence the species of the two
genera are frequently included under one genus, which is named by botanists
either Camellia or Thea. Formerly it was supposed that China Tea, which
is so extensively used as a beverage in this and many other countries, was
prepared from the leaves of three species, two being natives of China, namely,
Thea Bohea and T. viridis ; and another, a native of Assam, Thea assamica.
Nearly all botanists are, however, now agreed that these three supposed
species are only varieties of one, which is termed Thea chinensis or Camellia
Thea. It was also formerly supposed that Black and Green Teas were the
produce of distinct plants ; but Fortune, Ball, and others have proved that
both Black and Green Teas may be made indifferently from the same plant,
the differences between such teas depending essentially upon their mode of
preparation. Thus, Green Teas are prepared by drying the leaves as quickly
as possible after they are gathered; and then slightly heating them ; after
which they are rolled separately or in small heaps, and then dried as quickly
as possible ; while Black Teas are made from the leaves, which, after being
gathered, are exposed to the air for some time, and then, after having been
tossed about, are placed in heaps, where they undergo a kind of fermentation ;
after which they are exposed to a fire for a short time; then rolled in masses
to get rid of the moisture and to give them a twisted character ; then they
are again exposed to the air, and subsequently exposed for a second time in
a shallow pan to the heat of a charcoal fire, rolled again, and exposed to the
air, and finally dried slowly over a fire. Thus, Green Tea consists of the
leaves quickly dried after gathering, so that their colour and other proper-
ties are in a great measure preserved ; while Black Tea is composed of
the leaves dried some time after being gathered, and after they have
undergone a kind of fermentation, by which their original green colour is
changed to black, and other important changes produced. A great part
of the Green Tea which is exported from China, and consumed in this
country, and in other parts of Europe and America, is coloured artificially
with a mixture of prussian blue, turmeric, and gypsum, Several varieties
of Black and Green Teas are known in commerce. Thus of the former we
have Bohea, Congou, Souchong, Pekoe, Caper, &c.; of the latter, Hyson,
Hyson-Skin, Twankay, Gunpowder, &c. Some teas have a particular odour
somewhat resembling the flowers of the common Cowslip; this is produced
by mixing with them the dried flowers of the sweet-scented Olive ( Olea
fragrans). Other teas are scented with the dried flowers of Chloranthus
inconspicuus, Aglaia odorata, &c.
The cultivation of the ‘Tea-plant is now being carried on with great
success in India. Thus, in 1882 no less than 60,000,000 lbs. of Tea were ex-
ported, and its cultivation is largely increasing. A large quantity of Tea
is also at the present time produced in Japan and Java. China, however, is
the great tea-producing country: in that part of the world,nearly 4,000,000
acres of ground are devoted to it alone,and the total annual produce, at the
present time, is probably not less than 600 millions of pounds. In the United
Kingdom, the consumption of Tea has very much increased of late years.
Thus, in 1840, it was only 50,000,000 lbs., while at the present time it amounts
to about 140,000,000 lbs. Tea owes its chief properties to the presence of a
volatile oil, tannic acid, and more especially the alkaloid, called theme,
Theine is identical with caffeine, the alkaloid contained in Coffee, and is official
under that name in the British Pharmacopeeia, and guaranine the alkaloid
of Guarana, and is closely allied to theobsomine the alkaloid of cocoa-seeds.
(See Coffea, Paullinia, and Theobroma.) Tea-leaves also contain about
MARCGRAAVIACEE.— RHIZOBOLACE. 473
6 per cent. of gluten, but this is scarcely extracted in any amount by the
ordinary mode of making Tea. It has been stated that Tea, besides its well-
known stimulating and soothing effects, is indirectly nutritive—that is to
say, the theine it contains has the effect of preventing the waste and decay
of the body, and any substance that does this necessarily saves food, and is
thus indirectly nutritive; but Dr. Edward Smith has shown that, on the
contrary, Tea increases the bodily waste. As a nervine stimulant, tea—or,
still better, its alkaloid theine or caffeine and its salts—may be taken with
much advantage in headache and neuralgia, and in other affections caused
by exhaustion of the system from depression) of nerve power.
Order 6. MArcGRAAVIACE®, the Marcgraavia Order.—Dia-
gnosis.—This is a small order which is generally regarded as
allied to Clusiaceze and Hypericacez. The species belonging to it
are chiefly distinguished from Clusiacez, by their unsymmetri-
cal flowers, versatile anthers, and very numerous minute seeds.
Some genera of the order are remarkable for their peculiar
bracts, which become hooded, pouched, or spurred. They are
distinguished from Hypericaceve chiefly by their unsymmetrical
flowers, equal-sided petals, distinct stamens, and sessile stigmas.
They are sometimes placed as a tribe of Ternstrcemiacez.
Distribution and Numbers.—Generally natives of equinoctial
America. Illustrative Genera :—Ruyschia, Jacq.; Marcgraavia,
Plum. There are 26 species.
Properties and Uses.—Scarcely anything is known of their
properties. Marcgraavia wmbellata is reputed to be diuretic and
antisyphilitic.
Order 7. RHIZOBOLACE, the Souari-nut Order.—C haracter.
—Large trees. Leaves opposite, coriaceous, digitate, exstipulate,
with an articulated stalk. Sepals 5 or 6, more or less united.
imbricate. Petals 5 to 8, unequal. Stamens very numerous,
slightly monadelphous, in two whorls, the inner shorter and
often abortive, inserted with the petals on an hypogynous disk;
anthers 2-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary 4-, 5-, or
many-celled ; styles short, as many as the cells of the ovary ;
stigmas small ; ovules solitary, attached to the axis. Fruit con-
sisting of several combined indehiscent 1-seeded nuts. Seed
reniform, exalbuminous, with the funiculus expanded so as to
form a spongy excrescence ; radicle very large, forming nearly
the whole of the nucleus; cotyledons very small (fig. 771, c).
This order is frequently incorporated with the Ternstrcemiacez.
Diagnosis.—Large trees, with opposite digitate exstipulate
leaves, with an articulated stalk. Flowers regular, hypogynous.
Petals equal-sided, and inserted with the numerous stamens on
an hypogynous disk. Styles veryshort. Seed solitary, exalbu-
minous, with a very large radicle, and two very small cotyledons.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—The order contains but 2 genera,
including 8 species, all of which are large trees, natives of the
forests in the hottest parts of South America. Illustrative
Genus :—Caryocar, Lin.
474 DIPTERACEA.
Properties and Uses.—Some of the trees are valuable for
their timber, others yield edible nuts, and some an excellent
oil.
Caryocar.—C. butyrosum (Pekea tuberculosa or butyrosa).—This tree is
much esteemed for its timber, which is used in shipbuilding and for other
purposes. The separated portions of the fruit constitute the Souari, Surahwa,
or Suwarrow-nuts of commerce, the kernels of which are probably the most
agreeable of all the nut kind. They are occasionally imported into this
country. An excellent edible oil may be also extracted from them.—C.
nucifera also yields Souari-nvts. A concrete oil is obtained in Brazil, from
C. brasiliense.
Order 8. DipTERACE, the Sumatra Camphor Order.—C ha-
racter.—Large trees with a resinous juice. Leaves alternate,
involute, feather-veined, with large convolute deciduous stipules.
Calyx 5-lobed, tubular, unequal, persistent, imbricate, ulti-
mately enlarged into winglike expansions. Petals 5, hypogy-
nous, often coherent at the base ; &xstivation twisted. Stamens
numerous, hypogynous, distinct or united in an _ irregular
manner by their filaments so as to become somewhat poly-
adelphous; anthers innate, 2-celled, subulate, prolonged above
or beaked. Ovary superior, 3-celled ; ovules pendulous ; style
and stigma simple. fruit 1-celled, dehiscent or indehiscent,
surrounded by the enlarged permanent calyx. Seed solitary,
exalbuminous; radicle superior.
Distribution and Numbers. — Natives exclusively of the
forests of the tropical East Indies, with the exception of the
genus Lophira, which belongs to tropical Africa. (The latter
genus, by Endlicher and others, has been separated from the
Dipteraceze, and placed in an order by itself under the name of
Lophiraceze. The chief characters of distinction are, its 1-celled
ovary with numerous ovules on a free central placenta, and its
inferior radicle.) Illustrative Genera :—Dipterocarpus, Gértn. ;
Dryobalanops, Gdirtn. There are about 50 species belonging to
this order.
Properties and Uses.—These plants form very large and hand-
some trees, which abound in an oleo-resinous juice. To the
presence of this they owe their peculiar properties.
Dipterocarpus.—The trunks of D. levis, and other species, natives of the
East Indies, yield by incision an oleo-resinous substance, called Wood Oil
or Gurjun Balsam. In its properties Wood Oil resembles Copaiba, and is
largely employed for similar purposes in India, where it is official; it is
also in use in England as a substitute for, or as an adulterant of, that drug.
Wood Oil is also used in India for painting houses, &c.
Dryobalanops aromatica or Camphora.—This is a large tree, a native of
Sumatra and Borneo. From its stem, a liquid called Liquid Camphor or
Camphor Oil, and a crystalline solid substance named Sumatra or Borneo
Camphor, are derived. The Liquid Camphor is obtained by making deep
incisions into the tree. It is a hydrocarbon, and has an odour resembling
a mixture of Cajuput oil, camphor, and cardamoms. It has been used in
the preparation of scented soap. The Solid Sumatra Camphor is found in
fissures and cavities in the interior of the trunks of the full-grown trees, and
CHLHNACEX.—MALVACEA. 475
can only be extracted from the tree by cutting it down and dividing it into
pieces. It generally occurs only in small pieces, but occasionally masses
weighing 10 or 12 lbs. have been removed. This camphor resembles in its
properties the ordinary official or Laurel Camphor (see Cinnamomum Cam-
phora). It is not, however, a commercial article in this country, or in
Europe, because it is so highly esteemed by the Chinese, that they will give
from eighty to a hundred times more money for it than that which they
obtain for their own camphor, which is the kind we employ, and which is
more valued by us. Thus the first quality is valued at about 102. a pound.
It is sometimes termed Barus Camphor. \ It is regarded as especially
valuable for embalming the dead.
Hopea odorata —This plant yields a fragrant resin, which, when pow-
dered, is a popular styptic amongst the Burmese.
Shorea robusta is a valuable timber-tree ; it is a native of India, and its
wood is there extensively used under the name of Sd/. A colourless, yellow-
ish or brownish resin, called Dammar in Bengal, is also obtained from this
plant. It forms a substitute for the ordinary resins of the Coniferz in the
making of plasters.
Vateria indica.—This plant yields an oleo-resinous substance which is
known in India under the name of White Dammar or Piney Resin. It is
used as a varnish, and for making candles. The substance called Piney
Tallow, or Vegetable Butter of Canara, is a concrete oil obtained from
the fruits of this plant. It has been employed in India as a local appli-
cation in rheumatism, &c., and some has been lately imported into this
country.
Vatica Tumbugaia is said to yield a portion of the Black Dammar of
India. (See Canarium.)
Order 9. CHLHNACEH, the Sarcolena Order.—Character.
—Trees or shrubs. Leaves entire, alternate, with large deciduous
convolute stipules. Flowers regular, unsymmetrical, furnished
with an involucre : the imwvolucre surrounding 1—2 flowers, and
persistent. Sepals 3, imbricate. Petals 5, convolute, sometimes
united at the base. Stamens generally very numerous, rarely
but 10, monadelphous ; anthers roundish, 2-celled. Ovary 3-
celled ; style 1; stigma trifid. Frwit capsular, 3-celled or rarely
1-celled ; plucentasaxile. Seeds solitary or numerous, suspended ;
embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons leafy ; radicle
superior.
Diagnosis.—Readily distinguished among the Thalamiflora:
by their alternate simple stipulate leaves; and involucrate
flowers, which are regular and unsymmetrical. The calyx is
also imbricate, the stamens monadelphous, and the seed has
abundant albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—There are but 8 species included
in this order, all of which are natives of Madagascar. Illustia-
tive Genus :—Sarcolena, Thouars.
Properties and Uses.—Altogether unknown.
Cohort 6. Malvales.—Calyx with valvate estivation. Stamens
usually numerous. Placentation axile or sutural.
Order 1. Matvacem, the Mallow Order.—Character.—
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, often downy, more or
476 MALVACEA.
less divided in a palmate manner (fig. 324), stipulate. Flowers
regular, usually axillary, and often surrounded by an involucre
or epicalyx (jigs. 470 and 917). Sepals usually 5 (figs. 470 and
917), rarely 5 or 4, more or less united (fig. 470) ; with valvate
or some form of circular estivation (fig. 917). Petals hypogy-
nous, equal in number to the divisions of the calyx (fig. 917),
with a twisted zstivation, either attached to the column formed
by the united stamens (jig. 918) or free. Stamens hypogynous,
numerous, monadelphous (figs. 549 and 918) ; anthers 1-celled,
IDie, Oily Fie 918.
Fig. 917. Diagram of the flower of a species of A/alva. The three external
lines represent bracts, which together form an epicalyx or involucre.——
Fig. 918. Vertical section of the flower of a Mallow. Fig. 919. Pistil of
the same surrounded by the inferior calyx and invyolucre.——fig. 920.
Horizontal section of the fruit of Malva sylvestris. a. Axis. pl, Placenta.
7. An empty cell. c. Embryo with twisted cotyledons.
reniform, with transverse dehiscence (jig. 535). Ovary superior,
consisting of several carpels (jigs. 917 and 919), which are either
apocarpous (fig. 919), or united so as to form a compound ovary
with as many cells as there are carpels; placentas attached to
the ventral sutures when the carpels are apocarpous (fig. 920,
pl), or axile when the ovary is compound ; styles equalling the
carpels in number (fig. 919), united or distinct. ruit either a
carcerule, that is, consisting of a number of 1-celled, indehiscent
MALVACE. 477
(figs. 707 and 920), 1- or many-seeded carpels ; or a capsule with
loculicidal (fig. 672) or septicidal dehiscence, and numerous
seeds. Seeds sometimes hairy; albwmen none or in small
quantity ; embryo curved ; cotyledons much twisted (fig. 920, c).
Diagnosis. — Leaves alternate, palmately-veined, simple,
stipulate. Flowers regular. Calyx with valvate or some form
of circular estivation. Petals twisted in stivation. Stamens
hypogynous, numerous ; anthers 1-celled, reniform, dehiscing
transversely ; filaments united so as to form a column. Carpels
distinct or united. Seeds with very little or no albumen ;
embryo curved ; cotyledons twisted.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order
may be divided into three tribes as follows :—
Tribe 1. Malvex.—F lowers furnished with an involucre or epi-
calyx (fig. 917). Fruit consisting of separate carpels (apo-
carpous) (fiys. 707 and 920). Illustrative Genera :—Malva,
LTinn.; Althea, Linn.
Tribe 2. Hibiscex.—Flowers furnished with an involucre (jig.
470). Fruit formed of united carpels (syncarpous) (fig. 672).
Illustrative Genera :—Hibiscus, Linn. ; Gossypium, Linn.
Tribe 3. Sidex.—F lowers without an involucre. Fruit apo-
carpous or syncarpous. Illustrative Genus :—Sida, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are chietly natives
of the tropics and the warmer parts of temperate regions. They
diminish gradually as we approach the north, and are altogether
absent in the frigid zone. There are more than 1,000 species.
Properties and Uses.—No plant of this order possesses any
deleterious properties. The order is generally characterised by
mucilaginous and demulcent qualities. From the liber of many
species strong and tough fibres are obtained, and the hairs cover-
ing the seeds of certain species constitute cotton.
Abutilon esculentum, Bencao de Deos, furnishes an article of diet, the boiled
flowers being used in Brazil as a vegetable.
Althwa.—The root and leaves of A. officinalis, the Marsh-mallow plant,
abound in mucilage, particularly the root, and hence all preparations from
these parts are demulcent, and useful in diseases of the mucous membranes,
&e. An emollient cataplasm is also occasionally prepared from the boiled
root. In France Marsh-mallow is in much greater request than in this
country. A favourite preparation there is the Pate de Guimauve, which is
a kind of lozenge made with the mucilage of Althea root, gum-arabic,
sugar and white of egg.— Althxa rosea, the Hollyhock of our gardens, has
similar properties. From the leaves a blue colouring matter resembling
indigo is obtained. Strong fibres have been also procured from the bark,
and used in the manufacture of good cordage.
Gossypium.—Several species and varieties of this genus furnish cotton,
which is the hairy covering of their seeds. (See page 67.) There appear,
however, to be three species more especially from which our commercial
eotton is obtained, namely, G. herbaceum, G. barbadense, and G. peruvianum.
1. Gossypium herbaceum, which is supposed by Masters to be a cultivated
variety of G. Stocksii, a native of Sindh, yields the common Indian cottons,
478 MALVACEA.
as Dacea, Behar, Nankin, &c. Nankin Cotton is remarkable for its
yellowish-brown colour, which colour was formerly thought to be artificial,
and produced by dyeing, but it is now known to be natural to it. 2. G.
barbadense is the species which yields all the best long-staple cotton of com-
merce. Thus from it the much-esteemed Sea-Island Cotton is obtained,
as also the New Orleans, Georgian, and other cottons derived from the
United States. It also yields the Bourbon cotton of India. 38. G.peruvianum
or acuminatum, probably a variety of the latter, furnishes the South
American varieties of cotton, as Pernambuco, Peruvian, Brazilian Cotton,
&ec. Another species, Gossypium arboreum, is the Tree-Cotton of India,
which yields a variety of a very fine, soft, and silky nature. This is used
by the natives of India for making turbans. The amount of cotton employed
for manufacturing purposes in this and other countries is enormous, although
the supply was much interfered with by the late American civil war: hence,
since that period, the cultivation in the East Indies, Africa, &c., of the plants
vielding it has been much extended, and large supplies are now obtained from
the East Indies, Egypt, &c. The amount of cotton, however, produced in the
United States during the year 1881 exceeded 7,000,000 bales. The increase
in the consumption of cotton in this country may be at once judged of by the
following statement. In 1800, the amount of cotton imported was 50,010,732
Ibs.; in 1810, it had increased to 132,488,935 lbs. ; in 1820, to 151,672,655
lbs. ; in 1830, to 263,961,452 lbs.; in 1840, to 592,488,000 lbs. ; and in 1850,
to about 772,000,000 lbs. This latter amount is equivalent to about
2,600,000 bales, each of which averages 336 lbs. in weight, making alto-
gether about 340,000 tons. It has been computed that the value of this in
a raw state is about 30,000,000/., and when manufactured into cotton fabrics,
about three times that amount, or 90,000,0002. Of these about 30,000,0007.
worth were exported from the United Kingdom, and 60,000,000/. worth
consumed in this country. In the United Kingdom there were at the same
period about 2,000 cotton factories, using a motive power equivalent to that
of 90,000 horses, and employing 350,000 human beings. The above inte-
resting statistical record will exhibit in a prominent manner the immense
importance of cotton to the inhabitants of this country. From 1850 up to
the time of the American war the consumption of cotton enormously in-
creased ; it then materially decreased, but at the present time the quantity
consumed in this country alone is probably not less than 1,500,000,000 lbs. ;
and by the whole manufacturing world about double this quantity.
Cotton is official in the British Pharmacopeeia for the purpose of prepar-
ing gun-cotton (Pyrozxylin), from which collodion and flexible collodion are
directed to be made. Collodion is a valuable local application to wounds,
&c., and in burns, skin diseases, erysipelas, &c. Cotton in itself is also a
useful application to burns and inflamed surfaces. It acts by excluding
the air, and by keeping the affected parts at a uniform temperature. The
seeds of the Cotton-plants, after the cotton has been obtained from them,
upon being submitted to pressure, yield a fixed oil, which may be employed
for burning in lamps, and for other purposes. From 80,000 to 100,000 tons
are imported annually. The oil has been largely used in place of olive oil
for edible purposes, and for making soap. The cake left after the expression
of the oil is employed for feeding cattle. A decoction of cotton seeds has
been employed in the United States as a remedy in intermittent fevers,
Cotton-root bark isalso regarded in the United States of America as an ex-
cellent emmenagogue.
Hibiscus —The unripe fruit of Hibiscus (Abelmoschus) esculentus, known
in the East and West Indies under the name of Okra, Gombo, Bendikai,
&c., is used, on account of the abundance of the mucilage it contains, to
thicken soups, &c., and in Western Africa in various ways in the prepara-
tion of native dishes. It also possesses valuable emollient and demulcent
properties, and may be employed in all cases where such remedies are
STERCULIACE#. 479
required. It is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India. The roasted seeds
have been used as a substitute for coffee. The seeds also yield by expres-
sion an oil which may be employed for edible and other purposes like olive
oil. The fibre of the stems is also valuable for paper-making, and a patent
has been taken out in France for this purpose, and the plant has been
introduced into Algeria. The paper prepared from it is called banda paper.
—Abelmoschus moschatus derives its specific name from the musky odour
of its seeds, which are regarded as cordial and stomachic, and are sometimes
mixed with coffee by the Arabs. They are also employed as a perfume.
The powdered seeds steeped in rum are used in the West Indies as a
remedy against the bites of serpents.—H. cannabinus yields the valuable
fibre known under the name of Sunnee or Brown Indian Hemp, which is
commonly used in India as a substitute for true Hemp. It is sometimes
termed Sunn Hemp, but improperly so,as the true Sunn Hemp is derived
from Crotalaria juncea, a plant of the order Leguminose. (See Crotalaria.)
From the seeds a fixed oil is obtained by expression.— Hibiscus arboreus, a
native of the West Indies, is also remarkable for the tenacity of its inner
bark, and it is said by some authors that the whips formerly used by the
slave-drivers were manufactured from its fibres. (See Lagetta.)— Hibiscus
Rosa-sinensis has astringent petals, which are used by the Chinese to
blacken their eyebrows ‘and the leather of their shoes, The expressed
fresh juice of these petals is said to form a good substitute for litmus: and
an infusion of the petals has also been reputed useful as a demulcent
refrigerant drink in fevers. Various other species of Hibiscus, as H.
striatus, H. tiliaceus, &c., also yield valuable fibres, useful for textile fabrics,
or for paper-making.
Malachra capitata—The leaves are reputed to be anthelmintic, and are
employed for such a purpose in Panama.
Malva.—Malva sylvestris, the common Mallow, has similar, although
very inferior, properties to the Marsh-mallow. (See "Althea. ) Its bark also
yields strong fibres—Malva Alcea—The petals of this plant have astrin-
gent properties, and yield a black dye.
Paritium elatum.—The material known as Cuba Bast, now largely used
by gardeners for tying up plants, &c., is prepared from the liber of this
tree. Cuba Bast is also employed for. tying up the bundles of Havannah
cigars.
Pavonia diuretica derives its specific name from its supposed diuretic
property, for which purpose it is used in Brazil.
Sida.—Sida micrantha and other species supply fibres useful in the
manufacture of cordage, &c. Rocket-sticks are also obtained from the
stems of S. micrantha.— Sida cordifolia and S. mauritiana have demulcent
and emollient properties.—S. lanceolata has a very bitter root, which is
reputed to be a valuable stomachic, The roots of S. retusa and other
species are held in esteem by the natives of India for the treatment of
rheumatism.
Many plants of the order have showy flowers, and are cultivated in our
gardens and stoves; for example, the Althea rosea (Hollyhock), Abutilon,
Hibiscus, Sida, &c.— Hibiscus mutabilis is remarkable for the changing
colour of its flowers, which vary in a single day from a cream-coloured rose
to a rich rose or pink colour.
Order 2. STERCULIACE®, the Silk-cotton Order.—Charac-
ter.—Trees or shrubs, sometimes clirabing. Leaves alternate,
simple or compound, with deciduous stipules. Flowers usually
perfect, sometimes by abortion unisexual, regular or irregular,
often surrounded by an involucre. Calyx and corolla resem-
bling the Malvacez, always, however, having five parts ; but
480 STERCULIACEH.
the petals are sometimes absent. Stamens usually united by
their filaments into a column, and indefinite, or rarely few and
distinct ; anthers usually 2-celled, or rarely 1-celled. Carpels 3
or 5, either distinct or united so as to form a compound ovary,
sessile or stalked, or rarely more numerous or solitary ; styles
equal in number to the carpels, distinct or united ; ovules usually
definite, sometimes indefinite. Fruit either composed of a
number of follicles, or capsular (jig. 708), or rarely haccate.
Seeds with fleshy-oily albumen or none; embryo straight or
curved ; cotyledons either plicate or rolled round the plumule.
The order Byttneriaceze of some botanists is here included
in Sterculiaceze.
Diagnosis.—The plants of this order are at once known
among the Thalamifloree by their valvate 5-partite calyx ;
twisted corolla consisting of 5 distinct petals ; numerous perfect
stamens united by their tilaments into a column ; and usually by
their 2-celled anthers. The character presented by the anthers
should be particularly noticed, as that alone, in most cases, at
once distinguishes them from the Malvacez, which in many
other respects they closely resemble ; indeed the Sterculiaceze
have been combined with the Malvaceze. It should, however,
also be observed, that the flowers of some of the Sterculiaceze
are unisexual by abortion.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Natives chiefly of the tropics or
of very warm regions; but some of the species are found scat-
tered in almost every quarter of the globe, except Europe.
Illustrative Genera :—Sterculia, Linn.; Helicteres, Linn. ; Theo-
broma, Linn. There are more than 500 species belonging to
this order.
Properties and Uses.—In their properties the plants of this
order resemble the Malvacee : thus, they are generally mucila-
ginous, demulcent, and emollient ; some have a hairy covering
to their seeds ; and others yield useful liber-fibres. The cottony
covering of their seeds, and the fibres yielded by certain plants
of this order, are not, however, to be compared in importance
to the similar products of the Malvacee. Some plants are
reputed to be diuretic, emetic, or purgative.
Adansonia.—A. digitata, the Baobab-tree.—The fruit, commonly known
as Monkey-bread or Ethiopian Sour-gourd, has its seeds surrounded by a
large quantity of a starchy pulp with an acid flavour much resembling
cream of tartar. Its acid nature is said to be due to malate of potassium.
This forms a wholesome and agreeable article of food. When mixed with
water it is used as an acid drink, which is regarded as a specific in putrid
and pestilential fevers. It is also employed in Egypt in dysentery. All
parts of the tree possess emollient and demulcent properties. Its powdered
leaves are used by the Africans under the name of Lalo, mixed with their
daily food, to check excessive perspiration. This property is owing to the
presence of an astringent matter ; hence they have been found serviceable in
diarrhoea, &c. The bark is said to be febrifugal, and its liber-fibres are
employed by certain African tribes, living where the tree is common, in the
STERCULIACEA. 481
manufacture of various articles of dress, cordage, &c. The Baobab-tree is
also remarkable for its enormous size, and the great age to which it attains,
in some cases reputed to be several thousand years. One tree of this species
has been found to have a trunk from 90 to 100 feet in circumference. Their
hollowed trunks are used by the natives in some districts of Africa as burial-
places for such of their dead as are believed to have communion with evil
spirits—A. Gregorii.—The fruit of this tree, which is a native of North
Australia, where it is known as Sour-gourd and Cream-of-tartar tree, has
similar properties to that of A. digitata. This genus is sometimes placed in
Malvacee.
Bombax.—B. Ceiba, the Silk-Cotton tree of South America, and B. pen-
tandrum. the Silk- Cotton tree of India, are both remarkable for their size
and height. The seeds of these plants are covered by long silky hairs ; hence
their common name. But these hairs cannot be spun like those of ordinary
cotton, chiefly on account of the smoothness and consequent want of adhesion
between their sides, and are therefore useless for manufacturing purposes.
They are employed, however, in many parts of the world, for stuffing
cushions, &e. The bark of B. pentandrum is reputed to be emetic, This
genus is sometimes referred to Malvacex.
Chorisia.—C. speciosa has its seeds covered with silky hairs, which are
used for stuffing cushions, &c. This material is termed Vegetable Silk.
The bark of C. erispiflora is employed for making cordage in Brazil.
Durio zibethinus.—This tree, which is about the size of the ordinary pear-
tree, vields the fruit called Durian, which is highly esteemed in the south-
eastern parts of Asia, being accounted next in value to the Mangosteen. It
has, however, a strong smell, which renders it disagreeable at first, but this
quality is soon forgotten after the palate has become familiar with it. This
genus is sometimes referred to Malvacex.
Eriodendron Samauma, a native of South America, is remarkable for its
great height. Its trunk frequently overtops all the surrounding trees before
it gives off a single branch. The hairy covering of the seeds of various
species of Hriodendron is employed for stuffing cushions and similar pur-
oses.
P Guazuma.—The fruit of G. ulmifolia contains a sweetish mucilaginous
agreeable pulp, which is eaten in Brazil, and the young bark possesses
mucilaginous properties.
Ochroma Lagopus, a West Indian tree, has an antisyphilitic bark, and a
spongy wood, which is sometimes used as a substitute for cork.
Salmalia.—The bark of some species of this genus is said to be emetic,
and honey obtained from the flowers of S. malabarica is commonly regarded
as both emetic and purgative.
Sterculia—The seeds of Sterculia (Cola) acuminata, and probably of
other species, constitute the Kola-nuts of tropical West Africa, and the
Guru-nuts of Soudan. They are largely used in various parts of Africa as
food and medicine, and are also commonly stated to be employed to sweeten
water which has become more or less putrid. Their use, however, as a puri
fier of water is denied by Dr. Daniell. They have been ‘used of recent vears
in this country and elsewhere, as a stimulant tonic, and as a remedy i in
chronic diarrhoea, cardiac affections, and cachexia. These properties are
especially due to the presence of theine; they also contain tannic acid. It
is said that these nuts have the power of staying, for even a prolonged
period, the cravings of hunger, and of enabling those who eat them to en-
dure continued labour without fatigue, resembling in these respects coca-
leaves. The seeds of other species of Sterculia are also eaten in different
parts of the globe. This is the case with S. Chica, and S. lasiantha in
Brazil; and S. nobilis in Asia.—Sterculia Tragucantha, a native of Sierra
Leone, receives its specific name from vielding a gum resembling Traga-
canth. It is termed African Tragacanth, and has been stated by Dr.
i Ut
482 STERCULIACEZ.—TILIACEA,
Fliickiger to be a good substitute for the official Tragacanth. (See Astra-
galus.)—S. urens, a native of Coromandel, yields a gum of a similar
nature, which is called Gum Kutteera. (See also Cochlospermum.) The
fruit, seeds, leaves or bark of other species of Sterculia are also used for
various purposes as medicinal agents in different parts of the globe. The
seeds of all the species contain a fixed oil, which may be used for burning in
lamps, &ce. According to Hooker, S. villosa and S. guttata yield fibres
from which ropes of excellent quality and cloth are made.
Theobroma Cacao, the Cacao or Cocoa-tree. This tree, by far the most
important plant of the order, is a native of Demerara and Mexico, and it is
extensively cultivated in the West Indies, Central America, Mauritius, &c.
From its seeds Cacao or Cocoa, and Chocolate are prepared. In the manu-
facture of Chocolate. the seeds are first roasted, then divested of their husks
and ground, and afterwards triturated in a mortar with an equal quantity
of sugar, to which some vanilla or cinnamon is added for flavouring, and
a small quantity of Arnatto as a colouring agent. All the finer qualities
are thus prepared, but the flavouring of the inferior kinds is sometimes pro-
duced by adding Sassafras nuts, cloves, or some other aromatic. Chocolate
derives its name from the Indian term chocolat. Cocoa is either prepared
by grinding up the roasted seeds with their outer shells or husks between hot
cylinders into a paste, which is then mixed with starch, sugar, &c.,—this
forms common cocoa, rock cocoa, soluble cocua, &c.,—or the roasted seeds
divested of their husks are broken into small fragments, in which state
they form cocoa nibs, the purest state of Cocoa. The husks of the Cocoa
seeds are also sometimes used by the poorer classes of Italy and Ireland in
the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage ; they are imported
from Italy under the name of ‘miserable.’ Both Cocoa and Chocolate are
used for the preparation of agreeable and nutritious beverages; these
are not so stimulating as Tea and Coffee, but they disagree with many
persons on account of their fatty nature. The generic name, Theobroma,
was given to this tree by Linnzus, signifying ‘ food of the gods,’ to mark his
opinion of the nutritious and agreeable nature of the beverages prepared
from its seeds ; but Belzoni, a traveller of the sixteenth century, regarded
them in a very different light, for he declared that Cocoa was a drink ‘ fitter
for a pig than for a man.’ Cocoa seeds owe their properties chiefly to a
peculiar alkaloid, named theobromine, which resembles theine, the alkaloid
contained in China Tea (see Thea), &c., and to a concrete oil or fat called
Butter of Cocoa, which constitutes about half their weight. It has been
computed that Cocoa and Chocolate form the common unfermented beverages
of about fifty million persons in Spain, Italy, France, and Central America,
and that the consumption of Cocoa in these countries annually is over
100,000,000 lbs. Cocoa is also now largely used in Britain; and its use has
much increased of late years. Thus the consumption in 1820 was only about
276,000 Ibs. ; in 1866 it was 4,583,124 lbs.; in 1873 over 8,000,000 lbs. ;
and it is now estimated to exceed 10,000,000 lbs. annually. From the
pulp which surrounds the seeds a peculiar kind of spirit is distilled.
The concrete oil is official in the British Pharmacopeia. It enters into
the composition of the suppositories ordered in that volume. In itself it
possesses emollient properties. It is especially valuable from not readily
becoming rancid by exposure to the air.
Order 3. Tit1AcE#, the Lime-tree or Linden Order.—
Character.—Trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs. Leaves simple,
alternate (fig. 290), with deciduous stipules. Sepals 4 or 5
(fig. 921), distinct or united, valvate in eestivation (jig. 921),
deciduous. Petals equal in number to the sepals (fig. 921),
entire or divided, or rarely wanting, imbricate. Stamens hypo-
TILIACEA. 483
gynous (figs. 923 and 924), usually numerous (figs. 921-923),
distinct (fig. 923) or polyadelphous (fig. 557); anthers 2-celled
(figs. 525 and 922), opening longitudinally, or by pores at the
apex. Disk glandular, hypogynous. Carpels 2—10, which are
generally united so as to form a compound many-celled ovary
(fig. 921), sometimes distinct ; placentas axile (fig. 921); style
1 (figs. 922 and 923) ; stigmas equal in number to the carpels.
Fruit dry or pulpy, sometimes samaroid, usually many-celled,
or rarely 1-celled by abortion. Seeds solitary or numerous ; em-
bryo erect, straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen ; cotyledons
flat and leafy (jig. 764, c, c); radicle next the hilum.
Diagnosis.—This order resembles, in many respects, the
BxG.. 921. Fic. 923.
Fig. 921, Diagram of the flower of the
Lime.— Fig. 922. Vertical section
of the flower of the same ( Tilia euro-
pea). Fig. 923. Peduncle of the
Lime, bearing two flower-buds and
a fully expanded flower.
Malvacez and Sterculiaceze. It may be at once distinguished
from them by having a glandular disk, and by the stamens not
being monadelphous; and from the Malvacez also, by the
anthers being 2-celled. From all other Thalamiflorz the plants
of this order may be known by their alternate simple stipulate
leaves; valvate zstivation of calyx, which is also deciduous ;
floral envelopes in 4 or 5 divisions ; stamens either distinct or
polyadelphous ; anthers 2-celled; hypogynous glandular disk ;
many-celled fruit with axile placentas; and embryo erect,
straight, in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order has
been divided into two tribes, as follows :—
112
484 TILIACEA.
Tribe 1. Tiliex.—Corolla with entire petals, or wanting ; anthers
dehiscing longitudinally. Illustrative Genera :—Corchorus,
Linn.; Tilia, Linn.
Tribe 2. Elxocarpex.—Petals divided, anthers opening by pores
at the apex. Illustrative Genera :—Eleocarpus, Linn. ;
Vallea, Mut.
Distribution and Numbers.—A few are found in the northern
parts of the world, where they form large trees ; but the plants
of this order are chiefly tropical, and are there found as herbs,
shrubs, or trees. There are about 350 species.
Properties and Uses.—In their properties the Tiliacez re-
semble the Malvaceze. They are altogether innocuous, and are
generally mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent. Many of
them also yield fibres, which are much used for manufacturing
purposes. Some are valuable timber-trees, and some have
edible fruits.
Aristotelia— A. Maqui has an edible fruit, and from it a kind of wine
is also made in Chili, which is given in fevers of a malignant type. The
fibres of the bark and the wood have been used in the manufacture of
musical instruments. In New Zealand the fruits of A. racemosa, the Mako
Mako, are also eaten.
Corchorus.—The fibres obtained from the bark of Corchorus capsularis,
the Jute Plant, are commonly known under the name of Jute or Jute-hemp.
This fibre is very valuable and is now imported in enormous quantities into
this country, where it is used chiefly in the manufacture of coarse bags,
and as a foundation for inferior carpets, &c. It is also frequently mixed
with silk in the manufacture of cheap satin fabrics, and is likewise
employed as a substitute for hair, and in the manufacture of chignons, &c.
It does not appear to be well adapted for sailcloth or cordage, because it
will not bear exposure to wet. The imports in 1875 were over 500,000,000
lbs., the value of which was 2,362,2261., of which only about 80,000,000 lbs.
were exported. In India it is used chiefly for the purpose of making the
coarse canvas called Gunny, which is the material employed there for the
bags, &c., in use for packing raw produce.—Corchorus olitorius, commonly
called Jew’s Mallow, is used in some parts of the world as a pot-herb ; it is
also one of the sources of Jute. In Panama, the leaves of C. mompozensis
are infused in boiling water, and the infusion is then taken as a substitute
for tea.
Elzxocarpus.— E. ( Ganitrus) serratus—The fruits are commonly known
under the name of Molucca Berries. When the fruit is divested of its pulp,
the endocarp, which is hard and bony, and beautifully furrowed, is used for
making necklaces. These are frequently brought as presents from India,
and are also to be purchased in this country. The fruits of some species of
Elzocarpus are eaten, while others are used in the preparation of Indian
curries. The bark of #. Hinau (dentatus) affords an excellent dye, varying
in colour from brown to puce or nearly black. 1t is employed in New
Zealand for dyeing the garments of the natives. It is also useful as a
tanning agent.
Grewia.— G. sapida, G. asiatica, and other species, have. pleasant acid
fruits, and are used in the East for making Sherbet.—@G. elastica affords
valuable timber.— G. polygama is regarded in Queensland as a very valuable
remedy in dysentery. The seeds are also employed in the preparation of a
sub-acid drink.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THALAMIFLORA, 486
Luhea grandiflora—tThe bark is astringent, and is employed in Brazil
for tanning leather. The wood of other species is used for various purposes
in Brazil, as for making soles to boots, musket-stocks, &c.
Tilia europea, Common Lime or Linden Tree.—The inner bark is em-
ployed’ in the northern parts of Europe, more particularly in Russia, in the
manufacture of mats, which are commonly known as Russian, Bast, or Bass
mats. This Bast is one of the substances employed by gardeners for tying up
plants. ‘The flowers are very fragrant when fresh, and an infusion of them
is much used on the Continent for its expectorant and antispasmodic pro-
perties. The wood of this and other species of Yilia is very white and
smooth, and is employed for various purposes, as for carving, wainscoting, &c.
Triumfetta.—Several species of this genus have astringent and mucila-
ginous leaves and fruits, and are employed in Brazil for making injections,
which are reputed to be useful in gonorrhea.
Vallea cordifolia.—The leaves are used for the purpose of dyeing yellow.
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Sub-class
Polypetale.
Series 1. THALAMIFLORZ®.
1. FLoweErs with more than 20 stamens.
A. Leaves without stipules.
a. Carpels more or less distinct (at least as to the styles), or solitary.
1. Stamens distinct.
Carpels immersed in a fleshy tabular
thalamus . ; : ; : . Nelumbiacex.
Carpels not immersed in a thalamus.
Embryo in a vitellus . : : . Cabombacezx.
Embryo naked, very minute.
Seeds arillate . : : - . Dilleniacex,
Seeds exarillate. Albumen fleshy
and homogeneous.
Flowers hermaphrodite . . Ranunculaceex.
Flowers unisexual . d . Schizandracex.
Seeds usually exarillate. Albumen
ruminate . : : . Aznonaceex.
2. Stamens united in one or more parcels.
Calyx much imbricate.
Seeds smooth . : ; - . Hypericacer.
Seeds shaggy . : - : . Reaumuriacer.
b. Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the ovaries), with more than
one placenta ; or with a free central placenta.
Placentas parietal, in distinct lines.
Anthers versatile. Juice watery . . Capparidacee.
Anthers innate. Juice milky. . Papaveraceer.
Placentas parietal, spread over the lining
of the fruit . : . : . Bixacex.
Placentas covering the dissepiments . Nympheaceex.
Placentas in the axis. "
Stigma large, broad, and petaloid . NSarraceniaceer.
Stigma simple. Calyx much imbricate.
Leaves compound. : ; . Rhizobolacex.
\
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN
486
Leaves simple.
Petals equal in number to the sepals.
Seeds few . : ; E
Seeds numerous. Petals flat
Seeds numerous. Petals crumpled
Petals not equal in number to the
sepals. Styles not perfectly com-
bined . : . ‘ . .
Placenta free central . ; . 5
B. Leaves with stipules.
a. Carpels more or less distinct (at least as to
the styles).
Carpels numerous .
b. Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the
ovaries), with more than one placenta.
Placentas parietal . ; 5 ‘ °
Placentas in the axis.
Calyx with an imbricate estivation.
Flowers involucrate . : : 5
Flowers not involucrate
Calyx with a valvate estivation.
Stamens monadelphous. Anthers 2-
celled.
Stamens monadelphous. Anthers 1-
célled. °
Stamens monadelphous. Calyx irre-
gular, and enlarged in the fruit
Stamens quite distinct , °
THALAMIFLORA,
Guttiferex.
Marcgraaviacee.
Cistacex.
Ternstremiacez.
Portulacacezx.
Magnoliacez.
Bizxacezx.
Chlenacex.
Cistacex.
Sterculiacee.
Malvacez.
Dipteracez.
Tiliacex.
2. FLOWERS with less than 20 stamens.
A. Leaves without stipules.
a. Carpels more or less distinct, or solitary.
Anthers with recurved valves . ° .
Anthers with longitudinal dehiscence.
Albumen abundant, embryo minute.
Flowers unisexual, Seeds usually nu-
merous . : ‘ ; .
Flowers perfect.
Embryo ina vitellus. . ,
Embryo not in a vitellus.
Albumen homogeneous.
Sepals2 . : - @ ;
Sepals more than 2. :
Albumen ruminate. Shrubs
Albumen in small quantity, or alto-
gether wanting.
Flowers unisexual . 5 : ;
Flowers perfect .
. Carpels wholly combined (at leat as to Ee
ovaries ).
Placenta parietal.
Stamens tetradynamous ‘ . .
Stamens not tetradynamous,
Large hypogynous disk.
Flowers tetramerous. Fruit closed
at the apex . : . . .
Berberidacezx.
Lardizabalacez,
Cabombacezx.
Fumariacez.
Ranunculacee.
Anonacex.
Menispermaceex.
Calycanthacez.
Crucifere.
Capparidacex.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THALAMIFLOR#. 487
Flowers not tetramerous. Unripe
fruit usually open at the apex . Resedacex.
Small hypogynous disk, or none.
Albumen abundant.
Flowers irregular . : Fumariaceex.
Flowers regular. Sap milky. Fruit
without central pulp c . Papaveracee,
Fruit with central pulp, or fleshy.
Sap watery . Bizaceer.
Albumeninsmall quantity, or, want-
ing.
Caly x tubular, furrowed . « Frankeniacee,
Placentas covering the dissepiments . Nympheacee.
Placentas axile or free central.
Styles distinct to the base.
Caly x much imbricate.
Seeds smooth. Petals unequal-sided,
without appendages . ‘ Hypericacer.
Seeds shaggy. Petals unequal-sided,
usually with appendages at the
base . . . . Reaumuriacex.
Calyx slightly imbricate.
Petals not twisted in zstivation.
Ovary witha free central placenta Caryophyllacezx.
Styles more or less combined.
Calyx much imbricate, in an irre-
gular broken whorl.
Flowers symmetrical . - Cuttifere.
Flowers unsymmetrical, papilion-
aceous . Polygalacez.
Calyx but little imbricate, i in a com-
plete whorl.
Carpels 4 or more.
Ovary, 1-celled, with a free central
placenta . F 5 . Portulacaceex.
Carpels less than 4.
Seeds comose . - 5 . Tamaricacee.
Seeds not comose.
Ovules pendulous. Petals twisted
in estivation. : Canellacezx.
Ovules ascending or horizontal.
Petals imbricatei inestivation DPittosporaceex.
Calyx valvate, or but very slightly
imbricate.
Anthers opening by pores’. . Tremandracee.
B. Leaves with stipules.
a. Carpels distinct, or solitary.
Anthers with recurved valves. aes
solitary . : : ° : Berberidacex,
b. Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the
uvaries), with more placentas than one.
Placentas parietal.
Leaves with involute vernation. Anthers
crested, and turned inwards. Z . Violacezx.
Stamens opposite to the petals. Anthers
naked, and turned outwards. ‘ . Sauvagesiaceer,
488 DISCIFLORZ.—LINACE#.
Placentas in the axis.
Styles distinct to the base.
Calyx much imbricate, in an irregular
broken whorl,
Petals small, sessile . : d . Llatinacer.
Calyx but little imbricate, in a com-
plete whorl.
Petals minute . : : . . Paronychiaceex.
Calyx valvate : : : . Tiliacex.
Styles more or less combined.
Calyx much imbricate, in an irregular
broken whorl.
Flowers surrounded by an involucre. Chlenacex.
Calyx but little imbricate, in a com-
plete whorl.
Sepal spurred . : : : . Vochysiacee.
Calyx valvate.
Stamens united by their filaments into
a column, : . Sterculiacee.
Stamens not united intoacolumn . Tiliacex.
In order to prevent the student being misled, and thus to refer plants
to their wrong positions in the Vegetable Kingdom, it should be particularly
noticed, that although the general character of the Thalamiflore is to have
dichlamydeous flowers and polypetalous corollas, yet exceptions do occur
occasionally to both these characters. Thus, we find apetalous genera and
species in Ranunculacee, Magnoliacexe, Berberidacex, Sarraceniacex, Meni-
spermacee, Papaveracee, Crucifere, Canellacex, Bixacew, Violacex, Caryo-
phyllacee, Paronychiacew, Scleranthacew, Malvacew, Sterculiacew, and
Tiliacex.
Again, in the orders Anonacex. Pittosporacex, Polygalacex, Portulacaceex,
Tamaricacex, Ternstremiacee; Rutacew, and Dipteraceew, we find some
monopetalous species and genera.
In Dilleniacew, Papaveracex, Cupparidacee, Resedacex, Violacex, Caryo-
phyllacexw, Portulacacew, Malvacee, and Sterculiaez, some of the species
have stamens more or less perigynous instead of hypogynous. Again, in
some orders, as in certain Ranunculacew, Calycanthacew, Anonacex,
Nympheacee. Portulacacex, Capparidacex, Polygalacex, Bixacex, Tern-
stremiacee, Vochysiacex, Tiliacewx, and Dipteracex, the calyx is more or
less superior.
Series 2. Discifloree.
Cohort 1. Geraniales.—Calyx generally imbricate, or rarely
valvate. Gyncecium usually syncarpous, or sometimes
apocarpous ; ovules suspended ; raphe ventral. Seeds albu-
. minous or exalbuminous.
Order 1. Linace#,the Flax Order.—Character.—Herbs
or rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate, opposite, or rarely verti-
cillate, simple, entire, exstipulate, or rarely stipulate. Inflor-
escence cymose. Flowers regular (jig. 924), symmetrical,
generally very showy. Calyx imbricate, with 3, 4, or 5 sepals
( fig. 924), persistent. Petals 4—5 (fig. 924), unguiculate, very
deciduous, twisted in eestivation. Stamens 4—5, united at the
base so as to form an hypogynous ring (jig. 925), from which
LINACE: 489
proceed 5 tooth-like processes (stamiiyodes) which alternate with
the fertile stamens, and are opposite to the petals (jig. 925).
Disk none or glandular. . Ovary compound (figs. 618 and 924),
its cells usually corresponding in number to the sepals ; styles
3—5 ; stigmas capitate (figs. 925 and 926). Fruit a septicidal
capsule, each cell more or less perfectly divided into two by a
spurious dissepiment proceeding from the dorsal suture (jig.
618, b), and having a single seed in each division. Seed com-
pressed, with or without albumen ; embryo straight, with the
radicle towards the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Herbs or very rarely shrubs, with simple entire
leaves, which are usually exstipulate. Flowers regular, sym-
metrical. Sepals, petals, and stamens 3—5 each ; the sepals
Fia. 924. Fic. 925. Fia. 926.
Fig. 924. Diagram of the flower of the Flax Plant (Linum usitatissimum).
— Fig. 925. Essential organs of the same, showing the monadelphous
stamens surrounding the pistil. Fig. 926. Pistil of the same, with
distinct styles and capitate stigmas.
persistent and imbricate; the petals fugacious and twisted in
zestivation ; and the fertile stamens united at their base, and
having little tooth-like staminodes alternating with them. Ovary
3—5-celled, styles distinct, stigmas capitate. Fruit a septicidal
capsule, each cell more or less divided by a spurious dissepiment,
and each division containing one seed. Seeds compressed, with
or without albumen, and having a straight embryo.
The plants of the order Erythroxylacex of some botanists,
which, following Bentham and Hooker, we include in this
order, are exceptional in the petals having at their base two
scales, in their drupaceous fruit, and woody stem.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the south of
Europe, Brazil, and some other parts of South America, West
Indies, and the north of Africa, but more or less distributed
over most regions of the globe. Illustrative Genera :—Linum,
Linn. ; Radiola, Gmelin. There are about 160 species.
490 LINACEA,
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are generally
remarkable for the tenacity of their liber fibres, and also for the
mucilage and oil contained in their seeds ; hence the latter are
emollient and demulcent. A few of the plants are bitter and
purgative ; and some are stimulant and sedative. Others are
tonic, and some are used for dyeing red.
Erythroxy'on.—Some species of Erythroxylon are tonic, others purgative,
and a few stimulant and sedative. The wood of E. hypericifolium and the
bark of . suberosum are red, and are used in the preparation of dyes of that
colour. The wood of others has a similar reddish appearance, and from this
common colour of the wood the name of the genus is derived. But by far the
more important plant of this genus is the following :—£. Coca. ‘The dried
leaves of this plant, under the name of Coca or Cuca, are commonly used
mixed with a little lime, or wood ashes formed of the burnt stems of
Chenopodium Quinoa, Cecropia peltata, or other plants, by the natives of
Peru and some other parts of South America, as a masticatory. The
Peruvian Indians have always ascribed to coca the most extraordinary
virtues. Thus, they believe that it lessens the desire and the necessity for
ordinary food, and, in fact, that it may be considered as almost a substitute
for food. Spruce says, that an Indian with a chew of Ipadu (the native
name for coca of the Indians of the Rio Negro) in his cheek, will go two or
three days without food, and without feeling any desire to sleep. Von
Tschudi, Markham, Stevenson, Dr. Scherzer, and others have also given
somewhat similar testimony as to the eftects of coca. But Weddell speaks
far less highly of its virtues. He states that it does not satisfy the appetite,
but merely enables those who chew it to support abstinence for a length of
time without a feeling of hunger or weakness. The use of coca is also said
to prevent the difticulty of respiration which is generally experienced in
ascending long and steep mountains. Its excessive use has been stated to
be very injurious by producing analogous effects to those occasioned by the
immoderate consumption of opium and fermented liquors; but Tschudi says
that its moderate use is rather beneficial than otherwise. Christison has
also testified to its value, from experiments made on himself and others, in
removing and preventing fatigue. He states that by its use ‘hunger and
thirst are suspended; but eventually appetite and digestion are unaffected.’
It was computed by Johnston some time since, that the annual consumption
of coca was 30,000,900 lbs., and that its chewing was indulged in by about
10,000,000 of the human race. In Bolivia alone 15,000,000 Ibs. of coca are
produced annually. The constituent thus said to give rise to the peculiar
stimulating, hunger-allaying, and narcotic effects of coca seems essentially
to be the alkaloid cocaine. It also contains a peculiar form of tannic acid,
termed coca-tannic acid. Coca leaves and hydrochlorate of cocaine have now
been made official in the British Pharmacopoeia ; the former have been used
as a nervine stimulant like tea and coffee, and also as a remedy in insomnia
and otherwise. Cocaine itself in the form of the official hydrochlorate and
other salts has been used most extensively and with very beneficial effects
as a local anesthetic in operations on the eye and in other cases,
Linum.—The liber-fibres of Linum usitatissimum, when prepared in a
particular way, constitute flax, of which linen fabrics are made. In 1873,
2,194,000 ewt. of flax were imported into this country. Linen, when seraped,
forms lint, which is so much used for surgical dressings ; and the short fibres
of flax which are separated in the course of its preparation, constitute tow,
which is much employed in pharmacy, surgery, and for other purposes. The
seeds of this plant, which is commonly known as the Flax Plant, are termed
Flaxseed, Linseed, or Lintseed ; they contain much mucilage, and a fixed
oil. The oil may be readily obtained from the seeds by expression; the
MALPIGHIACEA. 491
amount depending upon the quality of the seed, and the mode adopted for its
expression, and varying from about 20 to 30 per cent. Linseed oil is
especially remarkable for drying readily when applied to the surface of any
body exposed to the air, and thus forming a hard transparent varnish.
This peculiarity is much accelerated if the ‘il be previously boiled, either
alone, or with some preparations of lead. The cake left after the expression
of the oil is known as Oil-cake, and is employed as food for cattle; and
when powdered, it is frequently sold as Linseed Meal, but the official Lin-
seed Meal is simply Linseed powdered ; hence it contains the oil, which is
not present in the former. Linseed Meal which thus contains the oil is to
be preferred when in a fresh state. An infusion of Linseed is employed
medicinally for its demulcent and emollient properties. The oil is exten-
sively used in the arts, &c.; and is a valuable application to burnt or scalded
parts, either alone, or combined with an equal quantity of Lime-water ; this
mixture is commonly known under the name of Carron-oil, a name derived
from its having been extensively employed in the Carron Tron-foundry.—
The seeds, linseed meal, and linseed oil are all official in the British Pharma-
copeeia.— Linum catharticum, popularly termed Purging Flax, is a common
indigenous plant. It possesses active purgative properties, and might be
much more employed as a medicine than is the case at present. —Linum
selaginoides, a Peruvian Species, is reputed to be bitter and ap>rient.
Sethia.—S. indica is in creat repute in Ceylon as a vermifuge for
children, The leaves are dried, powdered, and given mixed with boiled
rice.—S, acuminata is also used 1 in a similar way for the same purpose. It
is known in Ceylon as Matura Worm Medicine.
Order 2. Marpicutace&, the Malpighia Order.— Charac-
ter.—Trees or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves usually opposite
or whorled, rarely alternate; stipules generally short and
deciduous, sometimes large and interpetiolar ; the leaves are
occasionally furnished with hairs, which are fixed by their
middle, that is, peltate (fig. 168). Flowers perfect or polygamous.
Calyx 5-partite, persistent, frequently with glands at the base
of one or all of the divisions; estivation imbricate or rarely
valvate. Petals 5, hypogynous, unguiculate ; e&stivation con-
volute. Stamens usually 10, monadelphous or distinct ; connective
fleshy and elongated beyond the anther-lobes. Ovary generally
consisting of 3 carpels, rarely 2 or 4, partially or wholly com-
bined ; ovules 1 in each cell, pendulous from a long stalk ; styles
3, distinct or united ; stigmas 3, simple. Fruit either drupaceous,
samaroid, or a woody nut. Seed solitary, exalbuminous ; em-
bryo straight or variously curved.
Diagnosis.—Trees or shrubs, with simple stipulate leaves.
Flowers perfect or polygamous. Calyx and corolla with 5 parts ;
the sepals having usually large glands at the base, and imbricate
or very rarely valvate in estivation ; the petals unguiculate,
without appendages, hypogynous, convolute. Stamens usually
10, sometimes 15, with a fleshy prolonged connective. Ovary
generally composed of 3 carpels, or in any case not corresponding
in number, or being any power of the three outer whorls ; ovules
solitary, pendulous from long stalks. Seeds exalbuminous,
usually with a convolute embryo.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are almost exclusively
492 HUMIRIACEX.—ZYGOPHYLLACEA.
natives of tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Malpighia,
Plum. ; Byrsonima, Rich.; Nitraria. There are about 580
species.
Properties and Uses.—An astringent property appears to be
most general in the plants of this order. Some have edible
fruits ; and the seeds of others are reputed to be poisonous.
Bunchosia armeniaca, a native of Peru, is stated to have poisonous seeds.
Byrsonima.—Some species have edible fruits. The Byrsonimas are, how-
ever, principally remarkable for theirastringency. Thusthe fruit of B. spicata
( Bois-tan) is used in dysentery ; the bark of B. crassifolia is employed in-
ternally as an antidote to the bite of the rattlesnake, and for other purposes
where astringent medicines are desirable. The bark of other species is also
in use for tanning in Brazil. American Alcornoque bark, which is im-
ported into this country for the use of the tanner, is said to be the produce
of B. laurifolia, B. rhopalefolia, and B. coccolobxfolia,
Malpighia glabra and M. punicifolia have edible fruits, which are used
in the West Indies, as a dessert, under the name of Barbados Cherries,
Nitraria.—This genus is by some put into an order by itself called Nitra-
riacee. According to Munby, JW. tridentata is the true Lotus-tree of the
ancients. (See also Zizyphus.) It is a native of the desert of Soussa, near
Tunis, and its fruit is of a somewhat intoxicating nature.—V. Billardieri, a
native of Australia, has an edible fruit.
Order 3. Humirtace&, the Humirium Order.—Character.
—Trees or shrubs with a balsamic juice. Leaves alternate,
simple, coriaceous, exstipulate. Calyx 5-partite, imbricate.
Petals 5, imbricate. Stamens hypogynous, 20 or more, mona-
delphous ; anthers 2-celled ; connective elongated beyond the
anther lobes. Ovary superior, usually surrounded by a disk,
5-celled ; ovules 1 or 2 in each cell, suspended ; style simple ;
stigma 5-lobed. Fruit drupaceous, 5-celled, or fewer-celled by
abortion. Seed with a narrow embryo lying in fleshy albumen,
orthotropous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical America.
Illustrative Genera:— Humirium, Mart.; Vantanea, Auwbl.
There are 18 species.
Properties und Uses.—A balsamic yellow oily liquid, called
Balsam of Umiri, is obtained from the incised stem of Humiriwm
floribundum ; this is reputed to resemble Copaiba in its proper-
ties. The bark is used by the Brazilians as a perfume. Other
species are also said to yield useful balsamic liquids. The so-
called balsamic liquid found in plants of this order is probably
not a true balsam, but an oleo-resin resembling Wood Oil and
Copaiba.
Order 4. ZYGOPHYLLACE®, the Bean-caper or Guaiacum
Order.—C haracter.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite,
stipulate, without dots, usually imparipinnate, or rarely simple.
Flowers perfect, regular, and symmetrical. Calyx 4- or 5-partite,
convolute. Petals unguiculate, 4 or 5, imbricate, hypogynous.
Stwmens 8—10, hypogynous, usually arising from the back of
small scales ; filaments dilated at the base. Ovary 4—5-celled,
ZYGOPHYLLACEA. 493
surrounded by glands or a toothed disk; style simple ; ovules 2 or
more in each cell (figs. 659 and 660); placentas axile. Fruit
capsular, dehiscing in a loculicidal manner, or separating into
cocci, 4- or 5-celled, and presenting externally as many angles
or winged expansions as cells; rarely indehiscent. Seeds few ;
albumen in small quantity, or rarely absent ; radicle superior ;
cotyledons foliaceous.
Diagnosis.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with opposite stipulate
dotless leaves. Calyx and corolla with a quaternary or
quinary arrangement ; the former convolute in estivation, the
latter with unguiculate petals and imbricate. Stamens 8—10,
hypogynous, usually arising from the back of scales. Ovary 4—5-
celled ; style simple. Fruit 4- or 5-celled. Seeds few, with
little or no albumen ; radicle superior ; cotyledons foliaceous.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are generally distributed
throughout the warm regions of the globe, but chiefly beyond
the tropics. Illustrative Genera :—Zygophyllum, Linn. ; Guai-
acum, Plum. There are about 100 species. Melianthus is by
some botanists separated from the Zygophyllacex, and taken as
the type of a new order, to which the name Melianthez has
been applied.
Properties and Uses.—Some of the plants are resinous, and
possess stimulant, alterative, and diaphoretic properties ; others
are anthelmintic. The’ wood of the arborescent species is
remarkable for its hardness and durability.
Guaiacum.—The heart-wood, and the resin obtained from the stem of
G. officinale and G: sanctum are official in the British Pharmacopeeia ; they
are commonly known as Guaiacum Wood, and Guaiacum Resin. The resin
is generally procured by burning logs of the wood much incised in the mid-
dle, and catching the resin as it flows from the central incised portion in a
calabash or some other suitable vessel placed below it. It also exudes to some
extent spontaneously, and especially so when the tree is cut or wounded in
any way. Both the wood and resin are used as stimulants, diaphoreties, and
alteratives, chiefly in gout and rheumatism, but also in syphilitic and various
cutaneous affections. The wood is known in commerce as Lignum Vite.
It is remarkable for its hardness, toughness, and durability, which qualities
render it very valuable for many purposes. The leaves are also used in the
West Indies, on account of their detersive qualities, for scouring and whiten-
ing floors.—G. sanctum has similar medicinal properties to the above, and
vields an analogous resin. A portion of the resin of commerce and also of
the wood is obtained from this species; hence, as already noticed, this plant
is likewise official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Larrea mexicana.—This plant is remarkable for having an odour resem-
bling creasote : hence it is commonly known as the Creasote Plant. The
Mexicans are said to use an infusion of the leaves for bathing in with good
effect in rheumatic affections.
Melianthus major.—The flowers of this species contain a large amount of
saccharine matter, which is used for food by the natives of the Cape of
Good Hope, where the plant abounds.
Peganum Harmala—In India the seeds are reputed to be stimulant, em-
menagogue, and anthelmintic. In Turkey they are used as a spice, and also
in the preparation of red dyes; these dyes are, however, not of a very per-
manent nature.
7
ic
:
494 GERANIACEA,
Tribulus. —T. terrestris is a prickly plant, which is abundant in dry bar-
ren places in the East. It is considered to be the Thistle mentioned in Matt.
vii. 16, and Ileb. vi. 8. The fruit of 7. lanuginosus is much esteemed in
Southern India as a diuretic.
Zygophyllum Fabago, Bean-caper.—It derives its common name from
the circumstance of its flower-buds being used in some parts of the world as
a substitute for Capers. It is also reputed to possess anthelmintic properties.
Order 5. GERANIACE, the Crane’s-bill Order.—Character,
— Herbs or shrubs, with swollen usually articulated joints (nodes).
Leaves simple, opposite or alternate, with membranous stipules.
Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals 5 (fig. 927), inferior, per-
sistent, more or less unequal ; estivation imbricate. Petals 5
(fig. 927), or rarely 4 from abortion, unguiculate, hypogynous
or perigynous ; &stivation twisted (fig. 927). Stamens usually
twice (fig. 928) as many as the petals, (some are, however,
frequently abortive), hypogynous, and generally united at the
base (fig. 928), the alternate ones shorter and occasionally
barren. Disk inconspicuous or glandular. Carpels 5, arranged
Fic. 928. Fic. 929.
Fie. 930.
Fig. 927. A portion of the flowering stem of Geranium sylvaticum.——Fig.
928. The andreecium and gyneecium of the same.—Fig. 929, The pistil,
partially matured, surrounded by the persistent calyx.— Fig. 930.
Transverse section of the seed,
around an elongated axis or carpophore (jig. 929); styies
corresponding in number to the carpels, and adhering to the
carpophore. Frwit consisting of five l-seeded carpels, which
ultimately separate from the carpophore from below upwards
by the curling up of the styles, which remain adherent at the
summit (fig. 640). Seeds without albumen ; cotyledons folia-
ceous, convolute (fig. 930).
Diagnosis,—Herbs or shrubs, with simple leaves, membranous
stipules, and swollen joints. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals
twisted in zestivation. Stamens hypogynous, generally united
at the base. Fruit consisting of 5 carpels attached by means of
their styles to an elongated axis or carpophore, from which they
separate when ripe from below upwards by the curling up of
BALSAMINACEA, 496
the styles, and ultimately dehisce. Seeds 1 in each carpel,
exalbuminous ; embryo with foliaceous convolute cotyledons.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—Some are distributed over
various parts of the world, but they abound at the Cape of
Good Hope. Kxamples of the Genera :—Erodium, L’ Héritier ;
Geranium, Linn. ; Pelargonium, L’Héritier. There are nearly
550 species. '
Properties and Uses. — Astringent, resinous, and aromatic
qualities are the more important properties of the plants of this
order. Many are remarkable for the beauty of their flowers ;
and others for the agreeable odours of their leaves and flowers,
which render them useful in perfumery.
Erodium.—The species are reputed to be astringent.—E£. moschatum is
remarkable for its musky odour.
Geranium.—The root of G. maculatum is a powerful astringent, for which
reason it is much used in North America, where it is called Alum-root. It
contains much tannic acid, and forms a good substitute for kino and
catechu.— G. parviflorum produces edible tubercular roots, which are known
in Van Diemen’s Land under the name of Native Carrots.
Pelargonium.—tThe species of this genus are favourite objects of culture
on account of the beauty of their flowers. They are chiefly natives of the
Cape of Good Hope, but the species have been much improved by cultivation.
They are commonly, but improperly, called Geraniums. In their properties
they are generally astringent, but the fresh tubercular roots of P. triste are
eaten at the Cape of Good Hope. From the leaves and flowers of Pelar-
gonium roseum, P. odoratissimum, and P. Radula, and some other species or
varieties of Pelargonium, essential oils may be obtained by distillation with
water. The latter species yields the true German Geranium Oil or Oil of
Rose-leaved Geranium, as well as the French Geranium or ‘ Palma-rose’
Oil; and the two first-named species yield the so-called Algerian Rose Oil.
Both these oils, but especially the former, are used in perfumery, These
true essential oils of Geranium must not be confounded with the so-called
Geranium Oil of India, which is the produce of an Indian Grass, Andropogon
pachnodes, Trin. (A. scheenanthus, Linn.). (See Andropogon.) This latter
oil is that used in Turkey for mixing with Otto of Roses. (See Rosa.)—P.
capitatum, or Rose-leaved Geranium, has been cultivated to some extent in
this country, and the oil obtained from it is said to be equal to those
imported under the name of Geranium oils,
Order 6. BatsAMINAce®, the Balsam Order.—Character.
—Herbaceous plants with succulent stems and a watery juice.
Leaves alternate or opposite, simple, exstipulate. Flowers
hypogynous, very irregular. Sepals 3 (fig. 799)—5, very irre-
gular, deciduous, with an imbricate estivation, the odd one
spurred (jig. 799). Petals 5 (fig. 799), or more usually 4, 1
being abortive, distinct or irregularly united, deciduous, alter-
nate with the sepals; e&xstivation convolute. Stamens 5 (fig.
799), alternate with the petals, and somewhat united. Disk
none. Ovary composed of 5 carpels, united so as to form a
d-celled compound body (fig. 799); style simple; stigma more
or less divided into 5 lobes. Frwit usually capsular, 5-celled,
and dehiscing in a septifragal manner by 5 elastic valves,
which become coiled up (jig. 931); placentas axile; sometimes
496 VIVIANIACEXZ.—TROP ZOLACEA.
succulent and indehiscent. Seeds solitary or numerous, sus-
pended, exalbuminous ; embryo straight.
Diagnosis.—Succulent herbaceous plants,
Fre. 931. with simple exstipulate leaves. Stems con-
tinuous and not separable at the nodes.
Flowers hypogynous, very irregular. Sepals
3—5; petals usually 4; both irregular and
deciduous ; xstivation of sepals imbricate,
that of the petals convolute. Stamens 5.
Ovary 5-celled ; style simple. Fruit 5-celled,
usually bursting with elasticity, without a
beak. Seeds suspended, exalbuminous. This
order is by some botanists, as Bentham and
Hooker, included in Geraniacee.
Distribution and Numbers.—A few are
Fig. 991. ‘Gaal’ of scattered over the globe ; but they are chiefly
Touch-me-not (Im- natives of the Indies, growing generally in
Pe es ae shady places and where the tempera-
he he ale ture is moderate. Illustrative Genus :—Im-
patiens, Linn. There are about 110 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are said by De Candolle to be
diuretic, but their properties are generally unimportant.
Order 7. VIVIANIACEH, the Viviania Order.— Diagnosis.
—These plants are readily known among the Disciflorz by their
exstipulate leaves, regular flowers, valvate 10-ribbed calyx, per-
manent withering twisted petals, 10 hypogynous stamens with
distinct filaments, 2-celled anthers with longitudinal dehiscence,
superior 3-celled ovary, 3-celled capsule with loculicidal dehis-
cence and albuminous seeds with a curved embryo and radicle
next the hilum. This order is included by Bentham and Hooker
in Geraniacer.
Distribution and Numbers.—They inhabit Chili and South
Brazil. Illustrative Genera.:—Cesarea, Cambess.; Viviania,
Willd. There are 15 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Order 8. TRopPHOLACE®, the Indian Cress Order.—C harac-
t er.—Smooth twining or trailing herbaceous plants, with an acrid
juice. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers irregular. Sepals
3—d (fig. 800), the upper one spurred ; valvate or very slightly
imbricate in estivation. Petals (fig. 800) 3—5, hypogynous,
more or less unequal; xstivation convolute. Stamens ( fig. 800)
6—10, somewhat perigynous, distinct ; anthers 2-celled. Disk
none. Ovary of 3 (fig. 800) or 5 carpels, each of which contains
one pendulous ovule; style 1; stigmas3 or5. Fruit indehiscent,
, .usually consisting of 3 carpels arranged round a common axis,
from which they ultimately separate, each carpel containing one
seed. Seed large, exalbuminous; embryo large ; radicle next the
LIMNANTHACEX.—OXALIDACES. 497
hilum. This order is included in Geraniacee by Bentham and
Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers. —Chiefly natives of South Ame-
rica. Illustrative Genera: —Tropeolum, Linn. ; Chymocarpus,
Don. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—Generally acrid, pungent, and anti-
scorbutic, resembling the Crucifere. The unripe fruit of
Tropxolum majus, which is commonly known as Indian Cress
or Garden Nasturtium, is frequently pickled, and employed by
housekeepers as a substitute for Capers. Most of the T'ro-
pxolums have tubercular roots, some of which are edible, as
T. tuberosum.
Order 9. LimnantTHace®, the Limnanthes Order.—Diagqnosis.
—This is a small order of plants included by Lindley in the
Tropzeolaceze, with which it agrees in its general characters ; but
it is distinguished from that order by having regular flowers ;
more evidently perigynous stamens; and erect ovules. It is
placed in Geraniaceer by Bentham and Hooker.
Fie. 932. Fie. 938. Fic. 934.
Fig. 932. Diagram of the flower of Ovalis. Fig. 933. Vertical section of
the flower of the same.— Fg. 934. Vertical section of the seed.
Distribution and Numbers.— Natives of North America.
Illustrative Genus :—Limnanthes, R. Br. There are 3 species.
Properties and Uses.—In these they resemble the Cruciferze
and Tropzeolacee.
Order 10. OXaLIDACE, the Wood: sorrel Order.—Character.
—RHerbs, or rarely shrubs or trees, generally with an acid juice.
Leaves alternate or rarely opposite, usually compound or occa-
sionally simple; generally with stipules, or rarely exstipulate.
Flowers regular and symmetrical. Sepals 5 (fig. 932), per-
sistent, imbricate, occasionally somewhat united at their base.
Petals 5 (fig. 932), hypogynous (fig. 933), unguiculate, rarely
wanting; xstivation twisted. Stamens double the number of
the petals and sepals (fig. 952), arranged in two rows alternating
with each other, the inner row longer than the cuter (jigs. 550
KK
498 OXALIDACEZ.—RUTACEA.
and 933) and opposite to the petals, commonly somewhat mona-
delphous (fig. 550); anthers 2-celled, innate. Disk none. Ovary
superior (fig. 933), 3—5-celled, with as many distinct styles as
there are cells; stigmas capitate or somewhat bifid. Fruit
usually capsular and 3—5-celled and 5—10-valved, occasionally
drupaceous and indehiscent; placentas axile (fig. 933). Seeds
few ; sometimes provided witha fleshy integument, which bursts
with elasticity when the fruit is ripe, and expels the seeds;
embryo (fig. 934) straight, in cartilaginous fleshy albumen ;
vadicle long, and turned towards the hilum ; cotyledons flat.
Diagnosis. —Herbs, or rarely shrubs or trees, usually with
compound exstipulate leaves. Stems continuous and not separ-
able at the nodes. Flowers hypogynous, regular, symmetrical.
Sepals, petals, and stamens with a quinary distribution; the
sepals persistent and imbricate ; the petals twisted in eestivation ;
the stamens commonly somewhat monadelphous, with 2-celled
innate anthers. Disk absent. Styles filiform, distinct. Fruit
3—5-celled, without a beak. Seeds few, with abundant albumen,
a straight embryo, long radicle turned towards the hilum, and
flat cotyledons. This order is clusely allied to the Geraniacex, to
which it is referred by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are generally dis-
tributed throughout both the hot and temperate regions of the
globe ; the shrubby species are, however, confined to the
former. They are most abundant at the Cape of Good Hope
and in tropical America. Lllustrative Genera :—Oxalis, Linn. ;
Averrhoa, Linn. There are about 330 species.
Properties and Uses.—-Chiefly remarkable for their acid juice,
which is due to the presence of binoxalate of potassium. They
usually possess refrigerant properties. The fruits of some are
eaten by the natives in the East Indies, but they are too acid
to be generally acceptable to Europeans.
Averrhoa Bilimbi and A. Carambola yield acid fruits, known respectively
under the names of Blimbing and Carambole. They are eaten by the
natives in the East Indies, but are too acidulous for Europeans, who never-
theless use them for pickles.
Oxalis—O. Acetosella, Common Wood-Sorrel, is a common indigenous
plant abounding in woods. It has ternate leaves, and is considered by
many to be the true Shamrock, as its leaves open about St. Patrick’s Day.
When infused in milk or water, it forms a pleasant refrigerant drink in
fevers. The leaves, taken as a salad, are antiscorbutic.—O. crenata, a plant
which is called Arracacha, together with others, as O. Deppe’, O. esculenta,
&c., have edible tubers, which are used as substitutes for potatoes in some
districts.—O. anthelmintica, the Mitchamitcho of Abyssinia, has very acrid
tubers. These are much employed for their anthelmintic properties in that
country, being frequently preferred to Kousso (Hagenia abyssinica), a
plant belonging to the Rosace, and which is also largely used in Abyssinia
for a similar purpose. (See Hagenia abyss‘nica.)
Order 11. Rutracem, the Rue Order.—C haracter.—Trees,
shrubs, or rarely herbs. Leaves exstipulate, simple or compound,
RUTACE. 499
dotted. Flowers perfect (figs. 579 and 935) or polygamous,
regular. Calyx having 3—5 segments (jig. 935), imbricate.
Petals equal in number to the divisions of the calyx (jigs. 611
and 935) or wanting, rarely combined so as to form a mono-
petalous corolla; exstivation usually twisted, rarely valvate.
Stamens distinct (figs. 579 and 611), or more or less united into
one or several bundles (fig. 935), equal in number to or twice
(figs. 579 and 611) as many as the petals, or some multiple of
them, or rarely fewer by abortion. Disk annular or cup-shaped,
glandular, hypogynous (figs. 597 and 987). Ovary sessile (fig.
611), or raised on a gynophore (figs. 608, g, and 624, gq) ; it is
composed of from 2 to 5 carpels, which are either distinct, or
united so as to form a compound ovary having as many cells as
there are component carpels; style simple (fig. 936) or divided
Fic. 935. Fic. 936. Fie. 937. Fre. 938.
Fig. 935. Diagram of the flower of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium).
Fig. 936. Vertical section of the pistil, showing a portion of the disk at
its base, and a solitary hypogynous stamen.— Fig. 937. Pistil of the
Orange, with disk atits base, and the calyx: the petalsand stamens have
been removed. Fig. 938. Vertical section of the seed of the Common
Rue (Ruta graveolens).
towards the base ( fig. 608) ; ovules 2, 4, or rarely more, in each
cell. Frwit capsular, its carpels either united or more or less
distinct, or succulent and indehiscent, and in Awrantiex forming
an hesperidium (jig. 715). Seeds solitary or in pairs; albumen
present or absent ; radicle superior (fig. 938).
Diagnosis.—Leaves exstipulate, dotted. Flowers perfect
or polygamous. Calyx and corolla with a ternary, quaternary,
or quinary distribution of their parts ; the former with an im-
bricate zstivation, the latter twisted or valvate, and sometimes
wanting. Stamens equal in number, or twice as many as the
petals, or somé multiple of them, or fewer. Ovary of from 2—5
carpels, separate or combined, either sessile and surrounded at
the base by a fleshy and glandular disk, or elevated upon a
gynophore ; ovules sessile. Fruit capsular or succulent. Em-
bryo with a superior radicle. Albumen present or absent.
K K 2
500 RUTACER.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The Rutaceze
have been variously divided, and Bentham and Hooker have
largely extended the order by including the orders Aurantiaceze
and Xanthoxylaceze of former botanists, which arrangement is
here adopted. As thus extended, they have divided it into the
following tribes :— Cusparieze, Ruteze, Diosmez, Boroniez,
Xanthoxylez, Toddaliezx, and Aurantiez. Illustrative Genera :
—Ruta, Touwrn.; Barosma, Willd. ; Xanthoxylon, Kunth. ;
Toddalia, Juss.; Citrus, Linn.
The Xanthoxyles are especially distinguished by their poly-
gamous flowers; and the Aurantieze by the blade of their leaves
being articulated to the petiole (jig. 320), their deciduous im-
bricate petals (fig. 935), and their peculiar fruit (hesperidiwm)
(fig. 715).
Distribution and Numbers.—The Ruteze are found chiefly in
the southern part of the temperate zone and in Northern Asia ;
the genera Diosma, Barosma, &c., abound at the Cape of Good
Hope ; other genera are found in Australia; and some in
equinoctial America. Xanthoxyleze are mostly American ;
Aurantieze usually East Indian. There are about 620 species.
Properties and Uses.—The Rutez are generally characterised
by a powerful penetrating odour, and bitter taste. Im medicine
they are employed as antispasmodics, tonics, febrifuges, diure-
tics, &c. The Xanthoylez are almost universally characterised
by pungent and aromatic properties, and sometimes by bitter-
ness. In medicine, they have been employed as stimulants,
sudorifics, febrifuges, tonics, sialogogues, and emmenagogues.
The Auranties abound in glands containing essential oils,
which render them fragrant ; hence such oils are useful in
perfumery, and for flavouring, and other purposes. These
volatile oils are especially abundant in the leaves, the petals,
and the rind of the fruit. The latter also contains a bitter tonic
principle. The pulp of the fruit has an acid or somewhat saccha-
rine taste; and the wood is always hard, and of a compact
nature.
Adenandra fragrans.—The leaves are sometimes used to adulterate
Buchu.
Aégle Marmelos, Indian Bael.—The half-ripe fruit is a favourite
remedy in India as a demulcent and astringent in diarrhoea and dysentery.
In a dried state it is official in the British Pharmacopoeia, but it appears
in this condition to be far less active than when fresh. Mangosteen rind
has been substituted for it in this country, as first noticed by the author
of this volume. (See Garcinia.) The bark of the root likewise possesses
astringent properties. Its leaves are also reputed to be useful in asthmatic
complaints. The rind of the ripe fruit yields a pleasant perfume, and its
pulp is described as being very nutritious and most pleasant to the taste ; it
possesses, moreover, laxative properties.
Amyris.—(See Burseracee. )
Barosma.—The leaves of several species, which are commonly known as
Buchu leaves, are used in medicine for their aromatic, stimulant, anti-
spasmodic, and diuretic properties; they seem also to have a specific in-
RUTACEA. 501
fluence over the urinary organs. The plants yielding them are natives of
the Cape of Good Hope. They owe their pr ‘operties essentially to a power-
fully scented volatile oil. They also contain abundance of mucilage, and,
according to Landerer, a peculiar bitter principle called barosmin or diosmin,
but of this nothing definite is known. The official species of the British
Pharmacopeeia are B. betulina, B. crenulata, and B. serratifolia.
Casimiroa edulis —The fruit is said by Seemann to be delicious, and also
to produce a soporific effect.
Citrus.—This is by far the most important genus of the order ; the fruits
yielded by the different species and varieties being highly valued ‘for dessert
and other purposes. The Orange, Lemon, Lime, Shaddock, Pompelmoose,
Forbidden Fruit, Kumquat, and Citron, are all well-know n, although the
species from which they are derived are not in all cases well- defined.—
Citrus Aurantium, Risso—The fruit is the Common or Sweet Orange.
Of this there are a great many varieties; the most important of which are
the Common or China Orange, the Blood Red or Malta Orange, and the St.
Michael’s Orange. Other varieties are sometimes imported, as the Noble or
Mandarin Orange and the Tangerine Orange. The Orange-tree is remark-
able for the enormous number of fruits it is capable of yielding ; thus, one
tree will sometimes produce as many as 20,000 oranges. The small unripe
fruits of this species, as well as those of the Bitter Orange, form what are
called Orange-berries ; these are used for flavouring Curacoa, and when
polished by a lathe, they constitute the ordinary zsswe peas of the pharmacies.
‘The leaves and young ‘shoots of the Sweet Orange, as well as those of the
Bitter Orange, by distillation with water, yield a volatile oil, which is
called Oil of Orange-leaf or Essence de petit grain; that obtained from the
Bitter Orange is considered to be of the finest quality. A similar oil may
be also distilled from orange-berries. From the rind of the ripe fruit a fra-
grant oil is procured, which is known as Essence de Portugal or Essential
Oil of Sweet Orange. The flowers of this species, as well as those of the
Bitter Orange, yield Oil of Neroli ; that from the latter is preferred. The
distilled water of the flowers of these two species, after the oil is removed,
constitutes the Agua Naphxe or Orange-flower Water of commerce, whic ‘h
is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. It is to the presence of Oil of Neroli
that the odour of Eau de Cologne is more particularly due. The rind of the
Sweet Orange is an aromatic stimulant and tonic; its juice is also very
extensively used as a refreshing and agreeable beverage at table, and also
medicinally as a refrigerant.— Citrus Bigaradia of Duhamel or Citrus vul-
garis of Risso, i is the official Bitter or Seville Orange. The leaves, flowers,
and unripe fruits of this species yield, by distillation or otherwise, similar
essential oils to those obtained from analogous parts of the Sweet Orange.
(See above.) Orange-flower Water is generally prepared from the flowers of
the Bitter Orange, as it is considered more fragrant than that obtained from
the Sweet Orange. The unripe fruits (as already noticed), like those of
the Sweet Orange, are called Orange-berries, and are used like them for
making issue peas, and for flavouring Curacgoa. The rind of the ripe fruit
yields a volatile oil, called Essential Oil of Bitter Orange or Essence de
Bigarade. The chief use of the Bitter Orange is in the making of marmalade.
The rind is also employed in medicine as a tonic and stomachic, and is more
valuable in these respects than that of the Sweet Orange. It is likewise used
for flavouring Curacoa and other substances; and in the preparation of
candied orange-peel.— Citrus Limonum of Risso is the Lemon tree. Of the
fruit we have several varieties ; the more important of which are,—the Wax
Lemon, the Imperial Lemon, and the Gaeta Lemon ; they are chiefly imported
from Sicily and Spain, the latter being the most esteemed. Both the rind and
the juice are employed in medicine, and for other purposes ; the former as a
stomachie and carminative, and for flavouring; the latter as an agreeable
and refreshing beverage, and also for its refrigerant and antiscorbutic effects.
502 RUTACEA.
The juice contains a large quantity of citric acid. Candied Lemon-peel is em-
ployed in confectionery, and as a dessert. The concentrated juice of Lemons,
as well as that of the Lime, is imported in enormous quantities, and used in
the preparation of the official citric acid. The rind containsa large quantity
of essential oil, which is generally obtained from it by expression by what
is termed the sponge or écuelle process, or sometimes by distillation; it is
commonly known as Essential Oil or Essence of Lemon. The best is ob-
tained by the first process, and it is distinguished as Essence de Citron au
zeste, the latter being termed Lssence de Citron distillée. This oil is princi-
pally used as a flavouring agent in confectionery, and in medicine, and also
in perfumery.—Citrus Limetta, DC., or C. Bergamia, Risso et Poit., is the
source of the Lime fruit. This is sometimes imported into this country in a
preserved state, and in that condition it forms a most agreeable dessert. Its
juice is also imported and largely employed with that of Lemons in the
preparation of citric acid, 2s already noticed. Both the fruit of C. Limonum
and C. Bergamia are official in the British Pharmacopeeia as the source of
citric acid, and the fruit of the Lemon-tree is also official for its rind and
juice. The Bergamot Orange is obtained from C, Bergamia var. vulgaris
of Risso. From the full-grown, but still unripe and greenish fruits of this
variety, either by expression or distillation, the essential oil, called Oil or
Essence of Bergamot, which is largely used in perfumery, is obtained.—
Citrus Medica.—The fruit of this is the Citron, or the Cedrat of the French.
This is supposed to be the Hebrew Tappuach, which is translated in our
version of the Old Testament as Apple-tree and Apples. The rind of this
fruit is commonly imported into this country in a preserved state, and is
used in confectionery. Its pulp is less acid and juicy than the Lemon, but
it may be employed, as well as that of the Lime, for similar purposes.
Essence or Essential Oil of Cédrat is obtained from the nearly ripe fruit by
the sponge or écuelle process. It is chiefly used in perfumery. ‘The Citron,
Lime, and Lemon are distinguished from Oranges by having a more closely
adherent rind, by their more lengthened form, and by the possession of a
more or less prominent protuberance at their apex. Besides the above
fruits obtained from the genus Citrus, we have also the Shaddock, from
C. decumana; and the Kumquat of China, from C japonica. The For-
bidden Fruit and the Pompelmoose also, both of which, as sold in the
London markets, are varieties of the Shaddock,—the former being the
smallest fruits, and the latter those of the largest size.
Cookia punctata.—This plant produces the Wampee-fruit, which is much
esteemed in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in China.
Correa alba, and other species.—The leaves are sometimes employed as a
substitute for tea in Australia.
Dictamnus Frazxinella, False Dittany.—The root was formerly much
used in medicine, and reputed to possess aromatic tonic, diuretic, anti-
spasmodic, and emmenagogue properties, but it is now rarely if ever
employed. The plant contains such a large amount of volatile oil as to
render, it is said, the atmosphere around it inflammable in hot weather ; =
we have, however, never found this to be the case.
Esenbeckia febrifuga, a native of South America, has a febrifugal bark,
which is used in Brazil as a substitute for Peruvian Bark. As stated by
Maisch, it is sometimes substituted for the official Angustura Bark in the
United States, and has also been met with in France.
Evodia glauca—The bark is extensively used by the Japanese, both
medicinally and for dyeing purposes.
Feronia elephantum.—This is a large tree, a native of India. A kind of
gum exudes from its stem which closely resembles Gum Arabic. The
young leaves have an Anise-like odour, and are used by the native practi-
tioners of India for their stomachic and carminative effects. The unripe
fruit is said to resemble that of Indian Bael in its properties, and has been
RUTACEA. 508
substituted for it in this country ; the ripe fruit is stated to be antiscorbutic.
This fruit is commonly known under the name of the Elephant or Wood-
apple.
Galipea Cusparia.—This species is the source of Cusparia or Angustura
Bark, which is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. ‘This bark is imported
directly or indirectly from South America, It is used in medicine as a
stimulant tonic and febrifuge, in small doses; while in large doses it is
somewhat emetic and purgative. It has fallen into disrepute on the Con-
tinent, in consequence of the substitution for it formerly of the poisonous
bark of Strychnos Nuz-vomica. At one time, indeed, the substitution was
so common that the importation of Angustura Bark into Austria was pro-
hibited, and the whole of it then found in that empire was ordered to be
destroyed. At the present time such a substitution is never met with
although it occurred in Dublin about thirty years ago.
Murraya (Bergera) Konigii—The bark, root, and leaves of this plant are
employed by the native practitioners in India for their tonic and stomachic
properties,
Pilocarpus pennatifolius.—The leaves of this plant, which is a native of
Brazil, are the source of the drug known under the name of Jaborandi.
Jaborandi is now official in the British Pharmacopeeia. It is an energetic
diaphoretic and sialogogue. It owes its properties to a peculiar alkaloid
named pilocarpine, the nitrate of which is official in the British Pharma-
copceia.—P. Selloanus, an allied species or variety of the above, is also stated
to afford Jaborandi. This name Jaborandi is likewise applied in South
America to several other plants of very different affinities. A species of
pepper, Piper Jaborandi, is especially so designated.
Ptelea—The root-bark is much employed by the eclectic practitioners in
_the United States of America as a tonic in remittent and intermittent
fevers. The fruit is very bitter and aromatic, and has been used as a
substitute for Hops, while the young green shoots are reputed to possess
anthelmintic properties.
Ruta.—R. graveolens, Common Rue.—This plant, which is a native of
Europe, has a very powerful disagreeable peculiar odour, which it owes to
the presence of a volatile oil, which is official in the British Pharma-
copeeia. Its taste is bitter and nauseous. It is used in medicine as an anti-
spasmodic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, stimulant, and carminative. It has
been regarded for ages as most beneficial in warding off contagion, and in
keeping off noxious insects. This plant is said to be the Peganon of the
New Testament (Luke xi. 42).— Ruta montana possesses very acrid proper-
ties ; so much so, indeed, as to blister the hands of those who gather it.
Ticorea febrifuga, a native of South America, has a febrifugal bark
which is used in some districts as a substitute for Peruvian Bark.
Toddalia aculeata.—The bark of the root is official in the Pharmacopceia
of India. It possesses aromatic tonic, stimulant, and antiperiodic properties,
and was formerly known in Europe under the name of Lopez root, and used
as a remedy in diarrhea.
Xanthoxylon (Zanthorylum).—The species of this genus possess in a
remarkable degree pungent and aromatic properties; hence they are popu-
larly termed Peppers in their native countries. In America they are
commonly known, from their prickly bark, under the name of Prickly Ash.
The fruit of X. piperitum is employed by the Chinese and Japanese as a
condiment, and as an antidote against all poisons. It is generally termed
in commerce Japanese Pepper. The aromatic pungent properties appear to
be confined to the pericarp.—X. alatum yields an analogous pepper to the
above, and Stenhouse has described two peculiar principles which he obtained
from it, viz. an oil and a stearoptene: the former is a pure hydrocarbon, to
which the aromatic odour of the pepper is due, and to which he has given
the name of Xanthorylene; the latter is a crystalline solid body consisting
504 SIMARTIBACEA,
of earbon,.oxygen, and hydrogen, but devoid of nitrogen when pure, and
which he has called Xanthoryline. It is probable that it also contains a
resinous substance, to which its pungency is due. The fruits of X. hastile
and X. Budrunga have similar properties. The seeds and fruits of the
former are sometimes employed in India for the purpose of stupéfying fish.
The seeds of X. Budrunga are aromatic and fragrant, like Lemon-peel ;
and the unripe fruits and seeds of X. Rhetsa have a taste like that of orange-
peel. The root of X. nitidum is used as a sudorific, stimulant, febrifuge,
and emmenagogue by the Chinese. The bark of X. fraxineum is official in
the United States Pharmacopeeia under the name of Prickly Ash Bark. It
is chiefly used as a remedy in chronic rheumatism. It is also a popular
remedy as a masticatory in toothache; hence the plant is also known
under the name of the Toothache Shrub. The bark contains berberine. The
barks of other species, as those of X. Clava-Herculis, Linn., and of X. caro-
linianum of Lamarck, possess somewhat similar properties to the bark of
X. fraxineum.
Order 12.. SIMARUBACE, the Quassia Order.—Character.—
Shrubs or trees. Leaves without dots, alternate, compound or
sometimes simple, exstipulate. lowers regular and symme-
trical, axillary, or terminal, perfect or unisexual by abortion.
Calyx imbricate, in 4 or 5 divisions. Petals equal in number
to the divisions of the calyx, with an imbricate cestivation,
sometimes united intoa tube. Stamens twice as many as the
petals, the filaments usually with a scale at their back ; anthers
with longitudinal dehiscence. Disk conspicuous, hypogynous.
Ovary stalked, 4- or 5-lobed, 4- or 5-celled, each cell with 1
suspended ovule; style simple; stigma with as many lobes as
there are cells to the ovary. Fruit usually consisting of 4 or 5
indehiscent, 1-seeded, drupaceous carpels, arranged around a
common axis,. or capsular or samaroid.. Seed with a membranous
integument, exalbuminous; radicle superior, retracted within
thick cotyledons..
Distribution and Nwmbers.— With the exception of one
plant, which is a native of Nepaul, they are all found in the
tropical parts of India,, America, and Africa. Illustrative
Genera:—Quassia, Linn. ; Simaruba,,Aubl.. There are about 50
species. .
Properties and Uses.—A bitter principle is the most remark-
able characteristic of the order; hence many of them are tonic
and febrifugal..
Ailanthus.—The bark of .A. excelsz is regarded in India as a tonic and
febrifuge. It may be used as a substitute for Quassia. The bark of A.
malabariea, when incised, yields an aromatic gum-resinous substance, which
is employed in dysentery, and as incense in the East Indies. The leaves of
A. glandulosa are the favourite food of the silk moth (Bombyx Cynthia).
The root is largely used in China as a remedy in dysentery.
Brucex quassioides, a native of the Himalayas, has a very bitter root,
which forms a good substitute for Quassia.
Irvingia —I. Barteri, a native of the Western Coast of Africa, has edible
seeds, from which.a kind of food, called Dika or Udika bread, is prepared.
The fruits of species of Irvingia are edible, and are termed Wild Mangoes in
tropical Africa.
.
OCHNACER. 505
Picrena excelsa yields our official Quassia Wood. (See Quassiz.) It
is much used as a tonic, febrifuge, and stomachic, and also possesses an-
thelmintic properties. An infusion of Quassia sweetened with sugar acts
as a powerful narcotic poison on flies and other insects; hence it is used
as a tly-poison. Like other pure bitters, its infusion may be also employed
to preserve animal matters from decay. It is largely used by brewers as a
substitute for hops. It owes its active properties ‘chiefly to the presence of
an intensely bitter crystalline substance called Quassine. In Jamaica this
plant is known under the name of Bitter Ash or Bitter Wood. The wood
was much used a few years since in the manufacture of small goblets,
which were sold under the name of bitter cups.
Quassia amara.—The wood is intensely bitter. It isa native of Surinam,
and was formerly much used as a febrifuge and tonic; the flowers are
also stomachic. It is the original Quassia of the shops, but it is no longer
imported into this country; that now sold under the name of Quassia
being derived from Picrena excelsa, a native of Jamaica: hence the
latter may be called Jamaica Quassia, and the former Surinam (uassia.
It is, however, still official in some of the Continental pharmacopeias. (See
Picrena.)
Samadera indica.—The bark is used in parts of India as a febrifuge ;
the oil from the seeds is largely employed in rheumatism ; and the leaves
externally in erysipelas. Both bark and seeds contain a principle, which
has been termed samaderine.
Simaba Cedron.—The seeds are highly esteemed throughout Central
America, where they are employed for their febrifugal properties, and are
thought to be a specific against the bites of venomous snakes and other
noxious animals. They have been used in this country for the latter pur-
pose but without any sensible eftect. ‘The active principle has been named
cedrine,
Simaruba (Simarouba) amarais a native of Northern Brazil and Guiana,
and some of the West Indian islands. In Jamaica and the West Indies
generally its place is taken by the closely allied species S glauca, which is
known under the name of Mountain Damson. This latter plant has often
been confounded with S. amara. The bark of the root of S. amura is
official in the United States Pharmacopceia. It possesses tonic properties,
and has been used in diarrhcea, dysentery, &c. It contains Quassine, the
same principle which has been found in Quassia wood
Order 13. OcHNACES, the Ochna Order.—Character.—
Under-shrubs or smooth trees, with a watery juice. Leaves simple,
stipulate, alternate. Pedicels jointed in the middle. Sepals 5,
persistent, imbricate. Petals hypogynous, detinite, sometimes
twice as many as the sepals, deciduous, imbricate. Stamens
equal in number to the sepals and opposite to them, or twice as
many, or more numerous; filaments persistent, inserted on an
hypogynous fleshy disk; anthers 2-celled, with longitudinal or
porous dehiscence. Can ‘pels sessile, corresponding i in number to
the petals, inserted on a large fleshy disk, which becomes larger
as the carpels grow ; ovules 1 in each carpel. Fruit consisting
of several indehiscent, somewhat drupaceous, 1-seeded carpels.
Seed exalbuminous or nearly so; embryo straight ; radicle towards
the hilum.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Natives chiefly of the tropical
parts of India, Africa, and America. Illustrative Genera :—
Gomphia, Schreb. ; Ochna, Schreb. There are about 80 species.
506 BURSERACEZ OR AMYRIDACEA,
Properties and Uses.—The plants are generally remarkable
for their bitterness. Some have been employed as tonics and
astringents; others, as Gomplhia parviflora, yield oil, which is
used in Brazil for salads. In their properties generally, the
Ochnaceze much resemble the Simarubacee.
Order 14. BuRSERACE® or AMYRIDACES, the Myrrh Order.
—Character.—Trees or shrubs, abounding in a fragrant gum-
resinous or resinous juice. Leaves compound, alternate or oppo-
site, frequently dotted and stipulate. lowers perfect, or rarely
unisexual. Calyx persistent, with 2—5 divisions. Petals 3-—5,
arising from the calyx below the disk; exstivation valvate, or
occasionally imbricate. Stamens twice as many as the petals,
perigynous. Disk perigynous. Ovary 1—5-celled, superior,
sessile, placed in or upon the disk ; ovules in pairs, attached to a
placenta at the apex of the cell, anatropous. Fruit dry, 1—5-
celled; epicarp often splitting in a valvular manner. Seeds
exalbuminous ; radicle superior, turned towards the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—They have been only found in
the tropical regions of America, Africa, and India. Illustrative
Genera :—Boswellia, Roxb.; Balsamodendron, Kunth. There
are about 60 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of the order appear to be
almost universally characterised by an abundance of fragrant
resinous or gum-resinous juice. Some are considered poisonous ;
others bitter, purgative, or anthelmintic; and a few furnish
useful timber.
Amyr's.—A. hexandra and A. Plumieri have been stated to yield a por-
tion of the Elemi of commerce, but there is no proof whatever of such being
the case.—A. elemifera, of Royle, vields Mexican or Vera Cruz Elemi.—A.
balsamifera is said to furnish one kind of Lignum Rhodium, but on no
sufficient authority.—A. toxifera, as its name implies, is régarded as
poisonous. This genus is now sometimes placed in Rutacee.
Balanites xgyptiaca has slightly acid leaves, which are reputed to be
anthelmintic, while the unripe fruits are acrid, bitter, and purgative ; they are
eaten, however, when ripe. The seeds of this plant also yield by expression
a fixed oil of a fatty nature, called zachun in Egypt, where the plant is
cultivated.
Balsamodendron or Balsamodendrum.—B. Myrrha is generally regarded
as supplying the gum-resin known in commerce under the name of Myrrh.
It is called in Hebrew mor or mur, and is mentioned in the Old Testament
for the first time in Gen. xxxvii. 25; hence it must have been in use for
more than 3,500 years. The plants yielding the different kinds of Myrrh,
although it is not yet positively known from whence they are derived, are
natives of Somali-land and the adjoining parts of Arabia. But from recent
investigations it would appear certain that the official or African Myrrh is
the produce of B. Myrrha; that kind known as Arabian Myrrh being also
derived from the same or a nearly allied species; and that of East Indian
Myrrh or Bissa Bol from probably B. Kataf, Kunth. Other species yield
similar products. The botanical source of the Stacte or Liquid Myrrh of the
ancients, and which entered into the composition of the holy incense in use
by the Jews, is entirely unknown, for no drug of modern ‘times has been
identified with it. Medicinally, myrrh is regarded as tonic, stimulant, ex-
BURSERACEZ OR AMYRIDACEA. 007
pectorant, and antispasmodic, when taken internally ; and as an external
application it is astringent and stimulant. The substance called Balm of
Gilead or Balm of Mecca, and which is supposed to be the Balm of the Old
Testament, is procured from B. Opobalsamum. The gum-resin known as
Indian Bdellium or Fa!se Myrrh (the Bdellium of Scripture), is derived from
B. Mukul and B, puoescens. This Bdellium is the Googul of the Indian
Materia Medica, and the Mokul of the Persians. It is very similar to Myrrh.
The resinous substance known as opaque Bdellium is derived from B, Play-
fairii, a native of Somali-land. African Bdellium is derived from B, afri-
canum. The inner bark of B. pubescens peels off in thin white layers like
that of Boswellia papyrifera. (See below.)
Boswellia—The gum-resin known under the name of Olibanum is
obtained from species of this genus. The name Olibanum appears to be
derived from the Greek AiBavos. It is the Lebonah of the Hebrews, the
Incense or Frankincense of the Bible, and the Lubdn of the Arabs. Oliba-
num or Frankincense is now principally obtained from Arabia and the
Somali country in Africa. Three species of Boswellia, natives of the Somali
country, have been described by Birdwood, who has named them, B.
Carterii, B. Bhau-Dajiana, and B. Frereana. The former is the true
Frankincense or Luban-tree; but a similar product is obtained from B.
Bhau-Dajiana, which is probably only a variety of B. Carterti—B. Fre-
reana is the Yegaar-tree of the Somalis, and affords Luban Maitee, a very
fragrant resin, which is chiefly employed in the East as a masticatory. The
two first species are the principal botanical sources of the Arabian or African
Olibanum of commerce. The kind known as East Indian Olibanum is
derived from B. thurifera (serrata). It is the Salai-tree of India, where its
resin is much used for incense. Olibanum is chiefly used for fumigation,
and in the preparation of incense. It is also regarded as a remedial agent
in bronchitis and in chronic pulmonary affections.—B. papyrifera, a native
of Abyssinia, also yields a fragrant gum-resin. This tree is likewise remark-
able on account of its inner bark, which peels off in thin white layers, which
may be used as paper.
Bursera gummifera and B. acuminata yield fragrant resinous substances
—that from the former is termed Chibou or Cachibou resin; that from the
latter, Resin of Carana.
Canarium.—C. commune is the plant referred to in the British Pharma-
copeeia as the reputed source of Manila Elemi, which is the only kind now
found in commerce. Other authorities, however, refer it to C. album and
Icica Abilo (see Icica). But at present we have no trustworthy data as to
its botanical source. Elemi is used as an external stimulant application to
indolent ulcers, &c. The kernels of C. commune, known as Java Almonds,
also yield by expression a bland oil, which resembles almond oil in its pro-
perties.—C. balsamiferum of Ceylon, and C. album, a native of the Philip-
pine Islands, also vield fragrant resinous substances resembling Elemi.—
C. edule yields African Elemi.—C. strictum is the principal, if not the only,
source of the Black Dammar of Southern India. It is said to be a good
substitute for Burgundy Pitch. This resin is also sometimes stated to be
obtained from Vatica Tumbugaia, a tree of the order Dipteracex. (See
Vatica.)
Elaphrium.—E. tomentosum produces one of the resinous substances
ealled Tacamahac.—E£. graveolens, a native of Mexico, is reputed to be the
source of a wood sometimes imported under the name of Mexican Lign-aloe
Wood, and also of a volatile oil obtained from it. This must not be con-
founded with the true Lign-aloes of the Bible. (See Alecaylon.)
Icica—TI, Icicariba and other species of Icica, yield Brazilian Elemi.—
I, Abilo, Blanco.—Fliickiger and Hanbury regard this plant as the source of
Manila Elemi (see Canarium). Other species produce somewhat analogous
fragrant resins, as Z. Carana, the source of American Balm of Gilead ;
508 MELIACEA.
I. heterophylla, the plant yielding Balsam of Acouchi; I. heptaphylla, &e.—
I. altissima furnishes the Cedar-wood of Guiana, of which there are several
varieties. It is chiefly used for making canoes.
Order 15. MEeviacE&, the Melia Order.—C haracter.—Tvrees
or shrubs. Leaves alternate or rarely somewhat opposite, sim-
ple or pinnate, exstipulate. Flowers occasionally unisexual by
abortion. Calyx 3- 4- or 5-partite. Petals equal in number to
the divisions of the calyx, hypogynous, sometimes united at the
base ; imbricate or valvate. Stamens twice as many as the
petals, monadelphous ; anthers sessile, placed within the orifice
of the tube formed by the united filaments. Disk hypogynous,
sometimes large and cup-like. Ovary compound, usually 2- 3-
4- or 5-celled, rarely 10- or 12-celled ; style 1; stigmas separate
or combined ; ovules 1, 2, or rarely 4, in each cell. Fruit
baccate, drupaceous, or capsular, in the latter case opening
loculicidally ; many-celled, or by abortion 1-celled. Seeds few,
not winged, arillate or exarillate ; albumen fleshy or usually
absent ; embryo generally with leafy cotyledons.
Diagnosis. —This order is very nearly allied to Cedrelacee,
and by some botanists the latter order is included in it. It is
chiefly distinguished from Cedrelacee by having more com-
pletely monadelphous stamens ; by the possession of fewer seeds ;
and in those seeds being without wings.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are found more or less in
all the tropical parts of the globe ; but are said to be more
common in America and Asia than in Africa. A few are extra-
tropical. Illustrative Genera :—Melia, Linn. ; Aglaia, Lowr. ;
There are about 150 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are generally remarkable
for bitter, tonic, and astringent properties. Others are power-
ful purgatives and emetics, as Guarea Aubletii, G. trichilioides,
G. purgans, G. spiciflora, and some species of Trichilia ; these all
require much caution in their administration, and in some cases
are reputed poisonous. A few species have edible fruits. The
seeds of some yield fixed oils by expression.
Aglaia odvrata—The flowers are used to give a perfume to certain
varieties of Tea.
Carapa.—The seeds of C. guineensis, an African species, yield by ex-
pression a fatty oil, called Kundah or Tallicoonah, which is purgative and
anthelmintic: it is also adapted for burning in lamps, and for other pur-
poses. An oil of a similar nature is also obtained from C. Touloucouna ; it
has been imported under the name of mote-grease. The seeds of C. guianensis.
an American species, also yield a somewhat similar oil, called Crab oil, which
possesses analogous properties. The bark of these species possesses febrifugal
properties.
Lansium.—This is a genus of plants inhabiting the East Indian Archi-
pelago. They yield fruits which are much esteemed, and known under the
names of Langsat, Lanséh, Ayer-Ayer, and Bejetlan.
Melia Azadirachta, the Nim, Neem, or Margosa tree of India.—The bark
possesses astringent, tonic, and antiperiodic properties ; and the fresh leaves
are stimulant, and are used as an external application m the form of a
CEDRELACE. 509
poultice to indolent ulcers, &c. The leaves have been a'so recommended
as a valuable remedy in the premonitory and progressive stages of small-
pox. The seeds yield a bitter oil, which is a favourite native remedy in
India as an anthelmintic, and as an external application in rheumatism,
&ec. Roth the bark and leaves are official in the Pharmacopeei ia of India.
—WM, Azedarach.—The root-bark of this tree is official in the United State 1S
Pharmacopeeia ; it is regarded as an anthelmintic. The fresh bark is the
most active.
Milnea edulis produces an agreeable fruit.
Xylocarpus Granatum.—The bark possesses astringent and tonic pro-
pert'es, and is employed as a remedy by the Malays in diarrhea, cholera, &c.
Order 16. CEpRELACE#, the Mahogany Order.—Character.
—Trees. Leaves alternate, pinnate, exstipulate. Calyx 4—5-cleft,
imbricate. Petals hypogynous, of the same number as the divisions
of the calyx, imbricate. Stamens twice as many as the petals
and divisions of the calyx, either united below into a tube, or
distinct and inserted into an annular hypogynous disk ; anthers
2-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary usually with as
many cells as there are divisions to the calyx and corolla, or
rarely only 3; ovules 4 or more, in two rows, anatropous ;
style and stigma simple. Fruit capsular ( Sig. 677), dehiscence
usually septifragal (fig. 678). Seeds (fig. 677, g) flat, winged,
attached to axile placentas ; albwmen thin or none; embryo
straight, erect, with the radicle next the hilum. This order is
now frequently incorporated with Meliacer. (See Meliaceze. )
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Chiefly natives of the tropical
parts of America and India ; they are very rare in Africa. I]lus-
trative Genera :—Swietenia, Linn. ; Soymida, Adi. Juss. There
are about 25 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order have fragrant,
aromatic, tonic, astringent, and febrifugal properties, and many
of them are valuable timber-trees.
Cedrela.—The bark of the plants of this genus is generally fragrant.— C.
Sebrifuga, C. Toona, and other species have febrifugal and astringent barks ;
they have been used as substitutes for Cinchona.—C. odorata is the source
of Jamaica or Honduras Cedar.—C. Toona furnishes a wood resembling
mahogany, which is much used in the East Indies, and is occasionally im-
ported into this country. It is termed Toon, Tunga, Poma, or Jeea wood ;
and is said to be one of the woods known as Chittagong w ood.—C. australis
produces the Red Cedar of Australia.
Chloroxylon.—The leaves of this genus are dotted, and yield by distilla-
tion an essential oil.— C. Swietenia is the source of East Indian Satin-wood,
which is sometimes imported into this country for the use of cabinet- makers.
It is also employed for making the backs of hair and clothes-brushes, and
by the turner.
Oxleya xanthoxyla furnishes the Yellow-wood of Queensland.
Soymida febrifuga, the Rohuna or Red-wood Tree.—The bark, which
is Official in the Pharmacopeeia of India, iscommonly known under the name
of Rohun Bark, and is regarded as tonic, febrifugal, and astringent. In the
Bengal bazaars, the bark of Strychnos Nuzx-vomica is also known under the
native name of Rohun, and this has led to its occasional substitution for
Soymida bark (see Strychnos). It is much employed in the East Indies in
intermittent fevers, diarrhoea, and dysentery.
510 CHAILLETIACEH.—OLACACEA.
ICACINACEZ.
Swietenia Mahagoni supplies the well-known valuable wood called Ma-
hogany. This is chiefly imported from Honduras and Cuba, and also to
some extent from other West Indian islands. Its bark possesses febrifugal
properties.
Order 17. CHAILLETIACE®, the Chailletia Order.—Charac-
ter.—Treesor shrubs. Leuvesalternate, entire, stipulate. Calyx
inferior, with 5 sepals; estivation induplicate. Stamens 10,
perigynous, in two alternate whorls, the outer petaloid and
sterile ; but the latter whorl more resembles a corolla. Orary
superior, 2—38-celled, with twin suspended ovules. Fruit dry,
1—3 celled. Seeds exalbuminous. This order has been variously
placed, but is more commonly referred here.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.
Illustrative Genera :—Chailletia, DC. ; Stephanopodium, Popp.
There are about 10 species.
Properties and Uses. — Unimportant. The fruit of Chail-
letia toxicaria, a native of Sierra Leone, is commonly called
Ratsbane on account of its poisonous nature.
Cohort 2. Olacales.—Calyx imbricate. Gynoecium syncarpous ;
ovules suspended ; raphe dorsal. Seeds albuminous.
Order 1. OLAcAcEa, the Olax Order.—C haracter.—Tvrees
or shrubs, with alternate simple entire exstipulate leaves. Flowers
small, regular, axillary. Calyx minute, monosepalous, generally
enlarging so as to cover the fruit ; wstivation imbricate. Petals
hypogynous, valvate in estivation. Stamens definite, partly
sterile and partly fertile; the latter opposite to the petals,
inserted upon or outside of a conspicuous disk; anthers 2-celled,
bursting longitudinally. Ovary free, often imbedded in the disk ;
ovules suspended from a free central placenta. Frwit drupaceous.
Seed without integuments, solitary ; embryo minute; albwmen
fleshy.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical or sub-tropical
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Olax, Linn. ; Liriosma, Pépp.
The number of species is doubtful.
Properties and Uses.—Some have fragrant flowers. The
fruit of Ximenia americana is eaten in Senegal. The leaves of
Olax zeylanica are used by the Cingalese in their curries, Xc.,
and the wood in putrid fevers. The wood of Heisteria coccinea
is considered by some to furnish the Partridge-wood of cabinet-
makers. (See Guettarda.)
Order 2. TcactNacE&, the Icacina Order.-—Diagnosis.—This
is an order of plants consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs,
and formerly included in the order Olacacez ; but, as shown
by Miers, they are clearly distinguished from that order, as
follows :—‘ They differ most essentially in the calyx being
always small, persistent, and unchanged, and never increasing
with the growth of the fruit ; the stamens being always alternate
CY RILLACEZ.— PHYTOCRENACEZ.—AQUIFOLIACEX. §11
with the petals, not opposite ; the petals and stamens are never
fixed on the margin of the conspicuous cup-shaped disk; the
ovary is normally plurilocular with axile placentation, and when
unilocular, this happens only from the abortion of the other
cells, the traces of which are always discernible, never com-
pletely unilocular at the summit, and plurilocular at base, with
free central placentation. In Icacinaceze the ovules are sus-
pended below the summit of the cell in pairs superimposed by
cup-shaped podosperms ; only one of these becomes perfected,
and the seed is furnished with the usual integuments.’
Distribution and Numbers.—‘ They are natives of tropical or
sub-tropical countries; chiefly the East Indies, Africa, and
South America, a single species being found each in New
Holland, Norfolk Island, and New Zealand.’ Illustrative
Genera :—Icacina, Adr. Juss. ; Sarcostigma, W. et A. There
are about 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 3. CYRILLACE, the Cyrilla Order.— Diagnosis.—Ever-
green shrubs, with alternate exstipulate leaves, nearly related
to Olacacex, but chiefly distinguished by their imbricate petals,
which are altogether free from any hairiness on their inside ;
and by the stamens being all fertile, and, if equal in number to
the petals, alternate with them.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are all natives of North or
Tropical America. Illustrative Genera :—Cyrilla, Mylocaryum.
There are 6 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 4. PHyYTOCRENACEX, the Phytocrene Order.—Dia-
gnosis.— This order has been variously placed by botanists, but is
referred here by Bentham and Hooker. Formerly it was incorpo-
rated with the Artocarpacez, but their seeds have a large quan-
tity of albumen, which at once distinguishes them from that
order. The plants belonging to it, all of which belong to the
genus Phytocrene, Wall., are climbing shrubs, natives of the
East indies, with dichlamydeous unisexual flowers, and seeds
with a large quantity of albumen. Their wood has also a very
peculiar structure. They yield a large quantity of watery juice
when wounded, hence they are termed Water-vines, or ‘ Plant-
fountains.’ In Martaban this juice is drunk by the natives.
Order 5. AQUIFOLIACE or ILIcAcE®, the Holly Order.—
Character.—Kvergreen trees or shrubs. Leaves (fig. $28)
coriaceous, simple, exstipulate or with minute stipules. Flowers
small, axillary, sometimes unisexual. Sepals distinct, 4—6,
imbricate. Corolla 4—6-partite, imbricate. Stamens equal in
number to the divisions of the corolla and alternate with its
segments; anthers 2-celled, adnate, opening longitudinally.
Disk none. Ovary superior, 2—6- or more celled, with one
512 AQUIFOLIACEZ.—CELASTRACE.
suspended ovule in each cell; placentas axile. Frwit fleshy,
indehiscent. Seed suspended; embryo small, at the base of a
large quantity of fleshy albumen ; ; radicle superior.
“Distribution and Numbers .—They are widely although
sparingly scattered over the globe. Only one species, the
‘common Holly, is found in Europe. Jilustrative Genera :—Ilex,
Linn. ; Prinos, Linn. There are about 115 species.
Properties and Uses.—Bitter, tonic, and astringent properties
are those chiefly found in the plants of this order. Some are
emetic and purgative, while others are largely used as a kind of
Tea.
Ilex.—The leaves and bark of I. Aquifolium, the Common Holly, have
been employed in intermittent fevers. The berries are purgative and ‘emetic.
Bird-lime is prepared from the bark, and its white wood is used by cabinet
makers for inlaying. A decoction of the leaves of J. vomitoria constitutes
the Black drink of the Cree Indians. The dried leaves and young twigs
of I. naraguayensis, the Brazilian or Paraguay Holly, and other species or
varieties, are extensively employed in South America as Tea, under the
name of Maté or Paraguay Tea. Itis remarkable that Maté contains Theine,
the alkaloid already noticed as existing in China Tea, &c. (See Thea, page
472.) Like China Tea it also contains a volatile oil, tannic acid, and gluten ;
its properties are therefore somewhat similar. but it is more exciting, and
when taken to excess produces a kind of intoxication. In Brazil a kind of
Maté, called Gongonha, is also prepared from J. Gongonha and J. theezans.
Maté tea is generally used in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Chili, and
other parts of South America. The consumption of Maté in the various
South American Republics is from 20 to 40 millions of pounds annually,
From the great astringency of the fresh leaves of I. paraguayensis, I. Gon-
gonha, and other species, they are used by the dyers in Brazil. The unripe
fruits of Z. Macoucoua contain much tannic acid, and are employed in
dyeing cotton.
Prinos g'aber.—The leaves of this plant. which is a native of North
America, are used as a substitute for China Tea. This is known under the
name of Appalachian Tea. (See Viburnum.) The bark of P. verticillatus,
called Black A/der Bark or Winter Berry, is employed in the United States
in the form of a decoction, as a tonic and astringent.
Cohort 3. Celastrales.—Calyx imbricate or valvate. Gynoecium
synearpous; ovules erect; raphe ventral. Seeds usually
albuminous; radicle inferior. Nearly always trees or shrubs.
Order 1, CELASTRACE®, the Spindle-tree Order. —Charac-
ter. —Shrubs or small trees. Leaves simple, generally alternate,
or rarely opposite, with small deciduous stipules. Sepals 4—5,
imbricate. Petals with imbricate estivation, equal in number
to the sepals, inserted on a large disk; sometimes wanting.
Stamens as many as the petals and alternate with them, inserted
on the disk ; anthers innate. Disk large, flat, expanded. Ovary
sessile, superior, surrounded by the disk, 2—5-celled, each cell
with 2 ovules; ovules erect, with a short stalk. Frwt superior,
2—5-celled, either drupaceous and indehiscent, or capsular with
loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds with (fig. 758) or without an aril ;
CELASTRACEH.—HIPPOCRATEACE. 513
albumen fleshy ; enbryo straight; radicle short, inferior; coty-
ledons flat.
Diagnosis.—Shrubby plants, with simple leaves and small
deciduous stipules. Flowers small, regular, and perfect; or
rarely unisexual by abortion. Sepals and petals 4—5, imbricate
in estivation. Stamens equal in number to, and alternate with,
the petals, and inserted with them on a large flat expanded disk.
Ovary superior, sessile, surrounded by the disk. Fruit superior,
2—5-celled. Seeds albuminous; embryostraight; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the warmer
parts of Asia, North America, and Europe; they are also plenti-
ful at the Cape of Good Hope. Generally speaking, the plants
of the order are far more abundant out of the tropics than
in them. Illustrative Genera:—Euonymus, Linn. ; Celastrus,
Kunth. There are about 280 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for the presence of
an aerid principle. The seeds of some contain oil.
Ca‘ha edulis—The young slender shoots, with the attached leaves, con-
stitute the Arabian drug called Kat, Khat, or Cafta. This is largely
chewed by the Arabs, and is said to produce great hilarity of spirits and an
agreeable state of wakefulness. A decoction is also made from it, and used
as a beverage like our tea: its effeets are described as being somewhat
similar to those produced by strong green tea, but the excitement of a more
pleasing nature. By some writers the term Kat is applied to the drug in its
unprepared state, and Cafta to a preparation made from it. The leaves and
young shoots of C. spinosa are also said te be used in the preparation of Kat.
Celastrus.—The seeds of C. paniculatus yield an oil of a powerfully stimu-
lating nature, which is sometimes used as a medicine in India under the
name of ‘ Oleum nigrum.’—C. scandens and C. senegalensis have purgative
and emetic barks.
Elzodendron Kubu.—The drupaceous fruits of this species are eaten at
the Cape of Good Hope.
FEuonymus.— FE. europxus is the common Spindle-tree of our hedges. The
wood is used to make skewers, spindles, &c. In France, charcoal is said to
be prepared from the wood, and used in the manufacture of gunpowder ;
while the young shoots in a charred condition form a kind of drawing-
pencil. The seeds are reputed to be purgative and emetic, and are also said
to be poisonous to sheep; those of some other species have similar pro-
perties. The bark of E. tingens has a beautiful vellow colour on its inside,
which may be used asa dye.—F. atropurpureus. Wakoo.—The bark, chiefly
of the root, of this plant, and also, to some extent, of that of E. americanus
are used in the United States of America in the preparation of what has
been termed euonymin. This is reputed to possess tonic, hydragogue,
cathartic, diuretic, alterative, and anti-periodic properties. It has been
used with some success in this country as an hepatic stimulant.
Order 2. HippocraTEace®, the Hippocratea Order.—Cha-
racter.—Shrubs, with opposite simple leaves, and small deci-
duous stipules. Flowers small, regular, and unsymmetrical.
Sepals and petals 5, hypogynous, imbricate, the former per-
sistent. Stamens 3, hypogynous, monadelphous; anthers with
transverse dehiscence. Disk conspicuous, Ovary 3-celled ;
plucentas axile; style 1. Fruit baccate, or consisting of
LL
jl4 | STACKHOUSIACEX.— RHAMNACEZ.
3 samaroid carpels. Seeds definite, exalbuminous; embryo
straight ; radicle inferior. This order is referred to Celastracex
by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—They abound principally in
South America; some are also found in Africa and the Hast
Indies. TIIlustratwe Genera :—Hippocratea, Linn.; Tontelea,
Aubl. There are about 86 species.
Properties and Uses.—Very little is known generally of the
plants of this order. The fruit of several Brazilian species of
Tontelea is edible, and in Sierra Leone that of T. pyriformis is de-
scribed as very pleasant. Hippocratea comosa yields nuts of an oily
and sweet nature. The inner yellow bark of Kokoona zeylanicais
employed in Ceylon asa febrifuge and sternutatory, and as a dye.
Order 3. STACKHOUSIACE®X, the Stackhousia Order.—Cha-
racter.—AHerbs or rarely shrubs, with simple, entire, alternate,
minutely stipulate leaves. Calyx 5-cleft, with its tube inflated.
Petals 5, united below into a tube, arising from the top of the
tube of the calyx, and having a narrow stellate limb. Stamens
5, distinct, of unequal length, perigynous. Ovary superior, 3-
or 5-celled, each cell containing one erect ovule; styles 3 or 5,
distinct or united at the base. fruit consisting of from 3—-5
indehiscent carpels, attached to a central persistent column.
Seeds with fleshy albumen; embryo erect ; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of Australia. Illus-
trative Genera:—Stackhousia, Smith; Tripterococcus, Endl.
There are about 20 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 4. RHamMNACE, the Buckthorn Order.—Character.
Shrubs or small trees, which are often spiny. Leaves simple,
alternate or rarely opposite ; stipules small or wanting. lowers
small, usually perfect (fig. 793) or sometimes unisexual. Calyx
4—5-cleft, with a valvate eestivation (fig. 793). Disk fleshy,
lining the tube of the calyx. Petals equal in number to the
divisions of the calyx (jig. 793), and inserted into its throat,
hooded or convolute, sometimes wanting. Stamens perigynous,
equal in number to the petals (fig. 793) and opposite to them
when present, and alternate to the divisions of the calyx. Ovary
(fig. 793) superior or half superior, immersed in the disk, 2- 3-
or 4-celled; ovules one in each cell, erect. Fruit dry and
capsular, or fleshy and indehiscent. Sreds one in each cell,
erect, usually with fleshy albumen, but this is sometimes want-
ing, exarillate ; embryo long, with a short inferior radicle, and
large flat cotyledons. :
Diagnosis.—Small trees or shrubs, with simple leaves and
small regular usually perfect flowers; rarely unisexual, Calyx
4—5-parted, valvate, with the tube coated with a disk. Petals
and stamens distinct, perigynous, and equal in number to the
divisions of the calyx ; the petals sometimes wanting, but, when
present, opposite to the stamens. Ovary more or less superior,
RHAMNACER. 3 515
surrounded by a fleshy disk. Fruit 2- 3- or 4-celled, with one
erect seed in each cell. Seed usually albuminous, without an aril.
Distribution and Numbers.—Generally distributed over the
globe except in the very coldest regions. Illustrative Genera :—
Zizyphus, Towrn. ; Rhamnus, Juss. There are about 400 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some of the plants have acrid and
purgative properties; others are bitter, febrifugal, and tonic.
A few are used in the preparation of dyeing materials, and some
few others have edible fruits.
‘Ceanothus americanus.—The young shoots are astringent; and in New
Jersey the leaves are dried and used as a substitute for China tea; form-
ing what is commonly known as New Jersey Tea.
” Discaria febrifuga. —The root is used in Brazil as a febrifuge and tonic.
Gouavia domingensis i is reputed to possess stomachic properties.
Hovenia dulcis.—The peduncles of this plant become ultimately enlarged
and succulent, and are much esteemed in China, where they are eaten as a
fruit.
Rhamws.—This genus is by far the most important in the order. Thus,
R. catharticus, commonly called Buckthorn, produces a fruit the fresh j juice *
of which has been used for ages as a hydragogue cathartic ; but it is rarely
employed at the present day, on account of its violent and unpleasant opera-
tion, except in veterinary practice. The pigment known as sap-green, the
vert de vessie of the French, is prepared by evaporating to dryness the fresh
juice of Buckthorn berries previously mixed with lime. The bark of R.
‘Frangula, the Black Alder, has long been employed in Germany, Holland,
and some other parts of Europe, as a laxative, and is now official in the
British Pharmacopeia. The bark of the young trunks and larger branches
is regarded as the most active, and more especially so after having been
kept for a year or more. A greenish or yellowish-green dye is made from
the leaves. The wood under the name of Dozwood’ is largely used in
the manufacture of the finer kinds of g cunpowder. The bark of R. Pursh-
ianus has also been much employed of late years in the United States
of America, and in this country more recently, as a purgative in large
doses, and as a tonic and stomachic in small doses, It is known under
the name of Cascara Sagrada, and is obtained from California ; it is
now official in the British Pharmacopeia. The unripe fruits of 2. infec-
torius are known in commerce under the name of French berries (Graines
d’ Avignon of the French); while those of R. amygdalinus constitute the
berries called yellow berries or Persian berries. Some authors say that both
the French and Persian berries are the produce of one species, the R. infec-
torius, and that the only difference between them is in size—those called
French or Avignon berries being smaller, and not of such good quality as
the Persian berries, which are ‘obtained from Asiatic Turkey and Persia.
These berries produce a beautiful yellow colour, which is used for dyeing
morocco leather, and by calico printers. —R. saxatilis produces a fruit, w hich
may be also employed for dyeing yellow. In Abyssinia, the leaves of R.
pauciflorus, and the fruit of R. Staddo, both of which possess bitter proper-
ties, are employed as a substitute for hops i in the preparation of beer. From
R. alaternus a blue dye may be prepared. The Chinese green dye ( Lo-kao),
known here as Chinese Green Indigo, and now much ‘used in Europe, is
prepared from R. chlorophorus (globosus) and R. utilis.
Sageretia theezans is a native of China, where its leaves are used as a
substitute for tea by the poorer inhabitants.
Ventilago Maderaspatana, Pupli—tThe bark of the root is used in India
in the production of orange and other dyes.
Zizyphus.—Many species of this genus have edible fruits. Thus, the
LL2
516 VITACEA.
Z. vulguris, Z. Jujuba, and others, vield the fruits known under the name of
Jujubes. Jujube is a favourite dessert fruit in Japan ; aud another Japanese
species, Z. sinensis, yields the fruits known as Japonicas, which are occa-
sionally to be met with in Covent Garden Market.—Z. Lotus has also an
edible fruit, which is esteemed by the Arabs, &c. This is generally believed
to be the Lotus of the ancients, and from which the Lotophagi received
their name. By some, however, the Lotus of the ancients is supposed to be
the Nitraria tridentata. (See Nitraria.) The berries or seeds of some
species of Zizyphus are regarded as sedative, while those of Z. Boclei are
reputed to be poisonous. Some believe that the crown of thorns which was
placed on our Saviour’s head was made from Z, Spina- Christi.
Order 5. Vitack#, the Vine Order.—Character.—Usually
shrubs climbing by tendrils (fig. 214), with a watery juice,
the joints swollen and separable from each other. Leaves sim-
ple (fig. 214) or compound, opposite below, alternate above,
stipulate or exstipulate. Flowers regular, small, green,
stalked (fig. 426); peduncles sometimes cirrhose. Calyx minute,
with the limb generally obsolete. Petals 4 or 5, sometimes
united at the base; estivation induplicate ; inserted on a disk
which surrounds the ovary, caducous. Stamens corresponding
in number to the petals and opposite to them, also inserted on
the disk (fig. 518) ; filaments distinct or somewhat united at
the base ; anthers versatile, bursting longitudinally (fig. 518).
Ovary superior, surrounded by a disk, 2—6-celled, usually 2 ;
style very short, simple ; stigma simple (fig. 518). Fruit succu-
lent ( fig. 720), sometimes termed a nuculanium, usually 2-celled.
Seeds erect, few, usually 2 in each cell; testa bony; albwmen
hard ; embryo erect, with an inferior radicle.
Diagnosis.—Shrubby plants, climbing by tendrils, with sim-
ple or compound leaves, which are opposite below and alternate
above. Flowers small, green, regular. Petals and stamens
corresponding in number, 4 or 5, the latter opposite to the
petals, both inserted on an hypogynous disk; estivation of
petals induplicate ; anthers versatile, opening longitudinally.
Ovary superior, surrounded by a disk, with a very short simple
style and stigma. Fruit a nuculanium. Seeds few; testa bony ;
embryo erect in horny albumen ; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
found-in warm and tropical regions of the globe. None are
natives of Europe. The common Grape Vine, which is now
completely naturalised in the South of Europe, and is cultivated
nearly all over the globe where the temperature does not rise
too high or fall too low, is supposed to he a native of the shores
of the Caspian. Illustrative Genera:—Vitis, Linn. ; Ampelopsis,
L. C. Rich. There are about 260 species.
Properties and Uses.—The leaves, stems, and unripe fruits,
especially the latter, of the plants of this order, abound more or
less in an acid juice, the acidity being chiefly due to the presence
of tartaric and malic acids, and acid tartrate of potash. As the
fruit ripens, it generally loses its acidity, and becomes sweet,
owing to the formation of Glucose or Grape Sugar,
SAPINDACEX. 517
Ampelopsis hederacea, Virginian Creeper.—The juice of the leaves and
other parts is said to possess poisonous properties.
Cissus.—The leaves and fruits of some species, as C. setosa, C. cord uta,
&c., are acrid. A blue dye is obtained in Brazil from the leaves and feuit
of C, tinctoria.
Vitis vinifera—This very valuable plant, which is commonly known as
the Grape Vine, has followed the steps of man into almost every region of
the globe where the climate is at all adapted to its growth. The varieties
of the Vine are exceedingly numerous, being more than 300. The fruits,
under the name of Grapes, are too well known to need any particular
description. ‘They have been in use for more than 4,000 years for the
making of wine, vinegar, brandy, and other fermented liquors. Grapes
possess refrigerant properties, and are hence useful in febrile and inflamma-
tory affections. Grapes when dried are called raisins, which are largely
used at dessert and for culinary purposes. They are also official in the
british Pharmacopeeia under the name of Uve. Of raisins we have several
commercial varieties, the more important of which are Valentias, Muscatels,
and Sultanas. The Muscatels, or Raisins of the Sun, are considered the
finest. ‘The Sultanas are remarkable for the absence of seeds. Raisins pos-
sess demulcent and slightly refrigerant properties, but they are principally
employed in medicine for flavouring purposes. Besides the above kinds,
there is also a small seedless variety of raisin, commonly known under the
name of Currants. This name is a corruption of Corinth, where they were
originally ‘grown, but they are now chiefly obtained from Zante and the other
Jonian Islands. The leaves and tendrils of the Vine are astringent, and
have been used in diarrhcea ; and the sap has been employed in France in
chronic ophthalmia.— Vitis vulpina, V. Labrusea, and other species or
varieties, which grow wild in North America, yield fruits which are known
as the Muscadine and Fox-grapes. These are similar, although very
inferior in their properties, to those of the common Grape.
Cohort 4. Sapindales.—Calyx imbricate. Gyncecium usually
syncarpous, or rarely apocarpous ; ovules generally ascend-
ing, with the raphe ventral. Seeds nearly always exalbu-
minous. ‘Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs.
Order 1. SAPINDACE, the Soapwort Order.—C haracter.—
Usually large trees or twining shrubs, or rarely climbing herbs.
Leaves generally compound (fig. 368), or rarely simple, alternate
or sometimes opposite, often dotted, stipulate or exstipulate.
Flowers (figs. 939 and 940) mostly perfect and unsymmetrical,
sometimes polygamous. Sepals 4—5 (fig. 939), either distinct
or united at the base, imbricate. Petals 4—5 (fig. 939),
rarely 0, hypogynous, alternate with the sepals, imbricate,
naked or furnished with an appendage on the inside. Stamens
8—10, rarely 5—6—7 (jig. 939), or very rarely 20, inserted
into the disk or into the thalamus ; filaments distinct or slightly
monadelphous ; avthers introrse, bursting longitudinally. Disk
fleshy or glandular, hypogynous or perigynous. Ovary usually -
3-celled (fig. 939), rarely 2- or 4-celled, each cell containing 1,
2 ( fig. 735), 3, or rarely more ovules ; style undivided or 2—3-
cleft. Fruit either fleshy and indehiscent; or capsular, with
2—3 valves. Seeds usually arillate, exalbuminous ; embryo
rarely straight, usually curved (fig. 941) or twisted in a spiral
518 SAPINDACEA.
a
direction ; cotyledons sometimes very large ; radicle next the
- hilum.
Diagnosis.—Flowers unsymmetrical, hypogynous. Sepals
and petals 4—5, imbricate, the latter commonly with an ap-
pendage. Stamens never agreeing in number with the sepals and
petals, inserted on a fleshy or glandular disk, or upon the thala-
mus; anthers bursting longitudinally. Fruit usually consisting
of 3 carpels. Seeds commonly 2, sometimes 1 or 3, or very rarely
more, exalbuminous, usually arillate and without wings ; embryo
almost always curved or spirally twisted.
Fig. 939. Fia. 940.
y |
bas LT To
Fig. 939, Diagram of the flower of the Horsechestnut (4sculus Hippo-
casianum), Fig. 940. Vertical section of the fower.— Fig. 941. Ver-
tical section of the seed. .
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—This order
has been divided by Lindley into 4 sub-orders, as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Sapindex.—Leaves alternate. Ovules usually
solitary. Embryo generally curved or sometimes straight.
Illustrative Genera :—Sapindus, Linn.; Nephelium, Linn.
Sub-order 2. Hippocastaneex.—Leaves opposite. Ovules 2 in a
cell, of which one is ascending, and the other suspended (jig.
735). Embryo curved (fig. 941), with a small radicle and
large fleshy consolidated cotyledons. Illustrative Genus :—
A sculus, Linn.
Sub-order 3. Dodonex.—Leaves alternate. Ovules 2 or 3ina
cell. Embryo spiral. Illustrative Genera :—Dodonea, Liwiv.;
Ophiocaryon, Schomb.
Sub-order4. Meliosmex.—-Leaves alternate. Flowers very irre-
gular. Stamens 5, 3 of which are abortive, and only 2, there-
fore, fertile. Ovules 2 in each cell, suspended. Fruit drupa-
ceous. Embryo folded up. Illustrative Geiws :—Meliosma,
Blume. Bentham and Hooker wiclude the Meliosmex in the
order Sabiacex.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly found in tropical regions,
especially those of South America and India; some occur in
temperate climates, but none inhabit the cold northern parts of
SAP:NDACEA. 619
the globe. There are no native plants of this order in Europe.”
The Horsechestnut, now so well known in this country, is ong
naturalised among us. There are nearly 400 species.
Properties and Uses.—One of the most prominent characteris-
tics of the plants of this order is the presence of a saponaceous
principle, from which its common name is derived. Many are
poisonous in all their parts ; but it is more frequently the case
that, while the root, leaves, and branches are dangerous, the
‘poisonous juice becomes so diffused throughout their succulent
fruits as to render them innocuous, or, in several instances,
even valuable articles of dessert. It sometimes happens, as in
the Litchi and Longan fruits, that while the pericarp is whole-
some, the seeds are dangerous. Some plants of the order are
astringent and aromatic; others are diaphoretic, diuretic, and
aperient ; and some are valuable timber trees.
JE sculus.—The bark of sculus Hippocastanum, the Horsechestnut, is
febrifugal. Its young leaves are somewhat aromatic, and Endlicher says
that they have been used as a substitute for Hops. The seeds have been
long employed as an excellent food for sheep in Switzerland, and have been
also recommended as a substitute for Coffee. They contain a saponaceous
principle like the fruits of certain species of Sapindus. They also contain a
large quantity of starch, and are much used in France, instead of potatoes
and cereals, as a source of that substance. In some parts of Holstein also,
this starch, which is there very carefully prepared, has been used for many
years for household purposes, being much preferred to that obtained from
wheat, rice, or potatoes. The seeds are said to yield by expression a fixed
oil, which has been introduced under the name of Oil of Horsechestnut, as an
external application in rheumatism, &c. Nothing, however, is known of the
extraction of the oil from these seeds, and its source from them i is scarcely
probable. The roots, leaves, and fruits of the Hsculus ohiotensis, the Buck-
eye or American Horsechestnut, are generally regarded as poisonous, both
to man and animals.
Cardiospermum Halicacabum.—The root is described as diuretic, diapho-
retic, and aperient. Its leaves, when boiled, are eaten as a vegetable in the
Moluccas.
Cupama (Blighia) sapida.—The distilled water of the flowers is used by
negro women as a cosmetic. The succulent slightly acid aril of the seeds
is eaten, arid much esteemed in the West Indies and elsewhere. The fruit in
which the seeds are contained is commonly known under the name of the
Akee-fruit. A decoction of these has been used in diarrhoea.
Dodonea.—Some of the species of this genus are aromatic. The wood
of D. dioica is carminative. Others are reputed to be slightly purgative and
febrifugal.
N ephelium.—This genus: yields the delicious fruits of China and the
Indian Archipelago, known under the names of Litchi, Longan, and Rambu-
tan. Nephelium Litchi produces the Litchi; NV. Longan, the Longan ; and
N. Rambutan or N. lappaceum, the Rambutan fruit, The Litchi fruits are
frequently imported into this country; and rarely also, the Longan, it should
be noticed that the seeds of all these fruits are very bitter, and are probably
poisonous.
Paullinia.—The seeds of Paullinia sorbilis, Guarana, are used in Brazil
in the preparation of a kind of food which is known as Guarana bread,
Brazilian Cocoa, or simply as Guarana. Guarana is also there used as a
remedy in many diseases. Guarana bread is prepared by taking the dried
seeds deprived of their aril, and pounding and kneading them into a mass,
&
020 ACERACE.
which is afterwards made into oblong or rounded cakes. These cakes are
used in the same manner as we use cocoa and chocolate—that is, they are
mixed with water, and the mixture sweetened and drunk. This beverage
is largely consumed in Brazil, both on account of its nutritive qualities,
and for its stomachic, febrifugal, and reputed aphrodisiac effects. It contains
a bitter crystalline principle “called Guaranine, which appears to be identical
with theine (see Thea, p. 472), the active principle of tea and coffee, and hence
Guarana has asomewhat similar effect upon the system to that produced by
these two beverages. Guarana has been lately highly recommended for
use in this country and elsewhere as a remedy in nervous headache. Its
action is probably similar to tea, over which it seems to possess no advantages.
Jt has also been recommended as a remedy in neuralgia, diarrhea, and other
diseases. In many species of Paullinia, the narcotic property, which is but
slightly marked in P. sorbilis, is very evident. Thus, the leaves, bark, and
fruit of P. pinnata are very dangerous, and are used in the preparation of a
poison by the Brazilians, ‘which slowly but surely destroys life. Martius
suggests that this poison might be efficacious in hydrophobia and insanity.
P. cururu and P. australis have similar poisonous properties.
Sapindus.—The fruits of Sapindus Saponaria, as well as those of 8.
inequalis and others, contain a saponaceous principle, so that when mixed
with water they produce an abundant lather; hence they are used in the
West Indies instead of soap. It is said that ‘a few of them will cleanse
more linen than sixty times their weight of soap.’ These plants also con-
tain a narcotico-acrid principle, as the pounded fruits, when thrown into
water in which fish are contained, will produce upon them a kind of intoxi-
cation. The pericarp of S. senegalensis is eaten, but the seeds act as a
narcotico-acrid poison. The fruits of Sapindus esculentus and others are also
edible.
Schmidelia serrata has an astringent root, which has been used in India
for diarrhea.
The fruits of many plants belonging to this order, besides those already
named, are edible, as those of Pierardia sativa and P. dulcis, producing the
Rambeh and Choopa of Malacca ; and Hedycarpus malayanus producing the
Tampui. Schmidelia edulis,in Brazil ; Melicocca bijuga, in the West Indies
and Brazil; Pappea capensis, at the Cape of Good Hope, &c., also yield
edible fruits.
Order 2, ACERACE, the Maple Order.—-C haracter.—Tvrees.
Leaves opposite, simple, without stipules ; venation usually ra-
diate, rarely pinnate. lowers often polygamous, racemose or
corymbose, regular. Calyx with an imbricate zestivation, usually
5-partite, occasionally 4- or 9-partite. Petals imbricate, with-
out appendages at their base, corresponding in number to the
divisions of the calyx, or altogether absent. Stamens usually 8,
inserted ona fleshy hypogynous disk, or rarely the disk is absent.
Ovary superior, 2-lobed, 2-celled ; stigmas 2; ovules in pairs.
Frwit a samara, 2-celled (fig. 706). Seeds 1 or 2 in each cell,
ascending, without an aril, exalbuminous ; embryo curved, with
leafy wrinkled cotyledons, and an inferior radicle. This order is
placed by Bentham and Hooker in Sapindacee, tribe Acerinex.
Diagnosis.—Trees with opposite simple exstipulate leaves.
Flowers often polygamous, and usually regular. Sepals and
petals imbricate, the latter without any appendages on their in-
side. Stamens hypogynous, usually on a fleshy disk ; anthers
bursting longitudinally; ovary superior, 2-celled. Fruit a
STAPHYLEACEAX. —SABIACEA, 621
samara, 2-celled, each cell containing 1 or 2 seeds. Seeds as-.
cending, without an aril, exalbuminous; embryo curved, with |
an inferior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
natives of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and North
America. None have been found in Africa and the southern
hemisphere. Illustrative Genera: — Acer, Linn. ; Negundo,
Ménch. There are about 50 species. ,
Properties and Uses. —These plants are chiefly remarkable for
their saccharine sap. Their light and handsome timber is also
much used in turnery, for certain parts of musical instruments,
and for other purposes; and their bark is astringent, and is
employed in different districts by the dyer in the production of
yellow, reddish-brown, and blue colours.
Acer.— A. saccharinum is the Sugar Maple. The Maple Sugar of America
is obtained from this tree by making perforations into its trunk at the
commencement of spring, and boiling down the saccharine sap which then
exudes to the crystallising point. A few years since nearly 50 millions of
pounds of Maple Sugar were annually produced in North America, but the
quantity is diminishing yearly in consequence of the destruction of the
native forests.— A. dasycarpum and other species also yield sugar. The bark
of A. saccharinum has been also used in America in the production of a blue
dye, and as an ingredient in the manufacture of ink.—A. campestre and A.
Pseudo-platanus are common trees in Britain, and afford useful timber ; the
latter is generally known under the names of the Sycamore, Greater Maple,
and Mock-plane. It derives the latter name from the resemblance of its
leaves to those of the true Plane-tree (see Platanus), but their venation is
different. Its wood is also used for making charcoal.
Order 3. STAPHYLEACEA, the Bladder-nut Order.—Charac-
ter.—Shrubs, with opposite or rarely alternate pinnate leaves,
which are furnished with deciduous stipules and_ stipels.
Flowers symmetrical. Calyx 5-partite (fig. 788), coloured, im-
bricate. Petals 5 (fig. 788), alternate with the divisions of the
calyx, imbricate. Stamens 5 (fig. 788), alternate with the petals,
and inserted with them on a large disk. Ovary superior, com-
posed of 2 (fig. 788) or 3 carpels, which are more or less
distinct ; ovwles numerous ; styles 2 or 3, united at the base.
Fruit fleshy or membranous. Seeds ascending, with a bony
testa ; embryo straight ; albwmen little or none. This order is
now frequently placed in Sapindaceer.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are scattered irregularly
over the globe. Tilustrative Genus :—Staphylea, Linn. There
are about 14 species.
Properties and Uses.—The bark of some species is bitter and
astringent, as that of Huscaphis staphyleoides. Others have oily
and somewhat purgative seeds, as Staphylea pinnata, &c.
Order 4, SaBtaces®, the Sabia Order.—Diagnosis.—This is a
small order of plants, containing but 2 genera, and 9 species,
which were formerly placed as doubtful genera of the Anacardi-
aceze; but the Sabiacez differ essentially from the Anacardiacee,
622 ANACARDIACE.
in their stamens being opposite to the petals; in their distinct
_carpels ; and in their solitary ovules being directly attached to
the ventral suture. Miers and Blume regard the Sabiacez as
related to Menispermaceze and Lardizabalaceze. Bentham and
Hooker include the Meliosmex of the Sapindacee in this order.
Distribution, Properties, and Uses.—Natives of the East
Indies. Their properties are altogether unknown.
Order 5. ANACARDIACEH, the Cashew-nut Order.—C harac-
ter.—Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple or compound, dot-
less, exstipulate leaves, and a milky acrid or resinous juice.
Flowers regular, small, and frequently unisexual. Calyx per-
sistent (fig. 942), with usually 5, or sometimes 3, 4, or 7 lobes.
_ Petals equal in number to the divisions of the “calyx, perigy-
nous, imbricate; sometimes absent. Stamens alternate with
the petals, and ‘of the same number, or twice as many, or
even more numerous; perigynous, and united at the base if
there is no disk, but if this is present then distinct and in-
serted upon it. Disk annular and hypogynous, or wanting. Ovary
usually single, 1-celled, generally superior, or very rarely in-
ferior ; styles 1, 3, 4, or none; stigmas the same number as
the styles ; ovules solitary, attached
Fic. 942. to a long funiculus which arises
from the base of the cell. Firwit
(fig. 942) indehiscent, drupaceous,
or nut-like. Seed without albu-
men.
Distribution and Numbers.—
The plants of this order are chiefly
found in the tropical regions of the
globe, although a few are found in
the South of Europe and in other
extra-tropical warm districts. I/-
Fig 942. Flowering branch of the lustrative Genera :—Pistacia, Linn. ;
Rhus Cotinus, or Wig-tree, with Anacardium, Rottb. There are
one branch ie oat iin the gbout 110 species.
Sean ana teeta: Retna Properties and Uses. — They
abound in a resinous, somewhat
gummy, acrid, or milky juice, which is occasionally very poison-
ous, and sometimes becomes black in drying. The fruits and
seeds of some species are, however, held in high estimation, and
are largely eaten in different parts of the world. Many plants of
this order furnish varnishes.
Anacardium occidentale, the Cashew-nut, is remarkable for its enlarged
fleshy peduncle, which is eaten as a fruit ; and its juice, when fermented,
produces a kind of wine in the West Indies ; and in Bombay and other places
a spirit is also distilled from it. Each peduncle bears a small kidney-shaped
nut-like fruit, the pericarp of which is very acrid, but the seed is edible. By
roasting the ‘fruit the ac ridity is destroyed, and the seed then possesses a
fine flavour. The acrid principle, which is of an oily nature, possesses power-
ANACARDIACEX. 523
ful rubefacient and vesicant properties. The Cashew-tree also yields a large
supply of a kind of gum, which is however but little used. .
Holigarna longifolia—The fruits of this species and those of Semecar. pus
Anacardium, furnish the black varnish of Sylhet, which is much used in
India. (See Semecarpus.)
Mangifera indica.---The fruit of this plant is the Mango, which is so
highly esteemed in tropical countries. Several varieties are cultivated :
these differ very much in the size and flavour of their fruits. The kernel
of the seed is employed in Brazil and in India as an anthelmintic. !
Melunorrhea usitatissima furnishes the ‘Black Varnish of the Burmese.
It is employed in the arts, and also as an anthelmintic.
Odina Wodier has an astringent bark, which has been used in India.
It also yields an astringent gum.
Pistacia.—P. Lentiscus is the source of the concrete resin, which is
official inthe British Pharmacopeeia, called mustic or mastich. It is obtained
from the stem by incision. Mastich, when dissolved in spirit of wine or oil
of turpentine, forms a good varnish, which was formerly much employed in
this country, but of late years the place of mastich for this purpose has
been supplied in a great degree by Dammar and other less expensive
resins. It is used in the East as a masticatory ; and also to some extent
for fumigation, and in the manufacture of confections and cordials.
It is also employed in this country by dentists as a temporary stopping
for teeth, when dissolved in alcohol or ether, for the relief of toothache
and other purposes. It possesses stimulant and diuretic properties, but
is rarely employed in medicine. It is exclusively collected, and from
male plants only, in the island of Scio, where this plant is much
cultivated.—P. Terebinthus is the source of the liquid oleo-resin called Chian
Turpentine. It is obtained from the stem by incision, in the same way as
mastich. Chian Turpentine becomes solid by keeping, from the loss of its
volatile oil. It has the general properties of the ordinary Turpentines
derived from some of the Conifer, and was formerly employed for
similar purposes; but its use in medicine had become nearly obsolete
until it was recommended recently as being almost a specific in the
treatment of uterine cancer, for which purpose it has been extensively
employed, but without any evident success. It is used in Greece and
the Levant in the manufacture of cordials. Chian Turpentine, as its name
indicates, is obtained from the island of Scio.—Pistacia vera produces the
fruit known as Pistachio or Pistacia nut, the kernels of which are of a
green colour, and have an agreeable flavour. They are highly esteemed by
the Turks and Greeks, and are occasionally imported into this country.
They are either eaten raw, or after having been fried, with pepper and salt.
—P. Khinjuk and P. cabulicu yield concrete resins resembling mastich,
This kind of mastich is imported into India from Cabul; and rarely
into Europe under the name ot Bombay or East Indian Mastich. Curiously
shaped galls of a slightly astringent terebinthinate taste are also obtained
from P. Khinjuk, which enter into the native Materia Medica of India
under the name of Gil-i-pista——P. atlanticu also yields a concrete resin,
which is used in place of mastich by the Arab tribes of Northern Africa.
Rhus, the Sumach.—Several species of this genus have more or less
poisonous properties. They have generally a milky juice, which becomes
black on exposure to the air; and the emanations from some of them excite
violent erysipelatous inflammation upon certain individuals when brought
within their influence——R. Toxicodendron is the Poison-oak of North
America. The leaves contain a peculiar acrid principle, to which their
medicinal properties appear to be due. They have been thought to be useful
in old paralytic cases and in chronic rheumatism.—R. venenata is the
Poison-ash or Poison-elder, and, like the two former, has very poisonous
properties. The above plants, i in a fresh state, ought to be very carefully
624 CORIARIACEA,
handled, as their juices frequently cause violent erysipelatous inflammation.
The bark of #. Coriaria is a powerful astringent, and is used in tanning ;
other species have similar properties. The fruit is acidulous, and is eaten
by the Turks. The leaves, when dried and powdered, constitute the material
called Shumac or Sumach, which has been employed in tanning and dyeing
for ages. The wood of R. Cotinus is known in commerce as Young Fustic
or Zante Fustic. It is used for dyeing, and produces a rich yellow colour.
This must not be confounded with Old Fustic, which is derived from an
entirely different plant (see Maclura tinctoria).—R. Metopium, a native ot
Jamaica, furnishes the Hog-gum of that island: this is said to have astrin-
gent, diuretic, and purgative properties when given internally, and to act
as a vulnerary when applied to wounds, &c. From the fruits of R. suwece-
danea, and probably other species, Japanese Wax is obtained, which is now
largely used in this country for candles, &c. On the branches of this plant
in India, peculiar horn-like galls are found, which possess astringent pro-
perties.
Semecarpus Anacardium is the source of the Marking-nut. These fruits
are used extensively in the preparation of a black varnish. The seeds are
edible, like those of the Cashew. These nuts and the fruit of Holigarna
longifolia (as before noticed) furnish the black varnish of Sylhet, which is
used in the Kast Indies for varnishing lacquer work and for marking linen,
hence their common name. The black thick juice of this plant has power-
fully caustic properties, and is in use by the natives of the East Indies as a
vesicant. Its employment, however, has frequently led to serious conse-
quences, and should be condemned as dangerous.
Spondias.—S. purpurea, S. Mombin, and other species, have edible fruits,
called Hog-plums in Brazil and the West Indies. The fruit of S. cytherea
or S. dulcis, a native of the Society Islands, is said to rival the Pineapple in
flavour and fragrance.
Stagmaria verniciflua (Rhus vernicifera) is the source of a valuable hard
black varnish, known in the Indian Archipelago under the name of Japan
Lacquer.
Order 6. CortartacE®, the Coriaria Order.—Diagnosis.—
This name is given to an order which includes but 1 genus, and
8 species. Its affinities are by no means understood ; but it
appears to be most nearly related to Ochnacez, with which it
agrees in having its carpels distinct, and placed on an enlarged
disk ; but it is distinguished from that order by its opposite
leaves ; sometimes polygamous flowers ; persistent fleshy petals ;
absence of style ; and long linear distinct stigmas.
