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<^>  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  *^fU 


Purchased   by  the 
Mrs.    Robert   Lenox   Kennedy  Church   History   Fund. 

BR    145    .A5l90ir"vT3 
Alzog,    Johannes   Baptist,       i 

1808-1878. 
Manual  of  universal  church 

history  ^______--^B 


MANUAL 

OF 

UNIVERSAL  CHURCH  HISTORY 


VOL   III 
Secoxi)  axi)  Thikd  Periods  (A.  D.  1517-1878) 


MANUAL 


Universal  Church  History 


REV.    DR.    JOHN   ALZOG, 

Professor  of  Theology  at  the  University  of  Freiburg. 


Translated,  with  Additions,  from  the  Ninth  and  last  German  Edition, 


F.  J.   PABISCH, 

Doetor  of  Theology,  of  Canon  and  of  Civil  Law;  PresiJent  of  the  Privineial  Seminary  of  Mount  St. 
itlary's  of  the  West,  Cincinnati,  0. 


RIGHT    REV.   THOMAS    S.    BYRNE,    D.D.^ 

Formerly  Professor  at  Mount  St.  Mary's  Seminary,  now  Bishop  of  Nashville. 


IN  THREE  VOLUMES. 

With  Three  Chronological  Tables  and  Three  Eeclesiastieo- Geographical  Maps. 

VOLUME   HI. 

FIFTH  TMPRESSIOX. 


CI^'CINNATI: 
THE  ROBERT  CLARKE  COMPANY 

1902. 


Entered,  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

ROBERT  CLARKE  &  CO., 
In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Copyright,  1902, 
By  The  Robert  Clarke  Company. 


PREFACE. 


We  take  pleasure  in  congratulating  Rev.  Doctor  Pabiscli, 
President  of  St.  Mar^^'s  Seminary,  and  Rev.  Thomas  S.  Byrne, 
on  the  completion  of  their  great  work,  the  translation 
into  English  of  the  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History, 
by  Rev.  Dr.  John  Alzog,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the 
Universitj'  of  Freiburg,  Brisgau,  Baden.  The  "Additions" 
and  Notes  appended  to  this  confessedly  great  work  by  our 
American  translators  give  it,  in  the  judgment  of  Catholic  and 
non- Catholic  readers  and  scholars,  a  character  of  originality, 
and  stamp  it  as  worthy  of  taking  rank  with  the  best  produc- 
tions on  the  important  subject  of  which  it  treats,  and  of  sup- 
plying a  want  which,  we  say  it  with  due  reverence,  our  best 
historians,  or  biographers,  or  hagiographers  have,  for  various 
reasons  and  circumstances,  left  unsatisfied. 

It  has  been  unwisely  said  that  an  historian,  in  order  to 
be  trathfal,  just,  and  reliable,  should  have  neither  country 
nor  religion,  or  that  he  should  be  entirely  free  from  prejudice. 
As  well  might  it  be  exacted,  that  he  should  not  be  a  human 
being.  A  Catholic  is  required  by  his  holy  faith  to  be  just 
and  truthful  in  all  his  dealings  with  his  fellow  man.  He 
knows  that  his  religion,  the  work  of-  God,  has  no  need  of  the 
support  or  advocacy  of  falsehood,  which  it  spurns  and  con- 
demns. The  inspired  writers  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
have  set  Church  Historians  the  example,  which  they  follow, 
of  stating  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  bat  the 
truth — no  suppression,  no  concealment,  no  reticence.  If  we 
disclaim  the  guidance  of  writers  of  the  highest  note,  when 
we  detect  them  perverting  the  facts  of  history,  or  seeking  to 

substitute  for  them  their  own  opinions  or  fancies,  their  errors 

(iii) 


iv  Preface. 

and  prejudices,  we  turn  with  confidence  and  joy  to  writers 
like  Alzog,  who,  ^'- nullius  adstrielus  jurare  in  verba  magistn," 
speaks  out  what  he  honestly  believes  to  be  the  truth,  in  Po- 
sen,  in  Freiburg,  and  in  Rome.  We  long  since  read  a 
learned  work,  in  French,  called  "Prejuggs  legitimes."  We 
were  then,  we  are  now,  convinced  that  its  teachings  are  sound. 
We  are,  if  we  must  use  the  word,  "prejudiced"  in  favor  of 
the  heavenly  lessons  taught  us  in  the  Bible  and  in  our  Cate- 
chism. For  the  self  same  reason,  we  trust  the  knowledge 
communicated  to  us  in  a  good  Church  History  by  men  who 
have  read  and  conscientiously  pondered  on  every  work  on  the 
subject,  from  the  first,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  to  those  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Fathers — our  earliest  and  latest  writers — 
and  who  have  had  access  to  the  best  libraries  at  home  and 
abroad,  who  have,  in  Rome,  in  Germany,  and  elsewhere,  dis- 
passionately weighed  the  criticisms  of  learned  men  on  the 
narratives  of  all  shades  of  opinion  and  belief,  who  have  spent 
their  lives  in  discussing  the  events  connected  with  the  Church's 
oventful  history,  since  the  birth  of  Christ  and  previously.  If 
the  whole  people  of  God,  the  Jews  of  old,  are — what  can  be 
said  of  no  other  people — witnesses  and  custodians  of  the 
truth  of  divine  revelation,  we  can,  without  fear  of  error  or 
contradiction,  say  that  the  stupendous  efl'ects  of  the  mission 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  are  as  clear  and  unmistakable  as 
those  of  Holy  Scripture.  ISTeitlier  Genesis  nor  the  Heavens 
more  evidentl}^  proclaim  the  work  of  God,  the  glory  of  God. 
In  presenting  this  wondrous  tableau  of  the  work  of  God 
in  the  Church,  and  by  the  Church,  which  God  founded  for 
this  purpose,  the  translators  (and  we  say,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  the  authors)  of  these  most  precious  volumes — too 
large,  it  has  been  said,  for  use  in  Ecclesastical  Seminaries, 
but  which  can  easily  be  subdivided — have  presented  to  Amer- 
ican students  a  unique  work,  that  is  one  the  like  of  which 
we  have  not  seen  before  in  use,  or  in  our  libraries. 


Preface.  v 

It  is  not  for  their  own  praise,  but  to  inspire  readers  and 
students  with  confidence,  that  Rev.  Dr.  Pabisch  and  Rev.  Thos, 
S.  Byrne,  who  have  labored  so  generously,  so  strenuously,  at 
this  most  valuable  production,  have  been  induced  to  publish 
the  unsolicited  notices  thereof  which  have  been  taken  by 
the  press  in  America  and  Europe,  for  which  they  are  duly 
thankful. 

To  the  publishers  we  can  not  sufficiently  express  our.  obli- 
gations for  the  generous  and  able  manner  in  which,  regardless 
of  expense,  they  have  presented  this  History  to  the  public. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  we  should  suggest  that  a  work  of 
this  magnitude  has  involved  proportionable  expense.  To 
cover  this  expense,  we  need  a  liberal  patronage  for  the 
History,  especially  from  the  reverend  clergy  and  from  serious 
students  generally.  The  work  is  not  intended  for  the  public 
at  large,  but  for  students  and  scholars.  And  yet,  we  can 
not  forbear  from  reminding  all  that  Church  History  is  an 
Encyclopsedia.  It  is  intimately  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  entire  human  race.  As  the  idea  of  Bossuet's  Universal 
Histor}^  originated  in  the  desire  of  that  truly  great  man  to 
show  to  the  world  how  God  designed  that  the  progress  and 
development  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  were  to  proceed,  if 
not  -pari  passu,  at  least  side  by  side,  with  the  propagation  ol 
the  Gospel  and  the  Church,  it  follows  that  neither  is  to  be  an 
isolated  fact — that  the  providence  of  God,  the  divine  admin- 
istration of  human  governments  and  events,  is  to  be  adored, 
as  it  is  manifested  in  both  orders ;  and  thus,  that  on  earth,  a? 
in  Heaven,  in  the  State,  as  in  the  Church,  God  is  all  in  all. 

t  J.  B.  PURCELL, 

Archbishop  of  Cincinnati, 
Mount  St.  Mart's  of  the  West, 
Feast  of  our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel, 


:.,  A.  D.  1878.  J 


TO  THE  READER. 


A.FTER  six  years  of  ceaseless  labor  the  translators  and  editors 
of  Dr.  Alzog's  Universal  Church  History  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  presenting  the  work  complete  to  their  subscribers  and 
to  the  general  public.  They  feel  confident  that  they  have 
not  only  redeemed  their  plighted  faith  with  their  kind  pa- 
trons, but  given  them  a  great  deal  more  than  they  had  first 
intended  to  do.  Their  work  is  not  a  mere  rendition  of  the 
original  text,  but  a  homogeneous  enlargement,  suited  to  the 
wanVi  of  the  civilized  world,  now  headed  by  the  English- 
speaking  community.  Whilst  the  revered  German  author, 
the  late  Dr.  Alzog,  was  followed  with  scrupulous  fidelity 
throughout  the  work,  and  his  own  amendments  down  to  our 
own  day  faithfully  embodied  in  this  volume,  a  due  re- 
gard to  the  ninety  millions  of  English-speaking  Christians 
required  a  fuller  and  more  independent  treatment  of  our  own 
ecclesiastical  aflairs,  and  hence  the  Church  History  of  Amer- 
ica, Great  Britain,  and  Ireland,  and  the  history  of  the  Vatican 
Council,  and  of  Christian  Missions,  both  Catholic  and  Protest- 
ant, had  to  be  rewritten.  As  in  the  two  preceding  volumes, 
so  also  in  this,  synoptical  tables  of  the  leading  events  and  of 
Councils  were  added  to  the  original. 

As  to  an  essential  improvement  upon  the  original  we  point 
to  the  Ecclesiastical  Mays,  gratuitously  superadded  to  the 
Manual  of  Universal  Church  History.  Ten  months  of  pa- 
tient labi'.r  on  the  part  of  the  constructor  and  engraver  of  the 
maps  w  sre  required  for  their  completion.  The  maps,  subor- 
dinate one  to  the  other,  are  not  only  illustrative  of  the  present 
manual,  but,  moreover,  supply  welcome  information  to  every 

(vii) 


VUl 


To  the  Ecader. 


student  of  ecclesiastical  history,  geography,  and  statistics. 
The  information  concerning  the  hierarchical  organization  of 
the  Catholic  World  is  absolutely  complete ;  the  localities  of  all 
the  higher  educational  establishments  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Amerioii,  and  of  the  universities  in  Europe,  have  been 
carefully  pointed  out ;  and  the  circumscription  of  all  the  dio- 
ceses of  North  America  has  been  accurately  traced.  AVant 
of  space,  however,  precluded  the  possibility  of  being  equally 
full  in  giving  similar  information  concerning  other  parts  of 
the  world.  It  will  be  seen  that  foreign  missions,  both  Cath- 
olic and  Protestant,  have  received  such  attention  in  these 
maps  as  the  paramount  importance  of  the  subject  obviously 
demands.  The  latest  edition  of  the  Gerarchia  Cattolica  (Rome, 
1878);  the  American  Catholic  Almanac  of  1878 ;  James 
Neher's  Ecclesiastical  Geography  and  Statistics  ;  Dr.  Grun- 
demann's  General  Missionary  Atlas;  A.  K.  Johnston's 
National  Atlas  of  Geography,  Black's  Modern  Atlas,  and 
Gray's  Atlas  of  the  United  States,  besides  many  other 
sources  of  information  have  been  extensively  used  in  the 
preparation  of  these  hierarchical,  hiero-scholastic,  and  Christ- 
ian Missionary  Maps. 

The  topography  of  the  "  Orthodox  "  Greek  Church  is  com- 
plete for  all  countries  except  the  Turkish  Empire;  and  even 
there,  seventy-two  sees  out  of  ninety-three  in  Turkey  Proper 
in  Europe,  and  the  patriarchates,  with  the  chief  metropolitan 
sees  in  Turkey  in  Asia,  have  been  located.  The  number  of 
bishoprics  belonging  to  each  patriarchate  has  also  been  given. 

Of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  sees  some  are  indicated  in  the 
maps,  and  the  remainder  given  in  the  table  at  p.  1092. 

The  Catholic  sees  whose  suppression  was  occasioned  by  the 
Reformation  have  also  been  specified. 

The  Translators. 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


OF     THE     THIRD     VOLUME. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

FKOM    THE    WESTEEN   SCHISM    BY    LUTHEll    DOWN    TO    OUR 
OWN  TIMES  (1517-1878). 

FIEST   EPOCH. 

From  the  Rise  of  Protesta7itism  to  the  Treaty  of   Westphalia  (1517-1648). 


PAGE. 


'  298.  Sources — Works  by  Protestants  and  Catholics — General  Character 

of  this  Period 1 

CHAPTER  I.    Religious  Movements  in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences — His  First  Adversaries 6 

300.  Negotiation  between  Rome  and  Luther — Disputation  at  Leipsig — 

Eck,  Emser,  Carlstadt,  and  Mela7ichthon 18 

301.  Affinity  of  Luther's  Religious  System  to  the  Code  of  the  Robber 

Knights  and  the  Principles  of  Paganism 26 

302.  Luther's  Condemnation — Publication  of  the  Bull  of  Excommuni- 

cation    33 

303.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  1521— Luther  at  Wartburg 36 

304.  Death  of  Leo  X. — His  Character 43 

305.  The  Diet  of  Nurnberg,  1522 44 

306.  Efforts  of  Meianchthon  and  Luther  to  spread  the  New  Teachings...  47 

307.  The  Diet  of  Nurnberg,  1524 50 

308.  Disorders   at  Wittenberg,   caused  by  Carlstadt — The  Anabaptists 

and  the  Peasants'  War 52 

309.  Henry  VIII.,  King  of  England,   and   Erasmu.s  oppose  Luther — 

Marriage  of  Luther 61 

310.  Organization  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Hesse  and  Saxony 6S 

311.  Diets  of  Spire  (1526,  1.529) 71 

'il2.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530 — Augsburg  Confession — Catholic   Refuta- 
tion— Recess  of  the  Diet 75 

(ix) 


^  Contents. 

PAGE. 

§313.  Zwingli  mid  Oecolampadiun °' 

314.  Zwingli's  System ^^ 

.S15.  The  Sacramentarian  Controversy 101 

316    Proaress  of  Protestantism  in  Germany  until  the  Interim  of  Ratis- 

lOQ 
bon  (1541) ^"^ 

317.  The  Anabaptists  at  Miinster— Bigamy  of   the  Landgrave,  Philip 

of  Hesse '  ^^^ 

318.  Fresh  Acts  of  Violence  by  Protestants— Renewed  attempts  to  Ad- 

just Religious  Difficulties 121 

319.  Death  of  Luther— His  Public  Character 126 

320.  The  Schmalkaldic  War— Religious   Peace  of  Augsburg   (1555)— 

Resignation  and  Death  of  Charles  V 133 

321.  Calvin  and  his  Reform  at  Geneva— Beza 143 

322.  Calvin's  System > l''^0 

CHAPTER  II.   Propagation  of  Protestantism  in  Europe. 

§323.  Protestantism  in  Prussia 156 

324.  "  "  Silesia • 159 

325.  "  "  Poland 164 

326.  "  "  Livonia,     Courland,     Esthonia,     Hungary,    and 

Transylvania I'l 

327.  "  "    Sweden  1"5 

328.  "  "    Denmark,  Norway,  and  Iceland 188 

329.  "  "    England 191 

330.  "  "    Scotland  228 

331.  "  "    Ireland 235 

332.  "  "    France 269 

333.  "  "    the  Netherlands 284 

334.  General  Causes  of  the  Rapid  Spread  of  Protestantism 291 

CHAPTER  III.    Continuation  of  the  History  of  Protestantism— Its  Internal 

Dissensions. 

§335.  General  Characteristics  of  Protestantism 298 

336.  The   Protestant    Clergy— Their   Rights— Their   Relations    to   the 

State — Episcopal,  Tej-rltorial,  and  Collegiate  System 302 

337.  Worship  and  Discipline 305 

338.  Protes;tant  Exegetics 309 

339.  Mystics  and  Visionaries 312 

340.  Controversies  within  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches 315 

341.  Sects  among  the  Protestants 331 


CHAPTER  IV.    History  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

§  842.  Summary 339 

343.  The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent 340 

844.  Other  Popes  of  this  Epoch 360 


Contents.  xi 

PAGE. 

g  345«.  The  Papacy 368 

3456.  The  Secular  and  Regular  Clergy — Revival  of  Synods 370 

34G.  The  Order  of  the  Jesuits 373 

347.  Labors  of  the  Jesuits 381 

348.  The  Other  Orders 386 

349.  Foreign  Missions 401 

350.  Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church  411 

351.  New  Controversies  on  Grace — Baius,  Molina^  Janscnius , 424 

322.  Art  still  in  the  Service  of  the  Church 431 

353.  Religious  Life 437 

CHAPTER  V.    Rclatio7i  of  Catholics  to  Protestajits. 

g  354.  Attempts  at  Reconciliation 442 

355.  The  Thirty  Years'  War 447 

356.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia 455 

CHAPTER  VI.    The  Greek  Church. 

I  357.  The  Greek  Church  under  the  Turks 461 

358.  Relations  of  the  Greek  Church   to  the   Lutheran,  Calvinist,  and 

Catholic  Churches 463 

359.  The  Graeco-Russian  Church  under  its  own  Patriarchs 468 

360.  The  Monophysites  and  ISTestorians 472 


SECOND   EPOCH. 

From  the  Peace  of   Westphalia  down  to  Modern  Times  (1648-1878). 

PART   FIRST. 

From  the  Peace  of   Westphalia  to  the  French  Revolution  (1789). 

I  361.  Sources  and  Works — Su?nmary 475 

CHAPTER  I.    History  of  the   Catholic  Church. 

362.  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 478 

363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 485 

364.  The  Galilean  Church— Galilean  Liberties 497 

365.  Jansenism — Case  of  Conscience — Quesnel — Schism  of  Utrecht 500 

366.  Quietism — Molinos,  Guyon,  Fenelon 510 

367.  Literature  of  the  Galilean  Church 517 

368.  Decline  of  Religious  and  Theological  Science  in  France — Influence 

of  the  Free-thinkers  of  England 522 

369.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain 531 

370.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany 536 

371.  Literary  Activity— Unbelief— Superstition  in  Germany 548 

872.  Political  and  Religious  Disturbances  in  Poland 558 


Xll 


Contents. 


PAGE. 


g  373a.  The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 562 

3736.   Worship  and  Discipline  from  the  Sixteenth  Century 572 

874.  Spread  of  Christianity 576 

CHAPTER  II.    History  of  Protestantism. 

g  375.  On  the  Constitution  of  the  Protestant  Churches  and  their  Relations 

to  the  State— The  Collegia!  System , 585 

376.  Dogma  and  Theologians 587 

377.  Abandonment  of  Symbols  as  Rules  of  Dogmatic  Belief— Influence 

of  Modern  Philosophy  and  its  Consequences 592 

378.  Biblical  Theologians— The  False   Enlightenment  of  Neologism- 

Classical  Literature  of  Germany 598 

379.  The  Herrnhutters 606 

380.  The  Quakers 608 

381.  The  Methodists 610 

382.  The  Swedenborgians  or  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem 614 

383.  Protestant  Missions.. 616 

384.  Relations  of  Catholics  to  Protestants 618 

385.  The  Russian  Church  under  the  Permanent  Synod 622 


PART  SECOND. 

Fi'om,  the  French  Revolution  down  to   Our  Own  Day  (1789-1878). 

g  386.  General  Literature — Importance  of  Modern  Church  History 626 

CHAPTER  I.    History  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

8  387.  The  French  National  Assembly  {La  Constituante),  1789-1791 629 

388.  Legislative  Assembly — National    Convention — Directory — Consu- 

late— Theophilanthropists 642 

389.  The  Roman  Republic — Piiis  VI.;  he  dies  in  exile 650 

390.  Pontificate  of  Pius  VII.— Yrench  Empire 652 

391.  Disagreement  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor 664 

392.  Sad  Condition  of  the  Church  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain 675 

393.  The  Restoration 681 

394.  Rehabilitation  of  the  Pope — Re-establishment  of  the  Jesuits 683 

395.  Reorganization  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Sardinia  and  the  King- 

dom of  the  Two  Sicilies 687 

396.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany — Congress  of  Vienna 688 

397.  Pontificate  of  Leo  A77.  and  Pms  VIII. 691 

398.  Pontificate  of  Gregory  XVL  (1831-1846) 694 

399.  The  Catholic  Church  in  France  under  the  Bourbons 699 

400.  Continuation  —  The    Catholic    Church    in    France    under    Louis 

Philippe 706 

401.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain 715 

402.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Portugal 722 


Contents.  xiii 

PAGE. 

§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 725 

404.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Belgium  and  Holhind 738 

405.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland 744 

406.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Austria 752 

407.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria 757 

408.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia 762 

409.  The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Khine 771 

410.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia 779 

THE    PONTIFICATE    OF    PIUS    IX. 

411    His  Political  Activity 782 

412.  His  Energy  in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs 791 

413a  and  b.  The  TwentieiJi  Ecumenical  Council  of  the  Vatican  and  its  Im- 
mediate Consequences 802,  815 

414.  Eevival  of  Religion  in  different  Countries  since  184G — In  Portugal 

and  Spain 829 

415.  In  France 834 

416.  In  Belgium  and  Holland 843 

417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 847 

418.  In  Germanj' and  Switzerland 863 

419.  Catholic  Literature  in  Germany  since  the  Opening  of  the  Nine- 

teenth Century , 885 

420.  Activity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany  in  the  Field  of  Speculative 

Theology 900 

421.  Sects  in  Germany 910 

422.  The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia  and  Poland 918 

423.  The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church 921 

CHAPTER  II.    History  of  Protestantism. 

SECTION   FIRST. 
History  of  Theology  and  of  the  Church  in  Germany. 

\  424,  Futile  Efforts  to  Preserve  the  Symbols  of  Protestantism 965 

425.  Influence  of  Modern  Philosophy 970 

426.  The  Ultimate  Results  of  the  Free   Interpretation  of  Holy  Scrip- 

tures    975 

427.  The  Theology  of  Compromise  and  Independent  Theology 978 

428.  Revival  of  Lutheranism — Modern  Orthodoxy 984 

429.  The  More  Important  Religious  Movements  in  Germany:    (a.)  In 

Prussia;    (6.)  Outside  of  Prussia 989,  991 

430.  Religious  and  Charitable  Societies  992 

SECTION    SECOND. 

History  of  Protestantism  Outside  of  Germany. 

431.  Protestantism  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  Holland,  France,  Great  Britain, 

and  America 994 


XIV 


Contents. 


PAGE. 

§432.  Enumeration  of  Sects,  Ancient  and  Modern 1003 

433.  Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Societies 1006 

434.  Respective  Situation  of  Catholics  and  Protestants 1015 

435.  Conclusion 1025 

I.  Chronological  Table  of  Popes  and  Emperors 1031 

II.  Chronological  Table  of  Principal  Personages  and  Events 1033 

III.  Chronological  Table  of  Councils 1046 

IV.  General  Index 1051 

V.  Table  of  Indian  Tribes  of  the  U.  S 1091 

VI.  Table  of  Protestant  Episcopal  Sees  out  of  the  United  Kingdom...-.  1092 
VII.  Ecclesiastical  Maps. 


THIRD  PERIOD. 

FEOM  THE  WESTEEN  SCHISM  BY  LUTHEE  DOWN  TO 
OUE   OWN   TIMES  (1517-1878). 

FIRST   EPOCH. 

FROM  THE  RISE  OF  PROTESTANTISM  TO  ITS  POLITICAL  REG- 
OGNITION  BY  THE  TREATY  OF  WESTPHALIA  (1517-1648). 

§  298.  Sources.    Works.    General  Character  of  This  Period. 

A.  Political  Sources  and  Works.  —  I.  Guicciardini,  see  Bibliography 
heading  ?  265.— P.  Jovio,  Hist,  sui  temp.  (1498-1513;  1521-27).  Flor.,  1550  sq.,  2 
T.  f.  Adriani,  1st.  de  suoi  tempi  (1536-74).  Flor.  1583  f.;  de  Thou,  Hist,  sui 
temp.  (1543-1607).  Frcf.  1625,  4  T.  f.,  and  oftener.  Notationes  in  Thuani  his- 
toriarum  libros,  auctore  Joh.  Gallo  J.C.  (Jean  Machault,  S.  J.),  Ingolstad.  1624, 
4to.  Goldast.,  Impp.  Rom.,  Francof.  1607,  fol.,  and  Const,  impp.  Rom.  Frcf. 
1615,  3  T.  f.     Koch,  Collection  of  the  Recesses  of  the  Empire,  Frkft.  1747,  4  v.  f. 

II.  Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Reign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  London,  1769, 
3  T.  4to.  This  is  the  most  valuable  of  his  works.  '\Ign.  Schmidt,  Hist,  of  the 
Germans,  Ulm  and  Vienna.  1775  sq.,  Pts.  V.-XI.  '\ Frederic  von  Buchholz,  Fer- 
dinand I.,  Vienna,  1832-8,  9  vols.  jHurter,  Ferdinand  II.,  Schaffh.  1850  sq. 
Raumer,  Hist,  of  Europe  from  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Centurj^,  Lps.  1832 
sq.,  7  vols.  '\Cesare  Cantit,  Vols.  IX.  and  X.  tJorg,  Germany  during  the  Pe- 
riod of  Revolutions,  1522-26,  from  diplomatic  correspondence,  Freiburg,  1851. 
The  special  histories  of  the  several  countries  in  the  collections  of  Heeren  and 
Ukert  are  to  be  quoted  in  the  proper  places. 

B.  Religious  Sources  and  Works. — a.  Protestant:  The  biographies  and 
■works  of  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  of  Zwinglius  and  Calvin,  together  with  those 
of  their  most  important  partisans  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  (The  Lives 
and  select  writings  of  the  Founders  of  the  Reformed  Church,  Elberfeld,  1857- 
63,  in  10  vols.;  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  ibid.,  1861  sq.,  8  vols.)  Add  to  these 
the  following  collections:  Loscher,  Complete  Acts  of  the  Reformation  (1517- 
19),  Lps.  1720  sq.,  3  vols.  4to.  Ka-pp,  Supplements  to  the  important  Documents 
of  the  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  Lps.  1727  sq.,  4  vols.  StrobeL,  Miscellanea 
Niirnberg,  1778  sq.,  six  numbers,  and  Literary  Essays,  1784  sq.,  2  and  5  vols. 
Wagenseil,  Essays  on  the  History  of  the  Reformation,  Lps.  1829.  Seidemann, 
The  Times  of  the  Reformation  in  Saxony,  Dresden,  1846  sq.,  2  nmall  vols. 
Johannsen,  Development  of  the  Spirit  of  Protestantism,  or  Collection  of  Im- 
portant Documents  on  the  Edict  of  Worms  and  the  Protestation  of  Spire, 
Copenhagen,  1830.     Neudeeker,  Documents  on  the  Times  of  the  Reformation, 

VOL.  ni — 1 


Period  3.     Epoch  1. 


Cassel,  1836,  and  Authentic  Acts,  Niirnberg,  1838.  tDr.  Lacmmer,  Analecta 
Romana,  or  Researches  on  Ecclesiastical  History  in  Roman  Libraries  and 
Archives,  Schatfhausen,  1861.  The  same,  Monumenta  Vaticana  hist,  eccles 
saec.  XVI.,  Friburg.  1861 ;  the  sa7ne,  Supplements  to  the  Ch.  H.  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  Frbg.  1863;  the  same,  Meletematum  Romanor.  Man- 
tissa, Ratisb.  1875.  DoUinger,  Supplements  to  the  Political,  Ecclesiastical,  and 
Educational  History  of  the  Sixteenth  Centurj-,  Munich,  1865,  2  vols.  Christian 
Scheuels's  Letter-book,  or  Supplements  to  the  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  pub- 
lished by  Baron  von  Roden  and  Knaackc,  Potsdam,  1867-72,  2  vols.  Spalatbii, 
Annales  Reformationis  (to  1543),  ed.  by  Cyprian,  Lps.  1768.  A  new  ed.  of  all 
his  works,  by  Chr.  O.  Neudecker  and  L.  Preller,  Jena,  1851  sq.  Sleidanus  (Pro- 
lessor  of  Jurisprudence  at  Strasburg,  t  1556),  Comment,  de  statu  relig.  et  reip. 
Carol.  V.  Caes.  Argentorati,  1555,  completed  in  1556,  and  continued  down  to 
the  year  1564.  Londorpius,  Prancof.  1619,  III.  T.  4to,  multis  annotationibus 
lllustrata  a  Chr.  Car.  {toward  the  end),  Prcf.  1785,  III.  T.  8vo.  Hortleder, 
Reflections  on  the  Causes  of  the  war  waged  in  Germany  against  the  League 
of  Schmalkald  (to  1555),  Prankft.  1617  sq.,  2  vols.  f.  Voyi  dcr  Hardt,  Hist.  litt. 
reform.,  Prcf.  et  Lps.  1717  fol.  Frld.  Myconii  (Superintendent  of  Gotha,  1 1546) 
Hist,  reformationis  (1518-42),  published  from  the  manuscript  of  the  author  and 
illustrated  in  a  preface  by  E.  S.  Cyprian.  Another  edition  appeared  at  Lps.  in 
1718.  Seckendorf  (t  1692),  Comment,  hist,  et  apol.  de  Lutheranismo,  Prcf.  et 
Lps.  (1688)  1692,  fol.  (against  the  Jesuit,  Maimbourg).  J.  Basnage,  Hist,  de  la 
rel.  des  eglises  reformees  (Rotterd.  1690,  2  vols.  12mo.),  La  Haye,  1725,  2  vols. 
4to.  (against  Bossuei).  Hottinger,  Hist,  of  the  Helvetic  Church,  Zurich,  1708 
sq.,  4  vols.  4to.  Ruchat,  Hist,  de  la  reforme  de  la  Suisse,  Geneve,  1727  sq.,  6 
vols.  12mo.  Bcausobre,  Hist,  de  la  reforme  (to  1530),  Berlin,  1785,  3  vols. 
^^Planck,  Hist,  of  the  Rise,  the  Variations,  and  the  Formation  of  Protestant 
Dogmatics  until  the  Formula  of  Concord,  Lps.  1791-1800,  6  vols.  ■■■Dr.  Ldnv- 
mer,  Pre-Tridentine  Catholic  Theology  in  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  Berlin, 
1858.  Marhemecke,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  down  to  1535  (1817, 
2  vols.),  1831  sq. 4  vols.  (Epitome  of  SeckendorfiF).  -C.  A.  Menzel  (t  1855),  Mod- 
ern Hist,  of  the  Germans,  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Act  of  the  German 
Confederacy,  Breslau,  1826-48,  12  vols.  (In  the  preface  to  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  volumes,  the  author  complains  of  the  wild  passion  of  Marheinecke), 
2d  ed.,  Breslau,  1854-55,  in  6  vols.  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Germany  during  the  Age 
of  the  Reformation,  Berlin,  1839,  5  vols.,  four  editions;  the  last  in  "Complete 
Works,"  Lps.  1867  sq..  Vol.  I.-VI.  (Cf.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  IV.,  p. 
540-557;  p.  654-668,)  and  Vienna  Annuary,  1841,  Vols.  93-96.  ViUiers,  Essai 
sur  I'esprit  et  I'influence  de  la  reforme  de  Luther,  Paris,  1802.  Schrockh,  Ch, 
H.  since  the  Reformation,  Lps.  1804-12,  10  parts  (parts  9  and  10  by  Tzschir- 
ner).  (Tr.)  HSuser,  Hist,  of  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  ed.  by  Oncken,  Ber- 
lin, 1868.  Hagcnbach,  Lectures  on  the  Nature  and  History  of  the  Reformation 
Lps.  1834-43,  6  vols,  (down  to  most  recent  times);  fourth  revised  edition,  Lps. 
1870-72,  of  his  Hist,  of  the  Church,  Vols.  III.-VII.  The  Hist,  of  the  Church 
in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  in  vols.  VI.  and  VII.,  is  an  Eng. 
lish  transl.  by  J.  F.  Hurst,  D.D.,  New  York,  1869.  (Tr.)  Hagen,  The  Literary 
and  Religious  Situation  of  Germany  during  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  Er- 
langen,  1841  sq.,  3  vols.  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  principally  in 
Germany,  Munich,  1867.    Schenkel,  The  Essence  of  Protestantism,  Schaft'hausen, 


§  298.  Sources — Works — General  Character  of  this  Period.    3 

1844-51,  3  vols.  Merle  d! Aubigni^  Histoire  de  la  Reformation  au  seizieme  siecle 
(1835-1869),  or  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  More  than 
800,000  copies  of  the  English  translation  have  been  sold  in  Great  Britain  and 
America.  It  is  written  with  the  utmost  vivacity,  is  undoubtedly  picturesque, 
and  sometimes  even  eloquent;  but  the  work  has  been  censured  by  adverse 
critics  as  one-sided,  pretentious,  and  bigoted.  Archbp.  Spalding  called  him  an 
arch-perverter  of  history.  Among  M.  D.'s  other  historical  productions  are — 
IjC  Lutheranisme  et  la  Reforme,  Paris,  1844;  Le  Proteeteur,  ou  la  Republique 
dAngleterre  aux  Jours  de  Cromwell  (1848).  (Tr.)  Chas.  P.  Krauth  (D.D., 
Prof,  in  the  Evang.  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary,  etc.,  in  the  Universitj' 
of  Pennsylvania.)  The  Conservative  Reformation  and  its  Theology,  Philadel- 
phia, 1871.  (Tr.) 

/3.  Works  by  Catholics. — Surius  (Carthusian  of  Cologne,  t  1578),  Chroni- 
con  ab  a.  1500  usque  15G6,  Colon.  1567,  continued  to  1573  and  often  published 
(against  Sleidanus).  Simion  Fontaine,  Histoire  catholique  de  nostre  tema 
touchant  I'ostat  de  la  religion  chretienne,  centre  I'histoire  de  J.  Sleidan,  Anvers, 
1558.  Roveri  Pontani  (Carmelite  of  Brussels)  Vera  narratio  rerum  ab  a.  1500 
usque  ad  a.  1559,  in  republica  Christiana  memorabilium.  Colon.  1559  f.  Coehlaeua 
(Canon  of  Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  Mentz,  Vienna,  and  Breslau,  t  1552),  Com- 
ment, de  actis  et  scriptis  Lutheri,  Mogunt.  1549.  Cf.  M.  de  Weldige-Creme?;  De 
Joan.  Cochlaei  vita  et  scriptis,  Monast.  1865.  Otfo  (of  J5reslau),  Cochlaeus  as  a 
Humanist  and  His  Colloquy  with  Luther  (Austrian  Quarterly  of  Cath.  Theol., 
year  1866,  nro.  1).  Ulenberg  (at  first  Protestant  and  student  at  "Wittenberg, 
then  Catholic,  t  as  parish  priest  at  Cologne,  1597),  Vitae  haeresiarcharum  Luth., 
Melanchth.,  Majoris,  Illyrici,  Osiandri.  Ejusdern,  Causae  graves  et  justae,  cur 
Catholicis  in  communione  veteris  ejusque  veri  Christianismi  constanter  usque 
ad  vitae  finem  permanendum  sit,  etc..  Colon.  1589.  Cf.  the  article,  "Anti- 
Reformers  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,"  in  Aschbach' s  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  I.; 
Paytialdi,  Continuatio  annal.  Baronii,  and  the  historians  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
Paolo  Sarpi  and  Pallaviclni.  "-Bossuet,  Hist,  des  variations  des  eglises  protest- 
antes,  Paris,  1688,  2  vols.  4to;  1734,  4  vols,  (in  the  new  edit,  of  Bossuet's  works, 
Paris,  1836,  Vols.  V.  and  VI.,  with  the  defense  against  Jurieu  and  Basnage). 
Eng.  transl.,  Antwerp,  1742,  2  vols.;  New  York,  1850,  2  vols.  (Tr.)  Maim- 
bourg,  S.  J.,  Hist,  du  Lutheranisme,  Paris,  1680,  4  vols.  The  same,  Hist,  du 
Calvinisme,  Paris,  1682.  Varillas,  Hist,  des  Revolutions  arrivees  dans  I'Europe 
en  matiere  de  Religion ;  2d  edit.,  Amst.  1689-90,  6  vols.  '^Eiffel,  Christian  Ch. 
H.  from  the  great  Schism  to  our  own  Days,  Vol.  I.,  Mentz  (1841)  1844  (to  the 
end  of  the  War  of  the  Peasants) ;  Vol.  II.,  1842  (to  the  Peace  of  Religion,  1555) ; 
Vol.  III.  (Zwinglius  in  Switzerland).  '\Boosi.  The  Reformation  of  Germany, 
Ratisbon,  1845.  '^ Ddllingei;  The  Reformation,  its  internal  Developments  and 
Effects  (according  to  the  testimony  of  Protestants),  Ratisbon,  1846  sq.,  3  vols.; 
2d  revised  and  augm.  edit.,  Ratisbon,  1848.  (Tr.)  f^'E.vonJarcke),  Studies  and 
Sketches  of  the  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  SchafFhausen,  1846.  '\  Werner,  Hist 
of  Cath.  Theol.  in  Germany,  Munich,  1866.  Among  the  Manuals  of  Ch.  H., 
we  mention,  especially,  ^'Ddlltnger,  Vol.  XL,  Pt,  II.,  being  a  continuation  of 
Hortig,  Landshut,  1828,  and  Ritter,  6th  ed..  Vol.  II.,  down  to  recent  times. 
■\Pabna,  h.  e.,  T.  IV.,  Rom.  1846.  Dr.  F.  X.  Kraus,  Text-book  of  Modern  Ch. 
H.  (being  Vol.  III.  of  his  entire  work),  Treves,  1875, 


Period  3.     Epoch  1, 


GENERAL  CHAEACTER  OF  THIS  PERIOD. 

This  period  has  its  own  peculiar  characteristics,  which  im- 
press upon  it  features  essentially  different  from  those  of  the 
preceding  one.     These  are  : 

1.  In  general,  a  complete  severance  of  the  close  alliance 
formerly  existing  between  Church  and  State ;  and,  in  par- 
ticular, an  irreparable  rupture  between  the  Papacy  and  the 
Empire,  of  which  there  were  many  and  unmistakable  indi- 
cations as  early  as  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

2.  A  sundering  of  the  bond  of  unity  by  faith,  giving  rise 
in  the  countries  of  Christian  Europe,  heretofore  united  and 
professing  but  one  religion,  to  three  distinct  religious  bodies — 
viz.,  Lutheran,  Eeformed  or  Calvinistic,  and  Anglican,  not  to 
speak  of  countless  minor  sects — all  wholly  external  to  and 
in  revolt  against  the  Catholic  Church,  whose  numbers  were 
greatly  diminished  by  their  apostasy, 

3.  Hence,  once  the  exclusive  importance  attached  to  faith 
by  the  early  reformers  had  been  rejected,  the  steady  hold 
which  religious  truths  had  on  men's  minds  was  shaken,  and 
the  religious  view  of  life  and  tone  of  science,  so  characteristic 
of  the  preceding  period,  were  superseded  among  Protestants 
by  a  so-called  Humanism.,  and,  through  the  consistent  devel- 
opment of  the  latter,  by  an  infidel,  worldly,  and  anti-Christian 
spirit. 

4.  Again,  this  religious  schism  alienated  science  from  relig- 
ion; profaned  the  sanctity  of  domestic  life;  inaugurated  a 
spirit  of  controversy  which  not  unfrequently  carried  dispu- 
tants to  unseemly  excesses ;  engendered  ceaseless  strifes ;  and 
called  forth  feelings  of  mutual  distrust  and  estrang-ement.^ 

5.  Finally,  the  schism  was  the  cause  and  occasion  of  politi- 
cal revolutions  so  violent  and  far-reaching,  that,  in  many  coun- 
tries, the  introduction  of  Protestantism  was  accompanied  by 
a  change  of  dynasty,  and  in  Poland  and  Ireland  by  a  loss  of 
national  independence. 

Modern,   like   ancient  and   mediseval  Church    History,  is 

J  On  the  influence  of  the  schism  on  literature,  see  ®Hist.  and  Polit.  Papers, 
Vol.  XIX.  year  1847,  in  three  articles. 


§  298.   General  Character  of  this  Period.  5 

divided  into  two  epochs — the  first  embracing  the  interval 
between  1517  and  1648,  and  the  second  that  between  the 
Treaty  of  "Westphalia  and  our  own  day.  To  give  a  full  and 
spirited  exposition  of  the  events  of  the  first  epoch,  it  will  be 
convenient  to  make  the  pseudo-ecclesiastical  reform  of  Luther, 
which  was  in  fact  the  mainspring  of  the  rehgious  and  politi- 
cal commotions  that  took  place  in  the  interval,  the  cardinal 
fact,  to  which  all  others  are  to  be  more  or  less  directly  refer- 
red. Hence,  it  will  be  necessary  to  trace  the  history  of  this 
pseudo-reform  in  its  origin,  progress,  and  development;  to 
watch  the  course  of  the  hitherto  dominant  Catholic  Church; 
to  observe  her  policy,  movements,  counter-movements,  and 
the  fresh  display  of  her  energies;  and,  finally,  to  note  the 
relations  of  the  various  sects  to  each  other.  The  reasons  for 
so  arranging  the  subject-matter  of  the  first  epoch  of  this  pe- 
riod that  the  history  of  Protestantism  will  for  the  time  be  brought 
forward  with  greater  "prominence  than  that  of  the  Catholic  Churchy 
will  be  obvious  from  the  above  considerations.  In  the  second 
epoch,  an  order  just  the  reverse  of  this  will  be  followed. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EELIQIOUS    MOVEMENTS    IN    GERMANY   AND    SWITZERLAND. 

A.. — To  THE  Formal  Separation  of  Protestants,  of  which  the  Confe* 
siON  OF  Augsburg  was  the  Occasion  (1517-1530). 

§  299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences. 

Luther's  works,  in  Latin,  Vit.  1545  sq.,  7  vols,  folio ;  Jena,  1556-58, 4  vols.  fol. ; 
in  German,  "Wittenberg,  1539  sq.,  12  vols,  fol.;  Jena,  1555  sq.,  8  vols.  fol.  More- 
over, two  Supplementary  vols,  by  Aurifaber,  Eisleben,  1564  and  '65.  Exclu- 
sively German  writings  of  Luther  are  found  in  the  edition  of  Sagittarius,  pub- 
lished at  Altenburg  1661-64,  10  vols.  Supplementary  volume  to  all  former 
editions  (by  Zeidler),  Halle,  1702;  Lps.  edit.,  1729-40,  in  22  vols,  fol.;  the  Halle 
edition,  by  J.  O.  Walch,  1740-50,  24  pts.  4to.  (Only  the  German  translation  of 
the  Latin  works  is  given  in  the  last  two  editions).  Edition  in  both  original 
languages  by  Plochmann  and  Irmischer,  Erlangen,  1826-56,  67  vols.  Conf. 
Irmischer,  A  brief  History  of  the  complete  edition  of  Luther's  works  (Periodi- 
cal for  Protestantism  and  Church,  1850,  nro.  1).  Luther's  letters,  circulars,  and 
memoirs,  edited  by  de  Wette,  Berlin,  1825-28,  5  pts.  Supplement  thereto,  by 
Dr.  Burkhardt,  Lps.  1866.  Melanchthon,  Hist,  de  vita  et  actis  Lutheri,  Vit. 
1546;  ed.  Augusti,  Vratisl.  1817.  In  addition  to  these  works,  one  may  also  con- 
sult the  biographies  of  Luther,  by  Cochlaeus,  Vlenberg,  and  in  modern  times, 
Uckert,  Gotha,  1817, 2  vols. ;  Pfizer  (who  idolizes  his  hero),  Stuttg.  1836;  Schenkel, 
The  Reformers  (Luther,  Zwinglius,  Calvin,  and  Melanchthon),  Wiesbaden,  1856. 
Jiirgens,  Luther  from  his  birth  until  the  controversy  on  Indulgences,  Lps.  1846, 
4  vols.,  to  be  compared  with  Atcdin,  Hist,  de  la  vie,  des  ecrits  et  des  doctrines  de 
Martin  Luther,  Paris,  1839,  2  vols.;  ed.  Heme.,  Paris,  1841;  Engl,  ed.,  Life  of 
Luther,  transl.  by  Bp.  J.  M.  McGill,  Philadelphia,  1841,  2  vols.;  also  by  "W.  B. 
Tarnbull,  Germ,  ed.,  Augsb.  1843.  (It  contains  many  things  incorrect  and  in- 
exact.) "Luther's  work  and  Luther's  works,"  in  the  '^Catholic"  of  A.  D.  1827, 
by  J.  von  Gorres.  Cf.  von  Sybcl,  Journal  of  History,  ]Slew  Phenomena  of  Lu- 
theran Literature,  Vol.  27,  year  1872. — Tr.  adds:  The  Eeformatory  "Writings 
of  Dr.  Martin  Luther,  by  Zimmermann;  the  Life  of  Martin  Luther,  Eelated 
from  Original  Authorities,  with  sixteen  engravings,  by  Moritz  Meurer.  Engl, 
transl.  by  a  Pastor  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  8vo.,  New  York,  Lud- 
wig  &  Co.  The  Life  of  Martin  Luther,  Gathej-ed  from  his  own  Writings,  by 
M.  Michelei;  transl.  by  G.  H.  Smith,  F.  G.  S.,  New  York.  The  Table  Talk 
(Tischreden),  or  Familiar  Discourse  of  Martin  Luther ;  transl.  by  Wm.  Hazlitt, 
Esq.,  London.     *  Freiburg,  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  ^'■Luther,"  by  Dollingcr. 

To  the  elements  of  political  strife,  which  seriously  threat- 
(6) 


§  299.  Luther's  llanifest  against  Indulgences.  7 

ened  the  peace  of  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  last  period,  relig- 
ious difficulties  at  once  grave  and  numerous,  and  containing 
the  germs  of  incalculable  mischief^  in  the  near  future,  were 
now  added.  Everything  combined  to  weaken  the  great  influ- 
ence formerly  exercised  by  the  Popes  in  European  affairs,  of 
which  it  will  be  sufficient  to  instance  the  papal  schism,  the 
unhappy  events  that  took  place  at  the  Councils  of  Constance 
and  Basle,  or  were  occasioned  by  their  action,  and,  finally, 
the  worldly  lives  and  taste  for  war  which  characterized  some 
of  the  chief  pastors  of  the  Chui'ch,  Although  the  warlike 
and  chivalrous  Emperor  Maximilian  had  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing (1495)  public  peace  in  many  of  the  German  states,  and 
had  secured  its  maintenance  by  the  institution  of  the  Impe- 
rial Chamber  (the  supreme  court  of  the  German  Empire),  his 
authority  was  nevertheless  too  much  enfeebled  to  enable  him 
to  act  energetically  and  decisively  in  critical  emergencies 
occurring  either  within  or  without  his  empire.  Cities  asserted 
their  freedom  and  grew  in  wealth  and  prosperity;  the  nobil- 
ity drew  out  a  painful  existence  in  ignorance  and  poverty; 
and  the  bulk  of  the  people,  constantly  oppressed,  were  ready 
at  any  moment  to  rise  in  open  rebellion.  The  cavaliers,  war- 
riors by  profession  and  never  content  but  when  in  the  midst 
of  its  excitements,  felt  the  restraints  of  law  and  order,  longed 
for  the  return  of  the  days  when  might  was  right,  and  impa- 
tiently awaited  a  favorable  opportunity  to  draw  their  swords, 
and  deal  a  decisive  and  fatal  blow  against  the  domination  of 
princes  and  the  authority  of  priests.  War  came  at  last.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  call  of  Charles,  grandson  of  Maximilian 
(by  Philip  the  Fair)  to  the  throne  of  Spain  (1516),  and  shortly 
after  (1519)  to  the  imperial  crown  and  succession  in  Austria, 
had  excited  the  jealousy  of  France  and  her  young  and  ambi- 
tious king,  Francis  /.,  (1515)  against  the  House  of  Hap&burg ; 
and  on  the  other,  Austria,  Germany,  and  Hungary  in  the  East 
were  seriously  threatened  by  the  alarming  advance  of  Turkish 


^  Cf.  Moehler's  Essay  on  the  Situation  of  the  Church  in  the  fifteenth  century 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  (Complete  Works,  Vol.  II.);  and  Gj-oene, 
Situation  of  the  German  Church  before  the  Reformation,  in  the  Tuebing.  Quart., 
year  1862,  nro.  1,  p.  84-138,  who,  however,  arrives  at  a  somewhat  different  con- 
clusion. 


8  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     C/iapte?   1. 

domwatioi).  In  the  midst  of  these  grave  religious  and  politi- 
cal complications,  accompanied  in  France,  Spain,  and  England 
by  the  triumph  of  royalty  and  the  decline  of  the  nobility,  and 
in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  where  the  aristocracy  of 
the  clergy  and  the  nobles  was  particularly  powerful,  by  im- 
portant limitations  of  the  royal  power  and  prerogative,  it  was 
plain  that  one  of  two  things  would  inevitably  come  about. 
Either  some  great  man  gifted  with  strength  of  character  and 
a  talent  for  organization  and  government,  and  having  the  in- 
terest of  Church  and  State  sincerely  at  heart,  would  arise  to 
avert  the  impending  danger,  by  allaying  conflicting  passions 
through  the  operation  of  existing  authority  and  the  agency 
of  institutions  called  into  being  wdth  the  special  view  of 
meeting  the  exigencies  of  the  moment;  or,  in  the  absence 
of  one  possessing  these  qualifications,  the  world  should  be 
prepared  to  behold  a  rash  and  daring  man  inconsiderately 
flinging  from  him  the  brand  that  would  surely  kindle  the 
long-threatened  conflagration,  evoke  ferocious  passions,  and 
lead  to  bloody  conflicts  and  political  revolutions. 

The  first  to  come  forward  to  raise  his  hand  against  the 
religious  and  social  fabric,  and  deal  it  a  blow  under  wdiich 
it  reeled,  was  Martin  Luther. 

Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Eisleben,  in  Saxony,  November 
10, 1483,  of  poor  but  respectable  parents.  Shortly  after  Mar- 
tin's birth,  his  father  quitted  Eisleben,  and  moved  to  Mans- 
feld,  whose  citizens  rewaj:ded  his  many  virtues  by  conferring 
upon  him  an  ofiice  of  public  trust. 

Martin  was  early  taught  to  read  and  write,  and  formed  to 
the  practices  of  Christian  virtue.  Possessing  a  fine  voice  and 
correct  ear,  he  was  received  among  the  choir  boys  of  the 
school,  and,  his  parents  being  too  poor  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  a  liberal  education,  he,  as  was  the  custom  in  German}-, 
went  about  singing  at  the  windows  of  the  wealth }•  to  procure 
a  pittance  to  enable  him  to  prosecute  his  studies.  He  was 
sent,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to  the  Franciscan  school  at  Mag- 
deburg, where  he  received  his  tuition  free,  and  was  barely 
able  to  pay  his  board  with  the  paltry  sums  flung  to  him  from 
the  windows  under  which  he  sang.  After  passing  a  year  ot 
this  precarious  existence,  he  went  to  Eisenach,  where  he  was 


§  299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences.  S 

more  fortunate.  Passing  down  one  of  the  principal  streets 
of  the  city,  he  stopped  before  a  house  whose  size  and  elegance 
bespoke  the  wealth  of  the  inmates,  and  began  to  sing.  A 
lady  appeared  at  the  window,  and,  charmed  by  the  quality 
of  the  young  scholar's  voice  and  the  expression  of  his  sing- 
ing, threw  him  some  coins,  and  invited  him  in.  Ascending 
the  stairs,  Martin  was  afi'ectionately  received  by  the  lady,  and 
invited  to  partake  of  her  hospitality.  This  was  Ursula  C(^tta, 
who  continued  a  second  mother  to  the  young  wanderer  while 
he  remained  in  her  house.  Martin  now  pursued  his  studies 
vigorously  under  the  monks,  and  had  as  his  professor  of  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  poetry,  the  celebrated  J.  Trebonlus,  rector 
of  the  monastery  of  Discalced  Carmelites.  At  the  age  of  six- 
teen, he  had  mastered  the  Latin  tongue.  In  1501,  his  father, 
who  had  become  a  master  miner,  and  whose  circumstances 
were  consequently  materially  improved,  sent  him  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Erfurt  with  a  view  to  have  him  study  law.  The 
legal  profession,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  much 
to  Martin's  taste;  for,  instead  of  law,  he  ardently  applied  him- 
self to  the  study  of  the  dialectics  of  the  ISTominalists  and  to 
the  Latin  classics. 

In  1505,  he  took  his  degree  of  master  of  arts  and  opened  a. 
course  of  lectures  on  the  Physics  and  Ethics  of  Aristotle.^ 
These  studies,  however,  were  wholly  inadequate  to  give  peace 
and  quiet  to  Luther's  restless  and  religious  mind.  Naturally 
disposed  to  take  an  extreme  view  of  everything,  and  horrified 
by  the  sudden  death  of  his  young  friend  Alexis,  who  was 
struck  dead  at  his  side  by  lightning,  he  at  once  closed  the 
writings  of  Aristotle,  and,  without  even  taking  leave  of  his 
fellow-students,  quitted  the  University  on  the  night  of  July 
17,  and  going  directly  to  the  Augnstinian  Convent  of  Erfurt, 
"to  dedicate  himself  to  God,"  was  kindly  received  by  the 
monks.  His  father,  ambitious  to  see  his  son  a  learned  pro 
fessor  of  law  and  to  cut  a  figure  in  the  world,  wrote  him  an 
angry  letter  deprecating  his  course.     During  the  early  part 

1  tKamp.tchulte,  The  University  of  Erfurt  and  its  Relation  to  Humanism  and 
the  Reformation,  Treves,  1858-62,  two  pts.;  idem,  De  GeorgioWicelio,  Bonnae, 
185G;  de  Joanne  Croto  Robiano,  Bonnae,  1862. 


10  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

of  his  noviciate,  he  was  made  to  perform  the  menial  officea 
of  the  monastery;  but  from  these  he  was,  after  a  time,  re- 
lieved, through  the  intercession  of  friends,  and  in  1507,  de- 
spite the  remonstrances  of  his  father  and  others,  made  his 
profession,  and  took  priest's  orders.  He  was  so  greatly  agi- 
tated while  saying  his  first  Mass,  that  he  would  have  left  off 
at  the  Canon  and  come  down  from  the  Altar,  had  not  the 
prior  prevented  him.  Yet  he  tells  us  himself  that  there  was 
no  more  pious  and  faithful  priest  than  he,  and,  though  subject 
to  fits  of  melancholy,  he  roused  and  comforted  his  troubled 
spirit  by  reading  passages  of  Holy  Writ  pointed  out  to  him 
by  his  brethren  and  superiors.  Luther  learned  that  the  monks, 
far  from  being  unfamiliar  with  the  Scriptures,  possessed  many 
copies  of  them  in  their  library,  and,  instead  of  preventing  him 
from  reading  them,  encouraged  him  to  make  them  his  chief 
study.^  He  followed  their  advice,  applying  himself  specially 
to  the  study  of  the  commentaries  of  Nicholas  de  Lyra.  Dr. 
John  Stawpitz^  Provincial  of  the  Augustinians  of  Meissen 
and  Thuringia,  who  had  directed  Luther's  attention  to  the 
works  of  St.  Augustine,  was  so  pleased  with  his  aptitude  and 
proficiency,  that  he  recommended  him  to  Frederic  the  Wise, 
Prince-elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  then  casting  about  for 
professors  for  his  new  University  of  Wittenberg.  Here  he  first 
(1508)  taught  dialectics,  and  having  taken  his  first  degree,  or 
baccalaureate,  in  theology,  gave  lectures  in  this  branch  also. 
At  the  earnest  request  of  Dr.  Staupitz,  but  much  against  his 
own  will,  he  consented  to  take  upon  him  the  formidable  ofiice 
of  preaching  the  Gospel. 

The  learning,  quick  intelligence,  and  piety  of  Luther  spe- 
cially commended  him  to  his  superiors,  and  pointed  him  out 
as  one  well  fitted  to  undertake  important  ofiices  of  trust. 
Hence  he,  with  another  brother,  was  selected  to  visit  Rome 
in  1510,  for  the  purpose  of  transacting  some  business  relating 
to  his  Order.  Coming  in  view  of  Rome,  he  fell  on  his  knees 
and  cried  out,  ^'-  Hail  Rome,  Holy  City,  thrice  sanctified,  by  the 

^Luther's  Works,  Vol.  XXI.,  p.  21;  :Meurer,  p.  2o.  (Tr.) 

^Jocmnis  Staupltii  opera,  quae  reperiri  potueruiit  omnia,  ed.  Knaake,  Potis- 

dam.  1867.     Cf.  also  '-'Pasig  (Superintendent  of  Schneeberg),  John  VI.,  Bp.  of 

Meissen,  Lps.  1867. 


§  299.  Luthers  31anifest  against  Indulgences.  11 

blood  of  martyrs^  His  heart  glowed  with  holy  fervor  as  he 
visited  the  shrines  and  sanctuaries  of  the  Eternal  City,  and 
"he  almost  regretted  that  his  parents  were  not  ah^eady  dead 
that  he  might,  by  saying  Masses,  reciting  prayers,  and  doing 
good  works,  deliver  their  souls  from  purgatory."  He  was, 
however,  particularly  scandalized  on  hearing  that  many  of 
the  Roman  ecclesiastics  were  infected  with  a  spirit  of  un- 
belief. 

On  his  return  to  Germany,  he  was  declared  licentiate  of 
Sacred  Theology  on  the  feast  of  St.  Luke,  October  18,  1512, 
and  the  day  following,  during  the  ringing  of  the  great  bell 
of  All  Saints'  Church,  which  was  prescribed  by  the  statutes 
of  the  University,  invested  with  the  insignia  of  the  doctorate. 
Speaking  of  this  event,  Luther  himself  says:  "I  was  obliged 
to  take  the  degree  of  doctor,  and  to  promise  under  oath  that  I 
would  preach  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  are  very  dear  to  me, 
faithfully  and  without  adulteration.''  ^  The  better  to  fit  him- 
self to  become  an  efficient  professor  of  Holy  Scripture,  or,  as 
some  say,  from  motives  of  vanity,  he  was  at  special  pains  to 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  so  nec- 
essary as  aids  to  gain  the  true  sense  of  the  Psalter  and  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans  and  the  Galatians.  Even  at 
this  early  age  he  had  already  embraced,  in  a  confused  way, 
the  doctrine  that  good  works  are  wholly  worthless,  and  that 
faith  alone  is  all  sufficient  for  salvation. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  indulgences  were  published  in  Ger- 
many by  the  authority  of  the  munificent  and  splendid  Leo  X., 
the  proceeds  of  which  were  to  be  applied  to  the  building  of 
St.  Peter's  Basilica  in  Rome,  commenced  by  Julius  11."  The 
office  of  publishing^  the  indulgences  was  given  to  the  Elector 
Albert,  a  prince  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  Archbishop  of 
Mentz  and  Magdeburg,  and  administrator  of  the  diocese  of 
Halberstadt,  who  was  as  extravagant  and  as  fond  of  magnifi- 
cent displays  as  Leo  himself. 

^Luther's  Works,  XX.,  p.  33G;   Melanch.^  in  vita,  p.  13;   Meiirer,  p.  33. 

2Tlie  bull  in  von  der  Hardt,  1.  c,  T.  IV.,  p.  4. 

^'\Hennes,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Archbp.  of  3[etitz  and  Magdeburg,  Mentz, 
1858.  Jac.  May,  Albert  II.,  Elector,  Cardinal,  and  Archbishop,  together  witb 
eighty-two  documents  and  appendices,  Munich,  1866. 


12  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

Albert  selected  the  Dominican  Tetzel  of  Leipsic  to  preach 
the  indulgences  to  the  people  of  his  dioceses.  A  ripe  scholar 
and  a  fine  popular  speaker,  Tetzel  proclaimed  the  efficacy  of 
indulgences  in  language  at  once  ardent  and  energetic,^  which, 
while  at  times  sufficiently  ofi'ensive  to  call  forth  expressions 
of  hostility  against  both  the  man  and  his  mission,  was  by  no 
means  so  intemperate  or  extravagant  as  his  enemies  would 
have  us  believe. 

As  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  had  but  recently 
enacted  measures  restricting  the  sale  of  indulgences,  the  re- 
cent publication  of  them  gave  no  little  offense.^  In  the  year 
1500,  the  electoral  princes  entered  a  protest  against  their  pub- 
lication, and  enacted  in  1510  that  sums  of  money  arising  from 
this  source  should  not  be  sent  out  of  the  country.  The  Em- 
peror Maximilian  was  at  special  pains  to  see  that  the  latter 
provision  was  faithfnll}^  executed.  Johi,  Bishop  of  ^leissen, 
had  also  issued  a  prohibition,  cautioning  any  one  in  his  dio- 
cese against  receiving  the  preachers  of  indulgences;  and  a 
similar  prohibition  had  been  published  in  the  diocese  of  Con- 

'  Against  the  boundless  misrepresentations  and  unscrupulous  fabrications  in 
the  early  biographies  of  Tetzel,  put  into  circulation  bj'  such  men  as  Hecht, 
Vitemb.  1717;  Vogcl,  Lps.  1717  and  1727,  and  Hoffmann,  1844,  cf.  ••■Correspond- 
ence of  two  Catholics  on  the  Controversy  between  Tetzel  and  Luther  on  In- 
dulgences, Frankfort  on  the  Main,  1817;  \*Groene^  Tetzel  and  Luther,  or  a 
Biography  and  Vindication  of  Dr.  Tetzel,  Preacher  of  Indulgences,  2d  ed., 
Soest,  1860.  Moreover,  Tetzel  in  his  Instruction  to  Parish  Priests  (Oct.  31, 
1517)  expressly  prescribed  that  "whosoever,  having  co'nfessed  and  being  penitent 
{confe.isus  ei  contritus),  shall  bring  alms  {eleemosynnm,  i.  e.  for  this  special  pur- 
pose), shall  obtain  remission  of  temporal  and  canonical  punishment."  See 
Loesclier  1.  c,  I.,  414,  and  the  ordinary  formula  of  absolution  which  the  Lu- 
theran Seckendorf  himself  (Hist.  Lutheranismi,  lib.  II.,  sect.  6,  gives  in  the 
following  terms:  "Misercatur  tui  Dominus  noster  Jesus  Christns,  per  me-ita 
suue  sanctissiniae  passionis  te  absolvat  et  ego  auctoritate  ejusdem  et  beatoruni 
Petri  et  Pauli  Apostolorum  et  sanctissimi  domini  nostri  papae  mihi  concessa 
et  in  hac  parte  mihi  commissa  te  absolvo:  primo  ab  omnibus  censuris  a  te  quo- 

mod:libet  incursis,  deinde  ab  omnibus  peccatis,  delictis  et  excessibus etiam 

Bedi  Apoetolicae  reservatis,  in  quantum  claves  sanctae  matris  ecclesiae  se  ex- 
tendunt,  remittondo  tibi  per  plenariam  indulgentiam  omnem  poenam  in  purga- 
tcirio  pro  praemissis  debitam,  et  restituo  te  Sanctis  sacramentis  ecclesiae  et 
unitati  fidelium  ac  innocentiae  ct  puritati,  in  qua  eras,  quando  baptizatus  fuisti, 
etc.     In  nomine  P.,  F.,  et  Spiritus  Scti.     Amen. 

■^See  Vol.  II.,  p.  809,  note  2. 


§  299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences.  13 

stance.  Luther  was,  therefore,  not  the  first  to  protest  against 
the  flagrant  abuses  incident  to  putting  indulgences  on  sale; 
.  but  had  he  been,  no  blame  could  have  attached  to  him,  for  he 
would  have  been  only  exercising  a  right  which  he  had  in 
virtue  of  his  ofiices  of  preacher,  confessor,  and  doctor  of  the- 
ology. So  also,  when,  by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  he  affixed 
his  famous  ninety-five  propositions  to  the  doors  of  the  church 
attached  to  the  castle  of  Wittenberg,  on  the  Yigil  of  Ail 
Saints  (October  31,  1517),  he  did  no  more  than  what  was 
sanctioned  by  the  usage  of  that  age.  It  would  seem  that  he 
might  claim  the  greater  right  to  do  so,  inasmuch  as  he  openly 
proclaimed  the  doctrine  of  indulgeuces,  saying  in  his  seventy- 
first  proposition  :  "  Whosoever  speaks  against  the  truths  of 
papal  indulgences,  let  him  be  anathema;"  and  protested  that 
it  was  not  his  wish  or  purpose  to  say  aught  against  Holy 
Writ.^  or  the  teachings  of  the  Popes  and  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church.  No  fault,  therefore,  could  be  found  with  him  for 
having  denounced  whatever  was  really  extravagant  and  ex- 
cessive in  the  preaching  of  indulgences,  and  for  having  called 
for  some  authoritative  settlement  of  the  question,  of  w^hich, 
as  he  afterw-ard  confessed,  "he  knew  no  more  at  that  time 
than  those  who  came  to  inquire  of  him."^  That  he  was  sadly 
in  need  of  some  elementary  instruction  on  the  nature  of  in- 
dulgeuces, their  conditious  and  eflects,  is  painfully  evident 
from  the  grotesque  character  and  intemperate  language  of 
many  of  his  propositions.^  Luther's  fundamental  principle, 
more  fully  and  distinctly  drawn  out  as  years  went  on — viz., 
that  "  God  alone,  independently  of  human  exertion,  is  all  in  all 


^In  Loescher,  Complete  Acts  of  the  Eeformation,  Pt.  I.,  p.  367  sq.,  and  in  the 
editions  of  Luthers  Works,  e.  g.  that  of  Jena,  Pt.  I.,  Altenburg,  Vol.  I. ;  that 
of  Walch,  Vol.  XVITI.,  p.  255  sq.  The  above  passage  was  transcribed  literally 
by  Ranlce  from  the  original  text  preserved  in  the  royal  library  of  Berlin,  and 
published  in  his  Complete  Works,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  80-85. 

-In  his  twenty-ninth  proposition,  Luther  asks:  "Who  knows  if  every  soul 
would  desire  to  be  delivered  from  purgatory?"  Again,  in  his  eighty-second: 
i'  Why  does  not  the  Pope,  since  he  may  open  heaven  to  so  many  for  a  few 
wretched  florins,  of  his  sacred  charity  empty  purgatory  of  the  suflcring  souls 
confined  there?"  Moreover,  while  some  of  the  propositions  aflirm  that  indu' 
gences  are  useless  and  harmful,  others  affirm  that  they  should  not  be  made 
light  of.  Among  the  most  objectionable  propositions  are  the  thirty-sixth, 
according  to  which  whosoever  is  truly  sorry  for  his  sins  receives  remission 


14  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

in  the  affair  of  man's  salvation" — was  substantiallv  coutained, 
and  but  thinly  disguised,  in  these  propositions.  Failing  to 
detect  this  latent  poison,  many  loudly  applauded  his  course, 
and  among  them  the  Bishop  of  Wiirzburg,^  who,  in  a  letter 
to  the  Elector,  Frederic  the  Wise,  begged  that  prince  to  take 
Luther  under  his  protection,  and  shield  him  from  his  enemies. 
Luther  wrote  to  the  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  praying  him  to 
mark  out  the  proper  course  to  be  followed  in  the  affair  of 
indulgences,  that  their  publication  might  be  made  in  a  man- 
ner at  once  becoming  and  lawful;  but  in  failing  to  wait  an 
answer,  he  indicated  a  disposition  to  subvert  established  order, 
and  set  law  at  dej&ance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Archbishop 
can  not  be  held  entirely  blameless ;  for,  in  writing  to  Luther 
after  the  latter  had  begun  to  make  a  stir  in  the  world,  he 
Baid:^  "As  yet  I  have  not  found  time  to  read  your  writings, 
or  even  to  glance  through  them;  I  leave  the  judgment  on  the 
questions  raised  in  them  to  my  superiors  in  rank  and  dignity. 
I  have  learned,  however,  with  sincere  sorrow  and  no  little 
displeasure,  that  grave  doctors  engage  in  heated  controversy 
concerning  such  trivial  questions  as  the  Pope's  power;  whether 
he  holds  his  office  of  Head  of  the  Church  by  Divine  or  human 
authority;  whether  or  no  man  enjoys  free  will;  and  similar 
points,  concerning  which  no  earnest  Christian  gives  himself 
very  much  concern."  He  had,  however,  submitted  the  affair 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  theological  faculty  of  Leipsig.^ 

The  great  applause  that  greeted  the  appearance  of  Luther's 
propositions    revealed    the    intense   indignation    everywhere 

of  them  and  the  punishment  due  to  them;  the  fifth  and  twentieth,  which  de- 
clare that  the  Pope  can  remit  only  such  penalties  as  are  imposed  by  himself  or 
the  Church,  but  not  those  imposed  by  God;  the  eighth,  tenth,  and  thirtieth, 
which  restrict  canonical  penalties  to  the  living,  thereby  exempting  the  dea.i 
from  such  hardship,  and  denying  their  need  of  indulgences;  and  the  fifty- 
eighth,  which  denies  that  the  treasures  of  the  Church,  whence  indulgences  am 
drawn,  are  the  merits  of  Christ  and  his  Saints.  Cf.  the  scathing  criticism  of 
the  propositions  in  Riffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  32  sq.;  iid  ed.,  p.  65  sq. 

^Surius,  ad  an.  1517,  declares:  "  In  ipsis  hujus  tragoediae  initiis  visus  est  Lu- 
therus  eliam  plerisque  viris  gravibus  et  eruditis  non  pessimo  zelo  moveri  plane- 
que  nihil  spectare  aliud,  quam  ecclesiae  reformationem."  Cf.  Erusm.,  epp.  lib 
XVIII.,  p.  736. 

-  Luther's  "Works,  apud  Walch,  Pt.  XV.,  p.  1640. 

*See  Wiedenuinn,  John  Eck,  p.  85. 


§  299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences.  15 

evoked  by  the  abuse  of  indulgences.  Within  the  short  in- 
terval of  two  months,  they  were  known  in  almost  every  coun- 
try of  Europe.  Manj^  written  replies  to  them  were  at  once 
put  forth,  the  first  being  the  Three  Days  Labor  {Tridui  labor) 
of  the  Roman  Dominican,  Sylvester  Prierias  {Magister  Sacn 
Palatii),  in  which  the  claims  advanced  in  behalf  of  the  papal 
power ^  were  in  a  measure  excessive.  Tetzel  followed  with  a 
refutation  of  Luther,  entitled  "  On  Lidulgences  and,  Grace.''' 
written  in  German,  and  published  simultaneously  with  the 
theses  of  the  Reformer.  In  a  disputation  undertaken  by  the 
same  writer  at  the  University  of  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder,^  on 
the  occasion  of  his  taking  the  degree  of  licentiate  in  theology, 
and  under  the  presidency  of  the  Dominican  monk,  'Conrad 
Koch,  better  known  as  Conrad  Wimpina,  ho  defended  one 
hundred  and  six  propositions,  controverting  the  errors  of 
Luther  with  such  marked  ability  as  to  demonstrate  beyond 
all  doubt  that  he  thoroughly  understood  the  Catholic  teach- 
ing on  indulgences,  was  an  excellent  theologian,  and  pos- 
sessed a  well  trained  and  cultivated  mind.  The  burden  of 
these  propositions  was  to  show  that  confession  and  satisfaction 
{confessio  et  satisf actio)  are  conditions  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  full  remission  of  sins  in  the  sacrament  of  penance.  In- 
dulgences, by  which  the  vindictive  canonical  punishments  due 
to  sin  are  remitted,  have  to  do  with  satisfaction  only,  and 
have  no  connection  with  medicinal  penitence,  or  remedies  for 
keeping  the  passions  in  check,  which  must  be  applied  by 
the  penitent  himself.' 

Finally,  as  early  as  January  20,  1518,  Tetzel  was  again  at 
the  University  of  Frankfurt,  on  the  occasion  of  taking  his 

iDialogus  in  praesumtuosas  Lutheri  conclusiones  de  potestate  Papae  (1517), 
apud  Loescher,  Pt.  II.,  p.  12  sq. 

^ '^j Miitermuller,  Conrad  Wimpina,  in  the  Periodical  "TAe  Catholic,"  year 
1869,  Vol.  I.,  p.  641-681;  Vol.  II.,  p.  129-165.  Wimpina,  a  native  of  Buehen, 
and  buried  in  the  Franconian  Benedictine  monastery  of  Amorbach,  possessod 
an  almost  cyclopaedical  knowledge  of  the  current  learning  of  his  age,  and 
could,  when  occasion  demanded,  turn  it  to  excellent  account  in  debate. 

^  Licbermann,  Institut.  theolog.,  ed.  V.,  T.  V.,  p.  195:  '•  Id  etiam  observandum 
est,  quod  poenitentiae  injungantur  non  tantum  in  vindtctam  peccati,  sed  etiam 
tanquara  remedia  ad  coercendas  cupiditates  et  curandam  animi  inlirmitatem  ex 
poccatis  contractam.    Sed  ab  hac  medicinali  poenitentia  non  eximunt  indulcjejitiae.' 


16  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


degree  of  doctorate  in  theology,^  defending  fifty  propositions  in 
support  of  papal  poiver. 

Among  the  adversaries  of  Lutlier  was  Dr.  John  Eck,  Vi  e- 
chaacellor  of  the  University  of  Ingolstadt.  During  his  stay 
at  the  Universities  of  Heidelberg,  Tubingen,  Cologne,  and 
Freiburg,  he  had  stored  away  vast  treasures  of  philosophical 
and  theological  learning,  which  his  rugged  constitution,  his 
vigorous,  acute  and  versatile  intellect  enabled  him  to  turn  to 
the  best  practical  account.^  At  the  request  of  the  Bishop  of 
Eichstcidt,  where  he  held  a  canonry,  he  sent  to  the  former  a 
copy  of  Luther's  theses,  with  the  objectionable  propositions 
marked  with  obelisks,^  and  refuted  in  marginal  notes.  This 
communication,  which  was  supposed  to  be  of  a  private  char- 
acter, was  published  in  the  beginning  of  Lent,  1518,  without 
previous  knowledge  on  the  part  of  its  author,  and  against  his 
will.  Four  years  later  (1522),  Hochstraten,  a  Dominican  of 
Cologne,  to  whom  a  contest  with  Reuchlin  had  given  some 
notoriety,  also  entered  the  lists  against  Luther,^  whom  he 
combated  in  several  works,  particularly  after  the  year  1526. 
Hochstraten  and  his  colleagues  were  indiscreet  in  their  mode 
of  attack,  for,  instead  of  confining  themselves  to  the  question 
at  issue,  they  went  aside  from  their  main  purpose  to  take  a 
fling  at  the  Humanists,  whom  they  charged  with  being  at  the 
bottom  of  all  the  trouble,  singling  out  Erasmus  for  special 
animadversion.^     Such   irrelevant    advocacy   of   their   cause 


^  Both  the  theses  of  Luther  and  the  counter-theses  of  Tetzel,  apud  Loscher,  1. 
c,  Ft.  I.,  p.  484  sq.;  504  sq.     Cf.  Eiffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  36  sq.;  2d  ed.,  p.  71  sq. 

"Luther  had  previously  borne  him  witness,  that  he  was  an  "insignis  vereque 
ingeniosae  eruditionis  et  eruditi  ingenii  homo"  {de  Wetie,  Luther's  Letters,  Vol. 
I.,  p.  59).  t*  Wiedemann,  Dr.  John  Eck,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Ingol- 
stadt, Vienna,  1865.  Cf.  also  V'^Meuser,  in  the  Catholic  Journal  of  Science  and 
Art,  Year  III.,  Cologne,  1846. 

'Apud  Loescher,  Pt.  II.,  p.  64  sq. 

*Cum  divo  Augustino  coUoquia  contra  enormes  atque  perversos  Martini  Lu- 
ther i  errores,  Colon.  1522.  On  all  the  Catholic  adversaries  of  Luther,  cf.  Dr. 
Ldmmer,  The  Pre-Tridentine  Catholic  Theology  of  the  Age  of  the  Eeforma- 
tion,  Berlin,  1858,  p.  1-17. 

^^^ Erasmus"  they  said,  "laid  the  egg,  and  Luther  hatched  it.  The  heresj'  is 
wholly  the  work  of  Greek  scholars  and  polished  rhetoricians."  Erasmus  at  first 
contented  himself  with  an  apologetic  defense.  He  wrote  to  Hochstraten:  "Haeo 
Btudia  non  obscurant  theologicara  dignitatem,  sed  illustrant,  non  oppugnant,  sod 


§  299.  Luther's  Manifest  against  Indulgences.  17 

roused  and  embittered  their  adversaries,  and  harmed  only 
themselves  and  the  great  truths  they  were  upholding.' 

j^/uther  threw  himself  with  all  his  wonted  energy  and  vehe- 
mence into  the  thick  of  the  fight,  and  in  an  incredibly  short 
time  had  written  replies  to  all  his  assailants.  His  reply,  enti- 
Hed  the  Asterisks-  (Asterisei),  to  the  Obelisks  [Obelisci)  of  Eck, 
iil.'ounds  in  intemperate  invective  and  unseemly  abuse,^  is  fre- 
quently contradictory  in  its  assertions,  and  is  singularly  sub- 
versive of  the  faith  of  the  Church.  Luther  had  some  time 
previously,  in  a  discussion  which  took  place  in  the  Angus- 
tinian  Convent  of  Heidelberg  (April,  1518),  avowed  the  anti- 

famulantur"  (•;;.  d.  Hardt,  Hist.  lit.  reformationis  II.,  13.)  But  he  subsequently 
maligned  the  inquisitors.  He  said:  "Olim  haereticus  habebatur,  qui  dissentjebat 
ab  evangeliis,  ab  articulis  lidei,  aut  his,  quae  cum  his  parem  obtinent  auctorita- 
tem ;  —  nunc  quidquid  non  placet,  quidquid  non  intelligunt,  haeresis  est.  Graece 
scire  haeresis  est,  expolite  loqui  haeresis  est,  quidquid  ipsi  non  faciunt,  haeresis 
est."     Epp.  lib.  XII.,  p.  403. 

1  Erasmus,  quoted  by  Seckendorf,  says  apropos  of  the  method  of  Hochstraten : 
"Nulla  res  magis  conciliavit  omnium  favorem  Luthero,"  and  of  Prierias: 
"Scripsit  Prierias  .  .  .  sed  ita  tamen  ut  causam  indulgentiarum  fecerit  dete- 
riorem." 

2  Both  are  given  in  Loscher,  Yol.  II.,  p.  62  sq.,  and  333  sq.;  Vol.  III.,  p.  660 
sq.     Lutlteri  0pp.  Latin.,  Jenae,  T.  I. 

*Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  I.,  2d  ed.,  p.  73  sq.  Speaking  of  Sylvester  Prierias,  ex  gr.,  ho 
says:  "His  pamphlet  is  the  incoherent  and  furious  raving  of  the  very  Devil 
whose  tool  Prierias  is.  It  is  replete,  from  beginning  to  end,  with  abominable 
and  horrible  blasphemies,  and  I  make  no  doubt  that  its  libelous  utterances 
issued  from  the  mouth  of  Satan,  in  the  very  center  of  hell.  .  .  .  Should  the 
Pope  and  the  Cardinals  refuse  to  impose  silence  on  this  impudent  and  infernal 
blasphemer,  I  shall  break  with  the  Church  of  Eome,  and  brand  her,  the  Pope, 
and  the  Cardinals  as  the  abomination  of  desolation.  .  .  .  Away  with  thee,  thou 
infamous,  accursed,  and  blasphemous  Eome,  the  anger  of  God  is  at  length  come 
upon  thee.  .  .  .  Since  we  hang  thieves,  put  murderers  to  the  sword,  and  consign 
heretics  to  the  flames,  why  do  we  not  rather  pursue  with  every  manner  of 
weapon  these  pestiferous  teachers  of  perdition,  the  Pope,  the  Cardinals,  and  the 
Bishops,  and  the  whole  horde  of  the  Eoman  Sodom,  ...  and  wash  our  hands  in 
their  blood?  Nor  is  this  their  adequate  punishment  .  .  .  they  must  suflfer  eter- 
nally in  hell."  These  fragments  will  give  an  idea  of  Luther's  method  of  meet- 
ing his  opponents.  Ranke,  speaking  of  this  literary  tilt,  says :  "  However  con- 
temptible and  easy  of  refutation  the  pamphlet  of  Prierias  may  have  seemed  to 
Lutherj  he  nevertheless  still  kept  a  check  upon  his  speech,  biding  his  time,  not 
wishing  to  draw  upon  himself  the  enmity  of  the  Curia."  Germ.  Hist,  of  the 
Age  of  the  Keformation,  Vol.  I.,  p.  320;  Complete  Works,  Vol.  I.,  p.  213. 
VOL.    Ill — 2 


Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


Catholic  propositions  which  he  afterward  maintained,^  and 
sncceeded  in  gaining  Bucer  over  to  his  cause.  Dr.  Andrew 
Bodenstein,  who  took  the  name  of  Caiistadt  from  his  birth- 
place,^  declared  in  his  favor  at  Wittenberg. 

The  various  polemical  w^ritings  which  the  occasion  called 
forth,  fixed  public  attention  upon  the  principles  of  Christian 
anthropology^  which,  as  history  proves,  may  lead  to  the  gravest 
errors  when  approached  and  discussed  in  any  other  than  a 
calm  and  reverential  frame  of  mind. 

§  300.  Negotiation  between  Rome  and  Luther — Disputation  at 
Leipsig — JEck,  Emser,  and  Melanchthon. 

Leo  X.,  learning  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Germany,  ap- 
pointed temporarily  the  learned  Venetian,  Ga.hriel,  the  then 
pro-magister  of  the  Augustinian  Hermits,  to  the  vacant  office 
of  generalship  of  the  Order  (1518).  The  Pope,  led  astray  by 
the  belief  that  the  whole  trouble  was  no  more  than  what 
Cochheus^  said  it  was — a  rivalry  between  two  religious  Or- 
ders and  a  quarrel  among  a  few  monks — instructed  Gabriel, 
acting  in  his  official  capacity  of  General  of  the  Order,  to  re- 
mind Luther  of  his  vow  of  obedience,  and  in  virtue  of  it  to 
lay  upon  him  the  obligation  of  keeping  silence.  He  was  fur- 
ther instructed  to  do  all  he  could  to  have  the  Elector,  Frederic 
the  "Wise,  set  his  face  against  Luther,  and  oppose  his  designs. 
The  Emperor  Maximilian,  more  penetrating  and  far-seeing 
than  the  Pope,  called  attention,  in  words  of  weighty  import, 
to  the  dangers  and  gravity  of  the  threatening  struggle.  "  In 
a  little  time,"  he  foretold,  "private  opinion  and  the  folly  of 


1  Luther's  Works  in  Walch,  Pt.  XVIII.,  pp.  66  sq. 

2  Previously  to  the  appearance  of  Luther's  Asterisci.  Carlstadt  had  written 
the  Apologeiicae  Conclusiones,  embracing  one  hundred  £>nd  seventy  propositions. 
He  also  wrote,  in  answer  to  Eck's  apology  of  the  Obelisci,  the  Defcnsio  adv.  Jo. 
Eckii  monomachiam.  in  Loscher,  Pt.  II. 

'Cf.  the  Defense  of  Cochlaeus  by  Lessing,  but  in  a  small  matter  only  (Com- 
plete Works,  edited  by  Lackman7i,  Berlin,  1838,  sq..  Vol.  IV.,  p.  87-101).  Oito, 
Cochlaeus  as  a  Humanist.  See  also  the  defense  of  Pope  Leo  against  Bnn^ 
deUo's  report,  that  the  Pope  had  at  first  viewed  this  cause  as  a  trifling  matter, 
in  the  Breslau  Review  of  Catholic  Theology,  ed.  by  RUter,  1832,  nros.  I. 
and  II. 


§  300.  Negotiation  between  .Rome  and  Luther,  etc.       19 

man  will  be  set  up  in  place  of  the  truths  of  tradition,  and  the 
principles  underlying  the  scheme  of  salvation."^ 

The  theses  and  their  defense  sent  by  Luther  to  Pope  Leo  X.,^ 
accompanied  with  a  letter  humbly  begging  the  favor  of  an 
investigation,  and  expressing  his  pacific  intentions  and  his 
readiness  to  make  an  unconditional  surrender  of  his  own 
will  to  that  of  his  superiors,^  are  the  first  act  in  a  long  drama 
of  hypocritical  professions.  At  the  close  of  this  letter,  he 
said :  "  Hence,  Most  Holy  Father,  J  cast  myself  at  thy  feet, 
with  all  that  I  have  and  am.  Give  life,  or  take  it;  call,  re- 
call, approve,  reprove;  your  voice  is  that  of  Christ,  who  pre- 
sides and  speaks  in  you."  To  Staupitz,  he  wrote  in  the  same 
ten  or.  ^ 

Leo  appointed  a  court  to  try  the  case,  and  cited  (August  7, 
1518)  Luther  to  appear  at  Rome  within  sixty  days  and  answer 
the  charges  against  him.  The  Elector  Frederic  interposed  his 
good  offices,  and  at  his  request  Pope  Leo  consented  that  Lu- 
ther, instead  of  journeying  to  Eome,  should  come  before  the 
imperial  diet  of  Augsburg,  and  have  a  conference  with  the 
Papal  Legate,  Cardinal  Cajetan,  one  of  the  most  learned  theo- 
logians of  his  age.  In  the  early  days  of  October,  1518,  Lu- 
ther, accompanied  by  some  friends,  entered  Augsburg,  and, 
fortified  with  a  safe  conduct  from  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
and  the  municipal  authorities,  presented  himself  before  the 
Cardinal,  who  received  him  kindly,  and  was  disposed  to  treat 
him  with  all  possible  tenderness.  The  Legate,  having  instruc- 
tions to  demand  an  unconditional  retraction,  refused  to  en- 
gage in  controversy  with  Luther,  who,  claiming  that  he  had 
said  nothing  contrary  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  to  the  teaching 
of  the  Church,  the  decrees  of  Popes,  and  the  dictates  of 
right  reason,^  was  anxious  to  enter  into  a  discussion  for  the 
purpose  of  defending  his  statement  on  Biblical  authority.  He 
nevertheless  consented  to  subscribe  to  the  following  decla- 
ration :  "  I,  Martin  Luther,  of  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine,  do 

^  Ray?ialdus  ad  an.  1518,  nro.  90. 

^  Kesolutiones  disput.  de  virt.  indulgg.  (Loscher,  Vol.  II.,  p.  183  sq.)  (Tr.) 

^De  Wette,  Vol.  1,  p.  119.  (Tr.) 

*In  Loscher,  Pt.  II.,  p.  176;  and  Meurer,  p.  68.  (Tr.) 

^Luther's  German  Works,  Jena  ed.,  Pt.  1.,  fol.  107-136. 


20  Period  3.     Epoch  L     Chapter  1. 


reverence  and  obe}^  the  Eoman  Church  in  every  word  and 
deed,  whether  in  time  past,  present,  or  future;  and  should  I 
have  said  anything  contrary  to  this  profession  or  in  a  differ- 
ent sense,  I  desire  that  such  speech  shall  be  regarded  as  if 
never  spoken."  ^  Apprehensive  of  arrest  and  imprisonment, 
he,  on  the  20th  of  October,  stealthily  escaped  from  the  city, 
and,  liking  himself  to  Isaias  and  St.  Paul,  '•  appealed  from  the 
Pope  ill  informed  to  the  Pope  better  instructed"  {a  papa  male 
informato  ad  papam  melius  informandum). 

That  no  one  "  might  have  a  pretext  to  plead  ignorance  of 
the  true  teaching  of  the  Roman  Church  on  indulgences  "^JjQO, 
in  a  bull  issued  ITovember  9,  1518,  and  beginning  Cum  post- 
qaam,  gave  the  fullest  instruction  on  the  doctrine,  and  threat- 
ened such  as  should  gainsay  it  with  excommunication  latae 
sententiae.  About  the  same  time,  the  Pope  sent  the  accom- 
plished Saxon,  Charles  of  Miltitz,  to  Germany,  for  the  twofold 
purpose  of  decorating  the  Elector  Frederic  with  the  golden 
rose  and  the  securing  him  in  the  interest  of  the  Holy  See, 
and  of  restraining  Luther  by  peaceful  measures  until  such 
time  as  the  German  bishops  should  have  put  an  end  to  the 
quarrel.  The  Apostolic  nuncio  while  traveling  through  Ger- 
many heard  much  complaint  of  the  evil  effects  of  Tetzel's 
preaching,  and  in  consequence  sharply  rebuked  the  Domini- 
can for  indiscreet  zeal.     Tetzel  took  the  reprimand  so  much 

^Luther's  Works,  Altenburg  ed.,  Pt.  I.,  p.  132. 

2  In  Loscher,  Vol.  II.,  p.  493  sq.  Walch's  ed.  of  Luther's  Works,  Pt.  XV.,  p. 
756  sq.  In  this  Bull,  it  is  said:  "  Eomanum  Pontificem  —  potestate  clavium, 
quarum  est  aperire  toUendo  illius  in  Christi  fidelibus  impedimenta,  culpam  scil. 
et  poenam  pro  actualibus  peccatis  debitam,  culpam  quidem  mediante  sacramento 
poenitentiae,  poenam  verotemporalem  pro  actualibus  peccatis  secundum  divinam 
justitiam  debitam  mediante  ecclesiastica  indulgentia,  posse  pro  rationalibus  cau- 
sis  concedere  eisdem  Christi  fidelibus,  —  sive  in  hac  vita  sint,  sive  in  purgatorio, 
indulgentias  ex  superabundantia  meritorum  Jesu  Christi  et  Sanctorum,  ac  tam 
pro  vivis  quam  pro  defunctis  —  thesaurum  meritorum  Jesu  Christi  et  Sancto- 
rum dispensare,  per  modum  absolutionis  indulgentiam  ipsam  conferre,  vel  per 
modum  sufiragii  illam  transferre  consuevisse.  Ac  propterea  omnes  tam  vivos 
quam  defunctos,  qui  veracitur  omnes  indulgentias  hujusmodi  consecuti  fuerint, 
a  tanta  lemporali  poena  secundum  divinam  justitiam  pro  peccatis  suis  actuali- 
bus debita  liberari,  quanta  concessae  et  acquisitae  indulgentiae  aequivalet.'' 
This  authoritative  instruction  perfectly  agrees  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Scho- 
lastics, given  above,  pp.  798,  799;  notes  2,  3;  1,  2. 


§  300.  Negotiation  between  Rome  and  Luther,  etc.       21 

to  heart  that  he  withdrew  to  a  monastery,  fell  sick,  and  died, 
it  is  said,  of  grief,  July  14,  1519.  Miltitz  was  far  more  con- 
siderate in  his  treatment  of  his  Saxon  countryman,  the  author 
of  the  new  teaching,  and  was  deluded  into  the  belief  that  his 
mission  had  been  successful.  The  two  had  an  interview  at 
Altenhurg  (January  5,  1519),  and  Luther  agreed  to  leave  off 
preaching  and  live  quietly  if  his  adversaries  would  do  like- 
wise, to  induce  the  people  to  continue  obedient  to  the  Holy 
See;  to  instruct  them  by  letter  in  the  orthodox  sense  on  the 
veneration  of  the  Saints,  on  indulgences,  purgatory,  the  Com- 
mandments of  God,  and  the  authority  of  the  Pope ;  and, 
finally,  to  write  to  his  Holiness  in  the  spirit  of  a  docile  child. 
In  a  letter  dated  March  3,  1519,  Luther  wrote  to  the  Pope  as 
follows:  "I  have  been  unnecessarily,  excessively,  and  abu- 
sively severe  in  my  treatment  of  those  empty  babblers.  I 
had  only  one  end  in  view,  viz:  to  prevent  Our  Mother,  the 
Roman  Chuych,  from  being  soiled  by  the  filth  of  another's 
avarice;  and  the  faithful  from  being  led  into  error,  and 
learning  to  set  indulgences  before  charity.  Kow,  Most  Holy 
Father,  I  protest  before  God  and  His  creatures  that  it  has 
never  been  my  i^urpose,  nor  is  it  now,  to  do  aught  that  might 
tend  to  weaken  or  overthrow  the  authority  of  the  Roman 
Church  or  that  of  your  Holiness;  nay,  more,  I  confess  that 
the  power  of  this  Church  is  above  all  things;  that  nothing  in 
Heaven  or  on  earth  is  to  be  set  before  it,  Jesus  alone  the  Lord 
of  all  excepted."  That  Luther  was  playing  the  part  of  a 
contemptible  hypocrite,  and  did  not  mecUi  a  word  of  what 
he  wrote  to  the  Pope,  is  evident  from  a  private  letter  written 
to  his  friend  Spalatinus  just  nine  days  later  (March  12).^  "I 
whisper  it  to  you,"  he  writes,  "  in  sooth  I  know  not  whether 
the  Pope  is  Antichrist  or  his  apostle." 

The  opponents  of  Luther,  and  notably  Dr.  Eck,  without 
fully  appreciating  the  consequences  of  their  step,  brought  on 
a  public  discussion  previously  to  the  meeting  of  the  German 
bishops  in  conference.  Some  who  dreaded  the  agitation  which 
a  discussion  of  this  character  would  certainly  occasion,  hatl 
their  fears  set  at  rest  by  the  splendid  reputation  enjoyed  by 


'  Dp.  Weite,  Tom.  I.,  p.  239.  (Tr.) 


22  Period  3.     E'poch  1.     Chapter  1. 


Eck^  for  ability  and  learning,  and  looked  forward  to  a  com- 
plete triumph.  After  the  manner  of  the  age,  the  subject- 
matter  to  be  discussed  was  thrown  into  the  form  of  theses.^ 
The  parties  to  the  disputation,  which  took  place  in  the  hall 
of  the  Castle  of  Pleissenburg,  at  LeijJsig,  in  the  presence  of 
Duke  George  of  Saxony  and  a  highly  cuhivated  audience,  and 
continued  for  two  weeks  together,  were,  on  the  one  hand. 
Luther  and  Carlstadt,  assisted  by  the  professors  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wittenberg,  and  on  the  other  Eck  and  the  profes- 
sors of  the  Universities  of  Cologne,  Louvain,  and  Leipsig. 
The  chief  propositions  discussed  were  the  doctrine  of  the  con- 
dition of  man  after  the  fall;  of  free  will  and  grace;  of  penance 
and  indulgences ;  and  of  the  primacy  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Caristadt,^  who  had  been  challenged  by  Eck,  spoke  first,  main- 
taining that  man  of  himself  is  incapable  of  doing  any  good 
work,  and  that  even  when  in  the  state  of  grace  his  works 
are  wholly  destitute  of  merit.*  This  champion,  who  had 
placed  the  doctor's  cap  on  Luther's  head,  suffered  an  igno- 
minious defeat,  and  after  a  week's  discussion  was  forced  to 
yield  his  place  to  his  disciple.^ 

The  question  of  the  primacy  of  the  Pope  came  next  under 

1  Eccii  Epp.  Ep.  de  rat.  studior.  suor.  Ingol.  154,  4to.  [Strobel,  Misc.  H.  III., 
p.  95  sq.)     F.  Kotyermund,  Erneu.  Andenken,  Vol.  I.,  p.  251  sq.  (Tr.) 

*  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  following: 

I.  Man  sins  daily,  and  also  daily  repents,  according  to  the  precept  of  Our 
Lord:  Do  penance.  None  but  a  just  man  (Eck)  is  exempt  from  this  rule,  he 
having  no  need  of  penance. 

II.  To  deny  that  mail  sins  in  doing  good,  or  that  every  sin  is  of  its  nature 
mortal,  or,  if  venial,  so  only  by  the  mercy  of  God,  is  all  one  with  discarding  Paul 
and  Christ. 

VII.  To  assert  that/ree  vnll  is  the  arbiter  of  good  or  evil  actions,  or  to  deny 
that  justification  depends  on  faith  alone,  is  silly  nonsense. 

XI.  To  affirm  that  indulgences  are  beneficial  to  Christians,  or  that  they  do 
not  imply  rather  an  absence  of  good  works,  is  madness. 

Carlstadt  asserted  in  his  VI.  and  VIII.  theses  that  daily  venial  sins,  .,ke 
mortal,  work  eternal  damnation. 

3  His  real  name  was  Andrew  of  Bodenstein;  he  took  that  of  Carlstadt  from 
his  birthplace,  in  Franconia.  Using  the  inilials  of  these  three  words,  Melanch. 
thon  called  him  the  bad  ABC. 

*  A.  G.DiekhoJf,  de  Carolost.  Luth.  de  servo  arbitrio  doctrinae  defense  re,  Gott, 
1850.  (Tr.) 

»  Life  of  M.  Luther,  by  Audin,  Phil.  1841,  p.  97 ;  London,  1854,  Vol.  I„  p.  182. 


§  300.  Negotiation  between  Rome  and  Luther,  etc.       23 

discussion,  and  Luther,  in  replying  to  Eck's  argument  for  ita 
divine  origin,  said  that  it  rested  only  on  human  authority, 
and  that  of  the  passage  from  St.  Matthew  xvi.  18,  the  words, 
"Thou  art  Peter,"  were  addressed  to  the  Apostle;  and  those 
immediately  following — viz  :  "  And  upon  this  rock  I  will  build 
M}^  Church" — applied  to  Christ.  In  the  matter  of  jurisdic- 
tion, he  went  on  to  explain,  the  Pope  has  no  advantage  over 
the  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  or  the  Bishop  of  Paris,  and 
whatever  supremacy  he  may  enjoy  is  derived  entirely  from 
the  sovereign  will  of  the  people.  He  is  indeed,  he  added,  the 
head  of  the  Apostolic  College,  and  has  ix 'primacy  of  honor,  but 
not  of  jurisdiction.  Eck's  superiority  over  his  adversaries  in 
knowledge,  dialectical  skill,  and  readiness  and  felicit}'^  of 
speech,  secured  him  a  brilliant  triumph,  and  elicited  the 
hearty  applause  of  his  hearers.^ 

In  the  course  of  the  discussion,  Luther  had  explicitly  main- 
tained that  Jaith  alone,  independently  of  good  works,  suffices 
for  salvation ;  and  when  confronted  with  conflicting  passages 
from  the  Epistle  of  St.  James,  called  in  question  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  Epistle;  denied  human /ree  will,  the  primacy 
of  the  Pope,  and  the  inerrancy  of  Ecumenical  Councils.  The 
opinions  advanced  and  advocated  by  him  so  nearly  resembled 
the  Hussite  propositions  branded  as  heretical  by  the  Council 
of  Constance,  that  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  startled  by  their  bold- 
ness, hastily  put  an  end  to  the  discussion,  remarking,  ^'^  Here 
indeed,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  danger.^' ^ 

'^Lutheri  ep.  ad  Spalat. :  "Interim  tamen  ille  placet,  triumphat  et  regnat: 
sed  donee  ediderimus  nos  nostra.  Nam  quia  male  disputatum  est,  edam  resolu- 
tiones  denuo.  —  Lipsienses  sane  nos  neque  salutarunt  neque  visitarunt  ac  veluti 
hostes  invisissimos  habuerunt,  ilium  comitabantur,  adhaerebant,  convivabantur, 
invitabant,  denique  tunica  donaverunt  et  schamlotum  addiderunt,  cum  ipso 
spaciatum  equitaverunt,  breviter,  quidquid  potuerunt,  in  nostram  injuriam  ten- 
taverunt."  Acta  coUoq.  Lips,  (between  Eck,  Melanciithon,  Cellarius,  and  Carl- 
stadt,  many  rejoinders,  etc.)  in  Losclier,  Vol.  III.,  p.  203  sq.  Walch,  Vol.  XV., 
p.  954  sq.  Seidemann,  The  Leipsig  Disputation,  a.  d.  1519,  from  hitherto  unex- 
plored sources,  Dresden,  1843. 

2 The  official  report  of  this  disputation  is  in  L'dscher,  Vol.  III.,  p.  203-558; 
Walch,  Works  of  Luther,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  998  sq.,  and  in  de  Weite,  Letters  of  Lu- 
ther, Vol.  I.  Cf.  Eiffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  80-94;  2d  ed.,  p.  134  sq.  Wiedema7in,  John 
Eck,  p.  75-139;  and  "TAe  Catholic,"  year  1872,  in  several  articles  from  Septem- 
ber onward. 


24  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

A  new  adversary  to  Luther,  but  less  formidable  than  Eck, 
now  came  forth  in  the  person  of  Jerome  Emser  of  Leipsig,  a 
licentiate  of  canon  law,  and  private  secretary  to  Duke  George 
of  Saxony.  He  was  an  excellent  scholar,  possessed  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  and  Oriental  languages,  was  bril- 
liant and  caustic  in  repartee,  and  withal  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary erudition.^  By  mutual  agreement,  their  discussion  was 
to  be  reported,  collected,  and  sent  to  the  Universities  of  Erfurt 
and  Paris,  whose  authorities  were  to  decide  on  the  merits  of 
the  respective  arguments,  and,  pending  the  decision,  no  aggres- 
sive steps  were  to  be  taken  by  either  side.  Luther  and  his 
friends  disregarded  the  pledge,  and  a  fresh  controversial  war 
broke  out. 

Notwithstanding  that  Luther  had  been  completely  beaten 
in  the  great  disputation  in  the  Pleissenburg  at  Leipsig,  he 
gained  the  solid  advantage  of  giving  publicity  to  his  cause, 
and  heightening  its  importance  in  the  estimation  of  the  popu- 
lace. The  questions  in  dispute  were  now  in  every  mouth.  It 
was  in  the  theological  congress  that  Luther  gained  to  his  side 
the  most  important  of  his  disciples.  This  was  Philip  3-Ielanch- 
thon  ("  Schwarzerd,"  i,  e.  Blackearth).^  His  father  was  a  skilled 
armorer  of  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  where 
Philip  was  born  February  16,  1497,  and  the  famous  Reuchlin 


^  Hieron.  Emser,  De  disputatione  Lipsiensi  quantum  ad  Boemos  obiter  deflexa 
est,  in  August,  1519.  In  answer  to  Luther's  Ad  Aegocerotem  Emserianum  M. 
Lutheri  responsio,  Emser  wrote  A  venatione  Lutheriana  Aegocerotis  assertio 
in  November,  1518  {Lutheri  opp.  lat.  Jen.,  T.  I.,  Loscher,  Vol.  III.)  Why  the 
interpretation  of  Luther  had  been  forbidden  to  the  common  people  (so.  because 
it  contained  fourteen  hundred  lies  and  heretical  errors.)  Lps.  1523.  German 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  Dresden,  1527;  Assertio  JMissae;  De  Canone 
Missae;  and  still  earlier,  De  vita  et  miraculis  S.  Bennonis.  CL  ihQ  Aschbach 
and  Freiburg  Cyclopaedias,  ai't.  "Emser." 

-  MelanckHmi.  Opp.,  Basil.  1541  sq.,  5  T.  in  fol.,  recensuit  Peucer,  Viten- 
bergae,  1562  sq.,  4  T.  fol.,  and  commenced  in  the  Corpus  Keformator.,  ed.  Bret- 
schneider,  T.  I.-X.,  Melanchthon.  opp.,  Hal.  1834-42,  4to.  —  Camerarius,  de 
Ph.  Mel.  ortu,  totius  vitae  curric.  et  morte  narratio,  Lps.  1566,  ed.  Augusti 
Vrat.  1817.  Maithcs,  The  Life  of  Philip  3Ielanchthon,  from  the  Sources,  Alten- 
burg,  1841 ;  2d  ed.  1846.  Oalle,  Melanchthon  considered  as  a  Theologian,  and 
the  Development  of  his  doctrine,  Halle,  1840.  Heppe,  2d  ed.,  Marburg,  1860. 
Playxk,  Melanchthon,  praeceptor  Germ.,  Nordl.  1860.  C.  Schmidt,  Life  and 
select  Writings  of  Melanchthon,  Elberfeld,  1861. 


§  300.  Negotiation  between  Rome  and  Luther,  eto.       2S 

was  his  uncle.  After  making  an  excellent  course  of  prepara- 
tory studies  at  Pforzheim  and  afterward  at  Heidelberg,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  Batchelor  of  Philosophy  in  1512,  he 
went  in  the  same  year  to  Tubingen,  completed  his  scientific 
studies,  and  in  1513  published  a  Greek  grammar,  took  his  de- 
gree of  Master  of  Arts  in  1514,  and  began  to  give  lectures  on 
the  classics  and  Aristotelian  philosophy.  He  was  accounted  a 
literary  prodigy,  and  his  name  and  accomplishments  were  the 
theme  of  every  tongue.  More  gentle,  moderate,  and  prudent 
than  Luther,  he  lacked  his  master's  energy,  strength  of  char- 
acter, depth  of  feeling,  magnetic  influence,  and  vigor  of 
speech.  Still,  he  rendered  very  essential  service  to  Luther, 
who  was  not  unfrequently  guided  by  his  counsels.  When  a 
little  more  than  twenty-one  years  of  age  (August  29,  1518),  he 
was  appointed,  through  the  recommendation  of  Erasmus,  pro- 
tessor  of  Greek  language  and  literature  at  Wittenberg.  An  in- 
timacy soon  sprung  up  between  himself  and  Luther,  for  whom 
he  had  always  great  respect,  and  in  whose  defense  he  wrote 
an  apology.^  Elated  with  the  adulation  of  his  young  friend, 
and  encouraged  by  the  Hussites,  with  whom  he  had  lately 
opened  a  correspondence,^  Luther  soon  forgot  his  humiliating 
defeat  at  Leipsic,  put  aside  all  disguise,  stifled  any  lingering 
feelings  of  reverence  for  the  Church  of  Home,  and  laid  bare 
to  the  world  a  heart  which  had  so  long  nourished  a  fierce  and 
fiery  spirit  of  revolt. 

It  had  been  agreed  that  the  arguments  advanced  by  both 
sides  in  the  Leipsig  disputation  should  be  submitted  before 
publication  to  tiie  judgment  of  the  theological  faculties  of 
the  Universities  of  Paris,  Louvain,  and  Cologne.  The  deci- 
sions, rendered  in  the  months  of  August  and  November,  1519, 
were  adverse  to  Luther;  his  teaching  was  unanimously  con- 
demned. Immediately  on  learning  the  result,  he  poured  forth 
upon  the  members  of  these  faculties,  whom  but  a  little  while 


^Defensio  Melanohthonis  contra  Eccium,  prof,  theologiae.  Melanchthon  either 
forgot  or  disregarded  the  promise  of  his  master,  and  published  at  "Wittenberg  s 
letter,  addressed  to  fficolampadius,  giving  a  summary  of  the  discussion  at  Leip- 
sig, but  at  the  same  time  recognizing  the  fine  talents  of  Eck.  Auditi,  1.  c,  p.  106 
(Phil.,  1841);  Eng.  ed.,  (London,  1854),  Vol.  I.,  p.  209.   (Tr.) 

"^Lbscher,  Vol.  III.,  p.  699  sq.     Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  88  sq.;  2d  ed.,  p.  151  sq 


26  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

before  he  had  called  his  masters  in  theolog}^,  a  torrent  of  sav- 
age and  abusive  invective.^ 

The  movements  of  Miltitz  could  not  keep  pace  with  the 
impetuous  energy  of  Luther,  who,  wearying  of  the  Nuncio's 
tardiness,  dispatched  to  Leo  a  letter,  dated  October  11,  1520, 
accompanied  with  his  treatise  on  Christian  Liberty,  dedicated 
to  the  Pope.  In  this  letter,  he  pours  out  all  the  venom  of  his 
soul  against  Rome,  and  flings  the  coarsest  insults  at  the  Pope. 
Here  is  a  specimen  :  "  It  were  a  blessing  for  you  (Leo)  to  lay 
down  the  office  of  the  Papacy,  which  only  your  most  depraved 
enemies  can  exultingly  represent  as  an  honor,  and  live  upon 
the  trifling  income  of  a  priest  or  your  hereditary  fortune. 
Only  children  of  perdition,  like  Judas  Iscariot  and  his  imita- 
tors, should  revel  in  the  honors  of  which  you  are  the  object."' 
The  coarse,  indecent  tone  of  this  letter  would  of  itself  have 
justified  the  sentence,  already  passed  upon  Luther  through 
the  representations  of  Eck,  if  it  had  been  more  severe  than  it 
was.  Luther,  anticipating  the  blow  and  fearing  its  conse- 
quences, had  recourse  to  his  usual  cunyiing  and  dexterity  when 
such  calamities  impended,  and  sought  to  rob  the  papal  condem- 
nation of  its  terrors  in  the  eyes  of  the  people  by  largely  circu- 
lating his  Sermon  on  Excommunication. 

§  301.  Fresh  Writings  of  Luther — Affinity  of  His  Religious 
System  to  the  Code  of  the  Bobber  Knights  and  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Paganism. 

Moehlcr,  Symbolism  (1832),  6th  ed.,  Mentz,  1843,  Engl,  transl.  "^Hilgers, 
Theology  of  Symbolism,  Bonn,  1841.  Riffel,  2d  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  28  sq.  Stauden- 
maier,  Philos.  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  p.  684  sq.  Stockl,  Hist,  of  the  Philosophy 
of  the  M.  A.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  477  sq.  Cf.  also  "  Luther,  considered  as  the  solution 
of  a  psychological  problem"  (Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vols.  II.  and  III.)  Vor- 
reiter,  Luther's  struggle  with  the  anti-Christian  principles  of  the  Kevolution, 
Halle,  1861. 

Luther  had  not  yet  formally  declared  his  opposition  to  the 
Church;  but  he  soon  spoke  out  emphatically  and  unmistaka- 
bly against  both  her  and  her  authority.     During  the  years 

» Luther's  Works,  Waldi's  ed.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  1598  sq. 

'■i  Luther's  AVorks,  WalcKs  ed.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  934  sq.;  de  Wetie,  Vol.  I.,  p.  497 
Bq.     Cf.  Wffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  151  sq.;  2d  ed.,  p.  221  sq. 


§  301.  Luther's  Religious  System  and  Robber  Knights,  etc.  27 

1520  and  1521,  he  displayed  an  astonishing'  literary  activity. 
It  would  seem  that  he  would  have  the  world  bow  to  his  ipse, 
dixit.  He  would  brook  no  contradiction ;  whoever  would  set 
himself  against  him  must  be  prepared  for  a  death-struggle; 
he  spared  no  one.  His  religious  system  was  a  panthnstical 
mysticism — not  indeed  the  outcome  of  his  controversy  on  in- 
dulgences, but  the  result  of  his  youthful  stubbornness  and  per- 
versity, and  of  his  subsequent  loayward  and  erratic  religious 
exercises.  It  combined  in  one  complex  organism  the  errors 
of  the  Gnostics,  Cathari,  Waldenses;  of  the  Brethren  and 
Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit,  and  the  Apostolic  Brethren ;  of 
Amalric  of  Bena,  Master  Eckhart,  Wickliffe,  Huss,  and  the 
author  of  the  "German  Theology,"  who,  all  of  them,  because 
they  were  sectaries,  have  been  represented  by  Protestant  au- 
thors as  the  forerunners  of  the  pseudo-Reformers.^  Such  is 
the  system  which,  it  was  claimed,  has  its  full  and  adequate 
sanction  in  Holy  Scripture.  It  teaches  that  the  Bible  is  the 
only  source  of  faith  ;  ascribes  to  it  the  completest  inspiration,  ex- 
tending to  every  word,  and  invests  the  reading  of  it  with  a 
quasi-sacramental  character.  Its  leading  tenets  were  the  follow- 
ing :  Human  nature  has  been  wholly  corrupted  by  original 
sin,  and  hence  man  is  born  without  a  trace  of  freedom-.  What- 
ever he  does,  be  it  good  or  ill,  is  not  his  ovm,  but  God's  work. 
Faith  alone  works  justification,  and  man  is  saved  by  confi- 
dently believing  that  God,  who  covereth  sins  and  doth  not 
impute  them  to  man  (Ps.  xxxi.  1,  2),  will  pardon  him.  This 
proposition  is  one  wonderfully  fruitful  in  consequences,  inas- 
much as  it  secures  man  a  full  pardon  of  his  sins,  and  an  un- 
conditional release  from  the  punishment  due  to  them.  Its 
scope  is  so  comprehensive,  and  its  conditions  so  easy,  that  no 
Pope  has  ever  pretended  to  lay  claim  to  anything  at  all  com- 
parable to  it.^     The  hierarchy  and  the  priesthood  are  unneces- 


'The  name  of  Reformer  was  first  applied  to  these  men  by  Lniher  in  his  pre- 
face to  the  German  Theology.  It  was  also  adopted  hy  Flacius  Rlyricus,  Catalog, 
testium  veritatis.  G.  ArJiold,  Historia  et  descriptio  theol.  myst.,  Francof.  1702, 
p.  306;   Flaihe,  Hist,  of  the  forerunners  of  the  Reformation,  etc. 

2  When  charged  with  having  arbitrarily  introduced  the  word  sola  into  Rom. 
iii.  28,  he  made  the  following  defense:  "Should  your  Pope  give  himself  any 
useless  annoyance  about  the  word  sola,  you  may  promptly  reply:  It  is  the  will 


28  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


sary,  and  exterior  worship  is  useless.  To  clothe  one's  body 
in  sacred  and  priestly  garments ;  to  be  bodily  present  in 
church  and  busy  oneself  about  holy  things ;  to  pray,  to  fast, 
to  keep  watch,  or  to  go  through  other  good  works  of  any 
sort  whatever  to  the  end  of  time,  all  these  avail  the  soul 
nothing.  All  Sacraments,  excepting  Baptism,  Holy  Eucha- 
rist, and  Penance,  are  rejected,  and  even  these  if  withheld 
maj  be  supplied  by  faith. ^  There  is  a  universal  priesthood; 
every  Christian  may  assume  that  office ;  there  is  no  need  of  a 
special  bod}'  of  men  set  apart  and  ordained  to  dispense  the 
mysteries  of  God,  and,  as  a  consequence,  no  visible  Church  or 
special  means  established  by  God  whereby  man  may  work 
out  his  salvation.^ 

The  idea  of  a  universal  priesthood,  so  flattering  to  the  bulk 
of  the  people,  was  set  forth  with  special  prominence  and  em- 
phasis in  his  more  inflammatory''  writings,  such  as  the  ^'Ad- 


of  Di".  Martin  Luther  that  it  should  be  so.  He  says  that  ^  Pope  and  jackass  are 
synonymous  termsJ  We  are  the  masters  of  the  papists,  not  their  schoolboys  and 
disciples,  and  will  not  be  dictated  to  by  them."  (Altona  ed.,  T.  V.,  fol.  2690.) — 
"As  many  as  believe  in  Christ,  be  they  as  numerous  and  wicked  as  may  be,  will 
be  neither  responsible  for  their  works  nor  condemned  on  account  of  them." — 
^^Unbelief  is  the  only  sin  man  can  be  guilty  of;  whenever  the  name  of  sin  is 
applied  to  other  acts,  it  is  a  misnomer;  such  acts  are  of  a  piece  with  those  of 
little  .Johnny  or  Maudlin,  when  they  retire  to  a  coi'ner  to  relieve  nature;  people 
may  laugh  at  them,  but  will  add — well  done." — "In  this  way  does  faith  destroy 
any  bad  odor  our  filth  may  emit"  (Family  Bible  with  Commentary,  Jena  ed., 
1565;  Sermon  on  the  text:  "So  much  hath  God  loved  the  world"). — "Provided 
one  have  faith,  adultery  is  no  sin;  but  should  one  be  destitute  of  faith,  even 
though  he  honor  God,  he  is  guilty  of  a  wholly  idolatrous  act." 

' "  Let  all  men  be  free  as  to  the  Sacra^nents ;  if  one  does  not  wish  to  be  baptized, 
he  need  not;  he  may,  if  he  likes,  refuse  to  receive  the  Sacraments;  he  has 
authority  from  God  not  to  confess,  if  he  dislikes  to  do  so"  (Treatise  on  Confes- 
sion). In  the  early  days  of  his  career  as  a  reformer,  Luther  certainly  held  that 
the  Sacraments  are  optional;  he,  however,  retracted  this  teaching,  after  Carl- 
Btadt  had  pushed  his  principles  to  their  legitimate  conclusions. 

2"  All  Christians  enjoy  in  common  the  spiritual  priesthood,  and  may  take  on 
thorn  the  oflBce  of  preaching  in  its  true  sense;  we  are  all  priests  in  Christ;  all 
have  power  and  authority  to  judge. — Every  Christian  is  n,  father,  a  confessor  of 
the  heavenly  ordained  confession,  an  ofBce  which  the  Pope  arrogates  to  himself, 
as  he  also  does  in  the  matter  of  the  keys,  the  episcopate,  and  everything  else — • 
oh  the  Robber!  Nay,  I  will  go  still  further,  and  say,  let  no  one  secretly  con- 
fess to  a  priest  as  such,  but  as  to  one  like  himself,  as  to  a  brother  and  a  Chris- 
tian " 


§  301.  Luther's  Religious  System  and  Robber  Knights,  etc.  29 

■dress  to  the  Christian  Nobles  of  Germany,''  "■On  the  Improvement 
of  Christian  Morality,''  ^'■On  the  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the 
Church,"  addressed  to  the  cler£;j,  and  on  ^'Christian  Liberty," 
addressed  to  the  laity.  In  the^e  he  called  upon  the  Emperor 
to  subvert  the  power  of  the  Pope,  to  confiscate  for  his  own 
use  investitures  and  the  goods  of  the  Church,  to  do  away 
with  ecclesiastical  feasts  and  holidays,  and,  finally,  to  abolish 
Masses  for  the  dead;  for  the  latter,  he  said,  were  designed  to 
supply  the  means  of  "feasting  and  revehy."  Luther  was  en- 
couraged to  put  forward  these  startling  doctrines  in  bold  and 
.aggressive  language  by  the  powerful  Knights  of  the  Emjnre, 
who,  he  said,  in  the  fatalistic  language  so  accordant  with  his 
views,  were  sent  of  Heaven  for  his  defense.^  He  was  now  in 
bad  company,  and,  quite  contrary  to  his  deep  religious  con- 
victions and  feelings,  found  himself  obliged  to  fall  in  with  the 
views  of  men  who  were  pagan  at  heart,  and  whose  ultimate 
aims  were  diametrically  opposed  to  his  own.  One  of  these 
was  Ulrich  von  Hutten,^  the  descendant  of  an  ancient  and 
knightly  house  in  Franconia.  Destined  by  his  parents  for 
the  ecclesiastical  state,  he  was  sent  to  the  cloister-school  of 
Fulda,  and,  catching  the  spirit  of  the  age,  applied  himself 
with  enthusiastic  fervor  to  the  study  of  the  pagan  classics. 
He  became  a  fine  classical  scholar,  but  at  the  expense  of  his 
faith  and  his  virtue.  He  fled  from  the  monastery;  led  for 
many  years  a  life  of  shameless  debauchery,  and,  disregardful 
of  the  commonest  rules  of  decency,  which  even  a  libertine 
respects,  gave  a  detailed  account  in  elegant  Latin  verse  of 
the  progress  of  a  loathsome  disease  brought  on  by  his  ex- 
cesses.   By  turn  a  soldier,  a  pamphleteer,  and  a  poet;  always 


1  Luther  returned  the  following  answer  to  a  letter  of  Sylvester  of  Schaura- 
burg:  "  Quod  ut  non  contemno,  ita  nolo  nisi  Christo  protectore  r.iti,  qui  forte  et 
hunc  ei  spiritura  (of  assisting  him)  dedit."     De  Weite,  Vol.  I.,  p.  448. 

*Opp.  ed.  ■■'Boeckinff,  Lips.  1859  sq.  Wcislinger,  Huttenus  delarvatus,  Con- 
stantiae,  1730.  Panzer,  Ulrich  of  Hutten  with  reference  to  literature,  Niirn- 
berg,  1798.  David  Strauss,  Ulrich  of  Hutten,  Lps.  1858  sq.,  3  vols.  Of.  Hist, 
and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  45.  Meiners,  Biography  of  celebrated  men  in  the  times 
of  the  Eenaissance,  Ziirich,  1796-97,  3  vols.  He  likewise  speaks  of  Francis  of 
Sicldngen  (Vol.  III.);  cf.  Hub.  Leodil  lib.  de  rebus  gestis  et  calamitoso  obitu 
Fr.  de  Sickingen  {Freher,  T.  III.,  p.  295).  C.  Ferd.  Meyer  (of  Zurich),  The 
last  days  of  Hutten's  Life,  being  "a  work  of  fiction,"  Lps.  1872. 


80  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


dreaded  and  sometimes  admired ;  ever  seeking  out  an  occa- 
sion to  display  his  powers,  he  was  glad  when  an  opportunity 
was  given  him  of  taking  part  in  the  quarrel  between  Reuch- 
lin  and  Pfetferkorn.  Words  failed  him  to  express  his  fulsome 
praises  of  the  former,  or  to  adequately  convey  the  torrent  of 
invective  and  libelous  abuse  which  he  belched  forth  against 
the  latter,  and  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  whole  body  of 
the  clergy  {Triumphiis  Capnionis).  Besides  openly  and  pub- 
licly proclaiming  that  he  was  in  league  with  twenty  free- 
thinkers for  the  avowed  purpose  of  extirpating  the  monks, 
this  vaunted  advocate  of  liberty  and  humanity  did  not  blush 
to  detail,  with  a  refinement  of  cruelty  that  would  have  chilled 
the  heart  of  a  headsman,  the  tortures  and  manner  of  death  it 
would  gladden  his  soul  to  see  the  baptized  Jew  Pfefferkorn 
undergo,  and  for  no  other  reason  than  because  the  latter  had 
been  the  first  to  call  the  attention  of  the  Church  to  certain 
Hebrew  books  of  a  dangerous  tendency.  Like  Luther,  he 
shortly  left  ofi"  the  use  of  the  Latin,  a  language  which  he  had 
hitherto  employed,  and  in  its  place  substituted  the  German, 
as  a  more  convenient  and  efficient  vehicle  for  revolutionizing 
thoughts.  "It  has  been  my  wont,"  he  said,  "in  the  past  to 
employ  the  Latin  language  exclusively;  but  in  so  doing  I 
reached  only  a  few,  whereas  I  noiv  appeal  to  my  country."  He 
closed  his  life  on  the  island  of  Ufenau,  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich. 
The  work,  which  gave  special  notoriety  to  this  league,  was  the 
pamphlet  entitled  '■'■  Epistolae  virorum  obscurorum,"^  directed 
against  the  monks,  published  together  with  Lorenzo  Valla's 
book  "On  the  Fictitious  Donation  of  Constantine  the  Great 
to  Pope  Sylvester,"  and  preceded  by  an  ironical  dedication  to 
Pope  Leo  X.^  These  caustic  satires  and  malignant  lampoons, 
containing  ofi:ensive  and  obscene  illustrations  by  the  cele- 
brated Luke  Cranach,  were  openly  offered  for  sale  at  the 
church-doors  side  by  side  with  books  of  devotion.^    l^o  means 

>  See  Vol.  II.,  p.  1010,  note  2. 

»Conf.  Kampschulte,  The  University  of  Erfurt,  Pt.  I.,  p.  192-226. 

•Satires  and  Pasquinades  of  the  age  of  the  Pteformation,  published  by  Oscar 
Schade,  Hanov.  1856-58, 3  vols.  Unpleasant  for  many  a  Protestant :  Dr.  Thomas 
Murner  (Franciscan  of  Strasburg's)  Poem  of  the  Great  Lutheran  Fool,  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Henry  Kurz,  Zurich,  1848.     Vilmar,  in  his  History  of  German 


§  301.  Luther's  Beligious  System  and  Rohher  Knights,  etc.  31 

were  neglected  by  Hutten  and  his  party  for  the  accomplish* 
ment  of  their  purposes.  To  give  the  monks  a  more  complete 
overthrow,  they  sought  the  alliance  of  princes.  "We  must," 
said  Hutten  in  a  letter  to  Pirkheimer,  "  employ  every  means 
to  gain  them;  we  must  never  leave  off  pressing  our  suit;  we 
must  accept  from  them  offices  public  and  private,  for  it  is  thus 
jurists  and  theologians  secure  and  retain  their  favor."  Hence 
we  see  that  previously  to  Luther's  expulsion  from  the  Church, 
a  league  had  been  formed,  having  nothing  in  common  with 
the  pseudo-mystical  tendencies  of  the  so-called  reformer;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  wholly  pagan  in  character,  and  representing 
a  radically  materialistic  reaction  against  the  Church,  her  re- 
ligious system,  and  her  deposit  of  revealed  truths.^  There 
was  but  one  bond  that  could  unite  these  parties,  whose  prin- 
ciples, at  least  in  their  origin,  were  diametrically  opposed — 
the  one  claiming  to  be  purely  spiritual,  and  the  other  known 
to  be  essentially  materialistic  in  its  aims — and  that  was  the 
common  bond  of  hatred  against  the  Church. 

Hutten,  by  birth  a  Knight  of  the  Empire,  well  knew  how 
to  excite  in  the  hearts  of  the  nobles,  who,  though  they  had 
long  plundered  the  property  of  the  Church,  had  never  ven- 
tured to  resist  her  authority,  a  spirit  of  hatred  against  the 
clergy  as  violent  as  had  ever  been  entertained  by  the  Human- 
ists and  philologists.  The  warlike  habits  of  these  knights 
had  obliterated  every  principle  of  justice  from  their  minds, 
and  stitied  every  humane  feeling.  Their  maxim  was :  "  To 
ride  and  to  rob  is  no  shame;  the  best  in  the  land  do  the 
same."  They  also  ingenuously  professed  to  believe  that  the 
wealth  of  such  low  fellows  as  commercial  men  was  the  lawful 
plunder  of  nobles.  All  these  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  nobility  of  the  Empire  were  combined  and  obtained  their 
fullest  expression  in  Francis  of  Siekingen,  a  most  complete 
specimen  of  the  degeneracy  into  which  the  chivalry  of  the 
age  had  fallen.     Putting  aside  all  restraints  to  the  widest 


Literature,  says  of  it:   "It  is  the  most  important  satirical  writing  that  erer 
appeared  on  the  Reformation." 

'The  articles:  Luther's  alliance  with  the  Aristocracy  of  the  Empire,  and 
preparations  for  the  war  of  Siekingen.  (Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  IV.,  p 
465-482;  p.  577-593;  p.  669-678 ;  p.  725-732.) 


32  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

freedom  of  action,  his  conduct  was  no  longer  the  result  of 
that  exalted  standard  of  virtue,  which,  in  preceding  ages, 
where  chivalry,  whether  in  the  service  of  the  Church  or  the 
Empire,  was  wholly  devoted  to  the  interests  and  advance- 
ment of  truth,  justice,  and  religion,  was  its  crowning  glory. 
His  aims  were  selfish,  and  his  motives  sordid.  He  was  ever 
ready  to  draw  his  sword  in  the  most  iniquitous  of  causes 
when  such  gave  promise  of  pecuniary  reward.  His  ability  as 
a  military  leader  recommended  him  to  Francis  I.  and  Charles 
v.,  who  were  at  times  rivals  for  his  services.  He  was,  by 
turn,  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire  as  a  disturber  of  the  pub- 
lic peace,  and  high  in  the  imperial  favor  as  a  commander  of 
armies.  To  the  material  force,  of  luhich  he  was  the  representative, 
inveterately  and  persistently  hostile  to  public  order,  did  Luther 
address  himself.  Sickingen,  however,  cared  as  little  as  Hut- 
ten  for  the  religious  opinions  of  Luther.  He  encouraged  the 
controversy  on  indulgences,  and  favored  the  revolt  against 
the  Church  to  which  it  led,  only  because  these  supplied  an 
occasion  to  work  mischief  and  furnished  a  means  of  inciting 
the  masses  to  rebellion,  thereby  bringing  about  the  revolution 
he  was  meditating  against  the  Empire.  Although  an  agita- 
tor, a  revolutionist,  and  a  disturber  of  the  public  peace,  he 
was  never  in  sympathy  with  Luther,  and  continued  to  the 
last  steadfast  in  his  fidelity  to  the  Catholic  Church.  At  his 
prayer,  Albert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  by  an  instrument,  dated 
May  10,  1520,  authorized  the  erection  and  endowment  of  a 
chapel,  and  granted  an  indulgence  of  forty  days  to  all  who 
should  visit  it.  He  had  also  the  intention,  in  1519,  of  found- 
ing a  Franciscan  convent,  but  was  driven  from  his  purpose  by 
the  sneers  of  Hutten.  Though  Hutten's  caustic  raillery  might 
deter  Sickingen  from  founding  a  religious  house,  his  influence 
could  not  draw  him  to  the  cause  of  Luther.  ''Who  is  he," 
was  his  reply  to  the  suggestion,  "that  dares  attempt  to  over- 
throw institutions  which  have  survived  to  the  present  day? 
if  such  there  be,  and  he  have  the  requisite  courage  for  the 
undertaking,  does  he  not  lack  the  power?" 


302.  Luther's  Condemnation.  33 


§  302.  Luther's  Condemnation. 

Shortly  after  the  close  of  the  disputation  of  Leipsig,  Dr. 
Eck  set  out  for  Eome,  in  order  by  his  presence  to  urge  Leo 
to  take  more  prompt  and  decisive  measures  than  might  be 
looked  for  from  the  dilatory  and  over-cautious  policy  of  Mil- 
titz.  He  had  many  difficulties  to  face  and  much  opposition 
to  overcome  in  the  Consistory,  but  his  appeals  and  represen- 
tations were  in  the  end  successful.  The  bull,  '■'■Exsurge  Domine 
et  judica  causam  tuam"'^  was  issued  June  15,  1520,  in  which 
forty-one  propositions,  extracted  from  the  writings  of  Luther, 
were  condemned,  his  works  ordered  to  be  burnt  wherever 
found,  and  he  himself  excommunicated  if  he  should  not  have 
retracted  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  days.  The  Pope  exhorted 
and  prayed  him  and  his  followers  by  the  Blood  of  Christ,  shed 
for  the  redemption  of  man  and  the  foundation  of  the  Church, 
to  cease  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  Spouse  of  Christ,  to  de- 
stroy her  unity,  and  outrage  her  sacred  and  unchangeable 
truths.  But  should  he  disregard  these  entreaties,  refuse  to 
avail  himself  of  this  paternal  kindness  and  tenderness,  and 
persist  in  his  errors,  he  was  declared  excommunicate,  liable 
to  the  penalties  attached  to  the  crime  of  heresy,  and  all  Chris- 
tian princes  were  instructed  to  apprehend  him  and  send  him 
to  Rome.  The  execution  of  this  bull  was  given  to  the  Papal 
Legates,  Carraccioli  and  Aleandro,  and  to  these  Br.  Eck  was 
joined.  That  one  like  Eck,  holding  no  superior  rank  as  a 
churchman,  should  have  been  made  a  member  of  this  com- 
mission, of  itself  gave  no  little  offense.  But  apart  from  this, 
he  had  been  and  was  still  Luther's  most  formidable  and  im- 
placable enemy ;  and  he  was  now  the  bearer  of  his  sentence. 

^This  bull,  composed  by  Card.  Ascolti,  is  written  in  pure,  graceful,  and  ele- 
gant Latinity.  Audin,  1.  c,  London,  1854,  Vol.  I.,  p.  224.  It  is  given  in  Har- 
duin,  CoUectio  cone,  T.  IX.,  p.  1891 ;  in  CoquelUnus,  Bullarium,  T.  III.,  Pt.  III., 
p.  487sq.  i?«?/?iaW.  ad  an.  1520;  Concil.  Trid.  ed.,  Lps.  1842,  p.  270-72.  In 
German,  with  the  carping  observations  o?  Hiitten;  in  Walch,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  1691 
sq.  Luther  wrote  against  this  bull:  Reasons  and  Causes  in  favor  of  all  those 
who  have  been  unjustly  condemned  by  the  Eoman  Bull,  Germ.  Works,  Jena 
ed.,  rt.  I.,  p.  400-432. 
VOL.   Ill — 3 


34  Period  3.     Epoch,  1.     Chapter  1. 

Luther  considered  that,  under  the  circumstances,  the  accept- 
ance by  hi?u  of  so  ungracious  an  office,  was  clear  evidence  of 
personal  vindictiveness.  His  own  condemnation  coming  to 
him  through  such  a  source  he  regarded,  says  Pallavicini,  as  a 
stealthy  stab  from  the  poniard  of  a  nuilignant  foe,  rather  than 
a  lawfully  authorized  blow  from  a  Koman  lictor's  ax.  Hence, 
to  represent  Eck's  successful  journey  beyond  the  Alps  as  un- 
dertaken from  motives  of  revenge,  and  as  being  in  some  sort 
an  encroachment  upon  the  rights  of  the  German  bishops,  was 
not  a  difficult  task.  Moreover,  it  is  said,  that  Eck  of  his  own 
authority  extended  the  excommunication  to  many  of  Luther's 
adherents,  and  among  them  Carlstadt  and  Dolcius,  professors 
at  "Wittenberg;  Pirkheimer  and  Spengler,  councillors  of  JSTiirn- 
berg;  and  Adebnannsfelden,  a  nobleman  and  canon  of  Augs- 
burg. The  last  circumstance  put  many  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  publishing  the  bull  and  carrying  its  instructions  into  exe- 
cution, particularly  in  districts  where  public  feeling  ran  high. 
Luther,  with  his  usual  dexterity,  hastened  to  counteract  the 
effect  it  might  have  upon  the  public  mind,  by  publishing  his 
pamphlet  On  the  New  Eckian  Bulls}  Eck  was  insulted  at 
Leipsig,  and  forced  to  seek  safety  in  flight,  and  the  Papal 
bull  was  made  the  jest  of  the  populace.  Similar  outbreaks 
took  place  at  Erfurt.  But  at  Mentz,  Cologne,  Halberstadt, 
Freisingen,  Eichstaedt,  Merseburg,  Meissen,  Brandenburg,  and 
other  places,  the  bull  was  published,  and  Luther's  writings 
burnt.  The  Elector  of  Saxony  ordered  Luther  to  communi- 
cate once  more  with  the  Pope.  Luther  complied,  but  his  tone 
was  far  from  conciliatory.  He  forwarded  to  Leo  his  pamphlet 
On  the  New  Eckian  Bulls,  accompanied  with  his  discourse  on 
Christian  Liberty. 

Charles  V.,  son  of  Philip  the  Fair,  who,  when  only  twenty 
years  of  age,  and  after  a  sharp  contest  with  foreign  com- 
petitors, had  succeeded  his  grandfather  Maximilian  as  Em- 
peror, besides  having  inherited  the  ancient  attachment  of 
the  House  of  Hapsburg  to  the  traditional  teachings  of  the 
Church,  had  received  strong  religious  impressions  from  his 
preceptor,  Adrian  of  Utrecht,  whom   he  afterward  was  in- 

»In  Rijrd  ('2d  cd.),  Vol.  I.,  p.  242;  1st  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  170  sq. 


§  302.  Luther's  Condemnation.  35 


stnimental  iu  raising  to  the  papal  throne.^  After  his  corona- 
tion at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (October  22,  1520),  the  bull  excom- 
municating Luther  was  placed  in  his  hands  by  the  Legates 
Carraccioli  and  Aleandro.  Luther  was  as  yet  uncertain  as  to 
the  temper  of  the  new  Emperor  and  the  course  he  would  pur- 
sue. Hoping  to  secure  his  good  will,  he  addressed  him  a 
most  humble  letter,^  in  which,  among  other  things,  he  stated 
that  in  publishing  his  pamphlets  he  had  no  aim  in  view  other 
than  t3  brush  away  superstitious  notions  and  the  delusions  of 
human  tradition,  and  establish  in  their  stead  the  truths  of  the 
Gospel.  And  for  this,  he  went  on  to  say,  have  I  endured 
these  three  years  the  angry  abuse  of  men  and  every  sort  of 
evil.  He  concluded  by  stating  that  he  had  in  vain  sued  for 
mercy  and  implored  pardon ;  his  enemies  had  made  up  their 
minds  to  it  that  the  Gospel,  Divine  truth,  and  himself  should 
perish  together;  to  avert  so  great  an  evil,  he,  like  Athanasius 
of  old,  invoked  the  Emperor's  protection. 

The  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  had  come  as  far  as  the  Rhine 
to  welcome  the  Emperor  on  his  arrival,  had  a  conference  with 
Erasmus  at  Cologne,  in  the  course  of  which  the  latter  gave  it 
as  his  opinion  that  Luther's  fault  chiefly  consisted  in  his  hav- 
ing aimed  a  blow  at  the  tiara  of  the  Pope  and  the  bellies  of 
the  monks.  The  judgment  had  certainly  the  merit  of  being 
brief  and  pointed;  but  to  be  merry  on  so  grave  and  momen- 
tous a  subject  was  unseemly,  and  little  to  the  credit  of  Eras- 
mus.    JSTevertheless,  on  the  strength  of  it,   the  Elector  de- 


^Lang,  Correspondence  of  Emperor  Charles  V.,  published  from  the  Eoyal 
Library  and  the  Bibliotheque  de  Bourgoigne,  at  Brussels,  Lps.  1844  sq.,  6  vols. 
Hei7ie,  Letters  addressed  to  Charles  Y.  (1530-32)  by  his  Father  Confessor,  from 
the  Spanish  Eoyal  archives  at  Simancas^Brl.  1848.  Autobiography  of  Charles  V. 
in  a  Portuguese  translation,  rediscovered  at  Brussels  by  Kervin  de  Leitenhove. 
German,  by  Warnkoenig,  Brussels,  1862.  Conf.  Hist,  and  Political  Papers,  Vol. 
50,  p.  857  sq.,  and  Ranke,  Complete  Works,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  73  sq.  Robertson.^  His- 
tory of  the  Pveign  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  Edinburgh,  1769;  Vienna,  1787, 
4  vols.  Favorable  portraiture  of  Charles  V.,  in  Raumer,  Hist,  of  Europe  from 
ihe  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Vol.  I.,  passim,  particularly  p.  580-586;  rather 
unfavorable  because  partial  representation  by  Maure-nbreclier,  Charles  V.  and 
the  German  Protestants  from  1545  to  1555,  together  with  an  appendix  of  docii- 
vients  drawn  from  the  Spanish  archives  of  Simancas,  Diisseldorf,  1865.  Conf. 
Reusch,  Eeview  of  Theology,  Bonn,  1866,  p.  817-824. 

2  In  Walch,  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  1636.     Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  103  sq 


36  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

mandcd  that  the  Legates  should  submit  the  whole  matter  for 
examination  to  a  court,  composed  of  sober,  religious,  and  im- 
partial men  ;  and  that  Luther's  teachings  should  be  disproved 
by  authority  of  Scripture.  Luther,  now  spurning  papal  prohibi- 
tions, and  notably  that  of  Paul  IL  in  the  bull  ExsecrabiliSy 
and  without  waiting  for  an  answer  from  Leo,  appealed  (No 
vember  17, 1520),  on  the  authority  of  the  decrees  of  Constance, 
declaring  a  Council  superior  to  the  Pope,  from  the  Hoh'  See 
to  an  Ecumenical  Synod;  after  having  previously  published, 
on  the  4th  of  the  same  month,  his  violent  protest  ''■Against 
the  Execrable  Bull  of  Antichrist.'^  N^ot  content  with  these  bold 
and  aggressive  acts,  he  went  still  further,  and  on  December 
10,  1520,  having  called  together  the  students  of  the  Univer- 
sity and  the  inhabitants  of  Wittenberg  at  the  Elster  or  East- 
ern Gate  of  the  cit}^  where  fagots  had  been  heaped  up,  ready 
to  set  fire  to,  he  appeared  bearing  the  bull  of  Leo,  printed  in 
characters  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  all  present.  The  Body 
of  Canon  Law,  many  scholastic  and  casuistical  works,  the 
controversial  writings  of  Eck  (the  Chrysoprasus,  etc.)  and 
Emser,  were  first  cast  into  the  flames,'  after  which  Luther 
flung  the  Pope's  bull  into  the  pile,  exclaiming:  "Thou  hast 
disturbed  the  Lord's  Holy  One,  therefore  shalt  thou  be  con- 
signed to  fire  eternal."  As  Luther  had  already  given  public 
notice  by  posters  of  what  he  intended  to  do  with  the  bull, 
now  that  the  work  was  accomplished,  he  hastened  to  announce 
his  triumph  to  Spalatinus.^  On  the  following  day,  he  ad- 
dressed the  students,  saying:  "It  is  now  full  time  that  the 
Pope  himself  were  burned.  My  meaning  is,"  he  went  on  to 
say,  "that  the  Papal  Chair,  its  false  teachings  and  abomina- 
tions, should  be  committed  to  the  flames."  The  Emperor, 
sensible  that  matters  were  going  from  bad  to  worse,  convoked 
his  first  diet  at  Worms. 

§  303.   The  Diet  of  Worms,  1621— Luther  at  Wartburg. 

Cochlaeus  (Col.,  15G8),  p.  55  sq.     Fallavicini,  Hist.  cone.  Trid.,  lib.  T     J.  25. 
Sarpi,  Hist.  cone.  Trid.,  lib.  I.,  e.  21  sq.  —  Acta  Lutheri  in  conoiliis  Vormat, 


KUidin,  1.  e.  (London,  1854),  Vol.  I.,  p.  234.  (Tr.) 

2  Lutheri  ep.  ad  Spalat.:  "  Impossibile  est  enim  salvos  fieri,  qui  huic  bullae 
foverunt  aut  non  repugnarunt"  (De  Wetie,  Vol.  I.,  p.  522). 


§  303.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  Vo21— Luther  at  Wartburg.    37 

ed.  Policarius,  Vit.,  1546  (Lutli.  opp.  lat.  Jenae,  T.  II.,  p.  436  sq.  German 
Works,  Jena  ed.,  Ft.  I.,  p.  432-463).  Raynald.  ad  an.  1521.  Walz,  The  Diet  of 
Worms,  1521  (Researches  on  German  Hist.  VIII.,  21-44);  Friedrich,  The  Diet 
at  Worms,  1521,  according  to  letters  of  Aleander  (in  the  Debates  of  the  Royal 
Acad,  of  Sciences  of  Bavaria,  Class  III.,  Vol.  XI.,  year  1870,  sect.  3).  R[fel, 
Vol,  I.,  2d  ed.,  p.  224  sq. 

The  Emperor  had  at  first  intended  to  summon  Luther  be- 
fore the  diet.  Aleandro  objected,  because,  to  submit  to  the 
discussion  of  a  secular  court  questions  which  had  been  already- 
disposed  of  by  the  Holy  See,  and  their  author  excommuni- 
cated, he  regarded  as  disgraceful.  His  words  had  much  weight 
in  Germany,  because,  though  a  Lombard  by  birth,  he  was  popu- 
larly believed  to  be  a  German ;  and  his  lectures  in  Paris  on 
Greek  literature  and  Ausonius,  delivered  before  two  thousand 
hearers,  had  given  him  name  and  influence  with  the  Human- 
ists. He  demanded  that  the  provisions  of  the  bull  against 
Luther  should  be  fully  carried  out  (January  3,  1521). 

The  evil  effects  of  centralizing  all  ecclesiastical  authority  in 
Home,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  of  leaving  off  hold- 
ing ecclesiastical  synods  in  Germany,  before  which  the  ques- 
tions raised  by  Luther  should  have  been  brought,  were  now 
painfully  apparent.^  The  Emperor  was  not  fully  alive  to  the 
scope  and  importance  of  the  questions  involved  in  the  contro- 
versy until  after  the  Legate  had  clearly  pointed  out  that  Lu- 
ther's attitude  toward  the  Holy  See  threatened,  not  only  the 
stability  of  the  Church,  but  the  very  existence  of  the  Empire 
and  the  well-being  of  society.  The  States,  however,  refused 
to  yield  to  Aleandro's  demand ;  for  having  themselves  brought 
forward  one  hundred  and  one  Grievances  {Gravamina)  touching 
abuses  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,^  they  were  unwilling  to  con- 
demn Luther  without  a  hearing.  Moreover,  George,  Duke  of 
Saxony,  a  determined  eneni}-  of  Luther's,  brought  before  the 
diet  twelve  specific  co?ry?Zaz72it5,  including  some  against  the  abuse 
of  indulgence?  and  the  lax  morals  of  the  clergy.  He  also 
strenuously  advocated  the  holding  of  an  Ecumenical  Council. 

Luther,  in  the  meantime,  ordered  his  conduct  to  suit  the 
circumstances,  now  professing  himself  humble  and   submis- 

^Cf.  Wiedemann,  John  Eck,  p.  137  and  p.  385. 
^Walch,  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  2058  sq. 


38  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

sive,  and  again  haughtily  prodaiming  his  intention  of  hold- 
ing out  against  all  opposition.  Influenced  more  by  the  Empe 
ror's  safe-conduct  and  the  assistance  promised  from  another 
quarter,  than  by  reliance  on  Divine  aid,  he  finally  made  up  his 
mind  to  go  to  Worms,  where  he  arrived  April  16.  Under  the 
circumstances,  it  required  no  special  tax  upon  his  courage  to 
write  to  Spalatinus,  as  if  apprehensive  of  the  fate  of  Huss: 
"Yes,  I  shall  go  to  Worms,  even  if  there  were  as  many  devils 
there  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  roofs  of  Wittenberg."  Lutlier 
went  before  the  imperial  diet,  where  the  Emperor  was  present, 
on  the  17th  and  18th  of  April. 

On  the  former  of  these  days,  John  von  Eck,  Chancellor  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  pointing  to  close  upon  twenty  vol- 
umes placed  upon  a  table  near  by,  asked  Luther,  first,  if  he 
acknowledged  himself  the  author  of  these  writings  published 
under  his  name;  and,  secondly,  if  he  was  willing  to  retract 
the  teachings  contained  therein.  After  hearing  the  titles  of 
the  books  read,  Luther,  in  answer  to  the  first  question,  admit- 
ted their  authorship,  but  requested  time  for  consideration  be- 
fore answering  the  second.  A  day  was  given  him  to  prepare 
his  reply,  and  on  the  morrow  the  Chancellor  again  asked  him 
if  he  would  retract.  Luther  was  evasive.  The  Chancellor 
pressed  for  a  categorical  answer.  "Will  you  or  will  you  not 
retract?"  said  he,  addressing  him.  Luther  replied:  "Inas- 
much as  it  is  certain  that  both  Popes  and  Councils  have  time 
and  again  fallen  into  error,  and  denied  at  one  time  what  they 
had  affirmed  at  another,  I  can  not  bring  myself  to  put  faith 
in  them.  My  conscience  is  captive  to  the  words  of  God,  and 
unless  I  shall  be  convicted  of  error  by  Scripture  proof  or  by 
plain  reason,  I  neither  can  nor  will  retract  anything.  God 
help  me.     Amen."^ 

At  a  subsequent  conference.  Dr.  John  von  Eck,  the  Chancel- 
lor, and  Cochlaeus,  Dean  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Virgin  at 
Frankfort,  pointed  out  to  Luther  that  he  was  inconsistent  and 
ex-parte  in  his  appeal  to  Holy  Scripture — first,  because  he 
would  accept  no  rule  of  interpretation  but  his  own  prirate 
judgment,  and,  next,  because  of  arbitrarily  rejecting  certain 

'  The  dramatic  words  hitherto  attributed  to  him :  "  Here  I  stand,  how  else  can 
t  act?"  are  a  later  addition.    Cf.  Burkhardt,  Studies  and  Criticisms,  1860,  nro.  3 


§  303.  The  Diet  of  yVorms^  1521 — Luther  at  WartOarg.    39 

Books,  he  had  virtually  called  in  question  the  authority  of 
all.^  They  further  reminded  him  that  the  authors  of  every 
heresy  that  had  rent  the  Church  from  the  earliest  days  to 
their  own,  had  sought  in  Scripture  the  justification  of  their 
errors.  But  their  arguments  and  the  entreaties  of  Corhlaeus, 
who  visited  him  privately  some  days  later,  were  all  to  no 
purpose.  "Even  if  I  should  retract,"  said  he,  "the  ot/m^s 
{Humanists),  men  far  more  learned  than  myself,  would  not 
keep  silence,  or  cease  to  carry  on  the  work."^  A  committee, 
composed  of  princes  and  bishops,  and  including,  besides  oth- 


^This  is  the  style  in  which  Luther  speaks  of  the  Pentateuch:  "We  have  no 
wish  either  to  see  or  hear  Moses.  Let  us  leave  Moses  to  the  Jews,  to  whom  he 
was  given  to  serve  as  a  Mirror  of  Saxony;  he  has  nothing  in  common  with 
Pagans  and  Christians,  and  we  should  take  no  notice  of  him.  Just  as  France 
esteems  the  Mirror  of  Saxony  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  the  expression  of  natural 
law,  so  also  the  Mosaic  legislation,  though  admirably  suited  to  the  Jews,  has 
no  binding  force  whatever  as  regards  ourselves.  Moses  is  the  prince  and  exem- 
plar of  all  executioners;  in  striking  terror  into  the  hearts  of  men,  in  inflicting 
torture,  and  in  tyrannizing,  he  is  without  a  rival."  ...  Of  Ecclesiastes,  the  Here- 
siarchsays:  " This  book  should  be  more  complete ;  it  is  mutilated;  it  is  like  a 
cavalier  riding  without  boots  or  spurs;  just  as  I  used  to  do  while  I  was  still  a 
monk."  ...  Of  Judith  and  Tobias :  "  As  it  seems  to  me,  Judith  is  a  tragedy,  in 
which  the  end  of  all  tyrants  may  be  learned.  As  to  Tobias,  it  is  a  comedy,  in 
which  there  is  a  great  deal  of  talk  about  women.  It  contains  many  amusing 
and  silly  stories."  ...  Of  Ecclesiasticus :  "The  author  of  this  book  is  an  excel- 
lent expounder  of  the  Law,  or  a  Jurist;  he  also  gives  good  precepts  for  exterior 
deportment;  but  he  is  not  a  prophet,  and  knows  simply  nothing  about  Christ." 
...  Of  the  Second  Machabees:  "I  have  so  great  an  aversion  to  this  book  and 
that  of  Esther,  that  I  almost  wish  they  did  not  exist;  they  are  full  of  observ- 
ances characteristically  Jewish  and  of  Pagan  abominations."  ...  Of  the  Four 
Gospels:  "The  first  three  speak  of  the  works  of  Our  Lord  rather  than  of  Eis 
oral  teaching;  that  of  St.  John  is  the  only  sympathetic,  the  only  true  Gospel; 
and  should  be  undoubtedly  preferred  to  the  others.  In  like  manner,  the  Epis- 
tles of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  superior  to  the  first  three  Gospels."  ...  Of  the 
Epistles  to  the  Hebrews:  "It  need  not  surprise  one  to  find  here  bits  of  wood, 
hay,  and  straw."  ...  Of  the  Epistle  of  St.  James :  "  Compared  with  the  Epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  this  is  in  truth  an  epistle  of  straw;  it  contains  absolutely  nothing  to 
remind  one  of  the  style  of  the  Gospel."  ...  Of  the  Apocalypse:  "  There  are  many 
things  objectionable  in  this  book.  To  my  mind,  it  bears  upon  it  no  marks  of  an 
Apostolic  or  prophetic  character.  It  is  not  the  habit  of  the  Apostles  to  speak  in 
metnpnors ;  on  the  contrary,  when  they  utter  a  prophecy,  they  do  so  in  clear  and 
precise  terms.  Every  one  may  form  his  own  judgment  of  this  book ;  as  for  myself, 
1  feel  an  aversion  to  it,  and  to  me  this  is  sufficient  reason  for  rejecting  it." 

'Dr.  Otto,  The  Conference  of  Cochlaeus  with  Luther  at  Worms,  1.521  (Austr. 
Quart,  of  Theol.  1866,  nro.  1). — Homes,  Luther's  Sojourn  at  "Worms,  Mentz,  1868. 


40  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

ers,  Drs.  Eck  and  Cochlaeus,  advised  Luther  to  submit  to  the 
judgment  of  a  general  council;  but  the  monk  was  inexora- 
ble. To  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  Richard  von  Greifenklaii, 
who  requested  him  to  suggest  his  own  method  of  adjusting 
matters,  he  replied  bj  quoting  the  words  of  Gamaliel :  "  If 
this  work  be  of  man,  it  will  come  to  naught ;  but  if  it  be  of 
God,  ye  cau  not  overthrow  it."  Apart  from  his  obstinate 
adherence  to  his  errors,  and  his  rejection  of  eveiy  overture 
looking  toward  an  authoritative  decision,  Luther  had  given 
much  offense  by  his  bibulous  habits  and  his  unseemly  famili- 
arities with  females;^  and,  on  the  day  after  his  conference 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Treves  (April  26),  being  provided 
with  a  safe-conduct  for  twenty-one  days,  was  ordered  to  quit 
"Worms.  His  ostensible  destination  was  Wittenberg ;  but 
while  on  his  way,  and  probably  b}^  preconcerted  arrange- 
ment^ between  himself  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  he  was 
set  upon  by  five  masked  and  armed  men,  seized  and  carried 
away  a  willing  prisoner  to  the  Castle  of  Wartburg,  near  Eisen- 
ach^ where  he  remained  from  May,  1521,  till  March  8,  1522, 
living  incognito  under  the  assumed  name  of  Younker  George, 
and  dressed  as  a  knight.  On  the  26th  of  May,  when  many 
of  the  States  had  already,  as  it  seems  unadvisedly,  withdrawn 
from  the  diet,  an  imperial  decree  drawn  up  by  Aleandro,  and 
dated  May  8th,  placing  Luther  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire, 
was  signed  by  the  Emperor,  and  officially  promulgated.  It 
would  appear  that  Luther  courted  this  sentence,  for  previously 
to  its  promulgation  he  boastfully  declared,  that  "if  Suss  had 
been  a  heretic,  he  himself  was  surely  ten  times  as  great  a  one." 

The  decree  commanded  all  persons,  under  severe  penalties, 
to  refuse  hospitality  to  Luther;  to  seize  his  person,  and  de- 
liver him  up  to  the  officers  of  the  Empire,  and  to  commit  his 
writings  to  the  flames.^  On  the  Imperial  Chamber  of  iNurn- 
berg  was  laid  the  duty  of  seeing  to  it  that  the  various  provi- 
sions of  the  sentence  were  carried  into  effect.  It  was  now 
very  generally  believed  that  there  was  an  end  of  the  heresy; 
that  the  last  act  of  the  tragedy  had  been  performed :  but  a 

'  Conf.  bolow,  §  319,  the  letter  of  Count  Hoye)'  of  Mansfeld,  written  1522. 

*See  Luther's  Letters,  in  de  Weite,  Yol.  II.,  pp.  3,  7,  89. 

»Cf.  Rifel,  1st  ed..  Vol.  I.,  pp.  213  -217;  2d  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  290-294. 


§  303.  The  Diet  of  Worms,  1521— Luther  at  Wartburg.     41 

few  far-seeing  men  thought  otherwise,  and  predicted  that  the 
storm,  far  from  having  spent  itself,  was  still  gathering  strength. 
"There  is,  as  some  think,  an  end  of  the  tragedy,"  wrote  the 
Spanish  courtier,  Alphoiiso  Valdez,'^  to  his  friend  Peter  Mar- 
tyr; "but  as  for  myself,  I  am  fully  convinced  that  the  play  is 
only  opening,  for  the  Germans  are  highly  incensed  against 
the  Holy  See." 

In  a  strong  rescript  sent  to  the  States  of  the  Empire,  bear- 
ing the  date  of  April  19, 1521,  the  Emperor  had  expressed  his 
determination  to  oppose  a  powerful  resistance  to  the  religious 
tendencies  in  Germany;  but  this  was  in  the  existing  circum- 
stances impossible,  for  the  civil  discords  of  Spain  and  the  des- 
perate war  he  was  then  waging  against  France  called  forth  his 
best  energies  and  clairaed  his  undivided  attention. 

Hence,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Emperor's  own  states  and 
those  of  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  and  of  the  Elector  of  Branden- 
burg, the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  and  a  few 
ecclesiastical  princes,  the  edict  of  Worms  was  but  feebly  exe- 
cuted, if  at  all.  It  was  coldly  received  by  the  representatives 
of  the  States  of  Germany,  who  had  been  industriously  taught 
to  believe  that  this  theological  quarrel  was  no  more  than  a 
struggle  against  Home,  in  the  destruction  of  whose  claims  they 
fancied  they  saw  the  realization  of  wild  dreams  and  delusive 
hopes. 

A  number  of  propositions  extracted  from  the  works  of 
Luther  were  condemned  by  the  Faculty  of  the  Sorbonne,  at 
Paris,-  and  by  others  of  lesser  note,  and  refuted  by  Henry 
VIII?  oi  England;  but  owing  to  the  preoccupation  of  men's 

iHabes  hujus  tragoediae,  ut  quidam  volunt,  finem,  ut  cgomet  mihi  persuadeo, 
non  finem  sed  initium;  nam  video  Germanorum  animos  graviter  in  sedem  Ro- 
manam  concitari.  (ep.  ad  Petr.  Martyr.)  For  other  letters  of  A.  Valdez,  see  Les- 
sing  supra.  AVhen  the  Papal  Legate,  Chiercgati,  remarked  that  if  Hungary 
should  be  lost,  Germany  would  also  pass  under  the  yoke  of  the  Turk,  the  mal- 
contents replied:  "We  had  much  rather  be  under  the  Turk  than  under  3  ou. 
who  are  the  last  and  greatest  of  God's  enemies,  and  are  the  very  slave  of 
abomination." 

^Condemnatio  doctr.  Luther,  per  facultatem  Paris,  in  le  Plat,  Monumenta  acj 
hist.  Cone.  Trid.  spect.,  T.  II.,  p.  98  sq. 

•''Against  Luther's  Discourse:  On  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church: 
Adsertiu  septem  sacramentorum  adversus  Martinum  Lutherum,  Londini,  1521 


42  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


minds  with  the  momentous  events  just  related,  these  acts 
produced  little,  if  any,  influence  upon  public  opinion.  To 
his  royal  opponents  and  the  Universities,  Luther  replied  in 
language  of  coarse  vulgarity  and  abusive  invective.'  The 
admirable  criticism  of  the  heresiarch's  teaching  by  Fisher, 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  for  the  same  reason,  received  but  scant 
attention.^ 

Luther's  Sojourn  at  Wartburg  {^^Patmos"). 

While  Luther  remained  at  the  fortress  of  Wartburg,  where, 
as  it  was  paradoxically  expressed,  "he  was  a  willing  prisoner 
against  his  will,"  he  was  withdrawn  from  the  baneful  influ- 
ence of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  and  might,  with  some  effort, 
have  been  brought  to  think  seriously'upon  his  conduct,  and 
view  with  some  misgiving  the  terrible  nature  of  the  enter- 
prise in  which  he  was  engaged.  His  bodily  ailments  and  the 
stings  of  conscience  not  unfrequently  drove  him  to  the  very 
brink  of  despair.  Speaking  of  his  feelings  at  this  time,  he 
says  :  "  My  heart  beat  with  fear,  and  I  asked  myself  the  ques- 
tions :  Is  wisdom  thy  exclusive  gift?  Are  all  others  in  error, 
and  have  they  been  so  these  many  years?  What  if  thou  thy- 
self art  in  error,  leading  others  astray,  to  be  damned  eternally? 
B}^  whom  art  thou  commissioned  to  preach  the  Gospel,  by 
whom  called?"  Luther  failed  to  recognize  these  misgivings 
as  Divine  warnings;  he  regarded  them  as  assaults  and  tempta- 
tions of  the  Devil,  who,  he  said,  well  understood  the  art  of  fright- 
ening one  by  the  remembrayice  of  one's  past  sins.  He  frequently 
had  visions,  in  which  demons  flitted  like  specters  across  his 
heated  imagination.  The  recital  of  them  is  frequently  ludi- 
crous and  trifling,  but  they  themselves  play  an  important  part 
in  his  life.  By  habitually  yielding  to  their  influence,  he  Anally 
brought  himself  to  indulge  the  pleasing  delusion  that  the 
Catholic  Church  was  the  detestable  kingdom  of  Antichrist, 
and  the  heritage  of  God's  anger;  that  he  iiimself  was  John 
the  Evangelist  banished  by  Domitian  to  the  island  of  Patmos, 
a  second  Paul,  or  Isaias;  and  Melanchthon  another  Jeremias. 


iCf.  Rifel,  1st  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  109-110;  2d  ed.,  p.  179-181. 

'Asserlionis  Lutheranae  confutatio.  1523.     Conf.  Dr.  Laemmer.  1.  c,  p.  14-?.0. 


§  304.  Death  of  Leo  X. — His  Character.  43 

His  trials,  though  numerous  and  severe,  were  wholly  unpro- 
ductive of  good.  While  at  Wartburg,  he  often  indulged  in 
the  pleasures  of  the  chase ;  but  the  bulk  of  his  time  was  given 
to  making  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  German.,  so  worded  as 
to  fit  his  own  system  of  belief.^  He  maintained  an  active  cor- 
respondence with  his  friends,  and  continued  to  still  exert, 
through  his  letters  and  other  writings,  the  baneful  influence 
which  his  presence  had  inspired.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he 
wrote  his  inflammatory  and  mischievous  pamphlets  ^^Against 
the  Idol  of  Halle"  (the  Archbishop  of  Mentz);  '■'•On  Monastic 
Vows;"  and  "On  the  Abuse  of  Masses" — the  first  of  which  he 
dedicated  to  his  father,  and  the  last  to  the  Augustinians  of 
Wittenberg.^ 

§  S04.  Death  of  Leo  X.—His  Character. 

Laemmer.  Monument.  Vaticana,  p.  3-10 ;  for  bibliography,  see  V.  II.,  p.  922,  n. 
3.  Audhi,  in  his  Life  of  Luther,  ch.  XVI.,  where  he  describes  the  court  of  Leo  X. 
Ranke,  Ecclesiastical  and  Political  Hist,  of  the  Popes  in  the  Sixteenth  and  Sev- 
enteenth Centuries,  4th  ed.,  Brl.  1854,  Vol.  I.,  p.  80  sq.  Engl,  transl.,  Philad. 
1841,  1844;  ]S'ew  York,  1845;  London,  1852.  (Tr.) 

In  putting  an  estimate  upon  the  character  of  Leo  X,,  de- 
termining the  degree  of  authority  he  exercised,  and  the  influ- 
ence of  his  pontificate,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  he 
abolished  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  in  France;^  brought  the 
Lateran  Council  to  a  close  (1517);  and,  through  his  represent- 
atives, Cajetan  and  Miltitz,  set  on  foot  negotiations  in  regard 
to  Luther.  Neither  should  his  attitude  toward  the  Emperor, 
Charles  V.,  and  his  ambitious  rival,  Francis  L,  be  overlooked. 
In  his  relations  to  these  princes,  he  was  bold,  alert,  and  poli- 
tic; now  throwing  the  weight  of  his  influence  on  the  side  of 
the  one,  and  now  of  the  other,  as  each  in  turn  was  superior  in 
council  or  victorious  in  battle;  always  more  intent  on  secur- 
ing the  possession  of  a  province  than  in  promoting  the  well- 
being  of  the  Church.  To  artists  and  scholars  he  was  mag- 
nanimous, noble,  and  generous;  patronizing  them,  not  from 

^  DolUnger,  The  Keforraation,  Vol.  III.,  p.  139  sq. 
^Rfffel,  Vol.  1.,  2d  ed.,  p.  329  sq. 
'See  Vol.  II.,  p.  921. 


44  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


feelings  of  vanity,  but  from  taste  and  conviction,  and  as  one 
having  a  practical  and  thorough  knowledge  of  what  he  was 
doing,  and  why  he  did  it.  The  age  of  Augustus  seemed  to 
have  again  dawned  upon  Home.  More  devoted  to  art  than 
to  the  duties  of  his  offices — more  enamored  of  the  charms  of 
elegant  literature  than  of  the  chaste  beauty  of  Christian 
virtue — Leo  pursued  toward  Luther  a  poHcy  at  once  hairing 
and  ineffective.  Regarding  religion  himself  as  a  matter  of 
only  secondary  importance,  he  could  but  ill  comprehend  how 
others  should  bear  trials  for  its  sake,  and  expose  themselves 
to  countless  dangers  in  pushing  forward  its  interests.  His 
pontificate,  though  one  of  the  most  brilliant,  was  by  no  means 
the  most  happy,  in  the  history  of  the  Church.  His  lavish 
extravagance  occasioned  in  great  part  the  disastrous  contro- 
versies of  the  age,  and  was  a  source  of  no  little  embarrass- 
ment to  his  successors  in  the  Papacy.  He  died  December  1, 
1521. 

§  305.  The  Diet  of  Nurnberg  convoked  for  September  1,  and 
opened  November,  1522. 

Raynald.  Ann.  ad  an.  1522.  Menzel,  1.  c,  Pt.  I.,  p.  105  sq.  Walch,  Works 
of  Luther,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  2504  sq.  Correspondence  of  Pope  Hadrian  VI.  with 
Erasmus  (translated  fr.  the  Latin),  Frankfurt,  1849.     JUffd,  Vol.  I.,  p.  378  sq. 

The  primary  object  this  Diet  had  in  view  in  assembling  was 
to  provide  measures  to  repel  a  threatened  invasion  by  the 
Turks.  But  as  Luther  had  returned  to  Wittenberg  (1522), 
Hadrian  VI.,^  formerly  preceptor  to  Charles  V.  and  now  Pope, 
thinking  the  present  occasion  a  favorable  one  for  putting  an 
end  to  the  existing  religious  controversies,  resolved  to  turn  it 
to  the  best  account.  The  character  of  Hadrian  was  quite  the 
reverse  of  that  of  his  predecessor,  Leo  X.  Sincerely  and  deeply 
religious,  a  true  priest,  of  simple  tastes  and  grave  manners,  he 
had  in  a  certain  sense  a  horror  of  the  art  treasures  of  ancient 
Rome,  regarding  them  as  in  a  measure  tending  to  revive  the 
idols  of  Paganism.    His  dislike  of  them,  which  was  emphatic 

'  Hoefler,  Election  and  Accession  of  Pope  Hadrian  VI.  to  the  Throne,  Vienna, 
1873;  Bauer,  Hadrian  VI.,  being  a  picture  of  Life  of  tlie  Age  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, Heidelberij,  187G 


§  305.    The  Diet  of  Nurnberg  Convoked  and  Oj^ened.     45 


and  outspoken,  gave  great  offense  to  tlie  Romans,  who,  besides 
taking  an  enthusiastic  pride  in  the  reign  of  Leo  X.,  had  finan- 
cial reasons  for  encouraging  the  love  of  pagan  art  which  that 
reign  had  called  forth.  The  oft-repeated  words  of  Hadrian, 
that  "he  would  have  priests  for  the  adornment  of  churches, 
not  churches  for  the  adornment  of  priests,"  expressed  a  line 
of  action  with  which  the  liomans  had  little  or  no  sympathy. 
The  growing  discontent  reached  its  height  when  the  Pope, 
through  his  legate,  Chieregati,  Hisho])  of  Teramo,  publicly  pro- 
claimed at  the  Diet  of  l^iirnberg,  that,  "impelled  alike  by  in- 
clination and  duty,  htr  would  put  forth  his  best  energies  to 
bring  about  all  needful  reforms,  beginning  with  the  papal 
household,  the  primary  source  of  the  evils  afflicting  the 
Church,  to  the  end,  that,  as  corruption  had  infected  high 
and  low,  all  might  mend  their  lives  and  make  sure  their 
salvation."  But  while  thus  frankly  avowing  the  faults  of  the 
papacy,  and  promising  the  correction  of  these  and  other 
abuses,  the  Pope  soon  learned  that  it  was  not  in  his  power 
to  hasten  the  march  of  events,  or  to  shorten  the  time  neces- 
sary to  such  a  work.  Fully  persuaded  that  only  the  ignorant 
could  be  led  astray  by  the  crude  and  irrational  teachings  of 
Luther,^  and  that  the  revolt  against  the  old  faith  was  to  be 
mainly  ascribed  to  the  burdens  and  hardships  endured  by  the 
bulk  of  the  people,  he  entertained  the  hope  that  this  frank 
avowal  of  the  existence  of  evil  and  the  promise  of  its  correc- 
tion, coming  from  the  common  father  of  Christendom,  would 
have  the  effect  of  allaying  popular  discontent,  of  conciliating 
and  inspiring  confidence  in  the  minds  of  all.  In  this  frame 
of  mind,  he  pressed  the  Diet  to  take  prompt  and  vigorous 

'In  a  letter  written  by  him  while  yet  a  cardinal,  he  said,  speaking  of  Lathei : 
"Qui  sane  tarn  rudes  et  palpabiles  haereses  mihi  prae  se  ferre  videtur,  ut  ne 
discipulus  quidem  theologiae  ac  prima  ejus  limina  ingressus  ita  labi  merito  potu- 
isset.  .  .  .  Miror  valde,  quod  homo,  tam  manifeste  tamque  pertinaciter  in  fide 
errans  et  suas  haereses  somniaque  diflundens,  impune  errare  et  alios  in  pernicio- 
sissimos  errores  trahere  impune  sinitur."  [Burmanni  Analecta  hist,  do  Hadr. 
VI.,  Traj.  1727,  4to.,  p.  447.)  This  judgment  was  based  on  the  woi'ks  of  Luther 
published  in  Latin.  His  numerous  works  in  German  were  still  more  calculated 
to  lead  minds  astray  and  incite  rebellion.  (Vide  supra,  p.  30.)  .  .  .  Syntagma 
doctrinae  theologicae  Adriani  VI.,  ed.  Reusens,  Lovanii,  1862;  ejusaem,  Anec- 
dota  de  vita  et  scriptis  Adriani,  Lov.  1862. 


46  Period  3.     Epoch  ].     Chapter  1. 

measures  against  Luther;  "for,"  said  he,  with  prophetic  fore- 
sight, "the  revolt,  now  directed  against  the  spiritual  author- 
itj^,  will  shortly  deal  a  blow  at  the  temporal  also."  The  words 
of  the  Poutifi'  were  ill-received  by  the  Diet,  and  his  warning 
unheeded ;  his  frank  avowal  of  the  shortcomings  of  the  papacy 
gave  occasion  to  exhibitions  of  unseemly  triumph,  and  his 
promise  of  reform  was  interpreted  as  an  acceptance  of  defeat. 
The  hundred  and  one  grievances  against  the  Holy  See  were 
again  taken  np;  and  the  convocation  of  an  ecumenical  coun- 
cil, to  convene  in  some  city  of  Germany,  imperiously  de- 
manded; which  should,  in  the  first  instance,  provide  for  the 
general  well-being  of  the  Church,  and,  this  accomplished,  set- 
tle the  Lutheran  controversy.  Thus  far,  said  the  assembled 
States,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  enforce  the  edict  plac- 
ing Luther  under  ban  of  the  Empire,  from  fear  of  a  popular 
insurrection.  HoAvever,  tiiey  falteringly  added,  every  efitbrt 
will  be  put  forth  to  prevent  the  propagation,  either  orally  or 
in  writing,  of  the  new  doctrines,  until  such  time  as  the  coun- 
cil shall  have  convened;  and  to  sustain  the  authority  of  such 
bishops  as  shall  punish  married  ecclesiastics  with  canonical 
penalties. 

The  Nuncio,  clearly  perceiving  that  the  temper  of  the  States 
was  hostile  to  Rome,  and  mortified  at  the  ill  success  of  his 
mission,  withdrew  from  the  Diet;  and  Hadrian,  equall}^  cogni- 
zant of  their  sinister  designs,  gave  expression  to  his  sorrow  in 
words  of  reproachful  tenderness,  in  which,  while  laying  bare 
the  deep  and  intense  grief  that  crushed  his  paternal  heart,^he 
seemed  to  take  upon  himself  the  responsibility  of  all  the  faults 
committed  by  his  predecessors.  Hadrian,  however,  did  more 
than  utter  words  of  complaint.  Desirous  of  putting  an  end 
to  the  system  of  wasteful  extravagance  that  had  grown  up 
under  his  predecessors,  he  dismissed  a  large  number  of  useless 
functionaries,  thereby  exciting  against  himself  a  spirit  of  in- 
tense hostility.  To  add  to  the  bitterness  of  his  grief,  he  learned 
that  his  efibrts  to  defend  the  island  of  Rhodes  (December  25, 
1522)  against  the  assaults  of  the  Turks,  had  proved  unsuccess- 

'  Letters  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony;  to  the  cities  of  Breslau  and  Bamberg 
Conf.  Raynald.  ad  an.  1523,  nros.  73-86. 


.^  306.  Ifelanchthon,  Luther,  and  their  Nev)  Teachings.     47 

ful.  The  disastrous  issue  of  all  his  most  cherished  projects 
was  too  much  for  the  tender  heart  of  the  holy  Pontili",  and  he 
gradually  sunk  under  the  weight  of  accumulated  sorrows, 
"How  sad,"  said  he  in  his  last  moments,  "is  the  condition  of 
a  Pope  who  would  do  good,  but  can  not,"  On  the  very  day 
of  his  death  (September  14,  1523),  the  Romans  gave  expres- 
sion to  unseemly  joy,  in  a  coarse  inscription  placed  above  the 
door  of  his  attending  physician,^  He  was  entombed  in  Santa 
Maria  deW  Anima,  the  national  church  of  the  Germans,  At 
the  right  of  the  choir  stands  a  noble  sepulchral  monument 
erected  to  his  memory.  It  was  executed  by  Michaelangelo 
of  Siena  and  Nicolas  Tribolo  of  Florence,  after  the  designs 
of  Badassare  Peruzzi, 

§  306.  Efforts  of  Melanchthon  and  Luther  to  Spread  the  New 

Teachings. 

In  1521,  after  the  close  of  the  Diet  of  Worms,  Melanchthon 
published  his  Hypotyposes  theologicae,  sen  Loci  communes  rerum 
theologicarum,  setting  forth,  with  studious  brevity  and  with 
great  beauty  of  language,  a  full  account  of  Luther's  teach- 
ings,^ He  vehemently  assailed  the  doctrine  of  human  free- 
will, stating  that  "in  spiritual  affairs  the  intellect  and  reason 
of  man  are  wholly  in  the  dark"  [quod  hominis  intellectus  ratio- 
que  in  rebus  spiritualibus prorsus  est  caeca).  "The  adultery  of 
David,"  said  he,  "  and  the  betrayal  of  Judas  are  as  much  the 
work  of  God  as  the  calling  of  Paul."^    Besides  advocating 


'  Liberator!  Patriae,  S.  P.  Q.  H. — The  epitaph  composed  by  his  friends,  and 
inscribed  on  his  tomb,  does  him  justice.  "  Here  lies  Hadrian  VI.,  who  held 
that  to  rule  is  the  greatest  of  misfortunes."  So  also  another,  composed  by  a 
Hollander,  and  inscribed  on  his  cenotaph:  "Alas!  how  greatly  are  the  eflbrts 
of  the  very  best  men  colored  by  the  character  of  their  age."  "  Proh  dolor, 
quantum  refert  in  quae  tempora  vel  optimi  cujusque  virtus  incidat." 

-Prima  ed.,  Vit.  1521,  4to.,  and  oftener;  ed.  Aiigusti,  Lps.  1821. 

^He  says  in  his  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans :  "Haec  sit  certa 
sententia,  a  Deo  fieri  omnia,  tam  bona  quam  mala.  Nos  dicimus,  non  solum 
permittere  Deum  creaturis,  ut  operentur,  sed  ipsum  omnia  proprie  agere,  ut 
sicut  fatentur,  proprium  Dei  opus  fuisse  Paidi  vocationem,  ita  fateantur,  opera 
Dei  propria  esse,  sive  quae  media  vocantur,  ut  comedere,  sive  quae  mala  sunt, 
ut  Davidla  aduUerium;  constat  enim  Deum  omnia  facere,  non  permissive  sed 
potenter,  i.  e.  ut  sit  ejus  pToprium  opus  Judae  proditio,  sicut  Pauli  vocatio." 


48  Period  o.     Enoch  1.     Chcqyter  1. 

predestinatiou  in  the  most  extreme  and  rigid  sense,  he  claims 
for  man  an  individual  and  immediate  inspiration.  As  Lnther 
had  formerly  declaimed  in  the  universities  against  the  phi- 
losophy and  methods  of  Aristotle,  so  Melanchthon  now  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  see  the  works  of  Plato  swept  from  the  face 
of  the  earth.  To  carr}'  out  literally  the  words  of  Scripture, 
'•In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou  eat  bread,"  he  bound 
himself  as  an  apprentice  to  a  master  baker.  Moreover,  Me- 
lanchthon frequently  expressed  his  hearty  contempt  of  the 
very  ablest  ecclesiastical  writers,  of  whom  it  would  be  small 
praise  to  say  that  they  were  preeminently  his  superiors  in 
intellectual  endowments  and  depth  of  thought. 

Melanchthon  opens  his  doctrinal  exposition  abruptly  with 
predestination,  and  then  goes  on  to  discuss  the  other  dogmas 
in  dispute  in  a  series  of  propositions,  each  independent  of  the 
other,  and  having  no  essential  connection  as  integral  parts 
of  a  consistent  system.  He  even  goes  so  far  as  to  state  that 
a  Christian  need  know  no  more  than  the  existence  "of  law, 
of  grace,  and  of  sin  and  its  power  for  evil"  (vim  peccaii,  legem^ 
gratiam).  The  doctrines  oi  free-will,  grace,  and  jpredestination, 
while  playing  so  important  a  part  in  the  scheme  of  faith  aud 
justification,  are  treated  with  special  fullness.  In  subsequent 
editions  of  his  work,  he  gave  an  exposition  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  professing  to  ground  his 
statements  on  the  utterances  of  the  first  six  ecumenical  coun- 
cils.^ Dr.  Eck  promptly  published,  as  a  reply  to  this  work, 
his  ^''Enchiridion  locoriim  communium." 

As  Melanchthon's  doctrinal  exposition  had  been  addressed 
exclusively  to  the  learned,  Luther  undertook  to  perform  a 
similar  work  for  the  more  illiterate,  by  translating,  mostly 
from  the  original  text,  the  Kew  Testament  into  the  vulgar 

[Chemnit.  loci  theol.,  ed.  Leyser  1615,  Pt.  I.,  p.  173.)  In  the  later  editions  of 
Melanchthon's  Commentary,  this  passage  was  omitted. 

^Luther,  writing  of  this  work,  says:  "It  is  a  charming  and  noble  book,  and 
deserves  to  live  forever."  And  again:  "Nothing  better  has  been  written  since 
the  days  of  the  Apostles."  Xon  solum  immortalitate,  sed  etiam  canone  ecclesi- 
astico  dignum.  On  the  other  hand,  Strobel,  in  his  Literary  History  of  Philip 
Melanchthon's  Loci  theologici  (Altenburg  and  Niirnberg,  1776-1782),  shows 
that  this  dorjmatical  work  underwent  subsequent  variations,  both  as  to  maiier 
and  form. 


§  306.  Melanchthon,  Luther,  and  their  New  Teachinas.     40 

tongue.  This  translatioD,  before  being  published,  was  revised 
by  himself  and  Melanchthon  conjointly.  Translations  of  the 
various  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  which  he  also  availed 
himself  of  the  critical  judgment  of  his  friends,  subsequently 
appeared.'  Luther  now  had  the  effrontery  to  make  the  silly 
boast  that  he  was  the  first  to  drag  the  Bible  forth  from  be- 
neath the  dusty  benches  of  the  schools,  an  assumption  which 
even  Zwinglius  some  time  later  indignantly  denied.  "You 
are  unjust,"  said  he,  "in  putting  forth  this  boastful  claim; 
you  forget  that  we  have  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  through  the  translations  of  others.  To  mention  a 
few,  there  is  Erasmus  in  our  own  day;  Valla,  a  few  years 
earlier;  and  the  pious  Reuchlin  and  Pelican,  in  the  absence 
of  whose  labors,  neither  you  nor  others  could  have  accom- 
plished the  great  work.  But  I  will  be  merciful,  my  dear 
Luther,  although  I  should  not;  for  the  impudent  boasting  that 
pervades  your  books,  your  letters,  and  your  discourses,  merits 
the  severest  chastisement.  You  are  very  well  aware,  with  all 
your  blustering,  that,  previously  to  your  time,  there  existed  a 
host  of  scholars,  who,  in  biblical  knowledge  and  philological 
attainments,  were  incomparably  your  superiors." 

Luther,  in  replying  to  those  who  objected  that  the  indis- 
criminate reading  of  the  Bible  was  dangerous,  said:  "Should 
any  one  attack  you,  saying:  the  Bible  is  obscure,  or  it  should 
be  read  with  the  aid  of  the  commentaries  of  the  Fathers,  you 
will  reply :  this  is  not  true,  for  there  never  existed  on  earth  a 
book  more  easily  intelligible  than  the  Bible." 


1  Last  ed.  with  Luther's  corrections,  1546.  Luther's  Sendbr.  v.  Dollraetshen 
der  H.  S.  ( Walch,  Vol.  XXI.,  p.  316  sq.)  Maihesius,  Thirteen  Sermons. — Pafi- 
zei;  Hist,  of  Transl.  of  the  Bible,  Niirnberg  (1783)  1791.  Marheinexke,  Services 
rendered  to  the  cause  of  Religion  by  Translations  of  the  Bible,  13  vl.,  1815.  H. 
SchoU,  Hist,  of  Transl.  of  the  Bible,  Lps.  1835.  G.  W.  Hopf,  Criticism  of  Lu- 
ther's German  Version  of  the  Bible,  Niirnbere;,  1847.  See  Audin,  Life  of  Luther, 
ch.  XXIV.  (Tr.) 

VOL.    Ill — 4 


50  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     CluqHer  1. 


§  307.   The  Diet  of  Nurnberg. 

Laemmer,  Monum.  Yatic,  p.  11  sq. — Pallavicini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.,  lib.  II.,  c, 
10.     Raynald.,  ad  an,  1524.     Ranke,  Roman  Popes.  Vol.  I.,  p.  99-129. 

demerit  VII.  (November  19,  1523-1534),  the  successor  to 
Pope  Hadrian,  was  a  Humanist,  and  the  friend  of  Erasmus. 
Prudent,  considerate,  and  fair-minded,  he  exercised  great  cir- 
cumspection in  whatever  he  did,  always  weighing  scrupulously 
every  measure,  in  its  various  relations  and  adjuncts,  before 
proceeding  to  act.  This  habit  of  caution  drew  upon  him  the 
imputation  of  acting,  not  as  one  who  sees  his  way  clearly  be- 
fore him,  and  then  goes  resolutely  forward,  but  as  one  having 
an  ulterior  purpose  in  view,  and  making  his  approaches  to  it 
by  a  circuitous  route.^ 

He  was  not  long  in  making  up  his  mind  that  the  religious 
troubles  in  Germany  demanded  a  jirompt  and  vigorous  treat- 
ment, and  to  this  end  he  sent  liis  legate,  Campeggio,  to  the 
Diet  of  Niiruberg.  When  the  papal  legate  had  entered  Ger- 
many, he  became  fully  convinced,  from  the  signs  he  saw  about 
him  on  every  side,  that  the  people  were  hostile  and  evilly  dis- 
posed toward  the  Pope.  Arriving  at  the  Diet,  he  was  not  a 
little  surprised  to  find  that  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony,  the 
chief  protector  of  Lutheranism,  to  whom  he  carried  an  affec- 
tionate letter  from  the  Pope,  and  whom  he  had  hoped  to  win 
back  to  the  Catholic  faith  by  his  persuasive  eloquence,  was  no 
longer  there.  The  statement  of  the  legate  that  the  Pope  re- 
garded the  '■'•Centmn  Gravamina"  as  a  fabrication  of  the  ene- 
mies of  the  Holy  See,  rather  than  an  honest  expression  of  the 
true  sentiments  of  the  German  people,  produced  a  violent 
outburst  of  indignation  from  the  States  present  in  the  Diet. 
The  most  the  legate  could  obtain  was  a  promise  that,  in  the 
interval  between  the  adjournment  of  the  present  and  the 
assembling  of  the  next  Diet  at  Spire,^  on  the  coming  feast 
of  St.  Martin,  the  States  would  do  what  they  could  toward  en- 

iCf.  the  character  of  Clement  VII.  as  drawn  by  Contarini  in  Ranke' s  Suppl 
to  the  Eoman  Popes,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  25,  26. 

2  The  Recess  of  April  18,  1524,  in  Liinig's  Archives  of  the  Empire,  P.  gen. 
cont.  I.,  p.  445.      Walch,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  2674. 


§  307.   The  Diet  of  Nurnhcrg.  51 

forcing  the  edict  of  "Worms;  would  submit  the  Grievances 
against  the  Court  of  Rome  to  the  judgment  of  certain  wise 
and  experienced  men,  and  have  them  again  examined  and 
discussed  at  Spire ;  and  that  all  magistrates  would  exert 
themselves  to  prevent  the  publication  and  distribution  of 
writings  injurious  to  the  Holy  See.  The  action  of  the  States 
was  equivocal  and  insulting,  and  called  forth  the  indignant 
protest  of  Clement  VII.  They  make  a  jest  of  the  imperial 
authority,  said  he,  and,  in  refusing  to  enforce  the  Edict  of 
Worms,  compromise  the  rights  of  the  Emperor  far  more  than 
the  dignity  of  the  Apostolic  See.*  The  Emperor,  viewing 
their  action  in  the  same  light,  commanded  them  to  strictly 
enforce  the  Edict  of  Worms  against  Luther,  the  second  Mo- 
hammed, under  penalty  of  incurring  the  guilt  of  high  trea- 
son, and  being  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire.  Although 
the  action  of  the  Diet  was,  for  many  reasons,  offensive  to  both 
the  Pope  and  the  Emperor,  it  was  hardly  less  so  to  Luther. 
His  vanity  was  wounded,  and  he  bitterly  complained,  that, 
after  having  undertaken  an  enterprise  of  unusual  difficulty 
and  danger,  he  now  received  only  the  reward  of  ingratitude 
for  his  pains.  The  opponents  of  Luther,  now  fully  aroused 
and  startled  by  the  frightful  consequences  to  which  his  teach- 
ing and  revolt^  would  lead  in  practical  life,  prepared  to  take 
more  decisive  measures  against  him.  The  papal  legate  en- 
deavored to  adjust  the  differences  between  Austria  and  Bava- 
ria, each  suspicious  of  the  ambitious  designs  of  the  other,  and 
finally  succeeded  in  effecting  an  alliance  at  Ratisbon  (June  5, 
1524)  between  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  of  Austria  and  the 
Dukes  William  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  to  which  twelve  bishops 
of  Southern  Germany  were  also  partners.  The  immediate  ob- 
ject of  this  alliance  was  to  protect  the  interests  and  institu- 
tions of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  enforce  the  edicts  of 
Worms  and  Nurnberg,  It  was  resolved  that  priests  who 
should  marry,  should  be  canonically  punished ;  that  young 
Garmans  should  be  forbidden  to  make  their  studies  at  Wit- 
tenberg; and  that  a  vigorous  opposition  should  be  made  to 

»Cf.  Raynala.  ad  tin.  1524,  nro.  15  aq. 
•'Sc*  following  pairtgraph. 


52  Period  3.     E^och  1.     Chcqoter  1. 

whatever  tended  to  propagate  heresy.  The  opponents  of  Lu- 
ther agreed  upon  a  similar  line  of  action  at  Dessau,  in  ISTorth- 
ern  Germany.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Landgrave,  Philip  of 
Hesse,  drew  to  his  part}^  the  new  Elector  of  Saxony,  John  the, 
Constant  (May  5,  1525),  whom  he  induced  to  sign  a  treaty  of 
alliance,  concluded  at  Torgau,  May  4,  1526,  by  which  the 
Protestant  princes  bound  themselves  to  defend  the  princi- 
ples and  uphold  the  interests  of  Lutheranism  in  their  respec- 
tive States — 3Iecklenburg,  Anhalt,  Mansfeld,  Prussia;  and  the 
cities  of  Brunswick  and  Magdeburg  shortly  after  joined  this 
alliance.  In  this  wa}^  was  the  line  of  separation  drawn  be- 
tween Catholic  and  Protestant  Germany.^ 

If  there  was  ever  a  time  when  it  was  to  the  interest  of  the 
Pope  to  closely  ally  himself  to  the  Emperor,  it  was  now;  for 
Charles  V.,  and  he  alone,  was  able  and  willing  to  maintain 
the  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  But  unfortunately  Clem- 
ent failed  to  appreciate  his  opportunity,  and  imprudently  pub- 
lished a  brief  hostile  to  the  interests  of  Charles,^  and  entered  into 
an  alliance  with  Francis  I.  The  consequences  of  his  action 
were  disastrous.  The  Emperor's  forces  besieged  Rome  on  two 
different  occasions,  stormed  and  plundered  the  city,  made  the 
Pope  prisoner,  and  offered  many  indignities  to  his  person 
(May  6,  1527). 

§  308.  The  New  Teachings  and  Their  Practical  Consequences — 
Disorders  at  Wittenberg  Caused  by  Carlstadt — The  Ana- 
baptists and  the  Peasants'  War. 

The  teachings  of  Luther  soon  found  their  way  from  his 
writings  into  the  practical  affairs  of  life.  From  his  height 
at  Wartburg,  he  flung  down  among  the  people  his  pamphlets 
on  '^Monastic  Vows"  and"T%e  Abuse  of  Masses."^    Bartholo- 


iThe  limits  of  the  territory  included  by  the  Protestant  and  Catnolic  alliances 
may  be  seen  in  WedelVs  Historical  and  Geographical  Atlas,  on  map  XVIII..  b. 

^See  in  Raiinaid.  ad  an.  1526,  n.  6;  also,  a  defense  of  the  Emperor,  in  Goldasii 
Polit.  Imp.,  Pt.  XXII.,  pp.  990  sq. ;  also,  a  partial  defense  in  Raynald.,  I.e.,  n.  22. 

^Walch,  Vol.  XIX.,  pp.  1304  sq.  and  1808  sq.— Cf.  Riffcl,  1st  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  pp. 
263-267 ;  2d  ed.,  pp  3-45-350.  Luther  said,  in  praise  of  the  former  of  these  two 
treatises,  that,  compared  with  the  works  he  had  hitherto  written,  it  was  (libera 
"munitissimus  et  quod  ausim  gloriari  invictus." 


§  308.  The  New  Teachings — Disorders  at  Wittenberg,  etc.    53 

meio  Bernhardi,  a  priest  of  the  town  of  Kemberg,  startled  the 
world  by  openly  taking  a  wife.^  The  Angustinian  friars  of 
Wittenberg,  Luther's  brothers  in  religion,  declared  their  Vowa 
and  the  Rules  of  their  Order  null  and  void.  Luther  had  told 
them,  in  his  pamphlet  "-On  Monastic  Vows,''  that  such  restric- 
tions were  contrary  to  the  command  of  God ;  that  monasti- 
cism  itself  was  a  revolt  against  Christ;  and  that,  hence, 
monasteries  should  be  burnt  with  fire,  pitch,  and  brimstone, 
and  utterly  swept  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  like  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  of  old.  At  Wittenberg,  Carlstadt,  at  the  head  of 
a  fanatical  mob,  went  about  demolishing  altars,  overturning 
statues,  and  destroying  pictures  and  sacred  images ;  and,  to 
put  the  crown  on  his  sacrilegious  conduct,  administered  the 
Lord's  Supper  to  all  who  chose  to  approach,  whether  in  the 
state  of  grace  or  not ;  and  introduced  the  use  of  the  German 
language  in  religious  services. 

Similar  scenes  were  enacted  at  Zwickau,  where  infant  bap- 
tism was  rejected,  on  the  ground  that  it  had  no  more  sanc- 
tion in  Holy  Writ  than  other  doctrines  discarded  by  Luther 
on  the  same  plea;  for  it  is  written,  "  Whosoever  shall  believe 
and  be  baptized,  shall  be  saved."  Hence,  they  said,  as  valid 
baptism  could  not  be  conferred  until  persons  had  attained  the 
use  of  reason,' it  was  plain  adults  should  be  rebaptized. 

Nicholas  Starch,  a  native  of  Zwickau,  after  gathering  about 
him  a  number  of  immediate  followers,  consisting  of  twelve 
apostles  and  seventy  disciples,  proceeded  wdth  the  former  to 
Wittenberg,  where  he  preached  to  the  people,  and  proclaimed 
himself  a  prophet  of  God. 

Melanchthon  himself  did  not  see  his  way  clear  out  of  the 
difficulties  proposed  by  these  ^^ visionary  prophets"  against  in- 
fant baptism,  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  think  that  their  doc- 
trine, inasmuch  as  it  had  a  Scripture  sanction,  might  be 
conscientiously  accepted.  But  some  time  after,  disgusted 
with  the  excesses  of  the  Anabaptists,  he  also  rejected  their 
teachings.  His  defection  was,  in  part  at  least,  compensated 
by  the  accession  to  their  ranks  of  Carlstadt,  Martin  Cellarius, 


^  J.  G.  Walter,  Prima  gloria  Clerogamiae  restitutae  Luthero  vindicata,  Neo 
stad.  ad  O.  1767.  4lo. 


54  Fertod  3.     Epoch.  1.     Chapter  1. 

a  friend  of  Melanchthon's,  the  mouk  Didymus,  and  others, 
Didymus,  in  his  sermons,  warned  parents  against  allowing 
their  children  to  pursue  profane  studies;  and  Carlstadt,  car- 
rj'ing  his  zeal  against  all  human  science  still  further,  cast  into 
the  flames  the  text-books  brought  to  him  by  students  from  all 
quarters,  giving  as  his  reason  for  so  doing  that  henceforth  the 
Bible  alone  should  be  read  among  men.  Under  pretext  of 
following  the  precept  of  Our  Lord  in  Matthew  xi.  25:  "I 
give  thanks  to  Thee,  O  Father,  because  Thou  hast  hid  these 
things  from  the  wise  and  prudent,  and  hast  revealed  them  to 
little  ones"  he  went  through  the  streets  of  Wittenberg,  Bible 
in  hand,  stopping  the  passers-by,  and,  entering  the  work- 
shops, interrupted  the  artisans,  to  ask  the  meaning  of  diffi- 
cult passages,  as  from  persons  whose  minds  had  not  yet  been 
warped  by  the  sophistry  of  science.  The  students  passed  be- 
yond the  control  of  the  authorities,  and  it  was  feared  the 
University  would  be  closed.  Even  the  heresiarchs  were 
startled  at  the  excesses  to  which  their  teachings  bad  led, 
and  began  to  grow  uneasy,  lest  they  might  serve  as  a  pre- 
text to  Duke  George  of  Saxony  for  putting  a  stop  to  any  fur- 
ther attempts  at  reforming  the  Church.  Luther  took  alarm 
at  the  violence  of  Carlstadt's  conduct,  and  wrote  from  Wart- 
burg:  "You  have  entered  this  conflict  inconsiderately,  and 
without  method;  you  have  thrown  everything  into  confusion  ; 
your  proceedings  are  without  warrant  or  reason.  I  may  as 
well  let  3'^ou  know  what  I  think  of  the  business.  I  am  dis- 
gusted. If  atifairs  have  a  disastrous  issue,  I  shall  not  answer 
for  it.  You  have  not  sought  my  counsel  before  entering  upon 
the  undertaking,  (? !)  and  you  will  now  see  to  it  that  you  get 
on  without  me.  What  has  been  done,  has  been  ill  done,  though 
Carlstadt  may  affirm  over  and  over  that  you  are  right  in 
acting  as  you  do." 

In  vain  did  Luther,  at  the  instance  of  Melanchthon,  write 
to  them  to  prove  the  spirits  before  receiving  their  prophe- 
cies; the  disorders  went  on.  His  friends  wrote  to  him 
from  Wittenberg,  saying,  "  Come,  or  we  perish."  Fred- 
eric the  Wise  advised  him  not  to  leave  Wartburg;  Castle. 
Luther  left  his  Patmos  March  8,  and  arrived  at  Wittcn- 
berg  on  Good  Friday,*  1522.     Shortly  before  leaving  Wart- 


§  308.  The  New  Teachings — Disorders  at  Wittenberrj,  etc.   55 

burg,  Luther  wrote  to  the  Elector:^  "Be  it  known  to  Your 
Highness  that  I  go  to  "Wittenberg  under  the  protection  of  a 
providence  stronger  than  that  of  princes  and  electoi's.  I  have 
no  need  of  your  support,  but  you  have  of  mine;  it  will  be  of 
advantage  to  you,"  etc.  Scarcely  had  he  arrived  at  Witten- 
berg, when,  ascending  the  pnlpit,  he  began  "to  rap  these  vis- 
ionaries on  the  snout."  For  eight  days  together,  or  during 
the  whole  of  Easter-week,  he  declaimed,  in  a  series  of  mas- 
terly discourses,  against  those  fanatical  leaders  and  barbarous 
iconoclasts.  '■^All  violent  and  untimely  measures,"  said  he,  "'em- 
ployed to  hasten  the  moment  for  a  clearer  understanding  of  relig- 
ion, are  equally  opposed  to  the  Gospel  and  to  Christian  charity. 
External  changes  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  should  be  introduced 
only  after  men's  minds  have  been  convinced,  of  the  necessity  of 
such  changes^' 

Luther  was  now  in  a  position  to  see  the  practical  w'orkinga 
of  his  own  teaching  and  the  faithful  reproduction  of  his  ow^n 
conduct,  and  for  the  moment  he  seemed  startled  by  the  vision. 
But  rapidly  recovering  himself,  he  again  dashed  headlong 
into  just  such  violent  and  revolutionary  conduct  as  he  had 
attempted  to  suppress,  again  declaiming  like  a  maniac  against 
religious  vows.^  "It  is  all  one,"  said  he,  with  shameless  ef- 
frontery, "whether  one  says  to  God :  I  promise  never  to  leave 
off  offending  Thee;  or  whether  one  says:  I  promise  to  live 
always  chaste  and  poor  that  I  may  lead  a  just  and  holy  life. 
The  day  has  come,"  he  continued,  "  not  only  to  abolish  for- 
ever those  unnatural  vows,  but  to  punish,  with  all  the  rigor 
of  the  law,  such  as  make  them;  to  destroy  convents,  abbeys, 
priories,  and  monasteries,  and  in  this  way  prevent  them  ever 
again  being  uttered." 

Luther's  words  found  a  responsive  echo  in  the  hearts  of  the 
depraved.  Troops  of  monks  deserted  their  convents,  took 
wives,  and  became  ardent  Lutherans.  It  was  soon  plain  to 
Luther  that  these  reprobate  monks,  acting  from  carnal  and 
lustful  impulses,  "singularlj^  corrupted  the  good  odor  of  the 

^  De  Weite,  Luther's  Letters,  Vol.  II.,  p.  137  sq. 

'''Short  Epilogue  against  Yows  and  Religious  Life  in  Monasteries,  in  JValch, 
Vol.  XIX.,  p.  797. 


56  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


Gospel.''  The  spirit  of  revolt  onde  evoked  brooks  no  control. 
Luther  himself  rode  the  crest  of  the  wave.  Like  Carlstadt, 
his  former  master,  he  gathered  all  his  strength  for  an  effort  to 
abolish  the  Mass.  To  him  the  ever-renewing  Sacrifice  was  a 
horror.  "  Your  only  j^i'rpose  in  retaining  the  Mass,''  said  he 
reproachfully  to  the  Collegiate  Chapter  of  Wittenberg,  which 
had  resisted  his  appeals,  "?.s  to  have  alv)ays  at  hand  a  convenient 
'pretext  for  starting  new  sects  and  opening  fresh  schisms.'^  The 
impious  rage  of  his  adherents  outran  his  own.  "  These  priests, 
these  mumblers  of  Masses,"  they  cried  out  in  their  impotent 
fury,  "deserve  death  quite  as  richly  as  the  profane  blasphe- 
mers who  curse  God  and  His  Saints  on  the  public  thorough- 
fares." By  the  use  of  violent  means  like  these  did  Luther 
finally  succeed  in  abolishing  the  Canon  of  the  Mass  (Novem- 
ber, 1525);  he  retained  only  the  Elevation. 

The  influence  of  Luther's  works,  and  particularly  of  those 
written  in  the  vernacular,  was  not  confined  to  priests  and 
monks  alone;  it  extended  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  as  well. 
Borne  down  by  the  weight  of  political  oppression,  they  list- 
ened with  feelings  of  enthusiastic  and  fanatical  approbation 
to  the  ideas  of  Gospel  freedom,  so  glowingly  set  forth  by  the 
new  preachers.  "I  behold  them  coming  from  these  sermons," 
Baid  Erasmus,  "with  threatening  looks,  and  eyes  darting  fire, 
18  men  carried  beyond  themselves  by  the  fiery  discourses  to 
which  they  have  just  listened.  These  followers  of  the  Gospel 
are  ever  ready  for  a  conflict  of  some  kind;  whether  with  po- 
lemical or  martial  weapons,  it  matters  little," 

Luther  called  upon  the  people  to  cast  off'  the  yoke  laid  upon 
them  by  the  priests  and  monks.  Following  his  advice,  the 
peasants  refused  to  pay  the  customary  taxes  to  bishops  and 
monasteries.  They  interpreted  Gospel  freedom  to  mean  a 
sanction  authorizing  them  to  disregard  whatever  was  disa- 
greeable or  irksome,  and  to  rebel  against  princes,  particularly 
such  as  remained  faithful  to  the  Church.  These  they  were 
taught  to  look  upon  as  tyrants  and  enemies  to  Gospel  truth. 

"While  Luther's  work  on  '■'Christian  Liberty,"  which  had 
been  scattered  throughout  the  whole  of  Germany,  prepared 
the  way  for  revolt,  his  treatise  on  "  The  Secular  31agistracy" 
(1523)  formally  advocated  the  abolition  of  all  authority  what- 


§  308.   The  New  Teachings— The  Peasants'  War.        57 

ever,  whether  ecclesiastical  or  political.^  The  peasantry,  in- 
fiamed  by  the  fanatical  teachings  and  fiery  appeals  of  the  sectaries^ 
rather  than  driven  to  excess  by  the  tyranny  and  extortions  of  feudal 
lords,  rose  in  open  and  organized  rebellion.  In  a  manifesto, 
consisting  of  twelve  articles,^  based  npon  texts  drawn  from 
the  writings  of  Luther,  the  peasants  claimed,  first  of  all,  the 
right  of  appointing  and  removing  at  will  their  ministers  of 
the  Gospel.  The  insurrection  rapidly  spread  over  Suabia,  the 
Black  Forest,  the  Palatinate,  Franconia,  Thuringia,  and  Sax- 
ony. The  peasants,  assembling  in  large  bodies,  would  proceed 
to  plunder  and  burn  convents,  demolish  the  strongholds  of  the 
nobility,  and  commit  every  sort  of  outrage  and  atrocity. 

Thomas  Munzer,  the  leader  of  the  sect  oi '^  Conquering  Ana- 
baptists'" in  Thuringia,  preached  a  doctrine  of  political  equal- 
ity and  freedom  far  more  comprehensible  to  the  illiterate 
peasantry  than  the  religious  equality  and  freedom  advocated 
by  Luther. 

After  being  driven  out  of  Altstadt,  where  he  had  incited 
the  citizens  to  rebel  against  the  civil  magistrates  by  his  revo- 
lutionary harangues,  and  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  mobs 
that  went  about  demolishing  Catholic  chapels  and  overturning 
Catholic  altars,  he  received  an  appointment  as  pastor  in  the 
town  of  Miihlhausen.  Here  again  he  headed  a  formidable 
insurrection  against  the  civil  authorities;  styled  himself  a 
prophet,  and  signed  himself  "  Munzer,  the  bearer  of  the  sword 
of  Gideon;"  proclaimed  the  natural  equality  of  all  men,  a 
community  of  goods,  the  abolition  of  every  sort  of  authority, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  new  '•'-Kingdom  of  God,^^  composed 
solely  of  the  just. 

Everywhere  illiterate  peasants  might  be  seen  taking  upon 
themselves  the  office  of  preaching,  for  they  had  been  told  that 


1  The  following  extract  from  this  treatise  will  indicate  its  drift :  "  iShould  sonie 
one  say:  Since  (according  to  Luther)  there  is  to  be  no  sword  among  Christians, 
how  are  they  to  be  made  responsible  for  their  external  acts?  Surely  thejo 
must  be  some  representative  of  sovereign  authority  among  them.  Answer 
such  one  that  no  sovereign  authority  should  exist  among  Christians ;  each  should 
be  subject  to  the  other,  according  to  the  words  of  Paul,  Rom.  xii. :  'In  honor 
preventing  one  another;'  and  again:  I.  Peter  ii.:  'Be  ye  subject  to  every 
human  creature;'   'honor  all  men.'" 

'Cf.  Alfred  Stern,  Concerning  the  Twelve  Articles  of  the  Suabian  Peasants 


58  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

an}'  one  might  announce  the  word  of  God.  Thej^  besought 
Luther,  now  that  he  had,  by  the  weapon  of  Holy  Scripture, 
set  at  defiance  every  human  power  and  authority,  to  under- 
take the  defense  of  their  cause.  Luther  was  at  first  extremely 
embarrassed  by  this  appeal,  but  finally  sent  them  an  answer 
in  the  form  of  an  exhortation,  addressed  alike  to  princes  and 
peasants,  whom  he  styled  respectively  "My  dear  Sirs  and 
Brothers."  With  his  accustomed  dishonesty  and  dexterity, 
he  shifted  the  responsibility  of  the  peasants'  insurrection, 
from  where  it  properly  belonged,  to  the  bishops  and  Catho- 
lic princes,^  "who,"  he  said,  "  never  wearied  of  crying  out  against 
the  Gospel.'"  As  might  have  been  foreseen,  his  exhortation 
was  without  effect.  The  peasants  grew  daily  more  bold  and 
insolent,  and  their  devastations  and  enormities  more  atrocious. 
At  Weinsberg,  they  forced  seventy  knights  to  commit  sui- 
cide, by  throwing  themselves  against  spears  held  before  them. 
When  Luther's  enemies  sarcastically  taunted  him  with  being 
an  accomplished  hand  at  kindling  a  conflagration,  but  an  indif- 
ferent one  at  putting  out  the  flames,  he  published  a  pamphlet 
against  "those  pillaging  and  murdering  peasants."  "Strike,'' 
said  he  to  the  princes,  "strike,  slay,  front  and  rear;  nothing 
is  more  devilish  than  sedition ;  it  is  a  mad  dog  that  bites  you 
if  you  do  not  destroy  it.  There  must  be  no  sleep,  no  patience, 
no  mercy;  they  are  the  children  of  the  devil."  Such  was  his 
speech  in  assailing  those  poor,  deluded  peasants,  who  had 

^Walch,  Vol.  XVL,  p.  5  sq.;  Vol.  XXI.,  p.  149;  concerning  various  districts 
of  the  country  of  Baden,  see  Mone,  Sources  of  the  History  of  Baden,  Carlsruhe, 
1848  sq.,  Vol.  II.,  4to.  Sartorius,  Essay  of  a  Hist,  of  the  "Peasants'  War," 
Berlin,  1795.  WachsmutJi,  "The  Peasants'  "War,"  Lps.  1834.  Zimmermann,  A 
General  Hist,  of  the  Great  Peasants'  War,  Stuttg.  1843,  3  vols.  Bense?i,  Hist, 
of  the  Peasants'  War  in  East  Franconia,  written  from  the  sources,  Erlangen, 
1840.  Cornelius,  Studies  on  the  Hist,  of  the  Peasants'  War,  Munich,  1862; 
Schreiber,  The  Peasants'  War  in  Germany,  Freiburg,  1864.  Jorff,  Germany 
during  the  Eevolutionary  Period  from  1522-1526,  Freiburg,  1851.  Cf.  also  the 
following  Essays:  Causes  of  the  Peasants'  War  in  Germany  (Hist,  and  Polit. 
Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  321  sq.);  The  Breaking  out  of  the  Peasants'  War,  its  char- 
acter, and  the  actors  therein  (1.  c,  p.  449-409) ;  Defensive  operations  agairet  the 
Peasants  (ibid.,  p.  627-644);  31anifestoes  and  Scheme  of  Constitution  of  the 
Peasants  (ibid.,  p.  641-664);  Bearing  of  Luther  during  the  Peasants'  War  (1.  c^ 
Vol.  VII.,  p.  170-192);  see  also  Rifel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  412-479;  2d  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
608-581. 


§  308.   The  New  Teachings— The  Peasants'  War.        59 

done  no  more  than  practically  carry  out  his  own  principles. 
They  were  to  be  subdued  by  the  strong  hand  of  authority, 
and  to  receive  no  sympathy,  no  mercy,  from  their  victorious 
conquerors.  It  is  computed  that  a  hundred  thousand  men 
fell  in  battle  during  the  Peasants'  War,  and  of  this  immense 
loss  of  life  Luther  took  the  responsibility.  "I,  Martin  Jai- 
ther,"  said  he,  "have  shed  the  blood  of  the  rebellious  peas- 
ants; for  I  commanded  them  to  be  killed.  Their  blood  is 
indeed  upon  my  head;  but,"  he  blasphemously  added,  ''I put 
it  upon  the  Lord  God,  by  whose  command  I  spoked  ^ 

Melanchthon's  connection  with  the  Peasants'  War  is  still 
more  strange.  Although  more  discreet  and  temperate  than 
Luther,  it  is  nevertheless  undeniable  that  the  benignant  mild- 
ness popularly  ascribed  to  him  had  in  it  a  large  admixture  of 
violent  passion  and  vindictive  rancor,  and  he  was  therefore 
not  long  in  following  in  the  footsteps  of  his  master.  Reply- 
ing to  Prince  Louis,  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  who,  being 
desirous  to  prevent  the  further  effusion  of  the  blood  of  his 
people  and  to  restore  order,  had  asked  his  opinion  as  a  theo- 
logian on  the  peasants'  manifesto  of  the  Twelve  Articles 
(1525),  he  said  that  "  it  was  his  settled  conviction  that  the 
Germans  had  been  granted  a  great  deal  more  freedom  than 
was  beneficial  to  people  so  rude  and  uncultured."^  He  also 
taught  that  the  just  rights  of  the  peasantry  might  be  legally 
violated.  "  As  governments  can  do  no  wrong,"  said  he,  "  they 
may  confiscate  the  communal  lands  and  forests,  and  no  one 
has  a  right  to  complain ;  they  may  confiscate  the  wealth  of 
churches,  and  apply  it  to  secular  uses,  and  no  resistance  should 
be  made.  The  Germans  should  submit  to  the  grievance  as 
did  the  Jews  of  old  when  the  Romans  plundered  their  tem- 
ple." "  Thus,"  says  Bensen,^  "while  the  Catholic  Church  has 
never  sanctioned,  at  least  in  theory,  the  oppression  practiced 
by  prelates  and  nobles,  and  has  ever  defended — sometimes 
successfully,  but  always  obstinately — the  rights  of  individuals 

1  Luther's  Table-Talk,  Eisleben  ed.,  p.  276.  Cf.  f^Friedrich,  Astrology  and 
the  Keformation ;  or,  the  Astrologers  as  the  Preachers  of  the  Keformation  and 
Authors  of  the  Peasants'  War,  Munich,  1864. 

^ Dbliinger,  The  Reformation,  Vol.  I.,  p.  371  sq. 

3].  c,  §  19. 


60  Period  3.     Epoch  J.     Chapter  1. 

and  nations  against  even  Emperors  themselves;  the  evangel- 
ical reformers  are  justly  reproached  with  having  been  the 
first  to  teach  and  to  preach  the  doctrine  of  servile  submission 
antl  the  right  of  the  stronger  to  the  Germans."  By  the  ad- 
vice of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse  ; 
Henry,  Dnke  of  Brunswick;  and  George,  Duke  of  Saxony, 
took  the  field  against  the  peasants,  and  very  nearly  annihi 
lated  their  numerous  army  at  the  battle  of  Miihlhausen,  fought 
May  15,  1525. 

Miinzer  was  taken  prisoner,  and,  after  submitting  to  a  wear- 
isome investigation  and  enduring  painful  torture,  was  be- 
headed. In  the  presence  of  death,  and  when  about  to  meet 
his  God,  he  abjured  his  errors,  and  professed  that  he  wished 
to  die  an  obedient  and  repentant  sou  of  the  Church  he  had 
so  often  and  so  violently  outraged.  He  besought  the  princes 
to  deal  clemently  and  mercifully  with  the  peasants,  and  ex- 
horted these  to  render  a  proper  obedience  to  constituted 
authorities.^ 

Luther  was  now  the  object  of  universal  execration  ;  for 
while  the  principles  set  forth  in  his  works  openly  favored 
revolt,  and  tended  to  stir  up  sedition,  he  had  counseled 
princes^  to  destroy  with  fire  and  sword  poor  peasants  who 
were  only  carrying  out  in  practice  what  he  advocated  in  the- 
ory. Of  the  thirty  art/icles,  in  which  the  peasants  set  forth 
their  grievances,  some  were  copied  literally  from  his  German 
writings,  and  demanded  exemption  from  all  taxes,  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  seigneurial  courts,  the  cliscontin nance  of  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes  and  other  dues,  and  the  right  of  every  parish 
to  appoint  and  remove  their  ministers  at  will;  while  the 
twenty-eighth  avowed  open  hostility  to  all  his  adversaries. 

^Seidemann,  Thomas  Miinzer,  being  a  biography  written  from  the  sources 
found  in  the  State  Archives  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  Dresden  and  Lps. 
1842.  Cf.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  art.  "  Thomas  Mimzer,"  Vol.  VII.,  p.  238- 
256;  310-320.  Riffel,  Yol.  1.,  ]-).  4:19-522;  2d  ed.,  p.  581-632.  Schmidt,  Justus 
Menius,  the  Ptcformer  of  Thuringia,  Lps.  1867. 

^  Thomas  Mimzer  had  already  violently  assailed  Luther,  in  replying  to  the 
harsh  language  employed  by  the  latter  against  the  peasants.  He  styled  him 
"an  ambitious  and  deceitful  scribbler,  a  proud  fool,  a  shameless  monk,  a  doctor 
of  lies,  an  accomplished  buffoon,  the  Pope  of  Wittenberg,  the  impious  and  car- 
nal man  of  Wittenberg,"  etc. 


§  309.  Henry  VIII.  and  Erasmus  Opi')osc  Luther.      (!] 

Even  Erasmus  rebuked  Luther  for  the  coarse  he  had  [)ur- 
Bued.  "  We  are  now  gathering,"  said  he,  "  the  fruits  of  your 
teaching.  You  say  indeed  that  the  word  of  God  should,  of 
its  nature,  bear  very  difi'erent  fruit.  Well,  in  my  opinion, 
that  greatly  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  preached. 
You  disclaim  any  connection  with  the  insurgents,  while  they 
regard  you  as  their  parent,  and  the  author  and  expounder  of 
their  principles.  It  is  notorious  that  persons  who  have  God's 
word  constantly  in  their  mouth,  have  stirred  up  the  most 
frightful  insurrections."  Neither  should  it  be  forgotten  that, 
•even  as  early  as  the  year  1522,  Luther  wrote  exultingly  to  his 
friend  Link,  at  Wittenberg :  *'  The  people  are  everywhere 
rising;  their  eyes  are  at  length  oj^ened;  they  will  no  longer 
fiuffer  themselves  to  be  cruelly  oppressed."  In  1526,  Luther's 
tone  had  changed;  he  was  no  longer,  what  he  first  proclaimed 
himself,  the  champion  of  the  people;  from  this  time  forth 
he  was  the  apologist  of  power,  and  the  friend  and  counselor 
of  princes. 

§  309.  Henry  VII L,  King  of  England,  and  Erasmus  Oppose 
Luther — Marriage  of  Luther. 

Cf.  ''^Kerker,  Erasmus  and  his  Theological  Point  of  View  (Tubingen  Theo- 
logical Quart.  Review,  1859,  n.  7). 

Henry  VIIL,  King  of  England,  formally  ranged  himself 
among  the  enemies  of  Luther.  He  was  irritated  and  alarmed 
by  the  reformer's  revolutionary  schemes,  as  set  forth  in  "  The 
Captivity  of  the  Church  in  Babylon.''  Among  other  startling 
assertions,  it  was  there  stated  that  the  Papacy,  far  from  being 
of  Divine  origin,  was  an  anomaly  in  church  government,  and 
an  insuiferable  usurpation;  that  it  had  distorted  many  of  the 
truths  of  primitive  revelation,  and  had  been  instrumental  in 
reducing  the  Church  to  the  condition  of  captivity,  in  which 
the  Daughter  of  Sion  now  mourned.  Henry,  first  of  all, 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  Emperor  and  to  Louis  the  Elector 
Palatine,  dated  May,  1521,  requesting  them  to  silence  Lu- 
ther, and  eradicate  his  teaching.'     The  crowned  theologian, 


^Walch,  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  XIX.,  p.  153  sq. 


02  Period  3.     Epocli  1.     ChajJter  1. 


who,  had  his  brother  Arthur  lived,  might  have  filled  oue  of 
the  arch i episcopal  sees  of  England,  entered  a  little  later  on 
the  field  of  polemics  against  the  Saxon  monk.  Closeted  with 
his  chancellor,  the  Archbishop  of  York;  with  Fisher,  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  and  other  prelates,^  he  wrote  the  "Defense  of  the 
Seven  Sacraments  against  Doctor  Martin  Luther,''  in  which  he 
triumphantly  refuted  every  false  statement  and  defective  argu- 
ment of  his  adversary.  Following  the  line  of  reasoning  pur- 
sued in  a  former  age  by  Tertullian,  he  demonstrated  that  papal 
authority  and  the  power  of  the  keys  had  been,  at  all  times 
and  ever}' where,  recognized  by  Christians;  defended  the  Mass 
as  the  great  central  act  of  Christian  worship,  and  established 
its  character  as  a  sacrifice;  and,  going  through  the  list  of  the 
reformer's  errors,  gave  complete  and  irrefragable  answers  to 
them  all.  Toward  the  close  of  the  Defense,  Henry  sums  up 
Luther's  character.  "This  petty  doctor,"  says  he,  "this  gro- 
tesque saint,  this  pretender  to  learning,^  in  the  pride  of  his 
self-constituted  authority,  spurns  the  most  venerable  doctors 
the  world  has  known,  the  most  exalted  saints,  and  the  most 
distinguished  biblical  scholars."  "  "What  profit,"  he  presently 
continues,  "  can  come  of  a  contest  with  Luther,  who  is  of  no- 
body's opinion,  who  does  not  understand  himself,  who  denies 
what  he  has  once  affirmed,  and  affirms  what  he  has  already 
denied?  He  is  a  shameless  scribbler,  who  sets  himself  above 
all  laws,  despises  our  venerable  teachers,  and,  in  the  fullness 
of  his  pride,  ridicules  the  learning  of  the  age;  who  insults 
the  majesty  of  pontifis,  outrages  traditions,  dogmas,  manners, 
canons,  faith,  and  the  Church  herself,  which,  he  professes,  ex- 
ists nowhere  outside  of  two  or  three  innovators,  of  whom  he 
has  constituted  himself  the  leader."^  But  Henry  was  not 
content  to  use  invincible  reasoning  alone;  he  had  recourse 
to  wit,  sarcasm,  and  such  popular  arguments  as  would  place 
the  contradictions  of  his  adversary  in  the  fullest  light.     His 

^Audin,  Life  of  Luther,  London,  1854,  Vol.  II.,  p.  50.  (Tr.) 

'*  Doctorculus,  sanctulus,  ei-uditulus. 

^Adsertio  VII.  Sacram.  adv.  Luther.,  Lond.  1521,  pp.  97,  98.  Walch,  Vol. 
XIX.,  p.  158.  See  above,  p.  42,  note  2.  Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  342-371 ;  2d  ed., 
p.  433  sq.,  where  is  likewise  described  Luther's  attitude  over  against  Duke 
George  of  Saxony. 


§  309.  Henry  VIII.  and  Erasmus  Oppose  Luther.       63 

brilliant  polemics  won  for  him  from  Pope  Clement  the  title 
of  '■'■  Defeyider  of  the  Faith"  {Defensor  Fidei),  a  distinction  which 
placed  him  on  a  plane  with  the  great  Catholic  sovereigns  of 
Europe,  and  which  he  had  long  desired  to  possess.  It  should 
be  remarked  that  the  ^^ Defense"  of  the  royal  theologian,  al- 
though possessing  considerable  merit,  was  vastly  overrated 
by  the  King's  admirers,  who  politely  assured  him  that  it  waa 
quite  equal  to  anything  St.  Augustine  had  written, 

Luther  was  prompt  with  his  reply.  He  styled  himself 
"Luther,  by  the  grace  of  God,  Ecclesiastes  of  Wittenberg." 
The  production  is  a  model  of  vulgarity  and  indecenc}'.^ 
Henry  did  not  pursue  further  this  method  of  warfare;  he 
had  recourse  to  diplomacy,  where  he  hoped  to  be  more  suc- 
cessful. 

In  the  sequel  of  his  controversy  with  the  royal  champion, 
whose  political  influence  proved  more  eflicient  than  his  theo- 
logical learning,  Luther  showed  himself  to  be  the  most  vile 
of  hypocrites.  Perceiving  that  a  rupture  was  imminent  be- 
tween Henry  VIIL  and  the  Holy  See,  and  desirous  to  secure 
the  good  ofiices  of  that  prince  in  a  conflict  against  a  common 
enemy,  he  addressed  him  a  letter  couched  in  words  of  fulsome 
adulation,  and  conveying  an  apology  for  former  insults.  But 
Henry  was  not  so  easily  mollifled;  a  remembrance  of  unfor- 
given  wrongs  still  dwelt  in  his  memorj^,  and  he  took  advan- 
tage of  this  opportunity  to  publicly  expose  the  duplicity  of 
Luther,  and  to  hold  him  up  to  the  sneers  and  derision  of  the 
world.^ 

The  distinguished  scholar,  Erasmus,  had  early  excited  the 
indignation  of  the  monks  by  his  sarcastic  flings  at  their  short- 
comings, and  by  his  unsparing  freedom  in  criticising  the  ex- 
isting ecclesiastical  abuses.  Indulging  the  hope  that  Luther's 
eflbrts  might  prove  efi'ectual  in  bringing  about  a  reform  in 


'Luther  called  Henry  "a  crowned  ass,  a  liar,  a  varlet,  an  idiot,  a  sniveling 
sophist,  a.  swine  of  the  Thomist  herd.  Courage,  you  swine;  burn  me  if  you 
dare.  Henry  and  the  Pope,"  he  said,  "are  equally  legitimate;  the  Pope  haa 
stolen  his  tiara,  and  the  King  of  England  his  crown,  which  accounts  for  their 
rubbing  each  other  like  two  mules.  Thou  art  a  blasphemer,  not  a  king;  thou 
hast  a  royal  jawbone,  nothing  more;  Henry,  thou  art  a  fool,"  etc. 

-De  Weiie,  Vol.  III.,  p.  23  sq.  Wulch,  Vol.  XIX.,  p.  468  sq.  Riffel,  Vol.  I., 
p.  355 ;  2d  ed.,  p.  446  sq. 


64  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chaj^ter  1. 


the  Church,  he  had,  like  George  Wicel,  Cochlaeus,  Willibald 
Pirkheimer,  and  Ulric  Zasius,  at  first  expressed  sympathy  with 
the  reformer,^  and  insisted  on  giving  him  a  trial  before  con- 
demning him.  Luther,  on  his  part,  was  anxious  to  secure  the 
friendship  of  Erasmus,  and  took  occasion  to  inform  him  that 
h3  had  a  high  esteem  of  his  character,  and  regarded  him  as 
"the  glory  and  hope  of  Germany,  and  a  man  of  transcendent 
learning  and  genius."  Bat  Erasmus  and  his  friends,  perceiv- 
ing that  Lather's  policy  retarded,  instead  of  accelerating,  true 
reform;  exposed  the  truth,  which,  it  was  said,  would  be  puri- 
fied of  all  error,  to  the  wranglings  of  an  ignorant  multitude;^ 
and  everywhere  encouraged  disorder  and  tumult,  threatening 
schism  in  the  Church  and  anarchy  in  the  Empire,  instantly 
took  alarm,  and  severed  their  connection  with  the  party  of 
the  reformer.  The  apprehensions  of  Erasmus  were  all  the 
morfi  keen  and  intense,  inasmuch  as  he  was  fully  capable  of 
appreciating  the  splendid  talents  o"f  Luther.  "  Would  to  God,'^ 
he  wrote  to  Duke  George  of  Saxony,  "  that  there  was  less  merit 
in  the  writings  of  Luther,  or  that  they  were  not  so  utterly  marred 
by  his  extreme  malice" 

There  was  a  general  wish  to  see  Erasmus  take  part  in  the 
controversy,  as  every  one  knew  the  weight  his  name  and  in- 
fluence would  carry  with  them.  Princes  and  prelates,  and 
even  Pope  Hadrian,^  besought  him  to  come  forth  from  his 
peaceful  retirement,  to  give  over  for  a  time  the  pleasures  and 
attractions  of  literary  pursuits,  and  take  up  the  defense  of  the 
Church.  He  reluctantly  yielded,  but  not  until  he  could  no 
longer  decently  hold  back.  He  began  by  showing  the  un- 
tenableness  of  the  underlying  principles  of  Lutheranism — 
"  not,"  says  a  Protestant  writer,*  "  as  a  blind  defender  of  the 
Roman  Court,  nor  as  one  having  a  superstitious  reverence  for 

^Dbllinger,  The  Keforraalion,  Vol.  I.,  p.  1-186. 

^The  opinion  of  Erasmus  is  given  in  his  "De  amicabili  Ecclesiae  Concordia." 
Of.  Esch  on  Erasmus  (Kaumer's  Uist.  Manual  for  1843). 

3  Epist.  Erasmi,  Ep.  6o9.  Sentiments  of  Erasmus  of  Eotterdam,  Cologne,  1688, 
pp.  26,  27.     Audin,  Life  of  Luther,  London,  1854,  Vol.  II.,  c.  IV.  (Tr.) 

*  Planck,  History  of  Protestant  Dogmatics,  Vol.  II.,  p.  112.— Cf.  especially 
the  points  of  comparison  as  drawn  by  Zasius,  a  contemporary  of  the  reformers, 
and  to  be  found  in  Dblllnger,  Hist,  of  the  Ref.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  lll-\l^.—Riffel,  Vol 
II.,  p.  251-298. 


§  309.  Erasmus  Opposes  Luther.  65 

consecrated  prejudices,  nor  yet  as  a  personal  enemy  of  Lu- 
ther's, but  as  a  peaceful  opponent  of  his  opinions,  and  as  one 
who  states  his  doubts  and  puts  forth  his  views  with  the  mod- 
esty of  a  scholar  and  the  dignity  of  an  independent  thinker." 
In  the  first  place,  he  showed  that  Luther,  in  quoting  Scrip- 
ture against  free-will,  had  done  so  to  no  purpose,  and  then 
proceeded  to  establish  the  doctrine  from  the  very  same  source.* 
Luther  made  haste  to  reply,  and  employed  against  his  antago- 
nist all  the  brutal  ribaldry  that  characterized  his  answer  to 
Henry  VIII.^  This  vaunted  champion  of  intellectual  freedom 
comes  forward  and  says  boldly,  that  human  will  is  a  slave,  do- 
ing what  it  does  at  the  bidding  of  a  master.  This,  he  says, 
is  its  characteristic  since  the  fall,  and  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to 
his  meaning,  he  compares  it  now  to  Lot's  wdfe  turned  into  a 
pillar  of  salt;  now  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree;  and,  again,  to  a 
shapeless  block  of  stone,  which  sees  not,  hears  not,  and  haa 
lost  all  sense  of  feeling.^  He  advocates  and  defends  the  follow- 
ing propositions,  asserting  a  fatalism  more  in  harmony  with 
the  degrading  teachings  of  the  Koran  than  the  Divine  truth 
of  the  Gospel,  which  Mr.  Lessing  has  characterized  as  more 
bestial  than  human,  and  nothing  short  of  a  frightful  blas- 
phemy.* Man,  says  Luther,  is  like  a  horse.  "Does  God  leap 
into  the  saddle?  The  horse  is  obedient,  and  accommodates 
itself  to  every  movement  of  the  rider,  and  goes  whither  he 
wills  it.  Does  God  throw  down  the  reins  ?  Then  Satan  leaps 
upon  the  back  of  the  animal,  which  bends,  goes,  and  submits 
to  the  spurs  and  caprices  of  its  new  rider.     The  will  can  not 

'  De  libero  arbitrio  diatribe,  1524,  written  with  much  care,  yet  wanting  in  the 
dogmatic  precision  so  conspicuously  absent  from  all  the  author's  works  (  Walch, 
Vol.  XVIII.,  pp.  19,  62). 

2  Luther  calls  Erasmus  a  Pyrrhonian,  an  U7ibeliever,  and  a  disciple  of  Lucian, 
a  blasphemer  and  an  atheist,  having  within  him  a  sow  of  the  Epicurean  herd. 

3  De  servo  arbitrio  ad  Erasm.,  1525  (  Walch,  Vol.  XVIII.,  pp.  20,  50).  Luther's 
work  on  Slave-Will  went  through  ten  editions.  Audin,  Life  of  Luther,  Lon- 
don, 1854,  Vol.  IL,  ch.  VII. 

^Lessing  puts  these  words  into  the  mouth  of  a  Lutheran:  "Speak  not  to  mo 
of  free-will ;  I  am  an  honest  Lutheran,  and  will  persist  in  holding  that  man  ^ 
destitute  of  free-will,  though  tho  error  be  bestial  rather  than  human,  and  have 
the  character  of  a  blasphemy."     (On  the  Doctrine  of  Spinoza.) 
VOL.  in — 5 


66  .      Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

choose  its  rider,  and  can  not  kick  against  the  spur  that  pricka 
it.  It  must  get  on,  and  its  very  docility  is  a  dioobedience  or 
a  sin.  The  only  struggle  possible  is  between  the  two  riders, 
God  and  the  Devil,  who  dispute  the  momentary  possession 
of  the  steed.  And  then  is  fulfilled  the  saying  of  the  Psalm- 
ist:  'I  am  become  like  a  beast  of  burden.' ''  " Let  the  Chris- 
tian then  know,"  he  continues,  "that  God  foresees  nothing 
contingently;  but  that  he  foresees,  proposes,  and  acts  from 
His  eternal  and  immutable  will.  This  is  the  thunderbolt  that 
shatters  and  destroys  free-will.  Hence  it  comes  to  pass,  that 
whatever  happens,  happens  according  to  the  irreversible  de- 
crees of  God.  Therefore  necessity,  not  free-will,  is  the  con- 
trolling principle  of  our  conduct.  God  is  the  author  of  what 
is  evil  in  us,  as  well  as  of  what  is  good;  and  as  He  bestows 
happiness  on  those  who  merit  it  not,  so  also  does  He  damr 
others  who  do  not  deserve  their  fate."^ 

The  groundwork  of  Luther's  whole  system,  as  Plank  verj 
justly  observes,  is  the  assumed  slavery  of  the  human  will, 
and  we  find  him  writing  to  Capito,  in  1537:  "Let  all  my 
writings  perish,  if  only  my  work  'On  Slave- Will'  and  my 
catechisms  be  preserved."  Even  the  '•'■Formula  Concordiae" 
or  book  of  Lutheran  symbols  of  faith,  gives  Luther  the  same 
distinction.  "Luther,"  it  says,  "has  given  a  solid  and  beau- 
tiful explanation  of  this  subject  (human  will)  in  his  work  On 
Slave-Will."  '■'■Hoc  negotium  in  libro  de  servo  arbitrio  .  .  .  egregie 
et  solide  explicuit." 

This  champion  of  free-inquiry  was  obliged  to  go  whither 
the  logical  deductions  of  his  system  would  lead  him,  and  he 
did  not  halt  at  difficulties.  There  were  Scripture  texts  plainly 
against  his  theory  of  the  inherent  slavery  of  the  human  will; 
but  even  these  he  set  aside  by  an  ipse-dixit,  distorting  them 
from  their  natural  sense  and  obvious  meaning,  by  blasphe- 
mously asserting  that  God,  when  inspiring  the  passages  in 
question,  was  playfully  mendacious,  secretly  meaning  just 
the  reverse  of  what  He  openly  revealed ;  and  that  the  Apos- 
tles, when  speaking  of  human  will  and  actions,  gave  way  to 


iLutberi  opera  Latina,  Jenae,  T.  III.,  fols.  170,  171,  177,  207.     Witt.  Germ, 
tola.,  5o:t  b,  635  a    (Tr.) 


§  309.  Erasmus  Opposes  Luther — Luther  s  Marriage.    67 

an  impulse  of  unseemly  levity,  and  used  words  in  an  ironical 
sense} 

The  quiet  of  Erasmus'  life  was  again  broken  in  upon.  Lu- 
ther's bold  assertion  and  defiant  defense  of  error  again  called 
forth  the  powers  of  his  intellect  and  the  resources  of  his  learn- 
ing. He  wrote  a  second  work  against  the  heresiarch,  entitled 
the  '■'■  Hyperaspistes" "-  in  which,  with  more  severity  of  tone  and 
incisive  brilliancy  of  style  than  he  had  formerly  emploj^ed,  he 
mercilessly  exposed  the  willful  ignorance  of  Luther  and  his 
criminal  waywardness.  The  latter,  deeming  it  imprudent  to 
provoke  further  discussion,  addressed  a  letter  to  Erasmus,  art- 
fully flattering  the  scholar,  and  feigning  sorrow  for  having 
gone  beyond  the  limits  of  polemical  courtesy.  The  flattering 
letter  has  been  lost,  and  the  character  of  its  contents  is  knowr 
only  from  the  reply  of  Erasmus.^  Erasmus  had  not  been  mon 
brutally  treated  than  others.  Luther's  language  to  the  Bishop 
of  Meissen,  as  well  as  to  Emser  and  Doctor  Eck,  and  to  th(. 
theological  faculties  of  Louvain  and  Paris,^  had  been  equail} 
violent  and  abusive;  and  as  weshall  see  further  on,  when  we 
come  to  speak  of  his  disputation  with  Carlstadt  on  the  Lord'b 
Supper,  he  did  not  forget  his  art  as  time  went  on. 

In  the  midst  of  these  conflicts,  and  while  the  disastrous 
"War  of  the  Peasants  was  still  going  on,  Luther,  now  grown 
corpulent  and  rubicund,  threw  ofi'  the  monastic  habit  (De- 
cember, 1524),  and  a  few  months  later  (June  13, 1525)  married 
Catharine  Bora,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  liis  friends, 
whom  he  had  not  apprised  of  his  intention.  Catharine  had 
been  a  nun  in  the  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimptschen,  near 


^"To  do,"  said  Luther,  "-vieans  to  believe  —  io  keep  the  law  by  faith.  The 
passage  in  Matthew,  'Do  this  and  thou  shalt  live,'  signifies:  Believe  this  and 
thou  shalt  live.  The  words  'Do  this'  have  an  ironical  sense,  as  if  Our  Lord 
would  say:  Thou  wilt  do  it  to-morrow,  but  not  to-day;  only  make  an  attempt 
to  keep  the  commandments,  and  the  trial  will  teach  thee  the  ignominy  of  thy 
failure."      Walch,  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  VIIL,  p.  2147. 

"^  Hyperaspistes,  diatr.  adv.  servum  arb.  Luth.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  526  sq.  (0pp.  ed. 
Cleric,  T.  X.,  p.  1249).     Of.  on  this  controversy,  Riffel,  Vol.  IL,  p.  250-298. 

*Epp.  (ed.  Cleric.)  XXL,  28:  "Optarem  tibi  (Luth.)  meliorem  mentem,  nisi 
tua  tibi  tam  valde  placeret.  Mihi  optabis  quod  voles,  modo  ne  tuam  mentem, 
r  (si  Dominus  istam  mutaverit." 

♦Conf.  Eiffel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  108-111. 


68  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  1. 


Grimraa,  iu  Saxony,  afterward  broken  up ;  but  tiring  of  a 
religious  life,  into  which  she  had  been  reluctantly  forced  by 
her  parents,  she  invoked  the  good  offices  of  Luther,  who  sent 
Bernard  Koppe,  a  citizen  of  Torgau,  to  her  relief.  This  young 
man  one  uis^ht  forced  the  doors  of  the  convent,  secured  Catha- 
rine, who,  by  preconcerted  arrangement,  was  expecting  him, 
and  hurried  her  away  to  Wittenberg.^  She  is  described  as 
disagreeable,  imperious,  and  haughty,  "bat  as  much  beloved 
by  Luther  as  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  more  accepta- 
ble to  him  than  the  possession  of  the  Kingdom  of  France  or 
the  Republic  of  Venice."  This  step  was  thought  hasty  and 
inconsiderate  by  his  friends;  and  even  Melanchtho'n,  in  a  let- 
ter to  Camerarius,  confesses  that  the  announcement  of  the 
event  surprised  and  disquieted  him  not  a  little.  Luther's 
enemies  had  a  hearty  laugh.  "It  was  thought,"  said  Eras- 
mus, "that  Luther  was  the  hero  of  a  tragedy;  but,  for  my 
own  part,  I  regard  him  as  playing  the  chief  character  in  a 
comedy,  which  has  ended,  as  every  comedy  ends,  in  a  mar- 
riage." Luther  himself  said  he  took  the  step  "to  encourage 
the  Cardinal  Elector  of  Mentz,  cousin  to  the  apostate  Grand 
Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  who  could  hardly  hesitate  to 
follow  50  illustrious  an  example." 

§  310.  Organization  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Hesse  and  Saxony. 

JRiff'el,  Vol.  II.,  p.  1-1-!G,  where  this  subject  is  exhaustively  treated. 

As  time  went  on,  it  became  quite  clear,  from  the  character 
and  scope  of  the  questions  discussed  by  the  sectaries,  that  a 
deadly  blow  was  being  aimed,  not  only  at  the  dogmatic  teach- 
ing and  internal  constitution  of  the  Church,  but  at  her  external 
organization  as  well.  Luther  had  already  made  some  })ro- 
gress  in  this  direction,  and  while  he  had  succeeded  in  abol- 
ishing episcopal  jurisdiction  in  countries  where  the  principles 

^  E)ir/elha.rd,  Lucifer  Wittebergensis ;  or,  the  Morning  Star,  i.  e.  Complete 
Life  of  Catharine  von  Bora,  Landshut,  1749,  2  vols.  WaLch,  Catharine  von 
Bore,  Halle,  1751,  2  vols.  Bestc^  Catharine  von  Bora,  Halle,  1843.  Meu?-er, 
Catharine  Luther,  Dresden,  1854.  Cf.  tlie  exceedingly  beautiful  and  touching 
remark  on  this  event,  by  Snruis,  ad  an.  1525.  Cf.  Defense  of  Simoji  Lemnius, 
by  Lessing,  in  his  seventh  and  eighth  letters  (Complete  Works  of  Literatura 
and  Theology,  Carlsruhe  edit.,  Ft.  IV.,  p.  29-37). 


§  310.  Organization  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Hesse,  etc.  ^9 

of  the  Keformation  had  taken  root,  he  had  as  yet  failed  to  put 
any  other  form  of  ecclesiastical  government  in  its  place.  The 
question  then  naturally  arose  as  to  the  character  and  limits 
of  the  jurisdiction  to  be  exercised  by  ecclesiastical  superiors. 
Luther  wished  Canon  Law'^  swept  from  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and,  in  his  intemperate  zeal  and  fanatical  haste  to  do  away 
with  it  forever,  had  pitched  a  copy  of  it  into  the  flames,  to- 
gether with  the  papal  bull  of  excommunication.  By  this  act, 
he  drew  upon  himself  the  violent  hostility  of  the  ^^ Jurists,'' 
who  taunted  him  with  introducing  novel  and  exceptionably 
lax  principles  on  marriage,^  which  they  held  to  be  the  sacred 
bond  alike  of  the  family  and  the  State,  but  which  he  denied 
to  be  in  any  sense  a  sacrament,  and  regarded  as  simply  an 
affair  of  expediency  and  business,  falling  within  the  same 
category  as  eating  and  drinking,  buying  and  selling.  To  pro- 
vide a  remedy  for  these  difficulties,  Philip,  the  3^oung  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  Luther's  most  zealous  partisan  since  the  death 
of  the  Elector,  Frederic  the  Wise  of  Saxony,  convoked  a  synod 
to  convene  at  Homburg,  in  October,  1526,  The  leading  spirit 
in  this  synod  was  the  apostate  Minorite  monk,  Lambert  of 
Avignon  (f  1530),  who,  in  a  very  eloquent  speech,  recom- 
mended the  adoption  of  a  synodal  constitution,  based  upon 

iHis  saying  was:  Picrus  canonista  est  magnus  asinista. 

^See  his  famous  '■'Sermon  on  Marriage"  (1526),  in  the  Jena  ed.,  Pt.  II.,  fol. 
151,  where  the  following  passages  are  found.  (The  requirements  of  our  lan- 
guage will  not  admit  of  a  translation.)  (Tr.)  "Quid,"  he  asks,  "si  mulieri  ad 
rem  aptae  eontingat  maritus  impotens?"  And  he  replies:  "  Ecce,  mi  marite, 
debitam  mihi  benevolentiam  praestare  non  potes,  meque  et  inutile  corpus  dece- 
pisti.  Fave,  quaeso,  ut  cum  fratre  tuo  aut  proxime  tibi  sanguine  juncto  occul- 
tum  matrimonium  paciscar,  sic  ut  nomen  habeas,  ne  res  tuae  in  alienos  per- 
veniant. 

"Perrexi  porro  maritum  debere  in  ea  re  assentire  uxori,  eique  debitam 
benevolentiam  spemque  sobolis  eo  pacto  reddere.  Quod  si  renuat,  ipsa  clan 
destina  fuga  saluti  suae  consulat  ot  in  aliam  profecta  terram,  alii  etiam  nubat." 

And  again  (fols.  156,  168) :  "  If  the  wife  refuse,  call  in  the  serving-maid.  .  .  . 
If  she,  too,  refuse  the  marriage-duty,  send  her  awaJ^  and  in  the  room  of  Vashti 
put  Esther,  after  the  example  of  Xing  Ahasuerus." 

Luther  was  still  more  indulgent  to  princes.  See  Walch^  Luther's  Works,  Pt. 
XXII.,  p  1726.  Cf.  Luilier' s  Marriage-code,  particularly  where  he  treats  of 
the  object!  of  matrimony  and  the  impediments  to  divorce  (Histor.  Polit.  Papers, 
Vol.  XI.,  p.  'ilO-4Z5).—Ddllinger,  The  Reformation,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  427  sq.  and 
623  sq. 


70  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

democratic  principles,  and  granting  to  each  congregation  full 
control  of  its  own  ecclesiastical  discipline.  As  the  Landgrave 
plainly  saw  that  this  plan  would  secure  him  pecuniary  advau- 
tages  and  great  political  influence,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  adopt 
it;  and  as  it  had  among  its  advocates,  besides  the  eloquent 
Minorite,  Adam  Krafft,  the  court-chaplain,  he  at  once  gave 
orders  to  have  it  carried  into  efl'ect.^ 

John  the  Constant,  the  new  Elector  of  Saxony,  while  fully  in 
sympathy  with  the  Lutheran  movement,  was  less  prompt  in 
action  than  Philip  of  Hesse.  In  consequence,  the  pastors 
throughout  his  dominions  took  the  initiative,  and  requested 
him  to  introduce  for  the  government  of  the  various  churches 
a  system  similar  to  that  already  adopted  in  Hesse.  He  at 
length  consented  to  introduce  the  system  of  Parochial  Visita- 
tion suggested  by  Luther.  Melanchthou  embodied  the  maiii 
features  of  this  plan  in  a  Formulary,  or  Book  of  Visitation,^ 
containing  a  short  Confession  of  the  Evangelical  faith.  In 
this  w^ay,  the  several  churches,  though  each  was  independent 
of  all  the  others,  preserved  a  sort  of  outward  uniformity.  The 
Elector  appointed  a  commission,  consisting  of  laymen  and 
ecclesiastics,  by  whom  preachers  were  set  over  the  various 
parishes,  and  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  foundations  abolished. 
In  1527  and  1528,  a  visitation  of  the  various  churches  was 
made  by  a  commission  of  four,  composed  of  theologians  and 
jurists.  Officers,  called  Superintendents,  exercised  a  general 
supervision  over  all  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  decided  matri- 
monial cases;  but  the  reigning  prince  was  ex  officio  the  supreme 
authority  in  whatever  related  to  church  government. 

In  the  course  of  the  visitation  of  1527  and  1528,  Luther 
discovered  that  both  clergy  and  people  had  but  scant  relig- 
ious information,  and  fully  alive  to  the  paramount  importance 
of  instructing  the  young  as  a  means  of  giving  stability  and 
permanence  to  his  work,  without  which  all  others  would  be 

1  Cf.  Eiffel,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  76-126,  On  the  Introduction  of  the  New  Doctrine! 
into  Hesse.     Ilassenlcamp,  Ch.  H.  of  Hesse  from  the  Ecform.,  Marburg,  1853. 

■2  Instruction  for  the  Parochial  Visitors  (Lat.  1527),  with  Luther's  preface, 
AVittenberg,  1528,  4to.  German  and  Latin  edit.,  by  Sirobel,  Altdorf,  1777. 
Edited,  with  a  hist,  introd.  and  explanatory  notes,  by  Weber,  SchlucJitern.  181 1 
Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  IL,  p.  62-61. 


§  311.  Diets  of  Sjiire  (1526,  1529).  71 

futile,  he  published  in  1529  two  catechisms,  a  larger  and  a 
smaller,  written  in  clear,  plain  language,  intelligible  alike  to 
old  and  young.' 

Such  was  the  origin  of  the  collegiate  and  territorial  ecclesias- 
tical organization  of  Saxony,  which  replaced  the  ancient  hie- 
rarchical and  papal  government,  and  became  the  model  for 
tlie  Lutheran  churches  of  every  other  country.  These  changes 
were  greatly  accelerated  by  the  irresolute  and  vacillating  pol- 
icy pursued  b}'  the  Diets  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak,  and 
henceforth  princes  favorably  disposed  to  Lutheranism  might 
have  no  fear  of  following  their  inclinations,  or  giving  the  most 
practical  expression  to  their  sympathies. 

§  311.  Diets  of  Spire  (1526,  1529). 

According  to  the  agreement  entered  into  by  the  Catholic 
and  Protestant  princes^  at  the  Diet  of  Niirenberg,  the  States 
assembled  at  Spire  in  1526.^  The  Emperor  was  engaged  in  a 
harassing  and  protracted  war,  and  the  Archduke  Ferdinand 
was  wholly  occupied  in  repelling  the  advance  of  the  Turks, 
who  were  seriously  threatening  Hungary.  The  Lutheran 
princes  were  in  consequence  bold  and  defiant,  and  seemed  to 
have  been  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  impious  assertion 
of  Luther,  that  "  to  fight  against  the  Turks  is  to  resist  God, 
whose  instruments  they  are  in  chastising  our  iniquities."  When 
they  appeared  at  the  Diet,  they  showed  the  complete  and 
thorough  discipline  of  an  organized  religious  party,  were  ex- 
acting in  their  demands,  and  menacing  in  their  speech  and 
conduct.  Under  the  circumstances,  they  had  matters  pretty 
much  their  own  way,  and  extorted  from  the  Diet  the  follow- 
ing concessions :  "  1.  Until  such  time  as  an  ecumenical  council 
should  convene,  each  State  was  at  liberty  to  act  in  regard  to 
the  Edict  of  Worms  as  in  its  judgment  seemed  best,  and  to 
be  responsible  for  such  action  to  God  and  the  Emperor. 
2.  Each  prince  was  bound  to  furnish  aid  against  the  Turks 

^Waleh,  Vol.  X.,  p.  2  sq.    Cf.  Atiffusii,  Hist,  and  Critical  Introduct.  to  the  two 
groat  catechisms,  Elberfeld,  1824. 
'  S?.e  §  307. 
2  Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  350  sq. 


72  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  1. 

at  the  earliest  possible  moment."^  The  latter  provision  came 
too  late.  Louis,  King  of  Hungary,  had  been  defeated  by  Sol- 
iman,  near  Mohacz,  August  29,  1526,  and  perished  in  the 
morasses.  His  crown  was  inherited  by  the  Archduke  Ferdi- 
nand of  Austria. 

The  Lutheran  princes,  regardless  of  the  engagements  en- 
tered into  in  this  Diet,  began  immediately  to  make  prepara- 
tions for  an  aggressive  war,  from  which  both  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  attempted  in  vain  to  dissuade  them,  by  telling 
them  that  "the  word  of  God  and  His  work  were  their  own 
defense,  and  stood  in  no  need  of  human  aid ;  they  were  strong 
enough  ofthemselves  to  repel  every  assault  of  their  enemies." 
The  Lutheran  princes,  however,  became  daily  more  and  more 
settled  in  their  determination  to  take  up  arms  ;  but,  as  if  their 
own  resolution  were  not  sufficient  to  drive  them  forward,  it 
received  a  fresh  and  violent  impulse  from  another  quarter. 
Otho  von  Pack,  the  wicked  and  unscrupulous  chancellor  of 
Duke  George  of  Saxony,  sent  a  forged  document  to  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  purporting  to  be  a  copy  of  an  alliance  entered 
into  at  Breslau  by  his  master  with  Ferdinand  of  Austria  and 
the  German  bishops  for  the  subjugation  of  the  Lutheran 
princes,  and  the  division  of  their  States  among  the  con- 
querors. That  the  instrument  was  a  fabrication,  was  plain 
enough;  but  there  were  not  wanting  evilly-disposed  persons 
to  give  currency  and  credit  to  its  contents,  and  Luther  was 
especially  rejoiced  at  the  opportunity  it  afforded  him  of  dam- 
aging in  the  public  estimation  the  character  of  Duke  George, 
whom  he  regarded  as  his  personal  enem}''.^  In  the  course  of 
a  correspondence  carried  on  some  time  later  between  the 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  and  his  father-in-law,  Duke  George 
of  Saxony,  the  former  admitted  that  he  had  been  practiced 
upon ;  but  the  admission  came  too  late  to  correct  the  evil — 
the  stor}'^  had  gone  abroad  and  done  its  work,  in  widening 
and  deepening  the  breach  between  the  two  parties.  This  was 
evident  when,  in  1529,  the  States  of  the  Empire  again  con- 

^Slctdan.,  lib.  VI.;  Kapp,  Gleanings,  etc.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  G80;  Walch,  Vol.  XVI. 
p.  214. 

2Cf.  the  detailed  account  of  liifel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  371-376,  note  1;  Vol.  II.,  p 
856  sq. 


§  311.  Diets  of  Spire  (1526,  1529)— Lutherans  Protest.  73 

vened  at  Spire,  for  the  double  purpose  of  adjusting  religious 
difficulties  and  providing  measures  against  the  Turks,'  who 
had  already  advanced  in  formidable  numbers  as  far  as  Vienna, 
and  were  repulsed  only  by  the  heroism  of  the  garrison  and 
the  gallantry  of  the  citizens  of  the  German  capital.  The 
Lutheran  princes  were  accompanied  to  the  Diet  by  their  o\\n 
chaplains,  and  each  celebrated  divine  worship  after  his  own 
fashion.  The  Catholic  princes  submitted  as  the  basis  of  set- 
tlement very  fair  and  moderate  propositions,  being  substan- 
tially the  same  as  the  articles  accepted  by  both  parties  three 
years  before.  These  stipulated  that  "the  Edict  of  Worms 
should  be  maintained  in  the  States  in  which  it  had  been 
already  received,  but  that  the  others  might  retain  the  new 
doctrines  until  the  assembling  of  an  ecumenical  council,  be- 
cause it  would  be  dangerous  to  abolish  them  ;  that  in  the 
meantime  no  one  should  be  permitted  to  preach  against  the 
Sacrament  of  the  Altar;  that  the  Mass  should  not  be  abol- 
ished where  it  was  still  celebrated,  and,  where  it  had  been 
already  abolished,  no  one  should  be  molested  for  hearing  oi 
celebrating  it  in  private;  and,  finally,  that  the  ministers  of 
the  Church  should  preach  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Church's 
received  interpretation,  and  should  carefully  avoid  touching 
controverted  questions,  concerning  which  the  decision  of  the 
council  should  be  awaited." 

These  propositions  were  certainly  just  and  conciliatory,  but 
the  Lutheran  princes  thought  otherwise,  and  on  April  19, 
1529,  they  solemnly  protested  against  them,  whence  their 
name,  Protestants,  which  they  have  ever  since  retained,  and 
their  only  bond  of  unity  from  that  day  to  this  has  been  a 
common  protest  against  the  Catholic  Church.  Claiming  to  be. 
the  exclusive  heirs  of  the  true  religion,  and  the  only  member's  of 
the  one  saving  Church  of  Christ,  they  maintained  that  the  31ass, 
being  plainly  from  the  words  of  Holy  Writ  an  idolatrous  act  of 
worsJdp,  could  not,  and  ought  not,  be  tolerated?'     They,  more- 


iSee  the  Acts  in  Walch,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  328-429. 

*It  was  to  show  how  "un-Catholic  is  such  unity  against  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  to  expose  the  spirit  of  disunion  among  Protestants  themselves,"  that  WeiS' 
linger  wrote  his  ^'Friss  Vogel  oder  siirb"  i.  e.  '■^Neck  or-  Noi/iivg,"  Strasburs, 
1726.     It  Is  not  likely  these  gentlemen  were  so  oppressed  with  scruples  of  con- 


74  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

over,  sent  a  copy  of  their  protest  to  the  Emperor,  who  was 
then  at  Bologna.  Charles  V.,  having  conquered  France  and 
Italy,  concluded  peace  with  Pope  Clement  VII.,  June  20, 1529, 
at  Barcelona,  and  shortly  after,  at  Cambrai,  with  Francis  I. 
On  the  24th  of  the  following  February,  he  received  the  impe- 
rial crown  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope,  at  Bologna.  As  has 
been  stated,  the  Lutheran  princes,  some  time  previous  to  this 
event,  sent  their  protest  to  Charles,  who  stated,  in  reply,  that 
''the  Catholics  were  quite  as  little  disposed  as  the  Protestants 
to  act  against  their  consciences  and  their  faith,  and  longed 
quite  as  ardently  as  they  for  the  convening  of  an  ecumenical 
council,  which,  they  had  every  reason  to  hope,  would  be  a 
source  of  glory  to  God,  of  peace  to  Christian  princes,  and  of 
every  manner  of  good  to  Christendom;  but,"  he  said  in  con- 
clusion, "  until  such  time  as  the  council  should  convene,  he 
wished  the  Protestant  States  to  strictly  enforce  the  decisions 
of  the  l)iet."  The  deputies,  having  formally  protested  against 
the  Emperor's  action,  were  by  his  order  cast  into  prison, 
whence  they  were  shortly  after  released.  On  the  21st  of  Jan- 
uary, 1530,  the  Emperor  convoked  another  Diet,  to  convene 
at  Augsburg,  at  which  he  promised  to  be  present  in  person, 
and  give  a  hearing  to  both  parties,  and  expressed  the  hope 
that  all  would  lay  aside  controversial  rancor  and  bitterness, 
and  unite  their  efforts  for  the  common  weal  of  Christendom 

Owing  to  the  unusual  outbm^st  of  violence  which  accom^ia- 
nied  the  renewal  of  the  controversy  on  the  LorcVs  ISuyiJer,  the 
condition  of  the  Protestants  grew  daily  more  critical.  The 
wide  divergence  of  opinion  on  this  question  between  Luther 
and  Zwinglius  was  prominently  brought  out  in  the  Seventeen 
Articles,  so  called,  of  Schwabach  and  Torgau,  embodying  the 
teaching  of  the  former.^  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  dread- 
ing fresh  disturbances  among  his  own  people,  arranged  for  a 
conference  at  3Iarburg  (October  1,1529)  between  the  two  cham- 
pions, which,  to  his  great  disappointment,  instead  of  bringing 

science  as  they  would  have  us  believe,  for  they  protested  against  the  decision 
of  the  Diet  of  Spire,  in  152G,  prohibiting  the  dissemination  of  the  teachings  of 
the  Sacramentarians,  whom  Luther  now  pronounced  the  greatest  of  scourges, 
and  persecuted  accordingly. 
iCf.  Rifel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  375  sq. 


§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  etc.  75 


them  nearer  to  each  other,  drove  them  farther  asunder.  "•  You 
do  not  at  least  refuse  to  regard  us  as  brethren,"  said  Zwuiglius 
at  the  close  of  the  disputation,  "for  we  desire  to  die  in  the 
communion  of  Wittenberg?"  "  ]S'o,  no,"  replied  Luther; 
"cursed  be  such  an  alliance;  begone,  you  are  possessed  of 
another  spirit  than  ours."^  "The  Zwingliaus,"  he  added, 
"  are  a  set  of  diabolical  fanatics;  they  have  a  legion  of  devils 
in  their  hearts,  and  are  wholly  in  their  power."  ^  After  these 
outbursts,  Luther  said,  in  a  spirit  of  considerate  forbearance, 
that  he  still  retained  for  them  feelings  of  Christian  charity, 
which,  he  explained,  he  entertained  toward  all  men ! 

Melanchthon  now  felt  that  he  had  conmiitted  a  blunder  in 
opposing,  at  the  Diet  of  Spire,  the  measures  directed  against 
the  Sacramentarians,  and  bitterly  regretted  his  folly.  The 
conviction  was  strong  upon  him  that  he  had,  by  his  conduct 
on  that  occasion,  contributed  not  a  little  toward  the  dissemi- 
nation of  the  errors  of  Zwinglius. 

§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg^  1530 — Religious  Peace  of  Nilrnberg, 


Walch,  Vol.  XVT.,  p.  374  sq.  Fbrstemann,  Documents  supplementary  toward 
the  Hist,  of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  Halle,  1834  sq.,  2  vols.  Coelesiini,  Hist, 
comitiorum  Augustae  celebratorum,  Francofurti  ad  Yiadrum,  (1577)  1597. 
Chytrneus,  Hist,  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  Eostock,  157G.  Salig,  Hist,  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession,  Halle,  1733  sq.,  3  Pts. ;  the  same  ed.  by  Pfaff,  Stuttg. 
1830;  by  Ficlienscher,  Nurnberg,  1830.  Pallavicini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.,  lib.  III., 
cap.  3.  Cf.  Hase,  Libri  symbolici  Evangelicorum,  Lps.  1837.  Menzel,  loco  cit., 
Vol.  I.,  p.  335  sq.  Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  378-441,  on  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  and  p. 
442-519,  on  the  Protestant  League  and  the  religious  peace  of  Niirnberg. 

The  Emperor  did  not  arrive  at  Augsburg  until  the  15tli  of 
June.  The  following  day,  being  the  Feast  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  was  the  occasion  of  fresh  difficulties,  as  the  Pro- 
testant princes  peremptorily  refused  to  join  the  procession, 
which  always  takes  place  on  that  day,  or  in  any  way  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  religious  ceremonies.  The  Emperor  requested 
the  Protestant  princes  to  lay  before  him  a  written  confessioL 
of  their  faith  and  an  enumeration  of  the  abuses  which  tiiey 


1  Erasiid  Ep.  ad  Cochlaeum.  (Tr.) 

"Schmiti,  The  Eeligious  Conference  at  Marburg,  Marburg,  15540. 


76  •  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

refused  to  accept.  The  preparatiou  of  the  document  waa 
committed  to  Melanchthon,  who,  following  the  Seventeen 
Arti<;]es  of  Schwabach  or  Torgau  as  his  guide  and  basis, 
composed  what  has  since  been  known  as  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, or  Symbol  of  Faith  (Coiifessio  Augustana)}  Luther 
gave  it  his  fullest  approval.  "I  am  quite  pleased,"  he  says, 
"with  the  document;  I  see  nothing  in  it  that  requires  either 
changing  or  mending.  I  could  not  myself  have  written  it, 
having  neither  the  sweetness  of  temper  nor  self-restraint  nec- 
essary to  the  task."  It  consisted  of  an  introduction,  or  pre- 
amble, and  two  parts — the  first  being  an  exposition  of  what 
its  authors  believed,  in  twenty-one  articles,  based  upon  the 
Apostolic  and  IsTicene  Symbols ;  and  the  second,  an  enumer- 
ation of  the  so-called  abuses,  in  seven  articles.^     Among  the 

'While  the  Diet  was  still  in  session,  this  Confession  went  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  each  contained  fresh  alterations,  of  which  Melanchthon  knew  noth- 
ing. In  1530,  he  published  a  new  edition  of  it,  adding  a  preface,  in  which  he 
says:  '■'■Nunc  eniHtimus  probe  et  diligenter  descripiam  confessionem  ex  exemplari 
bonaejidei;"  and  in  the  following  year  he  added  a  defense  of  it.  A  new  edition 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  of  1530  was  published  at  Leipsig  in  1845. 

Shortly  after  the  Diet,  Melanchthon  begun  to  make  some  alterations  and 
recast  the  expressions,  and  in  1540  published  a  new  edition  under  the  title  of 
Confessio  variata,  containing  important  changes  and  additions,  chiefly  in  refer- 
ence to  the  Lord's  Supper,  with  a  view  to  harmonize  the  teachings  of  the  Lu- 
therans and  Calvinists.  These  alterations  were  subsequently  the  occasion  of  no 
little  controversy,  inasmuch  as  they  were  repudiated  by  the  orthodox  Lutherans, 
who  refused  to  depart  from  the  doctrine  of  the  Invariata  Confessio  Augustana, 
while  the  reformed  party  held  with  equal  tenacity  to  the  Confessio  variata.  It 
is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  Confession  generally  accepted  by  Lutherans  is 
identical  with  the  Unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  for  the  copies  found  in  the 
various  archives  are  at  variance  with  each  other,  and  the  original  Latin  and 
German  copies  laid  before  the  Diet  have  been  either  lost,  or  slumber  in  the 
library  of  either  Rome  or  Madrid.  Cf  Hase,  Libri  symbol.,  varietas  variatae 
confessionis,  in  Prolegom.,  P.  XII.-LXI. 

^Not  twelve  articles,  as  the  French  translator  of  Alzog,  and  Abbe  Darras, 
who  copied  from  him,  erroneously  state.  The  twenty-one  articles  are:  1.  Of 
God;  2.  Oi  Original  Sin;  3.  Of  the  Son  of  God;  4.  Of  Justification;  5.  Of 
Preaching;  6.  Of  New  Obedience;  7  and  8.  Of  the  Church;  9.  Of  Baptism; 
10.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper;  11.  Of  Confession;  12.  Of  Penance;  13.  Of  the  Use 
of  Sacraments;  14.  Of  Church  Government;  15.  Of  Church  Order;  16.  Of  Sec- 
ular Government;  17.  Of  Christ's  Second  Coming  to  Judgment;  18.  Of  Free- 
Will;  19.  Of  the  Cause  of  Sin;  20.  Of  Faith  and  Good  Works;  21.  Of  the 
Worship  of  Saints.  The  second  and  more  practical  part,  which  is  carried  out 
at  greater  length,  contains  seven  articles  on  disputed  points:  22.  On  tbr  Two 


§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1500,  etc.  11 


abuses  were  included  Communion  binder  one  kind,  inivatc 
Masses,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  monastic  vows,  the  distinction 
of  meats  for  days  of  abstinence,  auricular  "onfession,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  hierarchy  as  a  system  of  church  government.  The 
first  part,  which  contained  Luther's  doctrines  clothed  in 
graceful,  conciliating,  and  insidious  language,^  was  carefully 
and  artfully  written,  the  object  being  to  give  the  least  possi- 
ble prominence  to  distinctively  Lutheran  principles,  and  the 
greatest  to  poiuts  held  in  common  by  Catholics  and  Protest- 
ants. But  with  all  his  care  and  skill,  Melanchthon  could  uot 
clothe  error  in  the  vesture  of  truth;  the  heresies  of  the  Saxon 
monk  could  not  be  concealed,  the  chief  of  which  were  the 
following :  1.  That  original  sin  has  wholly  incapacitated  man 
for  doing  good;  2.  That  justification  depends  on  faith  alone; 
3.  That  ^^ free-will  is  to  be  acknowledged  in  all  men  who  have 
the  use  of  reason ;  not,  however,  in  affairs  relating  to  God, 
which  can  be  neither  begun  nor  completed  without  Him;  but 
only  in  affairs  relating  to  the  present  life  and  the  duties  of 
civil  society."^     As  regards  faith  and  good  works,  the  teaching 

Kinds  of  the  Sacrament;  23.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Priests;  24.  Of  the  Mass. 
25.  Of  Confession;  26.  Of  Distinctions  of  Meat;  27.  Of  Conventual  Vows;  28. 
Of  the  Authority  of  Bishops.  Chambers'  Cyclop.,  art.  "Augsburg  Confes- 
sion." (Tr.) 

^As  is  well  known,  the  utterances  of  Luther  in  regard  to  faith,  made  both  at 
an  earlier  and  a  later  period  of  his  life  (see  p.  27),  are  insanely  blasphemous 
In  the  course  of  a  letter,  written  to  Melanchthon  from  the  Castle  of  "Wartburg, 
in  1521,  he  says:  "  Esto  peccator  et  pecca  fortiter;  sed  fortius  fide  et  gaude  in 
Christo,  qui  victor  est  peccati,  mortis  et  mundi :  peccandum  est,  quamdiu  hie 
sumus.  .  .  .  Sufficit  quod  agnovimus  per  divitias  gloriae  Dei  agnum,  qui  toilit 
peccata  mundi,  ab  hoc  non  avellet  nos  peccatum,  etiamsi  millies  uno  die  forni- 
cemus  aut  occidamus."  (Lutheri  epp.  a  Joan.  Aurifabro  coll.,  Jen.  1556,  4to., 
T.  I.,  p.  545.)  The  Confess.  Aur/usian.,  artic.  IV.,  Aq  justificaiione,  on  the  other 
hand,  says:  "Item  decent,  quod  homines  non  possint  justificari  coram  Deo  pro- 
priis  viribus,  meritis  aut  operibus,  sed  gratis  justificentur  propter  Christum  ^jer 
fidem,  cum  credunt  se  in  gratiam  recipi  et  peccata  rcmitti  propter  Christum, 
qui  sua  morte  pro  nostris  peccatis  satisfecit."  {Hase,  1.  c,  p.  10.)  According 
to  this  passage,  faith  appears  to  be  the  fastigium ;  whilst,  according  to  tli« 
Catholic  idea,  it  is  the  initium,  radix,  fundamenium  omnis  justificationis.  .lusLi- 
lieation,  according  to  Lutheran  doctrine,  covers  sin;  God  simply  declares  man 
just.  According  to  Catholic  doctrine,  justification  is  worked  out,  since  its  con 
ditions  are  abolitio  peccati  and  reiiovatio  sen,  sanciijicatio  interloris  Jiomiiiis. 

^Audin,  Life  of  Luther,  London,  1857,  Vol.  II.,  p.  334.  (Tk.) 


78  Period  3.     Uj^och  1.     Chapter  1. 

and  practice  of  the  Catholic  Church  were  grossly  misrepre- 
sented ;  for,  it  was  said,  whereas,  on  the  one  hand,  her  mem- 
bers were  not  heretofore  required  to  have  faith ;  on  the  other, 
the}'  were  obliged  to  perform  all  sorts  of  external  works  of 
piety,  sr.ch  as  reciting  beads,  making  pilgrimages,  and  the 
like;  4.  That  the  Church,  properly  defined,  is  tlie  assembly  of 
the  saints,  among  whom  the  Gospel  is  preached  in  its  purity, 
and  the  Sacraments  (of  which  five  were  thoughtfully  abol- 
ished by  the  saints)  are  rightl}^  administered;  5.  That  the  con- 
fession of  mortal  sins  to  a  priest  is  not  necessary  or  obligatory; 
and  that  absolution  consists  in  declaring  sins  remitted,  though 
they  are  not  in  fact  so  remitted ;  6.  That  the  veneration  and 
invocation  of  Saints  are  unlawful  practices,  and  must  be  dis- 
carded; 7.  And,  iinally,  that  tr  an  substantiation  does  not  take 
place  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar. 

A  difficulty  now  arose  as  to  the  public  reading  of  the  Con- 
fession in  the  Diet.  The  Protestant  princes,  who  had  sever- 
ally signed  it,  contended  against  the  Catholic  princes,  that, 
in  fairness,  it  should  be  read  ;  and,  against  the  Emperor,  that, 
if  read  at  all,  it  should  be  read  in  German,  and  not  in  Latin, 
Tliey  were  successful  in  both  instances,  and  the  Confession 
was  publicly  read  in  German  by  Bayer,  one  of  the  two  chan- 
cellors of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  during  the  afternoon  session 
of  June  25,  held  in  the  chapel  of  the  imperial  palace.  Cam- 
jyeggio,  the  Papal  Legate,  was  absent.  The  reading  occupied 
two  hours,  and  the  powerful  efiect  it  produced  was,  in  a  large 
measure,  due  to  the  rich,  sonorous  voice  of  Bayer,  and  to  his 
distinct  articulation  and  the  musical  cadence  of  his  periods. 
Having  finished,  he  handed  the  Confession  to  the  Emperor, 
who  submitted  it  for  examination  to  Uck,  Conrad  Wimpina, 
Cochlaeus,  John  Faher,^  and  others  of  the  Catholic  theologians 
present  in  the  Diet.  They  not  only  pointed  out  the  errors  it 
contained,  but  showed,  by  placing  passages  of  it  beside  ex- 
tracts taken  from  the  writings  of  Luther,  that  it  did  not  fairly 
represent  his  teachings;  that  it  concealed,  under  an  insidious 
and  graceful  phraseology,  those  most  ofl'ensive  to  Catholic 

'Faber  was  a  Dominican,  and  at  this  time  first  Vicar  General  of  the  Bishop 
of  Constance,  Provost  of  Ofen,  and  Court-chaplain  to  King  Ferdinand. 


§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  etc.  79 

ears,  and  gave  marked  prominence  to  those  against  which  no 
exception  could  be  taken.  Of  course,  the  Catholic  theolo- 
gians, in  replying  to  the  Confession,  could  not  be  wholly  un- 
mindful of  the  disasters  which  the  principles  of  the  Reformers 
had  already  brought  upon  Germany,  or  entirely  divest  them- 
selves of  the  bitter  feelings  of  indignation  which  in  conso- 
qaence  naturally  filled  their  minds.  These  feelings,  in  a 
measure,  found  expression  in  their  answer,  which,  besides 
being  occasionally  intemperate,  was  severely  caustic  and  iron- 
ical, and  on  this  account  not  quite  acceptable  to  the  Emperor 
and  the  Catholic  princes,  who  advised  that  the  matter  be 
again  taken  under  consideration,  and  a  fresh  answer  pre- 
pared. After  the  first  fire  of  indignation  had  burnt  out,  the 
Catholic  theologians,  returning  to  a  better  sense,  saw  tne  need 
of  keeping  their  temper,  and  the  prudence  of  observing  in 
their  answer  a  strictly  judicial  calm.  Under  the  influence  of 
these  convictions,  they  again  set  themselves  to  the  work  of 
examining  the  Confession.  Each  article  was  singly  taken  up, 
discussed,  and  analyzed,  according  to  the  rigorous  rules  of 
logic,  and  then  a  dispassionate  judgment  as  to  its  merits  or 
demerits  was  passed.  Luther's  teachings  were  examined  in 
the  light  of  Catholic  tradition,  and  it  was  shown  in  what  they 
harmonized  with  Catholic  faith,  and  where  and  how  far  they 
diverged  from  it.  Such  was  the  character  of  the  Confutation 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession  {Confutatio  Confessionis  Augustanae) 
as  finally  agreed  upon,  and  read  in  a  public  session  of  the 
Diet,  held  August  3d,  and  with  which  the  Emperor  and  the 
Catholic  princes  expressed  themselves  fully  satisfied.  The 
Protestant  princes  were  commanded  to  disclaim  their  errors, 
and  return  to  the  allegiance  of  the  ancient  faith,  and  "  should 
you  refuse,"  the  Emperor  added,  "  we  shall  regard  it  a  consci- 
entious duty  to  proceed  as  our  coronation  oath  and  our  office 
of  protector   of  Holy    Church   require."^     This   declaration 

1  These  two  writings,  in  Latin  and  German,  have  been  published  and  reviewed 
in  "■The  Catholic"  1828  and  1829;  also  in  Lat.  and  Germ.,  with  an  Introd.  by 
Canon  Kieser  of  the  Chapter  of  Freiburg,  Katisbon,  1845.  Cf.  Laemmer,  Ante- 
Tridentine  Theology,  p.  43  sq.  '[Binterim,  The  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  and 
the  sentiments  expressed  by  William,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Stadion,  Bishop  of 
Augsburg,  concerning  the  Lutheran  Confession,  Diisseldorf,  1844.     The  former 


80  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

roused  the  indignaDt  displeasure  of  the  Protestant  princes. 
Philip  of  Hesse,  dissatisfied  with  the  vacillating  timidity  of 
^[ela.ichthon,  excited  general  alarm  by  abruptly  breaking  off 
the  transactions,  lately  entered  upon  between  the  princes  and 
the  bishops,  and  suddenly  quitting  Augsburg.  Charles  V. 
now  ordered  the  controverted  points  to  be  discussed  in  his 
presence,  and  appointed  seven  Protestants  and  an  equal  num- 
ber of  Catholics  to  put  forward  and  defend  the  views  of  their 
respective  parties.  Of  these  seven,  three  were  theologians, 
two  princes,  and  two  jnrists.  On  the  Catholic  side,  the  theo- 
logians were  JS'cA-,  Wimjpina,  and  Cochlaeus ;  the  princes.  Sta- 
dion,  Prince-bishop  of  Augsburg,  and  Henry,  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick ;  the  jurists,  Bernard  Hagen,  chancellor  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  and  Jerome  Vehiis,  the  chancellor  of  Baden  :  on 
the  Protestant  side,  the  jurists  were  Dr.  George  Bruck  and  Dr. 
Sebastian  Holler,  the  former  chancellor  to  the  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony, and  the  latter  to  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  the 
princes,  John  Frederic,  crown-prince  of  Saxony,  and  George^ 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  the  theologians,  Melanchthon ,^ 
Brenz,  preacher  of  Hall,  in  Suabia,  and  Schnepf,  court-chap- 
lain to  the  Lande:rave  of  Hesse.  These  theoloa:icai  corarais- 
sions  came  to  a  satisfactory  understanding  with  each  other  on 
the  questions  of  original  sin,  justification,  the  constituent  parts 
of  penance,  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  veneration  of  the  Saints. 
A  select  commission  was  next  appointed,  consisting  of  Eck 
and  Melanchthon  and  four  jurists,  two  for  each  party,  who 
took  up  the  discussion  of  Communion  under  both  kinds.  The 
Catholic  theologians  promised  to  obtain  for  Germany  the  same 
concessions  that  had  been  granted  to  the  Hussites,  provided 
the  other  points  in  dispute  could  be  adjusted  to  the  satisfac- 


is  represented  as  having  said:  "If  I  correctly  understand  the  issues,  the  Lu- 
therans stand  firmly  M/Jo/i  the  Scriptures,  and  we  by  the  side  of  them;"  and 
the  latter  as  having  solemnly  declared,  that  "all  that  had  been  read  before 
them  (i.  e.  Augsburg  Confession)  was  pure  and  undeniable  truth;"  but  be  this 
as  it  may,  it  is  quite  certain  that  George,  the  Protestant  Duke  of  Brandenburg, 
having  openly  affirmed,  after  the  reading  of  the  Confession,  that  he  would  will- 
ingly have  his  head  struck  ofl"  in  defense  of  it,  the  Emperor  replied  with  his 
usual  composure :  "A'o  head!  no  head!" 

^Sptecker,  Melanchthon  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530  (Review  of  Positive 
Theology,  1845,  Pt.  I.,  p.  98  sq.) 


§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  etc.  81 

tion  of  all.  Apart  from  the  Mass,  celibacy,  and  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  on  which  both  parties  were  in  hopeless  disagree- 
ment, there  remained  still  other  diflerences,  the  settlement  of 
which,  even  if  it  had  been  effected,  could  not  have  been  other 
than  momentary  and  illusory.  If  the  importance  of  unity 
could  be  overrated,  it  would  be  difficult  to  understand  why 
the  Catholic  theologians  put  iorth  so  great  efibrts  to  secure 
it;  the  more  so,  since  its  realization  seemed  next  to  impossi- 
ble, inasmuch  as  the  principles  from  which  each  party  started 
w«re  as  completely  opposed  to  each  other  as  light  is  to  dark- 
ness. "For,"  as  Pallavicini  forcibly  observes,  "Catholic  faith 
rests  upon  a  principle-  one  and  indivisible,  viz:  the  authority 
of  the  infallible  Church;  to  make  the  smallest  concession  here 
would  be  to  surrender  the  whole  ground:  what  is  one  and 
indivisible  stands  as  a  whole,  or  falls  as  a  whole."  But  these 
considerations,  though  an  inseparable  obstacle  to  any  conces- 
sions on  the  part  of  Catholics,  had  no  similar  import  or  force 
with  Protestants,  who  daily  yielded  one  point  after  another, 
thus  conclusively  demonstrating  that  the  immutable  dogmas 
of  faith  were  after  all  but  a  trifling  matter  to  them,  and  by 
no  means  the  primary  cause  of  their  revolt. 

Melanchthon  was  not  unwilling  to  have  even  episcopal  rights 
a,nd prerogatives  retained.  "How,"  said  he,  "shall  we  dare  be 
so  bold  as  to  deprive  bishops  of  their  authority,  if  only  they 
continue  to  teach  sound  doctrine  ?  Will  you  have  me  speak 
out  my  mind?  Well,  then,  I  shonld  like  to  give  them  back 
their  episcopal  power  and  spiritual  administration.  Were  the 
Church  destitute  of  a  governing  power,"  he  candidly  confesses, 
"  we  should  languish  under  a  tyranny,  compared  with  which 
that  of  which  we  are  just  rid  would  be  more  tolerable." 

In  a  letter  bearing  the  date  of  July  6,  and  addressed  to 
Campeggio,  the  Papal  Legate,  he  is  still  more  outspoken, 
expressing  his  wish  to  have  the  Roman  Pontitf  retain  his 
office  of  Head  of  the  Church,  which  he  continued  to  do — not, 
however,  from  a  desire  to  comply  with  Melanchthon's  request. 
"  We  have  no  doctrine,"  says  this  reformer  in  a  candid  mood, 
"  other  than  that  of  the  Roman  Church.  If  she  consent  to 
dispense  to  us  those  treasures  of  good-will,  of  which  she  is  so 
VOL.    Ill — G 


82  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chajiter  1. 

lavish  to  her  other  children,  and  to  overlook  certain  matters 
of  trivial  importance,  and  avert  her  eyes  from  others — which, 
though  we  should  wish  it  ever  so  sincerely,  can  not  now  be 
changed  or  mended — we  will  yield  her  a  prompt  and  ready 
obedience.  We  hold  in  honor  the  Pope  of  Rome  and  the 
whole  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  are  prepared  to  cast 
ourselves  at  the  feet  of  the  Koman  Pontifi'  once  we  have  the 
assurance  that  he  will  not  repel  us.  Why  should  he  refuse 
to  hear  our  suppliant  prayer,  when  unity  may  be  so  easily 
restored?  The  obstacles  in  the  way  of  a  sincere  reconcilia- 
tion are  only  difierences  of  opinion,  so  trifling  that  even  the 
canons  do  not  require  complete  harmony  as  a  condition  of 
unity  with  the  Church."^  These  pacific  words  startled  the 
friends  of  Melanchthon,  and  the  cities,  prominent  in  their 
advocacy  of  Lutheranism,  and  notably  Niirnberg,  addressed 
him  words  of  stinging  rebuke,  of  which  he  bitterly  com- 
plained. "You  can  hardly  imagine,"  he  wrote  to  Luther, 
"how  odious  my  eftbrts  to  restore  jurisdiction  to  bishops 
have  rendered  me  to  the  people  of  IsTurnberg  and  many  oth- 
ers."^ '^ Their  disposition  to  find  fault"  he  added,  ''plainly 
shows  that  they  are  more  intent  on  gaining  their  private  ends, 
than  on  securing  the  success  of  the  Gospel." 

Luther,  being  under  ban  of  the  Empire,  could  not  partici- 
pate in  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  and  in  consequence  took  up 
his  residence  at  Coburg,  where  he  was  within  convenient 
distance  to  be  consulted  on  any  important  matter  that  came 
up,  and  to  encourage  his  disciples  when  their  spirit  failed 
them.  Displeased  at  the  course  pursued  by  Melanchthon,  he 
sharply  reproved  him,  saying:  "I  will  hear  of  no  attempt  to 
bring  about  unity  of  doctrine,  inasmuch  as  such  unity  is  im- 
possible until  the  Pope  consent  to  put  away  the  surroundings 


^  Melanchthon's  ep.  ad  Camerarium,  pp.  148  and  151.  Cf.  Coelcst.  Hist.  August. 
Confess.,  T.  III.,  fol.  18,  in  the  resume  of  RaynaLd.  ad  an.  1530,  nro.  83.  Palln- 
vicini,  1.  c,  lib.  III.,  c.  3. 

^Walch,  Works  of  Luther,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  1793.  Cf.  wi*h  this  letter  of  Sept. 
1st  that  of  August  28th,  ibid.,  p.  1755:  "The  imperial  cities  are  violently  in- 
censed against  episcopal  authority.  It  would  seem  that  their  one  aim  is  to  be 
despotic  in  governing  and  licentious  in  morals,  they  take  so  little  arcour.t  ot 
religion  or  its  teacliiniis." 


§  312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  etc.  83 

of  the  papacy.  You  will  bring  disaster  upon  the  whole  busi- 
ness by  your  ceaseless  quibbling  and  interminable  concessions. 
These  Catholics  adroitly  spread  snares  for  our  feet,  which  we 
must  watchfully  avoid."  ^ 

Had  Melanchthon  been  as  honest  as  he  was  sincere  in  his 
convictions,  and  as  courageous  as  he  was  timid,  he  might  at 
this  time  have  broken  once  for  all  with  Protestantism;  but 
being  under  the  powerful  influence  of  Luther's  superior  mind, 
he  ignobly  consented  to  do  as  the  latter  bade  him.  So,  instead 
of  following  up  and  pressing  his  efibrts  to  bring  about  a  rec- 
onciliation, he  prepared  and  published  his  '■'■Ajpology  for  the 
Augsburg  Confession,^'  which  was  intended  to  be  an  answer  to 
the  Confutation  of  the  Catholic  theologians.  The  Protestant 
princes  laid  a  copy  of  the  "Apology"  before  the  Emperor, 
who  rejected  both  it  and  the  Confession;  but  by  many  of  the 
Protestants  the  former  was  held  to  be  of  equal  authority  with 
the  latter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  four  cities  specially  at- 
tached to  the  teachings  of  Zwinglius — viz :  Strasburg,  Con- 
stance, Lindau,  and  Memmingen — produced  a  confession  of 
faith,  known  as  the '■'■  Confessio  Tetraj^olitana, "  enihodymg  their 
special  tenets ;  while  Zwinglius  produced  another  of  his  own, 
giving  special  prominence  to  the  points  on  which  his  opinions 
were  in  conflict  with  those  of  Luther  on  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Melanchthon  was  so  utterly  amazed  at  the  boldness  of  Zwin- 
glius in  daring  to  exercise  the  common  right  of  all  reformers, 
that,  in  writing  to  one  of  his  friends,  he  accounted  for  it  by 
saying  that  "  he  had  certainly  gone  mad.''' 


iln  this  letter,  which  bears  the  date  of  August  28  {de  Wette,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  156), 
he  uses  the  strange  language,  underscored  in  the  following  passage,  which  has 
been  so  frequently  quoted  against  him:  "Ego  in  tarn  crassis  insidiis  forte  nimis 
securus  sum,  sciens,  vos  nihil  posse  ibi  committere,  nisi  forte  peccatum  in  per- 
eonas  nostras,  ut  perfidi  et  inconstantes  arguamur.  Sed  quid  postea?  Causa 
et  constantia  et  veritate  facile  corrigatur.  Quamquam  nolim  hoc  contingere, 
tamen  sic  loquor,  ut  si  qua  contingeret,  non  esset  desperandum.  ISam  si  vim 
evaserimus,  pace  obienta,  dolos  (jnendacia)  ac  lapsus  nostras  facile  emendabimus, 
quoniam  regnat  super  nos  misericordia  ejus."  The  word  mendacia  is  found  in 
Chytraeus  (born  February  26,  1530),  Hist.  Aug.  Uonf.,  Francof.  1578,  p.  295; 
Coelestini  Hist.,  loco  cit.,  T.  II.,  fol.  24.  But  Veesenmeyer,  in  his  Eeview  of 
Luther's  Letters,  attacks  it,  p.  31,  and  Gieseler  rejects  it  altogether  (Text-book 
of  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  1,  p.  265).  [Doller)  Luther's  Catholic  Monument, 
Frankfurt,  1817,  p.  309  sq.     See  Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  422  sq. 


84  Period  3.     Epoch  I.     Chapter  1. 

After  many  more  equally  fruitless  attempts  to  bring  about 
a  reconciliation,  the  Emperor,  on  the  22d  of  September,  the 
day  previous  to  that  fixed  for  the  departure  of  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  published  an  edict,  in  which  he  stated,  among  other 
things,  that  '•  the  Protestants  have  been  refuted  by  sound  and 
irrefragable  arguments  drawn  from  Holy  Scripture."  "To 
deny  free-will,"  he  went  on  to  say,  "and  to  affirm  that  faith 
without  works  avails  for  man's  salvation,  is  to  assert  what  is 
absurdly  erroneous ;  for,  as  we  very  well  know  from  past  ex- 
perience, were  such  doctrines  to  prevail,  all  true  morality 
would  perish  from  the  earth.  But  that  the  Protestants  may 
have  sufficient  time  to  consider  their  future  course  of  action, 
we  grant  them  from  this  to  the  15th  of  April  of  next  year  for 
consideration." 

On  the  following  day,  Joachim,  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
speaking  in  the  Emperor's  name,  addressed  the  Evangelic 
princes  and  deputies  of  the  Protestant  cities^  as  follows: 
"His  Majesty  is  extremely  amazed  at  your  persisting  in  the 
assertion  that  your  doctrines  are  based  on  Holy  Scripture. 
Were  your  assertion  true,  then  would  it  follow  that  His 
Majesty's  ancestors,  including  so  many  Kings  and  Emperors, 
as  well  as  the  ancestors  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  were  here- 
tics !  There  is  no  warrant  in  the  Gospels,  or  elsewhere  in 
Holy  Scripture,  imposing  the  obligation  of  seizing  another's 
goods,  and  sanctioning  their  retention,  on  the  plea  that  they 
can  not,  consistently  with  the  dictates  of  conscience,  be  given 
up.  .  .  .  The  Emperor  also  has  a  conscience,  and,  in  our 
opinion,  is  far  less  inclined  to  deviate  from  the  teachings  of 
Christ's  Holy  Church  and  her  venerable  and  ancient  faith, 
than  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  his  allies."^ 

The  Protestant  princes  forthwith  took  their  leave  of  the 
Emperor. 

On  the  13th  of  October,  the  "Recess,"  or  decree  of  the  Diet, 
was  read  to  the  Catholic  States,  which  on  the  same  day  entered 

'The  princes  were  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  five  others  in  alliance  with 
him;  nnd  the  six  cities  were  Niirnberg,  Eeutlingen,  Kempten,  Heilbronn, 
Windsheim,  and  Weissenburg.     (Corp.  Kef.  II.,  p.  474-478.)  (Tr.) 

^See  the  powerful  speech  delivered  in  the  name  of  the  Emperor  by  the  ardenl 
Catholic,  Joachim,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  in  Menzel,  Vol.  I.,  p.  406. 


312.  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  etc.  8& 


into  a  Catholic  League.^  On  the  17th  of  the  same  month, 
sixteen  of  the  more  important  German  cities  refused  to  aid 
the  Emperor  in  repelling  the  Turks,  on  the  ground  that  peace 
had  not  yet  been  secured  to  Germany.^  The  Zwinglian  and 
Jjutheran  cities  were  daily  becoming  more  sympathetic  and 
cordial  in  their  relations  to  each  other.^  Charles  Y.  informed 
the  Holy  See,  October  23,  of  his  intention  of  drawing  the 
sword  in  defense  of  the  faith.  The  ""Recess"  was  read  to  the 
Protestant  princes  ISTovember  11,  and  rejected  by  them  on  the 
day  following,^  and  the  deputies  of  Hesse  and  Saxony  took 
their  departure  immediately  after.  On  the  19th  of  Novem- 
ber, it  was  again  read  in  presence  of  the  Emperor,  aiid  the 
princes  and  deputies  still  present  in  Augsburg.  The  decree 
was  rather  more  severe  than  the  Protestants  had  anticipated, 
inasmuch  as  the  Emperor  declared  that  he  felt  it  to  be  his 
conscientious  duty  to  defend  the  ancient  faith,  and  that  "the 
Catholic  princes  had  promised  to  aid  him  to  the  full  extent 
of  their  power."  The  "Pecess"  was  made  public  November 
22,  and  two  days  after  the  Emperor  set  out  for  Cologne,  hav- 
ing wholly  failed  to  accomplish  the  object  of  his  visit.  The 
failure  was  mainly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  conflicting  interests 
of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  princes;  for  while  the  former, 
dreading  the  consequences  of  a  civil  war,  neglected  to  second 
the  Emperor's  efforts  in  any  efficient  way,  the  latter  had  to  be 
conciliated  if  their  aid  was  to  be  secured  in  prosecuting  a  war 
against  the  Turks,  whose  aggressive  movements  were  at  this 
time  filling  Europe  with  fear  and  alarm.  The  appointment 
of  the  Emperor's  brother,  Ferdinand,  as  King  of  the  Romans 
(1531),  gave  deep  offense  to  the  Protestant  princes,  who  now 
expressed  their  determination  of  withholding  all  assistance 
from  the  Emperor  until  the  "Recess"  of  Augsburg  should 
have  been  revoked. 

Assembling  at  Smalkald  on  Christmas  Day,  1530,  they  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  oft'ensive  and  defensive,  know'u  as  the 
League  of  Smalkald,  on  March  29,  1531,  to  which  they  sev- 


-  Documents  11., -p.  IZl -liO    (Tr.) 

« Corp.  Ref.  II.,  pp.  411,  410.  (Tr.) 

^Documents  II.,  p.  728.  (.Tii.) 

*  Documents  II.,  p.  823;    Corp.  Ref.  II.,  p.  437.  (Tk.) 


86  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

erally  bound  themselves  to  remain  faithful  for  a  period  of  six 
years.  They  were  still  further  encouraged  to  go  boldly  for- 
ward in  their  new  course  by  the  advice  of  Luther  and  Mel- 
anchthon,  who,  reversing  their  former  judgment,  now  author- 
ized the  use  of  arms  for  the  maintenance  of  Protestantism.  The 
Turkish  sultan  became  now,  in  a  measure,  the  natural  ally  of 
the  Protestant  princes;  for,  being  himself  desirous  of  profit- 
ing by  the  divisions  in  Germany,  he  encouraged  those  who 
were  the  cause  of  them  to  hold  out  against  the  Emperor. 
Perhaps  the  most  offensive  and  burthensome  clause  of  the 
"Recess"  of  the  Diet  was  that  requiring  the  Protestants  to  re- 
store the  Church  property  of  which  they  had  taken  possession,  and 
placing  those  who  refused  compliance  under  the  ban  of  the 
Empire. 

The  danger  from  the  threatened  invasion  of  the  Turks  be- 
coming daily  more  imminent,  the  Emperor  saw  the  necessity 
of  concluding  peace — on  favorable  terms,  if  possible ;  other- 
wise, on  the  best  he  could  extort.  For  this  purpose,  he  opened 
negotiations  at  Frankfurt,  which,  through  the  efforts  of  the 
Elector  of  Mentz  and  the  Elector  Palatiue,  were  brought  to 
a  conclusion  at  Niirnberg,  July  23,  1532.  It  was  here  agreed 
that,  until  the  assembling  of  a  general  council,  no  action 
should  be  taken  against  any  of  the  princes;  that  in  the  in- 
terval everything  should  remain  unchanged;  that  both  par- 
ties should  cease  to  carry  on  religious  hostilities;  and,  finally, 
that  those  only  who  had  already  received  the  Confession,  of  Augs- 
burg should  be  included  in  the  treaty  of  peace.  The  Protest- 
ant princes,  acting  on  the  suggestion  of  Luther  and  Melanch- 
thon,  urgently  demanded  the  insertion  of  the  last  clause;  and 
the  latter  at  the  time  expressed  themselves  fully  content  with 
what  they  had  gained. 

As  the  Turks  continued  to  advance  on  Europe,  the  conster- 
nation caused  by  their  progress  afforded  the  Protestant  princes 
an  opportunity  to  still  further  strengthen  themselves,  by  form- 
ing new  alliances  against  the  Emperor,  and  they  were  not 
slow  to  make  the  best  of  their  advantages.  Philip  of  Hesse 
opened  negotiations  with  Francis  I.,  King  of  France.  Ulric, 
Duke  of  Wiirteraberg,  who  had  been  placed  under  the  ban  of 
the  Empire,  and  whose  states  had  been  transferred  to  Ferdi- 


§  313.    JJlrich  Zwingli  and  CEcolampadius.  87 

nand,  having  joined  the  Protestant  League,  was  forcibly  re- 
instated in  his  duchy  by  Philip  of  Hesse.  John  Brenz  and 
JErhard  Schnepf  gave  form  and  organization  to  Protestantism 
in  Wiirtemberg,  where  it  had  been  propagated  by  the  apostate 
monk,  John  Mantel,  assisted  by  Conrad  Sam,  of  Rotenacker, 
and  others.^  l^egotiations  were  also  opened  with  the  Swiss, 
and  as  the  periidious  and  pliant  Bucer  was  ever  ready  to 
accommodate  himself  to  circumstances,  and  to  sacrifice  his 
religious  convictions  to  his  sordid  interests,  a  union  was  con- 
cluded between  the  Swiss  Church  and  the  Lutheran  princes, 
although  against  Luther's  own  wish  and  advice  (1538).  While 
agreeing,  or  professing  to  be  in  agreement  in  matters  of  doc- 
trine, they  allowed  every  one  to  interpret  the  formula  of  con- 
secration in  the  Lord's  Supper  according  to  his  private  judg- 
ment, a  principle  which  has  the  unusual  merit  of  securing 
unity  of  belief,  by  granting  a  general  permission  to  all  to 
believe  and  to  disbelieve  what  they  like. 

§  313.   Ulrich  Zwingli  and  CEcolampadius. 

Zwinglii  Opera,  ed.  Gualiher,  Tig.  (1545),  1581,  4  vol.  in  fol. ;  ed.  Schnlcr  et 
Schulthess,  Tig.  1829-42;  eight  Pts.,  in  11  vols,  (prima  ed.  completa).  German 
edition  by  the  same  editors,  Zurich,  1828  sq.  Corpus  libror.  symbolicor.,  qui  in 
eccl.  Reformntorum  auctoritatem  publicum  obtinuerunt,  ed.  Auf/uf;ti,  Elberfeld, 
1827.  Collectio  confessionum  in  ecclesiis  reformatis  publicat.,  ed.  A.  H.  Nie- 
meycr,  Lps.  1840.  dkoLampadii  et  Zwinglii  Epp.  lib.  IV.  (Bas.  153G,  fol.),  1592, 
4to.  This  work  is  preceded  by  Osw.  Myconii  ep.  de  vita  et  obitu  Zwinglii.  .  .  . 
The  Lives  and  select  Writings  of  the  Founders  of  the  Eeformed  Church,  with 
an  Introductory  by  Ilagenbach,  Elberfeld,  1857  sq.,  10  vols.  Moerikofci;  Ulrich 
Zwingli's  Life  according  to  original  Documents,  Leipsig,  1867.  '^^gid.  Tschudi 
(Landamman  of  Glarus,  11572),  Chron.  Helv.  ed.  Iselin.,  Bas.  1734,  fol.,  2  T. 
(iOOO-1470);  a  manuscript  work,  derived  from  archives  and  rare  sources;  he 
goes  as  far  as  1570.  (Cf.  The  Life  and  Works  of  Giles  Tschudi,  by  ltd.  Fuchs, 
St.  Gall,  1805,2  parts).  '\Salat,  Chronicles  and  Full  Account  of  the  Commence- 
ments of  the  new  heresies  of  Luther  and  Zwingli,  to  the  end  of  the  year  1584; 
manuscript  in  fol.  .  .  .  Hottinger,  Ch.  H.  of  Switzerland,  Zurich,  1708  sq.,  4 
vols.,  4to.  J.  Basnage,  Hist,  de  la  relig.  des  eglises  rel'ormees  (Kotter.  1G90,  2 
T.,  12mo);  La  Haye,  1725,  2  T.,  4to.  Ruchat,  Hist,  de  la  reform,  de  la  Suisse, 
Geneve,  1727  sq.,  6  vols.,  r2mo.  J.  E.  Fuessiin,  Essay  supplementarj'  to  the 
Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  in  Switzerland,  Zurich,  1741-53,  5  vols.  .S'«^.  Hess, 
Origin,  Development,  and  Consequences  of  Zwingli's  Keform  at  Zurich,  Zii- 
rich,  1820,  in  4to.      Wirz  and  Melchinr  Kirchliofer,  Hist,  of  the  Swiss  Churches, 


iCf.  Riffel,  1.  c.  Vol.  II.,  p.  664-674. 


88  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

Zurich,  1808-19,  5  Pts.  ■\*Riffel  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ  during  modern 
times.  Vol.  111.,  Mentz,  1847.  Chronicles  of  the  Eeformation,  by  George  the 
Carthusian,  Basle,  1849.  Examination  of  the  prejudices  against  the  Catholic 
Church,  by  a  Protestant  Layman,  3d  ed.,  Lucerne,  1842,  2  vols.  Cf.  bibliogra- 
phy preceding  ?  298,  and  the  art.  "Zwi7igii"  in  the  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaedia- 

The  condition  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  Switzerland,  at  the 
opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  differed  but  slightly  from 
that  of  Germany  and  other  countries.  Literature  and  science 
bad  received  a  fresh  impulse  from  the  activity  of  Erasmus, 
and  their  study  was  being  prosecuted  with  unusual  ardor  and 
success.  The  Friends  of  God,  emulating  their  brethren  in  the 
Netherlands,  imparted  religious  instruction  to  the  people,  and 
so  wide  was  the  influence  of  the  teaching  and  example  of 
these  holy  men,  that  it  might  be  traced  north  and  south  from 
their  respective  centers  of  activity,  along  the  course  of  the 
Rhine,  embracing  the  whole  of  that  beautiful  and  fertile  dis- 
trict. The  Plenarium,  which  was  a  German  translation  of  the 
ordinary  of  the  Mass,  including  hymns,  meditations,  and  pray- 
ers in  aid  of  preparation  for  the  reception  of  the  Sacraments, 
arranged  for  the  use  of  the  people  by  a  Carthusian  monk, 
breathed  a  spirit  of  the  warmest  and  purest  mysticism.  But 
if  this  much  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  of  the  healthful 
condition  of  religious  practice  and  feeling,  it  must  be  added, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  the  state  of  cathedral  chapters,  the 
administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  the  morals  of  the 
clergy,  regular  and  secular,  were  far  from  satisfactory.  "We 
should  not,  however,  omit  to  mention  that  the  diocesan  synod, 
held  by  Christopher  Uttenheim,  Bishop  of  Basle,  in  1508,  cor- 
rected many  abuses  and  disorders,  and  still  attests,  by  its  wise 
provisions,  his  enlightened  solicitude  and  pastoral  zeal  for  his 
flock. 

That  the  seeds  of  the  Eeformation,  once  they  had  taken 
root  here,  sprung  more  rapidly  into  life,  had  a  more  vigorous 
growth,  and  developed  the  distinctive  features  of  Protestant- 
ism with  more  definiteness  of  form  than  they  elsewhere  at- 
tained in  the  same  space  of  time,  is  mainly  attributable  to 
the  peculiarities  of  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  constitution 
of  Switzerland.  Her  inhabitants,  enjoying  a  larger  measure 
of  indejyendence  and  a  freer  democratic  constitution  than  those 


§  313.    TJlrich  Zwingli  and  CEcolamiJculias.  89 

of  other  countries,  jealously  defended  both  the  one  and  the 
other,  whether  assailed  by  ambitious  foreign  princes  from 
without  or  by  worldly  ecclesiasticals  from  within.  The  char- 
ter of  rights,  secured  to  the  Swiss  nation  in  the  instrument 
called  the  '■^Priests'  Franchise''  in  1370,  and  again  renewed 
and  confirmed  by  the  TreMy  of  Stanz,  in  1481,  was  ever  re- 
garded by  them  as  the  sacred  bulwark  of  their  liberties,  and 
their  watchfnl  and  stubborn  defense  of  its  provisions  is  amply 
attested  in  their  freqnent  political  conflicts  with  their  bishops. 
But  these  guarantees,  such  as  they  were,  did  not  secure  so 
large  a  measure  of  good  to  the  bulk  of  the  people  as  they 
would,  had  their  operation  not  been  impeded  by  the  imperfect 
ecclesiastical  organization  of  the  country.  There  were  alto- 
gether six  bishopricks  in  the  whole  of  Switzerland,  which, 
however,  were  not  united  in  one  ecclesiastical  province.  Con- 
stance and  Choire  were  suifragans  of  the  metropolitan  of 
Mentz;  Basle  and  Lausanne  of  the  Archbisliop  of  Besan9on; 
Como  of  the  Patriarch  of  Aqnileja;  and  Sion  was  exempt, 
having  been  declared  so  by  Leo  X.  Finally,  Switzerland, 
enjoying  a  more  liberal  constitution  than  her  neighbors,  be- 
came the  resort  and  asylum  of  such  false  mystics  as  the  Loll- 
liards,  Beghards,  and  Beguines,  after  they  had  been  expelled 
their  own  country. 

The  author  of  the  first  religious  controversy  in  Switzerland 
was  TJlrich  Zwingli^  the  son  of  a  yeoman,  who  held  the  ofiice 
of  landamman,  or  chief  magistrate,  in  the  town  of  Wildhaiisen, 
situated  in  the  Alpine  valley  of  Toggenburg,  in  the  canton  of 
St.  Gall.  He  was  born  January  1,  1484,  and,  as  he  grew  up, 
received  an  excellent  education.,  studying  humanities  at  Bern, 
philosophy  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  theology  at  Basle, 
under  Thomas  Wyttenbach.  He  was  a  fine  classical  scholar, 
and  possessed  a  wide  acquaintance  with  theological  writers, 
and  a  critical  knowledge  of  theological  science.  A  man  of 
brilliant  talents,  keen  and  penetrating  intellect  and  great  ora- 
torical powers,  he  was  incapable  of  profound  and  well-su.-;- 
tained  thought,  and  wholly  destitute  of  the  speculative  fac- 
ulty. Appointed  parish-priest  of  Glarus,  in  the  diocese  of 
Constance,  in  1506,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Papal 
Legate,  through  whose  kind  ofiices  he  received  an  anuuit}' 


90  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

of  fifty  florins,  to  enable  him  to  prosecute  his  literary  labors 
on  the  Latin  classics  and  the  Fathers.  In  the  years  1512, '13, 
and  '15,  he  served  as  chaplain  to  such  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Glarus  as  took  part  in  the  campaigns  in  Lombardy,  fighting 
in  defense  of  the  Holy  See  against  the  French,  and  in  consid- 
eration for  these  services  received  from  the  Pope  a  pension, 
^Yhich  was  continued  until  the  year  1517.  After  the  year 
1513,  he  gave  himself  seriously  to  the  study  of  Greek  and 
the  l^ew  Testament,  and  in  1516  was  appointed  preacher  in 
tl.e  convent  of  Maria  Einsiedebi,  where  he  began  to  declaim 
violently  against  pilgrimages  and  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  But  so  little  was  he  suspected  of  any  heretical  lean- 
ing, that  in  1518  Antonio  Pulci,  the  Papal  Legate,  created 
him  by  diploma  chaplain  to  the  Holy  See.  He  was  shortly 
obliged  to  resign  his  care  of  souls  in  consequence  of  his  amours 
with  a  woman  of  notorious  and  profligate  character  becoming 
public.  He  was  now  called  to  Zurich,  where,  receiving  the 
appointment  of  preacher  in  the  "Cathedral,"  or  Great  Min- 
ster, he  again  began  to  declaim  with  increased  violence  against 
the  shortcomings  and  disorders  of  the  clergy,  of  which  he 
professed  to  have  had  abundant  evidence  from  personal  ob- 
servation, made  during  his  many  and  protracted  sojourns  in 
Italy.  He  himself  afterward  made  it  a  matter  of  boast  that 
he  had  preached  the  Gospel  of  Christ  as  early  as  1516,  before 
even  the  name  of  Luther  had  been  heard  in  Switzerland;  and 
that  during  the  two  following  years,  when  the  Saxon  reformer 
was  still  unknown  in  that  land,  he  had  relied  upon  the  Bible, 
and  the  Bible  alone.  In  his  opening  address  at  Zurich,  Janu- 
ary 1,  1519,  he  called  for  a  reformation  of  the  Church  and  a 
retnrn  to  purity  of  morals,  and  seemed  to  think  an  immoral 
profligate  like  himself  the  proper  person  to  efltect  the  one  and 
exemplify  the  other.  That  he  was  lamentably  ignorant  of  the 
historical  development  of  the  Church  and  the  Papacy,  his  dis- 
courses furnish  the  most  abundant  proof.' 

The  Zwinglian  movement  was  in  some  respects  strikingly 
similar,  and  in  others  strikingly  dissimilar,  to  that  of  Luther, 
The  two  reformers  were  born  within  a  year  of  each  other;  both 


'Cf.  The  Situation  of  Basle,  etc.,  vide  infra,  p.  9G,  n.  1. 


§  31  o.    Ulrich  Zwuigll  and  G^coUimpadius.  91 

had  visited  Home  previously  to  their  defection,  but  they  carried 
away  with  them  very  dift'ereot  impressions.  Both  began  by 
assailing  the  j^reachers  of  indulgences,  and  while  Luther  de- 
fended his  teachings  in  a  disputation  against  Eck  of  Ingol- 
stadt,  at  Leipsig,  in  1519,  Zwingli  and  CEcolampadius  de- 
fended theirs  in  a  similar  disputation  at  Baden,  in  1526.  Both 
possessed  the  gift  of  popular  eloquence  in  an  eminent  degree, 
and  employed  it  to  misrepresent  and  v\\\fy  the  Catholic  Church 
and  her  doctrines;  and,  finally,  both  w^ere  assisted  by  men  of 
superior  culture  and  scientific  training — Luther  hy  Melanch- 
thon,  and  Zwingli  by  CEcolampadius. 

They  were  dissimilar  in  this — that  while  the  basis  of  Lu- 
ther's system  was  a  false  mysticism,  that  of  Zwingli's  was 
wholly  and  thoroughly  rationalistic;  Luther  opposed  liberal 
studies  and  polite  learning  on  principle,  Zwingli  was  an  apol- 
ogist of  Paganism  and  an  excessive  advocate  of  its  literature; 
Luther  was  in  a  continuous  state  of  morbid  unrest,  and  the 
victim  of  harassing  and  unnecessary  scruples;  Zwingli  was, 
from  the  opening  of  his  career,  light-minded  and  frivolous, 
and  a  slave  to  sensual  pleasures;  Luther,  during  the  early 
days  of  his  revolt,  professed  to  trust  the  success  of  his  cause 
to  the  power  of  the  word  of  God,  though  he  invoked  the 
power  of  the  magistracy  some  time  later;  Zwingli,  from  the 
very  beginning,  relied  on  the  civil  authority  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  his  teachings  and  the  triumph  of  his  principles.  More- 
over, being  at  bottom  a  radical  republican,  Zwingli  directed 
his  earliest  efforts  to  an  attempt  to  overturn  the  Papacy  and 
the  whole  ecclesiastical  hierarchy,  boasting  that  he  had,  three 
years  previously  to  his  defection,  taken  counsel  with  Capito 
as  to  the  best  means  of  deposing  the  Pope.  An  implacable  enemy 
of  all  preachers  of  indulgences,  he  assailed  Bernard  Samson, 
a  Franciscan,  with  all  the  energy  of  his  eloquence  and  the 
vehement  passion  of  his  nature.  Not  content  with  having 
them  excluded  from  the  pulpits  of  Constance  and  driven  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  city  by  an  order  from  the  bishop,  ho 
attacked  the  doctrine  itself,  and  was  delighted  to  obser\'e  that 
his  hearers  not  unfrequently  listened  to  his  furious  philippics 
with  undisguised  pleasure.  In  1520,  he  obtained  from  the 
Grand  Council  of  Zurich  a  decree  commanding  that  the  word 


92  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


of  God  should  be  taught  wherever  their  jurisdiction  extended, 
only  as  found  in  Holy  Scripture,  regardless  of  any  ecclesiasti- 
cal tradition  or  authoritative  interpretation.  Leo  X.  sum- 
moned Zwingli  to  Rome  to  give  an  account  of  his  teaching; 
and,  still  later,  Hadrian  VI.,  conformably  with  his  character, 
wrote  him  a  tender  and  paternal  letter,  which  entirely  failed 
of  its  purpose,  for  the  reformer  suddenly  broke  with  the 
Church,  and  openly  proclain^ed  himself  an  heresiarch.  In 
1522,  he  demanded  from  Hugo  of  Landenberg,  Bishop  of  Con- 
stance, in  his  own  name,  a  general  per  mission  for  priests  to  take 
ivives.  "Your  Lordship,"  he  candidly  said,  "  very  well  knows 
how  disgraceful  have  been  my  relations  heretofore  with  females 
(for  I  would  speak  only  of  myself) ;  how  these  have  been  the 
scandal  and  ruin  of  manj-.  Since,  therefore,  I  know  from  per- 
sonal experience  that  I  can  not  lead  a  pure  and  chaste  life,  in- 
asmuch as  God  has  denied  me  this  gift,  I  demand  the  privilege 
of  taking  a  wife.  I  feel  within  me  the  carnal  lust,  of  which  St. 
Paul  speaks,^  and  have  often  come  to  grief  in  consequence,"  etc. 

When  the  bishop,  instead  of  acceding  to  the  demand,  rig- 
idly enforced  the  rule  of  celibacy,  and  punished  any  infraction 
of  it  with  severe  penalties,  Zwingli  severed  his  last  thread  of 
connection  with  the  Church,  rejected  the  authority  of  ecumen- 
ical councils,  and  in  a  circular  letter,  addressed  to  the  Swiss 
people,  declared  celibacy  an  invention  of  the  Devil. 

In  connection  with  the  government  of  the  canton,  he  ar- 
ranged for  a  religious  conference  to  be  held  at  Zurich,  in 
January,  1523,  at  which  sixty-seven  theses  were  proposed  for 
discussion,  and  challenged  the  Bishop  of  Constance  and  oth- 
ers to  meet  him,  of  whom  John  Faber.,  Vicar  General  of  Con- 
stance, alone  accepted.  The  propositions  discussed  were  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  those  defended  by  Luther,  the  most 
remarkable  being  the  following :  Holy  Scripture  is  the  only 
source  of  faith;  Christ  is  the  true  and  only  H^ad  of  the  com- 
pany of  the  Saints,  of  God's  elect;  the  authority  of  popes  and 
bishops  had  its  origin  in  pride  and  usurpation,  and  is  wiujlly 
destitute  of  Gospel  warrant  oi-  sanction;  theie  is  no  Sacrifice 
other  than  that  of  ("hi-ist  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  of  which 

*I.  Cor.  vii.  9. 


§  313.   Ijlrich  Zwingli  and  CEcolampadius.  93 

the  Mass  is  only  a  commemoration ;  Christ  being  our  only 
mediator,  we  have  no  need  of  the  intercession  of  the  Saints; 
God  alone  having  power  to  forgive  sins,  confession  is  only  a 
method  of  giving  and  receiving  counsel;  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory is  devoid  of  Scriptural  proof;  priests  and  monks  have 
the  same  right  as  other  men  to  take  wives;  the  monk's  habit 
is  a  device  to  cloak  hypocrisy.  At  the  close  of  the  disputa- 
tion, the  Council  of  Ziirich  declared  Zwingli  the  victor. 

A  second  disputation  was  arranged  for  September  of  the 
same  year,  to  which  the  bishops  of  Constance,  Coire,  and 
Basle,  though  invited  to  be  present,  refused  either  to  go 
themselves,  or  to  send  representatives. 

Zwingli  and  his  confederates,  Leo  Jiidae  and  Hetzer,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  subsequently  beheaded  for  his  numerous 
adulteries,  now  rejected  the  use  of  images,  abolished  the  Mass 
and  clerical  celibacy,  and  forthwith  took  wives,  Zwingli  mar- 
rying Ann  Reinhard,  a  widow,  with  whom  he  had  for  many 
years  maintained  a  criminal  intercourse. 

Accompanied  by  many  of  the  magistrates  and  a  number 
of  masons  and  carpenters,  Zwingli  went  the  round  of  the 
churches  of  the  city,  demolishing  images  and  statues,  over- 
turning altars,  and  destroying  the  very  organs  in  their  insane 
hatred  of  whatever  called  up  the  memory  of  the  ancient  faith. 
Not  content  with  this,  they  tore  the  relics  of  Saints  from  their 
shrines,  and  buried  them  away  under  ground.  They  would 
have  neither  music,  lights,  incense,  nor  external  ceremony; 
for  the  magnificent  and  imposing  grandeur  of  the  Roman  rit- 
ual, they  substituted  a  cold,  cheerless  worship,  as  repulsive  as 
it  was  grotesque.  A  plain  table  took  the  place  of  the  altar 
of  sacrifice,  and  goblets  of  wine  and  a  basket  of  bread  were 
the  human  substitutes  for  the  plate  and  chalice  containing  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  Christ.  The  texts  of  Scripture  were  read 
in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  after  which  the  various  read- 
ings were  compared,  and  the  correct  sense,  according  to  their 
understanding  of  it,  evolved.  The  vernacular  text  in  use 
until  1529  was  a  translation  of  Luther's  New  and  Old  Testa- 
ments, according  to  the  Hebrew,  made  into  Switzer^o- German , 
and  interpreted  in  a  Zioinglian  sense  by  Leo  Judae. 

These  religious  innovations,   and  the  disturbances  which 


94  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

they  occasioned,  excited  the  fears  and  called  forth  the  pro- 
tests of  the  Catholic  members  of  the  Grand  Council,  who 
were  in  consequence  deprived  of  their  offices,  and  forbidden 
to  celebrate  Divine  loorship  after  the  manner  of  their  forefathers 
for  countless  generations.  These  officials,  together  with  repre- 
sentatives from  various  parts  of  Switzerland,  to  whom  the 
recent  events  had  given  offense,  assembled  at  Lucerne,  in 
1524,  and  appointed  a  deputation  to  go  to  Zurich  to  beg  their 
brethren  there  not  to  contemn  the  faith  of  their  venerable 
Mother,  the  Church,  which  they  had  cherished  as  a  common 
heritage,  and  faithfulh'  preserved  for  fifteen  centuries.  The 
deputies  were  further  instructed  to  say  that  the  assembly  of 
Lucerne  was  ready  to  consult  with  the  people  of  Zurich  as  to 
"the  best  means  of  shaking  off  the  yoke  which  the  injustice 
and  unwarrantable  violence  of  certain  popes,  cardinals,  bish- 
ops, and  prelates  had  laid  upon  the  Swiss  people,  and  of  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  scandalous  traffic  in  ecclesiastical  benefices, 
indulgences,  etc."  But  the  Grand  Council  of  Ziirich,  seeing 
that  these  innovations  would  lead  to  au  increase  of  the  public 
revenue  and  heighten  the  influence  of  their  city  in  the  Con- 
federac}^  refused  to  listen  either  to  the  voice  of  religion  or  to 
tlie  appeals  of  brotherly  love.  The  Council  was  encouraged 
in  this  decision  by  Zwingli,  who,  to  secure  the  energetic  pro- 
tection of  that  body  for  himself,  willingly  yielded  it,  in  turn, 
full  exercise  of  episcopal  jurisdiction,  or,  what  was  practi- 
cally the  same  thing,  a  corresponding  measure  of  authority 
in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  had  soon  occasion  to  invoke  its 
aid,  for  the  Anabaptists,  great  numbers  of  whom  were  now  to 
be  found  in  Switzerland,  claimed,  like  Zwingli  himself,  the 
right  of  putting  their  own  interpretation  upon  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. Holding  that  infant  baptism  had  no  sanction  in  Holy 
Writ,  and  was  only  an  invention  of  the  Papists,  they  came 
into  conflict  with  Zwingli,  with  whom  they  had  a  discussion 
on  the  point.  The  Council  decided  that  their  teachings  were 
erroneous,  and  forbade  them,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  re- 
baptize.  Felix  Blanz,  disregarding  the  inhibition,  continued 
the  practice,  was  adjudged  guilty,  and  put  to  death  by  drown- 
ing, in  1526;  while  his  associate,  Blaurock,  a  monk  of  Coire, 
was  let  oft'  with  a  scour2:ing. 


§  313.    JJlrich  Zwingli  and  CEcotampadius.  95 

At  Basle,  (Ecolampadius  proclaimed  himself  the  champion 
of  the  new  religious  principles.  He  was  born  at  Weinsberg, 
in  Suabia,  in  1482,  and  studied  law  at  Bologna;  but  he  sub- 
sequently relinquished  the  idea  of  following  this  profession, 
and  began  the  study  of  theology  at  Heidelberg. 

Appointed  parish  priest  in  the  city  of  Basle,  in  1515,  he 
soon  became  intimate  with,  the  learned  Erasmus,  who  highly 
appreciated  his  classical  attainments.  The  works  of  Luther 
had  been  largely  circulated  in  the  city  through  the  efforts  of 
Froben,  a  bookseller.  Moreover,  Wolfgang  Capito,  a  friend  of 
Zwingli's  and  the  leading  priest  of  Basle,  and  Reublin,  also  a 
priest  of  the  same  place,  had  already  shown  leanings  toward 
Lutheranism  in  their  sermons,  and  preached  against  the  Mass, 
purgatory,  and  the  invocation  of  the  Saints.  In  1516,  CEco- 
lampadius  was  appointed  preacher  of  the  Cathedral  of  Augs- 
burg; but  his  feeble  health  preventing  him  from  at  once 
entering  upon  his  duties,  he  withdrew  to  Almiinster,  a  con- 
vent at  a  short  distance  from  the  city,  where  he  remained  for 
a  brief  period.  "When  it  became  known  that  he  was  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  new  teachings,  he  was  invited  to  find  some  more 
congenial  abode.  He  then  became  chaplain  in  the  castle  of 
Franz  von  Sickingen,  where  he  introduced  many  innovations 
in  religious  worship,  and  after  the  death  of  that  nobleman,  in 
1522,  he  again  went  back  to  Basle  as  a  professor  of  theology, 
and  in  1524  was  once  more  appointed  parish  priest.  He  now 
openly  and  boldly  proclaimed  his  opposition  to  the  teachings 
and  usages  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and,  to  give  binding  force 
to  his  new  position,  married  a  handsome  young  widow,  who 
subsequently  became  successively  the  wife  of  Capito  and  Bucer. 
William  Farel,  a  French  nobleman,  and  the  professors,  Simon 
Grynaeus  and  Sebastian  Munster,  became  his  powerful  and 
effective  allies. 

The  municipal  authorities  at  first  declared  themselves  hos- 
tile to  any  innovations,  and  instructed  the  reformers  to  await 
the  action  of  a  future  council ;  but  the  partisans  of  CEcolam- 
padius,  refusing  to  abide  by  this  decision,  raised  seditious 
tumults  in  the  city,  and  in  this  way  forcibly  extorted  freedom 
of  worship  (1527).  Once  secure  in  the  possession  and  enjoy- 
ment of  religious  liberty  for  themselves,  their  next  step,  char- 


96  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

aeteristically  enough,  was  an  attempt,  to  withdraw  it  from 
Catholics,  the  total  suppression  of  whose  religion  they  clam- 
orously demanded  (February,  1529).  Seizing  the  arsenal,  they 
plundered  it  of  its  contents,  and,  having  placed  cannon  in 
position  on  the  principal  squares  of  the  cit}',  they  rushed  into 
the  churches  like  so  many  infuriated  demons,  and  after  hav- 
ing demolished  altars,  statues,  and  images,  they  made  twelve 
piles  of  the  church  furniture  and  ornaments,  and  consumed 
them  with  fire.  Disgusted  at  this  brutal  mode  of  reforming 
the  Church,  Erasmus  quitted  Basle,  and  took  up  his  residence 
at  Freiburg,  in  Brisgovia.^ 

Similar  scenes  were  enacted  in  nearly  every  city  of  Switzer- 
land— notably  in  Muhlhausen  (1524),  St.  Gall  and  Schaffhausen 
(1525),  and  Appenzell  (1524).  In  the  canton  of  Bern,  the  most 
populous  and  powerful  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  an  eftbrt 
was  made  to  correct  abuses  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
to  keep  out  all  innovations;  but  this  conservative  policy  was 
wholly  frustrated  by  a  former  disciple  of  Melanchthon's,  Ber- 
thold  Haller,  a  Suabian  (f  1536),  then  a  popular  parish  priest 
of  Bern,  who,  acting  on  the  cunning  and  insidious  advice  of 
Zwingli^  to  another  priest  of  Bern,  finall}^  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing the  bulk  of  the  people  over  to  the  teaching  of  Protestant- 
ism (1528).  Glarus,  Soleure,  and  Freiburg  leaned  in  the  same 
direction,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  Protestant  Can- 
tons had  a  preponderating  influence  in  the  Confederation. 
Hence  the  representatives  of  the  Canton  of  Zurich  peremp- 

1  Uerzog,  The  Life  of  John  CEcolampadius  and  the  Eeformation  of  the  Church 
of  Basle,  2  Pts.,  Basle,  1843.  —  t*The  Condition  of  Basle  Immediately  before 
the  Keformation,  Hist,  and  PoLit.  Papers,  Vol.  XIII.,  pp.  705-740,  and  810-836; 
Vol.  XIV.,  pp.  129-147,  273-291,  and  377-392. 

'•^t- C".  L.  de  Haller,  Hist,  of  the  Religious  Revolution,  or  the  Protestant  Re- 
formation in  the  Canton  of  Bern.  Lucerne,  1836.  Zwingli,  in  a  letter  to  the 
priest  Kolb  of  Bern,  giving  instructions  as  to  the  way  to  proceed  in  propagat- 
ing the  new  teachings,  speaks  as  follows:  "My  dear  Francis :  We  should  ob- 
serve much  caution  in  this  affair.  You  will,  therefore,  give  to  these  bears  at 
tirst  only  one  sour  pear  among  a  number  of  sweet  ones;  then  add  another  and 
another,  and  when  they  begin  to  have  u  relish  for  them,  increase  the  number, 
mixing  sour  and  sweet;  and,  finally,  empty  the  whole  bag,  hard  and  mellow, 
bitter  and  sweet,  for,  when  they  have  once  their  heads  fairly  into  the  trougn, 
they  will  not  patiently  suflFer  themselves  to  be  driven  away.  Your  servant  in 
Christ,  Ulrich  Zwingli.     Zurich,  the  Monday  after  St.  George's  Day,  1527." 


§  313.    Ulrich  Zwingli  and  (Ecolampadius.  97 

torily  demanded  that  such  of  the  Cantons  as  had  not  yet 
embraced  the  new  faith,  should  be  obliged  to  do  so. 

To  this  demand,  Lucerne,  the  three  original  Cantons — viz., 
Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden — and  the  Canton  of  Zug  made 
a  heroic  resistance,  protesting  that  they  would  never  abandon 
the  faith  of  their  fathers.  It  is  a  little  remarkable  that  these 
Cantons  were  precisely  the  ones  in  which  primitive  simplicity 
of  manners  and  purity  of  morals  were  still  preserved,  and 
whose  inhabitants  had  but  lately  been  witnesses  of  the  holy 
life  and  miraculous  deeds  of  Nicholas  of  Flue.  Their  repre- 
sentatives declared  over  and  over  again  that  they  had  no 
Jurisdiction  over  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  would  never  con- 
sent to  assume  any. 

On  the  21st  of  May,  1526,  a  disputation  took  place  at  Ba- 
den, in  the  Canton  of  Argovia,  between  Fck,  on  the  one  side, 
and  CEcolampadius,  Zwingli's  Melanchthon,  and  many  more 
divines,  on  the  other,  concerning  the  Mass,  purgatory,  and 
the  veneration  of  the  Saints,  in  which,  although  it  was  plain 
the  former  had  gained  a  complete  triumph,  the  friends  of  the 
latter  claimed  a  victory  for  their  champion.^  Its  most  impor- 
tant result,  however,  was  the  complete  alienation  of  the  Pro- 
testant from  the  Catholic  Cantons,  the  latter  of  which,  after 
having  definitely,  but  reluctantly,  joined  those  of  Freiburg 
and  Soleure,  and  entered  into  an  alliance  with  King  Fer- 
dinand of  Austria  (1529),  were  driven  by  the  outrages^  of 
their  opponents  to  retaliatory  measures  of  more  than  usual 
severity,  if  indeed  they  do  not  merit  a  harsher  name.  The 
impending  struggle  was  for  the  time  averted  by  the  media- 
tion of  the  cities  of  Strasburg  and  Constance,  and  the  Catho- 
lic Cantons  in  consequence  broke  off"  their  treaty  with  Ferdi- 
nand; but,  for  all  this,  the  popular  feeling  on  each  side  was 
as  deep  and  as  hostile  as  ever.  Hence,  when  the  people  of 
Zurich,  under  pretense  of  promoting  the  glory  of  God  and 

^Cf.  Riffcl,  Vol.  III.,  p.  547-556;  and  Wiedemann,  John  Eck,  p.  223. 