Distribution.—Natives of the South of Europe, Chili, Peru,
New Zealand, and Nepaul.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are generally
to be regarded with suspicion, as they have sometimes produced
poisonous effects. The fruits of some, however, are edible, as
Coriaria nepalensis, a native of the north of India, and those of
C. sarmentosa, a native of New Zealand; in the latter case the
pericarp is alone eaten, the seeds being poisonous. The fruits
of C. myrtifolia and C. ruscifolia are very poisonous; these
plants have been employed by dyers in the production of a black
dye. The leaves of the former species have been also used on
the Continent to adulterate Senna ; this is a most serious adulte-
ration, as these leaves are poisonous. They owe their poisonous
properties to a glucoside called coria-myrtin. They may be at
MORINGACESX. 525
once distinguished from Senna leaflets by their two sides being
equal and symmetrical at the base, those of Senna being unequal.
Chemically they are also known from Senna by their infusion
producing a very abundant blue precipitate on the addition of
persulphate of iron.
Order 7. Morincace®, the Ben-nut Order.—Character.
Trees with bi- or tri-pinnate leaves, and thin deciduous
stipules. Flowers white, irregular. |‘ Sepals and petals 5 each ;
the former deciduous, petaloid, and furnished with a fleshy
disk ; xstivation imbricate. Stamens 8 or 10, placed on the
disk lining the tube of the calyx in two whorls, the outer of
which is sometimes sterile; anthers 1-celled. Ovary stalked,
superior, 1-celled, with 3 parietal placentas. Fruit long, pod-
shaped, capsular, 1-celled, 3-valved, with loculicidal dehiscence.
Seeds numerous, without albumen.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Natives of the East Indies and
Arabia. There is only one genus (Moringa, Burm.), and 4
species.
Properties and Uses.—Pungent and slightly aromatic proper-
ties more or less prevail in plants of the order, hence they have
been employed as stimulants.
Moringa pterygosperma.—The root resembles that of Horseradish in its
taste and odour, and has been used internally as a stimulant and diuretic,
and locally, when fresh, as a rubefacient and vesicant. A kind of gum
somewhat resembling Tragacanth exudes from the bark when wounded.
Its seeds are called in France Pots Quéniques and Chicot, and in England
Ben-nuts. They yield a fixed oil called Oil of Ben, which is occasionally
used by painters, and also by perfumers and watchmakers. The wood has
been supposed, but on no trustworthy authority, to be the lignum nephriticum
of the old Materia Medica writers.
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Sub-class
Polypetale.
Series 2. DIscIFLOR.®.
1. FLOWERS with more than 20 stamens.
A. Leaves with stipules.
Carpels more or less distinct, (at least as to
the styles), or solitary, superior or parti-
ally inferior. . . Anacardiacex.
Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the
ovaries), superior . ‘ ° : - Humiriacer.
2. FLOWERS with less than 20 stamens.
A. Leaves without stipules.
a. Carpels more or less distinct, or solitary.
Leaves without dots.
Albumen abundant ‘ : : . Zygophyllaceex.
Albumen absent . - : . Anacardiacex.
Leaves dotted . . ° ; - . Burseracex,
526 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN DISCIFLORA,
b. Carpels wholly combined, (at least as to their e
ovaries ).
Styles distinct to the base.
Calyx valvate . > . . . Viwraniacer.
Calyx imbricate ; : ; . Linacez. ”
Styles more or less combined. ee
Calyx valvate or united, or but very
slightly imbricate.
Stamens ‘hypogynous.
Calyx generally enlarging with
the fruit . : : . Olacacezx.
Calyx not enlarging withthe fruit.
Stamens opposite tothe petals,
isomerous. . . Rhamnacee.
Stamens alternate with the
petals, isomerous. .
Leaves compound ° . Burseracex.
Leaves simple. - . ILcacinacex.
Stamens more or less perigynous.
Flowers irregular, ovules sus-
pended . “ ‘ : . Tropeolacex,
Flowers regular, ovules erect . JLimnanthacex.
Calyx imbricate. :
Fruit gynobasie. :
Stamens arising from scales . Simarubscex.
Stamens not arising from scales,
Stvles wholly combined.
Flowers perfect . A . Rutacex.
Flowers polygamous . . Aarthorylex of
Rutacex.
Styles divided at the apex.
Flowers irregular, fruit usu-
ally with elastic valves . Balsamnacezx.
Fruit not gynobasic. *
Calyx much imbricate, in an ir-
regular broken w horl.
Petals with appendages at
their base. Leaves alternate Sapindacex.
Petals without appendages at
their base. Leaves opposite Aceracex.
Calyx but little imbricate, in a
complete whorl.
Carpels 4 or more.
Seeds winged , ° . Cedrelacex,
Seeds wingless.
Stamens united into a
long tube. ; . Meliacezx.
Stamens distinct, or nearly
80,
Leaves dotted.
Seeds amygdaloid . Aurantiex of Rutacex.
Leaves without dots.
Seeds erect - . Celastricex.
Carpels less than 4.
Petals imbricate.
Ovules suspended. . Cyrillacex.
Ovules erect . ‘ . Celastraceex.
B. Leaves with stipules.
a. Carpels distinct, or solitary.
Carpels several . : ; . ° F
b. Carpels wholly combined, (at least as to their
ovaries), with more placentas than one.
Placentas parietal . a . : ‘ :
Placentas in the axis.
Styles distinct to the base.
Petals conspicuous, stalked : ;
Styles more or less combined, fruit
gynobasic.
Gynobase fleshy SWS aioe sé
Gynobase dry.
Leaves regular'y opposite. .
Leaves more or less alternate.
Fruit beaked ; : : “
Fruit not beaked ; ; -
Styles more or less combined, fruit
not gynobasic.
Calyx much imbricate, in an irre-
gular broken whorl.
Flowers not surrounded by an in-
volucre : : ‘ ° :
Calyx but little imbricate, in a com
plete whorl.
Stamens 3, sepals and petals penta-
merous - :
Stamens more than 3.
Calyx glandular, )
Petals without appendages,
Calyx not glandular.
Leaves simple.
Petals united by their claws
intoatube . : °
Leaves compound.
Petals distinct . F :
Calyx valvate.
Stamens opposite to the petals,
isomerous.
Seeds one in each cell. : 4
Stamens opposite to the petals if
isomerous, anthers versatile,
seeds twoineach cell :
Stamens twice as many as the
petals . ‘ : ; :
The following exceptions may be noted to the characters usually distine-
tive of the Disciflore. Thus we have apetalous species in Zygophyllacex,
Geraniacex, Bilsaminacex, Rutaceew, Simarubacex, Burseracex, Olacacezx,
Celastracew, Rhamnacex, Sapind weex, Anacurdiacee, and some others.
Gamopetalous corollas are foundin Humiriacee, Rutacex, Balsuminaceer,
Meliacexe, and Stackhous'acex.
Again, in Geraniicex, Balsaminacex, Tropwolacex, Oxalidacexw, Acer-
acew, Anacardiacer, Malpighiacex, Linacee, &c., the disk is small, or entirely,
or partially absent. ‘The ovary is more or less inferior in some Olacacex
and Rhamnacex ; and the placentation is parietal instead of axile in some
Ochnacee and in Moringaceex.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN DISCIFLORA.
Coriariacer.
Moringacex.
Malpighiacex.
Ochnacex.,
Zygophyllacex.
Geraniacex.
Oxalidicex.
Sapindacex.
Hippocrateacex.
Ma!pighiacex.
Stackhousiaceer.
Staphylezcee.
Rhamnicex.
Vitacex.
Burseracezx.
3)
U
428 CONNARACEX.—LEGUMINOS&.
Series 3. Calyciflore.
Cohort 1. Rosales.—Stamens perigynous or epigynous. Gynce-
cium generally simple or apocarpous, or rarely syncarpous ;
ovary superior or inferior ; placentation usually marginal or
axile ; styles generally solitary or distinct, or rarely united ;
seeds albuminous or exalbuminous.
Order 1. CoNNARACES, the Connarus Order.—Character.
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, without dots, compound,
and generally exstipulate. Flowers usually perfect, or rarely
unisexual. Calyx 5-partite, inferior, imbricate or valvate in
vestivation. Petals 5, inserted on the calyx, imbricate or valvate.
Stamens 10, usually monadelphous, nearly or quite hypogynous.
Oarpels 1 or more ; ovules 2, sessile, collateral, ascending, ortho-
tropous. Fruit follicular. Seeds with or without albumen,
arillate or exarillate ; radicle superior, at the extremity most
remote from the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the tropics and most
common in tropical America. Illustrative Genera :—Connarus,
Omphalobium. There are about 42 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some have oily seeds ; others, as certain
species of Omphalobiwm, have edible arils. The zebra-wood of
the cabinet makers is said by Schomburgk to be furnished by
Omphalobium Lamberti, a very large Guiana tree. (See (uet-
tarda.)
Order 2. Lecuminos#, the Leguminous Order.—C haracter.
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, stipulate, usually
compound (figs. 275, 377, and 380). Calyx ( figs. 943, s, and
944, c) monosepalous, inferior, more or less deeply divided into
five parts, the odd division being anterior (fig. 943, s). Petals
usually 5 (fig. 943), or sometimes by abortion 4, 3, 2, 1, or rarely
none, inserted into the base of the calyx, equal or unequal, often
papilionaceous (fig. 944), the odd petal, if any, posterior (fig.
943, ps). Stamens definite (figs. 943 and 945), or indefinite,
usually perigynous, or rarely hypogynous, distinct or united
into 1, 2 (figs. 552 and 945), or rarely 3 bundles. Ovary
superior, usually formed of 1 carpel( figs. 603 and 943), although
rarely of 2 or 5; 1-celled with 1, 2, or many ovules ; style and
stiama simple ( firs. 603 and 945). Fruit usually a legume ( figs.
6E8 and 689-691), or sometimes a lomentum ( figs. 686 and 692),
or rarely a drupe. Seeds 1 or more, sometimes arillate, attached
to the upper or ventral suture (fig. 946); albwmen usually
absent ; embryo (fig. 16) straight, or with the radicle folded
upon the cotyledons; cotyledons leafy or fleshy, and either
hypogeal or epigeal.
'- Diagnosis. —Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves nearly always
alternate and stipulate, and usually compound. Flowers regular
or irregular. Calyx inferior, 5-partite ; odd division anterior.
Petals 5, and then unequal or equal ; or fewer by abortion, or
LEGUMINOS#. 529
none, perigynous ; odd one, when present, posterior. Stamens
distinct, or united into one or more bundles. Ovary superior,
simple, 1-celled ; style simple, proceeding from the ventral
suture. Fruit usually a legume, or sometimes a lomentum, and
rarely a drupe. Seeds 1 or more, rarely with, or usually without
Fic. 943. Fie. 944. Fic. 945.
Fria. 946.
Fig. 943. Diagram of the flower of the Garden Pea (Pisum sativum). s.
Anterior sepal. ps. Superior petal. pi, pi. Inferior petals. pl, pl. Lateral
petals. ef, Stamens. c. Carpel-——/Fig. 944. The flower of the same. ef.
Standard or vexillum. ai. Wings or ale, car. Carina or keel enclosing
the essential organs. c. Calyx._—Fig. 945. The essential organs of the
same surrounded by the calyx c, es. Bundle of nine stamens. el. Solitary
stamen, s/f. Style and stigma,—Fig. 946. Legume of the same, with one
valve removed,
albumen. This order may be generally distinguished by having
papilionaceous corollas or leguminous fruit.
Division of the Order and Lilustrative Genera.—The order has
been divided into three sub-orders as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Papitionace®.—Petals arranged so as to form a
papilionaceous corolla (fig. 944), imbricate in estivation, and
the upper or odd petal exterior to the lateral petals. —_Illus-
trative Genera :—Ulex, Linn. ; Trifolium, Linn. ; Vicia, Linn. ;
Ornithopus, Linn.
Sub-order 2. C#saLprnie&.——Petals not arranged in a papi-
honaceous manner, imbricate in eestivation, and the upper
or odd petal with its margins inside the lateral petals. Ilus-
trative Genera :—Cesalpinia, Linn. ; Cassia, Linn. There are
no British plants in this sub-order.
Sub-order 3. Mimosr%.—Petals equal, valvate in estivation.
Pollen compound. Illustrative Genera: — Mimosa, Linn. ;
Acacia, Willd. There are no British plants in this sub-order.
Distribution and Numbers.—This is a veryyextensive order,
and has some representatives in almost every part of the world.
A considerable number of the genera are, however, confined
within certain geographical limits, while others have a very wide
range. Asa general rule the Papilionacee are universally dis-
tributed, although most abundant in warm regions ; while the
MM
530 LEGUMINOSA—PAPILIONACEA.
Cxsalpiniex and Mimosex are most common in the tropics ; but
many of the latter are also to be found in Australia. There are
about 7,000 species in this order.
Properties and Uses.—The properties and uses of the plants
of this order are exceedingly variable. Lindley remarks, that
‘the Leguminous Order is not only among the most extensive
that are known, but also one of the most important to man,
whether we consider the beauty of the numerous species, which
are amongst the gayest-coloured and most graceful plants of
every region ; or their applicability to a thousand useful pur-
poses. The Cercis, which renders the gardens of Turkey re-
splendent with its myriads of purple flowers ; the Acacia, not
less valued for its airy foliage and elegant blossoms, than for its
hard and durable wood ; the Braziletto, Logwood, and Rose-
woods of commerce ; the Laburnum, the classical Cytisus; the
Furze and the Broom, both the pride of the otherwise dreary
heaths of Europe ; the Bean, the Pea, the Vetch, the Clover, the
Trefoil, the Lucerne, all staple articles of culture by the farmer,
are so many Leguminous species. The gums Arabic and
Senegal, Kino, Senna, Tragacanth, and various other drugs, not
to mention Indigo, the most useful of all dyes, are products of
other species ; and these may be taken as a general indication
of the purposes to which Leguminous plants may be applied.
There is this, however, to be borne in mind, in regarding the
qualities of the order from a general point of view ; viz., that upon
the whole it must be considered poisonous, and that those
species which are used for food by man or animals are excep-
tions to the general rule ; the deleterious juices of the order not
being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove in-
jurious, and being, in fact, replaced to a considerable extent by
either sugar or starch.’ In alluding to the properties and uses
of the more important plants of this order, we shall arrange
them alphabetically under their respective sub-orders.
Sub-order 1. PApmLIonNACEX.—In this sub-order we have included a
number of plants which yield nutritious food for man or other animals, such
as Peas (Pisum), Broad-beans (Faba), Kidney-beans, Scarlet-runners and
Haricots (Phaseolus), Lentils (Lens), Pigeon-peas (Cajanus, &c.).» The
seeds of the above plants, and many others, are commonly known under the
name of pulse, and do not need any detailed description. ‘lhe tubercular
roots of Dolichos tuberosus and D. bulbosus, Lathyrus tuberosus, and other
plants, are eaten in the same way as potatoes. Lucerne and Medick (Medi-
cago), Melilot (Melilotus), Clover (Trifolium), Tares and Vetches (Ervum,
Vicia), Sainfoin (Onobrychis), and many others which are common fodder
plants in different parts of the globe, also belong to this sub-order, and do
not require any notice in detail. Some plants, or parts of plants, which it
contains, are, however, poisonous, as the roots of the Scarlet-runner (Phaseolus
multiflorus), the roots of Phaseolus radiatus, the seeds of Lathyrus Aphaca,
the seeds, root, and bark of Laburnums ( Cytisus alpinus and C. Laburnum),
the seeds of Anagyris fetida, the seeds of the Calabar Bean (Physostigma
venenosum), and also the seeds of the Bitter Vetch (Hrvum Ervilia), the
juice of Coronilla varia, the leaves of some Gompholobiums, the leaves and
young branches of Tephrosia toxicaria, the ybark of the root of Piscidia
Erythrina, and the parts or products of some other pk:
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LEGUMINOS#Z-—PAPILIONACEA, O31
Abrus precatorius—The seeds are used as beads for making rosaries,
necklaces, &c.—hence their common name of praver-beads. They are also
employed in India as a standard of weight by Hindoo jewellers and drug-
gists under the name of Retti or Rati. Each seed is estimated as equal to
23, grains. ‘They are of a scarlet colour, with a black mark on one side,
and are poisonous when introduced in wounds or under the skin of animals,
but innocuous when eaten. Under the name of Jequirity seeds, they have
been used by the ophthalmic surgeon for the cure of granular lids. The roots
resemble those of the Liquorice plant, and are used as a substitute for them;
hence the names of Wild Liquorice and Indian Liquorice, by which this
plant is known. This root is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India.
LEschynomene.—The stems of A’schynomene aspera furnish the Sola or
Shola of India. These stems are remarkably hight and spongy, and are
therefore used for making floats and buoys for fishermen, for the manufac-
ture of very light hats, and for other purposes where elasticity and lightness
are necessary. A fibre called Duchai Hemp is obtained from ’schynomene
cannabina.
Alhagi Maurorum, Camel’s Thorn.—This plant and other species related
to it, natives of Persia and Afghanistan, secrete a kind of manna. This
substance is obtained by simply shaking the branches. It is highly esteemed
by the Afghans as a food for cattle. In some parts of the East it is also
used as food for man, and as a laxative. It has been supposed to be the
manna upon which the Israelites were fed in the wilderness, but such an
idea is undoubtedly incorrect. (See Lecanora).
Andira.—The bark of Andira inermis, known as Cabbage Bark or Worm
Bark, was formerly much used as an anthelmintic. It possesses cathartic,
emetic, and narcotic properties. In large doses it is poisonous.—Andira
anthelmintica also possesses vermifuge properties. The powder known as
Araroba, and which has been largely used of late years in many skin diseases
under the name of Goa Powder, is also derived from a species of Andira,
which has been named A. Araroba. It is official in the British Pharma-
copeia under the name of ‘Chrysarobin.’—A. retusa also yields a bark
with similar properties to that of A. inermis ; it is known under the name
of Surinam Bark.
Arachis hypogea.—This plant is remarkable for ripening its legumes
under the surface of the ground, hence it is commonly known as the Ground
Nut. The seeds are used as food in various parts of the world, and are occa-
sionally roasted and served up, in the same manner as Chestnuts, as an
article of dessert in this country. In the United States the roasted seeds
are employed as a substitute for coffee, in the preparation of a kind of cho-
colate, and for other purposes. Tuson has recommended ground-nut cake for
the feeding of cattle. It issometimes used for adulterating the more expensive
feeding cakes in this country and elsewhere. The seeds vield by expression
a fixéd oil which is official in the Pharmacopeia of India; it is employed
very extensively in India for cooking, &c., where it is called Katchung oil.
The oil is also occasionally imported, or it is obtained here by expression
from the seeds. It is known commonly as ground-nut or earth-nut oil. It is
a very liquid oil, and is accordingly employed for watches and other delicate
machinery ; also for burning and other purposes. It forms a good and cheap
substitute for olive oil.
Astragalus — A. gummifer and some other species of Astragalus furnish
the official Tragacanth of the British Pharmacopeeia, or, as it is commonly
termed—gum dragon. It is used by manufacturers for stiffening crape, &c. ;
and in medicine for its demulcent and emollient properties, and as a vehicle
for the exhibition of more active substances. Tragacanth exudes naturally,
or more especially from wounds made in the stems of the above plants.
The gum known as Sarcocolla, which is imported into Bombay from the
Persian port of Bushire, is also considered by Dymock to be derived from a
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632 LEGUMINOSZ—PAPILIONACEA.
species of Astragalus, or from one nearly allied to that genus. The seeds
of A. beticus are used as a substitute for coffee in some parts of Germany.
Baptisia tinctoria—This plant is the Wild Indigo of the United States.
Its receives its common name from yielding a blue dye resembling indigo,
although it is of far inferior quality to that substance. The roots and other
parts are reputed to be emetic and purgative. The eclectic remedy known
as baptisin is obtained from this plant.
Bowdichia virgilioides—The bark of this plant, with that of one or more
species of Byrsonima (Malpighiacez), is said to form the American Alcor-
noco or Alcornoque Bark of commerce. (See Byrsonima.) It is used by the
tanners.—B. major, Mart.—The root bark of this plant, which is a native
of Brazil, is in great repute in rheumatism, syphilis, &¢., but more especially
in psoriasis and other skin diseases. A kind of gum resembling Senegal
gum in appearance also exudes from the stem, and is useful in diarrhoea.
Butea.—B. frondosa, a native of India, yields an astringent substance
called Butea gum or Bengal Kino, which resembles the official Kino in its
properties. (See Pterocarpus.) It is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India ;
it is used in diarrhoea and similar diseases, and also for tanning, &c.—B.
superba and B. parviflora also yield a similar astringent substance. The
dried flowers of B. frondosa, and those of B. superba, are known under the
names of Tisso and Kessaree flowers. They are extensively used in India
in the production of beautiful yellow and orange dyes, and have been im-
ported into this country. The fibres of the inner bark of B. frondosa are
known under the name of Pulas cordage. The seeds of the same plant are
also highly esteemed as a vermifuge in India; and from these seeds the oil
known in India as moodooga oil, which is also regarded as an anthelmintic,
is obtained. The substance known as stick-lac is also derived from this tree.
It is produced on the young twigs by the puncture of a species of Coccus.
Stick-lac is used in the preparation of sealing-wax, and in dyeing, &c.
Castanospermum australe-—The seeds when roasted are said to resemble
in flavour the chestnut, but they are very inferior to it. The plant is a
native of Moreton Bay, in Queensland, hence the seeds are called Moreton
Bay Chestnuts.
Cicer arietinum, Chick Pea; Bengal Gram.—The seeds are very largely
used in India as food for cattle, &c. An acid liquid exudes from the
hairs of the stem, and other parts; it is employed as a refrigerant by
the natives of India.
Clitoria ternatea.—The seeds of this Indian climber have been used with
success as a purgative.
Colutea arborescens, Bladder-senna.—The leaflets have been employed
on the Continent to adulterate Alexandrian Senna. They are at once dis-
tinguished from Senna leaflets by their regularity at the base.
Coronilla Emerus has cathartic leaves. They have been used to adulterate
Senna on the Continent. They form the Séné Sauvage, or Wild Senna, of
France.
Crotolaria juncea is an Indian plant which furnishes a coarse fibre called
Sunn, Sun, Shunum, Taag, Bengal Hemp, &c. In Bombay and Madras
this fibre is used as well as jute for making gunny bags. (See Corchorus
capsularis.) Sunn is sometimes confounded with Sunnee, a fibre obtained
from Hibiscus cannabinus. (See Hibiscus cannabinus.)— Crotalaria tenuifolia,
another Indian plant, now sometimes regarded as only a variety of C.juncea,
is the source from whence Jubhulpore Hemp is derived.
Cyclopia—The leaves of some species of this genus are used as substi-
tutes for China Tea at the Cape of Good Hope under the names of Flonig-thee,
Cape Tea, and Bush Tea, According to Henry C. Greenish and others, these
species are probably C. longifolia, C. galeoides, C. genistoides, and C. brachypoda.
Cytisus scoparius ( Sarothamnus scoparius) is the Common Broom. The
seeds and tops in small doses are diuretic and laxative, and in large doses
LEGUMINOSZ— PAPILIONACEA,. 533
Yu
purgative and emetic; the fresh and dried tops are official in the British
Pharmacopeeia.— Cytisus junceus, the Spanish Broom, has similar properties.
The fibre has also been used from an early period in many parts of Southern
Europe for the manufacture of a coarse kind of cloth for home use ; it has
been lately much employed in Italy, and a patent has been taken out for
preparing the fibre.
Dalbergia —Several species of this genus are good timber trees. The
most valuable of them all is D. Sissoo. In India its wood is called Sissoo
and Sissum. East Indian Rosewood, or Black Wood, is obtained from D.
latifolia. According to Dr. Allemio, of Brazil, the best Rosewood of com-
merce is derived from D. nigra, a native of Brazil; and other qualities from
species of Macherium. (See Triptolomxa.)
Dipteryx.—tThe seeds of D. odorata, a native of Guiana, have a very
powerful and agreeable odour, which is due to the presence of coumarin.
They are used for scenting snuff and in perfumery, and are commonly
known under the name of Tonquin or Tonka Beans. Coumarin is also
present in other plants of this sub-order, as in the seeds and flowers of
Melilotus officinal’s and M. cxrulea. Fragrant seeds are also obtained from
D. eboénsis. They are the Eboe nuts of the Mosquito Coast; they yield a
fatty oil.
Flemingia.—The glands of the young legumes of F. rhodocarpa, Baker,
a native of Arabia and East Tropical Africa, form the dye known at Aden
under the names of Warus or Wurrus. This, which is in the form of a
powder, has long been known and used as a dye for silk, for which
purpose it is commonly mixed with alum, carbonate of soda, &c., when
it produces a deep, durable, beautiful orange or flame colour. In its
medicinal activity it is said to resemble Kamala (see Mallotus), with which
it was formerly confounded.
Genista tinctoria, the Dyer’s Broom, yields a good yellow dye, or when
mixed with Woad (Jsatis tinctoria), a green. (See satis.)
Geoffroya vermifuga, G. spinulosa, and other species, possess barks which
have similar properties to those from the species of Andira. (See Andira.)
Glycyrrhiza.—The fresh and Gried roots and underground stems of
G. glabra, the common Liquorice plant, are official in the British Pharma-
coporia ; these, as well as those of other species or varieties, particularly
G. glabra var. glandulifera and G. echinata, possess a remarkably sweet taste,
which is especially due to the presence of a peculiar glucoside to which the
name of glycyrrhizin or glycion has been given. Extract of liquorice root is
imported in very large quantities into this country under the name of
liquorice juice, or Spanish, or Italian juice, from the countries whence it is
obtained. The Spanish juice is prepared from G. glabra; the Italian from
G. echinata. The root and extract of liquorice are employed in medicine as
flavouring substances, and for their demulcent and emollient properties.
Various preparations of liquorice are commonly kept in the shops, and sold
under the names of Pipe liquorice, Pontefract lozenges, Spanish juice, Solazzt
juice, &e.
Indigofera tinctoria, I. cerulea, and some other species, when subjected
to a peculiar process, yield commercial indigo, one of the most important of
dyeing materials. Sulphate of Indigo has been introduced into the Appendix
of the British Pharmacopeeia as a test agent. Indigo is very poisonous,
although in proper doses it has been employed in epilepsy and amenorracea,
but its value in such diseases rests on no very trustworthy evidence.
Lens esculenta—The seeds are commonly known under the name of
Lentils, which have been esteemed from the earliest periods on account of
their value as an article of food.
Machxrium.—M. firmum, M. legale, and probably other species, are said
to be the source of the inferior kinds of Rosewood, (See Dalbergia and
Triptolome.)
534 LEGUMINOS#E—PAPILIONACE.
Mellotus officinalis—The flowers and seeds of this and other species’.
possess a peculiar fragrance, which is due to the presence of coumarin.
They are used to give flavour to the ‘Schabzieger,’ a hard cheese used for
grating.
Mucuna.—The hairs covering the legumes of M. pruriens, a native of
the East and West Indies, are sometimes used as a mechanical anthelmintic,
under the name of Cowhage or Cow-itch. Aninfusion of the root of M. pruriens
has also been employed in India as a remedy for cholera. The young legumes
are also cooked and eaten.—M. urens and M., altissima furnish a black dye.
Myrozxylon or Myrospermum.—Two balsams which are obtained from
plants of this genus are official in the British Pharmacopeeia, namely, Balsam
of Tolu and Balsam of Peru. Balsam of Tolu is obtained from the stem of
Myroxylon Toluifera (Toluifera Balsamum), by incision. It possesses
mild stimulant and expectorant properties, and is used in chronic bronchial
affections. It is also employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in fumi-
gating pastilles. Balsam of Peru is obtained from M. Pereirz ( Toluifera
Balsamum, var.), a native of the Balsam Coast of the State of San Sal-
vador, in Central America. It is a viscid liquid balsam, which exudes
from the tree after the bark has been first beaten and charred by the appli-
cation of lighted torches or bundles of burning wood, and subsequently re-
moved. Balsam of Peru has similar properties to Balsam of Tolu, but it is
far less frequently employed. Balsam of Peru is sometimes known in com-
merce under the names of Sonsonate or St. Salvador Black Balsam. Two
other medicinal products are also derived from M,. Pereire, namely, White
Balsam, which is obtained by pressing without heat the interior of the fruit
and seeds ; and Balsamito, or Essence or Tincture of Virgin Balsam, which
is made by digesting the fruit (deprived of its winged appendages) in rum.
A peculiar crystalline substance has been obtained by Stenhouse from White
Balsam, to which he has given the name of Myroxocarpin—M. peruiferum, a
native of Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil, and which was long erroneously regarded
as the botanical source of Balsam of Peru, yields a fragrant balsam not
unlike Balsam of Tolu, called at Rio ‘ Olea vermelho.’
Orobus tuberosus.—The roots are occasionally eaten in the Highlands of
Scotland, and in Holland.
Physostigma venenosum, Calabar Bean.—The seeds of this plant have
been known for some vears under the name of the Ordeal Beans of Old
Calabar, from their use in that country for trial by ordeal. They are very
poisonous, acting as a powerful sedative of the spinal nervous system.
Calabar Beans and their active alkaloid, Physostigmine or E’serine, are official
in the British Pharmacopeeia, and in the form of an extract, or some other
suitable preparation, have been extensively employed as a local application
to the eye to cause contraction of the pupil. The seeds, &c., have also been
administered internally in tetanus, chorea, and some other nervous affections ;
and also in the treatment of strychnia poisoning. The seeds, described by
Holmes as the produce of another species named P. cylindrosum, do not pro-
bably differ in any very important characters from those of P. venenosum, and
the two plants do not appear to be specifically distinct ; but they require
further examination.
Pongamia glabra—The seeds yield an oil by expression which is
favourite application in India in rheumatism and in several skin iiss
Psoralea glandulosan—Vhe leaves are used in Chili as a substitute for
Paraguay tea.
Pterocarpus.—P. Marsupium is the source of the kind of Kino which is
official in the British Pharmacopeia. This is known under the names of
East Indian, Amboyna, or Malabar Kino, or commonly as Gum Kino. It
is a valuable and powerful astringent ig erinaceus, a native of West
Africa, yields a similar astringent ‘substance called African Kino, East
Indian Kino is that commonly met with in this country. Some other species
LEGUMINOSZ—CASALPINIEA. 585
appear to yield similar products.— Red Sandal or Red Sanders Wood, which
is official in the British Pharmacopeeia, is obtained from P. santalinus. It
is used in medicine as a colouring agent, and also by the dyer for the produc-
tion of red and scarlet dyes. It contains a peculiar colouring matter called
Santalin or Suntalic acid.—P. dalbergivides is said to yield the Andaman
Red Wood. It is a valuable timber tree, and is also ‘useful as a dyeing
material. The bark of P. flavus is used in China for dyeing yellow. any
Draco is one of the plants from which the Dragon’s Blood of commerce is
obtained. This is sometimes, but improperly, called Gum Dragon. The
true Gum Dragon of the shops is yielded by species of Astragalus. (See
Astragalus. )—P. angolensis is said to supply the wood exported from Gaboon
which is the ‘Santal rouge d’Afrique’ of the French, or Barwood of English
commerce. (See Baphia. Di
Robinia Pseud-acacia is the North American Locust-tree. -It is fre-
quently cultivated in Britain on account of its flowers and its hard and
durable wood.
Soja hispida. —The seeds are largely used in China, Japan, India, &c., in
the preparation of the sauce called by ‘the Japanese Sooja, and by us known
as Soy. The seeds are also consumed in immense quantities by the Japanese
as a vegetable.
Sophora japonica.—The dried flower-buds are extensively used in China
for dyeing yellow. They are known under the name of Wai-fu.
Tephrosia apollinea and T. toxicaria are used in Africa for the prepara-
tion of a blue dye resembling indigo. Several species of Tephrosia, parti-
cularly 7. toxicaria, are employed as fish poisons. They stupefy the fish,
which are then readily taken by the hand. It has been thought by some
that 7. toxicaria would act on the human system like Digitalis, and hence
might be used as a substitute for it in those parts of the world where that
plant is not a native. The leaflets of 7. apollinea have been employed
in Egypt to adulterate Alexandrian Senna. They may be readily dis-
tinguished from Senna leaflets by their silky or silvery appearance, and by
being equal-sided at the base.
Trigonella Fenum-grecum.—The powdered seeds of this plant are used
in veterinary medicine under the name of Fenugreek. They are also em-
ployed as an ingredient of curry powder ; and for flavouring, &c. the so-
called concentrated cattle foods. In India they are largely used by the
natives both as food and medicine ; whilst the fresh plant is consumed as a
vegetable.
Triptolomea.—The true Rosewood of cabinet-makers, which is imported
from Brazil, has been generally regarded as the produce of one or more
species of this genus, but this is now said to be derived from a species of
Dalbergia, &c. (See Dalbergia.)
Voundzea.—The seeds of this plant resemble those of the Arachis hypogea
in being edible. They are boiled and eaten as peas. Their native name in
Surinam is Gobbe.
Sub-order 2. Ca&SALPINIE#.—The plants of this sub-order are princi-
pally remarkable for their purgative properties. Many important dye-
woods and several tanning substances are also obtained from plants belong-
ing to it. The fruits of some again are edible, and none possess any evident
poisonous properties.
Baphia nitida, a native of Sierra Leone and other parts of Africa, is said
by some to furnish the dye-wood known under the name of Barwood or
Camwood. This wocd produces a brilliant red colour. (See Pterocarpus
angolensis.)
Bauhinia —B. Vahlii, B. racemosa, and B. parviflora furnish fibres which
are used in making ropes ee) retusa produces a kind of gum.—B. varieg1ta
has an astringent bark, which is used in medicine, and for tanning and
dyeing leather. The buds and dried flowers of B. tomentosa are also astrin-
536 LEGUMINOS#Z-—CASALPINIEA.
gent, and are employed in dysentery, &c. Other species of Bauhinia are
used in Brazil for their mucilaginous properties.
Cxsalpinia.—The twisted legumes of C. coriaria are powerfully astrin-
gent ; they are extensively used in tanning under the name of Divi-divi
or Libi-dibi. The legumes of C. Papai are employed for a similar purpose,
but they are very inferior to them; they are called Pipi. The powdered
legumes of C. coriaria have been used with some success in India as an as-
tringent and antiperiodic.—C. Sappan furnishes the Sappan, Bookum, or
Bukkum-wood of India. It is used for dyeing red. The roots of the same
tree, under the names of Yellow-wood and Sappan-root, are sometimes im-
ported from Singapore, and employed for dyeing yellow. Sappan wood is
also a useful astringent, somewhat resembling Logwood in its eftects.—C.
echinata furnishes Nicaragua, Lima, or Peach-wood, which is very exten-
‘sively used in dyeing red and peach-colours.—C. crista is the plant from
which Brazil-wood is obtained. It is employed for dyeing yellow, rose-
colour, and red.—C. brasiliensis furnishes another dyewood, called Braziletto-
wood, which produces fine red and orange colours. The exact species fur-
nishing the above three dyewoods cannot, however, be said to have been
altogether ascertained.
Cassia.—The species of this genus are frequently characterised by purga-
tive properties. ‘The leaflets of several species furnish the different varieties
of Senna. The kind, known commonly as Alerandrian Senna, is obtained
from C. acutifolia of Delile. This variety is that which is generally most
esteemed in this country ; but it was formerly much adulterated with the
leaves, fruits, &c., of other plants. The Common East Indian, Arabian,
Mocha, or Bi mbay Senna is derived from C. angustifolia, Vahl. Tinnivelly
Senna is furnished by the same plant cultivated in Southern India. The
above three varieties are those generally used in England; but the Alex-
andrian and Tinnivelly kinds are alone official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
The Italian and Jamaica kinds of Senna are both derived from C. obovata.
American Senna, which was formerly official in the United States Pharma
copeia, is obtained from C. marilandica.—Cassia Fistula.—The fruit, which
is divided into a number of cells by spurious dissepiments, contains a blackish-
brown viscid pulp with a sweetish taste, which possesses laxative and purga-
tive properties. This pulp is official in the British Pharmacopeia. The
root is also said to be purgative.—C. brasiliana (C. grandis) has a larger,
longer, and rougher fruit, which also possesses purgative properties. It
is commonly used in veterinary medicine, and is known as Horse Cassia.
The fruit of C. moschata is the Small American Cassia of the French
pharmaciens. It is occasionally imported. The pulp has similar properties
to the two former, but is more astringent. The bark of C. auriculata is
said by Roxburgh to be employed for tanning and dyeing leather. It has
also been used instead of oak bark in the preparation of astringent gargles,
&ec. The seeds are also regarded. as a valuable local application in certain
forms of ophthalmia. The flowers are also used for dyeing yellow. The
powdered seeds of C. absus, under the name of Chichm, are used in Egypt as
a remedy in ophthalmia. They are also employed for a similar purpose in
India. ‘The leaves of. C. alata are held in great esteem in the East Indies
and elsewhere as a local application in skin diseases; and the leaves of
C. Sophora, C. occidentalis, and C. Tora are said to possess similar pro-
perties.
Ceratonia Siliqua.—The ripe fruit is known under the names of Carob,
Locust, and St. John’s Bread. Its pulp has a very sweet taste, and is sup-
posed to have been the food of St.John in the wilderness. The Carob Bean
contains about 63 per cent. of sugar when in a dried state, and upwards of
20 per cent. of other respiratory and fat-producing principles, and about 1
per cent. of oil. Hence it is especially adapted for fattening purposes, and
is now largely imported into this country as a food for cattle. It is said
LEGUMINOSA—CASALPINIEA. 537
that the small seeds of this plant formed the original carat weight of
jewellers.
Codarium (Dialium) acutifolium and C. obtusifolium yield fruits which
are known under the names of Brown and Velvet Tamarinds. They are
both natives of Sierra Leone. The pulp of both species is eaten, and has an
agreeable taste.
Copaifera. Several species of this genus, as C. Langsdorfii, C. officinalis,
C. guianensis, C. coriacea, &c., yield the oleo-resin commonly known under
the name of Balsam of Copaiba ; ; but it is improperly so called, as it contains
neither benzoic nor cinnamic acids, the presente of at least one of which sub-
stances is necessary to constitute ’a true balsam. Copaiba is obtained by
boring or cutting deeply into the trunks of these trees. Copaiba is said in
the British Pharmacopeia to be derived from C. Langsdorfii and other
species of Copaifera—C. pubiflora, and probably C. bracteata also, furnish
the Purple Heart or Purple Wood of Guiana, which is largely employed for
making musket-ramrods, &c.—C. Guibourtiana or Guibourtia copallifera, 1s
the principal, if not the sole, source of the copal resin of Sierra Leone.
Dr. Welwitsch has, however, expressed his belief that all West African
copal, and probably all gum resin exported under this name from Tropical
Africa, may be looked upon as a fossil resin, produced in times past by trees
which at present are either entirely extinct, or exist only in a dwarfed
posterity. (See Hymenzu and Trachylobium.)
Dialium indicum vields a fruit called the Tamarind Plum, the pulp of
which has an agreeable, slightly acidulous taste, somewhat resembling that
of the common Tamarind. (See Codarium.)
Guilandina Bonducella, the Nicker Tree.—The seeds are very bitter, and
possess tonic and antiperiodic properties. They are official in the Pharma-
copeeia of India, and have been employed with success in intermittent fevers,
&c. The seeds are also used for necklaces, rosaries, &e. The bark of the
root likewise possesses bitter and tonic properties.
Hematoxylon campechianum.—The heart-wood is employed in dyeing,
and as an astringent and tonic in medicine. It is commonly known under
the name of Logwood; and is official in the British Pharmacopeia. It
contains a crystalline colouring principle called hematoxylin, to which its
prcperties are essentiallv due.
Hymenxa.—H. Courbaril, the West Indian Lecust-tree, is supposed to
furmsh Gum Animé or East Indian Copal, but upon no reliable authority.
Some of the East Indian Copal is, however, probably obtained from H. ver-
rucosa. Mexican Copal is also supposed to be derived from a species of
Hymenzxa. (See Copaifera and Trachylobium.) The inner bark- of H.
Courbaril is reputed to possess anthelmintic properties. The seeds of the
same plant are imbedded in a mealy substance, which is sweet and pleasant
to the taste ; and from the liquor obtained by ‘boiling them and the pulp in
water, and subsequently allowed to undergo. fermentation, an intoxicating
beverage is procured. ‘This tree grows to a large size, and its timber, under
the name of Locust-wood, is used ‘by ship- carpenters.
Mora excelsa.—tThis plant, which is a large tree, a native of Guiana,
furnishes the Mora Wood employed largely for ship-building. The bark is
astringent, and useful for tanning.
Parkinsonia aculeata.— Useful fibres are ob tained from the stems of this
plant.
Poinciana pulcherrima.—tThe roots are said to be tonic, and the leaves to
have purgative properties.
Swartzia tomentosa, the Bully-tree, a native of Guiana, yields a hard
and durable wood. called Beefwood.
Tamarindus indica.—The fruit is the well-knownTamarind. It contains
an agreeable, acidulous, sweet, reddish-lrown pulp, which, when preserved
in sugar, or in its pure state, is employed medicinally in the preparation
538 LEGUMINOSH—MIMOSE.
of cooling laxative drinks, and in other ways. The preserved pulp is official
in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Trachylobium.—Sir John Kirk has shown that 7. mossambicense is the
botanical source of the kind of Zanzibar Copal known as ‘ Sandarusi-m’ti,’
Tree Copal. He also believes that the Copal known in the English market
as ‘ Animé,’ the most valuable of all, and which ‘is now dug’ from the soil,
is the produce of extinct forests, but probably derived originally from the
same species of Trachylobium. Sir Joseph Hooker exhibited specimens of
Fossil Copal at a meeting some years since of the Linnean Society, from
T. Hornemannianum. This and other kinds of Copal are used in the pre-
paration of varnishes. brazilian Copal is said by some to be derived from
T. Martianum and several species of Hymenza, but on no reliable authority,
The origin of the kind of Copal known as Angola Copal is at present unde-
termined. It has been referred to 7. Martianum, but this tree has never
been found in Africa. (See Hymenwa and Copaifera. )
Sub-order 3, Mimose.—The plants of this sub-order are chiefly re-
markable for yielding gum and astringent substances. Some few are
reputed to be poisonous, as Acacia varians, the root of a Brazilian species of
Mimosa, the leaves and branches of Prosopis utiliflora, the bark of Erythro-
phieum guineense, &c.
Acacia.—Various species of this genus yield gum, to which the common
name of Gum Arabic is applied ; but this is a misnomer, as very little gum
is collected in, and none is exported from, Arabia. It is official in the British
Pharmacopeeia under the name of Gum Acacia, and is said to be obtained
from Acacia Senegal (A. Verek), and other species of Acucia. The more
important varieties now known in the London market are as follows:
Kordofan, Picked Turkey, or White Sennaar Gum, which is derived from A.
Senegal ( Verek) ; Senegal Gum, also from A. Senegal; Suakin Gum, Talea,
or Talha Gum, ‘from A. stenocarpa and A. Seyal, Delile, var. Fistula ;
Morocco, Mogadore, or Brown Barbary Gum, from A. arabiea, Willd. ; Cape
Gum, principally from A. horridu (A. capensis); East India Gum, from A.
arabica, and other species; and Australian or Wattle Gum, from various
species, as 4. pyenantha, A. decurrens, A. dealbata, and A. homalophylla ;
but the botanical sources of some of these commercial varieties cannot as yet
be said to have been definitely determined. The extract prepared from the
duramen or inner wood of Acacia Catechu furnishes a kind of Catechu or
Cutch, which is commonly known as Black Catechu ; it is a powerfully
astringent substance, containing much tannic acid, and largely employed in
the processes of tanning and dyeing, and also to some extent in medicine.
(See Uncaria Gambier. ) The dried legumes of A. ni/otica are imported
under the names of Web-neb, Nib-nib, or Bablah, and are also used by tanners
on account of their astringent properties. The bark of A. arabica possesses
similar properties, and is used extensively in India under the name of Babul
Bark as a substitute for oak bark. The barks of several other species which
are natives of the East Indies possess similar astringent properties. ‘lhe
extract of the bark of A. melanoxylon, an Australian species, is also a valuable
tanning substance, and is frequently imported on that account into this
country. The bark is also sometimes imported under the name of Acacia
Bark.—A. JSormosa, a native of Cuba, furnishes a very hard, tough, and
durable wood, of a dull red colour, called Sabicu. This is the wood that was
used in constructing the stairs of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, at the
Great Exhibition in 1851, and which upon removal was found to be but
little worn. The flowers of A. Farnesiana are very fragrant, and when
distilled with water or spirit yield a delicious perfume. This plant also
yields a valuable gum.—A. Seyal is supposed to be the Shittah-tree or
Shitiim-wood of the Bible. By others, however, the plant yielding this wood
has been thought to be A. vera, and by some 'A.horrida’ The first is pro-
bably correct.
ROSACEA. 539
Adenanthera pavonina, a native of India, &c., produces a dye-wood, called
Red Sandal-wood. ‘This must not be confounded with the official Red
Sandal-wood already alluded to as being derived from Pterocarpus santalinus.
The seeds, under the name of Barricarri seeds, are used in the northern
parts of South America for making necklaces, &c. They are perfectly
smooth, and have a bright red colour.
Evrythrophleum guineense, the Sassy Tree of Western Africa.—The bark,
under the name of ‘ ordeal bark’ or ‘doom bark,’ is used in certain parts of
Africa as an ordeal, to which persons suspected of witchcraft, secret murder,
&c., are subjected as a test of their innocencé or guilt. It is also used for
poisoning arrows. It is also known under the names of Sassy, Casca, Cassa,
and Mancona Bark. It has been lately recommended as a remedial agent,
but the experiments of Dr. Lauder Brunton have been unattended with
marked results. In its action it has been said to resemble that of digitalin
and picrotoxin combined.
Prosopis.—The legumes of P. pallida and some other species are very
astringent, and have been employed in tanning under the name of Algarobilla.
The legumes of P. du/cis and other species or varieties found in South
America, &c., have a sweetish taste resembling the Carob Beans ( Ceratonia
Siliqua), and like them are used as food for cattle, under the name of
Algorobo ; and a drink called Chica is also prepared from them. The name
of Chica was at first given to a fermented liquor of the Maize, but is now
commonly applied in South America to several fermented drinks. The
legumes of P. pubescens, under the name of Mosquit or Screw Bean, are
largely used for feeding cattle in Arizona. A gum also exudes from the
stems resembling Gum Arabic; it is employed in Texas and Arizona
medicinally, and for technical purposes.
Order 3. Rosacea, the Rose Order.—Character.—Trees,
shrubs, or herbs. Leaves simple (fig. 308) or compound (fig. 378),
alternate (jig. 289), usually stipulate (figs. 308 and 378).
Fic. 947. Fic. 948.
Fig. 947. Diagram of the flower of a species of Rose, with five sepals, five
petals, numerous stamens, and many distinct carpels. Fig. 948. Vertical
section of the flower.
Flowers regular, generally hermaphrodite (figs. 947—950), or
rarely unisexual. TJhalamus more or less convex (fig. 605),
elongated (fig. 606, 1), or concave (fig. 948). Calyx monosepa-
lous (figs. 476, ct, and 948), with a disk either lining the tube or
540 ROSACEA.
surrounding the orifice, 4- or 5-lobed, when 5 the odd lobe pos-
terior (fig. 947), sometimes surrounded by a whorl of bracts
forming an involucre or epicalyx (fig. 456). Petals 5, distinct,
(fig. 476, p, and 947), perigynous ; or rarely none (fig. 952).
Stamens definite (fig. 952) or numerous, perigynous (figs. 948
—950) ; anthers (fig. 951) 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally.
Fic. 949. Fie. 950.
Fic. 951. Fire. 952. Fie. 953. Fic. 954. Fie. 955-
Fig. 949. Vertical section of the flower of the Peach (Prunus (Amygdalus)
persica).——Fig. 950. Vertical section of the flower of the Quince (Pyrus
Cydonia).——Fig. 951. Two-celled anther with part of the filament of a
species of Rubus. Fig. 952. Vertical section of the flower of a species of
Alchemilla.— Fig. 953. Vertical section of the fruit (drupe) of the Cherry
(Prunus Cerasus). ep. Bpicarp. me. Mesocarp. en. Endocarp, within which
is the seed with embryo.— Fig. 954. Vertical section of an achenium
of a species of Rose.—Fig. 955. Vertical section of the ovary, 0, of a
species of Rubus, with the ovule, ov,
Carpels 1 (fig. 952), 2, 5, or numerous (figs. 947 and 948), with
1-celled ovaries (figs. 952 and 955), usually apocarpous and
superior (figs. 947 and 948), or sometimes more or less combined
together, and even with the tube of the calyx, and thus becoming
inferior (fig. 950) ; styles basilar (figs. 639 and 952), lateral (fig.
ROSACEA. 541
638), or terminal (fig. 949); ovules 1 (fig. 955) or few (fig. 950).
Fruit various: either a drupe (jigs. 698—695), an achenium, a
follicle, a dry or succulent etzerio (figs. 661 and 703), a cynar-
rhodum, or a pome (jigs. 473 and 722). Seeds 1 (figs. 953 and
954) or few (fig. 473), exalbuminous ; embryo straight.
Diagnosis.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate leaves.
Flowers regular. Calyx 4—5-lobed; when 5, the odd lobe pos-
terior. Petals 5, perigynous, orrarelynone. Stamens perigynous,
distinct ; anthers 2-celled. Carpels one or more, usually distinct
or sometimes united; generally superior or occasionally more or
less inferior. Seeds 1 or few, exalbuminous; embryo straight.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order
Rosacez, as above defined, may be divided into five sub-orders,
which are by some botanists considered as distinct orders.
They are characterised as follows :—
Sub-order 1. CuHrysoBALANE®.—Trees or shrubs, with simple
leaves and free stipules. Carpel solitary, cohering more or
less on one side with the tube of the calyx; ovules 2; style
basilar. Fruit adrupe. Seed erect ; radicle inferior. Illustra-
tive Genus:—Chrysobalanus, Linn. There are no British
plants in this sub-order.
Sub-order 2. Drupacea.—Trees or shrubs, with simple leaves
and free stipules. Calyx deciduous. Carpel solitary, not ad-
herent to the calyx; style terminal. Fruit a drupe. Seed
suspended (jig. 953). Illustrative Genus :—Prunus, Linn.
Sub-order3. Rost&.—Shrubs or herbs, with simple or compound
leaves and adherent stipules. Carpels 1 or more, superior,
not united to the flower-tube, distinct or sometimes more or
less coherent; styles lateral or nearly terminal. Fruit either
an etzrio, cynarrhodum, or consisting of several follicles.
Seed usually suspended ( fig. 955), or rarely ascending ; radicle
superior. Illustrative Genera :—Rosa, Linn. ; Rubus, Linn.
Sub-order 4. SancuisorBE® or Porertex.—Herbs or under-
shrubs. Flowers often unisexual. Petals frequently absent.
Carpels 1—3; style terminal or basilar (fig. 952). Fruit an
achznium enclosed in the flower-tube, which is often in-
durated. Seed solitary, suspended, erect, or ascending.
Illustrative Genera :—Alchemilla, Linn. ; Poterium, Linn.
Sub-order 5. Pomex.—Trees or shrubs, with simple or compound
leaves and free stipules. Carpels 1 to 5, adhering more or
less to each other and to the sides of the flower-tube, and
thus becoming inferior; styles terminal (fig. 950). Fruit a
pome, 1—5-celled or rarely spuriously 10-celled (figs. 473 and
722). Seeds erect or ascending. Illustrative Genera :—Pyrus,
Linn. ; Crategus, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—The Chrysobalanex are princi-
pally natives of the tropical parts of America and Africa. The
Drupacex are almost exclusively found in the cold and tem-
me a
042 ROSACEZ—-CHRYSOBALANEZ— DRUPACEA.
perate regions of the northern hemisphere. The Rosex aud
Sanguisorbex are also chiefly natives of cold and temperate
climates, although a few are found within the tropics. The
Pomex occur only in the cold and temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere. The order Rosacez comprises about
1,000 species, of which about one-half ara to the sub-order
Rosex.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of the ae are principally
remarkable for their astringency, and for their succulent edible
fruits. The seeds, flowers, leaves, and young shoots of many
of the Drupacex and Pome, when moistened with water, yield
hydrocyanic acid ; hence the parts of such plants are sometimes
poisonous. All other Rosacew are entirely devoid of poisonous
properties.
Sub-order 1. CHRYSOBALANEZ.—Many plants of this sub-order produce
edible drupaceous fruits.
Chrysobalanus.—The fruit of C. ZIcaco is edible. It is known in the
West Indies under the name of the Cocoa-plum. ‘The fruit of C. luteus is
also eaten in Sierra Leone. The root, bark, and leaves of C. Icaco are
employed in Brazil as a remedy in diarrhcea and similar diseases.
Parinarium. , n in
Sierra Leone under the name of the Rough-skinned or Gray Plum. The
kernels of P. campestre and P. montanum are likewise reputed to resemble
the Almond in flavour.
Sub-order 2, DrupAcEa.—This sub-order is remarkable from the parts
of many of its plants yielding, when moistened with water, hydrocyanic
acid. Their barks also frequently possess astringent and febrifugal properties,
and yield a kind of gum; while many, again, have edible fruits and seeds.
Prunus.—P. domestica and its varieties produce the well-known fruits
called Plums, Greengages, and Damsons. When dried, plums are termed
Prunes or French Plums; the variety Juliana being official in the
‘British Pharmacopceia.—P. spinosa is the common Sloe or Blackthorn, and
P. insititia the Bullace.—P. armeniaca is the Apricot. The barks of P.
spinosa and P. Cocomilia have febrifugal properties. The leaves of P. spinosa
are sometimes used for adulterating the black varieties of China tea. A
mixture consisting of the leaves of P. spinosa and those of Fragaria collina
or F. vesca, in the. proportion of one third of the former to two-thirds of the
latter, have been used as a substitute for China Tea.—Prunus Amygdalus
' (Amygdalus communis) is the Almond-tree, of which two varieties are com-
monly distinguished, from the varying nature of their seeds, under the names
of P. ‘amygdalus, var. dulcis, and P. amygdalus, var. amara, both of which are
official in the British Pharmacopeeia. There are however no definite botanical
characters distinguishing the Sweet and Bitter Almond trees; they cannot
therefore, in spite of the different qualities of their seeds, be properly separated
even as varieties. The seeds of the former, on account of their taste, are known
as Sweet Almonds; and those of the latter as Bitter Almonds. The Almond-
tree isa native of Morocco, Syria, Persia, and Turkestan ; it is also extensively
cultivated in the southern parts of Europe for the sake of its seeds. Sweet
Almonds yield by expression a fixed oil commonly known as Oil of Almonds.
They also contain sugar, and two albuminous substances called amandin, and
synaptase or emulsin. The cake left after the expression of the oil, when dried
and powdered, is known under the name of Almond-powder. Bitter Almonds
vield a similar oil by expression. They also contain emulsin, and, in
addition to the other ordinary constituents of Sweet Almonds, a crystalline
substance called amygdalin. When bitter almonds are moistened with water,
‘te
. ROSACEEZ— ROSE 543
the emulsin acts as a kind of ferment upon the amygdalin, and the result is
the formation of a volatile oil containing hydrocyanic acid, which is known
as the Essential Oil of Bitter Almonds. he presence of hydrocyanic acid
renders this oil very poisonous, but this is not the case when the acid is
separated from it. ‘Bitter Almonds and their essential oil are extensively
employed Sead by the cook and confectioner, and also for scenting
soap and fo er purposes by the perfumer. The cake left after expressing
the oil is frequently used for fattening pigs and for other purposes.— Prunus
(Amygdalus) persica is the Peach-tree of our gardens, and a variety of
the same species produces the Nectarine. The flowers have been employed
as a vermifuge, and the leaves for flavouring, and also as a vermifuge. The
kernels may be used for the same purposes as the Bitter Almond. All these
parts, as well as the bark, possess poisonous properties owing to the forma-
tion of hydreeyanie acid.
The following plants are considered by some botanists to constitute a
distinct genus, which is termed Cerasus, but the species comprised in it are
now far more commonly included under Prunus. Several species or varieties
produce the fruits called Cherries: thus, P. vir giniana of Miller is the Wild
Black.Cherry of the United States; P. avium, the Wild Cherry ; P. Padus,
the Bird Cherry ; and P. Virginiana of Linnzus, the Choke Cherry or Choke-
berry. The latter is one of the fruits used ‘commonly for mixing with
Pemmican. (See Amelanchier.) The leaves, bark, and fruit of the Prunus
Lauro-cerasus, the Common Laurel or Cherry-laurel, are poisonous. Their
poisonous properties are due to the production of a volatile oil containing
hydroeyanic acid when they are moistened with water. Cherry-laurel
water is anodyne and sedative in its action, and may be employed in all
cases where the use of hydrocyanic acid is indicated. It is, however, very
liable to vary in strength. It is official in the British Pharmacopeeia,
and is prepared by the distillation of the fresh leaves with water. The
bark of P. virginiana of Miller (Pr unus serotina, Ehrh.) is official in the
United States Pharmacopceia, and is much valued as a remedial agent. It
is regarded as tonic, calmative of nervous irritability, and as an arterial
sedative. The kernels ot P. occidentalis and other species are used for
flavouring liqueurs, as Noyau, Cherry-brandy, Maraschino, &c. A gummy
exudation somewhat resembling tragacanth takes place more or less from
the stems of the different species of Prunus.
Sub-order 3. Roska.—The Rosez are chiefly remarkable for their
astringent properties. Many vield edible fruits, and some very agreeable
perfumes.
Agrimonia Eupatoria has been used as a vermifuge and astringent.
Fragaria elatior, F. vesca, and other species or varieties of Fragaria,
furnish the different kinds of Strawberries.
Geum urbanum and G. rivale are reputed to possess aromatic, tonic, and
astringent properties.
Gillenia trifoliata and G. stipulaceaa—The roots of both these species
are used in the United States as medicinal agents. In small doses they are
tonic, and in larger doses emetic. They are commonly known under the
names of Indian Physic and American Ipecacuanha.
Hagenia abyssinica (Brayera anthelmintica) is a native of Abyssinia.
The flowers and tops, under the name of Cusso or Kousso, have been long
employed by the Abyssinians tor their anthelmintic properties. They have
been also used of late years in this and other countries for a similar purpose,
and are said to be effectual in destroying tape-worms. Cusso is official in
the British Pharmacopeceia.
Potentilla Tormentilla.—The rhizome and rootlets possess astringent and
tonic properties. They are used in the Orkney and Feroe Islands to tan
leather ; and in Lapland in the preparation of a red dye. Some other species
possess analogous properties,
O44 ROSACEZ—SANGUISORBEZ—POMEA.
Quillaia saponaria—The bark of this and other species contains a large
amount of saponine. It is employed in some parts of America as a substitute
for soap. It has been much used in this country as a detergent in cases
of scurfiness and baldness.
Rosa.—The various species and varieties of this genus are well known
for the beauty of their flowers and for their delicious odours. The fruits
(which are commonly known under the name of hips) of R. canina, the
Dog-rose, and of other allied species or varieties, employed in medicine
for their refrigerant and astringent properties; *,. are official in the
British Pharmacopeeia. The fresh and dried petals of the unexpanded flowers
of R. gallica constitute the official Red-rose petals of the British Pharmaco-
poeia.. They are used in medicine asa mild astringent and tonic, and on
account of their colour. The petals of R. centifolia, the Hundred-leaved or
Cabbage-rose, and of some of its varieties and allied species, are remarkable
for their fragrance. Rose-water is prepared by distilling the fresh petals
with water to which a little spirit of wine has been added. The petals of
R. centifolia are also employed in medicine as a mild laxative; the fresh
fully-expanded petals are official in the British Pharmacopeia. The vola-
tile oil known in commerce as Attar or Otto of Rose is now almost exclu-
sively obtained from Roumelia on the southern slopes of the Balkan
mountains. [t is also largely produced in India, and to some extent in
other parts, but the otto of these districts is almost, if not entirely, consumed
in the countries whence it is obtained. The species cultivated for this pur-
pose in Roumelia and India is Rosa damascena. All commercial Otto of
Rose is obtained by distillation, and, according to Heber, it requires 20,000
roses to yield Otto of Rose equal in weight to that of a rupee. In Turkey
5,000 pounds (German weight) of roses are said to yield by careful dis-
tillation one pound of oil. It is exported from Smyrna and Constantinople.
Otto of Rose is rarely or ever pure when imported into this country.
It is commonly adulterated with spermaceti, and a volatile oil which ‘is
derived from Andropogon pachnodes, Trin. (A. schenanthus, Linn.). This
oil is known under the names of Oil of Geranium, Rusa Oil, or Rusa-ka-tel.
and is imported into Turkey from India for the express purpose of adul-
terating Otto of Rose. (See Pelargonium.)
Rubus.—Several species of this genus yield edible fruits: thus, the fruit
of Rubus Ideus is the Raspberry ; that of R. fruticosus, the Blackberry ;
that of R. cewsius, the Dewberry ; and that of R. Chamzmorus, the Cloud-
berry. The bark of the root of R. villosus. and R. canadensis is much
employed as an astringent in some parts of North America, and is official in
the United States Pharmacopeeia. ?
Spirea.—S. filipendula and S. Ulmaria—The roots of these plants
have tonic properties. S$. Ulmaria is called Meadow-sweet from the fra-
~ grance of its flowers, which is due to the presence of coumarin. Seemann
savs that in Kamtschatka a strong liquor is prepared from the root of
S. Kamtschatha.
Sub-order 4. SANGUISORBE®.—The plants of this sub-order have gene-
rally astringent properties like the Rosex. :
‘Acwna Sanguisorba.—The leaves are used in Australia as a substitute
for tea. ?,
Alchemilla arvensis, Field Ladies’ Mantle or Parsley Piert, is astringent
and tonic. It is also reputed to be diuretic, and was formerly thought to
be useful in gravel and stone ; hence it was called break-stone.
Sub-order 5. Pomra:.—Many plants of this sub-order yield edible fruits,
and from their seeds hydrocyanic acid may be frequently obtained.
Amelanchier canadensis.—Yhe fruit is known in Rupert’s Land, &é.,
under the name of Shad-berry or Service-berry. It is used for mixing with
Pemmican, an article of Arctic diet. (See Prunus.)
Eriobotrya japonica produces a fruit called the Loquat. Some of these
%
‘ n tit
+a. es *
SAXIFRAGACEA. 545
fruits in good condition have occasionally been imported into this country
from Japan and South America.
Mespilus germanica yields the fruit called the Medlar, of which there are
several varieties.
Pyrus.—Some species of this genus produce edible fruits.—Pyrus Malus
and its varieties produce the different kinds of Apples.—P. communis is the
Pear-tree, so well known for its fruit. The wood is also sometimes used by
wood-engravers instead of Box.—P. Cydonia (Cydonia vulgaris) is the
common Quince.—The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies
or tarts, and is much esteemed for the preparation of a kind of marmalade
and for other purposes by the confectioner. . The seeds contain much
mucilage, which is nutritive, emollient, and demulcent.—P. Aucuparia is
the Mountain Ash or Rowan-tree. Its flowers, root, and bark yield hydro-
eyanic acid, and therefore possess, in a slight degree, sedative properties.—
P. Aria is the Beam-tree, the timber of which is used for axle-trees and
other purposes.— P. domestica is the common Service-tree, and P. torminalis
the Wild Service-tree.
Order 4. SAXIFRAGACE, the Saxifrage Order.—Charac-
ter.—Herbs with alternate leaves, which are entire or lobed (fig.
Fic. 956.” Fig. 957.
Fig. 956. Saxifraga tridactylites. The leaves are trifid and wedge-shaped, |
and the flowers arranged in a racemose cyme.— fig. 957. Vertical section
of the fower.— 7g. 958. Vertical section of the seed.
956), stipulate or exstipulate. Calyx of 4 or 5 sepals, which are
more or less united at the base (jig. 625), inferior or more or
less superior (figs. 625 and 957). Petuls 4 or 5, perigynous,
imbricate, alternate with the lobes of the calyx ( fig. 957), some-
times wanting. Stamens 5—10, perigynous (fig. 957) or hypo-
gynous; anthers 2-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. Disk
- NN
546 FRANCOACE.
usually evident, either existing in the form of 5 scaly processes,
or annular and notched, hypogynous or perigynous. Ovary
superior or more or less inferior (jigs. 625 and 957), usually
composed of two carpels, united below, but more or less distinct
towards the apex; 1- or 2-celled; styles equal in number to the
carpels, distinct, diverging. Fruit capsular, 1—2-celled, usually
membranous. Seeds small, numerous; embryo (fig. 958) in the
axis of fleshy albumen, and with the radicle towards the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Herbs with alternate leaves. Flowers unsym-
metrical. Calyx inferior or generally more or less superior,
4—5-partite. Stamens perigynous or hypogynous. Ovary
superior or more or less inferior, composed of 2 carpels united
at the base, and diverging at the apex; styles distinct, equal
in number to the carpels. Fruit capsular, 1—2-celled. Seeds
numerous, small, with fleshy albumen.
Bentham and Hooker include the succeeding orders, Franco-
acex, Escalloniaceer, Philadelphaceex, Hydrangeaceer, Henslovi-
acex, Cunoniacexr, and Ribesiacex, in the order Saxifragacex, and
arrange the whole in the following sub-orders:—1. Saxifragex.
2. Francoex. 3. Escalloniex. 4. Philadelphex or Hydrangex.
5. Cunoniex. 6. Ribesiex.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—They are exclusively natives of
the northern parts of the world, where they chiefly inhabit
mountainous districts, and sometimes grow as high as 16,000
feet above the levelof the sea. Illustrative Genera :—Saxifraga,
Linn.; Heuchera, Linn. There are about 320 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of the order are all more
or less astringent. This is remarkably the case with the root of
Heuchera americana, which is much employed for its astringent
properties in the United States under the name of Alwm-root.
Saxifraga.—S. sibirica is said to contain a crystalline bitter principle,
which has been termed bergenin, and is reputed to be a powerful tonic, rank-
ing in its action between salicin and quinine.
Order 5. FRANCOACES, the Francoa Order.—C haracter.—
Stemless herbs. Leaves exstipulate. Calyx 4-partite. Petals 4,
persistent. Stamens hypogynous or nearly so, four times as
many as the petals, the alternate ones sterile, and commonly
termed scales. Ovary superior, 4-celled; ovules numerous;
stigma sessile, 4-lobed. Fruit a membranous 4-celled, 4-valved
capsule, with loculicidal or septicidal dehiscence. Seeds small,
indefinite ; embryo very minute, at the base of a Jarge quantity
of fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of Chili. Illustrative
Genera:—Francoa, Cavan.; Tetilla, DC. These are the only
genera, they include about 6 species.
Properties and Uses.—The Francoas are reputed to be cooling
and sedative. Tetilla is astringent, and is employed as aremedy
in dysentery.
ESCALLONIACE#. PHILA DELPH ACE. — HYDRANGEACE®, 547
Order 6. EscALLONIACE®, the Escallonia Order.— Character.
—Evergreen shrubs, with alternate exstipulate glandular leaves
and axillary showy flowers. Calyx superior, 5-toothed, imbricate
in estivation. Petals 5, alternate with the divisions of the calyx,
perigynous, or rarely hypogynous. Stamens 5, alternate with
the petals, perigynous, or rarely hypogynous. Ovary inferior,
2—5-celled, crowned by acone-shaped disk ; placentas axile ; style
simple ; stigmas 2—5-lobed. Fruit capsular or baccate, crowned
by the persistent style and calyx. Seeds very numerous, minute ;
embryo small, in a mass of oily albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of the
mountains of South America. Illustrative Genera :——Escallonia,
Mutis ; Itea, Linn.; Brexia, Thouars. There are above 66 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Brexia.—This genus has been made the type of a distinct
order, named Brexiacez ; but Bentham and Hooker place it
near the genus Escallonia.
Order 7. PHILADELPHACE®, the Syringa Order.—Charac-
ter.—Shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple, deciduous, exstipulate.
Calyx superior, persistent, 4—10-lobed, with a valvate cestiva-
tion. Petals equal in number to the divisions of the calyx,
and alternate with them. Stamens numerous, epigynous.
Ovary inferior ; styles united or distinct; stigmas several. Cap-
sule half-inferior, 4—10-celled, placentas axile. Seeds nume-
rous, with fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.— Natives of the South of Europe,
North America, Japan, and India. TIlustrative Genera :-—Phila-
delphus, Linn. ; Deutzia, Thunb. There are about 25 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance.
Deutzia.—The leaves of some species of Deutzia, especially those of D.
scabra, are covered with beautiful scales ; hence, from their roughness, they
are used in Japan for polishing purposes. D. gracilis, a greenhouse plant,
is extensively grown for our flower markets.
Philadelphus coronarius is commonly cultivated in our shrubberies. It
is a native of the South of Europe. It is generally known as the Syringa,
or Mock Orange, from its flowers somewhat resembling those of the Orange
in appearance and odour. This odour is due to the presence of a volatile oil,
which may be readily obtained from them by. distillation with water. The
leaves have a flavour and odour resembling the Cucumber.
Order 8. HyDRANGEACE®, the Hydrangea Order.— Diagnosis.
—This order is frequently regarded as a sub-order of Saxifra-
gaceze, with which it agrees in many important particulars ;
but it differs in its plants being of a shrubby nature; in their
having opposite leaves, which are always exstipulate; in their
valvate calyx ; in their tendency to a polygamous structure, as
exhibited in the possession of radiant staminal flowers; and in
having frequently more than 2 carpels, with a corresponding
increase in the number of styles and cells to the ovary.
NN 2
4
548 HENSLOVIACE.— CUNONIACE#.—-RIBESIACE.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives chiefly of the temperate
regions of Asia and America. About one-half of the species
are natives of China and Japan. Tllustrative Genera :—
Hydrangea, DC.; Bauera, Sm. There are about 45 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Hydrangea.—The leaves of Hydrangea Thunbergii are used in Japan as
tea, and this tea is so highly valued by the Japanese that they call it
Ama-tsja, or the Tea of Heaven. The root of H. arborescens, under the
name of Leven Bark or Wild Hydrangea, is largely employed in the United
States in calculous complaints.
Order 9. HENSLOVIACES, the Henslovia Order. — Diagnosis. —
This is a small order of tropical plants containing but 1 genus,
and 3 or 4 species, which is considered by Lindley to be nearly
allied to Hydrangeacez ; but distinguished by their tree-like
habit, their styles being united into a cylinder, and in the total’
absence of albumen. JTilustrative Genus :—Henslovia, Wall.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 10. CunontacE&, the Cunonia Order.—Diagnosis.—
Nearly allied to Saxifragacee, but differing from them in being
trees or shrubs, with opposite or whorled leaves, and large in-
terpetiolar stipules. The latter character will also distinguish
them readily from Hydrangeacez, which are exstipulate. They
are also known from the latter order by their calyx not being
valvate.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of South America, the
Cape, the East Indies, and Australia. Illustrative Genera :—
Weinmannia, Linn.; Cunonia, Linn. There are about 100
species.
Properties and Uses.—Astringent. Some have been used for
tanning; others exude a gummy secretion.
Order 11. Rreestaces&, the Currant Order.—Character.—
Shrubs with (fig. 384) or without spines or prickles. Leaves
alternate, simple, lobed, radiate-veined. Flowers axillary, race-
mose, perfect or rarely unisexual. Calyx superior, 4—5-lobed.
Petals 4—5, minute, inserted on the calyx. Stamens 4—5, peri-
gynous, alternate with the petals. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with
2 parietal placentas (fig. 718, pl). Fruit a berry (figs. 718 and
719). Seeds numerous ; embryo minute, in horny albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the temperate regions
of Europe, Asia, and North America. Illustratiwe Genera :—
Ribes, Linn. ; Polyosma, Br. These are the only genera ;
which include about 100 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some are showy garden plants, as Ribes
fuchsioides, R. sanguineum, R. aureum, R. coccinewm ; but they
are chiefly remarkable for their agreeable acid fruits. Thus,
the fruit of Ribes Grossularia is the Gooseberry ; R. rubrum and
its varieties yield both Red and White Currants ; and R. nigrum
is the Black Currant.
» GRASSULACER. 549
Order 12. CrassuLacE&, the Houseleek Order.—Charac-
ter.—Succulent herbs or shrubs. Leaves entire or pinnatifid,
exstipulate. Flowers usually eymose (fig. 436), symmetrical
(figs. 785 and 786). Calyx generally composed of 5 sepals, but
varying in number from 3—20, more i. less united at the base,
inferior (fig. 785, c), persistent. Petals a | in number to the
divisions of the calyx (fig. 785, p), with which they are alter-
nate, either distinct or united, and inserted into the bottom of
the calyx; estivation imbricate. Stamens inserted with the
petals (fig. 785, e), either equal to them in number and alter-
nate with them (fig. 785) ; or twice as many (fig. 786), and then
forming 2 whorls, one of which is composed of longer stamens
than the other, the longer stamens being placed alternate to the
petals, and the shorter stamens opposite to them ; anthers
adnate, 2-celled, with longitudinal dehiscence. Carpels equal in
number to the petals and opposite to them (fig. 785, 0), each
having frequently a scale on the outside at the base (fig. 785, a),
distinct or more or less united ; styles distinct. Frwit either
consisting of a whorl of follicles, or a capsule with loculicidal
dehiscence. Seeds very small, variable in number ; embryo in
the axis of fleshy albumen, with the radicle towards the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Succulent herbs or low shrubs. Leaves exstipu-
late. Flowers perfectly symmetrical, the sepals, petals, and
carpels being equal in number, and the stamens being also
equal to them, or twice as many. Petals and stamens almost
or quite hypogynous. Corolla monopetalous or polypetalous.
Carpels opposite the petals. Fruit either apocarpous and
follicular, or a many-celled capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.
Seeds small ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—The order
may be divided as follows :—
Sub-order 1. CrassuLE#&.-—Fruit consisting of a whorl of fol-
icles. Crassula, Haw. ; Sedum, Liwn.
Sub-order 2. DiaMorPHE®.—Fruit a many-celled capsule with
loculicidal dehiscence. Diamorpha, Nutt.; Penthorum, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are found in very dry
situations in all parts of the world ; a large number occur at the
Cape of Good Hope. There are about 450 species.
Properties and U'ses.—Astringent, refrigerant, and acrid pro-
perties are found in the plants of this order, but none are of
much importance.
Cotyledon.— C. Umbilicus.—This plant, which is a common native, more
especially in the West of England, has long been in use as a popular remedy
in hysteria, and as an external application to destroy corns and warts. It
has also been frequently used of late years as a remedy for epilepsy.—C.
orbiculata, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is employed in similar cases.
Rhodiola esculenta is eaten by the Greenlanders.
Sedum.—S. acre is the common yellow Biting Stonecrop of our walls,
550 DROSERACEA.
and, as its name implies, is of an acrid nature. It is also reputed to possess
emetic and purgative properties —Sedum Telephium is astringent. Lindiey
says that, in Ireland, the leaves of Sedum dasyphyllum, rubbed among oats,
are regarded as a certain cure for worms in horses.
Order 13. DRrosERAcE®, the Sundew Order.—Character.
Herbaceous plants growing in boggy or marshy places, fre-
quently glandular. Leaves alternate, fringed at their margins (fig.
375), and with a circinate vernation. Inflorescence scorpioid.
Sepals and petals 5, hypogynous, equal, imbricate, persistent.
Stamens as many as the petals and alternate with them, or twice,
thrice, or four times as many, distinct, withering, hypogynous ;
anthers innate or versatile, extrorse. Ovary superior, 1-celled,
with parietal placentation, superior ; styles 3—5, distinct or con-
nected at the base ; ovules numerous, anatropous. Fruit capsu-
lar, 1-celled, bursting by 3 or 5 valves, which bear the placentas
in their middle or at their base ; hence the dehiscence is locu-
licidal. Seedsnumerous, with or without an aril ; embryo minute,
at the base of abundant fleshy albumen.
Diagnosis.—Bog or marsh herbs, with alternate exstipulate
leaves and a circinate vernation. Inflorescence scorpioid.
Flowers regular and symmetrical, hypogynous, with a quinary
arrangement of their parts, which are also persistent and im-
bricate. Anthers extrorse. Placentas parietal. Fruit capsular,
1-celled, with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous ; embryo
small, at the base of copious fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are found in almost
all parts of the world with the exception of the Arctic regions.
Examples of the Genera :—Drosera, Linn.; Dionza, Ellis. There
are about 110 species in this order.
Properties and Uses.—They possess slightly acid and acrid
properties. Drosera rotundifolia and D. longifolia appear to
have been very early employed as a remedy for consumption, but
have now fallen into disuse. Some of the Droseras are said to
be poisonous to cattle, but there is no satisfactory proof of such
being the case. It has been supposed that certain species of
Drosera would yield valuable dyes, because they communicate a
brilliant purple stain to the paper upon which they are dried.
and also from the circumstance of their yielding a yellow colour
when treated with ammonia. The plants of the order are, how-
ever, chiefly interesting from the peculiar irritability of the
glands on their leaves. Thus, the Sundews (Droseras) are
fringed with beautiful stalked glands, which close more or less
in different species when insects alight upon them ; while the
plant known as Venus’s Flytrap (Dionza muscipula) (fig. 375),
a native of North America, has two-lobed leaves, each of which
is furnished on its upper surface with three stiff glands, which,
when touched, cause the two halves of the leaf to collapse and
enclose the object touching them. The glands in these plants
secrete a viscid acid digestive fluid, so that insects which alight
HAMAMELIDACEZ.—BRUNIACEA. b51
on them are unable to escape, and become ultimately dissolved
and absorbed for their nourishment. The acid present in this
fluid is said to be citric.
Order 14. HAMAMELIDACE, the Witch-hazel Order.—Cha-
racter.—Small trees or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves and
deciduous stipules. lowers in globular heads or spicate, perfect
or unisexual, polygamous or moncecious. Calyx superior, 4- or
5-lobed. Petals 4 or 5, with an involute, valvate, or circinate
zestivation, or altogether wanting. Stamens 8, half of which are
scale-like, sterile, and placed opposite to the petals, and half
fertile and alternate with them ; or numerous. Ovary inferior,
2-celled ; ovules solitary or numerous ; styles 2. Frwit capsular,
2-celled, with 1 seed in each cell ; seed albuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of North America, Asia,
and Africa. Illustrative Genera :—Hamamelis, Linn.; Liquid-
ambar, Linn. There are about 25 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for their fragrant
balsamic properties. Some have acrid bitter barks; and the
leaves and bark of others are astringent.
Hamamelis virginica, Witch Hazel, vields oily edible seeds. Its bark
possesses powerful astringent properties, and has been much used in the
United States and in this country for checking excessive mucous discharges
and hemorrhages.
Liquidambar (_Altingia).—This genus was formerly placed in an order,
of which it was the only representative, termed Liquidambaracee or
Altingiacer.—L. orientalis is the source of the balsam named Liquid
Storazx, which, when purified, forms the official Prepared Storax ofthe British
Pharmacopeia. (See Styrar.) This plantis a native of Asia Minor. The
storax is obtained from the inner bark, which is afterwards used by the
Turks for the purpose of fumigation. This bark is the Corter Thymiamatis
or Storax Bark of pharmacologists.—L. styraciflua, a native of the United
States and Central America, vields by incision, or from natural fissures, a
balsamic resin called Sweet Gum, Liquidambar, or Copalm Balsam.—L.
Altingiana, a native of the Indian Archipelago and Assam, yields a similar
fragrant balsam. In their effects and uses, both Liquid Storax and Liquid-
ambar resemble other balsamic substances, as the Balsams of Peru and
Tolu, Benzoin, &c.—L. formosana of Hance also yields a resin, which is
fragrant when heated.
Order 15. BruntacEx, the Brunia Order.—C haracter.—
Heath-like shrubs, with small imbricate, rigid, entire, exstipulate
leaves. Calyx usually superior, or sometimes nearly inferior,
imbricate. Petalsand stamens 5, inserted on the calyx, the petals
alternate with the divisions of the calyx and valvate ; anthers
2-celled, extrorse, bursting longitudinally. Ovary superior or
half-inferior, 1—3-celled, with 1 or 2 suspended anatropous
ovules in each cell; style simple or bifid. Frwit crowned
by the remains of the calyx and a disk, 1—2-celled, in the tirst
case indehiscent, in the latter dehiscent. Seeds with a minute
embryo, in fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the Cape of Good
; a’
502 HALORAGACEA.— CALLITRICHACEH.—-RHIZOPHORACEA.
Hope, except one Madagascar species. Illustrative Genera :—
Brunia, Linn. ; Ophiria, Linn. There are about 60 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 16. Hatoracace®, the Mare’s-tail Order.—Diagnosis.
—Herbs or shrubs, generally aquatic. Flowers small (fig. 412),
frequently incomplete and unisexual. They are nearly allied to
Onagracee, and, in fact, are merely a degeneration or imperfect
form of that order. They are known from it by their minute
calyx, the limb of which is frequently obsolete ; and by having
solitary pendulous seeds, which have fleshy albumen.
— Distribution and Numbers.—They are found in all parts of
the world. Illustrative Genera :—Hippuris, Linn. ; Trapa,
Linn. There are about 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance except for their
edible seeds.
Trapa.—This is a genus of floating aquatic plants, remarkable for their
horned fruit and large amygdaloid seeds with unequal cotyledons. The
seeds are edible ; those of Trapa natans are called Chataigne d’Eau by the
French, and Jesuit’s Nuts at Venice. In some parts of Southern Europe
they are ground, and made into a kind of bread.—T. bicornis is called ling
by the Chinese, and its seeds are highly esteemed by them.—T. bispinosa is
the Singhara Nut ; its seeds are largely consumed in Cashmere and scme
other parts of India.
Order 17. CALLITRICHACE, the Starwort Order.—Charac-
ter.—Small aquatic herbs. Leaves opposite, entire, simple.
Flowers minute, axillary, solitary, unisexual, achlamydeous.
Male flower of 1—2 stamens ; anthers reniform. Female flower
with a 4-cornered, 4-celled ovary, with 1 pendulous ovule in
each cell. Frwit indehiscent, 4-celled. Seeds 4, pendulous, with
fleshy albumen; embryo inverted, with a very long superior
radicle.
Distribution.—Natives of freshwater pools in Europe and
North America. Callitriche is the only genus; this includes
several varieties or species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Cohort 2. Myrtales.—Gynoecium syncarpous, usually with an
undivided style ; ovary inferior, or included within the
calyx-tube ; placentation generally axile. Seeds exalbu-
minous. Leaves nearly always simple.
Order 1. Ru1zoPpHORACE®, the Mangrove Order.—C harac-
ter.—Trees (fig. 255) or shrubs. Leaves simple, opposite, dotless
or rarely dotted, with deciduous interpetiolar stipules. Calyx
superior, 4—12-lobed, with a valvate sstivation, the lobes
sometimes united so as to forma calyptra. Petals arising from
the calyx, alternate with its lobes and equal to themin number,
Stamens on the calyx, twice or thrice as many as its lobes, or
R &
Ter
COMBRETACE. 553
still more numerous. Ovary inferior, 2- 3- or 4-celled, each cell
with 2 or more ovules. /'rwit indehiscent, 1-celled, 1-seeded,
crowned by the calyx. Seed pendulous, exalbuminous, usually
germinating while the fruit is still attached to the tree.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Natives of muddy sea-shores
in tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Rhizophora, Lam
Bruguiera, Lam. There are about 20 species.
Properties wud Uses.—Generally remarkable for their astrin-
gent properties, whence they are used for dyeing and tanning ;
they are also used medicinally for their febrifugal and tonic
properties.
er)
Rhizophora Mangle—The Mangrove-tree.—The bark is sometimes im-
ported into this country as a tanning material, but it is not much used.
The fruit is sweet and edible, and its juice when fermented forms a kind of
wine.
Order 2. CoMBRETACE®, the Myrobalans Order.—Charac-
ter.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipu-
late, entire, without dots. Flowers perfect or unisexual. Calyx
superior, with a 4—+-lobed deciduous limb. Petals equal in
number to, and alternate with, the lcbes of the calyx ; often
absent. Stamens inserted with the petals on the calyx, gene-
rally twice as numerous as its lobes, or thrice as many, or
sometimes equal to them in number ; anthers 2-celled, with
longitudinal or valvular dehiscence. Ovary inferior, 1-celled,
with 2—4 ovules ; style and stigma simple. Fruit indehiscent,
l-seeded. Seed pendulous, exalbuminous; cotyledons leafy,
convolute or plaited.
Distribution and Numbers.—Exclusively natives of the tro-
pical parts of America, Africa, and Asia.— Illustrative Genera :—
Terminalia, Linn. ; Combretum, Ldéffl. There are about 200
species.
Properties and Uses.—The order is chiefly remarkable for the
presence of an astringent principle ; hence the bark of some
species, and the fruits and flowers of others. are employed in
tanning and dyeing. Some yield excellent timber.
Combretum butyrosum, a native of South-eastern Africa, produces a kind
of vegetable butter, which is called Chiquito by the Cafires, by whom it is
used to dress their victuals.
Quisqualis indica.—The seeds are in repute in the Moluccas for their
anthelmintic properties.
Terminalia.—The fruits of several species are largely imported into this
country under the name of Myrobalans or Myrabolams. The principal
kinds of myrobalans are the Chebulic and the Belleric ; the first is obtained
from T. Caebula, and the latter from 7. be/lerica. Myrobalans are princi-
pally used by calico printers for the production of a black colour which is
very permanent. They are also employed by the tanner. The belleric
myrobalans have been also called Basturd Myrobalans and Bedda Nuts.
The flowers of 7. Chebula are used as a dye in Travancore, and the ripe
fruit is said to be an efficient purgative. he pulp of the fruit of Emblic
yrobalans ( Terminalia E-mblica) is also said to be laxative, and useful in
ae.
554 MYKTACEA.
habitual corstipation. The seeds of 7. bellerica are eaten by the natives of
some parts of the East Indies, but they possess intoxicating properties, and
have produced symptoms of narcotic poisoning. ‘The seeds of 7. Catappa
yield about fifty per cent. of an oil which is said to resemble almond oil in
its properties, The seeds are edible, resembling almonds in shape, and are
hence called Country Almonds in India. The seeds of TZ’. citrina are pur-
gative.—T. Benzoin has a milky juice, which upon drying forms a fragrant
and resinous substance resembling benzoin in its properties. (See Styraxr
Benzoin.)
Order 3. Myrrace®, the Myrtle Order.—C haracter.—Trees
or shrubs. Leaves opposite or alternate, entire, exstipulate (fig.
959), usually dotted, and having a vein running just within their
margins. Calyx superior (fig. 465),
Fig. 959. 4- or 5-cleft, valvate, sometimes
separating in the form of a cap.
Petals 4—5 (fig. 959), imbricate,
rarely absent. Stamens usually 8
—10, or numerous (figs. 463 and
959), or rarely 4—5; filaments
distinct or polyadelphous. Ovary
inferior (fig. 463), 1—6-celled ;
style and stegma simple ( figs. 463
and 959); placentas axile (fig.
463), or very rarely parietal.
Frwit dry or succulent, dehiscent
or indehiscent. Seeds without
albumen, usually numerous.
Division of the Order and Illus-
trative Genera.—The order may
be divided into two tribes as
follows :—
Fig. 959. Flowering branch of the Tribe: A: Leptospermee. — Fruit
ae Myrtle (ilyrtus com- + capsular. Illustrative Genera:
é —Melaleuca, Leptospermum.
Tribe 2. Myrtex.—Fruit baccate. Illustrative Genera :—
Punica, Linn. ; Myrtus, Tourn. x
Distribution and Numbers.— Natives of the tropics and of the
warmer parts of the temperate zones. Myrtus communis, the
common Myrtle, is the most northern species of the order.
This plant, although now naturalised in the South of Europe, was
originally a native of Persia. There are about 1,320 species
belonging to this order.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are generally remarkable
for aromatic and pungent properties, which are due to the
presence of volatile oils. Many of these oils have been used in
medicine as stimulants, aromatics, carminatives, diaphoretics, or
autispasmodics ; and also in perfumery. The dried flower-buds
and unripe fruits of some species are in common use as spices.
MYRTACEA. 555
Other plants of the order are astringent, and a few secrete a
saccharine matter. The fruits of some having a sweetish acidu-
lous taste are edible. Many are valuable timber trees.
Eucalyptus.—E. resinifera, the Iron Bark-tree, a native of Australia
and Van Diemen’s Land, yields an astringent, very resinous substance,
called Australian or Botany Bay Kino. E. rostrata, FE. cormybosa, and
other species, also yield an astringent substance resembling i In appearance
and properties the official kino. It is known as Red Gum or Eucalyptus
Gum. It is soluble in water, but the so-called Australian Kino is but little
soluble in that liquid. The leaves of KE. mannifera, E. viminalis, and
probably other species natives of Australia, spontaneously exude a saccharine
substance resembling manna, which is therefore commonly termed Austra-
lian Manna. As this exudes ,it hardens, and drops from the leaves on to
the ground in pieces, which are sometimes as large as an almond. The
products of the HLwculypti being frequently of a gummy nature, they are
called Gum-trees in Australia,—E. Globulus.—Various preparations of the
leaves and bark of this tree have been lately introduced, and recommended
as valuable remedies in intermittent fevers, and so many medical prac-
titioners have borne testimony to their value in such cases, that, allowing
for exaggeration, their use must be, to some extent at least, beneficial ; but
their antiperiodic properties are very inferior to those of the cinchona barks,
none of the alkaloids of which, as proved by Broughton, they contain. The
leaves and bark have also been recommended as useful in many other ways.
Thus the leaves of this species, as well as those of LE. amygdalinus, and
others, vield by distillation a volatile oil, those of EF. amygdatinus yielding
more oil than any other species. Oil of ‘Eucalyptus is ofticial in the British
Pharmacopeeia ; it is a powerful antiseptic, and likewise rubefacient. It is
also used in perfumery, &c. The timber of EF. Globulus, and many other
species, is very valuable owing to its solidity, hardness, durability, &e., and
also from the great length of the planks that may be obtained from it. The
bark of it, and other species, is also useful for tanning and dyeing ; and
the ashes of the wood are also remarkable for the large proportion of potash
they contain. But important as are the products obtainable from EL, Globu-
lus, it has been brought more especially into notice on account of the
influence that plantations of this very rapid-growing tree exert in improving
miasmatic climates by destroying the paludal miasm which causes fever in
malarious districts, and by draining the ground, from which circumstance
it has been called the fever- destroyi ing tree. The bark of certain species
separates in fibrous layers, which has occasioned them to be called Stringy-
bark trees or String y-bark Gum-trees. These trees are sometimes of a
prodigious height—350 feet or sometimes even 450 feet, and 100 feet in
circumference. the trunks being destitute of branches to a height of from
100 to 200 feet.— L. coccifera appears to be the mcst hardy species s for growth
in this country. It grows well in Earl Annesley’s garden, County Down,
Ireland. The bark of EF. obliqua and several other species is said by Baron
Mueller to be useful for making good packing and printing paper. Good
writing paper may also be made from the bark of LE. obliqua.
Eugenia.— Eugenia caryophyllata ( Caryophyllus aromaticus) is the Clove-
tree.—The dried tlower-buds constitute the cloves of commerce, which are so
well known as a spice, and in medicine, for their aromatic, stimulant, and
carminative properties. These properties are essentially due to the presence
of a volatile oil. Both Cloves and the Volatile Oil of Cloves are official in
the British Pharmacopeeia, The dried unripe fruits are called mother cloves ;
they are used in China and other countries as a spice, and are occasionally
imported into this country ; but they are very interior to the official cloves.
The dried flower-stalks are also sometimes used as a spice instead of Cloves.
They are commonly known as Clove Stalks, and by the French as Griffes
556 MYRTACEA.
de Giroflee—The Rose-apples of the East, which are much esteemed as
dessert fruits, are the produce of various species of Hugenia; the most im-
portant are #. malaccensis and E. Jambos. In Brazil, the fruit of #. cauli-
flora, the Jabuticaba, is also much esteemed. The leaves of E. Ugni are
used in Chili as a substitute for Paraguay Tea, The plant has been intro-
duced into this country on account of its fruit, but not with any great success.
Glaphyria nitida is called by the Malays the Tree of Long Life. It is
also known as the Tea plant, from its leaves being used as tea at Bencoolen.
Leptospermum.—The leaves of L. scoparium and L. Thea are employed
in Australia as a substitute for China tea, __
Melaleuca minor (M. Cajuputi).—The leaves when allowed to stand so
as to undergo a species of fermentation, and then distilled with water,
yield a volatile oil of a very limpid nature and light green colour, called
Cajuput Oil, which is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. This was formerly
much employed as a remedy in cholera, but without any evident success.
It has been used internally as a diffusible stimulant, antispasmodic, and
diaphoretic ; and externally, when mixed with olive oil, or dissolved in rec-
tified spirit, as a stimulant embrocation in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. This
oil has the property of dissolving caoutchouc. In Australia, the leaves of
M. scoparia and M. genistifolia are used as substitutes for China tea.
Metrosideros.—M. scandens, the Aka of New Zealand, and other species,
afford valuable timber. The clubs and weapons of the South Sea Islanders
are made from species of this genus.
Myrtus communis, the Common Myrtle.—The dried flower-buds and the
unripe fruits were used as spices by the ancients, and are still so employed
in Tuscany. By distillation with water, the flowers form a very agree-
able perfume, known in France as Hau d’ Ange. The leaves of M. Chekan,
under the name of Chekan, have long been used in Chili as an aromatic
astringent, and have recently been found in commerce.
Pimenta.—Pimenta officinalis (Eugenia Pimenta) is the Common All-
spice.—The dried unripe full-grown fruits are our official Pimento. It is also
known as Jamaica Pepper, or more commonly as Al/spice (from its flavour
combining that of Cinnamon, Cloves, and Nutmegs). It is used as a spice,
and in medicine in similar cases to cloves. Its properties are chiefly due
to the presence of a volatile oil, which is also official in the British Pharma-
copeeia.— Pimenta acris, Eugenia acris, or Myrcia acris, is commonly known
under the names of Wild Clove, and Bay-berry. It is the source of the
official Spirit of Myrcia or Bay Rum of the United States Pharmacopeeia.
Bay-rum is employed as a perfume, in faintness and various nervous affec-
tions, &c., and also in the preparation of hair-washes.
Psidium.—V arious species or varieties of this genus yield excellent dessert
fruits, which are commonly known under the name of Guavas. Of this fruit
the natives of the West Indies make several kinds of preserves, as Guava
jelly, stewed Guava, Quake-pear, and Marmalade. The more important
are P, pyriferum and P. pomiferum. ‘The bark of these plants also pos-
sesses astringent properties. Both plants are found frequently in tropical
countries.
Punica Granatum, the Pomegranate, is the rimmon of the Bible, and
the rooman of the Arabs. This plant is by some botanists regarded as the
type of a distinct order, which is named Granatex, while by Bentham and
Hooker it is placed in Lythracewx. We, however, retain it as an anomalous
genus of the Myrtacez, as its affinities are commonly regarded as most
nearly allied to the plants of this order, The leaves, the flowers, and the
fruit wére all used by the ancients for their astringent properties, and the
juice of the fruit in the preparation of cooling drinks, on account of its
acidulous taste. The flowers and fruit are still employed in the East. The
tlowers are the Balaustion of the ancients, whence their common name
ba!austina flowers. The rind of the fruit, and the bark of the root, are the
.
LECYTHIDACEZ.—BARRINGTONIACEA. 557
parts now commonly used as medicinal agents in this country ; but the latter
is alone official in the British Pharmacopoeia. These are employ ed for their
astringent properties, and the latter is also commonly regarded as a valuable
anthelmintic; the fresh bark is preferred by some, but apparently without
any good reason. The astringent properties are principally due to tannic
acid, but also partly to gallic acid. The bark of the root has also been
recently proved by Tanret to contain a volatile alkaloid, which is evidently
its important anthelmintic principle ; this he has named pelletierine. The
sulphate of pelletierine and tannate of pelletiert me have been found very
efficient remedies for tapeworm.
Sizygium Jambolanum.—The bark is employed in the East Indies as a
useful astringent in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery.
Order 4. LecyTHIDACE, the Brazil-nut Order.—Character.
Large trees, with alternate dotless leaves, and small deciduous
stipules. Flowers large and showy. Calyx superior. Petals 6,
imbricate, distinct, or sometimes united at the base. Stamens
numerous, epigynous; some of them cohering so as to form a
unilateral petaloid hooded body. Ovary inferior, 2—6-celled ;
placentas axile. Fruit woody, either indehiscent or opening in
a circumscissile manner (fig. 685). Seeds several, large, and with-
out albumen. This order is referred to Myrtacexr by Bentham
and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—Principally natives of Guiana
and Brazil, and also occasionally of other hot regions of South
America. Illustrative Genera :— Lecythis, Léff.; Bertholletia,
Humb. et Bonpl. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable
for their large woody fruits, the pericarps of which are used as
drinking-vessels and for other purposes. Their seeds are fre-
quently edible.
Bertholletia excelsa, Berg. (B. nobilis, Miers), the Brazil-nut Tree.—The
seeds constitute the edible nuts known as the Brazil, Juvia, Castanha, or
Para Nuts. As many as 100,000 bushels are annually imported into this
country from Brazil. An oil is obtained by expression from these seeds
which is used by artists and watchmakers. The laminated inner bark is
valuable for caulking ships and barges.
Lecythis—The seeds of Z. Ol/aria are large and edible, and are termed
Sapucaya nuts. They are now commonly sold in our fruit shops, and are
generally thought to be superior in flavour to the ordinary Brazil nuts. The
bark of this plant may be separated into thin papery layers, which are used
by the Indians as wrappers for their cigarettes. The fruits of this and other
species have been called Monkey-pots on account of their peculiar form.
Order 5. BARRINGTONIACE, the Barringtonia Order.— Dia-
gnosis.—This is a small order of plants frequently placed among
the Myrtacez, but Lindley considered them as quite distinct
from that order in the following particulars : namely, the presence
of a large quantity of albumen in their seeds, and in their
having alternate dotless and often serrated leaves. Thomson has,
however, proved that the seeds are exalbuminous, so that the
characters separating them from Myrtacez are very slight in-
deed. But another character of distinction is to be found in
y.
?
558 CHAMEZLAUCIACEA. —BELVISIACEA.— MELASTOMACE.
the eestivation of the calyx in the two orders; thus im that of.
Myrtacez it is valvate, while in Barringtoniacee it is imbricate.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions in
all parts of the world. Illustrative Genera :— Barrington‘a,
Forsk. ; Gustavia, Linn.
Properties and Uses.—The bark of Stravadium racemosum is
reputed to be febrifugal, and the root bitter, aperient, and acrid.
The fruit of Careya arborea is eaten, while that of Gustavia
brusiliana is emetic, and produces an intoxicating effect upon
fish. Generally the plants of the order should be regarded as
somewhat dangerous.
Order 6. CHAMALAUCIACEX, the Fringe-myrtle Order.—
Diagnosis.—This is a small order of shrubby plants with ever-
green dotted leaves, and nearly allied to Myrtacez, but dis-
tinguished from them by their Heath-like aspect, their more
or less fringed scaly or bristly calyx-tube, and by their 1-celled
ovary. From Lecythidaceze they are at once known by their
habit, their dotted exstipulate leaves, and 1-celled ovary.
Distribution and Numbers.—Exclusively natives of Australia.
Illustrative Genera:—Chameelaucium, Desf. ; Darwinia, Rudg.
There are above 50 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 7. BELVISIACES, the Belvisia Order.—Character.—
Shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, with a leathery texture.
Calyx superior, coriaceous, 5-partite, with a valvate sestiva-
tion. Corolla ccnsisting of three distinct whorls of united petals.
Stamens 20, somewhat polyadelphous. Disk fleshy, and forming
a cup-shaped expansion over the ovary. Ovary 5-celled, with
two ovules in each cell; placentas axile; style 5-angled or 5-
winged ; stigma flat, pentagonal. Fruit a soft rounded berry
crowned by the calyx. Seeds large, kidney-shaped, exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical Africa and
Brazil. Illustrative Genera :— Asteranthos, Desf. ; Napoleona,
Palis. These are the only genera; they include 4 species.
Properties and Uses.—Nothing is known of the uses of these
plants except that the pulp of their fruits is edible, and the
pericarp contains much tannic acid. They might, therefore,
probably be used as astringents.
Order 8. MrELASTOMACE, the Melastoma Order.—Charac-
ter. —Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite, and almost always
with several large curved ribs, and dotless. Flowers showy.
Calyx 4- 5- or 6-lobed, more or less adherent to the ovary, im-
bricate. Petals equal in number to the divisions of the calyx,
twisted in estivation. Stamens equal in number to, or twice as
many as, the petals ; filaments curved downwards in eestivation ; |
anthers long, 2-celled, curiously beaked, usually dehiscing by
two pores at the apex, or sometimes longitudinally ; in estiva-
a .
LYTHRACEA. 509
tion lying in spaces between the ovary and sides of the calyx.
Ovary more or less adherent, many-celled ; placentation axile.
Fruit either dry, distinct from the calyx, and dehiscent; or
succulent, united to the calyx, and indehiscent. Seeds very
numerous, minute, exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are principally natives of
tropical regions, but a few are also extra-tropical, being found
in North America, China, Australia, and also in the northern
provinces of India. JTllustrative Genera :—Melastoma, Juss. ;
Medinilla, Gaud. There are about 2,000 species.
Properties aud Uses.—The prevailing character of these plants
is a slight degree of astringency. Many produce edible fruits,
and some are used for dyeing black and other colours. The
name Melastoma is derived from the fruits of the species dyeing
the mouth black. Generally speaking, the plants of this order
possess but little interest in a medicinal or economic point of
Fie. 960.
Fic. 961.
Fig. 960. Vertical section of the flower of the Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum
Sulicaria).—Fig. 961. Calyx of the same.
view, but none are unwholesome. A number of species are culti-
vated in this country on account of the beauty of their flowers.
Melastoma.—The leaves of M. theezans are used as a substitute for tea,
which has been especially commended by Bonpland.
Memecylon.—The leaves of Memecylon tinctorium are used in some parts
of India for dyeing yellow, &c.
Order 9. LyTHRACE, the Leosestrife Order.—Character.
— Herbs or rarely shrubs, frequently 4-sided. Leaves opposite or
rarely alternate, entire, and exstipulate. Flowers regular or
irregular. Calyx (fig. 961) persistent, ribbed, tubular below, the
lobes with a valvate zest:vation, sometimes with intermediate teeth
(fig. 961). Petals inserted between the lobes of the calyx and
alternate with them (jig. 960), occasionally wanting, deciduous
Stamens perigynous, inserted below the petals (jig. 960), to
560 ONAGRACE.
which they are equal in number, or twice as many, or even
more numerous; anthers adnate, 2-celled, opening longitudinally.
Ovary superior (fig. 960), 1- 2- or 6-celled ; ovwles numerous or
rarely few; style 1, filiform (fig. 960); stigma capitate or rarely
2-lobed. Fruit capsular, membranous, dehiscent, surrounded
by the non-adherent calyx-tube. Seeds numerous, with or with-
out wings, exalbuminous ; placentation axile (fig. 960); embryo
straight, with flat leafy cotyledons, and the radicle towards the
hilum.
Diagnosis.—Herbs or shrubs, with entire exstipulate usually
opposite leaves. Calyx tubular, ribbed, persistent, bearing the
deciduous petals and stamens ; the latter being inserted below the
petals. Anthers 2-celled, adnate, bursting longitudinally. Ovary
superior, with axile placentation; style 1. Fruit membranous,
dehiscent, surrounded by the non-adherent calyx-tube. Seeds
numerous, exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—The greater number are tropical
plants, but some are also found in temperate regions, as, for
instance, in Europe and North America. One species only,
Lythrum Salicaria, has been hitherto found in Australia.
Tllustrative Genera :—Lythrum, Linn. ; Lawsonia, Linn. There
are about 250 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable
for the possession of an astringent principle, and for their value
‘in dyeing.
Ammannia vesicatoria.—The leaves are very acrid; they are much used
in India by the natives as a vesicant, but their action is slow, and they
cause great pain. :
Grislea tomentosa.—In India the flowers are employed for dyeing, mixed
with species of Morinda. (See Morinda.)
Lagerstrémia Regine has narcotic seeds, and its leaves and bark are
reputed to be purgative and hydragogue.
Lawsonia inermis (L. alba).—The leaves and young twigs of this shrub
form the Henna, Henné, or Alkanna of Egypt and other countries. Henna
is used by the women in the East to dye the tips of their fingers, their
finger- and toe-nails, palms of the hand, and soles of the feet, of a reddish-
orange colour. The men also use it for colouring their beards. It is like-
wise employed for dyeing skins and morocco leather reddish-yellow, and by
the Arabs, Persians, &c., for dyeing their horses’ tails and manes. The
leaves are also used to some extent as an astringent.
Lythrum Salicaria, Purple Loosestrife, is a common British plant, and
is said to be useful as an astringent in diarrhea, &c. Other species probably
possess similar properties.
Order 10. OnaGRrack@, the Evening Primrose Order.—
Character. —Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite,
simple, exstipulate, without dots. Calyx (fig. 962) superior,
tubular, with the limb usually 4-lobed, or sometimes 2-lobed
(fig. 787); in estivation valvate ; or rarely the limb is absent.
Petals usually large and showy, generally regular and equal in
number to the divisions of the calyx (jig. 787), twisted in
SAMYDACEA. 561
estivation, and inserted into the throat of the calyx (fig. 962) ;
rarely absent. Stamens (figs. 787 and 962) definite, 2, 4, or 8,
or rarely by abortion 1, inserted with the petals
into the throat of the calyx; filaments distinct ;
pollen trigonal (figs. 573 and 576). Ovary in-
ferior (fig. 962), 2—4-celled; placentas axile;
style 1, filiform ; stigma lobed or capitate. Fruit
capsular, or succulent and indehiscent, 2—4-celled.
Seeds numerous, without albumen; embryo
straight.
Diagnwosis.—Herbs or shrubs, with simple ex-
stipulate dotless leaves. Calyx superior, 2—4-
lobed, valvate in estivation. Petals usually
equal in number to the lobes of the calyx, with
a twisted estivation, or rarely absent. Stamens
few, inserted into the throat of the calyx with
the petals. Ovary inferior, 2—4-celled; style
simple ; stigma lobed or capitate. Fruit dehiscent
or indehiscent. Seeds numerous, without albu-
men.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives
of the temperate parts of North America and
Europe; many are also found in India, but the '
are rare in Africa, except at the Cape. Illustra- 717-962. ook
tive Genera :—CAhnothera, Linn. ; Circeea, Tourn. flower of a
There are about 300 species. Seas mare
Properties and Uses. — Generally the plants ue ire
are harmless and possess mucilaginous properties.
The roots of Gnothera biennis and other species of the same
genus are edible. The fruits of many Fwchsias are somewhat
acid and good to eat. Some species of Jussixa are astringent.
Fie. 962.
Cohort 3. Passiflorales.—Gyncecium syncarpous; ovary usually
1-celled, or sometimes spuriously 3-celled; placentation
parietal; ovules numerous. Seeds albuminous or exalbu-
minous. Leaves simple.
Order 1. Samypaces#, the Samyda Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, evergreen, stipu-
late, usually with round or linear transparent glands. Calyx
inferior, 4—5-partite. Petals absent. Stamens perigynous, 2,
3, or 4 times as many as the divisions of the calyx; filaments
united, some of them frequently sterile ; authers 2-celled. Ovary
superior, 1-celled; style 1, filiform ; placentas parietal, bearing
numerous ovules. Fruit capsular, leathery, 1-celled. Seeds
numerous, arillate, with oily or fleshy albumen; embryo large.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Exclusively tropical, and princi-
pally American. Illustrative Genera :—Samyda, Linn.; Casearia,
Jacq. There are above 100 species.
0O
562 HOMALIACEX.—LOASACEX.—TU RNERACEA.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. They are com-
monly bitter and astringent.
Casearia.—C. ulmifolia, a native of Brazil, is there highly esteemed as a
remedy against snake-bites. Some species of Casearia have febrifugal pro-
perties, and others are said to be poisonous.— C. esculenta has purgative roots.
Order 2. HoMALIAcE&, the Homalium Order.—C haracter.
Trees or shrubs, with alternate leaves. Calyx superior, funnel-
shaped, with from 5—15 divisions. Petals equal in number to,
and alternate with, the divisions of the calyx. Stamens oppo-
site to the petals and inserted on them, either distinct or in
bundles of 3 or 6. Ovary inferior, 1-celled ; placentas parietal ;
ovules numerous; styles 3—5. Fruit a capsule or berry. Seeds
small; embryo in the axis of a little fleshy albumen. This
order is included in Samydacee by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.-—They are natives of the tropical
parts of India, Africa, and America. Tllustratwe Genera :—
Homalium, Jacq.; Trimeria, Harv. There are about 36
species.
Properties and Uses.—Some species of Homaliwm are astrin-
gent, but nothing is known of the properties of the other
genera. f
Order 3. LOASACE®, the Chili Nettle Order.—C haracter. —
Herbaceous plants, with stiff hairs or stinging glands. Leaves
exstipulate. Calyx superior, 4- or 5-parted, persistent. Petals
5 or 10, in 2 whorls, often hooded. Stamens numerous, in
several whorls, either distinct or united in bundles. Ovary
inferior, 1-celled, with several parietal placentas, or 1 axile
placenta; style 1; ovules anatropous. Fruit capsular or succu-
lent. Seeds with a loose testa, and having an embryo lying in
the axis of fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are all natives of North
and South America. Illustrative Genera :—Bartonia, Mueh.;
Loasa, Adans. There are about 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some of the species are remarkable
for their stinging glands; hence their common name of Chili
Nettles. Several species are cultivated on account of the beauty
of their flowers. A Mexican species, Mentzelia hispida, is re-
puted to possess a purgative root.
Order 4. TURNERACEH, the Turnera Order.—Character.—
Herbaceous or somewhat shrubby plants. Leaves alternate,
exstipulate, hairy. Flowers axillary. Calyx inferior, 5-lobed,
imbricate in zestivation. Petals 5, equal, twisted in estivation,
without a corona, perigynous, deciduous. Stamens 5, alternate
with the petals, perigynous ; filaments distinct. Ovary 1-celled,
superior, with 3 parietal placentas ; styles 3, more or less united
at the base, forked or branched above. Fruit capsular, 1-celled,
PASSIFLORACEX.— MALESHERBIACEX. 563
3-valved, partially dehiscing in a loculicidal manner. Seeds
with a caruncule on one side, and a slightly curved embryo in
the midst of fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of South
America and the West Indies. Illustrative Genera :—Turnera,
Plum. ; Piriqueta, Aubl. There are about 60 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some are said to be astringent, others
tonic and expectorant, and a few aromatic.
Turnera.—The drug known in the United States under the name of
‘Damiana’ is principally derived, according to Holmes, from a species of
Turnera, and probably T. microphylla. The source of another variety of
Damiana, used in America, is, however, said to be Aplopappus discoideus,
DC., a plant of the order Composite. (See Aplopappus.) Damiana is a
nervine tonic, and is reputed to bea powerful aphrodisiac, but on no sufficient
authority.
Order 5. PAssIFLORACE®, the Passion-flower Order.—C ha-
racter.—Herbs or shrubs, usually climbing by tendrils (jig.
213), or rarely trees. Leaves alternate, with foliaceous or rarely
minute stipules. Flowers perfect or very rarely unisexual.
Sepals 5, united below into a tube, the throat of which bears a
number of filamentous processes, and thus forming a kind of
corona ; petals 5, inserted into the throat of the calyx on the
outside of the filamentous processes, with an imbricate eestiva-
tion ; sometimes wanting. Stamens usually 5, monadelphous or
rarely numerous, attached to, and raised above the calyx by,
the stalk of the ovary. Ovary stalked, superior, 1-celled;
styles 3, clavate; placentas parietal. Frit 1-celled, stalked,
generally succulent. Seeds numerous, arillate; embryo in thin
fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—They are chiefly found in tropical
America, but a few also occur in North America and the East
Indies, and several in Africa. Illustrative Genera :—Passiflora,
Juss. ; Tacsonia, Juss. There are about 214 species.
Properties and Uses.—Several have edible fruits, and others
are said to be bitter and astringent, narcotic, emmenagogue, or
diaphoretic.
Paropsis edulis has an edible fruit. It is a native of Madagascar.
Passiflora.—The fruits of several species of this genus are eaten under
the name of Granadillas. The root of P. quadranqularis is said to be nar-
cotic. The flowers of P. rubra are also narcotic. Other species are reputed
to be anthelmintic; emmenagogue, expectorant, emetic, carminative, &c.
Tacsonia.—The pulpy fruits of T. speciosa, T. mollissima, T. tripartita,
and others, are edible.
Order 6. MALESHERBIACES, the Crownwort Order.—Diag-
nosis.—This is a small order of herbaceous or somewhat shrubby
plants, resembling Passifloracese, in which it is included by Ben-
tham and Hooker, but differing in never being climbers; in the
want of stipules; in the filamentous processes of the flowers of
that order being reduced to a short membranous ring or coronet
002
564 PAPAYACEAH.—-CUCURBITACEA.
in this; in the insertion of the styles at the back instead of
the apex of the ovary ; and in the seeds not being arillate.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are all natives of Chili and
Peru. Illustrative Genera :—Malesherbia, R. et P. ; Gynopleura,
Cav. These are the only genera; they include 5 species.
Properties and Uses.—Altogether unknown.
Order 7. PapayacEx%, the Papaw Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs, sometimes with an acrid milky juice. Leaves
alternate, on long stalks, lobed. Flowers unisexual, or rarely
perfect. Calyx inferior, minute, 5-toothed. Corolla monope-
talous, and usually without scales or filamentous corona in the
female flowers, 5-lobed. The male flower has a few stamens
inserted on the corolla. The female flower has a 1-celled superior
ovary, with 3—5 parietal placentas. Fruit succulent or dehis-
cent. Seeds numerous, albuminous, with the radicle towards the
hilum. It is included in Passifloracee by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of South America and
the warmer parts of the Old World. JTilustrative Genera :—
Carica, Linn.; Modecca, Linn, There are about 26 species.
Properties and Uses.—Generally unimportant; but the acrid
milky juice is said to be poisonous in some species ; and in others
emmenagogue. The seeds of some species are also emmena-
gogue.
Carica.—The acrid milky juice of Carica digitata is said to be a deadly
poison. The juice of the unripe fruits and the powdered seeds of Carica
Pupaya, the Papaw-tree, are powerful anthelmintics ; the former being the
more active and certain in its action. The fruit, however, when cooked,
is eaten. The powdered seeds have also a great reputation in Southern
India for their powerful emmenagogue properties, and it is well known that
if the fruit be eaten in a certain stage by pregnant women it is exceedingly
liable to produce abortion, hence doctors invariably warn such patients not
to eat such fruit. The milky juice of the unripe fruit has the property of
rapidly softening the toughest, meat when boiled with it for a short time.
Its use for this purpose is very general in Quito; and experiments have
shown that it contains a substance called papayotin or papain, which has
the property of digesting fibrin like pepsin. Papayotin has also been re-
commended in the form of a solution to remove warts, &c., and as a solvent
of the false membrane in diphtheria. The leaves are also used in some
districts as a substitute for soap.
Order 8. CucURBITACE®, the Gourd Order.—Character.—
Herbs, generally of a succulent nature, and either prostrate or
climbing by means of tendrils. Leaves succulent, alternate,
with a radiate venation (fig. 310), more or less scabrous, ex-
stipulate. Flowers unisexual (figs. 963 and 964), monoecious or
dicecious. Calyx monosepalous, 5-toothed (fig. 963), the limb
sometimes obsolete, superior in the female flowers (jig. 963, co).
Corolla monopetalous (figs. 963, p, and 964, p), 4—5-parted,
or of distinct valvate or induplicate petals, sometimes fringed,
perigynous. Male flower:—Stamens usually 5, epipetalous
CUCURBITACES. 565
(fig. 964, st), and alternate with the segments of the corolla,
either distinct or monadelphous, or more frequently triadelphous
(fig. 964, st) in such a way that two of the bundles contain each
2 stamens, and the other but 1 stamen; rarely there are but 2
or 3stamens present ; anthers 2-celled, usually long and sinuous
Fia. 963.
Fic. 964.
Fig. 963. Fema’e or pistillate flower of the Cucumber (Cucumis sativus). co,
Calyx adherent to the ovary ; the limb is seen above, with five divisions,
p. Corolla. s. Stigmas. Fig. 964. Male or staminate flower of the same,
the floral envelopes of which have been divided in a longitudinal manner.
From Jussieu. c. Calyx. p. Corolla. st. Stamens. Fig. 965. Pepo of
the Squirting Cucumber (Lcballium officinavum), discharging its seeds
and juice.
(jig. 531, 1), or sometimes straight. Female flower :—Ovary in-
ferior ( fig. 963), 1-celled, or generally spuriously 5-celled from
the projection inwards ‘of the placentas; placentas parietal,
usually 5, or rarely 2; ovules indefinite or sometimes solitary ;
style short (fig. 963); stigmas thickened (figs. 647 and 963, s),
papillose, lobed (fig. 647) or fringed. Frwit a pepo (figs. 721
and 965), or rarely asucculent berry. Sceds more or less
flattened, usually with a leathery or horny testa, which is
066 CUCURBITACEA.
enveloped in a succulent or membranous covering, generally
numerous or rarely solitary; embryo flat, without albumen;
cotyledons leafy ; radicle towards the hilum.
Diagnosis.—Herbs, usually of a succulent nature, prostrate
or climbing. Leaves rough, alternate, radiate-veined, exstipu-
late. Flowers unisexual. Calyx 5-toothed or obsolete, superior
in the female flowers. Corolla perigynous. Male flower with
usually 5 stamens, which are distinct, monadelphous, or tria-
delphous, and epipetalous ; rarely there are but 2 or 3 stamens ;
anthers long and usually sinuous or sometimes straight. Female
flower :—Ovary inferior, with parietal placentas; style short;
stigmas more or less dilated. Fruit succulent. Seeds flat,
generally numerous, exalbuminous, cotyledons leafy.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order
has been divided into three sub-orders as follows :—
Sub-order 1. NHanprropEx.—Anthers not sinuous. Placentas
projecting so as to meet in the centre of the fruit. Seeds
numerous. Illustrative Genera :—Telfairia, Hook. ; Feuillea,
Linn.
Sub-order 2. Cucursirea.—Anthers sinuous (fig. 531, 1). Pla-
centas projecting so as to meet in the centre of the fruit
(fig. 721, pl). Seeds numerous. Illustrative Genera :—Bryonia,
Linn. ; Ecballium, LZ. (. Rich.
Sub-order 5. Sicze#.—Placentas not projecting. Seed solitary,
pendulous. Illustrative Genera :—Sicyos, Linn.; Sechium,
Per.
The Cucurbitaceze have been divided by Bentham and
Hooker as follows :—
Series 1. PLaciosPERME®. —Ovules horizontal. Illustrative
Genus :—Bryonia, Linn.
Series 2. ORTHOSPERMEH.—Ovules erect or ascending. TIllustra-
tive Genus :—Trianosperma, Torr. et Gr.
Series 3. CREMOSPERMEH.—Ovules pendulous. Illustrative
Genera :—Sicyos, Linn. ; Sechium, P. Br.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives principally of hot cli-
mates in almost every part of the world, but especially abun-
dant in the Kast Indies. One species only occurs in the British
Islands, Bryonia dioica. There are about 360 species.
Properties and Uses.—An acrid bitter purgative property is
the chief characteristic of the plants of this order; this is
possessed more or less by all parts of the plant, but it is es-
pecially evident in the pulp surrounding the seeds: the seeds
themselves are, however, usually harmless. In some plants this
acridity is so concentrated that they become poisonous; while
in other cases, and especially from cultivation, it is so diffused
that their fruit becomes edible. As a general rule, the plants of
this order should be regarded with suspicion.
CUCURBITACEA. 667
Bryonia dioica.—The fresh root is sold by herbalists under the names of
White Bryony and Mandrake root ; but the true Mandrake root is derived
from Mandragora officinalis. (See Mandragora.) In the form of a tincture,
in small doses it is said to be useful in pleurisy ; but in large doses it acts as
a hydragogue cathartic, and in excessive doses it is poisonous. The root
is also employed as an external application to bruised parts. The young
shoots when boiled are eaten as Asparagus.—JB. alba, B. americana, and B.
africana have similar properties. The root of B, epigea is employed by the
natives in India as an alterative in syphilis, and other affections. Itis also
reputed to be a powerful remedy in snake bites,
Citrullus Colocynthis, the Bitter Apple-—This plant is supposed to be the
wild vine of the Old Testament, the fruit of which is translated in our
version wild gourd (2 Kings iv. 39). The pulp of this fruit, which is
commonly known as the Bitter Apple or Colocynth, is, in proper doses, a
valuable hydragogue cathartic, but in excessive doses it is an irritant poison.
It owes its properties to a bitter glucoside called colocynthin. Two kinds
are known in commerce, viz.: Peeled Colocynth, which is chiefly imported
from Spain and Syria; and Mogador or Unpeeled Colocynth, which is
obtained from Mogador. The former is the best kind, and is official in the
British Pharmacopeia. It is commonly known as Turkey Colocynth, but
that imported from France and Spain is sometimes distinguished as French
and Spanish Colocynth. Mogador Colocynth is principally used by phar-
macists for their show-bottles. The seeds possess the purgative property to
a slight extent, but the pulp is by far the more active part of the fruit.
In parts of Africa, more especially in the Sahara, the seeds form an article
of food.
Cucumis.—The fruit of Cucumis sativus is the Cucumber; that of C.
Melo is the Melon.—C. trigonus and C. Hardwickii, both of which are
natives of the East Indies, are reputed to be purgative, like the true official
colocynth.
Cucurbita.—The fruits of several species or varieties are used as articles
of food. Thus the fruit of C. Citrullus is the Water-melon ; that of C. Pepo
the White Gourd or Pumpkin ; that of C. Melopepo the Squash; and that of
C. ovifera suceada is the Vegetable Marrow. The fruit of some other species
or varieties of Cucurbita are also eaten. The seeds of the Pumpkin are said
to possess valuable anthelmintic properties in cases of tape-worm ; the ex-
pressed oil is also reputed to be equally effectual. By some the fresh seeds
are preferred. ‘The seeds of the so-called C. maxima, Duch., or Red Gourd,
have similar properties; this plant is, however, only another form of C. Pepo,
and in Bentley and Trimen’s ‘ Medicinal Plants’ both plants are treated of
under C. Pepo. The seeds of the Water-melon and other species also possess
diuretic properties. An oil called Hgusé by the inhabitants of Yorruba in
Africa, and which is largely used by them for dietetic purposes, and also as
a medicine, is supposed to be derived from one or more species of Cucurbita.
This oil is also well adapted for burning, and for the lubrication of machinery.
Ecballium officinarum (Momordica Elaterium) is commonly called the
Squirting Cucumber, from the fruit separating when ripe from the stalk,
and expelling its seeds and juice with much violence (jig. 965). The
sediment from the juice of the nearly ripe fruit, when dried, constitutes
the official Elaterium of the British Pharmacopeeia. In doses of from 7; to 4
of a grain, when pure, it is a powerful hydragogue cathartic. It owes its
properties to a white crystalline extremely bitter principle called Elaterin,
which is also official in the British Pharmacopeia. In improper doses
elaterium is an irritant poison.
Feuillea cordifolia has intensely bitter seeds, which are violently pur-
gative and emetic; thus forming a striking exception to the generally
harmless properties of Cucurbitaceous seeds. The fruit is reputed to act as
an antidote to poisoning by strychnine. (See Strychnos.)
Lagenaria vulgaris is commonly called the Bottle Gourd, from its hard
568 BEGONIACEX.— DATISCACEA.
pericarp being used as a receptacle for containing fluid. The seeds are
purgative.
Luffa.—L. purgans and L. drastica.—The fruit of these plants is violently
purgative. It is commonly called American Colocynth. The fruit of other
species has similar properties. The fruit of Luffa fetida is termed the
Sponge Gourd, as its pericarp mainly consists of a mass of fibres entangled
together ; it is employed for cleaning guns and other analogous purposes.
The dried fibrous part of the pericarp of Luffa xgyptiaca is used in bath-
rooms by Egyptian ladies to produce smoothness of the skin; it is com-
monly known as the Towel Gourd. These prepared pericarps may now be
commonly met with in this country under the name of ‘ Loofahs.’ An in-
fusion of the fresh stalks and leaves of Luffa amara, an Indian species, is
said to be useful in affections of the splecn. It possesses bitter tonic and
diuretic properties.
Sechium edule—The green fruit is commonly eaten in hot countries, It
is called Chocho or Chacha.
Telfairia pedata (Jolliffia africana).—The seeds yield by expression a
very good oil, resembling that obtained from Olives. They have a flavour
like almonds, and are eaten in Africa. They have been imported into this
country on account of their oil.
Trianosperma (Bryonia) ficifolia is the source of the celebrated remedy
known by the natives of the Argentine Republic as tayuru, and in Brazil
as Leroy vegetal. It is said to possess powerful emetic and cathartic
properties.
Trichosanthes anguinea is the Snake Gourd.—The fruits of this and some
other species are eaten in India mixed with curries ; but others are reputed
to possess poisonous properties.
Order 9. BEGoNIACE®, the Begonia Order.—C haracter.—
Herbs, or low succulent shrubs. Leaves altetnate, very unequal-
sided at the base (jig. 338), with large membranous stipules.
Flowers unisexual, moncecious. Calyx coloured. Male flower
with 4 sepals, 2 of which are smaller than the others, and decus-
sating with, and placed internal to them. Stwmens numerous,
distinct or united by their filaments into a column; anthers 2-
celled, clavate, with longitudinal dehiscence, clustered. Female
jlower with 5 or 8 sepals. Ovary inferior, winged, 3-celled, from
three large projecting placentas meeting in the axis; stigmas 3,
sessile, 2-lobed. Frit winged, capsular. Seeds numerous, with
a thin reticulated testa, and without albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives chiefly of India, South
America, and the West Indies. Illustrative Genera :—Begonia,
Linn. ; Diploclinium, Lindl. There are above 160 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are generally reputed to possess
astringent and bitter properties, and occasionally to be purgative.
Some species of Begonia, as B. malabarica and B. tuberosa, are
used as pot-herbs. The species of Begonia are much cultivated
for the beauty of their flowers and leaves, and from their
unequal-sided.leaves, very characteristic of this genus, they are
commonly termed Elephant’s Ears.
Order 10. Datiscace®, the Datisca Order.—Character.—
Herbs, or in the case of Tetrameles a large tree. Leaves alter-
nate, exstipulate. lowers diclinous, apetalous. Male flower
CACTACEX, 569
with a 3—4-cleft calyx. Stamens 3—7; anthers 2-celled, linear,
bursting longitudinally. Female flower with a superior 35—4-
toothed calyx, and a 1-celled ovary, with 3—4 polyspermous
parietal placentas. Fru't dry, opening at the apex. Seeds
without albumen, minute, numerous. This order is commonly
placed among the Monochlamydex ; but its affinities are clearly
with Begoniacex and Cucurbitacex, and hence it is placed here.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are widely distributed over
the globe. Illustrative Genera :—Datisca, Linn.; Tetrameles,
R. Br. The above are the only genera: there are 4 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Useful fibres
might probably be obtained from the plants of this order.
Datisca cannabina is bitter and purgative. The root is employed in
Cashmere as a yellow dye.
Cohort 4. Ficoidales.—Stamens generally numerous, epigynous
or perigynous. Gyncecium syncarpous ; ovary 1- or many-
celled. Seeds albuminous or exalbuminons. Leaves simple
when present, and exstipulate. Stem usually fleshy.
Order 1. CactacE#, the Cactus Order.—Character.—Suc-
eulent plants, which are usually spiny and leafless. Stems fleshy,
globular, columnar, flattened, or 3- or more angled, and alto-
Fig. 966. Fie. 967.
Fig. 966. Vertical section of
the flower of the Prickly
Pear (Opuntia vulgaris).
——Fig. 967. Diagram of
the flower of the same.
gether presenting a peculiar and irregular appearance. Flowers
solitary, sessile. Sepals and petals imbricate, usually numerous,
in several whorls (jig. 967), and scarcely distinguishable from
each other, or rarely 4-merous ; adherent to the ovary (jig. 966).
Stamens numerous (figs. 966 and 967), with long filaments and
versatile anthers, Ovary inferior (fig. 966), fleshy, 1-celled, with
070 MESEMBRYANTHACEA.
parietal placentas (fig. 631); style 1; stigmas several. Fruit
succulent. Seeds numerous, parietal or imbedded in the pulp,
without albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives almost exclusively of
the tropical regions of America. Illustrative Genera :—Melo-
cactus, C. Bawhin; Mamumillaria, Haw. There are about 800
supposed species.
Properties and Uses.—The fruit of many species is some-
what acid and agreeable, and is useful in febrile complaints.
The fleshy stems of the Melon Cactus (Melocactus) are eaten by
cattle on account of their juice in the dry districts of South
America. Many species of Cereus, Epiphyllum, &c., are culti-
vated on account of their showy flowers. Some species of Cereus,
as C. grandiflorus and C. wycticallus, open their flowers at
night; they are remarkable for their size, some being as much
as 1 foot in diameter.
Opuntia.—O. vulgaris—The fruit of this plant is the Prickly Pear,
which is much eaten in America and the South of Europe, and is now com-
monly imported into this country, and used as a dessert fruit. It is not,
however, much esteemed. The fruit of O. Tuna is of a carmine colour, and
has been employed as a water-colour.—O. cochinillifera, the Nopal Plant, is
cultivated in Mexico, Teneriffe, &c., for the nourishment of the Cochineal
Insect ( Coccus Cacti) ; the dried female forming the Cochineal of commerce.
Pereskia aculeata:—The fruit of this plant is the Barbados Gooseberry.
Order 2. MESEMBRYANTHACE or FicoripEs, the Ice-plant
Order.—Character.—Succulent herbs or shrubs, with opposite
or alternate, simple, exstipulate leaves. Calyx 3—8-partite,
either free or partially adherent to the ovary. Petals either
numerous and showy, or altogether absent. Stamens perigy-
nous or epigynous, distinct, numerous or definite. Ovary infe-
rior or nearly superior, usually many-celled, rarely 1-celled;
placentas axile, free central, or parietal: styles and stigmas as
many as the cells of the ovary, distinct ; ovules usually nume-
rous or rarely solitary, amphitropous or anatropous. Fruit
usually capsular and many-celled, or rarely 1-celled, dehiscing
in astellate or circumscissile manner at the apex, or splitting at
the base ; or woody and indehiscent. Seeds few or numerous,
or rarely solitary ; embryo curved or spiral, on the outside of
mealy albumen.
Diagnosis. —Succulent herbs or shrubs, with simple exstipulate
leaves. Sepals definite, generally more or less adherent to the
ovary. Petals very numerous or absent. Stamens perigynous
or nearly epigynous. Ovary inferior or nearly superior; styles
distinct; placentas axile, free central, or parietal. Fruit cap-
sular or indehiscent. Seeds with a curved or spiral embryo on
the outside of mealy albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The Mesem-
bryanthacez may be divided into three sub-orders as follows :—
Sub-order 1. MrsSEMBRYANTHEX.—Leaves opposite. Petals nu-
UMBELLIFER, O71
merous, conspicuous. Stamens numerous. Fruit capsular,
dehiscent. — Illustrative Genera: — Mesembryanthemum,
Linn. ; Lewisia, Pursh.
Sub-order 2. TrerRaGgonie®.—Leaves alternate. Petals absent.
Stamens definite. Fruit woody and indehiscent.—Lllustrative
Genera :—Tetragonia, Linn. ; Aizoon, Linn.
Sub-order 3. Sesuvirx.—Leaves alternate. Petals absent. Sta-
mens definite. Fruit capsular, with transverse dehiscence. —
Illustrative Genera :—Sesuvium, Linn. ; Cypselea, Turp.
The two last sub-orders are sometimes placed in an order by
themselves, called Vetrugoniacex, which is distinguished from
the Mesembryanthacee by having alternate leaves, no petals,
and definite stamens. The plants comprehended in the above
three sub-orders are, however, so nearly allied, that we have,
following Bentham and Hooker, placed them in one order as above.
The tribe Molluginex of Caryophyllacex is also placed in this order
by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of warm
and tropical regions. A large number are found at the Cape of
Good Hope. ‘There are about 450 species.
Properties and Uses.—Several are edible; othtrs yield an
abundance of soda when burned ; but generally the plants of the
order are of little importance.
Lewisia rediviva—The root is eaten in Oregon. It is sometimes called
Tobacco-root from the smell of tobacco which it is said to acquire by cook-
ing. According to M. Gever, it is the racine amére of the Canadian Voya-
geurs ; it forms a very agreeable and wholesome food when cooked.
Mesembryanthemum.—M. crystallinum is the Ice-plant. It is so called
from its surface being studded with little papille (see page 69) of an ice-
like appearance. Its juice is reputed to be diuretic. The ashes of this
species, as well as those of M. copticum, M. nodiflorum, and others, contain
much soda.—M. geniculiflorum is employed as a pot-herb in Africa, and its
seeds are edible-—WM. edule is called the Hottentot’s Fig ; its leaves are eaten.
The fruit of W. xquilaterale (Pig-faces or Canagong) is eaten in Australia.
Tetraugonia expansa is used in New Zealand as a substitute for spinach.
It has been cultivated in Europe, and employed for the same purpose under
the name of New Zealand Spinach. It has been highly recommended for
cultivation in this country. Its flavour is very similar to ordinary spinach.
Cohort 5. Umbellales.—Stamens few, epigynous. Gyncecium
synearpous; ovary inferior; ovules solitary, pendulous ;
stvles surrounded at the base by an epigynous disk, generally
distinct, or sometimes united. Seeds albuminous. Leaves
exstipulate.
Order 1. UMBELLIFER®, the Umbelliferous Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs, shrubs, or very rarely small trees, with usually
hollow or rarely solid stems. Leaves alternate, generally am-
plexicaul (fig. 281), usually compound (jig. 363), or sometimes
simple, and always exstipulate. Flowers generally in umbels,
.
e*
d72 UMBELLIFERA.
which are usually compound ( figs. 398, 430, and 968), or some-
times simple, and rarely the flowers are capitate, with (fig.
398, a) or without (fig. 430) an involucre ; the partial umbels or
umbellules also, with (fig. 968, b) or without (jig. 430, b) an
involucel. Calyx superior, the limb* entire, in the form of a
ring, or 5-toothed, or obsolete. Petals 5 (fig. 578), usually
inflexed at the point, often unequal in size, inserted on the
Fic. 968. Fie. 969.
Fig. 968. a. General umbel of Fool’s Parsley (Zthusa Cynapium) in fruit,
b. One of the umbellules, showing the 3-leaved unilateral pendulous in-
volucel.— Fig. 969. A side view of the ripe fruit of Hemlock (Conium
maculatum ).—Fig. 970. Transverse section of the fruit of the same.——
Fig. 971. Vertical section of one of the halves (mervicarps) of the same
fruit. The letters refer to the same parts in the three last figures. a.
Ridges. 6. Channels. d, Albumen, 7. Embryo. g. Remains of the styles.
h. Axis, i. Prolonged axis or carpophore.
calyx outside the disk which crowns the ovary; &stivation
imbricate, or rarely valvate or induplicate. Stamens 5, inserted
with the petals and alternate with them (jig. 578), incurved in
eestivation. Ovary inferior (fig. 578), crowned by a double
fleshy disk (stylopod) (fig. 578, d), 2-celled, with a solitary
pendulous ovule in each cell; styles 2; stigmas simple. Fruit
called a cremocarp or diachenium ( figs. 717 and 969), consisting
of 2 carpels (mericarps) adhering by their face (conumissure) to
UMBELLIFERA. 573
a common axis (carpophore), which is undivided (fig. 971, h)
or forked (fig. 717), from which they ultimately separate
and become pendulous (fig. 717); each mericarp (jigs. 969
and 970) an indehiscent 1-seeded body, traversed on its dorsal
surface by ridges, a, of which there are usually 5; but some-
times there are 4 others, alternating with them, in which case
the former are termed primary, and the latter secondary ridges ;
the spaces between the ridges are called channels (vallecule),
b, in which are frequently oily receptacles called vittzx (fig.
175). Seed pendulous (fig. 971); embryo minute, f, at the base
of abundant horny albumen, d; radicle pointing towards the
hilum.
Diagnosis. —Herbs or shrubs. Stems generally hollow ;
leaves alternate, usually compound and amplexicaul, or some-
times simple, and always exstipulate. Flowers almost always
arranged in a more or less umbellate manner, or rarely capitate.
Calyx superior. Petals and stamens 5, inserted on the outside
of a double fleshy epigynous disk. Ovary inferior, 2-celled,
with a solitary pendulous ovule in each cell; styles 2. Fruit
consisting of two indehiscent carpels, which separate when ripe
from a common axis or carpophore. Seeds pendulous, one in
each carpel, with a minute embryo at the base of abundant
horny albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—The order
has been divided into three sub-orders from the appearance of
the albumen, but these are by no means well defined. They
are as follow :—
Sub-order 1. OrTHOSPERMEX.—Albumen flat on its face. Tllus-
trative Genera: — Hydrocotyle, Linn.; Cinanthe, Linn. ;
Heracleum, Linn.
Sub-order 2. CamMpyLOSPERME.—Albumen rolled inwards at
the margins, and presenting a vertical furrow on its face.
Illustrative Genera:— Anthriscus, Hoffm.; Cheerophyllum,
Linn. ; Conium, Linn.
Sub-order 3. CaLosPpERMEX.—Albumen with the base and apex
curved inwards on its face. Illustrative Genera :—Ormosci-
adium, Boiss. ; Coriandrum, Linn.
By Bentham and Hooker this order has been divided as
follows :—
Series 1. Hereroscraprex.—Umbels generally simple or very
irregularly compound, or the flowers are capitate. Vittz
none or obscure. Illustrative Genera :—Hydrocotyle, Linn. ;
Astrantia, Linn. ; Eryngium, Linn.
Series 2. HapLozycie%.—Umbels compound (fig. 430). Primary
ridges of fruit alone conspicuous (jigs. 969 and 970). Vittze
usually obvious. Illustrative Genera: —Conium, Linn. ;
Myrrhis, Scop.; Foeniculum, Adanson.
574 UMBELLIFER4.
Series 3. Diptozyciem.—Umbels usually compound (fig. 398).
Fruit with primary and secondary ridges generally well
marked. Illustrative Genera: —Caucalis, Linn.; Daucus,
Linn.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the northern
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Many occur, however,
in the southern hemisphere. They are rare in tropical regions
except upon the mountains, where they are by no means un-
common. There are about 1,400 species.
Properties and Uses. —Extremely variable: thus, some are
edible; others aromatic and carminative, and, in some cases,
stimulant and tonic, from the presence of a volatile oil; some,
again, contain a narcotico-acrid juice, which renders them more
or less poisonous ; while others are antispasmodic and stimulant
from the presence of a more or less foetid gum-resin, which is
essentially composed of gum, resin, and volatile oil. This oil
in the case of Asafcetida contains sulphur.
1, EscuLENT UMBELLIFER.
Anthriscus.—Two species of this genus are cultivated.—A. Cerefolium,
Chervil, the leaves of which are used for flavouring soups, salads, &e.; and
A. bulbosus, Parsnip Chervil, for its edible roots.
Apium graveolens, Celery.—By cultivation with the absence of light, the
stems and petioles become succulent and develop but little aromatic oil, and
are then edible.
Anesorhiza capensis is eaten at the Cape of Good Hope.
Arracacha esculenta, Arracacha, a native of New Granada, has large
esculent roots.
Bunium.—B. fleruosum and B. Bulbocastanum have roundish tubercular
roots, which are edible; they are known under the name of Earth-nuts or
Pig-nuts.— B. ferulefolium, a native of Greece, has also edible tubercules,
which are termed Topana.
Carum Gairdneri.—The roots of this plant are much eaten by the
Indians of the Pacific coast of North America, either raw or boiled with
other substances.
Crithmum maritimum, Samphire, is commonly used as an ingredient in
pickles.
Daucus Carota var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Carrot, is well
known for its esculent roots.
Feniculum.—F. capillaceum (F. vulgare) is the common Fennel, which,
when cultivated, is so well known as a pot-herb and garnishing substance.
—F. capensis is a Cape esculent.
‘erula.—The roots of several species of this genus are eaten in Oregon
and some other parts of North America.
Haloscias scoticum is the Scottish Lovage.
Helosciadium californicum.—The roots are said by M. Geyer to be very
delicious ; they are eaten by the Saptoria Indians in Oregon.
(Enanthe pimninelloides is said by Lindley to have wholesome roots, but
the species of Cnanthe are generally very poisonous. (See Poisonous
Umbelliferz.)
Pastinaca sativa, the Parsnip.—The roots of the cultivated plant are the
parts eaten.
Petroselinum sativum is the Common Parsley of our gardens. An
oily liquid, which has been named apiol, may be obtained from the
UMBELLIFER. 575
fruits; it has been reputed of value in intermittent fevers, and as an
emmenagogue.
Prangos pabularia.—The herb is used as sheep food in Tartary and the
adjoining countries, and has been introduced as a forage plant into this
country. The prevalent idea that its use corrects the tendency to rot in
sheep is erroneous.
Sium Sisarum is commonly known under the name of Skirret. It is
sometimes cultivated for its edible roots.
Smyrnium Olusatrum, Alexanders.—This plant was formerly cultivated
like Celery.
2. AROMATIC, CARMINATIVE, STIMULANT, AND Tonic UMBELLIFER®.
Peucedanum (Anethum) graveolens, the Dill ; Caruwm Carui, the Caraway ;
Coriandrum sativum, the Coriander ; Cuminum Cyminum, the Cummin ;
Daucus Carota, the Carrot ; Feniculum capillaceum (vulgare), the Fennel ;
Feniculum Panmorium, an Indian species ; Pimpinella Anisum, the Anise ;
and Ptychotis (Carum) Ajowan, the Ajwain or Omum, a native of Egypt,
Persia, Afghanistan, &c., and much cultivated in India. The fruits of the
above plants, commonly termed seeds, all possess aromatic, carminative, and
more or less stimulant properties, which are due to the presence of volatile
oils contained either in the vitt, or their pericarps generally. Some are also
employed as condiments, and for flavouring liqueurs. They are too well
known to need any detailed description. The fruits of Levisticum officinale,
Lovage, have somewhat similar properties. The fruits of Pewcedanum
graveolens, Carum Carui, Coriandrum sativum, Pimpinella Anisum, and
Feniculum capillaceum, as also their volatile oils, except that of Fennel, are
official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Archangelica officinalis, Angelica.—The root and fruits are pungent
aromatic stimulants and mild tonics. They are principally used in the
preparation of gin, and the liqueur known under the name of bitters. The
young shocts are also made with sugar into a sweetmeat or candy, which
forms a very agreeable stomachic. The petioles were formerly blanched
and eaten like Celery. e
Daucus Carota var. sativa.—The roots are used in the form of a poultice,
on account of their moderately stimulant properties.
Eryngium campestre and EF. maritimum, Eryngo, have sweet aromatic
roots, possessing tonic properties.
Ferula (Euryangium) Sumbul.—The root, which is official in the British
Pharmacopeeia, is imported into this country, by way of Russia, from
Turkestan and Bucharia. It is also official in the Pharmacopeeia of India.
It is commonly known as Sumbul-root, and also, from its strong musky
smell, as Musk-root. It is a nervine stimulant, and antispasmodic.
Hydrocotyle asiaticu.—The leaves, particularly when in a fresh state,
are employed in India both internally and externally, in leprosy, secondary
syphilis, &c. They are official in the Pharmacopeeia of India. Asa remedial
agent in leprosy they excited much attention some years since in the Island
of Mauritius, under the name of Bevilacqua.
Meum.—M. athamanticum, Bald-money or Mew, and M. Mutellina, have
aromatic tonic roots.
Selinum palustre.—The root has long been popularly used in some pro-
vinces of Russia as a remedy in epilepsy. It has also been employed in
hooping-cough, and other nervous affections; but when tried in regular
practice its use has not been attended with any marked success.
8. Poisonous UMBELLIFERZ.
The poisonous properties of these plants are due to the presence of a
narcotico-acrid juice, and seem to vary according to the nature of the soil
and climate, for Sir Robert Christison has ncticed that certain species which
076 UMBELLIFER#.
are generally regarded as poisonous are quite harmless when obtained from
certain localities near Edinburgh. This is a very important point, and one
which requires further investigation. Should it prove to be true in all cases,
it would probably account in a great degree for the varying strength of the
official preparations of Hemlock, which is commonly believed to arise from
their careless preparation ; and also for the different opinions entertained
as to the poisonous or non-poisonous properties of some other species of
Umbeliliferous plants. 4
Ethusa Cynapium, Fool’s Parsley, is a very common indigenous plant,
and is usually regarded as possessing poisonous properties; but this is
altogether contrary to the experience of Dr. John Harley. Ficinius and
Walz have, however, both isolated alkaloids: the first a crystallisable, very
poisonous substance; the latter a liquid alkaloid, resembling, it is said,
conine and nicotine. The leaves have been mistaken and eaten for those of
Parsley. :
CEnanthe-—CEnanthe crocata, Hemlock Dropwort or Dead-tongue,
CEnanthe Phellandrium, Fine-leaved Water Dropwort, Gnanthe fistulosa,
and some other species, are very poisonous. The roots of Ginanthe pimpi-
nelloides, as already noticed. are said, however, to be wholesome. (See
Esculent Umbellifere.) All the above species are indigenous.
Cicuta.—C. virosa, Water Hemlock or Cowbane, is another indigenous
plant of a highly poisonous nature. Its poisonous principle has been termed
cicutoxin.—C. maculata, a native of America, has also very poisonous roots,
which from having been mistaken for those of other harmless Umbellifere,
have not unfrequently led to fatal results. The latter plant has been used
as a remedy in nervous and sick headaches.
Conium maculatum, Hemlock.—This plant is indigenous ; the fresh leaves
and young branches and the fully developed green fruit are official in the
British Pharmacopeia. In proper doses hemlock is extensively employed
in medicine to relieve pain, relax spasm, and compose nervous irritation
in general. It owes its properties chiefly to the presence of a colourless oily
liquid alkaloid with a penetrating mouse-like odour, to which the name of
Gonine or coniine has been given. In improper doses Hemlock is a powerful
poison, and fatal accidents have arisen from its having been mistaken for
other harmless Umbelliferous plants. Conine is said to be useful in acute
mania; and Hydrobromate of Conine has been used successfully in spasmodic
affections.
4. UMBELLIFER YIELDING F@®TID GuM-RESINs.
The most important of these gum-resins are, Asafetida, Ammoniacum,
and Galbanum; all of which are official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Opoponaz and Sagapenum are others, but they are now scarcely ever used
in this country. They all possess antispasmodic and more or less stimu-
lant properties ; this is especially the case with Asafoetida, which is also
extensively used as a condiment in Persia, India, and other parts of the
East, in the same way as garlic and other allied plants are employed in
Europe. Ammoniacum and Galbanum also possess expectorant properties,
more particularly the former, and both are used externally in the form of
plasters to promote the absorption of tumours and chronic swellings of
the joints. The plants yielding these gum-resins are not in all cases
known, but they are exclusively natives of Persia, Afghanistan, Thibet,
and the adjacent regions, except the one yielding Opoponax, which is
found in the South of Europe, and in Syria. These gum-resins are
chiefly imported into this country from India, although sometimes from
the Levant. They are commonly seen in two forms—that is, in roundish
or irregular tears; or in masses formed by more or less amalgamated
tears.
Ammoniacum is yielded by Dorema Ammoniacum, Don, and probably
ARALIACE. 577
.
other species. It exudes from the stem seemingly to some extent spon-
taneously, but principally in consequence of punctures produced by innumer-
able beetles when the plant has attained perfection. It appears to be solely
collected in Persia. The root of D. Ammoniacum is used in India‘in the
Parsee fire-temples as incense, and is imported from Persia under the name
of Boi. This root is the source of the Indian Sumbul-root of Pereira.
Asafetida.—This is obtained by incision from the living roots of Ferula
Narthex, Boiss.. F. Scorodosma, Benth. et Hook. fil., and probably other
species, as F. alliacea, in Thibet, Afghanistan, and Persia. We have. how-
ever, no positive evidence of F. Narther having) been found except in Thibet.
The fruit is also sometimes employed in India under the name of Anjudan.
Galbanum.—This gum-resin is principally derived from Ferula galbani-
flua, Boiss. et Buhse ; but also from F. rubricaulis, Boiss., and probably
from F. Schair, Boszezow, and other species.
Opoponaz appears to be obtained from incisions into the living root of
Opoponax Chironium, which was formerly called Pastinaca Opoponaz.
Sagapenum.—Nothing positive is known with respect to the plant vielding’
this substance. It has been supposed to be derived from the root of Ferula
persica, or some other species of Ferula.
Thapsia garganica is said to be the Silphium plant of the ancients. The
gum-resin from which the blistering property has been removed has been
highly recommended as a remedy in pulmonary affections, more especially
in phthisis. The Silphium plant is, however, sometimes stated to be the
Narthex Silphium, Oersted.
Order 2. ARALIACEH, the Ivy Order.—Character.—Trees,
shrubs, or herbs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate (fig. 225).
Flowers generally in umbels or capitate, usually perfect (fig. 972)
or rarely unisexual. Calyx more or less superior ( fig. 972), entire
or toothed. Petals (fig. 972), 2, 4, 5,
10, deciduous, almost always valvate in
eestivation or rarely imbricate, generally
distinct or rarely monopetalous ; occa-
sionally wanting. Stamens correspond-
ing in number to the petals and alternate
with them (fig. 972), or twice as many,
inserted on the outside of a disk which
crowns the ovary; «anthers introrse,
versatile (fig. 972), with longitudinal
dehiscence. Ovary (fig. 972) more or
less inferior, usually with more than 2
cells, or very rarely 1-celled, crowned
by a disk, each cell with a solitary Reg. 97a Mloweent tha ceae
pendulous anatropous ovule; styles as mon Ivy (Hedera Helix).
many as the cells, sometimes united ;
stigmas simple. Fruit usually 3- or more celled, succulent or
dry, each cell with 1 pendulous seed, with fleshy albumen.
Diagnosis. —Closely allied to Umbelliferze, from which it may
be generally distinguished by the valvate estivation of the
corolla; and by the fruit being usually 3- or more celled, the
carpels of which do not separate when ripe from a carpophore.
There is also a greater tendency among Araliaceze to form a
woody stem than in Umbellifere.
Fie. 972.
PP
578 CORNACEX.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—These plants are universally
distributed, being found in tropical, sub-tropical, temperate,
and the coldest regions. Illustrative Genera :—-Panax, Linn. ;
Hedera, Linn. The order includes about 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—It must be regarded as a somewhat
remarkable fact that, nearly allied as the Araliacez are to the
Umbelliferze, they never possess to any degree the poisonous
properties which are frequently found in plants of that order.
The Araliaceze are generally stimulant, aromatic, diaphoretic,
and somewhat tonic.
Aralia—A. nudicau/is is a native of North America, where its roots are
used popularly as an alterative and stimulant diaphoretic in rheumatic affee-
tions; they are commonly known under the name of False, Wild, or American
Sarsaparilla, and are sometimes forwarded to this country. Under the
name of Rabbit roots they have been also used as a remedy in syphilis by
the Crees, in North America. The bark of A. spin: sa, called Angelica or
Toothache T-ee in North America, is used as a stimulant diaphoretic.—A.
racemosa, A. spinosa, and A. hispida yield aromatic gum-resins.—A. edulis
is used in China as a diaphoretic. Its young shoots and roots are also eaten
as a vegetable in China and Japan.
Cunnera scabra is remarkable for its enormous leaves, which are some-.
times as much as eight feet in diameter ; the fleshy petioles resemble those
of the Rhubarbs in appearance, and are eaten. Its roots are astringent.
This geuus is p’aced by Bentham and Hooker under Haloragacex.
Hedera Helix, the Ivy, is reputed to be diaphoretic, and its berries are
emetic and purgative. It contains a peculiar acid called hederic acid, which
is supposed to be a glucoside.
Helwingia.—This genus, which contains but one species, H. ruscifolia,
has been sometimes made a distinct order called Helwingiacee. The leaves
are used in Japan as a vegetable.
Panax.—P. Ginseng.—TVhe root of this plant, which is a native of Nor-
thern Asia, constitutes Ginseng, which is so highly prized by the Chinese as
a stimulant and aphrodisiac, that they will sometimes give for it its weight
in gold. The name Ginseng signifies ‘ Wonder of the World.’—P. quinque-
Solium is a native of North America. Its root is known under the name of
American Ginseng. It has similar properties to the preceding.—P. Pseudo-
Ginseng, a native of India, also appears to have analogous properties.—
P. fruticosum, P. cochleatum, and P. Anisum have aromatic properties.
Tetrapanax ( Aralia) papyriferum.—From the pith of this plant, a native
of the island of Formosa, the rice paper, which is used by the Chinese for
making artificial flowers, &c., is prepared.
Order 3. CoRNACES, the Dogwood Order.—Character.—
Shrubs, trees, or rarely herbs. Leaves simple, opposite or very
rarely alternate, exstipulate. Flowers perfect or rarely uni-
sexual, arranged in heads, or in a corymbose, or umbellate
manner, with or without an involucre. Culyx superior, 4-lobed.
Petals 4, broad at the base, inserted at the top of the calyx-
tube ; xstivation valvate. Stamens 4, inserted with the petals
and alternate to them. Ovary inferior, surmounted by a disk,
usually 2-celled ; ovule pendulous, solitary, anatropous ; style
and stigma simple. Fruit drupaceous, crowned with the
remains of the calyx. Seed pendulous; embryo in the axis of
fleshy albumen.
a
GARRYACEX.—ALANGIACEA. 079
Diagnosis.—Trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs, with simple ex-
stipulate, and (with but one exception) opposite leaves. Flowers
perfect, or sometimes unisexual. Calyx superior, 4-lobed. Co-
rolla with 4 petals, and a valvate estivation. Stamens 4, alternate
with the petals. Ovary inferior, surmounted by a disk, usually
2-celled, with a single pendulous anatropous ovule in each cell;
style and stigma simple. Fruit a ale Embryo in the
axis of fleshy | albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Ni mies of the temperate parts
of Europe, Asia, and America. Illustrative Genera :—Cornus,
LInnn.; Aucuba, Thunb. There are above 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for tonic, febrifugal, and astringent properties.