2 "The  burning  of  images,  and  sometimes  even  of  monasteries,"  Hase  blandly 
tells  us,  "was  of  course  exceedingly  painful  to  the  Catholic  authorities,  espe- 
cially when  it  occurred  in  places  subject  to  their  control."     Ch.  Hist.,  Eng. 
trans.,  N.  Y.  1875,  p.  388.  (Tk.) 
VOL.    Ill — 7 


98  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

forwarding  the  iuterests  of  the  Chiistiun  faith,  intercepted 
convoys  of  provisions  destined  for  the  Catholic  Cantons,  a 
furious  war  at  once  broke  out.  A  battle  was  fought  October 
11,  1531,  at  Cappel,  in  which  the  army  of  Zurich  suffered  a 
disastrous  defeat;  and  Zwingli,  who,  by  the  command  of  the 
magistracy,  had  gone  to  the  field  of  battle  as  chaplain,  and, 
clad  in  complete  armor,  had  borne  aloft  the  standard  of  the 
(.ity,  was  stricken  down,  and  uumbered  among  the  slain. 
OEcoiampadius  having  been  cut  off'  by  a  malignant  plague 
on  the  23d  of  November  of  the  same  year,  the  coincidence 
was  remarked  by  the  Lutherans,  who  observed,  with  brutal 
malevolence,  that  "the  Devil  had  given  both  of  them  a  sud- 
den taking  off"." 

Zwingli  was  succeeded  by  Henry  BuUinger,  and  (Ecolampa- 
dius  by  Osivald  Myconius^  who,  together  with  Leo  Judae, 
Caspar  Grossman,  and  William  Farel,  continued  to  spread 
the  new  doctrines  in  Switzerland. 

§  314.  ZwingWs  System. 

"Uslegen  und  griind  der  schlussreden  oder  Artikel " — Explanations  and  Rea- 
sons of  the  Conclusions  or  Articles, — veluti  farrago  omnium  opinionum,  quae 
hodie  controvertuntur  (Zwinglii  Opera,  edd.  Schuler  et  Schulthess,  T.  VII.,  p. 
275  sq.)  Comment,  de  veraet  falsa  religione,  Tiguri,  1525;  !Fidei  ratio  ad  Caro- 
lum  Imperatorem,  Tig.  1530;  Christianae  fidei  brevis  et  clara  Expositio  ad 
Eegem  Christian.  Francisc.  I.  (ed.  BuUinger),  Tig.  1536,  in  Zw.  opera,  T.  IV., 
p.  42-78;  De  providentia,  in  opp.  T.  I.  Zeller,  The  Theological  System  of  Zwin- 
gli, Tiibg.  1853.  Sporri,  Studies  on  Zwinglianism,  Zurich,  1866.  Schweizer,  The 
Fundamental  Dogmas  of  the  Protestants,  Zurich,  1854.  Hage7ibach,  Hist,  of 
the  First  Confession  of  Basle,  Basle,  1827.  Sigwart,  Ulrich  Zwingli ;  the  char- 
acter of  his  Theology,  Stuttgart,  1855.  Besides  the  Symbolism  of  Mohler  and 
Hilgers,  cf.  especially  Riffel,  Vol.  III.,  p.  54-102.  Hundeshagen,  Suppl.  to  the 
character  of  Zwingli,  along  with  a  comparison  to  Luther  and  Calvin  (Theol. 
Studies  and  Criticisms,  1862,  nro.  4). 

While  Zwingli's  claim  to  having  been  before  Luther  in  puh- 
licly  attacking  the  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Church  may 
be  allowed,  his  pretension  to  any  originality  of  teaching  must 

1  Oswald  Myconius  (i.  e.  Geisshauter),  Antistes  of  the  Church  of  Basle,  by 
Melchior  Kirchhqfc}-,  Ziiricb,  1813.  Biography  of  M.  Henry  BuUinger  (he  bad 
been  Dean  of  Bremgarttn),  Antistes  of  the  Church  of  Zurich,  by  Scd.  Hess, 
Zurich,  1828  sq.,  2  vols,  (infeomplete). 


§  314.  Zwingli's  System.  99 

be  emphatically  denied.  The  underlying  principles  of  his 
system  were  taken  from  the  writings  of  Luther,  which  had 
been  largely  circulated  in  Switzerland  shortly  after  their  ap- 
pearance ir  Germany,  and  he  could  claim  as  his  own  no  more 
than  a  recasting  and  an  adaptation  of  these  principles  to  suit 
liis  own  ways  of  thought  and  intellectual  bent.  That  he  was 
superficial,  and  destitute  of  intellectual  gifts  of  a  high  order, 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he  started  by  denying  that  Chris- 
tianity had  anything  of  mystery  in  it.  The  principle  upon 
which  his  whole  system  was  grounded,  and  out  of  which  it 
grew  with  rigorous  consistency,  may  be  brieily  stated  as  fol- 
lows: Soly  Scripture  is  the  one  source  of  faith,  and  man's  rea- 
son its  only  interpreter;  and,  hence,  whatever  it  contains  that 
is  above  or  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  human  intellect, 
may  be  discarded.  Zvviugli,  like  all  reformers,  professed  to 
believe  himself  divinely  inspired,  and  to  have  merited  by  his 
earnest  prayers  a  direct  mental  illumination.  As  regards  his 
specific  teaching,  he  held  with  Luther  that  man,  in  consequence 
of  the  sin  of  Adam,  had  fallen  so  completely  and  hopelessly  under 
the  dominion  of  evil,  that  every  faculty  of  body  and  soul  was 
impaired,  and  his  every  act  vain,  unprofitable,  and  sinful. 
Hence,  man  had  no  power  to  do  good,  and  free-will  is  a 
fiction.  Human  nature,  being  in  itself  wholly  and  essen- 
tially wicked,  evil  deeds  are  as  necessarily  its  product  as  are 
the  branches  of  a  tree  the  outgrowth  of  the  stem.  His  theory 
of  Providence  {De  Providentia),  which  is  set  forth  in  precise 
and  emphatic  terms,  is  only  an  extreme  form  of  the  fatalistic 
belief  of  the  Pagans;  human  free-will  is  totally  annihilated; 
God  is  represented  as  the  author  of  sin,  and  seems  to  have  a  very 
decided  preference  for  it  in  its  more  aggravated  forms  of  treason 
and  murder  P     Starting  with  these  wide  and  sweeping  prem- 


^Epist.  an.  1527:  Hie  ergo  proruunt  quidam:  "Libidini  ergo  indulgebo,  etc.; 
quidquid  egero,  Deo  auctore  fit."     Qui  se  voce  produnt,  cujus  oves  sint !     Esto 

cnim,  Dei  ordinatione  fiat,  ut  hie  parricida  sit,  etc. ejusdem  tamen  bonitate 

fit,  ut  qui  vasa  irae  ipsius  futuri  sint,  his  signis  prodantur,  qaum  scilicet  latroci- 
nantur  —  citra  poenitentiam.  Quid  enim  aliud  quam  gehennae  filium  bis  signis 
ieprehendimus?  Dicant  ergo,  Dei  providentia  se  esse  proditores  ac  homicidasl 
Yet  the  caution  is  added  further  on :  "  Sed  heus  tu !  caste  ista  ad  populum  et 
Tarius  etiam ! "     Cf.  also  Hahn,  Zwingli's  Doctrine  of  Providence,  the  nature 


100  Feriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

ises,  he  could  accept  no  theory  of  justification  other  than  thai 
of  Luther  by  faith  alone,  and  no  other  was  admissible.  Con- 
sistently with  his  debasing  theory  of  absolute  predestina- 
tion, he  asserted  and  maintained  that  such  distinguished 
Pagan  personages  as  Hercules,  Theseus,  Socrates,  ISTuma 
Pompilius,  the  Catos  and  the  Scipios  were  among  the  elect, 
and  enjoyed  the  fellowship  of  Christ  and  Ilis  Saints — an 
opinion  which,  Luther  said,  made  him  a  thorough-going 
Pagan. 

Like  Luther,  Zwingli  also  repudiated  such  works  as  in  his 
belief  were  not  inspired  by  faith,  and  among  these  he  included 
monastic  vows,  and  everything  connected  with  indulgences  and 
purgatory.  According  to  his  definition,  the  Church,  whose 
members  are  known  to  God  alone,  consists  of  that  great  com- 
munity of  Christians  who  recognize  only  Christ  as  their  Head. 
He  having  no  visible  representative  on  earth.  Hence  the  spir- 
itual power  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  of  the  bishops  dis- 
persed over  the  world,  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  usurpa- 
tion, it  having  been  primarily  lodged  in  the  civil  authorities^ 
from  whom  it  was  extorted  b}^  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchy. 
The  Sacraments,  he  said,  are  but  empty  signs,  having  no  effi- 
cacy, conferring  no  grace,  and  are  not  even  tokens  of  God's 
favor.  They  are  a  sort  of  advertisement  to  the  public  that 
those  who  receive  them  are  already  in  the  enjoyment  of  God's 
favor.^  Baptism  does  not  cleanse  the  soul  of  sin,^  and  make 
the  recipient  a  son  of  God;  but  it  is  a  sign  of  initiation  for 
those  who  do  not  yet  enjoy  that  sonship,  and  a  pledge  of  con- 
tinuance for  those  who  do.  The  Holy  Eucharist  is  not  itself 
a  sacrifice,  but  merely  a  commemoration  of  the  expiatory  Sac- 
rifice of  Christ,  and,  hence,  the  words  of  institution  spoken 
by  Christ  are  to  be  taken  not  in  their  literal  and  obvious  sense, 
but  in  a  sense  wholly  figurative.^     "Moreover,"  said  Zwingli^ 

and  end  of  man,  and  also  of  the  election  of  grace  (Studies  and  Criticisms,  1837, 
4th  number,  p.  765-805). 

'"Ex  quibus  hoc  colligitur,  sacramenta  dari  in  signum  publicum  ejus  gratiae, 
quae  cuique  -pviv &io  prius  adest." 

2 Zwingli,  Works,  Vol.  II..  p.  198  b.;  p.  477.  (Tr.) 

3  A  single  passage  will  suflSce  to  show  his  teaching:  "Hoc  est,  id  est,  significat 
Corpus  Meum.     Quod  perindo  est,  ac  si  quae  matrona  conjugis  sui  annulum  ab 


§  315.   The  Sacraynentarian   Controversy.  101 

anticipating  the  Calvinistic  interpretation  of  the  words  of  in- 
stitution, and  replying  to  it,  "those  should  not  be  listened  to 
who  say :  '  We  do  indeed  truly  eat  the  flesh  of  Christ,  but  in 
a  spiritual  sense;'  for,"  he  added,  "the  assertion  involves  a 
contradiction  of  terms."  Confirmation  and  Extreme  Unction 
he  dismissed  from  his  mind  as  too  trifling  to  claim  his  serious 
attention  ;  and  Holy  Orders,  he  said,  is  only  a  ceremonial  in- 
duction into  the  ministry  of  the  Word^  and  neither  confers  grace 
nor  imprints  a  sacramental  character  on  the  soul.  For  where 
is  the  good  of  these  external  means  of  grace  since  the  power 
of  God  is  everywhere  visible,  working  in  and  through  all  things, 
not  indirectly  and  as  employing  agencies,  but  directly  and  ab- 
solutely; and  if  Christ,  he  went  on  to  say,  has  instituted  Bap- 
tism and  the  Eucharist  as  His  two  signs  in  the  New  Covenant, 
He  did  so  onlj^  because  He  graciously  stooped,  to  accommodate 
Himself  to  the  weakness  of  our  poor  nature. 

Between  the  cold,  barren  system  of  Zwingli  and  the  teach- 
ings of  Luther,^  there  was  nearly  as  great  a  contrast  as  be- 
tween it  and  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  and  the 
repulsive  aridity  of  everything  connected  with  Zwinglianism 
will,  in  a  measure,  account  for  the  fact,  that,  while  religious 
sentiment  and  warmth  of  feeling  early  died  out  among  its 
professors,  they  long  continued  to  manifest  their  presence 
among  those  of  Lutheran  ism. 

§  315.   The  Sacramentarian  Controversy.     (Cf.  §  311.) 

Loescher,  Complete  History  of  the  Struggle  between  Luther  and  the  Reformed, 
Frankfurt  and  Lps.,  2d  ed.,  1723,  3  vols.  Lud.  Lavaier,  Historia  de  origine  et 
progressu  controversiae  de  coena  Domini  ab  an.  1523-1563,  Tiguri,  1564  and 
1572.  Uospifiiani  Historia  sacramentaria,  Tig.  1598;  1602,  2  T.  f.,  1611,  4to. 
Bossuet,  Hist,  of  Variations,  Vol.  I.,  p.  48  sq.  Planck,  Hist,  of  the  Origin,  Vari- 
ations, etc.  (Vol.  II.,  p.  204  sq.,  471  sq.;  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  I.,  p.  376  sq.)  By  the 
same,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology  (Vol.  I.,  p.  6  sq. ;  Vol.  XL,  Pt.  I.,  p.  80  sq., 
Pt.  II.,  p.  7.  sq.;  Vol.  III.,  pp.  150,  274,  and  732  sq.)    Moehler,  Symbolism, 


hoc  ipso  relictum  raonstrans.  En  conjux  hie  meus  est,  dicat.''     Ibid.,  Vol.  II.,  p. 
293.  (Tr.) 

1  Hence  Luther,  replying  to  the  Swiss  deputies,  said :  "  Either  one  party  or  the 
<'ther  must  neo  jssarily  be  working  in  the  service  of  Satan ;  the  matter  does  not 
admit  of  discussion,  there  is  no  possibility  of  compromise."  Walch,  Vol.  XVII^ 
p.  1907. 


102  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

chap.  IV.,  p.  256  sq.;  Engl,  transl.,  p.  292  sq.     Ililgcrs,  Symbolism,  chap.  VL, 
§?  27  and  28.     »R(fel,  Vols.  I.  and  II..  p.  298-335. 

The  principle  of  private  judgment  introduced  by  the  Re- 
formers, granting  to  all  unrestricted  freedom  to  teach  what 
they  liked,  and  to  interpret  Hol}^  Scripture  arbitrarily,  nec- 
essarily led  at  a  very  early  day  to  grave  divisions  among  the 
sectaries  themselves.  Luther  was  seriously  alarmed,  and  saw 
the  importance  of  fixing  upon  some  common  creed  as  a  basis 
of  doctrine,  and  a  guarantee  of  unity  of  teaching.  Like  Mel- 
anchthon,  he  had  violently  assailed  the  Sacraments,  which, 
the  Church  has  ever  taught,  are  divinely  ordained  and  effica- 
cious instruments  of  grace;  and,  being  under  the  necessity 
of  so  shaping  and  adjusting  the  details  of  his  system  that 
they  would  fit  in  with  his  fundamental  principle  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone,  he  denied  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  and 
affirmed  that,  instead  of  being  positive  means  for  conveying 
sanctifying  grace  to  the  soul,  the  Sacraments  are  no  more 
than  signs  and  symbols  designed  to  strengthen  the  faith  of 
the  believer  in  the  assurance  that  he  is  loosed  from  his  sin. 
Hence,  he  insisted,  whoever  receives  the  divine  promises  with 
unhesitating  faith,  has  no  need  of  the  Sacraments.  Notwith- 
standing this  general  denial  of  efficac}'^  to  the  Sacramental 
system,  he  still  continued  to  teach  that  Christ  is  really  and 
truly  present  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  and,  as  to  the 
mode  of  this  Presence,  he  held  for  a  time  that  the  substances 
of  bread  and  wine  are  changed  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of 
Christ.  But  his  obstinate  struggle  against  the  Church,  and 
his  heated  and  acrimonious  controversies  with  the  Sacramen- 
tarians,  led  him  before  long  to  discard  these  views,  and  adopt 
others  wholly  at  variance  with  them.  Carlstadt  had  accepted 
the  early  teaching  of  Luther,  and,  in  consequence,  denied  the 
Real  Presence  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  because,  as  ho 
said,  it  was  wholly  destitute  of  Scriptural  proof.  Luther 
could  not  den}^  the  logical  justness  of  the  conclusion,  and  in 
1524,  when  these  questions  were  beginning  to  create  a  stir, 
wrote  as  follows  to  Bucer:  "Had  Dr.  Carlstadt,  or  any  one 
else,  been  able  to  persuade  me  five  years  ago  that  the  Sacra- 
ment of  the  Altar  is  but  bread  and  wine,  he  would  indeed 


§  olo.    The  Sacramentarian   Controversy.  10^ 

have  done  me  a  great  service,  and  rendered  very  material  aid 
in  my  efforts  to  make  a  breach  in  the  Papacy.  But  it  is  all 
in  vain;  I  can  not  escape;  the  meaning  of  the  text  is  too 
evident;  every  artifice  of  language  will  be  powerless  to  ex- 
plain it  away."^ 

Pirkheimer,^  who  also  contributed  his  share  to  the  con- 
troversy in  his  "2)e  vera  Christi  came  et  vera  ejus  san- 
guine ad  J.  (Ecolampadium  responsio"  stated  in  a  letter  to 
Melanchthon,  that,  in  his  opinion,  Luther's  true  motive  for 
leaffirming  his  belief  in  the  Real  Presence  in  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  apart  from  his  natural  inclination  to  contradict 
everybody,  was  a  desire  to  achieve  a  victory  over  Carlstadt. 
There  seems  to  be  some  truth  in  the  statement,  for  Luther 
declared  that  he  would  continue  to  believe,  in  spite  of  the 
Papists,  that  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar  was  only  bread  and 
wine;  and,  in  spite  of  Carlstadt,  he  would  continue  to  raise 
the  Host  aloft  for  the  adoration  of  the  people,  lest  it  might 
seem  the  Devil  had  taught  him  a  new  lesson.  If  a  coun- 
cil were  to  prescribe,  he  added,  or  to  allow  Communion  under 
both  kinds,  he  would,  only  for  the  sake  of  being  in  opposition  to 
such  council,  admit  but  one,  and  utter  anathema  upon  those 
who,  in  obedience  to  the  conciliar  decrees,  should,  receive  under 
both  kinds?  Luther  was  annoyed  that  Carlstadt  should  put 
precisely  the  same  meaning  as  himself  upon  the  words  of 
institution;  the  more  so,  since  the  latter  had  on  a  former 
occasion,  in  explaining  the  sense  of  the  passage  in  Matthew 
xvi.  18,  declared,  that,  in  instituting  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
Christ  had  jjointed  to  His  oivn  body,  and  that  the  pronoun 
TouTo    properly  referred  to  aibiia,  and  not  to  dpzo^.     In  like 


^Walch,  Luther's  Works,Yo\.  XV.,  p.  2448.  Cf.  Goebel,  Andrew  Bodenstein'.s 
Doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (Studies  and  Criticisms,  1842,  nro.  2).  Asck- 
bach's  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  "Karlstadt." 

'^ Hagen,  The  Literary  and  Eeligious  Relations  of  Germany  during  the  Age 
of  the  Reformation,  with  a  .special  reference  to  Willibald  Pirkheimer,  Vol.  I,_ 
Erlf.ngen,  184L  Charitas  Pirkheimer,  Abbess  of  Niirnberg  [Hist,  and  Polit. 
Papers,  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  513-539;  cf.  Vol.  XLIV.,  two  articles).  Hoefler,  Chari- 
tas Pirkheimer,  etc..  Memoirs  of  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  Bamberg,  1852. 
Dbllinger,  The  Reformation,  Vol.  I.,  p.  1B7  sq.  Wm.  Loose,  Episodes  of  the  Life 
of  Charitas  Pirkheimer,  Dresden,  1870. 

*See  his  Ordinary  of  the  Mass.  1523. 


104  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

manner,  Carlstadt  explained  the  awful  words  of  St.  Paul : 
"For  be  that  eateth  and  drinketh  unworthily,  eateth  and 
drinketh  judgment  to  himself,  not  discerning  the  Body  of 
the  Lord,"^  as  conveying  only  an  admonition  to  the  faithful 
to  celebrate  the  Lord's  Supper  with  gravity  and  becoming 
reverence,  and  to  exclude  all  unseemly  hilarity  and  vulgar 
carousing.  The  restraints  which  publication  necessarily  im* 
posed  upon  tlie  two  champions  were  broken  through,  and 
gaA'e  place  to  coarse  abuse  when  they  came  into  personal  con- 
tact with  each  other.  Luther  never  gave  over  pursuing  Carl- 
stadt, the  preacher  of  Orlamiinde,  from  the  day  the  latter  had 
been  driven  from  the  gates  of  Wittenberg.  He  went  to  Jena, 
and,  ascending  the  pulpit,  occupied  on  the  previous  day  by 
Carlstadt,  greatly  amused  his  audience  by  his  ironical  flings 
at  the  fanatics.  Carlstadt  was  present,  and,  stung  by  the  rail- 
lery of  Luther,  at  once  challenged  him  to  a  discussion.  They 
met  in  the  Black  Bear  inn  of  Jena^  and,  the  argument  con- 
tinuing to  grow  more  animated  and  heated,  they  finally  trans- 
gressed every  law  of  propriety  and  decency,  and  discussed 
the  most  sacred  of  subjects — the  Lord's  Supper — in  a  manner 
the  most  frivolous,  and  in  language  the  most  unbecoming. 
In  closing,  both  pledged  themselves  to  carry  on  the  contro- 
versy in  writing.  "Will  you  write  openly  against  me.  Doc- 
tor?" asked  Luther.  "  Yes,"  replied  Carlstadt,  "if  it  is  agree- 
able to  you,  and  I  shall  not  spare  you."  "Good,"  rejoined 
Luther;  "there,  Doctor,  is  a  florin  as  an  earnest."  "May  I 
see  you  broken  on  a  wheel,"  said  Luther,  on  taking  leave  of 
Carlstadt;  "And  may  you,"  retorted  the  latter,  "break  your 
neck  before  you  get  out  of  the  city."  Carlstadt  escaped  per- 
sonal violence  only  by  precipitate  flight,  "and  thus,"  it  was 
said,  "was  Andrew  Bodenstein  driven  away  by  Luther  with- 
out a  hearing."  He  repaired  to  Strasburg,  where  he  made 
Bucer  and  Capito  his  allies  in  his  quarrel  with  Luther.  After 
the  close  of  the  Peasants'  War,  in  which  he  had  taken  part, 


'  I.  Cor.  xi.  29. 

-  Martin  Reinhardi,  who  was  present,  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  dv^bato 
in  Actis  Jenensibus;  see  Walch,  T.  XV.,  p.  2423.  Cf.  C.  A.  MenzcL  Germaif 
Hist.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  254  sq. 


§  315.    The  Sacrament  avian   Controversy.  105 

lie  humbly  sued  for  Luther's  pardon,  and,  retiring  to  the  small 
town  of  Kemberg,  set  up  as  a  haberdasher,  and  for  a,  season 
ceased  to  give  much  attention  to  polemical  controversy'.  But 
selling  small  wares  was  not  to  his  taste,  and  in  1528  he  once 
more  came  forth  from  his  obscurit}',  again  assailed  Luther, 
und  was  again  obliged  to  quit  Saxony.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  Zwingli,  he  was  granted  an  asylum  in  Switzerlan<l 
(1530),  and  was  set  over  a  parish,  and,  still  later  on,  became 
a  professor  and  preacher  in  Basle,  where,  as  already  stated,  he 
was  stricken  by  a  plague,  and  died  in  1541.^ 

But  if  Carlstaclt  had  passed  away,  his  errors  lived  after  him, 
and  Zwingli  and  (Ecolampadius  [)roraptly  proclaimed  uiid  pub- 
licly defended  them  as  their  own.  Like  Berengarius  in  a 
former  age,^  they  put  an  erroneous  interpretation  upon  the 
words  of  institution — Zwingli  maintaining,  on  the  authority 
of  Exodus  xii,  11,  ''For  it  (i.e.  the  Paschal  Lamb)  is  the 
Phase,  that  is,  the  Passage  of  the  Lord,"  and  other  texts  of 
Scripture,  that  the  copula  "  ?s '■  means  '•'•signifies  ;'^  and  (Eco- 
lampadius,  that  the  predicate,  "  i?of/?/,"  means  '■^  symboV  or 
"  sign  "  of  the  Body. 

In  the  meantime,  fourteen  Suabian  preachers  had  published, 
above  their  collective  names,  a  document  {Syngramma),  writ- 
ten by  Brertz  of  Hall  and  Erhard  Schnepf  of  Wimpfen,  in 
which,  while  professedij'  inclining  to  the  Lutheran  belief, 
they  seemed  to  favor  the  teaching  of  Zwingli,  inasmuch  as 
they  held  that  the  Body  of  Christ,  though  not  really  [iresent 
in  the  sacramental  species,  may  become  so  in  obedience  to  the 
faith  of  the  worshiper.  Capifo  and  Bucer  at  once  saw  that 
the  meaning  of  the  ''  Syngramma"  was  loose  and  equivocal, 
and  hoped,  by  a  skillful  interpretation  of  its  doubtful  passages, 
to  furnish  a  common  ground  on  which  the  conflicting  parties 
mi2:ht  a<2:ree.  But  Luther  refused  to  listen  to  anv  such  com- 
pr:.>mise.  When  it  was  |>roposed  to  him,  he  tiew  into  a  tow- 
ering [»assion,  raving  incoherently  against  Zwingli  and  his 
parti^.ans,  "  who,''  he  said,  "  were  Sacramentarians  and  minis- 
ters of  ''Satan,  against  v)hoin  no  exercise  of  severity,  however  great, 


^  Jaeyer,  Andrew  Bodenstein  of  Carlstadt,  Stuttg.,  1856. 
2  See  Vol.  II,  p.  443,  note  1. 


106  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

would  be  excessive."  The  works  published  by  Luther  at  thia 
time  against  the  Sacramentarians^  are  the  most  solid  of  all 
his  writings.  As  long  as  he  devotes  his  energies  to  defending 
the  teachings  of  the  ancient  faith,  instead  of  assailing  them, 
his  style  is  spirited  and  vigorous,  his  proofs  clear,  and,  in 
many  instances,  apposite,  and  his  reasoning  luminous  and 
conclusive;  and  for  the  simple,  but  potent,  reason,  that  he 
has  the  unchangeable  Church  at  his  back. 

While  accepting  the  words  of  institution  in  their  literal 
and  strict  sense,  Luther  discarded  the  Catholic  dogma  of 
Transubstantiation,  and  instead  adopted  one  of  his  own, 
known  as  Consubstantiation,  or  Impanation,  according  to 
which  the  Body  of  Christ  is  received  m,  under,  and  with  the 
bread  (in,  sub,  et  cum  pa7ie).  This  theory  he  supported  by  the 
authority  of  certain  theologians,  according  to  whom  the  body 
of  Christ,  because  of  its  union  with  His  divinity,  is  omni- 
present ( Ubiquity).  Zwingli  argued,  in  reply,^  that  if  a  strictly 
literal  interpretation  were  to  be  put  upon  the  words  of  insti- 
tution, then  no  meaning  could  be  drawn  from  them  other 
than  that  contained  in  the  Catholic  dogma  of  Transubstan- 
tiation; but  that  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  words:  '-'•This  is 
My  Body,"  were  to  be  interpreted  as  meaning:  "-This  contains 
My  Body,"  or:  "■This  bread  is  united  with  My  Body,"  then,  he 
would  ask,  in  what  Luther's  synecdoche  was  more  tenable  or 
more  reasonable  than  his  own  metonymy.  He  further  con- 
tended that  the  theory  of  boddy  ubiquity,  in  which  Luther 
sought  refuge,  was  subversive  of  the  doctrine  of  two  natures 
in  Christ,  and  a  revival,  under  another  form,  of  the  Mono- 
physite  error.  Zwingli  complained  bitterl}?"  of  Luther's  ex- 
cessive violence  against  the  Sacramentarians.  "You  cry  out 
that  we  are  heretics,"  said  he,  "and  should  be  denied  a  hear- 


iffl.  Against  the  celestial  Prophets,  in  Walch,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  186  sq.  b.  Sermon 
on  the  Sacrament  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  against  the  Visionaries,  in 
Walch,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  915  sq.  c.  That  the  words  of  Christ:  ''This  is  My  Body," 
are  to  be  retained  against  the  visionaries,  in  Walch,  T.  XX.,  p.  950  sq.  d.  Great 
Confession  of  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Walch,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  1118  sq 

'"It  would  require  an  extraordinary  lesson  in  language,"  said  Zwingli,  "to 
persuade  me  that  the  words:  'This  is  My  Body,'  are  synonymous  with  the 
expression:  'My  Body  is  eaten  in  this  bread,'"  etc.     Walch,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  658. 


§  315,    The  Sacramentarian  Controi:crsy.  107 

ing ;  you  proscribe  our  books,  and  denounce  us  to  the  magis- 
trates. Is  not  this  doing  precisely  what  the  Pope  did  formerly 
when  truth  began  to  raise  lier  head  ?  "  ^ 

The  controversies  and  bickerings  among  tlie  Reformers 
themselves  concerning  the  most  essential  trutlis  of  Christi- 
anity, had  at  least  one  good  effect:  they  proved  the  utter  inef- 
ficiency and  fallaciousness  of  the  principle  of  private  interpre- 
tation, which  invested  every  one  with  the  absolute  right  of 
construing  Scriptural  texts  <after  his  own  fashion,  on  the 
ground  that  their  meaning  is  so  very  clear  that  one  can  not 
possibly  mistake  it.  The  advocates  of  both  parties  were 
obliged  to  appeal  to  the  tradition  of  the  Church,  against 
which  both  had  intemperately  declaimed;  and  to  seek  to 
add  weight  to  their  individual  opinions,  by  professing  to 
rest  them  upon  the  writings  of  her  Doctors,  whose  authority 
Luther  had  contemptuously  rejected,^     Writing  in  1532  to 


iCf.  §311,  vers.  fin. 

2 "All  the  Fathers,"  said  Luther,  "fell  into  error,  and  those  of  them  that  did 
not  repent  before  dying  are  lost  eternally."  .  .  .  "Their  writings  are  fetid  pools, 
whence  Christians  have  been  drinking  unwholesome  draughts,  instead  of  slak- 
ing their  thirst  from  the  pure  fountain  of  Holy  Scripture."  .  .  .  "S<.  Gregory 
was  the  first  to  start  the  fictions  concerning  Purgatory  and  Masses  for  the  dead, 
and  is  the  author  of  the  whole  of  them.  He  knew  very  little  about  either  Christ 
or  the  Gospel,  and  was  so  superstitious  as  to  be  easily  deceived  by  the  Devil." 
.  .  .  "5^.  Augustine  often  fell  into  error,  and  can  not  be  safely  followed.  He 
was  a  good,  holy  man;  but,  like  the  other  Fathers,  did  not  possess  the  true 
faith."  .  .  .  "Jerome  I  regard  as  a  heretic.  He  wrote  many  impious  things, 
and  deserves  to  be  in  hell  rather  than  Heaven.  I  know  none  of  the  Fathers 
whom  I  so  much  dislike.  He  is  eternally  gabbling  about  fasting  and  virgin- 
ity." .  .  .  ^'■CUrysostom  is  a  sorry  fellow,  an  empty  declaimer,  who  has  filled 
naany  books  with  pretentious  trifles,  which,  when  examined,  are  found  to  be  only 
a  mass  of  barren  and  undigested  matter — a  great  puff  of  smoke  and  little  fire." 
.  .  .  '■'■Basil  is  worthless;  he  is  a  monk  through  and  through,  and,  to  my  mind, 
he  is  of  no  weight  whatever."  ..."  The  A.pology  of  Melanchthon  is  superior 
to  anything  the  Doctors  of  the  Church,  not  excepting  Augustine,,  ever  wrote." 
.  .  .  "Nihil  ad  nos  Thomas  Aquinas;  he  is  a  theological  abortion,  a  fount  cf 
error,  whence  issue  all  the  heresies  that  subvert  Gospel  teaching."  (These  sen- 
tentious expressions  of  Luther  may  be  found  scattered  here  and  there — some  in 
his  Table-Talk,  Frankfurt  ed.,  No.  57,  and  some  in  his  other  works.  They  are 
given  precisely  as  found  in  the  several  editions  of  his  works  as  collated  by 
Wetslinger,  in  Friss  Vogel  oder  Stirb — Neck  or  Nothing — Strasburg,  1726,  pp. 
300,  314,  and  other  places.)  Cf.  also  DoUinger,  The  Pieformation,  Vol.  I.,  p 
430-451, 


108  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


Albert  of  Prussia^  on  the  question  in  dispute  between  him- 
self and  the  Zwinglians,  Luther  said  :  "  This  article  is  neither 
unscriptural  nor  a  dogma  of  human  invention;  it  is  based 
upon  the  clear  and  irrefragable  words  of  Holy  Writ;  it  has 
been  uniformly  held  and  believed  throughout  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world,  from  the  foundation  of  the  Church  to  the  present 
hour.  That  such  has  been  and  is  the  fact,  is  attested  by  the 
writings  of  the  Holy  Fathers,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  by  daily 
usage,  and  the  uninterrupted  practice  of  the  Church.  .  .  . 
Were  it  indeed  a  new  doctrine,  or  had  it  been  less  uniformiy 
observed  in  every  Church  throughout  the  whole  of  Christen- 
dom (or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  had  it  not  the  fullest  testi- 
mony of  the  most  unexceptionable  Catholic  tradition  on  its 
side),  to  call  it  in  question,  or  controvert  it,  would  not  be  so 
dreadful  a  matter  or  so  dangerous.  ...  To  doubt  it, 
therefore,  is  to  disbelieve  the  Christian  Church,  and  to  brand 
her  as  heretical,  and  with  her  the  Prophets,  Apostles,  and 
Christ  Himself,  who,  in  establishing  His  Church,  said:  'Be- 
hold, I  am  with  you  all  days,  even  to  the  consummation  of 
the  world ;'^  to  which  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  added: 
this  'Is  the  House  of  God,  which  is  the  Church  of  the  living 
God,  the  pillar  and  ground  of  the  truth.' "^ 

And  speaking  of  the  rationalizing  tendencies  of  Zwingli's 
teaching,  he  said  :  "  Were  Our  Lord  to  spread  wdld  apples  be- 
fore me,  and  bid  me  eat  this  one  or  that  (as  His  Eody),  I 
should  not  venture  to  inquire  the  reason  for  doing  His  bid- 
ding." Again,  forecasting  its  inevitable  consequences,  he 
uttered  these  prophetic  words:  "If  the  reason  be  allowed 
unrestricted  freedom  in  criticising  and  passing  judgment 
upon  God's  word  and  works,  not  a  single  article  of  faith 
will  long  survive.     ...     In  such   an  event,  it  will  soon 

^Luther's  letters  against  certain  intriguers,  addressed  to  Albert,  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg  (1532),  in  Walch,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  2089.  Faber  wrote  a  whole  book 
on  this  contradiction  in  Luther:  De  Antilogiis  Lutheri.  Cf.  Raynald.  ad  an. 
1531  nro.  57.  and  Coc/daeus,  Lutherus  septiceps  ubique  sibi,  suis  scriptis  contra- 
rius,  Palis,  1564.  Cf.  Fri?it's  Theological  Keview,  years  1812  and  1813;  ard 
Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  33G,  and  Vol.  XI.,  p.  413. 

2  Matt,  xxviii.  10. 

'I.  Tim.  iii.  1j. 


§  316.  Progress  of  Protestantism  till  Interim  of  Batisbon.  lOD 

become  apparent  that  the  Zwingliaii  pin?iciples  tend  not  to 
God's  honor  and  a  simple  acceptance  of  His  word  by  faith, 
but  to  the  formation  and  fostering-  of  sophistical,  captious, 
and  subtle  habits  of  mind,  leading  directly  to  a  denial  of  the 
Divinity  of  Christ;  for  it  is  no  less  unreasonable  to  say  that 
man  is  God,  than  to  affirm  that  bread  is  changed  into  the  Body 
of  the  Lord." 

The  course  pursued  by  Melanchthon  in  tliis  controversy 
was  very  damaging  to  his  character  for  manliness  and  hon- 
esty ;  for,  while  hypocritically  professing  to  hold  Luther's 
views  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  openly  setting  them  forth 
in  the  Augsburg  Confession  as  his  own,  he  in  truth  favored 
those  of  Calvin,  as  is  abundantly  shown  from  the  language 
used  by  him  after  Luther's  death. ^ 

C. — Continuation  of  the  History  of  the  Keformation  until  the  Ee- 
LiGious  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555). 

§  316   Progress  9/  Protestantism  until  the  Interim  of  Ratisbon 

(1541). 

Le  Plat,  Monuments  pour  servir  a  rhistoire  du  Concile  de  Trente,  T.  II.  and 
III.  Laemmer,  Monum.  Vatic,  p.  195  sq.  Bifel,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  480-580.  A 
Menzel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  17-254. 

The  last  act  of  both  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  par- 
ties, at  the  conclusion  of  the  Religious  Peace  of  Niirnberg, 
was  to  mutually  and  solemnly  bind  themselves  to  hold  a 
Council  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  Clement  VII.,  act- 
ing upon  this  pledge,  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to  have 
the  oft-promised  Council  convene;  but  notwithstanding  his 
best  eflbrts,  it  was  again  delayed.  Conditions  were  proposed, 
which  the  Protestants  rejected  on  pretexts  at  once  novel  and 
futile.^     To  hold  the  Council  in  a  church,  accordine;  to  time- 


1  In  the  Confessio  invariata,  they  say :  "  De  coena  Domini  docent,  quod  corpus 
et  sanguis  Christi  vere  adsint  et  disiribuaniur  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini,  ut 
improbani  secus  doeenies."  Here,  according  to  Salig,  Complete  History  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  Vol.  III.,  ch.  1,  p.  171,  there  were  left  out  after  " Christi'' 
the  words:  "sub  specie  panis  et  vini;"  while  in  the  Variaia  the  following  sul>- 
Btitute  is  found:  '-De  coena  Domini  docent,  quod  cum  pane  et  vino  vere  ex- 
hibeantur  corpus  et  sanguis  Christi  vescentibus  in  coena  Domini." 

^  For  an  account  of  the  measures  taken  by  him  immediately  after  the  Diet  of 


no  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


honored  cnstora,  they  said,  would  be  inconvenient;  neither 
could  they  bind  themselves  to  the  unqualified  acceptance  and 
observance  of  its  decrees.  They  further  objected  to  having 
it  convene  at  Milan,  Bologna,  or  Piacenza,  preferring  some 
city  of  Germany.  Other  objections,  equally  trivial  and  eva- 
sive, were  advanced. 

After  the  death  of  Clement  VII.,  September  25,  1534,  his 
successor,  Paul  III.  (October  13,  1534-November  10,  1549), 
made  renewed  and  still  more  strenuous  efforts  to  have  the 
Council  convene.  Through  his  Nuncio,  Vergerius,  he  opened 
negotiations  with  the  Protestants,  and  issued  a  decree  of  con- 
vocation, designating  May,  1537,  as  the  time,  and  Mantua  as 
the  place,  of  holding  the  Council.'  Again  the  Protestants, 
assembled  at  Schmalkald,  in  December,  1535,  refused  to  take 
any  part  in  it,  fully  accepting  as  their  own  the  opinion  of 
Luther,  ''that  the  Catholics  were  not  serious  in  their  profes- 
sions to  hold  a  Council;  while  the  Protestants,  being  perfectly 
enlightened  upon  all  points  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  had  no  need 
of  it."  They  went  on  to  express  their  conviction  that  a  Coun- 
cil, whose  methods  and  forms  of  procedure  should  be  directed 
by  the  Pope,  could  not  be  free,  and  that  the  Pope  himself  and 
his  Cardinals  should  be  impeached.  The  more  proper  way, 
they  said,  would  be  to  have  men  of  known  ability  and  unbi- 
ased minds,  selected  by  the  princes  from  eveyy  condition  of 
life,  who,  recognizing  no  rule  or  authority  other  than  the  word 
of  God,  should  examine  and  pass  judgment  on  the  questions 
in  dispute.^ 

The  war,  which  had  in  the  meantime  broken  out  between 
the  Emperor  and  Francis  I.,  inasmuch  as  it  rendered  a  journey 
to  Mantua  difficult,  if  not  hazardous,  furnished  the  Protest- 


Augsburg,  cf.  Raynald.  ad  an.  1530,  nros.  175,  176.  Cf.,  moreover,  ibid,  ad  an. 
1533,  nros.  3-8,  and  Walch,  Vol.  XVI.,  pp.  2268,  2281;  de  Wette,  T.  IV.,  p.  454. 

1  Cf.  Raynald.  ad  an.  1585,  nros.  20,  30,  32.  Paul's  Encyclica  to  divers  princes, 
Walch,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  2290  sq.  Melanchtho7ii.s  0pp.,  ed.  Bretschneider,  T.  II.,  p. 
962  sq.  Pallavicini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.,  lib.  III.,  c.  17  and  18. — The  circular  con- 
voking the  Council,  on  June  2,  1536,  in  Raynald.  ad  an.  1536,  nr.  35.  Cf.  PaU 
lavicini,  1.  cit.,  lib.  III.,  c.  19.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  606-/509; 
Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  25,  p.  1-4,  concerning  Paul  Vergerius,  who  afterward  became  an 
apostate.     Ldmmer,  Monum.  Vatic,  p.  146  sq. 

HJf.  Walch,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  2305  sq. 


§  816.  Progress  of  Protestantism  till  Interim  of  Ratisbon.  Ill 

ants  afresh  pretext  for  declining  to  be  present  at  the  Council. 
The  League  of  Schmalkakl,  renewed  on  this  occasion  for  th^ 
space  of  ten  years,  was  strengtliened  by  many  fresh  accessions, 
in  defiance  of  the  prohibitions  of  the  articles  of  the  Peace  of 
Niirnberg.  While,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Protestants  were 
extremely  mortified  at  seeing  the  proposed  alliance  between 
France  and  England  frustrated ;  on  the  other,  they  had  every 
reason  to  congratulate  themselves  on  the  favorable  disposi- 
tions of  the  new  Elector  of  Saxony,  Frederic  the  Magnani- 
mous, and  on  the  accession  to  the  League  of  the  Dukes  Ulrich 
of  Wiirtemberg  and  Barnim  and  Philip  of  Pomerania;  of  Rob- 
ert, Count-Palatine  of  Zweibrilcken ;  of  the  Princes  George  and 
Joachim  of  Anhalt;  of  William,  Count  of  Nassau,  and  of 
many  cities  of  Germany.  Moreover,  Denmark,  a  country  in 
which  Protestant  propagandists  had  been  actively  at  work 
since  the  year  1.536,  began  to  manifest  such  signs  as  led  to  a 
well-founded  hope  that  she  also  would  soon  enter  the  League. 
As  the  time  for  holding  the  Council  drew  near,  the  Protest- 
ants again  assembled  at  Schmalkald  (February,  1537),  and  de- 
nounced the  Pope  in  language  more  violent  than  they  had 
ever  before  employed.  After  the  publication  of  Luther's  thirty 
propositions  against  the  authority  of  Councils,  the  League 
subscribed  the  twenty-three  articles  of  guarantee  drawn  up 
by  him  at  Wittenberg  in  the  preceding  year,  and  known  as 
the  Articles  of  Schmalkald;^  w^hich,  while  expressing  in  pre- 
cise and  energetic  language  the  violent  hostility  of  the  League 
against  the  Catholic  Church,  present  a  striking  contrast  with 
the  Augsburg  Confession.  Moreover,  Melanchthon  was  com- 
missioned to  prepare  a  treatise  on  the  Primacy  of  the  Pope 
and  the  Jurisdiction  of  Bishops  {De potestate  et  Primatu  Papae); 
but  his  views,  when  submitted  to  the  theologians  assembled  at 
Schmalkald,  were  coldly  received,  being  much  too  temperate 
to  harmonize  with  their  radical  designs.     Melanchthon  had 


^  Articuli  qui  dicuntur  Smalcaldici  e  Pulatino  Codice  3IS.  (Luther's  autograph 
manuscript)  accurate  editi  et  annotationibus  crit.  illustrati,  per  Marheinekc, 
Berol.  1817,  4to.  De  potestate  et  primatu  Papae  tractatus  (now  serving  as  an 
Appendix  to  the  Articles  of  Schmalliald),  in  Melanchthonis  0pp.,  ed.  Biet- 
schneider,  T.  III.,  p.  271.  Both  are  found  together  in  Hose,  Libri  Symbol.,  p. 
298-358. 


112  Period  3.     E'poch  1.     Chapter  1. 

said,  in  substance,  that  the  Primacy  of  the  Pope  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  bishops,  though  not  of  Divine,  were  of  human 
institution  (jure  humano),  and  should  therefore  continue  to  be 
retained.  The  aim  and  purpose  of  this  treatise  was  to  furnish 
arguments  to  those  who  still  cared  to  attempt  a  justification 
of  their  conduct  in  renouncing  all  obligations  of  obedience 
to  either  Pope  or  bishops.  Luther,  broken  in  health  and 
pained  by  the  position  taken  by  his  old  friend,  quitted 
Schmalkald  with  these  parting  words:  ^'- May  God  fill  you 
ivith  hatred  of  the  Pope."  From  this  time  forth,  the  members 
of  the  League  of  Schmalkald  were  unanimous  in  their  ex- 
plicit and  positive  refusal  to  attend  any  Council  whatever.^ 

Through  the  efforts  of  Meld,  Vice-chancellor  to  the  Empe- 
ror, a  confederation  known  as  the  Holy  League,^  whose  object 
was  to  oppose  the  League  of  Schmalkald,  was  formed  by  the 
Catholic  princes  at  JSTurnberg,  in  June,  1538.  Its  members 
were  the  Archbishops  of  Mentz  and  Salzburg,  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  George  of  Saxony,  and  Henry  of  Brunswick.  In 
tbe  meantime,  the  foreign  wars,  in  which  the  Emperor  was 
engaged,  continued  to  divide  his  attention  and  weaken  his 
authority  at  home.  The  Protestant  League  received,  in  1538, 
a  fresh  accession  of  strength  in  the  Swiss,^  with  whom,  owing 
to  the  adroit  diplomacy  of  Bucer  and  Capito  and  the  demand 
of  the  Protestant  princes,  Luther  finally  consented  to  unite  on 
the  basis  of  the  Concordia  Vitebergensis. 

Joachim  II.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,^  unmindful  of  the  ex- 
ample of  his  illustrious  father,  embraced  the  new  teachings 
in  1539,  thus  following  in  the  footsteps  of  his  brother,  John, 
Margrave  of  Neumark,  who  had  apostatized  three  years  before. 
Protestantism  was  also  introduced  into  the  Duchy  of  Saxony 

1  Walch,  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  2426  sq.     Corp.  Ref.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  9G2  sq.,  982  sq.  (Tr.) 

*The  oflaciiil  documejits  are  in  Hortleder,  Pt.  I.,  Book  1,  ch.  25-29 ;  Walch,  Vol. 
XVI ,  p.  2426  sq.;  cf.  Eiffel,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  523-526. 

»Cf.  Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  2543;  the  Concordia,  written  out  by  Melanchthon 
ill  his  0pp.  ed.  Bretsch.,  T.  III.,  p.  75. 

■•Joachim  II.,  Elector  of  Brandenburg  [Hist,  and  PolU.  Papers,  1851,  Vol. 
XXVIII.,  p.  291  sq.)  Adam  Muller,  Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  in  the  Margra- 
vate  of  Brandenburg,  Berlin,  1839.  Spiecker,  Hist,  of  the  Introd,  of  the  Reform, 
in  the  March  of  Brandenburg,  Berlin,  1839  sq.,  3  Pts.  Cf.  Riffel,  1.  c,  Vol.  II., 
p.  682-703. 


§  316.  Progress  of  Frotestantism  till  Interim  of  Ratisbon.  113 

by  Henry,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Duke  George,  against 
the  will  and  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  his  subjects.^  Luther 
was  still  indefatigable  in  his  efibrts  to  excite  the  hatred  of  the 
people  against  both  Church  and  Council,  and  to  this  end  con- 
tinued to  put  forth  hostile  pamphlets  of  every  size  with  un- 
wearied activity  and  marvelous  rapidity.  It  required  all  the 
terrors  inspired  by  the  recent  victories  of  the  Turks,  who 
were  now  seriously  menacing  the  whole  of  Germany,  to  tem- 
porarily suspend  this  religious  war.  ISTegotiations  were  opened 
at  Frankfurt,  in  February,  1539,  which  resulted  in  the  conclu- 
sion of  an  armistice  for  sixteen  months.^  The  Emperor,  anx- 
ious to  profit  by  this  interval  of  peace  to  effect  a  reconciliation, 
summoned  the  theologians  of  both  parties  to  a  Religious  Con- 
ference at  Spire;  but,  an  epidemic  prevailing  in  that  city,  it 
was  transferred  to  Ilaguenau  (June,  1540) ;  whence  it  was 
again  transferred  to  Worms,  where,  owing  to  the  inexcusable 
delays  caused  by  the  Protestants,  it  was  not  finally  opened 
until  January  14, 1541.^  Eck  and  Melanchthon  led  off"  in  the 
discussion,  taking  as  common  ground  the  Confession  of  Augs- 
burg, a  circumstance  which  gave  but  poor  promise  of  any 
ultimate  satisfactory  result.  But,  in  the  meantime,  the  Em- 
peror dissolved  the  Conference,  and  summoned  a  Diet  to  meet 
at  Ratisbon,  April  5,  1541,  whither  the  celebrated  Cardinal 
Cojitarini*  repaired  to  take  part  in  the  discussion.  To  facili- 
tate the  adjustment  of  matters,  a  committee  was  appointed 
by  the  Emperor,  consisting  of  three  theologians  from  each 
side.     Uek,  Julius  Pflug,  and  John   Gropper  represented  the 


1  Hoffmann^  Complete  Hist,  of  the  Keformation  in  the  city  and  university  of 
Leipsig,  Lps.  1739.  Leo,  Hist,  of  the  Reform,  in  Leipsig  and  Dresden,  Lps. 
1834.  Von  Lmujenn,  Maurice,  Duke  and  Elector  of  Saxony,  Lps.  1841,  2  vols. 
Cf.  Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  674-681. 

2  The  public  document  is  in  Ilorileder,  Pt.  I.,  Bk.  1,  ch.  32;  Walclt,  Vol. 
XVII.,  p.  396  sq. 

^ Raynald.  ad  an.  1540,  nro.  15-24;  Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  453  sq. ;  Melanch- 
thonis  0pp.  ed.  Bretschneider,  T.  IV.,  p.  1  sq. — The  first  opinion  of  Cochlaeus, 
h\  Raynalcl.  ad  an.  1540,  nro.  49.     Cf.  nros.  54  and  55. 

*  Pallavicini,  1.  c,  lib.  III.,  c.  12-15;  Acta  in  convcntu  Ratisbonensi,  ed.  Mel- 
anchthon, Viteb.  1541.     Cf.  ejusdem  0pp.  ed.  Bretschneider,  T.  IV.,  p.  119  sq.; 
Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  695  sq.;  Eiffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  549  .sq. 
VOL.    Ill — 8 


114  Period  o.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

Catholics,  and  Blelavchthon,  Pistorius,  and  Bucer  the  Protest- 
ants. The  Emperor  implored  them  to  lay  aside  all  human 
prejudices  and  passions,  and  for  the  time  being  to  have  in 
view  only  the  glory  of  God ;  and,  with  the  purpose  of  nar- 
rowing the  controversy  down  to  essential  matters,  sent  them, 
through  Cardinal  Granvelle,  a  treatise  which  should  serve 
them  as  a  basis  and  guide  in  their  discussions.  This  treatise 
was  probably  the  production  of  Gropper,  and  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Rotisbon  Interim}  Had  it  been  a  political  paper, 
and  intended  iov  political  purposes,  its  plans  and  suggestions 
for  compromise  Avould  have  merited,  and  doubtlessly  received, 
the  praise  of  having  been  astutely  conceived;  but  judged 
from  a  religious  point  of  view,  which  was  its  supposed  char- 
acter, it  must  be  said  that  it  set  forth  the  teachings  of  faith 
neither  clearl}'  nor  accurately,  and  was  in  consequence  severely 
animadverted  upon  b}'^  the  Catholic  theologians,  notably  by 
Dr.  Eck.  In  spite  of  this  untoward  circumstance,  it  seemed 
for  a  time  that  the  Conference  would  have  a  happy  issue. 
The  conditions  of  the  Interim  were  moderate,  and  both  par- 
ties seemed  more  and  more  disposed  for  a  reconciliation.  But 
appearances  were  fallacious,  and  real  difficulties  were  just  as 
much  difficulties  as  ever,  as  both  parties  learned  once  they 
came  to  discuss  the  fundamental  article  on  the  Church  and  the 
doctrine  of  satisfaction.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  dispo- 
sitions of  the  Protestant  divines  relative  to  auricular  confes- 
sion and  transubstantiation,  when  left  to  themselves,  and  these 
were  by  no  means  favorable,  they  absolutely  refused  to  accept 
either  after  the}-  had  been  reeuforced  by  the  strictly  orthodox 
Lutheran,  Amsdorf,  whom  the  Elector  of  Saxony  sent  to  them 
as  an  adviser.  They  gradually  drifted  into  old  traditions  and 
methods,  and  in  the  end  began  to  demand  the  abolition  of 
penitential  exercises,  good  works,  monastic  vows,  indulgences, 
the  veneration  of  saints,  and,  in  short,  everything  which  in 
their  opinion  detracted  from  the  merits  of  Christ.  The  Catho- 
lic theologians,  of  course,  refused  to  yield  to  their  demands, 


1  Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  725  sq.;  Rifel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  551-571 ;  as  to  Eck's  opin- 
ion on  the  Interim,  ibid.,  p.  571,  note  1.  Cf.  also  Unionsmaclterei,  i.  e.  Bur.ijiing 
at  Union-making  (Eeview  of  Lutheran  Divinity,  1856,  nro.  2). 


§  317.  Anabaptists  at  Muiister-  —Bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse.  115 

and  this  Conference,  like  all  those  that  had  preceded  it,  closed 
without  having  effected  anything. 

Bj'  the  recess  of  the  Diet,  it  was  ordained  that  both  parties 
felionld  continue  to  observe  the  articles  to  which  they  had 
ah'eady  agreed,  until  such  time  as  either  a  Council  or  a  Diet 
could  be  held,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Pope ;  that  in  the 
interval  the  Peace  of  Niirnberg  should  be  observed  in  every 
particular;  and,  as  a  consequence,  that  all  monastic  churches 
tehould  be  secure  from  all  manner  of  violence.  The  Emperor 
also  relaxed  somewhat  the  conditions  of  the  recess  of  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg,  by  suspending  all  suits  at  law  pending  in 
the  Imperial  Court  of  Jnstice  against  those  whose  title  to 
enjoy  the  privileges  of  the  Peace  of  IS'urnberg  was  doubtful.' 
But  even  these  concessions  did  not  satisfy  the  Protestants, 
who  continued  to  make  still  larger  demands,  which  the  Em- 
peror, though  he  thought  them  extravagant,  was  forced  to 
grant,  in  order  to  secure  their  aid  against  the  Turks. 

§  317.  The  Anabaptists  at  Milnsfer — Bigamy  of  the  Landgrave^ 
Philip  of  Hesse. 

'\Herm.  a  Kerssenbroik,  Anabapt.  furoris  hist,  narratio,  1564-1573  (incomplete) ; 
Menken,  Script.  Germ.,  T.  III.,  translated  from  the  manuscript  and  published 
at  Frankfurt  (Miinster),  1771,  4to.  According  to  this,  Jochnms,  Hist,  of  the 
Eeform.  at  Miinster  and  its  Failure  caused  by  the  Anabaptists,  Miinster,  1836. 
Faesser,  Hist,  of  the  Anabaptists,  Miinster  (1852),  1861.  Cornelius,  The  Human- 
ists of  Miinster  and  their  Relations  to  the  Eeformation,  Miinster,  1851.  By  the 
same,  Supplements  to  the  Hist,  of  the  Anabaptists,  Miinster,  1853,  and  Hist,  of 
the  Eebellion  of  Miinster,  Lps.  1855  sq.  Again  by  the  same,  The  Anabaptists 
of  the  Netherlands  during  the  siege  of  Miinster,  from  1534-1535  (Essay  read  in 
the  Munich  Academy,  1870,  Vol.  I.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  50-111).  Hase,  The  Kingdom 
of  the  Anabaptists  (new  prophets,  2d  ed.,  nro.  3),  Lps.  1861.  Kamvschulte,  In- 
trod.  of  Protestantism  into  the  Territory  of  what  at  present  constitutes  the 
Province  of  Westphalia,  Paderborn,  1866.     Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  580. 

Up  to  the  date  of  the  holding  of  the  Diet  of  Augsburg, 
Westphalia,  acting  from  purely  political  motives,  had  uni- 
fcrmly  repelled^  the  persistent  and  frequent  attempts  made 


-Cf.  Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  962-1000. 

^See  the  account  of  their  wants  given  in  the  Hist.  Polii.  Papers,  under  the 
heading,  "Protestantism  at  Miinster,"  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  99-108,  129-158,  327-360; 
and  Vol.  X.,  pp.  42-45,  129-146. 


116  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


to  introduce  Lutheran  errors  within  its  borders.  But  tlie  par- 
tisans of  Luther,  inspired  with  fresh  courage  by  the  action 
of  the  League  of  Schmalkald,  grew  daily  more  bold  and  ag- 
gressive; and  one  of  them,  Bernard  Bottmann,  chaplain  of  St. 
Maurice,  near  Miinster,  a  visionary  and  a  fanatic,  enjoys  the 
distinction  of  having  first  preached  the  new  teachings  in  the 
streets  of  that  city  (February  23,  1532),  and,  having  commu- 
nicated to  the  citizens  somewhat  of  his  own  fanaticism,  pre- 
vailed upon  them  to  pull  down  the  altars  in  the  churches  and 
to  demolish  the  images  of  the  Saints.  "With  the  connivance 
of  the  magistrac}'  and  the  active  support  of  Philip,  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  Protestantism  was  formally  introduced  into 
Miinster,  as  it  had  already  been  into  the  cities  of  Minden, 
Herford,  Lemgo,  Lippstadt,  and  Soest,  and  the  Catholics  were 
in  consequence  forced  to  surrender  six  of  their  churches  to 
the  victorious  sectaries  (February  14,  1533). 

But  the  triumphs  thus  gained  by  the  Protestants  were  lost, 
and  their  further  progress  retarded  for  long  years,  through 
the  religious  and  political  fanaticism  of  the  Anabaptists,  who,, 
finding  this  new  field  open  to  heretical  error  and  sectarian 
propagandism,  and  flocking  thither  in  hordes,  gave  themselves 
up  to  every  sort  of  excess  and  outrage.  These  sectaries,  who 
began  their  career  of  fanaticism  at  Zwickau,  and  were  gene- 
rally believed  to  have  been  annihilated  in  the  Peasants'  War. 
had  scattered  themselves  over  various  countries,  where  they 
existed  in  large  numbers,  and,  having  neither  home  nor  per- 
manent abode,  committed  the  wildest  extravagances.  "Whilst, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  Lutherans  abused  the  liberty  which 
they  invoked  as  their  proudest  privilege,  and  made  it  a  syno- 
nym for  licentiousness;  the  Anabaptists,  on  the  other,  mad© 
a  pretense  of  mortifying  and  crushing  out  whatever  is  human 
in  our  common  natures.  Entitled  on  more  than  one  score  to 
the  honor  of  being  the  legitimate  heirs  of  the  dualistic  Gnos- 
tics and  visionary  Jlontanists  of  the  early  Church,  they  aspired 
to  a  false  and  extravagant  illuminism,  despised  the  Sacraments, 
reprobated  all  external  practices,  rejected  the  established  in- 
stitutions of  the  Church,  and  appealed  to  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lations for  a  confirmation  of  their  pretended  millennial  ecsta- 
eies,  which,  they  claimed,  had  been  revealed  to  them  in  fanciful 


§  S17 .  Anabaptists  at  31unster — Bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse.  117 

visions  and  imaginary  reveries.  One  of  the  most  ardent  cham- 
pions of  these  teachings  was  31elchior  Hoffman  of  Suabia,  who 
exerted  his  best  energies  to  propagate  them  in  the  JN ether- 
lands.^ 

John  Bockelsohn,  a  tailor  of  Leyden,  usually  called  John  of 
Leyden,  and  M'atthiesen,  a  baker  of  Haarlem,  going  to  Muu- 
ster,  found  an  able  and  active  coadjutor  in  the  Protestant 
chaplain,  Bernard  Rottman.  Having,  with  the  aid  of  their 
adherents,  made  themselves  masters  of  the  city,  they  set  up  a 
theocratic  Democracy,  and  proclaimed  John  of  Leyden  its  auto- 
cratic king,  while  Matthiesen  assumed  the  title  and  office  of 
prophet,  and  Knipper dolling,  a  burgher,  was  named  high 
sheriff  and  general-in-chief  of  the  Hosts  of  the  Lord.  Twelve 
judges,  constituting  a  court  of  justice,  surrounded  the  newly- 
erected  throne,  and  the  city  of  Miinster  was  designated  as 
the  "C%  of  Sion,"  whence  was  to  go  forth  the  Millennium 
of  Christ's  visible  kingdom  on  earth.  Matthiesen,  in  his  office 
of  prophet,  and  claiming  a  direct  revelation  from  on  high  as  the 
sanction  of  his  conduct,  ordered  all  books  and  manuscripts 
other  than  the  Bible,  and  all  paintings  and  images  of  Saints, 
which  he  designated  as  "instruments  of  Popish  idolatry," 
to  be  destroyed,  and  they  were  accordingly  committed  to  the 
flames  amid  profane  dances  and  scenes  of  revolting  profligacy 
and  fanatical  licentiousness.  John  of  Leyden  surrounded  his 
newly-erected  throne  with  Oriental  pomp  and  magnificence. 
He  was  attended  by  a  numerous  guard,  and  a  brilliant  court 
lent  luster  to  his  ephemeral  reign.  By  Divine  command,  so 
he  blasphemously  said,  he  took  several  wives,  and  polygamy, 
having  the  sanction  of  his  illustrious  example,  became  as  gen- 
eral among  these  fanatical  enthusiasts  as  the  practice  of  pos- 
sessing their  goods  in  common.  They  were  intolerant  of 
opposition,  and  put  down  any  show  of  resistance  to  their  in- 
stitutions by  force  and  violence.  N'or  was  their  insolence 
confined  by  the  narrow  limits  in  which  they  held  supreme 
sway.  John  issued  a  manifesto,  in  which  he  pompously  pro- 
claimed his  intention  to  take  the  field,  and,  in  the  name  of 
the  Lord,  to  exterminate  all  the  tyrants  of  the  earth.    Assured 


'See  Faesser,  1.  c,  p.  84. 


118  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

of  a  victorious  triumph  in  this  undertaking,  lie  parceled  out 
in  advance,  among  his  followers,  the  duchies,  bishoprics,  and 
abbeys,  situated  immediately  about  Miinster.  To  John  Denker, 
a  shopkeeper,  he  assigned  the  Duchy  of  Saxony;  and  the 
Duchy  of  Brunswick  to  Bernard  Thomas  3Ioer,  a  tailor;  while 
the  Duchy  of  Westphalia,  together  with  the  territoiies  lying 
between  the  Weser  and  the  Rhine,  was  conferred  upon  the 
patrician,  Christian  Kerkerink.  Other  royal  grants,  equally 
munificent  and  grotesque,  were  made  to  his  followers,  and 
ceased  only  when  his  imaginary  conquests  had  been  entirely 
disposed  of.  He  further  announced  that  should  any  one — be 
he  prince,  magistrate,  or  burgher — refuse  to  receive  the  apos- 
tles sent  out  by  him,  he  would  come  himself  to  destroy  and 
utterly  annihilate  all  such  refractory  spirits.  But  before  John 
had  time  to  carry  into  eflect  his  splendid  promises  and  terri- 
ble threats,  Count  Waldeck,  the  Bishop  and  temporal  lord  of 
Miinster,  assisted  by  many  Protestant  princes,  succeeded  in 
putting  a  period  to  the  frightful  scenes  that  were  daily  dis- 
gracing the  city.  The  princes  at  the  head  of  the  Catholic 
army,  which  had  now  sat  down  before  the  gates  of  Miinster, 
having  summoned  John  to  surrender,  received  the  following 
reply:  ''Your  favor  and  your  clemency  we  despise — they  are 
only  another  name  for  tyranny.  We  are  content  with  the 
favor  and  assistance  of  our  Heavenly  Father,  of  which  we 
are  assured,  and  hence  the  ofier  of  clemency  by  you,  who 
stand  in  greater  need  of  ours,  is  blasphemous.  Understand, 
therefore,  that  it  is  our  firm  purpose  to  defend  our  religion 
and  our  city  with  the  last  drop  of  our  blood."  Every  expe- 
dient was  resorted  to  in  order  to  rouse  the  courage  of  the 
multitude,  and  inspire  them  with  enthusiasm.  The  preacher 
Rolle,  king  John,  and  many  more,  rushed  like  maniacs 
through  the  streets  of  the  city,  filling  the  air  with  cries  of 
lamentation,  and  calling  upon  their  followers  to  do  '-pen- 
rtnce,"  and  upon  the  godless  to  be  rebaptized.  One  of  these 
excited  visionaries  declared  that  he  had  seen  Christ  coming 
in  the  clouds,  bearing  aloft  the  standard  of  victory,  and  so 
general  did  the  excitement  become  that  it  finally  reached  all 
classes,  and  every  age  and  sex,  and  Tilbek,  the  chief  burgo- 
master, bending  before  the  fury  of  popular  fanaticism,  re 


§  317.  Anabaptists  of  Munster — Bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse.  119 

quested  to  be  again  baptized.  Matters  grew  dv/ly  worse, 
until,  in  the  end,  such  as  would  not  submit  to  h^  "ebaptized 
were  expelled  the  city.  King  John  prepared  a  g\ eat  federal 
banquet  for  his  followers,  which  was  served  ou  the  public 
sq  lare  before  the  Cathedral,  and  to  which  eight  thousand 
persons  sat  down.  The  city  made  a  gallant  defense,  and  it 
was  only  after  eighteen  months  of  incessant  struggle  that  the 
besiegers  succeeded  in  carrying  it  by  storm  (June  25,  1535). 
John  of  Leyden,  Knipperdolling,  and  the  chancellor,  Krech- 
ting,  after  being  subjected  to  every  sort  of  ignominy  and  out- 
rage, were  executed  with  painful  torture  (January  23,  1536), 
and  their  bodies,  incased  in  iron  cages,  were  for  years  after- 
ward hung  by  iron  chains  from  the  steeple  of  St,  Lambert's 
church,  as  a  warning  to  the  citizens.  By  the  capture  of 
Munster  and  execution  of  the  Anabaptist  leaders,  the  sect 
ceased  to  exist  as  an  organized  body,  although  its  errors  were 
long  cherished  and  advocated  by  obscure  and  insignificant 
communities  scattered  up  and  down  Westphalia, 

But  polj'gamy,  their  characteristic  institution,  found  favor 
in  other  quarters.  Among  those  to  whom  this  Oriental  in- 
stitution was  particularly  acceptable,  Philip,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  surnamed  the  Magnanimous,  and  the  most  ardent  ad- 
vocate and  zealous  defender  of  the  Eeformation,  was  notably 
conspicuous.^  He  had  been  married  sixteen  years  to  Christina, 
daughter  of  George  of  Saxony,  and  was  the  father  of  eight 
children ;  but  it  was  notorious  that  he  lived  in  habitual  adul- 
tery during  the  whole  of  this  time.  Unable  to  stifle  the  voice 
of  conscience,  and  unwilling  to  leave  off"  his  old  habits  of  sin, 
he  sought  refuge  in  the  convenient  Lutheran  tenet  of  '^salva- 
tion by  faith  alone."  Having  thus  put  the  claims  of  conscience 
summarily  aside,  the  Landgrave  dispatched,  through  the  dex- 
trous and  pliant  Bucer,  a  letter  to  Melanchthon  and  Luther,  in 
which  he  expressed  a  wish  to  obtain  their  authorization  to  take 
as  a  second  wife  Margaret  von  der  Saale,  maid  of  honor  to  his 

1  Landgrave  Philip  of  Hesse,  being  a  Supplement  to  the  picture  drawn  in  tho 
Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers  of  the  schism  of  the  sixteenth  century  (Hist,  and  Polit. 
Papers,  Vol.  XIV.,  Vols.  XV.  and  XVI.,  but,  especially.  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  224 
sq.,  -'Philip's  Bigamy").  Hassencamp,  Ch.  H.  of  Hesse  during  the  age  of  the 
Eeformation,  Marburg,  1852,  Vol.  I.    Herzocjs  Cyclopaedia,  Vol.  II.,  p.  512-537. 


120  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  1. 

sister  Elizabeth.  He  was  of  an  ardent  temperament,  he  said, 
and  of  a  vigorous  constitution,  and  could  not  possibly  remain 
alone  during  liis  frequent  attendance  at  the  diets  of  the  Em- 
pire and  of  his  own  States,  where  every  one  lived  for  pleasure 
and  enjoyment,  while  to  have  his  wife  and  court  ladies  to  ac- 
company him  would  be  troublesome  and  inconvenient 

Luther  and  Melanchthon  were  greatly  perplexed.  On  the 
one  hand,  they  shrank  from  the  odium  that  would  attach  to 
them  should  they  authorize  the  Landgrave's  adultery;  and, 
on  the  other,  the}'-  dreaded,  that,  in  case  of  refusal,  he  might 
carry  out  his  threat,  and  return  to  the  Catholic  Church.  But 
the  defection  of  the  Landgrave  had  more  terrors  for  these 
pure  reformers  than  the  approval  of  an  adulterous  union,  and 
they  consequently  authorized  Philip  to  take  a  second  wife,  as 
they  piously  expressed  it,  -"  in  order  to  provide  for  the  welfare  of 
his  body  and  soul,  and  to  bring  greater  glory  to  God." 

This  instrument,  signed  by  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Bucer, 
and  five  theologians  from  Hesse,  went  on  to  say,  that  to 
avoid  scandal  the  marriage  should  be  performed  privatel}',  in 
presence  of  only  a  few  witnesses,  and  as  if  under  seal  of  con- 
fession.' 

The  marriage  ceremony  was  performed  March  3,  1540,  at 
Eothenburg  on  the  Fuld,  in  presence  of  Melanchthon,  Bucer, 
and  other  theologians,  by  the  Hessian  preacher,  Denis  Mclan- 
der,  who  had  special  qualifications  for  the  ofiice,  having  him- 
self taken  three  wives.  This  aflair  for  a  time  disquieted 
Luther,  but  he  soon  recovered  his  equanimirj^;  "for  his  great 
heart,"  as  Bucer  writes,  "  was  not  easily  shaken."  Melanch- 
thon, however,  was  not  made  of  such  stern  stufl",  and  the 
grief  and  remorse  he  felt  for  his  part  in  the  transaction 
brought  on  a  dangerous  illness. 

Every  eftbrt  was  made  to  keep  the  secret  of  the  marriage ; 
but  female  vanity  was  not  proof  against  the  seductions  of 
notoriety,  and  the  whole  aflair  shortly  leaked  out.^    Luther 

'  Instrumentum  copulationis  Philippi  Landgravii  et  Margaritae  de  Saal- - 
Bosstief,  Hist,  des  Variations,  T.  I.,  p.  306.  (Tr.) 

^Cf.  Seckendorf,  lib.  III.;  the  original  pieces  are  all  printed  in  full  in  Bossuet, 
Hist,  of  the  Variations  of  Protestant  churches,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  VI.,  at  the  end; 
New  York  od.of  1851,  p.  200-218  (Germ,  transl.  by  Meyer,  Vol.  I.,  p.  280-310)  ■ 


§  318.  Fresh  Acts  of  Violence  by  Protestants ^  etc.      121 

declared  "that  the  divulgence  of  the  secret  admitted  of  no 
defense,  and  that  he  would  therefore  either  deny  outright 
having  authorized  the  second  marriage  at  all  (a  course  which 
he  might  possibly  take,  since  the  authorization  was  granted 
for  a  secret  marriage  only,  which  therefore  became  null  and 
void  by  being  made  public) ;  or,  should  this  course  fail  him, 
he  would  come  out  openly,  confess  that  he  had  blundered 
and  played  the  fool,  and  crave  pardon  for  his  fault." 

This  affair  was  the  occasion  of  a  controversy  between  Lu- 
ther and  Henry,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  in  the  course  of  which 
Luther,  in  a  pamphlet  directed  against  the  Duke,  and  entitled 
"Against  the  Buffoon,"  took  occasion  to  show  that  that  gen- 
tleman's conduct  was  not  exemplary,  and  that  his  relations  to 
his  mistress,  Eve  of  Trotta,  were  not  honorable. 

The  Landgrave,  Philip,  continued  to  live  a  peaceful  and 
quiet  life  with  his  two  wives,  and  he  had  the  further  gratifi- 
cation of  having,  after  the  date  of  his  second  marriage,  two 
sons  and  a  daughter  born  to  him  by  Christina,  and  six  sons 
by  Margaret,  the  latter  of  whom  were  all  called  Counts  of 
Diez. 

§  318.  Fresh  Acts  of  Violence  by  Protestants — Renewed  Attempts 
to  Adjust  Religious  Difficulties. 

The  bishopric  of  Naumburci-Zeilz  falling  vacant,  the  Chapter 
gave  its  suffrages  in  favor  of  Julius  von  Pflug,  a  man  distin- 
guished for  his  theological  learning,  his  sweet  temper,  and 
pacific  disposition ;  but  the  Elector,  John  Frederic,  the  Mag- 
nanimous, disregarding  the  rights  and  ignoring  the  action  of 
the  Chapter,  arbitrarily  appointed  Nicholas  von  Amsdorf  to 
the  vacant  see  (1542),  taking  the  precaution,  however,  to 
grant  him  only  the  salary  of  a  parish  priest,  and  to  put  the 
temporal  administration  of  the  diocese  into  the  hands  of  an 
official  of  the  electorate.  Luther,  who  never  lost  an  oppor- 
tunity to  cast  ridicule  upon  the  institutions  of  the  Catholic 


in  Ulenbcrff,  Hist,  of  the  Luth.  Eeformers,  Vol.  II.,  p.  468-484.  Schmiti,  Essay 
of  a  hist,  and  philos.  Exposition,  etc.,  p.  429  sq.  Cf.  also  "The  Tomb  of  ]\lar- 
garet  of  Saale"  {Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  751  sq.;  Vol.  XVIIJ..  p 
52isq.;  Vol.  XX.,  p.  93  so.) 


122  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

Church,  sacrilegiously  cousecrated  Amsdorf  a  bishop  after  hia 
own  fashion,  and,  referring  to  the  affair  in  his  writings,  did 
so  in  a  tone  of  cynical  irreverence  and  coarse  brutality.  "We 
have,"  said  he,  "consecrated  a  bishop  without  chrism;  nay, 
more,  without  butter  or  lard,  or  suet,  or  tar,  or  grease,  or 
incense,  or  coals."  ^ 

The  forcible  intrusion  of  this  farcical  bishop  into  a  Catholic 
see  was  immediately  followed  by  another  act  almost,  if  not 
quite,  so  violent  and  atrocious.  Henry,  Duke  of  Brunswick^ 
whose  fidelity  to  the  Catholic  Church  had  always  remained  con- 
stant and,  ardeyit,  was  engaged  in  a  war  against  the  rebellious 
subjects  of  his  ducal  city  of  Brunswick,  which  had  joined  the 
League  of  SchmalkakP  contrary  to  his  wishes.  The  city  of 
Goslar  had  been  placed  under  ban  of  the  Empire  by  sentence 
of  the  Imperial  Chamber,  and  Henry  was  proceeding  to  carry 
the  sentence  into  effect  when  he  was  attacked  by  the  princes 
of  the  Protestant  League,  his  States  invaded  and  seized  (1542), 
Lutheranism  introduced  into  them,  and  he  himself  forced  to 
flee  the  country,  and  take  refuge  in  Bavaria. 

The  bishopric  of  Hildesheim}  which  had  been  granted  by  Im- 
perial award  to  the  Dukes  Eric  and  Henry,  became  the  scene 
of  outrages  similar  to  those  perpetrated  in  Brunswick,  which 
in  the  sequel  were  followed  by  consequences  equally  disas- 
trous. 

•  The  conduct  of  Herman,  Count  of  Wied  and  (p.  1515)  Prince 
Elector  of  Cologne,  was  a  fresh  source  of  embarrassment  to 
the  Catholic  party.     He  set  out  by  taking  up  the  work  of 


^Ci.  Lepsius,  The  Nomination  and  Induction  of  Nicholas  von  Amsdorf,  Nord- 
hausen,  1835;  A.  Jansen,  Julius  Pflug,  etc.,  in  OpeVs  New  Communications  of 
the  Thuringian  and  Saxon  Society,  Vol.  X.,  1,  2,  Nordhausen,  1864. 

*  Leniz,  Hist,  of  the  Introd.  of  the  Evangelical  Confession  into  the  duchy  of 
Brunswick,  Wolfenbuttel,  1830.  Gictz,  John  Bugenhagen,  the  Reformer  of 
Brunswick,  Lps.  1830.  '\ Hildesltehn,  Theological  Monthly,  Oct.  and  Nov.  nros. 
of  1851. 

^Cf.  "Lutheranism  in  the  city  of  Hiklesheim,"  from  an  ancient  manuscript 
{Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vols.  IX.  and  X.)  Reifenbcrg,  Hist.  Societatis  Jesu  ad 
Rhen.  infer.,  T.  1.,  p.  251  sq.  Liinizel,  The  Adoption  of  the  Evangelical  Con- 
fession by  the  City  of  Hildesheim,  Hildesheini,  1842.  Cf.  also  Schlcgel,  Ecclesi- 
astical and  Reformatory  History  of  North  Germany,  especially  of  the  Hano- 
verian States,  Hanover,  1828,  1829,  2  vols.  Baring,  Hist,  of  the  Reformatior 
of  the  City  of  Hanover,  Hanover,  1842. 


§  318.  Fresh  Acts  of  Violence  by  Protestants,  etc.      128 

Catholic  reform,  commenced  by  Gropper,  and  sanctioned  hy 
a  Provincial  Council  held  in  1536,  and  would  have  expe- 
rienced but  little  difficulty  in  carrying  it  out  successfully  in 
his  diocese  had  he  possessed  the  mental  endowments  and 
moral  qualifications  indispensable  to  such  a  task.  But  of 
these  he  was  wholly  destitute.  Of  weak  and  unstable  char- 
acter, he  gradually  drifted  into  liberal  habits  of  thought,  ac- 
cepted the  new  doctrines  iu  their  most  radical  sense,  and  ended 
by  introducing  Protestantism  into  his  States  according  to  a 
form  drawn  up  by  Bucer  and  Melanchthou,  the  former  of 
whom  opened  a  course  of  lectures  on  exegetics  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan convent  of  Bonn,  the  usual  summer-residence  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne.  The  Reformers,  however,  were  far 
from  having  matters  all  their  own  way.  They  were  resolutely 
and  vigorously  opposed  by  the  canons  of  the  Metropolitan  Chap- 
ter of  Cologne,  who  also  published  a  refutation  of  the  new 
teachings  (antididagma).  The  members  of  the  city  council 
took  sides  with  the  Chapter,  and  both  bodies  were  encour- 
aged by  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  to  continue  to  offer  a 
determined  resistance  to  the  Eeformers.  The  Archbishop, 
appreciating  the  danger  of  his  position,  professed  to  yield; 
but  it  shortly  appeared  that  his  professions  were  insincere, 
and  intended  only  to  gain  time.  An  appeal  against  him 
drawn  up  in  the  name  of  the  States,  the  Clergy,  and  the 
University,  was  then  made  to  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor,  by 
whom  he  was  summoned  to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct, 
which  failing  to  do,  he  was  stript  of  his  possessions,  and  de- 
clared excommunicate.^  He  then  made  application  to  be 
admitted  into  the  League  of  Schmalkald,  and  had  the  mor- 
tification of  having  his  request  refused;  he  invoked  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Protestant  princes,  and  received  in  reply  fair 

^f Deckers,  Herman  von  Wied,  Archbishop  and  Elector  of  Cologne,  Cologne, 
1840.  Meuser,  s.  v.  Herman  von  Wied  in  the  Third  Vol.  of  AschhacJis  Ecel. 
Cyclopaed.  '\Pacca,  Cardinal,  "  Memorie  Storiche,"  Roma,  1832,  in  which  is  a 
report  of  the  Great  Services  rendered  to  the  Cath.  Church  daring  the  sixteentli 
century,  by  the  Clergy,  University,  and  Municipality  of  Cologne  (Transl.  from 
the  Ital.  into  Germ.,  Augsburg,  1840).  Emien,  Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  in  the 
Territory  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Cologne,  Neuss,  1849.  The  scwie  treats  this 
subject  exhaustively  in  his  "Hist,  of  the  City  of  Cologne." 


124  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

promises,  which  were  never  made  good;  and  having  thus  ex- 
perienced disappointment  after  disappointment,  he  was  finally 
forced  to  content  himself  with  the  single  county  of  Keuwied 
(t  1552). 

But  on  the  other  hand,  in  addition  to  the  countries  of  ISTorth 
Germany  already  mentioned,  the  cities  oi  Magdeburg,  Halber- 
stadt,  Halle,  Meissen,  and  others,  were  also  severed  from  the 
Church;^  and  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  Protestantism 
into  the  States  of  the  Most  Catholic,  Dukes  of  Bavaria,  into 
those  of  King  Ferdinand,  into  the  Tyrol,^  and  elsewhere. 
Everj'where  the  prospect  of  becoming  hereditary  princes  was 
held  out  to  Catholic  bishops  as  a  bribe  to  induce  them  to 
embrace  Protestantism/^ 

Finally,  the  Protestant  princes,  by  putting  a  dishonest  in- 
terpretation upon  the  acts  of  the  Diet  of  Spire  (1542),  where 
the  chief  question  related  to  the  raising  of  subsidies  to  be 
employed  against  the  Turks  (a  matter  which  gave  them  very 
little  concern),  sought  to  justify  their  deeds  of  violence  against 
Brunswick  and  Naumburg,  and  to  find  a  pretext  for  dismiss- 
ing all  the  suits  at  law  pending  in  the  Imperial  Chamber. 
Consistently  with  their  former  polic}'-,  they  refused  to  take 
any  part  in  the  General  Council  which  had  lately  been  con- 
voked to  meet  at  Trent. 

Still,  the  Emperor,  desirous  of  having  peace,  and  willing  to 
pay  almost  any  price  to  secure  it,  made  concessions  so  exten- 
sive to  the  Protestants  at  the  late  Diet  of  Spire  (1544),  that 
the  Catholics,  not  without  reason,  charged  him  with  having 
outstepped  the  bounds  of  his  power,  and  Pope  Paul  III.,  in  a 
letter,  dated  August  24,  1544,  expressed  his  sorrow  at  the 


^Introd.  of  the  Eeformation  into  the  Archdiocese  of  Magdeburg  [Fiedler, 
Pastoral  Gazette  of  Torgau,  4th  year,  1842,  Jan.,  Feb.,  March,  and  May). 
Franke,  Hist,  of  the  Eeformatioi;i  in  the  City  of  Halle,  Halle,  1841.  Apfelstedt, 
Introd.  of  the  Lutheran  Keform  into  the  District  of  Schwarzburg,  Sondershau- 
sen,  1841  (For  the  Jubilee  of  1841).  Frausindi,  The  Introd.  of  the  Keform 
into  the  Bishopric  of  Merseburg,  Lps.  1844. 

■•^ K<.Mbrmatory  Intrigues  in  Bavaria,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
(  Hisi.  and  Polii.  Papers,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  14-29).  Schism  of  Tyrol  [hist,  and  Polit 
Papers,\o\.  YI.,  p.  577-609).  '\Beda  Weber,  Tyrol  and  the  Eeformation,  Inns 
bruek,  1841. 

^Hase.  Ch.  H.,  Engl,  trans.,  N.  Y.  1873,  p.  392.  (Tr.) 


§  318.  Fresh  Acts  of  Violence  by  Protestajits,  etc.      125 

Emperor's  action,  and  bis  serious  apprehension  as  to  ito  con- 
sequences. Charles  having,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  Pro- 
testants of  his  Empire,  from  whom  he  had  been  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  a  declaration  of  war  against  France,  com- 
pelled his  haughty  adversary,  Francis  I.,  to  sign  the  Peace  of 
Crespy  (September  18,  1544),  set  to  work  to  dissipate  the 
doubts  which  had  been  cast  upon  his  conduct,  and  to  place 
himself  in  his  true  character  before  the  world.  He  in  conse- 
quence urged  that  a  General  Council  should  be  convoked  to 
assemble  March  15,  1545. 

At  a  late  Diet  held  at  Worms  (March,  1545),  the  Protestants 
again  expressed  their  determination  to  take  no  part  in  the  jyro- 
posed  Council  of  Trent,  because  it  had  been  convoked  by  the 
Pope.  In  giving  expression  to  their  sentiments  on  this  occa- 
sion, they  employed  language  unusually  coarse  and  violent 
even  for  that  age.  They  were  also  at  pains  to  scatter  through- 
out the  Catholic  States  copies  of  Luther's  work  entitled  "  The 
Papacy  an  Tnstitution  of  the  Devil,"  preceded  by  an  indecent 
and  brutal  frontispiece,^  and  accompanied  by  a  tract,  written 
by  Melanchthon,^  in  which  the  author  did  his  best  to  malign 


1  Walch,  Vol.  XVII.,  p.  1278  sq.;  also  printed  separately,  with  annotations  by 
Abbot  Prechtl,  in  his  "Fragments  in  Refutation  of  the  Wisdom  of  Dr.  Martin 
Luther,"  intended  as  contribution  to  the  Jubilee  of  the  Lutheran  Eeformation, 
3d  ed.,  Sulzbach,  1818. 

^Melanchthon  wrote  by  order  of  the  Prince-Elector:  "Causae,  quare  et  am 
plexati  sint  et  retinendam  ducant  doctrinam  .  .  .  confessionis  Aug.  .  .  .  et 
quare  iniquis  judicibus  collectis  in  synodo  Trident.,  ut  vocant,  non  sit  adsen- 
tiendum."  Vit.  154G.  (0pp.  ed.  Vit.,  T.  IV.,  p.  772).  The  following  are  the 
chief  points  brought  out  by  Melanchthon :  1.  One  should  obey  God  rather  than 
man;  2.  The  Pope  has  no  authority  to  convoke  a  Council;  3.  The  Bible,  and 
the  Bible  only,  can  be  used  in  determining  what  is  Christian  faith ;  4.  The 
warrant  for  the  truth  of  Protestant  teaching  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
held  by  thousands;  5.  Inasmuch  as  laymen  are  excluded  from  the  Council  of 
Trent,  it  can  not  be  said  to  be  a  general  council;  6.  The  place  of  assembling  is 
itself  a  circumstance  calculated  to  excite  distrust;  7.  Nothing  good  can  be  ex- 
pected from  the  Bishops  assembled  there,  for  they  know  as  little  of  the  teaching 
of  Christ  as  the  asses  upon  which  they  ride.  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  place 
beside  this  ribald  and  insuUing  language  the  loving  invitations  repeatedly  ad- 
dressed to  the  Protestants  by  the  Council  and  the  Popes,  imploring  them  lo 
unite  in  securing  harmony  to  the  Christian  world,  to  see  the  wide  difference 
between  the  spirit  by  which  each  party  was  animated.  Sess.  XIII.,  De  Refor- 
matione,  c.  8;  Sess.  XV.;  Sess.  XVIII. 


126  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 


and  insult  Catholics.  Notwithstanding  these  acts  of  deter- 
mined hostility,  the  Emperor  still  clung  to  the  vain  hope  of 
settling  the  religious  difficulties  by  conference,  and  he  accord- 
ingly summoned  one  to  be  held  at  Matisbon,  January  27, 1546. 
It  seems  strange  that  he  should  not  have  foreseen  that  this 
conference,  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  assembling  of  such  a 
body  for  such  a  purjjose  after  the  Council  of  Trent  had  already 
been  opened,  was  a  practical  ignoring  of  the  authorit}^  of  the 
latter,  could  accomplish  no  possible  good  in  the  existing  tem- 
per of  the  Protestant  mind.^ 

Their  action,  however,  left  the  Emperor  free  to  assume  a 
more  aggressive  attitude,  which,  having  concluded  an  armis- 
tice with  the  Turks,  he  was  now  in  a  position  to  do.  He 
began  to  make  preparations  for  war,  and  openly  declared  to 
the  Protestant  princes,  who  questioned  him  on  the  subject, 
that  while  no  token  of  his  good-will  should  be  withheld  from 
the  loyal  States  of  his  Empire,  every  resource  of  his  imperial 
powder  should  be  put  forth  to  reduce  those  in  rebellion  to  sub- 
jection. He  also  issued  a  proclamation  to  the  whole  Empire, 
stating  that  the  war  in  which  he  was  about  to  engage  was  not 
one  of  religion,  and  that  his  sole  purpose  in  undertaking  it 
was  to  compel  the  submission  of  those  who,  under  cover  of 
I'eligion,  had  disturbed  the  public  peace,  and  committed  nu 
merous  and  flagrant  acts  of  violence.  He  declared  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  both  of  whom 
were  marching  toward  the  Danube  at  the  head  of  numerous 
armies,  under  ban  of  the  Empire. 

§  319.  Death  of  Luther — His  Public  Character. 

DbUinger,  The  Keformation,  Vol.  I.,  p.  278  sq.;  Vol.  III.,  p.  251-253.  Von 
Gbrres,  Luther's  work,  and  Luther's  "Works  (Catholic  of  1827).  (Doller)  Lu- 
ther's Catholic  Monument,  Frankfort,  1817.  The  Luther  Monument  of  Worms, 
etc.,  see  Vol.  II.,  p.  979,  note  2. 

The  trials  and  contradictions  which  came  to  Luther  from 
every  quarter  had  early  soured  his  temper,  and  made  him 


^  Actor,  colloquii  Katisbonen.  ultimi  verissima  relatio,  Ingolstadii,  1546,  4to, 
(printed  by  order  of  the  Emperor.)  Report  of  G.  Major,  Wittenberg,  1546,  4to 
(Ilorileder,  Pt.  I.,  Bk.  1,  ch.  40);  by  Bucer,  ibid.,  ch.  41,  and  in  Walch,  Vol 
XVII.,  p.  1529.     See  Rifel,  Vol.  II.,'p.  742  sq. 


§  319.  Death  of  Luther — His  Public  Character.       127 

discontented  and  morose.  Himself  dissatisfied,  according  to 
his  own  avowal,  with  his  religious  system,^  he  had  the  further 
mortification  of  knowing  that  it  had  a  still  more  uncertain 
hold  upon  the  minds  of  his  former  adherents.  Even  at  Wit- 
tenberg, the  scene  of  his  own  zealous  and  extraordinary  labors, 
no  moral  improvement  was  visible  among  the  inhabitants.  la 
a  sermon,  preached  as  early  as  1532,  he  had  made  this  candid 
confession:  "Since  we  have  commenced  to  preach  our  doc- 
trine (the  jpure  doctrine  of  the  Gospel),  the  world  has  grown 
daily  worse,  more  impious,  and  more  shameless.  Men  are 
now  beset  by  legions  of  devils,  and,  while  enjoying  the  full 
light  of  the  Gospel,  are  more  avaricious,  more  impure,  and 
repulsive,  than  of  old,  under  the  Papacy.  Peasants,  burghers, 
and  nobles — men  of  all  degrees,  the  highest  as  well  as  the 
lowest — are  all  alike  slaves  to  avarice,  drunkenness,  gluttony, 
and  impurity,  and  given  over  to  shameful  excesses  and  abom- 
inable passions."^  Unable  longer  to  \witness  patiently  the 
steadily  increasing  wantonness  and  libertinism  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  Wittenberg,  he  quitted  the  city  in  angry  disgust, 
resolved  never  again  to  enter  it.  "Let  us  go  out  from  this 
Sodom,"  he  wrote  to  his  wife  in  July,  1545.     "I  had  rather," 


'"Alas!"  he  cried  out  on  one  occasion,  "there  was  a  time  when  I  could  be- 
lieve anything  on  the  authority  of  the  Pope  and  the  monks;  but  now  my 
reason  rejects  even  what  comes  to  me  on  the  authority  of  Christ,  who  can  not 
possibly  lead  me  astray."  On  another  occasion,  at  the  close  of  the  singing  of 
grace  before  meals,  he  remarked:  "Should  one  say  that  that  singing  is  really 
good,  he  would  be  about  as  near  the  truth  as  if  I  should  say  that  I  believe  the 
teachings  of  theology  to  be  true."  M.  Anthony  Musa,  pastor  of  Kochlitz,  once 
remarked  to  Luther  with  candid  frankness  that  he  could  not  himself  believe 
what  he  preached  to  others,  to  which  the  latter  replied:  "Praised  be  God  that 
there  be  others  no  better  off  than  myself.  I  had  fancied  myself  the  only  per- 
son in  such  a  frame  of  mind."  Musa  continued  daring  his  whole  life  to  take 
comfort  from  these  consoling  words  of  his  master  (Table-Talk).  There  is  some- 
thing strikingly  characteristic  in  the  devices  employed  by  Luther  to  stifle  Ike 
voice  of  conscience,  and  the  inspirations  of  the  Holy  Ghost  speaking  through  it. 
He  professed  to  regard  these  salutary  warnings  as  so  many  devices  of  the  Devil. 
and  struggled  against  them  accordingly.  "The  Devil,"  he  said,  "has  ofter  up- 
braided me,  and  entered  into  controversy  concerning  the  affair  I  have  in  hiuid: 
but,"  he  complacently  continues,  "I  had  rather  the  temple  should  be  destroyed, 
thuu  that  Christ  should  remain  hidden  and  unknown.''  Cf.  Mc/izel.,  Vol.  11.,  p 
427-429. 

^Conf.  DuLlinger,  1.  c,  Vol.  1.,  p.  289  sq.,  297  sq.,  oOG  sq.,  and  p.  1G7  sq. 


128  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

he  continues,  "go  about  the  world  as  a  stranger,  and  eat  the 
bread  of  a  beggar,  than  pass  the  few  remaining  miserable 
days  of  my  life  as  a  martyr  in  Wittenberg,  to  the  detriment 
of  my  hard  but  precious  labor."  He,  however,  returned  again 
to  that  city,  but  only  at  the  urgent  solicitation  of  the  Univer- 
sity and  the  Elector. 

While  the  principal  points  of  Luther's  teaching  were  being 
discussed  at  Ratisbon,  he  himself,  though  ill  in  health,  made 
a  journey  to  JEislebeii,  at  the  request  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
for  the  purpose  of  arbitrating  between  the  Counts  George  and 
Albert  of  Mansfeld,  who  were  disputing  about  the  boundaries 
of  certain  mining  districts.  But  his  efforts  to  adjust  matters 
were  not  more  successful  than  those  of  the  lawyers  had  been, 
out  of  whose  hands  he  had  taken  the  litigation  on  his  arrival.* 

Ascending  the  pulpit  of  St.  Andrew's  Church,  in  Eisleben, 
for  the  last  time,  Luther  once  more  called  down  the  vengeance 
of  heaven  upon  the  Jews,  a  race  of  people  whom  he  had  so 
unjustly  and  virulently  assailed  in  his  earlier  writings,  that 
his  followers  after  his  death  were  confused  at  the  very  men- 
tion of  his  malignant  denunciations.  In  his  first  pamphlet 
against  them,  he  called  upon  Christians  to  take  the  Bible 
from  them,  to  burn  their  books  and  synagogues  with  pitch 
and  brimstone,  and  to  forbid  their  worship^  under  penalty  of 
death;  and  in  his  second,  entitled  "0/  Shem  liamphoras,^^  he 
describes  them  at  the  very  outset  as  "young  devils  doomed  to 
hell,"  who  should  be  driven  out  of  the  country. 

Luther,  after  drinking  and  feasting,  and  jesting  with  his 
friends  on  the  death  of  Pope  Paul  III.  and  the  downfall  of 
the  Papacy,  was  taken  suddenly  ill  on  February  17, 1546,  and 

1  Luther's  Letters,  apud  de  Weite,  Vol.  V.,  p.  753. 

*Cf.  de  Weiie,  Vol.  V.,  p.  610.  When,  on  one  occasion,  in  154G,  Luther  was 
journeying  through  the  territory  of  the  Counts  of  Mansfeld,  on  entering  a  vil- 
lage inhabited  by  Jews,  a  cold,  frosty  wind  whi-'tled  about  his  ears  and  almost 
froze  him,  he  insisted  tliat  the  Jews  had  malignantly  evoked  the  chilling  breezes, 
and  accordingly  wrote  to  his  wife,  in  a  letter  dated  February  1,  1546:  "When 
I  shall  have  finished  my  chief  business,  I  shall  devote  my  energies  to  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Jews.  Count  Albert  hates  them  heartily,  and  has  declared  them 
outlaws,  but  so  far  no  one  has  done  them  harm.  Should  it  be  God's  will,  I  sIiaLl 
mount  the  pulpit,  and,  with  Count  Albert,  declare  them  beyond  the  pale  of  the 
law." 


§  319.  Death  of  Luther — His  Public  Character.       129 

died  oil  the  night  of  the  following  day.  Thus  suddenly  and 
prematurely  was  Luther  stricken  down  in  the  town  where  he 
had  been  born  and  baptized,  after  he  had  passed  his  life  and 
exerted  his  powerful  influence  in  setting  people  against  peo- 
ple, sundering  social  bonds,  and  inflicting  a  severe,  thougli 
not  as  he  fancied, /a^a^  wound  upon  the  Church  of  his  fathers. 
"15ut  this  wound,"  as  Moehler  well  observes,  "served  also  for 
the  discharge  of  impurities  which  wicked  men  had  introduced 
into  the  body  of  the  Church — a  thought  full  of  comfort  where 
there  are  so  many  painful  reflections." 

Luther  closed^  his  career  of  a  Reformer  as  he  had  opened 
it,  breathing  hostility  against  the  Pope,  and  uttering  driveling 
contradictions  like  the  following:  '■'■The  Pope  is  the  most  holy 
and  the  most  devilish  of  fathers."  His  teachings,  like  his  life, 
are  full  of  inconsistencies.^  Shortly  before  his  death,  he  de- 
clared that  the  Scriptures  contained  mysteries  and  unfathom- 
able depths,  in  the  presence  of  which  one  must  humbly  bow 
his  head.^ 

But  however  numerous  and  glaring  may  have  been  the 
inconsistencies  of  Luther's  life  and  teachings,  he  was  always 
at  one  with  himself  in  insolent  pride  and  self-sufiiciency, 
and  in  the  testament  containino;  his  last  will  showed  his  usual 


'The  following  are  among  the  most  significant  sentiments  of  Luther:  "Nos 
hie  persuasi  sumus  ad  papatum  decipiendum  omnia  licere."  And  again :  "  Pestis 
eram  vivus,  moriens  ero  mors  tua,  papa ! "  The  latter  is  to  be  found  in  a  letter 
written  after  his  departure  from  Schmalkald  [de  Wette,  Luther's  Letters,  Vol. 
v.,  p.  57),  and  again  repeated,  immediately  before  his  death,  in  his  pamphlet, 
entitled  '-The  Pajjacy  an  Institution  of  the  Devil."  His  partisans  continued 
long  afterward  to  approve  them,  by  making  them  serve  as  legends  for  jubilee 
medals.  Cfr.  Pasig,  The  Writings  published  on  the  Occasion  of  Luther's  Cen- 
tenary Jubilees,  Lps.  1846. 

2  Hence  Cocklaeus  wrote :  "  Lutherus  septiceps  ubique  sibi  suisque  scriptis  con- 
trarius,"  Paris,  1564.    Cf.  Hist,  and  Polii. Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  336;  Vol.  XL, p.  413. 

3  It  is  a  great  and  difficult  thing  to  understand  the  Scriptures.  Five  years' 
hard  labor  are  required  to  understand  either  the  Georgics  or  Bucolics  of  Virgil; 
an  experience  of  twenty  years  to  be  master  of  the  epistles  of  Cicero;  and  one 
hundred  years'  study  of  the  prophets  Ellas,  Eliseus,  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
(/hrist  and  the  Apostles,  to  get  a  mere  insight  into  the  Scriptures. 

Hanc  tu  ne  divinam  Oneida  tenta, 
Sed  vestigia  pronus  adora. 
Of  a  truth  it  may  be  said,  poor  human  nature  1 
VOL.   Ill — 9 


130  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

impatience  and  contempt  of  all  the  accepted  forms  of  human 
right  and  law.^ 

Judging  Luther  by  the  wonderful  activity  and  tumultuous 
excitement  of  his  life,  he  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
the  world  has  ever  produced;  but  regarding  him  in  his  char- 
acter as  a  reformer  of  the  Church,  he  made  the  most  disas- 
trous failure  of  any  person  who  ever  attempted  that  difficult 
task,  for  the  reason  that  he  was  totally  destitute  of  the  neces- 
sar}'  virtues  of  charity  and  humility.  Arrogantly  rejecting 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  he  soon  learned  that  he  had 
acted  precipitately  and  unwisely,  and  was  forced  to  shelter 
liiniself  behind  it  to  successfully  defend  himself  against  his 
adversaries.  That  he  possessed  courage  is  undeniable;  but 
it  is  equally  true  that  his  courage  frequentlj'  degenerated  into 
foolish  bravado.  His  activity  was  ceaseless  and  untiring,  and 
his  eloquence  popular  and  captivating,  his  mind  quick,  his 
imagination  brilliant,  his  character  unselfish,  and  his  temper 
profoundl}' religious.  This  overmastering  religious  sentiment, 
so  characteristic  of  his  system,  contrasts  strangely  with  the 
habitual  blasphemy  and  sarcasm  of  his  language.  Hence, 
Erasmus  said  that  he  was  a  compound  of  two  personalities. 
'•At  times,"  says  the  scholar  of  Eotterdam,  "he  writes  like 
an  Apostle,  and  again  he  talks  like  a  fool.  His  jests  are  so 
coarse,  and  his  thrusts  so  reckless,  that  he  seems  utterly  for- 
getful of  the  figure  he  is  cutting,  or  the  spectacle  he  is  pre- 
senting to  the  world."  When  I  pray  (i.  e.  say  the  Our  Father), 
said  Luther  on  one  occasion,  I  can't  help  cursing  the  whole 
time.^  While  declaiming  against  the  use  of  arms  in  vindi- 
cating the  rights  of  religion,  he  put  forth  principles  and  em- 

i"iSlotus  sum,"  it  is  said  there,  "in  coelo,  in  terra  et  inferno,  et  auctoritatem 
ad  hoc  sufficientem  habeo,  ut  mihi  soli  credatur,  quum  Deus  mihi  homini  licet 
damnabili  et  miserabili  peccatori  ex  paterna  misericordia  Evangelium  lilii  sui 
crediderit  dederitque,  ut  in  eo  verax  et  fidelis  fuerim,  ita  ut  multi  in  mundo 
illud  per  me  aoceperint,  et  me  pro  doctore  veritatis  agnoverint,  spreto  banno 
papae,  Caesaris,  regum,  principum  et  sacerdotum,  imo  omnium  daemonura 
odio.  Quidni  igitur  ad  depositionem  banc  in  re  exigua  sufficiat,  si  adsit  manus 
meae  testimonium  et  dici  possit,  haec  scripsit  D.  Mart.  Luther,  notarius  Dei  et 
testis  Evangeiii  ejus?"'     [Seckend.,  lib.  III.,  p.  651.) 

'^A  number  of  these  Our  Fathers,  embellished  with  profane  oaths,  may  be 
seen  in  Weidbiger,  1.  c.,  preface,  p.  CCCCVIII.  sq. 


§  319.  Death  of  Luther — His  Public  Character.       131 

ployed  language  that  might  have  done  honor  to  a  Jacobin 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Apparently  frank  and  honest  in 
his  advocacy  of  an  unlimited  freedom  in  interpreting  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  he  refused  to  his  adversaries  the  right  which 
he  vauntingly  arrogated  to  himself;  and,  while  proclaiming 
the  glorious  prerogatives  of  free  inquiry,  conducted  himself 
toward  his  most  devoted  adherents  and  most  intimate  friends, 
Melanchthon  among  the  rest,  as  a  tyrant  and  a  despot.  So 
imperious  was  he  in  the  assertion  of  his  magisterial  authority, 
and  so  exacting  in  its  exercise,  that  Melanchthon  confesses 
that,  in  his  own  case,  it  amounted  to  a  degrading  slavery  {Tuli 
servitutem  paene  deformem). 

When  it  is  further  borne  in  mind  that  Luther  was  both  a 
glutton  and  a  drunkard,  having  so  little  regard  for  ordinary 
proprieties  that  he  brutally  wrote  to  his  wife,  in  a  letter  dated 
July  2,  1540,  "■  I  am  feeding  like  a  Bohemian  and  swilling  like  a 
German,  thanks  be  to  God;"^  that  in  speaking  of  marriage, 
the  most  sacred  of  social  institutions,  he  gave  utterance  to 
thoughts  so  indecent  in  language,  so  coarse  and  revolting, 
that  one  seeks  in  vain  to  find  an  apology  for  him  in  the  lax 
morals  of  that  lax  age;^  and  that  he  employed  this  language 
not  alone  at  table,  but  in  his  published  writings  and  public 
addresses,  one  feels  bound,  apart  from  any  consideration  of 
the  perversity  of  his  principles  or  the  falsity  of  his  teachings, 
to  say  that  he  is  hardly  such  a  person  as  would  be  singled  out 
as  having  received  a  vocation  to  inaugurate  and  carry  out  a 
moral  reform.  It  has  alwaj^s  been  characteristic  of  those  who 
have  had  any  success  in  carrying  out  reforms  in  the  Church, 
that  they  began  their  work  by  first  reforming  themselves,  and 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  this  was  not  Luther's 


^  Burckhardf,  Correspondence  of  Dr.  M.  Luther,  Leipsig,  1866,  p.  357. 

^  Hence  the  strong  expostulations  addressed  to  him  by  his  friends,  given  by  de 
Wetie,  Vol.  II.,  p.  49;  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  271,  276.  Count  Hoyer  of  Mansfeld  wrote, 
in  1522,  as  follows  to  Count  Ulrich  of  Helfenstein:  "I  have  been  all  along,  as  I 
was  at  Worms,  a  good  Lutheran;  but  I  have  learned  that  Luther  is  a  black- 
guard, and  as  good  a  drunkard  as  there  is  in  Mansfeld,  delighting  to  be  in  the 
company  of  beautiful  women  and  to  play  upon  his  flute.  His  conduct  is  unbe- 
coming, and  he  seems  irretrievably  fallen."  Cf.  Luther's  Correspondence,  in 
Burkliardt,  in  the  Supplement  to  the  Augsburg  Universal  Gazette  of  January 
18,  1867. 


132  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

method.  To  discover  t4ie  notes  of  a  reformer  in  the  ungov- 
ernable transports,  the  riotous  proceedings,  the  angry  con- 
flicts, and  the  intemperate  controversies  which  made  up  the 
life  of  Luther,  presupposes  a  partiality  amounting  to  blind- 
ness. 

"It  must  be  evident,"  says  Erasmus,  "to  the  most  feeble 
intellect,  that  one  who  raised  so  great  a  storm  in  the  world, 
who  always  found  pleasure  in  using  language  either  indecent 
or  caustic,  could  not  have  been  called  of  God.  His  arrogance, 
to  which  no  parallel  can  be  found,  was  scarcely  distinguisha- 
ble from  madness ;  and  his  buffoonery  was  such  that  it  could  not 
be  supposed  possible  in  one  doing  the  work  of  God."^ 

His  character  is  accurately  j)ortrayed  in  the  following  brief 
sketch  from  the  jjen  of  Pallavicini.  "The  products  of  his 
prolific  genius,"  says  the  distinguished  historian  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  "were  extravagant  and  abnormal,  rather  than 
choice  and  correct — resembling  more  some  gigantic  offspring 
of  immature  birth,  than  the  shapely  babe  brought  forth  after 
the  lapse  of  nature's  appointed  time.  His  intellect  was  vig- 
orous and  robust;  but  its  strength  was  expended  in  pulling 
down,  not  in  building  up.  Gifted  with  a  tenacious  memory, 
he  had  acquired  a  vast  deal  of  erudition,  which  he  poured 
forth,  as  the  occasion  demanded,  in  impetuous  torrents,  re- 
sembling a  thunder-storm  in  its  angry  and  destructive  fury, 
rather  than  the  refreshing  rains  of  summer,  that  brighten  and 
gladden  the  face  of  nature.  He  was  an  eloquent  speaker  and 
writer;  but  his  eloquence  was  more  like  the  rush  of  the  whirl- 
wind, blinding  the  eyes  with  a  cloud  of  dust,  than  the  placid 
flow  of  a  peaceful  fountain,  delighting  them  with  light  and 
color.  His  language  was  such  that,  throughout  the  whole  of 
his  works,  not  a  single  sentence  can  be  found  wholly  free 
from  a  certain  coarseness  and  vulgarity.  Courageous  to 
temerity  in  prosperous,  he  was  cowardly  to  abjectness  in  ad- 
verse fortune.  Professing  his  readiness  to  remain  silent  if 
his  adversaries  would  do  the  same,  he  clearly  showed  that 
he  w^as  actuated,  not  by  a  motive  of  zeal  for  God's  glory,  but 
by  feelings  of  jealousy  and  self-love.     Princes  were  among 


^Erasmus,  Hyperaspistes,  Diatribe  adv.  servum  arbit.  Lutberi. 


§  320.  Schmalkaldic  War — Religious  Peace  of  Augsbung.  135 

his  followers;  but  they  became  such  not  from  any  desire  of 
forwarding  his  cause,  but  in  the  hope  of  enriching  themselves 
with  the  property  of  the  Church.  The  harm  he  did  to  the 
Church  was  indeed  great;  but,  while  bringing  incomparable 
disaster  upon  others,  brought  no  advantage  to  himself.  His 
name  will  be  memorable  in  history  for  all  time,  but  as  a  name 
of  infamy  and  dishonor.  Now  that  the  rotten  branches  have 
been  lopped  from  the  vine  of  the  Church,  the  sound  and  liv- 
ing ones  will  thrive  and  flourish  all  the  better  for  their  ab- 
sence." 

Aneillon,  an  acute  observer  and  faithful  delineator  of  human 
character,  has  also  given  us  a  picture  of  Luther,^  but  its  out- 
lines are  not  more  flattering  or  less  repulsive  than  those  of 
Pallavicini. 

But  in  spite  of  these  adverse  criticisms,  the  followers  of 
Luther  have  bestowed  upon  the  memory  of  their  founder  an 
honor  which  the  Church  reserves  for  her  greatest  Saints,  and 
for  doing  which  Catholics  have  been  reproached  with  com- 
mitting a  scandalous  impiety.^ 

§  320.   The  Schmalkaldic   War — Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg 
(1555) — Resignation  and  Death  of  Charles  V. 

EorUeder,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  p.  G18  sq.  Note-book  of  Emperor  Charles  V., 
German,  by  Warnkoenig,  Lps.  1862.  Camerarii  Comm.  belli  Smalc.  graece 
script.  (Freher,  T.  III.,  p.  557).     Hist,  of  the  Smalkaldic  War,  by  Ha/in,  Lps. 


^Aneillon  expresses  his  judgment  of  the  heresiarch  in  the  following  words: 
His  acts  were  the  result  of  passion,  rather  than  the  outgrowth  of  fixed  princi- 
ples; and  if,  on  the  one  hand,  his  character  was  not  soiled  by  degrading  vice, 
on  the  other,  it  was  not  ennobled  by  distinguished  virtue.  On  the  whole,  ad- 
mitting that  he  was  gifted  with  genius,  it  can  not  be  denied  that  he  was  destitute 
of  moral  qualities  of  a  high  order."  Cf.  also  Baumer,  Hist,  of  Europe  from  the 
Close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.,  p.  524  sq. 

^  In  proof  of  this  statement,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  following  work,  writ- 
ten on  occasion  of  the  Jubilee  of  the  Eighteenth  Century:  "The  Gold  and  Silver 
Memorial  of  the  Dear  Master  in  God,  Dr.  M.  Luther,  in  which  a  detailed  account 
is  given  of  his  death,  bis  family,  and  his  relics,  based  upon  above  two  hundred 
very  curious  medals  and  engravings,  with  pertinent  remarks  by  Christian 
J  unker,  Historiographer  to  the  Illustrious  Prince  of  Saxony-Henneberg,"  Frank- 
fort and  Leipsig,  1706,  p.  562.  This  is  just  what  he  foretold  his  followers  would 
do  on?e  he  had  passed  away.  In  his  Table-Talk,  he  says:  "  Adorabunt  stercora 
nostra  et  pro  balsamo  habebunt" 


134  Period  8.     Epoclt  1.     Chapter  1. 

1837;  by  Jahn,  Lps.  1857.     Pallavtcini,  lib.  VIII.,  c.  1.     A.  Menzel,  Vol.  II.,  p. 
451-472;  Vol.  III.,  p.  1-480.     Eifel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  733-760. 

The  chiefs  of  the  Protestant  League  had  been  placed  under 
ban  of  the  Empire  in  an  edict  published  by  the  Emperor,  July 
20,  1546,  a  course  which  received  fresh  significance  and  in- 
creased importance  from  a  bull  published  by  Pope  Paul  III., 
proclaiming  a  crusade,  and  calling  upon  the  Church  to  cni.- 
tribute  toward  carrying  it  on.^  When,  however,  war  win 
finally  declared,  the  Protestant  princes  were  found  fully  pre- 
pared for  the  conflict.  The  League  of  Schmalkald  had  already 
been  in  existence  for  fifteen  years,  and  the  army  of  the  Lu- 
theran princes  was  in  every  way  vastly  superior  to  that  of  the 
Emperor,  from  the  fact  that  some  Catholic  princes,  jealous  of 
his  power,  refused  to  range  themselves  under  his  standard. 
Charles  was  anxious,  in  case  of  success,  to  dictate  his  own 
terms  of  peace,  and  in  consequence  delayed  calling  them  to 
his  aid  until  he  could  no  longer  dispense  with  their  assistance 
without  peril  to  himself. 

On  the  other  hand,  although  Schertlein  of  Burtenbat;li  en- 
joyed at  the  time  the  reputation  of  being  an  able  commander,^ 
it  is  nevertheless  true  that  his  reputation  was  undeserved,  and 
that  there  was  no  man  possessed  of  real  military  talent  on  the 
Protestant  side.  Again,  Blaurice  of  Saxony,^ a  Protestant,  who 
had  succeeded  to  Henry,  his  father,  in  the  government  of  the 
Duchy  of  Saxony,  in  1541,  passed  over  to  the  Catholic  party. 
Apart  from  the  fact  that  his  father's  attachment  to  the  Pro- 
testant League  had  been  greatly  weakened  by  the  influence 
of  the  former  counselors  of  Duke  George,  Maurice,  who  was 
a  nephew  of  the  latter  prince,  and  had  been  brought  up  at  his 
court,  was  repelled  b}'  the  manners  and  detested  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Elector,  John  Frederic.     Still,  having  married  the 

1  Cf.  Raynald.  ad  an.  1546,  nro.  94.  The  Pope  promised  an  Indulgence  to  the 
Crusaders;  the  Protestants,  in  turn,  had  public  prayers  ofi'ered  up  against  the 
Pope  and  the  Emperor,  as  enemies  of  the  word  of  God.  Walch,  T.  XVII.,  p, 
1832  sq. 

-Sebast.  Schertlein  of  Burtenbach  and  his  Letters  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg, 
published  by  Th.  Herbercjer,  Augsburg,  1852. 

^Von  Langenn,  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  his  Age,  Lps.  1841,  2  vols, 
Corneluis,  Illustration  of  the  Policy  of  Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony  {Munich 
Annuary  of  History,  year  1866). 


§  320.  Schmalkaldic  War — Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg.  lo5 

daughter  of  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  he  could  neither  fail 
to  perceive,  nor  was  he  wholly  insensible  to,  the  advantages 
which  he  might  reap  by  embracing  Protestantism.  The  Em- 
peror Charles,  who  had  already  had  experience  of  Maurice's 
valor  and  capacity  during  his  campaign  against  France,  desi- 
rous to  again  secure  his  services  as  an  ally,  induced,  him  to 
break  off  his  connection  with  the  League  of  Schmalkald,  on 
the  plea  that  he  might  now  conscientiously  do  so  since  the 
Protestants  had  signilied  their  intention  not  to  attend  the 
Ecumenical  Council.  Maurice  accordingly  accepted  the  Em- 
peror's terms,  entered  into  a  compact  with  him  (June  19, 
1546),  and  further  pledged  himself  to  give  such  obedience  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Ecumenical  Council  as  they  should  receive 
from  the  other  Princes  of  the  JEmpire.  He  then  proceeded  to 
march  an  army  into  the  States  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  of 
which  he  took  forcible  possession  under  pretense  of  prevent- 
ing them  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand,  King  of  the 
Romans.  When  the  news  of  this  bold  act  reached  the  Elector, 
who  was  encamped  with  the  allied  army  on  the  borders  of 
Suabia  and  Bavaria,  he  at  once  set  out  for  Saxony.  After 
the  disbandment  of  the  Protestant  arm}',  toward  the  close  of 
autumn,  city  after  city  returned  to  their  allegiance,  and,  by 
the  opening  of  the  following  spring,  the  whole  of  Soutliern 
Germany  had  been  reduced  to  submission  without  the  shed- 
ding of  a  drop  of  blood.  The  Elector  of  Saxonj^,  who  had 
in  the  meantime  regained  possession  of  his  States,  while  en- 
camped in  the  forest  of  Lochau,  near  Muhlberg,  was  surprised 
by  the  imperial  forces,  suffered  the  total  destruction  of  his 
army,  and  was  himself  made  prisoner  (April  24, 1547).  Shortly 
after,  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  surrendered  at  discretion ; 
but,  owing  to  pledges  of  security  given  by  his  son-in-law, 
Maurice,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  Electorate  of  Saxon^^, 
thus  crippling  the  power  of  the  Protestants,  he  was  permitted 
the  enjoyment  of  a  restricted  freedom.  The  Emperor  having 
secured  these  splendid  triumphs,  not  only  without  the  concur- 
rence of  a  single  Catholic  prince,  but  with  the  aid  of  a  Pro- 
testant one,  had  no  intention  of  employing  the  advantagoa 
they  gave  him  either  to  extend  his  own  dominion,  or  to  com- 
pel Protestants  by  force  to  enter  the  Church.     The  latter  end 


136  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

he  hoped  to  secure  by  some  amicable  arrangement.  To  some 
o^''er-zealous  advisers,  who  referred  to  Caesar's  habit  of  fol- 
lowing up  a  victory  by  the  total  destruction  of  the  enemy,  the 
Emperor  replied :  "  The  Ancients  were  guided  by  the  princi- 
ples of  honor  only;  we  Christians  by  the  principles  both  of 
honor  and  of  conscience.^' 

iJTowthat  Charles  had  the  power,  the  interests  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  and  the  requirements  of  justice  demanded  that  he 
should  restore  Julius  von  Pflug  to  the  see  of  Naumburg, 
whence  he  had  been  driven  away  in  defiance  of  all  law  and 
right;  and  to  execute  the  sentence  of  deposition  passed  upon 
Herman,  Archbishop  of  Cologne;  and  having  done  so,  he 
opened  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (September  1, 1547),  in  the  hope 
of  finally  bringing  about  the  union  so  long  desired  and  so  fre- 
quently attempted,  but  which  he  despaired  of  efi^ecting  through 
a  Council  which  the  Protestants  had  I'ejected  in  advance,  al- 
leging as  an  additional  excuse  for  their  action  that  it  had  been 
transferred  from  Trent  to  Bologna. 

By  the  famous  ^'■Interim"  of  Augsburg'^ — the  joint  produc- 
tion of  Julius  von  Pflug,  Bishop  of  N"aumburg;  Michael  Hcld- 
ing,  coadjutor  of  Mentz ;  and  the  wily  and  subtle  Johi  Agricola, 
preacher  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg — Protestants  were 
permitted  to  receive  the  Holy  Eucharist  under  both  kinds; 
the  Protestant  clergy  already  married  to  retain  their  wives; 
and  a  tacit  approval  given  to  the  retention  of  property  already 
taken  from  the  Church.  This  instrument  was,  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  a  master-piece  of  duplicity,  and  as  such  satisfied 
no  party.  The  Catholics  of  Germany,  the  Protestants,  and 
the  Court  of  Rome,  each  took  exception  to  it.  Rome  com- 
plained that  the  Emperor  had  acted  arbitrarily  in  thus  sum- 
marily disposing  of  purely  religious  questions ;  and  the  Luther- 
ans angrily  protested  against  the  proceeding  as  a  "fornication 
with  the  whore  of  Babylon,"  and,  having  the  invectives  of 
Luther  fresher  in  their  memory  than  his  pious  exhortations, 

1  It  was  published  by  the  Emperor  May  15,  1548.  He  also  submitted  on  this 
occasion  a  plan  of  disciplinary  reform  to  the  bishops  present.  Formula  Refor- 
mationis  a  Carolo  V.  in  Comitiis  Augustan.  1548,  Statibus  ecclesiast.  oblata  cum 
commentatione  A7ii.  Durr,  Mogunt.  1782.  Conf.  J.  E.  Bieck,  The  Triple  In- 
terim, Lps.  1721.     J.  A.  Scltmidt.  Uistoria  interimistica,  Helmst.  1730. 


§  S20.  Schmalkaldic  War — Religious  Peace cf  Augsburg.  137 

had  recourse  to  every  manner  of  expression  to  signify  tlieir 
abhorrence  of  what  they  styled  a  work  of  the  Devil,  a  revival 
of  Papistry,  and  a  new  scheme  to  undermine  the  pure  faith 
of  Protestants  {das  Interim  hat  den  Sc/ialk  hinter  ihm).  3Iag- 
deburg  signified  its  opposition  in  a  formal  protest;  and  Mau- 
rice, the  new  Elector  of  Saxony,  unw^illiug  to  give  the  Interim 
an  unconditional  approval,  consnltcd  with  a  number  of  Pro- 
testant theologians,  headed  by  Melanchthon,  as  to  how  far  he 
might  accept  its  provisions  with  a  safe  conscience.  In  reply, 
they  drew  up  wdiat  is  known  as  the  Leipsig  Interim  (1548),  in 
which  they  stated  that  questions  of  ritual  and  ceremon}',  and 
others  of  minor  importance,  which  they  designated  by  the  ge- 
neric word  adiaphora,  might  be  wholly  overlooked  ;  and  even 
in  points  of  a  strictly  doctrinal  character,  they  expressed  them- 
selves favorable  to  concession  and  compromise.  They  said, 
"that,  while,  on  the  one  hand,  man  is  justified  solely  by  the 
merits  of  Jesus  Christ;  on  the  other,  God  does  not  direct  his 
conduct  as  one  might  control  the  movements  of  a  machine. 
The  works  ordained  of  God,"  they  added,  "  are  good  and  7ieces- 
sary  to  salvation,  and  so  are  also  the  three  theological  virtues 
of  faith,  hope,  and  charity."  Confirmation  and  Extreme  Unc- 
tion, which  had  but  lately  been  rejected  with  intemperate  haste, 
they  now  admitted  to  be  true  Sacraments;  and  they  further 
ao^reed  that  Mass  should  be  celebrated  according  to  the  an- 
cient  rite,  only  stipulating  that  German  canticles  should  be 
sung  while  the  solemn  act  of  worship  was  in  progress.  It 
was  evident  from  these  concessions  that  the  spirit  of  Luther 
was  no  more;  and  the  German  theologians  of  the  Lutheran 
party,  changing  their  conduct  to  suit  the  changed  circumstances 
in  which  they  found  themselves,  were  now^  as  docile  to  imperial 
authority  as  they  had  formerly  been  servile  to  the  insolent 
demands  of  Philip  of  Hesse. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  such  Lutheran  preachers  as  pro- 
fessed to  be  faithful  followers  of  their  master,  made  a  deter- 
mined opposition  to  the  ^^ Interim"  and  began  a  vigorous 
assault  upon  its  adiaphoristic  clauses.  The  Anti-adia-phorists, 
as  they  were  called,  were  headed  by  Flacius  Illyricus,  who 
being  an  ardent  disciple  of  Luther's,  and  possessing  somewhat 
of  his  courage  and  energy,  repaired  to  Magdeburg,  whose  bold 


138  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

citizens  were  as  defiant  of  imperial  power  as  they  were  con- 
temptuous of  papal  authority.  But,  in  spite  of  this  si^irited 
opposition,  the  Interim  was  gradually  accepted  by  several  Pro- 
testant countries  and  cities,  a  fact  which  encouraged  the  Em- 
peror at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1550,  to  make  a  final  efi'ort 
to  have  the  Protestants  attend  the  sessions  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  again  opened  by  Pope  Julius  III.  They,  however, 
once  more  urged  their  former  claims,  demanding  that  their 
theologians  should  be  entitled  to  vote  up'on  all  questions; 
that  all  former  acts  and  decrees  should  be  declared  null;  and 
that  the  Pope  should  resign  the  position  of  presiding  ofiicer. 
Still,  notwithstanding  their  demands,  after  a  short  delay,  dep- 
uties from  Brandenburg,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Saxony  began  to 
appear  at  Trent ;  and  even  the  Wittenberg  theologians,  headed 
by  Melanchthon,  were  already  on  their  way  to  the  Council, 
when  Maurice  of  Saxony,  having  secured  all  the  advantages 
he  hoped  to  obtain  by  an  alliance  with  the  Catholic  party, 
and  regardless  of  the  obligations  by  which  he  was  bound, 
proceeded  to  betray  both  the  Emperor  and  his  country.  Having 
received  a  commission  to  carry  into  efi[ect  the  ban  of  the  Em- 
pire passed  upon  Magdeburg,  he  was  in  a  position  to  assemble 
a  large  body  of  troops  in  Germany  without  exciting  suspicion, 
or  revealing  his  ulterior  purposes.  Besides  uniting  to  himself, 
as  confederates  in  his  plot,  John  Albert,  Duke  of  Mecklenburg; 
Albert,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg;  and  William,  Landgrave  of 
Hesse,  eldest  son  of  Philip  of" Hesse,  he  entered  into  a  secret 
treaty  (Oct.  5,  1551)  with  Henry  II.,  King  of  France,  who,  as 
was  pretended,  coming  into  Germany  as  the  savior  of  the  coun- 
try, seized  the  cities  of  3Ietz,  Tout,  and  Verdun.^    Maurice  also 


^  Schcrer,  The  Kobbery  of  the  Three  Bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Ycrdun 
{Rnunier,  Manual  of  Hist.,  New  Series,  3d  year);  Cornelius,  1.  c.  (p.  134,  n.  3), 
eaj's  that  the  severe  sentence  pronounced  upon  Maurice  and  his  confederates 
was  too  long  delayed.  Buchkolz,  Ferdinand  I.,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  477;  Vol.  VII.,  p. 
23  sq.;  A.  Menzel,  Vol.  III.,  p.  411.  The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  treaty: 
"Should  God  favor  our  cause,  we  shall  do  whatever  lies  in  our  power  to  aid  him 
I'the  King  of  France)  to  recover  the  hereditary  provinces  of  which  he  has  been 
despoiled  \\\z.,  Frunche-Comtc,  Flanders,  and  Artois).  When  the  electicn  for 
the  Imperial  crown  takes  place,  we  further  pledge  ourselves  to  act  in  such  man- 
ner as  will  be  pleasing  to  his  Majesty,  and  to  vote  for  no  one  who  is  not  hia 
friend,  or  who  will  not  give  security  to  maintain  amicable  relations  with  him, 


§  320.  SchmaUcaUlic  War — Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg.  ir,n 

held  out  to  Henry  the  prospect  of  securing  the  Imperial  crown.' 
Everything  being  in  readiness  for  action,  Maurice,  advancing 
through  Thuringia,  seized  the  city  of  Augsburg,  and  suddenly 
made  his  appearance  before  Innspruck,  whence  the  Emperor, 
who  lay  sick  of  a  severe  attack  of  the  gout,  was  hastily  conveyed 
on  a  litter,  through  the  passes  of  the  mountains,  to  Villach, 
in  Carinthia.  While  Maurice  was  thus  making  himself  mas- 
ter of  Innspruck,  the  King  of  the  French  was  carrying  out 
his  part  of  the  programme  by  actively  prosecuting  the  war  in 
Lorraine. 

Charles  V.,  now  destitute  of  the  material  resources  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  a  successful  campaign  against  the  combined 
armies  of  the  French  King  and  the  German  princes,  and  de- 
spairing of  putting  an  end  to  the  obstinate  conflict  by  his 
personal  endeavors,  resolved  to  reestablish,  if  possible,  his 
waning  power  by  peaceful  negotiations.  To  this  end,  he  com- 
missioned his  brother  Ferdinand  to  conclude  the  Treaty  of 
Passau  (July  30,  1552),^  which  provided  that  Philip  of  11  esse 
should  be  set  at  liberty,^  and  gave  pledges  for  the  speedy  set- 
tlement of  all  religious  and  political  differences  by  a  Diet, 
to  be  summoned  at  an  early  day.  It  further  provided  that 
neither  the  Emperor  nor  the  Protestant  princes  should  put 
any  restraint  upon  freedom  of  conscience,  and  that  all  ques- 
tions arising  in  the  interval  between  the  two  parties  should 
be  referred  for  settlement  to  an  Imperial  Commission,  com- 
posed of  an  equal  number  of  Catliolics  and  Protestants.  In 
consequence  of  the  war  then  being  carried  on  by  the  Empire 
against  France  for  the  recovery  of  the  three  bishoprics  of 
Lorraine  of  which  the  French  had  taken  possession,  the  Diet 
did  not  convene  until  February  5,  1555.  After  some  discus- 
sion, both  parties  agreed  that,  in  the  existing  circumstances,  \\ 


and  be  in  every  respect  a  good  neighbor.  Siiould  the  King  himself  be  pleasea 
to  accept  the  Crown,  we  shall  gratify  his  wishes  in  this  regard,  and  give  him  tb»j 
preference  before  any  other." 

^The  treaty  is  given  by  Lmiig,  Archives  of  the  Empire,  Part.  Spec,  et  Kecueil 
des  Traites  de  paix,  T.  II.,  p.  258. 

^xVrchives  of  German  Diets,  Pars  gener.,  p.  131  sq. ;  Horileder,  Pt.  II.,  Bk.  V., 
ch.  14;  Lehmcmn.  De  Pace  religionis  acta  publica  et  originalia,  i.  e.  Acts  and 
Protocols  of  the  Peace  of  Religion,  Frankfort  (1631,  4to.),  1707,  Supplem.,  1709 

2  The  Elector  had  through  the  Emperor  regained  his  freedom  some  time  before 


140  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

was  impossible  to  adjust  the  religious  differences,  either  by 
mutual  conference  or  by  the  action  of  a  general  council ;  and 
that,  though  reluctautl}-  putting  them  aside  for  the  present, 
they  conceived  it  to  be  their  imperative  duty  to  give  their 
whole  attention  to  the  restoration  of  peace  and  order  in  the 
Empire.  After  a  lengthy  discussion,  the  instrument,  known 
as  the  Meligious  Peace  of  Augsburg,^  was  accepted  as  satisfac- 
tory to  both  parties,  and  it  was  further  agreed  that  its  provi- 
sions should  have  permanent  force,  irrespective  of  what  might 
be  the  ultimate  solution  of  the  religious  question. 

The  Religious  Peace  guaranteed  freedom  of  worship  alike 
to  Catholics  and  to  those  professing  the  faith  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  ;  but  since  by  the  recently  introduced  territorial 
system,  which  replaced  the  more  ancient  one  by  episcopates, 
princes  had  the  execution  of  this  article  entirely  in  their  own 
hands,  a  precautionary  clause  was  added,  providing  that  any 
one  believing  his  conscience  to  be  outraged  in  his  own  State, 
should  be  free  to  pass  to  another  where  his  religious  convic- 
tions and  feelings  would  be  respected.  It  was  further  pro- 
vided, that  such  ecclesiastical  estates  as  had  been  seized  by 
Protestants  during,  or  previously  to,  the  year  1555,  should 
remain  permanently  in  their  possession.  But  the  question 
which  presented  the  greatest  difficulty  to  a  settlement  was 
that  known  as  the  Ecclesiastical  Reservation  [Peservatum  eccle- 
siasticum),  according  to  which  the  functionaries  and  officers 
of  all  ecclesiastical  estates,  which  from  that  time  forth  might 
go  over  to  Protestantism,  should  be  deposed  and  deprived  of 
their  dignities,  and  Catholics  chosen  to  fill  their  places.  Al- 
bert of  Brandenburg,  Herman  of  Cologne,  and  many  more 
apostate  bishops  were  quoted  as  instances  to  show  that  the 
precaution  was  not  only  wise,  but  necessary.  This  article, 
which  gave  occasion  to  the  sanguinary  conflicts  that  followed, 
was  carried  through  the  Diet,  by  the  efforts  of  Ferdinand,  in 

'Archives  of  the  German  Empire,  Pars  general.,  p.  131  sq.  Pacis  composltic 
inter  Prinoipes  et  Ordines  Kom.  imperii  Catliolicos  et  Protestantes  in  comitiia 
Augustanis  a.  1555,  edita  et  illustrata  a  jurisconsulto  Catholico,  Dilling.  1629. 
Tlis  document  in  German,  and  accompanied  with  many  illustrations,  was  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort,  1629,  4to.  Conf.  Lehmann^  and  see  note  preceding;  also, 
Riffel,  Vol.  II.,  p.  751-7G0. 


§  320.  Resignation  and  Death  of  Charles  V.  141 

the  face  of  a  most  determined  opposition;  and  its  adversa- 
ries, failing  to  secure  its  defeat,  insisted  on  having  their  pro- 
test against  it  inserted  in  the  Treaty  of  Peace. 

Charles  V.,  taught  by  experience  that  his  hopes  of  uniting 
the  two  religious  parties,  for  the  realization  of  which  he  had 
labored  so  long  and  so  earnestly,  were  illusory,  and  that  to 
pursue  them  further  would  be  useless,  resolved  to  withdraw 
from  public  aflairs,  and  to  give  the  remainder  of  his  days  to 
God.  He  is  said  to  have  been  influenced  in  making  this  deci- 
sion by  the  words  of  an  old  army  captain,  who  remarked  to 
him  on  a  certain  occasion  that  "one  should  lay  aside  the 
active  duties  of  this  life  in  time  to  give  some  attention  be- 
fore dying  to  the  affairs  of  the  next,"  and  accordingly,  hav- 
ing assembled  the  States  of  the  Low  Countries  at  Brussels, 
October  25,  1556,  he  formally  resigned  the  Imperial  crown. 
After  reading  the  act  of  abdication,  Charles,  rising  from  his 
seat  and  leaning  upon  the  arm  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  made 
an  address  to  those  about  him,  in  which  he  recounted,  with 
dignity  and  pardonable  pride,  the  chief  events  of  his  reign, 
closing  with  an  appeal  to  his  successor,  full  of  parental  ten- 
derness and  solicitude,  urging  him  to  live  virtuously,  to  gov- 
ern wisely,  to  respect  the  rights  of  his  subjects,  and  to  preserve 
inviolate  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  Church.*  "I  have,"  said 
he,  "either  in  a  hostile  or  pacific  manner,  visited  Germany 
nine  times,  Spain  six  times,  France  four  times,  Italy  seven 
times,  the  Low  Countries  ten  times,  England  twice,  and  Africa 
as  often.  I  have  made  one  voyage  upon  the  North  Sea,  and 
eight  upon  the  Mediterranean.  I  have  waged  many  wars,  but 
have  always  undertaken  them  more  from  necessity  than  in- 
clination. But  I  have  experienced  less  difficulty  in  bearing 
up  under  these  labors  and  conflicts  than  I  do  now  in  taking 
leave  of  you.  Still,  it  must  be  done;  for  I  feel  myself  une- 
qual to  the  task  of  protecting  my  subjects,  and  securing  to 
them  that  happiness  which  it  is  my  wish  they  should  enjoy. 
I  had  long  since  made  up  my  mind  to  resign  the  crown ;  but 
rebellion  at  home,  the  French  war  abroad,  and  the  desire  of 
maintaining  inviolate  the  frontiers  of  the  Empire,  then  pre- 


» Robertson,  Hist,  of  the  Reign  of  Charles  V.,  New  York,  1833,  pp.  455, 450.  {T^\.) 


142  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

vented  me  from  carrying  my  purpose  into  effect.  And  if  I 
now  transfer  to  another  the  cares  of  a  vast  Empire,  I  am  not 
doing  so  out  of  a  desire  to  consult  my  own  ease  or  to  shirk 
fresh  exertions,  but  because  I  feel  that  to  retain  them  would 
be  to  act  contrary  to  your  interests.  Be  loyal  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  which  has  been  always  and  everywhere  the  faith  of 
Christendom;  for  should  it  disappear,  the  foundations  of 
goodness  would  crumble  away,  and  every  sort  of  mischief, 
now  menacing  the  world,  reign  supreme."  Having  taken 
leave  of  his  subjects,  he  withdrew  to  the  Hieronymite  mon- 
astery of  Yuste,  in  Estreniadura,  where  he  passed  two  years, 
dividing  his  time  between  experiments  with  mechanical  con- 
trivances, and  religious  exercises  of  such  extreme  asceticism 
that  they  sometimes  assumed  a  character  of  gloomy  extrava- 
gance, and  died  September  21,  1558.^  He  suffered  much  from 
doubts  as  to  the  rectitude  of  the  political  motives  by  which 
his  policy  had  been  guided,  and  not  unfrequently  reproached 
himself  with  having  neglected  to  employ  adequate  means  at 
a  proper  season  to  secure  the  peace  of  the  Church  and  to 
prevent  schism;  and  with  having  sacrificed  to  his  temporal 
interests  the  paramount  claims  of  the  Church. 

Documents  recently  made  public  throw  much  light  upon 
the  character  of  Charles,  and  have  quite  reversed  the  popular 
and  erroneous  opinions  heretofore  prevalent  concerning  this 
prince.  From  these  it  appears  that  Charles,  far  from  being  a 
man  of  contracted  views  and  unworthy  prejudices,  possessed 
a  fine  intellect  and  large  and  generous  sympathies.  This  is 
evident,  were  other  proof  wanting,  from  his  favorite  authors 
during  the  early  period  of  his  life ;  for  ThucydiJes  and  Mac- 
chiavelli,  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Bernard  are  not  the  writers 
that  constitute  the  delight  of  small  and  bigoted  minds.  His 
whole  life  goes  to  show  that  he  was  throughout  a  most  de- 
voted son  of  the  Church  ;  that  his  faith  was  firm  and  undoubt 
iug,  and  his  piety  earnest  and  sincere.  He  was  a  man  of 
restless  activity;  courageous  in  adverse  and  moderate  in  pros- 

'  Monastic  Life  of  Charles  V.,  by  Stirling  (German  by  Lindmi,  Dresden,  1853; 
by  Kaiser,  Lps.  1853).  Prescott,  Monastic  Life  of  Charles  V.  (German,  Lps. 
1857).  Cf.  Raumcr,  Hist,  of  Europe  from  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Vol 
L,  pp.  581,  58:*.     '''Gams,  in  Moehler's  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  152-154. 


§  321.   Calvin  and  His  Reform  at  Geneva — Beza.     143 

pcrous  fortune;  parsimonious  toward  liimself,  ho  was  lavioh 
when  any  public  enterprise  demanded  a  generous  expendi- 
ture; and,  though  his  life  was  not  spotless,  compared  with 
the  other  princes  of  his  time,  he  exercised  a  degree  of  self- 
denial  which  at  least  kept  him  within  the  bounds  of  temper- 
ance and  decency,  and  to  which  they  could  lay  no  just  claim. 
He  had  two  natural  children — Margaret  of  Parma  and  Don 
Juan  of  Austria — the  former  of  whom  was  born  to  him  be- 
fore his  marriage,  and  the  latter  after  the  death  of  his  wife; 
but  so  well  was  the  secret  of  their  illegitimacy  kept,  that 
Philip  learned  that  Don  Juan  was  his  half-brother  only  a  few 
days  before  the  Emperor's  death. 

D. — Development  of  Protestantism  in  Switzerland. 
§  321.   Calvin  and  His   Reform,  at   Geneva — Beza. 

Epistolae  et  responsa,  Geneva,  1576,  fol.  Opera  (Genev.  1617,  12  vols,  f.); 
Amsterdam,  1671,  9  vols.  f. ;  in  the  Corpus  Keformatorum,  Vol.  XXIX.  sq. 
Calv'mi,  Bezae  aliorumque  litterae  quaedam,  ex  autogr.  in  bibl.  Goth.,  ed.  Bret- 
schneidcr,  Lps.  1835.  (A  collection  of  Calvin's  Letters,  compiled  from  the  orig- 
inal MSS.,  and  edited,  with  historical  notes,  by  Dr.  Jules  Bonnet,  were  translated 
into  English  by  D.  Constable,  2  vols.,  1855-1857.  The  best  edition  of  Calvin's 
works  is  that  of  Amst.,  1671,  in  9  vols,  fol.,  of  which  there  is  an  Engl,  transl.  in 
51  vols.  8vo.,  published  at  Edinburgh,  1843-1855.  Tr.)  ffiuvres  fran^aises  de 
J.  Calvin,  precedes  de  sa  vie,  par  Theod.  de  Beze,  Paris  (two  treatises  on  the 
state  of  the  soul  after  death,  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  etc.)  L'histoire  de  la  vie  et 
la  mort  de  J.  Calvin,  par  Theodore  de  Bezc,  Gen.  1564.  Bolsec,  Histoire  de  la  vie 
de  Calvin,  Paris,  1577,  and  frequently.  Henry,  The  Life  of  Calvin,  Hamburg, 
1835  sq.,  4  vols.  Staehelin,  John  Calvin's  Life  and  Select  Writings,  Elberfeld, 
1861-1863,  2  vols.  Late  Researches  in  the  Protocols  of  the  Council  of  Geneva 
concerning  Calvin,  made  by  the  two  Oaliffes,  father  and  son,  Geneva,  1865. — 
Viguet  et  Tissot,  Calvin  d'apres  Calvin,  Geneve,  1864.  Herminjard,  Correspon- 
dance  des  reformateurs  (1516-1526),  Geneve,  1866.  V^ Kampschulte,  Calvin  and 
his  Church  and  State  at  Geneva,  Lps.  1869  sq.  '^Audhi,  Histoire  de  la  vie,  des 
ouvrages  et  des  doctrines  de  Calvin,  Pari.«,  1841,  2  vols.  (The  Life  of  Calvin, 
by  J.  M.  V.  Audin,  transl.  into  English  by  the  Eev.  J.  McGill,  Baltimore  and 
Louisville,  1  vol.  8vo.  Tr.)  Germ.,  2  vols,,  Augsburg,  1843.  Conf.  FreHmr/j 
Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  "Calvin."  Hu7ideshagen,  The  Conflicts  of  Zwinglianism, 
Lutheranism,  and  Calvinism  in  the  Church  in  the  territory  of  Bern,  Bern,  1843 
Guizot,  Les  vies  de  quatre  grands  Chretiens  francjais,  Paris,  1873.  (See  also  Blanc, 
Ch.  H.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  275;  Merle  d'A^ibigne,  Hist,  of  the  Great  Keformation;  Cham'- 
Oers'  Cyclop.,  art.  "Calvin."  Tr.) 

John  Calvin,  the  son  of  Gerard  Calvin,  was  born  at  i^oyon, 
in  Picardy,  eTuly  10,  1509.     His  father  began  life  as  a  cooper, 


144  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

but  subsequently  rose  to  some  distinction,  as  we  hear  of  him 
holding  the  offices  of  procureur-iiscal  of  the  district  of  Noyon, 
and  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of  the  diocese.  Young  John, 
being  destined  by  his  father  for  the  Church,  early  gave  him- 
self to  the  study  of  theology,  in  which  his  brilliant  talents 
enabled  him  to  achieve  such  success,  that,  like  Zwingli,  he 
obtained  as  the  rew^ard  of  his  proficiency  several  ecclesiastical 
benefices.  But  cleverness  and  study  can  not  compensate  for 
a  bad  character  and  loose  morals,  and  botti  the  character  and 
morals  of  Calvin  were  infamous.^  Leaving  off  the  study  of 
theology  for  a  time,  he  went  to  Orleans,  where  he  gave  his 
attention  to  law,  having  as  his  master  the  celebrated  P6re  de 
r£toile,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  jurists  of  that  age. 
The  new  study  does  not  appear  to  have  had  much  attraction 
for  him,  and  he  again  took  up  theology.  He  was  chiefly  in- 
debted to  Pere  Olivetan,  a  professor  at  Paris,  and  to  Melchior 
Wolmar,  a  professor  at  Bourges,  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  the  Wittenberg  school,  of  which  the  doctrine 
concerning  justification  appears  to  have  made  the  deepest  and 
most  lasting  impression  upon  his  mind.  While  at  Paris,  his 
bold  and  open  advocacy  of  the  teachings  of  Luther  drew  upon 
him  the  ill-will  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  he  was  in  consequence 
forced  to  flee  the  city,  notwithstanding  that  Francis  I.,  influ- 
enced by  his  sister,  Margaret  of  ISTavarre,  was  kindly  disposed 
toward  him.  Leaving  Paris,  he  led  a  wandering  life  for  some 
time,  and  finally  appeared  at  Basle,  in  the  year  1534,  -where  he 
attempted  to  establish  his  system,  and  where  he  wrote  his 
great  work,  '■'■The  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,''  which  he 
addressed  to  Francis  I.^  The  work  became  popular  in  France, 
and  was  the  means  of  securing  a  numerous  following  to  its 
author. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  reformed  Cantons  of  Switzerland, 


1  Abbe  Blanc,  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  554  (4th  ed.,  Paris,  1867).  (Tr.) 
^Institut.  relig.  Christ,  ad  reg.  Franc.  (Bas.  1536),  Argent.  1539,  Gen.  1559,  ed. 
1  holuck.,  Berol.  1834  sq.,  2  P.;  ed.  Baum,  Qmitz,  Reuss,  Brunsvic.  1869.  The 
institutes  consisted  originally  of  six  sections,  subsequently  of  four  books,  viz:  1. 
De  cognitione  creatoris;  2.  De  cognitione  Dei  redemptoris;  3.  De  mode  per- 
cipiendae  gratiae;  4.  De  externis  remediis  ad  salutem.  Conf.  Oerdes,  De  Joan. 
Calv.  institut.  rel.  Chr.  (Miscellan.  Groeningia.,  T.  II.,  Pt.  I.) 


§  321.   Calcin  and  His  Reform  at  Geneva — Beza.     145 


repelled  by  Zwingli's  cold  and  contemptuous  views  concern- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,  were  also  inclined  to  receive  with  favor 
the  teachings  of  Calvin,  who  appears  to  have  been  the  real 
founder  of  the  ''ReformecV  denomination  in  that  country.  He 
appealed  to  Holy  Scripture  more  confidently  than  any  other 
of  the  reformers,  and  in  his  attempts  to  make  its  passages 
fall  in  with  his  system  and  support  his  peculiar  views,  sur- 
passed them  all  in  doing  violence  to  the  true  meaning  of  the 
text.  But  Calvin  being  a  man  of  fine  classical  culture,  of  a 
philosophic  mind,  and  accurate  methods  of  thought,  did  not 
follow  the  example  set  him  by  the  Saxon  reformers  in  their 
insane  hostility  to  all  antiquity,  and  their  efltbrts  to  banish 
classic  literature  and  Greek  philosophy  from  the  Christian 
world.  Quite  the  contrary.  He  was  appreciatively  grateful 
for  the  learning,  the  eloquence,  and  the  philosophic  treasures 
which,  he  candidly  owned,  were  contained  in  the  works  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Church  and  the  theologians  of  the  Schools; 
expressed  his  admiration  of  the  historians,  philosophers,  and 
poets  of  Greece  and  Rome;  and,  in  giving  his  opinion  of 
them,  did  so  with  warmth  indeed,  but  also  with  critical  aeute- 
ness  and  judicial  fairness.  If,  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  not 
always  original,  and  occasionally  borrowed  thoughts  and 
ideas  from  Luther;  on  the  other,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
he  showed  much  skill  in  the  precision  and  method  with 
which  he  developed  them.  But  ideas  did  not  constitute  his 
whole  debt  to  Luther.  His  language  was  often  quite  as 
coarse,  vulgar,  and  blasphemous  as  that  of  the  great  Saxon 
reformer.^ 

Geneva  was  the  scene  of  Calvin's  most  efficient  and  impor- 
tant labors.  After  returning  from  Ferrara,  whither  he  had 
gone  to  visit  the  Duchess  Ren^e,  and  where,  it  is  said,  there 
were  many   well   disposed  toward   him,   he   passed  through 

'Here  is  one  specimen  from  many.  He  wrote  two  works,  entitled  respec- 
tively "Z)e  aeterna  Dei  prciedesUnatione"  and  "De  libera  arbiirio,"  against  the 
clever  and  learned  theologian,  Albert  Pighius,  in  the  former  of  which  he  says: 
"Paulo  post  librum  editum  moritur  Pighius.  Ergo  ne  cant  mortuo  iiisultareni, 
ad  alias  lucubrationes  me  converti."  Cf.  Linsenmann,  Albert  Pighius  and  his 
theological  views  (Tiibg.  Quart.  Review,  1866,  n.  i). 
VOL.    Ill — 10 


146  Period  3.     Epock  1.     Chapter  1. 

Geneva.  William  Farel  and  his  associate,  Peter  Viret,  who 
were  propagating  the  new  doctrines  in  the  French  Cantons 
of  Switzerland,  and  had  been  quite  successtni  in  their  eflbria 
to  spread  their  errors  among  the  people  of  Vaud,  learning 
that  Calvin  had  arrived  in  the  city,  went  immediately  to  see 
him,  and  urged  him  to  remain  and  labor  where  he  was.  When 
the  latter  demurred,  preferring  to  occupj^  himself  wholly  in 
literary,  labors,  Farel,  yielding  to  his  impetuous  temper,  in- 
voked God's  curse  upon  both  him  and  his  studies  should  he 
refuse  to  give  himself  to  the  well-being  of  the  church  of 
Geneva,  and  this  menace,  Calvin  confesses,  determined  the 
course  to  be  pursued  by  him. 

Unfortunately,  an  avenue  was  opened  to  the  introduction 
of  Protestantism,  by  an  alliance  entered  into  between  the  Ge- 
nevese  and  the  Canton  of  Bern,  for  the  immediate  purpose  of 
asserting  and  maintaining  the  independence  of  Geneva  against 
the  claims  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  Their  efforts  were  success- 
ful, and,  to  more  completely  alienate  them  from  the  Church, 
the  Bishop,  between  whom  and  the  citizens  there  was  a  con- 
flict of  authority,  quitted  the  city,  and  pronounced  sentence 
of  excommunication  upon  its  inhabitants.  This  was  the  sig- 
nal for  a  general  movement  against  the  old  faith.  Altars 
were  pulled  down  and  demolished,  paintings  and  statues  de- 
stroyed, and  of  those  who  continued  faithful  to  the  religion 
of  their  fathers,  some  were  imprisoned,  and  others  sent  into 
exile.  Thus  was  the  foundation  of  the  new  faith  laid  upon 
the  desecrated  altars  of  the  old;  and  its  existence  begun 
among  the  ruins  it  itself  had  made. 

Calvin  arrived  in  Geneva  in  1536,  and  soon  completed  the 
work  which  the  less  energetic  Farel  and  Viret  had  com- 
menced.^ But  Calvin,  like  all  reformers  Avhose  zeal  is  not 
tempered  by  the  wise  experience  of  the  Church,  went  to  ex- 
tremes in  endeavoring  to  correct  the  loose  morals  of  the  city, 
and  to  bring  all  under  a  uniform  code  of  severe  and  stern 
virtue.  He  also  gave  offense  by  his  arbitrary  and  despotic 
manner  in  setting  up  his  new  worship  (1538).    Little  by  little, 

^  Migjiet,  Introduction  of  the  Eeformation,  and  Organization  of  Calvinism  in 
Geneva  (German,  by  Stolz,  Lps.  1843). 


§  321.    Calvin  and  His  Reform  at  Geneva — Beza.     147 

public  opinion  began  to  set  strongly  against  him,  till  in  the 
end  both  he  and  his  adherents  were  expelled  the  city  by  the 
opposition  party,  who  went  under  the  name  of  Libertines,  or 
Patriots. 

Calvin  now  took  up  his  residence  in  Strasburg,  where  he 
began  to  teach  theology,  and  gathered  about  him  quite  a 
respectable  community  of  persons,  sharing  his  peculiar  relig- 
ious views.  Here,  too,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  widow 
of  a  converted  Anabaptist,  whom  he  married  in  1539. 

In  the  meantime,  his  adherents  in  Geneva,  who  were  nu~ 
meroas  and  devotedly  attached  to  him,  longed  for  his  return, 
and  at  their  invitation  he  again  entered  that  city  in  1541,  and 
from  that  time  forth  exercised  an  authority  well-nigh  abso- 
lute in  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He  established  a 
Consistorial  Court  of  Discipline,  whose  office  it  was  to  take 
cognizance  of  all  infractions  of  morality,  among  which  were 
included  dancing  and  other  amusements.  A  system  of  espi- 
onage was  organized,  whose  ramifications  extended  over  the 
whole  city,  and  whose  officers  invaded  the  homes  and  exer- 
cised a  strict  censorship  over  the  social  life,  and  even  the 
speech  of  individual  citizens.  While  suppressing  all  houses 
of  public  resort  previously  existing,  Calvin  allowed  five  drink- 
ing-rooms  to  be  opened,  provided  they  should  be  kept  by  vir- 
tuous persons  (gens  de  Men),  or,  in  other  words,  by  Calvinists. 
The  Genevese,  acting  under  the  guidance  of  the  Libertines, 
became  rebellious  under  pressure  of  these  restraints  on  their 
social  customs  and  habits ;  but  Calvin,  acting  with  his  usual 
promptness,  energy,  and  decision,  made  such  use  of  the  des- 
potic power  at  his  command  as  effectually  kept  in  check  for 
the  time  every  symptom  of  revolt.  So  efficient  were  his  po- 
lice, that  should  any  citizen  be  rash  enough  to  give  utterance 
to  a  sentiment  disrespectful  to  his  character,  or  adverse  to  his 
policy,  the  indiscretion  was  promptly  followed  by  a  punish- 
ment so  terribly  severe  that  others  would  carefully  guard 
against  repeating  the  offense.^  Desirous  to  make  Geneva  the 
Home  of  Calvinism,  he  elaborated  a  theocratical  system  of 

-The  formula  of  excommunication  drawn  up  by  Calvin,  in  Audin,  Life  of 
Calyin,  J.  McGiU's  tr.,  p.  314,  and  in  Kober,  The  Ban  of  the  Church,  p.  16. 


148  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

church-government,  and  placed  himself  at  its  head,  with  pow- 
ers so  extensive  and  prerogatives  so  extravagant,  that  even 
those  popularly  said  to.  have  been  claimed  b}-  the  Popes  in 
the  Middle  Ages  are  limited  and  temperate  in  comparison. 
He  had  Castellio,  the  translator  of  the  Bible,  deposed  from  big 
office  of  Regent  in  the  gymnasium,  because  the  latter  held 
certain  rationalistic  views  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon;  he  had  the  physician, ^okec,  banished  for  assail- 
ing the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination ;  he  had  Ameaux, 
one  of  the  Council  of  the  Twenty-five,  cast  into  prison,  be- 
cause, it  was  said,  he  had  spoken  disrespectfully  of  both  the 
reformer  and  his  reform;  he  ordered  the  execution  (1548)  of 
Griiet  for  having  written  words  of  menace  against  him,  though 
he  himself  had  given  Gruet  abundant  provocation  for  tho  use 
of  intemperate  language,  by  publicly  calling  him  a  dog  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Council.  Gentilis,  who  charged  Calvin  with 
holding  erroneous  views  on  the  Trinity,  was  in  consequence 
condemned  to  death,  and,  though  escaping  the  severe  sentence 
for  a  time  by  retracting  the  charge  and  offering  ample  apolo- 
gies, was  eventually  beheaded  at  Berne  (1566).  3Iichael  Scr- 
vede,  a  Spanish  physician,  was  seized  by  the  despotic  orders 
of  Calvin,  while  passing  through  Geneva,  and  burnt  at  the 
stake  (1553),  for  having  published  certain  heretical  proposi- 
tions concerning  the  Trinity.  The  Libertine,  Berthilier,  un- 
derwent a  like  punishment.  It  would  seem  that  one  who 
himself  explained  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  so  indifferently, 
and  whose  views  were  so  vehemently  assailed  by  those  of  his 
own  sect,  should  have  been  a  triffe  less  bloodthirsty  toward 
those  who  differed  from  him.  These  cruel  and  iniquitous 
executions,  which,  as  Bossuet  well  observes,  were  not,  as  in 
the  case  of  Luther,  the  effects  of  hasty  impulse  or  uncon- 
trollable bursts  of  anger,  but  the  results  of  cool,  calculating, 
and  unfeeling  malignity,^  have  left  a  stain  upon  the  memory 

1  Cnlvini  fidelis  expositio  errorum  Mich.  Serveti  et  brevis  eorum  refutatio,  ubi 
docetur,  jure  gladii  coercendos  esse  haereticos,  1554  (Opusc,  c.  686  sq.)  Melauch" 
tlcun  has  left  us  an  elaborate  defense  {Consilia  II.,  p.  204)  of  the  practice  of 
inflicting  capital  punislivient  on  heretics.  Writing  to  Calvin  upon  the  same 
subject,  he  says  [Calvini  Epp,,  No.  187):  Legi  scriptum  tuum,  in  quo  refutasti 
luculenter  horrendas  Serveti  blasphemias,  ac  Filio  Dei  gratias  ago,  qui  fuit 


§  321.   Calvin  and  His  Reform  at  Geneva — Beza.     149 

of  the  French  Reformer  which  will  never  be  effaced.  Hav- 
ing firmly  established  his  political  power  at  Geneva,  Calvin, 
through  the  agency  of  the  Academy  which  he  founded  in 
that  city  in  1558,  experienced  little  difficulty  in  replacing  the 
doctrines  of  Zwingli  by  his  own  in  the  Helvetic  Cantons. 
The  ecclesiastical  organization  of  Geneva  became  a  model 
for  that  of  other  countries,  and  was  adopted  by  the  Reformed 
churches  of  France,  the  Netherlands,  England,  Scotland,  Ger- 
many, and  Poland. 

Calvin's  life  was  one  of  unwearied  activity,  and  his  labors 
were  so  numerous  and  so  onerous  that  his  bodily  constitution 
gradually  gave  way  under  them.  His  health  began  to  break 
in  1561,  and,  though  less  active  and  energetic  than  formerly, 
he  lingered  on  till  1564,  when  he  died  on  the  27th  of  May, 
His  memory,  long  held  in  honor,  has  gradually  fallen  into 
disrepute.  At  his  third  centennial  celebration  in  1864,  the 
inhabitants  of  Geneva  refused  to  acknowledge  him  either  as 
their  national  hero  or  national  saint,  and,  by  way  of  protest- 
ing against  the  celebration  altogether,  stuck  up  posters  con- 
taining the  capital  sentences  against  Servede  and  Berthilier.' 
In  1862,  his  latest  descendant,  a  citizen  of  Noyon,  of  high 
standing  and  good  character,  returned  to  the  bosom  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 

Theodore  Beza,  Calvin's  eulogistic  biographer,  took  up  the 
work  of  his  master,  and  carried  out  his  designs  with  energy 
and  ability.  Born  of  a  noble  family  at  Vezelai,  in  Burgundy, 
June  24,  1519,  Beza  received  an  admirable  classical  education 
at  Orleans,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  gave  evidence  of  his 
superior  ability  and  attainments  by  writing  brilliant  and 
witty,  but  indecent  verses.  He  led  for  some  time  a  life  of 
fashionable  dissipation  at  Paris;  but  on  his  arrival  at  Geneva, 

P[>a(ievTT/g  (Umpire)  hujus  tui  agonis.  Tibi  quoque  ccclesia  et  nunc  et  ad  poste- 
ros  gratitudinem  debet  et  debebit.  Tuo  judicio  prorsus  assentior.  AflBrmo  etiam 
vestros  magistratus  juste  fecisse,  quod  hominem  blasphemum,  re  ordine  judicata, 
interfecerunt.  Beza,  De  baereticis  a  civili  magistratu  puniendis.  Beza  went  so 
far  as  to  insist  tbat  the  Antitrinitarians  should  suffer  capital  punishment  even 
after  they  had  retracted  their  errors  (Crenii,  Animadversiones,  XI.  90).  See 
DoUmger,  The  Church  and  the  churches,  the  Papacy,  and  the  States  of  the  Church, 
Munich,  1861,  p.  G8  sq.  Atidbi,  Life  of  Calvin,  McGilVs  transl.,  pp.  413-416. 
'Cfr.  Augsbg.  Univ.  Gaz.,  No.  154,  June  2,  1864. 


150  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

he  came  into  contact  with  Calvin,  by  whose  austere  severity 
the  natural  exuberance  of  his  spirits  and  levity  of  his  charac- 
ter were  so  toned  down  and  kept  in  check,  that  he  gradually 
assumed  an  air  and  demeanor  more  in  harmony  with  the 
grave  deportment  of  his  master.  The  result  of  this  self-dis- 
cipline was  a  happy  mixture  of  attractive  mildness  and  severe 
reserve,  which  made  him  acceptable  to  persons  of  every  de- 
gree, and  a  general  favorite  among  the  partisans  of  Calvin- 
ism, of  which  sect  he  became  the  acknowledged  head  and 
true  founder.  Moreover,  he  brought  to  the  defense  of  the 
Calvinistic  tenets  splendid  intellectual  gifts  and  an  extensive 
erudition,  and,  though  unable,  owing  to  the  slavish  rigorism 
of  the  system,  to  give  full  play  to  his  mental  powers,  man- 
aged nevertheless  to  throw  into  his  pages  such  classic  bril- 
liancy of  style  as  gave  him  a  complete  advantage  over  the 
hostile  attacks  of  the  humanists,  and  notably  of  Castellio. 
His  felicity  in  adapting  his  style  to  that  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures is  both  original  and  peculiar  to  himself,  and  is  especially 
conspicuous  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.' 

§  322.   Calvin's  System. 

Moekler,  Symbolism,  5th  ed.,  p.  21;  Engl,  transl..  New  York,  1844,  pp.  123, 
159,  181,  207,  292,  323,  407;  Hilgers,  Theology  of  Symbolism;  Staudenmaier 
Philosophy  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  p.  698-709;  Hepp,  Dogmatics  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Keformed  Church,  Elberfeld,  1861. 

The  system  of  Calvin,  as  has  been  intimated  above,  resem- 
bles in  its  general  features  the  teachings  of  Luther  and  Zwin- 
gli,  though,  on  the  whole,  it  is  far  more  gloomy  and  severe. 
He  began  to  depart  from  Luther's  teaching  on  the  question 
oi  free-will.  Luther  denied  outright  the  faculty  of  free-will 
in  man;  Calvin,  on  the  contrary,  maintained  that  man  did 
enjoy  a  certain  sort  of  free-will,  but,  at  the  same  time,  con- 
tended that  it  was  subject  to  a  Divine  predestination  of,  a 
more  formal  and  sterner  character  than  that  admitted  by 
either  Luther  or  Zvvingli.     The  one  dominating  element  and 

^  Fajus,  De  vita  et  obitu  Th.  Bezae,  Gen.  1606;  Schlosser,  The  Lives  of  Theo- 
dor  Beza  and  of  Peter  Martyr,  Heidelberg,  1809;  Baum,  Theodore  Beza,  accord- 
ing to  authentic  sources,  Lps.  1843  sq.,  2  vols. 


§  322.   Calvin's  System.  151 

distinguishing  characteristic  of  Calvinism  is  the  doctrine  of 
absolute  'predestination,^  logically  and  rigorously  deduced  from 
his  conception  of  original  sin.  The  decree  of  predestination, 
he  maintained,  is  a  consequence  of  Adam's  fall,  and  is,  there- 
fore, eternal  and  immutable.  Moreover,  the  faculties  of  mar 
are  so  utterly  and  radically  corrupted  and  depraved  by  origi- 
nal sir,  that  man  has  an  overmastering  tendency  to  do  wrong, 
and  can  not  of  himself,  though  he  put  forth  his  best  efforts  in 
the  attempt,  perform  a  single  good  action.  God,  the  primor- 
dial Author  of  good  and  evil,  had  from  the  beginning  set 
apart  a  certain  number  of  His  creatures,  whom  He  doomed 
to  everlasting  punishment,  to  the  end  that  His  justice  might 
be  made  manifest  in  them.  But  that  there  might  be  a  pretext 
for  His  wrath  and  a  justification  for  the  punishment.  He 
caused  the  First  Man  to  fall  into  sin,  and  visited  upon  all  pos- 
terity the  consequences  of  his  revolt.  Those  foredoomed  to 
eternal  loss  commit  sins  by  a  necessity  of  their  being  im- 
pelled to  their  commission  by  the  irresistible  influence  of  the 
Divine  will.  Their  intellect  is  so  blinded  by  Divine  agency 
and  their  will  so  enfeebled,  that  the  one  is  incapable  of  know- 
ing and  the  other  equally  incapable  of  performing  aught  of 
good.  Such  expressions  as  the  following  are  common  in  the 
writings  of  Calvin  :  Man,  acting  under  a  Divine  impulse,  does 
what  it  is  not  lawful  to  do — The  heart  of  man,  obeying  a  cer- 
tain mysterious  Divine  influence,  turns  from  the  good  and 
pursues  the  evil — Man  falls  because  an  overmastering  Provi- 
dence ordains  that  he  shall  fall.^     He  further  held  that  the 


'Calvin  professes  to  base  his  teaching  on  that  of  St.  Augustine;  but  Feiavius 
{Theologicor.  Dogmatum,  Tom.  I.,  lib.  X.,  c.  6-15)  shows  that  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference between  the  two.  Hugo  Grotius  makes  this  very  just  observation  on 
the  character  of  Calvinism:  "Nullum  potuit  in  Christianismum  induci  dogma 
perniciosus  quam  hoc:  hominem,  qui  credidit,  aut  qui  regenitus  est  (nam  haee 
multis  idem  valent),  posse  prolabi  in  scelera  et  flagitia,  sed  accidere  non  posse, 
ut  propterea  divino  favore  excidat  aut  damnationem  incurrat.  Haec  nemo 
veterum  docuit,  nemo  docentem  tulisset,  nee  aliud  evidentius  vidi  ai'gumentum 
detortae  ad  privatos  et  malos  sensus  scripturae,  quam  in  hoc  negotio." 

^  Calvin,  Institut.,  lib.  IV.,  c.  18,  §  2:  "  Homo  justo  Dei  impulsu  agit  quod  sibi 
non  licet."  Lib.  III.,  c.  23,  §  8:  "Cadit  igitur  homo,  Dei  .providentia  sic  ordi- 
nante."  Cf.  Moehler,  Sj^mbolism,  p.  128.  (Tr.)  Calvin  makes  the  following 
commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Ep.  to  the  Romans  ix.  18:  "Nam  res  externae,  quae 
ad  excaecationem  reproborum  faciunt,  illius  irae  (Dei)  sunt  instrumenta.    Satan 


152  Period  3.     Ej)och  1.     Chapter  1. 

reprobate,  even  at  the  moment  he  receives  the  Sacraments,  ia 
as  destitute  of  true  faith  as  he  is  of  sanctifying  grace.  The 
following  is  his  definition  of  predestination :  "By  predestina- 
tion," he  says,  "is  understood  an  eternal  decree  by  which  God 
preordains  what  shall  be  the  lot  of  each  individual.  For,  inas- 
much as  all  are  not  created  for  the  same  end,  some  will  enjoy 
everlasting  happhiess,  and  others  suffer  'never-ending  misery. 
Hence,  according  as  man  is  created  for  the  enjoyment  of  the 
one  or  the  sufferance  of  the  other,  he  is  said  to  be  predes- 
tined either  to  life  or  to  death.''' '^  Concerning  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  imputation,  Calvin  went  a  step  beyond 
Luther,  declaring  that  he  who  believes  is  not  only  per- 
fectly assured  of  his  justification,  but  also  of  his  eternal  sal- 
vation. In  regard  to  the  Sacraments,  he  differed  from  Lu- 
ther, affirming  that  sanctifying  grace  has  no  connection  with 

autem  ipse,  qui  intus  efficaciter  agit,  ita  est  ejus  minister,  ut  nonnisi  ejus  imperio 
agat.  Corruit  ergo  frivolum  illud  effugium,  quod  de  praescieniia  Scholastici 
habent.  Neque  enirn  praevideri  ruinam  impiorum  a  Domino  Paulus  tradit,  sed 
ejus  consilio  et  voluntate  ordinari."  He  is  not  even  at  a  loss  for  an  illustration 
in  confirmation  of  his  doctrine:  "Absalon  incesto  coitu  patris  torum  polluens 
detestabile  scelus  perpetrat:  Deus  tnmen  hoc  opus  suwn  esse  pronunciat"  etc. 

1  The  following  is  a  summary  of  Calvin's  teaching  on  Predestination,  as  given 
by  Blu7it  (Dictionary  of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theology,  London,  1872,  p. 
102):  "The  teaching  of  Calvin  on  Predestination  may  be  summed  up  in  what 
are  called  the  Five  Points,  a  name  given  to  the  peculiarities  of  his  system. 
These  are:  Election  (and  non-election  or  reprobation) ;  redemption;  the  bond- 
age of  the  will;  grace;  final  perseverance.  His  teaching  on  these  subjects  will 
appear  from  a  statement  of  his  theory  on  Predestination.  He  maintained  that 
God  not  only  foresaw,  but  from  all  eternity  decreed,  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  the 
total  corruption  of  his  posterity  by  sin;  all  from  birth  inherit  his  fallen  nature, 
with  its  hereditary  bond  of  sin  and  guilt,  and  are  in  a  state  of  utter  alienation 
from  God;  free-will  Godward  is  totally  lost;  man  in  his  natural  state  can  do 
nothing  but  sin,  and  that  continually.  God  is  pleased  for  wise  reasons,  inscru- 
table to  ourselves  and  independent  of  the  foreseen  merits  of  the  objects  of  His 
mercy,  to  elect  some  from  the  fallen  race  to  salvation.  They  are  made  willing 
by  this  grace,  which  is  irresistible  or  necessarily  effectual,  to  obey  the  Gospel 
call,  are  regenerated  by  His  Spirit,  and  live  in  holiness  and  obedience  to  His 
will,  and  can  not  finally  fall  from  a  state  of  grace.  The  rest  of  mankind  God 
predestines  to  eternal  destruction,  not  on  account  of  foreseen  sin,  though  it  may 
aggravate  their  doom,  but  in  fulfillment  of  His  sovereign  purpose  or  decree. 
He  leaves  them  in  their  fallen  state  without  efiectual  grace,  deprived  of  which 
they  must  necessarily  perish,  as  examples  of  His  hatred  against  sin  and  for  the 
manifestation  of  His  glory."  (Tr.) 


322.   Calvin's  System.  153 


the  visible  sign  of  the  Sacrament,  and  is  not  invariably  effi- 
cacious. 

His  language  relative  to  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  Eucha 
ristic  Presence  is  insidiously  equivocal  and  purposely  obscure. 
Passages  of  it  would  lead  one  to  believe  that  he  is  speaking 
of  a  true  Presence,  and  a  true  eating  of  the  Body  and  drink- 
ing of  the  Blood  of  Cbrist,  and  that  he  really  intends  to  con- 
vey the  meaning  that  the  Body  of  Christ  is  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  the  faith  of  the  recipient,  the  unworthy  receiving 
equally  with  the  worthy.  But,  be  this  as  it  may,  his  teaching 
is  certainly  more  reasonable  and  more  consolatory  than  that 
of  Zvvingli,  according  to  whom  the  only  Presence  of  Christ 
in  the  Eucharist  is  that  "  which  exists  in  the  thoughts  of  a  con- 
templative mind,"  and  the  only  significance  of  the  Sacrament 
itself,  a  remembrance  of  Christ,  His  sufferings,  and  His  death. ^ 
Calvin,  while  dissatisfied  with  the  cold  and  heartless  theorj^ 
of  Zwingli,  was  equally  at  variance  in  his  teaching  with  the 
Catholic  dogma  of  transubstantiation.  He  held  that  the  bread 
and  wine  are  not  changed  into  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ 
by  the  words  of  consecration  pronounced  by  the  priest,  but 
remain  precisely  what  they  were  before  the  act;  that  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ  are  in  Heaven,  and  there  alone,  but  that 
at  the  moment  of  Communion  a  Divine  power,  emanating 
from  the  Body  of  Christ  in  Heaven,  is  communicated  to  the 
soul  of  the  believer.  Thus,  according  to  his  conception  of  the 
Eucharist,  it  contained  two  wholly  distinct  elements — the  one 
material,  which  falls  under  the  senses;  the  other  spiritual, 
which  constitutes  the  Divine  food  of  the  soul,  is  communi- 
cated only  to  those  predestined  to  eternal  life,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  material  element  only  in  so  far  as  the  latter 
is  an  occasion  for  its  conveyance.  Calvin  pretended  to  sup- 
port this  opinion  by  citations  from  Scripture,  but  relied 
mainly  on  the  words  of  St.  John :  "  It  is  the  spirit  that  quick- 
erieth,  the  flesh  pirofiteth  nothing.''^ 


i"Hoc  est,"  said  Zwingli  (De  Vera  et  Falsa  Relig.,  II.,  p.  293),  "id  est,  signifl- 
cat  Corpus  jMeura.  Quod  perinde  est,  ac  si  quae  matrona  conjugis  sui  annulum 
ab  hoc  ipsi  relictum  nionstrans.  En  conjux  hie  est  meus,  dicat."   (Tk.) 

^VI.  64.  "As  regards  Calvin's  theory  (of  the  Eucharist),  though  he  some- 
times uses  Catholic  phraseology  and  speaks  of  Christ  being  in  the  'symhol'  (in 


154  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  1. 

Finall}^  as  regards  the  Church,  Calvin  was  quite  at  one  with 
Luther,  both  doing  their  best  to  misrepresent  her  history,  and 
to  picture  her  as  an  abyss  of  infamy,  during  the  period  be- 
tween the  first  and  the  sixteenth  centuries.  But  Calvin's 
views  are  widely  divergent  from  those  of  the  Wittenberg  Doc- 
tor concerning  the  necessity  of  a  distinct  body  of  ministers  in 
the  Church.  The  former  is  clear  and  definite  on  this  point, 
maintaining  that  there  shall  be  three  grades  in  the  ministry, 
viz.,  Pastors,  Elders,  and  Deacons;  and  that  no  one  shall  as- 
sume these  offices,  unless  called  of  God,  since  no  man,  not  hav- 
ing a  vocation  from  God,  signified  to  him  through  the  voice  of  the 
people,  should  take  upon  him  to  jneach  His  word  and  dispense 
His  Sacraments.  Hence,  in  the  system  of  Calvin,  ordination 
has  a  significance  and  importance  attached  to  it,  of  which  it 
is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  destitute  in  that  of  Luther ;  for  while, 
in  the  former,  it  is,  in  a  certain  limited  sense,  called  a  Sacra- 
ment, and  should  be  conferred,  not  by  the  body  of  the  people, 
but  by  the  presbytery,  in  the  latter  it  signifies  no  more  than 
a  license  to  preach,  granted  by  the  civil  power.  Calvin  fur- 
ther aimed  at  making  the  Church  more  independent  of  the 
civil  power  than  did  either  Luther  or  Zwingli,  his  principle 
being  '■'•Ecclesia  est  sui  juris" — a  principle,  however,  which  he 
advocated  only  for  a  time.  In  fine,  Calvinistic  communities 
were  designed  to  be  wholly  independent  the  one  of  the  other, 
each  constituting  a  sort  of  little  republic  in  itself;  while,  in 
the  Catholic  system,  individual  churches  are  only  parts  of  a 
grand  organism,  extending  over  the  whole  world,  and  depend- 
ing on  a  central  government  and  a  universally-acknowledged 
Head — the  representative  of  Christ  on  earth.  But  in  order 
to  unite  the  individual  churches  by  some  sort  of  bond,  Calvin 


symbo'o),  and  of  our  being  'partakers  of  His  substance'  (participes  substantiae 
ejus);  yet  it  is  certain  that  he  wholly  rejected  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Euchar- 
ist. Thus  he  asserts  that  our  Lord's  human  nature  can  only  be  present  at  the 
right  hand  of  God,  and  can  not,  in  any  sense  whatever,  be  present  under  Eu- 
charistic  Eigns.  .  .  .  Calvin  maintained  that  the  Eucharist  was  especially 
designed  to  kindle  the  believers  faith,  and  to  raise  his  heart  to  Christ  sitting  at 
the  right  hand  of  God.  He  thus  illustrates  his  theory :  That  as  the  sun,  though 
so  distant,  can  infuse  light  and  heat,  so  Christ,  though  at  the  right  hand  of  God, 
shines  into  the  hearts  of  the  faithful  receivers,  and  fills  them  with  His  grace 
and  presence."     Blunt,  1.  c,  p.  623.     (Tk.) 


322.   Calvin's  System.  155 


established  Synods,  which  played  a  much  more  important  part 
in  his  than  in  the  Lutheran  system.  The  rigorous  exclusive- 
ness  of  Calvin's  opinions,  and  the  inflexible  sternness  of  his 
character,  did  not  prevent  him  from  stretching  a  point  when 
he  conceived  it  to  be  his  interest  to  do  so.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, he  formed  a  union  with  the  Swiss,  when  such  union 
seemed  necessary  for  the  advancement  of  his  cause ;  and,  in 
his  conference  with  Dean  BuUinger  {Consensus  Tigurinus, 
1549),  he,  like  Zwingli,  employed  language  equally  hostile  to 
Catholics  and  Lutherans,  saying  that  it  was  quite  as  senseless 
to  affirm  either  "  that  the  Body  of  Christ  was  under  the  forms 
of  bread,  or  that  It  was  united  with  the  bread,  as  to  affirm 
that  transubstantiation  took  place,  and  that  the  bread  was 
changed  into  the  body  of  Christ."^  To  conclude,  Calvin,  like 
Zwingli,  was  the  consistent  and  inveterate  foe  of  all  forms, 
was  ardently  bent  upon  abolishing  every  sort  of  outward  cere- 
monial, [and  manifested  the  most  determined  opposition  to 
whatever  embellishes  divine  worship,  elevates  the  soul,  or 
warms  the  heart. 


1  Non  minus  absurdum  judicamus,  Christum  sub  pane  locare  vel  cuv    pane 
copulare,  quam  panem  transsubstantiare  in  corpus  ejus. 


CHAPTER  IL 

PROPAGATION   OF   PROTESTANTISM   IN   EUROPE. 

Dbllinger  treats  this  subject  very  fully  in  the  continuation  of  Horlig's  Churct 
Hist,,  pp.  481-691. 

§  323.  Protestantism  in  Prussia. 

Chief  Sources. — Chronicles  of  Simon  Grunau  (a  Dominican  of  Danzig), 
who  was  an  eye-witness  to  what  he  relates.  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Encyclopaed., 
Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  679  sq.     French  Trans.,  Vol.  19,  p.  266. 

The  Margrave,  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  who  had  been  chosen 
Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  in  1511,  when  he  was 
scarcely  twenty-one  years  of  age,  early  joined  the  Protestant 
League.  "Western  Prussia  had  belonged  to  Poland  since  1466, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  country  was  held  in  fief  of  the  Pol- 
ish King,  Sigismund,  to  whom  Albert,  receiving  encourage- 
ment from  many  quarters,  refused  to  render  feudal  allegiance. 
Sigismund,  in  consequence,  had  recourse  to  arms  to  maintain 
his  rights  (1519) ;  and  Albert,  failing  to  receive  the  aid  that 
had  been  promised  him,  was  forced  to  submit ;  but,  through 
the  friendly  offices  of  the  Emperor,  a  four  years'  truce  was 
agreed  to  by  both  parties,  at  Thorn,^  April  5,  1521.  The 
Pope  also  interposed,  and  made  an  eflbrt  to  effect  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  Albert  and  Sigismund  ;^  but  the  former  had  his 
mind  fully  made  up  to  prosecute  his  plans  for  independence, 
and  would  listen  to  no  overture  that  in  any  way  interfered 
with  his  purpose. 

In  the  year  1522,  he  traveled  into  Germany,  accompanied 
by  James  of  Dobeneck,  Bishop  of  Pomesania,  and  John  of  Po- 
lenz,  Bishop  of  Samland,  both  of  whom  were  strongly  sus- 


^  Freiburg,  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  681.     Er.  Trans.,  Vol.  19,  p.  268. 
Cliambers'  Cyclop.,  Art.  Albert,  Duke  of  Prussia.     (Tr.) 

2  Petri  Bembi,  Epistolae  Leonis  X.  nomine  scriptae,  lib.  I.,  ep.  22 ;  lib.  II. 
ep.  21. 

(156) 


§  323.  Protestantism  in  Prussia.  157 

pected  of  being  favorably  disposed  toward  the  new  religious 
teachings.  He  applied  for  succor  to  the  Diet  of  Niirnberg, 
then  in  session,  but  was  refused  (1522),  and,  having  some  idle 
time  on  his  hands,  became  one  of  the  audience  that  flocked 
to  hear  Osiander  expounding  the  new  doctrines.  From  a 
curious  he  became  an  interested  and  fascinated  listener,  and, 
while  in  this  frame  of  mind,  sought  counsel  of  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  as  to  the  best  way  out  of  his  difficulties,  and  re- 
ceived the  advice  to  return  and  abolish  the  absurd  and  foolish, 
as  they  termed  it,  Rule  of  his  Order;  to  take  a  wife,  and 
make  Prussia  a  secular  dukedom.  The  advice  was  accepted, 
and  promptly  acted  upon. 

Albert  at  once  began  to  cast  about  for  Protestant  preachers, 
and  in  that  very  year  two  Lutherans,  John  Brismann  and 
Peter  Amandus,  were  formally  installed  at  Konigsberg.  Monks 
were  driven  from  their  monasteries,  and  nuns  from  their  con- 
vents;  the  suspected  Bishops  of  Samland  and  Pomesania 
publicly  declared  in  favor  of  Lutheranism  (1524);  and  Frede- 
ric von  Heideck,  counsellor  to  Albert,  displayed  a  singular  ac- 
tivity in  furthering  its  interests. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  four  years'  truce  (1525),  Albert 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Cracow,  with  Sigismund,  King 
of  Poland,  in  virtue  of  w^hich  the  external  portion  of  eastern 
Prussia  was  secured  to  Albert  and  his  heirs,  and  the  suze- 
rainty of  Sigismund  over  the  same  territory  acknowledged. 

When  this  treaty  became  known  to  the  provincial  Estates 
of  the  Duchy,  the  inhabitants,  wearied  of  the  protracted  and 
seemingly  inveterate  feuds  with  Poland,  received  the  news 
with  transports  of  joy;  while  Weiss,  who  had  lately  succeeded 
to  the  bishopric  of  Samland,  as  a  proof  that  his  sympathies 
were  with  the  people,  surrendered  the  temporal  administra- 
tion of  his  diocese  to  the  reigning  prince,  assigning  as  a  reason 
for  his  action  that  bishops  were  called  to  preach,  and  not  tc 
govern. 

To  this  general  transformation  of  affairs,  only  one  man  of 
name,  the  Commander  of  3Iemel,  had  the  courage  and  manli- 
ness to  offer  any  opposition,  and  even  his  resistance  was  but 
feeble  and  temporary.  The  organization  of  the  new  church  was 
rapidly  pushed  forward,  and  soon  completed ;  a  ritual  in  the 


158  Period  3.     E'poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Polish  language  was  introduced  (1526) ;  and  John  Seclusianus 
was  appointed  preacher  at  Koenigsberg.  Duke  Albert  was 
solemnly  married,  in  1526,  to  Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  King 
of  Denmark,  an  act  which  he  intended  as  a  public  disavowal 
of  all  farther  connection  with  either  the  Teutonic  Order  or 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  which  he  attempted  to  justify  in  an 
apology  for  his  conduct,  published  at  the  time,  and  filled  with 
brutal  expressions  of  contempt  against  the  Church  he  had  be- 
trayed and  dishonored.  The  Pope  protested  against  this  pub- 
lic and  shameless  apostasy,  and  called  upon  the  Emperor  to 
take  rigorous  measures  for  the  punishment  of  the  crime. 
The  latter  at  once  declared  Albert  under  ban  of  the  Empire, 
and  the  Teutonic  Order,  though  stript  of  its  legal  rights,  of- 
fered an  emphatic,  but  vain,  resistance ;  the  action  of  both 
was  frustrated  by  the  insidious  course  pursued  by  King  Sig- 
ismund. 

The  Confession  of  Augsburg  was  adopted  by  Albert  in 
1530,  who,  in  order  to  possess  a  nursery  of  Lutheranism 
within  his  dominions,  founded  the  University  of  Koenigsberg ; 
and,  knowing  that  neither  the  Pope  nor  the  Emperor  would 
give  it  his  approval,  sought  and  obtained  for  it  the  sanction 
of  the  King  of  Poland.  The  University  soon  became  the 
theater  of  those  theological  discussions  which,  in  the  event, 
proved  so  disastrous  to  Osiander  himself,  their  chief  author, 
and,  after  his  death,  to  his  followers,  called  Osiandrists,  who, 
on  account  of  their  teachings,  were  banished  from  every  part 
of  Prussia,  in  1567.^ 

Albert,  not  content  with  his  own  apostasy,  employed  every 
resource  of  his  power  to  compel  his  subjects  to  follow  his  ex- 
ample. Holding  the  principle,  "■  cujus  regio,  illius  religio,"  so 
subversive  of  freedom  and  destructive  of  the  rights  of  con- 
science, he  forced  all  his  States  to  cease  to  obey  the  Church 
that  had  raised  them  from  barbarism  and  ignorance  to  en- 
lightenment and  civilization ;  and  so  successful  were  his  ef- 
forts, and  so  complete  the  alienation  of  the  people  from  the 
ancient  faith,  that,  on  his  death,  in  1568,  Lutheranism  was 
everywhere  predominant,  and  neither  his  successor  nor  any 


^Chambers  Cyclop.,  Art.  Osiander.     (Tr.) 


§  324.  ProtestaiifUm  in  Sile.na.  159 

of  his  subjects  thought  of  returning  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
Theiner  has  attempted  to  show  that  Albert's  successor  eventu- 
ally embraced  the  Catholic  faith,  but  his  arguments  have  been 
successfully  refuted  and  his  conclusion  proved  incorrect  by 

Voigt} 

§  324.  Protestantism  in  Silesia. 

Ehrenkorn,  Church  History  of  Silesia,  Freistadt,  1713,  Pt.  I.,  from  ch.  5tn, 
Pt.  II.  tBuckisch  (Koyal  government  cleric  at  Brieg,  Imperial  Counsellor  and 
Historiographer),  Acts  of  Keligion  in  Silesia,  7  vols,  in  fol.,  unhappily  still  in 
MSC.  This  -work  is  the  chief  source  used  by  Fibiger  (Master  and  Prelate  of 
St.  Matthew's,  Breslau),  in  writing  his  Lutheranism  in  Silesia  and  the  Persecu- 
tions suffered  by  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church  in  Consequence,  Breslau,  1712- 
1733,  3  Pts.,  4to.  ■\Bach,  Authentic  C.  H.  of  the  County  of  Glatz,  Breslau, 
1841.  t Buchmann,  Antimosler,  or  an  Attempt  to  form  a  just  appreciation  of 
Protestant  Silesia  under  Austrian  Domination,  Spire,  1843.  Hensel,  Hist,  of 
the  Protestant  Church  in  Silesia,  Lps.  and  Liegnitz,  1764.  Rosenberg,  Hist,  of 
the  Silesian  Reformation,  Breslau,  1767.  A.  Menzel,  Modern  Hist,  of  the  Ger- 
mans, Vol.  III.,  pp.  91-96;  Vol.  V.,  pp.  238-256,  422  sq.;  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  140- 
144,  220-285.     Ddllinger,  The  Reformation,  etc..  Vol.  I.,  pp.  226-273. 

Previously  to  the  year  1163,  Silesia  formed  part  of  Poland, 
but  was,  after  this  date,  governed  by  independent  Dukes. 
John,  King  of  Bohemia,  skillfully  turning  to  his  own  advan- 
tage the  internal  dissensions  of  the  countr}^  so  directed  af- 
fairs that,  in  1335,  nearly  the  whole  of  Silesia  acknowledged 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Kings  of  Bohemia.  The  duchies  of 
Jauer  and  Schweidnitz  and  the  bishopric  of  Breslau  resisted 
for  a  time,  but  gradually  acquiesced — the  two  former  in  the 
year  1392,  and  the  latter  in  1442. 

While  the  Lutheran  troubles  were  still  at  their  height, 
Louis  II.,  the  young  King  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  perished 
fighting  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Mohacz  (1526),  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  brother  of  Charles  V., 
whom  the  Bohemians  called  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  and  to 
whom  the  wife  of  his  brother,  Louis,  transferred  the  crown 
of  Hungary. 

The  evil  influences  of  the  decay  of  spiritual  life  and  eccle- 

1  Theiner,  Albert,  Duke  of  Prussia,  etc. ;  his  Return  to  the  Catholic  Church  a. 
s.  f.,  Augsburg,  1846.  Voigt,  Letter  addres.sed  to  Father  Augustine  Theiner, 
etc.,  Koenigsberg,  1846.  Conf.  Freiburg  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  700.  Fr. 
tr..  Vol.  19,  p.  289.  But,  above  all,  Raess,  Converts  since  the  Time  of  the  Re- 
formation, Vol.  II.,  pp.  584-595. 


IGO  Period  3,     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

siastical  discipline,  so  marked  in  many  countries  of  Europe 
during  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  causes  of  which  are  to 
be  sought  in  the  moral  degeneracy  of  the  clergy  and  the 
worldliness  of  the  bishops,  were  especially  active  and  con- 
spicuous in  Silesia,  whose  condition  was  not  improved  by  its 
alliance  with  the  neighboring  country  of  Bohemia,  where  the 
Hussites  were  disturbing  the  public  peace  and  distracting  in- 
dividual minds  by  religious  controversy.  Thus  prepared  for 
religious  innovation,  Silesia  was  one  of  the  first  countries  of 
Europe  to  embrace  Lutheranism,  and  the  readiness  and  alac- 
rity with  which  its  inhabitants  accepted  the  new  teachings 
must  be  mainly  ascribed  to  the  depraved  morals  of  the  clergy, 
an  admission  which  is  candidly  made  by  Fibiger}  There  is, 
however,  another  and  a  very  important  cause  which  goes  a 
long  way  in  accounting  for  the  rapid  spread  of  error  in  that 
country,  and  which  deserves  special  mention.  This  is  the 
apostasy  and  faithlessness  of  a  bishop.  John  V.^  who  was 
bishop  of  Breslau  from  1506  to  1520,  so  far  forgot  his  dig- 
nity as  a  man  and  his  dnty  as  a  prelate  that  he  opened  a 
correspondence  with  Melanchthon  and  Luther,  and  received 
from  these  heresiarchs  the  following  flattering  eulogy  :  "  Were 
there  ten  bishops  like  John,  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Gospel  in 
Germany  would  be  assured." 

It  is  said  that  the  Lutheran  doctrines  were  first  preached 
(from  1518}  in  the  territory  of  Baron  Zedlitz,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Jauer,  by  Melchior  Hoffmcmn,  an  Augustinian  monk,  who  was 
shortly  after  joined  at  Freistadt  by  John  of  Meichenberg,  a 
friend  of  Melanchthon's. 

At  Liegnitz,  Duke  Frederic  11.  was  the  special  friend  and 
patron  of  Lutheranism.  In  the  year  15*23  he  installed  Valen- 
tine Krautwald,  a  Lutheran  preacber,  in  the  church  of  St. 
John,  and  appointed  two  of  Luther's  friends  to  chairs  in  the 
College  of  Goldberg.  But  the  main  cause  of  the  triumph  of 
Lutheranism  in  Silesia  is  to  be  sought  in  the  action  of  the 
Municipal  Council  of  Breslau,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
which  at  an  early  day  declared  openly  in  favor  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  doctrines.     In  consequence  of  a  difficulty 


1  Cf.  Ft.  I.,  ch.  12,  pp.  84,  85 ;  Meyizel,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  93  sq. 


§  324.  Protestantism  in  Silesia.  161 

which  arose  between  the  Cathedral  Chapter  and  the  Council, 
the  latter  body  banished  the  vicars  of  the  parochial  church 
of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  and  appointed  a  number  of  Lutheran 
ministers  to  till  their  places.  In  the  year  1522  a  mob,  assem- 
bled in  the  market-place  of  the  city,  proceeded  to  make  a 
mockery  of  the  holy  mysteries  of  religion,  to  ridicule  the  cer- 
emonies of  the  Church,  and  to  deride  monks,  nuns,  and  priests 
by  strutting  about  in  their  habits  and  dress  and  simulating 
their  actions,  while  the  civic  magistrates  looked  on  approv- 
ingly and  gave  signs  of  encouragement.  Moreover,  the  Coun- 
cil drove  the  Bernardines  from  their  convent,  and  confiscated 
this  and  other  property  belonging  to  the  Church.  King  Louis 
ordered  the  property  thus  illegally  seized  to  be  restored ;  but 
owing  to  the  menacing  attitude  of  the  Turks,  who  were  then 
seriously  threatening  his  States,  he  was  unable  to  enforce  his 
decree,  and  it  was  in  consequence  disregarded.  For  a  similar 
reason  the  efforts  of  Pope  Hadrian  VI.  (ep.  die  23  Julii,  1523), 
of  James,  Bishop  of  Salza  (1520-1539),  and  Sigismund,  King 
of  Pohmd,  to  defend  the  rights  and  uphold  the  dignitj-  of  the 
Catholic  Church  were  ineffectual  and  nugatory.^  The  civic 
magistrates  grew  daily  more  bold  and  aggressive,  and  con- 
scious that  they  could  now  act  without  hindrance,  forcibly 
ejected  the  worthy  Joachim  Zieris,  whom  the  Bishop  had  ap- 
pointed Rector  of  the  Church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  and 
called  to  fill  his  place,  under  the  title  of  Cathedral  Preacher 
of  Breshiu,  Doctor  Hess  (1523),  who  had  recently  proclaimed 
the  Lutheran  errors  from  the  pulpit  in  his  native  town  of 
Niirnberg.  Simultaneously  the  chaplains  of  the  churches  of 
St.  Elizabeth  and  St.  Mary  Magdalen  were  summoned  before 
the  Council,  and  commanded  for  the  future  to  acknowledge 
no  superior  other  than  Doctor  Hess,  a  command  which,  in  the 
following  year  (1524),  was  extended  to  all  the  clergy  of  the 
city,  with  the  additional  injunction  that  "  they  should  put 
aside  all  human  ordinances  and  the  frivolous  interpretations 
of  the  Fathers,"  and  in  their  sermons  take  their  new  superior 
as  theit  model.     And  so  cowardly  and  subservient   had  the 


'  For  details,  see  Fibirjer,  Pt.  I.,  chs.  5-11,  pp.  32-77 
VOL.    Ill — 11 


162  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

clergy  grown,  and  so  unworthy  of  their  high  calling,  that 
among  them  all,  Doctor  Sporn.  Prior  of  St.  Albert's,  alone  had 
the  manly  conrage  to  resist  tlie  impertinent  demands  of  the 
Council,  and  to  say  i)lainly  and  boldly  '■Hhat  it  was  the  office  of 
the  bishoj'),  and  not  of  magistrates,  to  give  instractions  as  to  the 
'proper  method  of  ijreaching  the  Gospel.^'  But  his  outspoken 
honesty  was  not  appreciated,  or  rather  it  was,  and  he  was 
banished  the  city  in  consequence.'  The  bishop  did  wdiat  he 
could  to  throw  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  installation  of  Hess, 
and  made  the  matter  the  subject  of  some  clever  controversial 
writings.  His  efforts  obtained  probably  as  large  a  measure 
of  success  as  those  of  any  one  could,  who,  holding  the  office 
of  bishop,  was  destitute  of  the  gravity,  the  earnestness,  and 
the  firmness  so  befitting  that  character.  The  members  of  the 
Council,  taking  courage  from  the  vacillating  weakness  of  the 
bishop,  went  on  to  commit  fresh  deeds  of  violence.  The 
magnificent  convent  of  the  Premonslratcnsians  on  Mount  Elbing 
was  razed  with  the  ground  (1529),  under  the  frivolous  pretext 
that  it  might  afford  a  refuge  to  the  Turks,  and  numerous 
churches  were  entered  and  plundered  of  their  ornaments  and 
precious  stones.^ 

The  action  of  Breslau  furnished  a  precedent  and  example, 
which  was  closely  followed  by  the  Dukes  of  Silesia,  of  whom 
Frederic  II.,  of  LUgnitz  and  Brieg,  w^as  especially  conspicu- 
ous for  his  proselytizing  activity.^  Besides  calling  in  Lutheran 
preachers  from  neighboring  territories,  and  installing  them  at 
Goldberg  and  Liegnitz,  he  gave  a  general  order  to  all  the 
clergy  to  preach  "  evangelically,"  wdiich,  failing  to  do,  they 
were  to  be  deprived  of  the  usual  tax  heretofore  levied  upon 
and  paid  by  the  people.  With  this  order,  Father  Antiiony,  a 
discalced  Carmelite,  refused  to  comply  ;  and  for  persisting  in 
preaching  the  Catholic  faith,  he  and  the  other  members  of  his 
Order  were  expelled  the  country.  These  so-called  Evangeli- 
cals entered  and  pillaged  the  Catholic  churches  of  Gross- 
glogau,  and  perpetrated  deeds  of  brutal  violence  upon   the 


'For  particulars,  see  Fibiyer,  Pt.  I.,  ch.  11,  12;  and  ch.  15,  p.  131. 

'^  j-Goerllck.  Hist,  of  tho  Premonstratensians  of  St.  Vincent's,  Breslau,  1836  sq. 

»  Fibiger,  Pt.  I.,  ch.  14,  pp.  118  sq. 


324.   Protestantism  in  Silesia.  163 


inhabitants  of  that  city.  Scenes  equally  saddening  were 
enacted  at  Schiceidnitz  and  other  cities  and  towns  of  the 
country,  and  it  was  not  long  before  Lutheranism  was  every- 
where triumphant.^ 

King  Ferdinand  I.  (1526-1584),  though  ardently  devoted  to 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  endowed  Avith  an  energy  and 
strength  of  character  which  admirably  fitted  him  to  take  up 
her  defense,  was  unfortunately  at  this  time  engaged  in  repel- 
ling the  aggressions  of  the  Turks,  and  in  consequence  unable 
to  oppose  any  effectual  resistance  to  the  advance  of  Luther- 
anism. On  the  other  hand,  the  bishojjs,  who  should  liave 
been  the  natural  defenders  of  the  Church,  and  who  at  that 
very  time  were  in  the  possession  of  great  political  power, 
having,  in  1526,  in  addition  to  their  other  civic  offices,  become 
the  governors-general  of  the  country,  were  wholly  given  up 
to  secular  affairs.  Influenced  by  the  spirit,  and  swayed  by 
the  passions  of  the  world,  they  did  not  bring  to  the  exercise 
of  the  functions  of  their  sacred  office  the  steadj',  energetic 
earnestness  so  indispensable  to  success  in  such  critical  seasons; 
or,  what  is  still  more  deplorable,  they  were  Lutherans  at 
heart,  and  would  have  openly  professed  the  errors  they  se- 
cretly encouraged  were  they  not  deterred  from  doing  so  bj' 
the  fear  of  losing  their  handsome  revenues.^ 

As  a  rule,  the  parish-priests  were  either  lazy  or  corrupt ; 
and  being  no  longer  able  to  look  up  to  those  who  were  set 
over  them  as  patterns  of  virtue,  or  to  seek  from  them  the 
comfort  and  counsel  so  necessary  to  sustain  a  priest  in  the 
performance  of  the  sacred  duties  of  his  office,  they  offered 
but  a  feeble  resistance  to  the  commands  of  arbitrary  dukes 
and  insolent  magistrates.  As  a  consequence,  Von  Senitz,  Dr. 
Colo,  and  Kupferschmidt  were  the  only  three  priests  out  of  all 
the   clergy  in    the    circles   of   Brieg,    Ohlau,    Strehleu,    and 

1  Menzel,  Modern  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  Vol.  V.,  p.  244  sq. 

*  Concerning  the  successors  in  office  of  James  of  Saltza,  in  the  See  of  Bres- 
lau,  viz-  Balthasar  of  Pommnitz  (1539-1562);  Gaspar  of  Logau  (1562-1574); 
Martin  Gerstmann  (1574-1585);  Andrcv)  Gerin  (1585-1596);  Paid  Albert 
(1596-1  GOO);  John  Sitsch  (1600-1609);  conf.  Buchmann,  1.  c,  p.  9-11;  and 
Herber,  Silesiae  sacrao  Origines,  p.  82  sq.  On  the  satisfaction  of  the  Protest- 
ants at  the  election  of  Balthasar  Pommnitz,  conf.  Menzel,  Vol.  III.,  p.  93  sq. 


164  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


Nimptsch  who  bad  the  courage  to  refuse  obedience  to  tbe  or- 
ders of  Frederic,  and  wbo,  rather  than  deny  their  faith,  went 
into  exile. 

It  was  not  long  till  tbe  Lutherans  of  Silesia  began  to  quarrel 
among  themselves,  as  they  had  done  in  every  other  conntr}-. 
^\\Q  doaivm&B  oi  justification  and  tbe  ^wcAam^  were  subjects 
of  tbe  liveliest  discussion  and  the  widest  divergency  of  opin- 
ion. In  these  controversies  Gaspar  Schx'enkfeld,  counsellor  to 
Duke  Frederic  II.  and  canon  of  Liegnitz,  a  man  of  vigorous 
and  well-trained  intellect,  took  the  most  conspicuous  part.* 

§  325.  Protestantism  in  Poland.     (Cf.  §  182.) 

M.  Lubieniecki,  Historia  reformationis  Polonicae,  Freistadt,  1683.  Jura  et 
libei'tates  dissidentium  in  regno  Poloniae,  Berolini,  1707,  fol.  Friese,  Docu- 
ments for  a  Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  Pt.  II.,  Vols.  I. 
and  II.,  Breslau,  178G.  Vicissitudes  of  the  Eeformation  in  Poland,  Ham- 
burg, 17G8-1770,  III.  Pts.  Ostrowski,  1.  c.  (see  Vol.  II.,  p.  246),  T.  III. 
Loclmer,  Facta  et  rationes  earum  familiar,  christianar.  in  Polonia,  quae  ab  Eo- 
clesia  catholica  alienae  fuerunt  usque  ad  consens.  Sendomir.  tempora  (Acta  Soc. 
Jablo7iovia7mc  nova,  Lps.  1832,  Tom.  IV.,  fasc.  2).  Krasinski,  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Kise,  Progress,  and  Decline  of  the  Pieformation  in  Poland,  Vol. 
I.,  London,  1838  (Germ,  by  Lindau,  Lps.  1841).  Lucnszewicz,  Essay  of  a  Hist, 
of  the  Dissenters  in  the  cityof  Posen  and  in  Great-Poland  during  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  (Germ,  by  Vincent  of  Balitzky,  Darmstadt,  1843). 

The  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  Poland  was  ac- 
companied by  many  and  serious  difficulties,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  country  bad  been  in  a  measure  prepared  for 
its  reception  by  the  Hussites  and  the  Moravian  Brethren,  who 
had  sought  a  refuge  there  when  fleeing  from  persecution  in 
other  lands.  First  of  all.  King  Sigismund  I.  (1501-1548), 
who  was  a  sincere  Catholic,  and  earnestly  devoted  to  tbe  in- 
terests of  tbe  Church,  put  forth  every  eflbrt  to  prevent  the 
errors  of  Protestantism  from  tainting  the  minds  of  the  Polish 
people,  whose  instincts  and  sympathies  were  then,  as  they 
have  been  in  every  age  since  their  conversion  to  Christianity, 
deeply  and   intensely  Catholic.^     Learning   that   tbe  young 


'  This  subject  will  be  treated  in  detail  in  §  341. 

2  Conf.  Agenda  secundum  Rubricam  eccl.  Metropol.  Gnesnon.   edit.   1508, 
Cracoviae,  which  had  been  in  use  long  before  Luther  lived. 


325.   Protestantism  in  Poland.  166 


Poles,  who  had  made  their  studies  at  Wittenberg,  following 
the  example  set  them  b}'  the  young  men  of  other  countries, 
had  brought  home  with  them  some  of  the  writings  of  Luther, 
and  were  industriously  engaged  in  scattering  them  among  his 
subjects,  he  at  once  took  every  possible  precaution  to  stop  the 
spread  of  these  mischievous  publications.  It  was  enacted  at 
the  Diet  of  Thorn  (1520)  that  no  one  should  have  the  writings 
of  Luther  in  his  possession.  The  efforts  of  Sigismund  to 
preserve  the  purit}^  of  faith  in  Poland  were  ably  seconded 
hy  John  LasJd,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  (f  1531),  and  Andrew 
Krzycki,  Chancellor  to  Queen  Bona,  and  subsecpiently  Bishop 
of  Przemysl  (1524),  both  of  whom  were  among  the  most 
zealous  defenders  of  Catholic  doctrine  in  that  age.^  A  com- 
mission was  also  appointed  to  make  search  for  and  confiscate 
all  heretical  hooks.  But,  in  spite  of  all  these  measures,  Pro- 
testantism found  its  way  into  the  University  of  Cracow,  where 
it  was  introduced  by  31artin  Glossa.  It  was  preached  at 
Poscn  b}'  John  Sedusian,  who  first  published  in  print^  a  com- 
ylcie  translation  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Polish  lan- 
guage (1551-1552),  and  at  Danzig  by  the  monk  Jacob  I{nade 
(1518),  through  whose  exhortations  a  number  of  the  burghers 
Avcre  led  to  ask  to  be  formally  instructed  in  the  new  teach- 
ings. Knade,  though  obliged  to  flee  from  the  anger  of  an  in- 
dignant people,  was  soon  brought  back  to  the  city  by  his 
partisans.  Others  of  the  Lutherans  did  not  fare  so  well. 
Some  of  the  more  intemperate  were  put  to  death,  and  some 
received  orders  to  quit  the  city  within  a  fortnight;  while 
monks  and  nuns,  who  had  broken  their  vows  and  married, 
were  commanded  to  be  away  within  twenty-four  hours.  The 
onl}'  efl:ect  of  these  measures  was  to  excite  the  passions  of  the 
inhabitants,   who   now  expressed   themselves  with  so  much 


^  Consult  above  all  the  Diocesan  Statutes,  and  the  very  old  collection  of  them 
by  John  Laski,  and  another  by  Stanislaus  Karnkowski,  both  of  which  have  been 
arranged  in  five  books  and  edited  by  Wenzyk,  Cracow,  1630. 

^  We  say  advisedly  "  in  ])rint"  for  even  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  century 
Pc'.ish  authors  make  mention  of  translations  of  various  portions  of  the  Bible 
into  tlieir  language.  They  specify  the  Psalter,  and  in  fact  nearly  every  book 
of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Cf.  le  Long,  Bibliotheca  sacra  in  binos 
syllabos  distincta,  etc.,  Paris,  1723,  fol.,  Sectio  ILL,  Biblia  Polonica,  p.  430  sq. 


166  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


veliemeuce  in  favor  of  the  new  teachings  that  the  king,  fear- 
ing they  might  rise  in  revolt  and  make  themselves  masters 
of  the  city,  thought  it  prudent  to  adopt  more  moderate  coun- 
sels. From  Danzig  Lutheranism  was  carried  to  the  cities  of 
Thorn  and  Elbing.  To  prevent  the  further  spread  of  error,  it 
was  enacted  at  the  Synod  of  Petrihau  that  the  followers  <:{ 
Luther  should  be  arrested  and  brought  to  trial,  and  such 
measures  taken  against  them  as  would  efi'ectually  repress  the 
heresy.  One  of  these  was  a  prohibition  forbidding  any  one 
to  hold  public  office  in  Poland  who  had  made  his  studies  at 
"Wittenberg.  The  decree,  however,  was  never  rigorously  en- 
forced. 

But,  in  spite  of  this  vigorous  opposition,  Protestantism,  pro- 
tected and  encouraged  b}-  a  free-thinkiug  nobility,  steadily 
gained  ground,  and  at  the  death  of  Sigismund  I.  had  invaded 
many  of  the  provinces  of  Poland.  To  add  to  the  strength, 
and  swell  the  number  of  the  Polish  Protestants,  in  the  suc- 
ceeding reign  of  Sigismund  Augustas  11.  (1548-157-),  a  large 
body  of  Bohemian  Brethren,  who  had  been  sent  into  exile  by 
King  Ferdinand,  arrived  at  Posen.  But  the  citizens  soon 
tired  of  their  presence,  and  the  exiles  again  setting  out  on 
their  pilgrimage,  directed  their  course  toward  3Iarienicerder, 
in  West  Prussia. 

It  soon  appeared  that  the  new  king's  opposition  to  the 
teachings  of  Protestantism  was  vacillating  rather  than  de- 
cided, and  feeble  rather  than  energetic  ;  and  in  consequence 
Poland  became  the  asylum  w^here  sectaries  of  nearly  every 
conceivable  shade  of  opinion  sought  refuge.  Thither  flocked 
Bohemian  Brethren  and  Lutherans,  Reformed  Christians  and 
Unitarians  (Socinians),  from  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Among 
these  last,  the  most  prominent  were  the  Franciscan,  LismaniUy 
confessor  to  Queen  Bona,  and  Johyi  of  Lasko,  whose  name  was 
well  known  in  England. 

I'rince  Radziwill  of  Lithuania,  a  zealous  member  of  the 
Reformed  Christians,  following  the  example  of  the  Lutherans, 
had  a  translation  of  the  Bible  made  into  the  Polish  language, 
according  to  the  sense  of  his  own  sect,  and  published  in  1563.' 


1  The  first  printed  edition  of  the  New  Testament  published  by  Catholics  was 


§  325.  Protestantism  in  Poland.  107 

In  1555  u  ^^  national  Synod,'''  composed  of  delegates  from 
every  province,  and  presided  over  by  the  king,  was  held  at 
Pctrikan,  when  it  was  determined  to  arrange  for  a  conference 
of  Catholic  bishops  and  Protestant  divines,  to  which  llelanch- 
ihon,  Lasko,  Calvin,  and  Beza  were  to  be  invited,  and  a  sym- 
!)()!  of  faith  drawn  np,  which  should  embrace  general  prin- 
(;i[)les  recognized  by  all,  and  ignore  such  teachings  as  some 
would  not  accept.^  The  king,  strange  to  say,  approved  tlie 
action  of  the  "  Synod,"  and  requested  Pope  Paul  IV.  to  au- 
thorize the  Mass  to  be  said  in  the  Polish  language,  to  permit 
Communion  to  be  taken  under  both  kinds,  to  give  priests 
leave  to  marry,  to  sanction  the  convocation  of  a  national  coun- 
cil, and  to  abolish  the  payment  of  annats.  These  requests,  as 
might  have  been  foreseen,  were  denied.  The  danger  which 
threatened  the  Catholic  Church  grew  daily  more  grave  and 
alarming.  The  Polish  nobles,  thoroughly  rationalistic  in 
principle,  and  thoroughly  Protestant  in  sympathy,  and  exer- 
cising over  the  minds  of  their  serfs  a  supremac}"  as  complete 
in  tlio  spiritual  order  as  that  which  they  exercised  over  their 
Ijodies  was  in  the  material,  alienated  these  poor  people  from 
the  Church,  though  nothing  could  have  been  more  unnatural 
to  tlie  Polish  heart,  or  more  revolting  to  Polish  instincts,  than 
the  principles  of  the  Protestant  religion. 

But  the  fierce  quarrels,  which  here  as  elsewhere  broke  out 
among  the  Protestant  sects  directly  on  their  securing  the 
ascendancy,  alarmed  the  country ;  and  thoughtful  people 
began  to  foresee  that  if  the  principles  of  Protestantism  be- 
came active  in  the  national  life,  the  unity  of  Poland  would 
!)e  shattered,  and  its  very  existence  as  a  kingdom  threatened. 
To  avert  so  great  a  disaster,  the  Protestant  sects,  each  differ- 
ing from  and  antagonistic  to  all  the  rest,  but  all  harmonizing 
in  their  rancorous  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church,  met  in 


brought  out  in  1556  at  Cracow,  by  Srharfenberger.  A  complete  translation  of 
Ih'^  Bible  (by  John  Leopolita)  appeared  at  Cracow  in  15(Jl.  The  translation 
b}  the  Jesuit,  John  Wvjek,  was  issued  between  the  years  1593  and  1599,  and 
was  accompanied  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  and  supplemented  with 
commentaries  intended  to  elucidate  difficult  passages  and  to  furnish  arguments 
fcr  the  defense  of  the  Catholic  faith  against  the  attacks  of  heretics. 
^  Lukaszewicz,  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  Church  in  Lithuania,  Lps.  1848,  I.  Vol. 


168  Period  3.     Ej)ocli  1.     Chapter  2. 

council  at  Sajidomir  in  1570,  and  drew  up  and  signed  a  sym- 
bol, couched  in  terms  so  general  and  indefinite  that  each 
might  accept  its  articles  and  yet  have  the  fullest  liberty  to  be- 
lieve what  they  liked.^  Deriving  a  fictitious  strength  from 
this  union,  they  were  able,  during  the  interregnum  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Sigismund  Augustus,  to  conclude  a  re-. 
Jigious  peace,  called  the  Peace  of  the  Dissidents  (Pax  dissiden- 
tium,  1573),  which  get  forth  that  Catholics  and  Dissidents  were 
to  remain  forever  at  peace  with  each  other,  and  both  to  enjoy 
equal  civil  rights.  Henry  of  Valois,  the  newly  elected  king, 
was  compelled  to  take  oath  that  he  would  maintain  the  con- 
ditions of  this  Peace.  He  shortly  returned  to  France,  and 
Sfejyhen  Bathory,  Prince  of  Transylvania  (1575-1586),  was 
chosen  in  his  room.  Among  the  intimate  friends  of  this 
prince  were  many  Catholics  of  ability  and  learning,  who  ex- 
ercised no  little  influence  upon  his  mind.  But  while  mani- 
festing a  more  commendable  zeal  in  the  Catholic  cause  than 
any  of  his  immediate  predecessors  had  done,  he  yet  refused 
to  take  any  definite  and  decided  step,  feeling  himself  bound 
to  respect  the  secret  treaty  (1557)  of  Sigismund  Augustus, 
granting  freedom  of  conscience  and  worship  to  three  cities 
of  Danzig,  Thorn,  and  Elbing,  whose  inhabitants  were  long 
known  to  be  favorably  disposed  toward  Protestantism.  But 
a  severer  trial  and  more  threatening  danger  were  vet  to  come 
upon  the  Polish  Church.  James  Uchanski,  Archbishop  of 
Gnesen  and  Primate  of  Poland,  publicly  favored  Protest- 
autism,  and  exerted  himself  to  bring  about  a  rupture  with 
Pome.  This  attempt  to  alienate  the  Court  of  Rome  and  the 
Polish  nation,  had  it  been  completely  successful,  would  have 
been  followed  by  consequences  the  most  disastrous,  and  ren- 
dered the  stay  of  the  Papal  Legates,  Lippomani  (since  1556) 
and  Commendone,  in  the  country  extremel}"  difficult. 

The  hopes  of  the  Catholic  party  were  revived,  and  their 
influence  among  the  nobles  augmented,  by  the  accession  of 
^Sigismund  III.,  heir  to  the  crown  of  Sweden,  to  the  throne 
of  Poland  (1587-1632)  ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  a  very  decided 

1  Jnhlonski,   Hist,   consensus   Sendomirensis,    cui   subjicitur  ipse  Consensus, 
Berol.  1731,  4to. 


§  325.  Protestantism  in  Poland.  169 

reaction  set  in  against  Protestantism.  Moreover,  God  raised 
up  to  Himself  at  this  time  priests  eminent  alike  for  their 
j)iety,  their  learning,  and  their  zeal,  such  as  Stanislaus  Hosius,^ 
Bishop  of  Ermeland  (tl579),  through  whose  energetic  resist- 
ance the  ravages  of  heresy  were  stayed,  and  through  whose 
purity  of  faith  and  holiness  of  life  the  Poles  Avere  encouraged 
and  strengthened  to  cling  to  the  belief  of  their  fathers.  The 
learning,  the  conflicts,  and  the  triumphs  of  this  hol}^  bishop 
were  such  that  his  name  was  held  in  honor  by  the  universal 
Church,  and  he  was  selected,  after  he  liad  become  cardinal,  to 
preside  for  a  time  over  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  was 
acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  great  theologians 
who  constituted  that  body.  His  polemical  writings  are  among 
the  very  best  of  that  age,  and  his  exalted  virtues  and  apos- 
tolic zeal  are  still  gratefully  commemorated  at  the  Lyceum 
liosiamun  of  Brannsberg,  which  bears  his  honored  name. 

Another  Catholic  champion,  equally  distinguished  for  learn- 
ing, eloquence,  and  living,  energetic  faith,  was  Stanislaus 
Karnkowski  (f  1608),  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland,^  wdio,  with  the  frankness  of  a  saint  and  the  fearless- 
ness of  an  apostle,  wrote  in  the  following  words  to  Sigismund 
Augustus  :  "  Emulate  the  example  of  thy  father  and  the  piety 
of  thy  ancestors  in  preserving  inviolate  in  thy  kingdom,  no 
less  than  in  thy  own  heart,  the  old  faith,  the  ancient  Catholic 
religion." 

These  confessors  of  the  faith  were  ably  seconded  in  their 
labors  by  the  Jesuits,  whose  Order  had  spread  rapidly,  and 
was  now  firmly  established  in  Poland,  and  under  whose  direc- 
tion a  large  number  of  colleges  had  already  passed.  Among 
the  Polish  Jesuits,  whose  names  came  most  prominently  for- 
ward during  the  conflict  against  Protestantism,  James  Wujek 

^ Stan.  Hosii,  Cardin.  Major.  Poenit.  et  episcopi  Varm.,  vita  auctore  tStan. 
Jiescio,  liom.  687.  His  principal  work  is  Confessio  fidei — verae  chr.  catholi* 
caeque  doctrinae  solida  propugnatio  ctr.  Brentium  (1557).  Cf.  ^Eichhorn,  Car- 
dinal Hosius,  Bishop  of  Ermeland,  Mentz,  1854,  2  vols.  Constitutiones  Synod- 
ales  dioeceseos  Varmiensis,  Brunsbergi,  1612,  4to. 

^  His  exertions  to  have  the  Roman  Caiechism  translated  into  Polish  aio 
worthy  of  all  commendation.  Apart  from  his  Diocesan  Statutes,  his  fame  rests 
chiefly  upon  his  sermons  on  the  Eucharist  and  the  Messiah;  the  former  pub- 
lished at  Cracow  in  1602,  and  the  latter  at  the  same  place  in  1597. 


170  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


(Vangroviecensis)  deserves  special  mention  for  his  zeal,  ability, 
and  untiring  activity.  Having  completed  bis  pbilologieal  and 
scientific  studies  at  the  universities  of  Cracow  and  Vienna, 
and  taught  mathematics  for  a  time  at  Rome,  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  the  year  1565.  In  after  years  he  passed 
much  of  bis  time  in  the  colleges  of  Posen,  Clausburg,  and 
Cracow,  and  acquired  no  little  celebrity  as  a  preacher  and 
controversial  writer.^  His  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
Polish  language,  which  he  made  at  the  request  and  under  the 
patronage  of  Stanislaus  Karnskowski,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen, 
is  a  work  of  great  merit,  and  even  at  this  day  enjoys  the 
special  distinction  of  being  the  only  one  approved  by  the 
Church  of  Poland  (f  June  27,  1597). 

There  were  also  three  others  belonging  to  lieligious  Orders 
who  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  religious  alfairs  of  Poland 
during  these  years.  The  first  was  Peter  Skarga,^  a  Jesuit. 
He  was  a  good  theologian,  possessed  a  clear,  well-trained,  and 
vigorous  mind,  and  was  solidly  erudite.  He  was,  moreover, 
a  skillful,  eloquent,  and  powerful  speaker,  and  as  his  dogmat- 
ical and  controversial  sermons,  replete  with  patristic  lore, 
amply  attest,  the  greatest  preacher  whom  Poland  has  ever 
produced  (fl612).  The  next  was  Fabian  Pirkoioski,^  a  Do- 
minican, and  Skarga's  successor  as  preacher  to  the  Court  of 
Cracow.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  by  his  sermons  for  Sun- 
days and  Holydays,  which  are  quite  numerous,  and  portions 
of  which  are  not  uiifrequently  quoted  as  models  of  impas- 
sioned eloquence  {j  1636).  The  third  was  Martin  Bialobrzeski* 
abbot  of  the  convent  of  Mogilno  and  sufi'ragan  bishop  of  Cra- 
cow, who,  through  his  homilies,  modeled  after  those  of  St. 


1  Postilla  major,  and  minor  (in  Polish).  De  missa  et  Deitate  Verbi  divini 
contra  consens.  Sendomir.  Vita  et  doctrina  Salvatoris  ex  quatuor  evangel 
De  ecclesia  cathol. — Hymni. 

2  Sermons,  new  edit.,  Lps.  1843.  Extracts  from  Baronius,  Eocyne-dzieje 
koscielne,  etc.,  Cracow,  1G03,  foL,  continued  from  1198  to  1645,  by  Kwiatkie- 
wi.cz,  Kalisz,  1G95,  fol.  Lives  of  the  Saints;  on  the  reunion  of  the  Latin  and 
Greek  Churches  (in  Polish);  libb.  III.  dissertationura  de  Eucharistia. 

*  Sermons  for  the  Sunday  and  Feast  days,  in  two  series,  1G20  and  1628. 

*Postilla  orthodoxa,  1581,  2  vols.,  shortly  after  translated  into  German.  Cat- 
echismus,  Cracoviae,  166G,  4to.  (387  pages).  These  two  works  are  written  in 
Polish. 


§  32G.  Protestantism  in  Livonia,  Courland,  e!c.        17] 

John  Chrjsostom,  became  the  great  popuUir  preacher  of 
Poland.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  Complete  Catechism, 
which  is  a  master-piece  of  its  kind,  and  did  much  to  foster 
among  the  clergy  a  taste  for  imparting  Christian  instruction, 
of  which  the  young  are  always  in  so  much  need,  and  by  which 
they  profit  so  largely  (f  1585).  In  the  meantime,  the  Protest- 
ants of  Poland,  who  had  been  treated  with  unusual  kindness, 
incited  b}^  theologians  at  home  and  princes  abroad,  carried 
themselves  with  all  the  insolence  of  superiors  and  the  haught- 
iness of  conquerors,  and  have  left  upon  record  very  exagge- 
rated accounts  of  the  cruelties  they  claim  to  have  endured,  of 
the  measures  taken  against  them  by  Sigismund  III.,  and  of 
the  policy  pursued  b}^  the  Jesuits,  which,  it  must  be  admitted, 
sometimes  bordered  on  severity.  The  rupture  between  the 
Catholics  and  Dissidents  linally  became  coniplete  and  irre- 
parable. These  dissensions  were  deplored  by  Ladislaus  IV. 
(1632-1648),  one  of  the  most  worthy  princes  of  his  age,  with 
the  keen  grief  of  a  father  sorrowing  over  the  alienation  of 
different  members  of  his  own  family.  He  appealed,  but  in 
vain,  to  tlie  Poles  to  come  together  at  the  Religions  Confer- 
ence of  Thorn  (1644),  and  there  devise  measures  which  might 
make  tl)em  once  more  a  united  people.  His  motives  were 
misconstrued;  and  even  had  his  words  been  listened  to  and 
acted  upon,  they  could  hardly  have  averted  from  Poland  the 
disasters  with  wljich  that  country  was  threatened.^ 

§  326.  Protestantism  in  Livonia,  Courland,  Esthonia,  Hungary, 
and  Transylcania. 

Under  the  Grand-Master,  Walter  of  Plettenberg  (1521),  Li- 
vonia severed  its  connection  with  the  Teutonic  Order.  In 
order  to  escape  the  autlKMnty  of  the  Archbishop  of  Riga,  who 
showed  a  stubborn  constancy  in  defending  the  prerogatives 
<)(■  his  ofSce  and  maintaining  the  rights  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  Walter  embraced  Protestantism,  thinking  this  the 
surest  way  to  a  triumph  over  the  archbishop  and  his  clergy. 
This  was  the  origin   of  the    Protestant  communes  of  Riga 

'  Cf.  g  354. 


172  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

(1523),  Dorpat,  and  BevaL  all  of  wliicli  joined  the  Scliraalkal 
die  League.  When  at  length  William,  Margrave  of  Bran- 
denburg, and  brother  to  the  Duke  of  Prussia,  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Riga,  the  whole  of  Livonia  passed  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Protestantism.^  Lutheranism  was  introduced  into 
Courland  bv  Gothard  Keitler,  Grand-Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  who  in  1561  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of  Courland 
and  Semgallen,  ceding  to  Poland  that  part  of  Livonia  lying 
be3^ond  the  Dwina,  on  condition  that  the  inhabitants  should 
be  permitted  to  profess  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  defec- 
tion of  Courland  was  precipitated  by  the  conduct  of  John  of 
Moevnighausen,  bishop  of  that  country,  who  sold  his  see  to 
the  King  of  Denmark  for  the  sum  of  thirty  thousand  thalers 
(1559),  and,  retiring  to  Germany,  embraced  Protestantism  and 
took  a  wife.^ 

The  students  from  Wittenberg  were  chiefly  instrumental 
in  introducing  Protestantism  into  Hungary.^  At  the  request 
of  the  Catholic  clergy,  severe  laws  were  enacted  against  the 
Lutherans  by  the  Diet  of  Pesth  in  1525.  But  amid  the  uni- 
versal decay  of  ecclesiastical  institutions,  the  clergy  neither 
commanded  the  respect  nor  possessed  the  authority  requisite 
to  successfull}"  uphold  the  declining  fortunes  of  the  Church. 
As  a  consequence,  five  royal  free-cities  of  Upper  Hungary, 
viz.,  Leutschau,  Seben,  Barffeld,  Ejje7-ies,and  Kaschau,  declared 
in  favor  of  Lutheranism  at  the  Synod  of  Eperies.  Moreover, 
owing  to  the  death  of  the  king,  who  perished  in  the  disas- 
trous battle  of  Mohacz  in  1525,  the  approach  of  the  Turks, 


^  Tetsch,  Cb.  H.  of  Courland,  Riga,  1767-1777,  three  parts.  An  abridgment 
of  it  is  found  in  Nova  Acta  hist,  ecel.,  T.  VIII.,  p.  649  sq.,  T.  X.,  p.  865,  1721, 
and  in  Acta  hist.  eccl.  nostri  temporis,  T.  II.,  p.  456  sq.,  1711  sq. 

'^  Scldoezcr  and  Gebhadi,  Hist,  of  Lithuania,  Livonia,  and  Courland,  Halle, 
1785,  4 to. 

^  Lchmann,  Hist,  diplomatica  de  statu  rel.  evang.  in  Hung.  1710,  foi.  Hist, 
eccles.  reform,  in  Hungaria  et  Transsj^lvania  (auct.  P.  C.  Debrecceu)  acces.  lo- 
cuplet.  a  F.  A.  Lampe,  Traj.  ad  Ehen.  1728.  Memorabilia  August,  confess,  in 
regno  Hung,  a  Ferd.  I.  ad  Carol.  VI.  reeens.  Joa7i  Ribini,  Poson.,  1787-1789, 
2  T.  Cf.  Engelhardt,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  217.  Joh.  SzebeTinyi,  Corpus  maxima 
memorabil.  synodorum  evangelic.  Augustan,  confession,  in  Hungaria,  Pesthini, 
1818. 


§  326.  Protcstardism  in  Livonia,  Coutiand,  etc.        173 

and  the  prevalence  of  civil  discord,  it  was  found  impossible 
to  carry  into  effect  the  decrees  of  the  Diet  of  Pesth. 

While  the  two  kings,  Ferdinand  of  Anstria  and  John  Za- 
poh'a,  were  engaged  in  making  war  upon  each  other,  the 
nobles  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  seize  the  es- 
tai"es  of  the  vacant  bishoprics,  and  secured  their  plunder  by 
going  over  to  Protestantism.  The  most  active  agent  of  Pro- 
testantism in  Hungary  at  this  time  was  31attJiias  Devay,  who. 
having  at  first  professed  Lutheranism,  became  a  Zwinglian  in 
1543,  and  in  1545  held  a  sort  of  synod  at  Erdoed,  in  the  county 
of  Szathmar,  at  which  twenty-nine  ministers  assisted.  In  the 
year  1548,  the  Diet  of  Presburg,  in  the  name  of  the  King  and 
the  estates,  issued  an  edict  for  the  suppression  of  heresy  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  true  faith,,  but  it  failed  of  its  purpose  ; 
and  Protestantism,  enjoying  the  patronage  and  protection  of 
Thomas  Nculas'ly,  the  new  Palatine  (since  1544),  steadily 
gained  ground,  until  its  progress  was  retarded  here  as  else- 
where by  dissensions  among  the  sectaries  themselves.  Some, 
relinquishing  the  profession  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  em- 
braced the  teachings  of  Zwingli,  while  others  preferred  the 
sterner  tenets  of  Calvin.  The  Synod  of  Tarezal,  held  in  15(33, 
adopted  the  Symbol  of  Beza,  and  commanded  that  the  in- 
struction given  to  the  people  concerning  grace  and  predesti- 
nation should  be  based  upon  the  teachings  of  Calvin. 

Calvinism  was  soon  the  predominant  religion  of  Hungary, 
and  its  adherents,  assembled  at  the  Synod  of  Czenger,  spoke 
of  the  Lutherans  as  a  carnal  and  stupid  set,  who  taught  that 
the  Eucharist  was  a  blood}-  and  cruel  sacrifice.  The  Luther- 
ans, on  the  other  hand,  declared  at  the  Synod  of  Bartfeld^ 
held  in  1594,  that  the  solution  of  all  theological  difiiculties 
was  to  be  sought  in  the  writings  of  Luther,  which  were  also 
the  last  resource  in  deciding  the  merits  of  theological  discus- 
sions. 

The  virtuous  Nicholas  Olahi,  Archbishop  of  Gran,  and  the 
Jesuits,  who  had  been  established  at  the  college  of  Tyrnau 
since  1561,  were  especially  conspicuous  for  their  vigorous  and 
manly  defense  of  the  Catholic  faith.  On  the  10th  of  April, 
1560,  a  Synod  held  at  Tyrnau  decreed  that  all  ecclesiastical 
property  in  the  possession  of  laymen  should  be  restored  to 


174  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

the  Church.  The  destruction  of  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  hy 
lire  temporarily  suspended  tlieir  labors  in  Hungary,  which 
they  quitted  in  1567,  but  only  to  come  back  again  in  1586. 

The  new  doctrines  were  introduced  into  Transylvania  by 
some  merchants  of  Hermannstadt,  who  had  picked  them  up 
at  Leipsig,  where  the}'  passed  a  portion  of  the  year  1521, 
and  by  two  Silesian  preachers,  who  proclaimed  them  publicly 
through  the  country.  In  1523  severe  measures  were  enacted 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  new  errors,  but  nothing  came  of 
them  ;  and  in  the  follovring  year  a  Lutheran  school  was  set 
up  at  Hermannstadt,  while  in  the  meantime  the  nobles  dis- 
played their  zeal  by  seizing  the  property  of  the  Church. 

After  the  battle  of  Mobacz,  which  was  no  less  disastrous  to 
Transylvania  than  to  Hiiiigary,  the  Protestants  grew  more 
bold  and  aggressive,  and  the  authorities  of  Hermannstadt 
drove  the  monks  from  their  monasteries  and  expelled  them 
and.  all  other  Catholics  from  the  town  (1529).  John  Honter 
preached  with  great  applause  at  Kronstadt,  and  spread  every- 
where the  teachings  of  Luther.  It  was  not  long  before  the 
Mass  was  abolished  in  many  parts  of  Transylvania,  and  Com- 
munion distributed  under  both  kinds  (1542).  The  fathers  as- 
sembled at  the  Synod  of  Mediasch  were  afflicted  to  learn  that 
the  nation  of  the  Saxons,  invited  into  the  countrj-  by  King 
Geisa  II.  in  the  twelfth  century,  had  unanimously  declared 
their  profession  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  Magyars 
jilso  declared  in  favor  of  the  Reformed,  while  the  "Wallachians 
remained  united  to  the  Greek  Church.  During  the  contest 
for  the  crown  of  Hungary,  in  1556,  the  provincial  Diet  of 
Klausenburg  granted  the  fullest  freedom  of  religious  worship. 
Disorder  and  confusion  were  now  at  their  height.  The  Lu- 
therans were  straining  themselves  to  the  utmost  to  crush  the 
adherents  of  the  Reformed  Church ;  and  the  Unitarians, 
while  fleeing  persecution  in  other  lands,  and  seeking  a  refuge 
here,  added  another  element  to  the  existing  chaos,  by  de- 
manding equal  rights  with  other  religionists,  which  were 
granted  them  by  the  provincial  Diet  of  Maros  Vasarhely  in 
1571. 

The  tirst  complete  translation  of  tlie  Bible,  made  upon  the 
Vnlgate  and  the  version  of  Luther,  was  edited   by  Gaspar 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Sweden.  175 

Heltai,  a  Lutheran  preacher  of  Klansenburg,  and  appeared  m 
1562.  A  second,  the  work  of  Gaspar  Karoly,  a  preacher  of 
Goenz,  corrected  by  Abraham  Molnar,  a  Reformed  preacher, 
was  published  in  1589. 

§  327.  Protestantism  in  Sweden. 

Olai  Pe^ri  Swenke  Kronica  (Olai  Petri's  Swedish  Chronicle),  eel.  Ixlemmiui/^ 
Stockholm,  1860  (to  1520).  Baaz,  Inventarium  eccl.  Sueco-Gothor.,  Lincop. 
1U42,  4to.  Messe7iius,  Scandia  illustrata,  Stockholmiae,  1700,  8  vols.,  fol.  Fr. 
liuhs,  Hist,  of  Sweden,  Halle,  1805-1814,  5  vols.,  especially  Vols  I.  and  II. 
Geijer,  Hist,  of  Sweden,  Hamburg,  3  vols.  '\'''Aug.  Theiver.  Sweden  and  ITer 
Relation  to  the  Holy  See,  under  John  III..  Sigismund  III.,  and  Charles  IX., 
according  to  secret  State-papers,  two  parts,  Augsburg,  1858-1839  (the  .-econd 
part  contains  a  collection  of  pieces,  filling  350  pages).  Clarus,  Sweden  Once 
and  Now,  2  vols. 

By  the  celebrated  treaty,  known  as  the  Union  of  Calmar 
(1397),  the  supreme  government  of  the  three  northern  king- 
doms of  Sweden,  IS'orway,  and  Denmark  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Danish  kings,  who,  it  was  provided,  were  to  be 
chosen  by  delegates  representing  these  three  countries.  It 
was  hoped  that  this  measure  would  unite  the  three  kingdoms, 
give  them  common  interests  and  common  aspirations,  but 
sul)sequGiit  events  showed  the  hope  to  be  fallacious.  Instead 
of  removing  it  fostered  old,  and  was  the  prolific  source  of 
new  jealousies,  and  caused  ancient  national  hatreds  to  burn 
with  fresh  and  increased  violence. 

Bloody  conflicts  followed,  which,  while  diminishing  respect 
for  the  throne  and  weakening  its  authority,  extended  the  injia- 
ence  and  augmented  the  wealth  of  the  nobility  and  the  clergy.  The 
clerg}',  however,  used  their  power  humanely.  Their  rule  was 
mild  and  benevolent,  and  religion  flourished  among  the  people 
no  less  than  among  the  nobility  and  the  ecclesiastics. 

The  Swedes  were  devotedly  attached  to  the  Supreme  Head 
of  the  Church.  Their  religious  feasts,  such  as  those  they  eel  • 
obrated  conjointl}'  with  the  Finns  at  Abo  in  1513,  and  at 
Linkoeping  in  1520,  on  the  occasion  of  the  public  announce- 
ment of  the  canonization  of  their  couiitryraen,  Hemminy  antl 
Nicholas,  they  regarded  as  national  festivals. 

Politically,  these    people    were    not    equally   happy.     The 


17(3  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

noble  and  courageous  Ster).  Stiire,  the  Younger,  while  at  the 
head  of  the  Swedish  government,  made  an  effort  to  throw  off 
the  yoke  of  Denmark,  but  being  already  involved  in  a  quarrel 
with  Trolle,  the  perfidious  Archbishop  of  Upsala,  he  was  at  a 
disadvantage,  and  was  beaten  by  Christiern  II.  of  Denmark  in 
1519.  No  sooner  had  Christiern  been  crowned  King  of  Swe- 
den by  Trolle  than  he  gave  orders  for  the  terrible  massacre  of 
Stockholm,  which  was  continued  from  the  8th  to  the  10th  of 
November,  1520,  and  in  which,  besides  a  host  of  others, 
ninety-four  Swedish  nobles  perished.  The  subserviency  of 
Trolle  was  rewarded  with  the  office  of  Regent  of  Sweden. 
Among  the  victims  of  these  fatal  days  was  the  father  of  the 
intrepid  Gritstavus  Ericson  of  the  house  of  Wasci,  who,  while 
still  young,  had  been  given  up  as  a  hostage  to  Christiern. 
Having  made  good  his  escape  from  his  own  country,  Gustavus 
sought  an  asylum  at  Liibeck,  where  he  was  kiudlj'  received, 
and  after  obtaining  substantial  assistance  from  the  municipal 
authorities,  again  returned  to  Sweden  ;  and,  calling  upon  his 
countrymen  to  rise  and  assert  the  freedom  of  their  country, 
he  put  himself  at  their  head,  met  and  defeated  the  Danes, 
and,  amid  universal  enthusiasm,  was  proclaimed  Adminis- 
trator of  the  State  in  1521,  and  two  years  later  chosen  King 
of  Sweden  by  the  Diet  of  Strengnaes.  In  order  to  avert 
from  his  country  the  periodical  evils  and  political  agitations 
incident  to  elective  monarchies,  Gustavus  exerted  himself  to 
make  the  succession  in  Sweden  hereditary.  His  familiarity 
with  the  teachings  of  Luther,  with  which  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted during  his  stay  at  Liibeck,  greatly  facilitated  the 
execution  of  his  project.  He  publicly  declared  his  hostility 
to  the  episcopacy  and  the  ancient  nobles  of  the  land,  and 
avowed  his  intention  of  establishing  a  new  Church  and  cre- 
ating a  new  nobility.  "  He  would  not  suffer  himself  to  be 
crowned,"  he  said,  "  until  he  had  abolished  the  Catholic  epis- 
copacy and  subverted  the  ancient  Church."  Among  his  most 
active  and  energetic  assistants  in  bringing  about  these  changes 
were  the  brothers  Olof  and  Lawrence  Peterson,  both  of  whom 
had  made  their  theological  studies  at  Wittenberg,  and  re- 
turned to  Sweden  in  1519.  The  former  was  the  most  distin- 
guished preacher  of  Stockholm,  and  the  latter  held  a  profess- 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Sweden.  177 

orsliip  at  Upsala.  LaiDrcnce  Anderson,  Arclideacou  of  Strciig- 
naes,  and  subsequently  Chancellor  to  Gustavus  VVasa,  became 
the  patron  of  the  Peterson  brothers,  whose  teachings  he  em- 
braced. Such  of  the  people  and  clergy  as  oifered  any  resist- 
ance were  made  to  submit  l)y  force;  bisliops  who,  like  John 
Braske  of  Linkoeping  and  Peter  Jakohson  of  AVesteracs,  as 
also  Knut,  Provost  of  the  Cathedral,  preferred  fidelity  and 
duty  to  apostasy,  were  deposed  and  deprived  of  their  digni- 
ties, while  the  Dominicans  were  banished  the  country. 

Gustavus,  while  thus  putting  forth  his  best  efforts  to  destroy 
the  Catholic  Church  in  Sweden,  cunningly  concealed  his  real 
intentions  from  John  Magnus  Gothus,  the  Papal  Legate,  and 
in  numerous  letters,  addressed  to  Pope  Hadrian  VI.,  simu- 
lated a  sincere  attachment  to  the  Catholic  faith.  To  the  latter 
he  Avrote  as  follows  :  "  In  order  to  extirpate  as  speedily  as 
possible  the  dangerous  teachings  of  the  Hussites,  which  a 
certain  Augustinian  monk,  called  Luther,  is  again  reviving 
and  attempting  to  spread,  thereby  imperiling  the  public 
peace,  we  have  forbidden  all  our  subjects  individually,  under 
penalty  of  loss  of  goods  and  even  life,  either  to  propagate  the 
teachings  of  the  said  Luther,  to  introduce  his  writings  into 
our  States,  to  buy  them,  to  sell  them,  or  to  make  any  use 
whatever  of  them,"  Gustavus,  however,  arranged  a  public 
Discussion  to  take  place  at  Upsala  between  Olof  Peterson  and 
Peter  Galle,  in  the  course  of  which  very  nearly  the  same 
propositions  that  had  been  discussed  at  Leipsig  were  con- 
troverted and  defended.  Like  Luther,  Olof,  who  had  little 
knowledge  of  Church  history,  put  whatever  interpretation 
upon  Holy  Scriptures  best  suited  his  purpose,  and  finding 
himself  driven  to  absurdities  by  his  own  concessions,  had  re- 
course to  intemperate  language  and  personal  abuse. 

Desirous  of  despoiling  the  Church  of  her  wealth,  and  feel- 
A\g  that  the  iniquitous  proceeding  needed  some  justification, 
Gustavus  sought  a  sanction  for  his  conduct  in  arguments 
drawn  from  Luther's  tract  "0?^  the  Confiscation  of  Ecclesiastical 
Property,'"  and  charged  the  professors  of  the  University  of 
Upsala,  who  by  this  time  had  all  become  Lutherans,  with  the 
congenial  work  of  defending  the  sacrilegious  robbery.    When 

VOL.    Ill — 12 


178  Period  3.     Ej)och  1.     Chapter  2. 

the  royal  commissioners  presented  themselves,  the  Archbishop 
of  Upsala  protested  against  their  violence,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  city  took  np  arms  and  rushed  to  his  defense.  The 
wily  monarch,  under  a  specious  pretext,  decoyed  tlie  arch- 
bishop to  the  ro3'al  palace,  where  he  amply  atoned  for  the 
crime  of  being  the  object  of  the  admiration  and  love  of  hi-^ 
people.  While  other  pastors  and  the  inferior  clergy  were  al- 
lured into  keeping  silence  by  seductive  but  fallacious  promise-j, 
the  cloistered  nuns  of  Wadstena,  though  subjected  to  acts  of 
brutal  violence,  made  a  most  determined  and  heroic  resist- 
ance. Pope  Clement  VII.  called  upon  the  king  to  desist  from 
plunder  and  outrage,  but  his  voice  fell  upon  ears  deaf  to  the 
accents  of  justice  or  sorrow. 

Macjnus  Knut,  the  Archbishop-elect  of  Upsala,  and  Peter 
Jakobson,  Bishop  of  Westeraes,  were  condemned  to  death  on 
the  specious  pretext  of  having  incited  and  encouraged  the 
inhabitants  of  the  valleys  in  their  hostility  to  the  king.  Their 
persons  were  subjected  to  the  vilest  indignities  before  and 
their  bodies  after  execution.  A  crown  of  straw  was  placed 
upon  the  head  of  Jakobson  and  a  mitre  of  bark  upon  that  of 
Knut ;  both  were  placed  upon  half-starved  horses,  with  their 
faces  toward  the  tails,  and  in  this  ignominious  condition  con- 
ducted through  the  city  to  be  scofi'ed  at  by  the  multitude. 
After  their  execution,  their  bodies  were  torn  upon  the  wheel, 
and  then  cast  out  to  be  devoured  by  birds  of  prey  (February, 
1527).  At  the  Diet  of  Westeraes  (1527),  where  the  two  par- 
ties confronted  each  other,  and  manifested  feelings  of  furious 
hostility,  Gustavus,  feigning  much  sorrow  and  great  distress 
on  account  of  the  sad  condition  of  affairs,  professed  his  ina- 
bility to  govern  under  the  circumstances,  and  declared  his 
intention  of  abdicating.  The  artifice  was  clever  and  success- 
ful. The  fear  that,  if  the  king  should  carry  his  threat  of  ab- 
dicating into  execution,  the  country  would  lapse  into  anarch^-, 
had  its  efliect  upon  the  Diet.  The  property  of  all  bishoprics, 
convents,  and  cathedral-chapters  was  made  over  to  him,  and 
the  nobles  were  authorized  to  take  possession  of  all  lands 
which  their  ancestors,  as  far  back  as  the  year  1453,  had  be- 
stowed upon  the  clergy.  As  a  consequence,  the  Church  in 
Sweden   was    reduced    to    a    condition    of   utter   destitution. 


§  327.  Pi'otcstantism  in   Sweden.  179 

Giistavus,  feeling  that  the  moment  was  now  come  when  he 
might  throw  aside  all  disguise,  publicly  proclaimed  that  it 
was  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  true  word  of  God,  which,  he 
added,  the  new  teachers  were  announcing.  The  Reformation 
was  forthwith  inaugurated  by  the  adoption  of  a  liturgy  in  the 
vulgar  tongue  and  the  abolition  of  the  rule  of  clerical  celibacy.' 
AVhen  these  prelimiuar}-  measures  bad  been  fully  carried  out, 
the  formal  establishment  of  the  Reformation  was  accomplished 
l)y  the  Assembly  of  Oerebro  in  1529.  In  the  year  1531  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Upsala  was  conferred  upon  Lawrence 
Peterson,  who  then  took  a  wife,  and,  being  not  wholly  insen- 
sible to  tlie  fascinations  of  this  world,  had  the  good  taste  to 
select  one  of  noble  lineage. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  Peterson  and  the  new 
teachers  began  to  experience  some  of  the  humiliation  and 
bitterness  consecpient  upon  having  a  despot  like  Gustavus  for 
their  master.  He  told  them  plainly  "  that  priests  should  not 
carry  themselves  like  lords,  and  that  if  they  should  ever  at- 
tempt to  wield  the  sword,  he  knew  of  a  very  summary  way 
of  preventing  them." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation,  Olof 
Peterson  and  Lawrence  Anderson,  made  personal  attacks 
upon  the  king  in  their  sermons,  and  entered  into  a  consjpiracy 
against  his  life.  The  plot  was  discovered,  and  its  authors  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  Estates  of  Oerebro  (1540),  a  penalty 
which  the}-  escaped  onl}'  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  fine.  In 
addition  to  this,  Anderson  was  deprived  forever  of  his  office 
and  dignity,  and,  withdrawing  into  obscurity,  died  in  1552  at 
Strengnaes,  the  very  city  in  Avhich  he  had  first  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  the  Catholic  Church,  forsaken  by  his 
friends  and  despised  by  every  one  else.  In  the  year  1544  the 
Diet  of  Westeraes  at  length  made  the  crown  of  Sweden  he- 
reditary upon  Gustavus  and  his  male  issue. 


^Roemer^  De  Gustavo  I.  rer.  sacr.  in  Suecia  saec.  XVI.  instauratore,  Ultraj. 
18-iO.  The  Aulic  Chapel,  dedicated  in  honor  of  St.  Nicholas,  still  bears  the  in- 
scription: Pio  regis  glorios.  mem.  Gustavi  zelo  a  superstition ibus  papisticis 
ar  1527  repurgata.  See  the  Swedish  Lutheran  Mass  (liturgy)  from  the  Kyria 
to  tue  Benedicamus  Domino,  in  Kist,  Danisches  und  Schwedisches,  Mentz, 
18(39,  p.  465. 


180  Feriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

In  Sweden,  as  in  every  other  country,  the  corruption  of 
faith  was  coincident  with  the  corruption  of  morals.  Gustavus, 
interpreting  a  frightful  storm  that  swept  over  the  countr}'  as 
a  divine  visitation,  and  regarding  himself  as  the  Supreme  Head 
of  the  Church,  commanded  the  observance  of  an  eiglit  days* 
fast  (June  8,  1554).  A  similar  fast  was  ordered  by  the  Arch 
bishop  of  Upsala  in  1558,  "because,"  said  he,  "  a  great  many 
persons,  under  plea  of  exercising  an  evangelical  liberty,  com- 
mit sin  as  a  matter  of  course,  thinking  seemingly  such  evil 
living  to  be  the  end  of  the  Gospel  we  preach." 

Gustavus  died  September  10,1560,  and  when  his  eldest  son, 
Eric  XIV.,  ascended  the  throne,  the  condition  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  was  unchanged.  Almost  immediately  after  the 
accession  of  Eric  a  violent  conflict  broke  out  between  the 
Calvinists  on  the  one  side  and  the  Lutherans  on  the  other. 
The  former  were  led  by  one  Denis  Beurreas,  a  Frenchman, 
who  "was  an  intimate  friend  of  both  Calvin  and  Beza,  and 
had,  by  his  address,  obtained  an  ascendancy  over  the  young- 
king's  mind  ;  and  the  latter  by  John  Oscg,  Bishop  of  Wes- 
teraes.  The  plans  of  the  Calvinists  miscarried,  and  their  de- 
feat was  followed  on  September  14, 1568,  by  the  dethronenif^nt 
and  imprisonment  of  Eric,  who,  after  enduring  for  eight 
years  every  sort  of  indignity,  was  finally  forced  to  put  an  end 
to  his  life  by  taking  poison  (February  25,  1577).^ 

John  III.,  the  younger  brother  of  Eric,  and  his  successor 
to  the  throne  (1568-1592),  wearied  and  disgusted  with  the 
everlasting  contentions  of  the  Protestants,  commenced  to 
study  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  in  the  hope  of  finding  the 
truth.  He  soon  made  up  his  mind  to  return  to  the  Chui'ch, 
and  his  good  resolution  was  strengthened  and  encouraged  by 
his  wife  Catharine,  a  Polish  princess,  and  Father  Ilerhst,  a 
Jesuit,  and  confessor  to  the  queen.  John  at  once  set  himself 
to  the  task  of  brino'ino-  about  liis  own  reconciliation  with  the 
Church  and  restoring  the  Catholic  faith  to  his  kingdom  ;  and 
in  this,  as  in  everything  else,  he  showed  that  unfaltering  self- 
reliance  and  prudent  foresight  which  are  the  natural  adjuncts 
of  a  wise  man  working  in  a  good  cause.     He  began  by  pro- 


1  Chambers'  Encyclopaed.,  art.  ^'  Eric.''    (Tr.) 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Sweden.  181 


mulgating  an  instrument  containing  thirteen  articles,  intended 
to  correct  the  morals  of  the  clergy,  which  was  closely  followed 
by  an  order  to  the  aged  Archbishop  Anderson  to  publish 
(1571)  certain  additions  to  the  ritual,  in  which  he  said,  among 
other  things,  "  that  the  true  faith  had  been  announced  by 
Ansgar  and  other  Saints  of  Sweden,  and  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  was  necessary  to  a  right  un- 
derstanding of  Holy  Writ."i  The  Jesuit,  Father  Herbst, 
seized  the  present  favorable  opportunity  to  expose  the  so- 
called  "-Agenda,''  or  line  of  conduct  of  the  Swedish  Church, 
and  to  make  known  the  true  Catholic  doctrine,  which  had 
been  shamefully  misrepresented  and  mutilated  b}^  the  Lutheran 
and  other  sectaries.  His  chief  instrument  in  accomplishing 
both  purposes  was  the  '■'■Catechism  of  Peter  Canisius"  which, 
being  a  standard  exposition  of  Catholic  teaching,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  having  in  the  hands  of  every  one.  King  John, 
though  persuaded  of  the  necessity  of  making  the  Catholic 
faith  once  more  the  religion  of  the  land,  thought  it  expedient 
and  even  necessary  that  the  queen  should  receive  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  under  both  kinds  ;  but  Cardinal  Hosius  opposed 
an  unconquerable  resistance  to  any  such  compromise.^  Upon 
the  death  of  the  Archbishop  of  Upsala,  the  oldest  and  most 
formidable  advocate  of  Lutheranism,  and  of  the  Bishops  of 
Linkoeping  and  Westeraes,  the  king  determined  to  till  these 
Sees  with  persons  who  would  accept  and  carry  out  his  policy. 
He  was  encouraged  to  take  more  decided  measures  hj  Father 
Warszewicki,^  a  clever  Jesuit,  by  whose  advice  he  convoked  a 
Council  (1574),  which  he  opened  with  an  address,  deploring 
the  sad  condition  to  which  dissensions  and  divisions  had 
brou2:ht  the  Protestant  Church.  Finding  the  clerffv  not 
iiverse  to  his  policy,  he  appointed  Laivrence  Peterson  Gothics 
to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Upsala,  and  Martin  and  Erasmus 
to  those  of  Linkoeping  and  Westeraes  respectively.  Peter- 
son having  pledged  himself  to  put  his  signature  to  seventeen 
articles,  wholly  Catholic  in  their  nature  and  tenor,  was  cou- 


^Theiner,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  348-353. 
^  Ibid.,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  3G3  sq. 
3  Ibid.,  Pt.  I.,  p.  390  sq. 


182        '  Period  3.     Ei^och  1.     Chapter  2. 

SGcrated  according  to  the  Eoman  rite,  at  the  same  time  prom- 
ising the  king  to  employ  his  offices  in  gaining  the  other 
bishops  over  by  degrees.  Shortly  afterward  (1576)  the  king 
published  a  Liturgy^  whose  author  was  probably  Peter  Fecht^ 
his  chancellor,  and  Avhich  obtained  ahiiost  universal  accept- 
ance. It  was,  however,  opposed  by  Charles,  Duke  of  Soder- 
r.uinland  (who,  like  his  father,  lioped  to  derive  some  advan- 
tage from  the  profession  of  Protestantism),  on  the  ground 
"  that  he  could  not  permit  any  change  in  the  religion  that  had 
come  to  him  as  a  heritage  from  his  ancestors  ;  that  it  was  not 
in  his  power  to  put  any  constraint  upon  the  consciences  of 
his  priests,  or  to  force  them  to  give  up  the  teaching  of  the 
Gospel,  which  had  been  believed  and  practiced  in  their  coun- 
try for  half  a  centur}^,  and  had  been  confirmed  with  the  seal 
and  signature  of  so  many  persons." 

About  this  time  Lawrence  Nicolai,  a  Jesuit,  came  from 
Belgium  to  Sweden,  and  was  appointed  by  the  king  to  a  pro- 
fessorship of  theology  at  Stockholm.  In  January,  1577,  a 
discussion  on  tlie  powder  and  authority  of  the  Church  and  on 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  took  place  between  Nicolai  and  the 
professors  Peter  Jone  and  Olof  Luth,  in  which  the  Jesuit 
gained  a  splendid  triumph.  In  consequence,  the  Liturgy  was 
accepted  by  a  Diet  and  ]N"ational  Council  held  shortly  after, 
the  discussion  being  the  occasion  for  convoking  the  latter  as- 
sembly. Encouraged  by  these  auspicious  beginnings,  the 
king  deputed  Feclit,  his  chancellor,  and  the  distinguished 
Pontus  de  la  Gardie,  who,  besides  being  skilled  in  statecraft, 
was  an  accomplished  man  of  the  world,  to  represent  him  at 
the  Papal  Court.  They  w'ere  instructed  to  confer  with  Gre- 
gory XIII. ,  the  then  reigning  Pontiii",  on  the  reunion  of 
Sweden  with  the  Catholic  Church.  Certain  conditions,  how- 
ever, w^ere  stipulated,  the  chief  of  which  were  that  laymen 
should  be  allowed  to  receive  Communion  under  both  kinds ; 
that  the  national  language  should  be  used  in  divine  worship; 
and  that  priests  should  be  permitted  to  marry.  Fecht  was 
ilrowned  at  sea  during  the  voyage.     Gregory  XIII.  sent  ad 


'Apud  Miinier  (Magazine  of  the  Ch.  H.  and  C.  L.  of  the  North,  "V  j1.  II.   p 
41-48),  falsely  attributed  to  the  Jesuits.     See  Tkelne?;  Pt.  I.,  p.  421  sq. 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Siceden.  18i] 

his  Legate  to  Sweden  Anthony  Possevin,^  a  learned  Jesuit, 
who,  after  many  earnest  conferences  with  King  John,  linally 
received  his  abjuration  in  1578.  In  taking  leave  of  the  Papal 
Legate,  the  king,  deeply  moved,  said :  "  In  embracing  thee,  1 
express  mj'  eternal  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Rome." 
The  Congregation,  which  assembled  at  Rome  to  consider  the 
twelve  concessions  demanded  by  the  king,  refused  to  accede  to 
several  of  them,  and,  in  consequence,  an  animated  controversy, 
set  on  foot  and  kept  alive  by  the  German  divines,  broke  out 
in  Sweden  concerning  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  new 
Liturgy.  The  representatives  and  advocates  of  the  conflict- 
ing opinions  were  called  respectively  Philoliturgists  and  3Iiso- 
liturgists. 

Duke  Charles,  while  in  Germany,  conferred  with  the  Pro- 
testant princes,  and  requested  them  to  combine  with  him 
against  his  brother  John.  His  young  wife,  too,  being  by 
birth  a  German,  and  a  Lutheran  in  religion,  wqvj  naturally 
became  the  patron  and  protector  of  the  Protestant  leaders 
once  she  had  made  Sweden  her  home.  The  king,  moreover, 
had  the  misfortune  to  be  surrounded  by  a  number  of  subtle 
and  dangenms  intriguers. 

James  Typotius  and  the  wily  diplomatist,  Pontus  do  la 
Gardie,  urged  the  king  to  insist  on  having  Rome  grant  his 
demands.  The  instructions  of  the  Holy  See  to  Possevin,  on 
his  return  to  Sweden  in  1579,  are  outspoken  and  to  the  point. 
"  We  have  done,"  said  the  Holy  Father,  "  whatever  in  us  lay 
to  bring  back  this  country  to  the  Catholic  Church ;  but  if  it 
please  God  that  the  event  should  be  otherwise,  we  shall  stand 
justilied  before  the  Lord,  and  be  obliged  to  live  on  as  we  have 
for  these  forty  years,  without  being  able  to  secure  the  object 
for  which  we  have  lono;ed."  John  made  still  another  effort 
to  get  the  Holy  See  to  acquiesce  in  his  demands,  but  again 
nieeting  with  fresh  refusals,  his  zeal  for  the  Catholic  faith 
began  to  grow  cold,  in  spite  of  all  Posse vin  could  do  to  keep 
it  aglow. 

With  the  death  of  Queen  Catharine  (September  16,  1588) 
vanished  the  last  hopes  of  restoring  the  Catholic  Church  in 


1  Cf.  Theiner,  Ft.  I.,  p.  457. 


184  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Sweden.  John  was  not  long  in  forgetting  bis  pious  Catholic 
consort,  and  at  the  Diet  of  Westeraes  publicly  announced  hia 
marriage  with  the  3'oung  Guneila  Bjelke,  who  in  the  sequel 
became  the  most  powerful  protector  of  Protestantism  in  the 
kingdom.  Iler  influence  over  the  king,  to  which  Chytraeus, 
the  celebrated  theologian  of  Rostock,  in  a  large  measure  con- 
tributed, became  very  manifest  shortly  after  their  marriage. 
Still  the  king  to  the  end  insisted  on  the  adoption  of  his  Lit- 
urgy, and  openly  quarreled  on  the  subject  with  his  brother, 
the  Duke  Charles,  who  was  aspiring  to  the  supreme  govern- 
ment of  Sweden  ;  but  bej'ond  this  he  did  nothing  to  forward 
the  interests  of  the  Catholic  ('hurch.  He  died  in  1592. 
Sigismund  III.,  his  son  and  successor,  being  the  last  of  the 
Jagellons,  was  chosen  King  of  Poland  on  the  death  of  Ste- 
phen Bathory.  Having  been  brought  up  in  the  Catholic 
faith,  under  the  tender  care  of  a  loving  and  solicitous  mother, 
he  remained  steadfast  during  his  life  to  the  lessons  he  had 
learned  in  his  youth.  Accordingl}^  when  required  by  the 
Senators  of  Sweden,  after  the  death  of  his  mother,  to  make 
profession  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  as  a  condition  to  his 
succeeding  to  the  throne,  he  replied :  "  I  do  not  value  an 
earthly  crown  so  highly  as  to  give  a  heavenly  one  in  exchange 
for  it."  He  was  soon  the  idol  of  every  Polish  heart.  Stanis- 
laus Karnkowsky,  speaking  of  him  in  a  letter  to  his  father, 
wrote  as  follows:  "Who  does  not  recognize  and  admire  a 
special  providence  in  all  the  Lord  has  done  through  this 
young  and  extraordinary  king?"  In  the  interval  between  his 
falling  heir  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  and  his  arrival  in  that 
country,  tlie  administration  of  the  government  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  his  uncle,  the  Duke  Charles,  who,  using  the 
power  and  resources  at  his  command  to  further  his  own  per- 
sonal interests  and  ambition,  cunningly  made  his  profession 
of  Protestantism  a  means  to  enable  him  to  secure  the  crown. 
Having  convoked  a  National  Council  at  Upsala  (February  25, 
1593),  composed  of  the  Clergj-  and  Estates  of  the  kingdom 
and  the  deputies  of  the  provinces,  the  duke  made  them  an 
address,  in  the  course  of  which  he  said:  "Among  the  Swedes 
councils  shall  no  longer  be  held,  as  among  the  Papists,  by 
greasy  fellows  with  shaven  crowns." 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Kjiceden.  185 

The  courage  of  the  bishops  deserted  them,  and,  fawning  like 
vile  slaves  in  the  presence  of  a  master,  they  were  servile 
enough  to  proclaim  publicly  that  they  had  made  a  blunder  in 
accepting  the  Liturgy  of  King  John. 

The  Council  rejected  what  it  was  pleased  to  call  the  abuLies 
of  Catholicity,  and  declared  its  acceptance  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  ;  prohibited  such  as  refused  to  profess  the  Lutheran 
creed  from  preaching  the  Gospel  or  teaching  in  the  schools  ; 
and  closed  with  the  following  words  of  triumph :  "•  Henceforth 
the  Swedes  shall  be  of  one  heart  and  have  but  one  God;"  to 
which  Duke  Charles  imperiously  added  :  "  Sigismund  shall 
never  be  king  if  he  refuse  to  make  these  concessions."  When 
Sigismund  returned  to  ascend  the  throne  left  vacant  by  his 
father,  he  made  no  secret  of  his  devotion  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  the  exasperated  Lutheran  clergy,  who  were  plot- 
ting with  Duke  Charles  for  the  king's  overthrow,  avenged 
themselves  by  alienating  as  far  as  possible  the  hearts  of  tlie 
people  from  him.  The  presence  of  the  Papal  Nuncio,  xUa- 
laspina,  wdio  accompanied  the  king,  was  the  occa>!ion  and 
pretext  of  the  most  furious  attacks  upon  tlie  person  of  the 
latter.  Acting  upon  the  impulse  of  fanatical  zeal  and  brutal 
insolence,  they  shortly  went  the  length  of  telling  the  king  he 
must  not  exercise  an}'  public  act  of  Catholic  worship.  A 
Catholic  Pole  died  at  Stockholm,  and  his  mortal  remains 
were  buried  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
upon  whi(^h  Eric  ScJiepjper,  ii  Lutheran  preacher  of  that  cit}', 
ascending  his  pulpit,  preached  a  vehement  tirade  upon  the 
enormity  and  turpitude  of  the  act;  and,  to  proper!}-  punish 
the  inhabitants  for  their  apathy  and  remissness  in  the  pres- 
ence of  so  Hagrant  an  outrage,  put  them  all  under  the  ban  of 
interdict.  So  perfidious  Avere  the  intrignes  carried  on  by 
Duke  Charles,  and  so  numerous  and  dangerous  the  plots  en- 
tered into  by  him  against  Sigismund,  that  the  latter  had 
neither  the  time  nor  the  oppoi-tunity  to  secure  to  himself 
that  measure  of  authority  to  which  h\%  fairness,  his  honesty 
of  purpose,  and  his  principles  of  political  and  religious  toler- 
ance justly  entitled  liim.  Nevertheless,  before  leaving  Swe- 
den, he  published  a  number  of  ordinances  designed  to  promote 
the  peace  and  prosperity  of  both  Church  and  State.     He  in- 


186  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

trusted  the  government  of  the  countiy  during  his  absence  to 
Duke  Charles  and  the  royal  judges.  All  the  privileges  and 
liberties  claimed  for  the  established  Church  of  the  country 
were  solemnl  v  confirmed  ;  the  revenues  oi'  both  the  higher 
and  the  inferior  clergy  were  increased  ;  and,  finally,  the  hands 
of  bishoiis^  and  prelates  were  strengthened  in  the  exercise  of 
their  authority  (March  16,  1504). 

Sigismund  was  hardly  well  out  of  the  country  when  the 
Lutheran  preachers,  led  on  by  Eric  Schepjoer,  again  began  a 
violent  attack  upon  him.  He  was  reproached  with  having 
performed  an  idolatrous  and  papistical  deed,  because  he  had 
on  Maundy-Thursday  washed  the  feet  of  the  poor,  and  the 
latter,  being  participants  of  the  crime,  were  excommunicated 
and  debarred  from  receiving  alms  for  the  future.  Duke 
Charles  was,  if  anything,  more  indecent  than  even  the  preach- 
ers in  his  assaults  upon  his  kinsman  and  king,  whom  he  held 
up  as  a  traitor  to  his  country  and  to  the  established  religion 
of  the  land.  The  Diet  of  iSiuJerkoejmvj  (1595)  declared  him 
guilty  of  high  misdemeanors,  in  that  he  had  bestowed  public 
offices  on  Catholics,  and  permitted  them  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion  ;  and  it  was  accordingly  enacted  by  this  body 
that  any  one  refusing  within  the  term  of  the  six  weeks  next 
ensuing  to  make  profession  of  Lutheranism  should  quit  the 
country,  or,  failing  to  do  so,  should  be  forcibly  expelled  by 
the  authorities.  It  was  further  provided  that  no  appeals 
should  be  made  to  the  king  during  his  absence  from  the 
country,  and  that  not  he,  but  Duke  Charles,  should  appoint 
all  public  functionaries.  A  decree  was  also  passed  ordering 
the  suppression  of  the  noble  convent  of  Wadstena.  The  plun- 
der of  the  Church  was  divided  pretty  fairly  between  the 
duke  and  the  Lutheran  clergy,  the  former  appropriating  all 

*  In  Sweden,  as  in  Denmark,  the  office  and  dignity  of  bishops  are  merely 
ni  minal,  the  so-called  Superintendents,  though  not  in  Orders,  being  in  every 
sense  their  equals.  Hence  Mmde)-  (1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  334)  makes  the  following 
nDservation  :  "The  Church  of  Sweden  is  wholly  in  accord  with  that  of  Den- 
mark as  regards  episcopal  consecration,  which  it  retains  only  as  a  venerable 
practice  of  the  primitive  Church,  and  in  refusing  to  attach  to  the  episcopal  of- 
fice any  of  those  privileges  and  prerogatives  which  the  advocates  of  the  epis- 
copal system  have  been  in  the  habit  of  considering  as  inherent  in  and  Jioioinr] 
from  the  fad  of  consecration." 


§  327.  Protestantism  in  Sweden.  187 

the  estates  and  the  latter  the  sacred  vessels  and  precious  or- 
naments. Nothing  was  left  undone  to  insure  the  triumph  of 
Lutherauism.  Did  the  people  protest  and  make  show  of  re- 
sistance ?  Every  such  indiscretion  -was  followed  by  a  more 
furious  exhibition  of  the  duke's  cruelty. 

Sigismund  was  not  without  hope  that  his  return  to  the 
country  (1598)  might  have  the  effect  of  restoring  order,  lie 
might,  had  he  pleased,  have  crushed  his  uncle  by  having  re- 
course to  arms,  and  thereby  establish  again  his  shattered  au- 
thority ;  but  his  aversion  to  shedding  Swedish  blood  deterred 
him  from  taking  this  extreme  measure.  Charles,  destitute  of 
magnanimity  himself,  and  incapable  of  appreciating  it  in 
others,  and  ascribing  the  hasty  departure  of  Sigismund  to 
indecision  and  weakness  of  character,  called  an  assembly  of 
the  States  at  Jonkoeping  (January,  1599),  before  which  ho  ap- 
peared, aud  accused  the  king  of  wishing  to  again  plunge 
Sweden  into  the  errors  of  Antichrist.  Another  assembly, 
which  met  at  Stockholm  in  May  of  the  same  year,  passed  a 
resolution  releasing  the  States  from  their  oatii  of  allegiance, 
should  the  king  refuse  to  grant  all  their  demands,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  one  requiring  him  to  place  his  son  Ladislaus  in 
the  custody  of  Duke  Charles  to  be  educated;  for,  it  was  said, 
should  he  continue  a  Catholic,  he  \vould  forfeit  all  hope  of  the 
crown  of  Sweden.  Any  one  who  w^as  either  rash  or  bold 
enough  to  express  his  preference  for  Sigismund  was  effectually 
prevented  from  repeating  the  offense  by  having  his  head 
chopped  off.^  Charles  forced  the  States  at  the  Diet  of  Lin- 
koeping,  in  1600,  to  pass  a  law^  setting  forth  that  Sigismund 
and  his  heirs  had  forfeited  the  crown  of  Sweden,  because  of 
his  opposition  to  the  true  teaching  of  the  Gospel.  Many  of 
the  subjects  of  Sigismund,  wdio  had  long  lain  in  prison  in  ex- 
piation of  their  fidelity  to  their  prince,  and  among  whom 
were  nine  counsellors  of  State,  were  given  their  choice  be- 
tween death  and  allegiance  to  an  usurper,  and  they  nnani- 

'  The  periodical  ".S'tow''  for  September,  1841,  contains  a  remarkable  letter, 
written  from  the  North,  in  which  the  writer  speaks  of  a  curious  book,  enttle'J 
"  The  Beheading  Block  of  Duke  Charles."  About  one  hundred  and  forty  per- 
sons were  executed  by  his  orders  for  offenses  against  the  State,  or,  more  defi- 
nitely, for  their  allegiance  to  their  lawful  king. 


188  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

mously  preferred  the  former  alternative,  and  died  like  heroes 
On  the  22d  of  March,  1G04,  the  States  again  assembled  at 
Nordkoepiiig,  and  declaring  that  Sigismund  had  forfeited  the 
crown,  placed  it  upon  the  head  of  Duke  Charles. 

Concerning  the   use  made  of  Protestantism   by  Gustavus 
Vasa  and  Charles  IX.,  for  the  purpose  of  reaching  the  throne 
of  Sweden,  history  has  long  since  given  her  verdict. 

§  328.  Protestantism  in  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Iceland. 

Ir  Denmark,^  as  in  the  other  Northern  kingdoms,  the  po- 
litical power  was  divided  between  the  bishops  and  the  nobil- 
ity. The  Bishop  of  Boskilde  alone  held  thirty-three  fiefs. 
As  a  rule,  the  bishops  were  both  ignorant  and  licentious. 
The  king,  being  elected  by  the  two  Estates,  each  nearl}^  if  not 
quite  independent  of  the  crown,  and  with  conflicting  interests, 
had  not  unfrequentl}''  conditions  imposed  upon  him,  which, 
besides  being  degrading  to  him  as  a  monarch,  could  only  with 
difliculty,  if  at  all,  be  discharged.  Christiern  II.  (1513-1523) 
could  ill  brook  this  ascendency,  and  resolved  to  humble  the 
aristocratic  classes  and  subvert  their  power.  He  took  it  for 
granted  that  Protestantism  would  be  favorable  to  his  designs, 
because,  according  to  the  teachings  of  Luther,  princes  might 
rob  bishops  of  their  estates,  and  strip  them  of  all  political 
influence,  and  not  have  their  consciences  in  the  least  disturbed 
by  a  sense  of  moral  obliquity.  This  prince,  who  was  himself 
an  impure  despot  and  the  submissive  slave  of  his  paramour's 
mother,  had  no  purpose  in  introducing  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation  into  his  kingdom  other  than  to  get  possession  of 
the  wealth  of  the  Church.  Believing  for  the  time  that  the 
terrible  massacre,  perpetrated  by  his  orders  in  Stockholm,  had 
been  decisive  in  carrying  out  his  plans  in  Sweden,  he  at  once 
began  his  assault  upon  the  Church  in  Denmark  bj^  handing 

1  Abridgment  of  the  Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  in  Denmark,  by  Ericns 
Pnnioj^pidnnus,  Liibcck,  1734.  By  the  same,  Annales  (see  Vol.  II.,  p.  2i:9,  n.  2). 
Mimter,  Danske  Eeform  Historie.  Kjobenh.,  2  vols.,  and  Ch.  H.  of  Denmark 
and  Norway,  Lps.  1834,  Vol.  III.  Cf.  Holberg,  Political  History  of  Denmark 
and  Noiway,  Copenh.,  1731,  4to.  Dahbnann,  Hist,  of  Denmark  and  Hamburg, 
1841,  3  vols. 


§  328.  Protestantism  in  Denmark,  JVoricay,  Iceland.     189 

over  the  Church  of  Copenhagen  (1520)  to  a  certain  Martin,  a 
disciple  of  Luther's,  against  the  united  protests  of  the  Estates, 
the  clergy,  and  the  people.  But  Christiern  would  sulibr  no 
difficulties  to  stand  in  his  way,  and,  where  other  means  would 
not  do,  menace  and  the  extreme  of  punishment  were  em- 
ployed. Ecclesiastics,  who  pleased  to  remain  unmarried,  be- 
sides other  disabilities,  were  forbidden  to  hold  any  real  estate 
in  their  own  name,  and  the  Archbishop-elect  of  Lund  was 
put  to  death.  The  despotism  was  too  odious  to  be  borne,  and 
both  bishops  and  barons  united  in  a  successful  eflbrt  to  over- 
throw it.  Christiern  was  succeeded  by  Frederic  /.,  Duke  of 
Slesvigand  Holstein  (1523-1533),  who,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
he  had  bound  himself  by  oath  at  his  coronation  to  maintain 
the  Catholic  Church,  soon  began,  from  motives  similar  to 
those  acted  upon  by  his  predecessor,  to  favor  Protestantism 
in  secret,  and,  after  a  time,  openly  professed  himself  a  Pro- 
testant, and  took  the  Lutheran  preacher,  Hans  Tausan  (after 
1521),  under  his  protection.  He  defended  his  line  of  conduct 
at  the  Diet  of  Odensee,  in  1527,  by  saying  that  he  had  pledged 
himself  to  maintain  the  Catholic  Church,  but  had  not  prom- 
ised to  tolerate  her  abuses.  At  this  Diet  he  had  a  measure 
passed  by  which  the  same  civil  rights  were  secured  to  Luther- 
ans as  those  enjoyed  by  Catholics,  until  such  time  as  an  Ecu- 
menical Council  could  convene ;  but  in  the  interval  he  was 
careful  to  break  off  all  relations  with  Rome,  and  to  reserve  to 
himself  the  confirmation  of  persons  appointed  to  bishoprics. 
The  king  summoned  a  conference  on  religion  at  Copenhagen 
in  1529,  but  the  Catholic  bishops,  who  had  been  placed  in 
their  sees  by  his  favor,  being  both  ignorant  and  worldly,  ^vcre, 
single-handed,  no  match  for  their  Lutheran  adversaries,  and 
they  were  therefore  forced  to  call  to  their  aid  the  distin- 
guished Catholic  German  theologians,  Fck  and  Cochlaeus. 
These  theologians,  however,  failed  to  come,  and  the  burden 
of  the  defense  of  the  Catholic  cause  devolved  upon  Stogcfyr 
of  Cologne,  the  only  Catholic  theologian  present.  But  new 
difHculties  now  arose  to  prevent  a  discussion.  It  was  neces- 
sary, if  it  was  to  go  on  at  all,  that  the  disputants  should 
speak  Latin,  which  the  Protestant  champions  peremptorily 
refused  to  do.     The  Catholics,  moreover,  claimed   that  the 


190  Fcriod  3.     Eporh  1.     Chapter  2. 

authority  of  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  and  of  the  canons 
and  decrees  of  Councils  should  be  recognized,  while  the  Pro- 
testants would  admit  no  authority  other  than  the  Bible. 
Both  parties  were  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  putting 
their  claims  and  grievances  in  writing,  and  of  presenting  them 
in  this  form  to  tlie  king  and  counsellors  of  State,  who,  as 
might  have  been  anticipated,  declared  Lntheranism  the  true 
ajid  divinely  revealed  religion  of  Christ.  Open  acts  of  hos- 
tility against  the  Catholics  were  at  once  set  on  foot,  in  which 
the  city  of  Malmo  took  the  initiative.  Bdnnoic,  the  Bishop 
of  R5skikle,  was  forced  to  ]iay  the  king  si.x  thousand  florins 
as  a  gratuity  for  his  pallium. 

Upon  the  deatli  of  Frederic,  the  bishops  formally  protested 
against  the  succession  of  his  eldest  son,  Christiern  111.^  who 
v.'as  known  to  be  a  personal  friend  of  Luther's;  but  this 
prince,  fully  confident  that  any  aggressive  act  against  the 
Church  would  conciliate  the  good-will  of  the  lay  nobility, 
issued  an  order  for  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  all  the 
bishops  of  Denmark  (August  20,  1536),  and  demanded  a  sur- 
render of  their  sees  as  the  price  of  their  freedom.  Ronnow, 
Bishop  of  Roskilde,  steadfastly  refused  to  become  a  partner  to 
so  iniquitous  a  bargain,  and  died  in  prison  in  1544,  a  martyr 
to  his  duty  and  his  faith.  In  1537,  Bugenliarjen  was  invited 
by  the  king  from  Wittenberg  to  complete  the  work  of  re- 
formation in  Denmark.  Having  crowned  the  king,  he  drew 
up  a  form  of  ecclesiastical  organization,  according  to  which 
every  detail  of  Church  o:overnment  was  whollv  dependent 
upon  the  royal  will.  In  the  room  of  the  bishops  seven  su- 
perintendents were  appointed,  who,  after  a  time,  resumed  the 
now  meaningless  title  of  "  bishop."  The  Diet  of  Odensee 
(1539)  gave  its  approbation  to  this  ecclesiastical  organization, 
and  the  Diet  of  Copenhagen  (1544)  stripped  the  Catholic 
Church  of  all  her  rights  and  privileges,  and  parcelled  out  her 
possessions  between  the  king  and  the  nobles.  Catholics  were 
disabled  from  holding  office  and  deprived  of  their  hereditary 
rights;  the  Catholic  clergy  were  commanded,  under  pen- 
alty of  death,  to  quit  tiie  kingdom,  and  the  same  punishment 
was   to   be   inflicted   upon    those  who    might   harbor  them. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  191 

Catholics  wishing  to  remain  in  the  country  had  to  make  "iheir 
choice  between  exile  or  apostas}-. 

The  Archbishop  of  Drontheim  was  largely  instrumental  in 
propagating  Lutheranism  in  Norway}  A  faithful  aclhcrout 
of  King  Christiern  II.,  he  was  obliged  to  seek  safety  in  flight 
upon  the  fall  of  that  prince,  and,  quitting  his  own  country^ 
found  an  asylum  in  the  ISTetherlands  (1537).  After  the  forc!» 
blc  resignation  of  a  second  bishop  and  the  imprisonment  of  a 
third,  Protestantism  was  triumphant  in  the  land,  and  one  had 
either  to  profess  it  or  be  deprived  of  all  rights,  religious,  po- 
litical, and  social.  Numbers  of  the  monks  remained  steadfast 
and  went  into  exile  rather  than  do  violence  to  their  con- 
sciences. In  Iceland'^  the  flrst  attempts  to  introduce  Luther- 
anism were  firmly  resisted  by  the  inhabitants  ;  but,  being 
discouraged  by  the  execution  of  John  Arcsen,  a  bishop,  they 
held  out  for  some  time  longer,  and  then  gradually  yielding 
(after  1551),  began  little  by  little  to  accept  the  new  doctrines, 
and  in  the  end  were  quite  ready  to  receive  any  error  that 
came  in  their  way. 

§  329.   Protestantism  in  England. 

f  Vera  et  sincera  historia  schisniatis  Anglican!  a  Nic.  Sandero^  aucta  per  Ed. 
Richtonum,  tandem  aucta  et  castigata  per  Ribadeneiram,  Colon.  1628.  '^Laem- 
tuer,  Monuraenta  Vaticana,  p.  25  sq.,  et  passim.  Hundesliagen,  Epp.  aliquot 
ineditae  I3uceri,  Calvini,  etc.,  ad  hist.  eccl.  Britan.,  Bern.  1844.  Burnet,  Hist, 
of  the  Ref.  of  the  Church  of  Engl.,  Lond.  1679  sq.,  2  T.  fol. ;  Oxf.,  1816;  Lond., 
1825,  6  T. ;  Abridged  od.,  Brunswick,  1765,  2  vols,  t  Dodd's  Church  History  of 
England,  from  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  revolution 
in  1688,  with  additions  and  a  continuation  by  the  Rev.  Tiervy,  Lond.  1840.  4 
vols.  Hume,  Hist,  of  Great  Britain — of  Engl.,  Lond.  1754  sq.,  4  voli.,  and 
frequently.  Dahlmann,  Hist,  of  the  English  Revolution,  Lps.  1848.  Gumpac/i. 
Explanations  and  amendments  of  Dahlmann's  Hist.,  Darmstadt,  1845.  By  the 
same.  Separation  of  the  English  Church  from  Rome,  Darmstadt,  1845.  Ranle, 
English  History,  especially  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  Berlin, 
1859  sq.,  G  vols.  (Complete  Works,  Vols.  XIV.-XXl.)  Mciurenbrecho-,  Eng- 
land during  the  Age  of  Reformation,  Diisseldorf,  1866.  '\*John  Llngard,  His- 
tory of  England,  Vols.  VI. -XII.     Lord  Jo]m  Russell,  Essay  on  the  Engl'ib 


'  Gehhard!,  Hist,  of  Denmark  (33d  part  of  his  Universal  History,  Halle,  1770, 
p.  156). 

' Ilarboe,  The  Reformation  in  Iceland  (Hist.  Mem.  of  the  Scientific  Society 
of  Copenhagen,  Vols.  VI.  and  VII.,  Altona,  1796). 


192  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Government  and  Constitution,  1823;  new  ed.,  18G5  (Germ.  tr.  accord,  to  the 
4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1873).  j  Audin,  Histoire  de  Henri  VIII.  et  du  schisn:  a 
d'Angleterre,  Par.  1850,  2  vols.  fT/wmme.%  Hist,  of  England  during  the  Age 
of  the  Tudors,  Mentz,  1866.  Cobbett,  Hist,  of  the  Protestant  Reformation  in 
England  and  Ireland,  182-i  (Germ.,  Offenbach,  1828,  3d  ed.)  tChalloncr,  Me- 
moirs of  the  Missionary  Priests  and  other  Catholics  Avho  suffered  death  on  ac- 
count of  religion  in  England  between  a.  d.  1577-1684,  Derby,  1844,  2  vols. 
16ino.;  the  same,  ThUixd.  1840,  1  vol.  (Germ,  ed.,  2  vols.,  Paderborn,  1852). 
Booi^t,  Hist,  of  the  Eeformation  and  Revolution  in  England,  Augs.  1843.  Also 
an  able  series  of  articles  by  T.  IV.  M.  Marshall,  LL.D ,  in  the  Tablet,  London 
newspaper  of  1876.  (Tr.) 

In  the  course  of  the  religions  and  political  movements 
which  distnrbed  Europe,  questions  touching  all  the  relations 
and  phases  of  society  and  the  family  came  up  for  discussion; 
and  the  question  of  marriage/  being  necessarily  among  the 
rest,  became  the  occasion  and  cause  of  the  religious  and  po- 
litical revolution  that  took  place  in  England. 

Henry  VIll.  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1509,  when  not  quite  eighteen  years  of 
age,  and  two  months  later  (June  8)  married  Catharine  of  Ar- 
arjo'n,  the  widow  of  his  elder  brother,  Arthur,  lately  deceased. 
To  marry  his  brother's  widow  a  papal  dispensation  was  nec- 
essary, which  was  granted  by  Pope  Julius  II.  on  Catharine's 
representation,  the  truth  of  which  Henry  himself  afterward 
admitted,  that  her  marriage  with  Arthur  had  not  been  con- 
summated. 

For  seventeen  years  Henry  lived  a  life  of  uninterrupted 
happiness  with  his  queen,  who  during  that  time  bore  him  live 
children,  three  sons  and  two  daughters,  of  whom  Mary,  who 
subsequently  ascended  the  throne,  alone  survived. 

Henry  was  suddenly  stricken  with  scruples  of  conscience  as 
to  the  legality  of  his  marriage,  and  these  were  probably 
quickened  and  intensitied  by  the  fading  beauty  of  Catharine, 
who  was  six  years  his  senior,  and  by  the  fascinating  charms 
of  Aniie  Boleyn,  maid  of  honor  to  the  queen,  who  had  won 
his  heart.  Henry  requested  Pope  Clement  VIL  to  declare 
his  marriage  with  Catharine  invalid  (1527).  The  Pope  issued 
a  commission  to  Cardinal  Campeggio,  the  Papal  Legate,  and 
to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Henry's  minister,  to  make  the  facts  upon 

1  See  p.  69,  I  312. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  ILngland.  193 

which  the  applicati(3n  was  based  the  subject  of  a  judicial  ex- 
amination. The  queen,  deeming  it  unbecoming  her  dignity 
to  have  her  marriage  passed  upon  by  a  commission,  which 
was  not  only  composed  of  the  king's  subjects,^  but  which,  sho 
believed,  did  not  enjoy  the  freedom  necessary  to  judicial  lair- 
ness,  appeared  before  the  court  at  Bhickfriars  only  to  offer  an 
appeal  to  the  Pope.  Clement,  unwilling  to  grant  the  king's 
demand,  and  yet  desirous  to  avoid  giving  him  offense,  re- 
sorted to  various  expedients  in  order  to  gain  time,  in  the 
hope  that  Henry  would  in  the  meanwhile  return  to  a  better 
mind.  The  effect  was  just  the  contrary,  and  every  hindrance 
and  delay  added  to  the  king's  impatience.  By  the  advice  of 
Cranmer,  the  question  was  submitted  to  the  universities  of 
Europe.  Those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  declared  in  favor 
of  the  divorce  ;  those  of  Germany  decided  against  it  ;  and 
those  of  France  and  Italy  would  not  admit  of  its  possibility, 
unless  on  the' supposition  that  the  queen's  former  marriage 
with  Arthur  had  not  been  consummated.-  But  the  end  was 
not  yet.  The  Pope's  decision  was  not  forthcoming.  Henry 
was  irritated,  and  in  his  anger  had  the  payment  of  the  Jirst- 
fruits  to  the  Pojoe  abolished.  This  measure,  which  was  intended 
as  a  menace  to  Rome,  was  followed  by  another,  providing 
that,  should  the  Pope  refuse  to  confirm  appointments  to  epis- 
copal sees  made  by  the  crown,  the  appointees  should  dispense 
with  such  coutirmation,  and  go  ou  and  be  consecrated. 

Henry  "nad  been  privately  married  to  Aune  Boleyn  in  Jan- 
uary, 1533,  and  it  was  therefore  of  the  first  importance  to 
him  that  the  affair  of  his  divorce  should  be  brought  to  a 
speedy  issue.  Cranmer  had  been  working  long  and  indus- 
triously to  bring  about  a  complete  rupture  with  Rome,  and 

1  Cardinal  Campeggio  was  the  incumbent  of,  the  See  of  Salisbury.  (Tr.) 

2  "In  France  the  profuse  bribery  of  the  English  agents  would  have  failed 
with  the  University  of  Paris  but  ibr  tlie  interference  of  Francis  himself.  i\s 
shanneless  an  exercise  of  Henry's  own  authority  was  required  to  wring  aii  ap- 
proval of  his  cause  from  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In  Germany  the  very  Pro- 
testants, in  the  fervor  of  their  moral  revival,  were  dead  against  the  king,  bo 
far  as  could  be  seen  from  Cranmer's  test  [an  appeal  to  the  universities.  (Tr.)  ], 
every  learned  man  in  Christendom  condemned  Henry's  cause." 

Greene,  Hist,  of  the  English  People.  Now  York,  187G,  p.  343.  (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 13 


194  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


now  that  the  crisis  was  come  he  was  found  fully  prepared  to 
meet  it.  The  clergy  were  to  be  won  over  by  threats  and  pun- 
ishments. The}'  were  declared  to  have  incurred  the  penalties 
of  Praemunire  for  having  unlawfully  submitted  to  the  legatine 
power  of  Cardinal  Wolsey ;  but  at  the  same  time  a  hint  waa 
thrown  out  that  they  might  expect  a  plenary  pardon  if  thev 
would  consent  to  recognize  the  king  as  the  Supreme  Head  of 
the  Church  in  Englaitd.  The  clergy  returned  an  equivocal  an- 
swer, saying  they  were  willing  to  accept  his  jurisdiction  in 
ecclesiastical  afiairs,  "  in  so  far  as  they  might  consistently 
with  the  law  of  Christ,"  and  with  this  qualified  submission 
the  king  expressed  himself  satisfied.  But  to  carry  out  his 
ulterior  designs  he  had  need  of  agents  more  devoted  to  his 
interests,  and  less  conscientious  as  to  their  own  duties.  Such 
was  Cranmer.  As  Henry's  envoy  on  the  Contineui-,  he  be 
came  familiar  with  the  teachings  of  the  Reibrmers,  and, 
although  in  Holy  Orders,  privately  married  a  niece  of  the 
famous  German  divine,  Osiander.  After  Wolsey's  disgrace, 
and  o\\  the  death  of  Warham,  Cranmer  was  appointed  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury,  and  made  privy  counsellor 
to  the  king.  One  more  ready  to  cany  out  the  royal  will  and 
less  scrupulous  about  the  means  to  be  employed  in  doing  so 
could  not  have  been  chosen.  Previously  to  taking  the  oath 
of  fidelity  to  tne  Pope,  on  tlie  day  set  apart  for  the  ceremony, 
he  Avithdrew  to  the  chapter-house  of  St.  Stephen's,  at  West- 
minster, and  there,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  protested 
that  in  what  he  was  about  to  do  he  had  no  intention  of  bind- 
ing himself  or  laying  himself  under  any  sort  of  obligation  to 
place  the  least  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  ecclesiastical  re- 
forms meditated  by  the  king.  This  was  the  first  of  the  series 
of  hypocritical  acts  that  followed. 

Fully  informed  of  Henry's  marriage  to  Anne.  Cranmer  ad- 
dressed him  a  letter  in  April,  1533,  begging  to  know  if  it 
were  the  royal  pleasure  that  the  cause  of  divorce  should  be 
lieard  in  his  own  ecclesiastical  court,  and,  if  so,  requt^sting 
his  majesty  to  submit  in  advance  to  the  future  decision.  The 
king  graciously  complied  with  the  suggestion  of  the  arch- 
bishop, taking  occasion,  however,  to  remind  his  Lord  of  Can- 
terbury that  "  the  sovereign   had  no  superior  on  earth,  and 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  195 

was  not  subject  to  the  laws  of  an}'  earthl}'  creature."     The 
Ecclesiastical  Court  was  opened  at  Dunstable,  and  (vatharine 
received  three  citations  to  appear  before  it.     Having  refused, 
she  was  pronounced  "  verily  and  manifestly  contumacious," 
and  her  marriage  was  declared  null  and  invalid.     Cranmer 
conveyed   the   resiilt  to  the   king  in   a   letter,  in   which  he 
gravely  exhorts  his  majesty  to  submit  respectfully  to  the  de- 
cisions of  the  Ecclesiastical  Court,  and  to  hasten  to  escape 
the  censures  of  the  Church,  wdiich  he  would  bring  upon  him- 
self by  refusing  to  break  off  his  incestuous  intercourse  with 
the  wife  of  his  brother.     At  another  court,  held  May  28  at 
Lambeth,  Cranmer,  "  in  virtue  of  his  spiritual  power  and  his 
apostolic  jurisdiction,"  pronounced  the   marriage   of  Henry 
and  Anne  valid  and  lawful.     The  Pope,  acting  on  the  almost 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  Sacred  College,  reversed  the  decis- 
ion of  Dunstable,  and  rendered  a  definitive  sentence,  declaring 
the  marriage  between  Henry  and  Catharine  lawful  and  valid. 
This  decision  was  the  signal  for  the  rupture  with  the  Holy  See, 
and  it  was  forthwith  proclaimed  that  the  Pope  had  no  longer 
an}' jurisdiction  in  England.     It  was  now  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  who   confirmed   appointments  to  bishoprics  and 
granted  dispensations ;  but  an  appeal  might  be  carried  from 
the  archbishop's  tribunal  to  the  royal  chancery.     The  king 
was  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
source  of  all  spiritual  jurisdiction,  whether  episcopal  or  papal. 
The  oath  of  supremacy  was  imposed  upon  all,  and  those  re- 
fusing to  take  it  were  adjudged  guilty  of  high  treason.     An 
order  was  issued  enjoining  that  the  Roj'al  Supremacy  should 
be  proclaimed  from  every  pulpit,  and  form  part  of  the  teach- 
ing of  every  school  in  the  kingdom.     The  Pope's  name  was 
no  longer  heard  in  the  land.      Thomas  Cranmer,  a  layman,  was 
named  vicar-general  in  all  matters  ecclesiastical,  and  received 
from  the  king  plenary  spiritual  powers.     All  the  bishops  Avere 
simultaneously   suspended    from    exercising   their   functions, 
and  had  their  jurisdiction  and  power  restored  only  after  they 
had  recognized  the  Royal  Supremacy.     In  the  eighth  month 
after  the  nuptial   ceremony,  Anne  Boleyn  bore  to  Henry  a 
daughter,  who  subsequently  ascended  the  throne  under  the 
name  of  Elizabeth.     Fearing  that  the  shortness  of  the  interval 


196  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

between  the  marriage  and  the  bh'tli  of  the  princess  might 
give  rise  to  suspicions  touching  her  legitimacy  and  endanger- 
ing her  succession,  Henr}-  had  an  act  passed  requiring  all  his 
subjects  to  make  oath  that  Elizabeth  was  the  true  and  lawful 
heir  to  the  throne. 

The  confiscation  of  ecclesiastical  jpro'periy  next  occupie^l  the 
attention  of  king  and  parhament.  A  commission  was  ap- 
pointed by  Cromwell  to  make  a  general  visitation  of  the  re- 
ligious houses  of  the  kingdom  (1535),  with  a  view,  as  Mr. 
Hume  candidly  admits,  of  discovering  such  irregularities  as 
might  furnish  a  pretext  for  their  suppression.  Parliament, 
acting  upon  the  report  of  these  commissioners,  familiarly 
called  the  '■'■Black  Book,''  hurriedly  passed  a  bill  providing 
for  the  suppression  of  all  religious  houses  whose  income  was 
less  than  t^vo  hundred  pounds  a  year,  of  which  there  were 
one  hundred  and  seventy-six,  and  granting  their  revenues  to 
the  crown.  It  was  said  these  were  dissolved  ^'for  the  glory  of 
Abnujhty  God  and  the  honor  of  the  kingdom,"  and  because  "they 
happened  to  be  at  once  the  weakest  and  the  worst."  (27 
Henry  Yni.,c.  28.) 

But  the  larger  monasteries,  "  in  which  discipline  was  better 
observed,"  were  destined  to  share  the  fate  of  the  less  consider- 
able and  more  disorderly. 

In  the  year  1536  there  was  an  uprising  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  northern  counties  of  England  to  protest  against  the 
recent  innovations,  and  particularly  against  the  expulsion  of 
the  monks  from  their  monasteries.  The  insurgents  bound 
themselves  b}^  oath  to  stand  by  each  other  "  for  the  love  which 
they  bore  to  Almighty  God,  His  faith,  and  the  Holy  Church  ;" 
and  everywhere  along  the  route  of  their  march,  which  was 
called  "  The  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,"  they  seized  the  suppressed 
monasteries,  and  restored  them  to  the  ejected  monks.  The 
communities  of  the  larger  monastic  establishments  were  now 
charged  with  having  taken  part  in  this  insurrection,  and,  ns  a 
punishment  for  their  complicit}^  their  houses  were  dissolved 
and  their  property  confiscated.  In  the  southern  counties  fair 
promises  and  large  bribes  were  held  out  to  the  abbots  and 
more  considerable  personages  of  the  various  houses ;  and 
when  these  failed  of  their  purpose,  frauds,  threats,  and  vio- 


§  329.  Protcslantism  in  England.  191 

lence  were  resorted  to.  The  work  of  suppressing  the  monas- 
teries was  completed  by  an  act  of  parHament  in  1539,  "  vest- 
ing ill  the  crown  all  property,  movable  and  immovable,  of  the 
monastic  establishments,  which  either  had  already  been  or 
should  hereafter  be  suppressed,  abolished,  or  surrendered."^ 
By  the  year  1540  the  w^ork  of  "  secularization"  had  been 
completed  ;  the  roj'al  will  had  been  carried  out  with  shocking 
vandalism;  works  that  had  cost  years  of  patient  and  skillful 
labor,  the  triumphs  of  art  and  the  monuments  of  science,  all 
were  destroyed.  Nor  did  the  hatred  of  the  ancient  faith  stop 
here.  The  tombs  of  St.  Augustine,  the  apostle  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  St.  Thomas  d,  Becket,  martyr  to  his  defense  of  ec- 
clesiastical immunities,  were  despoiled,  and  the  ashes  they 
contained  flung  to  the  winds.  Even  the  tomb  of  Ki))g  Alfred, 
the  Founder  of  England's  greatness,  did  not  escape  the  hands 
of  the  ravager.  From  the  revenues  of  the  contiscated  mo- 
nastic establishments  Henry  founded  and  scantily  endowed 
six  bishoprics  and  fourteen  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches; 
but  the  bulk  of  the  sacrilegious  plunder  went  to  indemnify 
the  royal  visitors  and  the  parasites  of  the  court.  But,  not- 
withstanding these  tyrannical  proceedings,  Henry  had  not 
yet  fully  made  up  his  mind  to  wholly  seijarate  himself  from 
the  Catholic  Church.  "  I  will  strike  off,"  he  said,  "  her  strange 
Head  with  the  tiara,  but  the  body  I  will  leave  untouched." 

In  the  year  1538,  Henry,  by  a  statute,  entitled  "  An  Act  for 
Abolishing  Diversity  of  Opinions,"  ordained  that  certain  doc- 
trines and  practices,  which  were  substantially  those  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  should  be  accepted  and  professed  b}' 
all  his  subjects,  under  the  severest  penalties.  Even  the  use 
of  holy  water  and  blessed  ashes  was  retained,  and  the  venera- 
tion of  the  saints  enjoined.  This  statute  contained  what  are 
known  as  the  '■'Bloody  Six  Articles,"  in  which  the  doctrines 
were  enumerated,  concerning  which  there  was  the  greatest 
conflict  of  opinions.  They  declared  transubstantiation  to  be 
necessary  to  salvation,  and  clerical  celibacy  to  be  of  Divine 
command  ;  that  private  Masses  should  be  retained,  and  that 
auricular  confession   was  ex|)edient  and  necessary.     It  was 


^Lingard,  Hist,  of  Engl.,  London,  1847,  Vol.  VI. 


198  Period  3.     Epoch  1.      Chapter  2. 

further  ordained  that  the  severest  penalties  should  be  inflicted 
upon  any  one  refusing  to  accept  these  teachings.^  Henry 
permitted  the  reading  of  the  Bible  to  all,  reminding  them, 
however,  that  this  was  not  their  right,  but  a  favor  granted 
"  of  the  royal  liberalit}'  and  goodness,"  and  that  when  thoy 
should  meet  passages  difficult  of  interpretation,  they  should 
apply  to  others  more  learned  than  themselves.^  iJut  what- 
ever leniency  he  might  show  in  other  matters,  th^re  was  one 
to  which  no  opposition  would  be  tolerated.  His  spiritual  su- 
premacy was  sacred,  and  must  be  so  regarded  by  all  his  sub- 
jects. For  writing  against  it,  Forest,  confessor  to  Queen 
Catharine,  was  burnt  at  the  stake ;  and  others,  who  called  it 
iu  question,  were  put  to  death  in  various  ways.  Among  the 
victims  of  Henry's  despotism  and  cruelty,  Thomas  M.ore,H\gh. 
Chancellor,  and  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,^  were  the 
most  illustrious  for  their  position,  their  learning,  their  virtues, 
and  the  fortitude  with  which  they  suffered.  Of  the  latter 
Henry  said  on  one  occasion:  "In  my  opinion,  I  have  never 
met,  in  all  my  travels,  any  one  to  compare  in  learning  and 
virtue  with  the  Bishop  of  Rochester."  Bishop  Fisher  refused  to 
acknowledge  the  king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn  as  "  good 
and  lawful,"  and  for  this  offense  he  was  soon  to  feel  the  full 
weight  of  the  royal  vengeance.  He  was  shortly  arrested  for 
misprision  of  treason,  in  that  he  had  heard  a  woman  named 
Elizabeth  Barton,  better  known  as  the  Holy  Maid  of  Kent, 
say  that  the  king  would  survive  his  divorce  from  Catharine 
only  seven  months,  and  had  failed  to  report  the  conversation. 
An  oath  was  presented  to  him,  affirming  the  legality  of  the 
king's  marriage  with  Anne,  which  he  declined  to  take,  and 
was  in  consequence  committed  to  the  Tower  April  26,  1534. 
He  was  now  close  on  seventy  years  of  age,  but  neither  his 
gray  haii-s  nor  his  past  services  could  move  the  heart  of  the 
royal  despot  to  mercy.  He  languished  in  prison  for  thirteen 
months,  enduring  privations  the  most  severe  and  crueltiea 
the  most  barbarous  ;  and  when  he  again  came  forth  it  was 
only  to  appear  before  a  special  comniission  appointed  to  try 


^Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  293.  (Tr.) 

2  Ibid.,  p.  278.  (Tr.) 

»  \Kerker,  John  Fisher,  Bp.  of  llochester  and  Martyr,  Tiibg.  1860. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  199 

him  at  Westminster,  on  the  charge  of  high  treason,  for  having 
refused  to  make  oath  that  the  king  was  the  "  Supreme  Head  of 
the  Chnrcli  of  England."  After  a  hasty  trial,  he  was  declared 
guilty,  and  beheaded  June  22, 1535.  In  the  preceding  May  he 
had  been  created  cardinal  by  Pope  Paul  III.,  but,  though  he 
may  have  appreciated  the  kindness,  he  had  now  ceased  to  put 
any  value  on  dignities,  and  declared  that,  "if  the  hat  were  at 
his  feet,  he  would  not  stoop  to  take  it  np."  His  head  was  set 
up  on  London-bridge,  and  his  body,  after  lying  naked  all  day 
at  the  place  of  execution,  was  carried  away  by  the  guards,  and 
laid  in  the  church-yard  of  All  Hallows,  Barking.^ 

Thomas  More,  by  his  great  learning  and  extraordinary  ca- 
pacity for  business,  had  risen  from  a  comparatively  low  sta- 
tion to  the  ofhce  of  Lord  Chancellor  of  England.  Distin- 
guished for  his  literary  ability,  his  knowledge  of  law,  his 
winsome  manners,  and  sweetness  of  temper,  he  was  no  less 
conspicuous  for  his  deep  and  unaffected  piety  and  his  un- 
wavering fidelity  to  his  friends;  thus  uniting  in  himself  the 
qualities  of  a  statesman,  a  scholar,  and  a  Christian.  But 
neither  his  virtues,  his  abilities,  nor  his  services  could  save 
him  from  the  savage  ferocitj^  of  Henry.  More  had  refused 
to  approve  Henry's  divorce  from  Queen  Catharine  and  his 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  and  for  this  offense  he,  like 
Bishop  Fisher,  was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and,  like  him, 
too,  brought  forth  again  only  to  be  arraigned  before  the  com- 
mission at  Westminster 'on  the  charge  of  high  treason,  for 
having  denied  the  king  to  be  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church 
of  England.  As  soon  as  the  indictment  had  been  read.  More 
was  told  that  he  might  still  enjoy  the  king's  favor  by  abjuring 
his  former  opinions.  The  offer  was  promptly  declined,  and 
the  prisoner  was  declared  guilty  and  condemned  to  death. 
He  met  death  with  the  same  vivacious  cheerfulness  and  un- 
faltering courage  that  had  distinguished  him  through  life, 
professing  with  his  last  breath  that  he  died  a  true  Catholic 
before  God.     He  was  beheaded  in  the  Tower  July  6,  15o5.- 


UJngnrd,  1.  c,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  22^-221.    (Tk.) 

-Thoniae  Mori  opera,  Lovanii,  15G6.     Thomas  More,  Represented  according 
to  Authentic  Sources,  by  Z>?-.  Rudhart,  Nurnberg,  1829.     Sir  Thomas  More: 


200  Feriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Cardinal  Jieginald  Pole  was  equally  the  object  of  Henry's' 
vindictive  cruelty.  Having  completed  his  education  abroad, 
he  returned  to  England  in  1525,  where  the  highest  ecclesias- 
tical dignities  were  awaiting  his  acceptance.  About  this 
time  the  king  was  meditating  his  divorce  from  Catharine, 
which  Pole  not  only  opposed,  but  still  further  incensed  Henry 
by  the  publication  of  his  treatise,  '■'■De  Unitute  Ecclesiastical 
His  pension  and  all  his  preferments  Avere  withdrawn,  and 
preparations  were  being  made  for  his  impeachment,  when  he 
eluded  the  king's  vengeance  by  escaping  to  the  Continent. 
The  Pope  rewarded  his  courage  and  constancy  by  raising  him 
to  the  cardinalate.  He  was  sent  as  Legate  to  France  and  the 
Low  Countries  in  1537,  when  Henr}'  in  vain  demanded  his 
extradition  from  the  governments  of  these  countries. 

Failing  to  avenge  himself  on  Pole,  the  king  had  his  mother, 
the  aged  Countess  of  Salisbury,  and  others  of  the  obnoxious 
cardinal's  relations  arrested,  tried  upon  fictitious  charges,  and 
put  to  death.  The  Countess  of  Salisbury'  was  the  nearest  of 
kin  to  Henry  of  all  his  blood  relations  ;  was  the  last  in  the 
direct  line  of  the  Plantagenets,  who  had  ruled  England  for 
so  many  generations  ;  and  both  in  prison  and  with  her  head 
upon  the  block  showed  a  dignity  and  courage  worth}-  her 
royal  descent.  She  was  beheaded  May  21,  1541,  repeating 
the  words  of  our  Lord,  "  Blessed  are  the}^  who  sufter  persecu- 
tion for  righteousness'  sake." 

Thomas  Crormnell,  who  had  beew  chiefly  instrumental  in 
shedding  so  much  blood,  was  himself  to  be  judged  by  the 
bloody  laws  he  had  m.ade,  and  in  virtue  of  which  so  many 
noble  victims  fell.  Henry  had  never  quite  forgiven  him  for 
his  share  in  negotiating  the  marriage  with  that  unlovely 
woman,  Anne  of  Cleves,  wlio  contributed  so  much  to  disturb 
the  king's  domestic  happiness;  He  was  arrested  on  the  10th 
of  June,  1540,  and  cast  into  prison.  He  was  accused  of  mal- 
versation in  the  dischars-e  of  his  office  of  chancellor  :  of  hold- 


His  Life  and  Times,  by  W.  J.  Walter^  London,  1840.     Thommcs  Thomas  More, 
Augsburg,  1847. 

^Cf.  Vol.  III.  of  New  Series  of  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury, 
London,  18G9.  See  Reumont,  in  tlie  Bonn  Theological  Keview,  1870,  nros.  2i) 
«nd  26. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  201 

ing  heretical  opinions  and  protecting  heretics;  and,  finally, 
of  treason,  in  that  he  had  expressed  his  readiness  to  tight 
against  the  king,  if  it  were  necessary,  in  defense  of  his  relig- 
ious opinions.  He  demanded  a  public  trial,  and  to  be  con- 
fronted with  his  accusers,  but  the  justice  which  he  had  denied 
to  so  many  others  was  now  refused  to  himself  A  bill  of  at- 
tainder was  drawn  up  against  him,  and  passed  both  houses  of 
parliament  without  a  dissentient  voice.  On  the  28th  of  July 
following  he  was  belieaded  on  Tower  Hill.  Stern  and  unre- 
lenting during  life,  he  was  craven  and  cowardly  at  tlje  hour 
of  death. 

Henry  was  as  atrociously  cruel  to  his  wives  as  he  was  to 
his  ministers  and  other  subjects  of  inferior  degree.  Catharine 
of  Aragon  survived  her  repudiation  a  little  less  than  three 
years,  dying. a  most  exemplary  death  Januarj'  8,  1536.  She 
was  hardh'  laid  in  her  grave,  when  Anne  Boleyn,  who  liad 
taken  her  })lace  in  her  husband's  affections,  and  was  the  cause 
of  all  her  misfortunes,  was  tried  on  the  charges  of  adultery, 
incest,  and  high  treason,  declared  guilty,  and  beheaded  on  the 
green  within  the  Tower,  May  19,  1536.  Cranmer,  who  had 
formerly,  "  in  virtue  of  his  apostolic  authority,"  pronounced 
the  marriage  between  Henry  and  Anne  lawful  and  valid,  was 
now  called  upon  to  reverse  his  former  decision,  and,  "  in  the 
name  of  Christ  and  for  the  glory  of  God,''  declared  that  t'le 
same  marriage  was  and  always  had  been  null  and  void.  On 
the  day  of  Anne's  execution,  as  if  to  express  his  contempt 
for  her  memory,  Henry  dressed  himself  in  a  suit  of  white, 
and  on  the  following  morning  was  married  to  Jane  Seymour, 
who  died  (October  24,  1537)  in  less  than  a  fortnight  after 
giving  birth  to  a  male  child,  subsequently  known  as  Edward 
VI.  Henry  was  next  married  to  Anne  of  Cleres  in  the  l)egin- 
niug  of  the  year  1540.  The  marriage  was  a  political  one, 
brought  about  through  the  agency  of  Thomas  Ci'omwell,  who 
hoped  to  strengthen  the  Protestant  cause  in  England  and 
prop  up  his  own  })Ower  through  the  inlluence  of  the  new 
queen,  who  was  known  to  be  a  thorough-going  Lutheran. 
Deceived  as  to  her  beauty  and  personal  attractions,  Henry 
married  her  only  because  he  could  not  well  help  liimself,  and, 
after  living  with  her  six  months,  procured  a  di^•orce  mainly 


202  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chainer  2. 

on  these  grounds  (July  13).  Within  a  month  (August  8)  ho 
married  Catharine  Howard,  who,  being  shortly  after  charged 
with  having  committed  adultery,  was  pronounced  guilty,  and 
beheaded  February  13,  1541.  Henry's  sixth  and  last  wife, 
Catharine  Parr,  was  on  one  occasion  nearly  losing  her  head 
for  venturing  to  difier  on  theological  questions  from  the  Head 
of  the  Church  of  England  ;  but  quickl}-  detecting  her  mis- 
take, she  escaped  the  royal  vengeance  by  adroitly  flattering 
his  great  wisdom  and  theological  learning,  expressing  her 
most  humble  submission  to  his  judgment,  and  professing  that 
in  difi'ering  from  him  she  had  only  desired  to  draw  him  into 
a  heated  discussion,  because,  when  animated,  he  seemed  to 
forget  the  pain  of  the  malady  from  which  he  was  sufiering. 
By  this  clever  expedient,  Catharine  kept  her  head  on  her 
shoulders,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to  outlive  the  brutal 
monster,  who  died  in  1547. 

Henry  reigned  for  thirty-eight  years,  and  during  that  time  he 
ordered  the  execution  of  two  queens,  two  cardinals,  two  arch- 
bishops, eighteen  bishops,  thirteen  abbots,  five  hundred  priors 
and  monks,  thirty-eight  doctors  of  divinity  and  laws,  twelve 
dukes  and  earls,  one  hundred  and  sixty -four  gentlemen,  one 
hundred  and  twenty-four  commoners,  and  one  hundred  and 
ten  ladies. 

EdvHird  VI.,  who  was  only  ten  years  of  age  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England  ;  but  b}'  an 
article  in  the  last  will  and  testament  of  Henry  sixteen  indi- 
viduals were  named  to  exercise  the  authority  of  the  crown 
until  the  young  prince  should  have  completed  his  eighteenth 
year.  This  arrangement  was  broken  through  by  Edward 
Seymour,  the  young  king's  uncle,  then  Earl  of  Hereford  and 
afterward  Duke  of  Somerset,  wlio  was  ardently  attached  to 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  He  succeeded  in  having 
himself  appointed  Protector  of  the  realm  and  guardian  of  the 
king's  jterson.  The  king  renewed  the  authority  of  Cranmer, 
and  parliament  withdrew  from  the  chapters  the  right  of  elect- 
ing bishops.  All  pretense  of  observing  Catholic  forms,  so 
much  insisted  on  during  his  lifetime  by  Henry,  was  now  cast 
aside,  and  tokens  of  apostasy  were  everywhere  visible.  The 
Mass  was  abolished,  the  marriage  of  priests  authorized,  and 


§  3-9.    Protestantism  in  Enciland.  203 


the  use  of  the  vulgar  tongue  iu  public  worship  introduced. 
Images,  statues,  sacred  ornaments,  altars,  private  chapels, — 
in  short,  whatever  served  to  preserve  or  revive  the  remem- 
brance of  the  ancient  faith,  was  either  destroyed  or  put  out 
of  sight.  Refractory  bishops  were  deposed,  and  their  goods 
confiscated. 

In  the  year  1547  a  Book  of  Homilies  was  published,  with  the 
double  purpose  of  supplying  the  want  of  sermons  and  secur- 
ing uniformit}^  of  belief.  This  was  followed  in  the  succeed- 
ing year  by  a  Catechism,  the  work  of  Cranmer,  the  object  of 
which  was  set  forth  to  be  "  for  the  singular  profit  and  in- 
struction of  children  and  young  people,"  Shortly  alter, 
Cranmer,  "  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and  with 
the  assistance  of  Eidley  and  eleven  other  divines,  began  the 
composition,  or  rather  compilation,  of  a  liturgy  or  service- 
book  in  the  English  tongue,  and  for  the  use  of  the  English 
Church.  Taking  as  their  pattern  and  guide  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic missal  and  breviary,  and  omitting  whatever  they  con- 
ceived to  \)Q  either  superfluous  or  superstitious,  they  com- 
pleted a  work  containing  otiices  for  the  various  Sundays  and 
holydays,  forms  for  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments, 
service  for  the  dead,  and  whatever  else  was  necessary  to  the 
public  worship  of  the  new  Church.  This  is  known  as  The 
First  Prayer-Book  of  Edwcnyl  VI.  In  January,  1549,  the  king 
drew  the  attention  of  both  houses  of  parliament  to  it,  by 
whom  its  use  was  made  obligatory  on  all  ministers  of  the 
Church  within  the  realm  of  England  after  the  ensuing  Pen- 
tecost, and  the  use  of  any  other  was  forbidden  under  severe 
penalties.  The  "  Church  Establisheel  by  Law'"  w^as  definitely  fixed 
upon  the  English  people  by  the  aid  of  foreign  and  mercenary 
troops.  The  effects  of  suppressing  the  monastic  establish- 
ments became  now  apparent.  The  poor,  who  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  receiving  abundant  alms  from  the  wealth  of  the 
Church,  were  now  the  objects  of  harsh  legislation.  Beg- 
gars were  forbidden  to  solicit  alms,  and,  if  they  persisted  in 
doing  so,  they  were  cast  into  prison,  and  a  mark  of  infamy 
set  upon  them  by  branding  them  on  their  foreheads  and 
breasts  with  red-hot  iron.  The  Duke  of  Somerset,  fearing 
ihe  ambitious  designs  of  his  younger  brother.  Sir  Thomas 


204  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


Seymour,  and,  it  is  said,  at  the  instigation  of  Cranmer,  had 
him  arrested,  tried  on  the  charge  of  high  treason  for  plotting 
to  get  possession  of  the  young  king's  person  and  meditating 
a  change  of  government,  and  executed  March  20,  1549.  In 
less  than  three  years  the  Duke  of  Somerset  himself  fell  a 
victim  to  the  jealousy  and  vindictiveness  of  his  rival,  the  Earl 
of  "Warwick,  lately  created  Duke  of  Northumberland.  He 
\vas  accused  of  having  meditated  the  assassination  of  North- 
umberland and  two  other  noblemen,  declared  guilty  of  felon}', 
and  beheaded  January  22, 1552.  He  wns  succeeded,  after  his 
tirst  arrest,  in  the  latter  part  of  1549,  in  the  office  of  Protector 
by  Jolm  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,'  who,  judging  from  his 
dying  declaration,  was  certainly  a  Catholic,  though  he  never 
took  any  measures  to  re-establish  the  ancient  faith.  It  was 
now  found  that  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  which  had 
been  compiled  by  Cranmer  and  others,  "  under  the  inspiration 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  about  three  years  before,  contained  some 
errors,  which  it  was  necessary  to  correct.  It  was  accordingly 
revised  and  amended  by  Cranmer,  assisted  by  Bucer  and  Peter 
llnrtyr,  and,  in  its  altered  form,  approved  b}'  Convocation 
and  sanctioned  by  both  houses  of  parliament  (1552).  The 
bishops  were  authorized  by  statute  to  punish  with  spiritual 
censures,  and  the  magistrates  with  corporal  penalties,  all  who 
should  introduce  or  use  a  different  Service.  Anyone  attend- 
ing a  form  of  worship  other  than  that  prescribed  in  the  Lit- 
urgy of  the  Church  of  England  was  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  a  term  of  six  mouths  for  the  first  offense,  twelve 
months  for  the  second,  and  during  his  natural  life  for  the 
third.  This  is  known  as  7 he  Secoiut  Prayer-Book  of  Edward 
VI.  It  was  also  ascertained  that  the  '■'Six  Bloody  Articles'" 
of  Henry  VIII.  were  now  by  no  means  faithful  expositions 
of  the  belief  of  the  English  Church,  and  Cranmer  received 
orders  to  frame  others  which  should  adequately  express  it 
t)nd  be  recognized  by  all  as  the  standard  of  orthodoxy.  After 
consultation  vrith  his  friends,  the  archbishop  drew  up  a  form- 
ula of  belief,  known  us ''The  Forty-two  Articles,"  had  it  ap- 
proved b}'  a  committee  of  bishops  and  divines,  sanctioned  by 

^Lnifjnrd,  1.  c,  Vol.  VII.   (Tb.) 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  205 

the  king,  and  subscribed  b}'  all  church-wardens,  school-mas- 
ters, and  clergymen/  These  Articles,  however,  were  never 
ratified  by  parliament  ;  nor  is  there  any  proof,  except  the 
printed  title,  that  they  ever  received  the  sanction  of  Convo- 
cation.- 

To  perfect  the  organization  of  the  Church  of  England,  a 
body  of  ecclesiastical  law  was  still  necessary.  This  had  been 
under  consideration  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. ,  but 
was  not  carried  into  effect  until  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
when  an  act  Avas  passed  empowering  the  king  to  give  the 
force  of  law  to  any  ecclesiastical  regulations  framed  b}'  a 
commission  of  thirty-two,  taken  in  equal  number  from  the 
spiritual  and  lay  estates  of  the  realm.  To  avoid  inconveni- 
ence and  unnecessary  complication,  the  duty  was  delegated  to 
a  sub-committee  of  eight  persons,  with  Cranmer  at  their 
head.  This  committee  drew  up  a  body  of  ecclesiastical  law 
under  the  title  of  '■'■  Reformatio  legum  ecclesiasticaram,"  in  fift}^- 
one  articles,  which,  though  not  published,  in  consequence  of 
the  premature  death  of  the  king  (July  6,  1553),  are  interest- 
ing as  giving  the  views  of  the  English  reformers  on  many 
questions  of  vital  importance.^ 

Cranmer  had  decided,  and  parliament  had  confirmed  the 
decision,  that  Henry's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon 
and  that  with  Anne  Boleyn  were  both  invalid  ;  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, neither  Mary,  the  issue  of  the  former,  nor  Elizabeth, 


^  These  Articles  are  given  in  Burnet,  Vol.  II.,  and  in  Salig's  Hist,  of  the 
Aug3burt>-  Confession,  Vol.  II. 

■'Lbigard,  1.  c.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  90-92.  (Tr  ) 

2  The  following  points  relating  to  marriage  are  interesting,  and  might  be  re- 
ferred to  as  high  authority  for  some  of  the  decisions  delivered  in  our  own 
divorce  courts  :  "  The  marriage  of  minors,  without  the  consent  of  their  parents 
or  guardians,  and  of  all  persons  whomsoever,  without  the  previous  publication 
of  banns,  or  the  entire  performance  of  the  ceremony  in  the  Church  according 
to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  are  pronounced  of  no  effect.  .      .      Di- 

vorces are  allowed,  not  only  on  account  of  adultery,  but  also  of  desertion,  loi  g 
absence,  cruel  treatment,  and  danger  to  health  or  life  :  in  all  which  cases  the  in- 
nocent party  is  permitted  to  marry  again,  the  guilty  condemned  to  perpetual 
exile  or  imprisonment.  To  these  five  cases  is  added  confirmed  incompatibility 
of  temper;  but  this,  though  it  may  justify  a  separation,  does  not  allow  either 
party  the  privilege  of  contracting  another  marriage."  Ltngard's  History  of 
England,  London,  1848,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  93-94.  (Tr.) 


206  Piviod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

the  issue  of  the  latter,  could  succeed  to  the  throne.  Hence 
the  Protector,  who  was  conspiring  to  secure  the  succession  to 
his  own  family,  brought  about  a  marriage  between  his  son, 
Lord  Guilford  Dudley,  and  Lady  Jane  Grey,  daughter  of  the 
Duchess  of  Suiiblk  and  grand-daughter  of  Alary,  the  sister 
of  Henry  VIII. 

The  Duke  of  Northumberland,  who  exercised  unlimited 
control  over  the  mind  of  the  dying  king,  Ed^^'ard,  repre- 
sented to  him  the  dangers  which  would  follow  to  the  Pro- 
testant faith  should  Mar^-  succeed  to  the  throne,  and  per- 
suaded him  to  sign  a  drcument  entailing  the  crown  on  Lady 
Jane  Grey  and  her  heirs  male.  To  this  measure  the  Lords 
of  the  Council  reluctantly  gave  their  assent.  Edward  ex- 
pired at  Greenwich  July  6,  1553,  and,  four  days  later.  Lady 
Jane  Grey  was  proclaimed  queen.  The  ambition  of  l^orth- 
umberland  was  now  apparent.  A  few  days  later,  at  the  head 
of  thirty  thousand  men,  w^ho  had  flocked  to  her  standard 
from  pure  motives  of  loyalty,  Mary  entered  London  amid  the 
joyful  acclamations  of  the  people  (July  31),  and  was  crowned 
by  Stephen  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  AViuchester,  September  oOth. 
The  Protector  was  at  once  arrested,  tried,  found  guilty  of  high 
treason,  and  decapitated,  professing  before  his  execution  that 
he  died  in  the  faith  of  his  fathers.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
following  year,  Lady  Jane  Gre}^  and  her  husband  were  also 
tried  and  executed ;  he  on  Tower-hill  ;  she,  because  of  her 
royal  descent,  on  the  green  within  the  Tower. 

Queen  Mary  earnesth' desired  to  see  the  ancient  faith  again 
the  religion  of  England,  and  to  this  end  a  bill  was  introduced 
into  parliament  toward  the  close  of  the  year  1553,  providing 
that  all  religious  innovations  should  be  abolished,  and  that 
ecclesiastical  affairs  should  be  restored  to  the  condition  in 
which  they  were  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL 
Such  a  measure  would  have  compelled  the  surrender  of  all 
church-property  confiscated  during  the  last  two  reigns,  and 
now  divided  up  among  the  wealth}^  families  of  the  kingdom, 
who,  having  no  intention  to  part  with  their  spoil,  opposed 
and  caused  the  withdrawal  of  the  bill.  This  was  effected  by 
the  queen's  proroguing  parliament.  In  the  next  session, 
opened  three  days  later,  a  modified  bill  was  introduced,  in 


329.  Protestantism  in  England.  207 


which  all  mention  of  the  Pope's  Supremacy  and  the  aliena- 
tion of  church-property  was  carefully  omitted,  and  the  resto- 
ration of  religion  to  its  condition  at  the  accession  of  Edward 
proposed.  The  bill  passed  both  houses,  thus  leveling  at  a 
blow  the  great  structure  that  had  been  built  up  with  so  much 
care  and  labor  by  Cranmer  and  his  associates. 

In  the  following  year.  Cardinal  Pole  came  as  Papal  Legate 
to  England,  and,  after  thanking  the  Lords  and  Commons  for 
having  repealed  his  attainder,  expressed  the  hope  that  they 
would  likewise  repeal  all  statutes  hostile  to  the  Pope's  juris- 
diction, and  his  willingness  and  ability  to  do  whatever  might 
be  necessary  to  bring  about  a  complete  reconciliation  between 
England  and  the  Holy  See.  The  motion  for  a  union  with 
Kome  was  carried  in  both  houses  almost  by  acclamation. 
The  Pope's  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  was  recognized  ; 
the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  was  restored  ;  clerical  celibacy  en- 
joined; and  married  priests  deprived  of  their  cures.  The 
Protestant  bishops,  who  professed  to  derive  tlicir  authority 
and  jurisdiction  immediately  from  the  crown,  were  now,  con- 
sistently with  their  own  principles,  deposed,  and  Catholic 
prelates  appointed  in  their  room. 