Cornus.—The bark of the root of C. florida is official in the United States
Pharmacopeeia, and is used as a substitute for Peruvian bark in the treat-
ment of intermittent and remittent fevers. It is there commonly known
under the name of Dogwood Bark. 'The barks of C. circinata and C. sericea
are also official in the United States Pharmacopeeia, and have similar pro-
perties to the former. The fruit of C. mascula, the Cornelian Cherry, is
astringent, a property also possessed by the leaves and flowers. The fruit,
called “Krania, i is much esteemed by the Turks on account of its ag rreeable
acid flavour. They use the juice in their sherbets and for other purposes.
The fruits of C. swecica are used by the Esquimaux for food ; and in the
Highlands of Scotland they are reputed to possess tonic properties, the plant
yielding them being there termed /us-a-chrasis, or plant of gluttony, in allu-
sion to the supposed effect of the fruitsin increasing the appetite. The seeds
of C. sanguinea, the common Dogwood of our hedges, yield a fixed oil, which
has been used for burning in lamps. Charcoal for the manufacture of gun-
powder is also prepared from the wood. The fresh twigs of C. florida or
other species are much used in the United States and in the West Indies to
rub on the teeth for the purpose of whitening them.
Order 4. GARRYACEX, the Garrya Order —Character.—
Evergreen shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. lowers uni-
sexual, apetalous, amentaceous. Male flower with 4 sepals, and
stamens alternating with them. Female flower with a superior
2-toothed calyx, and 1—38-celled ovary with 2 styles, and 2
pendulous stalked ovules. Frwit indehiscent, baccate, 2-seeded.
Seeds with a very minute embryo in abundant albumen. by
Bentham and Hooker this order is included in Cornacex.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the temperate parts
of North America, or of the West Indies. Illustrative Genera :-—
Garrya, Dougl. ; Fadgenia, Endl. These are the only genera ;
they include 6 species.
Properties and Uses.—But little is known of the properties
of these plants; but Garrya Fremontii, a native of California,
is known as the Quinine Bush from its leaves being used in
fevers and ague.
Order 5. ALANGIACES, the Alangium Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, entire, exstipulate, without
Ries
580 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN CALYCIFLOR&A.
dots. Calyx superior, 5-10-toothed. Petals 5-10, linear, reflexed.
Stamens equal in number to, or twice or four times as numerous
as, the petals; anthers adnate. Ovary inferior, 1—2-celled ;
style simple; ovule solitary, pendulous. Fruit drupaceous,
more or less united to the calyx, 1-celled. Seed solitary, pen-
dulous, with fleshy albumen, and large flat leafy cotyledons.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of various parts of the
East Indies and the United States. Jilustrative Genera :—
Alangium, Lam. ; Nyssa, Linn. There are about 8 species.
By Bentham and Hooker they are included in Cornacee.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Some species
of Alangium are said to be purgative and aromatic ; and their
succulent fruits are also edible. The fruit of Nyssu capitata or
N. candicans is used occasionally as a substitute for Lime fruit,
whence it is called the Ogechee Lime.
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Sub class
_ Polypetalez.
Series 3. CALYCIFLOR &.
1. FLOWERS with more than 20 stamens.
A. Ovary wholly superior.
a. Leaves without stipules.
1. Carpels more or less distinct, (at least as to
the styles); or solitary.
Stamens distinctly perigynous. Ovules
suspended, erect, or ascending . Rosacex.
2. Carpels wholly combined, (at. least as to the
ovaries).
Sepals more than 2, united into a tube.
Ovary with axile placentas . : . Lythracex.
. Leaves with stipules.
ce Carpels more or less distinct, (at least as to
the styles); or solitary.
Calyx with the odd lobe inferior. Stamens
somewhat hypogynous. : Leguminose.
Calyx with the odd lobe superior. Stamens
distinctly perigynous . ; Rosacex.
2. Carpels wholly combined, (at least as . the
ovaries ).
Leaves with circinate vernation. Pla-
centas parietal . ; . : . Droseracee.
B. Ovary inferior, or partially so.
a. Leaves without stipules.
1. Placentas parietal.
Petals definite in ues distinct from
the calyx . Loasuacex.
Petals indefinite in number, gradually
passing into the sepals. . . . Cactacex.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN CALYCIFLORA, 581
2. Placentas in the axis.
Leaves with transparent dots.
Ovary l-celled : ° - Chamelauciacex.
Ovary with more than one cell. Myrtacex.
Leaves without dots.
Petals very numerous . . . - Mesembryanthacex.
Petals detinite in number.
Petals narrow and strap-shaped . Alangiacex.
Petals roundish and concave.
Styles united : : .) . Barringtoniaceex.
Styles distinct . : : . Philudelphacex.
b. Leaves with stipules.
1. Carpels more or less distinct, or solitary . Rosacex.
2. Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the
ovaries ).
Leaves opposite ‘ a - - . Fhizophoracer.
Leaves alternate.
Placentas axile . : ; . - Lecythidacex.
Placentas parietal é - : . Homaliaceer.
2. FLOWERS with less than 20 stamens.
A. Ovary wholly superior.
a. Leaves without stipules.
1. Carpels more or less distinct, or solitary.
Carpels with hypogynous scales.
Each ecarpel having one scale . - Crassulaceex.
Each earpel having two scales . - . Francoacex.
Carpels without hypogynous scales.
Carpels solitary, or all but one imperfect.
Leaves without dots.
Ovules collateral, ascending, sessile . Connaracex.
2. Carpels wholly combined, (at least by their
ovaries ).
Placentas parietal.
Flowers with a ring or crown.
Flowers unisexual ° : - . Papayacer.
Flowershermaphrodite . , . Malesherbiacezx.
Flowers without a ring or crown - Turneracea.
Placentas in the axis.
Styles distinct to the base.
Carpels each with one Hupgey eeu
sealer. : . Crassulacex.
Carpels without hypogy ynous scales . Saxifragacer.
Styles more or less combined.
Calyx imbricate. Ovules suspended. Bruniacex.
Calyx valvate.
Leaves simple. Calyx tubular . Lythracex.
b. Leaves with stipules.
1. Carpels distinct, or solitary.
Fruit leguminous; odd lobe of the calyx
inferior . . Leguminose.
Fruit not leguminous ; ; ‘odd lobe of the calyx
superior . ‘ ° : . ° . Rosacex.
ANALYSIS OF THE OFDERS IN
2. Carpels wholly combined, (at least by thear
ovaries).
Placentas parietal.
Flowers with a ring of appendages.
Placentas in the axis.
Styles distinct to the base.
Petals conspicuous.
Leaves opposite. ° °
Leaves alternate . : A °
B. Ovary inferior, or partially so.
a. Leaves without stipules, or with cirrhose
appendages.
Placentas parietal.
Flowers completely unisexual. Monopeta-
lous . .
Flowers hermaphr odite or polygamous. Pe-
tals distinct . : : :
Placentas in the axis.
Flowers in umbels, or capitate.
Styles two . . . ° . 5
Styles three or more
Flowers not in umbels,
Carpel solitary.
Petals strap-shaped, reflexed
Peta!s oblong.
Cotyledons convolute .
Cotyledons flat
Carpels two or more, divaricating at the
apex,
Leaves alternate. Herbs .
Leaves opposite. Shrubs
Carpels two or more, not divaricating,
combined.
Calyx valvate, or the limb obsolete.
Stamens alternate with the petals if
isomerous.
Albumen none. Ovules horizon-
tal or ascending
Albumen present. Ovules pen-
dulous : ; , 5
Albumen abundant. Flowers
conspicuous . ; .
Calyx not valvate.
Stamens doubled downwards.
thers with sppensaote
ribbed .
£tamens only éarved: Anthers short,
Leaves dotted 5 ‘ = ‘.
Leaves not dotted.
Seeds very numerous, minute .
Seeds few . A ‘. : :
An-
Leaves
b. Leaves with stipules.
T lacentas parietal.
Stipules cirrhose.
Stipules deciduous,
Monopetalous - .
Petals distinct .
CALYCIFLORA,
Passifloraceez.
Cunoniacee.
Saxifragacex.
Cucurbitacez.
Ribesiacex.
Unmbelliferie.
Aratliaceer.
Alangiacez.
Combretacez.
Haloragacez.
Saxifragaceer.
Hy drangeacez.
Onagracee.
Haloragacex.
Cornacez.
Melastomacee
Myrtacex.
Escalloniacex.
Bruniacee.
Cucurbitaces.
Homahacezx.
CAPRIFOLIACEA. O83
Placentas in the axis.
Stamens if equal to the petals, alternate
with them.
Leaves opposite . : . - . Rhizophoraceer.
Leaves alternate . 3 : : - Hamaumelidicee
Although it generally happens that the Calyciflore have dichlamydeous
flowers, polypetalous corollas, and perigynous or epigynous stamens, yet
many exceptions occur, which should be particularly noted by the student.
Thus, we find apetalous plants in the Leguminosew, Rosacew, Saxifragacer,
Cunoniacee, Crassulacex, Hamamelidicex, Haloragacee, Cuallitrichaceex,
Rhizophoracex, Combretaceex, Samydacex, Loasacew, Datiscaceex, Mesembry-
anthacex, Araliacee, Garryaceer, Myrtacex, Lythracee, Onagracex, Passi-
floracee. Monopetalous corollas occur in Papayacew, Cucurbitacee, Bel-
visiacew, Crassulacew, Droseracew, Bruniacee, Melastomacexw, Turneraceer,
Cactacew, Lecythidacex, Araliacew. In some Calyciflore, again, the
stamens are wholly or in part hypogynous or nearly so, as in Connaracex,
Leguminose, Saxifragacex, Crassulacee, Francoaceex.
Unisexual flowers always occur as a rule in Callitrichaceaw, Papayaceey,
Garryacex, and Cucurbitacex, and sometimes in Rosacew, Hydrangeaceex,
Passifloracee, Ribesiacex, Hulvragacee, Combretacew, Cornacee, Hamameli-
dacex, and Araliacex,
Sub-class II. Gamopetalx or Corolliflore.
Series 1. Inferze or Epigyne.
Cohort 1. Ruliales.—Stamens epipetalous and alternate with
the lobes of the corolla. Ovary 1- or more celled, but
usually 2-celled ; cells of the ovary 1—many-ovuled. Seeds
albuminous. Leaves generally opposite.
The orders placed in this series of the Corolliflore were
included by De Candolle in the Calyciflorz ; the Corolliflorze
being restricted by him to those monopetalous orders in which
the ovary was superior, and which are placed in our arrange-
ment in the two series Super and Dicarpiz. But the simplest
arrangement for the student is to consider the Monopetalous
Corolla as the essential mark of the Gamopetailz or Corollifloree,
and in accordance with this view we have this series of the
Gamopetale, called Inferze or Epigyne. It should be noticed,
however, that some monopetalous plants occur in certain orders
of the Polypetale, as indicated in our artificial analyses of the
three series of that sub-class.
Order 1. CapriFoLIaAce®, the Honeysuckle Order.—Cha-
racter.—Small trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs. Leaves opposite
(fig. 285), usually exstipulate. Calyx superior (fig. 973), 4—5-
cleft. Corolla monopetalous (jig. 974), 4—5-cleft, tubular or
rotate, regular (fig. 974) or irregular, rarely polypetalous.
Stamens (fig. 974) 4—5, inserted on the corolla, and alternate
584 CAPRIFOLIACES. ©
with its lobes. Ovary inferior (fig. 973), 1—6-celled, often with
1 ovule in one cell, and several in the others, pendulous or
suspended ; style filiform or absent ; stigmas 1—8 (jigs. 973 and
974) or 5. Fruit indehiscent, 1- or more celled, dry or succu-
lent, and crowned by the persistent calycine lobes. Seeds
solitary or numerous; embryo small (jig. 975), in fleshy
albumen. :
Diagnosis.—Small trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs, with opposite
usually exstipulate leaves. Calyx superior, 4—5-cleft, persist-
ent. Corolla monopetalous, and bearing commonly as many
PIG fo. Hie. 9742 Fie. 975.
Fig. 973. Pistil of the common Elder (Sambucus nigra) surrounded by
a superior 5-lobed calyx.— Vig. 974. Entire flower of the same.——
Fig. 975. Vertical section of the seed.
stamens as it has lobes, to which they are alternate ; regular
or irregular. Ovary inferior, 1—6-celled. Fruit indehiscent.
Seeds with fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the northern
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. They are rare in the
southern hemisphere. Illustrative Genera:—Lonicera, Linn. ;
Viburnum, Linn.; Sambucus, Linn. There are about 220
species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order have fre-
quently showy flowers, which are also commonly sweet-scented ;
hence many are cultivated in our gardens and shrubberies, as
Honeysuckles, which are species of Caprifoliwm and Lonicera ;
Guelder Roses (Viburnum species), Laurustinus (Viburnum
Tinus), Snowberry (Symphoricarpus racemosus), &c. Some are
emetic and purgative ; others astringent, sudorific, or diuretic;
and some are acrid. A case of poisoning by the berries. of the
common Honeysuckle has also been recently reported. But the
patient (a little boy) recovered ; the symptoms resembled those
caused by belladonna.
Sambucus nigra, the common Elder.—Several parts of this plant have
been long employed in medicine. Its flowers, which are official in the
3ritish Pharmacopceia, contain a volatile oil, which renders them mildly
stimulant and sudorific. ‘They are chiefly used in the formation of a cooling
RUBIACEA. 085
ointment, and in the preparation of the official Elder-flower Water. The
inner bark, buds, and leaves have more or less purgative and emetic pro-
perties. The fruit is also mildly aperient and diuretic, It is extensively
used for the purpose of adulterating Port-wine, and in the manufacture of
Elder Wine. The wood is also employed for making skewers, &c., and
the pith in electrical experiments. The flowers of S. canadensis have
similar properties to those of S. nigra, and are official in the United States
Pharmacopeeia.
Triosteum perfoliatum is a mild purgative and emetic. Its roastedseeds
have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Viburnum.—V. Lantana, the Mealy Guelder Rose, or Wayfaring Tree,
has a very acrid inner bark. It is sometimes considered as a vesicant.— V.
Opulus, the Guelder Rose, is commonly regarded as emetic and cathartic.—
V. cassinoides. ‘The leaves of this plant, mixed with those of Prinos glaber,
are employed in North America as a substitute for Tea, under the name of
Appalachian Tea (see Prinos). The black fruits of the Himalaya species
are edible and agreeable.
Order 2. RupiacEm, the Madder Order.—Character.—
Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Stemsrounded orangular. Leaves simple,
entire, and either opposite and with interpetiolar stipules (fig.
382), or whorled and exstipulate (fig. 286). (Although piacti-
cally we speak of whorled exstipulate leaves, the whorls of apparent
Fic. 976. BiG. Our Fic. 978. Fic. 979.
Fig. 976. Diagram of the flower of the Madder (Rubia tinetorum ).——Fig.
977. Pistil of the Madder, with its ovary adherent to the calyx, cal.
si, Styles and stigmas. Fig. 978. Pistil of the Goose-grass or Cleavers
(Galium Aparine) adherent to the calyx, 6, by its ovary. sz, Styles.
Fig. 979. Vertical section of the fruit and seeds of the same. @. Albumen.
c. Embryo. pl. Placenta, .
leaves are in reality partly formed of leaves and partly of stipules
which resemble the true leaves in appearance.) Inflorescence cymose.
Calyx superior (figs. 977, cal, and 978, b), with the limb 4—6-
toothed or entire, or obsolete. Corolla epigynous, monopetalous,
regular, tubular or rotate, with its lobes corresponding in
number to the teeth of the calyx when the latter is divided ;
xstivation valvate (fig. 976). Stamens inserted upon the corolla
and equal in number to, and alternate with, its lobes (fig. 976).
Ovary inferior (figs. 977 and 978), crowned by a disk, usually
2-celled (fig. 976) or sometimes more; style 1 or 2 (figs. 977 and
978, st); stigma simple or divided. Frwit inferior, 2-celled or
rarely more, dry or succulent, indehiscent or separating into
two or more dry cocci. Seeds 1 (fig. 979), 2, or more, in each
586 RUBIACEA.
cell ; when few they are erect or ascending, or when numerous,
then attached to axile placentas ; embryo small, in horny albu-
men (fig. 979, a).
Diagnosis.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite simple
entire leaves, interpetiolar stipules, and rounded stems ; or with
whorled exstipulate leaves, and angular stems. Calyx superior.
Corolla regular, epigynous, with its lobes valvate. Stamens
equal in number to the teeth of the calyx and segments of the
corolla, with the latter of which they are alternate, epipetalous.
Ovary inferior, 2- or more celled, with an epigynous disk ; ovules
anatropous. Fruit inferior. Seeds 1 or more in each cell, with
horny albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order was
separated by Lindley into two orders, the Cinchonacex and the
Galiacex or Stellatx, an arrangement formerly adopted by us,
but now abandoned as not in accordance with the more generally
accepted views of botanists. The Galiaceze of Lindley were
more especially distinguished from the Cinchonacee by their
whorled exstipulate leaves and angular stems. The order
Rubiaceze is now divided by Hooker and Bentham into three
series, each of which is again divided into sub-series and tribes.
The Galiacez of Lindley are natives of the northern parts of
the northern hemisphere, and the mountains of the southern ;
while the Cinchonacee are almost exclusively natives of tropical
and warm regions. There are about 3,000 species in the
Rubiaceze as defined above. Illustrative Genera : —Galium,
Linn. ; Cinchona, Linn. ; Txora, Linn.
Properties and Uses.—The properties of the plants of this
extensive order are very important to man, furnishing him with
many valuable medicinal agents, as well as substances useful in
the arts and domestic economy. Thus many possess tonic,
febrifugal, astringent, emetic, or purgative properties ; some
are diuretic and emmenagogue ; a few are valuable dyeing
and tanning agents; and others have edible fruits and seeds.
Some are reputed to possess intoxicating, and in rare cases even
poisonous, properties. Various species are also cultivated in
our stoves on account of the beauty and fragrance of their
flowers.
Cephaélis Ipecacuanha—The root of this plant, which is a native of
Brazil and New Granada, is termed annulated Ipecacuanha. In Brazil, this,
as well as other emetic roots, are known under the same name, Poaya. The
Ipecacuanha plant has become somewhat scarce in Brazil, but is now being
cultivated in India, but hitherto not with much success. It is the official
Ipecacuanha of the British, Indian, and United States Pharmacopeeias. It
contains an alkaloid called emetine, to which its properties are principally
due. Ipecacuanha possesses emetic and purgative properties in large
doses, and in small doses it is expectorant and diaphoretic. It is also
sedative.
Cinchona.—The plants of this genus are natives exclusively of the inter-
tropical valleys of the Andes, and principally on the eastern face of the Cor-
RUBIACEA, 587
dilleras, growing commonly at heights varying from about 4,000 to nearly
12,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Cinchona region "extends from
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia, about 19° S. lat., through Peru and
Columbia, nearly to Caracas, in about 10° of N. lat. The Cinchonas are
small shrubs, or large forest trees, with opposite evergreen leaves, and com-
monly showy flowers. The bark of several species and varieties is extensively
imported into this country, under the names of Cinchona, Peruvian, or
Jesuits’ Bark. Some few years since, in consequence of the great destruction
of Cinchona trees in South America, and from no care “being taken to
replace them, it was feared that in a short time our supply of this most
valuable bark would have seriously fallen off, or even entirely failed ; but,
thanks to the energetic laboursof Messrs. Markham, Spruce, McIvor, Ww ilson,
and others, the more valuable species have been transported to India, J amaica,
Java, and elsewhere, and are now cultivated in these countries (more especi-
ally in India and Java) over large areas, with great success, so that we
need no longer fear any deficiency of supply in future years. A large
number of commercial varieties of Cinchona barks have been described by
Pereira, Weddell, Howard, and others, for a description of which we must
refer to works on Materia Medica. About fifteen species of Cinchona are
known to yield commercial barks, and of these, four are especially men-
tioned in the British Pharmacopceia ; which are the only ones we have space
to refer to here. They are C. Ca lisaya, Weddell; C. officinalis, Linn,: C.
succirubra, Payon; and C. lancifolia, Mutis. Of these species, the first
_ three respectively yield the formerly official Yellow Cinchona Bark, Pale
Cinchona Bark, and Red Cinchona Bark, and from the latter species is
derived the bark which is commonly known as Coquetta Bark. In the
British Pharmacopeeia of 1885, Red Cinchona Bark, from cultivated plants,
is alone official for the ordinary preparations of that volume, but any kind
of Cinchona Bark may be used for the preparation of the official salts of
the alkaloids. Several alkaloids have been described as constituents of the
different kinds of Cinchona barks in varying proportions ; but by far the
more important are Quinine, Cinchonine, and Cinchonidine. Some salts of
all of these are now official in the British Pharmacopeeia, and although
those of quinine are generally regarded as the most valuable of them all,
they are all more or “less used in medicine, and possess, in an eminent
degree, antiperiodic, febrifugal and tonic properties. The barks themselves,
in addition to such properties, are also somewhat astringent, and in some
cases have been found to be efficacious as topical astringents and antisepties.
Coffea arabica, the Cottee Plant.—The seeds of this plant, when roasted,
are used in the preparation of that most valuable unfermented beverage—
coffee. When roasted, coffee essentially consists of the albumen of the seed.
Coffee owes its properties chiefly tothe presence of caffeine, which is identical
with theine (see Thea, p. 472), and toa volatile oil. About 40 millions of
pounds are annually consumed in this country, and the consumption for the
whole world has been estimated at about 1,200 millionsof pounds. Caffeine
and its Citrate are official in the British Pharmacopeia, as already noticed
under the head of Thea. In Sumatra and some of the adjoining islands, an
infusion of the roasted leaves is used as a substitute for Tea, under the name
of Coffee-Tea. The leaf contains similar ingredients to the seeds, and pos-
sesses therefore analogous properties. Medicinally, coffee has been also used
with frequently beneficial effects as a nervine stimulant and astringent. In
its effects and uses it closely resembles tea, but its astringent action is
much less. Besides C. arabica, the seeds of other species have similar pro-
perties; thus, C. mauritiana of Bourbon and Mauritius, C. zanguebarica of
Mozambique, and especially C. liberica,a native of the West Coast of Africa.
This last species is now largely cultivated, and becoming a very impor-
tant source of coffee; it bids fair to supplant C. arabica in many tropical
countries. It isalarger and more robust plant, and flourishes at a lower
588 RU BIACEA.
elevation ; and the seeds are larger and of a finer flavour. It affords the
kind of coffee known as Liberian or Monrovian.
Coprosma.—The fruits of C. microphylla and other species are eaten in
Australia, where they are called Native Currants. In New Zealand the
leaves of C. fetidissima are used by the priests to discover the will of the
ods.
Galium.— G. Aparine, Goose grass or Cleavers.—The inspissated juice
or extract of this plant has been used with success in lepra and some other
cutaneous diseases. Its roasted seeds have been employed as a substitute
for coffee. The extracts of G. rigidum and G. Mollugo have been used with
beneticial results in epilepsy.
Gardenia.—F rom the fruits of G. grandiflora, G. florida, and G. radicans
beautiful yellow dyes are prepared, which are extensively employed in China
and Japan.—G. lucida and G. gummifera, natives of India, yield a resinous
exudation, which is said to be antispasmodic.
Gentpa.—The fruit of some species is edible ; that of G. americana, the
Lana tree, is the Genipap of South America. In British Guiana a bluish-
black dye, called Lana dye, is prepared from the juice of the fruit. The
fruits of G. brasiliensis also furnish a violet dye.
Guettarda speciosa.—This plant is said by some to furnish the Zebra-
wood of cabinet makers, but, according to Schomburgk, this is obtained
from Omphalobium Lamberti, a native of Guiana. (See Omphalobium.)
Tortoise-wood is also sometimes considered to be derived from a variety of
G. speciosa.
Morinda.—The roots of M. citrifolia and M. tinetoria are used in India
and some other parts of Asia for dyeing red. They have been occasionally
imported into this country, under the names of Madder, Munjeet, and Chay-
root ; but such names are improperly applied to them. (See Oldenlandia
and Ruba.) The flowers of species of Morinda are also employed in India
for dyeing, mixed with those of Grislea tomentosa. (See Grislea.)
Oldenlandia umbellata.—The root is occasionally imported from India
under the name of Chay or Che root. (See Morinda.) It is employed to
dye red, purple, and orange-brown. The colouring matter is confined to
the bark.
Palicurea densiflora, a native of Bolivia, &c., is stated to yield the bark
now known in commerce as ‘ Coto Bark,’ and which is reputed to be a valu-
able remedy in diarrhea, rheumatism, gout, &c. It is said to owe its active
properties to a peculiar crystalline substance named cotoin. Nothing certain,
however, is known of the botanical source of Coto Bark. Moreover, other
barks under the same name are now found in commerce, one of which is
termed Paracoto Bark.
Psychotria.—VThe root of P. emetica is called black or large striated Ipeca-
cuanha. It is occasionally imported, but not used in this country. It would
appear that there are two spurious kinds of Ipecacuanha which have been
described under the name of Striated,—one being derived from this plant ;
but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small striated
Ipecacuanha, is undetermined, although doubtless from one nearly allied
to it—according to Planchon, a species of Richardsonia. Both of these
kinds possess emetic properties like the roots of Cephaélis Ipecacuanha and
Richardsonia seabra, but they are far less active. They contain emetine.
The roasted seeds of P. herbacea have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Remijia.—F rom the barks of R. pedunculata, R. Purdieana, and probably
other species, which are known in commerce as Cuprea barks, salts of qui-
nine and cinchonine may be obtained, and also the peculiar alkaloids cupreine
and homoquinine. The barks of species of Remijia are official in the British
Pharmacopeia as a source of the salts of quinine and cinchonine.
Richardsona scabra.—The root is emetic. It contains the same active
principle (namely, emetine) as that of the official annulated Ipecacuanha rvot,
VALERIANACEZ. 4589
from Cephaélis Ipecacuanha, but it is not so active. It is commonly known
as undulated, white, or amylaceous Ipecacuanha. It is not used in this
country.
Rubia.—R. tinctorum.—The dried root is known under the name of
Madder, and is one of the most important of vegetable dyes. It is largely
cultivated in France, Holland, and other countries. In France it is known
under the name of Garance. In the Levant, R. peregrina is also cultivated,
and yields Levant Madder ; the roots are also called Turkey- roots in com-
merce. Madder is imported in two forms, namely, entire, and in a round
state. There are four kinds of Dutch Maddex, known respectively as crop
(the best), ombro, gumene, and mull (the worst). In the living state; madder-
root only contains a yellow colouring principle, called rubian ; but no fewer
than five colouring matters have been obtained from the root of commerce,
called respectively madder purple (purpurin), red (alizarin), orange, yellow,
and brown; it would appear, therefore, that these latter must be all derived
from the single yellow colouring principle. Alizarin is by far the most
valuable of these colouring substances. Besides its use as a dyeing material,
Madder was long employed in medicine as a tonie and diuretic, and was
also regarded as a valuable emmenagogue ; its virtues, however, as a medi-
cine are very trifling, and it is no longer employed by the medical practi-
tioner. Besides the roots of R. tinetorum and R. peregrina, those of other
Species are likewise employed in different parts of the world for dyeing:
thus, the roots of R. cordifolia or Munjista, a native of the East Indies, are
used in Bengal, &c., and are occasionally imported into this country under
the name of munjeet. The roots of R. Relboun are also employed in Chili
for dyeing.
Sarcocephalus esculentus (Cephalina esculenta).—The fruit is the Sierra
Leone Peach. The bark is said to have astringent, tonic, and febrifugal
properties.
Uncaria Gambier.—An extract prepared from the leaves and young
shoots of this plant constitutes the kind of Catechu which is known in com-
merce as Gambir, Gambier, Pale Catechu, and Terra Japonica, and by
druggists as Catechu in square cakes; it is official in the British Pharma-
copeeia, and Pharmacopeia of India. Catechu is one of the most powerful
of astringents, and is extensively employed in tanning and dyeing, and also
in medicine ; it is also largely consumed in the East, as it forms one of the
ingredients in the famed masticatory called Betel—U. acida, probably
only a variety of the preceding, also appears to yield a portion of the Gam-
bier of commerce.
Cohort 2. Asterales.—Stamens epipetalous and alternate with
the lobes of the corolla when equal to them in number.
Ovary 1-celled ; ovule solitary. Fruit dry and indehiscent.
Seeds usually exalbuminous, but sometimes albuminous.
Leaves exstipulate.
Order 1. VALERIANACE®, the Valerian Order.—Charac-
ter.—Herbs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Flowers cymose,
hermaphrodite (figs. 494 and 495) or rarely unisexual.
Calyx superior ( figs. 494, c, and 980, ca), with the limb obsolete,
membranous, or pappose. Corolla epigynous, monopetalous
(figs. 494 and 495), tubular, imbricate, 3—-6-lobed, regular or
irregular, sometimes spurred at the base (jig. 495). Stamens
1—5, distinct, fewer than the lobes of the corolla, and inserted
in its tube (figs. 494 and 495). Ovary inferior (fig. 980), with
590 DIPSACEA.
1 fertile cell, and usually 2 abortive or empty ones. Frwit dry
and indehiscent, frequently pappose (fig. 467). Seed solitary,
suspended, exalbuminous ; radicle superior.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Chiefly na-
tives of the temperate parts of Europe,
Asia, and America; they are rare in Africa.
Tilustratiwwe Genera: — Centranthus, DOC. ;
Valeriana, Linn. There are about 190
species.
Properties and Uses.— They are chiefly
remarkable for the presence of a strong-
scented volatile oil, which renders them
stimulant, antispasmodic, and tonic. Some
are highly esteemed in the East as perfumes,
but they are not generally considered agree-
able by Europeans.
Fie. 980.
Nardostachys Jatamansi is commonly regarded
as the Nardus indicus, the true Spikenard of the
Fig, 980. Vertical ancients. It is the Nard of the Hebrews, and the
Sats Ae bab Nardos of the Greeks. It is much esteemed in India
ovary, &c., of both as a perfume and as a remedial agent in epilepsy
theRedValerian and hysteria. In some districts, as Leh, its chief use
(Centranthus 7u- is for incense.
ber). ca. Calyx. Valerianella olitoria--The young leaves are occa-
co. Corolla. st¥- sionally used as a salad both on the Continent and
Syed a2 ene in England. In France they are known under the
name of Mache, and in England by that of Lamb’s Lettuce.
Valeriana.—The rhizome and rootlets of V. officinalis form the official
Valerian of the British Pharmacopeia. Valerian is much employed as a
neryine tonic, stimulant, and antispasmodic. The roots of V. Dioscoridis,
V. Phu, V. celtica, V. Hardwickii, V. sitchensis, and other species, have
similar properties. V. sitchensis is most esteemed in Russia.
Order 2. DresacE®, the Teazel Order.—Character.—Herbs
or undershrubs. Leaves opposite or verticillate, exstipulate.
Flowers in dense heads (capitula) (jig. 428), surrounded by an
involucre. Calyx (fig. 982) superior, with a membranous or
pappose limb, and surrounded by an involucel. Corolla (fig.
982) tubular, epigynous, monopetalous, the limb 4—5-lobed,
generally irregular (figs. 428 and 982), and with an imbricate
zestivation. Stamens 4, epipetalous (fig. 982); anthers distinct.
Ovary inferior (fig. 982), 1-celled; ovule solitary (fig. 982),
pendulous ; style and stigma simple. Frwit dry, indehiscent,
and surmounted by the pappose calyx (figs. 468 and 981).
Seed with fleshy albumen ; embryo straight ;eradicle superior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the South of
Europe, and of North and South Africa. A few species are
found in this country. Illustrative Genera :—Dipsacus, Tourn. ;
Scabiosa, Linn. There are about 170 species.
Properties and Uses,—Some are reputed to possess astringent
and febrifugal properties, but as remedial agents they are alto-
#:
CALYCERACE. 591
gether unimportant. Dipsacus Fullonum is, however, an im-
portant economical species.
Dipsacus Fullonum, Fuller’s Teazel.—The dried capitula are used by
fullers in dressing cloth, for which they are well adapted, as their hard
Fie. 981. Fic. 982.
Fig. 981. Fruit of Scabiosa purpurea,
surmounted by the pappose calyx,
Fig. 982. One of the central florets of
the capitulum of Scabiosa purpurea,
with the ovary, &c., cut vertica!ly.
stiff hooked bracts raise the nap, without tearing the stuff like metal in-
struments. In 1860 no less than 20,000,000 teazels were imported into this
country from France.
Scabiosa succisa is called the Devil’s-bit Scabious, on account of its
abruptly terminated rhizome or root. It is said to be astringent, and to
yield a green dye. The inflorescence sometimes develops in an umbellate
‘manner, as in a specimen described by the author in the Pharmaceutical
Jourygl, ser. i. vol. Xvil. p. 363, thus exhibiting a marked deviation from the
development in capitula which is the ordinary arrangement in the plants
of this order.
Order 3. CALYCERACE®, the Calycera Order.—Charac-
ter.—Herbs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers in capitula,
surrounded by an involucre. Calyx superior, irregular, 5-lobed.
Corolla epigynous, monopetalous ; regular, valvate, 5-lobed.
Stamens 5, epipetalous ; filaments monadelphous ; anthers par-
tially united. Ovary inferior, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous.
Fruit indehiscent. Seed solitary, pendulous, with fleshy albu-
men ; radicle superior.
Diagnosis.—These plants hold an intermediate position be-
tween Dipsaceze and Composite, being distinguished from the
former by their alternate leaves, absence of involucel to their
individual florets, valvate estivation of corolla, monadelphous
filaments, and partially united anthers ; and from the Composite
in their anthers being only partially united, and in their pendu-
lous albuminous seed, and superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—Exclusively natives of South
America, especially the cooler parts. Illustrative Genera :—
092 COMPOSIT#.
Calycera, Cavan.; Leucocarpus, Don. There are about 20
species.
Properties and Uses. —Unknown.
Order 4. Composit, the Composite Order.—Character.
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, exstipulate.
Flowers (florets) hermaphrodite (figs. 983-985), unisexual (fig.
491) or neuter, arranged in capitula (figs. 427 and 444), which
are commonly surrounded by an.involucre formed of anumber of
imbricate bracts (phyllaries) (fig. 399); the separate florets are
Fie. 983. Fre. 984. Fie. 985. Fic. 986.
Fig. 983. Labiate floret of Chelanthera linearis. o. Ovary with adherent
calyx. ¢. Tubeof the corolla. 7s. Upper lip of the corolla. 77. Lower lip.
e. Tube formed by the united anthers. s. Stigmas. Fig. 984, Vertical
section of the floret of Aster 7ubricaulis. o. Ovary containing one
erect ovule a. Pappose limb of the calyx. p. Corolla. s. Style. e. Tube
formed by the united anthers. ——Fig. 985. Floret of the Chicory (Cicho-
rium Intybus). o. Ovary with adherent calyx. e. Tube formed by the
united anthers. s. Stigmas. Fig. 986. Vertical section of the ripe fruit
of the Groundsel (Senecio), surmounted by a portion of the style, s.; and
the pappose limb of the calyx. p. Pericarp. ¢t. Testa. e. Seed. The
above figures are from Jussieu.
also frequently furnished with membranous or scale-like bractlets
(palex) (fig. 404, b, b). Capitula developing successively in a
centrifugal order (fig. 444). Calyx superior (figs. 983-985), its
limb either entirely abortive (fig. 465) or membranous (fig. 466);
in the latter case it is entire, toothed, or pappose—that is, divided
into bristles, or simple, branched, or feathery hair-like processes
(fig. 984, a). Corolla epigynous, monopetalous (figs. 983-985),
tubular (fig. 465), ligulate (fig. 985), or bilabiate (fig. 983), 4—5-
toothed, with a valvate zstivation. Stamens (figs. 983-985, e)
COMPOSITE. 593
5 or rarely 4, inserted on the corolla, and alternate with its
divisions ; filaments distinct or monadelphous; anthers united
into a tube (syngenesious or synanthervus) (fig. 548), which is
perforated by the style and stigmas (jig. 985). Ovary inferior,
1-celled, with 1 erect ovule (fig. 984, 0); style 1, undivided
below, and commonly bifid above (fig. 987); stigmas 2, one being
usually placed on the inner surface or maryins of each division
of the style (figs. 983, s, 985, s, and 987), Fruit acypsela, dry,
indehiscent, 1-celled, crowned by the limb of the calyx, which
is often pappose (fig. 986). Seed (fig. 986, e) solitary, erect,
exalbuminous ; radicle inferior.
Diagnosis. — Herbs or shrubs, with exstipulate leaves.
Flowers (called florets) arranged in capitula, which are
Fic. 987.
Fig. 987. Styles and stigmas of Composite Flowers to illustrate De Can-
dolle’s tribes, after Heyland and Lindley. 1. Albertinia erythropappa
(Vernonieez). 2. Anisocheta mikanioides (Eupatoriee). 3. Blumeu sene-
cioides (Asteroidew). 4. Mendezia bicolor (Senecioidez). 5. Lipocheta
umbellata (Senecioidee). 6. Aplotaris nepalensis (Cynarez). 7, Leuco-
meris spectabilis (Mutisiez). 8. Leuceria tenuis (Nassauviee).
commonly surrounded by an involucre. Capitula developed
successively in a centrifugal manner. Calyx superior, its limb
abortive, or membranous, or pappose. Corolla epigynous, mono-
petalous, 4—5-toothed, with a valvate estivation. Stamens
epipetalous, equal in number to the divisions of the corolla
(generally 5), and alternate with them; anthers syngenesious.
Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with 1 erect ovule, and having but one
coat ; style simple, bifid above, with stigmatic branches. Fruit
1-celled, dry, indehiscent. Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous ;
radicle inferior.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order has
been variously divided by authors. By Linnzus, the plants of
his class Syngenesia, division Polygamia (which corresponded to
QQ
594 COMPOSITA.
the Natural Order Composite as above defined), were arranged
in five orders, under the names of Polygamia xqualis, P. swper-
flua, P. frustranea, P. necessaria, and P. segregata. ‘The cha-
racters of these have been already stated at page 412. Jussieu
separated the Composite into three sub-orders as follows :—1.
Corymbiferx, the plants of which have either all tubular (floseu-
lows) and perfect florets ; or those of the disk (centre) tubular
and perfect, and those of the ray (circumference) tubular and
pistilliferous, or ligulate (radiant). 2. Cynarocephalez, the florets
of which are all tubular and perfect; or those in the centre
perfect, and those of the rayneuter. And 3. Cichoraceex, having
all the florets ligulate and perfect. A fourth sub-order was
afterwards added, called Labiatifore, which includes those
plants the florets of which were bilabiate, and which were un-
known to Jussieu. The arrangement most frequently adopted
at the present day is that of De Candolle ; this was founded on
that of Lessing. It is as follows :-—
Sub-order 1. TusuLirtor#®.—Florets all tubular and perfect ;
or those of the centre (disk) are tubular, and alone perfect,
while those of the circumference (ray) are tubular or ligulate,
and pistillate or neuter; juice watery. This sub-order in-
cludes the Corymbiferzee and Cynarocephale of Jussieu. It
has been divided into five tribes as follows :—
Tribe 1. Vernoniex.—Style cylindrical ; its arms generally long
and subulate, sometimes short and blunt, always covered
all over with bristles (fig. 987, 1). Illustrative Genera :—
Vernonia, Schreb. ; Elephantopus, Linn.
Tribe 2. Hupatoriex.—Style cylindrical; its arms long and
somewhat clavate, with a papillose surface on the outside near
the end (fig. 987, 2). Illustrative Genera :—EKupatorium,
Tourn. ; Tussilago, Tourn.
Tribe 3. Asteroidex.—Style cylindrical; its arms linear, flat
on the outside, equally and finely downy on the inside ( fig.
987, 3). Illustrative Genera :—Erigeron, Linn. ; Bellis, Linn.
Tribe 4. Senecioidex.—Style cylindrical, its arms linear, fringed
at the point, generally truncate, but sometimes extended
beyond the fringe intoa short cone or appendage of some kind
(fig. 987, 4and5). Illustrative Genera :—Anthemis, Lim. ;
Senecio, Linn.
The above four tribes correspond to the sub-order Corymbiferee
of Jussieu ; the next or fifth tribe to the Cynarocephalee of the
same author.
Tribe 5. Cynarex.—Style thickened above, and often with a
bunch or fringe of hairs at the enlarged portion ; its branches
united or free (fig. 987, 6). Illustrative Genera :—Arctium,
Linn. ; Centaurea, Linn.
Sub-order 2. LapraTirFLor&.—Florets with bilabiate corollas,
COMPOSITA—TUBULIFLORA. 595
perfect or unisexual. Juice watery. Of this sub-order we
have two tribes :—
Tribe 6. Mutisiex.—Style cylindrical or somewhat swollen ;
its arms usually blunt or truncate, very convex on the outside,
and either covered at the upper part by a fine uniform hairi-
ness, or absolutely free from hairs (fig. 987, 7). Illustrative
Genera :—Mutisia, Linn. fil. ; Printzia, Cass.
Tribe 7. Nassawviex.—Style never swollen ; its arms long, linear,
truncate, and fringed only at the point (fig. 987, 8). Illus-
trative Genera :—Nassauvia, Juss. ; Trixis, R. Br.
Sub-order 3. LicutirLor®.—Florets all ligulate and perfect.
Juice milky. This corresponds to the Cichoracez of Jussieu.
Tribe 8. Cichoreex.—Style cylindrical at the upper part ; its
arms somewhat obtuse, and equally pubescent. Illustrative
Genera :—Cichorium, Linn.; Taraxacum, Haller. Of these
sub-orders the Liguliflorz is the best defined.
By Bentham and Hooker the Composit are divided into
thirteen tribes.
Distribution and Numbers.—Universally distributed ; but the
Tubuliflore are most abundant in hot climates, and the Ligu-
lifloree in cold. The Labiatiflore are almost entirely confined
to the extra-tropical regions of South America. In the northern
parts of the world the plants of this order are universally
herbaceous ; but in South America and some other parts of the
southern hemisphere, they occasionally become shrubby, or even
in some cases arborescent. Some years since there were about
9,500 species according to M. Laségue, who remarks ‘ that they
have steadily continued to constitute about one-tenth of all de-
scribed plants in proportion as our knowledge of species has
advanced. Thus Linneus had 785 Composites out of 8,500
species; in 1809 the proportion was, 2,800 to 27,000; De
Candolle described 8,523 in the year 1838, which was again
a tenth ; and now (1845) that the estimate of species has risen
to 95,000, Composite plants amount to 9,500.’ Lindley cal-
culated the order to contain about 9,000 species ; but Bentham
and Hooker have reduced it to about 1,000 genera and 8,000
species.
Properties and Uses.—The properties of the Composite are
very variable. A bitter principle pervades the greater number
of the species in a more or less evident degree, by which they
are rendered tonic. Some are laxative and anthelmintic. Many
contain a volatile oil, which communicates aromatic, carminative,
and diaphoretic properties. Others are acrid stimulants, and
the Ligulifloree commonly abound in a bitter-tasted milky juice,
which is sometimes narcotic.
Sub-order 1. TunuLirFLora.—The plants of this sub-order are chiefly
remarkable for their bitter, tonic, and aromatic properties; which are due
QQ2
596 COMPOSITZ—TUBULIFLORA,
to the presence of a bitter principle, and a volatile oil. Some are esculent
vegetables.
Achillea Millefolium, Yarrow or Milfoil, was formerly extolled as an
excellent vulnerary and styptic. It is regarded in the United States of
America, where the leaves and flowering tops are official, as tonic, stimulant,
sudorific, and antispasmodic. In the form of a warm infusion they are also
emetic. According to Linnzus, this plant was employed in his time in
Sweden to increase the intoxicating properties of beer. Formerly it had a
high reputation as avulnerary ; hence its name of Nose-bleed.—A. moschata
is known in Switzerland as ‘ Forest Lady’s Herb,’ and has been used there
for centuries as a stomachic tonic. It is also termed ‘ Iva.’
Anacyclus.— A. Pyrethrum, Pellitory of Spain.—The root is official in
the British Pharmacopceia; it is employed as an energetic local irritant
and sialagogue, in toothache, relaxation of the uvula, &c.—A. officinarum
of Hayne, German Pellitory, has similar properties. The root is commonly
used in Germany.
Anthemis nobilis, Chamomile or Camomile.—This plant is extensively
cultivated for the sake of its flower- heads, which are official in the British
Pharmacopeeia, and much employed internally for their stimulant, tonic,
and antispasmodic properties ; and also externally for fomentations. These
properties are due to a bitter principle (anthemic acid), and a volatile oil.
The flowers constitute the Roman or True Chamomiles of the Materia
Medica. The oil of Chamomile is also much used as a remedy in flatulence,
and as an addition to purgative pills to prevent their griping action. It
is official in the British Pharmacopceia.—A. Cotula, Mayweed, has similar
properties, but its disagreeable odour is an obstacle to its more general use.
Aplopappus discoideus, DC , is said to be the source of a kind of Damiana,
a drug used in the United States and elsewhere as an aphrodisiac. (See
Turnera.)
Aplotaxis Lappa (Aucklandia Costus).—The root of this plant, which is
a native of Cashmere, is said by Falconer to be the Costus of the ancients.
It is chiefly used as a perfume, and for burning as incense. It is also em-
ployed by the Chinese as an aphrodisiac.
Arctium Lappa.—The root is employed in the United States in gouty,
rheumatic, scrofulous, and other affections, and is reputed to be aperient,
diuretic, and diaphoretic.
Arnica montana, Mountain Arnica, Mountain Tobacco, or Leopard’s-
bane, is an acrid stimulant. The flowers and rhizome have been employed
in typhoid fevers, amaurosis, paralysis, &c. It is termed on the Continent
Panacea lapsorum, from the power it possesses of absorbing tumours and
destroying the effects of bruises, when applied externally, Arnica rhizome
and rootlets are official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Artemisia.—A. Absinthium.—The dried herb, or the flowering tops, under
the name of Wormwood, is used as an aromatic bitter tonic, and as an
anthelmintic. The tops and leaves are official in the United States Phar-
macopeia. They are also employed in the preparation of some liqueurs ;
particularly of one now very largely consumed in France under the name of
‘ absinthe,’ the excessive use of which is attended with such injurious effects,
that they have been designated under the name of absinthism. Although
doubtless these effects are mainly due to the alcohol which it contains, they
appear to be also in some degree attributable to a volatile oil which the
wormwood contains.—A. chinensis—According to Lindley, the Chinese and
Japanese moxas are prepared from the cottony or woolly covering of the
leaves of this and other species—A. Dracunculus is Tarragon, the leaves
of which are sometimes used in pickles, salads, &c.—A. maritima, var.
Stechmanniana of Besser (A. pauciflora, Weber), is the principal, if not
the only source of the official Santonica of the British Pharmacopeia. San-
tonica 1s the produce of Turkestan, and is known as Levant or Alexandrian
COMPOSITH—-TUBULIFLORA. 597
Wormseed. It comes to England by way of Russia. The official part is
the dried unexpanded flower-heads. Santonica owes its properties essentially
to the presence of a crystalline neutral principle called santonin, which is
also official in the British Pharmacopeeia. Both santonica and santonin are
valuable anthelmintics. Another kind of wormseed, very inferior to the
above, has been described by pharmacologists under the name of Barbary
Wormseed. Wormseed is also known by the names of Semen Santonici,
Semen Contra, Semen Cynx, &c.
Berthelotia lanceolata or indica, a native of India, has aperient leaves,
which are said to be a good substitute for the official senna.
Blumea grandis or balsamifera, a common weed in the Tenasserim pro-
vinces of the Burman Empire, yields a kind of camphor. It is also in use
in China. It is known as Blumea or Ngai Camphor. In China it is used in
medicine, and for perfuming the finer kinds of Chinese ink.
Calendula officinalis, the Marigold, has yellow florets, which are some-
times employed to adulterate saffron. A strong tincture of the flowers, ap-
plied externally to wounds, is said to have a similar effect to that of Arnica.
Carduus, the Thistle-—Some species of this genus, particularly C. bene-
dictus, have been used as tonics and febrifuges.
Carthamus.—C. tinctorius, Safflower or Bastard Saffron.—The florets are
used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink saucers of the
shops are coloured by it. It is also largely employed in the manufacture of
rouge. Satiower is sometimes used to adulterate hay saffron. The substance
called cake saffron is prepared trom it and mucilage. (See Crocus.) The
fruits, which are commonly called seeds, yield by expression a large quan-
tity of oil, which is known in India under the name of Koosum Oil. It
is used principally for burning. The fruits are also purgative, and are
employed in dropsy.. The fruits of C. persicus also yield a useful oil.
Cynara.—C. Scolymus.—The young succulent receptacles of this plant
are used for food, under the name of Artichokes. The edible Cardoons are
the blanched stalks of the inner leaves of Cynara Cardunculus.
Erigeron, Fleabane.—The leaves and tops of FE. heterophyllum and E.
philadelphicum are official in the United States Pharmacopeia. Fleabane
possesses diuretic properties, and is much used in gravel and other nephritic
complaints. The leaves and tops of 2. canadense, Canadian Fleabane, are
likewise official in the United States Pharmacopeeia, and are reputed to be
tonic, astringent, and diuretic. The oil which is obtained from them is also
esteemed as an internal remedy in uterine and other hemorrhages.
Eupatorium.—E., glutinosum.—The leaves of this plant constitute one of
the substances known as Matico in South America, the different kinds
of which are employed as styptics. ‘The official matico of this country is,
however, derived from Piper angustifolium (Artanthe elongata), a plant of
the Nat. Ord. Piperacee. (See Piper).—FK. ayapuna and EF. perfoliatum
have been employed as antidotes to the bites of venomous reptiles. They
are reputed to possess stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic properties. The
leaves and flowering tops of /. perfoliatum, Thoroughwort, are official in
the United States Pharmatopeia, Other species, such as 1. purpureum or
Gravel Root, L£. teucrifolium, E. ageratoides, E.. aromaticum, E. incarnatum,
E. cannabinum, and EL. nervosum, have also been regarded in the United
States and elsewhere as of medicinal value.
Grindelia robusta and G. squurrosa, Gum Plants or Rosin Weeds.—The
‘dried stems, leaves, and unexpanded flower-heads of these plants, which are
natives of California, are reputed to form a remedy of very great value in
asthma, when given internally ; and when applied externally in the form of
an infusion or decoction, a marvellous effect is said to be produced in the
eure of the cutaneous eruptions caused by emanations trom the Rhus
Toxicodendron, or Poison-oak, They are official in the United States
Pharmacopeia, They are also said to be very useful in hooping-coughs,
598 COMPOSITZ —TUBULIFLORZ.
catarrhs, and bronchitis. Other species, such as G. hirsuta, appear to have
similar properties, and are frequently substituted for the former in com-
merce.
Guizotia oleifera is extensively cultivated in India for its seeds, which
are known in commerce under the name of Niger seeds. These yield a thin
oil, useful in painting, and for burning, and other purposes, which is known
in India as Ram til, Kala-til, Noog, &c. It may be used for the same pur-
poses in pharmacy as sesamum oil and olive oil.
Helianthus.—H. tuberosus.—The tubers are much eaten under the name
of Jerusalem Artichokes. The dried fruits have been employed as a substi-
tute for coffee.—H. annuus is the common Sunflower. The pith contains
nitrate of potassium, and is therefore sometimes used in the preparation of
moxas in Europe. The fruits have been lately employed as an ingredient in
a kind of soap called Sunflower Soap. They yield by expression a fixed oil
which is used largely for food in Hungary and Russia, while the oil-cake
furnishes an excellent food for cattle.
Inula Helenium, Elecampane.—The root is an aromatic tonic, expec-
torant and diaphoretic. It has been employed in chronic catarrh, and in
dyspepsia. It was also formerly much used in this country as the basis of a
favourite sweetmeat.
Liatris odoratissima, Wild Vanilla or Deer’s Tongue.—The leaves of
this plant, which is abundant in the southern United States, are used
largely to give flavour to tobacco and cigars. They would be probably
very useful in perfumery. They owe their properties to coumarin. Other
species, more especially L. spicata, yield the root knownas Button Snakeroot,
which is reputed to be stimulant, diuretic, and expectorant.
Madia.—The seeds of M. sativa, a native of Chili, yield by pressure a
large amount of fixed oil, which is edible, and the commoner kinds have also
been used for illumination. The plant is now cultivated in Asia Minor,
Algeria, and. the warmer parts of France and Germany. The oil has also
the valuable property of not congealing at 19° below zero of Réaumur, hence
it is a valuable lubricating agent for delicate machinery.
Muatricaria Chamomilla has similar properties to the true Chamomile.
The flower-heads are the Flores Chamomille of German pharmacologists ;
they are usually distinguished as Common or German Chamomiles.
Mikania.—M. Guaco has been much used as an antidote to the bites of
venomous serpents in South America. It appears to me by far the most
efficacious of all the plants known under the name of Guaeo, for reliable
testimony has shown that when promptly and properly administered it is a
cure for the bites of the most venomous snakes. Guaco has also been highly
spoken of as a remedy for gout and rheumatism.
Notonia.—The freshly gathered stems of N. grandiflora and N. corym-
bosa are reputed in India to be preventive of hydrophobia.
Pyrethrum.—tThe insect powders of commerce are the powdered flower-
heads of several species of this genus. Thus those of P. carneum and P.
roseum yield Persian Insect Powder ; but the most energetic insecticide is
the Dalmatian Insect Powder, which is derived from P. cinerarizfolium.
Santolina chamexcyparissus, Lavender Cotton, has long had a reputation
as a vermifuge in the case of small worms. Its twigs, which have a strong
and somewhat agreeable odour, have also been used for placing in wardrobes
&c., to drive away moths.
Silphium.—S. laciniatum, a native of North America, is known as the
‘Polar Plant’ or ‘Compass Plant,’ because ‘the leaves are said to present
their faces uniformly north and south.’ Sir J. Hooker states that in
travelling by rail any alteration in the direction of the road becomes visible
at once by the altered appearance of the leaves of the Compass Plant.
Tanacetum vulgare, the common Tansy, possesses tonic and anthelmintic
properties.
COMPOSITHZ—LABIATIFLORZ —LIGULIFLORZ, 599
Tussilago Farfara, Coltsfoot.—This plant is used as a popular remedy in
chronic coughs and other pulmonary complaints.
Vernonia anthelmintica.—The seeds are employed in the East Indies as
an anthelmintic.
Xanthium spnosum.—The powdered leaves, &c., of this plant are said
to be a most efficient remedy in hydrophobia ; but they have been found
useless when employed by regular practitioners,
Sub-order 2. LABrATIFLOR&.—There are no very important plants
known to belong to this sub-order; but some have been reputed to possess
aromatic, mucilaginous, purgative, and tonic properties
Perezia fruticosa.—The root is much esteemed in Mexico as an agreeable
and energetic purgative ; its native name is ‘raiz del pipitzahuac.’ Anacid
of a brilliant golden yellow colour, called pipitzahoic acid, has been obtained
from it; it is known popularly as ‘ vegetable gold.’
Printzia aromatica.—The leaves are sometimes employed at the Cape
of Good Hope asa substitute for tea.
Sub-order 3. LicguLi1rLor®.—The plants of this sub-order generally
contain a milky juice, which commonly possesses alterative, aperient diu-
retic, or narcotic properties. The roots of some are used as esculent vege-
tables ; and other species, by cultivation with diminished light, become
edible as salads.
Cichorium.—C. Intybus, Chicory.—The Chicory plant is indigenous in
this and many other parts of Europe. It is also extensively cultivated
for the sake of its roots, which when roasted and powdered are used as
a substitute for, or more frequently as an addition to, ground coftee. Above
100 millions of pounds are annually consumed in Europe. In 1865, the
consumption in Great Britain alone was about 13 millions of pounds; and
it is now calculated that in proportion to that of coffee it is nearly 40 per
cent. It does not, however, possess in any degree the peculiar exciting,
soothing, and hunger-staying properties of coffee, and its extensive employ-
ment is much to be deprecated, as it is not unfrequently attended with in-
jurious effects. The fresh root has been employed in medicine, and is reputed
to have somewhat similar properties to that of Dandelion. A blue dye
may be prepared from the leaves.—Cichorium Endivia is the Endive plant,
the blanched leaves of which are used as a salad.
Lactuca.—L. sativa is the garden or common Lettuce. It is largely
cultivated for use asa salad. Asa medicine it possesses to a slight extent
sedative, anodyne, and antispasmodic properties.—Lactuca virosa, the Wild
Lettuce, possesses much more evident anodyne and antispasmodic properties
than the common Lettuce. The inspissated juice of both ZL. sativa and
ZL. virosa forms Lactucarium or Lettuce Opium, which is employed for
its narcotic properties. LL. virosa yields the best and the largest quan-
tity of Lactucarium. JL. virosa is official in the British Pharmacopeeia,
Other species of Lactuca, as L. Scariola and L.altissima, possess similar
properties.
Scorzonera.—S. hispanica has esculent roots, which are known under the
name of Scorzonera, and are much esteemed. ‘The roots of S. deliciosa are
also much valued in Sicily, where this plant is a native.
Taraxacum officinale (Taraxacum dens leonis) is the common Dande-
lion. The root, which is official in the British Pharmacopoeia, is very ex-
tensively employed as a medicinal agent. It is commonly regarded as
possessing aperient, diuretic, and alterative properties. It contains a bitter
erystalline principle, called Turaxacin, to which it seems principally to owe
its properties. When roasted, it has sometimes been employed as an addition
to coffee, in the same manner as Chicory root. The leaves, when very
young and grown in the dark, are sometimes used on the Continent as a
salad.
Tragopogon porrifolius.—The roots are eaten under the name of Salsify ,
all
600 STYLIDIACEA.—GOODENIACEA,.—CAMPANULACEA,
and although a very useful vegetable, they are inferior to Scorzonera. In
America it is called the Oyster Plant, as the roots when cooked are thought
to have the taste of oysters.
Cohort 3. Campanales. Stamens epigynous, usually free from
the corolla. Ovary generally 2—6-celled, with numerous
ovules in each cell. Fruit capsular. Seeds albuminous.
Mostly herbs, or rarely shrubs. Leaves nearly always
alternate ; exstipulate.
Order 1. StyLip1acEes#, the Stylewort Order.—C haracter.—
Herbs or wider-shrubs, not milky. Leaves exstipulate. Calyx
superior, with from 2 to 6 divisions, persistent. Corolla with
from 5 to 6 divisions ; &stivation imbricate. Stamens 2, gynan-
drous. Ovary 2-celled, or rarely 1-celled ; style forming a cotumn
with the filaments ; stigma without an indusium. Frwit cap-
sular. Seeds albuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly found in the
swamps of Australa. Illustrative Genera -—Stylidium, Swartz ;
Forstera, Linn. fil. There are about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 2. GooDENIACES, the Goodenia Order.—C harac-
ter.—Herbs, or rarely shrubs, not milky. Leaves exstipulate.
Flowers never collected into heads. Calyx generally superior,
with from 3—5 divisions, occasionally inferior. Corolla irre-
gular, 5-parted ; xstivation induplicate. Stamens 5 ; filaments
distinct ; anthers distinct or united. Ovary 1, 2, or rarely
4-celled ; placenta free central; style 1 (fig. 644, t); stigma
surrounded by a hairy ring or somewhat cup-shaped expansion
of the upper part of the style termed an indusiwm (fig. 644, 7).
Fruit capsular, drupaceous,. or nut-like. Seeds with fleshy
albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—-These plants are principally
natives of Australaand the islands of the Southern Ocean ; rarely
of India, Africa, and South America. Illustrative Genera :—
Goodenia, Sm.; Leschenaultia, R. Br. There are about 200
species.
Properties and Uses. —Unimportant. Many are cultivated
for the beauty of their flowers.
Brunonia.—This genus of Australian plants, consisting of two species, is
sometimes made the type of a distinct order, termed Brunoniacezx ; but
Bentham and Hooker refer them here. Their principal distinetive characters
are the superior ovary, exalbuminous seeds, and capitulate inflorescence.
They have no known uses.
Scevola Taccada has a soft and spongy pith, which is used by the
Malays to make artificial flowers, and for other purposes. Its young leaves
are also eaten as a potherb. Other species of Scevola are reputed to be
emollient.
Order 5. CAMPANULACE®, the Harebell Order.—Character.
Herbaceous plants or undershrubs, with a milky juice. Leaves
LOBELIACE, 601
nearly always alternate, exstipulate. Flowers scattered, or
rarely in capitula. Calyx superior (jig. 990), persistent (jigs.
687 and 688). Corolla monopetalous, regular (figs. 437, b’’, and
479), marcescent (figs. 437, b’, and 688) ; xstivation valvate (fig.
988). Stamens equal in number to, and alternate with, the
lobes of the corolla (fig. 988) ; anthers 2-celled, distinct or partly
united. Ovary inferior (fig. 990), 2- or more celled (jig. 988) ;
style undivided (fig. 507), hairy ; stigma naked. Fruit dry, cap-
sular, dehiscing by lateral orifices (fig. 687, t, t, and 688) or by
valves at the apex ; placentas axile ( fiys. 630, pl, and 988). Seeds
numerous, with fleshy albumen (fig. 989).
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Chiefly natives of the temperate
parts of the northern hemisphere ; a good many are, however,
found in the southern hemisphere, especially at the Cape of
Fic. 988. Fic. 989. Fic. 990.
Fig. 988. Diagram of the flower of Rampions (Campanula Rapunculus).——
Fig. 989. Vertical section of the seed.— Fig. 990. Vertical section of the
flower.
Good Hope. A few species only are tropical. TIlustrative
Genera :—Phyteuma, Liin.; Campanula, Linn. There are
about 550 species.
Properties and Uses.—The milky juice which these plants
contain is sometimes of a sub-acrid character, but the roots and
young parts of several species, especially when cultivated, are
eaten in different parts of the world, as the roots of Campa-
nula Rapunculus, which are commonly known under the name
of Rampions ; those of Cyphia glandulifera, in Abyssinia ; and
those of Cyphia digitata by the Hottentots, &c. Some species
of Specularia have been used in salads. One species, Campanula
glauca, is reputed to be a valuable tonic, and others are said to
be anti-syphilitic. The order, however, does not contain a
single plant of any particular importance, either in a medicinal
or economic point of view.
Order 4. LoBELIACE, the Lobelia Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs, with a milky juice. Leaves alternate, exstipu-
late. Calyx superior, Corolla monopetalous, irregular, val-
vate. Stamens 5; anthers syngenesious (fig. 992). Ovary
602 VACCINIACEA,
inferior, 1—3-celled ; placentas axile or parietal ; style 1 ; stigma
surrounded by a fringe of hairs (fig. 991). Fruit capsular, de-
hiscing at the apex. Seeds nu-
Fic. 992. merous, albuminous. This order
is especially distinguished from.
the Campanulacer by its irre-
gular corollas and syngenesious
anthers. It is made a tribe of
the Campanulacex by Bentham
and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—
They are chiefly natives of
tropical and sub-tropical regions ;
but a few occur in temperate and
cold climates. Illustrative Ge-
nera:—Clintonia, Doug.; Lo-
belia, Linn. Yhere are about
400 species.
Fig. 991. Stigma of Lobelia syphilitica. Properties and Uses. — The
Fig. 992. The essential organs of milky juice with which these
the above, qvath the calyx. plants abound is commonly of
a very acrid nature, hence the
species of this order should be regarded with suspicion. Indeed,
some, as Lobelia inflata, Tupa Feuillxi, &c., act as narcotico-
acrid poisons ; and that of Isotoma longiflora is vesicant, and
when taken internally it causes such violent purgation as to
result in death.
Fra. 991.
Lobelia —L. inflata, Indian Tobacco.—This species is a native of North
America. The flowering herb and seeds have been extensively employed,
especially in the United States, for their sedative, antispasmodic, emetic, and
expectorant properties. Lobelia resembles tobacco in its action ; the dried
flowering herb is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. Several fatal cases
of poisoning have occurred in the United States, and in this country, from
its empirical use. The seeds may be distinguished under the microscope by
their peculiarly reticulated character. The root of L. sy»vhilitica possesses
emetic, purgative, and diuretic properties, and, as its specific name implies,
it has been reputed to be efficacious in syphilis.—Z. urens has blistering
qualities.—L. decurrens is used in Peru as an emetic and purgative, and
its employment has been suggested in this country as a substitute for
Ipecacuanha.
Series 2. Superee.
Cohort 1. FEricales. — Stamens generally hypogynous (except
in Vacciniacez), and twice the number of the lobes of the
corolla ; or equal in number and alternate with the lobes.
Ovary with usually more than 2 cells ; placentation generally
axile ; style undivided.
Order 1. VAcCINIACEH, the Cranberry Order.—Character.
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate, undivided, exstipu-
late. Calyx superior. Corolla 4—6-lobed ; xstivation imbricate.
ERICACEZ, 603
Stamens distinct, epigynous, twice as many as the lobes of the
corolla; anthers (fig. 533) appendiculate, with porous dehis-
cence. Ovary 4—10-celled ; style and stigma simple. Fruit
succulent. Seeds with fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Chiefly natives of the temperate
regions of the globe. Illustrative Genera:—Vaccinium, Thi-
baudia. There are about 200 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are chiefly remarkable for
their astringent leaves and bark, and for their edible sub-acid
fruits.
Oxycoceus palustris ( Vaccinium Oxycoecus).—The fruit of this plant is
the Cranberry of Great Britain. It is used in making tarts and for other
purposes. —0O. macrocarpus yields the American Cranberry, of which large
quantities are imported into this country.
Vaccinium.—The fruits of several species are edible, thus :— V. Myrtillus
yields the Bilberry ; V. uliginosum, the Bog or Black W hortleberry ; and
'V. Vitis-Idea, the Red Whortleberry or Cowberry. (See also Oxycoccus.)
The fruit of V. uliginosum is reputed to be narcotic, and is said to be
employed for making beer, &c., heady. When exposed to fermentation, it
produces a kind of wine.
Order 2. Ericace&, the Heath Order.—Character.—
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves entire, evergreen, opposite, whorled
or alternate, exstipulate. Culyx :
4—5-cleft, inferior (fig. 483, c), aes Ae Fic. 994.
persistent. Corolla hypogynous, a
monopetalous (jigs. 478 and 993),
4—5-cleft, or rarely distinct ; xsti-
vation imbricate. Stamens hypo-
gynous (figs.993 and 994), asmany,
or twice as many, as the divisions
of the corolla; anthers 2 celled
(fig. 534), opening by pores or
slits (fig. 532, 7), appendiculate
(fig. 582, a). Ovary 4—5-celled,
with numerous ovules, surrounded
by a disk or scales; placentas
axile ; style 1 (figs. 993 and 994) ;
stigma simple or lobed. Fruit
capsular or rarely baccate. Seeds gah vk 5 oath oA baa OR ee
numerous, small, anatropous ; 7ig,,099., Vertioal section of the
embryo minute in the axis of —Fig. 994. Essential organs of
fleshy albumen. ee ; The stamens are seen to
Diagnosis.—Shrubs or small °° 7P08"°"™
trees. Leaves entire, evergreen, exstipulate. Calyx and
corolla 4—5-merous. Calyx inferior. Corolla hypogynous,
monopetalous, or rarely polypetalous. Stamens hypogynous ;
anthers 2-celled, appendiculate, dehiscing by pores or slits.
Ovary 4-—5-celled ; style 1; placentas axile. Fruit capsular, or
very rarely baccate. Seeds small, anatropous, numerous, with
fleshy albumen.
604 ERICACEA.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order may
be divided into five tribes as follows :—
Tribe 1. Arbutex.—Corolla deciduous. Fruit baccate. Illus-
trative Genus :—Arbutus, Linn.
Tribe 2. Andromedex.—Buds usually clothed with scales.
Corolla deciduous. Fruit capsular, loculicidal. Illustrative
Genus :—Andromeda, Linn.
Tribe 3. Hricee.—Buds naked. Corolla persistent. Fruit
capsular, usually loculicidal, or rarely septicidal. Illustrative
Genera :—Erica, Linn. ; Calluna, Salisb.
Tribe 4. Rhodorex.—Buds scaly, cone-like. Corolla deciduous.
Fruit capsular, septicidal. Illustrative Genera :— Azalea,
Linn. ; Phyllodoce, Salish.
Tribe 5. Pyrolex.—Herbs or somewhat shrubby plants.. Corolla
polypetalous, or the petals united at the base, deciduous.
Fruit capsular, loculicidal. Illustrative Genera :—Pyrola,
Tourn. ; Chimaphila, Pursh.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are very abundant at the
Cape of Good Hope, and are also more or less generally diffused
in Europe, North and South America, and Asia. There are
over 900 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly re-
markable for astringent properties ; others are tonic and diuretic;
and some are narcotic, and even poisonous. This is especially
the case with Kalmia latifolia, Rhododendron chrysanthum, An-
dromeda floribunda, and Azalea pontica. The fruits of many
are edible. Thespecies of Hrica, Rhododendron, Kalmia, Azalea,
&c., are largely cultivated in this country on account of the
beauty of their flowers. The three latter genera are commonly
called American Plants. Such plants are not, however, confined
to America, as the name would imply.
Andromeda floribunda.—This shrub, which isa native cf North America,
is poisonous. So recently as 1866 a number of sheep were poisoned by
eating it, but nineteen out of thirty-seven attacked recovered under judicious
treatment.
Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, the Bearberry.—The leaves are astringent,
and are official in the British Pharmacopeia. Combined with astringency
thev also possess mild diuretic properties.
Azalea pontica.—Trebizond honey owes its poisonous properties to the
bees feeding on the flowers of this plant. The poisonous honey mentioned
by Xenophon, in his account of the ‘ Retreat of the Ten Thousand,’ was of a
like nature.
Chimaphila umbellata, Winter-green, Pipsissewa.—This herb possesses
diuretic and tonic properties. The leaves are official in the United States
Pharmacopeia. In the United States, Chimaphila has been called ‘King’s
Cure,’ from its reputed value in scrofula. The fresh leaves are acrid, and
when applied to the skin act as a rubefacient.
Epigea repens, Trailing Arbutus.—The leaves and stems possess similar
properties to those of Uva-Drsi, and are used in the United States in similar
diseases.
Erica.—From the roots of E. arborea, which’ grows to a large size
MONOTROPACEX,— EPACRIDACEA, 606
are made, The pipes Wn as pipes de bruyére are also made from the
roots.
Gualtheria procumbens, Partridge Berry.—The leaves are official in the
United States Pharmacopeeia. They possess aromatic, astringent, and
stimulant properties, which they owe to the presence of a volatile oil and
tannic acid, ‘The oil is known under the name of Oi of Partridge Berry or
Oil of Winter-green. An infusion of the leaves is employed in certain
parts of North America, as a substitute for China tea, under the name of
Mountain or Salvador Tea, The fruits, known as Partridge Berries or
Deer Berries, are much relished by some persons.—G. leucocarpa and G.
punctata.—F rom the leaves of these two species, both of which are natives
of Java, Dr. de Vrij obtained an oil, which he found to be identical with
the American Winter-green Oil.
Kalmia latifolia, a common plant in the United States, is reputed to be
narcotic and poisonous. The leaves, under the name of ‘ Mountain Laurel,’
are said to be a valuable remedy in obstinate diarrhoea. They have also
been used in syphilis and skin diseases. They contain a large amount of
tannic acid.
Ledum.—An infusion of the leaves of L. palustre and L. latifolium is
employed in North America as a substitute for China tea, under the name of
Labrador Tea or James’s Tea. It possesses narcotic properties. This plant
has also been recommended as a powerful insecticide.
Rhododendron.—The flowers of R. arboreum are used by the hill people
of India in the preparation of a jelly. The powdered leaves of R. campanu-
latum areemployed as snuff in certain parts of India. The brown pulverulent
substance found on the petioles of some Rhododendrons and Kalmias is also
in use in the United States of America as a substitute for snuffi—R. chrys-
anthum, a Siberian plant, possesses very marked narcotic properties.
on the hills of the es kab the so-called briar-root or briar-wood pipes
Order 3. Monotropace#, the Fir-rape Order.—Character.
Saprophytes with scale-like leaves. Sepals more or less distinct,
4—5, inferior. Petals 4—5, distinct or united. Stamens twice
as many as the petals, hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, with
longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary superior, 4—5-celled at the base,
1-celled with 5 parietal placentas at the apex. Frwit capsular,
with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, with a loose testa ;
embryo minute, at the apex of fleshy albumen. This order is
referred to Ericacexr by Beutham and Hooker. It is closely allied
to the Pyrolex.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are found growing on Firs
chiefly, in the cool parts of Europe, Asia, and North America.
Illustrutive Genus :—Monotropa, Nutt. There are about 10
species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Order 4. EpacripAce, the Epacris Order.—C haracter.—
Shrubs, or small trees. Leaves alternate or rarely opposite,
simple, with parallel or radiating veins. Calyx and corolla in-
ferior, usually 5-partite, or rarely 4-partite. Stamens equal in
number to the divisions of the corolla, or rarely fewer, hypo-
gynous or adherent to the corolla; anthers 1-celled, without
appendages, opening longitudinally. Ovary superior, many- or
1-celled ; style simple. Fruit fleshy or capsular. Seeds with a
firm skin, albuminous.
606 PLUMBAGINACEA.
Distribution and Numbers. — Natives of Australia, the
Indian Archipelago, and the South Sea Islands, where they
are very abundant. Lllustrative Genera :—Astroloma, R. Br. ;
Epacris, Smith. There are about 350 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance except for the
beauty of their flowers, on which account they are much culti-
vated. The fruits of many species are edible, as those of Astrc-
loma humifusum, the Tasmanian Cranberry ; Lewcopogon Richei,
the Native Currant of Australia ; Lissanthe sapida, and others.
Cohort 2. Primulales.—Stamens generally epipetalous; equal
in number to, and opposite, the lobes of the corolla or
separate petals. Ovary 1-celled, with a free central placenta
and numerous ovules; or with a solitary ovule suspended
from a long funiculus arising from the centre of the cell at
the base.
Order 1. PitumBaGINACEs, the Thrift Order.—Character.
Herbs or undershrubs. Leaves entire, alternate or radical, ex-
stipulate. Flowers regular (fig. 995). Calyx tubular, plaited,
persistent, 5-partite (fig. 995). _ Corolla (fig. 995) membranous,
5-partite or of 5 petals, or rarely absent. Stamens (figs. 995
Fic. 996.
Fic. 995.
Fig. 995. Diagram of the
flower of a species of
Plumbago. Fig. 996.
Essential organs of the
same.
and 996) 5, opposite the petals, to which they are attached
when the corolla is polypetalous, and hypogynous and. opposite
to the divisions of the corolla when this is monopetalous (jig.
995). Ovary 1-celled (figs. 687 and 995); ovule solitary, sus-
pended from a long funiculus arising from the base of the cell
(fig. 637) ; styles (fig. 996) usually 5, sometimes 3 or 4. Fruit
utricular, or dehiscing by valves at the apex. Seed solitary ;
embryo straight ; albumen mealy, and small in quantity.
PRIMULACEA, 607
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—Chiefly found growing on the
sea-shore and in salt marshes in various parts of the globe, but
by far the greater number inhabit temperate regions. Tlustra-
tive Genera:—Armeria, Willd.; Plumbago, Towrn. There are
about 250 species.
Properties and Uses—Of little importance, but acridity and
astringency appear to be the most remarkable properties of the
plants of this order.
Armeria vulgaris, Common Thrift—The dried flowers are commonly
reputed to be diuretic.
Plumbago.—The roots of several species are acrid and vesicant when
fresh, as those of P. ewropxa, Toothwort, P. zeylanica, P. scandens, and
P. rosea.—P. toxicaria is used as a poison in Mozambique.
Statice caroliniana is called Marsh Rosemary in the United States, where
its root is official and is much emploved as an active astringent. The root
of S. latifolia has similar astringent properties to S. caroliniana, and has
been used in Russia and Spain as a tanning agent. The roots of S.
mucronata are said by Holmes to constitute the drug known in Morocco as
Tafrifa, which is supposed to possess nervine properties. The roots, termed
‘Baycuru’ and ‘ Giaycuru,’ and described by Symes and Holmes, are very
astringent, and appear to be derived from species of Statice; the latter,
according to Holmes, from S., brasiliensis.
Order 2, PrimuLace®, the Primrose Order.—Character.
Herbs. Leaves (fig. 394) cauline, and then simple, opposite,
Fic. 997. Fie. 998.
Fig. 997. Flower of the Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis).
pet c. Calyx. p. Petals. s. Stamens. Fig. 998. Vertical
Samy section of the flower of the same. pl. Free central
placenta. s. Style and capitate stigma.— Fig. 999.
Vertical section of the seed of Primula elatior. t. In-
teguments. p. Albumen. e, Embryo. h. Hilum.
whorled, or rarely alternate, exstipulate; or radical. Flowers
regular, perfect (figs. 481 and 997). Calyx generally 5-cleft (fig.
458), or rarely 4—9-cleft, persistent, inferior (fig. 998) or semi-
superior in Samolus. Corolla (figs. 481, p, and 997, p) usually
5- or rarely 4—9-cleft, very rarely absent, or rarely of distinct
petals. Stamens (fig. 997, 8) equal in number to the segments
of the corolla or separate petals, and opposite to them, or in
608 MYRSINACE.
apetalous flowers hypogynous and alternating with the divisions
of the calyx. Ovary superior (jigs. 458 and 998), or rarely
partly inferior, 1-celled (fig. 998); placenta free central
(figs. 635, pl, and 998, pl); style 1 (figs. 458 and 998); stigma
capitate (figs. 582 and 458). Fruit a capsule, dehiscing
transversely and forming a pyxis (fig. 709), or in a valvular
manner. Seeds numerous, with fleshy or horny albumen ( jig.
999, p); embryo placed transversely to the hilum (fig. 999, e).
Diagnosis.—Herbs with simple, exstipulate, cauline or radical
leaves, and regular perfect flowers.. Stamens equal in number
to the lobes of the corolla or separate petals and opposite to
them. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with a free central placenta ;
style 1; stigma capitate. Fruit capsular, with transverse or
longitudinal dehiscence. Seeds numerous, with albumen, and
the embryo parallel to the hilum.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—These plants principally inhabit
cold and temperate regions in the northern parts of the globe.
They are rare in the tropics, where they are only found on the
sea-shore or in mountainous districts. Illustrative Genera :—
Primula, Linn. ; Anagallis, Touwrn.; Glaux, Tourn. ; Samolus,
Tourn. There are about 250 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of no particular importance except
for the beauty of their flowers. The flowers of the Cowslip
(Primula veris) ave sedative and diaphoretic, and are sometimes
employed in the manufacture of a soporific wine. The roots of
Cyclamens are acrid, especially those of Cyclamen hederefolium,
which have been used as a drastic purgative and emmenagogue.
The Cyclamens are commonly known under the name of Sow-
breads, from their being eaten by wild boars in Sicily.
Order 3. MyrsinacE&, the Myrsine Order.—C haracter.—
Trees or shrubby plants. Leaves coriaceous, smooth, exstipu-
late. Flowers small, perfect or unisexual. Calyx and corolla
4—5-partite. Stamens usually corresponding in number to the
divisions of the corolla and opposite to them, but sometimes
there are also 5 sterile petaloid alternate ones ; anthers dehiscing
longitudinally. Ovary superior or nearly so, 1-celled; with a
free central placenta, in which the ovules are imbedded. Fruit
fleshy. Seeds 1, 2, or many; wlbwmen abundant, horny.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the islands of
the southern hemisphere. Illustrative Genera:—Myrsine, Linn. ;
Theophrasta, Linn. There are above 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. The fruits and
seeds of some species are pungent ; and the seeds of others are
said to be purgative. The fruit of Myrsine africana is used by
the Abyssinians mixed with barley as food for their asses and
mules. The seeds of Theophrasta Jussixi are used in St.
Domingo in the manufacture of a kind of bread.
Algicera—This genus, of which there are five species, is considered by
SAPOTACEA. 609
some writers to form a distinct order, the AZEGICERACE&. These inhabit
sea-shores in tropical regions, and their seeds germinate while the fruits are
still attached to the plant, and send their roots down into the mud, like
Mangroves. The genus giceras. Girtn., differs from Myrsinacee in its
anthers dehiscing transversely ; in having follicular fruit ; and in the seeds
being without albumen. Bentham and Hooker combine it with Myrsinaceer ;
and hence it is so placed here.
.Cohort 3. EHbenales.—Stamens epipetalous, equal in number to,
and opposite, the lobes of the corolla or separate petals ; or
more numerous. Ovary more than 1-celled; placentation
axile. Fruit fleshy. Seeds 1 or few, large. “Trees or shrubs ;
leaves alternate.
Order 1. SaporacEs, the Sapota Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs, often having a milky juice. Leaves alternate,
simple, entire, coriaceous, exstipulate. Flowers small, herma-
phrodite. Calyx inferior, usually with 5, or sometimes with
4—8 divisions, persistent. Corolla with as many divisions as
the calyx, or twice or thrice as many. Stamens definite, in a
single row, half of them sterile and alternating with the fertile
ones, the latter being opposite to the segments of the corolla;
anthers commonly extrorse. Ovary 4—12-celled, with a solitary
anatropous ovule in each cell; style 1. Frwt fleshy. Seeds
large, with a shining bony testa; embryo large, usually in albu-
men, and with a short radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives chiefly of the tropical
parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Illustrative Genera :—
Chrysophyllum, Linn.; Isonandra, Wight; Bassia, Kdénig.
There are about 220 species.
Properties and Uses.—Many species yield edible fruits ; others
are valuable timber trees. The seeds of several contain a fatty
oil. Some have bitter astringent febrifugal barks, and the milky
juices of others yield a substance analogous in its general cha-
racters to caoutchouc or india-rubber.
Achras.—Several species of this genus yield dessert fruits; thus the
fruit of A. Sapota is the Sapodilla Plum; that of A. mammosa, the Marma-
lade.—Achras Sapota has also a febrifugal bark, and diuretic and aperient
seeds. Its wood is called Bully-tree Wood or Black Bully. This has a
greenish colour, and is very hard. It is imported, and used for ship-
building, and other purposes. (See Mimusops.) The bark of several other
species has been also employed as a substitute for Cinchona.
Argania Sideroxylon.—From the seeds of this species a valuable oil may
be obtained.
Bassia.—The ripe kernels of B. latifolia and those of B. longifolia, the
Elloopa-tree, yield fatty oils which are much employed in India, for lamps,
culinary purposes, and for soap-making; and externally in cutaneous affec-
tions. The flowers of B, longifolia, under the name of Elloopa, have been
imported into London. These flowers are used as food, and also yield an
alcoholic spirit which is in much repute in some parts of India. The
wood of B. longifolia and others is hard and durable, and the bark and
leaves are used in medicine. From the seeds of B. butyracea a concrete oil
RR
610 ERBENACEA,
is also obtained in India. It is known under the name of Fulwa Butter.
It is highly esteemed as an external application in rheumatism and other
affections. ,
Butyrospermum.—B. Parkii.—This species, which is a native of West-
tropical Africa, is the source of Shea or Galam butter.
Chrysophyllum.—The fruit of C. Cainito is known under the name of
Star-apple. It is much esteemed in the West Indies. Other species of
Chrysophyllum also yield edible fruits—C. Buranhem, C. glycyphleum, or
Lucuma glycyphleum, yields an astringent bark called Monesia bark, which
has been much employed in France and Germany in diarrhea and similar
affections. It contains a principle called monesin, which is analogous to
saponin. Monesin has been also employed as a medicinal agent. This plant.
is also the source of the gum or gum-resin known in New York as Chicle.
It has also been called Mexican Gum and Rubber Juice. It has been chiefly
used for mixing with rubber for insulating telegraph wires.
Dichopsis (Isonandra) Gutta, the Gutta Percha or Taban-tree——This
is a native of Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra, and other eastern islands. The
inspissated juice of this, and probably other species of Zsonandra, and of
other allied genera, as Chrysophyllum, Siderorylon, Bassia, Payena, Mimu-
sops, Isonandra, and Imbricaria, constitutes the valuable substance called
Gutta Percha, The Gutta Percha tree is now extinct in Singapore, in con-
sequence of the destruction of the trees in order to obtain the juice. The
annual importation of Gutta Percha into this country is more than 60,000
ewt. The best Gutta Percha is obtained from Dichopsis Gutta, and the
second best variety is derived from a tree called ‘Gatah Stindek,’ in Perak,
which Dr. Trimen believes to be a species of Payena. Gutta Percha is offi-
cial in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Lucuma.—Several species yield edible fruits. The plant alluded to above
under the name of Chrysophyllum Buranhem is now also termed Lucuma
glycyphleum. (See Chrysophyllum.)
Mimusops.—The fruit of several species is employed as a dessert ; that
of M. Elengi is the Surinam Medlar. The bark of MZ. Elengi also possesses
astringent and tonic properties ; and in Southern India the fragrant nectar
distilled from the flowers is used as a perfume, and as a stimulant medicine.
The fruit of WZ. Kaki is also much eaten in India. The seeds of some species
yield useful oils. Several species, as M. Elengi, M. indica, M. hexandra,
produce hard, heavy, and durable timber. The Bully-tree of British Guiana
is also by some authors regarded as a species of Mimusops.—M. Balata
(Achras or Sapota Mulleri), a native of Guiana and Central America,
yields a substance resembling Gutta Percha in its properties. It is known
as Balatas.
Order 2. EsBENACE®, the Ebony Order.~A-Character.—
Trees or shrubs without milky juice. Leaves alternate, entire,
coriaceous, exstipulate. Flowers polygamous. Calyx 3—7-par-
tite, inferior, persistent. Corolla 3—7-partite. Stamens equal
in number to the lobes of the corolla, or twice or four times as
many, epipetalous or hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, introrse,
opening longitudinally. Ovary 3—12-celled, each cell with 1
or 2 ovules suspended from the apex; style usually having as
many divisions as there are cells to the ovary. Fruit fleshy.
Seeds large, albuminous ; radicle superior. —.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are mostly natives of
tropical India, but a few occur in colder regions. Illustrative
Genera:—Royena, Linn.; Diospyros, Linn. There are nearly
200 species.
STYRACEA. 611
Properties and Uses.—Many of the trees of this order are
remarkable for the hardness of their wood, which is commonly
known under the names of Ebony and Ironwood. Many species
have edible fruits, and some have astringent barks.
Diospyros—Many species of this genus have hard and dark-coloured
heart-woods, which form the different kinds of Ebony: thus, from D. reticulata
is obtained Mauritius Ebony, the best kind; from D. Melanoxylon, a native
of the Coromandel Coast, that which is commbnly known as Black Ebony ;
from D. Ebenaster, the Bastard Ebony of Ceylon, from D. Ebenum, the
best Ceylon Ebony ; and D. hirsuta of Ceylon, and other species, also yield
inferior kinds of Ebony. _Coromandei or Calamander Wood, a beautifully
variegated furniture wood, is also procured from Ceylon, and is obtained
from D. quesitu and D. oppositifolia. The fruit of D. Kaki is eaten in
China, India, and Japan. It is known in Japan under the name of the
Keg-fig. It is the Kaki of the Chinese. The plant fruits freely in this
country in a conservatory or orchard house.—The fruit of D. virginiana,
the Persimmon or Virginian Date Plum, is sweet and edible when ripe,
especially after a frost, but it is very austere in an unripe state; hence it
is frequently employed in that condition in the United States, where it is
official, as an astringent. In the Southern States an indelible ink is also
made from the unripe fruit. The bark has been likewise used as a febri-
fuge and astringent.—D. Lotos, a native of Europe, has edible fruit. The
bark of D. Melanoxylon possesses tonic and astringent properties. The
fresh fruit of D. Embryopteris is powerfully astringent, and is official on
that account in the Pharmacopeeia of India. The ripe fruit is edible. The
juice of the fruit is also employed in Bengal for various useful purposes.
The raw fruit of D. mollis yields a black dye.
Royena hirsuta var. rigida, a Cape shrub, has an edible fruit.
Order 3. StYRACEH, the Storax Order.—C haracter.—Trees
or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate. Flowers
axillary, hermaphrodite. Calyx inferior or partially superior,
4—5-partite or almost entire, persistent. Corolla of trom 5—10
petals, either united atthe base or distinct ; xstivation imbricate
or*somewhat valvate. Stamens equal in number to the petals,
or twice or thrice as many, more or less united at the base ;
anthers 2-celled, roundish or linear. Ovary superior or par-
tially inferior ; style simple. #ruit drupaceous, always more
or less fleshy. Seeds 1 usually in each cell, sometimes mote ;
embryo in the midst of abundant fleshy albumen, with a long
radicle.
Miers divides the Styracex into two orders, called Symplo-
cacex and Styracacex, the former of which is distinguished by
its partially inferior ovary, imbricate estivation of corolla, and
roundish anthers ; the latter having a superior ovary, valvate
zestivation of corolla, and linear anthers.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are sparingly dis-
tributed in warm and tropical regions ; but a few are found in
cold climates. Illustrative Genera :—Symplocos, Jacq. ; Styrax,
Towrn. Miers enumerates about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are principally remark-
able for yielding stimulant balsamic resins. Some yield dyeing
agents, but these are of little importance.
RR2
612 OLEACEZ.
Styrax.—The species of this genus frequently yield stimulant balsamic
resins.—S. Benzoin, the Benjamin tree, is the principal, but probably not
the only source of the concrete balsamic resin whith is official in the British
Pharmacopeeia under the name of Benzoin. It iscommonly, but improperly,
called Gum Benjamin. This is usually obtained after making incisions in
the bark. Two kinds are distinguished in commerce under the respective
names ,of Siam and Sumatra Benzoin. The former is most esteemed in
England. Benzoin is used in medicine as a stimulant expectorant. It
is, however, chiefly employed in the preparation of the official benzoie
acid ; and on account of its agreeable odour when heated it is a common
ingredient in the incense so largely used in Catholic churches. It is also a
constituent in aromatic or fumigating pastilles, and in court or black stick-
ing plaster. In Brazil and elsewhere, other species of Styrar yield similar
balsamic resins.—S. officinale, native of Greece, the Levant, and Asia Minor,
was long supposed by many to be the source of Liquid Storax; but Hanbury
proved that while it was the source of the original and classical Storax,
this had in modern times wholly disappeared from commerce, and that our
Liquid Storax is the produce of Liquidambar orientalis of Miller. (See
Liquidambar.) Storax has similar medicinal properties to Benzoin.
Symplocos.—The leaves of S. Alstonia are slightly astringent. They
have been employed as a tea in New Granada; under the name of Santa. Fé
Tea. The leaves of S. tinctoria (Sweet-leaf or Horse-sugar), a native of
North America, have a sweet taste, and are eaten by cattle. They are also
used in dyeing yellow. This plant has a bitter and aromatic root. The
leaves of other species are also emploved in Nepaul for dyeing yellow. The
bark of S. racemosa is likewise used in India as a dyeing material and asa
mordant. It is known under the name of Lotur bark.
Series 3. Dicarpize or Bicarpellate.
Cohort 1. Gentianales.—Corolla regular. Stamens generally
epipetalous, and equal in number to, and alternate with,
the lobes of the corolla, or rarely fewer. Leaves usually
opposite and entire ; or rarely compound, and very rarely
alternate. .
Order 1. OLEACEs, the Olive Order.—Character.—Tvrees
or shrubs. Leaves opposite, simple or pinnate, exstipulate (fi.
438). Flowers usually perfect, or rarely unisexual. Calyx per-
sistent, 4—8-cleft (fig. 1000), sometimes obsolete (jig. 30),
inferior (fig. 1002). Corolla regular, 4—8-cleft (fig. 1000), or
of 4 distinct petals (fig. 1001), or absent (fig. 30); xstivation
valvate (fig. 1000) or imbricate. Stamens usually 2 (figs. 30 and
1001), rarely 4. Ovary superior (fig. 1002), 2-celled (jig. 1000),
with 1—4 erect, or 2 suspended ovules in each cell (fig. 1002).
Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent, often 1l-seeded. Seeds with
abundant fleshy albumen, or the albumen. is small in quantity ;
embryo straight. ie .
The order Jasminaceex of many botan idle is here included in the
Oleacex. The tribe or sub-order Jasminex ts more especially dis-
tinguished from other Oleacex by the imbricate exstivation of the
corolla, erect ovules, and the small quantity of albumen in the
seed,
OLEACEX. 613
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
principally natives of temperate and warm regions, but some
also occur within the'tropics. Illustrative Genera :—Olea, Linn. ;
Ligustrum, Towrn.; Fraxinus, Towri.; Jasminum, Linn. There
are about 250 species.
Properties and Uses.—The barks of many plants of this order
are tonic .and febrifugal. The mild purgative called Manna is
obtained from a species of Ash. The )pericarp of the common
Olive yields the well-known Olive Oil Other species are re-
markable for the hardness of their wood. The plants of the
Jasminez have generally fragrant flowers. The volatile oil of
Jasmine, which is used in perfumery, is chiefly obtained by
distillation from the flowers of Jasminum officinale and J. grandi-
florum. The fragrant flowers of J. Sambac are used as votive
Fie. 1001.
Fie. 1090.
Fie. 1002.
Vp 2
pus
\
Fig. 1000. Diagram of the flower of the Lilac (Syringa rulgaris).——Fig.
1001. Flower of the Manna Ash (Fraazinus Ornus), with 4-cleft calyx ;
corolla with 4 distinct petals; 2 stamens; and 2 carpels.—— Fig. 1002.
Vertical section of the calyx and pistil of the Privet (Ligustrum vulgare).
offerings in India; they are also said to have much power in
arresting the secretion of milk. The leaves and roots of some
species of Jasminum are reputed bitter, and have been employed
for various purposes, but generally speaking this tribe contains
no active medicinal plants. The flowers of Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis are employed in India for dyeing yellow.
Fraxinus.—F. excelsior, the common Ash, has a febrifugal bark. The
leaves are reputed to possess cathartic properties. This plant also yields a small
quantity of Manna, especially when grown in a warm climate, but no
commercial Manna is obtained from it. The wood possesses much strength
and elasticity combined with lightness, hence it is commonly used for
ladders, poles, and agricultural implements. The sweet concrete exudation
known as Manna isobtained by making transverse incisions into the stem
of Frarinus Ornus ; henee, this plant is official in the British Pharmacopeia
as the source of Manna. It is a native of the South of Europe and Asia
Minor, but commercially our supplies of Manna are now entirely derived
from Sicily, where the trees are cultivated for that purpose. Manna is a
mild agreeable laxative. It owes its properties essentially to mannite, and
also, probably, to some extent, to a peculiar resin —Fraxinus chinensis is
614 SALVADORACEA.—APOCYNACE.
the tree upon which the insect (Coccus Pe-la) producing the White Wax of
China feeds.
Olea.— Olea europea, the Olive.—The ripe fruit has a very fleshy peri-
carp ; this yields by expression the fixed oil, known as Olive Oil, Salad Oil,
and Sweet Oil, which is so largely used for dietetical purposes, in the arts,
and in medicine ; it is official in the British Pharmacopceia. In medicine,
it is principally employed externally, either by itself, or in combination with
other substances. When administered internally, it is nutrient, emollient
demulcent, and laxative. The olives used as a dessert are ordinarily prepared
by first soaking the green unripe fruits in water to deprive them of a portion
of their bitterness, and then preserving them in a solution of salt slightly
aromatised. The leaves and bark of the Olive-tree have been highly extolled
by some writers for their tonic and febrifugal qualities. The febrifugal
properties of the bark are said to be due to a peculiar principle which has
been named oliverin. The substance called olive gum or olivile is a resinous
exudation from the Olive-tree. It was formerly employed in medicine, but
at present is not applied to any useful purpose. The wood of the Olive is
much used for cabinet work. The flowers of Olea fragrans are employed in
China to give odour and flavour to a particular kind of tea.
Syringa vulgaris, the Lilac, has a tonic and febrifugal bark.
Order’ 2. SALVADORACE, the Salvadora Order.—C harac-
ter. — Shrubs or small trees. Leaves opposite, entire, leathery,
exstipulate. Flowers small, panicled. Calyx of 4 sepals. Corolla
4-partite, membranous. Stamens 4. Ovary 1—2-celled; stigma
sessile. Fruit fleshy, 1-celled, with a solitary erect seed. Seed
_ exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of India, Syria, and
North Africa. Illustrative Genera :—Salvadora, Linn. ; Monetia,
DP? Hérit.
Properties and Uses.—Some are acrid and stimulant. The
only plant of importance is Salvadora persica, supposed by
Royle to be the Mustard-tree of the Bible. The fruit of this is
edible, and resembles the garden Cress in taste. The bark of
the root is acrid, and is employed as a blistering agent in India.
The leaves are reputed to be purgative.
Order 3. APocyNACEs, the Dog-bane Order.—C haracter.—
Trees or shrubs, usually milky and acrid. Leaves entire, com-
monly opposite, but occasionally whorled or scattered, exstipulate.
Calyx inferior, 5-partite (fig. 1004), persistent. Corolla (fig. 1004)
5-lobed ; xstivation contorted. Stamens (fig. 1004) 5, alternate
with the lobes of the corolla ; filaments distinct ; anthers united
to the stigma (jig. 1003), 2-celled (fig. 528); pollen granular.
Ovary composed of 2 carpels, which are generally merely in
contact, but sometimes united so as to form a 2-celled (jig.
1004) or more rarely a 1-celled ovary ; styles 2 or 1 (figs. 599, f,
and 1003) ; stigma 1, expanded at the base and apex, and con-
tracted in the middle, so as to resemble in form an hour-glass or
dumb-bell (jig. 599, s); ovwles numerous. /ruwit consisting of 1
or 2 follicles, or a capsule, drupe, or berry. Seeds usually with
albumen, or rarely exalbuminous, often comose. .
Distribution and Numbers. — Natives principally of the
APOCYNACEA, 615
tropics, but a few occur in northern regions. Vinca is the only
Britishgenus. Illustrative Genera :—Allamanda, Lin. ; Urceola,
Roxb. ; Apocynum, Tourn. There are about 600 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are gene-
rally to be suspected, as many of them are intensely poisonous,
although the fruits of a few species are edible. Some are dras-
tic purgatives, and in others the bark is tonic and febrifugal.
India-rubber or Caoutchouc, now commonly known in commerce
as Rubber, is obtained from the milky juice of several species.
Fie. 1003. Fia. 1004.
Fig. 1003. Vertical section of the
flower of Periwinkle (Vinca).
Fig. 1004, Diagram of the
flower of the same.
Alstonia scholaris, a native of India and the Philippine Islands, has a
bitter, tonic, and astringent bark, which is much esteemed as a remedy i in
chronic diarrhoea and dysenter Ve ‘Tt is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India,
and is known as Alstonia bark or Dita bark. It is also regarded as a valu-
able antiperiodic and tonic. There has been obtained from it an uncrystal-
lisable substance called ditain, which, administered in the same doses as
quinine, is said to be an excellent tonic. Recent experiments have proved,
however, that ditain is not an alkaloid but a compound substance from which
an alkaloid termed ditamine may be obtained. More recent investigations
also show that Cortex Alstoniz is not derived from the same plant as
that yielding Dita bark, but from A. spectabilis, a native of Timor, the
Moluccas, and the eastern parts of Java. It is known in Java as ‘ poelé,’
and is much used in fevers. It contains a peculiar alkaloid which has been
named alsto;ine or alstonamine. It also contains ditamine. According to
Hesse, Australian Alstonia Bark, which is derived from A. constricta, con-
tains at least four alkaloids, which he has named alstonine (chlorogenine),
porphyrine, porphyrosine, and alstonidine.
Alyzia stellata has an aromatic bark, which is analogous in its properties
to that of Canella and Winter’s Bark.
Apocynum.—The roots of A. cannabinum and A. androsemifolium are
emetic, diuretic, diaphoretic, and purgative ; that of the former, under the
name of American Indian Hemp, is said to be very useful in Bright’ s disease
and dropsy. The fibre known as Colorado Hemp or Canadian Hemp, which
may be used in the manufacture of the finer kinds of paper, is obtained from
A. cannabinum.
Aspidosperma Quebracho vields White Quebracho Bark, which has been
highly recommended as a febrifuge and antiperiodic. It is also useful
in dyspnea. It contains a crystalline alkaloid, which has been termed
aspidospermine. The investigations of Dr. W ulfsberg indicate that aspido-
spermine is identical with the alkaloid paytize, described by Hesse in 1870,
616 ASCLEPIADACE,
which he derived from a bark known as White Payta Bark, the source of
which is now thought to be a species of Aspidosperm1. More recent investi-
gations of O. Hesse have however proved to him that paytine and aspido-
spermine are quite distinct. Hesse has also found another alkaloid, which
he has named quebrachine. The bark known as Red Quebracho Bark is
derived from Loxopterigium Lorentzii or Quebrachia Lorentzii of Grisebach,
a plant of the order Anacardiacer.—A. excelsa, a native of Guiana, is re-
markable for its fluted trunk ; this is employed for making paddles Other
spurious Quebracho barks are also known in commerce, one being Copalchi
Bark, from Croton pseudo-China. (The genus Aspidosperma is sometimes
placed in the Bignoniacez.)
Carissa.—Carissa Carandas bears an edible fruit, which is eaten in the
East Indies, where it is used as a substitute for Red Currant jelly. The
fruits of C. edulis and C. tomentosa are also eaten in Abyssinia.
Geissospermum leve (G. Vellosii), yields the bark which is employed
medicinally in Brazil as a febrifuge and antiperiodic. The tree is known
under the name of Pao-Pereira.
Hancornia speciosa bears a delicious fruit, which is much esteemed by
the Brazilians. It is termed Mangalea or Mangava. The milky juice when
hardened forms a kind of India-rubber. Collins says that Pernambuco
Rubber is probably derived from this species. This rubber is now imported
in large quantities from Pernambuco and Ceara. It is of good quality.
Landolphia—L. owariensis, L. florida, and other species, yield African
Rubber.
Plumieria.—The flowers of P. alba and other species, natives of the
West Indies and some parts of South America, have a delicious odour ; and
it is said that the perfume known as ‘ Frangipani’ is distilled from them.
—P. rubra is called Red Jasmine in the West Indies.
Roupellia grata, a native of Sierra Leone, yields an edible fruit called
Cream Fruit.
Tubernemontana utilis, the Hya-Hya, or Cow-tree of Demerara, has a
milky nutritious juice.
Tanghinia venenifera, the Madagascar Poison-nut.—The seeds of this
plant are amongst the most deadly of poisons. It is said that one not larger
than an almond will destroy twenty persons. It was formerly used as an
ordeal in Madagascar.
Thevetia neriifolia—The bark of this West Indian shrub is reputed to
possess valuable antiperiodic properties.
Urceola elastica is one of the principal plants of the order yielding India-
rubber. According to Collins it yields Borneo Rubber, and probably other
India-rubber imported into Singapore, although some of this is obtained
from Ficus elastica. (See Ficus.)
Vahea gummifera, a native of Madagascar, and other species, yield a
kind of rubber. This kind is much valued in France, where it is sometimes
known as Mauritius Rubber.
Wrightia.—The bark of W, antidysenterica is febrifugal and astringent.
It is called Conessi Bark. The seeds have similar properties. Both the
bark and seeds are much used in India. From W. tinctoria a blue dye re-
sembling Indigo is obtained. The wood of W. coccinea and W, mollissima
are also employed in India for palanquins, and by turners.
Order 4. ASCLEPIADACEH, the Asclepias Order.—Character.
—Shrubs or herbs, commonly milky, frequently twining, and
sometimes succulent. Leaves entire, opposite or whorled or
rarely scattered, exstipulate. Flowers regular (fig. 1005).
Calyx and corolla 5-partite (fig. 1005); xstivation of the latter
imbricate or rarely valvate; the calyx persistent (fig. 565), the
corolla deciduous. Stamens 5 (fig. 1005), alternate with the
<
ASCLEPIADACEA, 617
lobes of the corolla; filaments usually combined so as to form
a tube round the pistil (fig. 1006), or sometimes distinct ;
anthers frequently surrounded by horn-like appendages of the
filaments (jigs. 1006, a, and 1007, p); ‘ pollen when the anther
dehisces, cohering in masses (fig. 565, b) and sticking to five
processes of the stigma (jig. 565, p) by twos, or fours, or singly.’
Ovary superior (fig. 1006), formed of 2 carpels, which are more
or less adherent below, but distinct jabove; styles 2; stigmas
united and expanded into a fleshy 5-cornered head, the pollen-
masses adhering to gelatinous processes arising from its angles
( figs. 565, s, and 1006). Frwit consisting of 2 follicles, or 1 by
abortion, Seeds numerous, generally comose (fig. 755), with
thin albumen.
Diagnosis.—This order is at once distinguished amongst the
Dicarpive by its curiously formed stigma and adhering pollen-
masses.
Fic. 1006. Fic, 1007.
Fic. 1005,
Fig. 1005. Diagram of the flower of Asclepias nivea.— Fig. 1006. Flower of
a species of Asclepias, with the stamens united and forming a tube round
the pistil. p. Corolla. a, Appendages of the stamens. Fig. 1007. One
of the stamens of the sameremoved. jf. Filament. a. Anther. p. Horn-
like appendage of the filament,
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly tropical plants,
abounding in southern Africa, India, and equinoctial America.
Illustrative Genera :—Hemidesmus, Rk. Br.; Asclepias, Linn. ;
Hoya, FR. Br. ; Stapelia, Linn. There are about 1,000 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for their bitter acrid juice, which renders them
stimulant, emetic, purgative, and diaphoretic. Several species
are reputed to be antidotes to snake-bites. Some species yield
Caoutchouc; but no important commercial kind of Rubber is
obtained from them. ‘The parts of some are edible, as the roots
of Gomphocarpus pedunculatus, and the tubers of Ceropeqia Vig-
naldiana, &c.
A sclepias.—The root of A. Curassavica is employed in some of the West
Indian islands as an emetic, hence it is termed Bastard Ipecacuanha, From
618 LOGANIACEA.
the stems of A. tenacissima, Jetee or Tongoose fibres are obtained. The root
of A. tuberosa, the Butterfly-weed or Pleurisy-root, is employed in the
United States as a diaphoretic and expectorant.—A. iacarnata, Swamp
Silk-weed, is used in North America as an anthelmintic, and in asthma and
rheumatism; it has also been lately recommended as a good diuretic.
Calotropis.—The dried root bark of C. gigantea and C. procera forms
Mudar bark, which is ofticial in the Pharmacopeia of India, and has been
much employed in cutaneous affections. 1t has been also used as a substitute
for Ipecacuanha. It contains a bitter principle. According to Royle, Az
or Mudar fibres are obtained from this bark. The bark of the root of
C. Hamiltonii possesses similar properties, and is said to yield Yerewm fibres.
Cyianchum.—The expressed juice of C. monspeliacum mixed with other
purgative substances constitutes what has been termed French or Montpellier
Scammony.—C. ovalifolium yields caoutchouc at Penang.
Gonolobus Cundurango.—Cundurango or Condurango Bark has been
introduced into this country and elsewhere as a specific antidote to cancer,
but extensive trials have shown that it is as useless as a remedial agent
as any of the reputed cancer cures that have preceded it. It is official in
the German Pharmacopeeia.
Gymnema.—G, lactiferum is the Cow-plant of Ceylon. It derives its
common name from producing a juice resembling milk in colour and consis-
tency. The leaves when boiled are administered to nurses under the idea
that they increase the secretion of milk._-G. sylvestre, a native of Northern
India, has the singular property when chewed of destroying the power of
tasting sugar for twenty-four hours, without in any other way interfering
with the sense of taste.
Hemidesmus indicus.—The roots are known under the names of Indian
or Country Sursaparilla, and as Nunnari root. They were originally im-
ported under the name of Smilax aspera, from an erroneous idea of their
origin. They resemble Sarsaparilla in their properties, and are largely
used in India as a substitute for it. Hemidesmus is official in the British
Pharmacopeeia and in the Pharmacopeeia of India.
Marsdenia.—M. tinctoria, a native of Silhet, produces a kind of indigo.
—M. tenacissima has very tenacious fibres, which are used for bow-strings
by the mountaineers of Rajmahl.
Solenostemma (Cynanchum) Argel—The leaves have been much em-
ployed to adulterate Alexandrian Senna. (See Cassia, p. 536.)
Tylophora asthmatica.—The dried leaves form an efficient substitute for
Ipecacuanha. They are official in the Pharmacopeia of India. The root
hes similar properties.
Order 5. LocantacE®, the Strychnos Order.—Character.
Shrubs, herbs, or trees. Leaves opposite, entire, stipulate; the
latter, however, sometimes exist only in the form of a raised
line or ridge. Calyx (fig. 478, c) inferior, 4—5-partite. Corolla
(fig. 478, t, 1) regular, 4—5- or 10-cleft ; xstivation valvate, con-
torted, or imbricate Stamens epipetalous, usually equal in
number, but sometimes unequal, to the lobes of the corolla ;
anthers 2-celled. Ovary 2- 3- or 4-celled; style simple -below,
and with as many divisions above as there are cells to the
ovary ; stigma simple (fig. 478, s). Fruit capsular or drupaceous ;
placentas axile, ultimately detached. Seeds usually peltate, some-
times winged, with fleshy or cartilaginous albumen. | This order
is by no means well defined.
Distribution ond Nwmbers.—Nearly all natives of tropical
LOGANIACE. 619
regions. Illustrative Genera:—Spigelia, Linn.; Strychnos,
Linn. There are about 200 species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants are almost universally
poisonous, acting on the nervous system and producing frightful
convulsions. Several have been used in medicine in torpid
or paralytic conditions of the muscular system, and for their
valuable tonic, anthelmintic, and other properties, but they
require much caution in their employment, and can generally be
only given in very small doses.
Gelsemium nitidum or G. sempervirens, Yellow Jasmine.—The dried
rhizome and rootlets are official in the British and United states Pharma-
copeeias, and are regarded as of especial value in neuralgic pains of the face
and jaws. Gelsemium is evidently a remedy of great power, and is now
largely employed in intermittent, remittent, typhoid, and other fevers, in
rheumatism, various obscure nervous diseases, and other affections. The
active principle, termed gelseminine, exercises a sedative action on the
nervous system, and is said to correspond in its action very closely to conium.
It is very poisonous.
Spigelia.—S. marylandica, Carolina Pink, Wormseed, Perennial Worm-
grass. The root and leaves of this plant are much employed in the United
States as anthelmintics, and the rhizome and rootlets are there official. In
large doses they operate as irritant cathartics, and in poisonous doses as
narcotics. They are but little used in this country.— S. Anthelmia, Demerara
Pink Root, is employed for similar purposes in Guiana and the West Indies.
Strychnos.—This genus contains some of the most poisonous plants that
are known.—S. Jgnatti—Lhis plant yields the seeds known as St. Ignatius’s
Beans ; these come to us from the Philippine Islands, and are official in the
United States Pharmacopeia. They are intensely bitter, and contain the
alkaloid Strychnine in even larger proportions than Nux-vomica seeds.
Their effects are similar to them; they are largely used by homceopathic
practitioners. They are also much employed in India in native practice.—
S. Nuzx-vomica, the Koochla tree, produces Nux-vomica seeds, so well known
for their powerfully poisonous effects. These seeds owe their virulent properties
to the presence of the alkaloids strychnine and brucine, but more especially to
the former, brucine possessing, it is said, only th the activity of strychnine.
It is stated by some authors, but upon what authority we know not, and it
seems altogether improbable, that the fruit of Fewillea cordifolia is an anti-
dote to this poison. (See Fewil/wa.) Both the seeds and the alkaloid strych-
nine are official in the British Pharmacopeeia, and in proper doses they are
employed as stimulants of the nervous system in paralysis and as valuable
tonics. Nux-vomica seeds are imported from Coromandel, Ceylon, and other
parts of India. In consequence of the enormous quantities which have been
of late years brought to this country, it was thought that they were em-
ployed in the manufacture of bitter ale on account cf their intense bitter-
ness, but this has been satisfactorily disproved. A large quantity of both
nux-yomica seeds and strychnine are employed by gamekeepers, and others,
to destroy vermin; and both the seeds and strychnine are also largely
exported to Australia, where they are extensively employed for destroying
the native dog (dingo), and vermin. The large importation of the seeds
into this country is therefore satisfactorily accounted for, and need give rise
to no further misgivings as to their improper use. The bark of S. Nuz-
vomica is also very poisonous, owing to the presence of brucine chiefly ; but
it also contains traces of strychnine. As already noticed, it was formerly
substituted for cusparia or angustura bark (see p. 503), hence it is likewise
known as false angustura bark. This bark is also frequently sold in Caleutta
under the name of Hohun, from which circumstance it has been substituted
620 GENTIANACEA,
for the febrifugal bark of Soymida fedrifuga, the Rohuna tree (see p. 509).
The leaves and wood are also employed medicinally in India. The juice of
Strychnos Tieuté is the Java poison called Upas Tieuté. It owes its poi-
sonous properties to Strychnine. This poison must not be confounded with
the true Upas, which is derived from a species of Antiaris. (See Antiaris.)
The recent investigations of Planchon have shown that the celebrated
arrow-poison which is prepared by various Indian tribes in the northern
parts of South America, and known as Wourali, Urari, or Curare, is essen-
tially prepared from species of Strychnos. Planchon has also proved that
different species are employed in its preparation in different districts. Thus
in the region of the upper Amazon, S. Castelnzana is used; in the upper
Orinoco region a species closely allied to S. toxifera is the essential ele-
ment of the Curare; in British Guiana S. tovifera is also principally used,
but this is associated with S. cogens and S. Schomburgkii; while the fourth
kind, the Curare of upper French Guiana, is prepared from a new species
named S. Crevauzrii. Curare has been employed in tetanus, but with no
very satisfactory results, and also in chorea and hydrophobia. The wood of
S. colubrina and S. ligustrina, natives respectively of Malabar and Java, is
employed as an antidote to the bites of poisonous snakes, hence it is termed
Lignum colubrinum or Snake-wood. Several other kinds of wood are, how-
ever, known in Asia under the same name. Lignum colubrinum has been
also employed as a remedy in intermittent fevers, and for other purposes. It
contains strychnine, and therefore requires much caution in its use. The
bark of S. pseudo-Quina is extensively employed in Brazil as a substitute
for Cinchona Bark. It contains neither strychnine nor brucine, and is devoid
of poisonous properties. It is frequently erroneously called Copalchi bark
(see Croton for the source of this bark). The dried ripe seeds of S. pota-
torum are devoid of poisonous properties. They are employed by the Hindoos
to clear muddy water, hence the name of Clearing-nuts which is commonly
applied to them. Their efficacy is due to the presence of albumen and
easein, which act as fining agents in a similar manner to analogous agents
employed for beer and wine. These seeds are also reputed to be emetic.
The pulp of the fruit of S. potatorum is edible, as is also that of S. pseudo-
Quina, S. innocua, and some other species ; and, according to Roxburgh,
that of S. Nux-vomica is likewise greedily eaten by birds.
Order 6. GENTIANACE#, the Gentian Order.—C haracter.—
Herbs, or rarely shrubs, usually smooth. Leaves generally simple,
entire, opposite, sessile, and strongly ribbed ; rarely alternate,
or stalked, or compound; always exstipulate. Flowers (fig. 431)
regular, solitary and terminal, or in di—tri-chotomous cymes (jig.
435). Calyx inferior, persistent, usually with 5 divisions, or occa-
sionally with 4, 6, 8, or 10. Corolla withering-persistent, its
divisions corresponding in number to those of the calyx ; xstiva-
tion imbricate-twisted or induplicate. Stamens as many as the
segments of the corolla and alternate with them. Ovary 1-
celled, or rarely partially 2-celled from the projection inwards
of the placentas; ovules numerous; placentas 2, parietal (fig.
680), anterior and posterior to the axis, and frequently turned
inwards; style 1; stigmas 2, right and left of the axis. Fruit
capsular (fig. 680), 1—2-celled, 2-valved, with septicidal de-
hiscence ; or rarely fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds numerous (fig.
680), small; embryo minute, in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Diagnosis.—Usually smooth herbs, Leaves exstipulate.
Inflorescence definite. Flowers regular, solitary and terminal,
GENTIANACES. 621
orincymes. Calyx and corolla persistent, with an equal number
of lobes. Stamens alternate to the lobes of the corolla, and
equal to them in number. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with 2
parietal placentas placed anterior and posterior, sometimes
meeting in the centre and forming a 2-celled ovary; style 1;
stigmas 2. Seeds small, numerous, with a minute embryo in
the axis of fleshy albumen.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order may
be divided into two sub-orders as follows :—
Sub-order 1. GENTIANE%.—Leaves opposite, corolla imbricate-
twisted. Illustrative Genera:—Gentiana, Linn. ; Chlora, Linn.
Sub-order2. MrnyantHe&.—Leaves alternate, corolla indupli-
cate. Illustr. Genera :—Menyanthes, Towrn.; Villarsia, Vent.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are found in nearly all
parts of the world, inhabiting both the coldest and hottest
regions. There are upwards of 500 species.
Properties and Uses.—A bitter principle almost universally
pervades the plants of this order ; hence many of them are tonic,
stomachic, and febrifugal.
Erythrea Centaurium, the common Centaury, is an indigenous plant
possessing similar properties to Gentian. It was till lately official in our
pharmacopeeias. Other species have similar properties.
Exacum,—Various species, as FE, bicolor, E. pedunculatum, and others,
natives of the East Indies, possess the tonic and stomachic properties of
Gentian, and may be substituted for it.
Frasera carolinensis.—The root of this plant, which is a native of the
United States, is commonly known as American Calumba. It has much
less bitterness than Gentian root ; and hence, though similar in properties,
it is less powerful. It has been sold for Calumba in France, and is some-
times termed false Calumba.
Gentiana lutea.—This plant is a native of the mountains of central and
southern Europe. Its root is our official Gentian, so well known for its
bitter tonic properties. The roots of other species of Gentian are frequently
found mixed with it in commerce, as those of G. purpurea, G. punctata,
and G. pannonica; but this admixture is of little consequence, as they all
possess similar properties. Powdered gentian is sometimes used to vive
flavour, &c., to cattle foods. From Gentian root, the Swiss and Tyrolese
prepare a spirit which is much prized by them as a stomachic. The root of
G. Catesbzxi, a native of the United States, has similar properties to, though
less powerful than, those of G. lutea.
Menyanthes trifoliata, Buck-bean, Bog-bean, or Marsh Trefoil.—The
leaves and rhizome are tonic and astringent, and in large doses cathartic and
emetic. The plant has been employed in Lapland, and some parts of Germany,
as a substitute for hops. It was till lately official in our pharmacopeeias. ~
Ophelia (Agathotes) Chirata, the Chiretta or Chirayta. —The dried plant
possesses great bitterness. Chiretta is used by the natives of India ay
Gentian is employed in Europe. It is also in use asa tonic, &c., in this
country, and is official in the British Pharmacopceia. Other species, natives
of the East Indies, have similar properties, but are less valuable. One of these,
namely, O. angustifolia, is now often substituted in this country for the
genuine drug, as was first noticed by the author. :
Sabbatia angular’s. American Centaury.—The dried herb is employed in
the United States on account of its tonic and febrifugal properties. ~
622 POLEMONIACEZ.—DIAPENSIACEZ,—STILBACEA.
Cohort 2. Polemoniales.—Corolla regular or nearly so. Stamens
epipetalous, equal in number to, and alternate with, the
lobes of the corolla, Leaves alternate or rarely opposite,
usually simple and entire, or sometimes lobed, and rarely
compound ; always exstipulate.
Order 1. PotEMONIACES, the Phlox Order.—Character.—
Herbs. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple or compound,
exstipulate. Culyx inferior, 5-partite, persistent, generally
regular. Corolla 5-lobed, with contorted or occasionally im-
bricate zestivation. Stamens 5, alternate with the segments of
the corolla ; pollen usually of a blue colour. Ovary 3-celled ;
style 1; stigma trifid. Fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved ; pla-
centas axile. Seeds few or many ; embryo straight, in the axis of
copious horny albumen ; cotyledons elliptical, foliaceous.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—They abound most in the tem-
perate parts of North and South America; but are far less
abundant in Europe and Asia, and altogether unknown in
tropical countries. Illustrative Genera:—Phlox Linn; Pole-
monium, Tourn ; Cobzea, Cav. There are above 100 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of no importance except for the pretti-
ness of their flowers. The seeds of Collomia and some other
plants of this order have their testa covered with hair-like cells
containing spiral fibres ; these fibres in Collomia expand in coils
when the seeds are moistened. (See pages 45 and 335.)
Orders 2 and 3. DIAPENSIACE# and SritpacE#.—These are
two small orders of shrubby plants which are placed by Lindley
in his Gentianal alliance, and regarded by him as nearly allied
to Loganiacee. The Diapensiaceze are sometimes regarded,
however, as being near to the Ericacez ; while others refer
them to Convolvulacee. They have clearly affinities with both
Polemoniaceze and Hydrophyllaceve, and hence are placed here.
There are but 2 genera, and 2 species, the uses of which are
unknown. They are natives of North America and Northern
Europe.—The Stilbacez, of which there are 3 genera, and 7
species, without any known uses, are natives of the Cape of
Good Hope.
Order 4. HypDROPHYLLACES, the Hydrophylilum Order.—
Character.—Herbs, bushes, or small trees. Leaves usually
hairy, lobed, and alternate. Flowers either solitary, stalked,
and axillary; or numerous and arranged in a_scorpioidal
manner. Calyx persistent, 5-partite. Corolla regular, 5-cleft.
Stamens equal in number to, and alternate with, the segments of
the corolla. Ovary 1—2-celled, with two parietal placentas ;
styles and stigmas 2; ovules2 or many. Frwit capsular, 2-valved,
2- or 1-celled. Seeds netted; albwmen hard, abundant.
Distribution and Numbers. —Chiefly natives of the northern
and most southern parts of the American continent. Illustrative
HYDROPHYLLACEZ.—BORAGINACEZ. 623
Genera :—Hydrophyllum, Tourn. ; Nemophila, Bart. There
are about 80 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant, except as showy garden
plants.
Eriodictyon californicum, Benth., has a reputation among the Spaniards
and Indians of California as a remedy for consumption ; and is hence known
as the Consumptive weed. It has been recommended in the United States
as a remedy for pulmonary and bronchial affections.
Order 5. BoraGINAcE®, the Borage Order.—Character.—
Herbs or rarely shrubs, with more or less rounded, usually rough
and hairy stems. Leaves (fig. 440) alternate, entire, or rarely
sinuated, usually rough, exstipulate. Inflorescence scorpioid
(figs. 439 —442). Flowers regular, symmetrical (jiy. 1009).
Calyx (figs. 1008 and 1009) persistent, inferior, 4 —5-partite,
or -lobed. Corolla (figs. 482, p, and 1009) regular or nearly
so, 4—5-partite, usually with scales in its throat (fig. 482, 7) ;
zstivation imbricate. Stamens (fig. 1009) equal in number
Fic. 1008. Fic. 1009,
Fig. 1008. Vertical sec- :
tion of the fruit of a J (PE) 2
species of Myosotis. Two
achezenia are seen, and
two have been removed,
— Fig. 1009. Diagram
of the flower of the ™ l
Comfrey (Symphytum CO f
officinale). yy
to the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them. Ovary
superior, and composed of two carpels, each of which is 2-
lobed and 2-celled (jig. 1009), with a solitary pendulous ovule
in each cell ; style 1 (fig. 610, d), basilar ; stigma siraple or bifid.
Fruit consisting of from 2—4 distinct achzwnia, placed at the
bottom of the persistent calyx (jigs. 701 and 1008). Seeds ex-
albuminous ; embryo straight, with a superior radicle.
Diagnosis. —Herbs with rounded, usually rough stems, and
alternate exstipulate leaves. Inflorescence scorpioid. Flowers
regular and perfect. Calyx, corolla, and stamens equal in
number, the latter being alternate with the divisions of the
corolla. Ovary superior, deeply 4-lobed, with one ovule in each
lobe ; style 1, basilar. Fruit composed of 2—4 achzenia placed
at the bottom of the persistent calyx. Seeds exalbuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate
regions in the northern hemisphere. TIlustrative Genera :—
Kehium, Linn. ; Borago, Tourn. ; Cynoglossum, Linn. There
are nearly 700 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
624 EHRETIACE®.—CORDIACE.
remarkable for their mucilaginous properties ; hence they are
mostly harmless, and possess little value as medicinal agents.
Some species have roots of a reddish colour, which renders them
useful as dyeing agents.
Anchusa (Alkanna) tinctoria, Alkanet, has a dark blood-red root; this
is chiefly employed to give colour to oils, &c., which are used in perfumery,
and for dyeing weods and other purposes.
Borago officinalis, Borage-—The root is mucilaginous and emollient.
The herb imparts coolness to beverages in- which it is steeped owing to its
containing nitrate of potash.
Echium.—The broken leaves, stems, and flowers of species of Echium
are employed in India as an alterative, tonic, demulcent, and diuretic.
They are sold in the Indian bazaars under the name of Gouzabdam.
Mertensia maritima is called the Oyster plant, from its leaves haying
the taste of oysters. ©
Symphytum.—S. officinale, Comfrey, is reputed to be vulnerary. The
young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. It issaid to form
a good substitute for spinach. The root contains much starch and mucilagi-
nous matters, and when finely scraped and laid on calico to about the thick-
ness of a crown piece, it forms an excellent bandage for broken limbs.
—S. asperrimum has been recommended for cultivation in this country as
food tor pigs, &c. It has long been used as a forage plant in Circassia and
in Russia.
Order 6. EHRETIACES, the Ehretia Order.— Diagnosis.—These
plants resemble the Boraginacez in most of their characters, but
they differ in having their carpels so completely united as to form
a2- or morecelled ovary ; intheir terminal style ; and drupaceous
fruit. They are usually characterised also by the presence of
a small quantity of albumen in their seeds, but this is some-
times absent. By many authors, as Bentham and Hooker, the
Ehretiacex are made a sub-order of the Boraginacee.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly tropical plants. Illus-
trative Genera :—Khretia, Linn.; Heliotropium, Linn. There
are about 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Ehretia.—Some species of Ehretia have edible fruits. The roots of
Ehretia buxifolia, when fresh, are employed in India by the native prac-
titioners as an alterative.
Heliotropium.—Some species have a delicious odour, as the Peruvian
Heliotrope ( Heliotropium peruvianum).— Heliotropium indicum is known in
Liberia under the name of the ‘ Erysipelas Plant,’ from its common use, in
the form of an infusion, as a fomentation to inflamed parts.
Order 7. Corptace&, the Cordia Order.—Character.—
Trees with alternate scabrous leaves, exstipulate. Calyx and
corolla 5-merous; exstivation of the corolla imbricate-twisted.
Stamens 5, alternate with the segments of the corolla; anthers
versatile. Ovary superior, 4—8-celled, with 1 pendulous ovule
in each cell; stigma 4—8-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, 4—8-celled,
or frequently some of the cells are abortive; placentas axile.
Seeds 1 in each cell, pendulous by a long cord; albwmen none ;
NOLANACEZ.—CONVOLVULACE. 625
cotyledons plaited longitudinally. This order is combined by
Bentham and Hooker with Boraginacex.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—Natives almost exclusively of
tropical regions. Lllustrative Genera :—Cordia, Plum. ; Varronia,
DC. There are above 180 species.
Properties and Uses.—The fruits of many species are edible, as
those of Oordia Myxa and C. latifolia, which are called Sebestens
or Sebesten plums, and are eaten by the natives, and others, in
India ; those of Cordia abyssinica, Wanzey or Vanzey, which are
esteemed by the Abyssinians; and the succulent fruits of Var-
ronia rotundifolia, which are used to fatten cattle and poultry.
The bark of C. Myzxa is reputed to be a mild tonic and astringent.
Some species, as Oordia Rumphii and Cordia Gerascanthus, yield
useful and ornamental timber. The wood of Cordia Myza is
said to be that from which the Egyptians constructed their
mummy-cases. (Seealso Ficus.) Anacuhuite Wood, a substance
imported into this country a few years since, and recommended
as a tonic, &c., is derived from Cordia Boissieri.
Order 8. Notanacex, the Nolana Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Inflorescence
straight. Calyx 5-partite, persistent, with a valvate estivation.
Corolla regular, with a plaited zstivation. Stamens 5, opposite
tothe lobes of the calyx. Ovary composed of from 5—20 carpels,
either distinct or more or less combined into several bundles ;
style on a fleshy disk, simple ; stigma simple. Fruit composed
of 5or more separate or more or less combined achzenia, which
are enclosed in the persistent calyx. Seed with a little albu-
men ; embryo curved ; radicle inferior. This order is combined
by Bentham and Hooker with Convolvulacee ; and by others it has
been referred to Boraginaceer.
Distribution and Numbers —Natives exclusively of South
America, especially of Chili. Illustrative Genera :—Nolana,
Linn ; Alona, Lindl. There are about 36 species.
Properties and Uses.—-Unknown.
Order 9. CONVOLVULACE®, the Convolvulus Order. —Cha-
racter.—Herbs or shrubs, generally twining (jig. 227) or trailing,
or sometimes erect, and frequently milky. Leaves (fig. 227) or
scales alternate, exstipulate; sometimes leafless and parasitic
(jig. 257). Calyx inferior, with 5 deep divisions, much imbri-
cate (figs. 1010 and 1011), persistent. Corolla (figs. 1010 and
1011) 5-partite or 5-plaited, regular, deciduous, sometimes with
scales in its tube (fig. 1013); xstivation twisted, plaited or imbri-
cate. Stamens 5, alternate with the lobes of the corolla (fig.
1011). Disk annular, hypogynous. Ovary (fig. 1011) 2- 3- or
4-celled, or the carpels are more or less distinct ; styles 1 or 2,
usually 2-fid ; ovules 1—2 in each cell or carpel, erect. Fruit
capsular, 1—4-celled, with septifragal dehiscence, or bursting
transversely at the base. Hmbryo (fig. 1012) large, curved or
Ss
626 CONVOLVULACES.
coiled in a small quantity of mucilaginous albumen, with
foliaceous crumpled cotyledons; or in Cuscuta the embryo (fig.
1014) is filiform, spiral, and the cotyledons scarcely perceptible ;
radicle inferior.
Diagnosis.—Generally twining or trailing milky herbs, with
alternate exstipulate leaves ; or parasitic and leafless. Calyx of
5 imbricate sepals, inferior. Corolla regular, 5-plaited or 5-
lobed. Stamens 5, alternate with the lobes of the corolla.
Ovary 2—4-celled. Fruit 2—4-celled, capsular, septifragal.
Embryo curved, coiled, or spiral, in albumen; radicle inferior.
Fie. 1010.
Fra. 1011.
Fie. 1013.
=> Fie. 1014.
“lll / LS
Fig. 1011.
Fig. 1010. Flower of Great Bindweed (Convolvulus sepium).
Diagram of the same flower, showing two bracts ongthe outside of the
calyx.— Vig. 1012. Vertical section of the seed of the same.—Fig. 1013.
Corolla of Dodder (Cuscuta) laid open to show five epipetalous stamens
and the scales in its tube.—/%g. 1014. Spiral embryo of a species of
Cuscuta.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly found in the
plains and valleys of hot and tropical regions. A few occur in
temperate climates, but they are altogether absent in the coldest
latitudes. Illustrative Genera :—Convolvulus, Linn.; Ipomeea,
Linn. ; Cuscuta, Linn. There are about 750 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are chiefly remarkable for the
presence of an acrid milky purgative juice in their roots, hence
the order includes some important medicinal plants. The pur-
SOLANACER. 627
gative property of the juice is essentially due to the presence of
peculiar glucosides. In the roots of other species this purgative
principle is either absent or in but small quantity, and starch
or sugar predominates, which renders them edible. The seeds
of some species are also purgative. The Cuscutez are leafless
parasites, which often do great damage in clover- and flax-fields
&c. by destroying the plants from which they draw their nour-
ishment.
Convolvulus, Bindweed.—From the incised living root of C. Seammonia,
a native of Asia Minor and Syria, the purgative gum-resin called Scammony
is obtained. This Scammony as also Scammony Root, and Scammony Resin,
are official in the British Pharmacopeeia. The best and greater part of the
Scammony of English commerce is imported from Smyrna. The roots of
many other species also possess in a certain degree purgative properties; as
those of our native species, Convolvulus ( Calystegia) sepium, C. arvensis, and
C. Soldanella. It is said that Convolvulus dissectus yields hydrocyanic acid
when distilled with water. It is one of the plants used for flavouring Noyau.
Ipomea.—Ipomea Purga(Exogonium Purga) isa native of Mexico, near
Chicanquiaco. Its tubercular roots constitute the true Jalap of the Materia
Medica, so well known as a purgative ; these properties are especially due
to the glucoside convolvulin. Jalap is official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
The roots of J. orizabensis are sometimes found intermixed with true
jalap. This spurious jalap is known in Mexico as male jalap, and in Eng-
lish commerce as woody jalap or jalap wood, and on the Continent as light
or fusiform jalap. It possesses similar, although somewhat less powerful
properties to those of true jalap ; these properties are due to the glucoside
jalapin. The roots of I. Turpethum, Turpeth, were formerly much used asa
purgative. The large roots of J. macrorhiza contain much farinaceous matter,
and are eaten by the inhabitants of the States of Georg'a and Carolina.—J,
pandurata is the Mechameck of the Indians of North America ; its roots
are said to be purgative and somewhat diuretic. Tampico jalap, now fre-
quently employed as a substitute for true jalap, is derived from Zpomea
simulans. It appears to be nearly, if not quite, as powerful as the official
kind.—Ipomea ( Pharbitis) Nil. ‘The seeds are official in the Pharmacopeia
of India, under the name of Kaladana. They possess similar medicinal
properties to our official jalap, but are not quite so active—IJpomea
( Batatas) edulis. The tubercular root of this plant constitutes the Sweet-
Potato, which is so largely used for food in many tropical countries.
Rhodorrhiza.—From the species of this genus, natives of the Canary
Islands, the volatile oil called Oil of Rhodium is commonly said to be ob-
tained ; but at the present time the so-called oil of Rhodium of commerce is
a mixture compounded according to the taste of the vendor and the pocket of
the buyer. The powdered wood is also used for snuff, and for fumigation,
Order 10. SotaNnacE&, the Solanum Order.—Character.—
Herbs, or rarely shrubs, or trees, with a colourless juice. Leaves
alternate, often in pairs. Inflorescence axillary, or frequently
extra-axillary (fig. 354). Flowers isomerous (fig. 1015). Calyx
(fig. 1015) with 5 or rarely 4 divisions, usually persistent, often
growing during the ripening of the fruit (accrescent). Corolla
(fig. 1015) regular or somewhat irregular, 5- or rarely 4-partite ;
estivation valvate, induplicate, plaited, or imbricate. Stamens
equal in number to the lobes of the corolla, with which they
are alternate (figs. 1015 and 1019) ; anthers 2-celled, sometimes
connate above, with longitudinal or porous dehiscence (figs.
S82
628 SOLANACEA.
539 and 1016). Ovary superior (figs. 1016 and 1018), usually
2-celled, in which case the cells are placed anterior and posterior
(fig. 1019), rarely 3—5-celled ; style undivided (jigs. 1016 and
1018) ; stigma simple or 2-lobed. Frwit capsular or baccate, 2-
Fia. 1016.
Fic. 1017.
ci W) UN,
fe, @
Fig. 1015. Diagram of the flower of the Potato (Solanum tuberosum).—
Fig. 1016. Vertical section of thesame. c. Calyx. p,p. Corolla. 0. Ovary.
e. Stamens. s. Style and stigma.——Fig. 1017. Vertical section of the
seed of Solanum Duleamara,. te. Testa. ch. Chalaza. alb. Albumen, en-
closing the curved embryo.
Fie. 1018.
Fic. 1019.
Fig. 1018. Vertical section of
the flower of Tobacco (WNico-
tiana Tabacum),—Fig.1019.
Diagram of the flower of the
same,
or more celled. Seeds numerous, albuminous (fig. 1017, alb) ;
embryo straight, or usually curved in a more or less annular or
spiral form (fig. 1017).
Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs or trees, with alternate
leaves, and a colourless juice. Flowers isomerous. Calyx and
SOLANACE. 629
corolla with 5, or rarely 4 divisions. Corolla regular or very
slightly irregular; zstivation valvate, imbricate, plaited, or
induplicate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the
corolla, with which they are alternate ; anthers 2-celled, with
porous or longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary superior, with axile
placentation, usually 2-celled, the cells being then placed
anterior and posterior ; or rarely more celled. Fruit dehiscent
or indehiscent, 2- or more celled. Seeds numerous, albuminous.
In some former editions of this Manual, following the views
of Miers, we advpted his new order, Atropacex ; but as this
arrangement has not been generally adopted, we have now, in
accordance with most authorities, combined the latter order
with the Solanacez ; but on account of the more important
medicinal value of the Atropacez of Miers, we retain this order
as a sub-order, and divide the Solanacex as follows :—
Sub-order 1. SoLrane®.—AXstivation of the corolla valvate or
induplicate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the
corolla. Illustrate Genera:—Cestrum, Linn.; Solanum,
Tinn.
Sub-order 2. ATRoPEH.—AHstivation of the coroijla imbricate,
or some modification of imbricate. Stamens equal in number
to the lobes of the corolla, one occasionally sterile. Illus-
tratiwe Genera :—Atropa, Linn. ; Lycium, Linn.
Distribution and Numbers—They are scattered over various
parts of the globe except the polar circles, but are most abun-
dant in tropical regions. This order, as defined above, contains
about 1,120 species.
Sub-order 1. Soranex.—Properties and Uses.—The plants of
this sub-order frequently possess narcotic properties from the
presence of the alkaloid Solanine, but not by any means to
the same extent as those of the Atropez. Fatal cases of
poisoning have, however, occurred from their improper use.
Some are pungent and stimulant owing to the presence of an
acrid oleo-resin ; others contain a bitter tonic principle ; and
a few have edible fruits, leaves, or tubers. It has been stated
that the juice of the Solanez does not produce dilatation of
the pupil of the eye, as is the case with that of many plants
of the Atropez ; but this is not strictly correct.
Capsicum.—The species of this genus are remarkable for the presence of
an oleo-resinous liquid, named capsicin, in their fruits, which renders them
hot, pungent, and stimulating. ‘This oleo-resin has been proved by Thresh
to contain a very minute proportion of a crystalline substance called
capsaicin, which he has shown to be the real active principle of capsicum
fruits. The various species of Capsicum are generally supposed to have been
originally natives of some warm part of the American continent, from
whence they have become distributed over the world. There are several
species and varieties of Capsicum in common use, one of which is official in
the British Pharmacopeia, namely, the C. fastigiatum of Blume, The fruits
of this are sometimes sold as Chillies; but this name is more commonly
630 SOLANACEA.
applied in England to the fruits of C. annuum ; hence they are better dis-
tinguished as Guinea Pepper. These fruits are less than an inch in length,
and are the most pungent of all Capsicum fruits. Cayenne Pepper is the
powdered fruit of probably several species or varieties of Capsicum, but
principally of C. fastigiatum. The fruits of C. annuum are frequently two
or more inches in length. Hungarian Red Pepper (paprika) is obtained
from a variety of C.annuum with a small pointed fruit. It is highly es-
teemed, and is said to be much used in the preparation of Cayenne Pepper.
Other varieties or species of Capsicum in use in different parts of the world
are, the C. cerasiforme (Cherry Pepper or Round Chilli), C. grossum (Bell
Pepper), C. frutescens (Spice Pepper), C. baccatum (Bird Pepper), C. tetra-
gonum (Bonnet Pepper). The general name of Pod Pepper is sometimes
applied to the fruits of the species and varieties of Capsicum.
Lycopersicum esculentum.—This plant produces the fruits called Love-
apples or Tomatoes, so much employed in the preparation of sauces, and for
other purposes.
Physalis.—P. peruviana has an edible fruit which is known as the
Peruvian Winter Cherry.—P. Alkehengi, Winter Cherry, and some other
species, are diuretic.—Physalis (Withania) somnifera, as its name implies,
is reputed to possess narcotic properties.
Punneeria (Withania) coagulans.—The dried fruit is employed in India
as a carminative and stomachic, and also as a substitute for rennet in making
cheese, &c.
Solanum.—The Common Potato, which is so largely used for food in
temperate climates, is the tuber of S. tuberosum. Other species, as S. Maglia,
S. Commersoni, S. Jamesii, and other species or varieties, are now being
experimentally cultivated in England, the United States, and France, and
promise good results. The object is to obtain a plant suitable for moist air
and soil, the S. tuberosum being best adapted for dry air and soil. A
decoction of the stem and leaves has been used as an alterative in cutaneous
diseases, and an extract has been also employed as a narcotic and anti-
spasmodic. The leaves when roasted have been used with success for
thickening mordants in dyeing. The medicinal properties of the Potato
plant are chiefly due to the presence of a small quantity of an alkaloid
called solanine, which has narcotic properties. Solanine does not produce
dilatation of the pupil like the alkaloids of the Atropee; and hence the
reason why the juice of the Solanex generally differs in such respect from
that of the Atropee. Solanine has been detected in all parts of the Potato
plant, but in the tuber all traces of it are entirely removed by the processes
of boiling and preparing potatoes for the table. Starch is largely obtained
from potatoes, and used for food under the name of English arrowrvot,
Bright's nutritious farina, &c. It is employed to a great extent in the
preparation of Dextrine or British gum, which is used in the arts, &c., as a
substitute for gum, size, and paste.—NSolanum Du!eamara, Woody Night-
shade or Bitter-sweet. The dried young branches possess diuretic and
diaphoretic properties, and are employed as an alterative in cutaneous
diseases, and in other cases. They also possess slight narcotic properties
owing to the presence of solanine. The fruits are in rare cases even
poisonous, for one or more fatal cases of poisoning by them have been
recorded.—S. nigrum, Black Nightshade, also possesses alterative and nar-
cotic properties. The fruit is said to be edible; but if such be the case,
its use for food requires caution, as solanine has been found in it. In the
Mauritius, however, this herb as well as S. oleraceum are common pot-
herbs and are largely consumed. The fruits of several species of Solanum
are also eaten in various parts of the world, as those of S. esculentum (S.
Melongena), in France, &c.; those of S. quitoense, named Quito Oranges ;
those of S. laciniatum in Australia, where they are termed Kangaroo-
apples; those of S. muricatum and S. nemorense in Peru; and those of S.
anthropophagorum and S. repandum in the Fiji Islands. Those of the first
SOLANACE. 631
species (8S. esculentum) are much esteemed in France under the name of
Aubergines or Brinjals. They are about the size and form of a goose’s egg
and commonly of a purple colour, and are used as a vegetable. “Phe white
fruits of a variety of the same plant are known as Ege- apples. The leaves
of S. oleraceum and S. anthropophagorum are likewise eaten by the Fijians.
—S. marginatum has astringent properties, and is employ ed in Abyssinia
in the process of tanning we.) Pseudogquina is much employed in Brazil as a
tonic and febrifuge. Several species of Solanum are also reputed to have
diuretic properties, as S. mammosum, S. paniculatum, and others. The
flowers and leaves of S. cernuum are sudorifi¢, and have been employed in
gonorrheea, syphilis, &c.
Sub-order 2. AtTropEa&.—Properties and Uses.—Many of the
plants have powerful narcotic properties from the presence
of peculiar and active alkaloids; hence several are very
poisonous. The juice of numerous species will produce
dilatation of the pupil of the eye. (See Properties and Uses
of the Solanez, page 629.)
Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade, is a powerful poison; the root,
leaves, and young branches are official in the British Pharmacopeeia. It
is employed internally as an anodyne and antispasmodic, and externally
for dilating the pupil of the eye. john Harley regards it as a valuable
remedy in “scarlatina. It owes its activity to a peculiar alkaloid called
atropine, which is frequently employed to produce dilatation of the pupil,
and for other purposes. Atropine is a most powerful poison. It is official,
together with Sulphate of Atropine, in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Datura—D. Stramonium.—aA narcotic property is possessed by all parts
of this plant, and is especially developed in the seeds, which are official in
the British Pharmacopeia. Its nedicinal effects resemble those of Atropa
Belladonna. It is employed as an anodyne and antispasmodic. In
spasmodic asthma, smoking the herb, or inhalation from its infusion in warm
water, has frequently given great relief, but its use requires much caution,
as it has in some instances produced fatal results. A strong decoction of
the leaves is used in Cochin China as a remedy for hydrophobia, in which
disease it is reputed to be very eflicacious. Stramonium owes its principal
activity to the presence of a narcotic alkaloid called daturine, which much
resembles and is probably identical with atropine, the alkaloid of Atropa
Belladonnu. Recent investigations appear to show that it is also identical
with duboisine and hyoscyamine (see Duboisia). Daturine is a powerful
poison, and strongly dilates the pupil.—D. alba, D. Tatula, D. fastuosa,
and other species or varieties, have similar properties to D. Stramonium.
In India D. alba is frequently used by the natives for criminal purposes, the
professional poisoners from this drug being called Dhatureeas. The truit of
D, sanguinea, the Red Thorn Apple, is in use among the Indians of the
Andes, and in Central America, for the preparation of narcotic drinks; these,
it is believed, produce a peculiar excitement, and enable those who partake
of them to have communication with the spirits of their ancestors.
Duboisia myoporoides—This plant, which is a native of New Caledonia
and some parts.of Australia, is closely allied to Belladonna in its properties,
and contains a closely allied alkaloid which has been named duboisine. It is
now said that this alkaloid, hyoscyamine, and daturine, are of the same
nature (see Datura). It is commonly used medicinally in the form of Sul-
phate of Duboisine. The leaves, known as‘ Pitury,’ and used as an Australian
substitute for Coca (see Erythroxylon), are obtained from D. Hopwoodii.
They are said to contain an alkaloid analogous to nicotine.
Hyoscyamus niger, Henbane.—The whole herb possesses narcotic proper-
ties, and 1s employed medicinally asa narcotic, anodyne, and soporitic. Its
632 SCROPHULARIACE.
activity is essentially due to the presence of the alkaloid hyoscyamine (see
Duboisia), which isa powerful poison resembling atropine and daturine,
and like them causing dilatation of the pupil. Another powerful alkaloid,
named hyoscine, has also been found in Henbane. ‘Two varieties of Henbane
are commonly cultivated, the Annual and the Biennial ; the latter is com-
monly regarded as the more active, and its leaves and young flowering
branches are official in the British Pharmacopceia.—H. albus, a native of the
Mediterranean region, possesses the same properties as, and is probably of
equal value to, that of H. niger.—H. insanus, a native of Beluchistan, is
sometimes used for criminal purposes. It is said by Stocks to be a very
poisonous species. It is called Mountain Hemp.
Mandragora officinalis, the true Mandrake.—The roots have a fancied
resemblance to the human form, hence their name, This Mandrake must
not be confounded with the root of Bryonia dioica, which is also sometimes
so named (see Bryonia). Mandrake is an acro-narcotic poison, and was
used by the ancients as an anesthetic. The plant is called Devil’s-apple by
the Arabs. Mandrake is considered to be the Dudaim of Scripture.
Nicotiana.—The leaves of various species and varieties supply the
different kinds of Tobacco now in such general use in some form or other
in nearly every part of the globe. Mr. Crawford estimated the total annual
production of tobacco over the whole globe in 1851 at 2,000,000 tons, which,
at the value of 2d. per pound, would amount to more than 37,000,000/. ster-
ling. The consumption of tobacco in this country has enormously increased
of late years, and is still increasing. Thus in the year 1841 the quantity of
tobacco cleared for consumption in the United Kingdom amounted to 132 0z
per head of population. In the year 1851 the amount had increased to
1 lb. 04 oz. per head; in the year 1861 to 1 lb. 33 0z.; in the year 1863 to
1 lb. 44 oz.; and in the year 1865 to 1 lb. 5 oz. “In 1874, 45,253,303 lbs. of
unmanufactured tobacco were retained for home consumption, and of manu-
factured cigars and snuff nearly 1,280,154 lbs., or nearly: 13 Ibs. per head of
the population, and the duty paid on this was nearly 7,500,000. sterling.
The total annual production of tobacco over the whole globe at the present
time is probably not less than 3,000,000 tons. Tobacco owes its principal
properties to the presence of an alkaloid called nicotine, which is a most
energetic poison. Tobacco has been employed in medicine as a local stimu-
lant, and as a sedative, antispasmodic, emetic, laxative, and diuretic; and
the dried leaves of WN. Tabacum are official in the British Pharmacopeia.
The principal kinds of Tobacco are the American, Latakia, Cuba, Manila,
and Havannah, from N. Tabacum ; the Shiraz or Persian, from NV. persica ;
the East Indian and Turkish, from NN. rustica; and Orinoko, from
N. latissima. The Tobacco plant has lately been cultivated experimentally
in this country, but we do not anticipate any very favourable results.
Scopolia japonica —The root is used in Japan for similar purposes to
that of Atropa Belladonna in Europe and America, It has been imported
into this country under the name of Japanese Belladonna root, and described
by Holmes; it is said to contain solanine. The leaves of ’S. luridus are
stated by Waring to be equal, if not superior, to those of Belladonna in their
medicinal properties,
Cohort 3. Personales.—Flowers generally anisomerous. Corolla
usually irregular. Stamens epipetalous; posterior stamen
nearly always suppressed, or appearing as a staminode ;
generally four and didynamous, or sometimes only two.
Ovules usually numerous, or two superposed.
Order 1. ScROPHULARIACEA, the Figwort Order.—C harac-
ter.—Herbs, or rarely shrubby plants, with alternate, opposite,
SCROPHULARIACEA. 633
or whorled leaves; generally without, or very rarely with,
stipules ; sometimes parasitical on roots. Inflorescence axillary.
Flowers ( figs. 1020 and 1021) anisomerous, irregular. Calyx in-
ferior, persistent (fig. 710), 4—5-partite. Corolla more (figs.
488 and 489) or less (jigs. 492 and 493) irregular, sometimes
gibbous (fig. 488) or spurred ( fig. 489), 4—5-partite ; estivation
imbricate (fig. 1021). Stamens generally 4, and didynamous
(fig. 559), or sometimes 2 (fig. 1020)) or rarely 5 or with a
rudimentary fifth; anthers 1—2-celled. Ovary usually 2-celled
with axile placentation (jig. 1021), its component carpels being
placed anterior and posterior; style 1 (jigs. 626 and 1020);
stigma undivided or 2-lobed. Fruit usually capsular, with
variable dehiscence (fig. 710), or rarely baccate, usually 2-celled.
Seeds generally numerous, small, albuminous; embryo straight
Fic. 1021,
va TH,
Fie. 1020.
Fig. 1020. Fiower of a species of Speedwell ( Veronica).——Fig. 1021. Dia-
gram of the flower of the Great Snapdragon (Anti77hinum majus), with
one bract below.
or slightly curved. (The above definition of the Scrophulariacese
is in accordance with the views of Miers.)
Diagnosis.—Herbs, or rarely shrubs. Flowers irregular,
anisomerous. Inflorescence axillary. Calyx and corolla with
4 or 5 divisions. Corolla more or less irregular, zstivation im-
bricate. Stamens 4 and then didynamous, or sometimes 2, or
rarely 5, or with a rudimentary fifth or staminode ; anthers 1—
2-celled. Ovary usually 2-celled, the cells placed anterior and
posterior, with axile placentation; style 1. Fruit capsular, or
rarely baccate. Seeds generally numerous, albuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
found in all parts of the globe. Illustrative Genera :—Verbas-
cum, Linn. ; Antirrhinum, Towrn. ; Scrophularia, Linn. ; Vero-
nica, Tourn. As above defined, there are about 1,700 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order must be
regarded with suspicion, as some are powerful poisons. Many
634 OROBANCHACES.
are bitter, others astringent, some purgative, emetic, or diuretic,
and a few possess narcotic properties. A great many species
are cultivated in our gardens, &c., on account of the beauty of
their flowers.
Capraria bifolia is used in Central America as tea.
Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove.—This is by far the most important medi-
cinal plant in the order. The roots, leaves, and seeds are the most active
parts, but the dried leaves only are official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Foxglove is largely used as a diuretic in dropsies, and as a sedative of the
circulation in diseases of the heart, &c. In improper doses it is a deadly
poison. It owes its activity essentially to the presence of a powerfully
poisonous bitter principle, called Dzgitalin, which in proper doses is used in
medicine in the same cases-as digitalis itself; but it is a very variable sub-
stance, and therefore uncertain in its action. Digitalin is also reputed to
be a powerful anaphrodisiac. Ocher species of Digitalis have similar pro-
perties to those of D. purpurea, but they are not so active.
Gratiola officinalis, Hedge Hy ssop, was formerly official in our pharma-
copeeias. It possesses purgative, emetic, and diuretic properties, and in
large doses is said to be an acrid poison.
“Leptandra virginica.—The rhizome and rootlets are official in the United
States Pharmacopeia. The dried rhizome and more especially the resinoid
powder, called leptandrin, which is obtained from it, are regarded as
excellent cholagogues, and are used largely in the United States and else-
where as substitutes for mercurials.
Lyperia crocera.—The flowers of this plant, which is a native of South
Africa, have been imported into this country from time to time, under the
name of African Saffron. They closely resemble true saffron in smell and
taste ; and have similar medicinal properties. They are also employed for
dyeing ; they yield a fine orange colour,
Scrophularia.—The fresh leaves of V. nodosa are sometimes used, in the
form of an ointment or fomentation, in skin diseases and indolent tumours,
&c. The leaves and roots of this species and of S. aquatica are purgative
and emetic, and are supposed to be slightly narcotic.
Verbascum.—The leaves of V. Thapsus, Great Mullein, have emollient,
demulcent, and slightly narcotic properties. A decoction of the leaves in
milk is frequently, used as a domestic remedy on the Continent and in
Ireland in incipient phthisis. Smoking the dried leaves is also said to be
useful in allaying cough in phthisis. Its seeds and those of V. nigrum are
also stated to be ‘employed by poachers to stupefy fish in order that they
may be readily taken.
Veronica.—The leaves of V. officinalis have been used in this country,
and on the Continent, as a substitute for China Tea, hence the plant is some-
times called Thé de U Europe. They have also been considered diaphoretic,
diuretic, expectorant, tonic, &c., and were employed formerly in pectoral,
nephritic, and other complaints.
Order 2. OROBANCHACE#, the Broom-rape Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs of a more or less fleshy character, growing
parasitically on the roots of other plants. Stems with scale-like
leaves. Calys: persistent, toothed. Corolla irregular, persis-
tent; xstivation imbricate. Stamens 4, didynamous ; anthers
1—2-celled. Ovary 1-celled; its 2 component carpels being
placed right and left of the axis; placentas 2—4, parietal ;
style 1; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit a capsule. Seeds very numerous,
minute, with fleshy albumen and a very small rudimentary
embryo.