Cardinal  Pole  absolved  "  the  whole  nation  and  the  domin- 
ions thereof  ...  of  all  judgments  and  penalties  "  in- 
curred on  account  of  heresy  and  schism,  after  which  a  Te 
Deum  was  sung  in  thanksgiving  for  the  happy  issue  of  affairs. 
It  was  the  intention  of  Cardinal  Pole  to  effect  the  restoration 
of  the  ancient  faith  by  loacific  means,  and  to  stem  the  tide  of 
apostasy  by  the  labors  of  a  learned  and  pious  clergy,  the  im- 
portance of  whose  instruction  and  training  he  was  constantly 
and  earnestly  urging.  Mary,  unfortunately-,  did  not  share 
these  wise  and  moderate  views,  obstinately  insisting  that 
heretics  should  be  punished  with  death  ;  and  to  this  end,  be- 
sides the  laws  already  existing  and  in  force  in  the  two  pre- 
ceding reigns,  making  heresy  a  capital  offense,  revived  others 
formerly  enacted  for  the  suppression  of  the  Lollards.  But, 
while  it  must  be  franklj'  admitted  that  the  rigor  exercised 
(hiring  this  reign  in  punishing  heretics  was  excessive,  on  thy 
other  hand  it  can  not  be  said,  in  view  of  the  atrocities  perpe- 
trated during  preceding  and  subsequent  reigns,  that   Mary 


208  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

merits  the  distinctive  appellation  of  ^^BlooJy."  l^either  were 
her  acts  of  cruelty  wholly  without  excuse. 

The  proclamation  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  as  queen  was  urged 
ostensibly  on  the  specific  ground  that  Mary  was  a  Catholic; 
and  her  religious  opponents  uniformly  supported,  if  they  did 
not  inspire,  every  tumult,  sedition,  and  revolt  excited  against 
her.  Moreover,  of  the  two  hundred  and  seventy-nine  persons 
executed  during  her  reign,  many,  like  Cranmer  and  Ridley, 
were  contemptible  miscreants ;  while  others,  like  Latim.er, 
were  perfidious  knaves.  Cranmer,  who  had  been  making  de- 
cisions in  the  fullness  of  his  authority  during  his  whole  life, 
and  reversing  them  again  at  the  bidding  of  an  incontinent 
king  ;  composing  prayer-books  •'  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  such  reformers  as 
Bucer  and  Peter  Martyi',  correcting  the  errors  which  the  Holy 
Ghost  had  permitted  him  to  insert ;  signing  articles  of  faith 
under  Henry  VIII.,  and  rejecting  them  again  as  false  under 
Edward  VI.  ;  went  on  asserting  and  denying,  as  suited  his 
interest  or  convenience,  till  the  last  hour  of  his  life.  In  the 
hope  of  saving  his  life,  he  signed  no  fewer  than  six  retracta- 
tions, and  on  each  occasion  vehemently  professed  his  attach- 
ment to  the  Catholic  faith  ;  hut,  finding  that  these  availed  not 
to  secure  his  pardon,  he  recalled  them  all  at  the  moment  of 
execution,  and  faced  death  (March  21,  1556)  with  a  courage 
that  must  be  admired,  if  the  cause  in  which  he  suftered  can 
not  be  approved. 

After  the  death  of  Mary,  in  1558,  everything  conspired  to 
forward  the  interests  of  Protestantism,  and  to  identify  them 
with  those  of  Elizabeth.^  For  Elizabeth  to  remain  a  Catholic 
was  all  one  with  proclaiming  her  mother  an  adulteress,  her 
own  birth  illegitimate,  and,  as  a  consequence,  her  eligibility 
to  the  throne  impossible.  If  her  claims  were  to  be  supported 
at  all,  they  must  be  supported  by  the  Protestants.  Besides 
religious,  there  were  also  political  considerations  in  her  favor. 
By  her  exclusion,  the  English  crown  would  have  been  the 

^Hist.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vols.  I.  and  III.;  and  Hefele,  Isabella  of  Spain 
and  Elizabeth  of  England,  being  a  historical  parallel  (Cardinal  Ximenes, 
p.  89-101). 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  20& 

right  of  Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland,  and  great-grand- 
daughter of  Henry  VII.  Mary  had  married  the  Dauphin  of 
France  with  the  express  stipulation  that,  should  she  die  with- 
out issue,  her  right,  not  only  to  the  throne  of  Scotland,  but 
also  to  that  of  England,  should  pass  to  the  King  of  France, 
thus  making  England  a  dependency  of  the  French  crown. 
The  veiy  thought  of  England  passing  under  the  dominion  of 
a  foreign  prince  was  revolting  to  English  pride  ;  and  the  feel- 
ings of  indignation  with  which  the  country  at  large  contem- 
plated such  a  contingency  were  greatly  intensitied  by  the  fact 
that  the  relations  of  the  English  government,  at  this  time, 
with  those  of  Scotland  and  France  were  the  reverse  of 
friei  clly.  Animated  by  such  feelings,  and  swayed  by  such 
mo»  ves,  the  English  people  permitted  Elizabeth  to  ascend 
the  throne  without  opposition.  During  the  reign  of  Mary, 
Elizabeth  had  frequently  made  public  profession  of  the  Cath- 
olic faith,  and  expressed  her  sincere  attachment  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  After  her  accession  she  liad  been  crowned  according 
to  the  Catholic  ritual,  by  a  Catholic  bishop,  and  had  sworn  to 
maintain  the  Catholic  religion  ;  but,  notwithstanding  her  pro- 
fessions, her  conformity,  and  her  solemn  pledges,  she  was 
hardly  seated  upon  the  throne  before  she  declared  openly  in 
favor  of  Protestantism. 

By  the  advice  of  Sir  William  Cecil,  the  English  embassador 
at  the  Court  of  Rome  was  recalled;  the  Protestants  exiled 
during  the  preceding  reign  permitted  to  return  and  appear 
openly  at  court ;  and  both  houses  of  parliament  filled  with 
ardent  partisans  of  the  new  faith.  Parliament  assembled  in 
the  early  part  of  the  year  1559  ;  revived  the  statutes  of  Henry 
VIII.  against  Papal  authority,  and  those  of  Edward  VI.  in 
favor  of  the  Reformed  service  ;  bestowed  the  tithes  and  annats 
upon  the  queen,  and  once  more  invested  royalty  with  ecclesi- 
astical ISwpremacy .  It  was  further  enacted  that  all  clergymen 
taking  orders  or  holding  livings ;  all  magistrates  and  inferior 
functionaries  receiving  salaries  or  fees  from  the  crown  ;  and 
all  laymen  suing  out  the  livery  of  their  lands,  or  about  to  do 
homage  to  the  queen,  should  take  an  oath  declaring  her  su- 
preme in  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual  aflairs,  under  penalty  of 
VOL.  Ill — 14 


210  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

deprivation  and  incapacity  ;  and  that  any  one  asserting  tlie 
Pope's  authority  within  the  realm  should,  for  the  second  of- 
fense, forfeit  his  property,  real  and  personal,  and,  if  contuma- 
cious, be  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment  and  death,  as 
in  cases  of  high  treason.^ 

Of  all  the  prelates  who  had  held  office  under  Mary,  one 
alone,  the  Bishop  of  Landaff,  who  consented  to  take  the  oath 
of  Supremacy,  was  permitted  to  retain  his  see.  The  other 
sees  were  tilled  by  men  who  had  either  gone  into  exile  on  the 
Continent,  or  were  conspicuous  at  home  for  their  attachment 
to  the  new  faith.  Among  these  the  most  distinguished  was 
Matthew  Parker,  formerly  chaplain  to  Anne  Boleyn,  whom 
Elizabeth  now  rewarded  by  appointing  him  to  the  Archbish- 
opric of  Canterbury.  He  was  consecrated  by  Barlow,  the 
deprived  Bishop  of  Bath,  who  had  lately  embraced  the  re- 
formed teachings,  and  having  been  appointed  to  the  See  of 
Chichester,  assisted  Parker  in  consecrating  the  other  newly- 
created  bishops.'^ 


^Lingord,  1.  c,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  259-260.  (Tr.) 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  202-263.  (Tr.) 

The  question  touching  the  validity  of  the  consecration  of  these  Anglican 
bishops,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  validity  of  all  Anglican  ordinations,  has 
been  frequently  discussed.  It  was  at  first  objected  that  Barlow,  the  consecrator 
of  Parker,  had  not  himself  been  consecrated  according  to  the  ritual  of  the  Ko- 
man  Pontifical ;  but  this  objection,  being  regarded  by  some  as  not  decisive, 
another,  still  stronger,  drawn  from  the  formula  of  consecration,  contained  in 
the  Ordinal  of  Edward  VI.,  the  one  used  in  the  consecration  of  Parker,  was 
more  confidently^  urged.  The  formula  ran  as  follows  :  "  Take  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  remember  to  stir  up  the  grace  of  God  which  is  in  thee  by  the  imposition 
of  hands."  It  will  be  seen  that  these  words  have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  were  used;  contain  no  reference  to  the  office  and  authority 
of  a  bishop;  and  might  therefore  be  used  with  equal  propriety  in  the  baptism 
or  confirmation  of  children.  They  have  no  specific  meaning  limiting  their  ap- 
plication to  the  consecration  of  bishops.  To  remedy  this  defect,  the  formula 
was  changed  by  convocation  in  the  year  1662,  under  Charles  II.,  and  made  to 
read  as  follows  :  "Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the  office  and  work  of  a  bishop  in 
the  Church  of  God,  committed  unto  thee  by  the  imposition  of  our  hands ;  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  And  remember 
tliat  thou  stir  up  the  grace  of  God,  which  is  given  thee  by  this  imposition  of 
our  hands ;  for  God  hath  not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear,  but  of  power,  and 
love,  and  soberness."  Archbishop  Ketirick  (The  Validity  of  Anglican  Ordina- 
tions, Phil.  1848,  p.  197)  remarks  "that  such  a  change,  made  in  such  circum- 
stances, is  equivalent  to  a  tacit  avowal  of  the  insuflaciency  the  of  from  which 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  Eiujland.  211 

In  the  year  1560  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  again 
revised,  a  few  alterations  introduced,  and  it  was  provided 
that,  in  the  absence  of  clergymen,  laymen,  and  even  artisans, 
might  recite  the  prayers. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  Elizabeth's  reign  (1563),  Convocation, 
presided  over  by  Archbishop  Parker,  again  examined  and  re- 
vised the  Forty-two  Articles  of  Edward  VI,,  which,  it  will  be 
remembered,  were  mainly  the  production  of  Cranmer.     Tlie 
Articles  being  the  standard  and  test  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  it  was  essential  they  should  set  forth  the  exact 
creed  of  that  body.     After  mature  consideration,  some  of  the 
Articles  of  Edward  VI.  were  dropped,  and  others  substituted 
in  their  room  ;  and  some  were  mended  by  additions  or  changes 
of  phraseology,  the  result  being  the  instrument  now"  known 
as  the   Thirty-nine  Articles.     By  this   instrument,  in   which 
some  changes  were  again  made  in  1571,  the  spiritual  suprem- 
acy of  the  Pope  was  denied  ;  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  which 
was  termed  "  a  blasphemous  fable  and  dangerous  deceit,"  was 
abolished;  the  Catholic  doctrines  of  transubstantiation  and 
purgatory  rejected  ;  and  the  according  of  reverence  to  relics 
and  images,  and  the  invocation  of  saints,  reprobated.     Of  the 
seven   Sacraments,   Baptism,   and   the   Lord's   Supper,  taken 
under  both  kinds,  were  alone  retained  ;  Holy  Scripture  was 
declared  to  contain  everything  necessary  to  salvation,  and  to 
bo  the  sole  rule  of  faith  (Art.  VI.) ;  but  it  was  added  (Art. 
XXXIII.)  that  any  one  who,  "  through  his  private  judgment, 
willingly  and  purposely,  doth  openly  break  the  traditions  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Church,  which  be  not  repugnant  to  the  Word 
of  God,  ought  to  be   rebuked  openly,  as  he  that  offendeth 
against   the    common    order   of    the    Church."      By   Article 
XXXV.,  it   was  decreed   that   the  Ordinal   of  Edward  VI. 
"  contained  all  things  necessary  to  the  consecration  of  archbish- 

liad  been  used  during  the  first  century  of  the  Anglican  Church."  If,  there- 
fore, the  form  contained  in  the  Ordinal  of  Edward  VI.,  and  used  in  the  conse- 
cration of  all  bishops  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  not  adequate  to  val- 
idly confer  episcopal  consecration,  it  follows  that  all  subsequent  ordinations 
were  also  necessarily  invalid.  But  Elizabeth  supplied  any  defects  of  the  ritual. 
llnrduin,  S.  J.,  Dissertation  du  Pere  le  Courayer  sur  la  succession  des  ^vesquej 
anglais  ct  sur  la  validite  de  leur  ordinations,  Paris,  1714,  2  vols. 


212  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

ops  and  bishops  and  the  ordering  of  priests  and  deacons  ;"  and 
it  was  added,  "  whosoever  are  consecrated  or  ordered  accord- 
ing to  the  rites  of  that  book,  or  hereafter  shall  be,''  are  to  be 
"  reputed  as  rightly,  orderly,  and  lawfully  consecrated  and 
ordered."  ^ 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  recognizing  a  hierarchy  of  three  orders 
of  clergy  as  an  essential  element  in  its  constitution,  the  Anglican 
Church  difl'ered  widely  from  every  other  sect  of  Protestant- 
ism. Finally,  the  Anglican  Church  retained,  with  some 
changes,  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  ritual,  as  given  in  the  missals 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  ;  also  the  sign  of  the  Cross, 
sacred  vestments,  and  even  attempted  to  arrogate  to  itself  the 
name  of  Catholic. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Established  Church  encountered 
opposition  from  a  certain  class  of  its  own  members,  known  in 
history  as  Nonconformists  or  Puritans.  Professing  to  be  fol- 
lowers of  the  '■'■  jpure  ivord  of  God,''  in  contradistinction  to 
whatever  was  of  human  origin  or  tradition,  they  contended 
that  the  Anglican  Church,  by  the  use  of  its  Liturgy,  ceremo- 
nies, and  discipline,  too  nearly  resembled  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  that  the  line  of  distinction  between  the  two  should  be 
more  boldly  drawn  and  more  sharply  defined. 

All  were  willing  to  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the  queen^ 
if  for  no  other  reason,  because  they  regarded  such  a  recogni- 
tion as  a  protest  against  the  Pope.  On  this  one  point  all  were 
in  perfect  accord ;  but  on  others  there  was  a  wide  divergence 
of  opinion.  Some  were  willing  to  accept  the  Liturgy,  cere- 
monies, and  discipline,  provided  these  were  revised  and  pruned 
of  whatever  savored  too  much  of  papistry  ;  others,  who  re- 
garded bishops  as  the  servile  agents  of  the  crown,  and  hated 
them  on  account  of  their  aristocratic  tastes  and  tendencies, 
wished  to  abolish  the  Episcopacy  altogether,  and  substitute 
Presbyterianism ;  and  still  others,  who  were  equall}-  hostile  to 


^  Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Arts,  of  Eeligion,  London,  1859,  where  the  Articles 
of  13-33-1563  and  1571  are  given  in  Appendix  III.  (Tk.) 

They  are  found  in  Latin  in  Augusti,  Corp.  libror.  syrabolicor,  pp.  126-142 
(Germ,  in  Bonn  Review,  new  series,  year  V.,  n.  1,  p.  196-208;  Freiburg  Pe- 
riodical, Vol.  XII.,  pp.  250-261.)  Cf.  the  art.  "High-Church,^'  in  the  F-^eiburg 
Cyclop.,  and  in  the  Voices  {Stimmen)  of  Maria  Laach. 


§  239.  Protestantism  in  England.  213 

both  the  Episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism,  assumed  the  atti- 
tude and  professed  the  principles  of  thoroughgoing  Dis- 
senters. 

Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots,  after  a  series  of  misfortunes, 
abdicated  the  crown,  under  compulsion,  in  favor  of  her  son. 
She  -was  then  a  prisoner  in  the  castle  oi^  Lochleven,  but  having 
made  her  escape,  she  revoked  her  act  of  abdication,  and  again 
assumed  the  style  and  authority  of  a  sovereign.  An  array  of 
loyal  and  trusty  followers  at  once  enrolled  themselves  under 
her  standard,  but  they  were  no  match  either  in  numbers  or 
discipline  for  the  experienced  soldiers  of  the  regent,  Murray, 
by  whom  they  were  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Langside,  May 
13,  1568.  After  this  disaster,  Mary  fled  hastily  across  the 
border  into  England,  and,  against  the  advice  and  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  her  friends,  sought  the  hospitalit}'  and 
protection  of  Elizabeth,  by  whom  she  was  detained  a  pris- 
oner during  the  remainder  of  her  days.  An  attempt,  made 
in  November,  1569,  by  the  Catholic  gentlemen  of  the  north- 
ern counties  to  liberate  the  royal  captive,  was  promptly  put 
down,  and  hundreds  of  the  insurgents  executed.  The  only 
etfect  of  the  uprising  was  to  intensify  the  hatred  of  Elizabeth 
for  her  Catholic  subjects.  In  the  following  year  the  queen 
was  still  further  exasperated  by  the  publication  of  the  bull 
of  Pius  v.,  declaring  her  cut  ofi:"  from  the  communion  of  the 
Church,  her  crown  forfeited,  and  absolving  her  subjects  from 
their  allegiance.  The  condition  of  the  Catholics  of  England 
became  now  almost  intolerable.  To  receive  or  obey  a  papal 
bull  or  brief  of  any  character  whatever,  or  to  deny  the  spir- 
itual supremacy  of  the  queen,  was  declared  high  treason  ;  to 
refuse  to  attend  Protestant  worship  {^^  recusancy  ")  was  pun- 
ished with  fines,  imprisonment,  and  bodily  chastisements ; 
and  a  body  of  inquisitors  was  appointed,  who,  penetrating 
into  the  privacy  of  families,  made  search  for  and  seized  any 
papers  that  might  throw  a  shade  of  suspicion  upon  the  loyalty 
or  the  orthodoxy  of  their  possessors,  and  were  on  the  alert  to 
jatch  any  unguarded  word  or  expression  that  might  be  tor- 
tured into  an  evidence  of  guilt. 

It  was  hoped  that  these  measures  would  soon  rid  England 
of  the  presence  of  Catholic  priests,  and  that  in  their  absence 


214  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chainer  2. 

the  Catholic  religion  would  wholly  perish  from  the  land. 
This,  however,  was  prevented  by  the  foresight  of  William 
Allen,  a  Catholic  priest,  descended  from  an  ancient  Lanca- 
shire family,  and  formerly  principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall,  at 
Oxford,  who,  in  1568,  established  a  seminary  at  Douay,  in 
Flanders,  for  the  education  of  Catholic  clergymen  lestined 
for  the  English  mission.  This  seminary,  which,  in  the  course 
of  five  years,  sent  nearly  one  hundred  priests  across  to  Eng- 
land, was  in  1578  transferred  to  Eheims,  to  be  out  of  reach 
of  the  harassing  persecutions  of  Elizabeth,  but  was  again  re- 
established at  Douay  in  1598. 

The  severest  measures  of  the  law  were  employed  to  free 
the  country  from  the  presence  of  such  priests  as  were  already 
there  and  to  deter  others  from  entering  it.  The  penalty  of 
death  was  pronounced  against  all  priests  coming  into  Eng- 
land, and  a  like  penalty  against  those  who  should  either  atibrd 
priests  an  asylum  or  go  to  confession  to  them.  To  ordain  a 
priest  in  England  was  also  declared  an  oifense,  punishable 
witli  death,  and  all  priests  in  the  kingdom,  several  of  whom 
were  executed,  were  ordered  to  quit  it  within  forty  days 
(1584). 

Several  attempts  had  been  set  on  foot  for  the  liberation  of 
the  Queen  of  Scots,  all  of  which  had  been  detected  and  frus- 
trated by  the  vigilance  and  energy  of  the  English  govern- 
ment, and,  after  nearly  nineteen  years  of  imprisonment,  Mary 
learned  that  her  fate  was  decided.  She  was  removed  to  the 
castle  of  Fotheringhay,  where  she  was  put  on  trial  (October 
11,  1586)  before  a  commission  appointed  for  that  purpose, 
charged  with  having  conspired  with  foreigners  for  the  double 
purpose  of  the  invasion  of  the  kingdom  and  the  murder  of 
the  queen.  The  evidence  against  her  purported  to  be  copies 
of  letters  addressed  by  her  to  Babington,  who  had  been  some 
time  previously  executed  for  the  same  offense ;  but  neither 
were  the  originals  produced  nor  was  there  any  satisfactory  ac- 
count given  of  how  the  copies  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
commission.^  After  a  short  consultation,  the  commission  ad- 
journed to  meet  in  the  Star  Chamber,  at  Westminster,  on 

^Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  220-250.  (Tr.) 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  EnglmvL  215 

October  25th,  when  Mary,  who  was  still  in  prison  at  Fother- 
inghay,  was  declared  gnilty  of  the  crimes  laid  to  her  charge, 
and  her  execution  demanded  by  parliament. 

Elizabeth  for  a  time  dissembled  her  real  feelings,  apparently 
unwilling  to  shed  the  blood  of  her  kinswoman,  and  in  the 
hope  that  some  of  those  who  were  so  profuse  in  professions 
of  loyalt}'  to  the  crown  and  attachment  to  her  person  would 
spare  her  the  ignominy  of  authorizing  so  infamous  a  deed. 
But  on  one  point  she  had  her  mind  fully  made  up :  Mary 
must  die  ;  and,  if  it  became  necessary  to  take  the  responsibil- 
ity of  her  execution  upon  herself,  she  would  do  so.  Accord- 
ingly, she  signed  the  death-warrant  February  1,  1587,  and 
seven  days  later  the  unfortunate  Mary  Stuart  ascended  the 
scaffold,  and,  placing  her  head  upon  the  block,  died  with  the 
dignity  of  a  queen  and  the  constancy  of  a  martyr,  professing 
to  the  last  her  firm  belief  in  the  faith  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  She  had  asked  as  a  last  request  that  she  might  have 
the  services  of  a  Catholic  priest  in  preparing  herself  for  death, 
but  this  the  commissioners  sternly  refused,  adding,  with  brutal 
insolence,  that  to  grant  it  would  be  to  offend  against  the  law 
of  God  and  imperil  their  own  souls.  However,  Mary  was  not 
without  spiritual  comfort  in  her  last  moments,  for  a  Host, 
which  had  been  consecrated  by  Pope  Pius  Y.,  was  secretly 
conveyed  to  her,  despite  the  watchfulness  of  her  persecutors. 
The  executioner,  lifting  up  the  head  he  had  just  struck  off, 
cried  out :  "  God  save  Queen  Elizabeth  ;"  to  which  the  fanat- 
ical Earl  of  Kent  added :  "  So  perish  all  the  enemies  of  the 
Gospel,"  a  speech  which  plainly  laid  open  the  true  motives 
that  had  inspired  the  bloody  deed. 

But  the  violent  hatred  of  their  religion  and  vindictive  per- 
secution of  themselves  did  not  crush  out  in  the  bosom  of 
Catholics  the  sentiments  of  patriotism  and  loyalty  to  the 
crown,  and  when  either  the  honor  or  the  interests  of  England 
were  at  stake,  they  were  among  the  first  to  rush  to  her  de- 
fense. When  the  "invincible  armada"  of  Philip  II.  threat- 
ened the  shores  of  England,  Catholics  answered  the  call  of 
the  queen  no  less  promptly  than  their  Protestant  fellow-coun- 
trymen, with  whom  they  stood  shoulder  to  shoulder,  ready  to 
repel  the  hostile  invaders.     But  neither  their  patriotism  nor 


216  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

their  loyalty  availed  to  obtaiu  a  mitigation  of  the  horrors 
they  were  sufiering.  They  continued  all  the  same  to  be  im- 
prisoned, fined,  tortured,  hung,  and  quartered. 

Elizabeth  died  in  1603,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  only  son 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and  Lord  Henry  Darnley,  James  I. 
of  England  (1603-1625)  and  VI.  of  Scotland  (1567-1625).  On 
his  elevation,  the  Catholics  indulged  the  hope  that  they  would 
now  obtain  some  alleviation  of  their  hardships,  and  it  may  be 
that  James  was  disposed  to  treat  them  with  clemency,  if  not 
with  favor,  but  he  dared  not  face  the  strong  tide  of  public 
opinion  that  had  set  in  against  him.  The  fanaticism  of  the 
Puritans,  who  accused  the  king  of  favoring  the  enemies  and 
persecuting  the  disciples  of  the  Gospel,  led  to  the  revival  of 
the  penal  law  against  recusants.  The  statutes  of  Elizabeth 
were  again  enforced,  and  the  king,  besides  entering  the  Star 
Chamber  and  professing  his  detestation  of  Popery,  issued  a 
proclamation,  banishing  all  Catholic  missionaries  from  the 
land,  and  commanding  all  magistrates  to  see  to  it  that  the 
penal  laws  were  put  into  immediate  execution  (1604).  These 
persecutions,  increasing  in  severity  as  time  went  on,  at  length 
led  a  number  of  bold,  reckless,  and  misguided  men,  of  whom 
Guy  Fawkes  has  obtained  the  most  permanent  notoriety,  to 
form  the  famous  Gunpowder  Plot,  by  which  it  was  designed  to 
blow  up  the  king  and  the  members  of  both  houses  of  parlia- 
ment. The  mine  was  to  have  been  fired  on  the  meeting  of 
parliament,  toward  the  close  of  1605,  but  the  plot  was  for- 
tunately discovered  in  time  to  prevent  the  perpetration  of  so 
monstrous  and  inhuman  a  crime.  The  conspirators  were  ap- 
prehended and  executed ;  and  among  those  to  whose  execu- 
tion the  Gunpowder  Treason  gave  occasion,  were  a  number  of 
missionary  priests,  who  had  not  the  slightest  knowledge  of 
its  existence,  and  Father  Garnet,  the  Provincial  of  the  Jesuits, 
whose  only  oflfense  appears  to  have  been  an  unwillingness  to 
reveal  what  had  been  intrusted  to  him  under  seal  of  confes- 
sion.^ 

The  conspiracy  furnished  a  pretext  for  fresh  enactments 
against  Catholics,  more  cruel  and  sanguinary  than  any  that 


» See  Scavini,  Theol.  Mor.  Univ.,  ed.  Mediolan.  1860,  Vol.  III.,  p.  440.    (Tr.) 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  217 

had  yet  disgraced  English  legislation.  Because  thirteen  indi- 
viduals had  formed  a  diabolical  plot  for  the  destruction  of 
those  at  whose  hands  some  of  them  had  suffered  exceptional 
outrages,  the  whole  Catholic  body  must  be  made  to  suffer  the 
punishment  of  their  guilt.  A  new  penal  code  was  drawn  up. 
by  the  concurrent  action  of  both  houses  of  parliament,  and 
received  the  ro3'al  assent  May  27,  1606.  It  ordained  that 
Catholics  should  not  dwell  within  ten  miles  of  London,  or  go 
more  than  five  miles  from  their  homes  without  written  leave 
from  the  neighboring  magistrate ;  that  they  should  be  ex- 
cluded from  all  civil  ofiices  and  tlie  learned  professions  ;  that 
liusband  and  wife,  unless  married  by  a  Protestant  minister, 
could  not  derive  the  benefit  which  otherwise  the  one  would 
be  entitled  to  from  the  property  of  the  other;  and  that  if 
they  failed  to  have  a  child  baptized  by  a  Protestant  minister 
within  a  moutli  after  its  birth,  they  should  pay  a  fine  of  one 
hundred  pounds  ;  that  every  child  sent  to  be  educated  on  the 
Continent  should  be  legally  incapacitated  from  receiving  in- 
heritance or  other  devises  until  he  should  have  conformed  to 
the  Established  Church,  refusing  to  do  which  his  rights 
should  pass  to  the  Protestant  next  of  kin  ;  that  every  recusant 
should  be  regarded  by  the  law  as  one  excommunicated  by 
name,  and,  in  consequence,  his  house  might  be  searched,  and 
his  books  and  furniture,  if  thought  to  have  any  connection 
with  his  religion,  might  be  burnt,  and  his  horses  and  arms 
taken  from  him  ;  and,  finally,  that  as  a  punishment  for  ab- 
sence from  the  Established  Worship,  the  king  might,  in  his 
discretion,  take  either  a  fine  of  twenty  pounds  per  lunar 
month,  or  all  the  personal  property  and  two-thirds  of  the  real 
estate  of  the  recusant.  A  new  oath  of  allegiance  was  pre- 
scribed, in  which  a  distinction  was  drawn  between  those  who 
uduiitted  and  those  who  denied  the  temporal  claims  of  the 
Pope.  The  latter  were  subject  only  to  the  above  penalties, 
and  the  former,  in  addition  to  these,  were  lial)le  to  perpetual 
imprisonment,  confiscation  of  their  personal  property,  and 
forfeiture  during  life  of  the  revenue  derived  from  their  lands  ; 
but,  if  married  women,  they  were  to  be  confined  in  a  common 
gaol  until  they  would  consent  to  take  the  oath.  To  avoid 
taking  this  oath,  and  escape  the  penalties  of  their  refusal. 


218  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

hundreds  of  Catholics  crossed  the  Channel,  and  took  up  their 
residence  on  the  Continent.^  To  perpetuate  the  remembrance 
of  the  Plot,  and  to  keep  alive  and  active  the  odium  which 
attached  to  Catholics,  in  consequence  of  the  atrocious  wick- 
edness of  a  few  of  their  number,  it  was  ordered  that  the  5th 
(;f  JSTovember,  the  day  of  the  discovery  of  the  Treason,  should 
be  annually  commemorated  with  unusual  pomp,^  and  that  a 
prayer  should  be  inserted  in  the  Liturgy  imploring  protection 
against  "  cruel  and  bloodthirsty  enemies^ 

The  development  of  the  principles  of  Protestantism  in 
Scotland  was  the  reverse  of  that  which  they  assumed  in  Eng- 
land ;  for,  while  they  led  to  the  absolutism  of  the  crown  in 
the  latter  country,  in  the  former  they  issued  in  the  assertion 
of  the  supremacy  of  the  people. 

James,  who  was  constantly  repeating  the  maxim,  "  ]!To 
bishop,  no  king,"  was  anxious  to  preserve  the  episcopacy, 
believing  it  to  be  the  firmest  support  of  the  throne;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  he  hesitated  to  do  justice  to  Catholics,  fearing 
to  bring  upon  himself  the  full  fury  of  Presbyterian  fanati- 
cism. But  the  storm,  which  he  dreaded  to  evoke,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  holding  in  check  for  a  season,  broke  forth  with  ter- 
rific violence  during  the  reign  of  his  successor,  Charles  I. 
(1625-1649).  The  fanaticism  of  the  Puritans  or  '■'Saints" 
grew  daily  more  violent  in  England,  till  in  the  end  it  threat- 
ened not  only  the  destruction  of  the  Episcopacy,  but  the 
overthrow  of  the  throne.  These  fanatical  enthusiasts  ap- 
pealed to  the  Bible  as  authority  for  whatever  they  did,  and 
chiimed  to  find  in  it  a  sanction  for  the  most  atrocious  crimes. 

Charles  was  unfortunate  throughout  his  whole  reign.  All 
his  measures  miscarried,  and  produced  effects  the  very  reverse 
of  those  intended.  He  was  at  variance  with  his  parliament 
from  the  beginning  of  his  reign.     He  set  public  opinion  at 


^Lingard,  1.  c.  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  21-74.    (Tr.) 

2 In  most  towns  of  England,  but  notably  in  London,  one  of  the  features  of 
the  celebration  was  a  grotesque  figure,  stuffed  with  straw,  representing  Guy 
Fawkes,  which  was  carried  about  the  streets,  and  finally  committed  to  the 
flames.  During  the  '■'■No  Popenj"  cry  of  1850,  the  performance  was  varied  by 
the  substitution  and  burning  of  the  effigy  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  instead  of 
that  of  Guy  Fawkes.  (Tr.) 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  219 

defiance,  and  increased  the  popular  discontent  by  selecting 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  his  father's  favorite,  as  his  chief 
adviser  and  prime  minister.  He  exasperated  the  Puritans  in 
England  and  Presbyterians  in  Scotland  by  appointing  Laud, 
a  vehement  and  uncompromising  Episcopalian,  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury,  and  by  making  him,  after  the  assas- 
sination of  Buckingham,  his  chief  counsellor.  He  wounded 
the  prejudices  and  roused  the  indignation  of  the  whole  nation 
by  marrying  a  Roman  Catholic,  Maria  Henrietta  of  France. 
And,  finally,  he  called  forth  a  spirit  of  opposition,  which  he 
was  never  again  able  to  lay,  by  dispensing  for  eleven  years 
(1629-1640)  with  the  aid  of  parliament  in  the  government  of 
the  kingdom,  and  substituting  in  room  of  its  authority  his 
own  despotic  edicts  and  the  arbitrary  decisions  of  the  Star 
Chamber. 

'■'■JSo  Popery'"  became  the  rallying  cry  of  the  enemies  of  the 
king,  and  no  display  of  severity  on  his  part  against  the  Cath- 
olics could  satisfy  their  intolerant  bigotry  and  insatiable  crav- 
ing for  vengeance.  The  children  of  Catholics  must  be  edu- 
cated  in  the  Protestant  faith,  and  priests  living  in  exile  must 
be  put  to  death  if  they  ventured  to  visit  the  land  of  tiieir 
fathers. 

A  partiality  for  extemporaneous  preaching  and  a  hatred 
of  church  government  by  bishops  were  the  two  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  Church  of  Scotland;  and  hence, 
when  King  James  attempted,  in  the  year  1616,  to  force  upon 
it  a  Service  Book  and  a  Code  of  Ecclesiastical  Legislation, 
the  attempt  was  successfully  resisted.  The  scheme  was  re- 
vived by  Charles  I.  in  1629,  and  a  new  Code  of  Ecclesiastical 
Law  and  a  new  Service  Book  w^ere  compiled,  the  latter  of 
which  received  the  royal  approbation  in  1636  ;  but  the  Scotch 
churchmen  again  asserted  their  independence  of  the  king  in 
spiritual  affairs,  and  their  right  to  govern  their  Church  and 
conduct  their  services  as  they  thought  fit.  The  royal  l>arty, 
who  supported  the  claims  of  the  king,  w'ere  denounced  from 
nearly  every  pulpit  in  Scotland  as  men  who  sought  to  ''  gag 
the  Spirit  of  God  and  depose  Christ  from  His  throne."  On 
July  23,  1637,  when  the  Bishop  of  Edinburgh  went  to  the 
principal  church  of  the  city  to  formally  inaugurate  the  new 


220  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Service,  he  was  greeted  with  groans  and  hisses  and  impreca- 
tions by  the  audience,  which  was  chietiy  composed  of  females, 
and  a  stool,  thrown  by  one  of  the  enthusiasts,  narrowly  missed 
bin  head.  They  cried  out  that  the  "  Mass  was  again  entered  ; 
that  Baal  was  in  the  church ;"  and  told  the  bishop  that  he 
was  "  a  thief,  a  devil's  get,  and  of  a  witch's  breeding." 
Again  and  again  the  king  commanded  the  use  of  the  Service 
to  be  enforced,  and  again  and  again  his  command  was  resisted 
by  the  indignant  fury  of  the  populace.  The  opponents  of  the 
king's  policy  grew  daily  in  numbers  and  influence,  and  toward 
the  close  of  the  year  demanded  the  formal  revocation  of  the 
Service  Book  and  Code  of  Ecclesiastical  Law.  In  the  begin- 
ning  of  the  year  1638  a  more  efficient  mode  of  resistance  was 
agreed  upon.  A  National  Covenant,  drawn  up  at  Edinburgh, 
and  intended  to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  a  Confession  of 
Faith  and  a  bond  for  uniting  the  whole  people  in  one  formida- 
ble body  of  dissenters,  was  ratified  by  the  leading  Presbyterian 
ministers,  and  subscribed  to  by  a  great  multitude  of  persons, 
representing  every  walk  of  life.^ 

The  king,  acting  on  the  advice  of  some  of  his  counsellors, 
resolved  to  put  down  the  Covenanters  by  force  ;  but  being  as 
yet  unprepared  for  war,  he  sent  the  Marquis  of  Hamilton  as 
his  commissioner  to  Scotland,  partly  with  a  view  to  gain  time 
and  partly  in  the  hope  that  the  Scots  might  be  won  over  by 
concessions.  He  proposed  to  them  that  if  they  would  consent 
to  disregard  the  Covenant  and  the  obligations  it  imposed,  the 
Service  Book  and  the  Book  of  Canons  should  be  withdrawn, 
and  those  about  to  enter  the  ministry  be  excused  from  taking 
the  oath  of  supremacy  and  canonical  obedience.  The  Scots, 
who  had  secret  information  that  Charles  had  no  intention  of 
acting  in  good  faith,  refused  to  accept  the  royal  proposal.,  and 
resolved  to  maintain  the  Covenant. 

At  an  assembly,  which  met  at  Glasgow  November  21, 1638, 
the  Kirk,  out  of  which,  it  was  said,  there  was  no  salvation, 
was  declared  independent  in  spiritual  matters,  the  Episcopacy 
was  abolished,  the  Service  Book,  the  Ordinal,  and  the  Book 


^Dnvidson,  Historical  Sketch,  Illustrative  of  the  National  Confession  of 
Faith,  Edinburgh,  1819.  (Tk.)  Weber,  Hist,  of  the  Non-Catholic  Churches 
and  Sects  of  Great  Britain.  Lps.  1845,  2  vols. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  221 


of  Canons  were  repudiated,  and  the  bishops  excommunicated 
and  deposed.  The  proceedings  of  this  assemblj''  were  annulled 
by  Charles,  and  by  the  Scots  received  with  transports  of  joy. 
Active  preparations  were  at  once  made  for  war  on  both  sides. 
The  Scots  began  hostilities  in  March  of  the  following  vear 
by  the  seizure  of  the  castle  of  Edinburgh  ;  and  Charles,  after 
vainly  attempting  to  successfully  oppose  them,  opened  a  con- 
ference with  them  at  Berwick,  in  which,  while  refusing  to 
recognize  the  proceedings  of  the  assembly  of  Glasgow  as 
legal,  he  proposed  to  leave  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical 
questions  to  the  decision  of  a  general  assembly,  and  that  of 
civil  matters  to  a  parliament,  both  of  which  he  would  sum- 
mon to  convene  in  the  month  of  August.^ 

At  the  assembly,  which  convened  in  Edinburgh  in  the  fol- 
lowing August,  the  king,  dissembling  his  real  feelings,  re- 
luctantly granted,  through  his  representative,  Traquaire,  what 
it  was  no  longer  safe  to  refuse,  and  this  happy  consummation 
was  hailed  by  the  people  of  Scotland  with  shouts  of  triumph 
and  prayers  of  thanksgiving.  Charles  returned  to  London, 
and  summoned  the  parliament  to  meet  (1640),  in  the  hope  that 
it  would  grant  him  the  necessary  supplies  to  carry  on  the  war. 
The  house  of  commons,  however,  declined  to  take  any  notice 
of  the  royal  demands  until  the  popular  grievances  should 
have  been  righted  and  the  people's  liberties  guaranteed.  The 
angry  king  hastily  dissolved  parliament,  and  sent  an  army 
against  the  Scots,  which  was  defeated  at  Newburn-upon-Tyne. 
After  this  victory,  the  Scottish  army,  encouraged  by  the  tokens 
of  good-will  everywhere  manifested  by  the  inhabitants,  con- 
tinued its  march  toward  the  south  as  far  as  the  borders  of 
Yorkshire.  Charles  was  now  compelled,  much  against  his 
will,  to  again  convoke  parliament.  The  memorable  sittings 
of  this  body,  which  is  known  in  history  as  the  "  Long  Parlia- 
ment," lasted  from  1640  to  1649.  The  two  houses  begac  their 
labors  by  asserting  the  liberties  of  the  people  and  impeav;hing 
high  officers  of  State.  Strafford  was  brought  to  trial,  con- 
demned, and  beheaded,  and  Archbishop  Laud  was  cast  into 
prison.     Fresh  demands  were  daily  made  upon  the  king,  and 


'  Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  354-367.  (Tr.) 


000 


Period  3.     Ej^och  1.     Chapter  2. 


uew  limitations  put  upon  his  prerogatives.  Charles,  conscious 
that  the  conflict  between  himself  and  his  parliament  would 
have  to  be  submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  arms,  withdrew 
from  London,  and,  on  the  22d  of  August,  1642,  unfurled  the 
royal  standard  at  Nottingham.  The  parliamentary  leaders 
allied  themselves  with  the  Scotch  covenanters  "  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  liberties  of  the  Scotch  Kirk  and  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  Church  of  England."  In  order  to  excite  the  pre- 
judices and  inflame  the  hatred  of  the  people  against  the  king 
and  those  who  espoused  his  cause,  they  were  branded  as 
Papists  by  their  opponents.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Charles 
had  had  a  number  of  priests  put  to  death,  it  was  reported, 
and  generally  believed,  that  the  Catholics  were  conspiring  in 
his  favor.  While  the  sufl'erings  of  the  Catholics  were  many 
and  terrible,  those  endured  by  the  Episcopalians,  if  fewer  and 
less  rigorous,  were  still  sufiiciently  aggravating  to  tax  human 
patience  to  the  utmost  and  to  excite  popular  indignation 
against  the  persecutors.  So  intensely  bitter  was  the  feeling 
of  the  Presbyterians  against  the  Established  Church  that, 
through  their  influence,  its  members  were  driven  from  their 
seats  in  parliament,  and,  if  churchmen,  deprived  of  their  liv- 
ings. The  violence  of  the  Presbyterians  at  length  called 
forth  a  spirit  of  reaction  in  their  own  ranks,  thus  giving  rise 
to  a  new  party,  known  as  the  Independents,  and  recognizing 
Fairfax  and  Oliver  Cromwell  as  their  leaders.  Admitting  nei- 
ther a  priesthood  nor  a  ministr}',  to  which  the  office  of  preach- 
ing necessarily  attached,  they  permitted  any  one,  who  believed 
himself  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  to  expound  the  word  of 
God,  a  task  which  army  officers,  and  even  common  soldiers, 
took  upon  them  to  perform.  An  army  inspired  with  such 
enthusiasm,  and  led  by  a  cool-headed,  calculating  general, 
was  capable  of  extraordinary  achievements,  and  hence  the 
Parliamentarians,  victorious  throughout  the  w^iole  struggle, 
crowned  their  triumph  by  a  decisive  victory  over  the  king  at 
(he  battle  of  Naseby,  in  May,  1645. 

After  a  series  of  disasters,  Charles  attempted  to  make  his 
escape  from  the  country,  which,  failing  to  do,  he  gave  him- 
'^elf  up  to  the  Scottish  army,  by  whose  authority  he  was 
transferred  to  the  Parliamentarians,  and  by  them  cast  into 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  223 

prison  at  Holmby.  Refusing  to  purchase  his  personal  safety 
by  a  sacriiice  of  his  principles  and  a  surrender  of  his  convic- 
tions, he  was  detained  in  prison  until  he  was  seized  by  the 
Independents,  who  wished  to  have  possession  of  his  person  as 
a  security  against  the  hostile  designs  of  the  Presbyterians. 
Ill  1647,  the  king  was  transferred  to  Hampton  Court,  whence 
he  escaped  to  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to 
take  passage  in  a  vessel  which  the  queen  had  sent  from  France 
to  convey  him  thither.  His  design  was  frustrated  by  the  vig- 
ilance and  energy  of  the  governor,  and  an  uprising  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  island  in  his  favor  was  instantly  suppressed. 
Both  houses  of  parliament  passed  a  bill  forbidding  all  further 
negotiations  with  the  captive  king,  under  penalty  of  high 
treason. 

The  power  of  the  army  was  now  at  its  height,  and  the 
'■'■Levellers"  a  fanatical  sect,  which  included  among  its  num- 
bers the  bulk  of  the  private  soldiers  and  many  of  the  officers, 
pretended  to  demonstrate  from  Holy  Scripture  that  the  prin- 
ciple of  popular  sovereignty  was  the  only  true  basis  of  gov- 
ernment, and  that  all  kings  were  hateful  to  God.  The  recent 
victories  gained  by  Cromwell  over  the  Scots,  who  attempted 
to  rescue  the  king  (1648),  assured  the  triumph  of  the  Radi- 
cals. They  demanded  that  Charles  should  be  brought  to  trial 
''as  a  man  of  blood,"  who  had  done  his  "  utmost  against  the 
Lord's  cause  and  people  in  this  poor  nation."  The  Presby- 
terians, who  refused  to  share  the  views  of  the  Independents 
and  act  in  harmony  with  their  designs,  were  forcibl}^  driven 
from  their  places  in  the  house  of  commons,  which,  consisting 
now  of  only  sixty  members — The  Bump  Parliament — ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  try  Charles  on  the  charge  of  high 
treason,  in  that  he  had  levied  war  against  the  Parliament  of 
England.  The  king  was  brought  to  trial  before  the  commis- 
sion, assembled  in  "Westminster  Hall,  and  presided  over  by 
John  Bradshaw,  on  the  20th  of  January,  1649.  He  received 
his  sentence  on  the  27th,  and  three  days  later  was  beheaded. 

The  Commonwealth  was  now  proclaimed  in  EngU'nd. 
Charles  II.,  who  had  been  recalled  from  the  Continent,  and 
crowned  King  of  Scotland,  after  having  been  disastrously 
defeated  by  Cromwell  at  Worcester  in  1651,  made  his  escape 


224  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


with  some  difficulty  to  France.  This  victory  virtually  made 
Cromwell  supreme  ruler  of  England ;  but,  to  give  a  color  of 
legality  to  his  acts,  he  was  invested  with  the  authority  and 
title  of  Lord  Protector  by  parliament  in  the  year  1653.^  The 
jjolicy  pursued  by  this  extraordinary  man,  who  was  by  nature 
always  stern  and  frequently  tyrannical,  soon  put  a  period  to 
anarchy  at  home,  and  made  his  government  respected  abroad. 
He  put  down  every  attempt  at  resistance  with  an  iron  hand, 
and  when  he  died,  in  1658,  peace  reigned  throughout  the 
land,  and  all  ranks  professed  to  obey,  if  they  did  not  respect, 
his  authority.  On  his  death,  his  eldest  son,  Richard,  was 
proclaimed  Protector  by  council ;  but  destitute  of  the  qualifi- 
cations which  fit  one  for  so  high  and  important  an  office,  he 
was  forced  to  resign  in  April,  1659,  after  holding  his  dignity 
little  more  than  seven  months;  and  in  the  following  year 
Charles  II.  was  invited  from  the  Continent  to  assume  the 
title  and  responsibilities  of  King  of  England.  Charles  being 
deeply  impressed  with  the  conviction,  which  seemed  a  sort  of 
first  principle  with  the  members  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  that 
episcopacy  is  the  upholder  of  the  throne,  had  it  again  re-estab- 
lished both  in  England  and  in  Scotland.  This  measure,  be- 
sides being  extremely  unpopular,  rendered  the  king  suspected 
of  being  at  heart  a  Catholic,  and  drew  upon  him  the  enmity 
of  many.  Cromwell  had  granted  freedom  of  conscience  to 
persons  of  every  sect  and  shade  of  religious  opinion,  excepting 
Catholics  alove,  whose  condition  was  not  bettered  under 
Charles  II.,  notwithstanding  that  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York,  was  an  earnest  professor  of  the  Catholic  faith.  They 
were  accused  of  having  been  the  authors  of  the  great  fire  of 
London  in  1666,  and  although  there  has  never  been  produced 
a  single  shred  of  evidence  in  support  of  the  charge,  the  lie  is 
still  perpetuated  in  an  inscription  on  a  monument  erected  in 
London  to  commemorate  the  disaster. 

In  the  year  1673,  a  statute  known  as  the  ^^Test  Act,"  and 
directed  chiefly  against  James,  Duke  of  York,  passed  the 
house  of  commons,  ordaining  that  all  persons  should  be  de- 


^Vlllemain,  Histoire  de  Cromwell  d'apres  les  Memoirs  du  Temps  et  les  Re- 
cueils  Parlementaires,  Paris,  1819,  2  vols.     Ranke,  Vol.  III. 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  225 

clared  incapable  of  holding  any  office  of  public  trust,  either 
civil  or  military,  and  be  disqualified  to  sue  in  courts  of  law 
and  equity,  to  act  as  guardians  or  executors,  or  to  take  any 
legacy  or  deed  of  gift,  who  should  refuse  to  take  the  oatli  of 
allegiance  and  supremacy,  or  decline  to  receive  in  public  the 
Sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  subscribe  a  declaration  denying  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation.'  Every  possible  means  was  resorted  to,  no  matter 
how  infamous,  to  suppress  Catholicism  and  rouse  public  in- 
dignation against  its  professors.  Lord  Shaftesbury,  who  had 
been  mainly  instrumental  in  having  the  "Test  Act"  passed, 
now  pretended  that  he  had  private  information  of  a  "  Popish 
Plot"  to  assassinate  the  king,  massacre  the  Protestants,  and 
burn  the  city  of  London,  and  that  the  conspirators,  who  were 
acting  under  the  direction  of  the  general  of  the  Jesuits,  in- 
cluded in  their  ranks  nearly  every  Catholic  in  the  kingdom.' 
The  Plot  was  the  pure  invention  of  one  Titus  Oates  or  Am- 
brose:, a  man  of  disreputable  character,  who,  taking  advantage 
of  a  few  adventitious  circumstances,  contrived  a  story  so 
plausible  that  it  readily  obtained  credence  in  the  then  excited 
state  of  the  public  mind.  The  subject  was  brought  before 
parliament.  Oates  was  hailed  as  the  savior  of  the  Protest- 
ants, granted  a  pension  of  nine  hundred  pounds  a  year,  and 
assigned  a  suite  of  apartments  at  Whitehall.  By  the  aid  of 
suborned  witnesses  and  truculent  juries,  many  innocent  Po- 
man  Catholic  gentlemen  were  convicted  of  complicity  in  the 
Plot,  and  died  the  death  of  traitors  at  the  block,  protesting 
their  innocence  with  their  last  breath. 

(Jharles  II.  was  taken  ill  on  February  2,  1685,  and  died  four 
days  later,  after  having  made  his  peace  with  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  received  the  consolations  of  her  Sacraments. 

Notwithstanding  the  existence  of  an  Exclusion  Bill,  which 
had  passed  the  house  of  commons,  declaring  James,  Duke  of 
York,  debarred  from  inheriting  the  crown  of  England,  he 
succeeded  to  his  brother  without  opposition  (1685).  On  the 
4th  of  April,  1687,  he  published  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence, 

^Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  28,  190,  191.   (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 15 


226  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


granting  liberty  of  conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  to  all 
his  subjects.  Had  he  been  content  with  doing  this  much,  he 
might,  in  all  probability,  have  greatly  ameliorated  the  condi- 
tion of  his  Catholic  co-religionists,  without  imperiling  his  own 
title  to  the  throne.  But  being  a  devout  and  zealous  Catholic, 
he  desired  to  restore  that  faith  to  its  ancient  ascendency,  and, 
by  his  eflbrts  to  do  so,  alarmed  the  jealousy  and  alienated  the 
affections  of  his  Protestant  subjects,  and  thus  prepared  the 
way  for  his  speedy  downfall.  He  renewed  relations  with 
Rome,  and  dispensed  Catholics  from  the  obligation  of  taking 
the  Test  Oath,  thus  removing  tlieir  disqualiticatioiis  for 
holding  office.  On  the  27th  of  April,  1688,  James  again  pub- 
lished his  Declaration  of  Indulgence^  with  some  slight  addi- 
tions, and  ordered  it  to  be  read  in  all  the  churches  of  the 
kingdom.  This  many  of  the  clergy  refused  to  do,  and  seven 
of  the  bishops,  who  ventured  on  a  Avritten  remonstrance, 
were  committed  to  the  Tower  on  the  charge  of  seditious  libel, 
tried  and  acquitted.  The  misfortunes  of  James  culminated 
in  the  birth  of  a  male  heir  apparent,  known  in  histor}-  as 
"TAe  Pretender,'^  an  event  which,  while  bringing  joy  to  the 
heart  of  the  king,  would,  under  different  circumstances,  have 
been  hailed  as  a  blessing  by  the  nation.  But  now  the  pros- 
pect of  a  new  line  of  Catholic  rulers  was  viewed  with  appre- 
hension by  the  discontented  of  every  class,  and  with  positive 
alarm  by  the  holders  of  property  formerly  belonging  to  the 
Church.  On  the  night  of  the  29th  of  June,  1688,  the  day  of 
the  acquittal  of  the  bishops  who  had  remonstrated  in  writing 
against  reading  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  and  been  in- 
dicted for  libel  in  consequence,  a  message,  signed  by  seven 
leading  English  politicians,  was  dispatched  to  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  begging  him  to  come  over  to  England  and  occupy 
the  throne.  William,  who  was  then  Stadtholder  of  the  United 
Provinces,  having  married  Mary,  the  daughter  of  James  IL, 
and  a  Protestant  in  religion,  regarded  his  wife  as  the  lawful 
heir  to  the  English  throne,  and  secretly  favored  every  scheme 
for  depriving  her  father  of  the  crown.  He  accordingly  ac- 
cepted the  invitation,  and  setting  out  with  an  army  of  four- 
teen thousand  men,  composed  of  English  and  Dutch,  landed 
at  Torbay,  in  Devonshire,  November  5,  1688,  and  was  hailed 


§  329.  Protestantism  in  England.  227 

as  the  "  !N"ational  Deliverer,"  come  "  to  set  the  affairs  of  the 
reahn  in  order."  James,  betrayed  by  his  army  and  de- 
serted by  his  children,  after  making  a  short,  but  ineffectual 
resistance,  tied  to  France,  and  landed  at  Ambleteuse,  Decem- 
ber 25.  His  flight  facilitated  at  once  the  triumph  o^"  his 
enemies,  and  furnished  the  chief  ground  of  accusation  against 
himself.  He  was  declared  to  have  abdicated  the  government, 
thereby  leaving  the  throne  vacant,  and  William  and  Mary 
were  called  to  rule  the  English  people  as  joint  sovereigns. 
The  date  of  their  accession  is  coincident  with  the  beginning  of 
the  "  Protestant  Ascendency."  Catholics  and  those  married 
to  Catholics  were  forever  declared  incapable  of  wearing  the 
crown  of  England  ;  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  was  drawn  up 
and  prescribed;  the  right  enjoyed  by  Catholics  of  appointing 
to  livings  was  w^ithdrawn  from  them,  and  bestowed  upon  the 
universities  ;  and  all  Catholics,  or  those  reputed  to  be  such, 
were  ordered  not  to  approach  within  a  d«istance  of  ten  mile? 
of  London.  An  Act  of  Toleration,  passed  in  the  year  1698, 
granted  liberty  of  conscience  and  freedom  of  worship  to  all 
except  to  Socinians  and  Catholics.  The  latter  endured  hardships 
the  most  rigorous,  on  account  of  their  faith,  being  deprived 
of  civil  and  political  rights  of  every  kind.  Catholic  schools 
were  closed,  and  Catholic  priests  were  hunted  down.  Such 
Catholic  clergymen  as  consented  to  give  up  their  faith  and 
enter  what  was  styled  "  the  one,  true,  saving,  and  aj)ostolic 
Church  of  England,"  received  the  gift  of  splendid  livings  as 
a  reward  of  their  apostasy.  Any  Catholic  child,  who  went 
over  to  the  Established  Church,  obtained  in  his  own  right, 
even  during  the  lifetime  of  his  parents,  and  to  the  exclusion 
of  his  brothers  and  sisters,  the  whole  family  inheritance. 

That  under  such  circumstances  the  Catholic  faith  did  not 
become  wholly  extinct  in  Great  Britain  can  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  only  by  ascribing  its  preservation  to  the  over- 
ruling guidance  of  its  Divine  Founder.  This  barbarous  per- 
secution was  carried  on  without  intermission  or  abatement 
throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  and 
it  required  the  fear  inspired  by  the  American  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  the  dread  of  the  contagious  influence  of  the 


228  Period  3.     Upoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Freuch  Revolution,  to  extort  from  either  statesmen  or  high- 
church  functionaries  any  amelioration  of  the  Penal  Laws  di- 
rected against  Catholics. 

§  330.   Protestantism  in  Scotland. 

J.  Knox,  Hist,  of  the  Reform,  of  Scotland  (till  1567),  London,  1664,  f.  and 
often.  D.  Calderwood,  Hist,  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  London,  1678,  fnl., 
Edinb.  1845,  7  vols.  Gil.  Stuart,  History  of  the  Establishment  of  the  Eefurma- 
tion  in  Scotland,  London,  1780,  4to. ;  and  The  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Establishment  of  the  Preformation  to  the  Death  of  Queen  Ma^J^  His  object  in 
this  was  to  defend  that  unfortunate  princess  against  Dr.  Robertson  and  others. 
G.  Cook,  History  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland,  Edinburgh,  1811,  3  vols.,  8vo.; 
and  History  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  '6  vols.,  8vo.,  1815.  W^n.  Uradshnw, 
English  Puritanism,  containing  the  main  opinions  of  the  rigidest  sort  of  those 
that  went  by  that  name  in  the  realm  of  England,  London,  1605  (Lat.  trans.. 
Puritanismus  Anglicanus,  Frcf.  1610).  Wm.  Robertson,  History  of  Scotland, 
Edinburgh,  1759,  2  vols.  He  passed  over  the  earlier  periods  as  '■  dark  and  fab- 
ulous.' (Germ,  tr.,  Brunswick,  2  pts.)  Keith  (Bishop),  History  of  the  Atfairs 
of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland,  Edin.  1734,  fol.  G.  Chalmers,  Life  of  31ary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  Lond.  1818,  2  vols.,  4to.;  1822,  3  vols.,  8vo.  P.  F.  Tyiler,  The 
History  of  Scotland,  Edin.  1828-1843,  9  vols.  M.  Laing,  Plist.  of  Scotland,  4 
vols. ;  remarkable  only  for  its  partiality  and  attacks  upon  the  character  of  the 
unfortunate  Mary.  Her  great  defender,  Prince  Labanoff,  Recueil  des  Lettres 
de  Marie  Stuart,  London,  1844,  7  vols.,  8vo. ;  from  which  Rev.  Donald  McLeod 
drew  the  Life  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  New  York,  1857.  M.  Teulei,  Papiers 
d'  Etat  relatifs  a  I'Histoire  de  I'Ecosse,  Paris,  1851-1860,  3  vols,  4to. ;  1802,  5 
vols.,  8vo.  Miss  Agnes  Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  Scotland,  Edin. 
1850-1859,  8  vols.,  8vo.  J.  Cunningham,  Church  History  of  Scotland,  2  vols. 
(from  a  Presbyterian  point  of  view).  Geo.  Grub,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Scotland,  4 
vols,  (from  an  Episcopalian  point  of  view).  Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland  (with 
numerous  notices  of  eccl.  affairs).  T.  Jmies,  Law  of  Creeds  in  Scotland. 
J.  Skhmer,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Scotland,  London,  1818,  2  vols.,  8vo.  Analecta 
Scotia,  illustr.  the  civil,  eccl.,  and  lit.  Hist,  of  Scotland,  Edinb.  1834-1837,  12 
vols.,  8vo.  J.  A.  Froude,  Hist,  of  England,  New  York,  1865,  12  vols.  Macaulny, 
Hist,  of  England.  Stanley  (Dean  of  Westminster),  Lectures  on  the  Hist,  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  New  York,  1872.  Wm.  ton  Schutz,  Mary  Stuart, 
Mentz,  1839,  2  vols.;  cf.  concerning  it  Periodical  of  Historical  Science,  by 
Neander,  year  1857.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  I.,  p.  457  sq. ;  Vol.  III.,  p. 
696  sq.  K.  G.  v.  Rudloff,  Hist,  of  the  Reform,  in  Scotland,  Berlin,  1847-1849, 
2  vols.  Koeslin,  The  Church  of  Scotland  and  her  Relation  to  the  State,  Ham- 
burg, 1852.  W.  M.  Hetherington,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  till  1843,  4th 
ed.,  Edinb.  1853,  8vo. ;  3d  ed.,  New  York,  1844,  8vo. 

The  introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  Scotland  was  ac- 
companied by  deeds  of  exceptional  atrocity.  By  an  act  of 
the   Scotch   parliament  of  1525,  the  importation  of  books 


§  830.  Protestantism  in  Scotland.  229 

treating  of  Lutheranism  was  prohibited,  and  all  persons  for- 
bidden to  take  any  other  means  of  giving  publicity  to  the 
Reformer's  teachings.  Patrick  Hamilton,  Abbot  of  Feme, 
during  a  stay  in  the  cities  of  Wittenberg  and  Marburg,  had 
be^come  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  Lutheranism,  and 
after  his  return  home  disregarded  the  prohibition  of  parlia- 
ment, and  began  to  propagate  the  new  heresy.  He  was  ar- 
rested, tried,  and  burnt  at  the  stake,  opposite  St.  Andrew's 
College,  in  February,  1528.  Of  those  who  followed  in  his 
footsteps,  and  continued  to  spread  the  teachings  of  Luther, 
some,  like  him,  expiated  their  offense  at  the  stake,  while 
others  fled  either  to  England  or  the  Continent.  These  cruel- 
ties, coming  with  ill  grace  from  a  corrupt  clergy^  who  were 
themselves  the  objects  of  public  derision  and  contempt,  still 
further  roused  the  fury  of  their  adversaries,  who  soon  took  a 
bloody  vengeance. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  country  gradually  divided  themselves 
into  two  hostile  parties,  which  came  into  direct  collision  with 
each  other  in  the  year  1546.  On  the  28th  of  February  of  this 
year,  George  Wishart,  the  most  eloquent  of  the  Scotch  Re- 
formers, was  arrested  by  the  orders  of  Cardinal  Beaton,  the 
powerful  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  brought  to  trial,  and 
burned  at  the  stake.^  On  the  29th  of  the  following  May,  a 
number  of  the  Reform  party,  headed  by  Norman  Lesley,  at- 
tacked and  murdered  the  cardinal,  and  seized  and  plundered 
his  palace  of  St.  Andrews,  which  became  temporarily  the 
stronghold  of  the  Reformers. 

But  of  all  those  who  preached  the  teachings  of  the  Reform- 
ation in  Scotland,  none  achieved  such  successes  as  the  impet- 
uous and  eloquent  John  Knox?     Brought  up  a  Catholic,  and 

'  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  Wishart's  complicity  in  a  plot  entered 
into  by  the  more  zealous  of  the  Keformers  for  the  assassination  of  Card.  Beaton 
was  the  immediate  occasion  of  his  arrest. 

-Th.  M'Crie,  Lives  of  John  Knox  and  Andrew  Melville,  Edinburgh,  1811,  2 
vols.,  and  frequently  ed. ;  in  an  abridgment  by  Plnnk,  Gottingen,  1817  (pane- 
gyric). Weber,  John  Knox  and  the  Scottish  Church  (Studies  and  Criticisms, 
nro.  4).  Brandes,  John  Knox,  the  Keformer  of  Scotland,  Elberfeld,  1862. 
(Lives  and  Select  AVritings  of  the  Fathers  and  Founders  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  Ft.  X.) 


230  Period  3.     E]poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

educated  for  the  service  of  the  Church,  he  took  priest's  orders 
some  time  before  1530,  and  about  twelve  years  later  (1542) 
openly  professed  himself  a  Protestant,  Hearing  of  the  assas- 
sination of  Cardinal  Beaton,  he  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that 
the  deed  had  been  of  divine  inspiration.  He  took  up  his  res- 
idence at  the  castle  of  St.  Andrew's,  after  its  capture  by  the 
Jleformers,  and  in  1547  began  his  career  as  a  preacher  in  the 
parish  church  of  the  same  name  by  an  intemperate  denuncia- 
tion of  the  errors  of  Popery.  When  the  fortress  was  taken 
by  the  royal  troops,  Knox,  being  one  of  the  captured  prison- 
ers, was  conducted  across  to  France,  where  he  spent  nearly 
two  years  in  the  galleys.  Returning  to  England,  he  again 
began  to  preach ;  was  appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  to  Ed- 
ward VI. ;  fell  in  love,  and  was  married.  When  Mar}'  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  of  England,  Knox,  with  others  of  the 
Reformers,  withdrew  to  the  Continent.  He  spent  some  time 
at  Dieppe,  Geneva,  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main  ;  made  a  short 
visit  to  Scotland  to  encourage  the  Reformers  (1555),  and  re- 
turned to  Geneva  (1556),  where  he  passed  nearly  three  years 
in  charge  of  a  church,  and  became  a  thorough-going  Cal- 
vinist. 

Aifairs  in  Scotland  seemed  to  conspire  to  favor  the  Reform- 
ers. The  weak  and  vain  JSarl  of  Arran,  who  became  regent 
on  the  death  of  James  V.,  in  1542,  was  quite  content  to  allow 
the  innovators  to  have  their  own  way,  provided  only  the  pros- 
ecution of  their  plans  did  not  lead  to  open  rebellion.  When 
Mary  succeeded  to  the  throne,  she  saw  herself  condemned  to 
be  an  idle  spectator  of  the  uninterrupted  progress  of  the  new 
teachings,  which  had  been  propagated  chiefly  by  English  ref- 
ugees, who  sought  an  asylum  in  Scotland,  after  the  accession 
of  Mary  Tudor  to  the  throne  (1553),  and  of  whom  John  Wil- 
lock  was  the  most  distinguished,  A  Synod  convened  in  Ed- 
inburgh in  1549  to  provide  measures  for  the  removal  of  the 
ignorance  and  the  correction  of  the  morals  of  the  Scottish 
clergy,  but  it  was  already  too  late  to  effect  any  good.  Among 
his  other  labors,  Knox  occupied  himself  during  his  stay  at 
Geneva  in  writing  a  work,  published  in  1558,  entitled  "  The 
First  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the  Monstrous  Regimen  oj 


§  330.  Protestantism  in  Scotland.  231 

Women"  being  a  violent  attack  ujDon  Mary  of  Guise,  Regent 
of  Scotland,  and  Maiy  Tudor,  Queen  of  England. 

From  Geneva,  Knox  kept  up  an  active  correspondence  with 
his  partisans  in  Scotland,  whom  he  counseled  to  employ  force, 
should  other  means  fail,  for  the  suppression  of  an  idolatrous 
worship  and  the  overthrow  of  an  idolatrous  government.  He 
was  fond  of  repeating  that,  "  by  no  other  means  vere  owls  so 
effectually  frightened  away  as  by  burning  their  nests."  The  pas- 
sions of  the  multitude,  which  had  been  recently  aroused  by 
the  burning  of  Walter  Milne,  an  apostate  priest,  were  still  fur- 
ther inflamed  when,  in  1559,  Knox  was  recalled  to  Scotland, 
and  began  to  preach  against  the  idolatry  of  the  Mass  and  the 
veneration  of  images.  The  "  rascal  multitude,"  as  Knox  af- 
terward called  those  who  only  put  his  precepts  into  practice, 
roused  to  fury  by  the  fiery  denunciations  he  had  launched 
against  an  idolatrous  worship,  proceeded  to  demolish  the  im- 
ages and  tear  and  trample  under  foot  the  pictures  in  the 
churches  of  the  city  of  Perth,  and  sack  and  lay  in  ruins  the 
houses  of  the  •Franciscan  and  Dominican  friars  and  the  mon- 
astery of  the  Carthusians.  Similar  outrages  were  perpetrated 
in  other  cities  of  Scotland.  The  inauguration  of  the  Re- 
formed Religion  was  always  preceded  by  the  sacking  of 
churches,  the  destruction  of  images,  and  the  utter  demolirion 
of  whatever  in  any  way  referred  to  the  Mass,  or  had  any  con- 
nection with  the  veneration  of  Saints.  The  Scottish  Reform- 
ers, with  a  view  to  centralizing  their  power,  formed  a  cov- 
enant, which  came  to  be  known  as  the  Congregation,  and  its 
leaders  as  Lords  of  the  Congregation.  Between  that  portion 
of  the  population  represented  by  this  body  and  assisted  by 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  and  the  adherents  of  the  queen- 
regent,  assisted  by  the  King  of  France,  a  civil  war  of  twelve 
months'  duration  was  carried  on,  which  was  characterized  by 
incidents  of  unusual  atrocity.  While  the  English  troops 
were  investing  Edinburgh,  the  queen-regent  died,  after  which 
both  parties  agreed  to  a  truce,  during  which  it  was  arranged 
to  summon  a  parliament,  to  whose  action  the  settlement  of 
their  difficulties  should  be  left.  The  parliament,  which  as- 
sembled in  August,  1560,  declared  the  Reformed  the  estab- 
lished religion  of  Scotland,  and  interdicted  Catholic  worship 


Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


Wheu,  therefore,  31ary  Stuart,  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
Francis  II.,  Baiiphiu  of  France,  returned  to  Scotland,  August 
21,  1561,  to  enter  upon  the  government  of  that  kingdom,  she 
found  her  religion,  to  which  she  was  devotedly  attached,  abol- 
ished, and  the  penalty  of  confiscation  and  death  decreed  against 
any  one  who  should  hear  Mass.  The  old  Catholic  faith  had 
been  replaced  by  a  rigid  Calvinism,  and  the  episcopal  form  of 
church  government  by  that  of  Presbyters,  belonging  to  the 
"  Community  of  the  Saints."  ^  This  democratic  system  was 
applied  to  politics  as  well  as  religion.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, Mary  Stuart,  while  refusing  to  formally  concede  all 
the  claims  put  forward  by  the  victorious  Keformers,  was, 
nevertheless,  content  to  leave  matters  as  she  found  them,  and 
even  condescended  to  gratify  their  wishes  in  everything  con- 
sistent with  her  duty  as  a  Catholic  and  her  dignity  as  a  queen. 
Disregarding  the  counsels  of  the  more  zealous  of  the  Koman 
Catholics,  she  selected  her  advisers  from  among  the  Protest- 
ants, and  appointed  as  her  minister  of  state  her  illegitimate 
brother,  James  Stuart,  an  ambitious  and  able  statesman,  whom 
she  afterward  created  Earl  of  Murray.  But,  while  granting 
freedom  of  worship  to  others,  she  claimed  for  herself  the  lib- 
erty of  hearing  Mass  said  in  the  chapel  of  the  castle  of  Edin- 
burgh, a  concession  which  Knox  and  others  of  the  extreme 
Eeformers  denounced  as  an  offense  against  the  law  of  God^ 
whicli  would  inevitably  draw  down  the  divine  vengeance  upon 
the  whole  land.  "  I  had  rather,"  said  Knox,  "  face  ten  thou- 
sand enemies  than  know  that  one  Mass  is  said  in  Scotland." 
So  violent  were  his  denunciations,  and  so  effective  in  their 
results,  that  when  Mary  made  her  solemn  entrance  into  Edin- 
burgh, the  city  council  issued  a  proclamation,  expelling  from 
the  city  "the  whole  wicked  rabble  of  Antichrist  and  the 
Pope,  to  wit,  priests,  monks,  lay-brothers,  fornicators,  and 
adulterers."     While  the  manners  of  Mary's  court  were  not 

'  •'  The  government  and  discipline  of  the  Church  rest,  on  the  Presbyterian 
theory,  with  collective  bodies  of  teaching  (or  clerical)  elders,  generally  called 
'ministers,'  and  ruling  (or  lay)  elders,  who  are  generally  meant  when  'elders' 
are  spoken  of,  gathered  in  Synods,  and  not  with  individual  persons,  as  in  the 
Episcopal  system,  or  with  individual  congregations,  as  in  the  Independent  sys« 
tern."     Blunt,  Diet,  of  Heresies,  etc.,  art.  "  Presbyterians."  (Tr.) 


§  330.  Protestantism  in  Scotland.  233 


of  that  stern  and  gloomy  severity  which  the  Scotch  Reformers 
aiFected,  it  must  also  be  admitted  that,  in  their  judgments  of 
her,  they  were  harsh  and  unjust,  rather  tlian  equitable  and 
tolerant.  Knox,  who  was  fully  aliv^e  to  the  impression  whicli 
her  singular  beauty  and  attractive  address  would  make  upon 
tliose  with  whom  she  came  in  contact,  resolved  to  counteract 
any  influence  she  might  derive  from  her  personal  graces  and 
charm  of  manner  by  coarse  invectives  against  her  policy  and 
indelicate  insinuations  against  her  character.  Her  marriage 
with  her  cousin,  Henry  Stewart,  Lord  Darnley,  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Lennox,  whose  whole  family  were  reputed  zealous 
Catholics,  he  had  the  indecent  effrontery  to  liken  to  the  union 
between  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  This  marriage,  which  was  cel- 
ebrated at  Holyrood,  July  29,  1565,  though  perfectly  honor- 
able, was  disastrous  in  its  consequences.  It  was  the  occasion 
of  a  revolt,  headed  by  Murray  and  the  Hamiltons,  who,  dis- 
appointed in  their  hopes  of  assistance  from  the  Protestants, 
were  defeated  by  the  forces  of  the  queen,  who  had  taken  the 
field  in  person  against  them.  Mary  now  began  to  awake  to 
the  fact  that  her  marriage  with  Darnley  had  been  a  mistake. 
His  morals  were  dissolute,  his  arrogance  intolerant,  and  his 
ambition  boundless.  But,  while  he  possessed  all  the  vices,  he 
had  none  of  the  virtues  of  a  strong  character.  He  had  re- 
ceived from  Mary  the  title  of  king;  but,  not  content  with 
this,  demanded  that  the  crown  should  be  secured  to  him  for 
life,  and  that  in  the  event  of  the  queen's  dying  without  issue, 
it  should  descend  to  his  heirs.  His  demands  having  been  re- 
fused, he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  Murray,  Morton,  and 
others  of  the  Protestant  leaders,  for  the  murder  of  Riccio, 
Mary's  secretary,  who,  he  persuaded  them,  was  the  real  ob- 
stacle to  the  accomplishment  of  his  wishes.  Entering  the 
queen's  apartments,  the  assassins,  headed  by  the  king,  seized 
the  poor  Italian,  dragged  him  into  the  ante-chamber,  and 
dispatched  him  with  more  than  fifty  wounds  (March  9,  1566). 
Speaking  of  this  atrocious  tmd  cowardly  murder,  the  pious 
Knox  said  it  was  "a  just  act  and  worthy  of  all  praise."  The 
queen  succeeded,  by  kind  attentions  and  demonstrations  of 
love,  in  detaching  her  husband  from  the  conspirators  ;  but, 
although  her  affection  for  him  seemed  to  revive  as  the  time 


234  Period  3.     Efoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

of  her  confinement  drew  near,  she  was  again  soon  alienated 
from  him.  Darnley  was  taken  ill  of  the  small-pox  at  Glas- 
gow toward  the  middle  of  January,  1567.  He  was  removed 
thence  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  lodged  in  a  small  house 
beside  the  Kirk  of  the  Field.  This  house  was  blown  up  by 
gunpowder  on  the  night  of  the  9th  of  February,  and  Darnley's 
lifeless  body  found  in  the  neighboring  garden.  Notwith- 
standing that  Mary  visited  him  daily  while  here,  spending 
some  whole  nights  under  the  same  roof,  and  showing  him 
every  attention  and  kindness,  she  has  been  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  his  murder,  although  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  her 
guilt  has  ever  been  produced.  Bothwell  was  generally  be- 
lieved to  have  been  at  the  bottom  of  the  plot,  and  Mary^s 
marriage  to  him,  only  three  months  after  the  murder  of  her 
late  husband,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  had  been  abducted 
by  violence,  and  her  consent  extorted  by  force,  gave  color  of 
truth  to  the  damaging  suspicions  that  were  put  in  circulation 
by  her  enemies. 

This  fatal  step  was  speedily  followed  by  disaster.  A  fac- 
tion, including  many  of  the  nobility  of  Scotland,  and  headed 
by  Earl  Murray,  rose  in  arms ;  and  unable  to  hold  out  against 
them,  she  was  forced  to  surrender  herself  a  prisoner  into  their 
hands.  She  was  prevailed  upon  while  a  captive  to  sign  an 
act  of  abdication  in  favor  of  her  son,  James,  then  only  thir- 
teen months  of  age,  which  she  did  at  Lochleven,  July  24th. 
Murray  was  named  regent  during  the  minority  of  the  young 
king,  and  bound  himself  by  oath  to  extirpate  the  enemies  of 
the  Gospel  from  Scotland,  Accused  of  adultery  and  com- 
plicity in  the  assassination  of  Darnley,  and  vanquished  by  her 
enemies,  Mary  committed  the  fatal  blunder  of  accepting  the 
proffered  hospitality  of  Elizabeth  of  England,  her  most  invet- 
erate enemy,  from  whose  hands  she  never  escaped.^ 

The  pious  and  rebellious  Knox  died  in  1572,  confessing  that 
he  was  "  wearied  of  the  world,"  and  his  place  was  filled  by 
another  Reformer,  quite  as  radical  and  fanatical  as  himself, 
named  Andrew  Melville.  James  VL  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  kingdom  in  1578,  and,  true  to  the  traditionary 

^Fred.  v.  Raumer,  Elizabeth  and  Mary,  Lps.  1836. 


331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  235 


policy  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  did  what  he  could  to  strengthen 
the  authority  of  the  Episcopacy.  His  efforts,  however,  were 
frustrated  by  the  boldness  and  energy  of  the  Presbyterians. 
The  general  assembly  of  1581  commanded  all  bishops  to  re- 
sign their  sees,  and  forbade  them  to  exercise  any  episcopal 
function,  under  penalty  of  banishment  from  the  kingdom. 
By  an  act  of  parliament  of  the  year  1584,  the  Episcopacy 
was  again  re-established,  and  all  attempts  against  the  royal 
person  declared  high  treason. 

But  now  that  James  had  the  sanction  of  parliament  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Episcopacy,  he  lacked  the  power  to  carry 
the  act  into  execution,  and  was  once  more  obliged  to  yield  to 
the  demands  of  the  Presbyterians,  whose  system  of  church 
government  was  legalized  by  parliament  in  1592.  The  bish- 
ops, while  permitted  to  retain  their  seats  in  parliament,  were 
deprived  of  all  right  to  exercise  ecclesiastical  functions,  and 
forbidden  to  bear  the  title  of  bishop. 

In  spite  of  the  persistent  persecution  directed  against  the 
Catholic  religion  in  Scotland,  it  never  quite  disappeared  from 
the  land  ;  and,  after  maintaining  itself  in  obscurity  for  centu- 
ries in  the  Highlands,  has  been  steadily  gaining  ground,  and 
making  notable  progress  in  these  latter  days. 

§  .831.  Protestantism  in  Ireland. 

Thos.  Moore,  Memoirs  of  Captain  Rock,  ed.  1824  and  1852.  The  same,  His* 
tory  of  Ireland,  forming  4  vols,  of  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,  1839-1846. 
0' Connell,  A  Memoir  of  Ireland,  Native  and  Saxon,  1  vol.,  Bvo.,  Dublin,  1843. 
Ireland's  Situation,  from  an  ecclesiastical  point  of  view,  in  the  Tubi7igen  Quar- 
terly Revisiu,  year  1840,  pp.  549  sq.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  Y.,  pp.  490  sq. 
Thos.  Darcy  M'Gee,  Hist,  of  the  Attempt  to  Establish  the  Protestant  Reforma- 
tion in  Ireland,  Boston,  1853.  Brenan,  0.  S.  F.,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  Dub- 
lin, 1864.      IC.  D.  KiUe7i,  Ecel.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  London,  1875. 

The  very  name  of  Ireland  is  associated  in  the  mind  with 
civil  and  religious  persecution. 

The  first  attempts  to  rob  Ireland  of  her  independence  and 
her  people  of  their  freedom  date  back  to  the  reign  of  Henry 
XL,  in  1166.  Those  districts,  occupied  at  diflerent  times  by 
the  English  settlers,  were  known  under  the  general  name  of 
"  the  Pale,"  the  geographical  limit  of  which  varied  with  the 
fortunes  of  the  English  arms  in  Ireland.     From  the  inhabit- 


236  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

ants  of  the  Pale,  the  members  of  the  so-called  Irish  parliament 
into  whose  hands  the  destinies  of  the  nation  were  committed, 
were  selected.  Once  Henry  VIII.  had  made  up  his  mind  to 
become  supreme  spiritual  head  of  the  Church  of  England,  he 
was  equally  anxious  to  enjoy  the  same  title  and  authority  in 
Ireland.  The  archiepiscopal  see  of  Dublin  falling  vacant, 
Cromwell  appointed  to  it  one  George  Brown  (1585),  then  pro- 
vincial of  the  Order  of  Augustinians  in  England,  and  formerly 
a  Lutheran.  Having  arrived  in  Dublin,  he  and  the  commis- 
sioners from  Henry  VIII.,  who  accompanied  him,  summoned 
some  of  the  bishops  and  nobles  to  the  castle  of  Dublin,  and 
called  on  them  to  subscribe  to  the  supremacy  of  the  king  in 
the  spiritual  aflairs  of  the  Church  of  Ireland.  George  Cormer, 
Primate  of  Ireland,  indignantly  repelled  such  a  claim,  and 
summoning  the  Episcopacy  of  the  country  before  him,  called 
on  them  to  resist  to  the  last  this  attempt  to  open  a  schism  in 
the  Irish  Church.  This  scheme  failing,  Lord  Grey,  the  deputy, 
culled  the  parliament  to  meet  at  Dublin,  May  1,  1536,  and  by 
this  body  Henry  VIII.  was  declared  "  sole  and  supreme  head 
on  earth  of  the  Church  of  Ireland,"^  the  Pope's  jurisdiction 
renounced,  and  all  who  should  maintain  it  rendered  subject 
to  the  penalties  of  praemunire.^ 

^Brenan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  Dublin,  1864,  pp.  392-393.  (Tr.)  In  a  let- 
ter, dated  September,  1535,  written  by  Archbishop  Browne  to  Cromwell,  the 
writer  says:  ''He  had  endeavored,  almost  to  the  hazard  of  his  life,  to  reduce 
the  nobility  and  gentry  of  Ireland  to  due  obedience  in  owning  the  king  their 
supreme  head,  as  well  spiritual  as  temporal ;  but  that  he  was  much  opposed 
therein,  especially  by  Cromer,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  had  laid  a  curse  on 
the  people  whoever  should  own  the  king's  supremacy,  and  had  thereby  drawn 
.o  him  the  most  of  his  suffragans  and  clergy  within  his  jurisdiction ;  that  the 
archbishop  and  priests  of  Armagh  had  sent  two  messengers  to  Rome,  and  that 
it  was  feared  O'Neill  (the  great  chief  of  Ulster)  would  be  ordered  by  the  Pope 
to  oppose  the  changes."  Killen,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  London,  1875,  Vol.  I., 
pp.  338-339.  This  writer  is  a  Protestant,  and  shows  the  animus  of  a  bigoted 
partisan.  (Tr.) 

2  '•  All  officials  of  every  class  were  required  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy, 
and  all  who  refused  were  declared  guilty  of  high  treason.  Several  of  the  old 
penal  laws  were  revived.  Marriage  and  fostering  with  the  Irish  wei'e  forbid- 
den, and  throughout  the  Pale  the  English  language  and  habit  were  strictly  en- 
joined. A  law  was  made  for  the  establishment  of  an  English  school  in  everj' 
district."  Killen,  1.  c,  pp.  339-340.  Of  Archbishop  Browne,  through  whoso 
exertions  the  Statute  of  Supremacy  was  passed,  the  same  writer  says :  "  In- 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  237 

The  royal  supremacy  was  recognized  by  a  few  sordid  bish- 
ops and  priests,  who  set  more  vakie  upon  the  goods  of  this 
world  than  upon  their  own  salvation  in  the  next ;'  and  some 
of  the  Irish  chieftains  were  won  over  by  royal  favor  and 
bounty.  But  the  great  bulk  of  the  Irish  people  opposed  a 
vigorous  and  persevering  resistance  to  the  progress  of  the  Re- 
formation, being  unable  to  comprehend  in  what  the  belief  of 
men,  who  entered  the  country  crying  "  Death  to  the  Irish," 
could  be  superior  to  their  own  ancient  faith,  which  counseled 
peace  and  good-will  to  all.  Preachers  were  brought  over 
from  England,  and  the  English  liturgy  introduced,  with  n 
view  to  facilitate  and  hasten  the  work  of  the  Reformation  in 
Ireland;  but,  strange  to  say,  the  results  that  followed  were 
the  reverse  of  what  had  been  anticipated. 

The  resistance  of  the  Irish  to  the  new  teachings  grew  daily 
more  pronounced  and  energetic.  Every  royal  artitice  and 
every  display  of  kingly  power,  designed  to  alienate  their  af- 
fections from  the  ancient  faith,  failed  utterly  of  their  puri)oso. 
In  vain  did  an  Anglo-Irish  parliament,  held  at  Dublin  in 
1542,  proclaim  Henry  '■^King  of  Ireland;'  in  vain  were  peer- 
ages conferred  upon  some  of  the  native  princes.  The  absence 
of  the  bishops  from  the  parliament  was  significant  of  the 
temper  of  the  countr}^,  and  no  attempt  was  made  by  the  na- 
tives to  disguise  their  hostility  to  all  foreign  domination. 
Eveq  the  representatives  of  those  English  families  that  had 
been  long  settled  in  the  land  spurned  the  new  teachings  as 
contemptuously  as  did  the  ancient  Irish.  A  new  dynasty  had 
indeed  been  thrust  upon  the  country  ;  but,  instead  of  inspiring 
love,  i^  called  forth  the  execrations  of  the  people,  who  from 
that  day  forth  have  never  ceased  to  regard  the  cause  of  their 
national  independence  and  the  cause  of  their  religion  as  in- 


stead of  insifSing  that  at  least  a  portion  of  them  (the  spoils  of  the  dissolved 
abbeys)  shoul  ^  be  employed  in  promoting  the  general  enlightenment  of  the 
people,  he  soli'-^ts  once  and  again  for  a  share  to  himself,  though  he  already  en 
joyed  a  very  anfple  income."  Ibid.,  1.  c,  p.  341.  Such  has  always  been  the  char- 
acter of  the  me>^  who  have  felt  themselves  called  to  improve  upon  the  work  of 
God,  and  supply  the  shortcomings  of  his  censurable  neglect.  (Tr.) 
^B)'ena7i,  1.  c,  p.  394.   (Tr.) 


238  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

separably  bound  up  together,  and  to  view  an  attack  on  tho 
one  as  a  menace  against  the  other. 

On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  the 
protector,  issued  a  proclamation  in  the  king's  name,  ordaining 
that  the  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England  should  be  intro- 
duced into  all  places  of  worship,  and  commanding  all  bishops 
and  priests  to  yield  obedience  to  the  royal  will.  George 
Brown,^  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  obeyed  with  alacrity,  and  on 
Easter  Sunday,  1551,  had  the  new  service  read  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Christ's  Church  in  his  own  presence.  The  other  bish- 
ops of  the  country,  proving  less  pliable  than  the  servile 
Brown,  were  commanded  by  the  viceroy.  Sir  Anthony  St. 
Leger,  to  come  up  to  Dublin,  where,  assembled  in  the  council 
chamber,  they  listened  to  the  reading  of  the  royal  proclama- 
tion. "When  it  was  ended,  George  Dowdall,  Primate  of  Ar- 
magh, rose  up,  and,  after  having  protested  against  its  instruc- 
tions as  dangerous  and  unwarrantable  innovations,  aljruptly 
left  the  chamber,  followed  by  all  the  clergy,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Brown,  of  Dublin;  Staples,  Bishop  of  Meath  ;  and 
John  Bale,  a  Carmelite,  who,  as  a  reward  for  his  apostasy, 
was  afterward  thrust  by  royal  power  into  the  See  of  Ossory,^ 
whence  be  was  expelled,  after  a  short  stay,  by  the  fury  of  an 
outraged  people.  The  dignified  and  manly  course  of  Dowdall 
was  too  great  an  ofiense  to  go  unpunished,  and  he  was  ac- 
cordingly deprived  of  his  see,  and  an  Englishman,  named 
Goodacre,  appointed  in  his  place.  The  title  of  Primate  of  all 
Ireland  was  also  withdrawn  from  the  See  of  Armagh,  and 
conferred  upon  that  of  Dublin,  as  an  additional  recompense 
to  Brown  for  his  many  virtues  and  his  still  more  numerous 


1  It  would  appear  that  this  archbishop,  who  was  so  inveterate  an  enemy  of 
superstition  that  his  zeal  led  him  to  cast  into  the  fire  the  crozier,  known  as  the 
Staff  of  Jesus,  which  well  authenticated  tradition  said  had  belonged  to  St.  Pat- 
rick, the  Apostle  of  Ireland,  and  for  eleven  hundred  years  had  been  held  in 
veneration  as  one  of  Ireland's  most  precious  relics,  was  not  himself  very  fond 
of  missionary  work.  Killen,  the  Protestant  historian  of  the  Irish  Church,  in- 
forms us  that  "  his  sermons  could  not  have  occupied  more  than  from  eight  to 
ien  minutes  each  in  the  delivery,"  and  that  "  he  preached  only  twice  in  the 
year."     1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  341,  note  3,  and  p.  365,  note  1.    (Tr.) 

"^Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  398.  It  is  remarkable  that  these  apostates  were  English- 
men.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  239 

services  in  the  cause  of  reform.  Every  means  that  human 
ingenuity  could  devise,  or  human  power  execute,  was  now 
brought  into  play  to  induce  the  Irish  clergy  and  people  to 
prove  recreant  to  the  venerable  faith  of  their  fathers.  Threats, 
bribes,  flattery,  promises  of  wealth,  honors,  and  distinctions, 
all  served  their  turn,  and  all  were  contemptuously  rejected  or 
disregarded.  Of  the  Irish  Episcopacy,  except  those  already 
mentioned,  Magenis,  Bishop  of  Down,  and  Burke,  Bishop  of 
Clonfert,  were  alone  found  willing  to  give  up  their  faith  from 
motives  of  avarice.  A  few  Irish  priests  also  apostatized,  and 
received  mitres  as  a  recompense  for  their  dishonor.' 

Edward  VI.  died  in  1553,  and  on  the  6th  of  July  of  the 
same  year  Mary  succeeded  to  the  throne.  During  her  reign 
the  Catholics  of  Ireland  enjoyed  a  short  respite  from  the  per- 
secutions of  the  preceding  one.  Priests  came  forth  from  their 
places  of  concealment,  where  they  had  sought  a  refuge  to 
escape  the  fury  of  their  pursuers;  churches  and  chapels  that 
had  been  closed  or  desecrated  were  again  opened  and  restored 
to  their  ancient  uses  ;  George  Dowdall,  who  had  retired  to  the 
Continent,  returned  and  took  possession  of  his  See  of  Armagh ; 
Brown,  Staples,  Lancaster,  and  Travers  were  deposed,  and  the 
same  fate  would  have  overtaken  Casey  and  Bale  had  they  not 
prudently  retired  of  their  own  accord;  immoral  ecclesiastics 
were  punished  ;  pastors  were  again  set  over  their  flocks  ;  and 
order,  morality,  and  religion  once  more  held  empire  over  the 
hearts  of  a  faithful  people.  It  is  a  signal  proof  of  the  hu- 
manity and  forgiving  temper  of  the  Irish  race  that,  notwith- 
standing the  indignities  and  atrocities  endured  by  them  during 
the  preceding  reign,  this  complete  change  was  brought  about 
without  the  shedding  of  a  single  drop  of  blood.  For  the  pur- 
pose of  reforming  what  needed  reformation  in  the  Irish 
Church,  Archbishop  Dowdall  called  a  IN'ational  Synod,  which 
convened  at  Drogheda  (1554),  and  was  attended  by  nearly  all 
the  Catholic  bishops  of  the  country.  Here  several  decrees 
were  made,  restoring  ancient  practices  of  the  Church  that 

'  Only  three  are  mentioned,  says  Brenun,  1.  c,  in  our  authentic  annals 
namely:  Kobert  Travers,  Thomas  Lancaster,  and  "William  Casey.  The  first 
became  Bishop  of  Leighlin ;  the  second  Bishop  of  Kildure ;  and  the  third 
Bishop  of  Limerick.  (Tr.) 


1^40  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  providing  for  the  correction  or 
punishment  of  immoral  ecclesiastics.^  In  Ma}',  1556,  Viscount 
Fitzwalter  entered  upon  his  duties  as  viceroy,  and  in  July  of 
the  same  year  parliament  met  in  Dublin.  An  act  was  passed 
by  this  parliament,  setting  forth  that  the  title  of  "  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church  "  could  not  "  be  justly  attributable  to  any 
king  or  governor,"  and  that  the  Holy  See  should  "  liave  and 
enjoy  the  same  authority  and  jurisdiction  "  as  had  been  law- 
fully exercised  by  His  Holiness  the  Pope  during  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.- 

Protestantism  was  now  nearly  extinct  in  Ireland,  there  being 
only  three  or  four  reformed  preachers  in  the  land,^  and  the 
future  of  the  Catholic  Church  seemed  full  of  hope  and  prom- 
ise, when  tlie  whole  aspect  of  attairs  was  changed  by  the  death 
of  Mary  and  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  (1558).  During  this 
and  succeeding  reigns  a  violent  persecution  was  carried  on 
against  the  Irish  Catholics,  so  cold-blooded,  sj'stematic,  and 
atrocious  that,  since  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,  the  world  has 
seen  nothing  comparable  to  it.  Violence  was  practiced  under 
the  forms  of  law  ;  brute  force  was  employed  where  other 
means  failed  ;  and  to  attem})t  any  i-esistance,  even,  in  defense 
of  the  most  sacred  rights,  was  declared  an  act  of  high  h-eason. 
Such,  with  the  exception  of  short  seasons  of  peace,  occurring 
at  long  intervals,  was  the  normal  condition  of  Ireland  for 
three  centuries.  To  hold  that  country  dependent  on  Eng- 
land, the  people  were  kept  in  a  chronic  state  of  insurrection, 
and  the  ministers  of  Elizabeth  did  not  attempt  to  conceal  that 
they  practiced  so  infamous  a  means  for  so  iniquitous  a  pur- 
pose. When,  goaded  to  desperation,  the  people  rose  in  rebel- 
lion, they  were  put  down  by  fire  and  sword,  and  the  work  of 
destruction  was  completed  by  the  ravages  of  famine.  But 
while  this  policy  carried  ruin  and  death  to  the  people,  it  se- 
(3ured  no  solid  advantages  to  Protestantism,  in  whose  interest 
it  was  inaugurated,  notwithstanding  that  Catholic  bishops  and 
priests  were  driven  from  their  sees  and  parishes,  their  goods 

^Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  401-404.  (Tr.) 

'>■  The  3d  and  4th  of  Philip  and  Mary,  chap.  VIII.,  as  quoted  by  Killen.  (Tr.) 

Vit"We«,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  365.   (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  241 

confiscated,  and  they  themselves  either  banished  the  country 
or  put  to  death. 

In  the  year  1559,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Sussex,  acting  on  the 
order  of  his  sovereign,  summoned  the  Irish  parliament  to 
meet  in  Dublin.  This  assembly,  from  which  the  Catholic  no- 
bles were  carefully  excluded,  is  described  by  Hooker  as  "  more 
like  a  bear-beating  of  disorderly  persons  than  a  parliament  of 
wise  and  grave  men." '  Still  agitators  of  this  character, 
whose  undigniiied  conduct  excited  the  contempt  of  their 
own  apologists,  ordained  that  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
should  be  used  in  all  places  of  public  worship.  If  a  priest 
celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper,  either  publicly  or  in  private,  in 
an}"  manner  other  than  that  laid  down  in  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England,  he  was  condemned  to  forfeit  a  year's  in- 
come and  be  imprisoned  six  months  for  the  lirst  oifense  ;  to 
forfeit  his  income  forever  and  be  imprisoned  at  pleasure  for 
the  second  ;  and  for  the  third  to  be  imprisoned  during  the 
term  of  his  natural  life.  Laymen  using  any  form  of  worship 
other  than  that  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
were  sent  to  prison  for  one  year  for  the  first,  and  for  life  for 
the  second  offense;  and  all  persons,  whether  ecclesiastics  or 
laymen,  holding  livings  or  offices,  were  ordered  to  come  for- 
ward, under  penalty  of  deprivation  and  forfeiture,  and  take 
the  oath  of  Supremacy.^ 

Speaking  of  the  character  of  the  men  who  went  over  to 
Ireland  to  introduce  the  Reformation  into  that  country,  Spen- 
ser, himself  a  Protestant,  and  an  eye-witness  of  what  he  at- 
tests, says  :  "  Whatever  disorders  you  see  in  the  Established 
Church  through  England,  you  may  find  here,  and  many  more, 
namely,  grosse  simony,  greedy  covetousvess,  fleshy  incoyitinency, 
caniesse  sloath,  and  generally  all  disordered,  life  in  the  common 
clergyman.'"  ^ 

The  legislation  already  in  operation  proving  ineffectual  to 
prevent  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Ireland  from  providing  for  the 
interests  of  the  Church  by  secret  meetings  held  in  Dublin, 

^Brena.?i,  1.  c,  p.  404.  (Tr.) 

'^Lib.  Stat.,  p.  201,  quoted  by  Brcnan,  1.  c,  p.  405.  (Tr.) 
^Spensej;  pp.  139-140,  quoted  by  Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  405.  (Tk.) 
VOL.  Ill — 16 


242  Period  3.     E'poch  1.     Chcqjter  2. 

the  Earl  of  Essex  issued  a  proclamation  in  1563,  forbidding 
all  priests,  whether  secular  or  regular,  either  to  meet  or  reside 
in  the  city,  and  republished  a  former  edict,  commanding  all 
heads  of  families  to  attend  Protestant  service  every  Sunday. 
Another  addition  was  shortly  after  made  to  the  proclamation 
of  1559,  summoning  every  individual  in  the  country  to  come 
forward  and  acknowledge  the  Spiritual  Supremacy  of  Eliza- 
beth.^ But,  though  every  means  that  great  wealth  and  irre- 
sistible power  could  command  was  brought  into  play  to  break 
the  spirit  and  shake  the  faith  of  the  Irish  people  and  clergy, 
they  continued  steadfast  and  loyal  to  the  Church  of  their 
fathers  ;  and  of  the  episcopac^^,  only  two,  Miler  Magrath, 
Bishop  of  Down,  and  Hugh  Curwin,  an  Englishman,  who  had 
been  appointed  by  Mary  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Dublin 
in  the  room  of  Brown,  proved  recreant  to  their  trusts  and 
traitors  to  their  God.  The  defection  of  these  two  bishops 
was,  however,  amply  atoned  for  by  the  heroic  constancy  and 
glorious  martyrdom  of  numerous  others.  Dermot  O'llurley^ 
Archbishop  of  Cashel,  was  tied  to  a  stake  and  his  body  cov- 
ered with  pitch,  salt,  oil,  and  sulphur;  after  which  a  slow  lire 
was  started,  and  managed  with  such  a  refinement  of  barbaric 
skill  and  civilized  cruelty,  that  the  victim  was  made  to  endure 
the  inhuman  torture  for  hours  without  being  permitted  to 
expire.  He  was  then  cast  into  prison,  but  only  to  be  brought 
forth  the  next  day  and  strangled  on  the  rack  in  Stephen's 
Green,  Dublin,  1583.^ 

Patrick  O'Hely,  Bishop  of  Mayo,  was  stretched  on  a  rack  ; 
his  hands  and  feet  broken  with  hammers ;  large  needles  driven 
violently  under  his  nails  ;  and,  after  enduring  these  barbarities 
for  some  time,  was  taken  from  the  rack  only  to  be  hung  from 
the  limb  of  a  neighboring  tree  (1578).^ 

Richard  Creach.  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  was  carried  to 
London  and  confined  in  the  Tower.  He  was  brought  forth 
for  trial,  and  confronted  with  a  young  lady,  the  daughter  of  the 
gaoler,  who  had  been  suborned  to  testify  that  he  had  attempted 
to  outrage  her  person.     Summoned  to  the  witness-stand,  the 

^Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  407.  (Tr.) 

"^ Anal ecta  sacra,  appendix,  p.  7.  (Tr.) 

*  Arthur  a  Motiasterio,  in  suo  Martyrologio,  quoted  by  Brenan.  I.e.,  p.  415.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  243 

young  woman,  startled  at  the  injustice  of  her  purpose,  and 
yielding  to  the  promptings  of  her  better  nature,  openly  con- 
fessed that  the  good  prelate  was  wholly  innocent  of  the 
crime  his  enemies  were  desirous  of  fastening  upon  him.  But 
these  men  cared  not  whether  he  was  innocent  or  guilty  ;  they 
sought  only  his  life,  and  of  that  they  would  not  be  baffled. 
lie  was  again  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  chained  like 
a  wild  beast ;  and,  after  undergoing  every  sort  of  suffering 
and  privation  for  above  four  years,  was  finally  poisoned  Octo- 
ber 14,  1585.^  The  sufferings  of  these  illustrious  men,  than 
v,diom  Ireland  has  no  greater  saints  in  her  long  catalogue  of 
martyrs,  may  serve  as  specimens  to  show  what  the  Irish  had 
to  endure  to  keep  the  faith.  The  record  of  their  lives  is  as 
proud  a  page  as  there  is  in  the  history  of  any  people  ;  and 
those  historians  who  are  assiduously  ransacking  the  annals  of 
the  Spanish  Inquisition  for  examples  of  inhuman  atrocit}' can 
find  them  more  conveniently  and  certainly  in  a  more  aggra- 
vated form  by  turning  to  the  history  of  the  Eeformation  in 
Ireland.''' 

To  utterly  root  up  and  destroy  the  Catholic  faith  in  Ireland, 
its  seminaries  and  its  colleges  were  closed  bylaw;  Catholic 
education,  whether  public  or  private,  proscribed  throughout 
the  whole  island ;  and  those  desiring  to  acquire  a  liberal  ed- 
ucation could  do  so  only  by  either  giving  up  their  faith  or 
crossing  over  to  the  Coutinent,  where  the  munificent  hospi- 
tality of  strangers  opened  seats  of  learning  for  the  Irish 
youth,  which  in  some  sort  supplied  the  advantages  furnished 
b}'  those  that  had  been  closed  against  them  at  home.^ 


^Analecta  sacra  de  rebus  Cath.  Hib.  de  Processu  Martyr.,  pp.  46  sq.  (Tr.) 
*  For  particulars  of  the  lives  of  these  men,  and  many  more,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  Brennn.  (Tr.) 

^  The  Irish  seminary  at  Lisbon,  which  was  munificently  endowed,  was  founded 
in  1595.  Another  was  founded  about  the  same  time  at  Evora  by  Cardinal 
Henriquez.  The  Irish  college  of  Douay  was  founded  in  159G.  Through  the 
exertions  of  Christopher  Cusack,  a  priest  of  the  diocese  of  Meath,  colleges  were 
founded  at  Lisle,  Antwerp,  Tournay,  and  St.  Omer.  Seminaries  were  founded 
at  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  and  Nantes,  under  the  patronage  of  Anne  of  Austria. 
The  Irish  college  on  the  hill  of  Ste.  Genevieve,  in  Paris,  was  the  gift  of  the 
French  government,  and  Baron  de  St.  Just  was  its  chief  benefactor.  In  1582, 
the  College  of  Salamanca  was  founded  by  the  States  of  Castile  and  Leon,  under 


244  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

The  accession  of  James  I.  to  the  throne  of  England  led  the 
Irish  to  hope  that  they  might  look  for  at  least  a  scant  measure 
of  justice  from  the  son  of  Mary  Stuart,  and  count  upon  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion  during  his  reign.  Tliat  this 
hope  was  fallacious  they  learned  when  James  proclaimed  an 
act  of  oblivion  and  indemnity,  and  excluded  by  name  from 
the  benefits  of  its  provisions  only  '■'■Papists  and  assassins.^''  A 
petition,  carried  to  the  king  in  1603,  begging  freedom  of  re- 
liilious  worship  for  Catholics,  was  treated  with  contempt,  and 
the  bearers  of  it  sent  to  prison  in  the  Tower.  On  July  4, 
1605,  a  ro3"al  ordinance  was  published,  declaring  all  the  enact- 
ments of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  in  force,  to  which  the  king 
added  that  "  no  toleration  shall  ever  be  granted  by  us ;  and 
this,"  he  went  on  to  say,  "  we  do  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
off  all  hope  that  an}'  other  religion  shall  ever  be  allowed,  save 
that  which  is  consonant  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this 
realm." ^  This  ordinance  required  "all  Jesuits,  seminary 
priests,  and  other  priests  whatsoever,  to  depart  out  of  tha 
kingdom  of  Ireland  "  before  the  ensuing  10th  of  December.^ 

During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  an  unsuccessful  attempt  had 
been  made  to  render  the  native  Irish  strangers  in  their  own 
land  and  among  their  own  people.  It  was  proposed  to 
send  over  English  and  Scotch  colonists,  who  should  take 
possession  of  the  lands  in  various  districts  and  settle  perma- 
nently in  the  country.  The  scheme  was  again  taken  up  by 
James,  to  whom  an  excellent  opportunity  of  carr3nng  it  into 
effect  was  presented  when  the  property  of  the  three  powerful 
chiefs  of  Ulster,  namely,  Tyrone,  Tyrconnel,  and  O'Dogherty, 
escheated  to  the  crown.  Their  estates,  it  is  said,  included 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  six  northern  counties  cf  Cavan,  Fer- 
managh, Armagh,  Derry,  Tyrone,  and  Tyrconnel,  and  em- 
braced two  millions  of  acres.^     When  insurrections  did  not 


I 


the  patronage  of  Philip  II.  Baron  George  Sylveria  founded  t."o  Irish  college 
at  Alcala  de  Henares,  which,  being  richly  endowed,  was  the  gi  >p.t  nursery  of 
Irish  missionaries  during  the  seventeenth  centur}\     Erevan,  1.  c,  n.  423.  (Tr.) 

1  O'Daly.  Relatio  Persec.  Hib.,  p.  232.  (Tr.) 

"^Calendar  of  Siaie  Papers.  James  I.,  160G-1608,  Pref.  GO-Gl  j  "Ise  Burke's 
Hibernia  Dominicana,  pp.  611-612.  (Tr.) 

3  This  project,  known  as  the  Ulster  Plantation,  was  carried  ou    lyith  great 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  245 

break  out  with  sufficient  frequency  to  satisfy  the  greed  of  the 
iivaricions  agents  of  government,  it  was  pretended  that  the 
pacification  of  Ireland  required  a  periodical  revision  of  titles 
to  the  possession  of  land.  It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  in 
a  country  so  long  and  so  violently  convulsed  all  titles  should 
be  without  flaw  ;  and  it  is  certain  that  wherever  defects  ex- 
isted, they  did  not  escape  the  keen  and  practiced  eyes  of  the 
government  lawyers.  That  the  lord  chief-justice  and  the  vice- 
roy fully  appreciated  their  opportunity,  their  zeal  in  hunting 
up  defective  titles,  and  their  avidity  in  seizing  the  property 
for  which  no  clear  claim  could  be- established,  amply  attest. 
In  some  instances,  where  the  jury  resolutely  refused  to  do  the 
bidding  of  the  viceroy,  thej' were  summoned  to  Dublin,  heavily 
lined,  and  cast  into  prison.' 

These  persecutions  were  kept  up  throughout  the  whole  of 
the  reign  of  James,  and  continued  with  increased  violence 
under  that  of  his  successor,  Charles  I.  (1625-1649).  When 
this  prince  ascended  the  throne,  it  was  hoped  he  would  deal 
justly  with  the  people  of  Ireland,  and  grant  to  them  the  same 
freedom  of  worship  he  allowed  to  his  Catholic  queen,  Henri- 
etta Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  This  would 
probably  have  been  his  polic}'  had  he  not  inherited  the  weak 
and  halting  character  so  peculiar  to  the  house  of  Stuart,  and 
been  surrounded  by  wicked  and  bigoted  advisers.  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  Catholics  began  to  practice  their  religion 
openly,  the  Irish  Protestant  hierarchy,  headed  by  the  Arch- 
bishop Usher,  took  the  alarm,  and  protested  against  a  grant 
of  graces,  as  they  were  called,  which  the  king  promised  the 


skill.  The  lands  to  be  "  planted  "  were  parceled  out  into  tracts  of  one  thousand, 
fifteen  hundred,  and  two  thousand  acres  each,  and  given  to  Protestant  settlers 
from  England  and  Scotland,  who  were  required  to  build  castles  or  large  houses, 
capable  of  being  defended,  in  strong  and  commanding  positions.  The  natives 
were  permitted  to  take  up  their  residence  in  the  open  country,  under  the  con- 
trol and  at  the  mercy  of  the  English  and  Scotch  "  undertakers  and  servitors," 
or  capitalists  and  military  officers.  These  latter  were  obliged  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy,  and  to  exclude  any  tenant  not  of  British  origin.  Linyard,  Hist, 
of  England,  London,  1849,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  148,  149.  Killen,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ire- 
land, London,  1875,  Vol.  I.,  p.  482.  (Tk.) 

1  Thos.  Moore,  Memoirs,   Book  I.,  ch.  7,  notes  26-28.     Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II., 
p.  29.  (Tr.) 


1246  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Cha-pter  2. 

Catholics  in  return  for  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  of 
money.  The  Protestants  went  on  to  say  that  it  would  be  "  a 
grievous  sin"  to  permit  Catholics  the  "free  exercise  of  their 
religion,"  because  to  do  so  would  be  to  give  the  sanction  of 
government  to  superstition,  idolatry,  and  heresy,  and  to  barter 
for  money  souls  redeemed  by  the  blood  of  Christ.' 

The  king  yielded  to  the  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  him 
by  the  Protestant  bishops  of  Ireland,  and  in  1629  the  statutes 
against  Catholics  were  once  more  revived.^  Lord  Falkland, 
who  was  then  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  unwilling  to  carry  out  the 
iniquitous  and  fraudulent  policy  of  the  government,  was  re- 
called, and  Lord  "Wentworth,  afterward  Earl  of  Stra^ord,  was 
appointed  in  his  place  in  January,  1632.  That  "Wentworth 
was  a  man  of  great  ability  and  eminent  talents  there  can  be 
no  doubt ;  ^  and  there  is  just  as  little  doubt  that  he  prostituted 
in  the  service  of  the  devil  the  splendid  gifts  he  had  received 
from  God.  Once  the  uncompromising  champion  of  the  rights 
of  the  people,  he  had  now  become  the  uncompromising  cham- 
pion of  the  claims  of  the  king.  Possessed  of  great  courage 
and  tenacity  of  purpose,  and  destitute  of  every  humane  feel- 
ing and  conscientious  scruple,  he  was  appalled  by  no  con- 
sideration of  guilt  in  the  conception  of  his  measures,  and  was 
deterred  by  no  obstacle  in  their  execution.     The  leading  and 


1  Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  335,  33G.    KiUen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  3,  4.    Brenan, 
1.  c,  p.  453.  (Tr.) 

-  The  character  of  these  bi.shops,  who  were  so  zealous  in  putting  down  what 
they  were  pleased  to  call  "superstition,"  is  given  in  a  letter  of  remonstrance,, 
addressed  to  the  four  archbishops  by  the  king  in  April,  1630.  "The  clergy," 
he  said,  "  were  not  so  careful  as  they  ought  to  be  .  .  .  in  removing  all 
pretenses  to  scandal  in  their  lives  and  conversation."  "When  livings  fall  va- 
cant," "some  bishops"  "do  either  not  dispose  of  them  so  soon  as  they  should, 
but  do  keep  the  profits  in  their  own  hands,  to  the  hindrance  of  God's  service  and 
great  offense  of  good  people,  or  else  they  give  them  to  young  and  mean  men, 
which  only  bear  the  name,  reserving  the  greatest  part  of  the  benefice  to  them- 
selves."    ErlingtoTL  s  Life  of  Usher,  pp.  lOG-108. 

Coyne.,  in  his  Memoir  of  the  Life  and  Episcopate  of  Bedell,  pp.  34,  35,  saya 
Thomas  Moygne,  the  Protestant  predecessor  of  Bedell  in  the  See  of  Kilmoro, 
treated  "  all  things  spiritual  and  temporal  belonging  to  the  episcopacy"  as  if 
they  "  had  been  ordinarily  vendible  commodities;  "  even  "  orders  and  livings  '■ 
being  "sold  to  those  that  could  pay  the  greatest  prices."  See  Killen,  1.  ?.,  Y~>\ 
II.,  pp.  7,  8.  (Tr.) 

^  Thos.  Moore,  1.  c,  chap.  8,  p.  G5. 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  241 

controlling  principle  of  his  government  was  that  Ireland  was 
a  conquered  country,  and  as  such  her  inhabitants  held  their 
possessions  by  no  title  other  than  the  good-will  of  the  king. 
A  system  of  legalized  robbery,  under  the  specious  name  of 
an  inquiry  into  the  titles  by  which  property  was  held,  was 
begun  and  perfected  by  him,  and  under  its  operation  the 
whole  province  of  Connaught  was  declared  the  inheritance 
of  the  crown,  and  parceled  out  among  the  favorites  of  the 
court.  This  measure  was  the  more  atrocious,  in  that  the 
king,  by  the  contract  of  1628  between  himself  and  the  landed 
proprietors  of  Ireland,  had  promised  to  make  good  by  act  of 
parliament  the  titles  of  the  actual  possessors  of  lands.  In  a 
parliament,  which  met  in  Dublin  in  1634,  many  of  whose 
members  were  selected  either  directly  by  the  viceroy,  or  in 
compliance  with  his  wishes,  subsidies  to  the  amount  of 
£46,000  sterling  were  voted  to  the  king;  but  when  the  ques- 
tion of  confirming  the  promised  Fifty-one  Graces  was  raised, 
Strafford  possessed  sufficient  influence  to  have  the  measure 
voted  down.  Among  the  leading  causes  that  contributed  to 
the  success  of  this  perfidious  act  were  the  threats  and  cajolery 
of  the  viceroy,  the  packing  of  the  parliament,  and  the  fact 
that  of  the  Fifty-one  Graces  nearly  all  were  intended  to  cor- 
rect grievances  that  weighed  upon  Catholics  alone. ^ 

At  the  moment  when  the  king  was  threatened  by  his  Scotch 
subjects,  and  at  variance  with  the  English  parliament,  the 
Irish  came  generously  forward  to  relieve  his  necessities,  and 
in  return  asked  only  that  he  should  do  them  the  scanty  jus- 
tice which  was  now  perfidiously  denied  them.  But  to  do 
justice  to  Ireland  was  no  part  of  the  policy  of  the  English 
government.  The  country  was  to  be  kept  in  a  chronic  state 
of  rebellion  for  the  benefit  of  thieves.  "  Rebellion,"  said  Le- 
lavd,  a  Protestant  prebendary  of  Dublin,  "  is  the  goose  that 
lays  the  golden  eggs,  and  the  lords  chief-justices  will  not  be 
stupid  enough  to  kill  it."  ^ 

Such  was  the  policy  of  the  oflicials  who  governed  Ireland, 
or  rather  who,  under  pretense  of  governing  that  country,  did 

^Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  IX,  pp.  336,  337.  (Tu.  i 
«Apud  Moore,  Bk.  I.,  ch.  9,  p.  73. 


248  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

their  best  to  aggravate  the  condition  of  the  unfortunate  in- 
habitants and  keep  them  in  a  state  of  continuous  revolt.  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  learn  that  a  formidable  uprising 
of  the  people,  under  the  lead  of  Roger  O'Moore  and  Sir 
Phelim  O'lSTeil,  took  place  October  23,  1641.  At  first  the  in- 
surrection consisted  only  of  detached  bands,  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  surprising  and  getting  possession  of  garrisons  and 
strongholds,  and  acting  without  a  complete  understanding 
with  each  other  ;  but  in  the  following  year  it  became  general 
over  the  whole  island,  and  a  systematic  and  effective  plan  of 
operations  was  agreed  upon.  Following  the  example  of  the 
Scots,  who  had  successfnlly  maintained  their  right  to  freedom 
of  worship,  a  number  of  leading  men  from  every  cit}',  town, 
and  county,  including  the  Catholic  nobility  and  the  prelates 
of  the  kingdom,  met  in  national  convention  at  Kilkenny 
early  in  1642,  and  forming  themselves  into  a  Covfederation^ 
bound  themselves  "  by  solemn  oath  never  to  sheathe  their 
swords  until  they  saw  their  religion  free,  their  kingdom  con- 
stitutionally independent,  and  they  themselves  in  possession 
of  their  natural  and  inalienable  rights."  ^  In  compliance  with 
a  request  from  the  Confederation,  the  bishops  and  clergy  of 
Ireland  assembled  in  a  Notional  Synod  at  Kilkenny,  May  10, 
1842,  and  unanimously  resolved  "that,  whereas,  the  Catholics 
of  Ireland  have  taken  up  arms  in  defense  of  their  religion, 
for  the  preservation  of  the  king,  .  .  .  the  security  of 
their  own  lives,  possessions,  and  liberty,  we,  on  behalf  of  the 
Catholics,  declare  these  proceedings  to  be  most  just  and  law- 
ful. Nevertheless,  if,  in  pursuit  of  these  objects,  any  person 
or  persons  should  be  actuated  by  motives  of  avarice,  malice, 
or  revenge,  we  declare  such  person  to  be  guilty  of  a  griev- 
ous offense,  and  deservedly  subject  to  the  censures  of  the 
Church."  2 

The  Synod  ordained  that  there  should  be  in  each  county 
and  province  a  council  composed  of  clerical  and  lay  members, 
and  a  general  or  supreme  council  of  similar  composition, 
whose  authority  and  jurisdiction   the   whole   nation  should 

^  Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  454.  (Tr.) 

■*Ibid.,  1.  c,  p.  455.     lAngard,  1.  c,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  100-101.  (Tb.) 


§  331,  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  2-49 

recognize.  These  councils  were  primarily  intended  for  the 
administration  of  the  statute  law,  the  authority  of  which  waa 
acknowledged,  appeals  being  carried  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher ;  but  they  also  exercised  executive  functions.' 

An  oath  was  drawn  up  and  administered  to  the  members 
of  the  Confederation,  binding  those  who  took  it  to  "  bear  true 
faith  and  allegiance"  to  King  Charles ;  to  defend  their  "  pre- 
rogatives, estates,  and  rights;"  to  uphold  "the  fundamental 
laws  of  Ireland;"  to  maintain  "the  free  exercise  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith  and  religion  ;"  and  to  "  obey  and  ratify 
all  orders  and  decrees  made,  and  to  be  made  by  the  Supreme 
Council  of  the  Confederate  Catholics  of  this  kingdom  con- 
cerning tlie  public  cause."  ^  It  was  further  ordained  that  a 
General  Assembly  of  the  Confederate  Catholics  should  be 
called.  This  body  met  at  Kilkenny,  October  24,  1642.  Its 
members,  although  divided  into  two  orders,  the  one  consist- 
ing of  the  bishops  and  nobles,  and  the  other  of  the  represent- 
atives of  the  counties  and  towns,  sat  in  the  same  chamber. 
The  General  Assembly,  without  taking  the  name,  performed 
all  the  functions  of  a  parliament,  and  announced  that  its  busi- 
ness was  "to  consult  of  an  order  for  their  own  affairs  till  his 
majesty's  wisdom  had  settled  the  present  troubles."  ^  It  nom- 
inated the  members  of  the  Supreme  Council,  and  invested 
them  with  the  authority  of  an  executive  government.  They 
appointed  sheriffs,  coined  money,  carried  on  correspondence 
with  foreign  powers,  had  jurisdiction  over  civil  officials  and 
military  officers,  and  were  the  ordinary  representatives  of 
national  authority  when  the  General  Assembly  was  not  con- 
vened, at  the  close  of  which  they  were  changed.  The  Gen- 
eral Assembly  adopted  as  its  motto  the  legend,  ''Pro  Deo, 
Pege,  et  Patria,  Iliberni  Unanimes."  The  success  of  the  arms 
of  the  Confederation  was  a  surprise,  even  to  the  most  san- 
guine. Nearly  ever}'  important  city  in  Ireland,  Dublin  ex- 
cepted, fell  into  their  hands.  And,  when  in  the  full  tide  of 
victory,  their  terms  were  moderate  and  their  demands  just. 


^Ungard,  1.  c,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  101-102.  (Tr.) 
2  Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  69,  note  2.  (Tr.) 

^T.  D.  McGee,  Attempt  to  Establish  the  Keformation  in  Ireland,  Boston, 
1853,  p.  111.  (Tr.) 


250  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

The  king  appointed  a  Protestant  nobleman,  the  Marquis  of 
Ormond,  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Confederates. 
An  armistice  of  twelve  months,  known  as  The  Cessation,  was 
agreed  upon  at  Sigginstown,  near  K'aas,  on  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1643,  by  the  terms  of  which  both  parties  were  to  retain 
possession  of  places  respectively  occupied  by  each,  and  the 
(^'atholics  to  hold  the  churches  and  ecclesiastical  property  they 
had  regained,  and  to  be  unmolested  in  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion.  In  the  following  year  the  armistice  was  pro- 
longed for  twelve  months  more,  and  when  this  period  was 
about  to  expire,  Charles,  iinding  his  condition  in  England 
well  nigh  hopeless,  and  having  absolute  and  immediate  need 
of  both  the  money  and  the  soldiers  of  Ireland  to  uphold  his 
tottering  throne,  gave  Earl  Glamorgan  a  secret  and  informal, 
though  binding  commission,  to  cross  the  channel  and  nego- 
tiate a  peace  with  the  Confederation.  Arrived  at  Kilkenny, 
Glamorgan  met  the  Supreme  Council,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
(August  25,  1645),  by  which  the  Catholics  were  granted  free- 
dom of  worship,  permitted  to  take  possession  of  all  churches 
not  actually  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  secured  in  the  enjoyment  of  many  valuable  civil, 
political,  and  social  rights.^ 

A  cop3^  of  the  treaty  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Puritans, 
and  Charles,  to  escape  the  odium  the  discovery  caused,  sent 
an  address  to  parliament,  disavowing  the  articles.  Earl  Gla- 
morgan was  arrested  b}^  Ormond,  who,  professing  to  believe 
the  commission  a  forgery,  cast  him  into  prison.  Ormond  now" 
drew  up  another  treaty  of  Thirty  Articles,  in  which  he  art- 
fully allowed  the  claims  for  which  the  laymen  contended,  and 
denied  those  on  which  the  clergy  insisted.  This  treatj^  was 
objected  to  by  the  clergy  and  the  better  class  of  the  laity,  and 
was  disagreeable  to  the  Papal  Nuncio,  John  Baptist  Hinuccini, 
who  had  lately  arrived  in  Ireland.  It  was,  nevertheless,  con- 
firmed by  the  Supreme  Council  at  Kilkenny,  on  the  28th  of 
March,  1646.^     The  great  bulk  of  the  Irish  people  were  indig- 


'  Lingard,  1.  c,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  101-103.     Brenan,  1.  c,  pp.  455-456.  (Tr.) 
2  While  the  treaty  wa.s  signed  on  the  above  date,  the  documents  were  not 
changed  till  the  29th  of  July  of  the  same  year.  (Tr.) 


ex 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  251 

nant,  believing  that  the  advantages  they  had  purchased  so 
dearly  had  been  bartered  away,  and  they  did  not  hesitate  to 
apply  epithets  of  traitor  and  perjurer  to  the  members  of  the 
Supreme  Council.^  This  event  caused  a  split  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Confederation,  and  the  old  Irish  Catholics  and  the 
clergy  began  to  be  depressed,  when  their  hopes  were  suddenly 
revived  by  the  news  of  a  brilliant  victory  gained  by  their 
leader,  Owen  Roe  O'Neil,  the  Irish  Fabins,  over  the  Scottish 
commander,  Monro,  at  Benburb,  June  5, 1646.  With  a  force 
inferior  to  that  of  his  enemy,  O'jSTeil  put  him  to  an  ignomin- 
ious flight,  captured  his  artiller}-,  baggage,  and  provisions, 
and,  while  himself  sustaining  a  loss  of  not  above  seventy 
men,  left  close  upon  three  thousand  of  Monro's  dead  upon 
the  field  of  battle.^  On  the  11th  of  June,  O'jSTeil  proclaimed 
w^ar  on  the  Supreme  Council,  and  in  the  August  following  a 
National  Synod  convened  at  Waterford,  which  issued  a  decla- 
ration to  the  effect  that  "  all  and  each  of  the  Confederate 
Catholics  who  should  adhere  to  the  peace"  of  the  Thirty  Ar- 
ticles should  be  regarded  as  "  perjurers,"  and  that  the  assem- 
bled fathers  would  never  consent  to  any  treaty  which  did  not 
guarantee  unrestricted  freedom  of  worship.  By  another  de- 
cree, dated  Kilkenny,  October  5th  of  the  same  year,  those 
adhering  to  the  Peace  were  declared  excommunicated  and  the 
Peace  itself  null  and  void,  because  it  gave  no  satisfactory  se- 
curity for  the  free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  religion.^  This 
decree  was  virtually  ratified  by  the  General  Assembly,  which 
met  at  Kilkenny,  January  7,  1647.  In  July  of  this  year  the 
Marquis  of  Ormond,  conscious  that  the  royal  cause  had  be- 
come hopeless,  surrendered  Dublin  to  the  Parliamentary  army, 
and  now  having  the  undivided  power  of  the  enemy  brought 
against  them,  and  experiencing  dissensions  in  their  own 
ranks,  the  Confederates  found  it  impossible  to  hold  out,  with 
any  reasonable  hope  of  success.  The  divisions  among  the 
Confederates  were  still  further  increased  by  a  treaty  of  peace, 
entered  into  (May  20, 1648)  between  the  Supreme  Council  and 

'  Lingard,  1.  c,  p.  1G4  sq.     Vindiciae  Catholicorum  Hiber.  Auctore  Phiiopatre 
Irenaeo,  1.  I.,  quoted  by  Brenan.  (Tr.) 
UUlleji,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  7-4.  (Tr.) 
3  Brenau,  1.  c,  p.  459.  (Tr.) 


252  Period  3.     E^och  1.     Cha'pter  2. 

Lord  Inchiquin,  who  had  lately  deserted  the  Puritan  for  the 
royal  cause.  The  bishops  protested  iu  a  declaration  published 
at  Kilkenny,  but  their  protest  proving  ineffectual,  on  the  fol- 
lowing 27th  of  May  they  caused  a  document  to  be  affixed  to 
the  gates  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Canice,  in  Kilkenny,  excom- 
municating all  the  theologians  who  had  approved  the  Peace 
and  the  members  of  the  Supreme  Council  who  had  given  it 
their  assent.  The  excessive  use  of  the  censures  of  the  Church 
has,  as  at  all  times,  worked  evil,  and  the  present  instance  is 
no  exception.  Heretofore  the  bishops,  at  least,  had  been  prac- 
tically a  unit  on  every  important  question,  carrying  with 
them,  by  their  harmony  and  uniform  action,  the  whole  body 
of  the  clergy  and  the  better  class  of  the  lait3\  But  now  they 
split  among  themselves,  some  maintaining  that  the  sentence 
of  excommunication  was  valid:  and  others,  their  equals  in 
learning  and  virtue,  denying  that,  under  the  circumstances, 
there  was  any  justification  of  the  measure.  In  the  meantime, 
Ormond  returned  to  Ireland,  and  on  the  17th  of  January, 
1649,  a  treaty  of  peace,  containing  thirty-five  articles,  was 
ratified  and  published  by  the  General  Assembl}'  at  Kilkenny. 
This  was  the  last  official  act  of  the  Confederation.  A  few 
days  later  the  king  ended  his  life  on  the  scaffold,  and  on  the 
15th  of  the  following  August,  Cromwell  landed  in  Ireland, 
and  immediately  commenced  the  subjugation  of  the  country. 
After  a  short  siege,  he  took  Drogheda  by  storm,  and  even  the 
Protestant  Killen  admits  that  thousands,  including  "priests, 
monks,  citizens,  and  soldiers,"  were  put  to  the  sword.  And 
the  fate  of  Drogheda  was  the  fate  of  every  city  and  town  that 
did  not  surrender  at  the  first  summons  to  the  Puritan  tyrant, 
who,  holding  the  Bible  in  one  hand,  slaughtered  innocent 
victims  with  the  other.  Limerick  was  taken  iu  October,  1651, 
after  a  protracted  siege,  and  Cromwell  declared  confiscated 
nearly  all  the  lands  belonging  to  Catholics  in  Ireland,  and  di- 
vided them  among  his  soldiers  and  a  class  called  "  adven- 
turers," who  advanced  money  to  pay  the  army.  Twenty 
thousand  were  transported  to  the  West  Indies,  and  many 
thousands   more,  chiefiy  females,  to  the  American   colonies. 


1  KlUm,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  119.  (Tk.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  253 

Those  who  were  not  sent  abroad  were  shut  np  in  the  western 
province  of  Connaught.  Preparations  for  the  settlement  of 
Connaught  by  the  Catholics  were  completed  by  the  year  1653, 
and,  by  an  act  of  the  English  parliament,  all  who  were  found 
after  the  date  of  May  1, 1654,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Slian- 
iioii,  were  liable  to  the  penalty  of  death.  British  settlements, 
extending  to  a  distance  of  several  miles,  were  planted  along 
tlic  sea-coast  and  the  western  bank  of  the  Sliannon,  and  com- 
posed of  men  long  trained  to  military  service.  Judging  b}' 
human  standards,  the  Catholic  religion  was  as  good  as  extinct 
in  Ireland.  This  barbarous  proscription  was  applicable  to  all 
the  land-owners  of  the  island  who  could  not  prove  that  during 
the  whole  time  of  the  civil  war  they  had  shown  a  "  constant 
good  affection  to  the  cause  of  the  parliament."  It  must  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  Connaught  had  been  made  desohite 
by  the  civil  wars,  and  that  those  of  the  nobility  who  could 
trace  their  ancestry  back  to  the  dim  mists  where  history 
begins,  and  who  had  been  accustomed  to  move  about  in  noble 
palaces  and  enjoy  all  the  luxuries  of  life,  could  not  find  a 
dwelling  fit  for  a  human  being  to  abide  in.  Famine  supervened 
to  add  to  the  miseries  of  war  and  persecution,  and  historians, 
Protestant  and  Catholic  alike,  agree  in  stating  that  no  pen 
can  adequately  portray  the  hardships  and  sufferings  which 
this  poor  but  gallant  people  underwent  for  religion's  sake. 
Of  a  hierarchy  of  twenty-six  prelates,  three  only  were  per- 
mitted to  remain  ;  ^  and  of  the  priests,  those  who  were  not 
martyred  were  commanded  to  go  into  exile,  only  twenty-eight 
days  being  given  them  to  quit  the  kingdom. 

Cromwell  went  to  meet  his  judge  September  3,  1658,  and 
two  years  later  Charles  II.  made  his  public  entry  into  Lon- 
don. It  is  asserted  that  the  new  king  had  promised  to  deal 
justly  with, the  Catholics  of  Ireland  ;  but,  if  such  promise 
had  ever  been  made,  it  was  soon  forgotten.  The  Puritans, 
who  were  in  possession  of  their  lands,  began  now  to  represeiit 
them  as  fomenters  of  dissension,  disturbers  of  the  public 
peace,  subjects  of  a  foreign  potentate,  and  incapable  of  loyalty 

'  Darcy  McOee,  1.  c,  p.  130.  In  the  year  1653  there  was  only  one  bishop  in 
the  whole  island.     Kilien,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  146.  (Tr.) 


254  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

to  the  crown.  It  was  the  old  strategy,  and  was  received  by 
the  enemies  of  the  Church  with  as  much  credulity  in  that 
age  as  it  has  been  in  our  own.  To  correct  these  misrepre- 
sentations, a  number  of  the  Catholic  leaders  met  in  Dublin  in 
1661,  and  drew  up  a  '■'■Remonstrance,''  addressed  to  the  king, 
in  -^N  hich  they  stated  that  they  felt  themselves  "  obliged,  under 
pain  of  tiin,  to  obey  his  majesty  in  all  civil  and  temporal  af- 
fairs, as  much  as  any  other  of  his  majesty's  subjects,  and  as 
the  laws  and  rules  of  government  in  this  kingdom  did  require 
at  their  hands."  ^  The  Eoman  Catholic  nobility  and  gentry 
of  Ireland,  for  the  most  part,  were  unanimous  in  their  ap- 
proval of  the  sentiments  set  forth  in  the  Remonstrance; 
while  the  clergy,  on  the  otlier  hand,  protested  against  it  as 
containing  sentiments  disrespectful  to  the  Holy  See  and  prop- 
ositions condemned  by  Popes  Paul  V.  and  Innocent  X.^ 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  Pemonstrants  received 
their  inspiration  from  Ormond,  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  and  that 
his  aim  was  to  divide  the  Catholic  clergy  and  people  among 
themselves.  A  synod  was  convened  in  Dublin,  June  11, 1666, 
to  consider  the  questions  raised,  and,  six  days  later,  unani- 
mously rejected  the  Remonstrance.  They,  however,  drew  up 
another,  in  which,  while  omitting  the  passages  disrespectful 
to  the  Holy  See,  the}^  embodied  the  same  expressions  of  loy- 
alty as  set  forth  in  the  one  of  1661.  This  action  gave  great 
offense  to  Ormond,  and,  in  consequence,  the  bishops  who  had 


^Kille7i,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  142.  (Tr.) 

'^  Brenan,  1.  c,  pp.  478-480. 

The  passages  to  which  exception  was  taken  read  as  follows  :  "  And  that,  not- 
withstanding any  power  or  pretension  of  the  Pope  or  the  See  of  Rome,  or  any 
sentence  or  declaration  of  what  kind  or  quality  soever,  given,  or  to  be  given, 
by  the  Pope,  his  predecessors  or  successors,  or  by  any  authority,  spiritual  or 
temporal,  proceeding  or  derived  from  him  or  his  See,  against  your  majesty  or 
royal  authority,  we  will  still  acknowledge  and  perform,  to  the  uttermost  of  our 
abilities,  our  loyalty  and  true  allegiance  to  your  majesty.  And  we  openly  dis- 
claim and  renounce  all  foreign  power,  be  it  either  papal  or  princely,  spiritual 
or  temporal,  inasmuch  as  it  may  seem  able,  or  shall  pretend,  to  free,  discharge, 
or  absolve  us  from  this  obligation,  or  give  us  leave  or  license  to  raise  tumults, 
bear  arms,  or  offer  any  violence  to  your  majesty's  person  or  royal  authoritj^  or 
to  the  State  or  Government.'"  This  was  nut  the  production  of  the  Irish  lead- 
ers, but  an  exact  copy  of  the  Declaration  presented  by  the  South  Britons  to 
Charles  I.  in  1640.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  255 

come  to  Dublin  again  left  the  country.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  1668,  there  were  onl}^  two  prelates  in  the  island.^  In  the 
month  of  Ma}"  of  the  year  1670,  Lord  Berkeley  became  vice- 
roy, and  during  the  four  years  of  his  administration  the  Cath- 
olics enjoyed  a  season  of  comparative  exemption  from  perse- 
cution. Bishops  returned  ;  provincial  and  diocesan  synods 
were  held ;  Catholics  occupied  positions  of  public  trust  and 
honor  ;  churches  and  chapels  were  again  opened  ;  and  the  old 
faith  began  once  more  to  flourish  in  the  land.  But  this  inter- 
val of  peace  was  only  the  stillness  of  the  calm  that  precedes 
the  storm.  In  1673  the  Puritans,  who  were  in  a  majority  in 
the  house  of  commons,  forced  the  king  to  recall  Lord  Berke- 
ley, whose  justice  and  humanity  in  the  government  of  Ireland 
excited  the  indignation  of  these  fierce  zealots.  The  "  Decla- 
ration of  Indulgence  to  Dissenters,"  granted  three  years  pre- 
viously, was  revoked,  and  the  "  Test  Act"  again  enforced. 
Those  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  to  deny  tran- 
substantiation,  and  "to  receive  the  Sacrament"  according  to 
the  rite  of  the  Established  Church,  were  declared  incapable 
of  holding  either  civil  or  military  office.^  Catholics  were  for- 
bidden to  reside  in  corporate  towns  ;  bishops  and  others  exer- 
cising ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  by  the  Pope's  authority  were 
commanded  to  quit  the  kingdom  ;  convents  were  dissolved, 
and  all  priests  banished.^  In  1677,  Lord  Essex,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded to  Berkeley  in  the  viceroyalty  of  Ireland,  was  recalled, 
and  Ormond  again  appointed  in  his  place.  The  news  of  the 
*^ Popish  Plot"  reached  the  viceroy  in  the  course  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and,  while  he  ridiculed  the  clumsy  invention  in 
private,  he  made  it  a  pretext  in  public  for  fresh  persecutions 
against  the  Catholics.  It  was  pretended  that  the  "-Plot"  ex- 
tended to  Ireland ;  and  although,  as  the  Protestant  Killen 
candidly  avows,  "  the  evidence  against  the  accused  possessed 
transparent  marks  of  falsehood,"  Peter  Talbot,  the  Roman 
('atholic  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  and  Lord  Montgarret,  both 
far  advanced  in  years,  the  latter  being  eighty-one,  and  both 

•  Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  146.  (Tr.) 

■'  McGee,  1.  c,  p.  143.  (Tr.) 

»  Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  160.  (Tb.) 


256  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

sinking  under  disease  and'  infirmity,  were  dragged  to  prison, 
where  they  ended  their  days. 

Oliver  Plunket,  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Armagh, 
who,  KilUn  tells  us,  "  was  an  ecclesiastic  of  blameless  morals 
and  pacific  temper,"  but  who,  "according  to  the  testimony" 
of  two  friars  and  an  apostate  priest,  whom  he  had  punished 
for  their  vices,  "  was  a  most  desperate  revolutionist,"  was  of 
so  exalted  a  character  that  the  fear  of  not  beino;  able  to  o^et 
even  a  Protestant  jury  to  convict  him  in  Ireland  induced  his 
persecutors  to  send  him  to  London,  where  he  was  tried  at 
Westminster,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged,  emboweled,  and 
quartered,  "  according  to  law."  He  was  executed  at  Tyburn, 
July  1,  1681.  Those  who  bore  false  witness  against  him  all 
ended  their  days  miserably.^ 

These  persecutions  continued  until  the  accession  of  James 
II.,  in  1685,  when  the  Irish  Catholics  again  looked  forward 
in  the  hope  of  seeing  them  suspended  and  their  rights  re- 
stored. They  were  not  disappointed.  Lord  Clarendon  was 
sent  as  viceroy  to  Ireland  in  1686,  with  instructions  to  grant 
freedom  of  worship  to  Catholics  ;  to  remove  or  disregard 
their  civil  disabilities;  and  to  admit  them  equally  with  Pro- 
testants to  offices  of  State.  The  reform  of  the  army  was 
intrusted  to  Richard  Talbot,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  and  brother 
to  the  late  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  Protestant  soldiers  were 
removed,  and  Catholics  appointed  to  till  their  places.  These 
changes  alarmed  the  Protestants,  and  their  fears  were  still 
further  aroused  by  the  information  that  Talbot  had  gone  to 
England  for  the  purpose  of  pressing  the  repeal  of  the  Act  of 
Settlement,  and  by  his  appointment  to  the  government  of 
Ireland  in  the  room  of  Clarendon,  in  whose  recall  he  had 
been  chiefly  instrumental.  Affairs  were  in  this  condition 
when  James,  driven  from  his  throne  by  William  of  Orange, 
passed  over  to  France  (1688).  The  disasters  that  overtook 
the  king  in  England  did  not  shake  the  loyalty  of  his  Catholic 
subjects  in  Ireland.  To  them  his  cause  was  identical  with 
their  own.  From  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  down,  they  had 
borne  sutierings  and  death  for  their  faith;  he  had  granted 

J  See  his  life,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Croly,  of  Maynooth,  Dublin. 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  2bl 

freedom  of  worship.  They  had  labored  under  civil  and  po- 
litical disqualifications ;  these  he  had  removed.  They  had 
been  robbed  of  their  lands ;  he  had  shown  an  inclination  to 
repeal  the  Acts  of  Settlement.  These  and  other  considera- 
tions attached  them  to  James  ;  but  both  their  hopes  and  his 
were  extinguished  by  the  decisive  battle  of  the  Boyiie.,  J i\\y  2, 
1690.  James  quitted  Ireland  immediately  after  this  disas- 
trous and  to  him  disgraceful  engagement,  but  the  Irish  Cath- 
olics fought  on  for  a  year  longer.  Their  defeat  at  the  battle 
of  Aui/hrim,  July  12,  1691,  which  was  followed  on  the  13th 
of  the  following  month  by  the  capitulation  of  Limerick,  de- 
stroyed all  possibility  of  successful  resistance,  and  made  the 
authority  of  William  supreme  over  the  whole  island.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Limerick,  it  was  expressly  stipulated  that  Catholics 
should  be  obliged  to  take  only  the  oath  binding  them  "to 
bear  faithful  and  true  allegiance  to  their  Majesties  William 
and  Alary  ;"  and  yet  in  the  year  following  an  oath  was  drawn 
up  and  presented  for  their  acceptance,  in  which  they  were 
called  upon  to  denj-  the  dogma  of  "  transubstantiation  "  in 
"the  Lord's  Supper;"  and  to  declare  that  "the  invocation 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  or  any  other  saint,  and  the  Sacrifice  of 
the  Mass,  as  now  used  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  are  damnable 
and  idolatrous."  An  "oath  of  abjuration"  was  also  drawn 
up,  which  went  on  to  say  that  no  foreign  prince  or  prelate 
"hath  any  jurisdiction,  ecclesiastical  or  spiritual,  within  this 
realm."  ^ 


1  McGee,  1.  c,  p.  168.     Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  177  et  seq. 

During  this  and  the  preceding  reigns,  the  clergymen  of  the  Protestant 
Church  in  Ireland  do  not  appear  to  have  been  self-denying,  saintly  men,  or  to 
have  corrected  in  their  own  lives  faults  of  which  they  complained  so  loudly  in 
those  of  others.  Speaking  of  the  "  Irish  Episcopal  Church."  immediately  after 
the  Eestoration,  Killen  says:  "In  the  selection  of  the  new  dignitaries,  political 
services  and  family  connections  had  generally  more  influence  than  pietj'  or 
learning.  Instead  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  spiritual  duties  of  their  office, 
and  thus  seeking  to  remove  the  odium  which  had  so  long  rested  on  their  order, 
most  of  the  bishops  still  continued  to  give  offense  b}"^  their  covetousness,  secu- 
larity,  and  ambition."  One  who  subsequently  became  an  archbishop  was  noto- 
rious "  for  his  penuriousness  and  indolence."  Another,  who  subsequently  became 
Primate  and  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  seems  to  have  merited  his  promotion  by 
•his  avaricious  greed.  He  "  was  not  satisfied  with  three  sees,"  but,  on  "  the 
VOL.    Ill — 17 


'/ 


258  Period  3.     E'pocfi  1.     Chapter  2. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Limerick,  the  Irish  Catholics  were  uo-^nred 

ill  the  enjoyment  of  "  their  goods  and  chattels,"  "  their  "atatea 
of  freehold  and  inheritance,"  together  with  all  their  interests 
and  immunities  ;  and  yet  by  an  act  of  the  Irish  parliament  of 
1695,  any  one  known  to  have  sent  his  child  to  the  Continent, 
to  be  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  faith,  was  incapacitated  from 
[)rosecuting  suits  at  law,  from  receiving  any  legacy  or  deed  of 
gift,  and  was  condemned  to  "  forfeit "  all  his  goods  and  c)iat- 
tels  and  ''all  his  hereditaments,  rents,  annuities,  offices^  and 
estates  of  freehold."  ^  A  Protestant  heiress,  who  marriod  a 
Catholic,  was  punished  by  loss  of  her  inheritance.^  In  tlie 
l)arliament  of  1607,  an  act  was  passed  requiring  all  Catholic 
archbishops,  bishops,  vicars-general,  deans,  Jesuits,  monks, 
friars,  and  all  Catholics  exercising  any  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion, to  quit  the  kingdom  before  the  1st  of  May,  1698,  and 
should  any  return,  they  were  declared  subject  to  the  penalties 
of  high  treason.^  Between  the  ypars  1696  and  1699,  over 
nine  hundred  priests  were  banished  the  kingdom,  and  the  two 
or  three  hundred  who  remained  were  obliged  to  hide  away  in 
the  caverns  of  the  earth  or  the  pestilential  morasses  of  the 
open  country. 

The  old  scheme  for  robbing  the  Catholics  by  issuing  a  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  defective  titles  was  again  revived,  and 
under  its  operation  1,060,792  acres  were  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  in  addition  to  the  10,636,887  already  seized."*     At  the 


groundless  plea  that  he  could  find  no  clergymen,"  appropriated  for  three  years 
the  "incomes"  "of  six  parishes,"  leaving  the  Protestant  parishioners  in  the  in- 
terval "  without  a  ministry."  Neither  did  these  holy  men,  who  came  to  bring 
the  pure  light  of  the  Gospel  to  a  benighted  and  superstitious  people,  appear  to 
improve  as  time  went  on.  Mary,  writing  to  William  just  after  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  tells  him  to  "take  care  of  the  Church  in  Ireland.  Everybody 
agrees,"  she  says,  "that  it  is  the  worst  in  Christendom."  We  are  told  that 
Thomas  Hacket,  the  Protestant  Bishopof  Down  and  Connor  from  1072  u>  IG'.^i, 
traded  "  in  benefices  with  unblushing  efl^rontery.  The  livings  in  his  gift  were 
sold  to  the  highest  bidder.  For  twenty  years  he  was  never  within  the  bounds 
of  his  diocese,  etc."  And  so  the  list  of  these  good  and  pure  Reformers  goes  on 
to  the  end  of  the  chapter.     Killen,  1.  c.  Vol.  II.,  pp.  130  and  ]«2-183.  (,Tr.) 

1  The  7th  of  William  III.,  chap.  IV.,  s.  I.  (Tr.) 

Ubid.,  s.  I.   (Tr.) 

3 The  9th  of  William  III.,  chap.  I.  (Tr.) 

*  The  proceeds  from  the  confiscated  lands  were  employed  to  defray  the  ex- 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  259 

death  of  William,  the  Catholics,  who  only  a  century  before 
had  held  in  fee  three-fourths  of  the  soil  of  Ireland,  did  not 
now  own  above  "  one-sixth  part"  of  that  amount.^ 

The  twelve  years  of  Queen  Anne's  reign  (1702-1714)  form 
one  of  the  darkest  epochs  of  the  history  of  persecution  in 
Ireland.  The  enactments  of  the  Irish  parliament  of  1703 
can  not  be  equalled  in  inhuman  atrocity  and  a  satanic  disre- 
gard for  the  rights  of  mankind  by  the  records  of  any  legisla- 
lative  body  that  ever  disgraced  a  civilized  world.  They  are 
absolutely  without  a  parallel.  One  of  them,  entitled  "  an  act 
to  prevent  Popish  priests  from  coming  into  the  kingdom," 
declared  guilty  of  high  treason  and  subject  to  its  penalties  all 
who  should  "  harbor,  relieve,  conceal,  or  entertain  "  Catholic 
priests;  and  "any  mayor,  justice  of  the  peace,  or  other  of- 
ticei',"  ^vho  was  proved  to  be  negligent  in  enforcing  the  law, 
was  liable  to  line  of  one  hundred  pounds.  Another,  entitled 
"  a  bill  to  prevent  the  further  growth  of  Popery,"  consisting 
of  twenty-eight  sections,  which  received  the  royal  assent 
March  4,  1704,  is  the  most  elaborate  digest  of  legislative  jDer- 
secution  that  was  ever  framed.^ 


penses  of  the  war  of  1688.  A  new  class  of  adventurers  were  thus  introduced 
into  the  country,  consisting  chiefly  of  Dutch  and  German  Protestants.  Their 
descendants  in  Munster  are  known  to  this  day  as  ^^  Palatines."  McGee,  1.  c,  p. 
170.  (Tr.) 

'  Bedford's  Compendious  and  Impartial  View  of  the  Law  aflecting  the  Eoman 
Catholics,  London,  1829,  p.  15.  (Tr.) 

^  The  following  is  a  summary  of  this  bill,  given  by  the  Protestant  historian, 
Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  194,  195:  "It  provides  that  any  persuading  a  Pro- 
testant to  embrace  Popery,  and  every  such  pervert  (!)  shall  incur  the  penalty 
of  praemunire ;  that,  if  the  eldest  son  of  a  Popish  landlord  conforms  to  the 
Established  Church,  the  father  shall  hold  the  estate  only  as  a  tenant  for  life, 
whilst  the  son  shall  be  proprietor  in  fee ;  that  the  orphan  children  of  Popish 
parents  shall  be  intrusted  to  Protestant  guardians,  and  brought  up  in  the  Pro- 
testant religion  ;  that  any  Papist  undertaking  such  guardianship  shall  be  liable 
to  a  penalty  of  live  hundred  pounds ;  that  no  Papist  shall  be  at  liberty  to  pur- 
chase lands  for  a  longer  term  than  thirty-one  years ;  .  .  .  that  a  Papist, 
who  has  inherited  from  a  Protestant  any  estate,  tenement,  or  hereditament  in 
lee,  and  who  does  not  conform  to  the  Established  Church,  shall  not  be  entitled  to 
continue  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  properly ;  that  a  Papist,  who  is  the  'owner  of 
a  freehold,  shall  not  have  the  power  to  bequeath  it  to  his  eldest  son  ;  that  at  his 
death  it  shall  be  split  up  in  equal  portions  among  all  his  male  children;  but 
that  the  law  of  primogeniture  shall  be  maintained  should  the  eldest  son,  %yithlij 


200  Feriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

By  a  tliird  act  of  the  parliament,  every  secular  priest  was 
obliged,  under  penalty  of  banishment,  to  come  forward  before 
the  24th  of  June,  1704,  register  his  name,  age,  the  place  of 
his  abode,  the  name  of  his  parish,  the  date  of  his  ordination, 
the  bishop  by  whom  he  was  ordained,  and  to  give  security 
tliat  he  w^ould  not  pass  beyond  the  borders  of  the  county  in 
which  he  resided.  By  another  clause  of  the  same  act,  any 
priest  who  might  apostatize  had  the  sum  of  twenty  pounds  a 
j-ear  settled  on  him.^ 

The  aim  of  this  enactment  was  obvious.  Heretofore  it  had 
been  difficult  to  apprehend  or  convict  priests,  but  now  it  was 
only  necessary,  when  occasion  required,  to  send  police  to  the 
designated  places  of  abode,  arrest,  and  execute  the  penalties 
of  the  law  upon  the  poor  victims,  whose  confessions  in  their 
written  registrations  were  ample  evidence  against  them. 
These  law^s  were  so  revolting  to  the  feelings  of  our  common 
nature  that  great  difficulty  was  experienced  in  putting  them 
in  execution.  The  offices  of  the  public  informer  were  re- 
quired, and  there  is  no  character  so  contemptibly  odious  to 
Irish  instincts  and  Irish  honor.  Hence  it  was  necessary  to 
give  those  performing  such  offices  a  diploma  of  good  conduct, 
and  it  was  accordingly  declared  "  that  the  prosecuting  and 
informing  against  Papists  was  an  honorable  service,  and  that 
all  magistrates  who  neglected  to  execute  these  laws  were  be- 
traj^ers  of  the  liberties  of  the  kingdom."  ^ 

It  should  seem  that  the  laws  against  the  Irish  Catholics 
were  now  sufficiently  severe  to  satisfy  any  human  being  not 
inspired  by  satanic  hatred  against  the  Church  of  Christ.  But 
the  Earl  of  Wharton,  the  viceroy,  did  not  think  so,  and  in  a 
speech,  which  he  delivered  in  the  Irish  parliament  of  1709,  he 
so  wrought  upon  the  fears  and  the  bigotry  of  the  members, 

three  months  after  his  father's  death,  produce  a  certificate  from  the  Protestant 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  stating  that  he  belongs  to  the  Church  as  established  by 
law ;  that  no  Papist  shall  be  capable  of  voting  at  an  election  for  a  member  of 
parliament  until  he  has  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  abjuration  ;  and  that 
all  persons  assembling  at  St.  Patrick's  Purgatory,  Lough  Derg,  shall  incur  a 
fine  of  ten  shillings  each,  and,  in  default  of  payment,  receive  a  public  whip- 
ping." (Tr.) 

1  Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  649.     KiUen,  1.  c,  pp.  195,  196.  (Tr.) 

^  Irish  Q>nimons,  Journal,  Vol.  III.,  p.  319.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  261 

if,  indeed,  they  needed  any  such  incentive,  that  they  resolved 
that  many  "  Popish  bishops  had  lately  come  into  the  king- 
dom," who  "  had  presumed  to  continue  the  succession  of  the 
Komish  priesthood,  and  that  their  return  was  owing  to  a  de- 
fect in  the  laws."  They  accordingly  passed  a  new  act  "to 
prevent  the  further  growth  of  Popery,"  providing  that  the 
children  of  Catholics,  by  conforming  to  the  Protestant  wor- 
ship, might  compel  their  parents,  through  the  court  of  chan- 
cery, to  make  known  the  full  amount  of  their  property,  and 
to  pi'ovide  the  young  apostates  with  a  suitable  maintenance; 
that  no  one  should  be  regarded  as  a  Protestant  who  had  not 
taken  the  oath  of  abjuration  and  received  the  Sacrament  after 
the  form  of  the  Established  Church  ;  and  that  any  one  in- 
forming on  an  archbishop,  bishop,  or  vicar-general,  should  re- 
ceive a  reward  of  fifty  pounds  ;  for  a  regular  the  reward  w^ae 
twenty  pounds,  and  for  a  school-master  ten  pounds ;  these 
sums  to  be  levied  off'  the  Catholic  inhabitants  of  the  county 
in  which  the  person  informed  on  resided.^  In  1710,  those 
priests  wdio  had  complied  with  the  law^  of  registration  were 
commanded  to  come  forward  before  the  25th  of  March,  and 
take  the  oath  of  abjuration,  under  penalty  of  banishment, 
and,  should  they  return  to  the  country,  they  were  declared 
guilty  of  high  treason.  Anne,  the  last  and  the  worst  of  the 
contemptible  Stuarts,  died  on  the  1st  of  August,  1714,  and  the 
character  of  the  penal  code  of  her  reign  can  not  be  better 
described  than  in  the  words  of  Edmund  Burke.  "  It  was," 
says  this  distinguished  statesman,  "  a  machine  of  wise  and 
elaborate  contrivance,  and  as  well  fitted  for  the  oppression, 
impoverishment,  and  degradation  of  a  people,  and  the  debase- 
ment in  them  of  human  nature  itself,  as  ever  proceeded  from 
the  perverted  ingenuity  of  man." 

On  the  accession  of  George  I.  of  the  house  of  Brunswick 
to  the  English  throne,  the  Tories  were  driven  from  office. 
The  king  was  not  naturally  intolerant,  but  this  element,  which 
had  formed  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  characters  of  the  late 
rulers  of  England,  was  abundantly  supplied  by  the  persecuting 
epirit  of  the  Whigs,  who  had  lately  come  to  power.     In  1715, 


^Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  650.     Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  203.  (Tr.) 


262  Feriod  3.     Epoch  L     Chapter  2. 

the  Scotch  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  favor  of  the  Pre- 
tender;  and,  while  the  Catholics  took  no  part  in  the  quarrel, 
they  were  as  violently'  persecuted  as  if  the}'  had.  Catholic 
nobles  were  hurried  to  prison  ;  churches  and  chapels  were 
closed  throughout  the  kingdom  ;  priests  were  seized  at  the 
altars,  where  they  were  officiating  ;  and  the  usual  bribes  were 
offered  to  informers.  The  bulk  of  the  execrable  set  of  mis- 
creants, known  as  priest-catchers,  were  Jews,  who  pretended 
to  be  converts  to  Catholicity,  and  assumed  the  dress  and 
sometimes  simulated  the  functions  of  priests.^ 

In  1719,  the  Presbyterian  Dissenters  obtained  an  Act  of 
Toleration ;  but  no  corresponding  concession  was  granted  to 
the  Roman  Catholics.  Under  the  pretext  that  the  Catholics 
Avere  at  heart  attached  to  the  Pretender,  and  only  awaited  a 
favorable  opportunity  to  give  him  their  support,  they  were 
visited  with  additional  penalties  by  the  Irish  parliaments  of 
1716  and  1723.' 

About  this  time,  secret  agents  from  the  French  Jansenists 
were  sent  into  Ireland,  and  books  containing  their  errors  were 
distributed  over  the  country.  Pope  Clement  XI.,  taking 
alarm  at  these  efforts  to  undermine  the  faith  of  the  Irish 
])eople,  sent,  through  Vicentius  Santini,  his  internuncio  at 
Brussels,  a  warning  to  the  Irish  bishops,  accompanied  with  a 
request  that  they  would  in  some  public  way  declare  their  ac- 
ceptance of  the  bull  "  Unigenitus."  Each  member  of  the 
Irish  hierarchy  sent  in  reply  letters  expressive  of  the  attach- 
ment of  themselves,  their  priests,  and  their  people  to  the  Holy 
See  and  its  teachings  ;  and  assured  the  Holy  Father  that, 
though  oppressed  and  despised,  they  would  never  cease  to 
preserve  with  the  Head  of  the  Church  "  unity  of  spirH  in  the 
bond  of  peace^'  and  that  no  such  evasive  terms  as  "  religious 
silence  and  the  question  of  right  and  fact' ^  had  been  adopted  by 
them. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  (1727-1760),  :i 
pretended  fear  of  the  influence  of  Catholics  caused  the  passage 
of  an  act  depriving  them  altogether  of  the  privilege  of  voting 


^Brenan,  1.  c,  Vol.  XL,  p.  551,  552.  (Tr.) 

»The  2d  of  George  I.,  chap.  X.  Ibid.,  chap.  XIX.,  s.  7.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  263 


for  members  of  parliament  or  the  magistrates  of"  any  city  or 
corporate  town;'"  and,  by  another  act  of  the  same  parlia- 
ment, Roman  Catholics  were  forbidden  to  practise  as  barris- 
ters or  solicitors.^  At  the  time  of  this  enactment,  very  nearly 
all  the  members  of  distinction  belonging  to  the  legal  profes- 
sion in  Irekmd  were  Roman  Catholics,  and  they  yielded  re- 
luctantly to  the  command  of  the  law  obliging  them  either  to 
give  up  their  profession  or  prove  apostates  to  their  God. 
Under  the  circumstances,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  some  of 
them  professed  Protestantism  openly,  while  they  were  at  heart 
loyal  to  the  old  faith.  It  w'as  noticed  that,  when  about  to  be 
admitted  to  the  Bar,  persons,  who  until  then  had  practised 
the  Catholic  religion,  and  who  were  now  base  enough  to  stul- 
tify their  consciences  for  a  paltry  gain,  never  made  very  zeal- 
ous or  even  fair  Protestants.  Thus  far  they  had  been  obliged 
to  produce  only  a  certificate,  stating  that  they  had  received 
the  Sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church,  as  by  law 
established  either  in  England  or  Ireland.  But  an  act  was 
now  passed,  requiring  that  any  one  demanding  admission  to 
the  Bar  should  prove,  on  satisfactory  evidence,  given  under 
oath,  that  he  had  been  a  Protestant  during  the  two  previous 
years;  and,  should  he  neglect  to  educate  his  children  under 
fourteen  years  of  age  at  tlie  time  of  his  admission,  or  those 
born  to  him  after  this  date,  he  was  condemned  to  forfeit  his 
■certificate. 

In"  1733,  another  act  was  passed,  making  this  law  still  more 
stringent,  and  disqualifying  any  convert  to  Protestantism 
from  practising  in  the  courts  of  law  who  should  allow  his 
Roman  Catholic  wife  to  educate  her  children  in  the  Catholic 
f\iith.3 

In  1743,  the  rumor  of  an  intended  French  invasion  furnished 
another  pretext  for  fresh  persecutions,  and  so  violent  was  the 
feeling  against  Catholics  that  one  member  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil advocated  an  indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  whole  bo(.Iy. 
A  proclamation  was  published,  which,  in  addition  to  the  sums 
already  set  upon  the  heads  of  ecclesiastics,  offered  a  reward 

I  The  1st  of  George  II.,  chap.  IX.,  s.  7.  (Tr.) 

■^Ibld.,  chap.  XX.  (Tr.) 

»  The  7th  of  George  II.,  chaps.  V.  and  VI.  (Tr.) 


264  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

of  one  hundred  and  lifty  pounds  for  the  conviction  of  a  bishop 
or  archbishop;  fifty  pounds  for  a  priest;  and  two  hundred 
pounds  for  any  one  who  might  harbor  or  give  protection  to  a 
bishop.^ 

Churches  were  again  closed  all  over  the  country,  and  so- 
vigilant  and  energetic  were  the  officers  of  the  law  that  it 
seemed  impossible  to  escape  them.  Driven  from  thei:: 
churches,  the  priests  would  gather  the  faithful  about  them 
on  some  green  hillside  or  in  a  secluded  nook  of  a  pleasant 
valley,  and  there,  on  a  rude  altar  of  stone  in  the  temple  of 
nature,  offer  up  the  everlasting  sacrifice  to  nature's  God. 
Such  are  Ireland's  witnesses  to  the  faith. 

During  the  long  period  of  persecution  from  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  to  that  of  George  II.,  the  Irish  Catholic  bishops 
were  continuously  driven  from  their  dioceses,  and  forced  to 
seek  an  asylum  in  some  country  on  the  Continent.  Wliat 
was  for  so  long  a  necessity,  by  repetition  grew  into  a  [iractice ; 
and  the  continued  and  protracted  absences  of  the  chief  pas- 
tors from  their  flocks  was  beginning  to  work  so  much  harm 
that  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  in  a  beautiful  letter,  dated  August 
15, 1741,  reminded  them  of  their  duty.  lie  implored  them,  as 
he  said,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  to  remedy  the  evil,  and  told 
them  plainly  that  if  the  word  of  God  was  not  preached,  the 
Sacraments  not  administered,  if  morals  were  corrupted,  and 
the  people  in  ignorance  and  error,  they,  and  they  alone,  were 
responsible,^ 

From  this  time  forth  the  hardships  of  the  Irish  began  to 
grow  less  galling  and  oppressive  ;  still  one  more  effort  was 
made  by  James  Hamilton,  not  onl}^  to  revive  all  the  inhuman 
legislation  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  but  to  add  other 
statutes,  which,  if  less  atrocious,  were  more  cunningly  devised 
and  more  maliciously  wicked.  In  1756  a  bill  was  introduced 
by  him  in  parliament,  providing  for  the  registration  of  all 
Catholic  priests,  and  also  requiring  that  only  one  priest  should 
be  allowed  to  each  parish  ;  that  he  should  be  appointed  by  the 


^  Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  561.  (Tr.) 

''Ibid.,  p.  557  s?q. ;  yet  the  date  of  Benedict  XIV.'s  letter  is  not  August  1, 
1746,  given  by  Brenan,  but  August  15,  1741,  as  is  proved  by  the  Bullar.,  ed 
Venet.  1768,  p.  29.  (Tr.) 


§  331.  Protestantism  in  Ireland.  265 

grand  jury,  and  sanctioned  by  the  privy  council  and  lord 
lieutenant ;  that  he  sliould  give  information  of  all  priests  re- 
siding in  his  parish  ;  and  that  he  should  not  attempt  to  make 
converts.  Another  clause  provided  for  the  expulsion  from 
the  country  of  all  bishops,  dignitaries,  and  friars.  The  bill, 
though  defeated,  was  again  introduced  in  the  following  year 
and  passed,  but  the  king  refused  to  put  his  name  to  it,  and 
from  this  act  dates  the  delinite  mitigation  of  the  penal  laws 
in  Ireland.^ 

The  Duke  of  Bedford,  who  was  appointed  lord  lieutenant 
in  the  autumn  of  1757,  signified  that  he  would  pursue  a  policy 
friendly  to  Ireland,  and  that  the  inhabitants  might  count  upon 
his  good  services  in  redressing  their  grievances  and  satisfying 
their  just  demands.  The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Dublin 
immediately  expressed  their  acknowledgments  in  an  Exhorta- 
tion to  the  people,  in  which,  after  thanking  the  government 
for  its  "large  charities"  during  a  recent  season  of  scarcity, 
they  called  upon  the  people  to  show  their  gratitude  to  their 
civil  governors  "  by  an  humble,  peaceable,  and  obedient  be- 
havior ;"  to  live  virtuously  ;  to  abstain  from  crimes  and  mis- 
deeds of  every  sort ;  and  "  to  avoid  riots  and  tumults,"  and 
thus  "prove  themselves  good  citizens  and  pious  Christians."^ 

The  moment  seemed  opportune  to  take  some  definite  steps 
toward  ameliorating  the  political  condition  of  the  Catholics 
of  Ireland,  and  accordingly  an  association  was  formed  fof  this 
purpose.  The  members,  who  were  exclusively  of  the  com- 
mercial and  citizen  classes,  the  nobility  and  gentr}"  having 
refused  to  join  them,  generally  met  at  the  Elephant  Tavern, 
in  Essex  street.  After  the  usual  preliminaries,  the}^  gave  aim 
and  purpose  to  their  labors  by  appointing  the  famous  Dr. 
Curry,  the  hardly  less  famous  Charles  O'Conor,  and  Mr.  Wyse, 
a  Waterford  merchant,  a  sort  of  executive  committee  for  the 
association.  The  first  w^ork  of  the  committee  was  to  make  a 
statement  or  declaration  of  principles,  a  task  which  they  com- 
mitted to  Dr.  O'Keefe.,  Bishop  of  Kildare.  The  document  waa 
chiefly  confined  to  proving  for  the  thousandth  time  that  Cath« 


1  Brenan,  1.  c,  pp.  562,  563.  (Tk.) 
^KiUen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  276.  (Tr.) 


266  Period  3.     E])och  1.     Cha'pter  2. 


olics  may  be  good  and  loyal  subjects,  and  that  their  Church 
teaches  no  doctrine  incompatible  with  civil  allegiance. 

An  opportunity  of  testing  these  principles  soon  came. 
When,  in  1759,  the  French  threatened  a  descent  upon  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  the  Roman  Catholic  committee  sent  an  ad- 
dress to  the  lord  lieutenant,  in  wliich  they  professed  them- 
selves "  ready  and  willing,  to  the  utmost  of  their  abilities,  to 
assist  in  supporting  his  majesty's  government  against  all  hos- 
lile  attempts  whatsoever."  ^  The  address  was  graciously  re- 
ceived, and  the  speaker  of  the  Irish  house  of  commons,  where 
it  was  read,  expressed  the  extreme  satisfaction  which  the  evi- 
dence of  the  loyalty  of  the  Roman  Catholics  afforded  that 
body.  On  the  accession  of  George  111.  (1760-1782)  to  tbe 
English  throne,  the  committee  prepared  and  forwarded  to 
that  monarch  a  congratulatory  address,  in  which  they  re- 
minded him  that  they  were  under  certain  disabilities,  not  im- 
posed upon  other  citizens,  and  expressed  the  hope  that  they 
"  might  not  be  left  incapable  of  promoting  the  general  welfare 
and  prosperity."  ^  In  1767,  public  prayers  were  offered  up, 
for  the  first  time  since  the  Revolution,  in  all  the  Catholic 
Churches  of  Ireland  for  the  sovereign  and  the  royal  family. 
Concessions,  however,  came  slowly  and  grudgingly.  B}^  an 
act  of  the  Irish  parliament  of  1774,  the  only  oath  to  be  re- 
quired of  Irish  Roman  Catholics  was  one  expressive  of  alle- 
giance to  the  house  of  Hanover,  and  denying  that  tiie  P(.>pe 
of  Rome  "had  or  ought  to  have  any  temporal  or  civil  juris- 
diction, power,  superiority,  or  pre-eminence,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, within  this  realm."  ^ 

The  tone  and  form  of  address  used  heretofore  toward  Cath- 
olics in  official  documents  began  now  to  be  more  respectful. 
When  they  had  not  Ijeen  hostilel}"  termed  "  the  common 
enemy,"  they  had  been  contemptuously  styled  "  Papists ; " 
but  in  an  act  of  parliament  of  the  year  1778,  by  which  their 
condition  was  greatly  improved,  they  were  designated  "  Roman 

*  Charles  O'Conor  is  the  reputed  author  of  the  address.     See  Mitchell's  Hist. 
of  Ireland,  p.  80.  (Tr.) 
^Pluwdeii  I.,  Appendix,  p.  276.   (Tr.) 
^KiUen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  296.  (Tr.) 


§  331.   Protestantism  in  Ireland.  267 

Catholics."  ^     Among  the  supporters  of  this  act  was  the  cele- 
brated Hemy  Grattau,  a  name  ever  clear  to  the  Irish  people. 

The  fear  inspired  in  England  by  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  American 
Independence  had  probably  more  to  do  with  the  concessions  now  granted  to 
Irish  Catholics  than  any  fair-minded  purpose  of  doing  them  justice.  The  priv- 
ilege granted  by  the  parliament  of  1771  of  obtaining  a  lease  of  sixty-one  years 
on  land  reclaimed  from  unwholesome  bogs,  and  situated  at  least  a  mile  from 
any  town,  and  the  permission  given  by  the  parliament  of  177-4  of  taking  an 
oath  of  allegiance,  which  did  not  contain  a  direct  denial  of  the  Catholic  faith, 
can  not  be  regarded  as  either  very  gracious  or  very  generous  concessions. 
Neither  can  the  act,  passed  in  1778,  permitting  Koman  Catholics  to  take 
leases  for  999  years  ;  making  the  conditions  of  the  sale  and  inheritance  of  their 
lands  the  same  as  those  enjoyed  by  Protestants ;  declaring  them  capable  of 
holding  and  using  any  estates  that  might  be  conveyed  or  devised  to  them  ;  re- 
lieving parents  of  the  burden  of  supporting  a  wayvvard  or  wicked  child,  who 
might  go  over  to  the  Established  Church ;  and  abolishing  the  law  providing 
for  the  reversion  of  a  Catholic  father's  estate  to  his  eldest  son,  should  the 
latter  give  up  the  Catholic  faith,  be  considered  as  more  than  satisfying  the  de- 
mands of  strict  justice,  and  indicating  on  the  part  of  some  a  growing  disposition 
to  be  fair.  For  it  is  well  to  remember  that  this  act  did  not  pass  the  Irish  house 
of  commons  until  after  a  protracted  and  severe  struggle.  The  same  may  be 
paid  of  every  concession  that  followed.  As  years  went  on,  the  rigors  of  the 
penal  laws  were  gradually  relaxed.  In  1782,  an  unsuccessful  effort  was  made 
to  repeal  the  law  passed  in  1745,  declaring  invalid  marriages  celebrated  by 
Catholic  priests  between  Catholics  and  Protestants.  But  in  the  same  year  the 
right  of  Catholics  to  purchase  lands  in  perpetuity,  to  teach  schools  attended  by 
children  of  their  own  faith,  and  to  act  as  guardians  to  lloman  Catholic  chil- 
dren, was  recognized.'''  Priests  were  also  permitted  to  celebrate  Mass  publicly, 
provided  the  building  in  which  they  celebrated  had  neither  a  steeple  nor  a  bell, 
a  prohibition  which  was  evaded  by  suspending  a  bell  from  a  neighboring  tree.^ 
Other  disabilities  were  removed  by  the  Belief  Act  of  1792,*  and  a  petition  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland,  presented  to  George  III.,  January  2,  1793,  by  a 
delegation  sent  to  London  for  the  purpose,  was  followed  in  the  san.e  year  by  g 
second  Act  of  Relief  which  was  passed  through  both  houses  of  tne  Irish  par- 
liament more  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  the  government  than  from  inclination 
on  the  part  of  those  who  gave  it  their  support.  By  this  act  the  Catholics  were 
exempted  from  attending  the  service  of  the  Established  Church  on  Sundays; 
declared  qualified  to  hold  all  offices  and  places  of  trust  and  profit  under  the 
crown,  whether  military  or  civil,  except  those  of  lord  lieutenant,  lord  deputy, 
and  lord  chancellor,  and  seats  in  parliament;  and  admitted  to  the  elective 
franchise,^  of  which,  as  Mr.  Burke  remarked,  there  were  very  few  to  take  ad. 


J  This  act  is  the  17th  and  18th  of  George  III.,  chap.  XIX.  (Tr. 

=«The  21st  and  22d  of  George  III.,  chaps.  XXIV.  and  LXII. 

^Coycui,  i.  144.  (Tr.) 

*The  32d  of  George  III.,  chap.  XXI.  (Tr.) 

*The  33d  of  George  III.,  chap.  XXI.  (Tr.) 


268  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

vantage,  "because  almost  all  the  old  freeholders  had  been  worn  out  during  the- 
reign  of  the  penalties."  • 

We  have  seen  that  when  Catholic  seats  of  learning  in  Ireland  were  closed^ 
and  the  most  rigid  laws  existed  against  opening  Catholic  schools  of  any  sort, 
Irish  priests  and  Irish  gentlemen  passed  over  to  the  Continent,  and  by  their 
zeal  for  religion  and  their  love  of  the  sciences  and  arts,  which  had  been  ban- 
ished from  their  own  land,  so  interested  strangers  in  their  behalf,  that  semina- 
ries and  colleges  were  established  in  almost  every  country  of  the  whole  of 
Europe,  through  whose  hospitable  doors  the  exiled  Irish  student  entered  in 
pursuit  of  the  learning  which  a  nation,  boasting  of  its  enlightenment,  denied 
him  in  his  own  home  and  in  the  land  of  his  fathers.  The  Annals  of  the  Four 
Masters  were  arranged  at  one  of  these  colleges,  and  McGeoghehan's  History 
of  Ireland  written  at  another.  O'Connell  studied  at  St.  Omer's,  and  Luke 
Wadding  and  Dr.  Doyle  at  Cambrai.  All  the  men  distinguished  in  Irish  Cath- 
olic history  for  nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century  previously  to  the  date  of  the 
Belief  Act  were  educated  on  the  Continent. - 

Dr.  O'Keefe,  Bishop  of  Kildare  (tl787),  has  the  honor  of  having  founded 
Carlow  College,  the  first  Catholic  college  in  Ireland  since  the  Reformation.  It 
was  not  opened  for  the  reception  of  students  until  the  year  1793.^ 

The  closing  of  the  Irish  colleges  in  France  by  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  their  declining  condition  in  other  countries,  caused  the  Irish  hier- 
archy to  cast  about  for  some  means  of  training  their  seminarists  at  home.  It 
was  thought  necessary,  under  the  circumstances,  to  modify  somewhat  the  orig- 
inal purpose  of  Carlow  College,  and  to  admit  to  its  halls  students  training  for 
the  priesthood.  But  this  provision  was  inadequate.  In  February,  1794,  the 
Irish  hierarchy  presented  an  address  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  in  which  they 
state  that  the  education  given  at  the  University  of  Dublin,  while  it  is  excellent 
for  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed,  is  by  no  means  suited  to  ecclesias- 
tics, who  require  a  special  training  of  their  own;  and  they  therefore  beg  that 
his  excellency  may  be  pleased  to  recommend  to  his  majesty  the  policy  of  estab- 
lishing and  endowing  a  college  for  the  education  of  aspirants  to  the  priesthood. 
The  petition  was  favorably  received,  and  in  1795  an  act  was  passed  establishing 
a  college  at  Maijnooth,  and  an  endowment  of  eight  thousand  pounds  for  the 
current  yearly  expenses  was  granted.* 

To  say  tliat  from  the  breaking  out  of  the  Reformation  until 


'  Correspondence,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  363,  364,  London,  1844.  (Tr.) 

^  Besides  the  colleges  already  mentioned  at  page  243,  there  were  those  of  St. 
Anthony  (1617),  the  Collegium  Pastorale  Hibernorum  (1624),  and  the  Irish 
Dominican  College  (1659)  at  Louvain.  At  Rome,  Fr.  L.  Wadding,  assisted  by 
the  Barberini  family,  founded  (1625)  the  Irish  Franciscan  College  of  St.  Isi- 
dore, and  he  also  persuaded  Cardinal  Ludovisi,  "Protector  of  Ireland,"  to 
fouiid  (1628)  an  Irish  secular  college,  which  was  under  the  direction  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  of  which  Oliver  Plunket  was  a  student. 

^Brenan,  1.  c,  p.  567.  (Tr.) 

*  This  sum  was  increased  in  1806  to  thirteen  thousand  pounds,  but  again  re- 
duced in  1808  to  the  original  grant.  (Tr.) 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  269 

the  French  Revolution  "there  was  no  law  for  Catholics  in 
Ireland,"  '  is  to  state  a  sad  but  stern  truth.  It  was  only  too 
manifest  that  in  the  interval  those  in  power  had  no  wish  to 
do  justice  to  Ireland,  and  no  interest  in  making  its  inhabit- 
ants peaceable  and  contented  citizens.  The  atrocities  which 
[ireceded  and  caused  the  rebellion  of  1798  abundantly  prove 
this  statement.^  That  the  acts  of  injustice  perpetrated  by 
England  upon  Ireland  were  real  and  weighty  national  griev- 
ances is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Protestants,  as  well  as  Catho- 
lics, participated  in  the  rebellion.  The  jieople  were  driven  to 
desperation,  and  the  principles  of  the  French  Eevolution, 
which  were  diffused  among  them  chiefl}'  through  the  works 
of  the  infidel,  Thomas  Paine,  hastened  the  uprising.  The 
Catholic  hierarchy  and  clergy,  as  a  body,  exerted  all  their 
power  and  influence  to  quell  the  popular  passions.  The  bill 
for  the  Union,  of  Ireland  with  England,  which  received  the 
roj'al  assent  on  the  1st  of  August,  1800,  and  went  into  ettect 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  was  the  sad  result  of  this  rebel- 
lion. By  this  bill  the  existence  of  Ireland  as  a  distinct  nation 
came  to  an  end. 

If  the  penal  laws  had  been  executed  with  the  rigor  conrem- 
plated  by  their  framers  and  enactors,  the  preservation  of  the 
Catholic  religion  in  Ireland  would  have  been,  judging  by 
human  standards,  a  verification  of  the  words  of  Our  Lord, 
speaking  of  His  Church,  "  The  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail 
against  thee." 

§  332.    Protestantism  in  France. 

Histoire  ecclesiastique  des  Eglises  reformees  au  royaume  de  Fiance  (par  Th. 
de  Beze),  Anvers,  1580,  3  vols,  (to  1563).  Maimboui'g,  Hist,  du  Calvinisme,  etc. 
Hist,  of  the  League,  from  the  French,  by  Dryden.  Lond.  1684,  8vo.  Serrnni 
(Reformed  Preacher  of  Geneva,  -j-  1598),  Commentarius  de  statu  relig.  et  reipub. 
in  regno  Galliae,  Gen.  1572  sq.,  5  vols.  Thuanus,  Hist,  sui  temp.  Berilner. 
Hist,  de  Teglise  Gall.,  Paris,  1749,  4to.  * Lacretelle,  Hist,  de  France  pendant 
ies  guerres  de  religion,  Paris,  1814-1816,  4  vols.  Peignot,  Livre  des  singular- 
ites,  Dijon,  1841.  tCapefigue,  Hist,  de  la  reforme,  de  la  ligue  et  du  regne  do 
Henri  IV.,  Paris,  1834,  4  vols,  t*  France  and  the  Reformation  (The  Catholic, 
1842,  April,  May,  and  June  numbers),     f  Boost,  Hist,  of  the   Reformation  in 


1  Moore,  Bk.  II.,  ch.  11,  p.  277. 
« Ibid.,  Bk.  II.,  ch.  12,  notea  90,  91. 


270  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

France  (1547-1844),  Augsburg,  1844.  Schmidt,  Hist,  of  France,  Hamburg, 
1835  sq..  Vols.  2d  and  3d.  Ranke,  Civil  "Wars  and  Monarchy  in  France  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Stuttg.  1852  sq.,  5  vols. ;  London,  1852 
(Complete  Works,  Vols.  8-13) ;  as  far  as  this,  Vols.  1st  and  2d.  Soldan,  Hist, 
of  Protestantism  in  France  until  the  death  of  Charles  IX.,  Lps.  1855,  2  vols. 
Poletiz,  Hist,  of  French  Calvinism  until  1789,  Gotha,  1857-1864,  4  vols. 
E.  Smedley,  Hist,  of  the  Ref.  in  France,  New  York,  3  vols.,  12mo.  Ch.  Weiss, 
Hist,  of  the  Prot.  Eef.  in  France,  Lond.  1854,  2  vols.,  12mo.,  and  with  an  Ap-  , 
pend.  by  H.  W.  Herbert,  New  York,  1854,  2  vols.,  12mo.  G.  de  Felice,  Hist,  of 
the  Protestants  in  France,  from  the  Fr.,  Lond.  1853,  2  vols.,  8vo. 

Many  circumstances  contributed  to 'pave  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  the  Reformation  into  France,  among  the  most 
important  of  which  were  the  influence  exercised  by  the  sects 
in  the  southern  provinces  ;  the  excessive  cultivation  of  polite 
literature ;  the  active  part  taken  by  the  University  of  Paris 
in  the  reformatory  synods  of  Constance  and  Basle,  which  was 
in  mau}^  ways  more  hurtful  than  benelicial,  and  led  eventually 
to  the  promulgation  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges; 
the  loose  administration  of  the  ecclesiastical  law,  according 
to  the  spirit  of  the  so-called  Galilean  Liberties  ;  the  arbitrary 
methods  of  Francis  I.  (1515-1547)  in  conducting  ecclesias- 
tical, no  less  than  civil  affairs  ;  and,  finally,  the  appointment 
of  bishops,  who  were  more  disposed  to  be  servile  to  the  king 
than  obedient  to  the  Pope.  Both  Zwinglius  and  Calvin  had 
dedicated  their  most  important  works  to  Francis,  and  Luther 
and  Melanchthon  found  eager  readers  in  France.  Among 
their  most  ardent  admirers  was  the  famous  Biblical  scholar, 
Lefebvre  d'^taples,  so  called  from  the  town  of  Staples,  near 
Boulogne-sur-Mer. 

The  first  Protestant  communit}^  in  Fmnce  was  brought  to- 
gether amid  tumult  and  disorder  at  Meaux  by  William  Farel 
and  John  Leclerc,  a  wool-dresser.  HJ^otwithstanding  that  tlie 
Sorbonne,  whose  tendencies  were  well  known  to  be  toward 
liberalism,  had  ordered  the  works  of  Luther  to  be  burnt,  they 
were  industriously  sought  after  and  eagerly  read.  The  Re- 
formers had  powerful  patrons  at  court,  and  among  them  Ber- 
lain,  the  counsellor  of  state  ;  the  Duchess  d^£taiiipes,  the 
king's  mistress  ;  and  Margaret  of  Valois,  the  king's  sister. 
Margaret  having  married  Henry  d'Albert,King  of  Navarre,  her 
court  became  the  resort  and  refuge  of  Protestants  fleeing  from 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  271 

persecution.  On  the  other  hand,  Catholicism  found  able  and 
zealous  advocates  and  defenders  in  Cardinal  Duprat,  Chan- 
cellor to  Francis  I.;  Cardinal  de  Tournon ;  and  the  queen 
mother,  Louise  of  Savoy. 

When  the  Protestants,  emboldened  by  their  growing  num- 
]>ers  and  relying  on  the  protection  of  their  patrons,  recklessly 
Wemolished  a  figure  of  Our  Lord  and  another  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  and  had  the  hardihood  to  affix  to  the  door  of  the 
king's  palace  an  indecent  writing  against  Transubstantiation,' 
Francis  I.  took  alarm,  and,  apprehensive  that  the  evils  that 
had  afflicted  Germany  might  come  upon  his  own  kingdom, 
proceeded  to  take  prompt  and  vigorous  measures  to  check  the 
propagation  of  Protestantism  in  France.  Many  of  the  Pro- 
testants, when  pursued,  sought  safety  in  flight,  and  of  those 
who  were  arrested  some  were  put  to  death.  Among  the  fu- 
gitives was  Colvin,  who  withdrew  to  Geneva,  whence  he  had 
his  teachings  carried  into  France.  But,  by  a  strange  incon- 
sistency, while  Francis  was  persecuting  Protestants  in  his 
own  kingdom,  he  was  doing  his  best  to  protect  and  encourage 
them  in  Germany ;  and,  by  following  the  same  policy,  his 
successor,  Henry  II.  (1547-15f)9),  got  possession  of  the  terri- 
tories belonging  to  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.^ 
This  prince  published  ordinances  of  unusual  severity  against 
the  Calviiiists,  notably  the  Edict  of  Chateaubriand,  in  1551,'^ 
by  which  the  inquisitorial  jurisdiction  over  heretics,  hereto- 
fore lodged  in  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  was  transferred  to  the 
secular  courts,  because  the  former  might  not  pass  sentence  of 
death  upon  those  brought  to  trial  before  them.  It  was  unfor- 
tunate that  in  France,  as  elsewhere,  a  much  needed  reform 
among  the  clergy  had  neither  been  introduced  early  enough, 
nor,  when  introduced,  had  it  been  carried  out  with  sufficient 
promptitude  and  thoroughness.  The  instructions  of  the  Pro- 
vincial Council  of  Narbonne  (December  10-20,  1551)  were 
disregarded  by  the  sufltragan  bishops,  and  the  reformatory 
decrees  of  Poissy  (1565)  met  with  no  efficient  response  from 

'  Apud  Gerdesius,  Ilist.  Evangelii  renovati,  T.  VI.,  p.  50. 

2  See  p.  138. 

*  Barthold,  Germany  and  the  Hugenots,  Bremen,  1848,  2  vols. 


272  Period  8.     Epoch  1.     ChaiJter  2. 

prelates,  who  were  more  intent  on  enjoying  their  wealth  than 
on  looking  after  the  interests  of  the  Church.  The  inconsist- 
ency of  the  policy  of  the  government  was  favorable  to  the 
cause  and  growth  of  Protestantism,  and  accordingly  Protest- 
ant communities  were  formed  in  the  cities  of  Paris,  Orleans, 
Boaen,  and  Angers.  At  a  General  Synod,  held  in  Paris  in 
1559,  these  different  communities  united  themselves  into  one 
body  ;  adopted  a  Calnnistic  Confession  of  Faith  and  a  Presby- 
terian form  nf  Church  government ;  and,  as  if  sanctioning  in 
advance  a  law  which  would  soon  operate  against  themselves, 
decreed  that  all  luretics  should  be  put  to  deaths 

During  the  minority  oi  Francis  II.  (1559-1560)  and  Charles 
IX.  (1560-1574),  and  the  regency  of  the  queen  m(jther,  Cath- 
arine de  Medici,  and  while  the  Dukes  of  Guise  and  the  Princes 
'  of  Bourbon,  the  former  supported  by  the  Catholics,  and  tlie 
latter  by  the  Calvinists,  w'ere  contending  for  supremacy,  the 
^^HugeJiots,"  ^  as  the  French  Protestants  were  now  called,  grew 
daily  in  numbers  and  influence. 

Destitute  of  true  piety,  Catharine  was  foolishly  superstitious ; 
and  loving  intrigue  rather  than  a  straightforward  course,  she 
did  not  scruple  to  sacrifice  the  interests  of  her  children  to  her 
own  faithless  policy.  Protestant  and  Catholic  were  all  one  to 
her,  and  she  coquetted  with  each  as  her  interests  or  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  moment  demanded.^ 

That  the  Bourbons  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Calvin- 


1  Cf.  Berihier,  S.J.,  Histoire  de  I'Eglise  Gallicane  (comniencee  par  Longueval; 
by  Beithier,  les  six  derniers  volumes),  Paris,  1749,  4to.,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  460  sq. 
Bordes,  pretre  de  I'oratoire,  supplement  au  traite  de  Thomnssin  historique  et 
dogmatique,  etc.,  pour  etablir  et  maintenir  I'unite  de  I'egllse  catholique,  Paris, 
1703,  2  vols.,  4to. 

^  For  various  explanations  of  the  meaning  of  this  word,  see  Daniel,  Hist,  de 
France,  ed.  Griffet,  10-54.  The  derivation  which  makes  '■^  Hugenots"  equiva- 
lent to  Eignots  or  EidgenoHsen,  that  is,  those  bound  together  bj''  an  oath,  is  be 
j'ond  doubt  incorrect.  Its  probable  and  more  usual  derivation  is  from  the 
French  provincial  word  Hugo  or  Hugonoi,  meaning  ghost  of  the  night,  accord- 
ing to  a  popular  tradition,  which  states  that  Hugo  Capet  goes  about  as  a  spirit, 
wandering  up  and  down  the  streets.  It  was  first  applied  to  French  Protestants 
in  derision,  because  they  usually  held  their  meetings  after  night  had  set  in. 
Cluet  (Hist,  de  Verdun  et  du  pays  Verdunois)  derives  it  from  the  word 
''Goths." 

*  Cfr.  Von  Reumont,  Catharine  de'  Medici  in  Her  Youth,  Berlin,  1854.  Alberi, 
The  Life  of  Catharine  de'  Medici. 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  273 

ists  for  no  reason  other  than  to  secure  a  powerful  ally  in  their 
sfruo-o-le  ao-ainst  the  Dukes  of  Guise  and  the  house  of  Valois 
was  very  evident.  Louis  of  Conde,  the  youngest  of  three 
bi'others,  became  a  most  zealous  advocate  of  the  new  teach- 
ings ;  while  Coligny  subsequently  proved  himself  the  ablest 
leader  on  the  Protestant  side.  Catharine  at  first  took  sides 
with  the  Dukes  of  Guise,  the  most  determined  enemies  of  the 
Hugenots ;  and,  by  the  marriage  of  Francis  II.  to  Mary  Stu- 
art, threw  the  weight  of  her  influence  against  the  Bourbons. 

The  Calvinists,  acting  upon  the  advice  of  their  theologians, 
headed  by  Beza,  formed  a  conspiracy,  known  as  the  Con- 
spiracy of  Amboise  (1560),  against  Francis  II.  and  the  Guises, 
which,  however,  was  discovered  in  time  to  prevent  its  execu- 
tion.    Its  authors  were  arrested,  tried,  and  put  to  death. 

It  had  been  suggested  that  the  establishment  of  the  Inqui- 
sition in  France  would  be  an  efiicient  means  of  preventing 
the  growth  of  Protestantism ;  but  this  was  forbidden  by  the 
Edict  of  JRoitiorantin  (1560)  ;  and,  at  the  request  of  Admiral 
Coligny,  the  king,  at  the  assembly  of  Fontai.nebleau  (1560),  had 
an  enactment  passed  staying  all  legal  proceedings  against  the 
Hugenots  on  rf^/^^'oMS  grounds.  He  also  pi'omised  to  convoke 
a  national  synod  for  the  special  purpose  of  doing  away  with 
ecclesiastical  abuses.  The  royal  condescension  was  taken  as 
confession  of  weakness,  and  gratitude  for  royal  favors  was 
expressed  in  the  form  of  a  conspiracy,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  the  Prince  of  Conde.  Catharine  de'  Medici  pardoned  the 
prince,  and,  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  Admiral  Co- 
ligny, arranged  for  a  theological  conference  at  Foissy  (1561), 
in  presence  of  the  court  and  assembled  bishops.  The  Catholic 
party  was  represented  by  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine,  a  member 
of  the  house  'of  Guise  ;  by  the  eminent  theologian,  Claude 
d'Es'pcnce;  and  by  the  Jesuit  Lainez ;  and  the  Protestant 
party  by  Beza  and  Peter  Martyr  Vermili.  The  controversy 
was  spirited,  and  at  times  intemperate,  particularly  when  the 
question  of  the  Eucharist  came  up  for  discussion  ;  but,  like 
all  such  conferences,  settled  nothing.^ 


'See  the  Confessio  Gallica,  presented  to  Charles  IX.  in   15G1,  in  Augusti, 
Corpus  librorum  symbolicor.,  pp.  110-125. 
VOL.  Ill — 18 


274  Period  3.     Ejioch  1.     Chapter  -I. 

When  the  Guises  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Anthonj^, 
King  of  Navarre,  and  the  Constable  de  Montmorency,  the 
astute  Catliarine  formed  a  counter-alliance  with  the  Prince  of 
Cond^.  As  a  consequence  of  this  step,  the  Hugenots,  by  an 
edict  of  the  year  1562,  secured  freedom  of  worship  and  the 
right  to  hold  meetings  openly  anywhere,  except  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  kingdom,'  upon  condition  that  they  should 
use  no  violence  toward  Catholics.  The  edict  was  ill  received 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Paris  and  the  Catholic  population  gen- 
erally, who  were  justly  incensed  by  the  sanguinary  atrocities 
perpetrated  by  the  Hugenots.  The  parliament  for  a  long  time 
refused  to  register  it,  and  did  so  finall}'  only  under  protest. 

The  Calvinists,  growing  daily  more  bold  and  daring,  began 
to  murder  priests  and  monks;  forcibly  compelled  wayfarers 
to  come  in  and  listen  to  the  sermons  of  their  preachers,  justi- 
fying their  conduct  by  a  decree  of  the  Consistory  of  Castres ; 
and,  acting  upon  enactments  of  a  synod  of  sixty-two  minis- 
ters, convoked  at  Ntmes  in  February,  1562,  by  Viret,  inter- 
fered with  the  freedom  of  Catholic  worship  by  creating  dis- 
turbances in  Catholic  churches,  and  sometimes  demolishing 
the  edifices.  These  outrages  roused  the  indignation  of  the 
Catholics,  and  the  pent-up  wrath  of  both  parties  burst  forth, 
as  if  by  mechanical  impulse,  leaving  as  witnesses  of  its  pres- 
ence all  the  extravagant  horrors  of  a  civil  and  religious  war."^  A 
trifling  event  gave  the  signal  for  the  beginning  of  the  con- 
flict. Some  noblemen,  belonging  to  the  suite  of  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  got  into  a  quarrel  with  a  number  of  Hugenots,  who 
had  assembled  for  religious  service  in  a  barn  at  Vassy,  in 
Champagne,  and  were  disturbing,  by  their  singing  of  psalms, 
the  Mass,  which  was  beina:  celebrated  in  a  neighboring  church. 
The  duke  hearing  the  uproar,  hastened  to  the  spot  to  restore 
order.  While  endeavoring  to  do  so,  he  was  wounded  by  the 
blow  of  a  stone,  and  his  followers,  infuriated  by  the  indignity 
put  upon  him,  rushed  upon  the  Hugenots,  killed  sixty  of  their 


^Benoit  (Hist,  de  I'edit  de  Nantes,  Delft,  1G39  sq.,  5  vols.,  4to),  Vol.  I.,  Ee- 
cueil  d'edits,  p.  1  sq.  (Tr.) 

^Lacreielle,  Hist,  de  France  pendant  les  guerres  de  religion,  Paris  1814-1810, 
4  vols,  (transl.  into  German  by  Kiesevoetter,  Lps.  1815  sq.,  2  vols.)  Herrmann^ 
Tbe  Civil  and  Religious  Wars  of  France  in  the  sixteenth  century,  Lps.  1828. 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  275 

number,  and  dispersed  the  rest  (March  1,  1562).  By  Protest- 
ant writers  this  event  is  called  the  "  Massacre  of  Vassy."  The 
Calvinists,  after  many  abortive  attempts,  had  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing a  community  at  Toulouse,  but  the  peculiar  elements 
of  which  it  w^as  composed  gave  rise  to  a  suspicion  that  its 
object  was  more  military  than  religious.  This  suspicion  was 
confirmed  when  they  made  an  effort  to  get  possession  of  the 
city  by  a  coujp  de  main;  but  in  this  they  failed,  and  the  Cath- 
olics, after  an  obstinate  and  hard-fought  contest,  lasting  from 
the  11th  to  the  17th  of  May  (1562),  came  off' victorious.  Re- 
fusing to  accept  the  proffered  terms  of  capitulation,  the  Cal- 
vinists attempted  to  make  their  escape  under  cover  of  the 
darkness  of  the  night,  and  falling  in  with  the  cavalry  of  Sa- 
%ylgnac,  who  had  had  two  brothers  killed  in  the  battle  of  Tou- 
louse, suffered  the  loss  of  many  of  their  number.  The  loss 
of  the  Catholics  was  also  severe.^  The  Calvinists  complained 
loudl}'  that  the  affair  of  Vassy  and  that  of  Toulouse  were 
violations  of  the  Edict  of  1562  ;  and  the  Prince  of  Gonde, 
acting  upon  the  advice  of  Tluockniorton,  the  English  em- 
bassador, put  himself  at  their  head,  and  began  hostilities. 
While  marching  on  Paris,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  German 
Lutherans,  Conde,  together  with  several  of  the  Protestant 
leaders,  were  made  prisoners  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  fought 
December  19, 1562,  the  issue  of  which  was  doubtful,  Antoine 
de  Bourbon,  King  of  JSTavarre,  a  convert  to  Catholicity,  died 
of  a  wound  received  at  the  siege  of  Rouen  in  the  same  year. 
Francis,  Duke  of  Guise,  now  lieutenant  of  the  kingdom,  was 
assassinated  (February  5,  1563)  during  the  siege  of  Orleans, 
l)y  Poltrot  de  Mere,  a  Calvinist  in  religion,  a  nobleman  by 
birth,  a  craven  by  instinct,  and  a  coward  by  nature.  These 
events  led  to  the  edict  of  Amhoise  (March  19,  1563),  by  which 
freedom  of  conscience  and  the  privilege  of  holding  public 
service,  under  certain  restrictions,  were  granted  to  the  Cal- 
vinists. But  the  reconciliation  between  the  two  parties  was 
more  apparent  than  real,  and  of  only  short  duration.  The 
attempt  of  Coligny  and  Cond6  to  get  possession  of  the  king's 


'  The  insurrection  of  Toulouse  (May  11-17,  1562),  in  ''The  Catholic''  of  Mentz.. 
1863,  new  series,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  227-248,  and  317-336. 


270  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

person,  by  making  themselves  masters  of  the  castle  of  J7o?i- 
ceaux,  in  Brie,  was  the  occasion  of  the  breaking  out  of  a 
second  civil  war  in  the  year  1567,  during  which  the  bloody 
atrocities  of  the  Hugenots,  known  as  the  '■'■  Micheladc  of 
Ntmes,'"  were  perpetrated.  At  tVie  battle  of  St.  Denys  the 
Catholics  gained  a  splendid  victory,  though  they  had  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  the  gallant  Montmorenc}^,  Constable  of 
France.  In  1568,  the  Hugenots,  through  the  kind  offices  of 
the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  succeeded  in  negotiating  a 
peace,  and  having  the  edict  of  1562,  without  the  clauses  sub- 
sequently added,  again  enforced.  This  i^eace  was  regarded 
b}^  the  Hugenots  only  as  a  pretext  to  gain  time  to  make  prep- 
arations for  carrying  on  the  war  with  renewed  vigor  and 
energy.  And  in  matter  of  fact,  no  sooner  had  they  received 
from  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  and  from  the  government 
of  the  Netherlands,  the  money  necessary  to  carry  on  a  cam- 
paign, than  they  at  once  began  the  third  civil  war  (1568),  which, 
for  deeds  of  blood  and  acts  of  retaliation  on  both  sides,  sur- 
passed either  of  the  preceding  wars. 

Briguemont,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Hugenot  leaders, 
run  the  ears  of  assassinated  priests  upon  a  cord,  and  wore 
them  as  an  ornament  about  his  neck. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Prince  of  Conde,  at  the  battle  ot  Jar- 
nac,  in  1569,  Gaspar  Coligmj  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Calvinists,  and  extorted  from  the  timid  court  the  peace  oi  Saint- 
Germain- en- Lay  e.  This  treaty,  which  was  signed  August  15, 
1570,  granted  the  Reformers  freedom  of  public  worship  in  two 
cities  of  each  province ;  removed  their  political  disabilities, 
thereby  permitting  them  to  hold  any  office  of  public  trust; 
and,  as  a  security  for  the  future,  put  them  in  possession  of  the 
four  fortified  towns  of  La  Hochelle,  HJoniauhan,  Cognac,  and 
La  Charity.  They  had  now  been  successful  in  obtaining  of- 
ficial recognition  as  a  religious  organization. 

But  treaties  could  not  eflace  from  the  minds  of  Catholics 
the  horrible  atrocities  committed  by  the  Hugenots,  or  stifle  in 
their  hearts  the  promptings  of  revenge.  They  brooded  in 
silence  over  the  wrongs  they  had  suftered,  and  in  secret  they 
plotted  to  avenge  them.  In  the  hope  of  maintaining  peace, 
Charles  IX.  invited  Coli2:nv  to  his  court,  and  took  him  into 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  277 

liis  counsels.  Taking  advantage  of  his  position,  the  admiral 
used  his  influence  to  estrange  Charles  from  his  mother,  and, 
by  persuading  Lim  to  support  the  rebels  in  the  l!^etherlauds, 
involved  France  in  a  war  with  Spain.  At  length  a  fortuitous 
event  gave  occasion  for  carrying  into  effect  the  long-cherished 
desire  of  revenge.  The  marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre  (Henry 
IV.)  to  Margaret,  the  youngest  sister  of  Charles  IX.,  attracted 
a  great  number  of  distinguished  Calvinists  to  Paris,  and  on 
the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew  (August  24,  1572),  a  name  of  ter- 
rible memory,  they  were  set  upon  and  massacred,  thus  again 
rekindling  the  lurid  flames  of  civil  war.  This  horrid  mas- 
sacre, however,  was  not  the  outcome  of  a  long  and  carefully 
prepared  design.  On  the  contrary,  as  Protestant  historians  ad- 
mit, it  was  the  result  of  sudden  impulse  and  hasty  action,  and 
was,  in  its  origin,  the  work  of  the  queen  mother,  who  was 
apprehensive  of  the  consequences  which  might  follow  an 
abortive  attempt  to  assassinate  Admiral  Coligny  two  days 
previoush',  and  known  to  have  been  inspired  by  her.  The 
king  was  prevailed  upon  by  Catharine  de'  Medici  and  her 
youngest  son,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  their  most  intimate 
friends,  to  give  his  consent  to  the  assassination  of  Admiral 
Coligny,  whom  they  represented  as  conspiring  to  stir  up  civil 
war,  and  they  moreover  hinted  that  he  had  designs  upon  the 
king's  life.  They  urged  him  to  immediate  action,  represent- 
ing that  if  he  should  wait  until  the  next  morning-,  his  mother, 
his  brothers,  and  his  most  faithful  servants  would  fall  victims 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  Calvinists.  Charles  was  at  flrst 
startled  by  so  barbarous  a  suggestion,  and  for  a  long  time  was 
undecided  how^  to  act,  but  finally  gave  his  consent. 

The  Duke  of  Guise,  burning  to  avenge  the  death  of  his 
father,  took  upon  himself  the  task  of  murdering  Admiral 
Coligny.  Rumors  had  been  afloat  during  the  day  of  a  Cal- 
vinistic  conspirac}'  to  murder  the  Catholics,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Paris,  apprehensive  of  danger,  were  awake  in  mo- 
mentary expectation  of  an  attack,  when  the  bell  of  the  church 
of  Saint-Germain-l' Auxerrois  sounded  the  alarm.  This  proved 
to  be  the  signal  for  the  execution  of  the  Hugenots.  The 
work  of  destruction  spread  with  a  rapidity  characteristic  of 
the  city  of  Paris.     Citizens  and  soldiers  made  a  rush  for  the 


278  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

dwellings  of  the  Hugenots,  wlio  were  shot  clown,  sabered,  and 
pitched  into  the  Seine.  The  example  of  the  city  was  imitated 
in  the  provinces ;  but  while  in  the  former  the  murders  were 
sanctioned  by  royal  authority,  in  the  latter  they  were  the  ef- 
fect of  popular  indignation  and  a  desire  of  revenge.  The 
number  of  those  who,  both  in  the  city  and  beyond  its  walls, 
fell  victims  to  this  terrible  crime  was  close  upon  four  thou- 
sand, Charles  at  tirst  endeavored  to  shift  the  responsibility 
from  himself  to  the  Guises,  but  on  the  2(3th  of  August  he 
spoke  out  plainly  in  parliament,  saying  that  the  deed  had 
been  done  by  his  express  orders,  to  head  oil'  a  conspiracy  of 
the  Hugenots  against  himself,  the  royal  house,  the  King  of 
x^avarre,  and  the  noblest  subjects  of  his  kingdom.  Such  was 
the  account  that  reached  Rome,  and  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine, 
who  had  gone  there  to  attend  a  conclave,  acting  on  this  in- 
formation, asked  permission  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  to  make 
u  solemn  act  of  thanksgiving  [Te  Deum)  to  God  for  the  pre- 
servation of  the  king's  life.^  On  this  occasion  Muret  gave  a 
discourse,  for  which  he  has  been  frequently  and  severely  cen- 
sured, but  whiclj,  because  few  who  talk  or  write  about  it  are 
at  the  pains  to  read  it,  has  been  grossly  misrepresented.- 

1  Abbe  Darras,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  TV.,  p.  230.  (Tu.) 

'^  The  objectionable  paragraph  runs  as  follows:  Yeriti  non  sunt  adversus 
illius  regis  caput  ac  salutem  conjurare,  a  quo  post  tot  atrccia  facinora  non  modo 
veniam  consecuti  erant,  sed  etiara  benigne  et  amanter  except!.  Qua  conjura- 
tione  sub  id  ipsum  tempus,  quod  patrando  sceleri  dicatum  ac  constitutum  crat, 
divinitus  deteeta  atque  patefacta,  conversum  est  in  illorum  sceleratorum  ac 
foedifragorum  capita  id,  quod  ipsi  in  regem  et  in  totam  prope  domum  ac  stirpem 
regiam  machinabantur.  O  noctem  illam  memorabilem — quae  paucorum  sedi- 
tiosoruin  interitu  regem  a  praesenti  caedis  periculo,  regnum  aperpetua  civilium 
bellorum  formidine  liberavit.  Mureti  oratio  XXII.,  p.  177,  opp.  ed.  Ruhnkenii. 
As  regards  the  number  of  those  killed,  which  varies  in  different  authors  from 
ten  to  one  hundred  thousand,  it  may  be  remarked  that  la  Popeliniere,  a  writer 
unquestionably  beyond  all  suspicion  of  dishonesty,  speaks  of  but  one  thousand 
as  having  been  massacred  in  Paris,  and  adds  that  in  other  cities  the  number 
was  quite  small.  Desirous  of  fixing  upon  their  opponents  the  stain  of  so  infa- 
mous a  deed,  writers  are  apt  to  forget  that  Protestants  had  previously  slaught- 
ered a  far  greater  number  of  Catholics.  Marshal  Montgomery,  for  instance, 
had  three  thousand  Catholics  butchered  at  Orthez.  It  is  also  a  well  established 
fact  that  from  two  to  three  hundred  monks  were  either  murdered  or  pitched 
into  wells;  that  others  were  buried  alive;  and,  finally,  that  as  many  as  fifty 
cathedrals  and  five  hundred  Catholic  churches  of  less  importance  were  demol- 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  279 


These  congratulations  are  of  precisely  the  same  character 
as  the  felicitations  addressed  by  European  sovereigns  to  one 
of  their  royal  cousins  upon  his  escape  and  preservation  from 
some  direful  calamity;  and  being  consonant  with  usage  among 
[H'inces,  need  excite  no  surprise,  much  less  the  affected  horror 
with  which  dishonest  and  sentimental  writers  are  accustomed 
to  speak  of  them.  When  the  facts  became  fully  and  definitely 
known  to  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  he  left  no  doubt,  either  when 
speaking  or  writing,  of  the  horror  with  which  the  infamous 
crime  inspired  him.  The  magnanimous  John  Hennuyer, 
Bisho-p  of  Lisieux,  disregarding  the  commands  of  the  king, 
took  the  Hugenots  of  his  diocese  under  his  s[)ecial  protec- 
tion, and,  as  a  reward  for  his  Christian  conduct,  had  the  joy 
of  seeing  nearly  the  whole  of  them  return  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  court  party  had  hoped  that  the  result  of  their 
perfidy  and  crime  would  be  to  weaken  the  party  of  the  Huge- 
nots, but  ill  this  they  experienced  a  bitter  disa[)pointment. 
With  an  energ}'  that  was  akin  to  despair,  and  a  ferocious 
thirst  for  revenge,  the  sectaries  rallied  for  another  struggle, 
and  began  in  1573  the  fourth  religious  war.  Destitute  of  an 
army  adequate  to  take  the  field  against  the  Hugenots,  who 
had  now  allied  themselves  with  the  formidable  political  party 
lately  organized  at  Milhau,  in  the  Rouergue,  Charles  was 
forced  to  grant  them  another  edict  of  pacification.  The  king 
died  May  30, 1574,  leaving  to  his  brother,  Henry  III.,  the  last 
representative  of  the  house  of  Valois,  who  resigned  the  crown 
of  Poland  to  accept  that  of  France,  a  weakened  scepter  and 
a  divided  kingdom.  The  condition  of  affairs  required  a  man 
of  energy  and  decision  of  character,  and  the  new  king  pos- 
sessed neither  ;  and,  in  consequence,  he  was  compelled  to 
grant  (1576)  to  the  victorious  Hugenots  a  peace  incom- 
parably more    favorable    than    any  they  had   yet  obtained, 


ished.  Cf.  Audin,  Hist,  de  la  St.  Barthelemy,  Paris,  1826.  f  ■■•  I7to.  von  Schi'dz, 
St.  Bartholomew's  Night  Cleared  up,  Lps.  1845.  Soldnn,  France  and  yt.  Bar- 
tholomew's Night.  [Raumer,  Pocket-Book  of  History,  1854.)  Freiburg  Cyckf 
paed.,  art.  "The  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew,''  Vol.  II.,  p.  48.  (French  trans., 
tirt.  "  Barthelemy  (St.),"  Vol.  II.,  p.  335.)  Gandy,  Origin,  Character,  Progress, 
and  Consequences  of  thfe  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew  (Revue  Acs  'juestions  his. 
toriques,  A.  v.  1866). 


280  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

which  secured  to  them  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in 
every  }>art  of  the  kingdom,  except  the  city  of  Paris  ;  a  com- 
plete equality  with  the  Catholics  in  civil  and  political  rights; 
and  an  equal  number  of  representatives  in  the  parliament. 
Conditions  so  advantageous  gave  much  offense  to  Catholics, 
who,  for  the  purpose  of  successfully  opposing  the  Calvinists, 
now  formed  themselves  into  a  League^  at  the  head  of  wdiich 
Henry  III.,  when  the  States  assembled  at  Blois  (1577),  thought 
it  prudent  to  place  himself.  Violations  of  the  last  treaty  of 
pacitication  by  the  Hugenots  gave  occasion  to  a  fresh  war, 
the  result  of  which  was  the  edict  of  Poitiers  (1577),  which  ma- 
terially restricted  the  concessions  granted  in  the  last  treaty. 

As  Henry  III,  w-as  childless,  and  as  his  brother,  the  Duke 
of  Alen9on,  had  latel}^  died,  the  twu:*  aspirants  to  the  throne 
were  the  Kiug  of  I^avarre  and  tlie  young  Prince  of  Conde, 
both  of  whom  were  Calvinistic  leaders.  Dreading  the  conse- 
quences of  having  a  Calvinist  become  King  of  France,  tlie 
Catholics  were  anxious  to  bestow  the  crown  on  the  Cardinal 
de  Bourhov,  the  Catholic  nearest  of  kin  to  the  king.  The 
proposal  met  with  the  approval  of  the  cardinal,  wdio,  in  1585, 
published  the  manifesto  of  Peronne,  with  a  view  of  furthering 
his  interests.  By  misrepresentation  and  a  dishonest  conceal- 
ment of  facts.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  was  induced  to  give  his 
consent  to  this  arrangement.  To  hasten  its  consummation,  a 
League  w^as  formed,  extending  to  ever}'  part  of  the  kingdom. 
When  the  Pope  had  been  accurately  informed  of  the  dishonest 
jjurposes  of  the  Leaguers,  he  withdrew  his  former  approval ; 
and  his  successor,  Sixtus  V.,  while  condemning  them  as  dan- 
gerous conspirators,  declared  that,  according  to  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  realm,  both  Henry  of  IS'avarre  and  the 
Prince  of  Conde  were  incapable  of  ruling  over  France.  Henry 
of  Navarre  appealed  from  the  decision  of  the  Pope  to  that 
of  parliament,  which  had  already  declined  to  publish  the 
pontiiical  bull.  The  affair  was  submitted  to  the  arbitration 
of  arms.  Henry  of  Kavarre  was  victorious  at  the  battle  of 
Coutras  in  1587.  After  the  assassination  of  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  and  the  execution  of  the  cardinal,  his  brother,  both 
of  which  deeds  had  been  done  by  order  of  Henry  III.,  the 
League  again  became  formidable.    So  violent  were  the  denun- 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  281 

ciations  of  the  Sorbonne  of  Paris  asruinst  the  kins;  that  he 
was  forced  into  an  alliance  with  Henr}^  of  Navarre.  Ho  was 
shortly  after  assassinated  (Angiist  2,  1589)  by  James  Clement-, 
and,  despite  the  papal  bull,  Henry  IV.  of  Navarre  succeeded 
to  the  throne. 

Pope  Clement  YIII.  consented  to  recognize  his  title  on  con- 
dition that  he  would  embrace  the  Catholic  faith.^  Persuaded 
that  he  could  successfully  rule  the  countr}'  only  as  a  Catholic, 
and  acting  upon  the  advice  of  Sully,  his  minister  and  personal 
friend,  and  at  the  same  time  consulting  his  own  interest,  he 
concluded  that  "France  was  worth  the  offering  of  a  Mass," ^ 
and  accordingly  professed  himself  a  Catholic  July  25,  1593. 
Two  years  later,  the  Pope  proposed  to  remove  from  him  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  that  had  been  passed  upon  him, 
provided  he  in  turn  would  promise  to  become  the  protector 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  publish,  with  some  omissions, 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  nation  had  now 
begun  to  regard  the  League  w^ith  disfavor,  and  its  dissolution 
was  completed  by  the  attitude  of  the  Roman  Pontiff. 

The  spirit  of  the  Calvinists,  however,  was  still  unbroken. 
They  were  as  seditious  as  ever,  and  had  lost  none  of  their 
uncompromising  independence.  Notwithstanding  Henry's 
firmness  of  character,  they  succeeded  in  extorting  from  him, 
in  1598,  the  Fdirt  of  Nantfs,  by  which  they  obtained  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  every  part  of  the  Idngdom  ;  were 
made  eligible  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris  ;  authorized  to  form 
separate  chambers  in  the  Parliaments  of  Grenoble  and  Bor- 
deaux ;  permitted  to  hold  synods ;  and  empowered  to  found 
universities  at  Saumur,  Montauban,  MonfpelUer,  and  Sedan. 
These  concessions  were  at  once  so  ample  and  so  unusual  that  it 
recjuired  all  the  tact  and  resolution  of  the  king  to  have  the  edict 
registered.    Moreover,  the  hostility  of  the  Catholics  was  quiek- 


^  There  is  still  extant  in  the  archives  of  Prince  Doria  an  unpublished  auto- 
graph correspondence  between  He?uy  IV.  and  Clement  VIII..  which  is  neces- 
sarily of  the  highest  importance  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  religious 
condition  of  Europe  immediately  after  the  return  of  the  King  of  France  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  Cf.  also  Siaehelin,  The  Conversion  of  King  Henry  IV.  tc  the 
Catholic  Church,  Basle,  1856. 

^Journal  des  Debats,  September,  1871. 


Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 


ened  and  intensified  by  the  persistent  intolerance  of  the  Cal- 
vinists,  who,  in  the  thirty-first  article  of  the  Confession  of  the 
Synod  of  Go-p  (1603),  made  the  following  declaration  :  "We 
believe  that  the  Pope  is  trnly  Antichrist  and  the  son  of  per- 
dition, spoken  of  in  Holy  Writ  as  the  whore  clad  in  scarlet 
raiment." 

The  assassination  of  Henry  IV.,  on  the  14th  of  May,  1610, 
liy  Francis  Ravaillac,  may  be  traced  to  the  rancorous  and  im- 
[)'acable  enmities  existing  between  the  two  parties. 

Mary  de'  Medici  was  declared  regent  during  the  non-age  of 
Louis  XIII.  (1610-1643),  and,  while  she  held  the  reigns  of 
government,  the  Ilugenots  enjoyed  a  season  of  comparative 
quiet.  Under  Cardinal  Richelieu  (1624-1642),  however,  whose 
rare  intellectual  endowments  were  supplemented  by  unusual 
energy  of  action,  their  condition  underwent  a  complete 
change.  Believing  that  no  lasting  peace  could  be  hoped  for 
from  a  body  of  men  who  were  constantly  showing  signs  of 
discontent,  and  assuming  attitudes  of  defiance,  and  who  were 
highly  exasperated  because  the  young  king  had  married  a 
Spanish  princess,  and  the  churches  of  Beam,  which  had  l>een 
taken  from  the  Catholics,  had  been  again  restored  to  them, 
the  cardinal  made  a  radical  change  in  the  legislation  regarding 
the  Calvinists.  La  Roclielle  M-as  their  last  stronghold,  and  its 
capture  was  at  once  the  death-blow  to  their  party  as  a  political 
organization  (1628),  and  put  a  pei;iod  to  a  bloody  strife,  which 
had  lasted  for  seventy-one  years}  Hence  they  made  no  attempt 
to  disturb  the  peace  during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV. ;  and 
when,  in  1659,  acting  upon  the  suggestion  of  the  Synod  of 
Montpazier,^  they  offered  to  ally  themselves  with  England,  the 
plot  was  discovered,  and  its  authors  severel}'  punished. 

The  sees  of  France  were  at  this  time  filled  by  men  of  ability 
and  learning,  through  whose  exertions,  admirably  seconded 


'  Fcneloti,  Correspondance  diplomatique,  the  last  volume  of  which  was  pub- 
lished under  the  editorial  supervision  of  Cooper^  Paris,  1841.  It  contains  valu- 
able information  on  the  battles  of  Jctrnac  and  Monconiour  (Dep.  Vienne),  the 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  the  siege  of  La  Eochelle. 

■■^  Not  Montpellier,  as  is  said  in  the  French  translation.  Montpazier  is  the 
chief  town  of  a  canton  in  the  department  de  la  Dordogne,  so  named  from  a 
northern  tributary  of  the  river  Garonne,  with  which  united  it  forms  la  Gi- 
ronde.  (Tr.) 


§  332.  Protestantism  in  France.  283 

by  a  body  of  priests,  trained  in  the  schools  of  St.  Francis  de 
S'dcs  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  distinguished  by  the  purity 
of  their  lives  and  the  warmth  of  their  zeal,  great  numbers  of 
the  Calvinists  were  by  degrees  brought  back  to  the  Church.' 
Thousands  were  also  converted  by  the  publication,  in  1668, 
with  the  papal  a])proh'dt\on  of  Possuet's  '■'Exposition  de  la  Doc- 
trine Catholique."  The  freedom  of  those  who  chose  to  con- 
rinuo  heretics  was  being  constantly  abridged,  until  finally 
Louis  XIV.,  having  reached  the  superlative  of  absolutism, 
which  he  tersely  expressed  by  the  well-known  phrase,  "i  am 
the  State^^  {Uetat  c'est  moi),  and  believing  that  the  opposition 
and  obstinacy  of  the  Hugenots  proceeded  from  political,  rather 
than  religious  motives,  acted  upon  the  advice  of  le  Tellier,  his 
cliancellor,  and  revoked  the  Edict  of  IS  antes,  OiiiohQv  18,1685, 
substituting  in  its  [)lace  another  of  twelve  articles,^  b}'  wliich 
nearly  all  their  privileges  were  withdrawn,  and  they  them- 
selves subjectei]  to  many  hardships.  The  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Xantes,  while  it  can  not  be  said  to  have  been  wliolh' 
arbitrar}',  was  a  very  inopportune  and  unwise  measure.  It  is 
true  it  received  the  cordial  approbation  of  many  bishops  of 
France,  but  it  is  equally  true  that  it  drove  the  Calvinists  to 
desperation.  They  had  also  otlier  causes  of  complaint.  Loa- 
vois,  the  minister  of  state,  by  sending  among  them  missiona- 
ries, attended  by  dragoons  {Dragonnades,  la  mission  bottee,  or, 
les  concersions  yar  logeniens),  to  work  their  conversion,  had 
highly  exasperated  them.  In  consequence,  sixty-seven  thou- 
sand of  them  went  immediately  into  voluntary  exile,  taking  up 


^  Picol,  Essai  historique  sur  rinfluence  de  la  religion  en  France  pendant  le 
XVIIe  siecle,  Paris,  1824,  2  vols.;  Louvain,  1824.  German  transl.,  by  Raes  and 
Weis. 

^On  the  legality  of  this  measure,  Hugo  Grotius  (Apol.  Eiveti  discuss.,  p.  22) 
says:  "  Norint  illi,  qui  Ileformatorum  sibi  imponunt  vocabulum,  non  esse  ilia 
foedera,  sed  regum  edicta  ob  publicam  facta  utilitatem,  et  revocabilia,  si  aliud 
regibus  publica  utilitas  suaserit."  Conf.  {Benoist)  Hist,  de  I'edit.  de  Nantes, 
Delft,  1693-lt)95,  5  vols.,  4to.  (Ancillon)  L'irrevocabilite  de  I'edit.  de  Nantes, 
prouvee  par  les  principes  de  la  politique,  Amsterdam,  1688.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  call  attention  to  the  numerous  instances  in  which  Protestants  persecuted 
Catholics  with  incomparably  greater  severity;  but  it  is  a  little  remarkable  that 
authors,  who  profess  to  write  fairly  and  dispassionately,  while  employing  all 
their  eloquence  to  excite  sympathy  for  the  former,  can  not  check  their  priju' 
dices  sufSciently  to  treat  the  latter  with  ordinary  courtesy. 


284  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

their  abodes  in  England,  Holland,  and  Denmark,  but  chiefly 
in  Brandenburg.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  Pope  Imio- 
cent  XI.  disapproved  of  these  severe  measures,  but  not  being 
himself  on  amicable  terms  with  the  French  king,  requested 
James  II.  of  England  to  interpose  his  good  offices  in  behalf 
of  the  oppressed  Protestants.^ 

§  333.  Protestcmtism  in  the  Netherlands. 

Stradae  Romnni,  S.J.,  Hist.  T'elgicae  duae  decades,  Eomae,  1040-1647,2  vols., 
fol.  and  frequently.  If.  Leo,  Twelve  Books  of  Netherlandish  History,  Halle, 
1835,  Pt.  II.  The  same.  Manual  of  Univ.  Hist.,  Vol.  III.  Prescoii,  Hist,  of 
the  Eeign  of  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain,  London,  1857.  t*  Koch,  The  Eevolt 
and  Defection  of  the  Netherlands  from  Spain,  Lps.  18G0.  j*  Holzwarih,  The 
Defection  of  the  Netherlands,  Schaffhausen.  1865-1871  (Vol.  I.  from  1539-1566; 
Vol.  II.,  in  two  parts,  fr.  1566-1572,  and  fr.  1572-1581  resp.,  1584).  Niiyens, 
Hist,  of  the  Netherlandish  llebellion,  1865-1870,  in  4  vols.  Conf.  HM.  and 
PolH.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  193  sq.,  269  sq.  J.  L.  Motley,  The  Kise  of  the 
Dutch  Eepublic,  1856,  tr.  into  Germ.  (Dresden,  1857),  Dutch  and  French.  By 
the  same.  Hist,  of  the  United  Netherlands,  of  which  two  vols,  appeared 
in  1860. 

There  was  no  country  of  Europe  more  exposed  than  the 
^Netherlands  to  the  twofold  infection  of  the  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic  heresies.  To  this  condition  of  things  many  causes 
contributed.  The  inhabitants  were  the  unwilling  subjects  of 
Charles  V. ;  they  key)t  up  an  active  commercial  intercourse 
with  Germany;  and  their  minds  had  been  long  distracted, 
and  were  now  unsettled  by  the  quarrels  of  literary  men  and 
the  controversies  of  the  Schoolmen.  These  circumstances 
were  fully  appreciated  by  Charles  V.,  and,  fearing  their  con- 
sequences, he  ordered  the  Edict  of  "Worms  against  Luther  to 
be  published  in  the  Netherlands;  had  the  Inquisition  intro- 
duced ;  and,  by  the  execution  of  Henry  Voes  and  John  Esch 
(1523),  gave  the  people  to  understand  that  he  was  terribly  in 
earnest  in  what  he  was  doing.  Here  the  emperor  put  aside 
the  gentle  forbearance  which  he  exercised  toward  the  Pro- 
testants of  Germany,  and,  b}'  a  display  of  unusual  severitj^, 
sought   to   avert  from    his   own    patrimonial  dominions   the 


•  Such  is  the  testimony  of  Macnulay.     See  Dollinger,  The  Church  and  the 
Churches,  etc..  Preface,  p.  XXXIII. 


§  333.  Frotestantism  in  the  Netherlands.  285 

disasters,  such  as  the  Peasants'  War,  which  the  Reformation 
had  brought  upon  that  country.  But,  in  spite  of  this  rigor, 
Holland  soon  became  the  scene  of  the  fanatical  excesses  and 
barbarous  cruelties  of  the  Anabaptists.  A  Dutch  transloiion 
of  the  Bible,  made  in  the  spirit  of  the  principles  of  Luther,  by 
.James  van  Liesveld,  was  published  in  1525.  Charles  saw  that 
still  more  rigorous  measures  were  necessary,  and  he  accord- 
ingly issued  decrees  of  greater  severity  against  the  heretics  in 
1530  and  1550. 

When  Philip  II.  (from  1556)  succeeded  to  his  father,  his 
zeal  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  Catholic  faith  led  him  to 
employ  measures  still  more  severe  and  despotic  against  these 
unfortunate  people,  thereby  violating  rights  that  had  been 
secured  to  them  by  the  most  solemn  pledges.  The  Flemings, 
w^ho  were  already  discontented  at  seeing  the  more  important 
offices  of  State  filled  by  the  Spaniards,  were  still  further  in- 
censed when  Philip  II.,  by  the  authority  of  a  bull  obtained 
from  Pope  Paul  IV.,  bearing  the  date  of  May  14,  1559,  in 
place  of  the  four  old  sees  of  UtrerM,  Arras,  Cambrai,  and 
Tonrnay,  established  fourteen  new  ones,  and  raised  Molines, 
Cambrai,  and  Utrecht  to  the  dignity  of  archbishoprics.  These 
States  had  been  intrusted  by  Philip  to  the  government  of 
Charles  V.'s  natural  daughter,  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma, 
with  Cardinal  Granvelle  as  prime  minister.  The  cardinal, 
who  was  a  man  of  indefatigable  industry,  and  possessed  great 
capacity  for  business,  sided  with  the  Flemings  in  their  oppo- 
sition to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  episcopal  sees ;  ^  but 
his  devotion  to  the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  liis  loyalty  to 
the  king,  rendered  him  an  object  of  aversion  to  the  malcon- 
tents, and  furnished  them  a  pretext  for  revolt.  Their  hatred 
of  him  culminated  \vhen  the  Council  of  Regency  was  called 
to  consider  the  question  of  publishing  the  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  in  the  .N"etherlands.  The  cardinal  favored, 
the  Calvinists  steadily  opposed  the  publication.  They  organ- 
ized against  him.  At  their  head  were  Wllliani,  Prince  of 
Orange,  Stadtholder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht;  Count 


'  Documents  inedits,  papiers  d'etat  du  Cardinal  do  Granvelle,  Paris,  1841- 
1842,  3  vols.,  4to. 


286  Period  3.     Epod,  1.      Chapter  2. 

(J'Ef/mont,  Stadtholder  of  Flanders  and  Artois ;  and  Count  de 
Hoorne,  High  Admiral  of  the  United  Provinces.  They  formed 
a,  league,  and  so  threatening  was  their  attitude  that  Margaret 
was  forced  to  beg  that  the  obnoxious  minister  be  recalled 
(1564).  The  powerful  Triumvirs  now  resumed  their  places 
in  the  Council  of  State,  whence  they  had  withdrawn,  but 
they  did  not  possess  sufficient  influence  in  that  body  to 
prevent  a  vote  favoring  the  publication  of  the  Tridentine 
Decrees.  When  the  result  of  the  vote  reached  Philip,  he  or- 
dered all  the  edicts  against  heretics  to  be  enforced  wnth  the 
extremest  rigor.  The  order  furnished  a  fresh  and  plausible 
pretext  for  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  malcontents,  who 
were  under  the  skillful  direction  of  William  "  The  Silent.'' 
Prince  of  Orange.  He  was  a  son-in-law  of  Coligny's,  and, 
from  motives  of  ambition,  devotedly  attached  to  the  cause  of 
the  Hugenots. 

On  the  IGth  of  February,  1565,  a  dozen  noblemen,  wholly 
under  his  influence,  signed  a  compact,  known  as  -^Ihe  Com- 
promise of  Brecla,''  by  which  they  demanded  a  redress  of 
grievances.  In  a  few  months  the  number  of  signers  had  in- 
creased to  two  thousand,^  of  whom  two  hundred  were  Catholics. 
Their  arms  and  their  services  they  placed  at  the  command  of 
William.  This  '■'■Compromise^'  the  Triumvirs  designedly  ab- 
stained from  signing.  Meetings  were  held  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  iN'etherlands,  and  in  the  following  month  of  April 
a  deputation  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  gentlemen  sent  through 
Margaret  a  petition  to  Philip,  demanding  the  suppression  of 
the  Inquisition  and  a  revocation  or  suspension  of  the  severe 
edict  of  religion  with  which  they  were  threatened. 

Balaimont,  one  of  the  nobles  of  Margaret's  court,  con- 
temptuously styled  the  members  of  the  deputation  "G^weax," 
or  Beggars,  a  name  which  they  afterward  appropriated  as  one 
of  honorable  distinction.  Kotwithstandiug  that  the  petition- 
ers professed  their  intention  of  maintaining  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  that  alone,  a  Protestant  Symbol  appeared  in  the 
Netherlands  in  the  year  1561  {Confessio  Belgica),  and  was 
adopted  by  many  of  the  Belgians,  who  worshiped  apart  by 

'  Freiburg  Cyclop.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  602.  (Tr.) 


1 


§  333.  Protestantism  in  the  Netherlands.  287 

themselves  and  followed  a  rite  of  their  own.'  Receivino^  en- 
couragenient  from  the  magistrates  and  nobles,  the  Protestants 
rose  simultaneously  over  the  whole  countr}-,  and  Calvinists, 
who  had  sought  an  asylum  in  France,  returned  in  large 
bodies.  Conscious  of  their  power,  they  began  to  inflict  upon 
others  the  treatment  of  which  they  had  but  lately  so  l)it- 
terly  complained.  Even  in  the  larger  cities,  they  entered, 
sacked,  and  pulled  down  churches  and  convents;  destroyed 
images  and  pictures  ;  aiul  so  blind  was  their  rage  that  the 
magnilicent  cathedral  of  Antwerp  did  not  escape  its  fury.  In 
the  meantime,  the  regent,  after  the  recall  of  the  obnoxious 
Cardinal  Granvelle,  succeeded  in  concluding  a  treaty  with 
Louis  of  Orange  and  twelve  noblemen,  which  was  in  a  meas- 
ure satisfactory  to  the  Reformers.  B\'  this  instrument  their 
grievances  were  corrected,  and  the  severity  of  the  ordinances 
in  force  against  them  mitigated.  These  concessions,  however, 
did  not  prevent  them  from  rising  in  rebellion,  and  submitting 
their  cause  to  the  fortune  of  a  doubtful  war,  in  which  they 
>vere  completely  vanquished. 

William  of  Orange  was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  and  seek 
an  asylum  in  Germany  ;  and  Count  d'Egmont,  deserting  the 
Protestant  cause,  threw  himself  upon  the  mere}'  of  the  king 
(1567).  The  royal  authority  was  restored  in  the  revolted 
provinces,  and  tlie  Catholic  religion  was  again  triumphant. 

Philip  shoukl  have  been  content  with  matters  as  they  now 
stood  ;  but,  instead  of  being  so,  he  adopted  an  unwise  and 
aggressive  policy.  Withdrawing  the  government  from  the 
gentle  and  prudent  Margaret,  he  transferred  it  to  the  stern, 
but  by  no  means  tyrannical,  Z)//Z:cq/\4^;«,-whoni  he  appointed 

^  Auffiisti,  Corpus  libror.  symbolicor.,  pp.  170-177. 

2  The  American,  Wni.  H.  Prescoif,  in  his  History  of  the  Keign  of  Philip  the 
yecond,  King  of  Spain,  Boston,  ed.  of  1855,  Vol.  II.,  p.  298,  says  of  him  :  "Far 
from  being  moved  by  personal  considerations,  no  power  could  turn  him  from 
that  narrow  path  which  he  professed  to  regard  as  the  path  of  duty."'  And,  as 
a  proof  that  Alva  was  not  wholly  insensible  to  feelings  of  compassion,  when 
tliey  did  not  interfere  with  the  performance  of  his  duty,  Prescott  refers  to  a 
letter  of  his  to  the  king,  written  in  behalf  of  the  afflicted  family  of  Count  d'Eg- 
mont. The  duke  says:  '-Your  majesty  will  understand  the  regret  I  feel  at 
seeing  these  poor  lords  (Egmont  and  Hoorne)  brought  to  such  an  end,  and  my- 
self obliged  to  bring  them  to  it.     But  I  have  not  shrunk  from  doing  what  is 


288  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

generalissimo,  and  sent  into  the  Netherlands  at  the  head  of 
ten  tliousand  picked  men.  Alva  made  his  entry  into  Brus- 
sels on  the  22d  of  August,  1567,  and  began  the  work  of  his 
office  by  appointing  a  ''■Council  of  Troubles"  consisting  of 
twelve  persons,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hunt  up  the  authors  of 
the  late  troubles  and  bring  them  to  summary  punishment. 
jMany  of  the  nobility,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  revolt, 
fled  from  the  countr}'.  Of  those  who  remained,  eighteen 
were  executed  on  the  1st  of  June,  1568;  and,  on  the  5th  of 
the  same  month,  Count  d'Egmont  and  Count  de  Hoorne  died 
the  death  of  conspirators  at  Brussels.  The  property  of  the 
leaders  of  the  conspiracy  was  confiscated.  William  of  Orange, 
whose  estates  had  thus  escheated  to  the  crown,  now  began  to 
levy  war  with  troops  raised  in  Germany  and  France,  and, 
aided  by  his  brother,  Louis  of  Nassau,  meditated  a  simulta- 
taneous  attack  upon  the  Spaniards  in  Friesland,  Guelderland, 
and  Brabant.  This  design  was  frustrated  by  Alva.  Louis 
having  been  defeated  at  Gemraingen,  near  the  Ems  (July  21, 
1568),  hastened  to  join  his  brother  with  the  remnants  of  his 
forces,  and  the  two  now  endeavored  to  effect  a  junction  with 
Conde,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  French  Calvinists.  Alva, 
who  divined  their  plans,  intercepted  them,  and  forced  them, 
after  many  defeats,  to  retreat  into  Germany.  Thus  f;ir  Alva 
had  discharged  the  important  duties  of  his  office  with  ability 
and  success.  But  the  new  scheme  for  raising  money,  by  exact- 
ing, besides  other  imposts,  one-tenth  of  the  value  of  goods 
every  time  they  changed  hands,  which  he  now  introduced, 
again  fanned  into  a  flame  the  embers  of  a  protracted  and  mo- 
mentous civil  war. 

The  Dutch  merchants  turned  toward  William  (^f  Orange 
for  protection,  and  contributed  liberally  to  enable  him  to  con- 


fer your  majesty's  service.  .  .  .  The  Countess  Egmont's  condition  fills  me 
with  the  greatest  pity,  burdened  as  she  is  with  a  family  of  eleven  children, 
none  old  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves;  and  she  too  a  lady  of  so  distin- 
guished a  rank,  sister  of  the  Count  Palatine,  and  of  so  virtuous,  truly  Catholic, 
and  exemplary  life.  There  is  no  man  in  the  country  who  does  not  grieve  for 
her!  I  can  not  but  commend  her,"  he  concludes,  "  as  I  do  now,  very  humbly, 
to  the  good  grace  of  your  majesty,  beseeching  you  to  call  to  mind  that  if  the 
count,  her  husband,  came  to  trouble  at  the  close  of  his  days,  he  formei'ly  ren- 
dered  great  service  to  the  State." 


§  333.  Protestantism  in  the  Netherlands.  289 

tiuue  a  struggle,  which  they  hoped  woukl  deliver  them  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  injudicious  measure  of 
Alva,  so  detrimental  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, gave  a  decided  and  triumphant  victory  to  the  Reform- 
ers, which,  under  other  circumstances,  they  could  never  have 
ohtained  in  that  country. 

William  at  once  changed  his  whole  plan  of  operations. 
Transferring  the  war  from  land  to  water,  he  issued  letters  of 
mar'pie  to  privateers,  which  swept  the  sea  in  search  of  Spanish 
vessels.  The  northern  provinces  rose  in  insurrection,  and  so 
critical  did  Alva's  position  become  that  he  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion to  his  government,  and  was  recalled  in  the  autumn  of 
1573.  He  was  replaced  by  Don  Luis  de  Requesens  y  Zuuiga, 
a  man  of  abilit}-  and  moderation.  He  revoked  the  odiouj' 
financial  edicts,  and  w^as  just  beginning  to  give  fair  promise 
of  a  prosperous  and  successful  career,  when,  unfortunately  for 
the  interests  of  Spain  in  the  Netherlands,  he  died  prematurely 
in  1576.  His  successor  in  the  government  was  the  illustrious 
hero  of  Lepanto,  Don  John  of  Austria,  Philip's  half-brotlier. 
Lacking  the  skill  of  a  statesman,  and  the  sternnesss  of  a  dis- 
ciplinarian, he  proved  wholly  unfit  for  his  new  position.  The 
northern  and  southern  provinces  rose  in  revolt,  and,  by  their 
combined  efibrts,  expelled  the  Spanish  soldiers  who  plun- 
dered their  country  and  the  commander  who  tolerated  their 
excesses  (1576).  This  enabled  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  in- 
clude five  more  provinces  in  the  confederacy  that  had  been 
formed,  "  as  a  defense  against  an}^  violence  that  might  be 
practiced  in  the  name,  or  to  promote  the  interests,  of  the 
king."  Don  John  of  Austria  was  declared  an  enemy  of  the 
^tate,  and  his  successor,  Archduke  Matthias  of  Austria,  being 
no  match  in  diplomacy  for  the  astute  William,  was  wholly 
deceived  as  to  tlie  import  of  the  oath  which  that  wily  states- 
man prevailed  upon  him  to  take  (1578),  and  vras  in  conse- 
quence obliged  to  be  content  with  a  merely  nominal  authority. 
War  again  broke  out.  Don  Alessandro  da  FarnesCy  now  in 
command  of  the  royal  forces,  gained  a  splendid  victory  at 
Gemblours  (January  31,  1578),  thus  preserving  the  southern 
provinces  to  the  king  and  the  Catholic  cause.  The  northern 
VOL.   Ill — 19 


290  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  2. 

provinces  were  in  the  hands  of  "William  of  Orange,  who, 
though  he  had  given  pledges  to  respect  the  rights  of  Catho- 
lics, failed  to  make  them  good  in  a  single  instance. 

The  Treaty  of  Umon  between  the  seven  northern  provinces 
was  signed  at  Utrecht  in  1579,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
the  Confederated  Provinces  should  form  an  indissoluble  union, 
and  that  questions  of  war  and  peace  and  the  levying  of  taxes 
should  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Confederacy.  William  of  Orange  was  appointed  stadtholder, 
high  admiral,  and  generalissimo  of  all  the  forces,  whether  on 
land  or  sea,  and  was  to  hold  these  offices  for  life.  Heretofore 
the  provinces  in  revolt  had  headed  all  their  public  documents 
with  the  name  of  the  king  ;  but  they  now  left  oif  doing  so^ 
and  substituted  instead  that  of  William  of  Orang-e.*  In  1568 
William  had  declared  that  "■  he  had  taken  up  arms  to  secure 
religious  freedom  to  the  Catholics,  no  less  than  to  the  Evan- 
gelicals," and  that  it  was  his  intention  "  to  see  that  the  former 
£;hould  be  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  rights."  He,  how- 
ever, forgot  or  proved  false  to  his  promise,  and  in  1582  pub- 
lished an  ordinance,  which  was  rigorously  enforced,  pro- 
scribing thfe  Catholic  religion  in  Holland.  William  was 
assassinated  in  the  year  1584,  but  his  loss  did  not  shake  the 
courage  of  his  followers.  They  called  to  the  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment his  second  son,  JIauricc,  who,  with  the  aid  of  troops 
sent  over  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  maintained  himself  during 
the  interval  from  1588  to  1590,  and  took  the  offensive  in 
1591,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  the  year 
following,  when  the  royal  troops  were  under  the  command  of 
the  successor  to  Don  Alessandro,  who  had  lately  died.  By 
the  armistice  of  1609,  the  northern  provinces  were  recognized 
as  a  Republic,  but  their  independence  was  not  definitively  ac- 
knowledged b}^  Spain  until  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648. 

The  close  alliance  of  these  confederated  provinces  with 
France  and  England  was  favorable  to  the  spread  of  Calvin- 
ism, whose  principles  were  indorsed  by  the  sj-nods  of  Dor- 
drecht in  1574  and  1618,  and  defended  and  developed  by  the 
University  of  Leyden.     The  Catholics  in  Holland,  however, 


^Freiburg  Cyclop.,  art.  "Netherlands."  (Tb.) 


§  334.  General  Causes  of  Spread  of  Protestantism.     291 

were  still  very  numerous,  and  the  southern  provinces  of  Bel- 
gium remained  steadily  loyal  to  the  Church, 

Observation. — "  In  Italy  and  Spain,"  says  Guericke,  "the  darkness  of  Popery 
shut  out  the  pure  light  of  the  Gospel."  McCrie,  an  English  writer,  speaks  of 
the  (leneroiis  sympathy  with  which  Protestantism  was  received  in  these  coun- 
tries; but  it  may  be  truthfully  said  of  his  statements,  that  they  belong  to  the 
domain  of  fiction  rather  than  that  of  fact.'  There  is  no  proof  to  the  contrary 
furnished  by  the  Italian  work  entitled  "On  the  Charity  of  Christ,"  published  in 
1542.'^  Padre  Saluzzo,  0.  S.  F.,  was  mainly  instrumental  in  preventing  the 
spread  of  Protestantism  in  Upper  Italy. 

§  834.  General  Causes  of  the  Rapid  Sjpread  of  Protestantism. 

t*  Marx,  Causes  of  the  Rapid  Propagation  of  the  Reformation,  etc.,  Mentz, 
1834.     Moehler's  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  159  sq. 

It  is  perhaps  no  more  than  natural  that  Protestant  writers 
should  manifest  a  certain  bias  when  treating  of  this  subject ; 
but  it  is  certainly  a  little  strange  to  find  authors  of  name 
comparing  the  rapid  spread  of  Protestantism  to  the  progress 
made  by  Christianity  when  it  was  first  preached  to  man,  with- 
out taking  into  account  the  very  different  circumstances  which 
accompanied  the  propagation  of  both  the  one  and  the  other. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  early 
Christian  confessors  were  reviled  and  persecuted  as  no  set  of 
men  ever  were ;  and,  on  the  other,  that  favors  the  most  flat- 
tering and  privileges  the  most  ample  were  the  portion  of  the 
Eeformers. 

To  escape  the  charge  of  partiality,  we  shall  confine  our- 
selves to  facts  from  which  a  judgment  may  be  fairly  formed. 

1.  Luther's  eiforts  received  a  color  of  recognition  and  sup- 
port from  the  serious  complaints  which  had  been  made  in 


'  Thos.  McCrie,  Hist,  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy  (Germ. 
by  Friedrich,  Lps.  1829).  By  the  name.  Hist,  of  the  Development  and  Suppres- 
sion of  the  Reformation  in  Spain  (Germ,  by  Plienirujer,  Stuttg.  1835).  Adolfo 
de  Castro,  Hist,  of  the  Spanish  Protestants  and  their  Persecution  by  Philip  II. 
(tr.  fr.  the  Spanish  into  German,  and  edited  by  Hertz,  Frankfort,  1866).  Frnn- 
zisca  Hernandez  and  Fray  Franzisco  Ortiz,  or  Beginnings  of  Reformatory  Move- 
ments in  Spain  during  the  reign  of  Emperor  Charles  V.,  by  E.  Boefnner, 
Lps.  1865. 

^  Germ  transl.,  Lps.  1855.  Cf  A.  Theiner,  Delia  introduzione  del  Protestan- 
tismo  in  Italia  tentata,  Roma  e  Napoli,  1850. 


292  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 


general  councils,  with  a  view  to  the  correction  of  existing 
abuses.  Many  well-meaning  bishops  had  spoken  out  in  no 
faltering  terms  against  abuses  of  every  kind,  and  chiefly 
against  those  of  indulgences ;  and  hence,  when  Luther  re- 
echoed their  language,  he  was  listened  to  with  approval. 
Moreover,  at  the  outset  of  his  career,  he  professed  to  teach 
only  the  pure  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  desire 
only  the  correction  of  abuses  and  the  'enforcement  of  disci- 
pline; and  his  professions  being  honorable  and  apparently 
sincere,  carried  with  them  a  weight  of  authority  to  which 
they  were  by  no  means  entitled.  In  this  way,  for  the  time 
being,  he  imposed  upon  a  great  number  of  persons,  not  among 
the  illiterate  alone,  but  among  the  learned  also  ;  and  such 
men  as  Cochlaeus,  Willibald  Pirkheimer,  Zasius,  Wizel,  John 
Haner,  Erasmus,  and  others  of  equal  distinction  in  the  literary 
^v'orld  were  among  his  dupes. 

2.  Luther  and  his  followers  employed  every  means,  fair  and 
unfair,  to  misrepresent  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  to  put  forward  their  own  as  the  pure  and  genuine  teach- 
ing of  the  Gospel.  They  did  not  hesitate,  when  addressing 
the  illiterate,  to  tell  them  that  the  Mass  was  an  impious  act 
of  worship  and  the  veneration  of  Saints  an  idolatrous  one. 
The  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith  proclaimed  "  that  pure 
and  divine  truth  is  banished  from  the  Church  of  Rome;  that 
her  Sacraments  are  corrupted  and  falsified  ;  and  that  she  toler- 
ates in  her  bosom  every  sort  of  impiety  and  superstition."  ^  And 
having  adopted  these  unscrupulous  methods,  Luther  went  on 
to  speak  and  write  with  such  an  air  of  assurance  that  it  was 
next  to  impossible  that  any  doubt  as  to  the  truth  of  his  asser- 
tions should  enter  into  the  minds  of  those  who  had  once  re- 
ceived what  he  said  with  implicit  trust.^  Papal  tyranny  was 
an  inspiring  theme  for  eloquent  and  lively  sermons,  offensive 
satires,  and  abusive  libels  ;  and  the  beauties  of  evangelical 
liberty  were  spoken  of  in  words  so  fulsome  and  glowing  that 
people  began  to  fancy  that  these  incontinent  preachers  were 
really  messengers  of  glad  tidings  to  man. 

>  The  French  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith  repeats  the  same  untruth. 
2  a  A.  Menzel,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  84. 


§  334.   Geyieral  Causes  of  Spread  of  Protestantism.      293 

3.  That  the  spirited  and  popular  writings  of  Luther,  Zwin- 
gli,  and  others  of  the  Reformers,  while  based  upon  erroneous 
principles,  contained  many  truths,^  many  passages  full  of 
heauty,  and  many  arguments  that  commended  themselves  to 
tlie  reason,  can  not  be  denied  ;  neither  can  it  be  denied  that 
the  writings  of  Melanchthon,  Calvin,  and  Beza  possessed 
a  grace,  a  limpidity,  and  a  classic  purity  of  style,  which  of 
themselves,  and  independently  of  the  subject-matter,  gave  a 
pleasing  and  fascinating  charm  to  the  compositions  of  these 
authors.  Another  secret  of  the  influence  of  Luther  and  his 
followers  was  their  zeal  in  instructing  the  people  and  their 
soHcitude  in  training  children  ;  and  the  favor  with  which  the 
catechisms  published  by  Luther  were  received  prompted  Cath- 
olics to  give  more  attention  to  the  serious  and  sacred  duty 
which  they  were  intended  to  accomplish.  Again,  the  people 
were  delighted  at  hearing  the  Divine  Service  recited  in  their 
own  tongue,  and  gratified  at  being  permitted  to  partake  of  the 
Chahce,  for  which  they  had  desired  so  long  and  so  ardently. 
These  concessions  produced  an  impression  so  deep  and  endur- 
ing that,  while  it  was  obscured  as  time  went  on,  it  was  never 
wholly  eiiaced. 

4.  By  placing  in  the  hands  of  the  people  a  new  edition  of 
the  Bible,  and  making  every  one  his  own  interpreter  of  ita 
contents,  Luther  flattered  the  vanity  of  the  masses  and  secured 
their  allegiance  and  good-will.  He  was  never  tired  telling 
them  that  to  interpret  Scripture  was  their  privilege  equally 
with  the  clergy.  "Every  Christian,"  said  he,  "  has  unques- 
tionably a  right  to  teach  ;^  and  if  the  clergy  have  heretofore  ar- 
rogated to  themselves  the  sole  right  of  reading  the  Scriptures, 
it  is  only  because  they  foresaw  that  if  it  were  the  privilege  of 
all,  the  office  of  the  priesthood  would  cease  to  exist,  and  the 
people  become  in  all  things  their  equals."  In  the  doctrine  of 
Luther  concerning  slave-will  ^^.v^dL  justification  by  faith  alone^the 
people  found  a  convenient  remedy  for  sin,  and  an  easy  means 
of  restoring  peace  to  their  troubled  consciences.  The  confes- 
sing of  one's  sins  and  the  obligation  of  fasting  are  duties  irk- 
some to  human  nature,  and  they  were  glad  to  be  rid  of  them. 


1  See  above,  p.  64. 
a  1  Peter,  II.  9. 


294  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  2. 

Finally,  the  charm  of  novelty,  which  has  at  all  times  and 
under  every  condition  so  many  fascinations  for  the  popular 
mind,  was  not  without  its  influence  in  propagating  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Reformers.  That  religious  motives  had  little  to 
do  with  the  conversion  of  the  bulk  of  those  who  passed  over 
to  Lutheranism  is  abundantly  shown  by  the  profligacy  of 
their  lives,  which  were  so  shameless  that  even  Luther  himself 
confessed  that  nothing  comparable  to  such  a  state  of  morality 
ever  existed  under  the  Papacy.  "  The  devil,"  said  he,  "  hav- 
ing been  driven  out  of  them,  has  returned  again  with  seven 
others,  and  their  last  condition  is  worse  than  the  first."  ^ 

5.  Luther  also  displayed  considerable  skill  in  turning  the 
quarrel  between  the  Humanists  and  Schoolmen  to  his  own 
advantage  ;  and  as  at  the  outset  of  his  career  he  had  profited 
by  the  outspoken  protests  of  many  well-meaning  bishops 
against  the  abuses  of  indulgences,  so  at  a  later  period  he 
managed  to  draw  to  his  side  a  number  of  Humanists  deceived 
by  his  specious  professions.  The  j^^^'^H^^ff-p'^^^ss,  too,  which 
had  just  commenced  the  work  it  has  kept  up  ever  since  with 
such  ceaseless  activity,  was  employed  by  him  to  spread  far  and 
wide,  with  a  rapidity  never  before  known  to  the  world,  the 
knowledge  of  his  undertaking,  and  more  or  less  detailed  ac- 
counts of  his  labors. 

6.  Bij  declaring  celibacy  and  monastic  vows  abolished,  Luther 
gained  over  many  ecclesiastics,  to  whom  these  restraints  and 
obligations  had  become  irksome.  Having  once  broken  their 
solemn  promises  to  God,  these  unworthy  churchmen  were 
prevented  by  love  of  sensual  indulgence  and  fear  of  punish- 
ment from  ever  again  returning  to  the  Church. 

7.  Self-interest,  on  the  part  of  those  who  embraced  Protest- 
antism, goes  a  long  way  in  accounting  for  its  success.  "  The 
bold  attacks  made  upon  time-honored  authority,  and  the  ap- 
peals to  individual  reason  and  private  judgment  in  matters  of 
religion,  were  soon  found  to  be  equally  applicable  to  affairs 
in  the  temporal  order.  If  the  commands  of  the  Pope  were 
spurned,  why  should  the  advice  of  the  parish  priest  be  listened 
to?     If  the  Reformers  treated  crowned  heads  with  contempt, 


'See  above,  p.  127  sq. 


§  334.  General  Causes  of  Spread  of  Protestantism.      295 

how  could  the  people  be  expected  to  continue  long  obedient 
subjects?  If  the  peasant  might  form  his  own  judgment  of 
the  things  of  God,  might  he  not  with  equal  justice  define  his 
rights  as  to  the  chase  and  pasturage?  If  the  monk  was  no 
longer  bound  by  vows,  which  he  had  voluntarily  spoken,  why 
should  the  peasant  be  a  slave  to  obligations  to  which  he  had 
never  given  his  consent,  and  which  he  believed  to  be  contrary 
to  the  will  of  Christ  ?"'i 

The  people,  however,  were  not  put  to  the  trouble  of  draw- 
ing these  inferences  ;  Luther  did  it  for  them  in  his  two  works, 
*'0?i  the  Liberty  of  the  Children  of  God."  and  "On  the  Temporal 
Power;""  and  that  they  were  quick  in  getting  at  his  raeS-ning 
and  energetic  in  turning  his  teaching  to  practical  account,  the 
history  of  the  '■'■Peasants'  War"  abundantly  proves.  "  These 
people,"  said  Melanchthon,  in  a  tone  of  complaint,  "growing 
daily  more  accustomed  to  liberty,  now  that  they  have  shaken 
ofl'  the  yoke  of  the  bishops,  will  accept  no  other.  What  do 
they  care  for  doctrine  or  religion  ?  Their  thoughts  are  fixed 
only  on  liberty  and  power." 

8.  "  By  a  singular  coincidence,"  says  Schiller,^  "  two  yolitical 
facts  contributed  to  bring  about  the  schism.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  sudden  preponderance  of  the  house  of  Austria, 
which  menaced  the  liberties  of  Europe,  and  caused  princes  to 
fly  to  arms;  and,  on  the  other,  the  ardent  zeal  of  this  house 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  old  faith  drove  nations  into  revolt." 
Princes  were  all  the  more  willing  to  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  thus  offered  them,  in  that  they  hoped  to  derive 
from  it  many  advantages.  First  of  all,  they  desired  to  free 
themselves  from  the  suzerainty  of  the  emperor;  next,  Luther 
had  commanded  them  to  seize  and  confiscate  the  estates  of 
churches  and  convents;  and,  lastly,  they  were  allowed  by  his 
system  to  take  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  into  their 
own  hands.  Against  the  cupidity  which  he  thus  excited  in 
their  breasts,  he  was  himself  obliged,  some  time  later,  to  pro- 
test     "  There  are  still,"  he  says  in  one  of  his  sermons,  "  some 


'  Ramner,  Hist,  of  Europe  from  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,  Vol.  I., 
p.  380. 
*  Hist,  of  the  Thirty  Year.i'  War,  Bk.  I.,  in  initio. 


296  Period  3.     Epoch  L     Cha-pter  2. 

truly  good  evangelical  princes  ;"  and  he  adds  the  reason,  "be- 
cause there  are  yet  remonstrances  in  Catholic  churches  which 
they  can  steal  and  monastic  estates  which  they  can  coniis- 
cate."  In  his  "  Table  Talk  "  he  consigns  to  the  custody  of 
his  Satanic  majesty  those  princes  who  appropriated  to  their 
own  use  the  goods  they  had  stolen  from  the  Church,  while 
ministers  of  the  Gospel,  with  wives  and  children  on  their 
hands,  had  not  enough  to  keep  them  from  starving.  Unless 
aid  be  sent,  and  that  speedily,  he  said,  it  will  be  all  up  with 
the  Gospel  and  the  schools  in  this  country,  for  the  pastors  are 
destitute. 

9.  When  princes  had  gained  so  many  advantages  by  the 
Reformation,  it  was  but  natural  that  they  should  employ  all  the 
resources  at  their  command  to  have  it  introduced  everywhere.  On 
this  point  the  proofs  are  so  evident  that  Jurieu,  an  inveterate 
enemy  of  the  Catholic  Church,  makes  the  following  candid 
avowal  :  "  That  the  Reformation  was  brought  about  by  polit- 
ical power,"  he  says,  "  is  incontestable.  Thus  in  Geneva,  it 
was  the  Senate  ;  in  other  parts  of  Switzerland,  the  Grand 
Council  of  each  canton  ;  in  Holland,  the  States-General ;  in 
Denmark,  Sweden,  England,  and  Scotland,  kings  and  parlia- 
ments, that  introduced  it.  Nor  was  the  supreme  power  of  the 
State  content  with  guaranteeing  full  liberty  to  the  partisans 
of  the  Reformation  ;  it  also  took  from  Papists  their  churches, 
and  forbade  them  to  exercise  their  religion  in  public.  J^ay,. 
more,  in  some  countries  the  private  exercise  of  Catholic  wor- 
ship was  forbidden  by  legislative  enactments."  "  In  Silesia," 
says Adolphus Menzcl,^  "the  new  church  was  mainly  established 


1  L.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  2;  Vol.  III.,  p.  91  sq.  If  it  be  said  that  Catholic  govern- 
merits  also  persecuted  and  put  to  death  some  of  those  who  first  professed  and 
propagated  the  new  teachings,  it  may  be  fairly  replied  that  there  is  a  wide  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  cases.  Catholic  rulers  desired  to  protect  the  ancient 
religion,  lohich  had  been  maintained  for  a  thoiisoiid  years,  and  was  so  essentially 
a  part  of  the  laws  and  constitutions  of  their  States  that  they  regarded  an  a.s- 
sault  upon  it  as  a  menace  to  the  social  and  political  orders  to  which  it  had  given 
life  and  form.  (See  above,  p.  142,  the  warning  of  Charles  V.)  Experience 
had  taught  them  that  political  commotions,  revolts,  and  civil  wars  are  the  in- 
evitable consequences  of  religious  schism,  and  these  they  were  anxious  to  pro- 
vide against.  A  glance  at  the  sad  condition  of  those  countries  over  which  the 
disasters  of  religious  wars  had  passed  made  rulers,  whose  realms  had  as  yet  es- 


§  334.   General  Causes  of  Spread  of  Protestantism.     297 

by  the  favor  and  protection  of  princes  and  magistrates. 
Xearly  all  the  people  were  loyal  to  the  ancient  faith,  and  had 
not  the  most  remote  thought  of  making  any  change  in  their 
religion.  The  Polish  peasants,  like  those  of  German  de- 
scent, embraced  the  religion  that  had  been  introduced  by  the 
nobles.  In  Sweden,  Gustavns  Vasa,  who  had  conquered  the 
independence  of  his  country,  professed  the  new  teachings, 
because  he  desired  to  bring  to  the  support  of  his  throne  the 
wealth  and  the  power  that  had  been  taken  from  the  clergy. 
In  England,  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the  quarrel  to 
which  it  gave  rise  between  himself  and  the  Pope,  was  the 
occasion  of  the  Reformation."  The  testimony  of  these  writers 
is  corroborated  by  that  of  Frederic  the  Great  in  his  Memoirs. 
"  If  the  causes,"  said  he,  "  which  promoted  the  spread  of  tlie 
Reformation  be  reduced  to  their  last  analysis,  they  will  be 
found  to  be  as  follows :  In  Germany  it  loas  interest;  in  Eng- 
land lust ;  and  in  France  a  love  of  novelty.'"  ^ 

It  may  be  here  remarked  that  of  all  those  princes  who  were 
so  enthusiastic  for  the  Reformation,  there  was  not  a  single 
one  distinguished  for  honesty  of  conduct  or  purity  of  morals. 
We  have  only  to  compare  the  impure  and  bloodthirsty  Henry 
VIII.  ;  the  sensual  Philip  of  Hesse ;  the  unbelieving  and 
frivolous  Albert  of  Prussia ;  the  despotic  Christiern  II.  of 
Denmark;  and  the  equally  despotic  Gustavns  Yasa  of  Swe- 
den, with  contemporary  Catholic  princes  like  George,  Duke 
of  Saxony  ;  Joachim,  Elector  of  Brandenburg;  the  Emperors 
Maximilian,  Charles  V.,  Ferdinand  L,  and  Ferdinand,  II.;  the 
Dukes  of  Bavaria,  Albert  and  Maximilian  I.,  and  many  oth- 
ers, and  we  shall  see  how  incomparably  more  noble,  more 
pure,  and  more  elevated  were  the  lives  of  the  latter  than 
those  of  the  former. 


eaped  such  visitations,  more  energetic  in  adopting  measures  of  unusual  severity, 
or  crushing  out  the  rising  sect  the  moment  it  gave  tol^ens  of  its  presence. 
And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  policy  saved  Spain  from  the  horrors  of  a  relig- 
ious -war.  Cf.  Horiig's  Ch.  Hist.,  continued  by  Dbllinger,  Vol.  II.,  Pt.  11., 
p.  090. 

'  "  Si  Ton  veut  reduire  les  causes  du  progres  de  la  reforme  a  des  principea 
simples,  on  verra,  qu'en  AUemagne  ce  fut  I'ouvrage  de  I'interet,  en  Angleterre 
celui  de  Tumour,  et  en  France  celui  de  la  nouveaut^."  (Memoires  de  Bran- 
denbourg.) 


CHAPTER  in. 

CONTINUATION  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  PROTESTANTISM — ITS   INTERNA!, 

DISSENSIONS. 

■fDollinger,  The  Keformation  and  its  Interior  Development,  Katisb.  1836  sq. 
3  vols.  Perrone,  II  Protestantesimo  e  la  Kegola  di  Fede,  3  pts.  in  3  vols.,  Kome, 
1853;  Fr.  tr.,  Paris,  1854.  Baltnes,  El  Protestantismo  comparado  con  el  Cato- 
licismo,  4  vols.,  Barcelona,  1842-1844;  Engl,  tr.,  Baltim.  1851.  t^^icolas,  The 
Relation  of  Protestantism  and  all  Heresies  to  Socialism,  Mentz  and  Paderborn, 
1853.  (Onno  Klopp),  Studies  on  Catholicism,  Protestantism,  and  Toleration  in 
Germany,  Schaffhausen,  1857.  Gieseler,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  IL,  pp.  115-382, 
gives  copious  quotations  from  authentic  sources,  and  adds  the  bibliography 
incident  to  the  subject.  Frank,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  Lps.  1862,  Pt.  I. 
Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  Munich,  1867. 

§  335.   General  Characteristics  of  Protestantism. 

The  Lutherans,  like  the  Catheri  and  Waldenses  of  the 
Middle  Age  and  kindred  sects  of  an  earlier  date,  professed  to 
restore  the  true  Apostolic  Church  by  abolishing  the  abuses  of 
the  Church  Catholic,  and  setting  up  Holy  Scripture  as  the  one 
and  only  ground  of  Faith.  This  absolute  appeal  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  Bible  continued  to  be  the  underlying  principle  of 
the  new  system,  even  after  discussions  upon  doctrines  the 
most  vital  had  demonstrated  its  utter  insufficiency,  and  con- 
tradictions the  most  glaring^  had  proved  the  necessity  of  tra- 
dition, which  the  Reformers  had  so  arrogantly  rejected.^  For 
them  a  visible,  infallible,  and  sanctifying  Church,  established 
by  God  and  anterior  to  the  Holy  Scriptures^  had  no  longer  any 
meaning.     They  rejected  her  authority  and  denied  even  her 


1  Such  is  the  opinion  of  the  Protestant  theologian,  Werenfels,  whose  distich, 
quoted  in  Vol.  I.,  may  be  repeated  here : 

Hie  liber  est  in  quo  quaerit  sua  dogmata  quisque, 
Invenit  et  pariter  dogmata  quisque  sua. 
*  Cf.  Z/cssu(^'s  Axioms  against  Eev.  Pastor  Goetze  of  Hamburg.     Complete 
Works,  ed  by  Lachniann,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  133-251.     f  *  Kuhn,  The  Formal  Princi- 
ples of  Caiholicism  and  Protestantism,  being  three  articles  in  the  Tiibingeii 
Quarterly  Review  of  1858. 
(298) 


§  335.   General  Characteristics  of  Protestantism.        299 

existence  as  a  visible  organization.  In  her  place  they  substi- 
tuted an  invisible  Church,  whose  members,  scattered  over  the 
face  of  the  earth,  were  united  in  fellowship  by  hidden  and 
spiritual  bonds.  The  immediate  consequence  of  such  a  theory 
was  to  make  doubt  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  change  of  teach- 
ing, even  in  the  most  important  truths  of  religion,  the  her- 
itage of  all  time.^  Doctrinal  teachings  were  now  the  result 
of  hazard  and  caprice,  and  the  age  of  experimental  theology 
seemed  to  have  dawned  upon  Europe. 

But  while  the  principle  of  anarchy  was  thus  sanctioned  and 
consecrated  by  the  new  religious  communities,  they  saw  the 
necessity  of  setting  up  some  sort  of  authority  as  an  indispen- 
sable basis  of  dogmatic  teaching  for  their  spiritual  society. 
To  this  end  the  Books  of  Symbols  were  composed  ;  ^  but  these 
could  not  command  an  enduring  authority,  for  the  reason 
that  they  were  based  on  human  opinion.  The  Catholic 
Church  had  always  taught  the  necessity  of  good  works.  Her 
enemies  misrepresented  her  teachings,  and  advocated  the 
doctrine  oi  justification  by  faith  alone.  As  time  went  on,  Lu- 
theranism  developed  into  Protestantism,  or  an  unqualified  pro- 
test against  certain  doctrines,  not  because  they  icere  false,  but 
because  they  were  taught  by  the  Catholic  Church.  Thus  Luther, 
for  no  other  reason  than  to  be  opposed  to  the  Pope,  would 


1  Bossuet,  Histoire  des  Variations  des  Eglises  Protestantes,  Paris,  1740,  2  vols. ; 
or,  History  of  Variations  of  Protestant  Churches,  Antwerp,  1742;  N.  Y.  183(J; 
Dublin,  1842,  2  vols.,  8vo.  Planck,  Hist,  of  the  Origin  and  Changes  of  the 
Protestant  Dogmas.     See  above,  p.  2. 

^  Jjlhri  symhoVici  Evcmgelicor.  (Confessio  Augustana;  Apologia  confess.  Au- 
gust. ;  Articuli  Smalcaldici ;  Catechismi  Lutheri ;  Formula  Concordiae),  ed. 
Hase,  Lps.  1837.  Corpus  libror.  symbol.,  qui  it?  eccl.  Rfformatorum  auctorita- 
tem  public,  obtinuerunt,  ed.  Augusii,  Elberf.  1827.  Collectio  confessionum  in 
eccl.  reformatls  publicatar.,  ed.  JSienieyer,  Lps.  1840.  (Confessiones  helveticae 
tres,  supplemented  with  the  Catechism  of  Geneva ;  Confessio  tetrapolitana, 
viz.,  Strasburg,  Lindau,  Constance,  and  Memmingen  ;  Confessio  Gallica  ;  Con- 
fessio Scotica,  for  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  Church ;  Confessio  Angliea,  sive 
XXXIX.  Articuli,  for  the  Anglican  High-Church;  Confessiones  Belgicae ; 
Canones  Dordraceni  XVII.;  the  Catechism  of  Heidelberg  of  the  Palatinate: 
Confessio  Bohemica;  Confessio  Hungarica;  Confessiones  Poloniae ;  Confes- 
siones Marchiae,  or  the  Confessions  of  the  March  (of  Brandenburg).  Cf. 
Dieriiiger,  in  Aschbach's  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  Bekenntnissshrifieji  (Symbol- 
ical writings),  and  "  The  Symbolical  Books  of  the  Protestant  Church  being  al 
variance  with  Scripture  and  Eeason,"  Lps.  1846. 


300  Fenod  3.     Epoch  1.     Cha.'pter  3. 

admit  Communion  neither  under  one  nor  both  kinds.^  In  the 
same  spirit  of  childish  hostility,  the  Protestant  theologians 
declined  to  accept  the  calendar  as  amended  by  Gregory  XIII., 
declaring  that  they  could  not  do  so  with  a  safe  conscience,  be- 
cause the  Pope,  being  Antichrist,  took  this  insidious  means  of 
undermining  their  Church.  They  had  rather  be  wrong  in 
their  astronomical  calculations  than  be  corrected  by  the  Pope.^ 

Turbulent  passion  and  wild  licentiousness  played  so  con- 
spicuous a  part  in  the  Reformation  that  little  or  no  attention 
was  given  to  the  correction  of  morals;  and  accordingly  it  is 
not  surprising  to  lind  Luther  complaining  that  there  was  a 
worse  Sodom  under  the  Gospel  than  under  the  Papacy.  Philip 
of  Hesse  said  he  must  have  more  than  one  wife,  and  the  Re- 
formers, with  gracious  condescension,  said  his  demand  was 
just.  And  what  the  early  apostles  of  a  pure  morality  did  for 
Philip,  the  preachers  of  Berlin  did  in  1792  for  Frederic  Will- 
iam II.  of  Prussia,  who  told  them  that  life  would  not  be  en- 
durable without  the  company  of  the  agreeable  Miss  Doenhof. 

To  put  some  sort  of  check  upon  the  licentiousness  of  the 
passions,  there  was  no  means  left  except  to  adopt  the  remedy 
of  Zwingli  and  Calvin,  which  was  nothing  less  than  an  extrav- 
agant ecclesiastical  and  social  despotism} 

If  there  was  one  thing  above  another  that  was  lauded  by 
the  Reformers,  it  was  the  complete  emancipation  of  the  human 
mind  from  all  superstitious  practices ;  but,  strange  to  sa}'',  Lu- 
ther's silly  tales  about  his  absurd  conflicts  with  the  devil  had 
a  wonderful  influence  in  reviving  a  belief  in  magic  and  dia- 
bolical agencies. 

The  want  of  a  reliable  and  infallible  rule  of  faith  produced, 
as  it  necessarily  must,  such  crushing  feelings  of  doubt  and 
uncertainty  in  the  mind  of  Melanchthon,  that  he  candidly 


^See  page  103. 

2 The  ^^Evangelicals"  persisted  in  this  error,  in  certain  parts  of  Germany, 
until  1777  ;  in  England  until  1752;  in  Sweden  until  1753.  The  erroneous  as- 
£mnptions  of  the  ancient  Julian  calendar  brought  on  a  difference  of  ten  days 
in  1582,  when  the  vernal  equinox  fell  on  the  eleventh  day  of  March. 

^  Dolling er,  in  his  works,  "The  (Protestant)  Churches  and  Civil  Liberty," 
"The  Church  and  the  Churches,"  "The  Papacy  and  the  States  of  the  Church," 
pp.  93-156,  gives  a  very  unfavorable  account  of  the  lengths  to  which  fhis  ty- 
ranny was  carried. 


§  335.   General  Characteristics  of  Protestantism.        301 

confessed  the  waters  of  the  Elbe  could  not  supply  him  tears 
enouijh  to  bewail  so  e-io-antic  a  misfortune.^  As  we  have 
seen,  the  Reformers,  while  arrogating  to  themselves  the  widest 
liberty  of  opinion  in  matters  of  faith,  punished,  where  they 
had  the  power,  all  those  who  dared  to  differ  from  them  with 
the  penalty  of  death.  Among  the  victims  of  this  intolerance, 
besides  the  executions  ordered  by  Calvin,^  were  Sylvnius,  a 
Reformer  and  inspector  of  Ladenburg,  who  was  beheaded 
December  23,  1572,  in  the  market-place  of  Heidelberg,^  by  the 
advice  of  Olevian,  for  denying  the  Blessed  Trinity;  Nicholas 
Aritoine,  a  preacher,  who  was  charged  with  Judaism,  and  burnt 
alive  at  Geneva  ;  Funk,  a  follower  of  Osiander's,  who  was  be- 
headed in  1601  ;  and  the  Chancellor  Crell,  a  Crypto-Calvinist, 
who  was  also  beheaded  in  1632  at  Dresden.'*  Heretics  were 
also  executed  in  Sweden,  at  Koenigsburg,  Liibeck,  and  other 
cities.^  It  is  noteworthy  that  these  executions  were  the  result, 
not  of  passion  or  intemperate  haste,  but  of  cool  deliberation 
and  mature  judgment.  Beza  and  Melanchthon  advocated  the 
execution  of  heretics  on  general  principles,  and  the  latter 
agreed  with  Luther  in  authorizing  the  murder  of  tyrants.^ 
Civil  war,  an  obliteration  of  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  the 
introduction  of  foreigners  to  settle  domestic  difficulties  were 
everywhere  the  consequences  of  the  Reformation.  Thus 
Englishmen  were  invited  to  France  and  Scotland  ;  Frenchmen 
to  Germany  ;  Dutchmen  to  England  ;  Englishmen  to  Holland  ; 
Russians  to  Poland ;  and  Turks  to  Hungary. 

'  Dbllivger,  The  Reformation  and  its  Internal  Development,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  280- 
^48  ;  384  sq.  ;  Vol.  III.,  p.  640  sq. 

2  See  p.  148  sq. 

3  According  to  Haeusser,  Hist,  of  the  Ehenish  Palatinate,  Vol.  II.,  pp  45  sq., 
in  the  Catholic  organ  of  the  Diocese  of  Freiburg,  year  1864,  nros.  8,  9. 

^Hist.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  528-545. 

5  See  Arnold's  Hist,  of  the  Church,  Vol.  II.,  p.  643.  Apud  Dbllinger,  The 
Church  and  the  Churches,  p.  81. 

fi  Walch's  ed.  of  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  XXII.,  pp.  2151  sq.  Cf.  Strobel,  Mis- 
cellanea, Vol.  I.,  p.  170.  Vkert,  Life  of  Luther,  Vol.  II.,  p.  46,  and  especially 
the  Essay,  inscribed  "The  Political  and  Religious  Assassination,"  in  the  Hist 
and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  737-770. 


302  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 


§  336.   The  Protestant  Clergy — Their  Rights — Their  Relations  to 

the  State. 

Cf.  the  three  excellent  articles  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Constitution  of  the  Ke- 
formation  and  its  constant  influence  on  the  Protestant  Canonists  of  the  Day 
[Stahi,  PucMa,  Richter,  Klee,  etc.),  in  the  Bist.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  pp. 
596  sq. ;  Vol.  X.,  pp.  209  sq.,  pp.  529  sq.  See  also  Walters'  Manual  of  Canon 
Law,  13th  ed.,  §  38-42,  and  Gieseler's  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Ft.  II.,  p.  352-390. 

Luther  left  no  means  untried  to  gain  the  masses,  and  as  he 
had  said,  in  speaking  of  the  priesthood,  that  God  would  de- 
stroy '•'■this  lifeless  spiritualism,''  so  he  also  invested  every  lay- 
man with  the  sacerdotal  character,  and  appealed  to  Scripture 
as  authority  for  his  act.  He  soon  learned,  however,  that  he 
had  gone  too  far,  and  that  some  sort  of  authoritative  charac- 
ter must  necessarily  attach  to  the  office  of  a  clergyman.  In 
theory,  ministers  were  to  be  chosen  by  the  congregations,  but 
in  matter  of  fact  the  choice  lay  with  the  Cows^s^one.v,  wherever 
it  had  previously  belonged  to  the  bishops.  These  Consistories, 
which  were  composed  of  laymen  and  ecclesiastics,  were  em- 
powered to  decide  all  questions  relating  to  marriage,  excom- 
munication, and  the  administration  of  justice  in  cases  where 
clergymen  were  concerned.  The  articles  of  parochial  visita- 
tion published  by  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  (1557),  afford 
some  curious  information  on  the  subject.  "  Nobles  and  other 
feudal  lords,"  we  are  told,  "  gather  together  from  all  sides 
destitute  artizans  and  illiterate  boors,  and  thrust  them  into 
parishes,  or,  it  may  be,  put  the  habit  of  a  priest  upon  their  own 
secretaries,  their  jockeys  and  their  grooms,  in  order  to  have 
shepherds  to  their  own  liking,  and  to  secure  for  themselves  as 
much  of  the  revenues  as  may  be  necessary  for  their  needs." 
As  a  consequence,  the  clergy  of  the  Reformed  Church  were 
both  ignorant  and  immoral.  There  being  no  longer  any  hier- 
archical orders,  the  rights  and  prerogatives  formerly  belonging 
to  bishops  became  the  heritage  of  all  pastors.^    The  scriptural 

1  ArticuU  Smalc.  apud  Ease,  libri  symb.,  p.  354:  Constat,  jurisdictionem  illam 
communem  excommunicandi  reos  manifestorum  criminum  pertinere  ad  omnes 
Pastores.  Hanc  tyrannice  ad  se  solos  (Episcopos)  transtulerunt  et  ad  quaestum 
contuierunt. 


§  336.   The  Protestant  Clergy — Their  Rights,  etc.       303 

appellation  of  "  bishop  "  was  changed  by  these  hypercritical 
biblical  theologians  into  "  superintendent." 

In  the  Church  of  England  alone  of  all  the  Reformed  churches 
was  the  episcopacy  held  to  be  of  divine  institution ;  although  it 
seems  never  to  have  entered  the  minds  of  those  who  pro- 
claimed this  theory  thai;  the  chain  of  apostolic  succession 
was  broken  by  the  sever  ance  of  England  from  the  Catholic 
Church.^ 

Strange  to  say,  the  Reformers,  having  neither  an  accredited 
mission  nor  a  valid  succession,  continued  to  go  through  the 
form  of  investing  their  clergymen  with  ministerial  authority. 
Luther  boasted  that  his  commission  was  extraordinary  and 
of  an  exclusively  divine  character.  My  commission,  said  he, 
is  not  from  man,  but  from  God,  and  conveyed  through  a  spe- 
cial revelation  from  Christ.  But  from  "  any  one  else,  who 
rashly  took  upon  him  to  preach  the  Gospel,  he  demanded  a 
miraculous  authentication  of  his  mission."  Luther  inconsid- 
erately held  out  to  princes  as  the  price  of  their  good-will  the 
tempting  reward  of  the  spoils  of  churches  and  convents. 
They  accepted  the  bribe  with  avidity,  and  having  dissolved 
the  monasteries,  replaced  the  peaceful  communities  of  monks 
with  bands  of  dissolute  soldiers.  Very  little,  however,  of  the 
spoils  was  devoted  to  either  scientific  or  religious  purposes, 
or  to  the  social  improvement  of  the  people.  The  wealth  thus 
easily  acquired  was  made  to  minister  to  the  luxury  and  pleas- 
ure of  the  new  proprietors.  Luther  raged  and  stormed,  but 
to  no  purpose.  The  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  with  their  wives 
and  children,  were  starving  before  his  eyes,  insulted  by  the 
brutal  mob,  and  spurned  by  the  no  less  brutal  nobles,  and  he 
Avas  powerless  to  aid  them. 

With  the  help  of  the  princes,  Luther  and  his  followers  had 
abolished  the  sacred  privileges  of  the  hierarchy.  To  the 
princes  they  surrendered,  sometimes  peaceably,  and  some- 
times compelled  by  force,  the  supreme  spiritual  authority, 
and  having  done  so,  they  made  them  their  masters,  and  set 
up  the  institution  of  ^^  Caesaropapacy."  This  secular  suprem- 
acy in  spiritual  affairs  was  thenceforth  unlimited  in  its  claims, 


See  page  210,  note  2. 


304  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 


and  more  arrogant  in  its  assumptions  than  the  Byzantine  des- 
potism of  the  Lower  Empire.' 

The  princes  became  at  once  the  defenders  of  tlie  Reformed 
Church  against  its  external  foes,  and  in  some  sort  tlie  con- 
servators of  unity  against  its  own  members,  whose  intermina- 
ble dissensions  and  schisms  were  constantly  threatening  it 
^\•ith  dissolution.  It  is,  however,  somewhat  anmsiug  to  learn 
that  the  Conventicle  of  Naunnburg  (1554),  presided  over  by  Me- 
lanchthon,  adduced  the  Scriptural  texts  ^'■AitoUite  portas,  priv- 
cipes,  vestras  "  (Ps.  XXIII.,  7),  and  '■'Et  eriint  reges  nutritli  tid  " 
(Isai.  XLIX.,  23)  as  arguments  going  to  prove  the  necessity 
of  making  the  Church  dependent  upon  princes.  This  is  only 
another  instance  of  the  saying  that  anything  may  be  proved 
from  the  Bible.^ 

With  these  precedents  before  him,  Stephani  had  no  diffi- 
culty in  demonstrating,  of  course  by  the  authority  of  the 
Bible,  the  existence  of  th«t  peculiar  episcopal  system,  which 
was  taken  for  granted  in  the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  and  accord- 
ing to  which  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops  was  transferred  to 
the  sovereigns  of  the  countries  in  which  they  severally  resided. 
As  a  consequence,  the  "  territorial  system,"  or  that  embodied  in 
the  maxim  "  cujus  regio,  illias  religio,"  was  sanctioned,  and 
some  time  later  found  advocates  and  defenders  in  the  pietists 
Thomasius  and  Boehmer.  It  was  claimed  that  ecclesiastical 
supremacy,  being  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  public 
peace,  belonged  of  right  to  the  civil  ruler,  and  that  he  there- 
fore became,  by  virtue  of  his  office  as  sovereign,  the  head  of  the 
Church  in  the  country  over  which  he  ruled.  This  principle 
was  by  degrees  practically  carried  out  in  Denmark,  where  the 
authority  of  the  king  was  recognized  as  absolute  in  spiritual  af- 
fairs, and  the  people  were  forced  to  change  their  religion  at  his 
bidding,  as  they  would  their  dress. ^     By  the  Peace  of  West- 

'  Dollhiger,  The  Church  and  the  Churches,  etc.,  p.  53  sq. 

2  See  the  acts  in  Camerarii,  vita  Melanchthonis,  ed.  Strobel,  p.  319  ;  Melanch- 
thon's  German  Scruples,  Vol.  II.;  and  in  the  "Harmless  Reports"  of  1714,  pp. 
541-653.     Cf.  Menzel,  1.  c,  Vol.  III.,  p.  530  sq. 

'  Concerning  the  arbitrary  methods  of  princes  in  dealing  with  spiritual  af- 
fairs, cf.  Wolfgmig  Menzel^  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  ch.  420.  It  was  a  common 
remark  that  the  wives  of  these  truculent  ministers  used  to  be  constantly  saying 


§  337.   Worship  and  Discipline.  30J 

phalia,  princes  \Yere  legally  invested  with  the  jus  reformandi. 
Thus,  as  in  the  old  Pagan  times,  so  now,  there  were  formed 
State  Religions,  National  Religions,  and  Religions  by  Law  Es- 
tablished. This  national  system  received  its  fullest  and  most 
perfect  expression  in  the  ^'■Established  Church  of  England," 
but  the  name  would  have  been  more  appropriate  had  the 
phrase  '■^Religious  Commuriity"  been  adopted,  instead  of  the 
word  "  Church." 

Luther  and  the  English  Reformers,  in  their  translations  of 
the  New  Testament,  did  not  uniformly  hit  by  accident  on  the 
term  ^^  community"  or  '■^congregation,"  instead  of  '^  church."  ^ 
The  Reformation  placed  the  Church  completely  in  the  power 
of  princes,  and  the  warnings  of  Luther,  the  protests  of  Me- 
lanchthon,  the  more  recent  theories  of  the  collegiate  system,^ 
and  Calvin's  teaching,  embodied  in  the  proposition  "  ecclesia 
est  sui  juris,"  have  each  and  all  been  utterly  powerless  to 
rescue  Protestant  religious  communities  from  the  despotism 
of  the  State. 

§  337.    Worship  and  Discipline. 

Bibl.  Ageiidor.,  ed.  by  Koenig,  Zelle,  172G,  4to.  Funk,  Spirit  and  Form  of  the 
"Worship  established  by  Luther,  Berlin,  1819.  Griieneisen,  De  Protestantismo 
artibus  baud  infesto,  Stuttg.  1839,  4to.  Gieseler,  Manual  of  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.. 
Pt.  II.,  p.  390  sq. 

From  the  foundation  of  the  Church  down  through  every 
succeeding  age,  the  Sacrilice  of  the  Mass  had  been  the 
great  central  act  of  Catholic  worship,  and  the  great  source 
of  religious  and  spiritual  life.  But  the  Reformers  did  not 
think  so,  and  they  accordingly  abolished  the  Mass,  and  sub- 
stituted preaching  in  its  stead.  The  poor  and  barren  word  of 
man  took  the  place  of  the  stupendous  and  life-giving  mystery 
of  God,  and  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  interest  of  the  people 
in  religion  became  enfeebled  and  their  hearts  chilled.     Once 


to  them :  "  Write,  my  dear  husband,  write  in  such  a  way  that  you  may  not  lose 
your  parish." 

1  Cf.  Dr.  Sylvius,  The  Church  anil  the  Gospel,  or  Catholic  Protestation  against 
Protestantism  calling  itself  a  "(Jhurch,"  Katisbon,  1843. 

» Advocated  later  on,  especially  by  Pfaff.     Cf.  g  375. 

VOL.  ni — 20 


306  Penod  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  3. 

the  use  of  the  popular  tongue  bad  been  introduced  in  tbe 
various  rites  and  ceremonies,  it  became  evident  that  tbe  people 
must  play  a  more  prominent  part  in  religious  assemblies.  In 
1526,  when  Luther  introduced  for  the  first  time  his  own  form 
of  worship  and  ecclesiastical  organization,  conscious,  for  the. 
moment,  of  their  many  deficiencies,  be  considerately  announced 
that  it  was  not  bis  purpose  to  abridge  any  one's  religious  free- 
dom, nor  did  be  intend  to  prescribe  bis  own  ritual  as  some- 
thing permanent  and  unchangeable.^  Consistently  with  his 
contemptuous  hatred  of  whatever  evoked  a  memor}'  of  tbe 
old  Church,  and  with  bis  excbisive  and  narrow-minded  views 
of  tbe  apostolic  age,  he  manifested  a  barbarous  aversion  to 
the  glorious  creations  of  Christian  art,  and  once  more  revived 
by  tbe  destruction  of  images  the  spirit  of  iconoclasm,  which 
received  a  fresb  impulse  from  the  almost  forgotten  Caroline 
Books^  now  for  tbe  first  time  issued  from  tbe  printer's  press. 
But  bis  jndgment  of  art  and  its  influence  was  materially 
modified  by  tbe  stand  be  was  obliged  to  take  against  tbe 
iconoclastic  fury  of  Carlstadt,  and  be  sometimes  condescended 
to  speak  with  admiration  of  Albert  Durer  and  Luke  Cranach. 
Tbe  sphere  in  wbicb  artistic  genius  was  permitted  to  move  by 
the  requirements  of  the  Reformed  system  was,  bowever,  very 
limited. 

The  cycle  of  feasts  bad  been  greatly  reduced,  but  still,  not- 
withstanding that  there  were  many  places  in  wbicb  the  old 
Germans  delighted  in  celebrating  the  festivals  of  tbe  Blessed 
Virgin,  the  artist  was  forbidden  to  represent  ber  as  the  Sor- 
roy;fal  Mother  of  God. 

Of  all  the  arts,  Luther  deligbted  most  in  music}  He  intro- 
duced popular  cburcb-song,  tbe  text  of'  wbicb  was  cbiefl}' 
borrowed  from  tbe  old  hymns  of  the  Church,  partly  from  the 
canticles  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  and  partly  composed  by 
himself.  Tbe  best  of  bis  religions  songs  are  taken  from  an 
ancient  collection  of  Catbolic  hymns,  among  which  may  be 
instanced  the  ones  beffinnincr :  "  There  came  an  ansrel  bright 


»  Walch,  Works  of  Luther,  Vol.  X.,  p.  266  sq. 

«See  Vol.  II.,  p.  221. 

»  Walch,  Luther's  Works,  Vol.  X.,  p.  1723. 


§  337.    Worship  and  Discipline.  307 

und  fair"  (Es  kam  ein  Engel  hell  unci  klar)  ;  "In  the  midst 
of  life  are  we  "  (Mitten  wir  im  Leben  sind) ;  and,  "  O  head 
with  blood  and  wounds  unsightly  made"  (O  Haupt  voll  Blut 
und  Wunden,  etc.)  Religions  songs  that  are  wholly  Protest- 
ant in  origin  are  so  dogmatic  in  tone  and  contradictory  in 
s{)irit  that  when  they  are  not  disgusting  they  are  ludicrous. 
Those  of  the  Anabaptists  and  Moravian  Brethren,  when  not 
stupidly  dull  and  moralizing,  are  fantastic  and  licentious.^ 
From  what  has  been  said,  it  should  not  be  inferred  that  Luther 
is  the  father  of  German  church-song.  On  the  contrary,  hyran- 
1  ooks  in  use  in  the  Catholic  Church  ^  long  anterior  to  Luther 
contain  choral  melodies  which  were  very  generally  sung  ev- 
erywhere by  the  people  during  divine  service.  During  the 
Middle  Ages,  monasteries  were  not  only  nurseries  of  learn- 
ing, they  were  also  the  home  of  the  arts,  none  of  which  was 
cultivated  with  more  care  and  assiduity  than  music,  and  par- 
ticular attention  was  given  to  the  soul-inspiring  choral-song. 
Luther  drew  his  melodies  from  the  antiphoners  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  and  set  them  to  German  text.  Walther,  Sd- 
neccer,  and  Burk  did  the  same,  their  melodies  being  only 
imitations  of  Catholic  Church  songs.  Since  the  investiga- 
tions of  Meister  have  been  made  public,  it  has  become  a 
matter  of  very  serious  doubt  whether  Luther  is   really  the 


1  The  following  expositions  of  the  Lutheran  teaching  on  justification,  and  the 
contemptuous  expressions  relative  to  the  Pope,  are  among  the  more  remarkable 
epecimens : 

"  Herr  Jesu  nimra  mich  Hand  beim  Ohr 
"Wirf  mir  den  Gnadenknochen  vor; 
Und  schmeiss  mich  Sundenliimmel 
In  deinen  Gnaden  Himmel. 

Nun  das  ist  doch  die  Sache 
Daran  uns  Alles  liegt; 
Lamm,  nimm  uns  in  die  Mache 
Und  mach  uns  recht  vergnijgt. 

Erhalt  uns  Gott  bei  deinem  Wort 

Und  steur'  des  Papst  und  Tiirken  Mord, 

Die  Jesum  deinen  Sohn 

Stiirzen  wollen  von  seinem  Thron." 

Cf.  Buchmann,  Popular  Symbolism,  2d  ed.,  Mentz,  1844;  Vol.  I.,  pp.  8-10; 
Vol.  II.,  p.  193. 
"See  Vol.  XL,  p.  1032. 


308  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Cha'pter  3. 

author  of  a  single  one  of  the  melodies  attributed  to  him.'- 
Luther  had  only  retained  two  Sacraments,  viz.,  £aptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper,  but,  as  a  badge  of  distinction  between  his 
own  and  the  '^  hereticcd'''  Reformed  Church,  he  kept  also  the 
Sacramental  of  Exorcism.  When  Crell,  the  Chancellor  to  Chris- 
tian I.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  desiring  to  harmonize  the  extreme 
views  of  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  made  an  attempt  to 
abolish  exorcism,  the  Lutheran  clerg}'  of  Zeitz  and  Dresden 
incited  the  people  to  rise  against  him.  "  There  was  a  diabol- 
ical malice  in  the  joy  manifested  by  the  coterie  of  theologians 
and  jurists  in  being  able  to  keep  Crell  shut  up  in  a  squalid 
dungeon.  When  the  poor  man,  emaciated  and  half  dead, 
was  brought  forth  from  his  confined  and  noisome  den  on  the 
Koenigstein,  it  was  only  to  be  decapitated  at  Dresden.  The 
executioner  cried  out :  '  This  is  indeed  a  Calvinistic  blow.' " 
When  it  became  evident  that  the  much-lauded  principle;? 
of  Christian  freedom  were  not  productive  of  the  best  fruits, 
and  that  they  sometimes  conflicted  with  the  official  theology  of 
princes,  a  more  severe  discipline  was  introduced.  To  enforce 
it,  recourse  was  had  to  fines,  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, and  denial  of  the  privileges  of  ecclesiastical  sepulture. 
The  character  of  the  discipline  of  the  Reformed  Churches  of 
Scotland  and  Geneva^  was  gloomy  and  repulsive;  and  in 
many  parts  of  Germany,  notably  in  Weimar,  Jena,  and 
Brunswick,  it  degenerated  into  absolute  cruelty.^  In  the  last 
named  city,  Henning  Brabant  *  overthrew  the  aristocratic  gov- 
ernment, and  ill  its  stead  set  up  a  democracy,  which,  strange 
to  say,  proclaiming  itself  an  enemy  of  all  tyrann}^  was  quite 
as  impatient  of  the  3^oke  of  the  clergy  as  it  had  been  of  that  of 
the  aristocracy.     Henning  was  solemnly  excommunicated  by 


'  C  Winterfeld,  Dr.  Martin  Luther's  Eeligious  Songs,  together  with  the  Sj^s- 
tem  of  Music  employed  during  his  Lifetime,  etc.,  Lps.  184L  Against  that, 
Pleisier,  The  Catholic  German  Church-song  and  System  of  Music,  Freiburg, 
18G2,  2  vols. ;  see  Vol.  1.,  pp.  29,  30. 

-  Zeller,  The  Theological  System  of  Zwinglius,  Tubing.  1853,  p.  16  sq.  Kober, 
Excommunication,  Tubing.  1857,  p.  IG  sq. 

3  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  528-545. 

^Strombeck,  Henning  Brabant,  Burgomaster  of  the  City  of  Brunswick,  and 
his  Contemporaries,  Brunswick,  1829.  A.  Menzel,  1.  c,  Vol.  V.,  p.  229.  Seft 
also  Hist  and  Polit.  Papers.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  319,  and  "  Melanchihon' s  View." 


§  338.  Protestant  Exegetics.  309 

the  Lutherans,  who,  to  mcite  the  hostility  of  the  people  against 
hiin,  spread  the  rumor  tliat  they  had  seen  him  pursued  through 
the  streets  of  the  city  by  the  devil  under  the  guise  of  a  raven. 
The  credulous  and  superstitious  inhabitants  deserted  their 
leader,  and  permitted  him  to  be  seized  and  put  to  inhuman 
torture.  His  limbs  were  dislocated  and  severed  upon  the 
rack,  his  body  indecently  mutilated,  and  an  end  was  not  put 
to  his  terrible  sufi'erings  until  after  his  ferocious  executioners 
had  torn  out  his  heart,  and  struck  the  dying  man  on  the 
mouth  with  it.  This  indomitable  man  expired  September  17, 
1G04,  and  his  last  words  were  those  of  indignant  rebuke. 
*'  This,"  said  he,  "  is  what  is  called  fighting  for  one's  country." 

§  338.  Protestant  Exegetics. 

See  Vol.  II.,  §  286,  for  sources  on  this  subject.  Reuss,  Hist,  of  Holy  Writ, 
4th  ed.,  Brunswick. 

The  early  Reformers  despised  all  purely  human  learning, 
demanding  that  the  works  of  Plato  and  those  of  Aristotle, 
"  that  destroyer  of  souls,  who  knew  next  to  nothing  of  phi- 
losophy," should  be  burnt ;  and  the  more  this  aversion  in- 
creased, the  more  did  they  extol  Holy  Scripture,  representing 
it  as  the  one  source  of  faith,  and  claiming  the  widest  inspiration 
for  its  contents}  Luther  gave  a  clear  and  intelligible  exposi- 
tion of  certain  portions  of  Genesis,  the  Psalter,  and  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Galatians,  often  translating  and  drawing  out  the 
meaning  of  the  words  of  Holy  Writ  in  simple,  popular,  and 
persuasive  language  ;  but  at  times  interspersing  his  comments 
with  coarse  invectives,  "  distorting,"  as  Zasius  says,  "  the 
whole  Bible  into  a  series  of  menaces  and  curses  against  popes, 
bishops,  and  priests." 

31elanchthon  began  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  at  an  early 
age,  and,  by  his  extensive  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  was  enabled 
to  give  a  tolerabl}-  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  literal  sense 
of  the  Old  Testament.     Following  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine, 


'  Codicem  hebraeum  Y.  T.  tunc  quoad  consonas  tunc  quoad  vocalia  sive 
puncta  ipsa  sive  punctorum  saltern  potestatem  et  turn  quoad  res  turn  quoad 
verba  ^eoTvvEvarov  esse.     (Formula  consensus  helvetica  can.  II.) 


310  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Ckcqjter  3. 

that  only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  !New  Testament  can  a  full 
understanding  be  bad  of  the  Old,  he  supplemented  bis  work 
by  the  addition  of  dogmatical  and  allegorical  commentaries. 

Mattheio  Flacius  endeavored  to  reduce  exegetics  to  a  scien- 
tific system  {Clavis  sacrae  Scripturae),  a  plan  which  he  pur- 
sued in  bis  work  entitled  "A  Compendium  of  the  !N'ew  Tes- 
tament" (Glossa  Com.pendiaria  in  N.  T.)  These  labors  on 
Holy  Scripture  were  still  further  advanced  by  Wolfgang  Franz 
in  his  Hermeneutics  (Tractatus  theologicus,  etc.,  Vit.  1619),  and 
by  Solomon  Glassius  in  his  Sacred  Philology  [Philologia  sacra). 
Other  Lutheran  interpreters,  like  Wolfgang  Musculus  (f  1563), 
David  Chytraeus,  and  Martin  Chemnitz,  following  in  the  wake 
of  those  who  had  gone  before  them,  never  lost  sight  of  their 
Confession,  as  set  forth  in  their  Books  of  Symbols  {Regula  seu 
analogia  fdei),  when  writing  polemical  commentaries  on  the 
text  of  Holy  Writ.  The}-  were  impatient  of  whatever  seemed 
contradictory  to  the  teaching  of  the  Bible,  and  hence  their 
ignorant  hostility  to  the  discoveries  of  the  great  Kepler.^ 

In  the  Reformed  Chunch,  Calvin,^  following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  the  Reformers  Zwingli,  CEcolampadius,  Bucer,  and  Leo 
Judae,  the  German  translator  of  the  Bible,  ail  of  whom  were 
acute  scriptural  commentators,  and  approaching  the  study 
of  Holy  "Writ  in  a  profoundly  religious  frame  of  mind,  seems 
to  have  caught  the  spirit  of  the  elevated  thoughts  it  contains, 
and  to  have  set  them  forth  with  unusual  clearness.  This  is 
especially  noticeable  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul.  He  rarely  deviates  from  the  rule  that  "  brevity  and 
clearness  are  the  chief  merits  of  an  iiiterpreter ;"  but  he  is  fre- 
quently most  unscrupulous  and  audacious  in  his  attempts  to 
make  St.  Paul  responsible  for  his  own  rigorous  and  repulsive 
system.     The   Latin    translation   of   the   Bible  by   Sebastian 


'  Cf.  Wolfg.  Menzel,  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  ch.  430.  Bnron  de  BreitscJucerdt, 
The  Life  and  Labors  of  John  Kepler,  Stuttg.  1831.  C.  Gruncr,  John  Kepler, 
Stuttg.  1868.     A.  Menzel,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  117-126. 

2  This  exegetical  work  has  but  recently  been  published  in  two  editions,  and 
Tecommended  by  Tholuck  in  his  Literary  Index,  year  1831,  nros.  41  sq. ;  its  mer- 
its are  more  critically  estimated  by  Fritzsche,  in  his  Essay  on  the  services  ren- 
dered by  Tholuck  to  the  cause  of  biblical  interpretation,  Halle,  1831,  p.  I'M 
Esche?;  De  Calvino,  N.  T.  interprete,  Ultraj.  1841. 


§  338.  Protestant  Exegetics.  311 

Castellio  possessed  all  the  elegance  and  purity  of  the  classic 
age,  bat  it  was  no  longer  the  Bible,  and  even  the  style  had 
lost  its  masculine  vigor  and  peculiar  character.  This  stimu- 
lated Theodore  Beza,  who  called  it  "  the  work  of  Satan,"  to 
make  another  translation,  i)i  which  he  endeavored  to  preserve 
the  Oriental  peculiarities  of  style. 

We  are  chiefl}^  indebted  for  the  progress  made  in  philolog- 
ical exegetics  to  Conrad  Pelican^  and  next  to  him  the  honor  is 
shared  by  the  Buxtorfs,  father  and  son,  professors  of  the  Ori- 
ental languages  at  Basle,  who  brought  to  their  work  vast 
stores  of  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  lore.'  Thomas  Erjpenius 
(tl627)  and  his  celebrated  scholar,  Jamc5  Golius,^  contributed 
largely  toward  facilitating  the  study  of  the  Arabic  dialect ; 
and  Samuel  Bochart  illustrated  the  geography  (Phaleg  et 
Kanaau)  and  natural  history  {Hierozoicon)  of  the  Bible. 
While  these  labors  were  in  progress,  a  controversy  arose  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  the  Hebrew  vowel-points  {Louis  Ca.jiel- 
las)  and  the  purity  of  the  Greek  in  the  New  Testament 
{Henri  ^tienne).  Rising  above  the  prejudices  of  his  prede- 
cessors, Hugo  Grotius,^  the  most  distinguished  humanist  of 
his  age,  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
written  with  commendable  impartiality,  and  showing  an  ex- 
tensive acquaintance  with  philology,  paid  little  attention  to 
the  question  of  inspiration  or  to  the  plan  of  harmonizing  the 
Sacred  Text  with  the  Book  of  Symbols,  disregarding  in  these 
particulars  the  traditionary  methods  of  his  own  sect.  His 
example  led  the  way  to  a  better  feeling  and  to  the  adoption 
of  more  temperate  views  in  religious  matters.  Coccejus,  a 
professor  of  Leyden,  took  a  directly  opposite  course;  and 
so  marked  was  the  antagonism  between  the  two,  and  so  dis- 
similar their  methods,  that  it  became  a  common  saying  among 
the  orthodox  zealots,  that  the  one  found  Christ  everywhere 
in  Scripture  and  the  other  not  at  all.'* 


^  Lexicon  chaldaicum,  talmudicum,  et  rabbinicum,  completed  by  his  son,  1G40. 

■•'His  Arabic  dictionary  remained  down  to  our  own  day,  and  ,previousl3^  to  tliy 
publication  of  that  by  Freytac/,  the  very  best  in  use  for  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guage. 

» Annotationes  ad  V.  T.,  Par.  1644,  ed.  Doederlein,  Halae,  1775  sq ,  3  T.,  4to 
Annotationes  in  N.  T.,  1641  sq.,  2  T.,  ed.  IVindheim,  Halae,  1769,  2  T.,  4to. 

*  Hossbach,  Spener  and  his  Age,  2d  ed.  by  Schweder,  Berlin,  1853,  p.  185. 


312  Period  3.    Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 


§  339.  Mystics  and  Visionaries. 

Arnold,  though  not  free  from  prejudice,  trents  this  subject  with  greater  full- 
ness than  any  other  author,  in  his  History  of  the  Church  and  Heresies.  A>o- 
vwyer,  De  Weigelianismo,  Eosae-crucianismo  et  Paracelso,  Lps.  1669.  Gieseler, 
Manual  of  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  433  sq.  Henry  Schmid,  Hist,  of 
Pietism,  Noerdlingen,  1863. 

The  religious  tendency  of  the  works  of  John  Tauter, 
Thomas  d  Kcmpis,  and  the  earlier  rnj^stics,  and  notably  of  the 
author  of  the  Germa.n  Theoloc/y,  had  exercised  a  powerful  in- 
fluence upon  Luther  and  other  members  of  the  various  Pro- 
testant denominations.  The  interior  spirit  which  they  tended 
to  foster  is  quite  perceptible  in  the  work  "0?i  True  Christian- 
ity," in  four  books  (after  1605),  hj  John  Arndt,  Superintendent 
of  Liineburg  (f  1621).  This  work,  portions  of  which  are  lit- 
erally, and  the  whole  of  it  substantially,  pirated  from  the 
writings  of  earlier  mystical  authors,  has  obtained  a  lasting 
popularity.^  The  same  spirit  pervades  the  works  of  John- 
Gerhard,  professor  at  Jena  (fl637),  in  whose  profound,  yet 
tender  theology  (Loci  theologici;  Confessio  theologica),  a  strong 
tendency  toward  mysticism  (Schola  jnetatis)  is  plainly  visible. 
It  is  still  more  prominent  in  the  "  Kiss  of  Spiritual  Love  " 
and  the  "  Hours  of  Spiritual  Edification"  (Geistlicher  Liehes- ■ 
kuss ;  Geistliche  Erquickstwiden),  by  Henry  3iuller,  of  Rostock 
(t  1675) ;  in  the  "  Spiritual  Treasure  of  the  Soul,"  and  "  The- 
ophilus'  Occasional  Devotions"  {Geistlicher  Seelenschatz ;  Gott- 
hold's  zufdllige  Andachten),  by  Christian  Scriver,  of  Rends- 
burg  (t  1698) ;  and  pre-eminently  so  in  the  "  Sacred  Songs  " 
of  the  pious  Paul  Gerhard.  Born  in  the  year  1606,  in  the 
Electorate  of  Saxony,  he  afterward  became  a  deacon  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Nicholas,  in  Berlin,  whence  he  was  obliged  to 
fiy,  because  he  had  opposed  the  union  between  the  Lutheran 
and  Calvinistic  Churches  (1666),  and  he  ended  his  days  aa 
chief  pastor  of  Liiben,  in  Lusatia,  in  1676.     It  was  during 

1  New  edition,  with  biographical  notices,  by  Krummacher,  Lps.  1847,  and  by 
the  Evangelical  Book-concern,  Berlin,  1847.  Cf.  Niedner,  Hist,  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  p.  759. 


§  339.  Mystics  and  Visionaries.  313 

the  darkest  period  of  his  hfe,  when  weighed  down  with  grief 
and  sorrow,  and  persecuted  by  every  one,  that  he  wrote  his 
most  exquisite  hymns.  The  tender  religious  feeling  and  deep 
pathos  expressed  in  the  lyrics  "  Unto  the  Lord  commend  thy 
ways;"  and  "  Rejoice,  my  heart,  and  sing"  (Bejiehl  du  deive 
Wege ;  Wach.  ouf  mein  Herz  inul  sivge),  will  attest  to  coming 
generations  how  pure  and  holy  was  the  poetical  lire  that 
glowed  in  the  bosom  in  this  exemplary  pulpit  orator.^ 

According  to  the  theory  of  Valentine  Weigel,^  a  preacher  at 
Meissen,  tliere  exists  an  interior  illumination,  revealing  to 
man  the  true  meaning  of  the  Word  of  God,  as  set  fortli  in 
Holy  Writ,  and  guiding  him  to  a  knowledge  of  true  science. 
In  comparison  of  this  inspired  knowledge,  all  purely  human 
learning  is  empty  and  calculated  only  to  lead  the  mind  astra}'. 
Weigel  also  held  that  Christ  came  upon  the  earth  in  the  guise 
of  flesh  and  blood,  and  this  doctrine  gave  rise  to  the  sect  of 
the  Weigelians. 

In  the  writings  of  Paracelsus  (i.  e.  Hohenheira)  mysticism 
assumed  a  theosophic  ^  character.  Paracelsus  was  a  Swiss 
physician,  born  at  Maria  Einsiedeln,  about  the  year  1498, 
and  died  a  (catholic  at  Salzburg  in  1541.  While  leading  a 
roaming  life,  he  was  a  diligent  chemist,  and  is  the  accredited 
author  of  a  religious  system,  which  is  a  compound  of  theol- 
ogy, medicine,  chemistry,  physics,  and  natural  history."*  He 
held  that  the  action  of  God  in  the  order  of  grace  is  analogous 
to  that  in  the  order  of  nature.     Hence,  he  said,  chemistry 


'Spiritual  Hymns  of  Paul  Gerhard,  according  to  the  edition  published  during 
his  life,  Stuttg.  1843.  Trepte,  P.  Gerhard,  Delitsch,  1828.  lioih,  P.  Gerhard, 
Lps.  1829.     New  ed.  by  Wackernagely  Stuttg.  1855. 

■^  The  Golden  Rule  {Der  giiUlene  Griff),  or  an  Unerring  Guide  to  all  Knowl- 
edge, Neustadt,  1G17,  4to.  To  his  school  belongs  Theologia  AVeigelii  (i.  e.  pro- 
fession of  faith),  Neustadt,  1618,  4to.  Cf.  Francis  von  Bander^ s  Lectures  on 
the  Doctrine  of  Boehnie  (Pt.  II.,  Vol.  IV.,  of  Baader's  Complete  "Works). 
Staudenmaier,  Philosophy  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  723-720. 

^Theosophist  is  a  generic  appellation  for  those  Mystics  who  claimed  to  vb- 
tain  a  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of  being  by  an  internal  and  supernatural 
illumination.  This  knowledge  was  twofold,  embracing  both  the  natural  and 
the  supernatural.     The  Theosophists  were  also  called  Fire-philosophers.  (Tr.) 

*His  Works,  Basle,  1589  sq.,  5  vols.,  in  4to.  Rixner  and  Siba\  The  Life  and 
Doctrines  of  Celebrated  Physicians,  1829,  nro.  1.  Preu,  Theology  of  Paracel- 
sus, Berlin,  1839. 


814  Period  3.     Ejpoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

furnishes  the  key  to  the  various  changes  that  go  on,  not  only 
in  the  material,  but  also  in  the  spiritual  world,  and  by  its 
agency  and  instrumentality  man  should  be  able  to  discover 
the  elixir  of  life  and  the  philosopher's  stone. 

This  same  idea  was  developed  with  striking  originality  by 
Jacob  Bohme,  a  cobbler  of  Gorlitz  (f  1624),  who  from  his  very 
infancy  fancied  he  had  divine  revelations,'  and  in  his  mystical 
system  professed  to  make  the  mysteries  of  the  spirit  perfectly 
intelligible  by  means  of  the  symbols  and  formulae  of  chemis- 
try and  physics.  His  views  w^ere  the  views  of  a  visionary, 
vast  and  gorgeous,  but  lacking  in  detiniteness  and  eluding  his 
mental  grasp  ;  and  his  ideas,  though  strikingly  profound, 
were  obscure  and  involved  in  inextricable  confusion.  The 
diffusion  of  these  mysterious  doctrines  led  to  the  belief  in  the 
existence  of  a  secret  society,  which,  possessing  some  occult 
knowledge  of  nature  and  the  philosopher's  stone,  was  silently 
preparing  the  way  for  the  regeneration  of  the  moral  world  ; 
whose  leader  was  an  unknown  man  named  Hosenkreuz,  and 
whose  origin  was  lost  in  the  dim  mist  of  ages  {Rosicrucians). 
It  is  likely  that  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  a  society 
was  strengthened  by  the  writings  of  John  Valentine  Andrea 
(f  1654),  who,  in  his  three  works,  ^'-The  Chemical  Affinities  of 
Christian  Rosenkreuz"  ^  "  The  Fame  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the 
Rosy  Cross,"  and  ^^The  Confession  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the 
Rosy  Cross,''  gave  an  ideal  description  of  an  association  of 
this  character.  Its  aim  and  duty,  according  to  him,  were  the 
study  of  nature  and  the  search  after  truth.     It  is  probable, 


1  See  his  works,  edited  by  Gichtel,  Amst.  1682,  2  vols.,  4to ;  1730,  6  vols.,  by 
Scheibler,  Lps.  1831  sq.  IVulle?;  The  Life  and  Doctrine  of  Jacob  Boehme, 
Stuttg.  1836.  Cf.,  above  all,  Siaiidewnaier,  Philosophy  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I., 
pp.  726-740. 

'^The  Fitina  Fraternitatis  E.  C.  was  published  at  Cassel  in  1614;  the  Con- 
fqpsio  Fraternitatis  K.  C.  in  1615;  and  the  Chemical  Affinities  in  1618.  See 
also  Andrea's  autobiography,  transl.  fr.  the  Latin  by  ^t/SoW,  Winterthur.  1799, 
and  Hossbach,  Jno.  Val.  Andrea  and  his  Age,  Berlin,  1819.  The  Apap  of  An- 
drea Unmasked;  together  with  different  essays,  illustrative  of  the  ecclesiastical 
history  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  by  Papst,  Lps.  1827.  *Chr. 
Gottlieb  von  Murr,  On  the  True  Origin  of  the  Rosicrucians  and  Freemasons, 
Sulzbach,  1803.  Cf.  Sigwart,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  51-69,  and  pp. 
449  sq.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  339-403.  Fr.  tr ,  Vol.  20,  pp. 
443,  together  with  full  bibliography. 


§  340.  Controcersies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  315 

however,  that  his  object  in  these  works  was  not  to  found  or 
promote  secret  societies,  but  rather  to  satirize  and  ridicule  the 
lollies  of  his  age. 

It  is  not  a  little  strange  that  men  of  learning  and  ability 
should  have  been  duped  by  the  pretensions  of  the  Rosicru- 
cians.  Robert  Fludd  (Robertus  de  Fluctibus,  f  1637)  an  En- 
glish physician  of  liberal  education,  by  combining  the  theories 
of  the  Rosicrucians  with  the  vagaries  of  Paracelsus,  became 
the  author  of  wdiat  is  known  as  the  Fire-philosophy.^ 

§  340.   Conirocersies  vnthin  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran 
Churches. 

Pla7icfc,  The  Protestant  System,  Vols.  IV.-VI.,  and  Hist,  of  Protestant  The- 
ology from  the  Formula  of  Concord  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Gottingen,  1831.  Heppe,  Hist,  of  German  Protestantism,  1555-1581,  Marburg, 
1852  sq.,  4  vols.  Gieseler,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  187  sq.  ''Hasse,  Ch.  H., 
ed.  by  Koehler,  Vol.  III.,  p.  110-131.  Eossuet,  Hist,  of  the  Variations,  etc. 
'■^DoUinge);  The  Eeformation,  its  Development,  etc.,  Vol.  III.  Dorner,  Hist,  of 
Protestant  Theology,  p.  330  sq. 

There  w^ere  exciting  controversies  among  the  Protestants, 
even  wdiile  they  were  still  in  Herce  conHict  with  the  Catholic 
Church.  Some  of  them  have  been  already  mentioned.  The 
following  summary,  which  will  complete  the  history  of  the 
dissensions  by  which  the  Protestant  Church  was  rent  from 
the  date  of  its  origin,  will  also  indicate  the  necessary  ten- 
dency of  the  principles  upon  which  it  is  based : 

^.—CONTROVERSIES  AMONG  THE  LUTHERANS. 

1.  Antinomian  controversy. — In  his  Formulary  of  Ecclesi- 
astical Visitation,  Melanchthon  had  given  directions  to  preach- 
ers to  insist  upon  the  binding  force  of  the  Laio  in  exhorting 
men  to  repentance,  as  an  efficient  means  of  producing  a  w^iole- 
some  fear  of  God,  withont  which  no  sincere  penitence  is  pos- 
sible. To  this  instruction  John  Agricola,  a  professor  of  Wit- 
tenberg (1536),  and  afterward  chaplain  at  the  Court  of  Berlin 
(1540),  took  exception.     Knowing  that  Catholics  insisted  on 

1  His  medical  and  philosophical  works  were  published  in  French  and  Latin 
ttt  Oppenheim  and  Goude  in  1G17,  5  vols.,  fol. 


316  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

good  works,  he  took  an  opposite  course,  maintaining  that  the 
Gospel  alone  should  be  preached  to  Christians.  In  1537,  in  a 
disputation  at  Wittenberg,  he  opposed  even  Luther,  asserting 
that  the  Ten  Commandments,  or  tlie  Law  of  Hoses,  should 
not  be  set  up  as  motives  to  penitence,  but  only  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  the  Son  of  God,  according  to  the  teaching  of 
St.  Luke,  xxiv.  26;  St.  John,  xvi.  8;  and  Philipp.,  ii.  5,  12. 
Luther  replied  in  six  dissertations,  showing  that  the  Law 
gives  man  the  consciousness  of  sin,  and  that  the  fear  of  the 
Law  is  both  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
morality,  and  of  divine  as  well  as  human  institutions.^  Agri- 
cola  made  an  humble  recantation."  This  controversy  was 
virtually  a  refutation  of  Luther's  earlier  assertion  that  man 
had  lost  his  capacity  for  doing  good.  Luther  so  far  modified 
this  assertion  as  to  admit  that  motives  of  fear  should  be  em- 
ployed to  lead  man  to  do  good  ;  while  Agricola  maintained 
that  no  motive  other  than  love  should  be  employed.  The 
latter,  however,  failed  to  distinguish  between  the  Law  of 
Moses  and  the  moral  Law  of  Christ. 

2.  Controversy  on  good  works. — Out  of  hatred  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  Luther  had  persistently  rejected  good  works. 
Melanchthon  saw  the  dangerous  results  to  which  this  extrav- 
agant denial  would  lead,  and  set  himself  to  correct  it.  In  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  but  chiefly  in  the  revised  edition  of  his 
Loci  or  Hypotyposes  (1535),  lie  affirmed  the  necessity  of  good 
works  as  emphatically  as  any  Catholic  could  have  done. 
Amsdorf  at  once  proceeded  to  unmask  this  false  brother,  and 
in  a  discussion  with  George  Major,  preacher  at  the  castle  of 
Wittenberg,  he  went  the  length  of  quoting  St.  Paul,  whom 
he  supplemented  with  the  authority  of  Luther,  for  the  doc- 
trine ^Hhat  good  works  are  actually  prejudicial  to  salvation." 
The  Beligious  Conference  of  Altenburg  (1560),  which,  it  was 
hoped,  would  heal  these  dissensions,  served  only  to  intensify 


1  Watch,  Works  of  Luther,  Vol.  XX.,  p.  2014  sq.  Melanchth.  epp.,  T.  1.,  p. 
915.  Klwert,  De  antinomia  Agricolae,  Tur.  1837.  Nitsch,  On  the  Law,  etc., 
the  Gospel  (German  Periodical,  1851,  nro.  10.) 

2  Mosheim  confesses  that  the  recantation  he  made,  when  pressed  by  Luther 
was  not  sincere,  and  considers  Agricola  to  be  chargeable  with  vanity,  presump- 
tion, and  artifice.  (Tk.) 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  317 

them.'  Xotwithstandiiig  that  Amsdorf,  following  the  exam- 
ple of  forbearance  set  him  by  Melanchthon,  suppressed  the 
words  '■'-to  salvation^'  (1562),  which  had  given  most  offense, 
the  controversy  was  not  closed  until  after  his  death,  which 
happened  in  1574. 

8.  The  synergistic  controversy. — Starting  with  the  principle 
of  absolute  predestination,  Luther  had  asserted  that  justifica- 
tion is  icholly  the  work  of  God,  and  altogether  independent  of 
the  works  of  the  person  justified.^  With  a  view  to  soften 
the  harshness  and  mitigate  the  terrors  of  this  doctrine,  Mel- 
anchthon, in  the  editions  of  his  '■'Hypoty poses  Theologicae" 
published  in  1535  and  1543,  stated  plainly  that  ''  God  so  draws 
and  converts  adults  that  some  agency  of  their  wills  accompa- 
nies His  influences."  There  are  three  agencies,  he  went  on 
to  say,  conspiring  in  the  work  of  man's  justification,  viz  :  the 
word  of  God,  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  will  of  man.  This 
view  of  the  cooperation  {auvepjcafio^)  of  the  will  of  man  with 
the  grace  of  God  was  afterward  incorporated  in  the  Interim 
of  Leipsig,  and  was  defended  by  Pfefiinger  in  a  dissertation 
published  by  him  in  the  same  city.  Of  this  publication 
Amsdorf  wrote  a  refutation. 

The  professors  of  the  University  of  Jena,  which  had  been 
founded  in  1547  as  a  nursery  for  the  propagation  and  defense 
of  pure  Lutheranism,  took  up  the  controversy,  and  maintained 
that  in  consequence  of  original  sin,  the  will  of  man,  far  from 
cooperating  with  the  grace  of  God,  w^as  a  positive  hindrance 
to  its  action.  This  view  was  accepted  at  the  Court  of  Wei- 
mar, whose  influence  and  authority  were  exerted  in  support 
of  the  opponents  of  Synergism  (1560).  But  the  doctrine 
found  favor  even  at  Jena,  and  Victorinus  Strigel,  its  ablest 
defender,  atoned  for  his  boldness  by  imprisonment.  Flaciiis 
was  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  Strigel  to  punishment. 
In  a,  disputation  that  took  place  between  them  at  Weimar  in 
1 560,  the  former  maintained  the  original  sin  was  not  merely 

^  Acta  colloquii  Altenburg.,  Lps.  1570,  fol.  Loeber,  Ad  hist,  colloq.  Alten- 
burg.  animadversion.,  Altenburgi,  1776,  4to. 

2"Non  ille  Justus  est  qui  multum  operatur;  sed  qui  sine  opere  multuni  credit 
in  Christum,"  was  one  of  the  "  Paradoxes"  he  offered  to  maintain  against  all 
comers  at  Heidelburg  in  1518.   (Tk.) 


818  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

an  accident  in  man,  as  Strigel  claimed,  but  of  liis  very  sub- 
sta)ice ;  from  which  the  obvious  conclusion  was  drawn  that 
man  is  a  creature  of  Satan,  and  incapable  of  being  redeemed. 
By  a  doctrine  so  revolting,  Flacius  alienated  the  affection  of 
his  friends,  before  whose  hostility  he  was  obliged  to  ^y.  He 
died  at  Frankfort,  March  11,  1575,  in  a  state  of  destitution.^ 
4.  The  Osiandrist  controversy. — The  opinions  of  Agricola 
were  again  revived  by  Andrew  Osiander  in  his  inaugural  ad- 
dress (1549)  as  head  of  the  Theological  Faculty  of  the  uewly- 
founded  University  of  Koenigsberg.  He  also  combated 
Luther's  teaching  on  justification,  maintaining  that  man  is 
justified,  not  by  imputation  or  a  judicial  sentence  of  God,  de- 
claring him  so,  but  by  an  actual  indwelling  of  Christ  as  God. 
making  him  so  ;  and,  hence  that  sanctification  is  an  essential 
condition  to  justification.  As  a  corollary  to  this,  he  held  that 
justification  is  wrought  in  man  by  the  power  of  the  Divine 
and  not  of  the  Human  Nature  of  Christ.^  This  doctrine  w^as 
opposed  not  only  at  Koenigsberg,  but  in  many  other  cities  of 
Germany.  Among  those  most  conspicuous  for  their  active 
hostility  to  it  w^ere  Stayhylus  of  Osnabriick  and  Francis  Stan- 
cari,  both  of  whom  were  professors  at  Koenigsberg.  Stancari 
•ivas,  an  Italian,  w^ho  had  been  expelled  for  his  heretical  opin- 
ions from  the  University  of  Mantua.  From  Mantua  he  went 
to  Switzerland,  whence  he  was  also  expelled  by  the  Calvin- 
ists,  and  in  1548  became  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  universit}'- 
over  whose  Theological  Faculty  Osiander  presided.  His  views 
on  justification  were  diametrically  opposed  to  those  of  Osian- 
der. He  maintained  that  the  mediatorship  of  Christ  is  to  be 
attributed  to  His  Human,  and  not  to  His  Divine  Nature. 
Numerous  opponents   at   once  rose  up  against  him  ;   fierce 

» Ritter,  The  Life  and  Death  of  Flacius,  Frankfort  and  Lps.  (1723).  Twes- 
ien,  Flac.  Illyr.,  etc.,  Berlin,  1844.  Schmid,  Flacius'  Controversy  on  Original 
Sin,  from  a  hist,  and  lit.  point  of  view  (Journal  of  Hist.  Theology,  year  1849, 
nro.  1).  Fratik,  De  Matth.  Flac.  in  libros  sacros  meritis,  Jenae,  1859. 
Perger,  Matth.  Flac.  Illyr.  and  his  Age,  Erlangen,  1859  sq.  Otto,  De  Victorino 
Strigelio,  liberioris  mentis  in  eccles.  Luther,  vindice,  Jenae,  1843. 

^  Wilken,  The  Life,  Doctrine,  and  Writings  of  Osiander  I.,  Stralsund,  1844. 
Uaeberle,  The  Doctrine  of  Osiander  (Studies  and  Criticisms,  1844).  Ritschl, 
Osiander's  Doctrine  of  Justification  (Annuary  of  Germ.  Theol.,  by  Dorner  and 
Liebner  II.,  nro.  4). 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  319 

controversies  broke  out  among  the  professors;  and  the  con- 
viction began  to  dawn  upon  Duke  Albert  that  in  founding 
the  University  of  Koenigsberg  he  had  been  the  author  of  a 
scourge  for  himself  rather  than  a  blessing.  The  hearts  of  its 
members  were  filled  with  feelings  of  hatred  and  envy,  and, 
ranging  themselves  into  hostile  camps,  some  became  the  par- 
tizans  of  Flacius,  while  others,  encouraged  by  the  sj^mpathy 
of  the  old  aristocracy  of  the  country',  formed  an  opposition 
party  under  the  lead  of  Joachim  Moerlin,  a  preacher  of  Koe- 
nigsberg. 