LENTIBULARIACEX.— COLUMELLIACEX.—GESNERACEX. 635
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Principally natives of Europe,
Northern Asia, North America, and the Cape of Good Hope.
Illustrative Genera :—Orobanche, Linn. ; Lathrea, Linn. There
are about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—The presence of bitterness and astrin-
gency are the most marked properties of the plants of this order,
and some have been said to be escharotic ; but they are alto-
gether unimportant in a medicinal point of view.
Epiphegus.—The root of Epiphequs virginiana is called Cancer-root, from
its having been formerly used as an application to cancers. It formed an
ingredient in the once celebrated North American nostrum, called Martin’s
Cancer Powder.
Order 3. LENTIBULARIACE®, the Butterwort Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs, growing in water, marshes, or wet places.
Leaves radical, entire or divided into thread-like filaments
bearing little pouches or air-receptacles. Flowers irregular,
bracteated. Calyx persistent, bilabiate. Corolla personate or
bilabiate, spurred. Stamens 2, included; anthers 1-celled.
Ovary 1-celled; sty/e 1, short; stigma bilabiate; placenta free
central. Fruit a capsule, 1-celled. Seeds minute, numerous,
anatropous, exalbuminous; embryo thick, straight, sometimes
undivided.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of all parts of the globe,
but more particularly of tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :-—
Utricularia, Linn. ; Pinguicula, Tourn. There are about 180
species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. The leaves of
Pinguicula and the pitchers of Utricularia have the property of
dissolving and absorbing insects, and other animal matters.
(See Physiological Botany. )
Pinguicula.— Pinguicula vulgaris is termed Butterwort, from the property
its leaves are said to possess of coagulating milk.
Order 4. CoLUMELLIACE®, the Columellia Order.—C harac-
ter.—Evergreen shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, exstipulate.
Flowers unsymmetrical, yellow, terminal. Calyx superior, 5-
parted. Corolla epigynous, monopetalous, rotate, 5—8-partite,
imbricate. Stamens 2, epipetalous ; anthers sinuous, with longi-
tudinal dehiscence. Ovary inferior, 2-celled, surmounted by a
fleshy disk. Frwit capsular, 2-celled, many-seeded. Seeds with
fleshy albumen ; embryo minute.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of Mexico and Peru.
It only contains the genus Columellia, Lour., which includes 3
species.
Properties and Uses.—Unknown.
Order 5. GESNERACE®, the Gesnera Order.—C haracter.—
Herbs, or soft-wooded shrubs. Leaves wrinkled, exstipulate,
generally opposite or whorled. Flowers irregular, showy. Calyx
636 CRESCENTIACEX.— BIGNONIACEA.
5-partite. Corolla 5-lobed, perigynous or hypogynous. Stamens
diandrous or didynamous with the rudiment of a fifth; anthers
2-celled, frequently united. Ovary of 2 carpels, antero-posterior,
superior or half-inferior, 1-celled, surrounded by an annular
fleshy disk or by glands; style 1. Frwit capsular or succulent,
1-celled, with 2-lobed parietal placentas. Seeds numerous, with
or without albumen ; ; embryo with minute cotyledons, and a long
radicle.
Division of the Order and Illustrate Genera.—The order
has been divided into two sub-orders or tribes as follows :—
Sub-order 1. GESNERE#.—Ovary partially adherent to the
calyx. Seeds albuminous. Illustrative Genera :—Gesnera,
Mart. ; Gloxinia, Hérit.
Sub-order 2. CyrTaNDRE#.—Ovary not adherent to the calyx.
Seeds exalbuminous. Illustrate Genera :—Aischynanthus,
Jack. ; Cyrtandra, Forst.
Distribution and Numbers.-—Chiefly natives of warm or
tropical regions. The Gesneree are all American; the Cyrtandrez
are more scattered. There are about 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance except for the
beauty of their flowers, which are common objects of cultivation
in this country. Some Gesnerez have edible fruits.
Order 6. CRESCENTIACE®, the Crescentia Order.—C harac-
ter.—Small trees. Leaves simple, alternate or clustered, ex-
stipulate. Flowers irregular, growing out of old branches or
stems. Calyx free, entire at first, afterwards splitting irregularly.
Corolla somewhat bilabiate. Stamens 4, didynamous, with a
rudimentary fifth ; anthers 2-celled. Ovary surrounded by an
annular disk, 1-celled ; placentas 2—4, parietal ; style1l. Fruit
indehiscent, woody. Seeds large, numerous, wingless, exal-
buminous ; cotyledons large, amygdaloid; radicle short. This
order is made a tribe of Biqnoniacexr by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—-Natives exclusively of tropical
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Crescentia, Linn.; Parmentiera,
DC. There are about 36 species.
Properties and Uses. —Unimportant.
Crescentia.—The subacid pulp of the fruit of Crescentia Cujete, the Cala-
bash Tree, is eaten by the negroes in America, and its hard pericarp is used
for bottles, forming floats, &e. The fruit has been lately described as a
useful and pleasant aperient.
Parmentiera.—The fruit of Parmentiera edulis under the name of
Quandhscilote is eaten by the Mexicans, and that of P. cerifera is likewise
greedily devoured by cattle in Panama. The latter resembles a candle in
form, and hence the tree bearing it is named the Candle-tree.
Order 7. BiGNontace*#, the Bignonia Order.—Character.
Trees or shrubs, which are often twining or climbing, or rarely
herbs, Leaves exstipulate, usually opposite. Inflorescence ter-
minal. Flowers irregular. Calyx entire or divided. Corolla
PEDALIACES. 637
4—5-lobed. Stamens 2 or 4; anthers 2-celled. Ovary seated
in a disk, usually 2-celled ; placentas axile; stylel. Fruit 2-
valved, capsular. Seeds numerous, sessile, large, winged, ex-
albuminous ; embryo with large leafy cotyledons.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly tropical plants. Iilus-
trative Genera:—Bignonia, Linn.; Tecoma, Juss. ; Jacaranda,
Juss. There are about 450 species.
Properties and Uses.—The chief interest of the plants of this
order lies in their beautiful flowers, although some are used
medicinally and in other ways.
Bignonia.—From the leaves of Bignonia Chica the Indians of South
America obtain a red dye called Chica or Carajuru, which is used for paint-
ing their bodies and arrows, and for other purposes. This Chica must not
be confounded with Chica or Maize Beer (see Zea Mays), and other Chicas
which are common drinks of the Indians in South America. An oil is ob-
tained in India from the wood of Bignonia xylocarpa. It is reputed to be a
valuable external application in skin diseases,
Jacaranda.—The bark of Jacaranda bahamensis is employed as an
anthelmintic in Panama. The leaves of J. lancifolia are said to be useful
in urethral inflammation; it has been used in the form of an extract.
Sparattosperma.—The leaves of Sparattosperma leucantha, a Brazilian
species, have powerful diuretic properties.
Tecoma.—Some species of Tecoma have astringent properties. The wood
of several plants of the order is used in Brazil.
Order 8. PEpattace®, the Pedalium Order. — Charac-
ter.—Glandular herbs. Leaves entire, exstipulate. Flowers
axillary, usually large and irregular. Calyx 5-partite. Corolla
bilabiate. Stamens didynamous with the rudiment of a fifth,
included ; anthers 2-celled. Ovary on a fleshy or glandular
disk, 1-celled, with two parietal placentas ; sometimes spuriously
4—6-celled ; style 1; stigma divided. Fruit bony or capsular.
Seeds wingless, without albumen ; embryo with large cotyledons,
and a short radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly tropical plants. llus-
tratiwe Genera :—Pedalium, Linn. ; Sesamum, Linn. There are
about 25 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for their oily seeds.
Pedalium Murex.---An infusion of the fresh leaves and stems has been
employed with success in India in dvsuria and gonorrheea. The fruit under
the name of Gokeroo or Gokhru is also used in India as a remedy for impo-
tence, nocturnal seminal emissions, and incontinence of urine.
Sesamum indicum.—The seeds yield by expression a fixed oil which is
largely used in India, Japan, France, &c., where it is regarded as an efficient
substitute for Olive Oil. It is also employed in the West Indies; and in
Egypt and Ceylon it is used for cleansing the skin and hair. It is also said
to be employed to adulterate Almond Oil. The Oil is known as Benne,
Sesamé, Til, Teel, Gingili, or Gingelly Oil. This oil is also obtained from
S. orientale, and both this plant and that of S. indicum are official in the
Pharmacopeeia of India, as its botanical source. Sesamé seeds are also
largely used as food in India and Tropical Africa. The leaves of both
plants are likewise official in the Pharmacopeeia of India, and are employed
638 ACANTHACEA.—SELAGINACEA.
in the form of an infusion, as a demulcent. In the United States they are
also sometimes used in the form of a poultice.
Order 9. ACANTHACES, the Acanthus Order.—Character.
—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves opposite or whorled, simple, exstipu-
late. Flowers irregular, bracteated, Calyx 4—5-partite, or con-
sisting of 4—5 sepals, persistent, much imbricate ; sometimes
obsolete. Corolla more or less 2-lipped. Stamens 2 or 4, in
the latter case didynamous. Ovary seated in a disk, 2-celled ;
placentas parietal, although extended to the axis; style 1.
Fruit capsular, 2-celled, with a variable number of seeds in each
cell. Seeds hanging by hard cup-shaped or hooked projections
of the placenta, without wings ; albwmen none ; cotyledons large
and fleshy ; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly tropical. Illustrative
Genera :—Acanthus, Tourn. ; Justicia, Nees. There are nearly
1,500 species.
Properties and Uses.—Generally unimportant ; but several
species are mucilaginous and bitter.
Acanthus.—The species of Acanthus have lobed and sinuated leaves, and
are said to have furnished the model of the Corinthian capital.
Andrographis.—The dried stalks and root of Andrographis paniculata
are official in the Pharmacopeeia of India. They are known under the
name of kariydt or creyat, and are held in high esteem in India for their
bitter tonic and stomachic properties.
Ruellia—From Ruellia indigotica a blue dye is obtained in China.
Cohort 4. Lamiales.—Flowers generally anisomerous. Corolla
usually irregular. Stamens epipetalous ; posterior stamen
commonly suppressed; usually four and didynamous, or
rarely only two. Carpels or cells each with 1 ovule or with
2 collateral ovules. Leaves always exstipulate.
Order 1. SELAGINACES, the Selago Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs, with alternate exstipulate leaves. lowers
irregular, unsymmetrical, sessile, bracteated. Calyx persistent,
usually monosepalous with a definite number of divisions, or
rarely consisting of two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, 5-
partite. Stamens 4, didynamous, or rarely 2 ; anthers 1-celled.
Ovary superior ; style 1, filiform; ovule solitary, pendulous.
Fruit 2-celled, with 1 pendulous seed in each cell. Seed with a
little fleshy albumen ; embryo with a superior radicle. In
Globularia there is but one carpel.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the Cape of
Good Hope. The species of Globularia are, however, European
plants. Illustrative Genera :—Selago, Linn. ; Globularia, Linn.
There are about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance.
Globularia—The Globularias are purgative and emetic. The leaves of
Globularia Alypum form the Wild Senna of Germany. In small doses they
VERBENACES, 639
act as a tonic, and in full doses as a safe, mild, and efficient purgative. They
have been sometimes employed on the Continent for the adulteration of the
official Senna ; and also, it is said, in the process of tanning. They contain
both tannic and gallic acids.
Order 2. VERBENACE, the Vervain Order.—C haracter.—
Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite or alternate, exsti-
pulate. Calyx (fig. 414) inferior, persistent, tubular. Corolla
irregular, usually more or less 2-lipped. Stamens 4, usually didy-
namous, or rarely equal ; or sometimes there are but 2 stamens ;
anthers 2-celled. Ovary (fig. 1022) 2—4-celled ; style 1, terminal
(fig. 1022) ; stigma undivided or bifid. Fruit dry or drupaceous,
composed of from 2—4 carpels, which when ripe usually separate
into as many 1-seeded achzenia. Seed erect or ascending, with
little or no albumen, and an inferior radicle.
Diagnosis.—Known at once from the Labiatze by their more
united carpels and terminal style.
‘ Distribution and Numbers.—They are found
Paes. both in temperate and tropical regions. T/lus-
trative Genera :— Verbena, Linn.; Clerodendron,
Iinn. There are above 660 species.
Properties and Uses.—Many of the plants are
slightly aromatic and bitter, but there are no
important medicinal plants included in this
order. Some are valuable timber trees; other
species have fleshy fruits, which are edible ; and
Fig. 1022. Pistil the leaves of a few are used as substitutes for
as a al China Tea. Many are cultivated in our gardens
for the beauty of their flowers or for their
fragrance, as the different species and varieties of Verbena, the
Aloysia citriodora, the Lemon-plant, &c.
Clerodendron.—The leaves of C. infortunatum, an Indian species, possess
tonic and antiperiodic properties.
Gmelina parvifolia and G. usiatica have demulcent properties.
Lantana pseudo-thea is used in the Brazils as tea, under the name of
Capitdo da matto. Some species of Lantana have edible fruits.
Premna.—The inner bark of P. taitensis, whichis known under the name
of ‘aro’ at Vanua Levu, is said to be one of the constituents of the remedy
now used under the name of ‘Tonga’ in certain forms of neuralgia. (See
also Rhaphidophora.)
Stachytarpha jamaicensis is reputed to be purgative, emmenagogue, and
anthelmintic. It is used medicinally in Liberia in the form of tea to pro-
duce abortion, and is there known under the name of ‘ Abortive Plant.’ Its
leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for, or to adulte-
rate, China tea ; this is known under the name of Brazilian Tea.
Tectona grandis, Indian Teak-tree or Indian Oak, is the source of the
very hard and durable wood known as East Indian Teak, which is much
employed in ship-building, &c.
Verbena.—The roots and leaves of Verbena hastata are reputed to have
excellent sudorific properties.
Vitex —Several species of this genus have acrid fruits, as those of V.
trifolia, Wild Pepper, V. Negundo, and V. Agnus-castus. ‘he fresh leaves
6-0 MYOPORACEX.—LABIATA.
of the two former species are in great repute in India for their discutient
properties. They are also regarded as anodyne, diuretic, and emmenagogue_
Order 3. MyoporacEx, the Myopora Order.—Diagnosis.—
This order is sometimes regarded as a sub-order of the Ver-
benaceze, from which it only differs essentially in having two
seeds in each cell of the fruit, and by the embryo having a
superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the southern
hemisphere. Jilustrative Genera:—Myoporum, Banks et Sol. ;
Avicennia, Linn. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The bark of Avicennia
tomentosa, White Mangrove, and other species, is much used in
Brazil for tanning.
Order 4. Laprat#, the Labiate Order.—-Character.—
Herbs ( fig. 398) or shrubby plants, with usually square stems.
Leaves opposite (fig. 393) or whorled, commonly strong-scented,
entire or divided, exstipulate. Flowers generally in axillary
cymes, which are arranged in a somewhat whorled manner so as
to form what are called verticillasters (fig. 393). Calyx inferior,
Fic. 1023. Fie. 1024.
Yih ais
Fig. 1023. Diagram of the flower of the White Dead-nettle (Lamium album).
—Fig. 1024. Flower of the common Bugle (Ajuga reptans).
persistent, either tubular, 5- or 10-toothed, and regular or
nearly so, or irregular and somewhat bilabiate, with 3—10
divisions ; the odd tooth or division always posterior (fig. 1023).
Corolla ( figs. 484-487, and 1025) usually more or less bilabiate,
with the upper lip undivided (jig. 484) or bifid (fig. 485), and
commonly more or less arched over the lower lip (jig. 484), or
sometimes nearly suppressed (fig. 1024); the lower lip 3-lobed
(fig. 1024), with the odd lobe anterior (fig. 1023); or rarely the
corolla is nearly regular. Stamens usually 4, and then com-
monly didynamous (jigs. 487, 1025, and 1026), or very rarely of
nearly equal length, or only two by abortion ; anthers 2-celled,
or 1-celled by abortion ; the filament or connective sometimes
forked, each branch then bearing a perfect cell, or the cell on
one side obsolete or sterile (fig. 1028). Ovary (figs. 609 and
1027) imbedded in the disk or thalamus, and formed of two
carpels, each of which has 2 deep lobes, with 1 erect ovule in
LABIATA. 641
each lobe ; style 1, basilar (figs. 609 and 1027) ; stigma bifid,
( figs. 609 and 1027). Fruit composed of from 1—4 acheenia,
enclosed by the persistent calyx. Seed erect, with little or no
albumen ; embryo erect, with flat cotyledons ; radicle inferior.
Diagnosis. —Herbs or shrubby plants, with opposite exstipu-
late leaves. Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical. Calyx persis-
tent. Corolla usually more or less bilabiate, with the odd lobe
anterior. Stamens usually 4 and then commonly didynamous,
or rarely of equal length ; or only 2 by abortion. Ovary deeply
4-lobed ; style 1, basilar; stigma bifid. Fruit consisting of
Fic. 1025. Fic. 1027. Fic. 1028.
Fig. 1025. Front view of the
flower of a species of Lamium.
Fig. 1026. The corolla of the
Garden Sage (Salvia officinalis )
cut open.— /Ff%g. 1027. The co-
rolla of the Horehound (Mar7-u-
bium vulgare) cut open. Fig.
1028. Lobed ovary, style, and
bifid stigma of the Garden Sage
(Salvia officinalis).
from 1—4 acheenia, enclosed by the persistent calyx. Seed
erect, with little or no albumen; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Mentha, Linn.; Salvia, Linn. ;
Origanum, Linn.; Lamium, Linn. There are nearly 2,600
species. .
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this large order are
entirely free from any deleterious qualities. They abound in
volatile oil, and are therefore commonly aromatic, carminative
and stimulant. All labiate plants also contain more or less of a
bitter extractive matter, and many of them possess an astringent
Tor
642 LABIATA.
principle, hence they are frequently tonic and _ stomachic.
Several are used in perfumery on account of their agreeable
odours ; and many are employed by the cook for flavouring, such
as Thymus vulgaris (Garden Thyme), Thymus citriodorus (Lemon
Thyme), Salvia officinalis (Sage), Origanum vulgare (Marjoram),
Majorana hortensis (Sweet Marjoram), Satwreta montana (Win-
ter Savory), Satwreia hortensis (Summer Savory). &c. The
fleshy underground stems of Stachys palustris and of a species
of Ocymum are edible.
Anisomelos malabarica is in great repute in Southern India as a remedy
in intermittent fevers, catarrhal affections, &c. ‘
Hedeoma pulegioides, American Pennyroyal, is much used in the United
States (where the leaves and tops are official) as an emmenagogue, and also
occasionally as a stimulant and carminative.
Lavandula.—The flowers of I. vera, Common Lavender, yield by distil-
lation with water English Oil of Lavender, which is official in the British
Pharmacopeeia; it is largely used in perfumery, and also in medicine as a
stimulant, stomachic, and carminative. The flowers and leaves are likewise
occasionally employed as a sternutatory. The flowers of LZ. spica, French
Lavender, yield Oil of Spike or Foreign Oil of Lavender, which has a much
less agreeable odour than the English Oil; it is not employed medicinally,
but principally by painters and varnish-makers, and to adulterate English
Oil of Lavender.—L. Stechas also vields by distillation an essential oil,
which is commonly distinguished as the True Oil of Spike.
Marrubium vulgare, Common Horehound, is much employed as a domestic
remedy in coughs, &c. The leaves and tops are official in the United States
Pharmacopeeia.
Melissa officinalis, Common Balm, possesses mild stimulant properties.
It is used as a diaphoretic in fevers, as an exhilarating drink in nervous
affections, and as an emmenagogue.
Mentha, Mint.—Several species are employed in medicine, and as sweet
herbs. The volatile oils of two species are official in the British Pharma-
copeia, namely, of M. viridis, Spearmint, and of M. piperita, Peppermint.—
M. Pulegium, Pennyroyal, M. rotundifolia, M. aquatica, M. arvensis, and
others, have similar properties. The stearoptene called menthol, which is
official in the British Pharmacopeeia, is said to be derived from M. arven-
sis, vars. piperascens et glabrata, and M. piperita. It has been largely used
as an external application for relieving neuralgia. It has also powerful
antiseptic properties ;.and acts internally as a diffusible stimulant. All
the species and varieties are more or less aromatic, stimulant, and carmi-
native.
Micromeria Thea-sinensis is used in France as a substitute for China Tea.
Monarda.—M. punctata, Horsemint, is used medicinally in the United
States. In its properties it resembles the ordinary mints, but it is more
stimulating. This plant is also one of the sources of the official thymol. (See
Thymus vulgaris.) —M. fistu’osa is said to be febrifugal. The leaves of M.
didyma and M. purpurea are used in North America as tea under the name
of Oswego Tea. The flowers of IZ. didyma contain a colouring principle like
cochineal, and have been used for the preparation of a kind of carmine.
Nepeta Cataria, Catmint.—The leaves and tops are used in the United
States, and resemble the ordinary Mints in their properties,
Ocymum.— O. album is used in India as tea, which is known as Toolsie
Tea.—O. sanctum, O. Basilicum, and other species, are reputed throughout
India to possess stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant properties.
Origanum.—O. vulgare, Common or Wild Marjoram, has similar pro
perties to the other labiate plants. The herb is official in the United States
PLANTAGINACEA. 643
Pharmacopeia. The dried leaves have been employed as a substitute for
China Tea. Hanbury first proved that the red volatile oil commonly sold
in the shops as Oleum Origani or Oil of Thyme, is obtained by distillation
from Thymus vulgaris. This oil is imported from the South of France.—
O. Dictamnus, Dittany of Crete, is said to have febrifugal properties. The
herb O. Majorana (Majorana hortensis), Sweet Marjoram, possesses similar
properties, and was formerly official in this country. Several species of
Origanum are used by the cook for flavouring, as O. vulgare, Common
Marjoram, O. Majorana or Majorana hortensis, Sweet Marjoram, &c.
Pogostemon Patchouli, Pucha-Pat or Patchouly.—This plant is a native
of Silhet and the Malayan Peninsula. The dried tops are imported and
yield by distillation a strong-scented volatile oil, called Oil of Patchouli,
which has been much employed in perfumery. The coarsely powdered herb
is also used for making sachets.
Rosmarinus officinalis, Common Rosemary. The flowering tops contain
a volatile oil which imparts to them stimulant and carminative properties.
This oil is official in the British Pharmacopeeia. Rosemary is however
chiefly used in perfumery, and by the hairdresser. The flavour of Narbonne
honey is said to be due to the bees feeding on the flowers of this plant. The
dried leaves are sometimes used as a substitute for China Tea.
Salvia officinalis, Common or Garden Sage.—The leaves were formerly
much employed as tea. They are official in the United States Pharma-
copeia. An infusion of Sage is frequently used in the United States asa
gargle in common sore-throat and when the uvula is relaxed. It is also
stimulant, carminative, and anti-emetic. Sage is also employed by th» cook
as a flavouring agent, &c.
Satureia juliana, called in Sicily erva de ibb‘si, is much used as a remedy
in intermittent fevers—S. hortensis, Summer Savory, and S. montana,
Winter Savory, are in common use by the cook for flavouring.
Scutellaria.—The substance termed seutellarin is obtained from S, lateri-
flora. It is said to be a nervine stimulant.
Thymus vulgaris, Common or Garden Thym,>, yields by distillation the
volatile oil known as Oil of Thyme, which is offizial in the United States
Pharmacopeeia ; it is a powerful local stimulant. It is chiefl~ used in
veterinary practice. Itisalso employed for scenting svaps. (See Origanum.)
The stearoptene obtained from oil of thyme, and known 9s thymol, is a
powerful disinfectant, and is employed, like earbolic acid, for surgical
dressings. It is official in the British Pharmacopeeia, and is derived not
only from Thymus vulgaris, but also from Monarda punctata, another Labiate
plant, and Carum Ajowan, of the order Umbellifere. This and other species
of Thymus are also employed by the cook as flavouring agents, &c. (See
Properties and Uses, p. 642.)
Trichostemma lanatum.—A decoction of the leaves of this plant, called
by the Mexicans Romero, is used to impart a black colour to the hair, and
to promote its growth.
Order 5. PLANTAGINACES, the Ribwort Order. —Cha-
racter.— Herbs, generally without aerial stems (fig. 1029).
Leaves commonly ribbed and radical (fig. 1029). Flowers
usually spiked (fig. 415) and perfect (fig. 1030), or rarely
solitary, and sometimes unisexual. Calyx persistent, 4-partite,
imbricate (fig. 1030). Corolla dry and membranous, persistent,
4-partite (fig. 1030). Stamens equal in number to the divisions
of the corolla, and alternate with them (jig. 1030) ; filaments
long and slender; anthers versatile. Ovary simple, but spuri-
ously 2- or sometimes 4-celled from the prolongation of processes
from the placenta; style and stigma entire (fig. 1030), or the
Pez
G44 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN GAMOPETALA.
latter is rarely cleft. Capsule membranous, with transverse de-
hiscence ; placenta free central. Seeds 1, 2, or more, with a
mucilaginous testa ; embryo transverse, in fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—They abound in cold or tem-
perate climates, but are more or less diffused over the globe.
Illustrative Genera :—Littorella, Linn. ; Plantago, Linn. There
are above 100 species.
Fie. 1029.
Fic. 1030.
Fig. 1029. Plant of a species of
Rib-grass (Plantago ), with ra-
dical leaves. —— Fig. 1030.
Flower of the same.
Properties and Uses.—Generally of little importance ; but
some are demulcent, and others astringent.
Plantago.—The seeds of Plantago Ispaghula, P. amplexicaulis, P. ciliata,
P. Psyllium, P. Cynops, and others, are demulcent, and may be used in the
preparation of mucilaginous demulcent drinks ; those of the first species are
official in the Pharmacopeeia of India, and are commonly there known by
the Persian name of Jspaghul, or as Spogel seeds. ‘The three first species
are natives of India, but the two latter are European. The leaves and
roots of P. lanceolata and some other species are slightly bitter and astrin-
gent.
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Series of the Sub-class
GAMOPETALZ 07 COROLLIFLORA.
* * A few orders belonging to the Sub-class Polypetale, the flowers of which
are sometimes monopetalous, are also included in this analysis.
Series 1. INFERZ or EPIGYNA.
1. Ovary inferior.
A. Carpel solitary.
a. Anthers united.
Ovule solitary, pendulous . ’ : . Calyceracex.
Ovule solitary, erect near . . Composite.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN GAMOPETALA, 645
b. Anthers distinct.
Fruit with 1 perfect cell, and 2 rudimentary ones.
Seed exalbuminous : : - :
Fruit 1-celled, and without any rudimentary
one. Seed albuminous 2 : : :
B. Carpels more than one.
a. Anthers united.
Leaves alternate . . ‘ ‘ as
b. Anthers distinct.
1. Stamens 2.
Filaments not united to the style : .
Filaments united to the style . .
2. Stamens more than 2.
Anthers opening by pores or slits . .
Anthers opening longitudinally.
Stigma with an indusium : ‘ :
Stigma without an indusium.
Leaves without stipules.
Stamens definite.
Leaves alternate. Corolla persistent
Leaves opposite. Stem round :
Leaves verticillate. Stem square.
Stamens numerous , 3 F °
Leaves with stipules.
Stipules interpetiolar. Flowers herma-
phrodite . - : : - S
Stipules cirrhose. Flowers unisexual
Series 2 and 3. Superz and DICARPLE OR
2. Ovary superior.
Carpels more than one.
a. Anthers opening by pores or slits, x b
b. Anthers opening longitudinally.
1. Anthers I-celled . P ‘ *
2. Anthers 2-celled.
Plants with dotted leaves. é : -
Parasitic brown scaly plants. : °
A. Flowers regular.
a. Ovary lobed.
Inflorescence scorpioidal. stivation of corolla
imbricate . : ; : : : :
Inflorescence straight. Corolla with a valvate
wstivation. Leaves exstipulate . .
b. Ovary not lobed.
1. Carpels more than three, distinct or combined.
Stamens equal in number to the petals and
opposite them.
Stems herbaceous. Style 1. Fruit a cap-
sule . . : : . . .
Valerianacex.
Dipsacex.
Lobeliacezx.
Columelliacezx.
Stylidiacex.
Vacciniacee.
Goodeniacez.
Campanulacezx.
Caprifoliacez.
Rubiacex.
Belvisiacex.
Rubiacez.
Cucurbitacez.
BICARPELLAT-E.
Ericacex.
E’pacridicex.
Rutacex.
Monotropacex,
Boraginacer.
Nolanacee.
Primulacez.
646
Stem woody. Style1. Fruit feebr inde-
hiscent . . .
Stem herbaceous or woody. " Styles 5,
(rarely 3 or 4). Fruit membranous .
Stamens not opposite the petals if of the same
number.
Carpels distinct.
Seeds numerous . ° . .
Seeds few .
Carpels combined. Ovary 2- or more celled.
Ovules erect or ascending.
stivation of the corolla plaited.
Fruit dry ‘
Zstivation of the corolla ‘imbricate.
Fruit fleshy . :
Ovules pendulous or suspended, or rarely
partly ascending.
Stamens twice or four times as many
as the lobes of the coroila, distinct.
Stamens equal in number to the lobes
of the corolla. Filaments distinct.
Anthers adnate.
Stamens equal in number to the lobes
of the corolla. Filaments distinct.
Anthers versatile . -
Some of the ovules occasionally as-
cending. Filaments more or less
cohering - 5 4 : :
2. Carpels three, combined so as to form a 3-
celled ovary.
Stem herbaceous.
Disk hypogynous
Stem woody.
No disk , ;
Carpels two, combined or more or less dis-
tinct.
Stamens 2 :
Stamens 4 or more.
pioidal.
Fruit a capsule, 1-celled or imperfectly
2-celled . : ;
Fruit drupaceous, 2- or more ‘celled
Stamens 4 or more. Inflorescence straight.
Leaves alternate.
Calyx in a broken whorl . :
Calyx in a complete whorl.
Anthers united to the stigma 2
Anthers free from the stigma.
Placentas parietal ; .
Placentas axile.
Aistivation of corolla valvate,
induplicate-valvate, or im-
bricate - ‘
Leaves opposite, whorled, or clustered.
Anthers united to the stigma .
Anthers free from the stigma.
Leaves with stipules. .
Leaves without stipules.
Stigma shaped like an hour-glass.
ZEstivation of corolla contorted
»
Od
Inflorescence scor-
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN GAMOPETAL.
Myrsinacee.
Plumbaginacez.
Crassulacex.
Anonaceex.
Convolvulacezx.
Sapotacex.
Ebenacezx.
Aquifoliacex.
Cordiacex.
Styracez.
Polemoniacezx.
Diapensiacer.
Oleacex.
Hydrophyllacex.
Ehretiacez.
Convolvulacex.
Asclepiudacez.
Gentianaceex.
Solanacex.
Asclepiadacex. 2
Loganiacex.
Apocynacer.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN
Stigma not contracted in the
middle like an hour-glass.
AXstivation of corollaimbricate.
GAMOPETALA.
647
Placentas parietal ‘ . Gentianacex.
ZEstivation of corolla valvate.
Placentas axile . ; . Stilbacezx.
4, Carpel solitary.
Stamens opposite the lobes of the corolla or
petals : Plumbaginaceex.
Stamens alternate ‘to the lobes of the caralta:
Fruit 1-celled. Stigma sessile . 2 Salvadoraceex.
Fruit spuriously 2- celled or rarely 4- celled.
Style capillary . : : R
B. Flowers irregular.
a. Ovary 4-lobed. ° : : :
b. Ovary not lobed.
1. Carpel solitary . ° . - .
2. Carpels two.
Fruit hard or nut-like.
Anthers 1-celled : + °
Anthers 2-celled. Ovules er ect.
Corolla imbricate in xstivation .
Corolla valvate in estivation :
Anthers 2-celled. Ovules pendulous
Fruit capsular or succulent.
Placentas parietal.
Leafless scaly brown root parasites
Leafy plants. Seeds with wings .
Leafy plants. Seeds without wings.
. Plantaginacexr.
. Labiate.
Selaginacex.
Selaginacex.
- Verbenacex.
. Stilbacezr.
- Myoporacezx.
. Orobanchacex,
» Bignoniacex.
Fruit a capsule or baccate. Cotyledons
nunute, radicle long : - Gesneracex.
Fruit bony or a capsule. Cotyledons
large, radicle short. 2 Pedaliacex.
Fruit woody with a pulpy interior.
Cotyledons large, radicle short
Placentas axile.
Seeds without wings.
Albuminous.
Exalbuminous. Seeds attached to
hard placental processes »
Seeds winged. Exalbuminous .
Placentas free central . - .
There are many exceptions to the characters
petalz or Corolliflore. ‘Thus, among the Inter
. Crescentiacer.
Scrophulariacezx.
- Acanthaceex.
- Bignoniacee.
. Lentibulariacez.
above given of the Gamo-
or Epigyne we sometimes
find polypetalous corollas in Caprifoliaceew and Lobeliucex, and the ovary is
sometimes superior in Goodeniacew. In the Supere and Dicarpie, poly-
petalous species are more or less found in HL’ricacew, Monotropacex, Epacri-
dacexw, Styracex, Oleacex, Primulacex, Myrsinacex, and Plumbaginaceex.
Again, among the Super and Dicarpie we occasionally find the ovary
inferior, or partly so, as in Lbenacew, Styracex, Myrsinacex, Primulacex,
and always in Gesneracew and Vacciniacer.
In Oleacew and Primulacex, apetalous species sometimes occur ; and
unisexual species are also occasionally found in Valerianacex, Composite,
Ebenacex, Myrsinacex, and Plantaginacex, and other exceptions have been
already noted,
648 NYCTAGINACEA. °
Sub-class IIT. Monochlamydeex or Incomplete. —
This sub-class is frequently arranged in two sub-divisions,
which are called, respectively, the Angiospermia and Gymno-
spermia ; but the plants of the latter group present such striking
differences in their characters from those of other Dicoty-
ledones, that they are now more generally placed in a division
by themselves, as is the case in this volume, at the end of the
Phanerogamia. '
In this sub-class we follow in all essential particulars the
arrangement of the Orders and characters of the Cohorts, as
given by Sir Joseph Hooker in the English edition of Le Maout
and Decaisne’s ‘Traité Général de Botanique,’ instead of that
adopted by Bentham and Hooker in ‘ Genera Plantarum,’ where
the following ‘Series’ are given instead of ‘Cohorts’ :—1.
Curvembryee. 2. Multiovulatz aquatice. 3. Multiovulatz
terrestres. 4. Micrembryez. 5. Daphnales. 6. Achlamydo-
sporee. 7. Unisexuales. 8. Ordines anomali. For a full
description of the characters of these Series, and for lists of the
Orders grouped under them respectively, reference should be
made to ‘ Genera Plantarum.’
Series 1. Supere.
Cohort 1. Chenopodiales.— Flowers usually hermaphrodite,
or sometimes unisexual. Calyx green or coloured, generally
regular ; tube short or absent ; segments imbricate in esti-
vation. Ovary superior, generally simple, or rarely com-
pound ; ovule solitary, basal, or rarely 2 or more. Seeds
usually albuminous, or rarely exalbuminous; embryo gene-
rally curled or coiled. Usually herbs or shrubs, or very
rarely trees.
Order 1. NycTaGInacE#, the Marvel of Peru Order.—
Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with the stems usually
tumid at the joints. Leaves generally opposite and entire.
Flowers with an involucre. Calyx* tubular or funnel-shaped,
often coloured, plaited in estivation, contracted towards the
middle, its base persistent and ultimately becoming indurated
and forming a spurious pericarp. Stamens 1 or many, hy-
pogynous. Ovary superior, 1-celled; ovule solitary; style 1;
stigma 1. Frwit a utricle, enclosed by the hardened persistent
base of the calyx. Seed solitary ; embryo coiled round mealy
albumen (fig. 781), with foliaceous cotyledons, and an inferior
radicle.
* When there is but one floral envelope in Dicotyledons, we call that the
calyx, whatever be its colour or other peculiarity, in which nomenclature
we follow the example of Lindley. By most botanists, however, the term
perianth is employed in such cases, but we use that name only in speaking
of Monocotyledons. (See page 223.)
AMARANTACEX.—CHENOPODIACE. 649
Distribution and Nunbers.—Natives exclusively of warm
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Mirabilis, Linn.; Pisonia, Plium.
There are about 100 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for the presence of
a purgative property in their roots; which is especially the case
with those of Mirabilis Jalapa and M. longiflora. M. dicho-
toma, Marvel of Peru, is commonly known by the name of the
Four-o’clock Plant, from opening its flowers in the afternoon.
Boerhaavia diffusa is said to possess expectorant properties.
Order 2. AMARANTACE®, the Amaranth Order.—C harac-
ter.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, exstipulate, opposite or
alternate. Flowers crowded, spiked or capitate, bracteated,
hermaphrodite or occasionally unisexual. Calyx of 3—5 sepals,
dry and scarious, inferior, persistent, often coloured, imbricate.
Stamens 5, hypogynous and opposite to the sepals, or a multiple
of that number; anthers 2- or 1-celled. Ovary free, 1-celled,
with 1 or more ovules; style 1 or none; stigma simple or
compound. fruit a utricle or caryopsis, or sometimes baccate.
Seeds 1 or more, pendulous; embryo curved round mealy albu-
men; radicle next the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
most abundant in tropical regions ; and are altogether unknown
in the coldest climates. Tllustrative Genera:—Celosia, Lin. ;
Amarantus, Linn. There are nearly 500 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Amarantus spinosus and
other Indian species possess mucilaginous properties. Another
Indian species, Achyranthes aspera, is also reputed to be astrin-
gent and diuretic. Gomplhrena officinalis and G. macrocephala
are used in Brazil in intermittent fevers, diarrhoea, and some
other diseases. Some of the species have bright-coloured persis-
tent flowers, and are hence cultivated in our gardens, as Amaran-
tus caudatus, Love-lies-bleeding ; Amarantus hypochondriacus,
Prince’s-feathers ; Celosia cristata, Cockscomb ; and others.
Order 3. CHENOPODIACE®, the Goosefoot Order.—Charac-
ter.— Herbs or wndershrubs, more or less succulent. Leaves
exstipulate, usually alternate, rarely opposite. Flowers minute,
greenish, usually ebracteated, hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Calyx persistent (fig. 696), usually divided nearly to the base
(fig. 29), imbricate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes
of the calyx and opposite to them (fig. 29), or rarely fewer,
hypogynous or inserted into the base of the lobes; anthers 2-
celled. Ovary superior (fig. 29) or partly inferior, 1-celled,
with a single ovule attached to its base; style (jig. 29) usually
in 2—4 divisions, rarely simple. Fruit usually an achenium or
utricle (fig. 696), or sometimes baccate. Seed solitary; embryo
coiled into a ring or spiral, with or without albumen ; radicle
towards the hilum.
650 CHENOPODIACEA.
Diagnosis.—They are chiefly distinguished from the Nycta-
ginacez by their habit and commonly ebracteated flowers.
Distribution and Numbers.—More or less distributed over
the globe, but most abundant in extratropical regions. Illus-
trative Genera:—Salicornia, Tourn.; Beta, Tourn.; Salsola,
Linn. There are above 500 species.
Properties and Uses.—Several plants of this order inhabit
salt-marshes, and yield by combustion an ash called barilla, from
which carbonate of soda was formerly principally obtained; but
their use for this purpose has much fallen off of late years, in
consequence of soda being more readily extracted from other
sources. The plants which thus yield barilla principally
belong to the genera Salsola, Salicornia, Chenopodium, and
Atriplex. Many plants of the order are esculent, as Beet and
Mangel-Wurzel or Mangold Wurzel; and some are used as pot-
herbs, as Spinach or Spinage (Spinacia oleracea), Garden Orache
or Mountain Spinach (Atriplex hortensis), and English Mercury
(Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus). The seeds of others are nutri-
tious; and several contain volatile oil, which renders them
anthelmintic, antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, or stimu-
lant.
Beta.—The root of Beta vulgaris, the Common Beet, is used as a salad,
and as a vegetable. It is largely cultivated on the Continent and elsewhere
as a source of sugar. ‘Two varieties of the Beet are commonly grown for
sugar ; namely, that which is known under the name of Betterave & Sucre,
and the White or Silesian Beet (Beta Cicla) ; the latter being the most
esteemed. In 1868 about 8,000,000 tons of Beet-root were grown, yielding
about 650,000 tons of sugar. "Attempts have been made of late years to
ZTOwW Beet in this country, and there can be little doubt but that there are
many districts in which it might be cultivated with success. The grated
root or sugar cake, and the molasses, which are refuse substances obtained
in the manufacture of beet sugar, are also useful; the former for feeding
cattle; and the latter, when mixed with water, slightly acidulated with
sulphuric acid, and submitted to fermentation, yields from 24 to 30 per cent.
of spirit, which is said to be used to adulterate brandy like potato spirit.
A variety of the Common Beet ( Beta vulgaris macr orhiza) is usually regarded
as the Mangel-Wurzel, so much employed as a food for cattle ; but some look
upon B. maritima as the source of both the Mangel-Wurzel and the varieties
of the Garden Beet.—B. maritima is sometimes used as a substitute for spinach
or greens. The petioles and midribs of the leaves of the large White or
Swiss Chard Beet, Bete Cycla, var., form the favourite vegetable of the
French termed Poiré ée & carde; it is eaten like Sea Kale or Asparagus,
Chenopodium.—The seeds of C. Quinoa contain starch granules, which
are remarkable for being the smallest hitherto noticed, ‘These seeds are
known under the name of petty rice, and are a common article of food in
Peru.—C. Bonus-Henricus, as already mentioned, may be used.as a pot-herb.
The fruits of C. ambrosioides, Linn., var. anthelminticum, Gray, under the name
of American Worm-seed, are largely employed in the United States for their
anthelmintic properties. They “also possess to some extent antispasmodic
qualities. The herb generally has similar properties. These effects are due
to the presence of a highly odorous volatile oil. Both the oil and fruits are
official in the United States Pharmacopeia.—C. Botrys is reputed to possess
somewhat similar properties, but is not so powerful. —C. ambrosioides is also
employed in Mexico and Columbia as tea, which is hence known as Mexican
BASELLACEA.—PHYTOLACCACEA, 651
Tea.—C. Vulvaria or olidum, Stinking Goosefoot, is an indigenous plant.
It is a popular emmenagogue and antispasmodic.
Order 4. BasELLacE®, the Basella Order.—Diagnosis.—
This isa small order of climbing herbs or shrubs closely allied
to Chenopodiacez, but chiefly distinguished by its plants having
two rows of coloured sepals, and by their stamens being evi-
dently perigynous. There are about 12 species, all of which
are tropical plants. This is made a sub-order of Chenopodiacex
by Bentham and Hooker.
Properties and Uses.—Basella rubra and B. alba are used in
the East Indies as a substitute for Spinach. From the former
species a purple dye may be also obtained. The fleshy roots of
Ullucus tuberosus or Melloca tuberosa are largely used in Peru
and some of the adjoining countries as a substitute for the
Potato.
Order 5. Puyrotaccaces, the Phytolacca Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs or wndershrubs. Leaves alternate, entire, ex-
stipulate. Flowers hermaphrodite or very rarely unisexual,
racemose. Calyx 4—5-partite. Stamens nearly or quite hypo-
gynous, either equal in number to the divisions of the calyx
and alternate with them, or more numerous ; mther's 2-celled.
Ovary superior, composed of 2 or more carpels, distinct or more
or less combined; styles and stigmas distinct, equal in number
to the carpels. rwit dry or succulent, each carpel of which it
is composed containing 1 ascending seed ; embryo curved round
mealy albumen ; radicle next the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives principally of America,
India, and Africa. Illustrative Genera :—Giesekia, Linn.; Phy-
tolacca, Tourn. There are about 80 species.
Properties and Uses.—An acrid principle is more or less dif-
fused throughout the plants of this order; but this is frequently
destroyed by boiling in water. Some are emetic and purgative.
Giesekia pharnaceoides.—The fresh plant of this Indian species is reputed
to be a powerful anthelmintic in cases of tzenia.
Gyrostemon.—This genus, from its unisexual flowers and twin suspended
ovules, &c., is sometimes regarded as the type of a distinct order, Gyroste-
monacez, but it is placed here by Bentham and Hooker. It has no known
uses.
Phytolacca—tThe roots and fruits of P. decandra, Poke or Pocan, are
employed in the United States for their emetic and purgative properties.
They are also reputed to be somewhat narcotic. The ripe fruits have been
used in chronic rheumatism and in syphilitic affections. A substance named
phytolaccin is prepared from the roots and seeds, and has similar properties.
Its young shoots boiled in water are eaten in the United States as Asparagus ;
those of P. acinosa are also similarly eaten in the Himalayas. A species of
Phytolacca, which has been named P. electrica,a native of Nicaragua, is
said to give a sensible shock, as from a galvanic battery, to any person
attempting to gather a branch. It is also stated that the needle of the
compass is affected by proximity to it.
652 PETIVERIACEXZ.—POLYGONACEA.
Order 6. PETIVERIACE#, the Petiveria Order.— Diagnosis, &e.
This is a small order of plants, which is included by some
botanists, as Bentham and Hooker, in Phytolaccacez, with
which it agrees in many particulars. It is distinguished from
that order by having stipulate leaves, an ovary formed of a
single carpel, exalbuminous seeds, and a straight embryo with
convolute cotyledons. These plants are natives of tropical
America. There are about 12 species in this order.
Properties and Uses.—Most of the species are acrid, and
some have a strong alliaceous odour.
Petiveria—Petiveria alliacea, Guinea-hen Weed, is reputed to be sudorific
and emmenagogue, and its roots are used in the West Indies as a remedy
for toothache. It is also commonly put into warm baths which are used to
restore the action of paralysed limbs.
Order 7. Potyeonace&#, the Buckwheat Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs or rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, com-
monly with ochreate stipules above the swollen joints (nodes) of
Pie: 103.
Fiest032:
Fig. 1031. Flower of
a species of Polygo-
num.——Fig. 1032.
Pistil of a species
of Rumex.
the stem (fig. 21, d), or rarely exstipulate. Flowers perfect
(fig. 1031), or sometimes unisexual. Calyx inferior (jig. 1021),
of from 3—6 sepals, more or less persistent, imbricate. Stamens
few (fig. 1031), hypogynous or rarely perigynous ; anthers de-
hiscing longitudinally. Ovary superior (fig. 1031), 1-celled ;
styles and stigmas 2—3 (fig. 1031); ovule solitary, orthotropous.
Fruit usually a triangular nut, and commonly enveloped in the
persistent calyx. Seed solitary, erect (fig. 780) ; generally with
farinaceous albumen ; embryo (fig. 780, pl) antitropous.
Diagnosis.—Usually herbs with ochreate stipules. Leaves
simple, alternate. Calyx inferior, persistent, imbricate. Stamens
definite. Ovary 1-celled; styles and stigmas 2—3. Fruit
triangular. Seed solitary, erect, usually with mealy albumen,
radicle superior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Generally diffused over the
globe, and more particularly so in temperate regions. llus-
trative Genera:—Rheum, Linn. ; Polygonum, Linn. ; Coccoloba,
Jacq. ; Rumex, Linn. There are about 500 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for the presence of
acid, astringent, or purgative properties. The acidulous cha-
POLYGONACEA. 653
racter is principally due to the presence of salts of oxalic acid.
The fruits and roots of several species are more or less nutritious.
Coccoloba uvifera, Seaside Grape.—From the leaves, wood, and bark
of this species a very astringent extract is obtained, which is commonly
known as Jamaica Kino. The fruit is acid and edible, but not much
esteemed.
Fagopyrum.—tThe fruits of F'. esculentum (Polygonum Fagopyrum), Com-
mon Buckwheat or Saracen Corn, of F. tataricym, and other species, are used
as a substitute for corn in the northern parts of Asia and Eastern Europe,
and also in Brittany and other parts of the world. The former species is
cultivated in Britain as food for pheasants. This plant when in flower pro-
duces an effect on many animals resembling intoxication, and a case has
been reported within the last few years in which many lambs were in this
way stupefied and ultimately killed by it.
Polygonum.—The rhizome of P. Bistorta, commonly called Bistort root,
is a powerful astringent, which property is due essentially to the pre-
sence of tannic acid. Starch is also one of its constituents, hence it pos-
sesses, to some extent, nutritive properties, and is sometimes eaten, when
roasted, in Siberia. The young shoots and leaves have been used from an
early period in the North of England as a pot-herb under the name of Pas-
sions, probably from the plant being in perfection for such a purpose about
Eastertide. The roots of P. viviparum are also used as food by the Esqui-
maux. The leaves of P. Hydropiper are very acrid, hence the common name
of Water-pepper which is given to this plant. This species also yields a
yellow dye. From P. tinctorium a blue dye resembling indigo is obtained
in France, &c. The Chinese produce a blue dye from several species of
Polygonum.
Rheum, Rhubarb.—The species of this genus usually possess more or
less purgative and astringent properties; this is especially the case with
their roots, and hence these are largely used in medicine. Various species
of Rhubarb are indigenous or cultivated in different parts of the world, but
until recently the botanical source of our official rhubarb root was unknown,
and cannot even now be said to have been absolutely determined. It seems,
however, almost certain that whilst the plant described by Baillon under
the name of Rheum officinale may vield some of it, that the source of the
best official rhubarb—namely, that which formerly came to us by way of
Kiachta, and commonly known as Russian Rhubarb—is derived from R, pal-
matum, a plant which is a native of Tangut, in Kansu, the extreme north-
western province of China. In this province rhubarb is principally obtained
from wild plants, but also to some extent from cultivated ones. Rhubarb from
this species is also derived from the Chinese provinces of Szechuen and Shensi.
The rhubarb thus obtained from R. palmatum is chiefly exported by way of
Shanghai, but also to a small extent from other ports, as Tientsin, Canton,
Amoy, and Foochow. In the British Pharmacopceia the root is said to be
derived from R. palmatum, R. officinale, and probably other species. The
kind known as Indian or Himalayan Rhubarb is the produce of several
species, but more especially of R. Moorcroftianum, R. australe, and R.
Emod', English Rhubarb is chiefly derived from R. Rhaponticum, and is
now much used in the hospitals of this country, and in America, but it is
not so active as the official rhubarb, although probably equally efficacious
when given in sufficient doses. Some English rhubarb is also obtained from
R. officinale, which is now also cultivated in this country. The petioles of
R. Ribes are employed in the East for the preparation of sherbet. The
petioles of R, Rhapenticum and other species are used for tartsand puddings.
Their acidulous character is principally due to the presence of oxalic acid.
The roots of the species of Rheum contain abundance of calcium oxalate
crystals (conglomerate raphides). (See page 34.)
654 BATIDACEX.—PODOSTEMACEZ.—MONIMIACE.
Rumex.—Several species possess acid properties owing to the presence of
a potassium salt of oxalic acid, commonly termed salt of sorrel, especially
R. acetosa, common Sorrel, R. Acetosella, R. scutatus, and R. Patientia.
They have been employed as pot herbs, and for salads.—R. acetosa is some-
times used medicinally for its refrigerant, diuretic, and antiscorbutie pro-
perties. The root of R. Hydrolapathum, Great Water Dock, is astringent
and antiscorbutic. The roots of R. alpinus are purgative, and were formerly
employed instead of Rhubarb under the name of Monk’s Rhubarb. The
substance known as rumicin is prepared from the root of Rumex crispus. It
is said to possess astringent, tonic, and antiscorbutic properties.
The two following orders have no close affinities to any other
orders, and are therefore not put in any cohort by Hooker, but
placed under the head of ‘ Orders of Dubious Affinities.’
Order 1. BatipacE®, the Batis Order.—This supposed dis-
tinct order only contains a single plant, the Batis maritima, a
succulent shrubby species, with opposite leaves, and unisexual
flowers arranged in amenta ; it is a native of the West Indies,
where it is occasionally used as an ingredient in pickles. Its
ashes also yield barilla. Some authors regard this genus as
belonging to Chenopodiaceze.
Order 2. PopostEMAcEe, the Podostemon Order.—
Character.—Aquatic herbs with the aspect of Mosses or
Liverworts. Leaves minute and densely imbricate, or finely
divided. Flowers minute, generally hermaphrodite, or very
rarely unisexual, spathaceous. Calyx absent, or of 3 sepals.
Stamens 1 or many, hypogynous; aithers 2-celled. Ovary
superior, 2—3-celled ; stigmas 2—3 ; ovules ascending, numerous.
Fruit capsular, ribbed, with parietal or axile placentation. Seeds
numerous, exalbuminous, with a straight embryo.
Distribution and Numbers.—Principally natives of South
America. Illustrative Genera :—Hydrostachys, Thouars; Podo-
stemon, L. C. &. There are about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Some species of Lacis
are used for food on the Rio Negro, &c., in South America ;
and other plants of the order are eaten by cattle and fish.
Cohort 2. Lawrales.— Flowers unisexual or hermaphrodite.
Calyx green or coloured, generally regular. Ovary superior,
1-celled ; stigma simple; ovule solitary. Seeds albuminous
or exalbuminous ; embryo straight.
Order 1. Monimtacem, the Monimia Order.—Diagnosis.—
Trees or shrubs, with opposite exstipulate leaves. Flowers
axillary, unisexual. The flowers generally resemble those of the
Atherospermacez, but they differ in always being unisexual ;
in the longitudinal dehiscence of their anthers ; in the absence
of feathery styles to the fruit ; and in their ovules and seeds
being pendulous.
ATHEROSPERMACEZ,—MYRISTICACE, 655
Distribution and Numbers.—They are principally natives of
South America, but are found also in Australia, Java, Mada-
gascar, Mauritius, and New Zealand. Illustrative Genera :—
Monimia, Thouars ; ; Peumus, Pers. There are about 40
species.
Properties and Uses.—They are aromatic fragrant plants, but
their properties are of no great importance.
Peumus Boldus or Boldoa fragrans.—The leaves of this plant, which is
a native of Chili, under the name of Boldo, have been recommended as
a remedy in diseases of the liver, but their use has not been attended with
any marked success in European practice, The fruits are edible.
Order 2. ATHEROSPERMACE%, the Plume Nutmeg Order.—
Character.—Trees, with opposite exstipulate leaves. Flowers
axillary, racemose, bracteated, unisexual or rarely perfect.
Calyx inferior, tubular, with several divisions. Male flowers
with numerous perigynous stamens ; anthers 2-celled, opening
by recurved valves. Female flower usually with abortive scaly
stamens. Carpels superior, numerous, distinct, each with a soli-
tary erect ovule; styles and stigmas as many as the carpels.
Fruit consisting of a number of achenia crowned with the per-
sistent feathery styles, and enclosed in the tube of the calyx.
Seeds erect, with a minute embryo at the base of fleshy albu-
men. This order is combined with Monimiaceer by Bentham and
Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of Australia and Chili.
There are but 3 genera: namely, Atherosperma, Labill., and
Doryphora, Endl., from Australia; and Laurelia, Juss., from
Chili. These include 4 species.
Properties and Uses. — They are fragrant plants. The
achenia of Laurelia somewhat resemble common Nutmegs in
their odour.
Atherosperma.—A decoction of the bark of Atherosperma moschata is
stated by Backhouse to be used in some parts of Australia as a substitute
for China tea. This bark resembles sassafras in flavour and odour, hence
it is commonly known under the name of Australian Sassafras ; it is occa-
sionally imported into this country. The decoction is likewise employed as
a diuretic and diaphoretic. The wood is also valuable as timber.
Order 3. MyristicacE&, the Nutmeg Order.—_-Character.
—Trees. Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entire, dotted, stalked,
leathery. Flowers unisexual. Calyx inferior, leathery, 3—4-
cleft ; in the female flower, deciduous ; estivation valvate. Male
flower with 3—12 stamens, or rarely more numerous ; filaments
distinct or monadelphous ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse, distinct or
united, with longitudinal dehiscence. Female flower with 1 or
many superior distinct carpels, or rarely 2; each carpel with
1 erect ovule. Frit succulent. Seed arillate, with copious
oily-fleshy ruminated albumen; embryo small, with an inferior
radicle.
656 MYRISTICACEH.—LAURACEA.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical India and
America. Illustrative Genera :—Myristica, Limn.; Hyalostemma,
Wall. There are above 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—Aromatic properties are almost uni-
versally found in the plants of this order, and more especially
in their seeds. The bark and the pericarp are frequently
acrid.
Myristica.—The valuable and well-known spices called Nutmegs and
Mace are both derived from M. fragrans (M. officinalis), the Nutmeg tree.
This tree is a native of the Moluccas and other Indian islands, &c., and it isnow
cultivated in the Banda Islands, also in the Philippines, Bencoolen, Penang
and Singapore, in Mauritius, the West India Islands, and South America.
At Penang and Singapore, whence formerly the best nutmegs were obtained,
its cultivation has declined of late vears. The Nutmeg tree bears pear-
shaped fruits, commonly about the size of an ordinary peach, with fleshy
pericarps ; each fruit contains a single seed, surrounded by a_lacerated
envelope called an arillode, or commonly mace ; this is scarlet when fresh,
but usually becomes yellow when dried, as in the mace of commerce.
Beneath the arillode we find a hard shell, and within this the nucleus of
the seed invested closely by its inner coat, which also penetrates the sub-
stance of the albumen, and divides it into lobes (rumimated albumen).
This nucleus—that is, the dried seed divested of its hard shell and arillode—
is the commercial and official Nutmeg of the British Pharmacopeia. The
pericarp is used asa preserve. Both nutmegs and mace are largely employed
as condiments, but their use requires caution in those subject to apoplexy
or other cerebral affections, as they possess somewhat narcotic properties.
In medicine they are employed as stimulants, carminatives, and flavouring
agents. Nutmegs yield when distilled with water a volatile oil, which is
also official in the British Pharmacopeeia. Mace under like conditions also
yields a volatile oil of nearly similar properties. The substance known as
Expressed Oil of Mace, Butter of Nutmegs, or Expressed or Concrete Oil of
Nutmegs, is imported chiefly from Singapore, and is prepared by reducing
nutmegs to coarse powder, which after exposure to the vapour of hot water is
submitted to pressure between heated plates. It consists of a small quantity
of volatile oil mixed with several fatty bodies, the most important of which
is myristicin; this expressed oil is also official in the British Pharmaco-
poeia. The above Nutmegs are frequently termed the True, Round, or
Official Nutmegs, to distinguish them from those of an inferior quality,
which are derived from other species of Myristica, &c. One of these inferior
nutmegs is found in commerce, and is called the Long or Wild Nutmeg. It
occurs in three conditions, namely, without the hard shell and arillode, then
termed Long or Wild Nutmeg; enclosed within the shell but divested of the
arillode (Long or Wild Nutmeg in the shell); and within the shell and
arillode (Long or Wild Nutmeg covered with Mace). These long nutmegs
are said to be derived from Myristica fatua, and probably also, to some
extent, from M. malabarica. Both the long nutmeg and its mace are very
inferior to the similar parts of M. fragrans. There are some other kinds of
Nutmegs, derived from different species of Myristiea, which are in use in
various parts of the world, but as they are much inferior in their qualities
and are not found in commerce, it is unnecessary to allude further to them
here. Some other False or Wild Nutmegs are also derived from plants of the
order Lauracee. (See Acrodiclidium, Agathophyllum, and Cryptocarya.)
Order 4. Lauraces, the Laurel Order. —Character.—
Aromatic trees or shrubs (parasitic and twining in Cassytha).
Leaves simple, exstipulate, usually alternate, sometimes dotted
LAURACEA, 657
(Cassytha has scales instead of foliage leaves). Flowers generally
hermaphrodite or sometimes unisexual (jig. 1033). Calyx
inferior (fig. 1033), deeply 4—6-c'eft, ‘
coloured, in two whorls, the limb some- Fic. 1033.
times obsolete; e«xstivation imbricate.
Stamens perigynous, definite, some
always sterile; jilaments distinct, the
inner ones commonly with glands at their
base (fig. 541, g, g) ; anthers adnate, 2—4-
celled, 1, 1, dehiscing by recurved valves,
v. Ovary superior (fig. 1033), 1-celled,
with 1 or 2 suspended ovules. Fruit
baccate or drupaceous. Seeds exalbumin-
ous ; embryo with large cotyledons, and a_ Fi. 1033. Vertical section
superior radicle. of the female flower of
aa hs 5 Laurus nobilis, the Sweet
Distribution and Numbers.—They are Bay.
chiefly natives of tropical regions, but
a few occur in North America, and one (Lawrus nobilis) in
Europe. Illustrative Genera: — Cinnamomum, Burm.; Nec-
tandra, Kottb. ; Laurus, Towrn. There are above 450 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are almost
universally characterised by the possession of aromatic pro-
perties, which are due to the presence of volatile oils ; many of
them are therefore employed as aromatic stimulants. Others
are narcotic; some have sudorific properties ; and several are
tonic, stomachic, febrifugal, or astringent. A few have edible
fruits, and many yield valuable timber.
Acrodiclidium Camara yields the False Nutmeg which is ca'led in Guiara
the Ackawa or Camara Nutmeg. Its use is similar to that ef the other
false nutmegs derived from plants of this order. (See Agathophyllum and
Cryptocarya.)
Agathophyllum aromaticum yields a kind of False Nutmeg, which is the
Clove- Nutmeg of Madagascar or Ravensara Nut. Itis usedas aspice. (See
Acrodiclidium.)
Cinnamomum.—Cinnamomum Camphora or Camphora officinarum, the
Camphor tree, is a native of China and Japan, and has been introduced into
Java. Commercial camphor is derived entirely from the island of Formosa
and Japan, the former being known as China or Formosa Camphor, and the
latter as Japan or Dutch Camphor. Camphor is procured in a crude state
from the wood by a rude process of sublimation, and as thus ob-
tained is termed crude camphor. It is exported to Europe, &c., in this
condition, where it is afterwards purified by subliming again, after which
process it is called refined camphor, in which state it is cfficial in the British
Pharmacopeia. Camphor is a stearoptene or solid volatile oil. This kind of
camphor is commonly distinguished from other camphors by the name of
Laurel, Common, or Official Camphor (see Dryobalanops, p. 475). The oil of
camphor of commerce, formerly official in the United States Pharmacopeeia,
is the volatile oil which drains from the crude camphor which is stored ni
vats before shipment. It is used externally in rheumatism, &c. In proper
doses, camphor produces exhilarating and anodyne effects, for which purposes
it is principally employed in medicine. In large doses it is narcotic and
poisonous. Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, and
UU
658 LAURACEA.
medicinally as a cordial, stimulant, tonic, astringent, carminative, anti-
spasmodic, and as an adjunct to other medicines, is the inner bark of C.
zeylanicum. The best comes from Ceylon. It owes its properties essentially
to the presence of a volatile oil. This volatile oil is the Oil of Cinnamon of
commerce. Both the bark and volatile oil are official in the British Phar-
macopeeia. A concrete fatty substance is obtained in Ceylon by expression
from the ripe fruits, which is called Cinnamon Suet; this is supposed by
Royle to be the Comacum of Theophrastus. From the leaves of the Cinnamon
tree a volatile oil is also distilled in Ceylon. It has an analogous odour and
taste to that of oil of cloves. The Cinnamon tree is the Ainnemon or Kinman
of the Bible.—-C. Cassia of Blume, yields Cassia lignea or the Cassia bark of
commerce which is obtained from China; this possesses analogous pro-
perties to Cinnamon, and like it yields by distillation a volatile oil, called
Oil of Cassia, to the presence of which its qualities are essentially due.
Cassia buds of commerce, which are brought from China and occasionally
used as a condiment and in medicine, are the flower-buds of the same plant.
Cassia buds possess somewhat similar properties to Cassia bark. The Cassia
tree is the Kiddah or Cassia of the Bible. The inner bark of C. iners is very
similar in its nature to that of Cassia bark. The bark called Indian Clove
Bark is obtained from C. Culi/awan. 1t possesses properties resembling those
of Cassia. Sintoc bark, which has analogous qualities, is the produce of C.
Sintoe.—C. nitidum (eucalyptoides) and C. Tamala were probably the sources
of the Folia Malabathri of the old pharmacologists, formerly so highly
esteemed for their stomachic and sudorific properties. The roots of C. parthe-
noxylon and C. glanduliferum resemble the official Sassafras in their effects.
The latter is the Sassafras of Nepal.
Cryptocarya moschata yields a kind of False or Wild Nutmeg, which is
termed the Brazilian Nutmeg. (See also Acrodiclidium and Agathophyllum.)
Dicypellium caryophyllatum yields Brazilian Clove-Bark or Clove
Cassia Bark. It is occasionally imported, and used for mixing with other
spices.
; Laurus nobilis, the Sweet Bay, is said to be the Ezrach or Green Bay
Tree of the Bible. It is the classic Laurel which was used by the ancients
to make crowns for their heroes, hence it is frequently called the Victor’s
Laurel. The fruits, which were formerly official, are commonly known under
the name of Bay or Laurel berries. Bay berries are reputed to be aromatic,
stimulant, and narcotic, but they are very rarely used in medicine. By
distillation with water they vield a volatile oil, commonly known as the
Volatile Oil of Sweet Bay. ‘The substance called Hxpressed Oil of Bay or
Laurel fat is obtained from both the fresh and dry fruits by pressing them
after they have been boiled in water; this substance is of a green colour and
butyraceous consistence, and is a mixture of volatile oil and fatty bodies,
like the expressed oil of nutmegs. Laurel leaves have somewhat similar
properties to the fruit. From their aromatic properties they are used by
the cook for flavouring. These leaves must not be confounded with those of
the Cherry Laurel, already noticed. (See Prunus.)
Mespilodaphne pretiosa, a native of Brazil, yields the aromatic bark called
Casca pretiosa by the Portuguese.
Nectandra.— N. Rodixi is the Bebeeru or Greenheart Tree of Guiana,
the wood of which is very hard and durable, and has been employed in
ship-building, &e. Bebeeru or bibiru bark is obtained from this tree; it
has been used in medicine asa substitute for the cinchona barks, possessing,
like them, tonic, antiperiodic, febrifugal, and astringent properties. These
properties are due essentially to the presence of a peculiar alkaloid called
Beberine, which has nearly similar medicinal properties to quinine, and is
employed by itself, and in the form of a sulphate, as an economical substi-
tute for sulphate of quinine. It is, however, very inferior in its properties
to quinine. Bebeeru bark and sulphate of beberine are both official in the
THYMELACEA. 659
British Pharmacopeeia. The seeds of the Bebeeru tree contain starch; this
when mixed with an equal quantity of a decayed astringent wood, and a
similar proportion of cassava pulp, is made into a kind of bread, and used
as food by the Indians.—N. eymbarum of Nees yields the substance called
Brazilian Sassafras. The cotyledons of V. Puchury major and minor are
imported from Brazil under the name of Sassafras Nuts or Puchurim Beans ;
they are much esteemed as a flavouring for chocolate. Other species of
Nectandra, as N. sanguinea, N. exaltata, and N. leucantha, yield more or
less valuable timber.
Oreodaphne.—Several species of this genus vield valuable timber ; thus
the Siweet-wood is the produce of O. exaltata; the Til of the Canaries, of
O. fetens; and the Siraballi of Demerara is derived from a species of
Oreodaphne or of some nearly allied genus.
Persea—The fruit of P. gratissima is in much repute in the West
Indies. It is commonly known as the Avocado or Alligator Pear.—
P. indica, a native of Madeira, yields a timber somewhat resembling
mahogany.
Sassafras—The root of S. officinale is official in the British Pharma-
copeia. Sassafras is employed medicinally in this country and elsewhere,
as a stimulant, diaphoretic, and alterative. From it the Volatile Oil of
Sassafras is obtained. Sassafras pith is largely used in the United States
of America, where it is official in the Pharmacoperia, as a demulcent.
Cohort 3. Daphnales.— Flowers usually hermaphrodite, or
rarely unisexual. Calyx green or coloured, regular or
irregular, often tubular. Ovary superior, 1- or rarely 2-
celled: stigma simple ; ovule usually solitary. suspended or
ascending. Seeds generally exalbuminous, but sometimes
the albumen is present in small quantity ; embryo straight.
Almost always trees or shrubs. Leaves exstipulate.
Order 1. THuymMeLace®, the Mezereon Order.—Character.
—Trees, shrubs, or very rarely herbs. with an acrid very tough
bark. Leaves entire, exstipulate. Flowers hermaphrodite (fig.
1034), or rarely unisexual. Calyx inferior, regular (fig. 1034),
coloured, tubular, 4—5-lobed; estivation imbricate. Stamens
perigynous (fig. 1054), twice as many as the divisions of the
calyx, or equal in number to them, or fewer, in the two latter
cases they are opposite to the lobes of the calyx; anthers 2-
celled, bursting longitudinally. Ovary superior (fig. 1034),
simple, 1-celled, with a solitary suspended ovule (fig. 734).
Frwit dry and nutlike. or drupaceous. Seed suspended ; albu-
men none or but small in quantity ; embryo straight, with a
superior radicle.
Distribution and -Numbers.—They are found more or less
abundantly in all parts of the world, but especially in Australia
and the Cape of Good Hope. LIllustrative Genera:—Daphne,
Linn. ; Pimelea, Banks et Sol. There are about 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for the toughness and acridity of their bark. The
fruit of Direa palustris is narcotic, and that of the plants
generally of the order poisonous or suspicious; but the seeds of
uuU2
660 AQUILARIACEE.—EL/AGNACEA.
Tnocarpus edulis are said to resemble Chestnuts in flavour when
roasted. Several species of Daphne, Pimelea, and other genera,
are handsome shrubby plants.
Fie. 1034.
Daphne.—The dried barks of D. Mezereum, Meze-
reon, and D. Laureola, Spurge Laurel, are official in the
British Pharmacopeeia. Both the root-bark and stem-
bark are authorised, but the former is generally re-
garded as the more powerful. Mezereon bark may be
used as a vesicatory, and also as a masticatory in
toothache. It is however principally employed as a
stimulant, diaphoretic, alterative, and diuretic. It owes
its properties essentially to an acrid resin. The fruit
is also very acrid. The bark of D. Gnidium, Spurge
Flax, is likewise official in the Paris Codex, and is
sometimes substituted in this country for our official
Fig. 1034, Vertical bark, but it is not so active. The inner bark of D.
section of the flow. ¢2””abina and other species is used in some parts of the
er of a species of World for making paper, &c. ;
Daphne. Edgeworthia papyrifera—The bark is used in Japan
for the manufacture of paper money.
Lagetta lintearia, Lace-bark Tree-—The bark possesses, in some degreé,
similar properties to that of Mezereon. When macerated it may be
separated into thin laminz, the number of which depends upon the age of
the specimen ; these have a lace-like appearance, hence its common name
of lace bark. It possesses great strength, and may be used for making ropes,
&c. It was at one time employed in the West Indies for making the slave
whips. Sloane states that caps, ruffles, and even whole suits of ladies’ clothes,
have been made from it. Lagetta cloth has been imported into Liverpool
under the name of guana.
Passerina Ganpi.—The bark is used in Japan for the manufacture of
paper.
Order 2. AQquitantace®, the Aquilaria Order.—Charac-
ter.—Trees with entire exstipulate leaves. Calyx tubular or
top-shaped, 4—5-lobed, imbricate, persistent. Stamens perigy-
nous, 10, 8, or 5, opposite the lobes of the calyx when equal to
them in number; anthers 2-celled, opening longitudinally. Ovary
superior, usually 2-celled ; ovules 2, suspended ; or rarely 1-celled
with parietal placentation. Frwit generally 2-valved, capsular,
sometimes succulent and indehiscent. Seeds usually 2, or rarely
1 by abortion ; exalbuminous. This order is sometimes included
im Thymelacee. ;
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of tropical
Asia. Illustrative Genera :—Aquilaria, Lam.; Leucosmia, Benth.
There are about 10 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some species yield a fragrant stimulant
resin.
Aquilaria ( Aleoxylon).—The substance ealled Lign-Aloes, Agallochum,
Aloes-wood, or Eagle-wood, is said to be the Ahalim and Ahaloth of the Old
Testament, and the Aloe or Aloes of the New. It is obtained from Aquilaria
Agallochum, and probably also from A. ovata. It was formerly held in
high repute as a medicinal agent in Europe, but its use is now obsolete.
It is said to be useful as a cordial, and as a remedy for gout and rheu-
matism.
PROTEACEA, 66%
Order 5. EL#AGNACES%, the Oleaster Order.—C haracter.—
Small trees or shi “whs, with entire exstipulate usually very scurfy
( fig. 153) leaves. Flowers mostly unisexual or rarely perfect.
Male flowers amentaceous, bracteated. Sepals 2—4, distinct or
united. Stamens definite, perigynous. Female flowers with an
inferior tubular calyx, and a fleshy disk ; xstivation imbricate.
Ovary superior, 1-celled, with a solitary ascending ovule. Frwit
enclosed in the succulent calyx, indehiscent. Seed solitary, as-
cending, with thin albumen; embryo straight, with an inferior
radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are generally diffused
throughout the northern hemisphere, and rare in the southern.
Illustrative Genera :—Hippophaé, Linn.; Eleeagnus, Linn. There
are about 30 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The fruits of Hleagnus
orientalis are esteemed in Persia under the name of zinzeyd; and
those of H. arborea, E. conferta, and others, are eaten in certain
parts of India. Those also of Hippophaé ‘rhamnoides, the Sea-
Buckthorn, which is a native of England, are also edible, and
have been employ ed in the preparation of a sauce for fish, but
their use requires caution from containing a narcotic principle.
Order 4. ProrrEace®, the Protea Order.—Character.—
Shrubs or small trees. Leaves hard, dry, opposite or alternate,
exstipulate. Flowers usually hermaphrodite. Calyx inferior,
4-partite or of 4 sepals; xstivation valvate. Stamens perigynous,
equal in number to the partitions of the calyx and opposite to
them; anthers bursting longitudinally. Uvary simple, superior,
1-celled, with 1 or more ovules, ascending or suspended. Frwit
dehiscent or indehiscent. Seeds exalbuminous; embryo straight,
radicle generally inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives chiefly of Australia and
the Cape of Good Hope. Lllustrative Genera :—Protea, Linn.;
Banksia, Linu. fil. There are more than 600 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are chiefly remarkable for the
beauty or singularity of their flowers and their evergreen foliage.
But the fruits and seeds of some species are eaten; and the
wood is largely employed at the Cape and in Australia for bura-
ing, and occasionally for other purposes ; thus, that of Protea
grandiflora is used at the Cape of Good Hope for waggon-wheels,
hence the plant is named Wagenboom. The seeds of Macadamia
ternifolia, a native of Queensland, are edible.
Cohort 4. Urticales. — Flowers usually unisexual, or rarely
hermaphrodite Calyx green, usually regular, rarely absent.
Stamens opposite the calyx-lobes or sepals. Ovary superior,
1-celled, or rarely 2-celled ; stigmas 1—2; ovule solitary,
micropyle always superior. Seeds albuminous or exalbu-
minous; embryo generally straight. Leaves usually stipulate.
662 URTICACEA.,
Order 1. Urticace®, the Nettle Order.—Character.—
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with a watery juice. Leaves opposite
or alternate, usually rough or with stinging glands (fig. 169) ;
stipulate or rarely exstipulate. Flowers small, unisexual (jig.
1035) or rarely hermaphrodite, scattered or arranged in heads
or catkins. Calyx inferior (jig. 1035, ¢), lobed, persistent.
Male flower with a few distinct stamens ( fig. 1035, e, e), perigyn-
ous, opposite the divisions of the calyx, and with a rudimentary
ovary (fig. 1035, pr) ; filaments at first incurved. Female flower
Fic. 1035. Fic. 1036.
Fig. 1035. Male flower of the Small Nettle (U7tica urens). c¢. Calyx. @, &
e, e. Stamens, with 2-celled anthers. pr. Rudimentary ovary.—Fig.
1036. Vertical section of the ovary of the female flower ofthe same. p.
Wall of the ovary. s. Stigma. o. Ovule.
with a superior 1-celled ovary (figs. 733 and 1036) ; ovule erect,
orthotropous (figs. 733 and 1036). Fruit indehiscent, surrounded
by the persistent calyx. Seed solitary, erect (fig. 779) ; embryo
(fig. 779) straight, enclosed in albumen ; and with a superior
radicle, r.
Bentham and Hooker, in ‘ Genera Plantarum,’ include the four
succeeding orders—Moracex, Caimabinacex, Artocarpacer, and
Ulmacex—in Urticacex, as sub-orders.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are more or less
distributed over the world. Illustrative Genera :—Urtica, Tourn. ;
Parietaria, Towrn. The order contains more than 300 species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly remarkable for yielding valu-
able fibres, and for the acrid stinging juice contained in their
glands.
Behmeria.—Several species vield valuable fibres, as B. Puya (Pooah
fibre), in Nepaul and Sikkim, and B. speciosa (Wild Rhea). The most
celebrated of them all, however, is B. nivea, from which the tibres are ob-
tained that are used in the manufacture of the celebrated Chinese grass-
cloth, and for other purposes, These tibres are also now employed for textile
fabrics, &c. The Rhea fibre of Assam, one of the strongest known fibres, is
also derived from this plant.
Laportea pustulata, the Wood Nettle.—This is a native of the Alleghany
MOKACEA, 663
mountains and some other parts of North America. It has been much
recommended for cultivation in Germany, &c., as a textile plant.
Parietaria officinalis, Wall Pellitory, is by many regarded as a valuable
diuretic and lithontriptic.
Urtica, Nettle—The Nettles are well known from their stinging glands.
Some of the East Indian species, as U. crenulata, U. stimulans, and more
especially U. urentissima, produce very violent effects. Flagellation by a
bunch of Nettles ( Urtica dioica or U. urens) was formerly employed in palsy,
and other cases.—U. baccifera is used as an aperient in the West Indies ;
the root of U. pilulifera is regarded as diuretic and astringent ; and an
infusion of the leaves of U. dioica, commonly known as Nettle Tea, is fre-
quently used in parts of this country asa purifier of the blood. Some Nettles,
as U,. tuberosa, have edible tuberous roots; others yield useful fibres, as
r
Urtica heterophylla, Neilgherry Nettle, and U. tenacissima.
Order 2. Morace®, the Mulberry Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs, with a milky juice. Leaves with large stipules.
Flowers unisexual, in heads, spikes, or catkins. Male flowers
with a 3—4-partite calyx (fig.
1037) or achlamydeous. Sta- Fig, 1037, Fic. 1038,
mens 3—4, perigynous (fig. ;
1037) and opposite the seg-
ments of the calyx; anthers
usually inflexed. Female flowers
with 3—5 sepals. Ovary supe-
rior, 1—2-celled.. Fruit a so-
rosis (fig. 728) or syconus
( fig. 406). Seed solitary, pendu-
lous (fig. 1038) ; embryo hooked Fig. 1037, Male flower of the Black
(jig. 1088), im ieshy albumen, — faybery Merny mown fe
and with a superior radicle. apinedeunle anwar cetie sitie.
Distribution and Numbers.—
They are natives of both hemispheres, and occur in temperate
and tropical climates. Illustrative Genera :—Morus, Towrn. ;
Dorstenia, Plum. There are over 200 species.
Properties and Uses.—The milky juice of some species pos-
sesses acrid and poisonous properties, while in others it is bland,
and may be taken asa beverage. From the milky juice of some
Caoutchouc or India-rubber is obtained. The inner bark of
other species supplies fibres. Some possess stimulant, sudorific,
tonic, or astringent properties. Many yield edible fruits, while
the seeds generally of the plants of this order are wholesome.
Broussonetia papyrifera, the Paper Mulberry, is so named from its inner
bark being used in China, Japan, &c., for the manufacture of a kind of
paper. The Otaheitans, &c., also make a kind of cloth from it.
Dorstenia.—The rhizomes and rootlets of several species have been sup-
posed to be antidotes to the bites of venomous reptiles, and also of many
poisonous substances; those of D. Contrayerva and DV. brasiliensis were
formerly employed in Britain for their stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic
properties.
Ficus.—F. Carica yields the well-known fruit named the Fig. Figs are
nutritive, emollient, demulcent, and laxative; they are official in the
664 CANNABINACEA,
British Pharmacopeeia. The Fig tree is the Teenah of the Bible.—F. oppo-
sitifolia and F. polycarpa, natives of the East Indies , are said to possess
emetic properties.—f. elastica, a native of India, vields an inferior kind of
India-rubber. It is known in commerce as Assam rubber. It also yields
Java rubber. From other species a similar substance is obtained. The
juice of F. toriearia and that of F. demona is a very powerful poison.—
F. Sycomorus (Sycomorus antiquorum), the Sycamore Fig, is said by some
authors to have vielded the wood from which mummy- cases were made.
(See Cordia.) Richard states that the Abyssinians eat the inner bark of
F. panifica. The brown hairy covering of the leaves of F. lasiophylla is
used as a styptic at Singapore, &e.—F. doliaria is said to have vermifugal
properties.
Maclura.—The wood of M. tinctoria, a native of the West Indies and
South America, is of a golden-yellow colour, and is used in this country
and elsewhere as a dyeing agent. It is known as Fustic or Old Fustic,
to distinguish it from Young Fustic, already noticed. (See Rhus.) The
fruit is edible-—M. aurantiaca is the source of the fruit called Osage Orange,
the juice of which is used by the native tribes in some districts of America
as a yellow war paint.
Morus.—The fruit of Morus nigra is our common Mulberry ; the juice
is official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Mulberries are well known as a
dessert fruit ; they are also employed medicinally for their refrigerant and
slightly laxative properties, and likewise to give colour and flavour to
medicines. The Sycamine tree of the Bible is supposed to be this plant.
Tae leaves of this species, as well as those of Morus alba, White Mulberry,
and others, are in common use as food for silkworms. The roots of both
MM. nigra and M. alba are said to be cathartic and anthelmintic.
Urostigma Vogelii is the source of Liberian Rubber.
Order 3, CANNABINACES®, the Hemp Order.—C haracter.—
Rough herbs, erect or twining, with a watery juice. Leaves
opposite or alternate, simple or compound, stipulate, often
glandular. Flowers small, unisexual, dicecious. Male flowers
in racemes or panicles. Calyx scaly, imbricate. Stamens 5, op-
posite the sepals ; filaments filiform. Female flowers in spikes
or strobiles (fig. 421), each flower with 1 sepal surrounding the
ovary, which is superior and 1l-celled, and containing a soli-
tary pendulous campylotropous ovule. rut dry, indehiscent.
Seed solitary, pendulous, without albumen ; embryo curved or
spirally coiled, with a superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the temperate parts
of the northern hemisphere in Europe and Asia. I/lustrative
Genera :—Cannabis, Tourn.; Humulus, Linn. These are the
only genera, and each contains but one species.
Proper ties and Uses.—The plants of this order yield valuable
fibres, and possess narcotic, stomachic, and tonic properties.
Cannabis sativa, the Common Hemp.—The valuable fibre called Hemp is
obtained from this plant. It is principally derived from Russia, but the
best hemp is produced in Italy. Inferior hemp is obtained from the United
States and India. In 1873, no less than 1,251,000 ewts. of hemp were im-
ported into Great Britain. Hemp is chiefly used for cordage, sacking, and
sail-cloths. This fibre has been known for more than 2,500 years. The
fruits, commonly termed hemp seeds, are oleaginous and demulcent. They
are used for feeding birds. When submitted to pressure, they yield about
ARTOCARPACEA, 665
25 per cent. of a fixed oil, which is employed as a varnish, and for other
purposes. When the Hemp plant is grown in tropical countries, it varies
in some important characters from the ordinary C. sativa of colder climates,
and is even by some botanists considered as a distinct variety, which has
been named C. sativa var. indica, Indian Hemp. This latter plant produces
less valuable fibres than the former, but it acquires marked narcotic proper-
ties from producing a much larger quantity of a peculiar resin than is the case
with the plant of colder latitudes. The herb and resin are largely employed
in Asia, and some other parts of the world, for the purposes of intoxication,
and in medicine. The principal forms in which Indian Hemp is found are,
—Gunjah or Ganja, the dried tops after flowering of the female plant, con-
taining the resin; Bhang, Subjee, or Sidhee, the larger leaves and fruits
without the stalks; and Churrus, the concrete resinous substance which
exudes spontaneously from the stem, leaves, and tops. The above forms are
in common use in India; and another form called Hashish or Hashash is
largely employed in Arabia. The word ‘assassin’ is said to be derived from
hashish, the Arabic word for hemp. Other preparations of Hemp are,
majoon, in use at Calcutta, mapouchari at Cairo, and the dawames of the
Arabs. Indian Hemp is also used for smoking. This plant is likewise
known under the name of Diamba in Western Africa, where it is employed
for intoxicating purposes under the names of maconie and makiah. In the
form of an extract or tincture, Indian Hemp has been employed medicinally
in this country and elsewhere. Pereira calls it an exhilarant, inebriant,
phantasmatic, hypnotic or soporific, and stupefacient or narcotic ; but as
obtained in this country, it varies so much in activity that its effects cannot
be depended upon with certainty, and it is consequently not much em-
ployed. The dried flowering or fruiting tops of the female plants grown in
India, and from which the resin has not been removed (gunjah or ganga),
are official in the British Pharmacopeia. ‘The resin is called cannabin,
and is usually regarded as the active principle of the plant. Recently,
however, a volatile alkaloid analogous to nicotine has been indicated as one
of the constituents of Indian Hemp. This has, however, since been shown
to be incorrect. The presence of another alkaloid, possessing tetanising pro-
perties, and termed tetano-cannabin by Dr. Hay, hasalso not been confirmed.
Humulus Lupulus, the Hop.—The collective fruits of this plant are
known under the name of strobiles (fig. 421), or commonly hops, and when
dried are official in the British Pharmacopeeia. These fruits consist of scales
(bracts), and achzenia, the latter of which are surrounded by brownish-
vellow aromatic glands. These glands, which are usually termed lupulinic
glands, are the most active part of hops ; they are also official in the British
Pharmacopeeia. They contain a volatile oil, and a bitter principle called
lupulin or lupulite, to the presence of which hops principally owe their pro-
perties. The bractsalso appear to contain a very small proportion of lupulin,
and are therefore not devoid altogether of active properties ; they also con-
tain tannic acid, and are therefore somewhat astringent. Hops are used
medicinally for their stomachic and tonic properties. ‘They are also to some
extent narcotic, especially the odorous vapours from them ; hence a pillow
stuffed with hops is occasionally employed to induce sleep. The chief use of
hops, however, is in the manufacture of ale and beer, to which they impart
a pleasant aromatic bitter flavour, and tonic and soporific properties. They
also prevent beer from rapidly becoming sour. In Belgium, &c., the young
shoots of the Hop are used as a vegetable, and when properly prepared for
the table they are said to make a most delicate dish.
Order 4. ARTOCARPACE®, the Bread-fruit Order.—Cha-
racter.—Trees or shrubs with a milky juice. Leaves alternate
(jig. 1039), simple, with large convolute stipules. Flowers
unisexual, in dense heads (jig. 1039, a, b, c) on a fleshy re-
666 ARTOCARPACEA,
ceptacle. Male flowers (fig. 1039, b) achlamydeous, or with
a 2—4-lobed or 2 — 4-sepaled calyx. Stamens opposite the
Fie, 1039, lobes of the calyx or to the
sepals ; anthers erect. Female
jlowers arranged on a fleshy
receptacle of varying form
(fig. 1039, a, c). Calyx infe-
rior, tubular, 2—4-cleft or
entire. Ovary superior, 1-
celled. Fruit commonly a
sorosis. Seed erect or pendu-
lous, with little or no albu-
men; embryo straight, with a
superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.
—Exclusively tropical plants.
Illustrative Genera :— Antiaris,
Leschen.; Artocarpus, Linn.
There are about 60 species.
Properties and Uses.—The
milky juice of several species
Fig. 1039. Branch of the Bread-fruit yields India-rubber. This juice
tree (Artocarpus incisa). a,c. Heads jg jn certain cases poisonous,
of female or pistillate flowers. 6. Head : a A
Giasiem ante eraidle sawere while in others it forms a nu-
tritious beverage. A few yield
valuable timber. The fruits of some are edible, and the seeds
generally of plants of this order are wholesome.
Antiaris.—A. toxicaria is the celebrated Antsjar or Upas poison tree of
Java, but most of the stories related concerning it are fabulous. The
milky juice is the poisonous product. This poison owes its activity to a
peculiar principle named by Pelletier and Caventou antiarin—Antiaris
saccidora, a native of the East Indies, has a very tough inner bark, which is
used for cordage, matting, &c. Sacks also are made from it as follows :—‘ A
branch is cut corresponding to the length and diameter of the sack wanted.
It is soaked a little, and then beaten with clubs until the liber separates from
the wood. This done, the sack formed of the bark is turned inside out, and
pulled down till the wood is sawed off, with the exception of a small piece
left to form the bottom of the sack.’ These sacks are commonly used to
carry rice, and other substances. The seeds have a very bitter taste.
Artocarpus.—The fruit of A. incisa is the important Bread-fruit of the
Moluccas and islands of the Pacific. It supplies the place of corn to the
natives of those regions. It is also used to some extent in the West Indies,
but is not so much valued there for food as the Plantain. In the South
Sea Islands the juice is employed as glue, the wood as timber, and the bark
for making a course kind of cloth.—A. integrifolia vields the Jak or Jack-
fruit, which is largely used for food by the natives in Ceylon, Southern
India, and other warm parts of Asia. The roasted seeds are likewise much
esteemed. The inner wood is also employed to dye the Buddhist priests’
robes of a yellow colour.
Brosimum.—B. Gulactodendron is the celebrated Palo de Vaca or Cow-
tree of South America. It is so named from its milky juice being nutritious
like milk from the cow. It is the Massaranduba tree of Brazil, and its juice
ULMACEA, 667
has been also recommended as a source of India-rubber. The fibrous bark
of B. Namagua is used in Panama for sails, ropes, garments, &c.—B.
Aubletii (Piratinera Guianensis), a native of British Guiana, is the source
of the beautiful fancy wood called Snake-wood, Leopard-wood, or Letter-
wood.—B. Alicastrum yields edible seeds, which are called Bread-nuts in
Jamaica. The wood, which somewhat resembles mahogany, is also there
used by cabinet makers.
Castilloa elastica.—This is the Cuacho tree of Darien, and, according to
Collins, this species and C. Markhamiuna, yield all the varieties of India-
rubber “obtained from Central America, Ecuador, New Granada, and the
West Indies; and known commercially as West Indian, Carthagena,
Nicaragua, Honduras, Guayaquil, Guatemala, &c., rubbers. These are
chiefly exported from Carthagena to Great Britain and the United States.
Cecropia peltata is remarkable for its stems being hollow except at the
nodes, hence they are used for wind instruments. ‘Cows are said to thrive
well on its leaves. Its cultivation has been recommended in Algeria as a
forage plant.
Cudrania.—The heart-wood of a species of this genus, which is a native
of East Tropical Africa, yields a light yellow colour somewhat between that
of quercitron bark and ‘fustic, and may be used for dyeing.
Order 5. Utmace®, the Elm Order.—Character.—Tvrees
or shrubs, with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, simple,scabrous,
with deciduous stipules. Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, in
loose clusters. Calyx inferior, membranous, imbricate. Stamens
perigynous, definite; anthers erect. Ovary superior, 1—2-
celled ; styles or stigmas 2. Fruit indehiscent, samaroid or
drupaceous, 1—2-celled. Seeds solitary, pendulous, with little
or no albumen; embryo straight ; cotyledons foliaceous ; radicle
superior.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—This order
may be divided into two sub-orders or tribes as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Celtex.—Ovary 1-celled, with drupaceous fruit.
Illustrative Genera :—Celtis, Tourn.; Mertensia, H. B. K.
Sub-order 2. Ulmex.—Ovary 2-celled, with usually samaroid
fruit. Illustrutive Genera:—Planera, Gmel.; Ulmus, Linn.
* Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of the
northern regions of the world. There are about 60 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some are valuable timber trees. The
bark and fruit of others are bitter, tonic, and astringent ; and
a few possess aromatic properties.
Celtis.—The fruit of C. australis has a sweetish astringent taste, and has
been used in dysentery, &c. It has been regarded by some writers as the
Lotus of the ancients. The fruits are still eaten in Spainand Greece. (See
also Nitraria and Zizyphus.) ‘This plant is commonly known under the
names of Nettle-tree and Sugar-berry.—C. orientalis has aromatic properties.
Ulmus, Elm.—The inner bark of Ulmus campestris, the common English
Elm, is regarded as demulcent, tonic, diuretic, and alterative ; it has been
used in some chronic skin diseases, but as a medicinal agent it is now nearly
obsolete, and is no longer official in the British Pharmacopeia. The dried
and powdered bark has been mixed with meal in Norway to make bread in
times of scarcity. The wood of this species, es also that of U. montana, the
668 BETULACEA.
Scotch or Wych Elm, and others, is largely employed as timber, which is
valuable not only for its toughness, but because it is not readily acted upon
by water. The inner bark of U. fulva, the Slippery Elm or Red Elm, a
native of the United States, where it is official in the Pharmacopeeia, is
much used as a demuleent for both external and internal use. When
ground it is said to form an excellent emollient poultice, like that of Lin-
seed meal, It is also stated to have the property of preserving fatty sub-
stances from rancidity, when these are melted and kept in contact with it
for some time.
Cohort 5. Amentales.—Flowers unisexual, in ordinary amenta
or amentaceous heads. Calyx absent, or present and green,
or represented by 1 or more bristles, bracts, bracteoles, or
scales. Ovary superior, 1—2-celled. Seeds nearly always
exalbuminous. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple,
and usually with deciduous or persistent stipules; or in
Casuarinacez there are no evident leaves.
Order 1. Brtunacrem, the Birch Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, with deciduous
stipules. Flowers small, unisexual, moncecious, amentaceous,
with no true calyx, but in its place small scaly bracts, which in
some cases are arranged in a whorled manner. Male flowers
with 2 or 3 stamens opposite the bracts. Female flowers with a
2-celled vvary, and 1 pendulous anatropous ovule in each cell.
Fruit dry, thin, indehiscent, often winged, 1—2-celled, 1-seeded,
without a cupule. Seed pendulous, exalbuminous; embryo
straight ; radicle superior. Bentham and Hooker include this
order in Cupuliferex as the tribe Betulex.
Distribution and Numbers.—Vhey are principally natives of
the colder regions in the northern hemisphere. Illustrative
Genera :-—Betula, Linn.; Alnus, Tourn. These are the only
genera; there are about 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are valuable for their timber,
and for their astringent, tonic, and febrifugal barks.
Alnus.—A. glutinosa, the common Alder.—Its wood is valuable for the
piles of bridges, and in other cases where entire submersion in water or
damp earth is required. Its bark is astringent, and has been used in
medicine, and for tanning and dyeing. The leaves and catkins have simi-
lar properties. The wood is also employed for making charcoal, which is
much valued for the manufacture of gunpowder. The bark of A. incana
is used in Kamtschatka for making a kind of bread.
Betula.—B. alba, the common Birch, yields the timber known as Norway
sirch. ‘The wood is also used for making charcoal. From the bark, root-
lets, and twigs of this species the oil known as Oleum Rusci or Birch Tar
Oil, which gives the peculiar odour to Russia leather, is obtained. It has
also a high reputation in Russia, Poland, &c., in certain skin diseases, more
especially eczema. The sap contains in the spring a good deal of sugar,
hence it is then used in the preparation of a kind of wine ; this is com-
monly known as Birch wine, and is employed in domestic practice for
those afflicted with stone or gravel.—B. nigra, the Black Birch of North
America, is also valuable for its timber. Its sap, like that of B. alba and B.
lenta, y ields sugar of good quality, and wine may be also prepared from it.—
B. papyracea has a thick tough bark, which is used by the Indians in North
PLATANACEA.—MYRICACEZA. 669
America for boats, shoe-soles, and other purposes. The bark of B Bhaja-
paltra is employed in India as a kind of paper. The bark of B. lenta,
known in the United States as Sweet Birch or Cherry Birch, yields by
distillation a volatile oil, which is said to be
identical with that obtained from the leaves Fia. 1040,
of Gaultheria procumbens. (See Gaultheria,
page 605.)
Order 2. PLATANACEH, the Plane
Order.— Character.— Trees with a’
watery juice. Leaves alternate, pal-
mately-lobed, with deciduous sheath-
ing stipules (fig. 1040). Flowers uni-
sexual, moncecious, in globular (jig.
1040) amentaceous heads ; achlamyde-
ous. Male flowers with 1 stamen and
a 2-celled linear anther. Female flowers
( fig. 1040) consisting of a 1-celled ovary
and a thick style; ovules 1—2, pendu-
lous. fruits arranged in a compact
rounded head, consisting of clavate
achzenia with persistent styles. Seeds
1 or rarely 2, pendulous; embryo
straight, in very thin albumen, with
an inferior radicle.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—They
are natives principally of North Ame-
ricaand the Levant. Platanus, Linn.,
is the only genus, of which there are
5 or 6 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of no par-
ticular importance, except that, froin
their being large handsome trees, and
flourishing well in large towns, they
are commonly planted in our parks and _ 7,,, 1940, Branch of the Plane
squares. The leaves closely resemble = Tree (Platanus orientalis),
in appearance those of the Sycamore With amentaceous heads
2 : F of achlamydeous female
tree. The timber is sometimes used flowers.
by the cabinet-maker.
Order 3. Myricace®, the Bog-myrtle Order.—Character.
Shrubs or small trees, with alternate, simple, resinous-dotted
leaves, whichare usually exstipulate. Flowers unisexual, amenta-
ceous, moncecious or dicecious, both kinds of flowers in the
same or in different catkins. Male flowers achlamydeous ;
stamens definite. Female flowers achlamydeous, with a 1-celled
sessile ovary, 2 styles, and 1 erect orthotropous ovule; fruit dru-
paceous; seed solitary, erect, without hairs; embryo without
albumen ; radicle superior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the temperate parts
of Europe and North America, and of the tropical regions of
670 CASUARINACEAX.—SALICACEA.
South America, India, and the Cape of Good Hope. IIlustra-
tive Genera :—Myrica, Linn.; Comptonia, Banks. There are
about 20 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly re-
markable for aromatic and astringent properties.
Comptonia asplenifolia, Sweet Fern, is employed in the United States as
an astringent and tonic in diarrhea.
Myrica.—M. cerifera, the Waxberry, Candleberry, or Wax Myrtle. The
bark of the root is used in the United States as a stimulant astrin-
gent in diarrhoea and dysentery and also in jaundice. The substance
termed myricin is also derived from it, and is regarded as a good stimulant
of the liver. The fruits when boiled yield the kind of wax known as Myrtle
Wax. Other species of Myrica yield a somewhat similar waxy substance.
The fruit of M. sapida is eaten in Nepal. Its bark is an aromatic stimulant,
and is employed in some parts of India as a rubefacient and sternutatory.
M. Nagi is cultivated in Japan for its edible fruit, which is eaten both raw
and when cooked.
Order 4. CASUARINACES, the Beef-wood Order.—C harac-
ter.—Trees with pendulous, jointed, striated branches, without
evident leaves, but sometimes having short toothed sheaths, re-
presenting whorls of leaves, at the nodes. Flowers in bracteated
spikes or heads, unisexual. Male flowers with 2 sepals united at
their points, and 2 alternating bracts; 1 stamen, and a 2-celled
anther. Female flowers in dense spikes or heads, naked, but
each having 2 bracts ; ovary 1-celled or rarely 2-celled, with 1—2
ascending ovules, and 2 styles. Fruits winged, indehiscent,
collected together into a cone-shaped body hidden under the
thickened bracts. Seeds exalbuminous ; radicle superior.
Distribution and Numbers. —These plants are principally
natives of Australia. They are called Beef-wood trees from the
colour of their timber somewhat resembling that of raw beef.
In general appearance they much resemble the branched Equiseta.
Casuarina, Linn., is the only genus ; it contains about 32 species.
Properties and Uses.—The species of Casuarina yield very
hard and heavy timber, and the bark of some is said tu be tonic
and astringent. ;
Casuarina.—Several species produce valuable timber, which is chiefly
used in this country for inlaying and marqueterie. The wood has a red
colour, and is known under the names of Beef-wood, Botany Bay Oak, Forest
Oak, He-Oak, She-Oak, &c. The bark of C. muricata is an excellent astrin-
gent, and is in use in India.
Order 5. Saticacex, the Willow Order.—Character.—
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, deciduous, with per-
sistent or deciduous stipules. Flowers unisexual (figs. 1041
and 1042), dicecious, amentaceous (jigs. 415 and 416), naked,
or with a membranous or cup-like calyx. Male flowers (fig.
1041) with 1—30 distinct or monadelphous stamens. emale
flowers sessile or stalked, with a superior (fig. 1042) 1-celled
ovary, and numerous erect anatropous ovules on 2 parietal pla-
centas. Fruit 1-celled, 2-valved, dehiscing loculicidally. Seeds
SALICACEA. 671
minute, numerous, with long silky hairs (fig. 756) springing from
a funicle and covering the seed, exalbuminous; embryo erect,
with an inferior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers. — Chiefly natives of cold and
temperate climates. Illustrative Genera: —Salix, Tourn.;
Populus, Tourn. These are the only
genera; there are about 250 species. Fic. 1041. Fia. 1042.
Properties and Uses.—Many species
are either valuable for their timber, or
for basket-work and other economic
purposes. The bark commonly pos-
sesses tonic, astringent, and febrifugal
properties. The hairs which invest the
seeds have been employed for stuffing
cushions, and for other purposes. The
buds of some species secrete an oleo-
resinous substance of a stimulating
nature.
Populus, Poplar.—Several species have been
used for their timber. The bark is commonly
tonic, astringent, and febritugal, owing to the Fig. 1041, Male flower of a
presence of saliciu, which is official in the British species of Willow (Salix),
Pharmacopeeia. (See Salix.) with two stamens, and a
Saliz—Several species are used for timber, cal Mat at Be eae
and for basket-work ; and also for the manu- PPT Loner ta epee
facture of charcoal. The timber is white; but hase, and a solitary stalked
is wanting in strength and durability. Osiers ovary and style surmounted
and Sallows are the shoots from pollard stumps by two stigmas.
of different species, as S. viminalis, 8. vitellina,
&e. <A peculiar neutral principle, a glucoside, resembling the alkaloid
quinine im its medicinal properties, called salicin, has been obtained from
the bark, leaves, or flowers of about twenty species of Salix. But the
barks of S. Russelliana, S. alba, S. Caprea, S. fragilis, S. pentandra, and
S. purpurea yield most of this principle. (See Populus.) As an anti-
periodic, salicin is far inferior to quinine. Lately, however, salicin has
been given successfully in acute rheumatism. Salicylic acid, which may
be obtained from willow bark, and other vegetable substances, but is
now commonly prepared from carbolic acid, has recently, together with
its salts, but more especially salicylate of soda, been extensively and suc-
cessfully used in rheumatism. Salicylic acid has also been employed
with success as an antiseptic, and in various other ways. Both salicin
and salicylic acid are official in the British Pharmacopeeia. The de-
eoction of willow bark has likewise been found beneficial as an application
to foul and indolent ulcers, and in psoriasis and some other chronic skin
affections.
Cohort 6. Euphorbiales.—Flowers usually unisexual, or very
rarely hermaphrodite, either with a calyx only, or with both
a calyx and corolla, or achlamydeous. Ovary superior,
1—many-celled, usually 2-celled; ovules almost always
suspended, 1—many in each cell, anatropous. Fruit gene-
rally capsular, 1—many-celled. Seeds 1—many in each
cell. Seeds albuminous, or very rarely exalbuminous, sus-
pended, or very rarely ascending ; embryo straight.
Soe
672 EU PHORBIACEA.
Order 1. EupHorBIACE, the Spurge Order.—Character.
—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with an acrid milky juice.
Leaves alternate or opposite, simple (fig. 332) or rarely com-
pound, stipulate or exstipulate. Flowers umisexual (jigs.
512, 551, 627, and 1943), moncecious (jig. 1043) or dicecious,
axillary or terminal, sometimes enclosed in a calyx-like invo-
lucre (fig. 1043, i); achlamydeous (fig. 627), or with a
lobed (figs 551, 641, .-) inferior calyx having on its inside
glandular or scaly appendages (fig. 641, t, and 1043, b), or even
evident petals (figs. 551, p, and 641, p), which are either dis-
tinct or united. Male flowers consisting of 1 (figs. 512 and
1043, fm) or more stamens (fig. 551, e), distinct or united into
one or more bundles (jig. 551, a); anthers 2-celled. Female
Fie. 2043. Fic. 1044.
Fig. 1043. Moncecious head of flowers of a species of Euphorbia. i. Invo-
lucre, a portion of which has been removed in front. g, g. Glands on the
divisions of theinvolucre. 6,0, Scales or bractlets at the base of the flowers.
Jm,jfm. Male flowers, each consisting of astamen supported on a pedicel,
to which it is articulated. 7. Female flower, supported onastalk, From
Jussieu. —— Fig. 1044. Vertical section of the pericarp and seed of a carpel
(coccus) of a species of Euphorbia.
flowers with a superior ovary (figs. 641 and 642), which is either
elevated upon a stalk (jig. 1048, ff) or sessile (figs. 611 and
642), 1- 2- 3- or many-celled ; styles either absent or corre-
sponding in number to the cells of the ovary, entire or divided
(figs. 627, 641, and 642) ; stigmas equal in number to the cells
of the ovary, or, when the styles are divided, corresponding in
number to their divisions (figs. 627, 641, and 642); ovules 1 or
2 in each cell, suspended from the inner angle (fig. 1044).
Fruit either dry, and its component carpels then separating
from each other and from the axis (figs. 675 and 711) and
usually opening with elasticity ; or succulent and indehiscent.
Seeds 1 or 2 in each cell, suspended (jig. 1044), often caruncu-
late; embryo (fig. 1044) straight, in fleshy albumen, with
flattened cotyledons, and a superior radicle.
Diagnosis. — Herbs, shrubs, or trees, commonly with an
acrid milky juice. Flowers unisexual, moncecious or dicecious.
EUPHORBIACEA. 673
Calyx absent, or present and inferior. Petals rarely present.
Male flowers with one or more stamens, distinct or united, and
2-celled anthers. Female flowers with a superior, sessile or
stalked, 1- or more celled ovary, and with 1 or 2 suspended
ovules in each cell. Fruit of 1, 2, 3, or many dry carpels,
which separate from the axis and from each other, and usually
open with elasticity; or fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds sus-
pended; embryo in fleshy albumen, Straight, with flattened
cotyledons, and a superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are more or less distri-
buted over the globe, and are especially abundant in equinoctial
America. Illustrative Genera :—Kuphorbia, Linn.; Mercurialis,
Tinn.; Ricinus, Tourn.; Buxus, Tourn. There are above
2,500 species.
Properties and Uses. —These plants generally contain an
acrid poisonous principle or principles, which is found more or
less in all their parts. Some are very deadly poisons. But in
proper doses many are used medicinally as emetics, purgatives,
diuretics, or rubefacients. A pure starch, which is largely em-
ployed for food, may be obtained from some plants of the order ;
while India-rubber may be procured from the milky juice of
others. A few are entirely devoid of any acrid or poisonous
principle, and are used medicinally as aromatic tonics. Some
have edible roots ; others yield dyeing agents ; and several are
valuable on account of their wood.
Acalypha indica.—The expressed juice of the leaves pos Sesses emetic and
expectorant properties. The root is purgative.
Aleurites triloba, the Candle-nut tree.—This plant is a native of the
Moluccas, Cochin China, New Caledonia, &c.; it yields a fruit called the
Bancoul Nut or Candle fut. The seeds yield by expression an oil called
Kekui or Kekune ; this is largely employed in some parts of the world, and
has been imported into London. It is usedas an artist’s oil, and has also ‘been
recommended as a purgative. It is said to resemble castor oil in its action.
Corewinder states that its illuminating power is superior to that of Colza
oil ; but other observers say that its purgative power is very feeble, and that
it is useless for illuminating purposes.—A. Jlactifera, a native of Ceylon,
vields Gum-lac.
Anda brasiliensis—The seeds yield by expression a fixed oil. Both the
oil and seeds possess active cathartic properties. The oil is also said to
possess drying qualities superior to even that of boiled linseed oil. The juice
of the bark is used in Brazil for stupefying fish.
Buxus.—B., sempervirens, the Box-tree, i is valuable for its timber, which
is much used by wood engravers. Its leaves are purgative.—B, bulearica,
the Turkey Box, also y ields valuable timber. The best is known as Turkey
Boxwood, and is obtained from regions round the Black and Caspian Seas.
Croton. —The seeds of C. Tiglium constitute the croton aes of the
Materia Medica; these yield by expression the official croton oil of the
British Pharmacopeeia, which is a powerful hydragogue carthartic in doses
of from one-third to one minim. It is also employ ed externally as a rube-
facient and counter-irritant. The seeds are used in India as purgative pills,
under the name of Jamalgata pills. The seeds of C. Roxburghii, C. Pavana,
and C. oblongifolius have also purgative properties.— C. Eluteria of Bennett,
a native of the Bahama Islands, vields the aromatic, bitter, and tonic bark
SEE
674 EUPHORBIACEX.
commonly known as Cascarilla bark, which is official in the British Pharma-
copeia. It has an agreeable smell when burned, hence it is also used tor
fumigation and as an ingredient in pastilles.—C. Pseudo-China yields the
Quilled Copalche bark of Pereira, and C. suberosum is probably the source
from whence Corky Copalche bark of the same author is obtained. Copalche
barks in their medicinal properties resemble Cascarilla. The aromatic tonic
bark knownas Malambo bark is the produce of C. Malambo. It is a favourite
medicine in Columbia for diarrhcea, and as a vermifuge, and is likewise used
externally in the form of an alcoholic tincture in rheumatism. It has been
also employed with good effect in intermittent and some other fevers. In
the United States it is reported to be used for adulterating ground spices.
—C. lacciferum, a native of Ceylon, and C. Draco, a native of Mexico, yield
resins which are useful for making varnishes, &c. The spirituous liquor
known in the West Indies as Hau de Mantes, and useful in irregular
menstruation, is obtained from C. ba/samiferum.
Crozophora tinctoria, a native of the South of France, yields by expres-
sion a green juice, which becomes purplish under the combined action of
ammonia and theair. This purplish dye is known under the name of turnsole.
Elzococca or Dryandra Vernicia is a native of China and Japan. The
seeds yield by expression a fatty oil (the Wood Oil of China), which is
enormously used in China for painting, and for preserving wood-work,
varnishing furniture, and in medicine. It is also largely exported from
Hankow.
Euphorbia.—Some of these plants have succulent stems, much resembling
the Cactacee ; but their milky juice will, in most cases, at once distinguish
them. The acrid resin, commonly called gum euphorbium, the botanical
source of which has been referred to various species of Huphorbia, as
E. canariensis, E-, officinarum, E. antiquorum, and E. tetragona, has now
been traced to Euphorbia resinifera of Berg. This drug is a dangerous
acrid emetic and cathartic when taken internally, and externally it is a
powerful rubefacient ; its use medicinally is now solely confined to veteri-
nary practice. It is, however, very largely used as an ingredient in a kind
of paint employed for the preservation of ships’ bottoms. The seeds of
E. Lathyris, Caper Spurge, are purgative, and yield by expression a very
active cathartic oil. They were formerly called Semina Cataputiz minoris.
This plant is called the Caper Spurge, from the use of its pickled fruits by
housekeepers as a substitute for ordinary capers. But their employment
for such a purpose is not altogether free from danger, although the process
of pickling would seem, in a great measure to destroy the acrid purgative
nature which the fruit possesses in a fresh state. ‘The root of £. Ipeca-
cuanha is commonly known as American Ipecacuanha, from its use in the
United States as an emetic. The root of EF. corollata, called Milk-weed in
the United States, has similar properties.—Z. Petitiana and FE. Schim-
periana have very purgative qualities. The root of /. neriifolia is in great
repute in India as a remedy in snake-bites.—H. pilulifera, a native of
Queensland, &c., is reputed to be useful in asthma. The acrid milky juice
of E. antiquorum, E. Nivulia, and FE. Tirucalli possesses cathartic and
anthelmintic properties. Species of Euphorbia, as EL. helioscopia, E. Peplis,
and E. dendroides, are used in Greece to stupefy fish. The milky juice of
E.. Cattimandoo, a native of the Madras Presidency, yields a kind of Caout-
choue.
Fontainea Pancheri.—¥rom the seeds of this plant, which is a native of
New California, a drastic oil may be extracted, which Dr. Haeckel says
closely resembles croton oil in its properties.
Hevea Guayanensis ( Siphonia elustica), Hevea brasiliensis, H. Spruceana,
and prolably other species, natives of Brazil and Guiana, are the sources of
Para India-rubber, the best commercial variety and the one mostly used in
this country. The principal source is, however, H. brasiliensis. The com-
EUPHORBIACEA. 675
mercial kind of rubber known as Maranham is also probably obtained from
one or more species of Hevea.
Hippomane Mancinella is the famous Manchineel tree. The juice is a
virulent poison. It would seem probable that the poisonous principle of
this plant is volatile, as it has been asserted that some persons have died
from simply sleeping under it. Seemann states, that if sea-water be applied
to the eyes when affected by the poison, it allays the inflammation in an
effectual manner.
Jatropha.—The seeds of J. purgans (Curcas purgans), and those of J.
multifidus (Curcas multifidus), are called Physic Nuts. They yield by
pressure fixed oils, and both the seeds and oils are drastic cathartics. The
seeds of J. multifidus under the name of Purguira or Purquira nuts, are
largely exported from the Cape de Verd Islands. They are almost all sent
to Marseilles to be used in the manufacture of soap. The oil may also
be used for burning, &c.; it is known as Purguira Oil, and in English
commerce as Pulza Oi! or Seed Oil. The oil of J. purgans is commonly
distinguished as Oil of Wild Castor Seeds or Jatropha Oil, and is well
adapted for burning. It is said to be employed for adulterating East
Indian Croton oil. A decoction of the leaves is used by the natives of the
Cape de Verd Islands to excite a secretion of milk. The seeds of J. gossy-
pifolia, Bastard French Physic Nut, also possess purgative properties.
Mallotus philippinensis ( Rotilera tinctoria).—The fruit of this plant is
covered by a red powder which consists of small glands and stellate hairs.
It is designated in-the Indian bazaars, Kamala. Kamala is much employed
in India as an anthelmintic, and externally in certain cutaneous diseases.
The Arabs also use it in leprosy, &c. Kamala is official in the british
Pharmacopeeia, and is said to be especially useful for the expulsion of tenia.
But in this country its employment has not been attended with any great
success. Kamala has also been used externally in this country in herpetic
ringworm. Other kinds of Kamala have also been described possessing
similar properties, and which are also probably derived from species of
Mailotus. (See also Flemingia, page 533.)
Manihot utilissima (Jatropha Manihot), Bitter Cassava.—Cussava Meal,
which is largely employed in making the Cassava Bread or Cues, in com-
mon use by the inhabitants of tropical America as food, is obtained by
grating the washed roots, and then subjecting the pulp to pressure and drying
it over a fire. The roots and expressed juice are virulent poisons, owing
chiefly to the presence of hydrocyanic acid; but their poisonous nature is
destroyed by washing and the application of heat. Cassava Starch, Tapioca
Meal or Brazilian Arrowroot, and Tapioca, are also prepared from the
roots of Manihot utilissima: thus the fecula, which is deposited. from the
washed pulp after the juice has been expressed, when dried, constitutes
Cassava Starch; and Tapioca is prepared by submitting Cassava Starch
while moist to heat on hot plates. Tapioca is largely employed as a
dietetical substance in this country and elsewhere. The sauce called Cussa-
reep in the West Indies, &c , is the juice concentrated by heat and flavoured
* with aromatics.— Manihot Aipi, Sweet Cassava, has none of the poisonous
properties of the preceding plant. It is now generally considered as a variety
of Manihot utilissima. The root is a common article of food in the West
Indies and some parts of South America. It is as mealy as a potato when
. boiled. Cassava meal and bread, as well as Cassava starch and Tapioca, are
also prepared from the roots of this plant, which are distinguished as Sweet
Cassava roots.—M. Glaziovii is the source of Ceara India-rubber.
Oldfieldia africana is the source of the valuable timber known as African
Oak or African Teak.
Omphalea triandra.—The juice is sometimes employed in Guiana as a
substitute for black ink. The seed from which the embryo has been ex-
tracted is said to be edible.
Ze
676 SCEPACEA.—EMPETRACE.
Phyllanthus—Phyllanthus Emblica (Emblica officinalis).—The fruits of
this Indian plant constitute Hmblic Myrobalans. (See Terminalia.) When
in a dry state they are employed for tanning, and as an astringent in medi-
cine. The fruits are likewise used asa pickle, or preserved in sugar. The
bark is also astringent, and the flowers are reputed to be refrigerant
and aperient.—P. Miruri and P. urinaria are employed as diuretics in
India.
Ricinus communis, the Castor Oil Plant, or Palma Christi—The plant
called Kikayon in the Bible, and translated Gourd, is by some considered to
refer to this species. This plant and other species or varieties are largely
cultivated in the East and West Indies, America, Italy, and some other
parts of the world, for their seeds, which are commonly called Castor seeds,
from which the official Castor Oil is obtained. The leaves have been recom-
mended as an external application, and for internal administration to
promote the secretion of milk. Castor oil is obtained from the seeds, either
by expression with or without the aid of heat, or by decoction, or by the
aid of alcohol. The oil employed in India, England, the United States, and
with few exceptions now in other parts of the world, is obtained solely by
expression. Castor seeds when taken whole are extremely acrid, and have
produced death ; but the oil obtained from them is a mild and most efficient
non-irritating purgative. This oil is supposed to owe its purgative pro-
perties to the presence of some acrid principle which is contained in both
the albumen and embryo, but at present this matter has not been isolated.
The so-called concentrated castor oil, which is sold in gelatine capsules, is
generally adulterated with croton oil, and hence may produce serious effects
when given in particular cases. The Castor-oil plant is cultivated in Algeria
for the purpose of feeding silkworms upon its leaves. The oil has also been
used there for burning.
Stillingia.—S. sebifera is called the Chinese Tallow Tree, from its seeds
being covered by a white sebaceous substance, which, when separated, is
found to be a pure vegetable tallow; it is used for candles, &c. The plant
has now been successfully acclimatised in Algeria.—S. sylvatica, Queen’s
Delight. The root is official in the United States Pharmacopeia. It is
known as Queen’s root, and is used as an emetic, cathartic, and alterative.
It is reputed to be very serviceable in several skin diseases, jaundice, some
forms of dropsy, piles, &c.
Order 2. ScupacE#, the Scepa Order.— Diagnosis.—This
order is closely allied to Euphorbiaceze, in which it is ineluded
by Bentham and Hooker ; but from which it is readily distin-
guished by its flowers being amentaceous.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of the Hast
Indies. There are 6 species. The wood of Scepa (Lepidostachys)
Rorburghii is called Cocus or Kokra. It is very hard, and is
chiefiy employed for flutes and similar musical instruments.
Order 3. EmpETRAcE®, the Crowberry Order. —Cha-
racter.—Small Heath-like evergreen shrubs. Leaves exstipu-
late. Flowers axillary, smali, unisexual. Oalyx of 4—6 persist-
ent, imbricate, hypogynous scales, the innermost occasionally
petaloid and combined. Stamens alternate with. and equal in
number to, the inner sepals or scales. Ovary superior, placed
on a disk, 2—9-celled ; ovules solitary. Fruit fleshy, composed
of from 2—9 nuts. Seed solitary in each nut, ascending ;
embryo with an inferior radicle in fleshy-watery albumen.
STILAGINACEX.—PEN AACE, 677
This order is variously placed by botanists. We put it near to
Euphorbiacer in accordance with the views of Lindley.
Distribution and Numbers.—Mostly natives of Northern
Europe and North America. Illustrative Genera :—Empetrum,
Linn.; Corema, Don. There are 4 species.
Properties and Uses.—The leaves and fruit are generally
slightly acid. The berries of Empetrum nigrum, the Crowberry,
are eaten in the very cold parts of Europe, and are also em-
ployed in Greenland in the preparation of a fermented liquor.
In Portugal, the berries of Corema are used in the preparation
of a beverage which is said to be useful in febrile complaints.
Order 4. STILAGINACEH, the Stilago Order.—Character.
—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, leathery, with
deciduous stipules. Flowers minute, unisexual, in scaly spikes.
Calyx 2—5-partite. Male flowers consisting of 2 or more
stamens on an enlarged thalamus ; avthers usually 2-lobed, with
a fleshy connective, and dehiscing transversely at the apex.
Female flowers with a superior 1—2-celled ovary, each cell with
2 suspended ovules. Fruit drupaceous. Seeds suspended, albu-
minous ; embryo straight, with leafy cotyledons, and a superior
radicle. This order is made a tribe of Huphorbiacex by Bentham
and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of Madagascar and the
East Indies. Illustrative Genera :—Stilago, Linn. ; Falconeria,
Royle. There are about 20 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The fruits of Antidesma
pubescens and Stilago Bunias are subacid and agreeable.
Order 5. PEN#ACEH, the Penea Order.—Character.—
Evergreen shrubs, with opposite, exstipulate, imbricate leaves.
Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx inferior, bracteated, 4-lobed ;
estivation valvate or imbricate. Stamens perigynous, 4 or 8,
alternate with the divisions of the calyx when equal to them in
number. Ovary superior, 4-celled; style 1; stigmas 4, with
appendages on one side. fruit 4-celled, dehiscent or inde-
hiscent. Seeds varying in position, exalbuminous ; embryo with
very minute cotyledons.
This order is sometimes placed near Proteacex, but it is espe-
cially distinguished from that order by its 4-celled ovary and 4-
celled frwit.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are only found at the Cape
of Good Hope. Illustrative Genera :—Penea, Linn. ; Geisso-
loma, Lindl. There are over 20 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Penea.—The gum called Sarcocolla is commonly said to be derived from
Penea Sarcocolla, P. mucronata, and other species of Pena. It was for-
merly employed as an external application to wounds and ulcers, under the
idea that it possessed the property of agglutinating the flesh, whence its
678 LACISTEMACEX.— PIPERACEA.
name. It is imported into Bombay from the Persian port of Bushire ;
and Dymock thinks there can be little doubt that the Sarcocolla plant will
rove to be a species of Astragalus, or of some nearly allied genus.
(See Astragalus.)
Order 6. LAactstEMACE®.—The Lacistema Order.—C harac-
ter.—Shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, dotted, stipulate.
Flowers in axillary catkins, perfect or unisexual. Calyx inferior,
with several divisions, enclosed by a bract. Stamen 1, hypogy-
nous, with a 2-lobed connective, each lobe bearing 1 cell of the
anther, which bursts transversely. Ovary superior, seated in a
disk, 1-celled, with numerous ovules attached to parietal pla-
centas. Fruit capsular, 1-celled, 2—3-valved. Seeds generally
2 or 3, arillate, suspended, with fleshy albumen.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of woody
places in tropical America. Illustrative Genera:—There are
2 genera, namely, Lacistema, Swartz, and Synzyganthera, Ff.
et in which contain 6 species. Their properties and uses are
unknown.
Cohort 7. Piperales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual,
generally arranged in a spike or a spadix. Calyx usually
absent, or when present rudimentary. Ovary superior,
oenerally 1-celled, 1-ovuled, or 3—4-celled with a few
ovules. Seed albuminous (except in Ceratophyllum) ; em-
bryo usually minute.
Order 1. PrerrackE®, the Pepper Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs with jointed stems. Leaves opposite, whorled,
or alternate, and with or without stipules. Flowers spiked,
hermaphrodite or sometimes unisexual, achlamydeous, brac-
teated. Stamens2 or more; anthers 1—2-celled. Ovary simple,
1-celled, with one erect orthotropous ovule; stigma sessile.
Fruit more or less fleshy, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed erect ; embryo
in a distinct fleshy sac at the apex of the seed, and on the outside
of abundant albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of tropical
regions, especially in America and the islands of the Indian
Archipelago, Illustrative Genus:—Piper, Linn. There are
above 600 species. :
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly
remarkable for acrid, pungent, aromatic, and stimulant pro-
perties. These qualities are principally found in their fruits,
and are essentially due to the presence of an acrid volatile oil
and resin. Some are narcotic, and others are reputed to be
astringent and febrifugal.
Piper.—The dried leaves of Piper angustifolium (Artanthe elongata)
constitute the official Matico of the British Pharmacopeia. Matico has
been recommended as a topical application for arresting hemorrhage from
wounds, &c. It has been also employed internally as a styptic, but its
SAURURACEA. 679
effects thus administered are very feeble. Its action appears to be more
especially mechanical, like lint, felt, &c. In Peru Matico is employed
for the same affections as Cubebs. It should be noticed that the name
Matico is applied by the inhabitants of Quito, &c., to Hupatorium glutinosum
(see Eupatorium). Other plants are also similarly designated in different
parts of South America. The dried fruits of Piper aduncum and other
species are used in America as pepper; and its leaves, as first noticed by
the author, are frequently substituted in this country for those of Piper
angustifolium. The fruits of P. crocatum are employed for dyeing yellow.
The dried unripe fruits of Piper Cubeba (Cubeba officinalis) constitute
the official Cubebs of the British Pharmacopeeia. Cubebs are the produce
of Java and the adjoining islands. They are extensively employed in
affections of the genito-urinary organs, upon which they are generally
supposed to have a specific effect. In the Kast they are used as a stomachic.
Their properties depend principally upon two resins, but also to some extent
upon the presence of a volatile oil. This oil is also official in the British
Pharmacopeia. They are frequently distinguished by the name of Tail
Pepper, from the dried fruits having a short stalk attached to them. The
dried unripe fruits of Piper Clusii, African Cubebs or Black Pepper of
Western Africa, are employed by the negroes of Sierra Leone, &c., as a
condiment, and also in medicine. Their effects in genito-urinary affections
do not appear to resemble those of the official Cubebs. According to Sten-
house they contain Piperine, and not the peculiar alkaloid of Cubebs, which
has been termed Cubebine—P. nigrum, Black Pepper. The dried unripe
fruits of this plant constitute the Black Pepper of the shops, and that which
is official in the British Pharmacopeia. White Pepper is the same fruit in
a ripened state divested of its external pulpy covering. The former is the
more acrid and pungent, as these properties are lost to some extent in the
process of ripening. Both kinds are extensively used as condiments, and
medicinally as stimulants and correctives. They are also regarded as some-
what febrifugal. They contain an acrid resin and volatile oil, to which their
acrid, pungent, aromatic, and stimulant properties are essentially due ; and
Piperine which possesses to some extent febrifugal properties.—P. methy-
sticum or Piper trioicum, and probably other species, also produce good
pepper. The dried unripe spikes of fruit known in commerce as Long
Pepper are chiefly imported from Singapore and Calcutta, and are the pro-
duce of Piper officinarum or Chavica officinarum, and Piper longum or
Chavica Roxburghii. Long Pepper contains an acrid resin, a volatile oil,
and the crystalline alkaloid called Piperine. It resembles Black Pepper in
its effects, and is used in similar cases. It is chiefly employed for culinary
purposes. Dried slices of the root are in great repute among the natives of
India under the name of Peepla Mool, as a stomachic. The leaves of P.
Betle, Betel Pepper, and P. Siriboa are chewed by the Malays and other
Eastern races, mixed with slices of the Betel Nut (Areca Catechu), and a
little lime. SBetel as thus prepared is considered to impart an ornamental
red hue to the lips and mouth, and an agreeable odour to the breath, and is
also supposed to possess stimulant and narcotic properties, and to be a pre-
servative against dysentery. (See Areca.)—P. Jaborandi is one of the
plants vielding a kind of Jaborandi. (See Pilocarpus.)
Macropiper methysticum.—The large rhizome of this plant is known in
the South Sea Islands under the name of Ava, where it is largely used in
the preparation of an intoxicating and narcotic liquor, called Ava or Cava.
It is also employed medicinally in chronic rheumatism, erysipelatous erup-
tions, and venereal affections. It has been lately tried successfully in France
as a remedy in gonorrheea.
Order 2. SAURURACE#, the Saururus Order.-—-Character.
—Marshy herbs. Leaves entire, alternate, stipulate. Flowers
680 CHLORANTHACEA.—CERATOPHYLLACEA.
spiked, achlamydeous, hermaphrodite. Stamens 3—6, hypogy-
nous, persistent. Ovaries 3—4, usually more or less distinct, and
each with a solitary erect ovule, or sometimes united and with
_ a few ascending ovules. wit either consisting of 4 fleshy in-
dehiscent achzenia, or capsular and 3—4-celled. Seeds ascend-
ing, with a minute embryo in a fleshy sac on the outside of
hard mealy albumen. This order is included by Bentham and
Hooker in Piperacex, as the tribe Saurwree.
Distribution and Numbers.— Natives of North America,
Northern India, and China. Illustrative Genera :—Saururus,
Linn. ; Houttuynia, Thunb. There are about 7 species.
Properties and Uses. —They have acrid properties, and are
reputed to be emmenagogue. Some are also astringent.
Anemopsis californica is known in California as ‘ Yerba Mansa,’ and an
infusion of its roots and the external application of these in powder are re-
garded as very valuable remedies in venereal sores. The powder is very
astringent and is also used as an application to cuts and sores. |
Saururus cernuus, a native of North America, is said to be a valuable
remedy in inflammatory affections of the genito-urinary organs, and also
_ externally as a soothing discutient cataplasm.
Order 3. CHLORANTHACE®, the Chloranthus Order.—C ha-
racter.—Herbs or widershrubs with jointed stems, which are
tumid at the nodes. Leaves simple, opposite, sheathing, with
small interpetiolar stipules. flowers in terminal spikes,
achlamydeous, with scaly bracts, hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Stamens 1, or more and united. Ovary 1-celled, with a solitary
pendulous ovule. Fruit drupaceous. Seed pendulous, with a
minute embryo (not enclosed in a distinct sac) at the apex of
fleshy albumen ; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.
Illustrative Genera :—Hedyosmum, Swartz; Chloranthus, Swartz.
There are about 15 species.
Properties and Uses.—Aromatic stimulant properties are the
principal characteristics of the plants of this order.
Chloranthus.—The roots of C. officinalis and C. brachystachys have been
employed in Java as a stimulant in malignant fevers, and for their antispas-
modic effects. The flowers of C. inconspicuus are used in China to perfume
tea. (See Thea.)
Order 4. CERATOPHYLLACES, the Hornwort Order.—C ha-
racter.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves verticillate, very finely divided.
Flowers minute, axillary, sessile, moncecious. Calyx or rather
imvolucre of bracts, inferior, 8—12-partite. Male flower consist-
ing of 12—20 stamens; anthers sessile, 2-celled. Female flower
with a superior 1-celled ovary, and 1 pendulous orthotropous
ovule. Fruit hard or nut-like, indehiscent. Seed exalbuminous,
pendulous ; embryo with a large many-leaved plumule, and a
very short inferior radicle.
Distribution and Properties.—Natives of the northern hemi-
NEPENTHACEX.—ARISTOLOCHIACE, 681
sphere. Ceratophyllum, Linn., is the only genus. The proper-
ties and uses of the species are unknown.
Cohort 8. Nepenthales.—Flowers unisexual, dicecious. Calyx 4-
partite, imbricate. Stamens monadelphous. Ovary superior,
3—4-celled. Ovules very numerous, attached to the sides of
the septa. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. Seeds very minute,
albuminous. Climbing plants. Leaves alternate, terminated
by pitchers.
Order 1. NeprENTHACE#, the Pitcher-plant Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs or somewhat shrubby plants. Leaves alternate,
and when perfect terminated by a pitcher which is provided with
an articulated lamina (fig. 390). Flowers terminal, racemose,
unisexual, dicecious. Calyx inferior, with 4 divisions. Stamens
usually 16, united into a column; anthers 2-celled, extrorse.
Ovary superior, 4-angled, 4-celled. Frwit a capsule, 4-celled,
with loculicidal dehiscence. Seeds very minute, numerous,
albuminous ; embyro with an inferior radicle.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of swampy
ground in China and the East Indies. Nepenthes, Linn., is the
only genus; it includes about 14 species. Their properties are
unknown ; but they are remarkable from their pitchers entrap-
ping and digesting insects and other animal matters, from the
formation of a digestive ferment by their glands,
Series 2. Inferze or Epigyne.
Cohort 1. Asarales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Calyx usually coloured. Stamens epigynous in the herma-
phrodite flowers. Ovary inferior, 1—many-celled. Ovules
numerous. Fruit baccate or capsular. Seeds usually albu-
minous ; embryo minute, and sometimes amorphous.
Order 1. ARISTOLOCHIACEH, the Birthwort Order.—C ha-
racter.—Herbs or climbing shrubs. Leaves alternate. Flowers
axillary, hermaphrodite (jig. 1045), dull-coloured, regular or
irregular. Calyx tubular, superior (fig. 1045), with a valvate
estivation. Stamens 6—12, arising from the top of the ovary,
and more or less attached to the style (fig. 1046); anthers
adnate, extrorse. Ovary inferior (fig. 1045), 3—6-celled with
numerous ovules; style simple; stigmas radiating (fig. 1046),
and corresponding in number to the cells of the ovary. Frwit
eapsular or succulent, 3—6-celled. Seeds numerous, albuminous
( fig. 1047); embryo very minute (fig. 1047).
Distribution and Numbers.—Sparingly distributed in several
parts of the world, but most common in tropical South America.
Illustratwe Genera :—Asarum, Touwrn.; Aristolochia, Tourn.
There are about 130 species.
682 CYTINACE.
Properties and Uses.—These plants contain-a bitter principle
and a volatile oil, and generally possess tonic, stimulant, and
acrid properties. Many of the species are regarded in various
parts of the world as useful in curing the effects of snake-
bites.
Aristolochia, Birthwort.—Several species have been employed for cen-
turies in medicine, principally on account of their supposed emmenagogue
properties, and hence the name of Birthwort which is applied to the genus.
‘Lhe roots of A. longa, A. rotunda, A. Clematitis, and others, have been thus
used. They all possess stimulant and tonic_pro-
: r ' perties. The powdered root of .4. longa was an
pate ISO PGs WEE ingredient in the once celebrated ‘Dike of Port-
land’s powder for gout. Several of the species
have been reputed specifics for snake-bites, but
without any satisfactory proof.—A. anguicida is
supposed by Lindley to be the celebrated Guaco
of the Columbians. The juice of its root, as well
as that of many other species, is said so to stupefy
snakes that they may be handled and played
with.—A. Serpentaria, Virginian Snake-root.
The dried rhizome and rootlets are official, together
with the similar parts of A. reticulata, in the
British Pharmacopeeia, under the name of Serpen-
tary Rhizome. Serpentary rhizome was originally
introduced into this country and elsewhere as an
antidote to snake-bites, but it has no efficacy in
such cases. It is, however, a valuable stimulant,
tonic, and diaphoretic, and is especially useful in
fevers of a low or typhoid character. The allied
species, A. reticulata, is a native of the Western
United States, and is also now official, as already
stated, in the British Pharmacopeia. It yields
Texan or Red River Snake-root, which has similar
properties to the ordinary Virginian Snake-root.
Fig.1045. Vertical section — A, indica is in high repute in India as a stimu-
of the flower of the com- Jant, tonic, and emmenagogue.—A. bracteata is
mon Birthwort(A7istolo- =e : ; = pte: Iminti A
chia Clematitis)——Fig. regarded in India as an anthelmintic.—A. re-
1046. The gynecium ana curvilabru is the source of the drug which is
andreecium of the same. highly esteemed by the Chinese, and known as
Fig. 1047. Trans- ‘Green Putchuk.’ It is reputed to be a powerful
verse section of the seed. purgative, emetic, and anthelmintic. It is prin-
; cipally employed as an antidote against snake-
bites, and likewise as a remedy for burns and indigestion. It is also largely
used for the purpose of making incense sticks.
Asarum.— A. europeum, Asarabacca, possesses acrid properties. It has
been employed in medicine as an emetic, and as an errhine in headache and
ophthalmia. Its powder is supposed to constitute the chief ingredient in
cephalic snuffi—A. canadense, Canada Snake-root or Wild Ginger, has
aromatic properties. The rhizome is used in the United States as a tonic,
diaphoretic, and aromatic stimulant.
Bragantia.—The juice of the leaves of B. Waillichii is regarded as an
antidote in snake-bites, but more especially of those of the cobra.—B. tomen-
tosa is used by the Japanese as an emmenagogue.
Fie. 1047.
Order 2. Cytrnack®, the Cistus-rape Order.—Character.
—Root-parasites destitute of chlorophyll, and with a fungoid
texture. Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, and either soli-
RAFFLESIACEA. 683
tary and sessile, or clustered at the end of a scaly stem. Calyx
tubular at the base, 3—6-partite. Avthers sessile, opening
longitudinally. Ovary 1-celled, inferior; ovules very numer-
ous; placentas parietal. Fruit 1-celled, with numerous seeds
imbedded in pulp. Seeds with or without albumen ; embryo
minute, amorphous or dicotyledonous. This and the next order
are frequently combined together in one order, Cytinaceer.
Distribution and Nwmbers.-——Parasitie on the roots of Cistus,
and upon fleshy Euphorbiaceze and other succulent plants.
They occur in the South of Europe and Africa. Illustrative
Genera :—Cytinus, Linn. ; Hydnora, Thunb. There are about
7 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some have astringent properties, as
Cytinus Hypocistus. A kind of extract is made from this plant
in the South of Europe, and used, under the name of Succus
Hupocistidis, in diarrhoea, and for arresting hemorrhage.— Hyd-
nora africana has a putrid-animal odour, but when 1oasted it is
eaten by the native Africans at the Cape of Good Hope.
: Order 3. RAFFLESIACE®, the Rafflesia Order.—Charac-
ter.— Root-parasites, devoid of chlorophyll, without evident
stems or leaves, and with a fungoid texture. These plants
consist essentially of flowers (fig. 258) sessile upon the branches
of trees, and surrounded by scaly bracts. The flowers are herma-
phrodite, or unisexual and dicecious. Calyx 5-partite (fig. 258),
tubular ; the throat surrounded by a number of thickened scaly
processes, which are either distinct from each other or united
into a ring. Avnthers placed upon a column which adheres to
the calyx, 2-celled ; and either distinct, and each opening by a
pore, or united into a many-celled body, and opening by a
common pore. Ovary 1-celled, inferior ; ovules very numerous ;
placentas parietal.. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds very numerous,
with or without albumen ; embryo amorphous or dicotyledonous.
This order, as mentioned abure, is sometimes included in Cytinaceer.
Distribution and Numbers.—Parasitic upon the stems of Cissi
in the East Indies, and on Leguminous plants in South America.
Illustrative Genera :—Rafflesia, FR. Br.; Brugmansia, Blum.
There are about 16 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some have styptic and astringent pro-
perties. They are chiefly remarkable for their flowers, some of
which are of gigantic size. (See page 132).
Cohort 2. Quernales.—Flowers unisexual ; male clustered or in
catkins ; female solitary, clustered, or in catkins. Calyx
green, in the male flowers reduced to a scale, or lobed ; in
the female flowers 2—6-lobed or toothed. Ovary inferior,
1—6-celled. Ovule 1, erect, or 1 or more, pendulous. Fruit
usually 1-seeded. Seeds exalbuminous. Trees or shrubs.
Leaves simple or pinnate, alternate.
684 JUGLANDACEA.
Order 1. JUGLANDACE, the Walnut Order.—Trees. Leaves
alternate, pinnate, exstipulate. Flowers unisexual (fig. 1048).
Male flowers in amenta (jig. 1048); with an irregular calyx, or
a simple scale. Female flowers solitary, or in small terminal
clusters, or amenta, without a cupule; calyx superior, regular,
3—5-lobed ; ovary inferior, 2—4-celled at the base, 1-celled
above ; ovule solitary, erect, orthotropous. Fruit called a tryma
(page 318). Seed (fig. 1049) 2—4-lobed, exalbuminous ; embryo
with sinuous oily cotyledons, and a short superior radicle.
Distribution and Numbers. —Chiefly natives of North
America, but a few are found in the East Indies, Persia, and
the Caucasus. Juglans regia, the Walnut tree, is a native of
Fic. 1048. Fic. 1049.
Fig. 1048. Staminateamentum
of the Walnut tree (Juglans
regia): the flowers are se-
parated by scaly bracts.
Fig. 1049. Seed of the Wal-
nut tree.
the countries between Greece and Cashmere. Tliustrative
Genera :—Juglans, Linn.; Carya, Nutt. There are about 30
species.
Properties and Uses.—Chiefly important for their valuable
timber, and for their oily edible seeds.
Carya.—Carya alba is the common Hickory, valuable for its timber, and
for its edible seeds, which are known as Hickory Nuts.—C. oliveform’s
vields an olive-shaped or somewhat elliptical seed resembling the Walnut and
Hickory in flavour, which is known as the Peccan Nut. These nuts have
the finest flavour of any species of this genus ; they also yield a fixed oil by
pressure, which is palatable. Both Hickory and Peccan nuts are oceasion-
ally imported into this country.—C. porcina yields an edible seed which is
termed the Pig or Hog Nut. It is consumed by pigs, squirrels, &c. Its
wood is regarded as superior to that of either of the other species of Carya.
Juglans.—J. regia, the Walnut, is valuable for its hard rich deep brown
beautifully marked wood. ‘This is much employed in ornamental furniture
work, and for gun stocks. The unripe fruit is also used for pickling. The
seed of this plant is our well-known edible Walnut. This yields by expres-
sion a useful fixed oil of a drying nature like Linseed oil. It may be em-
ployed for burning in lamps and in cookery. ‘The pericarp has had a repu-
tation as a vermifuge from the time of Hippocrates, The bark possesses
CORYLACEHZ OR CUPULIFERA. 685
cathartic properties.—J. nigra, the Black Walnut, a native of North
America, is also esteemed for its timber.—J/. cinerea, the White Walnut or
Butter-nut, is another useful timber tree. The inner bark of its root, which
is official in the United States Pharmacopeia under the name of Butter-nut,
is employed as a mild purgative. When applied to the skin it also acts as
a rubefacient. The substance termed juglandin is obtained from this bark ;
it is regarded as a useful remedy in habitual constipation. The unripe fruit
is used for pickling ; and the ripe seed is edible like our common walnut.
Order 2. CoRYLACE2 or CUPULIFER&, the Oak Order.—
Character. —Trees or shrubs. Leaves (fig. 205) alternate,
usually feather-veined (figs. 312 and 313), simple, with decidu-
ous stipules. lowers moncecious. Male flowers clustered or in
amenta (fig. 397), and with or without bracts ; stamens 5—20
(fig. 1050), inserted into the base of a membranous calyx, or of
scales orbracts. Female flowers solitary or amentaceous, and sur-
rounded by an involucre of bracts (fig. 1051), which ultimately
form a cupule (figs. 400 and 401) round the ovary and fruit ;
ovary inferior, surmounted by a rudimentary calyx, 3- (jig. 1052)
or more celled ; ovules 2 in each cell or solitary, pendulous or
Fie. 1050. Fig. 1051. . Fie. 1052.
Fig. 1050. Male flower of a species of Oak ( Quercus ).— Fig. 1051. Female
flower of the same.—Fig. 1052. Transverse section of the female flower.
peltate ; stigmas almost sessile. Fruit a glans or nut (figs. 400
and 401), 1-celled by abortion, more or less enclosed by the
cupule. Seeds large, 1 or 2, exalbuminous ; cotyledons thick,
fleshy or farinaceous ; radicle superior.
Bentham and Hooker include the order Betulacez in the
Cupuliferze (see page 668), and divide the order as thus consti-
tuted into three tribes as follows :—Tribe 1. Betuleze. Tribe 2.
Corylee. Tribe3. Quercinee.
The Betulez are at once distinguished by their superior
ovary, and the absence of a cupule from the two latter; and the
Corylez from the Quercineze by the male flowers being achla-
mydeous, and having one ovule in each cell of the ovary ; the
latter having a 3—7- lobed ovary, and 2 ovules in each cell.
Some authors, again, divide this order into two orders—
Corylaceze and Cupuliferz.
Distribution and Numbers.—They abound in the forests of
temperate regions. A few occur in the high lands of tropical
and hot climates. Illustratiwe Genera :—Carpinus, Tourn. ;
Corylus, Towrn. ; Quercus, Towrn. There are nearly 300 species.
686 CORYLACEZ OR CUPULIFER.
Properties and Uses.—Most important on account of their
valuable timber. Many yield edible seeds, and some have
highly astringent barks and cupules.
Carpinus.— C. Betulus,the Hornbeam, and C. americanus, are well known
for their timber, which is principally employed for making agricultural im-
plements, and for the cogs of mill wheels.
Castanea.— C, vulgaris (vesca) is the Spanish Chestnut, ‘which i is much
cultivated for its timber, and for its edible fruits or nuts. These nuts are
principally imported from Spain, where they are largely employed as an
article of food by the agricultural classes. —C. americana, a native of the
United States, also yields a much smaller, but very sweet, kind of Chestnut,
which has been occasionally imported.
Corylus Avellana, the common Hazel, is the origin of the most anciently
used and most extensively consumed of all our edible nuts. There are
several varieties of the Hazel, as the White, Red, and Jerusalem Filberts ;
the Great and Clustered Cobs; the Red Smyrna, the Black Spanish, the
Barcelona Nuts, &c. The importation of these alone into this country
is, on an average, 150,000 bushels a year. The oil which is obtained from
them by expression is occasionally employed by artists and watchmakers.
Good charcoal is also obtained from the branches of the Hazel.
Fagus.—F. sylvatica, the Common Beech, is well known for its timber.
The fruits (Beech-mast) form a food for pigs. The fruit of F. ferruginea is
eaten in North America. The seeds of some species yield by expression a
fixed oil.
Ostrya vulguris (virginica) possesses a very hard wood, which in America
has been called in consequence Iron-wood. It is also termed Lever-wood
from its being used for making levers.
Quercus.—The timber of several species of this genus is employed for
ship-building, and other important purposes ; namely, that of the Q. Rubur,
the common British Oak, of which there are two varieties, which by some
are regarded as distinct species, and called Q. pedunculata and Q. sessili-
flora; that of the Q. Cerris, Turkey or Adriatic Oak ; of the Q. alba, White
Oak ; the Q. rubra, Red Oak; the Black Oak (Q. tinctoria) ; the Q. Llex ;
and the Live Oak (Q. virens), and others. Many Japanese species also
yield valuable timber. The bark of several species is astringent, and largely
employed in tanning, &c.; that of Quercus Robur var. pedunculata i is most
esteemed. The dried bark of the smaller branches and young stems of this
plant is official in the British Pharmacopceia, and is employed in medicine
as an astringent and tonic. The fruits (acorns) of this and the other species
or varieties which are natives of this country have been also generally recom-
mended as food for cattle, but recent experience would seem to show that
they possess injurious properties. The outer bark of Quercus Suber, the
Cork Oak, constitutes the cork of commerce. The bark obtained from the
younger branches of the same tree is also imported into this country from .
Spain. It is commonly known as European Alcornoque Bark, and is used
for tanning purposes. (See Bowdichia.) The inner bark of older stems is
also imported as cork-tree bark, and similarly employed.— Quercus Egylops.
The acorn-cups (cupules) of this species are imported from the Levant
under the name of Valonia; the dried half-matured acorns of the same
plant are also imported under the name of Camata; and the very young
ones as Camatina. These three articles are valuable for their tanning pro-
perties.— Quercus tinctoria, the Black Oak, has already been noticed as a
valuable timber tree. Its bark is called Quereitron Bark ; it is used for
tanning, and in this country its inner portion is also employed for dyeing
yellow. The bark of Quercus alba is official in the United States Pharma-
copeia, where it is employed for its astringent, febrifugal, and tonic proper-
ties. The bark of Q. aquatica, a North ‘American species, and that of Q.
LORANTHACE. 687
Ilex, a South European species, is also employed by tanners.— Quercus
sinensis, a native of China, yields a dye.— Quercus coccifera, the Kermes
Oak, has its young branches attacked by a species of Coccus, by which little
reddish balls are formed upon their surface, which were formerly much
used as a crimson dve. The young branches of Oak trees are especially
liable to be punctured by insects, by which the morbid excrescences com-
monly called gulls are produced. ‘The more important of these excrescences
form the Nut Gails of commerce; they are produced on the branches of
Quercus lusitanica, var. infectoria by the Cysips Galle tinctorix. They
are alone official in the British Pharmacopee: , and are also extensively
employed in tanning, for the preparation of the official tannic and gallic
acids, for making ink, and for other purposes in the arts. They likewise
possess tonic, astringent, and antiperiodic properties. Pereira also regarded
them as a valuable antidote in poisoning by tartar emetic. The best Nut
Galls come from the Levant. Two kinds are commonly distinguished under
the names of blue and white galls. The dark-coloured galls, which are
imperforate, are the most valuable. The round smooth galls, now frequently
found on the lower branches of the Oaks in this country, although containing
tannic acid, are far less valuable than commercial nut- galls. These are
formed by the Cynips Kollari of Giraud. The large (alls known as Mecca
or Bussorah Galls, Dead Sea Apples, and Apples of Sodom, are said to be
produced on Q. lusitanica by Cynips insana ‘The acorns of some species of
Quercus, as Q. Ballota, Q. Gramuntia, Q. sculus, and Q. Hindsii, are
edible; also those of Q. cornea in China, and of Q. cuspidata in Japan.
Cohort 3. Santalales—Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Calyx usually conspicuous, coloured, valvate in estivation.
Stamens equal in number to, and opposite the lobes of, the
calyx. Ovary inferior, mostly 1-celled ; ovules 1 or more,
devoid of integuments. Fruit usually baccate or drupaceous.
Seed solitary, albuminous. Usually parasitic herbs or shrubs.
Leaves, when present, entire.
Order 1. LoRANTHACES, the Mistletoe Order.— Character.
—Farasitic shrubs. Leaves greenish, commonly opposite, ex-
stipulate. lowers hermaphrodite, or unisexual and dicecious.
Calyx superior, with 4—8 divisions; e&stivation valvate ; some-
times absent. Stamens equal in number to, and opposite the
lobes of, the calyx. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with 3 ovules,
suspended from a free-central placenta, or 1 erect and arising
from the base of the ovary. Fruit commonly succulent, 1-celled,
with a solitary seed ; embryo in fleshy albumen, with the radicle
remote from the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are principally found in
the hotter parts of America and Asia. Three species are natives
of Europe, and a few occur in Africa and some other regions.
Illustrative Genera: —Myzodendron, Sol.; Viscum, Towrn.;
Loranthus, Linn. There are above 400 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Some are astringent.
Loranthus tetrandus, a native of Chili, produces a black dye.
Viscum album is the common Mistletoe. It is parasitic cn many trees
in this country, as Willows, Thorns, Limes, Elms, Oaks, Firs, and especially
688 SANTALACEA.— BALANOPHORACES,
the Apple tree. The Mistletoe of the Oak, which is very rare, was an ob-
ject of superstitious veneration by the Druids. The fruit has a viscid pulp,
which is sometimes employed for making bird-lime. It is said that the
fruits when eaten produce severe poisoning symptoms, the effects resembling
those of alcoholic intoxication. Its bark has astringent properties. The
plant is now out of use as a medicinal agent, but was formerly in great
repute as an antispasmodic. The leaves of V. monoicum, a plant which is
parasitic on Strychnos Nux-vomica, were found in India to possess similar
poisonous properties to that plant, from growing upon it, and to be useful in
like cases to it in medicine. ©
Order 2. SANTALACEH, the Sandal-wood Order. —Charac-
ter.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves entire, alternate. Flowers
usually hermaphrodite. Calyx superior, 4—5-cleft, valvate in
zestivation. Stamens perigynous, equal in number to, and
opposite the segments of, the calyx. Ovary 1-celled, inferior ;
ovules 1—4, usually suspended; placenta free-central. Fruit
indehiscent, 1-seeded. Seed with a quantity of fleshy albumen ;
embryo straight, minute ; radicle superior.
Distribution aud Numbers.—Natives of various parts of the
world. The species found in North America and Europe are
inconspicuous herbs; those of India, Australia, &¢., are trees
or shrubs. The genus Thesiwm is partially parasitic on the roots
of other plants. Illustrative Genera :—Thesium, Linn. ; San-
talum, Linn. There are about 120 species.
Properties and Uses.—Some of these plants, as Thesiwm, are
slightly astringent; others have a fragrant wood; and a few
produce edible fruits and oily seeds.
Fusanus acuminatus ( Santalum cygnorum) is the Quandang Nut of Aus-
tralia. The fruit is edible, and resembles Almonds in flavour. This tree
also vields a kind of Sandal-wood. (See Santalum.)
Santalum.—S. album is a native of India. The wood called Sandal-wood
is remarkable for its fragrance. It is sometimes used as a perfume ; but its
chief consumption is for incense in the Chinese temples, and in India in the
celebration of sepulchral rites, where pieces of Sandal-wood are placed by
the wealthy in the funereal pile. The wood is also much used by cabinet
makers for caskets and other purposes. In India and other parts of the
East it is also employed medicinally as a sedative and for its refrigerant
_ properties. By distillation it yields a fragrant volatile oil, which is esteemed
as a perfume, and also medicinally as a remedy for gonorrheea, gleet, &c. Itis
official in the British Pharmacopceia.—S. Freycinetianum and S. pyrularium
produce the Sandal-wood of the Sandwich Islands; S$. Vasi, a kind of
Sandal-wood from the Fiji Islands; S. austro-caledonicum, that from New
Caledonia ; and S. cygnorum (Fusanus acuminatus) and 8, spicatum, that
from Western Australia. (See /usanus.)
Order 3. BALANOPHORACES, the Balanophora Order. —
Character.—Leafless root-parasites with amorphous fungoid
stems of various colours, but never green; and underground
more or less fleshy tubers or rhizomes. Pedwncles naked or
scaly, bearing spikes of flowers, which are commonly unisexual,
bracteated, and of a white colour. Male flowers very evident,
each with a tubular calyx, which is either entire or 3—5-lobed.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN MONOCHLAMYDE. 689
Stamens usually 3—5, or sometimes 1, in the former case more or
less united or distinct. Female flowers very minute, with a
tubular superior calyx, the limb either wanting or present and
bilabiate. Ovary inferior, usually 1-celled ; styles 2; ovule soli-
tary, pendulous. Fruit small, more or less compressed, in-
dehiscent. Seed solitary, albuminous, with a lateral undivided
or amorphous embryo.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are parasitical on
the roots of various Dicotyledonous plants, especially in the
tropical and sub-tropical mountains of Asia and South America.
Other species are found in different parts of Africa, Australia,
&e. Illustrative Genera :—Cynomorium, Michel; Balanophora,
Forst. There are, according to Sir Joseph Hooker, 37 species.
Properties and Uses.—Many are remarkable for their astrin-
gent properties ; others are edible, as Ombrophytum, a native of
Peru, and Lophophytwm of Bolivia; and some secrete a kind of
wax.
Balanophora.—In the mountainous districts of Java the natives make
candles from a species of Balanophora, as follows :—The parasite is heated
in an iron pan, after which bamboo sticks covered with cotton are dipped
into the melted mass, when the waxy substance of the plant adheres to
them. This so-called wax is, according to Dr. de Vrij, a mixture of at
least two resins and a vegetable fat.
Cynomorium coccineum is the Fungus melitensis of pharmacologists. It
has had a great reputation as a styptic.
Langsdorffia hypogea.—tThis species yields so large a quantity of wax,
that candles are made of it in New Granada. The stems are also said to be
collected near Bogota, ‘and sold under the name of Siejos, and used as candies
on saints’ days.’
' Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Sub-class
MONOCHLAMYDEZ or INCOMPLET &.
(Modified from Lindley.)
1, Achlamydeous Flowers.
A. Leaves stipulate.
a. Flowers unisexual.
Ovary 1-celled.
Ovules numerous . : : . Salicacezx.
Ovules 1—2.
Ovule erect , : i : 2 : . Myricacee.
Ovule pendulous ; : : : : . Platanacee.
Ovary 2- or more celled.
Seeds few, not winged . : : ; ‘ . Kuphorbiucee,
b. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Carpel solitary.
Ovule erect. Embryo ina vitellus . : . Piperacer.
Ovule suspended. Embryo naked : : . Chloranthacezx.
Carpels several.
Ovule erect. Embryo ina vitellus. ; . Saururacee.
Yrry:
690 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN MONOCHLAMYDEA.
B. Leaves exstipulate.
a. Flowers unisexual.
Ovules very numerous : . Podostemacex
Ovules solitary, or very few.
Flowers naked.
Ovary l-celled . : : ; : . Myricacez.
’ Flowers in an involucre.
Anther-valves recurved - . ; . Atherospermacex.
Anther-valves slit.
Embryo on the outside of the albumen . Monimiacee.
Embryo enclosed in the albumen . Euphorbiacex.
b. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Embryo ina vitellus . . ‘ : . Piperacex.
Embryo without a vitellus . : : - . Podostemacex.
2, Monochlamvdeous Flowers.
A. Ovary inferior, or partially so.
a. Leaves stipulate.
1. Flowers hermaphrodite ; . 4 . Aristolochiacex.
2. Flowers unisexual : . ° ° . Corylacezx.
b. Leaves exstipulate.
1. Flowers hermaphrodite.
Ovary 3—6 celled. Ovules numerous . - Aristolochiacex.
Ovary 1-celled. Ovules definite.
Ovules with a naked nucleus. Leaves opposite . Loranthacex.
Ovules with a naked nucleus. Leaves alter-
nate: . : : : : . : . Santalacee.
Ovules with a coated nucleus . : . . Chenopodiacezx.
2. Flowers unisexual.
Amentaceous : : ; : - ; . Juglandacezx.
B. Ovary superior.
a. Leaves stipulate.
1. Flowers hermaphrodite.
a, Carpel solitary.
Stipules ochreate : : : : . Polygonacex.
Stipules distinct : : : : : . Petiveriacex.
6. Carpels more than one, combined.
Seeds exalbuminous.
Calyx imbricate . 2 ‘ , ; . Ulmacee.
Seeds albuminous.
Styles or stigmas 2. Leaves not dotted . Ulmacezx.
2. Flowers unisexual.
a. Carpel solitary.
Cells of anther perpendicular to the filament . Stilaginacex.
Cells of anther parallel to the filament.
Embryo straight.
Sap watery. Stipules small. Seeds albu-
buminous. ; : : ; . Urticacex.
Sap milky. Stipules large. Seeds ex-
albuminous . ‘ 5 . : . Artocarpacex.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN MONOCHLAMYDEX. 691
Embryo hooked.
Sap watery. Seeds without albumen - Carnabinacee.
Sap milky. Seeds with albumen . . Moracex.
b. Carpels more than one, combined.
Flowers amentaceous.
Seeds arillate.
Stamen 1. : : : . : . Lacistemaceex.
Stamens more than 1 : - Se . NScepacex.
Seeds not arillate : : - : . Betulacex.
Flowers not amentaceous : : : . Huphorbiacex.
b. Leaves exstipulate.
1. Flowers hermaphrodite.
a, Carpel solitary.
Anther-valves recurved . k s : . Lauracesz.
Anthers slit.
Leaves covered with scales . ; 7 . Elwagnacex.
Leaves not scaly.
Calyx long or tubular.
Hardened at base . : - - . Nyctaginacer.
Not hardened in any part.
Stamens in the points of the sepals . Proteaceex.
Stamens not in the points of the
sepals. . : ° . Thymelacezx.
Calyx short, not tubular, or but slightly so.
Flowers in involucels . 3 . . Polygonacex.
Flowers not in involucels.
Calyx dry and coloured. ; - Amarantacer.
Calyx herbaceous or succulent.
Stamens hypogyneus or nearly so. Chenopodiacex.
Stamens perigynous ; - . Buasellacee.
6. Carpels more than one, either distinct or com-
. bined.
Carpels distinct . : : : ; . Phytolaccaceex.
Carpe!s combined.
Seeds exalbuminous,
Calyx tubular.
Ovary 2-celled . : - , - Aquilariacee.
Ovary 4-celled . : ; ; . Penxacex.
Calyx tubular, or imperfect . : . Podostemacex.
Seeds albuminous .. - A . Phytolaccaceer.
2. Flowers unisexual.
a. Carpels solitary, or quite distinct.
Calyx tubular.
Anthers opening by recurved valves . . Atherospermacex.
Anthers opening longitudinally . : . Myristicacex.
Calyx not tubular.
Seeds exalbuminous. Embryo straight.
Leaves verticillate : : ; - Ceratophyllicex.
No evident leaves . : : ° . Casuarinacee.
Seeds albuminous.
Embryo curled round the albumen . Chenopodiacex.
Embryo straight. , : : . Monimiacer.
b. Carpels more than one, combined.
Ovules indefinite.
Leaves with pitchers . : : 2 . Nepenthaceex.
¥¥2
692 MONOCOTYLEDONES.
Ovules definite.
Fruit fleshy. Seeds ascending . ‘ . Empetraceer.
Fruit dry. Seeds suspended ‘ : . Luphorbiacee.
Root Parasites of Fungoid Texture (Rhizogens of Lindley).
A. Ovary inferior. Ovulessolitary . . ‘ - Balanophoracex.
B. Ovary superior. Ovules indefinite.
Anthers opening longitudinally . - : . Cytinaceer.
Anthers opening by pores. : - ? . Rafflesiacer.
Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous flowers also occasionally,
or in some orders always, occur, as already noticed, in plants
belonging to the following orders of the Sub-classes Polypetalz
and Gamopetale :—
Sub-class 1. Polypetalze :—
Series 1. Thalamiflorze :—Ranwnculacer, Menispermacee,
Papweracex, Flacourtiacer, Caryophyllacer, Scleranthacex, Pa-
ronychiacexr, Sterculiacer, Byttneriacex, Tiliacex.
Series 2. Disciflore :—Malpighiacex, Rutacex, Chailletiacex,
Xanthoxylacexr, Geraniacer, Celastracexr, Rhamnacex, and Ana-
cardiacee.
Series 3. Calyciflorze :—Leguminose, Rosacex, Lythraceex,
Saxifragacer, Cunoniacer, Begoniacer, Datiscacer, Mesembry-
acex, Passifloraceer, Myrtacex, Onagracex, Samydacex, Halora-
gacex, Combretacex, Hamamelidacer, and Araliacex.
Sub-class 2. Gamopetalze :—Oleacex and Primulacee.
Class II. MoNnocoTyLEDONEs.
In the class Monocotyledones, as in the sub-class Monochla-
mydex, we follow in all essential particulars the arrangement
of the Orders and characters of the Cohorts as given by Sir
Joseph Hooker in the English edition of Le Maout and De-
caisne’s ‘ Traité Général de Botanique,’ instead of that adopted
by Bentham and Hooker in ‘Genera Plantarum,’ where the
following Series are given instead of Cohorts :—1. Microsperme.
2. Epigyne. 3. Coronariee. 4. Calycine. 5. Nudiflore. 6.
Apocarpe. 7. Glumacez. The characters of these Series are
given in detail, and lists of the Orders grouped under them
respectively, in ‘Genera Plantarum.’
Sub-class I. Petaloidee.
Series 1. Inferze or Epigyne.
Cohort 1. Hydrales.—Flowers regular, usually unisexual.
Inner whorl of perianth petaloid. Ovary 1—6-celled ; pla-
centation parietal. Stamens 3 or more. Fruit baccate. Seeds
numerous ; embryo distinct ; exalbuminous. Aquatic herbs.
v
HY DROCHARIDACEZ,.— ZINGIBERACEX. 633
Order 1. Hyprocusrimace®, the Hydrocharis or Frog-bit
Order.— Character.—Aquatic plants. Flowers spathaceous,
regular, unisexual or polygamous. Perianth superior, in 1 or 2
whorls, each composed of 5 pieces, the inner petaloid. Stamens
few or numerous. Ovary inferior, usually 1—6-celled ; placen-
tation parietal. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds numerous, exalbu-
minous.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Inhabitants of fresh
water in Europe, North America, East Indies, and New Holland.
Illustrative Genera :—Anacharis, Rich.; Vallisneria, Mich. There
are about 25 species. Their properties are unimportant.
Cohort 2. Amomales.—Flowers usually hermaphrodite and very
irregular (regular in Bromeliacez). Perianth inferior, ex-
cept in some Bromeliacez. Stamens 6,1 or 5 with anthers,
the rest petaloid, or all antheriferous in Bromeliacez.
. Ovary usually 3-celled, with axile placentation. Fruit baccate
or capsular. Seeds with farinaceous albumen ; embryo dis-
tinct. Leaves usually large and pinnately-veined.
Order 1. ZINGIBERACEZ or SciTaMINAcE#, the Ginger Order.
—C haracter.—Aromatic herbs, with creeping rhizomes, and
broad simple, stalked, sheathing leaves, with parallel curved
veins springing from the midrib. Flowers arranged in a spiked
or racemose manner, and arising from among spathaceous mem-
branous bracts. Perianth superior, irregular, each whorl con-
sisting of 3 pieces. Stamens 6, in 2 whorls, all abortive except
the posterior one of the inner whorl; anther 2-celled ; filament
not petaloid. Ovary inferior, 3-celled; placentas axile; style
filiform. Fruit 1—3-celled, capsular or baccate. Seeds numerous,
albuminous ; embryo enclosed in a vitellus.
By Bentham and Hooker the two succeeding orders, Marantacez
and Musacex, are included in Zingiberacee.
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of tropical
regions. Illustrative Genera:—Zingiber, Gértn.; Curcuma,
Linn.; Elettaria, Rheed. There are about 250 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are principally remarkable for the
stimulant aromatic properties possessed by their rhizomes and
seeds, owing to the presence of resins and volatile oils; hence
several are used as condiments, and in medicine as aromatic
stimulants and stomachics. Some contain starch in large quan-
tities, which when extracted is employed for food.
Alpinia.—The rhizome known as the greater or Java Galangal root is
derived from A. Galanga, Willd.,a native of Java. The lesser or Chinese
Galangal has been traced by Hance to a new species, which he has termed
A. officinarum. The lesser Galangal is now the only kind known in Euro-
pean commerce. It is not used in this country ; but principally in Russia,
where it is employed for flavouring the liqueur called nastotka, and vinegar ;
694 ZINGIBERACEA,
and also as a cattle medicine, a spice, and as a popular medicine. The
Tartars use it to prepare a kind of tea.—The source of the light Galangal
of Guibourt is altogether unknown. The Galangals have similar properties
to Ginger. The ovoid China Cardamom is the fruit of A. alba ; its seeds are
used as a condiment in China.
Amomum.—Several species of this genus have aromatic and stimulant
seeds, which are used as spices and medicinal agents in various parts of the
world. The only species which is employed in this country is the A. mele-
gueta, which yields the Grains of Paradise of the shops. It is a native of
the Western Coast of Africa. These seeds are much employed in Africa as
a spice. The common notion that they are very injurious is erroneous.
They are principally employed in this country in veterinary medicine, and
for giving pungency to beer, wine, spirits, and vinegar.— A. Cardamomum
yields the fruit known as the round Cardamom. The fruits of A. maximum
constitute Java Cardamoms; those of A. Korarima Korarima Cardamoms ;
and those of A. globosum the large round and the small round China Carda-
moms. The latter are much employed in China. Many other species have
similar properties.
Curcuma.—C. longa.—The dried tubers or rhizomes of this plant consti-
tute the turmeric of the shops. They are officialin the British Pharmacopeeia
asatest. Turmeric is used as a condiment, as a test, and for dyeing yellow.
It is largely employed in India, China, and other parts of the East. It
forms an ingredient in curry powder, &c. Unsized white paper steeped
in tincture of Turmeric, when dried, is employed as a test to detect free
alkalies, which change its colour from yellow to reddish-brown.—C. angusti-
folia: the rhizomes contain a large quantity of starch, which, when
extracted, forms East Indian Arrowroot or Curcuma Starch. This kind of
arrowroot may be also obtained from other species of Cureuma, as C. leu-
corrhiza, C. rubescens, &c. In its effects and uses it resembles West Indian
Arrowroot or Maranta Starch (see Maranta) ; but it is not so pure a starch,
—C. aromatica yields the Round Zedoary of pharmacologists.—C. Zedoaria
is supposed to yield the so-called Cassumunar roots, the Long Zedoary, and
the Zerumbet roots of commerce ; they all possess aromatic and tonite pro-
perties. But Professor Archer believes that Zerumbet and Cassumunar are
derived from C. Zerumbet. (See Zingiber.)
Elettaria—E. Cardamomum yielas the capsular fruits which constitute
the small or Malabar Cardamoms, the seeds of which are official in the
British Pharmacopeeia, and are in common use in medicine in this country
on account of their cordial and stimulating properties, and also as flavouring
agents. Inthe East Indies they are extensively used as a condiment and
for chewing with betel. In parts of the Continent, as Russia, Germany, &c.,
they are also much employed for flavouring, and in the preparation of
liqueurs, &c.—E. major yields Ceylon Cardamoms, which are much used on
the Continent ; their uses and effects are similar, but they are of less value
than the former.
Zingiber.—Z. officinale, the Ginger Plant.—The so-called Ginger-root or
Ginger of the shops is the rhizome of this species. The rhizomes when very
young, or the young shoots of the old rhizomes, are used for preserving, and
fourm in this state Preserved Ginger. The Ginger of the shops is found in
two states, one being called white ginger or uncoated ginger, and the other
black ginger or coated ginger. The former is prepared from the rhizomes of
about a year old, which when dug up are washed, scraped, and dried: this
kind is generally preferred, and is alone official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
The latter is prepared from the rhizomes in a similar manner, but not
submitted to the scraping process. The essential distinction between the two
consists, therefore, in White Ginger having its integument removed, while
in Black Ginger it remains on the surface as a shrivelled membrane.
Ginger is extensively used as a condiment, and also in medicine as a stimulant
MARANTACEX.—MUSACEM. 695
and stomachie internally, and externally as a rubefacient.—Z. Cassuwmunar
is supposed by some to be the plant from which Cassumunar root is obtained.
(See Curcuma.)
Order 2. MARANTACEH or CANNACE®, the Maranta Order.—
Character.—Herbaceous plants, without aromatic properties.
They have a close resemblance to the Zingiberacez. Their
distinctive characters are, in their more irregular perianth; in
one of the lateral stamens of the inner whorl being fertile, and
the other two abortive; in the fertile stamen having a petaloid
filament, an entire or 2-lobed anther, one lobe of which is
sterile, and the anther therefore 1-celled; in the style being
petaloid or swollen ; and in the embryo not being enclosed in a
vitellus.
Distribution and Numbers.—-Exclusively natives of tropical
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Maranta, Plum.; Canna, Linn.
There are about 160 species.
Properties and Uses.—The rhizomes of some species contain
starch, which when extracted is extensively used for food.
Canna.—One or more species of this genus yield ‘Tous les mois,’ a very
pure and useful starch, although little ‘used in this country or elsewhere.
The exact species of Canna from which this starch is obtained is not posi-
tively known; it is said to be C. edulis, but it is just as probable to be
derived also from C. glauca and C, Achir ras. C. lutea is stated in the ‘ Bom-
bay Flora’ to yield * Tous les mois.’ C. indica and C. discolor also yield a
similar starch.— C. indica.—The seeds are commonly known under the name
of Indian Shot, from their black colour and hardness. These seeds and those
of other species are made use of as beads. The rhizomes or tubers of some
species are eaten asa vegetable ; they contain much starch, which, as already
stated, resembles ‘Tous les mois.’
Maranta.—M. arundinacea.—The rhizomes or tubers of this plant con-
tain a large quantity of starch, which, when extracted, constitutes West
Indian Arrowroot, one of the purest and best known of the starches used as
food. As this arrowroot is now obtained from M. arundinacea, which is
cultivated for that purpose in other parts of the world besides the West Indies,
it is best distinguished as Maranta Starch. It forms a very firm jelly, and
is perhaps the most palatable and digestible starch known. The best arrow-
root is the Bermuda kind, but this is becoming more scarce every year.
The name Arrowroot is generally said to have been derived from the fact of
the bruised rhizomes of this plant having been employed by the native
Indians as an application to the poisoned wounds inflicted by arrows.
Others give, however, different derivations for this name. Thus T. Greenish
believes that it is derived from the Indian word § ara-ruta,’ a term signifying
‘mealy root.’ The name of arrowroot is now given to various other starches
which are used as food in this country and elsewhere.
Order 3. Musace®, the Banana Order.—Character.—
Herbaceous plants, often of large size. Leaves large, with parallel
curved veins springing from the midribs (fig. 318), and long
sheathing petioles, which together form by their union a spu-
rious aerial stem. Flowers irregular, spathaceous. Perianth
irregular, 6-partite, petaloid, superior, arranged in 2 whorls.
Stamens 6, inserted upon the divisions of the perianth, some
abortive; anthers 2-celled. Ovary inferior, 3-celled. Fruit
696 BROMELIACE#.
capsular, dehiscing loculicidally, or succulent and indehiscent,
3-celled. Seeds usually numerous, rarely 3, with mealy albumen ;
embryo not enclosed in a vitellus.
Distribution and Numbers.—Generaliy diffused throughout
tropical and sub-tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Musa,
Tourn.; Ravenala, Adans. There are about 20 species.
Properties and Uses.—The fruits of some species and varieties
form important articles of food in tropical regions. Others
yield valuable textile materials; and the large leaves of many
are used for various purposes, such as to form a kind of cloth,
and as thatching for cottages, &c. Theseeds and fruits of others
are used as dyeing agents in some countries.
Musa.—The fruits of some species, as those of MZ. paradisiaca, the Plan-
tain, and M, sapientum, the Banana, of both of which there are numerous
varieties, are well known as important articles of food in many tropical
regions. They owe their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of
starch and sugar, but they also contain some nitrogenous substances. Dr.
Shier states that a new Plantain walk will yield 17 ewt. of starch per acre,
According to Humboldt, the produce of Bananas to that of Wheat is as 133
to ], and to that of Potatoes as 44 to 1. Some of the finer varieties are
also used as dessert fruits in this country and elsewhere. The expressed
juice is in some parts made into a fermented liquor. The fibrous materials
obtained from the spurious stems and flower-stalks of the different species
of Musa may be used for textile fabrics and in paper-making. ‘The fibres
from Musa tertilis constitute the Manila Hemp of commerce. From the
finer fibres of this plant the celebrated Indian muslins are manufactured.
The young shoots of the Banana and other species of Musa when boiled are
eaten as a vegetable; and the large leaves are used for various domestic
purposes. The young leaves of the Banana and Plantain are also in common
use in India for ‘dressing blistered surfaces.
Ravenala speciosa has been called the Water-tree and Trayeller’s tree
on account of its large sheathing petioles storing up water. Its seeds are
edible.
Order 4. BRoMELIACEA, the Bromelia Order.—Charac-
ter.—Herbs or somewhat woodu plants, commonly epiphytical.
Leaves persistent, crowded, channelled, rigid, sheathing at the
base, and frequently scurfy and with spiny margins. lowers
showy. Perianth regular, superior, or nearly or quite inferior,
arranged in two whorls, the outer of which has its parts com-
monly united into a tube; and the inner has its parts distinct,
imbricate, and of a different colour to those of the outer whorl.
Stamens 6; anthers introrse. Ovary 3-celled ; style 1. Frwit cap-
sular or indehiscent (fig. 292). Seeds numerous ; embryo minute,
at the base of mealy albumen, with the radicle next the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are mostly found in the
tropical regions of America, West Africa, and the East Indies.
They appear to have been originally natives of America and the
adjoining islands, but are now naturalised in West Africa and
the East Indies. Illustrative Genera :—Ananassa, Lindl.; Til-
landsia, Linn. There are about 180 species.
Properties and Uses.—They are chiefly important for yielding
ORCHIDACEA, 697
edible fruits and useful fibrous materials. Some are anthel-
mintic, and others contain colouring matters.
Ananassa sativa, the Pine-apple-—The fruit (sorosis) of this species is
the well-known and delicious fruit called the Pine-apple. A large number
of these fruits are now imported into Britain, chiefly from the Bahama
Islands, but in flavour they are very inferior to those produced by cultiva-
tion in this country. The unripe fruit possesses anthelmintic properties.
The fibre obtained from the leaves of this species, as well as that from one or
more species of. Bromelia and Tillandsia, is known under the name of Pine-
apple fibre, and has been used for various textile fabrics, and for the manu-
facture of paper, cordage, &c.
Billbergia tinctoria.—In Brazil a yellow colouring agent is obtained from
the roots of this plant.
Bromelia Pinguin possesses vermifuge properties. Its leaves yield useful
fibres. The fibres of B. sylvestris under the name of Jrtle fibre or Mexican
Grass are used for brush-making, ropes, and textile fabrics, and would pro-
bably form a good paper material.
Tillandsia usneoides is commonly called Tree-beard or Old Man’s Beard,
from the fact of its forming a mass of dark-coloured fibres, which hang
from the trees in South America, like certain Lichens in cold climates.
This article has been imported under the name of Spanish Moss, and em-
ployed for stuffing cushions, &c., mixed with horsehair. It has been also
used for stuffing birds, for packing, and for paper-making. About 10,000
bales are annually shipped from New Orleans.
Cohort 3. Orchidales.—Flowers hermaphrodite and very irre-
gular. Perianth of 6, or rarely 3, seeyments. Stamens, 1,
2, or 3, confluent with the style (gynandrous). Ovary 1-
celled with parietal placentation, except in Apostasiacez
where it is 3-celled with axile placentation. Fruit capsular.
Seeds very minute ; exalbuminous ; embryo very obscure.
Order 1. OrncuIDAcE#, the Orchis Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs, terrestrial (figs. 261 and 262) or epiphytical (fig.
256). Roots fibrous or tuberculated (figs. 262 and 261); no true
stem or a pseudo-bulb (fig. 256). Leaves entire (fig. 316),
generally sheathing. Flowers irregular (jigs. 546 and 1053),
solitary or numerous, with a single bract, hermaphrodite.
Perianth superior (figs. 546 and 1053), usually petaloid and
composed of six pieces (fig. 1054), which are commonly arranged
in two whorls; the owter whorl, s, sl, sl, formed of three pieces
(sepals), more or less united below or distinct; one, s, being
anterior, or when the ovary is twisted posterior (figs. 546 and
1053), and.two, sl, sl, lateral; the inner whorl ( fig. 1054, pi, pl,
ps) usually consists of three pieces (petals), (or rarely of but
one), alternating with the pieces in the outer whorl; one (the
labellum or lip) (fig. 1054, ps) posterior, or by the twisting of
the ovary anterior (fig. 1053), usually longer and larger than the
other pieces, and altogether different to them in form (fig. 1053),
often spurred (jig. 546); sometimes the labellum exhibits a
division into three regions of which the lowest is then termed
698 ORCHIDACEA.
the hypechiliwm, the middle the mesochiliwm, and the upper the
epichiium. Andreciwm united to the style (gynandrous) ( figs.
546, 566, and 1053) and forming with it a central column (qyno-
stemium) ; the column usually bearing 1 perfect anther and two
lateral abortive ones, or in Cypripediwm two lateral perfect
anthers and one abortive anther in the centre. Pollen powdery,
or more or less collected into grains or waxy or mealy masses
(pollinia) (fig. 564, p); the masses free, or attached by their
stalk, c (caudicle), to a gland or glands (retinacula) at the apex
(rostellum) of the stigma (fig. 566, a). Ovary inferior, 1-celled,
with 3 parietal placentas (figs. 622 and 1054) bearing a number
Fic. 1053. Fic. 1054. Fic. 1055.
Fig. 1053. Front view of the flower of the Tway-blade (Listera ovata),
showing the bifid labellum at the anterior part of the flower, and the
other five divisions of the perianth ; the essential organs of reproduction
forming a column (gynostemium ).— Fig. 1054. Diagram of the flower of
an Orchid. ss, sl, sl. The three outer divisions of the perianth; s being
anterior or inferior, sl, sl being lateral. pl, pi. The two lateral divisions
of the inner whor! of the perianth. ps. Thesuperior or posterior division
(labellum) of the inner whorl; this by the twisting of the ovary becomes
ultimately inferior or anterior. e. The fertile stamen, with two anther
lobes. ec. Transverse section of the ovary, with three parietal placentas.
—Fig.1055. Fruit of an Orchid dehiscing by three valves, each valve
bearing a placenta and numerous very minute seeds.——/ig. 1056. Seed
of an Orchid, with a loose reticulated testa.
of anatropous ovules; style united with the androecium and
forming with it a column or gynostemium (figs. 546 and 1053) ;
stigma a viscid space in front of the column (fig. 566). Fruit
usually capsular, 3-valved (fig. 1055), the valves bear the
placentas in their middle, and separating when the fruit is
ripe from the central parts or midribs of the component carpels,
which are left as an open framework ; or rarely fleshy and in-
dehiscent. Seeds very minute and numerous, with a loose netted
(fig. 1056) or rarely hard crustaceous testa, exalbuminous; embryo
a fleshy solid mass.
ORCHIDACE. 699
Diagnosis.—This order is readily known by its irregular
flowers ; by the peculiar form which the labellum in many cases
assumes, so as to cause the flower to resemble some insect,
reptile, bird, or other living object ; by its gynandrous stamens ;
its frequently more or less coherent pollen ; and by its 1-celled
inferior ovary with three parietal placentas.
Division of the Order.—This order has been divided by Lind-
ley and others into several tribes, the characters being derived
from the number and position of the anthers, the number and
nature of the pollen-masses, and other characters; but the
description of these does not come within the scope of this
volume.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are more or less abundantly
distributed in nearly every region of the globe, except in those
which have a very cold or dry climate. Some species are
terrestrial and occur chiefly in temperate regions ; others are
epiphytical and are confined to hot climates. Illustrative Genera :
—Malaxis, Swartz; Dendrobium, Swartz; Oncidiuam, Swartz ;
Stanhopea, Frost; Orchis, Linn.; Cypripedium, Linn. The
order contains about 5,000 species, 2,000 being in cultivation.
Properties and Uses.—These plants, which present so much
interest from the singularity, beauty, and fragrance of their
flowers, are of little importance in an economic or medicinal
point of view. Some are aromatic and fragrant, and are used
as flavouring agents, several possess nutritious roots, and a few
are antispasmodic and aphrodisiac.
Angrecum fragrans.—The dried leaves of this fragrant species are used
as a kind of tea inthe Mauritius ; it is commonly knownas Faham or Bourbon
tea. It has been introduced into London and Paris, but is not much es-
teemed. “This tea should be prepared by boiling, and is recommended to be
taken with milkandrum. Itis said to produce a soothing effect, but without
causing sleeplessness.
Cypripedium pubescens.—The root is official in the United States Phar-
macopoeia. It is regarded as an antispasmodic, and is employed for similar
purposes as valerian, but is less powerful. In the Chicago ‘ Pharmacist ’ for
1874, it is stated that C. pubescens and C. spectabile possess powerful poisonous
properties, the effects produced resembling the poisoning from Rhus Tozxi-
codendron and R. venenata; but this seems improbable. From the rhizome
and rootlets of C. pubescens, and probably also of C. spectabile and C. humile,
the eclectic remedy termed cypripedin is obtained. This is regarded as a
gentle nervine stimulant, and useful in epilepsy, chorea, and other nervous
diseases,
Eulophia vera and FE. campestris——The tubercules of these species are
used in some parts of India in the preparation of the nutritious substance
known by the names of Salep, Salop, and Saloop, which is there very highly
esteemed. (See Orchis.)
Orchis.—The dried tubercules of several species, as those of O. mascula,
O. latifolia, O. Morio, and others, form European or Indigenous Salep ; that
prepared from O. mascula is said to be the best. Salep contains bassorin and
a little starch, and possesses similar properties to those of other amylaceous
substances. (See Lulophia.)
Sobralia.—The fruit of a species of Sobralia, a native of Panama, is said
to yield a kind of Vanilla which is called Chica.
700 APOSTASIACEZ.—BU RMANNIACEX.—TACCACEA,
Vanilla planifolia, V. aromatica, V. quianensis, V.palmarum, V. pompona,
and other species, are remarkable for their fragrant odoriferous fruits, which
constitute the Vanilla of the shops. Vanilla is extensively used for flavour-
ing chocolate, and also in confectionery and perfumery. It has been also
employed on the Continent as a medicinal agent, in hysteria, &c. It is also
recarded as an aphrodisiac. The fruits of V. planifolia and V. aromatica
are commonly regarded as the most fragrant. (See also Sobralia.)
Order 2. AposTasIAcE&, the Apostasia Order. —Charac-
ter.—Herbs, with regular hermaphrodite flowers. Perianth
superior, regular, with 6 divisions. Stamens 2 or 3, united by
their filaments with the lower part of the style into a column ;
anthers sessile upon the column, 2 or 3. Ovary inferior, 3-celled,
with axile placentation ; ovules numerous; style united below
with the filaments into a column, but prolonged above into a
filiform process. Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved. Seeds very
numerous. By Bentham and Hceoker this order is included vn
Orchidacee.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of damp woods in
tropical India. Jllustrative Genus :—Apostasia, Blume. There
are about 5 species. Their properties are altogether unknown.
Cohort 4. Taccales.—Flowers hermaphrodite, regular. Perianth
6-lobed. Stamens 3 or 6, inserted on the tube of the peri-
anth. Ovary 1- or 3-celled; placentation usually parietal,
or sometimes axile. Fruit capsular or baccate. Seeds very
minute and exalbuminous, or larger and albuminous ; embryo
very obscure.
Order 1. BurMANNIACEH, the Burmannia Order.—Cha-
racter. —Herbaceous plants, without true leaves, or with tufted
radical ones. Flowers hermaphrodite, regular. Perianth peta-
loid, tubular, regular, superior, usually with 6 divisions. Sta-
mens distinct, inserted into the tube of the perianth, either 3
with introrse anthers, and opposite the inner segments of the
perianth, or 6 with extrorse anthers. Ovary inferior, 1-celled
with 3 parietal placentas, or 3-celled with axile placentas ; style
1; stigmas 3. Fruit capsular, 1—3-celled. Seeds numerous,
very minute ; embryo solid.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are principally found in
the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Illustrative
Genera: —Burmannia, Linn.; Thismia, Griff. According to
Miers, there are 38 species. Their properties are unimportant,
but some are reputed to be bitter and astringent.
Order 2. Taccacesm, the Tacca Order.—Character.—Per-
ennial herbs, with fleshy roots. Leaves large, with parallel
veins, radical, stalked. Flowers hermaphrodite. Perianth tubu-
lar, regular, 6-partite, superior. Stamens 6, inserted into the
base of the divisions of the perianth, with petaloid filaments,
IRIDACEA. 701
incurved and hooded at the apex ; anthers 2-celled, placed in
the coneavity below the apex of the filaments. Ovary inferior;
1-celled, with 3 parietal placentas projecting more or less into
the interior ; styles 3. Fruit baccate. Seeds numerous, with
fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of mountainous regions
in India, the Malayan Archipelago, the Philippines, Australia,
Polynesia, Madagascar, Guiana. According to Hance, there
are three genera—T'acca, Forst.; Ataccia, J. S. Presl; and
Schizocapsa, Hance—which contain twelve or more species.
Properties and Uses.—The roots are bitter and acrid, but
when cultivated they become larger and lose in some degree
their acridity and bitterness, and contain much starch, which
when separated is used for food.
Tacca.—The roots of T. oceanica yield the starch known as Tacca
Starch or Tahiti Arrowroot. It may be employed as a substitute for Maranta
starch. Cakes made from this starch are eaten by the natives of Otaheite
and the other Society Islands, where this plant is commonly cultivated.—
T. pinnatifida is by some considered to be identical with the former species.
Like it, the roots contain starch, which is used as food by the inhabitants of
China, Cochin China, Travancore, &e.
Cohort 5. Narcissales.—Flowers hermaphrodite, regular or irre-
gular. Perianth usually petaloid. Stamens 3 or 6, inserted
on the perianth or summit of the ovary. Ovary 3-celled ;
placentation axile. Seeds with copious fleshy, cartilaginous,
or horny albumen ; embryo distinct. Leaves parallel-veined.
Order 1. Intpace%, the Iris Order. —Character.—Herbs,
usually with bulbs, corms (figs. 244 and 245), or rhizomes (fig.
233). Leaves with parallel venation, generally equitant. Flowers
spathaceous (fig. 1057). Perianth superior (fig. 1060), petaloid,
6-partite (fig. 1058), in two whorls, which are equal or nearly so
(fig. 1058), or unequal (figs. 1057 and 1060), in the size of their
segments ; or sometimes the parts are entirely distinct ; convo-
lute in zxstivation. Stamens 3, inserted on the outer segments
of the perianth (jig. 1058); anthers 2-celled, innate, extrorse.
Ovary inferior (fig. 1060), 3-celled, with axile placentation (fig.
1057) ; style 1 (figs. 1058 and 1059); stigmas 3, often petaloid
(figs. 643, stig, and 1060, s,s). Fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-
valved, with loculicidal dehiscence (fig. 712). Seeds numerous,
with horny or fleshy albumen (fig. 1061, p).
Diagnosis.—Herbs. Leaves with parallel veins. Flowers
on scapes, spathaceous. Perianth petaloid, superior, 6-partite,
or rarely the parts are quite distinct, in 2 equal or unequal
whorls. Stamens 38, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers innate,
extrorse. Ovary 3-celled, with axile placentation, inferior.
Fruit capsular, with loculicidal dehiscence, 3-celled, 3-valved.
Seeds numerous, albuminous.
702 IRIDACEA,
Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate
and warm climates. They are found in various parts of the
globe, but are most abundant at the Cape of Good Hope.
Fie. 1057. Fic. 1058.
Fig. 1057. Diagram of the flower of a species of J7%s, showing solitary
bract below, six divisions to the perianth arranged in two whorls, three
stamens, and a three-celled ovary with axile placentation—— Fg. 1058. A
flower of the Spring Crocus (Crocus vernus) cut open to show the three
extrorse stamens attached to the outer segments of the perianth.——/7g.
1059. The three petaloid stigmas of the same with the end of the style.
— Fig. 1060. Vertical section of the flower of J7is germanica. ce,ce. Two
of the external and larger divisions of the perianth. ci. One of the internal
and sma'ler divisions. ¢. Tube formed by the union of the divisions of
the perianth. e, e. Stamens, covered by the petaloid stigmas, s,s. 0. In-
ferior ovary, with numerous ovules, g, attached to placentas in the axis.
Fig. 1061. Vertical section of the seed of the same. ¢. Integuments
of the seed. p, Albumen. e, Embryo. m. Micropyle. (From Jussieu.)
Illustrative Genera :—Iris, Linn.; Gladiolus, Towrn. ; Crocus,
Linn. There are about 560 species.
Properties and Uses.—The rhizomes of several species possess
acrid properties, which causes them to be purgative, emetic, &c.
Some are poisonous, and a few have fragrant rhizomes, Others
=
AMARYLLIDACEX. 703
are employed as colouring agents, and some are commonly re-
garded as antispasmodic, carminative, &c. Many contain starch
in large quantities, but as this is usually combined with acridity,
they are not generally available for food, although some are
stated to be thus employed in Africa.
Crocus sativus, the Saffron Crocus.—This plant is the Karcom of the
Bible. The dried stigmas with the end of the style (jigs. 1058 and 1059)
constitute Hay Saffron, or when pressed together into a mass they form Cake
Saffron. The latter kind, however, is not now found in the shops in this
country ; the substance sold under that name being the compressed florets of
Carthamus tinctorius (see Carthamus). Satfron contains a colouring prin-
ciple called polychroite. Saffron is also said to be obtained in Greece of good
quality from C. Sellerium; and the dried stigmas of other species, as C.
aureus, C. odorus, C. luteus, C. vernus, &c., are likewise employed to some
extent for obtaining saffron in other parts of the Continent, &c. Saffron is
much in request as a flavouring agent on the Continent and in the East.
It was also formerly much used in this country for a similar purpose, but at
present is but little employed in this way except in Cornwall. It is official
in the British Pharmacopeeia, and is principally used as a colouring agent
in this country, but also to some extent in certain nervous affections, and
as anemmenagogue, Bird-fanciers also use it, as they believe it assists the
moulting of birds.
Iris, Flower de Luce.—The rhizomes of several species are more or less
purgative and emetic. The so-called Orris-root of the shops is in reality the
dried trimmed rhizomes of J. florentina, I. pallida, and I. germanica. These
rhizomes possess a violet odour, and are principally used in perfumery, and
also for imparting a pleasant odour to the breath; and by the French,
especially, for making issue-peas. The roasted seeds of 2. Pseud-acorus,
the Yellow Flag of this country, have been recommended as a substitute
for coffee, but they are altogether wanting in the important properties
which render that substance so valuable for the preparation of an un-
fermented beverage. The rhizome and rootlets of J. versicolor, Blue Flag,
are official in the United States Pharmacopeeia ; and are regarded as purga-
tive, emetic, and diuretic. The resinous substance termed iridin or irisin
by the Eclectics in the United States is obtained from these rhizomes, and
from those of allied species ; it is regarded as possessing cathartic, alterative,
and diuretic properties.
Morzxa (Homeria).—Some species of this genus, more especially that of
M. collina, and of other Iridaceous plants known under the name of ‘ Tulp’
at the Cape, have poisonous properties, and have been the cause of fatal re-
sults to cattle which have chanced to eat it. Tulp is also poisonous to human
beings.
Order 2. AMARYLLIDACE#, the Amaryllis Order.—C harac-
ter.— Bulbous or fibrous-rooted plants, without any aerial stem,
or sometimes with a woody one. Leaves with parallel venation,
and usually linear-ensiform, sometimes dryand harsh. Flowers
usually on scapes, and spathaceous (fig. 402). Perianth regular
or nearly so (figs. 402 and 1062), petaloid, superior (fig. 1064)
with six divisions, and with (figs. 502 and 1063, n) or without a
corona (fig. 1064) ; zstivation imbricate or valvate. Stamens
6, inserted on the perianth (fig. 1063) or summit of the ovary
(fig. 1064) ; anthers 2-celled, introrse. Ovary inferior (fig.
1064), 3-celled (fig. 1062); placentas axile. Fruit capsular,
704 AMARYLLIDACEH.
3-celled, 3-valved, with loculicidal dehiscence, and numerous
seeds; or baccate, with 1—3 seeds. Seeds with fleshy or horny
albumen, sometimes carunculate ; embryo with the radicle turned
to, or remote from, the hilum (jig. 1065).
Diagnosis. —Leaves with parallel veins. Flowers spathaceous.
Perianth superior, petaloid, commonly regular, 6-partite, fre-
quently with a corona. Stamens 6; anthers introrse. Ovary
inferior, 3-celled, with axile placentation. Fruit capsular, 3-
valved, with loculicidal dehiscence, or baccate. Seeds numerous,
albuminous.
Fie. 1062. Fie. 1063.
Fig. 1062. Diagram of the flower of the Spring Snowflake (Zeucojum ver-
num), with six divisions to the perianth arranged in two whorls, six
stamens, and a 3-celled ovary with axile placentation.— /%g. 1063. The
perianth of the Daffodil (Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus) cut open in a ver-
tical manner. ¢. Tube bearing six stamens. 7. Limb of the perianth.
n. Corona,
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of many parts of the
world, but, like the Iridacez, most abundant at the Cape of
Good Hope. Illustrative Genera :—Galanthus, Linn. ; Amaryllis,
Linn.; Narcissus, Linn.; Agave, Linn.; Hypoxis, Linn. There
are above 460 species.
Properties and Uses.—Several plants of this order possess
poisonous qualities. This property is especially evident in
Hemanthus toxicarius, the juice of which is used by the Hotten-
tots to poison their arrow-heads. Some yield excellent fibres.
The juice of some few species is saccharine, and is employed in
the preparation of fermented liquors. Starch may be obtained
from certain species of Alstremeria. Some are bitter and aro-
matic. Medicinally, several have been used as emetics and
purgatives.
Agave americana, the American Aloe, Maguey, or Hundred-years’ Plant,
The latter name was given under the erroneous idea that this species o¢
Agave lived a hundred years before flowering. From the leaves of thig
and other species the useful fibre known as Aloe Fibre, Pita or Pité Hemp
?
HAMODORACES. . 705
is obtained. It is employed for textile fabrics and for paper-making. The
juice of the leaves of Agave americana and other species just before flowering
contains much sugar and mucilage, and when fermented vields a vinous acid
beverage called Pulque, which is highly esteemed by the Mexicans. It has
an odour something like putrid meat. A very intoxicating spirit or brandy
may be also obtained from pulque. To this spirit the name of mexical or
uguardiente de maguey has been given. The unfermented juice is called
Aguamiel or honeywater. It is regarded as useful for the prevention of scurvy.
Its roots are reputed to possess alterative and diuretic properties. The leaves
from the heart of A. Utahense and other species of Agave are cooked by the
Pah-Utes, and form a very nourishing and palatable food. ;
Alstremeria pallida and some other species have succulent roots contain-
ing much starch, which, when extracted, is used as a kind of Arrowroot in
certain parts of South America.
Crinum asiaticum, var. toxicarium of Herbert.—The fresh root (or more
properly bulb) is official in the Pharmacopeeia of India. It possesses emetic
and diaphoretic properties, and its therapeutic uses are said to be analogous
to those of Squill. The dried root has similar qualities, but it is not so
powerful in its action.
Fie. 1064. Fic. 1065.
Fig. 1064. Vertical section
of the flower of the Spring
Snowflake ( Lewcoium ver-
NUM ). Fig. 1065. Ver-
tical section of the seed of
the same.
Curculigo.—The roots of Curculiyo orchioides are used in Travancore by
the native doctors in gonorrhea, menorrhagia, and other affections.
Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus.—F rom the bulbs of this plant A. W. Gerrard
has obtained a crystalline neutral principle and an amorphous alkaloid, the
latter of which he has named pseudo-narcissine. This alkaloid was found to
produce profuse salivation, vomiting, and slight diarrhoea, when given
hypodermically to warm-blooded animals.
Order 3. HamoporacE®, the Blood-root Order.—Charac-
ter.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with fibrous roots. Leares usually
equitant, ensiform. Perianth more or less superior, tubular, 6-
partite, regular, the divisions usually scurfy or woolly on their
outside. Stamens 3 or 6, when 3 they are opposite the inner
segments of the perianth ; aithers introrse. Ovary inferior, or
partially so, 3-celled. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent, covered
by the withered perianth. Seeds few or numerous, with carti-
laginous albumen, and radicle remote from the hilum.
Distribution and Nwmbers.—Natives of America, the Cape
of Good Hope, and Australia. Illustrative Genera :—Hemo-
dorum, Smith, Vellozia, Mart. There are about 50 species.
Properties and Uses.—The roots of some species are used as
ZZ
706 DIOSCOREACE.
dyeing agents in North America, others are edible, and a few
are bitter and astringent.
Aletris farinosa is remarkable for its bitterness. It is reputed to possess
tonic and stomachic properties.
Hezmodorum.—The roots of several species, as those of H. paniculatum
and H. spicatum, when roasted, are eaten by the natives in some parts of
Australia. The root contains a red colouring matter.
Lachnanthes tinctoria has a blood-red root which is used for dyeing in
North America.
Cohort 6. Dioscorales.—F lowers unisexual and dicecious, regular.
Perianth herbaceous. Stamens 6, inserted at the base of
the perianth-segments. Ovary 3-celled ; placentation axile.
Fruit baccate or capsular. Seeds with abundant fleshy
albumen and a distinct included embryo. Climbing herbs
or small twining shrubs, with netted-veined leaves.
Order 1. DioscorEACE#, the Yam Order.—Character.—
Climbing herbs, or small shrubs, with twining stems rising from
tuberous rootstocks or tubers, placed above or under the ground.
Leaves net-veined, stalked. Flowers unisexual, dicecious, small,
bracteated. Male flower :—Perianth 6-cleft. Stamens 6, inserted
at the base of the perianth-segments. Female flower :—Perianth
superior, 6-partite. Stamens sometimes present, but very short
andabortive. Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; styles 3, distinct, or 1, and
then deeply trifid ; ovwles 1—-2 in each cell, suspended. Fruit
dehiscent and compressed, or fleshy and indehiscent, 1—3-celled.
Seeds albuminous ; embryo small, in a cavity in the albumen.
Distribution and Numbers. —Chiefly tropical plants. Tamus
communis is, however found in Britain and other temperate
regions. Illustrative Genera :—Tamus, Linn. ; Dioscorea, Linn.
There are above 150 species. .
Properties and Uses.—The plants generally contain an acrid
principle. The tuberous rootstocks of many species of Dioscorea
are, however, when boiled, used for food in tropical countries.
Dioscorea.—The tuberous rootstocks of several species, as those of D.
alata, D. sativa,and D. aculeata, when boiled, are eaten in tropical countries,
as potatoes are in Europe. The Chinese Yam (D. Batatas) is now cultivated
in this country, and when properly boiled is esteemed by many as an escu-
lent. Some species of Dioscorea are very acrid even when boiled, and cannot
therefore be used for food. The rhizome of D. villosa, the Wild Yam of the
United States, is regarded as a valuable remedy in Virginia in rheumatism,
and is hence commonly known as ‘rheumatism root.’ It has also been recom-
mended in bilious colic.
Tamus.—T. communis, Common Black Bryony, has a large fleshy root
which when fresh possesses considerable acridity. It is sometimes used as
a topical application to bruised parts to remove the marks. Taken inter-
nally, it acts as a diuretic, and also, it is said, as an emetic and cathartic.
The young shoots of this species and those of 7. cretica, when thoroughly
boiled, so that their aeridity is destroyed, have been eaten like asparagus.
Testudinaria elephantipes,a native of the Cape of Good Hope, has a very
peculiar tuberous stem, hence it has been called Elephant’s Foot or the Tor-
toies plant ; the inner part of this stem is very mealy, and is used for food
by the Hottentots
TRIURIDACEX.— BUTOMACE. 707
Series 2. Supere.
Sub-series 1. Apocarpe.
Cohort 1. Triwrales.—Flowers unisexual. Perianth 6-lobed or
6-partite. Stamens 6. Carpels l-ovuled. Seeds minute,
with very dense albumen and rudimentary embryo. Minute,
leafless, slender herbs.
Order 1. Trruripace#, the Triuris Order.— Diagnosis.—This
is a small order of plants allied to Naiadacez, but usually to be
distinguished by its rudimentary embryo. The flowers are,
also, sometimes perfect.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Exclusively found
in warm and tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Triuris,
Miers; Sciaphila, Blume. There are 8 species. Their pro-
perties and uses are unknown.
Cohort 2. Potamales.—F lowers hermaphrodite or unisexual.
Perianth with usually 6 segments, or rarely 2 or 4, or absent.
Stamens 1, few, ornumerous. Seeds exalbuminous ; embryo
conspicuous. Usually water plants.
Order 1. ButomacE#, the Butomus Order.—Character.—
Aquatic plants with parallel-veined leaves, sometimes milky.
Flowers hermaphrodite (jig. 1066), showy. Perianth inferior,
of six pieces, arranged in two whorls (fig. 1066), the inner being
coloured. Stamens few (fig. 1066) or numerous. Carpels 3—6
(fig. 593) or more, more or less distinct; ovaries superior (fig.
1066) ; ovules numerous, ar-
ranged all over the inner sur- Fie. 1066, Fig. 1067.
face of the ovaries (fig. 636).
Fruit many-seeded, separ-
ating more or less when ripe
into as many parts as there
are component carpels. Seeds
without albumen (jig. 1067).
This order is included by
Bentham and Hooker in Alis-
macex.,
Distribution and Num- Fig. 1066. A flower of the Flowering Rush
bers.—A_ few plants of this (Butomus umbellatus), with an inferior
order occur in tropical coun- perianth arranged in two whorls, nine
tries. but the greater number stamens, : and six carpels. Fig. 1067,
; ? Vertical section of the seed of the same.
inhabit the northern parts
of the world. Illustrative Genera :—Butomus, Tourn. ; Lim-
nocharis, H. et B. There are 7 species.
Properties and Uses.— Of little importance. Butomus wmbel-
latus, the Flowering Rush, possesses acrid and bitter properties,
ZZ?
708 ALISMACEX.—JUNCAGINACEA.
and was at one time used in medicine. The roasted rhizomes
are edible.
Order 2. AtismAcEs, the Alisma Order.—Character.—
Swamp or floating plants. Leaves narrow or with an expanded
lamina, parallel-veined. Flowers hermaphrodite (figs. 1068 and
1069) or very rarely unisexual. Perianth inferior, arranged in
two whorls, each consisting of three parts (jig. 1068); the
outer whorl herbaceous, the inner coloured. Stamens few
or numerous ; anthers introrse. Carpels distinct, several (fig.
1068) ; ovaries superior, 1-celled ; ovules solitary or 2 superposed ;
placentas axile or basal (fig. 1069). Fruit dry. Seeds without
albumen ; embryo undivided, curved.
Fia. 1068. Fre. 1069.
Fig. 1068. Flower of aspecies of Alisma, with an inferior perianth arranged
in two whorls each consisting of three parts, six stamens, and numerous
separate carpels. Fig. 1069. Vertical section of the same flower.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are principally
found in the northern parts of the world. Illustrative Genera:
Alisma, Juss. ; Actinocarpus, fh. Br. There are about 50 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Many have
fleshy or mealy rhizomes, which are edible when cooked. Others
possess astringent properties. Alisma Plantago had formerly a
reputation as a remedy in hydrophobia.
Order 3. JUNCAGINACES, the Arrow-grass Order.—Cha-
racter.—Herbs, growing in marshes. Leaves with parallel
veins. Flowers hermaphrodite, whitish or greenish. Perianth
small, more or less scaly, inferior, in two whorls, each containing
three pieces. Stamens 6, perigynous, anthers usually extrorse.
Carpels 3—6, separate or more or less united ; ovules 1—2.
Fruit dry, ultimately separating into as many parts as there are
carpels. Seeds attached to axile or basal placentas, exalbuminous ;
embryo straight, with a lateral cleft (figs. 766 and 777). This
order is included by Bentham and Hooker in Naiadacex.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
found more or less in nearly all parts of the world, but are
NAIADACEA. 709
most abundant in temperate and cold regions. Tilustrative
Genera :—Triglochin, Linn. ; Potamogeton, Linn. There are
about 50 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance.
Ouvirandra fenestralis, a native of Madagascar, is commonly known
under the name of the Lattice-leaf plant, from its leaves resembling open
lattice-work. Its roots are of a fleshy farinaceous nature, and form an
article of food; hence the name Ouvirandram bywhich the plant is known
in Madagascar, the literal meaning of which is Water-yam.
Order 4. NAIADACEH, the Pondweed Order.— Character.
Aquatic plants with jointed cellular stems. Leaves with inter-
petiolar membranous stipules. lowers small, unisexual (figs
1070 and 1071), moncecious or dicecious, solitary or in spikes.
Perianth either wanting, or present and composed of 2 or 4
Fic. 1070.
Fic. 1071. Fie. 1072.
Fig. 1073.
Fig. 1070. Two flowers of the Horned Pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), one
staminate, the other pistillate-—— Fig. 1071. The gynecium of the same,
composed of four perfect carpels, and one imperfect. —Fig. 1072. Vertical
section of one of the carpels. Fig. 1073. Vertical section of the fruit
and seed. All magnified. After Lindley.
parts, which are then free and scale-like. Stamens 1 or few,
hypogynous ; pollen globose or tubular. Carpels 1 or more,
distinct, with superior ovaries (fig. 1071); ovule solitary (fig.
1072). Fruit 1-celled, 1-seeded (jig. 1073). Seed exalbumi-
nous ; embryo with a lateral cleft.
Distribution.—They are widely distributed, but are chiefly
found in extra-tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Naias,
Willd. ; Zannichellia, Michel; Zostera, Linn.
Propertiesand Uses.—Their properties are of little importance.
Zostera marina, Sea-wrack, is in common use for packing, and for stuff-
ing chairs, mattresses, &c., under the name of Alva ( Ulva or Alga) marina.
It has also been recommended for paper-making, but it is a very unsuitable
material for that purpose.
710 PALMACEA.
Sub-series 2. Syncarpex.
Cchort 1. Palmales.—Flowers unisexual or hermaphrodite,
usually arranged on a branched spadix, and enclosed in a
spathe. Perianth 3-merous, in two whorls, commonly green,
but rarely coloured. Fruit indehiscent, 1- or rarely 2-seeded.
Seed albuminous. Shrubs or trees.
Order 1. PatmacE#, the Palm Order.—Character.—Tvrees
or shrubs, with simple unbranched (fig. 199, 1), or rarely dicho-
tomously branched trunks (fig. 200). Leaves terminal ( Jig.
199, 1), large, mostly compound, with sheathing stalks. Flowers
Fie. 1074. Fic. 1076. Fia. 1077.
Fic. 1075. Fie. 1078. Fic. 1079.
Fig. 1074. Diagram of a staminate flower of the Fan Palm (Chamerops),
with six divisions to the perianth, and six stamens,—— Fig. 1075. Diagram
of a pistillate flower of the same, with six divisions to the perianth, and
a 3-celled ovary. Fig.\076. Hermaphrodite flower of the Blue Palmetto
(Chameerops hystrix), with the perianth removed. ov. Carpels. sf. Sta-
mens.——/ig. 1077. The same, with three of the stamens removed, so as
to exhibit more completely the three carpels composing the pistil. sf.
Stamens. c. Carpels. Fig. 1078. Vertical section of the fruit of the
Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera). a. The two outer layers or husk of the
pericarp. 6. Endocarp or inner layer. c. Albumen, d. Cavity in the
albumen. e. Embryo.—/ig. 1079. Vertical section of the seed of the
Fan Palm.
hermaphrodite (figs. 1076 and 1077) or unisexual (figs. 1074 and
1075), arranged generally on a branched spadix (fig. 417), which
is enclosed by a spathe. Perianth usually green, inferior, in two
whorls, each of which is composed of three parts (jigs. 1074 and
1075). Stamens usually 6 (figs. 1074 and 1076), hypogynous or
PALMACE. 711
perigynous. Carpels 1—3 (figs. 1076 and 1077), generally united,
but sometimes distinct ; ovary superior ; ovules solitary, or rarely
2. Fruit (fig. 1078) nut-like, baccate, or drupaceous. Seeds with
a minute embryo (fig. 1078, e), in a pit of the albumen, d;
albumen fleshy or horny (jig. 1079), often ruminate ( fig. 763, p).
Distribution and Nwinbers.—Most of the plants are tropical,
but a few occur in temperate regions. Illustrative Genera :—
Areca, Linn.; Chamezerops, Linn.; Attalea, Humb.; Cocos, Linn.
There are above 600 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of all orders of plants there is none,
with the exception of that of the Grasses, so valuable to manas
regards their dietetical and economic applications as that of the
Palm Order. These plants supply him with sugar, starch, oil,
wax, wine, resin, astringent matters, and also edible fruits and
seeds.. Their terminal leaf-buds, when boiled, are eaten as a
vegetable. Their leaves are applied in various ways, as for
thatching, materials for writing upon, and in the manufacture
of hats, matting, &c.; their wood is applied to many useful pur-
poses ; the fibres of their petioles and fruits supply materials
for cordage, cloth, and various other textile fabrics; and the
hard albumen of their seeds is applicable in many ways. But
in a medicinal point of view they are of very much less im-
portance ; indeed, they do not supply any important article of
the materia medica used in Europe, although in tropical
countries they are of more value, and in frequent use as medi-
cinal agents.
Areca.—A. Catechu, the Betel Nut Palm.--The seeds are known under
the name of Betel Nuts or Areca Nuts. In the South of India an extract
is made from these nuts, which is said to constitute the commercial variety
of Catechu known as Colombo or Ceylon Catechu, although it is doubtful
whether any Catechu is prepared in Ceylon. It is the Betel Nut Catechu
of Pereira. In its properties and uses this Catechu resembles that obtained
from Acacia Catechu, and the official Catechu from Unearia Gambier.
(See Uncaria.) Areca nuts are regarded as astringent, and valuable
therefore as a remedy in diarrhoea. The powdered seeds or nuts have been
long employed as an anthelmintic for dogs, and Areca was introduced into
the last British Pharmacopeeia, on account of its supposed efficacy in pro-
moting the expulsion of the tapeworm, and of the round worm in the human
subject, but has now been omitted from possessing little or no value in such
cases as a remedial agent. Charcoal prepared from the Areca nut is termed
Areca-nut charcoal, and is sometimes used in this country asa tooth-powder ;
but it does not appear to have any value over that of ordinary charcoal. The
Betel Nut is one of the ingredients in the famed masticatory of the East
called Betel. {See Piper.) ‘The dried expanded leaf-stalks have been used
in India as splints.— A. o/eracea is knownas the West Indian Cabbage Palm,
its young terminal bud when boiled being eaten as a vegetable.
Arenga saccharifera or Suguerus saccharifer, the Areng or Gommuti
Palm, supplies abundance of palm sugar in the Moluccas and Philippines.
Palm sugar is usually obtained by boiling the juice which flows out from
this and many other Palms upon wounding their spathes and surrounding
parts ; it is commonly known in India by the name of Jaggery. The juice
(toddy) of the Gommuti Palm, when fermented, produces an intoxicating
712 PALMACEH.
liquid. In Sumatra it is termed neva, and a kind of spirit (arrack) is distilled
from it in Batavia. From the trunk of this Palm, when exhausted of its
saccharine juice, a good deal of our commercial Sago is obtained. A single
tree will yield from 180 to 200 pounds of Sago. (See also Metroxylon.)
The juice of the fruit is very acrid. ‘The stiff strong horsehair-like fibre
known under the name of Gommuti or Ejow fibre is derived from the leaf-
stalks of this palm.
Attalea.—A. funifera, Mart.—The fruits of this species are largely im-
ported ; they constitute the Coquilla Nuts of commerce, They are also termed
Urucuri Nuts. Their pericarps are very hard, and form a useful material for
the handles of doors, drawers, sticks, umbrellas, &c. The pendulous fibres
of the petioles supply the coarser variety of Piassaba, known in commerce
as Bahia Piassaba, the other and finer kind being derived from Leopoldinia
Piassaba. (See Leopoldinia.) This coarser kind is obtained from Bahia.
Other species of Attalea appear to yield similar fibres. From the seeds of
A. Cahouni, the Cahoun Palm, a fatty oil may be obtained. They have
been imported for this purpose. The seeds of A. Compta, the Pindova
Palm, are much esteemed in Brazil, and the leaves are also used for making
hats, &e.
Borassus flabelliformis, the Palmyra Palm.—From the juice of this Palm
toddy and arrack are procured in large quantities in India. Palmyra fibres
are also obtained from its leaves, and “Palmyra wood from the trunk.
Calamus.—Several kinds of walking-canes are obtained from species of
this genus, as C. Scipionum, the Malacca cane; C. Rotang and C, Rudentum,
Rattan canes. Partridge canes and ‘ Penang lawyers’ are also the produce
of undetermined species.—C. verus, C. viminalis, and other species, are like-
wise botanical sources of the canes now largely used for walking-sticks,
and for chair bottoms, couches, &e. About twenty millions are annually
imported, the value of which is probably not less than 40,000/. The fruit of
C. Draco, and of probably other species, is the chief source of the astringent
resinous substance known as Dragon’s Blood. (See also Pterocarpus Draco
and Dracena Draco.)
Caryota urens.—F rom this palm sugar may be procured, and its juice
forms a kind of toddy or palm wine. From the trunks of the old trees a
kind of Sago is obtained in Assam.
Ceroxylon andicola——The trunk and axils of the leaves of this palm
secrete wax, which may be applied to many useful purposes. Itis a native
of New Granada.
Chamerops.—C. humilis is the only Palm found wild in Europe. It sup-
plies fibres which have been used as a substitute for horsehair, and in Sicily
its different parts are applied to various purposes, as walking- canes, and for
the making of hats, baskets, &c. The leaves, under the name of Palmetto
leaves, have been imported and used for paper-making. Its young leaves or
buds are also eaten as cabbage. Palm wine or toddy is likewise collected
from the spathes. The material employed for the Brazilian chip or grass
hats is obtained from C. argentea.
Cocos nucifera, the Cocoa-nut Palm.—This is perhaps the most valuable
of all the Palms. An impure sugar, called Jaggery, is largely obtained
from the juice which flows out when its spathes and their neighbouring parts
are injured. The fresh juice is termed Joddy. <A spirit called arrack is also
prepared to a great extent from the fermented juice, as also vinegar. The
albumen of the seeds, which are commonly known as Cocoa-nuts, and the
liquid portion within this (cocoa-nut milk), form an important part of the
food of the inhabitants of tropical regions. In large doses this milk when
fresh has been used in India as an aperient. The Cocoa-nut is also largely
consumed in this country. From the albumen the concrete oil known as
Cocoa-nut oil or Cocoa-nut butter, is obtained. It is extensively employed
for making candles and soap ; the imports into this country alone being
PALMACE#. 713
nearly 100,000 tons annually. In India it is much esteemed as a pomatum ;
but its unpleasant odour, and the rancid character which it soon acquires,
prevent its use in this country for such a purpose. The oleine obtained by
pressure from the crude oil, and afterwards purified by alkalies, &c., has
been recommended as a substitute for cod-liver oil, but although its employ-
ment has been favourably reported upon by some phy sicians, it has not been
generally approved. From the fibrous portion of the pericarp the strong
fibre called Coir or Cocoa-nut fibre is obtained. Coir is remarkable for its
durability, and is accordingly much used for cordage, fishing-nets, matting,
scrubbing-brushes, &c. The wood of the Cocoa- nut Palm is very hard,
handsome, and durable, and is employed for several purposes under the name
of Porcupine Wood.
Copernicia cerifera, the Carnauba Palm, is a native of the Brazils. On
the lower surface of its leaves wax is secreted, which is occasionally im-
ported under the name of Carnauba or Brazilian Wax. The root is said
to resemble Sarsaparilla in its medicinal properties, and has recently been
imported into this country.
C rypha umbraculifera, the Talipot Palm, yields a kind of Sago in
Ceylon, but this is not an article of commerce.
| Elais guineensis and £. melanococca, the Guinea Oil Palms.—The sarco-
carp of the drupaceous fruits of these Palms abounds in oil, which when
extracted is known as Palm Oil. This is a solid butter-like oil, of a rich
orange-yellow colour, and is extensively used in this country and elsewhere
in the manufacture of soap and candles, and for lubricating the wheels of
railway-carriages, &c. The imports amount to at least 50,000 tons annu-
ally. In Africa Palm Oil is used as food by the natives. The hard stony
putamen of the same fruits also yields a limpid oil. Palm wine or toddy is
likewise obtained from the wounded spathes of these Palms.
Euterpe.—E. montana is one of the Cabbage Palms. It is so called from
the circumstance of its young terminal leaf-bud being boiled and eaten as
a vegetable. From the fruits of other species, as E. edulis and EF. Assi,
pleasant beverages are prepared.
Hyphene thebaica, the Doum Palm of Egypt (fig. 200). The pericarp
of the fruit of this Palm resembles gingerbread ; hence this plant is some-
times known as the Gingerbread tree.
Leopoldinia Piassaba.—The persistent petiole-bases of this Palm termi-
nate in long pendulous beards of bristle-like fibres; these are cut off from
the young plants after having been previously combed out by means of a
rude comb, and now form an important article of commerce in Brazil. The
fibres are known under the names of Piassaba or Piacava, Para Grass, or
Monkey Grass. They are chiefly used asa substitute for bristles by brush-
makers, and for making the stout brooms now commonly employed for
cleaning the streets, &c. Two kinds of Piassaba fibre are known in com-
merce—one, the finer variety, imported from Para, and therefore known in
commerce as Para Piassaba, which is derrved from this plant; and a
coarser kind obtained from <Attaleua funifera. (See Atialea.) According
to Spruce, the pulp of the ripe fruit yields a delicious drink, resembling
cream in colour and taste.
Mauritia vinifera, the Muriti Palm, and M. fleruosa, yield a large
quantity of toddy.
Metroxylon (Sagus) .—From the trunks of WM. Sagu or M. leve, and M.
Rumphi', the principal part of our Sago is obtained; from the former as
much as 800 pounds may be procured from a single plant. Sago is principally
imported into this country from Singapore. The average importation for
some years has exceeded 4,000 tons. All the Sago consumed in this
country is derived from these palins and Arenga saccharifera. (See Arenga
and Cycas. )
Phenix.—P. dactylifera is the Date Palm. The fruits called dates are
714 PANDANACE.
nutritious, and afford the principal food of the inhabitants of some parts of
Africa and Arabia. Animals are also fed upon them. They are imported
into this country, and used for dessert, but they are not so much esteemed
as they deserve. They have been lately employed as a food for cattle, but
at present their price is too high to allow of any great consumption for
such a purpose. They were also much used a few years since in the prepa-
ration of what was called ‘Date Coffee.’ The Date Palm is the Palm
commonly referred to in Scripture. The juice (toddy) affords sugar, and an
intoxicating beverage termed lagbi is also sometimes obtained from it. The
leaves, the fibres obtained from the leaf stalks, the wood, and in fact nearly
every part of this palm, are applied to some useful purpose.—P. sylvestris,
the Wild Date Palm, is the plant from which the largest quantity of palm
sugar is obtained. It is a native of India, where it is said 130,000,000
pounds of sugar are annually extracted from it. Palm sugar resembles
cane sugar in flavour. The total amount of palm sugar obtained from the
different kinds of Palms has been estimated by Johnston at 220,000,000
pounds.—P. farinifera yields an inferior kind of Sago, which is "used in
some parts of India.
Phytelephas macrocarpa.—The hard albumen of the seeds of this Palm
constitutes the Vegetable Ivory of commerce ; this is used extensively by the
turners ; but its principal consumption is for button-making. ‘These seeds
are usually imported from Guayaquil. The fruits are supposed to present
some resemblance to negroes’ heads, and are hence termed Cabeza del negro.
Raphia Ruffia—The integument peeled from the young leaves of this
Palm is said to constitute the substance known as Manila Bast or Raphia
Bast, which is used as a tying material by gardeners.
Seaforthia eleyans.—This Palm produces the Moreton Bay Canes of com-
merce.
Cohort 2. Arales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, ar-
ranged on a spadix, spike, or head, and with or without a
spathe ; or sunk in pits of a minute scale-like frond. Perianth
absent or scaly. Fruit a drupe or baccate. Seeds 1, few or
many, almost always albuminous ; embryo minute, usually
straight. Herbs, often very large, or rarely trees.
Order 1. PANDANACES, the Screw-pine Order.—Charac-
ter. —Pahn-like trees (fig. 199, 2) or shrubs. Leaves amplexi-
caul, linear-lanceolate, and then imbricate, and spirally arranged
in 3 rows; or pinnated or fan-shaped. Flowers unisexual or
polygamous, numerous, arranged on a simple or branched spadix,
with many spathaceous bracts. Perianth absent or scaly. Sta-
mens numerous ; anthers 2—4-celled. Ovaries 1-celled ; ovules
solitary or numerous, on parietal placentas. Fruit consisting of
a number of 1-seeded fibrous drupaceous carpels, or baccate, and
many-celled, and many-seeded. Hmbryo minute, imbedded at
the side near the base of fleshy albumen. By Bentham and
Hooker this order is separated into two orders, the Pandanacex
and the Cyclanthacee.
Distribution and Numbers. —Exclusively tropical plants.
Illustrative Genera :—Pandanus, Linn. fil. ; Carludovica, R. et P.
There are about 75 species.
Properties and Uses. —None possess any very active properties.
Pandanus has edible seeds. The juice which flows from the
TYPHACEX.—AROIDACEA. 715
wounded spadices of Nipa, when fermented, furnishes a kind
of wine. The fruit of Nipa fruticans is the Atap of India.
The young unexpanded leaves of Carludovica palmata furnish
the material employed in the manufacture of Panama hats.
Order 2. TypHaces, the Bulrush Order.—Character.—
Herbs growing in watery places. Leaves rigid, linear, sessile,
parallel-veined. Flowers moncecious, arranged on a spadix, or
in heads, without a spathe. No true perianth, merely scales or
hairs. Male flower with 1—6 distinct or monadelphous stamens,
with long filaments, and innate anthers. Female flower a
solitary 1-celled carpel, with a single pendulous ovule. Fruit
indehiscent. Seed with mealy albumen ; embryo axile ; radicle
next the hilum.
Distribution and Numbers.—A few are found in tropical and
wari climates, but they are most abundant in the northern
parts of the world. Tilustrative Genera:—Typha, Linn. ;
Sparganium, Linn. These are the only genera; they include
about 13 species.
Properties and Uses. —Unimportant.
Typha.—The young shoots of T. latifolia and T. angustifolia are some-
times boiled, and eaten like Asparagus ; their rhizomes are also edible ;
and their pollen is inflammable. The pollen of some species of Typha is
edible ; thus, that of 7. elephantina is made into a kind of bread in Scinde,
and that of 7. utilis in New Zealand. Some species are said to be astringent
and diuretic.
Order 3. Arnorpacks, the Arum Order.—Character.—
Herbs or shrubs, with commonly an acrid juice, and subterranean
tubers, corms (jig. 1080, b), or rhizomes. Leaves sheathing ( fig.
1080, /), usually net-veined, simple or rarely compound. Flowers
unisexual and moncecious, or hermaphrodite, arranged on a
spadix (figs. 403 and 1081) within a spathe (fig. 403), or the
spathe is absent. Perianth none (fig. 1081) or composed of
scales which are inferior. Male flower :—Stamens few or nu-
merous ; anthers extrorse, sessile (fig. 504) or upon very short
filaments. Female flower :—Ovary (fig. 1082) 1- or more celled,
superior. Fruit succulent (fig. 1080, c). Seeds pulpy, with
abundant mealy, horny, or fleshy albumen (jig. 1083), or rarely
exalbuminous; embryo various.
Diagnosis. —F lowers on a spadix, and with or without a true
spathe. Flowers naked, unisexual and moneecious ; or herma-
phrodite, and then frequently with a scaly inferior perianth.
Anthers extrorse. Fruit succulent.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—The order
may be divided into two sub-orders as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Aroidex or Avracex.—Flowers unisexual, monce-
cious. Spadix surrounded by a spathe. Perianth none.
Illustrative Genera:—Arum, Linn. ; Caladium, Vent.
Sub-order 2. Acorex or Orontiex.—Flowers hermaphrodite.
716 AROIDACEA,
Spadix surrounded by a spathe or naked. Perianth absent,
or more generally present, and then scaly. Illustrative
Genera :—Acorus, Linn. ; Orontium, Linn.
This order was divided by Lindley into two separate orders—
the Aracee and Acoracewe—on account of the hermaphrodite
flowers of the latter. In accordance, however, with the more
general views of botanists, we make but one order, and place the
two orders of Lindley as sub-orders.
Distribution and Numbers.—They abound in tropical countries,
but also occur in cold and temperate regions. There are about
250 species.
Fic. 1080. | Fic. 1081.
Fie. 1082.
gy
Fie. 1083.
Fig. 1080. A plant of the Cuckoo-pint (A7um
maculatum) in fruit. 6. Corm. J. Leaf. s.
The remains of the spathe. c. Fruit.—— Fig.
1081. The spadix of the same with the spathe
removed; the flowers are all naked and uni-
sexual, a number of pistillate flowers or
ovaries being below ; above which are some
rudimentary ovaries, then a number of sessile
anthers and above these are some staminodes
or abortive stamens. Fig. 1082. Vertical
section of the ovary of the same.——Fig.
1083. Vertical section of the seed.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are all more
or less acrid, and often highly poisonous. But this acrid prin-
ciple is frequently volatile, or decomposed by heat ; hence it
may be in such cases more or less destroyed by drying or ex-
posing to heat the parts in which it is found. The best method
of getting rid of the acridity is, however, by boiling in water,
as the acrid matter is also commonly soluble in that fluid.
LEMNACES. 717
Starch is usually associated with the acrid principle, and when
extracted, may be used for food like other starches. The under-
ground stems or corms of many species, when cooked, are eaten
in different parts of the world. Some are aromatic stimulants ;
others expectorant, antispasmodic, or diaphoretic.
Acorus Calamus, Sweet Flag.—The rhizome is an aromatic stimulant,
and is regarded by many as a valuable medicine in agues, and as a useful
adjunet to other stimulants and bitter tonics, It is official in the United
States and German Pharmacopeeias. It is reputed to be sometimes employed
by the rectifiers of gin. The candied rhizomes are employed by the Turks
as a preventive against contagion. In India the rhizome is occasionally
used as an insectifuge and insecticide, more especially in relation to fleas.
The volatile oil which may be obtained from it by distillation is employed
for scenting snuff, and in the preparation of aromatic vinegar.
Arisema atrorubens, Dragon Root, Indian Turnip.—From the corm of
this plant a nutritious fecula is obtained in the United States. The corm
is also given internally as a stimulant, in rheumatism, and in bronchial
and other affections, and is likewise used extensively as an application to
aphthous affections in children.
Arum.—The underground stems or corms of some of the species of this
genus contain a large quantity of starch: thus those of A. maculatum, Wake-
Robin, Cuckoo-pint, or Lords and Ladies, a common native of this country,
are the source of what has been called Portland Sago or Arrowroot; a
peck of corms yielding about 3 lbs. of starch. But the preparation of this
starch is now, in a commercial point of view, given up. Formerly the
corms were also used medicinally as diuretics and expectorants. When
fresh, they act as an irritant poison.—A. campanulatum and A. indicum
produce edible corms.
Caladium bicolor.—The corms of this and other species, when cooked, are
edible. They are sometimes, but improperly, called ‘ Yams’ in tropical
countries. (See Dioscorea.)
Calla palustris has acrid rhizomes, but by drying, washing, grinding,
and baking, these have been made into a kind of bread in Lapland.
Colocasia.—C. esculenta and other species have large fleshy corms which
are much used in the West Indies, Madeira, &c., as food, under the names
of Yams (see Caladium bicolor), Cocoes, or Kddoes.—C. himalensis has also
edible corms. They are used for food in the Himalayas.—C. antiquorum is
applied to a like purpose in Egypt, and the corms of C. macrorhiza are also
eaten in the South Sea Islands under the name of Tara.
Dracontium.—The fresh roots of D. polyphyllum are in repute in Malabar
for their antispasmodic properties.
Rhaphidophora vitiensis, which is probably a variety of R. pertusa, is
said by Holmes to be the botanical source of the fibrous portion of the
remedy now known under the name of ‘Tonga,’ which is used as a remedy
in neuralgia. Its native name is ‘Nai Yalu,’ or ‘ Walu.’ A. W. Gerrard
has found this portion to contain a volatile alkaloid, which he has named
tongine. The other constituent of Tonga is said to be the inner bark of
Premna tuitensis. (See Premna.)
Symplocarpus fetidus, Skunk Cabbage.—The root has a very foetid
odour, especially when fresh. It is considered in the United States as an
efficacious nervine stimulant, and has been used in spasmodic asthma, whoop-
ing-cough, catarrh in old people, and in other diseases. Its properties are
much impaired by keeping.
Order 4. LmmMNace, the Duckweed Order.—Character.—
Floating aquatic plants (fig. 252), with lenticular or lobed leaves
or fronds. Flowers 2 or 3, enclosed in a spathe (fig. 1084),
718 LILIACES.
moncecious, placed on the margin (fig. 252) or surface of the
frond, or in the axils of leaves. Perianth none. Male flower
with 1 (fig. 1080) or a few stamens, which are often mona-
delphous. Female flower consisting of a 1-celled ovary (jig.
1085), with 1 or more erect ovules. Fruit 1- or more seeded,
Fic. 1084. Fie. 1085.
Fig. 1084, A monecious head of flowers of a species of Duckweed (Lemna
minor), consisting of two male flowers, each of which is composed of a
solitary stamen with a quadrilocular anther ; and one pistillate flower in
the centre; the whole surrounded by a spathe.——F%g. 1085. Vertical
section of the pistil of the same.
membranous or baccate, indehiscent or sometimes dehiscent.
Embryo straight, cleft, in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—They inhabit cool,
temperate, and tropical regions. Illustrative Genera :—Lemna,
Linn. ; Pistia, Linn. There are above 20 species. Their pro-
perties are unimportant.
Cohort 3. Liliales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or very rarely uni-
sexual, in spikes, racemes, umbels, or panicles, or solitary ; or
rarely capitate. Perianth in 6, or very rarely 4, 8, or 10
nearly similar distinct pieces, or united and commonly 6-
lobed, regular or rarely irregular, usually all petaloid or
green, or sometimes coriaceous or subglumaceous. Embryo
immersed in copious albumen (not external to or in a lateral
cavity). Leaves usually parallel-veined, or very rarely net-
veined.
Order 1. Littacea, the Lily Order.—Character.—Herbs
(fig. 242), shrubs (fig. 409), or trees (fig. 196), with bulbs
(figs. 239-242), rhizomes (fig. 234), tubers, or fibrous roots.
Stem simple or branched (fig. 196). Leaves with parallel or
rarely reticulated veins, sessile or sheathing, sometimes succu-
lent (fig. 1087, 1). Flowers regular (figs. 28, 429, and 1086),
variously arranged or solitary. Perianth green or petaloid, in-
ferior (figs. 28 and 1089), usually regular and 6-leaved (figs. 28
LILIACEE. 719
and 1086) or 6-partite (jig. 1087). Stamens 6 ( figs. 28 and 1086),
or rarely more, or 3 in Ruscus, inserted on the perianth (fig.
1089), or rarely on the thalamus ; anthers introrse (figs. 523 and
1089). Ovary superior (figs. 28, 523 and 1084), 3-celled, or very
rarely 4—6-celled, with numerous ovules on axile placentas (figs.
Fia. 1086. Fic. 1087.
Fig. 1089,
i
nie
"a i»
Fic. 1091.
Qo ls
Fig. 1086. Diagram of the flower of a species of Lily. s. The three outer
divisions of the perianth. p. The threeinner. e. Thestamens. c, Three-
celled ovary.— Fig. 1087. Raceme of flowers f, and portion of the succu-
lent leaf 7, of a species of Aloe. Fig. 1088. Flower of the Crown Imperial
(Fritillaria imperialis) with half the perianth removed.— /ig. 1089.
Vertical section of the flower of the Solomon’s Seal ( Polygona/um multi-
Jiorum). Fig. 1090, Transverse section of the ovary of the White Lily
(Lilium candidum).—F ig. 1091. Vertical section of the seed of the
Crown Imperiai.
1086 and 1089); style 1 (figs. 28 and 1089), or very rarely 5 or
more, or absent; stigma generally simple (jig. 28) or 3-lobed
(fig. 646). Fruit a loculicidal capsule, or succulent and inde-
hiscent, usually 3-celled. Seeds with fleshy albumen (jig. 1091),
numerous.
Diagnosis,—Leaves with usually parallel straight veins, or
720 LILIACEA.
succulent. Perianth inferior, generally 6-leaved or 6-partite,
and regular. Stamens 6, or rarely more, or 3 in Ruscus ;
anthers introrse. Ovary superior, with axile placentation ; style
1, usually undivided, or very rarely divided, and sometimes
absent. Fruit indehiscent or a loculicidal capsule. Seeds
numerous, albuminous.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera :—This order
has been divided by Baker into three tribes as follows :—
Tribe 1. Liliex.—Anthers introrse (fig. 1089). Styles united
(fig. 646). Fruit a loculicidal capsule. Illustrative Genera:
Lilium, Linn.; Tulipa, Linn. ; Scilla, Linn.
Tribe 2. Colchicee.—Authers extrorse. Styles separate (fig.
1092). Fruit a septicidal capsule (jig. 669). This tribe forms
the order Melanthacex or Colchicacex of this volume.
Tribe 3. Asparager.—Fruit baccate. Illustrative Genera: —
Asparagus, Linn. ; Convallaria, Linn.
By Bentham and Hooker this order has been divided into 20
tribes arranged in 3 series, and includes the Colchicacex, Smilacee,
aud Philesiacex of this volume.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are widely distributed
throughout the temperate, warm, and tropical regions of the
globe. There are over 1,360 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order frequently
possess important properties, but there is no great uniformity
in them. Some are purgative; others emetic, diuretic, dia-
phoretic, stimulant, acrid, &c. Several yield astringent sub-
stances, and many produce valuable fibres. The bulbs, young
shoots, roots, and seeds of others are highly esteemed, and
largely consumed as articles of food and condiments.
Allium.—The bulbs of several species of this genus are well known
dietetical articles, and are extensively used as condiments under the names
of Onion, Garlic, Leek, &c. Garlic and Onion are also sometimes employed
in medicine; thus, externally applied, they are rubefacient, &c., and inter-
nally administered they are stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, and somewhat
anthelmintic. Garlic is still official in the United States Pharmacopeeia.
All the species yield an acrid volatile oil, containing sulphur as one of its
ingredients. Some species when cultivated in warm dry regions lose much
of their acridity and powerful taste, as the Portugal, Spanish, and Eeyptian
Onions.—A. sativum is the common Garlic; A. Cena, the Onion; A. Porrum,
the Leek; A. Schanoprasum, the Chive; A. Scorodoprasum, the Rocam-
bole; A. ascalonicum, the Shallot.
Aloe.—The species of this genus have succulent leaves (fig. 1087,7). The
purgative drug Aloes is the inspissated juice obtained from the parallel
brownish-green vessels found beneath the epidermis of the leaves. Several
commercial varieties of Aloes are known, but the origin of some is not
accurately determined.—Aloe vulgaris yields the kind called Barbadoes
Aloes.— A. Perryi has been proved to be the principal, if not the only,
source of Socotrine Aloes, and also of the kind commonly known as
Hepatic Aloes, for, as was first shown by Pereira, the difference between
these two kinds may be readily accounted for by difference of preparation in
the two respectively. Socotrine and Barbadoes Aloes are official in the British
LILIACE.. 721
Pharmacopeia.— Cape Aloes is yielded by A. spicata, A. ferox, and several
other species. Other commercial varieties of Aloes are known as Natal
Aloes, Indian Aloes, Aden or Black Aloes, Curagoa Aloes, &c. Their sources
are not accurately known. Aloes is used in small doses as a tonic, and in
larger doses as a purgative and emmenagogue. Aloes containsa crystalline
principle termed aloin, to which its purgative properties are in a great
measure due. Aloin is official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
A sparagus.— A. officinalis, Asparagus.—The young succulent shoots,
called turios, when boiled, are highly esteemed as an article of food. These
and the roots and flowering stems are sometimes employed as diuretics.
The juice of Asparagus has marked diuretic properties, and is deserving of
more attention than it has of late years received. Asparagus is also popu-
larly employed as a lithontriptic. The roasted seeds have been used asa
substitute for coffee.
A sphodelus ramosus, a native of Turkestan, vields a tuber called Schiresch,
which is employed as a diuretic and emmenagogue The Morocco drug
called Ablaluz is also said by Leared and Holmes to be derived from this plant.
Camassia esculenta has edible bulbs, which are used by the North
American Indians under the name of Quamash. They are also known as
Biscuit-roots.
Convallaria majalis, Lily of the Valley.—All parts of this plant hav>
‘long had a reputation in Russia in the treatment of dropsy, and have bee
much employed of late years in this country and elsewhere, and frequently
with good effects, in organic diseases of the heart, &c. Convallaria appears
to resemble digitalis, more than that of any other substance, in its action,
but is not identical with it. Its properties seem to be principally du>
to a glucosidet, ermed convallamarin, but also to some extent to another
glucoside—convalli.rin.
Dracena Draco, the Dragon Tree of Teneriffe (fig. 196), yields a rel
resin resembling Dragon’s Blood, but it is not now knownin commerce. (See
Calamus and Pterocarpus.) The roots of D. terminalis, the Ti Plant, are
baked, and eaten largely by the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands, A
fermented beverage is also obtained from the juice of this plant; and its
leaves are employed as fodder for cattle, and for clothing and other domestic
purposes.
Lilium.—The bulbs of some species, as those of L. tenuifolium, L. kamt-
schaticum, and L. spectabile, are commonly eaten in Siberia.
Phormium tenav.—This plant is a native of New Zealand. The fibre
obtained from its leaves possesses great strength; it is commonly known
under the name of New Zealand Flax. It is much used for twine and
cordage, and occasionally for linen, &c. It was recommended many years
ago for paper-making, but although a very strong paper may be prepared
from it, very little commercial progress has been made with this material.
Its root has been recommended as a substitute for Sarsaparilla ; and recently
it and the leaves have been stated to possess vulnerary properties.
Polugonatum officinale or vulgare——The rhizomes ‘of this, and probably
those of P. multiflorum are sold in the herb shops under the name of Solo-
mon’s Seal. They are employed as a popular application to remove the
marks from bruised parts of the body.
Ruscus aculeatus, Butcher’s Broom ( fig. 409), has aperient and diuretic
roots, which were formerly much employed in visceral diseases. The roasted
seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee.
Sanseviera zeylanica and other species produce very strong and tough
fibres, which are knewn under the names of African Hemp and Bowstring
Hemp.
Trillium.—The root of 7. erectum (pendulum), under the name of Beth
Root, is used in the United States, and is regarded as astringent, tonic, and
antiseptic. It is especially useful in menorrhagia.
a &
722 COLCHICACE&.
Urginea.— U. Scilla (Scilla maritima).—The bulb of this species is the
official Squill. It is a valuable medicine ; in small doses acting as an ex-
pectorant and diuretic, and in larger doses as an emetic and cathartic. In
excessive doses it is a narcotico-acrid poison. Two active principles have
been known for some time as contained in Squill, one of which has been
reputed to possess expectorant and diuretic properties and not poisonous ;
and the other without any value in medicine, but acting simply as an irri-
tant poison: the former has been called scillitin, the latter seulein. Merck
has more recently, however, found three principles, which he terms seilli-
toxin, scillipicrin, and scillin, and he infers that the medicinal activity of
Squill depends upon the two former.—U. ind’ca and some other species
appear to have similar properties to the official Squill.
Xanthorrhea.—The species of this genus are commonly known in New
South Wales, where they are natives, under the name of Grass-trees. Their
tops afford fodder for cattle, and their young leaves and buds are eaten as a
vegetable. From X. arborea, X. hastilis, and others, two resins are ob-
tained; one of which is known as the Yellow Resin of New Holland or
Botany Bay Resin, the other as the Red Resin of New Holland or Black-boy
Gum. The latter appears to be the produce of X. hastilis. Both resins
extde spontaneously from the trunks of the trees, and both possess a fragrant
balsamic obour. They have been recommended for use in the preparation
of pastilles, and medicinally in those cases where tolu and other balsams are
employed.
Yucca gloriosa and other species which are commonly known under the
name of Adam’s Needle yield fibres, but these are little used. The leaves
ot Y. baccata, Y. brevifolia, Y. Whipplei, and Y. angustifolia, natives of
New Mexico, Arizona, and of South California, have been recommended
recently as a valuable material for paper manufacture.
Order 2. CoLtcHiIcacE® or MELANTHACE®.—The Colchicum
Order.—Character.—Herbs, with bulbs, corms (figs. 246 and
1092), tubers, or fibrous roots. Flowers regular (jigs. 1092 and
1093), usually hermaphrodite, or rarely unisexual. Perianth
inferior, white, green, or purple (jig. 1092), 6-partite or 6-
leaved. Stamens 6 (figs. 519 and 1093); anthers extrorse (fig.
519). Ovary superior or nearly so, 3-celled, with axile pla-
centation (fig. 1093); style 3-partite (fig. 1092); stigmas 3.
Fruit 3-celled (fig. 1094), 5-valved, with usually septicidal de-
hiscence (fig. 669). Seeds numerous ; embryo minute, in fleshy
albumen (fig. 1095).
By Bentham and Hooker the plants of this order (see Liliacez)
ave now placed, according to the views of Baker, in the Liliacex.
Diaunosis.—Herbs. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite or
rarely unisexual. Perianth inferior, 6-partite or 6-leaved.
Stamens 6; anthers extrorse. Ovary superior ; style 5-partite.
Fruit a septicidal or very rarely a loculicidal capsule, 3-celled,
3-valved, membranous. Seeds numerous, albuminous.
Distribution and Numbers.—Generally diffused, but most
abundant in Europe, North America, and the northern parts of
Asia. Illustrative Genera:—Colchicum, Li. ; Tofieldia, Hud-
son. There are about 150 species.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are almost
universally poisonous owing to the presence of powerful alka-
loids. But in proper doses several are valuable medicines, pos-
———
COLCHICACEA. 723
sessing emetic, purgative, diuretic, acrid, and narcotic proper-
ties. .
Schenocaulon officinale (Asagrexa officinalis)—This plant, a native of
Mexico, is the source of the official Cevadilla or Sabadilla, of the British
Pharmacopeia. Cevadilla is principally employed as a source of the alka-
loid veratrine, which appears to be contained only in the seeds ; these are
therefore alone official for its preparation. The alkaloid is also official, but
as obtained by the Pharmacopeeia process it is not quite pure, but is prob-
ably a mixture of alkaloids. Veratrine has been'used externally, as a rube-
facient, in rheumatism, gout, and neuralgic affections, and also internally
in similar affections in doses of one-twelfth to one-sixth of a grain. It isa
most powerful poison. Cevadilla seeds have been employed internally as an
anthelmintic. They are sometimes called lice seeds, because when powdered
and applied externally they destroy vermin.
Colchicum.—C. autumnale, Colchicum or Meadow Saffron.—Both the
seeds and corms of this plant are official in the British, Indian, and United
Fic. 1092. Fia. 1093.
Fie. 1094. Fie. 1095.
Fig. 1092. Flowering plant of the Colchicum or Meadow Saffron( Colchicum
autumnale).— Fig. 1093. Diagram of the flower of the same, with six
divisions to the perianth arranged in two whorls, six stamens, and a
3-celled ovary.— Fig. 1094. Transverse section of the capsule. Fig.
1095. Vertical section of the seed.
States Pharmacopeeias. They are employed medicinally in gout and rheu
matism ; but in improper doses they act as a narcotico-acrid poison. They
owe their properties essentially to a peculiar alkaloid, called colchicine,
which has been also used medicinally in similar diseases to colchicum. In
chronic rheumatism and in neuralgic affections of the joints, hypodermic
injections of colchicine have also been found useful. The once celebrated
French nostrum for gout, called Kau médicinale d’ Husson, owed its proper-
ties to Colchicum. The flowers and leaves, more especially the latter, are
poisonous to cattle, and hence this plant, which, moreover, occupies a con-
siderable space, as it has large leaves, should be eradicated as far as possible
3A 2
724 SMILACEA.
from the pastures in which it is found. The Hermodtctyls of the Greek
physicians and Arabians, and which were largely employed by them in
diseases of the joints, have been shown by Planchon to have been the corms
of C. variegatum, the source also of the Hermodactyls of the present day.
Some other Hermodactyls had a different origin.
Veratrum.—The rhizomes and rootlets of V. album are commonly known
as White Hellebore roots. They contain several bases, the more important
being the alkaloid veratrine, and another peculiar alkaloid termed jervine.
White Hellebore is a narcotico-acrid poison. It has been employed as an
errhine, and for destroying vermin ; and internally as a purgative and ano-
dyne in gout, &e. The dried rhizome and rootlets of V. viride, Green Helle-
bore, are now much employed in the United States, and to some extent
e'sewhere, under the name of American Hellebore or Green Hellebore, as
an arterial sedative in inflammatory affections. John Harley describes its
action as occupying a position intermediate between colchicum and digitalis.
Green Hellebore rhizome and rootlets are official in the British, Indian, and
United States Pharmacopeceias.
Order 3. SmItacE%, the Sarsaparilla Order-—C harac-
ter.—Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (jig. 1096). Leaves
petiolate (jig. 1096), net-veined, articulated. flowers regular,
unisexual and dicecious, or hermaphrodite. Perianth inferior,
6-partite, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, perigynous or
rarely hypogynous ; anthers introrse. Ovary superior, 3- 5- or
Fie. 1096.
Fig. 1096. Portion of a branch, with leaves and fruit, of Smilax
papyracea.
rarely 1-celled, with orthotropous ovules; stigmas 3. Fruit
baccate (jig. 1096), few or many-seeded. Seeds with a minute
embryo, in hardalbumen. This order, as we have already noticed,
is included in Liliacex by Bentham and Hooker.
Distribution and Numbers.—The species of this order are
scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and
temperate climates; they are, however, most abundant in
tropical America. Illustrative Genera :—Smilax, Linn.; Ripo-
gonum, Forst. These are the only genera; there are probably
ROXBURGHIACEZX.—PHILESIACEX.—JUNCACEZ. 725
about 120 species, but some botanists make the number con-
siderably more.
Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order generally
possess alterative properties.
Ripogonym parviflorum has similar properties to Sarsaparilla. (See
Smilax.) It isa native of New Zealand, where it is much used as a reme-
dial agent.
Smilaz.—The roots of several species or varieties of Smilax constitute
the Sarsaparilla of the Materia Medica, which is commonly regarded as
a valuable alterative. It is extensively employed in syphilis, various
cutaneous diseases, rheumatism, and many other affections. Several kinds
of Sarsaparilla are known, of which the most esteemed is that called
Jamaica Sarsaparilla, although it is not the produce of that island, but of
Central America. It is obtained from 8S. officinalis. This kind is alone
official in the British Pharmacopeia. Other kinds of Sarsaparilla dis-
tinguished in commerce, are Mexican or Lean Vera Cruz, from S. medica ;
Lisbon, Para, or Brazilian, from S. papyracea, and probably also from
S. officinalis Guatemala, from S. papyracea ; Honduras, from also, I believe,
S. papyracea ; and Guay aquil, from an unknown species. Several other
ae of Smilax are likewise in use in different parts of the world, as SN.
aspera in the South of Europe, where its roots are termed Italian Sarsa-
parilla; S. glabra, S. lancifolia, S. ovalifola, and _S. prolifera in India ;
S. olycuphylia in Australia, S. Macabucha in the Philippines, and 8. anceps
in the Mauritius, &e.—S. China is commonly regarded as the source of the
China Root of the Materia Medica; but others refer it to S. ferox of Wallich.
Several spurious China Roots are in use in America; their sources are
doubtful.
Order 4. RoxBURGHIACE®, the Roxburghia Order.—Cha-
racter.—Twining shrubs with tuberous roots. Leaves net-
veined, leathery, broad. lowers large and showy, solitary,
hermaphrodite. Perianth inferior, with 4 petaloid divisions.
Stamens 4, hypogynous, with enlarged connectives; anthers
introrse, apicilar. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with a basal pla-
centa ; stigma sessile. Firwit 2-valved, 1-celled. Seeds numer-
ous, in 2 stalked clusters, anatropous ; embryv in the axis of
fleshy albumen.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—They are natives of
the hotter parts of the East Indies. There is but one genus,
Roxburghia, Dryand., which includes 4 species. Their proper-
ties are unimportant.
Order 5. PuitEstace#, the Philesia Order.— Diagnosis,
de.—The plants of this order are closely allied to the Rox-
burghiaceze, from which, however, they are readily distinguished
by their hexamerous perianth and andrcoecium, perigynous
stamens, parietal placentation, long style, and semi-anatropous
ovules. They are natives of Chili. There are 2 genera—
Philesia, Commers.; and Lapageria, fh. et P.—and2 species. In
their properties they are said to resemble Sarsaparilla. (See
Smilax.) This order is included in Liliacew by Bentham and
Hooker.
Order 6. Juncace#, the Rush Order.—C haracter.—Sedge
726 JUNCACEA.
or grass-like herbs, rhizomatous or with tufted or fibrous roots.
Leaves with parallel veins, fistular or more or less flattened and
grooved. lowers regular (jig. 1097). Perianth inferior, 6-
partite (jig. 1097), scale-like or coriaceous, greenish or brown,
persistent. Stamens 6 (fig. 1097), or rarely 3, perigynous ; anthers
introrse, 2-celled. Ovary superior (fig. 1097), 1—38-celled ; style
1 (fig. 1097), stigmas 3 (fig. 1097) or 1. Fruita loculicidal cap-.
sule, 3-celled, 3-valved, and with 1 or many seeds in each cell;
rarely 1-celled, 1-seeded, and indehiscent ; embryo very minute,
in fleshy or horny albumen (fig. 1098) ; radicle inferior.
Distribution and Numbers.—A few are found in tropical
regions, but the mass of the order inhabit cold and temperate
climates. Illustrative Genera:—Juncus, DC.; Luzula, DC.
There are about 200 species.
Properties and Uses.—Their medicinal properties are unim-
portant, although some have a reputation as anthelmintics and
Fic. 1097. Fie. 1098.
Fig. 1097. Flower of a species of Wood-rush (Zuzula), having an inferior
perianth with 6 divisions, 6 stamens, and a superior ovary with 1 style
and 3 stigmas. Fig. 1098. Vertical section of the seed of the same.
diuretics. The pale cellular tissue at the base of some of the
leaves of certain species is occasionally eaten. The chief use,
however, to which the plants of this order are applied, is in
making floor mats, and the bottoms of chairs, &c. The leaves
of the species of Juncus are employed for these purposes. The
internal cellular substance of the fistular leaves of Junci, which
is commonly called the pith, is employed for the wicks of
rush-lights. In China, a decoction of this cellular matter is also
much used as a cooling medicine in febrile affections. It is
likewise employed in the manufacture of sun-hats, resembling
those made in India from Aschynomene aspera, but they are
not so durable as the Sola or Shola hats of Calcutta. (See
LE schynomene. )
Cohort 4. Pontederales.— Flowers hermaphrodite, in spikes,
panicles, or heads. Perianth of 2 segments or 6 in two
whorls, all petaloid. Style simple. Fruit capsular ; placen-
tation axile. Seeds with abundant mealy or fleshy albumen ;
PONTEDERACE.— PHILYDRACEH.— COMMELYNACEX, 727
with the embryo immersed—that is, not external to, or in
a lateral cavity of the albumen. Marsh or water herbs.
Order 1. PonTEDERACE®, the Pontederia Order. —Cha-
racter.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves sheathing at the base, with
occasionally dilated petioles. Flowers hermaphrodite, irregular,
spathaceous. Perianth inferior, 6-partite, petaloid, tubular,
persistent, rolling inwards after flowering. Stamens 3 or 6,
inserted on the segments of the perianth; anthers introrse.
Ovary superior ; style 1; stigma simple. Frwit capsular, occa-
sionally somewhat adherent to the persistent perianth. Seeds
numerous, with mealy albumen.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—They are natives of
the East Indies, Africa, and America. Illustrative Genera :—
Leptanthus, LZ. C. R.; Pontederia, Linn. There are above 30
species. Their properties are unimportant.
Order 2. PHttypRACE®, the Water-wort Order. —Charac-
ter.—Herbs, with fibrous roots. Leaves equitant, ensiform,
sheathing. Flowers surrounded by aspathaceous persistent bract,
hermaphrodite. Perianth inferior, 5-partite, petaloid, the two
upper segments united so that it appears to consist of 2 segments.
Stamens 3, 2 of which are barren and petaloid, and all united to
the anterior lobe of the perianth ; pollen united in masses of
four. Ovary superior, 3-celled, with axile placentas; style
simple ; stigma capitate. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. ceds
numerous, with an embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—They are natives of
China, Cochin China, and Australia. There are 2 genera
(Philydrum, Banks, and Hetzeria, Endl.) and 2 species. Their
properties and uses are unknown.
Cohort 5. Commeiynales.—Flowers hermaphrodite, in spikes,
panicles, heads, or solitary. Perianth regular or irregular,
of 6 segments in two whorls, 3 outer green or sub-glumaceous,
3 inner petaloid. Fruit capsular ; placentation parietal or
axile. Embryo outside the albumen, or in a distinct cavity
in its side.
Order 1. CoMMELYNACE®, the Spiderwort Order.—Cha-
racter.— Herbs, with flattened, narrow, usually sheathing
leaves. Perianth inferior, more or less irregular, in six parts
arranged in two whorls ; the outer parts being green, persistent,
and opposite to the carpels; the inner petaloid. Stamens
3 or 6, some generally abortive, hypogynous ; anthers 2-celled,
introrse. Ovary 3-celled, superior ; style 1. Capsule 2—3-celled,
2—3-valved, with loculicidal dehiscence and axile placentation.
Seeds few, with a linear hilum ; embryo shaped lke a pulley,
remote from the hilum, in dense fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of India,
728
CYRIDACE A,
Africa, Australia, and the West Indies. Illustrative Genera :—
Commelyna, Dill. ; Tradescantia, Linn. There are above 260
species.
Properties and Uses.—Their properties are unimportant.
The rhizomes of some species, as those of Commelyna tuberosu,
C. angustifolia, and C. striata, contain much starch, and when
cooked are edible. Others have been reputed astringent and
vulnerary, and some emmenagogue, Xe.
Order 2. Mayacex, the Mayaca Order. — Diagnosis. —
Small Moss-like plants growing in damp places. They are
closely allied to Commelynacezx, from which they differ in their
habit ; their 1-celled anthers ; their 1-celled ovary and capsule
with parietal placentas ; and in their carpels being alternate to
the outer segments of the perianth.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—They are found in
America from Brazil to Virginia. Mayaca, Aubl., is the only
genus, of which there are 4 species. Their properties and uses
are unknown.
Order 3. XyRIDACEH, the Xyris Order.—Character.—
Sedge-like herbs. Leaves radical, sheathing, ensiform or filiform.
Flowers hermaphrodite, in scaly heads. Perianth inferior, 6-
partite, arranged in two whorls,—the outer sub-glumaceous or
scaly, distinct, and opposite the carpels ; the inner petaloid,
regular, and united. Stamens 3, inserted into the base of the
outer lobes of the perianth, or sometimes 6; anthers 2-celled,
extrorse. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with parietal placentas.
Capsule 1-celled, 35-valved. Seeds numerous ; embryo minute, in
fleshy or mealy albumen.
The genus Rapatea is sometimes made the type of a distinct
order—the Rapateacee—which is placed in the cohort Pontederales.
Distribution and Numbers.—Exclusively natives of tropical
and sub-tropical regions. Tilustratire Genera :—Xyris, Linn. ;
Rapatea, Awbl. There are about 70 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The leaves and roots
of some species of Xyris have been employed in cutaneous
affections.
Cohort 6. Restiales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or usually uni-
sexual. Perianth of 2—6 glumaceous or membranous seg-
ments in 1—2 whorls, or reduced to scales, or absent.
Stamens 1—6; anthers 1—2-celled. Ovary superior, 1—3-
celled, usually 3. Ovules solitary, pendulous in each cell,
orthotropous. Fruit capsular, rigid, or membranous. Seeds
albuminous. Embryo terminal, outside and at the end of
the albumen remote from the hilum.
The orders included in Restiales ave placed by Bentham and
Hooker in their series Glumacex. They form a connecting link
between the Glumacex of this volume and the Petaloidex,
ERIOCAULACEA.— RESTIACEX.—DESVAUXIACEA. 729
Order 1. ErtocavuLace®, the Eriocaulon or Pipewort Order.
Character. —Aquatic or marsh plants. — Leaves clustered,
linear, usually grass-like. Flowers minute, unisexual, in dense
heads, each flower arising from the axil of a membranous bract.
Pevianth membranous, tubular, 2—3-toothed or lobed. Stamens
2—6; anthers 2-celled, introrse. Ovary superior, 2—3-celled.
Fruit dehiscent, 2—3-celled, 2—3-seeded. Seeds pendulous,
albuminous, hairy or winged ; embryo lenticular, at the end of
the albumen remote from the hilum.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties. —Mostly natives of
tropical America, and the North of Australia. One species is
found in Britain—FHriocaulon septangulare, With. The order
contains about 200 species. Their properties are unimportant.
Order 2. Restiacea, the Restio Order.—Character.—
Herbs or undershrubs. Leaves simple and narrow, or entirely
absent. Stems stiff, either naked, or more commonly with slit
convolute leaf-sheaths. Flowers with glumaceous bracts, spiked
or aggregated, generally unisexual. No true perianth, its place
being usually supplied by 2—6 glumes. Stamens 2—8, adherent
to the inner glumes, or the latter are sometimes absent ; anthers
generally 1-celled. Ovary 1—3-celled, with 1 pendulous ovule
in each cell. Fywit capsular or nut-like. Seed solitary, pendu-
lous, albuminous ; embryo lenticular, terminal.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives principally of South
- Africa, South America, and Australia. Some are also found in
the tropical parts of Asia; but none occur in Europe. Jllus-
trative Genera:—Leptocarpus, R. Br. ; Restio, Linn. There
are about 180 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The wiry stems of
some species have been used for basket-making, &c., and for
thatching.
Order 3. Desvaux1ace&, the Bristlewort Order. — Cha-
racter.—Small Sedge-like herbs, with setaceous sheathing
leaves. Flowers glumaceous, enclosed in a terminal spathe.
Glumes 1 or 2. Palex none, or 1 or 2 scales parallel with the
glumes. Stamens 1 or very rarely 2; anthers 1-celled. Carpels
1—18, distinct or partially united, with 1 stigma and 1 pendu-
lous ovule in each ovary. Fruit composed of as many utricles
as there are carpels. Seeds albuminous; embryo lenticular,
terminal.
Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of Australia
and the South Sea Islands. Illustrative Genera :—-Desvauxia,
R. Br.; Aphelia, R. Br. There are about 15 species. Their
properties and uses are unknown.
739 CYPERACEA.
Sub-class IT. Glumacee.
Cohort 1. Glwmales.—Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, and
arranged in spikelets, or rarely solitary, in the axils of glumes.
No true perianth, but its place supplied by minute scales,
hairs, or bristles, or these areabsent. Stamens usually 1—3,
rarely more; anthers 2-celled. Ovary superior, 1-celled,
with 1 erect or ascending ovule. Fruit a caryopsis. Seeds
with mealy or fleshy albumen. Embryo enclosed in the
base of the albumen, or outside at the base.
Order 1. CypERAcE®, the Sedge Order.—Character.—
Grass-like or Rush-like, usually perennial herbs (fig. 235).
Stems solid, without joints or partitions, frequently angular
(fig. 1099). Leaves without ligules, and with entire or closed
sheaths round the stem (fig. 1099). Flowers spiked, imbricate,
hermaphrodite (jig. 1102) or unisexual (figs. 1100 and 1101),
each arising from the axil of 1—3 bracts or glumes. (The lower-
Fic. 1100. Fie. 110).
Fie. 1099.
Fig. 1099. A portion of the angular stem of a species of
Carex, with a closed sheath. Fig. 1100. Staminate
flower of a species of Carex. st. Stamens, with long
filaments and pendulous innate anthers. g. Glume.
Fig. 1101. Pistillate flower of a species of Carez,
consisting of a giume at the base, and a pistil sur-
rounded by an urn-shaped tube (perigynium), u. st.
Style, terminated by three stigmas.
most glumes are frequently empty, that is, without flowers in their
axils.) Perianth absent, or existing in the female flowers in the
form of a tube (perigynium) (fig. 1101, u), or as hypogynous
scales or bristles (fig. 1102, b). Stamens hypogynous (fig. 1102),
1—12, commonly 3 (figs. 1100 and 1102) ; anthers 2-celled, in-
nate (figs. 1100 and 1102). Ovary 1-celled, superior, (fig. 1102),
with 1 erect anatropous ovule. Fruit indehiscent, 1-seeded
CYPERACEA. 75
(fig. 1103). Seed with fleshy or mealy albumen ( fig. 1103, alb) ;
embryo lenticular (figs. 1103, pl, and 1104), enclosed in the base
of the albumen (jig. 1103).
Diagnosis.— Grass-like or Rush-like herbs with solid and
usually angular stems. Leaves without ligules and with entire
sheaths. Stamens few, hypogynous; anthers innate, 2-celled.
Ovary superior, 1-celled; ovule solitary, erect, anatropous.
Fruit indehiscent, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Embryo enclosed in the
base of the albumen.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—Natives of all parts of the world,
and found especially in marshes, ditches, and about running
Fre. 1103. Fie. 1104.
Fic. 1102.
st
ie
od
Fig. 1102. Hermaphrodite flower of a species of
Club-rush (Scirpus), the glume having been
removed. 6. Hypogynous sete or brist!es form-
ingakindofperianth. st. Hypogynous stamens
with 2-celled innate anthers. 0. Ovary. 5s, Style.
stig. Stigmas, Fig. 1103. Vertica: section of
the fruit of a species of Curez. s. Pericarp. fe.
Integuments of the seed. alb. Albumen. pi.
Embryo. Fig. 1104. Embryo of a species of
Carex removed from the albumen. a. Lateral
swelling. 7. Radicle. c. Cotyledon. ff. Slit
corresponding to the plumule.
=
pe cee eam
Se 2
gt
EZ
==
streams. Illustrative Genera :—Carex, Linn. ; Cyperus, Linn. ;
Scirpus, Linn. There are about 2,000 species.
Properties and Uses.—Although closely allied in their bota-
nical characters to the Graminacez, the Cyperacez are alto-
gether deficient in the nutritive and other qualities which render
the plants of the Graminacez so eminently serviceable to man and
other animals. Indeed the order generally is remarkable for
the absence of any important properties. Some of the plants
are slightly aromatic, stomachic, and diaphoretic, others de-
mulcent and alterative, and a few have been used for economic
purposes. The underground stems of certain species are edible
when roasted or boiled. Some of the species by spreading
and interlacing their subterranean stems through the sand of
the sea-shore, and thus binding it together, prevent it from being
washed away by the receding waves, and in this way protect the
732 GRAMINACE.
neighbouring coast from encroachments of the sea. (See also
Properties and Uses of the Gramiacez.)
Carex.—The creeping stems of C. arenaria and some allied species have
been used medicinally as substitutes for sarsaparilla, under the name of
German Sarsaparilla.—C. hirta, C. precox, and others, are known in different
districts under the name of ‘Carnation Grasses.’ They have erroneously
been supposed to cause the disease termed ‘ Rot’ in sheep.
Cyperus.—The rhizomes, tubers, or corms of C. longus, C. rotundus, C.
pertenuis, and C. esculentus, have been employed in medicine, and regarded
as aromatic, tonic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and astringent. The corms or
tubers of C, esculentus are, under the name of Chufa or Earth Almonds, used
tor food in the South of Europe, more especially in Spain, and when roasted
have been proposed as a substitute for coffee and cocoa. They are known
by the French as Souchet Comestible (Rush Nut). Their chief use in hot
European climates is for making an orgeat, a refreshing acid drink in hot
weather. The boiled corms of C. bulbosus are also edible, and are said to
taste like potatoes.—C. teztilis is used for making ropes, &c., in India.—C,
tegetiformis is much used in China for making hats, matting, &c.
Eriophorum.—The species of this genus are commonly known under the
name of Cotton-grasses, from their fruits being surrounded by cottony or
downy hairs. These hairs are sometimes used for stuffing cushions, &c.
‘Lheir leaves are reputed to possess astringent properties,
Papyrus.—P. nilotica or P. wgyptiaca, the Bulrush of the Nile and the
Paper Reed of the ancients, is the true Papyrus of the Egyptians, and the
one commonly grown in botanical gardens under that name is the Syrian
or Sicilian species (P. syriaca or P. “siciliana). The plant is celebrated on
account of the soft cellular tissue contained in its stems having been in com-
nion use by the ancients for making a kind of paper. Thesesheets of papyrus
paper are remarkable for their durability. The Papyrus was also used for
making ropes, boats, mats, &c. The Sicilian species, P. siciliana, has like-
wise been employed ‘for making paper.—P. corymbosus is extensively used
in India for the manufacture of the celebrated Indian matting.
Scirpus.—Various species of this genus, as S. lacustris and 8S. Taber-
nemontana, &c., are much employed, like the true Rushes, for mats,
chair-bottoms, baskets, &c., and also by coopers for filling up the intervals
in the seams of casks. They are commonly known as Club-rushes or Bul-
rushes. The root of S. lacustris was formerly used as an astringent and
diuretic.
Order 2, GRAMINACEH, the Grass Order.—Character.—
Herbs, shrubs, or arborescent plants, with round, commonly
hollow (fig. 201), jointed stems. Leaves alternate, with
parallel veins and split sheaths (figs. 374, g, and 1105), and with
a ligule at the base of the lamina (fig. 374, lig). Flowers her-
maphrodite or unisexual, arranged in spiked (jig. 418), panicled
( fig. 419), or racemose locustze ; or solitary. No true perianth,
its place being supplied by imbricate bracts, of which there are
commonly 2,-called glwmes, or rarely 1; these glumes are placed
at the base of the solitary flower, or at the base of each locusta
(figs. 405 and 1106, gl, gl, and 1107, ge, gi). Occasionally the
glumes are altogether absent. Each flower is also usually fur-
nished with two other alternate bracts (palex) (figs. 1107, pe,
pi.), (or sometimes the inner palea pi is wanting), the outer
palea 1s frequently termed the flowering glume; and 2 or 3
hypogynous scales (lodiculx, squamulex, or glumellules) ( figs. 1106,
GRAMINACES. - "733
p, p, and 1108, p); these scales also are occasionally absent.
Stamens 1—6, usually 3 (figs. 1108-1110) ; filaments capillary
(figs. 505 and 1109) ; anthers 2-celled, versatile (figs. 500 and
601). Ovary superior (fig. 1108),
l-celled, with a solitary ascending Fra. 1105.
ovule ; stigmas feathery or hairy (figs.
601 and 1108). Fruit a caryopsis
(figs. 704 and 705). Seed with mealy
albumen (fig. 704, a); embryo lenti-
cular (fig. 1111), lying on one side of
the base of the albumen (jig. 708, ¢,
ee |
: Diagnosis.—Leaves alternate, with
split sheaths, and a ligule at the base
of the lamina. Flowers generally ar-
ranged in spikelets or locust, or
rarely solitary. Flowers glumaceous ;
paleze usually two in each flower.
Stamens hypogynous, few, usually
3, with capillary filaments, and ver-
satile anthers. Ovary superior, with
a solitary ascending ovule ; stigmas
feathery orhairy. Fruit a caryopsis.
Seed with mealy albumen, with the
embryo on one side at the base.
Distribution and Numbers. — _ __..
Grasses are universally distributed '”’; ihe Cae ee
over the globe. In temperate and pratense), bearing a leaf with
cold climates they are herbaceous Parallel veins, and a Split
and of moderate height, while in ee
tropical countries they become shrubby and arborescent, and
sometimes grow to the height of 50 or 60 feet. Grasses usually
grow together in large masses, and thus form the verdure of
great tracts of soil, and hence have been termed social plants.
Illustrative Genera :—Panicum, Linn. ; Anthoxanthum, Linn. ;
Phleum, Linn. ; Agrostis, Linn.; Dactylis, Linn. ; Bromus,
Linn. There are over 4,000 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of all the orders in the Vegetable
Kingdom this is the most important to man, as it affords the
various fruits, commonly known as Cereal Grains, which
_ supply the principal material of his daily bread in most coun-
tries of the world ; besides being eminently serviceable in other
respects, by supplying fodder for cattle, and yielding sugar and
other very useful products. It is a remarkable fact that the
native countries of our more important Cereals or Corn produc-
ing plants are altogether unknown. A few of the Grasses yield
fragrant volatile oils. Paper has long been made from the
Bamboo in India, China, and some other parts of the world ;
and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this
754 _ GRAMINACEE.
country and elsewhere. Other Grasses have also, within the
last few years, been used to a great extent for making paper.
Almost all Grasses are wholesome, but one or more species
of Bromus have been erroneously reputed to be purgative,
Fic. 1106. Fic. 1107.
Fire. 1109. Pie: igs
Fie, es
Fig. 1106. Diagram of a spikelet of the Oat (Avena). (From Le Maout.) gi,
gl. Two glumes, enclosing two hermaphrodite flowers, and one, a,
abortive. 6. The outer palea or flowering glume. 6, b. The inner palea.
p, p. Two scales (squamule or glumellules) ; the dotted curved line on
the right marks the position of a third abortive scale. e, Stamens. ¢,
Ovary.—-Fig. 1107. A spikelet (locusta) of the Oat (Avena sativa). ge.
Outer glume. gi. Inner glume. pe. Outer palea or flowering glume of
the fertile flower. pi. Inner palea of the same. e. Stamens. 0. Ovary.
Ja, and a. Abortive flowers.——Fig. 1108. Fertile flower of the Oat,
without the palez. py. Glumellules. e. Stamens. 9. Ovary. s, s, Feathery
stigmas.— Vig. 1109. One of the florets of a species of Meadow Grass
(Poa pratensis).——Fig. 1110. One of the florets of the Hard Fescue
Grass (Festuca duriuscula).—Fig. 1111. The embryo of the Oat. a.
Lateral swelling. c. Cotyledon. 7. Radicle. j. Slit corresponding to the
plumule.
and one, Lolium temulentum, is said to be narcotic and
poisonous. The powerful properties of the latter grass may
possibly be due to its becoming ergotised, as its effects upon the
system closely resemble those produced by the common Ergot.
GRAMINACE. 739
Paspalum scrobiculatum, an Indian spec'es, is also said to be some-
times unwholesome. Stipa stbirica in Kashmir, Stipa inebrians
in Mongolia, and several of the Melicw of South Africa, have like-
wise been recently described as deleterious Grasses. Further
experiments upon Loliwm and the other supposed deleterious
Grasses are desirable. Some of the species serve to bind together
the sand on the seashore, and thus prevent the encroachment of
the sea on the neighbouring coast. (See also Properties and
Uses of the Cyperacex.)
LEgilops ovata.—This grass has of late years become noted in conse-
quence of M. Esprit Fabre having stated that the varieties of cultivated
Wheat were derived from it and 4gilopscordata. This is not strictly correct,
however, for the plants grown by M. Fabre, and the grains of which ulti-
mately assumed the form of cultivated Wheat, were produced by hybridisa-
tion between a species of Triticum and Egilops ovata, the result being the
formation of a variety of gilops, called Agilops triticoides. The seeds of
this, by cultivation for about twelve years, are said to have produced a
erass like ordinary Wheat ; but it is not clear that prolonged cultivation
for a series of years has shown any tendency in gilops ovata towards
improvement.
Andropogon.—Several species of this genus are remarkable for their
agreeable odours. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of
which several are used medicinally and in perfumery. These oils are com-
monly known under-the general name of Grass Oils or Indian Grass Oils.
Those which are distilled from the fresh plants of A. Nardus, Linn., A.
citratus, DC., and A. pachnodes, Trin. (A. Schenanthus, Linn.), are official
in the Pharmacopeeia of India.—Andropogon citratus, Indian Lemon Grass,
is the source of Lemon-Grass Oil, which is also termed Oil of Verbena and
Indian Melissa Oil. The plant vielding it is largely cultivated in Ceylon
and in the gardens of India. Lemon-Grass Oil is much employed in per-
fumery under the name of o7/ of verbena, from its odour resembling the Sweet
Verbena or Lemon Plant of our gardens. (See Aloysia ( Lippia) citriodora.)
It is spoken highly of in India as an external application in rheumatism,
&c., and for internal use in cholera. It possesses stimulant, carminative,
antispasmodic, and diaphoretic properties. The fresh leaves are sometimes
used as a substitute for tea, and the centre of the stems for flavouring curries,
&c.— Citronella Od or Oil of Citronelleis the produce of Andropogon Nardus.
It is employed in perfumery in England, &c., and in its medicinal properties
it closely resembles Lemon-Grass Oil.—A. pachnodes i is the source of the oil
known in India as Risa ka-tel, or Rusa Oil. It is also known as Oil of Gera-
nium, Oil of Ginger Grass, or sometimes as Grass Oil of Namur. Oil of
Geranium is extensively employed in Turkey to adulterate Otto or Attar of
Rose. (See Pelargonium and Rosa.) 1t has similar properties and uses to
the two preceding volatile oils — A. muricatus has fragrant roots, which are
known under the names of Cuseus or Vetti-ver. It is imported into this
country and elsewhere, and used for scenting baskets, drawers, &c. It is also
reputed i in India to possess stimulant and diaphoretic properties.— A. laniger,
Desf., is the source of the drug known as Schenanthus or Juncus odoratus.
(See also Holcus.)
Anthistiria—A. australis is the ‘Kangaroo Grass’ of Australia.—A.
ciliata is an esteemed Indian fodder-grass.
Arundo Phragmites, the Common Reed.—The culms of this and some
other species are much used for thatching and other useful purposes.
Avena sativa, the common Oat.—A great number of varieties of this
species are cultivated in the North of Europe, &c., on account of the grains
(fruits), which are called Oats. These are extensively used as food for
xf
736 GRAMINACE.
-_¢
man and other animals. Oats deprived of their husk and coarsely ground
form Oatmeal. When divested of their husk and integuments they are
called Greats; and these when crushed constitute Hmbden and Prepared
Groats. Oats are also employed for the production of alcohol.
Bambusa.—B. arundinacea, the Bamboo, and other species of Bambusa,
are applied to many useful purposes in warm climates and elsewhere. Good
paper is made from them in India, China, &c. The bamboo has been also
largely exported from the West Indies to America, &c., for the purpose of
being manufactured into paper, and some of very good quality has been
made from it. The very young shoots are boiled and eaten like Asparagus,
and are also used for pickles and sweetmeats. Their hollow stems are
variously employed. In India and China the leaves are reputed to possess
emmenagogue properties. Sir Joseph Hooker says, that in some districts ‘a
very large kind of Bamboo is used for water-buckets, another for quivers, a
third for flutes,a fourth for walking-sticks,a fifth for plaiting-work (baskets),
a sixth for arrows; while a larger sort serves for bows. The young shoots
of one or more are eaten; and the seeds of another, either raw or cooked, are
made into a fermented drink. In China the Bamboo is used for numerous
purposes—for water-pipes, fishing-rods, for making hats, shields, umbrellas,
soles of shoes, baskets, ropes, paper, scaffolding-poles, trellis-work, sails, covers
of boats, and katamarans.’ The above extract will give some idea of the
various uses to which the Bamboos are applied. A solid silicious matter is
commonly found in the hollow joints of the bamboo, to which the name of
tabasheer has been given.
Coiz lachryma is remarkable for its hard stony fruits, called Job's tears,
which are used for beads. They are also reputed to be diuretic.
Dactylis cespitosa (Festuca flabelloides) is the celebrated Tussac Grass of
the Falkland Islands. It is an excellent fodder grass for cattle and horses,
It is now grown to some extent in Shetland and some other parts of Britain.
Eleusine.—E. coracana.—The grains of this plant constitute one of the
millets of India ; in Coromandel it is called Matchnee. It is also cultivated
in Japan asa corn crop. In Sikkim a kind of beer, called murwa or millet
beer, is prepared from the grains, and is in general use by the natives. (See
Panicum and Holcus.)—E. Tocussa is an Abyssinian plant. Its grains are
used for food under the name of Tocussa.
Gynerium.— G. argenteum is the elegant Pampas Grass.—- G. saccharoides,
a Brazilian species, contains much sugar.
Holeus.—H. saccharatus, Sorghum saccharatum, or Andropogon saccha-
ratum, is the North China Sugar Cane or Sweet Sorgho. It is cultivated
in China and other countries for the purpose of extracting its sugar, of
which it is said to vield from 10 to 15 per cent. Its grain is eaten in
Africa, and is termed Dochna. The plant has been introduced into this
country, and has been highly recommended for cultivation as a summer
forage for cattle, but at present our knowledge respecting it will not allow
of any positive conclusions upon its merits being arrived at. It is now,
however, extensively cultivated in the southern and central parts of France
as a fodder crop.—H. Sorghum, Sorghum vulgare, or Andropogon Sorghum, ot
which there are several varieties, is extensively cultivated in Africa, India,
&c., for the sake of its grain, which is known as Egyptian Corn, Ivory
Wheat, Guinea Corn, Durra, Turkish Millet, and Jaar. This grain is
much used for food in warm countries. In this country it has also been
employed for feeding poultry. The stems are used in the manufacture of
carpet brooms, whisks, &c. A kind of beer called Bouza is also prepared
from the grains.
Hordeum, Barley.—Several species or varieties are commonly cultivated
in cold and temperate climates for their grains: as H. d’stichon, Two-rowed
or Long-eared Barley; H. vulgare, Bere, Bigg, Four-rowed or Spring
Barley ; -H. hexastichon, Six-rowed Barley ; and H. zeocriton, Sprat or
GRAMINACE. 737
Battledore Barley. Barley is used dietetically in the manufacture of bread,
and in the form of malt most extensively in the production of ale, beer, and
ardent spirits. It is the common grain in use for the latter purposes in this
country. Malt is Barley which has been made to germinate by moisture
and heat, and afterwards dried, by which the vitality of the seed is
destroyed. Barley deprived of its husk constitutes Scotch, Hulled, or Pot
Barley. When both husk and integuments are removed, and the seeds
rounded and polished, they form Pearl Barley, which is official in the British
Pharmacopeia ; this, when ground, is called Patent Barley.
Lygeum Spartum, a Spanish grass, yields the fibre known as albardin,
which is frequently mistaken for Esparto. (See Stipa.) It is used like it
for paper-making.
Molinia cxrulea is said to be equal in value to Esparto Grass (see
Stipa) for paper-making. Its especial value resides in the tenacity of its
fibre, and the comparatively minute quantity of silica it contains.
Oryza sativa is the Rice plant, the grain of which is more extensively
used for food than that of any other cereal. Starch is also largely prepared
from rice; it is official in the British Pharmacopceia under the head of
Amylum, together with Wheat Starch and Maize Starch. From forty to
fifty varieties of the Rice plant are known and cultivated in India alone ;
others have distinguished as many as 160 varieties. Rice appears to be less
nutritive than the other cereal grains, and to be of a more binding nature,
hence its use in diarrhoea, &c. Spirit is sometimes distilled from the
fermented infusion of rice. This spirit is frequently called arrack, but that
name is properly used only in reference to the spirit distilled from Palm
wine or Toddy.
Panicum.—P. miliaceum yields Indian Millet. The grain is called Warree
and Kadi-kane in the East Indies.— P. spectabile,a Brazilian species, grows
six or more feet in height. It is a favourite fodder grass, and is commonly
known as the Angola grass.—P. jwmentorum is another fodder grass called
Guinea grass.—P. pilosum yields a grain known in India as Bhadlee. The
grain of P. frumentaceum is also nutritious. It is termed Shamoola in the
Deccan. Some of the Tartar tribes are said to prepare a kind of beer from
a species of Millet, which is called Bouza, Murwa, or Millet-beer, but this is
probably not obtained by them from a species of Panicum, but from a species
of Eleusine. (See Eleusine.)
_ _ Paspalum.—P. exile yields the smallest known cereal grain. This grain
is known on the West Coast of Africa, where it is used as food, under the
name of Fundi or Fundungi. It is also commonly called in Sierra Leone,
Millet.—P. scrobiculatum also yields a kind of grain, known in India as
aS or Kodro. A variety of this grass is reputed to be injurious to
eattle.
Penicillaria spicata (Panicum spicatum) is called Caffre Corn. It yields
a serviceable grain, which is commonly distinguished as African Millet.
Pennisetum dichotomum.—The grains of this grass are known in some
parts of Western Africa under the name of fasheia. They are used there as
food. In Egypt and Arabia this grass is employed as fodder for camels
and other animals, and also for thatching and other purposes.
Phalaris canariensis, Canary Grass, is cultivated for its grain, which is
employed as food for birds, under the name of Canary seed. Its straw is
also valued as fodder for horses.
Poa abyssinica is an Abyssinian corn plant, known under the name of °
Teff. The grains are sometimes employed in the preparation of Bouza or
Millet beer. (See Hleusine and Panicum.)
Saccharum officinarum is the Common Sugar-cane, so extensively used
for the preparation of Cane-sugar or Sucrose. Molasses is the drainings
from raw sugar; and treacle the thick juice which has drained from refined
sugar in the sugar-moulds. Curamel is burnt sugar. Sugar-candy, pulled
3B
738 GRAMINACEA.
sugzr, barley-sugar, and hard-bake, are all familiar preparations of sugar.
Both molasses and treacle are capable of fermentation by yeast ; and then
yield by distillation rum. Refined sugar and treacle are official in the
British Pharmacopeeia.
Secale cereale, Common Rye, is much cultivated in the northern parts of
the world for its grain, which is extensively employed for making bread.
Kye bread retains its freshness for a much longer time than wheaten bread.
Quass or Rye Beer is a favourite drink in Russia. Rye is also used by the
distillers. When roasted it has been employed as a substitute for coffee.
Rye is subject to a disease called Ergot, produced by the attack of a fungus
(see Claviceps), when its grains assume an elongated and somewhat curved
form. The diseased grains are commonly known as Ergot of Rye or
Spurred Rye, which in certain doses is poisonous to man and other animals.
Medicinally, ergot is given to excite uterine contractions in labour, and for
other purposes ; it is official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Setaria.—S. germanica is the source of German Millet, and S. italica of
Italian Millet. The latter is also much used in India. The Millets are
largely used as food.
Stipa. —S. tenacissima or Macrochloa tenzcissim1, yields the fibre known
under the name of Hsparto or Alfa. (See Lygeum.) This has been, of late
years, very extensively employed for paper-making. The imports of Esparto
are probably over 150,000 tons annually. It is collected in Spain, Tunis,
&c. Esparto is also largely used in Spain for making matting, card baskets,
&c., and has been so employed since the time of the Pheenicians, who are
said to have used it extensively for like purposes.—The grain of S. pennata,
Feather Grass, is stated to be very nutritious.
Triticum.—T., sativum (vulgare) is the common Wheat.—A great many
varieties of Triticum are cultivated, as 7. aestivum, Spring or Summer
Wheat; 7. hybernum, Winter Wheat; 7. compositum, Egyptian Wheat or
Many-eared Wheat; 7. polonicum, Polish Wheat, and others.—T. Spelta,
vielding the Spelt varieties, is a distinct species. The grains of the several
varieties of Triticum are commonly used in this and some other temperate
countries for making bread, and for their starch. Wheat starch is official in
the British Pharmacopeeia, together with Rice and Maize Starch, under the
common name of ‘ Amylum.’ Both ‘ Wheaten Flour’ and Crumb of Bread
are also official. Various nutritious foods are also prepared from wheat
grains, as Semolina, Soujee, Manna Croup, Vermicelli, Maccaroni, Cagliari
or Italian Paste, &e.—T’. repens.—A decoction of the creeping stems has
been used with success in mucous discharge from the bladder.
Zea Mays is the Indian Corn or Maize Plant. The grain is extensively
used in warm countries. It is the most fattening of all the cereals, but it
frequently produces diarrhea. The roasted cobs or ears are sold in India,
as chestnuts similarly treated are in this country. The immature ears are
sometimes eaten as a vegetable. Maize meal is sold under the name of
polenta, and the fine flour as maizena, both of which are much used as food
here and elsewhere. In South America a kind of beer, called Chica or
Maize Beer, is made from the grain, and is extensively used. Maize starch is
also official in the British Pharmacopeia, under the name of ‘ Amylum,’ with
Rice and Wheat Starch. In Western Africa a favourite fermented beverage
is also prepared from Maize, called pitto or peto. The silky styles and stigmas
of this plant have been recommended as of service in gravel and nephritic
colic.
Zizania aquatica yields a serviceable grain known as Canada Rice or
Swamp Rice. Zizania straw has been recommended as a very valuable
paper material, and a company has been formed to work it in the province
of Ontario, the only province in which the plant grows to any useful
extent.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN MONOCOTYLEDONES, 739
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the Class
MONOCOTYLEDONES.
(Modified from Lindley.)
Sub-class I. Petalvidee.
1, FLOWERS WITH AN EVIDENT PERIANTH.
. Ovary inferior (Jnferxe or Epigyne),
a. Flowers gynandrous.
Ovary 1-celled. Placentas parietal . Orchidacezx.
Ovary 3-celled. Placentas axile Apostasiaceex.
b. Flowers not gynandrous.
1. Veins of leaves diverging from the midrib,
and parallel to each other.
Embryo enclosed in a vitellus.
Anther 2-celled. Filament one, not pe-
taloid . : Zingiteracex.
Embryo not enclosed in ‘a vitellus,
Anther 1-celled. Filament one ; Marantacex.
Anther 2-celled. Filaments more than one. Musacee.
2. Veins of leaves diverging from the base, and
parallel to the midrib.
Stamens 3.
Anthers extrorse - Tridacezx.
Anthers introrse - - Burmannizcee.
Stamens 6.
Anthers extrorse - Burmanniacee.
Anthers introrse.
Leaves equitant . : , . . Hemodoracer.
Leaves flat.
Fruit 1-celled Taccaceex.
Fruit 3-celled.
Outer whorlof the perianth petaloid Amaryllidacex.
Outer whorl of the perianth not pe-
taloid . : ‘ : Bromeliacex.
Stamens more than 6 Hydrocharidacex.
8. Veins of leaves reticulated.
Flowers unisexual , é ; a Dioscoreacex.
Bb. Ovary superior (Supera).
veined.
a. Outer whorl of the perianth herbaceous or glu-
maceous.
Carpels more or less distinct.
Seeds attached over the whole inner walls of
Leaves parallel-
the fruit Butomacex.
Seeds attached to axile or basal placentas,
Flowers conspicuous. Embryo ¢éurved,
without a slit - - ; : . Alismacer.
Flowers inconspicuous, Embryo straight,
with a lateral slit . Juncaginacee.
Carpels combined,
3B 2
740 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN MONOCOTYLEDONES.
Inner whorl of the perianth different from
the outer.
Placentas axile. Anthers 2-celled. Cap-
sule 2—3-celled . ; 4 . .
Placentas parietal.
Anthers 2-celled, Capsule I-celled .
Anthers I-celled. Capsule 1-celled :
The outer and inner whorls of the perianth
alike.
Fiowers on a spadix.
teral slit . : ‘ :
Flowers not on a spadix. Embryo with-
out a slit : - - - : .
spe with a la-
b. Outer whorl of the perianth petaloid, or the
whole petaloid when only one whorl is present.
Carpels more or less distinct.
Seeds solitary. Flowers ona spadix . °
Seeds numerous. Flowers not on a spadix.
Anthers extrorse : : : ° .
Anthers introrse.
Perianth of 6 parts.
bumen :
Perianth of 2 parts. Seeds with albumen
Carpels combined.
Flowers on a spadix .- ‘ - :
Flowers not on a spadix.
Perianth rolled inwards after flower-
Seeds without al-
ing. Aquatics . -
Perianth not rolled inwards ‘after flow-
ering, conspicuous. ~ : :
C. Ovary superior. Leaves net-veined.
a. Placentas basal . : : ; ; F
b. Placentas axile . ; : : .
c. Placentas parietal . ; - “ . .
2. FLOWERS EITHER NAKED, OR WITH A WHORLED SCALY PERIANTH,
GENERALLY UNISEXUAL.
A. Flowers on a spadix.
a. Flowers bisexual.
Embryo cleft : z , ‘ 5 5
Embryo solid - : : E :
b. Flowers unisexrual.
Embryo solid : ‘ ; ; =
Embryo cleft on one side.
Flowers with a true spathe.
lent.
Anthers sessile, or nearly so . ‘
Flowers without a true spathe. Fruit dry.
Anthers on long filaments
Fruit succu-
B. Flowers not arranged on an evident spadix.
a. Flowers bisexual.
Ovary superior . “ : : : .
Ovary inferior . , : : : :
b. Flowers unisexrual.
Ovules erect.
Commelynacex.
XAyridacex.
Mayacex.
Aroidacex.
Juncacex.
Pa’macex.
Colchicacex.
Butomacezx.
Philydracex.
Palmaceex.
Pontederacezx.
Liliacee.
Roxburghiaceex.
Smilacezx.
Philesiacezx.
A roidacez.
Pandanacezx.
Pandanacezx.
Aroidacex.
Typhacex.
Juncaginacer.
Hydrocharidaceex.
GYMNOSPERMIA.—CONIFERZ OR PINACES. 741
Embryo perfect.
Seed without albumen ‘ : . Naiadacex.
Seed with albumen . j 3 . Pistiacee.
Embryo rudimentary . : : . Triuridacez.
Ovules pendulous.
Carpel solitary.
Seed without albumen.
Pollen globose or tubular . - P . Naiadacex.
Seed with albumen. : : . . Restiaceex.
Carpels several, distinct.
Anthers 2-celled . é * - 3 . Naiadacee.
Anthers 1-celled . . ‘ : A . Desvauxiaceer.
Carpels several, combined,
Anthers 1-celled.
Stamens 2—3 . ‘ : 5 5 . Restiacex.
Stamenl . P : 4 : . Desvauxiacee.
Anthers 2-celled. Placentas axile.
Seeds with rows of hairs . P P . Kriocaulacee.
Seeds without rows of hairs . - . Restiacee.
Anthers 2-celled. Placentas parietal . . Xyridacez.
Sub-class II. Glumacee.
Stem sclid. Leaf-sheaths not slit. Embryo ba-
silar, within the albumen 2 : : . Cyperacezx.
Stem hollow. Leaf-sheaths slit. Embryo basilar,
outside the albumen : 3 - : - Graminacer.
Division II, GYMNOSPERMIA.
Order 1. CoNIFER® or Prnace®, the Coniferous or Pine
Order.—Character.—Resinous trees or evergreen shrubs, with
1ireek ails bee Fie. 1113. Fie. 1114.
aa
Fig. 1112. A ripe cone of the
Larch (Pinus (Abies) Larix).
—~Fig. 1113. A mature
carpel or scale of the Scotch
Fir (Pinus sylvestris), with
two winged naked seeds at
its base. mic. Micropyle. ch.
Chalaza. —— Fig. 1114. A
scale of the Larch bearing
one naked winged seed ; the
other seed has been re-
moved.
branched continuous stems. Leaves linear, acicular (fig. 341)
or lanceolate, parallel-veined, fascicled (jig. 288) or imbricate
alternate. Flowers naked, moncecious or dicecious. Male flowers
742 CONIFERA.
arranged in deciduous amenta. Stamens 1 or several, in the
latter case monadelphous; anthers 1- or more celled, opening
longitudinally. Female flowers in cones (fig. 420), consisting
of flattened imbricate carpels or scales arising from the axil of
membranous bracts ; ovules naked, 2 (jig. 730) or more, on the
upper surface of each carpel. Frwit a woody cone ( figs. 293
and 1112) or a galbulus (figs. 725 and 726). Seeds naked (figs.
1113 and 1114), with a hard crustaceous integument, albumi-
nous ; cotyledons 2 or many (fig. 772).
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order has
been subdivided as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Abietew.—Ovules inverted, with the micropyle
next the base of the carpel (figs. 730 and 1113). Pollen curved.
Illustrative Genera :—Pinus, Linn; Araucaria, Juss.
Sub-order 2. Cupressex.—-Ovules erect, with micropyle supe-
rior. Pollen spheroidal. Illustrative Genera :—Juniperus,
Linn.; Cupressus, Tourn.
The order Taxacex is now frequently included in the Conifere,
forming the tribe or sub-order Taxex or Taxinee.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order occur
in all parts of the world ; but they abound most in temperate
climates, There are about 250 species.
Properties and Uses.—They possess very important properties.
Many supply valuable timber, and most of the species contain
an oleo-resinous juice or turpentine, which is composed of a
volatile oil and resin.
Araucaria.—A. imbricata, from Chili, and A. Bidwillii, from Moreton
Bay, have edible seeds. Those of the former are extensively used for food
by the natives of Chili and Patagonia. It is said that ‘the fruit of one
large tree will maintain eighteen persons for a year.’ Both species also
yield hard and durable timber.
Callitris quadrivalvis, the Arar Tree, yields the resin called Sandarach,
Juniper Resin, or Gum Juniper. It is imported from Mogador, and is em-
ployed in the preparation of varnishes. When powdered it is called pounce.
The wood of this tree is also very durable, and is used by the Turks for the
floors and ceilings of their mosques.
Cedrus.—Cedrus Libani, the Cedar of Lebanon, and C. Deodara, the
Deodar, which is probably only a variety of the former species, are most
valuable timber trees. The turpentine obtained from the latter is used in
India, where it is in great repute in skin diseases and as an application to
ulcers, under the name of kelon-ke-tel.
Cupressus, the Cypress.—The wood of some species is very durable. It
is supposed that the Gopher-wood of the Bible was obtained from species of
Cupressus and other allied Coniferz.
Dammara.—D. australis, the Kawrie or Cowdie Pine of New Zealand,
produces a timber which is much valued for making masts and spars. A
gum-resin known under the names of Australian Copal, Kawrie Gum, and
Australian Dammar, is largely imported into this country; it is chiefly used
in the preparation of varnishes.—D. orientalis yields a somewhat similar
gum-resin, known as Indian Dammar.
Juniperus.—J. communis, the common Juniper. The fruit and the vola-
tile oil obtained from it and other parts of this plant, have stimulant and
CONIFER. 7 £3
diuretic properties. The oil distilled in Britain from the unripe fruit is offi-
cial in the British Pharmacopeia. Oil of Juniper is also used to flavour
the spirit known as Hollands; turpentine being commonly employed for a
similar purpose for English Gin on account of its comparative cheapness.
Juniper wood has a reddish colour, and is used occasionally for veneers.—J.
Oxycedrus.—In France, a tarry oil, called Huile de Cade or Juniper Tar,
is obtained by dry distillation from the wood of this plant ; it is principally
used in the form of an ointment for skin diseases, more especially in psoriasis
and eczema ; it is also employed in veterinary practice. The wood is very
durable—J. bermudiana is the Red or Pencil Cedar, and J. virginiana, the
Virginian Red Cedar. The wood of these is employed for Cedar pencils ;
that of the former is considered the best. The tops or leaves of J. virginiana
are official in the United States Pharmacopeeia, where they are used for
similar purposes, and in like preparations to savine, but they are not so
effectual in their operation.—J. Sabina, the common Savine. ‘The fresh and
dried tops and the oil obtained from the former are official in the British
Pharmacopeeia ; they have acrid, stimulant, diuretic, and emmenagogue
properties. In large doses they are irritant poisons, and have been frequently
taken to cause abortion. When locally applied in the form of the official
ointment, as a dressing to blisters and to issues and setons, they keep up and
promote the discharge.
Pinus.—Several species of this genus are valuable timber trees; as P.
sylvestris, the Scotch Fir, which yields the timber known as Dantzic or
Riga Fir, and Russian Deal; P. Strobus, the White Pine or Deal of the
United States ; P. mitis and P. austr alis, the Yellow Pine or Deal; P.
rigida, P. Lambertiana, &c., &c. The wood of these trees is used to an
enormous extent in this country, and elsewhere.— Pinus australis (palustris),
the Swamp Pine or Long-leaved Pine, furnishes by far the greater propor-
tion of the crude oleo-resin known as turpentine which is consumed in the
United States, or sent from thence to other countries.—P. Tzda, the Frank-
incense Pine, and P. Pinaster, the Cluster Pine, more especially the former,
are also sources from which we derive our supplies of turpentine. The con-
erete turpentine known as Galipot is also obtained from P. Pinaster ; but
the analogous concrete turpentine known as Terebinthina, Thus America-
num, or Common F rankincense, and which is official in the British Pharma-
copeeia, is derived from P. australis and P. Teda. The crude oleo-resin
turpentine yields by distillation the essential oil called oil of turpentine or
spirits or essence of turpentine, and yellow and black resin. This oil is officiai
in the British Pharmacopeeia, and is said to be derived from P. australis,
P. Teda, P. Pinaster, and P. sylvestris— Pinus sylvestris, the Scotch Fir,
likewise produces some turpentine, and the wood of this and other species of
Pinus yields by destructive distillation the official Pix liquida or Tar, which
is commonly known as Wood Tar; and Creasote, which is a product of the
distillation of Wood Tar. ‘Tar is a useful application in some skin diseases.
Pitch or Black Pitch is another valuable product obtained from tar. The
inner bark of the Scotch Fir is used in Norway for making bark bread.
From the leaves also of this species the substance called Pine- wool, Forest-
wool, or Fir-wool is prepared. It is used for stuffing cushions, &c. ; and is said
to be repulsive to vermin, &c. Various other articles of domestic utility are
also manufactured from pine-wool. A volatile oil called Fir-wool Oil or Oil
of Pine Leaf is also obtained by distillation from these leaves ; and is useful
in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. It is official in the British Pharmacopeeia.
Paper of good quality i is now made from the wood of this and some other
species of Pinus and Abies. (See Abies eacelsa.)—P. Pinea, the Stone Pine,
has edible seeds, which are used as a dessert under the name of pine-nuts.—
P. Cembra, the Siberian Stone Pine, has also edible seeds. The young shoots
by distillation yield the so-called Carpathian Balsam.—P. Pumilio, the
Mugho or Mountain Pine, produces by spontaneous exudation an oleo-resin
744 TAXACEA.
called Hungarian Balsam.— Pinus Gerardiana, found in Thibet and
Afghanistan, has edible seeds.—P. longifolia, a Himalayan species, yields a
very good turpentine.
‘The following plants are fr equently placed in the genus Abies of Tournefort ;
but more commonly they are included in the genus Pinus.
Several species supply valuable timber, as Abies (Pinus) excelsa, the
Norway Spruce, Abjes (Pinus) alba, the White Spruce, A. (Pinus) eana-
densis, the Hemlock Spruce, A. (Pinus) Larix, the Common Larch, &c.—
Abies or Pinus excelsa, the Pinus Picea of Du Roi, yields by spontaneous
exudation a resinous substance which is the original Thus of the Materia
Medica. This when melted and strained constitutes our official Burgundy
Pitch. The official ‘Thus’ is described under Pinus australis. Good paper
has been made from the wood of this species. The leaf-buds are used on
the Continent in the preparation of a kind of beer, which is employed in
scorbutic and rheumatic complaints.— Abies or Pinus balsamea, the Canadian
Balsam or Balm of Gilead Fir, yields our official Canada Balsam.—A bies
or Pinus canadensis, the Hemlock Spruce Fir, yields an oleo-resin resembling
Canada Balsam. ‘This is official in the United States Pharmacopeeia, and
is commonly known as Canada Pitch.—Adbies or Pinus Picea of Linnzeus,
the Pinus Abies of Du Roi, the Silver Fir, yields Strasburg turpentine.
Its leaf-buds, like those of A. excelsa, are employed in the preparation of a
kind of beer, which is used for similar purposes.—Abies (Pinus) migra, the
Black Spruce Fir. The young branches of this when boiled in water,
and the solution afterwards concentrated, vield Essence of Spruce, which
is employed in the preparation of Spruce Beer—A. Larix of Lambert,
or Pinus Larix, the Larix europea of De Candolle, yields Larch or Venice
turpentine, and a kind of Manna, called Larch Manna or Manna de Briancon.
The bark is sometimes used in tanning. This bark, deprived of its outer
layer, is official in the British Pharmacopeeia, and is regarded as stimulant,
astringent, and diuretic. It hasbeen recommended to check profuse expec-
toration in chronic bronchitis, and for various forms of internal hemorrhage ;
but it is little used.
Thuja.—The young shoots of 7. occidentalis are used to prepare a tinc-
ture which is employed externally to remove warts, &c., and internally for
worms, amenorrhea, &c.
Order 2. Taxace®, the Yew Order. — Character. —
Trees or shrubs, with continuous branches. Leaves usually
narrow, rigid, and veinless; sometimes broad, with forked
Hires tbs Fie; EEG:
Fig. 1115. Male flower of the
Common Yew (TZaxus bac-
cata), With numerous mo-
nadelphous stamens.
Fig. 1116. Vertical section
of the seed of the same. a7.
The succulent cup-shaped
mass which surrounds the
seed. pl. Embryo. ald. Al-
bumen. ch. Chalaza,. mi.
Micropyle.
veins. Flowers unisexual, naked, bracteated. Male flowers
several together, each with one or several stamens, which,
in the latter case, are united (fig. 1115) or distinct ; anthers
bursting longitudinally. Female flowers solitary, and consisting
GNETACEA. 745
of a single erect naked ovule, which is either terminal or placed
in the axil of a bract. Seed small, usually more or less sur-
rounded by a cup-shaped fleshy mass or aril (jigs. 727 and
1116, ar), albuminous (fig. 1116, alb) ; embryo straight (fig.
1116, pl). This order is now frequently included in the Conifere,
forming the tribe or sub-order Taxex or Taxinex.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the mountains of
tropical countries, and of temperate’ regions. Illustrative
Genera :—Taxus, Linn. ; Salisburia, Smith. There are about
50 species.
Lroperties and Uses.—In their general properties they re-
semble the Coniferz.
Dacrydium—D.. Franklinii, the Huon Pine of Australia.—The wood is
valuable for ship-building. Other species, as D. taxifolium, the Kakaterro
of New Zealand, and D. cupressinum, the Dimon Pine, are also valuable
timber trees.
Podocarpus Totarra and some other New Zealand species are valuable
timber trees.—P. cupressina (imbricata), a native of Java, yields a crystal-
line resin.
Taxus baccata, the common Yew, produces extremely durable and valu-
able timber. Its leaves and young branches act asa narcotico-acrid poison,
both to the human subject and other animals. But they would seem to be
most injurious to horses and cows ; indeed, it is stated that sheep, deer, and
turkeys will crop Yew trees with impunity. But this is certainly incorrect
so far as sheep and deer at least, as these animals have been killed by eating
Yew leaves. It is also frequently said that animals may feed upon the
young growing shoots without any injurious effect being produced, but that
when these have been cut off, and left upon the ground for a short time,
they are then poisonous. This notion is, however, altogether erroneous, for
the shoots are poisonous whether fresh or dried. Fatal cases of poisoning
have also occurred from eating the so-called fruit. (See page 323.) The
red succulent cup of this fruit is, however, harmless, the contained seed alone
being poisonous. Yew leaves and the fruits, have been given medicinally
for their emmenagogue, sedative, and antispasmodic effects. According to
Dr. Taylor, ‘ Yew-tree tea’ is sometimes taken to cause abortion.
Order 3. GNETACE®, the Jointed Fir Order.—Character.
Small trees or shrubs, with usually jointed stems and branches.
Leaves opposite, entire, net- or parallel-veined, or sometimes
small and scale-like. Flowers unisexual or rarely hermaphrodite,
in catkins or heads. Male flowers with a 1-leaved calyx ; anthers
2—3-celled, with porous dehiscence. Female flower naked or
surrounded by 2 more or less combined scales; ovules 1—2,
naked, pointed by a style-like process. Seed succulent ; embryo
dicotyledonous, in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants occur in both
tropical and temperate regions. There are 3 genera—Ephedra,
Linn.; Welwitschia, Reichb. ; and Gnetum, Linn.; and about
00 species.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The seeds and leaves
of several species are eaten. Some Hphedras are astringent.
A new drug from Texas, known under the name of Canutillo,
746 CYCADACEA,
has been lately recommended in cases of urethral inflammation,
and in renal diseases ; it is said to be derived from Ephedra
trifurcu. :
Order 4. CycapacE®, the Cycas Order.—Character.—
Small Palm-hke unbranched trees or shrubs, or occasionally
dichotomous, with their surface marked by the scars of fallen
leaves. Leaves clustered at the summit, pinnate, parallel-
veined, hard and woody ; leaflets sometimes circinate in verna-
tion. Flowers quite naked, unisexual, dicecious. Male flowers
in cones, consisting of scales, from the under surface of which
1-celled anthers arise. Female flowers consisting of naked ovules
placed on the margins of altered leaves, or of ovules arising
from the base of flat scales or from the under surface of peltate
ones. Seeds hard or succulent, with 1 or several embryos con-
tained in fleshy or mealy albumen.
Distribution and Numbers.—Natives principally of the tem-
perate and tropical parts of America and Asia ; and occasionally
of the Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, and Australia. Illus-
trative Genera :—Cycas, Linn.; Zamia, Lindl. There are about
50 species.
Properties and Uses.—The stems and seeds of the plants of
this order yield mucilage and starch.
Cycas.—F rom the stems of Cycas circinalis and C. revoluta a starch may
be obtained. Of this a kind of sago is prepared; that from C. revoluta is
said to constitute Japan Sago, which is esteemed as an article of food where
it is obtained. But this sago is not an article of European commerce, all
the sago imported into Europe being derived from species of Palms. (See
Metroxylon and Saguerus.) The seeds of the above species are also edible.
Dion edule has large mealy seeds from which the Mexicans prepare a
kind of arrowroot.
Encephalartos.—V arious species contain starch, and form what is called
Caffre-bread.
Zamia.—In the Bahamas and other West Indian islands, excellent
arrowroot is prepared from the starch obtained from the stems of Z. integri-
Jolia and other species. It is sold in the West India markets, but is not
known as a commercial article in this country or in any other part of Europe.
Florida arrowroot is also obtained from this plant.
Artificial Analysis of the Orders in the GYMNOSPERMIA.
1. Stem jointed, branched ; ; * . . Gnetacex.
2. Stem not jointed.
Branched. Leaves simple.
Carpels collected in cones. Coniferz.
Seed solitary, usually surrounded by a suc-
culent coat F Taxacex.
Not branched, or dichotomous. Leaves pinnate Cycadacex.
FILICES,.
Sup-kinapom II.
747
CRYPTOGAMIA OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
Division I. CORMORHYTA.
Class I. VASCULARES.
Sub-class I. Isosporia.