The  whole  country  was  soon  in  arms  against  both  Osiander 
and  Stancari.  The  court  gave  its  support  to  Osiander,  after 
whose  death,  in  1552,  his  son-in-law,  Johii  Funk.,  became  the 
representative  and  defender  of  his  opinions. 

Stancari,  quitting  Koenigsberg,  passed  into  Poland,  where 
he  became  a  furious  iconoclast ;  and,  after  a  life  spent  in  roving 
and  fierce  controvers}^  died  in  the  year  1574.  So  dissolute 
were  the  habits  of  Moerlin,  and  withal  so  prodigious  his  in- 
tellectual activity,  that  some  persons,  at  a  loss  to  account  in 
any  other  way  for  his  incessant  literary  labors,  seriously  as- 
serted that  while  he  was  drunk  at  the  festive  board  the  devil 
took  his  place  at  the  writing-desk.  Moerlin  died  in  1571, 
and  Hesshusius^  who  succeeded  to  his  leadership,  w^as  de- 
prived of  this  honor,  as  he  had  previously  been  of  so  many 
others,  for  maintaining  that  Christ  should  be  adored,  not  only 
as  a  concrete  being,  but  in  His  flesh  considered  apart  and  inde- 
-pendently  of  any  of  His  other  attributes.  The  controversy 
spread  over  the  whole  of  Prussia,  working  everywhere  mani- 
festations of  the  fiercest  animosity,  and  was  terminated  only 
after  the  execution  of  Funk  and  the  publication  of  the  Corpus 
doctrinae  Frutenicum,  in  which  Osiander's  doctrine  was  con- 
demned as  essentially  heretical,  and  that  of  Luther  declared 
to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  Symbols. 

5.  Crypto-  Calvinism. — Melanchthon,  the  author  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  had,  from  the  very  beginning,  been  suspected 

'Cf.  Wiggers,  Tilemann  Hesshusius  and  John  Draconites,  Kostock,  1854. 
W'ilkens,  T.  Hesshusius,  a  Polemical  Theologian  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Lps. 
1860.     Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  151,  162. 


320  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

of  playing  an  equivocal  part  with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist.'  Under  any  circumstances,  such  duplicity 
could  not  remain  long  concealed,  and  after  the  Interim  of 
Leipsig  his  real  sentiments  became  a  matter  of  notoriety.  As 
a  consequence,  the  divergent  views  on  the  Lord's  Supper  gave 
rise  to  two  parties,  known  respectively  as  the  Lutherans  and 
the  Fhilippists.  Melanchthon's  teaching  concerning  the  Adi- 
aphora  was  also  violently  assailed  by  Matthew  Flacias  of 
Magdeburg,  who  maintained  that  the  points  which  the  doctor 
claimed  were  matters  of  indifference  could  not  be  so  regarded. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  life,  Melanchthon  inclined  toward 
Calvin's  teaching  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  and,  without 
saying  a  word  to  any  one  on  the  subject,  changed  the  tenth 
article  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  in  such  a  way  as  to 
express  his  own  belief.  He  was  driven  to  make  this  change 
by  the  course  of  Brenz,  who,  besides  proclaiming  his  belief 
in  the  theory  of  the  omnipresence  or  ubiquity  of  the  Body  of 
Christ,  made  the  doctrine  obligatory  upon  the  Church  of  Wiir- 
temberg. 

The  contests  between  the  two  parties  were  bitter  and  vehe- 
ment. The  Philippists  were  anxious  not  to  alienate  the  af- 
fections of  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony,  who  professed  the 
doctrine  of  Luther,  though  he  knew  as  little  about  it  as  his 
butler.  By  the  Convention  of  Torgau  (1574),  therefore,  they 
put  on  the  semblance  of  Lutheranism,  while  they  detested  its 
reality.  But  Melanchthon  was  not  without  friends  at  court. 
He  had  there  a  considerable  and  quite  an  influential  party,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  his  son-in-law,  Peucer,  physician  in 
ordinary,  and  one  of  the  privy  counsellors  to  the  elector. 
Wigand  and  Hesshusius,  the  most  ardent  champions  of  the 
Lutheran  doctrine  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  were  expelled  from 
Jena  in  1573. 

The  Philippists,  now  believing  themselves  all  powerful, 
began  to  speak  openly  of  rejecting  the  teachings  of  Luther ; 
but  this  candid  avowal  of  their  sentiments  roused  popular  in- 
dignation against  them.  Public  prayers  were  offered  up  in 
all  the  churches  of  Saxony  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Calviu- 

1  See  §  316,  vers.  fin. 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  321 

istic  heresy ;  a  medal  was  struck  commemorating  the  triumph 
of  Christ  over  the  devil  and  human  reason ;  and  of  the  theo- 
loti:;ians  many  ended  their  days  in  prison,  while  others,  among 
whom  was  the  physician,  Peucer,  languished  there  for  years.' 
6.  Efforts  at  Concord,  or  the  Form  and  Book  of  Concord. — 
The  Protestants  soon  foresaw  that  these  animated  controver- 
f^ies  and  heated  discussions,  if  permitted  to  go  on,  would  in 
the  end  compromise  their  political  supremacy,  and  they  ac- 
cordingly began  to  manifest  a  less  obstinate  and  more  accom- 
modating spirit  in  their  dogmatic  opinions.  In  that  rigid 
age  the  only  way  of  effecting  a  reconciliation  and  securing 
unanimity  was  by  ch'afting  a  Confession  on  strictly  scientific 
principles,  which  would  be  acceptable  to  all.  To  this  work 
Jacob  Andrea,  the  laborious  and  versatile  chancellor  of  Tii- 
bingen,  applied  himself  He  addressed  the  princes  of  the 
•different  countries  on  the  reunion  of  the  various  sections  of 
Protestantism,  and  was  at  first  repelled  by  them  all,  but  finally 
obtained  recognition  from  Elector  Augustus  of  Saxony,  who 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  project.  Putting  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  movement,  he  called  a  conference,  in  which  the 
theologians  31artin  Chemnitz,  superintendent  of  Brunswick; 
Chytraeus,  a  professor  of  Rostock,  and  many  other  divines 
participated.  The  result  of  their  labors  was  iheBookof  Tor- 
i/au.  Taking  this  as  a  basis,  a  number  of  clergymen,  who 
met  at  the  monastery  of  Bergen,  drew  up  a  new  sj'mbol,  and, 
after  many  corrections,  finally  completed  it  May  28,  1577.  It 
was  designated  the  Form  of  Concord  {Formula  concordiae). 
Its  principal  authors  were  Andrea,  Selnecker,  and  Chemnitz. 
The  document  was  drawn  with  care  ;  everything  that  might 
give  offense  was  omitted  ;  everything  that  had  the  flavor  of 
Philippism  studiously  avoided;  the  system  of  Luther^  was 


^  Peuceri  Historia  carcerum  et  liberation,  divin.,  ed.  Pezel,  Tig.  1605.  Frimel, 
Witteberga  a  Calv.  divexata  et  divinitus  liberata,  or  Keport  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  sacramentary  demon  penetrated  into  Saxony,  Witt.  1646,  4to. 
Walch,  Bibliotheca  theologica,  T.  II.,  p.  588  sq.  Calinich,  Struggle  and  Fall 
of  Melanchthonism  in  Electoral  Saxony,  Lps.  1866. 

^This  Formula  concordiae  apud  Hase,  Libri  symb.,  pp.  570-830.  Conf. 
also,  in  the  Prolegorn.  locus  VII.  de  Formul.  concord,  ac  Libro  concordiae,  p. 
•CXXXIV  sq. 

VOL.    Ill — 21 


322  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

skillfully  elaborated  and  defended  ;  and  it  was  hoped  it  would 
prove  acceptable  to  all  parties.  But  no  sooner  had  the  Phil- 
ippists  learned  that  the  Calvinistic  views  had  been  formally 
condemned  than  they  protested,  and  the  Form  of  Concord 
became  a  Form  of  Discord  {Concordia  diseors),^  as  it  was  termed 
by  its  opponents.  It  was,  however,  adopted  by  the  States  of 
the  Empire,  with  a  few  exceptions,  at  the  Imperial  r)iet  of 
Dresden,  June  25,  1580,  and  was  made  of  equal  authority  in 
matters  of  faith  with  the  ancient  ecumenical  councils,  the 
original  unchanged  Confession  of  Augsburg,  the  Apology, 
the  Articles  of  Smalkald,  and  the  Catechisms  of  Luther.  All 
these  were  collectively  called  the  Book  of  Concord,  which  has 
always  been  regarded  as  the  Great  Charter  of  German  Lu- 
theranism. 

The  Philippists  of  the  Electorate  of  Saxony  were  for  the 
time  vanquished ;  but  as  they  still  existed  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  were  as  tenacious  as  ever  of  the  opinions,  which 
they  ceased  to  proclaim  only  because  they  dreaded  the  ty- 
ranny of  princes,  they  were  prompt  in  turning  to  their  advan- 
tage the  political  changes  of  the  year  1586.  The  elector, 
Christian  I.,  and  his  chancellor,  Nicholas  Crell,  were  gained  to 
Calvinism,  and  plans  were  at  once  formed  for  a  gradual  union 
between  the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans.  All  controversial  ser- 
mons were  forbidden  ;  the  most  important  positions  in  the 
parishes  and  schools  were  tilled  by  Philippists  ;  subscriptions 
to  the  Book  of  Concord  were  suspended ;  and  a  translation 
of  the  Bible,  reflecting  the  spirit  of  Melanchthon,  was  com- 
menced. But,  in  the  midst  of  these  preparations,  the  young 
prince  passed  away  (1591),  and  no  sooner  had  WUliam  1., 
Duke  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  the  guardian  of  the  heir  to  Chris- 
tian I.,  assumed  the  duties  of  government,  than  rigid  Luther- 
anism  was  again  restored.  Articles  of  Visitation,  drawn  up  in 
a  spirit  of  deadly  hostility  to  Calvinism,  were  published  at 
Torgau  in  1592,  and  all  officers  of  Church  and  State  were  re- 
quired to  accept  them  under  oath. 

^  Hospiniani  Concordia  discors,  Tig.  1608,  Gen.  1678.  Hutteri  Cone,  concors, 
Vit.  1614,  Lps.  1690,  4to.  A7iton,  Hist,  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  Lps.  1779,  2 
vols.  Goeschel,  The  Form  of  Concord,  its  Hist.,  Doctrine,  and  Influence,  Lps. 
1858.     Fran/:,  The  Theologj'  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  Erlangen,  1858. 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  823 

7.  Syncretistic  controversy? — The  author  of  this  controversy 
was  George  Calixtus,  a  professor  at  the  University  of  Helm- 
staedt,  and  an  honest  and  highly  educated  man.  Like  Mel- 
iinchthon,  he  was  of  a  conciliatory  disposition.  He  showed 
that  the  teachings  of  the  Wittenberg  theologians  on  the 
uhiquify  of  the  Body  of  Christ  and  the  communication  of  his 
tiro  Natures  {Communicatio  idiomatum),  as  set  forth  in  the 
Form  of  Concord,  were  Eutychian  conceptions.  The  ill-will 
which  this  candid  avowal  excited  against  him  was  still  further 
iiitensitied  by  the  publication  of  his  '-'- Epitome  theologiae" 
(1619),  in  which  scant  notice  was  taken  of  those  characteris- 
tically Catholic  and  Calvinistic  doctrines  so  obnoxious  to  the 
Lutherans.  His  '■'■Epitome  theologiae  moralis"  (1634)  gave  still 
deeper  ofiense.  In  this  work,  while  speaking  of  the  return 
of  Bartholomew  Nihus  to  the  Catholic  Church,  he  took  occa- 
sion to  say  that  there  were  many  points  in  controversy  be- 
tween Catholics  and  Protestants  having  no  essential  bearing 
on  the  principles  of  faith,  and  that  the  hope  of  salvation 
could  not  be  denied  to  such  well-meaning  Catholics  as,  blinded 
by  the  prejudices  of  birth  and  education,  were  sincerely  at- 
tached to  the  teachings  of  their  religion.  Learning  the  course 
pursued  by  him  at  the  fruitless  Religious  Conference  of  Thorn, 
the  Saxon  theologians,  Werner  Hulseman,  Seherpf,  and  Calo- 
vius,  became  his  fiercest  opponents.  They  could  not  endure, 
they  said,  such  an  amalgamation  of  conflicting  beliefs  (Syn- 
cretism). Out  of  this  quarrel  grew  the  Syncretistic  Controversy, 
which  also  revived  the  discussions  on  original  sin,  justifica- 
tion, good  works,  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  Saxon  theo- 
logians, by  accusing  Calixtus  of  desiring  to  unite  in  one 
brotherhood  with  the  Lutherans,  not  alone  Papists  and  Cal- 
vinists,  but  also-Socinians,  Arminians,  and  even  Turks  and 

>  Syncretism  is  a  term  originally  applied  to  an  association  of  political  parties, 
which  had  combined  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  external  foes.  The  Cretes, 
we  are  informed  by  Plutarch  in  his  work  "On  Brotherly  Love,''  while  thcm- 
6elvea  distracted  by  internal  dissensions,  formed  such  a  union  for  repelling  en- 
emies from  without,  who  were  threatening  them  with  a  common  danger.  The 
word  was  still  used  by  Zwingli  and  Melanchthon  in  a  good  sense ;  bowevei-,  the 
latter  was  taunted  with  it  as  if  it  were  synonymous  with  a  fnnion  of  rcliaiou^ 
doctri)ies  and  with  hypocrisy  and  treason.  Cf.  .-1.  Mem  t,  1.  c.  Vol.  \'II1  , 
p.  125.     Herzog's  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  XV.,  pp.  342-372. 


324  Period  3.     Ej)Och  1.     Chapter  3. 


Jews,  alarmed  the  whole  of  Lutheran  Christendom.  His 
death,  in  1656,  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  controversial  war, 
which  continued  to  be  waged  with  unabated  fierceness  against 
his  son  and  the  entire  Faculty  of  the  University  of  Helmstaedt} 
The  Wittenberg  theologians  were  nearly  successful  in  an  at- 
tempt to  force  upon  the  Lutheran  Church  a  new  Symbolical 
Book  (Consensus  repetitus  ecclesiae  Lutheranae),  in  which,  by 
way  of  antidote  to  the  conciliatory  views  of  Calixtus,  the 
opinions  of  the  most  radical  school  of  Lutheranism  were  in- 
vested with  the  dignity  and  authority  of  articles  of  faith. 
The  attempt,  however,  was  defeated  by  the  stern  resistance  of 
the  Jena  theologians,  of  whom  3Iusaeus  was  the  most  distin- 
guished, and  by  the  determined  attitude  of  the  Court  of  Dres- 
den, which  informed  its  promoters  that  such  a  measure  could 
not  be  carried  into  effect  without  the  consent  of  the  prince, 

8.  Triumph  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine. — The  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists  of  Germany  thus  found  themselves  engaged  in  an- 
imated controversies,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  feel- 
ings of  hostile  antagonism.  Calvinism  made  few  converts, 
except  among  the  higher  classes,  and  the  opposition  it  met 
with  among  the  lower  orders  eifectually  retarded  its  progress. 
Henceforth  the  fortunes  of  both  systems  were  dependent  on 
the  ability  and  learning  of  their  respective  champions.  Had 
Melanchthon's  work,  Hypotyposes  theologicae,  continued  in  use, 
Calvinism  would  probably  have  come  off  victorious ;  and  its 
defeat  may  be  mainly  ascribed  to  a  series  of  dogmatical 
works,  which  shortly  appeared  from  the  pens  of  such  men 
as  Martial  Chemnitz,^  Gerhard^  and  Leonard  Hutter,'^  wlio,  en- 

^  Henke,  The  University  of  Helmstaedt  during  the  Seventeenth  (not  six- 
teenth) Century,  or  George  Calixtus  and  His  Age,  Halle,  1833  sq.,  2  vols. 
Gass,  George  Calixtus  and  Syncretism,  Breslau,  1846.  Schmid,  Hist,  of  the 
Syncretist  Controversy  in  the  Age  of  George  Calixtus,  Erlangen,  184G. 

2  Loci  theol.,  ed.  Polyc  Leyser,  Frcf.  1591,  3  T.,  4to,  ed.  V.,  Vit.  1690.  He 
became  still  more  renowned  as  a  Controversialist,  in  his  most  important  work, 
'' Examen  Cone.  Tridentini,"  occasioned  by  a  discussion  with  the  Jesuits,  ed. 
Preuss,  Berol.  18G1  sq.     Leniz,  Chemnitz,  being  a  biography,  Gotha,  1866. 

^Loci  theol.  cum  pro  adstruenda,  turn  pro  destr.  quorumvis  contradicentium 
falsit.,  Jen.  1610-1625,  9  T.,  ed.  Cotta,  Tub.  1762-1781,  20  T.,  4to,  indices  adjec. 
Muller,  1788  sq.,  2  T.,  4to;  ed.,  II.  1767  sq.,  ed.  Preuss,  Berol.  1863  sq. 

*  Leon.  Huiteri  compendium  locor.  theol.  jussu  et  auctor.  Christiani  II.,  \it 
1610,     (Base)   Hutterus  redivivus,   10th  ed.,    Lps.   1862,  lays  down   Hutter  .* 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  325 

joying  the  reputation  of  being  the  ablest  theologians  of  their 
age,  secured  a  complete  triumph  to  Lutheranism  by  their 
masterly  defense  of  its  tenets.  The  power  of  Chemnitz's  in- 
fluence may  be  judged  from  the  popular  saying,  "If  Martin 
(Chemnitz)  had  not  lived,  the  cause  of  Martin  (Luther) 
would  have  perished"  {Si  3Iartinus  (Chemnitius)  non  fuisset, 
iVartinus  (Lutherus)  non  stetisset).  It  is,  however,  a  trifle 
amusing  to  see  these  men  partially  reviving  in  their  works 
what  they  were  pleased  to  call  the  degenerate  scholastic  method. 
The  replies  of  the  Calvinists  were  feeble  and  comparativelj 
harmless. 

5.-C0NTK0VERSIES  AMONG  THE  EEFORMED. 

Walch,  Historical  and  Theological  Exposition  of  the  Dissensions  which  have 
divided  the  Churches  outside  of  Lutheranism,  3d  edition,  Jena,  1733  sq.,  5  vols. 
Schweizer,  The  Protestant  Central  Dogmas  within  the  Reformed  Church, 
Zurich,  1854  sq.,  2  vols.     Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  pp.  404-420. 

If  the  controversies  that  sprung  up  among  the  members  of 
the  Reformed  Church  were  more  easily  and  effectually  con- 
trolled than  those  that  had  their  origin  among  the  Lutherans, 
the  fact  is  to  be  mainly  ascribed  to  the  practice  of  holding 
synods,  early  introduced  by  Zwingli  and  Calvin.  In  Germany 
the  cause  of  the  Keformed  Church  was  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  declaration  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  Frederic  III.,  in  its 
favor  (1559).  At  his  request,  the  theologians  Ursinus  and 
Olevianus  composed  what  is  known  as  the  ^^Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism" (1563),  which  was  recognized  in  Germany  as  a  Sym- 
bolical Book,  and,  owing  to  the  modifications  it  introduced 
into  the  gloomy  system  of  Calvin,  and  the  clear  and  popular 
style  in  which  it  was  written,  rose  rapidly  in  public  favor.* 
"When  Louis  VI.  (1576),  after  the  death  of  Frederic,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  government,  Calvinism  yielded  for  a  time  before 
the  advances  of  Lutheranism,  but  it  again  recovered  its  as- 
cendancy when  that  prince  had  passed  away  (1583). 

Some  years  later,  Maurice,  Landgrave  of  Hesse  (1604)  and  John 
Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg  (1614),  influenced  more  by 

Compendium  as  a  foundation,  and  then  shows  the  development  of  the  dogma 
by  Protestant  theologians,  particularly  in  the  notes. 
'See  Augusti,  Corpus  libror.  symbolicor.,  pp.  535-577. 


326  Period  3.     E;poch  1.     Chapter  3. 

an  alliance  with  the  Netherlands  than  by  motives  of  convic- 
tion, also  embraced  the  Calviuistic  Reform.  The  Reformed 
teachings  were  triumphant  in  the  Netherlands  after  the  year 
1609,  when  these  provinces,  by  treaty,  practically  secured  their 
political  independence.  But  scarcely  had  the  wounds  of  civil 
war  been  healed,  when  a  religious  war  broke  out,  occasioned 
by  the  enmities  existing  between  the  advocates  of  the  Zwin- 
glian  and  Calvinistic  systems.  Arminius,  a  professor  of  Leyden, 
was  commissioned  to  arbitrate  between  the  Supralapsarians 
and  the  Infralajpsariaiis.  The  former  professed  the  extreme 
doctrine  of  Calvin  and  Beza,  maintaining  that  God,  by  an 
eternal,  absolute,  and  unconditional  decree,  had  predestined 
some  to  be  saved  and  others  to  be  lost,  even  before  the  Fall 
had  brought  sin  into  the  world ;  while  the  latter,  adopting 
the  teaching  of  Theodore  Koornhert  and  the  clergy  of  Delft, 
held  that  while  God  foresaw  the  Fall,  the  formal  decree  was 
not  made  until  after  Adam's  transgression.  Arminius  rejected 
Calvin's  dreadful  doctrine  of  absolute  election  and  reproba- 
tion, on  the  ground  that  it  was  incompatible  with  God's  wis- 
dom and  goodness;  whilst  Gomar,  who  was  associated  with 
him  in  the  commission,  ardently  defended  it.  The  two  be- 
came the  leaders  of  opposing  factions,  known  respectively  as 
the  Arwinian  and  Calvinistic  Communities,  whose  quarrels 
were  seriously  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  new  Repub- 
lic. On  the  death  of  Arminius,  his  cause  was  taken  up  by 
Efiscopius,  who,  as  the  representative  of  his  party,  presented 
a  statement  of  its  doctrines,  in  the  form  of  a  Remonstrance, 
to  the  assembled  States  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland  (1610). 
The  teachings  of  the  Remonstrants  were  ably  defended  by  Jaii 
van  Olden  Barneveldt,  the  celebrated  advocate,  and  by  the 
great  humanist,  Hugo  Grotius,  Syndic  of  Rotterdam,'  the  lat- 
ter of  whom  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them  a  statute  of  tol- 
eration in  1614. 

But  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange,  Stadtholder  of  the  Nether- 
lands and  General  of  the  Republic,   ambitious  of  supreme 


'  Luden,  Hugo  Grotius,  according  to  history  and  his  works,  Berlin,  1805. 
Louis  Clarus  (Volk),  Hugo  Grotius'  Keturn  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  German 
transl.  from  the  Dutch  of  C.  Broere,  ed.  by  Schulte,  Treves,  1871. 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  327 

power,  and,  conscious  that  the  good-will  of  the  Calvinists  was 
essential  to  the  success  of  his  designs,  sought  to  conciliate 
them  by  persecuting  the  Arminiaus.  He  accordingly  had  the 
venerable  Barneveldt  arraigned  and  put  to  death  on  the  charge 
of  holding  Catholic  doctrines  and  being  in  collusion  with  the 
Spaniards.  He  also  condemned  Hugo  Grotius,  together  with 
other  Arminians,  to  perpetual  imprisonment ;  from  whicli, 
however,  the  great  jurist  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape  after 
the  expiration  of  two  years.  As  to  the  religious  belief  of 
Grotius,  there  has  been  at  all  times  so  great  a  discrepancy  of 
opinion  that  the  polyraathist.  Menage,  wrote  the  following 
epigram  upon  the  subject: 

About  the  belief  of  Grotius  quarrel  Socinus, 
Luther  and  Calvin,  Arminius,  Kome  and  Arius. 

The  excitement  continuing  to  increase  rather  than  dimin- 
ish, it  was  thought  expedient  to  convoke  another  synod  for 
the  settlement  of  the  controversy.  For  this  purpose  the  fa- 
mous Synod  of  Dort,  at  which  were  present  representatives 
from  the  Reformed  churches  of  every  European  country  ex- 
cept France,  convened  November  18,  1618,  and  continued  its 
sittings  until  the  end  of  April,  1619.^  Concerning  the  ulti- 
mate decision  there  was  hardly  room  for  doubt ;  because  the 
Prince  of  Orange  had  been  victorious  over  the  Republican 
party,  and  the  members,  who  were  chiefly  from  the  Nether- 
lands, either  openly  professed  Calvinism,  or  were  secretly  at- 
tached to  its  teachings.  It  w^as  obvious,  therefore,  that  the 
cause  of  the  Arminians  had  been  virtually  disposed  of  before 
the  opening  of  the  Synod.  To  save  appearances,  however,  in 
the  Fifth  Session  the  Remonstrants  were  cited  to  be  present 
within  fourteen  days,  and  "  freely  state,  explain,  and  defend  " 

1  Acta  Synodi  nation.  Dordr.  hab.  Lugd.  Bat.  1620,  fol. ;  Han.  1620,  4to.  Acta 
et  scripta  synodal.  Dordracena  Remonstrantium,  Harder.  1620,  4to.  See  also 
August!.,  Corpus  libror.  symbolicor.,  pp.  198-240.  Halesii,  Hist.  cone.  Dordra- 
eeni,  ed.  Moshem.,  Hamb.  1824.  Essay  supplementary  to  the  hist,  of  the  Synod 
of  Dnrl,  Basle,  1825.  Heppe,  Historia  synodi  nation.  Dordracenae  s.  litterae 
delegator.  ad  Landgrav.  Mauriciura.  [Illgen,  Hist.  Review,  1853,  p.  225  sq.) 
Schweizer,  The  Synod  of  Dort  and  its  Apocrisis.  (Journal  of  Hist.  Theology, 
1854,  nro.  4.) 


328  Period  3.     Eyoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

their  Five  Articles,^  which  embodied  the  questions  under  dis- 
cussion. Headed  b}'  Simon  Episcopius,  they  appeared  on  the 
6th  of  December,  and,  after  some  preliminary  work  had  been 
gone  through,  complained  that  the  dominant  party  in  the 
Synod,  instead  of  conferring  with  them  as  equals,  treated 
them  as  accused  persons  put  on  their  defense.  No  notice  was 
taken  of  their  objection,  and  being  commanded  by  the  mod- 
erators to  proceed  to  plead  their  cause,  they  again  took  ex- 
ception to  the  order  of  procedure,  insisting  that  the  question 
of  Reprobation  should  come  up  first,  while  the  Synod  deter- 
mined to  begin  with  other  cognate  subjects,  and  also  claimed 
the  right  of  prescribing  the  manner  in  which  the  debate 
should  be  conducted.  The  Remonstrants  refusing  to  yield, 
were  dismissed,  the  prolocutor  telling  them  that  with  a  lie 
they  came  and  with  a  lie  they  went  away.  In  the  Fifty- sev- 
enth Session  four  canons  were  framed,  condemning  the  Fife 
Articles  of  the  Remonstrants,  and,  in  the  name  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  setting  forth  the  extreme  doctrines  of  Calvinism  as 
truths  of  faith  which  it  is  not  lawful  to  controvert. 

The  substance  of  these  canons  mav  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows : 

I.  Faith  is  the  free  gift  of  God,  which  by  His  eternal  decree 
He  grants  to  those  whom  He  has  set  apart  from  the  begin- 
ning. The  election  has  no  dependence  on  any  foreseen  merit 
in  those  elected,  and  is  wholly  the  result  of  His  sovereign 
pleasure.  While  the  non-elect,  on  account  of  their  unbelief 
and  other  sins,  are  left  to  share  the  misery  of  the  reprobates 
who  are  everlastingly  lost,  God  is  nevertheless  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  author  of  their  ruin. 

II.  By  the  death  of  Christ,  expiation  was  made  only  for 
the  sins  of  the  elect,  who  alone  reap  the  benefit  of  it. 

III.  Man's  free-will  is  in  no  wise  instrumental  in  the  con- 
version of  the  elect.  God  is  the  sole  author  and  finisher  of 
all,  granting  faith  and  amendment  of  life  to  those  whom  He 
has  set  apart  from  the  beginning. 

1  These  were,  respectively,  On  Election  and  Eeprobation,  On  the  Universality 
of  the  Death  of  Christ,  On  Free  "Will,  On  the  Working  of  Divine  Grace,  and 
On  the  Perseverance  of  the  Truly  Faithful.  (Tr.) 


§  340.  Controversies  in  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches.  329 


IV.  To  the  elect  God  grants  complete  exemption  from  the 
dominion  of  sin  ;  and  should  they  be  guilty  of  grievous 
faults,  still,  by  reason  of  the  irreversible  decree  of  election, 
they  never  become  objects  of  His  wrath,  and  are  never  en- 
tirely deprived  of  the  assistance  of  His  Holy  Spirit. 

It  is  a  little  amusing  to  see  this  theological  Synod  referring 
to  the  promise  of  Christ  "to  abide  with  His  Church,  even  to 
the  end  of  the  world,"  when,  according  to  the  statements  of 
all  Protestants,  He  had  given  her  over  for  above  a  thousand 
years  to  the  most  appalling  errors.  Episcopius  and  thirteen 
other  ministers  were  banished  the  country ;  the  Remonstrant 
assemblies  suppressed  ;  and  two  hundred  preachers  belonging 
to  the  party  deposed.  Forty  of  these  passed  over  to  the  side 
of  the  Counter-Remonstrants,  and  others  entered  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  Gerh'ird  von  Vossius,  Gaspar  Barlaeus,  and  Peter 
BertUis,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Leyden  professors,  were 
deprived  of  their  chairs  in  the  university.  The  English  and 
Brandenburg  Reformers  refused  to  accept  the  decrees  of  the 
Synod. 

After  the  death  of  Maurice  of  Orange  (1625),  the  condition 
of  the  Remonstrants  was  somewhat  improved,  and  in  1636 
they  were  granted  freedom  of  worship.  Their  opinions  were 
ably  defended  by  Episcopius  in  his  numerous  dogmatical 
treatises,  known  under  the  general  name  of  Institutions  of 
Theology  [Institutiones  theologicac).  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  they  began  to  quarrel  among  themselves  and  to 
split  up  into  hostile  factions,  some  adopting  the  Socinian 
views  on  the  Trinity,  original  sin,  grace,  and  satisfaction. 
The  Collegiants^  a  name  derived  from  "  colleges,"  the  appel- 
lation which  this  eclectic  sect  gave  to  its  communities,  had 

^  Rues,  The  Present  State  of  the  Mennonites  and  Collegiants,  Jena,  1743. 
Flledtier,  A  Begging  Tour  througli  Holland,  Essen,  1831,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  18G  sq.  The 
Collegiants  admitted  into  their  community  all  persons  professing  a  belief  in 
the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  and  willing  to  accept  it  as  a  guide  of  life.  They 
had  no  symbol  or  profession  of  faith,  and  permitted  the  widest  diversity  of 
opinion.  Their  only  form  of  worship  consisted  of  prayer-meetings,  held  iSun 
days  and  Wednesdays,  and  conducted  by  any  of  the  members.  They  held 
Baptism  by  emersion  to  be  necessary,  and  had  "Sacramental  meetings"  of  sev- 
eral days'  duration  twice  a  year,  after  the  manner  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterians 
See  Blunt,  Diet,  of  Sects  and  Heresies,  art.  "  Collegiants."  (Tb.) 


330  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

their  origin  in  the  Calvinistic  and  Arminian  controversies, 
and,  after  the  close  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  continued  to  hold 
separate  meetings  for  worship.  The  enemies  of  all  positive 
faith,  they  maintained  that  it  was  unlawful  for  a  Christian 
either  to  take  an  oath,  to  hold  public  office,  or  wage  war  ; 
and  rejecting  the  priesthood  and  every  other  form  of  estab- 
lished ministry,  they  permitted  any  one  who  felt  inclined  to 
preach  and  expound  the  Scriptures. 

After  the  close  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  the  sect  of  the  Lati- 
tu.dinarians  took  its  rise  in  England.  Averse  to  dogmas  of 
any  kind,  they  were  especially  hostile  to  rigid  Calvinism,  and 
in  consequence  adopted  less  gloomy  and  more  lax  theories  on 
predestination.  The  most  conspicuous  champion  of  their 
teachings  was  John  Hales,  who  had  been  one  of  the  members 
of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  Before  him,  however,  William  Chil- 
lingworth  had  greatly  modified  the  austerity  of  the  extreme 
Calvinistic  views  in  his  work  entitled  "  The  Religion  of  Pro- 
testants a  Safe  Way  to  Salvation"  ^  which  obtained  a  wide  cir- 
culation. Calvinism  underwent  a  similar  modification  in 
France.  Its  extreme  rigorism  was  denounced  by  Cameron 
(f  1625),  whose  scholar,  Amyraut,  a  professor  of  divinity  at 
Saumur,  publicly  undertook  the  defense  of  his  master  in  a 
work  entitled  "•  Universalismus  hypotheticus  "  (1634),  where  he 
maintained  that  God  wishes  the  salvation  of  all  men ;  that 
belief  in  Christ  is  essential  to  salvation;  that  God  gives  all 
the  power  to  believe;  and  that  if  men  are  not  saved  they 
have  no  one  to  blame  but  themselves.  He  added,  however, 
that  besides  this  general  and  conditional  decree,  there  was  a 
special  and  unconditional  one,  in  virtue  of  which  God  grants 
saving  and  irresistible  faith  oidy  to  the  elect.  His  followers 
were  called  Amyraldists  or  Hypothetical  Universalists,  and  were 
numerous  in  France  and  Switzerland.  Still  later,  le  Blanc, 
a  professor  of  divinity  at  Sedan  (f  1675),  took  the  ground, 
similar  to  that  taken  by  Calixtus  on  the  part  of  the  Luther- 
ans, maintaining  that  the  differences  between  the  latter  and 
the   Calvinists  were  of  minor  importance,  and    afiected   no 

^  The  last  edition  of  "  The  Religion  of  Proiestatits,  etc.,"  by  Dr.  Birch,  ap- 
peared in  1724. 


§  841.  Sects  among  the  Protestants.  331 

vital  point,  and  hence  that  the  two  parties,  without  any  sac- 
rifice of  principle,  might  unite  and  work  in  harmony. 

§  341.  Sects  among  the  Protestants. 

Oieseler,  Manual  of  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Ft.  II.,  pp.  48-114.  Erbkam,  Hist,  of 
Protestant  Sects  in  the  Age  of  the  Keformation,  Hamburg,  1848.  Dornf:r, 
Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  p.  336  sq.  Cf.  Moehler,  Symbolism,  Bk.  II.,  p. 
461  sq.,  5th  edit. 

Of  the  Anabaptists  of  Thuringia,  Wittenberg,  Switzerland, 
the  Netherlands,  and  Westphalia,  we  have  already  spoken.^ 
After  their  disastrous  discomfiture  at  Miinster,  they  divided 
into  several  branches.  The  most  remarkable  of  them  was  the 
sect  of  Baptists  called  Mennonites,^  deriving  their  name  from 
Menno  Simonis,  an  apostate  Catholic  priest  (f  1561).  His 
energy  and  activity  were  such  that,  in  a  comparatively  short 
time,  his  teachings  were  propagated  in  Westphalia  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  had  even  spread  as  far  as  Livonia.  Under 
his  guidance,  the  fanaticism  of  the  Anabaptists  was  changed 
into  a  constrained  and  decorous  recollection.  He  gave  to  his 
followers  a  definite  organization,  forming  them  into  a  society 
of  saints,  after  the  manner  of  the  early  Christians.  The  Men- 
nonites  rejected  infant  baptism  ;  forbade  their  members  to 
institute  proceedings  in  a  civil  court  of  judicature  ;  declared 
it  unlawful  to  take  an  oath  or  wage  war  ;  and  refused  to  grant 
a  bill  of  divorce  except  in  cases  of  adultery.  Even  while 
Menno  was  still  living  his  sect  split  into  two  parties  on  a 
point  of  discipline,  some  maintaining  and  others  denying  that 
such  as  fell  into  sin  should  be  excommunicated,  and  never 
be  again  restored.  The  adherents  of  the  two  parties  were 
known  respectively  as  the  "jPme"  or  strict  Mennonites,  com- 
^  posed  chiefly  of  Flemings  ;  and  the  ^^ Coarse"  or  lax  Mennon- 
ites, who  were  most  numerous  in  the  north  of  Holland,  and 
were  on  this  account  sometimes  called  the  Waterlanders. 
Another  split  was  occasioned  by  difference  of  opinion  on 


iSee  §§308  and  317. 

"^  Hunzinger,  The  Religion,  Church,  and  Schools  of  the  Mennonites,  Spire,  1831. 
In  Holland  they  were  also  Doopsgezinde,  or  those  who,  excluding  both  immer- 
sion and  aspersion,  baptized  by  pouri^ig  on  only.  (Tb.) 


332  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

election  aud  grace  (predestination),  some  adopting  the  Cal 
vinistic  and  others  the  Arminian  theory. 

The  Schwenkfeldians  were  founded  by  Gaspar  Schwenkfeld,^ 
a  native  of  Ossig  in  Silesia.  One  of  the  earliest  followers  of 
Luther,  he  soon  began  to  assail  many  points  of  his  master's 
teaching,  and  to  find  fault  with  the  whole  system  of  the  Re- 
formation, in  that,  instead  of  fostering  true  piety  and  tending 
to  cultivate  interior  life,  it  produced  in  its  adherents  only  a 
dead  faith,  and  the  semblance  without  the  reality  of  Chris- 
tianity.^ Luther's  teaching  on  Justification  and  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  the  special  object  of  his  attack,  and,  with  a  view 
of  bringing  the  great  Reformer  over  to  his  way  of  thinking, 
undertook  a  journey,  hoping  by  a  personal  interview  to  give 
greater  force  to  his  arguments.  Failing  in  his  mission,  he 
returned,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Valentine  Krautwald,  a  preacher 
of  Liegnitz,  continued  to  propagate  his  opinions.  While  his 
sincere  piety  softened  the  hearts  of  many,  and  won  them  to 
his  cause,  his  earnestness  and  zeal  excited  the  jealousy  and 
inflamed  the  hatred  of  the  Lutheran  preachers  against  him. 
Though  forced  to  consult  for  his  safety  by  flight,  he  continued 
to  maintain  friendly  relations  with  many  Protestant  princes, 
and  to  keep  up  an  active  controversy  with  the  theologians 
who  opposed  him,  and  by  whom  he  was  branded  as  an  arch- 
heretic  and  Eutychian.  By  the  year  1528  his  opinions  had 
become  widely  spread,  notably  in  Alsace  and  Suabia.  The 
most  prominent  feature  of  his  teaching  was  the  rejection  of 
all  external  authority  and  established  forms,  aud  the  advocacy 
of  interior  life  and  sincere  piety.  No  other  theory  of  holy 
living,  he  said,  is  worthy  of  acceptance,  and  none  other  had 


^  His  writings  and  letters  are  in  Walch,  Biblioth.  theolog.,  T.  II.,  p.  67  sq. 
A  Brief  Biography  of  Schwenkfeld  and  his  Departure  from  the  Town  of  Ossig, 
1697.  Essential  Doctrines  of  Gaspar  von  Schwenkfeld  and  his  Co-religionists, 
Breslau,  1776.  Rosenberg,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation  of  Silesia,  p.  412.  Cf.  A. 
Menzel,  New  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  469-478.  Bollinger,  Hist,  of 
the  Reform.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  226  sq. 

'•^  Cf.  Warning  against  the  Abuse  of  Several  Capital  Points  of  the  Gospel, 
dated  June  11,  1524,  4to.  He  considered  as  erroneous  the  following  points: 
1st.  That  faith  alone  justifies ;  2d.  That  man  does  not  enjoy  free-will;  3d.  That 
man  is  unable  to  keep  the  commandments  of  God ;  4th.  That  man's  works  are 
without  merit;  5th.  That  Christ  has  made  satisfaction  for  mankind. 


§  341.  Sects  among  the  Protestants.  333 

any  value  iu  his  eyes.  The  faith  of  the  Lutherans,  he  went 
on  to  say,  is  something  wholly  external ;  is  destitute  of  life  and 
vivifying  principle;  ignores  crosses  and  sufferings;  shrinks 
from  the  mortification  of  the  passions ;  and  is  too  nearl}'  al- 
lied to  the  world  to  give  up  its  pleasures.  Justifying  faith,  he 
continued,  can  not  remain  inactive  ;  it  must  carry  on  an  un- 
ceasing conflict  of  good  works  against  evil  passions,  and 
hring  under  subjection  every  form  of  concupiscence.  Our 
Lord's  words  of  Institution  in  the  Eucharist  he  interpreted 
as  follows  :  "  My  Body  is  this  " — a  spiritual  food  which  nour- 
ishes the  soul  as  bread  does  the  body  ;  "  My  Blood  is  this  " — 
a  spiritual  drink  which  nourishes  the  soul  as  wine  does  the 
body.^  He  had  also  a  novel  theory  of  the  relation  of  the  first 
to  the  second  creation.  The  first,  he  said,  being  imperfect,  ivas 
supplemented  and  perfected,  in  the  second  through  the  renewal  of 
all  things  in  Christ.  This  change  was  most  conspicuously 
manifest  in  man.  The  image  of  God  was  only  visible  in  faint 
outline  in  Adam;  man  was  still  but  a  creature  of  the  earth 
earthly,  and  bore  no  adequate  resemblace  to  the  idea  of  man- 
hood in  the  mind  of  God.  But  in  the  second  birth,  the  nat- 
ural Son,  the  Son  of  Mary,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  divine 
Sonship,  being  really  the  Son  of  God.  This  view  was  but  a 
consequence  of  his  conception  of  ihe  flesh  of  Christ.  Accord- 
ing to  Schwenkfeld,  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  not  only  as  to 
His  divine,  but  also  as  to  His  human  nature  ;  and  hence,  in- 
stead of  a  hypostatic  union,  he  held  that  there  was  a  unity 
of  substance  in  Christ,  thus  destroying  the  reality  of  His  hu- 
manity.^ As  his  life  was  far  purer  and  more  virtuous  than 
those  of  his  Lutheran  adversaries,  so  were  his  writings  more 
logical  and  dignified.  He  died  at  Ulm  in  1561.  There  are 
still  a  few  communities  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  who  re- 
vere the  memory  and  emulate  the  virtues  of  Schwenkfeld. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  some  of  the  adversaries 
of  the  Trinity.  Among  the  early  Reformers,  who  rigorously' 
adhered  to  the  ancient  symbols,  such  as  opposed  this  dogma 

'  He  explained  the  words  of  Consecration  in  the  following  manner:  "  (Juod 
ipse  panis  fractus  est  corpori  esurienti,  nempe  cibus,  hoc  est  corpus  meum,  cibui 
tcilicet  esu7'ienti  a?mnarum." 

*Cf.  Staudenmaier,  Philosophy  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  711-714. 


334  Period  3.     Eyoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

were  punished  with  death .^  Ca.mpanus,  for  denying  the  di- 
vinity of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  holding  Arian  views  concerning 
the  Son,  was  cast  into  prison  at  Cleves,  where  he  died  about 
the  year  1578.  His  followers  fled  to  Poland,  the  common 
refuge  of  all  heretical  sectaries.  For  a  time  they  remained 
in  retirement,  under  the  generic  appellation  of  Dissidents^  but 
about  the  year  1563  the}'  formed  a  separate  organization, 
under  the  name  of  Unitarians,  and,  by  the  active  assistance 
of  the  Polish  noblemen,  made  Rakow  their  headquarters. 
Through  the  influence  of  Blandrata,  a  native  of  Piedmont 
and  physician  to  the  prince,  they  received  public  recognition 
in  Transylvania.  Christ  they  held  to  be  only  a  man,  but  a 
man  richlj^  endowed  by  God ;  and  to  make  Him  an  object  of 
worship  they  denounced  as  an  idolatrous  act.  This  rational- 
istic tendency,  so  strangely  in  contrast  with  the  low  estimate  put 
upon  reason  by  all  the  early  Reformers,  was  still  more  marked 
in  the  teaching  of  the  two  Socinuses. 

Laelius  Socinus,^  a  member  of  a  noble  family  of  Siena,  un- 
like most  of  the  Reformers,  was  a  man  of  austere  manners 
and  retiring  disposition,  though  not  distinguished  for  eminent 
ability  or  profound  thought.  Educated  among  the  Antitrin- 
itarians  of  Italy,  he  early  became  a  member  of  a  debating 
club,  formed  at  Vicenza,  and  composed  of  forty  persons  of 
tastes  and  beliefs  akin  to  his  own.  After  the  breaking  up  of 
this  club,  which  was  really  a  propagandism  of  Antitrinitarian 
views,  under  the  guise  of  a  literary  society,  Laelius  made  a 
tour  through  France,  England,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Po- 
land, in  the  course  of  which  he  fell  in  with  many  transalpine 
Reformers.  He  finally  settled  down  in  Zurich,  wliere  he  died 
in  1562,  when  only  thirty-seven  years  of  age.  Laelius  had 
made  his  nephew,  Faustus  Socinus  (f  1604),  his  literary  heir, 
and  the  latter  taking  the  writings  of  his  uncle  as  a  basis, 
drew  out  and  threw  into  shape  the  doctrine  of  Unitarianism, 
thus  giving  to  the  Unitarians  of  Poland,  where  he  lesided 
(after  1579),  a  definite  creed  and  a  distinct  religious  organi- 

1  See  §  321. 

2  Trechsel,  Protestant  Antitrinitarians  before  Faustus  Socinus,  Heidelberg, 
1844,  2  vols.     Cf.  Freiburg  Cyclop.,  s.  v.  Socia. 


§  341.  Sects  among  the  Protestants.  335 

zntioD.  From  this  time  forth  they  took  the  name  of  So- 
cinians}  The  most  eminent  of  their  theological  writers  were 
Lublinitzki,  Moskorzoiuski,  Wissoivatzi,  Przypkowski,  Gaspar 
Schlichting,  and  John  Louis  WolzoyenJ  Their  doctrine,  while 
professing  to  be  purely  biblical,  was  essentially  rationalistic; 
and  the  few  faint  traces  of  the  supernatural,  which  it  at  first 
contained,  grew  gradually  dimmer,  till  in  the  sequel  they 
wholly  disappeared.  It  is  fully  set  forth  in  the  Catechism  of 
Rakow,  and  may  be  briefly  stated  in  the  following  proposi- 
tions. The  idea  of  a  God,  of  things  divine,  and  of  the  dis- 
tinction between  good  and  evil,  comes  to  man  through  educa- 
tion and  other  external  sources.  Man's  likeness  to  God  consists 
in  this,  that  he  has  dominion  over  the  lower  animals.  One 
might  naturally  be  led  to  infer  that,  starting  with  these  prin- 
ciples, they  would  bow  in  humble  submission  to  all  the  facts 
attested  by  the  witnesses  of  Holy  Writ;  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, the^^  frankly  avowed  that  whatever  is  contrary  to  reason 
(meaning,  of  course,  the  reason  of  the  Socinians)  could  not 
be  accepted  as  revealed  doctrine.  Inspiration,  properly  so 
called,  or  that  influence  under  which  the  words  of  Scripture 
were  written,  they  held,  conformably  with  their  idea  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  to  be  no  more  than  an  intelligent  understanding, 
possessed  by  virtuous  and  upright  men,  such  as  those  who 
composed  the  Holy  Books,  under  the  guidance  of  God,  who 
guarded  them  against  the  introduction  of  errors  in  matters 
of  grave  importance.  They  held  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  be  alone  God.  Christ  is  a  mere  man,  though  begotten  in  a 
supernatural  way  by  divine  power.  In  consequence  of  this 
miraculous  conception,  He  is  called  the  Son  of  God.  Before 
beginning  His  public  ministry,  Christ  went  up  into  Heaven, 
and  received  directly  from  the  Father  the  Gospel,  which  He 
was  commissioned  to  announce  to  mankind  in  the  Father's 
name.  As  a  reward  for  His  obedience,  He  received,  after  His 
second  ascension,  dominion  over  the  universe,  and  on  this  ac- 


^  Sam.  Fred.  Lauierbach,  Ariano-Socinianismus  olim  in  Polonia,  or  Origin  and 
Extent  of  Arian  Socinianism  in  Poland,  Prcf.  and  Lps.  1725. 

"^  Bihliotheca  fratrum  Polon.,  Irenop.  (Amst.)  1658,  8  T.,  fol.,  Catech.  Kacov. 
(1609),  ed.  Oeder,  Frcf.  1739.  Cf.  Wissowatzius,  Keligio  rationalis,  1685, 
Amst.  1708. 


836  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

ooLiut  must  be  houored  as  God-man,  with  the  same  honor 
that  is  paid  to  God  Himself.  The  ^^•ork  of  the  redemption 
of  mankind  He  continues  in  Heaven  by  offering  Himself  up 
for  them  to  His  Father.  Their  reconciliation,  however,  is  not 
effected  by  vicarious  satisfaction,  but  by  remission  of  sins. 
The  Holy  Ghost,  they  said,  is  not  a  divine  Person,  but  an  en- 
ergy or  power  of  the  Godhead. 

According  to  the  Socinian  anthropology,  Adam  was  indeed 
by  his  nature  liable  to  death ;  yet  had  he  persevered  in  obedi- 
dience  he  would  not  have  died.  Original  sin  is  the  invention 
of  theologians,  by  whom  it  was  subsequently  introduced  into 
the  Christian  scheme.  The  effects  of  Adam's  fall  did  not  go 
beyond  his  own  person,  except  in  so  far  as  it  entailed  the 
necessity  of  death  upon  his  descendants.  Man  endeavors, 
by  the  aid  of  his  natural  powers,  to  live  morally  ;  these  pow- 
ers are  then  supplemented  and  perfected  by  Christ,  whose 
life,  inasmuch  as  it  exemplities  the  fruits  of  virtue,  excites  in 
man  a  desire  of  holy-living.  Justification  is  a  judgment  of 
God,  who  graciously  absolves  from  sin  and  releases  from  pun- 
ishment those  who  by  faith  in  Christ  diligently  observe  the 
moral  law.  The  interior  ivorklngs  of  grace  being  thus  dis- 
carded, they  consistently  held  the  Sacraments  to  be  but  ex- 
ternal ceremonies.  Baptism  is  no  more  than  a  form  of  initia- 
tion into  the  Christian  community,  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
only  an  enduring  commemoration  of  Christ's  death.  The 
long  season  of  peace  enjoyed  by  the  Socinians  was  turned  to 
good  account  by  them  in  propagating  their  rationalistic  sys- 
tem. They  were  at  length  vigorously  opposed  by  the  Jesuits, 
driven  out  of  Rakow  in  1638,  and  expelled  from  all  Poland 
in  1658. 

Observation. — Now  that  the  origin  and  leading  characteristics  of  Protest- 
antism are  known,  the  questions  may  be  asked:  What  is  its  true  ralnei 
What  are  the  results  \i  has  produced?  After  what  has  been  said,  the  reader 
will  be  tolerably  capable  of  giving  answers  to  these  two  questions.  He  will, 
however,  find  the  subject  more  fully  treated  and  viewed  under  diflFeront  as 
pects  in  the  works  of  Robelot  and  Kerz.^     It  is  also  handled  very  exhaustively 


'  Robelot,  De  Tinfluence  de  la  reform,  de  Luther  sur  la  croyance  religieuse, 
1822   (against  Villers),  German  by  Eaess  and  Weiss,   Mentz,  1823.     {Kerz), 


§  341.  Sects  among  the  Protestants.  337 

by  Dollinger,  who  supports  his  statements  by  the  avowals  of  Protestants  them- 
selves. The  same  subject  has  been  taken  up  by  Perrone,  Balmes,  and  Nicolas, 
and  by  other  writers,  like  VUlers,^  Hagenbach,  Schenkel,  and  Hundeahagen, 
who  have  given  their  especial  attention  to  Protestantism.-  The  points  to  be 
kept  steadily  in  view  in  prosecuting  this  inquiry  are:  First,  the  relations  of  the 
new  doctrines  to  many  of  the  ancient  heresies;  and,  second,  their  relations  to 
tlie  Catholic  Church.  Considered  from  the  latter  point  of  view,  Protestantism 
may  not  only  be  regarded  as  a  heresy,  but  as  "a  framework  into  which  all 
heresies  may  be  fitted^  Judged  politically,  Protestantism  was  the  basis  of  the 
Keligious  Peace  of  Westphalia,  by  which  it  obtained  equal  rights  with  the 
Catholic  Church;  whereas,  previously  to  the  sixteenth  century,  heresy  was 
held  to  be  a  political  crime,  punishable  with  death.  It  was  with  difficulty  the 
Popes  reconciled  themselves  to  the  changed  condition  of  heretics.  Innocent  X. 
protested  against  the  articles  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  complaining  that 
Protestants  "  had  nearly  everywhere  been  permitted  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  ;  that  building-sites  had  been  granted  them  for  churches ;  and  that, 
like  Catholics,  they  had  been  declared  eligible  to  public  offices  and  trusts," 
whereas  truth  should  have  authority  over  error. 

Stanislaus  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Ermeland,  and  Cardinal  of  the  Roman  Church, 
an  able  controversialist  and  a  close  and  judicious  observer  of  the  events  of 
his  age,  concisely  sums  up  the  successive  stages  through  which  Protestantism  ^ 
passes  from  its  first  beginnings  to  its  last  results,  "  The  reformatory  zeal,"  he 
says,  "  of  the  enemies  of  the  Church  is,  as  a  rule,  first  directed  against  what 
they  call  human  ordinances,  meaning  feasts  and  fasts,  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  monastic  vows,  and  the  like,  by  which,  they  pretend,  she  has  been  dis- 
figured. They  next  demand  the  Chalice  for  the  laity,  and,  when  it  is  refused, 
proclaim  that  the  Church  and  the  Pope  teach  what  is  contrary  to  Holy  Writ, 
■since  it  is  said,  ^Drink  ye  all  of  this.^  They  then  take  matters  into  their  own 
hands,  and,  rejecting  transubstantiation  and  the  abiding  Presence  of  Our 
Lord  in  the  Eucharist,  substitute  for  the  one  a  transient  Presence  at  the  mo- 
ment of  reception,  and  for  the  other  the  theory  of  impanation.  These  doc- 
trines once  established,  the  Sacrifice  and  the  Priesthood  cease  to  have  any 
meaning.  Having  gone  so  far  in  their  apostasy,  they  feel  no  difficulty  in  ad- 
vancing step  by  step  till  they  push  their  assumptions  to  their  last  results,  and 
■end  by  blasphemously  denying  the  mystery  of  tJie  Blessed  Trinity  and  the 
Divinity  of  Christ.  Hence,"  he  concludes,  "  men  pay  a  poor  compliment  to 
their  reason  and  judgment  when,  professing  to  be  startled  at  the  doctrines  of 
the  Antitrinitarians,  they  can  see  nothing  to  find  fault  with  in  the  principles 


The  Spirit  and  Consequences  of  the  Picformation,  being  a  refutation  of  Yil- 
lers,  Mentz,  1823. 

1  Villers,  Essai  sur  I'esprit  et  I'influence  de  la  reformation  de  Luther,  Paris, 
1802,  German  by  Cramer  and  Henke,  Hamburg,  1828. 

2  See  p.  298. 

^  Judicium  et  censura  de  judicio  et  censura  Heidelbergensium  Tigurinorumque 
cninistrorum  in  Hosvi  opp.,  T.  I.,  pp.  G69-707. 
VOL.    Ill — 22 


338  Period  S.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  3. 

of  their  forerunners,  particularly  the  Calvinists.  Either,"  he  goes  on  to  sayr 
"get  rid  of  all  sects  at  once,  or  tolerate  them  all  equally,  that  while  one  is 
being  persecuted  the  others  may  not  be  strengthened  and  encouraged."  The 
same  writer,  in  exhorting  the  Poles  to  continue  steadfast  and  loyal  to  the 
One  Church,  calls  their  attention  to  the  dissensions  and  calamities  which  the 
Keformation  was  instrumental  in  bringing  upon  Germany,  England,  and 
France. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH. 

§  342.  Summary. 

The  Catholic  Church  had  been  seriously  threatened.  It 
became  now  a  matter  of  grave  concern  to  heal  the  wounds 
she  had  received,  and  to  ward  ofl'  the  blows  directed  against 
her  by  her  enemies.  The  faith  had  been  assailed  and  sub- 
jected to  no  end  of  misrepresentations.  Whole  nations  had 
lapsed  into  error. 

It  was,  first  of  all,  necessary  to  define  precisely  dogmas 
that  had  been  misrepresented  and  corrupted.  Next,  it  was 
necessary  to  correct  abuses,  that  were  manifestly  such,  and  to 
re-establish  order  on  a  new  basis.  All  this  was  done ;  and 
the  more  imminent  were  the  dangers  by  which  the  Church 
was  threatened,  the  more  visible  were  the  manifestations  of 
her  power,  and  the  more  unquestionable  the  evidences  of  her 
greatness.  According  to  ancient  usage,  she  set  the  seal  of 
authority  upon  her  faith  by  the  voice  of  an  ecumenical  coun- 
cil. It  was  subsequently  developed  and  defended  by  the  splen- 
did scientific  labors  of  men  as  learned  as  they  were  profound. 
Externally,  the  marvellous  activity  of  the  Jesuits  produced 
the  most  gratifying  results.  Internally,  the  older  and  the 
younger  Religious  Orders  rivaled  each  other  in  reviving  spir- 
itual life,  and  both  put  forth  fresh  energies  in  defense  of  the 
Old  Church.  Her  losses  from  those  who  had  lapsed  into  Pro- 
testantism were  more  than  made  up  by  the  number  of  those 
brought  into  her  fold  in  other  parts  of  the  world  through  the 
heroic  labors  of  her  missionaries.  "  The  conquests  of  the  Ro- 
mish Church  in  the  New  World,"  says  Macaulay,  "  more  than 
compensated  for  its  loss  in  the  Old." 

Such  is  a  meager  outline  of  the  facts  to  be  treated  in  this 
chapter,  which  covers  one  of  the  most  momentous  periods  in 
the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

(889) 


340  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent. 

-Sarpi  (P.  Suave  Pol.),  Istoria  del  Cone,  di  Trento,  Lond.  1619;  translated 
into  French,  with  historico-dogmatic  notes,  by  Courayer ;  into  German  by 
Wi7iterer,  Mergentheim,  1840  sq.,  4  vols.  This  Servite  monk  and  theologian 
of  the  Eepublic  of  Venice  wrote  full  of  bad  humor  and  in  satirist  fashion 
against  the  hierarchj^,  showing  rather  a  tendency  to  Protestant  principles.  lie 
was  in  part  contradicted  by  the  Jesuit  Pallavlcin!,  who  afterward  became  car- 
dinal, and  far  surpassed  Sarpi  in  aptness  of  representation.  1st.  del  Concil.  di 
Trento,  Pvom.  1652,  3  T.,  fol.,  illustrata  con  annotazioni  da  Fr.  Ant.  Zaccaria, 
Eome,  1833,  4  vols.,  4  lat.  redd.  Giottino,  Ant.  1673,  3  T.,  fol. ;  transl.  in  part 
by  KlUshe,  Augsb.  183-5  sq.,  3  vols.  Cf.  f  Brischar,  Criticism  on  the  (historic 
and  dogmatical)  Controversies  of  Sarpi  and  Pallavicini  in  the  History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  Tiib.  1843  sq.,  2  parts,  (le  Plat),  Monuments  pour  servir  a 
I'histoire  du  Cone,  de  Trente,  1781,  6  T.,  latin.,  Lovan.  1781  sq.,  7  T.,  4to.  The 
protocols  written  by  the  secretary-general,  Masarclli,  giving  the  complete  acts 
of  this  Council,  and  the  printing  of  which  was  commenced  in  Eome  by  Aug. 
'rhei7ier,  appeared  after  the  latter's  death :  Acta  genuina  SS.  oecum.  cone. 
Trid.,  etc.,  Zagrabiae  (Agram),  1874,  2  T.,  4to.  The  editing,  however,  has 
been  done,  in  many  instances,  with  little  care,  so  that  completeness  and  fidelity 
jvre  questionable.  Th.  Sickel  published  "  Documents  in  Austrian  Archives,  il- 
lustrating the  Hist,  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  Vienna,  1871-1872,  three  divis- 
ions. Hereupon  Dbllinger  published  "  Unprinted  Documents,  Diaries,  touching 
the  Hist,  of  the  Council  of  Trent,"  Nordlingen,  1876,  2  vols.  SaUg,  Complete 
History  of  the  Counc.  of  Trent,  Halle,  1741  sq.,  3  vols.,  4to.  jGoeshl,  Hist. 
Review  of  the  Counc.  of  Trent,  Eatisbon,  1840.  Wessenberg,  The  Great  Coun- 
cils, Vols.  3  and  4;  also  "The  Catholic,''  1841,  May  and  December  nros.  'tRiifjes, 
Hist,  of  the  Counc.  of  Trent,  Miinster,  1846.  t  Werner,  Hist,  of  Polemic  and 
Apologetic  Lit.,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  386-579.  Canones  et  decreta  cone.  Trid.  1567, 
4to;  ed.  Jod.  le  Plat,  Lov.  1779,  4to.  Gallemart,  in  several  editions,  with  refer- 
ences to  cognate  church- ordinances  of  earlier  times;  ed.  stereotypa,  Lps.  1842; 
latine  et  germanice,  ed.  Sniets,  Bielefeld,  1847  ;  *  edd.  Richter  et  Schulie,  cum 
declarat.  cone.  Trid.  interpretum  et  resolution,  thesauri  sacr.  congr.  Cone,  Lps. 
1853.     Cf.  Philipps'  Can.  Law,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  463  sq. 

At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  necessity  of 
holding  a  council  was  deeply  felt,  and  princes  and  nations 
were  earnest  in  their  appeals  for  its  convocation.  Abuses  the 
most  flagrant  had  crept  into  the  Church,  and  the  new  teach- 
ings of  the  Reformers  aggravated  instead  of  correcting  them. 
The  very  existence  of  the  Church  seemed  threatened.  Still 
the  Popes  hesitated.  They  called  to  mind  the  scenes  at  Basle, 
and  did  not  care  to  see  them  re-enacted.  The  conditions  were 
not  favorable.  All  Christendom  was  more  or  less  diseased, 
and  it  seemed  impossible,  amid  the  excitement  of  the  age,  to 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  341 

furnish  an  adequate  remedy.  The  means  were  wanting ; 
there  had  been  no  adequate  preparation  for  prompt  and  de- 
cisive action  ;  and  the  dispositions  of  ecclesiastical  bodies 
were  not  satisfactory.  There  were  also  external  obstacles  in 
the  way,  such  as  the  wars  between  Charles  Y.  and  Francis  I. 
(luring  the  pontiiicate  of  Clement  VII.  This  Pope,  however, 
i-arrying  out  the  design  of  his  predecessor,  Hadrian  VI.,  en- 
tered actively  upon  the  work  of  reform.  He  desired  to  effect 
a  reformation  first  in  the  Roman  clergy,  and  in  the  course  of 
time  to  extend  it  to  the  clergy  of  the  whole  Church ;  and 
for  this  purpose  he  established  a  Congregation,  placing  at  its 
head  the  distinguished  Bishops  of  Verona  and  Carpentras, 
Giberto  and  Sadolet.^  These  delays  had  their  advantages. 
They  gave  time  for  excitement  to  abate  and  passions  to  cool. 
To  Protestants  they  gave  a  sufficient  interval  in  which  to  re- 
duce their  teachings  to  a  precise  and  compendious  form,  and, 
consequently,  to  Catholics  a  better  opportunity  to  refute  them. 
Paul  III.  (1534-1549),  the  successor  to  Clement,  was  a 
member  of  the  Farnese  family,  and  an  accomplished  human- 
ist. He  at  once  set  seriously  to  work  to  convoke  a  council.'' 
That  he  was  in  earnest  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  from  the 
very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  raised  no  one  to  the  dignity 
of  the  cardinalate  who  was  not  eminent  for  piety  and  learning. 
To  such  men  he  committed  the  work  of  reform  in  the  Church 
and  the  task  of  framing  a  bull  for  the  convocation  of  a  coun- 
cil (May,  1537).  !N"ever,  perhaps,  was  any  ruler  more  accu- 
rately informed  of  the  wants  of  his  kingdom,  or  more  frankly 
told  of  the  shortcomings  of  his  government.^  He  convoked 
the  Council  to  meet  at  Mantua,  and  commanded  the  bishops 
of  the  Universal  Church  to  attend  in  person,  under  pain  of 
suspension.  Plenipotentiaries  would  not  be  recognized.*  The 
Protestants  were  also  invited  to  be  present,  but  declined. 


'  f  '"Kerker,  Church  Keforms  immediately  before  the  Council  of  Trent  (Tiib. 
Quart.  1859,  pp.  3-56). 

'^  Raynald.  ad.  an.  1534,  nro.  2,  and  Pallavicini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.,  lib.  III., 
c.  17,  nro.  3. 

s  Cf.  Kcrker,  1.  c,  p.  39-42. 

*Only  the  German  bishops  afterward  received  a  secret  dispensation,  "lest 
they  might  leave  their  flocks  in  the  midst  of  wolves." 


342  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 


It  was  then  transferred  to  Vicenza,  but  with  no  better  re- 
sults. It  was  finally  opened  at  Trent,  December  3,  1545,  by 
the  Pope's  Legates,  del  Monte,  Cervino,  and  Pole.^  There  were 
present  four  archbishops,  twenty  bishops,  five  generals  of 
Religious  Orders,  Pighini,  the  auditor  of  the  Roman  Rota, 
the  deputies  of  the  emperor,  and  those  of  Ferdinand,  King 
of  the  Romans.  The  heart  of  the  Pontifl^"  was  gladdened 
when  his  Legate,  Cardinal  Pole,  wrote  to  him  from  Trent : 
"  The  doors  of  the  Council  are  flung  open  ;  the  reproach  of 
barrenness  is  removed  from  the  Church,  as  of  old  from  Rachel. 
We  pray  that  abundant  measures  of  Divine  grace  may  be 
poured  down  upon  us,  and  that  we  maybe  able  with  the  same 
prophet  to  invite  all  to  come  and  be  satiated  at  her  breasts.'' 
The  Protestants  had  expressed  a  preference  that  the  Council 
should  be  held  in  a  German  city,  and  now  that  their  wish  had 
been  complied  with,  they  persistently  refused  to  attend. 
While  the  Council  was  in  session,  they  also  received  three 
distinct  invitations  to  be  present,  all  of  which  they  declined.^ 


^Cardinal  Manning,  in  the  March  number  of  the  "Nineteenth  Century" 
(1877),  gives  the  following  summary  of  the  fortunes  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
The  Council  of  Trent  "  was  convoked  in  1536,  to  meet  at  Mantua  in  May  of 
the  following  year.  It  was  then,  by  reason  of  opposition,  prorogued  till  No- 
vember, 1537.  Then  it  was  deferred  till  May,  1538,  to  meet  at  Vicenza.  So 
few  bishops  came,  by  reason  of  war  and  of  the  disturbed  state  of  Europe  and 
of  Italy,  that  the  Pope,  weary  of  proroguing,  suspended  the  Council  indefi- 
nitely. The  Turks  were  still  victorious,  and  Germany  was  every  day  losing  its 
faith.  Paul  the  Third,  therefore,  without  the  assent  of  princes,  convoked  too 
Council  to  meet  in  November,  1542,  in  the  city  of  Trent.  Three  legates  went 
to  Trent,  and  waited  many  months  for  the  bishops,  who  were  still  unable  to 
attend,  by  reason  of  war  and  the  dangers  of  travel.  The  Council  was  again 
suspended  till  a  more  favorable  time.  After  three  years,  it  was  again  fixed  for 
March,  1545.  After  this  came  another  delay  ;  and  the  Council  opened  in  April 
following.  After  fifteen  months  it  was  transferred  to  Bologna,  where  the  bish- 
ops were  so  few  that  no  decree  was  made ;  and,  after  five  months,  it  was  again 
indefinitely  prorogued.  It  was  then  suspended  for  four  years.  Under  Juliu? 
the  Third,  it  began  once  more  in  Trent  in  May,  1551.  It  sat  for  a  year;  then, 
in  April,  1542,  it  was  suspended  for  two  years,  but  the  tumults  of  the  world 
were  such  that  it  remained  suspended  for  ten.  In  January,  1562,  it  was  opened 
again.  In  December,  1563,  the  First  Legate  dismissed  the  bishops  to  their 
homes;  and  in  January,  1564,  Pius  the  Fourth,  by  the  bull  Benedictus  DeuSf 
confirmed  the  work  of  the  Council  of  Trent."  (Tb.) 

» See  pp.  125  sq. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  343 

On  account  of  the  small  number  of  bishops  present,  the 
time  was  at  first  occupied  in  making  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions for  holding  "7Ae  Holy  Ecumenical  Council^'  The  work 
to  be  done  by  it  was  indicated.  It  embraced  "  the  propagation 
of  the  faith;  the  elevation  of  the  Christian  religion;  the  uprooting 
of  heresies;  the  restoration  of  peace;  the  reformation  of  the 
dergy  and  Christian  people ;  and  the  overthrow  of  the  enemies  of 
the  Christian  name." 

Following  the  precedents  of  earlier  councils,  the  Fathers 
decided  that  congregations  composed  of  theologians  and  canon- 
ists should  prepare  in  advance  the  subjects  to  which  the  Coun- 
cil proposed  to  give  its  attention.  These  were  then  submitted 
to  a  General  Congregation  of  hioho^Q,  once  oroftener,  as  the  case 
required.  This  Congregation  framed,  discussed,  and  voted 
upon  the  decrees,  which,  when  adopted,  were  announced  iu 
public  session  as  the  result  of  their  deliberations.  The  voting 
was  done,  not  by  nations,  as  at  Constance,  but  by  the  indi- 
vidual voices  of  those  actually  present,  according  to  the  usage 
of  more  ancient  councils.  The  generals  of  Religious  Orders 
were  each  entitled  to  a  vote,  while  only  one  was  allowed  to 
every  three  abbots.  There  was  at  first  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  whether  doctrine  or  discipline  should  have  precedence 
in  the  deliberations  of  the  Council,  Some  said  that  a  better 
impression  would  be  made  upon  heretics,  if  they  saio  both  the  clergy 
and  the  laity  of  the  Catholic  Church  faithfully  fulfilling  the  law 
of  Christ;  while  others  contended  that  unless  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion were  first  established,  the  lives  of  Catholics  would  be  open  to 
censure,  inasmuch  as  their  doctrines  were  claimed  to  be  either  false 
or  corrupted.  After  an  animated  discussion,  a  middle  course 
was  wisely  adopted,^  and  at  most  of  the  Sessions  two  decrees 


•  Owing  to  remonstrances,  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority,  for  which  it 
seems  difficult  to  find  any  adequate  justification,  the  routine  of  the  Council  was 
not  allowed  to  be  made  public  until  recently ;  and,  when  at  last  an  account  of 
it  did  appear,  it  was  greatly  disfigured  by  the  malevolent  misrepresentations 
and  ignorance  of  hostile  parties.  Friedrieh,  Ordo  et  modus  in  celebratione 
sacri  et  oecumenici  concilii  Tridentini  observatus.  An  extract  from  the  Codex 
latinus  813  of  the  Royal  Public  Library  of  Munich,  as  compared  with  the 
routine  of  the  Vatican  Council,  1869-1870,  in  his  Documenta  ad  illust.  Con- 
cilium Vatic,  Section  I.,  Noerdling.  1871.  Later:  Routine  of  the  Counc.  of 
I'rent,  from  a  MS.  of  the  Vatican  archives,   edited  completely  for  the  fir.>t 


344  Period  3.     Ejpoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

were  published,  one  on  doctrine  and  another  on  discipline 
(de  reformatione).  The  decrees  on  doctrine  are  tirst  stated  at 
length  in  the  form  of  chapters,  and  then,  more  briefly,  in  the 
form  of  canons.  The  specific  work  for  which  the  Council 
had  assembled  was  not  reached  until  the  Fourth  Session,  held 
April  8,  1546.  In  view  of  the  arbitrary  Avay  in  which  Pro- 
testants had  dealt  Avith  the  Scriptures,  accepting  some  poi  • 
tions  of  them  and  rejecting  others,  the  Fathers  in  this  Session 
drew  up  and  decided  upon  the  Canon  of  the  Bible,  in  the 
drafting  of  which  they  conformed  to  those  of  the  Councils  of 
Hippo  (393),  Carthage  (397),  and  Trullo  (880).  Of  all  the 
Latin  versions  then  in  use,  tbej'  declared  the  Vulgate  to  be  the 
authentic  one  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that,  in  whatever  relates  to 
faith  and  morals,  it  is  in  substantial  agreement  with  the  orig- 
inal text.  They  further  showed  the  relation  of  Holy  Scriptiu^e 
to  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  and  explained  the  rule  of  interpre- 
tation. In  putting  an  interpretation  upon  Holy  Scripture, 
that  one  is  to  be  chosen  which  is  most  in  accord  with  the 
principles  handed  down  in  the  Church  from  age  to  age.' 
Some  regulations  were  also  made  concerning  the  editions  of 
the  Holy  Bible. 

In  the  Fifth  Session,  in  which  many  points  of  the  Church's 
doctrine  on  original  sin  came  up  for  discussion,  it  was  decreed 
that  Adam,  by  his  fall,  had  deteriorated  in  both  soul  and  body ; 
that  the  efiects  of  his  fall  had  been  transmitted  hy  proj^aga- 
tion  to  all  his  descendants  ;  that  these  effects  are  wholly  re- 
moved by  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  and  His  grace  in  the 
Sacrament  of  Baptism ;  that  the  concupiscence,  which  still  lin- 


time;  Latin  ed.,  Vienna,  1871 ;  German  edition,  with  a  parallel  drawn  between 
the  Counc.  of  Trent  and  that  of  the  Vatican,  1871. 

1  Agreeing  in  substance  with  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian.  who  flourished  toward 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  and  using  almost  the  precise  words  of  Vincent 
of  LerHs  in  the  fifth  century  (see  Vol.  I.,  pp.  409,  587),  the  Council  of  Trent  or- 
dained "Ut  nemo  suae  prudentiae  innixus,  in  rebus  Jidei  et  niorum — sacram 
scripturam  ad  suos  sensus  contorquens  contra  eum  sensum,  quem  tenuit  et  tenet 
sancta  mater  ecclesia,  cujus  est  judicare  de  vero  sensu  et  interpretatione  scrip- 
turarum  sacrarum,  aut  etiam  contra  unanimem  consensum  Patrum  ipsam  sa- 
cram scripturam  interpretari  audeat."  Cf.  Alzog,  Explicatio  Catholicor.  sys- 
tematis  de  interpretat.  litterarum  sacr.,  Monaster,  1835.  Friedlieb,  Scripture, 
Tradition,  and  Church  Exegesis,  Bresl.  1854. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  345 

gers  in  man,  is  not  in  itself  sinful;  that  this  decree  has  no 
reference  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  ;  and  that  the  decrees  of 
Sixtus  IV.  relating  to  her  are  in  no  wise  impaired.  The  de- 
cree on  reformation  had  reference  to  the  teaching  of  the  Holj 
Scriptures,  to  the  encouragement  of  the  liberal  arts,  and  to 
the  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  It  was  ordained  that  all  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  and  other  prelates  should  preach,  either  in 
person  or  by  substitute  ;  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the 
Council  was  not  only  fully  aware  of  the  source  of  the  grow- 
ing evils,  but  fearlessly  struck  at  their  very  root. 

The  Sixth.  Session,  held  January  13,  1547,  issued  a  decree 
on  justification,^  which  is  a  perfect  model  of  doctrinal  exposi- 
tion, discards  heretical  errors,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  lu- 
minous precision  of  its  language. 


^Against  JAdhe.r's  doctrine  on  justification  (see  g  340),  " justificatio"  is  de- 
fined as  the  "translatio  ab  eo  statu,  in  quo  homo  nascitur  filius  primi  Adae,  in 
statum  gratiae  et  adoptionis  filiorum  Dei  per  secundum  Adam  Jesum  Chris- 
tum, salvatorem  nostrum."  More  explicitly  it  is  then  described  as  non  solum 
(abolitio)  remissio  peccatorum,  sed  et  sanctificatio  et  renovatio  interioris  homi- 
nis  per  voluntariam  susceptionem  gratiae  et  donorum  (1  Corinth.,  vi.  11  ;  Tit. 
iii.  5-7).  The  relation  of /«iM  to  justification  is  determined  thus:  "Fides  et 
humanae  salutis  initium,  jundmneiitii'm  et  radix  omnis  jusHJicationis,  sine  qua 
impossibile  c^t  placere  Deo  et  ad  filiorum  ejus  consortium  venire"  (^S^ss.  VI., 
cap.  8),  which  is  directly  against  Lui/ter,  who  maintained  that  faith  is  The 
"fastigium  omnis  justificationis." 

The  doctrine  of  imputative  justice,  invented  by  Luther,  and  perfected  by 
Calvin,  is  rejected  by  the  Council  thus:  "Si  quis  magnum  illud  usque  in  ficem 
perseverantiaedonum  se  certo  habiturum,  absoluta  et  infallibili  certitudine  dix- 
erit,  nisi  hoc  ex  apeciaii  revela.tione  didicerit,  anathemata  sit."  Sess.  VI.,  can.  16. 
Cf.  Caput  12.  The  views  of  Luther  on  the  liberty  of  man,  which  are  so  many  de- 
velopments of  his  do(;trine  on  justification,  are  condemned  thus:  "Si  quis  li- 
berum  hominis  arbitrium  post  Adae  peecatum  amissum  et  extinctum  &>se  di.x- 
erit;  aut  rem  esse  de  solo  titulo,  immo  titulum  sine  re,  figmentum  denique  a 
satana  invectum  in  ecclesiam:  anathema  sit"  (Sess.  VI.,  can.  5.)  Luther's 
theory  of  the  total  helplessness  and  perverseness  of  paganism  was  emphaticnlly 
discarded  in  these  words:  "Si  quis  dixerit,  opera  omnia,  quae  ante  jvstificn- 
tionem  Jiunt,  quacumque  ratione  facta  sint,  vere  esse  peccata,  vel  odium  Dei 
mereri ;  aut  quanto  vehementius  quis  nititur  se  disponere  ad  gratium,  tautc 
eum  gravius  peccare  :  anathema  sit."  Agreeably  to  this  canon,  the  regula  VII. 
of  the  regulae  decern  de  libris  prohibitis  against  Luther  and  others,  favored  the 
heathen  classics,  stating:  "  Antiqui  vero  ab  ethnicis  conscripti  libri  propter 
sermonis  eleganliam  et  proprietatem  permittuntur;  nulla  tamen  ratione  ^weru 
praelegendi  sunt."  The  last  words,  according  to  the  context,  refer  to  "libri, 
qui  res  lascivas  seu  obscoenas  ex  professo  tractant,  narranc  aut  docent,  etc." 


346  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  4. 

The  decrees  on  reformation  euforce  the  cUity  of  episcopal  res- 
idence and  the  visitation  of  churches. 

The  decrees  of  the  Seventh  Session,  by  logical  sequence,  pass 
on  to  the  consideration  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Sacraments  in 
general,^  and  of  Baptism  and  Confirmation  in  particular. 

The  decree  on  reformation  forbids  the  holding  of  incompati- 
ble benefices,  and  ordains  that  they  can  not  be  legally  taken 
possession  of  until  after  the  candidates  have  proved  their  fit- 
ness by  a  rigid  examination,  except  in  instances  in  which  the 
appointments  have  been  made  by  universities. 

The  Council  had  thus  far  done  its  work  in  peace,  but  un- 
fortunately at  this  stage  of  its  proceedings  its  progress  was 
interrupted  by  the  unfriendly  relations  of  the  Pope  and  the 
Emperor  Charles  Y.  By  the  victory  of  Muehlberg,  the  em- 
peror had  dissolved  the  League  of  Smalkald.  Fearing  that 
Charles  would  now  employ  his  newly- strengthened  authority 
against  the  Church,  and  desiring  to  have  the  Council  at  a 
more  convenient  distance  from  Rome,  he  transferred  it  from 
Trent  to  Bologna.  There  was  also  another  reason  for  the 
transference.  Trent  was  menaced  with  a  terrible  pestilence, 
the  presence  of  which,  according  to  the  testimony  of  physi- 
cians, was  already  indicated  by  unmistakable  signs. 

In  the  Eighth  Session  (March  11,  1547),  a  majority  of  the 
bishops  expressed  themselves  in  favor  of  the  change,  and  at 
once  set  out  for  Bologna.  Here  the  continuation  of  the  work 
of  the  Council  was  prevented  by  the  opposition  of  the  em- 
peror and  the  bishops  in  his  interest,  and,  after  two  unimpor- 
tant Sessions,  the  Pope  ordered  Cardinal  del  Monte  to  dismiss 
the  Fathers.  Before  they  could  be  again  called  together, 
Paul  III.  died.^  The  abilities  and  other  admirable  qualities 
of  the  Pope  were  marred  by  his  unseemly  nepotism. 

His  successor,  JwZiws  III.  (del  Monte,  1550-1555),  had  taken 


' "  Si  quis  dixerit,  sacramenta  novae  legis  non  fuisse  omnia  a  Jesu  Christo 
Domino  nostro  instituta;  aut  esse  plura  vel  pauciora  quam  sepiem,  videlicet 
baptismum,  confirmationem,  etc.,  aut  etiam  aliquod  horum  soptem  non  esse 
vere  et  proprie  sacramentuni :  anathema  sit. — Si  quis  dixerit,  ea  ipsa  nova  legia 
sacramenta  a  sacramentis  antiquae  legis  non  differre,  nisi  quia  ceremoniae  sunt 
iiliae,  et  alii  ritus  externi:  anathema  sit."     ^Sess.  VII.,  can.  1  and  2.) 

"^(^uirini^  Imago  opt.  Pontif.  expressa  in  gestis  Paul  III.,  Brix.  1745. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  347 

an  oath  in  Conclave  to  immediately  convoke  the  Council,  and 
as  the  emperor  seemed  favorable  to  the  project,  its  sessions 
were  again  opened  at  Trent  in  May,  1551. 

On  account  of  a  quarrel  existing  between  the  Pope  and 
Henry  II.,  King  of  France,  concerning  the  Duchy  of  Parma, 
tlie  latter  forbade  the  French  bishops  to  go  to  Trent.  Nev- 
■ertheless,  the  business  of  the  Council  went  on. 

The  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Sessions  (May  1  and  September  1, 
1551),  were  merely  preparatory  to  succeeding  ones;  and  in 
the  Thirteenth  Session  (October  11th),  the  all-important  ques- 
tion of  the  Eucharist  was  taken  up.  It  was  defined  that,  after 
the  act  of  consecration,  Christ  is  really,  truly,  and  substantially 
present  in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  under  the  forms  of 
bread  and  wine,  in  His  Divinity  and  in  His  Humanity ;  that 
He  is  received  in  Holy  Communion,  not  only  spiritually,  but 
sacramentally  and  really ;  and  that  He  is  to  be  set  up  in  the 
remonstrance  for  the  adoration  of  the  people.^  The  Fathers 
gave  no  attention  at  all  to  the  quarrel  between  the  Francis- 
cans and  Dominicans  as  to  the  mode  of  Christ's  Presence, 
whether  It  is  by  'production  or  adduction? 

The  decree  on  reformation  speaks  of  canonical  correction  and 
the  reformation  of  the  clergy.  The  rights  of  bishops  were 
also  deiined,  and  it  was  determined  that  no  appeal  should  be 
taken  from  an  episcopal  to  a  higher  tribunal  before  the  final 
decision  of  the  former  had  been  given.  A  form  of  a  safe- 
conduct  was  also  drawn  up  for  the  use  of  such  Protest- 
ants as  wished  to  visit  the  Council ;  but  it  was  declined 
by  them  as  unsatisfactory.  In  the  Fourteenth  Session  the 
doctrine  of  the  Sacraments  of  Penance^  and  Extreme   Vnc- 


1  Seas.  XIII.,  can.  1 :  "  Si  quis  negaverit,  in  sanctissimae  eucharistiae  Sacra- 
mento contineri  vere,  realiter  et  substantiaiiier  Corpus  et  Sanguinem,  U7ia  cum 
anima  et  divinitate  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  ac  proinde  totum  Christum  ;  sed 
dixerit  tantummodo  esse  in  eo,  ut  in  signo  vel  figura,  aut  virtute:  anathema 
sit."  It  is  easily  seen  that  the  marked  term  vere  is  directed  against  the  Eucha- 
ristic  doctrine  of  Zwinglius,  realiter  against  Luther  and  Calvin,  who  denied  the 
objective  reality  of  Christ's  presence,  and  substnntialiter  against  Calvin. 

■^See  Vol.  II.,  p.  781,  note  1. 

'"Si  quis  dixerit,  in  catholica  ecclesia  poenitentiam  non  esse  vere  et  proprie 
saeramentum  pro  fldelibus,  quoties  post  Baptismum  in  peccata  labuntur,  ipsi 


348  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

tion'^  was  defined.  The  decree  on  reformation  speaks  of  the 
manner  of  life  becoming  the  clergy,  the  conferring  of  Holy 
Orders,  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  and  other  subjects  of  a 
cognate  nature. 

In  the  Fifteenth  Session  (January  25,  1552),  the  Fathers  pro- 
longing the  proceedings,  out  of  consideration  for  many  Pro- 
testant States  and  princes,  who  had  signified  their  intention 
to  send  theologians  to  the  Council,'  drew  up  another  safe- 
conduct,  more  explicit  in  form  than  the  preceding  one;  but 
this  also  was  declined  as  unsatisfactory.  It  was  objected  by 
the  Protestants  that  it  did  not  grant  their  theologians  the 
right  to  vote  ;  that  it  barred  any  discussion  of  questions  al- 
ready settled;  that  it  did  not  recognize  the  Bible  as  the  only 
source  of  faith;  that  it  held  the  Pope  to  be  above  the  Coun- 
cil, and  not  subject  to  its  rulings  ;  and  that  it  contained  a 
refusal  to  release  the  bishops  from  their  oaths  of  obedience. 

After  many  inefl^ectual  efltbrts  had  been  made  to  bring  about 
an  understanding,  the  perfidious  conduct  of  Maurice  of  Sax- 
ony, who,  betrajdng  the  emperor,  hastily  occupied  the  defiles 
of  the  Tyrol,  necessitated  the  suspension  of  the  Council  in 
its  Sixteenth  Session.  Before  breaking  up,  the  Fathers  mu- 
tually agreed  to  assemble  again  at  the  expiration  of  two  years. 
Nine  years,  however,  went  by  before  the  Council  again  as- 
sembled, and  in  the  meantime  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augs- 
burg had  been  concluded  (1555).  While  these  events  were 
transpiring,  Julius  III.  and  his  worthy  successor,  Marcellus  II., 
whose  elevation  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  was  hailed  as  the 
return  of  the  golden  age  of  the  Church,^  went  to  their  reward. 


Deo  reconciliandis  a  Christo  Dom.  nostro  instituturn:  anathema  sit."     (Sess. 
XIV.  de  poenit.,  can.  1.     Cf.  cap.  1  and  2.) 

^  "  Si  quis  dixerit,  Extremam  Unctionem  no7i  esse  vere  ei  proprie  sacrameniuin. 
a  Christo  Dom.  nost.  institutum  et  insinuatum  (Marc.  vi.  13)  et  a  beato  Jacobo 
A.^os,t6\o  proniulgatum  et  fidelibus  commendatum  (Jacob,  v.  14,  15),  r-ed  ritum 
tantum  acceptum  a  Patribu?,  aut  figmentum  humanum:  anathema  sit."  (Sess. 
XIV.  de  sacram.  extremae  unct.,  can.  1.     Cf.  cap.  I.) 

2  Cf.  the  work  written  before  this  time :  Alberti  Pighii  Apologia  indicti  a 
Paulo  III.,  Rom.  Pontifice  concilii  adv.  Lutheranae  confoederationis  rationes 
plerasque,  Colon.  1538. 

3  P.  Polidori  de  vita  Marcelli  II.  commentar.,  Rom.  1744,  4to.  The  words 
of  Cato  were  often  applied  to  Marcellus  (Cervini) :  "  O  te  felicem,  a  quo  nemo 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  349 


The  next  successor  to  the  Papacy  was  Paul  IV.  (CarafFa, 
1555-1559),  probably  the  least  courtly  and  accomplished  of  the 
cardinals.  He  found  himself  at  once  engaged  in  a  dispute 
with  the  emperor  concerning  the  kingdom  of  Naples.^  He 
had  also  the  mortification  to  see  his  authority  disregarded  in 
the  matter  of  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  and  the  elevation 
of  his  brother,  Ferdinand,  to  the  Imperial  throne  ;  and  tVora 
that  day  to  this  the  crowning  of  an  emperor  at  Rome  has  not 
so  much  as  been  thought  of.  The  Duke  of  Alva  appeared  be- 
fore the  walls  of  Rome,  and  threatened  the  city  with  the  same 
disasters  that  had  come  upon  it  in  the  3'ear  1527. 

In  the  early  days  of  his  reign  the  conduct  of  the  Pope 
had  been  open  to  the  charge  of  nepotism  ;  and  when,  later  on, 
he  changed  his  policy,  and  proceeded  with  considerable  se- 
verity against  laxity  in  morals,  the  designs  of  his  relatives, 
and  the  insubordination  of  the  subjects  of  the  States  of  the 
Church,  the  people  rose  in  rebellion  against  him.  By  the  bull 
'■'Cam  ex  apostolatus  officio  "  he  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
restore  the  Papal  prerogatives  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

■  Pius  IV.  (1559-1565)  confirmed  the  title  of  Ferdinand  I.  to 
the  Imperial  Crown,  and  on  the  29th  of  ^November,  1560,^  again 
convoked  the  Council.  On  the  previous  3d  of  June  he  had 
declared  in  tlie  College  of  Cardinals  his  wish  to  have  the 
Council  meet,  in  the  following  words  :  "  We  desire  the  as- 
sembling of  the  Council.  Did  we  not  desire  it,  we  should  be 
left  to  struggle  on  against  difficulties,  wdiich  it  is  our  wish  to 
remove.  The  Council  shall  reform  whatever  there  is  to  be 
reformed,  even  it  be  our  own  person  and  our  own  affairs.  If 
we  have  any  other  thought  than  to  serve  God,  may  His  pun- 
ishment come  upon  us."  The  Council  was  again  opened  at 
Trent;  although  the  Protestants,  without  any  sufficient  reason, 

audet  quidquam  inhonestum  petere !"  He  was,  besides,  a  very  learned  man. 
Only  Sarpi  attempts  to  make  him  an  astrologer,  but  is  ably  refuted  by  Pal- 
lavicini. 

"^  A.  Carraccioli,  Collect,  hist,  de  vita  Pauli  IV.,  Col.  1G12,  4to.  F.  Magii 
di.?quis.  de  Paul.  IV.  inculpata  vita,  Neap.  1672,  fol.  Bromaia,  Storia  di  Pack 
IV.,  ]Jom.  1748,  2  T.,  4to.  Iiewno7it,' Wist,  of  Pvome,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  II.,  pp. 
5113,  sq. 

^  Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  translated  by  J.  Waterworth^ 
p.  131,  N.  Y.  and  Lond.  1848.  (Tr.) 


350  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

had  demanded  that  it  should  convene  in  some  city  nearer 
Germany.  The  Papal  Legate  Hercules  Gonzaga,  who  was  ap- 
pointed to  preside,  came  attended  by  a  number  of  cardinals,, 
of  whom  ^Stanislaus  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Ermeland,  was  the 
most  distinguished.  At  the  opening  of  the  Seventeenth  Ses- 
sion one  hundred  and  twelve  Fathers  were  present.  This  and 
all  the  other  Sessions  to  the  Twentieth,  inclusive,  were  engaged 
in  preparatory  work.  In  the  Eighteenth  Session  a  third  safe- 
conduct  was  drawn  up,  containing  concessions  the  most  am- 
ple, and  addressed,  not  only  to  the  Germans,  but  to  the  dep- 
uties of  the  other  nations.  All  were  called  upon  by  the  tender 
mercies  of  God  to  help  in  bringing  about  harmony  and  re- 
conciliation ;  to  practice  charity,  which  is  the  bond  of  perfec- 
tion ;  and  to  bear  within  their  breasts  the  peace  of  Christ, 
which  gladdens  the  heart. 

In  the  Twenty-first  Session  a  decree  was  published  on  Com- 
munion under  both  kinds  and  on  the  Communion  of  little 
children.  On  the  first  point  the  Council  reaffirmed  the  de- 
cisions of  Basle,  stating  that  Communion  under  one  kind  ia 
sufficient,  but  that  as  time  goes  on  and  circumstances  require, 
the  Church  may  introduce  changes  in  the  administration  of 
the  Sacraments,  without  affecting  their  substance.  On  the 
second  point  it  was  declared  that  Communion  was  not  neces- 
sary to  the  salvation  of  little  children.  The  decree  on  reforma- 
tion speaks  more  or  less  in  detail  of  the  various  duties  of 
episcopal  administration. 

In  the  Twenty-second  Session,  which  treats  of  the  Holy  Sac- 
rifice of  the  Mass,  the  Eucharist  is  declared  to  be  "  verum, 
proprium,  et propitiatorium  sacrificium."  The  sublimity  which 
characterizes  the  decisions  relating  to  the  Eucharist  is  in  ad- 
mirable harmony  with  the  surpassing  grandeur  of  the  subject. 
The  Council  expresses  a  wish  that  all  persons  present  would 
receive  Holy  Communion  at  the  daily  Masses,  and  also  ap- 
proves of  the  celebration  of  private  Masses.  The  decision  of 
the  question  on  the  use  of  the  Cup  by  the  laity,  after  a  pro- 
longed discussion,  was  referred  to  the  Pope,  who,  at  the  in- 
stance of  Charles  Borromeo,  and  quite  contrary  to  the  general 
opinion  of  the  Fathers  at  the  close  of  the  debate,  expressed 
himself  favorable  to  the  concession.     In  an  affectionate  brief, 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  351 

addressed  to  several  bishops  of  Bavaria  and  Austria,  he  gave 
permission  to  distribute  Ploly  Communion  to  the  laity  under 
both  kinds.  This  permission,  which  was  granted  only  for  the 
sake  of  making  a  trial,  was,  after  a  short  time,  voluntarily 
surrendered  by  the  laity  themselves,  owing  to  the  many  in- 
conveniences attending  the  practice.^ 

The  decree  on  reformation  re[)eatedly  reminds  the  clergy  of 
the  dignity  of  their  high  calling,  exhorting  them  to  lead  a  life 
in  every  way  in  keeping  with  it;  urges  the  necessity  of  con- 
ferring canonries  on  worthy  candidates;  and  insists  on  the 
conscientious  administration  of  church  property. 

In  the  sittings  preparatory  to  the  Twenty-third  Session  a 
warm  and  animated  discussion  took  place  on  the  question  of 
the  divine  institution  of  the  episcopate.  This  gave  occasion  to 
the  revival  of  the  old  controversy  on  the  superiority  of  an 
Ecumenical  Council  to  the  Pope,  between  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  bishops  on  the  one  side,  and  the  lately  arrived  French 
bishops  on  the  other.^  The  principles  of  the  Roman  school 
were  earnestly  and  eloquently  defended  by  the  Italians,  who 
maiutaiiicMl  tliat  the  mission  and  jurisdiction  of  bishopa 
are  derived  soUfy  from  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff . 
Their  efforts,  however,  to  have  their  views  adopted  were  un- 
successful. The  Pope  had  instructed  his  Legates  to  guard  the 
rights  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  event  of  the  Council  taking  up 
the  question  of  the  whole  hierarchy  of  the  Church.  They 
were  to  see  to  it,  not  only  that  the  Pope  should  receive  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  mention  as  the  Head  of  the  Universal  Church, 
but  that  his  prerogatives  should  be  enumerated  in  the  words 
of  the  Councd  of  Florence,  and  that  they  should  not  tolerate 
the  statements  there  made  to  be  in  any  wise  enfeebled.  But 
learning  the  conflicting  opinions  of  the  Fathers,  Pius  sent 
word  that  he  would  be  content  if  no  decision  at  all  were  ex- 


'Cf.  Pallamcini,  lib.  XXIV.,  toward  the  end.  Dieringer,  Charles  Borromeo, 
Cologne,  1846,  pp.  172  sq.     Buchholtz,  Hist,  of  Ferd.,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  660. 

^  Pailavicini,  Hist.  cone.  Trid.,  lib.  XIX.,  cap.  5,  nro.  5,  informs  us  that  the 
bishop,  Melchior  Avosmediano  of  Cadiz,  was  interrupted  on  the  1st  of  Decem- 
ber, 1562,  in  an  unbecoming  manner:  Quidam  studio  sive  immoderato  sive  af- 
fectato  conclamarunt — dimlttatur — anathema — comburatur,  haereticua  est  (cf. 
nro.  8).     Alii  conati  sunt  aut  pedum  supplosione  aut  sibilo  eum  impedire. 


352  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

pressed,  whether  concerning  the  authority  of  a  bishop  or  of 
his  own.  Under  any  circumstances,  no  definition  should  be 
proclaimed  that  had  not  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  Fathers 
{unanimi  consensu).  The  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  (Guise)  ex- 
pressed himself  in  favor  of  this  course  as  at  once  moderate 
and  conciliatory.  "  The  true  prosperity  of  the  Holy  See," 
paid  he,  "  depends  not  on  this  or  that  little  word,  which  may 
more  forcibly  express  its  prerogatives,  but  on  the  obedience 
of  nations  and  the  peace  of  Christendom."  He  also  expressed 
a  wish  that  in  those  troubled  times  the  Holy  See  would  be 
content  with  its  acknowledged  authority  and  importance, 
without  requiring  them  to  be  set  forth  in  any  more  precise  and 
explicit  declarations.  For  himself,  he  said,  he  would  submit 
his  own  judgment  in  the  matter  to  that  of  the  Pope  and  the 
authority  of  the  Church.^  The  question  of  a  definition  on 
this  point  was  then  waived,  and  after  the  eight  canons,  con- 
demnatory of  the  false  doctrines  on  the  Sacrament  of  Holy 
Orders,  it  was  merely  added  that  "  if  any  one  say  that  the 
bishops,  appointed  by  authority  of  the  Roman  Pontifi:',  are  not 
true  and  lawful  bishops,  but  of  human  institution,  let  him  be 
anathema."  As  the  Pope's  supremacy  had  been  virtually  de- 
clared in  a  preceding  Session,^  this  definition  was  accepted  as 
sufficient. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  duty  of  residence  was  binding 
upon  bishops  by  humayi  or  divine  laio  was  also  warmly  discussed, 
but  finally  dismissed  without  a  formal  definition.  The  decree 
on  reformation  (chap.  I.),  however,  states  that,  '"whereas,  it  is 
by  divine  precept  enjoined  on  all,  to  whom  the  cure  of  souls 
is  committed,  to  know  their  own  sheep ;  to  offer  sacrifice  for 
them ;  and  by  preaching  of  the  divine  word,  by  the  adminis- 


1  Cf.  Pallavicini,  1.  c,  lib.  XIX.,  c.  8,  nro.  6,  toward  the  end ;  cap.  15,  nro.  3, 
at  tlie  end    cap.  16,  nros.  6  and  9,  toward  the  end. 

'^Sess.  XIV.,  cap.  VII.,  de  Poenitentia:  Ss.  patribus  visum  est,  ut  atrociora 
quaedam  et  graviora  crimina  non  a  quibusvis,  sed  a  summis  duntaxat  sacerdoti- 
bus  absolverentur :  unde  xnev'ito  pontifiees  ■)naximipro  summa  poiesiate  sibi  in 
ecclesia  tiniversa  tradita  causas  aliquas  criminiim  graviores  sue  potuerunt  pe- 
culiari  judicio  reservare.  Confer  with  this :  Postremo  sanctasynodus  (declarat), 
omnia  et  singula,  quae  sub  Paulo  III.,  ae  Julio  III.  et  Pio  IV.  in  hoc  sacro  con- 
cilio  statuta  sunt,  ita  decreta  fuisse,  ut  in  his  salva  semper  aucioriias  sedis  apos- 
iolicae  et  ait  et  esse  intelligatur. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  353 

tration  of  the  Sacraments,  and  by  the  example  of  all  good 
works,  to  feed  them;"  and,  whereas,  these  offices  can  not  be 
jiorformed  by  those  who  "  abandon  their  flocks  after  the  man- 
ner of  hirelings;  the  Holy  Synod  admonishes  and  exhorts 
such  that,  mindful  of  the  divine  precepts,  and  being  'patterns 
of  their  flocks,  they  feed  and  rule  in  judgment  and  in  truth."' 
Therefore,  all  persons  "  set  over  cathedral  churches  are  bound 
to  personal  residence,"  and  may  not  be  absent  except  when 
"  Christian  charity,  urgent  necessity,  due  obedience,  and  the 
evident  utility  of  the  Church  or  of  the  Commonwealth"  de- 
mand it,  and  then  only  \yhen  "these  causes  are  approved  in 
writing  by  the  most  blessed  Roman  Pontifl',  or  by  the  metro- 
politan, or,  in  his  absence,  by  the  oldest  suffragan  bishop." 

By  these  exciting  discussions,  the  Twenty-third  Session, 
which  was  to  be  public  and  solemn,  was  delayed  till  the  15th 
of  July,  1563.  There  were  present,  besides  the  Papal  Legates 
and  the  embassadors  of  the  emperor;  of  the  kings  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal  ;  of  the  Republic  of  Venice,  and  of  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  tw^o  hundred  and  eight  bishops,  many  abbots 
and  generals  of  Religious  orders,  and  a  large  number  of  doc- 
tors in  theology.  The  doctrine,  as  set  forth  in  this  Session, 
concerning  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders,  declares  that  there 
exists  in  the  Catholic  Church  a  visible  priesthood,  correspond- 
ing to  the  visible  Sacrifice  of  the  Eucharist ;  that  this  priest- 
hood was  instituted  by  Christ,  and  took  the  place  of  that  of 
the  Old  Law  ;  and  that  Christ  gave  to  His  Apostles  and  their 
successors  the  power  of  consecrating,  offering  up,  and  distrib- 
uting His  Body  and  Blood,  as  also  that  of  forgiving  and  re- 
taining sins.  The  Council  further  declared  that,  to  the  end 
that  these  functions  might  be  more  perfectly  and  worthily  per- 
formed, the  hierarchical  degrees  of  major  and  minor  Orders 
had  been  instituted,  and  that  the  Sacrament  of  Holy  Orders 
sets  an  ineffaceable  mark  upon  the  soul  of  the  recipient,  inso- 
much that  he  who  is  once  a  priest  can  never  cease  to  be  such  ; 
and  that,  therefore,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  one  to  say 
that  this  Sacrament  and  the  ceremonies  by  which  it  is  con- 
ferred are  useless  and  void  of  meaning. 

The  decree  on  reformation  sets  forth  the  duties  of  bishops 
VOL.   ITT — 23 


354  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

and  cardinals  regarding  residence  in  the  sense  already  de- 
scribed. Rules  were  next  laid  down  to  be  observed  in  the  con- 
ferring of  Orders.  It  was  also  stated  that  such  as  had  received 
priests'  Orders  should  not  administer  the  Sacramevt  of  Penance, 
unless  they  possessed  a  benefice,  to  which  was  attached  tlie 
cure  of  souls,  or  had  been  specially  approved  by  the  bishoji 
for  that  office.  Pre-eminent  importance  was  attached  to  the 
ordinance,  in  the  Eighteenth  Chapter,  providing  for  the  erec- 
tion of  diocesan  seminaries  for  clerics.  The  founding  of  Semi- 
naria  puerorum,  it  was  urged,  was  necessary,  "  because  youth, 
unless  it  be  rightly  trained,  is  prone  to  follow  after  the  pleas- 
ures of  the  world;  and  unless  it  be  formed,  from  its  tender 
years,  unto  piety  and  religion,  before  habits  of  vice  have 
taken  possession  of  the  whole  man,  it  never  will  perfectly, 
and  without  the  greatest  and  well-nigh  special  help  of  Al- 
mighty God,  persevere  in  ecclesiastical  discipline." 

The  Fathers  looked  forward  to  the  foundation  of  semina- 
ries as  productive  of  so  much  good  that  they  freely  declared 
that  the  passing  of  this  ordinance,  had  the  Council  accom- 
plished no  other  work,  would  amply  reward  them  for  their 
labors.  The  Pope  w^as  the  first  to  carry  ont  its  provisions  by 
founding  the  Roman  Seminary,  and  thus  inspired  the  other 
bishops  by  his  example. 

The  Twenty  fourth  Session,  held  I^ovember  11,  1563,  treated 
the  Sacrament  of  31arriage  from  a  dogmatic  point  of  view. 
In  deference  to  the  Venetian  envoys,  the  actual  condition  of 
the  Catholic  Greeks  was  taken  into  account  in  the  determina- 
tion of  this  question,  and,  instead  of  directly  defining  the 
absolute  indissolubility  of  marriage,  thQ  Seventh  Canon  puts  the 
matter  indirectly  as  follows:  "If  one  say  that  the  Church 
errs,  in  that  she  has  taught  and  does  teach,  in  accordance 
wnth  the  evangelical  and  apostolical  doctrine,  that  the  bond 
of  matrimony  can  not  be  dissolved  on  account  of  the  adul- 
tery of  one  of  the  married  parties,  let  him  be  anathema." 
The  attitude  of  the  Reformers,  who  had  accused  the  Church 
of  error  on  the  question  of  marriage,  rendered  the  abovo 
declaration  necessary.  It  was  also  defined  that  the  Church 
alone  has  the  power  to  determine  what  are  the  impcj/imenfs 
dissolving  marriage;  that  any  marriage,  to  be  valid,  must  bn 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  355 

performed  in  presence  of  the  pastor  of  the  contracting  iiarties 
iuid  t\oo  witnesses;  and  that  ecclesiastical  jndges  are  alone 
<;ompetcnt  to  take  cognizance  of  matrimonial  canses.  It  was 
found  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  clandestine  marriages,  to 
oblige  the  contracting  parties  to  appear  with  witnesses  before 
their  pastor.  The  impediments  of  kindred  were  reduced,  and 
the  necessity  of  caution  insisted  on  in  the  case  of  vagrants 
coming  up  to  be  married.  Concubinage  was  declared  a  heinous 
sin,  and  severe  penalties  were  pronounced  against  those  guilty 
of  it;  and  the  civil  powers  received  a  threatening  admonition 
not  to  interfere  with  the  freedom  of  marriage. 

The  decree  on  reformation  speaks  of  the  duties  of  those  whose 
right  it  is  to  select  candidates  for  bishoprics ;  embodies  a  re- 
quest asking  the  Pope,  for  the  future,  to  appoint  the  cardinals 
from  all  Christian  nations ;  ordains  that  diocesan  synods  shall 
be  held  annually,  and  provincial  councils  everj' three  years; 
prescribes  the  manner  of  making  the  visitation  of  churches 
and  administering  a  diocese  during  a  vacanc}' ;  points  out 
once  more  the  qualifications  to  be  possessed  by  those  who  are 
to  be  raised  to  canon ries  or  other  dignities  in  cathedral 
churches;  and,  finally,  gives  instructions  regulating  the  con 
ferring  of  benefices,  and  restricts  the  possession  of  a  number 
of  them  (pluralitas  heneficiorum)  by  one  person. 

A  general  desire  was  now^  expressed  to  have  the  Council 
come  to  a  close,  and  the  Pope's  illness,  which  w^as  daily  show- 
ing more  alarming  sj'mptoms,  influenced  the  more  prudent 
of  the  Fathers  to  acquiesce  in  the  common  wish.  With  the 
Twenty-fifth  Session  (December  3,  1563),  therefore,  the  Great 
Council  ended  its  labors.  The  decrees  of  this  Session  had 
reference  to  Purgatory,  and  the  Veneration  of  Saints,  Images, 
and  Relics.^     The  teachins:  of  the  Church  on  Indulsrences  was 


*  Concerning  purgatory:  Synodus  docet  Purgatorimn  esse,  aniniasque  ibi 
-detentas  fidcliuni  suffragiis,  potissimum  vero  acceptabili  altaris  sacrificio  juvari. 
Apud  rudem  vero  populum  difficiliores  ac  subtiliores  qiiaestiones,  quaequc  ad 
aediflcationem  non  faciunt, — a  popularibus  concionibus  secludantur.— Ea  quae 
ad  curiositatem  quandam,  aut  superstitionem  spectant,  vel  turpe  lucrum  sapiunt, 
tanquam  scandala  et  fidelium  offendicula  prohibeant  Episcopi. 

Concerning  the  veneration  of  saints,  itnages,  and  relics :  Mandat  sancta 
«ynodus  episcopis — ut  juxta  catholicae  et  apostolicae  ecclesiae  usum — fideles 
diligenter  instruant,  Sanctos  una  cum  Christo   regnantes  oratioues  suas  pro 


356  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

given  compendiously  in  an  appendix.  It  is  there  stated  that 
the  Church  has  received  of  God  the  power  of  granting  indul- 
gences; that  these  indulgences  are  salutary;  but  that  they 
must  be  sparingly  granted,  ^^s;!,  if  they  should,  be  obtained  with 
too  great  ease,  the  discipline  of  the  Church  might  become  enfeebled} 
More  than  this  it  was  unnecessary  to  say,  as  Pope  Leo  X.,  in 
a  bull,  published  in  the  year  1518,  had  fully  defined  and  ex- 
plained the  doctrine  on  indulgences  ;  but  the  Fathers  wisely 
resolved  not  to  put  the  question  aside  altogether,  lest  it  might 
be  thought  they  wished  to  shirk  the  very  question  that  had 
given  occasion  to  the  schism. 

The  decree  on  reformation  provides  for  the  thorough  reform 
of  whatever  pertains  to  the  cloister;  counsels  cardinals  and 
prelates  to  have  a  becoming,  but  modest  household  ;  pro- 
nounces severe  punishment  against  those  guilty  of  concu- 
binage; speaks  of  the  uses  of  excommunication;  return? 
once  more  to  the  subjects  of  episcopal  visitation,  the  confer- 
ring of  benefices,  and  the  administration  of  church  property  ; 
and,  iinall}',  remarks  upon  clerical  exemptions  and  other  kin- 
dred matters.  It  was  also  ordained  that  the  Congregation, 
then  engaged  in  preparing  a  Catechism  of  the  Council,  a  nev; 
Missal,  a  Breviary,  and  an  Index  of  Forbidden  Books,  should 
submit  its  work,  when  completed,  to  the  Sovereign  Pontiff, 
under  whose  special  supervision  it  should  be  published. 

Princes  were  called  upon  in  the  name  of  God  to  assist  in 


hominibus  Deo  oflerre;  bonum  atque  utile  esse  suppliciter  eos  invocare;  et  ob 
beneficia  impetranda  a  Deo  per  fdium  ejii.i  J.  Chr.  D.  n.,  qui  solus  vaster  re- 
dempior  et  salvator  est,  ad  eorura  orationes,  opem  auxiliumque  confugere.  Illos 
vero,  qai  negant,  Sanctos  invocandos  esse — aut  asserunt — invocationom  esse 
idololatriam,  vel  pugnare  cum  verbo  Dei,  adversarique  honori  unius  mediaturis 
Uei  et  hominum  Jesu  Christi — impie  sentire. 

Imagines  porro  Christi,  Deiparae  virginis  et  aliorum  sanctorum  in  templis 
praesertim  habendas  et  retinendas,  eisque  debitum  honorem  et  venerationem 
impertiendam:  71011.  quod  credatur  inesse  aliqua  in  i!s  dlvinltns  vel  virtus  propter 
quam  sint  colendae;  vel  quod  ab  eis  sit  aliquid  petendum,  vel  quod  fid  acid  i.i 
imarjinibus  sit  Agenda,  veluti  olim  fiebat  a  gentibus,  quae  in  idolis  spem  suar.i 
collocabant;  sed  quoniam  hones,  qui  eis  exhibitur,  refertur  ad  prototypa,  quae 
illae  repraesentant.  Pope  Urban  VIIL,  in  the  year  1042,  gave  still  more  ex- 
plicit regulations  on  the  use  of  images  in  churches  in  his  bull  '•  Sacrosancta.'' 
Cf.  Aschbach's  Eccl.  Encyclopaed.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  738. 

1 "  Ne  nimia  facilitate  ecclesiastica  disciplina  enervetur." 


§  343,   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  357 

having  the  decrees  accepted,  and  in  having  them  carried  into 
eft'ect.  They  were  also  besought  to  give  in  their  own  persons 
an  example  of  their  faithful  observance.  Finally,  the  two 
hundred  and  fifty-five  Fathers  present,  of  whom  four  were 
Legates,  not  including  two  other  cardinals,  twenty-five  arch- 
bishops, one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  bishops,  seven  generals 
of  lieligious  Orders,  and  seven  abbots,  subscribed  the  decrees 
of  the  Council,  adding  the  words  subscrijosi  definiendo.  The 
thirty-five  procurators,  representing  bishops,  also  subscribed, 
but  with  the  addition  subscripsl  jadicando} 

Of  the  German  bishops  onh'  two,  those  of  Constance  and 
Brixen,  were  personall}'  present ;  five  others  sent  representa- 
tives. The  Decrees  of  the  Council  were  confirmed  by  Pius 
IV.,  who  also  caused  a  Tridentine  Profession  of  Faith  to  be 
drawn  up,  which,  he  ordained,  should  be  made,  as  an  obliga- 
tory condition,  by  all  those  who  might  in  future  enter  upon 
any  ecclesiastical  charge,  or  obtain  any  academic  degree,  and 
also  by  those  who,  renouncing  Protestantism,  should  return 
to  the  Church.- 


1  Cf.  on  this  point  PaUavicini,  1.  c.  lib.  XXIV.,  c.  8,  nros.  13  sq. 

^  We  insert  the  profession  in  full  because  it  contains  a  very  masterly  sum- 
mary of  the  dogmas  opposed  to  the  new  doctrines  of  Protestantism.  "  Ego  N. 
lirma  fide  credo  et  profiteor  omnia  et  singula,  quae  continentur  in  Symbolo  fidei, 
quo  Sancta  Eom.  Ecclesia  utitur,  videlicit:  Credo  in  unum  Deum,  Patrem  om- 
nipotentem,  factorem  coeli  et  terrae,  visibilium  omnium  et  invisibilium.  Et  in 
unum  Dominum  Jesum  Christum,  Filium  Dei  Unigenitum,  et  ex  Patre  natum 
ante  omnia  saecula,  Deum  de  Deo,  lumen  de  lumine,  Deum  verum  de  Deo  vero: 
genitum  non  factum,  consubstantialem  Patri,  per  quem  omnia  facta  sunt,  qui 
propter  nos  homines,  et  propter  nostram  salutem,  descendit  decoelis.  Et  incar- 
nalus  est  de  Spiritu  Sancto,  ex  Maria  Virgine,  et  homo  factus  est.  Crucifixus 
etiam  pro  nobis  sub  Pontio  Pilato,  passus  et  sepultus  est,  et  resurrexit  tertiadie 
secundum  scripturas,  et  ascendit  in  coelum,  sedit  ad  dexteram  Patris,  et  iterum 
venturus  est  cum  gloria  judicare  vivos  et  mortuos,  cujus  regni  non  erit  finis. 
Et  in  Spiritum  Sanctum  Dominum  et  viviflcantem,  qui  ex  Patre  Filioque  pro- 
ccdit,  qui  cum  Patre  et  Filio  simul  adoratur  et  conglorificatur,  qui  locutus  est 
per  Prophetas.  Et  unam  sanctam  Catholicam  et  Apostolicam  Ecclesiam.  Con- 
titeor  unum  Baptisma  in  remissionem  peccatorum  ;  et  exspecto  resurrectionem 
mortuorum,  et  vitam  venturi  saeculi.     Amen. 

"Apostolicas  et  Ecclesiasticas  iraditiones  reliquasque  ejusdem  Ecclesiae  obser- 
vationes  et  cor.stitutiones  flrmissime  admitto  et  amplector.  Item  sacram  scrip- 
turam  juxta  eum  sensuin,  quem  tenuit  et  tenet  sancta  Mater  Ecclesia,  cujus  est 


358  Period  3.     EjKjch  1.     Chapter  4. 

Still  later  on,  under  the  pontilicate  of  Sixtiis  V.  (1588),  a  Con- 
gregation, the  idea  of  which  originated  with  Pius  lY.,  was  es- 


judicare  de  vero  sensu  et  interpretaiiotie  sacrarum  scn'piururum,  admitto,  nee 
ea  unquam  nisi  juxta  iinanimem  consensum  Patrum  acclpiam  et  interpretabor. 
Profiteer  quoque,  septem  esse  vere  et  proprie  Sar.ramenta  novae  legis  a  Jesu 
L'hristo  Domino  nostro  instituta,  atque  ad  salutem  humani  generis,  licet  non 
omnia  singulis  necessaria,  scilicet  Baptismum,  Confirmationem,  Eucbaristiam, 
Poenitentiam,  Extremam  Unctionem,  Ordinem  et  Malrimonium,  illaquegratiam 
conferre  et  ex  his  Baptismum.  Confirmationem  et  Ordinem  sine  sacrilegio  reite- 
rari  non  posse.  Receptos  quoque  et  approbates  Ecclesiae  Catholicae  ritus  in  su- 
pradictorum  omnium  Sacramentorum  solemni  administratione  recipio  et  ad- 
mitto. Omnia  et  singula,  quae  de  peccato  originali  et  de  jnstijicaiione  in  Sacro- 
sancta  Trid.  Synodo  definita  et  declarata  fuerunt,  amplector  et  recipio.  Pro- 
titeor  pariter  in  Missa  offerri  Deo  verum,  proprium  et  propitiatorium  sacrificium 
pro  vivis  et  defunctis,  atque  in  sanctissimo  Kucharistlae  Sacramento  esse  vere, 
realiter  et  substantialiter  Corpus  et  Sangumem  una  cum  anima  et  divinitate 
Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  fierique  conversionem  totius  substantiae  panis  in 
Corpus  et  totius  substantiae  vini  in  Sanguinem,  quam  conversionem  Catho- 
lica  Ecclesia  Transsubstantiationem  appellat.  Fateor  etiam,  sub  altera  iantunh 
specie  totum  atque  integrum  Christum  verumque  Sacraraentum  sumi.  Con- 
stanter  teneo  Purgatorium  esse,  animasque  ibi  detentas  fidelium  suffragiis  juvari. 
Similiter  et  Sanctos,  una  cum  Christo  regnanies,  vcnerandos  atque  invocnndos 
esse,  eosque  orationes  Deo  pro  nobis  oflTerre,  atque  eorum  reliquias  esse  vene- 
randas.  Firmissime  assero  imagines  Christi  ac  Deiparae  semper  Virginis,  nee- 
non  aliorum  Sanctorum  habendas  et  retinendas  esse,  atque  eis  debitum  honorem. 
ac  venerationem  impertiendam.  Indulgeutiarum  etiam  jjotestatem  a  Christo  in 
Ecclesia  relictam  fuisse,  iUarumque  usum  Christiano  popnlo  maxinie  s'dutareni 
esse  affirmo.  Sanctam  Catholicam  et  Apostolicam  Romanam  Ecclesiam  om- 
nium Ecclesiarum  matrem  et  magistram  agnosco ;  Romanoque  Pontifici,  beati 
Petri,  Apostolorum  Principis,  successori,  ac  Jesu  Christi  Vieario  veram  obedi- 
entiam  spondeo  ac  juro.  Caetera  item  omnia  a  sacris  Canonibus  et  oecumenicis- 
Conciliis,  ac  priecipue  a  sacrosancta  Tridentina  Synodo  tradita,  definita  et  de- 
clarata indubitanter  recipio  atque  proiiteor,  simulque  contraria  omnia  atque 
haereses  quascumque  ab  Ecclesia  damnatas  et  rejectas  et  anathematizatas  ego 
pariter  damno,  rejicio  et  anathematizo.  Hanc  veram  Catholicam  fidem.  extra 
quam  nemo  salvus  esse  potest,  quam  in  praesenti  sponte  profiteer  et  veraciter 
teneo,  eandem  integram  et  iiiviolatam  usque  ad  extremum  vitae  spiritum  con- 
stantissime,  Deo  adjuvante,  retinero  et  cenfiteri,  atque  a  meis  subditis,  vel  iilis, 
quorum  cura  ad  me  in  munere  meo  spectabit,  teneri,  deceri  et  praedicari,  quan- 
tum in  me  erit,  curaturum,  ego  idem  N.  spondeo,  voveo  ac  juro.  Sic  me  Deus- 
adjuvet  et  haec  sancta  Dei  evangelia.''  Cf.  Liguori,  Explanations  of  the  Dog- 
matic Decrees  of  the  Holy  Council  of  Trent,  translated  into  German  by  Hugues. 
Ratisbon,  1845.  Nampon,  Investigations  of  the  Doctrines  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  translated  from  the  French,  Ratisbon,  1854,  2  parts.  Clartcs,  Triden- 
tine  Symbol  of  Faith  Proved  by  the  Scriptures,  Reason  and  History,  '2  vols 
SchaflFh.  1865  sq. 


§  343.   The  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent.  359 

tablished,  whose  special  office  it  was  to  interpret  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  {Interjwetes  Concilii  Tridentini)} 

A  very  cursory  examination  of  the  Sessions  of  this  cele- 
brated Council  will  convince  every  fair-minded  person  that 
no  former  Synod  ever  handled  so  great  a  number  of  subjects 
with  such  marked  ability,  or  defined  so  many  doctrines  with 
such  precision  and  prudence.  Men  holding  the  extremest 
divergency  of  opinions  met  there  as  upon  a  common  and 
neutral  ground  ;  exchanged  views  with  one  another,  the  con- 
servatism of  some  correcting  the  extravagance  of  others  ;  and 
the  result  was  a  doctrinal  equilibrium,  which  gave  the  stead- 
iness and  mental  rest  so  necessary  to  the  religious  intellect  of 
that  age. 

Of  the  bishops  who  attended  the  Council,  the  Spaniards 
were  distinguished  for  the  critical  acumen  and  ability  which 
they  displayed  in  harmonizing  the  points  of  apparent  con- 
flict between  speculative  theology  and  the  facts  of  Church 
History.  It  is  doubtful  if  a  council  assembled  at  the  preserit 
day  would  have  among  its  members  as  large  a  number  of  em- 
inent men."  IIow  calm,  and  yet  how  truly  earnest  and  sin- 
cere is  the  zeal  for  real  reform  which  distinguishes  this  Coun- 
cil !  What  happy  changes,  how  large  a  measure  of  genuine 
progress,  would  now  be  before  the  world  had  the  decrees  been 
as  faithfully  executed  and  observed,  as  they  were  loyally  con- 
ceived, and  their  realization  ardently  desired,  by  those  holy 
representatives  of  the  Catholic  faith. 

The  Decrees  of  the  Council,  confirmed  by  a  papal  bull  of 
the  6th  of  January,  1564,  were  at  once  received^  without 
restriction  in   Venice,  in  the  principal  States  of  Italy,  in  Porta- 


1  Cf.  Zamhoni,  De  hujus  congreg.  institutione,  privilegiis  atque  officio,  in  tho 
praefatio  ad  collect,  declarationum  s.  congreg.  cone,  quae  a.  1812  sq.  prodiit. 

-The  Venetian  Jerome  Ragosini,  Bishop  of  Nazianzuni  in  partibus  and  co- 
adjutor of  Famagosta,  exaggerated  ncthing  when  in  the  beautiful  valedictory 
which  he  delivered  before  the  representatives  of  the  Council,  he  said:  •'  Ex 
omnium  populorum  ac  natifcnum,  in  quibus  catholicae  reiigionis  Veritas  agnos- 
citui  non  solum  Patres,  sed  et  oratores  habuimus.  At  quos  viros  ?  Si  doctri- 
nam  spectemus,  eruditissimos — si  usura,  peritissimos — si  ingenia,  perspicacissi- 
mos — si  pietatem,  religiosissimos — si  vitam,  innocentissiraos." 

^  Cf.  Pallavicini,  1.  c,  lib.  XXIV.,  c.  11  sq. 


360  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

gal,  and  in  Poland;  in  Spain,  in  Naples,  and  in  the  Z/0?y  Coun- 
tries, tiiey  were  published  by  Philip  II.,  who,  however,  added 
the  qualification :  "  Without  detriment  to  the  royal  preroga- 
tives." As  a  rule,  the  promulgation  was  made  through  the 
medium  of  provincial  synods,  held  for  this  special  purpose  in 
1564,  and  measures  were  adopted  for  having  the  Decrees  car 
ried  into  execution.  After  the  death  of  Ferdinand  I.,  in  ]  564, 
the}'  were  published  by  31axim.ilian  II.,  in  the  States  of  the 
Empire;  and  received  by  the  Catholic  Princes  of  German}-  at 
the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1566, 

In  France  the  dogmatic  Decrees  were  accepted  without  quali- 
fication ;  but  those  relating  to  discipline  were  introduced  only 
after  protracted  delays,  notwithstanding  that  the  Pope  and 
the  bishops  exerted  all  their  influence  in  their  favor.  The 
decrees  to  which  the  greatest  exception  was  taken  related  to 
jines  and  iuxprisoivment  inflicted  at  the  discretion  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority  ;  to  dueling,  the  penalties  for  which  were  visited 
not  alone  upon  the  duelists  themselves,  but  also  upon  their 
seconds  and  those  who  came  to  witness  the  encounter  (Sess. 
XXV.,  ch.  19)  ;  to  concubinage  and  adultery  ;  to  those  which 
made  bishops  amenable  only  to  the  Pope,  etc. 

There  was  also  another  cause  of  serious  complaint,  in  that 
the  Council  had  declared  that  the  consent  of  the  parents  was 
not  necessary  to  the  valid  marriage  of  their  children,  while  by 
French  law  such  consent  was  absolutely  required. 

§  344.   Other  Popes  of  this  Epoch. 

Onofrio,  Platina  restitntus  c.  additione  a  Sixto  IV. — Pium  IV.  Ven.  1562,  4. 
Raynaldi  ann.  A.  Theineri  continuat.  Baronii  annal.  T.  I-III. — A.  du  Chesne^ 
Histoire  des  papes.  Par.  1646,  f.  cont.  (up  to  Paul  V.)  par  Fr.  du  Chesne.  Par. 
1658.  2  T.  f.  /2an^-e,  the  Eoman  Pontifis  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  4th 
ed.,  Brl.  1854.  3  vols.'  Reumont,  Hist,  of  the  City  of  Kome.  Vol.  III.,  pt.  II., 
p.  534  sq.  Haas,  History  of  the  Popes,  p.  541  sq.  Groene,  the  History  oi 
the  Popes,  Vol.  II.,  p.  322  sq. 

Pius  IV.  raised  his  nephew,  Charles  'Borromeo,  to  tlie   dig- 


1  While  this,  like  all  the  other  productions  of  RnnUe,  possesses  unusual  merit, 
the  animus  of  the  writer  is  exhibited  in  numerous  passages  like  the  followiuijj: 
"Our  fatherland  (Germany)    has    acquired   the    undying    fame    of    restoring 


§  344.     Other  Popes  of  this  Epoch.  361 

nitj  of  the  cardiiialate,  and  there  is  no  act  of  his  whole  pon- 
tiiicate  that  carried  with  it  more  blessings  to  the  Church, 
lie  also  left  an  example  worthy  of  imitation  by  his  successors 
in  establishing  permanently  a  Congregation,  to  which  he  as- 
signed the  special  office  of  interpretinr/  and  carrying  into  exe- 
cution the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.^  He  was  succeeded 
l)y  Pius  V.  (1566-1572),  a  member  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dom- 
inic. The  piety  and  the  zeal  of  this  humble  friar  for  the  well- 
being  of  the  Church,  and  his  never-ceasing  vigilance  in  keep- 
ing bishops  to  their  duties,  raised  him  so  high  in  the  esteem 
of  the  other  members  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  that  when 
the  papal  throne  fell  vacant  he  was  at  once  called  to  fill  it.^ 
He  personally  served  the  sick  in  the  hospitals,  and  thus  ex- 
hibited an  illustrious  example  of  humility;  he  enforced  the 
decrees  of  Trent,  with  the  powerful  aid  of  Charles  Borromeo, 
and  thus  achieved  conquests  the  most  glorious  for  the  Church. 
To  him  is  Christendom  mainly  indebted  for  the  splendid  vic- 
tory gained  at  Lepanto,  over  the  Turks,  by  Don  John  of  Aus- 
tria (1571).  He  also  commanded  that  the  bull  "/??.  coena  Dom- 
ini," should  be  publicly  read  on  Maundy  Thursday',-''  not  only  in 
Rome,  but  throughout  all  Christian  countries.  This  bull,  the 
provisions  of  which  may  be  traced  back  in  the  rescripts  ot 
many  popes,  chiefly  of  the  fifteenth  century,  to  the  pontificate 
of  Urban  V.  (1363),  in  its  original  text,  condemned  and  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  anathema  upon  heretics,  brigands,  and 
pirates;  upon  those  who  should  interfere  with  the  legitimate 
jurisdiction  of  bishops,  lay  imposts  upon  the  (church  without 
the  Pope's  consent,  or  bring  criminal  action  against  ecclesi- 
astics;  and  upon  such  as  should  supply  the  Saracens  or  other 
enemies  of  the  Christian  name  with  arms,  do  violence  to  pil- 


Chrislianity  to  a  purer  form  than  it  possessed  since  the  first  centuries — of  di$- 
covering  again  the  true  7-elirjion."     Vol.  I.,  p.  129. 

•  Leonardi  oratio  de  laudibus  Pii  IV.     Pad.  15G5. 

2  Catena,  Vita  del  P.  Pio  V.,  Rom.  1586.  4to.  Ocibutu  de  vita  Pii  V.,  Roin. 
1605,  fol.  {r.olland.  acta  SS.  m.  Maji,  T.  I.  p.  616.)  Mnffel,  Vita  di  S.  Pio.  Rom. 
1712,4to.  BsomiPius  V.  Rom.,  1672  fol.   Cldnppoiii,  Aciaaxnomz.V.,  Rom.  1720. 

^ Hence  the  name  "/«  cocnu  Domini"  although  the  bull  commences  with  the 
words:  "Pastoralis  Rom.  Pontif.  vigilantia,'' in  the  magnum  bullarium  T.  II. 
p.  189.  Cf.  Le  Bret's  Pragmatic  history  of  the  bull  in  ccena  Dom.  Frkf.  and 
Lps.,  1769  sq.,  4  vols.,  and  the  Historico-political  Papers,  Vol.  XXI.,  p.  57-82. 


Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 


grims,  or  seize  the  property  of  the  Pope.  It  also  cut  off  Pro- 
testants from  the  communio7i  of  the  Church,  and  set  forth  a 
claim  to  the  prerogatives  enjoyed  by  the  Church  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  Its  publication  was  firmly  opposed  by  many 
princes  and  even  some  bishops  in  their  respective  States  and 
dioceses.  There  is  no  question  that  Pius  Y.  had  the  very  best 
intentions  in  taking  these  rigorous  measures;  but  their  only 
effect  was  to  alienate  the  good- will  of  many,  without  work- 
ing any  results  at  all  adequate  to  his  aims.  The  last  edition 
of  this  bull  was  published  by  authority  of  Urban  VIII.,  in 
1627,  and  its  yearly  proclamation  suspended  by  Clement  XIV., 
in  1770.  Pius  V.  was  beatified  by  Clement  X.,  in  1672,  and 
canonized  by  Clement  XL 

Gregory  XIII.  (Hugo  Buoncompagno,  1572-1585)  succeeded 
to  Pius  V.  That  he  was  deeply  versed  in  law  and  the  natural 
sciences  is  amply  attested  by  the  new  edition,  lohich  hepublished, 
of  Canon  Law,^  and  by  his  corrections  of  the  Julian  Calendar 
(1582),  which  had  then  become  so  faulty  that  it  was  ten  days 
behind  the  true  time  according  to  the  solar  year.  Gregory 
was  also  a  lover  of  the  fine  arts  and  fond  of  magnificent  dis- 
plays, but  in  these  things  he  had  in  view  the  gratification  of 
no  personal  vanity,  but  only  the  good  of  the  Church,  and  the 
interests  of  his  subjects.  Prompted  by  such  motives,  he 
founded,  at  Rome,  six  colleges,  which  were  respectively  for  the 
Irish,  the  Germans,^  the  Jews,  the  Greeks,  the  Maronites  or  Christ- 
ians of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  the  youth  of  Pome.  The  latter 
was  the  one  which  until  recently  has  been  known  as  the 
Roman  or  Jesuit  College  [Collegio  al  Gesu),  and  contained 
twenty  auditories  and  three  hundred  cells.  He  also  estab- 
lished nunciatures  at  Lucerne  in  1579,  at  Vienna  in  1581,  and 
at  Cologne  in  1582.  This  outline  will  give  an  imperfect 
idea  of  his  labors  in  the  interests  of  the  Church. 

Sixtus  V.  (Peretti,  1585-1590),  Gregory's  successor,  was  in 

*  Ciappi,  Comp.  delle  attioni  e.  s.  vita  di  Greg.  XIII.  Rom.  (1591)  1590. 
•Ito. 

'■^  Cordara,  Hist;)ria  collegii  Germanici  et  Hungarici.  Rom.  1770.  4to.  p. 
53  sq.  The  German  college  in  Rome,  its  foundation  and  commencement  (His- 
torical and  Political  Papers  of  18-12.     Vol.  IX.,  p.  236  sq.,  293  sq.) 


§  344.     Otlicr  Popes  of  this  Epoch.  363 

early  life  a  herdsman.'  Having  entered  the  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  he  gave  proof  of  such  extraordinary  ability  that  in 
1570  he  was  created  cardinal.  He  concealed  under  a  modest 
exterior  and  humble  deportment  unusual  capacity  for  govern- 
ment. His  firm,  austere,  and  unbending  character  well-fitted 
him  to  be  a  pope  such  as  the  times  required,  when  the  Church 
\\vA  to  contend  against  Protestant  princes  as  perfidious  in 
their  professions  as  they  were  unscrupulous  in  carrying  out 
their  designs.  Original  in  conception,  he  was  indefatigable 
in  exertion,  and  wielded  an  influence  among  his  contempora- 
ries which  left  a  permanent  impress  upon  the  events  of  that 
age.  His  name  is  so  intimately  bound  up  with  the  traditions 
of  the  people  that  the  modern  historian  experiences  no  little 
difiiculty  in  sifting  the  historical  from  the  mythical.  The 
diplomatist,  Baron  von  Suebner,  in  our  own  day,  has  probably 
furnished  the  best  materials  for  arriving  at  a  just  apprecia- 
tion of  the  character  of  this  extraordinary  man,  ITone  knew 
better  than  Sixtus  how  to  profit  by  the  circumstances  of  the 
times,  and  none  could  have  displayed  greater  skill  and  tact 
in  making  the  Catholic  princes  allies  of  the  Holy  See.  He 
never  rested  until  lie  had  ridded  the  States  of  the  Church  of 
the  brigands  who  infested  them.  The  protector  of  the  poor, 
he  encouraged  the  industry  and  stimulated  the  activity  of  hig 
subjects.  By  steadily  adhering  to  the  rule  of  raising  only 
worthy  persons  to  the  higher  ecclesiastical  dignities  he  efiect- 
ually  suppressed  the  evil  of  nepotism  in  the  College  of  Card- 
inals. 

He  built  magnificent  halls  in  the  Vatican  Library,  which 
he  filled  with  the  most  precious  monuments  of  antiquity  ;  he 
published  a  new  edition  of  the  Septuagint,  and  the  new  and 
corrected  (though  defective)  edition  of  the  Vulgate,  promised  by 


1  Robardi,  Sixti  V.  gesta  quinquennalia.  Rom.  1590.  4to.  Leti,  Vita  di 
Sisto  v.,  Losanna,  IGGO.  2  T.,  then  3  T.  French  Par.  1702.  2  T.  Tempesf.i, 
Storia  della  vita  e  geste  di  Sisto  v.,  Rom.  1755.  2  T.  4t().  Sixtus  V.  and  his 
Times,  by  Lorenz,  Mentz,  1852.  Ranke,  Popes,  Vol.  III.,  and  HistoricnL  and 
Political  Papers,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  235  sq.,  293  sq.  Baron  von  Huebner  (embassador 
of  Austria  in  Paris  and  Rome),  Sixtus  V.,  Germ.  ed.  by  the  author.  Lps.,  1871. 
2  vols.  (The  original  in  French.  Paris,  1870.  3  vols.)  Bonn  Theolugii/a) 
Review.     1870,  nros.  16,  17;  1871,  nro.  4. 


364  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

the  Council  of  Trent ;  he  reorganized  the  administration  of 
public  affairs  by  establishing  fifteen  Congregations  (1588) ;  he 
had  the  great  obelisk  set  up,  which  Caligula  had  brought 
from  Egypt  to  Rome ;  he  completed  the  cupola  of  St.  Peters 
Church  ;  he  constructed  the  superb  aqueduct  on  the  Quiri- 
nal  Hill  (Aqua  Felice)  for  supplying  the  city  witli  abundance 
of  pure  water;  and,  finally  he  left  to  his  successor  a  well- 
filled  exchequer  which  furnished  ample  revenues  for  all  the 
requirements  of  government. 

Urban  VII.,  Gregory  XIV.,  and  Innocent  IX.,  the  immedi- 
ate successors  to  Sixtus,  lived  only  long  enough  to  have  their 
names  recorded  in  the  catalogue  of  popes. 

The  reign  of  Clement  VIII.  (Aldobrandini  of  Florence, 
1592-1605),  was  both  longer  and  of  greater  importance.  He 
had  the  happiness  of  reconciling  Henry  IV.  of  France  to  the 
Church,  and  of  establishing  peace  between  Austria  and  Spain 
b}'  the  Treaty  of  Verdns.  He  got  possession  of  tlie  Duchy 
of  Ferrara,  which  on  the  extinction  of  the  house  of  Este,  re- 
verted as  a  fief  to  the  Holy  See.  By  raising  Baronius,  Tolet, 
Bellarmine,  cVOssat,  and  du  Perron  to  the  cardinalate  he  showed 
that  he  knew  how  to  appreciate  learning  and  reward  virtue. 
Ill  1592  he  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Vtdgate.  Owing  to 
over-haste  the  edition  issued  in  the  poutiticate  of  Sixtus  was 
found  to  be  incorrect,  and,  in  consequence,  Clement  had  his 
thoroughly  revised,  and  so  perfect  is  it  that  since  his  time  no 
emendations  have  been  thought  necessary'.  He  also  began  a 
revision  of  the  Breviary,  and  established  the  famous  Congre- 
gatio  de  Auxiliis'^  for  deciding  questions  arising  out  of  the 
Dominican  and  Jesuit  controversy  on  grace.  By  the  publica- 
tion of  an  impressive  encyclical,  addressed  to  the  whole  world, 
he  attracted  three  millions  of  pilgrims  to  Rome  on  the 
occasion  of  the  customary  jubilee  at  the  opening  of  the 
century. 

Had  not  the  intrigues  of  the  Spanish  party  prevented  it, 
the  learned  Cardinal  Baronius  would  have  succeeded  to  Cle- 
ment.    As  it  was,  their  votes  elected  Cardinal   Octacianiu 


'  Cf.  Schroedl,  in  the  Freiburg  eccl.  cyclopaed.     Vol.   II.,  pp.   78G-7i)4.     Fr 
trans.,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  194-203. 


§  344.     Other  Popes  of  this  Epoch.  365 

31edici,  of  Florence,  who  was  crowned  taking  the  name  of 
Leo  XI.  The  hopes  which  the  election  of  so  considerable  a 
personage  inspired  vanished  with  his  death  after  a  reign  of 
twenty-seven  da^^s.  He  was  succeeded  by  Paid  V.  (Borghese 
of  Rome,  1605-1621)  who  had  displayed  uncommon  diplo- 
matic skill  and  ability  in  an  embassy  to  Spain  committed  to 
him  by  Clement  VIII. 

He  was  learned,  pious,  skilled  in  the  art  of  governing,  and 
zealous  for  the  reformation  of  the  manners  of  the  clergy.  He 
contributed  largely  to  the  adornment  of  St.  Peter's  and 
other  churches;  introduced  the  Perpetual  Adoration  or  Forty 
Hours'  Devotion  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament ;  and  left  behind 
him  an  enduring  reputation  as  an  efficient  and  exemplary 
Pope,  in  spite  of  the  complaint  of  some  that  in  the  matter  of 
legal  technicality  he  was  unnecessarily  exacting  and  punctil- 
ious. 

His  protracted  quarrel  with  the  Republic  of  Verdcc  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion  and  not  a  little  adverse  criti- 
cism. This  State  had  prohibited  the  building  of  churches 
and  hospitals  loithout  its  special  autJiorizaiion  ;  forbidden  real 
estate  or  other  immovable  i)roperty  to  be  conveyed  by  last 
will  to  ecclesiastics ;  and  ordered  ofl'ending  members  of  the 
clergy  to  be  cited  before  civil  tribunals.  Against  these  meas- 
ures Paul  protested.  The  Senate  of  the  Republic  refused  to 
yield.  As  a  consecjuence  the  Pope,  after  taking  council  with 
the  cardinals,  excommunicated  the  Doge,  and  laid  the  States 
under  interdict  (April  17,  160G).  The  Senate  resisted,  declar- 
ing the  action  of  the  Pope  unjust,  and  prohibiting,  under  the 
severest  penalties,  the  publication  of  the  papal  brief  within  the 
territories  of  Venice  ;  but  at  the  same  time  commanding  that 
the  usual  divine  services  should  not  be  discontinued.  The 
bulk  of  the  regular  clergy,  including  Capuchins,  Theatines, 
and  Jesuits,  withdrew  from  the  territory  of  the  Republic  in 
obedience  to  the  voice  of  the  successor  of  I*eter;  the  sccuhir 
clergy  remained,  and  continued  to  celebrate  divine  worship. 
To  this  civic  contest  was  added  another  of  a  more  spiritual 
character.  Paul  Sarpi,  a  Servite  monk,  professing  to  be  a 
tenacious  champion  of  what  he  was  pleased  to  designate  as 
the  rights  of  the  Republic,  encouraged  the  people  in  their  re- 


366  Ptriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chaj^ter  3. 

sistance  by  impressing  upon  them,  as  he  said,  a  true  appreci- 
ation of  their  privileges.  He  was  answered  by  Baronius  and 
Bellarmine .  who  maintained  the  cause  of  the  Pope.  Henry  IV., 
i]ow  a  zealous  son  of  the  Church,  interposed  his  good  offices 
and  adjusted  the  dispute.  Tlie  Capuchins  and  Theatines  were 
again  permitted  to  enter  the  Venetian  States,  but  the  Jesuits 
were  commanded  not  to  return.^  Paul  V.  very  properly  for- 
bade the  English  Catholics  to  take  the  Test  Oath  required  of 
tliem  under  the  pretext  that  they  had  been  accomplices  in  the 
Gunpowder  Plot,  When  the  news  reached  him  of  the  assas- 
sination of  Plenry  IV.  by  Eavaillac,  he  was  unable  to  control 
the  manifestations  of  his  sorrow. 

Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisio  of  Bologna,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits, 
1621-1623)  went  from  one  ecclesiastical  dignity  to  another 
until  he  finally  reached  the  papal  throne.  He  gave  fine  prom- 
ise, and  his  future  course  was  looked  forward  to  with  unusual 
interest.  ISTeither  did  he  disappoint  those  who  put  confidence 
in  him.  It  was  he  who  gave  to  papal  elections  the  forms  thej' 
have  ever  since  preserved,  ordaining  that  cardinals  in  casting 
their  votes  should  not  make  known  the  person  of  their 
choice.  To  elect,  a  two-thirds  vote  is  required.  There  are 
four  modes  of  electing,  viz  :  ^^scrutiny,"  or  an  examination  of 
the  votes  deposited  by  the  cardinals  in  a  chalice  placed  upon 
the  altar;  "  access,"  or  the  changing  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  votes,  which,  when  added  to  those  already  given  for  any 
candidate,  will  secure  his  election  ;  "  compromise"  or  the  con- 
current action  of  all  the  cardinals  transferring  their  right  of 
election  to  a  committee  of  their  own  body  ;  and,  finally,  '■' quasi- 
inspiration"  ^  or  a  public  and  general  movement  in  obedience 
to  which  the  election  of  some  particular  candidate  is  carried 
by  acclamation. 


'  A  (Survey  of  the  Situation  of  Venice  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century.     (Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  129  sq. 

'  Ligoli,  Caeremoniale  ritus  election.  Rom.  Pont.  Rom.  1621.  Lunadoro,  Re- 
luzione  della  corte  di  Roma.  Ed.  5.  Rom.  1824.  2  T.  12mo.  This  work  in 
an  earlier  edition  by  Andrea  Tosf,  trans,  into  Germ,  by  Bertram.  Halle,  1771. 
V'Kopntsch,  Vacancy  and  Filling  of  the  Apostolic  See.  Innsbr.  1843.  Zoepfel, 
The  Elections  of  Popes,  and  accompanying  ceremonies,  in  their  development 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  fourteenth  century.    Goetting.,  1872. 


§  344.     Other  Popes  of  thi<  Epoch.  367 

After  the  taking  of  Heidelberg  in  1622,  Maximilian,  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  to  remunerate  the  Pope  for  subsidies  contributed 
during  a  number  of  3'ears,  presented  to  the  Vatican  Library 
a  hirge  collection  of  works,  and  among  them  many  ancient 
manuscripts,^  from  the  library  of  the  Elector  Palatine. 
Gregory  was  chosen  by  Austria  and  Spain  to  arbitrate  a  dis- 
pute concerning  the  Valteline,  in  the  country  of  the  Grisons, 
He  also  established  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda 
{Congrefjatio  de  p)ropaganda  fide),  with  a  special  view  of  bring- 
ing heretics  back  to  the  Church.  Its  scope,  however,  was 
Huljsequently  extended,  and  through  the  influence  exerted  by 
it,  missionary  work  of  every  kind  received  a  fresh  impulse. 
Finally,  he  honored  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  increased  the 
consideration  in  which  that  body  was  already  held  by  canon- 
izing Ignatius  Loyola  and  Francis  Xavier,  and  declaring  Aloy- 
sius  Gonzaga  beatified. 

Urban  VIII.  (Barberiui,  1623-1644)  was  Gregory's  succes- 
sor on  the  papal  throne.  He  was  an  experienced  statesman, 
an  eminent  scholar,  and  an  elegant  poet.  His  collection  of 
Latin  poems,  hymns,  and  odes  rank  among  the  best  literary 
productions  of  modern  times.  He  bestowed  upon  the  card- 
inals (1630)  the  title  of  eminence  {eniincntissimus) ;  publislied 
(1643)  for  the  use  of  the  Universal  Church  a  new  and 
amended  edition  of  the  Breviary;  enlarged  the  powers  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Propaganda,  placing  under  its  control  the 
Urban  College  [Collegium  Urbanum),  which  has  since  become 
so  celebrated;  and  after  the  death,  in  1626,  of  Francis  Maria, 
the  last  Duke  of  the  House  of  Rovere,  united  the  duchy 
of  Urbino  to  the  States  of  the  Church.  He  is  charged  with 
being  too  intent  upon  enriching  the  members  of  his  familj-, 
and  raising  them  to  places  of  honor  and  distinction,  thus  ex- 
posing them  to  the  hardships  they  endured  under  his  succes- 
sors. 

The  friends  of  Urban  favored  the  election  of  Innocent  X. 


1  A.  Thelner,  Donation  of  the  Heidelberg  Library  to  Pope  Gregory  XV.,  by 
Maximilian  I.  Munich,  1844.  A  small  portion  of  the  MSS.  (mostly  Greek) 
carried  to  Paris  in  the  time  of  Napoleon  I.,  were  restored  to  Heidelberg  in  1815 
About  eight  hundred  more,  relating  to  the  Middle  Ages,  were  restored  by  the 
Pope  in  the  shape  of  a  present. 


368  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     ChcqHer  4. 

(Card.  Piimphili  of  Rome,  1644-1655),  believing  that,  since 
he  liad  been  raised  to  the  cardinalate  by  that  pope,  he  would 
now  treat  his  relatives  with  consideration.  Being  utterly  dis- 
appointed in  their  hopes,  they  exposed  themselves  by  impru- 
dent acts  to  just  punishment,  which  occasionally  was  hardly 
distinguishable  from  persecution.  A  war,  already  threatened 
during  the  lifetime  of  Urban,  now  broke  out  and  raged  fiercely 
between  Innocent  and  the  Duke  of  Parma,  the  latter  of  whom 
was  charged  with  causing  the  assassination  of  a  bishop  ap- 
pointed against  his  will  to  the  see  of  Castro.  Papal  troops 
assaulted  and  took  the  citadel  of  Castro,  and  the  duchy  of  the 
same  name  was  incorporated  among  the  States  of  the  Church. 
The  Barberini  were  now  summoned,  for  the  first  time,  to  give 
an  account  to  the  Papal  Court  of  the  revenues  hitherto  ad- 
ministered by  them,  and  the  result  not  being  satisfactory,  they 
were  deprived  of  their  ofiices,  which  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  relatives  of  Innocent,  at  whose  instance  the  investigation 
was  set  on  foot.  Foreseeing  the  storm  and  wishing  to  escape 
it,  the  Barberini  at  the  first  outbreak  of  the  persecution 
against  them  fled  to  France,  and  Innocent,  to  prevent  a  similar 
flight  in  future,  published  a  bull  forbidding  any  cardinal  to 
leave  the  States  of  the  Church  without  the  authorization  of 
the  Pope.  Through  the  friendly  offices  of  the  French  govern- 
ment the  fugitives  were  permitted  to  return  and  take  posses- 
sion of  their  estates.  But  apart  from  this  family  quarrel 
there  was  another  and  more  serious  subject  ol  complaint 
against  Innocent,  namely,  the  influence  which,  it  was  well 
known,  Olympia  Maldachina,  his  brother's  widow,  exercised 
in  the  aflairs  of  the  Church.^  While  it  is  a  fact,  admitted  on 
all  hands,  that  his  morals  were  above  reproach,  his  conduct 
in  this  particular  can  not  be  wholly  excused.  Of  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  an  account  will  be  given 

in  §  856. 

§  845a.     The  Papacy. 

In  spite  of  the  threats  and  assaults  of  the  Protestants,  who 
had  sworn  to  bring  about  the  fall  of  the  Papacy,  there  was 


^BvenRanke,  The  Roman  Pontiffs,  etc.,  3d  ed.,  Vol.  III.,  in  the  Appendix,  p. 
242,  says,  concerning  her  supposed  liaison  with  Innocent  X.,  according  to  Leti, 


§  345a.     The  Papacy.  369 

still  in  Catholic  countries  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
inhabitants  who  continued  to  regard  the  Holy  See  with  rev- 
erence, and  to  respect  its  ancient  authority.  Among  its  ablest 
champions  were  the  Jesuits,  who,  while  advocatmg  appar- 
ently opposite  principles,  such,  for  example,  as  "  that  all  royal 
authority  comes  from  the  people,"  whence,  like  the  leading- 
Reformers,  they  concluded  tliat  certain  circumstances  might 
arise  in  which  it  would  be  lawful  to  put  a  tyrant  to  death,^  were 
nevertheless  the  most  skillful  and  powerful  defenders  of  the 
political  theocracy  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Encouraged  by  these 
evidences  of  loyalty,  Urban  VIII.  again  put  forth  the  claims 
of  Pius  v.,  and  gave  to  the  bull  "ik  coena  Domini"  its  final 
form.^  Nunciatures  were  established  by  the  Popes  in  the  most 
important  cities  of  the  Christian  world,  for  the  twofold  pur- 
pose of  protecting  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See,  and  regulating 
the  aftairs  of  the  Church  with  greater  ease  and  expedition 
Of  those  appointed  to  bishoprics  the  Popes  reserved  to  them- 
selves the  right  of  selecting  some  and  of  confirming  all.  As 
Bellarmine,  Mariana,  Suarez,  and  Santarel  ^had  been  the  ablest 
advocates  of  the  papal  power,  such  as  it  existed  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  so  were  they  now  the  most  conspicuous  defenders 
of  the  bull  "Jn  coena  Dommi."  They  were  opposed  by  Paul 
Sarpi,  "-the  theologian  of  the  rep)ublic"  of  Venice,  and  by 
Edmond  Richer,  the  author  of  a  history  of  the  Ecumenical 


Vita  di  Donna  Olimpia  Maldachina,  16G6,   ^'that  ihere  is  not  a  ivord  of  iruth  in 
the  story." 

1  It  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted  that  only  CarVto^tc  writers,  like  iVfaria?i«, 
Santarel,  and  Boucher  (De  justa  Henrici  III.  abdicatione),  have  held  that  there 
may  be  circumstances  in  which  the  putting  of  a  tyrant  to  death  is  justifiable. 
People  seem  wholly  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  Lutlier,  Melanchthon,  and  the  Cal- 
vinist  Junius  Brutus  held  tliat  oppressive  sovereigns  should  be  killed.  An  ob- 
servation in  point  may  be  here  quoted  from  Hugo  Grotius:  "  Liber  flagitiosis- 
simus  Bouchcri  de  abdicatione  Henrici  III.  non  argumentis  tantum,  sed  et  ver- 
bis desumptus  est,  non  ex  Mariana  aut  Santarello,  sed  e  Junio  Bruto."  Appen- 
dix de  Anticlir.,  Amst.  1641,  p.  59. 

■^BuUar.  Roman.,  T.  IV.,  p.  118  sq.     Cf.  above,  p.  GOl,  note.  3, 
^Mariana,  De  liege  et  Regis  institutione.     Tolet.  1598.    Germ.  ed.  by  Riedel. 
Darmstadt,  1843.   Bellarminus,  De  potcstate  Summi  Pontif.  in  temporal.    Rom. 
1610.     Suarez,  Defensio  fidei  cath.  adv.  anglic.  sectao  error.    Conimbr.  1013, 
Santarel,  De  haeresi  et  schismate. 
VOL.    Ill — 24 


'IIO  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

Councils,  who  maintained  the  rights  of  bishops  and  national 
churches  with  equal  ability  and  unfairness.  The  arguraenta 
of  Sarpi  were  directed  chiefl}^  against  the  Jesuits,  "  for,"  said 
he,  "  to  triumph  over  the  Jesuits  is  to  triumph  over  Rome, 
and  Rome  once  overcome,  religion  will  work  out  its  own 
reformation."  Richer  publicly  maintained  that  the  States 
General  are  above  the  King,  and  that  Jacques  Clement,  in 
assassinating  Henry  III.  for  not  keeping  his  sworn  promises, 
had  justly  avenged  his  country  and  his  country's  liberties. 
He  was  in  consequence  arrested  and  imprisoned,  and  did  not 
obtain  his  liberty  until  after  he  had  submitted  his  work,  De 
Ecclesia  et  politica  potestate  (Paris,  1611),  to  the  judgment  of 
the  Holy  See  (1629). 

§  3456.     The  Secular  and  Begular  Clergy. — Revival  of  Synods. 

Although  the  College  of  Cardinals,  at  the  period  of  which 
we  are  now  writing,  included  among  its  members  some  who 
were  unworthy  of  their  exalted  position,  having  been  raised 
to  it  because  they  chanced  to  be  the  nephews  of  popes,  it  also 
contained  many  more,  distinguished  for  the  purity  of  their 
faith,  the  extent  of  their  learning,  and  the  warmth  of  their 
zeal,  who  gave  abundant  proof  of  talent,  prudence,  and  ca- 
pacity in  the  legatine  missions  with  which  they  were  in- 
trusted. The  names  of  Cardinals  Cajetan,  Pole,  Contareni,  del 
Monte,  Cervini,  Hosius,  and  Charles  Borromeo,  of  Francis  Com- 
mendone,  the  Pope's  Chamberlain,  and  Bishop  Delphini,  will 
at  once  occur  to  the  mind  of  the  reader.  The  last  two  named 
were  sent  to  the  Diet  of  Naumburg,  in  1561,  and  by  their 
energy  and  address,  no  less  than  by  their  forcible  and  pol- 
ished eloquence,  greatly  embarrassed  the  action  of  the  Pro- 
testant princes.^ 

Unfortunately  the  sloth,  the  perfidy,  and  the  apostasy  of 
hishofs,  secular  clergy,  and  monks  were  only  too  frequently 
the  occasion  of  shame  and  disaster  to  the  Church.  It  was  the 
complaint  of  Eck  that  the  bishops  of  Germany  gave  more  at- 
tention to  temporal  than  to  spiritual  affairs,  and  the  letter  of 

I  Cf.  Pallavicini,  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.,  lib.  XIII.,  ch.  7 ;  lib.  XV.,  ch.  2-G,  and 
8;  lib.  XXIV.,  ch.  13.     *Dleringer,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  pp.  147-155. 


§  3456.     The  Secular  and  Regular  Clergy.  371 

the  Elector  Albert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  to  Luther/  is  amplo 
proof  that  the  complaint  was  just.  It  is  a  comfort  to  know 
that  there  is  no  other  instance  of  so  detestable  a  treason  in  so 
exalted  a  personage.  As  if  to  atone  in  some  manner  for  the 
mischief  and  dishonor  which  this  prelate  brought  upon  the 
Church,  Jerome  Scultetus,  Bishop  of  Brandenburg,  and  Adol- 
p/ius,  Bishop  of  Merseburg,  carried  the  war  into  the  very 
camp  of  the  enemy,  and  in  the  theater  of  Luther's  labors  fear- 
lessly proclaimed  and  triumphantly  defended  the  doctrines 
cf  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  holding  of  diocesan  and  provincial  synods  was  the  most 
urgent  need  of  the  Church  during  this  epoch,  and  Rome  had 
only  to  blame  her  own  centralizing  policy  for  their  interrup- 
tion. Had  they  been  regularly  held,  the  Lutheran  controvers}- 
in  all  probability  would  not  have  been  brought  before  the 
Diets  of  the  Empire  for  adjudication  ;  the  disorders  of  the 
clergy  would  certainly  not  have  been  so  scandalous  ;  and  the 
religious  instruction  and  moral  training  of  the  people  would 
not  have  been  so  shamelessly  neglected.  The  Councils  ot 
Basle  and  Lateran  (V.)  had  already  made  earnest  but  inef- 
fectual efforts  to  enforce  the  duty  of  holding  synods,  ordain- 
ing that  the  diocesan  should  be  called  annually,  and  the  pro- 
vincial every  three  years.  Hence  the  Council  of  Trent,  to 
remedy  the  evil,  ordained  (Sess.  XXIV.,  De  rcformatione,  c.  2) 
that  provincial  councils,  wherever  omitted,  should  be  renewed 
and  held  every  third  year  "  for  regulating  morals,  correcting 
excesses,  settling  controversies,  and  for  other  purposes  allowed 
by  the  canons;"  and  that  "  diocesan  synods  shall  also  be  held 
yearly." 

Charles  Borromeo  was  the  first  to  carry  out  the  decrees  of 
Trent  in  his  own  diocese  of  Milan,  and  his  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  bishops  of  every  Catholic  countr}',  as  the  cata- 
logue of  the  provincial  councils  of  the  epoch,  to  which  refer- 
ence will  be  made  farther  on,  clearly  shows.  Unfortunately 
the  practice  of  holding  synods  again  ceased  to  be  observed  in 
nearl}'  every  country  of  Christendom  toward  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  in  spite   of  the  frequent  and  earnest  ex- 

1  See  II  276,  277,  in  Vol.  II.,  pp.  926-931 ;  and  p.  14  of  this  volume. 


372  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

hortations  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV}  The  Council  of  Trent 
was  equally  solicitous  in  providing  for  the  formation  of  a  new 
clergy  (Sess.  XXIII.,  De  reformation e,  ch.  18).  Seminaries  for 
the  instruction  and  training  of  clerics  were  to  be  erected 
in  every  diocese,  and  those  intended  for  the  service  of  the 
Church  were  to  be  entered  while  yet  of  a  tender  age.* 
"If  the  Catholic  world  has  had  for  the  last  three  hundred 
3'ears,"  says  Bishop  Hefele,  "a  more  learned,  a  more  moral, 
and  a  more  pious  clergy,  than  that  which  existed  in  al- 
most every  country  at  the  time  of  the  so-called  Reformation, 
and  whose  tepidity  and  faithlessness  contributed  largely  to 
the  growth  of  the  schism,  it  is  wholly  due  to  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  to  it  we  in  this  age  owe  our  thanks."^ 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  in  Italy,  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
France,  as  they  were  the  first  to  carry  this  decree  into  effect, 
so  were  they  the  most  earnest.  As  seminaries  could  not  be 
established  in  Germany  on  account  of  the  circumstances  of 
the  times,  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  founded  in  Rome  the  German 
College  {Collegium  Germanicum),  for  the  education  of  the  Ger- 
man clergy.  The  establishment  was  endowed  and  placed  on 
a  permaneijt  basis  by  Gregory  XIII. ^  Those  that  went  out 
from  this  College  were,  as  Julius  III.  expressed  it,  to  become 
the  fearless  champions  of  the  faith  where  it  already  existed, 
and  its  apostles  where  it  was  still  to  be  introduced.  In  Ger- 
many itself,  Bartholomew  Ilolzhausrr,  who  was  born  at  Lan- 
genau,  near  Ulm,  in  1613,  and  died  at  Bingen,  in  IGTjS, 
founded  the  Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life,  for 
secular  priests  {Collegium.  Fratrum  in  communi  viventium),  in 
1640,  at  Salzburg,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  the  dioceses 
of  Augsburg,  Mentz,  and  Coire,  and  became  a  source  of 
many  and  great  blessings  to   Germany,  particularly  after  the 


'In  his  work  De  Synodo  Diocesanr/,  where  he  also  instructs  bishops  as  to  tho 
character,  object,  and  limits  of  these  synods.  Cf.  Phillips,  Diocesan  Synods, 
p.  84  sq. 

^Cf.  Freiburg,  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  s.  v.  Seminary,  Clerical,  in  Vol.  X.  Fr 
trans.,  vol.  21,  p.  479  sq. 

'  Ilefcle,  The  Vicissitudes  of  the  Church  since  the  Council  of  Trent.  Tuo 
bing.  Quart.  Keview,  nro.  1,  p.  24  sq. 

*  See  p.  362. 


§  346.     The  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  375 

close  of  the  devastating  Thirty  Years'  War.^  So  marked 
was  its  success,  and  so  popular  did  the  Institute  become,  that 
it  was  soon  introduced  into  Hungar}-,  Spain,  and  Poland.  San 
Felice,  the  Papal  Xuncio  at  Cologne,  characterized  its  stat- 
utes as  a  "  medulla  canoman." 

§  346.      T/te  Order  of  the  Jesuits. 

Autobiography  of  St.  Ignatius.  {Bolland.,  Acta  ss.  mens.  Jul.,  T.  VII.,  p. 
409.)  Eibadeneirri,  Vita  Ignatii,  libri  V.  Neap.  1572.  (German,  Ingolstadt, 
1G14.)  Maffei,  De  vita  ct  moribus  Ignatii  Loyolae.  Kom.  1585.  4to.  •\*Gen- 
elli,  S.  J.,  Life  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola.  Innsbruck,  1847.  Constt.  regulae, 
decreta  congregationum,  censurae  et  praecepta  c.  litteris  Apostol.  et  privileg. 
(institutum  S.  J.  ex  decreto  congreg.  general.  XIV.  Prag.  1705.  2  V.)  Hol- 
steJi.-Brockie,  T.  III.,  p.  121  sq.  Hist.  S.  J.  a  JS'icol.  Orlandino^  Sacchino,  Ju- 
vencio,  etc.,  Eom.  et  Antv.  1G15-1750.  6  T.,  fol.  Henrio7i-Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  pp. 
92-217.  Ribadenelra,  Allegambe,  et  Soiwel.,  Bibl.  scriptor.  S.  J.  Antv.  1643. 
Lagomarsini,  Testimonia  viror.  illustr.  S.  J.  Barioli,  Hist,  of  the  Order  of 
Jesuits.  Germ.  AViirzburg,  1845.  Cretinemt-Job/,  Hist,  of  the  Society  of  .Tesus, 
from  a  religious,  political,  and  literary  point  of  view.  6  vols.  8vo.  Paris, 
1845-46.  Germ.  Vienna,  1845  sq.  5  vols.  In  the  same  spirit  further  devel- 
opments of  the  Hist,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  by  Brichl,  1846 ;  by  Busfs,  Mentz, 
1853;  by  Daia-igfiac,  Germ,  by  Clarus,  Eatisbon,  1864.     2  vols. 

The  Religions  Orders,  whose  members  were"more  numerous 
than  the  secular  clergy,  showed  themselves  utterly  unequal  to 
the  task  of  grappling  with  the  dangers  that  menaced  the 
Church.  Some,  in  whom  the  fire  of  charity  had  become  ex- 
tinct, remained  passive  spectators  of  the  conliict ;  while  oth- 
ers embraced  the  errors  of  the  day,  and  passed  over  to  the 
camp  of  the  enemy.  A  committee  appointed  by  Paul  III.  to 
examine  and  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  monks,  gave  it 
as  their  opinion,  that  the  communities  of  those  religious 
houses,  in  which  discipline  had  become  relaxed,  and  manners 
dissolute,  should  be  allowed  to  die  out,  when  others  m.ore 
zealous  and  honest  might  take  their  place.  The  secular 
clergy  were  no  better  than  the  monks,  and  the  Church  could 
not  look  to  them  for  any  effective  assistance  in  the  supreme 
ho.r  of  her  trial.  But  while  faith  seemed  extinct  in  the 
hearts  of  men  consecrated  to  the  special  service  of  God,  it 
was  living,  active,  and  energetic  in  the  Church,  producing,  at 


'  Gaduel,  Bartholomew  Ilolzhauser.    Tr.  from  the  French  into  Germ.,  Mentz, 
1862.     See  Frcibicrg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  634;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  365  scj 


Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chajytcr  4. 


this  time,  a  new  Religious  Order,  which,  apparently  growing 
out  of  the  circumstances  of  the  age,  was,  for  this  very  reason, 
pecuharly  fitted  to  minister  to  its  needs.  Specially  designed 
to  repel  the  advances  of  Protestantism,  this  Order  has  at  all 
times  filled  the  Protestant  mind  with  vague  and  undefined 
terrors.  Protestants,  as  a  rule,  have  regarded  the  great  So- 
ciety as  an  enemy  to  the  human  race,  formidable  indeed,  but 
deserving  the  execration  of  all  good  men  ;  and  even  Catho- 
lics, while  professing  true  allegiance  to  the  Church,  have 
judged  it  erroneously,  and  condemned  it  unjustly.  To  give  a 
fair  and  faithful  account  of  its  origin  and  character  is,  there- 
fore, now,  perhaps  more  than  in  any  age  since  its  foundation, 
the  duty  of  the  historian. 

Ignatius,  the  founder  of  this  Society,  was  the  descendant 
of  a  noble  Spanish  family,  and  was  born  at  Loyola,  in  1491. 
In  his  early  life,  he  embraced  the  profession  of  arms,  and  was 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  1521,  where  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  gallantry.  During  the  long  and 
weary  season  of  his  convalescence,  having  exhausted  his  stock 
of  romances,  he  took  to  reading  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  and,  like  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  was  in- 
spired with  the  desire  of  conquering  the  happiness  and  glory  of 
Heaven  by  enduring  the  contempt  and  the  suft'erings  of  the 
world.  He  made  up  his  mind  that  as  soon  as  he  should  be  per- 
fectly restored  to  health,  he  would  enter  upon  a  more  austere 
manner  of  life,  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  there 
labor  for  the  conversion  of  the  infidel.  Having  gone  to  the 
Holy  Land,  he  fell  in,  at  Jerusalem,  with  the  provincial  of  the 
Franciscans,  who  advised  him  to  give  up  his  design,  which  he 
did,  and  returned  to  Europe.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  idea 
of  founding  a  new  Religious  Order  came  up  to  his  mind.  To 
give  it  practical  shape  required  more  learning  than  he  then  pos- 
sessed, but  he  was  not  ashamed  to  take  his  place  on  the  benches 
with  the  children  of  the  grammar-school,  and  begin  to  master 
the  rudiments  of  Latin.  He  completed  his  academical  studies 
at  the  Universities  of  Alcald,  Salamanca,  and  Paris.  While 
at  the  last-named  place,  he  prevailed  upon  some  of  his  fellow 
students  to  adopt  his  austere  mode  of  life,  of  whose  trans- 
forming power  his  own  experience  at  Manresa  was  suflicient 
evidence.     These  young  men  in  turn  helped  him  on  in  his 


§  348.     The  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  375 

studies,  and  with  their  assistance  he  was  enabled,  in  1534,  to 
pass  creditably  through  a  rigorous  examination  for  the  degree 
of  Doctor.  His  principal  associates  were  Peter  Lefevre,  a 
Savoyard ;  Francis  Xavier,  a  Navarrese ;  James  Lainez,  Al- 
phonsus  Salmeron,  and  Nicholas  Bobadilla,  all  Spaniards ;  and 
a  Portuguese  named  Rodriguez.  Sometime  later  he  was 
joined  by  Lejay,  another  Savoyard,  John  Codure,  and 
Pascal  JBroet,  the  former  a  native  Dauphin^,  and  the  latter  of 
Picardy.  As  their  ideas  matured,  they  gave  a  wider  scope 
to  their  plans,  and  decided  to  devote  themselves  to  the  care 
of  souls.  Eelinfpiishing  for  the  time  the  Eastern  project,  Ig- 
natius, accompanied  by  Lefevre  and  Lainez,  repaired  to 
Rome,  in  1539,  and  submitted  the  rule  of  the  proposed  new 
Order  to  Pope  Paul  III.  Their  vow,  in  addition  to  the  three- 
fold obligation  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  included 
a  fourth,  by  which  they  bound  themselves,  unconditionally, 
to  go  as  missionaries  to  any  part  of  the  loorld  to  lohich  the  Holy 
Father  might  please  to  send  them.  From  resolves  so  determined 
and  motives  so  disinterested,  Paul  III.  could  not  withhold 
his  sanction,  and  he  accordingly  approved  the  ^'Society  of 
Jesus"  ^  in  a  bull  dated  September  27,  1540.  The  number  of 
"  professed  "  members  to  be  admitted  into  the  Society  was  at 
first  limited  to  sixty  ;  but  learning  the  beneficial  results  of 
their  earl}-  labors,  Paul  III.  removed  the  restriction,  March 
14,  1543,  and  his  successors  granted  them  many  and  import- 
ant privileges.  The  Society  spread  rapidly  in  Europe.  Peter 
Canisius,^  in  Germany,  became  one  of  its  members  in  1543. 
Its  spirit  of  charity  and  ardent  zeal  were  carried  beyond  the 
seas  by  Francis  Xavier. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Society,  more  detailed,  precise,  and 
rigorous,  than  that  of  any  of  the  older  Orders,^  ma}^  be  given 


1  This  appellation,  which  had  in  the  fifteenth  century  been  conferred  bj^Pius 
II.  on  an  order  of  chivalry,  met  with  much  opposition,  and  Sixiiis  V.  ordered 
the  General,  Claudio  de  Acquaviva,  to  discontinue  it.  But  before  the  order 
could  be  carried  into  effect  Sixtus  died,  and  the  name  was  formally  approved 
by  Gregory  XIV.,  Juno  28,  1591.  See  GeneUi,  1.  c,  p.  190  sq.;  also  American 
Cyclopaed.,  art.  Jesuits,  by  Kev.  B.  O Reilly,  IS.  J. 

2  Riess,  S.  J.,  Life  of  Blessed  Peter  Canisius,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Frei- 
burg, in  Brisgovia,  1865. 

'The  Code  of  the  Society  comprises  the  following:  1st.  Exame.n  nencmlc. 
containing  a  series  of  questions  to  be  answered  by  applicants   for  admission  , 


o76  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

in  outline  as  follows  :  The  specific  aim  of  the  Society  is  ex- 
pressed in  its  motto  "  J.^/  majoram  Dei  gloriam" — To  God's 
greater  glory.  Hence  it  is  the  duty  of  the  members  to  labor 
for  the  salvation  of  others  as  well  as  their  own.  T/ie  former 
object  they  accomplish  by  conducting  the  spiritual  exer- 
cises for  priests  in  retreat ;  j)reaching  missions  to  the  laity  ; 
teaching  catechism  ;  hearing  confessions ;  defending  the  iaitli 
against  heretics;  and,  more  than  all,  by  instructing  youth  in 
grammar-schools  and  colleges  ;  the  latter,  by  interior  prayer,  ex- 
amen  of  conscience,  the  reading  of  ascetical  works,  and  fre- 
quent communion.  To  be  received  into  the  Society  the  ap- 
plicants must  be  of  sound  body  and  well  endowed  with  men- 
tal gifts. 

N^ovices,  after  a  short  trial  as  postulants,  spend  two  years 
in  the  novitiate,  during  which  all  studies  are  suspended,  and 
nearly  the  whole  time  is  passed  in  spiritual  exercises,  in 
order  that,  having  gone  through  the  various  degrees  of  hu- 
mility, they  may  be  well  prepared  for  a  life  of  earnest  study. 
Having  finished  the  novitiate,  thc}^  make  their  first  or  simple 
vows  {vota  simplicia),  b}'  which  they  take  upon  themselves  the 
threefold  obligations  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  com- 
mon to  all  Religious  Orders  ;  and  formally  promise  to  remain 
in  the  Society,  and,  at  some  future  day,  to  accept  any  charge 
which  the  General,  acting  under  the  Constitution,  may  as- 
sign them.  Their  poverty  consists  in  this,  that  they  can 
not  possess,  either  individually  or  collectively,  property  of  any 
kind  whatever,  and  must  supply  their  wants  from  voluntary 
donations.  But  that  teachers  and  students  may  not  be  dis- 
tracted by  constant  solicitude  for  the  necessaries  of  life,  col- 
leges are  allowed  to  receive  endowments.  At  the  close  of  the 
novitiate,  studies  begin,  consisting  chief!}'  of  the  languages, 
poetry,  rhetoric,  yhilosopliy,  mathematics,  and  \.h.Q physical  sciences ; 
and  lasting  through  a  period  of  five  years.  After  a  satisfac- 
tory examination,  the  young  Jesuits  are  set  to  teach  in  the 


2d.  Consiiiutiones,  describing  the  mode  of  community-life;  3d.  Regulae,  relating 
to  the  administration  of  the  oflBccs  of  the  Society;  4th.  Deelarationes,  or  ex- 
planations of  the  text.  The  whole  forms  what  is  known  as  the  InstUutum  So- 
details  Jesu,  which,  according  to  the  declaration  forming  a  sequel  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  1558,  was  written  by  Si.  Jg?iatLus  himself  and  not  by  Lainez. 


§  346.    The  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  37'/ 

schools  of  the  Society  for  live  or  six  years.  Beginning  usujilly 
with  the  lowest,  they  pass  on  step  by  step  until  they  have 
tunght  the  highest  branches.  They  are  next  sent  to  make 
their  studies  in  theology,  the  course  of  which  lasts  four  years, 
or  six,  if  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  wnth  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church  be  desired.  At  the  close  of  each  half  year  they 
are  made  to  stand  a  rigorous  examination;  and,  when  their 
theological  studies  are  completed,  they  go  up  for  priest's  Or- 
ders. "While  engaged  in  these  studies  they  are  obliged  to 
meditate  and  examine  their  consciences  frequently;  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  every  three  days  ;  and  to  renew  their  vows 
twice  in  the  year.  These  devotions  and  regulations  are 
deemed  necessary  to  keep  alive  in  the  heart  the  spirit  of  true 
piety,  and  the  better  to  enable  the  scholastics  to  perform  them 
w^ell  the  Spiritual  Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  [Exercitia  sjnrit- 
ualia)^  are  put  into  their  hands.  The  conduct  of  each  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  is  watched  over  by  another,  and  no  one  is 
permitted  to  go  from  the  house  to  which  he  is  attached  with- 
out a  companion. 

When  the  theological  studies  have  been  completed,  the 
second  novitiate  is  entered  upon,  which  lasts  a  year,  part  of 
wliich  is  given  to  preaching,  teaching  catechism,  and  instruct- 
ing ;  but  the  greater  part  to  meditation  and  prayer,  to  the 
study  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Society,  and  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  different  virtues.  Finally,  when  these  various 
stages  of  probation  have  been  gone  through,  those  who  are 
judged  w^orthy  are  admitted  to  make  the  second  vows,  and 
take  their  places  among  either  the  Coadjutors  or  the  Professed. 

The  members  of  the  Society  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  their  talents,  their  knowledge,  and  their  piety, 


'The  exercises  were  first  printed  at  Home,  and  approved  liy  Paul  III.  in 
1548.  An  attempt  at  systemizing  and  explaining  them  is  Ibund  in  BcUecii 
Medulla  asceseos  seu  exercitia  S.  P.  Ign.  accuratiori  et  mcnli  ejus  propriori 
methodo  explanata,  ed.  Westhoff,  Monast.  1845,  1848,  and  in  Manresa,  seu  Ex- 
ercitia S.  Ignatii,  Ratisbon,  1848;  Manrese,  ou  les  Exercise  spirituelles  par  S, 
Ignace  Loyola,  Brussels,  1854.  Mcinresa,  or  the  Spir.  Exerc.  of  St.  Ignatius, 
Baltimore,  1866;  and  A  Spir.  Eetreat  of  Eight  Days,  by  the  RigJit  Rev.  J.  M. 
David,  ed.  M.  J.  Spalding,  Bp.  of  Louisville,  ibid..  1864;  Woodstock,  1876. 
A  brief  and  spirited  analysis  of  these  exercises  has  been  given  us  by  Pcre  Ra- 
viynan,  de  I'lnstitut  des  Jesuites  (Germ,  by  Retching,  Schaffh.  1844,  pp.  11-32). 


Period  3.     Epoch  1,     Chapter  4. 


viz :  the  Professed,  the  Spiritual  Coadjutors,  and  the  Temporal 
Coadjutors,  or  Lay  Brothers  (Professi,  coadjutores  spirituales, 
coadjutores  temporales) . 

1.  The  Professed,  take,  besides  the  three  ordinary  monastic 
vows,  a  fourth,  by  which  they  bind  themselves  to  go  unre- 
servedly as  missionaries  wherever  the  Pope  wishes  to  send 
them,  and  no  one  but  the  Pope  can  absolve  them  from  their 
vows.  From  this  class  are  taken  the  most  important  officers 
of  the  Society,  such  as  the  general,  the  provincials,  professors 
of  theology,  and  superiors  of  the  various  houses  belonging  to 
the  Order.  These  establishments  are  the  following :  Houses 
of  Professed,  under  the  government  of  Presidents ;  colleges,  re- 
quiring each  at  least  thirteen  members,  under  the  government 
of  a  rector;  affiliated  colleges  oy  residences,  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a  superior,  in  which  fathers  of  advanced  age  spend 
the  close  of  their  lives  in  quiet,  or  perfect  any  literary  labors 
they  may  have  in  hand  ;  and,  finally,  mission  houses,  intended 
to  supply  help  to  priests  having  cure  of  souls.  The  general 
holds  his  office  for  life,  but  the  officers  of  inferior  rank  are 
elected  every  three  years. 

The  Monita  Secreta,^  or  Secret  Instructions,  which,  it  is 
said,  were  meant  to  be  reserved  solely  for  the  Professed,  and 
with  whose  odious  and  monstrous  principles  the  Society  has 
been  so  persistently  and  so  unjustly  assailed,  are  calumnious 
and  apocryphal  productions,  published  against  the  Jesuits  by 
their  enemies.  Another  calumny  is  the  interpretation  which 
some  have  pnt  upon  a  certain  passage  in  the  Constitutions, 
which,  it  is  claimed,  gives  a  superior  the  power  to  oblige  the  mem- 
bers to  do  evil  under  certain  circumstances.  It  would  seem 
that  no  one  could  attach  such  a  meaning  to  the  words  in  ques- 
tion without  intentionally  misapprehending  their  true  sense.^ 


^  Doller,  The  Anti-Jesuit,  being  a  Counterbuff  to  the  Jesuits'  Journal,  1817. 

2  The  passage  referred  to  (Pars  VI.,  c.  6)  runs  as  follows  :  "Visum  est  nobis 
in  Domino,  excepto  expresso  voto,  quo  societas  summo  Pontiflci,  pro  tempore 
existenti,  tenetur,  ac  tribus  aliis  essentialibus  paupertatis,  castitatis  et  obedien- 
tiae,  nullas  constitutiones,  declarationes  vel  ordinem  ullum  vivendi  posse  obli- 
gationem  ad  peccatum  mortale  vel  veniale  inducere,  nisi  Superior  ea  in  nomine 
Domini  J.  Chr.  vel  in  virtute  obedientiae  juberet."  The  title  under  which  the 
words  are  found  is:  "  Quod  constitutiones  peecati  obligationem  non  inducunt." 
The  meaning,  it  is  quite  evident,  is  this:  "The  four  great  vows  bind  at  al) 


§  34G.   The  Order  of  the  Jesuits.  379 

2.  The  Coadjutors,  who  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  Society, 
are  engaged  in  teachiug  in  the  schools  and  in  doing  pastoral 
work.  Of  these  the  Scholastics  (Scholastici  approbati)  are  in- 
trusted with  the  most  advanced  classes. 

3.  The  Temporal  Coadjutors  {Coadjutores  temporales)^  or  Laj 
Brothers,  to  whom  the  manual  and  minor  offices  of  the  So- 
ciety are  assigned.  In  the  exterior  manner  of  life  there  is  no 
distinction  betw^een  the  professed  and  the  coadjutors. 

Each  province  is  presided  over  by  a  provincial,  and  the  whole 
Society  is  governed  by  a  general,  who  resides  at  Home,  and  en- 
joys absolute  power  within  the  limits  of  the  ancient  laws  of 
the  Order.  To  make  any  change  in  the  Rule  requires  the 
consent  of  the  General  Congregation.  To  avoid  trouble  and 
intrigues  among  the  members,  the  provincials  and  the  other 
superiors  of  the  houses  of  the  Society  are  appointed  by  the 
general.  He  is  advised  as  to  the  fitness  of  the  latter  by  the 
provincial  and  three  other  Jesuits.  The  superiors  of  the  va- 
rious houses  are  required  to  give  an  account  yearly  to  the 
general  of  the  conduct  and  talents  of  those  under  their  care. 
The  general  has  a  council  of  six  assistants,  w'ho  are  men  of 
long  experience  and  tried  virtue.  They  are  elected  in  the 
General  Congregation,  one  from  each  of  the  six  "assistan- 
cies"  of  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,^  Italy,  and  Po- 
land. The  general  acts  under  the  direction  of  the  assistants, 
who,  in  extreme  cases,  may  depose  him,  but  the  ordinary  de- 
times  under  guilt  of  sin  ;  but  the  other  constitutions  and  ordinances  only  when 
the  superior  commands,  in  virtue  of  Holy  Obedience  or  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ."  Compared  with  the  obligations  enforced  by  other  orders,  this  seems 
mild.  It  should  seem  that  the  conditions  to  be  found  scattered  through  the 
"Declaratio7ies"  ought  to  have  rendered  impossible  so  senseless  and  dishonest 
an  interpretation.  It  is  there  stated  over  and  over  again  that  the  superior  is 
to  be  obeyed  "  in  omnibus  rebus  uhi  peccatuni  non  cernitur, — ubi  definiri  non 
possit  aliquod  peccaii  genus;"  and  again,  "  bujusmodi  illae  omnes  (declara- 
tiones)  in  quibus  nullum  manifestum  est  peccatum."  Cf.  Riffel,  Suppression 
of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  JMentz,  1845,  pp.  217  sq.  Steitz,  The  meaning  of 
the  mediaeval  phrase  ^''  obligare  ad  peccatum"  (to  bind  under  sin),  Annuary  of 
Germ.  Theol.,  Vol.  IX.,  Gotha,  1864,  pp.  148  sq.  \_Very  Rev.  J.  A.  Corcoran, 
D.  D.,  American  Cath.  Quart.  Review  for  .lanuarj',  1876,  art.  "Jesuits,"  pp. 
G9  sq.  (Tr.)] 

'  The  "  assistancy  "  of  Portugal  was  never  revived  after  the  suppression  of 
the  Order  in  that  country.  That  of  England  has  been  lately  created,  and  thai 
of  Poland  has  been  merged  into  that  of  Germany.  (Tb.) 


380  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     ChaiJter  4. 


posiDg  power  is  vested  in  the  General  Congregation.  To  tlio 
general  is  attached  an  odmovitor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  comfort 
him  as  a  friend,  to  watch  over  him  as  a  father,  and  to  act  as 
his  confessor. 

It  is  no  wonder  that  a  Society  like  thia,  the  very  perfection 
of  a  strongly  organized  constitutional  monarchy,  of  wise  legis- 
lation and  prudent  administration,  should  rise  to  great  povrer, 
and  exert  a  marvelous  influence  upon  mankind.  This  was 
the  necessary  result  of  its  perfect  organization  and  the  cour- 
ageous spirit  by  which  its  members  were  animated.  And  in 
the  midst  of  their  important  duties  as  teachers,  and  their 
ceaseless  activity  in  other  spheres,  they  have  wonderfully 
preserved  the  integrity  of  their  Constitutions.  Any  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  members  to  depart  from  the  fundamental 
teachings  of  the  Church  is  resisted  with  stern  severity  ;  while, 
in  matters  of  opinion,  they  are  allowed  the  largest  freedom, 
which  some  of  them  have  at  times  deplorably  abused. 

In  forming  a  judgment  upon  the  fourth  vow  of  the  Jesuits, 
and  generally  upon  many  other  [loints  peculiar  to  the  Society, 
it  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  primary  aim  of  its 
founders  was  to  assume  an  attitude  in.  every  way  absolutely  op- 
posed to  whatecer  was  Protestant.  Protestantism  assailed  the 
Center  of  Unity,  and  aimed  at  destroying  the  papacy.  The 
Jesuits,  on  this  very  account,  bound  themselves  indissolubly 
to  the  Holy  See.  Protestants  enlarged  the  bounds  of  liberty 
till  it  became  license  ;  the  Jesuits  bound  themselves  by  their 
Rule  to  unconditional  obedience,  even  sacrificing  their  indi- 
vidual wills  to  the  interests  of  the  Society.  Protestants,  as 
their  own  writers  avow,  often  acted  under  the  impulse  of  pas- 
sion, without  reflection  and  without  foresight,  and  were  in 
consequence  for  a  long  time  unable  to  unite  themselves  in  any 
sort  of  organization ;  the  founders  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  on 
the  contrary,  following  the  noble  inspirations  of  religion, 
formed  themselves  into  an  organization,  which  is  a  marvel  of 
unity,  and  directed  their  actions  with  far-seeing  -wisdom  and 
consummate  prudence. 

Elements,  usually  antagonistic  to  each  other,  are  liere  found 
existing  together  in  harmony.  The  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomenon may  be  obtained  from  a  consideration  of  the  char- 


§  347.  Labors  of  the  Jesuits.  381 

acter  of  the  founders.  While  Ignatius  was  all  aglou-  Avitb  a 
pure  and  chivalrous  enthusiasm,  which  to  some  seemed  ex- 
travagant, and  was  consumed  with  a  zeal  so  ardent  and  a  love 
so  tender  for  Christ  and  His  Church  that  he  appeared  to  have 
no  other  thought,  Lainez  was  a  calm,  discreet,  far-seeing 
man,  gifted  with  a  strong  will  and  a  talent  for  organization, 
seemingly  having  been  born  to  govern.  To  the  zeal  and 
strong  faith  of  Ignatius,  Lainez  added  discretion  an'l  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  objects  of  belief.  The  principles  of  interior  life, 
upon  which  the  Society  is  based,  came  from  Ignatius  ;  from 
Lainez,  the  form  and  organization  through  which  its  aims 
and  purposes  are  attained.^  The  respective  qualities  of  both 
these  men  coalesced  from  the  very  outset,  the  one  being  the 
complement  of  the  other,  and  the  same  differences  of  charac- 
ter and  talent  and  the  same  harmon}"  of  action  have  been 
preserved  with  singular  uniformity  throughout  the  history  of 
the  Society  they  founded,  and  whose  energy  and  activity  have 
been  such  that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  its  fortunes  without 
feelinjys  of  the  liveliest  interest.  Great  courage,  indomitable 
energy,  genuine  devotion,  consummate  prudence,  and  a  clear 
view  of  the  object  to  be  attained,  were  necessary  to  success- 
fully arrest  the  progress  of  Protestantism,  and  these  were  all 
embodied  in  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

§  347.  Labors  of  the  Jesuits. 

Testimonials  of  Popes,  Princes,  and  Scholars,  Clerical  and  Lay,  to  the  Jes- 
uits, or  Temple  of  Honor  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Vienna,  1841. 

The  summary  of  facts  that  follows  will  serve  to  give  some 
notion  of  the  marvelous  activit}'-  displayed  by  the  Jesuits  in 
the  interests  of  the  Church.  It  would  seem  that  Germany, 
the  cradle  of  Protestantism,  liad  literally  lapsed  into  bar- 
barism. The  universities,  which  were  rapidly  going  to  decay, 
were  threatened  with  utter  ruin.  Ignorance  the  most  pro- 
found pervaded  the  bulk  of  the  people ;  and  since,  to  be  a 
good  Protestant,  it  was  only  necessaiy  to  deny  certain  trutha 

1  Gemlli  (1.  c,  pp.  238  and  402  sq.),  in  comparing  these  men,  and  showing 
the  relations  of  the  one  to  the  other,  takes  a  view  different  from  the  one  given 
above.    His  arguments  have  not  convinced  us  that  his  view  is  the  correct  one 


382  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

of  Catholic  doctrine,  a  decided  tendency  toward  the  teachings 
of  the  Reformation  was  soon  visible,  even  in  countries  like 
Austria,  which  had  been  strictly  Catholic.^  Twenty  years 
went  by,  and  not  a  single  priest  came  forth  from  the  once 
flourishing  University  of  Vienna.  Protestant  ministers  were 
everywhere  to  be  seen.  Ferdinand  J.,  seeing  the  condition 
of  affairs,  resolved  to  invite  (1551)  the  Jesuits  into  his  domin- 
ions. Of  those  who  were  sent  to  him,  Lejay  and  Canisius- 
were  the  most  distinguished.  The  latter  gave  instructions, 
apparently  without  intermission  ;  preached  often  ;  reorgan- 
ized the  university  on  a  new  basis;  published  a  new  cate- 
chism ;  prudently  administered  the  affairs  of  the  diocese ; 
and  thus,  by  restoring  order,  not  only  stayed  the  advance  of 
heresy,  but  also  succeeded  in  bringing  back  to  the  Catholic 
faith  the  bulk  of  those  who  had  gone  over  to  Protestantism, 
The  celebrated  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Freiburg,  in  Switzer- 
land, is  another  witness  to  the  zeal  and  activity  of  Canisius. 
He  was  beatified  November  20, 1864. 

For  similar  reasons  the  Jesuits  went  to  Bavaria.^  J^O<^y 
led  the  advance-guard  against  Protestantism  in  that  country, 
and  not  long  after  (1549)  the  department  of  theology  at  In- 
golstadt  was  handed  over  to  them.  Lejay  explained  the 
Psalms,  Salmeron  the  Gospels  and  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  and 
Canisius  taught  dogmatic  theology.^  In  1559  the  Jesuits 
Avere  invited  to  Munich.  Here  their  great  aim  was  to  revive 
a  taste  for  classical  and  general  literature  and  the  sciences. 
Protestaiits  had  proscribed  the  teaching  of  these  on  the 
ground  that  they  savored  too  much  of  the  world,  were  useless 
in  themselves,  and  positively  harmful  to  a  truly  religious  ed- 
ucation; but  the  Catholic  Church  had  learned  from  costly 
experience  that  the  absence  of  high  culture  in  her  most  de- 
voted champions  had  been  seriously  detrimental  to  her  inter- 


1  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  in  his  Struggle  against  the  Protestant  Estates  of 
Upper  Austria  {Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  G75  sq.,  742  sq.;  Vol 
IV.,  pp.  13  sq.,  168  sq.,  219  sq. 

'^  Dorigny,  S.  J.,  la  vie  da  R.  P.  Pierre  Canisius,  fondateur  du  celebre  college 
de  Eribourg,  Avign.  1829.    Riess,  Blessed  Peter  Canisius,  S.  J  ,  Eroiburg,  1865 

3  Conf.  ?  .318. 

*  WinieT,  Hist,  of  the  Evangelical  Doctrine  in  Bavaria,  Vol.  II.,  p.  167- 


§  347.  Labors  of  the  Jesuits.  383 

ests.     From  this  time  forth  the  assaults  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Church  in  Bavaria  were  ably  repulsed. 

During  this  season  of  comparative  peace  the  Jesuits  founded 
colleges  at  Cologne  (1556),  at  Treves  (1561),  at  Mentz  (1562), 
at  Augsburg  and  Dillmgen  (1563),  at  Ellwavgen  and  Pader- 
horn  (1585),  at  Wuerzburg  (1586).  at  Asch.offenhiirg,  Munster, 
and  Salzburg  (1588),  at  Bamberg  (1595),  at  Anvers,  Prague, 
and  Posen  (1571),  and  at  Constance  (1604),  besides  man}- 
in  other  countries.  They  were  everywhere  the  stay  and 
bulwark  of  the  Church.  Their  works  on  theology,  philos- 
ophy, and  philology  were  of  great  merit  and  widely  known. 
Such  were  the  De  particulis  linguae  Latinae,  by  Tursellin ; 
the  De  idiotismis  linguae  Graecae,  a  work  on  grammar,  b}- 
Viger;^  the  Progymnasmafa,  or  Exercises  in  Latin  Compo- 
sition, by  Pontanus;  works  on  the  purity  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage, by  Perpiniamis  {jl566),  Vernulaeus^  and  others;-  on 
poetry,  by  James  Balde,  the  Horace  of  Germany,  by  Sar- 
biewski,  Juvenci,  Vaniere,  Spee,  and  Avancini  ;^  on  mathemat- 
ics and  astronomy,  by  Clavius,  Hell,  Scheiner,  Schall,  de  Bell, 
and  Poezobut  at  Wilna ;  on  natural  history,  hy  Kircher,  Nie- 
remberg,  and  Paczynski ;  on  geography,  by  Acunha,  Charle- 
voix, Dobrizhofer,  and  Gerbillon ;  and  on  the  science  of  poli- 
tics, by  Aquaviva,  3Iariana,  Pibadeneira,  and  Contzen.* 


1  Hand,  the  philologist  of  Jena,  published  a  new  edition  of  Turf^slin's  Partic- 
ulae,  and  Gottfried  Hermaim,  of  Leipsig,  a  revised  edition  of  Vigcrs  Idiotismi, 
both  of  which  are  highly  esteemed. 

^  Joan.  Perpiniani  Lu-^itani  0pp.  Rom.  1749,  4  T.  Special  praise  is  bestowed 
on  his  eighteen  speeches,  delivered  at  Rome,  Lyons,  and  Paris.  The  most  re- 
markable of  them  are:  De  Societatis  Jesu  gymnasiis;  de  perfecta  doctoris 
christiani  forma ;  de  Deo  Trino  et  Uno;  de  retinenda  veteri  religione  ad  Lug- 
dunenses  et  Parisienses.  Ru/mlcen,  in  his  ed.  of  the  works  of  Muret,  says 
"that  Perpinian  would  have  disputed  the  palm  of  eloquence  with  Muret,  if  he 
had  not  been  cut  short  in  the  midst  of  his  career."  Veiniulacus.  elogia  oratoria 
on  the  heroes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  volumen  singulare  orationum  sacra- 
rum.  Conf.  Goettlingii,  Commentatio  de  Nic.  Vernulaeo,  Schilleri  antecessoro 
in  tragoediis  Viraginis  Aurelian.  et  Wallenstenii,  Jen.  1862. 

3  Parnassus  S.  J.,  i.  e.  poemata  Patrum  S.  J.,  Frcf.  1054,  2  T.,  4to. 

*  Smeis,  What  has  the  Order  of  the  .Jesuits  done  for  Science  ?  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  1834.  De  Backer,  Bihliotheque  des  ecrivains  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus, 
Liege,  1854  (deuzieme  serie).  George  Westermayer,  .Tame=;  Balde,  his  Life  and 
bis  works,  Munich,  18G8.  Memorial  of  the  Second  Centennial,  or  Select  Poems 
■of  James  Balde,  transl.  by  Schrott  and  Schleich,  Munich,  1870.    Complete  Latin 


384  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

That  the  method  of  teaching  followed  by  the  Jesuits,  who 
cultivate  both  intellect  and  heart  by  allying  science  with  re- 
ligion, and  stimulate  a  generous  rivalry  by  various  ingenious 
expedients,  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  education  of  youth, 
has  been  at  all  times  confessed  by  those  test  capable  of  judg- 
ing.^ Speculative  theology  ^wdi  higher  philosophy  hn^  also  their 
exponents  in  the  Society.  The  names  of  Suarez,  Toletus,  JRi- 
palda,  and  Petavius  are  familiar  to  every  student.  It  is,  how- 
ever, its  special  distinction  that  it  has  at  all  times  upheld  and 
exemplified  in  its  members  a  high  standard  of  morality.  The 
example  of  St.  Ignatius  had  a  powerful  influence  upon  hia 
followers.  In  Italy  and  at  Rome  he  labored  successfully  for 
the  correction  of  the  morals  of  the  people.  He  opened  houses 
of  refuge,  under  the  direction  of  the  Society  of  St.  3Iartha, 
for  fallen  but  repentant  females,  and  established  the  Convent 
of  St.  Catharine  for  those  whose  chastity  was  in  peril.  So 
completely  did  the  Jesuits  reform  the  easy  morals  and  sinful 
luxury  of  the  Portuguese,  that  an  eye-witness,  speaking  of  the 
change  thej?'  had  wrought,  said  :  "  They  wish  to  found  another 
Sparta."  It  was  only  natural  that  a  general  desire  should  be 
expressed  to  have  bishops  appointed  from  a  body  of  men  so 
conspicuous  for  intellectual  activity  and  moral  probity  ;  but 
Ignatius  (y  July  31, 1556)  refused  his  consent,  because  he  felt 
that  the  possession  of  so  considerable  a  dignity  would  be  in- 
consistent with  the  poverty  and  humility  professed  by  his  fol- 
lowers, and  that  the  fact  of  such  honors  being  open  to  them 
might  foster  ambition  and  otherwise  do  harm  to  a  Society 
whose  members  were  to  be,  above  all  things,  soldiers  of  Christ, 
ready  at  all  times  to  go  where  God  might  call.  This  extreme 
rigor  was  somewhat  relaxed  under  Lainez  (1553-1565),  the 
second  general  of  the  Society,  but  again  strictly  enforced  by 
his  successor,  Francis  Borgia  (1566-1572),  the  great  grandson 
of  Alexander  VI.,  to  whose  life  that  of  the  illustrious  Jesuit 
formed  so  marked  and  redeeming  a  contrast.     It  is  not  sur- 


ed.  of  the  Carmina  lyrica  Jac.  Balde,  ed.  Hipler,  Monast.  1856 ;  likewise  in  Lps., 
and  by  Sorbiewski. 

'  The  Jesuits  and  their  Colleges  (Cath.  Eccl.  Journal  of  Passau,  1842).  Karl, 
The  Old  and  the  New  Course  of  Studies,  Mentz,  1846.  Kleutgen,  The  Theology 
of  Antiquit)'  Miinster,  1853  sq.,  3  vols. 


347.  Labors  of  the  Jesuits.  385 


prising  to  find  men  so  distinguished  for  virtue  and  learning 
soon  called  to  preach  at  courts,  and  to  be  the  spiritual  guides 
of  princes  and  those  about  their  persons.  Experience  had 
shown  that  princes,  whether  for  good  or  ill,  according  to  their 
dispositions,  had  greatly  influenced  the  destinies  of  the  Church. 
Still  it  will  ever  remain  a  source  of  regret  to  Catholics  that 
t^ome  of  these  good  men  allowed  themselves  to  be  drawn  into 
the  lueshes  of  State  diplomacy.  In  one  of  his  circular  letters, 
addressed  to  the  members  of  the  Society,  Francis  Borgia  ex- 
pressed his  pain  that  some  of  them  should  have  become 
mixed  up  in  political  affairs.  He  also  chided  those  who  had 
given  themselves  too  exclusively  to  purely  scientific  studies. 
"  You  have  put  aside,"  said  he,  ''  the  pride  that  aspires  to 
ecclesiastical  dignities,  and  you  have  done  well ;  but  you  are 
ambitious  to  write  great  works,  and  thus  gratify  it  by  other 
means.  As  lambs  have  we  entered,  but  we  rule  as  wolves ; 
we  shall  be  cast  out  as  dogs,  but  as  eagles  shall  we  be  re- 
newed." A  similar  spirit  animated  Everard  Mercurian,  a  na- 
tive of  Luxemburg,  while  presiding  over  the  Society  (1573- 
1580). 

The  curriculum  of  studies  (ratio  studiorum)  and  the  system 
•of  pedagogics  followed  by  the  Jesuits  were  drawn  up  and 
received  their  final  form  from  Claudius  Aquaviva,  the  fifth 
general  (1581-1 615)  .^ 


1  The  following  were  generals  of  the  Society :  Muiio  Vitelleschi,  Nov.  15, 
1615— Febr.  9,  1645;  Vince»t  Caraffa,  .Jan.  7,  1646— June  8,1649;  Francis  Pic- 
■colomini,  Dec.  13,  1649 — June  17,  1651;  Alexander  Gotfredi,  Jan.  21,  1652 — 
March  12,  same  year;  Ooswin  Nickel,  March  17,  1655 — 1664;  John  Paul  Ollva, 
Vicar-General  of  the  Order,  cum  spe  su'ccedendi,  1664 — 1681  ;  Charles  de  Noy- 
elle,  1682— Dec.  12,  1686;  Gonzales  de  Santalla,  July  6,  1687— Oct.  27,  1705; 
Michael  Angelo  Tamburini,  Jan.  30,  1706 — 1730;  Francis  Retz,  1730 — 1750; 
Jijnatius  Visconti,  1751;  Aloysius  Centurionc,  1755;  Laivrence  Ricci,  May  21, 
1758 — 1773.  Cf.  Imagines  Praepositorum  Generalium  soc.  Jesu  delineatae,  et 
nereis  formis  expressae  ab  Arnoldo  van  Westerhout,  addita  brevi  unius  cujusque 
vitae  descriptione  a  P.  Nicol.  Galeotti  ed.  II.,  Kom.  1751;  on  the  generals  in 
.particular,  see  Buss,  p.  641  8q. 
VOL.  Ill — 25 


38G  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders. 

Holstenius-BrocMe,  Codex  regularum  monasticarum.  The  works  of  Helyott 
Biedenfeld,  Henrion-FeJir.     See  Vol.  I.,  p.  748. 

It  has  been  frequently  and  justly  remarked  that  the  degeri' 
erac-y  of  the  clergy,  and  their  neglect  to  instruct  the  -people  in  their 
religious  duties,  thus  bringing  upon  the  latter  innumerable 
corporal  and  spiritual  evils,  had  prepared  the  way  for  the  in- 
troduction of  Protestantism.  The  various  religious  commu- 
nities now  set  themselves  to  remedy  this  condition  of  affairs, 
and  began  to  emulate  each  other  in  the  zeal  with  which  they 
instructed  the  people.  But,  if  this  work  was  to  be  properly 
done,  it  was  plainly  the  duty  of  the  clergy  to  begin  by  re- 
forming themselves.  This  was  the  motive  that  occasioned 
the  founding  of  the  following  orders : 

1.  The  Capuchins.  It  was  the  special  aim  of  the  Order  to 
root  out  the  love  of  wealth,  and  generally  to  banish  the  spirit 
of  worldliuess  that  in  many  places  had  crept  into  the  older 
monasteries  and  convents.  To  efl'ect  this  purpose  they  prac- 
tised in  their  own  persons  the  most  rigorous  poverty,  the  most 
austere  self-denial,  and  the  most  profound  humility,  thus 
making  themselves  patterns  of  virtue  to  the  world,  stimula- 
ting men  to  strive  after  a  higher  standard  of  excellence,  and, 
above  all,  fitting  themselves  to  render  efficient  service  to 
priests  burdened  with  the  weighty  and  responsible  care  of 
souls.  The  Capuchins  were  only  a  branch  of  the  great  Fran- 
ciscan Order,  and  their  mode  of  life  a  modification  of  its 
Rule.  Among  the  Franciscans  the  severity  of  their  Rule  had 
early  become  a  subject  of  discussion,  which  finally  led  to  a 
secession  of  some  of  the  members,  of  whom  MafJeo  de'  Bassi, 
of  the  convent  of  Montefalcone,  was  the  leading  spirit. 
These  were  rigorists  who  desired  to  restore  the  primitive 
austerity  of  the  Order.  They  began  b}'  a  change  of  dress, 
adding  to  the  usual  monastic  habit  a  '■'■  capp>uccio,'"  or  pointed 
hood,  which  Matteo  claimed  was  of  the  same  pattern  as  that 
worn  by  St.  Francis.  By  the  bull  Eeligionis  zelus  (15-8), 
Matteo  obtained  from  Pope  Clement  VII.  leave  for  himself 
and  his  companions  to  wear  this  peculiar  dress ;   to  allow 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders.  387 

their  beards  to  grow  ;  to  live  in  hermitages,  according  to  the 
Rule  of  St.  Francis;  and  to  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the 
reclaiming  of  great  sinners.^  Paul  III.  afterward  gave  them 
permission  to  settle  wheresoever  they  liked.  Consistently 
with  the  austerity  of  their  professions,  their  churches  were 
unadorned,  and  their  convents  built  in  the  simplest  style. 
They  became  very  serviceable  to  the  Church,  and  their  fear- 
lessness and  assiduity  in  waiting  upon  the  sick  during  a 
plague,  which  ravaged  the  whole  of  Italy,  made  them  ex- 
tremely popular.  The  progress  of  these  reformed  Hermits^ 
received  a  rude  shock  from  the  conduct  of  Ochino,  their  third 
Vicar  Geyieral,  who,  after  having  become  eminent  as  an 
earnest  preacher,  led  a  young  girl  astray,  went  over  to  Pro- 
testantism (1542),  and  was  shortly  after  married  at  Geneva. 
The  punishment  of  his  misconduct  was  visited  upon  his 
brethren,  who  for  two  years  were  forbidden  to  preach.  They, 
however,  soon  regained  their  merited  consideration,  and  did 
excellent  service  in  the  cause  of  the  Church.  They  were  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  age,  spread  rapidly,  and 
their  popularity  was  such  that  many  persons  of  distinction 
enrolled  themselves  among  them.  Of  those  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  instance  Alphonsas  d'Este,  Duke  of  Modena ;  Henry^ 
Duke  of  Joyeuse;  and  Joseph  le  Clerc  du  Tremblay. 

2.  The  Theatines.  About  the  year  1524  a  number  of  Italian 
prelates  formed  an  association  for  serving  the  sick,  and  thus 
gaining  souls  to  Christ.  The  scope  of  the  association  was 
gradually  widened,  so  as  to  include  the  correction  of  the  man- 
ners of  the  clergy,^  their  advancement  in  learning,  and  the 
fostering  of  a  spirit  of  self-denial,  to  the  end  that  they  might 
be  able  to  go  through  the  functions  of  their  office  with  digni- 
fied decorum,  and  exclude  from  their  sermons  ever}'  coarse 


•  BoUand.  m.  Maj.  T.  IV.,  p.  233.  Boverio,  Ann.  ord.  Minor,  qui  Capucini 
nuncupantur.  Lugd.  Bat.  1632  sq.,  3  T.,  f,  M.  a.  Tugio.  Bullar.  ord.  Capucinor. 
Rom.  1740  sq.,  7  T.,  f.     Hilyot,  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  24,  pp.  192  sq.- 

^Theirreal  name  was  '■'Hermits  Friars  Minor,'"  but  the  people  gave  them 
the  name  of  ^^Cappuccvni,"  an  endearing  diminutive  from  Cappuccio;  hence  their 
later  appellation  "  Capuchins."    (Tr.) 

^Clnmentis  VII.  approbatio,  etc.,  in  Helyot,  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  12,  p.  84  sq.  Bul- 
lar. Rom.,  T.  I.,  p.  659.  Holsteyiius-Brockte,  T.  V.,  pp.  342  sq.  Freiburg  EccL 
Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  831  sq. ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  28,  p.  274  sq. 


i388  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chaiiter  4. 

and  unbecoming  expression.  To  prepare  for  death  those  con- 
demned to  capital  punishment,  the  Theatines  regarded  aa 
their  pecuHar  charge.  Gaetano  di  Tieite,  a  Venetian,  appears 
to  have  been  the  real  founder  of  this  association.  Going  to 
Rome  by  advice  of  his  confessor,  he  won  over  to  his  viewg 
Jo/ui  Peter  Caraffa,  then  Archbishop  of  Chieti  (Latin,  Theate), 
iind  prevailed  upon  him  to  become  superior  of  the  new  Order. 
Elected  Pope  some  time  later,  under  the  name  of  Paul  IV., 
Carafla  gave  to  the  members  of  the  Order,  which  had  been 
approved  some  time  before  by  Clement  VII.,  as  the  '•^Canons 
Regular  of  the  Lateran  Congregation,''  the  name  of  Theatines. 
As  preachers  and  missionaries,  the  Theatines  became  a  pat- 
tern to  the  rest  of  the  clergy.  By  their  vow  of  poverty,  they 
were  forbidden  to  possess  property  ;  were  to  subsist  entirely 
upon  the  alms  of  the  faithful,  and  were  strictly  inhibited 
from  begging  or  in  any  way  soliciting  contributions. 

3.  The  Somaschans.  This  congregation  of  regular  clergy 
received  its  name  from  the  little  town  of  Soniascha,  in  the 
Milanese  territory.  It  was  founded  in  1528  by  St.  Jerome  Emil- 
iaii,^  the  son  of  a  Venetian  senator.  It  was  approved  in  1540 
by  Paul  III.,  received  many  privileges  from  Pius  IV.,  and 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  monastic  Order  by  Pius  V.  in  1568. 
By  their  Rule,  the  members  were  bound  to  the  observance  of 
a  life  of  austerity  ;  to  unceasing  prayer,  protracted  through 
the  night ;  to  the  instruction  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  rural 
districts  ;  and,  particularly,  to  the  care  of  orphans.  Their 
schools  at  Rome,  Pavia,  and  other  cities  of  Italy  were  of  un- 
usual excellence. 

4.  The  Barnabites.  This  was  also  a  congregation  of  regular 
clergy.  They  are  so  called  from  the  Church  of  St.  Barnabas 
at  Milan,  where  they  came  together,  like  the  early  Christians, 
to  live  a  life  in  common,  and  devote  themselves  to  the  office 
of  teaching.  The  founders  of  the  Barnabites  (1530)  were 
three  gentlemen,  viz  :  Anthony  Maria  Zaccaria,  of  Cremona; 
Bartholomew  Ferrera  and  James  Anthony  31origio,  of  Milan. 
The  congregation  was  approved  by  Clement  VII.  in  1532,  and 


1  Vita  Hieronymi  Aemiliani  {Bolland.,  Acta  SS.  mensis  Febr.,  T.  II.)     Hoi- 
%ten.,  T.  III.,  }>.  199  sq.     Helyoi,  Vol.  IV.,  cli.  33,  p.  263  sq. 


§  348.   The  Other  Orders.  385 


in  1535  its  members  were  permitted  to  take  solemn  vows  by 
Paul  111.  From  this  time  forth  it  took  rank  as  an  Order, 
having  a  general,  who  held  office  for  three  years,  but  might 
be  re-elected.^  Its  work  was  chiefly  confined  to  giving  mis- 
sions m  Christian  countries;  to  the  instruction  of  youth;  and 
llie  direction  of  seminaries.  Some  of  the  Barnabites  were 
appointed  to  professorships  at  Milan,  Pavia,  and  other  Italian 
cities. 

5.  The  Oblates,  or  Volunteers,  established  by  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  in  1578,  are  a  congregation  of  secular  priests,  some- 
what resembling  the  two  preceding  Orders.  Their  special 
aim  was  to  give  edification  to  the  diocese,  and  to  maintain 
the  integrity  of  religion  by  the  purity  of  their  lives,  by 
teaching,  and  by  zealously  discharging  the  duties  committed 
to  them  by  their  bishop.^  These  devoted  ecclesiastics  were 
very  much  loved  by  St.  Charles,  who  was  wont  to  call  them 
his  children,  and  was  never  so  happy  as  when  among  them. 
Strange  to  say,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  been  much  appre- 
ciated elsewhere. 

6.  The  Oratorians  were  founded  by  Philip  Neri,  a  Floren- 
tine.'^ Philip,  after  going  through  his  academical  studies  with 
distinction,  went  to  reside  at  Pome,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  instructing  the  youth  and  serving  the  sick  in  the  hos- 
pitals. In  1548  he  founded  the  Confraternity  of  the  Most 
Holy  Trinity,  which  grew  so  rapidly  in  public  favor  that 
Philip  was  enabled  solely  by  voluntary  contributions  to  build 
a  hospital  for  poor  pilgrims.  The  Oratory  {Oratorium),  in 
which  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers 
were  read  and  explained  to  the  Pilgrims,  being  much  too 
small  to  accommodate  the  throngs  that  came  there,  Pope 
Paul  IV.,  in  1558,  put  a  church  sufficiently  large  at  the  dis- 


•  Bullar.  Rom.,  T.  I.,  p.  689.  Holsien.,  T.  V.,  pp.  449  sq.  Uelyot,  Vol.  IV., 
ch   15,  pp.  119  sq. 

^Cf.  Dieringer,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  p.  371  sq. 

'^Gallonius,  Vita  Phil.  Nerii,  ilogunt.  1G02.  PoesL,  Life  of  St.  Philip  Neri, 
Ratisbon,  1857.  Faber,  Life  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  Germ,  tr.,  Ratisbon,  1859 
Eelyoi,  Vol.  VIII.,  ch.  10.  Holsien.,  T.  VI.,  p.  234  sq.  and  p.  529  sq.  HUt 
and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  XXII.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  VII  ,  pp.  506- 
515;  Fr.  tr.,  s.  v.     Neri,  Vol.  16,  pp.  56  sq. 


390  Period  3,     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

posal  of  Philip.  Tlie  Congregation  approved  in  1574  by 
Gregory  XIII.,  under  the  name  of  the  ^'•Congregation  of  the 
Oratory,''  was  at  first  composed  of  both  ecclesiastics  and  lay- 
men, who,  however,  took  no  distinctive  vows.  It  was  Philip's 
idea  to  found  a  Congregation  in  which  such  as  did  not  feel 
themselves  called  to  enter  any  of  the  established  Orders  might 
enjoy  all  their  benefits  without  assuming  their  obligation-. 
Although  the  avowed  aim  of  the  Congregation  was  the  in- 
struction of  the  people,  its  members  from  the  very  beginning 
gave  themselves  up  to  deep  and  serious  study.  Many  of 
them,  like  Baronius,  Oderic  Haynald,  Gallonio,  and  Andrew 
Gallandi,  became  eminent  in  literature.  Philip  was  canon- 
ized by  Pope  Gregory  XV.  in  1622. 

Following  the  example  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  the  great  states- 
man. Abbe  jB^rw/^e  ^  (created  cardinal  in  1627),  together  with 
four  other  priests,  established  (1611)  in  France  the  Oratory  of 
Jesus,  for  the  purpose  of  reforming  the  French  clergy.  The 
Oratory  was  approved  in  1613  by  Paul  V.  The  members 
were  divided  into  the  incorporated  and  associated,  neither 
taking  vows  of  any  kind.  Their  number  increased  rapidlj-, 
and  included  many  distinguished  scholars  and  preachers.  Of 
these,  31alebranche ,  Uorin,  Thomassin,  Richard  Simon,  Ber- 
nard Lamy,  Houhigant,  Lelong,  and  Massillon  are  the  best 
known. 

7.  The  Congregation  of  Saint  Maur.  The  Order  of  St.  Ben- 
edict, once  so  active  and  prosperous,  became  lax  and  infected 
with  the  spirit  of  the  world  in  France  as  in  other  countries. 
In  the  midst  of  abundance  it  had  grown  poor.  After  many 
vain  eflbrts  at  reform  by  others,  Didier  de  la,  Coiir^~  Prior  of 


^  Habert  de  Cerisi,  Vie  de  Pierre  de  Berulle,  Paris,  1646,  4to.  Tabaraud,  His- 
toire  de  Pierre  de  Berulle,  Paris,  1817,  2  vols.,  8vo.  Cf.  Hetirion-Feh?;  Vol. 
II.,  pp.  249-254.  f-^JJerbst,  Literary  Services  of  the  French  Oratory  (Tubing. 
Quart.,  year  1835,  nro.  3),  an  Essaj',  which  has  unfortunatel}-  remained  uii- 
finished. 

'^{Haiidiquer),  Hist,  du  ven.  Dom  Didier  de  la  Cour,  reforraateur  des  Een., 
Par.  1772.  (Tassin),  Hist.  lit.  de  la  congr.  de  St.  Maur,  Par.  1726,  4to;  Brux. 
1770,  4to,  with  observations  by  Meusel,  Frkf.  and  Lps.  1773,  2  vols.  Cf. 
■\*Hei-bst,  The  Services  of  the  Congr.  of  St.  Maur  rendered  to  the  cause  of  sci- 
ence, Tiibg.  Theol.  Review,  1833,  nros.  1  sq.     See  Relyot,  Vol.  VI.,  eh.  35,  p. 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders.  391 

the  Abbey  of  St.  Vauiies,  at  Terdun  in  Lorraiue,  undertook 
and  successfully  accomplished  the  work.  Set  over  this  abbey 
while  still  young,  he  entered  upon  and  closely  pursued  a  se- 
vere course  of  studies  by  way  of  preparation  for  a  still  more 
thorough  course  at  some  university.  Returning  full  of  zeal, 
after  having  accomplished  his  purpose,  from  the  University 
i)f  Pont-a-Mousson,  he  resolved  to  exert  all  his  influence  in 
an  eflbrt  to  have  his  brethren  apply  themselves  to  sacred 
studies  as  a  step  toward  a  necessar}'  reform.  When  he  had 
succeeded  in  introducing  a  strict  observance  into  his  own  ab- 
bey of  *S'^  Valines  and  that  of  >S'^.  Hiduljph,  he  also  prevailed, 
but  with  some  difficulty,  upon  the  community  of  the  abbey 
of  3Joyen-Moutier  to  accept  the  reform,  and  the  three  restored 
the  primitive  severity  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  The  Re- 
form was  at  first  regarded  with  some  suspicion,  but  after  its 
approval  by  Clement  VIIL,  in  1604,  it  met  with  more  favor, 
and  was  introduced  into  many  of  the  Benedictine  monaste- 
ries. In  1618,  at  a  General  Chapter,  held  in  the  convent  of 
St.  3Iansuy,  at  Tulle,  it  was  resolved  to  unite  the  reforrned 
houses  together  in  a  distinct  Congregation,  under  the  patron- 
age of  St.  Maur,  St.  Benedict's  greatest  disciple.  This  Con- 
gregotion  received  the  authorization  of  Gregory  XV.,  and 
Richelieii  did  wliat  he  could  to  promote  its  success.  It  soon 
included  one  hundred  and  eighty  abbeys  and  conventual  pri- 
ories. Besides  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  it  had  certain  stat- 
utes peculiar  to  itself,  and  was  presided  over  by  a  general, 
who  resided  in  the  Cloister  of  St.  Germain-des-Pres,  at  Paris. 
The  spirit  and  efficiency  of  the  new  Order  were  manifest  in 
its  ability  in  directing  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  but,  above  all, 
in  the  number  of  distinguished  scholars  it  produced.  Among 
them  are  names  eminent  in  palaeography  and  chronology,  in 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  history,  but  notably  in  patrology.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  mention  those  of  Mabillon,  3Iontfo ucori , 
Ruinart,  Thuillier,  Martene,  Durand,  Menard,  d'Achery,  le 
JSoiirry,  Martia7iay,  31assuet,  Touttee,  3Iaran,  Constant,  de  la 
Rue,  Gamier,  Aubert,  Clemencet,  Ceillier,  Riviere,  and  others, 


318  sq.;  ch.  37,  p.  335  sq.     Henrion-Fehr,  I.  187-193.     Chavin  de  Malan,  Hist. 
de  D.  Mabillon  et  de  la  congregation  de  St.  Maur,  Paris,  1843  (hasty). 


392  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Cha:pter  4. 

whose  patristic  labors  and  works  on   Church  History  have 
gained  for  them  an  undying  fame. 

8.  The  Carmelites.  St.  Teresa,  whose  religious  life  had  been 
spent  under  the  Carmelite  Rule,  as  modified  by  Eugene  lY., 
brought  about  a  complete  reform  in  the  Order.  Born  at 
Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  in  1515,  she  was  the  daughter  of  Al- 
fonso, of  the  noble  house  of  Sanchez  de  Cayeda,  and,  as  a 
child,  was  remarkable  for  extraordinary  piety.  Called  by 
God  to  lead  souls  along  the  way  to  perfection,  she  learned  by 
her  own  experience  the  weakness  and  instability  of  the  hu- 
man heart.  After  a  long  and  violent  struggle  between  a  vivid 
consciousness  of  duty  and  the  sluggish  performance  of  it,  be- 
tween love  of  God  and  attachment  to  the  world,  she  finally 
shook  off  the  bonds  that  had  bound  her  to  earth,  and  gave 
herself  generously  to  God.  The  conflict  she  passed  through 
during  this  season  of  trial  is  told  with  simple  and  unafl'ected 
frankness  in  the  story  of  her  life.  The  sensitive  delicacy  of 
her  feelings,  and  the  workings  of  her  luminous  intellect,  are 
there  portrayed  with  wonderful  vividness.  Her  teaching,  as 
set  forth  in  her  writings,^  has  served  as  a  light  to  guide  num- 
berless souls  to  perfection,  and,  in  the  office  of  her  feast,  is 
dignified  by  the  Church  with  the  title  of  celestial.  She  went 
to  her  reward  in  the  year  1582,  seemingly  more  consumed  by 
a  yearning  to  be  with  her  God  than  wasted  by  the  ravages  of 
disease.  With  the  consent  and  approbation  of  Pius  lY.,  Te- 
resa set  to  work  in  1562  to  reform  the  convents  of  women 
belonging  to  the  Order  of  Mount  Carmel.  She  was  opposed 
from  the  very  outset ;  but  strong  in  the  strength  of  God,  she 
overbore  all  obstacles,  and  in  the  end  her  efforts  were  wholly 
successful.     From  convents  of  women,  the  reform  extended 


^  These  have  been  translated  into  French,  Polish,  German,  and  other  Euro- 
pean languages.  The  woiks  of  St.  Teresa  of  Jesus  have  been  edited  by  O. 
Schwab,  Sulzbach,  1831-1833,  5  vols.  Selections  from  her  Writings,  by  Fred. 
Schlosser,  Frankfort,  1827-1832.  Jochnm,  An  Abridgment  of  the  Writings 
of  St.  Teresa.  Katisbon,  1863.  On  the  reform  of  St.  Teresa,  cf.  Hclyof,  Vol.  I., 
ch.  48,  pp.  425  sq.  The  best  account  of  her  life  is  to  be  found  in  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Ada  Sandorum,  by  the  Bollandist  Fathers,  Vol.  VII.,  for  October. 
\Hennes,  Life  of  St.  Teresa,  2d  ed.,  Mentz,  1866.  Boidx,  S.  J.,  Life  of  St  Te- 
resa,  tr.  from  the  French  into  German,  Aix-la-Ohapelle,  1868. 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders.  393 

to  convents  of  men,  where  it  was  still  more  obstinately  op- 
posed. Her  final  success  was  mainly  due  to  the  efforts  of  St. 
John  of  the  Cross,^  whose  mystical  writings  are,  if  anything, 
more  remarkable  than  those  of  St.  Teresa  herself.  Her  dis- 
ciples, the  JDiscalced  Carmelites,  both  male  and  female,  have 
been  distinguished  by  their  disinterested  devotion  to  works 
of  charity,  and  by  their  zeal  in  fostering  and  promoting  a  love 
of  a  contemplative  life.  Since  her  death,  her  reform  has  been 
introduced  into  every  Catholic  country. 

9.  The  Order  of  the  Visitation.  This,  like  the  preceding 
Order,  was  founded  by  the  joint  efforts  of  two  devout  souls, 
viz.,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  ^  and  Madame  Frances  de  Chantal} 
St.  Francis  was  born  at  the  family  castle  of  Sales,  near  An- 
necy  in  Savoy,  August  21,  1567,  and  having  studied  at  the 
provincial  colleges  of  La  Roche  and  Annecy,  went  to  Paris 
(1578),  where  he  completed  his  course  of  rhetoric  and  philos- 
ophy under  the  Jesuits.  In  1584  he  went  to  the  University  of 
Padua  to  study  canon  and  civil  law, and  completed  his  course  in 
1591  with  great  distinction.  While  there  he  put  himself  under 
the  spiritual  direction  of  Father  Possecin,  a  Jesuit,  who,  being 
truly  a  man  of  God,  spoke  to  the  young  student  of  the 
wounds  of  the  Church,  which,  he  said,  were  in  all  cases  trace- 
able to  the  corruption  of  the  clergy.  On  his  return  home,  he 
learned  that  his  father  had  obtained  for  him  a  place  in  the 
senate,  and  arranged  a  very  honorable  and  advantageous  mar- 
riage;  but  these  he  declined,  having  made  up  his  mind  to 
take  Orders,  and  give  himself  wholly  to  the  service  of  God. 

1  Complete  works,  tr.  into  German  by  Schwab,  Sulzbach,  1830,  2  pts.,  2d  ed., 
by  Jocham,  Sulzbach,  1858. 

'^  Oeuvres  de  Saint  Francois  de  Sales,  Paris,  1834,  16  vols.;  Paris,  1830,  4  vols., 
4to;  Paris  (L.  Vives  5th  ed.),  18G9-1874,  12  vols.,  8vo.  His  Life,  by  C/ias. 
Aug.  de  Sales,  1634;  Marsollier,  1747;  5th  ed.,  Paris,  1870,  2  vols.  Boulanger, 
Studies  on  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  trans,  from  the  French  into  German,  J\lu- 
nich,  1861,  2  vols.  Bougard,  Vie  de  St.  Fran9ois  de  Sales;  Germ,  by  Lager, 
Tlatisb.  1871,  2  vols.  His  most  influential  works  were :  LsUres  a  divers  gem 
du  Monde ;  but  particularly  his  Philothea,  which  has  been  honored  with  count- 
less translations;  Spirit  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  gathered  from  his  writings: 
Theotimus,  etc. 

^  Louis  Clams,  Life  of  St.  Jeanne  Frances  de  Chantal,  Schaflfh.  1861.  Dau. 
rignac,  St.  Jeanne  Franc,  de  Chantal,  etc.,  Paris,  1858  (Germ.,  Eatisbon,  I860)-, 
2d  ed  ,  1867  ;  by  Clarus,  Hildesheim,  1870. 


394  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

As  a  priest  bis  virtues  and  his  piety  were  such  that  he  was 
soon  called  to  be  coadjutor  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Geneva, 
to  which  he  succeeded  on  the  death  of  Mgr.  Granier,  in  1602. 
His  eloquence,  which  was  convincing  and  popular,  brought 
many  heretics  back  to  the  Church,  and  his  vmiings,  graceful, 
original,  and  breathing  a  spirit  of  love  and  tenderness,  have  con- 
tinued to  our  own  day  to  guide  many  faithful  souls  in  the 
ways  of  piety. 

The  congregation  of  women,  founded  by  him,  conjointly  witb 
Madame  de  Chantal,  at  Annecy,  in  1610,  was  not  at  first 
strictly  bound  to  observe  the  rules  of  religious  bodies  living 
in  common,  the  chief  aim  of  the  good  ladies  being  primarily 
to  serve  the  sick.  Some  time  later,  St,  Francis  enjoined 
upon  them  the  observance  of  the  Rule  of  St.  AiLgustine,  to 
which  he  added  some  particular  constitutions  of  his  own ; 
and  in  1618  Paul  V.  raised  the  congregation  to  the  rank  of  a 
religious  Order,  under  the  title  of  the  Order  of  the  Visitation 
of  the  Blessed.  Virgin.  To  their  original  purpose,  that  of  ed- 
ucating the  3^outh  of  their  own  sex  was  now  added.^  Before 
Francis  closed  his  eyes  in  death  he  had  the  gratification  of 
seeing  eighty-seven  houses  of  his  Order  established  in  France 
and  Savoy  alone,  and  since  that  time  they  have  become  nu- 
merous in  Italy,  Germany,  Poland,  and  North  America. 

10.  The  Ursulines  ^  were  at  first  an  association  of  pious 
ladies,  formed  at  Brescia  about  the  year  1537,  by  Angela  de' 
Merici,  a  native  of  Desenzano,  a  town  on  Lake  Garda.  This 
angelic  soul,  who  is  better  known  as  Angela  of  Brescia,  found 
her  only  joy  in  communing  with  God,  forgetting  self,  and 
ministering  to  the  wants  of  others.  In  this  spirit  of  self- 
denial,  she  gathered  about  her  a  few  ladies  as  unselfish  and 
generous  as  herself,  and  placing  the  little  band  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  St.  Ursula  (November  25,  1535),  began  the  work 
of  reclaiming  unfortunate  women.  The  members  of  the  As- 
sociation, while  tending  the  sick,  relieving  the  poor,  instruct- 


1  HHyot,  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  43. 

"^miyoi.  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  20-32.  Henrion-Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  p.  68-72.  Biogra- 
phies of  the  foundress:  "  The  Life  of  St.  Angela  of  Merici,"  Augsburg,  1811; 
by  Sintzel,  liatishon,  1842.  Saint-Fofx,  Annales  de  Tordre  de  St.  Ursula,  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, 1858,  2  vols. 


348.  •  The  Other  Orders.  395 


ing  young  girls,  and  doing  other  works  of  charity,  continued 
to  reside  in  the  homes  of  their  parents  or  relatives.  After 
the  death  of  the  foundress,  January  27, 1540,  the  Association 
soon  grew  to  be  an  Order,  and  was  approved  June  9, 1544,  by 
Paul  III.,  who  also  gave  the  members  leave  to  make  such 
changes  in  their  Rule  as  circumstances  might  require.  The 
leading  object  of  the  Order  was  now  the  education  of  yoiuig 
ladies.  The  organization  of  the  Ursulines  being  still  further 
perfected  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  their  special  patron,  was 
again  approved  by  Gregory  XIII.  From  Upper  Italy  the 
Order  spread  to  France,  where  it  was  introduced  by  the  ac- 
complished widow,  31adeleine  de  St.  Beuve.  She  established  a 
Mother  House  in  Paris,  to  which  many  affiliated  convents 
were  soon  attached.  Their  Rule,  drawn  up  by  Father  Gon- 
tery,  assisted  by  other  Jesuits,  and  approved  by  Paid  F., 
for  the  use  of  the  Congregation  Regular  of  Ursulines  (1612), 
w\as  based  upon  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  but,  in  its  present 
form,  embraces,  besides  twenty-five  chapters  of  '■'Admonitions''^ 
and  eleven  ''■  Legacies,''  so  called  because  they  were  drawn 
from  the  posthumous  writings  of  St.  Angela  of  Brescia. 
From  this  time  forth  the  education  of  young  girls  of  every 
age  from  childhood  up  was  almost  wholly  in  their  hands,  and 
their  presence  was  hailed  with  joy  in  every  country  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

An  association  of  "  Young  English  Ladies,''  founded  by  Miss 
Mary  Ward,^  the  daughter  of  an  English  nobleman,  who  had 
continued  loyal  to  the  Catholic  Church,  had  a  similar  object 
in  view.     She  died  in  1645. 

11.  The  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine.  The  aim  of  this 
congregation,  and  the  spirit  with  which  it  was  animated,  were 
in  close  sympathy  with  the  spirit  and  aim  of  the  Ursulines. 
Founded  by  Caesar  de  Bus,  and  approved  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  1597,  it  subsequently  coalesced  with  the  Somaschans,  thus 
forming  an  association  of  secular  priests  living  under  simple 
vows  (1616).     Owing,  however,  to  disputes  between  the  two 


1  The  Life,  Labors,  and  Portrait  of  Mary  Ward,  Augsburg,  1840.  Leitner, 
Hist,  of  tiie  Young  English  Ladies  and  their  Establishments  down  to  our  own 
Day,  Ratisbon,  1869.  *  Schels,  Modern  Religious  Associations  of  Women, 
Schaflfh.  1858,  pp.  80-147.     Cf.  Henrion-Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  38-41. 


39G  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

branches,  relative  to  the  observance  of  their  respective  stat- 
utes (1647),  Innocent  X.  commanded  them  to  sever  their  con- 
nection with  each  other,  and  form  distinct  congregations; 
and  Alexander  VII.,  by  decree,  ordered  both  to  establish  no- 
vitiates, and  to  introduce  the  three  monastic  vows.  The 
Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  continued  to  dress  as  secular 
priests. 

Other  religious  congregations  of  both  men  and  women, 
having  nearly,  if  not  quite  the  same  object  and  scope,  were 
established  in  France  and  elsewhere.  Such  were  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools,  founded  by  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  a 
canon  of  Rheims  (1651-1714),  and  approved  by  Benedict 
XIII. ;  ^  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Schools  of  the  Infant  Jesus  and 
the  Daughters  of  Providence,  both  of  which  were  united  into 
one  congregation  in  1681,  by  Nicholas  Barre,  a  Franciscan, 
who  also  established  normal  schools  for  training  teachers. 
These  bound  themselves  to  teach  gratuitously,  and  their  ap- 
pointments depended  upon  the  discretion  of  their  superiors.^ 
Such  also  were  the  associations  founded  by  Mark  de  Sadis 
Cusani,  in  1652,  and  by  John  Leonardi,  at  Lucca,  in  1570. 

12.  The  Piarists,  or  Brethren  of  the  Pious  Schools  {Piarum 
scholarum  Patres),  in  zeal  the  rivals  of  the  Jesuits,  were 
founded  by  a  Spanish  priest,  Joseph  Calasanze  (f  1648),  for  the 
education  of  youth.^  Having  resigned  his  office  of  vicar- 
general  to  the  Bishop  of  Urgel,  Calasanze  visited  Home,  where 
he  led  an  austere  and  exemplary  life,  and  attracted  attention 
by  his  zeal  in  providing,  during  a  protracted  season  of  epi- 
demic, for  the  temporal  and  spiritual  wants  of  the  afflicted. 
His  efforts  in  behalf  of  destitute  orphans  were  also  unceasing 
and  efficient.  With  the  approbation  of  Pope  Clement  VIIL, 
he  associated  with  himself,  in  the  year  1600,  a  number  of  sec- 
ular priests  for  the  education  of  youth.     They  were  approved 


1  Hclyot,  Vol.  VIII.,  ch.  30.  The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  estab- 
lished by  John  B.  de  la  Salle;  their  Constitution,  Organization,  and  Eule, 
Germ,  tr.,  Augsburg,  1844.     Henrion-Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  p.  292  sq. 

2  Henrion-Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  p.  291. 

^  Holsfe7iius-Brockie,  T.Yl.,Tp.iS9  sq.  Helyoi,  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  39,  p.  331  sq. 
Cf.  Life  and  Miracles  of  Jos.  Calasanze,  tr.  from  the  Italian  into  German,  Vi- 
enna, 1748. 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders.  397 

as  a  religious  congregation  by  Paul  Y.,  and  by  Gregory  XY., 
in  the  year  1621,  as  an  Order  {Ordo  Patrum  Piarum  Schola- 
rum).  Their  special  mission  was  to  educate  the  young  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  ;  but,  above  all,  to  train  them  to  habits  of 
holy  living.  They  soon  extended  the  field  of  their  labors, 
and  their  establishments  were  numerous  in  Austria,  Poland, 
and  other  European  countries.  After  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits,  their  functions  as  teachers  were  in  a  great  measure 
supplied  by  the  Piarists. 

13.  The  Brothers  of  Charity  were  founded  in  1540  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  by  the  Portuguese,  John  of  God.  Born  in  1495, 
John  led  a  roving  life  until  his  forty-fifth  year,  when  he  was 
converted  at  Grenada  b}'  an  impressive  sermon  of  Jolui 
Avila's,  and  from  thenceforth  (1540),  he  gave  himself  entirely 
to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals.  The  Archl^ishop 
of  Granada  and  the  Bishop  of  Tuy,  admiring  his  efforts  to 
copy  in  his  life  the  broad  charity  and  tender  mercy  of  Our 
Savior,  entered  warmly  into  his  plans,  surnaming  him  '■'■Joha 
of  God."  He  died  in  1550,  poor  in  the  wealth  of  this  world, 
but  rich  in  good  works.  His  companions,  who  continued  to 
carry  on  his  work,  bound  themselves  still  more  closely  to  each 
other,  by  taking  upon  them  the  three  monastic  vows,  with 
the  additional  obligation  of  gratuitously  serving  the  sick  in 
the  hospitals.  They  received  recognition  as  an  Order,  under 
the  name  of  the  Brethren  of  St.  John  of  God,  in  1617,  from 
Pope  Paul  Y.,^  and  have  since  continued  to  render  important 
services  within  their  sphere  in  every  Catholic  country.  In 
the  hospitals,  to  each  of  which  only  one  'priest  was  attached, 
they  were  as  ready  to  serve  non- Catholics  as  those  of  their 
own  faith,  their  Constitution  obliging  them  to  make  no  dis- 
tinction of  faith,  rank,  or  nation.  Their  founder  was  beati- 
fied in  1630  by  Urban  YIIL,  and  canonized  by  Alexander 
YIII.  in  1690. 

14.  The  Priests  of  the  Missions,  or  the  Lazarists,^  whose 


1  Holsien.-Brockie,  T.  VI.,  p.  264  sq.  Belyot,  Vol.  IV.,  ch.  18,  p.  156  sq.  Wll- 
mot,  Life  of  St.  John  of  God,  tr.  fr.  the  Fr.  into  Germ.,  Ratisbon,  1862.  Cf. 
Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  175  sq. ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  12,  p.  133  sq. 

'^  Helyot,  Vol.  VIII.,  ch.  11.  (Sometimes  called  the  Vincentian  Congrega- 
tion.)    (Tr.) 


398  Period  B.     E^poch  1.     Chapter  4. 

scope  included  in  part  that  of  every  congregation  previously  es- 
tablished, have  not  unfrequeutly  done  very  essential  service  to 
Christianity.  Their  founder,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  {Vincentius  a 
Paulo — not  a  Paula),  was  born  of  humble  but  pious  parents, 
in  the  village  of  Pouy,  in  the  diocese  of  Acqs,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Pyrenees,  in  1576.  In  his  youth  he  tended  his  father's 
flocks,  but  his  parents,  judging  correctly  that  one  of  such  ex- 
cellent parts,  both  of  intellect  and  heart,  was  fitted  by  nature 
for  some  higher  calling,  sent  him,  in  1588,  to  a  Franciscan 
convent  to  be  educated.  While  there  he  made  the  best  of  his 
opportunities,  and  feeling  himself  called  to  the  priesthood,' 
went  to  perfect  his  studies  at  the  University  of  Toulouse, 
where,  after  spending  some  years,  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
1600.  He  shortly  after  became  head  master  of  a  school  at 
Buzet,  which  acquired  quite  a  reputation  for  the  thoroughness 
and  efiiciency  of  its  pupils.  But  his  many  and  varied  occu- 
pations did  not  hinder  him  from  applying  himself  to  serious 
study,  and  in  1604  he  received  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  the- 
ology. In  the  course  of  a  voyage  from  Marseilles  to  ISTar- 
bonne,  in  1605,  he  and  his  companions  fell  into  the  hands  of 
some  Barbary  corsairs,  who  sold  him  into  slavery  at  Tunis. 
Here  he  passed  successively  under  the  proprietorship  of  three 
masters,  the  third  of  whom,  a  Savoyard  renegade,  he  brought 
back  to  the  Church,  and  having  returned  to  France,  went 
thence  to  Rome,  and  prevailed  upon  his  former  master  to  join 
the  Brothers  of  Charity  in  that  city.  Introduced  to  Henry 
IV.  by  the  French  embassador,  Vincent,  after  satisfactorily 
executing  some  important  commissions,  was  made  almoner  to 
Queen  Margaret  of  Valois.  Having  too  much  leisure  time 
on  his  hands  to  suit  his  active  zeal,  he  entered  the  Orator}-, 
lately  established  by  the  Abb§  de  BeruUe,  on  whose  rceom- 

^  Ahelly,  Vie  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paule,  instituteur  et  premier  superieur  general 
de  la  Congregation  de  la  Mission,  Paris,  1664,  in  numberless  editions  (English 
Life,  by  Thompson);  German  tr.,  by  £re>iMe/',  Eatisbon,  1859,  5  vols.  Fred.  L. 
of  Stolberg,  Life  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Miinster,  1819.  Since  then  thfjre  have 
appeared  in  France  several  biographies  of  the  Saint;  the  last  is  that  by  tOr- 
sini,  translated  into  German  by  Steck,  Tubing.  1843.  The  principal  one  by 
Abbe  Maynard,  Vie  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  4  vols.,  Paris,  1860.  Henrion-Fehr, 
Vol.  II.,  p.,  328  sq. 


§  348.    The  Other  Orders.  399 

mendatiou  be  became  successively  cure  of  CHeby,  near  Paris, 
and  tutor  in  tbe  family  of  Count  de  Gondi,  commander  of 
tbe  royal  galleys.  Tbe  ardent  cbarity  of  Vincent  never  per- 
mitted bim  to  be  at  rest.  He  alternately  employed  bimself 
in  instructing  tbe  cbildren  of  tbe  count,  in  edifying  the  wbole 
family  by  his  exemplary  conduct  and  wise  counsels,  in  pru- 
dently watching  over  the  administration  of  their  large  es- 
tates, in  instructing  tbe  sick,  and  catechizing  tbe  poor. 

TV  bile  in  this  position,  Vincent,  after  bearing  tbe  confession 
of  one,  who,  witbout  deserving  it,  enjoyed  a  reputation  for 
high  sanctity,  conceived  the  design  of  starting  what  are 
known  as  the  31issions  of  France,  the  first  experiment  of 
which  was  made  among  the  tenantry  of  tbe  [lious  Countess 
de  Gondi.  Appointed  to  the  care  of  souls  at  Chatillon,  Vin- 
cent displayed  marvelous  energy,  and  undertook  and  success- 
fully carried  forward  projects  so  vast,  that  even  one  of  tliem 
would  seem  sufficient  to  call  forth  resources  and  occupy  the 
life  of  an  ordinary  man.  For  instance,  be  founded  tbe  sister- 
hood known  as  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  or  Grey  Sisters 
{Filles  de  la  charite,  soeurs  grises),  to  whom  he  gave  a  Rule  of 
life,  and  charged  them  with  the  care  of  the  hospitals  (1618). 
Returning  again  to  the  family  of  Gondi,  be  occupied  liis 
time  in  giving  missions,  and  in  doing  what  he  could  to  soften 
tbe  bard  lot  of  the  galley-slaves,  to  whom,  when  his  works 
were  made  known  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIII.,  be  was  ap- 
pointed almoner-general  in  1019. 

In  1620,  be  consented,  at  the  request  of  his  friend,  St. 
Francis  de  Sales,  to  become  spiritual  director  of  the  Convent 
of  Visitation  nuns  at  Paris.  The  project,  which  he  had  hjug 
bad  in  bis  mind,  of  forming  a  society  of  Priests  of  the.  Mis- 
sions, who,  witb  the  consent  of  the  bishop  of  tbe  diocese  and 
of  tbe  pastor  of  the  parish,  would  preach  the  Gospel  to  the 
peasants  of  the  country,  was,  in  the  year  1624,  carried  into 
effect.  For  its  realization,  he  was  much  indebted  to  the 
Gondi  family,  who  contributed  liberally  themselves,  and  by 
their  good  example  brought  others  to  do  the  same. 

In  the  year  1627,  Louis  XIII.  made  inuniiicent  donations 
to  help  on  the  work  of  tbe  Missions  in  France.  In  1G32. 
Urban  VIII.  approved  tbe  object  of  tbe  congregation,  and 


400  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

instructed  Vincent  to  draw  up  a  rule  for  its  guidance.  Fore- 
seeing that  the  work  of  the  Missions  could  do  no  permanent 
good,  unless  the  priests  in  charge  of  parishes  would  zealously 
continue  what  had  been  begun,  and  fully  conscious  that  as  a 
rule  the  secular  clergy  could  not  be  relied  on  for  such  perse- 
vering eflbrts,  he  took  counsel  with  several  bishops,  who 
agreed  that,  in  order  to  bring  the  clergy  to  an  earnest  and 
aljiding  sense  of  their  duty,  they  should  be  made  to  undergo 
rigorous  examinations,  and  to  make  spiritual  retreats  and 
hold  conferences  at  the  mission-houses. 

After  the  death  of  the  Countess  de  Gondi,  in  1625,  Vincent 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Louise  de  Marillac,  widow  of  31.  Le 
Gras,^  a  lady  equally  distinguished  for  purity  of  life  and  ex- 
tensive learning.  After  severely  testing  her  vocation  for  four 
years,  he  placed  her,  in  1629,  over  all  the  communities  of 
Grey  Sisters.  The  Society  of  "Priests  of  the  Mission,"  which 
he  had  established  at  the  so-called  Priory  of  St.  Lazarus  in 
Paris,  whence  the  name  Lazarists,  was  soon  widelj'  extended. 
Besides  their  mission-labors,  they  took  complete  charge,  in 
many  instances,  of  ecclesiastical  seminaries,  which,  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  instruction  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  had  been  es- 
tablished in  the  various  dioceses,  and  even  at  this  day  many 
of  these  institutions  are  under  their  direction.  In  the  year 
1642,  these  devoted  priests  were  to  be  seen  in  Italy,  and  not 
long  after  were  sent  to  Algiers,  to  Tunis,  to  Madagascar,  and 
to  Poland.  St.  Vincent  himself,  even  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
«ight,  continued  to  give  missions,  and  was  constantly  engaged 
in  founding  hospitals,  which  he  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus.  He  also  promoted  the  future 
welfare  of  the  French  clergy  by  having  various  religions  asso- 
ciations hold  conferences  in  the  Houses  of  the  Missions.-  The 
life  of  Vincent,  so  active  and  so  crowded  with  good  works. 


'  The  Life  and  Spirit  of  the  Venerable  Louise  de  Marillac,  by  Gobillon(G&vm., 
Augsbarg,  1837),  {Clement  Brentano).  The  Sisters  of  Charity  in  their  Rela- 
tions to  the  Poor  and  the  Sick,  Coblentz,  1881.  Eremites  (Buss),  The  Order  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity,  1845.  Droste  (Clement  Augustus),  On  the  Society  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity,  Miinster,  1843. 

-Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Manufacturing  System  of  France  {Hist,  and  Polit 
Papers,  Vol.  X.) 


§  349.  Foreign  31issions.  401 


-was  closed  by  a  holy  death  on  the  27th  of  September,  1660, 
•when  be  went  to  receive  the  crown  of  glory  laid  up  for  him 
in  Heaven.     He  was  canonized  by  Clement  XII.  in  1737. 

§  349.  Foreign  Missions. 

Fabricii  Lux  salutaris,  p.  662  sq.  M'unachii  Antiquit.  chr.,  lib.  II.,  Pt.  II.. 
<•.  28—31.  Leitres  edifiantes  et  curleuses,  ecrite.s  des  missions  etrangeres  par 
qiielques  ]\Iissionnaires  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  Paris,  1717-1777,  34  voLs.  ■, 
and  in  particular,  Choix  de  lettres  edifiantes,  etc.,  precede  de  tableaux  geogra- 
phiques,  historiques,  politique?,  religieux,  et  literaires  des  paj^s  de  missions,  3d 
edit.,  Paris,  8  vols.  Hnzart,  S.  .J.,  Ch.  11.,  i.  e.  Cath.  Christianity  propagated 
throughout  the  World,  Vienna,  1594  sq.,  5  vols.,  fol.  f  '"^  Witimann,  Grandeur 
of  the  Church  in  her  Missions  since  the  Schism.  General  Hist,  of  the  3Iissions 
during  the  last  three  Centuries,  Augsburg,  1841  sq.  Henrion,  General  Hist,  of 
the  Catholic  Missions,  Paris,  1846-1847,  4  vols.  (Vol.  II.)  ^Marshall,  The 
Christian  ?ilissions.  '\H(ihn,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Missions,  from  Christ  to  our 
own  Day,  Cologne,  1857  sq.,  5  vols.  Grundemann,  General  Missionary  Atlas 
Gotha,  1867. 

True  ministers  of  the  Gospel  do  not  confine  their  charity 
and  devote  their  lives  solely  to  those  nations  that  have  been 
long  loyal  to  the  Christian  faith.  They  also  carry  their  la- 
bors and  the  light  of  their  example  among  the  heathen  into 
lands  the  most  remote  and  to  peoples  the  most  barbarous.  Of 
.all  the  Orders,  none  has  shown  such  heroic  zeal  in  missionary 
labors  as  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Many  of  its  members  had  no 
other  ambition,  and  could  have  no  higher,  than  to  spend 
their  lives  for  love  of  Christ,  laboring  in  some  far-away  mis- 
sion. The  discoveries  lately  made  by  the  Spaniards  and  the 
Portuguese  furnished  them  at  once  the  opportunity  and  the 
means  of  carrying  their  wishes  into  effect ;  and  the  (congrega- 
tion for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  {Congregatio  de  i^ropa- 
(,anda  jide),^  established  in  Rome  in  1622,  encouraged  these 
zealous  and  courageous  men  in  undertaking  missionary  expe- 
ditions, and  imparted  system  and  continuity  to  their  efforts. 


'  Erectio  S.  Congr.  de  fide  cath.  propaganda  (Bullar.  Kom.,  T.  III.,  p.  421  sq.) 
Fabricii  Lux.  salut.,  p.  566  sq.  Constitt.  Apostolicae  S.  Congr.  de  prop,  fide, 
Rom.  1642,  fol.  Bayeri  Hist.  Congregat.  Cardinalium  de  propaganda  fide, 
llegiom.  1670,  4to.  Cf.  Hihjoi,  Vol.  III.,  ch.  12,  pp.  81-100,  on  the  Various  In- 
•.etitutions  Pounded  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

VOL.  Ill — 26 


402  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

This  Congregation,  composed  of  fifteen  cardinals,  three  pre- 
lates, and  a  secretary,  received  the  abundant  alms  contributed 
for  missionary  work  by  the  faithful,  and  distributed  then) 
with  judgment  and  regularity.  In  1627,  Pope  Urban  VIII., 
appreciating  the  need  of  priests  specially  trained  for  the  for- 
eign missions,  presented  the  Congregation  with  the  large  and 
commodious  building,  for  a  seminary,  now  known  as  the 
Collegium  Urbanum  de  Propaganda  Fide.  The  example  of  the 
Pope  inspired  others,  and  it  was  not  long  until  munificent  do- 
nations came  pouring  in  from  every  side  to  help  on  the  good 
w^ork  and  put  it  on  a  secure  basis.  From  every  people  and 
clime  under  the  sun  came  students  then,  as  in  our  owai  day, 
to  be  educated  there  for  the  work  of  the  Apostolate,  and  by 
these  representatives  of  every  tongue  is  the  sublime  spectacle 
of  the  Christian  Pentecost  annually  re-enacted  in  Rome  on  the 
first  Sunday  after  Epiphany.  On  this  day,  the  great  feast  of 
the  Propaganda,  the  praises  of  the  Triune  God  are  spoken  in 
languages  representing  every  quarter  of  the  world,  thus  ex- 
emplifying and  giving  expression  to  the  grand  idea  that  lies 
at  the  very  foundation  of  the  Catliolic  Church.^ 

In  view  of  the  striking  resemblance  between  the  mysteries 
of  the  Christian  religion  and  the  teachings  of  the  Vedas, 
where,  for  example,  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Shiva  stand  for 
the  three  Persons  of  the  Trinity,  indicating  the  manner  of  the 
manifestation  of  the  primordial  Beiitg,  and  where  something 
very  like  an  incarnation  is  related  in  connection  with  Vishnu, 
it  seems  strange  that  the  Hindoos  should  have  always  opposed 
the  most  insuperable  difiiculties  to  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity.^ But  the  religious  system  of  India,  so  closely  bound 
up  with  the  national  life,  the  traditions,  and  sympathies  of 
the  people,  could  not  be  expected  to  give  way  without  a  strug- 
gle before  the   advance   of  the   Gospel.     Subject   for  nearly 

'In  1867,  forty-two  boys  and  young  men,  one  sifter  another,  spoke  Hebrew, 
Chaldaic,  Syriac,  Armenian,  Ai-abic,  Persian,  Kurdisb,  Turlcisli,  Coptic,  the 
language  of  the  Senegambians,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  Celtic,  Irish, 
Dutch,  German,  the  Swiss  dialect,  Danish,  English,  Illyric,  Bulgarian,  Alba- 
nian, Ehaethian,  celebrating  the  advent  of  the  Savior  in  hymns  and  canticles 
of  love  and  gratitude. 

'See  Vol.  I.,  p.  74  sq. 


§  349.  Foreign  Missions.  403 

ten  centuries  to  the  yoke  of  the  Mussulman,  the  Indian  has 
ching  to  his  national  sanctuaries  with  a  courage  that  must  be 
admired  ;  and  while  ahnost  indifierent  as  to  what  sort  of  gov- 
ernment he  hves  under,  perseveringly  defends  his  religious 
notions,  and  dwells  with  melancholy  enthusiasm  upon  the 
departed  glories  of  his  people.  To  triumph  over  such  obsta- 
cles required  the  noble  exertions  characteristic  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus. 

Acting  in  obedience  to  the  request  of  John  III.,  King  of 
Portugal,  and  with  the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  Francis  Xavier, 
who,  in  zeal  for  the  salvation  of  souls,  in  reliance  on  God,  in 
heroic  courage,  and  exhaustless  patience,  was  second  only  to 
St.  Paul,  set  sail  for  Goa,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  Indies, 
in  1542,  where,  since  the  year  1510,  the  Portuguese  had  been 
exerting  themselves  to  make  conversions,  but  had  only  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  back  some  I^estorians  and  Thomas-Chris- 
tians to  the  Church.  As  a  rule,  the  Christians  of  Goa,  who 
openly  practised  polygamy  and  divorce,  and  lived  dissolute 
lives,  were  such  only  in  name.^  Francis,  seeing  the  necessity 
of  first  reforming  the  Christian  colonists,  began  by  gaining 
the  children,  and  through  them  reached  their  parents.  By 
serving  the  sick,  comforting  the  afflicted,  and  by  other  exer- 
cises of  his  boundless  charity,  he  soon  acquired  great  influ- 
ence with  high  and  low  and  rich  and  poor.  The  tribe  of  the 
Parawians,  witnessing  his  disinterested  zeal,  were  soon  favor- 
ably disposed  toward  Christianity.  After  a  short  stay  at  Goa, 
he  went  to  the  shores  of  Travancore^  where,  at  the  erjd  of  a 
month  after  his  arrival,  he  had  already  baptized  ten  thousand 
idolaters.  This  wonderful  success  can  be  justly  ascribed  to 
no  cause  other  than  the  miracles  he  wrought,  the  sweetness 
of  his  temper,  his  kindly  charity,  and  the  aid  of  good  inter- 
preters.    "It  was,"  said  he,  in  his  account  of  the  event,  "a 


1  Horntina  TarxeUhius,  de  vita  Franc.  Xav.,  qui  primus  e  Soc.  Jesu  in  India 
et  Japonia  evangelium  propagavit,  libb.  IV.,  Rom.  1594,  and  frequently;  also 
Epp.  Franc.  Xav..  libb.  IV.,  Paris,  1631  (Germ.  tr.  and  explan.,  by  J.  Burg, 
Cologne,  1836).  Reithmeyer,  Life  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  Schaflfh.  1846;  by 
Bouhours,  London,  1688,  Philad.  1841 ;  by  Bariolt  and  J.  P.  Mnffei,  Baltimore, 
1859.  Maffei,  Histor.  Indicar.,  libb.  XII.,  Florent.  1588,  fol.  Wittmann,  ].  c, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  9  sq.  Henry  of  A?idlavj,  Musings  of  my  Leisure-Hours,  nro.  3,  Freibg. 
1864.     '\ Mullbaiier,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Missions  in  East  India,  Munich,  1851. 


404  Period  3.     Bpoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

touching  sight  to  behold  these  neophytes  emulating  each  other 
in  the  holy  work  of  destroying  the  temples  of  the  idols.'' 
Leaving  Travancore,  he  set  out  for  Malacca  and  Isles  of  the 
31oluccas  and  Ternatc.  He  had  already  heard  tei-rible  ac- 
counts of  the  cannibalism  and  brutal  morals  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, but  no  dangers  could  shake  the  courage  or  chill  the 
ardor  of  the  Ajjostle  of  the  Hindoos.  "  If  aromatic  groves 
and  mines  of  gold  were  the  prize,"  said  he,  "  there  would  not 
be  wanting  those  who  would  face  any  danger.  And  should 
missionaries  yield  to  merchants  in  courage  ?  If  I  save  but  a 
single  soul,  I  shall  be  amply  repaid  for  my  toil  and  labor." 

By  persevering  efforts,  Francis  succeeded  in  making  many 
converts  among  this  barbarous  people,  one  of  whom,  catching 
somewhat  of  the  zeal  of  his  master,  went  to  preach  the  Gos- 
})el  in  the  Isle  of  31a7iar.  Francis'  next  care  was  to  have  the 
]i*enitential  Psalms,  the  Gospels,  and  a  catechism  translated 
into  the  Indian  tongue,  which  having  done,  he  visited  the 
congregations  he  had  lately  established,  and  returning  to  Goa,^ 
March  20,  1548,  opened  a  seminary  for  the  education  of  Hin- 
doo youths,  which  continuing  under  the  direction  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Society,  became,  as  time  went  on,  a  nursery  of 
Christianity  for  all  India.  Satisfied  of  the  flourishing  condi- 
tion of  Christianity  among  the  peoples  he  had  already  evan- 
gelized, Francis,  in  the  year  1549,  passed  over  to  Japan. 
This  country  is  divided  into  several  kingdoms  or  circles,  all 
of  which  are  subject  to  a  single  emperor.  Mikado,  or  Dairi- 
Sama.  Before  starting,  he  had  had  the  Creed,  together  with 
explanations  of  the  text,  translated  into  the  Japanese  tongue. 
The  people  he  found  ill-disposed  to  receive  Christianitj^,  and 
the  Bonzes  or  Buddhist  priests  offered  a  most  stubborn  resist- 
ance to  its  introduction;  but,  in  the  face  of  such  opposition, 
he  eventually  succeeded  in  planting  the  faith  in  that  land,  his 
most  notable  conquests  being  made  at  Amangouchi  and  in 
the  kingdom  of  Bango,  where,  at  the  expiration  of  two  and 
a  half  years,  he  had  baptized  several  thousands  of  the  natives. 

Still  later,  some  of  the  Japanese  princes  were  converted. 

'  Gon,  since  1532  an  episcopal  see,  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  in  1557, 
and  the  sees  of  Cochin,  ilalacca,  and  Meliapore  were  made  suffragan  to  it. 


§  349.  Foreign  Missions.  40S 

and,  as  a  token  of  their  filial  submission  to  the  Head  of  the 
Church,  sent,  in  the  year  1582,  a  creditable  embassy  to  Rome, 
which  was  received  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  with  unusual  ex- 
pressions of  joy.  The  days  of  Francis  were  now  drawing  to 
D  close,  but  before  departing  this  life  he  longed  to  carry  the 
faitli  to  China,  a  countr}'  which  foreigners  were  forbidden  to 
enter  under  the  severest  penalties.  After  overcoming  obsta- 
cles seemingly  insurmountable,  he  landed  on  the  island  of 
San  Chan,  six  miles  out  from  the  main  land.  Here  the  holy 
missionary  brought  the  labors  of  his  apostolic  life  to  an  end. 
After  lingering  twelve  days  upon  the  shores  of  this  inhos- 
pitable island,  with  no  friendly  hand  to  succor  and  no  friendly 
voice  to  comfort,  he  gave  up  his  gentle  spirit  on  the  3d  of 
December,  1552,  his  last  words  being:  "In  thee,  0  Lord, 
have  I  put  my  trust ;  let  me  not  be  confounded  forever." ' 

The  Jesuits  took  up  and  carried  forward  the  work  that  St. 
Francis  had  begun,  With  the  permission  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Cranganore,  Father  Nobili  landed  in  India  in  1608.  Wear- 
ing the  dress,  and  copying  the  habits  of  the  Brahmins  ("  *S'a- 
?iia.s  "),  and  avoiding  all  intercourse  with  the  Parias,  or  the 
lowest  class,  who  belong  to  none  of  the  Hindoo  castes,  he  by 
degrees  commanded  the  respect  and  won  the  confidence  of 
the  former,  of  whom  seventy  were  converted,  bringing  with 
them  into  the  Church  a  numerous  following.  This  plan  oi 
making  converts  by  wearing  the  dress  and  falling  in  with  th's 
customs  of  the  natives,  gave  rise  to  a  protracted  controversv 
between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans,  known  as  the  contro- 
versy ''•On  Malabar  Customs,"  a  distorted  account  of  which 
was  sent  to  Pope  Gregory  XV.  in  1623. 

In  the  year  1587,  when  there  were  in  Japan^  two  hundred 
thousand  Christians,  two  hundred  and  fifty  churches,  thirteen 


1  The  last  verse  of  the  Te  Deum,  or  Hymn  of  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Am- 
brose. 

■^  Crasset,  Hist,  de  I'eglise  de  Japon,  Par.  1715,  2  vols.,  4to  (Germ.,  with  en- 
gravings, Augsburg,  1743).  P.  de  Charlevoix,  Hist,  du  Christian,  dans  lemp. 
du  Japon,  Rouen,  1715,  3  T.,  par  M.  D.  L.  G.,  Par.  183(3,  2  T.  (Germ.,  Vienna, 
1830).  Pages,  Hist,  de  la  religion  chrotienne  en  Japon  depuis  1598-1651, 
Paris,  1869-1870.  Mamac/u,  Antiquit.  chr.,  T.  II.,  p.  376  sq.  Of.  Fabricius, 
1.  c,  p.  678. 


406  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

seminaries,  and  a  novitiate  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  a  violent 
persecution  broke  out  against  the  professors  of  the  new  faith. 
The  Jesuits  were  ordered  to  quit  the  country  in  a  body,  but 
through  the  favor  of  some  of  the  princes  were  permitted  to 
remain.  Some  idea  may  be  had  of  the  extent  of  their  labora 
in  this  country  when  it  is  related  that  one  of  their  number. 
Father  Valignano  (j  1606),  had  three  hundred  churches  and 
thirty  colleges  erected  bj'  his  individual  efforts.  The  storm 
of  persecution  that  had  lately  passed  over  the  Christians  was 
again  evoked  by  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  the  Franciscans,  who 
revived  the  old  controversy  on  "•  Custo7ns."  "What  they  had 
left  undone  was  completed  by  the  Hollanders,  who  were  jeal- 
ous of  their  enterprising  commercial  rivals,  the  Portuguese, 
and  thus  were  blasted  the  hopes  of  permanently  establishing 
Christianity  in  the  Island  Empire.  The  persecution  that  fol- 
lowed, commencing  in  1596,  was  marked  by  deeds  of  blood 
and  violence,  unparalleled  in  any  other  age  or  country;^  the 
memory  of  which  was  revived  and  perpetuated  b}^  our  present 
Pontiff,  Pius  IX.,  in  1862. 

The  desire  to  evangelize  China  continued  to  be  cherished 
in  the  Society  of  Jesus  after  St.  Francis  had  passed  away. 
To  overcome  the  serious  difficulties  that  stood  in  the  way  of 
the  enterprise,  and  to  disarm  the  deep-seated  prejudices  of 
the  Chinese,  the  Jesuits  resorted  to  such  ingenious  devices  as 
only  zeal  and  charity  could  suggest.^  The}'  set  themselves  to 
study  the  manners,  the  character,  and  the  habits  of  the  peo- 
ple; they  were  by  turn  scholars,  artisans,  mechanics,  laborers, 
becoming  all  to  all  that  they  might  gain  all  to  Christ.  In  the 
year  1582,  three  Jesuits,  one  of  whom  was  the  celebrated 
31atteo  Eicci,^  effected  an  entrance  into  the  Chinese  Empire. 


1  Tanner,  Societas  Jesu  usque  ad  sanguinis  et  vitae  profusionem  militans. 
Prague,  1675  (Germ,  tr.,  Prague,  1683,  4  pts.)  tHump,  The  Japanese  Mar- 
tyrs, Munster,  1862. 

2  See  Vol.  I.,  p.  72  sq.,  and  Stuhr,  The  Established  Keligion  of  the  Empire  of 
China,  Berlin,  1835.  Abbe  Hue,  Christianity  in  China,  New  York,  1857,  2  vols. ; 
especially  Drey,  Apologetics,  Vol.  II.,  and  Gfroerer,  History  of  the  Primitive 
Ages,  Vol.  I.,  p.  211  sq. 

^  Werihelm,  Life  of  Eicci,  in  Pletz's  New  Theol.  Keview,  1833,  nro.  3, 
Gdtzlajf]  the  most  famous  of  modern  Protestant  missionaries,  says  of  Eicci :  "He 
spent  but  twenty-seven  years  in  China,  and  during  that  time  accomplished  a 


§  349.  Foreign  Missions.  407 

Ricci,  bj  his  splendid  literuiy  and  scientific  abilities,  and  by 
wisely  assuming  the  dress  and  accommodating  himself  to  the 
tastes  of  the  upper  classes,  gained  such  consideration  that  he 
was  permitted  to  fix  his  residence,  first  at  Cardon,  and  some 
time  later  at  Nanking.  Taking  advantage  of  tlie  high  repu- 
tation lie  had  acquired  by  the  building  of  an  observatory,  and 
the  contributions  he  had  made  to  the  science  and  literature 
of  the  country,^  he  began  to  preach  the  Gospel,  converting 
many  of  the  lower  classes,  and  even  some  of  the  mandarins 
or  state  oflicials.  His  fame  increased  as  time  went  on,  and  in 
the  3-ear  1600  he  was  permitted  to  settle  permanently  at  Pe- 
king, where  he  gained  the  good-will  of  the  emperor,  converted 
many  of  the  influential  personages  about  court,  and  obtained 
leave  to  build  churches.  He  died  May  11,  1610;  was  buried 
with  great  pomp,  and  was  universally  mourned.  Of  his  suc- 
cessors, all  of  whom  emulated  his  zeal  and  energy',  Adam 
Schall^^  of  Cologne  (after  1622),  was  the  most  remarkable. 
He  was  called  to  preside  over  the  mathematical  society  of 
Peking,  and  through  his  influence  with  the  emperor  obtained 
an  edict  authorizing  him  to  build  Catholic  churches.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  progress  of  missionary  work  was  greatly  re- 
tarded by  the  ill-feeling  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans, 
growing  out  of  the  controversy  on  Chinese  customs^  (1645). 
In  1661,  the  imperial  ministers,  taking  advantage  of  the  youth 
and  inexperience  of  the  new  emperor,  began  to  persecute 
the  Christians  and  to  cast  the  missionaries  into  prison  ;  but 
on  the  accession  of  Kang-he  (1661),  the  Jesuits  again  recov- 


Herculean  task.  He  was  the  first  Catholic  missionary  who  penetrated  into 
China,  and  when  he  died  there  were  in  the  several  provinces  more  tlian  three 
hvMdred  churches!' 

1  Among  his  works  published  in  China  are  the  following:  A  Chinese  Map  of 
the  World;  a  little  Catechism,  containing  the  general  principles  of  Christian 
morality;  a  treatise,  entitled  the  A7-t  of  Memory,  and  a  Dialogue  on  Friendship, 
in  imitation  of  Cicero.  The  two  last  are  ranked  by  the  Chinese  among  their 
most  esteemed  books.  (Tr.) 

2  Schall,  Eelatio  de  initio  et  progressu  missionis  Soc.  Jesu  in  regno  Chin., 
Viennae,  1665;  Ratisbonae,  1672;  Germ.,  with  annotations,  hy  Mansegg,  Vi- 
enna, 1834.  Wiitmann,  Vol.  II.,  p.  138  sq.  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Missions  in 
the  Empire  of  China,  Vienna,  1845,  2  vols. 

» See  §  374. 


408  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 


erecl  the  imperial  favor.  The  emperor  raised  a  monument  to 
the  memory  of  Schall,  to  whose  office  and  honors  Verbiest,  a 
Netherlander,  succeeded.  The  consideration  in  which  the 
Jesuits  were  already  held  was  greatly  augmented  by  a  fortu- 
nate combination  of  circumstances.  Verbiest  encouraged  the 
emperor's  love  of  science  by  teaching  him  mathematics,  and 
rendered  important  service  to  the  whole  nation  by  the  inven- 
tion of  an  efiective  cannon.  Again,  the  Jesuit  Father  Gei^- 
billon  placed  the  Chinese  government  under  lasting  obliga- 
tions by  his  successful  negotiation  of  a  peace  between  China 
and  Russia  in  1689.  As  the  missionaries  grew  in  favor,  the 
Christians  increased  in  number;  and  though  these  apostolic 
laborers  were  few,  they  could  then  count  twenty  thousand  of 
their  converts  within  the  country.^  Louis  XIV.  sent  a  rein- 
forcement of  six  Jesuits,  all  of  them  skillful  mathematicians,. 
and  in  1692  the  missionaries  were  legally  authorized  to  preach 
the  Gospel  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Celestial  Empire. 

In  America^  the  limited  intelligence  of  the  Indian  was  a 
very  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  rapid  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity. In  spite  of  the  formal  decision  of  Pope  Paul  III.,  in 
1537,  declaring  that,  as  rational  beings,  the  Indians  should  be 
deprived  of  neither  their  possessions  nor  their  freedom,  their 
claims  to  be  entitled  to  the  rights  or  to  be  endowed  with  the 
dignity  of  men  was  not  unfrequently  called  in  question.^  It 
must,  however,  be  frankly  admitted  that  the  Dominicans,  who 
were  chiefly  Spaniards,  no  longer  exhibited  the  zeal  which 
had  characterized  the  earlier  missionaries  of  their  Order  in 
these  countries.  The  Jesuits,  on  the  contrary,  frightened  by 
no  obstacles,  displayed  all  the  ardent  energy  of  a  youthful 
Order.     Six  of   their  number,  of  whom  Emmanuel  Nobriga 


1  others  say  there  were  one  hundred  thousand  Christians  in  China  at  the 
death  of  Father  Schall.     Mailly,  Histoire  generale  de  la  Chine.  (Tr.) 

2  See  Vol.  II.,  p.  1062  sq. 

•''  Robe.rf.son,  History  of  America  (Germ,  tr.,  hy  Fred,  von  Schiller,  Lps.  1777, 
2  vols.) ;  particularly  Book  VIII.,  but  chiefly  Noticias  secretas  de  America 
por  Don  J.  Juan  y  Don  Ant.  de  Ulloa,  sacadas  a  luz  por  Don  Dav.  Barry,  Lon- 
don, 1826  Wiitmann,  Vol.  I.,  p.  18  sq.  Prescoti,  Hist,  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico,  £  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1843;  Conquest  of  Peru,  2  vols.,  1847. 
t  ^'Margraf,  The  Church  and  Slavery  since  the  Discovery  of  America,  Tuebjf. 
1865. 


§  349.  Foreign  Missions.  409 

was  one,  set  out  for  Brazil  \\\  1549.  Having  rapidly  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  the  language  of  the  country,  they  prevailed 
npt)n  the  savage  and  ferocious  inhabitants,  who  were  accus- 
tomed to  feast  upon  the  flesh  of  their  slaughtered  enemies, 
and  to  give  themselves  over  to  every  sort  of  excess,  to  accept 
the  severe  teachings  and  to  practise  the  chaste  morality  of 
Christianity.  For  the  benefit  of  these  converts,  an  episcopal 
see  was  established  at  San  Salvador  in  1551. 

The  most  important  of  the  Jesuit  missions  in  America, 
however,  was  that  of  Paraguay,^  which,  lying  along  the  banks 
of  the  La  Plata,  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  year 
1516,  by  whom  it  was  formally  taken  possession  of  in  1536. 
The  first  attempts  to  convert  the  natives,  made  by  the  Fran- 
ciscans between  the  years  1580  and  1582,  were  only  partially 
successful.     In  1586  the  Jesuits  landed  in  the  province  of 


1  Murntori,  II  Cristianesimo  felice  nelle  missioni  del  Paraguai,  Ven.  1743,  4to. 
Charlevoix,  Hist,  du  Parag.,  Par.  1765,  3  T.,  4to;  Germ,  tr.,  Vienna,  1834,  2  vols. 
Wittman?!,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  29-117.  Montesquieu,  L' esprit  des  lois,  liv.  IV.,  chap.  6, 
says:  "Another  example  (of  that  extraordinary  character  in  the  institutions 
of  Greece,  viz.,  of  their  acting  on  the  principle  that  people  who  live  under  a 
popular  government  should  be  trained  up  to  virtue)  we  have  from  Paraguay. 
This  has  been  made  the  subject  of  an  invidious  charge  against  a  Society  that 
considers  the  pleasure  of  commanding  as  the  only  happiness  in  life;  but  it  will 
ever  be  a  glorious  undertaking  to  render  g over nmeyit  subservient  to  human  hnp- 
piness. 

"It  is  glorious,  indeed,  for  this  Society  to  have  been  the  first  in  pointing  out 
to  those  countries  the  idea  of  religion  joined  with  that  of  humanity.  By  re- 
pairing the  devastations  of  the  Spaniards,  she  has  begun  to  heal  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  wounds  that  the  human  species  ever  received. 

"  An  exquisite  sensibility  to  whatever  she  distinguishes  by  the  name  of  honor, 
joined  to  her  zeal  for  a  religion  which  is  far  more  humbling  in  respect  to  those 
who  receive  than  to  those  who  preach  its  doctrines,  has  set  her  upon  vast  un- 
dertakmgs,  which  she  has  accomplished  with  success.  She  has  drawn  wild 
people  from  their  woods,  secured  them  a  maintenance,  and  clothed  their  naked- 
ness;  and  had  she  only  by  this  step  improved  the  industry  of  mankind,  it 
would  have  been  sufficient  to  eternize  her  fame.'  (This  extract  is  from  ''TVte 
Spirit  of  Laws,"  by  Baron  de  Alontesquieu,  transl.  by  Tkos.  2^ufjent,  LL.D., 
and  published  by  Pvobert  Clarke  &  Co.,  Cincinnati,  1873.)  A  similar  declara- 
tion was  rendered  by  Chateaubriand,  who  had  seen  Indian  life  in  America. 
He  says :  "  The  Eeductions  formed  amongst  themselves  those  famous  Christian 
republics,  which  are,  as  it  were,  a  relic  of  antiquity  in  the  New  World.  They 
confirmed  under  our  own  eyes  the  great  truth  recognized  by  Greece  and  Rome, 
that  men  can  not  be  truly  civilized  and  empires  be  solidly  established  by  the 
shallow  opinions  of  worldly  wisdom,  but  only  by  the  aid  of  religion." 


410  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

Tuciiman,  and,  by  their  zeal  and  ability,  accomplished  what 
their  predecessors  had  been  unable  to  perform.  Turning  to 
account  their  knowledge  of  history  and  of  human  nature, 
they  adopted  the  policy  followed  by  the  missionaries  of  the 
Middle  Ages  among  the  Germans,  identifying  the  conversion 
of  the  people  with  their  political  advancement,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  countr}',  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  thus  from  Christian  parishes  gradually  forming  an 
independent  state.  Philip  III.,  King  of  Spain,  authorized 
the  Jesuits  to  conduct  the  administration,  both  civil  and  re- 
ligious, on  their  own  plan,  and  commissioned  them,  if  they 
wished,  to  exclude  all  Spaniards  from  the  Reductions  of  the 
Order.  Their  docile  neophytes  were  soon  trained  to  habits 
of  industry,  some  becoming  ordinar}^  laborers,  and  others 
skilled  workmen.  But  it  was  also  necessary  to  defend  them- 
selves against  the  attacks  of  hostile  neighboring  tribes,  and 
for  this  purpose  small  arms  and  parks  of  artillery  were  pro- 
vided. In  this  way  the  habits  of  family-life  and  the  usages 
of  civilized  communities  were  gradually  introduced.  The 
execution  of  the  laws  was  committed  to  religious  brother- 
hoods, the  Jesuits  reserving  to  themselves  the  privilege  of 
serving  the  sick.  The  extensive  knowledge  of  medicine  pos- 
sessed by  the  Fathers,  and  their  ingenious  and  prudent  charity 
during  seasons  of  terrible  epidemic,  which  occurred  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  greatly  facilitated  their  spiritual  dominion 
over  the  hearts  and  souls  of  the  natives.  Unhappily,  a  mis- 
understanding between  them  and  Bishop  Bernardine  de  Car- 
denas^ in  1640,  and  John  Palafox,  Bishop  of  Angelopolis,  in 
1647,  gave  a  rude  shock  to  the  prosperity  of  the  new  State. 
Charges  the  most  improbable  were  brought  against  the  Jes- 
uits, who  were  accused  of  having  no  higher  object  in  view 
than  to  secure  for  themselves  the  treasures  of  Paraguay. 
The  neighboring  missions  of  the  province  of  Chiquitos  were  no 
less  prosperous  than  those  of  Paraguay.  Even  at  the  present 
day  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  those  missions  calls  forth 
feelings  of  sincere  regret,  and  has  unquestionabl}'  retarded  for 
centuries  the  progress  of  Indo-Amorican  civilization.' 

^Bach  (for  twenty  years  a  resident  of  South  America),  The  Jesuits  and  theii 
Mission  of  Chiquitos,  in  South  America,  published  by  Kriegli,  Lps.  1843. 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       41 1 

The  progress  of  Christianity  in  Africa  was  incomparably 
slower  than  in  America,  the  missionary  labors  of  the  Cajru- 
chins  being  confined  to  the  Portuguese  settlements  of  Mozam- 
bique, Monomotajya,  and  Quiloa  on  the  eastern,  and  of  Coinjo, 
Angola,  Bengue.la,  Cacongo,  and  Loango,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  Continent;  and  to  the  French  settlements  on  the  Isle 
de.  Bourbon  and  Isle  de  France}  The  lack  of  success  in  these 
missions  is  mainly  attributable  to  the  ferocious  barbarism 
and  shocking  immorality  of  the  natives  and  to  the  unhealthi- 
ness  of  the  climate. 

§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church. 

J  Werner,  Hist,  of  Apologetical  and  Controversial  Literature,^  Vol.  IV.  By 
the  name,  Hist,  of  Catholic  Theology,  from  the  Council  of  Trent  to  our  own 
Day,  Munich,  18G6.  Du  Pin,  Nouvelle  Biblioth.  des  auteurs  eccl.  Ricliard  Si- 
mon, Hist.  crit.  des  principaux  eommentateurs.  Notices  concerning  celebrated 
post-Tridentine  Theologians,  in  ''The  Catholic,"  years  186-3,  1864,  I860,  and 
1866,  revised  ed.  by  Hurter,  Nomenclator  literarius  recentioris  theologiae,  Ociii- 
ponti,  1871  sq.,  Fasc.  1-4.  The  principal  works  of  this  epoch,  and  particularly 
on  Dogma  and  Exegesis,  reprinted  at  Paris,  in  Migne,  Cursus  completus  theo- 
logiae, 28  vols.,  and  likewise  sacrae  scripturae,  29  vols.,  4to. 

Historical  facts  have  all  a  more  or  less  intimate  connection 
with  each  other.  The  disturbance  caused  by  any  great  move- 
ment extends  in  every  direction,  producing  everywhere  nmre 
or  less  agitation.  Consonant  with  this  law,  the  struggle 
against  Protestantism,  the  founding  of  new  Religious  Orders, 
and  the  controversies  that  broke  out  in  the  very  bosom  of  the 
Church,  were  the  occasion,  if  not  the  cause,  of  that  remarka- 
ble and  very  decided  activity  in  theological  science  so  char- 
acteristic of  this  epoch.  It  now  became  evident  to  Catholic 
theologians  that  it  they  would  successfully  repel  the  assaults 
.  of  Protestants  they  must  give  special  attention  to  the  study 
of  dogmatics,  and  to  this  they  seriously  applied  themselves, 
not  as  formerly  from  a  speculative  point  of  view,  but  mainly 

1  Kidb,  Voyages  of  Missionaries  to  Africa,  from  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Eight- 
eenth Century,  Ratisbon,  1861. 

2  In  this  work  of  Wemier's  we  have  at  length  obtained  a  comprehensive  and 
clear  idea  of  the  controversy  started  by  Luther  and  Zwinglius,  and  carried  on 
by  their  Protestant  followers  against  Catholics. 


412  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

in  connection  with  historical  facts,  an  alliance  which  had  now 
become  more  necessary  than  ever  before,  in  view  of  the  pecu- 
liar tactics  adopted  by  the  pretended  reformers.  The  contri- 
butions of  the  Jesuits  to  theological  science  were  invaluable^ 
though  the  other  Religious  Orders  were  equally  active,  and 
their  labors  equally  useful.  The  eminent  services  oi  Melchior 
Canus  were  very  justly  the  pride  of  the  Spanish  Dominicans. 
He  was  selected  by  the  University  of  Salamanca,  on  account 
of  his  extraordinary  ability,  to  represent  that  famous  seat  of 
learning  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  became  distin- 
guished even  among  that  celebrated  body  of  eminent  divines 
(f  1560).  His  best  known  work  is  that  entitled  DeLocis  The- 
ologicis,  in  twelve  books,  being  an  admirable  introduction  to 
the  study  of  dogmatic  theology.  It  contains  very  useful  re- 
searches on  the  sources,  the  importance,  and  the  utility  of 
dogmatic  theology  ;  of  its  relations  to  other  branches  of  sci- 
ence, and  of  the  application  of  philosophy  to  theology.^  The 
characteristics  of  the  work  are  deep  and  vigorous  thought, 
great  originality,  and  terseness  and  energy  of  expression. 

Denys  Petau  (Petaviiis),  of  Orleans,  was,  beyond  all  ques- 
tion, the  most  learned  theologian  the  Society  of  Jesus  pro- 
duced. His  works  are  of  such  solidity  and  depth,  and  withal 
so  complete,  that  any  one  desirous  to  make  a  serious  study 
of  theology  must  necessarily  consult  them.  Apart  from  his 
labors  in  publishing  the  works  of  many  historical  and  philo- 
sophical writers,  as  for  instance  those  of  Epiphanius,  of  Syne- 
sius,  af  Nicephorus,  and  of  the  Emperor  Julian,  and  his  own 
work  on  history  and  astronomy,  entitled  Rationale  Temporum, 
which  of  itself  formed  an  epoch  in  literature,  his  celebrated 
book,  known  as  Theologica  Dogmata,^  attracted  universal  at- 
tention. It  was  intended  that  this  work  should  be  a  complete 
exposition  of  the  teachings  professed  everywhere  and  at  all 
times  by  the  Catholic  Church,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
changing  creeds  of  heretics.  Unfortunately,  the  premature 
death  of  the  author,  in  1652,  prevented  its  completion.     It 


^Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  s.  v.  Canus;  apud  Werner,  Hist,  of  Apol.,  etc, 
Vo\.  IV.    Good  ed.,  Padua,  17G2. 
2  See  Vol.  I.,  p.  20,  note  1. 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       413 

seems  a  marvel  that  the  short  space  of  a  single  life  should 
have  heen  Gufficient  to  accomplish  labors  so  considerable,  in  a 
manner  sg  exact  and  conscientious,  and  in  every  way  so  re- 
markable. The  Latinity  of  Father  Petau  is  easy  and  grace- 
ful, and  his  expositions  clear  and  methodical.  Combining,  in 
a  c(^mprehensive  and  masterly  way,  the  sciences  of  history 
and  dogmatics,  he  was  the  first  to  treat  successfully  dogmatic 
teaching  from  an  historical  point  of  view;  while  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  Platonic  philosophy  enabled  him  to  correct  the 
numerous  errors  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  in  regard  to 
Plato's  teachings. 

In  the  controversies  which  the  Protestant  revolt  necessarily 
occasioned,  Eck,^  Cochlaeus,  Emser,  Eaber,  Erasmus,  Gropper, 
Pig/das,  and  Stanislaus  Ilosius  became  very  justly  distin- 
guished. Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  excellent  work 
entitled  '^German  Theology,''  published  at  Miinster,  in  1528, 
by  the  humble  and  saintly  Berthold,  Bishop  of  Chiemsee.  Its 
object  was  announced  to  be  "  to  supply  authentic  information 
to  a  deluded  people,  and  to  point  out  what  was  to  be  received 
as  certain  truth,  and  on  what  grounds."  This  little  work, 
wliether  considered  from  a  grammatical  or  theological  point  of 
view,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  controversial  writings 
in  the  whole  of  the  Catholic  literature  of  Germany.^  Men- 
tion should  also  be  made  of  the  labors  of  John  Nas  (1534- 
1590),  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of 
Bi'ixen,  which  were,  in  their  way,  very  important.^ 

But  of  all  the  theologians  of  this  age,  the  most  eminent 
beyond  comparison  was  Robert  Bellarmine,  who  was  born  at 
Montepulciano,  in  Tuscany,  October  4,  1542,  and  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  15G0.  Extremely  severe  toward  himself, 
an  enemy  to  all  indulgence,  and  an  indefatigable  worker,  he 
left  behind  him  writings  so  numerous  and  valuable  that  no 
better  evidence  of  the  holiness  and  self-sacrifice  of  his  life 


*  Enchiridion  locorum  communiuin  adv.  Lutherum  et  alios  hostes  ecclesiae, 
Landesbuti,  1525. 

■■'New  edition,  by  Reiihmeier,  Municb,  1852.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol. 
X.,  p.  884  sq.;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  23,  p.  334  sq.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VII^ 
p.  113-124. 

^Schoepf,  Job.  Nasua,  etc.,  Bozen,  1860.  Dr.  Raesa,  Converts,  Vol,  I.,  p. 
298  sq. 


414  Period  3.     Upoeh  1.     Chapter  4. 

could  be  required.  He  was  a  successful  preacher,  but  was 
especially  distinguished  for  the  ability  with  which  he  taught 
the  various  branches  of  theology.  Having  been  sent  to  the 
University  of  Louvain  by  the  general,  Francis  Borgia,  to 
complete  his  theological  studies,  he  was  there  appointed  to  a 
chair  of  theology  in  the  year  1670,  and  for  six  or  seven  years 
continued  to  hold  this  post  of  honor  and  influence.  While 
here  he  wrote  a  Hebrew  grammar  and  a  sort  of  patrology  or 
biographical  sketches  of  ecclesiastical  writers  {De  scriptoribus 
ccclesiasticis),  a  work  which  is  highly  esteemed  even  at  the 
present  day.  Having  been  called  to  Rome,  he  again  taught 
theology  for  tw^elve  consecutive  years,  and  there  composed  a 
work  on  Controversies,  the  full  title  of  which  is  Disputation es 
de  controversis  Christianae  Jidei  articulis,  libri  IV}  He  was  in- 
timately acquainted  with  all  the  literature  of  Protestantism. 
The  works  of  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Beza,  Calvin,  of  the  So- 
cinians,  and  in  fact  of  all  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  were 
familiar  to  him.  The  various  points  in  controversy  and  the 
true  state  of  every  question  were  set  forth  by  him  with  pre- 
cision and  judicial  faii'ness.  In  his  exegetics  he  gave,  as  a 
rule,  a  brief  statement  of  the  points  which  he  intended  either 
to  develop  or  refute.  His  demonstrations,  based  upon  tradi- 
tion, are  unusually  full  and  satisfactory.  Of  his  exegetical 
works,  his  commentary  on  the  Psalms  deserves  special  men- 
tion, it  being  remarkable  for  lucidity  and  accuracy  of  thought, 
as  well  as  for  earnestness  and  an  intelligent  and  sympathetic 
appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  this  portion  of  the  Sacred 
Writings.  This  praise  would  be  the  more  cordially  granted 
to  Bellarmine's  Commentary,  had  not  the  author  in  numerous 
passages,  where  the  Vulgate  deviates  from  the  Hebrew,  and 
wdiere  the  two  can  not  be  reconciled  without  doing  violence  to 
the  original,  uniformly  followed  the  reading  of  the  former.^ 
In  1599  he  was,  much  against  his  own  will,  created  a  car- 
dinal, but  this  elevation  made  no  change  in  the  austere  habits 


1  First  edition,  Kome,  1581-1592,  3  vols.,  fol.,  besides  many  other  editions; 
recudi  curavit,  Fr.  Sausen,  Mogunt,  1842  sq. ;  a  favorite  ed.  is  that  of  Naples, 
1856-1859  ;  Germ,  transl.,  by  Gumposch,  Augsburg,  1842  sq.  Opera  omnia,  ed. 
Justmus  Fevre,  publ.  by  Louis  Yives,  Paris,  in  12  vols.,  4to. 

'^  See  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  "  Bellarmine,"  toward  the  end.  (Tb.) 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       415 

of  his  life.  His  simple  manners  and  incessant  labors  were  a 
standing  rebuke  to  the  listless  lives  of  the  great  dignitaries 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact. 

In  1602  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Capua,  and  in 
consequence  was  obliged  to  leave  Rome.  He  remained  in 
Capua  until  the  year  1606,  when  he  was  relieved  of  his  pas- 
toral charge  by  Paul  V,  During  his  stay  there  he  wrote  an 
excellent  catechism  and  a  work  addressed  to  his  nephew,  enti- 
tled ^'■Admonitio  ad  Episcopiim  Theanensem,  etc.,"  which  of  it- 
self is  an  ample  proof  of  the  energy  and  conscientiousness 
with  which  he  applied  himself  to  the  discharge  of  his  new 
functions.  Finally,  his  deep  and  sincere  piety  and  his  humble 
resignation  to  the  will  of  God  are  abundantly  attested  in  his 
ascetical  Avorks,  entitled  "i)e  ascensione  mentis  in  Deuiii  per 
scalas  rerum  creatarum''  and  "Z)e  gemita  columbae,  scu  de  bono 
lacrym.arum,  etc."     He  died  September  17,  1621. 

During  the  same  period  Peter  Canisius  rendered  a  signal 
service  to  both  clergy  and  laity  b}^  the  publication,  in  1554, 
of  a  Larger  and  a  Smaller  Catechism.  The  former  was  a 
compendium  of  Christian  doctrine,  bearing  the  title  ^'■tiumma 
doctrinne  Christianae  (Cateehisnius  major) ;  and  the  latter,  an 
abridgment  of  the  former,  published  in  1561,  and  having  the 
title  ''Institutiones  Christianae,  sire  parcus  catechisnias  Catholic- 
orum."  A  still  shorter  edition  of  this  abridgment  was  pub- 
lished for  the  use  of  children.  It  was  not  long  before  the 
'■'■Summa  "  was  translated  into  ever}^  living  language.  The  edi- 
tion published  at  Paris  in  1686,  by  the  authority  of  the  arch- 
bishop, enumerates  more  than  four  hundred  previously  issued. 
It  is  said  that  it  was  largely  instrumental  in  converting  numer- 
ous Protestants.'  Even  the  Roman  Catechism  {Catechismas 
Romanus  ad  paroc/ios),  published  in  1566,  which  is  a  repository 
of  all  kinds  of  information  needful  to  clergymen  in  giving  re- 
ligious instruction,  did  not  supersede  that  of  Canisius.^  The 
style  of  the  Roman  Catechism,  which  is  clear  and  elegant,  is 

» Riess,  Life  of  Blessed  Peter  Canisius,  ch.  III.,  p.  109-125. 

2  Catech.  romanus  ex  decreto  Cone.  Trid.  ad  ed.  prindpem  Manutianam  a. 
1566,  ed.  RiUer,  Vrut.  1837;  ed.  Smcts,  Lat.  et  Germ.,  Bielef.  \M^  sq. ;  ed. 
llom.  1845.  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  trans,  by  J.  Donovan,  Dublin, 
1829;  Baltimore,  1829. 


416  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

mainly  the  work  of  the  celebrated  linguist,  Paul  Manutius, 
who  revised  the  manuscript  after  it  came  from  the  hands  of 
its  authors,  who  were  three  Dominicans.  This  work  having 
been  written  by  order  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  became, 
like  the  synodal  decrees  themselves,  a  sort  of  Rule  of  Faith. 
Minor  controversial  works  were  also  written  at  this  period  by 
the  Jesuits,  Gregory  of  Valencia  {Analysis  Jidei  Catholicac, 
flOOS),  Francis  Coster  (JE))c/nridio7i  control' ersiariun  nostri  tern 
poris,  j  1G19),  and  Martin  Becanus  {Man aale  coidrocers.,  lihb.  V.), 
those  of  the  last  two  being  highly  esteemed.  Becanus  was 
also  the  author  of  an  Analogia  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti,  in 
wliicli  he  shows  the  harmony  between  the  two.  Valuttble 
works  were  written  on  particular  dogmas  of  faith,  and  ihe 
Jansenists,  Nicole  and  Arnauld,  gained  quite  a  name  by  the 
ability  with  which  they  defended  the  Blessed  Eucharist  and 
the  Sacrament  of  Penance  against  the  attacks  of  the  Reform- 
ers, in  their  work  Perpetaite  de  lafoi  catholique. 

In  lands  like  Spain,  which  lay  at  a  distance  from  the  tur- 
bulent scenes  of  the  Reformation,  the  study  of  mediaeval  phi- 
losophy and  theology,  particularly  that  of  St.  Thomas,  was 
revived,  and  calm  and  systematic  expositions  given  of  the 
principal  teachings  of  the  Church.  The  ablest  representative 
of  this  theological  tendency  was  the  Jesuit,  Suarez  (flGlT), 
who  taught  philosophy  and  theology  successively  at  Segovia, 
Valladolid,  Alcala,  Salamanca,  Rome,  and  Coimbra(in  Portu- 
gal). He  was  also  well  versed  in  many  of  the  sciences,  though 
his  method  of  treating  them  in  the  lecture-room  lacked  con- 
ciseness and  directness.^  Other  members  of  the  Order,  however, 
\\ot2t\Ay  Maldonatus  and  Possevin,  achieved  a  certain  measure  ot 
success  in  their  efforts  to  simplify  the  science  of  theology. - 

So  much  of  the  thought  of  this  age  was  given  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  dogmatic  teachings  that  comparatively  little  atten- 
tion was  bestowed  on  the  study  of  moral  theology.    It  was  not. 


i| «-  Werner,  Francis  Suarez,  and  the  Scholasticism  of  the  last  Centuries,  Rat- 
isbon,  1861,  2  vols.  Works,  23  vols.,  fol.,  Lyons,  1603  sq.,  Mentz,  1612  sq.,  Ant- 
werp, 1614  sq.,  Venice,  1740;  new  ed.,  in  28  vols.,  sm.  4to,  by  Louis  Vivcs,  Paris, 
1856,  1872.  Summa,  seu  compendium,  by  Fr.  NoU,  S.  J.,  2  vols.,  fol.,  Genev. 
1732,  Paris,  1861.  (Tr.) 

*  Cf.  Possevin,  Bibliotheca  selecta,  Colon,  1607,  pp.  120-180. 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       417 

however,  wholly  neglected ;  and,  as  in  the  preccduig  age,  the 
eflbrts  in  this  direction  took  the  form  either  of  scholasticism 
and  casuistry,  or  of  mysticism  and  asceticism.  Besides  the 
treatises  of  Erasmus  and  Juan  Luis  Vives,  the  labors  of  those 
Jesuits  who  wrote  on  special  portions  of  moral  theology  de- 
serve separate  mention.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  enumerate  the 
names  of  'Joletus  (f  1596),  Vasquez  (f  1604),  Laymann  (f  1635), 
Escobar  (tl669),  and  Busenbaum  (f  1668),  whose  work,  enti- 
tled Medulla  thcolo(jiae  moralis  facili  ac  jperspicua  m.ethodo  re- 
solvens  casus  conscientiae,  etc.,  Monast.  1645,  was  extensively 
used.  We  shall  again  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  mystical 
and  ascetical  writers  who  treated  of  moral  theology.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  theory  of  ^^Probabilism"  started  in  the  year  1572 
by  Bartholomew  31edina,  a  Dominican,  was  introduced  into 
the  schools  of  theology,  and  gave  rise  to  a  series  of  proposi- 
tions of  a  lax  and  demoralizing  tendency.  The  theory  was 
ably  controverted  by  some  of  the  most  celebrated  professors, 
and  strongly  opposed  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  who 
demanded  that  the  limits  within  which  it  might  be  safely  ap- 
plied should  be  clearly  and  precisely  defined.  To  correct  this 
theory,  others  were  started,  which  gradually  came  to  be  known 
as  ^^Aequiprobabilism,"  '^Probabiliorism,"  and  '^Tutiorism." 

During  this  period  the  study  of  exegetics  was  stimulated 
by  the  instructions  given  by  the  Council  of  Trent  in  its  Fifth 
Session  on  Reformation  ;  by  the  aids  which  the  Compluten- 
sian  Polyglot  Bible  afforded  ;  by  the  labors  of  such  Hebrew 
grammarians  and  lexicographers  as  Pelican,  Bellarmine,  and, 
pre-eminently,  Santes  Pagninus  (f  1541),  who  was  the  author 
of  a  Hebrew  dictionary  and  a  method  for  interpreting  Holy 
Scripture;^  and,  finally,  by  the  movement  set  on  foot  by 
Erasmus.  To  all  these  causes  is  to  be  ascribed  the  great  ad- 
vance made  in  Biblical  studies  during  these  years.  An  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  Sacred  Scripture,  was  written  by  the 
Dominican,  Sixtus  of  Siena  (f  1569),-  which,  like  the  Antiuerp 
polyglot    (1569),    mainly  prepared  by  Montanus,  and  Lejay's 

'  Isagoge  ad  sacras  literas  lib,  unus ;  Isagoge  ad  mysticos  sacr.  scripturao 
sensus,  lib.  18,  Colon.  1540,  fol. 

2  Bibliotheca  sancta,  ex  praecipuis  cathol.  ecclesiae  auctorib.  collecta,  etc. 
VOL.  Ill — 27 


418  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

Paris  polyglot  (1645),  which  in  sj'ntactical  accuracy  and  gen- 
eral literary  merit  is  superior  to  the  former,  is  very  valuable 
as  an  aid  to  obtain  a  correct  understanding  of  the  text.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  rigorous  principles  then  prevalent  concerning 
the  inspiration  of  the  Sacred  Books  was  a  serious  hindrance  to  the 
progress  of  exegetical  studies.  Starting  with  the  principle  tliat 
every  word  of  Holy  Writ  had  been,  literally  speaking,  in- 
spired by  God,  the  commentators  were  forced  to  put  subtile 
interpretations  upon  the  text,  which,  while  they  might  be 
learned  and  ingenious,  were  frequently  very  wide  of  the  truth. 
The  most  conspicuous  opponents  of  this  rigid  rule  of  inter- 
pretation were  the  Jesuits,  Hamel  and  Lessius,  of  Louvain, 
who  contended  that  for  a  book  to  be  divine  and  canonical 
required  neither  textual  inspiration  nor  even  that  of  every 
thought ;  and  that  a  book,  like  the  Second  of  Maccabees,  which 
is,  they  said,  a  purely  human  production,  might  be  regarded 
as  canonical,  provided  the  Holy  Ghost  should,  after  its  com- 
position, become  a  witness  to  the  entire  truth  of  its  contents. 
These  opinions,  as  soon  as  published,  were  very  justly  assailed 
by  the  theological  faculties  of  Louvain  and  Douai,  and  con- 
demned by  the  bishops  of  Belgium.  The  matter  was  brought 
by  Pope  Sixtus  Y.  before  his  own  tribunal.  He  put  off  giv- 
ing a  decision  till  the  disputants  should  return  to  a  better 
temper;  and,  after  a  time,  a  moderate  judgment,  based  upon 
the  teachings  of  the  best  interpreters  of  the  School  of  An- 
tioch,  and  notably  upon  those  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  was 
adopted.  It  W'as  not  long  before  a  number  of  Catholic  exe- 
getical writers  published  works  in  refutation  of  the  exclusive 
and  one-sided  interpretations  of  the  Reformers.  Cardinal 
Cajetan  gave  his  entire  life  to  the  stud}-  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, and  his  ingenious  and  strikingly  original  interpretations 
abundantly  prove  that  he  possessed  talents  specially  qualify- 
ing him  for  the  task.^  Nevertheless,  his  works  have  been  se- 
verely criticized,  mainly  on  philological  grounds,  by  Melchior 
Canus  and  others.     A  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  by  Va- 


Venet.1566,  fol.;  Frcf.  1575,  fol. ;  Col.  1626, 4to;  ibid.  1686,  in  fol. ;  Neap.  174'2 
in  fol.,  2  vols.;  liber  III.  contains  Ars  interpretandi  sacras  scripturas  absolutis- 
Bima;  separate  edition,  Colon.  1577,  1588,  in  Svo.    Ilis  Life,  by  Fatber  Milanie. 
1  Commentarii  in  V.  et  N.  T.,  Lugd.  1639,  5  T.,  fol. 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       419 

table  (t  1547),  during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  has  gone  through 
many  editions,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  clear  and  concise 
remarks  added  by  him  to  explain  the  text.  It  should  be 
added,  however,  that  the  work  has  not  escaped  censure,' 
The  commentary  on  Josue  by  Andrew  Masius  was  pronounced 
b}'  Richard  Simon,  the  celebrated  critic,  a  master-piece  of 
grammatical  and  historical  interpretation.  Masius,  who  assisted 
in  editing  the  Antwerp  polyglot,  was  the  equal  of  Cajetau  as 
an  exegetical  writer,  and  his  superior  in  philological  at- 
tainments. Cardinal  Sadolet,  Bishop  of  Car[)cntras  (f  1547), 
who  was  the  author  of  many  works  on  philosophy,  made  an 
attempt  to  harmonize  the  various  Protestant  Confessions  with 
the  teachings  of  the  Church,  and  with  the  same  view  pub- 
lished a  commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans^ 
whence  the  Protestants  had  drawn  the  bulk  of  the  arguments 
in  support  of  their  teachings.  Written  in  the  form  of  a  dia- 
logue, and  in  elegant  Ciceronian  Latin,  it  was  in  a  large  meas- 
ure successful.  Gaspar  Contarini,  also  a  cardinal,  and  thor- 
oughly conversant  with  the  Greek  commentators,  published 
brief  and  valuable  annotations  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
(tl542). 

Claude  d'Espence,  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  (f  1571),  was 
also  the  author  of  excellent  commentaries,  in  which  he  made 
it  a  point  to  tell  some  wholesome  truths  to  popes,  bishops, 
and  the  clergy  in  general.  Jansenius,  Bishop  of  Ghent 
(f  1576),  who  seems  to  have  been  the  forerunner  of  Hamel 
and  Lessius,  published  a  valuable  Concordance  of  the  Gospels. 
Agellio,  Bishop  of  Acerno,  in  the  kingdom  of  J^aples  (f  1608), 
Bellarmine,  and  Shnoii.  de  Muis  wrote  excellent  commentaries 
on  the  Psalms. 

The  Jesuit,  Jacques  Bonfrere,  professor  at  Douai  (f  1643), 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  highly 
thought  of,  even  at  the  present  day.  Prado  (f  1595),  Villal- 
pando  (t  1608),  and  Ribera,  all  Jesuits,  published  very  good  com- 
mentaries, the  two  former  on  Ezechiel,^  and  the  last  on  the 

iQf  the  many  editions  of  this  work,  the  best  is  that  brought  out  by  Nicole 
Henri  Paris,  1729  and  1745. 

^J.B.  Villalpandi  et  H.  Pradi  in  Ezechielem  explanationes  ot  apparatus  urbii 
ac  templi  Hierosolymitani  commentariis  et  imaginibus  illustratus,  Eomae,  1596- 
1606,  3  vols.,  fol.  max.  (Tr.) 


420  Feriod  3.     E^och  1.     Chapter  4. 

Twelve  Minor  Prophets  and  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  He- 
brews. Those  on  Ezechiel  are,  however,  not  so  highly  esteemed 
as  those  of  Christopher  de  Castro,  Vieira,  and  Aliazar  on  the 
Apocalypse.  The  commentaries  of  Pineda  on  the  book  of 
Job,  and  of  Gas-par  Sanctius  (f  1628)  on  nearly  all  the  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  are  wearisomely  prolix.  Tullianus 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  two  books  of  the  Maccabees.  The 
moral,  allegorical,  and  anagogical  explanations  in  the  cele- 
brated work  of  Cornelias  a  Lapide  (Van  den  Steen,  f  1637)  are 
also  very  lengthy,  his  best  commentaries  being  those  on  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  admirable  quota- 
tions from  the  Fathers  give  the  work  a  special  value.  It  is, 
however,  advisable  to  verify  these  extracts  by  reference  to 
their  originals.^  The  work  of  Father  Mersenne,  a  member  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula,  entitled  Celebrated  Ques- 
tions on  Genesis  {Questiones  celebres  in  Genesin,  1623),  is  orig- 
inal in  the  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  attests  the  author's 
proficienc}^  in  mathematics.  Had  he  been  more  conversant 
with  laws  of  meteorology  and  of  the  physical  sciences  in  gen- 
eral, he  would  not  have  committed  the  blunder  of  attacking 
the  system  of  Copernicus,  Canon  of  Frauenburg  (f  1643).  The 
attitude  of  Rome  toward  Copernicus  and  Galileo  (f  1638),  in- 
comparably more  liberal  to  science  than  that  assumed  by  the 
Protestant  churches  from  the  first  moment  of  their  exist- 
ence,^ and  dishonestly  and  persistently  misrepresented,  has 
been  in  our  own  day  fully  investigated,  with  the  aid  of  au- 
thentic documents,  and  triumphantly  vindicated.^ 


1  New  edition,  Melitae,  1842-1852, 10  T.,  4to,  and  Parisiis,  1860-1808,  24vols.^ 
sm.  4to  (Louis  Vives,  publisher).  (Tr.) 

2  See  ?  338,  page  310,  of  this  volume. 

3  "The  Holy  See  versus  Oalileo  Galilei,  and  the  Astronomical  Sj'stem  of  Co- 
pernicus." [Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VII.,  in  four  articles.)  Bonn  Review, 
new  series,  year  IV.,  nro.  2,  p.  118  sq.  Deschamps,  The  Truth  and  Eeasonable- 
ness  of  Failh  (Germ.  rev.  ed.,  by  Heinric/i,  Mentz,  1857).  See  AscJibaclis  and 
the  I'rciburc/  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  article  ^'Galilei."  The  famous  dictum  '^E pur  sr 
inuove,"  or  "And  yet  it  (the  earth)  does  move,"  was  first  invented  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  mathematician,  Heis,  in 
the  periodical  "Gaea"  year  1808.  Besides  ifumberless  writings,  which  have 
appeared  lately  in  Italian.  French,  German,  and  English,  we  have  received  that 
by  Gebler,  Galileo  Galilei  and  the  Eoman  Court,  according  to  authentic  sources, 
Stuttgart,  1876.  Cfr.  La  condamnation  de  Galilee,  etc.,  in  the  Quarterly  "Rerue 
dea  Quesiiona  acieniijigues,"  Louvain,  April,  1877.  (Tr.) 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       421 

The  Jesuits,  Tirinus  and  llenochius  (f  1655),  published 
brief  explanations  of  the  whole  of  the  Sacred  Text,  which 
were  favorably  received,  and  remained  long  in  use.  "We  must 
also  mention  here  the  commentaries  of  Francis  Toletus  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Eomans,  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  and  particu- 
larly on  the  doctrinal  passages  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  ; 
the  questions  and  dissertations  of  Al/phonsus  Salnieron  (f  158r>), 
in  16  vols.,  fol.,  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament ;  and 
the  commentaries  of  the  Jesuit,  Lorinus  (f  1634),  on  the  books 
of  ISTumbers  and  Leviticus  and  on  the  Psalms  ;  also  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  on  the  Catholic  Epistles. 

The  works  already  mentioned,  though  each  has  its  own 
merit,  are  not  to  be  compared  with  the  productions  of  the 
three  following  exegetical  writers.  The  first  two  are  profita- 
bly consulted,  even  in  our  own  day,  and  the  last,  though  less 
known,  is  not  inferior  to  either  of  them  as  a  commentator. 
These  are  :  L  The  Jesuit,  Father  John  Ifaldonatus,  who  was 
born  in  Estremadura  in  1534,  completed  his  studies  with  un- 
usual distinction  at  Salamanca,  and  was  an  excellent  Greek 
and  Hebrew  scholar  and  a  fine  historian.  After  teaching 
Greek,  philosophy,  and  theology  for  some  time  at  Salamanca, 
he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1562,  and,  taking  up  his 
residence  in  Paris,  was  there  appointed  to  a  professorship. 
His  lectures  on  the  Four  Gosj)els,  which  were  .published  only 
after  his  death,  by  Pronto  le  Due,  at  Pont-a-Mousson,  in  1596, 
are  his  most  remarkable  productions.  As  in  the  case  of  Abe- 
lard,  so  numerous  were  the  crowds  that  flocked  to  hear  him, 
that,  unable  to  accommodate  them  in  any  of  the  great  lec- 
ture-rooms of  Paris,  he  was  obliged  to  speak  in  the  court  of 
the  college.  It  was  in  consequence  of  his  able  debate  at  Se- 
dan with  a  Calvinist  minister  that  the  Duke  dc  Bouillon  was 
converted  to  the  Catholic  faith.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1583, 
shortly  after  having  received  a  commission  from  Pope  Gregory 
Xin.  to  assist  in  editing  a  new  edition  of  the  Septuagint. 
2.  William  Fstius,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Douai,  had 
such  facility  in  explaining  the  most  diflicult  })assages  of  Holy 
{Scripture,  and  notably  those  contained  in  the  Epistles  of  the 
Apostles,  that  his  lecture-room  was  filled  with  hearers  desirous 
of  profiting  by  his  learning.     Inferior  to  Maldouatus  as  au 


422  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

historian  and  philologist,  he  was  his  superior  in  depth  of  pen- 
etration and  in  ability  to  grasp  and  draw  out  the  drift  and 
sequence  of  thought  in  the  apostolic  writings.^  3.  Father 
Justiniani,  also  a  Jesuit,  was  the  author  of  a  commentary  on 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  So  learned  are  the  paraphrases,  so 
luminous  the  dissertations,  and  so  extensive  and  accurate  the 
erudition  contained  in  this  work,  that  though  less  known  than 
that  of  Estius,  it  is  equally  valuable,  and  has  not  attracted 
the  attention  it  deserves.^ 

We  should  mention,  finally,  the  numerous  translations  of 
the  Bible  made  during  this  epoch  into  the  various  European 
languages.  In  Germany  alone,  not  to  speak  of  other  coun- 
tries, a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  by  Emser  was  pub- 
lished in  1527,  and  in  1584  and  1537  translations  of  the  whole 
Bible  hj  DietenbergerandEck,  and  still  later  by  Ulenberg  {-flQn), 
all  of  which  were  works  of  unusual  merit.  Translations  of 
the  entire  Bible  were  published  in  Poland  by  the  Jesuit, 
James  Wiijek,  and  in  France  by  Veron  and  others. 

With  a  view  to  combating  Protestantism  with  its  own 
weapons,  Leisentritt,  Dean  of  the  Chapter  of  Budissin,  pub- 
lished in  1573  a  large  collection  of  sacred  songs  and  an 
Agenda  or  Liturgy  in  German.  A  still  larger  collection  of 
sacred  songs  was  published  in  1631  by  Corner,  prior  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Gottweih, 

Owing  to  the  pretensions  put  forward  by  their  opponents, 
the  Catholics  were  obliged  to  show  by  historical  evidence  that 
the  teaching  and  discipline  of  the  Church  were  based  upon 
Apostolic  tradition  and  the  belief  of  the  primitive  Christians. 
The  assumptions  of  Protestants  were  successfully  refuted  by 
the  CathoHc  historians  of  the  period,  of  whom  the  following 


1  A  new  edition  of  the  commentaries  of  Maldonaius  and  Estius  was  recently 
published  by  Snusen,  Mogunt.  1841  sq.  A  third  edition  of  ]Nraldonatus  was  ed- 
ited by  Bishop  Martin,  Mogunt.  1862 ;  a  fourth  by  Dr.  J.  M.  Raich,  Mogunt. 
1874.  (Tr.)  The  second  edition  of  Estius,  revised  by  Holzamyner,  Mogunt. 
l?o8  sq.  Jlaldonatus  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  prophets  Jeremias,  Ba- 
ruch,  Ezechiel,  and  Daniel;  and  a  full  explanation  on  Ps.  CIX.,  and  scholia 
or  the  Proverbs,  the  Canticle  of  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Isaias.  See  Dixon, 
Introd.  to  the  S.  Script.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  226  (Tr.),  and  cf.  J.  M.  Prat,  S.  J.,  Mai 
donat  et  I'universite  de  Paris  au  XVIg  siecle,  Par.  1857. 

2  Ed.  Lugduni,  lGll-1614,  3  T.,  f. 


§  350.   Theological  Science  in  the  Catholic  Church.       423 

are  the  best  known:  Baronius  and  his  continuators ; ^  Peter 
de  llarca,  Archbishop  elect  of  Paris  (f  1662),  whose  contro- 
versies in  defense  of  the  episcopal  system  are  well  known 
{De  Concordia  imperii  et  sacerdotii);  Cardinal  (/?(  Perron  (11618), 
who  wrote  his  De  ecclesiastica  et  politica potestate  against  Richer, 
and  in  support  of  the  doctrine  of  Papal  Infallibility ;  Pan- 
vinio,  an  Angustinian,  who  wrote  a  History  of  the  Popes 
(f  1568) ;  and  Lawrence  Surius,  a  Carthusian,  of  Cologne,  and 
a  convert  (tl578),  whose  versatile  talents  adorned  nearly 
every  branch  of  literature.  His  Lives  of  the  Saints,  in  six 
folio  volumes,'  stimulated  the  Pollandists,  whose  centenary 
labors  were  begun  in  the  year  1643,  to  make  a  more  exhaust- 
ive use  of  the  precious  materials  within  their  reach.^ 

Finally,  the  ascetical  writings  of  the  epoch,  which  were,  as  a 
rule,  the  2)roductions  of  men  occupied  with  other  label's, 
strikingly  illustrate  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  Middle 
Ages  upon  Catholic  literature.  Chief  among  these  are  the 
Sjnritual  Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius,  which  have  been  mainly 
instrumental  in  preserving  in  the  Societ}'  which  he  founded 
the  pious  and  profitable  habit  of  meditation.  Edifying  lives 
of  St.  Ignatius  and  St.  Francis  Xavier  were  written  by  Maffei 
and  TurseUinus.  I^umerous  works  on  pastoral  theology,  the 
outgrowth  of  the  renewed  and  vigorous  religious  life  then 
setting  in,  were  also  published,  of  some  of  wdiich  particular 
mention  should  be  made.  The  most  important  are  Ecclesiastes, 
sen  concionator  evangelicus,  by  Erasmus ;  Instructiones  confessa- 
riorum  et  concionatorum,  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo ;  Rhetorica 
ecclesiastica,  libri  III.,  by  Valerius  Augustine;  a  work  of  the 
same  title,  by  Louis  of  Granada,  a  Dominican  ;  but,  above 
all,  the  works  published  by  the  celebrated  preachers  of  this 
age.  Of  these,  the  greatest  names  in  Italy  were  Clariiis, 
Bishop  of  Fuligno ;  Cornelius  Musso,  Bishop  of  Bitonto,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples  (f  1574) ;  Charles  Borromeo ;  and  the 
Jesuit,  Paul  Segneri  (f  1694).  In  France,  Simon  Vigor,  Arch- 
bishop of  Karbonue  (f  1575) ;  the  Jesuit,  Claude  de  Lingendes 

1  See  Vol.  I.,  p.  44. 

2  Edited  Cologne,  1570  sq.,  157G-1581 ;  Suppl.  Vol.  VII.,  by  F.  J.  Mosander 
ibid.,  1586;  best  ed.,  ibid.,  1618,  in  12  vols. 

'  See  Vol.  I.,  page  23,  note  4. 


424  Feriod  3.     Ejpoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

(fl666);  his  kinsman,  Jo/ui  de  Lingendes ;  and  Francis  Fe- 
erault,  of  the  Oratory  (j  1670).  In  Spain,  John  of  Avila,  the 
Apostle  of  Anclakisia,  and  Louis  of  Granada;  and  in  Pohmd, 
Peter  Skarga  and  Birkowsld. 

Besides  the  ascetical  works  published  in  Germany,  of  which 
we  have  ah'eady  spoken,^  the  faith  and  piety  of  the  age  were 
revived  and  sustained  by  the  writings  of  St.  Teresa,  St.  John 
of  the  Cross,  the  pious  Louis  of  Granada,  St.  Francis  de  Sales 
(Philothea  and  Letters  to  People  Living  in  the  World),  Lniu- 
rence  Scupuli  (Spiritual  Combat),  Bellarmiiie,  Alphonsus  Rod- 
riguez (The  Practice  of  Christian  Perfection),  Louis  da  Ponte 
(Meditations  on  the  Mysteries  of  Faith),  M.  Olier,  founder  of 
the  Congregation  of  St,  Sulpice  (f  1657 — Catechism  of  Inte- 
rior Life),  and  Co7idr en,  second  superior-general  of  the  French 
Oratory  (f  1641— Idea  of  the  True  Priesthood  of  J.  C.) 

When  Louis  of  Granada  presented  to  Gregory  XIII.  copies 
of  "  The  Sinner's  Guide,"  and  "  Christian  Life,"  of  his  excel- 
lent Catechism  and  his  treatise  on  prayer,  the  Pope  expressed 
his  delight  in  words  which  must  have  been  extremely  grati- 
fying to  the  pious  author.  "  You  have,"  said  the  Holy  Father, 
"  done  a  greater  service  to  those  who  may  seek  instruction  in 
3'our  pages,  than  if  by  prayer  you  had  restored  sight  to  the 
blind  or  brought  the  dead  to  life."  We  need  not  marvel, 
then,  why  these  works  have  been  so  frequently  reproduced  in 
our  own  day,  why  they  have  been  translated  into  so  many 
languages,  or  why  so  much  pains  is  taken  to  issue  correct  and 
serviceable  editions  of  them. 

§  351.  New  Controversies  on  Grace — Baius,  Molina,  Jansenius. 

The  fear  entertained  that  the  extreme  tenets  of  Protestant- 
ism, when  applied  to  the  workings  of  divine  grace  in  regen- 
erated man,  and  carried  out  to  their  last  results,  would  not  be 
without  influence  on  Catholic  divines,  was  verified  in  the  case 
of  Uichael  Baius,  a  professor  of  theology  at  Louvain  (after 
1551).^     He  was  hardly  seated  in  the  professor's  chair  when, 


^  Brisehar,  The  Cath.  Pulpit  Orators  of  Germany  during  the  last  three  cen- 
turies, Schaffh.  1867  sq.,  3  vols. 

^Baji  0pp.,  Coloniae,  1G96,  4to.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  15G3:  De 
libero  arbitrio  ;  de  justitia  ;  de  justificatione  and  de  sacrificio.    After  his  return 


§  351.  New  Controversies  on   Grace,  etc.  425 

like  his  colleague,  John  Hessels,  he  began  to  assail  the  scholas- 
tic method,  aud  to  introduce  the  positive.  After  explaining 
the  doctrines  of  faith,  he  supported  them  with  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture and  passages  from  the  writings  of  such  Fathers  as  St. 
Cyprian,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Jerome,  and  St.  Gregory,  but 
chiefly  from  those  of  St.  Augustine.  In  defense  of  his  method 
of  teaching,  he  pointed  out  that  Protestants  had  distorted  the 
sense  of  the  Sacred  Text,  and  claimed  that  it  was  his  aim  to 
restore  its  true  meaning.  On  the  return  of  his  older  col- 
leagues, Tapper  and  Baveiistein,  from  the  Council  of  Trent, 
they,  together  with  other  advocates  of  the  scholastic  method, 
expressed  their  disapprobation  of  his  course  and  their  alarm 
as  to  the  tendency  of  the  system  which  he  was  beginning  to 
mold  into  definite  shape.  In  consequence,  acting  in  concert 
with  the  Franciscans,  they  sent,  in  the  year  1560,  eighteen  of 
the  propositions  of  Baius'  for  examination  to  the  Theological 
Faculty  of  the  Sorboune.^  As  only  five  of  the  propositions 
were  pronounced  heretical  and  three  false,^  their  author  felt 
that  he  might  with  all  propriety  publish  a  defense  of  his  po- 
sition. In  this,  while  freely  admitting  that  some  of  the  prop- 
ositions were  faulty,  he  contended  that  the  greater  number  of 
them  were  correct,  being,  as  he  said,  in  complete  harmony 
with  the  words  of  Holy  Writ  and  the  teachings  of  St.  Au- 
gustine. Cardinal  Granvelle,  Archbishop  of  Malines  and 
Governor  of  the  Netherlands,  anxious  to  put  an  end  to  a  con- 
troversy which,  he  believed,  had  its  origin  in  a  misapprehen- 
sion of  terms  and  expressions  not  in  general  use  among  the- 
ologians, prevailed  upon  Fhitip  11.  to  send  the  professors, 
Baius  and  John  Hessels,  together  with  Cornelius  Jansenius, 
subsequently  Bishop  of  Ghent,  and  at  that  time  (1563)  a  well- 
known  Biblical  commentator,  to  Trent  as  deputies  of  the 
University.  On  his  return,  Baius  published  a  number  of 
Tracts,  in  which  he  defended  and  still  further  developed  his 

from  Trent,  the  treatises:  De  meritis  operum;  de  prima  hominis  justitia  el  de 
virtutibus  impiorum;  de  sacramentis  in  genere,  etc.  Conf.  Kuhn,  s.  v.  J^&y,  in 
the  Freiburcj  Eccl.  Cyclopaed. ;  Lhisemann,  Michael  Bajus,  Tueb.  1867;  Schee- 
ber,  Supplements  toward  a  hist,  of  Bajanism  (Catholic,  March,  1868). 

'  lu  iTArgentrc  Collectio  judiciorum  de  novis  erroribus,  T.  II.,  p.  1-203,  and 
in  ill  Pin,  Bibliotheque,  T.  XVI.,  p.  139  sq. 
'■'  Biugraphie      Unioersellc,  Paris,  T.  II.   (Tb.) 


426  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     ChapUr  4. 

peculiar  views.  These  publications  were  the  occasion  of  a 
fresh  controversy,  during  which  his  colleague,  Hessels,  died 
(1566). 

The  afi'air  was  eventually  submitted  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Holy  See,  and  by  a  bull,  dated  October  1,  1567,  Pius  V.,  with- 
out naming  their  author,  condemned  seventy-nine  propositions 
of  Baius',  The  disciples  of  Baius  refused  to  submit,  main- 
taining that  the  condemned  propositions,  in  the  sense  in  which 
they  were  stated,  were  not  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  tlieir 
master.  In  consequence,  the  condemnation  was  renewed  in 
more  precise  terms  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1579. 

In  the  following  year,  Baius  sent  on  to  Home  an  act  of  sub- 
mission, thus  escaping  expulsion  from  his  office.^  He  also 
received  at  this  time  a  copy  of  the  bull  of  Pius  V.,  which  had 
heretofore  been  denied  him.  The  condemned  propositions 
related  chiefly  to  original  sin,  free  will,  regenerated  nature, 
and  the  relation  of  good  works  to  grace,  the  fundamental  one 
being  that  fallen  nature,  destitute  of  divine  grace,  is  absolutely 
incapable  of  well-doing,  and,  as  a  consequence,  can  not  leave  off 
evil-doing. 

In  direct  opposition  to  the  definition  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  Baius  seemed  at  least  to  hold  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
was  not  exempt  from  either  original  or  actual  sin.^  The  sys- 
tem of  Baius,  which  spread  rapidly,  was  vehemently  assailed 
by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  Leonard  Lessius  and  John  Hamel,  mem- 
bers of  the  Faculty  of  Louvain,  whose  zeal  apparenth'  got 
the  better  of  their  judgment,  and  carried  them  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme.  Hence  thirt3^-four  of  their  propositions,  which 
the  partisans  of  Baius  claimed  had  the  flavor  of  Semi-Pela- 
gianism,  were  disclaimed  in  1587  by  the  Theological  Faculty 
of  Louvain.  With  a  view  of  promoting  good  will  between 
the  two  parties,  Sixtus  V.,  in  the  following  year,  commanded 
both  to  abstain  from  mutual  recriminations. 

Unfortunately,  about  this  time  a  work  appeared  in  Spain, 
written  by  the  Jesuit,  Louis  Molina,  and  bearing  the  title 

^  This  bull  is  also  found  in  the  stereotyped  edition  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
Lps.  1842,  p.  273-278.  Du  Chesne,  Hist,  du  Bajanisme,  Douai,  1731,  4to.  Con. 
ferences  d' Angers  sur  la  grace,  Paris,  1789. 

*  Werner,  Fr.  Suarez,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  380  sq. 


§  351.  New  Controversies  on  Grace,  etc.  427 

^^ Libert  arbitrii  cum  gratiae  donis,  divina  praescientia,  providentia, 
praedestinaiione  et  reprobatione  concordia,"  which  at  once  re- 
vived the  controversy  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans} 
The  former  defended  the  teaching  of  Scotns  ;  the  latter  that 
of  St.  Angustine.  The  Molinists,  in  recommendation  of  their 
doctrine,  said  that  if  ichat  is  understood  to  be  rigorous  Augustln- 
ianism  were  to  be  accepted,  the  tenets  of  the  Reformers  could  not 
be  easily  refuted. 

Desirous,  if  possible,  to  harmonize  the  two  systems,  Molina 
maintained  that  by  his  own  natural  powers  man  may  in  some 
sort  contribute  toward  his  conversion  and  the  performance  of 
good  works.  In  support  of  this  position,  he  brought  forward 
the  teaching  of  Fonseea,  who  had  been  his  master,  on  the  so- 
called  mediate  knowledge  of  God  (Scientia  Dei  media),  which 
is,  that  God  foresees  such  future  events  as  would  take  place 
if  certain  given  conditions,  which  are  never  fulfilled,  were 
carried  out ;  as,  for  example,  the  instances  in  1  Samuel,  xxiii. 
11  sq.,  and  Matthew,  xi.  21. 

Molina's  book  was  attacked  b}^  the  Dominicans,  Alvarez 
and  Thomas  de  Lemos,  who  upheld  the  Thomist  system,  main- 
taining that  grace  influences  the  free  consent  of  the  will,  the 
latter  bearing  the  relation  to  the  former  of  physical  effect  to 
physical  cause.  Preserving  the  analogy,  the  agency  of  grace 
is  called  ph3'Sical  premotion  or  predetermination.  The  Jesu- 
its, Gregory  of  Valencia,  Arrubal,  La  Bastide,  Toletus,  and  oth- 
ers, came  to  the  defense  of  Molina,  whereupon  Pope  Clement 
VIIL,  at  the  request  of  both  parties,  solicited  the  advice  of 
the  bishops,  universities,  and  theologians,  and  established  at 
Rome,  in  1699,  the  celebrated  Congregation  ''De  Auxiliis"'^ 
to  determine  the  question  concerning  the  relation  of  divine 
grace  to  man's  conversion.  Clement  died  before  a  decision 
was  arrived  at,  and  his  successor,  Paul  V.,  continued  the  ex- 
amination till  the  year  1607,  wdien  he  suspended  the  labors  of 
the  Congregation,  reserving  to  himself  the  right  of  making 
known  the  result  at  some  future  day,  and  (probably  at  the 


lit  appeared  first  at  Lisbon,  1588;  then,  enlarged,  at  Antwerp,  1595.  Ct 
Werner,  St.  Thomas  of  Aquino,  Vol.  III.,  p.  389-430. 

■^Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  786-794;  Fr.  trans.,  Vol.5.,  pp 
194-203. 


428  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

instance  of  Baronius)  permitting  both  parties  to  hold  their 
opinions,  and  prohibiting  each  from  accusing  their  adversaries 
of  heresy. 

The  prohibition,  though  renewed  by  Urban  VIII.,  Innocent 
X.,  and  Innocent  XI.,  was  not  unfrequently  disregarded  in 
the  heat  of  controversy  by  the  representatives  of  both  par- 
ties. The  sj'stem  of  Molina,  which  was  more  or  less  Pela- 
gian in  tendency,  was  modified  by  the  Jesuits  into  what  is 
known  as  Congruism  {Gratia  congrua  et  incongrua).  This  sys- 
tem, which  is  quite  different  from  pure  Molinism,  was  per- 
fected some  time  later  by  the  celebrated  Jesuits,  Suarez  and 
Vosquez}  According  to  Molinism,  the  free  consent  of  the 
will  is  the  sole  and  only  condition  to  the  action  of  grace  ; 
whereas,  according  to  Congruism,  the  action  of  grace  is  de- 
pendent on  the  congruity  of  grace  itself,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, on  the  very  nature  and  power  of  grace.  Hence,  con- 
gruous grace  [gratia  congrua)  is  always  efficacious  {efficax) ; 
whereas  incongruous  grace  (gratia  incongrua),  inasmuch  as 
man  does  not  correspond  to  it,  is  onl}^  sufficient  {sufficiens). 
This  system,  Aquaviva,  the  General  of  the  Jesuits,  ordered  to 
be  taught  in  all  the  schools  of  the  Society  (1613). 

The  Molinist  controversy  was  again  revived  by  the  publi- 
cation of  a  treatise,  written  by  Garasse,  a  Jesuit,  and  assailed 
by  John  Duvergier,  who  subsequently  became  Abbot  of  St. 
Cyran.  Cornelius  Jansenias,  a  friend  of  Duvergier's,  then  a 
professor  at  Louvaiu,  and  afterward  Bishop  of  Ypres  (f  1638), 
undertook  to  examine  the  whole  Augustinian  system  of  grace, 
embodying  the  results  of  his  labors  in  a  work  entitled  "J.M- 
gustinus."  In  the  preface  to  this  book,  as  also  in  his  last  will, 
he  declared  that  he  submitted  the  work  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Holy  See.^  The  work  is  divided  into  three  parts,  in  the  first 
of  which  the  author  professes  to  show  the  points  of  contact 
and  agreement  between  the  teachings  of  the  Pelagians  and 
Semi-Pelagians  and  those  of  the  Molinists;  in  the  second,  he 
points  out  that  reason  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  give  a  knowi- 

^Hortig,  Ch.  Hist.,  continued  by  Dollinger,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  810  sq. 

2  Augustinus,  seu  doctrina  Augustini  de  humanae  naturae  sanitate,  aegritu- 
<line,  medicina  adv.  Pelagianos  et  Massilienses,  Lovanii,  1640;  Parisiis,  1641, 
und  frequently. 


351.  New  Controversies  on  Grace,  etc.  429 


edge  of  the  doctrine  of  grace,  which  must  be  sought  in  Holy 
Scripture,  in  the  Avritings  of  the  Fathers,  and  in  the  decrees 
of  Councils;  and  then  goes  on  to  speak  of  the  condition  of 
man  before  and  after  the  Fall ;  finally,  in  the  third,  he  speaks 
of  man's  conversion,  which,  he  says,  is  accomplished  hy  the 
irresistible  action  of  grace,  man  of  himself  being  absolutely  help- 
less to  contribute  anything  toward  it. 

The  publication  of  the  work  was  opposed  by  the  Jesuits, 
on  the  ground  that  it  contained  Calvinistic  errors  on  predes- 
tination. This  remonstrance  was  fruitless,  and  the  author 
being  already  dead,  a  first  edition  of  it  appeared  at  Lou  vain 
in  1640,  and  a  second  in  the  following  year,  containing  an 
approbation  from  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne.  A  violent 
controversy  at  once  broke  out. 

The  Jesuits  made  a  collection  of  the  suspected  propositions, 
giving  special  prominence  to  the  utterances  of  Jansenius 
against  the  Fathers,  the  Schoolmen,  and  their  own  teachings. 
By  the  bull  ''In  eminent  of  1642,  Pope  Urban  VIII.  forbade 
the  Augustinus  to  be  read.  As  the  Jesuits  were  endeavoring  to 
show  that  all  the  propositions,  previously  condemned  by  Pius 
V.  and  Gregory  XIII.,  were  clearly  contained  in  the  Augusti- 
nus, Cornet,  the  syndic  of  the  Sorbonne,  submitted  (1649) 
seven  propositions,  taken  from  the  writings  of  Jansenius,  to 
the  judgment  of  the  Faculty,  which  were,  in  the  course  of 
the  examination,  reduced  to  five}  After  considerable  discus- 
sion, and  frequent  appeals  to  parliament,  the  propositions, 
some  of  which  were  literal  extracts  from  the  Augustinus,  and 

1 1.  Aliqua  Dei  praecepta  hominibus  justis,  volentibus  et  conantibus  secun- 
dum praesentes,  quas  habent  vires,  sunt  impossibilia;  deest  illis  quoque  gratia, 
qua  possibilia  fiant.  II.  Interiori  gratiae  in  statu  naturae  lapsae  nunquain 
resistitur.  III.  Ad  merendum  et  demei'endum  in  statu  naturae  lapsae  nun  re- 
quiritur  in  homine  H.berta.'^  a  necessitate  (freedom  from  interior  necessity)  sed  suf- 
licit  libertas  a  coaciume  (from  exterior  constraint).  IV.  Semipelagiani  adrait- 
tebant  praevenientis  gratiae  interioris  necessitatem  ad  singulos  actus,  etiam  ad 
initium.fidei ;  et  in  hoc  erant  haeretici,  quod  vcllent  earn  gratiam  talem  esse, 
cui  possit  humana  voluntas  resistere  vcl  obtemperare.  V.  Semipelagianum  est 
dicere,  Christum  pro  omnibus  omnino  hominibus  mortuum  fuisse  aut  sanguinem 
fudisse.  The  bull  issued  against  them  is  found  in  the  Lps.  stereotyped  edition 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  p.  278-280.  Hist,  de  propositions  de  Jansen  (par 
Hilaire  Dumas),  Li^ge,  1699  ;  Trevoux,  1702,  3  vols.,  12mo. 


430  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

others,  as  Bossuet  very  justly  remarks,  contained  the  vital 
principles  of  Jansenism,  were  condemned  by  Pope  Innocent  X. 
in  the  bull  Cum.  occasione,  dated  May  31,  1653.  This  bull 
was  acceptable  to  nearly  all  France,  the  Sorbonne  giving  the 
first  example  of  submission,  and  even  the  defenders  of  the 
propositions  yielding  to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See,  from 
motives  of  ecclesiastical  obedience.  Of  the  latter,  however, 
some  ])eld  that  while  the  condemned  propositions  were  in 
themselves  heretical,  they  were  not  in  fact  contained  in  the 
book  Augustinus,  and  hence  could  not  be  attributed  to  its  au- 
thor. This  distinction  between  right  and  fact  again  revived 
the  controversy,  which,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  show  in 
the  following  epoch,  grew  more  heated  and  acrimonious  as 
time  went  on. 

During  the  present  epoch,  a  statement  of  a  Franciscan, 
named  Francis  de  Santiago,  to  the  effect  that  the  teaching  of 
the  Franciscan  Order,  relating  to  the  Immacidate  Co7iception 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  had  been  positively  confirmed  by  a 
vision  granted  to  himself,  occasioned  the  revival  of  the  old 
controversy  on  this  point  between  the  Dominicans  and  Fran- 
ciscans. So  determined  was  the  attitude  of  the  Dominicans 
that  Philip  III.,  King  of  Spain,  felt  it  to  be  his  duty  to  re- 
quest a  solution  of  the  question  from  the  Holy  See.  The 
reigning  Pope,  Paul  Y.,  did  no  more,  however,  than  republish 
the  decrees  of  Sixtus  IV.,  issued  in  the  years  1476  and  1483, 
granting  a  proper  "  office  "  for  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  indulgences  to  those 
reciting  the  Divine  Office  or  celebrating  or  assisting  at  Mass 
within  the  "  Octave."  He  likewise  commanded  both  parties 
to  abstain  from  branding  each  other  as  heretics.  While  permit- 
ting the  question  to  be  discussed  from  a  purely  scientific  point 
of  view,  Paul  V.  forbade  it  to  be  made  the  subject  of  controver- 
sial sermons,  and  his  bull  of  1621  ordained  that  no  expression 
other  than  "  The  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  "  ^  should  be 
used  in  either  the  missal  or  the  public  offices  of  the  Church. 


1  In  the  editiones  Concil.  Trident.,  by  Gallemari  and  Richter,  these  bulls  are 
appended  to  Sess.  V.,  "  de  peccato  original!."  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaedia, 
Vol.  YT.,  p.  865-872 ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  25,  p.  270  sq. 


§  352.  Art  still  in  the  Service  of  the  Church.         431 

A  second  effort  was  made  by  both  the  contending  Orders  to 
obtain  througli  Philip  TV.  a  decision  of  the  question  from 
Gregory  XV.,  which  the  latter  refused  to  give.  Alexander 
VII.,  when  pressed  for  a  similar  decision,  published  a  bull  in 
1661,  in  which,  while  referring  to  the  decisions  of  his  prede- 
cessors, he  showed  an  unmistakable  tendency  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  without  original  sin.^ 
In  1708  Clement  XI.  made  the  Feast  of  the  Conception  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  one  of  obligation  ;  and  the  learned  Pope 
Benedict  XIV.  (1740-1758),  summing  up  the  arguments  and 
decisions  bearing  upon  the  question,  closed  his  treatise  with 
these  words :  ''  While  the  Apostolic  See  does  not  as  yet  de- 
clare the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Mary  to  be  an  article  of 
faith,  it  is  nevertheless  evident  that  the  result  of  the  discus- 
sion goes  to  show  that  the  Church  is  favorable  to  the  opinion." 

§  352.  Art  still  in  the  Service  of  the  Church.  (Cf.  §  293.) 

t  Glareanus,  Dodecachordon,  Basil.  1547.  t  Gerbert,  De  cantu  et  musica 
sacra  a  prima  eccl.  aetate  usque  ad  praesens  tempus,  S.  Bias.  1774,  2  T.,  4to. 
Rio,  L'art  chretien,  nouv.  edit.,  Par.  1866,  4  T.  Rochlitz,  Outlines  of  a  History 
of  Plain  Chant,  Lps.  1832.  Kieseweiter,  Hist,  of  Music  in  Western  Europe, 
Lps.  1847,  4to.     For  further  bibliography,  see  §  293. 

The  strong  hold  which  the  faith  of  the  Catholic  Church  and 
the  splendor  of  her  ceremonial  still  retained  upon  men's 
minds  was  strikingly^illustrated  in  the  efforts  made  by  artists 
to  give  expression,  though  after  a  new  fashion,  to  the  thoughts 
they  inspired.  The  revival  during  the  fifteenth  century  of 
classic  taste  and  the  slavish  imitation  of  the  models  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  chiefly  in  the  imitative  arts,  had  largely  contrib- 
uted to  estrange  men's  minds  from  the  spirit  of  the  Church. 
The  new  style  of  church  architecture  in  Italy  was  the  first  ex- 
pressi6n  of  this  vitiated  taste.  Even  as  early  as  the  time  of  ' 
Julius  II.  there  was  a  departure  from  traditionary  ecclesiastical 


'  "  Sane  vetus  est  Christi  fidelium  erga  ejus  beatissimam  Matrem  Virginem 
Mariam  pietas  sentientium,  ejus  animam  in  primo  insianii  creationis  atque  in- 
fusionis  in  corpus  fuisse  speciali  Dei  gratia  et  privilegio,  intuitu  meritorum  J. 
CJir.  ejus  Filii  humnni  generis  Redemptorls,  a  macula  peccati  originalis  prae- 
scrvatam  immunem,  atque  in  hoc  sensu  ejus  Conceptionis  festivitatem  solemni 
ritu  c  lentium  et  celebrantium." 


432  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

architecture  in  the  construction  of  St.  Peter^s  in  Rome,  after 
the  designs  of  Pramaiite,  which  were  based  upon  the  classic 
Greek  and  Roman  styles.^  These  designs  were  in  the  main 
carried  out  in  its  continuation  and  completion  by  Paphael 
and  Michael  Angela ;  but  the  noble  simplicity  of  the  majestic 
structure,  the  grandest  temple  of  the  Christian  world,  was 
marred  by  the  meaningless  and  incongruous  fagade  of  Carlo 
3Iaderno,  which  sensibly  detracts  from  its  splendid  proportions 
and  imposing  eifect.  In  spite,  however,  of  it  defects,  St.  Pe- 
ter's was  frequently  taken  as  a  model,  and  by  degrees  came 
to  be  accepted  as  the  type  of  the  so-called  Renaissance  style, 
a  taste  for  which  spread  rapidly  through  France  and  Spain, 
the  various  countries  of  Germany,  particularly  Bohemia,  and 
through  Belgium  and  England.  Its  debasement  kept  pace 
with  its  progress  through  these  countries,  and  its  characteris- 
tics were  a  tendency  to  depart  from  traditional  ecclesiastical 
architecture  and  a  slavish  imitation  of  Greek  and  Roman  de- 
tails, which,  having  neither  unity  nor  connection  with  the 
main  design,  gradually  lost  their  signification,  and  degener- 
ated into  absurd  contrivances  for  decoration.  In  France,  this 
style,  which  was  there  known  as  that  of  Henry  IV.,  and  com- 
bined all  the  defects  of  the  Classic  and  Gothic,  without  the 
merits  of  either,  flourished  mostly  under  Louis  XIY.  and  his 
great-grandson.  So  destitute  was  it  of  all  the  principles  of 
art,  so  offensive  to  good  taste,  and  so  absurdly  fantastic  in  its 
decoration  that,  for  want  of  a  better  word,  it  was  expressively 
designated  "-Rococo.'^ 

The  introduction  of  the  Renaissance  in  its  most  debased 
form  into  ecclesiastical  architecture  was  prevented  by  what  is 
known  as  the  '■'•Jesuit  style.'"  Hence  the  churches  of  this  pe- 
riod, though  conforming  to  the  general  principles  of  Renais- 
sance construction  and  exhibiting  its  uniform  sameness  of 
design,  still  preserve  a  certain  stateliness  and  correctness  of 
taste. 

In  'painting,  as  in  architecture,  the  learned  efforts  of  the 
artists  of  that  age  to  imitate  ancient  models  were  seriously 
detrimental  to  the  dignified  simplicity  and  religious  iuspira- 


» See  Vol.  II.,  p.  1041. 


§  352.  Art  still  in  the  Service  of  the  Church.         433 

tion  of  the  earlier  schools,  though  these  qualities  are  not 
wanting  in  the  works  of  Correggio,  Titian,  the  three  noble 
Caracci,  Domenichino,  Guido  Beni,  Dolce,  Caravaggio,  and 
Salvator  Rosa,  in  Italj' ;  of  Alniso  Berruguate  (f  1561),  Perez 
de  llorales  (f  1586),  Velasquez,  iTlurillo,  and  Alonso  Caiw 
(t  1677),  in  Spain;  of  Nicholas  Poussin  (f  1665),  le  Bran 
(t  1690),  le  Sueur,  and  others,  in  France;  of  Rembrandt 
(t  1674),  Rubens  (f  1640),  and  Van  Dyke,  in  the  Netherlands  ; 
and  of  Albert  Dilrer  (tl528),  Holbein  (f  1554),  Christopher 
Sckwarz,  Joaquin  Sandrari,  and  others,  in  Germany. 

Poetry,  Hke  the  other  arts,  was  still  in  the  service  of  the 
Church.  Breaking  through  tlie  pedantic  mannerism  of  the 
age,  the  muse  of  Torquato  Tasso  (f  1595)  took  a  nobler  flight, 
-and  consecrated  in  heroic  verse  the  chivalrous  and  religious 
-exploits  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  his  great  poem,  '■^Jerusalem 
Delivered/'''  (Gerusalenime  Liberata)}  Calderon  de  la  Barea 
(t  1681),  who,  after  having  borne  arms  as  a  gallant  soldier, 
became  a  priest  and  canon  of  Toledo,  sang  in  sweet  and 
graceful  numbers  of  the  heroism  of  Christians  and  the  un- 
fading crown  of  glory  they  shall  receive  on  waking  from  "  the 
dream,  of  this  life."  Much  of  his  fertile  dramatic  genius  and 
glowing  religious  enthusiasm  was  expended  in  illustrating  in 
his  ^'- Autos  Sacramentales  "  or  '■'■Corjms  Christi "  pieces  the  mys- 
teries of  the  Christian  religion.  These  dramatic  productions, 
intended  to  be  played  in  the  open  air  on  Corpus  Christi  Day 
and  other  feasts  of  the  Church,  were  allegorical  in  character, 
being  based  on  Scriptural  events,  but  combining  in  their  com- 
position references  to  incidents  related  in  the  history  of  the 
people  or  consecrated  in  their  folklore.^ 

Lojpe  de  Vega  was  a  still  more  striking  example  of  the  same 
rspirit  and  tendency.  He  led  a  roving  life  in  his  youth,  and 
liaving,  like  Calderon,  borne  arms  with  distinction,  he  con- 


1  Transl.  into  German  by  Sireckfuss,  2d  ed.,  Lps.  1835,  2  vols.     The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  work  appeared  at  Pisa,  1821-1832,  in  33  vols. 

"^  Calderon' s  (9o)  Autos  Sacramentales  or  Corpus  Christi  pieces,  in  a  German 
translation,  with  introductory  remarks  by  Lorinser,  Katisbon,  1856-1872,  18 
vols.     Goethe  and  Schlcgel    have  made  Calderon  popular  in  Germany.     In 
Britain  he  is  not  well  known,  and  in  France  not  appreciated.  (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 28 


434  Period  3.     E-poch  1.     Chapter  4. 

tinued,  even  amid  the  distractions  of  military  life,  to  pour 
forth  poems  with  amazing  rapidity.  His  imagination,  though 
fertile  and  even  exuberant,  was  correct,  and  his  powers  of 
production  inexhaustible.  It  is  said  that,  besides  ins  other 
multitudinous  performances,  he  was  the  author  of  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  dramas.  Nor  was  his  genius  wholly  de- 
voted to  secular  themes ;  his  pen  embellished  the  gravest 
subjects,  and  gave  poetic  expression  to  the  most  sublime  ideas 
of  religion.  After  the  deiith  of  his  second  wife,  he  entered 
the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and  in  1609  was  ordained  a  priest. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  days  he  felt  happy  only  in  the  soli- 
tude of  the  cloister,  and  so  terrific  were  his  self-scourgings 
that  the  walls  of  his  cell  were  frequently  spattered  with  his 
blood,  and  the  illness  of  which  he  died  (1635)  was  occasioned 
by  one  of  these  bodily  castigations.^  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  James  Balde,  Frederic  von  Spee,^  and  Angelus  Sde- 
sius  {John  Scheffier).^  The  last  named  was  born  at  Breslan  in 
1624,  of  Protestant  parents,  practised  medicine  in  his  early 
manhood,  was  converted  to  the  Catholic  Church  when  twenty- 
nine  years  of  age,  and  afterward  studied  theology  and  took 
priest's  orders.  He  published  a  number  of  writings  in  de- 
fense of  his  new  faith,  and  having  lived  an  exemplary  life  as 
a  religious  man,  died  a  holy  death,  July  9,  1677,  in  a  convent 
of  his  native  city.  Of  his  religious  poems,  the  collection  most 
prized,  alike  by  his  contemporaries  and  by  posterity,  is  that 
entitled  ''Yearnings  of  the  Soul"  {Heilige  Seelenlust).  These 
pieces  were  set  to  music  by  George  Josephi,  musician  in  ordinary 

1  A  full  account  of  Lope  de  Vega's  life  and  writings  will  be  found  in  Tick- 
nor's  History  of  Spanish  Literature,  N.  Y.  1869.  There  is  also  a  good  essay 
on  him  in  Prescotis  Biographical  Miscellanies,  Boston,  1857.  (Tr.) 

2  Balde,  New  ed.  of  his  Carmina  lyrica  and  Batrachomyomachia,  Miinster, 
185(3-59.  Spec,  Mock  Nightingale  {TrutznarMigall),  published  by  Brentano, 
Berlin,  1817;  also  by  Junckman  and  Hueppe,  with  melodies  and  an  introduc- 
tion, Coesfeld,  1841.  Virtue^s  Golden  Book  (Giildenes  Tugendbuch),  Coblenz, 
1829.  Smets,  Pious  Hymns,  by  Spec,  Bonn,  1849.  Conf.  W.  Lindcmaiin,  Hist, 
of  German  Literature,  Freiburg,  186(3,  p.  389  sq. 

3  John  Scheffler,  Complete  Works,  published  by  Dr.  Rosenthal,  llatisbon,  1862. 
2  vols,  f  Wittmann,  Angelius  Silesius  as  a  Convert,  Mystic  Poet,  and  Contrcv- 
versialist,  Augsburg,  1842. 


352.  Art  still  in  the  Service  of  the  Church.  435 


to  the  Bishop  of  Breslau,  and  published  with  his  melodies  in 
1657.^ 

Music^  continued  in  alliance  with  painting,  sculpture,  and 
poetry  during  this  epoch,  contributing  like  tiiese  to  spiritual- 
ize and  elevate  the  ceremonial  of  public  worship.  The  Flem- 
ings were,  during  the  fourteenth  century,  the  great  masters 
of  church-music,  and  it  was  among  them  that  the  modern 
music  first  assumed  the  character  of  an  art,  capable  of  giving 
utterance  to  the  high  aspirations  of  the  soul  and  the  tender 
emotions  of  the  heart.  At  first  serious,  expressive,  and  en- 
nobling, it  gradually  degenerated  into  a  dry,  artificial,  and 
learned  style  of  music,  owing  chiefiy  to  the  fact  that  the 
Church  being  unwilling  to  give  up  her  time-honored  melo- 
dies, its  advocates  were  forced  to  confine  their  talents  to  the 
harmonies,  and  as  a  consequence  not  unfrequently  introduced 
into  their  compositions  secular  and  profane  airs,  wholly  inap- 
propriate to  the  object  for  which  they  were  intended.^  Re- 
ligious music  had  so  far  declined  as  to  give  occasion  to  serious 
complaints  at  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXII.  and  XXIV.), 
some  of  the  Fathers  even  advocating  its  entire  banishment 
from  the  service  of  the  Church.^  It  was,  however,  saved  by 
Palestrina,  whose  geriius  restored  it  to  its  true  dignity.  Gio- 
Vdnni  Fierlaigi  or  Palestrina,  a  surname  derived  from  the  name 
of  his  birthplace,  was  born  of  poor  parents  in  the  year  1524. 
Even  while  still  very  young,  his  musical  talents  attracted  the 
attention  of  a  musician,  by  whom  he  was  admitted  into  the 
cathedral  choir  of  his  native  town.  He  there  gave  promise 
of  future  greatness,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  studied  music  under  Claude  Goudimel.  At  the  age 
of  twenty-seven  he  was  appointed  director  of  music  in  the 
Julian  Chapel,  in  St.  Peter's,  lately  completed  by  Pope  Julius 

^  Heilige  Seelenlust,  being  Spiritual  Hymns,  by  Angelus  Silesius,  revised  and 
published  as  a  book  of  devotion,  by  W.  Winterer  and  Sprenger,  Mannheim, 
1838;  Stuttg.  1846. 

^Cf.  Nicholas  Wiseman's  Lectures  on  Holy  "Week,  delivered  in  Rome,  1837. 
(German  tr.,  by  Axinger,  Augsb.  1840. 

»  Mansi,  Vol.  XXIX.,  p.  107.  (Tr.) 

*  Church  Music  and  the  Council  of  Trent  {Hist,  and  Polii.  Papers,  Vol.  42) 


436  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

III.  It  is  said  that  Pope  Marcellus  II.  suggested  to  the  gifted 
young  artist  the  idea  of  religious  music,  to  which  he  gave 
such  exquisite  expression  in  the  Missa  Jlarcelli,  published  in 
1555,  during  the  pontificate  of  Paul  IV.  His  famous  Impro- 
peria,  published  in  1560,  are  not  less  sublime.  These  are  sor- 
rowful and  tender  reproaches,  addressed,  in  the  language  of 
the  Prophet  Micheas  (YI.  3  sq.),  by  Our  Divine  Savior  to  an 
ungrateful  and  heartless  people,  and  are  sung  on  Good  Friday 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  together  with  the  so-called  Trisagion  : 
"■Holy  God,  Omni'potent  God,  Immortcd  God."  Dr.  Burney 
calls  Palestrina  the  Homer  of  religious  music,  and  had  he  no 
claim  other  than  the  Improperia  give  him  to  the  title,  they 
would  be  amply  sufficient  to  merit  it.  That  he  persuaded  the 
College  of  Cardinals,  assembled  for  the  definite  purpose  of  ban- 
ishing modern  music  forever  from  the  service  of  the  Church,  to 
allow  the  compositions,  which  he  submitted  to  them  for  examin- 
ation, to  be  performed  during  divine  service  (1564),  was  not  the 
least  of  his  triumphs.  Combining  the  stateliness  of  the  Gre- 
gorian chant  with  the  vivacity  of  modern  melody,  the  com- 
positions of  Palestrina  are  also  remarkable  for  the  richness, 
the  gravity,  and  the  solemnity  of  their  harmonies.  Like  all 
church  music  deserving  the  name,  they  are  admirably  adapted 
for  choral  singing.^ 

In  the  year  1533,  Luigi  Dentice  composed  a  Miserere,  which 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation,  until  it  was  surpassed  by  the  fa- 
mous composition  of  Allegri  upon  the  same  subject.  Called 
from  Fermo  to  Rome  by  Urban  VIII.,  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  choir  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  a  position  w^iich 
he  held  until  his  death  in  1652.  His  most  celebrated  compo- 
sition is  his  Miserere,  still  annually  performed  in  the  same 
chapel.  It  was  originally  written  for  two  choirs,  the  one  of 
five  and  the  other  of  four  voices,  which  sing  alternate  verses 
until  the  Gloria  Patri  is  reached,  when  the  nine  unite  and 
sing  together  till  the  close.  The  music  of  this  famous  com- 
position expresses  with  wonderful  power  and  sympathetic, 
precision  the  calm,  deep,  and  thoughtful  sorrow  that  weighs 
upon  the  soul  of  the  earnest  Christian,  seriously  meditating' 


^Baini,  Memorie  della  vita  di  G.  P.  da  Palestrina,  Boma,  1828,  2  vols.,  ito. 


§  353.  Beligious  Life  437 


on  the  passion  of  Our  Lord,  and  the  tumultuous  yet  subdued 
feelings  that  agitate  his  whole  being,  when  contemplating  the 
last  scene  of  the  tragedy  on  the  heights  of  Calvary. 

The  movement  was  forwarded  in  Spain  by  Morales,  and  in 
Belgium  by  Orlando  di  Lasso  or  Lassus,  both  of  whom  were 
mainly  instrumental,  each  in  his  own  country,  in  preserving 
the  grave  and  religious  character  of  church  music,  now  seri- 
ously threatened  by  the  operatic  style  lately  introduced  at 
Florence  (about  1600)  by  some  members  of  the  Medicean 
Academy.  "With  a  view  of  directly  counteracting  the  worklly 
spirit  of  the  lyric  drama,  a  new  school  of  music,  of  which 
St.  Philip  Neri  is  regarded  as  the  founder,  was  started  in  the 
Oratory  at  Rome.  The  compositions,  taken  as  a  whole,  were 
called  Biblical  Dramas  or  Oratorios,  from  the  place  in  which 
they  were  performed.  The  text,  of  which  the  subject  was 
usually  some  Scriptural  incident  or  character,  was,  as  a  rule, 
partly  epic  and  partly  dramatic  ;  and  the  music  consisted  of 
recitatives,  airs,  duets,  trios,  quartets,  and  choruses,  with  an 
orchestral  or  organ  accompaniment.  This  sort  of  lyrico- 
religious  drama  was  performed  mostly  during  the  Lenten 
season,  and  was  singularly  solemn  and  attractive.^ 

§  353.  Religious  Life. 

The  fervent  wishes  for  a  true  reformation  in  the  Church, 
to  which  expression  was  so  frequently  given  by  the  Fathers) 
assembled  in  Councils  during  the  course  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  by  other  saintly  and  earnest  men,  were  in  a  large 
measure  realized  during  the  period  of  which  we  are  treating. 
But  while,  on  the  one  hand,  we  congratulate  ourselves  on  re- 
sults so  consolatory,  on  the  other  we  should  remember  and 
frankly  admit  that  they  would  not  have  been  either  so  thor- 
oughly or  so  speedily  carried  out  had  they  not  received  an 
impulse  from  the  unexpected  and  violent  assaults  of  the  pre- 
tended Reformers.  If  an  age  may  be  judged  by  the  number 
of  illustrious  men,  pious  Popes,  zealous  bishops,  sainted 
founders  of  Religious  Orders,  and  learned  doctors,  which  it 

^Conf.    Fink,   Hist,  of   Musical  Oratorios   ^Periodical  of   Hist.   Theology, 
1842,  nro.  3). 


438  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

produces,  none  in  tlie  whole  history  of  the  Church  is  more 
glorious  than  this.  Among  the  more  remarkable  and  better 
known  are  >St.  Francis  de  Sales,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  John 
of  the  Cross,  St.  Thomas  of  Villanova,^  Bartholomew  a  Martyri- 
bus  (fJuly  16,  1590),2  St.  Ignatius,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  St. 
Aloysius  Gonzacja,  St.  Stanislaus  Kostka,^  St.  Philip  Neri, 
Blessed  Lawrence  of  Brindisi,*  St.  John  of  God,  St.  Teresa,  St. 
Joan  Frances  de  Chantal,  St.  Angela  (Merici)  of  Brescia,  and 
many  more,  nearly,  if  not  quite  so  distinguished  for  saintli- 
ness  of  character  and  purity  of  life,  all  forming  a  catalogue 
of  glorious  names,  to  the  least  of  which  the  Protestant 
Church  did  not  produce  a  single  one  to  compare.  No  faith- 
ful Catholic  can  pass  in  review  so  many  patterns  of  heroic 
virtue  and  Christian  perfection,  or  dwell  even  momentarily 
upon  the  life  of  so  exalted  a  character  as  St.  Charles  Borro- 
meo,^  without  feeling  his  faith  strengthened  and  his  courage 
animated. 

Born  October  2,  1538,  of  an  illustrious  family,  at  the  Cas- 
tle of  Arona,  the  ancestral  home  of  the  house  of  Borromeo, 
Charles,  even  in  infancy,  gave  such  tokens  of  tender  piety 
and  religious  zeal  that  a  priest  of  Milan,  forecasting  his  fu- 
ture, said  of  him  :  "  This  child  will  one  day  be  a  reformer  of 


1  \Malmbourg,  La  vie  de  St.  Thom.  de  Villeneuve,  Paris,  1666.  Life  of 
Thomas  a  Villanova,  by  F.  W.  Faber,  London,  1847.  Latin  Life  by  Feigerle, 
Aulic  Chaplain,  and  subsequently  Bp.  of  St.  Hippolyt.  (Tr.) 

^Cf.  Sion,  year  1841,  Jn.  nros.  10-13.  His  principal  work,  for  the  use  of 
bishops,  "  Stimulus  Pastorum,"  ed.  first,  1572,  at  Eome ;  latterly  by  Bp.  Fessler, 
at  Kome,  Paris,  Madrid,  and  Brussels  (Einsideln,  New  York,  and  Cincinnati), 
1863.  (Te.) 

^  Daurignac,  Hist,  of  St.  Aloysius,  trans,  into  German,  by  Ctarus,  Frkf.  1866 
The  Life  of  St.  Stanislas  Kostka,  S.  J.,  by  E.  H.  Thompson,  Philadelphia. 
1870.  (Tr.) 

*  Father  Schulenburg,  Life  of  Bl.  Lawrence  of  Brindisi,  Mentz,  1863. 

^Opp.  Carol.  Borrom.,  Milan,  1747,  5  T.,  fol.  Homiliae  et  alia  praefat.  el 
annot.  J.  A.  Saxii.,  Aug.  Vind.  1758,  2  T.  fol.  Acta  Mediolanensia;  Nocte.- 
Vaticanae  ;  Sermones  habiti  in  academia,  Eomae  in  palatio  vaticano  instituta  ; 
Pastorum  instructiones  et  epp.,  ed.  Westhoff,  Monast.  1846.  An  excellent 
Italian  biography,  by  J.  P.  Oiui^sano ;  trans,  into  French,  by  Cloysault,  Avig- 
non, 1824,  2  vols.;  into  German,  by  Ktitsche,  Augsburg,  1836,  3  vols.  Vie  de 
St.  Charles  Borromee,  by  A.  Godeau,  Paris,  1747.  English  Life,  by  Ldw. 
Healy  Thompson,  London,  1858;  Touron,  La  vie  et  I'esprit  de  St.  Charles  Bor« 
rom^e,  Paris,  1751. 


§  353.  Religious  Life.  439 


the  Church,  and  accomplish  great  things."  He  studied  hxws 
at  the  University  of  Pavia,  where  he  received  the  degree  of 
doctor  in  1559.  His  heart  was  so  saddened  and  afflicted  by 
the  laxity  and  dissoluteness  of  the  Benedictine  monks  of 
Arona,  that,  on  the  death  of  his  father,  he  made  up  his  mind 
to  give  himself  wholly  to  the  service  of  the  Churcii.  So  re- 
markable was  his  virtue,  and  so  great  his  capacity  for  busi- 
ness, that  his  uncle.  Pope  Pius  IV,,  called  him  to  Rome,  and, 
despite  his  youth,  apppointed  him  to  many  important  offices, 
and,  at  the  age  of  twenty-two,  created  him  cardinal  and 
Archbishop  of  Milan  (1560).  While  presiding  as  Legate 
over  the  government  of  Ancona,  Bologna,  and  other  cities 
within  the  States  of  the  Church,  he  displayed  unusual  execu- 
tive talents,  and  was  equally  distinguished  for  the  ability  with 
which  he  discharged  the  duties  and  offices  connected  with 
the  government  of  the  Church  which  were  committed  to  him 
at  Rome,  Surrounded  by  luxury  and  magniticence,  his  de- 
portment was  grave,  his  life  saintly,  and  his  manners  austere. 
Studious  himself,  he  fostered  a  love  of  letters  in  others,  and, 
after  the  exhausting  labors  of  the  day,  was  wont  to  spend  his 
evenings  discussing  scientific  and  ethical  questions  with  a 
number  of  scholars,  clerical  and  lay,  whom  he  gathered  about 
him  in  the  Vatican,  and  to  whom  he  was  a  munificent  patron. 
He  was  appointed  Grand  Penitentiary  by  Pius  IV.,  who 
never  undertook  any  aft'air  of  moment  without  having  first 
consulted  with  his  nephew.  Having  placed  himself  under 
the  spiritual  direction  of  John  Eibeira,  a  saintly  Jesuit,  the 
wealth  and  beauty  of  his  predestined  soul  became  daily  more 
conspicuous  and  his  life  more  hoi}'.  His  indefatigable  activ- 
ity, much  of  which  was  exerted  in  holding  provincial  coun- 
cils and  diocesan  synods ;  his  iuHuence  at  tiie  Court  of  Rome 
and  with  the  delegates  attending  the  Council  of  Trent ;  and 
his  zeal  in  restoring  discipline  in  Religious  Orders  and  in  re- 
modeling ecclesiastical  seminaries,  place  him  beyond  all  ques- 
tion at  the  very  bead  of  the  reformers  of  the  Church  during 
this  epoch. 

So  deep  and  tender  was  his  charity  toward  others,  and  so 
great  his  own  spirit  of  self-denial,  that,  to  give  play  to  the 
exercise  of  both,  he  founded  those  numerous  eleemosynary 


440  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  4. 

institutions  which  history  has  connected  with  his  name.  Se- 
vere toward  himself,  he  was  rigorous  with  the  clergy  of  his. 
diocese,  teaching  them  both  by  precept  and  example  to  fully 
appreciate  the  dignity  and  excellence  of  their  calling,  and  to 
realize  in  their  lives  the  high  standard  of  conduct  which  it 
demands.  As  for  himself,  his  whole  life  was  one  continuous 
exemplification  of  the  exalted  virtues  so  befitting  the  priestly 
character.  In  his  own  person  he  exhibited  to  the  world  the 
rare  example  of  one  who,  having  commenced  life  amid  the 
splendor  of  the  purple  and  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignities, 
closed  his  days  literally  worn  out  with  the  exhausting  and 
important  labors  of  a  self-sacrificing  pastor,  mourned  by  his 
people  as  by  loving  children  who  had  lost  the  tenderest  and 
most  prudent  of  fathers  (November  3,  1584).^  A  grateful 
posterity  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  great  archbishop  a 
colossal  bronze  statue  on  the  shore  of  Lago  Maggiore,  which 
seems  even  still  to  protect  by  its  presence  the  land  of  his 
birth  and  the  scenes  of  his  youth. 

The  lives  and  examples  of  these  saints  and  illustrious  men 
exerted  a  powerful  infiuence  upon  the  masses  of  the  people, 
whose  progress  in  holy-living  was  fostered  and  promoted  by 
the  various  Religious  Orders,  whose  members  specially  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  instruction  of  the  laity,  the  education 
of  children,  the  care  of  the  poor,  and  the  service  of  the  sick. 
Of  those  who  gave  themselves  with  the  most  disinterested 
zeal  to  the  training  and  instruction  of  3^outh,  stimulated  by 
no  motive  other  than  the  purest  charity,  the  Jesuits,  the  Pi- 
arists,  and  the  Ursulines,  not  to  mention  others  equally  de- 
serving, were  conspicuous.  The  foolish  and  inhuman  practice 
of  trying  persons  upon  charges  of  witchcraft^  was  successfully 
assailed  by  many  writers  of  name,  such  as  Herman  Loeher  ;^ 
Dr.  Andreio  Schweygel,  of  Kheinbach,  near  Bonn  ;  John  Frey- 
link,  a  Dominican,  of  Cologne  ;  Stapirius,  pastor  of  Hirsch- 
berg,  in  Westphalia;  Cornelius  Loos,  of  Mentz  (tl593);  the- 

^Sailer,  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  Augsburg,  1824.  Dieringer,  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo  and  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  in  his  Age,  Cologne,  1846. 

2  Cf.  ?  283. 

'  Z/oeAer,  when  an  octogenarian,  still  wrote:  Urgent,  Humble,  and  "Woeful 
Complaint  of  Pious  and  Innocent  People,  etc.,  Amsterdam,  1676. 


§  353.  Religious  Life.  441 


Jesuit,  Tanner  (f  1632) ;  and  most  effectively  by  Father  Fred- 
eric Spee} 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  remarked  that  never  in  any  ao-e  of 
the  Church  did  the  clergy  labor  more  earnestly  for  the  spread 
of  religion  and  the  cultivation  of  morals  among  the  people 
than  at  the  time  when  the  Protestants  cut  themselves  off  from 
communion  with  the  See  of  Rome,  to  which  the}-  were  in- 
debted for  whatever  of  truth  and  religious  conviction  they 
still  retained. 


1  (Fred,  Spec),  Cautio  criminalis  seu  de  processibus  contra  Sagas  liber  ad  ma- 
gistratus  Germ,  hoc  tempore  necessarius,  etc.  (auctore  theologo  Komano),  Kin- 
thel.  1631,  and  frequently.  Cf.  Jungmann,  Catholic  Voices  against  Trials  for 
"Witchcraft,  Kaised  at  a  Time  when  They  Were  Most  in  Vogue  [Cath.  Mag' 
azine.  Vols.  III.  and  IV.,  Munster,  1847-1848.) 


CHAPTER  V. 

RELATION   OF   CATHOLICS   TO   PROTESTANTS. 

§  354.  Attempts  at  Reconciliation. 

Hering,  History  of  the  Efforts  at  Reconciliation,  made  since  the  Reformation, 
Lps.  1836-38,  2  vols.  Neudecker,  The  Principal  Attempts  at  the  Pacification 
of  the  Evangelical  and  Protestant  Churches  of  Germany,  Lps.  1846.  Cf.  Giese- 
ler,  Manual  of  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  III.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  449  sq. 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  how,  possessing  a  knowledge  of 
the  events  already  related — the  fierce  conflicts,  heated  contro- 
versies, universal  disorders,  and  the  fruitless  attempts,  made 
both  before  and  after  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation— persons,  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  should  be 
found  who  still  cherished  the  hope  of  bringing  about  a  union 
between  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
sects.  The  very  character  of  Protestantism,  inasmuch  as  it 
aflbrds  no  common  ground  upon  which  its  advocates  and  op- 
ponents might  base  a  compromise  of  this  character,  should 
have  taught  these  well-meaning  men  that  every  such  attempt 
was  necessarily  futile.  When  Julius  von  Pflug,  as  presiding 
officer  of  the  Conference  of  Worms  (1557),  requested  the  Lu- 
theran orators  to  confine  the  discussion  to  the  Augshurg 
Confession,  giving  as  a  reason  that  it  would  be  impossible  for 
the  Catholic  theologians  to  follow  them  through  all  mazes  of 
varying  and  shadowy  systems,  seven  of  the  twelve  present 
refused  to  accede  to  his  request,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the 
deliberations.  But  the  perils  arising  out  of  these  religious 
dissensions,  and  menacing  both  the  social  and  political  fabric, 
overruled  the  teachings  of  experience ;  and  many  good  and 
wise  men  put  forth  their  energies  in  the  vain  hope  of  recon- 
ciling and  uniting  the  hostile  parties.  Of  these,  Ferdinand  I. 
of  Austria  was  particularly  active. 

George  Cassander,  (f  1566),  pursuing  a  line  of  thought  anal- 
ogous to  that  drawn  out  by  Erasmus  in  his  "J9e  amicabili  Ec- 

(442) 


§  354.  Attempts  at  Reconciliation.  443 


clesiae  concordia,''  published  a  work  entitled  '''Judicium  de 
officio  pii  ac  publicae  f ran quillitatis  vere  amantis  viri  in  hoc  re- 
ligionis  dissidio,"  in  which  he  insists  that  to  labor  for  union  is 
the  sacred  duty  of  all  Christians.^  The  movement  was  vehe- 
mently and  energetically  opposed  by  Calvin.  ^Nevertheless, 
Ferdinand  requested  Cassander  to  draw  out  and  publish  his 
views  on  the  subject  (1564),  This  work,  which  made  its  ap- 
pearance only  after  the  death  of  the  emperor,  was  entitled 
"Df  articulis  relig.  inter  Cathol.  et  Protestant,  controversis  ad 
imperatores  Ferdin.  I.  et  31axim.  II.  consultatio."  His  views 
are  as  moderate  as  could  be  looked  for  under  the  circum- 
stances, but  the  interpretations  which  he  put  upon  Scripture 
and  tradition,  with  a  view  to  show  that  the  Papacy  is  not  of 
divine  institution,  are  arbitrary  in  the  extreme.  His  state- 
ments, while  they  seemed  very  like  paradoxes  to  Catholics, 
found  no  favor  with  Protestants.  George  Wizel,^  who,  having 
gone  over  to  Protestantism,  again  returned  to  the  Church, 
had  already  published,  with  a  similar  purpose,  a  work  enti- 
tled '■'■Regia  via  sen  de  controversis  religionis  capitibus  concilian- 
dis  sententia"  basing  his  argument  on  the  twenty-one  articles 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  These  attempts,  as  also  those 
of  Frederic  Staphylus,  of  Osnabruck,  one  of  Luther's  disci- 
ples, and  formerly  professor  at  Koenigsberg ;  and  of  the  Jes- 
uit, Adam  Contzen,  of  Cologne,  in  his  '■'- Discursuum  theologico- 
politicorum  libri  XIII.,''  and  "  De  jpace  Germaniae,''  utterly 
failed  of  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended. 

Two  religious  conferences,  the  one  at  Baden  in  1589,  and 
the  other  at  Emmendingen  in  1590,  both  of  them  set  on  foot 
by  James,  Margrave  of  Baden,  a  recent  convert  to  tlie  Cath- 
olic Church,  and  having  the  same  object  in  view,  failed  as 
utterly  in  establishing  harmony  as  any  of  the  eftbrts  that  had 
preceded  them.^   But  so  hopeful  were  the  Catholics  of  bringing 


'  Cf.  Meuner,  On  C'issander,  in  Dieringer's  Cath.  .Journal,  ycir  II.,  Vol.  8. 

2  Beside  the  work  quoted  above,  Cologne,  about  15G4,  ed.  Conring,  Helmst. 
1650,  4to,  we  have  to  notice  still :  Ti/pus  Eccl.  CaihoL,  or  Forms  and  Signs, 
which  have  guided  and  governed  the  Holy,  Apostolic,  and  Catholic  Church  for 
a  thousand  years  throughout  Christendom ;  in  five  parts,  Cologne,  1540,  4to. 
See  Dbllinger,  Vol.  I.,  p.  18  sq. 

3  What  Vierordt,  in  his  Hist,  of  the  Evangelical  Reformation  in  the  Grand- 


444  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

about  a  reconciliation  that  the  aggressive  and  offensive  con- 
duct of  the  Protestants,  on  the  occasion  of  the  centenari^ 
celebration  of  the  Be  formation,^  in  1617,  could  not  shake  their 
courage  or  deter  them  from  again  repeating  what  had  so 
often  been  proved  to  be  little  better  than  acts  of  charitable 
folly.  Those  who  were  now  foremost  in  the  movement  were 
tlie  Jesuits,  John  Dez,  Scheffmacher,  and  James  Masenius} 

In  France  attempts  were  likewise  made  by  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu to  unite  religious  parties,  but  more  with  a  view  to  further 
his  own  policy  than  from  disinterested  motives.  At  his  re- 
quest, the  Jesuit,  Audebert,  met  Amyraut,  the  celebrated  Re- 
formed theologian,  in  conference,  and  made  important  con- 
cessions ;  but,  fortunately,  a  compromise,  which  might  have 
been  the  source  of  very  alarming  dangers,  was  prevented  by 
the  insuperable  difficulties  presented  when  the  question  of 
transubstantiation  came  up  for  discussion.  Francis  Veron, 
also  a  Jesuit,  acting  on  a  similar  request,  proposed  a  plan  of 
union  [Methodus  nova,  facilis  et  solida  haereses  ex  fundamento 
desiruendi,  1619),  the  drift  of  which  was  that  the  Protestants 
should  be  required  to  demonstrate  their  principles  and  asser- 
tions from  distinct  passages  of  Holy  Writ.  He  wrote  another 
treatise,  directed  equally  against  the  extreme  schools  of  Catholic 
opinion  and  the  false  interpretations  of  Protestants.^  Another 
work,  "The  Analysis  of  Faith"  [Analysis  fidei),  by  Henry 
Holden  (f  c.  1665),  was  written  for  a  similar  aim,  but  failed 
of  its  purpose.  The  irenical  work  of  Bossuet  had  a  measure 
of  success  in  certain  localities."*     Eftbrts  equally  earnest  and 


Duchy  of  Baden  (Carlsruhe,  1847,  2  vols.)  but  slightly  touched  upon,  is  fully- 
detailed,  in  three  articles  of  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  1856,  On  the  Conver- 
sion of  the  Margrave  and  the  Two  Conferences.  Cf.  Raess,  Converts,  Vol. 
III.,  p.  91  sq.,  and  Freiburg  Diocesan  Archives,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  89-122. 

^  Werner,  Hist,  of  Apolog.  and  Polemical  Literature,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  589  sq. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  750  sq. 

3  Francisci  Verotiii  Eegula  Fidei  s.  secretio  eorum,  quae  sunt  de  fide  cathol. 
ab  iis,  quae  non  sunt  de  fide,  Par.  1644,  and  often  ;  Aquisgrani,  1842,  l2nio;  by 
Smeis,  in  Latin  and  German,  Elberfeld,  1843.  Of  a  kindred  spirit  are  the  sub- 
sequent treatises  by  Chrismann,  Kegula  fidei  cath.  et  collectio  dogmatum  cre- 
dendorum,  denuo  ed.  SpincUer,  Wirceburgi,  1855,  and  by  Bossuet,  Exposition 
de  la  doctrine  catholique,  in  many  editions  and  translations.  Collected  in 
Bj-aun,  Bibliotheca  regularum  fidei,  Bonnae,  1844,  etc.,  2  T. 

*  See  above,  p.  283. 


§  354.  Attempts  at  Reconciliation.  445 


equally  fruitless  were  made  by  King  Ladislaus  lY.  to  secure 
religious  union  in  Poland.  Foreseeing  the  dangers  that 
threatened  his  country,  he  was  encouraged  to  prosecute  his 
benevolent  designs  by  the  return  to  the  Church  of  ennnent 
scholars  like  Berthold  JSihus  and  Christopher  Besold;  of  di'i- 
tinguished  preachers  like  Bartholomew  Nigrinus ;  and  b}-  tlic 
l)ublication,  at  Helnistaedt,  of  the  writings  of  the  celebrated 
Hucjo  Grotius  and  George  Ca.Uztus,  in  which  they  had  ex- 
pressed their  doubts  both  as  to  the  necessity  of  the  schism 
and  the  wisdom  of  perpetuating  it.  Accordingly  he  opened 
a  correspondence  with  the  representatives  of  both  parties, 
with  a  view  to  have  them  hold  a  religious  conference  at 
Thorn}  They  also  received  an  invitation  of  the  same  i»ur- 
port  from  Lubienski,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland,  who,  in  a  letter  dated  l^ovember  12,  1643,  wrote  as 
follows  : 

'■  It  would  seem  that  there  are  many  points  of  contact  and  airreement  on 
both  sides.  If  each  party  will  hold  on  to  what  is  certain,  clear  up  Avhat  is  ob- 
scure, and  verify  what  is  plainly  open  to  discussion,  by  the  testimony  of  the 
Scriptures  and  the  teaching  of  the  primitive  Church,  there  will  be  no  dilEculty 
in  finding  out  what  is  the  Catholic  truth;  and  having  ascertained  it,  and 
brushed  away  whatever  may  have  heretofore  dimmed  its  luster,  all  will  be 
convinced  that  there  was  no  adequate  cause  for  the  schism  in  the  first  instance, 
and  no  reason  for  perpetuating  it  now.'' 

Ladislaus,  learning  that  the  dissidents  took  offense  at  lan- 
guage even  so  calm  and  temperate  as  this,  sought  to  conciliate 
them  by  an  appeal  to  their  patriotism,  their  national  tradi- 
tions, and  religious  feelings.  In  an  invitation  addressed  to 
them,  bearing  the  date  of  March  20,  1644,  he  said: 

"  One  who  can  remain  insensible  in  the  presence  of  so  protracted,  so  cruel, 
and  so  relentless  a  war,  without  putting  to  himself  the  questions,  What  has 
kindled  such  fierce  hatred  ?  Why  so  much  blood  shed  ?  Why  so  great  resources 
exhausted?  must  indeed  be  destitute  of  every  noble  feeling.  Europe,  shaken 
to  her  very  center,  totters  and  reels  under  the  accumulated  weight  of  her  mis- 
fortunes and  her  crimes.  Relniious  discord  alone  has  kindled  among  Christiang 
a  hatred  so  fierce  that  human  prudence  seems  powerless  to  extinguish   if. 


1  Scripta  facientia  ad  colloquium  a  Seren.  et  pot.  Pol.  rege  Vladislgv.  TV. 
Toruni  in  Borussia  ad.  d.  X.  Octob.  1644,  indictum,  accessit  Qeorgii  Calixii 
consideratio  et  epicrisis,  Helmstad.  1645.     Cf.  A.  MenzeL,  1.  c,  Vol.  VIII.,  p 

102-128. 


446  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 


What  the  God  of  peace  gave  as  a  bond  of  union,  the  father  of  lies  and  the  fo. 
mentor  of  discord  has  converted  into  a  source  of  hatred,  injustice,  and  distrust 
among  men.  It  is  our  wish,  therefore,  to  restore  union  to  the  body  of  Christ, 
rent  by  human  opinion,  and  to  re-establish  religious  peace,  so  long  disturbed. 
While,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Church,  like  a  solicitous  mother,  has  left  no  means 
untried  to  secure  this  end;  on  the  other,  the  untiring  energy  of  the  Polish  in- 
tellect, and,  still  more,  the  spirit  of  Christian  charity,  have  inspired  me  with 
ihe  hope  that,  in  the  infinite  mercy  of  God,  what  has  been  destroyed  by  the 
malice  of  the  enemy  may  be  restored,  and  what  has  been  corrupted  made 
whole.  Are  we  not  all  children  of  the  same  Father  ?  Have  we  not  the  same 
origin,  the  same  baptism,  the  same  name?  Has  not  the  same  Church,  washed 
in  the  Blood  of  Christ,  given  birth  to  us  all?  Are  we  not  governed  by  the 
same  laws  that  our  fathers  obeyed  for  centuries  ?  Those  whom  brotherly  love 
should  bind  together  in  union  and  harmony  are  divided  and  separated  by  preju- 
dices of  education  and  the  artifices  of  the  enemy  of  mankind.  Hence  we 
should  put  forth  our  best  efforts  to  find  a  remedy  for  these  evils,  which  we  all 
deplore,  and  which  sadden  the  heart  of  our  Supreme  Pastor.  Heretofore 
learned  writings  have  been  published  and  special  conferences  held,  but  to  no 
purpose;  however,  we  may  still  be  permitted  to  hope  that  opinions  will  be  re- 
conciled and  peace  restored  by  amicable  discussion.  The  Church,  like  a  tender 
and  loving  mother,  appeals  to  you  as  to  well-beloved  children.  Her  age,  her 
misfortunes,  her  wounds  command  your  respect.  She  is  more  vigorous  than 
the  centuries;  they  have  left  the  traces  of  age  upon  her,  but  she  is  still  robust. 
Evil  she  overcomes  by  charity,  and  by  patience  heals  het  wounds.  .  .  . 
There  is  one  sorrow  no  art  can  soften — the  pangs  she  sufiers  in  having  her 
children  torn  from  her  bosom  by  heresy  and  schism.  She  pines  away  in  the 
expectant  hope  of  seeing  them  again  return  from  their  wanderings.  She  ob- 
serves the  winds,  rushes  to  the  beach,  stretches  out  her  arms  to  the  shipwrecked, 
calls  out  to  them,  beseeching  them  to  come  and  take  possession  of  the  heritage 
of  peace  that  has  been  lost  to  them  for  a  century.  Such  also  is  our  wish,  such 
the  tender  prayer  we  extend  to  our  separated  brethren." 

The  desired  meeting  took  place  in  October,  1645,  at  Thorn. 
The  Electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  sent  their  theolo- 
gians, and,  with  the  gracious  consent  of  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, George  Calixtus  was  also  present.  But  though  a  mod- 
erate and  temperate  man,  Calixtus  was  not  acceptable  to 
Catholics,  and  because  he  was  in  favor  of  establishing  amica- 
!)lo  relations  with  the  Reformed  Church,  extreme  Lutherans, 
like  Calovius  and  Hulsemann,  shunned  him  as  they  might  a 
plague.  "  To  my  amazement,"  wrote  Calovius,  "  I  have  seen 
him  seated  in  the  midst  of  false  Calvinistic  prophets,  whom 
lie  regards  as  his  brothers  in  Christ."  The  temper  of  mind, 
which  these  words  indicate,  was  not  favorable  to  reconcilia- 
tion.    The  Catholic  cause  was  ably  sustained  by  the  Jesuit, 


§355.   The  Thirty   Years'   War.  447 


Father  Sehoenhofer,  who  showed  very  satisfactorily  that  the 
charges  brought  against  the  Catholic  Church  by  Protestants 
had  no  foundation,  in  either  her  principles  or  dogmas,  as 
truly  set  forth  in  authorized  works,  such  as  the  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  and  the  Roman  Catechism.  This,  like  all 
other  religious  conferences  intended  to  reconcile  irreconcila- 
ble parties,  had  no  effect  other  than  to  still  further  alienate 
Lutherans  and  Catholics,  and  to  excite  against  George  Calix- 
tus  the  indignation  of  the  extremists  of  his  own  sect. 

§  355.   The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Ehevenhilller  (t  1650),  Annales  Ferdinandei,  fr.  1578  to  1637,  Viennae,  1646, 
9  T.,  fol. ;  ed.  II.,  Lps.  1721-1726,  12  T.,  fol.  Theatriim  Europaeiim,  or  Kelation 
of  all  Memorable  Events,  fr.  1618-1718,  Frankfort,  1643-1738,  21  pts.  Hurier, 
Hist,  of  Ferdinand  II.  and  his  Parents,  Schaffh.  1850  sq.  Car-oil  Caraff'a,  Com- 
menta  de  Germania  sacra  restaurata.  Colon.  1639,  along  with  about  200  Decreta 
diplomatica,  etc.  Ginzel,  Legatio  Apostolica  Petri  Aloysii  Caraffae  (1624-1634), 
Wirceburgi,  1839.  Barthold,  Hist,  of  the  Great  German  War,  from  the  death 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  with  a  special  reference  to  France,  Stuttg.  1842  sq.,  2 
vols.  K.  A.  Menzel  (New  Hist,  of  Germany,  Vol.  YI.-VIII).  MaUath,  Hist, 
of  the  Austrian  Empire,  Vol.  III.  Onno  Klonp,  Tilly  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  Stuttg.  1861  sq.,  2  vols.  Gfroerer,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden, 
and  his  Age,  4th  ed.,  by  Onno  Klopp,  Stuttg.  1863.  Kock,  Ferdinand  III ,  Vi- 
enna, 1865.  Maurice  Riiier,  Letters  and  Acts  supplementary  toward  the  Hist, 
of  the  Thirty  Tears'  War,  etc.,  Munich,  1870,  Vol.  I.  Cf.  Janssen,  Latest  Re- 
searches on  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (Tuebg.  Quarterly,  1861,  p.  532-568). 

The  expressions  employed  by  Protestants  in  the  various 
Religious  Conferences,  when  speaking  of  the  Church,  roused 
the  passions  and  spoiled  the  temper  of  Catholics.  To  be  con- 
stantly represented  in  Protestant  controversial  sermons  and 
])olemical  writings  as  a  superstitious,  bigoted,  and  idolatrous 
class,  and  that,  too,  by  those  who  knew  better,  increased  their 
indignation.  The  ecclesiastical  reservation  article  (reservatum 
ecclesiasticum)  in  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555),  inasmuch  as 
it  was  constantly  being  violated,  became  a  source  of  ceaseless 
trouble.  In  Northern  Germany,  where  the  violations  of  the 
Peace  were  of  more  frequent  occurrence,  the  estates  belonging 
to  the  sees  of  Havelberg,  Brandenbnrg,  JSlaumbarg,  Meissen, 
Schiverin,  Lebus,  Camin,  Magdeburg,  Halberstadt,  Jlinden,  Ver- 
den,  Bremen,  Lubeck,  Osnabrilck,  and  Ratztburg  were  seized  l)y 


448  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

the  Protestants  as  occasion  offered.  For  a  time  the  Catholics 
offered  no  resistance,  but  when  the  elector,  Gebhard^  High  Stew- 
ard of  Cologne  (from  1577),  after  having  long  kept  up  criminal 
relations  with  Agnes,  Countess  of  Mansfeld  and  Canoness  of 
Gerresheim,  finally  passed  over  to  the  Reformed  Church,  and 
attem[)tecl  to  involve  his  whole  diocese  in  his  apostasy,  they 
made  a  determined  stand  for  their  rights.  In  1583  Gebhard 
was  deposed  by  the  Holy  See,  and  Ernest,  Bishop  of  Liege, 
iind  a  Bavarian  prince,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  (chap- 
ter of  Cologne,  forcibly  installed  in  his  room.  This  proceed- 
ing, though  sanctioned  by  the  Peace  of  Augsburg,  was  loudly 
denounced  by  Protestants  as  iniquitous.  While  carrying  out 
wherever  they  could  the  principle  ^^Cujus  regio,  illius  religio,'^ 
they  vehemently  protested  against  the  conduct  of  Julius, 
Bishop  of  Wurzburg  (after  1555),  and  Philip  of  Baden-Baden 
(after  1571),  who  were  only  exerting  themselves  to  bring  their 
people  back  again  to  the  Church.  The  abjuration  of  the 
Margrave  of  Baden  and  Hochbcrg  was  the  signal  for  another 
shout  of  intolerant  protest ; '  and  the  chorus,  now  pitched  in  a 
higher  key,  was  swelled  by  the  indignant  voices  of  those  who, 
witnessing  the  splendid  triumphs  achieved  for  the  Church  by 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  put  forth  every  resource  at  their  com- 
mand to  weaken,  if  not  destroy,  its  efficiency.  At  Donau- 
wdrth,  where  the  number  of  Protestants  had  largely  increased, 
the  Catholic  magistracy  was  deposed ;  Catholic  worship  sub- 
jected to  annoying  strictures;  and  those  in  the  procession  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  on  Corpus  Christi  Day  of  the  year 
1606  violently  assaulted.  By  decree  of  the  Imperial  Cham- 
ber and  Aulic  Council  of  Vienna,  the  city  was  laid  under  ban 
of  the  Empire.  The  decree  was  carried  into  execution  by 
Maximilian  I.,  Duke  of  Bavaria,^  who  seized  the  city,  and. 


1  The  Earlier  Lists  and  Biographies  of  Converts,  from  the  beginning  of  Pro- 
testantism, by  '\Hoenighaus\  Chronological  List  of  the  most  remarkable  Con- 
versions from  Protestantism  to  the  Catholic  Church,  down  to  our  own  days, 
Aschaffenburg,  1837,  and  by  Rohrbaclier,  Schaffhausen,  1844.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  most  complete  work  on  the  lives  of  Converts,  together  with  a 
statement  of  their  apologetical  writings,  either  in  full  or  in  substance,  written 
by  the  Eight  Kev.  Dr.  Raess,  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  and  entitled  Converts  since 
the  Reformation,  Freiburg,  18GG-1872,  10  vols.,  and  a  supplementary  volume. 

^  Baron  Aretin,  Hist,  of  the  Elector,  Maximilian  I.,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  from 


§  355.    The  Thirty   Years'    War.  449 


because  of  its  inability  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war,  se- 
questered it.  Notwithstanding  the  steady  devotion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  the  Catholic  religion  and  its 
interests,  the  Protestants  of  that  city,  having  called  the  ISeth- 
erlanders  to  their  aid,  publicly  exercised  their  worship  and 
elected  burgomasters  to  their  own  liking.'  When,  in  1581,  an 
Imperial  Commission  set  about  restoring  the  former  condition 
of  things,  the  Protestants  revolted,  and  recourse  had  to  be 
had  to  armed  force,  in  order  to  recover  the*  property  and  pos- 
sessions of  Catholics.  Similar  means  had  to  be  employed  at 
Strasburg  to  enforce  the  reservatum  ecclesiasticum  and  frustrate 
an  attempt  to  hand  the  city  over  to  a  Protestant  bishop.  The 
feelings  of  rancor  and  bitterness,  which  these  collisions  nec- 
essarily occasioned,  were  still  further  intensified  by  the  policy 
of  France.  With  a  view  to  weaken  the  house  of  Hapsburg, 
she  was  mainly  instrumental  in  effecting  the  Union  of  the 
Protestant  princes  at  Ahausen  (May  4,  1608),  of  which  Fred- 
eric v.,  of  the  Palatinate,  became  the  head.  To  oppose  this 
coalition,  the  Catholic  princes,  in  the  following  year,  formed 
the  League  of  Wurzburg,  at  the  head  of  which  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria,  both  on  account  of  his  interests  and  by  reason  of  his 
abilities,  was  very  naturally  placed. 

The  war  was  imminent,  and  liad  it  not  been  for  the  assas- 
sination of  Henry  IV.,  the  leader  of  the  Union,  would  have 
immediately  broken  out.  Only  a  plausible  pretext  was  want- 
ing, and  this  was  furnished  by  the  course  of  events  in  Bohe- 
mia. Protestantism  had  been  slowly  making  its  way  into  the 
hereditary  territories  of  Austria,  during  the  reign  of  Ferdi- 
nand I.,  and  into  Bohemia  during  that  of  Maximilian  II. , 
mainly  through  the  efi:brts  of  the  Utraquists,  who,  in  going 
over  to  Protestantism,  simultaneously  revived  the  fierce  fanat- 
icism of  the  Hussites.  The  people,  rising  in  revolt,  entered 
into  negotiations  with  foreign  potentates,  and  in  their  diets 

authentic  sources,  1  vol.,  Passau,  1842.  Conf.,  also,  on  Duke  Maximilian  I.,  the 
Hist,  and  Polit  Papers,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  279  sq.,  422  sq.,  513  sq.  Schreibcr, 
Maximilian,  the  Catholic  Elector,  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Munich,  18G8. 
'  Fr.  D.  Haeberlein,  Modern  Hist,  of  the  German  Empire,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  353; 
Yol.  XII.,  p.  319.  A.  Menztl,  1.  c.  Vol.  V.,  p.  141  sq. 
VOL.    Ill — 29 


450  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

boldly  demanded  religious  liberty  as  a  condition  before  con- 
tributing anything  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  wars 
against  the  Turks.  Under  the  circumstances,  Maximilian  II. 
thought  it  prudent  to  grant  to  the  Lords  and  Knights  freedom 
of  worship,  which,  contrary  to  stipulation,  was  extended  to 
cities  and  market-towns.  Again,  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia 
forced  Rudolph  II.,  who  gave  more  of  his  attention  to  the 
absurdities  of  astrology  and  alchemy  than  to  the  interests  of 
the  empire,  to  issue  an  imperial  rescript,^  granting  freedom 
of  worship  to  all  Lords,  Knights,  and  cities  that  had  embraced 
Protestantism.  Emboldened  by  these  concessions,  the  Pro- 
testants under  Matthias  openl}^  defied  the  imperial  authority. 
The  latter  being  without  issue,  Ferdinand  II.,  grandson  of 
Ferdinand  I.,  and  heir  apparent  to  the  throne,  was  crowned 
in  1617.  Devoted  to  the  faith  and  the  interests  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  and  alarmed  by  the  seditious  movements  of  the 
Protestants  and  their  intrigues  with  foreign  princes,^  Ferdi- 
nand exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  to  crush  out 
Protestantism  in  his  patrimonial  territories  of  Styria,  Ca- 
rinthia,  and  Carniohi,  thereby  drawing  on  himself  the  bitter 
enmity  of  the  sectaries  of  Austria  and  Bohemia.  By  the  re- 
script of  Rudolph,  Lords,  Knights,  and  royal  cities,  but  not 
the  tenants  of  Catholic  landlords,  were  authorized  to  build 
churches  on  ground  belonging  to  Catholics.  Hence,  when 
the  emperor  ordered  the  church  at  Klostergrab  to  be  destroyed, 
and  that  at  Braunau  to  be  closed,  the  former  having  been 
built  by  the  tenants  of  the  Archbishop  of  Prague,  and  the 
latter  by  those  of  the  Abbot  of  Braunau,  the  Uiraquists,  as  the 
Lutherans  were  now  called,  professing  to  regard  this  as  a  vio- 
lation of  the  Imperial  Rescript,  made  the  matter  the  subject 
of  a  formal  complaint  to  the  emperor.  Infuriated  by  the 
menacing  tone  of  the  emperor's  reply,  the  memorialists, 
breaking  through  all  the  restraints  of  law  and  order,  made 
their  way  into  the  royal  castle  at  Prague  (May  13, 1618),  and,, 

1  Gindely,  Paidolph  II.  and  his  Age,  1600-1612,  Prague,  1862  sq.,  2  vols,  (very 
important  in  all  matters  relating  to  the  Thirty  Years'  "War).  The  same,  Hist, 
of  the  Grant  of  the  Imperial  Edict  of  1609,  Prague,  1858. 

"The  Struggle  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  against  the  Protestant  States  of  Aus- 
tria (Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  673  sq. ;  Vol.  lY.,  pp.  168  sq.,  pp.  219  sq.) 


§  355.   The  Thirty    Years'    War.  451 

seizing  the  imperial  counsellors,  Martwetz  and  Slawata,  its 
accredited  authors,  pitched  them  headlong  out  through  the 
windows. 

The  members  of  the  Diet,  favorable  to  the  Utraquists,  act- 
ing upon  the  direction  of  Count  Thurn,  placed  the  supreme 
authority  in  the  hands  of  a  Regency  of  thirtj'  directors, 
raised  an  arm}',  and,  as  their  first  aggressive  act,  expelled  the 
Jesuits.  Assured  of  the  sympathy  of  the  Union,  they  at- 
tacked the  cities  still  loyal  to  the  emperor,  penetrated  into 
Austria,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Matthias,  discard- 
ing Ferdinand  II.,  who  had  been  a  student  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Ingolstadt,  and  would  have  made  any  sacrifice  to  secure  the 
triumph  of  Catholicity,  elected  as  their  king  Frederic  V.  of 
the  Palatinate.  In  the  meantime,  internal  dissensions  were 
dividing  the  members  of  the  Union.  Hoc,  preacher  to  the 
Elector  of  Saxon}-,  indignantl}-  protested  against  the  outrage 
of  "  surrendering  the  Bohemians  a  prey  to  the  Calvinistic 
antichrists  ; "  the  aid  from  England  promised  by  King  James 
I.  was  not  forthcoming;  and  misfortunes  following  ra[>idly 
upon  the  heels  of  each  other,  culminated  in  the  disaster  of 
White  Mountain,  where  the  Bohemians,  under  the  lead  of 
Frederic  of  the  Palatinate,  were  defeated,  November  8,  1620.' 

War  had  also  broken  out  in  Germany.  The  cause  of  Fred- 
eric of  the  Palatinate  was  championed  by  the  Margrave  of 
Baden- Durlach;  the  Count  of  31  an sf eld ;  and  by  Christian,  Duke 
of  Brunswick,  Administrator  of  Halberstadt.^  They  were, 
however,   no  match    for  the   brave   and   virtuous   Tilly, ^  the 


1  While  the  Protestants  claimed  that  their  defeat  might  be  accounted  for  by 
the  exhausted  condition  of  the  troops  after  a  night's  march,  the  Catholics  as- 
cribed their  victory  to  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  picture 
carried  during  the  battle  is  now  at  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Vittoria  in 
Eome,  the  titular  church  of  the  late  Card.  Eauscher,  and  is  still  regarded  as 
miraculous.  (Tr.) 

'^Soeltl.  The  Eeligious  Wars  of  Germany  (also  Elizabeth  Stuart,  wife  of 
Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate),  Hamburg,  1841,  2  pts. 

=*  Protestant  historians  uniformly  represent  Tilly  as  a  type  of  cruelty  and  fa- 
naticism, and  rarely  omit  quoting  the  words  put  into  his  mouth  by  SchiUer,  to 
the  effect  that,  after  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Magdeburg,  some  ofBcers  of  the 
League,  witnessing  the  horrors  perpetrated  by  the  brutal  soldiery,  chiefly  by 
Pappenheim's  Walloons  and  the  Croatian  cavalry,  and  horrified  at  the  terribla 
scene  of  carnage,  ventured  to  remind  Tilly  that  he  might  put  a  stop  to  it  if  he 


452  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

General  of  the  League,  and  the  victorious  hero  of  thirty-six 
battles,  or  for  Wallenstein,  the  commander  of  the  imperial 
troops,  by  both  of  whom  they  were  repeatedly  defeated. 

The  Palatinate,  the  hereditary  States  of  Frederic,  was  taken 
from  him,  and,  with  the  consent  of  the  Electors,  transferred 
to  Maximilian,  the  heroic  Duke  of  Bavaria  (1623).  Freder- 
ic's brother-in-law,  Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark,  aided 
by  James  I.  of  England,  marched  to  the  scene  of  war  at  the 
head  of  his  forces ;  was  utterly  defeated  by  Till}',  near  Lutfcr 
on  the  Barenberg,  in  the  territory  of  Brunswick  (1626),  and 
forced  to  conclude  the  Peace  of  Lilheck  (1629),  by  which  he 
bound  himself  never  again  to  be  a  party  to  any  confederacy 
formed  against  the  Emperor  of  Germany.  Encouraged  by 
these  victories,  Ferdinand  II.  forbade  any  religion  other  than 
the  Catholic  to  be  practiced  within  his  hereditary  States.  He 
felt  that  he  might  do  this  with  perfect  justice,  inasmuch  as  thi^ 
Protestants  were  laboring  to  incite  the  peasants  to  insurrec- 
tion (1626),  and  had  expelled  all  Catholics  from  Silesia  and 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  In  compliance  with  the  fre- 
quently expressed  wish  of  the  princes  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
demanding  a  settlement  of  the  difficulties  growing  out  of  the 
conliscation  of  ecclesiastical  property,  the  emperor  promul- 
gated, in  the  year  1629,  what  is  known  as  the  Restitution 
Edict,  which,  being  based  upon  the  principle  of  common  law, 
"  that  one  must  not  be  despoiled  of  his  own,"  is  geueralh^  re- 
garded as  just.  This  Edict  provided  that  the  status  quo  of 
the  Religious  Peace  of  Passau  should  be  re-established ;  that 
all  ecclesiastical  property  should  be  restored ;  that  Catholic 
and  Protestant  princes   alike  might  establish  and  maintain 


would.  "  Keturn,"  he  replied,  "  in  an  hour,  and  I  shall  see  what  I  can  do;  tlie 
soldier  must  have  some  reward  for  his  danger  and  toils."  See  the  works  of 
Fred.  Schiller  (Historical,  p.  143),  tr.  by  the  Kev.  A.  T.  W.  Morrisoji,  M.  A., 
London,  1872.  (,Tr.)  A  true  account  of  the  confiagration  of  Magdeburg  is 
-ivon  in  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  3,  Vol.  11,  Vol.  U,  and  Vol.  42,  by 
Ilcising,  Magdeburg  not  Destroyed  by  Tilly,  and  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Ger- 
many, Berlin,  1846.  Bensen,  The  Fate  of  Magdeburg,  Schafi'hausen,  1842.  A 
true  and  full  characteristic  account  of  Tilly  has  recently  been  furnished  by 
Count  Villermont,  Tilly,  or  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (tr.  fr.  the  Fr.  into  Germ.), 
SchafiFh.  1860.  Ormo  Klopp,  Tilly  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  Stuttg 
1861  sq.,  2  vols. 


§  355.   The  Thirty   Years'   War.  453 

their  own  religion  in  their  respective  States  ;  and  that  Pro- 
testant subjects,  who  desired  to  emigrate,  should  be  permitted 
to  do  so.  Owing  to  some  [)reliminary  matters,  which  it  was 
necessary  to  settle  before  putting  the  Edict  in  force,  its  exe- 
cution was  deferred  until  the  year  1631.^ 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  who  had  long  been 
wanting  an  opportunity  to  turn  the  troubles  of  Germany  to 
his  personal  advantage  and  the  aggrandizement  of  his  crown, 
and  believing  that  the  moment  had  arrived  for  active  meas- 
ures on  behalf  of  Protestantism,  now  seriously  threatened, 
immediately  set  about  making  preparations  during  this  inter- 
val. The  emperor  had  aided  the  Poles  in  their  struggle 
against  Sweden,  and  this  Gustavus  Adolphus  professed  to 
consider  a  sufficient  pretext  for  declaring  war.  Assured  of 
the  sympathy  and  support  of  Richelieu,  he  marched  at  the 
head  of  a  Swedish  army  into  German}"  in  1630.  But,  while 
pompously  professing  to  seek  only  "  the  glory  of  God  and  the 
honor  and  ^^•ell-being  of  Christians,"  his  own  proclamation 
to  the  Germans,  still  (Xtant,^  proves  that  his  real  object  was  to 
place  a  Protestant  prince  (his  modesty  forbade  him  to  men- 
tion himself)  at  the  head  of  the  empire.^  His  entire  conduct 
and  policy  show  conclusively  that  this  was  his  real  design. 
With  the  aid  of  the  Protestant  princes,  he  gained  an  impor- 
tant victory  over  Tilly  at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipsig  (IG31), 

1  Hen/tC,  the  Protestant  Church  historian,  strangely  calls  this  Edict  of  desti- 
tution the  death-warrant  of  Protestantism  in  Germany.  Could  not  Protestant- 
ism maintain  itself  in  Germany  as  Catholicism  did  in  England  and  Ireland 
under  much  more  trying  circumstances?  In  Germany  large  portions  of  the 
confiscated  lands  were  restored,  which  was  not  the  case  in  England  and  Ire- 
land. The  objects  covered  by  the  Edict  were  the  two  archbishoprics  of 
Magdeburg  and  Hamburg-Bremen,  twelve  bishoprics,  and  a  large  number  of 
monasteries. 

■^  P.aron  von  Aretin,  the  illustrious  author  of  "  The  Pvclations  of  Bavaria  to 
Foreign  Countries,"  Passau,  1839,  has  found  this  project.  Cf.  Ihst.  and  Pol  it. 
Papers,  Vol.  III.,  p.  431  sq.,  499  sq.  ^'Droysen  (junior),  Gustavus  Adolphus  of 
Swedcr    1867-71,  2  vols. 

^Frederic  von  der  Decken,  George,  Duke  of  Brunswick  and  Luneourg,  being 
Documents  Supplementary  to  the  Hist,  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  according 
to  original  sources,  derived  from  the  royal  archives  of  Hanover,  Hanover,  1833- 
1834,  3  vols.  There  are  found  palpable  proofs  of  the  dishonesty  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus. 


454  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

and  immediately  took  up  his  march  for  Bavaria.  Tilly,  who 
met  him  on  the  frontier  of  that  country,  at  the  Lech,  and  gal- 
lantly contested  his  passage,  received  a  severe  wound,  of 
which  he  died  at  Ingolstadt  twenty-iive  days  later,  April  20, 
1632.  His  last  words  were  :  "  In  Thee,  O  Lord,  have  I  put 
my  trust;  I  shall  not  be  confounded  forever." 

The  next  step  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  to  force  the  citi- 
zens of  Augsburg  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  crown 
of  Sweden.  The  States  of  the  Elector  Frederic  of  the  Palat- 
inate he  now  proposed  to  regard  as  fiefs  of  the  same  crown, 
and  declined  to  reinstate  that  prince  unless  he  would  consent 
to  hold  them  as  such. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  met  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Lutzen, 
in  Saxony,  November  16, 1632.  Wallenstein's  defeat  here  was 
chiefly  owing  to  the  superior  discipline  of  his  opponents.  In 
the  same  engagement  perished  Pappenheim,  the  gallant  com- 
mander of  cavalry,  whose  last  words  were :  "  I  die  happy, 
knowing  that  the  sworn  enemy  of  my  faith  has  also  this  day 
gone  to  his  account." 

Hardly  had  the  dauger  which  threatened  Germany  been,  to 
all  appearances,  averted,  when  the  ambiguous  conduct  of  Wal- 
lenstein'^  and  his  assassination  (Feb.  25,  1634),  which  is  to  this 
day  clouded  in  mystery,  still  further  complicated  affairs. 
The  Swedish  generals,  under  the  direction  of  Bernard,  Duke 
9/  Saxe-  Weimar,  and  subsidized  by  the  French  government, 
tiow  prosecuted  the  war  with  greater  energy  and  more  marked 
success.  Through  the  efforts  of  Oxenstierna,  the  Swedish 
:jhancellor,  a  confederation  of  the  Protestant  States  was  ef- 
fected. So  blunted  had  the  sense  of  national  honor  become 
in  the  minds  of  these  princes  that  they  "  very  humbly  "  begged 
this  parvenu  to  take  the  direction  of  the  government  into  his 
own  hands. 

In  1634,  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  II.,  defeated  the  Swedes 
near  !N"oerdlingcn,  therebv  detaching  from  the  Protestant  al- 


1  Baron  von  Aretin,  Wallenstein,  being  supplements  toward  a  more  precise 
view  of  his  character,  Passau,  1846.  IJurter,  Supplements  toward  a  History  of 
"Wallenstein,  Schaffh.  1855.  By  the  same,  The  Last  Four  Years  of  Wallen- 
Btein's  Life,  Vienna,  1862.  Ranke,  Hist,  of  Wallenstein,  3d  ed.  (Complete 
WorVs,  Vol.  23d). 


356.   The  Peace  of  Westphalia.  455 


liance  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  to  whom  he  was  reconciled  by 
the  Peace  of  Prague,  concluded  in  1635.  These  events,  how- 
ever, only  stimulated  the  efforts  of  Richelieu  to  restore  the 
preponderance  of  the  Protestants  in  Germany.  The  victories 
and  reverses  w^ere  pretty  evenly  divided,  neither  side  gaining 
any  very  decided  advantage.  Never  before  had  the  thriving 
provinces  of  Germany  been  so  desolated,  and  that,  too,  by 
the  horrors  of  a  civil  and  religious  war,  which  an  ambitious 
rival  nation  did  its  best  to  incite  and  protract.  When  the 
emperor  died  in  1637,  it  was  thought  these  appalling  horrors 
would  cease,  but  through  the  perfidious  policy  of  France, 
whose  sordid  interests  were  not  yet  satisfied,  they  were  con- 
tinued with  undiminished  atrocity  under  his  son,  Ferdinand 
III.,  notwithstanding  that  he  had  published  a  general  am- 
nesty at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  in  1641.  From  the  year  1635 
till  its  close  the  war  was  so  obviously  of  a  political  character 
that  Hippolytus  a  Lapide  very  justly  reminded  his  contempo- 
raries "that  since  they  were  fighting  for  territorial  conquests, 
and  not  for  their  faith,  they  ought  in  decency  to  lay  aside  the 
noio  meaningless  pretext  of  religion  "  {ra.nus  ille  religionis  prae- 
textas)} 

Certain  writers,  yielding  to  the  influence  of  some  unac- 
countable fatuation,  have  endeavored  to  make  the  world  be- 
lieve that  the  object  of  this  war  was  i\\Q  freedom  of  Germany, 
to  which,  in  matter  of  fact,  it  was  in  no  wise  intended  to 
contribute. 

§  356.   The  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

I.  Instrument,  pac.  Westph.,  ed.  ^ernwi^rer,  Monast.  1648;  ed..  Meyern,  Han- 
over, 1734-1736,  Gutting.  1740,  6  T.,  fol.  Supplements  thereto,  3  T.,  fol.,  Get- 
ting. 1747.  Documents  of  the  Treaties  of  Peace  of  Osnabriick  and  Miinster, 
according  to  authentic  sources,  Zurich,  1848.  Adam.  Adami  (Envoy  of  Corvey), 
Arcana  P.  W.,  Francof.  1698,  ed.  Meyern,  Gotting.  1737. 

II.  Putter,  Spirit  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  Gotting.  1795.  Phillips,  Can. 
Law,  Vol.  III.,  p.  462-477.  Struve,  Complete  History  of  the  Ptcligious  Griev- 
ances in  the  German  Empire,  Lps.  1722,  2  pts.  A.  Menze.l,  ^Modern  Hist,  of  the 
Germans,  Vol.  VIII.  Cf.  Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  "  The  Peace  of  Westpiialia," 
Vol.  51,  year  1863. 


>  Cf.  Hurier,  Ferdinand  II.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  220.    Onno  Klopp,  Prejudiced  Fabri- 
cators of  German  History,  Freiburg,  1863,  pp.  25,  52,  and  302. 


456  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

Germany  was  exhausted,  and  longed  for  peace.  WhiJa 
both  parties  were  still  in  fierce  conllict  with  each  other,  nego- 
tiations, looking  toward  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  were  opened 
at  Miiuster  and  Osnabriick  (1645-1648).  These  were  tedious, 
and  were  finally  brought  to  a  close  onl}^  on  October  24,  1648, 
when  a  Treaty  of  Peace  was  signed,  and  its  execution  guar- 
anteed by  France  and  Sweden,  the  two  countries  that  had 
done  most  to  ruin  Germany.  As  a  remuneration  for  their 
efforts  toward  this  end,  both  received  large  grants  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Empire.  Alsace,  with  the  exception  of  the  bish- 
opric of  Strasburg,  was  annexed  to  France  ;  Upper  Pomera- 
nia,  the  island  of  Eiigen,  part  of  Lower  Pomerania,  and  the 
cities  of  Wismar,  Bremen,  and  Yerden  were  added  to  Sweden  ; 
and  to  both  countries  a  war  indemnit}'  of  five  millions  of 
thalers  was  paid.  The  losses  of  Brandenburg  in  Pomerania 
were  compensated  by  the  acquisition  of  the  bishoprics  of 
Magdeburg,  Halberstadt,  Minden,  and  Camin,  as  secular 
principalities ;  Mecklenburg,  in  exchange  for  Wismar,  re- 
ceived the  bishoprics  of  Schwerin  and  Patzeburg ;  Brunswick, 
as  a  reward  for  sacrifices  made  to  Sweden,  obtained  the  mon- 
asteries of  Kroeningen  and  Walkenried ;  and  the  good  of- 
fices of  Hesse-Cassel  to  the  same  country  were  repaid  by  the 
cession  of  the  abbey  of  Hersfeld  and  other  ecclesiastical  es- 
tates. The  change  in  the  character  of  ecclesiastical  property, 
once  it  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  civil  princes,  was  now 
for  the  first  time  called  "  secularization.''' 

Owing  to  the  extravagant  demands  of  the  Protestants, 
some  trouble  was  experienced  in  adjusting  the  religions  diffi- 
culties, but  it  was  finall}^  agreed  that  the  articles  of  the  Treaty 
of  Passau  and  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  should  be 
strictly  observed  by  both  parties  ;  that  the  adherents  of  each 
should  eu^oy  equal  lights,  according  to  the  constitutions  of  their 
respective  States  ;  ^  that  in  all  Imperial  Courts  and  deputa- 
tions the  number  of  members  representing  each  religious 
party  should  be  equal ;  that  if  the  two  parties  should  differ 

1  A  town  in  the  province  of  Westphalia.  (Tr.) 

2  F.  M.  Bachmann,  Nonnulla  de  regula  aequalitatis  ex  §  I.,  art.  5,  pacis  West- 
phal.,  Erford,  1792,  4to. 


§  356.   The  Peace  of  Westphalia.  457 


from  each  other  in  the  Imperial  Diet,  the  question  should  be 
settled  by  compromise,  and  not  by  ballot ;  and  that  the  Cal- 
vinists,  or  members  of  the  Reformed  Church,  should  have  \)vq- 
cise'iy  the  same  relations  to  Catholics  as  those  professino"  the 
Augsburg  Confession.  But,  while  bringing  peace  to  the 
States  of  the  Empire,  this  Treaty  introduced  a  wholly  novo) 
legislation.  The  inhabitants  of  the  various  States  no  longer 
enjoyed  equal  religious  rights;  and  while  in  some  countrie? 
Catholics,  in  others  Protestants,  were  denied  the  rights  of  cit- 
izenship and  freedom  of  worship,  rights  which  were  accorded 
even  to  Jews. 

This  condition  of  things  was  brought  about  by  an  articlf 
in  the  Treaty  investing  the  supreme  rulers  of  the  States  imme- 
diately connected  with  the  Empire  with  the  right  of  rcformincj ' 
the  religion  of  the  counts  and  vassals  residing  within  their 
territories.  This  episcopacy  of  princes,  or  the  investiture  of  ec- 
clesiastical powers  so  extensive  in  the  hands  of  the  civil  rulers 
of  countries,  soon  produced  its  legitimate  results.  At  first  the 
exercise  of  these  powers  was  limited  to  the  external  organi- 
zation of  the  churches  (§  336) ;  but  it  soon  passed  far  beyond 
these  modest  limits,  and  was  stretched  to  a  length  to  which 
neither  popes  nor  bishops  ever  thought  of  carrying  their  au- 
thority or  jurisdiction  within  the  Catholic  Church.  Thus,  for 
example,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Palatinate,  within  the  sixty 
years  following  the  accession  of  Frederic  III.,  were  forced,  at 
the  bidding  of  their  successive  masters,  to  change  their  relig- 
ion four  different  times.^ 

By  a  strange  inconsistency,  the  so-called  "  right  of  reform- 
ing," granted  to  princes,  was  denied  to  imperial  cities.  It  was 
ordained  that  these  should  preserve  the  dominant  form  of 
religion,  and  magistrates  and  citizens  were  politely  informed 
that  they  must  forego  the  right  enjoyed  by  them  since  the 


1  Cum  ytatibus  inimediutis  cum  jure  territorii  et  Supcrioritatis  etiam  jits  rr- 
formandl  religioncm  competat,  conventum  est,  hoc  idem  porro  quoque  ab  utri- 
usque  religionis  Statibus  observari,  nullique  Statui  immediato  jus,  ijuod  ipsi 
ratione  ierriiorii  et  siqicrioritaiis  in  ■uegoiio  religionis  cumpetit,  impedire  opor- 
tere.  (Instrum.  Pac.  Osnabr.,  Art.  V.,  g  30.) 

^tRemUng,  The  Work  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Palatinate,  Mannhciin, 
1846. 


458  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

breaking  out  of  the  Reformatiou,  of  regulating  whatever 
pertained  to  religion.  But,  though  princes  possessed  in  theory 
the  absolute  "  right  of  reforming,"  in  practice  it  underwent 
many  modifications  and  limitations. 

The  condition  of  aftairs  on  January  1, 1624  (called  the  nor- 
mal year),  was  to  serve,  as  a  rule,  as  regards  the  secularization 
of  ecclesiastical  propert}^ ;  so  also  was  the  free  exercise  of  re- 
ligion by  Catholics  under  Protestant,  and  by  Protestants  under 
Catholic  princes,  to  be  based  upon  the  existing  relations  at 
tliat  fixed  point  of  time.  But,  while  the  "  right  of  reform- 
ing "  was  thus  limited  by  the  condition  existing  at  a  certain 
date,  there  were  still  some  important  matters  left  unsettled. 
Thus,  for  instance,  there  could  be  no  question  as  what  the 
"  right  of  reforming"  meant,  when  applied  to  subjects  or  vas- 
sals of  a  difi'erent  religion  from  the  ruling  prince,  but  the  case 
was  very  different  when  they  were  of  the  same  belief  and 
members  of  the  same  church.  In  countries  where  the  rulino- 
princes  were  Catholics,  there  was  of  course  no  difiiculty,  since 
all  Catholics  hold  that  ecclesiastical  authority  and  jurisdiction 
ire  vested,  not  in  secular  lords  or  civil  princes,  but  in  the  Pope 
and  the  bishops,  and  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  "  right  of 
reforming"  can  be  exercised  only  by  a  particular  or  general 
council.^ 

By  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty,  the  Protestants  of  both 
professions  had  an  advantage  over  Catholics  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  '■'•  reservatuni  ecclesiasticum"  it  being  provided  that 
all  foundations  and  benefices  in  the  hands  of  the  former  since 
January  1, 1624,  should  retain  their  Protestant  character,  even 
after  they  had  passed  under  the  authority  of  a  Catholic  prince. 

Consistently  with  the  condition  of  affairs  in  the  same  year, 
Catholic  bishops  were  permitted  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over 
the  Catholic,  but  not  over  the  Protestant  subjects  of  a  Protest- 
ant prince,  a  limitation  having  been  provided  in  the  Recess 
of  1555.  According  to  the  now  accepted  principles  of  relig- 
ious equality,  the  members  of  the  Imperial  Chamber  were  to 

^  Provineialia  Concilia,  sicubi  omissa  sunt,  pro  moderandis  moribus,  corrigen- 
dis  excessibus,  controversiis  componendis  aliisque  ex  sacris  ciinonibus  permissia 
renoventur.  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIV.,  cap.  2,  de  reform.)  Cf.  Cone.  Con 
etant.,  Sess.  XXXIX- 


356.    The  Peace  of  Westphalia.  459 


be  composed  of  equal  numbers  of  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
but  the  emperor  might  put  two  Catholics  into  places  in  the 
Chamber,  which  it  was  his  right  to  fill,  and  he  had  also  the 
nominating  of  the  four  presidents.  Against  this  article  of 
the  Treaty  the  Protestants  protested,  insisting  that  whenever 
measures  affecting  the  rights  of  both  parties  came  up  for  dis- 
cussion, the  Chamber  should  be  divided  into  Senates,  com- 
posed of  equal  numbers  of  Protestants  and  Catholics.  Their 
demand  was  granted.^ 

As  the  Treaty  contained  many  articles  detrimental  to  the 
interests  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Fabio  Chigi,  the  Papal 
Xuncio,  who  was  at  Miinster,  acting  as  mediator  between 
France  and  the  emperor,  protested  against  the  objectionable 
portions,  and  called  upon  the  i-epresentatives  of  the  Catholic 
powers  to  bear  him  witness  that  he  had  had  no  hand  in 
the  making  of  the  obnoxious  instrument,  and  had  neither 
signed  it  nor  given  weight  to  its  contents  by  being  present  at 
the  conferences.  This  protest  was  ratified  by  Pope  Innocent 
X.,  who,  in  his  bull  Zelus  domus  Dei,  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  articles  hostile  to  the  Catholic  Church,  declaring 
that  whatever  either  or  both  of  the  Treaties  contained  inju- 
rious or  prejudicial  to  the  Catholic  religion,  the  divine  service, 
the  salvation  of  souls,  the  Holy  See,  the  Church  of  Rome,  or 
other  churches,  or  to  ecclesiastical  discipline  or  the  clergy,  he 
utterly  rejected  and  pronounced  null  and  void.  While,  on 
the  one  hand,  he  was  sincerely  desirous  of  abstaining  from  all 
troublesome  interference  in  the  new  order  of  afl'airs ;  on  the 
other,  he  did  not  wish  to  be  regarded  as  shaping  his  policy  to 
suit  the  exigencies  of  the  times,  or  to  surrender  the  unchange- 
able principles  which  have  always  guided  the  action  of  the 
Ploly  See.2 

1  Instrum.  Osnab.,  art.  V.,  §  54 :  Caesarea  majestas  mandabit,  ut  non  solum 
isto  judicio  camerali  causae  ecclesiasticae  ut  et  politicae  inter  catholicos  et 
acathol.  status,  vel  inter  hos  solos  vertentes,  vel  etium  quando  catholiois  contra 
catholicos  status  litigantibus  tertius  interveniens  acathol.  status  erit,  et  vicissiui 
quando  acathol.  statibus  contra  ejusdem  confessionis  status  litigantibus  tortius 
interveniens  erit  catholicus,  adjectis  ex  utraque  religione  pari  numero  assessori- 
bus  discutiantur  et  dijudicentur. 

2  For  the  true  meaning;  and  scope  of  this  protest,  cf.  ^Dbllinger,  "  The  Church 
and  the  Churches,"  "  The  Papacy  and  the  States  of  the  Church,"  pp.  49-G"2 
iSchmidt,  S.  J.,  Insatutiones  Jur.  eccl.  Germ,  P.  I.,  pp.  83-93. 


460  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  5. 

After  the  conclusion  of  this  Peace,  which  annihilated  the 
last  vestiges  of  imperial  power;  severed  the  ancient  ties  that 
had  nnited  the  several  States;  gave  a  preponderance  to  for- 
eign influences  in  the  aifairs  of  the  empire  ;  and  sowed  the 
seeds  of  the  perpetual  discords,  which  at  critical  moments 
always  hroke  out  afresh,  thus  adding  to  the  existing  tronbles, 
the  antagonism  of  the  opposing  parties  ceased  to  be  political, 
resuming  again  the  religious  character  lohich  it  bore  in  its  origin} 

1  The  following  observation  of  WaUe7;  in  his  Manual  of  Canon  Law,  13th 
ed.,  p.  628,  is  important:  "  The  treaties  of  1555  and  1648,  considered  as  honest 
efforts  to  establish  a  durable  peace  between  two  contending  religious  parties, 
are  not  alone  to  be  highly  commended  ;  but,  from  a  political  point  of  view,  are 
wholly  justifiable;  because,  in  the  then  existing  condition  of  affairs,  there  was 
no  other  available  means  of  putting  an  end  to  the  effusion  of  blood.  But, 
considered  from  a  legal  point  of  view,  they  are  violations  of  the  rights  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  In  the  first  place,  foundations  established  for  purely  spiritual 
and  verj'  special  purposes  are  not  the  property  of  individuals,  but  of  commu- 
nities and  corporations.  Ilence,  in  cases  in  which  whole  communities  did  not 
embrace  the  new  doctrines,  either  the  estates  should  have  remained  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Catholics  or  a  compromise  should  have  been  effected.  Such, 
however,  was  not  the  case.  Secondly:  "When  the  parties  to  the  treaties  dis- 
posed of  property  in  actual  possession,  they  made  a  conveyance,  which,  both  in 
canon  and  civil  law,  required  the  sanction  of  either  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese 
or  the  Pope.  Thirdly  and  finally:  By  these  treaties,  the  contracting  parties 
took  upon  them,  of  their  oivn  self-constituted  authority,  to  dispose  of  bishoprics 
and  chapters,  and  to  regulate  their  internal  affairs,  an  exercise  which  by  ancient 
and  recognized  law  required  the  authorization  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff." 


CHAPTER  VI. 


THE    GREEK    CHURCH. 


§  357.    The  Greek  Church  under  the  Turks. 

jSI.  le  Quien,  Oriens  Christianas,  Par.  1740,  3  T.,  fol.  Heitieceius,  Picture  of 
the  Ancient  and  JModern  Greek  Church,  Lps.  1711,  4to.  Kimmel,  Libri  sym- 
bolici  eccl.  Oriental.,  etc.,  Jen.  1843  (only  expcsitiones  fidei  Turco-Graeciae !); 
append,  add.  Weissenbm^n,  ibid.  1850.  tH.  J.  SchmUt,  Critical  History  of  the 
Modern  Greek  and  Eussian  Churches,  Mentz,  1846.  Piehler,  Hist,  of  the 
Schism  between  the  East  and  the  West,  Vol.  1.,  p.  420-438.  Plizipios-Bey, 
The  Oriental  Church  (Germ.,  by  Schiel,  Vienna,  1857).  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclo- 
paed.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  7G0-774;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  7,  p.  247. 

The  Catholic  Church  had  made  ras.ny  sacrilices  to  better 
the  condition  of  the  Greek  Church,  which,  since  the  fall  of 
Constantinople,  had  felt  the  weight  of  persecution  and  expe- 
rienced the  humiliation  of  a  degrading  servitude.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  capture  of  the  city,  the  Patriarch's  cathedral 
was  destroyed  by  order  of  3Iohammed  II.,  and  a  Turkish 
mosque  built  on  its  site ;  while,  during  the  reign  of  Selini  I. 
(from  1512),  the  Christians  were  obliged  to  surrender  their 
stone  churches  to  the  Turks  and  build  others  of  wood  for 
themselves  ;  and,  to  crown  all,  the  sultan  reserved  to  himself 
the  right  of  appointing  the  patriarchs.  Gennadius,  although 
appointed  to  the  patriarchate  of  Neio  Home,  by  Mohammed 
II.,  was  commanded  by  the  same  authority  to  lay  down 
the  dignity  ;  and  the  urgent  entreaties  of  his  faithful  tlock 
could  not  alter  the  decision  of  the  tyrant.  In  like  man  nor 
Mohammed  sent  Joasaph,  the  next  occupant  of  the  patri- 
archal office,  into  exile,  for  refusing  to  sanction  an  unlawful 
marriage  of  a  Mohammedan  minister  to  a  daughter  of  an 
Athenian  prince. 

The  patriarchate  itself  was  often  simoniacally  obtained. 
A  farcical  election  was  held,  the  electors  being  twelve  neigh- 
boring archbishops,  acting  under  the  direction  of  a  Greek,  in  tlio 
pav  of  the  sultan,  and  never  failing  to  give  their  votes  to  the 

(461) 


462  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  6. 

candidate  who  had  offered  the  highest  price  for  the  office 
The  i^atriarch-elect  was  then  conducted  into  the  seraglio  dur- 
ing a  session  of  the  Divan,  when  he  received  a  costly  robe  of 
white  silk  embroidered  with  gold,  a  white  charger,  and  a 
staff  bearing  an  ivory  head,  as  tokens  and  insignia  of  his 
office.  At  the  close  of  the  ceremony,  he  paid  over  a  heavy 
purchase-money,  and  received  from  the  sultan  a  letter  of  ap- 
probation (berat  or  barath).  What  with  forced  resignations, 
exile,  degradation,  and  strangulation,  the  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople were  seldom  able  to  maintain  themselves  for  any 
considerable  length  of  time  on  the  throne.  From  the  patri- 
arch the  practice  of  securing  their  offices  by  simony  passed 
down  through  all  the  inferior  grades  of  the  clergy,  and,  hav- 
ing obtained  them  in  this  way,  archbishops,  bishops,  and  priests 
alike  never  failed  to  indemnif}'  themselves  for  what  the  pur- 
chase had  cost  them. 

The  Mohammedan  conquerors  thought  it  prudent,  from 
political  considerations,  to  show  a  semblance  of  respect  for 
the  external  form  of  the  old  Greek  Church;  and  hence,  be- 
sides the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  those  of  Alexandria  (at 
Cairo),  of  Antioch  (at  Damascus),  and  of  Jerusalem.,  were  still 
permitted  to  exist.  The  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  being 
the  head  of  the  whole  Orthodox  Church,  styled  himself  Ecu- 
menical Patriarch.  The  archbishops,  holding  the  next  rank 
in  the  Greek  hierarchy,  were  chosen  by  the  patriarch  of  Je- 
rusalem and  his  synod  ;  and  the  bishops  received  their  ap- 
pointments from  the  archbishops. 

As  a  class,  the  clergy  were  illiterate  and  immoral ;  took  no 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  their  people  ;  were  destitute  of  ever}' 
priestly  virtue,  and  showed  no  disposition  to  sacrifice  them- 
selves in  laboring  for  the  religious  and  social  amelioration  of 
their  flocks.  After  that  the  sultan  had  conferred  upon  the 
clergy  certain  privileges  special  to  their  order,  thus  drawing 
a  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  them  and  other  Christian 
subjects,  the  condition  of  the  latter  was  most  humiliating. 
1'heir  taxes  were  vastly  heavier  than  those  paid  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans ;  they  were  deprived  of  every  right  and  shorn  ot 
every  privilege,  and  nothing  was  left  undone  that  might 
humble  the  pride  and   crush   the   spirit  of  these  degenerate 


§  358.  Belatlons  of  Greek  Church  to  other  Churches.     463 

Greeks.  So  mean-spirited  and  craven  had  the  clergy  become 
that  they  had  not  the  courage  to  protest  against  the  methods 
employed  for  recruiting  the  Janizaries  (Jeni-tshcri,  new  sol- 
diers), a  military  force  serving  as  a  bulwark  to  Ishimism,  and 
composed  of  Christian  prisoners  and  those  who  iis  children 
liad  been  taken  from  their  Christian  parents  and  brought  uji 
in  the  faith  of  Mohammed. 

It  was  not  long  before  the  Christian  population  lost  all 
power  of  resistance.  Their  feeble  condition  was  nowhere 
more  apparent  than  in  Albania,  where  the  number  of  Chris- 
tian inhabitants  decreased  between  the  years  1620  and  1C50 
from  350,000  to  50,000  souls.  Among  the  vast  multitude 
of  apostates  were  to  be  found  many  monks  and  secular  priests. 

Their  condition  was  somewhat  improved  at  the  opening  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  (after 
1711),  acting  from  motives  of  self-interest,  proclaimed  himself 
the  protector  of  the  sultan's  Christian  subjects.  IIis  Avords 
received  practical  expression  from  Catharine  II.,  who  insisted 
on  having  Article  VII.  inserted  in  the  Peace  of  Kutshuk- 
Kainardji,  thereby  exacting  from  the  Sublime  Porte  a  promise 
that  the  Christian  religion  should  be  protected  and  its  churches 
exempt  from  violence ;  and  empowering  the  Russian  embas- 
sador to  take  cognizance  of  all  violations  of  this  part  of  the 
treaty. 

§  358.    Relations  of  the  Greek  Church  to  the  Lutheran,  Cal- 

vinist,  and  Catholic  Churches. 

Leo  AUatius,  De  Eccles.  occidental,  et  oriental,  perpetua  consensione,  lib.  III., 
cap.  11.  See  Vol.  II.,  pp.  449  and  810.  "^Hefele,  Tuebing.  Quart.  Review, 
1843,  pp.  541  sq. ;  and  by  the  same,  Supplements  to  Ch.  Ili^t.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  444-447. 

At  first  sight  it  should  seem  that  there  could  be  no  possi- 
bility of  a  union  between  the  Greek  Church  and  the  Lu- 
theran, so  widely  different  are  the  fundamental  principles  of 
each.  Nevertheless,  efibrts  were  made  in  that  direction,  fir-^l 
by  Joasaph  11.,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1555-1565),  who 
sent  the  deacon,  Demetrius  M'ysius,  to  Wittenberg  to  obtain 
a  knowledge  of  Protestantism  at  its  very  cradle.  He  received 
from  Melanciithon  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 


464  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  6. 

fession,  by  Dolscius,  and  a  civil  letter  for  the  patriarch,  con- 
taining expressions  of  joy,  in  that  "  God  had  preserved  the 
Eastern  Church,  surrounded  by  enemies  so  numerous  and  so 
hostile  to  the  Christian  name;"  and  conveying  to  him  the 
assurance  that  "  Protestants  had  remained  loyal  to  Holy  Writ, 
to  the  dogmatic  decrees  of  the  Holy  Synods,  and  to  the  teach- 
ings of  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory,  and  the  other  Fathers  of 
the  Greek  Church;  that  they  rejected  and  abhorred  the  scan- 
dalous errors  of  Paul  of  Samosata,  of  the  Manichaeans,  and 
of  all  heretics  anathematized  by  the  Church  ;  that  in  the  same 
way  they  cast  aside  all  manner  of  superstitious  practices  and 
idolatrous  worship,  introduced  by  ignorant  Latin  monks;  and 
that,  therefore,  if  the  evil  reports  put  in  circulation  against 
the  Protestants,  should  come  to  his  ears,  he  should  not  credit 
them."  ^  The  patriarch  was  too  clear-sighted  to  be  duped  by 
these  apparently  candid  avowals,  and  accordingly  sent  no 
answer. 

A  short  time  after,  the  Tiibingeu  theologians,  Jacob  Andrea 
and  Crusius,  forwarded  by  Baron  David  von  Ungnad,  a  zeal- 
ous Protestant,  whom  the  Emperor  Maximilian  II.  sent  as 
embassador  to  the  Sublime  Porte,  a  communication  to  the 
patriarch,  Jeremias  II.  (1574-1581),  as  remarkable  for  duplic- 
ity and  bad  faith  as  that  of  Melanchthon.  The  patriarch, 
after  some  delaj-,  sent  an  answer,  emphatically  repudiating 
the  teachings  of  Protestantism,  specifying  such  tenets  as  that 
man  is  justified  by  faith  alone;  that  there  are  but  two  Sacra- 
ments ;  that  the  Saints  are  not  to  be  invoked  ;  and  also  the 
Catholic  doctrine  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son.  In  conclusion,  he  warned  his  corre- 
spondents against  adopting  new  teachings,  and  repudiating 
those  contained  in  the  Bible,  the  seven  Holy  Synods^  and  in 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers ;  and  begged  them  to  hold  whatever 
the  Church  holds,  whether  that  he  her  written  or  unwritten  teach- 
ing. The  theologians  sent  a  reply,  explaining  and  controvert- 
ing, as  occasion  required,  to  which  the  patriarch  rejoined, 
requesting  them  for  the  future  to  spare  him  any  further  an- 
noyance of  a  controversial  character  (15S1),  and  entreating 

-  In  Crusius,  Turcograecia,  p.  557. 


§  358.  Relations  of  Greek  Church  to  other  Churches.     465 

them  to  give  np  errors  at  once  contradictory  of  Christian 
trath,  and  calculated  only  to  draw  down  n[)0u  those  who 
liold  them  the  chastisement  of  Heaven.'  Another  effort  was 
made  hy  eleven  of  the  distinguished  Protestant  theologians  of 
Wiirtemberg  to  continue  the  correspondence,  but  to  their 
specious  plans  for  a  union  of  the  Churches  the  patriarch  did 
not  deign  to  reply.  A  last  effort  was  made  by  the  indefatiga- 
ble Crusius,  who  considerately  translated  into  Greek,  for  the 
use  of  the  Eastern  clergy,  a  sufficient  number  of  Lutheran 
sermons  to  fill  four  folio  volumes;  but  the  Greek  Synod,  of 
Jerusalem  (1672)  very  unfeelingly  characterized  his  labors 
and  those  of  others  in  a  similar  field  as  the  impertinent  and 
obtrusive  officiousness  of  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  Tii- 
bino;en. 

The  attempt  made  to  bring  al)out  an  understanding  between 
the  Greek  and  Reformed  Churches  must  seem  still  more  ex- 
traordinary. The  first  to  undertake  the  difficult  task  was 
Cyril  Lucaris,  a  native  of  Candia  (ancient  Crete),  then  be- 
longing to  the  Republic  of  Venice.  He  was  educated  at 
Padua,  but  coming,  in  the  course  of  liis  travels,  to  Geneva, 
he  entered  into  close  relations  with  the  Reformed  theologians, 
and,  on  his  return  to  Greece,  became  very  much  attached  to 
MeletiiLS  Pega,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  by  whom  he  was  or- 
dained, and  who  was  one  of  the  most  furious  enemies  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Having  become  protector  of  Poland,  Mo- 
Ictius  placed  Cyril  over  the  school  of  Wilna,  in  Lithuania, 
and  the  latter,  taking  advantage  of  his  position,  set  himself 
to  do  his  best  to  break  oft"  the  negotiations  then  going  for- 
ward with  a  view  to  a  union  of  the  Russo-Polish  bishoi:)S  of 
the  Greek  rite  with  the  Roman  Church.  After  the  death  of 
Meletius,  Cyril  succeeded,  it  is  said,  by  bribery,  in  having 


'  Acta  et  scripta  Theologor.  Wirtemb.  et  Patriarch.  .Jercmiae,  Vitebergi, 
158-1,  4to.  It  is  proper  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  tlie  letters  which 
compromise  the  Lutheran  theologians  are  wanting  in  this  collection  ;  but  they 
may  be  found  in  Crusius,  Turcograecia.  Cf.  Schelstrate,  Acta  eccl.  orient,  con- 
tra Lutheri  haeresin.  Romae,  1739;  Schmirrer,  de  Actis  inter  Tubing,  thcolog. 
et  patriarch.  Constantinop.  (Oration,  acad.,  ed.  Paulas,  Tiib.  1828;  Hefele, 
Suppl.  to  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  445-460. 

VOL.  Ill — 30 


46(5  Period  o.     Epoch  1.     ChajJter  6. 

himself  placed  upon  the  patriarchal  throne  of  Alexandria 
(1602).  lie  at  once  opened  a  correspondence  with  Cornelius 
van  Hagen,  tlie  Dutch  embassador  at  Constantinople,  and  a 
zealous  Calvinist,  laying  before  that  functionary  a  plan  for 
making  the  Greek  Church  Calvinistic.  The  diplomatic  agents 
of  England  and  Sweden  entered  warmly  into  the  scheme,  and, 
in  consequence,  Cyril  began  to  correspond  on  the  subject  with 
a  Dutch  preacher  named  John  Uytenbogaert,  and  with  George 
Abbot,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  To  the  latter  he  even  sent 
a  young  and  promising  Greek,  named  Metrophanes  Krito- 
polos,  W'ho,  after  having  studied  Protestant  theology  in  Eng- 
land, was  to  spend  some  time  in  Germany  on  his  way  home 
The  letters  that  passed  between  Cyril  and  another  of  his  cor- 
respon;.lents,  the  Dutch  statesman,  David  le  Leu  de  Wilheiiu., 
are  singular  productions.  Finally,  after  many  unsuccessful 
intrigues,  Cj'ril  reached  the  object  of  his  ambition,  when,  in 
1621,  he  was  transferred  to  the  patriarchal  see  of  Constanti- 
nople. It  is  said  that  Neophyte  II.,  the  last  occupant  of  the 
see  but  one  previously  to  the  accession  of  Cyril,  had,  from  the 
opening  of  the  seventeenth  century,  favored  a  union  of  the 
Eastern  with  the  Roman  Church,  and  that  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries resident  at  Constantinople  had  entered  actively  into 
the  project.  Cyril,  though  banished  to  the  island  of  Rhodes 
for  his  explicit  avowal  of  Calvinistic  principles,  w^as  a  man  of 
too  fertile  a  genius  to  lose  heart  in  the  hour  of  disaster,  and, 
to  effect  his  recall,  he  made  a  lavish  but  judicious  expenditure 
of  money,  an  agent  w^hich  he  uniformly  employed  and  always 
found  potent  to  accomplish  his  designs.  To  further  his  pur- 
poses, he  established  a  printing-office  at  Constantinople  in  the 
year  1627 ;  and,  by  duplicity  and  the  aid  of  unscrupulous 
friends,  finally  succeeded  in  ridding  himself  of  the  annoying 
presence  of  the  Jesuits.  In  their  stead,  the  Genevese  sent 
(1628)  him  Anthony  Leyer,  a  Keformed  preacher,  who  labored 
zealously  for  eight  years  to  Calvinize  the  Greek  Church,  but 
with  indifferent  success.  In  1629,  Cyril  drew  up  in  Latin  a 
Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith  [Confessio  Jidei) ,  which  he  sub- 
sequently caused  to  be  translated  into  Greek  and  scattered 
among  the  people  (1631).  The  Greek  bishops  at  once  took 
the  alarm.     Cyril  had  again  to  endure  persecutions  and  to  go 


358.  Relations  of  Green  Church  to  other  Churches.     467 


into  exile  (1634)  ;  but  again  he  purchased  his  return  bj 
bribery,  and  in  1637  was  reinstated  without  being  obliged  to 
abjure  the  teachings  of  the  ^^31ost  Holy"  Calvin.  But  now 
the  indignation  of  both  clergy  and  people  against  the  man, 
who  dared  to  set  up  his  own  private  opinions  in  room  of  the 
common  belief,  and  to  destroy  the  ancient  reputation  of  the 
Greek  Church  for  orthodoxy,  could  no  longer  be  restrained. 
lie  was  judged  and  condemned  as  a  heretic  by  a  synod  beld 
at  Constantinople,  and  being,  moreover,  suspected  of  favorins; 
an  invasion  of  the  Turkish  empire  by  the  Cossacks  belongin<2: 
to  the  Greek  Church,  was  strangled  by  order  of  the  Grand 
Seignear,  and  his  body  cast  into  the  sea.  His  Confession  was 
condemned  and  anathema  passed  upon  himself  by  a  svnod 
held  at  Constantinople  shortly  after  (September,  1633). 
Among  those  condemned  with  Cyril  was  31etrophanes,  Patri- 
arch of  Alexandria,  whom  the  former  had  sent  to  England. 
But  the  heretical  opinions  of  Cyril  continued  to  live  and 
spread  after  their  author  had  passed  away.  They  were  fre- 
quently condemned  by  his  successors,  and  by  many  synods, 
of  which  that  presided  over  by  Dositheus,  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem, was  the  most  important  (1672).' 

To  prevent  any  further  attempts  to  unite  the  Greek  with 
the  Reformed  Church,  the  Greek  bishops  were  required  to 
subscribe  to  a  Confession  of  Faith,  drawn  up  by  Peter  JlJogila, 
Archbishop  of  Kiew.  This  Confession,  which  sots  forth  the 
fundamental  and  unchangeable  teachings  of  both  the  Greek 
and  the  Latin  Churches,  is  vigorous  and  precise  in  language, 
and  practical  rather  than  speculative  in  character,  differing  in 
this  respect  from  former  subtle  and  ambiguous  formulas  of 
faith.  It  also  contains  a  summary  of  the  teaching  concerning 
the  three  theological  virtues  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity.^ 

^Synodus  Jerosolymitaiia  adv.  Calvinistas  haereticos,  interprete  Donino  M. 
F.,  ed.  II.,  Par.  1678.  Monuments  authentiques  de  la  relig.  des  Grecs  par 
J.  Aymon,  or  Lettres  anecdotes  de  Cyr.  Lncaris  et  du  concile  de  Jerusalem,  La 
Haye,  1708,  4to.  On  the  other  hand.  Abbe  Renaudot:  Centre  les  calomnies  et 
fa'jssetcs  du  livre  intitule:  "Monuments,"  Par.  1709.  Cf.  Ilefele,  Suppl.  Vol. 
I.,  p.  403-476;  and  Pichler,  Patriarch  Cyril  Lucaris  and  His  i\ge,  Mu- 
nich, 1862. 

^Orthodoxa  conf.  oath,  atque  apost.  Eccles.  orient.,  ed.  Hoffmann,  VratisL 
^51. 


468  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  6. 

In  spite  of  the  alienation  existing  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches,  naturally  resulting  from  the  failure  of  so 
many  attempts  at  union,  the  conversion  of  a  large  number  of 
Greeks  inspired  Iresh  hopes,  and,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  a 
reconciliation.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  founded  at  Rome  a  college 
for  the  education  of  young  Greeks,^  who,  on  their  i-eturn 
home,  were  to  labor  to  restore  their  countrymen  to  unity. 
One  of  these,  Leo  Allatius,  was  a  native  of  Chios,  and  though 
only  a  la^mian,  filled  several  important  clerical  positions,  both 
at  Rome  and  Naples  (after  1610),  and  distinguished  himself  l)y 
his  active  zeal;  but  his  eftbrts,  like  those  of  so  many  others, 
were  fruitless.  The  wall  of  separation  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Churches  is  broader  and  deeper  than  would  appear 
at  first  sight,  and  has  been  mainly  built  up  by  the  cliaracter- 
istics  peculiar  to  the  formation  and  development  of  each.^ 

§  359.    The  Graeco- Russian   Church  under  its  own  Patriarchs. 

For  Lit.,  see  §  357.  P.  Ryeaut^  The  Present  State  of  the  Armenian  and 
Greek  Churches,  London,  1679.  A.  N.  Murawieff,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Ru.s- 
sia,  trans],  (in  Eussian,  Petersburg,  1838)  by  Blackmore,  Oxford,  1842.  Sira/d, 
Supplem.  to  the  Ch.  H.  of  Russia,  Halle,  1827.  Ullmo.n7i,  On  Strahl  (Stud,  and 
Critic,  1831,  Pt.  II.)  Lettres  sur  les  offices  divins  de  I'Eglise  d'Orient,  tradu- 
ites  du  Russe,  Petersburg,  1837  (Germ,  by  Miirnlt,  Lps.  1838).  Russian  Stud- 
ies on  Theology  and  History,  ed.  by  M.  Bruld,  i^Lunster,  1858  sq.  Philarct, 
Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Russia  (transl.  into  Germ,  by  BlumerdJial,  Frankfort, 
1872,  two  parts).  '\Jno.  Fr.  Henry  ScMos.ser,  The  Eastern  Orthodox  Church  of 
Russia  and  the  European  West,  Heidelberg,  1845.  Pichler,  Hist,  of  the  Schism, 
etc.,  Vol.  II.      Wallace's  Russia,  New  York,  1877. 

The  Russian,  being  the  daughter  of  the  Greek  Church,  has 
been,  like  the  parent,  hostile  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  des- 
titute of  all  spiritual  life.  The  Russian  Church,  however,  did 
not  remain  long  dependent  upon  the  Greek.  The  geographi- 
cal situation  of  Russia,  the  peculiarities  of  her  political  struc- 
ture, her  interests  always  antagonistic  to  those  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  and,  as  time  went  on,  to  those  of  the  Turks  also, 


'  See  I  344,  p.  362. 

2 For  his  works,  see  Vol.  II.,  pag.  449,  and  pag.  814,  note  2.  Cf.  Fref- 
hurg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  1G8  sq.;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  163;  and  Gengler,  The 
Principle  of  Faith  in  the  Greek  Church,  Bamberg,  1829.  See  Tab.  Quart.  Re- 
view,  year  1831,  p.  652  sq. 


§  359.    The  Gracco-Bussian  Church,  etc.  4G9 

early  tended  to  withdraw  her  Church  from  dependence  upon 
that  of  Constantinople.  Hence,  when  the  capital  was  trans- 
ferred from  Kiew  to  Moscow,  so  was  the  Metropolitan  see 
also.  The  preeminence  of  this  see  ma}^  be  said  to  have  been 
formally  recognized  when,  at  a  conference  of  all  the  Russian 
bishops  at  Moscow,  Jo wa.*,  the  appointee  of  the  Grand  Duke, 
was  declared  MetropolUaii  of  Mussia.  The  Russian  Church, 
however,  was  still  in  a  measure  dependent  upon  that  of  Con- 
stantinople, as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Metropolitan, 
Isidore,  accompanied  the  Greek  bishops  to  the  Council  of 
Florence,  held  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  bringing  about  a 
union  between  East  and  West;  but  an  important  step  toward 
complete  separation  had  been  taken,  and  the  fall  of  Constan- 
tinople (1453)  did  but  hasten  an  event  which  was  certain  to 
take  place  sooner  or  later.  Moreover,  in  the  measure  in 
which  the  ties  binding  the  Russian  Church  to  that  of  Con- 
stantinople were  loosed,  in  the  same  measure  did  the  influence 
and  authority  of  the  Grand  Duke  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  in- 
crease. Hence,  in  the  sixteenth  centur}-,  the  Tsar  Ivaiiovicz 
made  an  attempt  to  render  the  Church  of  Russia  wholly  in- 
dependent, by  investing  one  of  his  bishops  with  the  'patriarchal 
dignity. 

The  Tsar  found  a  pliant  instrument  of  his  will  in  Jeremias 
II.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who,  having  come  to  Russia 
in  1585,  and  being  very  much  in  need  of  money,  participated 
in  a  synod,  in  which  he  gave  his  consent  that  Moscow  should 
bo  regarded  as  the  third  Rome  ;^  that  Job  of  Bostow  should  be 
appointed  its  Patriarch ;  and  that  the  governing  body  of  the 
Russian  Church  should  consist  solely  of  four  metropolitans, 
six  archbishops,  and  eight  bishops  (1588).  The  Patriarchs  of 
Alexandria  and  Jerusalem,  sixty -five  metropolitans,  and  eleven 
Greek  archbishops  approved  of  this  organization.  But,  while 
the  Russian  Church  as  such  was  practically  distinct  from  the 
Greek  and  independent  of  it,  the  Muscovite  Patriarchs  con- 
tinued, until  tlie  year  1657,  to  request  the  Patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople to  confirm  them  in  their  office.  Finally,  in  the 
year   1660,  the  Russian    envoy  at  Constantinople    obtained 

1  Karamsi?t,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  181.  (Tr.) 


470  Feriod  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  6. 

from  the  Patriarch,  Denys  II.,  and  other  Greek  Patriarchs,  a 
formal  authorization,  empowering  the  Russian  clergy  to  choose 
their  own  Patriarchs,  and  dispensing  with  the  confirmation 
of  the  election  by  tlie  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

Considered,  both  from  a  ijolitical  and  religions  point  of  view, 
the  office  of  Patriarch  of  Moscow  from  this  time  forth  assumed 
a  national  character,  grew  in  importance,  and  increased  in  in- 
fluence. Those  who  held  it  were  naturally  regarded  as  per- 
sons of  great  consideration,  and  so  powerfnl  did  they  become, 
that  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  their  au- 
thority was  most  respected,  they  roused  the  apprehensions 
and  excited  the  jealousy  of  Peter  the  Great} 

Some  efforts  were  likewise  made  to  bring  about  a  union  be- 
tween the  Russian  Church  and  the  Roman,  chiefly  by  Leo  X., 
Clement  YIL,  and  Gregory  XIII.^  The  Tsar,  lean  Wassil- 
ievicz  (1533-1584),  having  been  defeated  by  the  Poles,  and, 
anxious  to  secure  the  assistance  of  the  Emperor  and  the  me- 
diation of  the  Pope,  with  a  view  of  conciliating  them,  pro- 
fessed a  desire  to  be  reconciled  with  the  Church  of  Rome 
(1581).  Eager  to  turn  the  favorable  dispositions  of  the  Tsar 
to  the  best  account,  Gregory  XIII.  sent  Anthony  Possevino,^ 
a  Jesuit,  to  Russia  as  his  representative.  A  conference  was 
held,  at  which  Ivan  assisted ;  but  having  learned  that  the  ar- 
ticles of  the  treaty  of  peace  were  unfavorable,  he  broke  off" 
the  negotiations,  and  all  hopes  of  union  were  extinguished. 
The  effbrts  of  this  accomplished  Roman  diplomatist  were 
more  successful  in  some  of  the  Russian  provinces,  which,  to- 
gether with  Lithuania,  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  Poles. 

As  the  Patriarchs  of  Moscow  had  uniformly  manifested  an 
unfriendly  spirit  to  those  of  Kiew,  the  latter  were  by  no  means 
desirous  of  continuing  in  tlie  obedience  of  the  former.  Hence 
JRahoza,  Metropolitan  of  Kiew,  who  had  suff'ered  exceptional 
indiornities  at  the  hands  of  the  Patriarchs  Jeremias  and  Job, 


1  Cf.  below,  §  385. 

■''  Condition  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  both  rites  in  Poland  and  Russia,  from 
Catharine  II.  to  our  own  days,  etc.,  by  Augustine  Theiner,  Priest  of  the  Ora- 
tory, Augsburg,  1841,  2  vols.  The  second  volume  consists  of  documentary 
proofs. 

*  Ant.  Possevini  Moscovia,  Viln.  1586 ;  Antv.  1587. 


359.   The  Graeco- Russian  Churchy  etc.  471 


proposed  to  the  bishops  of  his  province  to  unite  with  Rome. 
A  synod  was  held  at  Brzesc,  at  which  a  formal  act  of  union 
was  drawn  up  (December  2,  1593).  In  obedience  to  the  de- 
cision of  a  second  synod,  a  deputation  was  sent  to  Kome,  and 
a  union  effected  on  the  basis  of  the  Council  of  Florence,  and 
on  condition  that  certain  concessions  should  be  made  in  favor 
of  ancient  usages.^  This  happy  event  was  announced  by 
Pope  Clement  VIIL,  in  the  bull  '■'■3Iognus  Dominus  et  lauda- 
bilis.''  ^  He  also  confirmed  the  Metropolitan  for  the  time 
being  in  the  exercise  of  the  rights  of  jurisdiction  attached  to 
his  ofiice  (February  23, 1596),  which  included  the  appointment 
and  confirmation  of  bishops  for  the  dioceses  within  his  prov- 
ince, on  condition,  however,  that  the  Metropolitan  himself 
should,  through  the  Papal  JSTuncio  in  Poland,  ask  for  his  own 
confirmation  from  the  Holy  See. 

]Srot\vithstanding  the  fierce  persecution  raised  against  the 
unionists  by  the  Ruthenian  Patriarch,  the  bonds  uniting  Kiew 
to  Rome  were  still  more  closely  drawn,  under  the  Metropoli- 
tan, Rudski  (1613-1625),  to  whom  Paul  V.  granted  permission 
to  send  four  young  men  to  the  Greek  college  lately  founded 
in  the  Holy  City  (1615). 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  year  1683,  Peter  Mogila  was 
elected  orthodox  Metropolitan  of  Kiew,  and  approved  by 
Ladislaus  IV.,  who,  dreading  the  latinizing  influence  of  the 
Roman  monks  in  the  schools  established  to  promote  the 
union,  assumed  the  control  of  both  the  common  and  higher 
education  of  the  orthodox  community.  In  order  to  confirm 
the  members  of  the  Oriental  Church  in  their  own  belief,  and 
to  strengthen  their  hostility  to  all  encroachments,  whether 
from  a  Catholic  or  Protestant  quarter,  he  composed  a  Rus- 
sian Catechism  (1642),  which  was  accepted  by  all  the  asso- 
ciated Patriarchs  of  the  Greek  Church  as  containing  the 
teachino-s  of  the  Oriental  Catholic  Church. 


Mura  et  privilegia  gcnti  Euthenae  cath.  a  Max.  Pontificibus  Poloniaeque 
liogibus  eoncessa,  Lemberg,  1787. 

2Cf.  the  important  work  of  the  Polish  Jesuit,  Piolr.  Skarga,  o  jodnosci  Kos- 
cicla  Bozego  pod  jednym  Pasterzem:  i  o  Greckiem  i  Pvuskiem  od  tej  jednosci 
odstapieniu  (dedicated  to  Sigismund  III.),  Warsz,  1590;  aud  Theltier,  Pt.  I., 
p.  95  sq.,  and  Pt.  II.,  p.  12-36. 


472  Period  3.     JEpoch  1.     Chapter  6. 


§  360.    The  31onoijhysites  arid  Nestorians. 

Renaudot,  Hist.  Alexandrinor.  patriarchar.  Jacobitar.,  Paris,  1712,  4to.  J.  J. 
Assemanni,  Dissert,  de  Syris  ISIestorianis.  Cf.  Raynald.  ad  an.  luoo,  nro.  43 
6q.;  an.  15G2,  nro.  28  sq.     See  the  Journal  Morgenland,  year  V.,  1842. 

The  sects  v:liich  origiuated  iu  the  Nestorian,  Monophysite, 
and  Monotholite  heresies,  aud  withdrew  from  the  ohedience 
of  the  Oriental  Church,  have  ever  since  continued  to  drag 
!)ut  a  miserable  existence.  Communities  of  Monophysites, 
commonly  called  Jacobites,  are  scattered  here  and  there  in 
uonsiderable  numbers  over  S3'ria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Babylon. 
They  have  a  special  Patriarch  of  their  own,  to  whom  they 
render  obedience,  and  under  him  are  a  primate  and  several 
archbishops  and  bishops.  There  are  also  Jacobites  in  Egypt, 
where  they  are  called  Copts,  and  are  subject  to  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  They  are  likewise  quite  numerous  in 
Abyssinia  ^  and  Armenia. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  the  Catholic  Church  to 
bring  back  these  erring  children  to  the  unity  of  faith.  The 
only  considerable  success  achieved,  however,  was  in  the  case 
of  the  Abyssinians,  who,  having  received  timely  and  efficient 
succor  from  the  Portua^uese  in  their  struo-o:le  against  the  Mo- 
hauimedans,  in  1525,  were  favorably  disposed  to  listen  to 
overtures.  Through  the  eftbrts  of  Father  Bermiulez  and  the 
Jesuits,  the  Emperor  Seltam  Seghed  was  induced  to  break  oli" 
relations  with  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (after  1007), 
after  which  he,  together  with  his  step-brother  and  the  most 
considerable  men  of  his  court,  solemnly  entered  the  Catholic 
Church  (1626).  He  recognized  the  Jesuit,  Alphonso  31endez, 
as  Patriarch,  and  the  Bishop  of  Pome  as  Head  of  the  Uni- 
versal Church.  But  the  popular  discontent  evoked  by  this 
measure,  and  assiduously  encouraged  by  the  monks  and  her- 
mits, grew  daily  more  threatening,  and  culminated  in  an  in- 
Mirrection,  which  continued  into  the  reign  of  Seghed  Basilides 
(from  1632),  by  whom  the  Patriarch  and  the  Jesuit  mission- 

^  La  Croze,  Hist,  du  christ.  d'Abyssinle,  La  Haye,  1739;  Danzig,  1740. 
Sdinurrer,  de  Eccles.  Maronitica,  Tiib.  1810  sq.,  Pt.  II.,  4to.  Cf.  Ami  de  la 
religion,  new  series,  1841,  p.  750. 


§  360.    The  31onophysites  and  Nestorians.  473 

aries  were  expelled  the  countr}',  and  all  relations  with  l\ome 
broken  off  (1634). 

The  Catholic  Church  was  also  in  a  measure  successful  in 
her  missionary  labors  amon_^  the  Armenians,^  among  whom 
there  had  always  existed  a  more  ardent  faith  and  a  greater 
love  of  learning  than  among  any  of  the  other  Oriental  sects. 
To  the  Armenians  belong  the  religious  body  known  as  the 
Mechitarists,  a  name  derived  from  the  Abbot  Meelntar  (i.  e. 
Comforter)  da  Pietro.  Born  at  Sebaste,  in  Armenia  Minor,  in 
1676,  Mechitar  was  brought  up  under  the  care  of  an  Arme- 
nian priest,  and  early  developed  a  great  love  for  study  and  a 
preference  for  the  quiet  of  cloistral  life.  Led  to  Europe  hy  o. 
desire  of  knowledge,  he  experienced  the  trials  and  disap- 
pointments common  to  men  in  the  pursuit  of  learning  under 
difficulties;  but  the  enthusiasm  he  brought  to  his  task,  and 
the  hope  of  realizing  a  project  he  had  for  some  time  enter- 
tained, of  establishing  a  literary  academy  for  the  Armenian 
nation,  bore  him  up  in  his  moments  of  depression,  and  car- 
ried him  forward  when  his  heart  was  light.  In  1701  he 
founded  at  Constantinople  a  religious  community,  whose 
members  were  to  devote  themselves  specially  to  diffusing  a 
knowledge  of  the  ancient  language  and  literature  of  Armenia. 
He  subsequently  removed  to  the  Morea,  but  forced,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  war  between  the  Turks  and  Venetians,  to  sur- 
render (1715)  the  convent  he  built  (from  1703)  on  that  penin- 
sula, with  so  much  toil  and  trouble,  he  withdrew  to  the  small 
island  of  San  Lazzaro,  near  Venice,  on  which  he  once  more 
established  himself  and  his  community  (1717-1740).^  Ilis 
monks,  to  whom  he  gave  the  Kule  of  St.  Benedict,  encour- 
aged by  the  example,  and  emulating  the  zeal  of  their  founder, 


'  \Steck,  The  Liturgy  of  the  CntholU  Armenians,  transl.  fr.  the  Arm.  into 
Germ,  and  put  in  comparison  with  other  ancient  liturgies,  especially  those  of 
SS.  Basil  and  Chrysostom,  Tub.  1844. 

2 The  convent  bears  the  following  inscription,  written  in  the  Latin  and  .\y- 
menian  languages:  '•  Fuit  hoc  monasterium  totum  tempore  Petri  Mechitar  rx 
Kebaste  primi  Abbatis  exstruetum  an.  1740."  See  the  description  of  a  visit 
made  to  the  establishment  of  San  Lazzaro  of  the  Mechitarists,  and  the  Life  of 
Mechitar,  in  Illgens^  Hist,  and  Theol.  Review,  1841,  p.  143-1G8.  Of.  Bon,'.  Lg 
Convent  do  St.  Lazare  ii  Yenise,  ou  Ilistoire  succincte  de  I'Ordre  dcs  Mt-chita- 
ristes  Armeniens,  Paris,  18^7. 


474  Period  3.     Epoch  1.     Chapter  6. 

devoted  themselves  to  the  work  of  translating  and  publishing 
in  excellent  editions  the  Armenian  classics  in  the  languages 
of  the  West,  and  similarly  the  classics  of  the  West  in  the 
language  of  Armenia.  These  labors  they  continued  after  the 
death  of  Mechitar,  in  1749,  and  tlie}^  have  since  established 
communities  in  Vienna  (1811)  and  Paris. 

The  3Iaronites  (Monothelites  ?)  of  Mount  Lebanon,  on  the 
establisiiment  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  in  the 
twelfth  century,  entered  into  communion  with  the  Church 
ot"  Rome  ;  but  when  that  kingdom  was  destroyed,  two  centu- 
ries later,  they  ceased  for  a  time  to  have  any  intercourse  with 
Western  Christendom.  Their  relations  to  the  Holy  See  Avere 
again  renewed  at  the  Council  of  Florence  (1445),  and  per- 
fected in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  a  col- 
lege was  founded  at  Rome  (after  1584)  for  the  education  of 
their  clergy.  In  this  and  their  home-college  of  El  Chasir, 
the  Maronites  labor  zealously  and  perseveringly,  but  with  no 
attempt  at  display,  to  cultivate  and  promote  the  various 
branches  of  Eastern  and  Western  learning.  Although  in 
union  with  Rome,  they  are  permitted  to  have  their  own  Pa- 
triarch ;  to  use  the  ancient  Syriac  language  in  their  liturgy; 
to  communicate  in  both  kinds  ;  and  their  clergy,  if  married 
before  taking  priest's  orders,  may  retain  their  wives.  As  a 
proof  of  their  complete  union  with  the  Latin  Church,  the 
Maronites,  at  a  plenary  council  held  in  1736,  formally  sub- 
scribed the  Decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  the  presence  of 
the  Papal  Legate. 

The  Nestorians  or  Chaldean  Christians,  called  in  East  India 
Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  are  governed  by  two  Patriarchs, 
one  of  whom  resides  in  a  convent  near  Mosul,  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  the  other  at  Ormia,  in  Persia.  The  former  has 
uniformly  styled  himself  Mar  Elias,  since  the  year  1559  ;  and 
the  latter,  since  the  year  1575,  has  similarly  styled  himself 
Mar  Simon.  Their  churches  were  once  spread  over  Tartary, 
India,  and  even  China.  Eftbrts  were  made  by  Popes  Pius 
IV.  and  Paul  V.  to  restore  them  to  the  common  center  of 
Christian  unity.  A  great  schism  took  place  in  their  body  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  those  in  the  obedience  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Ormia  returned  to  the  unity  of  the  Latin  Church, 


SECOND  EPOCH. 

FliOM   THE   PEACE    OF   WESTPHALIA   DOWN   TO 
MODERN  TIMES,  1648-1878. 


PART  I. 

EROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  FRENCH  REVO- 
LUTION (1789)— PREVALENCE  OP  FALSE  POLITICAL  AND 
SCIENTIFIC  THEORIES. 

§  361.  Sources  and  Works — Summary. 

I.  Bullar.  Roman.,  continued  from  Clement  XIII.,  by  Barbieri,  Rom.  1835 
sq.  Act.'i  historico-eccl.,  Weim.  1736-1758,  24  vols.  Nova  acta  hist,  eccl., 
Weim.  1758-1773,  12  vols.  Acta  hist.  eccl.  nostri  temporis,  Weim.  1774-1787, 
12  vols.  Repertory  to  serve  Modern  Ch.  H.  (Index  on  all  the  above-nn'n- 
tioned),  Weimar,  1790.  Reports,  Documents,  and  Statements  to  supply  Mod- 
ern Ch.  H.,  Weimar,  1789-1793,  5  vols.  Colleciio  Lacensis,  Acta  et  decreta 
concilior.  recent,  ab  an.,  1682-1789,  Friburgi  Brisgav.  1871  sq.,  T.  I.  Walch, 
Modern  Hist,  of  Religion,  Lemgo,  1771-1783,  9  vols.;  continued  by  Plcnick, 
Lemgo,  1787-1793,  3  vols.  Vater,  Cultivation  of  Modern  Ch.  H.,  Berlin,  1820 
sq.,  2  vols.  Hist,  and  Theol.  Review,  edited  by  lllgeii,  from  1832;  by  Niedner, 
from  1846;  by  Kahnis,  from  1866. 

II.  By  "  some  one"  Essay  of  a  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Lps.  1776 
sq.,  3  vols.  Schlegel,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Heilbron,  1784  sq.,  2 
vols. ;  and  by  Fraas,  Vol.  3d,  Pt.  I.  (both  being  in  continuation  of  Mosheim's). 
Cf.  Schroeckh,  Ch.  H.  since  the  Reformation,  Pt.  VI.-IX.  Hagenbach,  Hist,  of 
the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  3d  ed.,  Lps.  1856,  2 
pts.,  4th  revised  ed.,  Lps.  1871,  1872 ;  Engl,  tr.,  by  Rev.  J.  F.  Hurst,  D.D.,  New 
York,  1869.  (Tr.)  Bmir,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Vol.  IV.,  p.476- 
679,  of  the  complete  work),  f  '^Huth,  Essay  of  a  Ch.  II.  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Augsburg,  1807-1809,  2  vols.  fRobiano,  Continuation  de  I'histoire  do 
Teglise  de  BerauU-Bercnsiel  depuis,  1721-1830  (Par.  1836.  4  T.),  T.  1.  \Hen- 
rion,  Hist,  generale  de  Feglise  pendant  les  XVIII.-XIX.  siecles,  Par.  183b, 
T.  I.  "fCapefigue,  L'eglise  pendant  les  4  derniers  siecles,  T.  2  et  3.  Rohrbachcr, 
Hist.  univ.  de  l'eglise,  T.  26  et  27.  F.  Ancillon,  Tableau  des  revolutions  du 
systeme  polit.  de  I'Europe  depuis  la  fin  du  15  siecle,  Berl.  1803  sq.,  4  T. ;  Germ, 
by  Mann,  Berlin,  1804,  3  vols.  Schlosser,  Hist,  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
Heidelberg,  1886-1842,  3  vols,  (to  1788).     Cf.   Hist,  and  Polit.    Papers,  Vol 

(475) 


476  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

XYI.  Gfroerer,  Hist,  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  published  by  Tl'ci.ss, 
Schaffh.,  1862  sq.,  3  vols.  Cesare  Cantu^  Universal  History,  Germ,  by  Eruehl, 
Vols.  XI.  and  XII. 

No  sooner  had  Protestantism  secured  political  recognition, 
and  consolidated  its  strength,  than  the  influence  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  'pure  state  secularism.^  so  recklessly  applied  and  con- 
sistently carried  out  in  the  Treaty  of  "Westphalia,  by  Catholic 
and  Protestant  princes  alike,  became  painfully  apparent  in 
the  domain  of  both  science  and  art.  An  utterly  selfish  and 
grasping  policy,  unrestrained  by  either  human  laws  or  super- 
natural principles,  began  to  prevail.  Under  pretense  of  de- 
siring to  preserve  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  the  more 
powerful  princes  obtained  by  fraud  or  seized  by  violence  ter- 
ritories which  their  weaker  neighbors  were  unable  to  defend. 
To  such  frivolous  and  unscrupulous  rulers  the  honest,  straight- 
forward policy  set  forth  by  Fenelon  in  the  Telemachus  was  in 
the  last  degree  distasteful. 

In  consequence  of  the  conflicts  resulting  from  such  princi- 
ples, the  Houses  of  Bourbon  and  TIapsbnrg  seized  conjointly 
Southern  Europe  ;  and  Prussia,  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
kingdom,  began  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  European  affairs. 
After  the  return  of  the  Electors  of  Saxony  to  the  Catliolic 
Church,  Prussia,  assuming  the  otfice  of  protector  of  Protest- 
antism, introduced  into  the  politics  and  religion  of  Germany 
the  principles  of  Erastianism.  On  the  other  hand,  Poland 
was  dismembered  ;  Russia  began  to  take  a  prominent  and 
dangerous  part  in  the  political  aflfairs  of  Western  Europe; 
and  Protestant  England  wrested  the  scepter  of  the  seas  from 
the  Catholic  powers,  and  reduced  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  to 
ihe  condition  of  a  province. 

To  ofi'set  these  extraordinary  events  in  the  political  domain, 
there  were  no  cheering  results  in  the  religions ;  the  evidences 
of  spiritual  life  and  growth,  even  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  productions  of  modern  national  literature 
were  at  once  numerous  and  of  exceptional  merit,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  France,  being  neither  important  in  themselves  nor 
yet  giving  promise  of  better  things.  In  every  Catholic  coun- 
try, with  the  exception  of  France,  the  humiliating  issue  of 
the  great  religious  conflicts  produced  a  spirit  of  apathy  and 


361.  Sources  and  Works — Summary.  477 


indifference,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  a  haughty  ar- 
rogance in  Catholic  princes,  which  they  dispUiycd  in  a  readi- 
ness to  quarrel  with  Popes  and  persecute  Jesuits. 

Again,  Protestantism  produced  and  fostered  a  radical  and 
aggressive  nationalism,  out  of  which  issued  the  shallow  and 
senseless  philosophy  of  that  age,  whose  single  aim  seems  to 
have  been  to  destroy  the  faith  of  mankind  in  the  divine  char- 
acter of  revelation.  This  rationalistic  tendency  ultimately 
exercised  a  most  disastrous  influence  on  the  intellectual  life 
of  European  countries,  notably  of  France  and  Germany, 
where  it  was  mainly  instrumental  in  cultivating  and  creating 
a  taste  for  that  stupid  mock- enlightenment  which  Claudius  sa- 
tirizes with  caustic  severity  in  the  "Wandsbeck  Messenger. 
(See  §  378.) 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORY   OF    THE    CATHOLIC   CHURCH. 

§  362.  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Guarnacci,  Vitae  et  res  gestae  Eomanor.  Pontiff,  et  Cardinal,  a  Clem.  X. 
usque  ad  Clem.  XI.,  Eom.  1751,  2  T.  f.  Ant.  Snndini,  Vitae  Pontiff.  Rom.  ex 
antiq.  monum.  collectae,  Patav.  17.39,  8vo  ;  Bamberg,  1753,  8vo.  Storia  critico- 
chronologica  di  liom.  Pontefici  (to  Clement  XIII.)  e  di  general!  e  provinciali 
concilii  scritta  da  Giuseppe  Abbate  Piatti,  Napoli,  17G5-1770.  Bower,  Hist,  of 
the  Popes,  revised  by  Rambnch,  Vol.  X.,  Pt.  II.  Ranke,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy 
during  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries,  Vol.  III.  Hist,  of  the  Popes, 
by  Haas,  p.  G08  sq. ;  by  Groene,  Vol.  II.,  p.  400  sq. 

The  papal  power  received  a  rude  and  terrible  shock  during 
the  pontificate  of  Innocent  X.  In  concluding  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia,  the  Court  of  Rome  was  utterly  ignored  hy  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant  princes  ;  most  of  the  ecclesiastical 
pro[.)erty  of  Germany,  including  abbej'S  and  bisl)0[)rics,  "vvas 
secularized  ;  and  the  relations  of  the  civil  to  the  spiritual 
power  completely  severed.  The  influence  of  the  Church  in 
the  affairs  of  State  and  in  political  movements  entirely  ceased. 
By  losing  its  political  prestige,  the  Holy  See  lost  also  much 
of  its  moral  asceadaucy  and  consideration  with  the  people  of 
Europe  ;  and  there  was  abundant  reason  to  fear  that  these 
unparalleled  acts  of  aggression  might  end  in  an  attack  upon 
the  papacy  itself,  and  in  an  attempt  to  fetter  the  Pope  in  the 
legitimate  exercise  of  the  essential  functions  of  his  ofiice. 
To  these  encroachments  upon  his  privileges  and  violations 
of  his  rights.  Innocent  could  offer  only  a  feeble  and  ineffectual 
protest. 

If  the  events  of  the  closing  epoch  were  disheartening  to 
the  Sovereign  Pontiff,  the  conditions  which  characterized  the 
one  just  opening  were  calculated  to  fill  his  mind  with  just 
alarm.  While  some  of  the  worldly-minded  bishops  gave  him 
but  a  feeble  support,  and  others  became  his  open  and  avowed 
enemies.  Catholic  princes,  and  especially  those  of  the  Houses 

(478) 


§  362.    The  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.        479 

of  Bourbon  and  Hapsburg,  who  tyrannized  over  a  great  por- 
tion of  Europe,  were  more  shameless  in  their  treatment  of 
him  and  more  malicious  in  their  hostility  than  even  the  Pro- 
testants themselves. 

Innocent  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal  Fabio  Ch.o;i^  who  took 
the  name  of  Alexander  VII.  (1655-1667).  The  severity  of 
his  morals,  his  aversion  to  pomp  and  luxury,  his  prudence,, 
and  his  capacit}-  for  business  seemed  to  promise  that  his  reign 
would  be  more  happy  and  prosperous  than  the  one  just  closed 
had  been.  But  the  hopes  built  upon  the  talents  and  virtues 
he  had  displayed  as  a  cardinal  and  diplomatist  vrere  prevented 
from  being  realized  by  the  fault  of  the  Pontitf  himself.  He 
called  his  grasping  relations  to  Home,  and  when  he  appeared 
in  public  it  was  with  a  pomp  and  splendor  such  as  had  never 
before  been  witnessed  or  even  thought  of  in  that  city  of  mag- 
nificent displays.  He  had,  however,  the  unexpected  and  grat- 
ifying pleasure  of  learning  that  Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden, 
and  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  great  Protestant 
hero,  had  abjured  the  creed  of  her  father  and  embraced  the 
Catholic  faith,  first  privately  at  Brussels,  and  afterward  sol- 
emnly and  publicly  in  the  church  of  the  Franciscans  at  Inns- 
brack.  From  her  infancy  up  she  had  been  deeply  and  favor- 
ably impressed  with  the  beauty  of  many  Catholic  practices; 
and  as  she  grew  in  years,  the  solemn  grandeur  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  her  worship  and  her  ritual,  inspired  in  her  soul  feel- 
ings of  reverence  and  awe.  In  this  frame  of  mind,  she  came 
upon  the  words  of  Cicero,  "  that  possibly  all  the  ojnnions  of  men 
concerning  religion  might  be  false,  but  that  more  than  one  of  them 
could  be  true  was  impossible"  ^  the  truth  of  which  nearly  over- 
powered her  and  opened  out  to  her  a  serious  train  of  thought. 
This  led  her  to  inquire  which  was  the  true  religion.  That 
God  should  have  left  man  without  such  seemed  to  her  incon- 
ceivable;  for  to  say  that  the  Author  of  our  being  had  im- 
planted in  the  heart  and  conscience  a  want  that  could  not  be 
satisfied,  was  very  like  taxing  Him  with  a  cruel  tyranny. 
Having  found  in  the  Catholic  Church  the  true  religion  so 
earnestly  sought,  she  forthwith  hastened  to  carry  into  effect 

'  De  natura  Decn-um,  1,  2. 


480  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

the  promise  she  had  made  while  still  in  search  of  it.  "  O,  my 
God,"  she  was  wont  to  say, "Thou  knowest  how  often  I  have 
besought  Thee,  in  language  unintelligible  to  other  minds, 
to  give  me  light ;  and  how  I  have  promised  to  obey  Thy  call 
at  any  cost,  even  the  sacrifice  of  my  fortune  and  my  life." 
She  laid  down  the  crown  of  Sweden,  which  she  could  not 
wear  as  a  Catholic,  and  was  unwilling  to  remain  in  a  country 
whose  sovereignty  she  had  transferred  to  another.  At  the 
Pope's  invitation,  she  came  to  Italy,  and  visiting  Loreto, 
placed  her  scepter  and  crown  in  the  shrine  of  Our  Lady  as  a 
thank-oiiering.  But,  while  laying  aside  the  titles  and  func- 
tions of  royalty,  she  retained  her  naturally  haughty,  and  at 
times  despotic,  manner,  which  some  of  those  about  her,  both 
at  Eorae  and  Fontainebleau,  learned  to  their  cost.  As  time 
went  on,  however,  her  temper  became  more  even,  her  mind 
more  composed,  her  character  more  amiable,  and  her  manners 
more  engaging.  Being  a  woman  of  extraordinary  talents 
and  unusual  acquirements,  she  drew  about  her  a  number  of 
artists  and  savants,  upon  whom  she  exercised  no  little  influ- 
ence, and  in  this  way  did  much  to  promote  the  progress  of 
many  branches  of  science  and  art.  She  died  at  Rome,  April 
19,  1680,  and  received  the  exceptional  honor  of  a  tomb  in 
St.  Peter's  Church.  Another  conversion,  very  similar  to 
Christina's  in  many  respects,  was  that  of  the  scholarly  ^rnes^, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse-Rheinfels.^ 

But  if  these  events  brought  comfort  to  the  heart  of  the 
Pontiff,  there  were  others  that  gave  him  no  little  pain  and 
annoyance.  As  nuncio  at  the  Conference  of  Miinster,  Alex- 
ander had  given  offense  to  France;  and,  after  his  accession 
to  the  papacy,  France  in  turn,  under  the  governments  of  Car- 
dinal Mazarin  (f  16G1),  and  especially  of  Louis  XIV.,  settled 
the  score  by  causing  him  all  the  trouble  the}^  decently  could, 


1  Grauert,  Christina  of  Sweden  and  her  Court,  Bonn,  1837  sq.,  2  vols.  Raiike, 
Fwoman  Pontiffs,  Vol.  III.,  p.  77-103.  "Digression  on  Christina  of  Sweden." 
Relation  de  tout  ce  qui  se  passa  entre  le  Pape  Alex,  et  le  roi  de  France,  Col. 
1070.  Desmarais,  Histoire  des  demeles  de  la  cour  de  France  avee  la  cour  de 
Rome,  Par.  1706,  4to.  Poetical  Essays  of  this  Pope:  Philomaihi,  labores  juve- 
niles, 1656,  f.  Raes.%  Bp.  of  Strasburg,  Converts,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  62  sq.  Concern- 
ing Landgrave  Ernest,  cf.  ibidem,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  465  sq. 


§  362.   The  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.         481 

thus  clouding  and  embittering  his  life.  It  would  seem  that 
Louis  gave  formal  instructions  to  the  Duke  of  Crequi,  his  em- 
bassador, to  heap  indignities  upon  the  Pope.  There  is  no 
other  way  of  adequately  accounting  for  the  extraordinary 
conduct  of  the  embassador  himself  and  the  ruffians  of  liis 
letinue,  which  po  irritated  the  Pope's  body-guard  that,  smart- 
ing under  the  insult,  they  refused  to  respect  the  sacredness  of 
the  hotel  of  the  French  Embassy  (1662).  This  so  incensed 
Louis  that  he  ordered  the  papal  envoys  to  quit  France  under 
escort;  caused  the  papal  city  of  Avignon  and  the  territory 
of  Venaissin  to  be  occupied  by  his  troops  ;  and  dispatched  an 
iirmy  into  Italy  to  obtain  satisfaction.  The  treaty  of  Pisa 
followed  (1664),  the  humiliating  terms  of  which  the  Pope  had 
no  alternative  but  to  accept.  Alexander,  however,  renewed 
friendly  relations  with  the  Eepublic  of  Venice ;  obtained 
from  it  the  restoration  of  the  confiscated  property  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  the  Canons  Regular  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which 
he  devoted  to  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  war  against  the 
Turks,  and  sought  and  received  permission  for  the  banished 
Jesuits  to  return.^  Finally,  Alexander  erected  many  magnifi- 
•cent  structures,  which  largely  contributed  to  the  embellish- 
ment of  Rome.  Among  these  were  the  Archigymnasium  of 
the  Sapienza,  which  he  enriched  with  a  splendid  library,aud 
the  collonade  surrounding  the  piazza  or  square  before  St. 
Peter's  Church.  The  costliness  of  these  and  other  improve- 
ments, together  with  the  rapacity  of  his  relatives,  exhausted 
his  resources,  and  led  to  financial  embarrassment. 

Clement  IX.  (Rospigliosi,  1667-1669),  like  his  predecessor, 
was  a  lover  of  letters  and  a  poet;  but,  unlike  him,  he  was  a 
tolerable  financier,  and  was  partially  successful  in  repairing 
the  disordered  state  of  the  papal  exchequer.  He  advanced 
large  sums  of  money  to  the  Republic  of  Venice  to  enable 
it  to  prosecute  a  war  against  the  Turks.  He  was  mainly  in- 
strumental in  bringing  about  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1668),  thus  reconciling  France  and  Spain ;  and  he  impressed 
upon  the  mind  of  Louis  XIV.  the  conviction  that  his  re;d 

1  See  page  365  sq. 

VOL.    Ill — 31 


482  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

interests,  bis  true  glor}',  and  the  welfare  of  his  soul  all  de- 
manded that  he  should  restrain  his  lust  for  conquest. 

The  kingdom  of  Portugal  had  been  independent  since  the 
time  of  John  IV.  (1641),  but  the  Pope,  not  wishing  to  givu 
ofiense  to  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  declined  to  recognize  it. 
Clement,  putting  such  notions  aside,  gave  it  a  formal  recog- 
nition, acknowledging  the  reigning  prince,  Dom  Pedro,  as  its 
king,  and  confirming  the  bishops  appointed  by  that  sovereign. 
He  also  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  foreign  missions,  and, 
among  other  regulations  drawn  up  b}'  him  for  the  guidance 
of  the  missionaries,  was  one  forbidding  them  for  the  future  to 
engage  in  commercial  enterprises  of  any  kind.  The  news 
that  the  island  of  Candia  (Crete)  had  been  taken  by  the 
Turks,  a  disaster  which  he  had  done  so  much  to  avert,  caused 
him  such  pain  that  he  died  of  grief,  December  9,  1669. 

After  his  death  the  papal  throne  remained  vacant  for  five 
months,  when  Eriiilio  Altieri,  then  in  his  eightieth  year, 
was  elected,  and  took  the  name  of  Clement  X.  (1670-1676). 
This  pontificate  marks  the  beginning  of  an  era  still  more  dis- 
astrous than  that  of  preceding  ones  in  the  history  of  the 
Popes.  Following  the  example  set  them  by  the  King  of 
France,  the  Catholic  sovereigns  of  other  countries  sought 
to  strip  the  Holy  Father  of  all  influence  and  to  seize  tlie  rev- 
enues of  the  Church  in  their  respective  States.  With  a  view 
to  aiding  the  Poles  in  their  struggle  against  the  Turks,  Clem- 
ent opened  negotiations  with  the  Tsar,  Alexei  31icliaelowicz 
who  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome  to  obtain  from  the  Pope  the 
title  of  Emperor.  It  was  during  this  reign  that  the  question 
of  the  Right  of  Regalia  arose  in  France,  which  afterward  be- 
came so  celebrated  and  so  productive  of  evil.  By  the  Right 
of  Regalia  was  meant  an  abusive  custom  introduced  into 
France,  by  which  the  crown  claimed  the  revenues  of  vacant 
bishoprics  and  the  collation  of  simple  benefices,  the  disposal 
of  which  injustice  belonged  to  the  incoming  bishops.  This 
riffht,  at  first  restricted  to  such  churches  as  had  been  founded 
by  the  Kings  of  France,  had  been  extended  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  IV.  to  all  the  churches  in  the  kingdom.  This  vio- 
lation of  ecclesiastical  rights,  which  only  the  two  bishops  of 
Pamiers  and  Alais  had  the  courage  to  resist,  was  confirmed 


362.   The  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.         483 


by  Louis  XIV.  in  two  edicts,  published  respectively  in  1673 
and  1674.  Clement  died  before  the  close  of  the  controversy. 
His  successor,  Innocent  XI.  (Odescalchi,  1676-1689),  was  a 
man  of  rare  ability  and  an  avowed  enemy  of  nepotism.^  He 
published  a  number  of  very  useful  decrees  on  discipline,  and 
exercised  unusual  discrimination  in  the  appointment  of  bish- 
ops. To  remedy  the  disordered  condition  of  the  finances  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  he  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  ex- 
chequer all  the  offices  and  emoluments  hitherto  in  the  hands 
of  the  nephews  of  preceding  Popes.  The  residences  of  for- 
eign embassadors  had  been,  previously  to  this  reign,  privi- 
leged places  of  asylum  for  criminals,  and  Innocent,  hj  with- 
drawing the  privilege,  involved  himself  in  heated  controversies 
with  the  difterent  courts  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  princes, 
however,  yielded  their  claim  on  receiving  full  explanations 
from  the  Pope.  Louis  XIV.  neither  asked  nor  waited  for 
explanations,  and  his  embassador  and  suite,  to  show  their 
contempt  of  papal  authority,  carried  themselves  more  like  sol- 
diers in  a  conquered  country  than  representatives  of  a  foreign 
king  at  a  friendly  court.  Louis,  as  has  been  stated,  occupied 
Avignon,  and,  with  a  view  to  justifying  his  conduct  in  this 
and  other  matters,  appealed  from,  the  judgment  of  the  Pope  to 
that  of  a  General  Council.  In  the  meantime,  the  controversj- 
on  the  subject  of  the  Regalia  was  carried  on  with  unabated 
earnestness.  The  appeals  of  the  Bishops  of  Pamiers  and 
Alais  were  favorably  received  by  the  Pope  ;  and  Louis  called 
an  assembly  of  the  French  Clergy,  consisting  of  thirty-four 
archbishops  and  bishops,  two  agents  of  the  clergy,  and  thirty- 
six  priests,  all  of  whom  were  in  the  interest  of  the  king,  and 
from  whom  he  obtained  the  celebrated  "Declaration"'  of 
1682,  containing  the  '■'■Four  Articles,'''  which  are  regarded  as 
the  charter  of  the  so-called  "■Ga.llican  Liberties.'"  The  Pope 
protested  against  the  "  Declaration,"  and  the  king  commanded 
that  its  provisions  be  enforced  throughout  the  whole  of  his 
dominions.  The  work  was  accomplished,  and  the  evil  done, 
and  of  its  gravity  there  could  be  only  one  opinion.     During 

'  Vita  dinnoc.  XI.,  1690,  4to;  Bonamici,  de  Vita  et  rebus  geatis  Innocentis 
XI.,  Romae,  1776. 


484  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

these  troubles  and  conflicts  the  holiness  of  Innocent  was  such 
that  the  people  esteemed  him  a  saint;  and,  to  comfort  the 
closing  days  of  his  life,  he  learned  that  John  Sobiesid  had 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Turks  before  Vienna,  and 
that  the  Gospel  was  being  rapidly  spread  among  the  heathen, 
But  the  event  which  contributed  perhaps  as  much  as  any  other 
to  gladden  his  heart  was  the  arrival  at  Rome  of  a  deputa- 
tion, sent  by  a  number  of  schismatical  bishops,  to  convey  to 
the  Holy  Father  the  profession  of  their  submission  to  the 
Holy  See. 

The  holy  Innocent  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  VIII. 
(Ottoboni,  1689-1691),  who,  being  a  native  of  Venice,  very 
naturally  rendered  what  help  he  could  to  the  Republic  in  its 
struggle  with  the  Turks.  Although  he  had  obtained  from 
Louis  XIV.  the  restoration  of  Avignon  and  Venaissin,  he  was 
not  deterred  from  publishing  a  brief,  in  which  he  condemned 
the  Four  Articles  of  the  Gallican  Liberties.  It  was  also 
during  his  pontificate  that  the  valuable  library  of  Christina, 
ex-Queen  of  Sweden,  was  added  to  that  of  the  Vatican.  The 
memory  of  Alexander  has  unfortunately  suffered  much  from 
the  misconduct  of  his  nephews,  to  whom,  on  account  of  his 
advanced  age,  he  allowed  a  large  share  in  the  government. 

His  successor,  Innocent  XII.  (Pignatelli,  1691-1700),  took 
Innocent  XL  as  his  pattern  and  model  in  governing  the 
Church.  He  published  a  bull,  expressly  forbidding  nepotism  ; 
enacted  useful  and  severe  laws  regarding  the  execution  of 
justice  and  reformation  of  morals  within  the  Papal  States; 
and  provided  carefully  for  the  poor,  whom  he  called  his 
nephews,  putting  the  Lateran  palace  at  their  service  as  an 
hospital.  After  a  long  and  by  no  means  agreeable  experi- 
ence, Louis  XIV.  was  forced  to  give  the  French  bishops  leave 
to  write  to  the  Pope,  to  state  that  they  very  much  regretted 
the  Declaration  of  1682,  and  that  they  regarded  it  as  invalid. 
The  king  himself  had  previously  written  to  say  "  that  it  ga  ve 
him  great  pleasure  to  be  able  to  inform  His  Holiness  that,  in 
whatever  related  to  the  Declaration  of  the  clergy,  he  had 
taken  the  necessary  steps  to  render  inoperative  the  ordinances 
of  1682,  which  he  was  driven  to  enact  by  force  of  circum- 
stances."     The  Pope,  in  turn,  confirmed  the   appomtmenta 


§  363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  485 

made  to  bishoprics  during  the  continuance  of  the  controversy. 
Possibly  no  official  act  of  his  pontificate  caused  Innocent 
more  pain  than  the  condemnation  of  the  work  of  the  noble 
Archbishop  Fenelon,  entitled  ^'Maxims  of  the  Saints"  Inno- 
cent died  September  27,  1700,  during  the  celebration  of  the 
centenary  jubilee,  which  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims,  obedient 
to  his  call,  were  flocking  to  Rome  to  celebrate. 

§  363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

After  some  delay  and  hesitation,  Clement  XI.  (Albani, 
1700-1721),  ascended  the  papal  throne.  A  prince  of  the 
House  of  Albani,  he  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  a  man  of 
independent  character,  and  an  able  and  eloquent  preacher.' 
From  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign  he  saw  himself  sur- 
rounded with  difficulties  of  no  ordinary  kind.  Frederic  1. 
had  lately  (1700)  accepted  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia;  but 
as  the  Teutonic  Order  had  once  owned  the  Duchy  of  Prussia, 
and  had  never  surrendered  its  claim.  Pope  Clement  protested 
against  the  royal  assumptions  of  Frederic ;  and  the  protest, 
which  has  been  often  renewed  by  his  successors,^  has  been  the 
occasion  of  much  affected  surprise,  audi  no  little  misrepresenta- 
tion, by  the  enemies  of  the  Papacy.  Contrary  to  his  wish, 
Clement  was  also  made  a  party  to  the  disputes  arising  out  oi' 
the  War  of  Succession  in  Spain,  which,  following  close  upon  the 
death  of  Charles  II.,  he  had  done  all  in  his  power  to  prevent. 

Joseph  I.,  Em])eror  of  Germany,  believing  that  the  Pope 
was  disposed  to  look  with  favor  upon  the  claims  of  France, 
and  to  oppose  the  recognition  of  his  own  brother  as  King  of 
Spain,  prepared  to  make  him  feel  the  full  weight  of  his  anger. 
His  troops  pillaged  the  States  of  the  Church,  and  his  generals 
concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Dukes  of  Parma  and  Piacenza, 
for  the  purpose  of  laying  the  clergy  under  contribution.     To 


1  0pp.  Eom.  1 722,  Frcf.  1729,  2  T.,  f.  Buder,  The  Life  of  Clement  XI..  Frlcft 
t:21,  3  vols.  (Polidoro)  Libb.  VI.  de  vita  et  reb.  gest.  Clem.  XL,  Urb.  1724 
lieboulet,  Hist,  de  Clem.  XL,  Avign.  1752,  2  T.,  4to. 

2The  Pope  (Epp.  et  brevia  selectiora,  pp.  43  sq.,  ed.  Frcf.)  says:  Fridericura 
marchionem  Brandenburgensem  nomen  et  insignia  regis  Prussiae  inaudito  forte 
hactenus  apod  Christianos  more  nee  sine  gravi  antiqui  juris,  quod  ea  provincia 
aacro  et  milUari  Teuto7iieorum  ordini  compeiit,  violatione  sibi  publico  arrognsse 


486  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


the  already  existing  troubles  of  the  Pope  another  was  added, 
viz.,  the  controvers}^  on  the  right  of  presentation  to  cathedral 
churches  and  religious  foundations.  The  Pope  threatened 
excommunication,  and  began  to  prepare  for  war;  but  at  the 
approach  of  the  imperial  troops  he  was  forced  to  make  peace  ; 
to  lay  aside  his  arms;  to  recognize  Charles  III.  as  King  of  Spain; 
and  to  grant  him  the  investiture  of  the  kingdom  of  ITaples. 

When  Philip  V.  of  Avjou  learned  the  conditions  of  this 
treaty  he  was  so  incensed  that  he  ordered  the  Papal  Nuncio 
to  quit  Spain,  and  forbade  all  intercourse  between  his  subjects 
and  the  Holy  See. 

Finally,  Clement  was  drawn  into  another  controversy  with 
Victor  Amadeus  of  Savoj',  in  1711,  contrary  to  whose  will  he 
had  published  sentence  of  excommunication  against  certain 
magistrates  of  that  country  for  their  contemptuous  disregard 
of  the  rights  of  the  Church.  But  there  was  a  still  more  serious 
cause  of  complaint  against  Amadeus.  Having  ascended  the 
throne  of  Sicily  in  virtue  of  the  stipulations  of  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  (1713),  this  prince  proceeded,  without  the  Pope's 
consent,  to  arrogate  to  himself  the  ecclesiastical  prerogatives 
of  the  ^''Sicilian  Monarchy"'^  which  he  well  knew  had  always 
been  denied  to  the  Sicilian  monarchs.  Having  placed  the 
kingdom  of  Sicily  under  interdict,  the  Pope  was  under  the 
necessity  of  supporting  three  thousand  Sicilian  ecclesiastics, 
who,  fleeing  from  the  country,  sought  refuge  in  Rome.  Thus 
were  the  troubles  of  the  Holy  See  dailj-  increasing  in  number 
and  gravity.  The  Pope  was  encouraged  to  maintain  his  firm 
and  resolute  attitude  by  the  memory  of  the  great  influence  exer- 
cised in  times  j^ast  by  t/ie  Holy  See;  but,  while  not  lacking  in 
courage  himself,  he  received  but  scant  support  from  the  Cath- 
olic sovereigns,  who,  like  their  Protestant  neighbors,  sought 
to  take  upon  themselves  the  exercise  of  spiritual  powers,  and 
to  use  both  religion  and  the  Head  of  the  Church  only  to  fur- 
ther their  selfish  political  aims.  To  remedy  these  evils,  the 
Pope  did  what  he  could,  but  to  no  purpose  ;  his  protests  were 
unheeded,  and  his  voice  fell  upon  ears  that  would  not  hear. 

During  the  pontificate  of  Innocent  XIII.  (1721-1724)  the 

»See  Vol.  II.,  pp.  516  sq. 


363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  487 


difi'erences  existing  between  the  kingdom  of  Xaples  and  the 
Holy  See  were  terminated.  In  consideration  of  an  annual 
tribute  of  six  thousand  ducats,  transported  to  Eome  on  a  white 
palfrey,  the  Pope  consented  to  recognize  the  claim  of  Charles 
VI.  to  the  title  of  king ;  although  this  condescension  on  the 
part  of  Innocent  did  not  prevent  tlie  Emperor,  in  spite  of 
protests,  from  transferring  to  Don  Carlos  the  ducliics  of  Parma 
and  Piacenza,  which  for  two  hundred  years  had  been  iiefs  of 
the  H0I3'  See.  By  the  premature  death  of  Innocent,  the 
Churcli  lost  a  wise,  prudent,  and  enlightened  ruler,  whose 
official  life  seems  absolutely  without  fault,  unless  indeed  the 
unfortunate  elevation  of  the  unworthy  Abbe  Dubois  to  a 
place  in  the  College  of  Cardinals,  a  mistake  that  might  hap- 
pen to  any  one,  be  regarded  as  such. 

Benedict  XIII.  (Orsiui,  1724-1730),  after  his  election,  begged 
with  tears  in  his  eyes  not  to  be  forced  to  accept  the  pontifical 
dignity;^  and  if  he  finally  consented,  he  did  so  only  because 
of  the  obedience  which  as  a  Dominican,  he  owed  to  the  Su- 
perior of  his  Order.  He  dearly  loved  a  cloistral  life  ;  his 
heart  was  in  his  convent,  and  he  dreaded  going  out  into  the 
world.  Shortly  after  his  election  he  published  various  sump- 
tuary regulations,  restricting  the  luxurious  habits  of  the  car- 
<linals,  prescribing  modesty  of  dress  to  the  clergw,  etc.  A 
council  convoked  by  him  in  the  Lateran  palace  (1725)  made 
many  wise  enactments  for  the  suppression  of  scandals  and 
abuses,  and  decreed  that  the  bull  Unigenitus,  directed  against 
the  errors  of  Quesnel,  should  be  received  as  a  rule  of  faith 
throughout  the  Universal  Church.  Benedict  recovered  the 
town  of  Comacchio,  which  had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Em- 
peror since  1708,  and  came  to  an  understanding  with  Charles 
regarding  the  Sicilian  monarch}',  in  virtue  of  which  he  granted 
to  that  monarch  and  his  successors  the  right  of  appointing 
the  so-called  ^'■Judge  of  the  31onarchy,''  whom  he  invested 
with  very  ample  powers,  limiting  his  own  jurisdiction  to  mat- 
ters of  essential  importance.  He  also  terminated  the  contro- 
versy between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Dukes  of  Sardinia  and 

iQpp.  theol.,  Rom.  1728,  3  T.  f.  Icon  ot  mentis  et  cordis  Ben.  XIII.,  Frof. 
1723.  Alex.  Borgia,  Ben.  XIII.  vita,  Rom.  1752,  4to;  his  Life  and  Acts,  Frkft. 
1731. 


488  Period  3.     Ej)och  2.     Part  I.     Chapter  1. 

Savoy,  on  the  understanding  that,  while  enjoying  the  right 
of  patronage  over  the  churches  and  convents  within  their 
States,  they  should  not  appropriate  the  revenues  of  vacant 
bishoprics,  which  were  to  he  expended  for  the  benefit  of  the 
churches.  He  was  not  so  successful  in  maintaining  friendly 
relations  with  Portugal,  whose  king,  John  Y.,  in  a  rude  and 
insolent  letter,  demanded  that  Bicchi,  who  had  been  Nuncio 
at  Lisbon,  and  recently  recalled,  should  be  created  a  Cardinal. 
The  College  protested,  and  John,  irritated  at  the  refusal  of 
the  Pope  to  accede  to  his  demand,  ordered  home  the  Portu- 
guese then  residing  in  Rome  ;  interdicted  all  intercourse  be- 
tween his  kingdom  and  the  Holy  See ;  and  forbade  the  con- 
vents of  Portugal  to  send  their  customar}-  alms  to  Rome  (1725). 

The  Feast  of  St.  Gregory  VII.,  which  had  heretofore  been 
celebrated  only  by  the  Benedictine  Order  and  the  Chapter  of 
Salerno,  was  now  extended  to  the  Universal  Church,  and, 
strange  to  say,  was  the  occasion  of  no  little  trouble  to  the 
Pontifl'.  The  governments  of  Venice,  France,  and  Austria 
affected  great  displeasure,  in  that  mention  had  been  made  in 
the  lessons  of  the  Ofiice  of  the  excommunication  and  deposi- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Henry  lY. 

Benedict  was  also  unfortunate  in  taking  into  his  confidence 
Cardinal  Coscia,  by  whose  simulated  piety  he  was  deceived, 
and  by  whose  abuse  of  power  and  influence  the  Church  was 
dishonored  and  he  himself  enriched. 

Clement  XII.  (Corsini,  1730-1740),  at  the  close  of  a  distin- 
guished career,  and  when  far  advanced  in  age,  was  raised  to 
the  papal  throne,  and  while  there  did  much  to  promote  justice 
and  advance  the  arts  and  sciences.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  Museum  of  Roman  Antiquities,  and  sent  the  learned 
Asseinani  to  the  East  in  search  of  manuscripts,  of  which  they 
procured  a  number  of  very  valuable  ones.  He  ended  the 
difficulty  with  Portugal  by  creating  Bicchi  a  cardinal ;  but 
was  almost  immediately  involved  in  fresh  complications  with 
Spain.  "  It  would  seem  that  since  the  opening  of  the  century 
the  princes  of  Europe  had  made  up  their  minds  that,  instead 
of  the  respectful  deference  with  which  the  Holy  See  had 
been  treated  in  time  past,  they  would  exhibit  toward  it  only 
insolent  rudeness  and  arbitrary  self-will."     So  notorious  waa 


§  363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  489 

their  conduct  in  this  respect,  that  even  the  Protestant  princes, 
in  their  intercourse  with  the  Head  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
treated  him  with  more  consideration  than  the  Catholics  them- 
selves. On  the  death  of  the  Duke  Anthony,  in  1731,  the 
Pope  made  a  fresh  attempt  to  recover  the  Duchy  of  Parma, 
but  was  not  more  successful  than  his  predecessors  had  been. 
To  aid  in  the  conversion  of  the  Greeks,  he  founded  a  school 
of  theology  at  Bissignano,  in  Calabria  {Seminarium  Corsini) ; 
and,  by  a  bull  of  the  year  1738,  he  condemned  the  order  of 
Freemasons,  and  the  condemnation  w^as  renewed  in  1751  hy 
Benedict  XIV. 

After  the  death  of  Clement  XII.,  the  cardinals  went  into 
conclave,  and,  at  the  expiration  of  six  months,  finally  agreed 
upon  Cardinal  Lambertini,  who  as  Pope  took  the  name  of 
Benedict  XIV.  (1740-1758).  He  was  one  of  the  rnost  learned 
men  that  ever  filled  the  papal  throne.  He  at  once  api)lio(l 
himself  to  restore  the  finances  from  the  disordered  condition 
into  which  they  had  fallen,  owing  to  the  extravagance  into 
which  Benedict  Xlll.  had  been  driven  by  Cardinal  Coscia, 
and  the  enormous  sums  expended  by  Clement  XII.  on  public 
buildings.  To  eflect  this  he  encouraged  agriculture,  promoted 
the  manufacturing  interests,  and  discountenanced  all  sorts  of 
extravagance  and  hixury.^  He  published  wise  ordinances  for 
the  amelioration  of  the  clergy,  some  of  which  were  favorable 
to  the  Dominicans  and  adverse  to  the  Jesuits;  abolislied  cer- 
tain holy  days  of  obligation,  or  rather  reduced  their  number, 
in  those  States  in  which  it  was  represented  there  were  too 
many  (1748);  and,  by  his  moderation,  prudently  discrimina- 
tino;  between  claims  that  must  be  maintained  and  those  that 
might  be  surrendered,  re-established  friendly  relations  be- 
tween the  Holy  See  and  the  different  Courts  of  Europe.  In 
the  year  1740  he  granted  to  John  V.  of  Portugal  the  right  of 
appointing  to  all  bishoprics  and  prebends  falling  vacant  within 


^  Bened.  XIV.,  0pp.  ed.  Azevedo,  Kom.  1747-1751,  12  vols.,  f . ;  his  bulls 
(BuUar.  M.,  Luxemb.  1754,  T.  XVII.-XIX.),  and  acta  hist,  eccl.,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
144  sq.;  Vol.  IV.,  p.  1058  sq.;  Vol.  XV.,  p.  907  sq.,  637  sq.  Cf.  Guarnaccl, 
1.  c,  p.  942;  T.  II.,  p.  487  sq.  Vie  du  Pape  Bened.  XIV.,  Par.  1783,  12mo. 
Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  81,  p.  153-177. 


490  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

his  kingdom,  and  eight  years  later  conferred  upon  him  the 
title  of  '■'■Most  Faithful"  {Bex  fidelissimus) . 

Conjointly  with  the  King  of  Naples  he  established  in  that 
city  a  tribunal,  consisting  of  an  equal  number  of  clerical  and 
lay  members,  and  presided  over  by  an  ecclesiastic,  before 
which  all  ecclesiastical  causes  were  to  be  brought  for  adjudi- 
cation,^ In  1753  he  concluded  a  Concordat  with  Spain,  by 
which,  while  reserving  to  the  Holy  See  the  right  of  appoint- 
ment to  iifty-two  of  the  more  considerable  benefices,  he  sur- 
rendered his  claims  to  the  exercise  of  similar  jurisdiction  over 
the  lesser  ones,  in  consideration  of  the  payment  of  a  large  in- 
demnity.^ A  similar  compromise  was  made  in  the  case  of 
Sardinia.  He  also  attempted  to  compromise  the  dispute 
pending  between  Austria  and  the  Re];>ublic  of  Venice  con- 
cerning the  patriarchate  of  Aquileia,  deciding  that  the  patri- 
archal rights  should  be  divided  between  the  Archbishopric  of 
Goerz,  in  Austria,  and  that  of  Udine,  in  the  States  of  Venice 
(1751).  The  decision,  however,  was  unfavorably  received  by 
the  Republic,  which,  in  consequence,  published  an  ordinance 
(1754)  forbidding  any  bull,  brief,  or  summons  from  the  Holy 
See  to  be  made  public  until  after  it  had  been  submitted  to  the 
supervision  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  government. 
This  was  the  only  important  question  remaining  unsettled  at 
the  time  of  Benedict's  death.  In  many  public  documents, 
Benedict  gave  the  title  of  king  to  the  ruler  of  Prussia.  He 
conferred  many  favors  on  the  Society  of  Nobles  (Societas  no- 
bilium),  an  association  formed  in  Hungary  for  the  defense  and 
propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion.  As  has  been  stated,  he 
renewed  the  condemnation  of  the  Freemasons,  published  by 
Clement  XH.,  because  all  wise  and  good  Christians  were  of 
opinion  that  the  aims  of  that  body  were  wicked  and  its 
methods  evil.  Finally,  he  has  left  behind  him  as  monuments 
of  his  profound  erudition  and  the  wide  range  of  his  learning, 
not  alone  numerous  and  important  works,  which  place  him 
in  the  front  rank  among  the  scholars  and  writers  of  that  age, 
but  also  societies  founded  by  him  to  promote  the  study  of 


1  Mosheim,  Ch.  H. ;  Germ,  by  Schlegel,  Vol  V.,  p.  666. 
^Schroeckh,  Ch  H.  sin^e  the  Reformation,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  447. 


§  363.   Popes  of  the  Mghteenth  Century,  491 

Roman  and  Christian  Antiquities  and  Canon  Law,  whicli  have 
since  become  famous,  adding  no  little  luster  to  his  name. 
Though  of  easy  manners  and  amiable  disposition,  charming 
all  who  approached  him,  his  brilliant  wit  and  caustic  speeches 
at  times  were  a  source  of  annoyance  to  over-sensitive  persons. 

His  successor,  Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico,  1758-1769],  as 
Bishop  of  Padua,  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  sanctity,  but 
being  an  avowed  friend  of  the  Jesuits,  he  was,  from  the  very 
opening  of  his  pontiiicate,  involved  in  ceaseless  contentions 
with  the  various  c(UU'ts  of  Europe,  notably  with  the  Bourbon 
kings  of  France,  S[»ain,  and  Naples.^  It  gave  him  great  pain 
which  was  still  more  intensified  by  the  consciousness  of  his 
inability  to  relieve  the  sufferers,  to  learn  that  Pombal,  the  Por- 
tuguese Minister  of  State,  and  Pereira,  the  canonist  of  the 
Court,  were  pursuing  the  Jesuits  with  all  manner  of  persecu- 
tion, heaping  calumnies  upon  them,  and  meditating  their  ex- 
pulsion from  tiie  kingdom  (1559).  In  the  following  year  his 
own  Nuncio  was  obliged  to  quit  the  country,  being  conducted 
under  escort  across  the  frontier.  In  spite  of  their  complete 
vindication  by  the  bishops,  and  the  Pope's  energetic  protests, 
the  Jesuits  were  suppressed  in  France  in  1764,  in  Spain  in 
1767,  and  in  Naples  in  1768. 

His  method  of  dealing  with  tlie  Duke  of  Parma  was  very 
diflerent.  This  prince  had  published  a  statute  of  mortmain, 
specially  directed  against  the  clergy,  and  had  otherwise  lim- 
ited their  immunities  and  prerogatives.  In  this  case  Clement 
took  high  ground,  informing  the  usurper  that  he  spoke  to 
him  not  only  as  Pope,  but  also  as  one  exercising  the  right  of 
suzerainty  over  the  Duchy.  The  French  and  Neapolitan 
branches  of  the  Bourbons  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Duke; 
demanded  the  withdrawal  of  the  pontifical  brief;  and  seized 
the  estates  of  the  Church,  the  former  taking  possession  of 
Avignon  and  Venaissin,  and  the  latter  of  Benevento.  They 
were  all  the  more  committed  to  this  course,  when,  instead  of 
yielding,  the  Pope  resisted  with  firmness  and  dignity;  re- 
newed the  confirmation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  and  invoked 
the  aid  of  3Iaria  Teresa,  to  whom  and  her  successors,  as  sov- 


^  Bower- Rambach,  Vol.  X.,  sect.  II.,  pp.  381  sq. 


492  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


ereigns  of  Hungary,  he  gave  the  title  of  ^^ Apostolic  Majesty  " 
(Rex  Apostolicus).  To  his  appeal  she  replied  "  that  the  aftairg 
of  which  he  spoke  being  of  a  political  and  not  religions  char- 
acte'',  she  conld  not  rightfully  interfere." 

It  would  almost  seem  that  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  had 
C(jnspired  together  to  avenge  the  real  or  imaginary  wrongs 
which  they  had  at  any  time  suffered  or  fancied  they  had  suf- 
fered at  the  hands  of  the  papacy  ;  and  that  the  Holy  See, 
after  having  successfully  resisted  the  violent  assaults  of  Pro- 
testant princes  during  the  preceding  period,  was  fated  to  go 
down  under  the  blows  of  Catholic  jJrinces  in  the  present  one. 
And  so  violent  did  this  spirit  of  outrage  become,  that  even 
the  petty  Repuhlic  of  Gerioa  demanded  of  the  Roman  Court  a 
tax  of  six  thousand  scudi  for  the  mere  privilege  of  allowing 
the  papal  envoy  to  Corsica  to  enter  its  territory. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  }- ear  1769,  the  envoys  of  the  various 
Bourbon  Courts  demanded  that  the  Pope  should  uncondition- 
ally abolish  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  the  demand  so  agitated 
the  Hol}^  Father  that  he  did  not  live  to  attend  a  consistory 
which  he  had  called  for  the  3d  of  February,  to  consider  the 
matter,  having  died  the  day  previous,  without  being  at  all  con- 
fined to  his  bed. 

Cardinal  Ganganelli,  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  was  unan- 
imously elected  May  14,  1769,  by  the  cardinals  in  the  interest 
of  the  civil  powers,  and  on  ascending  the  papal  throne  took 
the  name  of  Clement XIV.  (1769-1774).  He  at  once  set  about 
reconciling  the  Bourbon  princes  to  the  Holy  See.^  He  began 
by  adjusting  the  difficulties  with  Parma,  after  which  he  raised 
the  brother  of  Pombal,  Minister  to  Portugal,  to  the  dignity 
of  the  cardinalate,  and  confirmed  the  appointment  of  Pereira 
to  the  bishopric  of  Coimbra.  The  practice  of  annually  read- 
ing the  bull  "Jrt   Coena  Domini''   being  oflensive  to  many 

'  Ia  Vie  du  Pape  Clem.  XIV.  par  le  Marq.  de  Carraccioli,  Par.  1775 ;  Germ  ^ 
Frkfl.  1776.  Lettres  interes-santes  du  P.  Clem.  XIV.,  trad,  du  lat.  et  de  I'ital. 
par  Carraccirtli,  Par.  1776  sq.,  3  T.,  and  frequently  in  Italian  and  German  (sup- 
posititious in  several  passages).  Life  of  Pope  Clement  XIV.,  Berlin  and  Lps. 
1774  1775,  8  vols.  Walch,  Modern  Hist,  of  Religion,  Pt.  I.,  p.  3-54.  201-248. 
Reumo7it,  Ganganelli,  Pope  Clement  XIV. :  His  Letters  and  His  Age,  Berlir., 
1847.  Theiner,  Hist,  of  the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,  Lps.  1853,  2  vols. 
By  the  same,  dementis  XIV.  epistolae  et  brevia,  Paris,  1853. 


§  363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  493 

princes,  the  Pope  abolished  it  forever,  and  immediately  after 
Avignon,  Venaissin,  and  Bcnevento  were  restored  to  the  Holy  > 
See,  and  Portugal  consented  to  again  receive  a  Papal  Nuncio. 
Still  it  was  not  all  fair  sailing  with  Clement,  who  found  him- 
self obliged  to  resist  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  Spain, 
Naples,  and  Venice,  concerning  the  disposal  of  church  prop- 
erty, lie  also  endeavored  to  counteract  the  growing  influence 
of  Febronianism  in  Germany,  and  sent  w'ords  of  encourage- 
ment to  the  Poles,  with  whose  politi'cal  and  religious  troubles 
he  deeply  sympathized.  But  what  gave  him  the  greatest  pain 
and  anxiety  was  the  peremptory  demand  made  by  the  Bour- 
bon Courts  for  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits.  Unfortunately, 
during  the  first  year  of  his  pontificate,  he  had  given  his  word 
to  the  governments  of  Spain  (September  30, 1769)  and  France 
(]Srovember30)  that,  being  fully  convinced  that  the  Societ}-  of 
Jesus  no  longer  accomplished  for  the  Church  the  special  work 
contemplated  by  its  founders,  he  would  of  his  own  free  will, 
and  without  external  constraint  or  influence,  order  its  sup- 
pression, which  he  did  by  the  brief  Dominus  ac  Redeynptor, 
bearing  date  of  July  21,  1773,  of  wdiich  there  will  be  again 
occasion  to  speak  further  on,^  There  was  a  suspicion  that 
he  had  died  of  poison,  but  that  it  was  without  foundation  is 
shown  by  the  sworn  declaration  of  Jllarzoni,  a  member  of  the 
Order  of  Franciscan  Conventuals,  and  by  the  statement  ot  the 
attending  physicians. 

Pius  VI.  (Angelo  Braschi,  1774-1799),  ascending  the  papal 
throne  at  a  season  full  of  political  and  religious  difiiculties,^ 
and  fully  alive  to  the  critical  condition  of  aft\iirs,  said  prophet- 
ically to  the  cardinals  after  his  election  :  "  Your  j^leasure  is  my 
misfortune."  The  early  part  of  Pius'  reign  is  marked  by  the 
foundation  of  the  Pio- Clementine  Museum,  containing  some 
of  the  noblest  art-treasures  in  the  world  ;  and  by  the  drainage 
of  the  Pontine  Marsh,  undertaken  and  prosecuted  without 
any  regard  to  cost.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Maria  Teresa 
(1780),  her  sou,  Joseph  II.,  threw  himself  into  the  ranks,  or 

^Leo,  Text-Book  of  Universal  History,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  476  sq. 
2  Huth,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  GO  sq.      Walch,  Mod. 
Hist,  of  Rel.,  Ft.  V.,  pp.  257  sq.     Uist.  of  Pius  VI.  (Vienna),  1799. 


494  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

rather  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those  whose  one  aim  wag 
to  bring  into  discredit  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See.  To 
secularize  and  abolish  Religious  Orders,  to  spoil  the  property 
of  the  Church,  to  fill  episcopal  sees  without  the  authorization 
of  the  Pope,  to  deprive  papal  nunciatures  of  their  spiritual 
jurisdiction,  to  separate  churches  from  the  Center  of  Unity 
and  make  them  national,  and  to  do  all  this  under  pretext  of 
introducing  useful  and  necessary  reforms  appears  to  have 
been  the  aim  of  his  life  and  the  scope  of  his  ambition/  Most 
of  the  governments  of  Europe,  in  their  relations  to  the  Church 
and  her  Head,  carried  into  practical  eifect  the  principles  of 
Voltaire,  then  rapidly  gaining  ground  in  France,  and  of 
which  they  themselves  were  soon  to  become  the  victims. 
Joseph  II.  enacted  that  all  papal  bulls  and  episcopal  ordi- 
nances should  receive  the  imperial  placet  before  publication  ; 
remodeled  the  oath  to  be  taken  by  bishops ;  abrogated  the 
reservation  of  benefices  to  the  Pope ;  forbade  any  one  to  ac- 
cept, without  his  consent,  titles  or  dignities  bestowed  by  the 
Holy  See  ;  prohibited  all  intercourse  between  the  convents 
of  his  empire  and  those  of  the  same  Order  in  other  countries ; 
placed  monastic  houses  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary 
of  the  dioceses  in  which  thej'  were  situated  ;  exempted  Relig- 
ious Orders  from  obedience  to  their  respective  Generals  resi- 
dent in  Rome  ;  and  suppressed  many  monasteries  of  men  and 
all  convents  of  women,  except  those  of  the  Ursulines  and  Sa- 
lesians, which  werespared  to  carry  on  the  w^ork  of  education, 
but  their  number  was  nevertheless  considerabl}'  reduced.^ 
The  suppressed  monasteries  and  convents  were  turned  into 
hospitals,  universities,  barracks,  and  military  magazines,  and 
their  confiscated  revenues  employed  in  establishing  four  hun- 
dred new  parishes  "  for  the  more  easy  access  to  public  wor- 
ship," and' in  endowing  the  same,  forty  millions  of  florins 
being  set  apart  and  deposited  in  the  treasury  for  this  purpose. 
This  ^'Peligious  Fund"  gradually  melted  away  till  only  one- 

1  Consult  on  the  subject  the  recent  works  by  Arneth,  Briumer,  Ritier,  and 
Wolf^  quoted  below,  at  the  head  of  §  370. 

^In  1780,  there  were  in  the  Austrian  dominions  2,024  convents,  and  63,000 
monks  and  nuns.  The  former  were  reduced  to  1,300,  and  the  latter  to 
27,000.  (Tr.) 


§  363.  Popes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  495 

half  the  original  amount  remained ;  and  the  "  cameralistic 
domains,"  consisting  of  the  confiscated  real  estate  of  the  Re- 
ligious Orders,  was  so  mismanaged  as  to  be  wholly  unproduc- 
tive to  the  State.  He  attempted  to  reform  some  religious 
houses  after  his  own  fashion  ;  and,  while  professing  an  ardent 
zeal  to  purify  religion  of  what  he  was  pleased  to  term  super- 
stitious practices,  prohibited  pilgrimages  and  processions,  and 
abolished  religious  confraternities. 

For  the  instruction  of  youth  in  their  religious  duties  a 
politico-moral  catechism  was  published,  and,  by  imperial  or- 
der, introduced  into  all  schools.  Diocesan  seminaries  were 
suppressed,  and  their  place  supplied  by  others  of  a  more  gen- 
eral character;  and  all  candidates  for  Holy  Orders  were  re- 
quired to  pass  through  an  examination  of  unusual  severity. 

At  the  Congress  of  Ems,  in  1786,  the  Archbishops  of  Mentz, 
Treves,  Cologne,  and  Salzburg  attempted  to  give  some  sort 
of  ecclesiastical  sanction  to  these  imperial  measures.  Joseph's 
example  was  closely  copied  by  his  brother  Leopold,  Grand 
Duke  of  Tuscany,  who  in  turn  received  syixpathy  and  encour- 
agement from  Scipio  Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistt  ja  ;  by  tlie  Repub- 
lic of  Venice;  and  by  Tanucci,  the  Neapolitai  minister.^  The 
Spanish  Court,  too,  was  highly  incensed  agaiust  the  Hoh'  See 
because  of  its  refusal  to  place  Bishop  Palafox,  the  determined 
enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  upon  the  catalogue  of  the  Saints; 
while  in  both  Italy  and  Germany  an  animated  discussion  was 
taking  place  on  the  question  of  clerical  celibacy.^ 

To  avert  the  dangers  which,  originating  with  the  govern- 
ment of  Austria,  though  not  sanctioned  by  the  faithful  people 
of  that  country,  seriously  threatened  the  Holy  See,  Pius  VI, 
determined  to  go  in  person  to  Vienna,  in  the  hope  tliat,  by  the 
influence  of  his  presence  and  the  authority  of  his  apostolical 
otfice,  he  might  obtain  the  repeal  of  laws  so  hostile  to  the 
Church  and  so  destructive  of  the  best  interests  of  the  State. 
His  journey  was  one  uninterrupted  triumph.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  cities  and  towns  through  which  he  passed  came  out  as 
one  man  to  greet  him,  and  kneeling  begged  his  blessing.     In 


1  Cf.  Walch,  Ch.  H.,  Tt.  V.,  pp.  2-218. 
» Ibid.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  iol  sq. 


496  Period  3.     Ejpoch  2.     Part  1.     Chai^ter  1. 

this  universal  expression  of  jo}' at  having  the  Head  of  the 
Church  in  their  midst,  there  were  but  two  who  did  not 
.share — two  whose  conduct  plainly  showed  that  the  presence 
of  the  Holy  Father  was  irksome  to  them — and  these  were  the 
Emperor  and  his  arrogant  old  minister,  Kaunitz.  The  Em- 
peror declined  to  assist  at  the  Pontifical  Office ;  forbade  his 
subjects  to  even  speak  to  the  Pope  without  special  leave  from 
him  ;  and,  to  prevent  any  secret  access  to  his  person,  walled 
up  all  the  doors  of  his  lodgings  exce])t  otte,  which  was  strongly 
guarded.  To  a  request  from  Pius  for  a  conference  on  ati'airs 
of  State,  the  Emperor  replied  that  he  had  no  knowledge  of 
public  business,  which  he  left  entirely  to  the  members  of  his 
council,  to  whom  the  Pope  might  submit  his  views  in  writing. 
In  his  intercourse  with  the  Holy  Father,  Kaunitz  was  uni- 
formly and  studiously  vulgar.  He  would  rudely  shake  the 
extended  hand  of  the  Holy  Father,  instead  of  kissing  it,  as 
Catholic  usage  and  ordinary  courtesy  require;  he  abstained 
from  visiting  the  Pontiff;  .and  when  the  latter,  under  pretense 
of  going  through  his  gallery  of  paintings,  sought  an  inter- 
view, the  minister  received  him  in  a  liglit  morning-gown. 
After  a  fruitless  stay  of  four  weeks,  during  which  he  accom- 
plished no  more  than  the  obtaining  of  a  simple  promise  that 
nothing  should  be  done  prejudicial  to  either  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  or  the  dignity  of  her  Head,  he  quitted  the  city, 
and  set  out  for  Rome.  But  the  impression  which  his  pres- 
ence and  dignified  bearing  had  left  upon  the  minds  of  both 
clergy  and  people  was  deep  and  enduring  ;  and  the  scurrilous 
pamphlets,  which  the  canonist,  Valentine  Eybel,  and  others 
equally  infamous,  published  against  him,  were  powerless  to 
counteract  its  beneficial  effects.  The  Emperor  accompanied 
hia  august  visitor  as  far  as  Mariabrunn,  where  he  took  leave 
of  him  ;  and  a  few  hours  later,  as  if  to  show  to  the  world  that 
the  Pope  had  produced  no  change  in  his  sentiments,  ordered 
a  convent  established  in  that  locality  to  be  suppressed.^    These 


'  Joseph  II.,  writing  to  Catharine  of  Russia,  who  had  expressed  some  anxiety 
on  account  of  the  presence  of  Pius  VI.  in  Vienna,  said:  "  In  reality,  the  Pope 
has  accomplished  nothing.  He  was  even  obliged  to  draw  up  in  my  favor  a 
written  document,  expressing  his  satisfaction  with  the  condition  in  which  b« 


§  364.    The  Gallican  Church — Gcdlican  Liberties.       407 


8 


assaults  against  the  papal  power  culminated  in  the  French 
Revolution,  of  which  Pius  was  the  most  illustrious  victim. 
After  1789,  all  the  ecclesiastical  estates  in  France  were  de- 
clared national  property  ;  but  the  details  of  the  events  of 
these  memorable  years  belong  to  the  second  half  of  the  pres- 
ent Epoch. 

§  364.    The  Gcdlican  Church — Gallican  Liberties. 

(Picoi),  Essai  hislorique  sur  I'influence  de  la  religion  en  France  pendant  lo 
XVlIe  siecle,  Paris,  1824,  2  vols.;  German,  by  Rness  and  Weis,  Frkft.  1829,  2 
vols.  Ranke,  Hist,  of  France  during  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries, 
Vols.  Ill  ^nd  IV.  (Complete  Works,  Vols.  X.-XIII.) 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  preceding  Epoch  the  Church 
of  France  had  been  at  once  more  active  and  more  agitated 
than  that  of  any  other  country  ;  and  on  this  account  she  is 
before  the  world  more  conspicuously  than  any  other  during 
the  interval  of  time  of  which  we  ai'e  now  about  to  treat,  when 
events  that  had  been  long  preparing  were  producing  their  le- 
gitimate consequences. 

Louis  XIV.  had  employed  systematic  violence  and  crafty 
political  methods  against  the  Church,  but  more  directly 
against  her  Head.^  He  seemed  to  think  that  by  using  arbi- 
trary measures  to  crush  the  already  enfeebled  power  of  the 
Pope  he  could  the  more  eliectually  exalt  his  own.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  pontiticate  of  Innocent  XL,  we  noticed  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  French  king  concerning  the  Right  of  Regalia. 
The  celebrated  Declaratioji  of  the  French  clergy  in  the  Four 
Articles  of  1682,  said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by  Bossuet^^  was 
the  outcome  of  this  controversy  between  the  Pope  and  the 
kina:.     These  articles  declare  : 


found  my  own  religion  and  that  of  my  subjects."  {Von  Arneth,  The  Corre- 
spondence of  Joseph  II.  with  Catharine  of  Eussia,  Vienna,  1869.) 

•  Lacretelle,  Histoire  de  France  au  XVIIIe  siecle.  (Germ,  by  Sander,  Brl. 
1810,  2  vols.) 

2  Printed  in  Walter,  Pontes  juris  eccles.,  pp.  127,  128.  Litta  (Cardinal),  Let- 
tres  sur  les  soi-disant  quatre  articles  du  clerg6  de  France,  avec  une  introduction 
par  Martin  de  Noirlieu;  tr.  fr.  the  Fr.  into  Germ.,  by  Robiaiio  (with  preface), 
Miinster,  1844.     ^Phillips,  C   L.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  339-365. 

VOL.  Ill — 32 


408  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

I.  That  to  St.  Peter  and  to  his  successors,  and  even  to  the  Church  herself, 
God  gave  power  only  in  things  spiritual  and  pertaining  to  everlasting  life;  hut 
not  in  things  civil  or  temporal;  for  He  said:  "My  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world;''  and  again  :  '-Give  unto  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  unto 
God  the  things  that  are  God's;"'  and  hence  the  truth  of  this  saying  of  the  apos- 
tles: "Let  every  soul  be  subject  to  higher  powers,  for  there  is  no  power  but 
from  God,  and  those  that  are  are  ordained  of  God.  Therefore,  he  that  resistoth 
the  power,  resisteth  the  ordinance  of  God."  Hence,  in  temporal  concerns,  kings 
and  rulers  are,  by  ordinance  of  God,  subject  to  no  power  of  the  Church  ;  neithei 
can  they  be  deposed,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  auth^rity  of  the  Keys, 
nor  can  their  subjects  be  freed  from  their  allegiance,  their  obedience,  and  their 
sworn  promise  of  fidelity.  That  this  teaching,  inasmuch  as  it  is  necessary  to 
the  preservation  of  the  public  peace,  beneficial  alike  to  Church  and  State,  and 
in  harmony  with  the  word  of  God,  the  tradition  of  the  Fathers,  and  the  exam- 
ples of  the  Saints,  should  by  no  means  be  given  up. 

II.  That  the  fullness  of  Spiritual  power  possessed  by  the  Apostolic  See  and 
by  the  Successors  of  St.  Peter,  the  Vicars  of  Jesus  Christ,  is  such  that  it  does 
not  invalidate  or  destroy  the  force  of  the  Decrees  contained  in  the  Fourth  and 
Fifth  Sessions  of  the  Holy  Ecumenical  Synod  of  Constance  "Ow  the  y\idliority 
of  General  Councils,"  which  were  approved  by  the  Apostolic  See,  confirmed  by 
the  usage  of  the  whole  Church  and  of  tlie  Ptoraan  Pontifi's  themselves,  and  at 
all  times  maintained  by  the  Gallican  Church;  and  that  the  Galilean  Church 
does  not  agree  with  those  who  weaken  the  force  of  these  Decrees  by  claiming 
that  they  are  of  doubtful  authority  and  wanting  in  approbation,  or  who  re- 
strict their  application  to  a  period  of  schism,  such  as  existed  at  the  time  of  the 
Council. 

III.  That,  therefore,  the  use  of  the  Apostolic  power  is  to  be  restricted  by 
the  Canons,  enacted  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  made  sacred  by  reverence  of  the 
whole  world ;  that  the  rules,  customs,  and  institutions  of  the  Gallican  Kingdom 
and  Church  continue  in  full  force ;  that  the  bounds  set  up  by  the  Fathers  re- 
main inviolate;  and  that  the  Holy  See  owes  it  to  its  own  dignity  to  see  that 
the  statutes  and  customs  established  by  this  same  See,  and  confirmed  by  the 
consent  of  the  churches,  shall,  as  is  becoming,  subsist  unchanged. 

IV.  That,  while  in  questions  of  faith  the  Supreme  Pontiff  has  the  chief  part, 
and  his  decrees  are  binding  upon  each  and  every  church,  his  judgment  is  not 
irreversible  {irrcformable),  unless  it  shall  have  been  confirmed  by  the  consent 
of  the  Church. 

Besides  these  Four  articles,  usually  called  the  ^'■Liberties  of 
the  Gallican  Church,"  but  more  appropriatelj'  the  "■Slaveries,'* 
certain  other  claims  were  made,  as,  for  instance,  the  Appellaito 
ianquam  ab  abusu,  placetum  regium,  etc.  The  great  blunder 
committed  by  this  Gallican  Assembly  was  the  making  of 
^^  general  theorems,  which  were  more  or  less  at  variance  with 
the  practice  of  the  Church,  and  whose  discussion  ought  to 
have  been  confined  to  the  Schools,  the  matter  of  conciliar 


i  364.    TJu  Gallican  Church — Gallican  Liberties.       499 

enactments,  when  tljere  was  no  sufficient  cause  for  so  doino^ ; 
thus  giving  the  civil  power  an  excuse  for  enforcing  them  and 
making  them  part  of  the  fundamental  law  of  the  State."  The 
French  Bishops  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  voice  of  Fenelon,  who 
warned  them  that  "  it  was  from  the  Civil  Power,  and  not  from 
Rome,  that  encroachments  and  usurpations  were  in  the  future 
to  come  ;  that  in  matter  of  fact  the  king  was  now  more  Head 
of  the  Gallican  Church  than  the  Pope  himself;  that  the  king's 
authority  had  heen  transferred  to  secular  judges;  and  that 
bishops  were  now  ruled  by  laymen.'"  The  French  Bishops 
closed  their  eyes  to  the  uniform  teaching  of  historical  prece- 
dents, which  proved  indisputably  that  ever}-  church  separating 
itself  from  the  spiritual  Head  of  the  Hierarchy  had  of  neces- 
sity gone  to  ruin.  However,  it  is  not  necessary  to  question 
here  the  motives  by  which  the  author  of  the  "  Declaration  " 
and  his  party  were  inspired. 

JBossuet,  wanting  to  an  intimate  friend,  gives  this  explana- 
tion of  his  conduct.  "  I  had  always  thought,"  he  said,  "  that 
it  would  be  well  to  so  explain  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See, 
that  while  compromising  none  of  its  sacred  rights,  those  who 
fear  rather  than  love  it,  and  even  heretics  and  all  its  adversa- 
ries, miglit  be  brought  to  regard  it  with  sentiments  of  tender 
respect.  The  Holy  See  has  lost  absolutely  nothing  by  the 
Declaration  of  France,  for  the  Ultramontanes  themselves 
allow  that  in  the  instance  in  which  France  sets  a  Council 
above  the  Pope,  he  might  be  proceeded  against  in  another 
way,  as,  for  example,  by  declaring  that  he  had  forfeited  the 
Papacy.  Hence,  it  is  not  so  much  the  thing  itself  that  is  in 
question  as  the  way  in  which  it  is  to  be  done."  Taking  this 
fallacious  principle  as  the  basis  of  his  argument,  Bossuct  wrote 
a  "  Defense  of  the  Declaration  of  the  Gallican  Clergy,"  upon 
which  he  was  engaged  for  thirty  years  of  his  life,  and  which 
was  indiscreetly  published  five-and-twent}'  years  after  his 
death. 

It  is  nevertheless  evident  both  from  the  peculiar  way  in 
which  these  Articles  were  drawn  up,  and  from  the  application 
made  of  them  by  numerous  ecclesiastics,  and  particuhirly  by 
the  parliaments,  that  they  did  contain  the  germ  of  schismatical 
tendencies,  inasmuch  as  they  were  pressed  into  service  when- 


500  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  1.     Chapter  1. 

ever  a  stand  was  to  be  made  against  the  Holy  Apostolic  See, 
or  whenevei'  it  was  thought  expedient  to  refuse  obedience  to 
its  decrees.  They  were  also  dangerous,  in  that  they  flattered 
the  vanity  of  the  "  great  nation  "  bij  holding  France  up  to  the. 
admiration  of  the  loorld  as  the  land  of  ecclesiastical  freedom,  and 
the  Gallican  Church  as  the  true  Catholic  model  for  all  other 
churches. 

The  leading  spirits  of  the  so-called  reformatory  synods 
seemed  to  forget  that  ever  since  the  days  of  St.  Irenaeus  the 
Gallican  Church  had  esteemed  it  a  privilege  and  a  glory  to 
defend  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See.  The  more  far-seeing  of  the 
French  Bishops,  with  Fenelon  at  their  head,  rightly  judged 
that  these  supposed  "  Liberties  "  would  in  the  long  run  prove 
to  be,  what  the  event  verified,  so  many  ^'■Slaveries."  This  has 
been  but  recently  admitted  by  Pressense,  a  Protestant  writer, 
"  Gallicanism,"  he  says,  "  made  the  Church  the  handmaid  of 
the  State ;  and  its  famous  Liberties  were  but  liberties  taken 
by  the  King  to  govern  in  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  do- 
mains,"^ The  Articles  of  the  Declaration  of  1682  have  been 
very  fairly  discussed  by  Thomassin,  the  Oratorian ;  ^  and  still 
more  recently  and  no  less  fairly  by  Walter  and  Charles  Gerin.^ 

§  365,  Jansenism — Quesnd — Schism  of  Utrecht. 

Leydecker,  Historiae  .Jansenismi,  libb.  VI.,  'J'raj.  ad  Ehen.  1695.  Luclies'nd, 
Hist,  polem.  Jans.,  Kom.  1711,  3  T.  Abrege  hist,  des  detours  et  des  variat.  du 
Jans,  (place?),  1739,  4to.  "tThom.  du  Fosse,  Memoires  pourservir  a  I'histoire  do 
Port-lloyal,  Col.  1739.  Nicole  Fo7iiaine,  under  the  same  title,  Colog.  (Utrecht) 
1738.     [Dom.  de  Colonia,  .Jesuit),  Dictionnaire  des  livres  qui  favorisent  le  Jan- 


^  JJossuet,  Defensio  declarationis  Clerl  Gallicani,  Luxemb.  (Gen.)  1730 
(Oeuvres.,  nouv.  cd.  Par.  1836,  4  T,,  IX.) ;  du  Pin,  De  pot.  eccl.  et  temp.  s.  de- 
cluratio  cleri  gallic,  Vind.  1776,  4to;  Mog.  1788,  4to.  FencLon,  De  summi  Pon- 
tificis  auctoritatc  diss,  (oeuvres.  nouv.  ed.  Par.  1838,  T.  I. ) ;  his  sentiment,  given 
above,  is  found  in  ch.  45.  Koehler,  Hist.  Exposition  of  the  Declaration  drawn 
up  by  the  Gallican  Clergy,  Hadamar  and  Coblenz,  1815.  Of.  The  Catholic,  The 
Gallican  Liberties  and  French  Learning;  tliree  articles  of  the  year  186-5.  Vol.  I. 
Pressense,  Le  Concile  du  Vatican,  son  histoire,  etc. 

-In  his  celebrated  work,  De  nova  et  antiqua  Eccles.  disciplina,  etc  ;  soo 
Vol.  I.,  p.  8,  note  4. 

^Walter,  Canon  Law,  13th  ed.,  g  114,  p.  270-273.  Chas.  Gerin,  Eecherchej 
historiques  sur  I'assembl^e  du  clerge  do  Franco  de  1682,  2erae  ed.,  Paris,  1870 
(Tr.) 


§  365.  Jansenism — Qaesncl — Schism  of  Virecht.        50] 

e^nisme,  Antv.  175C,  4  T.  Reuchlin,  Hist,  of  Port-Royal,  Hamburg,  1839  sq..  2 
vols.  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Journal  of  Theology,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  148-190;  also  "Port- 
Royal  and  Jansenism"  (  Wurzburg  Yv'iGndi  of  Eeligion,  1845,  April,  nros. 26-28). 

A  coutrovers}'  still  more  disastrous,  both  in  its  influence 
upon  the  people  and  in  its  general  consequences,  was  that  on 
Jansenism.  Its  origin  has  been  already  noticed.*  After  the 
five  propositions  of  the  ^^Aw/ustinus"  of  Jansenius  had  been 
condemned,  his  partisans  raised  the  questions:^  "Is  the 
Church  really  infallible  in  determining  a  question  of  fact;  for 
example,  the  sense  of  a  book?  Is  not  her  infallibility  re- 
stricted to  dogmatic  truth  ?"  Hence  arose  the  famous  distinc- 
tion of  fact  and  right;  and  it  was  said,  in  point  of  right,  the 
five  propositions  were  justly  condemned,  but  in  point  of  fact 
they  were  not  contained  in  the  book  of  Jansenius,  at  least  in 
the  sense  in  which  they  were  condemned.  The  most  eminent 
champions  of  Jansenism  at  this  time  were  Anthony  Arnaidd,^ 
Nicole,  and  the  profound  and  celebrated  Pascal,*  all  of  whom 
Avere  the  avowed  enemies  of  the  Jesuits.  The  tactics  of  the 
Jansenists  were  very  unlike  those  of  Bajus,  and  in  this  con- 
sisted much  of  the  insidious  danger  of  Jansenism  ;  for,  while 
the  latter  addressed  himself  to  a  comparatively  small  number 
<3f  learned  and  discriminating  persons,  the  former  aimed  at 
influencing  the  masses,  and  for  this  purpose  began  at  once  to 
preach  a  doctrine  of  mysticism,  which  they  held  was  the  only 
true  theology  and  morality,  and  contained  the  true  liberal  view 
of  both  ecclesiastical  and  political  matters.  Neither  the 
method  they  adopted  nor  the  teaching  they  propagated  was 


1  Vide  supra,  §  351,  pp.  428  sq. 

"^{Du-Mns),  Hist,  des  cinq  propos.  de  Jans.;  .=ee  pag.  429,  note  1.  Robbe, 
Dissert,  de  Jansenismo  (tractaUis  de  gratia,  T.  II.),  Par.  1780. 

^Oeuvres  completes  d'Arnaud,  Lausanne,  1775-1783,  48  vols.,  4to. 

*  Lettres  provinciales,  Paris,  1656,  12mo,  and  frequently;  Lemgo,  1774,  3 
vols.  La  Vie  de  Pascal,  par  sa  soeur  Mme.  Pcrier  and  Bossut  (not  Bossuet), 
Discours  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Pascal  (Oeuvres  de  Pascal,  1670,  1779, 
1819,  also  Bossut,  Hist,  des  Matheraatiques  ;  tr.  into  Germ,  by  Reiner,  Hamburg, 
1804,  Vol.  II.)  Pensees,  fragments  et  lettres  publiees  par  P.  Faugcre,  Paris, 
1844,  2  vols.  (This  edition  gives  the  Pensees  in  their  original  shape.)  Herman 
Reuchlin,  Pascal,  His  Life  and  the  Spirit  of  His  Writings,  Stuttg.  1840  (is  par- 
tial). ISeander,  On  the  Historical  Importance  of  the  Pcnaens  of  Pascal,  ]5erlin, 
1847.     Dreydorf,  The  Life  and  Struggles  of  Pascal,  Lps.  1870. 


502  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

wholly  new  ;  they  had  both  been  mapped  out  with  sufficient 
accuracy  and  clearness  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Second  Book 
of  Jansenius'  ^^Augustinus."  The  Cistercian  Convent  of  nuns 
of  Port-  Roy  a  I- des-  Champs,  near  Versailles,  a  branch  of  which 
was  established  in  Paris  in  1638,  and  was  known  under  the 
name  of  Port- Poyal-de- Paris,  was  the  great  center  of  the  Jan- 
seuistic  movement.  Its  abbess  was  the  famous  Angelique  Ar- 
nauld,  the  sister  of  the  brothers  Arnauld,  and  the  pupil  of  the 
Abbot  of  St.  Cyran.  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  who  had  been  her 
confessor,  described  her  as  a  soul  naturally  vivacious,  and 
constantly  running  into  some  extravagance.  Fascinated  by 
the  new  and  mystical  teachings  of  St,  Cyran,  she  began  to 
disseminate  them  among  the  other  members  of  the  convent, 
where  they  were  calculated  to  do  much  harm,  for  the  commu- 
nity had  acquired  a  deservedly  high  reputation  for  strict  ob- 
servance of  Rule  and  earnest  piety.  Having  once  put  them- 
selves in  sympathy  with  the  Jansenists,  the  nuns  were  encour- 
aged to  persevere  in  the  course  upon  which  they  had  entered, 
by  the  establishment  at  Port-Royal-des-Champs  of  an  asso- 
ciation of  hermits,  consisting  of  Anthony  Arnauld  and  other 
w^ell-known  Port-Royalists,  whose  penitential  zeal  was  somewhat 
fantastic,  and  who,  acting  on  the  counsels  of  St.  Cyran,  dis- 
suaded from  frequent  Communion  on  the  ground  that  a  less 
frequent  reception  loould  beget  a  habit  of  hungering  for  the 
Sacrament. 

To  meet  the  subtle  distinctions  and  wretched  shifts  by 
which  the  Jansenists  sought  to  escape  censure,  Alexander 
VII.  published  the  bullJ-C?  Sacram,  in  which,  besides  confirm- 
ing the  bull  Cum  occasione  of  his  predecessor,  he  stated  spe- 
cifically that  the  five  propositions  were  in  matter  of  fact  con- 
tained in  the  Augustinus  of  Jansenius,  and  had  been  condemned 
in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  there  found.  By  the  request 
of  the  French  Bishops,  the  Pope  sent  at  the  same  time  a 
'■'-Formulary,'''  which  all  the  clergy  were  required  to  subscribe 
without  equivocation  or  reservation  (1665).  At  the  request 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Bossuet  wrote  to  the  inmates  of 
Port-Royal,  statingclearly  the  point  at  issue,  and  recommend- 
ing obedience.  "  In  all  these  formulas  of  faith,"  he  wrote 
substantially,    "in   which   the    authority  of   the    Church   is 


365.  Jansenism — Quesnel — Schism  of  Utrecht.        503 


brought  face  to  face  with  facts,  it  has  never  been  found  nec- 
essary to  emjiloy  this  distinction.  The  Church  has  often  been 
required  to  examine  and  decide  upon  facts;  as,  for  example, 
has  such  a  bishop  taught  such  an  error?  or  is  such  an  error 
found  in  such  a  book?  Shorn  of  this  right,  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  her  to  defend  herself  against  false  teaching. 
There  is  no  instance  in  which  the  Church  has  waited  until 
heresiarchs  and  their  partisans  have  been  pleased  to  come  for- 
ward and  confess  themselves  the  authors  of  the  errors  with 
which  they  were  charged.  To  how  many  and  how  great 
dangers  would  she  not  lay  herself  open  should  she  suspend 
the  effect  of  her  decisions  upon  heretics  and  their  works  until 
the  truth  of  the  alleged  facts  would  be  candidly  avowed  by 
the  heretics  themselves?"  Fenelon  expressed  himself  in  a 
similar  sense  some  time  later.^  Eecognizing  the  wisdom  of 
the  advice  given  by  men  so  eminent,  the  bishops  of  the  oppo- 
sition consented,  during  the  pontificate  of  Clement  IX.,  to 
subscribe  the  Formulary,  not  indeed  unreservedly  and  with 
full  assent,  but  in  the  sense  of  what  was  called  respectful  si- 
lence, or,  that  while  not  believing  they  would  remain  quiet. 

At  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  controversy 
grew  more  spirited  and  acrimonious.  In  the  year  1702,  while 
the  clergy  were  coming  forward  freely  to  sign  the  Formulary, 
the  celebrated  Case  of  Conscience  made  its  appearance.  In 
this  an  ecclesiastic,  who  had  not  been  able  to  bring  himsolf 
to  believe  that  the  Pope  was  infallible  in  deciding  questions 
o^  fact,  and  had  set  his  name  to  the  Formulary  with  a  corre- 
sponding mental  restriction,  was  supposed  to  be  in  a  dying  con- 
dition and  greatly  troubled  in  his  conscience.  The  confessor 
can  not  see  his  way  clear,  and  puts  the  question  :  Can  this 
man  be  absolved?  Nearly  all  the  Doctors  of  the  Sorbonne, 
besides  many  others,  held  that  he  could.  Cardinal  Noailles, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  commanded  them  to  retract  the  opinion, 
which  most  of  them  did,  but  others  refused  to  do.  Hereupon 
Clement  XI.  published  (1705)  his  bull,  Vineam  Domini,  in 
which,  while  reaffirming  the  teaching  set  forth   in  that  of 


1  Correspondance  de  Fenulon,  Paris,  1827,  3  T.     Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cycl  p., 
Vol.  v.,  p.  489  sq. ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  12,  art.  Jansenius,  and  Jans^nisme. 


504  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

Alexander  VII.,  be  declared  that  the  '■^respectful  silence'^  was 
not  sufficient  for  aljsolutiou  in  the  instance  given  in  the  Case 
of  Conscience,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  put  aside  all  doubt 
as  to  the  Pope's  infallibility  in  deciding  questions  involving 
dogmatic  facts.  The  bull  was  accepted  by  both  the  clergy  and 
parliament.  The  Port- Royalists  of  the  convent  near  Versailles 
dearly  atoned  for  their  course  in  qualifying  the  acceptance  of 
the  Formulary  and  in  resisting  all  appeals  to  return  to  Cath- 
olic obedience.  In  1709  the  convent  was  suppressed,  the  nuns 
distributed  among  the  other  Orders  throughout  France,  and 
in  1710,  by  order  of  the  king,  the  building  itself  was  demol- 
ished,^ an  extreme  measure,  whicli  many  traced  to  the  influ- 
ence of  Father  Le  Tellier,  a  Jesuit,  and  the  king's  confessor. 
Strange  to  say,  the  controvers}'  had  not  yet  reached  its  full 
stature,  to  which,  however,  it  was  now  brought  by  Qiiesnel,  a 
French  Oratorian.  The  scientific  labors  of  Quesnel,  and  par- 
ticularly his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  the  Great,  preceded 
by  some  learned  dissertations  of  his  own,  had  fairly  entitled 
him  to  the  gratitude  of  all  Catholics.  Among  the  Oratorians 
the  very  salutary  custom  prevails  of  meditating  daily  upon 
certain  passages  of  Holy  Writ;  and  Quesnel,  who  had  been 
very  assiduous  in  this  holy  exercise,  published,  between  the 
years  1671  and  1687,  his  Moral  Reflections  on  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament.-  A  deep  religious  spirit,  devotional  warmth 
and  earnestness,  and  great  power  and  grasp  of  thought  per- 
vaded the  work  throughout.  It  produced  a  marked  influence, 
and  Avas  constantly  to  be  seen  in  the  hands  of  devout  Chris- 
tians. Cardinal  Noailles,  then  Bishop  of  Chalons,  gave  it  his 
approbation,  and  commended  it  to  the  faithful  in  a  Pastoral, 
published  in  1685.  Other  prelates  followed  his  example,  and 
Clement  XI.  himself  expressed  the  belief  that  there  was  pro- 
bably not  an  ecclesiastic  in  Italy  capable  of  producing  such 
a  work.  When,  however,  some  of  the  most  learned  men  in 
France,  after  a  close  and  conscientious  examination  of  the 


'  Memoires  sur  la  destruction  de  Port-Eoy.  des  Champs,  1711.  Sainie-Beuve, 
Port-Royal,  Paris,  1840  sq.,  2  T.,  of  wJiich  a  second  edition  (very  spiteful)  ap- 
peared. 

^Le  Nouv.  Testam.  en  fran^ois  avec  des  reflexions  morales,  Par.  1G87,  and 
frequently.     Hidh,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century-,  Vol.  I.,  p.  245-322. 


365.  Jansenism — Qacsnd — Schism  of  UtrecJd.        50? 


edition  of  the  Moral  Reflections  issued  in  the  3-ear  1693,  ex 
pressed  their  disapproval  of  the  work  on  the  ground  that  it 
contained  Jansenistic  errors,  Clement  a[)pointed  a  commis- 
sion, composed,  not  of  Jesuits,  the  avowed  enemies  of  the 
Jauseuists,  but  of  Dominicans,  whose  opinions  on  the  points 
under  consideration  differed  widely  from  those  of  the  disciples 
of  Ignatius,  and  charged  this  body  to  look  carefully  through 
the  book,  and  report  their  judgment  to  him.  After  long  and 
careful  consideration,  the  Pope  published  the  bull  Unigenitas 
(1713),  condemning  one  hundred  and  one  propositions  con- 
tained in  the  Moral  Reflections.^  It  may  be  urged  thtit  the 
fact  that  the  scope  of  Quesnel's  book  was  to  treat  of  pious 
meditation,  of  aspirations  and  forms  of  prayer,  and  not  of 
dogmatic  distinctions,  stated  with  scientific  accuracy,  was  not 
sufficiently  taken  into  account.  But  it  may  be  answered  that 
in  religious  meditations,  the  aim  of  which  is  to  foster  a  spirit 
of  piet}',  we  have  a  right  to  expect  that  the  dogmatic  propo- 
sitions that  underlie  them,  and  upon  which  they  are  built, 
shall  be  luminous  and  established  beyond  all  manner  of  doubt. 
This  was  all  the  more  true  in  Quesnel's  case,  because  having, 
after  the  death  of  Arnauld,  become  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  Jansenists  (1694),  he  reproduced  precisel}^  all  their  errors 
on  free-will  and  grace,  teaching  that  grace  is  all-powerful  and 
acts  irresistibly,  thus,  like  Jansenius,  utterly  destroying  free- 
will. He  concluded  quite  rigorously  :  "  If  God  wishes  to 
save  the  creature,  saved  he  will  infallibly  be;  and  hence,  if 
the  creature  be  lost,  it  is  because  God  would  have  it  so." 

Quesnel  also  gave  expression  to  some  ideas  on  the  Church 
and  her  discipline,  whose  drift  was,  to  say  the  \Q-dst,  suspicious,^ 
maintaining,  for  example,  that  a  person  considering  himself  un- 
justl}^  excommunicated  was  not  cut  off  from  holding  friendly 


1  These  propositions  are,  beside  the  Uullariuni,  found  in  Latin,  also  in  the 
iyei/;2i(/ stereotyped  edition  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  p.  2So-291  ;  in  Latin  and 
German  in  Smeis^  edition. 

'^Huth,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  258  sq.,  and  279  sq.  Cf.  Iie7iaii  Jos  Dubois,  Col- 
lectio  nova  actor,  publicor.  constitut.  Clementinae  Unigenitus,  Lugd.  Batav 
1725.  C.  M.  Pfaff,  x\cta  publica  const.  Unigeniiinf,  Tueb.  1728.  Add  to  these. 
Errores  et  synopsis  vitae  Paschasii  Quesnel,  ciijus  101  propositiones  constitutione 
Unigenitus  per  Ecclesiam  damnatae,  etc. ;  accedunt  instrumenta  publicationum, 
etc.,  Autv.  1717,  12mo. 


506  Period  3.     E])och  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

relations  with  God  ;  for,  though  separated  from  the  visible,  he 
was  not  from  the  invisible  body  of  the  Church.  He  also  held 
that  all  Christians,  not  excluding  women  and  young  children, 
should  be  allowed  to  read  the  Bible  without  any  sort  of  re- 
striction, else  the  children  of  light  would  be  shut  out  from 
the  very  source  of  light. 

But  if  Quesnel  outraged  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  it 
must  be  frankly  confessed  that  he  was  not  the  only  participant 
in  the  controversy  who  did  so.  After  the  appearance  of  the 
bull  Uriigenitus,  Cardinal  Noailles,  now  Archbishop  of  Paris 
(from  1605  to  1729),  forbade  the  Catholics  of  his  diocese  to 
read  the  Moral  Reflections  ;  but,  strange  to  say,  at  an  assem- 
bly of  the  French  Clergy,  convened  by  royal  order  in  1714, 
he  objected  to  receiving  the  bull  Unigenitus  without  qualifica- 
tion. Unable  to  get  more  than  seven  bishops  of  the  assembly 
to  side  with  him,  he  was  defeated,  but  not  silenced.  He  pub- 
lished a  circular  over  his  own  name,  in  which,  wdiile  again 
condemning  the  Moral  Keflections,  he  forbade  those  within 
his  jurisdiction,  under  penalty  of  suspension,  to  receive  the 
dogmatic  decisions  of  the  Holy  See  on  the  same  subject. 
When  the  question  as  to  whether  the  bull  should  be  regis- 
tered by  the  Sorbonne  was  put  to  the  vote,  the  aflirmative 
decision  was  carried,  but  only  by  a  simple  majority. 

With  a  view  to  allay  popular  feeling,  daily  growing  more 
threatening,  Louis  XIV.  conceived  the  design  of  convoking 
a  national  council,  which  his  death  in  1715  prevented  him 
from  carrying  into  effect.  The  worthless  and  immoral  Philip, 
Duke  of  Oilcans,  held  the  regency  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  king,  Louis  XV.,  when  the  Jansenists  again  rallied  in 
all  their  force.  Four  bishops  appealed  from  the  bull  Unigen- 
itus to  an  Ecumenical  Council.  These  were  soon  joined  by 
one  hundred  and  six  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  and  by  Cardinal 
KoaiLes,  and,  under  the  name  of  Appellants,'^  rapidly  grew 
into  a  powerful  and  formidable  party.  These  alarming  indi- 
cations of  revolt  against  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  decided 


1  The  twi)  parties  went  under  the  names  of  Constitutlonalisis  and  Anti-Co7i' 
gtitutlonallsis ;  also  of  Acceptanis  and  Recusajits,  according  as  thiey  receive'l  or 
rejected  the  Papal  Constitution.  (Tr.) 


§  365.  Jansenism — Quesnel — Schism  of  Utrecht.       507 

the  Pope  to  publish  (1718)  the  anusually  severe  bull  Pastoralis 
officii,  declaring  that  any  one,  be  he  cardinal  or  bishop,  re- 
fusing to  accept  the  constitution  Unigenitas  thereby  ceased  to 
be  of  the  members  of  the  Church.  The  Appellants  protested, 
and  Cardinal  Koailles,  who  had  been  so  peremptorily  reminded 
of  his  duty,  instead  of  obeying  the  Holy  See,  used  the  au- 
thority of  his  name  and  the  influence  of  his  family  to 
strengthen  the  hands  of  its  opi)onents.  Thus,  in  1720,  while 
ostensibly  promoting  measures  of  peace,  he  was  privately 
counseling  resistance,  a  shifty  policy,  which  he  carried  on 
until  the  year  1728,  when  he  finally  consented  to  receive  the 
bull  Unigenitus,  without  qualification  or  limitation,  and  his 
example  was  followed  by  the  greater  number  of  the  Appellant 
bishops.  The  bishops  of  3Ioutpellier,  Auxerre,  Troyes,  Senez, 
Metz,  Mdcon,  Treguier,  Pami.ers,  and  Cadres  alone  held  out, 
preferring  exile  to  submission. 

As  is  the  case  with  all  sects,  the  Jauseinsts  now  openly 
professed  the  most  deplorable  errors,  lost  all  their  former  re- 
serve and  discretion,  and  sank  in  the  estimation  of  the  people. 
Their  ascetical  practices  degenerated  into  fanaticism,  and  their 
unbelief  was  hardly  distinguishable  from  atheism.  Failing  to 
regain  public  esteem  by  intrigue,  they  resorted  to  pretended 
miracles.  Reports  were  widely  circulated  of  numerous  cures 
that  were  said  to  be  daily  taking  place  in  the  cemetery  of  St. 
Medard,  at  the  tomb  of  the  deacon,  Francis  Fdris,  who  in  life 
had  been  a  zealous  Appellant  (f  1727).^  To  prove  the  sanctity 
of  the  deacon  and  the  justness  of  his  cause,  a  number  of  fren- 
zied devotees  would  go  into  frantic  convulsions  and  pretended 
ecstasies  before  the  multitude.  From  having  been  extrava- 
gant they  now  became  ridiculous;  and  this  sect,  which  had 
so  brilliant  an  opening,  had,  like  every  other,  a  farcical 
close,  confirming  once  more  the  truth  of  the  French  proverb 
''ridicule  tue;''  and  those  who,  as  Voltaire  said,  buried 
Jansenism  in  the  grave  of  the  deacon  Francis,  expired 
as   "  Convulsionaries."      The   cemetery  was  closed  by  royal 


1  Vie  de  M.  Francois  de  Paris,  Utr.  1729,  and  frequently.  Eelution  des  mil 
acles  de  St.  Fran(,-ois  de  Par.  avec  un  abrege  do  sa  vie,  Brux.  1731.  Montf/cron, 
la  Verite  des  miracles  du  diacre  Paris,  (Par.  1737)  Col.  1845  sq.,  3  T.,  4to.  Moa- 
heun,  Diss,  ad  h.  e.,  T.  II.,  p.  307  sq.     Tholuck,  Miscellanea,  Pt.  I.,  p.  133-148 


508  Period  3.     Enoch  2.     Part  1.     Chavter  1. 


order/  but  tlie  convulsions  continued  in  private  houses.  At 
length  de  Bcaumord,  Archbishop  of  Paris  (from  1746),  pre- 
scribed strict  rules  for  the  guidance  of  his  clergy  in  dealing 
with  Jansenists,  forbidding  them  to  give  the  Sacraments  to 
any  one  lying  sick,  who  was  not  able  to  produce  a  certificate 
from  his  parish  priest  stating  that  he  liad  been  to  confession. 
The  measure  was  rendered  necessary,  because  the  Ajypellavfs 
were  in  the  habit  of  going  privately  to  their  own  confessors. 
The  parliament  took  cognizance  of  the  aiiair,  citing  the  arch- 
bishop before  its  tribunal  (1752).  The  prelate  protested,  de- 
nying the  competency  of  the  court;  and  the  king,  making 
the  cause  of  the  clergy  his  own,  dissolved  the  parliament,  and 
sent  several  of  its  members  into  exile.  The  pressure  of  cir- 
cumstances obliged  the  king  to  recall  them  in  1754,  when  a 
violent  reaction  set  in  in  favor  of  giving  the  Sacraments  to 
the  Aj^pe/lanfs,  and  the  archbishop  refusing  to  yield,  was  in 
his  turn  banished  from  Paris.  The  controvers}^  was  still  qui- 
etly and  languidly  proceeding,  when  demerit  XIV.,  taking 
the  matter  in  hand,  decided  that  the  instructions  of  the  arch- 
bishop should  be  rigorously  carried  out,  but  only  in  the  case 
of  those  whose  opposition  to  the  bull  Unigenitus  was  notoriovs. 
One  of  the  saddest  consequences  of  this  conflict  was  the  in- 
terference of  the  State  in  the  affairs  of  the  Church,  thus  set- 
ting up  a  precedent  which  gave  color  to  the  subsequent  policy 
of  the  government. 

The  Jansenistic  controversy  was  carried  on  with  still  more 
vehemence  in  the  Netherlands,  wiiere  it  was  productive  of  still 
more  disastrous  controversies,  assuming  there  the  character 
of  an  actual  schism.^  The  metropolitan  see  of  Utrecht,  and 
the  sutiragan  sees  of  Haarlem,  Leeuwarden,  Deventer,  Gro- 
ningen,  and  Middelburg,  the  latter  all  founded  by  King  Philip 
11.,  had  been  abolished  and  their  estates  confiscated,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  religious  and  political  troubles  existing  between 

1  Whereupon  a  wit  wrote  the  following  epigram: 

De  par  le  roi;  defense  a  Dieu 

De  fairo  miracles  en  ce  lieu.     (Tr.) 

"  Hoynk  vrm  Papendrechf,  Hist,  de  rebus  eccl.  Ultraject.,  Col.  1725.  *Mozzi, 
Storia  delle  revoliizioni  della  chicsa  d'Utrecht,  Ven.  1787,  3  vols.  Freiburg 
Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  504  sq. ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  24,  p.  422  sq. 


365.  Jansenism — Qiiesn el— Schism  of  Utrecht.       509 


Spain  and  the  ISTetherlands  ;  ^  but,  in  spite  of  these  untoward 
circumstances,  the  number  of  Catholics  still  remainino-  and 
subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  was  consid- 
erable. Gregory  XIII.  appointed  Sasbold  Vismer,  Nuncio  to 
Cologne,  Vicar  Apostolic,  first  of  the  diocese  of  Utrecht  and 
subsequently  of  all  the  Low  Countries.  He  was  conse- 
crated at  Eome  in  1602  by  Clement  VIII.,  under  the  title  of 
Archbishop  of  Philippi  in  yartibas  injidelium,  and  sent  back 
to  Dtrecht  with  revocable  jurisdiction.  He  was  succeeded  b}' 
Philip  Roven,  under  the  same  title.  This  prelate  did  his  best 
to  preserve  the  Chapter  of  Utrecht,  which  was  slowly  losin^r 
its  members,  by  establishing  a  kind  of  collegiate  institution, 
composed  of  the  dispersed  parish-priests  whom  he  had  there 
gathered  about  him.  Utrecht  was  then  the  chief  asylum  of 
the  Jansenists,  and  there  they  continued  to  find  protection 
and  sympathy  until  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  the  Vicar  Apostolic,  Peter  Kodde,  Archbishop  of  Se- 
baste  (since  1688),  openly  avowed  himself  their  friend.  He 
was  in  consequence  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  his  juris- 
diction by  Clement  XI.,  and  Peter  van  Kock  (1702)  appointed 
in  his  room  under  the  name  of  Provicar.  But  neither  the 
ministrations  of  van  Kock  nor  those  of  his  successors,  Dae- 
7nen,  Bishop  of  Adrianople  (from  1707),  and  van  Bylevelt,  were 
very  effective,  owing  to  the  obstructions  the  Jansenists  were 
constantly  throwing  in  the  way  of  their  exercise.  Quesnd 
himself  withdrew  to  Amsterdam  in  1703,  where  he  continued 
to  write  in  favor  of  Jansenism  ;  and  after  his  death,  in  1710, 
Petitpied,  Faulu,  and  otliers  took  his  place,  and  kept  up  a 
constant  intercourse  with  the  Jansenists  in  France. 

The  Dutch  government,  whose  interests  were  hostile  to  those 
of  the  Holy  See,  looked  with  favor  upon,  and  at  times  actively 
promoted,  the  insidious  plans  of  the  Jansenists.  Thus  were 
the  French  Deacon  Boullenois  (1716)  and  Dominic  Varlct,  tit- 
ular Bishop  of  Babylon,  brought  to  Holland.  Whatever  ot 
disorder  was  left  undone  was  completed  by  the  latter.  Though 
suspended  from  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  and  acting  in 
the  face  of  a  protest  from  Rome,  he  consecrated   Corneliai 

» See  §  333. 


510  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

Steejioven,  who  had  been  elected  in  1723  by  a  pretended  chapter 
of  Utrecht,  archbishop  of  that  city.  Yarlet  repeated  the 
Bacrilegious  act  several  times  after  the  death  of  Steenoven, 
and  finally,  in  1742,  Archbishop  Meindarts  revived  the  bish- 
oprics of  Haarlem  (1742)  and  Deventer  (1752),  thus  prevent- 
ing the  extinction  of  the  line  of  schismatical  bishops.  He 
he'd  a  synod  in  Utrecht  in  1763,  the  acts  of  which  he  sent  to 
Rome.  Although  many  eflbrts  have  been  made  to  close  this 
schism,  it  endures  to  our  own  day,  because  the  church  of 
Utrecht  stubbornly  refuses  to  receive  the  bull  TJnigenitas.  It, 
however,  recognizes  the  primacy  of  the  Holy  See,  and  each 
bishop,  when  elected,  notifies  the  Pope,  professes  submission 
to  Rome,  and  requests  to  have  his  election  confirmed.  But 
the  Popes  have  uniformly  declined  to  receive  any  overtures, 
except  on  condition  of  the  acceptance  of  the  bull  Unigeinfus, 
and  as  a  rule  have  declared  tlie  bishops-elect  e.xcommuni- 
cated.^  The  schismatics  number  about  four  thousand  five 
hundred  souls,  scattered  through  twenty-filve  parishes  in  the 
dioceses  of  Utrecht  and  Haarlem.  The  Bishop  of  Deventer, 
who  resides  at  Rotterdam,  and  has  the  title  of  Pastor  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Utrecht,  enjoys  a  sinecure,  having  no  subjects. 
Such  is  the  precarious  existence  which  this  Jansenist  and 
Ultra-Gallican  schism  continues  to  drag  out,  though  in  pos- 
session of  all  the  church  property  that  had  been  rescued  from 
the  cupidity  of  the  Reformers,  and  accumulated  in  later  years 
by  the  economy  of  the  Catholics. 

§  366.  Quietism — Molinos — Madame  Guy  on. 

Quietism  in  France  (Tueb.  Theolog.  Quarterly,  1856,  two  articles). 

While  Jansenism  was  still  occupying  the  thoughts  of  men, 
and  unsettling  their  convictions,  new  errors,  drawing  life 
from  the  same  source,  engaged  the  attention  of  theologians. 
Originating  like  Jansenism,  in  the  absence  of  a  true  spirit  of 
interior  life,  they  became  notorious  only  after  having  encoun- 
tered a  lively  opposition.     The   theologians  of  the  Middle 


1  Wnlch,  Modern  Hist,  of  Religion,  Ft.  VI.,  p.  82  sq. ;  p.  165-174  ;  p.  489-58S 
Tii.eb.  Quart,  1826,  nro.  3,  p.  178  sq. 


§  366.   Quietism — 3Iolinos — 31adame  Guy  on.  511 


Ages  had  not  iinfrequently  made  the  bod\-  of  religious  teach- 
ing little  more  than  an  ehiborate  system  of  dry  formulas  and 
barren  definitions,  never  treating  morals  except  as  the  subject- 
matter  of  a  repulsiv^e  casuistry.  As  was  natural,  the  reaction 
against  so  cold  and  unsympathetic  a  system  produced  a  false 
and  fanatical  enthusiasm  that  sometimes  nearly  unseated  the 
reason.  And  what  took  place  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  re- 
peated under  analogous  conditions  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, llichael  3Iolinos,  who  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  set- 
ting this  mystical  reaction  in  motion,  was  born  (1627)  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Saragossa,  in  Spain  ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the 
hind  where  side  by  side  with  such  marvels  of  true  mysticism 
as  St.  Teresa,  St.  John  of  the  Cross,  and  Louis  of  Granada, 
there  existed  extravagant  visionaries  and  fanatical  antinomists. 
Molinos  having  completed  his  studies  at  Coimbra  and  Pam- 
peluna,  went  in  1669  to  reside  in  Rome,  where  persons  of  the 
highest  rank  and  sincerest  piety  placed  themselves  under  his 
spiritual  direction.  He  shortly  published  a  work  entitled  the 
Spiritual  Guide,  which  for  many  years  was  very  favorably  re- 
ceived, and  was  translated  from  the  original  Spanish  into 
both  French  and  Italian.^  The  dangerous  spirit  that  pervaded 
the  book  soon  became  manifest.  Its  most  assiduous  readers 
began  to  form  little  gatherings  for  themselves,  to  develop,  to- 
gether with  a  mystical,  a  pietistical  tendency,  and  to  use  ob- 
jectionable forms  of  prayer.  The  famous  preacher,  Paul 
Segneri,  was  the  first  to  call  public  attention  to  the  seductive 
errors  it  contained  [Concordantia  lahoris  cum  quiet e  i?i  orationc), 
and  a  more  critical  examination  of  its  contents  only  con- 
firmed the  truth  of  his  charges.  Its  author  was  in  conse- 
quence pursued  with  rigorous  severity  until  he  had  done  pe- 
nance and  retracted  his  errors,  which  he  did  in  1687,  when, 
though  absolved,  he  was  kept  confined  in  a  Dominican  con- 
vent until  his  death,  in  1696. 

At  the  instance  of  Father  la   Chaise,   confessor  to  Louis 
XIV.,  Innocent  XL  condemned  sixty-eight  propositions  con- 


^  Ouida  spirituale,  Rom.  1681;  in  Spanish  as  early  as  1G75;  in  Latin  by 
Franke,  1687;  in  Gernaan  by  Arnold,  1G99.  Kecueil  des  div.  pieces  concernant 
le  Quietisme,  Amst.  1688.  Conf.  Weissmann,  H.  e.,  Pt.  II.,  p.  541.  Freiburg 
Eocl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  213-218 ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  15,  p.  202  sq. 


512  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

tallied  in  Molinos'  book.  Although  Cardinal  Cibo,  writing 
in  the  name  of  the  Inquisition,  had,  as  early  as  February  15, 
1687,  addressed  a  circular  letter  to  all  the  prelates  and  princes 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  warning  them  against  the  dangerous 
and  insidious  character  of  Molinos'  errors,  the  number  of  his 
partisans  went  on  steadily  increasing.  They  were  known  as 
Ouietists  and  their  errors  as  Quietism.,  because  Molinos  held 
that  for  one  to  be  perfect  the  soul  must  be  quiet,  neither  rea- 
soning, sympathizing,  nor  exercising  any  faculty  whatever, 
the  most  exalted  state  of  the  spiritual  life  being  that  in  which 
one  is  wholly  oblivious  of  self,  yet  wholly  occupied  with  God. 
Ill  order  that  the  soul  return  to  its  principle  and  the  source 
of  its  being,  it  must  annihilate  itself,  be  changed,  transformed, 
and  divinized.  But  to  accomplish  this  the  exercise  of  the 
mental  faculties  must  cease,  the  soul  must  be  passive,  incapa- 
ble of  meditating  or  of  even  having  a  good  thought  of  God 
Himself.  Its  sole  function  is  to  passively  receive  the  infused 
light  of  Heaven,  the  accompaniment  of  a  purely  inactive 
state  of  contemplation. 

In  reply  it  was  said  that,  according  to  this  theory,  the  soul 
would  be  in  such  a  state  of  absolute  indifference  that  it  would 
no  longer  give  itself  any  concern  about  either  Heaven  or  hell, 
or  any  of  the  dogmatic  teachings  of  the  Church  ;  and  that 
being  thus  lifted  above  the  body  by  a  supernatural  union  with 
God,  it  would  forego  the  practice  of  the  necessary  works  of 
charity,  and  in  the  end  lapse  into  sensuality  ;  for  so  completely 
would  it  be  absorbed  in  God,  that  it  would  wholly  disregard 
the  functions  of  corporeal  sense  ;  and  the  criminal  movements 
of  the  sensitive  soul  and  the  criminal  actions  of  the  bodily 
senses  and  members  would  therefore  be  entirely  independent 
of  it  in  this  state  of  contemplative  repose.  Hence,  from  this 
sublime  state  of  contemplation,  in  which  all  external  things 
would  be  indiflerent  to  the  soul,  there  would  be  but  one  step 
to  fatally  lax  principles  in  morals. 

That  these  conclusions  were  fairly  deducible  from  his  sys- 
tom,  Molinos  could  not  deny.  Moreover,  Quietism,  by  iden- 
tifying the  Creator  with  the  creature,  or  by  what  Molinos 
called  deification,  through  a  true  and  perfect  annihilation  of 
self,  led  directly  to  pantheism. 


366.   Quietism — Molinos— Madame  Guyon.  513 


About  the  same  time,  the  works  of  the  blind  Francis  Mala- 
vale,  of  Marseilles,  and  those  of  Abb6  d'Estival  and  the  Bar- 
nabife  Lacombe  (Analysis  oratioms),  but  particularl}^  those  of 
■  Jeanne  de  la  Motte  Guyon,  a  woman  of  deep  and  sincere 
piety,  of  distinguished  talent,  and  r)f  such  purity  of  life  that 
not  even  her  most  malignant  enemies  dared  to  asperse  her 
character,^  w^ere  suspected  of  containing  Qnietistic  errors  and 
of  having  a  strong  Qnietistic  tendency.  Born  at  Montargis, 
in  France,  April  13,  1648,  of  an  ancient  French  family,  and 
educated  in  several  convents,  Madame  Guyon  early  manifested 
a  taste  for  a  contemplative  life.  She  was  led  by  reading  the 
works  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  to  cultivate  a  habit  of  assiduous 
prayer,  which  she  broke  off  after  a  time  to  give  herself  up  to 
the  seductive  attractions  of  the  world,  to  which  she  was 
drawn  by  a  consciousness  of  her  extraordinary  beauty.  Hav- 
ing contracted  at  the  age  of  sixteen  a  marriage,  which  proved 
an  unhapp}^  one,  she  began  to  repine;  and  longing  for  com- 
fort and  peace  of  soul,  she  again  resumed  the  pious  practices 
and  close  intercourse  with  God  which  she  had  left  off  when 
drawn  away  by  the  charm  of  a  worldly  life.  Left  a  widow 
at  tlie  age  of  twenty-five,  she  was  now  free  to  prosecute  her 
pious  wnshes,  and  in  the  year  1681  repaired  to  Gex,  w'here  she 
entered  an  establishment  specially  intended  for  recent  con- 
verts, over  which  the  Bishop  of  Geneva  had  set  the  Barnabite 
Father  Lacombe,  w^ho,  it  seems,  instead  of  discreetly  checking 
the  extravagancies  of  his  new  charge,  showed  a  disposition  to 
indulge  them.  Here  she  devoted  herself  enthusiastically  to 
ascetical  exercises,  and,  as  she  fancied,  passed  through  the 
three  stages  designated  by  the  Mystics  as  absolute  indifference^ 
spiritual  death,  and  interior  reneioal.  She  professed  a  resolu- 
tion of  giving  herself  unreservedly  to  the  service  of  God,  but 
her  idea  of  spiritual  life  w^as  so  false  and  fantastic  that  she, 

'LaviedeMad.de  la  Motte  Guyon,  6crite  par  elle-meme,  Col.  1720,  .3  T., 
12mo,  and  Berlin,  1826  (Germ,  by  Monienglatd,  Brl.  1826,  3  pts.)  La  Bible  de 
Mme.  Guyon,  Cologne  (Amsterd.),  1715  sq.,  20  T.  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop., 
Vol.  IV.,  p.  836-839;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  10,  p.  229-233.  Her  Complete  Works  com- 
prise 39  vols.;  they  were  published  by  Poiret,  Cologne  (Amsterdam),  1715,  and 
'by  Du  Joit,  Mambrini,  1790,  40  vols. 
VOL.    Ill — 33 


514  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

together  with  Father  Lacombe,  was  banished  from  Geneva. 
She  shortly  after  entered  the  Ursuline  convent  at  Thouon, 
where  she  was  seized  with  an  irresistible  impulse  to  g\\Q  her 
ideas  to  the  world,  and  accordingly  wrote  a  number  of  trea- 
tises, among  which  are  the  following:  A  Short  and  Easy 
Method  of  Prayer;  Spiritual  Torrents;  31ystical  Works;  and 
Commentaries  on  the  Holy  Scriptures.  From  Thonon  Madame 
Guyon  went  to  Paris,  where  complaints  against  the  dangerous 
character  of  her  writings  brought  her  under  the  notice  of  tie 
archbishop,  and  on  the  29th  of  January,  1688,  she  was  taken 
into  custody,  and  shut  up  in  the  Convent  of  the  Visitation, 
but  regained  her  liberty  some  time  later,  at  the  instance  of 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  Lacombe  had  also  been  arrested  in 
October,  1687,  and  obstinately  refusing  to  retract  what  was 
objectionable  in  his  Analysis  Jidei,  was  banished  the  city,  and 
died  out  of  his  mind  at  Ch'areuton  in  1699. 

The  most  objectionable  of  the  tenets  of  Madame  Guyon, 
and  that  which  appears  to  have  been  the  underlying  principle 
of  her  teaching,  was  her  theorj^  of  self-abnegation.  Pure 
love  of  God,  she  said,  is  so  entirely  disinterested  that  it  takes 
no  thought  of  self,  puts  out  of  sight  all  hope  of  reward  and 
fear  of  punishment,  and  makes  no  account  even  of  salvation. 
God  is  loved  solely  because  He  is  most  worthy  of  love.  This 
love  is  so  completely  its  own  reward  that  the  soul  in  the  en- 
joyment of  it  would,  were  such  God's  will,  consent  to  be 
eternally  damned. 

In  the  year  1694  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  and  the  Bishop 
of  Chartres  condemned  her  writings  ;  and  in  the  same  year  a 
Commission,  whose  members,  consisting  of  the  Bishops  of 
Aleaux  and  Chalons  and  M.  Tronsou,  the  Superior  of  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  were  desiguated  by  Feuelon,  who 
himself  was  the  fourth  member,  was  appointed  by  royal  order 
to  examine  her  works.  The  sessions  took  place  at  Iss\',  the 
country-house  attached  to  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and 
continued  into  the  year  1695.  Bossuet  presided,  but  deferred 
in  important  matters  to  M.  Tronson,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  sound  judgment.'     The  Commission  published 


I  Abbe  Rohrbacher,  Ch.  H.,  Bk.  88,  passim.  (Tr.) 


§366.  Quietism — 3Iolinos — Madame  Guy  on.  515 

as  the  result  of  its  labors  an  instrument  of  Thirtj-four  Arti- 
cles, giving  a  clear  and  full  exposition  of  true  and  false  m3's- 
ticism.  These  Madame  Guyon  humbly  subscribed,  solemnly 
protesting  that  it  was  never  her  intention  to  pen  a  line  con- 
trary to  Catholic  doctrine.  Bossuet  expressed  himself  satis- 
fied, and  gave  her  a  certificate  to  this  effect.  It  was  thought 
that  there  was  now  an  end  of  the  controversy  on  Quietism, 
which  we  shall  presently  see  was  not  the  fact.  Madame 
Guyon  secretly  quitting  her  asylum  at  Meaux,  where  she  had 
remained  during  the  sitting  of  the  Commission  at  Iss}',  again 
went  forth,  proclaiming  her  teachings  and  exhibiting  Bossuet's 
testimonial  as  a  proof  of  their  orthodoxy.  She  was  again 
placed  under  arrest  and  imprisoned,  and  having  finally  ob- 
tained her  freedom,  was  exiled  to  Blois,  where  she  died  a  holy 
and  edifying  death,  June  9,  1717.' 

She  would  certainly  never  have  been  so  well  known  as  she 
IS  had  it  not  been  for  Fenelon's  relations  to  her.  This  pious 
and  (celebrated  man,  believing  firmly  in  the  virtue  of  Madame 
Guyon  and  the  purity  of  her  love  of  God,  came  forward  from 
motives  of  the  most  disinterested  charity  to  see  that  justice 
was  done  her.  As  a  refutation  of  her  principles,  Bossuet 
wrote  a  work  (M  the  Slates  of  Prayer  {Sur  les  Hats  d'oraison), 
to  which  he  requested  Fenelou  to  give  his  approval.  This 
the  latter  declined  to  do,  believing  the  censures  of  Bossuet  to 
be  too  severe  on  the  writings  of  Madame  Guyon.  From  that 
moment  these  two  great  men  were  estranged,  and  a  contro- 
versy ensued,  which,  painful  enough  under  any  circumstances, 
was  made  doubly  so  by  the  bitterness  displayed  by  the  con- 
testants, and  at  the  close  of  which  the  extraordinary  example 
of  humility  given  by  Fenelon  revealed  the  true  nobility  and 
grandeur  of  his  character.  Wishing  also  to  give  a  true  ex- 
position of  mysticism,  without,  however,  exhibiting  the  opin- 
ions of  Madame  Guyon. in  so  unfavorable  a  light  as  Bossuet 
had  done,  he  wrote  his  Explanations  of  the  Maxims  of  the 
Saints  in  Relation  to  Interior  Life  (1697),  giving  his  views, 
which  were  attractive  rather  than  solid,  on  pure  and  disinter- 


1  Dictionnaire  eiicyclopedique  de  la  theologie  Catholiquo,  art.  "  Guyon."  (Tr.) 


516  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  1.     Chapter  1. 

ested  love.^  Bossuet,  fearing  the  influence  of  this  work  would 
be  dangerous  in  the  measure  in  which  the  virtue  of  Fenelon 
was  exalted,  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  great,  and  the 
influence  he  exerted  powerful ;  and  conscious  that  the  work 
gave  proof  that  there  the  splendid  intellect  of  its  author  was 
at  its  best,  at  once  threw  himself  fullj'  into  the  controversy, 
and  in  combating  false  mysticism  was  not  always  careful  to 
avoid  violating  the  precepts  of  the  true.  Fenelon,  who  was 
not  in  favor  at  court,  was  ordered  to  submit  his  book  to  an 
ecclesiastical  tribunal,  of  which  Bossuet  was  a  member  ;  but 
declining,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  had  prejudged  the 
case,  was  permitted  by  the  king  to  refer  the  whole  cause  to 
the  decision  of  the  Holy  See.  Pope  Innocent  XII.  appointed 
a  Commission,  consisting  of  ten  members,  who,  after  having 
liad  the  matter  in  hand  for  an  entire  year,  in  the  course  of 
^vhich  they  held  sixty-four  protracted  sessions,  and  after  innu- 
merable delays,  difficulties,  and  doubts,  condemned  (March  12, 
1699)  in  general  terms  the  Maxims  of  the  Saints,  selecting  out 
of  the  work,  however,  twenty-three  propositions  for  special 
notes  of  censure,  some  of  which  were  characterized  as  scan- 
dalous, others  as  dangerous,  others  as  erroneous,  and  others 
again  as  mischievous  in  practice.  The  Pope  contrived  to 
break  the  force  of  so  severe  a  blow,  dealt  at  a  bishop  so  de- 
servedly esteemed,  by  declaring  that  '■■Fenelon  had  erred  by 
the  excess  of  his  love  of  God,  but  Bossuet  by  lack  of  love  for 
his  neighbor."  The  sentence  reached  Fenelon  on  the  25th 
of  March,  just  as  he  was  about  to  go  into  the  pulpit  of  his 
cathedral  to  preach.  After  reading  it  aloud  to  the  congrega- 
tion, he  besought  his  friends,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  no  longer 
to  defend  his  book,  and  charged  the  faithful  of  his  flock  to 
leave  off  reading  it.  In  a  pastoral,  dated  April  9,  addressed 
to  the  clergy,  secular  and  regular,  of  his  diocese,  he  published 
to  the  whole  of  France  his  cheerful  acquiescence  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  Holy  See,  and  begged  all  his  friends  to  follow  his 


'  Explication  des  maximes  des  Saints  sur  la  vie  int^rieure,  Paris,  1697. 
Fenelon,  Lettre(s)  a  M.  de  Meaux  en  reponse  aux  divers  ecrits  ou  memoires  sur 
le  livre  des  Maximes,  etc. — Sur  le  Quietisrae.  (Oeuvres;  nouv.  edit.,  Paris, 
1838,  chez  Lefevre,  T.  II.,  p.  481-826.)  Cf.  Bossuet,  Lettres  sur  laflaire  du 
Quietisme  (Oeuvres:  nouv.  edit.,  Paris,  1836,  4to,  T.  XII.,  p.  1-514). 


§  307.  Literature  of  the  Gallican  Church.  517 

example.  This  magnanimous  conduct  spared  the  Church  the 
painful  consequences  of  a  new  schism. 

§  367.  Literature  of  the  Gallican  Church. 

(Picoi),  Essai  historique  sur  I'influence  de  la  religion  en  France,  etc.  L«- 
eretelle,  Histoire  de  France  au  XVIIIe  siecle  ;  tr.  into  German  by  Sander,  Ber- 
lin, 1810,  2  vols. 

The  theological  literature  produced  by  the  Gallican  Church 
during  tins  epoch  is  her  special  glory  and  that  of  her  clergy, 
among  whom  it  took  its  rise.  The  restoration  of  monastic  life 
and  the  revival  of  a  higher  moral  sense  and  a  purer  religious 
spirit  during  the  preceding  age,  by  men  like  Francis  de  Sales 
and  Vincent  de  Paid,  were  now  showing  their  salutarj-  and  le- 
gitimate fruits.  The  high  standard  of  education  received  by 
the  clergy  in  the  establishments  belonijino:  to  the  Cono^resja- 

CIV  ~  ~  ~         ~ 

tion  of  St.  Maur,  to  the  Oratory,  and  the  Sorbonne  also  con- 
tributed in  its  own  way  and  measure  to  bring  about  the  same 
result.  Apart  from  the  influence  of  dogmatic  controversies, 
the  spirit  of  scientific  investigation  was  evoked  by  the  inter- 
niinable  discussions  on  ecclesiastical  law  and  the  conflicts  with 
]*rotestantism.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  prosperous  and 
])iilliant  from  the  very  outset,  inspired  the  French  nation 
with  an  enthusiasm  and  self-assertion  that  quickened  its  ener- 
gies and  multiplied  its  powers.  This  was  the  Golden  Age  of 
French  Literature,  and  while  it  lasted  Theology  reigned  as 
Queen.  The  philosophy  of  the  great  Descartes,  admirable  as 
an  aid  in  speculative  theology,^  was  neither  as  well  received 
nor  as  generally  used  as  it  should  have  been,  and  seems  from 
the  start  to  have  been  suspected  of  being  unsound  in  matters 
of  faith. ^     The  work,  however,  was  thoroughly  appreciated 


1  Cartesii,  0pp.,  Frcf.  1692  sq.,  2  T.,  4to.  mietii  censura  philos.  Cartes.,  Par. 
1689,  12mo,  ed.  IV.,  1694.  Cf.  Muratori,  De  moderat.  ingenior.  in  religion, 
negotio,  lib.  II.,  cap.  13.  tHock,  Cartesius  and  His  Adversaries,  Vienna,  1835, 
and  in  the  Freiburg  and  Ashhach's  Eccl.  Cyclopaedias,  article  Cartesius  or  Des- 
cartes. Cf.  -tGiiniher  and  Pabsi,  The  Heads  of  lanus,  Vienna,  1£.4,  p.  1-10, 
223  sq.  Fr.  Bouillier,  Histoire  et  critique  de  la  revolution  cartesienne,  Paris, 
1842. 

2  Descartes  expresses  his  views  on  this  subject  in  the  following  sentiments. 
"  Quae  nobis  a  Deo  sunt  revelata  credenda  sunt.     Et  quamvis  fortasiie  lumen 


518  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

by  Bossuet.  The  works  of  tlie  Oratorian,  3Ialebranche  (f  1715),' 
a  disciple  of  Descartes',  a  thinker  of  much  depth  and  orig- 
inality, and  a  luminous  and  elegant  writer,  exercised  no  little 
influence  on  both  the  theological  method  and  philosophical 
researches  of  Bossuet,  Huet,  and  others.  The  Axtology  for 
Christianity,  written  by  Huet,  Bishop  of  Avravches  (f  1721)/ 
and  based  upon  purely  historical  proofs,  such  as  miracles  and 
the  fulfillment  of  the  proi^hecies,  its  aim  being  to  disprove  the 
assertion  of  the  Jews  that  prophecies  in  no  wise  support  the 
claims  of  Christianity,  is,  in  spite  of  the  great  learning  of  its 
author,  far  inferior,  both  in  originality  and  depth  of  thought 
and  in  the  justness  of  its  reflections,  to  the  work  of  Pascal 
(f  1672)  on  the  same  subject.^  The  line  of  argument  pursued 
in  Houteville's  (f  1742)  Apology  is  also  historical/ 

The  Dogmatical  History  of  Religion  by  John  Claude  Som- 
mier  (f  1737)  deserves  special  mention,  because  from  a  psycho- 
logical point  of  view  ^  it  was  far  in  advance  of  that  age.     The 

rationis  (quam  maxime  clarum  et  evidens)  aliud  quid  nobis  suggerere  videretur, 
soli  tamen  auctoritati  divinae  potius  quam  nostro  judicio  fides  est  adhibenda." 
And  further  on :  "  Quamvis  non  clare  intelligimus,  tamen  non  recusabimus 
ilia  credere,  quae  fortasse  Deus  nobis  de  se  ipso  revelet,  qualia  sunt  mysteria 
Trinitatis  et  Incarnationis,  quae  excedunt  naturales  ingenii  nostri  vires." 
Judged  correctly  by  Perrone,  Historiae  theologiae  cum  philosophia  comparatae, 
synopsis,  nr.  61.  (Compend.  praelect.  theol.,  Vol.  I.)  Cf.  also  Klee,  Dog- 
matics, Vol.  I.,  p.  31.  The  critics  sitting  in  judgment  on  Descartes  have  fre- 
quently forgotten  that,  Philosophia  quaerit,  theologia  possidet  veritatem ! 

1  De  la  recherche  de  la  verite,  1673;  traite  de  la  morale,  Eotterd.  1684;  traite 
de  la  nature  et  de  la  grace,  1682.  Cf.  Fcnelon,  Kefutation  du  systeme  de  ^lale- 
branche  sur  la  nature  et  la  grace.     (Oeuv.  nouv.  ed.,  T.  III.,  p.  1-160.) 

'^  Huetii  episc.  Abrinc,  comment,  de  reb.  ad  eum  pertin.,  Amst.  1718.  De- 
monstratio  evangelica  (1679),  Amst.  1680.  07-igenia7ia  ;  cens.  phil.  Cartes.,  etc. 
Cf.  Tholuck,  Miscellaneous  Writings,  Hamburg,  1839,  Vol.  I.,  p.  247  sq.  Dr. 
Barach,  Huet  as  a  Philosopher,  etc.,  Vienna.  1862. 

^  Pensces  SMV  la  religion,  etc.,  Paris,  1669,  published  with  suppressions  and 
modifications,  2  T.,  and  frequently;  in  ihe.\v primitive  complete  shape  by  31. 
Prosper  Faugere,  Paris,  1844,  2  T. ;  transl.  into  German  by  Blech,  with  preface 
by  Neander,  Berlin,  1839.  Oeuvres,  La  Haye,  1779,  1819,  5  T.  Tholuck,  Mis- 
eel.  Writ.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  224-247.  Weingarten,  Pascal  as  Apologist  of  Christianity, 
Lps.  1863  ;  see  above,  p.  501,  note  4. 

*  HoutevUle,  la  Religion  chretienne  prouvee  par  les  faits;  edition  augmentee, 
Paris,  1740,  3  vols. ;  Germ.,  Frkft.  1745. 

5  Histoire  dogmatique  de  la  religion,  ou  la  religion  prouvee  par  I'autorite  di- 
vine et  humaine  et  par  les  lumieres  de  la  raison,  Nancy  et  Par.  1708  sq.,  6  T. 


§  367.  Literature  of  the  Gallican  Church.  519 

writers  on  dogmatic  theology  were  both  numerous  and  able,  in- 
cluding such  names  as  John  du  liamel,  the  Oratorian  ;  the 
Dominican,  Notalis  Alexander ;  C/iarles  Witasse,  of  the  Sor- 
bonne;  the  3  esmt,  To  timely  ;  i^i^/war^,  the  Dominican;  Collet, 
and  others.^  These  were  all  men  of  solid  learning,  and  mitn\' 
of  tbeni  were  gifted  with  penetrating  minds  and  loftiness  of 
conception,  and  wrote  with  remarkable  grace  and  lucidity. 
In  spite  of  their  efforts  to  exclude  from  tlieir  writings  tlic 
superfluous  distinctions  of  the  Schoolmen,  these  were  found 
to  be  almost  inseparable  from  the  scholastic  methods  which 
they  emploj'ed.  The  history  of  dogma,  so  auspiciously  begun 
by  Fetaviiis,  was  continued  by  Thomassin  and  Maran,  both  of 
whom  were  exceedingly  clever,  and  the  latter  possibly  the 
rival  of  Petavius  himself.^  Moral  theology  was  still  regarded 
as  an  appendage  to  dogmatics,  and,  in  the  works  enumerated, 
the  two  were  treated  together;  the  former  being  frequently 
incumbered  with  explanations  more  properly  belonging  to 
Canon  Law,  or,  as  is  notably  the  case  in  the  writings  of  the 
Jesuits,  Busenbaumr"  and  Voit,*  degraded  to  mere  casuistry, 
and  almost  hopelessly  entangled  in  the  painful  controversies 
on  probabUisvi.  Still  Malebranche's  Treatise  on  Morals  ;  the 
31oral  Essays  of  the  Jausenist,  Peter  Nicole;  and  the  Demon- 
stration of  Bernard  Lamy,^  the  Oratorian,  were  written  in  a 
new  and  more  attractive  form.  But  of  all  those  who  labored 
to  spread  the  truths  of  Christianity  during  this  epoch,  Salignac 

'  Du  Hamel,  Theol.  speculatrix  et  practica,  juxta  SS.  PP.  dogmata  pertrac- 
tata  ad  usum  scholae  accommod.,  Par.  1691,  7  T.;  Ven.  1734,  1  T.,  f.  Thence, 
Theol.  Summarium,  Par.  1694,  7  T.,  12mo.  Nntal.  Alex.,  Theol.  dogm.  et  mor- 
alis,  Par.  1693,  10  T.,  8vo.,  1703,  f.  Witasse,  Tractatus  de  poenitentia.  ordine, 
eucharistia;  de  attributis  Dei,  de  Trinit.,  Incarnatione,  etc.  (17-22),  nov.  ed., 
Lovan.,  J77G,  cum  notis.  Tourtiely,  Cursus  theologicus  scholastico  dograaticus 
et  moralis,  pirated  ed.,  Venet.  1728 ;  Col.  1734,  and  frequently.  BiUuart,  Summa 
S.  Thomae  hodiern.  acaderaiar.  moribus  accommodata,  Par.  1758;  "Wirceb. 
1758,  3  T.,  f.;  Par.  1841  and  1857,  10  vols.,  8vo.  Collei,  Institutiones  theol. 
Bchol.  sen  theolog.  speculativa,  Lugd.  1752,  2  T.,  f. 

2  Marun,  Divinitas  Dom.  X.  J.  Chr.  in  scriptur.  et  tradit.,  ed.  nova,  Wirceb, 
1859.       Thomassin,  Dogmata  theologica.  Par.  1684  sq.,  3  T.,  f. 

^  See  p.  417. 

*  Voit  S.  J.,  Theologia  moralis,  "Wirceb.  1769;  Ancon.  1841,  and  frequently 
2  vols. 

5  Demonstration  de  la  verite  et  de  la  saintete  de  la  morale  chr^tienne,  Pac 
1688,  12mo;  Rouen,  1705,  5  T.;  Germ.,  Lps.  1737. 


520  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


(fe  la  Motte  Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambrai  (f  1715)/  and 
Bossuet,  the  great  Bishop  of  Meaux  (f  1704),^  stand  pre-emi- 
nent, and  each  reflects  his  own  special  glory  upon  his  age. 
Fenelon  was  gifted  with  a  noble  intellect,  a  clear  nnderstaud- 
ing,  an  active  and  fertile  imagination,  and  a  candid  and  mag- 
nanimous character.  His  writings,  which  were  addressed 
alike  to  intellect  and  heart,  are  remarkable  for  elevation  of 
thought,  which  of  itself  would  insure  their  immortalit}-  ; 
breathe  a  refreshing  purity  of  sentiment;  fall  with  rythmic 
cadence  upon  the  ear ;  and  are  in  every  wa}'  models  of  an  el- 
egant, chaste,  limpid,  and  graceful  style.  The  genius  of 
Bossuet  was  more  soaring ;  his  intellect  more  brilliant ;  his 
mind  more  quick  to  grasp  and  solve  the  difficulties  of  a  ques- 
tion ;  his  learning  more  extensive ;  his  style  more  ornate,  elo- 
quent, and  majestic;  and  his  temperament  tinged  with  a  soft 
religious  melancholy,  which,  lending  attractiveness  to  a  great 
soul  like  his,  lifts  it  up  to  the  throne  of  peace  and  rest.^ 

In  spite  of  the  masterpieces  of  these  extraordinary  men. 
Church  History  was  richer  in  products  during  this  epoch 
than  any  other  field  of  theological  literature.  The  labors  of 
the  Congregation  of  St.  31aur,  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory^ 
and  the  Society  of  Jesus,  in  patristic  literature,  Christian  arch- 
aeology, and  church  history,  are  so  gigantic  in  quantity,  and 
withal  so  perfect  in  execution,  that  one  is  simply  amazed  at 
the  industry  and  ability  of  the  various  authors.  Those  of 
greatest  name  among  the  Jesuits  were  the  following  :  Fronto 
le  Due,  Labbe,  Cossart,  John  Chifflet,  Petau,  Sirwond,  and  John 
Gamier.  Among  the  Benedictines :  31ontfaucon,  Mabillon, 
Menard,  le  Nourry,  Constant,  Massuet,  Ruinart,  Julian  Gamier, 
de  la  Rue,  Touttee,  Martianay,  Prudence  Maran,  d'Achery,  Du- 
rand,  and  Martene.  Among  the  Dominicans  :  Combefis,  Goar, 
and  le  Qiiien.    Among  the  Oratorians  :  Morin  and  Thomassin; 


'  Oeuvres  spirit.,  Amsterd.  1725,  5  T.,  12mo;  Germ,  by  M.  Claudius,  Ham- 
burg (2d  ed.),  1823,  3  vols.,  and  likewise  at  Soleure.  Oeuvres,  nouv.  €dit., 
Paris,  1838.  Bausset,  Hist,  de  Fenelon,  Paris,  1809,  3  T.  ;  Germ,  by  Feder, 
Wuerzburg,  1811, 1812,  3  vols. 

-  Oeuv.  Yen.  1736  sq.,  5  T.,  4to ;  Par.  1744,  4  T.,  f.  Oeuv.  posth.  Amst.  (Par.) 
1753,  3  T.,  4to.  Oeuvr.  compl.  Par.  1836,  12  T.,  4to.  Bausset,  Hist,  de  Boss.^ 
Par.  1814,  4  T. ;  Germ,  by  Feder,  Sulzbach,  1820,  4  vols. 

^See  Vol.  I.,  page  47,  note  1. 


367.  Literature  of  the  GalUcan  Church.  521 


to  whom  are  to  be  added  those  other  great  schohirs,  whose 
works  will  live  as  long  as  there  exists  a  theological  literature, 
viz :  Cotelier,  Launoi,  Balaze,  Henri  de  Valois,  and  Renaudot. 
Du  Pin  spent  his  life  in  preparing  a  universal  biogra[ihy  of 
ecclesiastical  writers;  and  his  work  was  supplemented  by 
£>om  Ceillier,  who  wrote  historical  sketches  of  these  authors, 
and  gave  lists  of  their  works  in  chronological  order.  The 
Oratorian,  Richard  Slmon,^  may  be  said  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  true  biblical  criticism.  Simon  was  born  at  Dieppe, 
May  13,  1638,  educated  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory,  be- 
came afterward  oue  of  their  number,  and  in  his  studies  man- 
ifested a  decided  inclination  for  philology  and  archaeology. 
He  studied  incessantly,  laid  up  great  stores  of  learning,  and 
eventually  became  one  of  tlie  greatest  biblical  critics  of  his 
own  or  any  other  age.  Unhappily,  he  laid  himself  open  to 
the  assaults  of  Bossuet  and  Du  Pin  by  too  much  freedom  iind 
boldness  of  expression,  and  by  his  proneness  to  overstate 
and  exaggerate.  Simon  was  followed  in  the  same  field  by 
Houhigant,  whose  otherwise  excellent  works  on  the  text  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  marred  by  the  pernicious  influence 
of  his  predecessor.  James  Le  Long  (f  1721)  was  the  author 
of  a  bibliography  [Bibliotheca.  sacra),  containing  an  account 
of  all  the  editions  and  translations  of  the  Scri[»tures  published 
jireviously  to  his  time.  Dom  Martianay,  of  the  Congregation 
of  St.  Maur  (fl717),  contributed  to  advance  the  science  of 
hormeneutics,  as  did  also  Bernard  Lamy,  the  Oratorian,  by  his 
works,  designed  to  be  introductory  to  a  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures.- The  Jansenist,  de  Sacy,  enhanced  the  value  of  his 
translation  of  the  Bible  by  the  addition  of  learned  notes, 
Dom  Calmet,  the  Benedictine,  in  his  commentaries  on  the 
whole  Bible,  does  no  more  than  explain  the  literal  sense;  still 
the  archaeological  learning  they  contain  is  verj'  valuable. 

^Richard  Simon,  Hist.  crit.  du  texte  du  V.  T. ;  Hist.  crit.  du  N.  T.;  llist. 
crit.  dcs  versions  du  N.  T. ;  Hist.  crit.  des  principaux  cornmentateurs  du  N.  T. 
On  the  other  side :  Du  Pin,  Dissert,  pr^liminaire  sur  la  bible  ;  Bossuet,  Defonse 
de  la  'I'radition  et  des  Saints  Peres,  (Oeuv,  nouv.  €d..  Par.  1836,  T.  II.,  p. 
120-329.)  Graf,  Kichard  Simon  (in  Supplements  to  theological  literature, 
nro.  1,  Strasburg,  18-47). 

^  Apparatus  ad  biblia  sacra,  etc.,  Gratianopoli,  1687,  f. 


522  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

But  among  the  French  ecclesiastics  and  scholars  of  this 
age,  there  were  not  alone  classical  Church  historians  like 
Tillemont,  Fleury,  Natalis  Alexander,  Bossuet,  Harduin,  Labbe, 
and  Cossart,  hut  also  pulpit  orators,  whose  powers  of  eloquence, 
wealth  of  thought,  rhetorical  skill,  and  faultless  st3de  were  lit- 
erally marvelous.  Among  these,  putting  aside  Fenelon  and 
Bossuet,  ma}^  be  named  FUehier,  Bishop  of  Nimes  (flTlO), 
who  employed  his  flowery,  elevated,  and  correct  style  to  bring 
all  human  greatness  under  the  yoke  of  the  Cross  ;  ^  Bourda- 
loue,  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  (f  1704),^  who,  if  not  so  finished 
or  so  brilliant  as  those  already  mentioned,  was  more  vigorous 
and  solid,  and  must  unquestionably  be  ranked  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  pulpit  instructors  and  orators  ;  Massillon,  Bishop 
of  Clermont  (tl742),  unsurpassed  in  his  knowledge  of  the 
human  heart,  and  in  the  skill  with  which  he  depicts  man  in 
conflict  with  his  passions.  His  sermons  and  ecclesiastical 
conferences  were  a  reflex  of  his  character,  exhibiting  a  happy 
blending  of  severity  and  tenderness,  zeal  and  prudence, 
whicli  are  the  natural  expression  of  strong  religious  feeling, 
and  a  deep  sense  of  the  responsibility  of  the  pastoral  office  ;' 
and  finally,  Father  Bridaine  (f  1767),  a  popular  orator  and  an 
energetic  and  successful  missionary.'' 

§  368.  Decline  of  Peligious  and.  Theological  Science  in  France — 
Influence  of  the  Free  thinkers  of  England. 

Abbe  Barruel,  Menioires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  du  Jacobinisme,  T.  I.,  writ- 
ten in   England,  1797.     {Stark,  J.  Aug.  von),  Triumph  of  Philosophy  in  the 


1  Panegyriques  des  saints  ;  Oraisons  funebres  ;  Sermons. 

^Oeuvres  completes,  best  ed.  by  Rigaud,  Paris,  1708-1734,  16  vols. ;  Ver- 
sailles, 1812,  16  vols.;  nouv.  ed.,  Paris,  1829,  16  vols.;  1838,  5  vols.  His  life 
was  written  by  Mme.  de  Pringy.  (Te.) 

^Massillon,  Oeuvres  completes,  12  vols.,  published  by  his  nephew,  in  1745, 
1740;  later  editions  are  those  of  Beauce  (4  vols.,  1817);  Mequignon,  15  vols., 
1818,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1838;  and  Chalandre  (3  vols.,  1847).  The  ^'  Ecdssiasiical 
Conferences,"  which,  along  with  the  Petit  careme,  established  his  ceputation  ; 
tr.  into  English  by  Boylan,  of  Maynooth  ;  publ.  at  Dublin,  1825,  in  2  vols. ; 
then  dedicated  to  the  Pught  Eev.  John  Machale,  "  out  of  gratitude  for  long  and 
distingiii.^lied  services!"  (Tr.) 

♦Sermons  du  Vitve  Bridaine,  Avignon,  1827,  7  vols.  Cf.  Maury,  Essai  su' 
•'eloquence  de  la  chaire,  Paris,  1810. 


§  368.  Religious  and   Theological  Science  in  France.    52'J 

Eighteenth  Century,  Frkft.  1803,  2  pts.  ;  revised  by  Bnclifebier,  Landshut. 
1834.  Binder,  History  of  the  Philosophical  and  Revolutionary  Age,  with  Re- 
spect to  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Schaffh.  1844,  2  vols.  Wnlch,  Modern  History 
of  Religion,  Vols.  I.-III.  Hiith,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vo  .  11., 
p.  265.  Gfroerer,  Hist,  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vol.  IT.,  p.  38S-5oiJ. 
Cesare  Cantu,  Univ.  Hist.,  Vol.  XI. 

At  the  close  of  the  age  which  has  been  just  reviewed,  aii<l 
which  shed  so  much  glorj  upon  the  Church  of  Finance,  a  de- 
cline in  religious  sentiment  set  in,  and  progressed  with  start- 
ling rapidity.  The  immediate  causes  of  this  change  are  to  be 
sought  in  the  events  that  took  [dace  during  the  regency  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  in  the  frightful  immorality  preva- 
lent at  court,  where  religion,  no  longer  held  in  honor,  and 
ceasing  to  be  more  than  a  routine  ceremony  and  an  external 
form,  became  an  object  of  derisive  mockery  to  those  wlio  still 
condescended  to  pay  a  semblance  of  respect  to  what  thev  no 
longer  regarded  as  other  than  a  barren  worship.  And  the 
spirit  of  irreligion  that  came  into  fashion  at  court  went  down 
from  rank  to  rank,  until  in  the  end  it  reached  the  lowest 
stratum  of  society.  The  deplorable  issue  of  the  Jansenistic 
controversy  also  contributed  in  its  way  to  the  extinction  of 
the  religious  sentiment  and  to  make  piety  ridiculous.  The 
very  foundations  of  the  teaching  on  morals  were  loosened  by 
the  heated  controversy  on  Probabilism,  which  the  Jesuits  de- 
fended with  zealous  warmth  and  the  witty  Jansenists  assailed 
with  caustic  severity.  Scepticism  in  historical  studies,  whence 
it  spread  to  every  other  branch  of  science  and  literature, 
leaving  everywhere  the  baneful  effects  of  its  presence,  found 
favor  with  some  of  the  members  of  the  great  Society  of  Jesus, 
a  few  of  whom,  like  Harduin'^  (f  1729)  and  his  disciple,  Ber- 

1  It  would  Seem  that  Harduin  put  forward  his  opinions  raiher  from  love  of 
paradox  and  desire  of  notoriety  than  from  any  serious  belief  in  their  truth. 
Putting  aside  the  writings  of  Cicero,  Pliny^s  Natural  History,  Virgil's  Georgics, 
the  comedies  of  Plautus,  and  the  Satires  of  Horace,  in  Latin,  and  in  Greek 
JHomer's  Iliad  and  the  History  of  Herodotus,  he  maintained  that  all  the  rest 
of  the  works  included  in  the  body  of  ancient  classical  literature  were  falsely 
attributed  to  the  authors  whose  names  they  bore,  being  really  the  productions 
of  monks  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  was  equally  incredulous  with  regard 
to  ancient  coins  and  the  specimens  of  art  which  have  been  unanimously 
ascribed  to  the  classic  age.     Even  the  authors  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  ihj 


524  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

n(?/er  (t  1758),  carried  it  to  a  dangerous  excess.  The  latter 
professed  to  regard  the  Old  Testament  as  no  more  than  a 
mere  romance/  and  greatly  scandalized  the  faithful  by  the 
profane  flippancy  of  his  writings.  His  works,  though  con- 
demned by  ecclesiastical  authority  and  censured  by  the  mem- 
bers of  his  own  Society,  had  an  unprecedented  sale,  and  were 
road  with  avidity.^  Rehgious  sentiment  gradually  died  out^ 
and  anything  approaching  an  appreciative  knowledge  of 
Christianity  became  extinct.  Honest  historical  research  and 
laborious  investigation  were  discontinued,  and  in  their  place 
sprung  up  a  wordy  and  pretentious  science,  which  was  dig- 
nified by  the  name  of  philosophy,  and  faithfully  reflected  the 
spirit  and  tendency  of  the  age. 

England,^  now  Protestant  to  its  very  core,  was  held  up  to 
the  world  as  the  land  of  freedom  of  thought,  and  the  teaching 
of  her  philosophers  was  hailed  with  general  applause.  The 
emyiricism  oi  Locke  (f  1704),  which  necessarily  issued  in  rank 
niaterialism,  was  received  with  particular  favor  in  France. 
TdO  profligate  and  too  eflete  to  give  birth  to  any  original 
ideas  themselves,  the  leaders  of  thought  and  the  representa- 
tives of  learning  tamely  submitted  to  accept  a  philosophy 
that  made  the  five  senses  of  man  the  supreme  intellectual 

Old  Testament  did  not  escape  the  censure  of  his  sceptical  incredulity,  and  he 
also  endeavored  to  show  that  those  portions  of  the  New  Testament,  which  ai-e 
known  to  have  been  originally  written  in  Greek,  were  really  written  in  Latin. 
He  was  required  by  the  authorities  of  the  Society  to  retract  these  expressions 
of  opinion  ;  but  it  is  said  that,  having  been  expostulated  with  by  a  friend  and 
a  member  of  the  Society,  who  represented  to  him  that  people  were  greatly 
shocked  at  his  paradoxical  absurdities,  he  replied:  "  Now  do  you  really  think 
that  I  should  have  risen  every  morning  of  my  life  at  four  o'clock  to  say  over 
ao-ain  what  others  have  said  before  me?"  Abbe  Rohrbacher,  Hist.  Univ.  de 
llglise  Cath.,  Vol.  26,  Bk.  88,  pp.  107  sq.;  also  Feller's  Biogr.-Dict.  (Tr.) 

1  Histoire  du  peuple  de  Dieu,  etc.,  Paris  et  la  Haye,  1728,  7  vols.,  4to,  or  10 
vols.,  12mo;  1758,  14  vols.  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Yol.  I.,  p.  852;  Fr.  tr., 
Vol.  3,  p.  29  sq. 

2"Lcs  condamnations  dont  la  (cette  histoire)  frapperent  les  eveques  de  Mont- 
pellier  et  Soissons,  I'assemblee  du  clerge  a  Conflans,  la  Sorbonne,  et  les  papes 
IJenoit  XIV  et  Clement  XIII,  lui  firent  un  succes  immerite."  So  Diction- 
naire  General  de  Biographic  et  cC Histoire,  Paris,  1869,  2  vols.  (Tr.) 

3  Thorschmid,  Essay  of  a  Complete  Library  of  Free-thinkers,  Halle,  1765  sq, 
i  vols.     Cf.  Leo,  Manual  of  Univ.  Hist.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  173  sq. 


§  368.  Religious  and  Theological  Science  in  France.     525 


criterion,  and  gave  matter  dominion  over  mind.  Lord  Ed- 
zoard  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (f  1648)  had  already  maintained  that 
the  divine  character  of  Christianity  might  be  shown  to  be 
probable,  but  could  not  be  demonstrated  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty; and  that  to  believe  in  God,  to  live  virtuously,  to  be 
penitent  for  sins  and  mend  one's  life,  and  to  be  i)ersuaded  that 
good  deeds  will  be  rewarded  and  evil  punished  in  the  life  to 
•come,  are  conditions  quite  sufhcient  for  salvation. 

Toland,  an  Irishman  by  birth  (f  1722),  questioned  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  reviled  the  clergy,  and 
attempted  to  prove  that  Cliristianity  is  not  mysterious^  and  that 
the  Gospel  contains  nothing  above  reason.'  Lord  Shaftesbury, 
XI.  disciple  of  Locke's  (f  1713),  seized  every  available  occasion 
to  cast  ridicule  upon  the  Bible,  the  prophecies,  and  miracles  ; 
making  his  assaults  all  the  more  dangerous  by  veiling  a  deli- 
cate irony  under  a  simulated  reverence  for  religion.  The 
same  tactics  were  followed  by  Anthony  Collins  (f  1729),  with 
whom  the  name  Freethinker  originated.  Thomas  Woolston 
(tl733),  in  a  work  published  in  1705,  and  supplemented  by 
others  in  succeeding  years,  put  an  allegorical  interpretation 
upon  the  whole  of  the  Bible,  maintaining  that  the  personages 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  typical  and  not  real ;  that  the 
miracles  of  both  the  Old  and  the  New  were  only  admirably 
contrived  allegories;^  and  that  the  Gospel  narratives  were  a 
tissue  of  absurdities.^ 

Tindal,  a  Doctor  of  Laws  (f  1733),  who  was  an  avowed 
enemy  of  priests  and  of  the  ministers  of  every  form  of  re- 
ligion,* made  a  powerful  attack  upon  the  miraculous  charac- 
ter of  the  Gospel,  denying  the  necessity  of  revelation,  and 
maintainino:  that  human  reason  was  all-sufficient.^ 


1  His  most  important  work  is  that  entitled,  "  Christianity  not  Mysterious;  A 
Treatise  showing  that  there  is  nothing  in  the  Gospel  contrary  to  Reason  or 
:above  it,"  London,  1696.  (Tr.) 

2  The  Old  Apology  of  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion  against  the  Jews 
and  Gentiles  revived,  London,  1705.  (Tr.) 

^  Discourses  (six)  on  the  Miracles  of  Christ,  London,  1727  sq.  (Tr.) 

*  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church  asserted  against  the  Romish  and  all  otliei 
Priests,  etc.,  London,  1706.  (Tr.) 

*  Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a  Republication  of  the 
Religion  of  Nature,  London,  1730.  (Tr.) 


52G  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

William  Lyon  (f  1713)  proclaimed  the  infallibility  of  human 
reason,  and  asserted  that,  inasmuch  as  a  divine  revelation  is 
inconceivable,  and  miracles  can  not  be  demonstrated,  the 
ecclesiastical  state  is  of  purely  human  invention  and  a  per- 
petual imposture.  David  Hume,  the  celebrated  historian 
(1-1776),  was  arrogantly  sceptical,  denying  outright  the  trutli 
of  Christianity,  and  asserting  that  polytheism  was  the  oldest 
form  of  religion,  from  which,  as  time  went  on,  came  mo- 
notheism, and  from  this  again  pure  Deism,  which  of  all  beliefs 
mostly  commends  itself  to  the  reason.^ 

"  Indifference  in  matters  of  religion,"  said  Bossuet,  "  is  the 
bane  of  our  age.  It  is  openly  avowed  in  England  and  Hol- 
land, and  is  not  unfrequently  to  be  met  with  even  among 
Catholics.  I  am  convinced  that  the  influence  of  the  Free- 
thinkers \\\\\  decline,  not  indeed  because  their  opinions  are 
abhorred,  but  because  of  the  spirit  of  indiff"erence  to  every- 
thing but  gain  and  pleasure."  The  apath}'  which  the  great 
Bishop  of  Meaux  so  pathetically  deplored  opened  the  way  to 
the  introduction  into  France  of  the  spirit  of  irreligion,  which 
was  rapidly  succeeded  by  a  rancorous  hostility  to  every  form 
of  Christianity.  This  hatred  was  intensified  by  the  action 
of  the  clergy,  who,  taking  advantage  of  the  restrictions  of 
the  press,  which  was  not  so  free  in  France  as  on  the  other 
side  of  the  channel,  endeavored  to  wrench  the  weapons  from 
the  hands  of  their  adversaries  These  were  not  so  easily  si- 
lenced. They  began  to  publish  accounts  of  travel  in  distant 
lands,  in  which,  under  disguises  more  or  less  thin,  they  assailed 
Christianity  and  the  Church,  ridiculing  both  as  institutions 
peculiar  to  the  far-away  peoples  whom  they  had  visited. 
Such  was  the  character  of  Vairesse's  History  of  the  Sever- 
ambes;^  the  Voyage  and  Adventures  of  James  Masse,  by  Simon 
Tyssot  de  Patot ;  a  Description  of  the  Island  of  Borneo,  by 

*  His  most  important  religious  work,  Dialogues  concerning  Natural  Keligion, 
was  completed  in  1751,  but,  owing  to  the  advice  of  friends,  not  published  until 
1778,  about  two  years  after  his  death.  (Tr.)  Lechler,  History  of  Deism  in 
England,  Stuttg.  1841.  Riffel,  Deism  in  England  and  its  Echo  in  Germany 
(The  ''Catholic,''  1848,  nros.  36-38,40,  41).  Freiburg  Cyclop.,  art.  ''Deism"  and 
'Deists" 

2  Hist,  des  S^v^rambes,  Paris,  1677  sq.,  3  T.,  12mo;  Sulzbach,  1589,  8  vols. 


§  368.  Religious  and  Theological  Science  in  France.     527 

Fontenelle;  the  Persian  Letters,  by  Montesquieu;  and  tlie  Life 
of  Mohammed,  by  Count  Henri  de  Bouillon- Villers  (11722), 
in  which  the  author  endeavors  to  show  that  Mohammedanism 
is  superior  to  Christianity.  The  sceptic  Bayle  was  the  per- 
sistent and  malignant  foe  of  the  Bible,  maintaining  in  hin 
Critical  and  Historical  Dictionary,  through  which  his  atta(;k3 
were  made,  that  society  could  not  only  go  on  perfectly  well 
without  religion,  but  would  be  greatly  improved  by  its  ab- 
sence. 

These  isolated  assaults  were  subsequently  made  more  ef- 
fective by  a  permanent  organization  of  a  number  of  conspir- 
ators against  the  Christian  name,  who  had  sworn  to  bring 
about  the  total  overthrow  of  the  Church.  Their  cry  was 
^^ Crush  the  infamous  thing!''  {J^crasez  ViDfame!)  meaning  the 
Christian  religion  and  Christ  its  Head.  At  the  head  of  the 
conspirators  was  Francis  Mary  Arouet,  or,  as  he  called  him- 
self, Voltaire,  a  young  man  and  a  poet  of  extraordinary 
ability,  who,  as  Condorcet,  his  panegyrist,  relates,  had  taken 
a  solemn  oath  "  to  devote  his  whole  life  to  the  woi"k  of  de- 
stroying Christianity,  and  with  it  all  positive  religion." 
Hence  the  one  uniform  theme  of  his  discourses  and  writings, 
presented  under  an  endless  variety  of  forms  during  his  long 
and  chequered  career,  was  summed  up  in  the  assertion  that 
the  Christian  religion  is  the  invention  of  priests.^  He  died 
in  1778.  His  principal  accomplices  were  d'Alembert,  whose 
tactics  consisted  in  attempting  to  stifle  religion  by  skillfully 
contrived  stratagems;  Diderot,  who  openly  professed  himself 
an  atheist ;  and  Damilaville,  of  whom  Voltaire  said  that  he 
did  not  deny,  but  hated  God.  Their  most  important  work 
against  Christianity,  and  indeed  against  all  positive  religion, 
was  i\\Q  Encyclopaedia,  published  under  the  editorial  manage- 
ment of  d'Alembert  and  Diderot.  Perhaps  no  work  ever 
published  did  as  much  to  propagate  error  and  irreligion. 
The  dishonesty  of  the  editors  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
they  uniformly  substituted    the  term  ''■nature'''   in    texts  in 


^  Stark-Buchfelner,  L  cit.,  p.  34  sq.  Robiano,  T.  I.,  p.  300  sq.  Harel,  Vol- 
taire, particularites  curieuses  de  sa  vie  et  de  sa  mort.,  etc.  Paris,  1817.  Cf. 
Dahlm,ann,  Hist,  of  the  French  Revolution,  Vol.  I.,  p.  7-10. 


528  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

which  the  words  God  and  Providence  occur.  CondUlac 
(t  1780),  Helcetius,  and  the  infamous  Julian  Offroy  de  la  3Iet- 
trie  professed  themselves  pure  materialists.  In  their  works 
nature  holds  the  place  of  God  ;  spirit  is  only  a  Ibrni  of  matter; 
and  all  religion  is  a  political  institution,  invented  by  priests, 
and  capable  of  deceiving  none  but  idiots.'  Even  the  great 
Buffon  frequently  fails,  in  his  Natural  History,  to  distinguish 
between  God  and  nature,  between  mind  and  matter.  The 
astronomer,  Lalande,  studied  the  heavens  without  having  his 
mind  lifted  up  to  their  Maker,  and  in  all  his  works  the  name 
of  God  does  not  occur  once.  All  of  these,  including  Volney 
(t  1820)  and  JJupuis,  (f  1809),  denied  the  reality  of  biblical 
personages,^  and  pronounced  the  Gospel  narrative  the  reverie 
of  an  astronomer. 

If  Rousseau  (f  1778)  at  times  spoke  respectfully  and  even 
eloquently  of  Christianity,  he  was  no  less  audacious  than  his 
colleagues  in  his  attacks  on  the  miracles  of  the  Gospel,  and 
on  the  whole  history  of  the  Bible,  which,  he  said,  so  bristled 
with  contradictions  that  no  reasonable  man  could  give  cre- 
dence to  it.  Such  is  the  spirit  that  runs  through  the  famous 
Profession  de  foi  du  Vicuire  Savoyard,  and  through  his  still 
more  famous  pedagogical  Utopia,  Emile.^  His  hostility  to 
Christianity  is  still  more  pronounced  in  the  '■'Contrat  Social" 
where  he  charges  the  Christian  religion  with  having  severed 
the  unity  of  States,  extinguished  the  spirit  of  patriotism, 
pandered  to  the  designs  of  tyrants,  and  annihilated  the  manly 
virtues.  Finally,  a  society  of  a  political  character  was  formed, 
whose  members,  calling  themselves  Economists  or  '■'•Physio- 
crats,'^ demanded  unrestricted  freedom  of  trade  and  industry; 
absolute  equality  in  the  distribution  of  public  offices  ;  and  a 
complete  and  thorough  revolution  in  all  established  and  tra- 


'Ceci  est  exagere  quant  a  Condillac,  quoique  'il  n'y  ait  pas  loin  du  sensual- 
isme  ou  materialisme.    (Note  of  the  French  translators. — Tr.) 

^  Volney,  Euins;  Eeflections  upon  the  lievolutions  of  Empires,  published  in 
1794;  the  year  previous  he  published  the  Natural  Laws.  In  the  former  work 
he  maintains,  with  a  great  deal  of  sarcasm  and  mockery,  the  human  origin  and 
essential  falsity  of  all  religious  systems ;  in  the  latter  he  treats  morality  as  a 
physical  and  material  science.  (Tr.)  Dupuis,  Origine  de  tous  ies  cultes,  Paiis, 
1794,  12  vols. 

^  Starh-Buchfclner,  1.  c,  pp.  80  sq. 


368.  Religious  and  Theological  Science  in  France.     529 


ditiunary  methods  and  systems  ;  held  out  illusory  and  Utopian 
promised  of  unbounded  wealth  and  material  prosperity;  de- 
clared war  against  Christianity;  pronounced  belief  in  God 
.an  evidence  of  mental  infirmity  ;  and  rejected  the  views  of 
Voltaire  and  liousseau  as  entirel}'  too  moderate,  and  deservino- 
only  a  contemptuous  dismissal  from  men  of  more  "  advanced" 
thoughts. 

To  the  reflocring  and  far-seeing  the  evils  that  then  afflicted 
the  Church  of  France  were  a  certain  presage  of  an  approach- 
ing catastrophe.  Lahat  (f  1803),  a  member  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  St.  Maur,  and  Neuville,  the  celebrated  preacher,  spoke 
•out  in  sorrowful  and  eloquent  accents,  warning  their  country- 
men of  the  dangers  that  threatened  at  once  the  altar  of  God 
and  the  throne  of  the  king.  The  French  clergy,  in  two  as- 
semblies, held  respectively  in  1765  and  1770,  drew  the  atten- 
tion of  the  king  to  the  dangerous  character  of  the  writings 
•of  the  Freethinkers,  and  proposed  a  plan  of  arresting  the 
progress  of  the  wicked  conspiracy.^  A  memorial,  that  ap- 
peared shortly  after,  set  men  to  thinking  still  more  seriously 
of  the  dangers  that  were  ahead,  and  of  the  necessity  of  adopt- 
ing some  means  to  avert  them.  Men  of  ability  and  learning 
published  works  in  defense  of  Christianity  and  the  common- 
wealth, both  of  which  were  menaced  with  destruction,  if 
something  were  not  done,  and  that  speedily,  to  prevent  a 
great  social,  political,  and  religious  convulsion.  The  parlia- 
ment was  convoked  by  order  of  the  attorney -general,  Seguier,- 
and,  on  the  representations  of  the  clergy,  condemned  seven 
notoriously  scandalous  works,  and  ordered  them  to  be  burnt. 
But  beyond  this  that  body  did  nothing  in  the  cause  of  truth 
and  religion.  The  enemies  of  the  Christian  name  were  con- 
scious that  they  were  daily  gaining  in  number  and  growing 
in  influence.  Foreign  princes,  ministers  of  state,  and  other 
(ifficials  joined  their  ranks,  and,  strengthened  by  the  acces- 
sion and  aided  by  the  influence  of  powerful  statesmen  like 


1  Avertissement  du  clerge  de  France  sur  les  dangers  de  I'incredulite. 

^ "  Requisitoire,  sur  lequel  est  intervenu  Tarret  du  Parlement,  annee  1770," 
printed  by  injunction  of  the  king.  Cf.  Walch,  Modern  lleligious  History,  Ft. 
I.,  p.  471-486;  Pt.  II.,  p.  3  sq.     Robiano,  1.  cit.,  T.  XL,  p.  53. 

VOL,  III — 34 


530  Period  3.    Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

Choiseul  and  Malesherbes,  they  succeeded  in  lari^ely  controlling 
establishments  for  the  education  of  3'outh.  Malesherbes  being, 
in  virtue  of  his  office  of  Director  of  the  Library,  Censor  of 
the  Press,  placed  no  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  publication 
and  circulation  of  the  irreligious  works  of  the  day.  The  tor- 
rent of  evil  had  been  hourly  gaining  strength,  and  was  now 
irresistible.  Strange  to  say,  at  the  very  time  that  a  spirit  of 
frivolity  and  thoughtlessness  was  dominant  in  Church  and 
Society,  and  working  the  ruin  of  both,  a  Religious  Order  was 
founded,  whose  Rule  w^as  more  severe  than  that  of  any  body 
that  had  ever  existed  in  the  Church.  Le  Boaihilller  dc  Ravce} 
a  wealthy  and  learned  prelate,  who,  after  having  spent  the 
flower  of  his  youth  in  the  excesses  of  gay  and  fashionable 
dissipation,  became  a  prey  to  the  poignant  upbraidiugs  of 
conscience,  entered  the  convent  of  Citeaux  de  la  Trappe 
(1662),  in  the  diocese  of  Sens,  of  which  he  was  from  his  youth 
destined  to  be  the  abbot.  He  restored  the  primitive  severity 
of  the  Rule,  and  so  great  was  the  austerity  practiced  by  the 
Trappists,  as  the  disciples  of  Ranee  were  now  called,  that  they 
were  forbidden  even  to  speak  to  each  other  or  to  cultivate  any 
of  the  branches  of  science.  Against  the  latter  prohibition  the 
learned  Benedictine,  John  Mabillon,  wrote  his  Traite  des  etudes 
moiiastiques  {De  studiis  monasticis).  Bossuet,  to  clear  the  con- 
troversy that  followed  of  its  obscurity  and  confusion,  pointed 
out  ihe  fact  that  Ranc6,  in  discussing  the  subject,  had  failed 
to  make  a  necessary  distinction  between  the  conditions  proper 
to  the  life  of  a  hermit  and  those  proper  to  that  of  a  monk 
living  in  a  community. 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  austerity  of  the  Order,  num- 
bers came  to  seek  admission  into  it,  and  when  the  horrors  of 


1  Holsten.-Brockie,  T.  VI.,  p.  569.  Ranee,  Traite  de  la  saintote  ct  des  devoirs 
de  la  vie  monastique,  1683,  2  T.,  4to.  Against  it:  Mabillon,  Traite  des  etudes 
monast.,  1G91,  and  frequently;  in  Latin,  De  studiis  monasticis.  Marsolller, 
Vie  de  Tabbe  de  la  Trappe,  Par.  170%  2  T.,  12mo.  L.  D.  B.,  Hist,  civile,  rel. 
et  litter,  de  I'abbaye  de  la  Tr.,  Par.  1824.  ExnuviUez,  Vie  de  I'abbe  de  liancti; 
Par.  1842.  Chnieaubriand,  Vie  de  Eance,  Par.  1844  ;  Germ.,  Ulm.  1844.  Gnii- 
lardin,  Les  Trappistes  ou  I'ordre  de  Citeaux  au  XIX.  siecle;  liistoire  de  la 
Trappe  depuis  sa  Ibndation  jusqua  nos  jours,  Par.  1844,  T.  I.  (to  1790).  Cf, 
i>uppLementum  ad  Natal.  Alex.  h.  e.,  Bingae,  1791,  p.  689-704.  Dubois,  Histoire 
de  labbe  da  llance,  etc.,  Paris,  1866. 


§  369.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain.      531 

the  Revolution  and  the  glories  of  the  Empire  had  become 
things  of  the  past,  it  still  flourished  and  put  forth  fresh  tokens 
of  life  and  energy.     Ranc4  died  in  1700. 

§  369.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

While  the  Church  of  France  was  in  conflict,  that  of  Italy 
enjoyed  comparative  peace  and  quiet,  at  least  until  toward 
the  close  of  the  French  Revolution,  when  the  events  of  that 
stirring  period  began  to  produce  their  effects  to  the  south  of 
the  Alps.  The  Pope,  as  has  been  already  stated,  had  been 
engaged  in  warm  controversies  with  many  of  the  European 
sovereigns,  and  had  met  them  all  single-handed.  His  heart 
was  cheered,  however,  by  the  evidences  of  religious  activity 
and  a  healthy  religious  tone  visible  in  his  own  and  the  neigh- 
boring States.  The  bishops  were  untiring  in  their  efforts  to 
revive  the  faith  of  the  people,  and  missions  were  becoming 
daily  more  frequent.  To  the  older  orders  devoted  to  this  apos- 
tolic work  another  was  now  added,  namely,  the  Hedonptorist, 
founded  by  St.  Alphonsus  Maria  de  Liguori.^  Alphonsus  was 
born  at  Naples,  of  a  noble  family,  in  1696,  and,  after  having 
made  a  successful  course  of  law  studies,  and  practiced  at  the 
bar  with  distinction,  threw  up  the  profession  in  disgust,  and, 
placing  himself  unreservedly  in  the  hands  of  God,  saying,  '•  0, 
Lord,  here  I  am,  do  wdth  me  as  Thou  wiliest,"  began  the 
study  of  theology,  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1722,  and  two 
years  later  entered  the  Society  of  Missionaries  of  the  Propa- 
ganda at  Naples.  As  a  priest  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to 
preaching  and  the  direction  of  souls,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
mission,  given  in  the  neighborhood  of  Amalfi,  in  which  he 
took  an  active  part,  was  pained  to  learn  that  the  country 
people  there  and  elsewhere  had  their  spiritual  wants  but  in- 
differently cared  for.  Grieved  at  the  sight  of  so  much  spir- 
itual poverty  among  people  so  destitute  of  this  world's  goods, 
he  took  comfort  in  the  thought  that  he  would  one  day  found 
a  congregation  whose  members  would  supply  them  religious 

1/1.  Giatini,  Vita  del  beato  Alfonso  Liguori,  Roma,  1815,  4to ;  Germ.,  Vi- 
enna, 1836.  Jeancard,  Vie  du  bienheureux  Alphonse  Liguori.  .Marseille  et 
Louvain,  1829. 


532  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  L     Chapter  1. 


instruction,  and  give  themselves  np  vvholl}'  to  their  service. 
Authorized  by  Pope  Clement  XII.,  he  founded  in  the  3'ear 
1732  the  Congregation  of  the  31ost  Holy  PeJeemer,  composed 
of  secular  priests,  who  were  willing  to  spend  their  lives  in 
instructing  the  people  and  training  the  young.  Their  Rule 
was  published  June  21, 1742,  and  their  founder  intrusted  with 
the  supreme  direction  of  the  Order,  under  the  name  of  Supe- 
rior-General.^ 

Obstacles  that  had  not  been  anticipated  stood  in  the  w^ay 
of  the  accomplishment  of  tlie  wise  and  benevolent  designs  of 
the  founder,  and  it  required  all  his  strength  of  character  and 
patient  perseverance  to  remove  them.  The  world  persisted 
in  misunderstanding  or  misinterpreting  the  aims  of  the  Pe- 
demptorists,  claiming  that  they  were  only  Jesuits  under  an- 
other name,  and,  as  such,  worthy  of  all  the  calumny  and  per- 
secution with  which  that  body  was  so  unjustly  pursued  ;  but 
their  incessant  and  disinterested  labors  eventually  established 
beyond  all  question  the  purity  of  the  motives  by  which  their 
founder  was  inspired,  and  the  world  practically,  if  not  form- 
all}',  confessed  its  mistake. 

Originally  the  missions  of  the  Redemptorists  opened  with 
a  sermon,  announcing  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  town,  village, 
or  district  that  their  purpose  in  coming  among  them  was  to 
revke  a  religious  spirit  and  to  correct  morals,  and  calling  upon 
them  to  be  regular  in  their  attendance  at  the  instructions,  to 
receive  the  Sacraments,  and  to  observe,  as  far  as  circumstances 
would  permit,  the  rules  laid  down  for  the  conduct  of  the  spir- 
itual exercises.  A  short  instruction  was  given  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  in  the  evening  a  more  elaborate  discourse  was 
preached.  In  the  selection  of  subjects,  the  order  laid  down 
in  the  Exercises  of  St.  Ignatius  was  mainly  followed,  the 
leading  ones  being  the  end  and  fall  of  man,  the  misery  en- 
tailed l)y  sin,  and  the  justice  and  judgment  of  God.  In  the 
course  of  the  exercises  discourses  were  given  on  the  mercy  of 
God  through  Jesus  Christ,  on  the  merits  of  the  Savior,  on  the 
nature  and  use  of  prayer,  on  the  fruits  of  penance,  on  the 


'  Their  Constitution  and  Rule  is  found  in  German,  in  the  January  nro   of 
the  Journal  '^  Sion  "  of  1842  (nros.  7  sq.)     Cf.  Henrion- Fehr,  Vol.  II.,  p.  21/  sq. 


§  369.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain.       533 

frequentation  of  the  Sacraments,  and  on  other  kindred  sub- 
jects. The  closing  discourse  was  usually  a  stirring  and  pow- 
erful appeal,  exhorting  the  people  to  persevere  in  the  way  on 
which  they  had  so  happily  entered  during  the  mission.  While 
these  missions  were  in  progress,  public  officials  and  persons 
of  the  highest  rank  and  station  came  forward  to  offer  their 
services  in  instructing  the  people  and  the  children,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Redemptorists.  In  the  year  1762,  while 
engaged  in  these  apostolic  labors,  Alphonsus  de  Liguori  waa 
appointed  Bishop  of  Sanf  Agata  dei  Goti,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  where  he  displayed  all  the  virtues  of  a  pontiff"  wholly 
devoted  to  the  welfare  of  his  flock.  Though  a  laborious  and 
model  bishop,  he  never  ceased  to  take  the  liveliest  interest  in 
his  congregation,  to  which  he  returned  in  the  year  1775,  after 
resigning  his  see,  from  the  responsibilities  of  which  he  shrank. 
He  was  now  far  advanced  in  age  and  broken  in  health,  and, 
after  spending  a  few  more  years  among  his  spiritual  children, 
whom  he  loved  so  well,  he  died  surrounded  by  them  at  ISo- 
cera  on  the  1st  of  August,  1787.  His  life  had  been  wholly 
spent  in  the  service  of  God,  and  his  memory,  his  deeds,  and 
above  all  his  example,  have  been  held  in  grateful  remembrance 
by  the  faithful,  but  particularly  by  those  of  his  own  house- 
hold. His  numerous  writings  have  been  a  guide  and  comfort 
to  many  souls  ^  in  these  latter  days,  and  have  given  him  rank 

1  He  left  a  number  of  theological  and  devotional  works,  including,  beside  oth- 
ers, Theol.  Mor.,  Naples,  1755  ;  author's  9th  and  best  ed.,  1785;  Directorium  Ordi- 
nandor.,  Venice,  1758 ;  Opera  Dogmatica,  1 770  ;  Istoria  di  tutte  I'eresic  con  loro 
ccnfutazione,  3  vols.,  8vo,  1773;  Istruzione  pratica  per  i  confessori  della  gente  di 
campagna,  3  vols.,  Bassano,  1780;  Homo  Apostolicus  Instructus  in  sua  Vocatione, 
3  vols.,  4to,  Venice,  1782;  and  Le  glorie  di  Maria,  2  vols.,  Svo,  1784.  Various 
other  editions  of  his  works :  Collezione  completa  delle  opere  di  St.  Alphon.  Maria 
dc  Liguori,  Monza,  1839  sq.,  68  vols.,  12mo.  Opere  complete  (exclusa  theoiogia 
7noraii),  Venez.  1833  sq.,  60  vols. ;  tr.  fr.  the  Ital.  into  Germ.,  by  Htu/nes,  Ratisb. 
1842—17,  in  three  sections,  nscetical,  dogmatical,  and  moral  works.  His  Theoiogia 
moralis,  in  many  editions ;  the  best,  cura  P.  Mich.  Ileilig,  3iechlin.  et  Mogunt.  1845 
sq..  10  T.:  M.  Harmcjer,  Hatisb.  1840;  also  that  of  Ancona,  1842,  in  6  vols.,  is  a  good 
edition;  Homo  apostolicus  s.  praxis  et  instructio  confessariorum,  Mogunt.  1842; 
Germ.,  Ratisbon,  1841 ;  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1842.  His  comjilete  works  were  trans* 
lated  into  French  in  30  vols.,  8vo.,  1834  sq.  Of  the  Oeuvres  Completes  de  & 
Alphonse  de  Liguori  traduites  de  I'italien  et  raises  en  ordre  par  les  peres  Leap. 
Dujardin  et  Jules  Jacques,  C.  SS.  R.,  the  following  seven  vols,  have  appeared  . 


534  Period  3.     EiJoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

among  the  great  teachers  of  the  Church.  He  was  solemnlj 
canonized  by  Gregory  XVI.  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  1839. 
and  declared  a  Doctor  of  the  Church  by  Pius  IX.,  March  23. 
1871. 

During  this  season  of  apparent  letharg}^  Italy  produced 
both  saints  and  scholars,  and  of  the  latter  some  were  known 
throughout  the  whole  of  Europe.  Denina,  a  professor  of 
Turin,  published  a  practical  introduction  to  the  study  of  the- 
ology of  considerable  merit.  Of  the  Popes,  several  wrote 
elegant  verses,  but  as  an  author  Benedict  XIV}  was  the  most 
distinguished  among  them.  Muratori,^  a  friend  of  Benedict 
XIV.,  employed  his  splendid  talents  and  his  extensive  erudi- 
tion in  writing  w^orks  on  history  and  other  subjects,  which 
will  be  held  in  esteem  for  all  time,  wherever  scholarship  is 
valued  or  literarj^  finish  appreciated.  He  was  also  instru- 
mental in  bringing  theologians,  who  were  still  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  sharp  and  rude  polemics  of  a  former  age,  to  be 
more  temperate  in  tone,  more  dignified  in  manner,  and  more 
scholarly  in  method.  Cardinal  Bona  (f  1674)  published  val- 
uable works  on  liturgy  and  asceticism  ;  ^  Cardinal  ]\^oris  some 


Oeuvres  Dogmatiques  ;  Verite  de  la  foi,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1866;  Triomphe  de 
I'egiise,  Paris,  1807-1870;  Defense  des  Dogmes  Catholiques,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1871, 
1872.  His  "Selva,"  2  T.,  Paris  and  Lyons,  1854;  Preparation  for  Death,  Bos- 
ton, 1851 ;  Sermons,  the  Glories  of  Mary,  Visits  to  the  Most  IJl.  Sacr.,  and 
■xiany  other  of  his  devotional  works  have  been  translated  into  English,  and  fre- 
.juently  republished.     Cfr.  Villecourt,  Vie  de  S.  Alphonse,  T.  4.    (Tr.) 

'  Cf.,  above,  §  363,  p.  489,  note  1.  The  most  valuable  and  best  known  works 
of  this  Pope  arc:  De  Servorum  Dei  beatificatione  et  Beatorum  canonizatione; 
De  sacrificio  missae;  De  festis  Christi  et  Mariae ;  Institutiones  ecclesiasticae; 
De  Synodo  Dioecesana,  in  many  edit.,  Mechl.  1823.  The  best  edit,  of  the  com- 
plete works  of  Benedict  XIV.  is  that  by  the  Spanish  Jesuit,  Azevedo,  Rome, 
1747-51,  in  13  vols.,  4to ;  another  far-spread  ed.  is  that  of  Prato,  1842  sq.,  in  18 
vols.,  4to.  There  is  an  ed.  of  his  De  beatif.  et  canoniz.  SS.,  in  7  vols.,  fol.,  Eas- 
sano,  1778  (the  Rom.  ed.  has  but  5  vols.),  and  his  Bullarium,  in  4  vols.,  fol., 
Venice,  1768.  There  is  an  Engl,  transl.,  in  3  vols.,  On  Heroic  Virtue,  being  part 
of  De  Beatif.,  etc.  (Tr.) 

^  Scriptores  rer.  Ital.;  Antiquitates  Ital.  med.  aevi. ;  Liturgia  Romana  vetus 
Ven.  1728,  2  T.,  fol.  De  moderatione  ingeniorum  in  religionis  negotio^  whereol 
there  are  numerous  editions,  Aug.  Vind.  1779;  partially  transl.  into  Germ.,  by 
Biu7ide  and  Braun,  Coblenz,  1837. 

^  Bo7ia,  De  rebus  liturgicis,  and  several  other  valuable  works:  De  sacrificio 
missae  traetatus  asceticus,  ed.  Slntzel,  Ratisb.  1841 ;  Manuductio  ad  coelum  • 
De  principiis  vitae  chr.  (opp.  Tur.  1747  sq.,  4  T.  fol.) 


369.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain. 


excellent  dissertations  on  the  Pelagian  controversies  and  other 
subjects;^  and  Cardinal  TomTTiasi,  besides  his  liturgical  and 
exegetical  writings,  some  profound  works  on  the  Fathers.^ 
31amachi,  Selvaggio,  and  Pelliccia  devoted  themselves  to  the 
study  of  ecclesiastical  antiquities ;  and  Orsi,  Saccarelli,  Berti, 
and  others  to  that  of  Church  history-.  Dominic  31ansi  ed- 
ited the  fullest  collection  of  the  Councils  ever  published ; '' 
the  Jesuit,  r/ro^oscAz  (f  1794),  wrote  a  most  exhaustive  and 
accurate  History  of  Italian.  Literature,*'  embracing  both  ancient 
and  modern  Italy.  Gener,  a  Spaniard,  and  a  member  of  the 
same  Societ}-,  wrote  a  dogmatical  work  in  six  volumes,  quarto, 
which,  although  never  completed,  is  very  valuable,  from  the 
fact  that  he  works  into  his  subject  all  the  information  he 
could  derive  from  the  Christian  inscriptions  and  pictorial 
representations  which  in  his  day  had  been  brought  to  light  in 
the  Catacombs  ;  John  Bernard  d£  Rossi,  a  professor  at  Parma, 
was  a  diligent  and  laborious  critic  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
published  an  excellent  collection  of  the  various  readings  of 
the  text ;  ^  and  Martini,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  made  an 
Italian  translation  of  the  Bible,  adding  short  explanatory 
notes  (fr.  1784),  which,  having  been  approved  and  warmly  re- 
commended bj'  Pope  Pius  VI.,  went  through  many  editions, 
and  is  still  in  use  at  the  present  day.  The  best  edition  ol'  the 
works  of  St.  Jerome  was  prepared  by  Dominic  Vallarsi,  of 
Verona  ;  and  the  best  edition  of  those  of  St,  Hilarj'  by  Scipio 
Majffei.  Andrew  Gallandi,  a  Father  of  the  Oratory,  edited 
the  best  collection  of  the  works  of  the  earliest  Fathers  and 
ecclesiastical  writers;  and  the  Brothers  Assemani  published  a 
collection  of  the  literary  treasures  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
Ballerini  brothers  published  a  series  of  clever  dissertations  on 


»  Works,  Verona,  1729-1732,  5  vols.,  fol. 

■•^  Institutiones  theologiae  antiquorum  Patrum,  Romae,  17U9-1712,  8  T. 

•*  Brought  down  to  a.  d.  1439,  31  vols. 

■•His  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana  (13  vols.,  Modena,  1772-83;  best  ed,, 
16  vols.,  Milan,  1822-26)  extends  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  end  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century.  A  continuation,  embracing  the  literature  of  the  eighteenth 
centurj',  was  written  by  Lombardi.  (Tr.) 

5  He  collected  and  collated  in  all  six  hundred  and  eighty  Hebrew  MSS.,  in 
addition  to  the  five  hundred  and  eighty  which  Konnicott  had  collected 
Dixon's  Intr.  to  the  S.  Scriptures,  p.  71.  (Tr.) 


536  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


the  works  of  Leo  the  Great,  designed  as  a  refutation  of  those 
written  by  Quesnel,^  and  made  some  valuable  contributions  to 
the  science  of  Canon  Law.  Fresh  activity  and  wider  scope 
were  given  to  the  intellectual  movement  by  the  action  of 
Leopold,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  who  attempted  to  introduce 
into  his  States  the  reforms  of  his  brother,  Joseph  II.  He  was 
seconded  in  this  design  by  Scipio  Ricci,^  Bishop  of  Pistoja  and 
Prato,  who,  in  1786,  at  a  diocesan  synod,  convened  in  the 
former  city,  presented  for  the  acceptance  of  his  clergy  an  in- 
strument containing  lifty-seven  articles,  setting  forth  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Galilean  Church  and  the  extreme  teachings  of 
Jansenism.^  Doubtful  of  the  temper  of  his  clergy,  he  had 
provided  against  defeat  by  calling  to  the  Synod  a  number  of 
ecclesiastics  from  the  neighboring  States,  of  whose  sentiments 
he  was  assured,  and  among  whom  was  the  ultra- Galilean  pro- 
fessor of  Pavia,  Peter  Tamburini.  The  great  bulk  of  the  de- 
cisions arrived  at  by  the  Synod  were  erroneous,  being  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  teaching  and  the  practice  of  the  Church. 
They  related  chiefly  to  the  government  of  the  Church  ;  to  the 
authority  of  Councils;  to  the  manner  of  holding  divine  wor- 
ship, which,  it  was  said,  should  be  conducted  in  the  language 
of  the  people  ;  to  the  number  of  altars;  to  the  veneration  of 
images,  etc.  The  system  of  Quesnel  was  approved  ;  the  Grand 
Duke  was  accorded  privileges  wholly  irreconcilable  with  the 
rights  of  the  Church ;  and  it  was  maintained  that  in  the  future 
only  one  Keligions  Order  should  be  permitted  in  the  Churcli, 
and  that  all  the  houses  of  that  one  should  adopt  the  Rule  of 
the  Jansenistic  convent  of  Port-Royal. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  Leopold  summoned  the  seven- 
teen bishops  of  Tuscany  to  meet  him  at  Florence  (1787),  with 
a  view  to  introducing  the  acts  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoja  into 
all  the  dioceses  of  his  dominions.     He  soon  learned  that  he 


'  Ed.  corrected  on  the  authority  of  "Vatican  MSC,  Venice,  1755-57,  3  vols. 
See  Vol.  I.,  p.  49  sq. 

2  Cf.  Huih,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vol.  II.,  p.  555  sq.  Robiano, 
T.  II.,  p.  72  sq. 

3  The  acts  published  by  Schwarzel,  Acta  congregat.  archiepiscop.  et  espisco- 
por.,  etc.,  Hetruriae,  etc.,  Bamberg,  et  Herbip.  1790  sq.,  7  T.  See  '^Freiburg 
Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  467-480;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  18,  p.  337  sq. 


§  oG9.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Italy  and  Spain.       537 

had  mistaken  the  temper  of  the  bishops,  by  the  hirgcr  num- 
ber of  whom  he  was  so  vigorously  opposed,  and  having  dis- 
solved the  s^niod,  w^as  shortly  afterward  informed  that  the 
pojiulace,  infuriated  at  the  treachery  of  Ricci,  had  demolished 
his  palace  (1787). 