Order 1. Finices, the Fern Order.—Character.—Herbs
with rhizomatous stems (fig. 14); or arborescent plants with
cylindrical stems (fig. 15), usually unbranched, but sometimes
forked (fig. 204). Leaves, or fronds as they are commonly
called, arising irregularly from the rhizome
(fig. 14), or placed in tufts at the apex of
the stem or caudex (fig. 15) ; almost always
circinate in vernation (figs. 14, 15, and 297) ;
simple (fig. 1117, a) or compound (figs. 14
and 804). Fructification consisting of spo-
rangia or capsules (figs. 802 and 804),
collected in heaps (sori), which are placed
usually on the under surface (figs. 802, sp,
and 803, s) or at the margins of the fronds
(fig. 1117, b), or rarely on the upper sur-
face, or occasionally arranged in a spiked
manner ona simple or branched rachis (fig.
804) ; the sor: are either naked (fig. 802,
sp) or covered by a membranous scale
(indusium) (fig. 803, s). Sporangia stalked
(fig. 805, s) or sessile (fig. 1117, b), and
either annulate (jig. 805) or exannulate
(fig. 1117, b). Spores enclosed in the spo-
rangia (fig. 805). (For further particulars
upon the fructification of Ferns, see pp.
365-367.)
Division of the Order and Illustrative
Genera.—This order has been variously
divided ; but the more common arrange-
ment is into three sub-orders, which are
frequently regarded as distinct orders.
Hreeatize
Fig. 1117. a. Barren and
fertile fronds of the
common Adder’s-
tongue (Ophioglossum
vulgatum). 6. Portion
of the fertile frond of
the same, with 2-valved
distinct, burst sporan-
gia or capsules on its
margins.
These sub-orders are called Polypodier, Danzez, and Ophio-
elossee. Their characters are as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Polypodiex or Polypodiacee, the Polypody Sub-
order.—Fronds circinate in vernation. Sporangia more or less
annulate (fig. 805), usually collected in sori on the under
surface or at the margins of the fronds (figs. 802 and 803),
748 | FILICES.
or occasionally arranged in a spiked manner on a simple or
branched rachis ( fig. 804). Illustrate Genera :—Polypodium,
Linn. ; Aspidium, Swartz; Osmunda, Linn.
Sub-order 2. Danxex, Danzxacex, or Marattiacexr, the Danza
Sub-order.—Fronds circinate in vernation, and all fertile.
Sporangia arising from, or imbedded in, the under surface or
back of the fronds, more or less united, exannulate. Tllus-
trative Genera:—Danea, Smith; Marattia, Smith. There are
no British plants in this sub-order.
Sub-order 3. Ophioglossex or Ophioglossacex, the Adder’s-tongue
Sub-order.— Fronds not circinate in vernation, barren or
fertile. Sporangia arranged in a spike-like form (fig. 1117, a)
on the margins of a contracted frond, distinct, 2-valved (fig.
1117, 6), exannulate. Illustrative Genera :—Ophioglossum,
Linn.; Botrychium, Swartz.
Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are
more or less distributed over the globe, but they are most
abundant in moist temperate regions. In the northern hemi-
sphere they are herbaceous plants, but in the southern hemi-
sphere and in the tropics they are sometimes arborescent, having
stems occasionally as much as forty feet in height, and with
the general habit of Palms. There are upwards of 2,500
species.
Properties and Uses.—Several species have farinaceous
rhizomes, which, when roasted or boiled, are used as articles
of food in some parts of the world, but generally only in times
of scarcity. The rhizomes of Pteris esculenta, Diplaziwm escu-
lentum, Nephrodiwm esculentum, and Marattia alata, are those
which are thus principally used. The leaves of several species
possess slightly bitter, astringent, and aromatic properties, and
those of others are mucilaginous. The rhizomes of some are
astringent and tonic, and a few possess well-marked anthelmintic
properties. The silky hairs found on the rhizomes and lower
portions of the caudex of some species have been used for
stufting cushions, &c., and as mechanical styptics.
Acrostichum Huacsaro.—The rhizome of this species constitutes the
Middling Calaguala or Little Cord, which is used medicinally in Peru.
(See Polypodium.)
Adiantum—The fronds and rhizomes of A. Capillus-Veneris, True
Maiden-hair, and those of A. pedatum, Canadian Maiden-hair, possess
mucilaginous, bitter, slightly astringent, and aromatic properties, and have
been employed as pectorals in catarrhs. The latter plant is most esteemed.
Syrup of Capillaire is properly prepared, by adding to an infusion of
Maiden-hair some sugar and orange-flower water ; but it is now frequently
made by simply adding sugar to orange-flower water. The fronds of A.
melanocaulon are reputed to have tonic properties; and various qualities
have been attributed to other species of Adiantum.
Aspidium.—The dried rhizome with the persistent bases of the petioles of
Aspidium Filix-mas constitute the official Male Fern of the British Phar-
macopeia. This has been used from the earliest times as an aathggpintic ;
EQUISETACES, 749
it possesses most activity in a recent state. The rhizome of Aspidium mar-
ginale, a native of the United States, is said to possess similar properties,
and is official as well as the former in the United States Pharmacopeeia.
The rhizome of Aspidium athamanticum, under the names of Panna and Un-
comocomo, is also much esteemed by the Zulus as an anthelmintic. The fronds
of A. fragrans, possess aromatic and slightly bitter properties, and have been
used as a substitute for tea.
Cibotium.—The silky hairs covering the lower portion of the caudex of
C. Barometz or Aspidium Barometz, the Scythian Lamb of old writers, have
been imported under the name of Pakoe Kidang. This has great reputation
in India as a styptic, and has been used for a like purpose (see Cyathea) in
Holland, Germany, and other countries. It has also been employed for
stuffing cushions, &c. It is obtained from Sumatra. Analogous hairs
imported from the Sandwich Islands, under the name of Pulu, may be em-
ployed for similar purposes as the preceding. Pulu is said to be derived
from three species of Cibotium, viz. C. glaucum, C. Chamissoi, and C. Men-
ziesii ; but other species also produce somewhat similar hairs.
Cyathea.—From the caudex of C. Smithii, a native of Sumatra, woolly
hairs are obtained, which are imported under the name of Penghawar
Djambi ; they are used for similar purposes as Pakoe Kidang and Pulu.
Ophioglossum vulgatum, the Common Adder’s-tongue, has been employed
asavulnerary. In some parts of England it is used in the preparation of a
popular ointment.
Osmunda regalis, the Flowering or Royal Fern.—In Westmorland and
some parts of Lancashire, this plant is known under the name of ‘bog
onion.’ The rhizomes when beaten, and macerated all night in cold spring
water, are much esteemed as an application to bruises, sprains, &c.
Polypodium.—The rhizomes of P. Calaguala, Genuine or Slender Cala-
guala; of P. crassifolium, Thick Calaguala or Deer’s Tongue ; and those
of Acrostichum Huacsaro (see Acrostichum), are used medicinally in Peru,
and are said to possess sudorific, diuretic, febrifugal, and anti-venereal pro-
perties.—P. Phymatodes.—The fronds, under the names of ‘ Male Fern,’ and
‘Female Fern,’ are employed in Siberia in nephritis, dysuria, and other
kidney complaints.
Pteris aquilina, the Common Brake, is reputed to possess anthelmintic
properties.
Order 2. EquisETACcE, the Horsetail Order.—Character.
Herbaceous plants with striated, hollow, jointed, simple or
verticillately branched, aerial siliceous erect shoots or stems,
arising from slender creeping persistent rhizomes. The joints
are surrounded by membranous toothed sheaths (fig. 13), which
are generally regarded as modified leaves. When branched,
the branches arise in a whorled manner from the axils of the
teeth of the sheaths and correspond in number with them.
Stems barren or fertile. Fructification borne in cone-like or
club-shaped masses at the termination of the erect shoots or
stems (fig. 13). Each mass is composed of peltate scales bearing
the sporangia or capsules on their under surface (fig. 810),
each of which dehisces internally by a longitudinal fissure. Spores
surrounded by elastic club-shaped elaters (figs. 811 and 812).
(See pages 367 and 368 for a more detailed account of the
fructitication. )
Distribution and Numbers.—These plants are found in
a or watery places in most parts of the world. There is
SS
790 LYCOPODIACEX.
but one genus (Hquisetum, Linn.), which includes about 20
species, many of which are indigenous.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance either in a medi-
cinal or economig point of view. They were formerly regarded
as slightly astringent, diuretic, and emmenagogue, but are
never employed in medicine at the present day. The rhizomes
contain much of starchy matters in the winter months, and
might therefore, in case of need, be used as food, like those of
some Ferns. Silica is abundant in their epidermal tissues : this
is especially the case in Equisetwm hyemale, Rough Horsetail,
which is largely imported from Holland under the name of
Dutch Rushes, and employed by cabinet makers, ivory turners,
and others, for smoothing the surfaces of their work.
Order 3. Lycopop1acE&, the Club-moss Order. —Charac-
ter. — Herbaceous plants, usually resembling Mosses, or rarely
shrubby, with creeping stems (jig. 1118) or corms, and forked
ramification (fig. 12). Leaves sessile, small, simple, imbricate
Fie. 1118.
SS
Fig. 1118, Lycopodium inundatum, Marsh Club-moss, The stem is creeping,
and bears numerous small sessile imbricate leaves.
(fig. 1118). Sporangia situated in the axis of the leaves, or of
spicately or cone-like arranged scales (fig. 12), 1—3-celled,
compressed, often reniform, 2-valved ; and containing numerous
spores of one kind only, which are marked at the summit with
3 radiating lines. (See pages 368 and 369.) ,
Distribution and Numbers.—They are almost universally dis-
LYCOPODIACE, 751
tributed, occurring in cold, temperate and warm climates. Jilus-
trative Genera :—Lycopodium, Linn. ; Psilotum, Swartz. There
are about 100 species.
Properties and Uses. —Many species contain an acrid principle.
In moderate doses they are frequently emetic and purgative, but
in large doses they occasionally produce poisonous effects. Some
are reputed to possess aphrodisiac properties. The spores of
several are inflammable,
Lycopodium.—L. clavatum, the common Club-moss, possesses well-marked
emetic and purgative properties, and is also reputed to be diuretic and em-
menagogue. The spores have been employed externally for their absorbent
qualities, in erysipelas and various cutaneous affections; and when taken
internally they are said to be diuretic, sedative, and demulcent. These spores
are of a yellow colour, and are sometimes known as vegetable sulphur. Besides
their use medicinally, as just alluded to, they are occasionally employed in
pharmacy for covering pills, the object sought being, to render them tasteless
and prevent their adhering together. Lycopodium spores, however, from
their inflammable nature, are principally used in the preparation of fire-
works, and for the production of artificial lightning at theatres, &c.—JZ.
Selago has similar medicinal properties, but it sometimes acts as a nar-
cotico-acrid poison. The spores are of a like inflammable nature to those
of L. clavatum.—L. catharticum is said to be a powerful purgative.
ven Oe
Fig.1119. Isoétes lacustris, Lake Quill-wort. The stem is small and corm-
like, and bears its leaves, which are linear-cylindrical, in tufts.
702 SELAGINELLACEX.-—— MARSILEACEA.
Sub-class II. Heterosporia.
Order 1. SELAGINELLACE®, the Selaginella Order.—Cha-
racter.—Terrestrial or water plants (fig. 1119), with branched
slender stems, or the stems are corm-like (fig. 1119). Leaves
sessile, small, and imbricate all round the stem or distichous,
orinthe plants with corm-like stems tufted, long, and somewhat
linear (fig. 1119). Sporangia of two forms, the larger called the
macrosporangium or megasporangium (fig. 816), 2—4-valved,
and containing 2—8 large spores (macrospores or megaspores) ;
and the smaller or microsporangium (fig. 815), resembling that
of the Lycopodiacex, and containing a number of small spores
(microspores). (See pages 369 and 370.) The species of Isoétes
are sometimes formed into a distinct order—the Isvétacex (see page
370). They are here included in Selaginellacez.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are found in all temperate
and warm climates. There are 2 genera, and about 100 species.
Illustrative Genera :—Selaginella, Beawv. ; Isoétes, Linn.
Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.
Order 2. MARSILEACE% or RuHiIzocaRPEH, the Pepperwort
Order. —Character.—Aquatic herbs with small floating or
creeping stems (fig. 1120), from which arise sessile (fig. 1120) or
Fre. 1120.
Fig. 1120. The Creeping Pillwort (Pilulavia globulifera). The stems are
creeping, and bear numerous sessile leaves, which are circinate in verna-
tion. The sporocarps are downy, and placed in the axils of the leaves.
stalked leaves (fig. 366). Leaves with circinate vernation (fig.
1120). Fructification at the base of the leaves (jig. 1120), and
consisting of stalked valvular sporocarps (figs. 817, 819, and
820) enclosing antheridia in which a number of small spores
(microspores) are contained ( fig. 818), and sporangia (fig. 820, 5),
both of which are either contained in the same cavity (fig. 817)
or in separate sacs (fig. 820). (See pages 370 and 371.)
MUSCI. 759
This order is frequently divided into two orders, namely,
Marsileacex and Salviniaceer.
Distribution and Numbers.—They are widely distributed, but
are most abundant in temperate regions. Illustrative Genera :-—
Pilularia, Zinn. ; Marsilea, Linn. There are about 40 species.
Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Marsilea Ma-
cropus is known in Australia as the Nardoo plant. The sporo-
carps contain starchy matter; these are pounded, and used in
the same way as flour.
Class II. Muscinez.
Order 1. Musci, the Moss Order.—Character.—Cellular
plants (figs. 9, 10, and 824), terrestrial or aquatic, with erect or
creeping stems, and usually spirally imbricate leaves (jig. 1121).
Reproductive organs of two kinds, called antheridia and arche-
gonia (see pages 372-375). which are either placed on the same
or on separate plants (figs. 9 and 10) ; hence these plants are
monecious or diecious. The antheridium (fig. 821) is a more
Fie. 1121.
Fig. 1121. A portion of Andrea
rupestris, much magnified. The
stem is erect, with numerous
small imbricate leaves. and a
terminal sporangium, which is
destitute of a seta. a. Sporan.
gium after dehiscence, showing
the 4 equal valves of which it
is comvosed connected at the
summit by the persistent oper-
eulum. The valves are seen to
have dehisced vertically. (After
Hooker.)
or less rounded, elliptic, or cylindrical sac, containing, when
mature, a number of minute cells (sperm-cells), each of which
encloses a spirally twisted filament (antherozoid). The arche-
gonium is a flask-shaped body (fig. 822), which after fertili-
sation developes an urn-shaped sporangium (figs. 823-825),
with usually a central columella (fig. 829); the space between
which and the walls of the sporangium being occupied by spores,
without any elaters among them. The sporangiwm or capsule is
commonly placed on a stalk (seta) (figs. 823, t, and 824, p), or
occasionally it is sessile (fig. 1121), and at first is covered by a
hood (calyptra) (figs. 824, ¢, and 825, ¢), beneath which is a kind
3C
704 HEPATICACEA.
of lid (operculum) (figs. 826, 0, and 827). The sporangium
usually opens when ripe in a transverse manner from the sepa-
ration of the operculum (figs. 826, 0, and 827), or sometimes by
splitting vertically into four equal valves, which are connected
at the summit by the persistent operculum (jig. 1121, a); or
rarely it dehisces irregularly. At the dehiscence of the spor-
angium, its mouth (stoma) is seen to be either surrounded by a
peristome, consisting of one (aploperistomous) or two rows
(diploperistomous) of teeth (fig. 826, p) ; or the mouth is naked
(gymnostomous).
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order is
commonly divided into four sub-orders, which are frequently
regarded as separate orders, the principal distinctive characters
of which are as follow :—
Sub-order 1. Sphagnacee or Sphagnee.—Bog-mosses. Sporan-
gium globular, surrounded at the base by the calyptra; the
columella does not reach to the apex of the capsule. The
only genus is Sphagnum, Dill., which is found on boggy
moors and in damp woods.
Sub-order 2. Andreacex or Andreex.—Split-mosses.— Sporan-
gium splitting vertically into four valves, but remaining con-
nected at the summit. Illustrative Genus :—Andrea, Ehr.
(fig. 1121).
Sub-order 3. Phascacex or Phascex.—The sporangium does not
burst ; the spores escaping by the decay of the wall of the
sporangium. Illustrative Genus :—Phascum, Linn.
Sub order 4. Bryacex or Bryex. — Urn-mosses. —Sporangium,
which is generally borne upon a seta of considerable length,
dehiscing transversely by the separation of the operculum
(figs. 826 and 827). Illustrative Genera :—Funaria, Hedgw. ;
Polytrichum, Linn.
Distribution and Nuwmbers.—They are generally diffused over
the globe, but most abundantly in temperate climates. There
are about 1,250 species.
Properties and Uses. —Of little importance either in a medi-
cinal or economic point of view. Some species are reputed to
possess astringent and diuretic properties, but none are employed
by the medical practitioner in this country. The species of
Sphagium furnish food to the reindeer, and even to man in the
polar regions.
Order 2. Hepaticace&, the Liverwort Order (see pages
375-377).—Character. —Smull cellular plants, either with
a creeping stem bearing minute imbricate leaves (fig. 1122) or
with a lobed thalloid expansion (jigs. 830 and 832). Repro-
ductive organs of two kinds, called antheridia and archegonia,
which are either on the same plant or on different ones ; hence
these plants are monecious or diccious. The antheridia are
HEPATICACLA. 705
small, oval, globular, or flasked-shaped, cellular sacs (fig. 831),
situated in the axils of leaves, or immersed in the frond, or
imbedded in the upper surface of peltate or discoid stalked
receptacles (jig. 830, 7). The archegonia (fig. 833) are usually
somewhat flask-shaped bodies, which are imbedded in the fronds,
or contained in receptacles (fig. 832, +) which are elevated on
stalks (fig. 832, s) above the thallus. Each archegonium de-
velopes after fertilisation a sporangium, which either bursts by
valves (fig. 1123) or teeth, or by irregular fissures. The spor-
angium is usually without a columella, and contains spores
Pre. 1122: Prey li23:
Fig. 1122. Jungermannia bi-
hy dentata. The stem is creep-
[Z ing, and bears numerous
s\h fe small imbricate leaves.
22 > Fig. 1123. Sporangium of
x SAK | \ Xe StS Jungerminnia hyalina, de-
0 i re hiscing vertically by 4
OP, iW RS valyes, and ccntaining
spores in its interior.
mixed with elaters (jig. 834); or it is furnished with a thread-
like columella, and coutains spores and no elaters, or the latter
are imperfect ; or it has neither elaters nor columella.
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—This order
may be divided as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Jungermanniaceer or Jungermanniex, Scale-
mosses.—Sporangia oval ; without a columella ; splitting ver-
tically by 4 valves (fig. 1123). Spores mixed with elaters.
Iilustrative Genera :—Blasia, Micheli; Jungermannia, Dillen.
Sub-order 2. Anthocerotex.—Sporangia pod-shaped ; 1— 2-
valved ; with a filiform columella. Spores either mixed, with
imperfect elaters, or these are absent. Illustrative Genera :—
Anthoceros, Micheli; Monoclea, Hook.
Sub-order 3. Marchantiaceex or Marchantiex, Liverworts. —
Sporangia without valves ; bursting irregula1ly or by teeth ;
without a columella. Spores mixed with elaters (fig. 854).
Illustrative Genera :—Fimbriaria, Nees; Marchantia, March.
Sub-order 4. Ricciacee or Ricciex, Crystalworts.—Sporangia
without valves; bursting irregularly ; without a columella.
3 C2
756 FUNGI.
Spores not mixed with elaters. Illustrative Genera :—Riccia,
Mich. ; Spherocarpus, Mich.
These sub-orders are sometimes regarded as distinct orders.
Distribution and Numbers.-—These plants are generally dis-
tributed over the globe, but they are most abundant in damp
shady places in tropical climates. There are about 700
species.
Properties and Uses.—-Of no importance, although some have
been used in liver complaints, and other species, as Marchantia
hemispherica, have been employed, in the form of poultices, in
dropsy.
Division II. THALLOPHY
Order 1. Funet, the Mushroom Order.—Diagnosis. Plants
formed of hyphal tissue, producing their fructification in the
air; growing in or upon decaying organic matters (in which
case they are termed saprophytes), or on living organisms (when
they are termed parasites), and nourished through their vegeta-
tive structure called the spawn or mycelium (figs. 6, my, and
839 a, my). The Fungi, as here defined—that is, excluding
Lichenes, are also destitute of green colouring matter and
starch. Fructification various. (See pages 378-387, and figs.
835—850. )
Division of the Order.—For a notice of the groups into which
this order has been divided, see pages 378-387.
Distribution and Numbers.—They abound in all parts of the
world except the very coldest, where their spawn would be
destroyed. Illustrative Genera :—Agaricus, Lum. ; Saccharo-
myces, Meyen ; Botrytis, Mich.; Morchella, Dillen.; Tuber,
Mich.; Mucor, Mich. The number of species is roughly esti-
mated at over 4,000. There are about 800 Pritish species.
Properties and Uses.—Fungi have very variable properties.
Some are medicinal, others edible, and numerous species are more
or less poisonous. Many deaths have occurred from poisonous
Fungi having been mistaken for edible ones; and, apart from
their botanical characters, science as yet atfords no certain charac-
teristics by which they may be distinguished. Some general
characters, however, will enable us in most cases to do so: these
may be tabulated as follows :—
Edible Mushrooms.
1. Grow solitary in dry airy places.
2. Generally white or brownish.
2, Have a compact brittle flesh.
4. When cut do not change colour by exposure to the air.
5. Juice watery.
6. Odour agreeable.
7. Taste not bitter, acrid, salt, or astringent.
act
FUNGI.
co |
o
a |
Poisonous Mushrooms.
1. Grow in clusters, in woods, and dark damp places.
2. Usually with bright colours.
3. Flesh tough, soft, and watery.
4, Acquire a brown, green, or blue tint, when cut and exposed to the air.
5. Juice often milky.
6. Odour commonly powerful and disagreeable.
7. Have an acrid, astringent, acid, salt, or bitter taste.
All Fungi should be avoided which insects will not touch,
those also which have scales or spots on their surface ; and,
whatever may be their apparent properties, all those which
have arrived at their full development, or when they exhibit
any signs of change, should be used with caution. When there
is any doubt as to the qualities of the mushrooms, it is advisable
to cut them into slices, and macerate them in vinegar and water
for about an hour, then wash them in boiling water previous to
their being cooked. It has been proved that some injurious
Fungi lose their poisonous properties when thus treated. It is
quite true that, by following strictly the above rules, edible
species will not unfrequently be thrown away, but this is of little
comparative importance, as by so doing all injurious ones will
certainly be rejected. Probably the best tests given above are,
to avoid those which are milky, or which have a biting or acrid
taste, or those which have a powerful or disagreeable odour.
Colour will frequently fail us, for while some snowy-white Fungi
are poisonous, others, which are highly coloured, as, for instance,
Agaricus cxsareus, are, according to Berkeley, at once the most
splendid and the best of the esculent Fungi.
Professor Schiff, of Florence, states that the poisonous
mushrooms have a common poison which he has termed muws-
carine, and that its effects are counteracted either by atropine or
daturine ; and it is said that Italian apothecaries now keep these
alkaloids in the rural districts where the consumption of
poisonous Fungi is probable. But no confirmation of these
results has as yet been arrived at by other experimenters so far
as to prove that muscarine is thus widely distributed, but its
presence has been ascertained in Amanita muscaria, and it is
stated to be antagonistic to atropine. (See Amanita.)
The species or varieties of Fungi most commonly consumed
in this country are: the Common Mushroom (Agaricus (Psalliota)
campestris) and its varieties—those which are cultivated should
be preferred; Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis, Agaricus (Marasmius)
oreades, the Champignon, Morchella esculenta, the Morel, Tuber
cibariwm, the Truftie, and several species of Boletus. Of all these
the best known in this country is the common Mushroom,
whether in its uncultivated or cultivated state; and as other
Fungi are frequently mistaken for this, by which many deaths
have occurred, we may give one or two hints in reference to it
besides those given previously. Thus its spores are purple ;
798 FUNGI.
the gills are at first delicately pink, and afterwards purple ;
there is a permanent ring or collar round the stem ; and it must
not be sought in woods. Dr. Badham and others have proved
that much valuable food is thrown away in this country by the
rejection of edible Fungi. Dr. Badham enumerates no less than
thirty species of Fungi which are natives of Britain, and which
were eaten by himself and friends ; and in the first part of
Cooke’s ‘ Handbook of British Fungi,’ sixteen species belonging
to the genus Agaricus alone are stated to be esculent. In
France, Russia, Italy, Germany, and other countries, several
Fungi are also eaten which are regarded by us as poisonous. It
is ditticult to account for these conflicting statements, but we
believe that the differences thus observed in the effects of
Fungi are due to variations of soil and climate, the conditions
under which they are grown, the different states, fresh, dried,
or preserved, in which they are eaten, manner of cooking,
and the peculiar idiosyncrasies of individuals who partake of
them. Even the common Mushroom is sometimes poisonous,
and in Italy, Hungary, and elsewhere, is generally avoided.
We consider, therefore, that, with our present knowledge, it is
better to abstain altogether from Fungi when there exists the
slightest doubt of their qualities.
From a chemical point of view the Fungi are remarkable for
the large proportion of water which enters into their composition,
by their containing much nitrogen, and being rich in phos-
phates.
Medicinally, Fungi have been regarded as aphrodisiac, nar-
cotic, tonic, astringent, emetic, purgative, &c. Ergot of rye
(see Secale cereale, page 738), which is used medicinally to excite
uterine contractions in labour, and for other purposes, is now
proved to be the sclerotium of Claviceps purpurea, Tulasne.
Wheat and a number of other grasses are also frequently
ergotised.
Fungi are often very destructive to living plants and ani-
mals by growing upon them. Thus, in plants, the diseases
known as blight, mildew, rust,’smut, vine-mildew, potato disease,
ergot, and others, are either caused from, or accelerated by, the
agency of Fungi. Many important communications attempting
to prove that Fungi are either the cause of, or the means of
propagating, various diseases in the human subject, have been
also made during the last few years, and it 1s now certain that
Fungi are associated with several cutaneous and other external
as well as internal diseases. In some cases of diphtheria
reported a few years since in the ‘ British Medical Journal’ by
Dr. N. W. Taylor, it is stated that the only apparent source
of the disease was the mouldiness of the walls caused by the
production of Coprinus domesticus and a form of Aspergillus.
Berkeley also informed Dr. Taylor, that when he was at Lille in
1838, at which time influenza was very fatal, it was supposed
FUNGI. 759
to arise from the spores of some species of Coprinus. The great
success of the antiseptic treatment, first introduced by Sir Joseph
Lister, and since carried out by him with such energy, skill,
and ability, is also due to its preventing the growths of such
Fungi as the Bacteria in the discharges of wounds, in which
otherwise they would cause putrefaction. The action of Fungi
in disease is now under investigation by accurate and dis-
criminating observers, and promises to throw much light on our
knowledge of the causes and propagation of various diseases ;
it is one replete with importance and interest, but which cannot
be entertained further in this volume.
In the same way various diseases of animals generally are
either caused, or accelerated, by the attacks of Fungi. Thus
the disease in the silkworm known under the name of mus-
cardine is produced by one or more species of Botrytis. Similar
diseases also occur in otheranimals. Caterpillars are frequently
attacked by species of Sphxria or Claviceps, in China, Australia,
New Zealand, and elsewhere, and ultimately destroyed. The
mucous membrane of birds is also commonly infested with
Fungi of various kinds.
In other ways, again, Fungi are often very destructive.
Thus the disease called Dry Kot, which frequently occurs in
wood, is especially caused by dampness, and the subsequent
development of the spores of such Fungi as those of Merulius
lacrymans and M. vastator, and Polyporus destructor. The
different kinds of Moulds which are found on bread, cheese,
preserves, fruits, paper, books, and various other substances,
are also Fungi of the species Mucor, Botrytis, Aspergillus, Peni-
cillium, Oidium, &c.
An interesting matter connected with the action of Fungi
on organic matters is also afforded by the process of fermentation,
which is now commonly regarded as being essentially caused by
Fungi. Thus, Pasteur has demonstrated that the fermentation
of saccharine fluids is due to the development in them of the
Yeast plant, and the butyric fermentation to the growth of
Bacteria.
Agaricus.— Aguricus campestris, the Common Mushroom, and its varie-
ties—A. arvensis, A. oreades (the Champignon), A. deliciosus, A. cwsareus
and A, procerus, &c.—are largely used for food in this and other parts of the
world. (See Properties und Uses of Fungi, page 757.) The subterranean
mycelium of various species of Agaricus, as that of A. oreades, A. prunulus,
A. Orcella, A. campestris, and others, and of allied genera, developes in
a radiating manner, and, by the remains acting subsequently as a manure,
causes the grass in our meadows, in such places, to grow in a very luxuriant
manner in rings, which are commonly called fairy rings.
Amanita (Agaricus) muscaria is a very poisonous species. _It possesses
narcotic and intoxicating qualities, and is much used in Kamtschatka
and some other parts of the Russian empire as a narcotic and intoxicating
agent. This fungus possesses the remarkable property of imparting its
intoxicating qualities to the fluid excretions of those who partake of it.
When steeped in milk, and other liquids, it acts as a poison to flies ; hence
760 “FUNGI.
its specific name. It contains an uncrystallisable alkaloid named muscarine.
This closely resembles pilocarpine in its action when administered internally,
and it is stated to be antagonistic to atropine; but it is remarkable that
when locally applied it dilates the pupil like atropine. (See page 757.)
Bacteria —The action of these organisms in connexion with disease
has been already referred to. (See pages 387 and 759.)
Boletus edulis and several other species are edible.—B. edulis is much
esteemed in Italy, &c.
Claviceps (Cordiceps).—The disease called Ergot, which occurs in the
grains of Rye, Wheat, and many other Grasses, is produced by C. purpurea.
The official Ergot of the British Pharmacopeeia is the sclerotium of this
fungus, produced between the pales, and replacing the grain of the common
Rye (Secale cereale). Ergot is largely used in medicine to cause contraction
of the uterus in cases of tedious parturition, or to prevent flooding after
delivery. It is also employed for other purposes. In overdoses it acts as a
poison, and sometimes causes death. Taken for a length of time, asin bread
made with diseased Rye, it also acts as a poison.—C. Robertsii, C. sinensis,
C. entomorrhiza, and other species, frequently attack caterpillars in a living
state, which they destroy as their mycelium developes. The remains of the
caterpillar with the developed fungus of C. simensis is a highly esteemed
drug in China, where it is much used as a tonic.
Cyttaria Darwinii and C. Berteroi are employed for food, the former in
Terra del Fuego, and the latter in Chili.
Elaphomyces granulatus and E. muricatus are sold in Covent Garden
Market under the name of Lycoperdon Nuts. They are supposed to possess
aphrodisiac properties, and to promote parturition and the secretion of milk.
Exidia Auricula Judx, Jew’s Ear, is reputed to possess astringent and
discutient properties when applied externally in the form of a decoction,
or poultice.—£. hispidula is used in China as a styptic, and as a food
mixed in soups, &c. It is known there under the name of Moghi, signifying
ears of trees.
Lycoperdon, the Puftballs—When the Lycoperdon giganteum is submitted
to combustion, the volatile emanations arising from it possess a narcotic
property. It hasbeen employed in this way to stupefy bees when removing
honey from the hive, and has been also recommended as an anesthetic
agent instead of ether and chloroform. A similar property is also possessed
by some other species.
Merulius lacrymans and M. vastator are two of the Fungi which occur in
the disease called Dry Rot. (See Properties and Uses of Fungi, p. 759.)
Morchella esculenta, the Morel, is a highly esteemed edible fungus, which
is principally employed for flavouring. It is commonly imported in a dry
state from the Continent.
Mylitta australis is called Native Bread in Australia, where it is largely
used as food by the natives. This fungus frequently weighs as much as
from one to three pounds. Other species, nearly allied to Mylitta australs,
are also used in China for food and as medicine. ,
Oidium.—The Vine Fungus is commonly supposed to be a species of this
or a nearly allied genus. It would appear, however, that the so-called
fungus, Oidium, is a mycelial form of Erysiphe Tuckeri.
Pachyma Cocos, Fries, is another fungus, allied to Mylitta, which is
highly esteemed as a food and medicine by the natives of China, &c., and
by the Indians of the United States of North America. It is the Tuckahoe
or Indian Bread of the United States. It has been offered in the London
markets under the name of China Root. It may readily be distinguished
from true China Root by the absence of starch.
Penicillium glaucum, Mucor Mucedo, Aspergillus glaucus, Botrytis vul-
garis, and other Fungi, constitute the various kinds of Moulds already
noticed. (See Properties and Uses of Fungi, p. 759.)
LICHENES. 761
Peronospora (Phytophthora) infestans is the fungus which causes the
potato disease.
Polyporus.—P. destructor is one of the Fungi found in the Dry Rot of
wood. (See Merulius.) Thin slices of P. igniarius and P. fomentarius,
when softened by beating with a mallet, are sometimes employed externally
to restrain hemorrhage. Similarly prepared slices soaked in a solution of
nitre, and dried, constitute Amadou or German Tinder. When impregnated
also with gunpowder, they form Black Amadou. Amadou has been sometimes
used to give support and pressure in certain surgical affections, and as a
moxa.—P, squamosus and P. betulinus, when pressed, sliced, and prepared
by rubbing with pumice, &c., are used to make razor strops. <P. officinalis,
Larch or White Agaric, has been employed externally as an astringent; and
internally, to check perspiration, and as an emetic, cathartic, &e. It was
formerly employed as an anthelmintic, but its action is frequently violent.
Larch Agaric is now imported from the northern part of Russia, where
it grows on the stems of Larix sibirica—P. anthelminticus, a native
of Tavoy in the Tenasserim provinces of Burmah, is known as Shan-mo
(Worm Mushroom), being there highly esteemed as an anthelmintic.—P.
( Boleius) Laricis canadens's, Canadian Agaric, is reputed tobe a valuable
remedy in acute rhoumatism.—A species of Polyporus, believed by Berkeley
tobe P. Pini canadensis, Schweimtz, a native of Canada, is said to bea
tonic bitter, and is recommended as an application to wounds.
Puceinia graminis is the fungus which produces the Mildew of Wheat.
Saccharomyces (Torula). —The so-called Yeast plant is a mycelial form
of S. cerevisiw ; and the so-called Vinegar plant is also a more developed
form of the mycelium ot the same fungus. The ferment obtained in brewing
beer is produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiw; it is official in the British
Pharmacopeia.
Tuber, the Truffle-——The species of Truffle, several of which oceur in
Britain, are subterranean. ‘They are highly esteemed as seasoning or
flavouring agents. The best are imported from France, Algeria, and Italy ;
they are commonly preserved in oil. J. exstivum, T. cibarium, and T..
melanosporum are the more frequently used species.
Order 2. Licuenes, the Lichen Order.—Character.—
Perennial plants, composed of hyphal tissue resembling that of
Fungi, but its constituent cells are firm and dry, and enclose
the cells known as gonidia (figs. 853, gon, and 855, gon), which
contain chlorophyll, and are now frequently regarded as minute
Algze, upon which an Ascomycetous Fungus is parasitic. (See
page 388.) The whole is arranged so as to form a foliaceous,
somewhat woody, scaly, crustaceous, or leprous thallus ( figs. 851
and 852) ; living and fructifying in the air, and growing on the
bark of trees, or on old palings, walls, &e., or on stones, or on
the exposed surface of rocks; usually epiphytic, but sometimes
parasitic, and commonly presenting a dry, shrivelled, more or
less lifeless appearance. Reproduction either vegetative by
means of soredia (see page 390); or by true fructification, con-
sisting of, (1) apothecia, which are sessile or stalked, and gene-
rally of a rounded (fiy. 852, ap) or linear form (fig. 851), and
composed of asci or thecx ( Jig. 853, as), enclosing 4, 8, or 16
spores ; (2) of spermogonia containing spermatia (figs. 852, sp,
and 854, sp); and (3) of, very rarely, pycnidia enclosing stylu-
spores. (For detailed account of the fructification of Lichens,
see pages 388-390.)
762 LICHENES.
Distribution and Numbers.—Lichens are distributed over all
parts of the world. The pulverulent species ‘ are the first plants
that clothe the bare rocks of newly formed islands in the midst
of the ocean, foliaceous lichens follow these, and then Mosses
and Liverworts.’ lLichens also form a considerable proportion
of the vegetation of the polar regions and of mountain-tops.
Illustrative Genera :—Opegrapha, Pers. ; WVerrucaria, Pers. ;
Lecidea, Ach.; Cladonia, Hofim.; Peltigera, Hoffm.; Usnea,
Hoffm. There are above 2,500 species.
Properties and Uses.—Several possess nutritive properties
from containing aimylaceous substances, and such are also
emollient and demulcent: others contain bitter principles, which
render them tonic and astringent ; and many are important as
dyeing agents. A few possess aromatic properties. Some Lichens,
as species of Variolaria, contain a large amount of calcium
oxalate. None are known to be poisonous.
Cetraria.—C. islandica, Iceland Moss.—'This lichen contains about 70
per cent. of lichenin or lichen starch, and above 2 per cent. of a crystalline
bitter principle termed cetraric acid or cetrarin. It is ofticial in the British
Pharmacopceeia, and is employed as a nutritious food, and as a mild muci-
laginous tonic in catarrh, consumption, and other affections. When used
for food it should be previously deprived of its bitterness: this may be done
either by heating it once or twice in water to near the boiling point of
Fahrenheit, or, still better, by digesting it in a weak alkaline solution formed
by adding half an ounce of carbonate of potassium to about a gallon of cold
water, and afterwards washing it with water.
Cladonia or Cenomyce.—C. rangiferina is the Reindeer Moss. It is so
termed from constituting the food, more especially in the winter months, of
the Reindeer.— Cladonia ( Scyphophorus) pyxidata is commonly termed Cup-
moss ; this and other species have been employed as remedies in whooping-
cough.
Gyrophora (Umbilicaria).—Several species, denominated tripe de roche,
possess nutritive qualities, and are used as food in the Arctic regions.
Franklin and his companions owed their preservation in 1821, in a great
measure, to the use of these lichens as food. The Gyrophoras also possess
slight tonic properties owing to the presence of a bitter principle-—G. pus-
tulata is one of the Lichens used in this country by the manufacturers of
orchil and cudbear. (See Roccella and Lecanora.) It may be also made to
produce a brown colour.
Lecanora.—L,. tartarea was formerly the principal lichen used in the
preparation of the dye called Cudbear ; but cudbear is now obtained not
only from it, but also from a number of other Lichens, as the species of
Roccella, &c. (See Roccella and Gyrophora).—L. Perella yields a similar
dye. Two species of Lecanora, namely, L. esculenta and L. affinis, form
important articles of food both to man and animals generally, in Persia,
Armenia, Tartary, &c. They appear in some seasons in such enormous
quantities, that in ‘certain districts they cover the ground to the depth of
several inches, and the natives believe they fall from heaven. L. esculenta
is also found in Algeria, Asia Minor, &c., and Dr. O’Rorke has endeavoured
to prove that this ‘lichen was the manna of the Hebrews,—that which fed
them with regularity for forty years in the wilderness.
Parmelia.—P. parietina was formerly regarded as a valuable febrifuge,
astringent, and tonic. It contains a yellow crystalline colouring matter,
called chrysophanic acid, which is identical with that obtained from Rhubarb,
Goa powder, &c.—P., perlata is employed by the manufacturers of orchil
Oe ———
CHARACEA. 763
and cudbear. (See Roccella.) It is also reputed to possess diuretic pro-
perties.
Peltigera.—Peltigera (Peltidea) canina and P. rufescens are known in the
herb shops of this country under the name of Ground Liverwort. This
was at one time official in the London Pharmacopeeia, and regarded as a
specific in hydrophobia.
Roceella, Orchella Weeds.—R. tinctoria, R. fuciformis, and R. hypomecha,
under the common name of Orchella Weed, are the species usually met with
in this country. They are imported from various parts of the world, as the
Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Angola, Madagascar, Mauri-
tius, Madeira, South America, Cape of Good Hope, &c. In commerce they
receive the name of the country from whence they have been derived.
Orchella weed is extensively used in the manufacture of the purple and red
eolours called orchil and cudbear. In Holland, the blue colour called litmus
is also prepared from the same Lichens; but the best kind is said to be made
from &. tinctoria. Other Lichens, as species of Lecanora, Gyrophora, Par-
melia, Variolaria, &c., are also sometimes employed in Britain and elsewhere
for the preparation of orchil, &c. (See these species.) Orchil and cudbear
are used for staining and dyeing purple and red colours, and also occasionally
as tests for acids and alkalies. Litmus is employed as a test for alkalies,
acids, and some salts with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in
the british Pharmacopeia. A decoction of Orchella weed possesses muci-
laginous, emollient, and demulcent properties, and has been used in coughs,
eatarrhs, &c.
Sticta pulmonaria, Tree Lungwort, Oak-lungs.—This lichen possesses
tonic and nutritious ‘properties, somewhat resembling in these respects
Cetraria islandica. In Siberia it is said to be used instead of hops for impart-
ing bitterness to beer. It is also employed in France, &c., for the production
of a brown dye.
Variolaria.— V, dealbata and V. orcina are used for the preparation of
Orchil in France.
Order 3. CHARACE®, the Chara Order.—Diaqnosis.— Water
plants, with a distinct axis branching in a whorled manner (jig.
Fig. 1124.
Fig. 1124. A small portion of a
species of Nitella, magnified.
The branches are arranged
in a whorled manner. The
contents of each cell exhibit
a kind of circulation. The
direction of this circulation
is indicated by the arrows.
The circulating matter does
not pass from cell to cell, but
is confined to that in which
it originates.
1124), and either transparent or coated with calcium carbonate.
Reproductive organs of two kinds arising at the base of the
764 ALG A.
branches (fig. 856, s, «), and either on the same or on different
branches of the same plant, or on separate plants. These
organs are termed globules or antheridia (figs. 856, a, and 858)
and nucules or carpogonia (figs. 856, s, 859, and 860). (See
pages 390-392 for a detailed account of their structure.)
Distribution and Nwmbers.—These plants occur in stagnant
fresh or salt water in all parts of the globe; but they are most
abundant in temperate climates. Illustrative Genera :—There
are two genera, Chara, Linn.; and Nitella, Agh. ; and about 40
species.
Properties and Uses.—These plants during their decay give
off a very foetid odour, which is regarded as most injurious to
animal life. They have no known uses.
Order 4. Ata, the Sea-weed Order.—Diagnosis.—Paren-
chumatous plants, growing in salt or fresh water, or in moist
situations. The thallus is foliaceous and branched (fig. 5), or
filamentous (jigs. 861 and 862), or pulverulent. Many Algze
are microscopic, and others are of large size. In colour they
are usually greenish, rose-coloured, or brownish. They are
reproduced in various ways. (See pages 392-399.)
Division of the Order and Illustrative Genera.—The order is
commonly divided into three sub-orders, which are frequently
regarded as distinct natural orders ; these are known under the
names of the Melanosporex, Melanospermex, or Fucoidex ; Rhodo-
sporexe, Rhodospermex, or Floridee ; and Chlorosporex, Chloro-
spermex, or Confervoidex. To these sub-orders or orders may be
added two others, called respectively the Diatomacex and
Volvocineex. Numerous other arrangements of the Algz have
been proposed of late years, but as these must be regarded as
transitional, we have retained the above-named sub-orders from
their being more generally used in this country in works treating
practically of the Algze ; and must refer those desiring detailed
information in reference to other arrangements to such works
as Sachs’ ‘Text Book of Botany,’ &c, and to special treatises on
this group of plants. Reference should also be made to pages
392-399 of this Manual for a general notice of their Reproductive
Organs. Their distinctive characters may be briefly described
as follows :—
Sub-order 1. Melanosporex, Melanospermex, Fucoidex, or
Brown-colouwred Alge.—Multicellular Algze, growing in salt
water, forming a foliaceous or filamentous thallus, and of an
olive-green or olive-brown colour. Illustrative Genera :—
Sargassum, Rumph.; Fucus, Linn.
Sub-order 2. Rhodosporee, Rhodospermex, Floridex, or Rose-
coloured Alge.—Marine multicellular Algze, with a foliaceous
or branched filamentous thallus, and of a reddish-purple,
rose-coloured, or reddish-brown colour. Illustrative Genera:
—Corallina, Towrn.; Chondrus, Grev.; Porphyra, Agh.
ALG. 755
Sub-order 3. Chlorosporex, Chlorospermex, Confervoidex, or
Green-coloured Alge.—Unicellular or multicellular Algze,
growing in fresh or salt water, or in moist situations ;
usually of a bright green colour, or rarely red. Illustrative
Genera :—Conferva, Plin. : Palmella, Agh. ; Spirogyra, Link.
Sub-order 4. Diatomacex.—The following diagnosis is modified
from Henfrey:—Microscopic unicellular plants, occurring
isolate or in groups of definite form, usually surrounded by a
Hreewl25,
Fig. 1125. A species of Diatomaceous Alga (Diatoma marinum) divided
into parts by mevismatic or fissiparous cell-division. The parts are
seen to be striated.
gelatinous investment, the cells exhibiting more or less regular
geometrical outlines and enclosed by a ~ membrane, striated
(fig. 1125) or granular, either simply tough and continuous
( fig. 1126), or impregnated with silex and separable into
valves (fig. 1125). Reproduction by spores formed after
conjugation of the cells which have previously lost or thrown
off their cellulose walls (fig. 1126), or by division (jig. 1125).
The Diatomacex are again divided into two sections or tribes.
1. Diatomee (fig. 1125). Natives of fresh, brackish, or salt
water, or of moist ground, of a brownish or olive colour,
Fie. 1126.
Fig. 1126. Two Desmidiaceous Algz (Docidium Ehrenbergii) after conjuga-
tion, with a 7esting or inactive spore between them, (After Ralfs.)
valvular, and invested by a siliceous membrane. TIlustrative
Genera -—Diatoma, DC.; Navicula, Bory. 2. Desmidiex
(fig. 1126). Found only in fresh water, of a green colour,
continuous, containing starch, and not invested by a siliceous
membrane. Illustrative Genera :—Closterium, Nitzsch ; Des-
midium, A gh.
766 ALG.
Sub-order 5. Volvocineex (fig. 1127). Henfrey diagnoses them
as follows :—‘ Microscopic bodies swimming in fresh water
by the aid of cilia arranged in pairs
Fig. 1127, upon the surface of a common semi-
gelatinous envelope, the pairs of cilia
each belonging to a green corpuscle re-
sembling the zoospore of a confervoid,
imbedded in the periphery of the com-
mon envelope. Reproduction by the
development of each corpuscle into a
new colony, the whole being set free
by the solution of the parent envelope,
or by conversion of the corpuscles into
Fig. 1127. The Revolving encysted resting-spores like those of
Sani
wie
AY,
é var,
ay
ra
Ke}
SOLS
Volvox ( Volvox globator’). ae .
The outer surface is cili- Confervee ee: sexually, by Pat sabe = cal
ated. tion taking place within the colony from
oogonia and antheridia.’ Illustrative
Genera:—Volvox, Lam.; Gonium, Lam. The members of
this group were frequently regarded as Infusorial Animaleules,
but in all their essential characters they closely resemble the
Confervoidez ; indeed, they are commonly placed in that
sub-order.
Distribution and Numbers.—Alge are more or less distributed
throughout the globe, growing in salt or fresh water, or in
moist situations. Some species are found in the boiling springs
of Iceland, &c.; others occur in mineral springs, and some in
chemical solutions. The waters of whatever temperature have
their own peculiar forms. It is impossible to estimate with any
degree of accuracy the number of species of Algze, but they may
be roughly estimated at 2,500.
Properties and Uses.—Several species are employed for food
in different parts of the world ; as, Laminaria saccharina, L.
digitata, L. potatorwm, &c.; Alaria esculenta, Durvillea utilis,
Sargassum species, Iridexa edulis, Chondrus crispus and C.
mamillosus, Gelidiwm corneum, &c., Gigartina speciosa, Lawren-
cia papillosa, &e., Gracilaria lichenoides and other Gracilarias,
Rhodymenia palmata, Porphyra vulgaris, and P. laciniata, Ulva
latissima, U. compressa, &c., Nostoc edule and other species,
Hormosiphon arcticus, and many others The nutritious pro-
perties of the above are due to the presence of starch, sugary
matter (mannite), mucilage, and albumen. M. Payen also dis-
covered a principle in Gelidiwm corneum (Algue de Java), and
some other Algze, to which he gave the name of gelose. To this
substance the nutritious properties of Algze are likewise, to a
great extent, due. According to Payen, 1 part of gelose dis-
solved in 500 parts of boiling water will afford, upon cooling, a
colourless, transparent jelly,—thus forming ten times more jelly
than a like weight of the best animal gelatine. In order, there-
fore, to produce a jelly of equal consistency, it would be only
ALG A. 767
necessary to employ the tenth part of what is necessary when
isinglass is used. Jellies prepared from species of Gelidiwm,
Laurencia, &c., are much employed for food in China, Japan, &e.
The so-called Japanese isinglass consists of numerous Algze, but
more especially of Gelidiwm cornewm, Gloiopeltis tenax, and
Endocladia vernicata. The edible birds’ nests, so highly valued
for food in China, owe their properties probably in part to
certain species of Algze, but essentially to, the secretions of the
swallows by which they are constructed.
In medicine the above-mentioned nutritious Algze may be
used for their emollient and demulcent properties. Several
species of Algve, particularly Fucus vesiculosus, have been also
employed as remedies in goitre and scrofulous diseases. They
owe their beneficial effects in such cases, principally, to the
presence of a small quantity of iodine. The ashes obtained by
burning many species of Algze in the open air form the substance
called kelp, which was formerly much used for the preparation
_of carbonate of sodium, but this is now more cheaply obtained
from sea-salt. Jodine is, however, still prepared from kelp.*
Some Alge have been reputed to possess vermifugal properties ;
noue are knuwn to be poisonous.
Several Algze are remarkable for imparting colours to water,
snow, &c. Thus, Protococcus atlanticus gives a red colour to
certain parts of the Atlantic ; P. nivalis contributes to commu-
nicate a red colour to snow ; and P. viridis, a green tint ; Doli-
chospermum Thompson imparts a green colour to some Irish and
Scotch lakes ; the red colour of the Red Sea is also in part
attributed to the presence of Trichodesmium erythreum, &e. &e.
Dr. Robert Brown has also shown that the discoloration of the
Arctic Sea is due to Diatomez, but principally to Melosia
arctica, and that these form the brown-staining matter of the
‘rotten ice’ of northern navigators.
Alaria esculenta, Bladderlocks, Hen-ware, or Honey-ware, contains man-
nite. It is employed for food in Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, and other
northern regions. Berkeley says that ‘it is the best of all the esculent Algz
when eaten raw.’ :
Chondrus (Sphzrococcus ).—C. crispus is the source of the so-called Carra-
geen or Irish Moss. It possesses nutritive, emollient, and demulcent pro-
perties, and may be employed in the form of a decoction or jelly, in
pulmonary complaints and other affections. Bandoline or fixature, used for
stiffening the hair, and other purposes, is commonly prepared from Carra-
geen. The mucilage of carrageen is likewise much employed in the United
States as a size for paper, cotton goods, felt and straw hats, and for thicken-
* See two valuable communications by E. C. Stanford, in the ‘ Journal
of the Society of Arts,’ for a detailed account of a new process for preparing
iodine from kelp, and for a description of several other important products
obtainable from Algz: and also a‘ Report on the Exhibits in the Paris
Exhibition of 1878,’ by Paul, Holmes, and Passmore, in ‘ Pharmaceutical
Journal,’ ser. iii. vol. ix. p. 303.
768 ALGAE.
ing the colours used in calico printing. Carrageen is also used in the United
States for fining beer, coffee, &c.—C. mamillosus or Gigartina mamillosa
almost always occurs in the Carrageen Moss of commerce. Its properties
are similar.—G. ucicularis is another species also sometimes found mixed
with it.
Durvillza utilis is used for food by the poorer inhabitants on the western
coast of South America.
Fucus.—Several species contain mannite, as F. vesiculosus, F. nodosus,
and F. serratus. These species are used in the preparation of kelp, and are
also collected for manure.—F, vesiculosus, Sea Wrack.—This Alga is much
used in winter in certain islands of Scotland for feeding horses and cattle.
Boiled in water and mixed with a little coarse meal or flour, it has been
used in Gothland for feeding hogs, hence the plant is there called swine-
tang. The expressed juice has been given internally, and frictions of the
plant have been employed externally in glandular and scrofulous affections.
A kind of wine prepared from this Alga has also been used with success in
similar diseases. ‘The substance called Vegetable Ethiops, which has been
likewise employed in such cases as the above, is a kind of charcoal produced
by the incineration of this Alga in close vessels. The beneficial effects in
these instances are principally due to the presence of a small quantity of
iodine. This Alga has also, of late years, been in some repute as remedy
for obesity, but its value for such a purpose seems to be but trifling. It is
the essential constituent in the nostrum termed Anti-Fat.
Gelidium corneum, as already noticed, is nutritive. It is the Algue de
Java, from which M. Payen first obtained gelose. (See page 766.) It
forms a favourite article of food in Japan, and other countries, and is also
used in the manufacture of a kind of glue, and for other purposes.
Gigartina spinosa (Fucus spinosus) is the Jelly Plant of Australia. It
is employed for food and for making size, cement, &c. (See Chondrus and
Gracilaria.)
Gracilaria ( Plocaria).— G. lichenoides ( Plocaria candida), and G. confer-
voides are the sources of the so-called Ceylon Moss, which is official in the
Pharmacopeeia of India. _In most commercial specimens, however, the
principal constituent is G. lichenoides. Ceylon Moss is nutritive, emollient,
and demulcent, and may be employed in the form of a decoction or jelly, as
food for children and invalids, and also medicinally, in pulmonary com-
plaints, diarrhoea, and other affections. It is sometimes imported under the
name of Agar-agar, but Gigartina spinosa has been also imported under the
same name. Both species are largely employed in the Kast for making
nutritious jellies, for stiffening purposes, and for varnishing.—G. tenav may
be similarly used.— Gracilaria ( Plocaria) Helminthocorton is Corsican Moss.
(See Laurencia.) It has been used principally as a vermifuge, but its pro-
perties have been much overrated.—G. crassa (Ki-tsai) is cooked with soy
or vinegar in China. It is also employed by the Chinese ladies to give a
glossiness to their hair.
~ Halidrys siliquosa contains nearly 6 per cent. of mannite.
Hormosiphon arcticus (Nostoe arcticum), which is very common in the
Arctic regions, according to Berkeley, affords a mass of wholesome food,
which is far preferable to the Tripe de Roche (see Gyrophora, p. 762), as
it has none of its b'tterness or purgative quality.’
Tridea edulis, as its name implies, is nutritious, and is sometimes used
for food in Scotland, and other parts of the world.
Laminaria.—L. saccharina is remarkable for the large quantity of man-
nite it contains, upwards of 12 per cent. Its young parts, mixed with those
of L. digitata, are eaten in Scotland, &c., under the name of Tangle. The
latter species also contains much mannite. JL. saccharina is called Seatape
in China, where it is used for food and other purposes.—JZ. potatorum is
likewise employed for food in Australia, and other species possess similar
ALG A. 769
properties.—L. bulbosa, L. digitata, and L. saccharina are used to a very
large extent for manure and for the preparation of kelp. The latter is also
frequently used as an hygrometer. JL. digitata also contains much iodine.
Laurencia.—L,. pinnatifida is remarkable for possessing pungent proper-
ties. It is called Pepper-dulse in Scotland, where it is occasionally eaten.
Berkeley says that ZL. obtusa forms tbe greater part of what is now sold in
the shops as Corsican Moss. (See Gracilaria).— L. papillosa (Tanshwui)
is extensively employed in China and Japan in the preparation of a gela-
tinous substance called Yang-Tasi.
Nostoc.— WN. edule is eaten in China, &c. Other species are also edible.
(See Hormosiphon arcticus.)
Porphyra laciniata and P. vulgaris are employed in the preparation of a
kind of sauce or pickle, which is termed Sloke, Slokan, or Laver.—P. vul-
garis is eaten in China as a relish to rice. It is termed Tsz-T'sai (purple
vegetable). It is also used for food by many of the Indians along the
Pacific coast, being cooked separately as greens, or with meat.
Rhodymenia palmata is an article of food in Scotland, Ireland, Iceland,
&ec. It is the Dulse of the Scotch, and the Dillesk of the Irish.
Sargassum.—S. bacciferum is the Gulf-weed of the Atlantic. This and
other species contain iodine, to the presence of which they owe their bene-
ficial effects in goitre, fur which purpose stem-like pieces of S. bacciferum
are much employed in South America under the name of Goitre-sticks.
Ulva latissima is employed in the preparation of Green Laver. It is
very inferior to the laver prepared from species of Porphyra. Both these
lavers might be beneticial in scrofulous affections, &c., as they contain
iodine,
BOOK iit
PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS, OR PHYSIOLOGICAL
BOTANY.
——~>—-
Havine now examined the structure, classification, properties
and uses of plants, we have still to consider them in a state of
life or action, and to explain, as far as science enables us, the
laws which regulate their life, growth, and reproduction. The
department of Botany which investigates these phenomena is
termed Physiology ; and the various processes which go on in
the plant, and which are the necessary accompaniments of its
life, are called its functions. The different vital actions are
naturally divided into classes, called, respectively, the functions
of the organs of nutrition, and the functions of the organs of”
reproduction ; the former being those concerned in preserving
the life of the particular plant, and the latter in continuing the
species. Physiology includes the study of the life of the
whole plant, when it is termed general, and that of the particu-
lar organs, in which case it is called special ; and each division
may be further divided into Physiological Chemistry, and Phy-
siological Physics.
The present state of our knowledge of many points connected
with the physiology of plants is so imperfect that there is some
difficulty in arranging a good plan for its study. In examining,
therefore, the functions of the different organs, the order of
arrangement adopted in treating of their structure and morpho-
logy will be followed as far as possible, after which will be added
a brief notice of General Physiology, and some observations on
Special Phenomena in the life of the whole plant.
AZ. .
FUNCTIONS OF PARENCHYMA.—CELL-FORMATION. 7
~
_
CHAPTER 1,
SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES,
AND OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION.
Section. 1. PHystotocy oF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES.
1. Functions or PARENCHYMATOUS CELLS.—As the simplest
forms of Vegetable life, such as the Red Snow Plant (Proto-
coccus nivalis) (fig. 1), consist of a single cell of a parenchy-
matous nature, such a cell is necessarily capable of performing
all the actions appertaining to plant life. Parenchyma also
constitutes the whole structure of Thallophytes, as well as the
soft portions of all plants above them ; hence the physiology of
parenchymatous cells is of the first importance. The more im-
portant vital actions of these cells are: (1) Formation of new
cells ; (2) Absorption and transmission of fluids ; (8) Movements
in their contents ; and (4) Elaboration of their fluid contents,
and production of the various organic compounds of the plant.
(1) Formation of Cells (Cytogenesis).—All plants, as we have
seen (p. 21), in their earliest conditions, are composed of one or
more cells, hence all the organs which afterwards make their
appearance must be produced by the modification of such cells,
or by the formation of new ones.
The subject of cell-formation or cytogenesis has for many
years engaged the attention of able physiologists, and by their
united labours we have now arrived at tolerably definite con-
clusions upon the main points of the inquiry, although some
of the subordinate ones are still involved in obscurity.
New cells can only be formed from the thickened semi-fluid
matter called protoplasm ; hence cells can in no case be formed
without the influence of living organisms. The nature of pro-
toplasm has been already fully described. By various observers
this formative matter of cells has also been called organisable
matter, vegetable mucilage, cytoblastema, &c. The cell-wall or
membrane of cellulose takes no part in the formation of cells.
Each cell or elementary part consists of two kinds of matter,
or of matter in two states: the one termed by some germinal
matter, which is vitally active ; the other, formed material, which
is physiologically dead. The protoplasm, primordial utricle,
and nucleus of vegetable cells are of the first kind, and the cell-
wall—which Dr. Beale has shown to be not a necessary part of
the cell—the starch granules, &c., are examples of formed
3D2
779 FREE CELL-FORMATION.
material. This latter may have very various appearances, whilst
germinal matter is always the same.
In vegetable tissues the formed material may be thick or
thin, but has in every case been produced by germinal matter.
Nutrition is effected by the constant passage of nutrient matters
from without inwards through the formed material to the ger-
minal matter, whilst the direction of growth is usually from
within outwards, the new formed material being generally in-
terior to that of longer existence.
Cells originate in one of two ways: either free in the cavities
of older cells, or at least in the protoplasmic fluid elaborated by
their agency; or by the division of such cells. The first is
called Free Cell-formation or Original Cell-formation ; the second,
Cell-division or Cell-multiplication, which is the usual mode of
growth in the nutritive organs of plants.
A. FREE CELL-FORMATION.—We may distinguish two modi-
fications of free cell-formation. 1. Free cell-formation from a
nucleus or cytoblast ; and, 2. Free cell-formation without the
previous formation of a nucleus.
a. Free Cell-formation from a nucleus.—This mode was dis-
covered by Schleiden, who at first considered it to be the
only process of cell-formation that occurred in plants. Subse-
quently he modified his views materially, not only as regarded
the manner in which it took place, but also as to its universality,
and admitted that it was only one principal mode of cell-forma-
tion. The manner in which he describes it as taking place is as
follows (jigs. 1128 and 1129) :—A portion of the protoplasm
collects into a more or less rounded or somewhat oval form, with
a defined outer border, thus forming the nucleus of the cell ;
upon this a layer of protoplasm is deposited, which assumes the
form of a membrane, and expands so as to form a vesicle ; on
the outside of this a cellulose membrane is secreted, and the
formation of the cell is completed. The protoplasmic vesicle
in this case forms the subsequent lining of the young cell-walls,
and constitutes the ‘primordial utricle’ of Mohl.
b. Free Cell-formation without a previous nucleus.—In the
process of free cell-formation, as described above, we have
alluded to the production of the nucleus as the first step of
the process, and it is regarded to be so in most instances by the
greater number of observers. Henfrey, agreeing with Nageli
&c., however, does not consider the nucleus of any physiological
import in free cell-formation, which process he thus describes :
—‘ The essential character of free cell-formation lies in the cir-
cumstance that the protoplasm which produces the primary
cellulose wall of the new cell previously becomes separated from
the wall of the parent cell, so that the new cell is free (or loose)
in the cavity of the parent cell.’ In some cases, it is certain,
no nucleus can be detected in a cell previous to the formation
of other cells free in its cavity; hence the presence of the
FREE CELL-FORMATION,. 773
nucleus cannot be regarded as essential; but the portion of
protoplasm, which in such cases separates from the general mass,
must be capable of covering itself witha membrane and forming
a cell. This, according to Mohl, frequently occurs in the for-
mation of the spores of the Algw, &c.
Fra. 1128. Fig. 1129.
Fig. 1128. Cells from the embryo-
sac of Chamcedorea Schiedeana
in theactofformation. «. The
youngest part, consisting of
nuclei and protoplasm. 0.
Newly formed cells. c,d. Cells
still further developed, with
nuclei adhering to their sides.
(After Schleiden. ) Fig. 1129.
2. The part of fig. 1128, a, more
highly magnified. 3. A nucleus
still more highly magnified. 4.
A nucleus with the cell forming
upon it. 5. The same more
highly magnified. 6. The same:
the nucleus here shows two
nucleoli. 7. The nucleus of 6,
after the destruction of the cell
by pressure. 8. The cells of
Jig. 1128, d, in a higher degree
of development, the cell-wal!s
having already united. (After
Schleiden.)
In Flowering Plants free cell-formation has been generally
believed to occur in the embryo-sac, in which part, after im-
pregnation, the germinal vesicles, the antipodal cells, and the
cells of the endosperm thus originate. In Flowerless Plants
it is the mode by which the spores in the asci of Lichens, Algve,
and Fungi are developed.
In the ordinary course of vegetation, free cell-formation can
774. CELL-DIVISION OR MERISMATIC CELL-FORMATION.
only take place in the protoplasm contained in the intericr of
cells forming parts of living tissues.
B. CELL-piviston.—-This mode of cell-formation has been
also called by authors merismatic or fissiparous cell-formation.
Cell-division can only take place in cells in which the contained
protoplasm is in an active state, as in the cells of the meristem,
a name given to that kind of parenchyma the constituent cells
of which are capable of multiplying by division (see page 88).
It may be treated of under two heads: namely (1) Cell-division
without absorption of the walls of the parent cell; and (2) Cell-
‘division with absorption of the walls of the parent cell, and the
setting free of the new cells.
a. Cell-division without absorption of the walls of the parent
cell.—This mode of cell-formation was first observed by Mohl,
whose opinions were afterwards ably supported by Henfrey and
Mitscherlich. According to these physiologists (and their
observations have now been confirmed in all essential particulars
by subsequent observers), this process is the one by which all
the vegetating or growing parts of plants, whether Flowering
or Flowerless, are produced and increased ;—all increase in
the mass of the different organs is therefore due to its agency.
The manner in which it takes place is as follows :—the proto-
plasm of the cell, or, according to Mohl and Henfrey, the
primordial utricle, becomes gradually constricted on the sides
Bre. 11303
Fig, 1130. a. Cell of Conferva glomerata, with the cell-contents constricted
by the half-completed septum. 6. A half-completed septum in which a
considerable deposition of cellulose has already taken place. c. A septum
in course of development, after the action of an acid, which has caused
contraction both of the primordial utricle (0), and the cell-contents ().
d. Complete septum split into two lamelle by the action of an acid.
(After Moh] and Henfrey.)
so as ultimately to form a sort of hour-glass contraction, and
thus to divide the original contents into two distinct portions
(fig. 1180 a, b, c, d). Each portion of the protoplasm or of the
primordial utricle then secretes a layer of cellulose over its
whole surface ; and where this is in contact with the original
wall of the primary cell it forms a new layer interior to it ; but
where away from the wall, at the new septum, a distinct cell-
wall, so that the partition is double. The original cell thus
becomes divided into two, and forms two cells, each of which
¢
MERISMATIC OR FISSIPAROUS CELL-FORMATION. 775
may grow and divide in a similar way, and thus by the con-
tinued growth and division in lke manner, of successive cells,
all increase in the mass of the different parts and organs is due.
This method of division is now often spoken of as direct, in con-
tradistinction to the indirect method described further on (see
p- 778). (it should be noticed that the primordial utricle of
Mohl here referred to differs from that defined at page 26 of
this Manual. Thus, according to the views adopted in this
volume, the primordial utricle is characterised as the thin layer
of protoplasm enclosing the watery cell-sap, and which lines
the cell-wall after the cell has grown too large to be filled by
protoplasm alone ; while Mohl regards it as a more or less
thickened layer of protoplasm, having the appearance of a
membrane lining the cellulose wall, and enclosing the ordinary
protoplasmic contents of the cell.)
Cell-division is best observed in water-plants of a low grade of
organisation, and in hairs. In very simple plants also, such as
Palmella, in which the newly formed cells separate and become
independent plants, the process of division is well seen ; but in
the higher plants, where they remain permanently united to form
tissues of greater or less solidity, it is demonstrated with ditticulty.
In this mode of cell-formation, it is by no means evident
what function the nucleus performs. That iw some cases it is
unimportant is clear, because cell-division, as above described,
may take place, as it does in some of the lower orders of planis,
without the presence of a
nucleus. In the higher Pia, 1132.
orders of plants, however,
the original nucleus of
the cell appears to under- Fie. 1131
go subdivision into two ee Q
halves, as is the case with ee cane O
the other contents, so that =, Ce ;
a nucleus is thus formed = “> Ses. = Q
for each new cell into OP) = ag
which the parent cell has
been divided. But in
other cases, separate nu-
clei are formed for the _
secondary cells. instead of Fig. 1131. Yeast plant in process
ak 9 : of development. Fig. 1132.
the original nucleus di- Congerva glomerata, showing the
viding into two. progressive stages of gemma-
2 tion or budding (0, c, d,e). a.
J.
_ In some of the lower Terminal cell. (After Mohl.)
kinds of plants, a modi- |
fication of the above
described process of cell-division takes place especially as
a method of reproduction ; this consists in the formation of
secondary cells, as little bud-like prominences on the primary
cells, either at their extremities, as in the Yeast plant (jig.
776 CELL-DIVISION.—GEMMATION OR BUDDING.
1131), by which the plant is increased in length ; or on the side
of the primary cell when branches are produced, as in some
Conferve (jig. 1132), in the fibrilliform cells of Fungi and
Lichens, and in other cases, probably, much more frequently
than is commonly supposed. The mode in which this budding
occurs may be thus described. At a certain point the proto-
plasm or primordial utricle appears to acquire a special develop-
ment, for it is seen to bulge out, carrying the cellulose wall of
the cell before it, by which a little prominence is produced
externally (fig. 1132, b) ; this continues to elongate until it forms
a tubular projection, c, on the side of the primary cell. The cavity
of this projection is at first continuous with that of the cell from
whence it sprung, but after the projection has acquired a certain
definite size, its protoplasm becomes constricted at the point of
contact with the primary cell, d, and ultimately a cellulose par-
tition forms between them, as in the ordinary process of cell-
division. This process of cell-division is usually termed gemmation
or budding. In some cases, as in the formation of the fibrilliform
cells of Fungi and Lichens, no partitions are formed, but all
the branches communicate with each other (jig. 48).
b. Cell-division with absorption of the walls of the parent celi,
and the setting free of the new cells.—The pollen cells of all
Fic. 11388. Fre. 1134:
89 @@
c d
Fig. 1133. a. Cylindrical cell from which are formed the parent cells of the
spores of Marchantia polymorpha. p. Protoplasm of the parent cells. 6.
The same cell converted into a string of cells. c. Oneof the parent cells
isolated. d. The four sporesfree. (After Henfrey. )——/%g. 1134. For-
mation of zoospores in Achlya, A. Zoosporangium, still closed. B, The
same burst, with the discharged zoospores. (After Carpenter.)
Flowering Plants, and the spores of the higher Flowerless Plants,
are formed by this process, which only occurs in connexion with
the organs of reproduction. The manner in which it commonly
=
CELL-DIVISION.—REJUVENESCENCE.—CONJUGATION. [777
takes place in the formation of pollen cells has already been
described at page 258 of this volume. The manner in which
spores are formed in the higher Flowerless Plants is substan-
tially the same in most cases. It sometimes happens, however,
that in the developmentof pollen and spores, the special parent
cells are nut formed, as has been shown by Schacht in the
pollen of Gnothera and
in the spores of Aitho- Fic. 1135.
ceros levis ; and by Hen-
frey in the spores of
Marchantia polymorpha
(fig. 1133).
In other cases, in-
stead of the development
of only four secondary
cells in the cavity of the
parent, the whole mass
of the protoplasm may
break up into a great
number of small parti-
cles, as in the production
of the swarm-spores of
many Algze and Fungi
( fig. 1134). In this case
the new cells (primor-
dial) are only clothed
by a cellulose wall after
their separation from the
parent- or mother-cell.
The formation of the
oospheres in Achlya (fig.
1135), is a modification Fis. ae Peers ee eee of Achlya ligni-
° ea cola, showing cell-division. e letters A to E
of this prerens of divi indicate the course of development. The proto-
sion. Some of these plasm of a cell or branch of a cell collects into
modifications of cell- a globular form A, B, and by the formation of a
acini 1] l septum, D g, becomes an independent cell (the
1vis10nN are ClOS€ly aNa- = gogonium) in which nucleus-like bodies may
logous to the ordinary appear, Cc. The protoplasm then breaks up into
process of free cell-for- SN iuny become spherical, anvdafter fertilisation
mation to which by by the antheridia a, A, penetrating into the
many authors they are Sosyniin, by then sus ba een ree
referred. Sachs.)
c. Rejuvenescence.—
Another method of cell-division is that which is termed reju-
wenescence or renewal of a cell, where the whole contents of a
cell contracts, some of the cell-sap is expelled, the chlorophyll
becomes rearranged, and its whole form alters as it escapes from
the cell-wall and eventually forms a fresh cell-wall. This process
may be well seen in the swarm-spores of (Hdogonium (fig. 1136).
d. Conjugation.—The production of azygospore, which occurs
778 INDIRECT DIVISION OF THE NUCLEI OF CELLS.
in the process of conjugation as already noticed in Spirogyra
( fig. 863), is also another method of cell-formation. It occurs
frequently in Algz, and various groups of Fungi.
Indirect Division of the Nuclei of Cells (Karyokinesis). —Where
this occurs, the nucleus, instead of dividing simply and directly,
assumes various figures before dividing.
Strasburger described this
method of division of the
nucleus in many vegetable
cells, and a similar method has
since been shown by several
observers to occur in animal
cells. To this process Flem-
ming has given the name
karyokinesis, because a spon-
taneous movement of the nu-
cleus and its contents is of
essential importance.
The first stage in the process
is the separation of the fibrils
forming the intranuclear net-
work, so that they become more
distinct, and make the nucleus
appear larger (fig. 1137, a).
The fibrils then become thicker
and more separated, thus exags
gerating the appearance pro-
duced during the first stage.
The fibrils next acquire the
form of long loops, some of
Fie. 1136.
Fig. 1136, A, B. Escape of the swarm-spores
of an @dogonium. c. One in free mo-
tion. Db. The same after it has become
fixed, and has formed the attaching
disc. E. Escape of the whole protoplasm
of a germ-plant of Wdogonium in the
form of a swarm-spore. (After Prings-
which appear to consist of
two threads (Flemming) ; but
whether this is their true cha-
racter, or they are thick fibrils
which have become hollowed
out, is uncertain (Klein). In
the next step the loops cease
to be single and are very long, each thread forming several, and
the whole producing a radiating, wreath-like appearance (fig.
1137, b). The loops then break so that their bends are central,
the ends pointing outwards and producing a star-like appearance,
the aster or monaster. The central mass and rays now appear to
divide into two parts having different planes one above the other
(fig. 1137, c, d), except at the periphery of the loops, where for
a time the two stars remain connected, though soon they sepa-
rate, producing the double star, or dyaster, which in many cases
is the only form of star that is seen, the monaster apparently
not occurring at all. The two stars of the dyaster then recede
from each other so that their centres occupy opposite poles of
heim. )
ae, ee ee eT Toe
RAPIDITY OF CELL-PRODUCTION. 779
the nucleus (jig. 1137, e, f, g) ; the daughter-stars of the dyaster
thus produce a double basket appearance. The fibrils of these
baskets next arrange themselves alter-
nately, so that they seem to be trans-
versely striated. A membrane next
forms between the two divisions of
the former nucleus (fig. 1137, h), i.e.
between the two daughter-baskets
whose fibrils now become convoluted,
thus producing in the new nuclei an
intranuclear network similar to that
which existed in the mother-nucleus.
These intracellular and intranu-
clear networks, as well as the division
of the nuclei, are well seen in rapidly
forming cells, such as those in the
growing points and ovules of plants.
Rapidity of Cell-production.—By
the ordinary method of cell-division,
cells are in many instances produced we Ne we ee phase ot
with almost inconceivable rapidity. ydeus (a) inthe embryo sac:
Thus it has been stated that a fungus a, in Viola palustris; B, in
of the Puff-ball genus has been known ey. Ci a oe
to grow in a single night, in damp Be
warm weather, from the size of a mere point to that of a
large gourd; and it has been calculated, from the average
size of its component cells, that such a plant must have con-
tained at least forty-seven thousand million cells, so that they .
must have been developed at the rate of nearly fowr thousand
millions per hour, or more than sixty-six millions per minute.
Another illustration of the rapid production of cells is afforded
us in arctic and alpine regions, where it frequently happens that
the snow over an extensive area is suddenly reddened by the Red
Snow-plant (jig. 1). Again, it may readily be ascertained that,
in a favourable growing season, many stems will increase three
or four inches in length in twenty-four hours; thus the Agave
americana or American Aloe, when flowering in our conserva-
tories, has been known to develop its flower-stalk at the rate of
at least a foot a day ; and in the warm climates where it is indi-
genous, as in the Mauritius, it will grow at least two feet in the
same period of time. Leaves also, in some cases, develop very
rapidly ; thus, Mulder states that he has seen the leaf of Urama
speciosa lengthen at the rate of from one and a half to three
and a half lines per hour, and even as much as from four to
five inches per day. In all these cases of rapid growth in size,
it must be remembered, however, that the increase is due not
only to the formation of new cells, but also to the expansion of
those previously formed.
In connexion with the rapidity of growth, it may be stated
Fig. 1187.
Kia, 1138,
>
Fe
80 VINES’ AUXANOMETER.
a Hi |
i
il
ee
Fig. 1138, Vines’ Auxanometer, from a block kindly lent by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Manufacturing Company.
ABSORPTION AND TRANSMISSION OF FLUIDS BY CELLS, 781 —
here that great light retards growth, as shown by the compara-
tive height attained by the Wild Hyacinth according to whether
it grows at the edge of, or in the thick part of a wood. Moisture
and warmth, on the other hand, encourage growth ; hence, if a
greenhouse is allowed to be warmer at night than in the daylight,
the plants therein contained become drawn up (leggy, as it is
termed) and weak.
For the purpose of measuring accurately the rapidity of
growth, some such instrument as that shown in jig. 1138, and
called an Auxanometer, is employed, where at the end of the
Jong arm of a lever a, is a pen b, which marks on a revolving
drum c, covered with smoked paper. To the hook on the short
arm of the lever a, is attached the one end of a thread, the other
end being fastened to the tip of the stem. As the stem grows,
the long arm of the lever, which is weighted, falls, and a record
traced on the drum c, which may travel continuously, or, as in
Vines’ Auxanometer, make a movement only at certain intervals
of time, which are regulated by the clockwork arrangemen? at d.
(2) Absorption and Transmission of Fluids.—The cell-wall of
all young and vitally active parenchymatous or prosenchymatous
cells is capable of readily imbibing :
fluids, and we find, accordingly, that Fie. 1139.
liquid matters are constantly being ab- cai
sorbed and transmitted through such
cells. The power which thus enables
cells to absorb and transmit fluids is
called osmose. This physical force, as
will be afterwards shown, is a most im-
portant agent in plant-life, for by its
agency plants are enabled, not only to
absorb crude food by their roots in a
fluid state, but also to transfer it up-
wards, from cell to cell, to the leaves
and other external organs, for the pur-
pose of being elaborated by the action of
light, heat, and air. It is, moreover, by
a somewhat analogous process (diffusion
of gases) that the cells on or near the sur-
face of plants are enabled to absorb
and transmit gaseous matters.
Osmose may be explained as follows:
—Whenever two fluids of different densi- “ig. 1139. Apparatus to show
= osmotic action. It consists
ties are separated by a permeable mem- 6 4 bladder filled with
brane which is capable of imbibing them, syrup, to the open end of
there is always a tendency to. equalisa- SH tube & attached
tion of density between the two, from _ yessel containing water.
the formation of a current in both direc-
tions, which will be modified by the action of the membrane,
as well as by their own rates of diffusion. This osmotic action may
782 ENDOSMOSE.—EXOSMOSE.— TURGIDITY OF CELLS.
be easily observed, by filling a bladder with coloured syrup,
attaching to its open end a glass tube, and then immersing it in
Fig. 1140.
Fig. 1140. Appa-
ratus for illus-
trating the ef-
fect of stretch-
ing or com-
pressing a tur-
gidcell. (After
Sachs. )
a vessel containing water (jig. 1139). Under such
circumstances the volume of the denser fluid in
the interior of the bladder becomes increased (as
will at once be seen by its rise in the tube), by
the more rapid passage through the membrane of
the thinner fluid than of the thicker, though at
the same time a less portion of the syrup passes
out into the water or thinner fluid, as may be
proved by the sweet taste and colour which the
latter gradually acquires. This double current
will continue so long as there is any material
difference of density between the two liquids.
The stronger in-going current is termed endos-
mose, and the weaker outgoing current exosmose.
If the position of the liquids be reversed, the
currents will be reversed in like manner, the
preponderating current, in almost all cases, being
that which sets from the thinner to the denser
liquid.
The pressure exerted by the water absorbed
by endosmose against the walls of a cell, is spoken
of as turgidity or turgescence. In such a cell the
pressure exercised against the walls reacts upon
the cell contents. If a cell is turgid, but capable
of further extension without bursting, the changes
which would be produced by stretching or com-
pressing it, or otherwise altering its form, may be
easily shown by the use of such a piece of appa-
ratus as that represented in fig. 1140, where K isa
wide and thick india-rubber tube, to which the
glass rod s g acts as a stopper at one end, while
into the other end is fitted a glass tube drawn
out, Ro. The tube is now filled with water,
the upper level of which is at n. It will be found
that on stretching the tube its calibre is dimin-
ished, but its capacity is increased, as shown by
the fall of the water below n; while compression,
bending, or creasing will diminish the calibre, and
thus raise the level above n.
The absorption and transmission of liquid
matters through cells is now very easy to explain,
for as the fluid contents of the cells of the roots
of plants are denser than the water contained in
the media in which they grow, they will con-
tinually absorb the latter by endosmose ; and as the changes
which are going on in the cells by evaporation, assimilation,
and other processes on the surface of plants, tend to thicken
.
MOVEMENTS IN TIE CONTENTS OF CELLS, 783
their contained liquids, there will also be a constant passage of
the absorbed fluids from cell to cell towards those parts where
_ such processes are taking place. The laws of ordinary adhesive
or capillary attraction and of the diffusion of fluids also regulate
the flow of the juices, which in certain cases may be even set in
motion by either force. The action, however, of the interven-
ing membrane (cell-wall) in greatly modifying or even over-
coming osmotic action, is evidenced by the numerous cases in
which neighbouring cells contain different substances without
their intermixture. In cellular plants, such as Algze and Fungi,
Fie. 1141. Fig. 1142.
Fig. 1141. Hair on calyx of flower-bud of Althea rosea. The streaming of
the protoplasm is indicated by the arrows. (After Sachs.)—— Fig. 1142.
Part of leaf of Vallisneria spiralis, showing rotation of the protoplasm.
n,n, n,n. Nuclei. c,c. Chlorophyll corpuscles. A, A. Cells in which some
chlorophyll corpuscles are passing along the upper wall of the cell. (After
J. W. Groves.)
absorption may take place at any part of the thallus; while
in vascular plants it occurs principally through the roots, though
all the green parts may contribute to it (see page 787), and
that, too, probably independently of the presence or absence of
stomata.
(3) Movements in the Contents of Cells.—In many cells, and
probably in all at a particular period of their life, when they
are in a vitally active state, a kind of movement of a portion
of their contents takes place. This movement is sometimes
784 MOVEMENTS IN THE CONTENTS OF CELLS.
erroneously considered as a kind of rotation of the watery
cell-sap ; but the very complete observations of Mohl have
proved that it is due to a circulation of the protoplasm, which
is rendered visible by the opaque granular particles which it
contains (fig. 1142 a,c). The protoplasm thus circulating does
not pass from one cell to another, but is strictly confined to the
cell in which it originates. This kind of movement has been
termed Rotation, Gyration, Cyclosis, or Intracellular Circulation:
it ceases, in the generality of cases, in cells when they have
attained a certain size, but in those of many aquatic plants it
continues throughout their life.
The appearances presented by these movements vary in
different cases. Thus, in the cells of many hairs, as in those
of the Common Spiderwort (Tradescantia virginica), the Potato
(Solanum tuberosum) (fig. 40), and Althea rosea (fig. 1141), the
protoplasm becomes hollowed out by a number of vacuoles
filled with watery cell-sap, between which threads of protoplasm
remain, and the motion is in reticulated currents radiating
apparently from, and returning to, the nucleus; to this action
the term circulation is applied. In the cells of the leaves of the
Vallisneria (fig. 1142) and Anacharis, and in those of other
parts of the same plants, intracellular movements may be
readily observed when they are submitted to a moderate micro-
scopic power ; here, however, the protoplasm becomes hollowed
out by a single central vacuole filled with watery cell-sap, and
passes with its granular contents round the interior of the walls
of each cell, retaining its activity permanently ; which move-
ment is called rotation. In the Characex, and especially in the
Nitelle, which are transparent, the moving protoplasm does not
rotate round the walls, nor in reticular currents, but passes
obliquely up one side of the cell (fig. 1124) until it reaches the
extremity, and then flows down in an opposite direction on the
other side.
No satisfactory explanation has yet been brought forward to
account for this movement, but it is unquestionably connected
with the vitality of the cell-contents, and Dr. H. de Vries be-
lieves that it is chiefly instrumental in the transport of food
material from one part of a plant to another. All agents that
actually injure the cell will generally stop it at once, and perma-
nently, though in some plants (as Nitella) a large cell may be
tied across the middle with the effect of stopping the circulation
temporarily ; but after a short time it will recommence in each
half. The movements of the ciliated zoospores of the Algze (see
page 395, and figs. 75-77), and those of the ciliated antherozoids
of Algze (see page 397, and jig. 868), and of the higher Crypto-
gamia (see page 566, and fig. 807), are usually regarded as ‘ ana-
logous to the rotation of the protoplasm.’
4. Elaboration of the Cell-contents.—All cells exposed to light,
heat, and air, which contain protoplasm, have the power of pro-
— |
FUNCTIONS OF PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS AND VESSELS. 755
ducing in their contents the various organic compounds which
are concerned in the development of new tissues, and in the
formation of others which have been termed secretions. (See
Respiration and Assimilation.) In old cells the secretions of the
plant are also, in part, deposited.
2. Functions oF PRosENCHYMATOUS CELLS.—Prosenchy-
matous cells are especially adapted by their construction and
mode of combination into a tissue, for giving strength and
support to plants ; and there can be no doubt but that this is
one of the offices which they perform. In a young state, also,
before their walls are thickened, they appear to be the main
agents by which the fluids absorbed by the roots are carried
upwards to the leaves and other external organs, to be elabo-
rated by the agency of heat, light, and air. The experiments
of Hoffmann, Unger, Knight, Dutrochet, and others, seem to
prove this. Thus, Hoffmann, by placing plants in such a posi-
tion as to cause them to absorb a solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium, and then adding a persalt of iron to sections of them,
found that the prussian blue which was formed by the reaction
of the chemical agents thus applied was principally deposited
in the prosenchymatous cells. Unger also came to the same
conclusion, by causing plants to absorb a coloured vegetable juice,
and tracing its passage. Knight and Dutrochet cut a ring of
tissue out of the stem down to the duramen, with the result
that the leaves withered, and the tree subsequently died. But
other experimenters, such as Link, Rominger, and Herbert
Spencer, have arrived at opposite conclusions. (See Pwnctions
of Vessels.)
3. Functions oF VessEets.—The functions of the spiral,
annular, reticulated, pitted, and scalariform vessels have been a
subject of much dispute from an early period, and have been
repeatedly investigated. Hales, Bischoff, and others came to
the conclusion that these vessels were carriers of air, and it is
certain that air alone is found in old vessels ; while Dutrochet,
Link, Rominger, &c., believed that their essential function
was to carry fluids from the root upwards, which views from
recent observations appear to be correct. According to Link,
when plants are watered for several days with a solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium, and afterwards with a solution of
persulphate of iron, prussian blue is found in the vessels, and
not in the prosenchymatous cells, as the experiments of Hoff-
mann, alluded to in speaking of the functions of prosenchyma-
tous cells, seem to indicate ; and, more recently, the experiments
of Herbert Spencer, conducted with great care, tend to show
that in young plants at all events the vessels are the chief sap-
carriers whence the fluid exudes into the surrounding prosen-
chyma. From this it is clear that the constituents of the xylem
are sap-carriers.
Functions of Laticiferous Vessels.—The physiological import-
3 E
786 FUNCTIONS OF EPIDERMAL TISSUE.
ance of these vessels has given rise to much discussion, and is
still involved in obscurity. But it would appear that these
vessels, and others which are closely allied to them, as sieve-
tubes and vesicular vessels, act as temporary reservoirs of nutrient
fluids, and also as carriers of such fluids to those parts of plants
where they are required. (See also page 51.) Schultz called
the tissue formed by the ramifications of the laticiferous vessels
cineinchyma, because he believed that he had discovered in it a
peculiar vital movement or circulation of the latex, to which he
gave the name of cyclosis.* Other observers have also described
a similar circulation ; but Mohl, Henfrey, &c., altogether deny
the existence of such a movement in uninjured tissues.
Dr. A. Fischer states that it is only the young cells of sieve-
tubes which can produce albuminous substances, since they
possess nuclei which are absent in the mature tubes.
4. Functions oF EpipERMAL Tissuzr.—The special functions
of epidermal tissue are :—to protect the tissues beneath from
injury, and from being too rapidly affected by atmospheric
changes ; to regulate the transpiration or exhalation of watery
vapours ; to absorb and exhale gaseous matters ; and probably,
to some extent, to absorb water. The epidermis itself is specially
designed to prevent a too ready evaporation of fluid matters
from the tissues beneath, and hence we find that it is variously
modified to suit the different conditions to which plants are
submitted. ‘Thus, in submersed plants and submersed parts of
plants, which are always exposed to similar influences as regards
moisture, there is no true epidermis; whilst in aerial plants
submitted to ordinary influences in cold and temperate climates,
we generally find an epidermis with only one layer of thin-sided
cells, and covered by a cuticle of only moderate thickness,
Cellulose is rarely, and then only with difficulty, discovered in
cuticle, which is a thin structureless membrane extending un-
interruptedly over the boundaries of the subjacent epidermal
cells. It is coloured yellow by Schulze’s fluid, yellow or yellow-
brown on the addition of iodine, with or without sulphuric
acid ; it is soluble in boiling caustic potash, but insoluble in
concentrated sulphuric acid. In other aerial plants, however,
growing in the same latitudes, such as the Box, &c., and
generally also in those of a succulent nature where there is but
a moderate exhalation, we find the upper walls of the epidermal
cells especially thickened, or protected by a dense layer of
cuticle ; whilst in aerial plants growing in very dry or hot
regions, as the Oleander (fig. 125), we have frequently an epi-
dermis of two, three, or more layers of thick-sided cells, and
other special contrivances to prevent a too ready exhalation
of fluid. For instance, De Bary states that wax may be de-
posited in the cuticle, and that on heating to about 100° C., it
* The term ‘cyclosis’ has also been applied to the movement of proto-
plasm in cells, (See p. 784.)
FUNCTIONS OF EPIDERMAL TISSUE. 787
separates out in the form of drops. This wax may be associated
with resin, and assists in preventing the aerial parts of plants
from becoming moistened by water. Such plants as these are
best fitted for growth in houses, where the air is usually very
dry. While the epidermis may thus be shown to have for its
object the restraining of a too abundant exhalation, the stomata
and water-pores are especially designed to facilitate and regulate
the passage of fluid matters, and in proportion to their number,
therefore, upon the different organs and parts of plants, ceteris
paribus, so will be the exbalation from them. (See also page 63.)
Stomata, as already noticed (page 62), are sometimes found at
the bottom of depressions on the under surface of leaves (fig. 124),
and occasionally projecting above the general level, but usually
they are placed nearly or quite on a level with the epidermal
cells. The exact manner in which the stomata act is not readily
explained, but it may be always noticed that when plants are
freely supplied with moisture, the stomata have their bordering
guard-cells distended with fluid, elongated, and curved, so that
the orifices between them are open ; whilst in those cases where
there is a deficiency of fluid the bordering cells contract,
straighten on their inner surfaces, and thus close the orifices.
Under the former condition of stomata, there is a ready com-
munication between the external air and the internal tissues,
and hence a free exhalation takes place; while in the latter
state, the exhalation is more or less prevented. As a rule, sto-
mata are open during the day when circumstancesare favourable,
and closed at night when the plant is asleep.
It is also through the cells of the epidermis, and more espe-
cially through the stomata, that certain gaseous matters are
absorbed from, and exhaled into, the atmosphere, in the pro-
cesses of Respiration and Assimilation. (See page 799.)
Tt has long been a disputed question whether the epidermal
tissue and its appendages have the power of absorbing liquids,
such as water. Some authors, as Unger and Duchartre, not
only deny the possession of such a power, but also that of taking
up watery vapour; and Prillieux has repeated their experi-
ments with the same results and conclusions. Some researches:
of Henslow seem, however, to prove that leaves can absorb
moisture. (See page 799.) Indeed, it is very difficult to ac-
count for the immediate recovery of drooping plants in a green-
house when water is sprinkled upon the floors, or the revival in
nature of vegetation when a mist follows a long succession of
dry weather, except on the supposition that watery vapour is
taken up by the epidermal tissue and its appendages, unless the
presence of moisture acts only in the way of checking transpira-
tion. Epiphytical species seem also to obtain nourishment from
the atmosphere by absorption through the epidermis. Whether
water itself is absorbed by the epidermal tissue and its appen-
dages is doubtful, though from the experiments of Detmer it
3@2
788 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STOMATA.
seems to be possible under certain circumstances. Various
experimenters have endeavoured to show that they have this
power. The researches of Garreau led him to the following
conclusions :—1. That the epidermis possessed an evident endos-
motic property, the intensity of which was in proportion to
the age of the tissues which it invested; thus it was greatest
when they were young, gradually diminished as they approached
maturity, and was altogether lost when they became old. 2. The
absorbing power of the epidermis was greater in proportion to
the absence of waxy or fatty matters. 3. The epidermis cover-
ing the upper surface of the ribs, and especially of that of the
petiole where it joins the stem, is that part of the leaf surface
which presents the most marked power of absorption. 4. In
certain instances in which the epidermis is absorbent, the cuticle
presents impediments to absorption. 5. Simple washing with
distilled water, and more especially with soap and water, aug-
ments the absorptive power. 6. When the epidermal tissues of
leaves have lost their power of absorbing water, they can still
absorb carbon dioxide. Further, the behaviour of Carnivorous
Fig. 1143.
Fig. 1143. p, p. Parenchyma of the leaf. e,e. Epidermis cells. s. Stoma.
i. Air cavity. In these figures the development of the stoma of Hyacin-
thus orientalis is represented from the first division of the mother-cell in
A into two daughter-cells, to the complete separation shownin D, (After
Sachs.)
Plants, as Drosera, Utricularia, &c., seem distinctly to prove the
truth of the power of epidermal tissues to absorb nutrient
materials in solution.
Origin and Development of Stomata.—A stoma is formed by
the division of an epidermal cell (the mother-cell) by a partition
which extends across and divides the two daughter- or sister-cells
(fig. 1143); this partition then becomes thickened, especially at
the angles where it joins the wall of the parent-cell. After a
time the thickened partition becomes laminated, when a cleft
appears in it, narrower in the middle, wider without and within,
which unites the intercellular space (fig. 1143, p, s, t) with the
external air. Before the parent-cell divides, a cuticularisation
of its surface takes place, the cuticle extending over the apposed
surfaces of the sister-cells, and the adjoining cells of the epi-
SE Ud 4
FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERCELLULAR SYSTEM. 789
dermis. Even when the division is complete, a portion (if the
leaf is examined ina superficiak position) still remains as asimple
lamella. These two sister- or daughter-cells are called guard-
cells, and further differ from the rest of the epidermis in
containing chlorophyll and starch.
A special form of stomata called water-pores is found at the
termination of the veins of some leaves (Tropxolum &c.) which
differ from other stomata in being non-contractile, and in some
cases the guard-cells become entirely absorbed, leaving open
spaces.
5. FUNCTIONS OF THE APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS. —
Hairs and their modifications appear to be designed to protect
the epidermis and parts beneath from injury due to cold and
other external influences, hence we find young buds (see page
105), &c., frequently coated with hairs, also in many flowers to
prevent injurious insects carrying away pollen. Hairs also ap-
pear in certain instances, at least to some extent, to absorb fluid
matters from the atmosphere, whilst in other cases they serve to
assist the epidermis in restraining exhalation ; and we find, ac-
cordingly, that plants which are densely coated with them are
well adapted to grow in dry situations, and to sustain without
injury a season of drought.
Glands are those organs which in themselves secrete some
peculiar matter. (See page 68.) These secretions are either
permanently stored up in them, or excreted.
6. FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERCELLULAR SystTEM.—The inter-
cellular canals, except at those times in which the tissues of the
plant are gorged with sap, as in the spring of the year, are filled
with air, and the especial function which they perform is to allow
a communication between the external air and the contents of
the internal tissues by virtue of the laws regulating the diffusion
of gases. They likewise facilitate exhalation of liquid matters
by their connexion with the stomata. The itercellular spaces
are also, in most cases, filled with air, though certain recent
observers have described protoplasm as occupying some of them,
and as communicating with the protoplasm of the cells ; while
the air-cells and air-cavities, as their names imply, are in like
manner filled with aeriform matters, and in water-plants are
especially designed to diminish the specific gravity of the parts
in which they are found, and thus to enable them to float
readily, or to be suspended in the water. The receptacles of
secretion, as their name implies, contain the peculiar secretions
of certain plants, and are closely allied in their nature to glands.
(See page 72.)
790 FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOT.—ABSORPTION.
Section 2. PHystioLoGy OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION.
1. Or THE Root or Descenpinc Axis.—The offices per- —
formed by the root are :—1. To fix the plant firmly in the earth or
to the substance upon which it grows, or, in some aquatic plants,
to float orsuspend it inthe water. 2. Toabsorb liquid food. 3.
According to some authors, to excrete into the soil certain
matters which are injurious, or at least not necessary for the
healthy development of the plant, though in the earth they may
assist subsequent nutrition by dissolving substances which could
not otherwise pass into the plant. 4. To act as a reservoir of
nutriment.
The office which the root performs, of fixing plants in those
situations where food can be obtained, is evident, and needs no
further remarks. It is also essential to the proper performance
of its absorptive powers.
Absorption by the Root.—The function which the root per-
forms of absorbing nutriment for the uses of the plant, from
the materials in or upon which it grows, is not possessed by its
whole surface, but is almost exclusively confined to the cells and
root hairs (figs. 128 and 248) of the newly developed portions
and young parts adjacent to them; and even these parts can
only absorb when they are in the closest contact with the particles
of soil by the root-hairs. Hence, in the process of transplanting,
it is necessary to preserve the young growing roots as far as
possible, otherwise the plants thus operated upon will languish
or die, according to the amount of injury they have sustained.
The injury done to plants in transplanting is also to a great extent
influenced by atmospheric circumstances, and conditions of the
soil at the time in which such an operation is performed ; thus,
under the favourable circumstances of a warm soil and moist
atmosphere, the destruction of a large portion of the young
extremities of the root will do but little injury, as the plant
will then speedily form new absorbent extremities; but if the
conditions of the earth and soil be the reverse, then a large
destruction of the young extremities of the roots will cause the
plant to die before new absorbent extremities can be formed.
Special attention should be paid to the above facts when
transplanting is performed in the growing season ; but it is far
better, when possible, to transplant late in the summer or in
the autumn when the growing season is drawing to a close, or
in the spring before it has recommenced, as at such periods
little or no absorption takes place and the plants have accordingly
time to recover themselves before they are required to perform
any active functions. (See page 819.)
This absorption of food by the youngest rootlets is due to
osmose taking place between the contents of their cells and the
fluids of the surrounding soil. But it should be noticed that, as
eee se
« Frey
ABSORPTION BY ROOTS.—SELECTION OF FOOD. 791
already mentioned (page 126), the cells at the extreme apex of
the rootlets forming the cap are not adapted for absorption.
Roots absorb more water than the plant requires, and this
excess of fluid exerts a pressure up the stem called Root-presswre,
which may be measured by cutting off the upper part of the
stem of a growing plant and attaching a manometer to the cut
end. (See page 822.)
Roots, as will be shown (page 792), only grow in length
by additions near to their extremities, and as it is at these
parts that absorption of food almost entirely takes place, they
are always placed in the most favourable circumstances for ob-
taining it, because in their growth they are constantly entering
new soil, and hence, as one portion of that soil has its nutritious
matters extracted, another is entered which is in an unexhausted
state. It has also been shown, by direct experiment, that when
the roots meet with a store of nourishment in the soil, a greatly
increased development of rootlets takes place for its absorption.
Roots can only absorb substances in a liquid state, therefore
the different inorganic substances which are derived from the
soil, and which form an essential part of the food of plants, must
be previously dissolved in water. If the roots of a freely
growing plant be placed in water in-which charcoal in the most
minute state of division has been put, as that substance is in-
soluble in the fluid, it will remain on the surface of the roots,
and the water alone will pass into them.
Selection of Food by Roots.—Various experiments have been
devised to ascertain whether the plant possesses any power of
selecting food by its roots. Saussure proved, that when the
roots of plants were put into mixed solutions of various salts,
some were taken up more freely than others. He also found
that dead or diseased roots absorbed differently to those in a
living and healthy condition. The experiments of Daubeny,
Trinchinetti, and others, lead essentially to the same conclusions.
Again, though the seeds of the common bean and wheat be
sown in the same soil, and exposed, as far as possible, to the
same influences in their after-growth and development, yet
chemical analysis shows that the wheat stalk contains a much
larger proportion of silica (which it must have obtained from the
soil) than that of the bean.
The experiments of Bouchardat, Vogel, and others, appear,
on the contrary, to indicate that roots absorb all substances pre-
sented to them indifferently, and in equal proportions. But
the simple fact, as just mentioned, which is easily proved by
chemical analysis—that the ashes of different plants grown in
the same soil, contain different substances or in different pro-
portions—seems to prove incontestably that roots have a power
of selecting their food. In using the term selecting, we do not,
however, intend to imply that roots have any inherent vital
power of selection resembling animal volition, but only to ex-
792 EXCRETION BY ROOTS.
press the result produced by virtue of the mutual actions of the
root and the substances which surround it in the soil. This
power or property of selection is without doubt due to some at
present but little understood molecular relation which exists
between the membranes of the cells of different plants and the
substances which are taken up or rejected by them, different
roots possessing different osmotic action for the same substances.
It follows also, from the recognition of this action as the cause
of the absorpt on of fluid matters by the plant, that poisonous
substances may be taken up when in solution by the roots, pro-
vided their tissues are not injured by them in their passage ;
and we find, accordingly, that when such substances are found
in the soil, a corresponding effect is produced upon plants by
their absorption.
Excretion by Roots.—Roots seem to have no power of getting
rid of excrementitious matters like that possessed by animals ;
but that they do throw off into the soila portion of their contents
by a process of exos-
mose, which appears
to be an almost neces-
sary result and ac-
companiment of the
endosmose by which
absorption takes
place, is possible.
Carbon dioxide, and
possibly other acid
substances, are parted
with by roots in this
way ; and thus assist
subsequent absorp-
Fig. 1144, Longitudinal section through root of Preris tion vy dissolving
hastata, showing apical region. v. Apical cell, from substances which
which are developed the tissue of the substance of eould not otherwise
the root, 0, c, and the root-cap or pileorhiza, x, 7, m, n. .
(See page 125.) (After Sachs.) P= mto the plant.
This is proved by
Sachs’ experiment of letting roots grow over a slab of polished
marble, which was eroded wherever the roots came in contact
with it.
Storing of Nutriment by Roots Roots are frequently en-
larged by becoming reservoirs of nutriment in the form of
starchy, gummy, and similar matters for the future support of
the plant. The tubercules of the Dahlia (jig. 263) and Orchis
(figs. 261 and 262); and the roots of the Turnip (fig. 269),
Carrot (fig. 267), and other biennials, are fainiliar illustrations.
Development of Roots.—The growing part of the root is called
the growing point (punctum vegetations). Itis commonly spoken
of as the apex of the root, but is not really so, since it is covered
with a cap of cells, the pileorhiza. (See pages 125 and 126.)
Fic. 1144.
:
F
E
,
7
;
4
b
'
DEVELOPMENT OF ROOTS. 798
The cells composing it consist of primary meristem ;* they are
thin-walled, filled with protoplasm, and are capable of division.
Here, as in stems, and unlike leaves, the last formed part is
. towards the apex ; hence the growth in length is indefinite, the
difference between the growing part or so-called apical cell in
roots (fig. 1144, v) and stems being that, in the former case, it
or they (for there is (fig. 1145, a) usually a group of apical
cells) are covered by a cap of cells formed from the distal or
Fre. 1145.
Fig. 1145. Polygonum Fagopyrum. Root apex, median longitudinal section.
pe. Pericambium, outside boundary of the plerome. v. Rudiment of
a vessel. e. Dermatogen. Between pe and e, periblem. h. Root-cap or
pileorhiza. «a. Apical cells. After De Bary.
apex end of the so-called apical cell (figs. 1144, k, 1, m, n, and
1145, h) ; whereas in stems there is no such cap. (See page
795, and figs. 1146 and 1147.)
2. OF THE STEM oR CavuLoME.—The offices performed by
the stem and its ramifications are :—1. To form a support for
the leaves and other appendages of the axis which have but a
* This name is given to that kind of meristem which forms the whole
tissue of very young organs or parts of organs, in order to distinguish it
from another kind of meristem, which is termed secondary meristem (as
the cambium cells), which occurs in organs along with permanent tissue, or
that tissue in which the cells are no longer capable of division, but have
assumed their definite form.
794 FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE STEM.
temporary existence, and thus enable them to be freely exposed
to the influences of light and air, which are essential for the
proper performance of their functions and development. 2. To
convey air and fluid matters upwards, outwards, downwards,
and inwards, to the organs of respiration, assimilation, trans-
piration, development, and secretion. And 3. To act as a
reservoir for the so-called secretions of the plant.
A. Special Functions of the Different Parts of the Stem.—a. The
Medulla or Pith.—Various functions have at different times been
ascribed to the pith. In the very young plant, and in all cases
when newly formed, the cells of the pith are filled with a greenish
fluid containing nutrient substances in a state of solution ; but
as the pith increases in age it loses its colour, becomes dry, and
is generally more or less destroyed. The pith, therefore, would
appear to serve the temporary purpose of nourishing the parts
which surround it when they are in a young state ; and in some
cases it seems also to act as a reservoir of the secretions of the
plant.
b. The Wood or Xylem.—The wood, when in a young and
pervious condition (alburnwm), is the main agent by which the
crude sap is conveyed upwards to the external organs to be
aerated and elaborated ; but whether the passage is primarily
by the vessels or the prosenchymatous cells is disputed. (See
page 785.) As the wood increases in age, and becomes heart-
wood or duramen, the tissues of which it is composed become
thickened and altered in various ways, by which they are more
or less hardened and solidified, and in this manner the stem
acquires strength and firmness, but the tissues are no longer
physiologically active, and are in fact useless as carriers of sap.
Formation of Wood.—On the outside of the young wood,
but organically connected with it and with the liber or bast
of Dicotyledons, is the vitally active layer of cells (secondary
meristem) called the cambium layer, from which are annually
formed new layers of wood («ylem) and inner bark (phloém).
The cells of the cambium layer are filled in the spring, and at
other seasons when growth takes place, with elaborated sap, or
that sap which contains all the materials necessary for the
development of new structures. Great differences of opinion
exist amongst botanists as to the exact manner in which wood
is formed, but they are nearly all agreed that the materials
from which it is formed are elaborated in the leaves, that with-
out leaves there can be no additions to it, and that in proportion
to their amount so will be the thickness of the wood. It is
necessary, therefore, that the process of pruning timber trees
should be carefully conducted, and that when planted they should
be placed at proper intervals, in order that they may be freely
exposed to those influences which are favourable for the develop-
ment of their foliage.
Herbert Spencer believes that intermittent mechanical
DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEM. 795
strains, such as those produced by the wind, are the sole cause
of the formation of wood, which is developed to resist the strains.
His experiments were anticipated by Knight so far back as
18038 ; but his results must te taken with modification. It is
probably true that such a conservative formation of wood does
occur to meet unusual strains ; but the want of correspondence
in nature between great exposure to such strains and large
deposit of wood, and the numerous examples of great wood-
formation in ligneous twiners and nailed-up trees, must prevent
us from considering it an all-sufticient explanation. In the cases
where no strains can have occurred, ‘ the natural selection of
variations can have only operated’ to form wood, according to
Spencer.
c. The Medullary Rays.—The functions which these rays
perform is, probably, to as-ist the diffusion of a portion of the
elaborated sap from the bark and cambium layer through the
wood, in which certain of the secretions it contains are ultimately
deposited.
d. The Bark.—The bark acts as a protection to the young and
tender parts within it. The inner part is generally believed to
convey the elaborated sap from
the leaves downwards, in order Fira. 1146.
that new tissues may be deve- < >
loped, and the different secre-
tions deposited in the wood and
in its own substance. The bark
frequently contains very active
medicinal substances, and others
which are useful in the arts, &e.
B. Development of the Stem
(Caulome).—The stem is deve-
loped from the apex or growing
point (punctum vegetationis),
where is situated the apical cell
or apical groups of cells. In most
of the Cryptogamia growth is ef-
Fig. 1146. Longitudinal section through
fected by the division of a single
apical cell (fig. 1146, t), which
is generally large, and divides
into two daughter-cells, one of
which becomes the new apical
cell, while the other, the segment
cell, by further division, forms
the permanent tissue. In the
stems of the higher plants, in-
the apical region of three primary
shoots of Chara fragilis. t. Apical
cell, in which segments are formed
by septa, each segment being further
divided by a curved septum into a
lower cell not further divisible, which
develops into an internode, g, g’, g’’,
g’, and an upper cell which produces
a node, m, m’, and the leaves, b, b’, b’’,
b”’, which also undergo segmentation.
(After Sachs.)
stead of a single apical cell, there are generally several such cells
(fig. 1147 s, s), which differ from the like cells of roots in having
no special cap, and from leaves in the fact that the cells last
formed are at the apex. (See Development of Roots, page 792 ;
aud of the Leaves, page 811.)
796 FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.—EXHALATION OR TRANSPIRATION,
3. OF THE LEAVES OR PHyLtLomes.—The essential functions
of the leaves are :—(1) The exhalation of the superfluous fluid
of the crude sap in the form of watery vapour ; (2) the absorp-
tion of fluid matter ; (3) the absorption and exhalation of gases ;
and (4) the formation of the organic compounds which are con-
cerned in the development of new tissues, and in the formation
of the various secretions of plants. These functions they are
enabled to perform through the influence of heat, air, and light,
to which agents, by their position on the ascending axis of the
plant, and by their own structure, they are necessarily, under
ordinary circumstances, freely exposed.
(1) Exvhalaiion of Watery Vapour by the Leaves.—The im-
Fre. 1147.
CT
&
ree
A)
=
|
aban
i)
3
.
aX
Fig. 1147. Phaseolus multiflorus. Longitudinal section through the apical
region of the stem of an embryo. ss. Apex. pb, pb. Parts of the two
first leaves. k, & Commencement of their axillary buds. (After Sachs.)
mediate object and effect of this process, which is commonly
termed transpiration, is, the thickening of the crude sap, and
the consequent increase of solid contents in any particular portion
of it. This transpiration of watery vapour, as already noticed
(see page 787), takes place almost entirely through the stomata,
and hence as a general rule the quantity transpired will be in
proportion to their number. The presence or absence of a true
epidermis, and the various modifications to which this is liable,
have also, as already noticed (page 786), an important influence
upon the transpiration of fluid matters.
From some interesting experiments of M. Garreau on tran-
spiration of leaves, he was led to draw the following conclusions :——
1. The quantity of water exhaled by the upper and under surfaces
TRANSPIRATION OF LEAVES. 797
of the leaves is usuaily as 1 to 2,1 to 3, or even 1 to 5, or more.
The quantity has no relation to the position of the surfaces, for
the leaves, when reversed, gave the same results as when in their
natural position. 2. There is a correspondence between the
quantity of water exhaled and the number of the stomata. 3. The
transpiration of fluid takes place in greater quantity on the parts
of the epidermis where there is least waxy or fatty matter, as
along the line of the ribs.
This transpiration of fluid is influenced to a great extent by
the varying conditions of the atmosphere as to moisture and
dryness ; thus, if two plants of the same nature are submitted
to similar conditions, except that one is placed in a dry atmo-
sphere, and the other in a moist, the former will give off more
fluid than the latter, though, according to M‘Nab, a plant ex-
posed to the sun will transpire most in a moist atmosphere ;
while in the shade, an atmosphere loaded with vapour causes
transpiration to cease. The great agent, however, which influ-
ences transpiration is light. According to De Candolle, light
is the only agent which is capable of promoting and modifying
transpiration. He says, ‘If we take three plants in leaf, of the
same species, of the same size, and of the same degree of vigour,
and place them, after weighing them carefully, in close vessels,
—one in total darkness, the other in the diffused light of day,
and the third in the sunshine—and prevent absorption by the
roots, we shall find that the plant exposed to the sun has lost
a great quantity of water, that in common daylight a less
amount, and that which was in total darkness almost nothing.’
The experiments of Henslow, Daubeny, and others, also de-
monstrate, in a most conclusive manner, the great influence of
light upon transpiration. Daubeny, moreover, found that the
different rays of the solar spectrum had a varying influence, the
illuminating rays having more etfect than the heating rays.
Transpiration has been studied by M. Weisner in three ways: —
(1) By comparing that of green with that of bleached plants ;
(2) by exposing plants to the solar spectrum ; (3) by placing
them behind solutions of chlorophyll. The result of these
experiments has been that the action of light on transpiration
is greatly increased by the presence of chlorophyll ; that they
are not the most luminous rays, but those which correspond to
the absorption band of the chlorophyllian spectrum, which
excite transpiration ; and finally, that the rays which passed
through the chlorophyll solution exerted but little effect on
transpiration.
Transpiration in some cases seems to depend but little upon
whether the stomata are open or closed, though it is generally
greater on the under surface of leaves—i.e. where the stomata
are chiefly found. In summer transpiration is more active than
absorption, while in spring the reverse condition obtains.
The quantity of fluid thus exhaled or transpired by the leaves
798 EXHALATION OF WATERY VAPOUR BY LEAVES.
has been the subject of various experiments, The most complete
observations upon this point were made by Hales so long ago as
1724. He found that a common Sunflower 33 feet high, weighing
3 pounds, and with a surface estimated at 5,616 square inches,
exhaled, on an average, about twenty ounces of Auid in the
course of the day ; a Cabbage plant, with a surface of 2,736
square inches, about nineteen ounces per day; a Vine with a
surface of 1,820 square inches, from five to six ounces ; and a
Lemon tree, exposing a surface of 2,557 square inches, six ounces
on an average ina day. Hence if such a large amount of fluid
be thus given off by single plants, what an almost incalculable
quantity must be exhaled by the whole vegetation of the globe!
It can therefore be readily understood that the air of a thickly
wooded district will be always in a damp condition, while that
of one with scanty vegetation will be comparatively free from
humidity : and hence it will be seen that a country, to be per-
fectly healthy, should have the proportion of plants to a par-
ticular area carefully considered ; for while, on the one hand,
too many plants are generally prejudicial to health by the
dampness they produce ; on the other, a deficiency, or want of
them will produce an equally injurious dryness. The same
circumstances have an important bearing upon the fertility or
otherwise of the soil, and in this way have an indirect influence
upon the health of the inhabitants. Thus, it is a well-known
fact, that as vapour is constantly given off by plants, rain is
more abundant in those regions which are well covered with
forests, than in those which are comparatively free from them.
It is found, accordingly, that a great change may be produced
in the climate of a country by clearing it too much of plants ;
for while an excessive amount of vegetation is injurious to their
healthy growth, if there be a great deficiency, it will become
entirely barren from extreme dryness. By inattention to these
simple but most important facts, which clearly indicate that
open land and that furnished with plants should be properly
proportioned the one to the other, many regions of the globe
which were formerly remarkable for their fertility are now
barren wastes ; and, in like manner, many districts, formerly
noted for their salubrity, have become almost, or quite, unin-
habitable.
The fluid which thus passes off by the leaves of plants is
almost pure water. This transpiration of watery vapour must
not be confounded with the excretion of water containing
various saline and organic matters dissolved in it, which takes
place in certain plants, either from the general surface of their
leaves or from special glands. In the peculiarly formed leaves
of Dischidia, Nepenthes (fig. 390), Sarracenia (fig. 391), and
Heliamphora (fig. 392), watery excretions of this nature always
exist. From the extremities or margins of the leaves of various
Marantaceze, Musaceze, Aroidaceze, Graminacez, and other
4
5
ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. 799
plants, water is also constantly excreted in drops, at certain
periods of vegetation, through the water-pores there situated.
But the most remarkable plant of this kind is the Caladiwm dis-
tillatoriwm, from which half a pint of fluid has been noticed to
drop away during asingle night, from orifices (water- pores) placed
at the extremities of the leaves, and communicating freely with
internal passages. In those Mosses which have no trace of vascular
bundles, Oltmanns points out that the rise of water does not take
place within the stem, but by capillarity externally, and that in
these plants transpiration does not take place.
(2) Absorption of Fluids by Leaves.—Hales, Bonnet, and
others, inferred that leaves were capable of absorbing moisture,
though De Candolle and others subsequently asserted positively
that such was not the case, and that leaves remained fresh for
some tiie when exposed to the influence of moisture, solely be-
cause transpiration was hindered or arrested. The more recent
researches of Henslow, however, as already noticed (page 787),
seem to prove conclusively that both leaves and green internodes
are capable of absorbing a large amount of moisture, and that
probably the quantity absorbed is independent of the presence
or absence of stomata. The experiments of Darwin and others
with Carnivorous Plants seem to prove this also.
(5) Absorption and Hxhalution of Gases by Leaves.—We have
already noticed (page 790) the property possessed by the roots
of absorbing liquid food from the medium in which they grow,
and also their power of excretion (page 792). Whilst plants
are thus intimately connected by their roots with the soil or
medium in which they are placed, they have also important re-
lations with the atmosphere by their leaves and other external
organs, which are constantly absorbing from, or exhaling into
it, certain gases. The atmosphere, it should he remembered, is
brought into communication with the interior of the leaves by
the stomata : it indeed fills the whole intercellular structure of
these organs much in the same way as the air fills the lungs of
a mammal, or the lungs, bones, &c. of a bird, to which in func-
tion they bear some sort of resemblance. The gases which are
thus absorbed and exhaled by the leaves and other green organs
and parts of plants have been proved, by a vast number and
variety of experiments, to be essentially carbon dioxide and
oxygen. The experiments of Boussingault would also indicate
that, in some cases at least, carbon oxide is evolved with the
free oxygen. Draper, Mulder, Cloez, Gratiolet, and others, like-
wise believe that leaves and other parts exhale nitrogen when
exposed to sunlight. Plants, under certain circumstances, may
also absorb nitrogen from the air, though it does not then serve
for nutrition ; but the investigations of Lawes, Gilbert, Daubeny,
and Pugh tend, on the contrary, to negative this statement.
Sir J. B. Lawes has recently confirmed his old opinion that the
source of nitrogen is the soil, of carbon dioxide the air.
800 ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES,
The amount of nitrogen found in plants is greater, however,
than can be accounted for by the quantity of nitrogen supplied
to the soil by rain, and is doubtless partly due to the absorption
of ammonia from the soil, as also, probably, partly by the leaves,
according to Sachs and Meyer, whose observations have been
confirmed by Schloésing.
The absorption and exhalation of carbon dioxide and oxyge
by the leaves vary according to the circumstances in which they
are placed. Thus, when the green leaves of a healthy plant
are exposed to sunlight, all experiments show that carbon di-
oxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and decomposed, leaving
its carbon, which is the result of the decomposition, behind, and
evolving its oxygen. It is in this way that by far the largest —
proportion of carbon, which, as will be presently shown, forms
so large a part of plants, is taken up by them.
The evolution of oxygen by the green leaves and also by other
green organs may be readily observed taking place in the form
of bubbles, when a submersed aquatic plant or some freshly
gathered leaves are placed in water exposed to the direct rays of
the sun. No such evolution of oxygen takes place unless the
water contains carbon dioxide, and not, therefore, in pure freshly
distilled water, or in that which has been recently boiled. It has
been found, also, that there is a constant relation between the
amount of carbon dioxide absorbed and the oxygen exhaled.
These experiments prove therefore, not only the exhalation of
oxygen by the leaves, but also that part of it must be derived
from the decomposition of the absorbed carbon dioxide. These
changes do not take place in the deep-seated tissues of the plant,
nor in the epidermal cells, but in those only immediately beneath
the latter. This decomposition of carbon dioxide is effected by
the influence of chlorophyll ; for when leaves are not green, as
is the case in many parasitic plants and in those which are more
or less blanched, they, like the other parts of a plant in a simi-
lar condition, are incapable of assimilating, and must therefore
procure their nutriment from already assimilated materials.
This absorption of carbon dioxide with fixation of carbon and
evolution of oxygen is in direct proportion to the intensity of
the light to which the plants are exposed ; but the experiments
of Draper, Hunt, and others, show that the different rays of the
spectrum have a varying influence in promoting such a decom-
position. The results obtained by Draper by exposing the
green parts of plants to the different rays of the spectrum were,
that no oxygen was set free by them when they were in the
violet and indigo rays; ‘00 to *53 only when in the extreme red ;
1 in the blue ; 4:10 in the green and blue; 43°75 in the yellow
and green ; and 24°75 in the red and orange. Hence he con-
cluded, that the illuminating or yellow rays have the greatest
effect in promoting decomposition of carbon dioxide, those
nearest them much less so, and the heating and chemical rays
ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. 801
none at all. The experiments of Cloez and Gratiolet lead sub-
stantially to the same conclusions. That is to say, that the rays
which photographically are most active are almost or wholly
inert in the decomposition of carbon dioxide and the elimination
of oxygen, while the so-called non-actinic rays are the most
active. Some heat is necessary for this decomposition, and
within certain limits it is found that a slight increase of heat
will compensate for a corresponding diminution of active light
rays. (See also The Effect of the Electric Light on the Growth
of Plants, &c., page 858.)
Whilst the absorption of carbon dioxide and evolution of
oxygen are thus taking place by day, it is supposed by most
observers, that in the absence of light a contrary action occurs
—oxygen being then absorbed, and carbon dioxide exhaled.
At the same time, all who hold this opinion admit, that the
amount of oxygen gas thus absorbed by night is very much less
than that given off by day. Thus, the experiments of Saussure
and Daubeny prove, that if plants be enclosed in jars containing
ordinary atmospheric air, and be Supplied under such circum-
stances with carbon dioxide, the quantity of oxygen gas in the
contained air becomes increased.
Some authors, such as Burnett, Carpenter, and Garreau,
maintain that carbon dioxide is given off by the leaves in vary-
ing quantities, both by day and night ; whilst others again, such
as Pepys, Cloez, and Gratiolet, deny that leaves, at any time
when in a healthy state, give off carbon dioxide.
Those, again, who hold the opinion that leaves when ex-
posed to solar light give off oxygen, in consequence of the
absorption and decomposition of carbon dioxide, and that a
contrary change takes place by night, maintain different views
upon the nature of these changes. Some of them regard the
evolution of oxygen by day asa true vegetable respiration, and
hence look upon vegetable respiration as producing results upon
the atmosphere we breathe diametrically opposite to those of
animal respiration. Others, such as Mohl and Henfrey, say
that here we have two distinct functions going on,—one, taking
place by day, and consisting in the consumption of carbon di-
oxide, with fixation of carbon and evolution of oxygen; and
another, only occurring by night, in the leaves and other green
parts, but also by night and day in those not green, and which
consist in the absorption of oxygen and evolution of carbon
dioxide. The former function they regard as a process of as-
similation, aud the latter as respiration. Broughton has more
recently demonstrated a constant evolution of carbon dioxide
from nearly all parts of growing plants, and considers that
this gas, though partly due to previous oxidation, is mainly
separated from the proximate principles during chemical
changes.
Those who maintain Burnett’s views regard the constant
3F
802 ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES.
exhalation of carbon dioxide by day and night, as constituting
vegetable respiration ; and the exhalation of oxygen by day, as
connected with assimilation ; while the supporters of Pepys’
views regard the exhalation of oxygen gas as vegetable respira-
tion. Pepys says that oxygen is given off by the leaves both
by night and day, but in a greatly accelerated degree during
the day ; by most observers, however, no evolution of oxygen
has been traced at night.
It will be seen from the above abstract of the opinions of
different physiologists, that various ideas have been entertained
by them as to the action of the leaves and other green organs
under different degrees of light ; and also upon the character of
such changes. Generally, it may be stated,—that all agree as
to the evolution of oxygen by the leaves and other green parts
of plants under the influence of solar ight with the fixation of
carbon, i.e. the deoxidation of assimilable materials, to which
process the term assimilation is applied in this volume in accord-
ance with the views now commonly entertained by botanists ;
while that of respiration is here used to denote the absorption
of oxygen and evolution of carbon dioxide, which takes place
both by night and day, but is most evident by night, because
the large quantity of oxygen given off during the day in the
process of assimilation obscures the former change. In certain
plants the sun’s light appears to be stored up in some unknown
way for future use, so that we find some aquatic plants after
exposure to its influence disengage bubbles of oxygen in the -
dark.
Whatever views we may entertain, all admit that this evo-
lution of oxygen gas by day has a most important influence in
Nature. This will be at once evident when it is remembered
that it is the only known process by which oxygen gas,—so
essential to our existence, and which is constantly being re-
moved from the atmosphere we breathe, by the respiration of
man and other animals, by the process of combustion, by oxi-
dation of mineral matter, and by other processes that are con-
stantly goimg on upon the globe,—is restored to it in a free
condition. Thus we see that, ‘the two great organised king-
doms of nature are made to co-operate in the execution of the
same design ; each ministering to the other, and preserving that
due balance in the constitution of the atmosphere which adapts
it to the welfare and activity of every order of beings, and which
would soon be destroyed were the operations of either of them
to be suspended. It is impossible to contemplate so special an
adjustment of opposite effects without admiring this beautiful
dispensation of Providence, extending over so vast a scale of
being, and demonstrating the unity of plan upon which the
whole system of organised creation has been devised.’
In alike manner, plants purify the water in which they grow,
and render it habitable by certain animals. We all know by early
Se a —————
es =
ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. 803
experience, that if fish or other aquatic animals be placed in
water in which no plants are grown, they will soon perish. This
is partly because, as there is then nothing present in the water
to destroy the noxious matters which are given off by the
animals in their respiration and other processes, they are de-
stroyed by their own action upon the medium in which they are
placed. In nature, we always find plants existing with animal
life in the water, so that the injurious influence communicated
by the latter to that medium is counteracted by the assimilation
ofthe former: this compensating influence cf plants and animals
is beautifully illustrated in our aquaria. We are taught by
these facts that it is absolutely necessary, if we desire to main-
tain a large town in a healthy state, to set apart large areas and
plant them freely.
How far our views regarding the purifying influence of plants
may require modification bythe discovery by Boussingault of the
evolution of a certain proportion of such a poisonous gas as car-
bon oxide, together with oxygen, it is at present impossible
to say ; but the subject is one of the very greatest importance,
and cannot but repay further careful investigation. Boussingault
has even thrown out a suggestion, that in some cases, so far
from plants purifying the air, they may, on the contrary, cause
the atmosphere of marshy districts, where they are in excess, to
be unhealthy. It is also probable that one cause of the un-
healthiness of densely wooded districts may be due to the
evolution of carbon oxide. With reference to the above con-
clusions of Boussingault, it may be remarked, that his experi-
ments were solely made by putting plants or the green parts
of plants in water previously impregnated with carbon dioxide.
The conditions, therefore, under which carbon oxide was formed
were not altogether natural ones ; and hence it is desirable that
future experimenters should test plants growing in the air as
well as in water, and in every respect in as nearly as possible
their ordinary states of existence.
There exists a widely spread notion, that plants, when grown
in rooms where there is but little ventilation, and hence, espe-
cially in our sleeping apartments, have an injurious influence
upon the contained air. This idea has arisen from a knowledge
of the fact that plants, as already noticed, when not exposed to
solar light, have a contrary effect upon the atmosphere to that
which they have when submitted to its influence ; that is to say,
that they then absorb oxygen and give off carbon dioxide, in-
stead of absorbing carbon dioxide and giving off oxygen. But
the amount of carbon dioxide which is then given off by plants
is so extremely small, that it can have no sensible effect upon
_ the atmosphere in which they are placed. It might be readily
shown that it would require some thousands of plants, in this
way, to vitiate the air of a room to anything like the extent
of that of a single animal, and that, therefore, the idea of a
3 F2
804 FORMATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY LEAVES,
few plants rendering the air of close rooms unwholesome by
their action, is altogether erroneous. It is certain, however,
that, under such circumstances, the odours of plants may affect
injuriously, to some extent at least, individuals of ‘delicate
organisation or peculiar idiosyncrasies.
(4) Formation of Organic Compounds by Leaves.—By the
alterations produced in the watery contents of the green leaves,
&c., by exposure to light, heat, and air, the matters which they
contain are left in a very active chemical condition or in a state
prone to change, and therefore freely combine together. ‘By
this means the different organic compounds are produced which
are concerned in the development of new tissues ; and in the
formation of others, such as resinous matters, various acids,
numerous alkaloids, colouring matters, &c., which, so far as
we know at present, perform no further active part in the
plant, and are accordingly removed from the young and vitally
active parts, and either stored up in the older tissues as se-
cretions, or removed altogether from the plant as excretions.
(See page 792.) The production of these organic substances
takes place by assimilation, and metastasis. (See page 823.)
We see, therefore, that without leaves cr other analogous
green organs no growth to any extent could take place, or
any peculiar secretions be formed ; but it must be also recollected
that without the exposure of even the leaves to light, no proper
assimilation of the various matters taken up by the plant can be
effected ; for instance, if a plant be put into the dark, it becomes
blanched (etiolated), in consequence of the non-development of
chlorophyll, and, moreover, no woody matter is then formed
(page 794), and but few of its peculiar secretions. The
experiments of Pringsheim tend to show that the earliest
nutritive product produced by the influence of light, heat, and
air is formed in the interior of the chlorophyll grains. This
principle he has termed hypochlorin, and by its oxidation he
believes that all nutritive bodies, such as starch, glucose, and
oil, are formed. It is also supposed by Pringsheim that the
function of the green colouring matter is to act as a screen, and
to reject the rays of the spectrum favouring oxidation, and to
allow those only to pass which aid nutrition. It is possible,
however, that the hypochlorin is simply the result of the action
of the hydrochloric acid used in the experiment upon the
chlorophyll.
The effect of the absence of light upon plants is well shown
when a potato tuber sprouts in the dark, in which case the whole
of the tissues formed are seen to become etiolated, and ultimately
to die ; or when potatoes are reared with a diminished supply of
light, as in an orchard, or under trees, when the tubers are
found to be watery in consequence of the small quantity of starch
then produced. Another illustration of the effect produced by
the absence of light is affordedin growing certain vegetables for
Ss.
EFFECTS OF GASES GENERALLY UPON LEAVES. 805
the table, such as Sea-kale, Celery, &c. In these instances
when the plants are grown freely exposed to light, as in their
natural conditions, they form abundance of woody matter,
which renders them tough or stringy ; and also peculiar secretions,
which are either unpleasant to the taste or absolutely injurious.
But the formation of these secretions, and also of the woody
matter, is interfered with when the access of light is more or
less prevented, and the plants then become useful vegetables.
How such a vast variety of compound substances can be
formed in such simply organised bodies as plants, is at present
almost unknown. It is to the labours of the physiological
chemist that we must look for the elucidation of this important
matter ; but as it is not our purpose to allude to the various
theories that have been entertained upon their formation and
nature, we must refer the student to chemical works for full
details upon this subject. It is, however, certain that the elimi-
nation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, already described, are
results of these chemical processes. The food of plants is
highly oxygenated as compared with the important proximate
principles tormed within their leaf-cells, and hence a disengage-
ment of oxygen must occur during their formation.
(5) Effects of Gases generally upon Leaves.—In the last section
we have seen that those ordinary normal constituents of atmo-
spheric air, namely, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and am-
monia, in certain proportions, are especially necessary for the
due elaboration of the various organic compounds of plants, and
we have also shown that they are absorbed by the leaves or roots,
or by both. It is by leaves especially, or perhaps entirely (see
page 815), that carbon, which is so essential to plants, and which
enters so largely into the composition of their various products and
secretions, isabsorbed. Butit must be understood, at the same
time, that plants will not live in an atmosphere composed simply
of either carbon dioxide, oxygen, or nitrogen ; but that for
their proper development these gases must be mixed in suit-
able proportions, for if either of them be in great excess, the
plants will either languish or perish, according to circumstances.
Plants will, however, flourish in an atmosphere containing a
moderate addition of carbon dioxide, even more vigorously than
in ordinary atmospheric air; but if the amount be considerably
increased, they will perish. This injurious effect of carbon
dioxide, when in excessive amount, would seem to be owing
to a directly poisonous influence. When plants are placed in
pure nitrogen or oxygen, or under any other circumstances
where they cannot obtain a suitable supply of carbon dioxide, |
they soon decay.
Whilst the above gases in suitable proportions are necessary
to the due performance of the proper functions of plants, all other
gases when mixed in the air in which they are placed, appear to
act more or less injuriously upon them. ‘This is more parti-
806 WARDIAN CASES.
cularly the case with sulphurous acid and hydrochloric acid
gases, even in small quantities ; but an atmosphere containing
much ammonia, common coal gas, cyanogen, &c., also acts pre-
judicially.
The action of sulphurous and hydrochloric acid gases upon
plants appears to resemble that of irritants upon animals ; thus
they first exert a local action upon the extremities of the leaves, .
and this influence is soon communicated to the deeper tissues,
and if the plants be not removed into a purer air, they will
perish ; but when such gases are not in great quantities, if the
plants are speedily removed from their influence, they usually
revive, the parts attacked being alone permanently injured.
While the gases thus mentioned act as irritant poisons upon
plants, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon oxide, common coal gas,
cyanogen, and others, seem to exert an influence upon them
like that produced by narcotic poisons upon animals, for by their
action a general injurious influence is produced on their vitality,
and a drooping of the leaves, &c., takes place ; and, morever,
when such is the case, no after removal into a purer air will
cause them to revive. .
As the above gases are constantly present in the air of large
towns, and more especially in those where chemical processes
ona large scale are going on, we have at once an explanation of
the reason why plants submitted to such influences will not
thrive. The air of an ordinary sitting room, and especially one
where gas is burned, is also rendered more or less unsuitable to
the healthy growth of plants, in consequence of the production
of injurious gases as well as from the dryness of the atmosphere.
Wardian Cases.—In order to protect plants from the injurious
influences thus exerted upon them by the soot and impure air
of large towns, the late N. B. Ward introduced the plan of
growing them under closed glass cases which has been found to
succeed so admirably. These cases consist essentially of a box or
trough in which a suitable soil is placed ; in this the plants are
put. and the whole is then covered by a closely fitting glass case.
it is necessary, at first, to water the plants freely. When plants
are grown under such circumstances, upon exposure to light and
air, transpiration takes place from their leaves, as under ordinary
conditions of growth ; the fluid thus transpired is, however,
here condensed upon the surface of the glass case which encloses
the plants, and ultimately returned to the soil. It is thus
brought into contact again with the roots of the plants, to be
again absorbed and exhaled by them; and these changes are
continually repeated, so that the plants are always freely ex-
posed to moisture, and do not require a further supply of water
for a considerable period. Those plants, especially, which suc-
ceed best in a damp atmosphere, as is commonly the case with
Ferns, do exceedingly well in such cases. The important in-
fluence which is exerted by the invention is, the protection of
COLOUR OF LEAVES. 807
the contained plants from immediate contact with air impregnated
with soot and other injurious substances ; for in consequence of
the glass cover fitting closely to the trough in which the plants are
placed, the external air in its passage has to pass through the
very narrow crevices beneath the cover, and in so doing becomes
_ filtered, as it were, in a great measure from its impurities,
before it is brought into contact with them.
Besides the use of these cases in growing plants luxuriantly
in those places where, under ordinary circumstances, they would
perish, or at all events grow but languidly, they havea still more
important application, for they have now been most successfully
employed in transporting plants from one country to another
which under ordinary circumstances would have died in their
transit, and whose seeds could not have been transported
without losing their vitality. The action of the Wardian cases
in this mode of transporting plants is twofold: in the first
place, the plants are protected from the influence of salt breezes,
which are in most instances very injurious to them; and,
secondly, the atmosphere of such cases remains in a quiet state,
and they are therefore also protected from rapid changes of
temperature.
(6) Colowr of Leaves.—The green colour of leaves is due to
chlorophyll contained in the cells situated beneath the epidermis.
Chlorophyll bodies may be formed in the dark, but remain
yellow, only becoming green under the influence of light, and
hence the leavesand other parts of plants grown in darkness are
blanched or etiolated (page 804). To this rule there are some not-
able exceptions—viz., the germinating seeds of many Coniferx
and the fronds of Ferns, which will become green even in total
darkness, provided that the temperature is sufficiently high. If
plants with green leaves be withdrawn from the action of light
and be placed in the dark, these leaves soon fall; and if others
are produced, they have a whitish or yellowish colour. Again,
if plants which have been grown in the dark be removed to the
light, the leaves upon them soon lose their whitish hue and
become green. The rapidity with which leaves become grcen,
and the intensity of their colour, will be in proportion to the
amount of light and heat (25°-30° C. being about the maximum)
to which they have been exposed. It has also been shown that
iron is necessary for the production of chlorophyll. (See also
The Effect of the Electric Light on the Growth of Plants, &c.,
page 858.)
The different rays of the spectrum have a varying influence
in promoting the formation of chlorophyll. Some difference
of opinion exists as to those rays which are most active in
this respect, but the majority of experimenters agree that the
illuminating or yellow rays—namely, those which, as we have
already seen (page 800), have the greatest effect in promoting
the decomposition of carbon dioxide—are those also which are
the most active in the production of chlorophyll.
808 NATURE OF CHLOROPHYLL.
M. Frémy has investigated the nature of chlorophyll, and
ascertained that it is composed of two colouring principles,—
one ayellow, which he has termed phylloxanthin or canthophyll ;
and the other a blue, which he has called phyllocyanin or cyano-
phyll. Both these principles have been isolated by M. Frémy,
who has also endeavoured to show that the yellow colour of
etiolated and very young leaves is due to the presence of a body
which he has termed phyllawanthéin, and which is coloured blue
by the vapour of acids. The same principle results from the
Fig. 1148.
i A IV
Fig. 1148. Absorption spectra of chlorophyll and xanthophyll. (After Kraus. )
The upper spectrum is given by an alcoholic extract of leaves, the middle
one by dissolving chlorophyll in benzol, and the lowest by xanthophyll.
The bands in the least refrangible portion B-§E are figured as obtained
with a concentrated so’ ution; those in the most refrangib.e part of the
spectrum F-G are given as obtained with a weak solution. The letters
B-G indicate the principal rays, the numbers I-viI the absorption bands
of chlorophyll from red to violet, and the figures 0-100 divide the length
of the spectrum into 100 equal parts. (After Sachs.)
decoloration of phyllocyanin ; hence it would seem that phyllo-
cyanin is not an immediate principle, but that it is formed
by the alteration of phylloxanthéin. The experiments of M.
Filhol do not, however, altogether correspond with those of
M. Frémy, whilst the more recent spectroscopic investigations
of Professor Stokes and H. L. Smith tend to show that chloro-
phyll is more complex than M. Frémy imagined.
Chlorophyll is stated by Sorby to exist in a blue and also
in a yellow state, giving different effects with the spectroscope,
and Kraus finds that by shaking up an alcoholic solution of
chlorophyll with benzol, two clearly separated strata are formed,
a lower alcoholic one of a yellow colour, and an upper one of
—
= oe
VARIEGATION IN LEAVES.—PLASTIDS. 809
benzol with a blue-green colour (see fig. 1148). Chlorofwein is
another colouring matter, which, like the two preceding, is
fluorescent, and has a yellow-green colour. These three are
soluble in alcohol, but not at all in water, and not always in
bisulphide of carbon. Sorby also describes other colouring
matters which are soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and give
different results to the foregoing with the spectroscope.
The autumnal tints of leaves, which are generally some
shades of yellow, brown, or red, are commonly regarded as due
to varying degrees of oxidation of the chlorophyll which their
cells contain, to which change Henfrey applied the term ‘ decay
of chlorophyll.’ The experiments of M. Frémy show that the
yellow leaves of autumn contain no phyllocyanin, and hence
that their colour is entirely due to the phylloxanthin, either in
its original condition or in an altered state. Strong light may
produce a fading of leaves and other green parts, which change
appears to be due to an alteration in the position of the grains
of chlorophyll in the cells, and is termed epistrophe or apostrophe
as the case may be.
When leaves are of some other colour than green, the dif-
ferent colours are produced either by an alteration of the chloro-
phyll or of one of the principles of which it is formed, or in
consequence of the presence of some other colouring agent.
Variegation in leaves must be regarded as a diseased condi-
tion of the cells of which they are composed ; it is commonly
produced by hybridisation, grafting, differences of climate, soil,
and other influences. The variegated tints are due either to
the presence of air in some of the cells, or more commonly to an
alteration of the chlorophyll of certain cells, or one of the
substances of which chloropbyll is composed. (See also Colowr
of Flowers, page 828.) To all these solid bodies contained in
the cells and connected with its coloration or starch production,
Schimper applies the general term of plastids. Schimper uses
prefixes to the different plastids thus :—Starch-forming cor-
puscles and colourless plastids which do not form starch he
terms leukoplastids ; chlorophyll granules chloroplastids, and other
colouring granules chromoplastids. From the observations of
Schimper it seems that all these plastids have a common origin :
viz. that they are the result of the division of leukoplastids,
and never originate, as was formerly believed, by free cell-for-
mation. Some plastids have an active life, assimilating, forming
starch or pigments, increasing by division, &c. ; others having
temporarily or permanently little or no vital functions, as is the
case with many leukoplastids. Further, these passive plastids
are frequently crystalline in form ; the active plastids, especially
in the higher plants, being usually round. The passive crys-
talline forms are doubly refractive. The crystaliine forms
may become spherical, and conversely, those which are spherical
and active may become crystalline. From leukoplastids may
810 DEFOLIATION, OR THE FALL OF THE LEAF.
be produced either chluro- or chromo-plastids, and the latter
may also be formed from chloroplastids.. Meyer and Schmidt
confirm these views in a remarkable manner, while Schmidt
further suggests that there is some definite and close relation-
ship between these plastids and nuclei.
(7) Defoliation, or the Fall of the Leaf.—Leaves are essentially
temporary organs ; for after a certain period, which varies in
different plants, they either gradually wither upon the stem,
as is usual in Monocotyledons and Cormophytes (see page 190),
and also in some Dicotyledons (page 189) ; or they separate from
the stem by means of an articulation when they have performed
their active functions, or even sometimes when quite green.
In the former case, as we have seen, the leaves are described
as non-articulated ; in the latter, as articulated. In the
trees of this and other temperate climates the leaves commonly
fall off the same year in which they are developed, that is,
before the winter months ; and in those of warm and tropical
regions the fall of the leaf often takes place at the dry season.
But the leaves of some other plants, such as Firs, Boxes, Hollies,
frequently remain for two or more years. In the former case
they are said to be annual or deciduous, and in the latter
persistent or evergreen. The fall of the leaf is commonly termed
defoliation.
The cause or causes which lead to the death of the leaf are by
no means well understcod. The opinion commonly entertained
is this: the membrane constituting the walls of their cells gra-
dually becomes so incrusted by the deposit of earthy and other
matters which are left behind by the fluid substances which are
contained in or transmitted through them, that ultimately the
tissues of the leaf become choked up and are no longer able to
perform their proper functions, and the leaf then begins to dry
up. After its death the leaf may either fall, or remain attached
to the stem, as already observed.
The fall of the leaf does not, then, depend upon the death
of the organ ; it may occur before death, or may not take place
at all. When it happens, it is dependent on an organic sepa-
ration or articulation, which Asa Gray thus describes :—‘ The
formation of the articulation is a vital process, a kind of disin-
tegration of a transverse layer of cells, which cuts off the petiole
by a regular line, in a pertectly uniform manner in each spe-
cies, leaving a clean scar (fiy. 207, b, b) at the insertion. The
solution of continuity begins at the epidermis, where a faint
line marks the position of the future joint while the leaf is
still young and vigorous; later, the line of demarcation be-
comes well marked, internally as well as externally ; the disin-
tegrating process advances from without inwards until it reaches
the woody bundles; and the side next the stem, which is to
form the surface of the scar, has a layer of cells condensed into
what appears like a prolongation of the epidermis, so that when
Si ok
DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES. 811
the leaf separates,’ as Inman says, ‘the tree does not suffer
from the effect of an open wound.’ Gray then, quoting Inman,
adds :—‘ The provision for the separation being once complete,
it requires little to effect it ; a desiccation of one side of the
leaf-stalk, by causing an effort of torsion, will readily break
through the small remains of the fibro-vascular bundles ; or the
increased size of the coming leaf-bud will snap them ; or, if
these causes are not in operation, a gust of wind, a heavy
shower, or even the simple weight of the lamina, will be
enough to disrupt the small connexions and send the suicidal
member to the grave. Such is the history of the fall of the
leaf.’
(8) Development of Leaves.—Leaves and all their homologous
forms, such as the parts of flowers, &c. are developed late-
rally just below the apex of the stem by cell-division either of
a group of cells as in the Phanerogams, or of a single cell as
in the Vascular Cryptogams. A conical papilla, or (in sheath-
ing leaves) an annular collar, is then the result of a deflection
to one side of a group of these divided cells. Leaves are
formed acropetally or indefini'ely, the youngest always being
the highest, according to the laws of Phyllotaxy. ‘The papille
from which the leaves originate are at first wholly cellular, con-
sisting of periblem or proto-meristem, covered by a layer of
dermatogen cells ; after a time elongated cells are formed in the
centre ; and these are followed by spiral vessels, formed in a
direction from the base upwards.’ The first formed part of the
leaf generally corresponds with its apex or with the summit of
the common petiole—i.e. the apex of a leaf is generally its oldest
instead of its youngest part as is the case with the stems where
the apex is the growing point. (See page 795.) In leaves the
apical growth soon ceases, though interstitial growth continues.
The following is an abstract of Trécul’s conclusions :—
‘All leaves originate in a primary cellular mamilla, with or
without a basal swelling, according as they are to have sheaths
or not; they are developed after four principal types : (1) the
centrifugal formation, from below upwards ; (2) the centripetal
formation, from above downwards ; (3) the mixed formation ; and
(4) the parallel formation. The centrifugal or basifugal develop-
ment may be illustrated by the leaf of the Lime-tree, which
begins as a simple tumvur at the apex of the stem. This tumour
lengthens and enlarges, leaving at its base a contraction which
represents the petiole. The blade, at first eutire, is soon divided
from side toside byasinus. The lower lobe is the tirst secondary
vein. The upper lobe is divided in the same manner five or
six times, forming as many secondary veins. Sinuosities then
appear in the lower lobe, indicating the ramifications of the
lower vein ; and, finally, fresh toothings appear corresponding
with more minute ramifications. Thus the various veins in the
leaf of the Lime-tree are developed like the shoots of the tree
812 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.
that bears them, and the toothing does not arise from cells
specially adapted for that purpose on the edge of the leaf, as
Mercklin has supposed. The hairs on the under surface of the
leaf are also formed from below upwards.
‘Leaves developed centripetally (called also the basilar or
basipetal mode of leaf formation) are more numerous than the
preceding, and this method may be well studied in the formation
of the leaves of the Hyacinth; of this sort are the leaves of
* Sanguisorba officinalis, Rosa arvensis, Cephalarva procera, ce.
In them the terminal leaflet is first produced, and the others
appear in successive pairs downwards from apex to base. The
stipules are produced before the lower leaflets. All digitate
leaves, and those with radiating venation, belong to the cen-
tripetal mode of formation as regards their digitate venation.
‘In some plants, as Acer, the two preceding modes of de-
velopment are combined. This is called mixed formation. In
Acer platanoides the lobes and the midribs of the radiating lobes
form from above downwards, the lower lobes being produced
last, but the secondary venations and toothings are developed
like those of the Lime-tree. In Monocotyledons we meet with
the parallel (included by some writers with the basilar) leaf - 4
formation of Trécul. All the veins are formed in a parallel
manner, the sheath appearing first. The leaf lengthens espe-
cially by the base of the blade, or that of the petiole when
present.
‘Leaves furnished with sheaths, or having their lower por-
tions protected by other organs, grow most by their base ; while
those which have the whole petiole early exposed to the air grow
much more towards the upper part of the petiole.’
CHAPTER 2.
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY, OR LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT.
Havine now briefly treated of the special functions of the
elementary structures and of the organs of nutrition, as such
structures are alone intimately concerned in maintaining the
life of the plant and its various organs, we proceed to give a
sketch of general physiology, or the whole plant in a state of
life or action. In doing so, we shall first notice the substances
required as food by plants and their sources ; then proceed to
consider the function of absorption, or that process by which
food is taken up dissolved in water ; and lastly, show how this
fluid food is distributed through the plant, and altered in the
leaves, so as to be adapted for the development of new tissues,
* =
FOOD OF PLANTS AND ITS SOURCES. 813
and the formation of other organic compounds, which are com-
monly termed secretions.
Section 1. Foop or PLANTS AND ITS SouRCEs.
The various substances required as food can be only ascer-
tained by determining the elementary composition of the parts
and products of plants ; for as plants have no power of forming
these elements for themselves, they must have derived them from
external sources.
As plants are incapable of locomotion, being fixed to the soil
or to the substance upon which they grow, or floating or sus-
pended in water, they must obtain their food from the media by
which they are surrounded, that is, as a general rule, from the
soi], or from the air, or from both; but no plants can take up
their food except in the state of gas or vapour, or in a fluidstate.
In by far the majority of cases plants take up their food, both
from the air by their leaves in a gaseous or vaporous state, and
from the earth dissolved in water by their roots. But plants
which are termed Epiphytes or Air Plants, as many Orchids
(fig. 256), derive their food entirely from the air by which they
are surrounded (see page 131); while Parasites (figs. 257 and
258) and Saprophytes essentially differ from both Epiphytes
and ordinary plants in the fact that their food, instead of being
derived entirely from inorganic materials, which are afterwards
assimilated in their tissues, is obtained entirely or partially from
the plants upon which they grow, that is, in an already assimilated
condition, or, as in Saprophytes, from organic matter in a state
of decay (see page 133).
The materials of which plants are composed, and which, as
stated above, are either derived from the air, or the earth, or
more commonly from both, and which consequently constitute
their food, form respectively their organic and inorganic com-
pounds ; and in all plants there is also a varying proportion of
water. The process of burning enables us conveniently to
distinguish, to a great extent at least, the comparative propor-
tion of these organic and inorganic compounds, and acquaints
us with one of their distinctive peculiarities. Thus, if we take
a piece of wood, or a leaf, or any other part of a plant, and
burn it as perfectly as we are able, we find that the greater
portion disappears in the form of gas and vapour, but a small
portion of the original substance remains in the form of ash or
-incombustible material. The former or combustible portion is
made up of organic compounds or volatile constituents, that is to
say, of combinations of carbon with other elements, and the
latter portion of inorganic compounds. The relative proportion
of the organic and inorganic constituents varies in different
plants; but, as a general rule, the former constitute from 92 to
99 parts, while the latter form from 1 to about 8 parts in every
100.
814 FOOD OF PLANTS.—ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS,
1. The Organic or Volatile Constituents, and their Sowrces.—
The organic constituents of plants are, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydro-
gen, Nitrogen, and Sulphur. The first three alone form the
cellulose of which the cell-walls are composed (see pages 4 and
23); while the protoplasmic contents of the cell are formed of
compounds of these three elements with the two other organic
constituents, namely, nitrogen and sulphur (see page 26). Phos-
phorus is also regarded as a necessary constituent of these nitro-
genous cell-contents (page 26); but it belongs to the inorganic
constituents.
These organic constituents are required alike by every species
of plant, hence the great bulk of all plants is composed of the
same elements, although the proportion of these varies to some
extent in the different species, and even in different parts of
the same plant. The following table, by Johnston, indicates
approximately the relative proportion of the organic and inorganic
constituents of some of our vegetable food substances in 1,000
parts, and of the different elements of which the former are
composed. These substances were first dried at a temperature
of 230° Fahr. :—
Wheat. Oats. Peas. Hay. Turnips. Potatoes.
Carbon. -2" 3s 455 507 465 458 429 441
Bedroven..! <i: y) 88. 64 61 5U 56 58
Oxyoen 2 sy «450 367 401 587 422 439
Nitrogen . ae On) 22 42 15 li 12
AGU anh tee 28 40 51 90 76 50
We must now make a few remarks on each of the organic
constituents, the sources from which they are derived, and the
state in which they are taken up by plants.
Carbon is the most abundant organic constituent, forming as it
does from 40 to 60 per cent. of the weight of the entire dried sub-
stance of different species of plants. That plants thus contain a
large proportion of carbon may be conveniently proved by taking
a piece of wood, the weight of which has been ascertained, and
converting it into charcoal, which is impure carbon containing in
its substance also a small quantity of the inorganic constituents
or ash. The charcoal thus produced is of the same form as the
piece of wood from which it was obtained, and when weighed
it will be found to have constituted a large proportion of its
original substance. As carbon is a solid substance and insoluble
in water, it cannot be taken up in its simple state, for plants, as
already noticed, can only take up their food as gas or vapour,
or dissolved in water. In the state of combination, however,
with oxygen, it forms carbon dioxide, which is always present
in the atmosphere and the soil. Carbon dioxide is also soluble
to some extent in water. Hence we have no difticulty in
ascertaining the source of carbon and the condition and mode
in which it is absorbed by the plant ; thus it is taken up essen-
tially combined with oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide,
“(24 oe
FOOD OF PLANTS —ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 815
from the air directly in a gaseous state by the leaves, and, ac-
cording to some, to a small extent from the earth, dissolved in
water, by the roots. Sachs, however, states: ‘ The fact is un-
questionable that most plants which contain chlorophyll obtain
the entire quantity of their carbon by the decomposition of at-
mospheric carbon dioxide, and require for their nutrition no
other compound of carbon from without. But there are also
plants which possess no chlorophyll, and in which, therefore,
the means of decomposing carbon dioxide is w anting : these
must absorb the carbon necessary for their constitution in the
form of other compounds. . . . Even the food of Fungi which
are parasitic in and on animals is derived from the products of -
assimilation of plants containing chlorophyll, inasmuch as the
«whole animal kingdom is dependent on them for its nutrition.’
Oxygen is, next to carbon, the most abundant organic con-
stituent of plants ; ; and when we consider to what an enormous
extent it exists in nature, constituting as it does about 21 per
cent. by volume of the atmosphere we breathe, eight-ninths by
weight of the water we drink, and at least one- half of the solid
materials around us and of the bodies of all living animals, we
see that there are abundant materials from which plants can
obtain this necessary portion of their food. The whole of the
oxygen required by plants, except the small quantity which is
necessary in the process of respiration (page 802) appears to be
taken up either-combined with hydrogen in the form of water,
with carbon as carbon dioxide, or in the form of oxygen salts.