Joseph  II.  died  in  1700,  and  Leopold  immediately  left  Tus- 
cany to  ascend  the  imperial  throne.  The  excitement  spread 
into  every  diocese  of  Tuscany,  and  so  fierce  was  the  popular 
indignation  that  liicci  was  eventually  forced  to  resign.  The 
acts  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoja,  which  the  creatures  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  actively  engaged  in  circulating,  were  condemned 
by  Pope  Pius  VI.  in  the  bull  Auctore.m  jidei  (1794),^  which 
Ricci,  after  considerable  delay  and  hesitancy,  finally  subscribed 
(1799).  He  gave  a  fresh  proof  of  the  sincerity  of  his  retrac- 
tation at  Florence  in  1805,  on  the  occasion  of  the  return  of 
Pius  VII.  from  France. 

In  Spain  the  intellectual  movement,  which  in  some  respects 
had  the  same  characteristics  as  that  of  France,  was  mainl}' 
confined  to  the  branches  of  dogmatic  theology  and  canon  law. 
As  in  the  preceding  epoch,  the  Spanish  Church  had  produced 
theologians  of  the  greatest  name,  like  Mclchior  Cano,  Vega, 
Sahiieron,  Toletus,  Maldonatus,  Montanns,  Banez,  de  Lugo, 
Molina,  Vasquez,  Suarez,  and  others,  so  also  in  the  present 
one  she  was  not  without  creditable  representatives  in  the 
queen  of  sciences.  Of  tliese  may  be  mentioned  Thyrsus  Gon- 
zales, who  subsequently  became  General  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  (t  1705),  and  who  was  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
Manuductio  ad,  conversionem  Muhametanorum,  and  a  refutation 
of  the  theory  of  probabilism  (see  Thesaur.  libr.  Cathol,,  Vol. 
I.);  Emmanuel  Bernard  de  Rihera  (tl765),  the  author  of  a 
work  on  philosophy  {Institutioncs  2^hilosophicae) ;  and  finally 
Florez,  an  Augustinian  Friar,  who  commenced  the  great  na- 
tional work  La  Espana  sagrada,  published  at  Madrid  be- 
tween the  years  1747  and  1779,  in  twenty-nine  volumes, 
quarto. 

1  It  is  found  in  the  Leipsic  stereotyped  edition  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  pp 
292-327. 


538  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


§  370.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany. 

Cam.  Paganel,  Hist,  of  .Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  Lps.  1844,  2  vols 
Lorenz,  Joseph  II.  and  the  Belgian  Revolution,  Vienna,  1862.  "  Joseph  II. 
and  His  Age;  the  Liberty  of  the  Press  under  Joseph  II."  {Historical  and  Po- 
Itticai  Papers,  Vols.  III.  and  YIII.)  A.  Menzel,  Modern  Hist,  of  the  Ger- 
mans, Vol.  XII.  Sebastian  Brumier,  Theological  Flunkeyisra  at  the  Court  of 
Joseph  II. ;  Secret  Correspondence  and  Disclosures  from  Unpublished  Docu-  u. 
ments,  found  in  the  R.  and  I.  Archives,  Vienna,  1868.  Ritter,  Emp.  Joseph 
II.  and  His  Reforms;  Appendix,  "Pius  VI.'s  Journey  to  Vienna,"  Ratisbon 
1868.  Wolf,  The  Abolition  of  the  Monasteries  in  Austria,  Vienna,  1871 
Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  V.,  p.  794  sq.;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  12. 

The  repose  secured  to  Germany  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
gradually  degenerated  into  a  dangerous  lethargy,  which  lasted 
for  above  a  century;  and  when  at  length  Maria  Teresa  as- 
cended the  throne,  and  Austria  began  to  give  tokens  of  re- 
turning life,  the  efforts  made  to  revive  the  torpid  energies  of 
Catholics  were  connected  with  so  many  destructive  and  sub- 
versive principles  that  it  seemed  problematic  which  was  pre- 
ferable, the  present  revival  or  the  former  state  of  inactivity.' 
Putting  aside  the  labors  of  some  distinguished  men  in  at- 
tempting to  establish  unity  and  harmony  among  the  churches, 
there  was  no  movement  deserving  attention  during  this  epoch. 
Charles  Werner^  thus  describes  the  feelings  of  Catholics  and 
Protestants  at  this  time  :  "  CaUxtus,"  said  he,  "  complained, 
in  closing  his  irenical  address,  that  there  was  no  chance  for 
peace  in  Germany  as  long  as  Catholic  theologians,  on  the  one 
hand,  persisted  in  refusing  to  give  up  papistic  theology,  and 
in  stigmatizing  Protestants  as  heretics  and  men  forsaken  of 
God  ;  nor,  on  the  other,  as  long  as  one -half  of  the  German 
people  were  incited  against  the  Catholics  by  the  ceaseless 
declamation  of  fanatical  preachers,  and  the  Protestant  por- 
tion would  not  be  persuaded  that  the  evils  that  afflicted 
Germany  arose  out  of  the  unfortunate  schism  into  which 
the  Fatherland  had  been  precipitated  by  the  so-called  Re- 
formers.    And,"  he  added,  "  there  is  no  other  way  of  re- 


^Schwicker,  The  Last  Years  of  the   Reign  of  the   Empress  Queen  3Iaria 
Terpsa  (1763-1780),  Prague,  1871,  2  vols. 
2  Werner,  Hist,  of  Apologetical  and  Controversial  Literature,  Vol.  IV,  p.  750. 


§  370.   The  Catholic  Church  in   Germany.  539 

storing  peace  and  concord  to  the  Germans  excej^t  by  a  return 
of  the  Protestants  to  the  unity  of  Catholic  truth."  j^otwith- 
standing  that  the  efforts  of  the  princes  had  faikd,  in  1644,  to 
restore  unity,  it  was  hoped  those  o^  John  Philip  de  Schoenhorn, 
the  prudent  Elector  of  Mentz  in  1660,  would  be  more  suc- 
cessful. His  minister  of  state,  the  Baron  of  Boyneburg.  a 
convert,  together  with  the  brothers  Walenburch,  Herman 
Conring,  and  others,  encouraged  by  an  invitation,  addressed 
to  Catholics  and  Protestants,  by  Matthew  Praetorius,  a  I'ro- 
testant,  who  subsequently  entered  the  Church,  calling  on  them 
to  meet  in  conference,  put  forth  his  best  efforts  to  adjust  diffi- 
culties and  bring  about  a  union. ^ 

It  was  soon  apparent  that  the  proposed  conditions  of  union 
were  both  indefinite  and  impracticable.  The  Catholic  Church 
could  never  acquiesce  in  half-measures  and  partial  concessions. 
There  were  only  two  alternatives  possible — either  to  reject 
in  toto  or  accept  in  toto  the  "principle  of  her  infallible  magisterial 
authority.  Christopher  JRojas  de  Sjnnola,  who  was  at  first  ajt- 
pointed  Bishop  of  Tina,  in  Croatia  (from  1688),  and  afterward 
transferred  to  Neustadt,  near  Vienna  (f  1695),  having  been  in- 
vested by  Leopold  I.  with  full  power  to  do  what  he  could 
toward  bringing  about  a  reunion  of  the  churclies,  again  re- 
newed the  attempts  that  had  so  often  failed.  Overtures  were 
made  to  and  accepted  by  the  Court  of  Hanover,  in  behalf  of 
which  Molanus  (Van  der  Muelen),  Abbot  of  Lokkum,^  was 

^  Matth.  Praetorii  tuba  pacis  ad  universas  dissidentes  in  oocidente  ecclesias 
seu  de  utiione  ecclesiarum  romanae  et  protestantium  ;  Germ,  by  Binterim,  1826. 
Walenburch,  Fratres  A.  et  P.  de,  Tractatus  generalis  et  specialis  de  controver- 
siis  fidei,  Col.  1670,  2  T.,  f. 

2  Super  reunione  Protestantium  cum  eccles.  cathol.  tractatus  inter  Jacob. 
Benign.  Bossuetum,  episc.  Meldens.,  et  Molanum,  Abbatem  in  Lockiim.  Vienn. 
Austr.  1783,  4to.  {"^'PrechU),  Bossuet,  Leibnitz,  and  Molanus  in  treaty  for  the 
reunion  of  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  Sulzb.  1815.  Cf  Guhrauer,  Biogra- 
phy of  Leibnitz.  To  these  attempts  also  belong  Leibnitz's  Sijstema  theolofjicum, 
pul;iished  in  Latin  and  German,  by  Racss  and  Weis,  JMeiitz,  1820;  then  by  La- 
croix,  Paris,  1845  ;  and  again,  *in  Latin  and  German,  by  Dr.  Hnas,  Tueb.  18G0. 
Tnis  much  discussed  and  greatly  overrated  production  must  not  be  mistaken 
for  an  exposition  of  his  private  belief  {privata  fidel  suae  expositio);  it  being 
only  a  statement  of  the  concessions  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Leibnitz,  Protest- 
ants  might  well  make  and  Catholics  accept.  Moreover,  Leibnitz,  though  per- 
fectly conscious  of  the  truth,  was  so  far  from  making  open   profession  of  it, 


540  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

commissioned  to  draw  up  a  plan  of  union,  and  Leibnitz,  who 
was  already  in  correspondence  with  Pelisson  and  Bossaet  ^  on 
the  subject,  requested  to  use  his  influence  for  the  attainment 
of  the  same  end.  If  the  efforts  of  these  great  men  were  un- 
successful, they  at  least  made  clear  to  both  parties  the  only 
possible  basis  of  a  union ;  brought  both  to  understand  each 
other  better,  and  to  entertain  more  kindly  feelings  ;  and  in 
this  way  relieved  the  Church  of  many  of  the  charges  falsely 
brought  against  her.  A  like  effect  was  produced  by  the 
compendious  bat  masterly  Exposition  of  the  Catholic  Doctrine 
by  Bossuet,  in  which,  while  clearly  setting  forth  the  Catholic 
teaching,  he  did  full  justice  to  the  objections  and  prejudices 
of  the  Protestants,  proving  to  them  by  irrefragable  arguments 
that  in  separating  themselves  from  the  Catholic  Church  the 
great  bulk  of  them  took  the  step  in  ignorance,  rather  than 
with  a  fall  knowledge  of  what  they  were  doing,^  In  conse- 
quence, many  of  the  German  princes,  seeing  and  acknowledg- 
ing their  mistake,  to  the  great  joy  of  Holy  Mother  Church, 
returned  to  the  unity  of  faith.  Among  these  were  Ernest, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse  (1652) ;  John  Frederic  of  Brunswick,  then 
reigning  Duke  of  Hanover  (1651) ;  Frederic  Augustas  I., 
Elector  of  Saxony  (1697) ;  and  Charles  Alexander,  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg  (1712). 

Others  again   like   Christian  Augustus,  Duke  of  Holstein 


that  in  1708  he  wrote  as  follows  to  Fabricius  of  Helmstaedt:  "Our  (Hanover's) 
whole  title  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  rests  solely  on  our  rejection  and  ha- 
tred of  the  religion  of  Rome.  Hence  we  tnust  carefully  avoid  whatever  niighi 
be  construed  into  connicance  by  us  at  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Catholic  ChurchP 
Cf.  the  latest  discussions  on  this  work  in  the  Tueb.  (Quarterly,  1848,  p.  46  sq., 
and  the  latest  edition  of  the  works  of  Leibnitz,  by  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris, 
1859  sq.,  T.  I.,  in  which  there  are  now  to  be  found  125,  instead  cf  the  former 
36  letters,  exchanged  by  Bossuet  and  Leibnitz  on  religious  reunion.  Cf.  Hnff- 
ner,  Leibnitz  and  His  Efforts  for  Reunion  in  Science,  Politics,  and  Religion, 
[The  ''Catholic,"  1864,  Vol.  I.,  p.  513  sq.) 

1  Bossuet,  Projet  de  reunion  des  Protestants  de  France  et  d'Allemagne  a 
I'eglise  catholique  (Oeuvres;  nouv.  edit..  Par.  1836,  T.  VIL,  p.  309-584).  Con- 
terning  later  attempts  at  reunion,  made  by  Kliipfel  and  Staitler,  see  Huth, 
1.  cit.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  746  sq. 

2  Oeuvres ;  nouv.  edit.,  T.  V.,  p.  666  et  suiT.  et  Histoire  des  Variations,  2  vols, 
in  12mo,  Paris,  Sarlit. 


§  370.    The  Catholic  Church  in   Germany.  541 

(1705),  and  the  scholarly  Anthony  Ulrie  (1710)  had  the  great 
joy  of  bringing  their  entire  households  with  them. 

But  the  joy  these  conversions  gave  the  Church  was  tinged 
with  sorrow,  caused  by  the  spread  of  the  principles  of  the 
Hussites  and  Lutherans  in  the  territory  of  Salzburg}  Again, 
the  aggressive  spirit  of  Protestants,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
second  centenary  celebration  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, in  the  year  1717,  was  in  painful  contrast  with  the  iren- 
ical  temper  shown  b}-  the  noble  and  gifted  men  who  had  made 
the  latest  attempts  at  reunion.  Seldom,  if  ever,  had  there 
been  such  an  exlnbition  of  intolerance,  provocation,  and  in- 
sult as  was  then  manifested  toward  Catholics  b}'  Protestants 
of  every  rank  and  condition.^  The  acrimonious,  tierce,  and 
at  times  coarse  character  that  marked  the  controversial 
w^ritings  of  Nicholas  Weislinger  (f  1755),'du]'ing  the  latter  years 
of  his  life  parish  priest  of  Cappel-Rodeck,  in  the  territory  of 
Baden,  are  in  a  measure  excusable,  in  that  the}'  were  used  in 
meeting  a  still  more  atrocious  method  of  warfare  on  the  part 
of  Protestants,  and  were  expressive  of  the  indignation  the 
author  naturally  felt  at  ^^  seeing  bishops  and  scholars  silent  in 
the  face  of  insults  the  most  stinging  and  calumnies  the  most  foul." 
One  as  clever  as  he  in  the  Held  of  controversy,  and  as  con- 
versant with  the  writings  of  the  Reformers,  might  confidently 
reply  to  those  who  reproached  him  with  having  written  scur- 
rilously,  "that  the  wanton  and  indecent  language  and  the 
scandalous  blasphemies  to  be  found  in  his  writings  were  not 
of  his  own  coinage."  "  They  have,"  he  added,  "  been  ex- 
tracted from  the  works  of  Luther  and  his  partisans,  whose 
words  I  have  uniformly  quoted,  giving  references  to  where  the 
passages  may  be  had.     Seek  and  you  shall  find." 

A  movement  antagonistic  to  the  traditional  methods  of  ec- 


i  See  below,  ?  384. 

2  Ibid. 

3  The  numerous  writings  of  "Weislinger  are  :  ^^Friss  Vogel  oder  siirb  " — ".VccA 
or  Nothing,^'  1723,  and  frequently;  Huttenus  delarvatus,  1730;  "  Choice  Curi- 
osities of  Old  and  New  Theological  Quackery,"  1738;  ''  The  Lutheran  Saint  Uii- 
mashed"  1756;  Armamentarium  Catholicum,  1746;  and  many  more.  Cf.  Alzog, 
John  Nicholas  Weislinger,  Pastor  of  Capell,  below  Eodeck,  in  the  territory  of 
Lrisgovia ;  being  an  essay  to  serve  fur  a  better  acquaintance  with  his  pc'-son- 
ality  and  literary  activity  (Freiburg  Diocesan  Archives,  Freiburg,  1865,  Vol.  I.) 


542  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

clesiastical  government,  and  more  or  less  affecting  every 
branch  of  ecclesiastical  life,  began  about  this  time  to  give 
tokens  of  its  presence.  Its  rise  may  be  traced  to  a  number 
of  causes,  but  among  the  most  potent  was  the  establishment 
of  papal  nunciatures  in  Vienna  (1581),  Cologne  (1582),  Lucerne 
/1586),  Brussels  (1588),  and  Munich  (1585).  These  were  estab- 
lished for  two  objects  ;  firstlj^,  to  guard  the  interests  of  the 
Church  against  the  dangers  of  Protestantism ;  and,  secondly, 
to  render  ecclesiastical  administration  more  easy  and  efficient. 
The  bishops  regarded  the  extent  of  jurisdiction  granted  to  the 
nuncios  of  the  above  cities  as  a  trespass  upon  their  rights, 
which  they  determined  to  defend  at  every  hazard.^  But  on 
this  subject  we  shall  again  have  occasion  to  speak. 

A  still  more  potent  cause  of  the  movement  was  the  influ- 
ence of  French  literature,  then  coming  into  favor  in  Germany- 
The  first  and  most  conspicuous  evidence  of  its  effects  vras 
given  in  a  work  by  John  Nicholas  von  Houtheini,  coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Treves.  Writing  under  the  name  of  Justinus  Fe- 
hroiiius,  he  published  his  book.  On  the  State  of  the  Church  and 
the  Leyitiniate  Authority  of  the  Roman  Pontiff ^■^  in  which  he  en- 


^A.  :\Ienzel  (Modern  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  Vol.  XII.,  Pt.  I.,  pp.  303  sq.;  2d 
ed.,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.218  sq.)  makes  some  curious  disclosures  concerning  the  contro- 
versy occasioned  by  these  nunciatures.  He  says :  "Pope  Pius  VI.  having  re- 
quested King  AVilliam  II.  of  Prussia  to  pi-otect  the  papal  authority  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  PJienish  archbishops,  published  a  comprehensive  reply 
(Brspo7isio),  laying  the  state  of  the  controversy  with  the  archbishops  before  the 
public,  in  the  course  of  which  he  administers  to  them  the  following  sharp  re- 
buke :  '  I  am  informed,'  he  says,  '  that  the  extreme  corruption  prevalent  in  cer- 
tain dioceses  has  become  a  subject  of  complaint,  and  its  source  is  traced  to  the 
acts  of  oppression  practiced  by  the  Roman  Court.  It  is  a  common  strategy 
with  schismatics,  with  a  view  to  imposing  upon  the  inexperienced,  to  slander- 
ously charge  the  Apostolic  See  with  moral  disorders,  the  existence  of  which 
they  can  not  deny,  and  then  to  promise  a  reformation,  forgetful  that  every  re- 
form must  begin  with  one's  self  If  the  nuncios  are  not  hindered  in  the  exer. 
cise  of  their  jurisdiction,  and  the  archbishops,  as  in  duty  bound,  honor  and  duly 
obey  the  First  See,  and  conjointly  with  the  nuncios  see  to  it  that  the  wholesome 
laws  and  canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent  be  properly  enforced,  the  existing 
evils  will  be  corrected,  even  without  calling  diocesan  synods,  and  the  disorders 
of  which  the  counsellors  now  complain  will  disappear  from  the  sees  of  arch- 
bishops and  bishops.'  " 

'^  Justini  Febronii  de  statu  eccl.  et  legitiraa  potestate  Eom.  Pontif  liber  sin. 
gularis   ad    reuniendos   in   relig.  christianos  compositus,   Bouillon,  1763,  4to. 


§  370.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  543 

deavored  to  show  the  Germans  by  historical  arguments  that 
the  Gallican  Articles  were  defensible,  and  that  the  Pope  had 
no  right  to  interfere  in  the  local  discipline  and  church  o-ov- 
ernment  of  individual  dioceses,  thus  restricting,  still  more 
than  the  Liberties  had  done,  the  essential  jurisdiction  of  the 
Holy  See.  He  held  that  the  Pope  is  in  precisely  the  same 
relation  to  the  bishops  that  the  presiding  ofKccr  is  to  the 
members  of  a  parliament ;  that  the  true  constitution  of  the 
Church  is  not  monarchical ;  and  that  the  Church,  and  not  Christ, 
invested  the  Bishop  of  Rome  with  the  Primacy  he  enjoys. 
The  Pope  indeed  has  authority,  but  not  jurisdiction,  over  the 
Universal  Church. 

While  freely  admitting  that  the  Primacy  of  the  Holv  See 
had  been  established  to  preserve  the  unity  of  the  Church,  Fe- 
bronius  failed  to  see  that  the  principles  he  advanced  and  the 
advice  he  volunteered  to  the  Church  and  to  civil  princes  nec- 
essarily tended  to  destro}'  it.  So  unfair,  not  to  say  dishonest, 
were  the  constructions  put  by  Febronius  upon  certain  facts 
of  Church  history,  that  Leasing,^  an  author  not  open  to  the 
suspicion  of  partiality,  thus  comments  on  his  methods  :  "  The 
opinions  of  Febronius  and  his  partisans  are  only  a  base  flat- 
tery of  princes ;  the  proofs  brought  forward  by  him  against 
the  rights  of  the  Pope  are  utterly  worthless  ;  or,  if  they  are 
to  be  received  at  all,  they  tell  with  double  and  threefold  force 
against  the  rights  of  princes  as  opposed  to  those  of  bishops. 
This  is  so  evident  that  nothing  could  be  more  so,  and  I  am 
only  astonished  that  it  has  never  occurred  to  any  one  to 
characterize  the  opinions  of  Febronius  with  the  severity  they 
deserve." 

John  von  Mueller,  although  a  Protestant,  in  his  Journeys  of 
the  Popes,  also  undertook  the  vindication  of  historic  truth  in 
this  matter.  Hontheim's  writings  called  forth  many  refuta- 
tions, among  which  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Zaccaria, 
Viator  de  Coccaylla,  Mamachi,  Peter  BoUmni,  and  Professor 
I{^auffmann,  of   Cologne,   all    remarkable  for  thorough  and 

(Frkft.  on  the  Main);  German  transl.,  Wardingen,  1764.     Cf.  Huth,  1.  c,  Vol. 
II.,  p.  438  sq.      Wnlch,  Latest  Hist,  of  Religion,  Pt.  I.,  p.  145-198.     Otto  Mejer, 
Supplements  to  the  Romano-German  Question,  Rostock,  1871. 
1  Fred.  Henry  Jacobi,  Complete  Works,  Vol.  II.,  p.  334. 


544  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Cha-pter  1. 

scholarly  historical  criticism.  Clement  XIII.  condemned  the 
book  of  Febronius,  and  ordered  its  suppression  by  all  the 
bishops  of  Germany.  The  author's  archbishop  besought  him 
to  retract  the  errors  it  contained,  which  he  did  in  the  yeai 
1778. 

Pius  VI.  expressed  the  pleasure  the  retractation  gave  him  in 
a  Consistory  of  Cardinals,^  but  was  soon  pained  to  learn  that 
Hontheim  had  handed  his  archbishop  an  explanation,  accom- 
panied with  a  Commentary  (1781),  both  of  which  went  to  show 
that  his  act  of  submission  had  been  insincere.  The  teachings 
set  forth  in  the  Commentary  had  unfortunately  a  wide  and  de- 
plorable influence  in  forming  public  opinion  with  regard  to 
the  rights  of  the  Holy  See.  This  was  especially  noticeable 
in  the  works  of  Valentine  Eyhei,  a  canonist  of  Vienna  ;  of 
Theophorus  Pies,  Director  of  Studies  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Mentz  ;  of  the  brothers  Piegger ;  and  even  of  Pautenstrauch, 
who  wrote  a  childish,  servile,  and  uncatholic  tract,  entitled, 
A  Representation  to  His  Holiness,  which  the  inhabitants  of  Vi- 
enna had  the  good  sense  and  Catholic  instinct  to  treat  with 
the  contempt  it  deserved. 

An  etiort  was  made  at  the  same  time  to  prejudice  public 
opinion  against  monasticism ;  and  while  its  most  decided  ad- 
versaries condemned  it  outright,  the  more  moderate  ques- 
tioned its  usefulness.  Joseph  II.,  that  paragon  of  philanthropic 
enthusiasts,  who  had  alwavs  more  benevolent  designs  in  his 
head  than  he  well  knew  what  to  do  with,  desirous  of  placing 
the  Church  under  the  tutelage  of  the  State,  did  his  best  to 
convert  priests  into  bureaucrats,  and  civil  ofiicers  into  ecclesiast- 
ical judges.  In  identifying  Church  and  State,  his  ordinances 
concerning  the  former  were  so  Protestant  in  character  "  that 

1  "  Agnovit  [Hontheim),  commentis  suis  obsistere  atque  adversari  Christi  doc- 
trinam,  Patrum  testimcnia,  Conciliorum  decreta  aliasque  ecclesiasticas  sancti- 
ones.  Non  temporali  commodo  illectus,  non  virium  infirmitate  fractus,  non 
ingenio  debilitatus,  nee  molestis  inductus  suasionibus,  sed  sola  veritatis  agni- 
tione  perinotus."  Concerning  the  whole,  cf.  Huih,  1.  c.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  4o8-458. 
•'■■  New  elucidations  in  Gesta  Trevirorum,  Integra  lectionum  varietate  ct  ani- 
madversionibus  illustrata  ac  indice  diiplici  instructa,  nunc  primum  edidit  J.  H. 
Wytienbach  et  Mailer,  Trevir.  1836  sq.,  T.  III.,  p.  29t)  sq.  Thirteen  pieces,  cf. 
*'rAe  Catholic"  1842,  January  number,  p.  89-93,  and  Card.  Liita,  quoted  above. 


§  370.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  545 

in  effect  they  virtually  amounted  to  a  suspension  of  the  Catholi<: 
Church.'' 

To  give  himself  the  airs  of  a  liberal  Catholic,  Joseph  II. 
permitted  full  liberty  of  inquiry,  and  made  the  ^;/ys.s  nearly, 
if  not  quite,/rc^;  although  it  was  evident  that  no  such  thing 
as  unrestricted  intellectual  investigation  was  possible  where 
both  Cljurch  and  State  were  in  a  condition  of  a  degrading 
servitude.  A  host  of  writers  at  once  started  up,  who  set 
themselves  to  traduce  the  Catholic  Church  and  her  institu- 
tions, and  to  proclaim  that  the  golden  age  had  dawned.  At 
tlieir  head  was  Aloysius  Blumauer,  who  having  been  expelled 
from  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  now  an  ardent  Freemason  ; 
Eybe.l,  the  canonist,  and  many  more,  whose  intolerably  stupid 
productions  brought  the  calling  of  literature  itself  into  dis- 
repute. 

With  a  view  to  propagating  the  new  learning  more  rapidly 
and  more  eflectuall}',  the  Emperor  had  abolished  the  semina- 
ries in  the  various  dioceses,  and  in  their  stead  opened  five 
general  ones  in  the  cities  of  Vienna,  Pesth,  Freiburg  (1783), 
Pavia,  and  Louvain.  To  these  were  affiliated  the  seminaries 
of  Prague,  Olmiitz,  Gratz,  Innspruck,  and  Luxemburg,  and 
the  chairs  in  both  were  filled  by  theologians  of  enlightenmevt 
.and  culture.  This  arrangement,  it  was  said,  would  more 
than  compensate  for  the  abolition  of  private  institutions,  by 
■encouraging,  through  the  relations  of  the  General  Seminaries 
to  the  Universities,  a  healthy  rivahy  in  study.  To  ever}'  man 
of  judgment  the  defect  of  this  plan  was  apparent,  for  in  with- 
drawing the  seminarists  from  the  eyes  of  their  several  bishops, 
it  took  from  the  latter  the  means  of  knowing  whether  or  not 
they  possessed  either  the  learning  or  virtue  requisite  in  aspi- 
rants for  the  priesthood.  Joseph  IL,  who  carried  his  interfer- 
ence in  ecclesiastical  afl^airs  so  tar  as  to  prescribe  the  ceremo- 
nies for  public  worship  and  give  instruction  in  liturgical 
matters,  was  facetiously  called  by  Frederic  the  Greai  '•'■My 
Brother  the  SacristanJ'  In  the  year  1783  he  published  a  silly 
and  contemptible  ordinance  regulating  divine  worship  ;  and 
in  1786  prescribed  that  the  German  language  should  be  usetl 
in  the  liturgy.  He,  however,  forbore  to  abolish  the  celibacy. 
VOL.  in — 35 


546  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

All  these  measures  were  intended  to  make  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline a  sort  of  dignified  system  of  police ;  and  when  the 
bishops  raised  their  voices  in  emphatic  protest  against  such  a 
degradation  of  a  holy  thing,  he  charged  them  with  being  both 
stubborn  and  stupid. 

But  that  the  faith  was  still  deeply  seated  in  the  hearts  of 
the  people,  and  that  both  they  and  the  clergy  were  warmly 
attached  to  the  Holy  See,  was  amply  attested  on  the  occasion 
of  the  visit  of  Pius  VI.  to  Vienna.  Their  murmurs  against 
the  reformatory  measures,  which  were  steadily  clothing  them 
with  the  vesture  of  Protestantism,  though  at  first  muttered 
only  in  whispers,  grew  at  last  plainly  audible,  and  in  Belgium 
the  discontent  became  so  intense  that  the  inhabitants  rose  in 
open  revolt  against  the  Emperor. 

Joseph  IT.  died  of  a  broken  heart,  February  20, 1790,  with- 
out liaving  had  time  to  repent  of  his  efforts  to  crush  out  the 
Christian  faith  in  the  hearts  of  his  subjects,  and  to  sow  in  its 
room  the  seeds  of  revolutionary  strife.  At  his  last  Commu- 
nion he  protested  that  in  all  the  ordinances  he  had  published 
during  the  nine  years  of  his  reii^n,  he  had  always  had  the 
welfare  of  his  people  in  view.  By  his  death  he  was  spared 
the  humiliation  of  having  to  revoke  the  ordinances  already 
published  in  Belgium.  If  a  General  Seminar}^  was  not  estab- 
lished in  this  country,  the  credit  is  due  to  the  manly  and  firm 
stand  taken  by  Frankenberg,  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Ma- 
lines,  who  bafSed  the  Emperor's  design  by  the  publication  of 
his  Doctrinal  Declaration.  The  Austrian  canonists  were  guilty 
of  a  very  grievous  fault  by  pretending  to  extend  the  ;i<s  circa 
sacra  to  a  jus  in  sacra,  thus  encouraging  Joseph  II.  in  his 
iniquitous  course.  He  was  also  encouraged  by  the  Electors 
of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  the  last  of  whom  was  his  own 
brother,  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  and  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Salzburg,  all  of  whom  desired  to  be  independent  of  Rome,  to 
abolish  the  papal  nunciatures,  and  to  establish  a  German  Na- 
tional Church. 

At  the  very  time  that  these  bishops  were  endeavoring  to 
get  rid  of  the  Papal  Nuncios,  Charles  Theodore,  Elector  Pala- 
tine of  Bavaria,  owing  to  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  Church 
in  his  States,  was  using  his  efforts  to  have  a  nunciature  per- 


§  370.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  547 

manently  established  at  Munich.^  Zoglio  was  appointed  to 
the  position  (1785),  to  whom  the  Elector  ordered  tlie  eccle- 
siastics of  his  dominions  to  have  recourse  in  future  for  all 
matters  within  his  competency.  Even  before  the  arrival  of 
tte  Nuncio,  the  bishops  addressed  a  spirited  protest  to  the 
Pope,  Avhich,  being  unsuccessful,  they  appealed  for  aid  to  Jo- 
seph II.,  who  promised  to  come  to  their  relief  (1785).  In 
consequence,  the  three  Electors  and  the  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg came  together,  forming  the  notorious  Congress  of  Ems 
(1786),  and  drew  up  a  'protest  in  twenty-three  articles,  known  as 
the  Pwnduatv.ni  of  JEms,^  in  which  they  insisted  on  their  ab- 
solute and  unrestricted  episcopal  authority,  declaring:  1.  That 
as  bishops  they  had  no  need  of  consulting  Rome ;  2.  That 
they  of  their  own  authority  might  dispense  in  matrimonial 
impediments  to  the  second  degree  ;  3.  That  all  bulls  and  briefs 
emanating  from  the  Holy  See  might  or  might  not  be  accepted 
by  bishops,  according  to  their  judgment ;  4.  That  the  reve- 
nues of  the  pallium  and  annates  should  be  abolished,  and  a 
reasonable  tax  levied  instead  ;  5.  That  for  disposing  of  cases 
of  appeal  the  Pope  should  appoint  delegate  judges  (Judices  in 
partibus),  or  establish  a  provincial  synod ;  and  6.  That  bish- 
ops, having  been  again  restored  to  their  primitive  rights, 
should  have  power  to  introduce  improvements  in  ecclesiastical 
discipline.^ 

Tlie  Punctuation  was  sent  to  Joseph  II.,  who  gave  it  hi* 
hearty  approval,  adding  that  there  was  no  question  but  tha. 
the  issue  would  be  ultimately  successful,  if  only  the  bishopt 


1  Pragmatic  History  of  the  Nunciature  at  Munich,  Frkft.  1787.  Aqidlin 
Caesai;  History  of  the  Nunciatures  in  Germany,  1790.  Huth,  1.  cit.,  Vol.  II., 
p.  4G8-490 ;  and  Bass,  Authentic  History  of  National  and  Territorial  Church- 
dom  in  Germany,  Schaffhausen,  1851,  p.  736 ;   Marx,  Hist,  of  Treves. 

■■^Conf.  Huth,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  491-500.  See  the  Keports  of  the  Congress  in 
Buss,  1.  c,  p.  738  sq.;  in  Hunch's  Collection  of  Old  and  New  Concordats,  Pt.  I., 
p.  404-423.  The  Congress  of  Ems,  according  to  Authentic  Documents,  Frkft. 
and  Lps.  1787,  4to.  Pacca,  Historical  Reminiscences  of  His  Sojourn  in  Gcr- 
many,  1780-1794;  Germ.,  Augsburg,  1832,  in  the  Appendix  on  Nuncios,  to- 
gether with  historical  documents,  p.  14.5-215.  WaLch,  Latest  Hist,  of  Religion, 
Pt.  T.,  p.  837-388. 

3  But  how  little  these  improvements  were  to  be  expected  was  evident  from 
the  Pawns  and  Satyrs  which  figured  so  conspicuously  in  the  decorations  of  the 
episcopal  palaces  in  Wiirzburg,  Mentz,  and  Biihl.  near  Bonn. 


548  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

could  be  brought  to  share  the  sentiments  of  the  archbishops 
on  the  questions  involved.  Of  this,  however,  there  was  no 
reasonable  possibility  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Bishop  of  Spire 
at  once  told  the  Elector  of  Mentz  that  many  of  the  articles 
of  the  Punctuation  must  be  rejected,  and  that,  in  his  opinion, 
it  was  utterly  impossible  to  strip  the  Holy  See  of  rights  it 
had  indisjiutabl}'  exercised  for  above  a  thousand  years.  His 
example  was  followed  by  the  Bishop  of  "Wiirzburg,  a  brother 
of  the  Elector  of  Mentz,  and  by  many  more,  who  gave  nota- 
ble evidence  of  their  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See  when  Pacca, 
the  Papal  Nuncio,  published  a  circular  letter,  addressed  to  all 
priests  having  care  of  souls,  warning  theai  that  the  archbish- 
ops had  no  jurisdiction  to  grant  dispensations  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  and  that  if  such  were  granted  they  would  be  null 
and  void.  This  caused  the  Elector  of  Treves  to  waver,  and 
in  1787  he  petitioned  the  Pope  for  facnlties  for  the  diocese  of 
Augsburg,  to  hold  good  for  five  years.  The  Elector  of  Mentz 
was  the  next  to  make  advances,  requesting  the  Holy  See  to 
contirm  the  appointment  of  Baron  de  Dalherg  as  his  coadjutor. 
Finally,  the  three  Electors  together  disavowed  their  former 
action,  declaring  that  they  had  nothing  more  at  heart  than 
the  settlement  of  tlie  unfortunate  difierences  between  them- 
selves and  the  Holy  See,  and  acknowledging  its  right  to  send 
nuncios  to  Germany  and  to  grant  dispensations  (1789).  In 
reply,  Pope  Pius  VL,  after  congratulating  them  on  their 
change  of  mind,  gave  a  firm,  but  temperate  statement  of  the 
grounds  on  which  his  rights  were  based.  The  letter  is  a  mas- 
terpiece of  its  kind.^ 

§  371.   Literary  Activity — Unbelief— Superstition. 

Thesaurus  librorum  rei  Catholicae,  Wiirzburg,  1848,  2  vols.      Werner,  Hist, 
of  Cath.  Theology  since  the  Council  of  Trent  (especially  in  Germany). 

These  ecclesiastico-political  events,  as  has  been  already  re- 
marked, had  a  deep  influence  on  general  literature  and  theo- 
log-ical  studies.     Down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 


'  Sanctissimi  Dom.  nostri  Fii  Papae  VI.  responsio  ad  Metropolitanos  Mo- 
guntinum,  Trevirens.,  Colon,  et  Salisb.  super  Nuntiaturis  Apostol.,  Kom.  1789 


371.   Literary  Activily — Unbelief— Superstition.       5-49 


tury,  German  writers  on  theology  confined  their  labors  to  ita 
two  leading  branches,  viz  :  Scholastic  Theology  and  Canon  Law. 
The  questions  in  dispute  between  the  Thomists  and  Scotists 
were  mainly  discussed  by  the  two  rival  schools  of  the  Bene- 
dictines and  Jesuits.  Patrick  Sporer,  a  Franciscan  (f  1681),' 
and  particularly  James  Busenbaum,  a  Jesuit  (f  1668),-  intro- 
duced ail  important  change  in  the  study  of  Canon  Law  by 
ifcparating  from  it  what  properly  belonged  to  the  domain  of 
Moral  Theology.  A  similar  change  took  place  in  dogmatics. 
Scholastic  theology  was  simplified  by  being  cleared  of  its  elab- 
orate system  of  formulas,  its  endless  distinctions,  and  refined 
subtleties.  These  tendencies  were  pushed  still  further  by 
Eusebius  Amort,^  a  canon  regular  of  St.  Augustine  (f  1775), 
who,  standing,  as  it  were,  on  the  boundary  that  marked  the 
decline  of  Speculative  Scholasticism  and  the  rise  of  modern 
positive  theolog}^  is  the  most  important  author  of  that  age.'' 
With  a  view  to  give  to  theological  studies  a  wider  range,  and 
to  better  adapt  them  to  the  needs  of  the  times,  special  atten- 
tion was  given  to  institutions  where  the  higher  branches  of 
tiieology  were  cultivated.  This  solicitude  was  all  the  moro 
necessary  now  that  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
whose  members  had  filled  nearly  all  the  faculties  of  theology, 
rendered  important  reforms  imperative.     The  first  movement 

1  The  following  biographical  notices  of  celebrated  moralists  have  been  taken 
from  M.  Haringer,  CSS.  R.,  Index  Scriptorum:  *Sporer,  Patritius,  Germanu8, 
Passaviensis,  Ord.  St.  Francisci,  definitor  sui  ordinis.  St.  Alphonsus  says  of 
him,  that  in  his  decisions  he  was  very  fair,  and,  perhaps,  sometimes  rather  too 
mild.  (Tr.)     His  work  was  entitled  Theologia  moralis  super  decalogum. 

2  Busenbaimi,  Hermannus,  Germanus,  S.  J.,  rector  collegii  Hildesiensis.  Me- 
dulla theologiae  moralis,  of  which  there  appeared  forty-five  editions,  from 
1645-1670. 

^  Amort,  Eusebius,  Germanus,  canonicus  regularis  Pollingac  et  S.  Joannis 
Lateranensis ;  theologus  episc.  Augustani,  a  S.  Alphonso  saepius  laudatus  ut 
vir  pro  suis  variis  operibus  undequaque  perspectus.  Suam  theologiam  moralem 
et  scholasti(;am  non  nisi  prius  a  Benedict©  XIV.  recognitam  typis  raandavit. 
Egregie  defendit  probabilismum,  sed  in  quaestionibus  practicis  niulto  severior 
quam  S.  Alphonsus  extitit.  Tr.  fr.  Ballerinis  Index  Scriptorum,  ed.  Kom. 
1869,  p.  XII.  His  work,  Theologia  moralis  et  scholastica,  Augustae  Vindclicor., 
1752  sq.,  23  T.,  8vo. 

*Cf.  Thesaurus  libror.  catholicor..  Vol.  1.,  p.  13,  14,  and  Werner,  Hist  of 
Cath.  Theol.,  p.  96-174,  and  many  other  places. 


550  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

toward  widening  tlie  range  of  theological  studies  was  made 
in  Austria  during  the  reign  of  Maria  Teresa,  on  the  secret 
advice  of  Van  Siciten  ;  and  it  was  at  once  noticeable  that  the 
movement  was  accompanied  by  an  uncatholic  spirit  and  a 
tendency  hostile  to  the  rights  of  the  Church,  both  of  which 
the  Jesuits  strenuously  opposed  until  the  day  of  their  sup- 
pression. 

At  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Trautson,  Archbishop  of  Vi- 
enna, and  Ambrose  Stock,  one  of  his  suitragan  bishops,  the 
Austrian  government  included,  among  the  branches  of  the 
theological  curriculum,  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture  ac 
cording  to  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts. 

Under  Rautenstrauch,  Abbot  of  Braunau,  and  from  1774 
Rector  of  the  Theological  Faculty  of  the  University  of  Vi- 
enna, special  chairs  were  founded  for  Biblical  Exegetics  and  its 
cognate  branches,  and  also  for  Church  History,  Patrology,  and 
Pastoral  Theology,  and  to  this  day  the  same  plan  of  studies  is 
observed.  Unfortunately,  the  direction  of  the  whole  course 
of  studies  was  committed  by  Joseph  II.  to  Baron  Godfrey  van 
Siviten,  who  was  in  active  correspondence  with  the  French 
and  German  philosophers  of  that  age,  and  particularly  with 
those  of  Berlin  and  the  Jansenist  Archbishop  of  Utrecht. 
Through  his  influence  and  by  his  authority,  the  pretentious 
and  superficial  acquirements,  which  were  regarded  as  essential 
to  what  was  called  enlightenment,  were  made  to  form  part  of 
the  new  course  of  theological  studies,  and  soon  became  fash- 
ionable in  the  General  Seminaries,  from  which,  being  estab- 
lishments of  the  government,  all  episcopal  interference  was 
excluded.^  From  Prague  and  Vienna  this  spirit  of  rational- 
ism and  false  enlightenment  spread  to  the  universities  and 
seminaries  in  other  cities,  everywhere  infecting  the  faculties 
of  philosophy  and  theolog}-.  The  professors,  discarding  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle,  constructed  their  systems  of  dogmatic 
and  moral  theology  on  that  of  Kant  and  Fichte.  The  theo- 
logical faculty  of  Freiburg,  under  Dannenmayer,  Kliipfel,  and 
Wanker    (from    1788) ;    that  of    Wurzburg,    under    Oberthur, 


1  Cf.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  XI.,  pp.   1023-1046 ;  Fr.  trans.,  Vol.  2a 
art.  "  Vienne." 


§  371.    Lilerary  Adicity— Unbelief— Saperstitlon.       551 


Ouyrnus,  Francis  Berg,'  and  Barthel ;  that  of  Ingolstadt,  and, 
still  later,  those  of  Dillingeu  and  Laudshut,  all  gave  evidence 
of  extraordinary  literary  activity,  which  was,  in  a  measure  at 
least,  inspired  by  excellent  motives.  At  Treves,  the  hot-bed 
of  Febronianism,  and  at  Mentz,  Heidelberg,  and  Bonn?  a  spirit 
of  rationalism,  leading  straight  to  Protestantism,  and  having 
other  tendencies  equally  dangerous  and  destructive,  was 
openly  and  defiantly  avowed.  Baron  Charles  of  Erthal,  the 
last  Elector  of  Mentz,  sufiered  himself  to  be  completely  con- 
verted to  this  rationalistic  and  spurious  enlightenment  by  the 
fulsome  flattery  that  was  skillfully  lavished  upon  him,  and  in 
his  zeal  to  promote  its  advancement  endeavored  to  reform  the 
university  of  that  city  by  tilling  its  jirofessorships  with  men, 
whether  Protestant  or  Catholic,  known  to  be  favorable  to  the 
new  learning.  His  brother,  Francis  Louis  of  Erthal,  Prince 
Bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  who  was  incomparably  his  superior  in 
both  prudence  and  virtue,  labored  in  vain  to  dissuade  him 
from  his  rash  purpose.  Orthodoxy  was  daily  losing  ground, 
and  it  was  not  long  until  rationalism  Avas  completely  tri- 
umphant. 

Atiairs  were  in  a  still  more  deplorable  condition  at  the 
Academy  of  ^o?i>?,  which  the  brother  of  Joseph  II. ,  Maximil- 
ian Francis,  Archbishop  Elector,  acting  under  the  advice  of 

•  Schwab,  Francis  Berg,  Ecclesiastical  Counsellor  and  Professor  of  Ch.  H.  at 
the  University  of  Wiirzburg,  being  a  iSupplement  to  the  Age  of  Enlighten- 
ment, Wiirzburg,  1869  (a  carefully  written  and  instructive  monography). 

^'\Bruck,  The  Eationalistic  Tendencies  in  Catholic  Germany,  especially  in 
the  Three  Ehenish  Archbishoprics  during  the  second  half  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Mentz,  1865.  Among  others  the  physiologist,  Rudolph  Wagiicr,  gives 
a  curious  account  of  the  policy  of  the  Court  of  Mentz  toward  the  close  of  the 
last  century.  The  leaders  of  the  intellectual  movement  were  the  lilector  Fred- 
eric Charles;  Dalberg,  bis  coadjutor;  and  the  powerful  minister  Albani.  It 
was  indeed  a  most  peculiar  age,  when  an  ecclesiastical  elector  could  invite  a 
number  of  Protestants  to  the  university  of  his  capital,  one  of  whom  he  madn 
his  confidant  and  sent  to  Eome,  the  center  of  Catholic  Christendom,  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  Holy  Father.  There  was  also  quite  a  brilliant  galaxy  of  influential 
ladies  at  this  court,  all  of  whom  interested  themselves,  after  their  own  fashion, 
in  promoting  literature  and  art.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Heinse  read  hia 
Aidinghello  to  the  Elector  and  Madame  de  Coudenhofen.  (^Rudolph  Wagner, 
Biography  of  Samuel  von  Soemmering,  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Cassol.  and 
afterward  at  Mentz;  died  1830  at  FrankforL) 


552  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

tlie  Illuminati,  raised  in  1786  to  the  rank  of  a  university,  that 
it  might  counteract  the  influence  of  the  University  of  Co 
logne.  One  of  the  professors  at  this  seat  of  learning,  who 
received  his  appointment  in  the  face  of  numerous  protests,^ 
was  Eulogius  Schneider,  who  as  a  student  had  been  expelled 
from  Wiirzburg  for  immoral  conduct.  He  was  a  thorough 
Socinian,  weak  and  inconstant  in  character,  an  advocate  of 
the  religion  of  nature,  and  a  fanatical  revolutionist.  After 
assisting  in  carting  the  guillotine  around  from  place  to  place 
to  chop  otf  other  people's  heads,  he  ended  by  having  his  own 
taken  otf  with  the  same  instrument  of  death  at  Strasburg, 
April  10,  1794.  "When  such  influences  were  at  work  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  new  method  of  learning,  dominated  as  it 
teas  by  utilitarian  principles,  produced  a  theology  hostile  in 
many  respects  to  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  and  in  no  way  re- 
markable for  originality  of  thought  or  intellectual  excellence. 
The  best  w'orks  produced  in  the  domain  of  dogmatics  were 
those  of  the  Jesuit,  Benedict  Stottler,^  of  Ingolstadt,  and  the 
Augustinian,  Engelbert  Klupfel,^  a  professor  at  Freiburg.  The 
former,  who  was  a  deep  and  acute  thinker,  treated  the  sub- 
ject more  or  less  in  detail ;  the  latter  published  only  a  com- 
pendium. Michael  Sailer,  a  man  equally  eminent  for  ability 
and  virtue,  rendered  the  following  tribute  to  the  memory  of 
Stattler:  "At  this  time,"  he  says,  "  there  appeared  in  Ger- 
many a  man  who  taught  us  to  think  for  ourselves,  and,  start- 
ing with  the  most  elementary  propositions  of  philosophy,  to 
rigorously  follow  out  the  line  of  thought  tliey  opened  up  to 
its  last  conclusions  in  theology.  To  him,  as  in  gratitude, 
bound,  myself  and  many  more  ascribe  whatever  of  ability  we 
possess  to  think  independently,  and  without  being  unduly  in- 
fluenced by  the  opinions  of  others."  The  theological  teach- 
ings of  Stattler,  however,  were  not  entirely  above  suspicion, 

^  Siatiler  Demonstratio  evangelica,  Aug.  Vind.  1771;  Demonstnitio  cat!:., 
Pappenh.  1775;  Tbeologia  christ.  theoretica,  Ingolst.  1776,  VI.  T. ;  General 
Doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Eeligion,  Munich,  1793,  2  vols. 

-  E.  Klupfel,  Institutt.  theol.  dogm.  II.  T.,  Vindob.  1789,  ed.  III.  auctore 
Greg.  Thom.  Ziegler,  Vien.  1821.  Vine.  Lerin.  commonitor.,  ed.  Klupfel,  Vien. 
1809.  Bibliotheca  ecclesiastica  Friburgensis,  fr.  1775-90  (Theological  Eeview) 
Cf.  Hug,  Elogium  Eng.  Klupfelii,  Frib.  1811. 


§371.  Literary  Activity — Unbelief — Superstition.       553 


many  of  his  most  important  works  having  been  censured  by 
the  Holy  See.'  As  to  Klupfel,  his  works  have  been  in  con- 
stant use  in  Austria  down  to  our  own  day,  and  this  fact  alone 
is  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  their  merit.  The  same  may  be 
saicC  of  the  larger  and  smaller  dogmatical  works  of  the  Cis- 
tercian, Wiest,  both  of  which  are  clearly  written,  and  give 
evidence  of  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  hand. 
He  also  wrote  on  patrology  and  on  the  history  of  Christian 
literature.  The  large  and  valuable  work  of  the  Dominican, 
Gazzanicja^  a  professor  at  Vienna,  and  the  apologetical  works 
of  Beda  31ayr,  and  Storchenau  were  all  well  received.  The 
Avorks  of  the  learned  and  eminent  Martin  Gerbert,^  Abbot  of 
the  Benedictine  monastery  at  St.  Blaise,  in  the  Black  Forest, 
treating  chiefly  of  the  method  of  studying  theology,  are  de- 
servedly held  in  high  esteem  (tl743).  The  inmates  of  St. 
Blaise  continued  to  be  distinguished  for  their  scholarship  and 
varied  learning,  even  after  the  period  of  secularization,  count- 
ing among  their  number  such  eminent  men  as  Ussermann, 
Hcrrgott,  and  Neutgart.  Moral  thcoloyy,  which  had  been 
treated  too  much  after  the  manner  of  casuits  by  the  Jesuits, 
Busenbaum,  Lacroix,  and  Voit,  not  to  speak  of  others,  was 
now  presented  in  a  more  direct  and  simple  form  by  Joseph 
Lauber,*  of  Vienna,  and  Augustine  Zippe,^  of  Pragno.     Their 

1  Particularly  the  Demonstratio  Catholica  and  Theologia  Christiana  theo- 
retica.     Cf.  Huth,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  434  and  454. 

2  Wicst,  Institutiones  (majores)  theol.,  Ingolst.  1790-1801,  U  T.  Instilut.  tlie- 
olog.  dogmat.  in  usum  acndem.,  2  T.,  1791,  and  often.  Introductio  in  historiam 
literariam  theologiae  revelatae,  Ingolst.  1794 ;  institutiones  Patrologiae,  ibid. 
1795.     (razzaniga,  praelectt.  theol.,  5  T.,  Vien.  1775. 

^  Apparatus  ad  eruditionem  theologicam,  institutioni  tironum  congregation  is 
St.  Blasii,  Frib.  1754;  principia  theologiae  exegeticae,  St.  Bias.  1757;  do  recto 
et  perverse  usu  theologiae  scholasticae,  St.  Bias.  1758 ;  principia  theol.  dogniati- 
cnc  jaxta  seriem  temporum  et  traditionis  ecclesiasticae  digesta,  St.  Bias.  1758; 
principia  theol.  symbolicae,  ubi  ordine  symboli  apostolici  praecipun  doctrinao 
chr.  capita  explicantur,  St.  Bias.  1758,  etc.  Other  principal  works  :  Historin 
nigrae  silvae,  St.  Bias.  1783,  3  T.,  4to;  De  rausica  sacra,  St.  Bias.  1774.  Cf. 
Werner,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Theology,  p.  179-192. 

*  J.  Lauber,  A  Short  Manual  of  Christian  Morality  or  Moral  Theology,  5  ))t3. 
Vienna,  1785-1788. 

^  A.  Zippe,  A  Key  to  a  System  of  Ethics  in  accordanco  with  Keason  and  liev 
elation,  intended  for  the  Private  Instruction  of  Touth,  Prague,  1778. 


554  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Cha-pter  1. 


treatment,  however,  was  also  unsatisfactory,  in  that  bj  elim- 
inating dogmatic  principles,  which  are  necessarily  the  ground- 
work of  all  moral  theology,  they  gave  to  their  otherwise 
meritorious  works  an  appearance  of  shallowness  and  want  of 
solidity.  Stattler^  Schwarzhueber,  and  Danzer  were  each  su- 
perior to  both  of  them,  though  in  the  writings  of  every  one 
of  these  authors  there  is  a  noticeable  absence  of  that  high 
ethical  standard  which  should  characterize  the  works  of  every 
writer  on  Christian  morality.  They  had  a  special  fondness 
for  introducing  into  their  works  the  purely  philosophical  ideas 
of  ancient  and  modern  authors,  which  they  adjusted  as  best 
they  could  to  the  principles  of  Christian  ethics,  and  out  of 
these  two  incongruous  elements  attempted  to  build  up  a  sys- 
tem of  morals  in  harmony  at  once  with  the  tastes  of  the  age 
and  the  requirements  of  the  Church. 

F.  Christian  Pitroff.^  of  Prague ;  Giftschutz,  of  Vienna ; 
Svhwarzel,^  of  Freiburg ;  and  Francis  Geiger,^  a  Bavarian, 
published  works  on  Pastoral  Theology.  A  religious  and  truly 
Catholic  spirit  was  fostered  among  the  people  by  the  writings  of 
the  Jesuit,  Nakaienus  {Heavenly  Palm  Grove,  also  in  Latin, 
Coeleste  Palmetum,  1660)  ;  of  the  Premonstratensian,l/eo7irtr(^ 
Goffine,  who  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Rhine  {Hand- 
Postil,  1690,  tl719);  and  of  the  Capuchin,  Martin  Cochem, 
whose  simple  manners  and  dignified  bearing  won  the  confi- 
dence and  commanded  the  respect  of  all  who  approached 
him.  He  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  Moselle,  and  died  in  the 
year  1712. 

1  Staitler,  Ethica  Christ,  universalis  et  ethica  Christ,  communis,  VI.  T.,  Aug. 
Vind.  1782-1789.  Complete  Treatise  on  Christian  Morals,  for  the  Use  of  Fam- 
ilies, Augsburg,  1789  sq.  Catholic  Ethics,  or  the  Science  of  Happiness,  based 
on  Revelation  and  Philosophy,  destined  for  the  Higher  Classes  in  Lyceums, 
Munich,  1791,  2  vols.  Schivarz/mehei;  Practical  Manual  of  the  Catholic  Relig- 
itn,  intended  for  reflecting  Christians,  Salzburg  (1786),  1797  sq.,  4  vols.  Danzer, 
A  Guide  to  Christian  Morality,  Salzburg  (1787),  3d  edit.,  1792-1803,  3  vols. 

2  Pitiroff,  Lessons  of  Practical  Divinity,  for  the  use  of  Academies,  Prague, 
1778-1779,  3  vols.     Ecclesiastical  Policy,  Prague,  1785,  2  vols. 

^F.  Oifischutz,  Elements  of  Pastoral  Theology,  2  vols.,  Vienna,  1785;  Lat. 
by  Kliipfel,  Vienna,  1789.  Schwarzel,  A  Key  to  a  Complete  System  of  Pastoral 
Theology,  Augsburg,  1799,  1800,  3  vols. 

*  F.  Gei^er,  Pastoral  Lessons  on  the  Duties  of  a  Parish  Priest,  Augsb.  1789 


§  371.   Literary  Activity — Unbelief— Superstition.       555 

Abraham- a- Sancta- Clara  (Ulrich  Megerle),^  an  Augustinian, 
was  a  mau  of  great  originality  of  thought,  extensive  informa- 
tion, grotesque  humor,  never-failing  wit,  and  homely,  though 
vigorous  language;  and,  after  his  appointment  as  court 
preacher  at  Vienna,  lashed  the  follies  of  all  classes  of  society 
with  commendable  freedom  and  admirable  intrepidity.  Of 
the  numerous  writers  on  ecclesiastical  history  it  will  suffice  t(^- 
mention  Pohl,  a  Jesuit,  and  Stoeger,  both  of  Vienna ;  Gaspar 
Eoyko,  of  Prague  ;  and  Dannenmayr,  a  professor  at  Freiburg, 
and  afterward  at  Vienna.  The  collections  of  German  coun- 
cils by  Schannat,  liarzheim,  atid  others;  the  Thesaurus  anec- 
dotorum  nocissimus,  published  in  six  volumes,  folio,  at  Augs- 
burg in  1521 ;  and  the  works  of  Bernard  Fez,  a  Benedictine 
of  the  monastery  of  Melk,  were  all  valuable  contributions  to 
Church  history.  The  last  named  author  was  assisted  in  his 
labors  by  his  younger  brother,  Jerome  Fez,  whose  edition  of 
the  Scriptores  rerum  Ausiriacarum,  published  in  three  volumes, 
folio,  at  Leipsig  in  1721,  made  him  famous.  The  compilation 
of  the  results  of  the  labors  performed  by  the  members  of  the 
French  Congregation  of  St.  Maur  in  patristic  studies  has  a 
merit  peculiarly  its  own.  It  Avas  accomplished  by  the  Bene- 
dictine, Dominic  Schramm,  of  Banz  {Ayialysis  Fatrum,  as  far 
as  St.  Augustine,  18  vols.,  8vo) ;  Flandas  Sprenger,  of  Wiirz- 
burg  {Thesaurus  rei  pafristicae  seu  Dissert  at  iones  praestantiores, 
etc.,  3  vols,  4to) ;  and  by  Bernard  Marschall  and  Godfrey 
Lumper,  of  St.  George's,  near  Villingen.  Of  the  two  la^t  the 
former  was  the  author  of  a  Concordia  Ss.  Fatrum  eccles.  Grace, 
et  Latin.,  2  vols.,  folio  ;  and  the  latter  of  a  Mistoria  theologica 
de  vita  et  scriptis  Ss.  Fatrum,  13  vols.,  octavo.  The  first, 
though  rather  unsuccessful  attempt  at  writing  a  patrology, 
was  made  by  Wilhelm,  a  professor  at  Freiburg  (Fatrologia  in 
usus  academicos,  1775).  There  were  numerous  writers  on 
Canon  Law,  all  of  whom,  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject, 
pursued  the  traditional  methods.  The  following  are  the  moi-e 
eminent:  Engel,  a  Benedictine,  of  Salzburg  {Collegium  uni- 
versi  juris  canonici,  Salisb.  1671,  ed.  XV.,  1770,  3  vols.) ;  Fir- 
king  {Jus  canonicum.  Billing.  1675,  5  vols.,  fob,  ed.  nov.,  Venet, 

*  Th.  G.,  of  Karajan,  Abraha!n-a-Santa-Clara,  Vienna,  1867. 


556  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Ckapter  1, 


1727,  fol.);  Anadetus  Peifenstuel,  0.  S.  F.  Minor.  {Jus  canon- 
icum  universum  jaxta  titidos  librorum  V.  decrctalium,  Monachii, 
1702;  Romae,  1831,  6  vols.)  ;  James  Wiestner  (Institut.  canon, 
sive  jus.  eccl.  ad  Decret.  Gregor.  IX.  libros  quinque,  Monachii^ 
1705,  5  vols.,  4to) ;  Fr.  Schmier  (Jurispradentia  eanonico-civiUs 
8tu  Jus  canonicum  universum  juxta  libros  V.  Decret.,  Salisb. 
1716,  3  vols.) ;  the  Jesuits,  Fr.  Sckmalzgrueber  {J as  eccles.  uni- 
versale, Ingolst.  1726,  5  vols.,  fol.  ;  Eomae,  1843,  12  bindings^ 
4to) ;  Biner  {Apparatus  eruditionis  ad  jurisprudentiam  prae- 
sertim  eccles.,  1754,  etc.,  13  T.,  4to)  ;  the  Piarist,  Remigius 
Maschat  (new  edit.,  Florence,  1854,  4  vols.,  with  a  Gallican 
tendenc}')  ;  Bern,  van  Espen  {Jus  eccl.  univ..  Colon.  Agripp. 
1702,  fol. ;  Mogunt.  1791,  3  vols.);  Greg.  Zalliuein,  in  a  Galli- 
can Josephlst,  but  still  moderate  spirit  {Principia.  juris  eccles. 
unic.  et  particularis  Germaniae,  1763,  4  T.,  4to ;  Aug.  Vind. 
1781,  5  vols.,  4to  ;  1831,  5  vols.) ;  and  Gaspar  Barthel,  the 
Wiirzburg  Canonist. 

As  time  went  on  it  became  clear  that  the  true  Catholic 
spirit  was  gradually  but  steadily  dying  out,  and  that  the  neg- 
ative influence  of  Protestantism  was  beginning  to  appear  in 
the  writings  of  many  of  the  Catholic  theologians.  Blau,  a 
professor  of  theology  at  Mentz,  went  so  far  as  to  call  in  ques- 
tion the  infallibility  of  the  representatives  of  the  Church  as- 
sembled in  general  council.^  Lawrence  Isevbiehl,^  of  Eichs- 
feld,  who  had  been  sent  by  Emmerich  Joseph,  Elector  of 
Mentz,  to  Goettingen  to  complete  his  studies  in  Oriental  lit- 
erature, expressed  his  doubts  as  to  the  Messianic  prophecy  of 
Isaias  vii.  14,  denying  that  it  contained  any  reference  to  the 
Messiah.  His  opinions  were  submitted  to  the  judgment  of 
many  of  the  theological  faculties,  and  returned  with  notes  of 
censure  attached ;  and  his  New  Essay  on  the  Prophecy  concern- 
ing Emmanuel,  which  appeared  without  either  tlie  printer's 
name  or  the  required  legal  authorization,  was  condemned  by 
Pope  Pius  VI.  (September  2,  1779)  as  containing  doctrines 
and  propositions  erroneous,  rash,  dangerous,  favoring  heresy, 

1  Critical  History  on   Ecclesiastical   Infallibility,  to  Serve  as  an  Aid  for  a 
Freer  Investigation  of  Catholicism,  Frkft.  1791. 
a  Cf.  Huih,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  358-B69.      Walch,  1.  c,  Ft.  VIII.,  p.  9-88. 


§  371.  Literary  Activity — Unbelief — Superstition.       557 

and  even  heretical.  Isenbiehl,  who  had  been  in  the  first  in- 
stance treated  with  unnecessary  severit}-,  now  retracted  his 
errors,  and  was  appointed  by  his  archbishop  to  a  benefice  at 
Amoeueburg. 

Steinbuhler,  a  jurist  of  Strasburg,  ridiculed  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Church,  but  his  blasphemous  utterances  were  dearly 
expiated  l)y  the  persecution  he  underwent  (1781).  The  ex- 
treme of  atheistic  free  thought  was  reached  in  the  principles 
professed  by  the  Order  of  tlit  llluminati}  already  mentioned. 
It  was  founded  May  1, 1776,  b}-  Weishaupt,  a  professor  of  canon 
law  at  Ingolstadt.  Its  members  were  told  that  after  bavins: 
passed  through  the  degrees  of  Magus  and  Rex,  or  priest  and 
regent,  they  would  arrive  at  the  full  light  of  knowledo-e. 
The  Illuminism  of  Weishaupt  was  a  mixture  of  French  athe- 
ism and  German  freemasonry,  and  its  aim  "the  abolition  of 
priestcraft  and  knavery  and  the  extermination  of  the  wicked 
(that  is,  of  priests  and  princes)  from  the  face  of  the  earth." 
The  lUuminati  endeavored  to  have  men  in  full  sympathy  with 
them  put  into  every  position  of  trust  in  both  Church  and 
State.  They  aimed  at  giving  priests  to  the  altar,  counsellors 
to  princes,  professors  to  universities,  and  commanders  to  the 
fortresses  of  the  Empire.^ 

Nicolai  and  Biester,  of  Berlin,  and  their  co-laborers  in  the 
preparation  of  the  German.  Universal  Library,  were  the  next 
to  propagate  the  principles  and  spread  the  Order  of  the  Illu- 
minati.  The  government  of  Bavaria,  after  inquiring  into  the 
cliaracter  and  methods  of  the  new  organization,  ordered  its 
suppression  in  1784.  It,  however,  continued  to  exist  and  to 
extend  the  scope  of  its  pernicious  influence.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  saying  that  extremes  meet,  nearly  simultaneously 
with  the  Illuminati,  Gassner,^  the  parish-priest  at  Ellwangen, 


'On  the  Order  of  the  Illuminati  in  Germany,  1792.  Some  Original  Writ- 
ings of  the  Order  of  the  Illuminati,  by  order  of  the  supreme  authority,  Jlunicb, 
1787.  Weishaupt,  The  Improved  System  of  the  Illuminati,  with  all  its  Grades 
and  Institutions,  Frkft.  1788.  (  Weishaupt,  Hist,  of  the  Persecution  of  the  II 
luminati,  Frkft.  and  Lps.  1786.) 

2  Concerning  the  efforts  of  the  German  freethinkers,  now  kept  in  check,  see 
the  remarkable  memorial  by  Ofroerer  (Review  of  Historical  Theology,  edited 
by  Illgen,  Vol.  VI.,  Lps.  1836). 

•''  Hidh,  1.  c,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  388-397.      Walch,  Pt.  VI.,  pp.  364  sq. 


558  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  1.     Cha2Jter  1. 

became  famous  in  the  year  1774  for  bis  powers  of  exorcism 
and  his  gift  of  healing  all  manner  of  diseases  in  the  name  of 
Jesus.  From  all  parts  of  Germany  Protestants  and  Catholics 
came  crowding  about  him  to  receive  of  such  benefits  as  he 
had  to  impart,  but  as  a  rule  returned  home  heartily  ashamed 
of  their  credulity,  and  as  sick  and  infirm  as  they  were  before 
seeing  him.  Jerome  of  Coloredo,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  is- 
sued a  charge  to  his  fiock,  condemning  these  pretended  cures, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  said  :  "An  attempt  has  been  made 
in-  onr  day  to  introduce  a  new  method  of  healing  diseases, 
which,  whether  in  principle  or  in  practice,  no  child  of  the 
Church  can  regard  as  other  than  dangerous  and  worthy  of 
condemnation."  Gassner's  conduct  was  also  censured  by  both 
the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

§  372.  Political  and  Religious  Disturbances  in  Poland. 

Friese,  Ch.  H.  of  Poland,  Pt.  II.,  Vol.  II.  Huth,  1.  cit.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  233-241. 
Walch,  New  Hist,  of  Religion,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  1-208;  Vol.  VII.,  p.  3-160. 

In  no  country  had  Dissenters,  from  whatever  religious  party 
they  came,  been  so  freely  received  and  so  generously  tolerated 
as  in  Poland.  By  concessions  granted  successively  in  the 
years  1569, 1573, 1576,  and  1587,  their  rights  were  augmented, 
their  prerogatives  extended,  and  their  liberties  widened.^ 
Their  pretensions  increased  as  their  liberties  grew,  and  once 
in  possession  of  the  latter,  they  assumed  toward  Catholics  a 
bearing  of  superiority  strangely  contrasting  with  the  humble- 
ness of  their  origin  and  the  disabilities  of  their  former  con- 
dition. The  consequence  was  that  a  decided  reaction  set  in 
against  them  on  the  part  of  Catholics,  beginning  with  the 
reign  of  Sigismund  III. 

By  decrees  of  the  Diets  held  in  1717  and  1733,  numerous 
restrictions  were  put  upon  the  civil  and  religious  freedom  they 
had  formerly  enjoyed,  and  tlie  Consistory  of  Posen  (1743)  for- 
bade Lutheran  ministers  to  either  baptize  or  instruct  children 
born  of  mixed  marriages.     These  measures  w^ere  provoked  by 


1  Jus  dissideniium  in  regno  Poloniae.  Scrutinium  juris  in  re  et  ad  rem  theo 
icgiccjuridicum,  Vars.  1736,  f.,  p.  192-256. 


372.  Political  and  Religious  Disturbances  in  Poland.  559 


the  action  of  the  Lutheran  magistracy  of  the  Protestant  city  of 
Thorn,  which  had  repeatedly  denied  to  its  Catholic  inhaliit- 
ants  rights  to  which  they  were  plainly  and  justly  entitled,  and 
had  declined  to  pay  any  attention  to  their  lawful  petitions. 
The  long  pent-up  anger  of  both  parties  finally  broke  out  into 
open  violence  on  the  10th  of  July,  1724,  when  a  mob,  after 
dispersing  a  Catholic  procession,  proceeded  to  pull  down  the 
college  of  the  Jesuits.^  The  affair  was  investigated,  and 
Hoesner,  the  burgomaster;  Zernike,  the  vice-president;  and 
nine  burghers  were  condemned,  and,  despite  the  intercession 
of  Santini,  the  Papal  Nuncio,  with  King  Augustus  at  War- 
saw, all,  with  the  exception  of  Zernike,  executed.  The  Diet 
of  Pacification,  convoked  in  1736,  to  provide  measures  for  the 
public  safety,  seriously  threatened  by  the  Dissidents,  gave 
them  the  fullest  assurances  of  peace,  secured  them  in  their 
possessions,  and  confirmed  their  claims  to  equal  civil  rights, 
only  forbidding  them  to  hold  political  assemblies  or  invoke 
the  aid  of  foreign  princes.  In  defiance  of  this  prohibition, 
two  Lithuanians,  the  brothers  Graboivski,  and  two  Poles,  the 
brothers  Golz,  made  an  offer  of  the  crown  of  Poland  to  Fred- 
eric Christian,  Elector  of  Saxony.  After  his  death,  however, 
they  deemed  it  more  advantageous  to  join  the  Russo-Prussian 
partj^  lately  formed  in  Poland. 

Taught  by  costly  experience,  the  Diet  of  1766,  in  which 
Ladislaus  Lubienski,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Primate  of 
Poland,  delivered  a  speech  remarkable  for  energy  and  power, 
confirmed  all  the  general  laws  enacted  against  the  Dissidents 
in  the  years  1717,  1733,  1736,  and  1747.  Both  Kussia  and 
Prussia,  yielding  to  the  frequent  and  urgent  solicitations  of 
the  Dissidents,  seized  upon  this  action  of  the  Diet  as  a  pretext 
for  interfering  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Poland.  They  also 
endeavored  to  make  the  Courts  of  Franco  and  Sweden  part- 
ners to  their  design.^  Prom  the  15th  of  October,  1767,  the 
influence  of  Pussian  despotism  was  supreme  in  the  Diet  of 

1  (Jablonski).  The  Troubles  of  Thorn,  Berlin,  1725.  Cf.  Chronicle  of  Thorn 
Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol  X.,  p.  953-957 ;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  23.  p.  417  sq. 

2Cf.  Janssen,  Supplements  serving  to  elucidate  the  causes  that  contributed  to 
the  first  partition  of  Poland,  Freiburg,  1865.  The  author  states,  on  page  184, 
'•  that  Bishop  Soltik  had  warned  the  Dissidents  against  this  step,  saying  that 


560  Period  3.    Epoch  2.    Part  1.     Chapter  1. 


Warsaw.  All  orators,  whether  Catholics  or  Dissidents,  who 
displayed  any  zeal  in  opposing  the  policy  of  Russia,  were 
seized  and  carried  ofl'  prisoners  to  that  country ;  and  Poland, 
acting  from  motives  of  fear  rather  than  from  the  dictates  of 
wisdom,  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  government  of  the  Tsar, 
by  which,  while  the  Catholic  was  to  be  the  religion  of  the 
State,  and  professed  by  the  king,  the  Dissidents  were  to  Lave 
all  the  religious  and  civil  rights  enjoyed  in  the  year  1717  re- 
stored to  them.  The  Diet  of  1786  went  still  further,  extend- 
ing the  rights  of  Protestants,  restricting  those  of  Catholics, 
and  interfering  generally  in  purely  ecclesiastical  afi'airs. 

The  bishops  having  applied  to  the  Holy  See  for  instructions 
i'egarding  the  questions  arising  out  of  marriages  between 
Catholics  and  Dissidents  and  Catholics  and  separated  Greeks, 
received  in  reply  from  Benedict  XIV.  the  bull  Magnae  nobis 
admirationis,  setting  forth  that  such  marriages  could  not  be 
permitted,  except  on  certain  conditions,  one  of  which  was 
that  all  children  born  of  them  should  be  brought  up  in  the 
Catholic  faith.  The  Diet,  on  the  other  hand,  decided  "  that 
such  marriages  should  not  be  hindered  by  any  one  whom- 
soever; that  the  marriage  blessing  should  be  given  in  all  cases 
by  the  minister  of  the  religion  professed  by  the  bride  ;  and 
that  of  the  offspring  of  such  unions  the  male  children  should 
be  brought  up  in  the  religion  of  the  father  and  the  female  in 
that  of  the  mother." 

The  Papal  Nuncio,  Maria  Durini,  having  arrived  while 
these  events  w^ere  in  progress,  sent  to  the  royal  chancellor  an 
instrument  containing  the  rights  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  a 
copy  of  which  he  also  sent  to  the  Polish  clergy.  Stanislaus 
also  received  a  message  from  Pope  Clement  XIII.,  complaining 
of  the  illegal  proceedings  of  the  Diet,  but  King  Stanislaus 
excused  himself  by  saying  that,  inasmuch  as  the  claims  of  the 
Dissidents  were  supported  by  the  influence  of  a  great  power, 
he  felt  himself  constrained  to  yield.  "  Every  means,"  said 
he,  "  was  tried  to  resist  the  demand  of  which  you  complain  ; 
but  so  threatening  was  the  storm  evoked  by  the  indiscretion 


fiireign   powers  used   religious  quentiona  only  as  a  pretext,  their  real   design 
Ijeing  to  kindle  the  flames  of  civil  war  in  Poland,  and  thus  divide  the  country.' 


§  372.  Political  and  Religious  Disturbances  in  Poland.  561 

•of  certain  nobles  that  we  regarded  it  a  special  fortune  to  be 
able  to  gain  the  nearest  port.  Any  furtlier  attempt  to  hold 
out  against  the  tyranny  of  the  North  will  henceforth  be  both 
useless  and  fatal."  The  clergy,  more  courageous  than  their 
sovereign,  protested  against  the  action  of  the  Diet,  particu- 
hirly  in  regard  to  mixed  provisions,  declaring  that,  notwith- 
standing the  signatures  of  many  of  the  bishops  affixed  to  its 
enactments,  they  would  continue  to  regard  such  marriages 
as  not  binding,  according  to  the  laws  of  the  Church,  and  that 
the  bishops  holding  their  seats  in  the  Diet  as  laymen  had  no 
authority  in  the  matter.  In  consequence  tiie  Consistory  of 
Posen  published  a  circular  letter,  denying  the  binding  force 
of  the  enactments  of  the  Diet ;  and  the  bishops,  after  having 
sent  several  communications  on  the  subject  to  Clement  XIV., 
finally  received  a  reply  from  Pope  Pias  VI.,  in  1777,  stat- 
itig  that  they  were  to  observe  the  instructions  of  Bene- 
dict XIV. 

IlUq Dissenters,  in  their  efforts  to  carry  out  their  extravagant 
notions  of  their  own  rights,  had  brought  their  country  to  the 
verge  of  ruin.  All  Poland  saw  with  sorrow,  when  it  was  too 
hite  to  correct  the  mistake,  that  the  country  was  inevitablj- 
passing  under  the  yoke  of  Russia,  and  the  authors  of  her  dis- 
asters were  held  up  to  everlasting  execration.  The  Confeder- 
ation of  Bar  was  formed  with  a  view  to  withdrawing  Poland 
from  the  all-powerful  influence  of  Russia,  but  no  eflbrts  could 
prevent  the  perpetration  of  that  stupendous  national  wrong- 
known  as  the  First  Partition,  of  Poland  in  1772.  This  event 
so  exasperated  the  nation  that,  by  the  constitution  of  1775, 
all  Dissidents  were  declared  incapable  of  holding  offices  of 
public  trust  and  honor.  To  strengthen  themselves,  the  Lu- 
therans and  Calvinists  held  a  joint  assembly  at  Lissa  in  the 
same  year.  Finally,  tlie  Polish  nobles  quarreled  among  them- 
selves as  to  whether  they  should  or  not  accept  the  new  con- 
stitution of  May  3,  1791,  giving  political  rights  to  the  cities, 
civil  rights  to  the  peasantry,  and  making  the  kingly  authority 
hereditary;  and,  after  once  more  bringing  innumerable  dis- 
.-asters  upon  theii-  unhappy  country,  again  aflbrded  Russia 
VOL.  Ill — 36 


562  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

and   Prussia   a  pretext   for  the   Second  Partition  of  Poland 
in  1793.1 

The  gallant  Kosciusko^  at  the  head  of  a  brave  army,  made 
a  noble  but  fruitless  resistance  against  the  combined  forces  of 
Russia  and  Prussia.^  He  was  overcome  by  numbers.  A  gen- 
eral uprising  took  place  in  1794 ;  the  Prussians  were  forced 
to  retreat  to  their  own  country,  and  the  Russians  were  several 
times  routed.  But  Austria,  which  had  had  no  hand  in  the 
Second  Partition,  came  forward  now  ;  the  Russians  and  Prus- 
sians again  rallied ;  Kosciusko,  at  the  head  of  the  last  patriot 
army,  was  defeated ;  Praga  was  sacked;  Warsaw  captured; 
the  Polish  monarchy  annihilated  ;  and,  by  the  1  hird  Parti- 
tion, in  1795,  Poland  was  completely  dismembered,  and  its 
name  erased  from  the  catalogue  of  nations.  Her  king,  Stan- 
islaus Poniatowski,  submitted  to  be  a  pensioner  on  the  bounty 
of  Russia,  and  died  broken-hearted  at  St.  Petersburg  in  179S. 
And  thus  perished  the  great  Polish  Empire,  which  at  one 
time  comprised  twenty-seven  njillions  of  souls,  and  bad  so 
long  formed  the  bulwark  of  Christendom  against  the  assaults 
of  the  Turks,  and  civilized  Europe  against  the  Mongolian 
hordes  of  Russia. 

§  373.    The  Su'pi?Tession  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

■•■■"  Ri'ffel,  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  being  an  inquiry  into  the  accu- 
sations, both  old  and  new,  against  it,  Mentz  (1845),  1848.  Crctineau-Joly^ 
Voh  V.  Against  him,  Theiner,  Hist,  of  the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,  Lps. 
1853,  .Ft.  II.  Against  Theiner,  Buns,  The  Society  of  Jesus,  Pt.  II.,  p.  1262  sq. 
De  Ravipian,  Clement  XIII.  and  Clement  XIV.,  Paris,  1854,  and  the  Suppres- 
sion of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  Paris  and  Augsburg,  1854.  The  Suppression  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  Portuguese  Dominions,  by  Kev.  Alfred  Weld,  S.  J., 
London,  1877.  (Tr.) 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  Church  in  the  various  coun- 


1  The  opposition  of  the  nobility  was  caused  by  the  intrigues,  influence,  and 
money  of  Catharine  of  Eussia.  Only  Jive  out  of  two  hundred  thousand  repre- 
sentatives  of  the  Polish  nation  signed  the  document  of  TargowUz,  sent  to  Eussia 
as  a  pi-otest  against  the  constitution.  (Tr.) 

2  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  Prussia  had  encouraged  Poland  to  proclaim 
the  constitution  of  1791,  and  that  her  king,  Frederic  William,  had  sworn  tc 
defend  the  Poles  against  Eussia.  But  if  she  had  not  proved  a  traitor  to  hex 
national  honor,  her  history  would  have  been  wanting  in  consistency.  (Tr.) 


373.    The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.       563 


tries  of  Europe,  we  come  upon  facts  that  seem  to  prove  that 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  which  had  been  so  active  and  useful  in 
the  preceding  epoch,  had  lost  somewhat  of  its  primitive  virtue 
and  power,  or  had  ceased  to  exert  its  energies  within  the 
scope  originally  designed  by  its  founders.  Portugal  took  the 
initial  steps  in  the  persecution  of  the  Jesuits.'  By  a  treaty, 
concluded  in  1750,  Portugal  restored  to  Spain  the  rich  colony 
of  San  Sagramento  in  exchange  for  seven  Reductions  of  Par- 
aguay, which  had  been  so  prosperous  under  the  admirable 
government  of  the  Jesuits.  This  treaty  necessitated  the  re- 
moval of  thirty  thousand  Indians  from  their  happy  homes. 
The  Jesuits,  acting  in  obedience  to  the  king's  orders,  did 
their  best  to  persuade  these  poor  peo[)le  to  obey,  but  to  no 
purpose."  From  sheer  desperation  they  rose  in  open  revolt 
against  the  Portuguese.  The  Jesuits  were  accused  of  having 
incited  them  to  rebellion,  and  of  having  established  for  their 
own  aggrandizement  a  republic  in  the  Province  of  Maranhao 
of  a  character  never  before  heard  of.  This  persecution  was 
mainly,  if  not  altogether,  the  work  of  Pombal,  the  Minister 
of  Joseph  Emmanuel  i.,  and  of  the  canonist,  Pereira.  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  motives  of  the  latter,  the  former  cer- 
tainly acted  from  a  diabolical  hatred  of  men  who  would  not 
consent  to  be  his  tools,  and  from  the  lust  of  gold  in  which  it 
was  supposed  the  Reductions  abounded.  He  also  made  a 
conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  king,  in  which  he  endeav- 
ored to  implicate  some  of  their  number,  a  pretext  for  tierce 
denunciations  against  them.  Ten  of  them  were  put  on  trial, 
and  although,  in  spite  of  the  notorious  unfairness  of  the 
court,  nothing  could  be  proved  which  in  any  way  made  them 
partners  to  the  attempt  upon  the  king's  life,  they  were  ban- 
ished from  Portugal  and  from  the  Portuguese  dominions  in 
both  East  and  West,  and  after  enduring  atrocities,  the  very 
recital  of  which  makes  the  blood  boil,  were  set  downi  on  the 
docks  of  Civita  Yecchia,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  the  year 
1759,  when  the  Decree  of  Expulsion  was  published,  and  in 

1  Murr,  Hist,  of  the  Jesuits  in  Portugal  under  Pombal,  Niirnberg,  1787, 
2  vols. 

*  Weld,  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  Portuguese  Dominions. 
London,  1877.  (Tr.) 


564  Period  3.     Ej)och  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

the  following  years,  to  be  cared  for  as  best  they  might.'  Their 
goods  were  confiscated,  and  those  who  had  not  been  deported 
were  left  to  languish  in  frightful  dungeons  until  the  death  of 
the  king,  in  1777,  when  his  daughter  Maria  gave  them  their 
freedom. 

In  France  the  Jansenists,  the  Encyclopaedists,  and  the  par- 
liament all  conspired  together  to  compass  the  ruin  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  Society  had  not  been  able  to  establish  itself  in 
Paris  until  1550,  under  Henry  II.,  and  even  then  against  the 
will  and  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  parliament,  the 
bishop,^  and  the  university ;  and  throughout  the  rest  of 
France,  onl}"  after  the  passage  of  the  edict  of  Soissons,  which 
subjected  its  members  to  numerous  and  vexatious  restrictions. 
The  extensive  privileges  conferred  upon  the  Society  by  the 
Holy  See  roused  popular  prejudice  against  it,  and  in  the  then 
existing  state  of  public  o[)inion  did  it  no  little  harm.  The 
j>rofessors  of  the  university  viewed  with  extreme  jealousy  the 
establishment  by  the  side  of  them  of  a  society  of  educators, 
whose  lectures  were  given  gratuitously,  and  listened  to  with 
enthusiasm.  The  Hugenots  were  fairly  astonished  that  men 
should  be  so  bold  as  to  found  a  Society  for  the  avowed  pur- 
pose of  entering  into  conflict  with  them,  and  on  ever}'  avail- 
able occasion  exhibited  toward  its  members  their  characteristic 
spirit  of  hatred  and  persecution.  Finally,  the  Jansenists,  con- 
scious that  the  Jesuits  were  their  most  formidable  antagonists 
on  the  doctrine  of  grace,  combined  their  hostile  efforts  with 
those  of  the  most  relentless  enemies  of  the  Society.  Then  it 
was  that  Arnauld,  the  father  of .  the  great  Jansenist,  and  ad- 
vocate of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  rose  in  his  place  and  deliv- 
ered a  most  intemperate  speech  against  them,  in  which  he 
charged  them  with  being  the  enemies  of  the  king  and  the 
partisans  of  Spain.     The  opposition  to  them  grew  still  more 

1  The  Month,  September,  1877,  art.  "  Pombal  and  the  Society  of  Jesus."  (Tr.) 
Cfr.  von  Olfers,  On  the  Attempt  to  Murder  the  King  of  Portugal  on  Septem- 
ber 3,  1758,  being  an  Historical  Inquiry,  Berlin,  1839.  Moreover,  Aguavivn, 
the  celebrated  General  of  the  Jesuits,  by  a  decree  of  the  year  1610,  had  em- 
phatically condemned  tyrannicide,  and  forbidden  all  Jesuits  to  even  touch  upon 
the  subject  in  their  lectures  or  writings. 

2  Not  archbishop,  for  the  See  of  Paris  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  onlv 
in  1622.     See  Gams,  Series  Eppor.,p.  597.    (Tr.) 


§  373.    The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.       565 

bitter  and  violent  when  Henry  1  V.  selected  one  of  them  for 
his  confessor,  notwithstanding  that  they  had  been  at  no  pains 
to  deserve  this  token  of  royal  confidence. 

When,  in  1594,  John  Chdtel  made  an  attempt  upon  the  life 
of  the  king,  the  guilt  of  the  deed  was  imputed  to  the  Jesuits, 
on  the  ground  that  Chatel,  who  had  been  one  of  their  stu- 
dents, had  declared  he  had  heard  Father  Gueret  teach  tliat 
tyrannicide  was  permissible — a  proposition  condemned  in  tlie 
most  precise  and  emphatic  terms  by  both  the  Society  and  the 
Holy  See.  Still,  notwithstanding  the  frequent  protestations 
of  John  Chatel,  exonerating  the  Jesuits  from  any  knowledge 
of  his  deed,  the  whole  Society  was  expelled  from  France  by  a 
decree  of  parliament,  dated  December  29,  1594.  The  parlia- 
ments of  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse  took  the  Jesuits  under  their 
protection,  and  at  their  request  they  were  again  recalled  by 
Henry  IV. 

Henry  IV,  Avas  murdered  by  Ravaillac,  and  again  every  ef- 
fort was  made,  but  in  vain,  to  fasten  the  guilt  of  the  miscreant 
deed  upon  the  Society.  Its  enemies  were  again  baffled,  but 
they  did  not  despair  of  still  accomplishing  their  purpose. 
Once  more  they  cast  about  for  a  pretext,  and  it  is  a  lamenta- 
ble fact  that  this  was  furnished  by  the  writings  of  some  in- 
discreet members  of  the  Society.  The  errors  contained  in  the 
w^orks  of  Harduin,  Berruyer,  Pichon,  Escobar,  Tamhurini,  an<l 
others,  though  condemned  by  the  Holy  See,  were  laid  hold  on 
hy  Pascal,  a  zealous  Jansenist,  and  one  eminently  qualilied,  by 
his  splendid  and  versatile  talents,  to  turn  his  advantage  to  the 
best  account.  In  iiis  memorable  Ijcttres  pro vin dales, ^  in  which 
the  extraordinary  brilliancy  of  the  style  is  equaled  only  by 
the  audacious  dishonesty  of  the  writer,  he  quoted  erroneous 
opinions,  scandalous  passages,  and  garbled  extracts  from  the 
writings  of  several  theologians  and  casuists  of  the  Society, 
and,  after  mutilating  their  sense,  distorting  their  meaning, 
and  wrenching  them  from  their  context,  held  them  up  to  the 

1  Nicole  translated  these  letters  into  Latin.  They  were  soon  translated  into 
every  living  language.  10th  ed.,  Cologne,  1684.  A  public  commission,  com- 
posed of  thirteen  French  bishops  and  doctors,  pronounced  them  libelous,  wheio- 
upon  they  were  prohibited.  Cf.  de  Maistre,  Ue  I'Eglise  Gallicanc,  ch.  9.  Nay, 
even  Voltaire,  Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  T.  III.,  ct.  37,  declared  "that  the  whole 
work  was  built  upon  such  a  foundation." 


666  Period  3.     Eiwch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

world  as  fair  specimens  of  tiie  moral  teaching  of  the  Jesuits  as 
a  body.  Thus,  ou  the  strength  of  only  a  few  untenable  and 
scandalous  propositions,  selected  from  the  writings  of  a  host 
of  authors,  and  placed  beside  the  maxim  cruelly  and  falsely 
imputed  to  the  Society,  that  the  end  justifies  the  means,  were  the 
Jesuits  held  up  to  the  world  as  teaching  a  code  of  morals 
which  they  detest ;  while  no  reference  was  made  to  their  nu- 
merous ascetical  works,  which  are  models  of  their  kind,  and 
would  have  supplied  the  very  best  means  of  forming  a  correct 
judgment  of  their  moral  teaching.  To  their  other  enemies 
were  soon  added  Madame  de  Pompadour,  the  mistress  of  Lotiis 
XV.,  to  whom  they  had  refused  to  furnish  a  confessor,  unless 
she  would  break  off  her  relations  with  the  king  and  her 
friend,  the  Duke  de  Choiseul,  the  patron  of  the  Encyclopaedists. 
These  latter,  led  by  Voltaire  and  d'Alembert,  were  specially 
interested  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits,  who,  on  account 
of  the  ardent  zeal  they  displayed  in  the  cause  of  religion,  the 
influence  which  in  virtue  of  their  otfice  as  teachers  they  exer- 
cised over  the  minds  of  youth,  the  consideration  in  which 
they  were  held  by  princes  and  sovereigns,  and  the  loyal  at- 
tachment they  had  always  shown  to  the  Holy  See,  were  very 
naturally  regarded  as  the  most  formidable  and  dangerous  en- 
emies to  the  revolutionary  designs  of  this  sect  of  philosophers. 
Hence  Voltaire  flung  himself  into  the  struggle  against  them 
with  terrific  earnestness,  gathering  up  for  this  supreme  eftbrt 
all  the  energies  of  his  soul,  all  the  faculties  of  his  mind,  and 
all  his  power  of  derisive  ridicule  and  scathing  sarcasm. 
"  Once  we  have  destroyed  the  Jesuits,"  said  he,  writing  to 
Helvetius  in  1761,  in  a  tone  of  exultant  anticipation,  ''and 
that  infamous  thing  (the  Christian  religion)  will  be  only 
child's  play  for  us."  By  his  advice,  and  with  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  Marquis  de  Pombal,  Madame  de  Pompadour,  and 
the  Duke  de  Choiseul,  d'Alembert  published  his  notorious 
work.  On  the  Destruction  of  the  Jesuits,  the  appearance  of 
which  was  a  sort  of  signal  for  a  general  attack.  To  accom- 
plish his  purposes  against  the  Jesuits,  Pombal  had  for  a  long 
time  been  making  a  liberal  use  of  money,  and  had  even  ap- 
proached the  Court  of  Rome  with  a  venal  proposition  for  the 
same  object.     Choiseul  had  followed   his   example,  and   an 


§  373.    The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.       567 

association  of  Janseiiists  collected  a  very  considerable  sum, 
called  the  fund  of  safety,  which  they  used  to  hire  unprincipled 
pamphleteers  to  calumniate  the  Society.  When  preparations 
so  extensive  and  thorough  had  been  made,  only  a  pretext,  no 
matter  how  trivial,  was  wanted  to  begin  the  work  of  destroy- 
ing the  Jesuits.  This  was  soon  furnished.  Father  La  Valette, 
the  Procurator  General  of  the  Society  in  the  island  of  Mar- 
tinique, for  the  prosperity  of  which  his  commercial  ability  had 
done  so  much,  had  consigned  to  a  house  in  Marseilles  two 
valuable  cargoes,  worth  several  millions  of  francs,  which  were 
seized  by  English  cruisers,  and  he  was  in  consequence  unable 
to  meet  his  bills.  An  attempt  was  made  to  hold  the  Society 
responsible  for  the  loss,  but  it  was  answered  that  not  only  had 
La  Yalette  engaged  in  commercial  enterprises  without  the 
authorization,  but  against  the  positive  prohibition  of  his  su- 
periors, who  had  on  a  previous  occasion  made  good  a  loss  of 
the  same  kind.  A  universal  cry  was  at  once  raised  against 
them.  The  printing-presses  were  kept  busy  in  running  off 
pamphlets,  in  which  the  faults  and  the  mistakes  of  individual 
members  were  colored  to  suit  the  popular  taste  and  published 
to  the  world.  The  subject  was  brought  before  the  Parliament 
of  Paris,  where  were  many  of  the  ancient  and  vigilant  ene- 
mies of  the  Jesuits,  who,  at  iirst  feeling  their  way,  cautiously 
abolished  the  privileges  of  the  Society,  and  ordered  certain 
works  by  its  members,  which  had  been  long  forgotten,  to  be 
burnt.  But  sadder  still  was  the  part  taken  by  some  of  the 
members  of  the  learned  and  respectable  Benedictine  Order  of 
St.  Maur,  who  seemed  to  have  inherited  a  Jansenistic  hatred 
of  the  Jesuits,  in  this  memorable  affair.  They  came  to  the 
aid  of  the  parliament  by  publishing  what  they  called  An  Ab- 
stract of  the  Pernicious  Assertions  of  the  Jesuits,'^  whilst  the  works 
written  in  defense  of  the  Society  were  consigned  to  the  flames. 


1  Extraits  dos  assertions  dangereuses  et  pernicieuses,  que  les  J^suites  ont  en- 
seignees  avec  rapprobation  des  Sup6rieurs,  verifies  par  les  commissaircs  du  Par- 
lement,  Par.  17G2;  compiled  by  Ptoussel  de  la  Tour,  Member  of  Parliament, 
Abbe  Gouzet,  Minard,  and  other  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur,  especially  Clemcncei. 
Even  Grimm,  though  a  Protestant,  and  or.e  of  the  suffragators  of  the  Encyclopae- 
dists, refused  to  take  upon  him  the  responsibility  of  approving  the  work  of  the 
compilers  against  the  Jesuits.    Reponse  an  livre  intitule  "  Extraits  des  assertir)ns 


568  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

A  strong  effort  was  made  by  nearly  all  the  bishops  to  save- 
the  Jesuits.  They  came  together,  and  by  an  almost  uuani 
mous  vote  declared  in  favor  of  the  Society,  and  bore  honora- 
ble witness  to  the  character  and  conduct  of  its  individual 
members,  but  all  to  no  purpose.  By  a  decree  of  parliament, 
dated  August  16, 1762,  the  Society  was  suppressed  in  France, 
because,  as  was  alleged,  it  was  dangerous  to  the  State.^  A 
pension  or  some  honorable  employment  was  offered  to  such 
of  the  members  as  would  consent  to  affirm  under  oatli  that 
the  spirit  of  the  Institute  was  impious;  but  as  very  few  were 
base  enough  to  make  so  false  a  statement,  nearly  all  were 
banished  the  country. 

Two  years  later,  Louis  XV.  confirmed  by  royal  edict  the 
decree  of  parliament,  permitting,  however,  the  members  of 
the  Society  to  live  in  the  country  as  private  individuals,  sub- 
ject to  the  authority  of  the  bishops.  The  bull  Apostolicum  of 
Clement  XIII.  (1765),  confirming  anew  the  Societ}-,  had  no 
effect  other  than  to  intensify  the  hatred  against  it. 

In  Spain  a.  still  more  cruel  fate  awaited  them.  On  the 
night  of  the  2d  and  3d  of  April,  1767,  all  the  Jesuits  in  the 
kingdom  were  placed  under  arrest,  and  conducted  under  guard 
to  the  sea-shore,  where  they  were  embarked  on  board  of  ves- 
sels bound  for  the  Papal  States.  The  edict  of  suppression  of 
Cfiarles  III.  was  not  made  public  until  after  this  act  of  vio- 
lence had  taken  place,  and  when  at  last  it  did  appear  it  did 
not  state  that  any  preliminary  investigation  had  been  made, 
but  simply  said  that  the   Society  had  been   suppressed  for 


dangereuses,  etc.;"  the  place  where  the  book  was  printed  not  given,  ] 763-1765, 
3  T.,  4to.  Cf.  Riffel,  L  c,  p.  155  sq.  Patiss,  Complaints  against  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  Vienna,  1866.  Dr.  Henn,  The  Black  Book,  Paderborn,  1865  (against  the 
frivolous  accusations  of  TItoluck!).  Roh,  S.  .J.,  The  Old  Cry:  "The  End  Jus- 
tifies the  Means,"  Freiburg,  1869.  Jockam,  Jesuit  Morals,  and  the  Moral  In- 
fection of  the  People,  Mcntz,  1869. 

1  Henry  Heine,  the  determined  enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  had  the  manliness  to 
brand  such  excuses  with  the  severity  they  deserve.  "  Poor  Jesuits,"  said  he, 
"  you  are  the  bugbear  and  the  scapegoats  of  the  liberal  party.  For  myself,  I 
could  never  consent  to  join  the  outcry  of  my  associates,  who,  at  the  mere  men- 
tion of  the  name  of  Loyola,  become  as  furious  as  bulls  before  whose  eyes  a  red 
rag  is  held."  Goethe's  saying  is  also  apropos  :  "  One  who  is  universally  hatec^ 
must  have  something  good  in  him." 


§  373.    The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.       569 


grave  causes.  In  the  kingdom  of  Naples  the  Society  was  also 
suppressed  November  20, 1767,  by  royal  edict  of  Ferdinand  F., 
the  son  of  Charles  III.,  who,  however,  was  completely  under 
the  influence  of  his  minister,  Tanned.  The  Society  expe- 
rienced the  same  cruel  ti'eatment  from  the  brother  of  Charles 
III.,  Ferdinand,  Duke  of  Parma  and  Piaccnza. 

Finally,  the  Court  of  Lisbon,  together  with  all  the  Courts 
of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  sup- 
press tlie  Society  of  Jesus.  Clement  XIV.,  when  making 
unusually  large  concessions  to  these  Courts  {vide  p.  493),  had 
requested  time  to  examine  into  the  charges  against  the  Jesuits, 
but  there  was  too  much  justice  in  such  a  request  to  be  heard 
with  favor  by  the  princes  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  who  made 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  a  condition  to  the  re-establish- 
ment by  them'  of  friendly  relations  with  the  Holy  See. 
Yielding  to  their  pressing  demands,  Clement  XI Y.,  by  the 
brief  Dominus  ac  Eedempior  Nosier,  dated  July  21,  1773,^  in 
virtue  of  the  fullness  of  his  apostolic  authority,  suppressed 
the  Society,  because,  as  he  said,  in  spite  of  many  warnings, 
its  members  no  longer  kept  in  view  the  end,  rendered  the 
services,  or  procured  the  advantages  which  its  founders  con- 
templated in  establishing  it.  The  Society,  he  went  on  to  say, 
has,  from  tlie  verj-  date  of  its  foundation,  given  occasion  of 
serious  complaint  by  interference  in  matters  that  did  not  con- 
cern it,  by  exciting  jealousy  and  promoting  discord,  and  by 
teaching  novel  and  dangerous  doctrines.  He  closed  by  saying 
that  the  measure  was  necessary  as  a  means  of  restoring  ami- 
cable relations  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Courts  of  the 
Bourbon  princes,  who  had  ah-eady  suj^pressed  the  Society  and 
banished  its  members  from  their  dominions,  that  Christians 
living  in  the  bosom  of  the  Church  might  be  kept  from  flying 
at  each  other's  throats  (nros.  22,  25).  On  a  former  occasion, 
this  Pope  had  said  :  "  If  you  do  not  wish  to  see  the  Court  of 
Home  fall  from  its  present  high  estate,  we  must  become  re- 
conciled with  princes  ;  for  their  arms  reach  beyond  the  bound- 
aries of  their  own  States,  and  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  are 


'  Reiimont,  Ganganelli,  etc.,  p.  63-74;  Germ,  transl.  of  the  Brief,  p.  380-403; 
and  in  Theiner,  Hist,  of  the  Pontificate  of  Clement  XIV.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  356-376, 
It  ahould  be  borne  in  mind  that  Theiner  is  a  bitter  enemy  of  the  Jesuits.  (Tr.) 


570  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

no  barriers  to  their  power."  Clement  XI Y.  would  have 
shown  himself  at  once  more  prudent  and  more  just  had  he 
said  to  the  Jesuits  what  Pius  IX.  did  on  a  similar  occasion  in 
1848.  "  In  many  countries,"  said  he,  "  they  are  not  willing 
to  tolerate  you  or  have  you  remain.  Very  good,  then  ;  with- 
draw from  persecution  for  the  present,  and  wait  the  return 
of  better  days."  Had  he  done  this,  he  would  not  have  given 
a  quasi-indorsement  to  charges  that  were  never  proved. 

Thus  was  the  Society  of  Jesus  sacriliced  to  the  intrigues  of 
its  enemies.  No  attempt  was  made  to  establish  the  charges 
brought  against  it ;  no  defense  of  it  by  its  friends  was  listened 
to  !  And,  stranger  still !  no  one  thought  of  im[»eaching  before 
a  regularly  constituted  tribunal  a  Society  whose  members 
were  accused  of  crimes  the  most  odious,  and  such  as  had 
never  before  been  laid  to  the  charge  of  civilized  men.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  force,  and  not  justice,  accomplished 
the  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  And,  notwithstand- 
ing the  wild  outcry  against  the  moral  teaching  of  the  Society 
as  a  bod}',  the  individual  members  convicted  of  personal  im- 
morality were  so  extremely /^'w;  as  to  prove  that  in  practice  at 
least  their  morals  were  very  nearly  perfect.  Even  Voltaire, 
their  inveterate  enemy,  bore  this  testimony  to  them  in  a  letter 
to  d'Alembert.  "While  doing  my  very  best,"  said  he,  "to 
realize  the  motto  j^crasez  Vinfame,  I  will  not  stoop  to  the 
meanness  of  defaming  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  best  years 
of  my  life  have  been  spent  in  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
while  there  I  have  never  listened  to  any  teaching  but  what 
was  good,  or  seen  any  conduct  but  what  was  exemplary." 

It  is  possible  this  great  Society  might  never  have  been  ille- 
gally and  violently  suppressed,  if  its  superiors  had  consented 
at  the  right  moment  to  make  certain  modifications  in  its  or- 
ganization ;  but  Ricci,  the  aged  General,  believing  in  the  in- 
destructibility of  the  Society,  replied,  so  it  is  said,  when  ap- 
proached upon  the  subject  by  his  patron,  Clement  XIIL. 
'■'■Let  them  be  as  they  are,  or  let  them  cease  to  be  "  (Jesuitae  out 
sint  ut  svnt  aut  plane  non  sint)} 

'  The  Founder  of  the  Society,  St.  Ignatius,  on  the  contrary,  said :  "  The  So- 
ciety shall  adapt  itself  to  the  times,  and  not  the  times  to  the  Society."  See 
Genelli,  1.  c,  p.  328. 


§  373.    The  Suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.       571 

As  soon  as  the  bull  of  suppression  hud  been  promulgated, 
a  sufficient  military  force  to  insure  its  execution  was  stationed 
in  Rome,  and  Lorenzo  Rieci,  with  some  of  his  assistants,  was 
kept  in  confinement  in  the  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  (1775).  But 
to  the  last  hour  of  his  life,  the  old  man,  knowing  well  whereof 
he  spoke,  continued  to  bear  witness  to  the  injustice  done  the 
Society,  declaring  that  there  was  no  adequate  motive  either 
for  its  suppression  or  for  his  own  confinement.  jSTearly  all  the 
members  of  the  Society  bore  up  under  their  hard  lot  with  noble 
and  dignified  resignation.^ 

In  those  countries  in  which  the  Jesuits  still  lived  ui  peace 
and  wielded  a  powerful  influence,  which  had  been  hitely  in- 
creased by  the  words  of  Clement  XIII.  in  commendation  of 
the  Society,  the  bull  of  suppression  produced  a  profound  sen- 
sation. 

Frederic  II.,  King  of  Prussia,  believing  with  Lord  Bacon  ^ 
and  Leibnitz  that  "  if  he  would  have  really  good  schools, 
he  must  have  those  of  the  Jesuits,"  said  he  would  not  permit 
the  good  Fathers  of  the  Society  to  close  their  schools  in  Si- 
lesia; for,  since  they  came  into  that  province,  he  had  heard 
only  words  of  unqualitied  praise  of  both  their  services  and 
their  conduct.^  Out  of  regard,  however,  to  the  wishes  of  the 
Catholic  authorities  at  Breslau,  and  of  the  Jesuits  themselves, 
who  were  unwilling  to  hold  out  a<jainst  (he  papal  bull,  Frederic 
graciously  consented  that  their  existence  as  a  corporate  body 
should  cease,  and  that  they  should  lay  aside  whatever  w^as 
specifically  characteristic  of   the   Society,  but  insisted   that 


1  Cf.  Rifel,  1.  c,  pp.  193  sq.  Theiner  mentions  a  few  wliose  patience  was 
pot  proof  against  what  they  regarded  as  an  injustice.  Clement  XIV.,  Vol. 
II.,  p.  491. 

2  Ad  paedagogiam  quod  attinet,  brevissimum  foret  dictu ;  consule  scholas 
Jesuitarum!  nihil  eniin,  quod  in  usum  venit,  his  melius.  Quae  nobilissima 
pars  pristinae  disciplinae  revocata  est  aliquatenus  quasi  postliminio  in  Jesuita- 
rum collegiis,  quorum  quum  intueor  industriam  sollertiamque  tan\  in  doctrina 
■ex';olenda,  quara  in  moribus  informandis,  illud  occurrit  Agesilai  de  Pharna- 
bazo:  talis  quum  sis,  uUnam.  nosier  esses.  (De  augment,  scientiar.)  Hugo  Gro- 
tins  thinks  the  same  :  Magna  est  Jesuitarum  in  vulgus  auctoritas  propter  vitaa 
sanctimoniam  ct  quia  non  sumpta  mercede  juvontus  litteris  scientiaeque  prae- 
ceptis  imbuitur.  (Ann.  de  reb.  Belg.)     Cf.,  above,  p.  304,  note  1. 

»  A.  Menzrl,  New  History  of  the  Germans,  Vol.  XII..  p.  5S  sq.,  2d  ed.,  Vol.  VI. 


572  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

they  should  coutiuiie  to  direct  the  schools  as  secular  priests. 
Catharine  II.  of  Russia,  who  in  the  partition  of  Poland  had 
obtained  the  northern  portion  of  Lithuania,  or  White  Russiay 
ill  which  there  were  two  colleges  conducted  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  S  "ciety,  the  one  at  3Iohilev,  and  the  other  at  Poloftk,  pos- 
itively refused,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Papal 
Legates,  to  allow  the  brief  Dominus  ac  Pedempior  to  be  pub- 
lished in  lier  dominions.^  The  Jesuits,  after  having  obtained 
the  permission  of  Pius  VI.,  in  1778,  were  allowed  by  Catha- 
rine to  establish  a  novitiate  for  the  Society.  She  also  gave 
them  the  direction  of  the  schools  in  the  cities  named,  and  or- 
dered them  to  convoke  a  General  Congregation  at  Polotzk  for 
the  purpose  of  electing  a  Vicar  General  for  the  Russian  Em- 
pire (1782).  Accordingly,  Stanislaus  Czernievicz,  then  acting 
vice-provincial,  was  chosen  the  head  of  the  Society,  and  ample 
powers  were  granted  him  to  conduct  its  government,  but  on 
condition  that  a  General  should  not  be  chosen  in  Rome.  He 
was  succeeded  September  27,  1785,  by  Father  Lenldecicz^ 
whose  powers  were  similarly  restricted.  The  Emperoi*  Paul 
having  also  manifested  friendly  feelings  toward  them,  permit- 
ting them  to  open  a  church,  which  he  gave  them,  in  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, Pius  VIL  so  far  modified  the  bull  of  Clement  XIV, 
as  to  permit  them  to  establish  themselves  in  Russia  as  a  con- 
gregation, over  which  he  appointed  Francis  Kareu  superior. 
It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  a  Society  thus  protected 
should  have  been  expelled  the  Empire  shortly  after  its  re-es- 
tablishment in  other  countries  by  the  bull  Sollicitudo  omnium, 
ecclesiarum  of  Pius  VIL,  dated  August  7,  1814. 

§  3736.    Worship  and  Discipline  from  the  ^Sixteenth  Century. 

Sacror.  rituum  congregatioiiis  decreta  authentica,  quae  ab  an.  1558-1848  pro- 
dierunt,  alphabetico  ordine  collecta.  Leod.,  Brux.  1850.  Manuale  decretorum 
authenticorum  sacrae  congregat.  rit.,  etc.,  ed.  Eberle,  Eatisb.  1851.  The  best 
edition  of  the  Decreta  Authentica  Congregationis  sacrorum  rituum  is  the  third. 
Roman  edition  of  1856-1858,  in  4  vols.,  4to,  by  Aloysius  Gardellini.  (Tr.) 

The  Council  of  Trent  published  many  decrees  on  worshif. 


'  The  documents  on  the  subject  may  be  had  in  the  Wurzburg  Friend  of  Re 
ligion,  April,  1847,  and  in  Buss,  The  Society  of  Jesus,  pp.  1321  sq. 


§  373.    Worship,  etc.,  from  the  Sixteenth  Century.        573 

calling  the  serious  attention  of  bishops  and  parish-priests  to. 
whatever  was  in  any  way  connected  with  the  divine  offices. 
The  Roman  Catechism,  published  by  the  same  authority, 
drew  attention  to  the  same  subject,  adding  some  instructive 
remarks  and  explanations.  The  Roman  Missal,  Breviary,  and 
Ritual  were  to  serve  as  a  rule  of  worship  in  the  various  dio- 
ceses. At  the  request  of  the  Emperor  Ferdivand  1.  and  Al- 
bert, Duke  of  Bavaria,  Pius  IV.  granted,  by  way  of  trial,  [)er- 
mission  to  some  bishops  to  distribute  Communion  under  both 
kinds  (see  p.  351),  but  the  practice,  though  favorably  received 
at  first,  proved  to  have  so  many  inconveniences  that  the  bish- 
ops relinquished  it  of  their  own  accord,  and  the  Pope  withdrew 
it.  Many  princes,  and  even  bishops,  unconsciousl}' influenced 
by  the  practices  of  Protestants,  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to 
simplif}'  divine  worship,  to  prohibit  the  too  frequent  exposi- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  to  restrict  processions  and  pil- 
grimages, and  to  forbid  blessings  to  be  given,  except  in  cases 
where  there  was  a  prescribed  form  either  in  the  Roman  Ritual 
or  other  approved  work,  representing  that  these  precautions 
would  remove  many  abuses.  Pope  Clemeid  VIII.  condemned 
the  use  of  unauthorized  litcudes  in  public  worship,  declaring  in 
his  constitution  Sanctissimus  of  the  year  1(301,  "that  as  many 
persons,  and  even  private  individuals,  under  pretext  of  devo- 
tion, publish  innumerable  litanies,  containing  expressions 
either  improper  or  scandalous,  the  Holy  See,  as  in  duty 
bound,  prescribes  that  no  forms  are  allowable  other  than 
those  contained  in  the  Roman  Missals,  Pontificals,  Rituals, 
and  Breviaries,  and  that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  chanted  in  the 
chapel  of  Our  Lady  of  Loreto;  and  that  any  one  wishing  to 
publish  or  use  any  others  in  the  public  offices  of  the  Church 
shall,  under  severe  penalties,  to  be  inflicted  by  their  respective 
bishops  and  ordinaries,  flrst  submit  them  to  the  Congregation 
of  Rites."  By  the  same  constitution,  the  following  litanies 
were  approved  :  1.  The  litany  of  All  Saints  :  2.  That  of 
Loreto.' 


1  As  to  the  litany  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  the  following  statement  is 
found  in  Oardellini's  collection,  n.  1553:  Principes  et  Episcopi  (Germaniae) 
supplicarunt  SS.,  ut  has  liianias  de  nomine  lesu  auctoritate  Apostolica  nor. 
solum  confirmare,  sed  per  publicum  cdictum  toti  Christianitati  hoc  calamito- 


574  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

Notwithstanding  the  regulations  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  clear, 
formal  and  explicit  instructions  contained  in  the  Constitution  of  Pius  V.,  dated 
July  7,  1568,  the  French  bishops,  during  the  eighteenth  century,  still  tainted 
with  the  poison  of  Jansenism,  took  upon  them  to  authorize  the  publication  of 
new  missals,  oflSces,  and  breviaries  for  the  use  of  the  clergy  of  their  dioceses, 
thus  contributing  to  destroy  in  the  country  of  the  ^lost  Christian  King  the 
eiraple  and  majestic  unity  of  Catholic  prayer  and  worship.  The  first  to  mar 
tiie  beauty  and  unity  of  Catholic  liturgy  in  France  were  Nicholas  Letourneavx 
and  the  Jansenist,  Claude  de  Vert,  a  Benedictine,  who  were  the  joint  authors 
of  the  Clugny  Breviary,  in  which  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  See  are  equally  depreciated.  The  next  to  make  innova- 
tions in  the  liturgy  was  Foinnrd,  a  Jansenist,  the  author  of  the  well-known 
wtrk,  "  A  Plan  for  a  JSew  Breviary,  in  which  the  Divine  OflBce  is  to  consist 
chiefly  of  Extracts  from  Holy  Writ."  His  idea  was  to  take  texts  from  their 
connection;  to  isolate  them  or  combine  them  with  others,  as  best  suited  his 
purpose,  in  such  way  as  to  destroy  their  true  meaning,  and  make  them  fit  in 
with  and  support  nis  own  erroneous  views.  This  idea  was  carried  out  in  the 
Paris  Breviary,  composed  by  Duguet,  a  Jansenist,  and  published  by  authority 
of  Cardinal  de  iN'oailles.  The  bishops  of  Orleans,  Severs,  Metz,  Auxerre, 
Troyes,  Montpellier,  Lyons,  and  Toulouse,  together  with  several  religious  Or- 
ders, also  published  breviaries  on  the  model  of  that  of  Paris,  tlie  city  they  now 
professed  to  regard  as  the  center  of  Gallican  unity,  hardly  ever  mentioning  the 
name  of  Rome,  which  was,  they  said,  only  the  center  of  Catholic  unity.  Thus 
were  the  foundations  of  the  Church  in  France  so  loosened,  and  the  whole  fabric 
so  unsteady,  that  it  barely  escaped  falling  from  the  center  of  Catholic  unity 
and  becoming  schismatical.i 

Many  wdw  feasts  were  introduced  from  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury onward,  some  in  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,^  one  of  the 
Rosary,  one  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  and  one  of  the  Five 
Wounds  of  Christ,  commemorative  of  the  love  and  sufferings 
of  Our  Dear  Lord.  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  Way  of  the  Cross,  that  admirable  invention  of  Chris- 


sissimo  tempore  singulariter  commendare  dignaretur.  Emi  PP.  S.  E.  Congr. 
praepositi,  re  mature  considerata,  censuerunt :  "  Litanias  praedictas  esse  appro- 
bandas,  si  SS.  placuerit."  Die  14.  Aprilis,  1646.  No  final  action  on  the  part 
of  His  Holiness  is  recorded.  Moreover,  as  often  as  the  statutes  of  newly- 
founded  religious  institutes  were  laid  before  the  various  S.  Congregations  of  the 
Holy  See,  they  uniformly  declared  that  none  other  than  the  litany  of  the 
Saints  and  that  of  Loreto  were  approved  for  the  whole  Church.  (Tr.) 

1  See  Darras,  Gen.  Hist,  of  the  Church,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  453-456.  (Tk.) 

2  Festum  nominis  B.  M.  V.;  festum  septem  dolorum  B.  M.  V.;  desponsatio 
B.  M.  v.;  festum  B.  M.  V.  de  monte  Carmelo;  festum  dedicationis  St.  Mar.  ad 
Nives ;  festum  nominis  Mariae  de  Victoria;  festum  B.  M.  V.  de  Mercede  (Our 
Lady  of  Mercy,  for  the  deliverance  of  captive  Christians);  festum  Patrocinii 
B.  M.  V. 


§  3736.    Worship,  etc.,  from  the  Sixteenth  Century.       575 

tian  love,  and  the  Devotion  of  the  Stations,  were  introduced  to 
take  the  place  of  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  and  were  intended 
to  bring  vividly  before  the  imaginati'on  the  places  consecrated 
by  the  sufferings  of  Christ. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  Benedict  XIV.,  Clement  XIV., 
and  Pius  VI.,  yielding  to  the  representations  of  several 
princes,  diminished  the  number  of  imhlic  holidays;  at  tirst 
enjoining  but  the  hearing  of  Holy  Mass,  whilst  allowing  ser- 
vile work ;  then  suppressing  some  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
those  of  the  apostles,  and  others,  and  transferring  their  cele- 
bration to  the  Sundays  following  the  days  originally  set  apart 
for  the  feasts.  The  new  feasts  already  mentioned  were  also 
either  celebrated  in  choir  or  similarly  transferred. 

With  a  view  to  revive  the  primitive  spirit,  and  in  some 
measure  to  restore  the  primitive  practices  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline, the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,,  De  Beformatione, 
c.  8),  had  enacted  that  public  penances  should  be  done  for 
'public  crimes;  but  so  violent  was  the  opposition  to  the  decree 
that,  in  spite  of  the  efibrts  of  Benedict  XIII.  to  have  it  en- 
forced, it  remained  a  dead  letter.  To  compensate  in  some 
sort  for  this  failnre,  the  Council  (Sess.  XXV".,  De  bididgentiis) 
enacted  that  indulgences  "  useful  and  very  salutary  for  Chris- 
tians "  should  be  sparingly  granted;  that  every  kind  of  traffic 
in  dispensing  them  must  be  utterly  abolished  ;  and  that  the 
very  name  and  office  of  alms-gatherers  be  done  away  with. 
(Sess.  XXI.,  De  Beform..,  c.  9.) 

From  this  time  forth  indulgences  were  principally  attached 
only  to  juhiltes,  which,  by  decree  of  Paul  II.  (1470),  were  to 
be  renewed  every  twenty-five  years;  then  to  certain  forms  of 
prayer;  to  particular  devotions;  and  to  other  extraordinary 
events  or  unusual  acts  of  worship.  Tlie  Inquisition,  consist- 
ing of  six  cardinals,  was  revived  by  Paul  III.  (15-19)  for  tne 
purpose  of  counteracting  the  influence  and  combating  the 
errors  of  Protestantism  at  Rome  and  elsewhere.  It  survived 
longest  in  the  smaller  States  of  Italy.  It  was  abolished  in 
Lomhardy  in  1775,  by  Maria  Teresa  ;  in  Sicily  in  1782,  by  King 
Ferdinand;  in  Tuscany  in  the  same  year,  l)y  Grand  Duke 
Leopold ;  and  finally  in  Venice  in  1797.  In  the  last  named 
place  it  was  wholly  a  political  institution.     It  was  likewise 


hie  Period  3.     Fjyoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

abolished  in  Spain  in  1820,  and  in  Portugal  in  1826,  under 
John  VI.  At  the  present  day  it  exists  only  in  Rome,  as  niodi- 
jied  by  Pius  V.  and  Sixtus  V.,  and  is  known  under  the  name 
of  the  Sacrum  Officium,  Conyregatio  inquisitionis  haereticae 
pravitatis,  and  consists  of  twelve  cardinals,  with  whom  are 
associated  as  assistants  a  number  of  consaltors  and  qualifiers. 
It  is  presided  over  by  the  Pope,  and  its  office  is  to  examine 
and  pass  judgment  upon  all  words,  writings,  and  deeds  con- 
trary to  religion.^ 

§  374.   Spread  of  Christianity.  (Cfr.  §  349.) 

See  general  sources  of  information  ;  Lettres  edifiantes,  and  t  Wittmann,  The 
Beauty  of  the  Church  Manifested  in  her  Missions,  p.  840.  Henrion,  General 
History  of  the  Missions,  Vol.  IV.  llaJm,  Hist,  of  the  Missions,  Vol.  IV. 
Marshall,  The  Christian  Missions,  their  Messengers,  etc.  Grundema7in,  Mis- 
sionary Atlas,  Gotha,  1867. 

The  Catholic  Church  in  China  was  mainly  sustained  and 
consolidated  by  the  exertions  of  the  Seminary  for  Foreign 
Missions,  founded  in  Paris  in  1663.  Unfortunately,  the 
heated  discussions  that  broke  out  among  the  missionaries  re- 
garding Chinese  customs^  did  much  to  retard  the  progress  of 
religion.  The  first  dispute  arose  concerning  an  ancient  cus- 
tom the  Chinese  have  of  paying  religious  honors  to  Confucius 
and  their  departed  ancestors,  which  those  newly  converted  to 
Ohristianity  obstinately  refused  to  give  up.  Not  wishing  to 
shock  their  sense  of  filial  piety,  the  Jesuits  permitted  them 
to  continue  the  custom,  while  the  Dominicans  peremptorily 
forbade  them  to  do  so.  Again,  for  want  of  a  sign  in  the 
Chinese  language  adequately  expressing  the  idea  of  Grod.,  the 
Jesuits  had  used  indifierentl}^  the  words  Tin-ishu  or  Lord 
of  Heaven,  and  Tten  and  Shangti  or  Supreme  Emperor,  and 
had  allowed  them  to  be  emplo^'^ed  by  others,  taking  care,  how- 
ever, to  prevent  any  false  or  idolatrous  ideas  or  associations 
being:  connected  with  them  in  their  Christian  sense.  leather 
Ricci,  the  founder  of  the  Chinese  missions,  using  the  same 


1  Banrjen,  The  Koman  Court  and  its  Actual  Organization,  Miinster,  1854,  pp, 
92-124. 

2  See  p.  407. 


§  374.    Spread  of  Christianity.  577 

precautions,  permitted  both  forms  of  expression.  In  the  pre- 
ceding epoch  both  orders  had  pleaded  their  cases  in  Rome, 
and  obtained  conflicting  decisions  from  Popes  Innocent  X.  and 
Alexander  VII. 

On  the  revival  of  the  controversy,  Clement  XL  sent  Tournon 
as  his  Legate  to  examine  the  questions  involved  on  the  spot 
amid  their  surroundings.  His  judgment  was  in  accord  with 
the  decisions  of  the  Covgregation  held  in  Rome  in  1704,  and 
he  moreover  forbade,  in  a  document  issued  at  Nanking  in 
1707,  the  further  use  of  the  words  Tien  and  Shangti,  hitherto 
used  to  designate  God.  He  was  in  consequence  arrested  by 
the  enraged  Emperor,  and  cast  into  prison  at  Macao,  where 
he  languished  until  1710,  when  he  died.  By  the  bull  Ex  ilia 
die  of  1715,  Clement  XI.  forbade,  in  still  more  precise  and 
emphatic  terms,  the  mingling  of  heathen  customs  with  Chris- 
tian rites,  and  the  prohibition  was  renewed  under  still  severer 
penalties  by  Benedict  XIV.  in  his  bull  Ex  quo  singulari  of 
1742.  The  result  of  these  measures  was  a  general  persecu- 
tion, from  which,  however,  a  large  number  of  Christians  man- 
aged to  escape. 

The  prosperity  of  the  Christian  communities  in  China  re- 
ceived a  severe  shock  in  the  suppression  of  the  Societ}'  of 
Jesus  and  tlie  destruction  of  the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions at  Paris  by  the  French  Revolutionists.^ 

It  was  apparently  impossible  for  Christianity  to  grow  either 
in  extent  or  influence  in  the  East  Indies,  except  by  conforming 
in  some  measure  at  least  to  the  national  customs  of  the  people. 
The  occasion  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  tirst  persecution 
against  the  Christians  at  Pondichery  was  the  production,  in 
1701,  of  one  of  those  sacred  dramas,  so  familiar  to  the  Jesuits, 
in  which  St.  George  was  represented  as  slaying  the  gods  of 
India.     Their    condition     became    still    more    critical    when 


Cfr.  Plaftl  (Norbert),  ^Jemoircs  sur  les  affaires  des  .lesuites,  etc.,  Lisb.  1700, 
2  T.,  4to.  Z/ei6«i73,  too,  defended  the  Jesuits  in  Novissima  Sinica,  1697.  For 
tho  controversial  literature,  see  Mnmnchi,  Orig.  et  antiq.  chr.,  T.  II.,  p.  407. 
P/Y/y,  Hist,  of  the  Disputes  on  the  Chinese  Customs,  Augsburg,  1791,  3  vols. 
Conf.,  likewise,  the  Periodical,  Voices  (Stimmen) /rom  Maria  Laac/,,  year  1872, 
p.  278-287. 

VOL.  ni — 37 


578  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

Tournon,  on  his  way  to  China,  landed  at  Pondichery,  and 
inhibited  to  the  new  converts  what  are  known  as  the  ancient 
3'lalabar  customs,  and  when  Benedict  XIV.  hxter  on  sustained 
his  action.  From  that  time  forth  it  seemed  that  all  hope  of 
spreading  the  Gospel  in  India  must  be  given  up.  To  add  to 
existing  difficulties  and  complete  the  threatened  disaster,  the 
English  and  Dutch,  whose  power  was  constantly  growing  in 
these  countries,  refused  to  tolerate  the  presence  of  even  Pro- 
testant missionaries. 

In  Farther  India,  comprising  the  former  kingdom  oi  Assam, 
the  empire  of  Burmah,  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  31alay  Penin- 
sula, and  the  empire  of  Anam,  the  last  of  which  includes 
the  provinces  of  Tonquin,  Cochin-China,  Tsiamfa,  Camboja, 
Laos,  and  Laitho,  the  Gospel  was  (after  St,  Xavier)  first 
preached  by  the  three  Jesuit  Fathers  Blandinotti,  Alex- 
ander de  Rhodez  (1627),  and  Anthony  Marquez.  They  w^ere 
fortunate  enough  to  convert  three  bonzes,  who  in  turn 
became  zealous  missionaries.  As  time  went  on,  a  degree  of 
ecclesiastical  organization  was  introduced,  and  in  1670  a 
synod  was  held  at  Diughieu.  But  here,  too,  the  Church  had 
to  pass  through  the  ordeal  of  persecution,  which,  breaking 
out  in  1694,  occasioned  the  demolition  of  Christian  temples^ 
and  the  exile  or  death  of  Christian  pastors.  In  the  years 
1721  and  1734  manj'  Jesuits  were  put  to  the  sword  for  refusing 
to  tramp  under  foot  the  Sign  of  man's  redemption.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  present  epoch  the  condition  of  the  Christiana 
was  somewhat  improved,  and  many  of  the  natives,  in  dedi- 
cating themselves  to  the  service  of  the  altar,  contributed  to 
pr(jmote  the  spread  of  the  Gospel. 

After  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  persecution  by  the  last 
Emperor,  Dsha-Loang,  the  Christians  again  enjo^-ed  freedom 
of  worship,  and  the  condition  of  the  Church  was  steadil}"  im- 
proved.    The  Jesuits  were  also  the  first  to  preach  the  Gospel 


1  Hist,  de  Tetablissement  du  Christianisme  dans  los  Indes  orientales,  Par, 
ISOo.  2  T.  Cf.  The  New  Messenger  of  the  World,  by  J.  StoeckLein,  Augsburg, 
172G,  Pt.  XIX.,  preface.  Urb.  Ccrri,  Etat  present  de  I'Eglise  romaine  dana 
toutes  les  parties  du  monde,  Amst.  1716.  Rhodez,  S.  J.,  Missionary  Travels  in 
China,  Tonquin,  and  Cochin-China,  Freiburg,  1858. 


§  374.    Sj'yread  of  Christianity.  579 


in  Cochin- China, ^  where  they  were  to  be  found  as  early  as  the 
year  1618,  Father  Borri  being  the  best  known  of  them.  The 
fortunes  of  the  Christians  of  Tonquin  have  been  very  varied, 
and  even  in  our  own  time  persecution  has  hardl}^  ceased  in 
(hat  country. 

The  first  efibrts  of  the  Jesuits  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
Tibet^  were  seemingly  unsuccessful.  The  Capuchins  (from 
1707),  under  their  superior,  Father  Horace  della  Penna,  were 
more  fortunate,  as  many  of  the  natives,  convinced  by  their 
|)reaching,  renounced  Buddhism  and  embraced  Christianitv. 
Their  success  was  somewhat  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the 
hierarchy  of  Tibet,  in  its  external  aspects,  presented  a  striking 
similarity  to  that  of  the  Catholic  Church.^  The  .Dalai  Lama 
(i.  e.  principal  or  ocean)  gave  them  leave  to  found  a  hospice 
at  Lassa.  The  persecutions  of  1737  and  1742,  while  they 
retarded  the  progress  of  the  mission,  did  not  cause  the  de- 
struction of  the  houses  of  the  missionaries. 

In  South  America  the  Gospel  was  preached  botii  by  Fran- 
ciscans and  Jesuits,  the  missions  of  that  country  being  among 
the  most  splendid  triumphs  of  the  latter.  The  Jesuits, 
Father  Sandoval  and  Blessed  Peter  Claver,  both  labored  zeal- 
ously and  successfully  in  this  mission.  The  latter,  a  native 
of  Catalonia,  from  the  moment  of  his  arrival  at  Cartagena, 
in  1615,  till  his  death,  in  1654,  performed  marvels  of  Chris- 
tian ch{jrit3',  converting  multitudes  of  negroes,  and  literally 
carrying  out  in  his  daily  life  the  promise  he  had  made  when 
taking  his  solemn  vows,  "  to  be  the  slave  of  the  negro  slaves."' 
The  labors  of  St.  Louis  Bertrand,  of  the  Order  of  Friars 
Preachers  in  New  Granada,  were  also  attended  with  a  large 
measure  of  success  (1562-1569).  On  the  western  coast  of  South 
America  the  Jesuits  established  the  Llanos  Missions,  chiefly 
under  the  direction  of  German  Fathers,  and  the  Maynas  Mis- 
fiioiis  along  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Amazon  (since  1640). 
Brazil  was  first  evangelized  by  Fathers  Anchieta  and  JSobreya, 


1  J.  Kqffler,  Historica  Cochinchinae  descriptio,  in  epitomen  redacta  ab  An- 
eelm.  Eckard,  ed.  Clir.  Murr,  Norimb.  1703. 

^Relaziotie  del  principio  e  stato  presente  della  missione  del  Tibet,  Eoma, 
1722.     P.  Oiorgi,  Alphabetum  Tibetan.,  Eomae,  1762. 

3  See  Vol.  I.,  pp.  78  et  sq. 


580  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

also  Jesuits,  who  were  succeeded  about  the  year  1655  by  the 
celebrated  preacher  Anthony  Vieira} 

This  distinguished  Jesuit,  who  was  styled  the  Cicero  of 
Portugal,  and  who  was  in  matter  of  fact  the  Las  Casas  of 
Brazil,  introduced  into  that  country,  together  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Gospel,  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  scier. ces,  jf 
iudnstry  and  commerce,  and  an  ardent  love  of  freedom.  Torn 
iVom  his  spiritual  children,  whom  he  so  dearly  loved,  by  the 
perfidy  of  his  countrymen,  and  carried  away  by  force  to  Lis- 
bon, he  again  obtained  leave  to  return  in  his  old  age,  and 
pass  the  declining  days  of  his  life  amid  the  scenes  of  the 
apostolic  labors  of  his  youth.  He  died  at  Bahia  in  1697, 
then  holding  the  office  of  Superior  General  of  the  Missions 
of  Maranham. 

There  is  probably  no  country  in  the  world  whose  missionary  history  is  more 
worthy  of  study  than  the  United  States,  and  certainly  none  where  the  mission- 
aries were  more  devoted  or  gave  their  lives  more  freely  for  the  spiritual  well- 
being  of  the  natives.  The  faith  came  to  the  Indian  simultaneously  with  the 
discovery  of  the  land  in  which  he  dwelt,  fur  in  those  days  priests  were  the  in- 
separable companions  of  every  voyage  of  discovery,  whether  from  the  ports 
of  the  Old  World  or  the  stations  established  in  the  New.  In  a  work  like  this, 
it  is  not  possible  to  do  more  than  give  the  names  of  the  heroes  whose  deeds  it 
would  be  a  pleasure  to  record,  and  the  dates  of  events  over  which  the  Catholic 
writer  loves  to  linger.  Thafii'st  missionaries  to  set  foot  on  the  territory  now 
included  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  were  the  Eight  Rev.  John 
Juarez,  Bishop  of  Florida,  and  his  companions.  They  touched  the  shores  of 
Florida  in  April,  1528.  It  is  supposed  the  bishop  and  a  companion  perished 
either  of  hunger  or  from  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  in  the  same  year.  Father 
Louis  Cancer,  the  heroic  leader  of  a  small  band  of  Dominicans,  who  came  to 
Florida  in  1549,  had  barely  touched  land  when  he  was  struck  dead  Avith  a  club 
in  the  hands  of  an  Indian.  The  Dominicans  renewed  their  efiForts  in  1553 
and  1559.  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  town,  and  containing  the  oldest  church  in 
the  United  States,  was  laid  out  by  Melandez,  a  Spanish  admiral,  in  15G5.  But 
the  missions  of  Florida  were  destroyed;  the  Indians  dispersed;  and  ihe  Fran 
ciscan  monastery  of  St.  Helena,  in  the  town  of  St.  Augustine,  converted  into  a 
barrack  after  the  cession  of  Florida  to  England  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  ITLi'O. 
So'  complete  was  the  subversion  of  Christianity  by  the  English  in  Florida  that. 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independence,  not  a  single  mission  was  to 
be  found  in  the  whole  extent  of  that  territory.  Mark  of  Nice,  a  Fraaci.':(;ar. 
missionary,  penetrated  to  New  Mexico  in  1540.  Father  Padilla  and  Brother 
John  of  the  Cross,  both  Franciscans,  who  first  attempted  ;o  preach  the  Gospel 
within  the  territory  of  the  present  diocese  of  Santa  Fe,  each  received  a  mar- 


Kruus,  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  509.  (Tb.) 


§  374.   Spread  of  Chnstianity.  58^ 

tyr's  crown.  Nearly  forty  years  went  by,  and  in  1581  three  more  heroes  of 
the  same  Order  met  a  like  fate,  and  in  the  following  year  Santa  Fe,  the  second 
oldest  city  in  the  United  States,  was  founded.  But  about  twenty  years  later 
the  missions  under  Father  Escobar  were  very  successful,  whole  tribes  coming 
into  the  Church  together,  and  Mr.  Shea  relates  that  "the  Indians  on  the  Eio 
Grande  could  read  and  write  before  the  Puritans  were  established  on  the 
shores  of  New  England."  • 

Texas  was  visited  in  1544  by  Father  Andrew  de  Olmos,  a  Spanish  Franciscan, 
but  no  permanent  mission  was  established  until  1688,  when  fourteen  priests  and 
seven  lay  brothers  of  the  same  Oi'der  began  their  labors,  and  continued  them 
with  profit  for  above  one  hundred  years. 

In  California  the  first  Mass  was  celebrated  by  a  Franciscan  in  1001,  but  the 
true  Apostle  of  the  State  was  the  Italian,  Father  Juniper  Serro,  also  a  Fran- 
ciscan, who,  with  three  other  priests  of  the  same  Order,  accompanied  the  expe- 
dition of  Oalvez  in  17G9.  Their  first  mission  was  established  at  San  Diego, 
whence  he  went  north,  founding,  June  27,  177G,  the  present  city  of  San  Fran- 
cisco (tl784).  The  seeds  of  Christianity  were  first  sown  in  Old  California  in 
1697  by  the  Jesuits,  Salvatierra  and  Francis  Kuekn,  the  latter  of  whom  had 
been  a  professor  of  mathematics  at  Ingolstadt.  It  required  all  their  firmness 
and  patient  perseverance  to  root  out  the  vice  of  polygamy,  and  here,  as  else- 
where, Christianity  was  the  forerunner  of  civilization,  the  gracious  influences 
of  which  followed  close  in  its  wake.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  took  up  and  carried  forward  the  work  they  had 
here  begun,  thus  permanently  securing  the  blessings  of  religion  to  these  be- 
nighted people. 

In  1570  Father  Segura  and  eight  Jesuits  perished  in  the  present  State  of  Ma- 
riiland  through  the  treachery  of  Don  Luis,  a  young  Indian,  who  had  been 
tai<en  to  Spain  by  some  of  the  early  Spanish  navigators,  where  he  received  a 
Christian  education,  but  retained  his  savage  and  perfidious  instincts.  The 
State  was  formally  occupied  by  the  Catholic  Pilgrim  Fathers  on  the  Feast  of 
the  Annunciation,  March  25,  1G34.  Accompanying  these  pioneers  of  religious 
freedom  in  the  United  States  were  Fathers  White  and  Altham,  both  Jesuits, 
and  the  first  English-speaking  priests  who  labored  for  the  salvation  of  the  In- 
dian on  this  Continent.  These  good  priests,  assisted  by  others,  who  arrived 
from  England  and  from  the  Seminary  of  Douai,  extended  the  field  of  their  la- 
bors, and  so  successful  were  they  that  within  five  years  after  the  first  settlement 
was  made  they  h'i&jive  permanent  stations,  and  five  years  later  had  converted 
the  tribe  of  Pascatoways,  with  the  Chief  Charles;  had  brought  whole  villages 
luuler  the  yoke  of  Christ;  and  induced  many  of  the  Protestant  colonists  to 
return  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  Such  was  the  flourishing  mission  destroyed 
by  Clayborne  and  his  band  of  Puritan  fanatics,  who  expelled  the  Catholic  gov. 
crnor  and  carried  ofl"  or  sold  the  priests  into  slavery. 

In  the  year  1609,  eleven  years  before  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  landed  on  Ply- 
mouth Eock,  a  mission  had  been  established  in  Maine,  on  Neutral  Island,  in 
Scoodic  river,  by  the  Jesuits,  Fathers  Biard  and  Masse,  whence  it  was  removed 
in  1612  to  Mount  Desert  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot,  in  the  present 


*  History  of  the  Catholic  Missions. 


582  Period  3.     Ex>och  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

diocese  of  Portland.  "While  the  buildings  were  still  in  course  of  erection,  the 
English,  under  the  command  of  Argall,  a  furious  bigot,  attacked  the  placer 
killed  Brother  du  Thct,  carried  off  priests  and  colonists,  and  left  the  mission  « 
heap  of  ruins. 

About  1611  the  French  .Jesuits  had  established  a  mission  in  Canada,  Mhich 
was  soon  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and,  with  the  co-operation  of  missionaries 
from  other  Keligious  Orders,  shortly  placed  upon  a  permanent  footing,  not- 
withstanding the  inconveniences  of  a  rigorous  climate  and  the  hostility  of  some 
of  the  natives.  From  this  place  Father  Druillcttes,  a  Jesuit,  went  to  convert 
the  Abnaki  of  Maine,  and  established  the  second  mission  in  that  territory  on 
the  upper  Kennebec  in  1646.  With  the  aid  of  the  Franciscans  and  some  sec- 
ular priests,  the  Jesuits  succeeded  in  converting  the  whole  Abnaki  tribe  to 
Christianity.  Again,  the  English  from  Massachusetts  invaded  these  missions, 
dispersed  the  Indians,  drove  away  or  slew  the  priests,  and  destroyed  the  chap- 
els. The  noble  Indians  clung  to  their  faith  amid  every  sort  of  temptation  and 
trial,  and  again  rallied  round  the  saintly  S(.hatstia7i  Rale,  a  Jesuit,  when  he  came 
among  them  in  1695.  This  venerable  priest  and  splendid  Indian  scholar,  the 
greatest  of  the  Abnaki  missionaries,  and  one  of  the  most  illustrious  Jesuits  of 
North  America,  was  most  barbarously  murdered  by  the  English  and  Mohawks 
in  1724,  who,  having  outraged  and  mangled  his  body  in  a  manner  that  would 
disgrace  a  savage,  proceeded  to  rifle  the  chapel  and  profane  the  Sacred  Host. 
The  English  did  fully  as  much  as  the  Indian  to  prevent  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity through  the  territory  of  North  America. 

Lc  Caron,  a  Franciscan  missionary,  had,  in  the  words  of  Bancroft,  "years  be- 
fore the  Pilgrims  anchored  within  Cape  Cod,  penetrated  the  lands  of  the  Mo- 
hawk, had  passed  to  the  north  into  the  hunting-grounds  of  the  Wyandots,  and 
on  foot,  or  paddling  his  canoe,  gone  onward  till  he  reached  the  shores  of  Lake 
Huron." 

The  first  missionaries,  however,  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  New  York  were 
Fathers  Jogue.s'-  and  Lolande,  who  were  sent  from  Quebec  in  1646  to  found 
a  mission  among  the  Mohawks,  by  whom  they  were  both  murdered  October  18th 
of  the  same  year,  at  the  village  of  Caughnawaga,  near  the  site  of  which  stands 
the  present  city  of  Schenectady.  Father  Jogues  had  been  taken  prisoner  and 
cruelly  tortured  by  the  same  tribe  in  1642,  but,  by  the  aid  of  the  Dutch,  made 
good  his  escape,  only  finally,  like  the  Jesuit,  Bene  Goupil,  who  was  tomahawked 
by  them  in  the  same  year  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Champlain,  to  meet  his  death 
among  them.  The  heroic  and  indefatigable  Brebeuf,  who  so  well  appreciated 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  Indian  [Huron)  mind,  and  had  thoroughly  mastered 
their  language,  was,  together  with  his  associate,  Lalemant,  captured  by  the 
Iroquois,  and  put  to  death  with  the  most  cruel  torments  (March  16,  1649).* 
Father  Jogues  was  succeeded  by  Father  Le  Moyne  in  1654,  who,  with  Fathera 
Chawnoiwt,  Dahlon,  and  Bressatii,  all  .Jesuits,  went  among  the  Ocondagas  and 
Mohawks,  and  built  St.  Mary's  Chapel  on  the  site  where  now  stands  the  city 
of  Syracuse;  and  in  this  humble  chapel  was  the  Holy  Mass  offered  up,  Novem- 
ber  14,  1655,  for  the  first  time  in  the  State  of  New  York.     Their  success  ex- 


1  Felix  Martin,  Life  of  .Jogues,  S.  .1.,  Paris,  1873. 
^  Amer.  Cyclopaed.,  art.  "  Brebeuf." 


§  374.  Spread  of  Christianity.  583 

cited  the  jealousy  of  the  medicine-men,  and  to  escape  being  massacred  were 
obliged  to  fly  to  Canada  not  quite  three  years  later,  March  20,  1G58.  Father 
Le  Moyne  again  visited  the  Five  Nations  of  the  Empire  State  in  1G61,  and  after 
baptizing  two  hundred  children,  returned  to  Canada,  where  he  died  in  166(3. 
By  the  year  1668  the  cross  rose  above  every  village  from  the  shores  of  the  Hud- 
eon  to  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie.  The  village  of  Caughnawaga,  on  the  Mo- 
hawk, where  the  first  martyrs  had  oflered  their  lives,  became  the  center  of  the 
missions  of  the  Five  Nations.  To  escape  the  evil  influence  and  the  persecution 
uf  their  countrymen,  the  Indians  of  Caughnawaga,  most  of  whom  were  Mo- 
hawks, removed  to  the  St.  Louis  rapids,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  some  miles  above 
Montreal,  where  they  founded  a  new  village  of  the  same  name  in  1676.  The 
other  missions  of  New  York  were,  as  usual,  broken  up  by  the  English,  after 
they  came  into  possession  of  the  territoi-y  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713. 

Jogues,  whose  name  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  Raymbault^  were  the  first 
to  preach  Christianity  in  the  Lake  country  in  1641.  They  did  not  remain,  but 
were  followed  in  1660  by  the  venerable  Father  Menard,  also  a  Jesuit,  who  at- 
tempted to  plant  a  mission  three  hundred  miles  west  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  His 
fate  is  not  known,  but  he  is  supposed  to  have  perished  either  of  hunger  or  by 
the  tomahawk,  and  years  after  his  cassock  and  breviary  were  found  preserved 
as  amulets  among  the  Sioux.  He  was  succeeded  by  Father  Allouez,  who  in  1665 
established  the  mission  of  Lapoinie,  on  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior. 
Many  other  missions  were  established,  one  of  the  most  important  being 
that  at  Green  Bay  by  Father  Andre,  all  of  which  were  closed  on  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Father  Potter,  the  last  who  labored  in  the  country 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  died  in  1781. 

In  the  year  1673  the  "Great  Iliver  "  was  discovered  by  the  celebrated  Jesuit, 
Father  Marquette,  whose  name  will  live  both  in  the  Lake  Country  and  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Mississippi  as  long  as  this  continent  lasts.  Starting  at  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony,  in  the  present  State  of  Minnesota,  he  and  other  Jesuits  ex- 
plored the  "  Father  of  Waters"  down  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas, 
everywhere  along  their  course  announcing  the  glad  tidings  of  the  Gospel  to 
the  inhabitants ;  but  to  the  humble  Franciscan,  Father  Hennepin,  is  reserved 
the  glory  of  having  been  the  first  person  who  explored  the  Mississippi  from 
near  its  source  to  its  mouth,  and  of  having  given  the  names  of  two  of  the  great, 
est  saints  of  his  Order  to  the  now  celebrated  Falls  of  St.  Aniko7iij,  and  to  Lake 
St.  Clair.  Both  Marquette  and  Allouez  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Illinois,  and 
Fathers  Polsson  and  Souel  suflered  martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Natchez,  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  splendid  triumphs  of  Catholic  missionaries  within  the 
country  now  known  as  the  United  States,  and  such  a  few  of  the  historical 
events  of  which  every  Catholic  should  be  proud. 

Ill  the  year  1675,  through  the  influence  of  Louis  XIV.,  a 
bishopric  was  established  at  Quebec,  the  most  important  place 
at  that  time  in  Canada,  which,  down  to  the  year  1763,  when 
tiie  colony  was  ceded  to  England,  continued  to  be  filled  by 
excellent  bishops.     This  cession,  however,  did  not  interfere 


584  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

with  the  labors  of  missionaries,  by  whom  many  converts  were 
made  among  the  tribes  of  the  Iroquois,  Hnrons,  and  Illinois. 
In  Africa  the  Capuchins,  though,  as  has  been  already  said,' 
working  in  the  face  of  the  most  formidable  difhcuhies,  did 
not  relax  their  noble  efforts  to  gain  souls  to  Christ.  One  of 
their  number,  ZucheUi  Congo,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  converted  the  King  of  Segno.  Missions 
were  established  at  Cacongo  and  Loango  in  1766  by  some 
French  priests,  which  they  were  forced  after  a  time  to  relin- 
quish, being  unable  to  bear  up  under  the  pestilential  heats  of 
the  climate. 

>  See  p.  411. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY    OF    PROTESTANTISM. 

Gieseler's  Church  History,  Vol.  IV.,  published  by  Redepcnning,  Bonn,  1857 
(from  1848-1814).  Hagenbach,  History  of  the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  and 
Nineteenth  Centuries,  2d  ed.,  Lps.  1848  sq.  (4th  revised  edit.,  Lps.  1871,  1872, 
or  Vols.  VI.  and  VII.;  Engl,  transl.,  by  Jno.  F.  Hurst,  D.D.,  New  York, 
1869. — Tr.)  Baur,  Ch.  H.  from  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Eighteenth  Century,  or 
Vol.  IV.,  p.  572-679.     Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  p.  519  sq. 

§  375.  On  the  Constitution  of  the  Protestant  Churches  and  their 
Relations  to  the  State. 

Bibliography  the  same  as  at  the  head  of  §  336. 

We  have  already  seen  (§§  329  and  330)  that  the  episcopal 
and  presbyterian  systems  were  alternately  predominant  in 
England  until  the  accession  of  William  III.  of  Orange,  when 
the  Episcopal  was  declared  the  Established  Church  for  both 
England  and  Ireland.  At  the  same  time,  freedom  of  wor- 
ship was  granted  to  all  Dissenters,  except  Soeinians  and  Cath- 
olics, who  were  not  granted  equal  rights  with  other  noncon- 
formists until  1779.  The  Scotch  expressed  their  determination 
to  have  the  presbyterian  form  of  church  government  in  terms 
so  decided  and  threatening  that  it  was  not  thought  safe  to 
refuse  it  to  them.  The  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority  was 
vested  in  a  General  Assembly,  which  convened  annually  at 
Edinburgh,  and  was  composed  of  representatives  from  the 
fifteen  Provincial  Synods. 

1  n  Germany,  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  the  efforts  of  the 
Protestants  were  directed  toward  securins:  the  ri£i:hts  guaran- 
teed  them  by  that  treaty.  The  duty  of  seeing  to  it  that  Pro- 
testants enjoyed  these  rights  was  vested  in  the  deputies  to  the 
Permanent  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (Corpus  JEvanr/elicorum),  (after 
1663),  which  was  a  political,  rather  than  a  religious  bond  of 
union.  As  was  quite  natural,  the  Protestant  Churches  were 
but  the  subservient  tools  of  the  civil  power,  for  in  every  State 

(585) 


586  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

in  which  the  Reformation  obtained  a  foothold  the  tiara  was 
added  to  the  crown  and  the  ring  and  crosier  to  the  scepter. 
In  the  national  churches  the  spiritual  was  only  a  branch  of 
the  civil  authority,  and  was  exercised  under  its  direction  by 
consistories  and  ministers  of  public  worship.  At  distant  in- 
tervals the  representatives  of  some  provincial  States  convened 
in  small  synods,  and  while  their  suggestions  might  be  conde- 
scendingly listened  to,  every  demand  in  favor  of  the  dignity 
;>r  the  freedom  of  the  Church  was  repelled  as  an  unwarrant- 
able assumption  of  clerical  arrogance.  In  the  eyes  of  princes 
the  Church  was  a  respectable  and,  on  the  whole,  not  an  inef- 
ficient police  organization  ;  and  its  estates  and  revenues  were 
applied  to  objects  wholly  foreign  to  religion. 

Should  any  one  be  bold  enough  to  advocate  religious  free- 
dom through  the  press,  the  representatives  of  that  palladium 
of  the  rights  of  the  people  were  at  once  given  to  understand 
that  they  must  not  invade  those  of  princes.  Even  science 
contributed  its  part  to  the  exaltation  of  the  civil  power  over 
the  Church.  The  theologians  of  ^aumburg  (see  §  340,  p.  376) 
declared  that  the  transference  of  the  spiritual  to  the  civil 
a.uthority  was  lawful,  and  sanctioned  by  Holy  Writ ;  although 
it  is  but  just  to  add  that  some  of  them  objected,  saying  that 
Christ  did  not  rescue  His  followers  from  the  bondage  of  the 
Pope  to  have  them  become  the  lackeys  of  politicians. 

In  the  earl  V  years  of  the  Reformation  the  episcopal  was  the 
prevailing  system  of  church  government,  but  it  gradually 
lost  favor  until  the  opening  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
the  territorial  system,  as  scientifically  set  forth  by  Puffendorf 
in  his  De  habitu  rdigionis  Christianae  ad  vitam.  civilem,  pub- 
lished in  1687,  and  still  further  developed  by  Thomasius  (fr. 
1692)  and  Bochmer  (fr.  1714),  was  substituted  in  its  room. 

Some  time  later  a  theological  party  sprung  up,  which,  put- 
ting aside  the  special  views  of  both  Catholics  and  Protestants 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  Church,  proved  from  the  witness  of 
monuments,  reaching  back  more  than  ten  centuries,  that  the 
Church  Lad  vested  rights  of  her  own.  Starting  with  this 
proposition,  Pfaff,  Chancellor  of  Tubingen,  drew  out  what  he 
called  the  Collegial  System  (1719),  according  to  which  the 
Chuich  is  a  corporate  and  independent  body,  possessing  the 


§  376,   Dogma  and  Theolorjians.  587 

inherent  right  of  self-government,  which  may  be  transferred 
to  the  civil  power  by  treaty,  but  which,  when  the  conditions 
are  changed  out  of  which  the  compact  grew,  again  lapses  to 
the  Church}  But  the  defect  of  this  theory  is  the  circumstance, 
overlooked  by  its  author,  that  the  transference  b\"  treaty  of 
the  rights  of  the  Church,  of  which  he  speaks,  in  matter  of 
fact  never  took  place,  this  link  in  the  argument  ])eing  assumed 
to  account  for  the  existing  condition  of  things.  However, 
the  theory  had  never  any  practical  consequences,  the  princes 
continuing  to  exercise  the  functions  of  bishops  over  the 
churches  in  their  several  States.  As  to  a  Head,  the  Lutheran 
Church  never  had  an}',  and  what  was  intended  to  serve  as 
such  was  never  recognized. 

§  376.  Dogma  and  Theologians. 

Planck,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Doctrine  since  the  Drawing  up  of  the  Formula 
of  Concord ;  Walch,  Eeligious  Disputes,  Vol.  I. ;  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant 
Theology :   '■'Rise  of  the  Opposition  to  Antique  Orthodoxy,^^  p.  595-669. 

After  the  death  of  Melanchthon,  the  two  parties  of  the 
Philippists  and  Lutherans,  into  which  the  Reformation  had 
split  during  the  lifetime  of  its  founders,  were  for  some  years 
alternately  victorious,  until,  finally,  through  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord, and  the  energy  of  its  framers  and  promoters,  orthodox 
Lutheranism  gained  a  complete  triumph  in  Germany.  The 
University  of  Helmstaedt,  however,  through  the  influence  of 
its  founder,  Julius,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  had  never  accepted 
the  conditions  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  and  was  therefore 
free  to  cultivate  and  encourage  more  liberal  tendencies.  But 
the  teaching  of  Daniel  Hoffmann,  one  of  its  menxbers,  who, 
toUowing  the  pattern  left  him  by  Luther,  traduced  philosophy 
as  at  once  immoral  and  atheistic,  was  regarded  as  so  abocking 
and  blasphemous  that  it  was  declared  an  outrage  on  ro-ason 


'  His  work,  Do  originib.  juris  ecclesiastici  vcraque  ejusdem  indole-  T'leb 
1719;  new  edit.,  1720,  with  a  treatise,  De  successione  Episcopali.  Cfr.  N'*(el- 
bladt,  De  trib.  systemat.  doctr.  de  jure  sacr.  dirigendor.  (Observatt.  jur.  e*^:!., 
Halae,  1783).  Stuhl,  Constitution  of  the  Church  according  to  the  Doctrine  and 
Law  of  the  Protestants,  Erlangen,  1840.  Pnchta,  Introduction  to  Canonic  oJ 
Law,  Lps.  1840.     Cfr.,  moreover.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  596  sq. 


588  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

and  au  iusiilt  to  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  he  was  in  con- 
sequence deprived  of  his  professorship  by  the  prince  in  1601. 

To  this  seat  of  learning  belonged  also  George  Calixfus 
(f  1656),  who,  by  adopting  the  historical  method,  sought  to 
give  to  theology  greater  breadth  and  freedom  of  treatment. 
But  his  views  on  grace  and  good  works,  his  method  of  disas- 
sociating ethics  from  dogmatic  teaching,  his  assertion  that  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity  was  not  plainly  revealed  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  csjiecially  his  attempts  to  explain  away  the 
subtleties  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  brought  him  under  the 
suspicion  of  his  co-religionists,  who  charged  him  with  wish- 
ing to  introduce  a  corrupt  syncretism  (see  p.  323).  They 
would  have  no  authority,  no  rule  of  Faith  but  the  Form  of 
Concord,  and  accordingly  the  ablest  of  their  theologians, 
among  whom  were  Calooius,  Quensteilt,  Koenig,  and  Baier,  set 
about  refurbishing  the  weapons  of  Scholasticism  to  defend  it. 
The  Aristotelian  philosophy  was  again  restored,  and  the  cat- 
egories of  being  and  modality  again  applied  to  the  treatment 
of  dogmatic  theology,  (considering  the  tenacity  with  which 
these  theologians  clung  to  what  they  supposed  to  be  orthodox 
Lutheranism,  it  need  not  surprise  us  to  find  them  given  over 
to  every  sort  of  superstition,  and,  like  Luther,  possessed  of  a 
firm  faith  in  witchcraft  and  sorcer}',  and  believing  with  re- 
freshing simplicity  in  the  truth  of  his  conflicts  with  the  devil. 

While  Frederic  Spec  and  other  priests  of  the  Catliolic 
Church  (see  §§  282,  353)  were  manfully  and  successfully  op- 
posing the  absurd  and  barbarous  practice  of  trying  people  for 
witchcraft,  Benedict  Carpzov,  of  Leipsig  (f  1666),  who  was 
styled  the  law-giver  of  Saxony,  and  whose  opinion  in  matters 
of  canon  and  criminal  law  was  of  great  weight,  maintained 
not  only  that  sorcery  itself  should  be  severely  punished,  but 
also  the  denial  of  the  reality  of  diabolical  pacts  ;  ^  and  on  this 
latter  subject  John  Henry  Pott,  a  celebrated  professor  at  the 
University  of  Jena,  published  in  1689  a  treatise  entitled  De 


'  On  the  Hist,  of  the  Superstitious  Practices  of  Scandinavia  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Cpntury  (Illpen's  Hist,  and  Theol.  Review,  1841,  p.  181);  Menzcl,  Mod« 
ern  Hist  of  Germany,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  59  sq.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol. 
v.,  p.  160;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  22   p.  801. 


§  376.   Dogma  and  Theologians.  589 

nefando  lamiarum  cum  diabolo  coitu.  Thomasias  ^  was  the 
first  to  turn  the  tide  of  public  opinion  against  these  cruel  and 
ridiculous  trials.  The  last  execution  of  witches  took  place 
in  the  Protestaut  cities  of  Quedlinburg  in  1750  and  Glarus  in 
1783. 

Many  orthodox  Lutherans,  adhering  servilely  to  the  letter 
of  the  law,  regarded  all  personal  effort  at  savctijication  as  use- 
less and  displeasing  to  God.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
men  of  this  epoch,  speaking  of  this  blind  and  unreasonable 
faith,  makes  the  following  complaint :  "In  these  latter  days," 
he  says,  "  there  are  four  dumb  idols  set  up  for  worship  in  the 
churches  of  the  Christian  world,  viz.,  the  baptister}-,  the  i»ul- 
pit,  the  confessional,  and  the  altar  ;  and  people,  conscious  that 
they  are  baptized,  that  they  hear  the  word  of  God,  and  go  to 
confession  and  communion,  content  themselves  with  the  ex- 
ternal forms  of  Christianity,  taking  no  thought  of  its  inward 
power  and  virtue  !" 

As  one  extreme  always  produces  its  opposite,  so  this  dreary 
and  formal  orthodoxy  was  opposed  by  the  warm  and  more 
attractive  Christianity  of  Philip  James  Spener}  Spener  was 
born  at  Rappoldsweiler,  in  Upper  Alsace,  in  the  year  1635  ; 
was  educated  at  Strasburg,  where  he  first  became  pastor; 
thence  he  went  to  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  the  clergy  (1666),  then  superior  preacher  to  the 
Court  of  Dresden  (1688);  and,  finally,  driven  thence  on  ac- 
count of  his  energetic  remonstrances  with  the  Elector  on  his 
personal  vices,  withdrew  to  Berlin,  where  he  received  the 
ofiice  of  Provost  of  the  Church  of  St.  Nicholas  (1691).  To 
a  highly  cultivated  intellect  he  united  a  sincere  love  of  truth, 
and  so  nice  an  appreciation  of  true  Christian  feeling,  that,  in 
spite  of  the  prejudices  of  youth  and  his  attachment  to  the 
teachings  and  worship  of  his  Church,  he  could  not  remain 
blind  to  the  dangers  that  threatened  the  repulsive  theological 
methods  of  the  orthodox  Lutherans,  and  their  barren  and 


'  Luden,  Thomasius,  His  Life  and  His  Writings,  Berlin,  1803. 

■''  Ilnssbnch,  Spener  and  His  Age,  Berlin,  1824  sq.,  2  vols.  Knapp,  The  Life 
and  Character  of  Some  Pious  and  Learned  3Ien  of  the  Last  Century,  Halle, 
1829.  Fra7ike,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  Vol.  II.,  p.  130-189,  and  213-240. 
For  further  statements  of  bibliography,  see  Dorner,  1.  c,  p.  624-648. 


590  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  1.     Chapter  2. 

dreary  style  of  preaching.  This  conviction  deepened  when  he 
began  to  study  as  his  models  the  writings  of  the  Dominican, 
Jo/in  Tauler,  whose  heart  was  as  warm  as  his  intellect  was 
brilliant,  and  to  whom  Spener  was  indebted  for  the  devotional 
feeling  and  nervous  energy  which,  in  spite  of  their  tedious  pro- 
lixity, his  sermons  really  possessed.  Having  in  view  a  thor- 
ough reform  of  the  existing  ecclesiastical  organization,  he  laid 
it  down  as  a  principle  in  nearly  all  his  sermons  that  religion  is 
whoUii  an  affair  of  the  heart,  and  that  a  preacher,  to  properly  ex- 
ercise his  ministry,  must  bring  home  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of 
his  hearers  the  convictions  and.  feelinr/s  with  which  he  himself  is 
carried  away.  Hence  he  held  that  no  one  can  be  a  Christian 
theologian,  in  the  true  sense,  who  has  not  had  personal  expe- 
rience of  the  influence  wrought  on  the  soul  by  the  saving 
truths  of  religion.  As  if  to  give  practical  expression  to  his 
idea  of  a  model  religious  comm.unity,  Spener  commenced,  in  the 
year  1670,  to  hold  little  reunions  {collegia  pielatis)  at  his  house, 
in  which  he  strengthened  the  faith  and  warmed  the  piety  of 
those  present  by  devotional  explanations  of  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture and  by  holy  converse. 

These  efforts,  which  were  at  first  an  expression  of  a  real 
want  of  the  age,  in  their  further  development  assumed  a  pe- 
culiar and  grotesque  form.  The  new  school  soon  began  to 
give  signs  of  the  presence  of  a  spirit  of  sectarian  pride,  and  to 
develop  habits  of  gloomy  melancholy,  so  antagonistic  to  the 
serious  yet  cheerful  serenity  that  always  accompanies  true 
piety.^  After  the  first  sympathetic  feelings,  inspired  by  the 
earnestness  of  the  Pietists,  as  they  were  now  called,  on  ac- 
count of  their  ostentatious  displays  of  piety,  had  passed  away, 
they  began  to  lose  favor,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  rigorous 
code  of  morals  advocated,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  enforced  by 
Spener.  Enemies  rose  up  against  him  on  all  sides.  The  hos- 
tility of  the  worldly  and  corrupt  was  to  be  expected;  but, 
l)esides  these,  he  counted  among  his  adversaries  many  theo- 
logians of  learning  and  ability,  who  reproached  him,  not  in- 


1  Pia  desideria  (Pious  Desires),  or  a  Heartfelt  desire  after  a  Godly  Improve- 
ment of  the  True  Evangelical  Church  (First  Preface  to  ^rnrfi's  Postilla  evang., 
1675),  Frkft.  1678  sq. 


§  376.   Dogma  and  Theologians.  591 

deed  with  denying  outright  the  Christian  dogmas,  but  with 
depreciating  their  importance  by  teaching  that  they  contrib- 
uted little  to  the  edification  of  souls. 

Faithful  to  their  traditions,  they  at  once  hastened  to  make 
civil  princes  the  arbiters  of  their  theological  quarrels.  The; 
greatest  excitement  prevailed  in  Leipsig,  where  three  profes- 
sors, disciples  of  Spener's,  one  of  Avhom  was  Augustus  Her- 
man Franke,  opened  in  1689  a  course  of  devotional  lectures 
on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  were  partially  scientific  in  char- 
acter, but  mainly  practical,  being  for  the  most  part  an  illus- 
tration  of  how  Scripture  lessons  should  be  applied  to  the 
duties  of  everyday  life.  They  were  largely  attended  by  stu- 
dents and  the  better  classes  of  citizens,  and  were  productive 
of  much  good.  Two  of  their  colleagues,  Cavpzov  and  Loescher, 
accused  the  lecturers  of  bringing  public  worship  into  contempt, 
of  degrading  science,  of  casting  souls  into  a  state  of  despond- 
ent melancholy,  and  of  fostering  spiritual  pride  and  exclu- 
siveness.  Forced  to 'leave  Leipsig  (1690),  the  three  professors, 
in  concert  with  Thomasius,  founded  the  Urnversity  of  Halle 
in  1694.  The  neighboring  University  of  Wittenberg,  taking 
alarm  at  this  step,  became  from  this  time  forth  more  intensely 
Lutheran  than  ever,  and  the  two  centers  of  learning  came  to 
be  regarded  as  the  representative  schools  of  Protestant  thought 
in  Germany.  Although  very  justly  charged  with  holding  ex- 
travagant theological  views,  and  of  having  a  haughty  disdain 
for  scientific  acquirements,  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  Pie- 
tists exercised  a  beneficial  influence  upon  public  morals  and 
U[)on  the  theological  tendeticies  of  the  age.  The  effects  of 
this  influence  were  especially  conspicuous  in  the  writings  of 
Buddeus  (t  1729),  whose  theological  works  are  more  simple, 
imd  withal  more  scientific  in  treatment,  than  are  those  of  any 
of  the  contemporaries  of  the  same  school.*  The  same  may 
])e  said  of  John  Albert  BengeP  (1752),  whose  explanations  of 


■  Buddeus,  Institutiones  tlieologiae  dogmaticae,  Jenae,  1723. 

^  Bene/ el,  Novum  'I'estamentum  graece,  in  quo  codd.,  verss.  et  editionn.  do. 
soribuntur,  Tueb.  1 734  ;  his  German  translation  of  the  N.  T.  claims  to  have  ren- 
dered the  original  with  the  utmost  fidelity  (1753).  Gnomon  N.  T.,  in  quo  ex 
nativa  verbor.  vi  simplicitas,  profunditas,  concinnitas,  salubritas  sensuura 
coelestium  indicatur,  Tueb.  1759,  4to,  ed.  IV.    Steudel,  Tueb.  (1835)  1852.     Cf. 


b9'2  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 


Holy  Scripture  {Gnomoii  Novi  Testamenti),  while  giviiig  evi- 
dence of  extensive  learning,  are  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  warm 
devotional  feeling.  He  was  a  hard  and  conscientious  student 
of  the  original  texts  of  Holy  Writ,  and  was  the  first  to  pave 
the  10  ay  for  the  classification  of  the  sacred  manuscripts  into  J  ami- 
lies  ;  but  the  one  aim  of  all  his  studies  seemed  to  be  to  ascer- 
tain "the  great  day  of  the  Lord,"  for,  said  he,  "  in  the  Scrip- 
tures the  fulfillment  of  all  time  is  the  coming  of  Christ  in 
glory"  and  "  the  breaking  loose  and  binding  of  Satan."  By 
calculations,  based  upon  the  Apocalj-pse,  he  computed  that 
the  world  would  endure  for  the  space  of  7777|-  years,  and  that 
"  the  breaking  loose  and  the  binding  of  Satan  "  would  take 
place  in  the  summer  of  1836.^  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that 
the  event  did  not  verify  the  prediction. 

The  speculative  school  of  Bengel,  represented  by  the  Suabian 
prelate,  Oetinger,  and  by  Fricker,  Philip  Matthew  Hahn,  and 
Michael  Hahn,  subsequently  coalesced  with  that  of  which  Ja- 
cob Boehm  was  the  recosrnized  leader. 


'&' 


§  377.  Abandonment  of  Symbols  as  Pules  of  Dogmatic  Belief — 
Pnfiuence  of  3Iodern  Philosophy,  and  its  Consequences. 

Dor7ie7',    Hist,  of   Protestant   Theology ;    Triumph  of  Subjectivism  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  pp.  673  et  sq. 

IN^ot  a  few  among  the  Protestants  began  to  entertain  serious 
doubts  daring  the  continuance  of  the  conflicts  just  recounted 
as  to  the  binding  force  on  the  faithful  of  the  dogmatic  teaching 
set  forth  in  the  various  books  of  symbols.  "  It  is  indeed  claimed," 
said  the  sceptics,  "  that  dogmas  have  their  sanction  in  Scrip- 
ture ;  but,  even  so,  are  they  not  drawn  out  and  expressed  as 
conceived  by  the  human  intellect,  which,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
limited  by  the  extent  of  its  historical  and  exegetical  knowl 
edge,  is  necessarily  liable  to  be  led  into  error?  And  if  proof 
of  this  be  demanded,  we  need  only  refer  to  the  various  changes 
made  ir.  the  Augsburg  Confession  by  Melanchthon  himself, 


Dome?;  1.  c,  p.  648-G62.     Kramer,  New  Supplements  toward  the  History  of 
A.  H.  Franke,  Halle,  1875. 

^  Ordo   temporum  a  principio    per   periodos   oeconomiae  divinae  historicun 
atque  propheticus,  Tuebingen,  1741.  (Tr.) 


§  377.  Abandonment  of  Symbols,  etc.  5'J3 

•which  were  so  numerous  as  to  aft'ord  Sh^obel  ample  matter 
for  a  literary  history  of  that  document.  Moreover,  if  the  prin- 
ciple of  free  inquirj'  be  once  admitted,  has  not  every  one  a 
right,  is  he  not  in  a  measure  bound,  to  pursue  the  investiga- 
tions all  eady  opened  ?"  As  Protestants  had  no  satisfactory 
leply  to  give  to  this  line  of  argument,  their  only  logical 
course  was  to  discard  the  symbols  altogether,  which  many  of 
them  (lid.  Their  independent  course  made  quite  a  stir,  and 
subjected  its  participants  to  no  little  persecution.  Driven,  as 
Luther  was,  when  his  days  w^ere  drawing  to  a  close,  to  appeal 
to  an  infallible  magisterial  authority,  the  Consistories  and  the 
theologians,  faithful  themselves  to  the  symbols,  sought  to 
force  them  upon  all  preachers  and  professors,  and  dismissed 
from  their  posts  those  who  took  leave  to  use  in  doctrinal  in- 
quiries the  freedom  of  thought  which  was  the  vaunted  birth 
right  of  all  Reformers.  This  opposition,  so  contrary  to  the 
very  genius  of  the  Keformation,  instead  of  checking  the  de- 
cline of  Lutheran  ecclesiasticism,  which  so  many  potent  in 
fluences,^  and  notably  modern  philosophy,^  were  steadily  under- 
mining, only  served  to  evoke  more  vehement  and  general 
discussion  on  the  books  of  symbols. 

Francis  Bacon  (tl626)  had  been  directing  men's  minds  to 
the  study  of  physics  and  mathematics,  and  had  raised  the 
method  of  empiricism  to  the  dignity  of  a  law  by  making  it 
a  successful  instrument  of  useful  knowledge,  but  it  must  be 
said  that  in  doing  so  he  had  no  wish  to  divorce  science  from 
religion.^     Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  defects  of  his  moral 


1  Walch,  New  Hist,  of  Religion,  Pt.  II.,  p.  305-382 ;  among  the  Reformed, 
ibid.,  Pt.  III.,  p.  285-298;  in  England,  Pt.  IV.,  p.  491-566.  \  Dannenmayr, 
Historia  succincta  controversiarum  de  auctoritate  librurum  syinbolicor.  inter 
Lutheranos,  Frib.  1780.  Cf.  The  Symbolical  Books  of  the  Protestant  Church 
in  Opposition  to  Scripture  and  Reason,  Lps.  1836. 

2  Cfr.  Modern  Philosophy  [Hi'^t.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIIT.) 

3  After  declaring  that  he  prays  the  three  Persons  of  tlie  Blessed  Trinity  in  all 
humility  to  heap  fresh  blessings  on  the  human  family  tlirough  his  labors,  Bacon 
goes  on  to  say:  "  Atque  illud  insuper  supplices  rogamus  ne  humana  dlvinis  of- 
ficiant; neve  ex  reseratione  viarum.  setisus,  et  accensione  majore  luminis  natu- 
Talis.  aliquid  incredtdifaiis  et  noctis  animis  nostris  erga  divina  mysteria  obori- 

VOL.    Ill — 38 


594  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

character,  and,  if  the  truth  is  to  be  told,  they  were  mnltitu- 
dinous  and  flagrant,  he  can  not  be  charged  witli  a  design  of 
leading  people  into  atheism.  '•'•Leres  gustas  in  philosnphia,'^ 
said  he,  "  movent  fortassis  ad  atheismum,  sed  pleniores  kaustas 
ad  religionem  reducunt."  ^  Sir  Isaac  Newtov,  who  lived  some 
time  later  (f  1727),  regarded  the  sciences  as  themselves  a  sort 
of  revelation. 

The  philosophy  of  Descartes,  which  was  more  favorably 
received  by  Catholics  than  Protestants,  entirely  revolutionized 
theological  methods.  Men  delighted,  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Breton  philosopher,  to  call  in  question  the  truth  of  all  ac- 
quired knowledge,  to  doubt  the  conclusions  of  theology  and 
the  teachings  of  tradition,  and  by  the  unaided  efforts  of 
reason,  which  was  a  criterion  of  certitude  to  itself,  arrive  at 
a  knowledge  of  the  existence  and  perfections  of  God. 

The  reaction  against  the  Cartesian  method  was  as  violent 
as  the  applause  with  which  it  was  received  had  been  enthu- 
siastic. The  Synod  of  Dordrecht  (1656)  enacted  that  theology 
should  be  completely  severed  from  philosophy,  and  passed  a 
number  of  decrees  condemnatory  of  Cartesianism,  which  had 
now  become  suspected  of  having  liberal  political  tendencies. 
Spinoza,^  though  professedly  a  Christian,  and  starting  with 
Christian  principles,  contributed  largely  to  weaken  faith  in 
Christianity  and  to  make  men's  minds  familiar  with  ideas 
leading  directly  to  pantheism  ;  while  Locke  (f  1704),  making 
the  experiences  of  the  senses  the  test  of  truth,  opened  the 
way  to  a  superficial  empiricism.  Leibnitz  (tl716),  the  true 
representative  of  the  learning,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastic. 


atur."  Praef.  Instaur.  j\Iagn.,  quoted  by  Dr.  JS'eivman,  Idea  of  a  University, 
London,  1873,  p.  118.  (Tr.) 

^  Novum  Organon  scientiarum,  1620,  ed.  Bruck,  Lps.  1830.  Opera  omnia, 
Lond.  1859  sq.  Cf.,  also.  Corpus  philosophor.,  ed.  Gfrorer,  Stuttg.  1831,  T.  I., 
and  Eitter,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  Vol.  VIII.  ;  Bo7i7i.  Periodical  of  Philosophy 
and  Catholic  Theology,  new  series,  year  IV..  nro.  2,  p.  188  sq.  Michelis,  Hist, 
of  Philosophy,  p.  261,  262.  Kuno  Fischer,  Bacon  and  his  Followers,  being  a 
History  of  the  Development  of  Empirical  Philosophy,  2d  edit.,  Lps.  1875. 

^Cf.,  above,  p.  517,  note  1;  also  Hock,  1.  c,  p.  112  sq.,  and  !•  reiburg  Eocles. 
Cyclop.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  374;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  6,  p.  218. 

•'Opera  omnia,  ed.  Paulus,  Jenae,  1802.  2  vols.  ;  Sigwart,  Spinozismus  hist,  et 
philos.,  Tueb.  1839.     Orelli,  The  Life  and  Doctrine  of  Spinoza,  Aarau,  1842. 


§  377.  Abaiuhnment  of  Symbols,  etc.  595 

of  his  age,  as  his  days  were  drawing  to  a  close,  gave  a  sublime 
and  almost  Catholic  exposition  of  the  majestic  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity,^ but  to  little  purpose,  as  his  influence  on  Protestant 
divines  was  well  nigh  inappreciable.  Through  the  labors  of 
Wolf^  (t  1754),  his  philosophy  has  been  presented  in  a  form 
intelligible  to  the  ordinary  mind.  Wolf  at  first  attempted  to 
mathematically  demonstrate  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  but 
it  soon  became  evident  that  he  was  endeavoring  to  put  aside 
positive  teaching  altogether,  and  to  substitute  natural  religion 
in  its  place ;  and  he  w'as  all  the  more  successful  in  this  insid- 
ious design,  in  that  the  underlying  principles  of  his  new^  re- 
ligion were  derived  from  Christianity,  though  he  was  at  great 
pains  to  conceal  the  real  source  from  which  they  were  taken. 
This  school  produced  a  so-called  popular  philosophy,  whose 
chief  representatives  were  Garre,  Beimarus,  Plainer,  Steinbart, 
and  Mendelssohn.  In  order,  as  they  said,  to  have  no  guide 
but  sound  reason,  they  recast  the  philosoph}'  of  Wolf,  stripping 
it  entirely  of  its  scholastic  form.  Henceforth  the  very  idea 
of  dogmatic  Christianity  was  scouted,  and  even  natural  re- 
ligion was  a  matter  of  grave  doubt.  Everything  was  based 
on  hypotheses,  so  much  so  in  fact  that  Garre,  in  a  treatise  on 
the  existence  of  God,  claimed  for  theism  no  more  than  the 
merit  of  being  the  best  supported  hypothesis  advanced  on  the 
subject.  These  views  were  spread  through  the  educational 
institutions  of  Germany  by  the  writings  of  John  Bernard 
Basedow,  but  chiefly  by  the  pamphlet  published  by  him  at 
Leipsig  in  1774,  entitled  The  Philanthropinon  founded  at  Des- 
sau, giving  a  detailed  account  of  the  plan  of  this  establish- 
ment, in  which  his  idea  of  a  model  school  "was  carried  out. 
Something  similar  was  attempted  at  Brunswick  by  his  scholar, 
Carnpe,  and  by  Salzmxinn  at  Schnepfenthal,  near  Gotlui.^  All 
these  w'riters,  while  pompously  laying  chiini  to  the  title  of 


1  Works,  ed.  by  lUopp.  Guhrauer,  Godfrey  William,  Baron  von  Leibnitz, 
being  a  biography,  Breslaii,  1842,  II.  Pts.  Rdier,  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  Vol. 
VIII.  Staiidenmaier,  Leibnitz  on  Divine  Ptevelation  (Tueb.  Quart.,  1836); 
Munsi,  The  Speculative  Theology  of  Leibnitz  (ibid.,  1840).  T/ioluck,  3Iiscel. 
lanea,  Vol.  I.,  p.  811-337. 

2  iVolf,  Theol.  natur.,  Lips.  1736,  2  T.,  4to.     Eiiier,  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Vol.  VIIL 
^  Charles  vo7i  Raumer,  Hist,  of  Pedagogy,  Pt.  II.,  p.  242  sq. 


596  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Pcirt  1.     Chapter  2. 

philosophers,  were  in  fact  only  smart  sophists ;  and  when 
Kant  appeared  and  gave  to  Protestantism,  which  had  now 
neither  a  creed  nor  dogmatic  teaching,  the  philosophy  of 
Kantism,  thej  were  nearly  stupified  with  amazement,  and 
were  no  longer  heard  of.  The  influence  of  "Wolfs  philosophy 
on  theology  hecauie  apparent  when  the  Wertheim  translation 
of  the  Bible  ^  was  published.  The  work  bears  upon  it  the 
characteristic  marks  of  this  school,  the  aim  of  the  editors 
being  to  depreciate  biblical  teaching  and  to  cast  suspicion 
upon  the  divine  prophecies,  a  method  of  treatment  which,  it 
was  said,  the  requirements  of  modern  criticism  demanded. 
The  translation  was  suppressed  within  the  States  of  the  Em- 
pire by  imperial  decree  in  1737;  but  had  it  made  its  appear- 
ance tifty  3'ears  later,  it  would  have  been  hailed  with  universal 
applause. 

The  Naturalism  then  in  vogue  among  the  English  Free- 
thinkers, and  which  was  the  legitimate  product  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  Reformation,  was  introduced  into 
Germany,  and  propagated  with  a  fierce  energy  little  short  of 
Satanic.  An  association  of  the  advocates  of  Conscience,  call- 
ing themselves  Conscientiarians,  was  formed,  and  its  principles 
^videly  propagated  b}'  3Iatthew  Kniitzen,  a  sort  of  itinerant 
preacher  from  Holstein  (f  1764),  who  embodied  them  in  pop- 
ular tracts,  which  he  circulated  among  the  masses.  He  was 
followed  in  the  same  field  by  Edelmanyi  (f  1767),^  who,  from 
the  year  1735  onward,  wrote  many  violent  works  against 
Christianity,  maintaining  in  rude  but  vigorous  language,  and 
with  an  air  of  imperturbable  audacity,  "that  the  Christian 
Kor^n,  being  quite  as  inconsistent  with  itself  and  as  unau- 
thentic as  the  Turkish,  should  be  rejected  ;  that,  putting  aside 
the  fable  of  Christ,  man,  after  the  pattern  of  Enoch  and 
Noah,  should  depend  on  reason  alone,  which  is  the  conscience 
nature,  like  a  provident  mother,  has  set  in  the  breast  of  all 
human  beings  to  teach  them  to  live  uprightly,  to  harm  no  one, 
and  to  render  unto  every  one  what  is  his  due  ;  that  this  is  the 


1  Cf.  Walch,  Religious  Disputes,  Vol.  Y. 

*Cf.  Acta  hist,  eccl..  Vol.  IV.,  p.  436;  Vol.  VI.,  p.  292;  Vol.  XII.,  p.  110; 
Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  957  sq.  See  also  •■■  TF.  Elsies;  Remembrance  of  John  Chr, 
Edelmann  in  reference  to  Dr.  David  Fi-ed.  Strauss.  Clausthal,  1839. 


§  377.  Abandonment  of  Symbols,  etc.  597 


true  Bihle^  and  any  one  making  light  of  it  oflers  an  insult  to 
his  own  manhood  ;  that  there  is  neither  God  nor  devil,  neither 
Heaven  nor  hell,  except  as  they  are  created  hy  the  individ- 
ual conscience  ;  that  the  hirth  of  Christ  from  a  Virgin,  His 
resurrection,  etc.,  are  fabulous  tales;  that  marriage  and  for- 
nication are  equally  estimable ;  and  that  priests,  kings,  and 
all  magistrates  whatever  should  be  swept  from  the  face  of  the 
earth."  ISTo  one  contributed  more  than  Frederic  II.  to  spread 
these  teachings  in  Germany.  He  was  the  patron  and  constant 
correspondent  of  Voltaire,  d'Argens,  la  Mettrie,  and  other 
French  philosophers  ;  received  them  at  his  court,  and  made 
the  infidel  works  of  their  country  fashionable  among  the 
upper  classes  of  society.  The  General  German  Library  (1764- 
1806),  a  literary  review,  edited  by  Nicola'i,  also  contributerl 
powerfully  to  strengthen  and  encourage  the  spirit  of  irreligiou 
that  seemed  to  be  leading  the  intellect  of  the  world  into 
bondage.  For  the  first  ten  years  of  its  existence  it  w^as  the 
supreme  literary  tribunal  of  Germany,  and  as  such  its  pages 
were  open  to  laudatory  notices  of  works  hostile,  not  alone  to 
faith,  but  to  every  noble  sentiment  and  spiritual  aspiration. 
The  Wolfenbilttel  Fragments,'^  composed  by  Bcimarus  (f  1768), 
and  collected  and  published  by  Lessing,  w'ere  bitterly  hostile 
to  the  whole  teaching  of  Christianity,  and  exercised  a  potent 
influence  in  unsettling  the  convictions  of  many  minds.  In 
these  the  w^ork  of  Christ  is  represented  as  an  abortive  at- 
tempt at  revolt.  His  resurrection  denied,  and  revelation  de- 
clared impossible. 

AVhat  Nicolai  and  Lessing  did  for  the  upper  classes  was 


^l.  On  the  disparagement  of  human  reason  by  the  preachers;  2.  On  the  im- 
possibility of  a  divine  revelation ;  3.  On  the  improbability  of  the  passage  of 
the  Israelites  through  the  lied  Sea ;  4.  On  the  Old  Testament— not  written  as 
a  religious  revelation;  .5.  On  the  falsity  of  the  resurrection.  (Historical  and 
Tiiterary  Essays  found  among  the  Treasures  of  the  Library  of  "Wolfenbilttel; 
ad  and  4th  Essays,  AVolfenbiittel,  1777;  On  the  Aim  of  .Jesus  and  His  Disci- 
pies,  Brunswick,  1778.)  Fragment  by  the  Unknown  of  Wolfenbiittel,  edited 
by  Lessing,  4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1835.  Cf.  Acta  histor.  ecclesiast.  nostri  temp.,  T. 
v.,  pp.  711  et  sq. ;  &\&o  Freiburg  Eccl  Cyclop.,  art.  Fra</me/iis.  Fred.  Strauss, 
Reimarus  and  His  Apology  for  the  Rational  Worshipers  of  God.     Lps.  1862. 


598  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 


done  for  the  lower  by  Barhdt,^  who,  after  having'  been  suc- 
cessively a  lecturer  on  theology  at  Leipsig,  Erfurt,  and  Gies- 
sen,  and  the  director  of  a  benevolent  societs*  at  Halle,  finally 
closed  his  career  of  debauchery  as  an  itrnkeeper  in  1792.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  find  an  author  more  wicked  and  trifling 
than  Bahrdt;  more  intent  upon  destroying  the  authenticity 
of  the  Bible  narrative  by  inventing  absurd  hypotheses  to  ex- 
plain away  its  contents  ;  and  more  eager  to  banish  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Church  from  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  people, 
and  to  supply  their  place  with  an  empty  rationalism.  But, 
though  utterly  despicable  and  worthless,  he  was  either  candid 
or  shameless  enough  to  avow  that  if  the  orthodox  Protestants 
had  paid  him  equally  well  he  would  have  been  equally  zealous 
in  the  advocacy  of  their  cause.  The  works  of  Wilnsch  and 
Venturini  were  of  the  same  character,  the  former  representing 
Christ  as  the  victim  of  Ilis  own  delusions,  and  the  latter 
speaking  of  His  life  as  a  silly  romance.  31auviUon,^  though 
more  learned,  was  not  less  wicked  and  energetic  in  his  as- 
saults upon  the  origin  and  ethics  of  Christianity. 

§  378.  Biblical  Theologians — The  False  Enlightenment  of  Neolo- 
gism—  Classical  Literature  of  Germany. 

Tholiick,  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Extreme  Confusion  of  Theology  in  Germany 
since  1750  [Miscellanea,  Vol.  II.,  p.  1-147).  The  Self-destruction  of  Protest- 
antism, Schaffh.  1843,  2  vols.  Ficker,  A  Critical  History  of  nationalism 
from  the  French  of  Sabites,  Lps.  1845. 

The  bulk  of  the  people  had  given  up  all  faith  in  the  church 
as  a  teacher  of  divine  truth.  Neither  did  they  any  longer 
believe  with  the  first  Reformers  that  the  Sacred  Books  were 
inspired  and  possessed  characteristics  so  essentially  their  own  as 
to  distinguish  them  by  unmistakable  signs  from  all  profane  lit- 
erature whatever.^     Hence  the  more  weighty  theologians  set 

1  Cf.  Hist,  of  His  Life  by  Himself,  Berlin,  1794,  4  vols. ;  and  Freiburg  Ec<^.l. 
Cyclop.,  Yol.  I.,  pp.  583  sq. ;  French  trans.,  Vol.  2,  p.  259  sq. 

2  The  Only  True  System  of  the  Christian  Eeligion,  Berlin,  1787. 

»  Wctstcbu  Prolegomena  in  N.  T.  (1751):  Nov.  Testament.,  Amst.  1752,2  T.,  f. 
He  quotes  in  his  explanations  a  good  many  sentiments  of  classic  antiquity,  aa 
supposed  parallel  passages  to  those  cf  the  Bible.  Accordingly,  he  puts  in  the 
same  line  the  passage  of  St.  Matthew,  vi.  34:   "  Be  not  solicitous  abuiit  to-mor- 


§  378.  Biblical  Theologians,  etc.  599 


about  giving  a  more  liberal,  independent,  and  individual  ex- 
position of  Cliristianit}',  thereby  adjusting  it  to  the  new  spirit 
now  predominant  in  biblical  studies.  Cocceius  (f  1669)  had 
earlj  introduced  this  method  by  giving  a  purely  biblical 
exposition  of  dogmatic  teaching,  in  which  he  made  no  refer- 
ence to  the  formularies  of  faith  promulgated  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  ;  ^  but  the  true  founders  of  this  school  were  Hugo 
Grotius  and  the  Arminian,  Wetstcin,  the  hitter  of  whom,  hav- 
ing been  banished  from  his  native  city  of  Basle,  was  then 
living  in  exile  in  the  Netherlands  (f  1754).  Its  first  advocate 
in  Germany  was  John  David  31icha,elis,^  from  the  year  1754  a 
professor  at  Gottingen  (f  1801).  He  was  an  ardent  student 
of  profane  history-,  archaeology,  and  the  Oriental  languages, 
though  by  no  means  so  well  informed  as  Baamgarten  and 
Ernesti,  who  aimed  at  adjusting  the  study  of  theolog}-  with 
that  of  profane  philology.^  So  far  these  men  had  made  nc 
direct  and  overt  attack  upon  religion  ;  they  simply  ignored 
the  authority  of  all  ecclesiastical  teaching,  professing  to  de- 
rive their  doctrines  from  the  Scriptures  as  the  sole  fountain 
of  all  truth.  But,  as  always  happens,  the  disciples  went  be- 
j'^ond  the  bounds  set  by  their  masters.  Among  the  better 
known  of  the  rationalists  of  the  second  generation  were  Sem~ 
ler  (1725-1791),  the  pupil  of  Baumgarten  ;  31orus,  the  i)upi) 
of  Ernesti;  and  Koppe  and  Eichhorn,  the  pupils  of  Michaelia 
and  the  compilers  of  the  theological  neology.  The  most  dan- 
gerous of  these  was  Semler,*  who,  like  Michaelis,  had  l>een 

row,"  etc.,  and  the  Epicurean  saying  oi  Horace:  "  Carpe  diem,  quam  mininiurc 
credula  postero,"  or  "  Laetus  in  praesens  animus,  quod  ultra  est,  oderit  curare 
et  amara  lento  temperet  risu;  nihil  est  ab  omni  parte  beatum."  (Odar.  lib.  I. 
11,  8,  and  lib.  II.,  IG,  25-28.)  But  hereupon  Olearins  made  the  pointed  re- 
mark: Verbis  igitur,  non  sensu  plerasque  illas  sententias  cum  salutari  Salva- 
toris  doctrina  conspirare  arbitramur. 

•  Summa  doctrina  de  foedere  et  Testamento  Dei,  Lul..  Bat.  1G48.  Alberti^ 
Cartesius  et  Coccejus  descripti  et  refutati,  ibid.  1678,  4to. 

2  His  autobiography,  with  Kemarks,  by  Hassetikavip,  Rinteln  :ind  Lps.  179o. 
*Inirod.  to  the  O.  and  N.  T. ;  The  Mosaic  Right,  etc. 

^  J.  V.  Voorst,  Orat.  de  Ernest,  optimo  post  Grot,  duce  interpret.  N.  T.,  Lugd. 
Batav.  1804,  4to.     Ernesti,  Institutio  interpretis  N.  T. ;  last  edition  hx  Amnion. 

♦Concerning  Semler,  EicJihorv,  and  the  re^t  mentioned  above,  cf.  Freihurr, 
Eccl.  Cj'Clop.,  under  their  respective  names,  and  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant 
Theology,  p.  701  sq. 


U'OO  Period  3.     Epocli  2.     Fart  1.     Chcq:>ter  2. 

educated  in  the  pietistic  school  of  Halle,  where  he  received 
impressions  that  revived  in  his  declining  years.  He  was  the 
intimate  friend  of  Baumgarten's,  by  whose  eloquence  he  was 
captivated,  and  who,  recognizing  his  splendid  talents,  com- 
mitted to  him  the  office  of  reforming  theology,  "I  am  now 
too  far  advanced  in  years,"  said  the  master;  "yours  is  the 
duty  ol  taking  upon  you  this  task."  Semler,  while  gifted 
with  a  tenacious  memory,  an  acute  mind,  and  a  glowing  im- 
agination, was  destitute  of  those  philosophical  habits  of 
thought  necessarj-  to  the  work  he  was  to  undertake  ;  and 
hence  he  made  the  mistake  of  putting  the  claims  of  the 
Church,  which  he  regarded  as  partly  immaterial  to  his  pur- 
pose and  partly  a  positive  incumbrance  to  it,  entirely  out  of 
sight.  To  him  her  brightest  days  were  overcast  with  dark- 
ness. But,  strange  to  say,  he  never  seemed  conscious  of  the 
character  of  the  revolution  he  was  efiecting;  and  when,  in 
1779,  it  was  completely  triumphant,  and  he  saw  to  what 
lengths  it  was  carried  by  the  impious  and  immoral  Bahrdt,  he 
was  startled  at  his  own  work;  and,  taking  alarm,  sought  in 
subsequent  writings  to  correct  his  mistakes,  maintaining  that 
religion  was  of  a  twofold  nature,  viz.,  public  and  pricate ;  public, 
in  that  some  sort  of  worship  should  be  legally  established 
and  upheld  in  inviolable  integrit}^ ;  private,  in  that  the  indi- 
vidual should  be  free  to  hold  or  reject  whatever  he  saw  lit. 
Semler's  revolution  was  the  legitimate  outcome  of  his  exegei- 
ical  method  and  the  result  of  his  singular  criticism  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Starting  with  the  correct  rule  that  the  Scriptures 
should  be  interpreted  according  to  the  language  in  which 
they  were  written,  and  with  due  allowances  for  the  circum- 
stances of  place  and  time,  he  further  held  that  they  should  be 
subject  to  the  same  rules  of  criticism  and  interpretation  as 
any  other  book,  and  that  no  account  should  be  taken  of  their 
divine  character.  Hence  he  maintained  that  some  things  in 
Holy  Scripture  being  peculiar  to  the  localities  in  which  the 
Dbjectionable  passages  containing  them  were  written,  should 
oe  accordingly  restricted  in  their  application,  and  that  the 
myths,  which  he  pretended  to  discover,  should  be  rejected. 
This  method  rendered  necessary  the  rejection  of  man}-  books 
enumerated  in  the  Old  Testament  canon.    Again,  by  grouping 


§  378.  Biblical   Theologians^  etc.  60\ 

the  leading  and  dominating  facts  of  Christianity,  so  as  to  re- 
strict them  to  certain  specified  periods  of  time,  he  stripped 
them  of  that  character  of  universality  which  makes  them  ap- 
plicable to  all  times  and  places  ;  and  by  endeavoring  to  show 
that  the  Kew  Testament  was  throughout  only  an  eftort  at  ad- 
justing  certain  principles  and  views  to  Jewish  notions  and 
prejudices,  he  professed  to  believe  that  the  teachings  of  Christ 
were  truths  of  a  general  character  onl}',  and  having  no  special 
and  definite  import  of  their  own. 

Finally,  he  maintained  that  the  Bible  contained  nothing  of 
value  except  its  moral  teaching,  and  that  all  else  was  useless  in 
the  Christian  Church,  thus  narrowing  down  Cliristianity  to  a 
few  ethical  rules  destitute  of  any  authoritative  sanction.  In 
this  way  Seniler,  by  a  long  and  laborious  historical  process, 
arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  that  the  popular  philosophers 
had  reached  by  a  short  cut,  viz.,  that  the  Bible  is  only  valua- 
ble as  a  moral  guide. 

The  theologians  of  the  various  universities  now  gradually 
classified  themselves  into  three  parties;  some  contending  for 
loj^'alty  to  the  orthodox  teaching  of  the  symbols  ;  others,  while 
preserving  the  form  of  biblical  faith,  depreciating  the  necessity 
and  importance  of  dogmatic  teaching,  and  declaring  that  an 
ethical  code  was  the  one  thing  essential  ;  and  others,  again, 
openly  assailing  all  revealed,  dogma,  tlius  fully  developing  the 
system  of  Semler. 

By  the  side  of  the  university  theologians  there  arose  a  school 
of  popular  philosophers,  including  such  names  as  llendelssohn, 
Engcl,  Nicoldi,  and  Sulzcr,  who  were  acting  in  liarmony  with 
Spalding,  Jerusalem,  Eberhardt,  and  Teller,  then  the  most  dis- 
tinguished theologians  of  Berlin,  and  with  a  society  founded 
in  that  city  by  the  Librarian,  Biester,  known  as  the  ^'■Society 
for  the  Diffusion  of  Light  and  Truth,''  and  the  aim  of  which 
was  proclaimed  to  be  the  subversion  of  all  usurped  and  tyran- 
nical authority,  the  reformation  of  religion,  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  code  of  morals  instead  of  dogmatic  teaching,  as  the 
basis  of  religious  worship.  Such  is  the  system  elaborated  by 
Teller  in  his  German  Dictionary  of  the  New  Testament,  pub- 
lished in  1772  ;  but,  strange  to  say,  he  so  far  forgot  himself  as 


602  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

to  assume  the  perfectibility  of  Christianity}  These  excesses 
were  in  a  measure  restrained  by  the  edict  of  Woelbier,  the 
Prussia?!,  minister,  issued  in  the  interest  of  orthodoxy  in  the 
year  1788. 

Finally,  the  revival  of  classical  literature,  then  ardently  cul- 
tivated in  Germany,  particularly  by  the  Protestants,  when  not 
positively  hostile  to  Christianity,  was  not  in  sympathy  with 
it.  Among  the  leaders  of  this  revival  were  some  theologians 
of  greatest  name. 

Lessing  (1729-1781),^  whom  his  father  had  destined  for  a 
student  of  divinity,  disliking  the  study,  devoted  himself  to 
letters,  and  was  subsequentl}^  appointed  Librarian  of  Wolfen- 
biittel.  Without  professing  to  be  a  theologian,  he  revived  a 
partial  taste  for  the  study  of  divinity,  which  he  pursued  as 
an  amateur,  and  published  the  Wolfenbilttel  Fragments,  "  in 
order,"  as  he  said,  "  to  humble  those  overbearing  orthodox 
theologians,  and  to  show  them  how  untenable  were  their  ar- 
guments." "But,"  he  added,  "while  aiming  a  blow  at  the 
scientific  pretensions  of  theologians,  I  do  not  wish  to  disturb 
the  faith  of  Christians."  Basing  himself,  like  Semler,  upon 
historical  grounds,  he  maintained  that  just  as  there  is  a  nat- 
ural law  so  also  is  there  a  natural  religion,  and  that  as  the 
former  assumes  a  positive  character  when  men  begin  to  live 
together  in  society,  so  also  does  the  latter,  it  being  necessary 
to  come  to  some  understanding  on  details  no  less  than  on  gen- 
eral jDrinciples.  He  also  held  that  all  religions,  whether  posi- 
tive or  revealed,  were  equally  true  and  equally  false,  putting  this 

1  Eeligion  of  the  Perfect,  Berlin,  1792. 

'^On  the  Origin  of  Kevealed  Eeligion  ;  Nathan,  A  Parable,  accompanied  with 
an  Humble  Petition  and  a  Letter  of  Pinal  Ectractation ;  A  Necessary  Answer 
to  a  very  Unnecessary  Question  put  by  Head- Pastor  Goetze;  Anti-Goetze,  1778. 
(The  first  complete  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  30  vols.,  Berlin,  1771-1794), 
and  an  excellent  edition  was  edited  by  Lachmann  (13  vols.,  Berlin,  1838- 
1840).  See  Vols.  10  and  11  of  this  ed.  Schwarz,  Lessing  as  a  Theologian, 
Halle,  1854.  Boden.  Lessing  and  Goetze,  Lps.  and  Heidelbg.  1868.  Stauden- 
maier,  Protestantism,  etc..  Vol.  II.,  p.  227  sq.  Wolfganfi  Menzel,  German  Po- 
etry, Vol.  III.,  p.  147  sq.  G.  E.  Lessing's  Life  and  Works.  1859,  translated 
into  English  by  E.  P.  Evans,  2  vols.,  Boston,  1866.  Nathan  der  Weisc,  tr.  by 
Dr.  Reich,  1860,  and  EUen  Frothingham,  1867.  An  English  translation  of  his 
'  Education  of  the  Human  Eace,"  London,  1858.  (Tr.) 


§  378.  Biblical  Theologians,  etc.  603 

sentiment  into  the  moutli  of  liis  character  of  Nathan  the  Wise. 
"  It  is  now  as  difficult  to  ascertain  which  ring  is  the  true  one  aa 
to  demonstrate  now  which  is  the  true  faith." ^  The  profound 
aim  of  his  work  on  the  Education  of  the  Human  Race,  addressed 
alike  to  scholars  and  to  men  of  less  cultivated  intellects,  is  to 
withdraw  mankind  from  a  shallow  and  superficial  naturalism, 
The  scope  of  the  heated  discussion  which  he  carried  on  with 
Goetze,  the  Lutheran  Head-Pastor  of  Hamburg,  was  to  show 
how  the  theologians,  who  had  set  aside  tradition,  had  rashly 
and  wantonly,  from  very  fear  of  tradition,  rejected  truths 
without  properly  investigating  them  or  trying  them  by  the 
laws  of  true  criticism.  Lessing  said  he  had  ratlier  have  one 
Pope  in  Rome  than  countless  petty  Lutheran  popes  in  Ger- 
man}-. Yet  he  was  so  many-sided  in  his  opinions  that  his 
authority  has  been  recently  invoked  by  Twesten  in  favor  of 
orthodoxy,  and  by  Schwarz  in  support  of  rationalism. 

Herder  (1744-1803),^  in  his  apologetical  works,  regarded 
Christianity  more  as  a  creation  of  marvelous  beauty  than  as  the 
one  appointed  means  for  the  salvation  of  fallen  man.  Invited 
to  Weimar  in  1775  by  the  Grand  Duke,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Goeth*e,  he  was  appointed  court-preacher  and  consisto- 
rial  councillor,  and  the  growing  reputation  of  his  splendid 
talents  soon  brought  him  into  contact  with  the  most  distin- 
guished authors,  and  gave  him  a  place  in  the  foremost  rank 
of  German  poets.  But  his  morbid  vanity  was  not  proof 
against  the  insidious  homage  of  flattery  ;  his  faith  gradually 
gave  way ;  and  in  the  end  his  only  ambition  seemed  to  be  to 
cover  with  contempt  whatever  his  contemporaries  held  in 
honor.  One  by  one  the  truths  of  Christianity  were  rejected ; 
the  teachings  of  the  Gospel  seemed  veiled  from  his  sight ;  his 
thoughts  became  obscure  ;  and  there  was  no  longer  any  trace 
of  positive  doctrine  to  be  found  in  his  writings.  Hence  John 
von  Milller,  speaking  of  his  otherwise  esteemed  work,  Outlines 


iThis  refers  to  a  passage  in  Lessing's  Drama,  Nathan  the  Wise,  Act.  III., 
Sc.  VII     (Tr.) 

2  Christian  Works,  in  five  collections,  Kiga  and  Lps.  1794  sq.  Religious  and 
Theological  Works,  published  by  G.  Muiler,  Tuebingen,  1805  sq.,  10  vols.  Cf. 
Hagenhach,  VA\.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  3d  ed ,  Pt.  II., 
p.  1-87;  and  Gelzer,  Modern  German  National  Literature,  Vol.  I.,  p.  329. 


604  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

of  a  Philosophy  of  the  History  of  Man,  says  :  "  I  find  there 
everything  except  Christ;  but  what  is  the  History  of  the 
world  without  Christ?"  To  Herder's  mind  Christ  was  only 
"the  well-beloved  of  Jehovah."  The  want  of  consistency  in 
his  writings  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  facr  that  his  point 
of  view  was  successively  changed  to  suit  the  chronclogioal  se- 
quence of  the  subjects  under  treatment  as  they  came  up  one 
by  one. 

As  these  theologians,  philosophers,  philologists,  and  exe- 
getical  writers  raised  a  multitude  of  questions  in  their  works, 
without  answering  any,  they  left  many  minds  dissatisfied, 
many  hearts  craving  for  comfort,  and  many  souls  weighed 
down  with  sorrow  and  yearning  for  better  things.  This  ex- 
plains the  sympathetic  approbation  with  which  the  simple 
and  pious  utterances  of  Gellert  (1715-1769)  were  received  ; 
and  the  warm  admiration  that  greeted  the  appearance  (1748) 
of  Klopstock's  Messias,  which,  unlike  Dante's  immortal  work, 
was  not  reared  upon  the  everlasting  foundation  of  the  truths 
of  Christian  doo-ma,  and  could  never  have  evoked  such  ex- 
pressions  of  religious  feeling  as  it  did  had  there  not  existed 
deep  down  in  the  human  heart  an  abiding  belie'f  in  God  and 
a  hopeful  trust  in  the  Incarnation,  which  no  amount  of  cold 
infidelity  could  entirely  obscure  or  extinguish.  Sarnann, 
that  prophetic  thinker,  who  styled  himself  the  3Iagician  of 
the  North  (1730-1788),^  and  the  popular  writer,  Claudius 
(1743-1815),  were  authors  of  more  solidity  than  KIop- 
stock  and  Gellert,  and  each  achieved  success  in  Ijis  own  way 
and  degree ;  the  former  among  a  limited  and  select  class  of 
readers,  and  the  latter  among  a  wider  circle  of  followers,  to 
whom  he  recommended  the  works  of  Fenelon.^  Both  witty 
and  humorous,  Claudius  was  unsparing  in  his  ridicule  of  the 
false  enlightenment  of  his  assailants,  representing  them  at 


1  Biographical  Memorial  of  John  Hamann,  Miinster,  1855.  Herbst,  Library 
of  Christian  Thinkers,  Lps.  1830,  Vol.  I.  Petri,  The  Works  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Hamann,  until  1873,  already  three  parts.  Gildemeister,  J.  G.  Haniann, 
the  Magus  of  the  North,  his  Life  and  Works,  Gotha,  1875,  3  vols. 

2  Concerning  Claudius  and  Lnvatcr,  see  Herbsi,  1.  c.,  Vol.  II.  Claudius'  Or- 
gan was  the  Wandsbecker  iJoi'e  (Wandsbeek  Messenger).  Cfr.  supra,  p.  52Q 
note  1 


§  378.  Biblical   Theologians,  c(c.  005 

one  time  as  Goliahs  and  again  as  Pigmies.  Philosophy  coultl 
command  his  respect  only  in  so  far  as  it  ci-eated  in  man  a  love 
for  t'le  true  and  the  good ;  "  for,"  said  he,  "  if  these  be  not 
esteemed  in  man,  what  is  there  else  in  him  to  esteem  ?" 

Lavater  (1741-1801),  Jung- Stilling  (1740-1817),  and  Oberlin, 
of  Alsace,  all  of  the  Reformed  Church,  expressed  a  genuine 
admiration  of  the  blessings  of  Christianity.  Wieland  (1733- 
1813),  while  under  the  influence  of  the  writings  of  Klopstock, 
gave  himself  up  to  a  sort  of  mystical  I'iety,  foreign  to  hi? 
nature,  from  which,  however,  he  soon  broke  loose,  and  be- 
came atheistical  in  thought,  and  advocated,  if  he  did  not 
practice,  a  lax  code  of  morals. 

The  writings  of  Goethe  (1749-1832),^  who  labored  to  culti- 
vate among  his  contemporaries  a  taste  for  Pagan  literature 
and  a  love  of  the  classic  creations  of  the  Greek  mind,  con- 
tributed powerfully  to  extinguish  the  spirit  of  reviving  faith. 
All  the  faculties  of  his  splendid  genius  were  concentrated  on 
the  one  task  of  putting  nature  in  the  place  of  God.  He  de- 
tested both  religion  and  politics,  because,  he  said,  their  influ- 
ence was  fatal  to  art.  Finally,  Schiller  (1759-1805),  in  his 
Gods  of  Greece,  expressed  his  regret  that,  to  give  adequate 
glory  to  the  One  God  of  the  Christians,  the  gods  of  Olympus 
should  be  sacrificed  : 

"  And  to  enrich  the  worship  of  the  One 
A  Universe  of  Gods  must  pass  away." 

He  then  invoked  the  return  of  the  happy  age  of  Nature  : 

"  Keturn,  thou  virgin-bloom  on  Nature's  face." 

He  declared  that  he  professed  no  religion  for  religion's  sake. 
This  is  certainly  a  convenient  way  of  working  out  one's  sal- 
vation without  "  fear  and  trembling,"  and  led  the  poet  to  in- 
dulge the  hope  expressed  in  his  Hymn  of  Joy  : 

All  sin  shall  be  forgiven. 
And  Hell  shall  cease  to  be. 


1  Tholuck,  Miscellanea,  Vol.  II.,  p.  361-383.  The  better  elements  in  Goetha 
iind  Schiller  are  pointed  out  by  Daumer,  My  Conversion,  Mentz,  1859,  pp.  66 
and  119  sq.  Gf.  Hagcnbach,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries, 
Pt.  II.,  p.  113-138.  We  quote  the  first  two  of  Schiller's  passages  from  hie 
Pocms  and  Ballads,  as  transl.  by  Sir  Edw.  Buliver-Lytton,  Bart.,  N^w  York, 
^ip.  -I'M  and  300.  (Tr.) 


60G  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 


§  379.    The  Herrnhutters. 

Zinzendorf,  Actual  Form  of  the  Cross  of  Christ  in  Its  Simplicity,  Lps.  (1745), 
4to.  Uepl  eavToi',  or  Natural  Keflections  (1746).  4to.  Twenty-one  Discourses 
on  the  Augsburg  Confession,  1747-1748  ;  The  Brothers'  Hymn  Book.  Jeremias, 
or  Sermon  on  Sanctification,  new  ed.,  Berlin,  1830.  Tracts,  Frkft.  1740. 
SpnngeHberg,  Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf  (Barbyi,  1772  sq.,  8  vols.  Varnhagen 
vov  Ense,  Life  of  Count  Zinzendorf  (Biographical  Monuments,  Vol.  V.)  Tho- 
luck,  Miscellanea,  Hamburg,  1839,  Vol.  I.  Moehler,  Symbolism,  Book  IL 
Eerzog,  Cyclopaedia,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  508-592.  Plitt,  The  Theology  of  Zin- 
zendorf, Gotha,  1869,  Vol.  I. 

The  sect  of  the  Herrnhutters  or  United  Brethren  were  ani- 
mated with  the  spirit  of  Spener  and  Franke,  and  were  an 
outgrowth  of  the  Moravian  Brethren.  They  first  consisted 
of  a  number  of  families,  who,  wishing  to  dwell  in  a  Protest- 
ant country,  quitted  their  old  homes  and  settled  on  the  estate 
of  Count  Louis  von  Zinzendorf  (1700-1760),  near  Berthelsdorf. 
In  the  year  1722  they  built  themselves  houses  at  the  foot  of 
the  Hutberg,  or  the  Watch  Hill,  near  the  count's  residence, 
but  subsequently  the  name  was  changed  into  Uerrnhut,  or  the 
Watch  of  the  Lord,  whence  the}^  derive  their  appellation. 
The  count,  who,  with  his  friends,  Frederic  von  Watteville  and 
Spangenherg,  had  been  brought  up  in  the  Pietistic  school  of 
Halle,  by  the  enforcement  of  a  rigorous  discipline,  and  what 
was  styled  "  The  Ci^oss  and  Blood  Theology,^'  succeeded  in 
introducing  some  sort  of  unity  into  the  heterogeneous  ele- 
ments of  which  the  new  community  was  made  up.  He 
brought  the  members  to  accept  a  constitution  containing 
what  were  called  "T/;c  Fundamental  Articles,''  and  divided 
them  into  three  principal  classes  or  tropes,  viz.,  the  Mora- 
cians,  the  Heformed,  and  the  Lutheran.  These  sectaries  have 
always  been  distinguished  by  a  spirit  of  pride,  which  has 
been  the  fruitful  source  of  fresh  divisions.  The  bloody  death 
of  Christ  upon  the  Cross  has  been  at  all  times  their  one  cardi- 
nal point  of  doctrine,  and  the  one  unfailing  subject  of  their 
sermons,  hymns,  and  other  writings,  which  are  remarkable 
for  quaintness  of  expression  and  a  singularity  of  imagery 
more  fanciful  than  just,  the  similes  employed  being  very 
unusual,  frequently   extravagant,  and    at    times   even    inde 


§  379.   The  HerrnhuUers.  607 

ceDt.^  While  professing  the  most  implacable  hostility  for 
Lutheran  scholasticism,  as  fettering  the  free  and  expansive 
spirit  of  devotion,  they  fell  insensibly  into  a  formalism  still 
more  slavish  and  barren. 

The  system  of  government  among  the  Herrnhutters  \^a? 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  United  Brethren  {Unitas  Fra- 
trum)  of  the  fifteenth  century,  whose  name  they  also  adopted. 
Their  officers  were  of  three  classes,  viz.,  deacons,  elders,  and 
bishops,  though  the  last  enjoyed  no  special  prerogatives. 
They  were  divided  into  congregations,  and  each  congregation 
again  into  choirs,  according  to  age,  sex,  and  kinship  by  mar- 
riage. Into  the  congregations  no  one  was  admitted  except 
those  designated  as  the  Awakened,  and  accordingly  the  slug- 
gish were  brought  to  a  sense  of  duty  by  discipline  of  various 
kinds;  but  if  they  still  continued  incorrigible,  they  were  en- 
tirely cut  off  from  membership.  Each  settlement  was  under 
the  immediate  government  of  a  conference,  consisting  of  its 
officers  ;  and  the  whole  community  was  governed  by  a  per- 
manent conference,  composed  of  the  elders,  and  the  sessions 
of  w^hich  were  held  at  Berthelsdorf.  Every  four,  ten,  or 
twelve  years,  as  convenience  or  exigency  might  require,  the 
Conference  of  Elders  called  a  General  Synod,  in  which  all 
matters  of  importance  were  transacted  ;  but  all  questions  that 
could  not  be  satisfactorily  disposed  of  by  human  judgment 
and  foresight  were  decided  by  lot. 

As  years  went  on,  a  spirit  of  worldliness  and  commercial 
enterprise  found   its  way  among  the  Herrnhutters,  and  en- 


'  J.  SUnstra,  in  his  "  Warning  against  Fanaticism  "  (transl.  from  the  Dutch 
into  German,  Berlin,  1752),  gives  a  compilation  of  them.  Zinzendorf  once  led 
off  the  choir  of  his  congregation  in  the  following  style  : 

'•  Du  Raethsel  der  Vernunft 
Du  Thohu  vehabohu  (darkness,  chaos) 
Von  der  gesammten  Zunft 
Der  Blutlicht?cheuen  Uhu; 
Du  Wunrler  aller  AVunder 
Mixtura  inconfusa 
Du  bist's,  der  mir  gefaellt, 
Dein  Gnadenstnhl  frass  Usa." 

(II.  Kings,  vi.  3)  ;   Buc/imann,  Popular  Symbolism,  2d  ed.,   Mentz,  1844,  VoL 
I.,  p.  8-10. 


608  Feriofl  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 


feebled,  if  it  did  not  quite  extinguish,  their  early  religions 
fervor.  One  good,  however,  these  communities  accomplished  : 
they  afforded  in  an  age  of  growing  infidelity  a  peaceable  asy- 
lum to  such  Protestants  as  still  valued  faith  in  the  divinity  of 
Christ  as  a  j^recious  pearl,  and  a  treasure  of  inestimable  price 
to  fallen  and  redeemed  man. 

§  380.    The  Quakers. 

History  of  the  Life,  Travels,  and  Sufl'erings  of  George  Fox,  London,  1691. 
Robert  Barclay.  Theol.  vere  christ.  Apolog.,  Amst.  1676,  4to,  and  often.  Penn, 
Summary  of  the  Hist.,  Doctr.,  and  Discipl.  of  Friends,  1692,  edit.  6th,  London, 
1707,  with  notes  by  Seebo/im,  Pyrmont  (1792)  1798.  (Tr.  adds:)  Kules  of  Disci- 
pline of  the  See.  of  Friends,  London,  1 783,  ed.  3,  1884.  O.  O-oesii,  Hist.  Quaker- 
iana,  Amst.  (1695)  1704.  Alherii,  Account  of  the  Rel.of  the  Q.,  Han.  1750.  Gom- 
ghan,  Hist,  of  the  People  called  Quakers,  Dublin,  1789,  4  vols.  F.  Clarkson, 
Portraiture  of  Quakerism,  London,  1806,  3  vols.  //.  7  uke,  Principles  of  Re- 
ligion, as  held  by  Christians  commonly  called  Quakers ;  in  Germ,  and  Engl., 
Lond.  and  Lps.  1828.  J.  J.  Gurney,  Observations  on  the  Society  of  Friends, 
London,  1824,  ed.  7,  1834.  W.  Scwelt,  Hist,  of  the  Quakers,  London  and  New 
York,  1840,  2  vols.  W.  R.  Wugstaff,  Hist,  of  the  Soc.  of  Friends,  New  York, 
1836.     MoeMer,  Symbolism,  Pt.  II.,  cb.  II. 

George  Fox,  a  cobbler,  who  was  born  in  Drayton,  a  village 
of  Leicestershire,  in  1624,  and  died  in  1690,  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  real  founder  of  the  Quakers?  He  professed  to 
believe  that  all  saving  truth  and  religious  consciousness  are 
the  immediate  eftect  of  the  direct  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  who  in  the  day  of  His  coming  floods  the  soul  of  man 
with  an  interior  light,  which  is  the  light  of  Christ.  Neither 
exterior  revelation  nor  Scripture  itself  can  supply  the  place 
of  this  interior  illumination  ;  on  the  contrary.  Scripture  being 
an  inferior  revelation,  requires  this  light  to  make  clear  its 
sense.  It  alone  adequately  confirms  revelations,  produces 
true  knowledge,  is  the  vivifying  principle  of  religious  life,  and 
the  nourisher  of  sincere  piety.  The  teaching  of  the  Quakers 
on  justification ,  sanctification,  the  Sacramental  system,  and 
the  perfect  fulfillment  of  the  Law  is  but  a  logical  deduction 
from  the  fundamental  principle.     They  hold  that  the  Sacra- 


'  For  a  good  account  of  the  lawless  and  indecent  extravagancies  of  this  sect 
before  it  was  joined  by  Penn  and  other  men  of  culture,  see  Blunt,  Diet,  of  Her- 
esies and  Sects,  art.  "Quakers."  (Tr.) 


§  380.    The  Quakers.  GOD 

meiits  are  only  external  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  of  them- 
selves possess  no  efficacy.  Evei'y  Christian  is  hoth  a  teacher 
and  a  preacher,  and  to  preach  and  to  teach  are  offices  of  no 
special  character.  Prayer  is  the  spontaneous  expression  of 
the  soul,  and  hence  should  not  be  fettered  by  any  fixed  and 
1  prescribed  formulary, 

Tlioy  refuse,  from  conscientious  motives,  to  render  military  service,  to  take 
uatlis,  to  pay  taxes,  to  indulge  in  games  either  of  hazard  or  amusement,  to  per- 
mit music  of  any  kind,  to  frequent  theaters  or  plays,  to  read  profane  poetry 
treating  of  love  and  romance,  and  dancing  of  every  sort  is  most  rigorously 
prohibited  among  them.  Such  salutations  as  "Your  Majesty,"  "Your  Lord- 
ship," "Your  Honor,"  and  the  like,  they  say  have  a  flavor  of  arrogance  and  a 
vain  and  worldly  spirit,  ill  becoming  a  Christian  ;  while  greetings  and  sub- 
scriptions like  "Your  humble  Servant"  they  characterize  as  hypocritical.  To 
lift  the  hat,  to  remain  uncovered,  to  address  another  in  the  plural  number  they 
hold  to  be  sinful.  They  never  try  to  right  a  wrong  or  seek  redress  before  a 
secular  court,  nor  do  they  lay  a  charge  against  any  one  for  any  offense  what- 
soever. 

Wiliiam  Perm  (1644-1718),  who  had  embraced  Quakerism  while  a  student  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  after  many  trials,  finally  determined  to  provide  a  home 
in  the  New  World  for  himself  and  his  co-religionists,  where  they  would  be 
permitted  to  follow  out  their  religious  convictions  unmolested.  In  the  year 
1C81  he  obtained  from  the  crown,  in  lieu  of  a  monetary  claim,  a  portion  of  land 
on  the  Delaware,  in  what  is  now  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  sailed  from  England,  with  several  friends,  and  on  the  30th  of  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year  had  his  famous  interview  with  the  Indians  where  now 
stands  the  town  of  Kensington.  He  planted  a  colony,  more  than  half  the  in- 
habitants of  which  were  Quakers,  laid  out  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and  estab- 
lished toleration  by  law.  This  colony  long  continued  to  be  an  asylum  for  those 
who  suffered  persecution  for  their  religious  convictions  in  other  parts  of  the 
country. 

In  England  the  Quakers  were  granted,  in  1686,  the  same  toleration  enjoyed 
by  other  Dissenters.  They  are  now  everywhere  rapidly  decreasing  in  num- 
bers. In  Holland  there  are  still  a  few  congregations ;  in  England  they  are 
daily  losing  ground;  in  Northern  Germany  they  have  nearly  ceased  to  exist, 
there  being  but  cne  congregation  of  them  established  at  Priedrichsthal,  near 
Pyrmont,  in  Hanover,  in  1791.  The  Quakers  have  probably  never  exceeded 
two  hundred  thousand  in  number,  and  at  the  present  time  more  than  half  of 
theui  reside  in  the  United  States,  where,  since  the  year  1827,  they  have  been 
eplit  into  the  two  parties  of  the  '■'■Urthoaox"  and  the  "Ilickslics."  They  organ- 
ized a  missionary  society  in  1868,  and  have  since  established  missions  in  India 
and  iladagascar.  Uniformly  opposed  to  slavery,  they  have  been  the  constant 
friends  of  both  the  freedman  and  the  Indian.  Of  late  years  they  have  re- 
laxed somewhat  of  their  primitive  severity,  and  are  now  more  liberal  in  thei»- 
views,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  music. 
VOL.  Ill — 30 


GIO  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

The  name  Quaker  is  etymologicnlly  derived  from  the  verb  to  quake,  and  was 
first  applied. to  them  derisively,  "  because  they  often  trembled  under  the  awful 
eense  of  the  infinite  purity  and  majesty  of  God." 

Other  accounts  are  given  of  its  historical  origin,  the  most  correct  being,  in 
all  probability,  that  which  refers  the  name  to  a  circumstance  in  their  early  re- 
ligious exercises;  for,  when  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit  took  place,  the  fact 
was  revealed  to  those  present  by  convulsions  and  shaking.^ 

§  381.    The  Methodists — Theological  Literature  in  England. 

Hampson,  Mem.  of  Wesley,  and  Hist,  of  Methodism,  London,  1791,  3  vols.; 
ed.  in  Germ.,  Halle,  1793;  Life  of  G.  Whitefield,  Edinburgh,  1826;  edited  after 
the  English,  by  Tholuek,  in  Germ.,  Lps.  1834.  Moehler.  Symbolism,  Pt.  IL, 
ch.  III.,  sections  75  and  76.  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  p.  513  sq. 
Transl.  adds:  The  works  of  J.  Wesley,  Bristol,  1771  sq.,  32  vols.  K.  houihey. 
Life  of  J.  Wesley,  and  the  Else  and  Progress  of  Methodism,  ed.  3,  Lond.  1846, 
2  vols.  //,  More,  Life  of  J.  Wesley,  London,  1824  sq.,  2  vols.  J.  Gillies,  Me- 
moirs of  G.  Whitefield,  Hartford,  1835.  R.  Philip,  Life  and  Times  of  G. 
Whitefield,  London,  1837;  New  York,  1838.  J.  G.  BurclJiard,  Complete  Hist, 
of  Methodism  in  England,  Niirnberg,  1795,  2  vols.  J.  Crovither,  Portraiture 
of  Methodism,  London,  1815.  J.  W.  Baum,  Methodism,  Zurich,  1838.  T.  Jack- 
son, Hist,  of  the  Commencement,  Progress,  and  Present  State  of  Methodism, 
London,  1838.  Jsnnc  laylor,  Wesley  and  Methodism,  London,  1851  J.  White- 
head, Lives  of  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  London,  1793,  2  vols.  Doc.  and 
Hist.  Invest,  of  Meth.  in  its  Connectional  Prin.  and  Pol.,  2d  ed.,  London,  1852. 
Minutes  of  Conferences  in  Engl,  from  1744  to  1824,  London,  1824,  5  vols. 
■S.  Warren,  Chronicles  and  Digest  of  Laws,  etc.,  of  Meth.,  Lond.  1827,  2  vols, 
Abel  Stevens,  Hist,  of  the  Eel.  Movement  called  Methodism,  New  York,  1861. 
Geo.  Si-mth,  Hist,  of  Meth.,  1862,  3  vols.  L.  Tyerman,  The  Oxford  Methodists, 
London  1873.  W.  P.  Strickla)id,  Hist,  of  the  Missions  of  the  Meth.  Ep. 
Church,  Cincinnati,  1850.  R.  Watson,  Theological  Institutes,  with  an  Analysis 
by  J.  MfClintock:  Wm.  F.  Warren,  Systematische  Theologie  einheitlich  be- 
handelt  Bremen,  1865.  For  a  complete  bibliography  of  Methodism  down  to 
1865,  sf^e  the  above  work  of  Dr.  Warren. 

John  Wesley^  while  a  student  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
formed  a  little  association,  composed  of  piously  inclined  stu- 
dents (1729),  who,  because  of  the  i:ravitj  of  their  demeanor 
and  the  severe  formality  of  their  manners,  were  called  by 
their  fellow-students  methodists  or  the  Club  of  the  Saints.    Such 

^  After  having  accepted  the  name  given  them  by  popular  impulse,  they  set 
about  proving  its  fitness  to  express  sanctity.  Thus  Naylor,  the  forerunner  of 
Fox,  in  a  work  published  in  1653,  proceeds  to  show  how  "  tliat  the  earth  quaked 
and  trembled;  that  Isaac  trembled  exceedingly;  that  Moses  feared  and  quaked; 
that  the  Lord  bade  His  disciples  quake  for  fear  ;  and  that  therefore  saints 
ought  to  be  Quakers."    Blunt,  Diet,  of  Sects  and  Heresies,  art.  "  Quakers."  (Tu.) 


§  381.   The  31etho(lhts,  etc  611 


was  the  beginning  of  a  great  religious  movement,  whose  in- 
fluence has  been  most  potent  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  Minds  that  had  been  unduly  and  fanatically  excited 
by  the  events  of  the  great  ])olitical  and  religious  revolutions 
through  which  England  had  passed,  now  that  the  incentives 
that  had  kept  them  at  fervid  heat  were  no  longer  in  action, 
became  as  cold  in  devotion  and  as  sceptical  in  belief  as  they 
luid  formerly  been  credulous  and  ardent.  Infidelity  was  daily 
gaining  ground,  and  moral  depravity  was  steadily  on  the  in- 
crease. The  Anglican  clergy,  who  should  have  been  the 
teachers  of  truth  and  the  custodians  of  morals,  contemplated 
the  advancing  evils  with  indifference,  or  possibly  thought 
themselves  helpless  to  make  head  against  so  colossal  a  danger. 
The  disease  was  rapidly  eating  into  the  vital  parts  of  the  na- 
tion, and  it  seemed  that  the  whole  body  would  become  in- 
fected unless  prompt  and  energetic  treatment  were  applied. 
People  were  anxiously  looking  about  them  for  men  of  strong 
faith  and  stout  hearts  to  come  forth  and  denounce  sin  and 
preach  penance.  It  is  not  wonderful,  then,  that  when  John 
WesUy  and  his  brother,  Charles,  and  the  eloquent  and  gentle 
Whikfield  {ivom  1782)  fulfilled  in  some  sort  these  conditions  in 
their  ministry,  they  should  be  received  with  favor,  and  gain 
numerous  proselytes  to  Methodism.  The  new  sect,  too,  had 
a  character  peculiarly  its  own,  distinguishing  it  from  the  va- 
rious jarring  and  conflicting  parties  into  which  the  Church  of 
England  was  split,  and  this  note  of  individuality  was  a  potent 
element  of  its  success. 

"Wesley,  through  intercourse  with  the  Hcrrnhnttcrs,  some 
of  whom  were  his  companions  on  a  voyage  he  made  to  Amer- 
ica in  1735,  was  very  favorably  impressed  with  their  teach- 
ings and  practices,  and,  with  a  view  to  obtain  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  of  their  organization,  visited  their  communities 
in  Germany  and  Holland  in  1738,  in  company  with  Spovc/en- 
herg.  This  is  also  about  the  date  when  he  began  to  hold  the 
doctrine  that  the  presence  of  dicine  grace  in  the  soul  and  the  con- 
sciousness of  the  remission  of  sin  are  indicated  by  strong  religious 
feelings,  manifesting  themselves  extcrjially  in  convulsive  movements 
of  the  body.  While  attending  a  meeting  of  one  of  the  Mora- 
vian societies,  May  24,  1738,  in  Aldersgate  street,  London, 


012  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  2. 

he  experienced  such  an  entire  change  during  the  reading  of 
Luther's  preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the  liomans,  that  he  ever 
after  regarded  this  as  the  moment  of  his  conversion,  which, 
he  tells  us,  with  a  commendable  desire  to  be  accurate  in  af- 
fairs of  such  import,  took  place  at  precisely  fifteen  minutes 
before  nine  o'clock.  "  I  felt,"  he  said,  "  my  heart  strangely 
warmed;  that  I  trusted  in  Christ  and  Christ  alone  for  salva- 
tion ;  that  lie  had  taken  away  my  sins  ;  and  that  I  was  saved 
from  the  law  of  sin  and  death."  It  is  characteristic  of  this 
state,  he  assures  us,  that  whoever  has  personal  experience  of 
it  is  forthwith  lifted  into  a  purer  and  more  serene  spiritual 
atmosphere,  out  of  reach  of  the  disorderly  movements  of  the 
flesh  and  beyond  the  unruly  annoyances  of  sense,  and  is  so 
constituted  as  to  enjoy  comjilete  exemption  from  sin. 

Although  retaining  the  form,  organization,  liturgy,  and 
symbol  of  the  Anglican  Church,  the  community  founded  by 
"Wesley  was  distinguished  from  it  by  an  austere  asceticism^ 
which  displayed  itself  in  numerous  and  rigorous  fasts,  in  spe- 
cial prayers  at  stated  hours,  in  the  assiduous  reading  of  the 
Bible,  and  in  a  frequent  approach  to  the  communion  table. 
Such  was  the  zeal  and  enthusiasm  of  Whitejield  and  other  apos- 
tles of  Methodism  that  its  teaching  spread  rapidly,  both  in 
England  and  North  America. 

The  Methodists  had  no  desire  to  separate  from  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  did  not  formally  do  so  until  fcM^ced  to  take 
the  step  by  the  jealousy  and  uneasiness  of  the  orthodox  min- 
isters. Wesley  having  himself  never  been  consecrated,  in  1784 
assumed  the  office  of  a  bishop,  and  began  to  oi-dain  ministers 
and  make  bishops  for  the  special  and  exclusive  service  of  the 
Methodist  community.  From  this  time  forth  the  Methodists 
saw  themselves  engaged  in  a  conflict  with  the  Established 
Church  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  llerrnhutters  on  the 
other.  Apart  from  the  keen  personal  rivalry  of  Zinzendorf 
and  Wesley,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  former,  there  was  a 
wide  divergence  of  opinion  between  the  two  sects  they  repre- 
sented on  the  doctrines  of  grace  and  regeneration.  Even 
Wesley  and  Whitetield  could  not  agree  on  the  questions  of 
grace  and  predestination,  and  separated  as  early  as  1740  ;  the 
former  adopting  the  views  of  Calvin;    the  latter  those  of 


§381.    The  Methodists,  etc.  013 


Arminius,  thouirh  the  following  of  Wesley  was  much  the 
more  numerous  of  the  two.  Wesley  was  not  a  little  startled 
to  learn  that,  in  spite  of  his  honest  efforts  to  improve  the 
lives  of  his  adherents,  antinomian  prmdples  had  found  favor 
among  them,  and  were  developing  a  frightful  state  of  immor- 
ality, and  he  concluded  that  the  teachings  of  Calvin  held  too 
prominent  a  place  in  his  system. 

Fletcher,^  a  disciple  of  Wesley's,  endeavored  to  draw  out 
still  more  distinct!}'  and  precisely  the  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  Wesleyans  and  the  followers  of  Whitefield,  and  at 
a  conference  held  in  1771,  and  presided  over  by  Wesley  in 
person,  the  questions  in  dispute  were  discussed  and  defined. 

The  elements  of  the  organization  of  the  Methodist  community  are  :  1.  Bands, 
composed  of  from  five  to  ten  persons  each,  who,  under  the  direction  of  a  leader, 
meet  voluntarily/  once  a  week  to  examine  the  state  of  their  consciences,  confess 
their  sins  publicly,  and  thus  keep  alive  an  abiding  sense  of  guilt.  2.  Classes, 
composed  of  from  ten  to  thirty  persons,  who  are  required  to  meet  once  a  week 
and  tell  their  individual  "experience"  during  the  preceding  week.  A  number 
of  these  classes  make  up  a  "■society"  or  congregation,  and  to  one  of  them  every 
Methodist  must  necessarily  belong.  3.  Circuits,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
'■societies"  or  congregations,  having  some  considerable  town  or  city  as  a  cen- 
ter, and  including  the  out-lying  country  to  a  radius  of  some  ten  or  twelve 
miles.  Each  of  these  circuits  has  from  one  to  five  ministers,  technically  called 
"  traveling  preachers,"  because  they  are  not  allowed  to  continue  more  than 
three  years  in  the  same  circuit,  and  under  these  are  the  "  local"  or  lay  preach- 
ers, who  reside  permanently  in  the  circuit  to  which  they  are  attached.  The 
senior  minister  exercises  a  general  supervision  over  all  the  affairs  of  the  cir- 
cuit,  and  is  called  a  "superintendent."  4.  Districts,  including  some  eighteen 
"circuits,"  and  organized  for  tiie  purpose  of  having  the  pi'cachers  meet  at  stated 
times  to  confer  upon  matters  of  finance  and  discipline,  and  to  transact  the  or- 
dinary business  of  Conference  when  that  body  is  not  in  session.  5.  Conference, 
consisting  of  the  "traveling  preachers,"  and  being  the  supreme  governing  body 
of  the  Methodist  community.  It  meets  once  a  year  and  fills  its  own  vacancies. 
Its  sessions  may  not  be  protracted  beyond  three  weeks,  nor  last  less  than  five 
days. 

The  Methodists  aim  at  reviving  spiritual  life  among  the  masses  through  the 
ministry  of  their  itinerant  preachers,  and  at  founding  benevolent  associations 
on  a  large  scale.  All  the  divisions  of  Methodism  in  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia  numbered,  in  1874,  3,G20,8oO  full  members  and  several  hundred  thou- 
sand }>robationists.'^ 


1  See  Fletcher's  Checks  to  Antinomism,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  22.  200,  215.     Works,  Vol. 
III.,  p.  50;  Vol.  IV.,  p.  97.  Compare  Dr.  jVJZ?<e?''.s- End  of  Eel.  Controv.,  Letter  VI. 

2  Bhint,  Diet,  of  Sects,  Heresies,  etc.,  art.  "  Methodists."     Amer.  Cyclop.,  art. 
"Methodism."   (Tr.) 


614  Period  3.     Enoch  2.     Part  1.     Chanter  2. 


§  382.   The  Sweilenborgiaus  or  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem. 

Swedenborg,  Arcana  coelestia  in  verbo  domini  detecta  una  cum  mirabilib. 
quae  visa  sunt  in  mundo  spirituum,  1749  sq.,  8  T.,  4to,  ed.  Tafel,  Tueb.  1833  sq., 
5  vols. ;  Vera  chr.  rnl.,  A  mst.  1771,  "True  Christian  Religion,  containing  the  Uni- 
versal Theology  of  the  New  (.'hurch,  by  Emmanuel  Swedenborg,  Servant  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,"  transl.  from  the  orig.  Lat.  work,  5th  ed.,  Lond.  1819.  A  series 
of  writings  by  and  respecting  Swedenborg,  communicated  by  Immanuel  Tafel 
and  Louis  Hof acker ;  especially,  Divine  Eevelations,  from  the  Latin,  Tueb.  1823 
sq.,  8  vols.;  The  Doctrine  of  Christ  in  its  Purity,  Tueb.  1831  sq.,  4  vols.;  Cate- 
chism ami  Doctrine  of  the  New  Church,  Tueb.  1830.  (After  the  Catechism  of 
the  General  Conference,  London,  1828.)  Tafel,  A  Comparative  Exposition  and 
Eeview  of  the  Doctrinal  System  of  Cath.  and  Prot. ;  also,  Exposition  of  the 
Diflferential  Doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  Tueb.  1833.  Tafel,  Swedenborg  and  his 
Adversaries,  Tueb.  1841,  2  vols.  Moehler,  Symbolism,  Pt.  II.,  chap.  IV.  Jos. 
Goerres,  Em.  Swedenborg  and  his  Relation  to  the  Church,  Spire,  1828.  C.  F. 
Nam,  Em.  Swed.,  the  Northern  Seer,  Hall  in  Suabia,  2d  ed.,  1850.  Many  works 
of  Swed.  have  been  translated  by  different  persons,  and  published  by  O.  Clapp, 
of  Boston,  1848-1851.  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  J3iogr.  of  Em.  Sw.,  Boston,  1849. 
A.  Clissold,  Practical  Nature  of  the  Doctrines  of  E.  S.,  Boston,  1839.  K.  Ha- 
genbach,  Ch.  H.  in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries;  tr.  by  Hurst. 
Lecture  XXL,  pp.  473  sq.     Dorner,  1.  c,  p.  662-667. 

Emmanuel  Siredenhorg  (1688-1772)  was  the  son  of  Jesper 
Swedberg,  the  Lutheran  titular  Bishop  of  Skara,  in  "West 
Gothland.  He  was  highly  educated,  held  the  office  of  As- 
sessor of  the  Royal  Metallic  College  at  Stockholm,  traveled 
much  through  Europe  for  scieiitiiic  purposes,  and  when  about 
fifty-five  years  of  age  began  to  fancy  himself  -the  recipient  of 
supernatural  revelations.  He  professed  to  have  been  lifted 
up  to  Heaven,  and  there  to  have  received  a  commission  to 
restore  true  Christianity  and  to  inaugurate  a  new  and  endless 
era  for  the  Church.  This  era  was  to  open  precisely  on  the 
19th  of  June,  1770.  This  was  to  be  the  J^ew  Heaven  and  the 
New  Earth,  the  Celestial  .Jerusalem  foretold  in  the  Apocalypse. 
Notwithstanding  the  theosophic  and  speculative  character  of 
the  doctrine  of  Swedenborg,  it  had  also  an  eminently  practi- 
cal bearing. 

After  attacking  the  doctrine  of  justification,  as  held  by  Pro- 
testants, with  a  view  of  showing  that  it  is  dangerously  sub- 
versive of  morality,  he  went  on  to  draw  out  a  strangely  gro- 
tes'i^ie  system  of  his  own,  substituting  for  the  mystery  of  the 


§  382.    The  Swedenborgians,  etc.  615 

Trinity  and  the  dogma  of  redemption  through  Christ's  death 
a  triple  manifestation  of  the  Godhead,  first  in  the  person  of 
our  Lord,  and  again  in  Swedenborg  himself.  This  he  did  be- 
cause a  belief  in  the  Trinity  and  Christ's  vicarious  death  was 
the  groundwork  of  the  Protestant  view  of  justification  by 
faith  alone,  which  he  regarded  as  detrimental  to  purity  of 
morals.  As  a  consequence,  he  was  obliged  to  reject  the  doc- 
trines of  original  sin  and  man's  fall.  All  these  teachings,  he 
said,  were  errors  introduced  into  Christianity  by  the  Council 
of  Nice,  previously  to  whicii  his  was  tlie  prevailing  idea  of  the 
Trinity.  Angels  and  demons,  according  to  him,  are  only 
other  names  for  the  souls  of  the  just  and  the  reprobate;  and 
tlie  doctrines  of  satisfaction  through  Christ,  predestination, 
and  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh  are  only  idle  inventions. 
Having  elaborated  his  system,  be  set  about  arranging  the 
canon  of  the  Sacred  Books  so  as  to  fit  into  it,  and  neither  re- 
tained nor  quoted,  as  revealed  and  authentic,  any  portion  of 
either  the  Old  Testament  or  the  New,  except  the  Four  Gos- 
pels and  the  Apocalypse,  on  which  he  put  his  own  novel  and 
arbitrary  interpretation.^ 

The  followers  of  Swedenborg,  who  were  chiefly  of  the  bet- 
ter classes,  were  quite  numerous  in  Sweden,  England,  North 
America,  France,  and  Wiirtemberg.  In  the  last-named  coun- 
try, his  fantastic  writings,  published  by  Tofel,  were  exten- 
sively circulated.  In  an  age  characterized  l)y  every  sort  of 
intellectual  and  religious  lawlessness;  when  society  was  rent 
asunder  by  schism  and  made  dreary  by  unbelief;  when  the 
first  stirrings  of  reviving  faith  were  beginning  to  be  felt  and 
the  religious  sense  to  be  purified  by  the  very  excesses  of  Pro- 
testantism ;  and  when  the  intellect  was  not  yet  sufiiciently 
emancipated  from  its  old  habits  to  seize  what  was  simple  and 
logical  and  appreciate  what  was  pure,  and  on  this  very  ac- 
count liable  to  be  fascinated  and  led  captive  by  what  was  new 
and  strange,  the  incoherent  reveries  of  Swedenborg  found 
occeptance,  because  they  answered  a  state  of  mind  not  fully 
prepared  for  the  majesty  of  truth  yet  repelled  by  the  deformity 
of  error. 


'  Tofei,    Tlu^   Divinity  of   Holy  Writ,  or   the   Deeper  Sense   of  Scripture, 
Tuebingen,  1838. 


616  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chaider  2. 


§  383.  Protestant  Missions. 

Steger.  Protestant  Missions  and  their  Happy  Eesults,  in  three  parts,  2d  ed., 
Hof.  1844.  Wiggers,  Hist,  of  Evangelical  Missions,  Hamburg,  1845.  Hcrznffi 
Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  559  sq.  Grundemmin^s  Missionary  Atlas,  Gotha, 
1867-1871. 

At  no  time  in  the  history  of  Protestantism  have  its  minis- 
ters displayed  the  same  heroic  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  which 
has  in  every  age  been  characteristic  of  the  priests  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  ;  and  in  no  instance  have  the  missions  undertaken 
by  the  former,  notwithstanding  the  immense  wealth  at  their 
command,  and  the  other  conditions  of  success  by  which  they 
were  surrounded,  ever  attained  anything  approaching  the 
measure  of  success  reached  by  those  of  the  latter.  Why,  it 
may  be  asked,  did  not  the  Protestants,  in  the  fervor  of  their 
first  enthusiasm,  imitate  the  example  of  the  Jesuits,  whose 
origin  was  almost  contemporaneous  with  theirs,  and  carry  the 
light  of  faith  and  the  consolations  of  grace  to  those  sitting  in 
darkness  in  far  distant  lands?  It  maybe  urged  that  their 
ardent  and  expansive  charity  had  a  Avork  sufficient  for  its  re- 
sources in  reclaiming  the  Catholic  idolators  at  home.  Doubt- 
less it  had.  But  it  is  certainly  not  very  complimentary  to  the 
astuteness  popularly  ascribed  to  the  Jesuit  that  he  did  not 
allege  a  similar  pretext,  and  thus  escape  the  difficulties  and 
perils  of  a  foreign  mission.  Of  all  the  Protestant  sects,  the 
United  Brethren  were  the  most  distinguished  for  missionary 
zeal  (since  1732)  ;  but  so  grotesque  and  fantastic  was  the  Gos- 
pel which  they  preached  that,  while  it  found  favor  with  a 
comparatively  small  number  of  persons  already  familiar  with 
and  prepared  to  accept  its  peculiarities,  it  was  uiterly  power- 
less to  effect  the  conversion  of  the  rude  and  untutored  savage. 
Desirous  of  retaining  peaceable  possession  of  her  North  Amer- 
ican colonies,  England  made  an  eflbrt  to  convert  their  aborig- 
inal tribes  to  Christianity,  and  for  this  purpose  sent  out  John 
.Eliot}  who  commenced  his  labors  among  them  in  1646. 

In  1647  the  Puritans,  who  were  then  in  possession  of  the 


1  Eliot,  Chr.  Commonwealth,  or  the  Rising  Kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  1652  sq, 
2  T  ,  4to.     Maiher,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  New  England,  London,  1702,  f. 


§  383.  ProtestaiH  Blissions.  617 

supreme  authority,  established  a  societ}' for  carrying  the  light 
of  the  Gospel  into  foreign  lands  ;  while  tiie  pious  Herrnhut- 
ters^  and  the  ardent  31ethoclists,  acting  on  the  impulse  of  faith 
and  devotion,  and  without  cither  oflicial  recognition  or  aid 
from  government,  crossed  the  seas  to  aid  in  winning  the  sav- 
ages to  Christianity. 

Following  the  example  of  England,  the  Danish  government 
established,  and,  with  the  active  assistance  of  the  Orphan 
House  at  Halle,  has  maintained  since  1706  a  mission  at  Tran- 
quthar  for  its  East  India  possessions,  from  which  the  first  Pro- 
testant missionaries  were  obtained  by  England  for  her  East 
India  and  West  India  colonies.  In  the  East  their  success  was 
inconsiderable,  and  in  the  West  the  conversions  were  wholly 
confined  to  the  slave  class.^ 

Denmark  and  Sweden  sent  missionaries  to  the  frozen  re- 
gions of  Lcqolcmd  and  Greenland,^  wdiere  the  seeds  of  Chris- 
tianity, sown  at  an  earlier  date  by  Catholic  evangelists,  had 
almost  perished  from  the  soil.  Since  the  fifteenth  century  the 
name  of  Greenland  had  almost  dropped  out  of  the  list  of  Eu- 
ropean countries,  to  whose  fellowship  it  was  now  destined  to 
be  restored  by  Havs  Egede^^  a  pious  and  zealous  Norwegian 
minister,  Avho,  aided  by  tlie  Danish  government  and  by  a  so- 
ciety of  merchants  (1721),  made  his  way  to  the  frozen  shores 
of  its  western  coast,  where  he  found  a  few  thousand  Esqui- 
maux, to  whose  conversion  and  improvement  he  devoted  his 
energies,  and  among  whom  the  blessings  of  Christianity  and 


1  An  Abstract  of  the  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  Evangelical  Brethren, 
Gimdau,  1833.     Cf.   Walch,  New  Keligious  History,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  251  sq. 

2  Missionary  Eeports,  publ.  at  Halle,  since  1708.  Watch,  1.  cit.,  Vol.  V.,  p. 
119.     Memoirs  of  Chr.  F.  Swarfz,  and  Hist,  of  Eel.  in  India,  London,  182G. 

3  Acta  hist,  eccl.,  T.  XI.,  p.  1  sq.;  T.  XV.,  p.  230  sq.  J.  Shejferus,  Hist,  of 
L£|iland.  with  Sketches,  etc.  Oxford,  167-4,  f.  J.eem,  Laplanders  in  Finmark; 
ti.  from  the  Danish  into  Germ.,  Lps.  1771.  Rudelbach,  in  Knapp's  Christoterpe, 
1833.  (Tk.) 

*i/.  Egedc,  Account  of  the  Greenland  ?tIission,  Haniliurg,  1740.  {Ih^m 
Egede,  A  Description  of  Greenland  and  Life  of  the  Author,  London,  1818  ) 
Paul  Egede,  Accounts  of  Greenland,  summarized  from  a  Diary,  from  1721- 
1740,  Copenhagen,  1790.  Rudelbach,  Hans  Egedo,  Bp.  of  Greenland  (Chr. 
Biogr.  1850,  Vol.  I.);  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Isles,  New  York, 
1830.  Kolbing,  Hist,  of  the  Mission  of  Greenland,  Gnadau,  1731.  Missionary 
Records  respecting  Greenland,  Labrador,  etc.  (Pres.  Board),  Philadelphia,  1830 


618  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chaptei  2. 

civilization  have  been  perpetuated  by  the  establishment  of 
Danish  colonies.  The  Moravian  Brethren  have  (fr.  1733)  es- 
tablished several  missionary  stations  in  Greenland.^  Mention 
should  also  be  made  here  of  the  Institution  founded  at  Halle 
in  1728  by  Professor  Callenbercj  for  the  conversion  of  Jews 
and  Mohammedans,  but  the  results  in  no  way  answered  the 
expectations  of  its  founder. 

§  384.   Relations  of  Catholics  to  Protestants. 

The  relations  subsisting  between  Catholics  and  Protestants 
in  the  different  countries  of  Europe  were  of  course  as  various 
as  the  circumstances  that  called  them  forth ;  but,  strange  to 
say,  notwithstanding  the  desolating  horrors  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  "VVar,  they  were  more  pacific  in  Germany  than  else- 
where. It  is  not  meant,  how^ever,  that  the  bitterness  of  po- 
lemical strife  had  entirely  ceased  to  manifest  itself  in  the  at- 
titude of  parties  toward  each  other,  but  only  that  matters 
were  mendiog.  So  deep-seated  and  persistent  was  the  hos- 
tility of  Protestants  toward  the  Catholic  Church  and  every- 
thing that  came  from  her,  that  even  so  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  they  declined  to  accept  the  corrected 
Gregorian  Calendar ;  and  when,  in  1744,  Prince  Hohenlohe 
showed  a  disposition  to  force  his  Lutheran  ministers  to  cele- 
brate the  feast  of  Easter  on  the  same  day  with  the  Catholics, 
the  Corpus  Evangelicorum,  smarting  under  other  real  or  im- 
aginary grievances,  declared  they  would  have  recourse  to  arms 
rather  than  do  so,  and  in  1750  made  good  their  word.  More- 
over, so  intolerant  and  fiercely  violent  was  the  expression  of 
feeling  against  Catholics  on  the  occasion  of  the  celebration 
of  the  Second  Centenary  Jubilee  of  the  Meformation,  and  so  ex- 
travagantly fulsome  the  chorus  of  praises  extolling  the  merits 


1  The  Danish  Lutherans  have  (from  North  to  South)  organized  the  following 
Aoeiye  missionary  districts,  viz:  Upernavik,  Omenalc,  Ritenbenk,  Jacobshavn, 
Christianshaab,  Egedesminde,  Holsteinborg,  Sukkertoppen,  Godthaab,  Fisker- 
naes,  Frederikshaab,  Julianeshaab.  The  Moravian  Breihren  have  erected  the 
missionary  districts  of  New  Herrnhut  (1733),  Lichtenfels  (1758),  Lichtenau 
(1774),  Friedrichsthal  (1824),  Umanak,  and  Igdlorpait,  in  Greenland;  and 
(fr.  1771)  those  of  Nain,  Ohkak,  Uopedale,  Hebron,  and  Zoar,  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador.     Grundemunn,  i.  c,  p.  6*2  sq.  (Tu.) 


§  384.   Belaiions  of  Catholics  to  Protestants.  619 

and  virtues  of  Luther/  that  the  celebrated  controversialist, 
Weislinger,  indignant  at  the  insults  put  upon  his  faith,  and 
smarting  under  the  wounds  inflicted  by  the  poisoned  shafts 
of  his  adversaries,  adopted  a  similar  method  of  warfare,  and 
with  such  eft'ect  that  he  was  pursued  through  every  court,  ec- 
clesiastical and  civil,  to  which  he  was  amenable,  by  his  Pro. 
testant  aggressors.^  Again,  when  in  1731  Count  Leopold  An- 
thony von  Firmiaii,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  having  ordered 
such  of  his  Protestant  subjects  as  were  resisting  liis  authority 
and  inciting  his  Catholic  subjects  to  rebellion  and  apostasy  to 
quit  his  dominions,  about  twenty  thousand  of  them  departed 
without  molestation,  some  to  take  up  their  abodes  in  the  de- 
populated districts  of  Lithuania,  and  others  to  go  either  to 
England  or  America,^  both  his  moral  and  religious  character 
were  assailed  with  brutal  violence,  and  his  decree  of  emigra- 
tion characterized  as  an  act  of  barbarous  intolerance,  such  as 
had  never  before  disgraced  a  civilized  ruler.  But  though  the 
character  and  the  acts  of  the  archbishop  do  not  merit  the  se- 
verity of  the  censure  they  have  received,  it  can  not  and  need 
not  be  denied  that  the  conduct  of  his  officials  in  carrying  out 

1  Weislinrjer,  in  the  Preface  to  his  work  entitled  Friss  Vogel  oder  Stirb,  says: 
"  If  all  that  they  (the  Lutherans)  incessantly  reproach  us  with  in  their  writ- 
ings, sermons,  conversations,  and  jubilee-medals  were  true,  then  there  never 
existed  on  this  earth,  or  could  exist,  a  religion  more  diabolical  than  the  Catho- 
lic faith  and  worship,  or  a  people  more  godless  and  more  deserving  the  execra- 
tion of  mankind  than  the  Catholics  themselves." 

2Seep.  541,  note  3. 

^De  Caspari,  Authentic  Hist,  of  the  Emigration  from  Salzburg,  transl.  fr. 
the  Latin  into  Germ,  by  Huber,  Salzburg,  1790.  Zaiwer  and  Gaertner,  Chron- 
icle of  Salzburg,  Vol.  X.,  Salzb.  1821,  pp.  20-399.  History  of  the  Emigrants 
or  Lutherans  banished  from  the  Archbishopric  of  Salzburg,  od  cd.,  Lps.  1733, 
4to.  This  work  is  written  in  partisan  spirit,  and  is  flagrantly  untruthful, 
t-^C'laTus,  Emigration  of  the  Protestant  Proselytizing  Salzburgians  in  the  years 
1731  and  1732,  Innsbruck,  1864.  Cf.  Hist,  and  Political,  Papers,  Vol.  54,  year 
1864,  pp.  813-842.  Gfrocrer,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Hist,  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  draws  attention  to  the  partisan  spirit  of  the  History  of  the  Emi- 
grants, etc.,  noted  above.  "In  my  opinion,"  he  says,  "the  Salzburg  Emigra- 
tion is  the  darkest  page  in  the  history  of  Erederic  William  I.  And  yet,  if  we 
read  tho  works  published  in  Northern  Germany,  we  shall  be  told  that  Arch- 
bishop Firmian  is  a  monster  of  iniquity,  while  Frederic  William  I.  of  Prussia 
is  extolled  as  a  paragon  of  purity,  an  upright  prince,  and  a  model  man.  To 
what  a  depth  of  degradation  is  our  national  historical  literature  fallen! ' 


620  Perio'l  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.      Chapter  2. 

his  instructions  is  not  defensible,  and  full}'  deserves  the  stern 
rebuke  administered  in  the  review  of  these  transactions  by 
Clarus. 

The  members  of  the  Reformed  Church  within  the  Palatinate 
of  the  Rhine  also  made  frequent  complaints  of  acts  of  oppres- 
sion, which  they  claimed  they  had  sufl'ered  at  the  hands  of 
the  Catholic  House  of  JSeuburg  of  the  Palatinate.^  But 
whether  their  hardships  were  real  or  imaginary,  they  were 
mild  in  comparison  of  tliose  suflered  either  by  the  Hugenots 
after  the  Eevocation  of  the  Edict  of  ITantes^  or  by  the  Dissi- 
dents of  Poland,  in  consequence  of  the  interference  of  for- 
eign powers  in  the  internal  aft'airs  of  that  country.^  "While 
the  Catholics  of  the  British  Empire  were  under  the  restriction 
of  laws  of  the  most  despotic  severity,  Joseph  II.  of  Austria 
issued  an  Edict  of  Toleration  (1781),  granting  freedom  of  wor- 
ship to  all  Protestants,  Deists  alone  excepted.  After  the  con- 
quest of  Silesia  by  Frederic  11.^  both  Catholics  and  Protestants 
were  placed  on  a  footing  of  perfect  equality  (1742),  though 
the  former  were  decidedly  in  the  worse  condition,  by  reason 
of  the  confiscation  of  the  estates  belonging  to  their  convents. 

As  mixed  marriages  beticeen  Catholics  and  Protestards  were 
becoming  daily  more  frequent,  in  consequence  of  the  increas- 
ing intercourse  between  the  members  of  both  denominations, 
they  gave  rise  to  serions  difficulties  as  ^-ear.s  went  on.  Pro- 
testants, now  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  fullest  political  fran- 
chise, laid  claims  also  to  privileges  which  the  Catholic  Church 
reserves  for  her  own  children  ;  and  when  marrying  Cath- 
olics demanded  the  blessing  of  the  priest,  while  professing  to 
believe  that  marriage  was  not  a  Sacrament.  Although  the 
question  was  then  an  open  one  among  theologians,  the  doc- 
trine held  at  Rome  was  that  the  contracting  parties  are  the  real 
ministers  of  the  Sacrament  of  marriage,  and  not  the  priest  who 
gives  the  marriage  blessing,*  still  Benedict  XIV.,  following  the 


^Pla7ick,  New  Hist,  of  Religion,  Pt.  II.,  pp.  125-22G,  with  Proofs  and  Illus- 
trations. 

2Seep.  281. 

3  Huth,  Vol.  II.,  p.  238-241.      ]VnMi,  Pt.  YII.,  ]).  7-lGO. 

*The  Interpretes  Cone.  Trid.  declared  on  the  31st  of  July,  1752:  "  Accedit, 
parochum  in  matrimoniis  nuUam  exercere  jurisdictionem,  cum  ex  v.riori  et  r«- 


§  384.    Relations  of  Catholics  to  Protestants.  621 

imprescri[itablc  principles  of  the  Church,  when  questi(/necl 
upon  the  subject  by  bishops,  and  notably  by  those  of  Holland 
and  Poland,  returned  the  uniform  answer  contained  in  the 
bull  3lar/nae  nobis  admirationis  (issued  June  29,  1748),  namely, 
that  mixed  marriages  could  be  tolerated  only  on  certain  con- 
ditions, the  most  important  of  which  is  that  the  children 
born  of  them  be  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  Church;  but  that 
they  should  never  receive  such  color  of  approval  as  a  formal 
ecclesiastical  function  would  imply.^  Far,  however,  from 
wishing  these  conditions  to  serve  as  a  sort  of  clandestine  ap- 
paratus for  proselytism,  popes,  bishops,  and  zealous  ecclesi- 
astics have  at  all  times  dissuaded  against  such  marriages  as 
detrimental  alike  to  the  happiness  of  the  family  and  the  in- 
terests of  religion. - 


ceptiori  sententia  ipse  non  sit  minister  magni  hujus  sacramenti  matrimonii,  qui 
cum  aliis  testibus  certam  reddat  ecclesiam,  hunc  atque  illam  matrimoniura  con- 
traxisse,  ut  ex  hac  quoque  ratione  abesse  videatur  quaestio  de  jurisdictione  a 
delegate  non  subdelegando."  (Thesaurus  resolution,  sacr.  Congr.  Cone.  Trid., 
T.  XX.,  Eom.  1752,  pp.  91,  92.) 

^ Luther- and  Calvia  held  a  very  different  opinion  on  this  subject,  declaring, 
that  marriages  between  Catholics  and  Prote.stants  were  utterly  inadmissible  and 
impious,  and  appealing  for  :iuthority  to  the  words  of  St.  Paul,  "  Bear  not  the 
yoke  with  unbelievers."  (II.  Cor.,  vi.  14.)  Enactments  were  passed  by  the  sj'nods 
of  Lyons  (15G8)  and  Saumur  (1596),  embndying  the  same  sentiment;  while 
that  of  Montpellier  (1598)  pronounced  sentence  of  deposition  and  deprivation 
against  all  ministers  who  should  bless  mixed  marriages.  The  ground  of  such 
severity  is  thus  stated  by  Gent'dis,  and  is  characteristically  Calvinistic.  "  Catli- 
olics,"  he  says,  "may  well  permit  such  marriages,  because,  from  their  point  of 
view,  Protestants  are  only  heretics;  but  Protestants  must  emphatically  reject 
them,  because  in  their  eyes  Catholics  are  not  only  heretics,  but  antichrists  I  ^' 
This  opinion  was  modified  some  time  later  by  Carpzov,  who  allowed  "  that 
mixed  marriages  might  be  permitted,  but  only  on  condition  that  there  be  a 
reasonably  certain  hope  of  both  the  Catholic  party  and  all  the  offspring  being 
eventually  Lutheran." 

■i-tBinterim,  Memorabilia,  Vol.  VII.,  Pt.  I.,  p.  137  sq. ;  Pt.  II.,  p.  1-179. 
-\ Kutschker,  JJixed  Marriages,  Viewed  from  the  Catholic  Standpoint,  3d  ed., 
Vienna,  1841.  ■\ '^ Kuntsmann,  Hist,  of  Mixed  Marriages  among  the  divers 
Christian  Denominations,  Katisbon,  1839.  tRosfwvamj,  Historia  matrinioni- 
orum  mixtorum.  Quinque  Ecclesiis,  1842,  2  T.  ■\Reincrding,  The  Principle  cf 
Canon  Law  in  the  Question  of  Mixed  Marriages,  Paderborn,  1854. 


622  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Cka'pter  2. 

§  385.   The  Russian  Church  under  the  Permanent  Synod.    (Cf. 

§  350.) 

Pichler,  Hist,  of  the  Schism  between  the  East  and  the  "West,  Vol.  II.,  p.  144 
sq.,  with  reference  to  the  new  works  of  Thelner,  Gagarin,  Haxihausen ,  and 
others.     Phitaref,  Hist,  of  the  Russian  Church,  Frkft.  1872,  2  vols. 

It  has  bee)i  already  stated  ^  that  even  from  a  political  point 
oi'view  the  growing  power  of  the  Patriarch  of  Moscow  had 
roused  the  jealousy  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  was  apprehensive 
that  possibly  this  ecclesiastical  dignitary  might  some  day  re- 
sist the  arbitrary  demands  of  a  despotic  Tzar.  He  formed 
the  design,  therefore,  of  abolishing  the  patriarchate,  and  sub- 
stituting in  its  stead  an  ecclesiastical  organization,  from  whose 
opposition  the  government  would  have  nothing  to  fear  in 
carrying  out  its  projects.  The  undertaking  was  surrounded 
with  no  ordinar}'  dangeiv,  as  the  people  were  much  attached 
to  the  patriarchal  constitution,  and  hence  it  was  necessary  for 
the  Tzar  to  proceed  with  great  prudence  and  caution. 

On  the  death  of  the  eleventh  Patriarch,  in  1702,  Peter  em- 
,  ployed  all  manner  of  pretexts  to  put  oif  the  appointment  of 
his  successor,  and,  as  a  temporary  provision,  placed  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  patriarchate  in  the  hands  of  the  metro- 
politan of  Riazan,  who,  being  but  a  mere  exarch,  neither 
commanded  the  respect  nor  possessed  the  fulness  of  authority 
belonging  to  the  lawful  incumbent  of  the  patriarchal  office. 
During  this  interval  the  interference  of  the  Tzar  in  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  was  in  the  highest  degree  arbitrary.  He  levied 
taxes  upon  the  estates  of  convents  and  bishops ;  abolished 
the  titles  and  dignities  attached  to  bishoprics,  whose  incum- 
bents had  given  him  offense  ;  and,  when  these  sees  fell  vacant, 
directed  the  exarch  to  fill  them  with  simple  bishops,  whose 
pastoral  prerogatives  he  attenuated  to  the  verge  of  extinc- 
tion. Pie  soon  began  to  introduce  radical  reforms  in  the  con- 
vents of  men  and  women,  as  is  shown  hy  the  series  of  ordi- 
nances on  this  subject  drawn  up  in  1702  and  succeeding  years. 
1'he  Tzar  next  gave  his  attention  to  the  secular  clergy,  and 
was  good  enough  to  write  out  with  his  own  hand  a  pastoral 
instruction,  in  twenty-six  articles,  called  a  sj^jiritual  7rgulation, 

>  See  p.  470. 


§  385.    rh(ssi('n  Church  under  the  Permanent  Synod.     623 

prescribing  the  qualifications  of  candidates  going  up  for  or- 
ders and  of  bishops  for  consecration,  and  treating  other  cog- 
nate subjects,  and  this,  in  his  character  of  Supjreme  Bishop, 
he  addressed  to  the  bishops  of  his  obedience  for  their  guid 
auce  and  edification. 

The  Kussian  Church  was  then  organized  as  follows: 

Every  cathedral  or  episcopal  church  was  to  have  one  protopope,  or,  as  wo 
should  say,  dean,  two  treasurers,  five  popes  (i.  e.  fathers),  one  protodeacjn, 
four  deacons,  two  readers,  two  sacristans,  and  thirty-two  choristers  to  sing  the 
service.  In  the  principal  parish-churches  there  were  to  be  one  protopope.  two 
popes,  two  deacons,  two  chanters,  and  two  sacristans  ;  in  other  more  considerable 
parish-churches,  two  popes,  two  deacons,  two  chanters,  and  two  sacristans  ;  and 
in  parishes  of  two  or  three  hundred  families,  three  priests,  three  deacons,  and 
three  sacristans  were  charged  with  the  care  of  public  worship.  If  there  were 
too  many  clergy  at  one  church,  part  of  them  were  sent  where  their  services 
were  more  needed. 

By  these  measures  the  Tzar  accustomed  both  clergy  and 
people  to  yield  a  passive  obedience  to  the  behests  of  his  pow- 
erful will,  and  thus  advancing  step)  by  step  ended  by  abolish- 
ing the  ofiice  of  Patriarch.  In  a  solemn  assembly  of  bishops 
he  finally  declared  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  Patriarchate  was 
no  longer  necessary,  either  for  the  government  of  the  Church 
or  the  well-being  of  the  State  ;  that,  since  the  extent  of  the 
Empire  rendered  supreme  spiritual  authority  jierilous  when 
committed  to  a  single  individual,  and  inefficient  when  vested 
in  a  general  council,  he  had  determined  to  introduce  a  form 
of  ecclesiastical  government  that  would  combine  the  elements 
of  both,  without  the  dangers  or  inconveniences  of  either; 
and  that  this  should  consist  in  a  small,  select,  and  'permanent 
synod,  with  full  authority  to  regulate  all  ecclesiastical  aflairs. 

When  some  of  the  bishops,  by  way  of  remonstrance,  ven- 
tured to  state  that  the  patriarchate  of  Kiev  and  that  of  all 
the  Russias  had  been  established  only  hy  the  authority  of  the 
Patriarch  of  the  East,  the  Tzar,  assuming  an  authoritive  air, 
and  striking  his  breast,  replied,  '■'■  Behold  here  your  Patriarch  '" 
As  the  event  proved,  the  Tzar  knew  his  men,  for  it  was  not 
long  until  there  were  to  be  found  among  them  ecclesiastics 
and  bishops  cowardly  and  base  enough  to  take  upon  them  to 
justify  the  imperial  measure,  and  to  sacrifice    to  a  wicked 


624  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chcrpler  2. 

ambition  the  independence  and  freedom  of  the  Church  they 
professed  to  serve.  At  the  head  of  this  troop  of  ecclesiastical 
poltroons  was  Theophanes  Procopooicz,  since  1718  Bishop  of 
Pskov  and  Narva.  After  these  preparatory  measures,  Peter 
submitted  at  the  last  Council  of  Moscow,  in  1720,  his  "_£"(?- 
desiastical  Bef/ulation,"  as  corrected  by  his  own  hand,  for  the 
ajDprobation  and  signature  of  the  bishops,  archimandrites,  and 
hegumenes  of  the  principal  monasteries.  This  council  also 
enacted  that  the  "  Holy  Synod"  should  be  ftrmanent,  and  en- 
joy supreme  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  that  its  decisions 
should  be  final  in  all  matters  appertaining  to  the  Church. 
The  ^'■Pegikhition  "  also  set  forth  the  motives  which  impelled 
the  Tzar  to  establish  a  Holy  Synod,  whose  functions  should  be 
legislative  and  whose  sittings  permanent.  Some  of  these  are 
of  remarkable  astuteness  and  subtlety.^  Not  long  after  this 
coup  de  grCice  the  Holy  Syvod.  was  solemnly  opened  (February 
25,  1721)  by  a  discourse  from  its  vice-president,  Archbishop 
Theophanes.  It  was  composed  of  eleven  members,  namely, 
a  president,  two  vice-presidents,  four  councillors,  and  four 
assessors ;  but  this  number  was  increased  to  fourteen  in  1722. 
The  knowledge  and  capacity  of  the  first  members  of  this 
Synod,  in  whose  selection  the  Tzar  had  exhibited  an  unusual 
degree  of  political  prudence,  gave  to  that  body  a  consideration 
throughout  the  Empire  which  it  would  not  otherwise  have 


M.  A  synod  is  more  capable  than  a  single  individual  to  form  a  judgment 
and  to  give  decisions;  2.  The  decisions  of  such  a  body  are  of  greater  weight 
and  more  commanding  authority  than  those  of  any  one  man;  3.  As  the  synod 
convenes  by  the  order  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Tzar,  there  need  be  no 
suspicion  of  either  partiality  or  unfairness,  as  the  Tzar  will  always  put  the 
public  good  bafore  any  private  interest  (?);  4.  The  transaction  of  business  will 
not  be  interrupted  either  by  disease  or  death;  5.  In  a  synod  like  this,  whose 
members  are  taken  from  the  different  oiders,  there  is  little  ground  to  appre- 
hend the  influence  either  of  passion  or  of  corruption  ;  6.  A  number  of  persons 
participating  in  a  single  act  will  not  be  as  easily  deterred  as  an  individual  act- 
ing alone  would  be,  from  doing  their  duty,  because  in  dread  of  the  vengeance 
of  the  powerful;  7.  Kevolts  and  insurrections  are  for  this  reason  prevented; 
8.  If  the  president  of  a  synod  makes  mistakes  or  acts  unwisely,  he  may  be  cor. 
rected  by  his  brethren,  but  a  patriarch  would  not  submit  his  acts  to  the  bishops 
subordinate  to  him ;  9.  A  synodal  government  of  this  sort  would  become,  in 
course  of  time,  a  nursery  of  able  and  distinguished  ecclesiastics,  and  the  asses- 
sors would  in  consequence  acquire  a  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  adiainlstratlou. 


§  385.  Russian  Church  under  the  Permanent  Synod.     G25 

been  able  to  comnuuid.  Tbey  were  cboscii  from  tbe  most 
distinguished  of  the  bishops,  from  the  archimandrites,  from 
the  hegumenes  of  the  principal  convents,  and  from  the  proto- 
popes.  The  Sjnod  once  established,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence the  bonds  uniting  the  Russian  Church  to  that  of  the 
East  were  severed.  Its  every  act  was  molded  to  fit  the  policy 
of  the  Tzar,  whose  will  was  the  suijreme  rule  of  action. 
Hence,  on  being  likened  to  King  Louis  XIV.,  Peter  might 
justly  rejoin  :  "  I  think  I  have  beaten  the  French  King  on 
■  one  capital  point ;  I  have  brought  ni}'  clergy  to  obedience 
and  })oace.  Louis  has  allowed  himself  to  be  subjugated  by 
his  "  (? !)  ^  The  successors  of  Peter  I.  were  hardly  less  pleased 
than  himself  with  this  creation  of  his  genius,  and  appreciating 
its  importance  as  an  engine  of  state  policy,  were  very  careful 
to  preserve  it.  Its  influences  were  potent,  sorrowful,  and  in- 
evitable. From  this  time  forth  the  Russian  Church  was  in  a 
condition  of  abject  servitude ;  it  became  the  mother  of  nu- 
merous sects,  and  ceased  completely  to  exert  an}-  moral  influ- 
ence over  its  members.^  The  most  numerous  sect  that  has 
sprung  from  it  is  that  of  the  Raskobnks,  or  Separatists,  but 
who  style  themselves  Starowierzi,  or  Men  of  the  Old  Faith. 
There  are  many  subdivisions  of  this  sect,  based  upon  trifling 
differences.^ 


1  Such  conduct,  certainly,  does  not  show  any  inclination  on  his  part  toward 
a  union  with  the  Catholic  Church,  as  Thei7ier  attempted  to  prove  in  his  work, 
entitled  •'  The  Latest  Phase  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Poland  and  Russia." 

- 1  have  seen  in  Eussia  a  Church  which  no  one  attacks,  and  which,  to  all 
appearances,  every  one  respects  ;  a  Church  which,  in  the  exercise  of  its  moral 
authority,  has  every  condition  of  success  ;  and,  nevertheless,  this  Chui'ch  has 
absolutely  no  hold  on  the  hearts  of  men';  it  produces  hypocrites  and  persons 
given  to  superstition,  but  none  others.  (La  Paissle  en  1839  par  le  3Iarquis 
dc  Custine,  Bruxelles,  1844,  T.  IV.,  p.  434.) 

^  Cf.,  on  these  sects,  Aug.  de  Haxthatise7i,  Studies  on  the  Internal  Condition 
of  Eussia  and  on  the  Eussian  People,  Hanover,  1847,  II.  Pts.  See  '^The  Cath- 
olic," 1848,  nro.  42. 

VOL.  Ill — 40 


PART  SECOND. 

FROM  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  DOWN  TO  OUR 
OWN  DAY  (1789-1878). 


THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  CONFLICT  WITH  FALSE  POLIT- 
ICAL  THEORIES  — THE  NEGATIVE  CHARACTER  OF  PRO 
TESTANTISM  GROWS  DAILY  MORE  PRONOUNCED. 

§  386.   General  Literature — Importance  of  31odern  Church 

History. 

I.  *  Bullarii  Romani  continuatio  summor.  Poiitificum  Clementls  XIII. — Gre- 
gor.  XVI..  Rom.  1835  sq.  Collectio  Lacensis,  acta  et  decreta  Cone,  recent.,  T. 
11.  sq.  For  other  documents  and  public  papers,  see  Midterms  Cyclopaedia  of 
Canon  Law,  and  Vater's  Structure  of  Modern  Ch.  H.  See,  above,  p.  475.  Huih, 
t  Essay  on  the  Ch.  H.  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Vol.  IL,  Augsburg,  1809. 
tLate  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  from  the  Accession  of  Pius  VII.  (3800) 
till  the  Times  of  Gregory  XVI.  (1833),  transl.  fr.  the  Italian  into  German,  2d 
ed.,  Augsburg,  1836.  j-Robiano,  Continuation  de  I'Hist.  ecclesiastique  de  Be- 
rault-Beroastel  (1721-1830),  Paris,  1836,  4  T.  -f Gam's,  Hist,  of  the  Church  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century,  with  Special  Reference  to  Germany,  being  a  continu- 
ation of  BerauU-Bei'casteL' s  Ch.  H.,  Innsbruck,  1853  sq.,  3  vols.  '\Rolirbacnerj 
Histoire  univ.  de  Feglise,  T.  27  and  28.  Sc/iarpf,  Lectures  on  Modern  Ch.  II., 
Freiburg,  1852.  Saint-George,  Le  Christianisme  au  XIXe  siecle,  Paris,  1853. 
Gieseler,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  V.  (fr.  1814  till  a  very  recent  date).  Hagenbach,  Hist 
of  the  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  Pt.  IL,  4th  ed.j 
Leipsig,  1872;  Engl.  tr.  by  Hurst,  Vol.  IL,  New  York,  1869.  (Tr.)  Baur, 
Cb.  H.  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (Vol.  V.)  Xippold,  Manual  of  3Iodern  Ch. 
H.,  from  1814,  Elberfeld,  1867. 

For  Political  History:  Cesare  Caniu,  Univ.  Hist.,  Germ.,  by  Briihl,  V(.l. 
XIII.  '\'^ Boost,  Modern  Hist,  of  Mankind,  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
French  Revolution  down  to  Our  Own  Days,  Vol.  I.  (Hist,  of  France).  2d  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1843;  Vol.  IL,  Augsburg,  1843  (Hist,  of  Austria).  Leo,  .\bridg. 
ment  of  Univ.  Hist.,  Vols.  IV.  and  V.  A.  Ali.soii.  History  of  Europ'\  from 
the  Commencement  of  the  French  Revolution  to  the  Restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons, Edinburgh,  1833-1842;  10th  ed.,  14  vols.,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1861; 
German,  by  Mayer,  0  vols.,  Lps.  1842-1846  ;  also  transl.  into  Ilindoostanoe  and 
Arabic;  so  is  likewise  the  continuation  of  this  work:  "History  of  Europe, 
from  the  Fall  of  Napoleon  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,''  6  vols.,  Edinb. 
1852-1857;  7th  vol.,  London,  1865.  (Tr.)  Wolfgang  Mmzel,  Hist,  of  Europe, 
fr,  the  Commencement  of  the  .Fr.  Revol.,  1789-1815,  3d  ed.,  Stuttg.  1866.  2 
vols.;  b}'  the  zame.  Hist,  of  the  Last  Forty  Years,  1816-1856,  and  Hist  of  *he 
1 626) 


§  386.    General  Literature,  etc.  62" 


Last  One  Hundred  and  Twenty  Years,  1740-1860.  Louis  Blanc,  Hist,  de  dix 
ans  1830-1840,  Paris,  4  vols.  (We  recommend  only  the  documentary  proofs, 
not  the  spirit  of  the  work.)  Among  the  PoliiicaC  Periodicals,  we  offer  for  con- 
sultation, above  all,  The  Moniteui;  Allf/emeine  Zeitung,  and  the  Chronicle  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century,  from  1801. 

With  the  latter  half  of  the  present  epoch  the  subject-matter 
oi  Church  History  approaches  gradually  nearer  our  own 
times,  until  finally  it  passes  into  the  age  in  whicli  we  live, 
and  with  whose  development  and  culture  our  life'is,  for  better 
or  worse,  intimately  connected.  If  the  very  nearness  of  the 
subject  attracts  us,  its  interest  will  grow  upon  us  still  more 
as  we  reflect  that  modern  times  are  richer  in  events  of  ex- 
traordinary import  and  far-reaching  consequences,  whether 
in  the  civil  or  ecclesiastical  domain,  than  any  age  in  the  past 
history  of  mankind,  with  perhaps  not  more  than  one  or  two 
exceptions,  and  therefore  supply  abundant  and  varied  matter 
to  the  historian.  A  thorough  and  complete  acquaintance 
with  the  religious  condition,  mterind  and  external,  of  the 
Church  during  the  passing  and  past  years  included  in  this  in- 
terval is  all  the  more  necessary  to  the  theologian,  in  that,  as 
a  pastor  of  souls,  he  is  in  daily  contact  with  the  practical  af- 
fairs of  life,  and  should  at  once  help  to  revive  and  exert  an 
influence  upon  religious  principles  and  moral  conduct ;  and 
this  he  can  not  do  if  he  possess  not  the  information  requisite 
to  give  meaning  and  purpose  to  his  endeavors.  If  thorough- 
ness of  treatment  be  demanded  in  any  portion  of  Church 
History,  it  is  assuredly  in  that  embracing  the  events  of  most 
recent  times.  Nor  should  the  current  objection  '■'•that  these 
times  are  not  yet  sufficiently  full  for  such  treatment,  or  that  in 
treating  of  them  some  events  must  be  either  passed  over  entirely 
or  drawn  ivith  a  most  skillful  and  delicate  touch,"  be  allowed  to 
have  more  than  its  just  weight.  The  difficulty  may  be  ob- 
viated if  the  historian  beware  of  setting  forth  imperfectly 
developed  events  as  complete  and  accomplished  facts  ;  and  if, 
in  touching  upon  aftairs  personal  to  those  still  living,  he  do 
80  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  matter  of  historical  fact.  This 
was  the  method  pursued  by  Euscbius,  the  Father  of  Church 
History,  who  sets  forth  the  events  of  his  own  age  with  re- 
markable fullness.     (Pref.  to  Bk.  VIII.) 


CHAPTER  I. 

HIiJTORY    OF    THE    CATHOLIC    CHURCH   FROM    1789-1878. 

The  French  Eevolution. 

tBarriiel,  Collection  ecclesiastique,  ou  recueil  complet  des  ouvrages  laits  de- 
puis  I'ouverture  des  etats  generaux,  relativement  au  clerge,  7  T. ;  Germ.,  Kemp- 
ten,  1795-1797,  10  pts.  By  the  same,  Histoire  du  clerge  de  France  pendant  la 
revolution,  Lond.  179i  and  1804;  Germ  ,  by  Coilinet,  Frkft.  and  Lps.  (Miin- 
ster),  1794,  2  vols.  Histoire  du  clerge  en  France  pendant  la  revolution  d'apres 
Barruel,  Montjoie,  Picot,  etc.,  par  M.  R.     •■■  *     Paris,  3  T.     jCarron,  Les 

confesseurs  de  la  foi  dans  I'eglise  gallicane  a  la  fin  du  18  sieclo,  Paris,  1820,  4 
T. ;  Germ.,  by  Rass  and  Weis,  ilentz,  1822-1826,  4  vols.  Barruel,  ilemoires 
j)our  servir  a  I'histoire  du  Jacobinisme  (1797  and  1803),  Lyens,  1818  sq.,  4  T, 
^Jager,  Histoire  de  I'eglise  de  France  pendant  la  revolution,  Paris,  1852  sq.,  3  T. 
Boost,  Latest  Hist,  of  Fra'nce  (1789-1835).  Wachsmuih,  Hist,  of  France  during 
the  Revolution,  Hamburg,  1840  sq.,  4  vols.  ■\ ''^^ Mazas,  Hist,  of  the  French 
Eevolution ;  Germ.,  by  ScUerer ;  with  preface  and  additions  by  Hoffler,  Ratis- 
bon,  1842,  2  little  volumes.  Polignuc,  Jules,  Prince  de.  Historical,  Political, 
and  Moral  Studies;  Germ.,  Ratisbon,  184G,  2  vols.  jGaume,  The  Revolution, 
being  Hist.  Researches  on  the  Origin  and  Propagation  of  Bad  Principles  in 
Europe,  from  the  Renaissance  down  to  Our  Own  Times;  Germ.,  Ratisbon, 
1856  sq.,  5  vols.  Burke,  Reflections  on  the  Revolution  of  France,  published  in 
1790;  tr.  into  Fr.  by  Diqmni ;  into  Germ,  by  Frederic  v.  Geniz,  Brunswick, 
1838,  2  pts.  (This  work  of  Burke's,  written  in  condemnation  of  the  princi- 
ples of  1789,  led  to  an  open  rupture  with  Fox,  his  former  political  friend. — Tr.) 
Alexis  de  Toequeville,  L'ancien  regime  et  la  revolution,  Paris,  1856.  Cf.  Hist. 
and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  43,  in  two  articles.  Dahlmann,  Hist,  of  the  French 
Revolution  (to  the  republic),  Lps.  (1845)  1847.  Pr.  v.  Raiuner,  Hist,  of  France 
and  the  French  Revolution,  1740-1795,  Lps.  1850;  '''v.  Sybsl,  Hist,  of  the  Age 
of  Revolution,  from  1789-1795,  Diisseldorf  (1858),  1872,  4  vols.  Freiburg  Eccl. 
Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  251-289;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  20,  p.  232-272. 

^.— The  Last  Years  of  Pius  VI.,  1789-1800. 

{Hidot),  Ccllectio  Brevium  et  Instr.  Pii  VI.  ad  praesentes  Gallic.  Ecclesiae- 
calamitates,  Aug.  1796,  2  T.;  Lips.  1871,  2  T.     Continuatio  Bullarii,  T.  V.-X. 
Baldassari,  Hist,  of  the  Abduction  and  Imprisonment  of  Pius  VI.  ;  Germ.,  by 
Steck,  Tueb.  1844;  Blssing,  France  under  Louis  XVI.,  Freiburg,  1872. 
(628) 


§  387.    The  French  National  Assembly.  629 

§  387.   7Vie  French  National  Assembly  {La  Consituante),  1789- 

1791. 

The  consequences  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  Reform- 
ation was  based  did  not  folly  open  upon  the  minds  of  men 
until  they  began  to  pass  the  line  dividing  the  domain  of  re- 
ligion from  that  of  politics.  The  political  event  in  which 
these  principles  were  most  thoroughly  embodied,  and  in 
which,  beyond  doubt,  they  obtained  their  most  complete 
illustration,  was  the  French  Revolution.^  The  early  Reform- 
ers, Luther,  Dlric  von  Hutten,  Francis  von  Sickingen,  and 
Thomas  Mihizer,  inaugurated  their  religious  reform  by  over- 
turning the  existing  pohtical  order,  and  thence  proceeded  in 
their  work  of  destruction  to  suppress  monasteries  by  violence, 
to  confiscate  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  to  secularize 
religious  institutions  in  the  name  of  princes.  They  subverted 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence, 
the  authority  of  the  State  fell  with  it.  To  a  divine  and  un- 
changeable religion  and  to  an  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  mor- 
als, succeeded,  by  an  inevitable  law,  religious  doubt,  whence 
sprang  the  Deism  of  England,  and,  as  time  went  on,  a  wide- 
spread moral  corruption.  The  ideas  of  unrestrained  liberty 
and  absolute  equality  advocated  by  the  French  Jacobins  were 
not  new  ;  they  had  been  proclaimed  with  sufficient  distinct- 
ness and  in  every  variety  of  form  by  Miiuzer's  rebellious 
peasants  ;  while  the  members  of  the  French  Clubs  found  in 
the  words  and  conduct  of  Luther  an  eloquent  apology  and 


^  This  view  is  steadily  growing  in  favor,  even  with  Protestants,  and  is  openly 
set  forth  as  the  correct  one  by  such  distinguished  writers  as  Wolfgang  Menzel, 
Henry  Leo  (Vol.  IV.,  p.  153),  and  others.  There  are  many  passages  in  the 
writings  of  Mazas  which  prove  that  he  is  also  of  this  opinion.  (Cf.  Vol.  T.,  pp. 
115-201,  and  Uoefler's  Preface.)  Lonis  Blanc  (Introd.  to  the  Hist,  of  the 
French  Revolution)  and  Poligiiac  (1.  c  ,  Vol.  I.,  p.  75)  bear  still  more  emphatic 
testimony  to  the  same  fact.  The  latter  says :  "  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
French  ilevplution,  wickedness,  having  worked  ils  way  up  the  scale  of  iniquity, 
had  reached  its  climax  ;  the  prevailing  heresy  of  Luther  and  Henry  VIII.  had 
commenced  to  make  its  influence  felt;  then  succeeded  religious  indifference, 
unbelief,  and  finally  revolt  against  God  Himself,  His  commandments,  and  His 
laws."  Cf.  Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  IX.,  and  Felir,  Development  and  In 
/luence  of  Political  Theories,  Innsbruck,  18-35. 


630  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

model  for  their  own  contemptuous  hatred  of  roj'alt}'.  More- 
over, the  wit,  the  brilliancy,  the  multifarious  scepticism,  the 
fashionable  unbelief,  and  easy  morals  of  the  splendid  age  of 
Louis  XIV.,  had  produced  a  luxuriant  crop  of  authors,  who 
perpetuated  their  errors  in  writings  remarkable  for  attractive 
grace  and  classic  elegance  of  style.  Finally,  Deists  and  ma- 
terialistic philosophers,  clumsy  imitators  of  their  English 
prototypes,  encouraged  by  the  debauchery  of  a  depraved 
Court,  and  relying  upon  the  protection  of  irreligious  minis- 
ters, proceeded  fearlessly  to  carry  out  their  designs  by  out- 
raging religion  and  undermining  the  principles  of  faith  and 
morals.  Of  such  were  Peter  Boyle,  Voltaire,  cV Alembert,  Dide- 
rot, and  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  all  working,  each  in  his  own 
way,  for  the  utter  annihilation  of  religion.  It  was  Diderot 
that  said,  in  a  spirit  of  diabolical  malignity,  that  if  he  were 
in  need  of  a  rope  to  hang  the  last  king,  he  would  make  it  of 
the  entrails  of  the  last  priest.^  Finally,  as  if  to  make  a  mock- 
ery of  religion,  a  memoir  was  published  of  the  frivolous  Car- 
dinal-Archbishop Dubois,  formerly  Prime  Minister  of  France, 
(f  1723),  revealing  a  shocking  depth  of  moral  depravity,  such 
as  might  be  expected  in  the  life  of  one  who  held  morality  to 
be  a  prejudice  of  the  multitude,  and  religion  the  invention  of 
priests,  and  who  in  his  dying  moments  repelled  the  grace  of  the 
Sacraments.^  The  wicked  designs  of  the  philosophers  and  en- 
cyclopaedists were  still  further  advanced  by  the  powerful  influ- 
ence of  the  mistresses,  whom  Louis  XV.  continued  to  keep  in 
defiance  of  all  decency,  and  by  the  universal  tone  of  irreligion 
prevalent  at  Court.  The  clergy  spoke  out,  giving  warning  of  the 
menacing  dangers  ahead;  but  their  words  fell  upon  ears  that 
would  not  hear.^  To  writin2:s  in  which  relii^ion  was  outrasred, 
soon  succeeded  others  in  which  royalty  was  contemptuously  re- 
viled."*    With  the  thunder  of  such  ominous  forebodings  as  those 


1  Et  avec  les  boyaux  du  dernier  pretre 
Egorger  le  dernier  des  rois. 
^  De  la  Houssaye-Pe(ieault,  Vie  privee  du  Cardinal  Dubois,  1789,  8vo. 

*  The  Assembly  of  the  Clergy,  in  a  memorial  to  the  king,  dated  July  20,  1789, 
gave  utterance  to  these  prophetic  words:  Encore  quelques  annees  de  sirence  et 
I'ebranlement,  dcvenu  general,  ne  laissera  plus  apercevoir  que  des  debris  et  des 
ruines.     A  pud  Kobiann.  T.  II.,  p.  58. 

*  To  this  class  belongs  the  Philosojihical  History  of  the  Commerce  of  the 


§  387.    The  French  National  Assembly.  Gol 

already  ringing  in  his  ears,  Louis  XV.  departed  this  life  (May 
10,  1774),  with  the  presentiment  strong  upon  him  that  the 
crown  would  some  day  be  struck  from  the  head  of  his  grand- 
son. Some  years  later,  when  disorder  became  general  and 
ruin  imminent,  the  dastardly  llaurepas  cried  out:  "Would 
that  things  might  remain  as  they  are  until  we  are  gone." 

Hardly  a  dozen  years  had  gone  by  since  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  impiety  had  already  doubled,  both  in  extent  and 
intensity.  A  new  generation  of  scholars,  educated  under 
new  masters,  and  having  hardly  any  religious  knowledge, 
and  certainly  destitute  of  all  religious  habit  and  devotional 
feeling,  had  gone  forth  from  the  colleges  to  become  active 
members  of  society.  Eevealed  truth  had  been  crushed  out 
of  men's  minds  to  give  room  to  a  rationalistic  philosophj^  and 
to  unfounded  prejudices ;  and  the  impiety,  which  had  been 
heretofore  confined  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities,  began  to 
find  its  way  into  the  provinces  and  to  permeate  the  rural  pop- 
ulations. Was  any  one  bold  or  courageous  enough  to  openly 
profess  and  practice  his  faith,  his  loyalty  to  his  God  became 
a  subject  of  derisive  mockery  to  his  fellow-men. 

Once  the  popular  passions  had  been  thus  excited  against 
both  royalty  and  the  Church,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the 
financial  embarrassments  and  oppressive  taxes,  necessarily  re- 
sulting from  a  lavish  expenditure  of  the  public  funds  and  a 
neglect  to  develop  the  material  resources  of  the  country, 
should  rouse  the  jealousy  of  the  Third  Estate,  or  commoners, 
against  the  immunities  enjoyed  by  the  clergy  and  nobles,  the 
more  so  as  these  had  now  lost  much  of  their  former  consider- 
ation and  prestige,  and,  though  wealthy,  contributed  nothing, 
<3xcept  by  voluntary  gift,  toward  defraying  the  ordinary  ex- 
penses of  government. 

The  ideas  of  liberty  imported  from  America  ;  the  enthusi- 

East  and  West  Indies,  by  Raynal,  which  appeared  in  ]  7'i8.  In  this  woric  the 
author  formallj'  states  that  the  world  will  never  enjoy  peace  until  it  has  been 
riddcid  of  priests  and  kings.  In  the  second  edition,  published  in  1781,  the  same 
hatred  of  authority  and  religion  is  expressed  still  more  vehemently.  To  the 
same  <'lass  belongs  also  the  Marriage  of  Figaro,  by  Benumarchaift,  a  caustic  sa- 
tire on  all  authority  whatever,  in  whicli  the  nobility  are  handled  with  excep- 
tional severity.  To  these  may  be  added  a  flood  of  pamphlets,  bearing  neither 
the  authors  nor  the  printer  s  name. 


632  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


asm  naturally  evoked  by  the  successful  struggle  for  indepeud- 
ence  in  that  country,  to  which  France  had  so  largely  contrib- 
uted in  arms  and  money,  and  of  which  the  young  officers,  on 
their  return  home,  after  sharing  its  trials  and  triumphs,  were 
never  tired  of  speaking  in  words  of  glowing  eulogy,  were  lik^ 
so  many  brands  flung  into  a  heap  of  inflammable  matter.  Th« 
impressionable  genius  of  the  French  people,  ever  prompt  t( 
take  up  and  ready  to  give  a  trial  to  whatever  is  new  and 
strange,  was  fascinated  by  these  ideas,  and  what  was  at  first 
only  a  spark  was  rapidly  transformed  into  a  conflagration. 
Every  measure  taken  to  avert  only  served  to  hasten  the  crisis. 
The  finances  of  the  country  were  in  a  deplorable  condition, 
and  the  eftbrts  made  by  Necker,  Joly  de  Fleury,  and  Calonne, 
who  succeeded  each  other  in  tlje  office  of  comptroller,  to  re- 
store them,  resulted  only  in  increasing  the  yearly  deficit. 
Calonne,  conscious  that  a  crisis  was  approaching,  prevailed 
upon  the  king  to  call  an  Assembly  of  Notables,  and  on  the  2d 
of  February,  1787,  opened  that  body  with  a  speech,  proposing 
several  reforms,  among  which  were  the  abolition  of  some  of 
the  privileges  of  the  Notables  and  a  more  equitable  distribu- 
tion of  the  burdens  of  taxation,  and  closing  with  the  startling 
confession  that  the  yearly  deficit  had  gone  on  steadily  increas- 
ing till  it  now  amounted  to  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen millions  of  francs.  The  Notables  refused  to  listen  to  the 
proposed  reforms,  and  had  Calonne  disgracefully  dismissed 
from  his  office,  which  Avas  now  given  to  Archbishop  Lomenie 
de  Brienne,  who  was  shortly  forced  to  resign,  and  the  radical 
Necker  was  once  more  called  to  be  Comptroller  General  of 
Finance.  The  excitement  had  now  spread  from  one  end  of 
France  to  the  other,  and  both  the  Nobles  and  the  Third  Es- 
tate demanded,  each  for  a  difi'erent  reason,  the  convocation 
of  the  States  General.  The  king  for  some  time  resisted  the 
demand,  but  finally  yielding,  with  ill  grace,  published  the 
edict  convoking  the  three  estates  to  meet  at  Versailles,  May 
5,  1789,  and,  contrary  to  ancient  usage,  doubling  the  number 
of  deputies  representing  the  Third  Estate.  The  excitement, 
which  was  steadily  on  the  increase,  was  still  further  intensi- 
fied by  tlie  general  demoralization  of  the  people,  after  pass- 
ing through  suff"erings  incident  to  an  unusually  rigorous  winter 


§  3S7.    The  French  National  AsscmbLij.  G33 


and  by  the  nearness  of  the  plaeeof  meeting  of  the  States  General 
to  the  city  of  Paris.^  Moreover,  it  was  well  know^i  that  no  reli- 
ance could  be  placed  in  the  loyalty  of  the  soldiers,  who  were 
daily  to  be  seen  in  great  crowds  gathered  about  the  Palais  Royal, 
consorting  with  Radicals  and  partaking  of  their  hospitality. 
The  States  General  had  barely  assembled  when  the  Third  Es- 
tate demanded  that  the  two  orders  of  the  nobles  and  clergy 
should  unite  with  them  to  form  one  legislative  body,  and 
carry  on  their  deliberations  in  a  common  chamber.  This 
usage,  though  frequently  followed  since  the  restoration  of  the 
States  General  under  Philip  the  Fair,  had  been  departed  from 
in  the  last  assembly,  held  in  1614,  when  the  privileged  Estates 
deliberated  in  one  chamber  and  the  Third  Estate  in  another. 
The  demand  was  sternly  resisted  by  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
and  equally  sternly  insisted  upon  by  the  Third  Estate,  who 
were  somewhat  emboldened  by  the  encouragement  they  re- 
ceived from  Coiuit  Jlirabeau.  Finally,  on  the  17th  of  June, 
after  a  stormy  session,  protracted  long  into  tlie  night,  the 
Third  Estate  declared  their  own  the  only  lawful  legislative  body, 
ani  of  their  own  authority  assumed  the  title  of  the  National 
Assembly.  This  position  had  been  long  since  boldly  and  per- 
sistently claimed  for  the  representatives  of  the  people  by  the 
Abbe  Sieyes,  Vicar  General  of  the  diocese  of  Chartres,  and  the 
author  of  the  famous  pamphlet  "  What  is  the  Third  Estate  f^ 
The  leading  idea  of  the  pamphlet  is  this  :  I^othing  is  more 
reasonable  than  that  the  majority'  should  i-ule.  What  is  un- 
reasonable should  cease  to  exist.  !N^ow,  if  the  king  and  the 
privileged  Estates  continue  to  be  unreasonable,  the  people 
should  take  things  into  their  own  hands. 

Expelled  from  his  own  order,  Abbe  Sieyfes  was  with  dilH- 
culty  chosen  one  of  the  deputies  of  the  Third  Estate  by  one 
of  the  colleges  of  Paris.  The  deputies  were  immediately  joined 
by  eight  parish-priests,  one  of  whom  was  the  Abb6  Gregoire,^ 

^On  toe  causes  that  led  to  the  French  Kevolution,  see  Ancillon,  who  takes  a 
temperate  view,  midway  between  the  two  extremes,  Berlin,  1838,  Vol.  I.,  pp. 
249  sq. 

^ilemoires  de  Gregoire  (t  1831),  precedes  d'une  notice  histoiique  sur  I'auteLU 
par  M.  II.  Canioi,  Paris,  1837,  2  vols. ;  Kriiger,  Gregoire,  according  to  his  Mc 
raoirs,  with  a  preface  by  Chas.  Base,  Lps.  1838.  Cf.  The  Tuebingen  Quarterly 
Keview,  1838,  nro.  4,  p.  720-741. 


634  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Port  1.     Chapter  1. 

and  these  were  soon  followed  by  one  hundred  and  forty-eight 
more  of  the  clergy,  among  whom  were  the  Archbishops  of 
Vienne  and  Bordeaux,  the  Bishops  of  Chartres,  Coutance, 
and  E,hodez,  and  Talleyrand,  Bishop  of  Autun,  who  was  really 
the  leader  of  these  disloyal  ecclesiastics,  and,  by  his  personal 
influence,  brought  over  to  the  liberal  ranks  one  hundred  and 
fifty  of  the  priests  of  Paris.  This  was  the  man  who  subse- 
quently ruled  France  for  close  upon  a  half  a  century,  and  who 
held  it  to  be  an  axiomatic  principle  in  politics  "  that  speech 
was  given  to  man,  not  to  make  known,  but  to  disguise  his 
tlioughts.'"  The  king  having  given  his  assent  to  the  union 
of  the  three  estates,  the  name  of  States  General  was  changed, 
June  19,  1789,  into  that  of  the  Constituent  National  Assembly; 
and  the  Bourgeoisie,  elated  with  the  pride  of  victory  and  car- 
ried along  with  the  spirit  of  revolution,  broke  through  all  re- 
straint. On  the  11th  of  July  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette,  who, 
for  services  rendered  in  the  War  of  American  Independence, 
had  been  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  general,  brought  forward  the 
Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  llan,  which  the  more  prudent 
Mirabeau  wished  to  have  deferred  until  after  a  constitution 
had  been  drawn  up  and  adopted.  His  advice  was  disregarded, 
and,  as  a  consequence  of  this  precipitate  action,  a  mob  of  fifty 
thousand  men,  on  July  14,  carried  terror  and  dismay  to  every 
quarter  of  Paris ;  and,  directing  their  steps  to  the  Porte  St. 
Antoine,  where  the  Bastille,  built  by  order  of  Charles  V.  as  a 
defense  against  the  English,  was  situated.  Having  eflected 
an  entrance,  thej^  were  astonished  to  find  only  a  few  prisoners 
in  the  dungeons,  where  it  was  popularly  believed  there  were 
scores  ;  but  so  great  was  their  hatred  of  this  historical  pile, 
on  account  of  the  eminence  of  the  prisoners  that  had  lan- 
guished there,  that  on  the  following  day  they  utterly  demol- 
ished it.  The  National  Assemblj'  was  not  slow  in  usurping 
political  power,  and  soon  revealed  its  intentions  of  seizing  the 
possessions  of  both  the  nobility  and  the  clerg}'.  The  latter 
evinced  a  very  conciliatory  temper,  and  on  the  memorable 
night  of  the  4th  of  August  came  generously  forward,  offering 
to  subscribe  to  anv  measures  that  mio:ht  be  thouiJ:ht  necessfirv 
to  liquidate  the  public  debt.  While  the  nobles  expressed  m 
readiness  to  lay  aside  their  titles  and  the  privileges  of  their 


§  387.    The  Frenrh  JSaiional  Aasemlly.  635 

order,  the  clergy  signified  their  willingness  to  pay  taxes  upon 
church-property,  to  surrender  the  tithes  for  a  compensation, 
and  to  relinquish  the  surplice-fees  and  other  perquisites. 
The  Jansenists  had  hoped  that  the  Church  would  emerge  out 
of  these  troubles  purified  and  more  spiritual.  When,  on  the 
10th  of  August,  these  questions  came  up  for  discussion,  tlie 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  for  ten  years  had  been  styled  the 
father  of  the  poor,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the  whole  clergy, 
demanded  that,  in  compensation  for  the  tithes,  some  adequate 
provision  be  made  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  religion ; 
that  virtuous  and  zealous  priests  be  set  over  the  churches ; 
that  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  the  wants  of  the  poor  should 
not  be  neglected  ;  and  that,  as  there  was  at  present  no  means 
of  relieving  them,  the  abolition  of  the  tithes  should  be  put 
off  until  such  time  as  an  appropriation  from  the  public  treas- 
ury could  be  set  apart  for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  clergy.  To  these  wise  suggestions  no  answer 
other  than  a  vague  promise  Avas  given.  A  yearly  income  of 
seventy  millions  of  francs  was  confiscated  at  a  blow  ;  and 
every  individual  of  the  privileged  estates,  excepting  only  such 
pastors  and  vicars  as  had  barely  a  decent  support  {jjortio  con- 
grua),  were  subjected  to  an  impost  to  go  into  immediate  eftect 
and  to  date  back  to  the  1st  of  April,  1789. 

The  Assembly  next  took  up  the  question  of  relir/ious  liberty, 
and,  by  a  vote  taken  August  23,  decided  that  in  future  every 
one  should  be  free  to  hold  what  opinions,  even  in  religion,  he 
might  see  fit,  provided  only  that  in  propagating  them  he  did 
not  violate  either  public  peace  or  public  law.  It  was  plain 
that  the  aim  of  this  measure  was  to  decatholkize  France, 
which  even  Mirabeau  held  to  be  necessary,  on  the  ground 
that  Catholicity  and  freedom  are  mutually  incompatible! 
The  Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  31(vn  was  adopted  August  26. 
The  distress  was  steadily  on  the  increase,  and  fresh  sacrifices 
were  demanded.  Following  the  precedents  of  former  ages, 
the  noble  Archbishop  of  Paris  proposed  to  melt  down  all  tiie 
sacred  vessels  not  absolutely  necessary  to  public  worship,  and 
to  a[.ply  the  proceeds  to  the  paying  ofi'  of  the  public  debt. 
This  generous  offer  was  somewhat  embarrassing  to  the  l\evo- 
iutionists,  who,  desirous  of  reducing  the  clergy  to  a  condition 


030  Perioil  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chccpter  1. 

of  dependence  bj  robbing  tbem  of  their  possessions,  never- 
theless felt  that  to  do  so  would  appear  little  short  of  criminal. 
But  any  infirniity  of  this  kind  of  which  their  consciences 
may  still  have  been  susceptible  was  speedily  repaired  by  the 
boldness  of  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  who,  on  the  10th  of  Octo- 
ber, brought  forward  a  measure  stating  that  all  ecclesiastical 
possessions  ought  to  be  declared  national  property,  confisccded,  and 
applied  to  the  extinction  of  the  public  debt.  Neither  the  wise  and 
temperate  counsel  of  Montesquiou,  nor  the  impassioned  elo- 
quence of  Maury,  nor  yet  the  indignant  rebuke  of  Sieyes 
himself,  who,  rising  in  his  place  in  the  Assembly,  cried  out, 
"You  wish  to  be  free,  and  you  know  not  how  to  be  just," 
could  prevent  the  consummation  of  a  financial  measure  at 
v.uce  so  iniquitous  and  so  replete  with  danger.  On  the  2d  of 
November  a  decree  passed  the  Assembly,  placing  all  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Church  at  the  disposal  of  the  Nation,  and  prom- 
ising to  make  decent  provision  for  the  cost  of  worship,  the 
support  of  the  clergy,  and  the  relief  of  the  poor !  During 
the  discission  of  this  decree  the  hall  of  the  Assembly  was 
surrounded  by  an  armed  mob,  crying  out  in  menacing  tones, 
"  that  if  the  decision  were  favorable  to  the  clergy  the  bishops  and 
priests  should  be  put  to  death.'^  On  the  10th  of  December  fol- 
lowing, ecclesiastical  property  to  the  value  of  two  hundred 
millions  of  francs  was  sequestrated,  put  on  sale,  and  declared 
to  belong  to  the  Nation.  The  violent  measures  enacted  within 
the  hall  of  the  National  Assembly  were  decorous  and  tem- 
perate, compared  with  what  took  place  outside  its  walls.  The 
tumultuous  shouts  of  the  deputies  during  their  deliberations 
were  caught  up  and  sent  back  in  fuller  volume  and  greater 
intensity  by  the  howling  mob  in  the  streets.  After  the  taking 
of  the  Bastille,  many  regiments  threw  ofi'  the  restraints  of 
military  discipline,  and  were  with  the  greatest  difficulty  again 
reduced  to  obedience.  The  National  Assembly  now  jiracti- 
cally  took  the  control  of  the  army  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
king,  by  prescribing  a  new  form  of  oath  for  the  soldiers,  ac- 
coiding  to  which  they  bound  themselves  to  obey  the  Nation 
first  and  next  the  crown,  and  never  to  use  violence  ugainst 
their  tcllow-citizens.  The  throne  was  betrayed  by  the  Duke 
of  Orleans.     From  every  street  corner  cheers  went  up  for  the 


§  3S7.    The  French  National  Asscntbhj.  037 


^^Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  ilJan.''  Finally,  on  the  5tli  and 
6th  of  October,  a  savage  rabble,  accompanied  by  members  of 
the  I>J"ational  Guard,  raised  the  cry  of  '■'Bread,  on  to  Versailles  /" 
and,  having  arrived  there,  attacked  the  royal  residence,  and 
lorced  the  king  and  the  royal  family  to  transfer  their  abode 
to  Paris,  whither  the  Assembly  also  followed.  From  this  time 
forth  the  Bevolntion  became  inevitable;  and  the  action  of 
three  hundred  of  the  deputies,  embracing  all  the  more  re- 
spectable members  of  the  Assemblj',  who  quitted  Paris  to 
avoid  partici[)ating  in  the  crimes  which  they  saw  would  soon 
be  perpetrated,  ouly  hastened  the  crisis.  The  Jacobins  and 
patriots,  who  now  openly  proclaimed  their  intentions,  and  the 
Duke  of  Orleans,  the  leader  of  the  Freemasons,^  having  no 
longer  any  reasonable  cause  of  fear,  set  earnestly  to  work  to 
carry  into  efi'ect  their  long-meditated  and  audacious  projects. 
On  motion  of  the  lawj-er  Treilhard,  who  asserted  that  the 
convent  was  the  abode  of  tyranny,  the  prison  of  sorrowing 
hearts  sufiering  in  silence,  and  the  scene  of  disorderly  festivity 
and  every  sort  of  crime,  the  monastic  Orders  were  abolished 
(February  13,  1790)  ;  and,  as  a  compensation  to  the  plundered 
monks  and  nuns,  a  miserable  pittance,  subsequently  reduced 
to  one-third  the  original  sum,  and  even  this  never  regularly 
[laid,  was  granted  to  each.  Then,  as  in  the  sixteenth  century 
under  Luther,  might  be  seen  troops  of  monks,  though  by  no 
means  so  numerous  as  had  been  anticipated,  carried  away  by 
the  fur}'  of  the  revolutionary  torrent,  several  of  them,  like 
Fouche  and  Chabot,  becoming  the  fiercest  of  Terrorists.  On 
the  14th  of  April  the  entire  administration  of  ecclesiastical 
property  was  handed  over  to  the  secular  authorities,  in  spite 
of  the  spirited  protest  of  the  Abbe  Gregoire,  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  administrators  were  to  pay  a  salary  to  each 
member  of  the  clergy,  that  of  a  parish-priest  being  set  at 
twelve  hundred  francs,  with  the  use  of  a  house  and  garden. 
But  before  securing  this  indemnity  to  the  clergy,  or  even 
granting  them  what  was  absolutely  necessary  for  their  sub- 

'  For  tlie  influence  of  the  Order  of  Freemasons  on  the  French  devolution, 
see  Bnrruel,  Memoires,  T.  II.,  p.  257  sq.,  etc.  Polkpiac,  Hist.,  Polit.,  and  lie- 
ligious  Studies,  Vol.  1.,  p.  56  sq. 


G38  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


sistence,  an  attempt  was  made  to  enslave  them  by  forcing 
upon  their  acceptance  the  decree  of  July  12,  1790,  known  aa 
the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy.  Not  content  with  plun- 
dering the  Church,  they  wished  to  destroy  her  very  constitution^ 
and  thereby  decatholicize  France.  It  was  decreed  that  there 
should  be  a  bishopric  for  each  of  the  departments  into  which 
the  country  had  been  recently  divided,  thus  reducing  the 
number  of  dioceses  from  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  to  eighty- 
three  ;  ^  that  chapters  should  be  suppressed,  and  all  benefices, 
abbacies,  and  priories  confiscated  ;  that  bishops  and  parish- 
priests  should  receive  their  appointments  from  the  depart- 
mental electoral  assemblies,  composed  of  Catholics,  Calvinists, 
and  Jews  ;  that  bishops  so  appointed  should  dispense  with 
the  confirmation  of  the  Pope,  and  receive  investiture  from  the 
metropolitan,  himself  chosen  in  the  same  way  ;  that  as  a  mat- 
ter of  courtesy  they  might  inform  the  Holy  See  by  letter  of 
their  appointment;  and,  finally,  that  previously  to  being  con- 
secrated, they  should,  in  the  presence  of  the  king,  the  mu- 
nicipality, the  clergy,  and  the  people,  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance to  the  Nation,  the  laws,  and  the  king.  The  bishop 
was  now  only  the  parish-priest  of  his  cathedral;  the  parish- 
priests  of  the  other  churches  within  his  diocese  composed  his 
council,  and  according  to  their  advice  and  judgment  he  was 
bound  to  be  directed  in  the  exercise  of  his  authority;  all  dig- 
nities and  prebends  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  chapters  were 
declared  extinct ;  and,  finally,  all  foreign  bishops  were  for- 
bidden to  meddle  in  the  afiairs  of  the  Church  of  France;  but, 
with  great  difldculty,  the  Abb6  Gregoire  succeeded  in  having 
a  modification  introduced  into  the  last  clause,  disclaiming 
any  intention  of  prejudicing  the  existing  union  with  the  Vis- 
ible Head  of  the  Church.  Such  is  the  decree  called  by  a  mis- 
nomer the  Civil  Constitution  of  the  Clergy,  as  if  their  civil 


1  The  reader  will  find  in  Mazas,  Vol.  I.,  p.  67  sq.,  a  list  of  the  eighteen  arch- 
bishoprics and  one  hundred  and  eight  suffragan  bishoprics,  which  still  existed 
in  1789.  He  also  gives  a  statement  of  the  primitive  revenues  of  the  five  sees 
dependent  on  the  Metropolitan  of  Treves,  and  five  others,  forming  the  dioceses 
of  Corsica  See,  above  all,  Diciioniiaire  de  statistique  religieuse,  published  by 
.1/.  Mignf,  Paris,  Petit-Muntrouge,  1851. 


•§  387.    The  French  National  Assembly.  639 

rights  were  at  all  in  question.^  The  bishops  entered  iheir 
protest  against  the  Constitution,  earnestly  demanding  the  con- 
vocation of  a  national  or  provincial  s^mod ;  and  the  Abbe 
Mauri)  pleaded  eloquently  to  avert  so  great  a  disaster  as  this 
measure  would  inevitably  bring  upon  France.  Protests  and 
pleadings  were  vain,  and  it  was  decreed  that  those  performing 
ecclesiastical  functions  and  refusing  to  take  the  oath  to  the 
civil  constitution  should  be  dismissed.  The  king,  at  whose 
request  the  aft'air  was  referred  by  the  Holy  Father  to  the  judg- 
ment of  de  Pompignan,  Archbishop  of  Vienne,  and  de  Cice, 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  long  hesitated  to  sign  the  decree  ; 
but  finally,  on  December  27,  consented  to  yield,  after  the  two 
prelates,  with  deplorable  weakness,  had  advised  the  unquali- 
fied acceptance  of  the  measure. 

On  motion  of  Barnave,  a  Protestant,  it  was  enacted  (Jan- 
uary, 1791)  that  bishops  and  priests  declining  to  take  the  oath 
to  the  Civil  Constitution  should,  besides  being  deprived  of  their 
charges,  be  prosecuted  as  disturbers  of  the  public  peace,  if 
they  continued  to  exercise  their  functions.  Scarcely  had  the 
decree  been  published  when  it  was  enforced  in  regard  to  the 
clerical  members  of  the  Assembly.  Of  the  three  hundred 
ecclesiastical  deputies,  about  eighty  consented  to  take  the  re- 
quired oath,  and  these  more  from  interest  than  conviction  ; 
and  of  the  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  bishops  of  France,  only 
four  were  to  be  found  faithless  to  their  trust.  These  were 
Talleyrand^  Bishop  of  Autun  ;  Savines,  Bishoji  of  Viviers ; 
Jare/ite,  Bishop  of  Orleans  ;  and  Lornmie  de  Brienne,  Arch- 
bishop of  Sens.  The  Abbe  Gregoire,  in  an  address,  explained 
the  oath,  and  after  setting  forth  the  motives,  which  bethought 
sufficient  to  justify  one  in  taking  it,  was  the  first  ecclesiastic 
to  swear  obedience  to  the  schisraatical  Constitution.  At  least 
fifty  of  the  sixty  thousand  pastors  and  vicars  then  in  France 
absolutely  refused  to  take  the  oath.  Those  who  took  it  were 
called  Assermentes  or  Jurors,  and  those  who  refused  Inser- 
mentes  or  Non-jurors.  Many  of  those  who  took  the  oath  did 
so  because  they  had  been  intimidated  or  were  ignorant  of  its 


'  Sciouf,  Histoire  de  la  constitution  du  clerge  (1790-180'2i,  avec  do  nombroux 
documents  inedits,  Paris,  187:3,  2  vols. 


610  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

real  drift,  and  subsequently  retracted  ;  and  many  nirire  sought 
to  evade  its  import  by  explaining  it  away  and  putting  their 
own  interpretation  upon  it.  Henceforth  every  priest  was 
under  suspicion  ;  and  although,  as  Condorcet  said,  there  w'as 
no  desire  to  make  martyrs  of  them,  their  lives  were  daily 
threatened.  Finally,  as  if  at  pains  to  leave  no  doubt  concern- 
ing its  religious  views,  the  Assembly,  by  a  decree  of  April  4, 
1791,  transformed  the  Church  of  Sainte-Geveiieve  into  a.  Pan- 
theo)i,ov  mausoleum,  for  tlie  heroes  and  great  men  of  France  ; 
and  here  Mirabeau  was  buried,  and  the  remains  of  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau  subsequently  transferred  with  great  pomp.  The  non- 
juring  clergy  were  uniformlj'  ordei-ed  to  vacate  their  charges, 
w'hich  were  then  given  to  the  constitutional  clergy,  consisting 
for  the  most  part  of  apostate  monks,  liery  Revolutionists,  and 
clerical  refugees  irom  Holland  and  Germany.  About  twenty 
parish-priests,  who  had  exhibited  in  their  persons  shameless 
examples  of  perjur}^  by  taking  the  oath  in  the  presence  of  the 
Assembly,  were  rew^arded  with  bishoprics.  One  of  them,  the 
Abbe  Gregoire,  was  set  over  the  diocese  of  Blois,  while  Thy- 
mines, the  lawful  bishop,  was  still  alive.  To  the  king,  who 
had  done  so  much  for  this  apostate  priest,  he  showed  his 
gratitude  by  demanding,  after  the  discovery  of  the  ftif/ht  of  the 
royal  family  b}'  the  postmaster  of  Varennes,  the  abolition  of 
the  prerogative  of  inviolability,  which  until  that  time  had 
surrounded  the  roj^al  person,  and  proposing  to  have  him  put 
on  trial  for  his  life.  He  appointed  as  his  vicar-general  Cha- 
bot,  an  infamous  Capuchin  friar,  who,  if  possible,  surpassed 
in  cruelty  even  Marat  himself.  The  lirst  constitutional  bish- 
ops were  consecrated  by  Talleyrand,  and  these  in  turn  conse- 
crated others,  all  of  whom  took  possession  of  their  sees  with- 
out the  necessary  permission  of  the  Holy  See.  In  April,  1791, 
Pope  Pm.s  VI.  rejected  the  Constitution,  declared  the  appoint- 
ment of  new  bishops  to  sees  illegal  and  of  no  effect,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  exercise  of  their  functions  those  alreai}' 
consecrated.  Many  ecclesiastics  retracted,  submitted  to  the 
authority  of  the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  b.ad  their  disabili- 
ties removed,  thus  escaping  the  scornful  contempt  with  which 
the  (;onstitutional  bishops  and  priests  were  regarded  by  the 
bulk  of  the  people,  who,  to  the  surprise  of  many,  were  still 


§  387.    The  French  National  Assembly.  041 

warmly  attached  to  the  old  faith.  To  avenge  itself  upon  the 
Pope,  the  !N"ational  Assembly,  on  the  14th  of  September,  de- 
clared, amid  thunders  of  applause,  the  counties  of  Avignon 
and  Venaissin  annexed  to  France.  As  an  initial  token  of  the 
tender  and  beneficent  care  which  the  happy  and  peaceful  in- 
habitants of  the  counties  were  to  expect  from  their  new  mas- 
ters, a  mob,  led  by  Jourdan,  surnamed  the  Beheader,  went 
about  the  streets  of  Avignon  murdering  men,  women,  and 
children  in  cold  blood,  and  then,  as  if  to  put  a  fitting  finish 
upon  their  atrocious  deeds,  drove  one  hundred  and  ten  vic- 
tims, many  of  whom  were  children  and  defenseless  females, 
into  the  tower  of  the  palace  formerly  occupied  b}^  the  Popes, 
and  chucked  them,  wounded,  dead,  and  dying  as  they  were, 
into  a  well,  called  the  Glaciere  or  ice-pit,  after  which  they 
threw  in  a  quantity  of  quicklime  and  water.^ 

In  Paris  an  effigy  of  the  Pope,  after  having  been  paraded 
through  the  streets  of  the  city,  sitting  on  an  ass,  and  holding 
in  its  hands  the  figure  of  a  bull,  was  removed  and  burnt  amid 
the  brutal  jests  of  the  mob. 

The  constitutional  bishops  and  priests  were  by  no  means 
at  one  as  to  the  line  of  policy  they  should  pursue.  Some 
wholly  disregarded  the  numerous  papal  briefs  eflecting  them- 
selves ;  others  aftected  to  doubt  their  existence  ;  and  still 
others  endeavored  to  persuade  their  parishioners  that  the  new 
Constitution  in  no  way  clashed  with  the  truths  of  faith  or  the 
discipline  of  the  Church  ;  that  one  might  be  a  juror  and  at 
the  same  time  a  good  Christian  or  an  orthodox  priest;  and 
that  in  taking  the  oath  they  did  so  from  the  purest  and  most 
loyal  of  motives,  and  with  no  desire  to  outrage  religion  or  the 
rights  of  the  Holy  See.  But  these  fallacious  assurances  pro- 
duced no  efiect,  and  were  received  by  the  faithful  as  being 
only  the  insidious  echoes  of  the  instructions  which  the  iTa- 
tional  Assembly  had  addressed  to  the  people  on  the  21st  of 
January,  1791,  on  the  subject  of  the  Civil  Constitution.   When 


1  Henry  Martin,  in  his  History  of  France  (Boston,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  208,  209),  gives 
the  details  of  this  brutal  butchery  with  a  tone,  if  not  of  absolute  approval, 
certainly  not  of  condemnation.     Ilis  work  is  intensely  bigoted,  and  as  an  au- 
thority utterly  worthless.  (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 41 


642  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  1.     Chapter  1. 

persuasion  would  not  accomplish  their  purposes,  these  apos- 
tles of  reason  very  characteristically  had  recourse  to  threats 
and  violence.  Catholics  who  chose  to  remain  loyal  to  their 
faith  were  persecuted,  and  non-juring  ecclesiastics  were  cast 
into  prison,  driven  from  their  respective  dioceses,  and  banished 
the  country. 

§  388.  Legislative  Assembly  (1791-1792) — National  Convention 
(September  21,  1792-October,  179^))— -Directory  (1796- 
1799) — Consulate  (I^ovember  9,  1799) — TheojMlanthro- 
jnsts. 

The  Constituent  Assembly  closed  its  sittings  September  30, 
1791,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly,  as  the  next  body  was  called, 
met  October  1,  This  Assembl}',  acting  under  the  inspiration 
of  Robesjpierre,  Dantov,  and  Marat,  carried  out  the  principles 
of  the  Eevolntion  with  a  logical  rigor  that  was  terriiic  and  an 
impiety  that  was  literally  satanic.  Ecclesiastics  were  forbid- 
den to  wear  the  dress  of  their  order,  and  those  of  them,  who 
refused  to  take  the  oath  to  the  Civil  Constitution,  after  having 
been  already  imprisoned  and  borne  all  manner  of  persecution 
for  their  heroic  resistance,  were  now  condemned  to  perpetual 
banishment.  Louis  XVI.  declined  to  sanction  the  severe 
measures  against  the  clergy,  and,  as  long  as  he  was  free  to 
choose  his  own  spiritual  attendants,  closed  the  doors  of  the 
royal  chapel  in  the  face  of  the  constitutional  priests.  His 
refusal  was  the  occasion  of  a  popular  outbreak.  The  king 
was  shortly  after  deposed  and  imprisoned  in  the  Temple,  and 
the  decree  against  the  clergy  carried  out  in  its  extremest 
rigor.  Although  six  hundred  priests  had  been  slaughtered 
at  Avignon  by  the  soldiers  of  Jourdan,  the  Beheader,  they 
still  heroically  refused  to  take  the  oath.  It  was  therefore  re- 
solved, on  the  very  day  of  the  king's  imprisonment,  August 
13,  1792,  to  exterminate  every  Catholic  priest  in  Paris.  Un- 
der pretense  of  subsequently  banishing  them,  the  priests  were 
searched  for  in  every  part  of  Paris,  by  order  of  the  municipal 
authorities,  and,  when  found,  imprisoned  in  various  quarters 
of  the  city.  But,  on  the  2d  of  September,  when  news  reached 
the  ci/y  that  the  Prussians  had  already  entered  (Champagne, 


§  388.  Leyislatke  Assembly,  etc.  643 

and  were  intent  upon  releasing  the  king  and  restoring  his 
authority,  a  band  of  three  hundred  assassins,  hired  by  tlie 
municipality  of  Paris,  visited  the  various  prisons,  and,  among 
other  victims,  massacred,  amid  scenes  of  revolting  barbarity, 
three  hundred  ecclesiastics,  including  one  archbishop  and 
two  bishops.  The  atrocities  perpetrated  in  Paris  were  re- 
peated at  Meaux,  Chalons,  Rennes,  and  Lyons.^  The  carnival 
of  blood  continued  for  four  days,  during  Avhich  eight  thou- 
sand French  citizens  were  put  to  death  in  Paris  alone;  and 
this  wholesale  assassination  was  characterized  by  the  apolo- 
gists of  the  Revolution  as  the  shedding  of  the  blood  of  a  few 
traitors!  One  of  the  members  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 
declared  publicly  in  one  of  the  sessions  "  that  the  one  sorroio 
he  ivould  carry  with  him  to  the  grave  was  that  of  having  to  leave 
behind  him  a  religion  existing  on  earth!''  Such  of  the  priests 
as  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  escape  the  knife  of  the  as- 
sassin quitted  their  parishes  and  went  into  voluntary  exile. 
But  these  emigrants  were  not  forsaken  of  God  in  a  strange 
land.  They  were  received  with  generous  hospitality  in  Italy, 
Spain,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  England.  After  getting 
through  with  persecuting  pj-iests,  the  legislators  of  the  As- 
sembly turned  their  attention  to  the  protection  of  prostitutes  ; 
and  those  who  had  spoiled  the  Church  and  plundered  eccle- 
siastics now  voted  a  handsome  sum  for  the  relief  of  pregnant 
women  of  bad  repute.  They  also  legalized  divorce,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  within  the  short  space  of  two  years,  five  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  marriages  were  dissolved  in  the  city  of 
Paris  alone. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  nearly  all 
the  princes  of  Europe  remained  for  a  time  passive  spectators., 
while  the  most  sacred  ris^hts  Avere  beins:  outrao'cd,^  and  seemed 
to  take  no  interest  in  what  so  nearly  concerned  themselves, 
until  finally  Leopold,  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  Frederic  "Will- 

1  Cf.  The  Christian  Heroes  in  the  French  Revolution,  tr.  fr.  tlie  Fr.  into 
Germ.,  Mentz,  1820,  and  Abbe  Carron's  work.  The  Confessors  of  the  Faith, 
quoted  above  at  the  heading  of  g  386.  The  Germ,  transl.  contains  additions 
from  Guillon,  Les  martyrs  de  la  foi  pendant  la  revolution  francjaise,  Paris, 
1821.  4.  T. 