Some of the oxygen is therefore obtained by the rootsfrom the soil,
and some from the air by the leaves.
Hydrogen, the third organic constituent of plants, as just
noticed, forms one-ninth by weight of water, and it isin this form
that plants obtain nearly the whole of the hydrogen they require
as food. It does not exist in a free state in the atmosphere
nor in the soil, and hence cannot be obtained by plants in a
simple state. But in combination with nitrogen it forms
ammonia, which always exists to some extent in the atmosphere
and in the excretions of animals ; and is also always produced
during the decomposition of animal matter. Ammonia exists in
a gaseous state in the atmosphere, and being freely soluble in
water, the rain as it passes through the air dissolves it, and car-
ries it down to the roots, by which organs it is taken up. The
roots in like manner absorb the ammonia dissolved in water
which is contained in the soil. While the larger proportion of
hydrogen, therefore, is taken up combined with oxygen as
water, a small portion is acquired with nitrogen in the form of
ammonia.
Nitrogen, the fourth and last organic constituent of plants,
constitutes about 79 per cent. of the volume of the atmosphere,
and is an important ingredient in animal tissues. It also exists
in combination with oxygen as nitric acid in rain water, and in
816 FOOD OF PLANTS.—INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.
the soil as a constituent of the various nitrates and animal pro-
ducts there found. Whether nitrogen can be taken up by plants
in a free state is at present very doubtful (see page 799), though
most probably it cannot ; for if all other necessary food materials
be supplied to plants, but all sources of ammonia, or compounds
of nitric acid, rendered inaccessible, the albuminoids and nitro-
genous substances generally do not increase, although the plants
may be freely exposed to the nitrogen-containing atmosphere,
hence it is quite clear that the principal form in which it is absorbed
is as ammonia.
Sulphur, the only other organic constituent, and which, as
we have noticed (page 26), is always combined with nitrogen
and phosphorus in the protoplasmic cell-contents, is absorbed
in a state of combination from the soil dissolved in water by the»
roots.
In reviewing the sources of, and modes in which, the different
organic or volatile constituents of plants are derived and taken
up, we see that the sources are the earth and the air, more par-
ticularly the latter ; and that they are principally absorbed in
the forms of carbon dioxide and water, the latter of which is not
only food in itself, as it is composed of oxygen and hydrogen,
two of the essential organic constituents of plants, but it is also
an important vehicle by which other food is conveyed to them.
2. The Inorganic Constituents or Ash, and their Sources.—The
amount of inorganic matter found in plants, as already observed
(page 813), is very much less than that of the organic. The
inorganic matters are all derived from the earth in a state of
solution in water, and hence we see again how important a pro-
per supply of water is to plants. W hile the organic constituents
are the same for all plants, the inorganic constituents vary very
much in the different kinds of plants.
The inorganic constituents differ from the organic also,
in the following particulars :—1st, they are incombustible, and
hence remain as ash, when the organic constituents are dissipated
by burning ; and, 2ud, they are not liable to putretaction, as is
the case with them, under the influence of warmth and moisture.
The inorganic constituents of plants are as follows :—Phos-
phorus, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Fluorine, Silicon, Potassium,
Sodium, Calcium, Strontium, Magnesium, Aluminium, Man-
ganesium, Iron, Zine, Titanium, Lithium, Cesium, Rubidium,
Arsenic, Copper, Lead, Cobalt, Nickel, and Barium. Some of
these appear to be almost universally distributed in varying
proportions, but others are only occasionally met with. The
more important are Phosphorus, Chlorine, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, and Iron, which appear to be absolutely necessary
for the nutrition of plants. The various inorganic constituents
are not taken up in their simple states, but as soluble oxides,
chlorides, brumides, fluorides, sulphates, phosphates, silicates,
&e.
ROTATION OF CROPS. 817
Although the amount of inorganic matter in plants is very
much smaller than that of the organic, still this portion, however
small, is necessary to the life and vigorous development of most
plants, and probably of all; although in certain Moulds no
inorganic constituents have been detected.
The inorganic constituents of plants are of great impcrtance
in an agricultural point of view, and in growing plants for use
in medicine, &c., as it is to their presence or absence, their
relative quantities, and the solubility or insolubility of their
compounds, in a particular soil, that it owes its fertility or
otherwise, and its adaptability of growing with success one or
another kind of plant.
Rotation of Crops.—-The principle of the rotation of crops
in agriculture is founded upon the fact of different plants re-
quiring different inorganic compounds for their successful culti-
vation ; and hence a particular soil which is rich in materials
necessary for some plants, may be wanting or deficient in
those required by others. Thus, Wheat or any cereal crop re-
quires more especially for its proper growth a full supply of
silica and phosphates ; hence it will only flourish in a soil con-
taining the necessary amount of such substances. As growth
proceeds, these constituents are absorbed in a state of solu-
tion by the roots, and are applied to the requirements of the
plants. When the grain is ripe, it is removed as well as the
straw, and the silica and phosphates obtained from the soil will
thus be also removed with them ; the result of this is necessarily,
except in fertile virgin soil, that these ingredients will not be
then contained in the soil in sufficient quantities to support
immediately the growth of the same species of plants. But by
growing in a soil thus exhausted by Wheat, another crop of a
different kind, such as Clover, Peas or Beans, which requires
either altogether different substances, or a different amount, or
other combinations of the same substances, or whose roots
penetrate to a greater or less depth, we may obtain a profitable
crop ; while at the same time certain chemical changes will go
on in the soil, and other ingredients be taken up from the atmo-
sphere, and in other ways, by which the land will be again
adapted for the growth of Wheat.
The consideration of the above facts shows how important it
is for the agriculturist to have some acquaintance with vegetable
physiology and chemistry. He should know the composition of
the various soils, and the plants which he cultivates, as well as
the nature of the compounds required by them, and the modes
in.which they are taken up, and thus be able to adapt particu-
lar plants to the soils proper for them. If such soils do not
contain the substances necessary for their life and vigour, he
must supply them in the form of manures. The applications of
chemistry and vegetable physiology to agriculture are thus seen
to be most important, and the great practical improvements
3G
818 LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT.
which have of late years taken place are mainly due to the in-
creased interest taken in such matters, and the many admirable
researches to which it has led. But however interesting in an
agricultural point of view these applications may be, our neces-
sary limits will not allow us to dwell upon them further.
Section 2. LirE OF THE WHOLE PLANT, OR THE PLANT IN
ACTION.
The various substances required by plants as food having now
been considered, we have in the next place briefly to show how
that food is taken up by them, distributed through their tissues,
and altered and adapted for their requirements. The considera-
tion of these matters involves a notice of the functions of vege-
tation. The more important facts connected with these functions
have, however, already been referred to in treating of the Special
Physiology of the Elementary Tissues, and of the Root, Stem,
and Leaves ; so that it now only remains for us in this place to
give a general recapitulation of the functions of the plant, and
to consider them as working together for the common benefit of
the whole organism. It will be convenient to treat of these
under the two heads of (1) Absorption ; and (2) Distribution of
Fluid Matters through the Plant, and their Alteration in the
Leaves.
1. Absorption.—The root, as already noticed, is the main
organ by which food is taken up dissoived in water, for the
uses of the plant. No matter can be absorbed in an undissolved
condition ; and this absorptive power is owing to the superior
density of the contents of the cells of the young extremities of
the roots over the fluid matters surrounding them in the soil,
leading to the production of osmotic action through the cell-
walls (see page 781 and jig. 1139).
That the roots do thus absorb fluid matters may be proved
by a very simple experiment. Thus, if we take two glasses of
the same capacity, and pour water into them until it is at the
same level in each, and then put the roots of a vigorous
growing plant in the one, and expose both in other respects to
the same influences of light, heat, and air, it will be noticed
that the water will gradually disappear from the glasses, but
from that in which the roots are placed far more rapidly than
from the other without them, and the more rapid removal in the
former case must therefore be vowing to its absorption by the
roots. In this way we can also estimate, in some degree at
least, the amount absorbed, which will be found to be very con-
siderable ; commonly, in a few days, far exceeding in weight
that of the plants which are experimented upon. This absorp-
tion of liquid by the roots is in many cases altogether inde-
pendent of leaf-action, for, if the rootlets be healthy and the
tissues above them filled with fluid, it will always occur ; and
LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT.—ABSORPTION, 819
the great force of the action in stumps cut off a little above the
ground is well seen in such experiments as those of Hales (see
page 822) and Hofmeister. But nevertheless, as a general
rule, the amount of fluid absorbed by the roots is directly
dependent upon the activity with which the other processes of
veyetation are carried on, and more especially by the quantity
of fluid matters transpired by the leaves ; indeed, under ordinary
conditions, absorption is directly proportioned to transpiration
in a healthy plant, for as fluid is given off by the leaves, it is
absorbed by the roots to make up for the deficiency thus pro-
duced, and therefore all stimulants to transpiration are at the
same time exciters of absorption. (See page 821). When absorp-
tion and transpiration differ greatly in amount, the plants in
which such a want of correspondence takes place become un-
healthy ; thus when transpiration is checked from deficiency of
light, as when plants are grown in dark places, the fluids in
them become excessive in amount ; whilst if the atmosphere be
too dry, as is the case when plants
are grown in the sitting-rooms of
our dwelling-houses, transpiration is
greater than absorption, and hence
they require to be frequently supplied
with water.
The mutual dependence of ab-
sorption upon transpiration should
also be borne in mind in the process
of transplanting trees. Transpiration
is greatest at those seasons of the
year when plants are most abundantly
covered with leaves, and when solar
- light is most intense ; we ought not,
therefore to transplant at such pe-
riods, because, as it is almost impos-
sible to do so without some injury to
the extremities of the roots, the
amount of fluid absorbed may be in-
sufficient to compensate for the loss
by transpiration, and hence the plants
Fig. 1149. Diagrammatic vertical
section of the stem of a Dicoty-
ledon showing the distribution
of the sap. The direction is
indicated by the arrows. a, a.
Roots, by which the fluid mat-
ters are absorbed. 6,6. The
tissues by which they ascend
to the leaves, c,c. d,d. Outer
portions of stem and inner bark
where the descent takes place.
é. Vertical section of a branch.
will languish, or die, according to
circumstances. By transplanting in
autumn or spring, we do not expose
the plants to such unfavourable con-
ditions, as the light is then less intense, and there are no leaves
from which transpiration essentially takes place. (For further
particulars on Absorption, see Absorption by the Root, page 790. )
2. Distribution of Fluid Matters through the Plant, and their
Alteration in the Leaves.—The fluid matter thus absorbed by the
roots (the sap, as it is called) is carried upwards by their tissues
(fig. 1149) to the stem, and through its young portions to the
3G 2
820 ASCENT OF THE SAP.
leaves, &c. (as indicated by the arrows in the figure), to be
aerated and elaborated. After this it is returned to the stem;
and descends probably by the inner bark and cambium layer of
Dicotyledons towards the roots from which it started (page 825) ;
and by means of the medullary rays and the general permea-
bility of the tissues of which plants are composed, it is also
distributed to the different parts where new tissues are being
formed, and where the secretions are to be deposited. This
general distribution of the fluid matters through the plant is
commonly termed the Circulation of the Sap. The fluid as it
ascends is called the Ascending or Crude Sap; and as it de-
scends, the Descending or Elaborated Sap. Although the term
Circulation is thus commonly applied to this movement of
the sap, it must be borne in mind, that the process bears no
analogy to the circulation of the blood in animals; for plants
have no heart or any organ of an analogous nature to propel
their fluid matters, nor any system of vessels in which a flow
thus produced takes place. As Professor Johnson has well put
it, ‘nutrient substances in the plant are not absolutely confined
to any path, and may move in any direction. The fact that they
chiefly follow certain channels, and move in this or that direc-
tion, is plainly dependent upon the structure and arrangement
of the tissues, on the sources of nutriment, and on the seat of
growth or other action.’
A. Ascent of the Sap.—The sap in its ascent to the leaves
passes principally through the young wood-cells and vessels
(page 785), and therefore in Dicotyledons, when they are of
any age, through the outer portion of the wood or alburnum.
In such plants, also, we have but one main stream of ascending
sap. In the stems of Monocotyledons and of Cormophytes the
ascent also takes place through the unincrusted cells and vessels
of the fibro-vascular bundles; and hence in such plants, and
more especially in Monocotyledons, we have a number of more
or less distinct ascending streams. In the lower Cryptogams
or Thallophytes, which have no stems, there is no regular
course of the sap, but the fluids may be noticed flowing in all
directions through their celJs, and to be more especially evident
in those parts which are of a lax nature.
The cause of the ascent of the sap is, as Herbert Spencer has
well expressed it, a disturbance of equilibrium creating a demand
for liquid. This is produced mainly by the transpiration going
on in the leaves, but also by abstraction of the sap by the grow- -
ing tissues and by extravasation from the vessels by pressure.
The circulation is helped by osmotic and capillary action, pro-
bably by the movements of protoplasm in the cells (see page
783), and also, when it occurs, by any swaying motion of the
branches causing intermittent pressure on the vessels. In the
winter no transpiration takes place, and the wood of the stem
and roots is filled with watery matters holding starch and other
FORCE OF THE ASCENT OF THE SAP. 821
insoluble substances in suspension. The fluids of the plant are
therefore in a nearly quiescent state, as there are no changes
then taking place to produce their distribution. When the
increased heat and light of spring commence, the insoluble
starch, &c., become converted into soluble dextrin and sugar,
development and transpiration immediately follow, and a conse-
quent ascent of the sap. This flow continues throughout the
summer months, when the causes favourable to it are in full
activity ; but towards the autumn, as heat and light diminish
again, the force of the ascent also diminishes, and the flow of
sap is again suspended in the winter months from the reasons
above alluded to.
The force with which the sap ascends is probably greatest in
the summer months, when heat and light are most intense, and
when vegetation is consequently most active; and least in the
winter. At first sight it would appear, that the most rapid flow
of the sap was in the spring months, at which period alone plants
will give off much fluid, or bleed as it is commonly termed, when
their stems are wounded. At this period gallons of fluid will
come, in some cases, in a few hours, from a wounded tree before
the leaves have expanded ; and the fact that the leaves have not
expanded is the explanation of the matter. For at this season
of the year, before the leaves are fully developed, the reserve
materials of the tree are largely stored up in the root, and from
chemical changes there actively going on, the fluids in that part
become very dense, and the consequence is that an excessive
osmotic action takes place. There is far more fluid absorbed
from the earth than the plant can use, and root-pressure then
takes place, and this pressure forces the fluid up the stem. (See
page 791.) ‘This is the explanation of what is called bleeding.
But this bleeding arises from the vessels as well as the prosen-
chymatous cells being then filled with sap, so that the whole plant
is, aS it were, gorged with it: much of the sap which at that
period flows is indeed little more than water rapidly pumped
up from the soil to supply the drain of fluid. The process does
not take place at any other time of the year, for as soon as the
leaves are in full activity, or the flowers, if they be developed
before the leaves, the fluid which is absorbed by the roots is
naturally carried up the plant, and becomes transpired, and
thus carried off. It by no means follows, therefore, that when
the plantis most gorged with fluid matters, and bleeds, the force
of the circulation is most active; but rather that it is greatest
when the stem is least gorged with sap, as in the summer
months, when vegetation is in full vigour, and the sap consumed
as fast as it can be transferred upwards through the stem.
In a healthy plant in a perfectly normal state, the amount
of fluid absorbed by the roots, the force with which it ascends
to the stem, and the amount transpired by the leaves, are
directly proportionate to one another.
822 FORCE OF THE ASCENT OF THE SAP.
The force of the ascent of the sap was measured by Hales
in the stem of the Vine by an apparatus, a modified and im-
proved form of which is represented in fig. 1150, where is shown
a vine stock, to the transverse section of which is attached a
glass tube R, and the tube r fixed into it by the cork k. Fis
completely filled with water, the upper cork k’ then fixed firmly
into it, and mercury poured into the tube
r, so as to stand from the first higher at q’
than atq. The bent tube being filled with
mercury to the level q’ at the commence-
ment of the experiment, the force of the
sap was readily calculated by the fall of
the mercury in one leg of the tube q, and
its corresponding rise above q in the other
leg. In this way he found, that in one
experiment the force of the ascent was
suticient to support a column of mercury
324 inches in height. He also calculated
from his experiments on the Vine, that
the force with which it rises in this plant
is nearly five times greater than that of
the blood in the crural artery of a horse,
and seven times greater than that of the
blood in the same artery of a dog. In
some experiments of Brucke on the force
of the ascent of the sap in the spring in
the Vine, he found that it was equal to the
support of a column of mercury 173 inches
high. Hales’ experiment is, however, a
measure of the force of absorption by the
root (root-pressiie), rather than of ascent
of the sap (see pages 791 and 821).
Fig. 1150. Apparatus for the As the fluid rises in the stem it is of
ree ara ic a a a watery nature, and contains dissolved
in it- the various inorganic matters in the
same state nearly in which they were absorbed by the roots. It
also contains some organic substances which it has dissolved
in its course upwards. Thus an analysis by Attfield of the
spring sap from a ‘bleeding’ white birch tree, showed that it
‘consisted of 99 parts of pure water with 1 part of dissolved
solid matter; eleven-twelfths of the latter being sugar. But
although the sap in its passage upwards thus becomes more and
more altered from the state in which it was absorbed by the roots,
when it reaches the leaves it is still quite unfitted for the require-
ments of the plant, and is hence called Crude Sap. It undergoes
certain changes in the leaves and other green parts, by which it
becomes altered in several particulars, and is then adapted for
the uses of the plant. In this state it is termed Elaborated Sap.
B. Changes of the Crude Sap in the Leaves.—The changes
Fic. 1150.
RESPIRATION.—ASSIMILATION.—METABOLISM. 823
which the crude sap undergoes in the leaves and other green
parts by the action of light and air have been already alluded
to in treating of the Functions of Leaves ; it will be here,
therefore, only necessary to state in what those changes es-
sentially consist. They are:—I1st. The transpiration of the
superfluous fluid of the crude sap in the form of watery vapour,
by which it becomes thickened. 2nd. The taking up from the
air of oxygen and giving off of carbon dioxide, small quantities
of water being probably formed at the same time, to which the
term Respiration is now applied. The oxygen thus taken up in
respiration is necessary to the vitality of the protoplasm, as also
. for the oxidation of nutrient matters during the process of
metastasis, &c. Respiration is most evident during the night,
for the large quantity of oxygen given off during the day in
the process of assimilation completely obscures the former
change. 3rd. The absorption and decomposition of carbon
dioxide, by which carbon, that most important constituent of
plants—is added to the crude sap, whilst oxygen is evolved,
carbohydrates being at the same time produced. To this the
term Assimilation is commonly applied. The carbohydrates
so formed may be starch, fat, or cane sugar (sucrose), but more
especially starch. A further process is found to take place in
some of the assimilated substances; thus they may change
their position, passing from the cells in which they were
formed to others, generally also undergoing at the same time
a change in their chemical composition ; which combined
changes are termed metabolism or metastasis. The differences
between assimilation and metabolism may be seen in the Potato,
where by the former process starch is formed in the chiorophyll-
bearing leaves, which in its turn is converted into a glucoside in
the stem and branches, and back again into starch in the tubers
by metastasis. The crude sap being thus altered, then contains
in itself the various nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous matters
which are required for the development of new tissues, and
the formation of other organic products, which are commonly
called secretions. It is then termed E!aborated Sap.
Those organic matters which are necessary for development
or growth are termed constructive materials, whereas those which
are formed by metabolism or metastasis and which are not con-
structive—may be divided into two groups—
1. Degradation products, such as wood and cork, which can
never be reconverted into constructive materials, though of the
greatest use to the plant in giving mechanical support ; pro-
tecting the internal living tissues from frost, enabling plants to
withstand the scorching heat of the sun, and in other ways.
Many gums, as tragacanth, gum arabic, and others; and gum
resins, as myrrh and bdellium ; are alsc formed from the cell-
walls, &c., of different plants, and are, therefore, other examples
of such products.
824 FORMATION OF THE SECRETIONS OF PLANTS.
2. Secondary products of metastasis, some of which, as sweet
secretions, &c., are necessary for the perpetuation of the species,
by attracting some insects, guarding against the visits of
others which would be injurious, and so furthering fertilisation ;
while some—as ethereal oils, resins, colouring matters, and many
acids and alkaloids—appear to be of no further use to the plant.
The important influences which these changes in the leaves
have in promoting the purity of the atmosphere we breathe
(page 802), the healthiness or otherwise of a particular country
(page 798), and the fertility or barrenness of a soil (page 798),
have likewise been already noticed. We have also seen that, in
order that these changes may be properly performed, the leaves
must be freely exposed to light; and from this dependence of
assimilation on light, it follows, as we have noticed (page 804)
that when the secretions of particular plants, which are other-
wise agreeable, are injurious, or of unpleasant flavour, they can,
by growing them in darkness or in diminished light, be made fit
for the table, as is the case with Celery, Sea Kale, Lettuce,
Endive, and others. For the same reason the plants of warm
and tropical regions, where the light is much more intense than
it is in this country or in other cold and temperate regions, are
commonly remarkable for the powerful nature of their secretions,
as is well illustrated by the stronger odours of their flowers, and
the richer flavours of their fruits. (See also Electricity of
Plants, page 858.)
Again, as the formation of secretions depends upon the in-
tensity of light, it frequently happens that when a plant of a
warm or tropical region which naturally produces a secretion
which may be of great value as a medicinal agent, or useful in
the arts, is transported to this or any other climate in which the
intensity of the light is much less than it is in its native country,
the secretion is not formed at all, or in diminished quantity.
Even if such plants be placed in our hot-houses, where they
may he submitted to the same degree of heat which they obtain
naturally in their native countries, their secretions are either not
formed at all, or in diminished amount, because light is the
main agent concerned in their formation, and we cannot increase
the intensity of light as we can that of heat, by artificial means.
Another cause which commonly interferes with the formation of
the secretions of plants of warmer regions when grown in our
hot-houses is the want of a proper and incessant supply of fresh
air to facilitate transpiration, &c.
The above facts are of great interest, as they have an impor-
tant bearing upon the growth of plants and fruits for the table,
as well as in a medicinal and economic point of view. At pre-
sent, however, much remains to be discovered, before we can be
said to have anything like a satisfactory explanation of the
causes which influence the formation of the secretions of
plants ; for it is found that the same species of plants when grown
—_ es
DESCENT OF THE SAP. 825
in different parts of Great Britain, where the climatal differences
are not strikingly at variance, or even at the distance of a few
miles, or in some cases a few yards, frequently vary much as re-
gards the nature of their peculiar secretions. A striking illus-
tration of this fact is mentioned by Sir Robert Christison, who
found that some Umbelliferous plants, as Cicuta virosa, and
(Enanthe crocata, which are poisonous in most districts of Eng-
land, are innocuous when grown near Edinburgh. The causes
of such differences are at present obscure, but the varying con-
ditions of soil and moisture under which plants are developed
have doubtless an important influence upon their secretions.
From a pharmaceutical point of view, so far as the active pro-
perties of the various medicinal preparations obtained from
plants are concerned, this modification in their secretions by
such causes is of much interest, and would amply repay in-
vestigation ; for it cannot be doubted but that each plant will
only form its proper secretions when grown under those circum-
stances which are natural to it, and that consequently any
change from those conditions will modify in a corresponding
degree the properties of the plant. Probably here we have an
explanation, to some extent at least, of the cause of the varying
strength of the medicinal preparations obtained from the same
species of plants when grown in different parts of this country,
or in different soils, &c.
C. Descent of the Sap.—After the crude sap has been trans-
formed in the manner already described, it passes from the leaves
to the stem, probably to the inner bark, and cambium-layer of
Dicotyledons ; and apparently to the parenchymatous tissues
generally of the stems of Monocotyledons and Cormophytes.
lt then descends in the stems of the several kinds of plants as far
as the root, and in its course affords materials for the develop-
ment of new tissues and the production of flowers and fruit ;
and at the same time undergoes further changes owing to
metabolism, and deposits its various secretions, &c. (page 823).
Hoffmann in his experiments upon Ferns, however, could not find
any path by which the elaborated juices descended in the stem.
That the elaborated sap in Dicotyledons descends through
the inner bark and cambium-layer is commonly believed, and
several facts seem to support this belief. Thus, the formation
of wood is obviously from above downwards, for when a ligature
is tied tightly round the bark of a Dicotyledonous stem, or more
especially if a ring of bark be removed, no new wood is pro-
duced below the ligature or ring, while there will be an in-
creased development above it, or roots will be produced there.
Again, it is well known, that by removing a ring of bark froma
fruit tree, a larger quantity of fruit may be temporarily obtained
from that tree, owing to the greater amount of nutritive matter
which then becomes available for the use of the reproductive
organs (see page 847). Another circumstance which appears
826 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
to show the line of descent of the nutritive matter, is the fact,
that if the cortical parts of the stems of a Potato plant be
peeled off, the formation of tubers is prevented. It appears
that the descending sap supplies the material for the formation
of new wood in the fibro-vascular layers. The course of the
sap is also lateral, for in the autumn starch grains are found
in the medullary rays between the wedges of developed wood ;
and where growth is going on, even an upward direction may
be assumed. Herbert Spencer, however, argues that the re-
trograde motion of the sap is through the same channels—
chiefly, as he believes, the vessels of the newest wood—by which
it passed up. He considers that this descent takes place in
response to a demand for liquid by the stem and roots when
transpiration from the leaves is at a standstill, as at night. As
far as the leaf-petioles are concerned, the back current must be
along much the same tissues as the upward flow ; but probably
the liber-cells of the petiole are the main channel, and these are
directly continuous with the inner bark of the stem.
Spencer has also described and figured (Linn. Soc. Trans-
actions, xxv.) cellular masses which he finds at the termination
of the vascular system in the lower layer of parenchyma in
many leaves, and which he considers to be undoubtedly absorbent
organs by which the elaborated sap is abstracted from the leaves ;
his conclusions, however, require confirmation.
The opinions of observers vary much as to the offices of the
different parts of plants ; for instance, Mulder considers that all
nitrogenous matters are not only absorbed by the roots, but
also assimilated by them at once, while carbon is fixed by the
green parts; so that a constant interchange must take place
between the leaves and roots. Other authors, again, believe
that the leaves form all the organic substances. While Sachs
says: ‘By the parenchyma of the fundamental tissue, which
always has an acid reaction, are conveyed the carbo-hydrates
and oils ; by the soft bast the mucilaginous albuminoids, which
have an alkaline reaction.’
CHAPTER 3.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.”
Havine now alluded to the special functions of the elementary
structures, and of the organs of nutrition, and also to the general
physiology or life of the whole plant, we proceed in the next
place to treat of the functions of the Organs of Reproduction.
1. Functions or Bracts AND FLoraL ENVELOPES.—One of
the principal oftices performed by these organs is, to protect the
ee ee ee ee —-
ry i
FUNCTIONS OF BRACTS AND FLORAL ENVELOPES. 827
young and tender parts placed within them from injury. When
green, as is commonly the case with the bracts and sepals, their
colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll in their component
cells, and they then perform the same functions as ordinary
leaves. But when of other colours than green, as is usual with
the petals, and occasionally with the bracts and sepals. they
appear to have, in conjunction with the thalamus, a special func-
tion to perform ; which consists in the production of a saccha-
rine substance from the amylaceous matter stored up in them.
This saccharine matter is designed more especially for the
nourishment of the essential organs of reproduction. That such
is the function of these parts seems to be proved by the varying
composition of the thalamus at different periods of the flowering
stage. Thus, at the period of the opening of the flower, the
thalamus is dry and its cells are filled with amylaceous matters ;
as flowering proceeds, these matters become converted into sac-
charine substances ; and, finally, after flowering, the thalamus
dries up. In fact a similar change takes place in the process of
flowering to that which occurs in germination, where the amy-
laceous matters are in like manner converted into those of a
saccharine nature. When the saccharine matter is in excess,
during the process of flowering, it is found upon the parts in a
liquid state, and may be removed without the flower suffering,
indeed one of its chief uses seems to be that of determining the
direction of the entrance of insects into flowers which receive
entomophilous fertilisation.
During this conversion of amylaceous into saccharine matters,
oxygen is absorbed in great quantities from the atmosphere, and
carbon dioxide given off in a corresponding degree. Hence, the
action of the parts of the flower which are of other colours than
green upon the surrounding air under the influence of solar
light, differs from that of the leaves and other green organs.
The absorption of oxygen takes place in a still greater degree in
the essential organs of reproduction ; hence, such an effect is
more evident in hermaphrodite flowers, than in those in which the
stamens and carpels have been more or less changed into petals
—that is, when the flowers have become partially or wholly
double. It has been proved, also, that staminate flowers absorb
more oxygen than pistillate ones.
The combination which under the above circumstances takes
place between the carbon of the flower and the oxygen of the air,
is also attended by an evolution of heat, which indeed is always
the case where active chemical combination is going on. This
evolution of heat in the majority of flowers is not observable,
because it is immediately carried off by the surrounding air ;
but in those plants where many flowers are crowded together, and
more especially when they are surrounded by sucha leafy struc-
ture as a spathe, which contines the evolved heat, it may be
readily noticed. The flowers of the male cone of Cycas circi-
828 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLORAL ENVELOPES.
nalis, those of the Victoria regia, of several Cacti, and of many
Aroidacez, present us with the most marked illustrations of this
evolution of heat. (See also Development, of Heat by Plants,
page 855.)
That the heat thus evolved is dependent upon the combina-
tion of the oxygen of the air with the carbon of the flower was
conclusively proved by the experiments of Vrolik and De Vries ;
for they showed that the evolution of heat by the spadix of an
Arum was much greater when it was placed in oxygen gas than
in ordinary atmospheric air, and that when introduced into
carbon dioxide or nitrogen gases it ceased altogether.
Colour of Flowers.—All the colours of flowers otherwise than
green depend on colouring matter dissolved in the watery cell-
sap, and chromo-plastids, the nature of which was very imper-
fectly known until the recent observations of Schimper, Meyer,
and Schmidt (see page 809), though spectroscopic analysis had
done something towards grouping them into series. The changes
in colour which many corollas undergo are supposed to depend
on the oxidation of these bodies. Most of the Boraginacez pass
from pink to blue, from their first expansion, till they are fully
open; the garden Convolvulus changes from pink to a fine
purple in the same period. Cultivation will effect great changes
in this respect, but there is a limit to its influence. The Dahha
and Tulip are naturally yellow, and under cultivation may be
made to assume all shades of red, orange, and white, but no
tint of blue; Pelargoniums and the Hydrangea will take on
various shades of blue, purple, red, and white, but never a
yellow. These facts led De Candolle to divide flowers in this
aspect into two series—a xanthic which has yellow for its base,
and a cyanic which has blue—either of which can be made red
or white, but will not assume the basic colour of the other.
There seem to be a few exceptions to this rule; e.g. Myosotis
versicolor changes from yellow in the bud to blue in the open
corolla, and the Hyacinth is not unfrequently a pale yellow.
Development of the Floral Envelopes.—The manner in which
the floral envelopes are developed may be shortly summed up as
follows :—
They are subject to the same laws of development as the usual
foliage leaves, and make their first appearance as little cellular
processes, which grow by additions to their bases or points of
attachment to the axis.
The calyx is commonly developed before the corolla.
When a calyx is polysepalous, or a corolla polypetalous, the
component sepals or petals make their first appearance in the
form of little distinct papillze or tumours, the number of which
corresponds to the separate parts of the future calyx or corolla.
When a calyx is gamosepalous, or a corolla gamopetalous, the
first appearance of these organs is in the form of a little ring,
which ultimately becomes the tube of the calyx or corolla, as
thé case may be. When these present lobes or teeth, as they
SEXUALITY OF PLANTS. 829
more commonly do, they arise as little projections on the top of
the ring, the number of which corresponds to the future divisions
of the calyx or corolla.
All irregular calyces or corollas are regular at their first
formation, the cellular papille from which they arise being all
equal in size; hence all irregularity is produced by unequal
subsequent growth.
2. FUNCTIONS OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
Sexuality of Plants. —Though vaguely suspected by the ancients,
the true sexuality of plants was not definitively ascertained till
1676, in which year Sir T. Millington, of Oxford, determined the
real nature of the stamens. The andrcecium of flowering plants,
as has been already repeatedly stated, constitutes the male
apparatus, and the gyncecium the female. That the influence of
the pollen is necessary to the formation of perfect seed is positively
established.
While the presence of distinct sexes may thus be shown in
flowering plants, both of which are necessary for the formation
of perfect seed, by far the greater number of flowerless plants,
in like manner, as we have seen, possess certain organs the
functions of which are undoubtedly sexual. It is quite true
that the existence of sexuality has not been absolutely demon-
strated in all the Cryptogamia; but as it is known to exist in
the greater number, we may fairly conclude from analogy that
it is present in all.
We have already, as fully as our space will permit, described
the structure of the reproductive organs of both the Phanero-
gamia and the Cryptogamia; we now proceed to give a general
summary of the more important conclusions which have been
arrived at as regards the process of reproduction in the several
divisions of plants, and in doing so we shall commence with the
Cryptogamia.
1. REPRODUCTION OF THE CryproGcAmia.—In describing the
structure of the reproductive organs of these plants (see pages
363-399), we treated of them in two divisions, called, respec-
tively, Cormophytes and Thallophytes, each of which was again
subdivided into several natural orders. We shall follow the
same arrangement in describing their modes of reproduction,
except that we shall here commence with the Thallophytes, and
proceed upwards to those plants of a more complicated nature,
instead of alluding to them, as we then did, in the inverse order.
A. Reproduction of Thallophytes.—The sexual method of
reproduction (gamogenesis) of all Thallophytes has not been
absolutely proved, but only concluded from analogy, though the
asexual or vegetative mode (agamogenesis) obtains in all. Sexes
have been clearly shown to exist in certain Algz, Fungi, and
Lichens ; and generally in Characez. Oérsted, indeed, has
described the impregnation of oO0gonia on the mycelium of
Agaricus; but other observers have failed to verify his asser-
830 REPRODUCTION OF ALG.
tions, and it is most probable that the reproduction of Agaricus
is asexual. The process of reproduction in the Fungi and
Lichens has already been sufliciently noticed (see pages 378-
390) ; but the Algee and Characez require further explanation.
(1) Reproduction of Alge.—The reproduction of Algze takes
place in the following ways: namely, by division (page 765 and
fig. 1125), free cell-formation (page 773), conjugation, and by the
direct impregnation of naked spores or germ corpuscles by ciliated
antherozoids. Each process is also liable to modifications,
a. Conjugation.—This process occurs in the Algze, as Diatoms,
Desmids, Spirogyra, &e. (See pages 394 and 765, figs. 862, 863,
and 1126.) It consists in the union of the contents of two in-
dependent unicellular organisms ( fig. 1126), or of the cells of two
filaments (fig. 863), and the formation of a germinating spore
by their mutual action. No difference can be detected in the
structure of the conjugating cells, although in many, if not all
cases, it is believed that there is some unobserved difference con-
stituting the one as the male, the other as the female element.
Two methods of conjugation may be noticed among the
Alge. In the first mode, as seen in Desmidiez, &e. (fig. 1126),
two individuals, each of which is composed of a single cell, ap-
proach each other, the external cellulose membranes bounding
their respective cells then burst at their point of contact, and
the contents of the two issue from the orifices thus produced,
intermingle in the intervening space, and form ultimately, by
their mutual action, a rounded body, called a zygospore, resting,
or inactive spore, which ultimately germinates. The contents of
the spore are green and granular at first, but ultimately become
brown, yellow or reddish. These resting spores are furnished
with a coat of cellulose which in some cases divides into two
layers, the exospore and endospore; they are sometimes called
sporangia, because they ultimately produce two or more germs
in their interior, and are not therefore simple spores.
In the other mode of conjugation, which occurs in Zygnema
and Spirogyra (figs. 862 and 863), the cells of two filaments
develop on their adjoining sides a small tubular process; these
ultimately meet and adhere, and the intervening septum existing
at the point of contact becoming absorbed, the two cells freely
communicate. The contents of the cells then contract into a
mass, and ultimately combine together, either by the passage of
the contents of one cell into the other, or by the mixture of the
contents of the two cells in the tubular process between them.
Under either circumstance, the mixture of the contents of the
two cells results in the formation of a zygospore or resting spore,
which ultimately germinates and becomes an individual resem-
bling its parents.
b. Impregnation of naked spores or germ-corpuscles by ciliated
antherozoids.—There appear to be two forms of this fecunda-
tion : thus, in certain Algz, as Vaucheria, the fecundation takes
REPRODUCTION OF CHARACE. 831
place before the spore has separated
from its parent (see page
395, fig. 864), and in others, after both the spore and ciliated
antherozoids have been discharged, as
in Fucus. (See page 397, jigs. 866-
a68.)."*
(2) Reproduction of Characex.—
In these plants we have two kinds of
reproductive organs, called, respec-
tively, the globule or antheridiwm (figs.
856, a, and 858 ), and the nucule or
carpogonium (figs. 856, s, 859, and
860): the former is regarded as the
male, and the latter as the female.
Fertilisation takes place by the pas-
sage of the spiral antherozoids of the
globule (jig. 857) down the canal which
extends from the apex of the nucule
(figs. 859, a, and 860) to the central
cell of the same structure, whicl: then
becomes fertilised. No free spore is,
however, produced, but the nucule
drops off, and after a certain period
germinates, though the sexual leaf-
forming plant is not directly deve-
loped, but is preceded by a pro-
embryo (fig. 1151), which has, how-
ever, only a limited growth, and from
it are produced at one part the rhi-
zoids w, and further on, as a sort of
lateral branch, the Chara or Nitella
proper.
B. Reproduction of Cormophytes.
Of the sexual nature of the plants
in most orders of this sub-division of
the Cryptogamia there can be no
doubt. The sexual organs in all are
also of an analogous character, and
are of two kinds, one termed an
antheridium, which contains spirally
wound ciliated antherozoids, and is
regarded as the male organ ; and the
other, called an archegonium or pistil-
lidiwm, containing an embryonal cell
or germ-cell, which is the female
organ. Fertilisation is effected by the
Fie. 1151.
Fig. 1151. Pro-embryo of Chara
Jragilis. sp. Germinating spore.
i, d, q, pl. The pro-embryo.
At d are the rhizoids; w. w’.
Primary root. g. First leaves of
the second generation, or Chara
proper. (After Pringsheim.)
contact of an antherozoid with an embryonal cell or germ-cell.
We have already described the structure of the reproductive
organs of Cormophytes (pages 364-377), both before and after
fertilisation ; it will be only necessary, therefore, in the present
832 REPRODUCTION OF HEPATICACEH AND MUSCI.
place, to say a few words upon the mode in which fertilisation
is supposed to take place in the different orders included in this
division of the Cryptogamia, which are here, however, arranged
in the inverse order to that in which they were formerly de- —
scribed.
(1) Hepaticacex or Liverworts.—The two reproductive organs
of this order closely resemble those of the Mosses. They are
termed antheridia (fig. 831) and archegonia or pistillidia (fig.
833), the former representing the male sex, and the latter the
female. When the antheridium bursts (jig. 831), it discharges
a number of small cells, which also burst, and each emits a
very small 2-ciliated spiral antherozoid. These antherozoids
pass down the canal of the archegonium (fig. 853) to the
germ or embryonal cell which is situated at its bottom, which
thus becomes fertilised. This cell after fertilisation undergoes
various important changes, as already noticed (see page 377),
and ultimately becomes a sporangium, enclosing spores and
elaters (fig. 834), which latter, e, are elongated, spirally-
thickened cells, whose office is to assist in disseminating the
spores when the valves of the
Fic. 1152. sporangia open. When these
spores germinate, they gene-
rally produce a sort of con-
fervoid structure (protonema),
which in its after development
resembles the like structure of
Mosses. (See below.)
(2) Musci or Mosses.—The
reproductive organs of this
order consist of antheridia ( fig.
821) and archegonia (fig. 822),
which closely resemble the
same structures in the Hepa-
ticaceze. Fertilisation takes
place in a similar manner (see
above), and the changes which
take place after fertilisation in
Fig, 1152. Protonema of a Moss ( Funaria the embryonal cell which ulti-
lugrome(rien)p. Contervosl pm moately forms a sporangitum
r. Rootlets. containing spores, but not ela-
ters, have been already de-
scribed. (See page 373.)
In germination, the spores at first form a green cellular
branched filamentous mass, somewhat resembling a Conferva,
which is termed the protonema (see page 375). Upon the threads
of this structure (fig. 1152), buds (a) are ultimately produced,
which grow up into leafy stems (b), upon which the archegonia
and antheridia are afterwards developed.
(3) Marsileacex, Rhizocarpex, or Pepperworts.—The two re-
‘4
REPRODUCTION OF MARSILEACEX AND SELAGINELLACES. 833
productive organs of this order are generally distinguished as
microsporangia, (figs. 818 and 820, a), and macrosporangia or
megasporangia (fig. 820, b). These two structures are either
contained in separate sacs, as in Salvinia (fig. 820), or in the
same, asin Marsilea (fig. 817). The microsporangia or anthe-
ridia contain a number of small cells, called generally micro-
spores or small spores ( fig. 818), which ultimately pr oduce anther-
ozoids remarkable for their length and delicacy (fig. 1153). The
macrosporangia (jig. 820, b) contain commonly but one spore,
called an ovulary spore, large spore, mccrospore, or megaspore.
In their organs of fructification the plants of this order closely
resemble the Selaginellacez. Like the Selaginellacex, the large
spores also produce a small prothallium confluent with them
(fig. 1154), in which subsequently only a single archegonium
generally, as in Piluwlaria and Marsilea, appears (jig. 1154, «),
although in Salvinia several archegonia are formed. Fertili-
Bre. 1 153. Fie. 1154.
THE
@ 9'O
Fig. 1153. Small spore or microspore, of Pill-wort (Pilularia globuliferc ),
bursting and discharging small cells enclosing antherozoids. Some
of the latter may be observed to have escaped by the rupture of the
small cells in which they were contained. Fig. 1154. Vertical section
of the prothallium of the above, which is formed, as in the Selaginellacex,
in the interior of the large spore or macrospore. Only one archegonium,
a,is here produced in the centre. Thearchegonium consists of an inter-
cellular canal, leading into a sac below, in which may be seen a solitary
germ or embryonal cell.
sation takes place by the contact of the antherozoids with the
germn-cell of the archegonium, which immediately developes,
and forms a pseudo-embryo bearing a great apparent similarity
to the embryo of a monocotyledon, from which a leafy stem
bearing fructification is ultimately produced.
(4) Selaginellaceex or Selaginellas.—The two reproductive
organs of this order are usually termed macrosporangia or mega-
sporangia (figs. 813 and 816), which represent the female ;
and microsporangia or antheridia (figs. 814 and 815), which are
regarded as male organs. The contents of the microsporangia,
are called small spores or microspores, which break up into two
sets of cells—one of which remains inactive, and probably re-
presents an abortive prothallium ; while the other developes
the antherozoids (fig. 1155, c). In the macrosporangia are formed
large spores, macrospores, or megaspores (fiy. 816).
It is not till some months after being sown that the spores
3H
834 REPRODUCTION OF LYCOPODIACEZ AND EQUISETACE#.
commence to germinate, nor are the antherozoids produced till
a nearly equal period has elapsed. In germination, the spore
(macrospore) produces a very small prothallium (fig. 1156, p),
on which archegonia (fig. 1157, a) are subsequently developed.
Each archegonium (fig. 1157, a) consists of an intercellular
canal leading into a sac below, which contains a single germ or
embryonal cell. In the microspores one cell only constitutes
the prothallium ; all the others are mother-cells, which by dividing
several times produce antherozoids. Fertilisation takes place
by the ciliated antherozoids contained in the microspores ( fig.
1155, ¢) passing down the canal of the archegonium and coming
into contact with the germ-cell. This cell then grows by cell-
Fig. 1156, Fie. 1157.
Fic. 1155.
Fig. 1155. Small spore, or microspore, of a species of Selaginella, bursting
and discharging small sperm-cells, c,in which antherozoids are con-
tained. Fig. 1156. Large spore, macrospore, or megaspore, of a spe-
cies of Selaginella. The outer coat of the spore has been removed to
show the entire inner coat, with the young prothallium, p, at the upper
end.— Fig. 1157. Vertical section of a portion of the prothallium of the
above in a more advanced state, showing the archegonia. a. Arche-
gonium, in which the pseudo-embryo. e, has been developed from the
germ-cell 1t contained, by contact with the antherozoids. This embryo,
by the growth of the suspensor, is forced downwards and imbedded in the
upper part of the cellular mass of the spore-sac.
division and forms a pseudo-embryo (fig. 1157, e), and ultimately
produces a new leafy sporangiferous stem.
(5) Lycopodiacex or Club-Mosses probably have only one kind
of spore (microspore), from which is produced a prothallium bear-
ing antheridia and archegonia : the germ cell of the latter being
fertilised by the antherozoids which escape from the mature
antheridia, and producing in turn an adult plant, Very little,
however, is known for certain about the life-history of the Lyco-
podiacez (see page 368).
(6) Equisetacee or Horsetails. And
(7) Filices or Ferns.—The mode of reproduction of the plants
of these two orders is essentially the same, and we shall ac-
cordingly allude to them together. As already fully described
(see pages 365-368), their leafy structures bear sporangia or cap-
sules in which the spores are enclosed (jigs. 802-805, and 810-812).
There is but one kind of spore.
we eee i
(figs. 830 and 832). Upon the under
: surface of this structure we have soon
_ formed, in most of the Filices, both
antheridia and archegonia; but in
_ some, as well as usually in the Equi-
setaceve, the antheridia and archegonia
have only been found on separate pro-
_ thallia, and hence the latter plants are
dicecious. The antheridia (fig. 807)
contain a number of minute cells called
sperm-cells (se), each of which contains
a spirally wound ciliated antherozoid
(sp). The archegonium (fig. 808) is a
little cellular papilla, having a central
canal, which when mature is open.
At the bottom of the canal is a cell
called the embryo-sac, in which a germ
or embryo-cell is developed. This so-
called embryo-cell is, however, simply
a germinal corpuscle till after fertilisa-
tion; that is, a free primordial cell,
or mass of protoplasm without an ex-
ternal wall of cellulose.
When mature, the upper part of
the antheridium separates from the
lower, something like the lid of a box ;
REPRODUCTION OF FILICES AND EQUISETACEA. 835
In germination, which has also been noticed (pages 366 and
368), these spores ultimately form a thin, flat, green parenchyma-
tous expansion or prothallium (jigs. 806 and 1158, p, »), which
somewhat resembles the permanent thallus of the Hepaticacee
Bre. L158:
Fig 1158. Adiantum Cupiilus-
Veneris. The prothal ium, p, p,
seen from below, with young
Fern (sporophore) attached to
it. 06. Its first leaf. w’', w’,
Its first and second roots. fA,
Root hairs of the prothallium
(x about 30). (After Sachs. )
the sperm-cells then escape become raptured, and emit their
contained antherozoids These antherozoids make their way
down the canal of the archegonium to the embryo-sac, by which
the contained gerininal corpuscle is fertilised. This germ-cell
then developes a pseudo-embryo, which soon possesses rudi-
mentary leaves and roots (fig. 1158), and ultimately produces
a plant with fronds bearing sporangia, which resembles the
parent from which the spore was originally obtained. The
Ferns and Horsetails are thus seen to exhibit two stages of
existence : in the first, the spores produce a thalloid expansion ;
and in the second, by means of antheridia and archegonia upon
the under surface of this prothallium,
there is ultimately pro-
duced anew plant, resembling in every respect the one from
which the spore was originally derived. Hence Ferns and
Horsetails exhibit what has been termed alternation of genera-
tions.
Two remarkable conditions have been found to obtain in
certain Ferns with regard to their method of reproduction. Thus
in Pteris cretica, although antherozoids are developed, no arche-
Bio! 4
836 REPRODUCTION OF THE GYMNOSPERMIA.
gonia have been discovered, nevertheless the ordinary Fern
plant is developed from the prothallium by a sort of budding. To —
this peculiarity Farlow applies the term apogamy ; and quite
recently Druery describes what he calls apospory in Athyrium
Filix-jemina, var. clarissima, where the sporangia do not follow
their usual course of development by producing spores, but,
assuming amore vegetative character, develop more or less well-
defined prothallia, which ultimately bear archegonia and anthe-
ridia. In Polystichum angulare, var. pulcherrima, apospory is
even more marked, as the prothallium seems to develop in a
vegetative manner from the spore-bearing plant, without even
being associated locally with the sporangia. Druery’s observations
have been confirmed by F. O. Bower.
2. REPRODUCTION OF THE PHANEROGAMIA.—In all the plants
belonging to this division of the Vegetable Kingdom the male
apparatus is represented by one (fig. 512) or more (fig. 26)
stamens, each of which essentially consists of an anther enclosing
pollen (fig. 27, p) ; and the female, by one (fig. 583) or (fig. 31)
more carpels, in (jig. 33) or upon (fig. 7380) which one or more
ovules are formed. When the ovules are contained in an ovary
(fig. 35), the plants to which they belong are called angiosperm-
ous; but when they are only placed upon metamorphosed leaves
or open carpels, i.e. are naked (fig. 730), the plants are said to
be gymnospermous. In the plants of both these divisions of the
Vegetable Kingdom the ovules by the action of the pollen are
developed into perfect seeds whilst connected with their parent,
the distinguishing character of a seed being the presence of a
rudimentary plant called the embryo. The modes in which re-
production takes place, and the after development of the embryo,
differ in several important particulars in the Gymnospermia and
Angiospermia ; hence it is necessary to describe them separately.
A. Reproduction of the Gymnospermia.—We have already
given a general description of the pollen and ovules of the
Phanerogamia, but as these structures present certain differences
in the Gymnospermia, it will be necessary for us to allude to such
peculiarities before describing the actual process of reproduction.
The pollen of the Angiospermia generally consists, as we have
seen (pages 260-263), of a cell containing a matter called the
fowilla, and having a wall which is usually composed of two coats,
the outer being termed the extine, which possesses one or more
pores (jig. 570) or slits (figs. 568 and 569), or both ; and the |
inner, called the intine, which is destitute of any pores or slits,
and consequently forms a completely closed membrane. Each —
pollen-grain of the Angiospermia is thus generally regarded as a
single cell ; but as it contains two or more nuclei round which
the protoplasm is grouped, there is some doubt as to whether it
should be described as consisting of a single cell. In the Gymno-
spermia, on the contrary, the pollen-grains are certainly not
simple cells, but they contain other small cells, each with a
il
REPRODUCTION OF THE GYMNOSPERMIA. 837
4
nucleus and distinct cell-wall, from one of which the pollen-tube
is developed, and which adhere to the inside of the internal
membrane close to the point where the external membrane
presents a slit ( fig. 1159).
The ovules of the Gymnospermia, excluding those of the Gnet-
acez, which require further investigation, consist of a nucellus
or macrosporangium (fig. 1160, a), enclosed by a single coat,
and with a large micropyle, m. Before the contact of the pollen
with the micropyle, the primary embryo-sac, b, is developed in
the nucellus. This embryo-sac is at first very small (fig. 1160,
b), but gradually enlarges (fig. 1161, «), and after a long period
Fra. 1159.
Fia. 1160. Bree L612
Fig. 1159. Pollen of Spruce Fir. 6/. Vesicular protrusions of the extine, e.
i. The intine, through a rent in which passes the pollen-tube which is
developed from y, the larger of the two or more cells produced by the
division of the central cell. g. The smaller cell according to Schacht,
but merely a slit according to Strasburger. (After Schacht.) Fig. 1160.
Vertical section of the young unimpregnated ovule of a species of Pinus.
a. Nucellus containing a smal! primary embryo-sac, 6. m. Micropyle,
which is here very large. Fig. 1161. Vertical section of an oider ovu e
of the same. a. Enlarged primary embryo-sae filled with secondary
endosperm cells, b, within the embryo-sac. c. Two pollen-tubes pene-
trating the apex of the nucellus.
becomes filled with delicate cells by free cell-formation, according
tothe older views, though Strasburger now considers that free
cell-formation never occurs in embryo-sacs, but that the appear-
ance of cells and nuclei is due to the division of previously exist-
ing nuclei. These cells are called endosperm cells ; they disappear
very soon, and are replaced later on by a fresh development
(fig. 1161, 6). The following account of the subsequent de-
velopment of the ovule, and the mode by which it is fertilised,
is taken from Henfrey, and is founded upon Hofmeister’s in-
vestigations.
‘In the upper part of the mass of the last-formed endosperm
(fig. 1161, 6), from five to eight cells are found to expand more
than the rest, forming secondary embryo-sacs or corpuscula,
‘These are not formed in the superficial cells of b, but from
~
;
858 REPRODUCTION OF THE GYMNOSPERMIA.
cells of the second layer, so that each is separated from the
membrane of the primary embryo-sac by one cell (jig. 1162, a).
These corpusculu, as they were called by Robert Brown, their
discoverer, are very much lke the archegonia in the internal
prothallial structure of Selagiiella. After a time the secondary
embryo-sacs divide into an upper or neck-cell, and a lower or
central cell containing the oosphere. The neck-cell speedily
divides and subdivides, to form the rosette which surmounts
the central cell. In the upper part of this latter is then formed,
Frag. 1162.
Fig. 1162. Development of the embryo in a species of Pinus, (After Henfrey.)
A. Upper part of the embryo-sac, with two secondary embryo-saes, cor-
puscula, or archegonia. B. The same, more advanced. p/. Pollen-tube
in the canal leading down to the corpuscula. a. Germinal corpuscles at
the base of the secondary embryo-sac. FE, F,G. Successive stages of de-
veloy ment cf germinal corpuscles,ain B. Cc. Four cellular filaments or
suspenso7's, Which are developed from the germinal corpuscles after im-
pregnation; at H, is shown an earlier stage. D. One of these suspensors,
with the embryo (em) at its apex.
from subdivision of the nucleus, a very delicate cell, which is
called the canal-cell. The mature corpuscle therefore consists of
a large central cell surmounted by arosette of small cells placed —
immediately beneath the wall of the primary embryo-sac, or
separated from it by a funnel-shaped space.’
The process of fertilisation takes place as follows: ‘ After
the contact of the pollen with the micropyle of the ovule, the
pollen-tube, after remaining passive for a variable space of
time, takes an active growth, traverses the endosperm, and
arrives at the embryo-sac by the time the corpuscles are de-
veloped. It penetrates the wall of the embryo-sac, enters into
and dilates the funnel-shaped space just mentioned, passes
down between the cells of the rosette, pushing them on one side
(Taxaceze, Cupressez), or causing their absorption and disap-
pearance (Abietez) as well as that of the canal-cell, and finally
penetrates into the cavity of the canal-cell. The changes which
~
REPRODUCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERMIA. §39
take place in this latter are, according to Strasburger, these :—
disappearance of the original nucleus, and formation of four to
eight new nuclei by condensation of the protoplasm and subse-
quent secretion of a cellulose wall around them. In this way
four to eight new cells are formed by division of the central cell
after fertilisation ; these new cells divide so as to form cellular
filaments, which break out through the bottom of the endosperm
into the substance of the nucleus (jig. 1162, c). At the ends of
these filaments cell-division again occurs (fig. 1162, p); and from
the apex of one of these suspensors or pro-embryos is developed
by repeated cell-division in various directions, the embryo
(D, em). At one stage (in Thuja) a single apical cell, the
terminal one of a group of five, from which ultimately all the
tissues of the embryo are formed, recalls the single apical cell of
the Cryptogamia, but it is soon lost by subdivision. As there
are several corpuscles, and each produces four suspensors, a
large number of rudimentary embryos are developed ;_ but
usually only one of all these rudiments is perfected.
‘That embryo which is fully developed gradually increases
im size, and most of the structures above described disappear, so
that the ripe seed exhibits a single embryo embedded in a mass
of endosperm, the latter originating apparently from the nucleus
of the ovule. The radicle is covered by a pileorhiza, which is
ultimately blended with the substance of the endosperm.’
B. Reproduction of the Angiospermia.—The structure of the
pollen-cells of the Angiospermia has been F
already described (see Pollen, and page 836), Fie 1163.
and need not be further alluded to in this place.
The ovule has also been particularly noticed,
and we shall now only recapitulate its com-
ponent parts at the time when the pollen is
discharged from the anthers—that is, just be-
fore impregnation takes place. It then consists
of a cellular nucellus, containing one large cell,
the embryo-sac, which is the mother-cell of the
oosphere (figs. 1163, b, and 1164, 1), enclosed
generally in two coats—an outer or primine
( fig. 1163, d), and an inner or secundine, ¢. But Fig. 1163. Vertical
sometimes there is but one coat (jig. 740, s), eee pe ownle
a a diagrammatic). a.
and in rare cases the nucellus is naked or Nucellus. 5. Em.
devoid of any coat (fig. 738). Deer & Inner
These coats completely invest the nucellus [°Mieropyie. 7.Cho,
except at the apex, where a small opening laza. g. Funiculus.
or canal is left, termed the micropyle (jigs.
1163, e, and 1164, m), that portion of it which passes through
the primine being sometimes spoken of as the exostome, and
the part going through the secundine as the endostome. In
the interior of the nucellus, but of various sizes in proportion
to it, the embryo-sac (jigs. 1163, b, and 1164, s) is seen. The
840 REPRODUCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERMIA. .-
sac is, however, lable to many modifications ; thus, in some
cases, as in the Orchidace, the embryo-sac completely oblite-
rates the cells of the nucellus by its development, so that the
ovule consists simply of it and its two proper coats. In the
Fie. 1164. Fic, 1165. Fic. 1166,
Fig. 1164, Vertical section of the orthotropous ovule of a species of Poly-
gonum. ch. Chalaza, n. Nucellus invested by two coats. m. Micropyle.
s. Embryo-sac. c. Germinal vesicle or corpuscle-——Fig. 1165. The
ovule, some time before fertilisation. a. The outer coat. b. The inner
coat. s. The embryo-sac, with three nuclei at the upper end, Fig.
1166. The internal parts of the ovu'e a short time before fertilisation.
a. Inner coat of the ovule. s. Embryo-sac. 06, Germinal] vesivies. c.
One of the antipodal cells. (After Hofmeister.)
Leguminose, the embryo-sac increases still further, and causes
the absorption of the secundine or inner coat of the ovule also,
so that it is then simply invested by one coat ; while in other
plants, as in the Santalaceze, the sac elongates
Fic. 1167. so much at the apex as to project out of the
micropyle. The embryo-sac contains at first
a more or less abundant quantity of proto-
plasm ; in this afterwards appear nuclei (jig.
1165, s), which, surrounded by masses of
naked protoplasm, form a corresponding
number of cells (usually three) which are
commonly termed germinal vesicles (fig.
1166, b). The vesicles are situated at or
near the summit of the embryo-sac, one of
them being the vosphere (fig. 1167, e), which
after fertilisation is sometimes called the
x vosperm, and ultimately becomes the embryo.
Aig. V167. | Polygonum ~The two remaining cells after disappearin,
divaricatum. Mature 5 PP s
germinal apparatusin reappear, and are called synergide ( fig. 1167,
apex of embryo-sac, s 5) At the base of the embryo-sae, as
with two synergide, ~? : :
s,s, and the oosphere,e, already described (page 328), there are also,
before fertilisation, two or more nucleated
primordial cells, termed antipodal cells (fig. 1166, c).
Such is the general structure of the ovule before it is
fertilised, upon which so much difference of opinion, until the
—_
REPRODUCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERMIA. 841
last few years, existed among physiologists. Thus Schleiden,
Schacht, and others contended that no germinal vesicle existed
in the sac until after the contact of the pollen-tube with it in
the ordinary process of impregnation ; in fact, they believed
that the germinal vesicle was itself formed from the end of the
pollen-tube, which, according to their observations, penetrated
the wall of the sac, and by subsequent development produced
the embryo. This view was, however, ‘at once combated by
many accurate observers, who all agreed in describing the
presence of one or more germinal vesicles or corpuscles in the
sac before impregnation ; and subsequently, Schleiden himself,
who originated this view of the origin of the embryo, was con-
vinced of his error by Raddlkofer, one of his own pupils.
When the pollen in the process of pollination (page 20) falls
upon the stigma (jig. 1169, b, a) (the tissue of which at this
period, as well as that forming the conducting tissue of the style
and neighbouring parts, secretes a peculiar viscid fluid as de-
Fig. 1168. Fig. 1169.
Fig. 1168. A. Pollen-cell of Dipsacus Fullonum.
B. Po'len-cell of Cucurbita. Each poilen-cell
is putting out a sing’e pollen-tube. (After
Thome. )——Fig. 1169. Longitudinal vertical
section through the uniovular ovary of Poly-
gonum Convolculus, a. Stigma. b. Pollen-cells.
ce. Poilen-tube. d. Wall of ovary. gm. Erect
orthotropous ovule. se. Its embryo-sac.
ch. Chalaza,—N.B. Two of the polien-tubes
have penetrated the conducting tissue of the
style, one of which has entered the micropyle
ot the ovule, the other not. (After Thome.)
scribed at page 271), its intine, carrying with it the fovilla,
protrudes through one or more of the pores or slits of the
extine (jig. 576) in the form of a delicate tube, which pene-
trates through the cells of the stigma, by the viscid secretion of
which it is nourished. In most plants but one pollen-tube is
emitted by each pollen-cell (jigs. 1168, a and B, and 1169, c),
but the number varies, and, according to some observers, is
sometimes twenty or more. The pollen-tube continues to
842 REPRODUCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERMIA.
elongate by growth at its apex, and passes down through the
conducting tissue of the style (figs. 577, tp, and 1169, ¢) when
this exists, or directly into the ovary when the style is absent.
This growth of the pollen-tube is occasioned by the nourishing
influence of the viscid secretion which it meets with in its passage
through the stigma and conducting tissue of the style.
These tubes vary in length, but are frequently many inches,
and are extremely thin. ‘They are commonly unicellular, and
have therefore but one cavity ; but, according to Martin Duncan,
in Tigridia, and all other monocotyledons with long styles which
he examined, they are composed of several elongated cells, and
hence have as many cavities as cells (see page 264). The time
required for the development of these tubes also varies in dif-
ferent pollen-cells ; thus, sometimes they are developed almost
immediately the pollen comes into contact with the stigma ; while.
in other cases many hours are required for the purpose. The
pollen-tubes also occupy a varying time in traversing the
canal of the style—that is, from a few hours to some weeks or
even months. When the pollen-tubes have penetrated the
stigmatic tissue, the secretion of the latter ceases, and the stigma
dries up. The upper part of the pollen-tubes also withers above,
as growth takes place below.
The pollen-tubes having reached the ovary are distributed to
the placenta or placentas, and then come ultimately in contact
with the ovule or ovules. One (or sometimes two) of these
pollen-tubes enters into the micropyle of each of the ovules ( figs.
1169, ec, 1170, ¢, and 1171, t), and thus reaches the nucellus and
embryo-sac. When it arrives at the latter it is generally some-
what enlarged (fig. 1171, t), and adheres firmly to it at or near
its apex. The embryo-sac is frequently introverted to a slight
extent at the point of contact with the pollen-tube (jigs. 1170
and 1171), and it is stated by Hofmeister to perforate it in Canna:
but if such a perforation occurs in this case, it is altogether an
exception to what is generally observed. As soon as the contact
of the pollen-tube with the embryo-sac is effected, a kind of
osmotic action between the contents of the two takes place, the
result of which is the development of one (or rarely two, as in
Orchis and Citrus) or more of the germinal vesicles into embryos.
The germinal vesicle (oosphere), in its development into an
embryo, becomes surrounded by a membrane, and is then the
oosperm. This generally divides at first in a transverse manner
into two cells (fig. 1171, e); and then by further division forms
the pro-embryo or suspensor (fig. 1170, s). The apical cell assumes
commonly a somewhat globular form (fig. 1170, 7), and ulti-
mately by cell-division forms the embryo, whether mono- or di-
cotyledonous. The suspensor is not present in all cases, while in
others, where it is found, it varies in length. It is evidently not
essential in all instances, as it always shrivels up during the de-
velopment of the apical cell into the embryo. The latter, there-
REPRODUCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERMIA.—CROSSING. 843
fore, is the true rudimentary embryo. Other variations occur
in the mode in which the germinal vesicle (oosphere) is developed
into an embryo, but the above is a general sketch of the sub-
ject, and all that our space will aliow us to give.
The changes which take place in the ovule during the deve-
lopment of the embryo, and the subsequent growth of the latter,
have been already generally alluded to when treating of the
seed.
Darwin, Sprengel, Hermann Miiller, Fritz Miiller, and
others, have shown that, in numerous plants, crossing is neces-
Fie. 1170.
Fie. 1171:
Fig. 1170, Vertica’ section of an ovule of a species of Enothera. ¢t. Enlarged
end of the pollen-tube containing fovilla, which has entered the micro-
py’e, and is seen } ressing inwards the apex of the embryo-sac. s, 7, Im-
pregnated germinal vesicle, which already begins to exhibit two parts :
one, the upper, forming a suspensor, s; and another, below, 7, a globular
body, which ultimately becomes the embryo. e. Endosperm cells.
Fig. 1171. Section of an ovule of a species of O7chis. t. Enlarged end ot
the pollen-tube containing fovilla, which has passed through the micro-
pyle, and is closely applied to the embryo-sac, the upper side of which it
has pushed inwards. e. Germinal vesicle in the interior of the embryo-
sac in an impregnated state, and dividing into two portions, the lower of
which is the rudimentary embryo, and the upper forms a suspensor.
sary for a completely fertile union of the sexes; that is, that the
ovules of one flower must be fertilised by pollen from another
of the same species. This may be effected in many ways; e.g.
by the wind, when plants are spoken of as being anemophilous ;
or frequently by the unconscious agency of insects, when they
are said to be entomophilous, as in the Orchidacez, where the
various modifications of structure to ensure cross-fertilisation by
this latter means are strikingly beautiful. The observations of
Darwin, Miller, and others have shown that self-fertilisation is
probably exceptional in plants; certainly occasional crossing
seems to be necessary. The term protandrous is applied to
those plants in which the pollen is ripe and extruded before the
844 DIMORPHIC SPECIES.—HYBRIDISATION.
stigma of the same flower is mature; while those plants in which
the stigma is mature before the pollen are said to be protogynous ;
either protandrous or protogynous plants being spoken of as
dichogamous. It appears that entomophilous plants, by being
protandrous or protogynous, or by the peculiar mechanism of
their flowers, are generally incapable of self-fertilisation, though
some may become self-fertilised in the absence of insect visitors,
and these are not infrequently protogynous, so as to facilitate
cross-fertilisation if an opportunity should occur. Apparently
the form, colour, markings, odour, and nectaries of flowers exist
in special positions to determine not only the visits of insects,
but also the direction of their entrance so as to ensure cross-
fertilisation, just as form, the presence of hairs, or disagreeable
odours, or other secretions, impede or wholly prevent the visits
of injurious insects. The form and characters of the pollen-
cells themselves seem to have a direct connexion with the
method of fertilisation, those of anemophilous flowers being
generally smooth and dust-like, whereas those of entomophilous
flowers are often very irregular and sticky. Anemophilous
plants too have not infrequently a much larger quantity of pollen
than those which are entomophilous.
Dimorphic or heterostyled species are those which possess two
forms of both sorts of sexual organs, as species of Primula,
Oxalis, and Pulmonaria, which have both long and short stamens,
and long and short styles. The long stamens are associated with
the short styles, and vice versa, in the flowers; and Darwin has
proved, by experiment, that, for the complete fertilisation of
either kind of pistil, it is necessary that pollen from the stamens
of corresponding length, and therefore from a different flower,
be employed. Lythrwm Salicaria is trimorphic—1.e. has styles
and stamens of three different lengths—and similar laws have
been observed to prevail in its fertilisation. Legitimate fertili-
sation is the impregnation of the style of one flower by the
pollen from a stamen of equal length with itself, but belonging
to another flower; while the fertilisation of a pistil by pollen
from a stamen of different length is termed illegitimate. Some
plants have inconspicuous self-fertilising flowers, which are said
to be cleistogamic. Such flowers occur in large numbers on the
common Violets (Viola odorata and V. canina), in addition to
the more showy ones which are entomophilous. Similar flowers
are found also on Lamiwm amplexicaule, Owxalis Acetosella, &e.
Hybridisation, Hybridation, or the Production of Hybrids m
Plants.—If the pollen of one species be applied to the stigma of
another species of the same genus, should impregnation take
place, the seeds thus produced will give rise to offspring inter-
mediate in their characters between the two parents. Such
plants are called hybrids or mules. The true hybrids, which are
thus produced between species of the same genus, must not be
confounded with simple cross-breeds, which result from the cross-
PRODUCTION OF HYBRIDS. 845
ing of two varieties of the same species: these may be termed
sub-hybrids.
Asa general rule, true hybrids can only be produced between
nearly allied species, although a few exceptions occur, where
hybrids have been formed between allied genera ; these are called
bigeners. The latter, however, are not so permanent as the
former, for in almost all cases they are short-lived.
Hybrids always possess some of the'characters of both pa-
rents, but they generally bear more resemblance to one than the
other. Sometimes the influence of the male parent is most evi-
dent, and at other times that of the female, but no law can at
present be laid down with regard to the kind of influence ex-
erted by the two parents respectively in determining the cha-
racters of the hybrid. In very rare cases it has been noticed
that different shoots of the same hybrid plant have exhibited
different characters, some bearing flowers and leaves like their
male parent, others like the female, and some having the cha-
racters of both. In such cases, therefore, the hybrid characters
are more or less separated in the different shoots, which present
respectively the characters of one or the other of their parents.
An example of these facts may be seen in Cytisus Adami, pro-
duced by the true hybridation of Cytisus Laburnuwm and Cytisus
purpureus.
Hybrids rarely produce fertile seeds for many generations,
and hence cannot be generally perpetuated with any certainty
by them; but if they are of a woody nature, they may be
readily propagated by budding, grafting, and other analogous
processes. (See page 107.) Hybrids are fertile with the pollen
of one of their parents ; the offspring in such a case resembles
closely the parent from which the pollen was obtained. By the
successive impregnation of hybrids through three, four, or more
generations with the pollen of either of their parents, they re-
vert to their original male or female type; thus, when the
hybrid is successively impregnated by the pollen of its male
parent, it reverts to the male type ; and when with that of the
female, to the female type. The influence of the latter is, how-
ever, more gradual.
Hybrids somewhat rarely occur in wild plants. This arises
chiefly from the following causes : thus, in the first place, the
stigma is more likely to be impregnated with the pollen from
stamens immediately surrounding it, or from those in other
flowers on the same plant, than by that of other and more dis-
tant plants; and, secondly, the stigma has a sort of elective
affinity or natural preference for the pollen of its own species.
Indeed, Gaertner found that if the natural pollen and that of
another species be applied to the same stigma at the same time,
the latter remained inert, and the former alone fecundated
the ovules, or was prepotent over the other; and, moreover,
that when the natural was applied a short period subsequently
846 FORMATION OF THE FRUIT.
to the foreign pollen, the seeds thus produced were never
hybrids. Hybrids appear to be produced more frequently in
wild plants when the sexes are in separate flowers, and more
especially when such flowers are on different plants.
Hybrids are frequently produced artificially by gardeners
applying the pollen of one species to the stigma of another, and
in this way important and favourable changes are often etfected
in the characters of our flowers, fruits, and vegetables. But
varieties thus produced are not commonly true hybrids, but
simple cross-breeds.
The investigations of late years would appear to show that a
similar law as regards hybridisation occurs in the Cryptogamia
as in the Phanerogamia. Thus, Thuret has succeeded in
fertilising the spores of Fucus vesicvlosus with the antherozoids
of Fucus serratus, an allied species ; but he failed in his attempts
to fertilise the spores of one genus of the Melanosporeous
Ale by the antherozoids of another. Other evidence has also
been adduced as to the hybridisation of the Cryptogamia, and
there can be little doubt that hybrid Ferns are sometimes pro-
duced when a number of species are cultivated together, for it
has been noticed that, under such circumstances, plants make
their appearance which present characters of an intermediate
nature between two known species.
3. Or tHE Frurir.—When fertilisation has been effected
(see page 295), important changes take place in the pistil and
other organs of the flower, the result of which is the formation
of the fruit. The calyx and corolla generally fall off, or if
persistent, they form no portion of the fruit except when the
calyx is adherent, asin the Apple (fig. 722), and Quince (fig. 473),
when it necessarily constitutes a part of the pericarp. The style
and stigma also become dry, and either fall off, as in the majority
of cases, or are persistent, as in the Poppy and Anemone ( fig. 700).
But the principal alterations take place in the wall of the ovary,
which usually becomes more or less swollen, and soon undergoes
important chemical changes, and forms the pericarp, either by
itself (a true fruit), or combined with the adherent calyx or
other parts of the flower, &c. (a spurious fruit), (see page 296).
Some pericarps, as already noticed (page 298), are fully developed
without the fertilisation of the ovules, as those of many culti-
vated varieties of Oranges, (arapes, Bananas, &c. The fruits
thus formed, although frequently more valuable than others for
food, are, of course, useless for reproduction.
The fruit in its growth attracts the food necessary for that
purpose from surrounding parts, hence, the fruiting of plants
requires for its successful accomplishment an accumulation of
nutrient matter, and is, therefore, necessarily an exhaustive
process. That the reproductive processes, and especially the
ripening or maturation of the fruit, tend to exhaust the indi-
vidual, is proved in various ways. Thus plants which fruit the
eee ae
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF FRUITS. 847
same year in which they are developed afterwards perish, from
the exhaustion of nutrient matter thus occasioned ; and that
such is the reason is proved by the fact, that we can make
annuals biennial, or even perennial, by plucking off the flower-
buds as they are successively developed. Some plants which
only flower once require many years to accumulate sufficient
nourishment to support the processes of reproduction. Such are
the American Aloe (Agave americana) and the Talipot Palm
(Corypha umbraculifera), both of which live many years before
flowering, after which they die. A bad fruit year is also
generally succeeded by a good one, and vice versd, because in
the former case an additional supply of nutrient matter is
stored up for the fruiting season, and in the latter there is
a diminishel amount. Again, if a branch of an unproductive
tree have a ring of bark removed so as to prevent the down-
ward flow of the elaborated sap, its accumulation above will
cause the plant to bear much fruit. Pruning depends for its
success upon similar principles. In order to obtain good fruit
it is also necessary not to allow too many fruits to come to per-
fection on the same plant. Other matters connected with this
exhaustion by fruiting have been already alluded to, in speaking
of Annual, Biennial, and Perennial Roots, at page 133.
The changes produced upon the atmosphere in the ripening
of the fruit, depend upon the nature of the pericarp. Thus,
when the pericarp preserves its green state, as also always when
first formed, it has an action similar to that of the leaves ; but
when of other colours than green, and more especially when
succulent, it evolves carbon dioxide at all times, instead of
oxygen.
Chemical Constitution of Fruits.—The chemical constitution
of fruits varies accoidinyz to their nature and age. When the
pericarp is of a dry na‘ure, it commonly assumes a whitish or
brownish colour, and its cells become thickened with hardened
matters, and their cellulose walls converted into lignin. Under
such circumstances, no further changes take place in its chemical
constitution, and its vital activity ceases. But when the peri-
carp becomes succulent whilst ripening, it assumes various
tints ; transpiration goes on from its outer cells, the contents of
which thus become dense, and absorb the watery matters from
those within them ; these in like manner react upon the contents
of those within them, and so there is a constant passage of fluid
matters from the surrounding parts by osmotic action into the
pericarp ; in this way, therefore, it continues to enlarge, until it
has arrived at maturity, when transpiration nearly ceases from
the deposition of waxy matter in or upon the epidermal cells,
and the stalk by which it is attached to the plant becomes dried
up. When first formed such pericarps have a like composition
with leaves, and but little or no taste. After a time they ac-
quire an acid flavour from the formation of vegetable acids, and
848 CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF FRUITS.
salts with an acid reaction. The nature of these acids and salts
varies in different fruits ; thus the Grape contains tartaric acid
chiefly and acid tartrate of potassium ; the Apple, malic acid ; and
the Lemon, citric acid. As the pericarp ripens, saccharine
matter is formed, and the quantity of free acids diminishes,
partly from their conversion into other matters, and partly from
their combination with alkalies. In order that these changes
may be properly effected, it is necessary that the fruit be ex-
posed to the sun and air, for if grown in the dark it will continue
acid ; and it will be much less sweet even when developed in
diffused daylight, than when freely exposed to the sun. As
fruits ripen they evolve carbon dioxide, as already noticed, give
off watery fluids, and a sensible elevation of temperature may
be noted.
The origin of the sugar of fruits, and even its nature, is not
satisfactorily determined. According to most observers, ripe
fruits contain grape sugar (glucose), but M. Buignet states that the
sugar which is primarily formed in acid fruits is sucrose or cane
sugar, and that during the process of ripening this sugar is gradu-
ally changed into fruit sugar (glucose and levulose), but very often
there remains in the ripe fruit a mixture of these two sugars.
The origin of the sugar is variously attributed to the transforma-
tion of the acids, cellulose, lignin, starch, dextrin, gum, and other
matters of a like nature. According to M. Buignet’s investiga-
tions, the cause of the change of the primarily formed cane sugar
into fruit sugar is not the acids of the fruits, but appears to
depend upon the influence of a nitrogenous body playing the
part of a glucosic ferment, analogous to that which M. Berthelot
has extracted from yeast. M. Buignet adds, that ‘the abun-
dance in which starch is found distributed through the Vegetable
Kingdom leads to the supposition that it is the true source of
the saccharine matter in fruits. Its presence cannot, however,
be detected in green fruits, either by the microscope or by
iodine, excepting in green bananas, which contain a notable
quantity of starch.’ M. Buignet also notices that green fruits
contain an astringent principle resembling tannin, which is
capable of being converted into a sugar identical with the sugar
from starch (maltose), under the influence of dilute acids and a
proper temperature. The proportion of this tannin diminishes in
fruits in the same ratio that the proportion of sugar increases.
The pericarp of some fruits has developed in it during the
process of ripening, fixed and essential oils, as well as other
substances of an aromatic nature. According to Frémy, the
inner walls of the cells of succulent fruits in an unripe state
consist of a substance called pectose, which is insoluble in water,
alcohol, or ether. This body has not been isolated, but is con-
verted in ripe fruits by the agency of acids into pectine, which is
soluble in water. Pectine is afterwards transformed into pectosic
and then into pectic acid through the agency of a peculiar ferment
RIPENING OF FRUITS. 849
called pectose. Frémy has also noticed, that at the period of
ripening the thickness of the cell-walls diminishes rapidly ;
hence it would appear that these transformations of the pectic
compounds play an important part in the changes which are
' taking place during the ripening of the fruit.
The changes which take place in the composition of fruits
during ripening are well exhibited in the following table founded
upon Bérard’s observations :—
Water. Sugar. ones
Names of Fruits. L |
Unripe.| Ripe. | Unripe. Ripe. | Unripe. | Ripe.
| 2 |
| A trace |
| when
| young,
and then
Apricots ‘ e 2 Il BREE) 74°87 6°64 16°48 3°61 1°86
| | With the
seeds ; —
Red Currants > . | 86°41 81°10 0°52 6°24 8°45 8:01
Duke Cherries. . | 98°28 74°85 Let 18°12 2°44 I-12
Greengage Plums . | 74°87 71°10 U7 24°81 1:26 rill
Melting Peaches . . | 90°31 80°24 0°63 11°61 3-01 1:21
Jargonelle Pears . . | 86°28 83°88 6°45 11°52 3°80 2°19
z
|
Ripening of Fruits.—The time when a fruit is considered ripe
varies in different cases. When the pericarp is of a dry nature,
the fruit is looked upon as ripe just before it dehisces ; but when
the pericarp is of a pulpy nature and edible, we commonly re-
gard it as mature when most agreeable for food. Hence the Apple
is considered to be ripe in astate in which the Medlar would be
regarded as unripe.
When succulent fruits are ripe, they undergo another change,
a species of oxidation, which produces a decay, or bletting of
their tissues, as it has been called by Lindley. This bletting,
according to Bérard, is especially evident in the fruits of the
Pomez and Ebenaceze, and it would appear that the more
austere the fruit is, the more it is capable of bletting regularly.
Bletting appears to be peculiar to such fruits, and may be re-
garded as a state intermediate between maturity and decay. A
Jargonelle Pear, in passing from ripeness to bletting, according
to Bérard, léses a great deal of water (83°88, which it contains
when ripe, being reduced to 62°73) ; much sugar (11°52, being
reduced to 8°77); and a little lignin (2°19, being reduced to
1°85) ; but it acquires, at the same time, rather more malic acid,
gum, and albuminous matters.
The time required by different plants for ripening their fruits
varies much, but almost all fruits come to maturity in a few
months. Some, as those of Grasses generally, take but a few
31
850 VITALITY OF SEEDS.
days; while others, as certain of the Conifer, &c., require more
than twelve months.
4, Or THE SeED.—The structure and general characters of
the seed, as well as the origin and progressive development of
its parts, have been already fully alluded to in a former section ~
of this work (pages 333-348).
Our limited space prevents us from alluding to the multitude
of ways and contrivances by which the natural dissemination of
seeds is effected, and to the number of seeds produced by
plants. Suffice it to say that, in all cases, a great many more
seeds are matured than are required for the propagation of the
species ; and thus the extinction of the species in consequence
of their decay, and their use for food by animals, &c., is pro-
vided against.
Vitality of Seeds.—Seeds vary very much as to the time
during which they will preserve their power of germinating.
This vitality is frequently lost long before they lose their value
for food. Some seeds of an oily or mucilaginous nature, or which
contain much tannic acid, speedily lose their vitality, and decay ;
this is the case, for instance, with Nuts and Acorns, and hence,
when seeds of this nature are required for propagation, they must
be sown immediately or within a short time of their arriving at
maturity, or special means must be adopted for their preserva-
tion. Other seeds, such as those of a farinaceous nature, as
Wheat and Cereal grains generally, or those with hard and bony
integuments, as many of the Leguminose, frequently retain their
vitality for years.
From the experiments of De Candolle, those of a Committee of
the British Association, and of others, it would appear gener-
ally, that the seeds of the Leguminosz and Malvacez preserve
their vitality longest, while those of Composite, Cruciferze, and
Graminacez soon lose their germinating power. But some ex-
ceptions to the above statement occur in these orders.
Under particular circumstances it seems certain that seeds
have preserved their vitality for a long period. Some of the
cases brought forward as illustrations of this capability of seeds
are, however, not supported by careful observations, as, for
instance, that of the vitality of Wheat taken from Egyptian
mummies. There are no well-authenticated instances of Wheat
taken from mummies, which have been untampered with, germi-
nating ; indeed, all experiments (Dietrich, Lardet, Haberlandt),
tend to show that Wheat loses its power of germination in from
three to seven years. But other well-authenticated instances of
seeds having preserved their vitality for a lengthened period are
on record. Thus, on the authority of Dr. Trimen, it was stated
in the third edition of this Manual that some seeds of Nelwmbinm
in the herbarium (now in the British Museum) of Sir Hans
Sloane, who died in 1753, germinated in 1866 ; these must, there-
fore, have been considerably over a century old. Mr. Kemp,
PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF SEEDS. 851
in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ has likewise
narrated a still more remarkable case. This gentleman received
some seeds which were found upwards of twenty-five feet below
the surface of the earth, in the lowest layers of a sand-pit in
process of excavation. Upon being sown, about one-tenth
germinated and produced plants of Polygonum Convolvulus,
Rumex Acetosella, and a variety of Atriplex patula. All these
seeds are of a mealy or farinaceous nature. Mr. Kemp con-
cluded from various circumstances, that they were deposited at
a period when the valley of the Tweed was occupied by a lake ;
if this be the case, they must have retained their vitality
during many centuries at least, as it is certain that in the time
of the Romans no lake existed there. It has also long been
noticed that when a new soil is turned up, plants previously
unknown in the locality appear, which is a proof that the seeds
of such plants must have lain dormant for frequently a very
lengthened period.
Preservation and Transportation of Seeds.—As many persons
frequently wish to send seeds to a distance, a few words on the
best means of preserving them for that purpose will be accept-
able to our readers. Thus when seeds are enclosed in hard or
dry pericarps, they should be preserved and transported in them.
This is the case with those of many Legumminous and Coniferous
plants. When the pericarps are soft or lable to decay, the seeds
should be removed from them. In all cases, seeds when re-
quired for preservation should be gathered when quite ripe, as at
that period their proximate principles are in a more stable con-
dition than when unripe, when they are very liable to change.
Seeds should be also preserved quite dry. Seeds of a farinaceous
nature, if ripe and dry, will retain their vitality for a long
period, and such may be readily transported to a distance. For
the latter purpose they should be placed in perfectly dry papers
in a dry coarse bag, which should be afterwards suspended from
a nail or otherwise in the cabin of a ship, in which position they
are maintained at a moderate temperature and exposed to free
ventilation. Such seeds require no further care. But seeds of
an oily or mucilaginous nature, or that contain much astringent
matter, require, as a further protection, to be excluded from the
air. For this purpose they are best packed in stout boxes lined
with tin, and filled with dry sand or charcoal powder. The sand
or charcoal powder and the seeds should be placed alternately in
layers, and the whole firmly pressed together. Such seeds, how-
ever, even when thus protected, frequently lose their vitality. A
coating of wax has in some cases been found to preserve effec-
tually the vitality of seeds. Probably seeds which are difficult of
preservation might be transported in hermetically sealed bottles
containing carbon dioxide. Wardian cases are also an import-
ant means for transporting seeds (see page 806), and should be
resorted to, when possible, in all doubtful cases.
3812
882 : CONDITIONS OF. GERMINATION.
GERMINATION.—By germination we mean that power or act by
which the latent vitality of the embryo is brought into activity,
and it becomes an independent plant capable of supporting
itself. The germination of Cryptogams has already been suffi-
ciently alluded to when treating of the Root, at page 135, and
in the sections devoted to the Reproductive Organs, and Repro-
duction of the Cryptogamia. Our further remarks will apply
therefore solely to the Phanerogamia.
Length of Time required for Germination.—The time required
for germination varies much according to the nature of the seeds
and the conditions under which they are placed. Generally
speaking, seeds germinate most rapidly directly after being
gathered. If preserved till they are quite dry, the process of
germination in some cases is months in being effected, while in
some seeds their capability of germination is entirely destroyed.
The seeds of the garden Cress will frequently germinate in
twenty-four hours, but the majority of seeds do not germinate
for from six to twenty days, and some require months or even
years. Germination is generally prolonged when the embryo is
invested by hardened integuments or albumen, and it,is usually
most rapid in exalbuminous seeds, more especially if such seeds
bave thin soft integuments. Heat is the agent which most
accelerates germination. :
Conditions requisite for Germination.—A certain amount of
heat and moisture, and a free communication with atmospheric
air, are in all cases necessary to the process of germination.
Electricity is also considered by some observers to promote it,
but its influence in the process is by no means proved, and if
exerted it is apparently of but little importance. Light has no
influence on germination in most cases, according to Hoffmann’s
experiments. (See also The Effect of the Electric Light on the
Growth of Plants, page 858. ) e
Moisture is required to soften the parts of the seed and to
take up all soluble matters ; the cells of which seeds are com-
posed are in this way enabled to expand, and the embryo to
burst through the integuments, but excess of water is often
injurious.
Heat is necessary to excite the dormant vitality of the em-
bryo, but the amount required varies very much in different
seeds, and probably each species has its own proper range in this
respect. Asa general rule, from 50° to 80° Fahr. may be re-
garded as most favourable to germination in temperate climates,
but some seeds will germinate at a temperature of 35° Fahr. ;
and those of many tropical plants require a temperature of from
90° to 120° Fahr., or sometimes higher, for germination.
Air, or at least oxygen gas, is required to combine with the
superfluous carbon of the seed, which is thus evolved as carbon
dioxide, with a sensible increase of temperature (page 856), as is
well seen in the malting of Barley. The necessity of a proper
PROCESS OF GERMINATION. P 853
supply of oxygen is proved by the fact, that seeds will not ger-
minate when buried too deeply in the soil, or when the soil is
impervious to air. This explains how seeds may lie dormant at
great depths in the soil, and only germinate when the soil is
brought to the surface ; and hence we see the necessity of admit-
ting air to seeds, as in the ordinary operations of agriculture.
Process of Germination. —When the above requisites are sup-
plied in proper proportions to suit the requirements of different
seeds, germination takes place; but should any be wanting or
in too great amount, the process is more or less impeded, or
altogether arrested. The most favourable seasons for germina-
tion are spring and summer ; and seeds sprout most readily in
loose pulverised and properly drained soil, at a moderate depth,
for, under such circumstances, air, moisture, and warmth have
free access. Seeds thus placed absorb moisture, soften and
swell, and certain chemical changes go on at the same time in
the substance of the albumen, or, when this is absent, in the
cells of the cotyledonary portion, by which a proper supply of
nourishment is provided for the embryo. These chemical
changes chiefly consist in the conversion of starch and other
analogous substances, which are insoluble and therefore not in a
suitable state for absorption, into soluble matters such as dextrin
and grape sugar. The immediate cause of this transformation of
starch is due to a nitrogenous substance called diastase, which is
developed, during germination, from an alteration of a portion
of the nitrogenous contents of the seed. During these chemical
actions heat is evolved, as in the malting of Barley (see p. 856),
and carbon dioxide given off from the combination of the
superfluous carbon in the starchand albuminoids with the oxygen
of the air. The nutriment being thus made available for use, it
is absorbed dissolved in water by the embryo, which is in this
manner nourished, increases in size, and ultimately bursts
through the integuments of the seed. Its lower extremity or
radicle (fig. 16,7), or one or more branches from it (fig. 765, r),
is commonly protruded first from its proximity to the micropyle,
which is the weakest point in the integuments, and by taking a
direction downwards becomes fixed in the soil, whilst soon after
the opposite extremity elongates upwards (fig. 16, t), and is
terminated above by the plumule, which is the first terminal bud
or growing apex of thestem. At the same time the cotyledonary
portion is either left under ground or is carried upwards to the
surface. The embryo during this development continues to be
nourished from the matters contained either in the albumen or
cotyledonary portion, and ultimately by continuing to absorb
nutriment it is enabled to develop its first leaves (primordial)
( fig. 18, d, d,) and root, 7. The young plant is now placed in a
position to acquire the necessary nourishment for its further
support and growth from the media by which it is surrounded,
and is thereby rendered independent of the other parts of the
854 . MONOCOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION,
seed ; the cotyledonary portion accordingly perishes, and the
act of germination is complete.
Direction of Plumule and Radicle.—The cause which leads to
the development of the axis of the embryo in two opposite di-
rections has not yet been satisfactorily demonstrated, although
much has been written on the subject. By some it has been
referred to the action of darkness and moisture on the root, and
that of light and dryness on the stem. By others it has been
attributed to gravitation and the state of the tissues; and
others, again, have regarded osmotic action as the cause. All
these explanations are unsatisfactory, and need not be further
alluded to. Darkness has been shown to have no influence on
the direction of the root, which is probably determined by the
greater amount of moisture usually met with in the soil, and by
gravitation or geotropism (see page 862). In Trapa natans the
radicle is directed upwards towards the surface of the water in
which the plant grows.
Differences between the Germination of Dicotyledonous and
Monocotyledonous Seeds.—There are certain differences between
the germination of Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous em-
bryos, which have already been alluded to briefly (see page 134),
but which require some further notice.
1. Monocotyledonous Germination. —The seeds of Monoco-
tyledons, in by far the majority of instances, contain albumen.
This, as the embryo developes, is usually entirely absorbed ; but
sometimes, asin theseed of Phytelephas, the contents of the consti-
tuent cells are removed, and the walls left as a kind of skeleton.
The single cotyledon of Monocotyledonous seeds, when they
contain albumen, always remains entirely (fig. 765, c), or partially
within the integuments, during germination. In the latter case,
the intra-seminal portion of the cotyledon corresponds to the
limb of the cotyledonary leaf, and the portion which elongates
beyond the integuments (extra-seminal) represents the petiolar
portion. The latter part varies much in length, and is commonly
terminated by a sheath, which encloses the young axis with the
plumule. In the Palms this petiolar portion is often several
inches in length. At other times there is no evident petiolar
part, but the sheathing portion enveloping the axis remains
sessile on the outside of the seed, and elongates in a tangential
direction to it, as in the Oat (fig. 765), where the cotyledon, c,
remains within the seed, and the plumule, g, rises upwards from
its axil into the air.
In some few Monocotyledonous orders, such as Naiadacez,
Alismaceze, &c., where the seeds are exalbuminous, the coty-
ledon is commonly freed from the integuments, and raised
upwards with the plumule.
As already noticed (page 134), in the germination of Mono-
cotyledonous embryos, e.g. the Grasses, the radicle is not itself,
except in rare cases, continued downwards so as to form the
_——————V——<<<—- , Se --.mhUcLcLULULSC
DICOTYLEDONOUS GERMINATION. 855
root, but it gives off one or more branches of nearly equal size,
which separately pierce its extremity, and become the rootlets
(fig. 251, r). Each of these rootlets, at the point where it
pierces the radicular extremity, 1s surrounded by a cellular
sheath termed the rovt-sheath or coleorhiza (fig. 251, co). This
mode of germination is commonly termed endorhizal ; but it is
not, as already stated, universal in Monocotyledons.
2. Dicotyledonous Germination.—The seeds of Dicotyledons
are either albuminous or exalbuminous, and their germination
in such respects, as a general rule, presents no pecuharity worth
notice. The two cotyledons either remain within the integu-
ments of the seed in the form of fleshy lobes, as in the Horse-
chestnut and Oak, in which case they are said to be hypogeal
(from two Greek words signifying under the earth); or, as is
more commonly the case, they burst through the coats, and rise
out of the ground in the form of green leaves ( jig..18,2¢,.ch in
which case they are epigeal (from two Greek words signifying
upon or above the earth). In the course of development the
cotyledons commonly separate, and the plumule comes out from
between them (fig. 16, 1). In those cases where they remain
within the integuments, they sometimes become more or less
united, so that the embryo resembles that of a Monocotyledon ;
but a Dicotyledonous embryo may be always distinguished from
a Monocotyledonous one by its plumule coming out from between
the bases of the cotyledons, and not passing through a sheath.
The radicle of a Dicotyledonous embryo (see page 125) is it-
self prolonged downwards by cell-multiplication just within its
apex (fig. 248, a), toformthe root. An embryo which germinates
in this way is termed exorhizal (page 154).
As a general rule, seeds do not germinate until they are
separated from their parents; but in some cases, and more
especially when invested by pulp, as in the Gourds, Melon,
Cucumber, Papaw, &c., they do so before they are detached. In
the above plants such a mode of germination is altogether
exceptional; but in the plants of the order Rhizophoracee, as
the Mangrove (fig. 255), the seeds commonly germinate in the
pericarp before being separated from the tree, in which case the
radicle is protruded through the integuments of the seed and
pericarp, and becomes suspended in the air, where it elongates.
CHAPTER 4.
SPECIAL PHENOMENA IN THE LIFE OF THE PLANT.
1. DeveLopmMENT oF Heat By Piants.—As the various parts
of living plants are the seat of active chemical and other changes
during their development, and in the performance of their
856 DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT BY PLANTS.
several functions, we might conclude that their temperature
would rarely or ever, under natural circumstances, correspond
with that of the atmosphere around them.
We have already noticed, that during the germination of seeds
a considerable development of heat takes place (page 851). This
is more especially evident when a number of seeds germinate
together, as in the process of malting. The development of heat
in flowering has also been alluded to (page 827). The rise of
temperature which thus occurs in the processes
of germination and flowering is due, without
doubt, essentially to the production of carbon
dioxide. To estimate the degree of heat deve-
loped during germination and in flowering,
Sachs devised the apparatus (jig. 1172), where
the flask f contains a strong solution of potash
or soda, 1, which absorbs the carbon dioxide set
free. Inthe neck of the flask is placed a funnel,
v, with a small filter perforated by a needle.
Into this are placed soaked seeds or freshly cut
flower-buds in the act of opening, and a bell-
glass, g, used to cover the whole. Through
the opening of the bell-glass, which is plugged
with cotton wool, w, is passed a thermometer,
t, whose bulb is so placed as to be surrounded
Fig.1172. Apparatus 00 all sides by the seeds or flower-buds.
for estimating the We have still to inquire, whether the ordi-
seu ate ceerat! nary vital actions which are going on in plants
nation of seedsand are calculated to raise or diminish their tem-
the eabening of perature. The experiments of Hunter, Schoepf,
Sache. ape “ Bierkander, Maurice, Pictet, and more especi-
ally of Schiibeler, lead to the conclusion that
the trees of our climate with thick trunks exhibit a variable
internal temperature, being higher in the winter and at sunrise
than the surrounding atmosphere—that is, at periods of great
cold, or of moderate temperature ; and lower in the summer or
at mid-day—that is, at periods of great heat. In no observed
cases were such trees noticed to possess exactly the temperature
of the atmosphere around them. The experiments of Réaumur
on trees with slender trunks exposed directly to the sun’s rays
showed a considerable increase of temperature in them over the
external air. These experiments of Réaumur are, however, by
no means satisfactory.
The temperature of trees under the above conditions depends
upon various causes, such as the sun’s rays, the amount of eva-
poration, chemical changes which take place during assimilation,
&c., the conducting powers of the wood, and particularly upon
the temperature of the soil in which the plants are grown. In
the active periods of the growth of plants, when evaporation is
constantly going on, and the fixation of carbon taking place,
DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT BY PLANTS. 857
both of which processes are accompanied by a diminution of
heat, it is evident that such changes must have some effect in
modifying the temperature ; and hence if, at such periods, their
temperature be above that of the surrounding air, that it is due
to external influences, such as the sun’s rays, and the tempera-
ture of the soil, &c. This probably explains, to some extent at
least, why the temperature of thick trees exposed to great heat
is lower than that of the surrounding air, for at such a period
vegetation is in a very active condition, evaporation and assimi-
laticn being then in full play. Again, when the temperature of
the air is low, as in winter or during the night, little or no
evaporation or assimilation takes place, and hence we find that
the temperature is then higher than that of the external air.
The conclusions in the last paragraph do not, however, alto-
gether agree with the published result of experiments made by
Dutrochet ; for he found, by operating with Becquerel's thermo-
electric needle, that when plants were placed ina moist atmo-
sphere so as to restrain evaporation, a slight increase of tempera-
ture took place, thus seeming to prove that the chemical changes
taking place in plants produced a rise rather than a diminution
of temperature. Probably this slight increase of heat under
such circumstances is due to the oxidation or combustion of a
portion of the carbon of the plant. But Dutrochet found
that when evaporation was allowed, the proper vital or specific
heat of plants was slightly below that of the atmosphere. He
also noticed that the heat of plants varied during the course
of twenty-four hours,—the hour of maximum temperature
varying from ten in the morning to three in the afternoon, the
minimum occurring at midnight. The variation in such cases
was, however, extremely small, being only from about one-tenth
to a little over one-half a degree of Fahrenheit. This specific
heat of plants could only be observed in green and soft struc-
tures, those which were hard or woody (i.e. those which were
composed mainly of dead tissues) not possessing any specific
heat, because in such parts little or no metabolic changes were
going on.
The above is but a brief summary of the conclusions which
have been at present arrived at with regard to the develop-
ment of heat by plants, and these are by no means of a con-
clusive nature. Much further investigation is required upon
this matter.
In connexion with the subject of heat developed by plants
may be mentioned the researches of Boussingault, Alphonse
de Candolle, &c., as to the temperatures required by ditterent
plants to stimulate them into vegetative or reproductive activity.
That a certain sum of heat is required for the proper develop-
ment of a plant has long been known ; also that the life-history
of some plants (as Wheat) will be completed in a shorter time
in hot than in more temperate climates.
858 LUMINOSITY AND ELECTRICITY OF PLANTS,
2. Luminosity or Piants.—Very little is positively known
respecting the development of light by plants. But it seems
tolerably well ascertained, on the authority of Humboldt, Nees
von Esenbeck, Unger, Drummond, and others, that the thallomes
of some living Fungi are luminous in the dark. This luminosity
has been noticed in several species of Agaricus and the so-called
Rhizomorpha ; but Brefeld says that only the young hyphe are
luminous in the latter. According to Prescott, the mycelium
of the common Truffle is also luminous in the dark.
The statement that certain Mosses, as Schistostega osmundacea
and Mniwm punctatum are phosphorescent, appears to have been
founded on imperfect observation.
With regard to the development of light by the higher classes
of plants, we have at present no very satisfactory observations
to depend upon. It has been repeatedly stated, that many
orange and red-coloured flowers, such as those of the Nastur-
tium, Sunflower, Marigolds, Orange Lilies, Red Poppies, &c.,
give out, on the evening of a hot day in summer, peculiar
flashes of light. This peculiar luminosity of orange and red
flowers is now commonly regarded as an optical illusion, and the
fact of such luminosity having been only noticed in lowers with
such bright and gaudy tints, appears strongly to favour such a
conclusion.
The rhizomes of certain Indian grasses have been reported
to be luminous in the dark during the rainy season; and
Mornay and Martius have observed, that the milky juices of
some plants were luminous when exuding from wounds made
in them. Martius also states, that the milky juice of Hwphorbia
phosphorea is luminous after removal from the plant, when it is
heated.
3. Exectrictty oF PLtants.— Disturbances of electrical equi-
librium are undoubtedly connected with the various chemical
and mechanical changes which take place in plants. By the
medium of a galvanometer, Ranke, Velten, Burdon Sanderson,
and others, have demonstrated that there exists in plants an
electric current from the transverse to the longitudinal section
of a vegetable fibre, similar, but in the contrary direction tu
that shown by Du Bois Reymond to exist in the muscles, &c., of
animals. It is also found that the internal tissue of land plants
is always electro-negative to the cuticularised surface.
The Effect of the Electric Light on the Growth of Plants and
Production of Chlorophyll.Some experiments made by the late
Sir Wm. Siemens seem to prove that the electric light aids the
growth of plants, produces chlorophyll, increases the brilliancy
of flowers, and promotes the ripening of fruits. By sowing seeds
of rapidly growing plants and exposing them to the same con-
ditions with the exception of light, he found that those grown
in the dark were etiolated and soon withered ; those exposed to
daylight with a fair share of sunlight were vigorous, and of a
MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS. 859
good green colour ; but those exposed to the electric light for six
hours per day only, being in darkness the other eighteen hours,
were vigorous though less green ; while those exposed to day-
hght and electric light successively, were the most vigorous, and
the green of their leaves of a darker hue. This shows that
plants may for a time grow continuously without rest, i.e. with-
out sleep ; but for what length of time this endurance would
continue further experiments are required to prove. The
electric light seems therefore to affect plants in a similar manner
to the continuous summer sun in northern latitudes, where
Dr. Schiibeler found that the arctic sun caused plants to pro-
duce more brilliant flowers and richer and larger fruit than if
the same plants had been grown with an alternation of light
and darkness.
4. Movements or Piants.—Three kinds of movements have
been described in plants :—1. Motions of entire plants, such as
those which occur in the Oscillatorieze, Diatomezx, and some
other forms of the lower Algz ; and of parts, e.g. the anthero-
zoids, connected with the reproductive processes in some of the
lower kinds of plants. The movements thus possessed by
some of the lower Algz is a marked deviation from what ord1-
narily occurs in plants. 2. Movements produced in parts of
plants which are dead, or which. at least, have lost their active
vitality. Such movements may be noticed in almosi all the
great divisions of plants, and are more or less connected with
some reproductive function. We include here the bursting of
anthers in the Phanerogams, and that of spore-cases in the
Cryptogams the dehiscence of fruits, the separation of the
component carpels from one another in the Euphorbiacezw and
Geraniaceze, and many other phenomena of a like nature. 3.
Movements which occur in the living parts of plants when in an
active state of growth, &c.
The first two classes of movements have been already alluded
to in various parts of this work. The movements of the first
class appear to depend upon a rotation of the protoplasmic cell-
contents, the cause of which is at present unexplained ; or to
the presence of cilia upon their surfaces. Movements of the
second kind are entirely mechanical, and produced by the vary-
ing conditions of the different tissues as to elasticity and power
of imbibing moisture.
The third kind of movements must be more particularly
noticed. They only occur during active vegetation. The
directions taken by organs properly come under this head. But
this matter, so far as the plumule and radicle are concerned,
has been already noticed (page 854). With regard to the stem
the extensive researches of Darwin on Twining Plants and
Tendrils are full of interest. The ends of such structures have
the power of spontaneously revolving ; and this they constantly
do, usually from right to left, once in about two hours ; to this
860 MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.
action Sachs has applied the term of revolving nutation, which
Darwin has simplified into that of circwmnutation. So soon as
the organ meets with a support its motion is arrested, and it
becomes spirally twined round by the arrest of the movement of
successive portions. Tendrils contract spirally soon after they
have laid hold of a support, and so draw up the stem to which
they are attached. The remaining movements belonging to this
class have been divided by Schleiden in the following manner :—
1. Movements which evidently depend on external influences.
These are divided into two :—
a. Periodical. b. Not periodical.
2. Movements independent, at least to some extent, of ex-
ternal influences, which are also divided into two :—
a. Periodical. b. Not periodical.
Fig. 1173.
Fig. 1173. Nicotiana glauca. A. Shoots with leaves expanded during the
day. B. The same asleep at night, pointing vertically upwards. (After
Darwin.)
(1) MovEMENTS DEPENDING ON EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.—da.
Peridical.—Under this head we include such movements as
those of certain leaves and the petals of flowers, which occur
at particular hours, the organs remaining in the new position
thus taken up until the return of a particular period, when they
PERIODICAL MOVEMENTS. 861
resume as nearly as possible their original position. In leaves,
these periodical movements consist in the closing up of such
organs towards the evening and their expansion in the morning.
In the petals of flowers great differences occur in opening or
closing at particular hours of the day ; and, by observing these
changes in a variety of flowers, Linnzeus and others have drawn
up what has been termed a floral clock. This periodical closing
up of leaves and flowers has been called the sleep of plants.
The compound leaves of certain Leguminose and Oxalidacexe
are marked illustrations of these periodical movements, which
are probably all indirectly dependent upon the varying con-
ives Wile
ES
PEI pa
SSss
ZZ
SS
Va
eS
oS
SS
SS
MH b
=
SS,
F
sS
Fig. 1174. Desmodium gyrans. A. Stem with leaves during the day, B. A
similar stem with leaves asleep at night, pointing downwards. (Atter
Darwin.)
ditions of light to which the parts of the plant in which they
occur are exposed. All these movements Darwin considers to
be due to modified circumnutation. This author says: ‘In
Lupinus the leaflets move either upwards or downwards ; and
in some species (for instance, L. luteus), those on one side of the
star-shaped leaf move up, and those on the opposite side move
down ; the intermediate ones rotating on their axes; and by
these varied movements the whole leaf forms at night a vertical
star, instead of a horizontal one as during day. Some leaves
and leaflets, besides moving either upwards or downwards,
become more or less folded at night, as in Bauhinia and in
862 MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.—HELIOTROPISM.—GEOTROPISM.
some species of Oxalis. The positions, indeed, which leaves
occupy when asleep are almost infinitely diversified : they may
either point vertically upwards ( fig. 1173,8) or downwards ( fig.
1174, B); or, in the case of leaflets, towards the apex or towards
the base of the leaf, or in any intermediate position. .. .
‘The nyctitropic movements of leaves, leaflets and petioles
are effected in two different ways—firstly, by alternately in- .
creased growth on their opposite sides, preceded by an increased
turgescence of their cells (see page 782 and fig. 1140); and
secondly, by means of a pulvinus or aggregate of small cells,
generally destitute of chlorophyll, which become alternately more
turgescent on nearly opposite sides, and this turgescence is not
followed by growth except during the early age of the plant.’
b. Not periodical.—Such movements are exhibited in a num-
ber of plants both in the leaves and in their reproductive organs.
In the leaves they are well seen in certain species of Oxalis and
Mimosa (fig. 373), in Dionxa muscipula (fig. 375), &e. In the
reproductive organs they may be noticed in the curving inwards
or outwards of the stamens of certain plants, such as those of
Berberis vulgaris and other species, Parietaria judiaca, Helian-
themum vulgare and other Cistacez ; also in the stigmas of the
Lobeliacez, aud in the style of Goldfussia anisophylla, &e. All
the above movements are produced by external agency, such as
the action of insects, the agitation caused by the wind, &c.
Other movements which fairly come under this heading, and
which, like the nyctitropic movements, are by Darwin regarded
as being due to modified circumnutation, are positive and negative
heliotropism, positive and negative geotropism, Ke.
Positive heliotropism is the growing towards the source of
light. It has been long known that plants grown in comparative
darkness increase in length more rapidly than those exposed to
a stronger light--i.e. that light appears to have a retarding
influence on growth—therefore, where a plant or part of a
plant exhibits positive heliotropism, it is found that the part
away from the light has attained a greater length than that
towards it.
Some few vegetable organs, as the stem of Ivy, and many
roots, exhibit negative heliotropism, where, as they grow away
from the light, the parts next the source of illumination grew
most.
Positive geotropism or gravitation is the term applied to the
force which influences the direction of growth of most roots,
especially of primary roots, which usually point directly down-
wards to the centre of the earth.
Negative geotropism, on the other hand, signifies the direction
taken by most stems, trees, &c., being exactly opposite to that
sought by the roots—i.e. upwards, or away from the centre of
the earth.
As the terms positive and negative heliotropism and of posi-
eee
IRRITABILITY.—-CARNIVOROUS PLANTS. 863
tive and negative geotropism are frequently used carelessly, the
qualifying expressions positive and negative being frequently
omitted, Darwin adopts the term heliotropism in the sense of
bending towards the light ; apheliotropism for the contrary direc-
tion, i.e. away from the source of illumination ; and, in the same
manner, geotropism to imply towards the earth, and apogeo-
tropism for bending in opposition to gravity, or from the centre
of the earth.
In addition to the foregoing terms, diaheliotropism is some-
times used to express 2 position more or less transverse to the
light which induced it ; and diageotropism to a similar position
with regard to the radius of the earth.
Irritability.—It has been already stated that some move-
ments of plants are dependent upon the agency of insects. But
though it has long been known that insects thus induce
movements in certain
plants, such as Drose-
ra, Dionxa, Nepenthes,
&c., it is only by the
observations of Dar-
win, Miiller, Hooker,
Vines, Riess, Wills,
and many others, that
we have learnt that the
insects, which by these
movements are caught,
serve for nutrition,
being dissolved and
absorbed. It has been
also demonstrated that
this solution of nitro-
genous matters is due
to the presence of a
kind of ferment which
closely resembles that
of the peptic glands of Fig. 1175. Leaf of Drosera, showing a Fly caught by
animals. It has like- the incurved glands. (After J. W. Groves.)
wise been proved that
this ferment is only efficient when associated with an acid ;
and hence this solution is a true digestive process like that of
animals. During the solution and absorption of these nitro-
genous matters the protoplasm retracts from the walls of the
cells in the form of a ball. In fig. 1175 is shown a leaf of
Drosera (Sundew) where some of the glands have bent over
and caught an insect. Such plants are now commonly termed
carnivorous.
Another remarkable instance of a carnivorous plant is the
Utricularia, upon the leaves of which little pouches or air-sacs
(fig. 1176), are developed. These sacs have a somewhat elabo-
864 MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.
rate mechanism, with a valve which closes directly an animal
has entered, thus keeping it a prisoner (fig. 1177). It has
been known for a long time to be capable of entrapping small
invertebrates, but recently it has been found to catch young
fish in the same manner.
To plants which are thus stimulated to movement by
chemical or mechanical means, the term irritable is applied ; thus
Pres LEG: Hicetigie
Fig. 1176. A sac of Utricularia,
showing the external opening.
Fig.1177. A vertical section
of the same, showing the valve
past which an entomostracous
erustacean has entered, but
cannot escape.
it is by reason of their irritability that the leaves and stems of
the Sensitive plants (fig. 373) droop on contact with any foreign
body.
(2) MovEMENTS INDEPENDENT, AT LEAST TO SOME EXTENT, OF
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.—-a. Periodical.—These movements are
seen in some of the leaflets of certain tropical species of Desmo-
dium, and more especially in those of Desmodiwm gyrans (fig.
1178). The leaf in this plant is compound, and bears three
leaflets; the terminal one, a, being much larger than the two
lateral ones, b, b. There are also two other rudimentary leaflets,
marked c, near the large terminal one. This large terminal
leaflet, a, when exposed to the influence of a bright light,
becomes more or less horizontal, but it falls downwards on’the
approach of evening (fig. 1178, a). This movement is clearly
analogous to the sleep of plants, and, therefore, comes under
the head of movements depending on external influences, as
previously described (page 861). But the lateral leaflets, b, b,
exhibit a constant movement during the heat of the day,
advancing by their margins towards the large terminal leaflet,
and then retreating towards the base of the common petiole.
This movement takes place first on one side and then on the
other, so that the point of each leaflet describes a circle. The
ODOURS OF PLANTS. 805
movements resemble those of the arms of the old semaphore
telegraphs, and hence this plant has been termed the Telegraph
plant. They go on toa less extent even in the dark, and are
most evident when the piants are in a vigorous state of growth,
and when exposed to a high temperature. No satisfactory ex-
planation has yet been given of the direct cause of this move-
ment. Similar movements have been observed 1 in the radicle
of many plants.
b. Not periodical.—These movements occur in the repro-
ductive organs of a large number of the Phanerogamia. The
Pressli7se
Fig.1178. A portion of abranch, with a leaf of Desmodium gyrans. Thelesf,
which is compound, consists of a large termina’! leaflet, a, a1 two smaller
lateral ones, 0, ’. There are also two other rudimentary leafiets, marked c,
near the terminal leaflet.
stamens sometimes curve inwards separately Pivards the stigma,
asin Ruta graveolens (fig. 611) and Parnassia palustris; or in
pairs, as in Sazifraga tridactylites. They afterwards commonly
return as nearly as possible to their former position. In Passi-
flora, Nigella sativa, certain Onagracez and Cactacex, &c., the
styles move to the stamens; while in other Onagracez and cer-
tain Malvacee, &c., both styles and stamens move towards each
other. In each of the above the arrangement is one adapted to
prevent self-fertilisation, as it is protandrous and entomophilous
(see page 843).
d. Opvours or PLants.—These are very various in kind, many
being highly agreeable, others excessively offensive, while ‘others
again, though pleasant in small quantity, become disagreeable
in larger amount. The source of the particular odour is often
a volatile oil or other product contained in the glands or re-
ceptacles of secretion of the plant; but in some cases no
3K
866 ODOURS OF PLANTS.
such origin is found, and the source of the odour is unknown,
whilst its nature defies analysis. It is generally considered
that smell is due to the giving off of minute particles into the
air; Morren, however, from observations on the flowers of
Orchids, was led to the inference that in some cases it depended
on a physiological cause. He observed that the aromatic odour
of Mawilluria, which continued to be exhaled so long as the
flowers were unfertilised, was lost a little while after pollen was
applied to the stigma.
Though chiefly developed under the influence of solar light,
there are not a few plant-odours which are given off in the
evening or at night. Several Orchids, Cestrwm nocturnwm,
Hesperis tristis, Lychnis vespertina, and Cereus grandiflorus are
examples. In the Jast-named plant, the odour is given out in
intermittent pufts.
There seems to be a connexion between the colour and odour
of flowers; thus it has been observed that white flowers are
very frequently fragrant, whilst brown and orange ones have
often a foetid smell—the so-called Carrion-flowers (Stapeliz),
certain Aroids, some Balanophoracez, and the Rafflesiz being
examples. The flowers of Monocotyledons are more often
odorous than those of Dicotyledons.
ABAXILE embryo, 346
Abnormal development, 363
Abortion, 360
Abortive, 241
Abrupt root, 139
_ Abruptly pinnate, 176
Absorption, 781, 799, 812
_— by the root, 790, 818
_Acaulescent, 74
_ Accessory buds, 110, 112
- Accrescent, 230
Accumbent, 346
_Acerose, 171
_Achenium, 313
_ Achromatin, 27
_ Achlamydeous, 18, 360
_ Achlya, 777
Acicular, 174
_ Acicular raphides, 35
Acinaciform, 174
Acotyledonous, 364
_Acrogens, 364
_ Acropetal, 201, 210
_ Acropetally, 109, 202
- Acuminate, 169
Acute-pointed, 169, 231
_Adelphous, 255
_ Adherent calyx, 227
— ovary, 280
Adhesive attraction, 783
Adnate anther, 248
_ — filament, 240
_— stipules, 183
Adnation, 356
INDEX
TO
Adventitious buds, 110, 111
— root, 125, 128, 135
Aicidium fruits, 380
Aerial bulbs, 123
Aerial leaves, structure of,
142
— modifications of
stem, 117
— roots, 128, 130
— stems, 116
ABstivation, 157, 218
Asthalium, 2
Agamogenesis, 829
Agamogenic, 387
Age of dicotyledonous
trees, 85
monocotyledonous
trees, 100
Aggregate fruits, 314, 322
Air cavities, 72, 789
— cells, 789
— plants, 131
Ale, 233
Albumen, 21, 240, 341
Albuminous, 341
Alburnum, 85, 794
Aleurone grains, 36
Alge, 392
Alternate leaves, 148, 149,
150
Alternation of generations,
367, 368, 369, 835
Amentaceous, 203
Amentiferous, 203
Amentum, 202
Amphisarea, 515
Amphitropous, 332, 336,
348
the
Amplexicaul, 147, 182
Anatropous, 332, 333
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. .
*,%* The technical terms mentioned below are explained at the pages referred to,
aud thus the Index may be also used as a Glossary,
Andres, 374
Andrecium, 138,
253
Androphore, 256
Androspore, 398
Androus, 253
Anemophilous, 843
Anziospermia, 12
Angiospermous, 325, 836
Angular divergence, 151
Anisomerous, 354
Anisostemenous, 253
Annual herbs, 115
— rings of wood, 82
— leaves, 141
— roots, 133
Annular cells, 45
19, 241,
— vessels, 53, LOL
Annulate, 366
Annulated root, 138
Annulus, 365, 375, 382
Anomalous leaves, 185
— structure, 99
Anterior, 222
Anthela, 205
Antheridia, 9, 366, 369, 370,
372, 375, 378, 386, 395, 396,
397, 398. 831
Anther, 18, 241, 244
Antherozoid, 9, 372,
391, 398
Anthesis, 222
Anthocarpous, 321
Anthoceros, 777
Anthodium, 207
Anthotaxis, 191, 200
Antipodal cells, 328, 840
Antitropous, 34
Apetaloid, 230
Apetalous, 17, 360
3K 2
762
868
Apex of fruit, 298
— — lamina, 169
— — leaves, 140
Apheliotropism, 863
Apical cell, 793, 795
— style, 287
ae Apicilan 25% 252
(3)
any ar, a
Apo 367, 836
Apogeotropism, 863
Apophysis, 374
Apospory, 836
Apostrophe, 809
Apothecia, 388
Appendages of the epider-
mis, 63
— — — calyx, 228
— — — corolla, 237
—-—-— petals, 239
Appendiculate, 242,249 251
Archegonia, 9, 366, 367, 372,
375, 831,
Avil, 338
Arillode, 338, 339
Arillus, 337
Arrangementin the fio wer-
bud, 218
— of bracts, 193
— — leaves, 146, 148, 155
Arrow-shaped leaves, 173
Articulated, 103, 141
Articulation, 180
Ascending axis, 13, 73
— inflorescence, 201
— metamorphosis, 352
— ovule, 326
— radicle, 348
— sap, 820
— seed. 334
— stem, 114
Ascent of the sap, 820
Asci. 385, 389 :
Ascidia, 188
Ascomycetes, 383
Ascospores, 385, 389
Asexual, 363, 367
— reproductive cells, 364
Assimilation, 29, 801, 823
Aster, 778
Atropous, 330
Attachment of filament,
248
Augmentation, 356
Auriculate, 173
Awl-shaped, 171
Axial embryo, 346
Axial, 346
Axil, 140
Axile embryo, 346
— placenta, 282, 285
Axillary, 141, 200
— inflorescence, 200, 201
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO
Axillary stipules, 184
Axis, 198 -
Bacca, 320
Baccate, 320
Bacilli, 387
Bacteria. 386, 387
Balausta, 321
Banyan-tree, 131
Barbed hairs, 64
Bark, 79, 89
— functions of, 795
— growth of, 92
Base of fruit, 298
— leaf, 140
— root, 125
Basidia, 383
Basidiomycetes, 381
Basifixed, 248
Basifugal, 811
Basilar, 308, 812
— style, 287
Basipetal, 812
Bast, 50
—- fibres, 50
— tissue, 50
—- tubes, 51
— vessels, 51
Beaded root, 138
Bell-shaped, 227, 234
Berried, 320
Berry, 320
Bicrenate, 164
Biennial herbs, 115
— roots, 133
Bifid, 165, 167, 288)
290
Bifoliate, 176
Biforines, 35
Bifurecate, 250
Bigeners, 845
Bijugate, 175
Bilabiate, 235
Bilobate, 290
Bilocular, 246, 276
Binary, 354
Binate, 176
Biovulate, 325
Biparous cyme, 212
Bipartite, 167, 289
Bipinnate, 176
Bipinnatifid, 166, 231
Bipinnatipartite, 166, 231
Bipinnatisected, 166
Bisected, 167
Biserrate, 164
Bisexual, 240
Bispermous, 334
Biternate, 178
Blade, 15, 141, 157
Bletting, 849
Blunt, 169
} Boat-shaped, 231
Bordered, 336
— pits, 43
Bostrycoid, 110
Bostryx, 216
| Botany, departments of, 1
Botany, structural, 1
Botryoid, 200
Botryose, 200 ;
Bracteated, 193
Bracteoles, 192
Bractlets, 192
Bracts, 16, 146, 191, 192,
193, 349
Branches, 108
— modifications of,
119
Branching, 108
— corymb, 205
— dichotomous, 109
—- monopodial, 109
— spadix, 203
Bristles, 66
British gum, 33
Brotherhood, 255
Budding, 102, 776
Buds, 103
— and ramification, 103
Bulb, 122
Bulbils, 123
Bulblets, 123
Bundle-sheath, 77, 78, 102
lly
a Se ST, ee ae oa
Bush, 115 ;
\
Capucous, 141, 200, 229,”
240
Caladium, 799
Calamites, 10
Calearate, 237
Calceolate, 236 r
Calyculus 229 ,
Callus, 92
Calyptra, 373, 377
Calyptrate. 230
Calyx, 17, 222, 225, 228
Cambiform, 90
Cambium, 79, 87
— cells, 88 :
— layer, 79, 87
Campanulate, 227, 234
Campylotropous, 331, 353
Canal cell, 838
Cap, 381
Capillary, 242, 783
Capitate, 64, 292
Capitulum, 207
Capsular, 317
Cansule, 316, 365, 367, 373,
377
Carcerule, 315
Carina, 233
Carnivorous, 863
Carpel, 19, 267, 351
Carpellary, 20
Carpogonium, 831
Carpophore, 288, 294, 319
Caruncules, 338
Caryophyllaceous, 233
Caryopsis, 314
Cataphyllary, 104
-— leaves, 119, 128, 140
Catkin, 202
Caudate, 295
Caudex, 115
i)
4
.
\
Caudicie, 260
Caulescent 74
aulinary stipules, 183
Cauline leaves, 146
Caulis, 115
Caulome, 14, 73, 793
Cell, 6
Cell-contents, 22
Cell-division, 772, 774, 776
Cell-formation, 771
Cell-multiplication, 772
Cell-nucleus, 27
Cell-sap, 22, 27
Cells, 21, 245, 276
— with bordered pits, 50
Celiular envelope, 90, 91
plants, 8
— system, 57, 74
Cell-wall, 22, 42
thickening of, 42
Central placenta, 282
— free, 282
( entrifugal, 210, 348
— formation of leaves,
Sil
Centripetal, 201, 210, 348
formation of leaves, 811
Centripeta ly, 202, 208
Ceratium, 317
Chalaza, 330, 337
Chalazal arillus, 339
Characez, 390_
Charas, 390, 831
Chemicai constitution of
fruits, 847
Chlorophyll, 28
_— bodies, 29
corpuscles, 29
— grains, 29
-— granules, 28, 29
hloroplastids, 809
horisis, 356, 357
Chromatin, 27
3 Chromogenous, 387
Chromoplastids, 809
Cicatrix, 141, 180
Cicinal dichotomy, 110
Cicinnus, 216
Ciliated antherozoids, 784
Ciliated zoospores, 784
inenchyma, 786
Circinate, 155
— cotyledons, 345
Circular stivation,
221
Circulation, 784, 820
Circumnutation, 860
Circumscissile, 302, 307
Cirrhus, 108
-Cladode, 199
Clasping leaves, 147, 182
Clathrate cells, 56
Clavate, 64, 174, 242
Claviceps, 383
law, 231
Clawed, 231
Cleft, 165, 225, 231, 233, 291
Cleistogamic, 844
Climbing, 114 ~
219,
Closed vascular bundles,
78, 95, 102
Cloves, 122, 123
Club mosses, 368, 834
Club-shaped, 64, 242
Coalescence, 356
Coat of pollen-cell, 260
— — seed, 335
Coated bulb, 122
— roots, 132
Cocci, 304, 305, 317
Cochlear, 220, 221
Ceenanthium, 198
Coherent, 255
Cohesion, 356
— of stamens, 255
Coleorhiza, 129, 135, 855
Collateral, 327
— chorisis, 358
Collecting hairs, 68, 289
Collective fruits, 322
Collenchyma, 48
Colour of anther, 251
— -— filament, 243
— — flowers, 828
— — leaves, 807
— — testa, 335
Columella, 301, 373, 377
Coma, 336
Commissure, 319
Common bundles, 96
— calyx, 207
— petiole, 162, 180
Comose, 336
Comparative anatomy of
plants, 1
Complete flower, 241, 355
Composition of fruit, 298
— — leaves, 162
— — pericarp, 298
-— — starch, 33
Compound corymb, 205
— flower, 207
— fruit, 297
— gyneecium, 272
— hairs, 63
— leaves, 142, 162, 174
— ovary, 275, 279, 280
— petiole, 180
— pistil, 267, 272
— roots, 135
— spadix, 203
— spiral vessels, 52
— style, 288
— unmbel, 208
Conceptacles, 396
Conceptaculum, 313
Conerescence, 356
Conditions of germination,
852
Conducting tissue, 271
Conduplicate, 155, 345
Cone, 203, 204, 322
Confluent fruits, 322
Conglomerate raphides, 35
Conical calyx, 227
— hairs, 64
— leaf, 174
— root, 138
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
869
Conidia, 378
Conjugation, 394, 777, 830
Connate, 148, 255
Connective, 244, 248
Connexion of cells, 46
Connivent, 225, 232
Constructive materials, 823
Contents of cells; 22; 263
Contorted setiotibe, i
— root, 139
Contracted. sym
Conyolitte, ‘16
al
Coralline root, m gee (”
Cordate, 173, 231 *
Cordate-lanc eolate 173
Cordate-ovate, 173
Cordate-sagittate, 250
Cork, 92
— cambium, 92
90, 91,
Corky layer of bark,
92
Corm,; 123
Cormophyta, 12
Cormophytes, 11
— leaves of, 190
— root of, 135
— stem of, 101
Corolla, 17, 230
Corona, 240
Corpuscula, 837
Corrugated, 219
Cortex, 89
Cortical, 377
Corymb, 205
Costa, 157
Cotton, structure of, 67
Cotyledons, 12, 146, 342
Creation, inorganic, 1
— organic, 1
Creeping root, 119
— stem, 119
Cremocarp, 319
Crenate, 164
Crenulated, 164
Crescent-shaped, 173
| OCrisped, 165
Crops, rotation of, 817
- Cross-breeds, 844
Cross-fertilisation, 843
Crossing, 843
Crown of the root, 146
Cruciate, 233
Cruciform, 233
Crude sap, 820
Crumpled, 219
Cryptogamia, 12. 363
Cryptogamous, 11, 78, 190,
363, 829
Cryptogams, 11
Crystalloids, 36
Culm, 115
Cuneate, 172
Cupule, 195, 319
Curled, 165
Curved ovules, 331
— veined, 161
Curviserial, 153
Cuspidate, 169
Cuticle, 60
870
Cuticularised, 58
Cycie, 151 f
Cyclosis, 784, 786
Cylindrical cell, 39
— leaf, 174
Cyme, 210
Cymose, 110, 200, 210
Cynarrhodum, 314
Cypsela, 319.
ystoiiths, 35
Cystopns, 378
Cytoblastema, 771
Cytogenesis, 771
DAUGHTER cells, 788
Death of the leat, 810
Deciduous, 141, 183, 193,
200, 230, 240, 244, 287
Declinate, 243
Decomposed, 167
Decompound, 176, 178
Decumbent, 114
Decurrent, 148, 182
Decussate, 148
Decussation, 148
Deduplication, 356, 357
Definite inflorescence, 200,
209, 210
— ovules, 325
— vascular bundles,
95
Definition of a plant, 2
Defoliation, 810
Degeneration, 362
Degradation, 24
— products, 823
Dehiscence of anther, 251
— — fruit, 21, 301, 307,
308
— — septifragal, 305
Dehiscent frnit, 21, 301
— pericarp, 316, 319
Deliquescent, 116
Denitate, 164, 231
Departmenis of botany, 1
Derm, 91
Dermatogen, 126
Descending axis, 13,125, 790
— metamorphosis, 352
— radicle, 348
— sap, 820
Descent of the sap, 825
Déterminate inflorescence,
200, 209, 210
Development,
363
— of the anther, 246
— — canlome, 795
(— — embryo, 842
78,
abnormal,
*— — oi exogenous stems,78 |
‘'— — of floral envelopes, 828
— — heat, 855
~—- — leaves, 811
— — ovule, 327
— — roots. 792
— — starch. 31
— — stem, 795
— — stomata, 788
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO
Dextrin, 33
Diachznium, 319
Diadelphous, 256, 356
Diageotropism, 863
Diaheliotropism, 863
Dialypetalous, 232
Dialysepalous, 225
Diandrons, 253
Dichasium, 110, 212
Dichlamydeous, 18
Dichogamons, 844
Dichotomous cyme, 212
Dichotomy, 103
— bostrycoid, 110
— cicina', 110
— false, 99
— helicoid, 110
— scorpioid, 110
— sympodial, 109
— true or normal, 109
Diclinous, 240
Dicoccous, 305
Dicotyledons, leaves
189; roots of, 134
Dicotyledones, 12, 342
Dicotyledonous, 342
— embryo, 343
— germination, 855
— leaves, 189
— roots, 134
— stem, 78
Dictyogens, 190
Didynamous, 258
Diffusion of fiuids, 783
-— — gases, 7£1
Digitaliform, 237
Digitate, 168, 178
Digitipartite, 168
Digynous, 273
Dimerous, 27°, 354
Dimorphic, 258, 844
Dicecious, 24:, 372, 375
Dipetalous, 232
Diploperistomous, 374
Diplostemenous, 253
Diplotegia, 317, 319
Direction of filaments, 243
— — plumule and radicle,
854
Direct metamorphosis, 352
Disc-bearing wood-cells, 43,
50
— woody tissue, 50
Discoid pith, $1
Disepalous, 225
Disk, 265
Diss sected, 165, 168
Dissepiment, 275
Distichous, 151, 354
Distractile, 249
Divergent, 225, 232
Dodecahedral cell, 38
Dolabriform, 174
Dorsal suture, 268, 300
Dorsifixed, 248
Dotted cells, 42
— leaves, 70
— vessels, 51
Doubie flowers, 350
of,
Drupe-like, 311
Duet, 51
ese 5. tate, 164
Duration of es 193
—— peg 240
— — filament, 244
— — the leaf, 141
— — peduncle, 200
— — roots, 133
Dyaster, 778
EARTHY constituents, 8
Ebracteated, 193
Eccentric embryo, 346
Ectoplasm, 25
— — gases upon leaves,
Egg-shaped, 171
Eight-ranked, 152
Elaborated sap, 820
Elaboration of cell
tents, 784
Elaters, 368, 377
Elective affinity, 845
Electricity of plants, 858 ©
Elementary structure, 21
Elliptic cell, 38
Elliptical, 171, 231
Elliptico-lanceolate, 173
Elongated parenchyma,
i is, 202
— primary axis,
Emarginate, 169, 231
Embracing, 147
Embryo, 11, 12, 341
— buds, 112
— cell, 835
— nodules, 112
— sac, 328, 367, 835
Embryoual cell, 9, 373, 3
Embryonic vesicles, 328
Embryotegia, 337
Emergences, 66
Empty bracts, 193
Enantioblastic, 347
Endocarp, 298
Endogenous, 75
— stem, 75, iy 96
— growth, 96
Endoplasm, 25
Endopleura, 21, 337
Endorhizal, 135
Endosmose, 782
Endosperm, 21, 340, 341
Endospore, 379, 830
Endostome, 330, 839
Endothecium, 246, aaa ,
Ensiform, 174
Entire calyx, 225
— corolla, 233
— leaf, 163
Entomophilous, 843
Ce ee a ee eee
a ee aa er ee) ae ee ee
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 871
Enveloping, 220
Epiblema, 60, 128
Epicalyx, 193, 229
Epicarp, 298
Epidermal appendages, 63
— layer, 397
— tissue, 57
Epidermis, 58, 79
— functions of, 786
Epigeal, 855
Epigone, 373, 376
Epigynous, 254, 266
Epipetaious, 253
Epiphragma, 374
Epiphytes, 131
Episperm, 21, 335
Epistrophe, 809
Epithelium, 270
Equal leaf, 170
Equally pinnate, 176
Equisetaceze, 367, 834
Equitant, 157, 345
Erect, 225, 232, 243, 347
— ovule, 326
— rhizome, 119
— seed, 334
Ergot, 383, 385
Essential organs, 17, 20,
240, 360, 829
Eterio, 313
Etiolated, $04
Evergreen, 141
Exalbuminous, 341
Exannulate, 366
Excipulum, 389
Excrescence, 112
Excrescent, 200
Excretion by roots, 792
Excretions, 804
Excurrent, 116
Exhalation, 796, 799
Exocarp, 298
Exogenous stems, 74, 78
Exorhizal, 134, 855
Exosmose, 782
Exospore, 379, 830
Exostome, 330, 839
Exothecium, 246, 247
Exserted, 256
Exstipulate, 15, 142, 182
External embryo, 346
Extine, 260, 261, 836
Extra-axillary, 113, 141, 199
Extrorse, 246
FACE, 246
Fall of the leaf, 141, 810
False arillus, 338
— bark, 95, 96
— cyme, 110
— dichotomy, 99
Farinaceous albumen, 341
Fasciated branches, 113
Fascicle, 149, 216
Fascicled leaves, 149
Fasciculated root, 137
Faux, 226, 233
Feather-veined, 159, 174
Feathery, 228
Female apparatus, 836
— flower, 20, 831
Fern proper, 367
Ferns, 365, 834
Fern stems, 101
—internal structure of,
102
— growth by buds, 102
Fertile, 241
Fertilisation, 20 }
Fertilised oosphere, 341
Fibres, 40, 45
Fibrilliform cells, 39
— tissue, 48
Fibrils, 60, 67, 127
Fibro-cellular tissue, 48
Fibro-vascular bundles, 39,
50, 76, 102
— — system, 57, 74, 90, 143
— — of leaves, 143
— tissue, 57
Fibrous cells, 44, 48
— root, 136
Fid, 165
Fiddle-shaped, 167
Filament, 19, 241, 242, 398
Filices, 365, 834
Filiform, 242
Fimbriated, 231
Fissiparous, 774
Fissured calyx, 225
— stigma, 291
Fissures of leaves, 165
Five-ceiled, 276
— cleft, 165, 225, 288
— lobed, 280
— partite, 225
— ranked, 151, 221
— ribbed, 160
— seeded, 334
— toothed, 225
Fixed embryo, 106
Flagellum, 117
Fleshy albumen, 341
— pericarp, 318, 320
— cotyledons, 345
Floral envelopes,
360
Florets, 207
Flower, 17, 230
— parts of the, 218
Flowering plants, 11, 190
Flowerless plants, 11, 190,
363
Flower-stalk, 15, 197
Foliaceous, 199, 227, 299,
345
Foliage leaves, 140
Folioles, 162
Follicle, 312
Food of plants, 813
— sources of, 813
Foramen, 329, 330
Forked anther, 250
— filament, 242
— venation, 162
Formation of cells, 771
— — compound ovary, 278
17, 222,
Formation of organic com-
pounds, 804
— — pollen, 258
— — wood, 794
Formative tissue, 88
Formed material, 771
Forms of anther, 249
— — — lobes, 249
— — branches, 113
— — cells 937, 263
— — filament, 242
— — hairs, 63
— — leaves, 173; 185
— — peduncle, 198
— — petiole, 181
— — roots, 136
— — seeds, 334
— — stems, 113
— — style, 289
Fossil botany, 2
Four-celled, 245, 276
— cleft, 288
— lobed, 165, 280
— loculi, 245
— seeded, 334
Fovilla, 19, 263, 836
Free calyx, 227
— cell formation, 772, 777
— central placenta, 282
— ovary, 280
— stamens, 255
Fringed, 231
Fronds, 11, 101, 161, 190
Fructification, 381
Fruit, 20, 294, 352, 846
— constitution of, 847
— dehiscent, 21
— indehiscent, 21
— kinds of, 309
— nature of, 295
— perfect, 298
— ripening of, 849:
— simple, 309
— spurious, 846
— sugar, 848
— true. 846
Fucus, 396
Fugacious, 141, 229
Functions, 770
— of bark, 795
— — bracts, 826
—— epidermal
ages, 789
— — — tissue, 786
— — essential organs, 829
—- — floral envelopes, 826
-— — glands, 789
— — hairs, 789
— — intercellular system,
789
— — laticiferous
785
— — leaves, 796
— — medulla, 794.
— — medullary rays, 795
——organs of reproduc-
tion, 829
— — parenchymatous cells;
771
append-
vessels,
872
Functions of pith, 794
—_— proseenchymatous
cells, 785
— — stem, 794
—- — stomata, 787
— vessels, 785
Fundamental organs of the
plant, 13
— tissue, 81
Fungi, 378
Funiculus, 325, 333
Funnel-shaped, 234
Furcate, 162
Fusiform cell, 39
— root, 138
GALBULUS, 322
Galeate, 229
Gamogenesis, 829
Gamopetalous, 233, 556
Gamosepalous, 225, 356
Gaping, 236
Gemmation, 776
Gemmule, 12, 342
General characters of fruit,
297
— description of leaf, 140
— invo_ucre, 194, 209
— mory hology, 6, 348
— outline, 169
— physiology, 770, 812
— properties of cell-wall,
42
— umbel, 208
Generating tissue, 88
Geniculate, 243
Geographical botany, 1
reotropism, 863
Germ-cell, 9, 367, 373, 376,
835
Germinal corpuscles, 367,
830, 835
— matter, 32, 771
— vesicles, 20, 328, 840
Germination, 12, 852
— conditions of, 852
— dicotyledonous, 855
— monocotyledonous, 854
— process of, 853
— time required for, 852
Gibbous, 229, 237
Gills, 382
Glands, 68, 789
— compound, 68
— external, 68
— internal, 70
— lysigenous, 71
— nectariferous, 71
—- schizogenous, 71
— sessile, 69
— simple, 68
— stalked, 68
Glandular hairs, 67
Glans, 319
Globoids, 36, 37
Globose, 227
Globule, 390. 831
Glochidiate, 64
' Haustoria, 132, 378
Gloeocapsa, 6
Glomerule, 208, 216
Glove-shaped, 237
Glumellules, 197
Glumes, 197, 203
Gonidia, 388
Grafting, 107
Granulose, 33
Gravitation, 862
Green layer of bark, 90, 91
Ground tissue, $1
Growing part, 793
— point, 792
Growth by terminal! buds,
99
— of the bark, 92
— —fibro-vascular bundles,
95
Guard-cells, 61, 787, 789
Gymnospermia. 11, 12, 836
Gymnospermous, 313, 325,
836
Gymnostomous, 374
Gynandrous, 255, 356
Gynia, 272
Gynobase, 287
Gynobasic, 287
Gyneecium, 17, 19,
272
Gynophore, 279, 294
Gynostemium, 255
Gyration, 784
266,
HAtrs, 63, 789
Halbert-shaped, 173
Half-adherent ovary, 280
Half-inferior ovary, 280
Half-superior calyx, 280
Half-equitant, 157
Hard bast, 90
Hastate, 173
Hastate-auricled, 173
Head of flowers, 207
Heart-shaped, 173
Heart-wood, 85
Heat of plants, 855
Heliccid cyme, 213, 215, |
216
— dichotomy, 110
Heliotropism, 862, 863
Helmet-shaped, 229
Hemialbumose, 37
Hemicarp, 319
Hepaticaces, 375, 832
Heptapetalous, 232
Heptasepalous, 225
Herbs, 115
Hermaphrodite, 240, 372
Hesperidium, 318
Heterocysts, 393
Hetercecism, 380
Heterodromous, 153
Heterophyllous, 173
Heterorhizal, 135
Heterosporous, 369
Heterostyled, 844
Heterotropous, 332
| Hidden-veined, 157
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO
Hexapetalous, 232
Hexasepalous, 225
Hilum, 31, 325, 333
Histology, 1, 21
Homoblastic, 347
Homodromous, 153
Homologous, 218, 349
— formations, 191
Homosporous, 366
Homotropous, 347
Hooded, 229
Hood-shaped, 174
Hooked hairs, 64
Horizontal ovule, 326
— system, 57, 74
Horned oranges, 318
Horny albumen, 341
Horsetails, 367, 834
Host, 132
Hybridation, 844
Hybridisation, 844
Hybrids, 844 7
— production of, 844
Hybrid algee, 846
— ferns, 846 :
Hymenium, 382
Hypanthodium, 198
Hyphe, 6, 49
Hyphal tissue, 49
- Hypocotyledonary axis,342,
343
Hypocrateriform, 234
Hypoderma, 48, 143, 145
Hypodermiz, 380
Hypogeal, 855
Hypogynous, 253, 266
Hypothecium, 389
me hic leaves, 146,
92
ILLEGITIMATE fertilisa-
tion, 844
Imbricate, 156, 220, 222
Imbricated estivation, 219,
220 :
Tmparipinnate, 176
Imperfect flower, 360
Impregnation, 830
Inactive spore, $30
Incision of leaves, 165
Included, 256
Incomplete flower, 355
Tneumbent, 346
Incurved, 243
Indefinite inflorescence,
200, 201
— ovules, 325
— vascular bundles, 77
Indehiscent fruit, 21. 301
— pericarp, 314, 318, 320
Indeterminate inflores-
cence, 200, 201
Indian fig-tree, 131
Individual peculiarities, —
107
Induplicate, 157, 219, 220,
221
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 873
Indusium, 290, 365, 382
Induviz, 141
Induviate, 141
Inferior calyx, 227, 280
— fruit, 298, 319
- — ovary, 227, 280
— radicle, 348
—- syncarpous fruit, 319
Inflexed, 155
q Inflorescence, 17, 191, 200
— axillary, 200, 201
— definite, 200, 201, 209, 218
— determinate, 200, 201,
209
— indefinite, 200, 201, 202,
207, 218
— indeterminate, 200, 201,
202
— mixed, 217
— terminal, 200, 201, 209
Infra-axillary, 141
Infrutescences, 322
Infundibuliform, 234
Innate, 248
Inner bark, 90
Inorganic compounds, 813
— constituents, 816
Insertion of leaves,
199
— — peduncle, 199
— — stamens, 253
Inside growers, 75, 96
Integuments of seed, 21,
334, 335
Integumentum externum,
329
— internum, 329
— simplex, 329
Intercellular
789 ;
— passages, 71
— spaces, 71, 789
— substance, 73
— system, 71
Interlacing tissue, 48
Internal embryo, 346
— glands, 70
— organs, 17
— structure, 95, 102; 142
—- system, 90
Internodes, 15, 103, 140
Interpetiolar, 184
TInterruptedly pinnate, 176
Intine, 260, 261, 836
Intracellular circulation,
784
Intrafoliaceous, 184
Introrse, 246 +
Inversely egg-shaped, 172
— heart-shaped, 173
Inverse ovule, 326
— seed, 334
Inverted embryo, 347
— ovule, 332
Involucel, 194, 209
Involucre, 193, 194, 365
Involute, 156
Irregular, 225, 227, 232
— flower, 355
146,
canals, 71,
|
Irregular
corolla, 235
— polypetalous corolla, 233
Irregularity, 362
Irritability, 863
Irritable, 864
Tsoétacez, 370
Isoétes, 370
Isomerous, 354
Isosporous, 366
Isostemenous, 253
monopetalous
JOINT, 180
Jointed, 103
Jugate, uni-, 175, 176
— pi-, 175
— tri-, 175
— multi-, 176
Jungermannia, 9
KARYOKINESIS, 778
Keel, 233
Kernel, 21, 334, 339
Kidney-shaped, 173
| Kinds of branches, 113, 116
— — cells, 46
— — fruit, 309
—- — inflorescence, 200, 202
207, 210
— — peduncle 197
—- — placentation, 282
— — stems, 113, 116
— — stipules, 183
Kingdom, animal, 1
— mineral, 1
— vegetable, L
Knob, 112
Knots, 106
LABIATH, 235
Laciniated, 167
Lacune, 72
Lamellz, 291, 382
Lamina, 15, 141, 143, 157
Lanceolate, 171, 231
Large spores, 369, 833
Lateral flowers, 200
opening, 308
— style, 287
Latex, 56
Latex-sacs, 57
Laticiferous
785
Lattice cells, 56
Layering, 118
Leaf-arrangement, 146
Leaf-buds, 14, 103
— defined, 15, 140, 348
— development, 811
Leaf-stalk, 15, 141, 179
— traces, 96
Leaflets, 162
Leafy bracts, 192
— fruit, 299
Leaves of cormophytes, 161
190
vessels, 56,
Leaves of
189
— — internal structure of,
142
dicotyledons,
— monocotyledons, 189
Legitimate fertilisation,
844
Legume, 310
Length of filament, 242
— — germination, 852
Lenticels, 92
Lenticular glands, 87
Lepidote, 65
Leukoplastids, 809
Lianas, 115
Liber, 90, 92
— cells, 50
Lichenes, 388
Lichens, 388
Lid, 308
Life of the plant, 812,
8138
Lignin, 24
Ligulate, 236
Ligu!e, 181
Limb, 226, 233
_Linear, 171, 173, 231, 249
Linear-lanceolate, 173
Linguiform, 174
Lipped, 235
Lirelle, 388
Lithoeysts, 35
Liverworts, 9, 375, 832
Lobed, 165
Lobes of anthers, 244
— — leaves, 165, 244
— — stigma, 291
Loculi, 245, 276
Loculicidal, 303
Locusta, 197, 203
Lodicule, 197
Lomentaceous, 311, 317
Lomentum, 311
Longitudinal
251
— system, 57, 74
Luminosity of plants, 858
Lunate, 173
Lycopodiaceze, 368, 834
Lymphatic hairs, 67
Lyrate, 167
Lyrately-pinnate, 176
Lyre-shaped, 167
dehiscence,
- MACE, 338
Macropodous, 343
Macrosporangia, 369, 370,
833
Macrospores, 369, 370, 833
Male, 20, 831
apparatus, 836
— conceptacles, 397
— filament, 398
Malting of barley, 853
Mangrove-tree, 131
Many-celled, 276
Many-cleft, 165, 288
Many-lobed, 280
874
Many-paired, 176
Many-ribbed, 160
Many-seeded, 334
Many-valved, 301
Marcescent, 230, 240
Marchantia, 9, 777
Marginal placenta, 282 |
Margins of leaves, 140,
163
Marginal, 282
Marginate, 336
Marsilea, 370
Marsileacez, 370, 832
Masked, 236
Mealy albumen, 341
Median prolification, 294,
352
Medulla, 79, 80, 794
Medullary rays, 79, 88
— — functions of, 795
— sheath, 79, 81
Megaspores, 369, 370, 833
Megasporangium, 327, 369,
370, 833
Meiostemenous, 253
Melanophyll, 28
Membranous, 227
Mericarp, 305, 319
Merismatic, 774
Meristem, 88, 774
Mesocarp, 298
Mesophyll, 144
Mesothecium, 246
Metabolism, $23
Metam orphosis, 352
—- ascending, 352
— descending, 352
— direct, 352
— retrograde, 352
Metastasis, 804, 823
Micrococci, 387
Micropylar arillus, 339
Micropyle, 328, 329, 330
Microsomata, 25
Microsporangia, 369,
833
Microspores, 258, 369, 371,
833
370, |}
Midrib, 157
Milk vessels, 56
Mixed inflorescence, 217
— formation of leaves, 811
Monadelphous, 255, 356
Monandrous, 253
Monaster, 778
Moniliform hairs, 64
— root, 138
Monochasial, 215
Monochlamydeous, 17, 230,
360
Monocotyledons, leaves of,
189
— root of, 134
Monocotyledones, 12, 342
Monocotyledonous, 342
—— embryo, 342
— germination, $54
— leaves, 189
— roots, 134
GENERAL
AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO
Monocotyledonous stem, 78,
94, 96
— anomalous structure of,
99
Moneecious, 241, 372, 375
Monogynous, 273
Monomerous, 279
Monopetalous, 233, 356
Monopodial branching, 109
Monosepalous, 225, 356
Monospermous, 334
Monothalamic, 322
Monstyrosities, 351
Morphological botany, 1, 5
Morphology, 5
— general, 6, 348
Mosses, 372, 832
Mother cells, 258, 366, 372,
788
Mouth, 374
Movements in cells, 783
— of plants, 859
— — — not periodical, 862,
865 .
—- — — periodical, 860,
864
— of protoplasm, 25
Mucilaginous albumen, 341
Mucor, 6
Mucronate, 169
Mules, 844
Multicostate, 160
Multifid, 165, 288
Multifoliate, 178
Multijugate, 176
Multilocular, 276
Multiovulate, 325
Multiple corolla, 239
— fruits, 312, 322
Multispermous, 334
Muriform parenchyma, 48,
89
Musci, 372, 832
Mushrooms, 378
Mycelium, 381
Myosin-giobulin, 37
NAKED bud, 105
— bulb, 122
— flower, 18, 360
— mouthed, 374
— nuce!lus; 329
— nucleus, 329
— ovule, 325
Napiform root, 138
Natural history, 1
— preference, 845
Nature of carpel, 268
— cell, 22
Neck-cell, 838
Necklace-shaped, 64, 138
Nectariferous glands, 71
Nectaries, 71, 240
Needle-shaped, 171
Negative geotropism, 862
— heliotropism, 862
Nervation, 157
Nerves, 140, 143, 144, 157
Netted-veined, 159
— venation, 159
Neuter, 241, 360
Node, 15, 140
Nodes, 14, 100
Nodulose root, 138
Non-adherent, 227
Non-articulated, 141
No ae ot buds,
Non-sexual, 367
Normal buds, 110
Nostoc, 392
Nucleoli, 27
Nucellus, 327
Nucleus, 27, 31, 327, 339
— of seed, 21, 334
— — starch, 31
Nuculanium, 318
Nucule, 390, 392, 831
Number of ovules, 325
— -— stamens, 253
Nursing leaves, 146
Nut, 319
Nut-like, 319
OBCORDATE, 173
Oblique leaf, 170
Oblong, 171, 231, 250
— cell, 37
Obovate, 172
Obsolete, 227
Obtuse, 169
Obvolute, 157, 345
Ochrea, 184
Octapetalous, 232
Octastichous, 152
Odours of plants, 865
Gdogonium, 398, 777
Offset, 117
Oily abumen, 341
Omphalodium, 333
One-celled, 246, 276, 297
One-lobed, 280
One-paired, 175
One-seeded, 334
One-valved, 301
Oogonia, 378, 379, 386, 395,
396, 397, 398
Oosperm, 840
Oosphere, 9, 20, 22, 328, 379,
396, 398, 838, 840
Oospore, 379, 396,
399
Open vascular bundles, 77
Opercular, 253
Operculate, 230, 262, 308
Operculum, 308, 374
397,
Opposite leaves, 148, 149, —
153
— stipules, 184
Orbicular, 173
Organic constituents, 814
— — sources of, 814
— compounds, 813
— creation, 1
Organisable matter, 771
Organography, 5
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 875
Organs of nutrition, 13, 73,
790
— — reproduction, 14, 15,
190, 240, 826
— — vegetation, 13, 765
Origin of placenta, 284
— — stomata, 788
Original cell formation,
772
Orthotropous, 330, 333
Oscillatoria, 6
Osmose, 781
Ostiole, 389
Outer bark, 90
Outline of leaves, 169
Outside growers, 74
Oval, 171, 249, 250
— cell, 37 :
— parenchyma, 47
Ovary, 19, 267, 279
— compound, 275, 279
— simple, 279
Ovate, 171, 231
— -lanceolate, 173
Ovulary spore, 370, 833
Ovule, 19, 324
Ovum-cell, 328
PALMONTOLOGIC AL botany,
9
Palate, 236
Palex, 197, 203
Pales, 197, 203
Palisade parenchyma, 145
Palmate, 168, 178
Palmated root, 137
Palmately cleft, 168
— veined, 160, 176
Palmatifid, 167, 168
Palmatipartite, 167
Palmatisected, 167
Panduriform, 167
Panicle, 206
Panicled corymb, 205
— cyme, 213
Papilionaceous, 233
Papille, 69
Pappose, 228
Pappus, 228
Parallel chorisis, 358
— formation of leaves, 811
— -veined, 159, 161
— venation, 160, 162
Paraphyses, 372, 383, 386,
389, 396, 397
Parasites, 132
Parenchyma, 47
— of leaves, 142, 144
— varieties of, 47
— functions of, 771
Parenchymatous cells, 39
— system, 57, 74, 90
Parent cells, 258
Parietal placenta, 282
Paripinnate, 176
Partial dehiscence, 316
— involucre, 194, 209
— petiole, 162, 180
Partial umbel, 209 |
Partite, 165, 225, 231, 233,
289
Partitions, 165, 275
Parts of the anther, 244
~—- — flower, 218
— — — leaf, 141
— — — stem, 794
Patulous, 225, 232
Pectinate, 167 ,
Pectine, 848
Pectose, 849
Pectosic acid, 848
Pedate, 168, 178
Pedatifid, 168
Pedatipartite, 168
Pedatisected, 168
Pedicel, 16, 197
Peduncle, 15, 197
— duration of, 200
Peloria, 238
Peltate hairs, 65
— leaves, 147
— ovule, 326
Pendulous, 116, 243, 326, 334
Penicillium, 6
Pentagonal, 354
Pentamerous, 221, 354
Pentapetalous, 232
Pentasepalous, 225
Pentastichous, 151, 221
Pepo, 320
Pepperworts, 370, 832
Perennial herbs, 115
-— leaves, 141
— roots, 133
Perfect fruit, 298
Perfoliate, 148
Perianth, 17, 223
Periblem, 126
Pericarp, 21, 298
Perichretial, 372
Periderm, 91
Perigone, 372, 376
Perigonial, 372
Perigynous, 254, 266, 356
Periodical movements, 860,
864
Peripheral, 377
Peripherical, 346
Perisperm, 340, 341
Peristome, 374
Perithecia, 385
Permanent tissue, 88, 793
Persistent, 141,183,193, 200,
230, 240, 287
Personate, 236
Petaloid, 17, 223, 227, 242,
289
Petals, 17, 230, 350
Petiolar stipules, 183
Petiolate, 146
Petiole, 15, 141, 143, 157, 179
Petiolule, 162, 180
Peziza, 385
Phanerogamia, 12, 190
Phanerogamous, 11, 190
Phanerogams, 11
Phelloderma, 90, 91
Phellogen, 92
Phloém, 76, 90, 794
Phragmata, 277
Phycocyan, 29
Phycoerythrin, 28
Phycomycetes, 378
Phyllaries, 194
Phyloclade, 199
Phyllocyanin, 28
Phyllode, 187
Phylodia, 157
Phylloid peduncle, 199
Phyliome, 15, 140, 796
Phyllotaxis, 148, 200
— of natural orders, 154
Phylloxanthein, 808
Phylloxanthin, 28 ~
Physiological botany, 1, 770
Physiology, 770
— of the elementary struc-
tures, 771
—— — organs of nutrition,
790
—-—— reproduction,
$26
— — — root, 790
Phytons, 106
Pileorhiza,
839
Pileus, 381
Pilose, 228
Pilularia, 371
Pinne, 175
Pinnate, 175
— with an
176
Pinnately-veined, 159, 174
Pinnatifid, 166, 231
Pinnatipartite, 166, 231
Pinnatisected, 166
Pinnules, 176
Pistil, 19, 266, 272
Pistillate, 20, 360
Pistillidia, 372, 375, 831
Pitchers, 188
Pith, 79, 80
— functions of, 794
Pitted cellular tissue, 48
— cells, 42, 48
— tissue, 48
— vessels, 51
Placenta, 19, 267, 270, 281
Placentation, 281
Placentiferous, 306
Placentiform root, 139
Placentoid, 247
Plant in action, 818
Plants, odours of, 865
Plaited, 155, 220
Plasmodium, 2
Plastids, 809
Plerome, 126
Plicate, 155, 220
Plumose, 228
Plumule, 12, 342, 343
Pod, 310
Podetium, 389
Podium, 109
Pollarded trees, 111
126, 128, 792,
odd leaflet,
876
Pollen, 19, 258, 836
— cells, 19, 259
— development of, 258
— grains, 19
— sporangia, 791
— spores, 371
— structure of, 260
-— tube, 264
Pollination, 20, 841
Pollinia, 260
Polyadelphous, 256, 356
Polycotyledonous, 344
Polygamous, 241
Polygonal cell, 38
Polyhedral parenchyma, 48
Polymerous, 279
Polypetalous, 232,
Polyphyllous, 225
Polysepalous 225
Polystemenous, 253
Polythalamic, 322
Pome, 321
Pore, 261, 389
Pore cells, 61
Porous cells, 42
dehiscence,
308
Position of ovules, 326
— — stamens, 253
Positive geotropism, 862
— heliotropism, 862
Preefloration, 157, 218
Prefoliation, 155, 218
Premorse leaf, 169
— root, 119, 139
Prepotent, 845
Prickles, 66
Primary axis, 197
— meristem, 793
— root, 125
Primine, 329, 839
Primordial cell, 22, 328
— leaves, 146, 853
— utricle, 22, 26
Prismatic cell, 39
233
= 252,
302,
— leaf, 174
Procambium, 126
Process of germination, |
853
Procumbent, 114
Production of hybrids, 844
Pro-embryo, 831, 839
Progressive, 77, 210
Proliferous, 111
Prolification, 352
Prosenchyma, 49
— varieties of, 49
Prosenchymatous cells, 39, |
785
Prostrate, 114
Protandrous, 843
Proteid grains, 36
Proteine crystals, 36
Prothallium, 364, 366, 367
Prothallus, 364
Protista, 4
Protococcus, 6, 771
Protogynous, 844
Protonema, 375, 377, 832
Protoplasm, 22, 24, 771
— movements of, 25
Protruding, 256
Pseud-axis, 109
Pseudo-bulb, 114
Pseudocarp, 204, 296, 322
Pseudo-embryo, 834
Pseudo parenchyma, 49
Puccinia, 380
Puffball, 779
Pulyinus, 181
Punctum vegetationis, 96,
792, 795
Putamen, 299
Pyenidia, 389
Pyramidal leaf, 174
Pyrene, 299
Pyxis, 316, 320
QUADRIFID, 288
Quadrifoliate, 177
Quadrifureate, 250
Quadrilocular, 245, 276
Quadrinate, 177
Quadriovulate, 325
Quadripartite, 289
Quadrispermous, 334
Quaternary, 354
Quinary, 221, 354
Quinate, 177
Quincuncial, 151, 220, 221,
Quinquecostate, 160
Quinquedentate, 225
Quinquefid, 165, 167, 225,
288
Quinquefoliate, 177
Quinquelocular, 276
Quinqueoyulate, 325
Quinquepartite, 225
Quinquespermous, 334
Quintuple-ribbed, 160
Quintupli-costate, 160
RACEME, 204
Racemose, 110
—- corymb, 205
— cyme, 213
Rachis, 162, 180, 198
Radiated veined, 160
Radical leaves, 146
—- peduncle, 198
Radicle, 12, 342, 343
Ramal leaves, 146
Ramenta, 65
Ramentaceous hairs, 65
Ramification, 108
Ramified cells, 43
Raphe, 332
Raphian arillus, 339
Raphides, 33
Raphiditerous, 35
Raphis-bearing, 35
Rapidity of cell-production,
779
Receptacle, 17, 198, 265,
292, 381, 396
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL -INDEX TO
Receptacles of secretion,
72, 789 ,
Reclinate, 155, 345 - av
— ovule, 326 ,
Rectiserial, 153
Recurved, 243
Red snow plant, 6, 771
Reduplicate, 219, 220
Reflexed, 225, 232
Regma, 317
Regressive, 210
Regular, 225, 227, 232
— buds, 110
— flower, 355
— monopetalous corolla,
233
— parenchyma, 48, 80
— polypetalous corolla,
233
Rejuvenescence, 777
Reliquize, 141
Renewal of cell, 777
Reniform, 173
Replum, 277, 306, 317
Reproduction of :—
— Algee, 830
— Angiospermia, 839
— Characee, 831
— Cormophytes, 831
— Cryptogamia, 829
— Equisetacez, 834
—— Filices, 834
— Gymnospermia, 836
— Hepaticacez, 832
— Lycopodiacez, 834
— Marsileacez, 832
— Musci, 832
— Phanerogamia, 836
— Rhizocarpez, 832
— Selaginellacez, 833
— Thallophytes, 829
Reproductive organs of :—
— — Algee, 392
— — Characez, 390
— — Cormophytes, 364
— — Equisetace, 367
— — Filices, 365
— — Fungi, 385
— — Hepaticacee, 375
— —— Lichenes, 388
— -— Lycopodiacez, 368
— — Marsileacee, 370
— — Musci, 372
— — Selaginellacez, 369
— — Thallophytes, 378
Respiration, 4, 801, 823
Resting spores, 830
Reticulated cells, 46
— veined, 159
— venation, 159, 162
— vessels, 55
Retinacula, 260
Retrograde metamorphosis,
352
Retroserrate, 164
Retuse, 169
Revolute, 156
Revolving nutation, 860
Rhizocarpee, 371, 832
- Rind,
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY,
Rhizoid, 831
Rhizome, 118
Ribbed venation, 160
Ribs, 157
alse, 95, 96, 102
Ringed cells, 45
Ringent, 236
Ripening of fruits, 849
Rolled leaves, 155,
157
Root, 13, 14, 125, 790
Root-cap, 126, 128
Root-hairs, 60, 67, 127
Root-pressure, 791, 822
-Root-sheath, 132, 855
Rootstock, 118
Rosaceous, 233
Rostellum, 260
Rotate, 235
Rotation, 784
Rotation of crops, 817
Rounded cell, 37
— leaf, 173
— lobes, 249
Roundish ovate, 173
Round parenchyma, 47
Ruminated, 341
Runcinate, 167
Runner, 117
Rupturing, 308
SACCATE, 229, 237
Sagittate, 173, 250
Salver-shaped, 234
Salvinia, 371
Samara, 315
Sap, 27, 820
Saprophytes, 133
Sapwood, 85
Sarcocarp, 299
Sarcoderm, 326
Sealariform vessels, 55
Scales, 65, 104, 105, 140, 193,
196
Scaly bracts, 193
*“— buds, 105
— bulb, 122
Scape, 198
Sears of leaves, 141, 180
—— — ferns, 101
Schizocarps, 305
Sclerenchyma,. 48, 78, 95,
102
Sclerenchymatous, 42
Selerotium, 384
ae abe cyme, 213, 215,
216
— “dichotomy, 110
Seurf, 65
Seaweeds, 392
Secondary axis, 197
— embryo-sacs, 837
— medullary ravs, 89
— meristem, 793, 794
— products, 824
— root, 125, 128, 135
156,
Secretion, 823
Secretions, 804
Sected, 165, 231
Secund, 215
Secundine, 329, 83°
Seeds, 11s 2054298, 332,
250
— preservation of, 851
— transportation of, 853
— vitality of, 850
| Seed-bud, 325
— distinctive characters of, |
28
Seed-nucleus, 334
Segment cell, 795
Segments, 165
Selaginellacez, 369, 833
Selaginellas, 369, 833
Self-fertilisation, 843
Semi-double flowers, 362
Semi-nude ovule, 325
Sepals, 17, 222, 349
Septemfid, 165
Septemfoliate, 177
Septenate, 177
Septicidal, 303
Septifragal, 303, 305
Series, 150
Serrate, 164, 231
Serrulate, 164
Sessile, 267
— anther, 19, 242
— flowers, 204
— leaves, 15, 142, 147, 179
— ovary, 279
— ovule, 325
— pappus, 228
— sepal, 231
— seed, 333
— stigma, 290
Seta, 373
Setaceous, 66
Setze, 66
Setose, 66
Seyen-cleft, 165
Sexual filament, 398
— generation, 367
Sexuality of plants, 829
Sharp-pointed, 169
Sheath, 141, 181
Sheathing, 147
Shell, 20, 298
Shield-like, 65
-—— -cells, 391
— -shaped, 141
Shrubs, 115
Sieve cells, 56
— tubes, 55, 786
— vessels, 55
Silicula, 317
Siliqua, 317
Siliqueform capsule, 317
Silver-grain, 89
Simple corolla, 239
— corymb, 205
— fruits, -297, ape
— gyneecium, 272
— hairs, 63
— leaves, 142, 162, 163
877
Simple ovary, 279, 280
— pappus, 228
— petiole, 179
| — pisti!, 267
— spiral vessels, 52
— style. 288
Sinuated, 164
Sinuous, 249
Sister cells, 788
| Size of cells, 41
—— — dicotyledonous trees,
Skeleton leaves, 144
Small spores, 369, 371, 833
Soft bast, 90
| Solitary axillary flower, 201
Selecting power of roots, |
791
— terminal flower, 209
Solubility, 380
Soredia, 390
Sori, 365
Sorosis, 323
Sources of food, 813
Spadix, 203
Spathaceous bracts, 196
Spathe, 196
Spathelle, 196
Spathulate, 172
Special functions of the
stem, 794
— mother cells, 259
— phenomena, 855
— physiology, 771
Specific identity, 107
Spermatia, 389
Spermatophores, 389
Sperm-cells, 366, 372, 835
Spermogonia. 380, 389
Spermophore, 281
Sphacelia, 384
Spheeraphides, 35
Sphalerocarpium, 323
Spherical cell, 37
Spike, 202
Spiked cyme, 213
Spikelet, 197, 203
Spine, 107
Spines of leaves, 185
Spiral cells, 45
— estivation, 219, 220
— vernation, 156
— vesse's, 52, 101
Spirilla, 387
Spirogyra, 393, 778
Spongelet, 126
Spongiform
47
Spongiole, 126
Sporangium, 6, 365,
369, 370, 373, 377, 830
Spores, i: 364
Sporocarp, 370
Sphorophore, 367
Spreading branches, 116
Spur, 237
Spurious
846
— traches, 55
Spurred, 229, 237
Squame, 193
parenchyma,
367,
fruit, 296, 322,
878
Squamous, 193
Squamulez, 197
Stalk, 157, 381
Stalked, 146,
333
Stalklets, 162, 180
Stamens, 18, 241, 252, 350
Staminate, 20, 360
Staminodes, 242
Standard, 233
Starch, 4, 29
— granules, 30
— — compound, 33
— nucleus, 3l
Starchy albumen, 341
Stellate hairs, 64
— cell, 38
— parenchyma, 47
Stem, 14, 73, 793
— defined, 75
— distinctive characters of,
128
— internal structure of,
74
— modifications of, 117
Stemless, 74
Sterigmata, 389
Sterile, 241
Stigma, 19, 267, 271, 290
Stigmatie fluid, 271
Sting, 69
Stipe, 115, 381
Stipellate, 183
Stipels, 183
Stipitate, 228, 279
Stipular, 157
— portion, 141
Stipulate, 182
Stipules, 15, 141, 182
Stolon, 118
Stoloniferous, 118
Stoma, 61, 374
Stomata, 61, 787
Stomatal cells, 61
Stomates, 61
Stone, 299
Stone-fruit, 311
Storing of nutriment by
roots. 792
Straight ovule, 330
Straight-veined, 161
Strap-shaped, 236
Strobile, 204, 323
Strobilus, 204, 323
Strophioles, 338
Structural botany, 1, 5
Structure of anther, 246
— — carpel, 269
— — cell-wall, 42
——i—— Oy Mle, eh
— — pollen, 260
— — seed, 334
Struma, 181. 374
Style, 20, 267, 270, 286]
Stylopodium, 265
Stylospores, 389
Suberous layer of bark, 90,
228, 279,
91
Sub-hybrids, 845
GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO
Sub-hymenial layer, 382
Submersed leaves, 145
— — structure of, 145
Sub-rotund, 173
Subterranean modifications
of stems. 119
Subulate, 171
Succulent, 15, 140, 145
Sucker, 118
Summit growers, 75
Superficial placentation,
283
Superior calyx, 227, 280, 356
— fruit, 298. 314
— ovary, 227. 280
— radicle, 348
— synearpous fruits, 314
Superposed, 327
Supervolute, 157
Suppression, 360, 361
Supra-axillary, 141
Surculose, 118
Surface of stvle, 289
— — testa, 335
Suspended ovule, 326
— seed, 334
Suspensor, 839. 842
Sutural, 251, 282, 363
Sutures, 246, 300
Swarm-spore, 379
Syconus, 324
Symmetrical flower, 353
Symmetry of flower, 353
Sympodial, 109
Sympodium, 109
Synantherous, 255, 356
Synearpous, 19, 356
— fruits, 297, 314, 319
— pistil, 19, 272, 274
Synergide, 328. 840
Syngenesious, 255, 356
Svnochreate, 184
Systematic botany, 1
TABULAR cells, 39
— parenchyma, 48, 89
Tailed, 295
Taper-pointed, 169
Tapetum, 246, 258
Tap-root, 130
Tegmen. 21, 337
Tegmenta, 105, 183
Tela-contexta, 48
Teleutospores, 381
Tendril, 108
Tendrils of leaves, 186
Teratology, 356
Terminal inflorescence, 200,
201, 209
Ternary, 254
Ternate, 177
Tertiary axis, 197
Testa, 21, 335
Tetradynamous, 258
Tetragonal, 354
Tetramerous, 279, 354
Tetrandrous, 253
Tetrapetalous, 232
Tetrasepalous, 225
Texture of testa, 335
Thalamium, 389
Thalamus, 17, 265, 292
Thallogens, 7
Thallome, 7
Thallophyta, 12
Thallophytes, 7, 11
Thallus, 7
Thece, 365
Theoretical structure of
the flower, 348
Thorn, 107
Three-celled, 276
— cleft. 165, 225, 288
— lobed. 165, 280
— paired, 175
— partite. 225
— ranked, 152
— ribbed, 160
— seeded, 334
— toothed, 225
— valved, 301
Throat, 226, 233
Thyloses, 52
Thyrse, 207
Thyrsus, 207
Tigelle, 12, 342, 343
Tigellum, 12, 342, 343
Tonoblast, 22
Toothed, 164,
242
Torus, 265, 292
Trachee, 53
— spurious, 55
Tracheides, 46
Trachenchyma, 53
Trama, 382
Transformation, 362
Transmission, 781
Transpiration, 796
Transplanting, 790
Transporting seeds, 851
Transverse dehiscence, 251,
302, 307, 316
— chorisis, 358
— ovule, 332
Tree, 115
Triadelphous, 256
Triandrous, 253
Triangular, 354
Trichomes, 63
Tricoccous, 305
Tricostate, 160
Tridentate, 225
Trifid, 165, 167, 225, 288,
290
Trifoliate, 177
Trigonal, 354
Trigynous, 273
Trijugate, 175
Trilobate, 290
Trilocular, 276
Trimerous, 279, 354
Trimorphie, 844
Triovulate, 325
Tripartite, 165, 167, 225,
225, 233,
289
Tripetalous, 232
oo — ee
MORPHOLOGICAL, STRUCTURAL, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 879
Tripinnate, 176
Tripinnatifid, 167
Tripinnatipartite, 167
Tripinnatisected, 167
Triple-rlbbed, 160
Triplicostate, 160 *
Trisected, 165, 167
Trisepalous, 225
Trispermous, 334
Tristichous, 152
Triternate, 178
True arillus, 338, 339
— bast tissue, 90
— dichotomy, 103
— fruit, 846
— netted venation, 160
— raphides, 35
— root, 125, 134
Truncate, 169
Truncated root, 139
Trunk, 115
Tryma, 318
Tube, 226, 233
Tuber, 120
Tuberculated root, 137
Tubercule, 137
Tubular, 227, 231, 233
— leaf, 174
Tuft, 149
Tufted leaves, 149
— root, 137
Tunic, 122
Tunicated bulb, 122
Turgescence, 782
Turgidity, 782
Turpentine vessels, 72
- Twigs, 108
Twining, 115
Twisted zstivation, 220
— corolla, 221, 222
— root, 139
— vernation, 156
Two-celled, 246, 276
— cleft, 165, 288
— lobed, 165, 280
— membered, 354
— paired, 175
= ranked, 151, 354
— seeded, 334
— valved, 301
Tyloses, 52
Tympanum, 374
UMBEL, 208
Umbelliferous, 208
Umbellule, 209
Uncinate, 64
Undershrub, 115
Undulated, 164
Unequal leaf, 170
Unequally pinnate, 176
Unguiculate, 231
Unguis, 231
Unijugate, 175, 176
Unilateral, 215
Unilocular, 246, 276, 298
Union of stamens, 255
Uniparous, 215
Unisexual, 20, 240, 360
Unlining, 356
Unsymmetrical, 353
Uovili, 112
Urceolate, 235
Uredo-fruits, 380
Uredo-spores, 380
Urn-shaped, 174, 235
Utricle, 311
Utricuiar vessels, 57
}
VACUOLES, 22
Vaginule, 373, 377
Valvate, 156, 219, 221
Valves, 301
Valvular dehiscence, 253,
302
Varieties of estivation, 219,
220
— — bracts, 193
Vascular bundles, 76
— — closed, 78
— — definite, 78
— — indefinite, 77
— — open, 77
— — progressive, 77
— plants, 8
Vaucheria, 394
Vegetable histology, 1, 5,
21
— mucilage, 771
— respiration, 801
Veil, 382
Veins, 140, 143, 144, 157,
158
Veinless, 157
Veinlets, 158
Velamen radicum, 132
. Venation, 144, 157
—of leaves of
phytes, 161
cormo-
— modifications of, 158, |
159
— true netted, 160
|
|
i
i
|
| Venation, varieties of, 159,
160
Ventral suture, 268, 300
Vernation, 155, 200, 218
Versatile, 248
Vertical system, 57, 74
— chorisis, 358
Verticil, 148
Verticillaster, 216, 217
Verticillate, 148
Vesicular vessels, 57, 786
Vessels, 51
— functions of, 785
Vexillary, 220, 221
Vexillum, 221, 233
Vital force, 24
Vitality of seeds, 850
Vitellin-globulin, 37
Vitellus, 337
Vitte, 72
Volatile constituents, 813,
$14
Volva, 382
WALL of pollen-cell, 260
Wardian cases, 806
Warts, 69
Water-pores, 789, 799
Watery vapour, exhalation:
of, 796
Wavy, 164
Wedge-shaped, 172
Weeping, 116
Wheel-shaped, 235
Whorl, 148, 362
Whorled, 148, 149, 153, 201
Wing, 182, 233
Winged, 182, 336
Wood-cells, 50
Wood, structure of, 79
81
— formation of, 794
— functions of, 794
Woody fibres, 49
— parenchyma, 91
— tissue, 49, 50
— — of the liber, 50, 90
XANTHIC, 828
Xylem, 76, 81, 794
ZONES of wood, 82
Zoogonidia, 395
Zoospores, 379, 395, 398
Zy gospore, 394, 777, 830
Zymogenous, 387
INDEX
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY; »
BOTANICAL NAMES
ABBREVIATIONS, 408°
Abelmoschus, 478
Abies, 744
Abieteze, 742
Ablaluz, 721
Abrus, 531
Abortive plant, 639
Absinthe, 596
Abuta, 438
Abutilon, 477,
Acacia, 530, 538
—hbark, 538
Acena, 544
Acalypha, 673
Acanthacee, 638
Acanthus, 638
Acer, 521
Acerace, 520
Achillea, 596
Achlya, 767
Achras, 609, 610
Achyranthes, 649
Ackawa nutmeg, 657
Aconitum, 431, 433
Acoree, 715
Acorn, 686
Acorus, 717
Acramphibrya, 420
Acrobrya, 420
Acrodiclidinm, 657
Acrostichum, 748
Actza, 432
Adam’s needle, 722
Adansonia, 480
Adder’s tongue, 748, 749
Aden aloes, 721
Adenandra, 500
Adenanthera, 539
INCLUDING THE
OF THE SUB-KINGDOMS, DIVISIONS,
CLASSES AND THEIR SUB-DIVISIONS, ORDERS, AND
GENERA; AND THE SCIENTIFIC AND VERNACULAR NAMES |
OF THE SPECIES AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS REFERRED
TO IN BOOK II. OF THIS WORK.
——<
Adiantum, 748
Adriatic oak, 686
/Hgiceras, 609
ABzilops, 735
ABigie, 500
Aischynomene, 531
AAsculus, 519
/Bthusa, 576
African bdellium, 507
— cubebs, 679
— elemi, 507
— hemp, 721
-— kino, 534
— millet, 737
— myrrh, 506
— oak, 675
— olibanum, 507
— rubber, 616
— saffron, 634
— teak, 675
— tragacanth, 481
Agallochum, 660
Agar-agar, 768
Agaricus, 757, 759
Agathophyllum, 657
Agathotes, 621
Agave, 704
Aglaia, 508
Agrimonia, 543
Aguamiel, 705
Aguardiente de Maguey,
705
Ahalim, 660
Ahaloth, 660
Ailanthus, 504
Ajowan, 575, 643
Ajwain, 575
Akee-fruit, 519
Ak fibres, 618
Aka, 556
Alangiacez, 579
Alangium, 580
— order, 579
Alanguilan, 436
Alaria, 766, 767
Albardin, 737
Alchemilla, 544
Aes bark, 492, 532,
656
Alder, 668
Aleoxyion, 660
Aletris, 706
Aleurites, 673
Alexanders, 575
Alexandrian senna, 536
--- wormseed, 596
Alfa, 738
Alga, 709
Algze, 764
—, edible, 766
Algaroba, 539
Algarobilla, 539
Algerian rose oil. 494
Algue de Java, 766
Alhagi, 531
Alisma, 708
Alismacese, 708
Alkanet, 624
Alkanna, 569, 624
Alligator pear, 436, 659
Allium, 720
Allspice, 556
Almond, 542
'— bitter, 542
— powder, 542
— sweet, 542
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 881
Almond tree, 542 Andaman red-wood, 535 Arbutez, 604
Alnus, 668 Andira, 531 Archangelica, 575
Aloe, 660, 720 Andreacee, 754 Arctium, 596
—- fibre, 704 Andree, 754 Arctostaphylos, 604
Aloes, 660, 720 Andrographis, 638 Areca, 711
— wood, 660 Andromeda, 604 — charcoal, 711
Aloysia, 639 Andromedez, 604 — nut, 711
Alpinia, 693 Andropogon 735, 736 Arenga, 711
Alsinez, 464 Androsemum, 470 Areng palm, 711
Alsodez, 456 Anemone, 433 Argania, 609
Alstonia, 615 Anemone, 431 } | Argel leaves, 618
— bark, 615 Anemopsis, 680 Argemone, 445
Alstroemeria, 704, 705 Anesorhiza, 574 Arillode, 656
Althea, 477 Anethum, 575 Arisema, 717
Altingia, 551 Angelica, 575 Aristolochia, 682
Alum root, 495, 546 — tree, 578 Aristolochiacez, 681
Alva marina, 709 Angiospermia, 429 Aristotelia, 484
Alyxia, 615 Angola grass, 737 Armeria, 607
Amadou, 761 — copal, 538 Armoracia, 451
Amanita, 759 Angrecum, 699 Arnatto, 458
Amarantacez, 649 Angustura bark, 503 — order, 457
Amaranth order, 649 Animé, 538 Arnica, 596
Amarantus, 649 Anise, 575 — root, 596
Amaryllidacez, 703 Anisomelus, 642 Aro, 639
Amaryllis, 703 Anjudan, 577 Aroidacez, 715
Ama-tsja, 548 Annatto, 458 Aroidez, 715
Amelanchier, 544 Annulated ipecacuanha, Aromatic umbellifer, 575
Amentales, 668 586 Arrack, 712, 737
American aloe, 704 Anona, 436 Arracacha, 498, 574
—- alcornoque, 492, 532 Anonacez, 436 Arrow-grass, 708
— balm of Gilead, 507 Anophyta, 420 Arrow-root, 746
— calumba, 621 Anthemis, 596 — East Indian, 694
_ —centaury, 621 Anthistiria, 735 — English, 630
| — colocynth, 568 Anthocerote, 755 — Florida, 746
— cranberry 603 Anthriscus, 574 —— Portland, 717
_ — deal, 743 Antiaris, 666 | —- West Indian, 695
_ — ginseng, 578 Antidesma, 677 Artanthe, 678
» — hellebore, 724 Anti-fat, 768 Artemisia, 596
_ — horsechestnut, 519 | Antsjar, 666 Artichoke, 597
_ — Indian hemp, 615 Apiol, 574 ? Artocarpaceze, 665
— ipecacuanha, 543, 674 Apium, 574 Artocarpus, 666
— nutmegs, 436 Aplopappus, 563, 596 Arum, 715, 717
+ +—pennyroyal, 642 Aplotaxis, 596 Arundo, 735
_ — plants, 604 Apocarpe, 707 Asagreea, 723
_ —sarsaparilla, 578 Apocynacee, 614 Asarabacea, 682
_ -— senna, 536 Apocynum, 615 Asarales, 681
- +— tobacco, 632 Apostasia, 700 Asarum, 682
_ — wintergreen oil, 605 Apostasiacesz, 700 Asclepiadaces, 616
_—-~- wormseed, 650 Appalachian tea, 512, 585 Asclepias, 617
_ Ammannia, 560 Apple, 545 Ash, 613
_ Ammoniacum, 576 — of Sodom, 687 Asparageze, 720
_ Amomales, 693 Apricot, 542 Asparagus, 721
_ Amomum, 694 Aqua Naphi. 501 Aspergillus, 758, 760
% Ampelopsis, 517 Aquifoliacez, 511 Asphodelus, 721
_ Amphibrya, 420 Aquilaria, 660 Aspidium, 748
Ie Amygdalus, 542 Aquilariacez, 560 Aspidosperma, 615
_ Amylum, 737, 738 Aquilegia, 433 Asafoetida, 577
_ Amyridacez, 506 Arabian myrrh, 506 Assam rubber, 664
| Amyris, 506 — olibanum, 507 Asteracez, 551
* Anacardiacez, 522 — senna, 536 Asterales, 589
t Anacardium, 522 Aracese, 715 Asteroidez, 594
| Anacuhuite wood, 625 Arachis, 531, 535 Astragalus, 531
— Anacyclus, 596 Arales, 714 Astroloma, 606
_ Anagyris, 530 Aralia, 578 Atap, 715
_ Anamirta, 437 Araliacez, 577 Atees, 432
Ananassa, 697 } Araroba, 531 Atherosperma, 655
Anastatica, 450 Ara ruta, 695 | Atherospermaceze. 655
Anchusa, 616 Arar tree, 742. | Atis. 432
Anda, 673 | Araucaria, 742 | Atriplex, 650
Ta
682
Atropa, 631
Atropex, 629, 631
Attalea, 712
Attar of rose, 544
Aubergines, 631
Aucklandia, 596
Aurantiex, 500 M
Australian alstonia bark,
615
— copal, 742
— dammar, 742
— gum, 538
— kino, 555
— manna, 545
sassafras, 655
Ava, 679
Avena, 735
Averrhoa, 498
Avicennia, 640
Avignon berries, 515
Avocado pear, 659
Ayer-ayer, 508
Azadirachta, 508
Azalea, 604
BABLAH, 538
Babul bark, 538
Bacteria 759, 760
Bael, 500
Bahia piassaba, 712
Balanites, 506
Balanophora, 688, 689
Balanophoracex, 688
Balatas, 610
Balaustina flowers, 556
Balaustion, 556
Bald-money, 575
Balm, 507, 642
— of fir, 744
— — Gilead, 507
— — Mecca, 507
Balsaminaceex, 495
Balsamito, 534
Balsamodendron, 506
Balsam order, 495
— tree, 470
— of Acouchi, 508
— — copaiba. 537
— — Pern, 534
— —- Tolu, 534
-— — Umiri, 492
Bamboo, 736
Bambusa, 736
Banana, 695, 696
Bancoul nut, 673
Bandakai, 478
Banda paper, 479
Bandoline, 768
Baneberry, 432
Bang, 665
Baobab tree, 480
Baphia, 535
Baptisia, 532
Barbadoes aloes, 720
— cherries, 492
— gooseberry, 570
Barbary wormseed, 597
Barberry, 438, 439
Barcelona nuts, 686
Barilla, 650
Bark bread, 743
Barley, 736
— sugar, 738
Barosma, 500
Barricarri seeds, 539
Barringtonia, 557
Barringtoniacex. 557
Barus camphor, 475
Barwood, 535
Basella, 651
Basellacez, 651
Bassia, 609, 610
Bast, 485
— Cuba, 479
Bastard ebony, 611
— ipecacuanha, 617
-- French physic nut, 675
— myrobalans, 553
— saffron, 597
Batatas, 627
Batidacez, 654
Batis, 654
Battledore barley, 737
Bauhinia, 535 5
Bay-berry, 556, 658
Baycuru, 607
Bay rum. 556
Bdellium, 507
Beam-tree, 545
Bean-caper, 492, 494
Beans, 530
Bearberry, 604
Beatsonia, 463
Beaver-tree, 435
Bebeeru, 658
— bark, 658
— seeds, 659
Bedda nuts, 553
Beech, 686
--- mast, 686
Beef-wood, 537, 670
Beet, 650
— root, 650
Begonia, 568
Begoniacez, 568
Behar cotton, 478
Bejetlan, 508
Belladonna, 631
Belleric myrobalans, 553
Bell-pepper, 630
Belvisia, 558
Belvisiacez, 558
Bencao de Deos, 477
Bendikai, 478
Bengal gram, 532
— hemp, 532
— kino, 532
Benjamin-tree, 612
Benne oil, 637
Ben-nuts, 525
Benzoin, 612
Berberidacez, 438
Berberine-tree, 436
Berberis, 439
Bere, 736
Bergamot, 502
Bergera. 503
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Bermuda arrow-root, 695
Berthelotia, 597
Bertholletia, 557
Beta, 650
Betel, 589, 711
Betel nut, 711
— catechn, 711
— palm, 711
— pepper, 679
Beth-root, 721
Betterave a suere, 650
Betula, 668
Betulacez, 668
Betulez, 685
Bevilacqua, 575
Bhadlee, 737
Bhang, 665
Bibiru bark, 658
Bicarpellatz, 612, 645
Bigg, 736
Bignonia, 637
— order, 636
Bignoniacez, 636
Bikh, 431
Bilberry, 603
Billardiera, 459
Billbergia, 697
Bindweed, 627
Birch tar oil, 668
— wine, 668
Bird cherry, 543
— lime, 512
— pepper, 630
Birthwort, 681, 682
Biscuit roots, 721
Bish, 431
Bissa b5l, 506
Bistort, 653
Biting stonecrop, 549
Bitter almond, 542
— — essential oil of, 543
— apple, 567
— ash, 505
— cassava, 675
— cups, 505
— oil, 470
— orange, 501
— sweet, 630
— vetch, 530
— wood, 487, 505
Bixa, 458
Bixaces, 457
Bizarres, 465
Black alder, 515
— alder bark, 512
— aloes, 721
— amadou, 761
— berry, 544
— birch, 66°
— bryony, 706
— bully, 609
— catecht, 538
— cummin, 433
— currant, 548
— dammar, 475, 507
— drink, 512
— ebony, 611
— ginger, 694
— hellebore, 432
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Black ipecacuanha, 588
— mustard, 451
~-- nightshade, 630
—- oak, 686
— pepper, 679
— pitch, 743
— Spanish nuts, 686
— spruce fir, 744
— tea, 472
— thorn, 542
— varnish, 523
— — of Sylhet, 523, 524
— walnut, 685
— whortleberry, 603
— wood, 533
Blackberry, 544
Black boy gum, 722
Bladderlocks, 767
Bladder-nut order, 521
~ — senna, 532
Blighia, 519
Blimbing, 498
Blood-red orange, 501
— root, 446, 705
Blue cohosh, 440
— flag, 703
— galls, 687
Blumea, 597
— camphor, 597
Boehmeria, 662
Boerhaavia, 649
Bog-bean, 621
— mosses, 754
— myrtle, 669
— onion, 749
— whortleberry, 603
Boi, 577
Bois-tan, 492
Boldo, 655
Boldoa, 655
Boletus, 760, 761
Bombax, 481
Bombay mastich, 523
— senna, 536
Bombyx, 504
Bonducella, 525
Bonnet pepper, 630
Bookum wood, 536
Borage, 624
— order, 623
Boraginacee, 623
Borago, 624
Borassus, 712
Borneo camphor, 474
— rubber, 616
Boswellia, 507
Botany Bay kino, 555
— — oak, 670
— — resin, 722
Botrytis, 759, 760
Bottle gourd, 567 .
Bourbon cotton, 478
— tea, 699
Bouza, 736, 737
Bowdichia, 532
Bowstring hemp, 721
Box-tree, 673
Bragantia, 682
Brake, 749
Brasenia, 441
Brassica, 450
Brayera, 543
Braziletto wood, 530, 536
Brazilian arrow-root, 675
— chip hats, 712
— clove-bark, 658
— cocoa, 519
— copal, 538
— cotton, 478
— elemi, 507
— grass hats, 712
— holly, 512
— nutmeg, 658
— rhatany, 461
— sarsaparilla, 725
— sassafras, 659
— tea, 639
— wax, 713
Brazil nut, 557
— — tree, 557
— wood, 536 Pe
Bread fruit, 665, 666
— nuts, 667
Breakstone, 544
Brexia, 547
Briar-root pipes, 605
Brinjals, 631
Bristlewort, 729
British gum, 630
— oak, 686
Broad beans, 530
Broccoli, 451
Bromelia, 696, 697
Bromeliacez, 696
Bromus, 734
Broom, 530, 532
— rape, 634
Brosimum, 666
Broussonetia, 653
Brown Barbary gum. 538
Brown-coloured alge, 764
— Indian hemp, 479
— rhatany, 461
— tamarinds, 537
Brucea, 504
Brunia, 551
Bruniacez, 551
Brunonia, 600
Brunoniacez, 600
Bryacee, 754
Bryeve, 754
Bryonia, 567, 568
Bryony, 706
Buchu, 500
Buck-bean, 621
--- eye, 519
Buckthorn, 514, 515
Buckwheat, 652
Bukkum wood, 536
Bullace, 542
Bully-tree, 537, 610
— — wood, 609
Bulrush order, 715
Bulrushes, 732
Bulrush of the Nie, 732
Bunchosia, 492
Bunium, 574
_ Burgundy pitch, 744
Burmannia, 700
Burmanniacez, 700
Bursera, 507
_ Burseracez, 506
| Bush tea, 532
| Bussorah galls, 687
| Butcher’s broom, 721
Butea, 532
| — gum, 532
_ Butcmacez, 707
| Butomus, 707
Buttercup order, 429
Butterfly weed, 618
Butter of cocoa, 482
— — nhutmegs, 656
— -nut, 685
— tree, 471
| Butterwort, 635
Button snakeroot, 598
| Butyrospermum, 610
| Buxus, 673
Byrsonima, 492, 532
| CABBAGE, 451
— hark, 531
— palm, 713
— rose, 544
Cabeza del negro, 714
Cabombacew, 441
Cacao, 482
Cachibou resin, 507
Cactaceze, 569
Cactus, 569
Cadaba, 453
Ceesalpinia, 536
Ceesalpinie, 529, 535
Caffre bread, 746:
— corn, 737
| Cafta, 513
Cagliari paste, 738
| Cahoun nuts, 712
— palm, 712
Cajanus, 530
Cajuput oil, 556
Cake gamboge, 470
— saffron, 597, 703
Calabar bean, 530, 534
Calabash nutmeg, 436
— tree, 636
Caladium, 717
Calaguala, 748, 749
Calamander wood, 611
Calamus, 712
Calendula, 597
Calla, 717
| Callitrichaces, 552
Callitriche, 552
| Callitris, 742
Calophyllum, 470
Calotropis, 618
Calumba, 438
Calycanthacez, 435
| Calycanthus, 433, 434
Calycera, 591
Calyceracee, 591
Calyciflore, 528
— analysis of, 550
Calysaccion, 470
32
883
884
Calystegia, 627
Camara nutmeg, 657
Camassia, 721
Camata, 686
_Camatina, 686
Camelina, 451
Camellia, 471
— order, 472
Camelliacez, 471
Camei’s thorn, 531
Campanales, 600
Campanula, 601
Campanulaceze, 600
Camphor, 474
— oil, 474
— tree, 657
Camphora, 474, 657
Campylospermez, 573
Camwood, 535
Canada balsam, 744
— rice, 738
— snake root, 682
Canadian agaric, 761
balsam, 744
— fleabane, 597
— hemp, 615
— maidenhair, 748
— pitch, 744
Canagong, 571
Cananga, 436
Canarium, 507
Canary grass, 737
— seed, 737
Cancer-root, 635
Candle-berry, 670
— nut, 673
— tree, 636, 673
Candytuft, 452
Canella, 457
Canellacez, 457
Canes, 712
Cane sugar, 737
Canna, 695
Cannabinacez, 664
Cannabis, 664
Cannaces, 695
Canutillo, 745
Caoutchoue, 615, 618, 674
Cape aloes, 721
— gum, 538
Caper order, 452
~— spurge, 674
Capers, 453
Cape tea, 532
Capillaire, 748
Capitao de matto, 639
Capparez, 452
Capparidaces, 452
Capparis, 453
Capraria, 634
Caprifoliacez, 553
Caprifolium, 584
Capsicums, 629
Carajuru, 637
Carambole, 498
Caramel, 737
Carana resin, 507
Carapa, 508
Caraway, 575
INDEX TO
Cardamine, 451
Cardamoms, 694
Cardiospermum, 519
Cardoon, 597
Carduus, 597
Carex, 732
Careya, 558
Carica, 564
Carissa, 616
Carludovica, 715
Carminative umbellifere,
575
Carnation, 465
— grass, 732
Carnauba palm, 713
— wax, 713
Carob, 536
— bean, 536
Carolina allspice, 434
pink, 619
Carpathian balsam, 743
Carpinug, 686
Carrageen moss, 767
Carron oil, 491
Carrot, 574, 575
Carthagena rubber, 667
Carthamus, 597
Carum, 574, 575, 643
Carya, 684
Caryocar, 474
Caryophyllacez, 463
Caryophyllinez, 463
Caryophyllus, 555
Caryota, 712
Casca, 658
— bark, 539
Cascara, 515
Cascarilla, 674
Casearia, 562
Cashew nut, 522
— tree, 523
Casimiroa, 501
Cassa bark, 539
Cassareep, 675
Cassava, 675
Cassia, 536, 658
— bark, 658
— buds, 658
— lignea, 658
— oil of, 658
Cassumunar root, 694
Cassytha, 656 —
Castanea, 686
Castanha nuts, 557
Castanospermum, 532
Castilloa, 667
Castor oil, 676
— — plant, 676
-- — seeds, 676
Casuarina, 670
Casuarinaceex, 670
Catechu, 538, 589, 711
Catha, 513
Catmint, 642
Cauliflower, 451
Caulophyllum, 440
Cava, 679
Cayenne pepper, 630
Ceanothus, 515
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY,
Ceara India-rubber, 675
Cecropia, 490, 667
Cedar, 742
Cedar-wood of Guiana, 508
Cedrat, 502
Cedrela, 509
Cedrelacez, 509
Cedrus, 742
Celandine, 445
Celastracez, 512
Celastrales, 512
Celastrus, 513
Celery, 574
Celosia, 649
Celteze, 667
Celtis, 667
Cenomyce, 762
Centaury, 621
Cephaélis, 586
Cephalina, 589
Cerasus, 543
Ceratonia, 536
Ceratophyllaceze, 680
Ceratophyllum, 681
Cercis, 530
Cereal grains, 733
Cereus, 570
Ceropegia, 617
Ceroxylon, 712
Cetraria, 762 f
Cetronella oil, 735
Cevadilla, 723
Ceylon cardamons, 694
— catechu, 711
— ebony, 611
— moss, 768
Chacha, 568
Chailletia, 510
Chailletiacez, 510
Chameelauciacez, 558
Chamerops, 712
Chamomile, 596
— oil of, 596
Champignon, 757, 759
Chara, 763
Characee, 763
Characters, 405
Chataigne d’eau, 552
Chaulmoogra, 458
Chavica, 679
Chay-root, 588
Chebulic myrobalans, 553
Cheiranthus, 452
Chekan, 556
Chelidonium, 445
Ghenopodiacez, 649, 651
Chenopodiales, 648
Chenopodium, 650
Cherimoyer, 436
Che-root, 588
Cherry, 543
— birch, 669
— laurel, 543
— pepper, 630
Chervil, 574
Chestnut, 519
Chian turpentine, 523
Chibou resin, 507
Chica, 539, 637, 699, 738
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INDEX TO
Chichm, 536
Chick pea, 532
Chicle, 610
Chicory, 599
Chicot, 525
Chili-nettle, 562
Chillies, 629
Chimaphila, 604
China camphor, 657
-— cardamoms, 694
— orange, 501
— root, 725, 760
— tea, 472
Chinese galangal, 693
— grass-cloth, 662
— green indigo, 515
— moxas, 596
— tallow tree, 676
— yam, 706
Chiquito, 553
Chirayta, 621
Chiretta, 621
Chittagong wood, 509
Chive, 720
Chizenacee, 475
Chloranthacez, 680
Chloranthus, 680
Chlorospermez, 764, 765
Chlorosporez, 764, 765
Chioroxylon, 509
Chocho. 568
Chocolat, 482
Choco'ate, 482
Choke berry, 543
— cherry, 543
Chondrodendron, 438
Chondrus, 766, 767
Choopa, 520
Chorisia, 481
Christmas rose, 433
Chrysobalanez, 541, 542
Chrysobalanus, 542
Chrysophylium, 610
Chufa, 732
Churrus, 665
Cibotium, 749
Cicer, 532
Cichorez, 595
Cichorium, 599
Cicuta, 576
Cimicifuga, 432
Cinchona, 586
— bark, 587
Cinnamodendron, 457
Cinnamomum, 657
Cinnamon, 657
— suet, 658
Cissampelos, 438
Cissus, 517
Cistacee, 454
Cistus, 455
— rape, 682
Citron, 502
Citronella oil, 735
Citrullus, 567
Citrus, 501
Cladonia, 762
Classes, 404, 408
Claviceps, 758, 760
Claytonia, 466
Clearing nut, 620
Cleavers, 588
Clematideze, 431
Clematis, 432, 433
Cleome, 453
C eomez, 452
Clerodendron, 639
Clitoria, 532
C oudberry, 544
Clove cassia bark, 658
— bark, 658
— nutmeg, 657
| — pink, 465
— stalks. 555
— tree, 555
Clover, 530
Cloves, 555
Club-moss, 750, 751
— -rushes, 732
Clusia, 470
Clusiaceex, 469
C.uster pine, 743
Cobnuts, 686
Coca, 490
Coecoloba, 653
Coeculus indicus, 437
Coccus pe-la, 614
Cochineal, 570
Cochlearia, 451
Cochlospermum, 458
Cock’s-comb, 649
Cocoa, 482
— nibs, 482
— -nut, 712
— — butter, 712
— — fibre, 713
— — milk, 712
= iol, 712
— — palm, 712
— plum, 542
— tree, 482
Cocoes, 717
Cocos, 712
Cocus, 676
Codarium, 537
Ceelocline, 436
Coelospermee, 573
Coftea, 587
Coffee, 587
— plant, 587
— tea, 587
Cohosh, 440
Coir, 713
Coix, 736
Cola, 481
Colchicacez, 722
Colchicez, 720
Colchicum, 722, 723
Cole, 450
Collomia, 622
Collodion, 478
Colocasia, 717
Colocynth, 567
Colombo catechu, 711
Colorado hemp, 615
Coltsfoot, 599
Columbine, 433
Columelliacez, 635
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY,
885
Columellia, 635
— order, 635
Colutea, 532
Colza, 450
Comacum, 658
Gombretaceex, 553
Combretum, 553
Comfrey, 624
Commelyna, 728
Commelynales, 727
| Commelynacee, 727
| Common
adder’s tongue,
749
— allspice, 556
| —- ash, 613
| — balm, 642
— beech, 686
— beet, 650
~- black bryony, 706
— brake, 749
— broom, 532
— buckwheat, 653
-— camphor, 657
tig chamomile, 598
| — club-moss, 751
— cocoa, 482
— elder, 584
— fennel, 574
— frankincense, 743
— hemp, 664 ;
— holly, 512
— horehound, 642
— larch, 744
— lavender, 642
— laurel, 543
— lettuce, 599
— lime, 485
— linden, 485
—- liquorice, 642, 643
— marjoram, 533
— mushroom, 757, 759
| —- myrtle, 556
| — oat, 735
— orange 501
— parsley, 574
| —- potato, 630
| —- reed, 735
| — rosemary, 643
— rue, 503
— rye, 738
— sage, 643
— senna, 536
| — sorrel, 654
— sugar-cane, 737
-— thrift, 607
— thyme, 643
— wheat, 738
— wood sorrel, 498
— yew, 745
Compass plant, 598
Composite, 592
| Composite order, 592
| Comptonia, 670
| Conerete oil of
mango-
steen, 470
— — — nutmegs, 656
Condurango, 618
Conessi bark, 616
Confervoidex, 764, 765
886
Coniferx, 741
Coniferous order, 741
Conium, 576
Connaracez, 528
Connarus, 528
Consumptive weed, 623
Convallaria, 721
Convolvulacez, 625
Convolvulus, 627
— order, 625
Cookia, 502
Copaiba, 537
Copaifera, 537
Copal, 537, 538
Copal resin, 537
Copalche, 657
— bark, 616, 620, 674
Copalm balsam, 551
Copernicia, 713
Coprinus, 758
Coprosma, 588
Coptis, 432
Coquetta bark, 587
Coquilla nuts, 712
Corchorus, 484
Cordia, 625
Cordiacez, 624
Cordiceps, 760
Corema, 677
Coriander, 575
Coriandrum, 575
Coriaria, 524
Coriariacese, 524
Cork, 686
Cork-tree bark, 686
Cork-wc od, 436
— oak, 686
Corky copalche bark, 674
Cormophyta, 747
Cornaceze, 578
Cornelian cherry, 579
Corn-poppy, 446
Cornus, 579
Corolliflors, 583
— analysis of, 644
Coromandel wood, 611
Coronilla, 530, 532
Correa, 502
Corsican moss, 768
Cortex alstoniae, 615
— thymiamatis, 551
Corydalis, 447
Corylacez, 685
Coryleze, 685
Corylus, 686
Corymbiferz, 594
Corypha, 713
Coscinium, 438
Costus, 596
Coto bark, 588
Cotton, 477
— grass, 732
— root bark, 478
Cotyledon, 549
Country almonds, 554
— sarsaparilla, 618
Courbaril, 537
Cowbane, 576
Cowberry, 603
Cowdie pine, 742
Cowhage, 534
Cow-itch, 534
— plant, 618
— tree, 616, 666
Cowslip, 608
Crab oil, 508
Crambe, 451
Cranberry, 602
Crane’s-bill order, 494
Crassulacez, 549
Crassu ez, 549
Cratzva, 453
Cratoxylon, 468
Cream-of-tartar tree, 481
Cream-fruit, 616
Creasote, 743
— plant, 493
Cremospermee, 566
Crescentia, 636
Crescentiacex, 636
Creyat, 638
Crinum, 705
Crithmum, 574
Crocus, 703
Crop, 589
Cross breeds, 402
Crotalaria, 532
Croton, 673
— oil, 673
— pseudo-China, 616, 674
— seeds, 673
Crowberry, 677
— order, 676
Crownwort order, 563
Crozophora, 674
Cruciferz, 447
Cruciferous order, 447
Crude camphor, 657
Cryptocarya, 658
Cryptogamia, 747
Cuacho tree, 667
Cuba bast, 479
— tobacco, 632
Cubeba, 679
Cubebs, 679
Cuca, 490
Cuchunchully de Cuenga, |
456
Cuckoo-flower, 451
Cuckoo-pint, 717
Cucubalus, 465
Cucumber, 567
Cucumis, 567
Cucurbita, 567
Cucurbitacez, 564
Cucurbitez, 566
Cudbear, 762, 763
Cudrania, 667
Cuminum, 575
Cummin, 575
Cundurango, 618
Cunoniacex, 548
Cunonia order, 548
Cupania, 519
Cup-moss, 762
Cuprea bark, 588
Cupresseze, 742
Cupressus, 742
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Cupulifere, 685
Curacao aloes, 721
Curare, 620
Cureas, 675
Curculigo, 705
Curcuma, 694
— starch, 694
Currant, 517, 548
Cuscus, 735
Cuscutez, 627
Cusparia bark, 503
Cusso, 543
Custard apple, 436
Cutch, 538
Cyathea, 749
Cycadaceze, 746
Cycas, 746
Cyclamen, 608
Cyclopia, 532
Cydonia, 545
Cynanchum, 618
Cynara, 597
Cynaree, 594
Cynarocephale, 594
Cynomorium, 689
Cyperacez, 730
Cyperus, 732
Cyphia, 601
Cypress, 742
Cypripedium, 699
Cyrilla, 511
Cyrillaceze, 511
Cyrtandrez, 636
Cytinacez, 682
Cytinus, 683
Cytisus, 530, 532
Cyttaria, 760
Dacca cotton, 478
Dacrydium, 745
Dactylis, 736
Dalbergia, 533
Da'matian insect powder,
598
Damiana, 563, 596
Dammar, 475
Dammara, 742
Damsons, 542
Danza, 748
Daneeacee, 748
Danzeex, 748
Dandelion, 599
Dantzic fir, 743
Daphnales, 659
Daphne, 660
Date coffee, 714
— pahn, 713
— plum, 611
Dates, 713
Datisca, 569
Datiscacex, 568
Datura, 631
Daucus, 574, 575
Dawames, 665
Deadly nightshade, 631
Dead Sea apples, 687
— tongue, 576
Deals, 743
*
ts at I ee i ei Rhee i Mi | ee i, te ha Ue all al
= a
Deer berries, 605
Deer's tongue, 598, 749
Delphinium, 432, 433
Demerara pink root, 619
Deodar, 742
Desmidiez, 765
Desvauxiacez, 729
Deutzia, 547
Devil’s apple, 632
— bit scabious, 591
Dewberry, 544
Dextrine, 630
Dhatureeas, 631
Dialium, 537
Diamba, 665
Diamorphee, 549
Dianthus, 465
Diapensiacez, 622
Diatomaces, 764, 765
Diatomez, 765
Dicarpiz, 612, 645
Dicentra, 447
Dichopsis, 610
Dictamnus, 502
Dicypellium, 658
Dielytra, 447
Digitalis, 634
Dika bread, 504
Dill, 575
Dillenia, 433
Dilleniacez, 433
Dillesk, 769
Dimon pine, 745
Dion, 746
Dionvza, 550
Dioscorales, 706
Dioscorea, 706
Dioscoreacez, 706
Diosma, 500
Diosmez, 500
Diospyros, 611
Diplazium, 748
Diplecolobez, 450
Diplozygiew, 574
Dipsaceze, 590
Dipsacus, 591
Dipteracez, 474
Dipterocarpus, 474
Dipteryx, 533
Dirca, 659
Discaria, 515
Disciflore, 488, 525
Dita bark, 615
Dittany, 502
— of Crete, 643
Divi-divi, 536
Dochna, 736
Dodonea, 519
Dodonez, 518
Dogbane, 614
— rose, 544
— violet, 456
Dog-wood, 515, 579
— -— bark, 579
— — order, 578
Dolichos, 530
Dolichospermum, 767
Doom bavk, 539
Doreima, 576
TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 887
Dorstenia, 663
Doum paln, 713
Draczena, 721
Dracontium, 717
Dragon root, 717
— tree, 721
Dragon’s blood, 535, 712, 721
Drimys, 434
Drop-wort, 576
Drosera, 550
Droseracex, 550
Drupacee, 541, 542
Dryandra, 674
Dry rot, 759, 761
Dryobalanops, 474
Duboisia, 631
Duchai hemp, 531
Duckweed, 717
Dudaim, 632
Duguetia, 436
Duke of Portland’s powder, |
682
Dulse, 769
Durian, 481
Durio, 481
Durra, 736
Durvillea, 766, 768
Dutch camphor, 657
— madder, 589
— rushes, 750
Dyer’s broom, 533
EAGLE wood, 660
Earth almonds, 732
— nuts, 574
— oil, 531
East Indian arrow-root,
694
— — copal, 537
— — gum, 538
— — kino, 534
— — mastich, 523
— — myrrh, 506
— — olibanum, 507
— — rosewood, 533
— — satinwood, 509
— — senna, 536
— — tobacco, 632
— — tacamahaca, 470
— — teak, 639
Eau d’ange, 556
— de Mantes, 674
-- médicinale d’Husson,
723
Ebenacez, 610
Ebenales, 609
Eboe-nuts, 533
Ebony, 611
Eeballium, 567
Echium, 624
Eddoes, 717
HEdgeworthia, 660
Edible bird’s nests, 767
— mushrooms, 756
Egg apples, 631
Eguse oil, 567
Egyptian bean, 443
Egyptian corn, 736
— onion, 720
— soap-root, 465
— wheat, 7338
Ehretia, 624
Ehretiacez, 624
Ejow fibre, 712
E'eagnacee, 661
Eleeagnus, 661
Eleeocarpez, 484
Eleocarpus, 484
Elzococea, 674
Eleodendron, 513
Elais, 713
Elaphomyces, 760
Elaphrium, 507
Elaterium, 567
Elatinacez, 467
Elder, 584
— flower water, 585
— wine, 585
Elecampane, 598
Elemi, 507
E‘ephant apple, 503
Elephant’s ears, 568
— foot, 706
Elettaria, 694
Eleusine, 736
Elloopa flowers, 609
Elloopa-tree, 609
Ehn, 667
Embden groats, 736
Emblica, 676
Emblic myrobalans, 553,
676
Empetracee, 676
Empetrum, 677
Encephalartos, 746
Endive, 599
Endocladia, 767
English arrowroot, 630
— elm, 667
— mercury, 650
— oil of lavender, 642
— rhubarb, 653
Epacridacee, 605
Epacris, 605
Ephedras, 745
Epigeea, 604
Epigyne, 583, 644, 681,
692
Epipetale, 590
— analysis of, 628
Epiphegus, 635
Epiphyllum, 570
Equisetacez, 749
Equisetum, 750
Eranthis, 433
Ergot of rye, 738, 760
Erica, 604
Ericacez, 603
Ericales, 602
Ericez, 604
| Erigeron, 597
Eriobotrya, 544
Eriocaulacex, 723
Eriocaulon, 729
Eriodendron, 481
Eriodictyon, 623
888
Eriophorum, 732
Erodium, 495
Erva de ibbisi, 643
Ervum, 530
Eryngium, 575
Eryngo, 675
Erysipelas plant, 624
Erysiphe, 760
Erythrea, 621
Erythrophleum, 539
Erythroxylon, 490
— Coca, 490
Escalloniacez, 547
Escallonia order, 547
Esculent umbelliferee, 574
Esenbeckia, 502
Esparto, 738
Essence of bergamot, 502
— — cedrat, 502
— — lemon, 502
— — spruce, 744
—— — turpentine, 743
— — virgin balsam, 534
—- de bigarade, 501
— — citron, 502
— — petit grain, 501
— — Portugal, 501
Essential oil of bitter al-
monds, 543
— — — — orange, 501
— — — cedrat, 502
— — — lemon, 502
— — — sweet orange, 501
Ethiopian sour gourd, 48U
Eucalyptus, 555
— gum, 556
Eugenia, 555, 556
Eulophia, 699
Euonymus, 513
Eupatoriez, 594 ©
Eupatorium, 597
Euphorbia, 674
Euphorbiacez, 672
Euphorbiales, 671
European alcornoque bark,
686
— salep, 699
Euryangium, 575
Euscaphis, 521
Euterpe, 713
Evening primrose, 560
Evodia, 502
Exacum, 621
Exidia, 760
Exogonium, 627
Expressed oil of bays, 658
— — — mace, 656
— —— nutmegs, 656
Extract of liquorice, 533
Hzrach, 658
FABA, 530
Fagopyrum, 653
Fagus, 686
Faham tea, 699
False angustura bark, 619
— calumba, 621
—~ dittany, 502
False ipecacuanha, 456
— myrrh, 507
— nutmeg, 656, 657, 658
— sarsaparilla, 578
Fat pork, 470
Feather grass, 738
Female fern, 749
Fennel, 574, 575
- Fenugreek, 535
Fern order, 747
Feronia, 502
Ferula, 574, 575, 577
Festuca, 736
Feui!lea, 567
Fever-destroying tree, 555
Ficoidales, 569
Ficoidez, 570
Ficus, 663
Field ladies’ mantle, 544
Fig, 663
Figwort, 632
Fi.bert, 686
Filices, 747
Fine-leaved
wort, 576
Fir-rape order, 605
Fir wool, 743
— — oil, 743
Firs, 744
Fixature, 768
Fixed oil of mustard, 451
Flacourtia, 458
Fiakes, 465
Flax, 490
-—- plant, 490
Flax seed, 490
Fleabane, 597
— Canadian, 597
Flemingia, 533
Flexible collodion, 478
Flores chamomille, 598
Floridez, 764
Flosculous, 594
Flour of mustard, 451
Flower de luce, 703
Flowering fern, 749
— plants, 429
— rush, 707
Flowerless plants, 747
Foeeniculum, 574, 575
Folia malabathri, 658
Fontainea, 674
Fool’s parsley, 576
Forbidden fruit, 502
Foreign oil of lavender,
642
Forest lady’s herb, 596
—- oak, 670
— wool, 743
Formosa camphor, 657
Fossil copal, 538
— resin, 537
Four-o’clock plant, 649
Foxglove, 634
Fox-grapes, 517
Fragraria, 543
Francoa, 546
Francoacez, 546
Frangipanni, 616
water drop-
INDEX TO tite BOTANY.
Frankenia, 462
Frankeniacee, 462
Frankincense, 507, 743
— pine, 743
— tree, 907
Frasera, 621
Fraxinus, 613
French berries, 515
— colocynth, 567
— geranium oil, 495
— lavender, 642
— plums, 542
— scammony, 618
Freziera, 471
Fringe myrtle, 558
Frog-bit, 693
Fuchsia, 561
Fucoideex, 764
Fucus, 767, 768
Fuller’s teazel, 591
Fulwa-butter, 610
Fumariacez, 446
Fumitory, 446
Fundi, 737
Fundungi, 737
Fungi, 756
—— edible, 756
— poisonous, 757
Fungus melitensis, 689
Furze, 530
Fusanus, 688
Fusiform jalap, 627
Fustic, 664
— old, 664
— young, 524
— Zante, 524
GAETA lemon, 501
Ga'actodendron, 666
Galam butter, 610
Galangal root, 693
— greater, 693
— lesser, 693
— light, 694
Galbanum, 577
Galipea, 503
Galipot, 743
Galium, 588
Galls, 687.
Gambier, 589
Gamboge, 470
— order, 469
— thistle, 445
Gamene, 589
Gamopetale, 583
— analysis of, 644
Ganitrus, 484
Ganja, 665
Garance, 589
Garcinia, 470
Garden beet, 650
—- carrot, 574
— cress, 452
— lettuce, 599
— nasturtium, 497
-— orache, 650
— sage, 643
— thyme, 642, 643
a
,
3
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Gardenia, 588
Garlic, 720
— pear, 453
Garrya, 579
Garryacee,579_
Gatah Sandek, 610
Geissospermum, 616
Gelidium, 766, 768
Gelose, 766
Gelsemium, 619
Genera, 407
Genipa, 588
Genipap, 588
Genista, 533
Gentian, 621
— order, 620
Gentiana, 621
Gentianacez, 620
Gentianales, 612
Silane 621
enus, 403
Geoffroya, 533
Geraniacez, 494
Geraniales, 488
Geranium, 495
— oil, 544, 735
— — of India, 495
German chamomiles, 598
— geranium oil, 495
— millet, 738
— pellitory, 596
— sarsaparilla, 732
— tinder, 761
Gesnera, 635
Gesneracee, 635
Gesnerez, 636
Geum, 543
Giesekia, 651
Gigartina, 766, 768
Gillenia, 543
Gingelly oil, 637
Ginger, 693, 694
Gingerhbread-tree, 713
Gingili oil, 637
Ginseng, 578
Glaphyria, 556
Globularia, 638
Gloiopeltis, 767
Glumacez, 730
— analysis of, 741
Glumales, 730
Glycyrrhiza, 533
Gmelina, 639
Gnetacez, 745
Goa powder, 531
Gobbe, 535
Goitre-sticks, 769
Gokeroo, 637
Gokhru, 637
Gold.of pleasure, 451
— thread, 432
Golden seal, 432
Gombo, 478
Gommuti fibre, 712
— palm, 711
Gomphia, 506
Gomphocarpus, 617
Gompho!obium, 530
Gomphrena, 649
Gongonha, 512
Gonolobus, 618
Goodeniacez, 600
| Goodenia order, 600
Googul, 507
Gooseberry, 548
Goosefoot, 649
Goose-grass, 588
Gopher wood, 742
Gordonia, 472
Gossypium, 477
Gouania, 515
Gourd, 564, 676
Gouzabam, 624
Gracilaria, 766, 768
Grains of Paradise, 694
Graines d’Avignon, 515
Gram, 532
Graminaceez, 732
Granadillas, 563
Granatez, 556
Grapes, 517
Grape-vine, 517
Grass order, 732
— oils, 735
— — of Namur, 735
— trees, 722
Gratiola, 634
Gravel root, 597
Gray plum, 542
Greater galangal root, 693
--— maple, 521
Great mullein, 634
— water dock, 654
Green bay, 658
Greengage, 542
Greenheart tree, 658
Green-coloured alge, 765
Green hellebore, 724
-— laver, 769
-- putchuk, 682
— tea, 472
Greens, 451
Grewia, 484
Griffes de girofle, 555
Grindelia, 597
Grislea, 560
Groats, 736
Ground liverwort, 763
— nut, 531
Ground-nut oil, 531
Guaco, 598, 682
Guaiacum, 492, 493
— resin, 493
— wood, 493
Gualtheria, 605
Guana, 660
Guarana, 519
— bread, 519
Guarea, 508
Guatemala rubber, 667
— sarsaparilla, 725
Guavas, 556
Guayaquil rubber, 667
— sarsaparilla, 725
Guaycuru, 607
Guazuma, 481
Guelder-rose, 585
Guettarda, 588
Guibourtia, 537
Guilan dina, 537
Guimauye, 477
Guinea corn, 736
— grass, 737
— henweed, 652
— oil palm, 713
— pepper, 630
Guizotia, 598
Gualancha, 438
Gulf weed, 769
Gdl-i-pista, 523
Gum acacia, 538
— anime, 537
— Arabic, 530, 538
; — Australian, 538
-—- Benjamin, 612
— Brown Barbary, 538
— Cape, 538
— dragon, 531, 535
— East India, 538
— euphorbium, 674
— juniper, 742
— kino, 530, 534
— Kordofan, 538
— kuteera, 482
— lac, 673
— Mogador, 538
— Morocco, 538
— picked Turkey, 538
— plants, 597
— Senegal, 530, 538
— Suakin, 538
— Ta!lca, 538
— Taha, 538
— tragacanth, 531
— trees, 555
— white Sennaar, 538
— wattle, 538
Gunnera, 578
Gunny, 484
Gunjah, 665
Gurjun balsam, 474
Guru nuts, 481
Gustavia, 558
Gutta percha, 610
Guttifere, 469
Guttiferales, 467
Gymnema, 618
Gymnospermia, 741
— analysis of, 746
Gynandropsis, 453
Gynerium, 736
Gynocardia, 458
Gypsophila, 465
Gy rophora, 762
Gyrostemon, 651
HABZELIA, 437
Hemanthus, 704
Hematoxylon, 537
Hemodoracez, 705
Hemodorum, 706
Hagenia, 543
Halidrys, 768
Haloragacez, 552
Haloscias, 574
Hamamelidacez, 551
889
890 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Hamame‘is, 551
Hancornia, 616
Haplozygiex, 573
Hare-bell, 600
Haricots, 530
Haschish, 665
Hashash, 665
Havanna tobacco, 632
Hay saffron, 597, 703
Hazel, 686
Heart’s-ease, 456
Heath order, 603
Hedeoma, 642
Hedera, 578
Hedge hyssop, 634
Hedycarpus, 520
Heisteria, 510
Helianthus, 598
Heliotropium, 624
Helleborex, 431
Hellebores, 432, 724
Helleborus, 432, 433
Helminthocorton, 768
Helosciadium, 574
Helwingia, 578
Hemidesmus, 618
Hemlock, 576
— dropwort, 576
— spruce, 744
Hemp, 664
— seed, 664
Henbane, 631
— annual, 632
— biennial, 632
Henna, 560
Henne, 560
Hensloviacez, 548
Hen-ware, 767
He-oak, 670
Hepatic aloes, 720
Hepaticacess, 754
Hermodactyls, 724
Heterosciadiex, 573
Heterosporia, 752
Heuchera, 546
Hevea, 674
Hibiscex, 477
Hibiscus, 478
Hickory, 684
— nuts, 684
Himalayan rhubarb, 653
Hippocastane, 518
Hippocratea, 513, 514
Hippocrateacess, 513
Hippomane, 675
Hippophaé, 661
Hips, 544
Hog-gum, 524
— nut, 684
— plums, 524
Holcus, 736
Holigarna, 523
Holly, 511, 512
Holly hock, 477
Homaliaceze, 562
Homalium, 562
Homeria, 703
Honduras cedar, 509
— rubber, 667
Honduras sarsaparilla, 725
Honesty, 452
Honeysuckles, 584
Honey water, 705
Honey-ware, 767
Honig-thee, 532
Hop, 665
Hopea, 475
Hordeum, 736
Horehound, 642
Hormosiphon, 766, 768
Hornbeam, 686
Hornwort, 680
Horsechestnut, 519
Horse cassia, 536
— mint, 642
— radish, 451
Horse sugar, 612
Horsetail, 749
Hottentot’s fig, 571
Houseleek, 549
Hovenia, 515
Huile de Cade, 743
Hulled barley, 737
Humiriacez, 492
Hunnirium, 492
Humulus, 665
Hundred-leaved rose, 544
— years plant, 704
Hungarian balsam, 744
— red pepper, 630
Huon pine, 745
Hya-hya, 616
Hybridisation, 402
Hybrids, 402
Hydnocarpus, 458
Hydnora, 683
Hydrales, 692
Hydrangea, 547
Hydrangeacez, 547
Hydrastis, 432
Hydrocharidaceez, 693
Hydrocharis, 693
Hydrocotyle, 575
Hydropeltis, 441
Hydrophyllacez, 622
Hydrophyllum, 622
Hymenea, 537
Hyoscyamus, 631
Hypericaceze, 468
Hypericum, 468
Hyphene, 713
Hyssop, 453
Hysterophyta, 420
IBERIS, 452
Teacina, 510
Icacinacez. 510
Ice plant, 571
Iceland moss, 762
Teica, 507
Tlang-ilang, 436
Tlex, 512
Tlicaces, 511
Illicium, 435
Imbricaria, 610
Imperial lemon, 501
Incomplete, 648, 689
India-rubber, 615,
667
Indian aconite, 431
— aloes, 721
— bael, 500
— barberry, 440
— bdellium, 507
— bread, 760
— clove bark, 658
— corn, 738
— cotton, 477
— cress, 496, 497
— dammar, 742
— fennel, 575
— fig, 664
— grass, 735
— — oils, 735
— hemp, 665
— lemon grass, 735
— liquorice, 531
— matting, 732
— melissa oil, 735
— millet, 737
— muslin, 696
— oak, 639
— physic, 543
— rhubarb, 653 |
— rubber, 615
— sarsaparilla, 618
— satin wood, 509
— shot, 695
— sumbul root, 577
— teak, 639
— tobacco, 602
— turnip, 717
Indigenous salep, 699
Indigo, 533 ~
Indigofera, 533
Inferz, 583, 644, 681, 692
Inocarpus, 660
Insect powder, 598
— — Dalmatian, 598
— — Persian, 598
Inula, 598
Tonidium, 456
| Ipadu, 490
| Ipecacuanha, 586
| — American, 543, 674
— amylaceous, 589
— annulated, 586
— bastard, 617
—- black, 588
—- striated, 588
— undulated, 589
— white, 589
— woody, 456
Ipomecea, 627
Tridacez, 701
Tridxa. 766, 768
Iris, 701, 703
Irish moss, 768
Iron bark-tree, 555
— wood, 611, 686
Irvingia, 504
Tsatis, 451
Isonandra, 610
Isosporia, 747
Isotoma, 602
Ispaghul, 644
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INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC
Issue peas, 501, 703
Italian juice, 533
— millet, 738
— paste, 738
— sarsaparilla, 725
— senna, 536
Iva, 596 :
Ivory wheat, 736
Ivy, 578
— order, 577
Ixtle fibre, 697
JAAR, 736
Jaborandi, 503
- Jabuticaba, 556
Jacaranda, 637
Jack-fruit, 666
Jaggery, 711, 712
Jalap, 627
—- fusiform, 627
— light, 627
— male, 627
+— spurious, 627
— Tampico, 627
— woody, 627
— wood, 627
Jamaica cedar, 509
— kino, 653
— nutmegs, 436
— pepper, 556
— quassia, 505
— sarsaparilla, 725
— senna, 536
_ Jamalgata pills, 673
James’s tea, 605
Japan camphof, 657
~ — lacquer, 524
— sago, 746
Japanese belladonna root,
632
— isinglass, 767
— moxas, 596
— pepper, 503
— wax, 524
Japonicas, 516
Jasmine, 613
Jasminex, 612
Jasminum, 613
Jateorhiza, 433
Jatropha, 675
-— manikot, 675
— oil, 675
Java almonds, 507
cardamoms, 694
— galangal root, 693
— rubber, 664
Jeea wood, 509
Jeffersonia, 440
Jelly plant, 768
Jequirity seeds, 531
Jerusalem artichoke, 598
— filberts, 686
Jesuit’s bark, 587
— nuts, 552
Jetee fibres, 618
Jew’s ear, 760
— mallow, 484
Job’s tears, 736
Jointed fir, 745
Jolliffia, 568
Jubbulpore hemp, 532
Jugiandaceze, 684
Juglans, 684
Jujube, 516
Juncacerx, 725
Juncaginacex, 708
Junci, 726
Juncus, 726, 735
Jungermanniaces2,
Jungermanniez, 75
Juniper, 742
— gum, 742
— oil, 743
— resin, 742
— tar, 743
Juniperus, 561
Jussiwa, 742
Jute, 484
— hemp, 484
— plant, 484
Juvia nuts, 557
755
B)
KADI-KANE, 737
Kaf-Maryan, 450
Kakaterro, 745
Kaki, 611
Kaladana seeds, 627
Kala til, 598
Kalmia, 604, 605
Kamala, 675
Kangaroo apples, 630
— grass, 735
Kareom, 703
Kariyat, 638
Kasheia, 737
Kat, 513
Katchung oil, 531
Kawrie gum, 742
— pine, 742
Keg-fig, 611
Kekui, 673
Kekune, 673
Kelon-ke-Tel, 742
Kelp, 767
Kermes oak, 687
Kessaree flowers, 532
Khat, 513
Khus-khus, 735
Kiddah, 658
Kidney-beans, 530
Kielmeyera, 472
Kikayon, 676
Kinman, 658
Kinnemon, 658
Kino, 530
Ki-tsai, 768
Knotwort, 465
Kodro, 737
Kohl-rabi, 451
Kokoona, 514
Kokra, 676
Kokum-butter, 470
Kola-nuts, 481
Kocchla tree, 619
Koosum oil, 597
Korarima cardamoms, 694
BOTANY.
Kordofan gum, 538
Kousso, 543
Krameria, 461
Krania, 579
Kumquat, 502
Kundah oil, 508
Kuteera, 458, 482
LABIAT®, 640
Labiate order, 640
Labiatifloree, 594, 599
Labrador tea, 605
Laburnum, 530
Lace-bark, 660
Lachnanthes, 706
Lacistema, 675
Lacistemacez, 678
Lactuca, 599
Lactucarium, 599
Ladanum, 455
Ladies’ mantle, 544
Lagbi, 714
Lagenaria, 567
Lagerstrémia, 560
Lagetta, 660
Lalo, 480
Lamb’s lettuce, 590
Lamiales, 638
Laminaria, 766, 769
Lana dye, 588
— tree, 588
Lance-wood, 436
Landolphia, 616
Langsat, 508
Langsdorffia, 689
Lanseh, 508
Lansium, 508
Lantana, 639
Lapageria, 725
Laportea, 662
Larch, 744
— agaric, 761
— manna, 744
— turpentine, 744
Lardizabala, 440
Lardizaba!acez, 440
Larix, 744
Larkspur, 433
Larrea, 493
Latakia tobacco, 632
Lathyrus, 530
Lattice-leaf plant, 709
Lauracee, 656
Laurales, 654
Laurel, 656
berries, 658
— camphor, 657
— fat, 658
— -leaved canella, 457
—- leaves, 658
Laurelia, 655
Laurencia, 766, 769
Laurus, 658
Laurustinus, 584
Lavandula, 642
Lavender, 642
— cotton, 598
Laver, 769
892
Lawsonia, 560
Lean Vera Cruz
parilla, 725
Lebonah, 507
Lecanora, 762
Lecythidacee, 557
Lecythis, 557
Ledum, 605
Leek, 720
Leguminose, 528
Leguminous order, 528
Lemnacee, 717
Lemon, 501
— -grass oil, 735
— plant, 639
— thyme, 642
—- tree, 501
Lentibulariaces, 635
Lentils, 530, 533
Leopard’s bane, 596
— wood, 667
Leopoldinia, 713
Lepidium, 452
Lepidostachys, 676
Leptandra, 634
Leptospermee, 554
Leptospermum, 556
Leroy végétal, 568
Letter wood, 667
Lettuce, 599
— opium, 599
Leucopogon, 606
Levant madder, 589
~- wormseed, 596
Leven bark, 548
Lever wood, 686
Levisticum, 575
Lewisia, 571
Liatris, 598
Liberian coffee, 588
— rubber, 664
Libi dibi, 536
Lice seeds, 723
Lichenes, 761
Lichens, 761
Lign-aloe wood, 660
— — Mexican, 507
Lignum colubrinum, 620
— nephriticum, 525
— rhodium, 506
— vite, 493
Ligu‘iflore, 595, 599
Lilac, 614
Li iaceze, 718
Liliales, 718
Liliez, 720
Lilium, 721
Lily, 718
— of the valley, 721
Lima wood, 536
Lime fruit, 501, 502
— tree, 485
-— — order, 482
Limnanthacee, 497
Limnanthes, 497
Linacee, 488
Linden order, 482
— tree, 485
Ling, 552
sarsa-
Linnean system, 414
Linseed, 490
— meal, 491
— oil, 491
Lint, 490
Linum, 490
Liquidambar, 551
Liquid camphor, 474
— myrrh, 506
— storax, 551, 612
Liquorice, 533
— juice, 533
Liriodendron, 435
Lisbon sarsaparilla, 725
Lissanthe, 606
Litchi, 519
Litmus, 763
Little cord, 748
Live oak, 686
Liverworts, 754
Loasacee, 562
Lobelia, 602
Lobeliacez, 601
Locust fruit, 536
— wood, 537
— tree, 535, 537
Loganiacez, 618
Logwood, 530, 537
Lo-kao, 515
Lolium, 734
Lomentacee, 449
Longan, 519
Long-eared barley, 736
— -leaved pine, 743
— nutmegs, 656
— pepper, 679
— zedoary, 694
Lonicera, 584
Loofahs, 568
Loosestrife, 559
— purple, 560
Lopez root, 503
Lophira, 474
Lophophytum, 689
Loquat, 544
Loranthacez, 687
Loranthus, 687
Lords and ladies, 717
Lotophagi, 516
| Lotur bark, 612
Lotus, 443, 516
— tree, 492, 516
Lovage, 575
| Love-apples, 630
Love-lies-bleeding, 649
Loxopterigium, 616
Luban, 507
— Maitee, 507
— tree, 507
Lucerne, 530
Lucuma, 610
Lufta, 568
Luhea, 485
Lunaria, 452
Lung-wort, 763
Lupulinic glands, 665
Lus-a-chrasis, 579
Lychnis, 465
Lycoperdon, 760
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Lycoperdon nuts, 760
Lycopersicum, 630
Lycopodiacez, 750
Lycopodium, 751
Lygeum, 737
Lyperia, 634
Lythracee, 559
Lythrum, 560
MACADAMIA, 661
Macassar oil, 436
Maccaroni, 738
Mace, 656
Macherium, 533
Mache, 590
Maclura, 664
Maconie, 665
Macrochloa, 738
Macropiper, 679
Madagascar poison nut, 616
Madder, 588, 589
— order, 585
Madia, 598
Magnolia, 434, 435
Magnoliacez, 434
Magnoliex, 434
Maguey, 704
Mahmira, 432
Mahogany, 509, 510
Maidenhair, 748
Maize, 738
— beer, 738
— starch, 738
Ma: zena, 738
Majoon, 665
Majorana, 642, 643
Makiah, 665
Mako-mako, 484
Malabar cardamoms, 694
Malabar kino, 534
Malacca canes, 712
Malachra, 479
Malambo bark, 674
Male fern, 748
— jalap, 627
Malesherbiacez, 563
Mallotus, 675
Mallow, 479
— order, 475
Malpighia, 491, 492
Malpighiacez, 491
Malt, 737
Malta orange, 501
Malva, 479
Malvaceze, 475
Malvales, 475
Malvez, 477
Mammea, 470
Mammee apple, 470
Manchineel, 675
Mancona bark, 539
Mandarin orange, 501
Mandragora, 632
Mandrake, 567, 632
Mangalea, 616
Mangava, 616
Mangei-wurzel, 650
Mangifera, 423
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INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Mango, 523
— wild, 470, 504
Mangold wurzel, 650
Mangosteen, 470
— order, 469
— concrete oil of, 470
Mangrove, 552
Manihot, 675
Manila bast, 714
— elemi, 507
— hemp, 696
— tobacco, 632
Manna, 613
— croup, 738
— de Briancon, 744
— of the Hebrews, 762
— — Mount Sinai, 467
Many-eared wheat, 738
Maple, 520
— sugar, 521
Mapouchari, 665
Maranham rubber, 675
Maranta, 695
—- starch, 695
Marantacez, 695
Marasmius, 757
Marattia, 748
Marattiacez, 748
Marcgraavia, 473
Marcgraaviaceex, 473
Marchantia, 756
Marchantiacez, 755
Marchantiex, 755
Mare’s-tail, 552
Margosa tree, 508
Marigold, 597
Marjoram, 642
Marking nut, 524
Marmalade, 556
— fruit, 609
Marrubium, 642
Marsdenia, 618
Marsh-mallow, 477
— trefoil, 621
— rosemary, 607
Marsilea, 753
Marsileacez, 752, 753
Martin’s cancer powder,
635
Marvel of Peru, 648
Mary’s flower, 450
Massaranduba, 666
Mastich, 523
Mate, 512
Matthiola, 452
Matico, 597, 678
Matricaria, 598
Matura worm medicine, 491
Mauritia, 713
Mauritius ebony, 611
— rubber, 616
Maw seeds, 446
Mayaca, 728
Mayacez, 728
May apple, 440
Mayweed, 596
Meadow saffron, 723
— sweet, 544
Mealy Guelder rose, 585
Mealy root, 695
Mecca galls, 687
Mechameck, 627
Medicago, 530
Medick, 530
Medlar, 545
Melaleuca, 556
Melanorrheea, 523
Melanospermeze, 764
Melanosporee, 764
Melanthacez, 722
Melastomacez, 558
Melastoma, 559
Melia, 508
Meliaceze, 508
Melianthez, 493
Melicz, 735
Melicocea, 520
Melilot, 530
Melilotus, 530, 534
Meliosmee, 518
Melissa, 642
Melloca, 651
Melo, 567
Melocactus, 570
Melon, 567
cactus, 570
Melosia, 767
Memecylon, 559
Menispermacez, 437
Menispermum, 438
Mentha, 642
Menthol, 642
Mentzelia, 562
Menyanthez, 621
Menyanthes, 621
Mertensia, 624
Merulius, 759, 760
Mesembryanthacez, 570
Mesembryanthez, 570
Mesembryanthemum, 571
Mespilodaphne, 658
Mespi-us, 545
Mesua, 470
Metrosideros, 556
Metroxylon, 713
Meum, 575 ‘
Mew, 575
Mexical, 705
Mexican copal, 537
— elemi, 506
— grass, 697
— gum, 610
— lign-aloe wood, 507
— sarsaparilla, 725
— tea, 650
— thistle, 445
Mezereon, 659
— bark, 660
Michelia, 435
Micromeria, 642
Middling calaguala, 748
Mignonette, 454
— order, 453
Mikania, 598
Mildew, 761
Milfoil, 596
Milkweed, 674
| Milkwort order, 459
§93
Millet, 737
— beer, 736, 737
Milnea, 509
Mimosa, 538
Mimosee, 529, 538
Mimusops, 610
Mints, 642
Mirabilis, 649
Mishmee bitter, 432
Mistletoe, 687
Mitchamitcho, 498
Mocha senna, 536
Mock orange, 547
— plane, 521
Mogadore colocynth, 567
— gum, 538
Moghi, 760
Mokul, 507
Molasses, 737
Molinia, 737
Molucea berries, 484
Molluginee, 464, 571
Momordica, 567
Monarda, 642, 643
Monesia bark, 610
Monimia, 654
Monimiacee, 654
Monkey apple, 470
— bread, 480
— grass, 713
— pot, 557
Monkshood, 431, 433
Monk’s rhubarb, 654
Monnina, 461
Monochlamydez, 648
— analysis of, 689
Monocotyledones. 692
— analysis of, 739
Monodora, 436
Monotropacee, 605
Monrovian coffee, 588
Montpelier secammony, 618
Moodooga oil, 532
Moonseed, 438
— order, 437
Mor, 506
Mora, 537
— wood, 537
Moracee, 663
Morea, 703
Morchella, 757, 760
Morel, 757, 760
Moreton Bay canes, 714
— — chestnuts, 532
Morinda, 588
Moringa, 525
Moringacee, 525
Morocco gum, 538
Morus, 664
Mosquit bean, 539
Moss, 753
Mote grease, 508
Mother cloves, 555
Mould, 759, 760 5
Mount Sinai manna, 467
Mountain arnica, 596
— ash, 545
-—- damson, 505
— hemp, 632
$94
Moantain laurel, 605
— mango 470
— pine, 743
— spinach, 650
— tea, 605
— tobacco, 596
Moutan, 433
Mucor, 790
Mucuna, 534
Mudar bark, 618
—- fibres, 618
Mugho, 743
Mulberry, 663, 664
— paper, 663
Mull, 589
Mullein, 634
Munjeet, 588, 589
Mur, 506
Muriti palm, 713
Murraya, 503
Murwa, 736, 737
Musa, 696
Musaces, 695
Muscadine, 517
Museatels, 517
Musci, 753
Muscinee, 753
Mushroom, 756
— edible, 756
— poisonous, 757
Musk root, 575
Mustard, 451
— tree, 614
Mutisiez, 595
Mylitta, 760
Myopora, 640
Myoporacez, 640
Myrabolams, 553
Myrcia, 556
Myrica, 670
Myricacee, 669
Myristica, 656
Myristicacez, 655
Myrobalans, 553
Myrospermum, 534
Myroxylon, 534
Myrrh, 506
Myrsinacee, 608
Myrsine, 608
Myrtacez, 554
Myrtales, 552
Myrtee, 554
Myrtle, 554
— wax, 670
Myrtus, 554, 556
NAG-KASSAR, 470, 471
Naiadacee, 709
Nai-yalu, 717
Nankin cotton, 478
Narcissales, 701
Narcissus, 705
Nardoo plant, 753
Nardostachys, 590
Nara, 590
Nardos, 550
Nardus, 590
Nassauviee, 595
Nastoika, 693
Nasturtium, 452
Natal aloes, 721
Natchnee, 736
Native bread, 760
— carrots, 495 -
— currants, 588, 606
Natural systems, 417
Neb-neb, 538
Nectandra, 658
Nectarine, 543
Neem-tree, 508
Neilgherry nettle, 663
Nelumbiacez, 442
Nelumbium, 443
Nepal sassafras, 658
Nepenthacez, 681
Nepenthales, 681
Nepenthes, 681
Nepeta, 642
Nephelium, 519
Nephrodium, 748
Nettle, 662, 663
— tea, 663
— tree, 667
Neva, 712
New Granada rhatany, 461
— Jersey tea, 515
— Orleans cotton, 478
— Zealand flax, 721
— — spinage, 571
Ngai camphor, 597
Nhandirobee, 566
Nib-nib, 538
Nicaragua rubber, 667
— wood, 536
Nicker-tree, 537
Nicotiana, 632
Nigella, 432
Niger seeds, 598
Nim-tree, 508
Nipa, 715
Nitraria, 492, 516
Noble orange, 501
Nolana, 625
Nolanacez, 625
Nomenclature, 406
Noog, 598
Nopal plant, 570
North American locust tree, |
535
— China sugar cane, 736
Norway birch, 668
— spruce, 744
Nose-bleed, 596
Nostoe, 768, 769
Notonia, 598
Notorhizez, 450
Noyanu, 543, 627
Nucumentacez, 449
Nunnari root, 618
Nut-galls, 687
Nutmeg order, 655
— tree, 656
Nutmegs, 656
— American, 436
— Brazilian, 658
— calabash, 436
— Camara, 657
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Nutmegs, clove, 657
—- false, 656, 657
— Jamaica, 436
— long, 656
— official, 656
— round, 656
— true, 656
— wild, 656
Nuts, 686
Nux-vomica, 619
Nyctaginacez, 648
Nyctanthes, 613
Nympheeacee, 441
Nyssa, 580
OAK lungs, 763
Oaks, 685
Oat, 735
Oatmeal, 736
Ochna, 505
Ochnacee, 505
Ochroma, 481
Ocymum, 642
Odina, 523
Cinanthe, 574, 576
(nothera, 561 '
Official camphor, 657
— nutmegs, 656
— tar, 743
Ogechee lime, 580
Oidium, 760
Oil cake, 450, 491, 598
— of almonds, 542
— — anise, 435
— — bergamot, 502
— — ben, 525
— — camphor, 657
— — cassia, 658
— — chamomile, 596
— — cinnamon, 658
— — citronelle, 735
— — cloves, 555
— — geranium, 544, 735
— — ginger grass, 735
— — horsechestnut, 519
— — juniper 743
— — lavender, 642
— — mace, 656
— — neroli, 501
— — nutmegs, 656
— — orange leaf, 501
— — partridge berry, 605 -
| es patchouli, 643
—— — pine-leaf, 743
— — rhodium, 627
— — rose-leayed geranium,
495
— — sassafras, 659
— — spike, 642
— — thyme, 643
— — turpentine, 743
| —-— verbena, 735
— — wild castor seeds, 675,
— — winter green, 605
Okra, 478
| Olacaceze, 510
| Olaeales, 510
Olax, 510
hottie’
INDEX TO SYSTEM<«TIC BOTANY.
Oldenlandia, 588
Oldfieldia, 675
Old man’s beard, 697
Olea, 614
— vermelho, 534
Oleaceze, 612
Oleaster, 661
Oleum anone, 436
— nigrum, 513
— origani, 643
— rusci, 668
— unoue, 436
Olibanum, 507
Olive, 612, 614
— bark, 614
— gum, 614
— leaves, 614
—- oil, 614
— wood, 614
Olivile, 614
Ombro, 589
Ombrophytum, 689
Omphalea, 675
Onphalobium, 528
Omum, 575
Onagracee, 560
Oncoba, 458
Onions, 720
Onobrychis, 530.
Opaque bdellium, 507
Ophelia, 621
' Cphioglossacez, 748
Ophiog:ossez, 748
Ophioglossum, 749
Opium, 445
— poppy, 445
Opoponax, 577
Opuntia, 570
Orange, 501
— berries, 501
— flower water, 501
Orchella weeds, 763
Orchidaceze, 697
Orchidales, 697
Orchil, 762, 763
Orchis, 697, 699
Ordeal bark, 539
— bean, 534
Orders, 403, 407
Oreodaphne, 659
Orgeat, 732
- Origanum, 642
Orinoko tobacco, 632
Orobanchacee, 634
Orobus, 534
Orontiez, 715
Orris root, 703
Orthoplocez, 450
Orthospermee, 566, 573
Oryza, 737
Osage orange, 664
Osiers, 671
Osmunda, 749
Ostrya, 686
Oswego tea, 642
Otto of rose, 544
Ouvirandra, 709
Oxalidacez, 497
Oxalis, 498
Oxleya, 509
Oxycedrus, 743
Oxycoceus, 603
Oyster plant, 600, 624
PACHYMA, 760
Peonia, 433
— moutan, 433
Peeoniezx, 431
Peony, 433
Pakoe Kidang, 749
Pale catechu, 589
— cinchona bark, 587 ~
Palicurea, 588
Palmacez, 710
Pa'ma Christi, 676
— rose oil, 495
Palmales, 710
Palmetto, 712
Palm oil, 713
— sugar, 711, 712, 714
— vinegar, 712
— wax, 712
— wine, 712, 713
Palms, 710
Palmyra fibres, 712
— palm, 712
— wood, 712
Palo de vaca, 666
Pampas-grass, 736
Panacea lapsorum, 596
Panama hats, 715
Panax, 578
Pandanacee, 714
Pangium, 458
Panicum, 737
Panna, 749
Pansy, 456
Pao Pereira, 616
Papaver, 445
Papaveracee, 444
Papaw, 564
Papaw-tree, 564
Papayacez, 564
Paper mulberry, 663
reed, 732
Papilionaces, 529, 530
— nutritious, 530
— poisonous, 530
Pappea, 520
Paprika, 630
Papyrus, 732
Paracoto bark, 588
Para grass, 713
— India-rubber, 674
— nuts, 557
— piassaba, 713
— rhatany, 461
— Sarsaparilla, 725
| Paraguay holly, 512
— tea, 512
Pareira brava, 438
— root, 438
Parietales, 443
Parietaria, 663
Parinarium, 542
Paritium, 479
Parkinsonia, 537
Parmelia, 762
Parmentiera, 636
Paronychia, 466
Paronychiaceex, 465
Paropsis, 563
Parsley, 574
— piert, 544
Parsnip, 574
— chervil, 574
Partridge berry, 605
— — oil of, 605
canes, 712
— wood, 510
Paspalum, 735, 73
Passerina, 660
Passiflora, 563
Passifloracess, 563
Passiflorales, 561
Passionflower order, 563
Passions, 653
Pastinaca, 574, 577
Patchouly, 643
— oil of, 643
Pate de guimauve, 477
Paullinia, 519
Payonia, 479
Payena, 610
Payta rhatany, 461
Pea, 530
Peach, 543
— wood, 536
Pear, 545
Pearl barley, 737
Peas, 530
Peccan-nut, 684
Pedaliacez, 637
Pedalium, 637
Peeled coloeynth, 567
Peepla mool, 679
Peganon, 503
Peganum, 493
Pekea, 474
Pelargonium, 495
Pellitory, 596, 663
— of Spain, 596
Peltidea, 763
Peltigera, 763
Penza, 677
Penzeacee, 677
Penang caoutchoue, 618
— lawyers, 712
Penghawar Djambi, 749
Pencil cedar, 743
Penghawar, 749
Penicillaria, 737
Penicillium, 760
Pennisetum, 737
Pennyroyal, 642
Pentadesma, 471
Pepper-dulse, 769
Peppermint, 642
Peppers, 503, 678
Pepperwort, 752
Perennial wormgrass, 619
Pereskia, 570
Perezia, 599
Pernambuco cotton, 478
— rubber, 616
Peronospora, 761
=
896
Persea, 659
Persian berries, 515
— insect powder, 598
— tobacco, 632
Persimmon, 611
Personales, 632
Peruvian bark, 587
— cotton, 478
— heliotrope, 624
— rhatany, 461
— winter-cherry, 630
Peta'oidex, 692, 739
Petiveria, 652,
Petiveriacez, 652
Peto, 738
Petroselinum, 57
Petty rice, 650
Peucedanum, 575
Peumus, 655
Phalaris, 737
Phanerogamia, 429
Pharbitis, 627
Phascacez, 754
Phascee, 754
Phaseolus, 530
Philadelphacez, 547
Philadelphus, 547
Philesia, 725
Philesiacez, 725
Philydracez, 727
Phlox, 622
Phoenix, 713
Phormium, 721
Phylanthus, 676
Physalis, 630
Physic nuts, 675
Physostigma, 530, 534
Phytelephas, 714
Phytocrenacez, 511
Phytocrene, 511
Phytolacca, 651
Phytolaccaceee, 651
Phytophthora, 761
Piacava fibre, 713
Piassaba, 712, 713
Picotees, 465
Picrzena, 505
Pierardia, 520
Pigeon-peas, 530
Pig-faces, 571
Pig-nuts, 574, 684
Pilocarpus, 503
Pimelea, 660
Pimento, 556
Pimpinella, 575
Pinacee, 741
Pindova palm, 712
Pine-apple, 697
— fibre, 697
— nuts, 743
— order, 741
— woods, 743
~ wool, 743
Pines, 743
Piney resin, 475
— tallow, 475
— tree, 470
Pinguicula, 635
Pink-root, 619
Pink order, 463
Pinks, 465
Pinus, 743, 744
Piper, 678
Piperacez, 678
Piper zthiopicum, 437
— aduncum, 679
— angustifolium, 678
— jaborandi, 679
— nigrum, 679
Pipera'es, 678
Pipes de bruyere, 605
Pipewort, 729
Pi-pi, 536
Pipsissewa, 604
Piratinera, 667
Piscidia, 530
Pistacia, 525
— nut, 523
Pisum, 530
Pita hemp, 704
Pitch, 743
Pitcher plant, 681
Pité hemp, 704
Pitto, 738
Pittosporacez, 458
Pittosporum order, 458
Pitury, 631
Pix liquida, 743
Plagiospermez, 566
Plane tree, 669
4
Plantago, 644
Plantain, 695, 696
Plant fountains, 511
Platanacez, 669
Platanus, 669
Pleurisy-root, 618
Pleurorhizez, 450
Plocaria, 768
Plum, 542
Plumbaginacez, 606
Plumbago, 607
Plume nutmeg, 655
Plumieria, 616
Poa, 737
Poaya, 586
Pocan, 651
Pod pepper, 630
Podocarpus, 745
Podophyllum, 440
Podostemacez, 654
Podostemon, 654
Pegostemon, 643
Poinciana, 537
Poirée a carde, 650
Poison ash, 523
— elder, 523
— nut, 616
— oak, 523, 597
Poisonous leguminosz, 530
— mushrooms, 757
— umbelliferze, 575
Pois queniques, 525
Poke, 651
Polanisia, 453
Polar plant, 598
Polemoniacee, 622
Polemoniales, 622
Plantaginace, 643 © ¥ + |
, *
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Polenta, 738
Polish wheat, 738
Polycarpez, 465
Polygala, 462
Polygalaceze, 459
Polygalineze, 459
Polygonacee, 652
Polygonatum, 721
Polygonum, 655
Polypetalz, 429, 525, 580,
644
Polypodiacez, 747
Polypodiez, 747
Polypodium, 749
Polypody, 747
Polyporus, 759, 761
Poma wood, 509
Pome, 541, 544
Pomegranate, 556
Pompelmoose, 5 2
Pondweed, 709
Pongamia, 534
Pontederacez, 727
Pontederales, 726
Pontederia, 727
Pooah fibre, 662
Poplar, 671
Poppy order, 444
Populus, 671
Porcupine wood, 713
Porewort order, 459
Porphrya, 766, 769
Portland arrowroot, 717
-— sago, 717
Portugal onion, 720
Portulaca, 466
Portulacacez, 466
Potamales, 707
Potato, 630 |
Pot barley 737
Potentilla, 543
Poteriez, 541
Pounce, 742
Prangos, 575
Prayer-beads, 531
Premna, 639
Prickly ash, 503
— bark, 504
— pear, 570
Primrose, 607
Primula, 608
Primulacee, 607
Primulales, 606
Prince’s feathers, 649
Prinos, 512
Printzia, 599
Prosopis, 538, 539
Protea, 661
Proteacez, 661
Protococcus, 767
Protophyta, 419, 420
Prunes, 542
Prunus, 542 —
Psalliota, 757
Psidium, 556
Psoralea, 534
Psychotria, 588
Ptelea, 503
Pteris, 748, 749
?
‘
a
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Pterocarpus, 534
Ptychotis, 575
Puccinia, 761
Puccoon, 446
Pucha pat, 643
Puchurim beans, 659
Puffballs, 760
Pulas cordage, 532
Pulque, 705
Pulse, 530
Puwlu, 749
Puilza oil, 675
Pumpkin, 567
Punica, 556
Punneeria, 630
Pupli, 515
Purging flax, 491
Purquira nuts, 675
— oil, 675
Purple heart, 537
— loosestrife, 560
— wood, 537
Purslane, 466
Pyrethrum, 598
Pyrolez, 604
Pyroxylin, 478
Pyrus, 545
QUAKE pear, 556
Quamash, 721
Quandang nut, 688
Quandhscilote, 636
Quass, 738
Quassia, 504
— wood, 505
Quebrachia, 616
Queen’s delight, 676
— root, 676
Quercinez, 685
Quercitron bark, 686
Quercus, 686
Quernales, 683
Quillaia, 544
Quilled copalehe bark,
674
Quill-wort, 751
Quince, 545
Quinine bush, 579
Quisqualis, 553
Quito oranges, 630
RABBIr root, 578
Races, 401
Racine ameére, 571
Radiant, 594
Radish, 452
Raflesia, 683
Rafflesiacez, 683
Raisins, 517
Raiz del pipitzahuac, 599
Rambeh, 520
Rambutan, 519
Rampions, 601
Ram-til, 598
Ranales, 429
Ranunculacee, 429
_ Ranunculee, 431
} Ranuneulus, 433
Rapatea, 728
Rape, 450
Raphanus, 452
Raphia, 714
— bast, 714
Raspberry, 544
Rati, 531
Ratsbane, 510
Rattan canes, 712
Ravenala, 696
Ravensara nut, 657
Reaumuria, 468
Reaumuriacee, 468
Red cedar, 509, 743
— cinchona bark, 587
— currant, 548
— elm, 668
— filberts, 686
— gourd, 567
— gum, 555
—— jasmine, 616
— oak, 686
— poppy, 446
— quebracho bark, 616
— resin, 722
— rhatany, 461
— river snake-root, 682
—— rose leaves, 544
— sandal wood, 535, 539
anders wood, 535
— Smyrna nuts, 686
— thorn apple, 631
— whortleberry, 603
— wood tree, 509
Reed, 735
Refined camphor, 657
Reindeer moss, 762
Remijia, 588
Reseda, 454
Resedacee, 453
Resin of Carana, 507
— — podophyllum, 440
Restiacez, 729
Restiales, 728
Restio, 729
Retti, 531
Rhamnaceex, 514
Rhamunus, 515
Rhaphidophora, 717
Rhatany, 461
Rhea fibre, 662
Rheum, 653
Rheumatism root, 440, 706
Rhizobolaceex, 473
Rhizocarpex, 752
Rhizogens of Lindley, 692
Rhizophora, 553
Rhizophoracesz, 552
Rhodiola, 549
Rhodium, oil of, 627
Rhododendron, 604, 605
Rhodymenia, 766, 769
Rhodorez, 604
Rhodorrhiza, 627
Rhodospermez, 764
Rhodosporee, 764
Rhubarbs, 653
Rhus, 523, 524, 597
897
Ribes, 548
tibesiacea, 548
Ribwort, 643
Rieciaces, 755
Riccies, 755
Rice, 737
—- paper, 578
- starch, 738
Richardsonia, 588
Ricinus, 676
_Riga fir, 743
Rimmon, 556
Ripogonum, 725
Robinia, 535
Rocambole, 720
Roccella, 763
Rock-rose order, 454
Rohuna-tree, 509
Rohun, 509
— bark, 509, 619
Roman chamomile, 596
Romero, 643
Rooman, 556
Rosa, 544
Rosacez, 539
Rosales, 528
Rose-coloured algw, 764
apples, 556
— of Jericho, 450
Rose, 541, 543
| Rose-leaved geranium, 495
Rosemary, 643
Rose order, 539
Rosewood, 530, 533, 335
Rosin weeds, 597
Rosmarinus, 643
Rottlera, 675
| Rough horsetail, 750
— -skinned plum, 542
Round cardamom, 694
— chilli, 630
— nutmegs, 656
— zedoary, 694
Roupellia, €16
Rowan-tree, 545
Roxburghia, 725
Roxburghiacex, 725
Royal fern, 749
Royena, 611
Rubber, 615
Rubia, 589
Rubiacez, 585
Rubiales, 583
Rubus, 544
Rue, 503
— order, 498
Ruellia, 638
Rumex, 654
Riisa-ka-tel, 544,. 735
Rusa oil, 544, 735
Ruscus, 721
Rushes, 725
Rush nut, 732
Rusot, 440
Russian bast, 485
— deal, 743
— rhubarb, 653
Ruta, 503
Rutacez, 498
oM
898 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Rutez, 500
Rye, 738
— beer, 738
SABADILLA, 723
Sabbatia, 621
Sabiacez, 521
Sabia order, 521
Sabicu, 538
Sabina, 743
Saccharum, 737
Saccharomyces, 761
Sack-tree, 666
Safflower, 597
Saffron, 703
— bastard, 597
— crocus, 703
Sagapenum, 577
Sage, 642, 643
Sageretia, 515
Sago, 712, 713, 714, 746
Saguerus, 711
Sagus, 713
Sainfoin, 530
Sal, 475
Salad oil, 614
Salai tree, 507
Salep, 699
Salicaceze, 670
Salicornia, 650
Salix, 671
Sallows, 671
Salmalia, 481
Salsify, 599
Salsola, 650
Salvadora, 614
Salvadoracee, 614
Salvador tea, 605
Salvia, 642, 643
Salviniaces, 753
Samadera, 505
Sambucus, 584
Samphire, 574
Samyda, 561
Samydacez, 561
Sandal wood, 688
Sandarach, 742
Sandarusi-m’ti, 538
Sanguinaria, 446
Sanguisorbee, 541, 544
Sanseviera, 721
Santa Fé tea, 612
Santalaceze, 688
Santalales, 687
Santalum, 688
Santonica, 596
Sap-green, 515
Sapindacee, 517
Sapindales, 517
Sapindez, 518
Sapindus, 520
Sapodilla plum, 609
Saponaria, 465
Sapota, 609, 610
Sapotaceze, 609
Sappan root, 536
— wood, 536
Sapucaya nuts, 557
Saracen corn, 653
Sarcocephalus, 589
Sarcocolla, 531, 677
Sarcolzena order, 475
Sargassum, 766, 769
Sarothamnus, 532
Sarracenia, 444
Sarraceniacee, 443
Sarsaparilla, 724, 725
Sassafras, 659
— nuts, 659
— oil of, 659
— pith, 659
Sassy bark, 539
— tree, 539
Satin wood, 509
Satureja, 642, 643
Saururace, 679
Saururus, 679, 680
Sauvagesia, 457
— order, 456
Sauvagesiaceze, 456
Savanilla rhatany, 461
Savine, 743
Savory, 642
Saxifraga, 546
Saxifragaces, 545
Saxifrage order, 545
Seabiosa, 591
Sczxvola, 600
Scammony, 627
— resin, 627
— root, 627
Scarlet runners, 530
Scepa, 676
Scepaceze, 676
Schiresch, 721
Schizandra, 435
Schizandracex, 435
Schmidelia, 520
Schoenanthus, 735
Schcenocaulon, 723
Scilla, 722
Scirpus, 732
Scitaminacee, 693
Seleranthacez, 466
Scleranthus, 466
Scopolia, 632
Seorzonera, 599
Scotch barley, 737
— elm, 668
— fir, 743
— lovage, 574
Screw bean, 539
— pine, 714
Scrophularia, 634
Serophulariacex, 632
Seurvy grass, 451
Scutellaria, 643
Seyphophorus, 762
Scythian lamb, 749
Sea-buckthorn, 661
Seaforthia, 714
Sea island cotton, 478
— kale, 451
— tape, 769
— weed, 764
— wrack, 709, 768
Seaside grape, 653
Sebesten, 625
— plums, 625
Secale, 738
Sechium, 568
Sedge, 730
Sedum, 549
Seed oil, 675
Selaginacez, 638
Selaginellacez, 752
Selaginella order, 752
Selago, 638
Selinum, 575
Semecarpus, 523, 524
Semen contra, 597
— cyne, 597
— santonici, 597
Semina cataputie, 674
Semolina, 738
Senecioidez, 594
Senega root, 462
Senegal gum, 538
Sené sauvage, 532
Senna, 530, 532, 536
Septulatee, 449
Serpentary rhizome, 682
Service berry, 544
— tree, 545
Sesame oil, 637
— seeds, 637
Sesamum, 637
Sesuvie, 571
Setaria, 738
Sethia, 491
Seville orange, 501
Shad-berry, 544
Shaddock, 502
Shallot, 720
Shamoola, 737
Shamrock, 498
Shanghae oil, 450
Shan mo, 761
Shea-butter, 610.
She-oak, 670
Shikimi fruits, 435
Shiraz tobacco, 632
Shittah tree, 538
Shittim wood, 538
Shola, 531
— hats, 726
Shorea, 475
Shumac, 524
Shunum, 532
Siam benzoin, 612
| — gamboge, 470
Siberian stone pine, 743
Sicew, 566
Sicilian papyrus, 732
Sida, 479
| Sides, 477
Sideroxylon, 610
Side-saddle flower order,
443
Sidhee, 665
Siejos, 689
Sierra Leone peach, 589
Silene, 465
Silene, 464
Silesian beet, 650
Siliculosze, 448
—————————S— ee ee
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY,
Siliquosze, 448
Silk-cotton, 481
— order, 479
Silphium, 577, 598
Silver fur, 744.
Simaba, 505
Simarouba, 505
Simaruba, 505
Simarubacee, 504
Sinapis, 452
Singhara nut, 552
Sintoc bark, 658
Siphonia, 674
Siraballi, 659
Sissoo, 533
Sissum, 533
Sium, 575
Six-rowed barley, 736
Sizygium, 557
Skimi, 435
Skirret, 575
Skunk cabbage, 717
Slender calaguala, 749
Slippery elm, 668
Sloe, 542
Slokan, 769
Sloke, 769
Small American cassia, 536
— round China cardamoms,
694
— striated ipecacuanha, 588
Smilacez, 724
Smilax, 725
Smyrnium, 575
Snake gourd, 568
— wood, 620, 667
Snowberry, 584
Soapwort order, 517
Sobralia, 699
Socotrine aloes, 720
Soja, 535
Sola, 531
— hats, 726
Solanacez, 627
Solanez, 629
Solanum, 627, 630
Solazzi juice, 533
Solenostemma, 618
Solomon’s seal, 721
Soluble cocoa, 482
Sonsonate black balsam,
534
Sooja, 535
Sophora, 535
Sorghum, 736
Sorrel, 654
Souari nut, 474
— — order, 473
Souchet comestible, 732
Soujee, 738
Soulamea, 462
Sour gourd, 481
— sop, 436
South American
478
Sow-bread, 608
Soy, 535
Soymida, 509
Spanish broom, 533
«
cotton,
Spanish chestnut, 686
— colocynth, 567
— juice, 533
— moss, 697
— onion, 720
Sparattosperma, 637
Spearmint, 642
Species, 400, 406
Specularia, 601
Spelt, 738
Spheeria, 759
Sphzrococcus, 767
Sphagnacee, 754
Sphagnee, 754
Sphagnum, 754
Spice pepper, 630
Spiderwort, 727
Spigelia, 619
Spikenard, 590
Spinacia, 650
Spina Christi, 516
Spinach, 650
Spinage, 650
Spindle-tree, 512, 513
Spirea, 544
Spirolobee, 450
Split-moss, 754.
Spogel seeds, 644
Spondias, 524
Sponge gourd, 568
Sport, 402
Sprat, 736
Spring barley, 736
— wheat, 738
Spruce beer, 744
— firs, 744
Spurge flax, 660
— laurel, 660
— order, 672
Spurious Winter’s bark,
457
Spurred rye, 738
Squash, 567
Squill, 722
Squirting cucumber, 567
St. Ignatius’ beans, 619
St. John’s wort order, 468
~~-— bread, 536
St. Michael’s orange, 501
St. Salvador black balsam,
534
Stachys, 642
Stachytarpha, 639
Stackhousia, 514
Stackhousiaceze, 514
Stacte, 506
Stagmaria, 524
Staphylea, 521
Staphyleacez, 521
Star-anise, 435
— apples, 610
— wort, 552
Statice, 607
Stavesacre, 432
Sterculia, 481
Sterculiacee, 479
Sticklac, 532
Sticta, 763
Stilaginacez, 677
899
Stilago, 677
Stilbaceze, 622
Stillingia, 676
Stimulant umbelliferze, 575
Stinking goosefoot, 651
Stipa, 735, 738
Stock, 452
Stone pine, 743
Storax, 551, 612
— bark, 551
Stramonium, 631
Strasburg turpentine, 744
Stravacium, 558
Strawberry, 543
Striated ipecacuanha, 588
Stringy-bark tree, 555
— guim-tree, 555 .
Strychnos, 618
— order, 619
Stylewort order, 600
Stylidiacez, 600
Styracex, 611
Styrax, 612
Suakin gum, 538
Sub-class, 405
— -genus, 403
— -kingdoms, 408
— -orders, 404.
— -species, 401
— -tribes, 404
Subjee, 665
Succus hypocistidis, 683
Sucrose, 737
Sugar berry, 667
cane, 737
— candy, 737
— maple, 521
Sultanas, 517
Sumach, 523
Sumatra benzoin, 612
— camphor, 474
Sumbul root, 575
— — Indian, 577
Summer savory, 642, 643
— wheat, 738
Sundew, 550
— order, 550
Sunflower, 598
— soap, 598
Sunn, 479, 532
Sunnee hemp, 479
Superee, 602, 645, 648, 707
Surinam bark, 531
— medlar, 610
— quassia, 505
Suwarrow nuts, 474
Swamp pine, 743
— rice, 738
— sassafras, 435
— silk-weed, 618
Swartzia, 537
Swedish turnip, 450
Sweet almond, 542
— bay, 658
— birch, 669
— cassava, 675
__ — roots, 675
__ fern, 670
900 INDEX
Sweet flag, 717
— gum, 551
— leaf, 612
-— marjoram, 642, 643
— oil, 614
— orange, 501
-—— potato, 627
— sop, 436
--- sorgho, 736
— violet, 456
— William, 465
Sweetwood, 659
Swietenia, 510
Swine tang, 768
Swiss chard beet, 650
Sycamine, 664
Sycamore, 521
— figs, 664
Sycomorus, 664
Symbols, 409
Symphoricarpus, 584
Symphytum, 624
Symplocacee, 611
Symplocarpus, 717
Symplocos, 612
Syncarpe, 710
Syrian papyrus, 732
Syringa, 547, 614
Syrup of capillaire, 748
System of Bentham and
Hooker, 422
— -— De Candolle, 417
— — Endlicher, 419
— — Jussieu, 417
— — Lindley, 421
— — Linneus, 414
— — Ray, 416
— — this Manual, 425
— artificial, 411
— natural, 414, 416
=
TAAG, 532
Taban-tree, 610
Tabasheer, 736
Tabernemontana, 616
Tacamahac, 507
Tacca, 700, 701
— starch, 701
Taccacez, 700
Taccales, 700 5 ee
Tacsonia, 563 ae 4
Tafrifa, 607 “
Tahiti arrowroot, 701
Tail-pepper, 679
Talea gum, 538
Talha gum, 538
Talipot palm, 713
Tallicoonah, 508
Tallow-tree, 471, 676
Tamaricacee, 466
Tamarind, 537
— plum, 537
Tamarindus, 537
Tamarisk order, 466
Tamarix, 467
p, 627 :
ampico fi
Tamus, 706_ ti
Tampui, 6
TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Tanacetum, 598
Tangerine orange, 501
' Tanghinia, 616
Tangle, 769
Tanshwui, 769
Tansy, 598
Tapioca, 675
—— meal, 675
Tappuach, 502
Tar, 743
Tara, 717
Taraxacum, 599
Tares, 530
Tarragon, 596
Tasmannia, 435
Tasmanian cranberry, 606
Taxacex, 742, 744
Taxeee, 742
Taxinee, 742
Taxus, 745
Tayurnu, 568
Tea, 472
-— of heaven, 548
— order, 471
Teak-tree, 639
Teazel, 590
Tecoma, 637
Tectona, 639
Teel oil, 637
Teenah, 664
Teff, 737
Telfairia, 568
Tephrosia, 530, 535
Terebinthina, 743
Terminalia, 553
Ternstreemiacee, 471
Terra japonica, 589
Testudinaria, 706
Tetilla, 546
Tetragoniex, 571
Tetragonia, 571
Tetrameles, 568
Tetrapanax, 578
Texas sarsaparilla, 438
— snake root, 682
Thalamiflore, 429
— analysis of, 485
Thallophyta, 756
Thapsia, 577
The Arabe, 466
— de l’Europe, 634
— sanguinaire, 466
Thea, 472
Theobroma, 482
Theophrasta, 608
Thesium, 688
Thevetia, 616 .
Thick calaguala, 749
Thistle, 494, 597
Thorn-apple, 631
Thoroughwort, 597
Thrift, 606
Thuja, 744
Thus, 743, 744
Thyme, 642, 643
— oil of, 643
Thymelacez, 659
Thymus, 642, 643
Ticorea, 503
Til, 659
— oil, 637
Tilia, 485
Tiliacex, 482
Tiliez, 484 -
Tillandsia, 697
Tinnivelly senna, 536
Tinospora, 438
Ti-plant, 721
Tisso flowers, 532
Tita root, 432
Tobacco, 632
— root, 571
Tocusso, 736
Toddalia, 503
Toddy, 711, 712, 713, 714
Toluifera, 534
Tomatoes, 630
Tonga, 639, 717
Tongoose fibres, 618
Tonic umbelliferee, 575
Tonka beans, 533
Tonquin beans, 533
Tontelea, 514
Toolsie tea, 642
Toon wood, 509
Toothache-tree, 578
— shrub, 504
Toothwort, 607
Topana, 574
Tortoise plant, 706
— wood, 588
Torula, 761
Tous-les-mois, 695
Tow, 490
Towel gourd, 568
Trachylobium, 538
Tragacanth, 530
Tragopogon, 599
Trailing arbutus, 604
Trapa, 552
Traveller’s tree, 696
Treacle, 737
Trebizond honey, 604
Tree beard, 697
— copal, 538
— cotton, 478
— lung-wort, 763
— of long life, 556
— peony, 433
Trefoil, 530
Tremandracez, 459
Trianosperma, 568
Tribes, 404
Tribulus, 494
Trichilia, 508
Trichodesmium, 767
Trichosanthes, 568
Trichostemma, 643
Trifolium, 530
Trigonella, 535
Trillium, 721
Triosteum, 585
Tripe de roche, 762
Triptolomea, 535
Triticum, 738
Triumfetta, 485
Triurales, 707
Triuridacexe, 707
‘
INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Triuris, 707
Tropeeolaces, 496
Tropzolum, 497
True chamomile, 596
— maidenhair, 748
— mandrake, 632
— nutmegs, 656
— oil of spike, 642
Truffles, 757, 761
Tsz-Tsai, 769
Tuber, 757, 761
Tubulifloree, 594, 595
Tuckahoe, 760
Tulip-tree, 435
Tulp, 703
Tunga wood, 509
Tupa, 602
Turkey box, 673
— .boxwood, 673
— colocynth, 567
— oak, 686
— root, 589
Turkish millet, 736
—- tobacco, 632
Turmeric, 694
Turnera, 563
— order, 562
Turneracez, 562
Turnip, 450
Turnsole, 674
Turpentine, 743
Turpeth, 627
Tussac-grass, 736
Tussilago, 599
Two-rowed barley, 736
Tylophora, 618
Typha, 715
Typhacee, 715
UDIKA bread, 504
Ullucus, 651
Ulmacee, 667
Ulnee, 667
Ulmus, 667
Ulva, 709, 766, 769
Umbellales, 571
Umbelliferze, 571
Umbelliferous order, 571
Umbilicaria, 762
Umiri balsam, 492
Uncaria, 589
Uncomocomo, 749
Undulated ipecacuanha, 589
United States deal, 743
Unona, 436
Upas, 666
— tieuté, 620
Urari, 620
Urceola, 616
Urginea, 722
Urn-moss, 754
Urostigma, 664
Urtica, 663
Urticaceze, 662
Urticales, 661
Uruecwi nuts, 712
Utricularia, 635
Uva, 517
— ursi, 604
Uvaria, 437
VACCARIA, 465
Vacciniaceee, 602
Vaccinium, 603
Vahea, 616
Valerian, 590
Valeriana, 590
Valerianaceee, 589
Valerian order, 589
Valerianella, 590
Vallea, 485
Valonia, 686
Vanilla, 700
Vanzey, 625
Varieties, 401
—— permanent, 402
Variolaria, 762, 763
Varronia, 625
Vasculares, 747
Vateria, 475
Vatiea, 475, 507
Vegetable Ethiops, 768
— butter of Canara, 475
— ivory, 714
— marrow, 567
— silk, 481
-— sulphur, 751
Velvet tamarinds, 537
Venice turpentine, 744
Ventilago, 515
Venus’s fly-trap, 550
Vera Cruz elemi, 506
Veratrum, 724
Verbascum, 634
Verbena, 639
Verbenacez, 639
Vermicelli, 738
Vernonia, 599
Vernoniez, 594
Veronica, 634
Vert de vessie, 515
Vervain, 639
Vesca, 686
Vetches, 530
Vetiver, 735
Viburnum, 585
Vicia, 530
Victoria water-lily, 442
Victor’s laurel, 658
Vinea, 615
Vine, 516
— fungus, 760
Vinegar-plant, 761
Viola, 456
Violacew, 455
Violez, 456
Violet, 456
— order, 455
Virginian creeper, 517
— date plum, 611
— red cedar, 743
— snake root, 682
Viscum, 687
Vismia, 468
Vitacew, 516
901
Vitex, 639
Vitis, 517
Vittie-vayr, 735
Viviania order, 496
Vivianiaces, 496
Voandzea, 535
Vochysia, 462
Vochysiacez, 462
Volatile oil of cloves, 555
— -— — hops, 665
— — — mustard, 451
— — — sassafras, 659
— — sweet bay, 658
Volvocines, 764, 766
WAGENBOOM, 661
Wai-fa, 535
Wake-Robin, 717
Wakoo, 513
Wallflower, 452
Wall pellitory, 663
Walnut, 684
Wampee fruit, 502
Wanzey, 625
Waras, 533
Warree, 737
Water bean, 442
— cress, 452
— dropwort, 576
— hemlock, 576
— lily, 441
— maize, 442
— melon, 567
— pepper order, 467
— pepper, 653
— shield, 441
— tree, 696
— vines, 511
— wort, 727
— yam, 709
Wattle gum, 538
Wax berry, 670
— lemon, 501
— myrtle, 670
Wayfaring tree, 585
Weandee, 470
Weld, 454
West African copal, 537
West Indian arrowroot, 695
—-— cabbage palm, 711
— — corkwood, 436
— — locust tree, 537
—- — rubber, 667
Wheat, 738
White agarie, 761
- balsam, 534
— beet, 650
— bryony, 567
— currant, 548
— dammar, 475
-— filberts, 686
— galls, 687 ‘
— ginger, 694 :
— gourd, 567
— hellebore, 724
— ipecacuanha, 589
— mangrove, 640 ’
— mulberry, 664.
902 . ' INDEX TO
White mustard, 451
— oak, 686
— pareira brava, 438
— payta bark, 616
—- pepper, 679
— pine, 743
—— quebracho bark, 615
— Sennaar gum, 538
— spruce, 744
— walnut, 685
— wax, 614
Whortleberry 603
Wig-tree, 522
Wild apricot, 470
—— black cherry, 543
— cabbage, 450
— cherry, 543
— cinnamon, 457
— clove, 556
— date palm, 714
— ginger, 682
-—— gourd, 567
— hydrangea, 548
— indigo, 532
— lettuce, 599
—— liquorice, 531
— mangoes, 470, 504
— marjoram, 642
— nutmeg, 656, 658
— pepper, 639
— rhea, 662
—— sarsaparilla, 578
— senna, 532, 638
— Service tree, 545
— vanilla, 598
— vine, 567
— yam, 706
Willow, 670
Winter aconite, 433
— berry, 512
— cherry, 630
— green, 604
— — oil of, 605
Winter savory, 642, 643
— wheat, 738
Winteree, 434
Winter’s bark, 434, 457
— — spurious, 457
Witch hazel, 551
Withania, 630
Woad, 451, 533
Wonder of the world, 578
Wood-apple, 503
— nettle, 662
— oil, 474
— — of China, 674
— sorrel, 497
— tar, 743
Woody ipecacuanha, 456
— jalap, 627
— nightshade, 630
Worm bark, 531
— mushroom, 761
Wormseed, 597, 619
Wormwood, 596
Wourali, 620
Wrightia, 616
Wurrus, 533
Wych elm, 668
XANTHIUM, 599
Xanthorrhiza, 433
Xanthorrhcea, 722
Xanthoxylez, 500
Xanthoxylon, 503
Ximenia, 510
Xylocarpus, 509
Xylopia, 437
Xyridacez, 728
Xyris, 728
YAMS, 706, 717
Yang-tasi, 769
PRINTED BY
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Yarrow, 596
Yeast-plant, 759, 761
Yegaar-tree, 507
Yellow berries, 515
— cinchona bark, 587
— deal, 743
— dye-tree, 436
— flag, 703
— jasmine, 619
— pareira brava, 438
— parilla, 438
— pine, 743
— resin, 722
— root, 432
— wood, 509, 536
Yerba mansa, 680
Yercum fibres, 618
Yew, 745
— order, 744
— tree tea, 745
Young fustic, 524
Yucca, 722
ZACHUN, 506
Zamia, 746
Zante fustic, 524
Zanthoxylum, 503
Zanzibar copal, 538
Zea, 738
Zebra-wood, 528, 588
Zedoary, 694
Zerumbet, 694
Zingiber, 654
Zingiberacee, 623
Zinzeyd, 661
Zizania, 738
— straw, 738
Zizyphus, 515
Zostera, 709
Zygophyllacez, 492
Zygophyllum, 494
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employed in Medicine, and an account of their Properties and Uses.
By ROBERT BENTLEY, F.L.S., and HENRY TRIMEN, M.B., F.L.S.
In 4 Vols., large 8vo, with 306 Coloured Plates, bound in half
morocco, gilt edges, £11 11s.
11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
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J. & A. Churchill’s Medical Class Books.
BOTAN Y—continued.
BENTLEY.—A Manual of Botany. By Robert
BENTLEY, F.L.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College
and to the Pharmaceutical Society. With nearly 1200 Engravings.
Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. (In the press.
: By the same Author.
The Student’s Guide to Structural,
Morphological, and Physiological Botany. With 660 Engravings.
Feap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
* ALSO,
The Student’s Guide to Systematic
Botany, including the Classification of Plants and Descriptive
Botany. With 357 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
CHEMISTRY.
BERNAYS.—Notes for Students in Chemistry ;
being a Syllabus of Chemistry compiled mainly from the Manuals of
Fownes-W atts, Miller, Wurz, and Schorlemmer. By ALBERT J. BERNAYS,
Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry at St. Thomas’s Hospital. Sixth
Edition. Feap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
By the same Author.
Notes on Analytical Chemistry for
Students in Medicine. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d.
BLOXAM.—Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic;
with Experiments. By CHARLES L. BLOXAM, Professor of Chemistry in
King’s College. Fifth Edition. With 292 Engravings. 8vo, 16s.
e By the same Author.
Laboratory Teaching; oor, Progressive
Exercises in Practical Chemistry. fifth Edition. With 89
Engravings. Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. :
BOWMAN AND BLOXAM.—Practical Chemistry,
including Analysis. By JOHN E. BOWMAN, and CHARLES L. BLOXAM,
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College. Eighth Edition. With 90
Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. 6d.
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CHEMISTRY —continued.
CLOWES.—Practical Chemistry and Qualita-
tive Inorganic Analysis. Adapted for use in the Laboratories of
Schools and Colleges. By FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. Lond., Professor of
Chemistry in University College, Nottingham. Fourth Edition. With
. Engravings. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
FOWNES.—Manual of Chemistry.—See WATTS.
FRANKLANDAND JAPP.—Inorganic Chemistry.
By EDWARD FRANKLAND, Ph.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., and F. R. JAPP, M.A.,
Ph.D., F.I.C. With 2 Lithographic Plates and numerous Wood
Engravings. 8vo, 24s.
JAMES.—Notes on the Detection of the Acids
(Inorganic and Organic) usually met with in Analysis. For the use of
Laboratory Students. By J. WILLIAM JAMES, Ph.D., F.C.S., Demon-
strator and Assistant Lecturer in University College, Cardiff. 8vo, 1s.
MORLEY —Outlines of Organic Chemistry. By
H. FORSTER MORLEY, M.A., D.Sc., Assistant Professor of Chemistry at
University College, London. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
TIDY.—A Handbook of Modern Chemistry,
Inorganic and Organic. By C. MrymoTT Tipy, M.B., Professor of
Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence at the London Hospital 8vo, 16s.
VACHER.—A Primer of Chemistry, including
Analysis. By ARTHUR VACHER. 18mo, 1s.
VALENTIN.—Chemical Tables for the Lecture-
room and Laboratory. By WILLIAM G. VALENTIN, F.C.S. In Five
large Sheets, 5s. 6d.
VALENTIN AND HODGKINSON.—A Course of
Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By W. G. VALENTIN, F.C.S. Sixth
Edition by W. R. HODGKINSON, Ph.D. (Wuraburg), Senior Demon-
‘strator of Practical Chemistry in the Science Schools, South
Kensington, and H. M. CHAPMAN, Assistant Demonstrator. With
Engravings and Map of Spectra. 8vo, 8s. 6d.
The Tables for the Qualitative Analysis of
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CHEMISTRY —continued.
WATTS.—Physical and Inorganic Chemistry.
By HENRY WATTS, B.A., F.R.S. (being Vol. I. of the Thirteenth Edition
of Fownes’ Manual of Chemistry). With 150 Wood Engravings, and
oloured Plate of Spectra. Crown 8vo, 9s.
By the same Author.
Chemistry of Carbon-Compounds, or
Organic Chemistry (being Vol. II. of the Thirteenth Edition of
Fownes’ Manual of Chemistry). Edited by Wm. A. TILDEN,
D.Sc., F.R.S. With Engravings. Crown 8vo, 10s.
CHILDREN, DISEASES OF.
DAY.—A Manual of the Diseases of Children.
By WILLIAM H. Day, M.D., Physician to the Samaritan Hospital for
Women and Children. Second Edition. Crown 8yo, 12s. 6d.
ELLIS.—A Practical Manual of the Diseases
of Children. By EDWARD ELLIS, M.D., late Senior Physician to the
Victoria Hospital for Sick Children. With a Formulary. Fifth
Edition. Crown 8vo, 10s.
GOODHART.—The Student’s Guide to Diseases
of Children. By JAMES F. GOODHART, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to
Guy’s Hospital; Physician to the Evelina Hospital for Sick Children.
Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
SMITH.—On the Wasting Diseases of Infants
and Children. By EUSTACE SMITH, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to
H.M. the King of the Belgians, and to the East London Hospital
for Children. Fourth Edition. Post 8vo, 8s. 6d.
By the same Author.
A Practical Treatise on Disease in Chil-
dren. 8vo, 22s.
STEINER.—Compendium of Children’s Dis-
eases; a Handbook for Practitioners and Students. By JOHANN
STEINER, M.D. Translated by LAWSON TAIT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the
Birmingham Hospital for Women, &c. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
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DENTISTRY.
GORGAS.— Dental Medicine: a Manual of
Dental Materia Medica and Therapeutics, for Practitioners and
Students. By FERDINAND J. S. GorGAS, A.M., M.D., D.D.S., Professor
of Dentistry in the University of Maryland; Editor of ‘‘ Harris’s
Principles and Practice of Dentistry,’ &c. Royal 8vo, 14s.
HARRIS. — The Principles and Practice of
Dentistry ; including Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, Therapeutics,
Dental Surgery, and Mechanism. By CHAPIN A. HARRIS, M.D., D.D.S.
Eleventh Edition, revised and edited by FERDINAND J. S. GORGAS,
A.M., M.D., D.D.S. With 750 Illustrations. 8vo, 31s. 6d.
SEWILL.—The Student’s Guide to Dental
Anatomy and Surgery. By HENRY E. SEWILL, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., late
Dental Surgeon to the West London Hospital. Second Edition.
With 78 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. 6d.
STOCKEN.—Elements of Dental Materia Medica.
and Therapeutics, with Pharmacopeia, By JAMES STOCKEN, L.D.S.R.C.5.,
late Lecturer on Dental Materia Medica and Therapeutics and Dental
Surgeon to the National Dental Hospital; assisted by THOMAS GADDES,
L.D.S. Eng. and Edin. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
TOMES (C. S.).—Manual of Dental Anatomy,
Human and Comparative. By CHARLES S. ToMEs, M.A., F.R.S.
Second Edition. With 191 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d.
TOMES (J. and C. S.).—A Manual of Dental
Surgery. By Sir JOHN TOMES, M.R.C.S., F.R.S., and CHARLES 8. TOMES,
M.A., M.R.C.S., F.R.S.; Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology at the
Dental Hospital of London. Third Edition. With many Engravings,
Crown 8vo. [Preparing.
EAR, DISEASES OF.
BURNETT.—The Ear: its Anatomy, Physio-
logy, and Diseases. A Practical Treatise for the Use of Medical
Students and Practitioners. By CHARLES H. BURNETT, M.D., Aural
Surgeon to the Presbyterian Hospital, Philadelphia. Second Edition.
With 107 Engravings. 8vo, 18s.
DALBY.—On Diseases and Injuries of the Ear.
By SIR WILLIAM B. DALBY, F.R.C.S., Aural Surgeon to, and Lecturer
on Aural Surgery at, St. George’s Hospital. Third Edition. With
Engravings. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
—_———
— =~ =
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EAR, DISEASES OF —continued.
JONES.—A Practical Treatise on Aural Sur-
gery. By H. MACNAUGHTON JONES, M.D., Professor of the Queen’s
University in Ireland, late Surgeon to the Cork Ophthalmic and Aural
Hospital. Second Edition. With 63 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.
By the same Author.
Atlas of the Diseases of the Membrana
; Tympani. In Coloured Plates, containing 59 Figures. With Ex-
, planatory Text. Crown 4to, 21s.
FORENSIC MEDICINE.
ABERCROMBIE. — The Student’s Guide to
Medical Jurisprudence. By JOHN ABERCROMBIE, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Senior Assistant to, and Lecturer on Forensic Medicine at, Charing
Cross Hospital. Fcap 8vo, 7s. 6d.
OGSTON.—Lectures on Medical Jurisprudence.
By FRANCIS OGSTON, M.D., late Professor of Medical Jurisprudence
and Medical Logic in the University of Aberdeen. Edited by FRANCIS
OGsTON, Jun., M.D., late Lecturer on Practical Toxicology in the
University of Aberdeen. With 12 Plates. S8vo, 18s.
TAYLOR.—The Principles and Practice of
Medical Jurisprudence. By ALFRED S. TAYLOR, M.D., F.R.S.
Third Edition, revised by THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lec-
_turer on Chemistry and Medical Jurisprudence at Guy’s Hospital ;
Examiner in Chemistry at the Royal College of Physicians; Official
Analyst to the Home Office. With 188 Engravings. 2 Vols. 8vo, 31s. 6d.
By the same Author.
A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence.
Eleventh Edition, revised by THOMAS STEVENSON, M.D., F.R.C.P.
With 56 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 14s.
ALSO,
On Poisons, in relation to Medical Juris-
prudence and Medicine. Third Edition. With 104 Engravings.
Crown 8vo, lés.
TIDY AND WOODMAN.—A Handy-Book of
Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. By C. MEYMoTT TIDY, M.B.; and
W. BATHURST WOODMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P. With 8 Lithographic Plates
and 116 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 31s. 6d.
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HYGIENE.
PARKES.—A Manual of Practical Hygiene.
By EDMUND A. PARKES, M.D., F.R.S. Sixth Edition by F. DECHAUMONT,
M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Military Hygiene in the Army Medical
School. With 9 Plates and 103 Engravings. 8vo, 18s.
WILSON.—A Handbook of Hygiene and Sani-
tary Science. By GEORGE WILSON, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.E., Medical
Officer of Health for Mid Warwickshire. Sixth Edition. With En-
gravings. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS.
BINZ AND SPARKS.—The Elements of Thera-
peutics; a Clinical Guide to the Action of Medicines. By C.
BINZ, M.D., Professor of Pharmacology in the University of Bonn.
Translated and Edited with Additions, in conformity with the British
and American Pharmacopeias, by EDWARD I. SPARKS, M.A., M.B.,
F.R.C.P. Lond. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.
LESCHER.—Recent Materia Medica. Notes
on their Origin and Therapeutics. By F. HARWOOD LESCHER, F.C.S.,
Pereira Medallist. Second Edition. 8vo, 2s. 6d.
OWEN.—A Manual of Materia Medica; in-
corporating the Author’s ‘‘ Tables of Materia Medica.” By ISAMBARD
OWEN, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics
to St. George’s Hospital. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d.
ROYLE AND HARLEY.—A Manual of Materia
Medica and Therapeutics. By J. FORBES ROYLE, M.D., F.R.S., and
JOHN HARLEY, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Joint Lecturer on
Clinical Medicine at, St. Thomas’s Hospital. Sixth Edition, including
addition and alterations in the B.P. 1885. With 139 Engravings.
Crown 8vo, 15s.
THOROWGOOD. — The’ Student’s Guide to
Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By JOHN C. THOROWGOOD, M.D.,
F.R.C.P., Lecturer on Materia Medica at the Middlesex Hospital.
Second Edition. With Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s.
WARING.—A Manual of Practical Therapeu-
tics. By EDWARD J. WARING, C.I.E., M.D., F.R.C.P. Fourth Edition,
revised by the Author and DUDLEY W. BuUxTON, M.D., M.R.C.P,
Crown 8vo, 14s.
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MEDICINE.
BARCLAY.—A Manual of Medical Diagnosis.
By A. WHYTE BARCLAY, M.D., F.R.C.P., late Physician to, and
Lecturer on Medicine at, St. George’s Hospital... Third Edition. Fcap.
8vo, 10s. 6d.
CHARTERIS.—The Student’s Guide to the
Practice of Medicine. By MATTHEW CHARTERIS, M.D., Professor of
Therapeutics and Materia Medica, University of Glasgow ; Physician
to the Royal Infirmary. With Engravings on Copper and Wood.
Fourth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 9s.
FAGGE.—The Principles and Practice of Medi-
cine. By the late C. H1LTon Faa@e, M.D., F.R.C.P., Edited by P. H.
PYE-SMITH, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and Lecturer on Medicine
at, Guy’s Hospital. 2 Vols. 8vo. Cloth, 36s. ; half Persian, 42s.
FENWICK.—The Student’s Guide to Medical
Diagnosis. By SAMUEL FENWICK, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the
London Hospital. Sixth Edition. With 114 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s.
» By the same Author.
The Student’s Outlines of Medical Treat-
ment. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 7s.
FLINT.—Clinical Medicine: a Systematic Trea-
tise on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Disease. By AUSTIN FLINT,
M.D., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine, &c., in
Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 8vo, 20s.
WARNER.—The Student’s Guide to Clinical
Medicine and Case-Taking. By FRANCIS WARNER, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Physician to the Lendon Hospital. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
WEST.—How to Examine the Chest: being a
Practical Guide for the Use of Students. By SAMUEL WEST, M.D.,
F.R.C.P., Physician to the City of London Hospital for Diseases of
the Chest, &c. With 42 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
WHITTAKER.—Student’s Primer on the Urine.
By J. TRAVIS WHITTAKER, M.D., Clinical Demonstrator at the Royal
Infirmary, Glasgow. With Illustrations, and 16 Plates etched on
Copper. Post 8vo, 4s. 6d.
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MIDWIFERY.
BARNES.—Lectures on Obstetric Operations,
including the Treatment of Hemorrhage, and forming a Guide to the
Management of Difficult Labour. By ROBERT BARNES, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Consulting Obstetric Physician to St. George’s Hospital. Fourth
(and cheaper) Edition. With 121 Engravings. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
BURTON.—Handbook of Midwifery for Mid-
wives. By JOHN E. BURTON, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Surgeon to the
Liverpool Hospital for Women. Second Edition. With Engray-
ings. Fcap 8vo, 6s.
GALABIN.—A Manual of Midwifery. By Alfred
LEWIS GALABIN, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P,, Obstetric Physician and
Lecturer on Midwifery, &c., to Guy’s Hospital, Examiner in Mid-
wifery to the Conjoint Examining Board for England. With 227
Engravings, Crown 8vo, 15s,
RAMSBOTHAM.—The Principles and Practice
of Obstetric Medicine and Surgery. By FRANCIS H. RAMSBOTHAM, M.D.,
formerly Obstetric Physician to the London Hospital. Fifth Edition.
With 120 Plates, forming one thick handsome volume. 8vo, 22s.
REY NOLDS.— Notes on Midwifery: specially
designed to assist the Student in preparing for Examination. By J. J.
REYNOLDS, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Second Edition. With 15 Engravings.
Feap. 8vo, 4s.
ROBERTS.—The Student’s Guide to the Practice -
of Midwifery. By D. LLOYD ROBERTS, M.D., F.R.C.P., Lecturer on
Clinical Midwifery and Diseases of Women at Owen’s College, Phy-
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital, Manchester. Third Edition. With 2
Coloured Plates and 127 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
SCHROEDER.—A Manual of Midwifery; includ-
ing the Pathology of Pregnancy and the Puerperal State. By KARL
SCHROEDER, M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the University of Erlangen.
Translated by C, H. CARTER, M.D. With Engravings. 8vo, 12s. 6d.
SWAY NE.—Obstetric Aphorisms for the Use of
Students commencing Midwifery Practice. By JOSEPH G. SWAYNE,
M.D., Lecturer on Midwifery at the Bristol School of Medicine.
Lighth Edition. With Engravings. Fcap. $vo, 3s. 6d.
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MICROSCOPY.
CARPENTER.—The Microscope and its Revela-
tions. By WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, C.B.,.M.D.,F.R.S. Sixth Edition.
With about 600 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 16s.
LEE.— The Microtomist’s Vade-Mecum; a
Handbook of the Methods of Microscopic Anatomy... By ARTHUR
BOLLES LEE. Crown 8vo, 8s. 6d.
MARSH. — Microscopical Section-Cutting: a
Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting of Sections for the
Microscope. By Dr. SYLVESTER MARSH. Second Edition. With
17 Engravings. Fecap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
MARTIN.—A Manual of Microscopic Mounting.
By J. H. MARTIN. Second Edition. With Plates and Wood Engravings.
8vo, 7s. 6d.
OPHTHALMOLOGY.
HARTRIDGE.—The Refraction of the Eye. By
GUSTAVUS HARTRIDGE, F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to the Reyal
Westminster Ophthalmic Hospital. Second Edition. With 94 Illus-
trations, Test Types, &c. Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d.
HIGGENS.—Hints on Ophthalmic Out-Patient
Practice. By CHARLES HIGGENS, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon to,
and Lecture on Ophthalmology at, Guy’s Hospital. Third Edition.
Fecap. 8vo, 3s.
MACNAMARA.—A Manual of the Diseases of
the Eye. By CHARLES MACNAMARA, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to, and Lecturer
on Surgery at, the Westminster Hospital. Fourth Edition. With
4 Coloured Plates and 66 Engravings. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d.
NETTLESHIP.—The Student’s Guideto Diseases
of the Eye. By EDWARD NETTLESHIP, F.R.C.S., Ophthalmic Surgeon
to, and Lecturer on Ophthalmic Surgery at, St. Thomas’s Hospital.
Third Edition. With 157 Engravings, and a Set of Coloured Papers
illustrating Colour-blindness. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
POLLOCK.—The Normal and _ Pathological
Histology of the Human Eye and Eyelids. By C. FRED. POLLOCK,
M.D., F.R.C.S.E., and F.R.S.E., Surgeon for Diseases of the Eye,
Anderson’s College Dispensary, Glasgow. With 100 Plates, containing
230 Original Drawings by the Author, Lithographed in black and
olours. Crown 8vo, 15s.
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OPHTHALMOLOGY —continued. -
TOSSWILL.—Diseases and Injuries of the Eye
and Eyelids. By Louis H. ToSSWILL, B.A., M.B. Cantab., M.R.C.S.,
Surgeon to the West of England Eye Infirmary, Exeter. Fcap. 8vo,
2s. 6d.
WOLFE.—On Diseases and Injuries of the Eye:
a Course of Systematic and Clinical Lectures to Students and Medical
Practitioners. By J. R. WOLFE, M.D., F.R.C.S.E., Senior Surgeon to
the Glasgow Ophthalmic Institution, Lecturer on Ophthalmic Medicine
and Surgery in Anderson’s College. With 10 Coloured Plates, and 120
Wood Engravings, 8vo, 21s.
PATHOLOGY.
JONES AND SIEVEKING.—A Manual of Patho-
logical Anatomy. By C. HANDFIELD JONES, M.B., F.R.S., and EDWARD-
H. SIEVEKING M.D.,F.R.C.P. Second Edition. Edited, with consider-
able enlargement, by J. F. PAYNE, M.B., Assistant-Physician and
Lecturer on General Pathology at St. Thomas’s Hospital. With 195
Engravings. Crown 8vo, 16s.
LANCEREAUX.—Atlas of Pathological Ana-
tomy. By Dr. LANCEREAUX. Translated by W. S. GREENFIELD, M.D.,
Professor of Pathology in the University of Edinburgh. With
70 Coloured Plates. Imperial 8vo, £5 5s.
SUTTON. — An _ Introduction to General
Pathology. By JOHN BLAND SUTTON, F.R.C.S., Sir E. WILSON
Lecturer on Pathology, R.C.S. ; Assistant Surgeon to, and Lecturer on
Anatomy at, Middlesex Hospital. With 149 Engravings. 8vo, 14s.
VIRCHOW.— Post-Mortem Examinations: a.
Description and Explanation of the Method of Performing them,
with especial reference to Medico-Legal Practice. By Professor
RUDOLPH VIRCHOW, Berlin Charité Hospital. Translated by Dr. T. B.
SMITH. Second Edition, with 4 Plates. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d.
PSYCHOLOGY.
BUCKNILL AND TUKE.—A Manual of Psycho-
logical Medicine: containing the Lunacy Laws, Nosology, Atiology,.
Statistics, Description, Diagnosis, Pathology, and Treatment of Insanity,
with an Appendix of Cases. By JOHN C. BUCKNILL, M.D., F.R.S.,
and D. HACK TUKE, M.D., F.R.C.P. Fourth Edition with 12 Plates.
(30 Figures). 8vo, 25s.
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PSY CHOLOGY—cuntinued.
CLOUSTON. — Clinical Lectures on Mental
Diseases. By THOMAS S. CLOUSTON, M.D., and F.R.C.P. Edin.; Lec-
turer on Mental Diseases in the University of Edinburgh. With
8 Plates (6 Coloured). Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d.
PHYSICS.
DRAPER.—A Text Book of Medical Physics,
for the use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine By JOHN C.
DRAPER, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the
University of New York. With377 Engravings. 8vo, 18s.
PHYSIOLOGY.
CARPENTER.—Principles of Human Physio-
logy. By WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, C.B., M.D., F.R.S. Ninth Edition.
Edited by Henry Power, M.B., F.R.C.S. With 3 Steel Plates and
377 Wood Engravings. 8vo, 31s. 6d.
DALTON.—A Treatise on Human Physiology :
designed for the use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine. By
JOHN C. DALTON, M.D., Professor of Physiology and Hygiene in the
College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Seventh Edition.
With 252 Engravings. Royal 8vo, 20s.
FREY.—The Histology and Histo-Chemistry of
Man. A Treatise on the Elements of Composition and Structure of the
Human Body. By HEINRICH FREY, Professor of Medicine in Zurich.
Translated by ARTHUR E. BARKER, Assistant-Surgeon to the University
College Hospital. With 608 Engravings. 8vo, 21s.
PYE-SMITH.—Syllabus of a Course of Lectures
on Physiology. By PHILIP H. PYE-SMITH, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Physician to Guy’s Hospital. With Diagrams, and an Appendix of
Notes and Tables. Crown 8vo, 5s.
SANDERSON.—Handbook for the Physiological
Laboratory : containing an Exposition of the fundamental facts of the
Science, with explicit Directions for their demonstration. By J.
BURDON SANDERSON, M.D., F.R.S.; E. KLEIN, M.D., F.R.S.; MICHAEL
FosTEk, M.D., F.R.S., and T. LAUDER BRUNTON, M.D., F.B.S. 2 Vols.,
with 123 Plates. 8vo, 24s.
YEO.—A Manual of Physiology for the Use of
Junior Students of Medieine. By GERALD F. YEO, M.D., F.R.C.S.,
Professer of Physiology in King’s CoWege, London. With 301 Engrav-
Ings. Crown 8vo, 14s.
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SURGERY.
BELLAMY.—The Student’s Guide to ‘Surgical
Anatomy; an Introduction to Operative Surgery. By EDWARD
BELLAMY, F.R.C.S., and Member of the Board of Examiners ; Surgeon
to, and Lecturer on Anatomy at, Charing Cross Hospital. Third
Edition. With 80 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
BRYANT._A Manual for the Practice of
Surgery. By THOMAS BRYANT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on
Surgery at, Guy’s Hospital. Fourth Edition. With 750 Illustra-
tions (many being coloured), and including 6 Chron ee
Plates. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo, 32s.
CLARK AND ' WAGSTAFFE. — Outlines. of
Surgery and Surgical Pathology. By F. LE Gros CLARK, F.R.C.S.,
F.R.S., Consulting Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. Second Edition.
Revised and expanded by the Author, assisted by W. W. WAGSTAFFE,
F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 8vo, 10s. 6d.
DRUITT.—The Surgeon’s Vade-Mecum; a
Manual of Modern Surgery. By ROBERT DRUITT, F.R.C.S. Twelfth
Edition. With many Engravings. Crown 8vo. [Nearly ready.
FERGUSSON.—A System of Practical Surgery.
By Sir WILLIAM FERGUSSON, Bart., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., late Surgeon and
Professor of Clinical Surgery to King’s College Hospital. With 463
Engravings. Fifth Edition. S8vo, 21s.
HEATH.—A Manual of Minor Surgery and
Bandaging, for the use of House-Surgeons, Dressers, and Junior Practi-
tioners. By CHRISTOPHER HEATH, F.R.C.S., Holme Professor of
Clinical Surgery in University College and Surgeon to the Hospital.
Kighth Edition. With 142 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 6s.
By the same Author.
A Course of Operative Surgery: with
Twenty Plates (containing many figures) drawn from Nature by
M. LEVEILLE, and Coloured. Second Edition. Large 8vo, 30s.
ALSO,
The Student’s Guide to Surgical Diag-
nosis. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 6s. 6d.
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14
_—>S-
J. & A. Churchill’s Medical Class Books.
SURGERY—continued.
SOUTHAM.—Regional Surgery: including Sur-
gical Diagnosis. A Manual for the use of Students. BY FREDERICK
A. SoUTHAM, M.A., M.B. Oxon, F.R.C.S,, Assistant-Surgeon to the
Royal Infirmary, and Assistant-Lecturer on Surgery in the Owen’s
College School of Medicine, Manchester.
Part I. The Head and Neck. Crown 8vo, 6s. 6d.
,, Il. The Upper Extremity and Thorax. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d.
» 111. The Abdomen and Lower Extremity. Crown 8vo, 7s.
TERMINOLOGY.
DUNGLISON.—Medical Lexicon: a Dictionary
of Medical Science, containing a concise Explanation of its various
Subjects and Terms, with Accentuation, Etymology, Synonyms, &c.
By ROBERT DUNGLISON, M.D. New Edition, thoroughly revised by
RICHARD J. DUNGLISON, M.D. Royal 8vo, 28s.
MAYNE.—A Medical Vocabulary: being an
Explanation of all Terms and Phrases used in the various Departments
of Medical Science and Practice, giving their Derivation, Meaning,
Application, and Pronunciation. By ROBERT G. MAYNE, M.D., LL.D.,
and JOHN MAYNE, M.D., L.R.C.S.E. Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo,
10s. 6d.
WOMEN, DISEASES OF.
BARNES.—A Clinical History of the Medical
and Surgical Diseases of Women. By ROBERT BARNES, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
Obstetric Physician to, and Lecturer on Diseases of Women, &c., at, St.
George’s Hospital. Second Edition. With 181 Engravings. 8vo, 28s.
COURTY.—Practical Treatise on Diseases of
the Uterus, Ovaries, and Fallopian Tubes. By Professor CoURTY,
Montpellier. Translated from the Third Edition by his Pupil, AGNES
M‘LAREN, M.D., M.K.Q.C.P. With Preface by Dr. MATTHEWS DUNCAN.
With 424 Engravings. Svo, 24s.
DUNCAN.—Clinical Lectures on the Diseases
of Women. By J. MATTHEWS DUNCAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.E.,
Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Third Edition.
8vo. [In the press.
EMMET.— The Principles and Practice of
Gynecology. By THOMAS ADDIS EMMET, M.D., Surgeon to the
Woman’s Hospital of the State of New York. Third Edition. With
150 Engravings. Royal 8vo, 24s.
11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
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J. & A. Churchill’s Medical Class Books.
WOMEN, DISEASES OF—continued.
GALABIN.—The Student’s Guide to the Dis-
eases of Women. By ALFRED L. GALABIN, M.D., F.R.C.P., Obstetric
Physician to, and Lecturer on Obstetric Medicine at, Guy’s Hospital.
Third Edition. With 78 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d.
REYNOLDS.—Notes on Diseases of Women.
Specially designed to assist the Student in preparing for Examination.
By J. J. REYNOLDS, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Third Edition. Feap. 8vo,
2s. 6d.
SAVAGE.—The Surgery of the Female Pelvic
Organs. By HENRY SAVAGE, M.D., Lond., F.R.C.S., one of the Con-
sulting Medical Officers of the Samaritan Hospital for Women. Fifth
Edition, with 17 Lithographic Plates (15 Coloured), and 52 Woodcuts.
Royal 4to, 35s.
WEST AND DUNCAN.—Lectures on the Dis-
eases of Women. By CHARLES WEST, M.D., F.R.C.P. Fourth
Edition. Revised and in part re-written by the Author, with numerous
additions by J. MATTHEWS DuNCAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.E.,
Obstetric Physician to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 8vo, 16s.
ZOOLOGY.
CHAUVEAU AND FLEMING.—The Compara-
tive Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A. CHAUVEAU,
Professor at the Lyons Veterinary School; and GEORGE FLEMING,
Veterinary Surgeon, Royal Engineers. With 450 Engravings. 8vo,
31s. 6d.
HUXLEY.—Manual of the Anatomy of Inverte-
brated Animals. By THOMAS H. Huxuky, LL.D., F.R.S. With 156
Engravings. Post 8vo, 16s.
By the same Author.
Manual of the Anatomy of Vertebrated
Animals. With 110 Engravings. Post 8vo, 12s. ~
WILSON.—The Student’s Guide to Zoology:
a Manual of the Principles of Zoological Science. By ANDREW WIEKSON,
Leeturer on Natural Histery, Edinburgh. With Engravings. cap.
8vo, 6s. 6d.
11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. :
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