^  Mdzns,  Vol.  I.,  p.  244,  especially  in  the  Appendix,  p.  o35-380. 


644  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

iam,  King  of  Prussia,  after  a  meeting  at  Pilnitz,  in  August, 
1791,  issued  a  manifesto,  declaring  that  tliey  regarded  the 
cause  of  Louis  as  their  own,  and  calling  upon  all  European 
princes  to  aid  them  in  re-establishing  law  and  order  in  France- 
In  the  meantime  Leopold  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Francis 
IL,  whose  minister,  Kaunitz,  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Paris,  de- 
manding the  re-establishment  of  the  monarchy  in  all  its  rights, 
the  restoration  of  the  counties  of  Avignon  and  Venaissin  to 
the  Pope,  and  the  surrender  of  the  confiscated  church-prop- 
erty in  France.  The  Assembly  received  this  extraordinary 
demand  with  feelings  of  indignation  ;  and,  with  a  daring  that 
was  all  the  more  energetic  and  formidable  because  of  its  very 
recklessness,  immediately  declared  war  and  openly  defied  all 
the  enemies  of  France  (April  20,  1792).  This  step  was  also 
necessary  in  order  to  change  the  fervid  enthusiasm  of  the 
people  in  favor  of  liberty  into  a  passion  for  war,  and  to  an- 
ticipate and  if  possible  prevent  a  coalition  of  all  the  powers 
of  Europe  against  France  and  the  Pevolution.  It  would 
seem,  says  Boost,  that  there  is  an  analogy  between  the  physi- 
cal and  the  spiritual  laws  in  nature,  and  that  the  rapidity  of 
a  nation's  descent  in  morals  and  religion,  once  it  has  been 
started  on  its  downward  course,  is  accurately  expressed  by 
the  law  of  geometrical  progression  governing  falling  bodies. 
Accordingly,  the  bulk  of  the  French  people,  following  the 
teaching  of  false  philosophers  and  the  example  of  those  who 
were  socially  and  intellectually  their  superiors,  cut  loose  from 
the  Church,  abandoned  God,  and  having  entered  upon  a  down- 
ward course,  dashed  with  blind  fury  into  the  most  abominable 
excesses. 

The  direction  of  the  Revolution  had  now  passed  into  the 
hands  of  a  mob,  composed  of  the  vilest  of  the  vile,  who,  re- 
cognizing no  rights  in  others,  and  outraging  what  every  hon- 
est man  held  to  be  sacred,  pretended  that  they  were  desirous 
of  making  all  equal,  when  their  only  purpose  was  to  bend  the 
necks  of  others  beneath  their  own  yoke.  The  promised  lib- 
erty and  equality.  Frenchmen  learned  to  their  cost,  were  no- 
where to  be  found  except  on  the  field  of  battle,  on  the  scaf- 
fold, and  in  the  grave;  and  the  boasted  fraternit}-,  Avhieh  was 
to  bind  together  all  mankind  in  one  common  family,  existed 


§  388.   Legislative  Assembly,  etc.  645 

only  among  the  members  of  the  Clubs,  and  its  bond  was  a 
common  hatred  of  all  the  human  race  beside  themselves. 

In  the  National  Convention,  which  met  September  21,  1792, 
Marat,  Dauton,  and  liobespierre,  who  had  hitherto  affected  a 
certain  modest}^  in  pushing  themselves  to  the  front,  now  threw 
off'  all  disguise,  and  at  once  took  the  government  into  their 
own  hands.  Royalty  was  forthwith  aboli^^hed,  the  king  was 
next  brought  to  trial,  condemned,  and  beheaded  January  21, 
1793.  Against  this  judicial  murder  by  Frenchmen  of  one  of 
t/ie  best  of  French  kings  no  determined  opposition  was  made  in 
the  Convention,  which  was  chiefly  composed  of  Jacobins  and 
Girondists.  "  I  forgive  the  authors  of  my  death,"  said  this 
descendant  of  St.  Louis  with  his  last  breath  ;  "  may  my  blood 
never  be  avenged  upon  France."  These  noble  words  will  re- 
main for  all  time  a  splendid  testimony  to  the  magnanimity 
and  Christian  resignation  of  this  unfortunate  prince.  His 
queen,  Maria  Antoinette,  the  daughter  of  jNIaria  Teresa,  car- 
ried herself  during  the  last  days  of  her  life,  and  amid  the 
trying  scenes  of  execution,  with  the  heroic  fortitude  of  a 
martyr  and  the  calm  dignity  of  a  saint.  The  death  of  the 
king  was  the  signal  for  a  fresh  and  still  more  bloody  persecu- 
tion of  the  clergy,  for  a  civil  war  of  unparalleled  barbarity, 
and  for  a  series  of  proscriptions  that  included  in  their  lists  all 
that  was  great  and  noble  and  virtuous  in  France.  Forty-four 
thousand  Rev  tlutionary  Tribunals  were  established,  and  an 
equal  number  of  guillotines  set  up  over  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try, and  a  flying  column  of  six  thousand  soldiers  went  up  and 
down  the  land  clearing  it  of  every  trace  of  both  monarchical 
and  aristocratic  institutions.  Amid  the  general  destruction  of 
whatever  at  any  time  contributed  to  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  France,  Christianity  could  7iot  escape.  It  Avas  declared  to 
be  of  jmrely  human  invention  and  the  persistent  foe  of  freedom. 
By  the  decree  of  1792,  granting  universal  toleration  to  every 
form  of  worship,  Christianity  alo7ie  was  excepted.  The  phi- 
losophical principles  that  had  been  made  familiar  to  the  people 
were  carried  out  to  their  last  consequences  in  practice.  Priests, 
against  whom  no  charge  could  be  brought  except  their  heroic 
fidelity  to  duty,  were  brutally  murdered  ;  churches  were  pro- 
faned, pillaged,  and,  when  not  demolished,  cither  sold  or  con- 


646  Period  3.     E^och  2.     Fart  2.     Chcqjter  1. 

verted  into  ^^ Temples  of  Reason ;''  the  Gregorian  Calendar 
was  abolished  and  replaced  by  the  Revolutionary  Era,  com- 
mencing September  22,  1792,  the  Decades  and  the  Revolu- 
tionary feasts;^  marriage  was  declared  a  civil  contract  and 
nothing  more  ;  Christianity  was  abolished  by  a  decree  of  No- 
vember 7,  1793 ;  the  ivorship  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason  was  es- 
tablished ;  the  existence  of  God  was  publicly  denied.;  and  the 
last  resting-places  of  the  dead  were  violated,  made  desolate, 
and  a  card  posted  at  the  entrances  bore  the  inscription : 
^'■Death  is  but  a  perpetual  sleep."  Such  are  some  of  the  re- 
sults that  succeeded  each  other  with  startling  rapidit}'^,  once 
the  Revolutionary  movement  had  got  fairly  under  way.  The 
conduct  of  the  constitutional  clergy  was  simply  deplorable. 
Gobel,  the  Constitutional  Bishop  of  Paris,  entered  the  hall  of 
the  Convention,  followed  by  his  clergy,  on  the  7th  of  ITovem- 
ber,  1793,  and  there,  as  if  unconscious  or  heedless  of  the  stain 
he  was  putting  upon  his  own  and  their  characters,  openly  de- 
clared that  up  to  that  time  they  had  been  duping  the  people 
and  teaching  a  religion  which  they  themselves  believed  to  be 
false.  ''  The  people,"  said  he,  "  want  no  public  or  national 
worship  other  than  that  of  liberty  and  equality,  and  I  bow  my 
will  to  theirs,  and  here,  upon  the  altar  of  my  country,  lay 
down  my  ring  and  crosier."  While  uttering  these  words, 
Gobel  and  the  thirteen  vicars,  who  followed  his  example, 
trampled  under  foot  the  tokens  of  their  ministry,  and  in  place 
of  his  mitre  the  unworthy  bishop  put  upon  his  head  the  red 
cap  or  Phrygian  bonnet.^  Many  of  the  constitutional  clergy 
took  wives,  and  one  of  them  went  the  length  of  trampling 
the  Crucilix  under  foot,  crying  out  in  the  meantime:  "It  is 
not  enough  to  destroy  the  tyrant  of  the  body,  let  us  also 
crush  out  the  tyrant  of  the  soul."  Finally,  on  the  20th  Bru- 
maire  (IlTovember  10,  1793)  was  celebrated  in  the  venerable 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  de  Paris  the  feast  of  the  Goddess 


1  Leo,  Manual  of  Univ.  Ch.  Hist.,  Yol.  V.,  p.  88,  but  particularl3-  pp. 
114-117. 

2  He  was  soon  overtaken  by  divine  justice,  and  died  on  the  scaffold  April  13, 
1794.  In  his  prison  he  was  touched  by  divine  grace,  and  repented,  exhibiting 
signs  of  deep  sorrow  for  his  sins  and  the  scandal  he  had  brought  upon  his  holy 
religion.     Feller,  Dictionnaire  historique,  art.  "  Gobel." 


§  388.  Legislative  Assembly,  etc.  647 

of  Reason,  personified  by  an  opera-singer  of  infamous  charac- 
ter, borne  aloft  on  a  species  of  throne,  with  the  Crucifix  nnder 
her  feet,  and  escorted  to  the  church  by  legislators  and  philos- 
ophers, where,  seated  upon  the  altar  and  enveloped  in  a  cloud 
of  incense,  she  listened  with  grotesque  composure  while  a 
crowd  of  amiable  maniacs  sang  Chenier's  hymn  of  Liberty 
in  her  honor.  Those  who  had  been  most  fanatically  opposed 
to  the  veneration  of  the  Saints  became  now  the  most  enthu- 
siastic proselytes  of  the  new  worship.  They  had  a  most  ten- 
der reverence  for  the  periwig  and  snufit-box  of  Rousseau,  the 
sword  of  Mirabeau,  and  the  hair  that  once  adorned  the  fur 
robe  of  Voltaire. 

A  Consecrated  Host,  stolen  from  one  of  the  churches,  was 
carried  in  procession  through  the  streets,  amid  the  derisive 
jests  and  shocking  profanity  of  the  mob.  As  is  alwaj^s  in- 
evitably the  case,  schism  produced  heresy,  and  from  this 
speedily  followed  atheism  and  paganism.  Still  irreligion  was 
by  no  means  general  in  France.  Brittany,  Anjou,  and  Poitou 
still  nourished  a  noble  race  of  men,  a  veritahle  generation  of 
giants,  who  made  a  gallant  and  heroic  stand  for  their  king 
and  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  The  Vendeans,  though  van- 
quished, had  not  fought  in  vain,^  for  the  Revolutionary  gov- 
ernment was  forced  to  grant  them  an  honorable  peace  and 
freedom  of  religious  loorship.  But  the  reign  of  terror  did  not 
on  this  account  bear  less  heavily  on  the  inhabitants  of  the 
other  provinces  of  France.  Any  one  known  to  conceal  a  non- 
juring  priest,  on  whose  head  a  price  was  set,  was  liable  to  a 
large  fine.  The  triumph  of  the  Goddess  of  Reason  was  short- 
lived. Through  the  influence  of  Robespierre,  the  National 
Convention  passed  a  decree  recognizing  the  existence  of  a  Sii- 
'preme  Being  (etre  supreme),  and  professing  a  belief  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  On  the  8th  of  July,  1794,  a  magnificent 
and  grotesque  f(§te  was  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  over  which  Robespierre  presided  as  high-priest,  and 
was  treated  by  the  multitude  almost  as  a  demigod.  There 
was  never  an  age  in  the  history  of  the  world  in  which  retribu- 
tive justice  was  so  swift  to  overtake  the  authors  of  crime  as 


*  Cf.  Mazas,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  131  sq.,  La  guerre  de  la  Vendee. 


(348  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

in  this.  And  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  their  downfall 
and  punishment  is  that  these  were  invariably  brout2;ht  about 
by  the  same  ajents  tliat  had  contributed  to  their  elevation. 

The  Duke  of  Orleans,  who  sat  in  the  Convention  under  the 
name  of  Phillip  ^galite,  and  who,  though  a  near  kinsman  of 
the  king,  voted  for  his  death  amid  a  murmur  of  horror  and 
disijust,  being  one  of  the  suspected  Pepublican  deputies,  lost 
his  head  November  6,  1793  ;  Marat  was  stabbed  to  the  heart 
by  Charlotte  Corday,  who  had  come  all  the  way  from  Caen 
to  Paris  to  do  the  deed;  Danton  was  beheaded  April  5, 1794; 
and,  finally,  Robesjnerre,  when  at  the  height  of  his  power,  was 
conspired  against  by  the  very  members  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety,  followed  into  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and,  when  ar- 
rested, shot  himself  in  the  jaw  in  attempting  to  take  his  own 
life.  Taken  thence  to  the  hall  of  the  Convention,  where, 
stretched  upon  a  table,  it  is  said  the  very  clerks  inhumanly 
pricked  him  with  their  penknives,  he  was  condemned,  and 
finally  guillotined  July  28,  1794,  amidst  the  vociferous  exe- 
crations of  the  multitude,  who,  a  little  more  than  a  month 
before,  had  honored  him  as  a  demigod.  Those  who  took  the 
most  conspicuous  part  in  the  Peign  of  Terror  were  nearly  all 
guillotined  on  the  very  spot  where  their  victims  had  sufl'ered. 
After  the  fall  of  Pobespierre  the  Convention  returned  to 
wiser  and  more  temperate  counsels.  Lecointre,  ascending  the 
tribune  in  the  hall  of  the  Convention,  courageously  proclaimed 
"  that  a  jjeople  without  a  religion,  without  a  ivors/dp,  and  loithout 
a  Church,  is  a  j^fople  without  a  country  and  without  a  morality, 
destined,  inevitably  to  sink  to  the  condition  of  slaves ;  thai  contempt 
of  religion  had  been  the  ruin  of  the  French  monarchy,  and  ivould 
be  the  ruin  of  every  people  whose  legislation  is  not  founded  on  the 
unchangeable  principles  of  morality  and  religion.'"  The  deci-ee 
of  1795,  authorizing  the  exercise  of  Catholic  worship  in  those 
churches  not  already  alienated,  was  hailed  by  all  wise  and 
good  Frenchmen  as  a  great  blessing. 

Every  one  felt  it  a  great  relief,  after  the  frightful  days  of 
the  Eeign  of  Terror,  to  be  able  to  breathe  freely  once  more, 
and  to  give  expression  to  those  exalted  yet  peremptory  aspi- 
rations of  the  soul,  which  they  had  been  obliged  for  so  long 
to  repress.     '•  How  delightful,"  said  7l/fme?%"  is  Christianity 


Lrgislatice  Asscrnhhj,  etc.  649 

after  the  moral  code  of  Robespierre,  Marat,  and  tlieir  col- 
leagues !  After  such  scenes  of  blood  and  horror,  how  great 
need  have  we  that  some  one  should  speak  to  us  of  the  God 
of  peace  ! "  Ecclesiastics  were  now  only  required  to  promise 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  Republic,  and  to  recognize  the 
principle  of  popular  sovereignty.  These  concessions  were  the 
occasion  of  fresh  persecutions,  for  even  the  terrible  visitations 
of  divine  justice  that  had  overtaken  the  Dnke  of  Orleans, 
Mirabeau,  Danton,  Robespierre,  Chabot,  Gobel,  and  others, 
had  not  yet  awakened  in  the  minds  of  most  Frenchmen  a 
desire  of  returning  to  the  Church  of  God. 

The  irreligion  resulting  from  the  rejection  of  Christianity 
began  now  to  develop  itself  under  another  form.  Under 
the  patronage  of  the  Director}'  (1796)  a  sect  sprung  up, 
known  as  Iheophilanthropists,^  composed  of  Jacobins,  married 
priests,  former  members  of  clubs,  and  orators  of  political  fac- 
tions. This  sect,  which  at  lirst  consisted  only  of  five  heads 
of  families,  who  held  meetings  at  irregular  intervals,^  after 
obtaining  the  protection  of  La  Beveillere-Lepaux,  gradually 
increased  in  numbers,  got  possession  through  its  patron,  who 
was  one  of  the  five  members  of  the  Directory,  of  ten  of  the 
parish-churches  of  Paris,  and  was  received  with  favor  in  some 
of  the  provincial  towns.  The  pure  Deism  professed  by  the 
sectaries  could  not  hold  its  ground  against  cold  Rationalism 
on  the  one  hand  or  against  the  fervid  earnestness  of  Chris- 
tianity on  the  other.  Pursued  by  the  biting  sarcasm  of  a 
scoffing  public,  Philanthropism  passed  out  of  sight,  once  its 
novelty  had  worn  away,  and  was  no  more  heard  of  after  the 
First  Consul  had  forbidden  its  professors,  ou  the  overthrow  of 
the  Directory,  to  exercise  their  worship  in  the  churches.  Al- 
though the  nation  had  again  returned  to  the  true  faith,  the  ortho- 
dox and  loyal  clergy  had  to  put  up  with  many  annoyances  from 
the  more  numerous  constitutional  ecclesiastics,  who  did  evcry- 


1  They  were  also  styled  '-Theavthropopldles"  i.  e.  friends  of  God  and  men.  See 
Manuel  des  Tlieophiles  Paris,  1797  (Germ,  by  Friedel,  Mentz,  1793)  ;  Annee 
religieuse  des  Thcophilanthrope?  (recueil  des  discours),  Paris,  1707;  Grigoire, 
flistoire  des  Theophilanthropes  (Germ.,  by  Stdudlln,  Hanover,  180()). 

2  It  existed  in  England  from  the  year  177G,  where  it  was  started  by  Franklin 
and  Williams.   (Tu.) 


650  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

thing  in  their  power  to  impede  the  exercise  of  their  jurisdic- 
tion. At  a  synod,  held  in  Paris  (from  Aug.  25,  1797),  under 
the  presidency  of  Bishop  Gregoire,  the}^  partially  revived  the 
civil  constitution  of  the  clergy. 

§  389.   The  Roman  Pepublic. 

The  civil  constitution  had  been  condemned  by  Pius  VL  in 
the  bull  Caritas,  and  the  clergy  forbidden  to  take  the  required 
oath.  After  war  had  broken  out  between  France  and  the 
other  European  powers,  the  Pope  also  levied  an  army  for  the 
defense  of  the  Pontifical  States.  Such  precautions  gave  of- 
fense to  the  French  government,  which,  after  the  victorious 
campaign  of  IsTapoleon  in  Upper  Italy  against  Austria,  Sar- 
dinia, and  ISTaples,  declared  war  against  the  Holy  See;  and 
Pius  VI.  was  in  consequence  obliged  to  accept  an  armistice, 
concluded  in  his  name  by  Azara,  the  Spanish  embassador; 
to  surrender  the  Legation  of  Urbino,  and  to  pay  a  war  con- 
tribution of  twenty-one  millions  of  francs  (1796).  The  Pope 
having  resisted  the  demand  made  by  Bonaparte  to  withdraw 
all  the  briefs  issued  against  France,  the  armistice  was  declared 
at  an  end  (February  1,  1797.)  By  a  threatened  advance  upon 
Rome,  JSIapoleon  extorted  from  the  Pope,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Tolentino,  19th  of  February,  1797,  the  cession  of  the  counties 
o^  Avignon  and  Venaissin  to  France,  and  of  the  Legations  of 
Bologna^  Ferrara,  and  Pomagna  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 
Besides  these  valuable  provinces,  the  conqueror  levied  another 
heavy  war  contribution  of  thirty-one  millions  of  francs,  and 
plundered  the  libraries  and  galleries  of  Rome  of  some  of  the 
rarest  manuscripts  and  most  valuable  treasures  of  art.  These 
conditions  brought  the  papal  government  to  the  very  verge 
of  ruin,  although  Napoleon  declared  "  that  he  had  given  Eu- 
rope an  example  of  the  moderation  of  the  Directory."  The 
j)eace  did  not  last  long.  While  the  papal  troops  were  engaged 
in  putting  down  an  insurrection  iu  Rome,  which  the  French 
had  industriously  encouraged,  General  Dujohot,  an  attache  of 
the  French  embassy,  was  killed  (December  28) ;  and  the  Di- 
rectory at    once    ordered  General  Bcrlhicr  to  advance   upon 


§  389.    Tlie  Roman  Republic.  651 

Rome,  which  he  entered  without  opposition,  February  10, 
1798,  and  five  days  later  proclaimed  a  JlepuUic. 

The  popular  party  were  as  servile  in  their  flattery  of  the  French  general  as 
they  were  base  and  cruel  in  their  treatment  of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff.  A  statue 
of  the  goddess  of  liberty,  tramping  under  foot  the  tiara  and  other  symbols 
of  religion,  was  set  up  at  one  of  the  entrances  to  the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo; 
the  papal  insignia  were  derisively  painted  upon  the  drop-curtain  in  the  theater 
Aliberti ;  and  the  sacred  vessels  stolen  from  the  Altars  were  made  to  do  service 
at  the  infamous  orgies  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  Eepublic.  To  the  thoughtful 
and  better  class  of  liomans  these  excesses  showed  how  vitally  important  it  was 
that  the  Holy  Father  should  not  leave  the  city.  The  Pope,  on  his  part,  fully 
appreciated  his  duty,  and  determined  not  to  shrink  from  it.  Having  taken  his 
resolution  to  stay  with  the  people,  the  courageous  octogenarian  ^  refused  to  leave 
Eome  until  he  was  dragged  from  the  Vatican  by  main  force  (February  20, 
1798).  He  was  next  carried  away  to  Siena,  where  he  was  lodged  in  the  Au- 
gustinian  monastery,  and  thence  transferred  to  the  Carthusian  monastery  of 
Florence.  But  the  tender  expressions  of  sympathy  and  respect  which  he  re- 
ceived from  the  inhabitants  roused  the  jealousy  and  excited  the  alarm  of  the 
philosophers  and  the  Directory,  and  it  was  determined  to  send  the  grand  old 
man  either  to  Spain  or  Sardinia.  This  project  was  rendered  impracticable  by 
the  breaking  out  of  war,  and  the  Pope,  though  in  infirm  health,  was  carried  to 
Grenoble,  whence,  after  a  stay  of  twenty-five  days,  he  was  removed  to  Valence 
on  the  Rhone,  and  orders  had  already  been  given  to  move  him  on  to  Dijon, 
when,  worn  out  by  the  rigor  of  his  confinement,  he  passed  peacefully  away, 
August  22,  1799,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age,  thus  escaping  the  trials 
of  a  fresh  exile.  He  was  in  truth  a  '■'Peregrimcs  Apostolicus  moriens  in  exfiio,^ 
and  his  last  words  were  worthy  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ.  "  ilay  my  suc- 
cessor," said  he,  "whoever  he  may  be,  forgive  the  French  as  sincerely  as  I  do.' 

The  few  trifling  articles  which  the  Holy  Father  had  distributed  as  mementoo 
and  tokens  of  his  gratitude  to  the  faithful  servants  who  had  followed  him  into 
exile  were  seized  by  the  French  government  and  sold  as  national  proj^eriy. 
Such  was  the  fear  inspired  by  a  government  which  claimed  to  be  free  and 
popular  that  the  people  did  not  dare  even  to  bury  the  mortal  remains  of  the 
holy  Pontifi'  until  an  authorization  had  been  sent  to  do  so.  His  body  was  not 
interred  until  several  months  later,  when  Bonaparte,  by  a  Consular  decree, 
dated  December  SO,  1799,  granted  the  required  permission.  Two  years  later, 
February  17,  1802,  his  remains  were  taken  to  Eome,  and  laid  away  in  the  Ba- 


1  "  AVhat  a  grand  spectacle  is  Pius  VI.,  when,  with  a  firmness  that  few  be- 
lieve him  capable  of,  he  sternly  resolves  to  remain  near  the  Tomb  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  the  Mother  Church  of  Christendom,  and  there  abide  his  fate !  Would 
to  God  that  the  noble  old  man,  now  above  eighty  years  of  age,  might  be  per- 
mitted to  rest  where  he  has  spent  a  pontificate  of  two-and-twenty-years,  and 
borne  up  under  the  bitter  trials  God  has  sent  upon  him."  John  von  Midler, 
Autobiographj^,  letter  of  March  4,  1797  (Complete  Works,  Vol.  XXXI.,  p. 
187).  Cf.,  also,  the  raemorable  words  of  Saracin,  of  Geneva  (New  Hist,  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  2d  ed.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  06-68). 


652  Period  3.     EiJoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

silica  of  St.  Peter,  amid  universal  tokens  of  respect  and  mingled  expressions 
of  joy  and  sorrow.^ 

B.    §  390.  Pontificate  of  Pius  VIL  (March  14,  ISOO-August 

21,  1823.) 

Continuatio  Bullarii  Rom.  Pontificum  dementis  XIII.-Gregor.  XVL,  T. 
XI.-XV.  (Caprara)  Concordat  entre  le  gouvernement  francais  et  le  pape, 
Paris,  1802.  Theiner,  Histoire  des  deux  concordats  conclus  en  1801  et  en  1813, 
Paris,  1869,  2  vols. ;  in  opposition,  Crctineau-Joly^  Bonaparte  et  le  concordat  de 
1801  et  le  Cardinal  Consalvi,  Paris,  1869.  Barruel,  Du  pape  et  de  ses  droits 
relig.  a  I'occasion  du  concordat,  Paris,  1803.  De  Pradt,  Les  quatre  Concordats, 
Paris,  1818,  2  vols.  Comte  d^ HaussonvllLc,  L'eglise  romaine  et  le  premier  em- 
pire avec  notes  et  correspond,  diplomat.,  Paris,  1872.  \  Artaud  de  Monior, 
Histoire  de  la  vie  et  du  pontifieat  du  pape  Pie  VII.,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1837;  tr. 
into  English  and  Germ.,  Vienna,  2  vols,  t  Cardinal  Pacca,  Memorie  storiche, 
Eoma,  1832;  translated  into  English  b}'  Sir  George  Head,  2  vols.,  post  Svo, 
London,  1850;  Germ.,  Augsburg,  1831,  3  vols,  t  Wiseman,  Recollections  of 
the  Last  Four  Popes  and  of  Rome  in  their  Times,  London  and  Boston,  1858 
(Germ.,  Schaffhausen,  1858).  J.  CrHineau-Joly,  Memoires  du  Cardinal  Con- 
salvi, Paris,  1864;  2d  ed.,  1866,  2  vols.  (Germ.,  Paderborn,  1870).  Cfr.  New 
Hist,  of  the  Church  of  J.  Christ.  Gams,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.,  p.  26  sq. 

At  the  death  of  Pius  VI.,  Rome  was  still  occupied  by  the 
French.  Thirty -live  cardinals,  hastening  from  their  several 
places  of  exile,  assembled  in  Venice,  and  opened  the  conclave 
in  the  monasteiy  of  St.  George  the  Greater,  on  December  1, 
1799. 

On  the  exclusion  b}^  Austria  of  the  learned  Cardinal  Ger- 
<Hl,  a  native  of  Savoy,  then  a  part  of  France,^  the  cardinals, 
on  March  14,  1800,  gave  their  suflVages  for  Gi^egory  Barnabas, 
of  the  family  of  Chiaramonti,  the  large-minded  and  charitable 
Cardinal-bishop  of  Imola,  who  took  the  name  of  Pius  VII. 
His  election  marked  the  opening  of  a  new  era  of  triumph  for 
the  Catholic  Church,  and  falsified  the  prophecies  of  the  Par- 
isian Clubbists,  who  confidently  predicted  that  after  the  death 
of  Pius  VI.  no  Pope  would  ever  again  sit  in  the  throne  of 
St.  Peter. 

Pius  VII.  was  crowned  without  the  usual  splendor  of  cere- 
monial, March  21,  the  feast  of  St.  Benedict,  whose  habit  lie 


1  Cf.  New  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Clirist,  Bk.  I.,  pp.  1.j2-156. 

2  See  American  Cyclopaedia,  Vol.  VIL,  p.  735,  art.  Gerd'd.  (Tr.) 


§  390.  Pontificate  of  Pius  VII.  653 

had  worn.     The  monastery  was  for  the  time  converted  into 
the  Quirinal,  and  the  Church  of  St.  George  into  the  Vatican. 

Francis  II.,  Emjieror  of  Germany,  in  wliose  dominions  the 
Pope  now  found  an  asylum,  appointed  Marquis  GInslieri,  of 
Bologna,  his  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the  Papal  Court. 
Pius  VII.  also  received  the  congratulations  and  the  usual 
courtesies  from  the  embassadors  of  the  Courts  of  Sardinia, 
Naples,  and  Spain,  the  last  named  power  being  represented 
by  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  Even  Paul  I.,  Emperor  of 
Russia,  sent  a  bishop  to  Venice  to  assure  the  Pope  that  he 
would  respect  and  protect  the  interests  of  Catholics  in  those 
provinces  which,  by  the  Partition  of  Poland  (1794),  had  passed 
under  the  government  of  his  Empire. 

The  Romans  were  ardently  longing  for  the  day  when  the 
Pope's  temporal  power  would  be  restored  to  him,  and,  though 
still  under  the  dominion  of  France,  sent  an  embassy  to  carry 
to  Pius  VII.  the  ex[u-essions  of  their  respect  to  his  person, 
and  the  assurances  of  their  submission  to  his  authority. 
Owing  chiefly  to  some  successes  of  the  allied  armies  and 
partly  also  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  Napoleon  to  restore  re- 
ligion in  France,  the  Pope  re-entered  Rome  shortly  after 
(July  3),  amid  the  unbounded  enthusiasm  of  the  inhabitants, 
his  first  act  being  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
St.  Peter's  Church.  The  Pope's  first  efforts  were  directed  to- 
ward repairing  the  damage  the  revolution  had  wrought  both 
among  his  people  and  in  the  Church,  and  his  phins  for  effect- 
ing these  two  objects  were  fully  set  forth  in  an  encyclical,  is- 
sued sometime  later.  The  papal  authority  was  re-established 
in  Acona  and  Perugia;  the  tax  on  corn  was  abolished;  and 
Consaki  was  appointed  Pro-secretary  of  State.  The  public 
debt  had  increased  to  50,000,000  of  francs,  and  to  help  to  pay 
it  the  Pope  reduced  the  revenues  of  the  Papal  Palace  from 
150,000  to  36,000  scudi.  He  also  published  edicts  for  the  re- 
storation of  morals,  and  proclaimed  a  political  amnesty,  from 
which  only  the  ringleaders  in  the  late  revolutionary  troubles 
were  excluded.  But  events  soon  took  place  which  rendered 
some  modification  in  the  administration  of  the  Pontifical 
government  necessary.^ 

iSee  New  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  I.,  p.  113-120.     Cf.,  also,  Di% 


<)54  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

By  the  victory  of  Marengo,  June  14,  1800,  tlie  whole  of 
J^orthern  Italy  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  French, 
and  after  some  more  reverses  the  Austrians  were  forced  to 
accept  the  conditions  of  the  Peace  of  Liintville,  February  9, 
1801,  by  which  the  Adige  was  declared  the  boundary  of  the 
Austrian  States  in  Italy,  the  Cisalpine  Eepublic  recognized, 
and  the  Pope  obliged  to  cede  the  Legations  of  Bologna,  Fer- 
rara,  Forli,  and  Eavenna.  The  Pope  now  evinced  an  ardent 
desire  to  establish  friendly  relations  between  France  and  the 
Holy  See. 

Napoleon,  who  had  been  named  First  Consul,  December  15, 
1799,  was  equally  anxious  for  a  reconciliation,  but  was  proba- 
bly actuated  more  b}'  motives  of  policy  than  by  love  of  re- 
ligion, lie  was  well  aware  that  the  hatred  of  the  Jacobins 
against  the  Church  was  not  shared  by  the  bulk  of  the  people  ; 
and  he  was  also  fully  convinced  that  it  is  impossible  to  rule 
over  a  people  destitute  of  religion,  and  that  to  restore  order 
and  peace  to  the  State  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  re-estab- 
lish the  Catholic  Church.  By  this  act  he  secured  the  grati- 
tude of  the  faithful  ministers  of  religion,  who  declared  '■Hhat 
blessings  would  necessarily  attend  the  yoiuer  that  icas  instrumental 
in  setting  vp  again  the  overturned  Altars  of  the  churches."  It  is 
also  quite  possible  that  he  counted  upon  the  glory  and  pres- 
tige with  which  an  act  so  acceptable  to  the  nation  would  un- 
doubtedly surround  him,  as  making  easy  his  way  to  the  throne 
to  which  he  aspired.  He  therefore  sent,  through  Cardinal  de' 
Martiniani,  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  a  request  to  the  Holy  Father 
to  send  plenipotentiaries  to  France,  with  authority  to  regulate 
all  ecclesiastical  affairs.  In  compliance  with  this  wish,  Pius 
VII.  sent  as  his  envoys  to  Paris  Spina,  Archbishop  of  Corinth, 
and  Casein,  subsequently  General  of  the  Servites,  who,  with 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  the  First  Consul's  brother,  Cretet,  Council- 
lor of  State,  and  Abbe  Bernier,  all  selected  by  Napoleon,  set 
about  adjusting  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  in  France.^ 


course  of  Pius  VII.  on   the  tribulations  of  the  Church,  p.  10-lG,  and  his  En- 
cyclica  of  May  25,  ibid.,  p.  46-52 ;  also  Consalvi's  Memoirs,  p.  416. 

1  Concerning  what  follows,  cf.  ibid.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  127-140.  The  Latin  text  of 
the  Concordat  is  found  in  Robiano,  Vol.  II.,  p.  459-469.  The  Bulla  novae  (;ir- 
cumscriptionis  dioccosium,  ibid.,  p.  4G9-177,  and  pp.  478,  479.     Information  on 


§  390.  Pontificate  of  Pius  VII.         _  G55 


M.  Cacaidt  was  sent  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Papal 
Court,  with  orders  to  treat  the  Pope  with  all  tlie  respect  due 
to  his  position.^  Grave  difficulties  were  at  first  encountered. 
The  bond  of  unity  had  been  snapped  by  the  civil  constitution 
of  the  clergy  in  1791,  and  had  not  been  closed  since  ;  all  the 
bishoprics  in  France  had  been  usurped  by  the  constitutional 
bishops,  even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  lawful  incumbens; 
and  canonical  investiture,  as  well  as  the  property  of  the 
clergy,  were  in  the  hands  of  laymen.  Notwithstanding  that 
the  plenipotentiaries  on  both  sides  had  the  very  best  of  inten- 
tions, and  had  actually  agreed  on  a  great  many  points,  they 
were  not  successful  iu  drawing  up  a  concordat  wholly  satis- 
factory to  the  powers  they  represented.  The  Pope,  who  had  in 
the  meantime  assembled  a  congregation  a  latere  for  the  special 
purpose  of  dealing  with  the  questions  involved  in  the  concordat, 
now^  sent  to  Paris  Cardinal  Consalvi,  one  of  its  leading  mem- 
bers, with  full  authority  to  make  any  concessions  which  he 
might  judge  to  be  for  the  good  of  religion,  and  compatible 
with  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See.  "When  Consalvi  arrived  at 
Paris,  June  22,  1801,  he  was  surprised  to  learn  that  the  First 
Consul  had  that  very  day  assembled  the  constitutional  bishops 
and  parisb-priests  in  synod,  an  event  which  it  was  clear 
would  greatly  complicate  the  difficulties  of  his  mission.  The 
synod  was  opened  June  29,  1801,  by  Gregoire,  its  president, 
whose  propositions  were  so  extravagant  that  Napoleon,  dis- 
pleased with  them,  concluded  a  concordat  of  seventeen  arti- 
cles with  Consalvi,  July  15,  regulating  ecclesiastical  affairs 
in  France,  and  dissolved  the  so-called  national  synod.^  The 
important  question,  and  the  one  most  difficult  of  settlement, 
concerning  the  lawfulness  of  the  titles  by  which  the  bishops 
held  their  sees,  was  summarily  disposed  of  by  an  exercise  of 

the  circumscription  of  the  new  dioceses  is  likewise  found  in  Mazaa,  Vol.  II., 
p.  273  sq. 

1  When  taking  leave  of  Napoleon,  Cacault  asked  him  how  he  should  treat 
the  Pope.  "Treat  him,"  replied  Napoleon,  "as  if  he  were  the  master  of 
200,000  men  ;  and  bear  in  mind  that  I  aspire  to  the  honor  of  being,  not  the  de- 
stroyer, but  the  savior  of  the  Holy  See."  Tlders,  Hist,  du  Consulat  et  de 
I'Empire. 

'^  Gams,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
130- Ul. 


G56  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

the  plenitude  of  papal  authority.  The  Pope  regretted  being 
obliged  to  resort  to  so  extreme  a  measure,  but  felt  that  the 
extraordinary  and  abnormal  circumstances  of  the  Church  in 
France,  and  the  necessity  of  prompt  and  energetic  action  tc 
prevent  schism  and  avert  persecution,  alike  rendered  his 
course  imperative.  By  the  bull  Qid  Christi.  Domini  he  called 
upon  the  old  bisho[)S  holding  sees  in  France  b}'  lawful  title, 
but  now  dispersed  and  living  in  exile  in  the  various  countrievS 
of  Europe,  to  resign,  and  of  the  eighty  still  surviving,  forty- 
four  at  once  sent  in  their  resignations,  besides  fourteen,  whose 
sees  w^ere  situated  in  territory  recently  annexed  to  France; 
but  the  thirty-six  others  refused.  The  fifty- nine  constitu- 
tional bishops  were  also  requested  by  both  the  Pope  and  the 
government  to  surrender  their  authority  and  rights  into  the 
hands  of  the  Consuls,  which  they  had  no  alternative  but  to 
do.  The  following  are  the  most  important  provisions  of  the 
Concordat:^  The  Roman  Catholic  religion,  being  that  of  the 
iXist  majority  of  Frenchmen,  shall  be  freely  practiced  through- 
out all  France,  subject  to  no  restriction  except  the  police  reg- 
ulations intended  to  preserve  order  and  public  peace.  The 
Ploly  See,  acting  in  concert  with  the  government,  shall  define 
the  boundaries  of  the  new  dioceses.  The  Pope  will  inform 
the  lawful  bishops  of  the  old  dioceses  that  in  the  interests  of 
j)eace  and  unity  he  confidently  hopes  they  will  resign  their 
sees;  should  they  refuse,  he  will  take  no  notice  of  their  ac- 
tion, but  proceed  to  fill  the  newl3'^-created  sees  with  incum- 
bents. The  First  Consul  shall  make  all  nominations  to  arch- 
bishoprics and  Inshoprics,  and  the  Holy  See  confer  canonical 
institution.  Before  entering  upon  the  functions  of  their  of- 
fices, bishops  shall  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  according  to 
the  ordinary  form,  by  placing  their  hands  between  those  of 
the  First  Consul ;  and  ecclesiastics  of  the  second  rank  shall 
take  the  same  oath  in  the  same  way,  in  presence  of  ofiicers 
appointed    by  the  government  to  receive  it.     Bishops  shall 


1  Given  in  the  French  original  text  by  Walter.  Fontes  jur.  canon.,  p.  187- 
190;  in  Latin,  by  Robiano,  Vol.  II.,  p.  459;  in  German,  by  Gams,  1.  c,  Vol.  I., 
p.  11-4  sq.  For  a  list  of  the  new  sees,  together  with  the  determination  of  their 
limits,  see  Mazas,  Vol.  II.,  p.  273  sq.  Cf.  New  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ, 
Vol   I.,  p.  142-153,  and  p.  175-190. 


§  390.  Pontificate  of  Pius  VII.  Qbl 

establish  the  boundaries  of  parishes  within  their  respective 
dioceses,  subject,  however,  to  the  authorization  of  government. 
The  bishops  shall  have  the  riglit  (»f  appointing  pastors,  but 
shall  select  no  one  obnoxious  to  the  government.  The  Pope, 
on  his  i)art,  promises  that  neither  he  nor  his  successors  will  in 
any  way  disturb  those  in  possession  of  the  ecclesiastical  es- 
tates seized  and  sold  as  national  property  during  the  Revolu- 
tion ;  and,  on  his  part,  the  First  Consul,  in  the  name  of  the 
government,  pledges  himself  to  make  adequate  provision  for 
bishops  and  priests,  and  to  sanction  any  new  foundations  per- 
sons may  be  disposed  to  make  in  behalf  of  the  Church.  The 
Pope  recognizes  and  respects  in  the  First  Consul  all  the  rights 
-and  prerogatives  enjoyed  by  those  at  the  head  of  tlie  old  gov- 
ernment. 

When  the  provisions  of  the  Concordat  became  known  at 
Rome  the  cardinals  disagreed,  some  favoring  and  some  oppos- 
ing their  acceptance;  but  Pius  VII.,  after  weighing  the  rea- 
sons brought  forward  by  the  advocates  of  both  parties,  made 
up  his  mind  to  ratify  it,  and  drew  out  his  reasons  for  doing 
so  in  a  brief,  dated  August  13  ;  and,  in  a  second  one,  dated 
two  days  later,  he  earnestly  besought  those  French  bishops 
who  still  declined  to  resign  to  come  generously  forward  and 
make  the  sacrifice  in  the  interest  of  religion  and  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  Church.  He  then  commissioned  Cardinal  Caprara, 
Archbishop  of  Bologna,  to  go  to  Paris,  and  invested  him  with 
iuU  power  to  carry  out  every  provision  of  the  Concordat. 
Although  the  Concordat  met  with  no  little  opposition  in 
France,  it  was  accepted  by  the  First  Consul,^  who,  however, 
published  simultaneously  with  it  a  code  of  ''Or<ianic  Laics,'' 
with,  it  was  supposed,  a  view  of  rendering  the  acceptance  of 
the  Concordat  less  objectionable  to  the  Corps  legislatif,  by 
which  it  was  ratified  April  5,  1802.  These  Laws  arc  in  sub- 
stance as  follows  :  ^ 


1  Gams,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  I.,  p.  124  sq. 
^  For  the  French  original  text,  sea  Walter,  Fontes  juris  eccles.,  p.  190-198;  see 
.also  Gams,  1.  c,  \o\.  1.,  p.  loG  sq.;   Vol.  II.,  p.  25  sq.     For  elucidations,  see 
Archives  of  Canon  Law,  year  1S72.  nro.  G. 
VOL.   Hi — -L-2 


058  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

"No  bull,  brief,  resoript,  or  mandate;  no  provision  or  enactment  of  any  kind 
whatever  coming  from  the  Holy  See,  even  should  these  refer  only  to  individual 
and  single  cases,  shall  be  received,  or  published,  or  printed,  or  carried  into  of- 
fect  without  leave  from  the  government.  Bishops  shall  be  amenable  for  misde- 
meanors to  the  Council  of  State,  which,  if  a  case  be  made  out  against  the  ar- 
raigned, shall  be  competent  to  pass  a  vote  of  censure  [decLnration  d'abus). 
Professors  in  seminaries  shall  teach  the  Four  Articles  of  the  Declaration  of  the 
French  Clergy;  and  bishops  shall  inform  the  Minister  of  Public  Worship  of 
their  various  engagements.  No  synod  may  be  held  in  France  without  leave 
of  government.  Priests  having  cha.Tge  of  parochial,  chapels  shall  be  removable 
without  canonical  process.  On  the  death  of  a  bishop,  his  see  shall  be  adminis. 
tered  by  his  metropolitan,  or,  he  failing,  by  the  senior  bishop  of  the  province. 
Vicars-general  shall  continue  to  exercise  the  functions  of  their  office  after  the 
death  of  the  bishop  and  until  his  successor  has  been  inducted.  Parish-priests 
shall  give  the  marriage  blessing  only  to  those  who  can  prove  that  the  marriage 
ceremony  has  been  already  performed  before  a  civil  magistrate.^  The  parish- 
registers  shall  be  valid  evidence  as  to  the  reception  of  the  Sacraments,  but  shall 
not  be  received  as  proof  of  what  is  purely  a  civil  matter." 

These  enactments  sufficiently  show  that  the  First  Consu 
either  would  not  or  dared  not  adopt  so  liberal  a  policy  towaro 
the  Church  as  had  been  anticipated. 

The  Pope  protested,  but  in  vain,  that  these  Laws  had  noi 
been  submitted  to  him.  The  Concordat  was,  however,  exe- 
cuted all  the  same,  and  its  promulgation  was  celebrated  in  the 
Church  of  France  by  a  solemn  feast,  April  18,  1802.  The 
Democrats  and  Xapoleon's  companions  in  arms  sneered  at 
this  ceremony,  which,  they  said,  was  the  latest  comedy,  and 
boasted  that  the  French  flag  had  never  been  more  glorious 
than  since  the  day  it  had  ceased  to  be  blessed.  Xapoleon 
asked  General  Dilmas  how  the  celebration  pleased  him,  and 
the  latter  is  reported  to  have  said  "  that  it  was  a  pretty  ca- 
puchinade,  and  to  complete  it  required  only  the  presence  of 
the  two  millions  of  men  who  had  been  sacriticed  in  pulling 
down  what  the  First  Consul  was  now  engaged  in  building 
up."  Still  the  purpose  of  Napoleon  was  unshaken,  and  that 
he  was  fully  satisfied  with  what  he  had  done  is  shown  by  hie 


^  Cf.  Friedberg,  Hist,  of  Civil  Marriage,  Berlin,  1871. 

■■^  Cardinal  Caprara  was  very  active  in  this  matter.  Concerning  bis  appoint- 
ment to  the  post  of  Legate  n  latere,  and  the  documents  investing  him  with  au- 
thority to  establish  new  bishoprics  and  to  grant  indulgences  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  they  are  granted  on  occasion  of  jubilees.  Cf.  Kobicmo,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  487- 
492.     Gams,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  155-101. 


§  390.  rontificate  of  Pius  VII.  659 

words,  uttered  at  St.  Helena,  when  he  had  no  longer  any  mo- 
tive to  disguise  liis  real  thoughts.  "  I  have  never  regretted 
signing  the  Concordat,"  said  he.  "  I  had  to  have  one  of  some 
kind,  either  that  one  or  another.  And  had  there  existed  no 
Pope,  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  create  one."  The  re- 
ligious reaction  setting  in  was  everywhere  visible.  Its  influ- 
ence was  marked  on  most  of  the  literature  of  the  dav.  It 
first  manifested  itself  in  the  works  of  Saint-Martin  (f  1804), 
who,  because  the  reveries  of  Jacob  Boehm,  Swedenborg,  and 
I'ordage  had  a  greater  fascination  for  his  mind  than  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Church,  did  not  exert  the  influence  that  should  be 
looked  for  from  one  of  his  high  moral  character  and  unusual 
intellectual  gifts.  He  wove  into  grotesque  and  fantastical 
forms  the  mystical  ideas  of  nature  contained  in  the  works  of 
Boehm  and  others,  thus  piecing  out  a  sort  of  mystico-theo- 
sophic  system,  which  he  propagated  chiefly  among  the  Free- 
masons of  the  higher  degrees.^  Martin  Ducrey  did  good  ser- 
vice in  the  cause  of  God  by  the  school  which  he  opened  at 
Sallanches  (after  1800),  and  still  later  by  the  Carthusian  mon- 
astery founded  by  him  at  Malan.  But  the  one  who  beyond 
all  others  contributed  to  the  restoration  of  religion  and  the 
glorifying  of  the  Christian  name  at  this  time  was  unquestion- 
ably Chateaubriand,  who,  with  his  eloquent  pen,  touched  the 
hearts  of  all  Frenchmen,  and  enlisted  them  in  a  cause  that 
had  long  since  been  set  aside  and  made  to  give  place  to  the 
subjects  that  filled  the  literature  of  the  day.  During  the  early 
days  of  his  life  he  had  drifted  into  scepticism  and  infidelity ; 
but,  moved  by  the  appeal  of  his  dying  mother,  he  returned  to 
the  faith  of  his  youth,  and,  as  an  evidence  of  his  sincerity, 
wrote  the  Genius  of  Christianity.  "  My  religious  convictions," 
he  said,  writing  when  advanced  in  life,  ''were  not  always  as 
fixed  as  they  are  now.  Annoyed  at  what  I  regarded  as  the 
abuses  of  some  institutions,  and  indignant  at  the  vices  of 
some  men,  I  fell  into  sophistical  and  declamatory  habits  ;  but 


*  Des  erreurs  et  de  la  verite  par  un  philosophe  inconnu,  Lyon,  1775 ;  Tableau 
naturel  des  rapports  qui  existent  entre  Dieu,  rhomme  et  I'univers,  Lyon,  1782, 
showing  that  we  must  explain  things  by  man  and  not  man  by  things;  L'Homme 
de  desir,  Lyon,  1790;  Ecce  Homo,  Paris,  1792,  Lps.  1819  ;  D>j  i'esprit  d^s  choses. 
Paris,  1800,  2  vols.;  Oeuvres  posthumos.  Tours,  18(»7.  2  vols.  (Tk.) 


660  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Divine  Providence  graciously  deigned  to  recall  me  to  a  sense 
of  my  diity."^ 

The  public  had  been  prepared  for  the  promulgation  of  the 
Concordat  by  a  series  of  articles  in  the  newspapers.  The  bulk 
of  the  nation,  however,  had  always  regarded  the  impious  ex- 
cesses of  the  Revolution  with  horror,  and  required  no  such 
adventitious  encouragement  to  return  to  +he  faith  of  their 
fatliers.  It  soon  ceased  to  be  fashionable  among  cultivated 
people  to  sneer  at  religion,  and  to  be  known  as  an  enthusi- 
astic patron  of  religious  literature  gradually  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  good  breeding.  As  it  had  been  formerly 
the  mof/e  to  deride  the  Church,  her  teaching  and  her  practices, 
so  it  became  now  a  mark  of  bad  ta^-te  to  manifest  the  least 
disrespect  for  either  her  dogma  or  her  worship. 

The  Christian  tone  of  the  language  in  which  Atala  was 
written,  the  stern  vet  touching  scenes  of  this  Christian  ro- 
mance, and  the  poetic  grace  and  fascinating  magic  of  its  style, 
all  powerfully  contributed,  not  alone  to  widen  the  narrow 
limits  within  which  the  poetry  and  language  of  France  had 
been  hitherto  confined  by  severe  laws,  but  also  to  shake  ofi' 
the  feelings  of  indiflerence  that  had  so  long  rested  upon  a 
thoughtless  yet  vivacious  and  religious  people.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  work,  in  fact,  marked  the  beginning  of  a  literary, 
moral,  and  religious  revolution  in  France.^ 


1 "  When  in  her  seventy-second  year,"  he  goes  on  to  say  in  his  Mcmoires 
(V Outre  Tombe,  "my  mother  was  cast  into  a  frightful  prison.  In  this  gloomy 
ahode,  whither  she  had  been  driven  by  dire  misfortune,  she  saw  several  of  her 
chiliren  perish  about  her,  and  there,  too,  she  ended  her  own  life.  In  her  dying 
moments  she  called  one  of  my  sisters  to  her  side,  bidding  her  to  bring  me  back 
to  the  religion  in  which  I  had  been  brought  up.  Through  my  sister  I  learned 
the  last  wish  of  my  mother.  After  the  latter  had  passed  away,  my  sister  also 
followed,  falling  a  victim  to  the  rigors  of  her  imprisonment.  These  two  voices, 
speaking  to  me  from  out  the  grave,  the  death  of  the  one  being  the  interpreter ' 
of  the  death  of  the  other,  came  with  special  force  upon  me.  I  became  a  Chris 
tian.      Weepinr/,  I  believed." 

'^  Chateaubriand,  Atala,  ou  les  Amours  de  deux  sauvages,  Paris  (1801).  l'h« 
episode  of  Atala  was  incorporated  in  his  Genie  du  Christianisme,  ou  Eeautes  de 
la  religion  Chretienne,  Paris,  1802,  2  vols.  Les  Martyrs,  the  most  admired  of 
his  works,  appeared  in  1809,  2  vols. ;  his  Itinerare  de  Paris  a  Jerusalem,  Paris, 
1811,  3  vols.  Most  of  his  works  have  been  translated  into  English,  Germain, 
and  other  languages.     The  Genius  of  Christianity,  tr.  by  Chas.   White,  Balti- 


§  300.  Pontificate  of  Plus  VII.  661 

Ecclesiastical  seminaries,  both  greater  and  lesser,  were 
opened  all  over  the  country,  but  chiefly  in  the  metropolitan 
and  suflfragan  sees,  and  conducted  strictly  according  to  the 
instructions  laid  down  in  the  decrees  of  Trent.  Priests,  by 
request  of  government,  resumed  their  distinctive  dress;  and 
(h(.  piety  of  the  faithful  made  generous  provision  for  institu- 
tions and  communities  founded  for  the  education  of  the  young 
and  the  care  of  the  sick.  Remarkable  conversions  were  <^f 
daily  occurrence.  Laharpe,  while  languishing  in  prison,  read 
the  Following  of  Christ  (1794),  and  was  so  deeply  afl:ected  by 
its  profound  yet  simple  truths  that  he  returned  to  the  faith, 
and  in  a  codicil  to  his  last  will  withdrew  whatever  errors  were 
contained  in  his  works  (February  11,  1803).  New  dignitaries 
restored  in  a  measure  her  former  luster  to  the  Church.  Du 
Belloy,  Archbishop  of  Paris  ;  de  Boisgelin,  of  Tours ;  Camba- 
ceres,  of  Rouen  ;  and  Fesch,  of  Lyons,  were  created  cardinals. 
The  Jubilee,  which  was  opened  March  10,  1804,  also  contrib- 
uted largely  toward  leading  men's  minds  back  to  the  prac- 
tices of  religion.  Still  the  Concordat  met  with  some  opposi- 
tion, and  to  overcome  it  the  Cardinal  Legate  addressed  a 
circular  letter  to  the  French  bishops. 

The  efforts  of  Cardinal  Caprara  to  restore  order  and  re-es- 
tablish the  authority  of  the  Church  throughout  France  were 
ably  seconded  by  the  indefatigable  and  pious  Abb6  Barruel. 
Henceforth  certain  congregations,  among  others  the  Priests 
of  the  31issions,  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine,  the  Hospital- 
ler Sisters,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  to  wliose  undoubted 
utility  and  beneficent  ministrations  Napoleon  himself  bore 
testimony,  were  recognized  by  government  and  their  estab- 
lishments authorized  by  law.  The  Congregation,  for  Foreign 
Missions  was  under  the  special  protection  of  the  government, 
and  received  government  aid  in  carrying  out  the  objects  of 
'ts  foundation. 

After  peace  had  been  concluded  by  General  Brane  between 
the  Ottoman  Porte  and  France,  the  latter  country  becamo 


more,  1856.  Complete  Works,  best  ed.,  by  Sninte-Beuve,  12  vols.,  1859-1861. 
Part  of  a  new  and  complete  illustrated  edition,  to  consist  of  14  vols.,  bas  ap- 
peared (Paris,  Sarlit)  since  1861.  See  VlUemain,  Chateaubriand,  sa  vie,  se3 
ecrits,  son  influence  sur  son  temps,  etc.,  which  appeared  in  1858,  in  2  vols. 


t)62  Period  3.     Epodt  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

once  more  the  protector  of  the  churches  of  the  Latin  rite  in 
the  Levant ;  and  General  Sebastian,  while  traveling  through 
Egypt,  Syria,  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  had  frequent  occasion 
to  exercise  this  newly-acquired  right,  which  he  did  by  order 
of  the  French  government. 

Napoleon  having  been  proclaimed  Emi')eror  of  the  French 
by  a  "  senatus  consultum,"  May  8,  1804,  sent  many  urgent 
invitations  to  the  Pope  to  come  to  Paris  to  crown  him,  that 
thus  an  empire  that  had  been  the  reward  of  victory  might 
receive  the  consecration  of  religion.'  After  some  hesitation, 
Pius  VII.,  regardless  of  the  opposition  of  the  other  European 
powers,  and  of  the  solemn  protest  of  Louis  XYIIL,  resolved 
to  comply;  because,  as  he  said  in  a  Consistory  held  October 
29,  by  making  the  journey  he  would  have  an  opportunity  of 
conversing  personally  with  the  Emperor,  and  thus  advancing 
the  interests  of  religion ;  and  he  took  Heaven  to  witness  that 
in  doing  what  he  was  about  to  do  he  had  no  object  in  view 
other  than  the  glory  of  God,  the  weal  of  souls,  and  the  good 
of  the  Catholic  religion? 

Accompanied  by  four  cardinals,  four  archbishops,  and  two 
prelates,  the  Holy  Father  set  out  from  Eome  on  the  2d  of 
November,  amidst  the  tears  of  his  people,  and,  after  crossing 
the  Alps  in  the  depth  of  winter,  began  his  journey  through 
France,  which  was  one  continuous  triumph,  when,  as  the  Pope 
said  himself,  "  he  moved  through  a  nation  on  its  knees."  The 
ceremony  of  coronation  took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  December  2d ;  ^  the  Emperor  taking  the  crown  that 


1  Comte  cT Hausso7iviUe,  L'eglise  romaine  et  le  premier  empire,  1800-1814,  5 
vols.,  Paris,  1872. 

2  From  this  may  bo  seen  how  little  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the  asser- 
tion of  the  Abbe  de  Pradt,  who  said  that  the  Pope,  in  making  this  journey,  had 
not  the  interests  of  religion  in  view;  that  his  object,  which  was  wholly  political, 
was  to  obtain  the  restitution  of  the  three  legations.  (Tr.) 

3  By  request  of  the  Pope,  Napoleon's  marriage  with  Josephine  de  la  Pagerie. 
the  widow  of  Viscount  de  Beauharnais,  contracted  in  1796  according  to  cli'- 
civil  form,  was  on  this  occasion  solemnized  according  to  the  essential  Tue  pre 
scribed  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  At  eleven  o'clock  at  night,  on  the  eve  of  the 
coronation,  a  chapel  was  preparM  in  the  Emperor's  apartments,  and  at  mid- 
night the  Emperor  and  Empress  received  the  nuptial  blessing  from  Cardinal 
Fesch.     The  witnesses  to  the  marriage  ceremony  were  Portalis  and  Duroc,  tha 


§  390.  Ponlijicate.  of  Plus  VIL  G63 

had  been  blessed  by  the  Pope  and  placing  it  upon  his  own 
heod,  and  afterward  crowning  Josephine  as  PJmpress. 

The  universal  tokens  of  religious  respect  and  filial  love  with  which  the  French 
people  had  welcomed  the  Holy  Father  were  not  less  marked  after  the  cere- 
mony of  coronation  had  taken  place.  The  Cardinal-Archbishop  of  Paris  gave 
isloquent  expression  to  the  sentiments  that  filled  the  minds  of  all.  '-In  vain," 
eaid  he,  "have  the  enemies  of  the  Church  been  multiplied;  their  very  name 
has  passed  away  into  the  night  of  time;  scarcely  a  trace  can  be  found  of  their 
existence.  .  .  .  O,  Holy  lioraau  Church  !  ages  have  passed  over  thee,  and 
thou  art  still  triumphant;  thou  hast  ever  overcome  impiety  by  preserving  pu- 
rity of  morals,  integrity  of  doctrine,  and  uniformity  of  discipline,  as  these 
came  to  thee  from  thy  Divine  Founder  and  His  Apostles."  The  respectful 
homage  joyfully  rendered  by  persons  of  every  rank  and  condition  of  life  to  the 
Holy  Father  soon  roused  the  jealousy  of  the  Emperor,  who  showed  the  annoy- 
ance such  marks  of  sympathy  caused  him  in  a  way  at  once  unworthy  of  him- 
self and  painful  to  his  august  host.  The  Holy  Father  was  compelled  against 
his  will  to  spend  the  remainder  of  the  winter  in  Paris,  and  was  not  even  per- 
mitted to  make  such  visits  as  his  pious  solicitude  suggested. 

In  the  course  of  the  many  interviews  he  had  with  the  Emperor,  however,  he 
obtained  for  the  bishops  the  free  exercise  of  their  authority,  removed  the  obsta- 
cles that  until  then  had  stood  in  the  way  of  young  men  aspiring  to  the  priest- 
hood; initiated  many  measures  providing  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  sick 
and  of  the  army,  and  did  much  good  in  other  ways.  But  his  earnest  demands 
for  the  restitution  of  the  Legations  and  the  revocation  of  the  Organic  Laws 
were  to  no  purpose;  the  Emperor  firmly  refused  to  yield.  It  was  only  when 
the  Emperor  passed  the  Alps  to  receive  the  Iron  Crown  of  the  Lombards  as 
King  of  Italy,  May  26,  1805,  that  the  Pope,  forming,  as  it  were,  one  of  the  Im- 
perial retinue,  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  States.  While  on  his  way  home, 
the  Pope  was  again  the  object  of  enthusiastic  expressions  of  public  joy,  and  the 
fetes  celebrated  in  his  honor  at  Lyons  and  Turin  in  some  sort  rivalled  in  mag- 
nificence those  gotten  up  for  the  Emperor  himself.'  But  the  Pope  had  still 
holier  and  sweeter  consolations,  for,  during  his  stay  in  Turin,  by  his  personal 
influence,  he  persuaded  the  archbishop  to  resign  his  see,  the  latter  thus  comply- 
ing with  a  request  that  had  been  frequently  made  and  as  frequently  refused. 
Scipio  Ricci,  Promotor  of  the  schismatical  Synod  of  Pistoia,  also  manifested 
a  sincere  disposition  to  be  reconciled  to  the  Churcn.  Arrived  at  Pome,  the 
Pope  again  took  the  administration  of  aflairs  into  his  own  hands ;  and,  while 
giving  his  best  energies  to  the  government  of  the  Universal  Church,  found 
time  to  devote  to  the  encouragement  of  the  arts  within  his  own  States. 


Grand  Marshal  of  the  Palace.     These  circumstances  were  kept  from  the  public 
Rohrbaclier,  Ch.  Hist.  (Tr.) 
»  New  Hist,  or  the  Church  of  Christ,  Bk.  II.,  pp.  30«>-31o. 


664  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


§  391.  Disagreement  between  the  Pope  and  the- Emperor. 

Fragmens  relatifs  a  Thistoire  eccl.  des  premieres  annees  du  XIX  siecle,  Pari?, 
1814.  Correspondance  authentique  de  la  cour  de  Eome  avec  la  I  ranee  depuis 
I'invasion  de  I'etat  Eomain  jusqu'a  renlevement  du  Souverain  Pontife,  1809. 
Jaeger,  Biography  of  Pius  VII.,  Frankfort,  1825.  For  the  works  of  Pacca^ 
Ariaud,  Vol.  II.,  Wiseman,  see  bibliography,  heading,  §  390.  Memoires  du 
Card.  Consalvi,  Paris,  1864;  2d  ed.,  1866,  2  vols..  Germ.,  Paderborn,  1870. 

The  dislike  which  the  Emperor  manifested  toward  the  Pope 
during  the  stay  of  the  latter  in  Paris  was  not  a  passing  feel- 
ing;  it  was  deep-seated,  and  grew  more  intense  and  pro- 
nounced as  time  went  on. 

The  Emperor  had  made  use  of  the  influence  of  the  Pope  to 
give  to  his  authority  the  sanction  of  religion  in  the  eyes  of 
the  people,  and  had  caused  an  insertion  to  be  made  in  a  French 
catechism,  recently  published,  to  the  eflect  "  that  any  one  re- 
sisting the  authority  of  the  Emperor,  who  had  been  conse- 
crated by  the  Pope,  risked  his  eternal  salvation  ;  and  that  one 
of  the  first  duties  of  a  Christian  was  to  do  military  service 
for  one  who  had  restored  the  authority  of  the  Church."  But 
he  was  not  yet  content.  That  there  should  exist  in  the  world 
an  authority  which  men  regarded  as  superior  to  his  own  was 
a  source  of  annoyance  to  him  ;  and,  as  he  had  bent  the  scep- 
ters of  kings  to  his  imperial  will,  so  he  also  conceived  the 
design  of  making  the  Pope  do  his  pleasure.  But  to  accom- 
plish this  it  was  necessary  to  begin  open  hostilities  against  the 
Holy  See,  and  pretexts  for  an  outbreak  were  easily  found. 

Immediately  after  his  coronation  at  Milan,  May  26,  1805,  he  published  sev- 
eral decrees  highly  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  Church.  He  appointed  a 
Commission,  which  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  enforcing  in  Italy  the  "Civil 
Code  "  of  France,  without  the  least  modification,  and,  in  direct  contravention 
of  th3  Concordat  1  entered  into  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Cisalpine  Repub- 
lic, took  upon  him  to  appoint  to  Italian  bishoprics.  The  Pope  declined  to  con- 
fer canonical  institution,  and  here  the  matter  rested  until  the  close  of  the  cam- 
paign of  1805.  To  a  request  from  the  Emperor  to  declare  null  the  marriage 
contracted  by  his  brother  Jerome  with  Miss  Patterson,  in  Baltimore,  U.  S., 
while  still  in  his  nonage,  the  Pope  replied  that  with  his  present  information 
he  could  not  comply.  The  Emperor  cut  the  matter  short  by  having  the  mar- 
riage declared  void  by  the  civil  tribunals,  and  Jerome  was  shortly  afterward 


>  New  Hist.,  etc..  Book  II.,  pp.  261  sq. 


§  391.  Disagreement  between  the  Pope  and  Emperor.    GC5 

married  to  a  princess  of  Wiirtemberg.  "  The  King  of  England  and  the  Em 
peror  of  Russia,"  Napoleon  was  wont  to  say,  "are  masters  in  their  own  houses. 
In  the  religious  affairs  of  their  dominions  they  are  absolute  and. without  con- 
trol." Such  was  the  commencement  of  a  project,  the  ultimate  aim  of  which 
was  the  annihilation  of  the  Holy  See.  These  beginnings  were  followed  up  by 
the  seizure  and  occupation  of  ihe  port  and  ciiy  of  Ancona ;  by  the  consequent 
violation  of  the  neutral  territory  of  the  Pope,  which  had  thus  far  been  respected 
by  all  the  belligerent  powers,  thus  exposing  the  States  of  the  Church  to  be  the 
theattjr  on  which  reprisals  would  be  made  against  France  ;  by  demanding,  some 
time  later,  the  dismissal  of  such  embassadors  from  the  Papal  Court  as  were 
personally  obnoxious  to  him ;  and,  finally,  by  ordering  the  Pope  to  expel  all 
English  citizens  from  his  States,  and  to  close  his  harbors  against  English  ves- 
sels, threatening,  if  his  wishes  were  not  complied  with,  to  occupy  the  March 
of  Ancona  with  imperial  troops.^  "  You  are  sovereign  of  Eomc;  I  am  Empe- 
ror ;  my  enemies  should  also  be  yours."  Such  is  the  imperious  and  novel  logic 
employed  by  Napoleon,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Pope,  on  the  13th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1806.  Repelling  a  pretension  which  would  involve  the  Father  of  Chris- 
tendom in  wars,  it  mattered  not  for  what  purpose  or  against  whom  they  might 
be  waged,  whenever  it  suited  the  imperial  pleasure  to  declare  them,  the  Pope 
replied  that  he  could  not  consistently  with  his  honor  or  his  conscience  enter 
into  an  alliance  which  would  draw  upon  him  the  enmity  of  all  the  Emperor's 
adversaries,  and  make  him  a  partner  to  a  universal  and  permanent  war;  and 
that  he  could  not  begin  hostilities  against  a  government  which,  like  that  of 
England,  had  done  him  no  wrong.  "Far  from  acceding  to  such  a  demand," 
added  the  Pope,  "  a  minister  of  peace,  representing  the  God  of  peace,  should 
call  unceasingly  upon  Heaven  to  put  an  end  to  war  and  to  restore  universal 
peace  and  concord."  Wounded  by  the  tone  of  the  Pope's  reply,  the  Emperor 
rejoined,  as  if  the  Holy  See  were  then  what  it  had  been  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
that  Pius  VII.  held  such  language  toward  him  as  a  Gregory  VII.  might,  and 
that,  owing  to  his  own  great  forbearance,  so  out  of  keeping  with  his  true  char- 
acter, and  so  contrary  to  his  usual  policy,  the  belief  had  undoubtedly  gained 
ground  at  Rome  that  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican  had  terrors  for  him. 

The  Pope,  however,  was  not  frightened  by  these  threats.  Napoleon  believing 
that  Pius  VII.  was  under  the  control  of  Consalvi,  styled  the  ^^Syren  of  Rome" 
demai.ded  the  resignation  of  the  latter,  and  he  was  accordingly  replaced  by 
Cardinal  Casoni,  then  seventy-four  years  of  age.  After  the  seizure  of  the 
Principalities  of  Ponte-Corvo  and  Benevento,  and  their  incorporation  into  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  the  former  was  given  as  an  imperial  fief  to  the  Protestant 
General  Bernadotte,  and  the  latter  to  Talleyrand,  then  French  minister  for 
foreign  afiairs,  and  formerly  Bishop  of  Autun. 

Indignant  at  so  flagrant  an  outrage,  the  Papal  government  ceased  to  transact 
any  further  business  through  Cardinal  Caprara,  the  Legate  at  Paris,  cond.ict- 
ing  all  affairs  of  State  with  France  directly  from  Rome.  In  answer  to  the 
Emperor's  insolent  letter,  just  referred  to,  the  Pope  sent  word  that  he  must  de- 
clme  to  unconditionally  acknowledge  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of  Naples. 
"  Your  Majesty,"  he  wrote  to  the  Emperor,  "is  conscious  of  power;  but  "\Ve 


^  New  Hist.,  etc.,  Bk.  II.,  pp.  339-347,  where  the  Pope's  answer  is  given. 


066  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  ] 


know  that  there  is  a  God  above  all  the  monarchs  of  the  earth,  who  is  the 
avenger  of  justice  and  innocence,  and  to  whom  every  human  authority  is  sub- 
ject." Napoleon  replied,  in  a  note  of  January  7,  1808,  by  making  six  new  de- 
mands, which  were  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war.'  Shortly  after  (Febru- 
ary 2,  1808)  General  JSIioUls  entered  Home  at  the  head  of  a  French  army,  and 
un  the  same  night  the  Pope  drew  up  a  protest  in  his  own  name  and  that  of  his 
successors  against  the  occupation  of  his  territory,  and  directed  that  a  copy  be 
sent  to  each  of  the  foreign  embassadors  then  in  the  city.  This  provoked  fresh 
outrages.  The  papal  troops  were  incorporated  with  the  French  army,  and 
such  oflBcers  as  resisted  were  sent  to  Mantua.  Four  cardinals  were  carried 
away  to  Naples  as  state  criminals ;  ten  more  were  led  back  under  military  es- 
cort to  Ihe  various  countries  from  which  they  had  come;  the  Swiss  Guard  was 
disarmed  in  front  of  the  papal  palace,  and  the  Noble  Guard  shut  up  in  the 
Castle  of  Sant'  Angelo.  To  the  renewed  protests  of  the  Pope's  Secretary  of 
State  the  French  embassador  replied  ''that  these  were  only  the  consequences  of 
refusing  to  comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  Empei-or,  who  is  determined  to  unite 
all  Italy  into  a  league,  offensive  and  defensive,  and  thus  banish  war  and  dis- 
order from  the  peninsula."  "  By  this  refusal,"  he  continued,  '•  the  Holy  Father, 
while  protesting  that  he  does  not  want  war  with  the  Emperor,  declares  it 
against  him.  Now,  war  leads  directly  to  conquest,  and  conquest  to  a  change  of 
government  in  the  conquered  States.  This,  however,  would  not  deprive  the 
Pope  of  his  spiritual  rights;  he  would  still  continue  Bishop  of  Eome,  as  his 
predecessors  were  during  the  first  eight  centuries  and  under  Charlemagne.  It 
is  a  source  of  grief  to  the  Ernperor  to  see  the  products  of  genius,  statesman- 
ship, and  civilization  going  to  ruin,  because  of  an  unreasonable  obstinacy  and 
blindness."  The  Pope  replied  in  a  note  of  April  19,  in  which  he  said  that  since 
the  Emperor  was  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice,  there  was  no  way  of  preventing 
him  from  taking  possession  of  the  States  of  the  Church  by  conquest ;  but,  at 
the  same  time,  he  felt  called  upon  to  solemnly  protest  that,  being  at  peace  with 
the  whole  world,  there  was  no  justification  for  the  act,  and  that  it  must  be 
characterized  as  a  violent  and  unprecedented  usurpation.  While  these  nego- 
tiations were  going  forward,  the  decrees  of  Napoleon  were  being  carried  out, 
declaring  the  provinces  of  Urbino,  Ancona,  Macerata,  and  Camerino  irrevoca- 
bly incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  ordering  all  cardinals,  pre- 
lates, and  servants  of  the  Court  of  Home  to  return  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
before  the  25th  of  May,  under  penalty  of  confiscation  of  all  their  goods."^  The 
real  purpose  of  the  last  clause  was  the  dissolution  of  the  College  of  Cardinals, 
twenty-four  of  whom  had  been  already  sent  into  exile.  The  Pope  again  pro- 
tested, but  in  vain,  the  Emperor  relaxing  nothing  of  his  violence.  Qivnlchini, 
the  Governor  of  Rome,  who,  it  seems,  was  not  properly  submissive  to  the  Em- 
peror, was  arrested  and  sent  away  to  the  fortress  of  FenestreUe ;  Cardinal  Gu- 
br-leUi,  Secretary  of  State,  was  surprised  in  the  government  ofiice,  and,  after 
witnessing  the  breaking  open  of  his  desks  and  the  seizure  of  his  papers,  was 
himself  conducted  to  his  episcopal  see  of  Siniyaglia ;  and,  some  time  later.  Car- 
dinal Pacea,  who  had   been   appointed  pro-Secretary  by  the  Pope,  was  also 


'  New  Hist.,  etc ,  Hk.  II.,  pp.  397  sq. 
'^Ibid.,  Bk.  III.,  pp.  4oiJ  sq. 


§  391.  Disagreement  between  the  Pope  and  Emperor.   667 

placed  under  arrest.  Hearing  of  the  arrest  of  his  minister,  the  Pope  at  once 
sought  him  out,  and  going  with  him  to  the  Quirinal  palace,  expressed  his  de- 
termination to  share  his  captivity.  The  palace  was  forthwith  surrounded  by  a 
military  guard,  and  every  one  going  in  or  coming  out  was  strictly  searched. 
A  military  court  was  set  up  to  try  and  condemn  such  of  the  Pope's  subjects  as 
showed  any  reluctance  to  render  obedience  to  the  French  authorities.  Finally, 
on  the  17th  of  May,  1809,  the  famous  Vienna  decree  was  published,  annexirg 
the  remnant  of  the  States  of  the  Church  to  the  French  Empire.'  and  enacting 
that  the  Pope  should  receive  a  yearly  revenue  of  two  millions  of  francs,  and 
retain  his  palaces  and  personal  property,  and  declaring  Rome  a  free  city  of  the 
Empire.  The  decree  was  carried  into  execution  on  the  following  10th  of  June, 
and  the  Pope  at  once  caused  a  protest  to  be  drawn  up  in  the  Italian  language, 
which  he  signed,  and  had  posted  through  the  city  on  the  night  of  the  following 
day.  With  unbending  dignity  and  steady  adherence  to  duty  he  instructed 
(Cardinal  Pacca  to  take  the  necessary  steps  toward  publishing  a  bull  of  excom- 
munication, recommending,  however,  that  the  utmost  prudence  be  used  in  car- 
rying it  into  effect.  In  a  few  hours  the  celebrated  bull  Qunm  memoranda  ilia 
die  was  struck  oft"  and  on  the  following  morning  was  found  afBxed  to  the  doors 
of  the  three  principal  churches  of  Kome.^  Major  excommunication  and  anath- 
ema were  pronounced  against  all  the  perpetrators,  abettors,  and  advisers  of  the 
invasion  of  the  rights  and  the  territory  of  the  Holy  See;  but  at  the  same  time 
the  subjects  of  the  Pope  and  all  Christian  peoples  were  forbidden  to  make  this 
sentence  a  ground  or  pretext  for  invading  either  the  rights  or  the  property  of 
those  affected  by  it.  Napoleon,  while  feigning  to  make  a  jest  of  the  sentence 
of  excommunication,^  forbade  the  publication  of  the  bull,  which  was  received 
by  all  Christendom  with  expressions  of  undisguised  satisfaction,  and  had  an 
article  inserted  in  the  Moniteur,  containing  an  exposition  of  the  principles  set 
forth  in  the  Declaration  of  the  Galilean  Clergy,  denying  the  right  of  the  Pope 
to  pass  sentence  of  excommunication  upon  any  sovereign,  and  least  of  all  upon 
the  sovereign  of  France.*  Pius  YIL,  quietly  but  firmly  refusing  to  abdicate 
his  temporal  sovereignty,  was  hurried  away  to  Florence,  thence  to  Turin,  and 
from  there  to  Grenoble,  where  orders  were  received  to  conduct  him  back 
through  Dauphin 6  and  Provence  to  Savona,  where  he  arrived,  worn  out  with 
the  fatigue  of  a  long  journey  on  horseback  through  Piedmont.^  At  Valence 
Pius  had  the  consolation  of  being  able  to  bless  the  tomb  of  his  predecessor.    In 


1  New  Hist.,  etc.,  Bk.  III.,  pp.  482  sq. 

^Ibid.,  Bk.  III.,  p.  488.  Also  Pacca' s  Memoirs  of  His  Holiness  Pius  VII., 
Bk.  I.,  pp.  78  and  114  sq.,  where  the  text  of  the  bull  is  given. 

^  In  a  letter  to  Eugene  Beauharnais,  Viceroy  of  Italy,  he  said:  "  Does  he  not 
know  that  the  times  are  greatly  changed?  Does  he  mistake  nie  for  Louis  the 
Mild?  or  does  he  think  that  his  excommunications  will  cause  the  arms  to  drop 
from  the  hands  of  my  soldiers?"  (Mr.  A.  AUso7i,  in  his  Hist,  of  Europe, 
quotes  this  passage,  adding  that  Napoleon's  words  were  literally  fulfilled  in  tha 
Russian  campaign. — Tr.) 

*  See  p.  498. 

s  Relation  exacte  et  detaillue  de  I'enlevement  du  Papo  Pie  VII.  par  Radet. 
Cf.  New  Mist.,  etc.,  p.  4-19  ;  also  Pacca,  pp.  93  sq. 


6ti8  Ptrlod  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


the  meantime  Cardinal  Pacea  had  been  separated  from  the  Pope  and  led  away 
to  the  stronghold  of  Fenestrelle,  situated  on  one  of  the  highest  spi.rs  of  the 
Alps,  between  Piedmont  and  Dauphine.^ 

At  Savona  the  Holy  Father  was  strictly  guarded  in  the  hotel  of  the  prefect- 
tire,  not  being  allowed  to  hold  audience  with  any  one  except  in  the  presence  of 
his  guard.  He  steadily  refused  to  accept  his  monthly  allowance  of  a  hundred 
thousand  francs,  declined  to  avail  himself  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  that 
had  been  provided  for  him,  and  set  aside  the  pomp  and  circumstance  with  which 
it  was  intended  to  surround  him,  disdaining  to  be  the  recipient  of  any  favor  from 
tiie  hand  of  a  sacrilegious  spoiler,  and  preferring  to  receive  his  support  from 
the  generosity  and  charity  of  the  faithful.  He  repulsed  with  the  same  quiet 
energy  and  unbending  dignity  the  frequently  renewed  demand  to  surrender 
his  title  to  the  government  of  Rome,  and  to  go  and  reside  as  a  pensioner  of  the 
French  government  at  Paris,  with  an  annuity  of  two  millions  of  francs.^ 

On  the  day  of  the  Pope's  abduction,  July  6,  1809,  Napoleon  gained  the  vic- 
tory of  Wagram,  which  secured  to  him  the  Peace  of  Vienna,  October  13,  1809, 
and  the  hand  of  the  archduchess,  Maria  Louisa.  Now  at  the  zenith  of  his 
power,  he  turned  this  coincidence  to  the  best  account,  and,  in  a  circular  letter, 
addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  France,  ordered  them  to  commemorate  by  a  re- 
ligious solemnitj'  the  day  on  which  God  seemed  to  have  given  a  divine  sanction 
to  his  attitude  toward  the  Pope  by  giving  so  brilliant  a  victory  to  his  arms. 
In  justification  of  the  measures  adopted  in  relation  to  the  Pope,  he  reminded 
the  bishops  that  Christ,  although  of  the  royal  house  of  David,  had  no  desire  to 
be  an  earthly  prince;  quite  the  contrary,  for  He  instructed  His  followers  to 
render  obedience  to  Caesar  and  to  Caesar's  laws.  In  order  to  be  able  the  better 
to  influence  the  College  of  Cardinals  as  to  the  selection  of  a  successor  to  Pius 
VII.,  in-  the  event  of  his  death,  Napoleon,  in  December,  1809,  ordered  all  the 
cardinals  still  residing  in  Kome  to  repair  to  Paris.  He  also  had  the  archives 
of  the  various  departments  of  ecclesiastical  administration  transported  thither, 
thus  suspending  the  regular  labors  of  the  various  Congregations  for  an  interval 
of  five  years. 

Returning  to  Paris  flushed  with  the  victories  of  his  Austrian  campaign,  Na- 
poleon took  the  resolution  of  thrusting  aside  his  lawful  wife  and  contracting  a 
second  marriage,  in  the  hope  of  leaving  a  lineal  heir  to  the  throne.^     A  decree 


1  Pacca,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  18-120.     New  Hist.,  etc.,  Bk.  III.,  pp.  505  sq. 

-  Napoleon  himself  avowed  that  one  of  his  favorite  projects  had  been  to  take 
from  the  Pope  his  temporal  power  and  to  transfer  him  to  Paris.  Even  when 
at  St.  Helena,  he  said:  "The  establishment  of  the  Court  of  Rome  at  Paris 
would  have  been  attended  with  important  political  results.  The  influence  of 
the  Pope  over  Spain,  Italy,  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  and  Poland  would  have 
strengthened  the  federative  bonds  of  the  Great  Empire.  The  influence  of  the 
Elead  of  Christendom  over  the  Catholics  of  England,  Ireland,  Russia,  Prussia, 
Austria,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia,  would  have  become  the  heritage  of  France.'' 
ft  is  evident  from  these  words  why  Napoleon  came  to  an  open  rupture  with 
the  Pope 

'  On  the  dissolution  of  Napoleon's  marriage  with  Josephine,  cf  The  Cafhoiic, 
of  Mentz,  Vol.  55,  pp.  58  sq.,  where  the  alleged  cause  is  said  to  have  been  the 


§  391.  Disagreement  between  the  Pope  and  Emperor.    669 

of  divorce  was  granted  by  a  senatus  consultum,  December  15,  1809,  and  was 
subsequently  ratified  by  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  Emperor's  nephew,  as  Metropoli- 
tan of  Paris,  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  Primate  of  Gaul,  acting  on  the  pre- 
text that  access  to  the  Holy  Father  was  impracticable,  if  not  impossible.  Na- 
poleon then  demanded  and  received  the  hand  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  a 
daughter  of  the  proud  race  of  Hapsburg.  The  marriage  was  celebrated  by 
proxy,  March  11,  1810,  and  solemnly  by  Cardinal  Fesch  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Tuileries,  April  2d  of  the  same  year.  Thirteen  of  the  cardinals  refused  to  be 
present  at  the  ceremony,  and  ISapoleon  in  consequence  ordered  them  in  future 
to  wear  black  instead  of  red,  which  gave  rise  to  the  well-known  distinction  be- 
tween the  red  cardinals  and  the  black.  Some  time  later  he  banished  the  black 
cardinals  to  various  provincial  towns,  and  discontinued  the  payment  of  their 
revenues.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Napoleon  found  the  letter  of  Louis  XIV. 
revoking  the  edict  relative  to  the  Declaration  of  the  Galilean  Clergy  of  1682, 
which  he  pitched  inti>  the  fire,  with  the  remark,  "  These  ashes  will  not  give  us 
much  uneasiness  hereafter."  i  Pius  VII.  showed  himself  quite  as  firm  when  a 
prisoner  and  in  exile  as  when  free  and  upon  his  throne;  and  now,  as  then,  re- 
fused to  confer  canonical  institution  upon  the  bishops  appointed  by  the  Em- 
peror, alleging  that  he  did  not  wish  to  act  without  the  advice  of  his  cardinals, 
from  which  he  was  precluded  by  his  captivity.  To  meet  the  difficulty  and  es- 
cape the  danger  which  a  persistent  refusal  might  bring  with  it,  it  was  suggested 
to  the  Pope  to  confer  canonical  institution,  without  mentioning  either  the  fact 
that  the  bishops  had  been  appointed  by  the  Emperor  or  that  he  himself  acted 
of  his  free  will.  This  novel  expedient  and  unworthy  subterfuge  was  spurned 
by  the  Pope  (August  26,  1809),  as  was  also  the  proposition  to  commit  the  ad- 
ministration of  dioceses  to  Vicars-Capitular,  as  had  been  done  in  Paris  and 
Florence.  The  Emperor,  transported  with  fury,  determined  to  make  the  Pope 
feel  the  full  weight  of  his  anger.  His  books,  papers,  and  even  his  writing  ma- 
terials were  taken  from  him,  and  he  received  an  intimation  from  the  Prefect 
of  MontenoUe  that  any  attempt  to  communicate  with  any  church  would  subject 
both  himself  and  the  person  addressed  to  the  penalties  of  high  treason  and  the 
church  to  confiscation.  Not  in  the  least  intimidated,  Pius  VII.  replied:  "I 
shall  lay  these  threats  at  the  foot  of  the  Crucifix,  and  give  my  cause,  which  is 
His  also,  into  the  keeping  of  God." 

Fully  conscious  that  his  own  dignity  and  the  peace  of  his  States  required 
the  immediate  settlement  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  which  had  been  thrown  into 
such  disorder  by  his  own  violent  acts.  Napoleon  appointed  an  Ecclesiastical 
Commission  at  Paris,  November  16,  1810,  to  which  he  proposed  the  following 
questions  : 


non-observance  of  the  formalities  prescribed  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  See  also 
Kuischker,  Laws  on  Matrimony  (Vol.  IV.,  ?  371),  accompanied  by  the  report 
of  the  Abbe  Rudemare,  then  syndic  of  the  ecclesiastical  administration  of  Paris. 
Also  Archives  of  Canon  Law,  by  Moy  and  Vehrlng,  Vol.  III.,  p.  718;  and  par- 
ticularly Htlfert  (Austrian  Under-Secretary  of  State),  Maria  Louisa,  Vienna. 
1873. 

^  De  Pradt,    Histoire  des  quatre  concordats,  T.  II.,  c.  31.     Pacca.  Vol.    11., 
pp.  10  sq 


670  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

I.  To  whom  should  application  be  made  for  necessary  dispensations  when 
communication  between  the  Pope  and  the  subjects  of  the  Emperor  is  entirely 
broken  off? 

II.  Which  is  the  best  legal  expedient  for  procuring  the  canonical  institu- 
tion of  bishops  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  when  the  Pope  refuses  to  issue  the 
necessary  bulls? 

The  Commissioners,  instead  of  pointing  out  to  the  Emperor  that  the  only 
effectua"  way  of  putting  an  end  to  the  disorders,  growing  out  of  the  existing 
condition  of  things,  lay  in  a  restoration  of  the  Pope  to  freedom  and  the  enjoy- 
ment of  his  rights,  drew  a  distinction  between  the  general  and  the  special  laws 
of  the  Church.  From  the  former,  they  said,  there  was  no  dispensation  possi- 
ble ;  from  the  latter,  the  bishops  were  competent  to  dispense,  and  to  them  the 
faithful  might  apply. 

In  reply  to  the  second  question,  the  Commissioners  censured  the  conduct  of 
the  Pope,  and  recommended  that  a  clause  be  added  to  the  Concordat  of  1801, 
binding  the  H0I3'  See  to  confer  canonical  institution  within  a  specified  and  lim- 
ited time;  and,  in  case  of  refusal,  proposed  that  a  National  Synod  be  called, 
but  not  until  after  a  deputation  had  waited  upon  the  Pope  and  laid  the  true 
state  of  affairs  before  him. 

The  Emperor,  having  assembled  the  cardinals  and  bishops  composing  the 
Commission,  the  counselors  of  Suite,  and  the  officers  of  the  Crown,  proceeded 
to  make  a  violent  harangue  against  the  Pope.  Of  all  those  present,  only  the 
Abbe  Emery  had  the  manliness  to  tell  the  Emperor  plainly  that  the  council 
which  he  was  about  to  convoke  would  have  no  authority  whatever  if  it  were 
not  in  unity  with  the  Head  of  the  Church  and  sanctioned  by  him.  The  Em- 
peror, strange  to  say,  did  not  seem  offended  by  this  outspoken  frankness.  He, 
nevertheless,  issued  a  circular  letter,  written  in  that  imperative  tone  and  la- 
conic style  which  he  was  wont  to  use  toward  his  soldiers,  and  addressed  to  the 
Erench  and  Italian  bishops,  convoking  a  JSailonal  Council,  to  meet  at  Paris, 
April  25,  1811.  There  were  altogether  ninety-five  Erench  and  Italian  pre- 
lates, of  whom  six  were  cardinals,  nine  archbishops,  and  eighty  bishops.  .It 
the  same  time  a  deputation  of  bishops  was  sent  to  wait  upon  the  Pope  at  Sa- 
vona,  to  inform  him  that  the  Emperor  desired  to  renew  the  Concordat  of  1801, 
but  on  condition  that  the  Holy  See  would  confer  canonical  institution  upon  the 
bishops  already  appointed,  and  consent  to  the  insertion  of  a  clause  to  the  fol- 
lowing effect:  "If  the  Pope  shall  not  have  issued  the  bull  conferring  canonical 
institution  at  the  expiration  of  three  months,  the  metropolitan  may  grant  it  to 
his  suffragans,  and  reciprocally  they  to  him."  The  Pope  was  further  informed 
that  upon  these  conditions  he  might  return  to  Rome,  after  having  taken  tLe 
oath  of  obedience  and  allegiance  to  the  Emperor,  prescribed  for  bishops  by  the 
Concordat;  that  should  he  refuse  these  overtures  he  might  reside  at  Avignon 
with  an  annuity  of  two  millions  of  francs,  where  he  would  be  treated  as  a  sov- 
ereign, have  the  embassadors  of  all  Christian  powers  at  his  court,  and  exercise 
nis  spiritual  jurisdiction  without  restraint;  but  that  he  would  not  be  permitted 
to  take  any  steps  hostile  to  the  Four  Articles  of  the  Galilean  Declaration. 
After  the  bishops  had  drawn  a  frightful  picture  of  the  evils  that  would  follow 
his  refusal,  the  Pope  at  length  consented  to  confer  canonical  institution  upon 
those  appointed  to  bishoprics  by  Napoleon;  to  extend  the  Cond^rdai  of  180] 


§  391.  Disagreement  bettceen  the  Pope  and  Emperor.    G71 


to  the  churches  of  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Piacenza;  and  to  accept  the  proposed 
clause,  adding,  however,  that  the  term  should  be  extended  to  six  months,  a  con- 
dition which  was  agreed  to  by  the  Deputation,  provided  "that  investiture  was 
withheld  for  no  reason  other  than  the  personal  unworthiness  cf  the  candidate." 
Taking  advantage  of  this  momentary  weakness,  the  bishops  drew  up  four  arti- 
cles embodying  the  promises  of  the  Pope,  which  the  latter  witnessed  and 
agreed  to,  but  declined  to  sign.'  on  the  ground  that  the  articles  were  neither  a 
treaty  nor  a  protocol,  but  simply  an  earnest  of  his  desire  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing, which  might  lead  to  peace  and  harmony. 

On  the  17th  of  June  of  the  same  year  the  Council  was  opened  at  Paris  l^y 
Cardinal  Fesch  with  the  customary  ceremonies.^  Mgr.  ih  Bonlogite,  Bishop  of 
Troyes,  delivered  a  discourse  on  the  importance  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Catholic  religion  on  social  order  and  the  prosperity  of  nations. 
After  the  Mass  of  the  Holy  Ghost  had  been  said,  the  symbol  of  Trent  was 
read  and  the  oatb  oi  fidelity  to  tlie  Pope  administered.  Napoleon's  message  to 
the  Council  was  singularly  out  of  keeping  with  the  oath.  The  debate  on  the 
address  and  the  Emperor's  message  w-as  spirited,  lengthy,  and  marked  by  a 
wide  divergence  of  opinion,  which  threatened  to  become  serious.  Some  of  the 
prelates  demanded  that,  before  taking  up  any  other  liusiness,  the  Emperor  be 
requested  to  set  the  Pope  at  liberty.  The  motion  was  drawn  up  and  put  be- 
fore the  Council  by  Ga.ipar  Maxinnlinn,  Baron  of  Droste-Vischerhw,  suffragan 
bishop  of  Mimster,^  and  seconded  by  Irenaeus  de  Solly,  Bishop  of  Chambery, 
and  by  the  Archbishop  of  Turin.  It  was  opposed  by  the  court-prelsites  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  give  oflense  to  the  Emperor.  A  lively  opposition  was 
made  to  these  latter  in  the  session  of  the  27th  of  June,  when  they  proposed 
that  in  the  address  to  the  Emperor  mention  should  be  made  of  rue  Galilean 
Articles  and  canonical  institution.  The  two  sections  having  faned  to  agree, 
the  address  was  signed  by  only  the  president  and  the  secretary.  A  committee 
was  appointed  to  carry  the  address  to  the  Emperor  on  the  30th  of  June,  but 
Napoleon  was  so  incensed  that  he  declined  either  to  receive  the  committee  oi 
accept  their  address.  After  these  preliminary  skirmishes  the  Coiincil  took  up 
the  discussion  of  the  question  for  which  it  was  called  together,  and  began  to 
cast  about  for  some  means  of  dispensing  with  papal  bulls  in  conl>3rring  canon- 
ical investiture  on  bishops.  The  preparatory  committee,  in  a  meeting  at  Car- 
dinal Fesch's  lodgings,  at  once  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes,  that  the  Council 
could  provide  no  substitute  for  pontifical  bulls  except  provisionally,  ituJ  then 
only  in  urgent  cases.  In  the  session  of  July  10th  the  Committee  reported, 
giving  the  reasons  for  its  decision.  The  bishops  in  the  interests  of  the  Empe- 
ror held  and  defended  the  contrary  opinion,  and  in  support  of  it  appealed  to 
the  concessions  made  by  the  Pope  at  Savona  ;   but  being  in  tlie  minority,  they 


^Pacca,  Vol   III ,  p.  4-2  sq.     New  Hist.,  etc.,  Bk   TIL.  p.  542  sq. 

^■t  Melchers,  The  National  Council  of  Paris  in  1811,  accompanied  by  authen- 
tic documents,  Munster,  1814.  Robinno,  T.  III.,  p.  172  sq.  1  hiers,  Histoire  du 
Consulat  et  de  VEmpire,  Vol.  XIII.,  on  which  there  is  an  elegant  criticism  in 
the  Coirespondunt,  livraison  du  23  Juin,  1856. 

3  see  Gaspar  Maximilian's  own  declaration  (in  ''The  Catholic,''  182-3,  Vol.  XV.. 
p.  325-355).     Lyonnet,  Le  Cardinal  Fesch,  etc.,  Lyon,  1841. 


672  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

were  powerless,  and  their  arguments  were  weakened  by  the  fact  that  the  jirom- 
ises  wrung  from  the  Pope  were  not  authenticated  by  his  signature.  The  Coun- 
cil was  just  preparing  to  solemnly  avow  its  incompetency  to  deal  with  the 
question  in  hand,  when  its  president  suddenly  prorogued  its  sessions;  and 
Napoleon,  learning  what  had  taken  place,  signed  a  decree  dissolving  it  alto- 
gether, July  18,  1811.  Mgr.  de  Boulogne,  Bishop  of  Troyes;  Mgr.  Him,  Bishop 
of  Tournay ;  Mgr.  de  Broglie,  Bishop  of  Ghent,  who  as  members  of  the  Com- 
mittee, had  made  themselves  conspicuous  by  arguing  against  the  competency 
of  the  Council,  were  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  dungeons  of  Vincennes. 

Seeing  his  projects  frustrated,  Napoleon  cried  out,  while  the  first  impulse  of 
anger  was  still  upon  him  :  "  I  have  been  passing  over  an  abyss  unawares.  That 
Concordat  is  the  biggest  blunder  of  my  life."  Before  again  convoking  the 
Council,  he  determined  to  make  sure  of  his  men,  and  accordingly  Bigot  de 
Preameneu  and  Bovara,  the  ministers  of  worship  for  France  and  Italy,  called 
personally  upon  each  of  the  Bishops  of  these  two  countries  then  in  Paris,  and 
by  promises  and  flatteries,  by  threats  and  reproaches,  endeavored  to  gain  them 
over  to  the  interests  of  the  Emperor.  They  were  in  a  measure  successful, 
having  obtained  the  written  promises  of  many  of  them  and  the  conditional 
promises  of  others  to  support  a  contemplated  decree ;  fourteen  courageously  re- 
fusing to  sign  the  document  at  all.  Having  received  the  pledges  of  these  pre- 
lates, the  Emperor  again  ordered  the  bishops  to  assemble  in  general  session, 
August  5th,  when,  on  motion  of  M.  Barral,  a  decree  was  passed,  based  upon  the 
Savona  concessions.  A  deputation  of  five  cardinals  and  nine  bishops,  all  of 
whom  had  given  pledges  before  leaving  Paris  to  support  the  designs  of  the 
government,!  waited  upon  the  Pope  at  Savona,  and  finally,  on  September  20th, 
obtained  his  signature  to  a  brief  drawn  up  by  Cardinal  JRoverella,  one  of  the 
deputies,  approving  the  decree  of  the  Conncil,  on  condition,  however,  that  the 
metropolitan,  in  conferring  canonical  investiture,  should  state  in  every  case 
that  he  did  so  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  See,  to  which  all  the  documents  properly 
authenticated  should  be  sent.  At  the  same  time  bulls  were  obtained  conferring 
canonical  institution  upon  a  number  of  bishops.  These  transactions  were  tel- 
egraphed to  Paris  in  a  spirit  of  triumphant  exultation,  in  which,  however,  Na- 
poleon did  not  share.  He  sent  back  the  brief,  and  refused  to  make  any  use  of 
the  bulls  conferring  investiture,  very  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  Abb6  de 
Pradt,  who,  in  drawing  them  up,  had  not  forgotten  his  own  archbishopric  of 
Malines.  Four  of  the  bishops  belonging  to  the  Deputation  having  gone  to 
Turin,  received  orders  to  return  to  Savona,  and  prevail  upon  the  Pope  to  give 
a  full  consent  to  all  the  wishes  of  the  Emperor.  This  the  Pope  firmly  and 
steadfastly  refused  to  do,  and  his  resolution  was  not  in  the  least  shaken  by  the 
declaration  of  the  Prefect  of  JVIontenotte,  who,  speaking  in  the  name  of  the 
Emperor,  said  that  since  the  brief  of  the  20th  of  September  had  not  received 
the  imparial  sanction,  Napoleon  regarded  the  Concordat  as  revoked,  and  that 
in  the  future  no  papal  interference  in  canonical  investiture  would  be  tolerated. 
The  bishops  assembled  at  Paris  were  now  unceremoniously  dismissed  (October 
20)  by  the  Minister  of  Worship,  and  thus  the  Council  that  had  been  opened 


*  Paeca,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  52  sq. 


§  391.  Disagreement  between  the  Fope  and  Emperor.    673 

with  such  pomp  and  splendor  was  closed  without  a  religious  solemnity  ot 
an  J'  kind. 

After  several  months  of  anxious  suspense,  during  which  Napoleon  was  "-et- 
ting  ready  to  set  out  on  his  Paissian  campaign,  which  was  opened  May  9,  1812, 
Pius  VII.  was  summoned,  June  9,  1812,  to  make  preparations  for  a  journey  to 
France.  He  was  instructed  to  lay  aside  every  mark  and  token  of  his  pontifical 
office,  and  to  travel  in  the  strictest  incognito.  After  a  very  fatiguing  journey, 
made  for  the  most  part  during  the  heated  hours  of  the  day,  the  cortege  arrived 
at  the  Convent  of  the  Cistercians,  on  Mount  Cenis,  where  the  holy  old  man 
grew  so  ill  that  the  officers,  fearing  to  proceed,  dispatched  couriers  to  Turin  to 
ask  for  fresh  instructions.  Word  came  back  ordering  them  to  do  as  they  had 
been  bidden,  and  on  the  14th  of  June  the  Fope,  who  had  that  very  morning 
received  the  last  Sacraments,  was  once  more  hurried  on  his  journey,  traveling 
even  during  the  night,  and,  without  making  a  single  halt,  finally  arrived  at 
FontainebLeau,  June  20th,  where  he  fell  so  ill  that  his  life  was  despaired  of,' 
being  unable  to  leave  his  bed  for  many  months.  The  red-cardinals  and  some 
bishops  high  in  the  imperial  favor,  who  alone  were  permitted  to  see  him,  at- 
tempted to  frighten  him  by  drawing  highly  colored  pictures  of  the  distressing 
condition  of  the  Church,  the  dangers  of  an  interminable  schism,  and  the  secret 
plots  which  the  philosophical  sects  were  actively  prosecuting.  Finding  that 
such  representations  were  inefiectual  to  move  him,  they  appealed  to  his  pity, 
begging  him  to  call  to  mind  the  rigorous  captivity  in  which  many  cardinals 
and  bishops  were  now  languishing.  Their  efl"orts  were  unavailing,  and  in  the 
meantime  Napoleon  having  returned  from  his  disastrous  Russian  campaign, 
and  dreading  a  revolution  of  feeling  among  Frenchmen  still  sincerely  devoted 
to  the  Catholic  Church,  hastened,  with  either  real  or  simulated  sincerity,  to  be 
again  reconciled  to  the  Pope.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1813,  he  sent  one  of  his 
chamberlains  to  carry  his  good  wishes  to  Pius  VII.,  who  returned  the  compli- 
ment through  Cardinal  Doria,  during  whose  visit  at  Paris  it  was  agreed  that 
negotiations  should  again  be  opened  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor. 
When  those  charged  with  conducting  them  perceived  that  the  Holy  Father  was 
broken  in  spirit  and  disposed  to  yield,  they  were  desirous  that  the  Emperor 
should  have  all  the  glory  of  again  establishing  friendly  relations  between 
France  and  the  Holy  See.  Accordingly  the  Emperor,  accompanied  by  the 
Empress,  made  his  appearance  very  unexpectedly  at  Fontainebleau,  where  he 
spent  five  days  in  conference  with  Pius  VII.  All  the  arts  of  persuasion  were 
used  to  bring  the  Pope  to  terms.  '  The  Emperor  was  by  turns  gentle  and  ca- 
ressing, severe  and  cold,  imperious  and  threatening.  At  one  time  he  so  far 
lost  control  of  his  temper,  and  so  far  forgot  the  respect  due  to  the  Head  of  the 
Church,  as  to  reproach  him  ^•wiih  being  ill-informed  in  ecclesiastical  matters.''  ^ 
These  negotiations  were  finally  brought  to  a  close  on  the  25th  of  January, 
when  eleven  articles  prelimAnary  to  a  new  Concordat  were  signed.  By  these 
unfortunate  articles  the  Pope  pledged  himself  to  confer  canonical  institution 


^  Pacca,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  GO  sq. 

'^Ibid.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  06  sq.     New  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  III., 
pp.  o93  sq. 

VOL.  ni — io 


674  Period  3.     Ei^och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

upon  bishops  appointed  by  the  Emperor  within  six  months,  at  the  expiration 
of  which  time  it  might  be  conferred  by  the  metropolitan,  or,  he  failing,  bj'  tha 
senior  suffragan  of  the  province.  In  return  the  Pope  was  permitted  to  ap- 
point  to  ten  sees  in  either  France  or  Italy,  and  also  to  the  six  suburbicarian 
bishoprics,  which,  it  was  provided,  were  to  be  re-established;  the  endowments 
not  already  disposed  of  vrere  to  be  restored,  and  such  as  had  been  sold  repur- 
chased; the  domains  of  the  Holy  See  not  as  yet  alienated  were  to  be  adminis 
tered  by  the  Pope's  mandatary,  and  an  annuity  of  two  millions  of  francs 
granted  as  an  indemnification  for  those  that  had  been  alienated;  the.  number 
of  bishoprics  in  Tuscany  and  the  territory  of  Genoa  was  to  be  reduced,  and 
new  ones  established  in  Holland  and  the  Hanseatic  Departments;  and,  finally, 
all  persons,  whether  cardinals,  bishops,  or  laymen,  who  had  in  the  course  of 
the  late  events  incurred  the  Emperor's  displeasure  were  to  be  rehabilitated. 

By  signing  these  articles,  had  he  done  so  unconditionally,  Pius  VII.  would 
have  virtually  renounced  his  right  of  sovereignty  within  the  States  of  the 
Church.  This,  however,  he  did  not  do ;  for  he  explicitly  stipulated  that  they 
should  not  be  promulgated  until  after  they  had  been  singly  discussed  in  a  se- 
cret Consistory,  as  the  laws  of  the  Church  require.  But  Napoleon,  instead  of 
waiting  the  result  of  such  discussion,  styled  these  articles,  which  were  under- 
stood as  being  only  preliminary  measures,  the  Concordat  of  Foniainebleau,  and 
at  once  gave  orders  that  they  should  be  promulgated  throughout  the  whole 
Empire,  and  that  the  Te  Deum  should  be  chanted  in  all  the  churches. 

Immediately  after  the  departure  of  the  Emperor,  the  Pope  lapsed  into  a  state 
of  profound  melancholy.  To  Cardinal  di  Pietro,  who  was  the  first  of  the  car- 
dinals to  obtain  his  freedom,  the  Pope  spoke  out  his  mind.  The  cardinal  drew 
his  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  Concordat  concluded  upon  such  a  basis  might 
bring  disastrous  consequences  upon  the  Church.  Cardinal  Pacta  and  several 
other  members  of  the  Sacred  College,  who  arrived  soon  after,  were  of  the  same 
opinion,  and  resolved  to  request  the  Pope  to  address  a  letter  to  the  Emperor, 
revoking  the  Preliminary  Articles,  and  declaring  them  null  and  void. 

When  Cardinal  Consalvi  informed  the  Holy  Father  of  the  action  of  the  car- 
dinals, he  freely  admitted  that  he  had  been  led  to  consent  to  what  he  now 
clearly  saw  was  wholly  impracticable,  and  accordingly  approved  the  plan  of 
proceeding  advised  by  the  Sacred  College.  To  sit  down  and  sketch  the  rough 
draft  of  this  ever  memorable  letter,  and  to  write  it  out  with  his  own  hand  and 
sxddress  it  to  the  Emperor,  must  have  cost  Pius  VII.  a  painful  struggle.^  He 
had  it  read  before  the  Sacred  College,  and  as  the  reading  was  going  on  made 
such  reflections  on  its  contents  as  it  was  not  thought  prudent  to  set  down  in 
writing.     A  copy  of  the  letter  was  given  to  each  of  the  cardinals. 

Learning  that  the  Pope,  since  his  interview  with  Cardinal  di  Pietro,  had  de- 
termined to  revoke  the  Preliminary  Articles,  Xapoleon  at  once  promulgated 
the  Concordat  as  a  law  of  the  Empire;  and,  immediately  upon  receipt  of  the 
Holy  Fathers  letter,  published  a  decree  threatening  severe  penalties  against  all 
persons  infringing  the  Concordat,  and  making  it  obligatory  upon  ail  archbish- 
ops, bishops,  and  chapters  within  his  dominions.  On  the  13th  of  April,  Cardi- 
nal di  Pietro  was  placed  under  arrest,  stripped  of  the  insignia  of  his  dignity, 


1  Pacea,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  83-90,  and  pp.  91-107  to  the  cardinals. 


§  392.  Sad  Condition  of  the  Church  in  G-ermany,  etc.    bib 

and  carried  away  a  prisoner  to  Auxonne.  Cardinals  Pacca  and  Consalvi  wero 
charged  to  say  to  the  Pope  that  the  cause  of  Cardinal  di  Pietro's  punishment 
was  his  flagrant  hostility  to  the  State.  In  a  letter  addressed  by  the  Pope  to  the 
cardinals,  dated  May  9th,  the  induction  granted  by  metropolitans  was  declared 
to  be  of  no  effect ;  the  bishops  who  had  received  it  were  designated  as  intru- 
ders ;  and  the  consecrating  bishops  pronounced  schismatics.  After  the  disasters 
of  the  year  1813,  the  Emperor  saw  more  clearly  than  ever  the  necessity  of 
coming  to  an  understanding  with  the  Holy  See.  Hence  he  now  proposed  to 
allow  the  Pope  to  return  to  Eome  and  to  restore  to  him  all  the  States  of  the 
Church  that  had  not  been  included  in  the  last  imperial  decree.  Pius  VII.  re- 
plied, January  21,  1814,  refusing  to  take  back  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter  unless 
it  were  restored  in  all  its  integrity.^  He  then  received  orders  to  set  out  for 
Savona  at  once,  but  before  doing  so  addressed  a  last  and  touching  allocution  to 
the  cardinals,  and  left  whatever  instructions  he  desired  to  give  them  with  Car- 
dinal Mattel,  the  Dean  of  the  College.^  Not  one  of  the  Cardinals  was  allowed 
to  accompany  the  Pope,  who,  while  passing  through  France,  was  everywhere 
hailed  with  the  most  tender  demonstrations  of  respect.  He  again  entered  Sa- 
vona on  the  11th  of  February,  1814.  The  cardinals  were  sent  off  to  the  various 
cities  of  the  Empire,  each  accompanied  by  a  guard.  After  the  whole  of  Italy 
had  been  lost,  and  when  the  half  of  France  was  in  possession  of  the  allied 
forces,  Napoleon  restored  the  departments  of  Eome  and  Trasimene  to  the  Holy 
See  (March  18th),  and  sent  a  courier  to  Savona  with  orders  to  have  the  Pope 
set  at  liberty.  On  the  25th  of  March  the  Holy  Father  arrived  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tarno,  where  he  was  surrendered  to  the  allied  forces.  He  arrived  at 
Bologna  on  the  3 1st  of  March,  the  very  day  that  the  allied  armies  made  their 
triumphant  entry  into  Paris.  All  those  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  religion"? 
sake  were  at  once  set  free.  Cardinal  Consalvi^  rejoined  the  Pope  at  Cesena. 
and  was  again  appointed  Secretary  of  State.  Finally,  after  having  undergone 
so  many  and  so  great  trials  and  hardships,  Pius  VII.  made  his  entrance  into 
Eome  May  24, 1814,  amid  the  joyous  acclamations  and  splendid  festivities  of  the 
whole  people.  In  the  following  year  the  Congress  of  Vienna  restored  to  him 
the  Marches  and  Legations  which  had  been  wrested  from  his  predecessor  by 
the  Treaty  of  Tolentino. 

§  392.    The  Sad  Condition  of  the  Church  in  Germany,  Italy, 

and  Spain. 

At  the  very  moment  when  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day  was 
opening  upon  the  Church  of  France  a  violent  storm  broke 
over  that  of  Germany^     The  statesmen  to  whom  the  grave 


1  Pacca,  Vol.  III.,  p.  133.  While  negotiations  were  in  progress,  the  Pope 
said:  "Possibly  my  sins  make  me  unworthy  to  again  see  Eome;  but  be  assured 
that  my  successors  will  recover  all  the  States  belonging  to  them." 

Tacca,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  137-139.     New  Hist.,  etc.,  Bk.  III.,  pp.  623  sq. 

'  Ce7ini,  Life  of  Card.  Consalvi,  Venice,  1824. 

*  Pacca,  "Memorie  storiche,"  on  his  sojourn  in  Germany,  from  1786-1794, 


679  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

p(  litical  problems  of  that  country  were  committed  seemed 
to  have  no  object  in  view  other  than  to  make  good  the  losses 
sustained  by  the  hereditary  princes  from  the  possessions  of 
the  Church.  Hence,  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty  of  Lune- 
viUe  (1801)  and  the  resolutions  of  the  Deputation  of  the  Empire 
at  llatisbon  (1803),  it  was  decided  that  the  principalities  and 
possessions  of  the  Church  should  be  in  part  made  over  to 
France  and  in  part  secularized,  to  make  good  to  civil  princes 
their  territorial  losses  on  the  left  bank,  of  the  Ehine.  In  the 
Treaty  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  the  principle  had  been 
laid  down  that  secular  princes  should  receive  indemnification 
from  the  Church  for  territorial  losses.^  By  the  thirty-fifth 
paragraph  of  the  resolutions  adopted  by  the  Deputation  of  the 
Empire  at  Eatisbou,  princes  were  empowered  to  take  complete 
possession  of  "  all  property  belonging  to  the  foundations,  ab- 
beys, and  monasteries  within  their  States,"  and  to  dispose  of 
it  at  their  discretion,  "  in  providing  for  public  worship  and 
instruction,  in  founding  useful  institutions,  and  in  restoring 
their  own  finances."  These  decrees  were  carried  out  in  a  spirit 
which  only  an  iniquitous  cupidity  and  the  basest  passions  of 
man  couhl  inspire.  The  treasures,  the  jewels,  the  relics,  and 
whatever  else  of  value  was  to  be  found  in  the  churches  were 
seized,  sold,  and  scattered.^  It  was  argued  that  the  property 
of  ecclesiastical  princes,  of  abbeys,  and  of  chapters  should  be 


Eoma,  1832;  Germ.,  Augsburg,  1832.  Kew  Hist.,  Bk.  II.,  p.  20o-222;  Ck. 
III.,  p.  568.  Robiano,  T.  III.,  p.  58  sq.  G.  V.  Schmid,  The  Secularized  Bish- 
oprics uf  Germany,  Gotha,  1858,  with  the  device,  taken  from  Lucrethis:  "  Tan- 
tum  religio  potuit  suadere  malorum  !  "  ^'Gams,  Vol.  I.,  p.  304  sq.  Haj-l,  ISTew 
Changes  in  the  States  and  the  Church  of  Germany,  Berlin,  1804.  Thiers,  His- 
toire  du  consulat  et  de  I'empire,  T.  lY.,  liv.  XV.  (secularisation).  *Buss  (Doc- 
umentary), History  of  National  and  Territorial  Churches,  SchafFhausen,  1851, 
p.  776.  Starck,  in  the  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  345;  Fr.  tr.» 
Vol.  22,  p.  381. 

1  It  is  there  significantly  said  that  ^'■Ecclesiastical  possessions  are  the  cloth 
fiom  which  equivalents  are  to  be  cutP  Cf.  Schwab,  Francis  Berg,  Prof,  of  Ch. 
Hist,  at  "Wurzburg,  pp.  321  sq. 

2  There  are  some  curious  disclosures  concerning  the  monasteries  situated  in 
the  present  Grand-Duchy  of  Baden,  in  the  work  entitled  "  State  of  Affairs  in 
Baden,"  Eatisbon,  1841-1843,  2  pts.;  and  concerning  those  of  "Wiirtemberg  and 
Bavaria  in  Gayns,  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
Vol.  I.,  pp.  304  sq. 


§  392.  Sad  Condition  of  the  Church  in  Germany,  etc.    671 

no  less  sacred  than  that  of  secular  princes,  and  that  the  sacri- 
fices necessary  to  indemnify  the  latter  should  in  common  jus- 
tice be  equally  borne  by  all  the  estates  of  the  Empire.  No 
attention  was  paid  to  these  representations.  Such  was  the 
cause  of  the  extinction  in  Germany  of  the  three  ecclesiastical 
electorates  of  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  Treves;  of  the  seizure  of 
the  territorial  possessions  of  sees  directly  subject  to  the  Em- 
pire, like  the  archbishopric  of  Salzburg  and  the  bishoprics 
of  Liege,  Passau,  Trent,  Brixen,  Constance,  Bamberg,  Frei- 
singen,  Eiehstaedt,  Wiirzburg,  Miinster,  Hildesheim,  Pader- 
born,  and  Osnabriick  ;  and  finally  of  the  alienation  of  the 
lands  of  a  considerable  number  of  abbeys  and  convents.'     As 


^  According  to  the  account  left  by  Kliiber,  compiled  from  the  diplomatic 
transactions  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  Paft  II.,  p.  404,  the  losses  sustained  by 
the  Catholic  Church  on  both  banks  of  the  Ehine  amounted  to  1,710  German,  or 
3(J,346  English  square  miles,  representing  a  population  of  3,162,576  and  a  yearly 
revenue  of  21.020.000  florins,  or  $8,410,400,  without  including  the  monastic  es- 
tablishmenLs.  In  Pt.  III.,  p.  899,  the  same  author  says  :  "  It  is  not  as  generally 
known  as  it  should  be  how  all  these  questions  of  indemnity  were  disposed  of 
in  the  Congress  of  Piastadt,  and  particularly  at  Paris  and  Eatisbon  in  the  years 
1802  and  1803;  what  schemes  were  laid;  what  various  interests  came  into 
play  on  the  battle-field  of  diplomacy,  once  it  became  known  that  the  temporal 
power  had  entered  upon  the  work  of  disposing  of  ecclesiastical  property.  Time 
alone  will  lift  the  veil."  Cf.,  also,  Metizel,  New  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  Vol. 
XII.,  Pt.  II.,  pp.  307  sq.  The  amount  of  indemnity  obtained  by  certain  princes 
is  certainly  remarkable.  For  example:  Prussia,  for  a  loss  of  48  German 
(=  1,020  English)  square  miles,  containing  a  population  of  127,000,  and  yield- 
ing a  yearly  revenue  of  1,400,000  florins,  received,  in  the  bishoprics  of  Hilde- 
sheim, Paderborn,  and  Miinster,  in  the  territory  of  Eichsfeld,  and  in  the  ab- 
beys of  Uerford,  Elten,  Essen,  Verden,  and  Cappenberg,  an  extent  of  territory 
equal  to  235^  German  (=  5,005  English)  square  miles,  containing  a  population 
of  559,000,  and  yielding  a  yearly  revenue  of  3,800,000  florins.  Again,  Bavaria 
(and  the  Palatinate  on  the  llhine),  for  255  German  (=  5,420  Eng.)  sq.  miles, 
with  800,000  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  5,000,000  of  florins,  received  290  Germ. 
(—  6,162  Eng.)  sq.  miles,  with  800,000  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  6,000,000 
of  florins;  Wuriemberg,  for  7  Germ.  (=  170  Eng  )  sq.  miles,  with  14,000  inhab- 
itants and  a  revenue  of  336,000  florins,  received  29  Germ.  (=  616  Eng.)  sq. 
miles,  with  110,000  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  700,000  florins;  Baden,  for  8 
Germ.  (=  170  Eng.)  sq.  miles,  with  25,000  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  250,000 
florins,  received  59|  Germ.  (;=  1,260  Eng.)  sq.  miles,  with  237,000  inhabitants 
and  a  revenue  of  1,540,000  florins;  Hesse-Darynstadt,  for  13  Germ.  (=  276  Eng.) 
sq.  miles,  with  46,000  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  390,000  florins,  received  95.J 
Germ.  (=  2,02n  Eng.)  sq.  miles,  with  124,500  inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of 
753,00J  florins ;   Hesse-Cassel,  for  f  of  a  Germ  (=:  16  Eng.)  sq.  miles,  with  2,300 


678  Period  3.     ^^ocA  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

most  of  these  territories  passed  out  of  the  hands  of  their 
Catholic  rulers  and  under  the  dominion  of  Protestant  princes 
or  governments,  conducted  on  the  principles  of  the  eighteenth 
century  or  on  the  Napoleonic  policy,  the  Catholic  Church  had 
neither  recognized  rights,  defenders,  nor  protection  of  any 
sort.  After  Franconia  had  passed  under  the  power  of  Ba- 
varia, a  Protestant  faculty  of  theology  was  established  at  the 
University  of  Wiirzburg  by  the  advice  of  the  all-powerful 
minister,  Montgelas,  and  the  Socinian  Paulus,  surnamed  "  the 
wortniest  theologian  of  Germany"  called  to  preside  over  it 
(1803).  As  there  were  no  Protestant  students  of  divinity. 
Catholic  seminarists  and  students  intending  to  read  theology 
were  for  some  time  forced  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Dr.  Paulus. 
The  Prince-Bishop  protested,  but  to  no  purpose.^ 

The  adroit  and  versatile  Archchancellor,  Theodore  Baron  von  Dalberff,  pre- 
sented'the  sacrifice  of  his  eminent  ecclesiastical  position  by  transferring  his 
metropolitan  rights  from  Mentz  to  Ratisbon  (February  1,  1803);  creating  a 
principality  for  himself  out  of  Aschaffenburg,  Eatisbon,  Wetzlar,  the  House 
of  Compostella  at  Frankfort,  and  the  customs  of  the  right  bank  of  the  Ehino; 
and  extending  his  spiritual  jurisdiction  as  Primate  of  Germany  over  a  portion 
of  the  former  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  that  part  of 
Treves  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ehine,  with  the  exception,  however, 
of  the  States  belonging  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  as  much  of  Salzburg  as  had 
been  surrendered  to  Bavaria.  If  the  Chancellor  Dalberg  owed  both  the  pre- 
servation and  increase  of  his  dignity  to  the  influence  of  i^apoleon,  ,it  can  not 
be  said  that  he  was  ungrateful,  for,  by  his  own  personal  authority,  and  without 
consulting  either  Pope  or  chapter,  he  appointed  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  Emperor's 
uncle,  his  coadjutor.  After  the  battle  of  Leipsig,  and  the  overthrow  of  Napo- 
leon's power  in  Germany,  Dalberg  renounced  both  his  rights  and  his  possessions 
as  prince,^  and  contented  himself  with  the  Archbishopric  of  Eatisbon.  He 
died  February  10,  1817.  In  passing  the  decree  of  secularization,  it  was  pro- 
vided that  the  chapters  that  had  been  preserved  should  enjoy  a  fixed  revenue, 
and  monks  and  ecclesiastics  receive  a  yearly  pension.  These  allowances  were 
smaW  and  ill  paid,  and  as  to  the  churches  no  provision  at  all  had  been  made  lor 
securing  them  a  steady  income.  Again,  by  the  death  and  dispersion  of  nany 
of  the  canons,  the  bishops  were  in  some  sort  left  without  chapters;  they  had 
not  even  the  necessaries  of  life;  and  consequently,  after  the  death  of  some  and 


inhabitants  and  a  revenue  of  30,000  florins,  received  4}  Germ.  (=  95  En<r.)  sr^ 
miles,  with  a  population  of  13,000  and  a  revenue  of  00,000  florins,  wi:.h  an 
electorate  thrown  in. 

1  Gams,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  472-509;  Menzel,  Mod.  Hist,  of  the  Germans,  Vol  XIT., 
Pt.  XL,  pp.  344  sq. 

"^Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  3-9;  Fr.  trans.,  Vol.  6,  pp.  4  sq. 


§  392.  Sad  Condition  of  the  Church  in  Germany,  etc.    679 

the  resignation  of  others,  nearly  all  the  sees  of  Germany  became  vacant.  DaU 
berg,  as  Primate  of  Germany,  and  wielding  a  powerful  influence,  might  have 
materially  aided  della  Genga,  the  Papal  Nuncio,  who  was  sent  to  Germany,  in 
1803,  to  re-establish  the  imprescriptible  rights  of  the  Church;  but  being  im- 
bued with  the  liberal  principles  of  the  age,  he  showed  no  disposition  to  do  so. 
Clement  WenceslauH,  formerly  Prince-Elector  of  Treves,  pleaded  powerfully'  for 
'  the  claims  of  the  Church,  but  to  no  purpose.^  To  provide  for  the  government 
of  the  dioceses  that  had  fallen  vacant,  the  Pope  was  obliged  to  appoint  either 
Vicars  Apostolic  or  Vicars  General,  who  not  unfrequently  were  either  lacking 
jn  energy,  ignorant  of  the  localities,  or  mistrusted  by  their  diocesans.  Such  as 
were  possessed  of  qualifications  fitting  them  to  rule  with  advantage  over  their 
churches,  found  the  exercise  of  their  functions  and  their  communication  with 
the  Holy  See  impeded  by  innumerable  obstacles.  The  hand  of  the  government 
was  everywhere  visible;  even  the  sanctuary  was  not  sacred  against  its  pres- 
ence. The  police  were  constantly  about  the  churches,  giving  all  sorts  of  petty 
annoyances;  prescribing  the  formularies  of  prayer  to  be  used;  supervising  the 
recitation  of  the  breviary,  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  and  the  cele- 
bration of  Mass ;  and  giving  instructions  with  regard  to  such  trifliug  matters 
as  wax-candles  and  incense.  The  king,  without  asking  the  authorization  of 
the  Pope,  established  a  new  cathedral-chapter  at  Breslau,  June  8,  1812,  but  the 
canons  were  soon  made  to  feel  that  they  were  out  of  place.^ 

It  need  excite  no  surprise,  then,  that  religious  feeling,  Avhich 
had  long  since  grown  cold  in  Germany,  should  have  become 
well-nigh  extinct  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
However,  amid  a  decline  so  deep  and  wide-spread,  there  were 
to  be  found  shining  examples  of  virtue  and  holiness.  Francis 
of  Furstcnherg  ^  governed  the  diocese  of  Miinster  with  wisdom, 
and  in  his  own  person  illustrated  a  life  of  sanctity.  Gathered 
about  him  w^ere  such  men  as  Oi'erberg,  Gaspar  31aximilian, 
and  Clement  August  von  Droste,  whose  lives  were  a  perpetual 
argument  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  faith,  and  who,  by  word 
and  example,  drew  others  to  embrace  its  teachings.  Among 
these  w^ere  such  high  and  holy  souls  as  the  princess  Gallitzviu 
Count  Stolberg,  Hemsterhuys,   and  Hamann.     The  theological 

'  Gams,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  379  sq. 

■^Ritter,  Manual  of  Ch.  Hist.,  5th  ed..  Vol.  II.,  pp.  538-542. 

^  Esser,  Francis  of  Fiirstenberg,  His  Life,  His  Works,  Miinster,  1842. 
Krabbe,  Historical  Account  of  the  Higher  Institutions  of  Learning  at  Miinster, 
Ibid.  18-J2.  Kaferkamp,  Memorabilia  from  the  Life  of  Princess  Gallitzin,  3Iiin- 
ster,  1828.  Nicolovins,  Fred.  Leop.,  Count  of  Stolberg,  Mentz,  1846.  Carvachi, 
Biographical  Reminiscenses  of  Hamann,  Miinster,  1855.  Menzel,  Modern  Hist, 
of  the  Germans,  Vol.  XII.,  Pt.  I.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  XII.,  p 
4C4  sq.,  037  sq.;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  9,  pp.  232,  248  sq. ;  Vol.  13,  p.  5. 


680  Period  3.     Ej)och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


school  of  the  Grand  Seminary  of  Mentz,  founded  by  the  dis- 
tinguished German  bishop  and  pulpit-orator  Colraar  (1802- 
1818)  exercised  a  very  beneficial  influence  ;  counteracted  in  a 
measure  the  liberalistic  tendencies  of  the  Protestant  Univer- 
sity of  the  same  city  ;  and  furnished  at  least  one  spot  where 
sound  doctrine  might  find  a  refuge  and  a  home. 

Italy  and  Spain  being  under  the  dominion  of  France,  were 
subjected  to  the  same  disastrous  changes  in  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs that  took  place  in  that  country.  Monasteries  and  con- 
gregations were  suppressed,  and  the  property  of  the  Church 
confiscated  ;  encroachments  were  daily  made  upon  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction,  and  ecclesiastical  administration  was  con- 
stantly interfered  with  ;  and,  finally,  under  color  of  a  sanc- 
tion, forcibly  extorted  from  the  Pope,  the  number  of  bishop- 
rics was  diminished.  For  example,  in  Piedmont,  Cardinal 
Caprara,  by  a  bull  dated  July  1, 1803,  reduced  the  number  of 
bishoprics  from  seventeen  to  eight ;  and  in  the  States  of  the 
Church  seventeen  sees  w^ere  suppressed.  The  Concordat  en- 
tered into  with  the  Italian  Republic,  September  16,  1803,  was 
more  favorable  to  the  Church  than  that  with  France,  for  the 
bishops  were  permitted  to  keep  up  communications  with  the 
Holy  See.^  But  bj^  a  decree  issued  in  February,  1804,  by  Vice- 
President  Melzi,  the  privileges  heretofore  enjoyed  were  in  a 
large  measure  withdrawn ;  and  while  the  widest  interj)reta- 
tion  was  given  to  clauses  favorable  to  the  government,  those 
recoiznizing  the  lawful  authority  of  the  Church  were  narrowly 
restricted. 

Afi:airs  in  Spain  were  in  no  better  condition  than  in  Italy .^ 
First  of  all,  the  monasteries  were  reduced  to  one-third  of  their 
original  number;  and,  as  a  punishment  for  the  disloyalty  of 
the  clergy  who  took  part  in  the  Spanish  insurrection  some 
time  later,  Joseph  Bonap((rte  suppressed  all  the  convents  of 
Regulars  and  Mendicants,  including  those  of  the  Third  Order 
or  Tertiaries,  and  confiscated  their  property,  allowing  to  each 
of  the  ejected  religious  a  trifling  sum  for  his  support.  The 
bishops  and  chapters  were  requested  to  draw  up  public  ad- 


I  New  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Bk.  II.,  pp.  261  sq. ;   Bk.  Ill,  pp.  574  sq 
'Now  Hist,  etc.,  Bk.  III.,  pp.  402  sq..  pp.  750  sq. 


393.   The  Restoration.  681 


dresses,  declaring  their  adhesion  to  the  principles  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Church.  Of  those  who  were  w'eak  enoug-h  to  consent, 
the  greater  number  were  French  bishops,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed by  Napoleon  to  Spanish  and  Italian  sees,  the  addresses 
ascribed  to  the  others  being  mostly  supposititious. 

At  this  time  the  prisons  of  Italy  were  lilled  with  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  prelates,  wdiose  only  crime  was  loyalty  to  the 
principles  of  the  Catholic  Church;  who,  during  their  confine- 
ment, were  subjected  to  treatment  as  harsli  and  crueP  as  that 
to  which  their  persecutor  some  time  later  himself  fell  a  vic- 
tim, when  hurled  from  the  proudest  throne  in  the  world,  the 
once  powerful  monarch,  who  had  held  in  his  hands  the  desti- 
nies of  Europe,  went  to  expiate  both  his  faults  and  his  glory 
on  a  desolate  island  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean.  While  there 
the  soul  of  this  great  genius,  so  long  dazzled  by  prosperous 
fortune,  was  illuminated  by  the  pure  rays  of  the  lig.ht  of  faith, 
and  was  once  more  drawn  to  the  religion  which,  during  the 
last  years  of  his  reign,  he  had  so  bitterly  persecuted.^ 

§  393.   The  Restoration. 

The  horrors  of  the  Revolution,  and  the  sufferings  and  long 
and  bloody  wars  that  followed  it,  revived  a  religious  feeling 
in  the  hearts  of  men,  and  led  them  to  appreciate  and  desire 
the  blessings  of  religion.  The  claims  of  faith  were  again  re- 
cognized, religion  once  more  resumed  its  sway  over  men's 
souls,  false  philosophy  for  a  time  lost  ground,  Christianity  was 
victorious,  and  the  Church  triumphant.  With  the  Church 
there  is  no  middle  course,  no  half  measures.  Any  one  falling 
against  this  rock  shall  be  crushed.  This  lesson  was  taught 
by  the  Revolution,  and  learned  by  the  Revolutionists,  but  at 
a  great  cost.  Those  who  had  restored  order,  though  loving 
revolution,  dreaded  its  consequences,  and  were  alarmed  at  the 
danger  of  again  precipitating  the  country  into  another  such 

^Pacca,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Pius  VII.,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  68  sq. 

2  Cfr.  Sentiment  de  Napoleon  sur  la  divinite  de  Jesus  Christ ;  pensees  in^ditea 
reeueillies  a  Sainte-Helene  par  M.  le  comte  de  MoJii/iolon  et  publiees  par  M.  la 
chevalier  de  Beautenic,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1842.     Hohwarth,  Napoleon  I. 


682  Veriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

abyss.  They  resolved  to  pursue  a  safe  course.^  Rulers  recog- 
uizing  the  fact  that  religion  is  the  firmest  support  of  govern- 
ment, and  that  the  two  stand  or  fall  together,  began  to  look 
with  favor  upon  the  Church,  which  they  had  so  long  dis- 
owned, renounced,  and  persecuted. 

On  the  26th  of  September,  1815,  the  three  sovereigns  of 
Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  then  at  Paris,  entered  into  a 
compact  known  as  the  Holy  Alliance,  the  object  of  which  was, 
putting  out  of  sight  the  distinctive  teachings  of  the  various 
churches,  to  re-establish  the  public  law  of  nations  and  political 
life  upon  the  general  principles  of  Christianity.^  This  com- 
pact, entered  into  while  their  minds  were  filled  with  the  en- 
thusiasm inspired  by  a  victory  gained  with  such  difiiculty  and 
at  so  many  sacrifices,  contained  within  itself  the  germs  of 
dissolution  and  discord.  Little  by  little  its  binding  power 
relaxed,  and  in  1840  three  Christian  monarchswere  embarked 
in  the  incongruous  enterprise  of  reconquering  the  Holy  Land 
for  the  Turks.^  An  undertaking  at  once  more  worthy  in  it- 
self and  more  in  harmony  with  the  principles  that  were  sup- 
posed to  have  inspired  the  framers  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  was 
the  repression  of  the  slave-trade  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and 
the  extinction  of  this  barbarous  traffic,  so  contrary  to  every 
Christian  instinct  and  teaching,  by  the  treaties  of  1818  and 
1841,  made  by  England,  France,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia. 

Still  the  enemies  of  the  Church  by  no  means  considered 
themselves  vanquished,  and  the  conflict  between  revolutionary 
principles  and  the  teachings  of  religion  went  on  as  furiously 
as  ever,  and  not  unfrequently  occasioned  the  abridgment 
of  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  the  privileges  of  Religious 
Orders. 


1  Hist,  and  Folit  Papers,  Vol.  45,  year  1860. 

2  Cf.  New  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  699  sq.  Pope  Pius 
VII.  declined  to  join  it,  because,  as  he  said,  "a  line  of  action,  such  as  contem- 
plated by  the  Holy  Alliance,  was  within  the  Churches  ow7i  calling." 

'Cf.  "  The  Holy  Land  and  European  Christendom,"  in  the  "Eccl.  Gazette  of 
South  Germany,"  year  1841,  nros.  1  and  3. 


§  394.  Rehabilitation  of  the  Pope,  etc.  683 


§  394.    Behabilitation    of  the    Pope  —  Re- establishment    of  the 

Jesuits. 

Pius  VII.  made  his  solemn  entry  into  Rome  May  24, 1814, 
amid  the  joyful  acclamations  of  the  people,  but  was  again 
driven  from  the  city,  after  the  escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elba 
(February  26,  1815),  by  the  advance  of  his  brother-in-law, 
Murat,  who,  having  ambitious  designs  on  the  whole  of  Italy, 
entered  the  States  of  the  Church  at  the  head  of  his  army. 
The  Pope  withdrew  to  Geiioa,^  where  he  received  fresh  proofs 
of  the  devoted  attachment  of  the  people  of  Ital}-.  After  the 
"Hundred  Days  "  ajd  jSTapoleon's  complete  overthrow  in  the 
disaster  of  Waterloo,  the  Pope  once  more  returned  .to  take 
peaceable  possession  of  his  faithful  city,  never  again  to  leave 
it.  Cardinal  Consalvi  was  sent  to  the  Confjress  of  Vienna,  to 
protest  in  the  name  of  the  Pope  against  whatever  had  been 
done  hostile  to  the  interests  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  Universal 
Church,  and  in  particular  against  the  cession  of  the  districts 
situated  on  the  Po,  the  occupation  of  Ferrara  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  the  loss  of  Avignon  and  the  county  of  Yenaissin,  and 
the  secularization  and  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire. 
To  the  amazement  of  all  Europe,  Pius  VII.,  who  had  been 
educated  by  the  enemies  of  the  Jesuits,  re-established  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  by  the  bull  Sollidtudo  omnium,  ecclesiaruni, 
of  August  7,  1814,  the  execution  of  which  he  intrusted  to 
Cardinal  Pacca,  who  in  his  ^^ounger  days  had  been  a  great 
admirer  of  the  Lettres  Provinciales. 

This  act  of  tardy  justice  was  practically  a  denial  of  the  charges  brought 
against  the  Jesuits  at  the  time  of  their  suppression.^  The  cardinal  has  left  us 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  impression  which  their  re-establishment  produced  upon 
the  minds  of  all.^  According  to  the  Pope's  own  statement,  he  acted  on  tho 
demand  of  all  Catholic  Christendom.  Attempts  had  already  been  made  to  re- 
vive tho  Society  under  other  names.  In  1794  an  association  was  founded  for 
this  purpose  by  the  Fathers  dc  BrojUc  and  de  Tournely,  '"-•rmer  members  of  th« 


^  Pacca,  Journey  of  Pope  Pius  VII.  to  Genoa  in  the  Spring  of  1813,  and  tiis 
Peturn  to  Rome;  Germ,  trans.,  Augsburg,  1834. 

2  Robiayio,  Vol.  II.,  p.  494-538.     Cf.  New  Hist.,  Bk.  IT.,  p.  G61. 

^Paeca,  Memoirs  of  Pius  VII.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  117  sq.  Dallas-Kerz,  The  Jesuit 
Order,  p.  300  sq.     Buss,  The  Society  of  Jesus,  pp.  1334  sq. 


684  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Society,  under  the  name  of  the  Society  of  the  S.  Heart;  and  in  1798  another 
by  Pancanari,  known  as  the  Society  of  the  Faith  of  Jesus,  the  members  them- 
selves being  designated  as  the  Fathers  of  the  Faith  [Peres  de  la  foi).  These 
latter  formed  the  nucleus  for  the  new  Society  in  France.  At  the  very  opening 
of  the  pontificate  of  Pius  VII.,  there  were  signs  justifying  the  belief  that  the 
Society  would  be  soon  re-established.  As  early  as  1804,  the  Pope,  at  the  solio- 
itation  of  Ferdinand  I.,  authorized  its  introduction  into  the  kingdom  of  the 
Tico  Sicilies  by  the  bull  Per  alios,  issued  July  31  of  this  year.  Except  in  the 
States  of  the  Church,  none  of  their  property  was  restored  to  the  Jesuits.  Else- 
where they  were  the  objects  of  the  same  hatred,  suspicion,  and  calumny  that 
their  predecessors  had  endured,  and  which  has  been  their  heritage  in  every  age 
and  country.  They  were  received  in  Naples,  in  Belgium,  and  in  Ireland;  the 
instruction  of  youth  was  committed  to  them  in  Sardinia ;  in  France  they  were 
permitted  to  exist  undisturbed  until  the  year  1828;  in  £?2^Z««fZ  they  founded 
colleges  at  StonyJmrst,  Hodderliouse,  and  other  places;  ^  and  in  Spain  they  were 
put  in  possession  of  their  former  rights  and  property  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  after 
his  own  restoration,  in  1814.  They  were  banished  from  Spain  during  the  revo- 
lution of  1820,  but  returned  with  the  restoration  in  1823.  The  Society  was 
again  suppressed  in  the  Spanish  dominions  in  1835,  and  again  re-established  in 
1844.  They  were  once  more  expelled  the  kingdom  by  Espartero  in  1854,  and 
recalled  by  O'Donnell  in  1858.  They  were  finally  driven  out  of  the  Spanish 
peninsula  entirely  after  the  revolution  of  1868,  and  permitted  to  exist  by  suf- 
ferance only  in  the  colonies.  They  were  set  over  a  college  in  Modena  in  1815; 
recalled  to  Switzerland  and  put  in  possession  of  their  property  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Canton  of  Valais  in  1814;  they  reopened  their  college  at  Fribourg 
in  September,  1818,  which  soon  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  So- 
ciety's; were  invited  in  1844  by  the  Grand  Council  of  Lucerne  to  take  chairs 
in  the  theological  school  of  that  capital ;  and,  when  prosecuted,  some  time 
later,  seven  Catholic  Cantons  formed  an  alliance  for  their  protec'.Ion,  but  in 
November,  1847,  they  fell  with  the  Sonderbund.  Finally,  they  founded  several 
colleges  in  the  United  States  and  the  Canadas,  where  they  have  always  enjoyed 
the  most  complete  freedom.  John  Carroll,  a  professed  Father,  and  some  of 
his  countrymen,  who  were  completing  their  "third  probation"  in  the  Aus- 
trian dominions  when  the  bull  of  suppression  was  issued,  hastened  to  the 
United  States,  and  continued  to  live  in  community  until  the  Society  was  re- 
established. From  that  time  forward  their  growth  has  been  rapid,  and  they 
have  now  two  provinces,  one  of  Baltimore  and  the  other  of  jMissouri.  Besides 
the  philosophical  and  theological  seminary  and  house  of  studies  for  their  own 


1  The  colleges  at  present  conducted  by  them  in  England  are  Stonyhurst,  near 
Whalley,  in  Lancashire;  Mt.  St.  Mary's,  near  Chesterfield;  and  Beaumont 
Lodge,  near  Windsor.  They  have  also  the  Scholasticate  of  St.  Benno's,  at  St. 
Asaph.  Besides  these  educational  establishments,  they  have  many  flourishing 
religious  houses  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  some  missions  in  Guiana  and 
Jamaica.  In  Ireland  they  conduct,  besides  the  well-known  College  of  CVo?2- 
guwes,  others  at  TuUabeg,  Dublin,  Limerick,  and  Galwa}^  They  have  also  a 
noviciate  at  Milton  Park,  Donnybrook.  Attached  to  the  Irish  province  are  also 
missionary  establishments  in  Melbourne,  Australia.  (Tr.) 


§  394.  Rehahilitation  of  the  Pope,  etc.  685 

60.holastics  at  Woodstock,  Maryland,  they  have  eighteen  colleges  situated  in  the 
most  considerable  cities  of  the  Union.' 

They  were  invited  by  the  Ausirian  govei*nment  to  establish 
themselves  in  G<dicia  in  1820,  and  permitted  to  open  a  col- 
lege at  Tarnopol.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  had  passed 
away,  their  numbers  and  establishments  rapidly  increased. 
Seven  State  colleges,  one  chair  in  the  Theological  Faculty  of 
Vienna,  and  the  entire  Theological  Faculty  of  the  University 
of  Innsbruck  were  handed  over  to  them  by  the  government. 
Their  existence  in  Austria  at  present  is  precarious.  In  Russia 
their  college  at  Polotzk  was  raised  in  1812  to  the  rank  of  a 
university,  but  owing  to  the  conversion  of  several  young  no- 
blemen, who  had  been  educated  by  them,  they  fell  under  the 
displeasure  of  the  Tzar,  and  by  an  imperial  ukase  of  January 
1,  181(5  (December  20,  1815),  their  establishments  in  St.  Pe- 
tersburg and  Moscow  were  closed  ;  and,  by  another  of  March 
25,  1820,  the  Society  was  suppressed  in  all  the  Russias  and 
Poland, 

The  Pope  restored  several  other  monastic  Orders.  The 
AcaAemy  of  the  Catholic  Religion  {Accademia  cli  Rclujion  Cat- 
tolica),  founded  in  1800  by  Mgr.  Coppola,  Archbishop  of 
Myra,  and  revived  in  1803  by  Mgr.  Zamborii,  now  received 
papal  approbation.  The  foreign  colleges  at  Rome  were  again 
reopened  by  Pius  VIL,  the  German  September  8,  1817,  the 
English  and  Scotch  in  1818 ;  and  also  the  College  of  the 
Propaganda,  to  whose  subsequent  prosperity  Cardinal  Pedi- 
cini  largely  contributed.  Of  its  once  splendid  library,  there 
remained  at  this  time  only  its  most  ancient  and  most  valuable 
Oriental   manuscripts.     Continuing  the  work  of  restoration, 

1  These  are  :  Boston  College,  South  Boston  ;  College  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Wor- 
cester, Mass.;  St.  Francis  Xavier's,  New  York;  St.  John's,  New  York  (Ford- 
ham);  St.  Joseph's,  Philadelphia;  St.  John's,  Frederick,  Md. ;  Loyola,  Balti- 
more; Gonzaga,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Georgetown,  D.  C. ;  Spring  Hill,  near 
Mobile,  Ala.;  St.  Louis  University,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  College  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  New  Orleans;  St.  Charles',  Grand  Coteau,  La.;  St.  Xavier's, 
Cincinnati;  St. Ignatius' College,  San  Francisco;  Santa  Clara,  Cal.;  St.  Mary's, 
Kan.;  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  Detroit,  Jlich. ;  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  Las  Vegas,  N.  M. ; 
Pueblo,  Col.,  opened  in  1877;  and  Omaha,  Neb.  {Creighton  Fund),  accepted  in 
1878. 


686  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha]Jter  1. 

the  Pope  established  several  new  chairs  in  the  Roman  Uni- 
versity, and,  by  special  treaties,  entered  into  with  France, 
Sardinia,  and  Bavaria  (1817),  Naples  (1818),  Prussia  (1821), 
and  other  States,  again,  to  his  great  joy,  put  the  Church 
in  these  countries  on  a  permanent  footing.  But  with  these 
consolations,  which  so  gladdened  the  heart  of  the  Father  oi' 
Christendom,  was  mingled  a  feeling  of  poignant  grief,  occa- 
sioned by  the  stern  necessity  he  was  under  of  condemning 
the  Carbonari^  who,  under  the  mask  of  patriotism  and  relig- 
ion, were  again  fanning  the  dying  embers  of  revolution  into 
a  fresh  flame  (September  13,  1821)/ 

On  the  other  hand,  the  august  and  noble  Pontiff,  acting 
upon  the  inspiration  of  high  and  generous  Christian  senti- 
m^nits,  furnished  an  honorable  asylum  in  Pome  to  Madame 
Laetitia,  ^Napoleon's  mother,  and  to  the  other  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  who  were  persecuted  by  every  other  govern- 
ment, and  repelled  from  every  other  country.  In  July,  1823, 
Pius  YII.  accidentally  fell  and  broke  his  thigh,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  inflammation  that  set  in,  sunk  gradually  and 
died  on  the  20th  of  August  following,  having  reached  the 
patriarchal  age  of  eighty-two  years.^ 

Neither  captivity,  exile,  threats,  nor  any  other  sort  of  ill- 
treatment  could  break  the  spirit  of  this  intrepid  old  man,  who, 
down  to  the  last  day  of  his  long  life,  defended  the  rights  of 
the  Church  with  unshaken  fortitude  and  dauntless  courage. 
When  every  sovereign  of  Europe  was  bowing  down  before 
the  scepter  of  Napoleon,  the  Successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  he 
alone,  resisted  the  conqueror,  and  manfully  maintained  his 
rights.  And  when  the  proud  conqueror  had  fallen,  and  was 
expiating  his  crimes  and  his  ambition  on  the  island  of  St. 


^  New  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  Bk.  IV.,  p.  777. 

2  The  reign  cf  Pius  VII.  began  March  21,  1800,  and  ended  August  20,  1823, 
lasting  twenty-three  years  and  five  months.  That  of  his  predecessor,  Pius  VI., 
began  Februarj'  15,  1775,  and  ended  August  29,  1799,  lasting  about  twenty-four 
years  and  six  months.  The  statement  of  Abbe  Darraa  (Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  IV.,  p. 
{i78)  that  Pius  VI [.  reigned  longer  than  any  Pope  since  St.  Pcier  is  therefore 
incorrect,  as  is  also  the  statement  (Ibid.,  p.  547)  that  Pius  VII.  died  September 
29,  or,  as  he  says  on  page  578,  on  September  20.  Ariaud^  the  Popes  bi- 
ographer, who  was  at  his  bedside,  says  (Vol.  II.,  p.  605)  that  he  died  at  five 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  August  20.  (Tr.) 


§  395.  Reorganization  of  Cath.  Church  in  Sardinia,  etc.  687 

Helena,  the  Pope,  whom  he  had  persecuted  so  long  and  so 
cruelly,  was  again  alone  among  all  the  crowned  heads  of  Eu- 
rope to  ask  from  the  Cabinet  of  St.  James  some  mitigation 
of  his  hard  lot. 

§  395,  Beorc/anizntion  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Sardinia  and 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

Desirous  of  seeing  religion  once  more  flourishing  in  his 
States,  which,  owing  to  the  frequent  change  of  government 
since  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  had  been 
deeply  agitated,  Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Sardinia,  sent 
Count  Barbaroux  to  Rome  in  1817  to  conchide  a  Concordat, 
according  to  the  articles  of  v/hich  a  new  division  of  the  dioceses 
was  made,  the  number  increased  to  nineteen,  and  those  of 
Turin,  Yercelli,  and  Genoa  raised  to  the  rank  of  archbish- 
oprics. 

In  consequence  of  the  vicissitudes  through  which  his  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  had  also  passed  since  the  opening  of 
the  century.  King  Ferdinand  likewise  concluded  a  Concordat 
of  thirty-six  articles  with  the  Holy  See,  which,  embodying 
nearly  the  whole  of  ecclesiastical  legislation,  provided  that 
the  Catholic  religion  shoukl  be  the  religion  of  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  ;  that  the  bishoprics  on  this  side  of  the 
Straits  of  Messina  shoukl  be  consolidated,  and  the  number 
of  those  on  the  other  side  increased  ;  ^  that  appointments  to 
abbacies  and  canonries  of  free  collation  in  cathedral  and  col- 
legiate chapters  should  belong  to  the  Pope  during  the  first  six 
months  of  the  year,  and  during  the  next  six  months  to  the 
bishops;  that  all  ecclesiastical  property  not  yet  alienated 
should  be  restored  to  the  Church,  but  that  ample  guarantees 
of  indemnity  should  be  given  to  the  prespnt  holders  of  the 
alienated  estates ;  that  the  Church  should  have  the  right  of 
acquiring  new  property  in  real  estate;  that  certain  restriction.^ 
on  the  exercise  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  should  be  removed  ; 
that  both  clergy  and  laity  should  enjoy  the  fullest  freedom' 
of  communication  with  the  Holy  See  in  all  ecclesiastical  af- 


'New  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  Bk.  IV.,  pp.  755-7G0;  and  Ga7ns,  Vol 
II.,  pp.  605  sq.  and  668  sq. 


688  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

fairs;  aad,  finall}',  that  the  king  and  his  successors  should 
have  the  right  of  nominatiug  to  sees  falliug  vacant. 

§  896.   Tlie  Catholic  Church  in   Germa7\y.     (See  §  392.) 

*  Organon,  or  Brief  Information  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Organization  of  the 
Catholics  in  Germany,  Augsburg,  1830.  Om/mus,  The  Situation  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Germany,  Wvirzburg,  1818.     R s,  Supplements  to  the  Latest 

History  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Germany,  Strasburg, 
1830.  The  Concordats  all  printed  off  in  PhilUps'  C.  L.,  Yol.  III.,  and  that  of 
Walter,  Pontes  juris  eccles.,  p.  214  sq.  Plank,  Eeflections  on  the  Latest  Changes 
in  the  Situation  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  Germany,  Hanover,  1808.  Cf.  New 
Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  Bk.  IV.,  p.  674-677.  Bulau,  Hist,  of  Germany 
from  1806-1830,  Hamburg,  1842.  Wolfgang  Menzel,  The  Six  Scores  of  Years 
from  1740-1800,  Vol.  III. 

The  Deputation  of  the  Empire,  holding  its  sessions  at  Rat- 
isbou,  declared  on  the  25th  of  Februarj^  1803,  in  the  most 
formal  and  solemn  manner  (§§  60-63)  that  no  change  should 
be  introduced  into  either  the  ecclesiastical  or  the  political  con- 
stitution of  the  secularized  countries,  and  that  the  relations  of 
Church  and  State  should  remain  the  same  as  heretofore,  though 
it  was  undeniable  that  secularization  was  most  unjust.^  But, 
in  spite  of  this  declaration,  and  as  a  direct  consequence  of  the 
secularization,  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  subject  to  a  num- 
ber of  harassing  restrictions,  against  which  the  bishops  in  vain 
protested  or  assented  only  on  condition  that  a  Concordat  had 
been  already  concluded  covering  the  cases  in  point.^ 

By  the  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806,  the  difficulties  of  the 
Church  were  increased.  The  ancient  States  of  the  Empire,  now  enjoying 
complete  independence  in  the  administration  of  their  internal  affairs,  were 
moreover  strengthened  by  fresh  accessions  of  territory  and  by  the  incorpora- 
tion of  cities  and  principalities  hitherto  free;  and  having  thus  gained  an  in- 
crease of  power,  and  availing  themselves  of  the  Second  Article  of  the  Consti- 


1  Hist  of  Prussia,  from  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg  (i.  e.  1768)  until  the  Sec- 
ond Capitulation  of  Paris  (i.  e.  1815),  1819;  Vol.  II.,  p.  46-53.  Baron  von 
Hormayr,  Univ.  Hist,  of  Coevil  Times,  Vienna,  1817,  Vol.  II.,  p.  205-218. 
Gasparl,  Eecess  of  the  Deputation,  Pt.  II.,  p.  106.  Kluber,  Synopsis  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  Part  II.,  p.  399. 

^  Eeflections  on  the  Situation  of  the  Catholic  Church  within  the  Precincts  of 
the  Gei'manic  Confederacy  (not  Ehenish,  as  the  Fr.  tr.  has.  Vol.  IV.,  p.  60), 
Carlsruhe,  1818,  p.  143.  Cf.,  also,  Inquiry  into  the  Foundations  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Germany,  Frankfort,  1816. 


§  396.     The  Catholic  Church  in  Germany.  G89 

•^tutive  Act  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  repealing  the  laws  of  the  German 
p]mpire,  they  showed  no  disposition  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  Church,  conse- 
crated by  immemorial  usage,  by  the  recesses  of  diets  and  the  rescripts  of  em- 
perors. Now,  that  these  governments  were  sovereign,  they  refused  to  listen  to 
.any  argument,  even  from  Protestant  writers,  in  defense  of  the  rights  of  the 
Church.  Notwithstanding  that  Napoleon  had  made  freedom  of  Catholic  wor- 
ship a  condition  of  admission  for  Protestant  princes  into  the  Confederation  of 
the  Rhine,  the  authority  of  the  ordinaries  was  none  the  less  subjected  to  nu- 
merous annoying  restrictions,  was  sometimes  ignored,  and  sometimes  exercised 
by  civil  functionaries,  who  had  hitherto  busied  themselves  cij-ca  sacra  in  the 
■name  of  the  State.  Hopes  had  been  entertained  that  these  affairs  would  be  ad- 
justed by  a  Concordat,  but  the  negotiations  upon  which  such  hopes  were  founded 
came  to  nothing. 

In  1807  Delia  Genga,  Archbishop  of  Tyre,  went  as  Papal  Nuncio  to  Munich 
and  Stuttgart,  but  his  mission  was  fruitless,  being  frustrated  by  the  influence 
of  the  minister,  Monfrjelaf:,  through  whose  efforts  the  slight  hopes  that  were  en- 
tertained of  having  the  rights  of  the  Church  recognized  were  rendered  still 
more  desperate.  Equally  fruitless  were  the  good  otiices  of  Napoleon,  who,  on 
the  21st  of  September,  1807,  in  a  letter  addressed  through  M.  de  Clumipagny  to 
Cardinal  Cuprara,^  obtained  the  Pope's  consent  to  have  negotiations  opened  at 
Paris,  with  a  view  to  concluding  a  Concordat  for  Germany.  Even  on  points 
the  most  necessary  and  essential,  it  seemed  impossible  to  come  to  any  under- 
standing. 

Finally,  in  1814,  when  the  Allies  had  reconquered  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Church  of  Germany  began  to  entertain  brighter  hopes,  which  it 
was  thought  would  be  realized  in  the 

CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA.^ 

The  results  of  this  Congress  were  by  no  means  adequate  to  the  true  needs  of 
the  Church,  the  lawful  wants  of  the  people,  or  its  own  important  and  pacific 
mission.  Among  its  members  there  was  not  a  single  influential  and  zealous 
defender  of  the  rights  of  the  Church.  Dalberg,  Archbishop  of  Katisbon,  who 
should  have  led  in  the  matter,  did  not  even  appear  in  person  in  the  Congress, 
and  seemed  to  take  no  very  great  interest  in  its  transactions.  Not  a  single 
prince  or  statesman  spoke  a  word  in  support  of  the  rights  of  the  Church. 
True,  these  were  defended  by  the  Papal  Legate,  Cardinal  (kmsulvi ;  by  Wes- 
senberg,  Vicar-general  of  Constance;  by  Baron  von  WamboU/,  Dean  of  the 
Chapter  of  "Worms;  by  Helfferich,  Prebendary  of  the  Cathedral  of  Spire;  and 


'  Archives  historiques  et  politiques,  Paris,  1819.     See  Organou,  p.  U  sq. 

2 See  the  Notes  of  Cardinal  Consalvi,  dated  November  17,  1814,  and  June  14, 

1815,  and  the  Memorial  of  vo7i  Wessenberg,  Vic.-Gcn.  of  Constance,  dated  No- 
vember 27,  1814,  reported  in  the  Organon,  p.  9  sq.  Klicber,  The  Acts  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-1815),  Eriangen.  1835,  8  vols.  By  the  same.  Trans- 
lation of  the  Diplomatic  Proceedings  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  Frankfort, 

1816.  Buss,  Authentic  History  of  National  and  Territorial  Churchdom,  p. 
792-808. 

VOL.    Ill — 44 


690  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Schies,  formerly  Syndic  of  St.  Andrew's,  at  Worms,  then  solicitor  in  the  Sup©, 
rior  Court  at  Mannheim,  but  their  proposals  were  rejected  and  their  reclama- 
tions unheeded. 

Finding  that  all  his  efforts  were  vain,  Cardinal  Consalvi  finally,  on  the  14tL 
of  June,  l'^\o,  proicsted'^  to  the  Congress,  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Sec,  against 
all  decisions  injurious  to  the  Catholic  Church.  As  the  Congress  had  failed  to 
act,  the  German  princes  were  obliged  to  apply  directly  to  the  Holy  See  for  at» 
adjustment  of  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  their  several  States. 

To  provide  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  his  Catholic  subjects, 
tlie  King  of  Wurtembcrg  had  a  vicar-general  appointed  at  HJll- 
wangen,  and  adopted  many  other  measures  of  great  utility. 
Bavaria  was  the  first  of  the  German  States  to  conclude  a 
Concordat  with  the  Holy  See,  June  5,  1817,  which,  however, 
did  not  go  into  efl'ect  until  September  8,  1821.  The  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  of  Prussia  were  regulated  by  the  bull  De  salute 
animarum  of  July  16,  1821,  which  was  carried  into  execution 
two  years  later.  In  II  an  over,  besides  a  Concordat  (1824,)  re- 
ferring especially  to  the  dioceses,  of  Hildesheim  and  Osna- 
bruck,  there  was  also  the  bull  Impensa  Pomanorum  Pontijicuni, 
similar  in  its  provisions  to  that  published  for  Prussia,  and 
which,  as  regards  the  diocese  of  Hildcsheim,  has  been  only 
imperfectly  carried  out  since  1828;  while  the  dotation  pro- 
vided for  in  the  diocese  of  Osnabriick,  though  an  honest  and 
earnest  effort  was  made  to  raise  it  by  George  V.,  was  not  paid 
until  1858. 

In  the  hope  of  stimulating  more  prompt  action  and  secur- 
ing more  favorable  terms,  the  princes  of  'Wurtembcrg,  Baden, 
Electoral-Hesse,  Hesse- Darmstadt,  Nassau,  and  Oldenburg  com- 
bined together,  and  in  1818  appointed  at  Frankfort  a  committee 
on  concordats,  charged  with  presenting  their  policy  to  the 
Holy  See.  Though  as  a  whole  the  scheme  was  unsuccessful, 
Pius  VII.,  by  the  bull  Providu  solersque  sollicitado  of  August 
16,  1821,  established  an  archbishopric  at  Freiburg  for  Baden, 
with  Pottenburg  in  Wiirtemberg  ;  Limburg  in  Nassau  ;  Mentz 
in  Hesse-Darmstadt ;  and  Fulda  .in  the  Electorate  of  Hesse- 
Cassel  as  suffragan  sees.^    Finally,  a  Concordat  was  concluded 


^ Flore7tcourt,  Political  Weekly,  Cologne,   1854,  Vol.  I.,  nro.  11.     "Protests 
entered  by  the  Court  of  Rome  against  German  Treaties  of  Peace." 

»The  New  Ground-work  of  the  Catholic  System,  according  to  Original  Doc- 


§  397.   Pontificate  of  Leo  XII.,  etc.  691 

between  Holland  and  the  Holy  See  June  18,  1827.  By  most 
of  these  treaties  the  divisions  of  the  dioceses  were  made  to 
correspond  with  the  political  boundaries  ;  the  dotation  of  the 
Church  in  real  estate  fixed  upon  ;  chapters  established  ;  the 
method  of  commnnicating  with  the  Holy  See  prescribed  ; 
and  many  other  matters  arranged.  In  the  Grand  Duch}^  of 
Saxe-  Weimar  no  regard  was  paid  to  the  wishes  of  those  most 
interested  in  regulating  the  afl'airs  of  churches  and  schools, 
and  in  consequence  the  Vicar-General  of  Fulda  entered  a 
protest  in  1823.^ 

In  Saxony,  where  the  Protestant  ministers  were  fiercely  in- 
tolerant and  the  Protestant  population  sensitively  suspicions, 
the  king  did  all  he  could  under  the  circumstances  to  promote 
the  spiritual  well-being  of  his  Catholic  subjects  by  ordinances 
published  February  10,  1827. 

§  397.    Pontificate  of  Leo  XIl.  (1823-1829)  ayid  Pius  VIIL 

(1829,  1830). 

Continuatio  Bullarii  from  Clement  XIII.,  Tom.  XVI.-XVIII.  ■\  Artaud, 
Hist,  du  Pape  Leon,  Paris,  1843.  New  Hist.,  Book  IV.,  pp.  793  sq.  Robiano, 
T.  IV. 

The  grief  which  the  loss  of  Pius  Vlf.  caused  the  Church 
was  in  a  measure  alleviated  by  the  elevation  to  the  papal 
throne  of  Cardinal  Hannibal  della  Genga,  under  the  name 
of  Leo  XII.  Owing  to  the  tact  and  consummate  ability  dis- 
played by  della  Genga  in  several  important  and  delicate  mis- 
sions, he  gained  the  confidence  of  Pius  VIL,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  Vicar-General  of  Rome.  The  first  ofiicial  acts  of 
Pope  Leo  gave  promise  that  the  hopes  his  elevation  had  in- 
spired would  be  realized.  His  earliest  attention  was  given  to 
those  evils  by  which  the  Church  was  more  particularly  threat- 
ened, and  in  the  encyclical  letter,  Ut  jprimum  ad  sainmi  Pon- 
tificatus,  of  May  3,  1824, -all  the  bisho[)S  of  the  Catholic  world 
were  very  earnestly  urged  to  warn  the  faithful  against  the 


uments  and  Keports,  Stuttgart,  1821.     Cf.  ''The  Catholic,"  1825,  Vol.  XVIII., 
p.  257-302.     Cfr.  infra,  ?  410. 

1  Cf.  Tubingen  Quarterty,  L8'24,  p.  50G  sq.  and  727  sq.     '''J'he  Catholic,"  1825, 
Vol.  XVI.,  p.  259  sq. 


69^  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chnjiter  1. 

two  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the  age,  viz.,  religions  indiffer- 
ence, wliich  leads  straight  to  deism  and  materialism ;  and 
Bible  Societies,  which,  under  pretense  of  spreading  a  knowl- 
edfi^e  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  misrepresent  their  true  sense  in 
a  thousand  ways.  This  encyclical  letter  was  bitterly  de- 
nounced by  Protestants,  and  ably  defended  by  men  like  Sacj 
and  Mezzofanti,^  eminent  alike  for  their  learning  and  pru- 
dence. The  bull  Quo  r/raviora  of  March  13,  1826,  against  the 
Carbonari,  Freem.asons,^  and  other  secret  societies,  was  perhaps 
less  opportune.  Finally,  by  tlie  bull  Quod  hoc  ineunte  saeculo, 
the  Pope  proclaimed  a  jubilee  for  the  year  1825.  Owing  to 
the  political  troubles  by  which  Euro[)e  was  distracted,  the 
jubilee  of  1800  had  not  been  celebrated,  and  this  was  therefore 
the  first  one  for  fifty  years.  In  the  bull  announcing  the  jo}^- 
ful  event,  after  deploring  the  errors  that  threatened  the 
Cliurch  and  the  hatred  evoked  against  her  Head,  the  Pope 
called  upon  the  whole  Christian  world  to  give  heed  to  his 
voice,  and  to  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity  of  grace 
within  their  reach  during  this  year  of  expiation,  indulgence, 
and  reconciliation.  Pursuing  his  wise  measures  for  the  re- 
storation of  the  Universal  Church,  Leo  intrusted  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Roman  College  to  the  Jesuits,  invited  men  of  dis- 
tinguished ability  to  fill  chairs  in  other  universities,  re-estab- 
lished the  Irish  College,  gave  special  attention  to  the  German 
College,  and  restored  order  to  a  number  of  churches  in  which 
it  had  been  disturbed  by  the  storms  of  the  revolution.  Those 
countries  of  South  America  which  had  thrown  off'  the  yoke 


1  Journal  des  savans,  ann^e  1824.  Mezzofanti,  speaking  of  these  Bibles,  says: 
"  In  quibus  versionibus  vix  dici  potest,  quot  monstra,  quot  portenta  in  lucem 
edantur,''  and  he  adds  that  the  spread  of  these  translations  in  the  East  proveb 
an  ol)stacle  to  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel.  See  also  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers, 
Vol.  VIT.,  p.  106,  and  Morf<hall,  Christian  Missions. 

*  Cf.  Keller,  Univ.  Hist,  of  Freemasonry,  Giessen,  2d  edit.,  1860.  Guericke, 
Manual  of  Ch.  H.,  9th  edit..  Vol.  III.,  p.  334.  Eckari,  Armory,  Furnishing 
l^roof  for  the  Condemnation  of  the  Order  of  Freemasons,  Schaffhausen,  1855 
iq.;  by  the  same,  Mysteries  of  the  Pagan  Temple,  ibid.  1860.  Ilengsienberg, 
ii'reernasonry  and  the  Evangelical  Pastorate,  Berlin,  1854  sq ,  3  vols.  Alban 
Srolz,  Mortar  for  Freemasons,  3d  edit.,  Freiburg,  1862.  Acacia-twig,  by  the 
eame,  1863.  Bp.  Baron  von  Ketteler,  May  an  Orthodox  Christian  be  a  Free- 
mason V  5th  Ed.,  Mentz,  1865.     Chambers'  Cyclopaed.,  art.  Mason,  Masons  Free. 


§  397.  Pontificate  of  Leo  XII.,  do.  693 

of  Spain,  and  proclaimed  republican  forms  of  government, 
now  sent  petitions  to  the  Holy  Father,  requesting  him  to  give 
them  lawful  pastors.  Leo  granted  the  requests  of  the  new 
South  American  Republics,  and  in  a  consistory,  held  in  June, 
1827,  provided  for  the  reorganization  of  the  hierarchies  in 
these  countries.  At  the  request  of  Dom  Pedro  i.,  a  similar 
provision  was  made  for  the  Empire  of  Brazil.  Finally,  he 
lestored  many  of  the  schismatical  churches  of  Asia  to  the 
unity  of  faith.  But  no  effort  of  his  apostolic  zeal  or  demon- 
stration of  his  paternal  love  could  succeed  in  wholly  extin- 
guishing the  last  embers  of  Jansenism  in  the  Netherlands. 

The  active  and  saintly  life  of  this  holy  Pontiff'  was  cut 
short  by  an  unexpected  death  on  the  10th  of  February,  1829. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Cardinal  Castiglioni  (March  31),  who 
took  the  name  of  Pius  VIII.  Like  his  predecessor,  the  new 
Pontiff,  in  an  encyclical  letter  of  the  29th  of  May,  warned  the 
faithful  against  the  dangers  of  religious  indifference,  Bible 
and  secret  societies,  particular!}^  that  of  Frcem.aso/iry,  which, 
he  said,  favored  indifference  in  religious  matters,  and  turned 
men's  minds  away  from  the  sources  of  positive  teaching  and 
the  practices  of  the  Church.^ 

As  a  temporal  ruler,  Pius  VIII.  was  distinguished  for  his 
attention  to  the  interests  of  the  poorer  classes,  whom  he  pro- 
vided with  work  and  relieved  of  a  portion  of  their  taxes. 

After  the  taking  of  Adrianople  and  the  conclusion  of  a 
treaty  of  peace  between  Russia  and  the  Porte,  the  Pope,  as 
Head  of  the  Universal  Church,  interposed  in  behalf  of  the 
Catholics  of  Armenia,  who  had  been  banished  their  country, 
and  obtained  for  them  the  erection  of  an  archbishopric  in  the 
very  city  of  Constantinople,  the  recall  of  those  in  exile,  the 
recognition  of  their  rights,  and  the  restoration  of  their  prop- 
erty. At  his  urgent  request,  Dom  Pedro,  the  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  abolished  slavery  within  his  States.  But  that  which 
above  everything  else  lends  a  special  importance  to  his  pon- 
tificate is  the  brief  Literis  alteris  abhinc,  which  he  addressed 


'This  encyclical  is  given  in  Latin  in  "The  Catholic"  of  1829,  Vol.  XXXIIl., 
pp.  254-264.  Cf.  Freemasonry,  in  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp. 
b5-78,  and  Vol.  XLI.  See  also  Now  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  J3k.  I\  ., 
pp.  834-845. 


694  Period  -3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  aud  his  suffragans  relative  to 
mixed  marriages. 

As  Pius  VIll.  had  been  encouraged  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  bj  the  unexpected  intelligence  that  the  Roman  Catholic 
JSmancipation  Act  had  been  passed  April  13,  1829,  during  the 
ministry  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  so  also  when  his  life  was  drawing 
to  a  close,  the  keen  grief  he  felt  at  seeing  the  spirit  of  revolt 
abroad  everywhere  was  in  a  measure  softened  by  the  news  of 
the  conquest  of  Algiers  by  the  French,  July  5, 1830,  who  thus 
broke  up  tbe  dens  in  which  pirates  had  sought  refuge  and 
their  Christian  victims  had  languished  during  many  centuries. 
Bent  under  the  weight  of  years,  and  overwhelmed  with  af- 
liction  at  seeing  the  Church  threatened  by  so  many  and  so 
great  disasters,  Pius  YIIL  was  called  by  Divine  Providence 
to  a  better  life  on  the  oOth  of  E'ovember,  1830. 

§  398.    Pontificate   of    Gregory   XV I.    (February   2,   1831— 

June  1,  1846). 

Continuatio  Bullarii  from  Clement  XIII.,  T.  XIX.  Dizionario  di  erudi- 
zione,  autore  Gaetano  Moroni,  T.  XXXI.,  art.  "  Gregorio."  Frederic  Biilmi, 
Univ.  Hist,  of  the  Years  1830-1838,  Lps.  1838.  ir.  Menzel,  The  120  Years 
from  1740-1860,  Vols.  IV.  and  V.  Rheinwald,  Acta  historico-ecclesiastica, 
Tears  1835-1837,  Hamburg,  1838-1840.  vo7i  Reumont,  Hist,  of  Eome,  Vol.  III., 
Pt.  II.,  p.  674  sq. 

When  Pius  YIIL  died,  the  whole  of  Europe  was  violently 
convulsed  by  the  revolution  of  July,  the  shock  which  it  pro- 
duced being  everywhere  felt.  Apart  from  the  agitations  of 
the  Secret  Societies,  and  notably  of  the  Carbonari,  Italy  was 
just  beginning  to  be  stirred  by  the  breath  of  French  liberal- 
ism. In  no  country  was  the  spirit  of  revolution,  which  was 
stimulated  by  the  death  of  the  late  Pope,  more  intense.  Tbe 
revolt,  which  had  broken  out  at  Bologna,  spread  rapidly,  and 
when  the  conclave,  after  iifty  days  of  conclave,  on  the  2d  of 
February,  1831,  declared  Cardinal  Mauro  Capellari  Pope,  it 
had  reached  the  very  gates  of  Rome.  As  this  cardinal  had 
but  recently  written  a  work  celebrating  the  triumphs  of  the 
Holy  See,  the  coincidence  was  somewhat  remarkal^le.^ 

'  II  Trionfo  della  Santa  Scde  e  della  Chiesa,  Eoma,  1799;  Venezia,  1822,  and 


§  398.  Pontificate  of  Gregory  XVI.  695 

The  accession  of  Gregory  XVI.  was  hailed  with  universal 
joy,  and  the  opening  of  his  pontificate  signalized  by  deeds 
of  beneficence  and  acts  indicating  his  firmness  of  character. 
"  "We  are  encouraged  by  the  thought,"  said  the  new  Pontifi:', 
in  an  encyclical  letter,  published  three  days  after  he  had 
ascended  the  throne,  "  that  our  Father  in  Heaven  will  not 
send  us  trials  beyond  our  strength."  In  those  days  of  revolt 
and  disorder  it  required  a  man  of  unshaken  confidence  and 
iron  will  to  take  upon  him  the  temporal  and  spiritual  govern- 
ment of  the  Church.  Since  Pius  YIII.  had  been  unsuccessful 
in  suppressing  the  spirit  of  revolt  in  the  Legations  by  his 
fatherly  exhortations,  the  present  Pope  invoked  the  aid  of 
Austria,  and  effected  by  arms  what  more  conciliatory  meas- 
ures had  failed  to  accomplish.  Fearing  that  in  the  anarchy 
and  disorder  everywhere  prevailing  some  churchmen  might 
be  led  to  forget  their  condition,  Gregory  XVI.  wrote  to  the 
bishops  of  Poland  and  Belgium,  strongly  urging  them  not  to 
mix  up  in  political  affairs,  and  reminding  them  that  their 
ministry  was  a  ministry  of  peace,  and  that  subjects  had  duties 
toward  their  sovereigns  which  they  might  not  refuse  to  per- 
form. The  organs  of  liberal  opinion  in  Europe  shortly  after 
loudly  proclaimed  that  the  end  of  papa!  power  and  dignity 
had  come  at  last.  These  sinister  predictions  were  soon  falsi- 
fied. In  an  encyclical  letter  of  August  15,  1832,'  addressed 
to  all  the  bishops  of  the  Catholic  world,  the  Pope  proclaimed 
himself  the  enemy  of  the  ^YQVsaWug  false  and  davgeroas  spirit 
of  innovation,  and  solemnly  avowed  his  intention  of  preserving 
and  maintaining  the  ancient  apostolic  traditions.  Once  peace 
had  been  established  in  the  States  of  the  Church,  the  Pope 
devoted  his  energies  to  correcting  old  abuses  and  providing 

many  other  editions;  Germ.,  Augsburg,  1833,  2  pts.  See  IS'ew  Hist,  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  Bk.  IV.,  pp.  845  sq.  On  the  7th  of  January,  twenty  one 
votes  were  given  to  Cardinal  Giustifdani,  when,  to  the  surprise  of  every  one, 
the  Spanish  embassador  vetoed  the  election  of  this  distinguished  churchman, 
who  had  for  some  considerable  time  been  Nuncio  at  the  Spanish  Court.  The 
right  of  veto  was  a  privilege  conceded  to  the  Catholic  Courts  of  France,  Aus- 
tria, and  Spain.     See  Groene,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  Vol.  II.,  p.  487.  (Tk.) 

1  Bonn  Review  of  Philosophy  and  Catholic  Theology,  No.  3,   pp.  197-208, 
where  the  original  Latin  text  is  given. 


696  Period  0.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

against  new  ones.  In  the  autumn  of  1833  the  universities 
that  had  been  closed  during  the  revolutionary  troubles  were 
again  opened  and  reorganized.  Numerous  works  on  philoso- 
phy, dogmatic  theology,  and  ecclesiastical  and.  i^rofane  Idstory 
began  now  to  make  their  appearance  in  the  States  of  the 
Church.^     Economical   reforms  were    introduced    into  every 

'  Among  the  writers  on  philosophy  we  may  mention  the  name  of  Pasquale 
Galuppi,  Saggio  filosofico  sulla  critica  della  coscienza,  which  was,  in  1820  and 
1827,  followed  by  Pure  and  Applied  Logic,  and  likewise  by  Moral  Philosophy. 
Then  came,  in  1830,  his  New  Investigations  on  the  Origin  of  Ideas;  of  Ventura 
(de  Methodo  philosophandi),  Orsi\  Anihony  Roamini-Serbaii^  Bonelli  (died  at 
Kome  on  the  22d  of  October,  1840),  and  others.  Cf.  "Philosophy  in  Italy,"  in 
the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  pp.  243  sq.,  298-306;  Vol.  XI.,  pp.  294- 
305,  470-479,  542-553,  G65-67]  ;  four  articles,  written  by  an  Italian.  Cf.,  also, 
Tlieological  Archives  of  Munich,  Year  II.,  a.  d.  1843,  nro.  4.  Bonelli  wrote 
Disquisitio  historica  praecipuorum  philosophiae  systematum,  Komae,  1829;  In» 
stitutiones  logicae  et  metaphysicae,  Eomae,  1833,  ed.  II.,  1835.  As  to  Dogmat- 
ics, we  quote  Perrone,  S.  J.  (t  1876),  Praelectiones  Theologiae,  9  vols.,  Eomae, 
1835,  which  work  has  had  upward  of  30  editions,  and  has  been  translated  into 
French  and  German.  Praelectiones  Theologiae,  abridged  from  the  above,  4 
vols.,  1845;  31st  ed.,  1864;  both  these  works,  72  editions,  until  1876;  in  fact, 
his  lectures  on  theology  since  1835  have  superseded  all  others  in  nearly  all  the 
Catholic  schools  in  both  hemispheres.  Perrone  also  wrote  Synopsis  Historiae 
Theologiae  cum  Philosophia  comparatae,  Komae,  1845;  Turin,  1873.  This 
part  is  generally  found  on  the  first  pages  of  the  Compendium;  De  Iminaculato 
Conceptu  B.  V.  Mariae,  an  dogmatico  decreto  deflniri  possit,  Eomae,  1817  ; 
Monasterii,  1849 ;  Mediol.  1852.  Thesis  Dogmatica  de  Immac.  B.  V.  M.  Con- 
ceptione,  Eomae  et  Eatisbon.,  1855.  De  Matrimonio  Christiano,  3  vols.,  Romae, 
1858;  Leodii,  1861.  De  Virtutibus  Fidei,  Spei  et  Charitatis,  Taurini,  1863  and 
1867;  Eatisb.  1865.  De  Virtute  Eeligionis  deque  Mesmeri.smo,  Somnambu- 
lismo  et  Spiritisrao,  Taurini,  ed.  II.,  1867  ;  Eatisb.  1866.  De  D.  N.  J.  Christi- 
Divinitate,  3  vols.,  Taurini,  1873.  De  Eom.  Pont,  infallibilitate,  Taurini,  1874. 
Besides  these  dogmatical  works,  Father  Perrone  published  many  smaller  ones 
on  Catholic  Controversy,  all  of  which  were  originally  written  in  Italian,  but 
soon  appeared  in  other  languages.  The  principal  one  of  them  is  II  Protest- 
antesimo  e  la  regola  di  fede,  3  vols.,  Eome,  1853.  The  Abbe  Chassay,  in  his  bi- 
ographical notice  of  Father  Perrone,  gives  a  list  of  them.  They  are  sixteen  in 
number.  (Tr.)  In  Church  History,  Delsig)iore,  Institutiones  hist,  eccl.,  ed. 
Tizzani,  Eomae,  1838  sq.  For  Exegesis,  Patritlus,  S.  J.,  De  interpretatione  script, 
sacr.,  Eomae,  ed.  III.,  1844.  Idejn,  De  evangeliis  iibri  tres,  2  vols.,  4to.  In  the 
department  of  Profane  History,  we  mention  Garzettis  work  on  the  Situation  and 
Constitution  of  Italy  under  the  Eoman  Rule,  ed.  by  Marsiglio,  Milan,  1838,  3 
vols.  *Cesare  Cantu,  Storia  universale,  Turin,  1837.  Revised  and  reprinted 
at  Palermo  and  Naples,  9th  ed.,  35  vols.,  Turin,  1864,  and  translated  into  Ger- 
man and  French.  The  Germ.  ed.  is  by  Bruehl,  Schaffhausen,  1849  sq.,  13  vols., 
2d  ed.  continued  by  Fehr. 


§  398.  Pontificate  of  Gregory  XVI.  697 

branch  of  the  administration  ;  high  officers  of  State  found 
guilty  of  either  peculation  or  oppression  were  removed;  all 
receipts  and  expenditures  beginning  with  the  year  1817  were 
closely  examined  to  determine  the  legality  of  the  privileges, 
pensions,  and  subsidies  granted  since  that  date  ;  a  new  body 
of  laws  was  promulgated  in  1832,  and  a  new  penal  code  sub- 
mitted to  the  judgment  of  the  presidents  of  the  various  tri- 
bunals ;  a  plan  for  a  more  equitable  distribution  of  the  tax 
levy  on  land  was  laid  before  deputies,  who  had  come  together 
from  all  parts  of  the  Pontifical  States;  ^  chambers  of  commerce 
were  established  in  Rome,  in  the  cities  of  the  provinces,  and 
in  all  seaport  towns  ;  courts  of  appeal  and  criminal  courts 
were  thenceforth  to  be  presided  over  by  non-clerical  judges; 
strict  and  impartial  justice  was  dealt  out  to  all  alike  ;^  the 
arts  and  sciences  were  encouraged  with  a  munificence  equaled 
only  by  the  enlightened  taste  with  which  they  were  appre- 
ciated ;  the  Etruscan  Museum  was  founded  in  the  Vatican ; 
and  finally  the  Basilica  of  St.  PauVs,  which  had  been  destroyed 
by  fire  on  the  15th  and  16th  of  July,  1823,  was  again  built 
up  from  its  ruins.^  Such  were  some  of  the  domestic  labors 
that  marked  the  early  years  of  the  pontificate  of  Gregory 
XVI.,  who,  after  having  been  raised  to  the  papal  throne,  con- 


1  Tournnn  (Etudes  statistiques  sur  Home,  Paris,  1831)  says:  "There  is  per- 
haps no  country  in  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  carry  out  reforms  than  in  the 
States  of  the  Church ;  for  in  no  other  country  are  there  so  manj-  interests  to 
be  consulted,  and  in  no  other  country  is  it  so  easy  to  make  mistakes,  which 
would  increase  rather  than  diminish  abuses."  And  he  adds  that  though  tho 
government  is  the  most  absolute  in  form,  in  realitij  its  administration  is  excep- 
tionally mild  and  humane.  Tournon  was  Prefect  of  Kome  under  Napoleon 
from  1810  to  1814. 

-  The  office  of  Uditore  Santissimo  was  abolished  in  1831,  and  as  a  warning  to 
all  that  no  profession,  and  least  of  all  the  clerical,  should  enjoy  any  immunities 
from  the  penalties  of  crime,  Gregory  XVI.,  on  the  4th  of  October,  1843,  caused 
a  Piedmontese  priest,  named  Domi>dc  Abo,  to  be  beheaded  in  the  Castle  of  Sant' 
Angelo  in  punishment  of  his  guilt. 

■'  Gregory  XVI.  addressed  a  circular  letter  to  all  the  patriarchs,  archbishops, 
and  bishops  of  the  Christian  world,  requesting  contributions  for  tho  restoration 
of  this  splendid  monument,  raised  to  the  honor  of  the  Apostle  of  ihe  Gentiles. 
It  had  withstood  the  vicissitudes  of  fifteen  centuries,  and  previously  to  the  Ee- 
formation  was,  as  the  national  Church  of  England,  under  the  special  patronage 
of  her  kincs. 


698  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

tinued  to  live  the  life  of  a  simple  monk,  observing  the  austere 
Rule  of  the  Camaldolese,  sleeping  upon  the  floor,  eating  little, 
keeping  late  vigils,  never  idle,  and  praying  always.^  He 
gathered  about  his  person  the  greatest  men  of  his  age,  and 
employed  their  talents  in  his  service.  Cardinal  L>ambruschini, 
equally  distinguished  for  learning  and  statesmanship,  was  ap- 
pointed his  secretary  of  state,  in  which  ofMce  he  set  forth  and 
maintained,  under  the  most  trying  circumstances,  the  true 
principles  and  polity  of  the  Catholic  Church.  As  Leo  X.,  in 
a  former  age,  had  rewarded  the  virtues  and  talents  of  Bembo 
and  Sadolet,  by  making  them  members  of  the  Sacred  College, 
so  now  did  Gregory  confer  a  similar  mark  of  appreciation 
upon  the  scholarly  Avgelo  3Iai  (f  1854)  and  Mezzofanti,  the 
marvelous  linguist  (f  1849).^ 

The  tender  heart  of  Gregorj-  XVI.,  which  had  but  recently 
been  comforted  by  the  peaceful  settlement  of  affairs  in  France, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Poland,  was  overwhelmed  with 
grief  when  he  learned  that  Spain,  that  country  of  glorious 
Catholic  traditions,  was  also  convulsed  by  the  conflicts  of  civil 
strife,  her  constitution  overturned,  her  faith  dimmed,  and  her 
attachment  to  the  Holy  See  weakened  ;  that  one  of  the  ablest 
and  most  eloquent  defenders  of  Christianity  and  the  (Church 
had  lighted  the  torch  of  revolt  at  the  altar  of  God,  and  pros- 
tituted the  words  of  Holy  Writ  to  justifj-  contempt  of  author- 
ity, hatred  of  kings,  rebellion,  and  all  the  train  of  evils  that 
follow  in  its  wake;  that  Clement,  the  veuerahle  Archbishop 
of  Cologne,  and  the  holy  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  had 
been  violently  thrust  from  their  sees  ;  and,  flnally,  that  the 
Greeks,  who  had  been  restored  to  unity  during  the  pontificate 
of  Clement  VIIL,  had  been  once  more  torn  from  communion 
with  Rome  by  means  the  most  despicable  and  atrocious. 
There  was  no  duty  of  his  high  office  that  Gregory  left  unper- 
formed. He  warned  the  faithful  against  the  errors  contained 
in  the  systems  of  Hermes  and  Bautain,  and  against  the  dan- 
gerous and  wicked  tendencies  of  the  teachings  of  the  Abbe 
de  Lamennais ;  he  protested  against  the  violation  of  the  rights 


'  Cf.  Geramb,  Journey  from  La  Trappe  to  Rome,  p.  127,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  18o9. 
*0n  Mezzofanti,  see  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  200  sq.  and  271  sq. 


§  399.   Catholic  Church  in  France  under  the  Bourbons.  699 

of  bishops  by  the  King  of  Prussia ;  and,  having  i-emonstrated 
to  no  purpose  with  the  Tzar  of  Russia,  published,  July  22, 
1842,  an  allocution,  addressed  to  the  cardinals,^  in  which,  after 
recounting  the  tyrannical  acts  of  that  autocrat,  he  bitterly 
complained  of  tbe  sad  condition  of  the  Catholic  Church  iu 
the  Russian  Empire.  By  this  last  act  Gregory  closed  the 
mouths  of  the  enemies  of  the  Holy  See,  who  reproached  him 
with  neglecting  one  of  his  most  sacred  duties  in  averting  his 
eyes  from  the  misfortunes  of  these  poor  people,  and  iu  ceasing 
to  defend  the  rights  of  the  Church,  from  fear  of  giving  of- 
fense to  the  Autocrat  of  the  North  (December  13,  1845).  By 
the  firmness,  fortitude,  and  prudence  which  he  displayed  in 
encountering  the  storms  raised  against  him  in  the  Xorth,  in 
the  East,  and  in  the  AVest,  Gregory  made  for  himself  a  name 
in  history  which  will  never  be  obscured;  and  future  genera- 
tions will  some  day  render  proper  homage  to  the  shining 
merits  of  this  illustrious  successor  of  St.  Peter.  He  died 
June  1,  1846. 

§  399.   The  Catholic  Church  in  France  under  the  Bourbons. 

By  the  Constitutional  Charter  of  July  4,  1814,  Louis  XVIII. 
granted  toleration  to  every  form  of  worship,  but,  consistently 
with  the  religious  traditions  of  his  House,  declared  the  Caih- 
olie  to  be  the  religion  of  the  State.  Hoping  to  find  in  relig- 
ion the  surest  support  of  his  still  insecure  power,  he  put  forth 
his  best  efforts  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  Church  in 
France,  to  revive  the  teachings  of  faith,  and  encourage  relig- 
ious habits  in  those  Frenchmen  who  for  a  half  of  a  century 


1  The  allocution  and  the  leading  facts  are  found  in  the  pamphlet  entitled 
"The  Czar  and  the  Successor  of  St.  Peter,"  hy  Smtsen,  Mentz,  184:].  "Persecu- 
tions and  Sufferings  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Piussia,"  a  work  based  on  un- 
published documents,  by  a  former  Kussian  Counsellor  of  State,  Paris,  1842. 
Cf.  Theincr,  Situation  of  the  Catholic  Church  of  the  Two  Ptites  in  Poland  and 
Kussia,  from  Catharine  II.  down  to  to  our  own  times.  PiCview  of  the  History 
of  Kussia,  in  the  Hisi.  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  4-16,  98  sq.,  129  sq.;  Vol. 
IX.,  p.  098  sq.  Pvelations  of  the  Ptussian  Church  to  Constantinople  and  Her 
Thraldom  under  the  Autocracy  of  the  Czar,  ibid.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  7G8  sq.;  Vol.  XI., 
p.  120  sq.  Gregory  XVI.  and  the  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias,  ibid.,  Vol.  X.,  p 
455-491,  583  sq.,  647  sq. 


700  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapte?  1. 

had  been  by  turns  political  enthusiasts,  votaries  of  pleasure, 
gallant  soldiers,  industrious  workmen,  Christians  when  it  was 
fashionable  and  a  mark  of  good  breeding  to  be  such,^  at  all 
times  impressionable,  easily  led  astray  and  prompt  to  return. 
Many  obstacles,  however,  stood  in  the  way  of  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  noble  design 

Missionaries  sent  among  the  people  to  preach  the  Gospel  were  at  times  im- 
prudently zealous,  and,  by  their  unseemly  conduct  in  some  places,  laid  them- 
selves open  to  the  biting  sarcasm  and  vituperative  calumny  of  their  polemical 
adversaries,  and  gave  color  of  excuse  to  the,  petitions  that  wero  sent  up  to  the 
Chambers  against  them,  and  to  the  popular  uprisings  that  took  place  at  Brest 
and  Paris.  Those  who  had  passed  their  youth  among  the  terrible  scenes  of  the 
Eevolution  had  ceased  to  relish  any  writings  except  those  of  Voltaire,  Diderot, 
d'Alembert,  Ilelvetius,  and  Jean-Jacques  liousseau,  which,  having  been  forbid- 
den to  be  published  by  Napoleon,  now,  that  the  press  had  become  free,  appeared 
in  thousands  of  editions,  and  were  sold  at  a  price  so  trifling  as  to  place  them 
within  the  reach  of  every  one.  The  evil  influences  of  these  works  were  in  a 
measure  counteracted  by  the  Catholic  Society^  under  the  direction  of  Duke  Mat- 
thew de  MoiUmorency,  for  the  diffusion  of  Catholic  literature.  The  bishops,  in  a 
letter  dated  May  30,  1819,  laid  a  statement  of  the  condition  of  affairs  before 
the  Pope,  sorrowfully  deploring  their  existence.  But  before  the  Church  in 
France  could  make  any  real  progress  toward  reconstruction,  it  was  of  the  first 
importance  that  the  vacant  sees  should  be  filled,  and  a  period  put  to  the  condi- 
tion of  uncertainly  resulting  from  the  Concordat  of  1801. 

After  the  failure  of  the  mission  of  M.  de  Persigyiy,  formerly  Bishop  of  Saint- 
Malo,  and  subsequently  Archbishop  of  Paris,  Count  de  Blacas,  the  king's  min- 
ister, was  sent  to  Kome  to  open  negotiations,  with  a  view  to  concluding  a  new 
Concordat.  Of  the  diflSculties  to  be  set  aside,  only  two  were  of  great  conse. 
quence,  namely,  the  obligation  of  the  clergy  to  take  the  oath  prescribed  by  the 
Charter,  and  the  refusal  of  the  old  bishops  to  resign  their  sees.  The  former 
was  set  aside  by  assurance  of  Count  de  Blacas  that  the  oath  bound  only  within 
the  limits  of  civil  obedience,  and  in  no  way  interfered  with  the  duties  of  cler- 
gymen  to  God  and  to  the  Church;  and  the  latter  ceased  to  exist  after  the  disin- 
terested declaration,  drawn  up  at  Paris,  November  8,  1816,  by  the  six  bishops 
concerned,  to  the  effect  that  they  were  willing  to  do  whatever  the  Holy  Father, 
the  king,  and  the  well-being  of  the  Church  in  France  might  require.'^  The 
new  Concordat,  signed  by  both  the  Holy  See  and  Louis  XVIII.  on  the  11th  of 
July,  and  published  by  papal  bull  eight  days  later,  restored  the  one  e7ite7-ed 
into  between  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  at  Bologna  in  1515,  and  provided  for  the 
abrogation  of  the  Concordat  of  1801  and  the  abolition  of  the  Organic  Latcs,  in 


^  Cf.  Boost,  New  Hist,  of  France,  1st  ed.,  pp.  322  sq. ;  Gams,  New  Hist,  of  the 
Church  of  Christ,  Bk  IV.,  pp.  655  sq. 

2  This  document  is  given  in  the  New  Hist,  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  Bk.  IV., 
pp.  71-1  sc;  also  the  Concordat  of  1817.  See  the  original  Latin  text  in  Ro- 
biano.  Vol.  III.,  pp.  403-420. 


§  399.   CalhoUc  Church  in.  France  under  the  Bourbons-  701 

60  far  as  these  conflicted  with  the  teachings  and  laws  of  the  Church.  Of  the 
sees  suppressed  hy  the  bull  Qui  C/n-isti  Domini,  of  November  29,  1801,  forty, 
seven  were  to  be  restored,  and  the  sixty  archbishoprics  and  bishoprics  erected 
in  the  same  year  were  to  remain  unchanged,  and  the  actual  incumbents  to  re 
tain  undisturbed  possession.  Should,  however,  any  new  division  of  either  the 
old  dioceses  or  tlie  new  be  deemed  necessary  or  advantageous,  it  might  not  be 
made  except  with  the  consent  of  the  hishops,  or  of  the  chapters  of  such  bishop- 
rics as  chanced  to  be  vacant.  Churches  were  to  have  adequate  endowments, 
either  in  real  estate  or  in  incomes,  secured  by  the  government,  and  special  at- 
tention was  to  bo  given  to  the  i  rganization  of  seminaries.  Desirous  of  promptly 
-carrying  into  eflect  an  instrument  so  favorable  to  the  Church,  the  Pope  was 
just  about  to  publish  a  bull  relative  to  the  new  division  of  the  dioceses,  when 
the  Chambers  rejected  the  Concordat,  on  the  ground  that  the  bishoprics  were 
excessive  in  number,  and  that  it  contained  many  articles  inimical  to  the  Liber- 
ties of  the  Galilean  Church.  In  18i:2  a  temporary  arrangement  was  entered 
into  between  the  Popo  and  the  King,  with  the  consent  of  the  Chambers,  by 
which  the  number  of  bishoprics  was  increased  to  eighty,  fourteen  of  which  were 
tnetropolitan  and  sixty-six  suffragan  sees.  Cathedral  chapters  were  also 
organized,  and  greater  and  smaller  seminaries  and  faculties  of  theology  es- 
tablished. There  was  a  great  lack  of  priests,  and  although  the  number  or- 
dained in  1823  was  two  hundred  in  excess  of  those  who  died  in  the  same  year, 
there  were  still  thirteen  thousand  required  to  fill  the  vacant  posts  and  offices. 
The  king  now  called  attention  to  the  revenues  of  the  Church,  and  the  Cham- 
bers in  consequence  voted  a  subsidy  of  3,900,000  francs,  thus  rendering  the 
position  of  the  clergy  more  secure  and  independent.  After  a  gallant  struggle, 
in  which  he  displayed  the  marvelous  powers  of  his  fervid  eloquence,  Chateau- 
briand obtained  for  the  clergy  the  right  of  accepting  grants  of  real  estate,  and 
the  property  accumulated  from  this  source  in  a  short  time  was  valued  at  two 
millions  of  francs.  The  clergy,  on  their  part,  were  both  zealous  and  devoted. 
They  searched  out  and  brought  together,  in  an  establishment  specially  set  apart 
for  the  purpose,  a  large  number  of  Savoyard  children,  who  had  hitherto  been 
given  over  to  every  vice,  and  permitted  to  grow  up  without  religious  instruc- 
tion of  any  kind.  The  Abbe  Loewenbroek,  a  native  of  Lorraine,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  service  of  the  German  workingmen,  of  whom  there  were  at  times 
twenty-five  thousand  in  Paris,  and  whose  religious  wants  and  instruction  had 
been  previously  wholly  neglected.  The  Abbe  Arnoux  opened  a  reformatory 
for  criminals.  The  Priests  of  the  Mission,  who,  by  an  ordinance  of  October, 
1816,  had  been  permitted  to  return  to  their  former  houses,  and  the  Priests  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  hastened  to  place  tliemselves  at  the  disposal  of  the  bishops,  to 
do  service  in  communities  that  had  been  deprived  of  their  pastors.  The  Trap- 
pists  returned  to  France,  took  possession  of  their  ancient  abbey  of  Meilleray, 
and,  by  fidelity  to  their  austere  Rule,  once  more  revived  purity  of  morals 
among  their  countrymen. 

The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  and  the  Ursulinc  Nuns  entered  joyfully 
upon  their  work  of  instructing  and  educating  the  youth  of  both  sexes.  Pious 
laymen  also  formed  themselves  into  holy  associations  for  the  instruction  of 
youth,  the  difl'usion  of  wholesome  literature,  the  promotion  of  the  missions, 
the  service  of  the  sick,  and  other  such  charitable  oilices  as  were  required  by  the 


702  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

growing  needs  of  religion .1     The  most  important  of  these  was  the  Society  fhr 
Hie  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1822. 

People  no  longer  dared,  as  in  days  gone  by,  to  make  a  boast 
of  their  infidelity  in  good  society.  Lamartine  (b.  1790,  d.  1869)* 
was  the  favorite  poet  of  the  better  educated  classes,  and  his 
poems,  which  breathe  a  deeply  religious  and  Christian  spirit, 
replaced  in  jDublic  admiration  the  pagan  and  impious  literature 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Others  also  contributed  largely 
to  bring  about  this  revolution  in  public  taste,  and  among 
them  the  Abbe  de  Lamennais  (b.  1782,  d.  1854),^  the  eloquent 
defender  of  the  infallibility  of  the  Church,  and  the  bold  and 
spirited  adversary  of  Gallicanism  ;  de  Maistre  (b.  1754,  d. 
1821),*  that  splendid  genius  and  great  writer ;  Bonald 
(b.  1754,  d.  1840),^  the  powerful  advocate  of  civil  and  par- 
ticularly of  ecclesiastical  authority  ;  Frayssinous  (b.  May  9, 
1765,  d.  May  31,  1841),^  the  able  Christian  apologist;    and 

1  There  were,  in  1825,  2,833  institutions  belonging  to  Keligious  Orders  of  fe- 
males, and  of  these  1,533  received  subsidies  from  government. 

''Meditations  poetiques,  Paris,  1820.  Nouvelles  Meditations,  Paris,  1823. 
Harmonies  poetiques  et  religieuses,  Paris,  1830,  2  vols.  Chant  du  Sacre,  Paris, 
1825. 

3  Essai  sur  I'indifference  en  matierc  de  religion,  Paris,  1817  sq.,  2  vols.  A 
little  later  on,  together  with  the  Defense  de  I'essai,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1827.  De  la 
Eeligion  consideree  dans  ses  rapports  avec  I'ordre  politique  et  civil,  Paris,  1825; 
3d  edit.,  1826.  Melanges,  Paris,  1826.  Des  Progres  de  la  revolution  et  de  la 
guerre  contre  I'Eglise,  Paris,  1829. 

*  Du  Pape,  Lyons,  1819;  Par.  1820,2  vols.;  English  by  McD.  Dowf^on ;  Germ. 
by  M.  Lisber,  Frankfort,  1822.  De  i'eglise  gallicane,  etc.,  Lyons  and  Paris,  1821 ; 
Germ,  by  Klee,  Frkft.  1824.  Les  Soirees  de  Saint- Petersbourg,  ou  Entretiens 
sur  le  gouvernement  temporel  de  la  Providence,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1821 ;  Germ,  by 
Lieber,  with  Dissertations  by  Wlndischmaiin,  Frkft.  1825. 

*  Oeuvres,  21  vols.,  Paris,  1817,  to  which  was  added:  Demonstration  philo- 
sophique  des  principes  constitutifs  de  la  societe,  Paris,  1830.  See  Freiburg 
Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  124;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  3,  p.  190  sq. 

*  Notice  sur  la  vie  de  Mgr.  Frayssinous,  eveque  d'Hermopolis,  par  le  baron 
Henrion.  Frayssinous,  Defense  du  christianisme,  ou  Conferences  jur  la  re- 
I'cion.  These  lectures  on  the  proofs  of  Christianity,  delivered  in  the  church 
nf  St.  Sulpice,  between  the  years  1803  and  1809,  and  again  between  1814  and 
1822,  made  his  reputation.  The  cultivated  youth  of  the  capital  were  drawn 
by  the  splendor  of  his  genius  and  the  charm  of  his  eloquence,  and  thus 
prevented  from  being  carried  away  by  the  popular  philosophy  of  the  day. 
Between  the  years  1825 -and  1843,  fifteen  editions  of  the  Defense  du  Christian- 


§  399.   Catholic  Church  in  France  under  the  Bourbons.  703 

Boulogne  (f  May  13,  1825),'  the  intrepid  bishop  and  great 
preacher.  Writers  hitherto  hostile  to  the  Church  retracted 
their  errors  and  bore  witness  to  the  truth  of  Christian- 
ity. Peter  Henry  Larcher,  the  celebrated  Greek  scholar 
(b.  173G,  d.  1812),  disavowed  the  notes,  which  he,  assisted  by 
some  pretentious  philosophers,  had  written  on  Herodotus,  tho 
scope  of  which  was,  not  to  render  testimony  to  historic  truth, 
but  to  undermine  the  foundations  of  the  Christian  religion  3y 
throwing  discredit  upon  the  chronology  of  Holy  Writ.  Jn 
1820  the  famous  Jean-Baptisfe  RoHnet  also  repudiated  his 
work,  Livre  </e  la  Nature,  in  which  he  aimed  at  destroying  all 
religious  principles  and  extinguishing  all  religious  feeling. 

Louis  XYIII.  died  September  19,  1824,  and  during  the 
reign  of  his  successor,  Charles  X.,  the  conflict  between  the 
Royalists  and  the  Constitutionalists  raged  more  tiercel}'  than 
ever.  Even  wise  and  moderate  men  were  not  agreed  as  to 
how  far  the  influence  of  the  Church  should  extend.  Charles 
X.  showed  a  disposition  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the 
Church  and  to  set  his  face  against  the  spirit  of  revolution. 
With  this  view  he  endeavored  to  have  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties pass  a  law  on  sacrilege  (1825),  [)unishing  with  severe  pen- 
alties any  ofi:ense  against  the  religion  of  the  State.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Galilean  tenets  were  vigorously  attacked  by 
an  illustrious  writer,  the  Abbe  de  Lamennais,  and  a  number 
of  French  cardinals,  archbishops,  and  bishops  drew  up  and 
laid  before  the  king,  April  3,  1826,  a  statement  of  their 
grievances,  which,  some  time  later,  received  the  approval  of 
sixty  other  prelates. 

On  the  25th  of  May,  1827,  the  Minister  of  Public  Worship, 
Mgr.  Frayssinous,  Bishop  of  Ilermopolis  in  partibus,  rose  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  repelled  the  charges  of  ambi- 
tion and  ultramontanism  imputed  to  man\'  of  the  clergy,  and 
gave  a  clear  statement  of  the  policy  of  the  government. 
AVhile   freelv   allowino;    that    the    intentions    and    efforts  of 


isme,  in  3  vols.,  were  published,  and  the  work  has  been  translated  into  many 
languages.     Gt!rm.,  Pesth,  1830,  4  pts. 

1  Oeuvres,  Paris,  1826  sq. ;  8  vols.,  Germ.,  by  Raes.-  and  Wris:,  Frkft.  1830  sq., 
4  vols. 


704  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

Charles  X.  to  forward  the  interests  of  religion  in  his  domin- 
ions were  praiseworthy,  it  must  be  also  acknowledged  that 
he  lacked  the  qualifications  necessary  to  regenerate  his  people. 
Like  the  Jesuits  and  those  who  were  spending  themselves  on 
the  missions  for  the  weal  of  others,  he  was  assailed  by  irre- 
ligious and  revolutionary  agitators,  who,  during  a  period  of 
bloody  and  ceaseless  wars,  when  religious  instruction  was  no 
longer  given,  had  been  corrupted  to  the  very  core  by  the 
reading  of  immoral  and  infidel  works.  Symptoms  calculated 
to  excite  alarm  began  to  manifest  themselves  in  some  cities 
of  the  kingdom.^  The  party,  which  during  a  revolution  that 
filled  France  and  the  whole  of  Europe  with  terror,  and  under 
the  Empire  that  succeeded,  had  expiated  in  one  or  other  of 
the  eight  imperial  bastiles  the  slightest  revolutionary  act, 
began  now  to  revive  under  the  inibecile  rule  of  the  Bourbons. 
The  banner  of  liberty  was  again  hoisted  ;  religion  and  its 
ministers  derided ;  morality  attacked  with  sophisms  a  thou- 
sand times  repeated  and  as  often  refuted ;  every  possible 
means  employed  to  excite  the  passions  of  the  discontented  and 
to  rouse  into  action  that  dangerous  clement  of  every  jiopula- 
tion  that  is  ever  desirous  of  change  ;  the  wildest  political 
theories  proclaimed  ;  and  the  government  itself  ridiculed  and 
made  an  object  of  contemptuous  derision.  As  to  the  govern- 
ment, it  must  be  said  that,  though  weak,  it  meant  well,  and 
though  zealous  for  good,  it  was  destitute  alike  of  the  energy 
and  prudence  necessary  to  accomplish  it,  and,  while  intent 
upon  maintaining  itself,  daily  lost  ground  by  making  inju- 
dicious concessions.  Availing  themselves  of  the  exclusive 
and  illiberal  privileges  of  the  University  fo\\n(\.Q<\.  by  iN^apoleon, 
the  members  of  the  Opposition  demanded  that  the  seven  col- 
leges under  the  direction  of  tlie  Jesuits  should  be  closed,  and 
the  king,  by  royal  ordinance  of  July  16,  1828,  granted  their 
demand,^  Emboldened  by  every  fresh  concession,  they  ex- 
tended their  operations  from  Paris  to  all  the  departments; 
directed  the  action  of  the  electors  ;  established  affiliated  so- 
cieties to  aid  in  controlling  the  elections  ;  and  by  degrees  in- 

'  Boost,  ISew  Hist,  of  France,  1st  ed.,  pp.  330  sq. 

^Robiano,  1.  c,  T.  IV.,  p.  212;  and  "TAe  Catholic"  of  1828,  nro.  12. 


§  399.   Catholic  Church  in  France  under  the  Bourbons.  705 

creased  the  number  of  their  Deputies  in  the  Chamber.  Atlairs 
came  to  a  crisis  under  the  ministry  of  M.  de  31artignac,  through 
whose  prudent  management  the  government  was  still  enabled 
to  retain  a  measure  of  public  confidence.  ISTew  demands  on 
the  part  of  the  government  called  forth  an  unexpected  resist- 
ance, and  Charles  X.,  weary  of  yielding  where  to  yield  was 
worse  than  useless,  promptly  declared  that  he  would  make  no 
further  concessions,  and  that  in  future  he  would  act  as  the 
interests  of  the  throne  and  of  religion  seemed  to  require. 
Relying  upon  the  advice  and  support  of  those  immediately 
about  him,  he  dismissed  the  Martignac  ministry,  which  alone 
was  able  to  harmonize  conflicting  parties  and  uphold  the  un- 
certain fortunes  of  royalty.  The  new  aggressive  jjolicy  now 
inaugurated  gave  ofiense  to  all  parties,  and  made  them  a  unit 
against  the  government.  New  cabinets  were  successively 
formed  and  dismissed,  until  finally  the  one  presided  over  by 
Prince  de  Polignac^  which  Talleyrand  ironically  styled  the  im- 
possible ministry,  was  appointed.  When  conciliatory  measures 
would  not  answer,  this  minister  attempted  to  awe  the  paiblic 
into  submission  (expedition  to  Algiers,  etc.) ;  but  the  press, 
which  nothing  could  silence,  kept  up  its  attacks,  which  be- 
came daily  more  violent  and  personal.  In  reply  to  a  speech 
from  the  throne,  on  the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  Cham- 
bers on  the  2d  of  March,  1830,  an  address,  declaring  that  the 
ministry  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  countrj- ,  was  car- 
ried by  a  vote  of  221  against  181.  The  king,  in  consequence, 
by  an  ordinance  of  the  16th  of  May,  declared  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  dissolved.  A  new  election  took  place,  and  the 
221  were  again  returned,  without  exception.  Charles,  seeing 
that  affairs  were  desperate,  determined  to  take  advantage  of 
the  somewhat  vague  wording  of  the  Fourteenth  Article  of 
the  Charter,  empowering  the  sovereign  "  to  make  regulations 
and  decrees  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  laws  and  the 
safety  of  the  State,"  and  on  the  26th  of  Jul}'  published  liis 
Jive  celebrated  ordinances  in  the  lloniteur.  These  suspended 
the  liberty  of  the  press;  dissolved  the  newly  elected  Chamber 
of  Deputies  ;  reduced  the  number  of  Deputies  from  430  to 
258;  convoked  the  two  Chambers  to  meet  the  28th  of  the 
VOL.  Ill — 45 


706  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

following  September;  and  made  some  new  royalist  appoint- 
ments for  the  Council  of  State.  The  editors  and  publishers 
of  newspapers,  headed  by  M.  Thiers,  then  editor  of  the  Na- 
tional, protested  against  the  ordinances.  On  the  following 
day,  Jul}'  27,  a  conflict  took  place  in  the  streets  between  the 
gendarmes  and  the  citizens  ;  on  the  28th  Paris  was  declared 
in  a  state  of  siege,  and  in  an  encounter  with  the  populace  the 
royalist  troops  were  victorious  ;  on  the  29th,  owing  to  some 
blundering  and  the  defection  of  two  regiments,  the  mob  gained 
possession  of  the  Tuileries,  compelled  the  king's  forces  to 
withdraw  from  Paris,  dethroned  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bour- 
bons, and  transferred  the  government  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
who  took  the  title  of  Louis  Philippe  I.  By  th.e  Protestants 
this  change  of  government  was  hailed  as  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era  for  Protestantism  in  France  ;  but  their  predictions 
were  premature,  and  were  destined  not  to  be  verified  by  the 
events  that  followed. 

§  400.    Continuatio7i — The   Catholic  Church  in  France,  under 
Louis  Philippe. 

Creiineau-Joly,  Histoire  de  Louis  Philippe  d'Orleans  et  de  I'Orleanisme,  Paris, 
1862.  Boost,  iSIew  Hist,  of  France,  5th  period,  p.  344  sq.  L.  Blanc,  Histoire 
de  dix  ans,  chap.  18.  W.  Menzel,  1.  c,  Vols.  IV.  and  V.  Scharpf,  Lectures  on 
New  Ch.  H.,  nro.  1,  p.  67-135.     Gams,  1.  c.  Vol.  III.,  p.  72  sq. 

The  Church  in  France  did  not  escape  the  storm  that  over- 
turned the  throne  of  the  Bourbons  in  1830.  By  the  new 
Charter,  the  Catholic  religion  was  declared  to  be,  not  the  re- 
ligion of  the  State,  but  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  the 
French  people. 

Although  the  Pope,  in  reply  to  an  inquiry  from  Mgr.  de 
Quelen,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  authorized  the  usual  prayers  to 
be  said  for  King  Louis  Philippe,  and  instructed  the  bishops 
to  submit  to  the  new  government,  the  clergy  long  continued 
to  be  regarded  with  suspicion  by  their  implacable  enemies  of 
the  liberal  party. 

Owing  to  some  imprudent  conduct  of  the  Legitimists,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  funeral  service  of  the  Duke  de  Berry,  in 
the  church  of  Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois,  February  14,  1831, 


§  400,   The  Catholic  Church  under  Louis  Philippe.       707 

a  fanatical  mob,  already  maddened  by  excessive  indulgence, 
it  being  the  season  of  carnival,  rushed  in  and  sacked  the 
church,  and  hurrying  thence  to  the  archbishop's  palace,  per- 
petrated similar  outrages.  For  two  days  an  infuriated  multi- 
tude rushed  through  the  streets,  everywhere  erasing  the  fleur- 
de-lis  from  the  escutcheon  of  France,  and  sacking  churches. 
They  were  at  length  overcome  by  the  National  Guard.^  To 
these  shocking  scenes  succeeded  the  ravages  of  disease.  The 
cholera,  a  plague  hitherto  unknown  in  Europe,  raged  with 
such  violence  in  Paris  that  in  one  day  alone  (April  10,  1832) 
eighteen  hundred  persons  fell  victims  to  the  scourge.  The 
first  appointments  to  bishoprics  after  the  revolution  of  July 
did  not  prove  to  be  the  very  best  that  could  be  made.^  Asso- 
ciated with  Montalembert,  Gerbet  and  Lacordaire,  Abbe  de  La- 
mennais,  who  believed  himself  called  to  exercise  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  the  political  and  religious  future  of  France,  started  a 
journal,  which  bore  the  significant  title  of  rAvenir,  and  the 
motto  "  God  and  Freedom."  An  ardent  advocate  of  the 
complete  independence  of  the  Church,  and  a  determined 
enemy  of  all  State  interference  in  spiritual  afiiairs,  he  pushed 
his  principles  to  their  last  consequences,  maintaining  that  the 
clergy  should  decline  to  accept  any  salary  from  government,^ 
and  that  the  Church,  once  more  reduced  to  her  condition  of 
poverty  in  the  primitive  ages,  would  no  longer  place  her  trust 
in  anything  save  in  the  power  of  Him,  who  alone  is  her  true 
Head.  To  these  questions  of  discipline  he  soon  joined  others 
of  a  strictly  doctrinal  character,  concerning  which  he  held 
wholly  erroneous  views,  as,  for  example,  that  the  subjective 
ground  and  reality  of  certitude  are  not  in  the  individual 
reason,  but  in  the  universal  reason  and  general  acceptance 
(sensus  communis)  of  mankind.^  The  views  of  de  Lamennais 
on  the  complete  severance  of  Church  and  State  and  on  the 


>  The  Catholic,  Oct.  nro.  of  1831.  Mgr.  de  Quelen  pendant  dix  ans,  par  J.  F. 
Bellamare,  Paris,  1843. 

*  Bonn.  Periodical,  No.  51,  pp.  204,  205. 

^The  Catholic,  year  1831;  Jan.  nro.  of  1833;  Sept.  Append.,  p.  XLI.  ;  Dec. 
Append.,  p.  XXXVII ;  a.  d.  1834,  Febr.  Append.,  p.  XXV.  sq. ;  March  Ap. 
pond.,  p.  LI.  sq. 

*  Bonn  Philosophical  and  Theological  Review,  nro.  19,  p.  177. 


708  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     ChapUr  1. 

sensiis  communis  were  condemned  by  Gresfory  XVI.  in  an  en- 
cyclical letter  of  the  15th  of  August,  1832.  A.11  the  bishops 
of  France  prohibited  the  reading  ox  V Avenir  m  their  dioceses, 
and  the  publication  of  the  journal  was  in  consequence  sus- 
pended. M.  de  Lamennais  retracted,  but  the  Pope  suspected 
his  sincerity,  and  his  fears  were  justified  when,  some  time 
later,  Les  Paroles  (fun  Croyant  and  Le  Livre  da  Peiiple,  both 
'■vritten  with  fervid  eloquence  and  extraordinary  brilliancy, 
made  their  appearance.^  With  a  strange  confusion  of  the 
most  elementary  ideas,  the  author  advocated  the  murder  of 
kings,  the  assumption  by  the  clergy  of  the  leadership  in  pop- 
ular insurrections,  and  the  adoption  of  the  cross  as  the  uni- 
versal standard  of  nations  in  revolt,  and  appealed  to  the 
Gospel  as  a  sanction  for  his  wild  vagaries.  His  words  are 
seemingly  the  words  of  the  Gospel,  being  in  fact  a  horrid 
travesty  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  put  together  with  a  view  to 
incite  to  crime.  Being  no  longer  able  to  simulate  the  char- 
acter of  a  priest,  the  Abb6  de  Lamennais  at  length  threw  oS 
all  disguise,  and  was  regarded  by  all  as  a  democrat  and  Ja- 
cobin of  the  most  extreme  school.  But  though  he  volunta- 
rily cut  himself  ofi'  from  communion  with  the  Church  he 
desired  to  make  the  embodiment  of  revolution,  he  failed  to 
bring  with  him  any  of  that  brilliant  cluster  of  men  who  had 
encouraged  his  early  efforts  and  shared  his  first  labors  ;  and 
the  Abbe  Gerbet,  now  that  the  friend  of  his  youth  had  become 
the  enemy  of  all  that  he  himself  held  most  dear,  after  a  pain- 
ful struggle  with  his  feelings,  entered  the  lists  against  him.^ 

^  Paroles  d'un  Croyant,  Paris,  183.".  Bnutai.n,  Eeponse  d'un  chretien  aux  pa- 
roles d'un  croyant,  Strasbourg  et  Paris,  1884.  Paroles  d'un  voyant  a  M.  de  La- 
mennais par  Ch.  Faider,  Bruxelles,  1834.  Paroles  d'un  croyant,  par  I'abbe  de 
Lamennais  quand  il  etait  croyant,  Brux.  1828.  Baumgarten-Crusius,  Reflec- 
tions on  some  Writings  of  de  Lamennais,  Jena,  1834.  Carove,  Criticism  oi  the 
Pilgrims  of  Mickiewicz;  of  the  Words  of  a  Believer,  by  Lamennais;  of  the 
Answers  of  Bcndain,  l aider,  etc.  Conf.  the  Bevievv  made  thereon  ty  Dr. 
Hock,  in  the  Bonn  Periodical,  nro.  20,  p.  103-126;  conf.  ibid.,  nro.  10,  p.  145- 
105,  and  nro.  11,  p.  192  sq. 

■■'  Abbe  Gcrbet  wrote  the  following  lines  on  the  subject .-  "  On  sent  tout  ce  que 
ces  paroles  me  content.  Celui  qui  declare  une  guerre  ouverte  a  I'eglise,  qui 
prcphetise  sa  ruine.  qui,  dans  les  dornieres  pages  do  j'ecrit  qu'il  vient  de  publicr, 
u'a  pas  craint  d'outrager,  par  le  plus  brutal  sarcasmc,  I'augustc  vieillard,  quo  la 
chrctiente  salue  du  nom  de  Pere,  a  eu  en  moi  un  ancien  ami,  qui  I'aimait  d'une 


§  400.   The  Catholic  Church  under  Louis  Philippe.       709 

Another  pretended  reformer,  the  Abbe  Chdtel,  formerly  a 
chaplain  in  the  arrny,  followed  a  less  circuitous  route  for  the 
accomplishment  of  his  object.  Believinai;  the  Revolution  of 
July  favorable  to  the  establishment  of  a  "French  Catholic 
Church,"  he  began  to  proclaim  his  new  teachings  in  August, 
1830. 

Shortly  after  the  Revolution,  lie  published  a  profession  of  faith,  had  himself 
consecrated  bishop  by  Fabre-Palaprat,  a  "Constitutional"  prelate,  and  opened 
a  place  of  meeting  in  a  rented  hall  in  the  faubourg  Saint-Denis,  in  Paris,  where 
he  officiated  as  primate  of  the  new  religion.  He  held  Christ  to  be  only  a 
model-man,  abolished  the  confessional,  fasting,  and  celibacy,  denied  the  infalli- 
bility of  the  Church,  and  recognized  no  rule  of  faith  other  than  the  individual 
reason.  Eetaining  only  a  few  external  forms  of  Catholic  worship,  and  preach- 
ing a  rank  and  superficial  rationalism, '  it  is  somewhat  puzzling  how  he  could 
have  designated  his  new  system,  if  such  it  can  be  called,  the  "Calholic  Church." 
He  was  not  more  successful  than  misguided  reformers  have  ever  been,  and 
seems  to  have  had  only  very  indistinct  and  inaccurate  notions  of  the  principles 
upon  which  his  reform  was  based,  not  unfrequently  rejecting  and  refuting  to- 
day what  he  had  taught  and  upheld  yesterday.  Of  all  subjects,  religious  ones 
were  the  most  distasteful  to  him.  His  sermons  were  by  turns  dogmatical  and 
political,  blasphemous  and  ridiculous.  For  example,  one  day  he  would  begin, 
by  saying  that  he  was  about  to  preach  on  the  dignity  of  women,  and  at  the 
close  of  his  discourse  would  distribute  bouquets  to  the  ladies;  and  the  next, 
that  divine  service  would  be  held  in  honor  of  Napoleon,  whom  he  had  placed 
upon  his  new  calendar  of  saints.  In  his  catechism  ^  he  taught  that  the  natural 
law  comprehends  the  whole  of  religion ;  that  Christ  had  died  a  martyr  to  this 
belief;  and  that  His  death  was  sublime  only  because  it  was  a  witness  to  ita 
truth.  The  teachings  of  the  Abbe  Chatel  never  exerted  a  very  wide  influence, 
and  his  sect  gradually  dwindled  away  after  its  places  of  meeting  had  been 
closed  by  order  of  the  government  in  1842.  It  again  revived  after  the  Eevo- 
lution  of  February  24,  1848,  but  was  again  suppressed  by  the  civil  authority  in 
1850.     The  Abb6  himself  remained  obstinate,  publishing  for  a  time  a  journal 


amitie  nee  au  pied  des  autels,  et  qui  avait  pour  lui  autant  de  dovouement,  je 
crois,  qu'aucun  des  amis  nouveaux,  qui  sont  venus  courtiser  sa  revolte.  A  co 
souvenir  je  tombe  a  genoux,  offrant  pour  lui  a  Dieu  des  prieres,  dans  lesquelles 
il  n'a  plus  foi;  et  je  ne  me  releve  que  pour  combattre  dcms  Vami  de  ma  jeunesse 
Vennemi  de  tout  ce  que  j^aime  dlun  eternel  amour.  (University  cathol.,  recueil 
philosoph.,  scientif.  et  litt.,  T.  III.  et  IV.,  Paris,  1837.)  Abbe  Gerbet,  Apostasy 
from  the  Vital  Principle  of  the  Church  and  the  State,  being  a  Germ,  trans,  fr. 
the  French,  Augsburg,  1839. 

'  Oeramb,  Journey  to  Rome,  p.  50. 

2  Fr.  Kuntsmann,  The  Sect  of  Abbe  Chatel  (Freiburg  Theol.  Review,  Vol. 
III.,  nro.  1,  p.  57  sq.)  Catechisme  a  I'usage  de  Veglise  cath.  fran^.  par  I'abbe 
Chatel,  Par.  1837.  Eeforme  radicale,  ISTouvel  Eucologe  a  I'usage  de  Teglise 
cath.,  III.  gd.,  Par.  1839.     Cf.  Tabmg.  Quarterly,  1832,  p.  G98  sq. 


710  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

at  Brussels,  in  which  he  defended  his  opinions,  and  ending  his  days  as  a  post- 
master in  1857.  Auzou,  one  of  his  leading  disciples,  had  been  a  seminarist  at 
Versailles,  and  after  his  expulsion  had  himself  ordained  by  Poulard,  receiving, 
all  the  orders  in  a  single  day.  He  subsequently  repented,  and  was  reconciled 
to  the  Church,  begging  all  those  whom  he  had  led  astray  to  follow  his  example. 

Sharing  the  opinion  of  Chatel,  that  the  events  of  the  July  Eevolution  marked 
the  opening  of  an  era  favorable  to  their  purposes,  the  Freemasons,  who,  under 
the  name  of  Templars,  had  secretly  established  a  Lodge  in  Paris  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century,  began  now  to  publicly  put  forward  their 
claims  to  be  regarded  as  the  original  Church.  After  being  for  a  time  the  ob- 
ject of  some  curiosity,  they  passed  out  of  public  view,  having  excited  no  per- 
manent interest  in  their  pretensions. 

The  Eevolution  of  1830,  which  had  called  into  life  so  many  and  so  various 
interests,  passions,  aspirations,  and  sects,  inspired  the  disciples  of  Saint-Simon^ 
vith  the  idea  of  forming  a  regular  organization,  which,  after  attracting  for  & 
short  time  a  large  share  of  public  attention,  ceased  to  exist.  Claude  Henri, 
Count  de  Saint-Simon,  the  founder  of  the  Saint-Sim.onia7is,  was  born  in  Paris, 
October  17,  1760.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  and  ancient  family,  was  educated  in 
he  philosophical  principles  of  the  eighteenth  century,  entered  the  army  when 
only  eighteen,  served  in  the  American  War  of  Independence,  and  distinguished 
himself  on  the  day  of  the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown.  Tiring 
of  the  profession  of  arms,  he  began  to  study  politics,  devoting  himself  especially 
to  the  constitutions  of  the  new  American  Republics.  On  his  return  to  France 
he  found  everything  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  and,  while  abstaining  from 
openly  taking  part  in  the  Revolution,  he  sympathized  with  its  aspirations  and 
approved  its  aim,  believing  it  to  be  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  in  which,  not 
only  the  political,  but  the  moral  and  religious  orders,  would  be  regenerated. 
Anxious  to  contribute  what  he  could  toward  bringing  about  so  happy  a  condi- 
tion of  things,  he  began  to  dream  of  reorganizing  the  sciences  and  reconstruct- 
ing the  social  fabric.  Knowing,  however,  as  yet,  comparatively  little  of  the 
sciences,  he  took  a  house  near  the  Ecole  Polytechniqiie,  and  invited  to  his  table 
its  professors  of  mathematics,  physics,  and  astronomj^;  and,  having  gained  the 
desired  knowledge  in  these  branches,  changed  his  lodgings,  and  settling  down 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ecole  de  Medicine,  adopted  the  same  plan  with  the 
physiologists,  from  whom  he  learned  something  of  the  structure  of  organized 
bodies.     He  also  traveled  in  England,  Switzerland,  and  Germany,  and  in  1807, 


'^Saint-Simon,  Lettres  d'un  habitant  a  Geneve,  1802.  Introd.  aux  travaux  sci- 
entifiques  du  19e  siecle,  Par.  1807,  2  T.,  4to.  De  la  reorganisation  de  la  societe 
europ.  1814.  Catechisme  des  industriels,  Par.  1824.  Le  Nouveau  Christian- 
isme,  Par.  1825.  Doctrine  de  yaint-Simon,  Par.  (1828),  ed.  3,  1831,  T.  I.  Le- 
c/ievalier,  Enseignement  central.  Par.  1831.  Rel.  Saint-Simon  association  uni- 
verselle,  Paris,  1831.  Criticisms  of  this  work  see  in  the  Tubing.  Quart.,  1832. 
Proces  en  police  correctionnelle.  Par.  1832.  '"^Moehler,  Saint-Simonism  (Com- 
plete works.  Vol.  II.,  p.  34-53).  (Tr.)  :  See  also  Saint-Simon,  Sa  vie  ct  scs 
travaux,  by  Hubbart,  Paris,  1859.  Oeuvres  choisies  de  Saint-Simon,  published 
by  Enfantin,  in  3  vols.,  Brussels,  1859 ;  new  ed.,  Paris,  1861 ;  and  complete  and 
joint  edition  of  both  Saint-Simon  and  Enfantin's  works,  20  vols.,  1865-1869. 


400.   The  Catholic  Church  under  Louis  Philippe.       711- 


during  the  Empire,  as  one  of  the  competitors  for  a  prize  oflercd  by  Napoleon, 
published  his  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Works  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  be- 
sides many  others,  all  of  which  were  ill  received.  All  his  plans  miscarried. 
Driven  to  despair  by  financial  ruin,  he  attempted  to  commit  suicide,  but  only 
succeeded  in  putting  out  one  of  his  eyes;  and,  two  years  later,  May  29,  1825, 
died  surrounded  by  a  few  of  his  disciples. 

Saint-Simon  held  that  Christianity  is  a  harsh  and  comfortless  religion ;  that 
the  principle,  '■'■Render  unto  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  to  God  the 
things  that  are  God's,"  divides  men  into  two  unequal  classes,  and  gives  rise  to  an 
unfair  distribution  of  happiness  and  misery ;  that  the  contrast  between  the 
ideal  and  real  life  of  man,  between  the  world  here  below  and  the  world  beyond 
the  grave,  is  still  more  prominently  brought  out  by  the  appliances  of  modern 
industry,  by  which  the  earth  is  changed  into  a  place  of  sorrow  and  a  vale  of 
tears ;  that  Christianity,  having  no  longer  any  mission  to  fulfil,  should  givo 
room  to  new  forces  and  to  a  superior  wisdom,  capable  of  putting  an  end  to  this 
contrast,  and  of  securing  to  man  the  real  happiness  his  heart  yearns  for,  not 
alone  in  the  life  to  come,  as  promised  by  the  Gospel,  but  also  in  the  present 
one ;  that  Protestantism  had  a  negative  office  to  perform,  namely,  that  of  de- 
stroying Catholicity  and  dividing  the  Christian  world,  and  had  done  its  work; 
and,  finally,  that  to  Saint-Simonianism  was  reserved  the  positive  work  of  in- 
augurating the  golden  age  of  the  Everlasting  Gospel.  The  revelation  supplied 
by  Saint-Simon,  so  his  disciples  claim,  embraces  at  once  body  and  soul,  God  and 
the  world  ;  combines  in  one  system  the  spiritual  truths  of  Catholicity  and  those 
of  materialistic  philosophy ;  and,  finally,  produces  the  happiness  and  eternal 
brotherhood  which  Christianity  promised,  but  never  realized.  Henceforth  all 
shall  have  equal  rights  in  property,  which  belongs  to  God,  and  is  held  in  trust 
by  man;  the  law  of  inheritance  shall  be  abolished;  and  in  the  course  of  time 
there  shall  be  a  community  of  goods.  Also,  no  family  shall  be  exclusively  en- 
gaged in  the  tillage  of  the  soil  or  in  the  menial  services  of  society;  every  one 
shall  receive  reward  according  to  his  gifts  and  capacity ;  society  shall  be  wholly 
under  the  control  of  the  ministers  of  God ;  and  the  hierarchy  shall  consist  of 
priests,  theologians,  and  deacons.  In  religion  the  Saint-Simonian  form  of  gov- 
ernment shall  be  theocratic;  in  unity,  monarchical;  in  talent,  virtue,  and  the 
merit  of  its  leading  members,  aristocratical;  but,  consonantly  with  its  aim, 
which  is  the  happiness  of  the  greatest  number,  in  whatever  is  requisite  to  se- 
cure this,  democratical. 

Even  during  the  lifetime  of  Saint-Simon  his  theories  were  embraced  by  such  em- 
inent  men  as  Auguste  Comie,  the  founder  of  "  Positive  Philosophy,"  and  Augustin 
Thierry,  the  celebrated  historian  ;  and  after  his  death  they  found  eloquent  de- 
fenders in  Messrs.  Olinde,  Rodrigues,  Michael  Chevalier,  and  Lherminier.  The 
means  employed  to  spread  the  Saint-Simonian  Society  were  incessant  preach- 
ing, frequent  missions,  and  pamphlets,  which  poured  from  the  press  without 
number.  It  was  especially  popular  among  the  working  classes  of  the  larger 
cities,  and  fell  to  pieces  only  when  Father  Evfantin,  the  Supreme  Chief,  relin- 
quishing his  apostolate  among  men  for  the  more  congenial  one  among  loomoi, 
in  whom  he  professed  to  discover  the  most  sublime  manifestation  of  the  Divin- 
ity, began  to  preach  to  his  devotees,  most  of  whom  were  married,  the  doctrine 
of  Mohammedan  polygamg  (1831).     This  was  the  beginning  of  a  schisra,  and 


712  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1 

Father  Kodrigues  characterized  the  teachings  of  Enfantin  as  a  desertion  of  tho 
principles  of  Saint-Simon.  Finally,  in  1832,  when  the  doctrines  of  the  Saint- 
Simonians  began  to  give  occasion  to  disturbances  among  the  workingmen  of 
Lyons,  their  place  of  meeting  was  closed,  and  some  of  their  leaders  arrested  and 
punished  for  misconduct.  From  this  time  forth  the  phame  attaching  to  them 
was  such  that  they  no  longer  appeared  in  public.  Their  writings  and  works 
were  ridiculed,  and  most  of  them  abandoned  a  doctrine  which  had  excited  in 
them  only  a  momentary  enthusiasm.  The  few  who  remained  loyal  to  their 
former  principles  passed  over  to  Egypt  to  find  new  fields  for  energies  that  had 
been  paralyzed  in  France.  Mary  Eeine,  who  edited  a  paper  called  La  Femme 
Libre,  now  became  the  leading  spirit  of  the  Saint-Simonians,  but  it  would  seem 
that  the  system  did  not  bring  her  the  comfort  and  blessings  its  author  promised, 
for  she  put  an  end  to  her  life  by  casting  herself  into  the  Seine,  June  29,  1836. 

Startled  by  these  alarming  symptoms,  and  possibly  desirous 
to  preserve  and  strengthen  its  own  power  and  authority,  the 
government  of  July  eflected  a  reconciliation  with  the  Church, 
and  gave  particular  attention  to  the  subject  of  education,  to 
■which  the  clergy  devoted  themselves  with  zeal  and  energy. 

The  congregations  most  distinguished  at  this  time  for  their 
work  in  the  cause  of  education  were  the  Brothers  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools  and  the  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph.^  In  1841  there 
were  2,136  Brothers  and  10,371  Sisters  of  various  congrega- 
tions engaged  in  teaching  in  France,  in  active  and  successful 
competition  with  lay  teachers.  The  congregations  will  be  sep- 
arately treated  hereafter. 

B}'  and  by  friendly  relations  were  estabhshed  between  the 
government  and  the  clergy,  and  the  latter  prudently  kept 
aloof  from  all  interference  in  politics,  devoting  their  strength 
and  energies  to  the  work  of  their  august  ministry.  The}' 
were  remarkable  for  their  earnest  zeal,  their  dignified  deport- 
ment, and  irreproachable  morals.  Their  liigh  moral  character 
extorted  the  praise  of  even  their  enemies.  To  keep  alive  and 
nourish  the  fervor  so  necessary  to  the  life  of  a  priest,  the 
French  episcopacy,  embracing  many  worthy  and  illustrious 
names,  provided  for  the  holding  of  yearly  retreats  and  other 
religious  exercises  specially  adapted  to  this  end.  Jaiis-nism 
and  Gallicanism,  which  had  at  one  time  divided  the  French 
clerg}'  into  hostile   camps,  now  nearly,  if  not  quite,  disap- 

^  Cf.,  on  the  religious  establishments  of  France,  T/ie  Catholic  of  1841,  Oct., 
pp.  1,  19;  1842,  Jany.,  pp.  26-46;  March,  pp.  231,  254. 


§  400.   The  Catholic  Church  under  Louis  Philippe.       718 

peared  ;  and  the  government  cheerfully  assisted  in  establishing 
closer  relations  between  the  clergy  and  the  Holy  See.  Their 
intellectual  culture  was  promoted  by  two  enterprises  of  almost 
simultaneous  origin.  On  the  one  hand,  men  like  Messrs. 
Didot,  Gaume,  Caillau,  and  3Iigne^  published  and  sold  at  a 
very  trifling  price  the  works  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church,  the 
priiicipal  Catholic  commentators  on  Scripture,  and  the  great  theo- 
logians and  sacred  orators,  thus  encouraging  the  clergy  to  give 
their  time  to  ecclesiastical  studies  ;  on  the  other,  eminent 
scholars,  such  as  Cardinal  Gousset,  Bishop  Dupanloup,  Gerbet, 
Bautnin,  Montalembert,  Lacordaire,  Hio,  31arcel  de  Serves, 
Blanc,  Saint- Bonnet,  Breyme,  Sviuier,  Vedrine,  Beceveur,  Bohr- 
bacher,  Glaire,  Ginouillac,  Ozanam.,  and  Nicolas,^  by  their  la- 
bors gave  to  theology  a  more  speculative  tendency  and  erudite 
character.  Ancient  Christian  literary  treasures,  the  existence 
of  which  was  hitherto  unknown,  were  brought  to  light  and 
published  b}^  the  Benedictine,  Father  Pitra,  in  his  Specilegiuni 
Solesmense  (1852  et  sq.,  4  vols.,  4to).  The  Aini  de  la  Beligion, 
edited  by  M.  Bicot  (f  1840)  ;  the  Universite  Catholique,  the 
Union  Catholique,  the  Dnirers,  the  Correspond  ant,  and  other 
religious  journals  contributed  in  their  way  to  inspire  the 
clergy  with  an  ardent  and  persevering  energy.  The  combined 
result  of  all  these  eftbrts  was  the  notable  progress  made  by 
religion,  chiefly  after  the  Revolution  of  1830,  which  was  only 
partially  retarded  by  the  attempts  made  to  overturn  both  the 
civil  and  religious  orders. 

Nowhere  was  the  revival  of  religion  more  remarkable  than 
in  Paris  ;  the  churches  were  well  attended  at  all  times,  but 
particularly  during  the  season  of  Advent  and  on  station-days 
in  Lent,  Christian  speech  was  once  more  heard,  even  in  the 
French  Academy,  where   powerful    statesmen   like  Mole  and 

1  Caillau,  Introductio  ad  SS.  Patrum  lectionem,  31ediolani,  1830,  2  vols.  Thu 
Latin,  in  217  vols.,  4to,  Paris,  1843  sq.,  and  the  Greek  Fathers,  in  1G2  vols.,  4to., 
Paris,  1857  sq  ,  published  by  Migne.  For  Exegesis  and  Dogmatics,  Sacrae  scrip- 
turae  et  Theologiae  cursus  completus  ex  tractatibus  omnium  perfectissimia 
ubique  (=quacunque  gentium. — Tr.  )  habitis,  etc.,  5G  vols.,  4to,  Paris,  ed.  Migne. 
Cfr.  Hurter,  Birth  and  Regeneration. 

2  The  Catholic  of  1843,  May  nro.,  p.  113-137,  and  Thesaurus  libror.  rei  Cath- 
olicae,  Wurzburg,  1848,  under  the  respective  names.  Nicolas,  The  Ptclation  of 
Protestantism  and  of  all  Heresies  to  Socialism  ;  Germ,  by  MMer,  Mentz,  1853. 


714  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Posquier  seemed  to  take  a  delight  and  pride  in  proclaiming 
their  religious  convictions.^  There  was,  however,  one  serious 
cause  of  regret.  Higher  educatio)i.  in  France  was  wholly  con- 
trolled by  the  University,  and  the  philosophy  taught  was  godless 
and  materialistic.  The  bishops  protested  against  this  monopohjy 
and  demanded  freedom  of  education;  the  Catholic  press  reit- 
erated the  same  protest  and  the  same  demand ;  Count  31onta- 
lemberi  made  a  vigorous  speech  to  the  same  purpose  in  the 
French  House  of  Peers ;  and  Saint-Foi,  adopting  a  similar 
line  of  argument  in  his  Livre  des  peuj^les  et  des  rois,  showed 
in  eloquent  and  burning  words  the  terrible  consequences  of 
apostasy  from  God,  but  all  to  little  purpose.^  Men  who  had 
the  cry  of  liberty  incessantly  upon  their  tongues,  and  were 
dinning  it  with  wearisome  iteration  into  the  ears  of  other 
men,  refused  to  grant  it  in  matters  where  it  is  most  vital 
that  men  should  be  free.  Those  who  shout  liberty,  fra- 
ternity, and  equality  have  always  been  tyrants,  once  they  got 
power  into  their  own  hands.  In  the  meantime,  however,  the 
spirit  of  faith  was  kept  alive  and  glowing  by  pulpit  orators 
like  Eozaven,  Paviguan,  Lacordaire,  and  Bautain,  and  by  nu- 
merous and  accurate  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  the  Fol- 
lowing of  Christ,  praj^er-books,  and  the  works  of  Bossuet, 
Fenelon,  Massillon,  Bourdaloue,  and  other  eminent  authors. 
That  it  was  a  living  and  sustained  faith  is  evident  from  the 
contributions  made  by  the  French  to  the  support  of  Foreign 
Missions,^  greater  in  amount  than  the  contributions  of  all 
other  nations  for  the  same  purpose  put  together;  from  the 


^  The  Catholic,  Mentz,  1841,  Febr.  nro.,  Append.,  p.  L.  sq.  Cf.  June  nro.,  Ap- 
pendix; ibid.,  Febr.  nro.  of  1843. 

''The  Catholic  of  1841  and  1842.  Le  monopole  universitaire,  destructeur  de 
la  Religion  et  des  Lois,  ou  la  Cbarte  et  la  liberte  de  I'enseignement,  Lyon,  1843. 
Lamarthie,  Tbe  Freedom  of  Instruction  [The  Catholic,  1844,  nro.  1,  Appendix; 
nro.  10,  Appendix,  2 ;  see  also  nro.  9).  Montnlembcrt,  in  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  {The  Catholic,  May,  1844).  Staudenmaier,  The  Chief  Point  in  the  Ques- 
tion of  Public  Instruction  in  France  [Freiburg  Journal  of  Theol.,  Vol.  XIII.) 
Bonn  Review  of  Philos.  and  Theol.,  new  series,  year  V.,  nros.  3  and  4. 

*  Annales  de  la  propagation  do  la  foi  (Germ,  by  Ritter  [Smets),  publ.  at  Co- 
logne and  Our  Lady  of  Hermits.  AVe  mention,  besides,  L'Oeuvre  du  Catho- 
licisme  en  Europe.  Cf  Cath.  Eccl.  Gazette,  year  1840,  nro.  1,  and  the  Tiibiiip. 
Quart.,  year  1839,  nro.  3,  p.  367-381. 


§  401.    Ihe  Catholic  Church  in  Spain.  715 

number  and  character  of  the  charitable  institutions  which  it 
inspired,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  Societies  of  *S'^. 
Francis  Regis  and  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Sunday 
Schools  for  workingmen  ;  ^  from  the  universal  admiration  and 
esteem  expressed  for  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  under  whose  charge 
nearly  all  the  hospitals  and  central  prison-houses  of  correction 
were  placed;^  and,  finally,  from  the  greater  interest  in  pro- 
viding for  the  religious  wants  of  the  Catholic  soldiers,  particu- 
larly in  the  colonies,  and  from  the  erection  of  a  new  bishopric 
in  Algiers,  a  very  important  step  for  the  future  of  the  Church 
in  that  country. 

§  401.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain. 

On  his  return  to  his  States,  Ferdinand  VII.  set  aside  the 
Constitution  of  the  Cortes  (1814),  it  being  hostile  to  the 
Church,  and  restored  the  ancient  order  of  things.  Unfor- 
tunately the  country  was  separated  into  two  camps  :  in  the 
one  were  the  Ajoostolicals,  or  defenders  of  the  rights  of  the 
Church  ;  in  the  other  the  Liberals,  or  those  professing  to  be 
the  champions  of  freedom.  The  latter  gained  the  day,  and  on 
the  7th  of  March,  1821,  forced  the  king  to  accept  a  new  Con- 
stitution. Two  years  later  there  was  an  uprising  of  the  roy- 
alists, and,  aided  by  French  intervention,  they  restored  the 
authority  of  Ferdinand.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  the  advo- 
cates of  the  Constitution  to  have  some  experience  of  the  per- 
secution they  inflicted  on  others  in  the  day  of  their  power. 
But  the  king  w^as  by  no  means  ready  to  adopt  all  the  views 
of  the  Apostolicals ;  like  his  Bourbon  predecessors,  he  be- 
lieved the  proper  form  of  government  was  an  absolute  mon- 


1  Societe  de  Saint-Vincent-de-Paul,  rapport  general  de  I'annee  1843,  Paris, 
1844;  conferences  de  Paris,  ibid.,  1844.  Hist,  and  PoUl.  Papers,  Vol.  X.;  The 
Catholic,  1843,  Appendix  of  February  number. 

2  According  to  the  Constituiionnel  of  December  14,  1843,  there  were  then  in 
France  1,329  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  the  poor;  6,275  charity-boards,  supply- 
ing aid  to  095,932  persons  ;  the  religious  congregations  of  women  took  care  of 
1,200,000  sick  persons,  besides  furnishing  10,375  teachers,  who  had  under  their 
charge  620,950  children  ;  the  lirothers  of  Christian  Doctrine  numbered  2,13o 
and  were  educating  150,000  pupils;  moreover,  they  were  daily  increasing  in 
number.  (Note  of  French  Tr.) 


716  Period  3.     Ejyoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

archy.  The  Apostolicals  were  discontented,  and  meditated 
his  overthrow  and  the  placino:  of  Don  Carlos  upon  the  throne. 
This  gave  rise  to  troubles  in  Catalonia,  which,  however,  were 
soon  suppressed. 

As  time  went  on,  the  estrangement  between  Ferdinand  and 
the  Apostolicals  became  more  complete.  After  the  death  of 
Josephine,  his  third  wnfe,  he  married  his  cousin,  J/ana  Chris- 
tina, of  Naples,  December  11,  1829,  through  whose  influence 
he  abrogated,  by  a  decree  of  March  29,  1830,  the  Salic  law, 
excluding  females  from  the  throne,  wdiich  the  European  pow- 
ers had  forced  upon  Spain  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713),  to 
prevent  a  union  by  marriage  of  the  French  and  Spanish 
crowns.  The  old  Castilian  law  of  succession  was  thus  re- 
vived, giving  to  the  king's  daughters  and  grand-daughters  a 
priority  of  right  before  his  brothers  and  other  collateral  lines. 
On  the  10th  of  October,  1830,  an  heir  was  born  to  the  king, 
who  had  had  no  issue  by  his  former  marriages,  in  the  person 
of  Isabella,  who,  on  the  death  of  her  father,  September  29, 
1833,  was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Spain.  Her  mother,  Chris- 
tina, was  named  regent,  and  Don  Carlos,  the  brother  of  the 
late  king,  with  many  of  his  adherents,  was  ordered  to  quit 
the  kingdom.  This  was  the  occasion  of  a  fresh  civil  war, 
which  raged  with  great  violence  in  Aragon  and  the  Basque 
Provinces;  and  the  queen-regent,  being  now  entirely  in  the 
power  of  the  Liberals,  could  maintain  herself  only  by  making 
every  day  new  concessions.  To  add  to  the  general  disorder, 
the  cholera  broke  out  in  Madrid  in  1834,  and  a  rumor  was 
started  and  sped  like  lire  through  the  city  that  the  monks 
had  poisoned  the  wells.  A  furious  mob  at  once  rushed  to 
the  monasteries,  forcibly  entered  them,  and  murdered  their 
peaceful  inmates.^  Every  hour  added  to  the  confusion,  and 
the  spirit  of  irreligion  grew  daily  more  impious  and  aggres- 
sive. The  most  infamous  works  that  French  literature  could 
supply  were  translated  into  Spanish,  and  a  fierce  and  multi- 
tudinous clamor  was  raised  against  convents  and  persons  of 
religious  profession.     By  a  law  of  June  25,  1835,  nine  hun- 


*Cfr.  Sion,  year  1841,   nro.  128,   and   Hist,  and  Folit.  Pajyers,   Vol.   VII., 
p.  488  sq. 


§  401.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain.  717 

clred  convents  were  suppressed,  their  property  conliscuted, 
and,  together  with  that  belonging  to  the  Inquisition,  confis- 
cated some  time  previously,  sold  to  pay  the  public  debt.  On 
the  15th  of  Aui^nist,  1835,  an  insurrection  broke  out  at  Ma- 
drid :  the  restoration  of  the  Constitution  of  1812  was  de- 
manded ;  and  the  Deputies  repaired  to  Aranjuez,  and  required 
the  queen-regent  to  give  her  consent  to  the  suppression  of  the 
remaining  monasteries.  By  the  adroitness  of  the  minister, 
the  measure  was  for  the  present  delayed,  but  under  Mendiza- 
baL,  his  successor,  carried  into  execution,  in  virtue  of  a  decree 
of  October  11,  1835.  By  this  decree  three  thousand  monas- 
teries, that  is,  nearly  all  there  were  in  tlie  kingdom,  were 
suppressed  ;  their  books,  pictures,  art-treasures  of  every  kind, 
and  everything  else  of  value,  including  the  sacred  vessels, 
seized  and  sold  at  a  price  far  below  their  worth,  to  cover  the 
expenses  of  the  civil  war  between  the  Christinos  or  Constitu- 
tionalists and  the  Koyalists  or  Carlists}  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  French  ISTational  Convention,  the  Cortes,  in  1837, 
abolished  tithes,  and  declared  the  possessions  of  the  Church  na- 
tional property.  A  committee  was  at  the  same  time  appointed 
to  draw  up  a  plan  for  the  reformation  and  reorganization  of  the 
clergy.  It  consisted  of  ecclesiastics  of  known  Jansenistic 
tendencies  and  favorable  to  episcopal  independence  of  the 
Holy  See.  They  proposed  the  suppression  of  seventeen  old 
bishoprics  and  the  erection  of  five  new  ones,  the  closing  of 
eighteen  cathedral  churches,  and  the  maintenance  of  worship 
and  the  support  of  the  clergy  at  the  public  expense.  By  the 
Constitution  of  1837  (Art.  XT.)  the  government  had  already 
pledged  itself  to  provide  out  of  the  public  treasury  for  the 
worship  and  the  priests  of  the  Catholic  Chxivch,  to  which  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Spanish  people  belonged. 

Desirous  to  be  at  once  impartial  and  to  consult  for  the  oest 
interests  of  the  Church,  Gregory  XVI.  declined,  during  the 
continuance  of  the  civil  war,  either  to  recognize  Queen  Isa- 
bella or  to  utter  a  word  against  the  new  order  of  things. 
Many  of  the  clergy,  however,  possessing  neither  his  foresight 
nor  his  elevated  ideas  of  justice,   declared  emphaticall}'  in 


1  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  III.,  p.  294  sq.;  Vol.  IV.,  p.  Gil  sq.,  705  sq. 


718  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

favor  of  Don  Carlos,  and  as  a  consequence  of  their  rashness 
many  dioceses  remained  without  pastors ;  monks  and  other 
religious  were  thrown  out  of  their  annuities  ;  and  even  priests 
in  charge  of  congregations  were  reduced  to  the  extremities 
of  want.  On  the  other  hand,  the  government  made  appoint- 
ments to  archbishoprics,  to  whom  the  Holy  See  declined  to 
grant  canonical  institution  ;  and,  while  the  question  was  still 
in  dispute,  caused  the  appointees  to  be  chosen  administrators 
of  the  dioceses  by  the  respective  chapters.  During  the  min- 
istry of  Count  Ofalia,  when  it  finally  became  evident  that 
something  must  be  done  to  improve  the  deplorable  condition 
of  the  Church,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  deliberate  upon 
the  best  means  of  again  establishing  relations  between  the 
Spanish  government  and  the  Holy  See.  Don  Julian  Villalba 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  Eome,  and  besides  being  very  active 
himself,  received  also  important  aid  from  the  French  Court 
in  prosecuting  the  object  of  his  mission.  As  there  were  now 
twenty-two  sees  vacant  in  Spain  and  her  dependencies,'  the 
necessity  was  urgent  of  coming  to  some  understanding  imme- 
diately. 

After  the  conference  at  Vergara  between  Esjoartero  and 
Maroto  the  civil  war  gradually  died  out.  Worn  out  by  the 
severe  trials  through  which  they  had  just  passed,  the  Spaniards 
turned  with  fresh  relish  to  thoughts  of  God  and  His  Church. 
With  the  return  of  peace  came  also  a  revival  of  faith  and  a 
more  assiduous  attention  to  religious  duties.  Numerous  jour- 
nals were  started  in  the  interests  of  Church  and  State,  of 
which  La  Religion,  El  Catolico,  and  El  Profeta  were  the  best 
known  and  most  influential.  But,  unfortunately,  fresh  trou- 
bles and  new  dangers  surrounded  the  Church  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1840,  which  resulted  in  the  forcible  resignation  by 
Queen  Christina  of  her  oflice  of  regent. 

The  revolutionary  juntas  in  the  provinces  were  extremely 
violent  in  their  treatment  of  ecclesiastics.  Bishops  were  ex- 
pelled from  their  dioceses  and  priests  from  their  parishes,  and 
their  places  supplied  by   members  of   the   so-called    liberal 

^Conf.  Ecclesiastical  OazcUe  of  1840,  nros.  27  and  45;  also  Augshurg  U7ii- 
mrsal  Gazette,  year  1840,  nro.  222. 


401.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain.  719 


clergy.  The  junta  of  Madrid  even  went  the  length  of  sus- 
pending the  Assessors  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Tribunal  {Rota  de 
la  Nunciatura  Apostolica),  established  March  26,  1771,  durino- 
the  pontificate  of  Clement  XIY.  Ramirez  de  Arellano,  the 
Papal  Nuncio,  was  conducted  across  the  frontier  by  order  of 
the  provisional  government  of  Espartero,  December  29,  1840, 
because  he  protested  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  See  against 
these  acts  of  violence  and  all  infringements  of  the  rights  of 
the  Church.  On  the  1st  of  February,  1836,  the  Holy  ^Father, 
Gregory  XVI.,  delivered  an  allocution,  and  another  on  the  1st 
of  March,  1841,  in  both  of  which  he  protested  solemnly  be- 
fore God  against  the  outrages  heaped  upon  the  Church  by  the 
Spanish  government,  which  had  now  grown  more  fiercely 
hostile  than  ever  to  the  Court  of  Rome.^ 

In  reply  to  the  second  allocution  of  the  Pope,  the  Spanish 
revolutionary  government  published  a  manifesto,  bearing  date 
of  July  30,  shamelessly  misrepresenting  the  character  of  the 
papal  document,  which  was  pui-ely  religious,  and  professing 
to  regard  it  as  a  declaration  of  war,  emanating,  not  from  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  but  from  the  temporal  ruler  of  Rome, 
and  on  this  account  ofi'ensive  to  the  Spanish  people,  who  were 
not  prepared  to  remain  quiet  under  such  gratuitous  insults. 
Accordingly,  such  of  the  ecclesiastics  as  attempted  to  spread 
the  allocution  were  severely  punished.  Finally,  as  if  to  make 
the  bondage  of  the  Church  complete  and  irrevocable,  Alonso, 
Minister  of  Justice  and  Grace,  renewed  the  oft-tried  experi- 
ment of  severing  the  bonds  uniting  Head  and  members  by  forci- 
bly putting  bishops  appointed  by  government  in  possession  of 
sees  without  the  authorization  of  Rome.  But  against  this 
assumption  of  spiritual  power  even  the  liberal  bishops  them- 
selves protested,  and  were  in  consequence  deposed,  and  ex- 
piated in  exile  the  penalty  of  their  boldness.  Gregory  XVI. 
now  addressed  an  encyclical  letter  to  the  whole  Church,  call- 

^  Sion,  year  1841,  March,  nro.  31  ;  the  answer  of  the  Spanish  minister,  ibid., 
August,  nro.  98,  Appendix.  Cf.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  467-471. 
The  preliminary  ordinance  of  the  Spanish  government,  dated  July  28,  refer- 
ring to  the  allocution,  is  found  in  Sio7i,  July,  nro.  84.  Concerninq;  the  sale  of 
clerical  property,  see  Sio7i,  1841,  August,  nro.  108,  Appendix,  and  September, 
nro.  118,  Appendix. 


720  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

ing  upon  the  faithful  to  offer  p)u^Uc  2'>ii'ayers  for  the  welfare  of 
the  Church  in  Spain}  All  Christendom  cheerfully  responded 
to  the  summons  of  the  Holy  Father,  and  though  borne  down 
with  sorrow  that  evils  so  great  should  afflict  the  venerable 
Church  of  Spain,  was  not  without  hope  that  a  nation,  which 
had  been  distinguished  of  old  for  its  ardent  piety,  had  tri- 
umphed over  Islamism  and  repelled  Protestantism  from  its 
borders,  would  come  safe  out  of  its  present  dangers,  cast  off 
the  blight  of  infidelity,  and  be  as  glorious  in  the  future  as  it 
had  been  in  the  past.  And,  in  matter  of  fact,  there  were 
signs  plainly  indicating  that  these  prayers  were  not  without 
effect.  Sees  were  filled  with  bishops  possessed  of  apostolic 
courage,  and  writers  of  eminent  ability,  like  Palmes'^  (b.  1810, 
d.  1818),  and  great  Christian  statesmen,  like  Donoso  Cortes, 
Marquis  de  Valdegamas  (b.  May  6,  1809,  d.  May  3,  1853),^ 


^  The  Latin  text  is  given  in  the  April  number  of  The  Catholic  of  1842,  sup- 
plement, pp.  XVI.  sq.  The  Spanish  also  attempted  to  prevent  the  eyecution 
of  this  encyclical. 

2  The  principal  of  the  numerous  works  of  Rev.  B.  Jaime  Balmes,  ft  writer 
equally  great  as  a  statesman,  philosopher,  and  theologian,  which  have  been 
often  republished  and  translated  into  French,  German,  English,  Italian,  etc., 
are:  Observaciones  sociales,  politicas  y  economicas  sobre  los  bienos  del  clero, 
written  about  1837  against  sacrilegious  confiscation  ;  Consideraciones  sobre  la 
situacion  de  EspaGa,  directed  chieflj^  against  Espartero ;  El  Protests ntii^mo 
comparado  con  el  Catolicismo  en  sus  relaciones  con  la  civilizacion  europea  I  Bar- 
celona, 1842-1844;  Paris,  1844-1853;  Engl.tr.,  Baltimore,  1851),  which  estab- 
lished his  fame  beyond  the  Pyrenees;  Cartas  a  un  esceptico,  i.  e.  Letters  to  a 
Sceptic;  La  religion  demostrada  ad  alcance  de  los  ninos,  which  is  a  very  popu- 
lar catechism;  El  Criterio ;  Filosofia  fundamental,  4  vols.,  Barcelona,  184fi,  his 
chief  work,  translated  into  English  by  H.  F.  Brownson,  2  vols.,  JNew  York, 
1857 ;  Filosofia  elemental,  a  practical  text-book,  tr.  into  Latin  by  the  author 
himself:  Escritos  politicos,  in  a  strong  4to  vol.,  published  after  his  death;  the 
periodicals  La  Civilizacion,  later  on  merged  in  the  Sociedad  ;  El  Pensamiento 
de  la  Nacion,  and  the  pamphlet  "  Pio  IX."  This  model  priest  and  modern 
teacher  of  the  Spanish  nation,  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  St.  Thomas, 
had  a  square  named  after  him  and  a  statue  erected  to  his  memory  at  Fir'i,  his 
native  city.  (Tr.) 

*  Donoso  Cortes,  in  the  most  famous  of  his  works,  Essai  sur  le  Catholicisme, 
le  liberalisme  et  le  socialisme  (Paris,  1851),  maintains  that  Catholic  theology  is 
the  proper  basis  of  politics.  Of  his  other  writings,  we  may  mention  Consider- 
aciones  sobre  la  diplomacia,  y  su  influencia  eu  el  estado  politico  y  social  de  Eu- 
ropa  (Madrid  1834) ;  La  ley  electoral,  considerada  en  su  base  y  en  su  relacion 
con  el  espiri'u  de  nuestras  instituciones  (1835) ;  and  a  collection  of  his  speeches 


§  401.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Spain.  Ill 

began  to  take  their  place  among  the  champions  of  the  Church. 
"  We  feel  assured,"  said  the  organs  of  the  better  class  of  the 
people,  "that  the  Church,  in  emerging  from  these  difficulties, 
will  have  gained  immensely.  You  cry  freedom,"  the}'  said, 
addressing  their  opponents,  "  and  you  do  well.  Freedom  is 
what  we  demand  both  for  ourselves  and  for  the  Church.  The 
Catholic  religion  is  a  sacred  law,  engraven  upon  the  tablets 
of  our  national  liberties.  In  our  faith  and  its  divine  power 
we  will  seek  the  strength  necessary  to  enable  us  to  persevere 
in  the  work  of  maintaining  our  independence,  against  the 
horrors  of  which  we  are  now  the  witnesses."  "  Look  to  it," 
they  added,  appealing  to  the  younger  clergy,  "  look  to  it,  you 
of  the  rising  generation  of  priests,  for  the  age  is  in  your 
keeping,  since  it  is  the  duty  of  youth  in  seasons  of  convul- 
sion to  hand  on  to  the  future  the  sacred  traditions  of  the 
past.  And  as  the  hopes  of  the  future  are  centered  in  you, 
learn  wisdom  at  the  foot  of  the  Crucifix,  that  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  faith  ever  old  and  ever  new,  peace  and  happiness 
may  again  rest  upon  our  common  country." 

The  persecutors  were  soon  overtaken  in  their  career  of 
iniquity.  The  ministry  were  overthrown  ;  Espartero  ban- 
ished ;  and  Isabella  11.,  declared  of  age,  called  to  take  the  reins 
of  government  into  her  own  hands  (Nov.  10,  1843).  The 
new  administration  signalized  its  accession  to  power  by  some 
acts  of  justice  to  the  Church.  Bishops  were  recalled  from 
exile,  the  restrictions  on  the  exercise  of  their  authoritj-  re- 
moved,^ and  the  Rota  de  la  Nunciatura  Apostolica  again  estab- 
lished, but  no  steps  were  taken  to  restore  the  confiscated  prop- 
erty of  the  Church.  After  many  and  tedious  negotiations, 
the  queen  finally  announced,  at  the  opening  of  the  Cortes  iu 
December,  1848,  that  relations  with  the  Holy  See  were  once 
more  established  and  all  ecclesiastical  matters  satisfactorily 
adjusted. 


and  early  writings  (1849-1850).  A  complete  Spanish  edition  of  his  works  wa» 
published  after  his  death  at  Madrid,  and  the  same  appeared  in  a  French  dresj 
at  Paris  in  1859.  (Tr.) 

iSee  The  Catholic  of  1844,  nro.  15,  and  Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  XIV., 
p.  209  sq. 

VOL.  Ill — 46 


722  Period  3.     E])och  2.    Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


§  402.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Portugal. 

On  the  death  of  31aria,  March  26,  1816,  her  son,  John  VI. ^ 
succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Portugah  Being  then  in  Brazil, 
whither  he  had  gone  after  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Portugal,  he  intrusted  the  government  of  his  European  do- 
minions conjointly  to  Lord  Beresford  and  the  Patriarch  of 
Lisbon.  The  country'  being  in  the  meantime  occupied  by  the 
English,  the  Portuguese  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  rule  of 
strangers,  and  at  Lisbon  and  Oporto  demanded  their  removal 
and  the  formation  of  juntas  (1820).  The  Cortes  were  con- 
voked, and  proclaimed  a  constitution  still  more  democratic  in 
character  than  that  already  adopted  in  Spain.  To  this  con- 
Btitution  John  YL,  who  had  finally  concluded  to  visit  his 
European  possessions,  was  forced  to  swear  fidelity,  October  1, 

1822,  after  his  arrival  at  Lisbon.  When,  however,  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Cortes  was  overthrown  in  Spain,  a  similar  re- 
action against  the  constitution  took  place  in  Portugal.  Queen 
Carlotta,  a  sister  to  Ferdinand  VIL,  and  Prince  Dom  lliguel, 
labored  strenuously  for  the  restoration  of  ro3'al  authority, 
and  in  consequence  of  an  uprising,  which  took  place  May  27, 

1823,  and  was  participated  in  by  both  the  people  and  the 
army,  the  king  was  enabled  to  abrogate  the  constitution. 
Knowing  the  weakness  and  indecision  of  his  father,  Dom 
Miguel  now  headed  a  rebellion  against  him,  but  being  de- 
feated April  23, 1824,  was,  together  with  his  mother,  expelled 
the  kingdom.  John  YL  died  March  10, 1826.  The  heir  pre- 
sumptive to  the  throne  was  his  eldest  son,  Dom  Pedro,  who, 
having  remained  in  Brazil  after  the  departure  of  the  royal 
family  for  Spain,  had  proclaimed  that  country  an  independent 
empire  in  1822,  and  assumed  the  title  of  JEmperor  of  Brazil. 
Unable  at  once  to  take  the  direction  of  afiairs  in  Portugal,  he 
intrusted  the  government  of  that  country  to  his  daughter, 
Dona  Maria  da  Gloria,  then  in  her  seventeenth  year,  with  his 
sister,  Isabella  Maria,  as  regent,  who  was  compelled  to  accept 
a  charter  modeled  upon  that  of  France.  The  hand  of  the 
Infanta  was  ottered  by  her  father,  Dom  Pedro,  to  Dom  Miguel, 
who  w^as  appointed  regent  July  3,  1827,  and  took  the  oath  to 


§  402.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Fortugal  723 

maintain  the  constitution  February  26,  1828.  Dom  Miguel 
now  aspired  to  the  throne,  and,  after  defeating  the  garrison 
of  Oporto  and  others  that  remained  loyal  to  Dom  Pedro,  and 
imprisoning  or  exiling  such  of  the  deputies  as  he  foresaw 
would  oppose  his  pretensions,  convoked  the  Cortes,  and  was 
proclaimed  king  by  that  body  June  25, 1828.  To  consolidate 
his  power,  he  had  recourse  to  the  most  arbitrary  measures, 
and  his  government  was  so  despotic  that  the  liberal  party  rose 
in  revolt  ao;ainst  it.  This  was  the  commencement  of  a  war 
that  lasted  through  the  years  1832,  1833,  and  1834,  between 
Dom  Miguel  and  his  elder  brother,  Dom  Pedro  I.,  who,  hav- 
ing abdicated  the  imperial  throne  of  Brazil  in  1831,  sailed  in 
Junie,  1832,  for  Portugal,  with  a  fleet  and  a  considerable  body 
of  troops,  collected  on  the  island  of  Terceira,  one  of  the 
Azores,  to  make  good  the  claim  of  his  daughter  to  the  throne 
of  Portugal. 

Dom  Miguel,  having  defended  the  rights  of  the  Church 
against  the  Cortes  and  opposed  the  confiscation  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal property,  had  the  sympathies  of  both  clergy  and  people. 
Dom  Pedro,  on  the  other  hand,  proclaimed  himself  the  cham- 
pion of  freedom  and  the  vindicator  of  his  daughter's  right 
to  the  throne,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  French  and  English, 
was  victorious  in  the  struggle.  Abandoned  by  the  bulk  of 
his  followers,  and  seeing  the  hopelessness  of  longer  continuing 
the  conflict,  Dom  Miguel  signed  the  Convention  of  Evora  on 
May  3,  1834,  by  which  he  resigned  all  pretensions  to  the 
crown,  and  agreed  to  quit  Portugal.  He  went  first  to  Genoa, 
thence  to  Rome,  and  subsequently  passed  several  years  in 
London.  In  1851  he  married  the  German  Princess  Loewen- 
stein,  by  whom  he  had  one  son,  Miguel,  born  in  1853,  and 
four  daughters.  He  died  November  14,  1866,  at  Wertheim, 
in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 

The  Church  in  Portugal  seemed  now  to  be  again  passing 
through  the  disastrous  days  of  Pombal.  By  a  decree  of  Au- 
gust 5,  1833,  Dom  Pedro  declared  all  bishoprics  vacant  to 
which  appointments  had  been  made  by  the  Holy  See  on  the 
presentation  of  Dom  Miguel ;  and  by  another  of  May  28, 
1884,  the  Religious  and  Military  Orders  were  suppressed, 
their  hospitals  closed,  and  their  property  confiscated  ;  tithes 


724  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

were  abolished,  and  the  parish-priests,  to  whom  the  govern- 
ment refused  to  pay  the  promised  salaries,  were  reduced  to 
utter  destitution,  and  forced  to  subsist  upon  the  charity  of  the 
faithful.  By  an  allocution  of  August  1,  1834,  the  Pope,  after 
deploring  the  sad  condition  of  religious  affairs  in  Portugal, 
threatened  with  the  censures,  pronounced  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  against  the  spoilers  of  the  Church,  all  who  violated 
the  ecclesiastical  liberties  and  interfered  with  the  free  exercise 
of  spiritual  authority.^  His  words,  however,  did  not  deter 
the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  from  consecrating  the  bishops  ap- 
pointed by  Dom  Pedro. 

Dom  Pedro  died  September  24,  1834,  and  after  the  acces- 
sion of  his  daughter,  Dona  Maria  da  Gloria,  to  the  throne,  the 
government  passed  almost  completely  under  English  influence. 
A  new  constitution  was  proclaimed,  which,  though  it  was 
only  indiflterently  received  by  the  people,  contributed  largely 
to  complicate  the  religious  difficulties  of  Portugal.  Quite  a 
numerous  party  refused  to  acknowledge  as  lawful  bishops 
those  appointed  by  Dom  Pedro,  without  the  authorization  of 
the  Sovereign  Pontifl'.  Negotiations  were  opened  at  Lisbon 
in  1841  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Portuguese  Court, 
through  the  internuncio,  Cappacini,  by  whose  ability  and  ad- 
dress amicable  relations  were  again  restored.  As  a  prelimi- 
nary condition  to  a  future  concordat,  Cappacini  was  obliged 
to  relinquish  the  Churcli's  claim  to  the  property  formerly  be- 
longing to  the  Eeligious  Oi-ders.  On  the  3d  of  April,  1843, 
the  papal  confirmation  was  obtained  for  the  appointments 
made  by  the  queen,  viz.,  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon,  the 
Archbishop  of  Braga,  and  the  Bishop  of  Leiria,  the  others 
being  held  over  for  future  consideration  by  Cappacini.^ 
Everything  now  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  conclusion  of 
(he  concordat  was  not  far  off;  but,  notwithstanding  the  pru- 
dence and  conciliatory  temper  displayed  by  both  the  Holy 
Father  and  his  internuncios,  tinal  action  was  indefinitely  de- 
ferred, and  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs  endures  to  the 
present  day.     On   the  death   of  the  queen,  on   the  15th  of 


iThe  Latin  original  is  in  The  Catholic,  1834,  Oct.,  Supplem.,  p.  VIII.  sq. 
» Augsburg  Univ.  Gazette,  1843,  nro.  127.     Ibid.,  nro.  37,  1844,  Supplem. 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  B)  itain,  etc,    725 

November,  1853,  Dom  Pedro  succeeded  to  the  throne,  under 
the  regency  of  his  father,  the  king-consort,  Ferdinand  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  who  governed  the  kingdom  until  the  expiration 
of  the  prince's  minority,  on  September  15,  1855.  He  appears 
to  have  exercised  his  authority  with  prudence  and  discretion, 
and  since  his  time  the  royal  family  has  been  steadily  growing 
in  I  ublic  favor,  and  on  the  whole  the  condition  of  the  country 
is  now  more  promising.  The  death  of  the  young  king  and 
his  brother  John,  in  1861,  seems  to  have  evoked  feelings  of 
loyalty  and  sympathy  throughout  the  nation,  and  the  present 
sovereign,  Louis  I.,  second  son  of  Dona  Maria,  was  proclaimed 
amid  universal  expressions  of  attachment  to  the  reigning 
dynasty.  Still,  owing  to  the  intolerant  spirit  of  the  liberal 
party,  whose  leaders  are  at  the  head  of  the  government, 
there  has  been  no  material  improvement  in  the  aflairs  of  the 
Church. 

§  403.    The  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  (Cf.  §  329.) 

t  Discussion  amicale  sur  I'eglise  anglicane  et  en  general  sur  la  Reforme, 
dediee  au  clerge  de  toutes  les  communions  protestantes,  redigee  en  forme  de 
iBltres,  par  M.  I'eveque  de  Strasbourg  (le  Pape  de  Trevern) ;  4th  edition,  Paris, 
1835,  2  vols.  Cfr.  f  Weber,  State  of  Religion  in  England.  Pletz,  New  Theolog. 
Review,  year  XIII.,  nro.  4.  Schaiytf,  nro.  2,  p.  251-291.  Organization  of  tho 
Catholic  Church  in  England  (Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  LIII.,  j'ear  1864,  Ik 
five  articles).  R.  Murray,  Ireland  and  her  Church,  London,  1848.  Shea,  The 
Irish  Church,  London,  1852.  De  Beaumont,  L'Irlande,  Paris,  1839.  See  "The 
Life  and  Speeches  of  Daniel  O'Connell."  by  his  son,  John  OConnell,  M.  P.  (2 
vols.,  London,  1846).  "  The  Liberator,  his  Life  and  Times,"  by  L.  F.  Cusack 
(London,  1872).  Abbe  Perraud,  Etudes  sur  I'lrlande  contemporaine  (Paris, 
1862). 

As  has  been  seen,  the  oppressive  laws  restricting  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Catholics  of  Great  Britain,  and  notably  oi  Ireland, 
began  to  be  somewhat  relaxed  about  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution,  which  drove  numerous  priests  beyond  the  Chan- 
nel,' whose  piety,  ability,  and  learning  largely  contributed  to 

1  During  the  months  of  September  and  October,  1792,  6,000  priests  arrived 
in  England,  and  the  number  was  soon  increased  to  8,000.  The  palace  of  Win- 
chester was  placed  at  their  di.sposal  by  the  royal  family,  and  tliere  600  of  them 
were  most  hospitably  entertained.     A  subscriptii)u  for  tliem  was  started  in  tha 


726  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

correct  a  host  of  prejudices.  Previously  to  this  time,  how- 
ever, their  yoke  was  rendered  more  easy  and  endurable  by 
the  circumstances  attending  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of 
Independence  in  the  United  States,  and  the  loss  to  England 
of  her  colonies  in  that  country. 

By  request  of  George  III.,  the  Irish  Parliament  passed  the 
Relief  Act  of  1793,  granting  a  few  concessions  to  the  Catho- 
lics ol  Ireland.  They  were  now  permitted  to  freely  assist  at 
divine  service  in  their  own  churches  ;  exempted  from  the 
penalties  for  non-attendance  at  the  worship  of  the  Established 
Church  on  Sundays ;  granted  freedom  of  franchise  in  mu- 
nicipal and  parliamentary  elections ;  and  allowed  to  hold  a 
few  of  the  less  important  civil  and  military  offices.^  From  the 
higher  offices  they  were  still  excluded,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  Catholics  of  Dublin  made  another  demand  for  the 
removal  of  their  remaining  disabilities.  At  the  same  time  a 
Protestant  revolutionary  party,  known  as  the  CTnited  Irish- 
men, was  formed,  into  which  many  Catholics  entered,  either 
compelled  by  force  or  in  the  belief  that  through  its  agency 
they  would  soon  obtain  their  civil  rights.  The  Rebellion 
broke  out  in  1798,  and  resulted  in  the  loss  to  Ireland  of  her 
political  independence.  The  Union  was  efi'ected  in  1801,  and 
Ireland  has  been  ever  since  united  to  England.  After  many 
fruitless  attempts  to  emancipate  themselves  from  their  disa- 
bilities, the  most  important  of  which  was  the  one  that  ended 
BO  disastrously  to  Robert  Emmet  in  1803,  the  Catholics  of  Ire- 
land finally,  in  1809,  accepted  the  leadership  oi  Daniel  0' Con- 
nelly by  whose  courage,  perseverance,  skill,  and  ability  the 
people,  while  remaining  within  the  strict  letter  of  the  law, 
were  kept  in  a  perpetual  state  of  agitation.  While  O'Connell 
desired  nothing  more  ardently  than  the  social,  political,  and 
religious  amelioration  of  Ireland,  he  laid  it  down  as  a  prin- 
ciple that  this  was  to  be  obtained  without  the  shedding  of  a 
single  drop  of  blood.^     '•'Catholic  Committees"  were  appointed 


month  of  September,  1793,  and  the  sum  of  £07,000  raised,  which  was  ample 
for  the  support  of  4,800  of  the  refugees. 

1  Killen,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland,  Vol.  II.,  p.  354.   (Tr.) 

*  Wyae,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Association,  London,  1829,  2  vols.  Baumstark, 
D.  O'Connell,  Freiburg,  1873. 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain,  etc.    721 

and  meetings  held  all  over  the  Island,  the  avowed  purpose  of 
which  was  to  emancipate  Catholics  from  the  disabilities  under 
which  they  lay  and  to  repeal  the  Act  of  Union.  The  out- 
rages perpetrated  by  Orangemen  served  to  stimulate  the  zeal 
of  the  agitators.  For  more  than  twenty  years  the  subject  of 
emancipation  had  been  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  Catholics, 
and  in  the  interval  the  bills  introduced  into  the  English 
Houses  of  Parliament  for  the  purj)Ose  of  abolishing  the  dis- 
qualifying statutes  had  been  uniformly  thrown  out.'  And 
now  that  there  seemed  a  fairer  opportunity  than  ever  before 
of  having  a  relief  bill  passed,  it  was  again  temporarily  post- 
poned by  the  controversy  between  the  Catholics  of  England 
and  Ireland  on  the  question  of  giving  the  Crown  the  power 
of  veto  in  the  appointment  of  bishops,  because  on  the  solution 
of  this  question  the  passage  of  the  bill  depended.  The  Cath- 
olic Committees  were  suppressed  by  government  in  1814,  but 
the  Catholic  Association,  having  precisely  the  same  object  in 
view,  was  started  in  1823  by  Mr.  O'Connell,  assisted  by  Mr. 
Shiel.  This  was  in  its  turn  declared  illegal  by  Parliament  in 
1825,  and  was  in  consequence  dissolved,  but  only  to  be  re- 
placed by  another  of  the  same  character,  under  the  name  of 
2in  Association  for  Instruction?  Meetings  were  held  in  every 
province,  and  petitions  drafted  and  presented  to  Parliament. 
These  associations  were  useful  in  bringing  the  claims  of  the 
Irish  Catholics,  nearly  all  of  whom  were  members  of  them, 
before  the  world,  and  thus  pressing  them  upon  the  considera- 
tion of  the  government.  In  consequence,  a  Relief  Bill  was 
introduced  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  March,  1826,  and 
passed  that  body  by  a  respectable  majority.  In  the  House  of 
Lords,  however,  it  met  with  a  most  decided  and  stubborn  re- 
sistance, which  Mr.  Bright^  characterizes  as  "  verging  upon 
the  unconstitutional,"  and  was  rejected  chiefly  through  the 


1  As  early  as  1812,  Mr.  Canning  had  supported  the  relief  bill  brought  in  by 
;Mr.  Grattan.  It  passed  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  vote  of  255  to  lOG,  but 
was  lost  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  vote  standing  126  to  125.  (Tr.) 

^  Baumstark,  1.  c.,  pp.  66  sq. 

3  Rev.  J.  Franck  Bright,  English  History,  London.  1877,  Period  III.,  pp.  1390, 
1391.  (Tb.) 


728  Period  3.     Ejioch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

efforts  of  the  Duke  of  York,  by  a  majority  of  forty-ei>^ht. 
The  matter  -was  brought  to  a  crisis  by  the  return  of  Mr. 
O'Counell,  now  styled  the  Liberator,  as  member  of  Parliament 
for  Clare,  in  1828.  During  the  ministry  of  Mr.  Canning,  who 
was  known  to  be  favorable  to  Catholic  Emancipation,  the 
excitement  in  Ireland  had  somewhat  subsided  ;  but  when  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  was  called  to  the  Premiership  his  undis- 
guised hostility  to  the  measure  again  revived  the  agitation. 
It  now  became  evident  to  both  the  Premier  and  his  colleague 
in  the  ministry.  Sir  Robert  Peel,  that  they  must  take  their 
choice  between  a  civil  war  and  the  emancipation  of  the  Cath- 
olics. After  overcoming  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  king's 
consent  to  the  measure,  Mr.  Peel  introduced  the  bill  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  March  5, 1829,  where  it  was  finally  passed 
by  a  vote  of  315  to  137.  It  passed  the  House  of  Lords  April 
10,  by  a  vote  of  218  to  209,  and  was  signed  by  the  king,  after 
some  vain  and  childish  attempts  to  deny  that  he  had  freely 
authorized  his  minister  to  bring  it  in,  on  the  following  13th 
of  April,  and  now  the  Catholics,  both  in  England  and  Ire- 
land, were  once  more  in  the  enjoyment  of  very  nearly 
all  the  rights  possessed  by  their  Protestant  neighbors.^  By 
this  bill  a  new  oath,  which  Catholics  might  consistently 
take,  was  substituted  for  the  old  test  oatli  ;^  and  Catholics  were 
qualiiied  to  sit  in  either  House  of  Parliament,  and  to  hold  all 
civil,  military,  and  municipal  offices,  with  a  few  important 
exceptions.^  The  Catholics  of  these  countries,  said  Lord  John 
PusscU,  felt  in  1829  very  like  the  earl}^  Christians  when 
they  came  forth  from  the  Catacombs.     This  Jirst  concession, 


1  By  this  bill  Catholics  were  "eligible  to  all  offices,  civil,  military,  or  municipal, 
with  the  exception  of  the  office  of  Regent,  of  Lord  Chancellor,  of  Viceroy  of  Ire- 
land, or  Eoyal  Commissioner  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Scotland."  Briyht,  1.  c, 
Period  III.,  pp.  1402  sq.  (Tr.)  Very  complete  accounts  of  the  various  phases 
of  Catholic  Emancipation  in  Ireland,  from  1824  to  1829,  are  found  in  The  Cath- 
olic-oi  Mentz,  year  1825,  Vol.  XVI.,  Supplem.  to  June  number;  Vol.  XVII., 
p.  ITGsq.,  year  1829;  Vol.  XXXII.,  p.  201  sq.,  p.  330  sq.,  together  with  Sir 
Robert  Peel's  Speech,  unabridged.  Robiano,  T.  IV.,  p.  176-200.  Theiner,  Col- 
lection of  Some  Important  Documents  bearing  on  the  History  of  Catholic 
Emancipation  in  England,  Mentz,  1835. 

^  This  oath  was  repealed  in  18G7,  and  one  still  more  acceptable  substituted. 
Killen,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  p.  434,  note.  (Tr.) 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Grext  Britain,  etc.    725 

which  a  Protestant  government  had  very  reluctantly  granted, 
proved  quite  insufficient  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  Cath- 
olics of  Ireland,  who,  as  Lord  Russell  said  in  his  place  in  Par- 
liament, had  been  removed  from  an  underground  prison  only 
to  be  placed  in  one  above  ground.  Was  it  reasonable  to  ex- 
pect them  to  be  satisfied  when  700,000  Anglicans,  or  about 
one-tenth  of  the  population,  were  still  in  possession  of  all  the 
property,  which  in  early  times  had  been  set  apart  by  the  gen- 
erous liberality  of  the  Catholic  faithful  for  the  support  of 
churches,  convents,  hospitals,  and  colleges  ?  ]!!^ay,  more, 
when  Catliolics  were  forced  to  pay  to  the  clerg}-  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church  tithes  on  all  their  lands  produced,  and  when 
two  thousand  parsons,  some  of  whom  had  not  a  single  soul 
under  their  charge,  divided  among  them  a  yearly  revenue 
thus  accumulated,  amounting  to  three  millions  of  pounds 
sterling?^  The  result  was  that  in  1831  a  general  movement 
was  set  on  foot  against  the  'payment  of  tithes.  Though  per- 
sistently claimed,  they  were  stubbornly  refused,  and,  when 
collected  at  all,  their  collection  was  accompanied  b}?  so  much 
litigation,  and  not  unfrequently  by  such  shocking  scenes  of 
bloodshed,  that  the  profit  derived  scarcely  compensated  for 
the  cost  and  danger  of  collection. 

During  the  course  of  these  public  events  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  Irish  people  for  the  faith  of  their  fathers  was  steadily  on 
the  increase,  and  their  patriotic  feelings  partook  of  the  na- 
ture of  transport  when  O'Connell  began  to  agitate  for  the 
repeal  of  the  Union.  By  the  government  their  patriotic  de- 
monstrations were  denounced  as  calculated  to  foment  hatred 
and  incite  to  rebellion.  In  1843  the  agitation  for  the  repeal 
of  the  Union  was  at  its  height,  monster  meetings  were  held 
in  every  part  of  the  country,  and  preparations  were  being 
made  for  one  of  unusual  magnitude,  to  take  place  at  Clontarf 
on  Sunday,  October  8,  when  instructions  were  received  from 

^In  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  in  the  south  of  Ireland,  there  were  380,000 
Catholics  and  1,000  Anglicans;  still  the  former  were  forced  to  pay  an  Anglican 
bishop  and  sixty-four  ministers  a  sum  which  made  their  income,  in  legal  tithes, 
equal  to  sue  times  that  received  by  the  Catholic  clergy  through  voluntary  con- 
tributions. [T/ie  Catholic,  1831,  Vol.  XLI.,  pp.  57-81;  Cologne  Gazette.  J  una 
23,  1843.) 


730  Period  S.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

government  forbidding  it.  In  1844,  O'Connell,  with  some  of 
his  colleagues,  was  tried  by  a  jury  of  twelve  Protestants  from 
Dublin,  found  jjruilty  of  seditious  conspiracy,  iined  £2,000, 
sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  put  under  bonds 
to  keep  the  peace  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  Even  fair- 
minded  Englishmen  regarded  the  sentence  as  unjust,  and  it 
was  in  consequence  reversed  by  the  English  House  of  Lords.* 
Not  long  after  these  events  O'ConnelTs  health  began  to  break, 
and  being  advised  to  try  a  milder  climate,  he  set  off  in  the 
spring  of  1847  for  Italy,  but  got  no  farther  than  Genoa,  where 
he  was  taken  with  paralysis,  and  died  on  the  15th  of  Ma}''  of 
the  same  year. 

It  may  seem  strange  that  Catholics  and  Catholic  institu- 
tions were  as  heartily  despised  and  as  fiercely  proscribed  in 
England,  whose  special  boast  is  that  she  is  pre-eminently  the 
land  of  political  freedom,  as  they  were  even  in  Ireland.  Two 
circumstances  will  in  a  measure  account  for  this  condition  of 
things.  On  the  one  hand,  the  Catholics  in  England  were  too 
few  in  number  and  too  destitute  of  wealth  and  influence  to 
provide  organs  for  bringing  their  claims  before  the  public  in 
any  effective  way  ;  and,  on  the  other,  their  political  debase- 
ment had  been  such  as  to  render  them  more  indifferent  than 
the  Catholics  of  other  countries  to  the  interests  of  religion. 
From  the  days  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  date  of  the  Emancipa- 
tion Bill  the  Catholic  press  had  been  muzzled,  or  had  ceased 
to  exist,  and  Catholics  themselves  had  been  shut  out  from 
public  life  by  civil  disabilities.  They  were  therefore  the  vic- 
tims at  once  of  political  proscription  and  of  the  unjust  preju- 
dices accumulated  through  centuries  of  ignorance.  Hence, 
when  the  press  became  again  free,  and  the  teachings  and  in- 
stitutions of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were  once  more 
made  the  subject  of  public  and  daily  discussion,  prejudices 
began  to  wear  away,  and  juster  judgments  and  more  kindly 
feelings  to  prevail.  To  the  influence  of  the  press  is  undoubt- 
edly to  be  ascribed  that  remarkable  movement  in  favor  of  tlie 
Church  of  Rome,  which  set  in  above  forty  years  ago  and  con- 
tinues to  our  own  day. 


»  £fi«t  and  PoUt  Papers,  Vol.  XIII.   ^Rintel,  O'Connell's  Trial,  Miinster,  1845. 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  (he  Church  in  Great  Britain,  etc.    731 

Previously  to  this  time,  however,  the  apologist,  Gother^  aud 
Challoner^  Vicar-Apostolic  of  London,  from  1758  to  1781, 
dissipated  by  their  numerous  writings,  at  least  among  honest 
aud  fiiir-miuded  men,  the  prejudices  current  against  Catho 
lies.  The  Catholic  cause  was  also  ably  and  zealously  defended 
by  Alban  Butler,  the  author  of  the  Lives  of  the  Saints;  by 
John  Milner,^  Vicar- Apostolic  of  the  Midland  District,  from 
1803  to  1828  ;  by  Baines  and  Fletcher ;  Howard  and  Berington  ; 
and  Kirk  and  Coombe.  William  Cobbett,  the  author  of  tlie 
History  of  the  Protestant  Beformaiion  in  England  and  Ireland, 
possessing  a  thorough  and  extensive  knowledge  of  the  facta 
of  which  he  was  treating,  exposed  with  consummate  skill  and 
great  vivacity  of  style  the  vulnerable  side  of  Protestantism, 
and  denounced  before  all  Europe,  in  strong  and  energetic 
language,  the  wrongs  which  Catholics  had  been  made  to  en- 
dure. 31r.  Robert  Charles  Dallas,  an  Anglican,  in  a  work  en- 
titled The  New  Conspiracy  against  the  Jesuits  (1815),  warmly 
defended  that  body  against  the  calumnies  put  in  circulation 
against  them. 

Rev.  John  Lingard  (f  1851),  the  eminent  writer  and  scholar, 


1  J.  Gother,  The  Papist  Misrepresented  and  Represented,  Cincinnati,  1  vol. 

2  Bishop  Clialloner's  edition  of  the  Holy  Bible,  5  vols.,  12mo,  ed.  1750,  super- 
seded the  Douai  edition  ;  reprinted,  New  York,  1870.  His  ''Think  Well  On't," 
"Grounds  of  the  Catholic  Doctrine,"  "History  of  the  Protestant  Eeligion," 
"  Catholic  Christian  Instructed,"  "  Meditations,"  "  Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the 
Desert,"  "Garden  of  the  Soul,  a  Manual  of  Prayers,"  and  his  translations  of 
"The  Following  of  Christ"  and  "The  Introduction  to  a  Devout  Life,"  have 
been  reprinted  frequently  in  England,  Ireland,  and  America.  His  "Memoirs 
of  tlie  Missionary  Priests,"  etc.,  has  been  several  times  reprinted.  Among  his 
other  works  were  "Britannia  Sancta"  (2  vols.,  4to),  "Unerring  Authority  of 
the  Cath.  Church,"  "  British  Martyrology,"  and  a  "  Caveat  against  the  Metho- 
dists." (Tr.) 

3  Bishop  J;2o.  Miiner  vivoiQ  "Letters  to  a  Prebendary,"  Dr.  Sturges  (1800); 
"End  of  Eeligious  Controversy "  (1818);  "Correspondence  between  a  Society 
of  Protestants  and  Some  Catholic  Divines."  E.  Baines  (t  1843),  Defense  of  the 
Christian  Pveligion,  London,  1823.  .7.  Fletcher,  "The  Guide  to  the  True  Eelig- 
ion," "Comparative  View  of  the  Grounds  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
Churches,"  "  Difficulties  of  Protestantism,"  "  Eeflections  on  the  Spirit  of  Eelig- 
ious Controversy,"  "  Vindication  of  the  Catholic  Faith."  IToivnrd,  Eemarks  on 
the  Erroneous  Notions  Entertained  Eespective  of  the  Catholic  Eeligion. 
Coombe,  Essence  of  Eeligious  Controversy.  Jos.  Berhujton  (f  1827),  with  Dr. 
Kirk  (tl851),  published  in  1813  "The  Faith  of  Catholics." 


732  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     C/iapter  i. 

published  a  Histoiy  of  Eiiglaucl,  in  which  depth  of  research, 
impartiality  of  treatment,  and  independence  of  judgment  are 
so  conspicuous  as  to  render  his  statements  nearly  if  not  quite 
unassailable.^  Lord  Maeaulay,  though  a  Protestant,  wrote  in 
a  spirit  of  fairness  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Lanigan,  Libra- 
rian to  the  Irish  Historical  Society,  published  an  ecclesiastical 
history  of  Ireland  down  to  the  thirteenth  century  ;  John  Mc- 
HcJe,  the  present  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  published  in  1827  the 
Evidences  and  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Religion,  which  was 
almost  immediately  translated  into  French  and  German ; 
Thomas  Moore,  the  friend  of  Lord  Byron,  wrote  the  Travels 
of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion,  which  appeared 
in  1833  ;  Cardinal  Viiseman  (f  1865)  ^  gave  to  the  world,  in 
language  at  once  eloquent  and  popular,  a  clear  and  methodi- 
cal exposition  of  Catholic  doctrine  and  worship  ;  and  Miss 
Agnew,  through  her  celebrated  novel,  entitled  Geraldine,^  waa 
instrumental  in  attracting  many  souls  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
Sir  Kenelm  Henry  Digby,  a  convert  to  Catholicity,  after  long 
and  laborious  archaeological  studies  in  the  various  countries 
of  Europe,  published  the  result  of  his  researches  anonymously 
in  London,  in  three  volumes,  between  the  years  1844  and 
1847,  under  the  title  of  Mores  Catholici,  or  Ages  of  Faith,  a 
work  in  which  he  shows  the  progress  made  by  the  Catholic 
Church  in  science,  art,  and  civilization  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  1851  the  same  author  published  a  second  work,  in 
six  volumes,  entitled  the  Compitum ;  or,  the  Electing  of  the 
^Yays  at  the  Catholic  Church.     The  part  taken  hy  periodical  lit- 

1  Life  of  Dr.  Lingard,  Bonn  Review,  nro.  9,  pp.  100-1 15. 

''Horae  Syriacae  (publ.  1828),  Sterility  of  Protestant  Missions  (ItaL),  Eomc, 
1831.  Lectures  on  the  Connection  of  Science  and  Eevealed  Religion  (2  vols., 
1836),  Lectures  on  the  Doctrines  and  Practices  of  the  Catholic  Church  (2  vols., 
1836) ;  The  Real  Presence  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
in  the  Eucharist  (1836);  Pour  Lectures  on  the  Ceremonies  of  Holy  Week 
(1839);  Essays  on  Various  Subjects  (G  vols.,  1853);  Fabiola,  or  the  Church  of 
the  Catacombs  (1855);  Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes  (1858) ;  Sermons 
(2  vols.,  1864) ;  Daily  Meditations,  Dublin,  1868,  etc. 

^  Geraldine,  or  the  History  of  the  Guidance  of  a  Soul,  London,  1837,  directed 
against  the  errors  attributed  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  insults  heaped 
upon  her  ministers,  in  the  Abbot  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  in  Sir  Henry  Lytton 
Bulwer's  Devereux. 


§  403.  ]^ew  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain,  etc.   733 

erature  in  this  movement  and  its  influence  in  leading  men's 
minds  back  to  ideas  so  long  and  so  rigorously  proscribed  way 
both  considerable  and  important.  Among  the  best  known 
and  most  serviceable  of  these  publications  were  the  Catholic 
Jlagazine  and  Tablet,  the  latter  edited  by  Mr.  Lucas,  formerly 
a  Quaker.  The  London  Catliolic  Tract  S'or'iety  also  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  progress  of  the  movement,  which  received 
a  fresh  stimulus  from  the  publication,  in  the  year  1826,  of  the 
Declaration  of  the  Vicars-Apostolic  and  their  Coadjutors,^  who 
at  that  time  governed  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Great 
Britain  with  episcopal  authority.  This  important  document, 
which  consists  of  eleven  articles,  gives  a  scholarly  and  forcible 
exposition  of  the  doctrines  most  frequently  and  most  warmly 
assailed  by  Protestants.  Beginning  with  a  general  statement 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church,  it  treats  successively 
of  the  Holy  Scripture,  of  the  charge  of  idolatry  and  supersti- 
tion, of  confession,  of  indulgences,  of  civil  allegiance,  and  of 
obedience  to  the  Pope,  closing  with  these  words  :  "  We  have 
endeavored  in  the  foregoing  articles  to  set  forth  in  a  straight- 
forward wa}'  those  doctrines  of  our  Church  which  in  this 
country  are  most  likely  to  be  misunderstood  and  misrepre- 
sented ;  we  hope,  therefore,  that  our  countrymen  will  receive 
both  our  declaration  and  our  explanations  in  the  spirit  of 
truth  and  charity,  and  that  those  who  have  been  hitherto 
either  ignorant  or  misinformed  as  to  what  we  believe  will  now 
do  us  the  justice  to  acknowledge  that  as  Catholics  we  hold  no 
religious  principles  nor  ideas  not  perfectly  consistent  with  our 
duties  as  Christians  and  British  subjects."  - 

The  activity  displayed  by  Catholic  authors  and  Catholic 
priests  called  forth  renewed  efforts  in  all  ranks  of  society  to 
forward  the  interests  of  the  old  Church,  and  the  number  of 
converts  from  Anglicanism  was  daily  on  the  increase? 

^  Bo7in  Review,  nro.  17,  pp.  203-222;  Latin  text  in  Braun,  Bibliotheca  regu- 
lar. M.,  T.  I.,  p.  32G. 

^ISot  having  the  English  text  at  hand,  we  have  been  obliged  to  translate 
from  the  German  and  French.  (Tr.) 

3  Of  the  many  beautiful  writings  of  this  kind,  special  mention  should  be 
made  of  Dr.  SiOthorp's  "My  Return  to  Catholicity;"  Germ.,  by  Willmnnn, 
Hatisbon,  1843. 


734  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Ancient  and  distinctly  Catholic  institutions,  such  as  con- 
vents of  females,  began  to  spring  up.  As  early  as  1794  French 
refugee  nuns  established  themselves  in  England  ;  a  colony  of 
Benedictine  nuns  from  Brussels  settled  at  Winchester,  aud 
others  of  Augustinian  nuns  from  Louvain  and  Bruges  came 
to  reside  at  London  and  Hammersmith.^  In  1838  a  Catholic 
Institute  was  founded  in  London  nnder  the  presidency  of  the 
Earl  of  Shreiosbury,  with  affiliated  branches  in  other  cities. 
About  the  same  time  a  society  of  ladies  was  formed  under  the 
direction  of  the  Marchioness  of  Wellesly  for  supplying  poor 
chapels  with  vestments,  altar  furniture,  and  sacred  vessels.^ 
Within  the  limits  of  Loudon  there  were  eleven  associations 
for  providing  free  schools  and  four  for  serving  and  relieving 
the  destitute  sick.  Churches  and  chai^els  also  sprung  up.  The 
Catholics  of  London  built  a  handsome  pro-cathedral,  while 
those  of  York  put  up  a  magnificent  structure  just  opposite 
the  famous  old  minster  of  that  city.^  The  Catholic  'population 
of  England  soon  increased  to  above  two  millions.  Even  in 
the  Protestant  University  of  Oxford,  particularly  in  the  Col- 
lege to  which  Dr.  Pusey  was  attached,  a  strong  tendency  set 
in  toward  the  Church  of  Rome.*  After  the  year  1843  a  large 
number  of  Puseyites,  among  whom  were  many  Anglican  cler- 
gymen, became  converts  to  Catholicity.  Of  these  the  most 
distinguisiied  was  the  celebrated  Dr.  Newman,^  who,  in  1848, 


^  Ecel.  Gazette,  by  Hoenighaus,  year  1838,  nro.  31.     Cfr.  nro.  91. 

2  The  Marchioness  of  Wellesly  was  a  grand-daughter  of  diaries  Carroll  of 
Carrollto7i,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  American  Independ- 
ence. (Tk.) 

3  Augsburg  Univ.  Gazette,  nro.  147,  May  27,  1842. 

*  On  the  recent  Catholic  movement  in  England,  which  has  been  hailed  with 
each  joy  by  the  public  press,  and  on  the  part  taken  in  it  by  Gregory  XVI.,  cf. 
Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  688-701  ;  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  65-79;  on  Pu- 
seyism,  in  particular,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  693-696,  and  Vol.  XI.,  pp.  829  sq.  In  con- 
sequence of  a  sermon  entitled  The  Holy  Eucharist  a  Comfort  to  the  Penitent, 
preached  at  Oxford  in  1843,  Dr.  Pusey  was  suspended,  and  in  self-defense  ap- 
pealed to  the  teaching  of  Anglican  divines.  This  sermon  was  published  in 
German,  together  with  an  Introduction  on  the  present  state  of  Anglicanism,  by 
t  Willmann,  Eatisbon,  1844.  J.  Gordon,  Du  Mouvement  Religieux  en  Angle, 
terre.  Par.  1844.     The  same.  Conversion  de  cent  cinquante  ministres  anglicains, 

-  A  catalogue  of  the  works  of  Dr.  Newman  is  given  in  the  Characteristics  of 
the  Writings  of  John  Henry  Newman,  by  W.  S.  Lilly,  New  York,  1875.  (Tk.) 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain,  etc.    735 

founded  a  house  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  at  Bir- 
mingham. The  influence  of  the  reaction  in  favor  of  Catho- 
licity was  also  felt  among  the  sect  of  Scotch  Presbyterians, 
founded  by  Edward  Irving  (f  1884),  whose  followers  claimed 
to  enjoy  the  gift  of  tongues  {jlLoaaac-  hilCcJ)^  and  whose  teach- 
ings found  an  able  and  eloquent  defender  in  Thiersch,  a  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Marburg,  in  Germany.  The  English 
also  took  up  the  cause  of  education  with  zeal.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  English  Colleges  of  St.  Omer  and  of  Douai 
by  the  French  infidels,  their  professors  passed  over  to  England 
and  opened  the  Colleges  of  St.  Edmund,  at  Crook  Hall,  and 
St.  Cuthbert,  at  Ushaw.  The  Jesuit  College  of  Stonyhurst 
and  that  of  St.  Mary's,  near  Birmingham,  both  of  which  were 
granted  the  privileges  of  university  colleges  by  the  queen,  had 
a  similar  origin.^  The  universal  interest  excited  throughout 
Europe  by  the  religious  movement  in  England  created  a  de- 
sire to  see  the  people  of  that  country  once  more  enter  the  fold 
of  Christ.  While  Cardinal  (then  Doctor)  Wiseman  was  giv- 
ing assurances  at  liome  that  the  more  intelligent  of  the 
Euglish  people  were  laying  aside  their  prejudices  against  the 
Catholic  Church,  Lord  Spencer  was  going  up  and  down 
France  asking  prayers  for  the  conversion  of  his  countrj'men,^ 
an  object  for  which  Saint  Paul  of  the  Cross  had  prayed  un- 
ceasingly for  fifty  years.  To  hasten  the  consummation  of  so 
glorious  an  event,  Gregory  XYI.,  on  the  11th  of  May,  1840, 
subdivided  the  four  districts  previously  existing  into  eight,  and 
Pius  IX.,  by  the  bull  Universalis  Ecclesiae,  dated  September 
29,  1850,  restored  the  Catholic  hierarchy  to  England.  Be- 
tween the  years  1840  and  1852,  ninety-two  members  of  the 
University  of  Oxford  and  forty-three  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge  entered  the  Catholic  Church.  Of  the  former, 
sixty-three  were  clergymen,  and  of  the  latter  nineteen. 

In  Scotland,  where  the  faith  had  never  grown  quite  extinct, 
there  began  to  be  now  signs  of  returnino;  life.     There  were 


1  •■-  Joerg,  Hist,  of  Protestantism  in  the  Latest  Phases  of  its  Development, 
Vol.  II.,  pp.  77-203. 

2  Ecd.  Gazette,  1810,  nros.  29  and  32.     Cf.  nro.  9  of  same  year  and  nro.  89  of 
the  year  1839. 

3  Cf.  Sioru  1840,  nro.  23,  Supplem.  4. 


736  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

in  that  countiy  only  fifty-one  churches  in  1829.  This  number 
was  increased  to  sixty-eight  in  1839,  and  in  1848  to  eighty- 
seven.  A  great  Catholic  Association  was  formed  at  Edin- 
burgh; the  Catholic  Review,  the  Catholic  Magazine,  and  the 
Penny  Orthodox  Journal  were  started  to  instruct  the  people ; 
and  public  discussions  were  held,  which  went  a  great  waj'  in 
neutralizing  the  efforts  of  Protestant  ministers  to  misrepre- 
sent the  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  excite  in 
those  who  were  ignorant  of  the  doctrines  so  vehemently  as- 
sailed a  desire  to  know  their  true  character.  Catholic  higher 
education  in  Scotland  was  chiefly  conducted  by  the  clerical 
professors  at  the  College  of  St.  Mary's,  at  Blairs.  At  the  open- 
ing of  this  century  the  Catholic  population  was  about  13,000, 
and  at  the  present  time  it  is  over  400,000,  and  is  steadily 
growing,  the  increase  being  chiefly  due  to  immigration  from 
Ireland. 

Ireland,  with  close  upon  seven  millions  of  Catholics  and  a 
hierarchy  consisting  of  four  archbishops  and  twenty-two  bish- 
ops,* still  continued  under  her  great  leader,  Daniel  O'Connell,^ 
the  struggle  she  had  entered  upon  under  the  celebrated  legal 
and  parliamentary  orators,  Curran  (f  1817)  ^  and  Graitan  * 
(tl820),  battling  unceasingly  for  political  and  religious  free- 
dom. The  efforts  of  Mr.  O'Connell  were  well  seconded  by 
many  churchmen  of  piety,  energy,  and  learning,  of  whom  the 
most  uble  were  Dr.  Doyle,^  Bishop  of  Kildare  (fJune  15, 
1834),  a  strenuous  advocate  of  Emancipation,  a  forcible  writer, 
and  a  distinguished  professor  of  Carlo w  College  ;  Thomas 
Kelly,  Archbishop  of  Tuam  (f  January  14,  1884),  and  his  suc- 
cessor, John  31cHale,  who,  over  the  signature  of  Hierophilus, 


1  This  was  the  number  in  1806.  (Tr.) 

^Eccl.  Gazette,  1840,  nro.  52.  Cf.  Journal  of  Literary  Amusement,  Novem- 
ber, 1839. 

^John  Phllpot  Currants  fame  rests  mainly  on  his  speeches  in  behalf  of  the  ac- 
cused in  the  State  trials,  then  so  numerous.  His  life  was  published  by  his  son, 
W.  H.  Curran,  in  1819.  (Tr.) 

*The  Life  and  Times  of  Henry  Grattan  were  published  by  his  son  in  the 
form  of  Memoir.?,  4  vols.,  London,  1842.  Cf.  Augsb.  Gazette,  Supplem.,  ]\Iay  18, 
1842,  and,  for  more  general  information,  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,Yo\.  VII., 
pp.  736-751. 

*See  Bonn  Review,  nro.  9 ;   The  Catholic,  1825,  Vol.  XVII.,  pp.  1-17. 


§  403.  New  Birth  of  the  Church  in  Great  Britain,  etc.   737 

wrote  some  clever  controversial  letters  on  the  subject  of 
Emancipation;  and  Thomas  Moore  (f  1884),  whose  insA  iJfe^ 
'Odies  contributed  powerfully  to  evoke  feelings  of  patriotic  en- 
thusiasm among  the  people  of  Ireland.  The  clergy,  too,  dis- 
played so  much  activity,  and  were  so  devoted  to  the  work  of 
flieir  ministry,  that  Mr.  Steele,  though  an  Anglican,  stated 
|ublicly  (August  25,  1841)  that  since  the  world  began  there 
had  never  been  so  admirable  a  moral  union  among  men  as 
that  which  existed  among  the  Catholic  priesthood  of  Ireland. 
The  selection  of  bishops  in  the  Church  in  Ireland  is  altogether 
elective.  Formerly  the  parish-priests  chose  from  among  those 
of  their  own  rank,  either  within  or  Avithont  the  diocese  where 
the  see  wa-5  vacant,  the  person  whom  they  wished  to  have  as 
bishop,  and  forwarded  his  name  to  the  Pope.  The  bishops 
of  the  province  also  forwarded  two  or  three  names,  any  of 
which  might  be  selected.^  At  the  present  time  the  priestsj 
themselves  forward  the  three  names  from  which  a  choice  is  to 
be  made,  though  the  Pope  is  not  limited  to  these.  As  has 
been  already  stated,  the  government  offered  a  modified  relief 
bill  in  1813,  on  condition  that  the  crown  should  enjoy  the 
right  of  veto  in  the  appointment  of  bishops,  but  the  condition 
was  indiguantl}'  rejected  by  the  whole  hierarchy  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  notwithstanding  the  urgent  representations  in  its 
favor  by  some  Catholic  laymen  and  the  efltbrts  made  by  the 
Protestant  advocates  of  Emancipation  to  have  it  accepted. 
In  like  manner  the  Irish  bishops  unanimously  declined  the 
endowment  offered  by  the  government  in  1837,  preferring  to 
remain  poor  hnt  free.  The  Irish  people  have  always  contrib- 
uted generously  to  the  support  of  their  priests.  Under  the 
energetic  management  of  the  clergy,  new  churches  sprung  up 
everywhere.  A  handsome  one  was  built  at  Little  Bray  in 
1838,  and  placed  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Peter.  The 
weekly  contributions  of  the  poorer  classes  were  so  munificent 
that  from  these  alone  nearly  the  whole  cost  of  repairing  old 
churches  and  building  new  ones  has  been  defrayed.  Among 
these  the  church  at  Ballina,  the  residence  of  the  Bishop  of 


*  See  Plowden,  iii.,  Appendix,  pp.  1-18.  (Tr.I 

VOL.  Ill — 47 


738  Period  3.     E^poch  2.     Part  2.     Chcqjter  1. 


Killala,  aud  tli.e  old  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  at  Armagh,  may 
be  instanced.  The  Dublin  Review,  started  in  1836  by  O'Con- 
nell,  Dr.  Wiseman,  and  ^Jr.  Quin,  was  the  ablest  Cathoiic 
periodical  published  in  Ireland.  The  noticeable  improvement 
in  the  moral  and  material  condition  of  the  Irish  people  since 
1840  is  largely  due  to  the  indefatigable  labors  of  the  Capu- 
chin, Father  Matthew,  the  great  apostle  of  temperance.^ 

§  404.     The   Catholic  Church  in  Belgium  and  Holland. 
(Cf.  §333.) 

De  Ram.  (Synodicum  Belgicum),  Nova  et  absoluta  collectio  Synodorum  tam 
provinciaiium  quam  dioecesanar.  Archiepiscopatus  Mechlin.,  etc.,  T.  I.,  Mechl., 
1828;  T.  II.,  1833;  T.  III.  and  T.  IV.,  Gandav.  '•  Letters  from  Belgium" 
{Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  627  sq.;  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  45  sq.,  210  sq., 
411  sq..  501  sq.,  731  sq. ;  Vol.  IX..  p.  783  sq.) 

The  attempts  made  in  Belgium  to  introduce  the  principles 
of  Josephism,  with  a  view  to  destroy  the  organization  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  that  country,  were  heroically  resisted  by 
Frankenberg  (f  1804),  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Malines. 
His  doctrinal  declaration,  dated  June  26,  1789,  concerning  the 
General  Seminary  of  Louvain,  protesting  against  the  erection 
of  all  seminaries  of  this  character  by  Joseph  II.,  is  ample  ev- 
idence that  the  clergy  of  Belgium  were  determined  to  with- 
stand the  hostile  aggressions  of  the  Illuminati  and  the  Jo- 
sephists.  His  zeal  and  activity  exercised  an  influence  which 
lasted  until  the  close  of  the  French  domination,  which  af- 
fected only  slightly  the  religious  spirit  of  the  country.  While 
Belgium  was  under  the  dominion  of  Holland,  she  made  a  long 
and  determined  struggle  for  the  preservation  of  her  faith  and 
the  indeijendence  of  the  Church.  When  William,  Stadtholder 
of  Holland,  who  professed  Calvinistic  doctrines,  assumed  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Netherlands  (March  16,  1815),  and  pub- 
lished a  new  constitution  (July  15, 1815),  he  promised  in  gen- 
eral terms  that  the  Catholic  Church  should  enjoy  complete 
freedom.     But,  as  numerous  paragraphs  of  the  charter  were 


^  Lps.  Univ.  Gazette,  nro.  134  (1842).  *  Cf.  the  interesting  details  in  the 
Anc/sb.  Gazette,  nros.  144  and  145,  of  1843,  and  the  Bonn  Review,  new  series, 
year  IV.,  nro.  4,  pp.  208-210. 


§  404.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Belgium  and  Holland.    739 

directly  contradictoiy  to  the  promise  made,  tlie  Bishops  of 
Ghent,  Tonrnay,  and  Naraur,  and  the  Vicars  Capitular  of 
Malinos  and  Li6ge  drew  up  and  published,  July  28,  1815,  an 
expostulation.  No  attention  was  paid  to  their  remonstrances, 
and  the  new  charter,  though  it  failed  to  obtain  a  majority  of 
the  votes  of  the  Committee  of  Examiners,  was  imposed  upon 
the  country,  Augnst  24,  1815,  and  from  that  time  forth  acts 
of  violence  and  oppression  against  Catholics  became  more 
frequent  and  flagrant.  Catholic  Colleges  and  Universities 
were  closed,  and  Catholic  students  of  divinity  were  required 
to  attend  the  lectures  at  the  Philosophical  College,  established 
by  a  Protestant  government  at  Louvain  in  1825.  So  threat- 
ening was  the  discontent  which  these  measures  excited  that 
King  William  w-as  forced  to  conclude  a  Concordat  with  the 
Holy  See  in  1827.^  Its  execution,  however,  was  delayed  under 
various  pretexts,  and  although  the  government  released  can- 
didates for  the  priesthood  from  the  obligation  of  attending 
the  College  of  Louvain,  it  imposed  other  annoying  restrictions 
upon  bishops  and  students  of  divinity,^  and  made  the  Dutch 
language  obligatory.  National  manners  and  customs  were 
daily  and  studiously  disregarded  and  outraged,  and  the  forci- 
ble separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland  was  in  consequence 
finally  determined  upon  in  1830,  though,  in  the  revolution  by 
which  this  was  efi'ected,  the  Belgian  clergy,  w^ho,  as  a  body, 
were  peaceable  and  law-biding,  took  no  active  part.  Since 
then  Catholicity  has  been  steadily  on  the  increase  in  Belgium. 
Through  the  influence  of  such  men  as  Cardinal  Stcrckx,  Arch- 
bishop of  Malines,  and  van  Bommel,  Bishop  of  Liege,  it  has 
been  made  to  give  tone  to  public  opinion  and  character  to 
education.  Religious  life  revived,  and  convents  sprang  up 
over  the  country. 


1  See  The  Catholic,  1827,  November  nro ,  p.  203  sq. 

'  The  conflicting  views  on  this  subject  are  given  in  The  Catholic,  1825,  Sup- 
plem.  to  December  nro.,  p.  XXXIII  sq.;  and  1826,  January  nro.,  p.  83-103,. 
and  Supplem.,  p.  I.  sq.  Tubing.  Quart.  Review,  1826,  p.  77  sq.  Smrts,  Cath. 
UevicAV  of  Cologne,  Vols.  I.  and  II.  In  consequence  of  these  diverse  criti- 
cisms, the  King  of  Holland  issued,  in  1829,  two  ordinances,  which,  in  appear- 
ance  only,  repealed  the  measures  of  1825  See  The  Citholic,  Augu-t,  1829. 
Supplem.,  p.  XXIV.  sq.,  and  October,  p.  47  sq. 


740  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cho.'pter  1. 

Thorongblj'  alive  to  the  dano;erons  influence  of  the  Philo- 
sophical College  of  Louvain,  the  Catholics,  after  iiumeroug 
conferences,  came  voluntarily  forward  and  generously  sub- 
scribed a  sum  sufKcient  to  found,  in  1834,  a  free  Catholic  Uni- 
versity at  Malines,*  which  was  subsequently  transferred  to 
Louvain,  and  solemnly  inaugurated  on  the  1st  of  December, 
1835.  This  University  is  one  of  the  most  important  founda- 
tions of  this  century,  for,  besides  counteracting  the  liberal- 
istic  tendencies  of  the  University  of  Brussels,  it  is  a  repre- 
sentative school,  not  alone  of  Catholic  theology,  but  of  every 
branch  of  professional  science,  as  taught  in  Catholic  institu- 
tions ;  and  is,  moreover,  the  most  frequented  seat  of  learning 
in  Belgium,  Fully  appreciating  the  position  of  the  Church, 
the  Belgian  clergy  kept  well  abreast  of  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
seizing,  making  their  own,  and  ennobling  such  ideas  as  they 
might,  and  putting  the  others  aside.  Here  was  harmony  amid 
the  din  of  conflict,  and  music  amid  a  clamor  of  sounds,  for 
the  spirit  of  true  liberty  is  ever  in  accord  with  the  spirit  of 
true  faith.  A  society  was  started  for  the  diffusion  of  wholesome 
literature,  which  did  an  immensity  of  good  among  the  people. 
Belgium  comes  next  after  France  and  Bavaria  in  zeal  for 
home  and  foreign  missionary  work?  The  Abbe  Helsen,^  who 
had  been  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  his  priestly  func- 
tions, in  consequence  of  the  irregularit}^  of  his  moral  con- 
duct, attempted  to  found  what  he  called  the  Catholic  and 
Apostolical  Church,  and  having  received  episcopal  consecra- 
tion from  Fabre  Palaprat,  rented  a  room  in  the  Masonic 
Lodge  at  Brussels,  and  began  to  say  Mass  in  French  and 
Flemish.  The  public  gradually  wearied  of  his  declamations 
against  the  supposed  immorality  of  the  clerg3\  The  Chamber 
slighted  and  insulted  him,  comparing  him  to  Chdtel  and  other 
politico-religious  mountebanks.     Like   those  of  his  Frenclir 

'  The  plan  of  founding  a  University  by  a  joint-stock  company,  as  set  forth 
in  the  circular  of  the  Archbishop  of  Malines,  and  of  the  Bishops  of  Tournaj-, 
Ghent,  Liege,  Namur,  and  Bruges,  may  be  found  by  referring  to  the  journals  of 
those  times.  The  Bonn  Review,  nro.  9,  pp.  189  sq.;  The  Catholic,  July  nra  oi. 
1834,  pp.  80-89. 

^Cf.  Eccl.  Gazette,  by  Hoeninghaus,  year  1839,  nro.  72. 

3  Ronyi  Review,  nro.  9,  pp.  187-189. 


§  404.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Belgium  and  Holland.    741 

prototype,  his  followers  rapidly  fell  from  his  side,  only  a  few 
fanatical  revolutionists  and  uncompromising  republicans  re- 
maining loyal  to  his  teachings.  Touched  by  the  light  of 
grace,  Helsen  returned  to  the  truth,  i^Tovember  14,  1842,  and 
died  some  time  after  at  peace  with  the  Church.  The  progress 
made  by  the  Religious  Orders  in  Belgium  was  simpl}^  marvel- 
ous. In  1829  there  were  in  the  whole  country  280  houses  of 
male  and  female  religious,  and  in  1846  the  number  had  in- 
creased to  779.  Here  devoted  souls  gave  themselves  up  to 
meditation,  teaching,  serving  the  sick,  and  to  such  other  offices 
of  piety  as  are  required  by  the  social  conditions  of  a  civilized 
community.  It  is  a  strange  phenomenon,  and  one  fruitful  in 
reflections,  that  in  no  country  of  Europe  have  the  Religious 
Orders  been  so  bitterly  and  persistently  opposed  as  in  Bel- 
gium, and  in  no  other  country  of  Europe  have  they  gone  on 
increasing  so  rapidly. 

The  Catholic  Church  in  Holland  has  continued  to  hold  its 
own  against  the  inveterate  hatred  of  the  Calvinists,  the  dis- 
integrating agency  of  Jansenism,  and  the  adverse  policy  of  a 
hostile  government.  According  to  the  official  census,  there 
were,  in  January,  1840, 1,100,616  Catholics  out  of  a  population 
of  2,860,450.^  The  Jansenistie  schism  of  Utrecht,  which,  un- 
fortunately, has  not  yet  come  to  a  close,  had  in  1821  an  arch- 
bishop at  Utrecht,  in  whose  obedience  there  were  twenty-four 
pastors  and  two  thousand  five  hundred  and  twenty  schis- 
matics ;  a  sufi:ragan  bishop  at  Haarlem,  under  whom  were 
twenty  pastors  and  two  thousand  four  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
souls;  and  a  bishop  at  Deventer,  who  possessed  neither  pastors 
nor  flock.  These  bishops  are  all  excommunicated  by  the  Holy 
See,  and  were  it  not  for  the  support  which  the  Jansenistie 
seminary  at  Utrecht  receives  from  France,  the  schism  of  which 
it  is  the  nursery,  would  have  long  since  disappeared.  Until 
quite  recently  the  Catholics  of  Holland  were  collectively  in- 
cluded in  what  was  known  as  the  Dutch  Blission,  presided 
over  by  a  Vicar  Apostolic,  and  divided  into  the  seven  districts 
01'  archpresbyteries  of  Holland-Zealand,  Utrecht,  Gelderland, 
Friesland,  Groniugen,  Overyssel,  and  Sallaiid,  which  were  sub- 

»  Cf.  The  Catholic,  1825,  Supplem.  to  February  iiro.,  pp.  XVII.-XXVII. 


742  Period  3.     Ej^och  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

divided  into  deaneries,  and  these  again  into  four  hundred  sta- 
tions or  parishes.     When  Cardinal  Brancadoro,  Archbishop  of 
Nisibis,  who  resided  at  Liege,  came  to  Holland  in  177(5  as  supe- 
rior of  the  Dutch  xVIission,  to  administer  the  Sacrament  of  Con- 
firmation, the  tokens  of  respect  and  attachment  to  the  Holy 
See  which  the  Catholic  people  exhibited  were  universal  and 
unoistakable.     The  Mission  was,  later  on,  under  the  direction 
of  Ciamberlani,  who  resided  at  Miinster,  whence  all  necessary 
dispensations  were  forwarded.     He  also  presided  in  an  in- 
formal way  over  the  afiairs  of  the  Mission  during  the  reigns 
of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  his  successor,  the  Duke  of  Piacenza, 
but,  after  the  restoration  of  the  Protestant  government,  he 
was  arrested  at  Malines  in  1815,  and  conducted  across  the 
frontier,  despite  the  indignant  protests  of  the  Catholics.    This 
hasty  and  violent  measure  was  reconsidered  in  1823,  and  Ci- 
amberlani  again  authorized  to  take  charge  of  the  Mission. 
His  first  oflicial  act  on  his  return  was  to  consecrate  the  Chapel 
and  bless  the  Seminary  of  Warmond,  near  Leyden,^  which  the 
clergy  and  laity  had  built  in  1819  out  of  their  scanty  means. 
There  is  no  name  held  in  more  grateful  remembrance  by  the 
Church  and  the  clergy  of  Holland  than   that  of  the  Abb6 
Raynal,  almoner  to  the  Spanish  embassy  at  the  Hague  (f  July  6, 
1822),  who,  after  his  expulsion  from  the  diocese  of  Cahors  by 
the  French  revolutionists,  took  up  his  residence  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, where,  by  his  zeal,  his  salutary  influence  upon  the 
clergy,  and  his  edifying  life,  he  rendered  invaluable  services 
during  a  season  of  trial  and  difficulty  to  the  Catholic  Church 
of  that  country. 

According  to  the  articles  of  the  Concordat,  concluded  be- 
tween King  William  and  the  Holy  See,  of  which  mention  has 
already  been  made,  two  sufiragan  sees  should  have  been 
erected  in  the  Netherlands,  the  one  at  Amsterdam  and  the 
other  at  Herzogenbosch  (Bois-le-Duc),  but  this  provision  was 
never  carried  out.  Catholic  principle  and  Catholic  feeling 
were  wholly  disregarded,  and  sometimes  violenth'  outraged. 

'In  1828  there  were  in  the  ancient  States  of  Holland  four  larger  and  three 
smaller  seminaries,  which  it  had  been  found  necessary  to  erect  after  the  closing 
of  the  University  of  Louvain. 


§  404.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Belgium  ami  Holland.    713 

and  a  Protestaut  church,  aided  by  a  Protestant  government, 
was  everywhere  dominant. 

It  would  seem  that  the  very  significant  warning  given  by 
the  revohition  in  Belgium  in  1830  was  not  sufficient  to  secure 
full  freedom  to  the  Church  in  that  country.  Still,  after  the 
accession  of  William  II.,  October  7,  1840,  there  was  a  hope 
that  an  accommodation  might  be  effected  through  the  nego- 
tiations opened  by  the  Nuncio,  Cappaccirn.  The  Calvinists 
were  again  beginning  to  show  symptoms  of  the  most  intoler- 
ant bigotrj',  which  fortunately  had  not  resulted  in  any  serious 
consequences,  wjjen  Pius  IX.,  on  the  7th  of  March,  1853,  re- 
established the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  Holland.  It  consisted 
of  an  archbisho[)ric  at  Utrecht,  with  four  suffragan  sees  at 
Haarlem,  Herzogenbosch,  Breda,  and  Roermond.  In  spite  of 
the  hostility  of  the  government  to  religious  houses,  their 
number  was  constantly  increasing.  When  the  Xetherlauds 
were  incorporated  wirh  the  French  Empire,  in  1810,  there 
were  altogether  only  fifteen  convents  in  the  whole  country, 
and  these  w^ere  all  in  North  Brabant,  and  suppressed  by  Im- 
perial decree  of  January  3,  1812,  though  the  decree  was  never 
carried  into  eflect.  Nothwithstanding  this  unpromising  con- 
dition of  affairs,  and  the  additional  fact  that  William  I.  did 
what  he  could  to  retard  the  growth  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
numerous  religious  houses  were  founded  in  North  Brabant 
iind  Limburg  between  the  years  1830  and  1840. 

That  isolated  portion  of  Luxemburg,  which,  under  the  desig- 
aation  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  w^as  declared  a  dependency  of 
Holland  in  1839,  was  under  the  spiritual  direction  of  a  very 
(vorthy  man,  Mgr.  Laurent,  wdio,  having  been  driven  from 
Hamburg,  where  he  had  taken  up  his  residence  as  Vicar- 
Apostolic  of  North  Germany,  found  himself  face  to  face 
with  similar  difficulties  in  his  new  diocese,  whence  he  was 
also  expelled  in  1847.  By  the  revolution  of  1848,  freedom 
of  conscience  was  inscribed  in  the  Charter  of  Rights,  and 
now  even  tlie  Jesuits  have  firmly  established  themselves  \u 
Holland. 


744  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Pari  2.     Chapter  1. 


§  405.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland, 

The  documents  are  found  chiefly  in  the  Tub.  Quart.  Review  of  1819  and  sub- 
sequent years.  Bheinwo.ld,  Acta  hist,  ecclesiast.,  ann.  1835,  p.  31  et  sq. ;  ann 
1836,  p.  58  sq.;  ann.  1837,  p.  82  sq.  L.  Snell.  Authentic  Narrative  of  the  I.ate 
Changes  in  Catholic  Switzerland,  Sursee,  1831.  For  the  most  recent  times,  y.ee 
"The  Swiss  Keel.  Gaz.^'  from  1832.  '^Fred.  Hurter,  The  Attacks  made  on  tho 
Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland  since  1831,  4  pts,  Schaflfh.  1842,  1843.  Sigwnri 
MiiUer,  The  Struggle  between  Eight  and  Might  in  the  Swiss  Confederacy,  and 
My  Own  Share  in  It,  Altdorf,  1864.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  853 
sq. ;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  22,  p.  484-505. 

The  Church  in  Switzerland  was  formerly  dependent  for  its 
ecclesiastical  government  upon  the  metropolitans  of  Besangoriy 
Mentz,  and  llila.n.  The  fulsome  promises  of  the  French,  who 
came  to  that  country  in  1797,  proclaiming  that  they  desired 
to  restore  liberty  to  the  descendants  of  William  Tell,  to  free 
them  from  the  government  of  an  oligarchy,  and  to  place  them 
in  the  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  man,  were,  as  in  France,  far 
from  being  fulfilled,  and  resulted  only  in  political  anarchy  and 
religious  disorganization.  The  relations  of  the  western  por- 
tion of  Switzerland  with  the  Church  of  France  were  severed. 
When  political  order  had  been  in  some  sort  restored  (1803)^ 
the  Catholic  Cantons,  then  under  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  estab- 
lish a  bishopric  within  their  own  territory.  The  petition  was 
again  urged  in  1814,  and  finally  granted  by  Pius  VII.  on  the 
7th  of  October. 

In  delivering  the  papal  brief  to  the  Diet,  the  Nuncio  an- 
nounced that  the  Holy  Father  had  appointed  Goeldlin  of  Tief- 
enaii,  Prior  of  the  ancient  abbey  of  St.  Michael's,  at  Bero- 
miinster.  Vicar  Apostolic  over  three  Cantons.^  But  while  the 
representatives  of  the  Cantons  unanimously  agreed  that  it 
was  necessary  to  establish  a  see,  and  that  the  appointment  was 
a  good  one,  there  were  other  matters  of  detail  which  were  not 
so  easily  adjusted.  Each  Canton  had  its  own  interests  ;  each 
member  of  the  Diet  his  own  views. 

Unfortunatel}^,  no  satisfactory  settlement  had  been  arrived 


» Cfr.  Hurter,  1.  c,  p.  45-49.     Tiib.  quart.  Review,  1820,  p.  734-741 ;  1821,  p 
164-171. 


§  405.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland.  745 

at,  whet  news  was  received  of  the  death  of  Goeldlin,  in  the 
prime  of  his  life  (1819).  His  successor,  Charles  Budolph  of 
JBiiol  Schauenstein,  Prince  Bishop  of  Coire,  was  by  no  means 
so  acceptable  a  choice,  and  the  Canton  of  Aargau  demanded 
to  be  again  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
(Jonstance.  The  intention  was  to  include  the  Cantons  for- 
merly belonging  to  Constance  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
newly-reorganized  see  of  Basle,  whose  incumbent  was  then 
residing  at  Offenbnrg,  in  Baden,  and  Pius  YII.  cut  matters 
short  by  a^tpoiiiting  as  his  suffragan  and  coadjutor  the  Prior, 
Glutz  Bachti,  of  the  collegiate  church  of  Soleure.  By  sub- 
sequent negotiations,  a  union  was  formed  among  the  Catholic 
inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  of  Basle,  Lucerne,  Berne,  Soleure, 
and  Aargau.  Pius  VII.  settled  the  difficulty  relative  to  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Gall  by  creating  it  an  episcopal  see  (July  2, 
1823),  and  bestowing  upon  Charles  Rudolph  the  double  title 
of  Bishop  of  Coire  and  aS^^.  Gall.  The  two  sees  were  sepa- 
rated in  1836.^  The  proposal  to  unite  by  Concordat  the  orig- 
inal Cantons  of  TJri,  Schwytz,  and  Unterwalden  with  the  bish- 
opric of  Coire  was  rejected  by  the  Pope,  January  7,  1823. 
Finally,  in  reply  to  a  petition  from  the  Catholics  of  Geneva, 
the  hot-bed  of  Calvinism,  requesting  the  establishment  of  a 
bishopric  in  that  Canton,  Pius  VII.,  by  the  bull  Ider  multi- 
plices,  placed  them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of 
Lausanne,  residing  at  Fribourg.^  The  w^ay  was  now  clear  for 
a  definite  settlement  of  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Switzer- 
land, and  accordingly  a  Concordat  was  entered  into  with  Pope 
Leo  XII,  and  promulgated  in  May,  1828,  by  the  bull  Inter 
praecipua  Nostri  Apostolatus  munia.  The  Concordat  provided 
that  the  Catholic  inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  of  Lucerne,  So- 
leure, Berne,  Aargau,  Basle,  Zug,  and  Thurgau  should  form 
the  diocese  of  Basle,  the  bishop  to  reside  at  Soleure;  that  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  should  have  a  cliapter  consisting  of 
twenty- one  canons  and  two  dignitaries,  the  one  appointed  by 
the  government,  the  other  by  the  Pope;-'   and  that  to  the 


'  Tiib.  Quart.  Review,  1824,  pp.  317-333;  1826,  pp.  728-731. 
2  Tiib.  quart.  Review,  year  1820,  p.  346-355.     Cfr.  p.  726-734;  p.  741-744; 
year  1821,  p.  363-366. 
^Ibid.,  1828,  p.  556-568. 


746  Ptriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

canons  should  belong  the  right  of  electing  the  new  bishop,  to 
whom  the  Pope  should  give  canouical  appointment,  etc.  These 
stipulations  were  rejected  by  many  of  the  cantons  in  whose 
name  they  had  been  made,  and  in  consequence  a  new  arrange- 
ment was  entered  into  betw^een  Lucerne,  Berne,  Soleure,  and 
Zug,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Internuncio  Gizzi,  acting  for 
the  Pope,  on  the  other,^  to  which  Aargau  and  Thurgau  gave 
their  assent  in  1830,  during  the  pontificate  of  Pius  VIII.* 
Finally,  after  some  further  negotiations,^  it  was  determined  to 
distribute  the  882,859  Catholics  in  Switzerland  in  1841  (the 
Protestants  of  all  denominations  at  the  same  date  numbering 
1,292,871  and  the  Jews  1,755)  into  six  dioceses,  as  follows  : 
1.  The  diocese  of  Basle,  including  the  Cantons  of  Lucerne, 
Zug,  Soleure  (the  residence  of  the  bishop),  Aargau,  Thurgau, 
Basle,  Zurich,  and  Berne  (Jura)  ;  2.  The  diocese  of  Lausanne 
and  Geneva,  including  the  Cantons  of  Fribourg,  Geneva,  Vaud, 
J^eufchatel,  and  Berne  (as  far  as  the  Aar) ;  3.  The  diocese  of 
/S'io?!  (Sitten),  including  the  Canton  of  Valais;  4.  The  .diocese 
of  Coire  (Chur)  and  St.  Gall,  including  the  Cantons  of  Uri, 
Schwytz,  Unterw^alden,  Glarus,  Grisons,  Appenzell,  Schafi'hau- 
sen,  and  *S';'.  6r«^^,  which,  by  the  Concordat  of  1845,  was  again 
made  a  distinct  see,  thus  forming  the  fifth  diocese ;  and  6^  A 
diocese  whose  jurisdiction  was  determined  by  the  character  of 
the  subjects  rather  than  by  territorial  limits,  for  it  comprised  all 
Catholics  speaking  the  Italian  language  within  the  Canton 
of  Ticino,  and  was,  until  July  22,  1859,  under  the  care  of  the 
Bishop  of  Coma  and  the  Archbishop  oi  Milan. ^  There  being 
no  archiepiscopal  see  in  Switzerland,  the  bishops  of  that 
country  are  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and  there  is, 
in  consequence,  a  Nuncio  Apostolic  resident  at  Lucerne,  a  eir- 


1  Tiib.  Quart.  Review,  1829,  pp.  154-183. 

2  Ibid.,  1830,  pp.  603-610.  For  the  reasons  of  their  refusal,  sec  Hurier,  pp. 
4i)-56. 

3  Ibid.,  year  1830,  pp.  603-610. 

*  A  full  statement  of  the  condition  of  religion  in  certain  dioceses  may  be 
found  in  The  Catholic  of  1834,  Vol.  LIIL,  pp.  306-332  ;  Vol.  LIV.,  pp.  8-44: 
1836,  Vol.  LXI.,  pp.  21-46;  Vol.  LXII.,  pp.  36-57,  and  1-36-173:  also  in 
Hurter,  1.  c,  concerning  Zurich,  pp  361-309  sq. ;  concerning  Lucerne,  p.  407 ; 
concsrning  Glarus,  pp.  481  sq. 


§  405.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland.  717 

cumstance  that  greatly  facilitates  the  management  of  ecclesi- 
astical affairs. 

While  there  is  probably  no  other  country  in  which  the 
principles  of  Modern  Liberalism  have  taken  such  deep  root, 
and  developed  into  forms  so  various  and  conflicting  as  in  the 
Helvetian  Confederacy,  neither  is  there  any  other  country  in 
which  Liberals,  in  spite  of  ther  internal  dissension^:,  so  com- 
pletely lose  sight  of  part}-  lines  in  their  common  hostility  tc 
the  Church,  or  combine  with  more  hearty  unanimity  against 
her.  This  spirit  has  grown  still  more  intensely  malignant 
since  the  occurrence  of  the  events  of  1830  and  1881.  Switzer- 
land is  called  the  land  of  freedom,  but  it  is  in  reality  under 
the  tyranny  of  radicalism.  Day  after  day,  with  unremitting 
continuity,  the  press  scatters  over  the  country  profane  jests 
and  foul  calumnies  against  Catholic  priests,  convents,  and 
Jesuits  ;  against  the  Pope  and  his  Kuncio,  and  the  Church 
and  her  institutions.  And  so  unblushing  has  been  the  dis- 
honesty practiced  and  so  desperate  the  methods  employed  by 
these  Liberals  that  they  have  even  gone  the  length  of  forging 
papal  bulls.  To  defend  themselves  against  the  attacks  of  this 
perfidious  warfare,  the  Catholics  in  1832  established  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Journal  of  Switzerland,  which,  it  was  hoped,  would 
revive  and  quicken  religious  sentiment  among  the  people, 
maintain  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  of  religion,  correct 
false  assertions,  and  repel  slanders.  It  was  soon  discovered 
that  there  were  traitors  among  those  professing  to  be  defend- 
ers of  the  Church.  Some  Catholic  theologians  of  the  school 
of  Paolo  Sarjn,  and  infected  with  the  poison  of  modern  indif- 
ferentism,  started  in  opposition  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Journal 
of  Switzerland  a  paper  called  the  Religious  Gazette  for  Germany 
and  Switzerland.  Its  editor,  a  certain  Fischer,  of  indilierent 
reputation,  drifting  with  the  current  of  radical  opinion,  pro- 
claimed that  separation  from  the  Holy  See  would  be  a  su- 
preme blessing  to  the  Catholic  Church  m  Switzerland.  En- 
couraged by  such  disloyalty  and  treachery,  the  radical  press 
grew  more  audacious  and  energetic,  and  poured  forth  an  in- 
cessant stream  of  irreligious  calendars,  blasphemous  almanacs, 
atheistical  pamphlets,  historical  and  sacrilegious  essays,  and  im- 


748  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

moral  novels}  Aiiimated  by  such  feelings  of  hostility  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  representatives  of  the  progressive  party 
from  the  various  Cantons  assembled  at  Baden  in  1834,  and, 
ignoring  all  established  relations  and  existing  legal  guaran- 
tees, drew  up  the  instrument  known  as  the  Articles  of  Confer- 
ence, by  which  the  Church  Avas  reduced  to  a  condition  of  civil 
servitude. 

Gregory  XVI.,  feeling  that  there  was  now  a  call  upon  him 
to  act,  issued.  May  17,  1835,  an  encyclical  letter^  to  all  the 
Swiss  bishops,  condemning  the  Articles,  which,  however,  were 
enforced,  regardless  of  all  protests,  in  many  of  the  Cantons. 
Catholic  families  loving  their  faith  and  loyal  to  its  teachings, 
took  alarm,  and  wishing  to  provide  a  school  where  their 
children  might  receive  proper  training,  they  established  a 
college  at  Schwytz,^  which  was  placed  under  the  direction  of 
the  Jesuits,  whose  pedagogical  labors  had  been  so  successful 
at  Fribourg,  where  a  similar  seat  of  learning  had  been  founded 
three  hundred  years  ago  by  the  illustrious  Canisius,  and  re- 
stored in  1818.*  The  Jesuits'  college  at  Fribourg  was  fre- 
quented, not  alone  by  the  Catholic  youth  who  had  been  with- 
drawn-from  the  schools  of  Lucerne  and  Soleure,  on  account 
of  the  Liberalism  prevalent  there,  but  also  by  young  men 
from  every  religious  denomination  and  political  party  in 
Switzerland,  and  by  others  coming  from  foreign  lands.  There 
was  also  an  educational  establishment  founded  at  3Iontet,  in  the 
same  Canton,  under  the  direction  of  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  in  which  a  number  of  young  ladies  received  instruc- 
tion.    The  government  of  the  Canton  Aargau,  among  all  the 

^  Hurier,  in  his  comprehensive  Chronique  Scandaleuse  of  Modern  Switzerland, 
has  drawn  a  frightful  picture  of  these  excesses  of  the  press. 

2  The  articles  of  the  conference,  in  fourteen  paragraphs,  or  a  new  kind  of 
church  polity,  in  The  Catholic,  Supplement  to  the  May  number  of  1834 ;  Hur- 
ier, 1.  c,  pp.  274  sq. ;  the  Pope's  Encyclica,  in  The  Catholic,  Supplement  to  the 
January  number  of  1836;  and  the  Tub.  Quurt.  Review  of  1835,  p.  773-758. 

3  The  Catholic,  year  1836,  Vol.  LXII.,  p.  58  sq. 

^  Ibid.,  Vol.  LXII.,  p.  58  sq.,  1836.  concerning  the  College  of  Schwytz;  con- 
cerning that  of  Fribourg,  ibid.,  1834,  Vol.  LIV.,  p.  33-44;  Htirter,  1.  c,  p.  507  sq. 
Hisi.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  38  sq.,  210  sq.  Piccolomini,  A  few  words 
on  the  Boarding  Schools  and  the  Colleges  of  the  Jesuits  in  Switzerland,  Katis- 
bon,  1843. 


§  405.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Switzerland.  749 

Swiss  Cantons,  has  the  distinction  of  having  enacted  the  most 
severe  law  against  the  Church.  In  direct  violation  of  the 
Federal  Compact^  of  August  7,  1815,  this  Canton  passed  a 
law  January  20, 1841,  suppressing  all  convents  within  its  con- 
fines, notwithstanding  that  some  of  them  were  coeval  in  origin 
with  the  very  dawn  of  Swiss  history. 

Gizzi,  the  Apostolic  Nuncio,  and  the  Austrian  embassador, 
de  Bombelles,  at  once  protested  against  the  measure,^  stating 
that  it  was  not  a  question  as  to  whether  a  few  convents  should 
cease  to  exist  or  not,  but  as  to  whether  the  principles  of  lib- 
erty should  be  maintained  and  the  Federal  Compact  preserved 
or  the  contrary.  The  Great  Council,  they  said,  by  suppress- 
ing Catholic  convents,  had  at  once  violated  the  Twelfth  Ar- 
ticle of  the  Federal  Compact,  and  dealt  a  blow  at  religious 
freedom.  The  discontent  excited  by  this  measure  was  so 
widespread  and  threatening^  that  the  Directorial  Canton,  by 
an  enactment,  passed  in  the  month  of  February,  1843,  de- 
clared all  sales  of  monastic  property  made  since  the  meeting 
of  the  Diet  in  1841  of  no  effect,  and  summoned  the  Canton 
of  Aargau  to  revoke  them,  and  to  repeal  other  measures  an- 
tagonistic to  the  then  existing  state  of  affairs,  declaring  its 
intention,  in  case  of  refusal,  to  proceed  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  Confederacy  was  based.  It  was  a  great 
comfort  and  consolation  to  the  loyal  children  of  the  Church, 
amid  these  scenes  of  radical  violence,  to  learn  that  a  new  con- 
stitution of  a  decidedly  Catholic  character  had  been  adopted 
in  Lucerne  by  a  surprisingly  large  majority  of  the  popular 


1  Paragraph  Twelfth  reads :  "The  cantonal  governments  will  see  to  it  that 
the  monasteries  and  chapters  are  maintained,  and  that  their  prosperity  is  se- 
cure. Their  possessions,  like  all  other  private  property,  shall  be  subject  to  tax 
and  other  imposts."  Cf.  The  Catholics  of  Aargau  and  Radicalism  (Memorial), 
1843;  also  Augnb.  Univ.  Gazette,  nro.  173,  of  1843. 

^  Le  Journal  des  Dcbats,  August  9. 

^  Cfr.  "  Encroachments  of  the  Government  of  Aargau  upon  the  (^'atholics" 
(Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  II.,  p.  179  aq.,  214  sq.,  295  sq.)  The  Last  At 
tempts  against  the  Monasteries  in  Switzerland  {Ibid.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  204  sq.,  281 
sq.;  Vol.  VII.,  p.  422  sq.)  "The  Aargau  State-paper"  {Ibid.,  Vol.  VII.,  p. 
632  sq. ;  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  224  sq.,  337  sq.,  440  sq.)  See  also  "TVte  Eccl.  Journal  of 
South  Germany,"  1839,  nros.  2,  4,  and  6. 


750  Perioil  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


votes  (March,  1842).^  After  numerous  writings  and  pro- 
longed discussion,  it  was  resolved,  in  January,  1844,  that  the 
vuns  of  the  convents  of  Fahr,  Hermetschwil,  Gnadenthal, 
and  Baden,  suppressed  in  1841,  should  be  permitted  to  again 
take  possession  of  their  houses.  The  mitred  Abbot  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Muri,  who  had  been  on  trial  for 
certain  political  oifeuses,  was  acquitted,  declared  exempt  from 
all  penalty,  and  the  State  adjudged  to  pay  the  costs.^  The 
Kadicals,  however,  had  no  intention  of  giving  up  the  contest. 
In  the  Diet  of  1844  the  representatives  from  the  Canton  of 
Aargau  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  have  the  Jesuits 
banished  from  the  whole  of  Switzerland ;  and  when,  on  the 
24th  of  October  of  the  same  year,  the  inhabitants  of  Lucerne 
voted  to  recall  the  members  of  the  Society,  and  place  the 
theological  schools  of  the  Canton  under  their  direction,  the 
Radicals  of  the  whole  countrv  rose  in  indis^nation. 

In  December,  1844,  and  again  in  March,  1845,  tw^o  armies 
of  volunteers,  led  against  the  Catholics  of  Lucerne,  under 
pretext  of  overthrowing  the  domination  of  the  Jesuits,  were 
successively  repulsed.  Lucerne,  now  fully  alive  to  the  dan- 
gers that  threatened  her,  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
neighboring  Catholic  Cantons  for  their  mutual  protection. 
The  Radicals  now  determined  to  avenge  their  defeat.  As  a 
preliminary  step,  they  hired  a  vile  wretch  by  the  name  of 
Jacob  Milller  to  assassinate  Joseph  Leu,^  a  prosperous  and  hon- 
orable merchant,  gifted  with  splendid  oratorical  powers,  who 
had  excited  the  hostility  of  his  enemies  because  he  was  the 
leader  in  his  day  of  every  Catholic  movement  in  Switzerland. 


^  The  Third  Article  reads  as  follo-ws:  "The  Apostolic  and  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  the  religion  of  the  whole  population  of  Lucerne,  and  as  such  is  the 
religion  of  the  State.  The  government,  therefore,  shall  in  no  way,  either  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  restrain,  limit,  or  hinder  the  intercourse  of  priests,  citizens, 
and  communities  with  the  authorities  and  functionaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  whatever  relates  to  religious  ecclesiastical  affairs.  However,  all  ec- 
( It'siastical  ordinances  and  regulations  must  be  submitted  lo  the  government 
before  publication.  The  relations  of  Church  and  State  should  be  adjusted  by 
an  amicable  understanding  between  the  two  powers.  The  State  guarantees  the 
inviolability  of  foundations  and  other  ecclesiastical  property." 

■^  The  Catholic,  1844,  nro.  2;  South  Germ.  Eccl.  Journal,  1843,  nros.  48  and  52. 

'  Sigwart  Muller.  Councilman  Joseph  Leu,  of  Ebersoll,  Altdorf,  1863. 


§  405.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Smtzeiiand.  751 

The  assassin  afterward  confessed  his  crime,  and  was  beheaded 
January  31,  1846.  In  the  Cantons  of  Yaud,  Berne,  and  Zu- 
rich the  governments  had  voted  against  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  but  they  were  forced  to  yield  to  the  dominant  influ- 
ence of  the  other  Cantons  which  favored  the  measure.  The 
opponents  of  the  Jesuits  and  those  desiring  their  expulsion 
and  the  suppression  of  their  schools  were  daily  gaining 
strength,  and  for  this  reason  those  Cantons  which  had  either 
protected  the  Societ}'  or  placed  their  schools  under  its  direc- 
tion, viz..  Lucerne,  Uri,  Schwytz,  Unterwaldeu,  Zug,  Fribourg, 
and  Valais,  gave  their  support  to  the  separate  alliance  {Son- 
derhund)  formed  in  1843,  and  appointed  a  council  of  war  to 
act  in  the  emergency  of  a  conflict.  On  the  20th  of  July,  1846, 
the  Diet,  by  a  small  majority',  declared  the  Sonderbund  incon- 
sistent with  the  well-bein^'  of  the  Confederation,  and  there- 
fore dissolved.  To  enforce  this  decree,  the  Diet  brought  a 
numerous  army  into  the  fleld,  and  a  fratricidal  and  unholy 
war  was  commenced  against  the  Catholics  of  the  Sonderbund,' 
who  were  completely  vanquished,  but  whether  their  defeat  is 
to  be  attributed  to  too  much  confidence  in  the  justness  of  their 
cause,  or  to  the  mistakes  of  their  leaders,  or  to  treachery,  it 
is  difllcult  to  say.  Fribourg  was  taken,  after  a  short  and  inef- 
fectual resistance,  on  the  9th  of  November,  and  the  23d  of  the 
same  month  the  army  of  the  Sonderbund  was  routed  at  Gis- 
likon,  near  the  frontier  of  Lucerne,  and  the  seven  Catholic 
Cantons  passed  under  the  despotic  and  intolerant  government 
of  the  dominant  party.  Heavy  war  contributions  were  levied, 
forty  convents  were  suppressed,  religious  freedom  vanished, 
and  the  Bishop  of  Lausanne  and  Geneva  was  sent  into  exile. 
Such  were  some  of  the  results  of  this  war,  in  every  way  so 
disastrous  to  Catliolic  Switzerland.^  As  we  shall  see  furtiier 
on,  these  deeds  of  violence  called  forth  a  reaction,  which  in- 
fused new  life  and  fresh  energy  into  the  Catholics  of  that 
country. 


1  CreUneau-Joly,  Histoire  du  Sonderbund,  Paris,  1850,  2  vols. 
"^The  Catholic  of  1847  and  1848;  also  HiHt.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vols.  XX. 
and  XXI. 


752  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


§  406.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Austria. 

Boost,  Modern  Hist,  of  Austria  (1789-1839),  Augsburg,  1839,  p.  101  sq. 
Beidtcl,  Researches  on  the  Situation  of  the  Church  in  the  Austrian  States,  Vi- 
enna, 1849.  Scliarpjf,  Pt.  II.,  p.  74-93.  Gams,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.,  p.  509-561.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclop.,  Vol. 
XL,  p.  lOGO  sq. ;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  2,  p.  147  sq. 

Alarmed  at  the  symptoms  of  revolution  which  now  began 
to  show  themselves,  and  which  were  the  legitimate  outcome 
of  the  fatal  policy  of  his  brother,  Joseph  II.,  Leopold  II.,  who 
became  Emperor  March  12,  1790,  set  his  face  against  the  lib- 
oralistic  and  philosophical  tendencies  w^hich  were  being  forced 
upon  Austria  in  spite  of  herself,  and,  by  the  repeal  of  certain 
unpopular  laws  of  his  predecessor's,  succeeded  in  allaying  the 
secret  agitation,  which  kept  the  Emperor  in  a  state  of  uncer- 
tainty and  excitement.  Such  of  the  laws  of  Joseph  II.  as 
interfered  with  the  free  administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs 
he  either  abrogated  altogether  or  practically  set  aside.  He 
closed  the  General  Seminaries,  permitted  bishops  to  educate 
their  clei'gy  in  their  own  schools,  authorized  the  use  of  the 
Latin  language  in  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments  and 
other  liturgical  offices,  and  recognized  the  rights  of  the  Ro- 
man Pontiff  in  wliatever  relates  to  the  Sacrament  of  mar- 
riage. He  also  satisfied  the  claims  of  the  Protestants  by  in- 
corporating in  the  tw^enty-six  articles  of  the  laws  of  1791  the 
edicts  of  1608, 1647,  and  1648,  granting  to  the  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists  of  Hungary  freedom  of  worship.  Finally,  he  forced 
the  Turks  to  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace,  re-establishing  the 
statu  quo  as  it  existed  on  the  9th  of  February,  1788,  previously 
to  the  breaking  out  of  the  war.  Though  Leopold  did  much 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  Church  by  practically  dis- 
regarding existing  laws,  he  did  not  fully  emancipate  her  from 
the  tyranny  of  a  civil  bureaucracy.  The  system  of  Joseph  II. 
was  indeed  ignored,  but  it  had,  nevertheless,  as  a  wdiole,  a 
legal  sanction  and  a  recognized  existence.'  Such  was  the 
state  of  affairs  when  Francis  11  (March,  1792-1835)  ascended 


•  Baron  von  Eckstein,  The  (Austrian)  Clergy  in  their  Relation  to  Public  In- 
.?tr.iction  {The  Catholic  of  1828,  Vol.  XXVII.,  p.  11-21,  268-293). 


§  406.   Ihe  Catholic  Church  in  Austria.  753 

the  throne.  This  prince  deeply  sympathized  with  the  Head 
of  the  Church  in  his  misfortunes,  and,  taking  as  his  patterns, 
not  his  immediate  predecessors,  but  those  more  illustrious 
men  of  whom  his  ancestral  house  furnished  so  many,  he  be- 
came at  once  the  patron  of  the  Church  and  the  protector  of  the 
Holy  See.  The  Emperor  was  in  Rome  in  1819,  and  Plus  VII., 
happy  to  have  an  opportunity  to  give  some  token  of  his  es- 
teem for  the  royal  House  of  the  Hapsburgs,  raised  the  Arch- 
duke Rudolph  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Olmiitz,  and  created 
him  a  cardinal.  In  1842  Gregory  XVI.  conferred  similar  dig- 
nities, for  a  like  reason,  upon  the  Prince  iSchwarzenherg,  Prince- 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg. 

If  the  Church  in  Austria,  nevertheless,  continued  for  the 
half-a-century  during  wdiich  Prince  Metternich  was  First  Min- 
ister, subject  to  the  Josephist  system,  and  under  the  control 
of  the  civil  authority,  the  fault  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  indif- 
ference of  the  bishops,  rather  than  to  the  will  of  the  govern- 
ment. Many  of  these  bishops,  men,  too,  of  learning  and  irre- 
proachable lives,  had,  by  appointment  of  government,  taken 
an  active  part  in  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  aiiairs 
while  the  Church  was  still  under  the  control  of  the  State,  and 
now,  from  force  of  liubit,  showed  a  certain  tenderness  and  at- 
tachment to  a  system  they  themselves  had  helped  to  perpetu- 
ate, sincerely  believing  that  the  Church  could  not  be  equally 
w^ell  governed  in  any  other  way.  But  bitter  experience  soon 
showed  that,  no  matter  how  beneficial  such  methods  might 
seem  in  themselves,  they  were,  in  reality,  whether  intended 
to  be  so  or  not,  encroachments  of  the  civil  authority  upon  the 
rights  of  the  Church.  For  example,  in  1802,  ^^  the  Court  of 
Chancery,''  acting  upon  representations  made  to  it,  and  with- 
out consulting  the  bishops,  passed  two  decrees,  providing  for 
the  increase  of  the  number  of  the  secular  clergy  and  the  re- 
storation of  discipline  in  the  convents.^     Again,  in  1804,  new 


'  See  ?  390,  at  the  beginning. 

2  In  attempting  to  correct  the  existing  evils  by  the  very  means  by  which  they 

had  been  produced,  the  Aulic  Chancery  showed  that  it  did  not  understand  their 

real  character.     By  the  first  autograph  of  April  2,  1802,  it  was  prescribed  that 

gymnasia,  schools  of  philosophy,  and  diocesan  seminaries  should  be  established, 

VOL.    Ill — 48 


754  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

ordinances  were  published  relative  to  public  schools,  removing 
them  from  the  control  of  the  bishops,  and  placing  them  under 
that  of  consistories,  because  these,  being  the  creations  of  the 
State,  would  pursue  its  policy  as  regards  methods  of  teach- 
ing, the  selection  of  text-books,  the  conducting  of  examina- 
tions, and  the  mode  of  inspection.  Again,  in  1810,  Pehem's 
work  on  canon  law  was  thrown  out  of  the  schools,  and  that 
of  Rechherger  introduced,  because  the  latter  upheld  a  system 
of  ecclesiastical  polity  in  favor  with  government,  and  on 
the  whole  treated  the  Church  as  little  better  than  a  civil  in- 
stitution, and  therefore  dependent  upon  the  State.  But,  since 
1808,  the  bishops  have  enjoyed  a  larger  measure  of  influence 
in  whatever  rehites  to  primary  schools  and  theological  estab- 
lishments, and  in  judging  of  the  orthodoxy  and  moral  fitness 
of  aspirants  to  the  priesthood.  These  measures,  together 
with  the  restoration  of  seminaries  and  faculties  of  Catholic 
theology,  led  the  way  to  the  publication  of  man}-  works  of 
merit,  which  exercised  a  wide  and  beneficent  influence.  Such 
were  the  writings  of  Powondra,  Reichenberger,  Zenner,  and 
others  on  pastoral  theolog}-,  and  of  Klein,  von  Rauscher, 
and  Kuttenstock  on  Church  history.  In  appointing  to  bish- 
oprics, the  Emperor  Francis  was  careful  to  select  only  men 
of  distinction  and  ability,  whose  lives  were  an  example  to 
their  flocks,^  and  who  devoted  themselves  zealouslj-  and  ener- 
getically to  the  primary  schools,  to  public  instruction  of  every 
grade,  and  especially  to  the  training  of  young  men  for  the 
priesthood.  Of  these  it  will  be  sufficient  to  enumerate  Sigis- 
muiid,  Count  of  liohemvarth,  Archbishop  of  Vienna  from 
1803;    Wenceslaus  Leopold  Chlumczanskg,  Bishop  of  Leitme- 


ftnd,  if  required,  that  a  course  of  theology  be  added.  Now,  putting  aside  the 
circumstance  that  these  measures  were  prescribed  by  a  body  incompetent  to 
deal  with  such  affairs,  they  could  not  possibly  have  served  any  useful  purpose, 
because  the  Josephist  programme  and  the  uncatholic  text-books  were  still  re- 
tained, and  the  schools  continued  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  State.  The 
second  rescript,  of  the  same  date,  requiring  religious  to  wear  their  habits  and 
observe  their  rules,  "  except  in  the  instances  in  which  these  had  been  modified 
by  imperial  decrees,"  and  forbidding  all  intercourse  with  foreign  superiors,' 
was  not,  it  would  se«m,  of  a  character  to  restore  discipline  in  the  monasteries 
Briick,  Church  Hist.,  pp.  758  sq.  (Tr.) 
'  See  list  of  Austrian  bishops,  apud  Gams,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  509-533. 


§  406.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Austria,  755 

ritz  from  1802,  and  rriuce-Arclibishop  of  Prague  from  1814; 
Leojpold  Maximilian,  Count  de  Firniian,  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
Diiig,  and  from  1822  to  1832  Archbishop  of  Vienna;  James 
Frint,  Bishop  of  St.  Pdlten  from  1827  to  1835  ;  and  Francis 
*Salm,  Bishop  of  Gurk  and  Klagenfurt  (f  1822),  who,  with 
generous  hospitality,  received  the  pious  and  learned  Benedict- 
ines, among  whom  were  such  men  as  Neugart  and  Boppert, 
ivhen  they  had  been  expelled  from  their  monastery  of  Saint- 
Blaise,  in  the  Black  Forest.^  In  order  to  check  the  disinte- 
grating spirit  of  the  age,  and  to  provide  a  system  of  education 
for  youth,  which  should  be  at  once  serious  and  solid,  and 
having  as  little  in  common  with  the  sonorous  and  senseless 
phraseology  of  false  philosophers  as  with  the  torpid  lethargy 
of  the  enemies  of  true  progress,  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been  so 
long  misunderstood  and  misrepresented,  were  again  invited 
to  return  to  the  Empire  in  1820.  The  members  of  the  Society 
at  once  opened  their  houses  at  Verona,  Innspruck,  Linz, 
Lemberg,  and  Tarnopol. 

The  Eedemptorists,  under  that  excellent  man,  Clement  M. 
Hofbauer,^  had  already  established  themselves,  in  1816,  at 
Vienna.  The  Religious  Orders  soon  received  fresh  and  able 
allies  in  their  struggle  for  the  Gospel  and  the  Church.  Asso- 
ciating with  himself  Zacliary  Werner  and  other  writers  who 
shared  his  convictions,  Frederic  Schlegel  began  in  the  Germanic 
Museum  and  the  Austrian  Observer  a  vigorous  assault  upon 
Protestantism,  which  he  continued  with  marked  ability  in  his 
lectures.  His  writings  revived  the  spirit  of  Catholicity  in 
Germany,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence,  particularly 
among  the  upper  classes.  In  Hungary,  where  Protestantism 
had  taken  a  faster  hold  on  the  people  than  in  any  other  prov- 
ince of  the  Austrian  Empire,  a  national  council  was  convoked, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Emperor,  by  Alexander  Rudnay,  Arch- 
bishop of  Gran  and  Primate  of  Hungary,  to  meet  on  the  8th 

iCfr.  Gams,  Hist,  of  the  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Vol.  I.,  p.  527- 
531,  and  the  Wiirzburg  ChUianeum,  Vol.  I.,  of  1862,  p.  197-200. 

*  Poesl,  Clement  Maria  Ilof  bauer,  the  first  German  Kedemptorist,  Katisbon 
1844.  Sehast.  Brunyier,  C.  M.  Hofbauer  and  His  Age,  Vienna,  1858.  Har- 
tnger,  The  Life  of  the  Servant  of  God,  CI.  M.  Hofbauer,  Vienna,  1864.  Life 
of  the  Venerable  C.  M.  Hofbauer,  Priest  of  the  Congr.  of  Most  Holy  Kedeemor. 
By  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Mercy,  New  York,  1877.  (Tr.) 


756  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

of  September,  1822,  the  object  of  which  was  stated  to  be  "  to 
check  the  decay  of  morality  ;  to  ward  off  the  evils  with  which 
the  scourge  of  impiety  was  menacing  both  Church  and  State; 
and  to  re-establish  ancient  ecclesiastical  discipline  among  the 
clergy  and  the  people  and  in  the  schools.''  ^ 

In  other  parts  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  where  the  German 
language  was  spoken,  the  discussion  of  ecclesiastical  and  ".he- 
ological  questions  was  carried  on  through  the  pages  of  the 
Theological  Journal  of  Frint  from  the  year  1808.  It  was  dis- 
continued for  a  while,  but  again  revived  in  1828  by  Pletz,  who 
conducted  it  until  his  death  in  1840.^  The  Linz  Theological 
Monthly,  and  still  later  the  Linz  and  Salzburg  Quarterly  were 
each  very  valuable  as  able  and  reliable  exponents  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  pastoral  theology.  The  Society  of  Mechitarists  for 
the  diffusion  of  Catholic  literature  and  the  Leopoldine  Associa- 
tion for  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  particularly  in  Amer- 
ica, rendered  important  services  to  religion.  An  unusual 
activity  in  the  domain  of  speculative  theology  has  quite  re- 
centl}^  begun  to  manit'est  itself,  notably  among  the  clergy  of 
the  school  of  Gunther,  whose  ablest  organ  is  the  Gazette  of 
Catholic  Theology  of  Vienna,  edited  in  1850,  and  for  years  after 
by  Scheiner  and  Hdusle,  and  more  recently  by  Wiedemann. 
Journals  in  the  vernacular,  among  others  the  Journal  of  Sion, 
were  also  started  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary.  Wholly  regard- 
less either  of  the  laws  of  Joseph  11.  or  of  the  clamor  of  the 
Liberals,  the  Hungarian  bishops,  when  the  question  of  mixed 
marriages^  came  up,  exerted  themselves  with  an  energy  only 
equaled  by  their  prudence  to  have  the  teaching  of  the  Church 
carried  out,  following  in  tiiis  the  example  set  them  by  Ziegler, 
Bishop  of  Linz  in  1838.  After  publishing  a  pastoral  letter  to 
their  clergy,  to  which  they  added  a  general  instruction  on  the 

1  A  succinct  historical  notice,  togetiier  with  the  documents,  may  be  found  in 
rhe  Catholic  of  1822,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  324-346.     Gams,  Vol.  I.,  p.  535-540. 

■•«  Vincent  Seback,  Dr.  Jos.  Pletz,  being  a  Biographical  Sketch,  Vienna,  1841. 
j  'Cf.  Sion,  1841,  nros.  127-130;  the  circular  of  the  bishops  in  The  Catholic, 
-/ebruary,  1841,  Supplem.,  p.  LIX.  sq. ;  the  letter  of  the  Primate  Joseph  Ko- 
■fiacsij  to  the  Estates  of  the  County  of  Pesth,  which  had  declared  any  priest  re- 
fiising  to  give  the  nuptial  benediction  in  mixed  marriages  liable  to  a  fine  of  600 
florins  {Sion,  1841,  nro.  7,  Supplem.)  Cf.,  also.  The  Catholic,  1842,  January 
number,  Supplem.,  p.  IV ;  March  number,  Supplem.,  pp.  CXIX.  sq. 


407.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria.  757 


subject  of  mixed  man-iages,  they  sent  Bishop  Lonovics  to 
Home  to  obtain  specific  instructions  from  the  Holy  See  for 
Hungary,  as  those  ah'eacly  given  for  the  States  of  Austria  did 
not  seem  applicable  to  that  country/  Hoping  to  adjust  the 
conflicting  claims  of  both  parties,  the  Emperor,  by  a  rescript 
of  July  5,  1843,  and  by  a  second  of  March  25,  1844,  decided 
that  in  mixed  marriages  the  parents  should  determine  thg 
kind  of  religious  education  to  be  given  to  their  children,  but 
that  Catholic  priests  were  under  no  obligation  to  perform  any 
sort  of  religious  act  in  celebrating  such  marriages.^ 

There  can  be  no  question  but  that  the  Church  in  Austria 
would  have  reached  a  much  higher  degree  of  prosperity  if  the 
governments  of  the  Emperor  Francis  and  his  successor,  Fer- 
dinand I.  (March  1, 1835  ;  December  2, 1848),  under  the  min- 
istry of  the  all-powerful  lletterjiich,  had  not  impeded  her  free 
development  by  continual  acts  indicating  a si»irit  of  distrust,  and 
by  subjecting  her  to  the  restraints  of  the  bureau  of  worship.' 

Notwithstanding  that  the  Catholic  is  the  established  relig- 
ion of  Austria,  the  government,  in  1821,  gave  ample  evidence 
of  its  tolerant  spirit  by  permitting  Protestants  to  open  a  the- 
ological school,  in  which  the  principles  of  the  Augsburg  and 
Helvetic  Confessions*  are  taught.  This  school  obtained  the 
title  and  privileges  of  a  faculty  in  1850,  and  the  right  to  con- 
fer the  degree  of  doctorate  in  Protestant  divinit3^ 

§  407.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria. 

Concordat  and  Constitutional  Oath  of  the  Catholics  in  Bavaria,  Augsburg, 
1847.  Remarks  on  the  New  Concordat  of  Bavaria,  compared  to  the  Eecent 
French  and  Former  Bavarian  Concordat  of  1807,  published  in  January,  1818. 
Gams,  1 ,  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  472-509.  Sepp,  Louis  Augustus,  King  of  Bavaria,  Schaff- 
haus^;-    1869. 

Few  countries  have  been  so  deeply  infected  with  the  poison 


1  The  Catholic,  1841,  December,  SuppL,  p.  LXXXV.  sq.,  with  the  archiepis- 
copal  instruction,  1842,  February,  p.  LXIV.  sq.  Mailath,  The  Religious  Trou- 
bles in  Hungary,  Ratisbon,  1845,  2  vols. 

-^Augsb.  Univ.  Gaz.,  1844,  nro.  139,  Suppl. 

8  Hist,  and  Pollt.  Papers,  Vol.  XXII. 

*  Wenrich,  John  Waechter  as  a  Man,  as  a  Servant  of  the  State  and  the 
Ohurch,  Vienna,  1831,  p.  113-154. 


758  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

of  a  false  philosophy,  or  have  sufiered  so  much  from  the  folly 
of  the  llluminati,  as  Bavaria  toward  the  close  of  the  last  au(^ 
the  opening  of  the  present  century.  Of  this  proofs  have  been 
already  given.^  Shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  reign  of 
llaximilian  Joseph  (February  16, 1799),  and  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  his  First  Minister,  3Iovtgelas,  seventy  religious 
foundations  and  abbeys  were  secularized  ;  and,  some  time 
later,  four  hundred  convents  were  closed  and  destroyed, 
churches  were  profaned  and  spoiled  of  their  treasures,  laws 
were  enacted  regulating  worship,  and  sacrilegious  hands  were 
laid  upon  things  the  most  holy.  When,  in  1807,  after  nu- 
merous delays  and  a  deal  of  shifty  conduct,  Montgelas  finally 
made  up  his  mind  to  conclude  a  Concordat  with  the  Holy  See 
through  the  Nuncio,  Delia  Geiiga,  Napoleon,  with  a  view  of 
impressing  upon  the  Pope  the  fact  that  the  Church  could  not 
get  on  except  by  conciliating  him,  stepped  in  and  prevented 
further  negotiations.  Here  the  affair  rested  until  1816,  when 
the  Church  in  Bavaria  was  in  so  deplorable  a  condition  that 
Pius  Vn.  burst  into  tears  in  speaking  of  it.^  Negotiations 
were  again  opened  through  the  Bishop  of  Chersonese,  Baron 
Haefelin,  and  Cardinal  Consalvi,  on  the  part  of  the  Holy  See, 
and  again  obstructed  by  the  action  of  Montgelas,  who  claimed 
for  the  government  the  right  of  appointing  to  all  benefices,  not 
even  excepting  parishes.  The  obnoxious  minister  was  finally 
removed  from  ofiice  February  2, 1817,  and  on  the  5th  of  June 
of  the  same  year,  after  some  further  objections  had  been  set 
aside,  an  arrangement  was  agreed  upon  and  signed  by  the 
king  on  the  24th  of  October  following.  Notwithstanding 
that  the  Pope  had  made  very  ample  concessions,  the  enemies 
of  the  Church  were  not  satisfied,  and,  acting  under  the  lead 
of  von  Feuerbach,  Governor  of  Ansbach,  opposed  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Concordat  until  after  the  new  Constitution  should 
have  been  promulgated,  because  the  latter  not  only  contained  ' 
paragraphs  contradictory  of  the  Concordat,  but  also  embodied  , 
the  Edict  of  1804,  which  was  in  spirit  and  drift  Protestant, 

1  See  2  392. 

^  Gams,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  498,  according  to  a  Roman  note  of  April  15,  1807 
Gliicksohti,  "  Bavaria  under  the  31inistry  of  Montgelas,"  being  several  articles 
in  the  Augs.  Univ.  Gaz.  of  the  year  1875. 


§  407.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Bavaria.  759 

rather  than  Catholic.  The  bishops  and  the  bulk  of  the  priests 
now  refused  to  take  the  oath  to  the  Constitution  until  assured 
by  the  declaration  of  the  king  (September  15,  1821)  that  it 
dill  not  bind  them  to  any  civil  obligations,  and  implied  noth- 
ing contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  Church,  Still  the  government 
ofiicials  continued  to  carry  themselves  as  arbitrarily^  as  ever, 
and  to  do  great  harm  to  the  Church  by  their  constant  and 
growing  interference  with  her  administration.  These  circum- 
stances gave  peculiar  weight  and  significance  to  the  solemn 
advice  of  Maximilian  to  King  Louis,  on  the  accession  of  the 
latter  to  the  throne  in  1825.  ^^ Guard  and  protect  the  faith" 
said  he,  "  that  Bavaria  may  again  become  what  she  loas  before  she 
was  led  to  betray  her  trust — the  shield  of  religion  and  the  corner- 
stone of  the  Church  in  Germany.  Lift  the  Church  from  the  bond- 
age in  which  she  is  still  held  by  those  loho  distrust  her  vAthout 
reason.  Honor  the  j)riesthood  to  the  end.  that  the  people  may 
listen  to  their  instructions  and  profit  by  them.  Let  neither  jmests 
nor  libertines  govern,  and  see  that  your  kingdom  be  not  the  theater 
either  of  empty  pageants  or  the  outbursts  of  democratic  violence.'^ ' 
The  lessons  of  heroism  and  devotion  bequeathed  to  him  by 
his  ancestors  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  were  not  lost  upon 
Louis,  who,  as  an  evidence  of  his  loyalty  to  his  royal  mission, 
had  an  equestrian  statue  erected  to  Maximilian  in  one  of  the 
public  squares  of  Munich;^  pleaded  in  favor  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  when  that  prelate  was  in  difficulties,  with 
the  filial  love  of  a  child  and  the  power  of  a  king  (after  1837) ; 
and  promoted  Catholic  science  by  becoming  the  sympathetic 
and  generous  patron  of  Goerres  (f  January  29,  1848),  Phillips, 
Moy,Moehler,  Klee,  Doellinger,  Haneberg,  Lteithmayr,  and  many 
other  able  and  brilliant  writers.  It  was  in  this  reign,  also, 
whose  auspicious  opening  gave  promise  of  a  more  happy  close 
than  it  had,  that  a  society  was  formed /or  the  diffusion  of  whole- 
some Catholic  books,  such  as  should  counteract  the  influence  of 


•See  Gorres^  remarkable  memoir,  entitled  ^^ Prince  Elector  Maximilian  to 
King  Louis  of  Bavaria  on  the  occasion  of  his  accession  to  the  Throne'^  (The 
Catholic,  1825,  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  219-249. 

-Cfr.  'The  Equestrian  t>tatue  of  Prince  Elector  Maximilian,"  in  the  Hist. 
and  Poiit.  Papers,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  449-454 ;  and  "  Prince  Elector  Maximilian  and 
Pather  Dominic,  in  the  Sion,  1830,  nro.  133,  or  op.  Nov.  6. 


760  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     ChajHer  1. 

the  worthless  and  pernicious  works  of  modern  literature,  and 
afi'ord  reading  which,  while  recreating,  would  not  poison  the 
mind,  and,  while  warm,ing  the  heart,  would  not  corrupt  it; 
that  Catholic  art,  inheriting  the  traditions  of  past  ages,  their 
majesty,  sobriet}',  dignity,  again  revived;  that  ancient  and 
decayed  cathedrals  were  restored,  the  unfinished  ones  of  Eat- 
isbou,  Bamberg,  and  Spire  completed,  and  new  churches 
built,  which  rival  in  architectural  beauty  and  artistic  decora- 
tion those  of  any  other  period.  Among  these  vaay  be  men- 
tioned the  Basilica  of  St.  Boniface,  which  is  circular  in  form, 
and  whose  dome  rests  upon  sixty-four  monoliths  of  gray 
marble,  and  is  resplendent  with  gold  and  frescoes;  the  cruci- 
form church  of  St.  Ludwig,  embellished  with  Cornelius' 
fresco  of  the  Last  Judgment;  the  handsome  Gothic  church 
of  Mariahilf,  in  the  neighboring  district  of  An,  whose  gor- 
geous windows  of  stained  glass  and  exquisite  S))ecimens  of 
wood-carving  excite  the  admiration  of  every  lover  of  the 
beautiful;  and,  finally,  the  Court  Chapel  of  All  Saints,  which, 
apart  from  its  architectural  merits,  contains  a  wealth  of  art- 
treasures.  It  was  in  this  reign  that  painting  renewed  her 
ancient  triumphs,  and  produced  works  which,  under  forms 
of  fascinating  beauty  and  surpassing  loveliness,  breathe  a 
spirit  of  divine  inspiration,  and  give  fitting  expression  to 
those  grand  conceptions  that  fill  the  Christian  mind.  Then, 
too,  the  episcopacy  was  adorned  by  bishops  (Sailer,  Wittmanu, 
and  Schwabl)  who,  by  their  vigilance,  energy,  and  self-sacri- 
fice, perpetuated  the  traditions  of  the  saintly  men,  who  had 
filled  the  epi-^copal  see  of  Ratisbon,  and  were  now  its  endur- 
ing giory.  Bishops  were  again  allowed  the  fullest  freedom  in 
their  relations  loith  the  Holy  See  ;'^  the  convents  of  the  Carmel- 
ites, Capuchins,  and  Franciscans,  conformably  to  the  royal 
promises  given  in  the  Concordat  (art.  VII.),  were  restored  to 
their  owners ;  the  Brothers  of  Mercy  and  the  Augustinian  Fri- 
ars were  permitred  to  return  ;  the  Redemptorist  Fathers  (from 
1842)  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity  again  opened  their  houses ; 
the  Servites  and  Benedictines^  were  reinstated  ;  the  Sisters  of 


I  On  the  free  intercourse  of  the  Episcopacj'  of  Bavaria  with  the  Holy  Sen, 
cf.  Hist,  ajid  Polif.  Papers,  Vol.  YII.,  pp.  503-027. 

^The  documents  <'oncernin!;r  the  foundation  of  the  Benedictine  establishmenta 


jj  407.    The   Catholic  Cliurch  in  Bavaria.  761 


the  Schools  onterecl  upon  their  work  of  teaching,  and  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  set  about  reclaimiug  the  erring 
aud  shielding  those  in  danger  from  the  temptations  to  which 
they  were  exposed.^  Seminaries  for  the  education  of  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood  were  established,  munihoently  en- 
dowed, and  placed  under  the  direction  of  men  eminent  alike 
for  theological  learning  and  priestly  virtues.^  Finally,  an  as- 
sociation {Ludwig's  Verein)  ^  was  founded,  and  received  the 
royal  approbation, for  the  conversion  of  unbelievers,  both  in 
Asia  and  America  (from  1839). 

Such  was  the  consoling  sight  oftered  to  the  admiration  of 
the  faithful  by  a  State  as  liberal  to  error  as  it  was  loyal  to  truth, 
and  as  sincerely  tolerant  as  it  was  profoundly  Catholic  ;  which 
recognized  and  rewarded  merit  wherever  found,  whether 
among  Catholics  or  Protestants,*  and  raised  to  positions  of 
eminence  all  persons,  regardless  of  religious  profession,  whom 
their  contemporaries  judged  worthy  of  being  so  honored.  It 
will  be  sufiicient  to  instance  Puchta,  the  great  civilian  ;  Stahl, 
the  celebrated  canonist ;  Hiickert,  the  Orientalist  aud  lyric 
poet  ;  and  Schelling,  the  philosopher  of  identity. 

in  the  diocese  of  Augsburg  are  apud  Rheinwald,  Acta  historico-ecclesiastica, 
anno  1835,  p.  204  sq.  See  The  Bonn  Review,  nro.  14,  p.  238  sq. ;  nro.  18, 
p.  202  sq. 

'  On  the  establishment  of  this  Order  in  the  diocese  of  Munich,  see  .S'Jo«,  1839, 
nro.  64,  Supplem.,  and  the  statutes  of  the  Order  in  Sion,  1840,  nro.  134,  Supplem. 

'^Cfr.  Wolf,  The  Life  and  Influence  of  Louis  I.,  King  of  Eavaria  from  1786 
to  1841,  Augsburg,  184L 

3  The  Statutes  are  in  Sion,  1839,  nro.  11 ;  Circulars  in  behalf  of  the  Associa- 
tion, ibid.,  nro.  64;  Proposals  made  to  the  Society,  ibid.,  1841,  nro.  29;  Project 
for  the  foundation  of  Mission-houses  in  Germany  [Catholic  Sunday  Paper  of 
Mentz,  1843,  nro.  6). 

*  Bishop  Schwabl's  letter  to  Eberhard  is  in  the  Cath.and  Eccl.  Gaz.  of  Hoeniff- 
haiis,  1841,  nro.  47,  .June  10,  and  Eberhards  crafty  answer  in  the  18th  of  July 
number.  As  to  the  new  complaint  of  tl:e  Protestants  against  the  gemiflexlon 
made  by  the  soldiery  before  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  see  Doellinger,  Letter  to  a 
Deputy,  Munich,  1843.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  744.  Ridand., 
Series  et  vitae  professorum  ss.  Theol.  qui  Wirceburgi  afundata  academia  (anno 
1582)  usque  ad  annum  1834  docuerunt,  etc. ;  accedunt  analccta  ad  hist.ejud.  SS. 
Facultatis  in  quibus  statuta  antiqua  divi  Juli  nondum  edita.,  Wirceb.  1835. 


762  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chajjter  1. 

§  408.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia. 

Theiner,  Situation  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Silesia,  Eatisbon,  1852,  2  vols. 
Gams,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  561.  A.  Menzel,  Modern  Hist,  of  Germany,  Vol.  XI.; 
2d  ed.,  Vol.  VI. 

The  contrast  between  Catholic  Bavaria  and  Protestant 
Prussia,  as  revealed  bj  the  light  of  modern  history,  is  in  many 
ways  remarkable.  In  the  former  there  was  unity  of  science, 
unit}-  of  art,  and  unity  of  institutions ;  in  the  latter  Catholics 
and  Protestants  were  in  unceasing  conflict  with  each  other. 
Inheriting  the  traditions  of  the  House  of  Brandenburg,  Prus- 
sia was  the  natural  patron  of  Lutheranism ;  and  though  she 
ceased  to  be  wholly  Protestant  after  the  accession  of  the  Cath- 
olic provinces  acquired  by  Frederic  II.,  she  always  continued 
the  consistent  foe  of  Catholicity,  at  one  time  attempting  to 
merge  it  into  Protestantism,  at  another  to  mold  it  after  her 
own  fashion;  excluding  Catholics  from  all  offices  of  public 
trust,  whether  important  or  insignificant ;  preventing  the  free 
election  of  bishops  and  prelates  and  of  abbots  of  chapters  and 
convents  ;  introducing  the  spirit  of  Protestantism  into  the 
schools  by  craft,  where  that  was  possible,  by  violence  where 
it  was  not ;  requiring  the  children  born  of  mixed  marriages 
to  be  brought  up  in  the  Protestant  religion  ;  in  fine,  giving 
the  most  complete  and  varied  proof  that  the  famous  saying 
of  Frederic  IL,  "  In  my  States  one  may  go  to  Heaven  as  he 
likes,"  was  but  a  sonorous  and  meaningless  phrase.^ 

Frederic  William  III  (1797-1840)  pursued  the  same  policy 
during  his  reign,  and  slightly  improved  upon  it ;  for,  the  bet- 
ter to  realize  his  plans  and  attain  his  end,  which  was  to  re- 
place Catholic  institutions  wherever  they  existed  by  others 
Protestant  in  spirit  and  form,  he  adopted  the  theories  of  Hegel 


1  Cfr.  The  Kelations  of  Frederic  the  Great  to  the  Catholic  Church  {Hist,  and 
Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  I.,  p.  321-338).  Cfr.,  besides,  Frederic  William  III.'s  leiter 
to  his  relative,  the  Duchess  of  Koethen,  on  the  occasion  of  her  own  and  her 
husband's  return  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  likewise  several  of  his  declara- 
tions hostile  toward  the  Catholic  Church.  See  The  Catholic,  1826,  Vol.  XXI., 
p.  1-22  •,  Vol.  XXII.,  p.206sq.,  and  1826  Suppl.  to  .laniiary  number,  p.  XIV.; 
Supp]   to  April  number,  p.  XI.  sq.;  Suppl.  to  July  number,  p.  I.-V. 


§  408.   The  Catholic  Church  la  Prussia.  763 

on  State  supremacy.'  The  result  of  this  long,  persistent,  and 
perlidious  policy  of  oppression  was  at  first  to  deaden  the  en- 
ergy of  faith  among  true  believers,  but,  as  time  went  on,  to 
call  it  again  into  life,  and  to  rouse  feelings  of  resistance. 

In  1821  Prince  Hardenberg  hastily  terminated  the  negotia- 
tions commenced  at  Rome  by  JSiebuhr  and  Consalvi,  and  the 
bull  De  Salute  Animarum,  which  was  their  outcome,  marked 
the  opening  of  a  new  era  for  Catholics.  One  of  the  immedi- 
ate results  of  this  important  bull  was  the  reorganization  of 
the  archbishopric  of  Cologne  and  of  the  bishoprics  of  Treves, 
Miinster,  and  Paderborn,  in  the  Rhenish  provinces;  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  and  the  bishopric  of  Er- 
meland  ;  and  the  endowment  of  the  Prussian  chapters.  JSie- 
buhr, though  an  enemy  to  the  Court  of  Rome,  and  believing 
Catholicity  to  be  essentially  hostile  to  the  country  he  repre- 
sented, nevertheless  put  aside  his  prejudices  for  the  time,  and, 
during  his  residence  as  embassador  at  Rome,  adjusted  the  ex- 
isting differences  in  a  way  lionorable  to  his  character  as  a  man 
and  creditable  to  his  reputation  as  a  diplomatist.  They  were, 
however,  again  revived  some  time  later  by  Bunsen,  the  Prus- 
sian Charge  d' Affairs  at  Rome,^  and  settled  with  the  utmost 
difficulty.  The  religious  controversies  originating  in  Prussia, 
whence  they  spread  through  all  Germany,  and  thence  across 
the  ocean  to  another  continent,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
following  reasons:  1.  Catholicity  and  Protestantism  are,  from 
the  nature  of  their  respective  claims,  essentially  opposed  to 
each  other;  2.  The  claims  of  the  Church  and  the  claims  of 
the  civil  authority  will  necessarily  conflict  where  kings  are 
absolute,  because  she  has  ever  resisted  and  must  continue  to 
resist  any  and  all  attempts  to  take  away  her  independence 

1  The  Augsb.  Univ.  Gaz.,  August  7,  1841  ;  "Hegelianism  and  Christianity  in 
Prussia"  [Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  81-91),  and  "German  Letters" 
(/6u/.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  1  sq.,  and  especially  nro.  V.) ;  "Prussia's  Relations  to  the 
Church,  Past  and  Present"  {Ibid.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  665-681) ;  William  von  Srkutz, 
"Canon  Law  in  the  Rhenish  Provinces,"  "VViirzburg,  1841.  Lai^peyres,  History 
and  Actual  Organization  of  Catholicism  in  Prussia,  Vol.  I.,  Hallo,  1839. 

i*  Cfr.  Niebuhr's  Correspondence,  Hamburg,  1839.  See  also  Niebuhr  and 
Eunson  as  Diplomats  at  Rome  [Hisf.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  V.,  p.  270  sq.,  o!J7 
sq.,  531  sq.) 


764  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

and  to  interfere  in  the  government  of  her  internal  affairs;' 
3.  And  this  reason  is  more  special,  the  essential  negative 
character  of  which  Protestantism  can  not  divest  itself. 

Moreover,  Protestant  ideas  generally  acquired  unusual  pre- 
ponderan:;e  and  prestige  after  the  celebration  of  the  Reforma- 
tion Jubilee  in  1817,  and  in  counteracting  these  Moehler^s 
Symbolism  largely  contributed,  and  produced  a  powerful 
efi'ect  on  the  faith  and  conscience  of  Catholics. 

Previously,  however,  to  the  reorganization  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical province  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  other  events  had  transpired 
of  great  utility  to  the  Church  in  Prussia.  Thus,  for  example, 
by  the  establishment  of  the  new  University  of  Bonn,  a  faculty 
of  Catholic  theolog}"  was  given  to  the  Rhenish  provinces;  in 
ISIS  the  Lyceum  Hosianum  was  reopened  in  the  diocese  of 
Ermeland  ;  and  "grand  seminaries"  were  founded  in  other 
dioceses.  Again,  in  1834,  the  Academy  of  Munster  was  per- 
mitted to  exercise  the  privileges  granted  in  former  ages  by 
Emperors  and  Popes,  and  was  thus  in  a  position  to  reward 
merit  by  conferring  such  titles  and  dignities  as  were  in  its 
power  to  give. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  provinces  recently  annexed 
to  Prussia,  who  were  never  quite  reconciled  to  their  new  mas- 
ters, frequently  protested  against  the  military  regulations,  by 
which  the  Catholic  portion  of  the  army  were  not  only  de- 
prived of  all  spiritual  ministrations  by  their  own  priests,  but 
forced  to  attend  Protestant  service^  once  in  the  month,  and 
against  the  unjust  discrimination  by  government  in  making 
appointments  to  professorships  in  universities,  to  tutorships 
in  schools,  and  to  judgeships  in  the  courts.  The  publicity 
given  to  these  grievances  through  the  pi-ess  tended  to  make 
the  Catholics  look  with  suspicion  upon  the  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  individual  instances  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished under  the  apparently  inoffensive  title  of  '■'•Documents  to 


1  Cfr.  The  Overweening  Tendency  of  the  Temporal  Power  to  Encroach  upon 
tlie  Government  of  the  Church,  in  the  Tub.  Quai-t.  Revieiv,  1831,  p.  1-13 ;  Sla:e 
of  Catholicity  in  Prussia  (Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  239  sq.,  291  sq.) 

2  Order  of  the  Cabinet,  issued  on  the  2d  of  February,  1810,  apud  liiniel.  De- 
fense of  Martin  de  Dunin,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Pusen,  p.  120;  Es.-ay. 
etc.,  p.  80  sq. 


§  408.   llie  Catholic  Church  in  Frassia.  765 

Serve  for  a  Church  History  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,''' '  to 
which  was  added  an  opinion  given  by  Claussen,  Provost  of 
the  Collegiate  Chapter  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  relative  to  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  brief  of  Pius  VIIL,  addressed  to  the  Rhenish 
bishops,  on  mixed  marriages.  This  memorial,  which  gave  a 
catalogue  of  the  grievances  suffered  by  Catholics,  and  charged 
the  Prussian  government,  among  other  things,  with  havi  ig 
influenced  the  election  of  bishops,  was  productive  of  very  im- 
portant results. 

The  elevation  of  Clement  Augustus  de  Droste  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Cologne  took  place  at  the  very  time  when  other 
complicated  events  of  unusual  gravity  were  transpiring. 
While  Vicar-General  of  the  diocese  of  Miinster,  Droste  had 
had  a  serious  misunderstanding  with  the  government  on  the 
subject  of  ecclesiastical  studies;-  and  to  render  his  position 
still  more  delicate,  he  was  now  placed  over  a  see  whose  last 
incumbent.  Count  Ferdinand  Spiegel,  had  favored  the  teach- 
ing oi  Hermes,  which  had  been  condemned  by  the  Holy  See, 
September  25,  1835,  because  of  its  rationalistic  and  Pelagian 
tendencies  and  of  its  erroneous  treatment  of  Catholic  dogmas. 
Archbishop  Droste,  being  long  known  as  an  outspoken  enemy 
of  the  system  of  Hermes,  felt  now  that  there  was  on  many 
accounts  a  call  upon  him  to  prevent  its  spread  among  the 
younger  clergy,  and  he  therefore  drew  up  eighteen  proposi- 
tions, chiefly  directed  against  the  Hermesian  doctrines,  which 
he  required  those  preparing  to  take  Orders,  and  some  chap- 
lains about  to  become  pastors,  to  subscribe  under  oath  before 
being  advanced  to  their  new  honors.  For  a  similar  reason, 
the  archbishop  suspended  some  of  the  professors  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn  and  the  Seminary  of  Cologne  and  silenced 
others.  The  government  now  took  umbrage  at  the  archbishop's 
conduct,  chiefly  on  two  grounds  :  first,  because  he  had  acted 
without  consulting  it ;  and,  second,  because  the  propositions, 

1  Essays  on  the  Ch.  H.  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Augsburg,  1835,  usually 
styled  the  "-Red  Book."  See  the  answer  headed,  The  Catholic  Church  in  tiie 
Khenish  Province  of  Prussia  and  Archbishop  Clement  Augustus  of  Cologne, 
Frankfort,  1838.     {Ellendorf),  The  Cuth.  Church  in  Prussia,  Eudolstadt,  1837. 

*For  documents,  consult  the  Tub.  Quart.  Review.,  1820,  p.  511  sq. 


766  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

but  notably  the  eighteenth,  infringed  the  rights  of  the  State; ' 
and,  having  consulted  some  ecclesiastics  of  the  school  of 
Hermes,  who,  being  interested  parties,  gave  a  necessarily  biased 
judgment  on  the  character  of  the  propositions,^  ordered  the 
archbishop  to  reconsider  his  action,  threatening  him  with  va- 
rious penalties  if  he  should  refuse.  On  the  Hermesian  ques- 
tion the  government  showed  a  disposition  to  yield.  It  inti- 
mated to  the  archbishop  that  his  wishes  might  be  carried  out 
if  his  forms  and  methods  of  procedure  were  somewhat  modi- 
fied, adding  that  such  modifications  would  tend  more  certainly 
to  secure  his  end.  But  on  the  question  of  mixed  marriages, 
which  it  regarded  as  of  vastly  more  importance,  it  demanded 
a  corresponding  concession  on  the  part  of  the  archbishop. 

Count  Ferdinand  Spiegel,  the  predecessor  of  Clement  Augustus,  had  seriously 
compromised  the  reputation  acquired  by  his  many  services  to  the  diocese  of 
Cologne,  by  addressing  to  his  Vicars-General  a  Convention,  accompanied  by  an 
instructio7i  on  mixed  marriages  (1834),  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  tenor  of  the 
brief  of  Pius  VIII.,  with  which,  however,  it  was  represented  to  Clement  Au- 
gustus as  being  in  complete  harmom/.^     In  his  brief  Venerabiles  fratres,  Pius 


'  "  I  solemnly  pi'omise  to  obey  my  archbishop  in  whatever  relates  to  docti'ine 
and  discipline  ;  to  respect  and  obey  him,  without  any  mental  reservation  ;  and 
I  pledge  myself,  conformably  to  the  spirit  of  the  Hierarchy,  not  to  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  my  archbishop  to  any  one  other  than  the  Pope,  the  Head  of  the 
Universal  Church." 

^  Some  of  these  opinions  appeared  in  print,  e.  g.,  that  which  is  headed  Ke- 
sponsum  sedecim  prioribus  earum  thesium,  quae  sub  titulo :  "  Theses  neoap- 
probandis  et  aliis  presbyteris  Archidioeceseos  Colon,  ad  subscribendum  propo- 
sitae"  innotuerunt,  in  serm.  latin,  conversum  edendum  curavit  P.  Q.,  Darmstadt, 
1837,  which  translation  was  made  upon  the  publication  of  Gottingen,  1837. 

3 It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  before  the  occupation  of  Silesia  by 
Prussia  the  question  of  mixed  marriages  had  there  been  raised.  Cfr.  the  Essay 
entitled  Conduct  of  the  Prince  Bishops  and  Vicars-General  of  Breslau  with 
Respect  to  Miiced  Marriages  from  1709  to  1743  (Sio7i,  1841,  nro.  114,  Sept.  19, 
Supplement).  This  elaborate  essay  contains  important  documents.  The  Cath- 
olics (says  the  Protestant,  C/ms.  tJase,  in  his  Ch.  H.,  p.  636)  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  applying  to  the  case  of  Protestants  the  long  established  usage  con- 
demning all  marriages  with  heretics.  But,  after  the  Thirty  Years'  "War,  the  cus- 
tom of  mixed  marriages  had  become  established  among  the  people.  According 
t('  ordinary  German  usage,  where  no  marriage  compact  determined  the  matter 
otherwise,  the  children  were  educated  according  to  the  faith  of  the  parent  with 
whom  they  corresponded  in  sex.  A  peculiar  legislation,  based  on  the  principle 
of  a  certain  legal  equality,  was  gradually'  formed  in  the  different  States  on  this 
eabject,  witn  respect  to  which  nothing  was  said  by  the  Eoraan  authorities.     In 


§  408.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia.  767 

VIII.  had  lamented  his  inability  to  remove  the  difficulties  surrounding  the  bish. 
ops  of  the  Rhenish  provinces,  and  to  harmonize  the  laws  of  the  Church  on  mixed 
marriages  with  the  royal  decree  of  1825,  relative  to  the  education  of  children 
born  of  such  unions ;  whereas  the  instruction  of  Spiegel  represented  that  the 
ecclesiastical  discipline  on  mixed  marriages  had  been  so  modified  that  there  wao 
no  longer  any  obstacle  to  prevent  obedience  to  the  Cabinet  order  of  1825. 

While  Archbishop  Spiegel  signed  the  Convention  unconditionally^  making  no 
provision  for  papal  approbation,  Chevalier  Bunsen,  acting  within  his  instruC" 
tions  from  the  Prussian  government,  specially  stipulated  that  it  should  not  te 
valid  unless  it  received  the  royal  sanction.  After  placing  the  Convention  and 
the  Instruction  beside  the  brief  of  Pius  VIII.,  and  finding,  upon  close  exam- 
ination, that  both  of  them  were  in  disaccord  with  it,  Clement  Au2,ustus  ex- 
pressed his  determination  of  following  the  teachings  of  the  Pope  in  all  instances 
in  which  the  Institution  of  his  predecessor  deviated  from  them,  saying  that  he 
did  not  wish,  like  the  late  Bishop  of  Treves,  to  retract  on  his  death-bed  what 
he  should  never  have' done  during  his  life.  After  so  decided  an  expression  by 
the  archbishop  of  the  lino  of  conduct  he  meant  to  pursue,  all  thoughts  of  an 
accommodation  vanished.  The  archbishop  continued  steadfast,  the  government 
obstinate,  and,  in  consequence,  aflTairs  came  to  a  crisis.  The  courageous  pastor 
of  Cologne  was  forcibly  dragged  from  his  archiepiscopal  see  and  cast  into 
prison,  November  20,  1837,  and  finally  shut  up  in  the  fortress  of  Minden,  on 
the  alleged  charges,  as  stated  in  the  ministerial  decree,  of  having  broken  his 
word,  undermined  the  laws,  and,  by  rousing  the  passions  of  the  people,  divided 
them  into  two  revolutionary  parties.  This  act  of  violence  created  a  profound 
impression  among  all  Catholics,  evoking  feelings  of  indignant  sorrow,  which 
were  intensified  by  the  foul  calumnies  with  which  the  unimpeachable  character 
of  the  archbishop  was  aspersed.  Contrary  to  what  had  been  anticipated,  the 
Pope  was  not  the  least  frightened  by  this  malignant  persecution,  and,  while 
preserving  his  serene  dignity,  exhibited  an  unusual  degree  of  firmness  and 
courage.  On  the  10th  of  December,  1837,  he  published  an  Allocutiofi,  in  which 
he  protested  before  the  whole  civilized  world  against  these  outrages,  perpe- 
trated by  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  closing  in  the  following  words  :  "  We  de- 
clare to-day,  solemnly  and  publicly,  what  we  have  always  held  privately,  though 
we  have  never  before  expressed  it  openly,  viz.,  that  we  disaj^prove  and  con- 
demn all  practices  introduced  into  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  so  far  as  these 
conflict  with  the  true  sense  of  our  predecessors  instruction  on  the  subject 
of  mixed  marriages."     These  words  produced  a  deep  impression  on  Martin  of 


Prussia  the  common  law  was  so  changed  that,  where  the  unanimous  wish  of  the 
parents  was  not  opposed  to  it,  the  children  were  required  to  be  educated  in  the 
church  of  the  father.  By  an  order  of  the  Cabinet,  issued  in  1825,  this  requisi. 
tion  was  extended  to  the  province  of  the  Rhine,  and  to  AVestphalia,  by  declar- 
ing that  any  obligations  of  betrothed  persons  to  the  contrary  were  not  binding, 
and  any  requirements  made  as  conditions  of  the  marriage  rite  by  the  Church 
were  unlawful.  But  the  ceremony  of  marriage,  without  a  promise  that  the 
children  should  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  had  previously  been  per- 
formed freqaently  in  Eastern  and  rarely  in  Western  Prussia.  (Tk.) 


768  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Dmiin,^  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  who,  as  early  as  January,  1837,  and 
without  any  knowledge  of  the  events  transpiring  at  Cologne,  had  expressed  his 
doubts  to  the  government  as  to  the  legality  of  the  practices  followed  in  mixed 
marriages,  which  obtained  to  some  extent  in  his  diocese,  requesting  that,  in  or- 
der to  their  correction,  he  might  be  allowed  either  to  publish  the  brief  addi-essed 
by  Pope  Pius  VIII.  to  the  Ehenish  bishops,  to  apply  to  the  Holy  See  for  a  de- 
cision  of  the  question,  or,  finally,  to  comply  with  the  instructions  of  the  bull 
Mag7.ae  nobis  adniirationis'^  of  Benedict  XIV.,  which  was  still  in  force.  As 
none  of  these  proposals  was  accepted,  the  archbishop,  on  the  21st  of  October, 
1837,  addressed  his  request  directly  to  the  king,  who  not  only  refused  to  grant 
it,  but  on  the  30th  of  December  following  gave  his  approval  to  a  ministerial 
measure,  whose  drift  ran  directly  counter  to  the  archbishop's  proposition.  The 
archbishop  was  further  informed  that,  noiwithstandlng  the  Papal  Allocution  of 
December  10th,  no  change  should  be  made  in  the  existing  practice.  The  arch- 
bisho]}  had  now  to  choose  between  the  commands  of  the  king  and  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  Pope,  and  convinced  that  in  a  matter  of  this  kind  he  was  in  con- 
science bound  to  obey  the  latter  rather  than  the  former,  contrary  to  the  royal 
will,  he  published  in  February,  1838,  a  stringent  Pastoral  Letter,  embodyiag 
the  teaching  of  the  bull  of  Benedict  XIV.,  in  which  he  pronounced  sentence 
of  suspension  on  any  priest  who  from  that  time  forth  should  solemnize  a  mixed 
mafriage  without  having  first  obtained  ample  guarantees  that  the  children 
born  of  it  should  be  brought  up  in  the  Catholic  religion.  By  the  government, 
the  Pastoral  v,'as  declared  null  and  void ;  protection  was  promised  to  all  priests 
who  would  disobey  its  instructions ;  and  the  archbishop  himself  was  arraigned 
before  the  Superior  Court  of  Posen  on  the  charges  of  disobedience  and  high 
treason.  While  denying  the  competence  of  the  Court,  the  archbishop  obeyed 
the  summons  to  go  to  Berlin.  Negotiations  were  again  tried,  but  resulted  in 
nothing,  and  in  April,  1839,  a  judicial  sentence  was  rendered,  declaring  the 
archbishop  guilty  of  disobedience,  deposing  him  from  his  office,  and  condemn- 
ing him  to  imprisonment  in  a  fortress  for  a  term  of  six  months.  After  his  re- 
lease, he  again  attempted  to  bring  about  an  understanding,  but  in  vain ;  and, 
having  returned  to  his  diocese  without  the  king's  leave,  and  against  his  will, 
was  again  arrested  and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Colberg. 

Tho  persecution  suiiered  by  these  two  venerable  prelates 
excited  the  sympathies  of  the  whole  Catholic  world,  and  in 
Germany  caused  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  Church  more 
loyal,  outspoken,  and  enthusiastic  than  had  been  known  for 
many  years.  The  clergy  of  the  diocese  of  Gnesen  and  Posen 
gave  proot  of  their  fidelity  to  the  Church  and  their  attach- 
ment to  their  archbishop  by  unanimously  ijrotestiwj  against  the 
interference  of  the  civil   authority  in   spiritual   afiairs,  and 

1  tPohl,  Martin  of  Dunin,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  being  a  Bio- 
graphical Sketch,  Marienburg,  1843. 
"Seep.  621. 


§  408.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Prussia.  769 

against  the  course  pursued  by  the  government  toward  the 
■chief  of  their  diocese.  Thirteen  American  bishops,  assembled 
in  J^rovincial  Council  at  Baltimore,  sent  a  letter  of  condolence 
(dated  May  20,  1840),  expressing  their  deep  veneration  for 
these  two  noble  confessors  of  the  faith.^  With  the  exception 
of  Sedlnitzky,  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau,  who,  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  his  position,  resigned  his  see  in  August,  1840,^ 
and  died  an  apostate  at  Berlin  in  1871,  all  the  bishops  of 
Prussia  pursued  the  same  course  as  the  two  archbishops  in 
regard  to  mixed  marriages. 

The  accession  of  Frederic  William  IV.  to  the  throne  of 
Prussia,  June  7, 1840,  revived  the  drooping  hopes  of  the  Cath- 
olics, who  seemed  to  feel  confident  that  this  prince  would 
bring  the  disagreeable  business  to  a  speedy  close.  Viewing 
the  question  in  its  true  ligiit,  and  without  allowing  his  judg- 
ment to  be  warped  by  the  clamors  and  sophisms  of  the  press, 


1  For  the  Latin  original,  see  Concilia  Provincialia  Baltimore  habita,  ab  anno 
1829  usque  ad  annum  1849,  pp.  180  sq.     Cf.  Sio7i,  1840,  July  number,  p.  874. 

'^  Statement  of  the  Conduct  of  the  Prussian  Government  in  relation  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  by  Mot/,  Berlin,  1838.  This  work  considers  the  con- 
■duct  of  the  government  from  a  historical,  legal,  and  political  point  of  view. 
Roman  Memorial  of  March  4,  1838,  issued  from  the  oflBce  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  (Germ.,  Augsburg,  1838).  Joseph  von  Oorres,  Athanasius,  Katisbon,  1838, 
4  editions.  Shortly  after  there  appeared:  The  Imprisonment  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne,  by  a  Jurisconsult  {Lieber),  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1837, 
1838,  3  pts.  J.  J.  DbLlinger,  Mixed  31arriages,  Eatisbon,  1838,  of  which  there 
are  five  editions.  Jos.  von  Gorres,  The  Triarians,  fl.  Leo,  Drs.  Marheinecke  and 
Bruno,  Ratisbon,  1838.  J.  J.  Riiter,  Irenicon,  Lipsiae,  1840.  Kuntsmann  and 
Kutschker,  Mixed  Marriages,  see  p.  621,  note  2.  Second  Allocution  of  the  Pope, 
of  the  13tli  of  September,  1838 ;  the  Answer,  in  the  State  Gazette  of  Prussia, 
December  31,  1838 ;  the  Bejoinder  of  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen, 
dated  Januarys,  1839  {Polit.  Gaz.  of  Munich,  February  1,  1839,  and  Sion) ; 
State  Paper,  published  at  Rome,  in  answer  to  the  Prussian  Gazette  o?  December 
31,  1838.  Cfr.  the  Legal  Opinions  and  Pleadings  in  favor  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Gnesen  and  Posen,  by  William  von  Schiitz  and  Rlntel,  and  several  essays  of 
Guido  Gorres  and  Phillips,  in  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  I.-V.  Chas. 
Hase,  The  Two  Archbishoprics,  being  a  Fragment  of  Contemporary  History, 
Lps.  1839.  Bretschneider,  Baron  of  Sandau,  or  Mixed  Marriages,  3d  edit., 
Halle,  1839.  Goetz,  Bai-on  of  Wiesau,  being  an  Offset  to  Baron  of  Sandau, 
Ratisbon,  1839.  See  also  the  bibliography  given  in  Rhei)iwald's  Repertory,  years 
1838  and  1839,  and  Autobiography  of  Count  Sedlnitzky,  Berlin,  1872,  and 
BriXck,  Ch.  H.,  p.  753. 

VOL.  Ill — 49 


770  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Frederic  "William  at  once  set  about  adjusting  the  relations 
between  Church  and  State,  and  authorized  Mgr.  Dunin  to  re- 
turn to  the  faithful  of  his  diocese  (June  29,  1840),^  who  had 
never  ceased  to  deplore  his  absence  and  to  pray  that  he  might 
soon  be  back  again.  Immediately  on  his  return,  the  arch- 
bishop issued  a  pastoral  to  his  clergy  (Aug.  27, 1840),  advising 
them  to  cultivate  peaceful  relations  with  non-Catholics,  adding 
that,  since  the  civil  law  forbade  them  to  exact  guarantees 
requiring  the  children  born  of  mixed  marriages  to  be  brought 
up  in  the  Catholic  faith,  they  should  carefully  abstain  from 
doing  aught  that  might  give  color  of  sanction  to  such  unions. 
Nearly  tw^o  years  later  (March,  1842)  lie  reminded  the  clergy, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  the  ministers  of  peace,  whose  office 
was  not  to  ruin  but  to  save  souls,  to  avoid  all  public  denun- 
ciation ;  to  hear  the  confessions,  when  required,  of  those  who 
had  married  outside  the  Church,  and  to  administer  the  Sacra- 
ments to  them  when  sick  and  desiring  reconciliation  ;  because, 
said  he,  the  mercy  of  God  surpasseth  the  perversity  of  man.^ 
The  archbishop  (December  26,  1842)  was  the  more  read}^  to 
make  these  concessions,  since  the  king  daily  gave  fresh  proofs 
of  his  good  will  toward  the  Church  and  of  his  desire  to  re- 
store to  her  her  freedom.  That  the  archbishop's  confidence 
was  not  a  mistaken  one  was  soon  proved  by  a  series  of  royal 
acts  of  unusual  liberality.  By  a  decree  of  January  1,  1841, 
the  king  surrendered  his  claim  to  the  royal  jplacet  in  spiritual 
affairs,  and  granted  to  hioho'^Q  the  fullest  freedom  in  thaiv  inter- 
course with  the  Holy  See ;  and,  by  a  second,  of  February  12  of 
the  same  year,  he  established  a  Catholic  department  in  the  min- 
istry of  Public  Worship.  The  satisfactory  settlement  of  the 
afiairs  of  Cologne  is  also  to  be  ascribed  to  the  conciliatory 
temper  of  the  king.^     Acting  in  accord  with  arrangements 


1  Keturn  of  the  Archbishop  to  Gnesen  and  Posen  {Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers, 
Vol.  VI.,  pp.  428-442).     Hase,  1.  c,  p.  253. 

2  The  first  Pastoral  letter  is  in  the  Sion,  1840,  nro.  Ill,  in  Latin  and  in  Ger- 
man, p.  117.  As  to  the  second,  see  The  Catholic,  1842,  June  number,  Suppl., 
p.  CIX.  sq. 

^  Jos.  von  Gorres,  Church  and  State  on  the  Termination  of  the  Cologne 
Troubles,  "Weissenfels  on  the  Saale,  1842.  Shortly  thereafter  appeared  "  Peace 
between  Church  and  State,"  a  work  written  with  reference  to  the  well-known 
Berlin  Exposition,  by  Clement  Augustus,  Miinster,  1843. 


§  409.    The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  771 

made  at  Rome  hy  Count  Briilil,  the  King  of  Bavaria  author- 
ized Mgr.  de  Geissel,  Bishop  of  Spire,  a  firm  yet  prudent  man, 
to  leave  his  kingdom  and  become  coadjutor  to  Clement  Au- 
gustus, in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  with  the  right  of  succession. 
The  King  of  Prussia,  on  his  part,  publicly  avowed  that  he  had 
never  believed  the  reports  connecting  the  name  of  the  occu- 
pant of  the  see  of  Cologne  with  political  and  revolutionary 
intrigues.  When  this  prelate  was  dragged  from  his  diocese 
and  carried  off  to  Minden,  a  proclamation  severely  reflecting 
upon  his  character  was  published,  which  was  soon  openly 
withdrawn  by  Bodelschwing,  the  First  President. 

Feeling  that  ample  and  honorable  satisfaction  had  been 
done  him,  Clement  Augustus  now  voluntarily  resigned  the  ad- 
ministration of  his  diocese.  "  From  now  until  the  hour  of 
my  death,"  said  he  in  a  touching  letter,^  taking  farewell  of 
his  flock,  "  I  shall  not  cease  to  lift  up  my  hands  to  Heaven, 
as  Moses  did  of  old,  and  by  my  fervent  prayers  draw  down 
the  blessings  of  the  Almighty  upon  my  people."  He  died 
October  19,  1845.  The  king  continued  to  show  tokens  of  his 
good  will  toward  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  for,  besides  giving 
large  sums  himself  to  aid  in  completing  the  magnificent 
Cathedral  of  that  city,  he  also  made  an  appeal  to  the  whole 
Christian  world  to  send  contributions  for  the  same  purpose.^ 

§  409.    The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the   Upper  Rhine. 
(Cf.  §  396.) 

Essays  on  the  Contemporaneous  History  of  Catholicity  in  Germany,  by 
J.  M.  L.  Jl .  .  .  s,  Strasburg,  1823.  Lang,  Collection  of  the  Ordinances  of  the 
Eccl.  Frov.  of  the  Upper  Ehine,  Tiibingen,  1835.  By  the  same.  Collection  of 
Catholic  Church-laws  in  Wiirtemberg,  Tubingen,  1836.  -'State  of  Catholicity 
in  Baden,  Eatisbon,  1841-1843,  2  pts.     Answer  by  Mebenius,  under  the  same 


1  The  letter  of  the  Prussian  king  to  Clement  Augustus  is  found  in  The  Cath- 
olic, 1842,  February  number,  Suppl.,  p.  LXX.  sq.  Clement  Augustus'  Valedic- 
tory in  The  Catholic,  1842,  May  number,  Suppl.,  p.  LXIII.  sq.  The  Coadju- 
tor'.^ Pastoral  Letter  in  the  Sion,  1842,  March  number.  S(oeve/<en,  The  Life, 
Works,  and  Death  of  Clement  Augustus,  described  for  the  German  People, 
Mentz,  1846. 

'•^  The  Catholic  Journal  of  Cologne  gives  an  account  of  an  association  founded 
in  Mexico,  in  answer  to  the  appeal  of  the  Prussian  king,  to  aid  in  completing 
the  cathedral. 


772  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

title,  Carlsruhe,  1842.  Friedherg,  The  State  and  the  Catholic  Church  iu  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Lps.  1871.  ^Longner,  The  Eelations  of  the  Bishops, 
from  a  Legal  Point  of  View,  in  the  Dioceses  of  the  Upper  Khine,  Tubingen, 
1840.  By  the  *  .same,  Historical  Essays  on  the  Eccl.  Province  of  the  Upper 
Phine,  Tubingen,  1863.  Buss,  Authentic  History  of  National  and  Territorial 
Churchism,  p.  813  sq.  \ Bruck,  The  Eccl.  Prov.  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  Mentz, 
18G8.  Hisi.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIII.,  "  Reflections  on  the  Eccl.  and  Pel  it. 
Situation  of  Baden."     Gams,  1.  cit.,  T.  I.,  p.  405-472. 

By  the  act  of  secularization  of  1803,  the  accession  of  Catholic  subjects  to  tno 
Protestant  governments  of  Wdrtemberg  and  Baden  was  so  considerable  as  to 
form  in  the  former  country  one-third,  and  in  the  latter  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
population.  But  the  rights  of  Catholics  were  not  on  this  account  more  re- 
spected. As  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  so  also  here  the  Church  was  fettered  by 
edicts  of  religion  and  special  ordinances,  thus  subjecting  her  to  the  vexatious 
control  of  a  State  bureau.  For  example,  by  an  order  of  the  government  of 
Wiirtemberg,  dated  March  20,  1803,  every  ecclesiastical  document  published 
after  that  date  should  bear  at  the  head  of  it  the  words  ''■By  royal  authority,"  to 
the  end,  it  was  said,  "  that  the  clergy  might  feel  secure."  This  order  was  re- 
newed  on  the  11th  of  June  following,  and  all  persons  infringing  it  declared 
liable  to  severe  punishment.  Again,  on  the  2d  of  March,  1805,  it  was  decreed 
"that  all  dispensations  from  fasting  given  by  the  bishop  and  all  ecclesiastical 
documents  whatever  should  bear  the  placet  of  the  government;  that  no  feast 
or  divine  service  of  any  kind  should  be  celebrated  in  the  churches  oa  any  day 
except  Sundays;  and  that  on  week-days  labor  should  take  the  place  of  church- 
going."  The  c?-ow/?i  was  declared  to  have  the  right  of  appointment  to  ecclesiasti- 
cal benefices,  which  were  in  consequence  disposed  of  by  a  Royal  Ecclesiastical 
Council,  before  which  candidates  for  position  were  to  make  competitive  exam- 
inations. This  Council  had  also  complete  control  of  studies,  and  all  petitions 
for  dispe?iS(iiions  from  the  iiKpediments  to  '■>arrl<ige  had  to  be  submitted  to  it. 
The  property,  both  movable  and  real,  of  the  monasteries  was,  here  as  else- 
where, plundered  and  squandered;  religious  were  insulted  and  otherwise  ill- 
treated  ;  and  the  Catholics  of  Upper  Baden  so  systematically  excluded  from 
all  offices  of  public  trust  that  Napoleon,  as  Protector  of  the  Rhenish  Confeder- 
ation, sent  a  threatening  note  to  the  Badish  government,  protesting  against  the 
policy  "of  shutting  out  Catholics  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  recently 
annexed  to  Baden  from  participation  in  public  aflairs  and  offices  of  State,"  and 
complaining  "that  Mannheim,  Freiburg,  and  other  important  towns  had  been 
stripped  of  institutions  which  were  of  a  character  to  contribute  to  their  pros- 
perity and  splendor."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  note  received  im- 
mediate attention.  The  Grand  Duke  Charles  Frederic  nominated  Baron  von 
Andlaw,  a  zealous  Catholic,  his  Minister  of  the  Interior,  in  March,  1810.  The 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  presiding  over  the  Catholics  of  the  newly-annexed 
territories  resided  at  Constance,  Wiirzburg,  and  Bruchsal. 

The  Vicar-General,  von  Wessenberg,  lived  at  Constance,  of  which  he  was 
subsequently  appointed  Coadjutor  by  Archbishop  Dalberg.  While  many  of  his 
measures  were  beneficial,  others  were  extremely  injuri(ms  to  the  interests  of 
the  Church,  and  drew  forth  complaints,  not  alone  from  the   Pope  (February, 


§  409.    The  Ecclesiastical  Prooince  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  77'J 


1810),  but  also  from  the  government  of  Freiburg  and  the  King  of  Wurtemberg 
himself.  To  correct  the  harm  done  in  his  kingdom  by  von  AVessenberg,  the 
king  published  a  decree  in  1811,  stating  "that  owing  to  the  arbitrary  measures 
of  the  clergy  of  the  second  rank,  who,  by  abolishing  the  Latin  language  in  the 
divine  service,  had  spread  discord  from  village  to  village,  destroyed  uniformity 
of  worship,  and  unsettled  the  consciences  of  the  people,  he  ordered  that  the 
Latin  language  should  be  retained  where  it  was  still  used,  and  restored  where 
it  had  been  discontinued,  and  that  no  change  should  be  made  in  ancient  rites 
and  established  customs."  ^  Von  Wessenberg,  however,  was  still  in  a  position 
to  do  harm.  His  influence  was  all-powerful  in  the  Permanent  Catholic  Commis- 
sion, established  at  Carisruhe  in  1803,  which  in  1812  was  changed  into  the  De- 
partment  for  Catholic  Worship,  and  among  wliose  ecclesiastical  members  were 
Brunner,  a  Catholic  of  advanced  views,  and  TIaeberlein,  an  advocate  of  the  ab- 
olition of  clerical  celibacy.  After  the  death  of  George  Charles  of  Fechenbach, 
Prince-Bishop  of  "VViirzburg,  that  portion  of  his  diocese  lying  within  the  terri- 
tory of  Baden  was  transferred  in  1808  by  Archbishop  Dalberg  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Vicar-General  of  Bruchsal.  Here,  as  in  Bavaria,  Napoleon  secretly 
interfered  to  prevent  the  erection  of  bishoprics,  which  the  governments  of 
Baden  and  Wurtemberg,  acting  in  good  faith,  contemplated  establishing  in 
1807  and  1808.  He  also  objected  to  the  presence  of  the  Nuncio,  della  Gemja^ 
in  Germany,  and  prevailed  upon  the  Pope  to  send  him  to  Paris.  As  early  as 
the  12th  of  September,  1807,  Count  de  Chawpagny,  Minister  to  the  Emperor, 
sent  a  peremptory  note  to  Cardinal  Caprara,  stating  "that  the  Emperor,  as 
Protector  of  the  Bhenish  Confederation,  must  necessarily  take  an  interest  in 
the  religious  aflairs  of  that  great  country;"  "that  he  therefore  desired  to  have 
the  negotiations  for  the  Concordat  with  Germany  carried  on  under  his  own 
ev^es  at  Paris;"  and  he  added,  with  simulated  sorrow,  that  the  Emperor  was 
not  a  little  grieved  to  know  '■  that  the  Pope  had  given  no  attention  to  the  com- 
plaints of  the  churches  of  Germany,  wliich  for  the  last  ten  years  he  had  wholly 
neglected."  The  fact  was  that,  owing  to  the  supremacy  of  the  State,  the  in- 
tense bigotry  of  the  Protestants,  who  were  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  von  Wes- 
senberg's  betrayal  of  the  true  interests  of  religion,  the  Catholic  Church  had 
been  as  nearly  ruined  as  it  well  could  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 

In  Wurtemberg,  thanks  to  the  solicitous  care  of  King  Frederic,  Ellwangen 
was  made  the  residence  of  a  Vicar-General,  and  Francis  Charles,  Prince  of 
Hohenlohe,  Bishop  of  Tempe,  was  appointed  to  that  oflace  in  1812.  With  the 
consent  of  Archbishop  Dalberg,  that  portion  of  the  diocese  of  Augsburg  lying 
within  the  territory  of  Wurtemberg  was  cut  off  from  his  province,  a  division 
which  the  Holy  See  Anally  sanctioned  (March  21, 181G).  About  the  same  time, 
that  is,  October  30,  1812,  a  Catholic  University  was  founded  at  Ellwangen, 
Avhich,  however,  the  Catholic  students  of  divinity  of  Wurtemberg  wore  alone 
permitted  to  frequent.  Some  time  later,  in  1817,  it  was  incorporated  in  the 
University  of  Tubingen,  under  the  name  of  the  Faculty  of  Catliolic  Theology, 


'  It  is  proper  to  say  that  Archbishop  Dalberg  had  issued  a  Pastoral,  during 
the  absence  of  Wessenberg  at  the  Congress  of  Vieniie,  condemning  the  ordi- 
nances of  his  Vicar-General  (Freiburg  Diocesan  Archives,  Vol.  II.,  year  18G7, 
pp.  441  sq.) 


774  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

and  the  residence  of  the  Vicar-General  transferred  to  Boiienhnr'j.  By  the 
death  of  the  Prince-Primate,  Charles  Theodore  de  Dnlherg,  Archbishop  of  Eat- 
isbon,  February  10,  1817,  the  two  sees  of  Constance  and  Worms,  to  which  the 
Catholics  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  and  the  Kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg 
were  subject,  fell  vacant,  thus  giving  rise  to  fresh  difficulties  for  the  Catholics 
of  these  countries.  It  was  now  determined  to  put  an  end  to  the  unsettlfd 
state  of  affairs,  and  accordingly  representatives  from  the  Protestant  govern- 
■merits  of  Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  the  two  Hesses,  Nassau,  Mecklenburg,  the 
Duchies  of  Saxony,  Oldenburg,  Waldeck,  Liibeck,  Bremen,  Frankfort,  and 
Hamburg  met  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  ^larch  24,  1818,  to  take  steps  toward 
an  arrangement  with  the  Holy  See.  Judging  from  the  opening  speech  of 
Baron  von  ]Va7ir/enheim,  the  representative  from  Wiirtemberg,  in  which  the 
attitude  of  the  Protestant  princes  toward  the  Pope  was  clearly  indicated,  the 
Catholics  began  to  fear  that  no  good  would  come  of  the  Conference.  Their 
suspicions  were  fully  borne  out  by  the  subsequent  proceedings  of  the  Confer- 
ence, which  adopted  as  the  basis  of  negotiations  with  the  Holy  See  the  princi- 
ples set  forth  in  the  Punctuation  of  Ems  and  the  establishment  of  a  JSational 
Church  in  Germany.  The  conditions  of  the  Conference,  which  were  embodied 
in  a  document  bearing  the  title  of  Magna.  Charta  Libertatls  Ecclesiae  Catho. 
llcae  Romanae,  and  presented  by  the  representatives  from  Wiirtemberg  and 
Baden,  were  declined  by  the  Holy  See.  Negotiations  were  again  opened  at 
Frankfort,  and  fresh  proposals  sent  to  Eome,  which  resulted  in  the  publication, 
August  16,  1821,  of  the  bull  Provida  solersque  by  Pius  VII.,  providing  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Freiburg  and  the  suffragan  sees  of  Rotten- 
burg,  Meiiiz,  Fulda,  and  Limburg.^  Belying  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  princes, 
whose  interests  were  at  stake,  the  Pope  had  entertained  hopes  that  some  under- 
standing might  be  arrived  at  relative  to  other  questions,  on  which  no  definite 
action  had  yet  been  taken.  He  was  at  first  disappointed,  and  there  were  indi- 
cations that  what  had  already  been  accomplished  might  be  again  undone. 
This  uneasiness  arose  from  the  fact  that  he  could  not  grant  canonical  instit".- 
tion  to  the  candidates  selected  by  the  Protestant  princes  to  fill  the  newly-created 
sees.  One  of  these,  Baron  von  Wessenberg,  was  particularly  objectionable. 
Having  been  Coadjutor  to  Archbishop  de  Dalberg  at  Constance,  he  was  elected 
Vicar-Capitular  on  the  death  of  that  prelate,  but  Kome,  for  grave  and  sufficient 
reasons,  declined  to  confirm  his  election  (b.  March  15,  1817;   d.  August,  1860).^ 


1  The  bull  may  be  found  in  the  work  named  at  the  head  of  ?  397.  Walter, 
Pontes  juris  eccles.,  pp.  322  sq. 

2  The  Holy  See  would  not  confirm  this  election,  because  the  true  sentiments 
of  the  prelate  with  regard  to  the  Church  had  become  manifest  from  the  meas- 
ures adopted  by  him  while  Coadjutor  of  the  diocese  of  Constance.  Were 
demonstrative  proof  of  the  suspicions  already  entertained  required,  it  mignt 
be  found  in  Wessenberg's  own  "  History  of  the  Councils  of  the  Fourteenth  and 
Fifteenth  Centuries."  A  criticism  of  this  history,  by  Hefele,  may  be  found  in 
the  Eccl.  Paper  of  South  Germany,  1841,  nros.  32,  33,  and  38.  Making  everv 
allowance  for  the  author  of  this  work,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  what  he 
means  by  the  assertion  that  the  .lesuits  confounded  Christianity  wi'h  the 
Church,  unless  that  he  would  prefer  Christianity  without  a  Church.     See  hi* 


§  409.   The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  775 

The  truth  of  the  matter  was  that  the  Holy  See  had  received  information  that 
the  candidates  had  pledged  themselves  in  general  terms  to  adhere  to  the  prin- 
ciples set  forth  by  the  State  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Prngmcdia}  condemned  in 
Kome  in  1819.  The  negotiations  thus  abruptly  broken  off  were  not  resumed 
again  imtil  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XII.,  who,  in  view  of  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  the  country,  published  on  the  11th  of  April,  1827,  the  bull  Ad  Domi- 
nici  gregis  custodiam,^  giving  directions  as  to  the  mode  of  electing  bishops  in 
future  and  of  giving  information  concerning  the  candidates;  as  to  the  consti- 
tution of  chapters  and  the  appointment  of  their  members ;  as  to  seminaries 
and  free  intercourse  with  Rome;  and,  finally,  as  to  the  exercise  of  episcopal 
rights.  In  consequence  of  this  bull,  Bernard  Boll,  they??'.s!(  Bishop  of  Freiburg, 
whither  the  see  had  been  transferred  from  Constance,  became  the  first  arch- 
bishop and  metropolitan  of  the  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  and  as  such  took 
possession  of  the  majestic  cathedral  of  Freiburg  on  the  21st  of  October,  1827. 
About  eighteen  months  later,  May  19,  1829,  the  Bishop  of  Rottenburg  was  sim- 
ilarly installed  in  his  see.  It  had  been  agreed  that  the  relations  of  Church  and 
State,  the  provisions  for  their  harmonious  action,  the  degree  of  supervision  to  be 
exercised  by  the  civil  authority  over  the  Church,  and  the  manner  of  protecting 
her  spiritual  interests  should  be  arranged  by  the  common  consent  of  the  gov- 
ernment interested;  but  they  withheld  the  publication  of  the  ordinance  relating 
to  these  affairs  until  after  the  Pope  had  appointed  to  the  five  vacant  sees. 
After  much  discussion  and  the  requiring  and  giving  pledges  on  both  sides, 
these  appointments  were  finally  made;  and  on  the  30th  of  January,  1830,  an 
ordinance  embracing  ihirty-nine  articles^  was  published,  in  which  was  repro- 
duced the  Ecclesiastical  Pragmatla,  already  condemned  by  the  Pope,  which  de- 
prived the  Church  of  every  shred  of  real  freedom,  and  subjected  all  her  acts 
to  the  inspection  2indi  placet  of  the  police.  Baron  von  Hornstein  made  an  able 
argument  against  the  ordinance  in  the  Chamber  of  Wiirtemberg,  showing  con- 
clusively that  its  articles  were  cruelly  unjust  and  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
the  Church.  Pope  Pius  VIII.  also  protested,  rebuking  the  bishops  of  the  Ec- 
clesiastical Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine  for  keeping  silent,  when  they  should 
have  spoken  out,  declaring,  like  the  Apostles,  that  they  must  obey  God  rather 
than  man.*     The  worst  apprehensions  of  both  the  Catholics  and  the  Roman 


work,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  377.  For  the  history  of  his  episcopate,  see  "  Essay  on  Cath- 
olicity in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,"  pp.  80  sq.  (Note  of  French  Tr.) 

^The  Ecclesiastical  Pragmatia  for  the  Eccl.  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine, 
with  notes  by  L.  Wolf,  Wurzburg,  1823.     Gains,  1.  c,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  412  sq. 

'■^  This  bull  is  given  in  Walter,  Canon  Law,  Pontes  juris  ecclesiastici,  pp. 
335  sq. 

3  They  are  found,  ibid.,  p.  340  sq.,  and  in  the  Tiibing.  Quart.  Rcvieio,  1830, 
pp.  162  sq. 

*It  is  said  in  the  Brief  addressed  to  the  bishops  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Province 
of  the  Upper  Rhine  (  Walter,  Pontes,  p.  345;  Tiib.  quart.  Review,  1830,  p.  787) : 
"  Vestrum  enini  omnino  erat  ea  sedulo  praestare,  quae  tanta  verborum  gravi- 
tate Paulus  Apost.  Timotheo  discipulo  suo  et  ejus  persona  Episcopis  omnibus 
inculcat,  cum  ait:  Praedica  verbum,  insta  opportune,  importune,  argue,  obse- 
cra,  increpa  in  omni  patientia  et  doctrina,  etc.     .     .     .     Tu  vero  vigila,  in  om- 


776  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

Pontiff  wpre  more  than  verified,  for  the  very  men  who  had  conceived,  drawn 
tip,  and  caused  the  publication  of  the  ordinance  were  now  intrusted  with  its 
execution.  By  this  arrangement  the  Church  was  made  in  some  sort  a  branch 
of  the  ministry  of  the  interior  and  of  worship,  and,  as  a  consequence,  ecclesi- 
astical dignitaries  were  little  more  than  civil  functionaries,  dependent  upon  the 
administrative  authority.  In  this  way  the  Church  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Prov- 
ince of  the  Upper  Rhine  was  stripped  of  all  freedom  and  deprived  of  all  inde- 
pendence.! From  having  been  a  patron,  the  State  now  became  an  oppressor 
of  the  Church,  and  so  tyrannical  were  its  acts  that  Archbishop  Boll,  one  of  the 
most  peaceful  and  tolerant  of  men,  was  forced,  as  his  life  drew  to  a  close,  to 
resign  the  government  of  his  diocese.  He  had  in  vain  petitioned  the  ministry 
and  besought  the  Grand  Duke  to  have  certain  professors,  appointed  by  govern- 
ment, removed  from  their  positions,  because  of  their  false  teaching.  One  of  these^ 
Jieic/din-Meldegg,  represented  the  history  of  the  Church  as  a  romance,  and  de- 
nied the  divinity  of  Christ,  while  giving  a  course  of  lectures  on  Catholic  theol- 
ogy at  the  University  of  Freiburg;  ^  and  another,  Schreiher,  the  professor  of 
moral  theology  at  the  same  place,  assailed  the  prerogatives  of  virginity,  and 
argued  against  the  obligation  of  priestly  celibacy. 

That  the  religious  controversy,  which  originated  in  Prussia  in  1837,  and 
spread  thence  over  the  whole  Catholic  world,  should  have  been  taken  up  in  a 
country  whose  faith  had  been  so  ably  defended  by  the  immortal  Mofhler,  wa& 
not  only  natural,  but,  under  the  circumstances,  necessary.  Although  the 
Church  in  Wiirtemberg  was  less  free,  and,  in  the  matter  of  mixed  marn'ogesy 
more  embarrassed  than  even  in  Prussia,  she  was  not  wholly'  without  hope  and 
comfort.  Among  the  younger  clergy,  particularly,  there  began  to  appear  signs 
of  a  reaction  against  the  claims  of  tlie  government  to  interfere  in  spiritual  af- 
fairs {jus  in  sacra).  When  an  order  from  the  government  appeared,  requiring 
the  removal  of  all  priests  who  refused  to  celebrate  marriages  according  to  the- 
instructions  of  the  law  of  1806,  by  which  both  parties  were  placed  on  a  pre- 
cisely equal  footing,  Bishop  Keller  of  Rottenburg,  an  old  and  tried  servant  of 
the  government,  was  ordered  to  bring  in  a  bill  in  the  Lower  Chamber  (No- 
vember 13,  1841),  demanding  the  recognition  of  the  right  of  the  Church  to  gov- 
em  herself — a  right  guaranteed  her  by  the  constitution.^     The  bishop,  in  his 


nibus  labora,  opus  fac  Evangelistae,  ministerium  tuum  imple.  Yestrum  erat, 
vocem  tollere  pastoralem,  ita  ut  errantium  castigatio  esset  simul  fraeno  ac  ti- 
mori  vacillantibus,  juxta  illud  ejusdem  Apostoli:  Peccantes  coram  omnibus 
argue,  ut  et  oaeteri  timorem  habeant.  Denique  Vestrum  erat,  exemplum  imi- 
tari  Apo.=tolorum,  qui  silentium  indicentibus  evangelica  libertate  responderunt; 
Obedire  oportet  Deo  magis,  quam  hominibus." 

1  Cfr.  The  Catholic,  1839,  February  number,  p.  147-159. 

-  Ketteler,  Bishop  of  Mentz,  The  Rights  and  Safeguards  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Germany,  p.  26-31.     Briick,  Ch.  H.,  p.  736.  (Tr.) 

3  An  enumeration  of  the  chief  points  in  the  bishop's  bill  will  enable  us  to  es- 
timate how  grievously  the  Church  was  persecuted.  ( The  Catholic,  1842,  Feb. 
ruary  number.  Supplement,  pp.  XC.  sq.)  For  the  maintenance  of  the  liberty 
of  the  Churi'h,  he  demanded:  1.  That  the  bishop  should  have  the  supreme  di« 
reetion  and  superintendence  of  his  clergy.     In  virtue  of  another  bill,  intro- 


g  409.    The  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  777 

speech  supporting  this  motion,  brought  forward  the  most  irrefragable  argu- 
ments, but  to  no  purpose.  The  bill  Avas  thrown  out  in  both  houses  ;  one  of  the 
members,  in  opposing  it,  saying  to  his  colleagues  that  they  must  not  mistake 
the  spirit  of  the  age,  by  which,  of  course,  he  meant  that  the  spirit  was  one  of 
freedom  for  all — except  Catholics.  When  Professor  Mack,  of  the  University 
of  Tubingen,  and  several  assistant  professors  of  "William's  College  were  dis- 
missed for  teaching  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  mixed  marriages,  this  being  the 
easiest  and  most  convenient  way  of  answering  their  arguments,  the  Bishop  of 
Kottenburg  (f  October  17,  1845)  again  entered  his  protest  against  so  unwar- 
rantable a  proceeding,  but  was  once  more  unsuccessful. 

Again,  when  Catholic  professors  of  name  at  the  various  Universities  within 
the  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Ehine  would  not  consent  to  keep  si- 
lence, they  were  peremptorily  dismissed.     Thus  Riffel.  Professor  of  Theology  at 


duced  on  behalf  of  the  government  by  von  Jaunuimi,  Dean  of  the  Cathedral 
and  an  ex-member  of  the  notorious  Prankfort  Commission,  this  direction  wag 
limited  so  as  to  imply  no  more  than  a  zealous  watchfulness.  If,  for  example, 
an  ecclesiastic  was  to  be  suspended,  the  suspension  must  come  first  from  an  Ec- 
clesiastical Council,  and  iiext  from  his  ordinary.  The  bill  demanded:  2.  That 
the  manner  of  conferring  benefices  should  be  corrected,  as  in  no  other  country 
was  so  great  a  disregard  shown  for  the  principles  of  the  Church  in  this  matter. 
3.  That  the  bishop  should  have  the  administration  of  all  ecclesiastical  property 
and  contingent  resources  of  the  Church,  an  affair  with  which  the  Ecclesiastical 
Council  had  dealt  in  the  most  summary  manner.  4.  That  deaneries  should  be 
visited  only  by  the  bishop  or  those  whom  he  deputed,  and  not,  as  was  tiie  cus- 
tom, by  one  commissioner  representing  the  bishop  and  another  the  government. 
5.  That  since  the  CatholiQ  Church,  although  tolerating  mixed  marriages,  had 
always  regarded  tiiem  with  less  favor  than  even  the  Protestant,  her  ministers 
should  not  be  compelled  to  give  the  marriage  blessing  in  assisting  at  them, 
because,  inasmuch  as  they  acted  from  religious  motives,  to  employ  compulsion 
would  be  to  violate  both  tiie  principles  of  religious  freedom  and  tiie.  letter  of 
the  constitution.  6.  That  the  Ecclesiastical  Council  should  have  no  recognized 
inquisitorial  rights  over  the  clergy,  and  that  its  acts  should  receive  no  recogni- 
tion, even  when  confirmed  by  superior  authority,  unless  they  had  been  first 
submitted  to  the  proper  officials  of  the  diocese  and  obtained  their  approbation. 
7.  That,  inasmuch  as  the  Church  had  a  right  to  manage  her  own  affairs  and 
govern  herself,  and  had  given  the  bishop  complete  control  over  his  seminary, 
he  alone  should  be  the  judge  of  the  qualifications  of  candidates  coming  up  for 
orders.  8.  That  the  right  claimed  by  the  government  to  censure  works  of 
Catholic  theology  should  be  given  up.  as  it  was  regarded  as  shamefully  oppress- 
ive, not  alone  by  the  Catholic  clergy,  but  by  all  literary  n.en ;  that  since  the 
Protestan's  had  a  free  press,  so  also  should  the  Catholics,  and  that  this  could 
not  be  denied  then:  on  the  ground  of  either  intellectual  or  moral  abuse  of  the 
privilege,  because,  among  Catholic  publicists,  to  abu«e  the  press  would  be  to 
commit  commercial  suicide.  9.  That  it  should  be  the  office  of  the  bishop  to 
pass  upon  the  qualifications  of  one  who  was  to  preach  the  word  of  God  bv 
making  him  undergo  at  the  episcopal  residence  a  public  examination,  previ 
ously  to  conferring  upon  him  the  benefices  of  the  Church. 


778  Period  3.     Evock  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1 


the  University  of  Giessen,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  having  commenced  tc 
discuss  the  origin  of  the  Eeformation,  after  he  had  got  on  a  little  way,  was  re- 
tired by  the  government,  this  being  a  most  efficient  way  of  stopping  a  man's 
mouth  whose  arguments  are  disagreeably  embarrassing.^  In  the  Upper  Cham- 
bei  of  Wiirtemberg,  however,  there  seems  to  have  been  still  some  sense  of  jus- 
tice 1  ift,  for  on  the  6th  of  June,  1842,  a  motion  was  put  and  carried  providing 
that  an  address  should  be  sent  to  the  king,  praying  him  to  have  the  relations 
of  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  civil  power  definitely  and  equitably  settled. ^ 
Still  the  government  was  tardy  ;  justice  came  slowly  ;  and  it  needed  the  stim- 
ulus of  new  events  to  hasten  fresh  concessions. 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  Baden  was  no  better.  Archbishop  Boll  died  in 
1886,  and  his  successors,  Demeier  and  Vicari  (from  1842),  renewed  the  com- 
plaints and  protests  of  their  predecessor,  but  to  no  purpose.  To  the  hostility 
of  the  bureau  of  administration  was  now  added  the  opposition  of  the  Cham- 
bers, which,  in  a  freak  of  eccentric  liberalism,  advocated  the  abolition  of  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy.  This  movement,  however,  was  not  altogether  new.  As 
far  back  as  1828  a  number  of  lay  professors  of  the  Universitj^  of  Freiburg, 
more  zealous  than  wise,^  sent  memorials  to  the  States  General  and  the  Grand 
Duke  of  Baden,  asking  the  co-operation  of  both  in  abolishing  celibacy  among 
the  Catholic  clergy.  Some  time  later.  Dominie  Kuenzer,  rector  of  the  church 
attached  to  the  hospital  at  Constance,  formed  an  association  with  this  avowed 
object,  but  including  in  its  scope  many  other  ecclesiastical  reforms  of  a 
kindred  nature,  and,  when  admonished  by  his  superiors  to  dissolve  it,  wad 
supported  in  his  disobedience  by  the  Department  of  Worship  at  Carlsruhe, 
and  encouraged  to  threaten  them  with  the  vengeance  of  the  'Chatnbers  if  they  per' 
siHted  (18391. 

The  Grand  Duke  Leopold  did  all  he  could  toward  ameliorating  the  condition 
of  the  Church  by  acts  of  a  personal  nature,  such  as  appointing  men  of  sound 
Catholic  principles  to  professorships  in  the  Theological  Faculty  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Freiburg,  and  building  a  theological  seminary  (1842);  but  his  efforts 
were  of  little  avail,  as  the  government  contrived  in  some  way  to  nullify  them. 
Two  bills,  the  one  introduced  by  Buss  in  1846  and  the  other  by  Hirscher  in 
1850,  for  the  repeal  of  laws  limiting  the  liberty  of  the  Church,  were  both  de- 
feated in  the  Chambers. 


-  The  Catholic,  1841,  December,  Suppl.,  pp.  XCII.  sq. ;  1842,  January,  Suppl., 
pp.  XXXYII.  sq.  Sion,  1842, April,  pp.  46  sq.  "The  Eight  of  Investigation," 
in  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  158-168. 

2  See  the  '■  Circular  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain  (which  occupied  an  im- 
portant place  in  thfe  debates  of  the  Chambers,  Peterfels,  June,  1842),  addressed 
to  Minister  von  Schlayer,"  in  The  Catholic,  1842,  June,  Suppl. 

3  Cfr.  Moehler,  The  Memorial  in  Behalf  of  the  Abolition  of  Clerical  Celibacy, 
with  Three  Documents  reviewed.  (Complete  Works  of  the  same,  Vol.  I.,  ji. 
177-267.)  ■\'^Bader,  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  Grand  Du  h-  rv*  Uat'en, 
Freiburg,  1860. 


410.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia.  779 


§  410.    The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia.   (Cf.  §  385.) 

Persecution  et  souffrances  de  I'^glise  catholique  en  Russie,  etc.,  Paris,  1842 ; 
Germ,  by  Z'urcher,  Schaffh.  1843.  A.  Thetner,  The  Latest  Condition  of  the 
Catholic  Church  of  the  Two  Rites  in  Poland  and  Piussia,  from  Catharine  IL, 
Augsburg,  1841.  A  Glance  at  Russian  History  {Hisi.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Y(\i, 
v.,  IX.,  X.,  and  XI.)  '^'Hefele,  The  Russian  Church  (Essays  on  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  1.} 
A.  V.  Haxihausen,  Researches  on  the  Interior  Condition  of  Russia,  Hanover 
1847,  2  pts.  Le  catholicisme  romain  en  Russie,  etudes  historiques  par  le  conite 
Dmitry-Tolstoi,  Paris,  2  vols.  Gams,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  p.  161-172;  Vol.  III.,  p. 
581-594.  Pichler,  Hist,  of  the  Schism,  Vol.  II.,  p.  202  sq.  Philaret,  Hist,  of 
the  Church  of  Russia,  2  vols. 

When  the  Empress  Catharine  (1762-1796)  extended,  her  pro- 
tection to  the  Jesuits,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Society  by 
Clement  XIV.,  she  acted  partly  from  principle,  but  chiefly 
from  policy  ;  and  although  she  permitted  them  to  retain  their 
colleges  in  White-Russia,  that  is,  those  portions  of  Poland 
lying  to  the  east  of  the  Dvina  and  Dnieper  that  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Russia  in  the  first  partition  of  Poland,  she  was  not  on  that 
account  less  intolerant  of  the  Catholic  Church,  for  she  wrested 
from  her  the  metropolitan  see  of  Kiev,  transferring  it  to  the 
Schismatical  Greeks,  and  suppressed  the  Basilian  monasteries 
and  the  sees  in  possession  of  the  United  Greeks.  By  the 
second  partition  of  Poland,  in  1793,  nearly  all  the  sees  of  the 
United  Greeks  passed  under  the  dominion  of  Russia,  and  while 
Catharine  was  under  pledge  (Art.  VIII.)  to  protect  the  Cath- 
olics of  both  Rites,  she  was  secretly  devising  means  to  bring 
the  United  Greeks  over  to  the  "  Orthodox  "  Greek  Church. 
She  was  in  a  large  measure  successful,  for  before  her  death 
she  had  already  severed  seven  millions  of  them  from  obedience 
to  the  Church  of  Rome.^ 

Paul  1.  (1796-1801),  her  successor,  was  more  just  toward 
Catholics.  Conjointly  with  Litta,  the  Apostolic  Nuncio,  he 
made  arrangements  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Russia.  The  measures  agreed  upon  were  confirmed 
by  Pius  VI.,  in  a  bull  dated  November  15,  1798,  by  which 
31oliileo  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  metropolitan  'see,  with 
jurisdiction  over  all  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  in  Russia. 

^  Jauffret,  Catharine  II.  et  son  regne,  Paris,  2  vols- 


780  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

By  the  same  bull,  the  United  Greeks,  against  whom  the  per 
seditions  now  ceased,  also  obtained  an  ecclesiastical  organi 
zation,  with  Polotzk  as  an  archbishopric,  and  Luzk  and  Brecsz. 
as  suiiragan  sees. 

Alexander  1.  (1801-1825)  was  also  favorably  disposed  toward 
the  Catholic  Church,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  he  added 
four  assessors  from  the  Church  of  the  United  Greek  Rite  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastical  commission  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. As  long  as  this  equitable  treatment  lasted  the  number  of 
Catholics  of  both  Rites  rapidly  increased,  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  Russian  Archbishops  Platan  and  31ethodms  were 
endeavoring  to  rouse  the  passions  of  the  people  by  their  vehe- 
ment assaults  on  the  Pope  ;  and  that  the  young  and  gifted 
Alexander  de  Sturdza,  who  was  most  probably  in  the  pay  of 
[N'apoleon,  was  doing  a  similar  work  beyond  the  confines  of 
the  Russian  Empire.^ 

When  Nicholas  1.  (1825-1855)  ascended  the  throne  he  at 
once  returned  to  the  persecuting  policy  of  Catharine  II.,  one 
of  his  first  acts  being  to  issue  an  edict  against  the  sale  of  devo- 
tional works  for  the  United  Greeks. 

By  a  ukase  of  April  22, 1828,  the  organization  of  the  United 
Greeks  was  abolished,  the  administration  of  their  Church 
being  placed  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  metropolitan  see  sup- 
pressed and  replaced  by  an  ecclesiastical  commission  appointed 
by  the  Emperor.  The  bishopric  of  Luzk  and  many  of  the  Ba- 
silian  monasteries  were  also  suppressed.  A  number  of  these 
monasteries  were  permitted  to  exist  as  parishes  until  the  year 
1832  (January  19),  when  they  also  shared  the  fate  of  the  oth- 
ers, the  whole  Order  being  abolished  by  the  Emperor.  By 
jive  other  ukases,  most  skillfully  and  craftily  drawn  uj),  the 
United  Greek  Church  was  shorn  of  every  vestige  of  freedom. 
The  whole  enormity  of  the  plot  was  not  revealed,  however, 
until  the  culmination  of  that  stupendous  act  of  treason, 
planned  by  three  bishops,  of  whom  Joseph  Siemazko  was  the 

^Cf.  Fichler,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  310  sq.  At  page  313  of  this  work  some  on» 
is  quoted  anonymously  as  .saying:  "In  the  Russian  Church  there  is  but  one 
dogma,  viz.,  hatred  of  the  Pope  of  Rome  ;  for  the  others  no  one  cares  a  straw." 


§  410.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Bussia.  781 

leader,  and  participated  in  by  thirteen  hundred  and  five  eccle- 
siastics, who,  on  the  12th  of  February.  1839,  declared,  in  a 
document  previously  drawn  up  at  Polotzk,  that  they  with- 
drew from  obedience  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  with  sim- 
ulated sincerity  begged  the  Emperor  and  the  Holy  Synod  to 
receive  them  into  the  fold  of  the  Schismatical  Greek  Church. 
Another  measure,  equally  perfidious,  was  the  spreading  of  a 
rejiort  among  the  Protestants  of  the  Baltic  provinces  that 
such  as  would  apostatize  to  the  Orthodox  Establishment 
should  receive  the  estates  of  the  German  landlords.^  Gregory 
XVI.  loudly  protested  against  the  persecutions  of  the  Catho- 
lics ;  but  neither  his  protests,  nor  his  conference  Avith  the 
Emperor  Nicholas  in  lionie,^  nor  the  negotiations  conducted 
by  his  successor  have  had  any  material  influence  in  mitigating 
the  persecution  inflicted  upon  Latin  and  United  Greek  Cath- 
olics by  Russia.'^  But,  while  persecuting  at  home,  the  Rus- 
sian government  affected  to  be  the  friend  of  religious  liberty 
abroad,  and  in  1855  and  1877  provoked  a  most  calamitous 
war,  on  the  ostensible  pretext  of  securing  it  to  the  Greeks  resi- 
dent in  Turkey. 

Nicholas  died  March  2,  1855,  and,  owing  to  the  disastrous 
issue  of  the  war,  in  which  France,  England,  and  Sardinia 
sided  with  Turkey,  his  successor,  Alexander  IL,  saw  the  ne- 
cessity of  making  many  concessions,  both  political  and  com- 
mercial, to  the  people  of  his  Empire  ;  but  the  idea  of  granting 
freedom  of  worship  to  the  Roman  Catholics  has  not  yet  im- 
pressed the  Tzar  as  a  necessary  or  even  equitable  measure. 

'  Cf.  The  Roman  State  Papers  on  the  subject,  beginning  with  the  year  1842, 
in  which  ninety  documents  are  given. 

2See§  398,  vers.  fin. 

•''A  Concordat  was  concluded  August  3,  1847,  in  virtue  of  which  the  Latin 
Church  in  Kussia  was  reorganized  in  two  provinces.  The  first,  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal province  of  Mohiiev,  including  all  the  Latin  Catholics  of  the  Empire,  ex- 
cept those  of  Poland,  comprioed  the  metropolitan,  with  the  six  suffragan  sees 
of  Kamieniec,  Luzk-Zytornir,  Minsk,  Samogitia  (residence  Telcze),  U'ilna,  and 
Cherson  (residence  Tiraspol);  the  second,  the  province  of  Warsaw,  comprised 
all  Russian  Poland,  the  metropolitan,  with  the  six  suffragan  sees  of  (,'racow 
Lublin,  Podlacfua  or  Jarrow,  Saiidomir,  Seyna  or  Augustova,  Vladimir-Kfilish  or 
Cujavia.  The  exempt  see  of  Chelm- Belz  is  the  last  remnant  of  the  once  flour- 
ishing Ruthenian  or  United  Givek  Church  of  Poland.  See  Jacoh  Xcker'i 
Ecd.  Geogr.,  Vol.  IL,  pp.  433-450.  (Tr.) 


782  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

THE   PONTIFICATE  OF  PIUS  IX. 
§  411.  His  Political  Activity. 

Pie  IX.  Pontif.  max.  acta,  Koma,  3  T.  '\Riancey,  llecueil  des  actes  de  N.  P. 
S.  P.  le  pape  Pie  IX.  comprenant  le  texte  et  traduction  des  tons  les  documents 
officiels,  Pari?,  1853  sq.  tMcn-ffotti,  The  Victories  of  the  Church  during  the 
First  Decade  of  the  Pontificate  of  Pius  IX.,  transl.  fr.  the  Italian  into  German 
by  Pius  Gams,  O.  S.  B.,  Innsbruck,  1857.  *  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  ac- 
cording to  the  Acts  of  his  Pontificate,  Vienna,  1865.  Louis  Veuillot,  Pius  IX. 
a  Mirror  of  Catholic  Character  (in  Germ.),  A'ienna,  1864.  Hiilskamp,  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  his  Life  and  Worlds,  Miinster,  1870.  A  Life  of  Pius  IX.  down  to 
the  Episcopal  Jubilee  of  1877,  by  Rev.  B.  O Reilly,  New  York,  1877. 

On  the  1st  of  June,  1846,  Gregory  XYI.  died,  while  still  in 
the  midst  of  his  nntiring  labors  for  the  good  of  the  Church. 
As  the  conclave  by  which  he  was  elected  had  been  one  of  the 
longest,  so  that  which  elected  his  successor  was  the  shortest 
held  for  three  hundred  j-ears,  the  opening  taking  place  on  the 
14th,  and  the  closing  on  the  16th  of  June.  Of  the  two  par- 
ties into  which  the  cardinals  composing  the  conclave  were 
divided,  that  of  the  moderate  liberals  was  the  more  numerous  ; 
and  wlien  it  became  evident  that  Cardinal  Lambruschini,  the 
conservative  candidate,  had  no  chance  of  being  chosen,  they 
united  their  votes  on  Cardinal  Mastai-F.erretti. 

.Giovanni  Maria  Mastai-Ferretti  was  born  at  Sinigaglia,  in 
the  States  of  the  Church,  May  13,  1792.  He  was  originally 
enrolled  by  the  French  as  one  of  the  Italian  guard,  but 
being  subsequently  exempted  he  entered  the  priesthood. 
Having  labored  for  some  time  in  Rome,  he  was  sent  by  Leo 
XII.,  in  1823,  as  "auditor"  of  the  Apostolic  Delegate  to 
Chili.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Spoleto  in  1827, 
and  transferred  to  the  see  of  Imola  in  1832.  Notwithstand- 
ing his  well-known  liberal  political  views,  he  was  appointed 
by  Gregory  XVI.  cardinal,  Dec.  14,  1840,  in  recognition  of 
the  eminent  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  Church,  and  when 
called  to  the  Papacy  was  one  of  the  youngest  members  in  the 
College.  As  Pope,  he  took  the  name  of  Pius  IX.,  and  his 
accession  was  hailed  with  universal  and  sincere  joy  by  the 
Roman  people.  The  words  uttered  by  him  on  the  day  of  his 
coronation,  June  21,  Oggi  comincia  la  persecuzione  (To-day 
persecution  begins),  were  prophetic.     His  pontificate,  which 


§  411.    Pius  IX. — His  Political  Activity.  783 

is  the  longest  in  the  history  of  the  papacy,  having  now  lasted 
close  npon  thirty-two  years,  has  been  filled  with  events  the 
most  momentous  and  various,  and  marked  by  sufie rings  and 
persecutions  of  every  kind.  During  it  an  unceasing  struggle 
has  been  kept  up  against  both  the  principles  and  the  workings 
of  the  Revolutionists. 

It  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  parts : 

I.  The  first,  extending  from  June  16,  1846,  to  April  12, 
1850,  includes  the  amnesty  and  the  political  reforms  in  the 
States  of  the  Church,  the  Revolution  of  1848,  the  flight  of 
the  Pope  to  Gaeta,  and  his  return  to  Rome. 

II.  The  second,  extending  from  1850  to  1859,  includes  what 
this  Pope  has  done  to  forward  the  interests  and  increase  the 
glory  of  the  Church  in  the  various  countries  of  the  world. 

III.  The  third,  beginning  with  the  invasion  and  plunder  of 
the  States  of  the  Church  by  Sardinia  (1859),  and  coming  down 
to  the  present  day,  includes  the  trials  and  persecutions  en- 
dured by  the  papacy,  which,  though  severe  and  numerous, 
■were  instrumental  in  working  out  a  process  of  purification 
among  Catholics  generally. 

Men  of  earnestness  and  sincerity,  the  world  over,  have 
given  comfort  to  the  Head  of  the  Church  and  glory  to  the 
Catholic  name  by  their  uncompromising  loyalty  and  un- 
bounded devotion  to  the  principles  of  their  faith.  As  to  the 
rest,  their  open  defection  now  from  the  Catholic  Church  only 
shows  that  they  had  long  since  interiorly  apostatized.  They 
go  out  from  us  because  they  are  not  of  us,  and  naturally 
they  swell  the  ranks  of  the  persecutors  of  the  Church. 

Inasmuch  as  Gregory  XVI.  had  not  at  the  time  of  his 
death  carried  out  in  liis  States  the  social  and  political  re- 
forms recommended  to  him  by  the  Great  Powers  in  their 
Memorandum  of  1831,^  Pius  IX.  felt  that,  to  avert  from  the 
Holy  See  the  dangers  that  menaced  it,  there  was  a  call  upon 
him  to  give  his  immediate  attention  to  these  hitherto  neglected 
branches  of  the  pontifical  government.  His  natural  tender- 
ness of  heart,  as  well  as  the  pacific  character  of  his  office  of 


^Cf.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  in  several  articles  of  Vols.  43  aiul  44,  and  A^ips- 
burg  Un'tv.  Gazette,  1849,  in  the  Supplements  to  Nos.  236  and  237. 


784  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Sovereign  Pontiff,  prompted  him  to  begin  with  an  act  of  am- 
Jiesty,  more  extensive  than  had  been  granted  for  many  years, 
and  designed  as  a  measure  of  conciliation.  Thousands  who 
had  languished  in  prison  were  restored  to  their  families  and 
to  the  pursuits  of  active  life. 

The  concessions  made  b}'  Pius  IX.  at  this  time  were  so  ex- 
tensive, and  followed  each  other  in  such  rapid  succession,  that 
many  began  to  take  alarm,  fearing  that  the  Pontiff  was  acting 
from  the  impulses  of  his  own  generous  nature,  rather  than 
from  the  dictates  of  political  prudence.  These  concessions 
contained  in  themselves  the  elements  of  a  political  constitu- 
tion, which,  it  was  ardently  hoped,  would  soon  take  definite 
shape,  and  be  made  the  basis  of  a  popular  government.  Com- 
missions were  ajipointed  to  reform  the  system  of  administra- 
tion and  to  revise  the  laws;  a  new  Council  of  State,  consist- 
ing of  younger  prelates,  was  named  ;  and  Cardinal  Gizzi,  who 
was  universally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  liberal  school  of 
politics,  was  made  Secretary  of  State.  A  large  number  of 
laymen  were  called  to  take  ofiice  in  the  Civil  Service  ;  the 
press  was  made  more  free ;  and  charters  for  constructing  rail- 
ways were  granted.  These  reforms  created  a  feeling  of  un- 
easiness in  the  minds  of  a  few  far-seeing  men,  but  by  the 
great  bulk  of  the  Italian  people  they  were  hailed  with  accla- 
mations of  joy.  The  cry,  '■'Evvica  Pio  Nono"  ("Long  live 
Pius  IX."),  went  up  from  one  end  of  Italy  to  the  other,  and 
even  Protestant  Europe  gave  expression  to  its  sentiments  of 
approval  in  a  Hymn  to  Pius  the  Ninth. 

It  soon  became  evident,  however,  that  these  ample  conces- 
sions, so  generously  made,  neither  satisfied  the  demands  nor 
conciliated  the  affections  of  a  large  number  of  restless  and 
revolutionary  spirits.  The  Peduci,  or  Radicals,  returning 
from  prison  and  exile,  at  once  set  busily  to  work  to  overthrow 
every  support  of  order  in  both  Church  and  State.  And  when, 
in  1848,  inspired  by  the  events  that  had  taken  place  in  France, 
the  inhabitants  of  nearly  every  city  of  Italy,  from  Lombardy 
to  Sicily,  rose  in  rebellion,  the  Radicals  of  Rome  concluded 
that  their  time  for  action  had  also  come.  Demonstrations 
were  held  and  every  means  employed  in  any  way  calculated 
to  excite  and  influence  the  passions  of  the  people.     The  Pope 


§  411.    Plus  IX. — His  Political  Activity.  785 

was  pressed  to  make  still  larger  concessions,  as,  for  example, 
to  expel  the  Jesuits  from  Rome.  Under  pretense  of  doing 
him  honor,  it  was  attempted  to  make  him  an  instrument  in 
the  hands  of  the  Mazzinists,  to  force  him  to  declare  war 
against  Austria,  and  to  place  him  at  the  head  of  a  "  crusade  " 
of  all  Italy,  the  object  of  which  was  to  free  the  country  from 
foreign  domination.  A  new  Constitution  had  been  granted 
March  14,  1848 ;  a  reform  ministry  had  been  appointed ;  and 
two  Chambers  had  been  established  ;  the  one  to  regulate  the 
taxes,  and  the  other  to  pass  laws;  but  the  malcontents  were 
by  no  means  satisfied.  They  still  continued  to  incite  the 
people  to  rebellion,  and,  because  the  Pope  declined  to  make 
war  on  Austria,  sought  to  strip  him  of  every  vestige  of  au- 
thority, forcing  upon  him  the  revolutionary  ministry  of 
Mamiani. 

In  vain  did  Pius  IX.  recommend  (March  31)  moderation  to 
the  Italians;  in  vain  did  he  remind  them,  in  an  allocution 
dated  April  29,  "  that,  as  the  Father  of  all  Christendom,  he 
could  take  no  part  in  the  quarrels  of  political  factious,  and 
that  his  only  wish  was  to  secure  peace  to  the  entire  world,  but, 
above  all,  to  Italy."  The  demagogues,  who  had  but  recently 
spoken  of  him  in  terms  of  enthusiastic  admiration,  now  used 
toward  him  only  expressions  of  reproach  and  hatred. 

The  Pope  was  now  obliged  to  dismiss  the  Mamiani  minis- 
try, and  after  appointing  several  others,  each  of  which  proved 
unequal  to  the  task  of  administering  public  affairs,  he  placed 
at  tlie  head  of  the  government  Count  Rossi,  a  man  of  energy 
and  determination,  who  resolved  to  take  such  measures  as 
would  effectually  restore  peace  and  re-establish  public  order. 
He  was  not  spared  to  carry  out  his  intentions.  While  ascend- 
ing the  stairway  leading  to  the  Apostolic  Chancery,  on  the 
15th  of  November,  1848,  to  open  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
he  was  assassinated,  thus  falling  a  victim  to  the  fury  of  the 
revolutionary  party.^  Tumultuous  and  menacing  deputations 
now  presented  themselves  to  the  Holy  Father,  peremptorily 


1  Hurler,  History  of  the  Assassination  of  Count  Peregrin  Kossi,  Innsbrnok, 
1855. 

VOL.    Ill — 50 


786  Period  8.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


demauding  the  appointment  of  a  democratic  ministry,  the 
recognition  of  Italian  nationality,  and  the  continuation  of  the 
war  against  Austria. 

Borne  down  Avith  sorrow,  and  complete!}'  undeceived  as  to 
the  criminal  intentions  of  the  malcontents,  Pius  IX.  resolved 
to  quit  the  city,  and  with  the  aid  of  Count  Spaur,  the  Bava- 
rian embassador,  succeeded  in  making  good  his  escape  to 
Gaeta,  i^ovember  24,  1848.  Anticipating  the  issue  of  events, 
the  bulk  of  the  cardinals  had  previously  left  Rome,  where  a 
reign  of  terror  had  already  set  in.  Rome  was  forthwith  pro- 
claimed a  Republic  by  the  Mazzinists  and  Garibaldians ;  its 
inhabitants  were  intimidated  into  acquiescence  by  the  hordes 
of  anarchists  who  flocked  thither  from  all  countries ;  ecclesi- 
astical and  private  property  was  seized ;  and  religion  and  its 
ministers  were  made  the  objects  of  derision  and  scorn.  On 
the  9th  of  February,  1849,  the  Pope  was  deposed  from  his 
temporal  sovereignty  by  the  newly  convoked  Constituent  As- 
sembly, and  on  the  18th  of  the  same  month  a  law  was  passed 
by  that  body  declaring  all  ecclesiastical  property  secularized, 
and  confiscating  it  to  the  State.  Instead  of  the  reign  of  order, 
which  had  been  promised,  anarchy  everywhere  prevailed. 

The  victory  gained  hy  Padetzky  over  the  Piedmontese,  near 
Novara,  on  the  23d  of  March,  deprived  the  Roman  Republic 
of  all  hope  of  stability.  In  response  to  a  call  issued  by  the 
Pope  at  Gaeta,  requesting  the  intervention  of  the  Catholic 
powers,  France,  although  at  that  time  under  a  republican 
form  of  government,  sent  a  considerable  army  into  Italy, 
under  the  command  of  Oudinot,  which  retook  Rome  July  3d, 
and  expelled  the  Revolutionists,  commanded  by  Garibaldi ; 
while  in  the  E^orth  the  Austrians  had  occupied  the  Legations. 

The  government  of  the  city  and  that  portion  of  the  Papal 
States  now  in  possession  of  the  French  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  Cardinals  della  Genga,  VanniceUi,  and  Altieri.  The 
Pope,  in  a  note  dated  Gaeta,  September  12,  promised  both 
financial  and  administrative  reforms,  and  on  the  18th  of  the 
same  month  published  a  decree  of  amnesty.  He  returned  to 
Rome  April  12,  1850.  The  Diplomatic  Corps  presented  him 
an  address,  in  which  they  said  :  "  The  return  of  Your  Holi- 
ness to  your  States  is  hailed  by  all  governments  as  a  favorable 


§  411.  Pius  IX. — His  Political  Activity.  787 

augury,  and  is  regarded  as  an  event  of  luuisiial  importance 
for  the  restoration  of  law  and  order,  which  are  so  essentia',  to 
the  well-being  of  nations  and  the  maintenance  of  pea(  e." 
Although  sincerely  grieved  at  the  disappointment  of  his 
most  cherished  hopes,  and  deeply  affected  by  the  ingratitude 
of  his  subjects,  the  Pope,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  manifested 
a  spirit  of  clemency  and  love,  rather  than  of  anger  and  re^ 
seutment.  After  a  short  time,  the  old  order  of  things  was 
restored,  both  in  Rome  and  throughout  the  whole  of  the  Pa- 
pal States,  and  peace  and  tranquillity  once  more  reigned.  In 
September  a  complete  ministry  was  formed,  at  the  head  of 
whicli  the  prudent  and  skillful  Cardinal  Antonelli  was  placed, 
under  the  old  title  of  Secretary  of  State.  The  work  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction  was  again  committed  to  the  Jesuits,  who  wera 
no<v  returning.  Notwithstanding  that  many  reforms  had 
been  introduced  into  the  Civil  Service  and  the  departments 
of  agriculture  and  commerce,  during  the  occupation  of  Rome 
by  the  French  and  of  Bologna  and  Ancona  by  the  Austrians, 
still  the  offensive  and  stereotyped  accusation  that  priests, 
wherever  they  had  any  hand  in  the  administration  of  the  gov- 
ernment, proved  themselves  both  arrogant  and  incapable,  was 
constantly  reiterated.  The  testimony  of  Count  Rayneval,  the 
French  embassador,  who,  in  a  detailed  report,  based  upon 
public  and  authentic  documents,  and  written  in  a  calm  spirit 
of  judicial  fairness,  showed  conclusively  that  the  '■'■Papal  gov ' 
eminent  gave  its  subjects  no  cause  to  fear  any  abridgement  of  their 
rights,''  ^  produced  little  or  no  effect,  and  was  powerless  to 
correct  the  misrepresentations  set  afloat  about  the  clergy. 
From  the  day  that  Count  Cavour,  the  Piedmontese  Minister, 
became  the  leader  of  the  Revolutionists,  the  agitation  grew 
daily  more  alarming.  Fresh  causes  of  provocation  were  given 
to  Austria ;  a  subscription  was  opened  to  collect  money  for 
the  purchase  of  one  hundred  cannon,  to  be  placed  upon  the 
fortifications  of  Alessandria,  whence  they  were  to  belch  forth 
their  thunders  against  the  Barbarians;  and  the  residences  of 


J  The  memorial  in  Mr.  Maguire's  Eome,  Its  Ruler  and  Its  Institutions,  New 
York,  1858.  Hergenroelher,  The  States  of  the  Church  since  the  French  Revo- 
iution,  Freiburo;,  1860. 


Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


the  Piedmontese  diplomatists,  consuls,  and  agents  became  ev- 
erywhere the  rendezvous  for  the  disaffected.  In  the  year  1856 
Count  Cavour  and  Louis  E"apoleon  drew  up  a  project  with 
regard  to  the  future  of  Italy,  which,  however,  was  to  be  kept- 
secret  until  the  year  1859,  when  it  was  to  be  carried  into  ex- 
ecution. On  New  Year's  day  of  the  latter  year,  ]Srapoleon,in 
replying  to  the  congratulations  of  the  Diplomatic  Bod}',  took 
occasion  to  show  his  hostile  designs  against  Austria  and  his 
views  with  regard  to  Italy. 

War  broke  out  between  Austria  and  Sardinia,  the  latter 
supported  by  the  military  power  of  France.  After  the  disas- 
trous issues  of  the  battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  Austria 
withdrew  her  troops  from  Bologna,  Ancona,  and  the  Ro- 
magna,  which  were  at  once  taken  possession  of  by  the  hostile 
army,  and  the  papal  authorities  expelled.  On  the  18th  of 
March,  1860,  the  Legations,  together  with  Parma  and  Modena, 
were  formally  annexed  to  Sardinia;  and  Tuscany,  Naples, 
and  Sicily  were  later  on  similarly  incorporated.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Zurich,  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  the  newly-created  King- 
dom of  Italy,  wliich,  however,  was  in  turn  forced  to  surrender 
Savoy  and  Nizza  to  indemnify  France  for  her  services. 

Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy,  now  desired  to  get  pos- 
session of  Umbria  and  the  Marches  belonging  to  the  States 
of  the  Church;  and  the  Emperor  of  the  Frencli  allowed  this 
usurpation  to  take  place  in  the  very  presence  of  an  army 
which  he  had  sent  to  Italy  for  the  avov\^ed  purpose  of  protect- 
ing the  Pope  and  defending  his  rights.  The  insignificant 
Pontifical  army,  under  the  command  of  the  gallant  Generals 
Lamoriciere  and  Pimodan,  was  also  treacherously  assaulted  by 
a  well-disciplined  force,  six  times  its  number,  and  well  nigh 
annihilated,  near  Castel-Fidardo,  Sept.  18,  1860.  The  Pope 
was  now  despoiled  of  four-fifths  of  his  States,  Rome  alone 
and  the  surrounding  territory,  with  a  population  of  about 
700,000  souls,  being  all  that  was  left  to  him.  Apart  from  the 
debt  of  $11,000,000,  which  the  two  invasions  had  cost  the 
papal  government,  it  was  also  burdened  with  the  usual  ex- 
penses of  the  administration,  with  no  means  of  paying  either, 
except  the  scanty  resources  derived  from  the  remnant  of  ter- 
ritory that  still  remained  of  the  Patrimony  of  Peter.     These 


411.  Pius  IX. — His  Political  Activity.  78? 


financial  embarrassments  gave  occasion  to  an  unusnal  and 
touching  manifestation  of  loyalty  to  the  Head  of  the  Church 
by  the  Catholics  of  the  Christian  world,  who  eagerly  took  up 
the  Papal  Loan,  or,  if  they  were  not  wealthy  enough  to  aid 
liim  in  this  way,  contributed  generously  to  the  Peter-Pence 
fund,^  thus  providing  resources  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
meet  all  his  engagements. 

The  Revolutionists  still  continued  to  threaten  the  invasion 
of  what  remained  of  the  Papal  States,  demanding  that  Pome 
should  be  made  the  capital  of  Italy,  and  ceaselessly  repeating 
the  watchword  '■'•Rome  or  death." 

While  these  events  were  going  forward,  the  Emperor  Na- 
poleon and  King  Victor  Emmanuel  signed  a  treaty  at  Paris, 
September  15,  1864,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the  Ital- 
ian capital  should  be  transferred  from  Turin  to  Florence  in 
the  following  year  ;  that  the  King  of  Italy  should  see  to  it 
that  no  further  attacks  were  made  on  what  remained  of  the 
States  of  the  Church  ;  and  that,  with  the  exception  of  the 
garrisons  in  a  few  frontier  towns,  the  French  arm}-  should  be 
withdrawn  from  the  Papal  States  within  two  years.  This  last 
stipulation  was  not  fully  carried  out  until  December  15, 1866. 
From  the  year  1867  until  1870,  the  only  defenders  of  the 
Patrimony  of  Saint  Peter  were  the  soldiers  of  the  newly  or- 
ganized Papal  army,  consisting  of  about  ten  thousand  men. 
In  the  meantime,  owing  to  victories  gained  by  Germans  over 
Germans,  on  the  battle-fields  of  Bohemia,  in  June  and  July, 
1866,  Austria  was  forced  to  surrender  her  claims  to  Venice, 
which  was  forthwith  annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Ital}'.  The 
Garibaldian  campaign  against  Rome,  opened  in  October,  1867, 
bad  a  most  disastrous  issue,  the  invaders  being  completely  de- 
feated at  Mentana,  November  3. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  Italian  kingdom  had  received  so 
many  and  so  considerable  accessions  to  its  territor}',  and  was 
to  all  appearances  united,  it  was,  nevertheless,  both  financially 
and  politically,  in  a  most  deplorable  condition.  In  spite  of 
the   enormous   sums    realized   from  the  sale    of  confiscated 


1  Cf.  The  Peter  Pence  of  Nineteenth  Century  {Hist,  and  PoUt.  Papers,  Vols 
4o  and  4(j). 


790  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chaj^ter  1. 

Church  property,  the  government  was  threatened  with  bank- 
ruptcy ;  disorder  reigned  in  every  branch  of  the  adniMiistra- 
tiou  ;  and  officials  were  corrupt,  dishonest,  and  incapable. 
Moreover,  civil  marriage,  which  was  made  obligatory  by  a 
law  of  January  1,  1865,  was  by  no  means  calculated  to  check 
the  course  of  existing  evils,  or  to  purify  the  rapidly  decaying 
morals. 

In  allocutions,  published  September  26,  1859  ;  June  13  and 
December  17,  1860,  and  September  30,  1861,  Pius  IX.  remon- 
strated "  that  virgins  consecrated  to  God  should  be  obliged  to 
beg  their  bread  ;  that  God's  temples  should  be  plundered  and 
changed  into  dens  of  thieves,  and  the  property  of  the  Church 
confiscated  ;  and  that  ecclesiastical  authority  and  jurisdiction 
should  be  disregarded  and  usurped,  and  the  laws  of  the  Church 
contemned  and  trampled  under  foot."  But  neither  his  com- 
plaints nor  his  menaces  produced  the  least  efl'ect.  Things  went 
on  as  before.  True,  Victor  Emmanuel  did  send  Vegezzi  to  Rome 
in  1864  and  Tonello  in  1867,  to  open  negotiations  with  the  Holy 
See,  but  their  mission  was  productive  of  no  results,  if  we  except 
the  provisions  for  diminishing  the  number  of  bishoprics,  and 
down  to  the  present  hour  no  definite  understanding  has  been 
.arrived  at  between  the  Pope  and  the  Italian  government. 
While  there  were  formerly  eighty-two  bishoprics  in  the  States 
of  the  Church  and  twenty-four  archiepiscopal  and  seventy- 
eight  episcopal  sees  in  Sicily  and  the  Kingdom  of  !N"aples, 
there  were  to  be  now  only  about  eighty  in  the  whole  of  Italy. 
Moreover,  convents  of  men  were  to  be  abolished,  and  the 
number  of  the  clergy  largely  reduced.  But  if  the  persecu- 
tion endured  by  the  Italian  clergy  was  hard  and  relentless,  it 
was  not  wholly  unproductive  of  good.  It  purified  their  lives, 
strengthened  their  faith,  and  rekindled  their  zeal.  Repeating 
the  words  of  the  Holy  Father,  who  was  their  pattern  in  vir- 
tue and  their  guide  in  politics,  each  of  them  said  :  "J  may 
become  the  victim  of  the  Revolution,  hut  1  shall  never  he  its 
xccowpliceJ'  A  few,  but  only  a  few,  of  the  clergy^  among  the 
best  known  of  whom  were  Cardinal  d'Andrea,  Bishop  Ca- 
puto,  and  Father  Passaglia,  went  over  to  the  camp  of  the  en- 
mies  of  the  Church.  The  Armonia  and  the  Unitd,  Cattolica, 
both  published  at  Turin,  and  the  Civiltd,  Cattolica,  formerly 


§412.  Energy  Displayed  by  Fills  IX.  in  Eccles.  Affairs.  791 

published  at  Rome,  but  since  1871  at  Florence,  then  as  no^v 
courageously  and  persistently  defended  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  and  never  ceased  to  warn  the  faithful  against  the 
designs  of  men  who  treacherously  promise  "  a  Free  Church  in 
a  Free  State'' 

§  41l.  Energy  Displayed  by  Pius  IX.  in  Ecclesiastical  Affairs. 

The  political  conflicts  and  persecutions  that  have  disturbed 
the  long  pontiticate  of  Pius  IX.  have  not  prevented  him  from 
displaying  a  most  marvelous  energy  in  ecclesiastical  aftairs 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Christian  world. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  1846,  he  addressed  an  encyclical 
letter  to  the  patriarchs,  primates,  archbishops,  and  bishops  of 
the  Catholic  world,  in  which  he  clearly  pointed  out  the  most 
dangerous  errors  of  the  times,  adding  that,  as  it  was  the  spe- 
cial office  of  the  Church  to  correct  these,  so  was  she  alone 
competent  and  able  to  do  so,  provided  only  her  pastors  were 
vigilant  and  earnest.  Up  to  the  year  1877  he  had  raised 
twenty-four  bishoprics  to  the  dignity  of  archiepiscnpal  sees  ; 
had  established  five  new  archbishoprics,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  bishoprics,  and  three  privileged  abbacies  {nidlius  dioe- 
ceseos) ;  and  had  created  three  apostolic  delegations,  thirty- 
three  apostolic  vicariates,  and  fifteen  apostolic  prefectures.^  It 
is  said  that  he  contemplates  establishing  several  new  sees  in 
America.  He  has  also  given  special  attention  to  the  Churches 
of  the  Oriental  Rite,  establishing  (Jan.  6,  1862),  an  Eastern 
branch  of  the  Propaganda,  consisting  of  nine  cardinals,  one  for 
each  of  the  various  nations,  fifteen  consultors,  and  a  cardinal 
prefect.  The  first  to  hold  the  office  of  Cardinal  prefect  for  the 
Eat-tern  branch  of  the  Propaganda  was  the  Cardinal  Reisach.^ 

By  a  bull,  dated  September  24,  1850,  he  re-established  the 
episcopacy  in  England.,  thus  restoring  the  Catholic  hierarchy  to 
that  country,  and  abolishing  the  apostolic  vicariates  which 
had  hitherto  existed  there.     By  a  second  bull,  dated  jSTovem- 


1  There  is  a  rumor  that  the  hierarchy  will  be  restored  to  Scotland  in 
1878.  Cf.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  pp.  5-12 ;  and  La  Gerarchia  Caitulica 
for  1877,  p.  XV.    (Tr.) 

^Cf.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  pp.  169-186. 


702  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     CliaiyUr  \. 


her  19  of  the  same  year,  be  authorized  the  twelve  bishops  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  constitnting  the  English 
hierarchy,  to  establish  cauonries  in  their  respective  cathedral 
churches. 

Similar  provisions  were  made  for  Holland  on  the  7th  of 
March,  1853.  By  a  bull  of  July  23,  1847,  he  re-established 
the  Latin  patriarchate  of  Jerusalem,  appointing  Mgr.  Valerga 
to  that  dignity,  with,  however,  only  the  jurisdiction  of  an 
archbishop.  Pius  IX.  had  hoped  that  the  concordats  entered 
into  with  Russia  in  1847  ;  with  Tuscany  and  Spain  in  1851 ; 
with  Costarica  and  Guatemala  in  1852  ;  with  Austria  in  1855  ; 
with  Wiirtemberg  in  1857  ;  with  Baden  in  1859  ;  and  with 
Nicaraixua  and  San  Salvador  in  1861,  would  be  productive  of 
much  good  ;  but  in  this  he  was  in  nearly  every  instance  dis- 
appointed, either  because  the  concordats  were  not  faithfully 
executed,  or  because  they  were  not  adequate  to  meet  the  wants 
they  were  intended  to  supply.^ 

This  Pope  has  raised  quite  a  number  of  extra-Italian  metropolitans  and  other 
distinguished  churchmen  of  the  Catholic  world  to  the  rank  of  the  cardinalate. 
The  recipients  of  this  honor  in  France  were:  Giraud,  Abp.  of  Cambrai  (ap- 
pointed 1847,  died  1850) ;  Dupo7it,  Abp.  of  Bourges  (1847-59) ;  cP Astros,  Abp. 
of  Toulouse  (1850-51);  Gousset,  Abp.  of  Eheims  (1850-5G);  Mntthieu,  Abp.  ot 
Besan(jon  (1850-75);  Donnei,  Abp.  of  Bordeaux  (1852);  Villecourt,  Bp.  of  La 
Eochelle  (1853-67) ;  Moriot,  Abp.  of  Paris  (1853-62) ;  Billiet,  Abp.  of  Cham- 
bery  (1861-73) ;  Bonnechose,  Abp.  of  Eouen  (1862);  Dom  Pitra,  O.  S.  B.,  ot 
Solesme  (1863);  Lucien  Bonaparte,  a  native  of  Korae  (1868) ;  Rcgnier,  Abp.  of 
Kennes  (1875);  Caverot,  Abp.  of  Lyons  (1877);  and  Frederic  de  Falloiix  du 
Coudray  (1877).  In  Belgium  :  Deschamps,  CSS.  K.,  Abp.  of  Malines  (1875).  In 
Germany  and  the  Atjstro-Eungarian  Monarchy  :  John  de  Geissel,  Abp.  of 
Cologne  (1850-64);  Sommerau-Beclch,  Abp.  of  Olmiitz  (1850-53);  John  de 
Scitowski,  Abp.  of  Gran  (1853-66);  Olhmar  vo7i  Rauscher,  Abp.  of  Vienna 
(1855-75) ;  Charles  von  Reisach,  Abp.  of  Munich  (1855-63) ;  Lewicki,  Euthenian 
Abp.  of  Lemberg  (1856-58);  Haulik,  Abp.  of  Agram  (1856-69);  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  Prince  de  Hohenlohe,  the  Papal  Almoner,  a  native  of  Germany 
(1866);  Tarnoczy,  Abp.  of  Salzburg  (1873-76);  Simor,  Abp.  of  Gran  (1873); 
Ledochowski,  Abp.  of  Gnesen  and  Posen  (1875) ;  J.  B.  Franzelin,  S.  J.,  Pro- 
fessor at  the  Eoman  College,  a  native  of  Germany  (1876)  ;  Kutschker,  Abp.  of 
"Vienna  (1877);  and  Mihalovitz,  Abp.  of  Agram  (1877).  In  Spain  and  I'oR- 
TUGAL:  Bonnet  y  Orbe,  Abp.  of  Toledo  (1850-57) ;  Peter  Paul  de  Figuercdo  de 
Cunha  e  MelLo,  Abp.  of  Braga  (1850-56);  Cyril  de  Alameda  y  Brea,  Abp.  of 
Toledo  (1858-62);  Ttfrancon,  Abp.  of  Seville  (1858-62)  ;  Rodriguez,  Patriarch  of 

1  Cf.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  pp.  53-84 


§  412.  Energy  Displayed  by  Piu.i  IX.  in  Eccles.  Affairs.  793 

Lisbon  (1858-09);  de  la  Puenie,  Abp.  of  Burgos  (1861-67);  Michael  Garcia 
Cuesia,  Abp.  of  Compostella  (18G1-73) ;  Luis  de  la  Laaira  y  Cuesta,  Abp.  of 
Seville  (1863-76) ;  John  Ignatius  de  Moreno,  a  native  of  Guatemala,  Abp.  of 
Toledo  (1868)  ;  Mariano  Barrio  y  Fernandez  (1873-76)  ;  Cardoso,  Putr.  of  Lis 
bon  (1873);  F.F.  Benavides  y  Navarrete  (1877);  Manuel  Garcia  Gil  (1877); 
Michael  Paga  y  Rico,  Abp.  of  Compostella  (1877).  In  Eisgland:  Nicholas 
Wiseman  (1850-65);  Henry  Edward  Manning  (1875),  Archbishops  of  "West- 
minster; and  Mgr.  Howard  (1877).  In  Ireland:  Paul  Cullen,  Abp.  of  Dub- 
lin and  Primate  of  Ireland  (186G).  And  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America:  John  McCloskey,  Abp.  of  New  York  (1875).' 

When  Pius  IX.  learned  the  character  of  the  persecutions 
endured  hy  the  Catholics  of  Sardinia,  'New  Granada,  Mexico, 
Spain,  Switzerland,  Russia,  Poland,  and  other  countries,  he  at 
once  published  allocutions  expressing  sympathy  with  the  op- 
pressed, and  w^arning  their  oppressors  of  the  criminal  wrong 
they  were  doing.  He  also  put  an  end  to  the  senseless  con- 
troversy between  M.  Gaume  and  the  Univers  newspaper,  rela- 
tive to  the  propriety  of  teaching  the  Pagan  Classics  in  the 
education  of  youth,  by  declaring  in  favor  of  their  use.^  He 
censured  the  erroneous  teachings  of  Giinther,  of  Vienna; 
Frohschammer,  of  Munich  ;  and  Ubaghs,  of  Louvain  ;  and, 
by  numerous  documents,  condemned  the  leading  errors  of  the 
'present  tim.es  concerning  science,  politics,  and  social  life.  But 
that  these  errors  might  be  stated  more  distinctly,  and  brous^ht 
home  with  greater  force  to  men's  minds,  he  commissioned 
Cardinal  Bilio  to  extract  them  from  the  numerous  documents 
in  which  they  were  separately  contained,  and  to  arrange  them 
in  a  series  of  propositions.  These  were  eighty  in  number, 
classified  under  ten  heads.  Such  is  the  history  of  the  famoua 
'■'■Syllabus  of  Errors"  which,  together  with   the   Encyclical 

^  Gerarchia  Cattolicci,  pp.  69-139,  and  Civiltd  Cattollca  of  1877;  also  Catholic 
Almanac,  pp.  56,  57,  Now  York,  1878.   (Tr.) 

-See  Episiola  encyclica  ad  Galliarum  episcopos,  d.  d.,  21  Martii,  1853.  And 
■when,  later  on,  the  Sulpicians  of  Quebec  renewed  the  quarrel,  the  S.  Congre- 
gation of  the  Inquisition,  referring  to  this  decision,  deprecated,  by  letter  ol 
February  15,  1867,  such  fastidiousness,  saying:  '-Explorata  enim  res  et  antiqua 
t'onstantique  consuetudine  comprobata  adolescentes  etiam  clericos  germanam 
dicendi  scribendique  elegantiani  et  eioquentiam  sive  ex  sapientissimis  SS. 
Patrum  operibus,  sivc  ex  clarissimis  ethnicis  scriptoribus  ab  omni  labe  purgatia 
absque  ullo  periculo  addiscere  optimo  jure  posse."  See  Ana lecia  juris  Pontlficii, 
IXe  serie,  col.  767.  (Tr.) 


794  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chayter  1. 

Quanta  Ciira,  was  sent  to  all  the  Catholic  bishops  of  the 
world,  December  8,  1864.^  The  titles  of  the  various  heads 
of  the  Syllabus  are  as  follows : 

I.  Pantheism,  Naturalism,  and  Absolute  Rationalism. 

II.  Modified  Rationalism. 

III.  Inditierentism,  Latitudinarianism. 

lY.  Socialism,  Communism,  Secret  Societies,  Bible  Socie- 
ties. Clerico-liberal  Societies. 

V.  Errors  concerning  the  Church  and  Her  Rights. 

VI.  Errors  concerning  Civil  Society,  considered  both  in  it- 
self and  in  its  Relations  to  the  Church. 

YIL  Errors  concerning  Natural  and  Christian  Ethics. 

VIII.  Errors  concerning  Christian  Marriage. 

IX.  Errors  concerning  the  Civil  Powder  of  the  Roman 
Pontifi. 

X.  Errors  concerning  Modern  Liberalism. 

Liturgical  questions  also  claimed  a  share  of  the  solicitude 
of  Pius  IX. 

On  the  9th  of  November,  1846,  he  made  provision  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  various  Oriental  liturgies  ;  on  the  31st  of 
May,  1850,  he  raised  the  Feast  of  the  Visitation  of  the 
B.  V.  M.  to  a  double  of  the  second  class ;  on  the  18th  of 
May,  1854,  he  ordered  that  the  feasts  of  SS.  Timothy,  Titus, 
Polycarp,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  and  Ignatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
should  be  celebrated  throughout  the  Church  in  the  lesser 
double  rite  ;  he  declared  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (Pictaviuin)  in 
1851,  St.  Alfonso  Maria  da  Liguori  in  1871,  and  St.  Francis  de 
Sales  in  1877,  Doctors  of  the  Church  ;  and,  finally,  in  December 
8,  1870,  he  proclaimed  St.  Joseph,  Spouse  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  the  Patron  of  the  Universal  Church,  and  raised 
his  feast  to  the  rank  of  the  first  class.     No  former  Pope  Oeati- 


iSanct.  D.  N.  Pii  IX.  epist.  encyclica  die  VIII.,  Dec,  1864,  una  cum  Syllabo 
praecipuorum  aetatis  nostrae  errorutn  et  actis  Pontificis,  ex  quibus  excerptus  est 
syllabus,  Eatisbonae,  1865.  Out  of  the  numerous  Commentaries  on  it,  we  but 
mention  Bp.  Dupanloup,  the  Convention  of  Sept.  lo,  and  the  Encyclica  of 
Dec.  8.  (In  Germ.,  by  Mohberger,  Wiirzbg.  1865);  (by  an  Anonymous),  Co- 
logne; at  Bachem's,  1865;  the  Pope  and  :\rodern  Ideas,  Vienna,  at  Sartori's, 
1864;  Voices  of  Maria-Laach  ,edited  by  the  .lesuit  Fathers,  Flor.  Riefs,  Roh, 
RnWnrjer,  and  Schneemnnn,  Freiburg  (Herder),  1865-07,  eight  numbers.  (Ex- 
planation and  Defense  of  the  Syllabus.) 


§  412.  Energy  Displayed  by  Plus  IX.  in  Eceles.  Affairs.  795 

jied  or  placed  on  the  catalogue  of  Saints  so  large  a  number  as 
Pius  IX.'  On  the  10th  of  December,  1863,  he  published  a 
decree  relative  to  the  veneration  of  relics.  This  decree,  which 
was  called  forth  by  the  doubts  raised  as  to  w4iether  the  -palm- 
branches  and  blood-stained  vessels  found  in  the  Catacombs  were 
to  be  accepted  as  certain  proofs  of  martyrdom,  did  not  place 
the  question  entirely  beyond  discussion.  It  merely  declared 
"  that  to  avoid  giving  scandal  to  the  faithful,  the  blood-stained 
phials  are,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  to  be  respected  aa 
tokens  of  martyrdom,  and  that  the  papal  decree  of  1668,  rela- 
tive to  the  question,  is  to  be  regarded  as  authoritative."  He 
earnestly  besought  (May  3,  1848)  all  priests  to  celebrate  the 
Holy  Eucharist  worthily  ;  and  in  the  encyclical  Optinie  seitis, 
dated  lll^ovember  5,  1855,  exhorted  the  bishops  of  Austria  to 
carefully  observe  the  rubrics  of  the  Pontiiical  in  performing 
their  episcopal  functions.     By  the  bull  Quod  jam  pridem,  of 

1  The  following  were  beatified:  Peter  Claver,  S.  J.;  Venerable  Maria  Anna 
de  Paredes ;  John  de  Bi-iiio,  S.  J. ;  John  Grande,  of  the  Order  of  the  Brothers 
of  Charity ;  Paul  of  ihe  Cross,  Founder  of  the  new  Congregation  of  the  Pas- 
sion of  Our  Lord  J.  Xt. ;  Venerable  Germaine  Cousin;  Andrew  Bobola,  S.  J.; 
the  martyred  parish-priest,  Jo/m  Sarkander,  Canon  r/e'  Rossi;  Benedict  Joseph 
Labre ;  John  Ltonardl,  Founder  of  the  Congr.  of  Clerics  of  the  Mother  of 
God;  Peter  Canisius,  S.  J.;  Margaret  Mary  Alacoque,  of  the  Visitation  Order; 
Mary  of  the  Avgels;  John  Berdimanns,  S.  J.;  Benedict  of  Urtrii/o;  Clement 
Maria  Hofbauer,  C.  SS.  R.,  etc.,  with  whom  there  were,  on  the  Feast  of  Pente- 
cost of  1867,  still  associated  two  hundred  and  five  martyrs  of  Japan.  There 
were  canonized,  on  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  9th  of  .June,  1862,  in  the  presence 
of  nearly  three  hundred  bishops,  twenty-six  Japanese  Martyrs  (twenty-three 
Franciscans,  three  Jesuits),  and  the  confessor  Michael  de  Santis,  of  the  Order 
of  Trinitarians.  Cf.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  p.  20-43.  The  last  canoniza- 
tions, on  the  29th  of  June,  1867,  the  eighteenth  centenary  celebration  of  the 
martyrdom  of  the  Apostles  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  in  the  presence  of  five  hundred 
bishops,  were  those  of  the  Holy  Martyr  Josaphat,  Archbishop  of  Polotzk;  of 
the  Holy  Martyr  Peter  de  Arbuez,  Inquisitor  of  Aragon  (against  the  numerous 
defamations  of  Arbuez,  cfr.  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  LX.,  p.  854,  year  1873)  ; 
(if  the  nineteen  martyrs  of  Gorcum,  in  Holland;  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross;  of  St. 
Leonard  a  Porlo-Mauritio  ;  of  St.  Mary  Frances,  of  the  Order  of  St.  Petei-  of 
Alcantara  and  St.  Germaine  Cousin.  Cf.  Hausherr,  S.  J.,  The  Grand  Celebra- 
tion at  St.  Peter's,  in  Pvome,  on  the  29th  of  June,  1867,  Mentz,  1867,  p.  48-lOS. 
The  Latin  biography  of  the  Interpreter  Estius,  giving  an  account  of  the  mar- 
tyrs of  Gorcum,  transl.  into  German.  "Warendorf,  1867;  Laforit.  Rector  of  the 
University  of  Louvain,  The  Martyrs  of  Gorcum  (in  French).  German  transi. 
Miinster,  1867. 


796  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Clurpter  1. 

September  25,  1863,  he  prescribed  a  new  office  and  Mass  for 
the  Eeast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin Mary. 

Pius  IX.  has  summoned  the  bishops  of  the  world  to  Rome 
{mfour  dift'erent  occasions  since  the  opening  of  his  pontificate. 
On  the  first  occasion,  December  8,  1854,  above  two  hundred 
were  present ;  on  the  second,  June  9,  1862,  three  hundred  ; 
on  the  third,  June  29,  1867,  five  hundred  ;  and  on  the  last, 
December  8,  1869,  above  seven  hundred  assembled  to  take 
part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Vatican  Council.  The  occasion 
of  the  first  assemblage  was  the  promulgation  as  an  article  of 
faith  of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  Mother  of  God.  As  early  as  the  2d  of  Febru- 
ary, 1849,  the  Pope  had  sent  the  encyclical  Ubi  primum  to  all 
the  bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church,  requesting  them  to  ex- 
press their  wishes  and  opinions  on  the  subject,  and  to  beg  the 
prayers  of  the  faithful  for  the  same  object.  A  Jubilee  was 
opened  on  the  1st  of  August,  1854,  and  on  the  8tli  of  Decem- 
ber following  this  dogma  was  solemnly  defined  during  Pon- 
tifical High  Mass,  in  the  presence  of  the  Sacred  College  and 
the  assembled  bishops,  and  promulgated  by  the  bull  Ineffa- 
bills  Deus}  The  proclamation  of  this  dogma  was  hailed  by 
Catholics  everywhere  with  unwonted  expressions  of  joy, 
which  was  witnessed  by  the  numerous  statues,  columns,  and 
churches  erected  in  every  country  to  the  honor  of  Mary  Im- 
maculate. 

The  bishops  were  a  second  time  called  together  at  Pente- 
cost, 1862,  to  assist  at  the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  mar- 
tyrs,^ and  to  take  measures  against  the  violent  spoliation  of 

^  The  definition,  which  is  strictly  in  accord  with  the  bull  of  Pope  Alexander 
VII.  (seep.  431,  note  1),  runs  thus:  Declaramus,  pronuntiamus  et  definimus, 
doctrinmn,  quae  tenet,  Beatissimani  Virfiineni  Ma.riam.  in  primo  instanti  suae 
Comeptionis  fuisse  singulari  Omnipotentis  Dei  grntta  et  privilegio,  intuitu  merito- 
rum  Christi  Jesu  Salvatoris  humani  ge^ieris,  ab  ojnni  originalls  culpae  labe  prne- 
aervatam  immunem,  e.s.se  a  Deo  revelatam,  atque  idcirco  ab  omnibus  fidelibus  fir- 
miter  constanterquc  credendayn.  (Pii  IX.  P.  M.  acta,  T.  I.,  p.  616.)  Cf.  De 
immaeulato  B.  V.  M.  conceptu,  an  dogmatico  decreto  definiri  possit,  ed.  Per- 
rone,  S.  J.,  Rom.  1853;  ed.  Passaglia,  S.  J.,  Rom.  1854.  Cf.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope 
»nd  King,  p.  12-20. 

^Seepp.  405,  406. 


§  412.  Energy  Displayed  by  Plus  IX.  in  Evdes.  Affairs.  797 

the  States  of  the  Church.  Previously  to  this  time,  numerous 
«id(lresses,  followed  hy  tl)Ousands  of  signatures,  had  been  sent 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  the  Holy  Father,  demanding 
the  restoration  of  the  States  of  the  Church  in  their  entirety, 
and  protesting  in  the  most  emphatic  terms  against  any  future 
attempts  upon  them.^  The  bishops  assembled  at  Eome  also 
presented  an  address,  thanking  the  Pope,  in  the  name  of  all 
Catholics,  for  the  determined  stand  he  had  made  against  law- 
less violence,  and  expressing  their  conviction  that  the  Civil 
Power  was  necessary  to  the  Holy  See,  to  which  it  had  been 
annexed  by  a  special  and  visible  providence  of  God.  And 
they  did  not  hesitate  to  repeat  the  words  used  by  the  Pope 
on  the  previous  25th  of  March,  declaring  that  in  the  actual 
order  of  things  the  Civil  Power  was  an  imUspensahle  requisite 
to  t\\Q  free  government  of  the  Church  ;  that  the  Head  of  the 
Church  of  God  could  not  be  the  subject  of  any  prince  ;  that 
he  must  enjoy  the  fullest  independence  in  his  own  territory 
and  in  his  own  States;  and  that  in  no  other  way  could  he 
protect  and  defend, the  Catholic  faith  and  guide  and  govern 
the  whole  Christian  commonwealth.  In  remembrance  of  that 
eventful  assemblage,  the  Holy  Father  presented  each  bishop 
with  a  copy  of  that  grand  memorial  of  Catholic  unity,  "ia 
sovraniid,  temporale  dei  Romani  Pontefici,  propugnata  nella  sua 
integritd,  dal  suffragio  dell'  orhe  Cattolico  regnante  Pio  IX." 
(Roma,  1860  sq.),  containing  the  unanimous  protests  against 
the  spoliation  of  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  sent  to  Eome 
from  the  various  countries  of  the  world — from  Italj'  and 
France;  from  Belgium  and  Switzerland;  from  Austria,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland  ;  from  Spain  and  Portugal  and  their  de- 
pendencies ;  from  England  and  Scotland  ;  from  Ireland  and 
jSTorth  America;  from  Turkey  and  Poland  ;  and  from  India, 
China,  and  Oceanica.^ 


>  Cfr.  Schroedl,  The  Verdict  of  Catholicism  and  its  Confirmation  by  the  whole 
Catholic  World  on  the  Importance  and  Necessity  of  the  Civil  Power  and  Sov- 
ereignty of  tlie  Holy  See,  Freiburg,  18G7.  In  Ft.  II.,  pp.  117-174,  History  of  the 
Formation  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  Wiseman,  Eome  and  the  Catholic  Epis- 
copate at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  1862  (transl.  into  Germ,  by  Eeusc/i,  Cologna 
18G'2).     A.  Nicdermayer,  The  Feast  of  Pentecost  in  Rome  in  1862. 

^  The  work  consists  of  six  vols.,  fol. 


798  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

The  bishops  gathered  around  the  throue  of  Pius  IX.  for  the 
third  time,  on  the  29th  of  June,  1867,  to  celebrate  the  eighteenth 
r.entenary  of  the  marty'rdom  of  the  Princes  of  the  Apostles,  SS. 
Peter  and  Paid,  and  to  assist  at  the  canonization  of  a  large 
imraber  of  martyrs. 

In  giving  expression  to  the  feelings  of  joy  that  filled  his  heart  at  seeing  gath- 
ered about  him  so  many  bishops,  who,  in  obedience  to  his  summons,  had  hast- 
ened to  Kome  with  joyous  alacrity  from  the  furthest  corners  of  the  earth,  Pius 
IX.  spoke  substantially  as  follows:  Nothing,  said  he,  could  be  more  imposing 
than  this  assemblage,  in  which  are  gathered  together  representatives  from  everj' 
country  of  the  Catholic  world,  to  celebrate  the  eighteenth  centenary  of  the 
martyrdom  of  the  Princes  of  the  Apostles ;  nothing  could  be  more  admirable 
than  this  illustration  of  the  unity  of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  occasion  of 
the  canonization  of  martyrs,  who  shed  their  blood  in  defense  of  the  Holy  See 
and  uf  the  Catholic  faith.  Beholding  this  exemplification  of  the  unity  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  her  enemies  will  begin  to  appreciate  her  vast  energies,  and  be 
forced  to  confess  that  in  proclaiming  her  decrepit  and  eflete  they  had  been  de- 
luded. There  can  be  no  question  but  that  if  the  bishops  remain  cordially  united 
with  the  head  of  the  Church,  her  influence  and  power  will  go  on  increasing 
from  day  to  day.  I  ardently  hope  that  at  some  future  day  I  may  be  again  able 
to  gather  you  all  about  me  to  take  part  in  an  Ecumenical  Council. 

The  Holy  Father  also  delivered  an  address  in  the  Hall  of  Consistory  to  the 
priests^  some  ten  thousand  in  number,  who  had  come  to  Rome  to  witness  and 
assist  at  the  solemnities  of  the  Centenary.  His  manner  was  earnest  and  im- 
pressive, and  his  language  simple  and  touching.  He  warned  them  never  to 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  they  were  clothed  with  the  dignity  of  the  priesthood  : 
to  ofl'er  worthily  every  day  the  Most  Holy  Sacrifice,  both  for  their  own  salva- 
tion and  for  that  of  all  mankind ;  to  be  always  conspicuous  for  austerity  of 
manners,  for  purity  and  chastity  of  life,  but,  above  all,  for  knowledge  of  the 
sacred  sciences,  that  they  might  thus  be  able  to  battle  valiantly  against  the  enr 
emies  of  the  human  race,  to  advance  the  glory  of  God,  to  secure  the  salvation 
of  Rouis,  and  to  prove  themselves  obedient  subjects  of  their  bishops  and  worthy 
soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  finally  gave  them  his  blessing,  commissioning 
them  to  give  it  in  turn  to  their  flocks  in  his  name. 

A  deputation,  consisting  of  fifteen  hundred  persons,  and  representing  one 
hundred  cities  of  Italy,  presented  the  Pope  with  a  splendid  album,  in  which 
were  inscribed  the  names  of  the.  Hundred  Cities,  followed  by  the  signatures  of 
their  inhabitants  still  loyal  to  the  Holy  See.  The  presentation  was  made  by 
Count  Clodio  Boschetti,  of  Modena,  who,  in  his  address,  assured  the  Pope  that 
the  Italian  people  were  not  hostile  to  him  or  alienated  from  him ;  that,  on  the 
contrary,  they  bore  him  reverence  and  love;  that  they  were  especially  grate- 
ful to  him  for  the  stand  he  had  made  against  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  and 
recognized  in  his  attitude  the  firmness  of  the  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ. 

In  reply,  the  Pope  said :  "  I  see  yonder  (he  pointed  to  the  Castle  of  St.  An- 
gelo)  the  angel  sheathing  his  sword,  after  having  put  to  fiight  the  powers  of 
evil.     Thus  did  he  announce  to  the  people  in  time  past  and  on  this  very  day  the 


§  412.  Energy  Displayed  by  Pius  IX.  in  Eccles.  Affairs.  799 

C'issation  of  a  pestilence.  I  see  him  again  to-day  putting  up  his  sword  at  Gud's 
bidding  for  to-day  marks  the  beginning  of  the  season  of  mercy.  On  this  day, 
at  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  one  of  my  predecessors  was  forced  from 
his  throne  and  driven  into  exile.  Those  who  were  his  enemies  and  persecutors 
were  the  same  who  to-day,  under  the  cloak  of  patriotism,  are  endeavoring  to 
root  out  our  holy  religion  from  the  hearts  of  men.  On  this  day,  too, — for  the 
vigil  is  already  begun — July  2,  1849,  did  a  liberating  army  enter  the  Holy  City 
and  put  to  flight  the  enemies  of  God  and  of  His  Church,  who  desired  to  abolish 
the  reign  of  Christ  in  Kome  itself,  in  the  very  heart  of  Catholieitj'.  This  day 
has  been  regarded  as  fatal  to  Rome;  but  I  say  that  the  hour  of  triumph  has 
already  dawned.  It  has  been  said  that  I  hate  Italy.  No,  I  do  not  hate  her. 
I  have  always  loved  her,  always  blessed  her,  always  sought  her  happiness,  and 
God  alone  knows  how  long  and  ardently  I  have  prayed  for  her.  Yes,  let  us 
all  pray,  if  I  must  say  so,  for  this  unhappy  nation.  A  nation  held  together  by 
selfishness  can  never  be  united.  There  can  be  no  blessing  on  unity  if  justice 
and  charity  be  sacrificed;  if  the  rights  of  all,  including  God's  ministers  and 
His  faithful  people,  be  trampled  under  foot.  The  whole  world  will  cry  out 
against  such  unity;  everyone's  hand  will  be  raised  against  it,  because  God 
Himself  is  against  it.  The  hour  of  triumph  gives  tokens  of  its  presence,  and 
can  not  be  long  delayed ;  but  should  it  still  be  necessary  to  wait  the  fullness  of 
its  coming,  let  us  bear  patiently  the  trials  a  just  God  may  send  upon  us." 

The  five  hundred  bisJiops  assembled  at  Rome  gave  expression  to  their  senti- 
ments in  an  address  to  the  Pope,  composed  by  Archbishop  Haynald,  of  Calocsa, 
in  which  they  said  that  "they  had  cheerfully  obeyed  his  summons  calling  them 
to  Rome,  in  order  to  have  an  opportunity  to  honor  his  great  virtues,  to  comfort 
him  in  the  midst  of  the  trials  which  afflicted  the  Church,  and  to  renew  the 
strength  of  their  own  hearts  by  gazing  upon  his  fatherly  countenance.  Tbe 
Centenary  of  St.  Peter,  they  went  on  to  say,  was  a  fresh  proof  to  their  minds 
of  the  unshaken  firmness  of  the  Rock  upon  which  Our  Divine  Savior  built  the 
grand  and  imperishable  edifice  of  His  Church.  The  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  after 
having  survived  the  ceaseless  assaults  of  its  enemies  for  eighteen  hundred 
years,  was  still  the  organ  of  truth,  the  center  of  unity,  the  bulwark  of  liberty; 
it  had  remained  at  all  times  unchanged  and  inviolate,  while  the  thrones  of 
kings  and  emperors  had  been  overturned  and  gone  to  pieces,  one  after  the  other, 
on  every  side  of  it.  They  came,  also,  impressed  with  the  truth  of  the  convic- 
tions and  sentiments  they  had  proclaimed  five  years  previously,  to  show  their 
deep  veneration  for  his  person,  to  give  public  utterance  to  their  views  relative 
to  the  maintenance  of  his  Civil  Power,  the  advancement  of  the  cause  of  relig- 
ion, and  the  upholding  of  the  claims  of  justice,  of  which  he  was  so  intrepid  a 
defender.  Their  most  pleasing,  as  well  as  most  sacred  duty,  would  be  to  be- 
lieve and  to  teach  what  he  taught  and  believed ;  to  reject  the  errors  that  he 
rejected;  to  follow  whither  he  led;  to  combat  at  his  side;  to  be  ready,  liko 
him,  to  encounter  dangers  and  trials  and  contradictions.  Already  they  dis- 
cerned tokens  of  a  brighter  future  in  the  unequivocal  expressions  of  attach- 
ment to  the  Holy  See  that  came  from  every  quarter  of  the  Christian  world ;  in 
the  signs  of  afi'ectionate  sympathy  manifested  by  all  Christendom,  which  it 
would  be  tiieir  pleasing  duty  to  encourage  by  word  and  example ;  in  the  loy- 
ally of  the  Romans  and  their  obedience  to  their  sovereign  temporal  and  spiritual 


800  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha2}ter  1. 

Euler,  to  which  they  could  personally  bear  witness;  and  in  the  prospective 
convocation  of  an  Ecumenical  Council,  which,  they  would  say  with  Paul  IV., 
'  was  the  best  provision  possible  against  the  great  dangers  that  threatened 
Christian  society.'  " 

In  7-epl7/,  Pius  IX.  said  that  it  was  a  great  comfort  to  him  to  know  that  this 
tneeting  of  the  bishops  had  been  the  occasion  of  drawing  still  more  closely  to- 
gether the  bonds  of  charity  uniting  all  the  churches  of  the  world.  He  felt 
confident  that  having  drunk  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  Gospel  at  the  Tombs  of 
St.  Peter,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  and  St.  Paul,  the  Teacher  of  the  Gentiles, 
they  would  go  back  to  their  dioceses  renewed  in  strength  and  equipped  to  do 
battle  against  the  forces  of  the  enemy ;  to  defend  the  rights  of  religion ;  and 
to  more  successfully  unite  the  peoples  committed  to  their  charge  in  the  bonds 
of  Christian  charity.  Like  them,  he  felt  persuaded  that  no  power  other  than 
the  divine  power  of  the  Church  could  make  an  effectual  stand  against  the  evils 
of  the  times,  and  that  this  power  is  never  more  manifest  than  when  all  the 
bishops,  summoned  by  the  Pope,  aud  presided  over  by  him,  are  assembled  to- 
gether to  treat  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church. 

Expression  was  simultaneously  given  to  similar  sentiments,  inspired  by  the 
promptings  of  Catholic  faith,  in  every  church  in  Christendom.  Catholics  the 
woi-ld  over,  as  if  prompted  by  some  unseen  power  and  impelled  by  divine  in- 
stinct, joined  in  the  religious  solemnities  of  the  occasion.  The  thought  that  the 
Catholic  Church  had  existed  for  eighteen  centuries;  that  after  that  lapse  of 
time  she  presented  to  the  world  the  imposing  spectacle  of  all  her  bishops  gath- 
ered in  harmonious  tmiiy  about  the  Tomb  and  the  Throne  of  Peter,  filled  the 
hearts  of  all  with  confidence  in  her  ultimate  and  approaching  triumph.' 

On  the  11th  of  April,  1869,  Pins  IX.  again  received  at 
Rome,  oil  the  occasion  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  ordi- 
nation in  the  priesthood,  most  affectionate  tokens  of  the  rev- 
erence and  iove  which  his  children  bore  him.^  On  the  23d  of 
August,  1871,  when  "  Pins  IX.  hath  seen  the  years  of  Peter," 
he  received  still  further  assurances  of  the  loyalty  and  devotion 
of  Catholics,  which  were  again  renewed  on  the  celebration  of 
his  golden  jubilee  as  bishop,  on  the  3d  of  June,  1877.^ 

iCfr.  Charles  Brandes,  O.  S.  B.,  St.  Peter  in  Piome,  and  Eome  without  Peter; 
written  in  honor  of  the  Eighteenth  Centenary  Jubilee  of  the  Princes  of 
the  Apostles,  Our-Lady-of-Hermits,  1867.  The  Pastorals  of  Abp.  Herman  of 
Freiburg,  The  Papacy  in  History,  and  of  Martin,  Bp.  of  Paderborn,  "  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Papacy."  Pius  Oams,  O.  S.  B.,  The  Year  of  the  Martyrdom  of 
the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  Pvatisb.  1867.  Archbp.  Manning,  The  Centenary 
of  St.  Peter  and  the  Ecumenical  Council  (in  Germ.,  Mentz,  1868). 

2  Dr.  de  Waal,  31emorial  Papers  of  the  Celebration  in  Eome  of  the  Jubilee 
of  Our  Holy  Father,  and  Easter  preceding,  Miinster,  1870.  See  also  Hist,  and 
Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  LX.,  p.  63-67. 

3  See  B.  OReilly,  Life  of  Pope  Pius  IX.,  pp.  467,  469.  (Tr.) 


§  412.  Energu  Displayed  hy  Pius  IX.  in  Ecdes.  Affairs.  801 

While  thus  busily  engaged  in  looking  after  the  interests  of 
the  Church,  the  Great  Pontiff  was  ever  ready  to  sympathize 
with  every  sorrow,  and  to  assist  the  afflicted  of  every  land,.  Mr. 
Magaire^  has  left  us  an  excellent  account  of  his  habit  of  dis- 
pensing charity  wherever  he  saw  want  or  suif'ering.  In  this 
he  but  followed  the  pattern  of  his  predecessors,  who  were 
ever  zealous  to  give  aid  to  all  Christian  peoples  to  the  full 
extent  of  their  power.  This  is  indeed  as  it  should  be,  for  to 
whom  should  we  look  for  fatherly  solicitude  if  not  to  those 
who,  as  faith  teaches,  are  the  Fathers  and  Teachers  of  all  Chris- 
tia7is  f  Faithful  to  tlie  traditions  of  his  predecessors,  Pius  IX., 
on  the  26th  of  March,  1847,  asked  for  prayers  and  contribu- 
tions for  poor  afflicted  Ireland  ;  on  the  27th  of  April,  1859,  he 
had  prayers  offered  up  for  the  speedy  restoration  of  peace  be- 
tween Italy  and  Austria,  then  at  ivar;  on  the  29th  of  July, 
1860,  while  a  bloody  persecution  was  being  waged  against  the 
Maronites  in  Syria,  and  on  the  18th  of  October,  1862,  during 
the  continuance  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  of 
[North  America,  he  also  besought  all  Christians  to  implore 
Heaven  for  the  cessation  of  both. 

Finally,  as  a  patron  of  art,  Pius  IX.  is  both  zealous  and 
munificent.^  During  his  pontificate  numerous  and  valuable 
treasures  have  been  exhumed  at  Pome  and  at  Ostia  ;  and 
while  Garrucci,  Cavedoni,  Visconti,  Borghese,  and  others  have 
industriously  pushed  forward  their  inquiries  in  archaeology, 
de'  Rossi  has  given  to  the  world  his  invaluable  works  on  Sub- 
terranean Rome.^  The  numerous  inscriptions  set  up  in  the 
pontifical  museums,  and  in  so  many  other  places  in  Rome, 
bear  witness  to  the  efforts  of  Pius  IX.  in  the  promotion  of 
art.  The  encouragement  given  by  him  to  the  publication  of 
the  splendid  facsimile  edition  of  the  Vatican  Codex  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  will  serve  as  an  instance  of  his  princely  lib- 
erality in  art,  in  literature,  and  the  sciences.  The  various 
ecclesiastical  sciences  found  able  exponents,  particularly  within 


»Seep.  787. 

^  Dr.  Sighart,  Relics  from  Rome,  being  a  contribution  to  the  History  of  Art, 
Augsburg,  ]  865,  p.  120. 

^  Roma  SoUerranea,  Rom.  1864-67,  2  T.,  fol. ;  Inscriptiones  Christianae. 

VOL.    Ill — 51 


802  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


the  States  of  the  Chnrch.  In  philosophy  occur  the  names  of 
Liberaiore,  S.  J.  ;  Tongiorgi,  S.  J. ;  San-Severino,  Taparelli,  and 
Kleutzgen,  S.  J.,  who  combated  the  ontologistic  and  tradition- 
alistic  systems  of  Posmini  and  Gioberti.  In  dogmatic  theology. 
Perrone,  S.  J. ;  Passaglia,  S.  J. ;  Franzelin,  S.  J.,  and  others.' 
In  moral  theology,  Scavini  and  BaUerini,  S.  J.  In  exegetics^ 
Patrizi,  S.  J.  ;  Piariciani,  and  Vercellone.  In  church  history^ 
Theiner,  the  Oratorian  ;  Tosti,  the  Benedictine  ;  Tizzani,  for- 
merly professor  at  the  Sapienza  ;  Cardoni  and  Cecconi,  the 
present  Archbishop  of  Florence.  In  patrology,  Cardinal  Aii- 
gelo  3Jai  and  Ceriani,  of  Milan.  In  jyulpit  doquenec.  Father 
Ventura,  the  Theatine ;  Canon  Audisio;  Curd,  S.  J.;  Cu- 
cuzza,  O.  P.  ;  and  Luigi  da  Trento,  the  Capuchin.  And  in 
canon  law,  Mgr.  Chaillot,  who  has  written  chiefly  for  the  Ana- 
lata  Juris  Pontificii ;  Avanzim,  Pennacchi,  and  Piazzesi,  the 
editors  of  the  Acta  S.  Sedis. 

§  413a.   The  Twentieth  Ecumenical  Council  of  the  Vatican  and 

its  Immediate  Consequences. 

I.  Works  Preceding  the  Council. 
H.  E.  Manning  (Cardinal  Archbishop  of  "Westminster),  The  Centenary  of 
St.  Peter  and  the  General  Council.  A  Pastoral  Letter,  London,  1867.  (In  fa- 
vor of  Infallibility.)  C  H.  A.  Planiier  (Bishop  of  Kimes),  Sur  les  Conciles 
gene  raux  a  I'occasion  de  celui  que  Sa  Saintete  Pie  IX.  a  convoqu^  pour  lo  8 
decembre  prochain,  Nimes  et  Paris,  1869  (Infallibilist).  Mgr.  V.A.  Desehamps 
(Archbishop  of  Malines),  L'infaillibilite  et  le  Conclle  general,  2d  ed.,  Paris  et 
Malines,  18G9  (strong  Infallibilist).  H.  L.  C.  Maret  (Dean  of  the  Theol.  Fac- 
ulty of  Paris),  Du  Concile  general  et  de  la  paix  religieuse,  Paris,  1869,  2  vols. 
W.  Em.  Baron  de  Ketteler  (Bishop  of  Mentz),  The  General  Council  and  its  Im- 
port for  Our  Times,  2  vols.  (Inopportunist;  has  since  given  in).  Di-.  Jos. 
Fessler  (Bishop  of  St.  Polten  and  Secretary  of  the  Vatican  Council,  tl872), 
The  Last  and  the  Next  General  Councils,  Freiburg,  1869.  F .  Dupanloup 
(Bishop  of  Orleans),  Lettre  sur  lo  future  Concile  Oecumenique,  1869.  The 
same,  On  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope.  First  against,  then  in  favor  of  the 
Dogma.  The  Pope  and  the  Council,  by  Janus,  London,  1869.  Written  from 
the  liberal  (Old)  Catholic  stand-point;  probably  the  joint  production  of  Profs. 
Dollinger,  Friedrich,  and  Huber,  of  the  University  of  3Iunich.  Dr.  ,J.  Hcrgen- 
rother,  Anti-Janus,  Freiburg,  1870;  Engl,  by  J.  B.  Robertson,  Dublin,  1870 
(Pvom.  Cath.)  Reformation  of  the  lloman  Church  in  its  Head  and  Members, 
the  Problem  to  be  Solved  by  the  Incoming  Roman  Council,  Lps.  1870.  (By 
Prof.  t>5M  Sckulte,  of  Prague.)     Liberal  Catholic. 


»Seep.  696,  noto  1. 


§  413a.    The   Ticentietli  Ecumenical  Council.  803 

II.  liEPOPwTs  During  the  Council. 
.  The  Civilta  Cattolica  of  Komo  for  1869  and  1870  (chief  organ  of  the  Infalli- 
bilists).  Louis  VeuiUot,  Rome  pendant  lo  Concile,  Paris,  1870,  2  vols.  Collec- 
tion of  his  correspondence  to  his  journal,  V  Univers,  of  Paris.  (Ultra-Infallibilist.') 
J  Friedricli  (Lib.  Cath.),  Journal  of  the  Vatican  Council,  Nordlingen,  1871. 
It  notes  facts,  projects,  and  rumors  as  they  came  to  the  surface.  Lord  Acton 
(Lib.  Cath.),  The  Vatican  Council.  First  published  in  the  North  British  Re- 
view for  October,  1870;  pp.  95-120  of  the  Amer.  reprint.  Quirinus,  Letters 
from  Eome  on  the  Council,  first  in  the  Augsburg  General  Gazette^  and  then  in  a 
separate  volume  (Munich  and  London,  1870,  p.  856).  C>mpare  against  Quiri- 
nus,  Untruths  of  the  Roman  Letters  on  the  Council,  in  the  Univ.  Gaz.,  by  W. 
Em.  Baron  de  Kctteler,  1870.  Ce  qui  se  passe  au  Concile,  dated  April  1(3, 1870, 
8d  ed..  Par.  1870  (by  Jules  Gaillard).  La  derniere  heure  du  Concile,  Paris, 
1870  (by  a  member  of  the  Council).  The  last  two  works  were  denounced  as  a 
calumny  by  the  presiding  cardinals,  in  the  session  of  July  16,  1870.  Pompo)iio 
Leto,  Eight  Months  at  Rome  during  the  Vatican  Council;  tr.  from  the  Italian, 
London,  1876.  (Adverse  to  the  Council.)  Also  the  Reports  during  the  Coun- 
cil, in  the  Giornale  di  Roma;  the  Turin  Unltd  Cattolica;  the  London  Times; 
the  London  (Rom.  Cath.)  Tablet;  the  Dublin  Review ;  the  New  York  Tribune. 

III.  The  Acts  and  Proceedings  of  the  Council. 
(1.)  Roman  Catholic  [Infallibilist)  Sources:  Acta  et  Decreta  ss.  et  oecum.  cone. 
Vaticani,  Friburgi  Brisgoviae,  1870  sq. ;  fasc.  I.,  acta  publica  quibus  cone,  prae- 
paratum  est ;  fasc.  II.,  acta  7)M6^«ca  ipsius  concilii.  Additum  est  lexicon  dioe- 
ceseon  residentialium  et  abbatiarum  ^^nullius,''  et  catalogus  Praelatorum  Eccles. 
cathol.  Acta  et  Decreta  ss.  oecum  cone.  Vatic,  Rom.  1872,  ex  typographia  Vat- 
icana.  "2Vte  Ecumenical  Council"  Voices  (Stimmen)  of  Maria- Laach ;' new 
series,  Freiburg,  1870.  A  series  of  discussions  (beside  documents,  reports,  and 
criticisms)  in  defense  of  the  Council,  by  .Jesuits  {Florian  Riess  and  K.  v.  Weber). 
Atti  ufficiali  del  Concilio  ecumenico,  Torino,  1870.  Actes  et  histoire  du  Concile 
oecumenique  de  Rome,  premier  du  Vatican,  publics  sous  la  direction  de  Victor 
Frond.,  Paris,  1869  sq.,  8  vols.,  fol. ;  includes  extensive  biographies  of  Pope  Piu8 
IX.  and  his  Cardinals;  of  the  Patriarchs,  Primates,  Archbishops,  Bishops,  theii 
photographs  and  autographs ;  Vol.  VIII.  contains  the  Actes,  decrets  et  docu- 
ments recueillis  et  mis  en  ordrc  par  M.  Pellctier,  chanoine  d'Orleans.  Archbp. 
H.  E.  Manning,  The  Vatican  Council  and  its  Definitions;  a  Pastoral  Letter  to 
bis  Clergy,  London  and  New  York,  1871.  This,  together  with  two  other  Pas- 
toral letters  on  the  Council,  are  published  in  one  volume,  Petri  Privilegiam, 
liOndon,  1871.  Bp.  JoA?t  Fessler,  The  Vatican  Council;  its  Course  and  Im- 
port, Vienna,  1871.  By  the  same,  The  True  and  the  False  Infallibility  of  the 
Popes,  ibid.,  1871,  and  .N'ew  York,  1875.  M.  J.  Chanirel,  Histoire  du  concile  du 
Vatican,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1872.  Conradi  (episcopi  Paderbornensis),  Omnium  con- 
cilii Vaticani,  quae  ad  doctrinam  et  disciplinam  pertinent,  documentorum  col- 
latio,  Paderborn,  1873.  Dr.  M.  J.  Schceben,  Periodical  Papers,  Ratisbon.  1870 
sq.  Cecconi  (Archbp.  of  Florence,  the  ofiicial  Historian  of  the  Council),  Hist 
of  the  Vatican  Council;  (Jerman.  Mentz,  1873;  English,  with  additions,  by 
Card.  Manning.     "The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican   Council,'   London,  1877; 


804  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Amcr.  reprint,  in  the  Cailiolie  Review  of  Brooklyn,  1877.  The  stenographic 
reports  of  the  speeches  of  the  Council  are  to  remain  locked  up  in  the  archives 
of  the  Vatican  until  the  dpath  of  the  last  member  of  the  Council. 

(2.)  Old  Catholic  [AnU-InfallibiUst):  John  Frtedvich,  Documenta  ad  illus- 
trandum  Concilium  Vatieanum  anni  1870,  Noerdlingen,  1871,  in  2  parts.  Dr. 
F.  ro)i  Sclndte  (Professor  of  Canon  Law  in  the  University  of  Prague,  hut  since 
1873  in  Bonn),  The  Infallibility  Decree  of  July  18,  1870,  .  .  .  examined, 
Prague,  1871.  Also  "  The  Power  of  the  Roman  Popes  over  Princes,  Countries, 
Peoples,  and  Individuals,  examined  by  the  Light  of  their  Doctrines  and  their 
Acts  since  the  Eeign  of  Gregory  VII.,  to  serve  for  the  appreciation  of  their 
Infallibility,  and  set  face  to  face  with  Contradictory  Ductrines  of  the  Popes 
and  the  Councils  of  the  First  Eight  Centuries,"  Prague,  1871.  (Refuted  by  Bp. 
Fesslcr's  work  on  the  True  and  False  Infallibility).  Suffrages  of  the  Catholic 
Church  on  the  Eccl.  Questions  of  the  Day,  Munich,  1870  sq.  A  series  of  Dis- 
cussions against  the  Vatical  Council,  by  D'ollinger,  Hubcr,  Schmitz,  Friedrich, 
Reiiikens,  and  Hbtzl. 

(3.)  Proiefitant :  Dr.  E<->^il  Friedber;]  (Prof,  of  Eccl.  Law  in  Lps.),  Collection 
of  the  Documents  concerning  the  First  Council  of  the  Vatican,  with  a  Sketch 
of  its  History,  Tubingen,  1872.  Vei-y  valuable;  contains  all  the  important 
documents  and  a  full  list  of  works  (written  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
England)  on  the  Council.  This  collection,  although  made  with  the  industry 
of  a  bee,  is  still  incomplete.  Theodore  Frommann  (of  Berlin),  Hist,  and  Criti- 
cism of  the  Vatican  Council  of  1869  and  1870,  Gotha,  1872.  E.  de  Presse^ise 
(Ref.  Pastor  in  Paris),  Le  Concile  du  Vatican,  son  histoire  et  ses  consequences 
politiques  et  religieuses,  Paris,  1872.  L.  W.  Bacon,  An  Inside  View  of  the  Vat- 
ican Council,  New  York,  1872.  Dr.  Haac  gives  an  extensive  criticism  on  the 
Infallibility  decree  in  the  3d  ed.  of  his  Momial  of  Protestant  Polemics  against 
the  Roman  Cath.  Church,  Lps.  1871,  pp.  155-200.     Cf.  pp.  24-37. 

(The  above  are  only  the  most  important  works  of  the  large  and  increasing 
literature,  historical,  apologetic,  and  polemic,  on  the  Vatican  Council.  Fried- 
berg  notices,  in  all,  no  less  than  1,041  writings  on  the  subject  till  June,  1872. 
His  lists  are  classified  and  very  accurate.)  (Tr.) 


Pope  Pius  IX.  first  made  known  his  thoughts  of  holding  an  Ecumenical 
Council  on  the  6th  of  December,  1864,  while  presiding  at  the  Vatican  Palace 
over  a  session  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites.^  Two  days  later  he  published  the 
Syllabus  of  Errors  and  the  Encyclical  Quanta  Cura.  Between  this  publication 
and  the  convocation  of  the  Vatican  Council,  men  of  judgment  and  ability  have 
professed  to  find  a  close  and  even  necessary  connection.^  The  Pope  imposed 
silence  on  the  cardinals  as  to  what  he  had  said,  and  directed  them  to  hand  in 


1  The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Council,  by  Cardinal  Manjiing,  London, 
1877,  p.  3.  (Tr.) 

2  In  the  Voices  of  Maria-Laach,  preface  to  the  Ecumenical  Council,  new  series, 
No.  7,  it  is  said :  "  The  intrinsic  and  essential  connection  between  the  Encyclica 
of  December  8,  1864,  and  the  Ecumenical  Council,  convoked  by  Pius  IX.,  and 
to  be  opened  this  year,  is  self-evident.  The  Council  will  complete  the  struc- 
ture, the  foundations  of  which  were  laid  in  the  Encyclica." 


§  413a.    The  Twentieth  Ecumenical  Council.  805 

their  opinions  on  the  subject  in  writing.  In  expressing  their  opinions,  some  of 
the  cardinals  spoke  particularly  of  the  dominant  errors  of  the  present  time; 
of  the  tendency  to  exclude  God  from  society  and  to  ignore  Him  in  Science ;  o( 
the  efforts  to  destroy  the  idea  of  a  visible  Church  and  to  deny  both  the  possi- 
bility and  the  fact  of  a  divine  revelation  ;  and  of  the  consequences  flowing  di- 
rectly from  the  withdrawal  of  civil  society  and  science  from  the  authority  of 
the  Church.  Others  spoke  of  the  importance  of  holding  an  Ecumenical  Coun- 
cil, setting  forth  that  the  condition  of  the  world  at  the  present  time  was  such 
as  to  render  the  holding  of  a  Council  as  necessary  as  in  the  age  of  Luther ; 
that  evils  were  extraordinary,  and  needed  an  extraordinary  remedy.  Others 
again  pointed  out  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  holding  an  Ecumenical  Council,  indi- 
cated the  means  of  setting  them  aside,  and  maintained  that  if  a  choice  had  to 
be  made  between  the  holding  of  a  Council  and  the  dangers  that  were  likely  to 
surround  such  an  event,  the  positive  good  that  would  be  accomplished  by  the 
former  would  far  outweigh  the  evils  that  might  be  incident  to  the  latter.  Fi- 
nally, others  spoke  of  the  subjects  to  be  treated  by  the  Council,  suggesting  the 
condemnation  of  modern  errors,  the  fuller  exposition  of  Catholic  teaching,  the 
observance  of  discipline,  and  its  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  present  time; 
but,  strange  to  say,  only  two  spoke  of  Papal  Infallibility,  and  one  of  these  in  a 
general  way,  in  speaking  of  Galiicanism.^ 

Again,  in  the  early  part  of  ^larch,  1865,  Pius  IX.  appointed  a  Commission  to 
consult  together  on  the  advisability  and  opportuneness  of  holding  an  Ecumeni- 
cal Council.  After  conferring  together,  theConsultors  recommended  that  emi- 
nent churchmen  be  called  to  Kome  from  every  country  of  the  world,  to  lay  open 
the  needs  of  the  Church  in  their  respective  localities,  and  to  suggest  propei 
remedies;  that,  to  avoid  waste  of  time,  the  subjects  likely  to  be  taken  up  by  the 
Council  should  be  designated  beforehand,  prepared  and  arranged;  and  that  an 
extraordinary  Congregation  should  be  formed,  to  have  full  direction  of  all  mat- 
ters belonging  to  the  Council.  The  resolutions  of  the  Commission  were  sub- 
mitted to  and  approved  by  the  Pope,  who  thereupon  created  the  Commission  or 
Congregation  of  Direction,  consisting  of  the  five  cardinals  previously  composing 
the  Commission,  together  with  a  secretary  and  eight  bishops.  This  Congrega- 
tion was  subsequently  distributed  into  four  sections,  the  first  on  doctrine,  the 
second  on  politico-ecclesiastical  or  mixed  questions,  the  third  on  missions  and 
the  Oriental  churches,  and  the  fourth  on  discipline,  each  having  its  headquar- 
ters at  the  office  of  some  already  existing  Congregation,  to  which  its  business 
was  most  closely  allied.^ 

On  the  27th  of  March,  1865,  the  Pope  directed  the  Secretary  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  Direction  to  send  letters,  under  strict  secrecy,  to  some  European  and 
Oriental  bishops,  eminent  for  learning,  asking  them  to  state  what  questions,  in 
their  opinion,  ought  to  be  treated  by  the  Council.  With  wonderful  unanimity 
they  all  designated  substantially  the  same  ones,  stating  that,  although  there 
was  no  specific  heresy  to  be  condemned,  there  was,  nevertheless,  a  general  per- 
version of  fundamental  truths  and  a  universal  confusion  as  to  first  principles, 
and  that  therefore  the  Council  ought  to  speak  out  explicitly  concerning  sucb 


'  The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Council,  pp.  4-12.  (Tr.) 
2  Ibid.,  1.  c,  pp.  12,  22,  and  71.  (Tk.) 


806  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

truths  and  principles  as  underlie  the  whole  of  Christianity.  They  particularly 
insisted  upon  an  explicit  declaration  being  made  concerning  the  nature  and 
personality  of  God ;  upon  the  possibility  and  fact  of  a  divine  revelation  ,  and 
upon  the  relations  of  the  Church  to  civil  governments  and  of  Christian  civili- 
zatioji  to  modern  progress.^ 

On  the  17th  of  November,  1865,  the  nuncios  at  Paris,  Vienna,  Madrid,  Mu- 
nich, and  Brussels  were  informed  by  letter  of  the  intention  of  Pius  IX.  to  bold 
an  Ecumenical  Council,  and  directed  to  give  their  opinion  as  to  its  opportune- 
ness, and  to  forward  the  names  of  two  theologians  or  canonists  of  special  name 
in  the  countries  to  which  they  were  respectively  accredited.  No  day  had  as 
yet  been  fixed  upon  for  the  opening  of  the  Council,  although  the  29th  of  June, 
1867,  had  at  one  time  been  thought  of;  but  the  war-cloud  that  was  gathering  on 
the  horizon  of  Europe  warned  the  Pope  to  put  off  the  event  to  some  future 
day.  Here  the  affair  of  holding  an  Ecumenical  Council  rested  for  the  present. 
On  the  8th  of  December,  1866,  a  circular  letter  was  written  to  all  the  bishops 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  inviting  them  to  come  to  Rome  to  celebrate  the  Cen- 
tenary in  the  following  year ;  and  on  the  6th  of  June,  1867,  Cardinal  Caierini, 
Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,''^  sent  a  circular  to  all  the  bishops, 
containing  a  schedule  of  seventeen  important  points  on  morals  and  discipline, 
in  each  of  which  they  were  requested  to  hand  in  their  opinions  within  four 
months.  These  related  chiefly  to  the  sacredness  of  Christian  marriage;  to  the 
tone  required  in  the  Christian  pulpit,  and  the  necessity  of  taking  revealed  truth 
as  the  basis  of  all  sermons  and  instructions ;  to  the  importance  of  having  schools 
under  Christian  influences ;  to  the  necessity  of  a  higher  standard  of  studies  in 
ecclesiastical  seminaries  ;  to  the  means  of  securing  a  more  advanced  culture  in 
both  sacred  and  profane  knowledge  among  the  clergy  ;  to  the  policy  of  encour- 
aging the  increase  of  Religious  Congregations,  whose  members  are  bound  only 
by  simple  vows ;  to  the  best  means  of  providing  for  worthy  appointments  to 
bishoprics  and  parishes;  and  to  the  lawful  exercise  of  episcopal  authority  over 
the  inferior  clergy.  Reference  was  also  made  to  the  duty  of  excluding  non- 
Catholics  from  the  office  of  sponsors  at  baptism,  and  from  menial  services  in 
Catholic  families,  and  to  the  removal  of  abuses  in  connection  with  Catholic 
cemeteries.^  By  many  of  the  bishops  this  document  was  communicated  to 
their  priests,  and  in  this  way  the  Catholic  Church  throughout  the  world  was  in 
u  measure  prepared  for  the  convocation  of  an  Ecumenical  Council.  Pius  IX. 
^v&t  publicly  announced  his  intention  of  convoking  an  Ecumenical  Council  in 
a  Consistory,  held,  on  account  of  the  great  number  present,  in  the  tribune  above 
the  atrium  of  St.  Peter's,  on  the  26th  of  June,  1867,  and  attended  by  the  five 
hundred  bishops  who  had  come  to  Rome  to  take  part  in  the  solemnities  of 
the  Centenary  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul.  The  bishops,  in  their  reply,  delivered  in 
an  audience  of  the  1st  of  July,  said  "that  their  souls  were  filled  with  the  great- 
est joy  when  they  learned  from  his  own  mouth  that,  notwithstanding  the  diffi- 


1  The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Council,  pp.  22-36.  (  Tr.) 

'■'Established  by  Pius  IV.  to  interpret  the  Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  Council 

of  Trent.  (Tr.) 

'The  Circular  of  the  Cardinal,  ibid.,  No.  3,  pp.  7-10;  and  in  Acta  et  Decreta 

Cone.  Vat.,  fasc.  I.,  p.  22. 


§  413rt.    The   Tirentieth  Ecumenical  Council.  807 

culties  of  the  times,  ho  still  determined  to  convoke  an  Ecumenical  Council,  in 
order,  in  the  words  of  his  illustrious  predecessor,  Paul  Til.,  that  'a  siiprcmt 
remedy  migkt  be  applied  to  the  supreme  dangers  that  threaten  Christianity  J  "  ' 
In  publicly  announcing  his  intention  to  convoke  a  Council,  Pius  IX.  on.itteJ 
to  fix  the  day  of  opening.  This  he  did  in  a  Secret  Consistory,  held  on  the  22d 
of  June,  18()8,  when,  after  having  asked  the  cardinals  if,  in  their  opinion,  it  was 
?xpe<;:ient  to  promulgate,  on  the  coming  29th  of  June,  the  convocation  of  an 
Ecumenical  Council,  to  convene  on  the  8th  of  December,  18G9,  and  having  re- 
ceived a  unanimously  aflBrmative  answer,  he  bade  them  pray  from  that  time 
torth  for  the  special  aid  of  the  Holy  Ghost.^ 

Accordingly,  on  the  Feast  of  the  Princes  of  the  Apostles,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul, 
Pius  IX.  published  the  Bull  of  Indiction,^  Aetcrni  Pntris,  announcing  to  the 
world  the  convocation  of  an  Ecumenical  Council,  to  convene  in  the  Vatican  on 
the  8th  of  December,  1869,  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  At  the  close  of  the  form  of  convocation  the  bull  goes  on:  "  Hence  we 
will  and  command  that  all  the  Venerable  Brethren,  the  Patriarchs,  Archbish- 
ops, and  Bishops  everywhere,  so  also  the  beloved  sons,  the  Abbots,  and  all  other 
persons  whose  right  or  privilege  it  is  to  take  part  in  General  Councils,  come  to 
this  Ecumenical  Council  convoked  by  Us."  The  bull  then  states  that  those 
who  are  under  obedience  to  be  at  the  Council,  and  absent  themselves  without 
just  cause,  of  which  the  Procurators  of  the  Synod  are  to  be  the  judges,  are 
liable  to  penalties  which  it  is  both  lawful  and  customary  to  inflict  in  such  cases. 
Then  follows  this  paragraph:  "  In  this  confidence  we  hope  that  God,  in  whose 
hands  are  the  hearts  of  men,  will,  by  His  ineffable  merey  and  grace,  bring  it  to 
pass  that  all  sovereign  princes  and  rulers  of  all  peoples,  above  all,  such  as  are 
Catholic  .  .  .  will,  not  only  not  hinder  our  venerable  brethren  from  com- 
ing to  the  Council,  but,  as  becomes  Catholic  princes,  earnestly  favor  them  and 
give  them  help."  The  bull,  as  a  whole,  is  very  like  that  published  by  Paul  III. 
in  1542,  convoking  the  Council  of  Trent,  except  that  the  work  to  be  accom- 
plished was  stated  with  rather  more  terseness  and  precision  in  the  latter  than  in 
the  former.  The  task  of  the  Vatican  Council  is  thus  drawn  out  by  Pius  IX. : 
"  In  this  Ecumenical  Council  must  be  examined  with  the  greatest  accuracy  and 
decreed,  all  things  which,  especially  in  these  rough  times,  relate  to  the  greater 
glory  of  God,  the  integrity  of  the  faith,  the  splendor  of  divine  worship,  the 
eternal  salvation  of  man,  the  discipline  of  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  their 
wholesome  and  solid  culture,  the  observance  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  the  amend- 
ment of  manners,  the  instruction  of  youth,  and  the  common  peace  and  concord 
of  all.  And,  with  God's  help,  a  most  earnest  endeavor  must  be  made  to  avert 
ail  evils  from  the  Church  and  from  Civil  Society,  and  to  bring  back  those  who 
are  unhappily  straying  away  to  the  straight  path  of  truth,  justice,  and  salva- 
tion; to  the  end  that,  when  vice  and  error  are  removed,  our  august  religion  nnd 
its  saving  doctrines  may  be  revived  over  the  whole  earth,  and  spread  from  day 
tc  l&y  until  their  empire  is  complete,  that  thus  piety,  honesty,  probity,  justice, 


'  Card.  Manning,  Petri  Privilegiura,  Pt.  I.,  p.  124.   (Tr.) 
'  Card.  Manning,  The  True  Story,  etc  ,  p.  G2.  (Tr.) 

3  In  the  Acta  et  Decreta,  fasc.  I.,  pp.  48  sq. ;  and  in  the  Voices  of  Maria- 
Laach,  new  series,  No.  I.,  pp.  7-15. 


808  Pcrio't  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chrqjter  1. 

charity,  and  all  Christian  virtues  that  are  of  greatest  utility  iD  human  society 
may  acquire  fresh  strength  and  new  beauty.  For  no  one  can  deny  that  the 
power  of  the  Catholic  Church  and  of  her  doctrine  is  exerted,  not  alone  for  the 
salvation  of  men,  but  also  for  the  temporal  well-being  of  peoples,  their  true 
prosperity,  order,  and  tranquillity,  and  for  the  progress  and  solidity  of  human 
scienf-es,  as  the  annals  of  both  sacred  and  profane  history  clearly  and  plainly 
Hhov  by  luminous  facts." 

On  the  8th  of  September,  1868,  a  letter  of  invitation,  beginning  Arcanae  di- 
vinae  providcntiae^  was  sent  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  Churches  of  the  Oriental 
Rite  who  are  iiot  in  cormnunton  with  the  Apostolic  See.  In  this  letter  Pius  IX. 
stated  that  "being  the  successor  of  the  Blessed  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  who,  'in 
virtue  of  the  prerogative  conferred  upon  him  by  God,  is  the  firm  and  most 
solid  rock  upon  which  the  Savior  built  His  Church,'  it  was  his  urgent  duty  to 
extend  his  care  to  every  part  of  the  world  inhabited  by  Christians,  and  his 
earnest  wish  and  desire  to  excite  in  all  a  yearning  to  return  to  the  embraces  of 
fatherly  charity."  He  added  :  "Our  thoughts  have  been  constantly  upon  those 
Churches  which,  when  united  of  old  with  the  Apostolic  See,  enjoyed  so  high  a 
reputation  for  holiness  and  heavenly  doctrine,  and  brought  forth  fruits  so  abun- 
dantly for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  salvation  of  souls  ;  but  which  now,  through 
the  wicked  arts  and  contrivances  of  him,  who  was  the  author  of  the  first  schism 
in  Heaven,  remains,  to  our  great  sorrow,  cut  off"  and  separate  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Holy  Eoman  Church,  spread  over  the  whole  earth."  After  refer- 
ring to  a  fruitless  letter,  addressed  to  them  in  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate, 
and  expressing  his  determination  never  to  lose  hope,  the  Pope  continues: 
"  Having  convoked  an  Ecumenical  Council,  to  be  opened  in  Rome  next  year  on 
the  8th  of  Dec,  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mother  of 
God,  we  again  call  upon  you,  and  do  most  earnestly  entreat,  admonish,  and  im- 
plore you  to  be  good  enough  to  come  to  this  general  synod,  as  your  predecessors 
came  to  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  and  to  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439) 
that  the  bonds  of  ancient  friendship  being  renewed  and  peace  restored,  the  long 
night  of  darkness  and  sorrow  may  be  dispelled,  and  the  cheering  light  of  longed- 
for  union  shine  forth  to  all."  ^  The  Patriarch  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church, 
to  whom  this  letter  was  presented,  did  not  even  open  it ;  ^  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  neither  did  the  remonstrance  drawn  up  by  a  schismatical  priest  of  Ceos 
in  Bithynia,  against  the  "  arrogance  of  the  Pope,"  meet  with  any  favor.  The 
movement  among  the  Armenians  toward  a  union  with  Rome,  occasioned  by  the 
invitation  of  the  Pope,  and  headed  by  the  Armenian  Catholic  Patriarch  at 
Constantinople,  was  thwarted  by  intrigue  and  violence.^ 

On  the  13th  of  September,  1868,  the  Pope  published  an  invitation  to  Protest- 
ants and  other  non-Catholics,  believing  in  Jesus  Christ,  but  not  of  the  fold  of 
the  Church.  All  such,  he  said,  "he  admonished,  exhorted,  and  besought  to  se- 
riously ask  themselves  if  they  were  walking  in  the  path  pointed  out  by  Christ 
the  Lord,  which  leads  to  eternal  life.  And  no  one  can  deny,"  he  goes  on  to 
say,  "  or  doubt  that  Christ  Jesus,  in  order  to  apply  the  fruits  of  His  R«demp. 


1  Acta  et  Decreta,  fasc.  I.,  pp.  54,  55 ;   Voices,  1.  c,  pp.  15-18. 

2  Card.  Mayming,  1.  c,  p.  73.  (Tr.) 

•Of,  Voices,  1869,  No.  I.,  pp.  40  sq. ;  No.  8,  pp.  31  sq. ;  Friedberg,  p.  12. 


§  413rt.    The  Twentieth  Ecameaical  Council.  809 

tion  to  all  generations  of  the  human  family,  has  built  His  only  Church  here  on 
earth  upon  Peter  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  one,  holy.  Catholic,  and  Apostolic  Church, 
to  which  He  has  ii;ranted  all  necessary  power  to  preserve  whole  and  inviolate 
the  deposit  of  faith,  and  to  extend  this  same  faith  to  all  peoples  and  races  and 
nations,  to  the  end  that,  all  men  being  made  members  of  His  Mystical  Body  by 
Baptism,  the  new  life  of  grace,  without  which  no  one  can  ever  merit  or  secura 
eternal  life,  may  be  continued  and  made  perfect;  and  that  this  same  Church, 
which  is  His  Mystical  Body,  may  remain  stable  and  unchanged  to  the  end  of 
time,  and  supply  to  all  her  children  the  sure  means  of  salvation.  Now,  any 
one  attentively  considering  and  weighing  the  condition  of  the  various  and  dis- 
cordant religious  societies  separated  from  the  Catholic  Church  .  .  .  should 
be  easily  led  to  conclude  that  no  single  one  of  them,  nor  all  of  them  together, 
can  by  any  manner  be  that  one  and  Catholic  Church  which  Christ  the  Lord 
built  and  constituted ;  neither  can  they  by  any  means  be  said  to  be  a  branch 
or  a  part  of  that  Church,  since,  as  is  plain,  they  are  sepai'ated  from  Catholic 
unity.  For,  because  these  societies  are  destitute  of  that  living  authority,  estab- 
lished by  God  for  the  special  purpose  of  instructing  men  in  the  doctrines  of 
faith  and  the  precepts  of  morals,  and  directing  and  ruling  them  in  all  that  per- 
tains to  eternal  life,  they  are  ceaselessly  changing  their  teachings.  .  .  . 
And  every  one  knows  that  from  these  doctrinal  dissensions  and  conflicts  of 
opinion  arise  social  schisms,  and  from  these  again  countless  religious  bodies  and 
sects  daily  spring  up,  to  the  great  detriment  of  both  Church  and  State.  .  .  . 
Hence  let  all,  who  have  not  the  unity  and  truth  of  the  Catholic  Church,  em- 
brace the  occasion  of  this  Council,  .  .  .  which  affords  a  fresh  proof  of  the 
Church's  close  unity,  and  of  the  undying  vitality  of  her  strength,  to  satisfy  the 
cravings  of  their  own  hearts  by  rising  from  their  present  condition,  in  which 
they  can  have  no  security  of  their  salvation.  Let  them  pray  most  fervently  to 
the  God  of  mercies,  that  He  will  be  pleased  to  pull  down  the  walls  of  separa- 
tion, to  dispel  the  darkness  of  error,  and  to  lead  them  back  to  the  bosom  of 
Holy  Mother  Church,  in  which  their  forefathers  were  fed  upon  the  saving 
Bread  of  Life,  and  in  which  alone  the  teaching  of  Jesus  Christ  is  preserved  in- 
tact and  the  mysteries  of  heavenly  grace  dispensed."  By  the  great  bulk  of  the 
Protestants  this  invitation,  breathing  such  earnestness  and  love,  was  received 
with  derision  and  contempt.  Some  of  the  most  zealous  and  bigoted,  and  nota- 
bly superintendents  and  members  of  provincial  consistories,  claiming  to  be  in 
possession  of  the  pure  evangelical  doctrine,  took  offense  at  the  tone  of  the  Pope, 
peremptorily  rejected  his  invitation,  and  avenged  themselves  by  making  a  num- 
ber of  serious  charges  against  both  the  Church  and  her  Head.  A  few  earnest 
and  thoughtful  men  were  disposed  to  recognize  the  rights  of  the  Father  of 
Christendom  to  send  out  such  an  invitation,  and  were  correspondingly  grateful. 
.Vmong  these  were :  In  Germany,  Baumstark,  Counsellor  Remold,  of  Constance, 
and  Wolfgang  Menzel,  of  Stuttgart;  Guizot,  in  France;  and  in  England,  J)r 
Pusey.^ 

To  insure  the  divine  blessing  upon  the  Council,  the  Holy  Father  invoked  the 


1  Friedberg,  pp.  12-16;  Voices,  No.  4,  pp.  92  sq. ;  Baumstark,  Reflections  of  a 
Protestant  on  the  Pope's  Invitation  to  a  Peunion  with  the  Catholic  Church 
Cf.  Acta  et  Decreta,  fasc.  I.,  pp.  63-65. 


810  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

aid  of  prayer.  Having,  he  said,  himself  called  unceasing!}-  upon  the  Father 
of  light,  the  Dispenser  of  mercies,  and  the  Giver  of  every  good,  to  grant  that 
the  gift  of  wisdom  might  be  given  to  him  and  abide  with  him  and  work  through 
him,  so  alsc  did  he  desire  to  arouse  the  piety  and  stimulate  the  devotion  of  the 
iaitliful  of  Christ,  hy  proclaiming  an  indulgence  in  the  manner  of  a  jubilee,  in 
the  hope  that  all  would  unite  their  prayers  with  his  in  imploring  God  to  illumi- 
nate the  Council  with  the  light  of  Heaven,  and  thus  guide  it  to  enact  what 
would  most  promote  the  general  well-being  of  all  Christian  peoples,  advance 
the  interests  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  secure  her  peace  and  prosperity .i 

During  the  winter  of  1868  and  1869  many  theologians  were  called  to  Eome 
from  the  various  parts  of  Italy,  from  France  and  Belgium,  Germany  and  Eng- 
land, and  Spain  and  North  America,  to  assist  in  the  work  of  immediate  prepa^ 
ration  for  the  Council.  These  were  distributed  into  six  Commissions,^  viz.,  the 
Commission  on  Kites  and  Ceremonies,  the  Commission  on  Mixed  or  Politico- 
ecclesiastical  Questions,  the  Commission  on  Foreign  Missions  and  the  East,  the 
Commission  on  Eeligious  Orders,  the  Commission  on  Dogma,  and  the  Commis- 
sion on  Discipline,  each  of  which,  presided  over  by  a  cardinal,  was  engaged  ia 
preparing  subjects  belonging  to  its  province  for  the  Council.  The  strict  obli- 
gation  of  secrecy  was  laid  upon  all  the  Consultors.  Two  questions  of  vital  im- 
portance now  came  before  the  Commission  of  Direction:  first,  were  bishops, 
having  no  ordinary  jurisdiction,  such  as  vicars  apostolic,  entitled  to  sit  in  the 
Council  and  to  have  a  decisive  vote;  and,  second,  to  whom  belonged  the  right 
of  proscribing  the  order  or  method  by  which  the  proceedings  of  the  Council 
should  bo  regulated. 

To  the  first  it  was  answered  that  in  the  bulls  by  which  preceding  Councils 
were  convoked  no  distinction  was  made,  the  form  of  the  summons  running 
"  archbishops  and  bishops,"  and  that  therefore  none  should  now  be  made.  The 
decision  of  the  second  question  was  not  so  easy,  some  of  the  bishops  contending 
that  this  right  belonged  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Council ;  but,  after  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  precedents  of  former  Councils,  it  was  decided,  on  the  29th  of 
June,  1869,  "  that  the  right  of  regulating  the  Council  belonged  to  the  authority 
which  convened  it,  and  that  it  was  the  highest  prudence  to  retain  that  right  in 
the  hands  of  him  who  is  the  Head,  not  only  of  the  Council,  but  of  the  Church."  * 
Accordingly,  on  the  27th  of  November,  1869,  this  decision  may  be  said  to  have 
been  made  part  of  the  law  of  the  Church  by  the  publication  of  the  bull  Multi- 
plices  inter,  prescribing  the  rules  governing  the  proceedings  and  the  members 
of  the  Council,  or,  in  a  wide  sense,  indicating  the  Order  of  Business*     One  of 


1  Voices,  1869,  No.  IV.,  pp.  5-12. 

2  For  the  names  of  those  composing  the  various  Commissions,  see  Voices,  1869, 
No.  II.,  pp.  69  sq. 

3  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  pp.  72-74.  (Tr.) 

*  Acta  et  Decreta,  fasc.  II.,  pp.  66-74,  Ecum.  Council ;  Voices,  No.  VI.,  pp. 
10-24.  Cf.  Fessler,  The  Vatican  Council,  pp.  33-42.  The  bull  MuUipUces  in. 
l£r,  providing  for  the  regulation  of  the  aff'airs  of  the  Council,  is  divided  into 
ten  sections,  as  follows:  I.  De  modo  vivendi  in  Concilio;  II.  De  jure  et  modo 
proponendi ;  III.  De  secreto  servando  in  Concilio  ;  IV.  De  ordine  sedendi  et 
de  non  inferendc  alicui  praejudicio,  i.  e.,  establishing  the  order  of  rank  and  pre- 


§  413a.   The   Twentieth  Ecumenical  Council.  811 

the  most  important  paragraphs  of  this  bull  is  the  second,  "0?i  the  right  and 
method  of  introducing  inatters  to  be  treated."  All  questions  that  might  come 
before  the  Council  could  not  of  course  be  foreseen  by  the  Commission  of  Di- 
rection, and  it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  save  time  and  avoid  confusion,  to  have 
some  regular  channel  through  which  new  subjects  miglit  be  brought  before  the 
Council.  A  Commifision  on  Postulates,  consisting  of  six-and-twentj  cardinals 
and  bishops,  eminent  for  experience  and  prudence,  was  therefore  appointed 
b\-  the  Pope,  and  every  bishop  desiring  to  propose  a  new  subject  in  Council 
was  required  to  lay  it  before  this  Commission  in  the  form  of  a  written  petition 
to  the  Pontiff.  The  efficiency  of  such  a  plan  no  one  will  deny ;  neither  can 
there  be  any  just  suspicion  of  unfairness,  for  it  seems  morally  impossible  that 
six-and-twent}'  prudent  bishops  would  be  adverse  to  bringing  forward  any 
matter  really  worth  being  proposed  to  the  Council.' 

Another  point  of  vital  importance  was  the  mode  of  discussion  and  voting 
provided  for  in  tlie  two  paragraphs  of  the  bull  MuWpLlces  inter,  entitled,  re- 
spectively, Un  the  Genernl  Congregatio7is  of  the  Fathers  and  On  Public  Sessions. 
It  was  as  follows  :  The  preparatory  labors  of  the  Commission  of  Direction  and 
its  theologians  and  canonists  were  sifted  and  arranged  into  sch.et)mta  or  draft- 
decrees,  which  were  wholly  the  work  of  the  bishops  who  prepared  them,  and 
had  no  supreme  sanction  whatever.  Printed  copies  of  the  schemata  were  dis- 
tributed to  the  Fathers  of  the  Council  as  a  basis  of  discussion,  which  was  con- 
ducted as  follows :  At  the  outset  of  the  Council  the  Fathers  were  to  elect  by 
secret  vote  four  special  Congregations  or  Deputations,  viz.:  1.  On  Faith;  2.  On 
Discipline ;  3.  On  Kegular  Orders ;  and.  4.  On  the  Affairs  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  consisting  each  of  twenty-iour  members,  and  continuing  to  exercise 
their  functions  during  the  time  the  Council  was  in  session.^  Each  Father  was 
to  be  in  possession  of  the  schemata  some  days,  ten  at  least,  before  discussion 
upon  them  was  opened.  These  schemata  were  first  discussed  in  the  General 
Congregations  of  the  whole  Council,  where,  if  any  particular  schema  was  ac- 
cepted as  a  whole,  it  was  next  taken  up  paragraph  by  paragraph  and  clause  by 
clause.  If,  on  thq  contrary,  it  provoked  discussion,  the  arguments  on  both  sides, 
as  taken  down  in  short-hand,  were  referred  to  the  one  of  the  four  Commissions 
to  which  the  subject  in  question  belonged.     The  whole  schema  was  now  exam- 


cedence;  V.  De  judicibus  excusationum  et  querelarum,  i.  e.,  appointing  a  Com- 
mission on  Excuses  to  decide  upon  the  excuses  sent  by  bishops  not  present  and 
upon  those  sent  in  by  bishops  desiring  to  leave,  and  a  second  Commission  on 
Disputes,  to  settle  any  questions  that  may  arise  relative  to  rank  and  precedence; 
VI.  De  officialibus  Concilii,  i.  e.,  providing  for  the  appointment  and  duties  of 
the  officei's  belonging  to  the  Council ;  VII.  De  congregationibus  generalibuH 
Patrum;  VIII.  De  sessionibus  publicis,  an  account  of  which  is  given  in  the 
text;  IX.  De  non  discedendo  a  Concilio ;  X.  Indultum  apostolicum  de  non- 
residentia  pro  iis  qui  Concilio  intersunt,  i.  e.,  exempting  by  apostolic  indult 
those  who  were  engaged  at  the  Council  from  the  usual  penalties  attaching  to 
absence  from  their  benefices. 

•  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  pp.  75,  78,  and  89.   (Tr.) 

2  See  the  bull  Midtiplices  wj^er,  sec.  VII.  De  Congregationibus  gcneralibui 
Patrum.  (Tu.) 


812  Period  3.     E^poch  2.     Part  2.     Cluipkr  1. 

ined  in  the  light  of  the  arguments  brought  out  in  the  discussion,  amended  or 
recast,  printed,  and  again  brought  before  the  General  Congregation  by  one  of 
the  members  of  the  Commission,  selected  for  the  purpose.  If  the  schema  needed 
further  coirections  or  amendments,  the  same  process  was  repeated,  and  so  on 
until  a  satisfactory  schema  was  obtained.  The  final  verdict  on  a  schema  was, 
of  course,  determined  by  vote,  which  was  taken  in  the  following  manner: 
riiose  voting  aye  said  placet ;  those  voting  no,  non-jdacet ;  and  those  voting  aye^ 
with  a  condition  or  qualification,  said  placet  juxta  modum.  The  last  kind  of 
vjte  was  permitted  only  in  General  Congregations,  not  in  Public  Sessions,  and 
those  who  so  voted  were  required  to  send  in,  in  writing,  their  correction  or 
amendment,  which  was  printed,  submitted  to  the  Commission,  and  voted  upon 
at  the  next  General  Congregation.' 

On  the  20th  of  February,  1870,  a  decree  was  published,  containing  some  fur- 
ther rules,  which,  while  providing  for  full  freedom  of  discussion,  were  designed 
to  prevent  irrelevant  and  useless  controversy,  to  make  the  debates  more  orderly 
and  direct,  and  to  save  time  and  expedite  business.  These  just  limitations  gave 
offense  to  some,  who  regarded  them  as  strictures  on  their  freedom  of  speech  and 
action  ;  but  it  is  difficult,  on  reading  them  over,  to  view  them  as  other  than  wise 
regulations,  admirably  adapted  for  the  guidance  and  government  of  such  a  body 
as  the  Vatican  Council.  The  rules  governing  the  debates  in  the  American 
Congress  or  the  British  Parliament  do  not  allow  a  wider  liberty,  and  are  not 
nearly  so  simple  and  precise. 

iSome  of  the  bishops  also  thought  that  the  provisions  of  the  Constitution 
Apostolicac  Sedis  moderationi,  signed  by  the  Pope  October  12,  1869,  and  pub- 
lished as  a  part  of  the  law  of  the  Church  on  the  1-lth  of  December,  abrogatmg 
a  number  of  censures,"^  not  applicable  to  the  changed  circumstances  of  these 
times,  should  have  been  incorporated  in  one  of  the  schemata,  and  brought  be- 
fore the  Council ;  and,  because  this  was  not  done,  a  few  began  to  express  their 
fears  that  their  freedom  would  be  restrained.  It  is  not  easy  to  understand  why 
the  exercise  of  a  papal  prerogative,  which  at  any  other  time  would  have  ex- 
cited no  comment,  should  then  be  taken  as  indicating  a  purpose  to  control  the 
action  of  an  Ecumenical  Council. 

Having  now  given  the  history  of  the  origin  of  the  Vatican  Council  and  of 
the  events  that  preceded  its  opening,  it  only  remains  to  mention  the  subjects  to 
be  laid  before  it,  and  to  speak  more  or  loss  in  detail  of  papal  infallibility, 
which,  though  it  was  never  mentioned  by  the  Pope  in  connection  with  the 
proceedings  of  the  Council,  nor  suggested  by  any  of  the  Consultors,  except  by 
one  or  two  incidentally,  nor  explicitly  contained  in  any  of  the  schemata, 
seemed,  nevertheless,  the  one  question  that  was  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  men. 

Of  the  subjects  to  be  brought  before  the  Council,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  give 
the  schemata  prepared  by  the  theologians  and  canonists  of  the  Commission  of 
Direction.  They  were  as  follows:  1.  Schema  on  Catholic  Doctrine  against  the 
manifold  errors  flowing  from  Eationalism  ;  2.  Schema  on  the  Church  of  Christ ; 
5.  Schema  on   the  Office  of   Bishops;    4.  Schema   on   the  Vacancy  of  Sees- 

J  Card.  Ma?i7itng,  1.  c,  pp.  78-80.  (Tr.) 

*  Acta  et  Docreta,  fasc.  I.,  pp.  77-85;  Ecum.  Counc,  Voices,  No. \  II.,  pp.  10-17. 


§  413a.    The   Twentieth  Ecumenical  Council.  813 

6.  Schema  on  the  Life  and  Manners  of  the  Clergy ;  6.  Schema  on  the  Little 
Catechism. I 

For  some  years  previously  to  the  convocation  of  the  Vatican  Council,  par- 
ties hostile  to  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  See  had  existed  in  both  France  and 
Germany.  In  the  former  country  the  immediate  occasion  of  their  hostility  was 
the  condemnation  of  certain  errors  in  politics  by  Gregory  XVI. ;  in  the  latter 
the  condemnation  of  certain  errors  in  science  by  Pius  IX.  These  parties  had 
been  steadily  growing  in  number  and  gaining  in  strength  up  to  the  moment  of 
the  celebration  of  the  Centenary  in  18G7.  Five  hundred  bishops  on  that  occa- 
sion emphatically  affirmed  the  Pope's  prerogatives  in  the  most  ample  way, 
stating  that  ''Peter  spoke  by  the  mouth  of  Pius;"  that  whatever  Pius  "spoke, 
confirmed,  and  pronounced  for  the  safe  custody  of  the  deposit,"  they  likewise 
"spoke,  confirmed,  and  pronounced;"  and  that,  "with  one  voice  and  one 
mind,"  they  rejected  whatever  he  had  "judged  fit  to  reprove  and  reject."  ^  It 
is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  this  declaration,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
convocation  of  an  Ecumenical  Council,  should  have  alarmed  and  stimulated  to 
renewed  activity  those  who,  believing  that  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  See 
were  already  too  extensive,  were  engaged  in  a  strenuous  eflbrt  to  force  them 
within  narrower  limits  by  withdrawing  political  and  scientific  questions  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church.  With  the  instinct  of  error,  they  discovered  the 
quarter  from  which  to  apprehend  danger,  and  at  once  began  a  malignant  war 
on  papal  infallibility,  although,  as  has  been  seen,  the  subject  had  not  been  even 
mentioned  by  either  the  Pope  or  any  one  officially  connected  with  the  Council. 
Everything  was  done  that  could  be  done  to  prevent  papal  infallibility  from 
being  promulgated  as  a  dogma.  Its  opponents  held  conferences,  organized, 
matured  an  elaborate  system  of  attack,  divided  their  forces,  apportioned  the 
labor  according  to  the  gifts  and  qualifications  of  individuals,  those  of  one 
country  kept  up  an  active  correspondence  with  their  allies  in  every  other,  and 
in  18G8  a  work  entitled  Janus  appeared  in  Germany,  which,  as  Cardinal  Man- 
ning says,  was  "an  elaborate  attempt  of  many  hands  to  destroy  by  profuse  mis- 
representation of  history  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  and  to  create  animosity 
against  the  future  Council.^ 

The  Schema  on  the  Church  of  Christ  contained  only  two  chapters  on  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  the  first  on  the  Primacy  and  the  second  on  the  Temporal 
Power.  No  more  had  been  prepared  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1869.  The 
Commission,  taking  up  the  subject  again  at  this  date,  found  it  impossible  to 
treat  the  Primacy  without  at  the  same  time  treating  its  endowments,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  question  of  infallibility.  Hence,  on  the  11th  of  February, 
when  the  subject  was  reached,  two  questions  came  up  for  discussion:  1.  Can 
the  infallibility  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  be  defined  as  an  article  of  faith  f 
2.  Ought  it  to  be  so  defined  ?  To  the  first  question  the  Consultors  answered 
unanimously  in  the  affirmative;  to  the  second,  all  but  one  answered  indirectly 
that  it  ought  not  be  brought  before  the  Council  except  at  the  request  of  tie 
bishops.* 

» Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  p.  82.  (Tr.) 
■^bid.,  1.  c,  p.  51.  (Tr.) 
3/6i(/.,  1.  c,  pp.  67  sq.  (Tr.) 

*Ibid.,  1.  c,  p.  83.  (Til.) 


814  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

While  the  Consultors  were  still  at  work  on  the  additional  chapters  of  the 
Schema  on  the  Church  of  Christ,  a  correspondence  from  Franco,  dated  Febru- 
ary 6,  1869,  appeared  in  the  Civiltd  CattoLica,  in  which  the  writer  predicted  that 
the  Council  would  be  of  short  duration,  and  stated  that  it  was  the  unanimous 
wish  of  all  Catholics  to  have  the  teachings  of  the  Syllabus  formally  enunciated 
and  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  proclaimed  by  acclamation.  In  commenting 
on  the  article  in  the  Civilta,  The  Catholic  of  Mentz  ^  said  that  the  sentiments 
theiT  expressed  had  been  promptly  disavowed  by  the  highest  authorities  in 
Rui :  e ;  that  even  the  General  of  the  Jesuits  declined  to  give  them  his  approval ; 
and  that  words  penned  by  some  over-zealous  and  imprudent  writers,  and  sanc- 
tioned by  a  few  others,  should  not  be  taken  as  an  authoritative  utterance  on 
the  line  of  action. to  be  pursued  by  the  Council.  Still  the  article  was  generally 
regarded  as  significant,  and  the  discussion  of  the  subject  was  taken  up  every- 
where. Simultaneously  in  France,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  the  columns  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  were  crowded 
with  editorials  on  the  subject,  and  pamphlets  and  treatises  came  from  the  press 
in  hurried  succession,  nearly  all  the  opposition  writers  drawing  their  weapons 
of  attack  from  the  armory  supplied  by  Janus  in  the  preceding  year.  The  ex- 
citement was  steadily  on  the  increase,  and  nothing  was  left  undone  to  prevent 
a  return  of  men's  minds  to  sobriety  and  calmness.  An  article,  entitled  the 
Council  and  the  Civiltd,  which  appeared  in  the  Augsburg  Universal  Gazette  on 
the  10th  of  March,  1869,^  so  alarmed  the  fears  of  even  well-meaning  educated 
laymen,  that  a  number  of  them,  then  attending  the  Parliament  in  Berlin, 
thouiiht  it  their  duty  to  send  an  address  to  the  bishops  assembled  at  Fulda,  ex- 
pressing their  misgivings.  The  bishops,  in  consequence,  published  a  Pastoral 
Letter,^  in  which  they  .said  that  "an  Ecumenical  Council  could  never,  by  any 
possibility,  proclaim  as  a  dogma  a  doctrine  not  contained  in  Holy  Writ  and 
Apostolic  Traditions,  and  that  the  Church,  in  giving  decisions  on  matters  of 
faith,  does  not  promulgate  new  doctrines  at  all,  but  sets  old  truths  in  a  clearer 
light,  thus  guarding  them  against  fresh  errors."  The  bishops  of  Austria,  Hun- 
gary, France,  and  other  countries  issued  pastoral  letters  of  a  like  character,  as- 
suring their  flocks  that  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  Holy  See  had  been  grossly 
misrepresented.  Bishop  Dupanloup  went  the  length  of  saying  that  extravagant 
opinions  were  watted  from  France  across  the  Alps  ;  that  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion eame  from  Rome.  Infallibility  became  a  subject  of  disquieting  anxiety, 
even  in  diplomatic  circles.  A  document,  bearing  date  of  April  9,  1809,  signed 
by  Prince  Hoheniohe,  the  Bavarian  minister,  but  written  by  an  abler  hand,  was 
sent  to  all  the  governments  of  Europe,  inviting  their  co-operation  in  a  combined 
attempt  to  oppose  the  Council.  "  The  only  dogmatic  thesis,"  he  said,  '■  which 
Pvome  would  wish  to  have  decided  by  the  Council  ...  is  the  infallibility 
of  the  Pope."  *     Such  were  some  of  the  attempts  made  to  misrepresent,  intimi- 

La  Civiltd  Cattolica,  anno  XXmo,  p.  352.  (Tr.)     ''The  Catholic,"  Year  1869, 
Vol.  I.,  p.  727. 

2  Number  69.  See  also  Acton,  1.  c,  pp.  18  sq.,  "Attitude  of  Statesmen  before 
the  Opening  of  the  Council." 

3  It  was  signed  by  twenty-one  bishops  and  proxies.  The  text  is  given  in  the 
Voices,  1869,  Nos.  V.-X.,  followed  by  pastoral  letters  from  other  countries. 

*Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  p.  68.  (Tk.) 


§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council.  81c 

date,  and  overawe  the  Council.  Every  sort  of  argument  was  made  use  of  tc 
convey  to  the  world  a  wrong  notion  of  its  aims  and  purposes.  The  whole  world 
seemed  arrayed  and  banded  against  it,  and,  as  the  day  of  its  opening  drew  near, 
the  violence  and  malignity  of  the  opposition  increased.  Still  the  preparations 
for  the  Council  went  steadily  forward,  heedless  of  this  multitudinous  clamor  of 
angry  tongues. 

The  Bull  of  Indiction  was  promulgated  June  29, 1868,  and  by  the  day  set  for 
the  opening,  December  8,  1869,  the  bishops  and  apostolic  vicars  from  the  most 
remote  countries  had  arrived  in  Rome.  They  were  there  from  California  aad 
Mexico;  from  Brazil,  Peru,  Chili,  and  New  Granada;  from  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands and  Australia;  and  from  India,  Siam,  Tunkin,  China,  and  Japan. 

Pius  TX.  considerately  provided  for  the  suitable  support  of  the  more  indigent 
of  the  prelates.  By  the  middle  of  December  the  number  of  the  Fathers  had 
risen  to  above  seven  hundred,  but  was  considerably  reduced  during  the  progress 
of  the  Council  by  death  and  other  causes.  At  the  Third  Public  Session,  held 
April  24,  1870,  there  were  pi-esent  only  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  of  whom 
43  were  cardinals,  9  patriarchs,  8  primates,  107  archbishops,  456  bishops,  1  ad- 
ministrator of  a  diocese,  6  privileged  abbots,  20  abbots-generals,  and  43  superi- 
ors-generals of  Religious  Orders  and  Congregations. ^  Over  the  Fou?-  Public 
Sessions  the  Pope  presided  in  person,  while  the  General  Conyregafiuns  were  pre- 
sided over  by  five  Cardinal  Presidents,  appointed  by  him.  Cardinal  von  Rei- 
sach  was  First  President,  and  with  him  were  associated  Cardinals  de  Luca,  Bi- 
zarri,  Bilio,  and  Capalti.  Cardinal  von  Reisach  died  in  Savoy,  after  a  short 
illness,  on  Christmas  day,  1869,  and  Cardinal  de  Angelis  was  named  First  Pres- 
ident in  his  room.  Bishop  Fcssler,  of  St.  Polten,  had  been  appointed  Secretary 
of  the  Council  before  its  opening. 

§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council  and  its  Immediate.  Consequences. 

At  a  Preliminary  Congregation  [Congregatio  prosynodalis),  held  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  December  2,  1869,  Pius  IX.,  who  presided,  said  he  could  not  put  in 
words  the  great  joy  he  felt  at  seeing  gathered  about  him  so  many  bishops  from 
all  parts  of  the  Catholic  world,  and  that  his  joy  was  so  much  the  greater  in  that 
he  felt  they  were  bound  to  him  by  the  same  bond  of  love  that  bound  the  Dis- 
ciples to  their  Master.     He  said  they  were  come  together  to  provide  remedies 


'For  further  cla-ssification  and  statements,  by  countries,  see  Fessler,  The  Vat- 
ican Council,  p.  15-20.  Of  the  107  archbishops,  e.  g.,  there  were  23  Greeks  and 
Orientals  (8  Armenians,  5  Chaldeans,  4  Maronites,  3  Syrians,  1  Greek,  1  Greek 
Melchite,  and  1  Roumanian) ;  23  Italians  and  46  from  other  countries  (10  from 
France,  10  from  North  America,  3  from  Austria,  3  from  Germany,  2  from  Ire- 
land,  2  from  Belgium  and  Holland,  and  1  from  England) ;  finally,  15  archbishops 
in  partibus  infidelium.  Of  the  456  bishops,  293  are  to  be  booked  for  Europe,  viz  , 
122  for  Italy  (of  whom  but  few  cobishops),  61  for  France,  31  for  Spain,  18  for  the 
Austro-Hungarian  monarch}',  16  for  Ireland,  15  for  Germany,  11  for  England 
and  Scotland,  9  for  Turkey  and  Greece,  7  for  Switzerland,  with  the  bishops' 
substitutes  of  Geneva,  Choire,  and  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint  .^laurice  (in  the  Ta- 
lais),  5  for  Belgium  and  Holland,  and  2  for  Portugal. 


816  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

for  the  great  evils  that  threatened  Christian  and  Civil  Society  in  these  times, 
and  prayed  that  the  blessing  of  God  might  fall  upon  them  and  upon  their  work.' 
After  the  Allocution,  the  names  of  the  Cardinal  Presidents  and  other  officials 
were  made  known,  and  the  Constitution  for  the  regulation  of  the  Council  dis- 
tributed 1o  the  bishops. 2 

On  the  8th  of  December  the  Council  was  solemnly  opened  by  a  Public  Ses- 
PiOM  in  the  Council  Hall  in  the  transept,  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  Basilica 
of  St.  Peter.  After  the  Vent  Creator  had  been  sung  and  High  Mass  said,  the 
Book  of  Gospels  was  placed  upon  the  Altar,  where  it  remained  open  through- 
out the  Session.  A  sermon  was  then  preached,  followed  by  the  Synodal  pr;i^\- 
crs,  which  were  intoneil  by  the  Holy  Fatiier,  and  the  Litany  of  the  Saints. 
After  the  Gospel,  the  Pope  made  an  Allocution?  in  which  he  said :  "Our  heart 
rejoices  and  is  glad  with  an  exceeding  great  joy  to  see  you,  Venerable  Brethren, 
gathered  here  in  the  citadel  of  the  Catholic  Picligion,  and  on  this  holy  and 
most  auspicious  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
Mother  of  God,  in  greater  number  than  ever  before.  You  are  here  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  bear  witness  with  us  to  the  Word  of  God;  to  declare 
with  us  the  truth  to  all  men,  which  is  the  way  that  leads  to  God;  and  to  con- 
demn with  us,  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  doctrines  of  false 
science.  You  are  aware.  Venerable  Brethren,  of  the  violence  of  the  assaults 
made  by  the  old  enemy  of  the  human  race  against  the  House  of  God,  which 
should  be  adorned  with  holiness.  But,  as  St.  John  Chrysostom  has  said,  'noth- 
ing is  more  powerful  than  the  Church ;  she  is  stronger  than  Heaven  itself. 
Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away,  but  My  words  shall  not  pass  away.'  Be  ye 
therefore  strengthened  in  the  Lord  ;  and,  sanctified  in  truth  and  clad  with  the 
armor  of  light,  teach  the  way,  the  truth,  and  the  life.  God  is  present  in  His 
holy  place;  He  is  with  us  in  our  deliberations  and  our  efforts;  He  has  chosen 
us  to  be  His  servants  and  fellow-workers  in  this  great  work  of  His  salvation. 
Therefore,  knowing  well  our  own  weakness,  and  filled  with  mistrust  of  our- 
selves, we  lift  up  our  eyes  and  our  prayers  to  Thee,  O  Holy  Ghost,  to  Thee,  the 
source  of  true  light  and  wisdom."  * 

After  the  Veni  Creator  had  been  again  sung,  the  Bishop  of  Fabriano  read 
from  the  Ambo  the  decree  of  the  opening  of  the  Council,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  the  substance  .•  "  Is  it  the  pleasure  of  the  Fathers  that  the  Ecumenical 
Council  should  be  opened  and  should  be  declared  open  for  the  glory  of  the 
Most  Holy  Trinity,  the  custody  and  declaration  of  the  faith  and  of  the  Catho- 
lic religion  ;  for  the  condemnation  of  errors,  which  are  widely  spreading,  and 
for  the  moral  correction  of  clergy  and  people  ?"  When  the  Fathers  had  unan- 
imously answered  Placet,  the  Pope  declared  the  Council  opened,  and  fixed  the 
Second  Public  Session  for  the  Feast  of  the  Epiphany,  January  G,  1870.  Pre- 
paratory to  it  four  General  Congregations  were  held  on  the  10th,  14th,  20th,  and 


iSee  the  Allocution  of  December  ^d.  (Tr.) 

2  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  p.  86.  (Tr.) 

■'  Both  documents,  the  Pope's  Allocution  and  the  Sermon  of  the  day,  in  the 
Acta  et  Decreta  concilii  Vaticani,  fasc.  II.,  pp.  144-153.  Ecumenical  Co\;ncil, 
Voices  from  Maria-Laach,  1869,  1870,  No.  VI.,  pp.  24-42. 

*See  Allocution  of  December  8th.  (Tr.) 


§  413&.    The  Vatican  Council.  817 

28th  days  of  December.  In  the  first  of  these  the  names  of  those  composing 
the  Commission  on  Postulates  were  made  known,  after  which  the  five  Judges 
of  Excuses  {Judicea  excusailonum)  were  elected  by  the  universal  vote  of  the 
Council,  and  the  Schema  on  Catholic  Doctrine  against  the  manifold  errors  flow- 
ing from  Nationalism  distributed  to  the  Fathers.  Five  Judices  Querelarum, 
for  the  determination  of  questions  of  rank  and  precedence,  were  also  chosen, 
and  the  Constitution  of  December  4th,  in  which  the  Pope  made  provisions 
against  the  event  of  his  death  during  the  continuance  of  the  Council,  commu- 
nicated to  the  Fathers.!  j^i  the  second  General  Congregation,  the  members  of 
the  Coynmisslon  on  Faith,  twenty-four  in  number,^  were  voted  for,  after  which 
the  Papal  Constitution,  Apostolicae  Sedls  moderationi,  already  mentioned,  was 
laid  before  the  Fathers.  In  the  third  General  Congregation,  the  result  of  the 
vote  for  members  of  the  Commission  on  Faith  was  made  known,  and  an  equal 
number  elected  for  the  Comtnission  on  Discipline.  In  the  fourth  General  Con- 
gregation the  same  number  were  chosen  to  serve  on  the  Co7nmissio7i  on  Relig- 
ious Orders,  after  which  the  discussion  was  opened  on  the  first  Schema  on  Cath- 
olic Doctrine,  and  continued  in  the  General  Congregations  held  on  the  30th  of 
December,  1869,  and  the  3d  and  4th  of  January,  1870,  but  without  reaching 
any  definite  result.  Hence,  in  the  Second  Public  Session,  the  Fathers  could 
do  no  more  than  make  the  Profession  of  Faith,  according  to  the  formulary  of  the 
Council  of  Trent.  The  members  of  all  Councils,  from  that  of  Constantinople, 
in  381,  where  the  Creed  of  the  Council  of  Nicaea  was  repeated,  down  to  the 
Council  of  the  Vatican,  have  uniformly  been  required  to  make  such  profession. 
First  the  Pope  rose,  and  facing  the  Fathers,  the  Book  of  Gospels  being  open  on 
the  xVltar  and  the  Tomb  of  St.  Peter  uncovered,  read  from  his  throne,  in  a  loud, 
clear  voice,  the  profession  of  the  faith  of  Trent.  The  Bishop  of  Fabriano  then 
read  the  same  from  the  Anibo.  The  cardinals,  patriarchs,  primates,  archbish- 
ops, bishops,  and  other  Fathers  of  the  Council,  next  signified  their  adhesion  to 
this  as  their  common  faith  by  advancing  and  reverently  kissing  the  Book  of 
Gospels,  open  at  the  throne  of  the  Pope.     This  seemed  the  fulfillment  of  the 


1  Acta  et  decreta,  pp.  95-98;  Ecumenical  Council,  Voices,  No.  YIL,  pp.  5-9. 

2  These  were:  The  Eoman,  Cardoni,  Archbishop  of  Edessa,  in  part,  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Modena,  the  Bishop  of  Treviso,  and  the  Bishop  of  Calvi,  from 
Italy ;  the  Bishops  Senestrey,  of  Katisbon,  and  Martin,  of  Paderborn,  from 
Germany ;  the  Archbishop  of  Cambray  and  the  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  from 
France ;  the  Archbishop  of  Saragossa  and  the  Bishop  of  Jaen,  in  Spain  ;  Arch- 
bishop Manning,  of  Westminster,  from  England;  the  Archbishop  of  Cashel, 
from  Ireland  ;  the  Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  Archbishop  Deschamps,  of  3Ialines, 
Archbishop  Ledochowsky,  of  Posen-Gnesen,  and  Primate  of  Poland;  the 
Bishop  of  Sion  or  Sitten,  in  Switzerland;  the  Armenian  Patriarch  of  Cilicia, 
from  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Bostra  and  Administrator  of  East 
India,  from  Eastern  Asia  ;  Archbishop  Spalding,  of  Baltimore,  and  Archbishop 
Alemany,  of  San  Francisco,  from  North  America  ;  the  Archbishop  of  Santiago, 
in  Chili,  and  the  Bishop  of  Kio  Grande  de  San  Pedro,  in  Brazil,  from  Soutb 
America.  Cardinal  BlUo  was  made  President  of  this  Committee.  For  the 
members  of  the  other  committees,  see  Fessler,  The  Vatican  Council,  pp.  56-Gl. 

VOL.   Ill — 52 


818  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

prayers  of  Our  Lord,  "  that  they  all  may  be  one,  as  Thou,  Father,  in  Me,  and  1 
in  Thee;  that  they  also  may  he  one  in  Us;  that  the  world  may  believe  that  Thou 
hast  sent  me."  ^ 

The  first  discussion  on  the  Schema  on  Catholic  Doctrine  was  closed  at  the 
General  Congreejation  held  January  10.     Thirty-five  Fathers  had  spoken,  and 
the  Schema,  with  their  speeches  and  proposed  amendments,  was  sent  back  to 
the  Commission  on  Faith  to  be  entirely  recast.     In  the  nieantime  the  Fathers 
took  up  in  the  General  Congregations  the  disciplinary  Schemata  on  the  Vaca'tcy 
of  Sees,  on  the  Life  and  Manners  of  the  Clergy,  and  on  the  Little  Catechiavi. 
The  first  was  discussed  in  seven  General  Congregations  between  the  14th  and 
25th  of  January,  in  which  thirty-seven  spoke ;  the  second  also  in  seven,  be- 
tween  the  25th  of  January  and  the  8th  of  February,  in  which  thirty-eight 
spoke ;  and  the  last  in  six,  between  the  10th  and  22d  of  February,  in  which 
forty-one  spoke.^     These  Schemata,  with  the  speeches  and  amendments,  were 
then  sent  back  to  the  Commission  on  Discipline.     At  the  close  of  the  last  of 
these  General  Congregations,  the  Decree,  already  mentioned,  containing  some 
additional  regulations,  drawn  up  by  the  Commission  on  Postulates,  intended  to 
make  the  discussions  more  orderly,  rigorous,  and  expeditious,  was  communi- 
cated to  the  Fathers.     These  rules  provided  that  bishops  desiring  to  make  any 
changes  or  corrections  in  the  Schema  previously  distributed  to  them  should  do 
so  in  writing,  first  on  the  Schema  as  a  whole,  and  secondly  on  the  chapters  and 
paragraphs  in  detail ;  that  after  these  proposed  amendments  had  been  printed 
and  put  into  the  hands  of  each  of  the  Fathers,  the  Cardinal  Presidents  should 
fix  a  day  for  the  opening  of  the  discussion ;  that  those  wishing  to  speak  should 
hand  in  their  names  to  the  Cardinal  Presidents,  and  also  state  whether  they 
were  going  to  speak  on  the  Schema  as  a  whole  or  on  one  of  its  chapters,  and  if 
the  latter,  which  one ;  that  if  any  of  the  speakers  spoke  wide  of  the  question, 
the  Presidents  might  remind  him  of  the  fact ;  and,  finally,  that  if  it  was  clear 
the  discussion  was  being  uselessly  prolonged,  the  Cardinal  Presidents,  at  the 
written  request  of  any  ten  of  the  Fathers,  might,  by  a  vote  of  the  Congrega- 
tion, decide  whether  it  should  go  on  or  be  closed.^     As  the  Schema  on  Catholic 
Doctrine  had  not  yet  been   completed,  the  second  dogmatic  Schema   on  the 
Church  of  Christ  was  distributed  to  the  Fathers.     As  originally  drawn  up,  it 
consisted  of  three  Parts  and  fifteen  Chapters.*     By  the  new  rules  of  debate,  the 
Fathers  had  at  least  ten  days  to  hand  in  their  views  and  criticisms  in  writing. 
In  the  present  case  this  period  closed  on  March  4th.     About  one  hundred  and 
twenty  papers  were  handed  in  on  Chapters  I.  to  X.,  including  many  memorials 
against  the  new  Kules,  signed  jointly  by  a  number  of  bishops,  the  lowest  list 


1st.  John,  XVII.,  20,  21. 

^  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  p.  96.  It  would  seem,  from  the  dates  given  above,  that 
Card.  Manning  is  incorrect  in  saying  that  these  Schemata  were  discussed  after 
the  Third  Public  Session.  (Tr.) 

3  See  the  Decree  of  February  22d.  (Tr.) 

*Part  I.,  embracing  chapters  I.  to  X.,  treated  of  The  Church  of  Christ; 
Part  II.,  embracing  chapters  XI.  and  XXL,  treated  of  The  Primacy  of  the 
Jloman  Pontiff'  atid  his  Temporal  Power;  Part  III.,  embracing  chapters  XIII. 
to  XY.,  treated  of  The  Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State. 


§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council  819 

of  signatures  being  four,  and  the  highest  twenty-nine.  It  has  been  already 
seen  that  that  portion  of  the  Schema  on  ihe  Church  of  Christ  treating  of  the 
Head  of  the  Church  contained  only  two  Chapters,  the  one  on  his  Primacy  and 
the  other  on  his  Temporal  Power.  To  complete  the  subject,  many  of  the  bish- 
ops desired  to  introduce  a  new  Chapter  on  Papal  Infallibility.  The  lawful  way 
to  do  this  was  to  send  a  petition  to  the  Commission  on  Postulates,  asking  leave 
to  introduce  such  a  Chapter.  A  petition  was  accordingly  drawn  up,  to  which 
were  subsequently  added  extracts  from  Provincial  Councils  favoring  the  doc- 
trine, and  circulated  among  the  bishops,  of  whom  four  hundred  and  fifty  signed 
it.  A  counter-petition  was  also  drafted  and  signed  by  about  one  hundred  bish- 
ops, asking  that  the  question  of  Infallibility  be  not  laid  before  the  Council,  on 
the  ground  that  to  define  it  would  be  both  unwise  and  unseasonable,  not  that 
they  disbelieved  the  doctrine  itself  ^  The  petition  of  the  Infallibilists  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  Commission  on  the  9th  of  February,  and  approved  by  Pius  IX., 
and  accordingly  a  third  Chapter,  entitled  "-Romanum  Pontijicem  in  rebus  fidci  ei 
morum  definieudis  errare  non  posse  was  inserted  between  Chapters  XI.  and  XII. 
of  the  original  Schema?  This  part  of  the  Schema,  as  amended,  was  distrib- 
uted to  the  Father^  on  the  6th  of  March.  They  were  requested  to  hand  in 
their  papers  on  the  subject  at  the  close  of  ten  days,  but  this  period  proving  too 
short,  was  extended  eight  days  longer.  By  the  25th  of  March  one  hundred 
and  forty-nine  papers  had  been  handed  in,  representing  the  views  of  above  two 
hundred  Fathers,  some  of  the  documents  bearing  the  signatures  of  more  than 
twenty  bishops.  The  Commission  on  Faith  made  an  Anali/iical  Synopsis  {syn- 
opsis analytlca)  of  all  these  papers,  which,  when  printed,  filled  two  volumes, 
one  of  144  pages,  4to,  on  the  Primacy,  and  another  of  242  pages,  4to,  on  the 
Infallibility  of  ihe  Roman  Pontiff.  From  this  it  is  clear  that  the  Commission 
on  Faith  did  not  fail  of  its  duty. 

In  the  meantime  the  Schema  on  Catholic  Doctrine  had  been  recast  by  the 
Commission  on  Faith,  and  was  distributed  to  the  Council  on  the  14th  of  March. 
Instead  of  eighteen,  it  now  consisted  of  only  four  Chapters,  with  an  Introduc- 
tion or  Prooemium.  In  the  Introduction  the  errors  are  enumerated  that  have 
sprung  up  in  the  world  for  the  last  three  hundred  years,  thus  logically  connect- 
ing the  Council  of  the  Vatican  with  that  of  Trent.  Of  the  four  Chapters  the 
first  treats  Of  God,  the  Creator  of  All  Things  ;  the  second.  Of  Revelation ;  third, 
Of  Faith ;  and  the  fourth.  Of  Faith  and  Reason.  To  these  were  added  eighteen 
Cations. 

The  second  discussion  on  this  Schema,  as  remodeled,  began  on  the  18th  of 
March.  Nine  Fathers  spoke  on  the  Schema  as  a  whole,  when,  no  one  desiring  to 
epeak  further,  the  genei'al  discussion  was  closed,  and  the  special  discussion  on 
the  Chapters,  one  by  one,  opened.  Twenty-one^  spoke  on  the  First  Chapter; 
twenty  on  the  Second;  twenty-two  on  the  Third;  and  twelve  on  the  Fourth. 
The  Prooemium,  after  having  been  twice  amended,  was  finally  unanimously 
adopted  in  a  General  Congregation  held  March  29th.    The  First  Chapter,  after 


'  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  pp.  98  and  113-115.   (Tr.) 

Tor  the  reasons  brought  forward  for  and  against  the  defining  of  infallibility, 
jee  Card.  Manmng,  1.  c,  pp.  101-121.  (Tr.) 
^  Cajd,  Manning,  1.  c,  p.  93,  says  sixteen.  (Tb.) 


820  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

revision  and  amendment,  was  passed  April  1st;  the  Second,  April  8th;  and 
the  Third  and  Fourth,  April  12th.  The  Schema,  as  a  whole,  was  then  proposed 
for  acceptance.  No  one  voted  Non  placet,  but  eighty-three  voted  Placet  juxta 
tnodum.  Their  amendments  were  sent  to  the  Commission,  printed  in  a  quarto 
volume  of  fifty-one  pages,  and  distributed.  Finally  the  Schema,  as  amended, 
was  adopted  by  an  unanimous  vote  on  the  19th  of  April. '  In  the  Third  Pub- 
lic Session,  held  on  Dominica  in  Albis  or  Low  Sunday,  April  24,  the  Dogmatie 
Constitution  on  Catholic  Faith  was  accepted  by  the  tvianimoios  vote  of  six  hun- 
dred and  sixty-nine  Fathers.^  On  the  following  day  the  Schema  on  the  Little 
Catechism,  as  revised  by  the  Commission  on  Discipline,  was  distributed  to  the 
Council,  and  discussed  in  two  General  Congregations,  held  on  the  29th  and  30th 
of  April.  It  was  once  more  sent  back  to  the  Commission,  with  the  amend- 
ments, but  though  it  again  came  before  the  General  Congregation  on  4th  and 
13th  of  JNJay,  no  definite  result  was  reached.  The  Schema  on  the  Primacy  and 
Infallibility  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  as  it  came  back  from  the  Commission  on 
Faith,  formed  only  one  part  of  the  original  Schem,a  on  the  Church  of  Christ,  and 
was  entitled  First  Dogmatic  Constitution  on  the  Church  of  Christ.  It  consisted 
of  an  Introduction  and  four  Chapters :  I.  Of  the  Institution  of  the  Apostolic 
Primacy  in  Blessed  Peter;  II.  Of  the  Perpetuity  of  the  Primacy  of  Blessed 
Peter  in  the  Eoman  Pontifis;  III.  On  the  Power  and  Nature  of  the  Primacy 
of  the  Pioman  Pontifi";  IV.  Concerning  the  Infallible  Teaching  of  the  Roman 
Pontiff.  Printed  copies  of  this  Schema,  embodying  the  amendments  of  the  two 
hundred  bishops,  were  distributed  to  the  Fathers  during  the  last  days  of  April, 
and  the  general  discussion  opened  on  the  14th  of  May,  and  continued  through 
fourteen  sessions,  closing  on  the  3d  of  June. 

In  that  interval,  sixty-four  had  spoken,  the  majority  of  them  on  Chapters 
III.  and  IV.  A  hundred  others  had  sent  in  their  names  to  speak,  but  as  it 
appeared  that  all  the  arguments  that  could  be  brought  forward  had  been  ex- 
hausted; that  the  speakers  were  going  on  repeating  themselves;  that  instead 
of  confining  their  remarks  to  the  Schema  as  a  whole,  they  had  already  antici- 
pated the  discussion  in  detail,  particularly  as  regards  Chapters  III.  and  IV. ; 
that  each  of  the  seven  hundred  bishops  might  yet  speak  five  times,  that  is,  onc& 
on  the  Introduction  and  once  on  each  of  the  Four  Chapters,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  there  were  still  a  possible  three  thousand  and  odd  speeches  to  be  listened  to, 
it  was  necessary,  as  Cardinal  Manning  says,  that  in  this,  as  "in  all  human  af- 
fairs, the  limits  of  common  sense  should  be  respected  at  last."  As  we  have 
Been  by  the  later  regulations  of  the  Council,  any  ten  Fathers  might  petition  the 
Presidents  to  put  it  to  a  vote  to  ascertain  whether  the  discussion  was  to  go  on 
or  be  closed.  The  petition  to  close  the  general  discussion  was  signed  by  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops,  put  to  the  Council,  and  carried  by  an  immense 
majority.     Then  began  the  special  discussions  on   the  Introduction   and   the 


^  "  In  passing  this  one  Schema,  the  interval  between  the  14th  of  March  and 
the  19th  of  April  was  consumed;  seventy-nine  members  of  the  Council  spoke; 
three  hundred  and  sixty-four  amendments  were  made,  examined,  and  voted 
upon;  six  reports  were  made  by  the  Commission  upon  the  text,  which,  after 
its  first  recasting,  had  been  six  times  amended."    Card.  Ma:nning,  1.  c,  p.  95.  (Tr.) 

2  Acta  et  Docreta,  p.  170-179;  Ecum.Counc,  N.IX.,  p.  1-29,  Lat.  and  Germ. 


§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council.  821 

Chapters,  one  by  one.  In  the  first  General  Congregation,  held  June  Gth,  seven 
spoke  on  the  Introduction  ;  on  the  following  day,  three  spoke  on  Chapter  I.  and 
five  on  Chapter  II.  The  discussion  on  Chapter  III.  lasted  from  the  9th  to 
the  14th  of  June,  and  thirty-two  spoke.  The  Introduction  and  the  first  three 
Chapters,  with  the  proposed  amendments,  were  then  sent  back  to  the  Commis- 
sion on  Faith.  In  the  special  discussion  on  Chapter  IV.,  which  lasted  through 
eleven  Sessions,  from  the  15th  of  June  to  the  4th  of  Julj%  fifty-seven  spoke, 
among  whom  were  six  Cardinals  and  two  Patriarchs.  The  Introduction  and 
the  first  two  Chapters  were  reported  July  5,  and  adopted  nearly  unanimously. 
The  discussion  on  Chapter  IV.  was  opened  by  Cardinals  liauscher  and  Mat- 
ihieu  on  the  side  of  the  opposition.  It  would  appear  that  during  this  discus- 
sion, as  in  the  Council  of  Trant^  some  of  the  Fathers  momentarily  forgot  them- 
selves and  lost  their  tempers.  But  as  feeling  ran  high  on  both  sides,  and  as 
bishops  are  after  all  human,  this  was  in  the  nature  of  things.  At  the  close 
of  the  discussion,  Chapter  IV.,  with  ninety-six  proposed  amendments,  was  sent 
back  to  the  Commission  on  Faith.  On  the  11th  of  July  the  Commission  re- 
ported, having  added  three  now  paragraphs,^  and  .substituted  for  the  title  De 
Romani  Ponti/icis  JnfaUlbUitate  the  foMowing:  De  Romani  PonHJicis  Infallibili 
Magistcrio.     Most  of  the  changes  were  accepted. 

On  the  13th  of  July,  Chapters  III.  and  IV.  were  adopted  by  a  great  majority. 
The  whole  Schema  on  the  Primacy  and  Infallibility  of  the  Roman  Pontiff  was 
again  hastily  printed  and  distributed  to  the  Fathers  for  the  final  vote  on  the 
same  day.  There  were  present  601  Fathers,  of  whom  451  voted  Placet  or  aye; 
88  Non  placet  or  no;  and  62  Placet  juxta  modum  or  aye,  with  a  qualification. 
The  written  amendments  consequent  upon  this  vote  numbered  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three,  which  were  sent  to  the  Commission,  examined,  and  the  report 
made  on  the  16th  of  July.  Many  of  the  amendments  were  adopted  by  a  great 
majority ;  among  others,  two  proposed  by  the  Commission,  and  the  following 
addition  to  the  formula  of  the  definition  of  Infallibility:  "  Ideoque  Romani 
Pontificis  definitiones  ex  sese  '  non  autem  ex  consensu  eccleslae '  irreformabiles 
esse."  3 

The  whole  Schema  was  again  reprinted,  distributed,  put  once  more  to  the 
vote  and  passed.*  At  the  close  of  this  General  Congregation  a  protest  was  read 
by  the  Cardinal  President  against  the  numerous  misrepresentations  and  false- 
hoods circulated  concerning  the  Council  in  the  newspapers  of  every  tongue  and 


^  See  p.  351,  supra. 

2 Card.  Manning,  1.  c.,  p.  138.  (Tr.) 

*The  formulary  of  Infallibility  now  ran  as  follows:  Sacro  approbante  con- 
cilio  docemus  et  divinitus  revelatum  dogma  esse  definimus:  Romanum  pontifi- 
cem,  cum  ex  cathedra  loquitur,  i.  e.,  cum  omnium  christianorum  pastoris  et 
doctoris  munere  fungens  pro  suprema  sua  apostolica  auctoritate  doctrinam  de 
fide  vel  moribus  ab  universa  ecclesia  tenendam  definit.  per  assistentiam  divi- 
nam,  ipsi  in  beato  Petro  promissam,  ea  infallibilitate  poUere,  qua  divinus  re- 
demptor  ecclesiam  suam  in  definienda  doctrina  do  fide  vel  moribus  instructara 
esse  voluit;  ideoque  ejusmodi  Romani  pontificis  definitiones  ex  sese,  non  autem 
ex  consensu  ecclesiae  irreformabiles  esse. 

*  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  pp.  138,  139.  (Tr.) 


822  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 


in  anonymous  pamphlets.  Of  the  latter  the  Protest  instanced  two,  "written  in 
French  and  entitled  Ce  qui  se  passe  an  Concile  and  La  dernicre  heure  du  con- 
cile,  which,  for  the  arts  of  calumny  and  the  license  of  detraction,  bear  away  the 
palm  from  all  others."  With  this  protest  closed  the  eighty-fifth  General  Con- 
gregation. A  last  effort  was  now  made  to  prevent  the  promulgation  of  the 
doctrine  of  Infallibility.  On  the  evening  of  the  15th  of  July,  Simor,  Primate 
of  Hungary;  Rivet,  Bishop  of  Dijon;  and  von  Keiiler,  Bishop  of  Mentz,  had 
an  audience  of  the  Pope,  during  which,  speaking  in  the  name  of  those  whom 
they  represented,  they  besought  him  not  to  promulgate  the  dogma  of  Infalli- 
bility, or  at  least  to  put  it  off  until  the  Schema  on  ihe  Church  of  Christ  had 
been  more  fully  discussed.  Bishop  von  Ketilcr,  in  the  urgency  and  earnestness 
of  his  appeal,  cast  himself  on  his  knees  three  times  before  the  Holy  Father, 
but  to  no  purpose.  On  the  following  day,  Cardinal  Eauscher,  in  taking  leave 
of  Pius  IX.,  represented  in  strong  language  the  possible  evils  that  might  fol- 
low the  promulgation  of  the  dogma,  to  whom  the  Pope  replied :  "  The  affair 
has  gone  too  far  now."  On  the  17th  of  July,  a  memorial,  signed  by  fifty-five 
bishops,  representing  France,  Austro-Hungary,  Germany,  and  America,  was  sent 
to  the  Pope,  to  whom  it  was  handed  on  the  morning  of  the  18th.  The  Memo- 
rialists state  that,  acting  on  the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  eighty-eight  Fath- 
ers voted  against  the  First  Dogmatic  Constitution  on  the  Church  of  Christ  at  the 
General  Congregation  on  the  13th  of  July,  sixty -two  voted  Placet  juxta  modum, 
and  seventy  remained  away  altogether  ;  that  since  that  time  their  own  convic- 
ti6ns  had  been,  if  possible,  strengthened,  and  they  therefore  now  renewed  the 
votes  they  then  cast ;  that  they  purposed  to  stay  away  from  the  Public  Session 
to  be  held  on  the  18th  of  July,  because  their  filial  love  and  reverence  for  the 
Holy  Father  would  not  permit  them  to  say  no  openly  and  to  his  face  in  a  mat- 
ter that  so  nearly  concerned  him  jtersonally  ;  and  that  they  would  therefore  at 
once  return  and  seek  peace  and  quiet  among  their  flocks,  which  on  many  ac- 
counts were  sorely  in  need  of  their  presence.^  These  bishops  knew  quite  well 
that  it  was  useless  to  say  that  they  now  repeated  their  votes  of  July  13th,  for 
the  reason  that  only  the  votes  of  those  actually  present  were  valid.  On  Tues- 
day, the  18th  of  May,  the  Fourth  Public  Session  was  opened  with  the  usual 
solemnities,  Pius  IX.  presiding  in  person.  After  Mass  had  been  celebrated  and 
the  Veni  Creator  sung,  the  Bishop  of  Fabriano  read  from  the  Ambo  the  text  of 
the  First  Dogmatic  Constitution  on  the  Church  of  Christ,  after  which  the 
under-secretavy  of  the  Council  called  upon  each  Father  by  name  to  vote.  Of 
the  535  present,  533  voted  Placet,  and  2,  one  from  Sicily  and  the  other  from  the 
United  States,  Nan  placet;  and  even  these  subsequently  expressed  their  full 
submission  to  the  decision  of  the  Council.  In  this  way  a  moral  and  almost  a 
numerical  unanimity  of  those  present  was  secured,  thus  carrying  out  the  rule 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  to  the  effect  that  "m  plena  synodo"  decisions  were  to 
be  passed  ^^vel  ab  omnibus  si  fieri  potest,  vel  a  longe  niajori  pa7'te;"  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  two  voted  nay  proved  that  the  Fathers  enjoyed 
the  fullest  freedom. 

The  Pope,  then  rising,  said:  "The  Decrees  and  Canons,  contained  in  the 
Constitution  just  read,  have  been  received  by  all  the  Fathers,  two  only  excepted ; 


'See  Friedrich,  pp.  263,  264;  and  Friedbcrg,  pp.  622,  623. 


§  4136.   The  Vatican  Council  823 

and  We,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Council,  define  both  one  and  the  other  as 
read,  and  confirm  them  by  our  apostolic  authority."  i 

He  then  went  on  to  speak  as  follows  :  "  The  authority  of  the  Koman  Pontiff, 
great  as  it  is,  Venerable  Brethren,  does  not  oppress,  but  sustains:  does  not  de- 
stroy, but  builds  up;  and  very  frequently  strengthens  and  defends  the  rights 
of  our  Brethren  the  Bishops.  Hence,  let  those  who  now  judge  in  agitation, 
bear  in  mind  that  the  Lord  is  not  in  the  storm.  Let  them  remember  that  only 
a  few  years  ago  they  held  the  opposite  opinion,  and  abounded  in  the  same  belief 
with  Us  and  in  that  of  the  greater  part  of  this  most  august  assembly,  because 
then  they  judged  in  the  spirit  of  'gentle  air.'  .  .  .  We  pray  God  to  illumi- 
nate their  minds  and  hearts,  that  all  may  come  to  the  bosom  of  their  fother, 
the  unworthy  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  on  earth,  who  loves  them  and  desires  to  be 
one  with  them."  ^ 

The  Te  Deum  was  then  sung,  after  which  the  Fourth  Public  Session  of  the 
Vatican  Council  was  closed  with  Pontifical  Benediction.  While  the  voting  was 
going  forward,  a  violent  thunderstorm  was  raging  outside,  which  some  inter- 
preted as  an  articulate  voice  of  divine  anger,  and  others  as  a  heavenly  attesta- 
tion to  the  truth  of  the  dogma,  like  unto  that  which  accompanied  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Law  on  Sinai. 

On  the  day  of  the  holding  of  the  Public  Session  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  Prussia,  and,  as  a  consequence,  Rome  was  menaced.  This  event, 
together  with  the  excessive  heat,  which  was  intolerable  to  many  of  the  bishops, 
reduced  their  number  to  about  two  hundred.  The  General  Congregations  were 
reopened  on  the  13th  of  August,  and  the  Schemata  on  Vacant  Sees  and  on  the 
Life  and  Manners  of  the  Clergy  distributed.  The  work  of  the  Council  was 
shortly  interrupted  by  political  events,  which  followed  each  other  in  rapid  suc- 
cession. During  the  first  days  of  August  the  French  troops  were  withdrawn 
from  Eoman  territory,  and  on  the  20th  of  September  the  Piedmontese  troops 
entered  Rome.  It  being  now  next  to  impossible  for  the  Fathers  to  go  on  with 
their  work,  the  Holy  Father,  by  the  bull  Posiquatn  Dei  munere,  dated  October 
20,  1870,  prorogued  the  Council  until  a  more  seasonable  time.' 


The  day  of  the  promulgation  of  the  decree  of  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope, 
July  18,  coincided  with  the  day  on  which  France  declared  war  against  Prussia. 
The  war  was  one  of  extraordinary  magnitude,  dreadful  catastrophes,  and 
alarming  consequences,  including  the  capture  and  dethronement  of  the  Empe- 
ror Napoleon  III.,  the  destruction  of  the  French  army,  and  the  temporary  par- 
alysis of  France.  The  design  of  seizing  Rome  had  been  long  matured,  and 
Victor  Emmanuel,  who  had  been  up  to  this  moment  restrained  by  the  power 
of  France,  now  proceeded  to  carry  the  design  into  execution.     After  a  short, 


•  Acta  et  Decreta,  pp.  181-187  ;  Ecumenical  Council,  Voices,  No.  10,  pp.  1-17, 
where  the  Constitution  Pater  Aeternus  is  given  in  Latin  and  German  ;  The 
Vatican  Council,  pp.  221-230,  in  Latin  and  English. 

■•i  Acta  et  Decreta,  p.  187;  Ecum.  Council,  No.  10,  p.  101. 

3  Acta  et  Decreta,  pp.  190,  191 ;  Ecum.  Council,  No.  11,  pp.  9-12,  Latin  and 
German  ;  Friedberg,  pp.  623,  624. 


824  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chcrptcr  1. 

but  (jallant  struggle,  the  sinall  po7itifical  army  was  defeated  on  the  20th  of  Sep- 
tember, 1870,  and  Rome  taken  forcible  possession  of  by  the  troops  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy.  No  European  power  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Pope ;  none  oflered  him 
protection;  and  from  that  day  to  this  he  has  been  a  prisoner  within  the  walls 
and  grounds  of  the  Vatican.  He  is  deprived  of  the  freedom  and  independence 
necessary  to  the  exercise  of  the  functions  of  his  high  office  and  indispensable 
to  one  who  is  to  govern  the  Church  in  every  country.  By  the  suppression  of 
the  monasteries  he  has  been  in  a  great  measure  deprived  of  the  valuable  ser- 
vices of  a  large  body  of  learned  and  truly  pious  Eegulars,  whose  assistance  in 
the  various  Congregations  is  so  necessary  to  him  in  the  government  of  th« 
Church.  The  laws  passed  by  the  Italian  Parliament  guaranteeing  his  freedom 
and  independence,  even  allowing  that  there  was  ever  any  honest  intention  of 
carrying-  them  out,  would  be  utterly  inadequate  for  the  purpose  in  a  country 
where  the  government  suffers  itself  to  be  intimidated  by  the  mob. 

Some  of  the  bishops,  on  returning  home  to  their  dioceses,  found  a  few  per- 
sons here  and  there  dissatisfied  with  the  work  of  the  Council,  and  notably  with 
the  decree  of  Infallibility.  It  has  been  said  that  the  definitions  of  the  Council 
caused  these  to  fall  off  from  the  unity  of  the  Church  ;  but,  while  the  definitions 
may  have  been  the  occasion,  they  were  not  the  cause.  The  lives  of  those  who 
did  go  out  from  the  Church  had  been  for  years  a  preparation  for  their  final 
falling  off,  and  the  definitions  of  the  Council  only  afforded  them  a  plausible 
pretext  for  their  action.  As  well  might  it  be  said  that  the  Council  of  Nice  was 
responsible  for  the  eightj^  bishops  that  then  fell  away  from  the  unity  of  the 
Church  under  a  similar  pretext,  and  for  the  large  following  that  they  brought 
with  them ;  or  the  Council  of  Ephesus  for  the  thirty  bishops  that  still  clung  to 
the  Nestorian  heresy  ;  or  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  for  the  schism  of  the  Mo- 
nophysites;  or  the  Council  of  Trent  for  driving  whole  nations  over  to  the  Lu- 
theran heresy.i 

Compared  with  the  multitudes  that  dropped  off  from  the  unitj-  of  the  mys- 
tical vine  on  the  above  occasions,  those  who  left  the  Church  after  the  close  of 
the  Vatican  Council,  or  before  it,  were  only  a  handful,  and  they  separated  for 
precisely  the  same  reason,  because  they  were  not  of  her  fold.  The  same  ex- 
planation may  be  given  of  the  policy  pursued  by  governments.  The}'  rose 
simultaneously  against  the  Church,  were  equally  aggressive  and  malignant,  and 
all  assigned  the  very  same  pretexts  for  their  action.  But  again  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  decree  of  Infallibility  was  only  the  occasion  of  these  attacks.  Their 
hostility  was  not  greater  after  than  it  had  been  before  the  Council,  only  they 
had  now  a  plausible  argument  to  justify  their  corefiuct  before  the  world.''^ 

The  bishops  who  signed  the  Memorial  on  the  17th  of  July  closed  by  saying 
that  they  '■'■vowed  unalterable  fidelity  and  obedience  to  the  Holy  Father."  Ac- 
cordingly, after  their  reUirn  home,  they  at  once  submitted  to  the  decision  of 
the  highest  authority  in  the  Church,  and  set  an  example  to  their  respective 
flocks  by  promptly  and  cheerfully  professing  the  articles  of  faith  as  set  forth 
in  the  decrees  and  canons  of  the  Vatican  Council.     In  this  they  but  did  what 


1  See  Card.  Manning,  1.  c,  pp.  199-202.  (Tr.) 

*  For  numerous  diplomatic  documents  bearing  on  this  question,  see  Friedberg. 
1.  c,  pp.  521-5G9. 


§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council  825 

had  been  done  by  a  still  larger  number  of  bishops,  after  a  long  resistance  to  the 
Fifth  Ecumenical  Council  in  553,  and  by  the  liberal-minded  Cardinal  of  Lor- 
raine on  a  like  occasion.^  Even  those  who  had  questioned  the  seasonableness 
of  the  definition,  including  Bishop  Dupanloup,  and  had  made  that  the  sole 
ground  of  their  opposition,  gave  up  their  own  opinions  after  the  authoritative 
decision  of  the  Council.  In  Germany,  above  all  other  countries,  the  opposition 
to  the  dogma  was  most  marked  and  pronounced;  but  the  excitement  this  oppo 
silion  evoked  did  not  reach  its  full  height  until  Professor  ■uo?*  Ddllwger,  Provost 
of  the  Chapter  of  Munich,  at  one  time  the  most  zealous  and  influential  de- 
fender of  the  Catholic  Church,  published  his  "  Reflections  for  the  Bishops  of  the 
Council  on  the  Question  of  Papal  Infallibility,"  October,  1869;  his  "Analysis 
of  the  New  Order  of  Business  in  the  Council,"  March,  1870;  and  his  "Declara- 
tion to  the  Archbishop  of  Munich,"  March  28,  1871.  In  this  last  publication 
he  said  that  neither  as  a  Christian,  nor  as  a  theologian,  nor  as  an  historian,  nor 
as  a  citizen,  could  he  accept  the  dogma  of  Papal  Infallibility.  These  pubiica- 
tions  were  widely  circulated,  exercised  an  immenpe  influence,  and  brought  out 
numerous  expressions  of  approval  and  sympathy.''^  In  the  midst  of  this  agita- 
tion and  uncertainty  the  German  bishops  assembled  at  Fulda  at  the  end  of 
August,  1870,  and  published  over  all  their  names  a  common  Pastoral  Letter,  in 
which  they  promulgated  the  Decrees  of  the  Vatican,  saying  "  these  decrees 
have  received  a  binding  power  on  all  the  faithful  by  the  fact  of  their  final  pub- 
lication by  the  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  in  solemn  form  at  the  Public 
Session."  ^ 

A  special  letter  was  written  to  the  clergy  of  Eichstiidt  in  May,  1871,  and  sev- 
eral bishops  wrote  pamphlets,  fully  explaining  and  defending  the  Vatican  de- 
crees.*   The  drift  of  these  publications,  whether  of  a  public  or  private  character, 


1  See  Vol.  I.,  pp.  625  sq.;  and  this  Vol.,  p.  362. 

^  Prom  the  very  beginning  the  excitement  was  kept  up  and  intensified  by  the 
numerous  letters  published  in  the  Augsburg  Universal  Gazette  on  the  Roman 
Council;  in  The  Cologne  Weekly;  in  The  Rhenish  Mercury,  specially  founded 
for  the  occasion  in  1869 ;  and  in  Tlie  German  Mercury,  of  Munich,  since  1872. 
The  letters  to  the  Augsburg  Gazette,  in  the  composition  of  which  it  was  not  dif- 
ficult to  discover  the  hand  of  Dr.  DoLl'mger,  were  republished  under  a  new 
form  at  Leipsig  in  1869,  under  the  title  of  "The  Pope  and  the  Council,"  by 
Janus;  and  in  Munich  in  1870,  under  the  title  of  "Roman  Letters  on  the 
Council,"  by  Quirinus.  Bishop  von  Kettler  wrote  a  refutation  of  them,  entitled 
**  The  Utterances  of  the  Roman  Letters  on  the  Council,"  in  the  Augsburg 
Univ.  Gazette,  Mentz,  1870;  and  iZer^ewro^Aer  another,  entitled  "Anti-Janus,  a 
Historico-Apologetical  Criticism  of  Janus;"  and  another,  entitled  "The  Catho. 
lie  Church  and  the  Christian  State,  a  Sequel  to  Anti-Janus,"  Freiburg,  1872. 

5  Ecumenical  Council,  No.  12,  p.  8.  Card.  Manning,  Petri  Privilegium,  Lon- 
don, 1871 ;  Appendix  VII.,  p.  227.  (Tr.) 

^  Bp.  Fessler,  The  True  and  the  False  Infallibility  of  the  Popes,  Vienna, 
1871  ;  transl.  into  French;  Engl,  tr.,  New  York,  1875.  Bp.  voji  Kettcler,  The 
Infallible  Teaching-office  of  the  Pope  according  to  the  Definition  of  the  Vat. 
ican  Council,  Mentz,  1871.  Bp.  Martin,  The  True  Sense  of  the  Vatican  Defi- 
nition on  the  Infallible  Teaching-office  of  the  Pope,  Padcrborn,  1871. 


826  Period  3.     Ej)och  2.     Part  2.     Cha-pter  1. 

•was  substantially  as  follows:  1.  That  Papal  Infallibility  does  not  mean  tha; 
the  Pope  is  impeccable ;  or  that  he  can  not  err  as  a  private  teacher;  or  that  he 
is  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  were  the  prophets  and  apostles ;  but  simply 
that  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  of  teacher  of  the  Universal  Church,  i.  e.,  when 
solemnly  defining  and  promulgating  a  revealed  truth  that  must  be  held  by  all 
(docirina}n — tenoidam  defiiilerit),  he  is  directed  by  a  special  divine  assistance 
(assistentia  divian)  in  such  way  that  he  can  not  fall  into  error.  2.  That  the 
subject-matter  upon  which  the  infallible  teaching-office  of  the  Eoman  Pontiff 
is  to  be  exercised  is  limited  to  faith  and  morals,  as  contained  in  Holy  Writ  and 
Tradition  ;  that  this  infallibility  is  identical  with  that  claimed  and  exercised  by 
the  primitive  Church  in  her  office  of  teacher;  that  it  resides  in  the  Head  of 
the  Church  and  in  the  body  united  with  the  Head;  and  that  it  is  exercised 
through  the  Head,  the  Bishop  of  Eome,  whose  right  it  has  ever  been  to  approve 
the  decrees  of  Ecumenical  Councils.  3.  Finally,  that  therefore  the  claim  to 
appeal  to  an  Ecumenical  Council,  or  to  the  verdict  of  the  Church  dispersed 
over  the  world  from  a  papal  definition,  promulgated  ex  cathedra,  can  not  be  so 
much  as  entertained.  Many  also  laid  stress  upon  the  necessity  of  remaining  in 
the  unity  of  the  Church,  and  upon  the  deplorable  consequences  of  an  opposite 
course.  In  a  pastoral  letter,  published  June  16,  1871,  von  Hefele,  Bishop  of 
Kottenburg,  used  the  following  words  :  "  "While  celebrating  the  Silver  Jubilee 
of  Our  Holy  Father,  Pius  the  Ninth,  we  should  renew  and  strengthen  our  de- 
termination never  to  depart  from  the  Center  of  unity,  and,  despite  the  deplora- 
ble events  taking  place  around  us,  to  cling  only  to  the  Eock  of  Peter,  firm  in 
the  conviction  that  no  danger,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  that  is  sought  to  be 
avoided  by  separation,  is  at  all  comparable  to  the  evil  of  separation  itself.'^ 

It  is  with  sorrow  and  reluctance,  which  no  motive  other  than  the  gravity  of 
our  duty  as  an  historian  could  overcome,  that  we  now  go  on  to  relate  some  of 
the  sad  consequences  that  resulted  from  turning  a  deaf  ear  to  warnings  and  ad- 
monitions like  that  of  the  Bishop  of  Eottenburg.  Men  like  Dr.  Dbllinger  and 
Friedrieh,  of  Munich,  Reusch,  Langen,  Knoodt,  of  Bonn  ;  Reinkens,  of  Breslau; 
and  Michelis,  of  Braunsberg,  who  had  stood  as  priests  at  the  Altar  of  the 
Church,  and  had  been  among  the  ablest  and  most  energetic  defenders  of  her 
doctrines,  cut  themselves  off  from  her  unity  by  their  own  act.'  Since  their  sep- 
aration, as  thej'^  are  frequently  reminded,  they  have  been  maintaining  doctrines 
the  contrary  of  which  they  zealously  professed.  They  who  had  been  models 
of  conduct,  both  as  men  of  honor  and  Christian  gentlemen,  forgot  themselves 
so  far  as  to  abuse  the  sacredness  of  friendship  and  to  make  a  public  use  of  what 
was  intended  to  be  strictly  private  and  confidential.^  Others  again,  on  no  au- 
thority other  than  public  rumor,  revile  persons  high  in  public  esteem,  not  spar- 
ing the  most  exalted  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  and,  while  heaping  contempt  and 
ridicule  upon  those  who  joyfully  accept  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope,  pertina- 
ciously insist  upon  their  own.'  Having  once  been  the  accomplished  champions 
of  the  freedom  and  independence  of  the  Church,  they  now  denounce  her  as 


1  For  the  transactions  of  the  same,  with  their  respective  bishops,  see  Fried 
herg,  1.  c,  pp.  57  sq.,  688  sq. 
'^Conf.  Thiel,  My  Discussion  with  the  Janus-Christian,  Lpsg.  1872. 
3  Foremost  and  extremest  in  this  course  is  the  Rhenish  Mercury. 


§  4136.    The  Vatican  Council.  827 

dangerous  to  the  State,  and  cull  upon  the  Civil  Power  to  resist  her  pretensions. 
xVlthough  not  numerous,  they  are  a  compact  body,  laborious,  active,  and  fiercely 
energetic  ;  and  altliough  before  the  world  so  prominently  and  so  long,  the  world 
is  almost  at  a  loss  how  to  properly  designate  them.  They  have  been  called 
Old  Catholics  and  Protesting  Catholics,  but  it  would  seem  that,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  their  one  characteristic  note  and  distinguishing  feature  is  hostility  to 
the  Pope,  they  would  be  more  appropriately  called  Neo-Jansenists.  Their  just 
claim  to  this  designation  appears  to  be  borne  out  by  facts.  At  the  very  begin° 
ning  of  their  existence  they  made  advances  to  the  Jansenists,  who  were  di aw- 
ing out  a  feeble  existence  in  Holland;  they  invited  the  Jansenistic  bishops  to 
their  Conference  at  Munich;  and  in  July,  1872,  they  called  Loos,  the  Jansen- 
istic Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  to  administer  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  in 
the  newly-formed  Congregations  in  Bavaria.  About  four  hundred  children 
were  confirmed  on  this  occasion,  and  the  archbishop,  who  had  passed  so  many 
years  of  his  official  life  in  obscurity  and  inactivity,  was  not  a  little  flattered  to 
find  himself  called  into  public  notice  by  those  who,  but  a  few  years  ago,  almost 
ignored  his  existence  and  dismissed  his  claims  with  impatient  contempt.  But 
fresh  honors  were  still  in  store  for  him,  and  fresh  proofs  still  forthcoming  of  the 
con-natural  alliance  between  the  dying  sect  and  the  one  just  come  into  exist- 
ence. He  shortly  received  another  invitation  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  epis- 
copal consecration  upon  Prof.  Keinkens,  of  Breslau  ;  but,  after  his  sudden  death, 
this  function  was  performed  by  Bishop  Heykamp  of  Deventer,  at  Eotterdara 
August  11,  1873,  and  a  bishopric  for  the  new  sect  established  at  Bonn. 

Among  the  apostasies  from  the  Catholic  clergy  there  was  not  a  single  bishop; 
and,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  only  very  i(?.\y  jjrlests,  about  forty  in  all, 
throughout  the  whole  of  Bavaria,  the  Lower  Ehine,  Austria,  Silesia,  and  East- 
ern Prussia.  The  following  of  laymen  whom  these  faithless  priests  carried 
with  them  was  comparatively  small,  and  not  distinguished  for  either  earnest- 
ness of  devotion  or  correctness  of  life.  They  find  little  to  edify  them  in  the 
new  worship,  and  will  probably  soon  have  cause  to  regret  a  step  which  they 
took  with  intemperate  baste.  Having  learned  their  mistake,  they  no  doubt 
think  it  a  cruelty  that,  having  rarely  frequented  the  House  of  God  in  their  pre- 
vious lives,  they  must  now,  to  save  appearances,  and  because  they  have  com- 
mitted themselves,  be  seen  regularly  at  the  conventicles  of  men. 

The  conduct  of  Dr.  Schulte,  formerly  Professor  of  Canon  and  German  Law 
at  the  University  of  Prague,  and,  since  his  apostasy,  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Berlin  to  a  professorship  at  the  University  of  Bonn,  is  still  more  in- 
sidious and  dangerous.  All  his  energies  seem  to  be  directed  toward  making 
civil  governments  suspicious  of  papal  infallibility,  by  impressing  upon  the 
minds  of  statesmen  the  idea  that  the  world  is  threatened  with  a  revival  of  papal 
supremacy  in  both  the  temporal  and  spiritual  orders,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  both  the  bishops  and  the  Pope  have  repeatedly  said  that  infallible  ex 
cathedra  utterances  are  limited  to  the  domain  o?  faith  and  morals.  Moreover, 
the  judicial  suzerainty  exercised  by  the  Popes  during  the  Middle  Ages  had  no 
connection  with  the  doctrine  of  infallibility.  It  was  the  Jus  publicum  of  those 
times,  and  rested  upon  the  consent  of  nations  and  their  compacts  with  the 
Church.  Nations  then  were  Christian,  and  they  appealed  in  the  settlement  of 
their  (juarrels  in  the  last  resort  to  him  who  was  at  once  the  Head  of  the  Church 


828  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

and  the  recognized  Father  of  Christendom.  While  the  one  prerogative  is  es- 
sential to  his  office,  and  can  not  be  affected  by  any  change  or  political  combina- 
tion whatever,  the  exercise  of  the  other  is  accidental,  and  must  necessarily  cease 
when  governments  and  nations  cease  to  be  Christian.  And,  in  matter  of  fact, 
the  only  words  addressed  by  Pius  IX.  to  the  French  nation  and  King  William 
of  Prussia,  during  the  late  events  in  which  these  two  countries  have  been  en- 
gaged, were  words  of  human  sympathy  and  Christian  charity.  Hence  the 
Archbishop  of  Tours,  who  was  the  bearer  of  his  message  to  France,  made  use 
of  these  words  :  "  The  Pope  does  not  complain  that  people  no  longer  make  him 
their  judge ;  he  only  claims  the  liberty  of  weeping  over  our  evils  and  the  right 
to  plead  for  the  lives  of  his  sons."  i  Moreover,  the  Pope  has  time  and  again 
declared  that  such  apprehensions  are  entirely  unfounded,  and  that  "  tlie  Papacy 
no  longer  thinks  of  reviving  the  supremacy  exercised  by  it  during  the  Middle 
Ages."  Pius  IX.  even  took  occasion  to  bring  up  this  matter  in  a  public  audi- 
ence of  July  20.  1871,  when  he  spoke  substantially  as  follows  :  It  has  been  at- 
tempted, he  said,  to  falsify  the  idea  of  infollibility,  by  associating  with  it  the 
right  to  depose  princes  and  to  absolve  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance. 
This  right,  he  went  on  to  say,  was  indeed  exercised  in  a  few  extreme  cases,  but 
it  has  no  connection  whatever  with  infallibility.  It  was  a  consequence  of  the 
Jus  publicum  then  in  force  among  Christian  nations,  which  recognized  the  Holy 
See  as  the  supreme  court  of  appeal  for  Christendom,  and  conceded  to  the  Pope 
the  right  to  pass  judgment  upon  princes  and  peoples,  as  well  in  temporal  as  in 
spiritual  affairs.  But  circumstances  are  wholly  changed  now,  and  it  is  simply 
malicious  to  represent  as  applicable  to  the  present  age  a  papal  prerogative, 
which  was  only  possible  under  a  very  exceptionable  state  of  affairs.  There  are 
those  who  desire  me  to  give  a  still  more  precise  explanation  of  the  decree  of 
infallibility,  but  I  do  not  think  it  necessary,  as  the  decree  itself  is  quite  plain 
and  explicit  to  him  who  reads  it  with  an  unbiased  mind.- 

In  France,  the  congenial  home  of  Gallicanism,  there  was,  contrary  to  all  an- 
ticipation, less  agitation  than  in  Germany.  Inasmuch  as  the  Galileans  have 
been  traditionally  averse  to  any  increase  of  papal  power,  and  to  the  centraliza- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  authority  in  Kome,  the  acquiescence  with  which  the  de- 
cree of  infallibility  was  there  received  was  a  surprise  to  every  one;  and  the 
more  so  because  Bishop  Dupinilovj^,  before  setting  out  for  the  Council,  had  pre- 
dicted just  the  contrary.^  He  did  his  best  to  keep  the  question  of  infallibility 
from  being  brought  before  the  Council,  and  by  his  letters  to  Deschamps,  Arch- 
bishop of  Malines,  on  the  same  subject,*  was  mainly  instrumental  in  having 
the  respected  Pere  Gratry  write  and  publish  his  four  Uistorico-dogviatical  Let- 
ters against  papal  infallibility.  What  Pere  Gratry  did  for  the  Archbishop  of 
Malines,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Bishop  of  Orleans,  Maref,  Dean  of  the 
Theological  Faculty  of  Paris  and  titular  Bishop  of  Sura,  did  for  Darboy,  Arch- 


1  Cf.  Fessler,  The  True  and  False  Infallibility. 
*  Pastoral  Papers  of  the  Archdiocese  of  3Iunich,  July  27,  1871. 
s  Cf  Lord  Acton,  The  Vatican  Council,  Germ,  trans.,  by  Dr.  lieisch,  p.  46. 
*The  documents  relative  to  this  and  other  kindred  subjects  may  be  found  in 
Friedberg,  pp.  19-21. 


§  41 -i.   Reviccd  of  Religion — In  Portugal  and  Spain.  829 

bishop  of  Paris.i  Still,  after  the  doctrine  had  been  once  defined  and  promul- 
gated, Archbishop  Darboy,  Bishop  Maret,  and,  shortly  before  his  death,  Pere 
Gratry,  all  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  Council  and  accepted  its  decrees. 
Finally,  Bishop  Dupanloup,  in  a  pastoral  to  his  clergy,  dated  June  29,  1872,  in 
which  he  officially  published  the  Vatican  decrees,  stated  "  that  although  he  had 
opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility  on  the  ground  that  it  was  Inopportune 
t^  proclaim  it,  he  had  never  ceased  to  profess  it."  He  at  the  same  time  desig- 
nated the  errors  of  pantheism  and  materialism  condemned  by  the  Council  as 
the  disgrace  of  the  present  age  and  the  peril  of  the  future.  The  only  notable 
names  of  those  of  the  French  clergy  who  passed  over  to  the  Neo-Jansenist 
party  were  Pere  Hyacinth,  a  Carmelite  friar  ;  Michaud,  Chaplain  of  the  Church 
of  Sainte  Madeleine;  and  Janqua,  an  honorary  Canon  of  Bordtaux.  The  char- 
acters of  all  of  them  are  such  that  it  is  a  charity  to  pass  them  over  in  silence. 

The  opposition  in  Italy  was  led  by  Conte  Giuseppe  Ricciarcli,  who  attempted 
the  foolish  task  of  holding  a  counter-council  simultaneously  with  that  of  the 
Vatican.  By  authority  of  the  Society  of  Freethinkers  of  Milan,  this  pretentious 
synod  was  called  to  assemble  at  Naples,  where,  after  holding  three  sessions,  on 
the  9th,  10th,  and  IGth  of  December,  it  came  to  an  inglorious  end,  without  hav- 
ing accomplished  anything.'^  It  is  but  proper  to  remark,  in  justice  to  this 
august  body,  that  the  delegates  enjoyed  and  exercised  the  fullest  freedom  of 
debate,  and  that,  unlike  the  Fathers  of  the  Vatican  Council,  they  had  no  tyran- 
nical restrictions  placed  upon  their  proceedings.  Pere  Hyacinth  and  the  Ca 
puchin,  Fra  Andrea (TAltaqenajhegan  an  agitation  in  Eome  through  the  press 
and  from  the  pulpit,  and  as  their  friends  in  Germany  courted  an  alliance  with 
the  Jansenists  in  Holland,  so  did  they  and  their  followers  seek  fellowship  with 
the  AValdenses  of  Piedmont. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Vatican  Council  may  be  reopened  at  no  distant  day 
for  the  solution  of  questions  still  in  doubt,  and  to  provide  against  the  dangers 
that  still  menace  the  Church  and  retard  the  conversion  of  souls. 

§  414.  Revival  of  Religion  in  Different  Countries  since  1846 — 
In  Portugal  and  Spain. 

When  the  Head  of  the  Church  is  active  and  energetic,  so 
are  also  the  members.  This  is  analogous  to  what  takes  place 
in  nature,  and  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX.  has  been  a  com- 
plete verification  of  the  principle.  He  has  communicated 
his  own  zeal  to  the  Church  in  nearly  every  country  of  the 
world,  and  the  result  has  been  a  revival  of  religious  Ufe.^     In 


1  Pilre  Gratry,  The  Bishop  of  Orleans  and  the  Archbishop  of  Malines,  being 
four  letters  (in  German,  Miinster,  1870).  See  Fievue  Cath.  de  Louvain,  year 
1870,  p.  193  sq.,  art.  "  De  I'infaillibilite  du  Pape,"  by  J.  B.  Lefebve.  (Tk.)  H.  L. 
C.  Maret,  Du  Concil  general  et  de  la  paix  religieuse,  Paris,  1869,  2  vols. 

2Cf.  Friedbcrg,  Collection  of  Documents,  etc.,  p.  21. 

s  Cf.  {A.  Niedermayer)  Review,  Conflict  and  Growth  of  the  Church  in  Our 


«30  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

no  countries  has  this  revival  been  less  apparent  and  operative 
than  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  owing  chiefly  to  the  civil  strife  and 
party  conflicts  by  which  these  two  kingdoms  have  been  agitated. 

Portugal  has  a  population  of  close  upon  four  millions  of 
Bouls,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  Catholic.  It  is  divided  into 
three  ecclesiastical  provinces,  each  having  an  archbishopric. 
The  Archbishop  of  Lisbon  bears  the  title  of  Patriarch,  and 
the  snflTragan  sees  are  Castelbranco,  Guarda,  Lamego,  Leiria 
and  Portalegre,  together  with  the  bishoprics  of  Angra,  in  Ter- 
iceira,  one  of  the  Azores  ;  Fiinchal,  in  Madeira ;  Santiago,  in  the 
most  considerable  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  ;  St.  Thomas,  in 
the  island  of  the  same  name,  and  Angola,  on  the  Guinea  coast, 
with  the  bishop's  residence  at  Laonda.  The  suflPragan  sees  of 
the  Archbishop  and  Primate  of  Braga  are  Aceiro,  Braganza, 
31iranda,  Coimbra,  Oporto,  Pinhel,  and  Vizeu.  Those  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Evora  are  Beja,  Elvas,  and  Fa.ro.  As  in  other  Cath- 
olic countries,  so  also  in  Portugal,  the  crown  enjoys  the  privi- 
lege of  nominating  to  vacant  sees.  Some  difficulties,  which 
arose  in  1856,  concerning  the  nomination  to  bishoprics  in  the 
East  India  colonies,  w^ere  settled  by  compromise  between  the 
crown  of  Portugal  and  the  Holy  See,  but  the  Portuguese  gov- 
ernment steadily  opposed  all  eflbrts  to  bring  about  a  Concordat. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  1862,  Pius  IX.  sent  a  letter  to  the  bish- 
ops of  Portugal,  in  wiiich  he  pointed  out  the  evils  afflicting 
the  Church  in  that  country,  earnestly  exhorting  them  to  be 
zealous  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  ;  to  watch  carefully 
over  the  manners  of  the  clergy ;  to  maintain  discipline  ;  to 
see  to  it  that  candidates  for  the  priesthood  were  well  educated 
and  properly  trained ;  and  to  allow  no  works  not  approved 
by  the  Church  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  those  studying 
theology.  Their  attention  was  also  called  to  the  necessity  of 
restoring  discipline  in  the  monasteries,  of  looking  after  the 
religious  education  of  the  youth,  and  of  instructing  the  people 
by  word  and  edifying  them  by  example.  In  closing  his  let- 
ter, the  Pope  reproves  the  bishops  of  Portugal  for  not  coming 
to  Home  to  take  part  in  the  solemnities  of  the  canonization 

Day,  being  a  New  Year's  Greeting,  Freibg.  1862.  (Here  and  there  rather  ex« 
nberant.)  Bj*  the  same,  "Ecclesiastical  Review"  in  the  several  numbers  of 
*'T/(e  Catholic"  of  Mentz. 


§  414.   Revival  of  Religion — In  Portugal  and  Spain.     831 


of  June  8,  1862,  and  for  neglecting  to  write  to  apologize  for 
their  absence  and  express  their  sympathy  and  approvah 

The  position  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  of  Portugal,  it  must 
be  said,  is  one  of  extreme  dithculty.  The  government  being 
in  the  hands  of  the  dominant  liberal  party,  is  of  course  hos- 
tile to  the  Church,  and  takes  every  opportunity  to  thwart  her 
interests  and  to  weaken  the  efficiency  of  her  institutions.  Iii 
the  Roman  question  its  sympathies  were  with  the  enemies  of 
the  Holy  See,  and  this  attitude  of  hostility  has  been  strength- 
ened and  confirmed  by  the  murriage  of  the  young  King  Dom 
Lidz  to  a  daughter  of  the  late  Victor  Emmanuel.  The  most 
deplorable  evil  in  the  Church  of  Portugal,  whether  at  home 
or  in  its  dependent  colonies,  appears  to  be  the  urgent  need  of 
priests,  who  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  perform  even  the 
most  necessary  ministrations.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to 
have  laymen  administer  Baptism  and  to  assist  at  the  ceremony 
of  marriage.  Convents  of  men  have  now  wholly  disappeared 
from  the  land,  and  the  same  fate  will  shortly  overtake  those 
of  women,  from  the  fact  that  by  a  law  of  1834  no  more  can- 
didates are  allowed  to  enter  them.  Even  the  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity, who  are  mostly  French,  were  brutally  driven  from  Lisbon 
in  1858,  and  were  forced  to  ask  the  protection  of  France. 

The  Catholic  papers  published  in  Portugal  are  the  following : 
The  JSagao,  at  Lisbon,  the  organ  of  the  Legitimists,  whose 
editor,  Eugenio  de  Locis,  sent  an  address  to  Pius  IX.  in  Oc- 
tober, 1860,  to  which  58,994  signatures  were  attached  ;  the 
Dirito,  at  Oporto  ;  the  Uniao  Catholica  (weekly),  at  Braga ;  the 
Rem  Publico  (weekly)  and  the  Fe  Catholica  (bi-monthly)  at 
Lisbon ;  the  Os  Filhos  de  Maria,  at  Oporto  ;  and  the  Rihlio- 
firaphia  Critica,  a  Portuguese  enterprise,  started  by  A.  Coet/io, 
in  1872.  As  a  rule,  the  editors  of  these  papers  make  a  very  suc- 
cessful stand  against  the  hostile  liberal  press  of  the  country.^ 

Pius  IX.  has  always  taken  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  aifaira 
of  Spain,  and  openly  professed  the  warmest  sympathy  with 
this  eminently  Catholic  nation.  He  sent  thither  a  N"uncio  in 
1847,  mainly  with  a  view  to  filling  the  vacant  episcopal  sees. 
Of  course  there  were  difficulties.  These  were  adjusted  in 
Home  in  1848  ;  but  the  instrument  was  not  ratified  by  Spain 

^Sllsa,  Dicionario  bibliograpliico  Portuguc?,  etc.,  7  vols.,  Lisbon,  1858  sq. 


882  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

until  1859,  after  many  difficulties  bad  beeu  removed,  and  was 
not  formally  made  part  of  the  law  of  the  State  until  tlie  4th 
of  April,  1860.  It  was  then  accepted  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  Concordat  of  1851.  By  the  bull  In  celsissima,  of  Septem- 
ber 26,  1861,  the  Pope  established  bishoprics  at  Viioria,  Ma- 
drid, and  Ciudad  Real ;  raised  Valladolid  to  an  archbishopric; 
and  made  a  new  division  of  the  dioceses  of  Spain.  By  the 
new  arrangement  the  ecclesiastical  province  oi  Burgos  has  six 
suffragan  sees,  Compostella  five,  Granada  five,  ISaragossa  five, 
Seville  four,  Tarragona  seven,  Toledo  six,  Valencia  five,  and 
Valladolid  five.  Apart  from  the  bishops  there  are  about 
40,000  priests  and  sixteen  millions  of  Catholics.  The  parish- 
priests  are  appointed  by  the  Crown,  the  selection  in  each  case 
to  be  made  from  three  candidates  presented  by  the  bishop.  In 
the  appointment  of  bishops  the  Crown  presents  three  candi- 
dates to  the  Pope,  one  of  whom  is  chosen  to  till  the  vacant 
see.  Owing  to  the  secularization  and  confiscation  of  ecclesi- 
astical property  in  Spain,  this  country,  like  Portugal,  has  also 
begun  to  feel  the  need  of  priests,  there  being  on  an  average 
one  parish-priest  and  two  curates  to  every  10,000  souls. 
There  is  also  a  striking  similarity  between  the  policies  of  the 
two  countries  in  their  attitude  toward  the  older  Religious  Or- 
ders, the  Liberals  in  both  kingdoms  being  intensely  hostile  to 
them.  In  1864  there  were,  however,  still  existing  male  con- 
gregations of  Piarists,  Lazarists,  Oratorians,  Recollects,  and 
Jesuits  ;  and  of  the  older  Orders,  Augustinians,  Dominicans, 
and  Discalced  Franciscans.  The  number  of  virgins  conse- 
crated to  God  is  far  greater  and  steadily  on  the  increase, 
wdiereas  the  male  religious  are  rapidly  decreasing.  In  1861 
thers  were  1,746  male  religious  in  Spain,  and  in  1864  this 
nunioer  had  fallen  to  1,258.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number 
of  inclosed  nuns  in  1867,  not  including,  of  course,  2,000  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  was  15,000.  While  it  can  not  be  denied  that 
the  intellectual  culture  of  the  clergy  has  been  far  below  what 
it  should  be,  and  that  the  religious  instruction  of  the  people 
has  been  greatly  neglected,  it  must  also  be  admitted,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  statistics  are  to  count  for  anything,  that  the 
standard  of  morality  is  high  among  all  classes.  The  Span- 
iards, too,  have  at  all  times  been  warmly  attached  to  the  Popo 


§  414.  Revdcal  of  Eeligion — In  Portugal  and  Spain.     833 

.and  loyal  to  the  Holy  See.  There  is  a  remarkable  evidence 
of  this  fidelity  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Spanish  Congress  of 
the  year  1861.  When  the  [lolicy  of  Count  Cavonr  came  up 
for  discussion,  Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  the  President  of  the  Con- 
gress, and  a  pronounced  Liberal,  subjected  it  to  a  most  search- 
ing and  caustic  criticism,  and,  in  a  speech  of  remarkable  elo- 
quence, declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  Temporal  Power  of 
the  Pope. 

Since  the  premature  death  of  the  celebrated  publicist,  Do- 
noso  Cortes,  and  Jam.es  Balmes,  the  great  philosopher  and 
apologist,  few  writers  of  mark  have  appeared  in  Spain. 
Among  the  best  known  are  Fr.  Xav.  Munoz,  author  of  the 
Manuale  Isagoglcam  in  S.  Biblia,  1868  ;  Leo  Carbonero  y  Sol; 
and  the  distinguished  lady  Bohl  de  Faber,  who,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Fernan  Caballero,  published  many  novels  and 
romances,  with  a  view  to  revive  the  religious  aspirations  and 
patriotic  sentiments  of  her  countrymen.  Among  the  numer- 
ous periodicals  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Church  the  fol- 
lowing are  worthy  of  special  mention  :  The  Revue  CathoUque 
.and  Diario,  of  Barcelona ;  the  Epoca  and  Regeneracion,  of 
Madrid  ;  the  Union,  of  Valencia  ;  and  the  series  of  Catholic 
Pamphlets,  the  first  of  which  was  published  in  1848  at  Barce- 
lona. The  association  formed  at  Barcelona  for  the  publica- 
tion of  this  series  had  issued  in  1864  one  hundred  and  fourteen 
larger  works,  eighty  smaller  ones,  and  fifty  pamphlets.  In 
spite  of  the  numerous  pronunciamentos,  the  frequent  revolts, 
and  the  many  ministerial  changes  that  have  of  late  years 
taken  place  in  Spain,  these  publications  have  done  a  vast 
deal  of  good  in  stimulating  and  promoting  Catholic  life 
among  the  people. 

The  progress  of  the  Church  was  materially  retarded  by  the 
revolt  of  the  navy  off  Cadiz  on  the  19th  of  September,  1868, 
and  the  consequent  overthrow  of  the  hereditary  dynasty.  I& 
September,  1869,  during  the  regency  of  Marshal  Serrano,  tht 
Minister  of  Justice  announced  his  intention  of  reducing  the 
number  of  archbishoprics  to  five  and  that  of  bishoprics  to 
thirty-five.  Under  the  elective  King  Amadeus,  sou  of  Victor 
Emmanuel,  King  of  Ital}-,  fresh  changes  were  made  in  the 
VOL.  Ill — 53 


834  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

ministrv,  and  in  1872  a  civil  war  broke  out,  in  which  Don 
Carlos  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  party  opposed  to  the 
existing  government.  Upon  the  abdication  of  Kinir  Amadeus, 
in  March,  1873,  a  Republic  was  proclaimed,  which  struggled 
to  maintain  itself  against  both  ~  he  Carlists  in  the  North  and  tho 
Intraiisigentes  in  the  South,^  until  Alfonso  XIL,  son  of  Isabella 
11.,  having  been  proclaimed  by  the  army  King  of  Spain  (Jan- 
uary, 1875),  the  legitimist  pretender,  Don  Carlos,  was  driven 

into  exile. 

§  415.   In  France. 

Cf.  Napoleon  III.  and  the  Catholic  Church  in  France  {Hisiorico- Political 
Papers,  1861,  in  several  nros.)  '\  Heitinger,  The  Ecclesiastical  and  Social  Con- 
dition of  Paris,  Mentz,  1852.  (This  is  a  silent  refutation  of  the  work  oi  Alban 
Strlz,  entitled  Spanish  Affairs,  in  which  the  author  is  unsparing  in  his  censures 
of  everything  French.) 

There  is  no  Catholic  country  that  possesses  such  a  wealth 
of  ecclesiastical  establishments  and  religious  congregations 
as  France  ;  nor  is  there  any  Catholic  country  that  at  all  ap- 
proaches her  for  the  number  and  importance  of  the  religious 
enterprises  she  sets  on  foot  and  carries  into  execution.  The 
political  events  that  took  place  there  in  1848  were  not  with- 
out their  influence  upon  the  Church.  First  of  all,  the  Re- 
public, under  the  presidency  of  Louis  Napoleon,  by  a  law  of 
March  27,  1850,  regulating  Pvhlic  Instruclion,  abolished  the 
monopoly  of  education  enjoyed  by  the  French  University,  and 
through  the  persevering  efibrts  of  M.  de  Falloux  and  his 
friend.  Count  de  Montalembert,  granted  liberty  of  teaching. 
Next,  when  the  Republic  was  overthrown  and  the  Empire  set 
up  in  its  room,  December  2,  1852,  Louis  Napoleon,  who  be- 
came its  first  Emperor,  under  the  title  of  Napoleon  III.,  with- 
out abolishing  the  Organic  Laws,^  allowed  the  Church  a  fair 
field  and  unrestrained  freedom  of  action.  The  Pantheon, 
around  which  cluster  so  many  memories,  was  restored  to  its 
original  purpose,  and,  under  the  patronage  of  Ste.  Genevieve, 
became  a  favorite  place  of  religious  worship.  His  zeal  in 
promoting  the  interests  of  the  Church  was  also  manifest  in 

1  Victor  Cherbuliez.  I'Espagne  politique  (1868-1873),  Paris,  1874.    See  Archives 
of  Catholic  Canon  Law,  Vol.  28,  p.  172,  and  Vol.  29,  p.  30. 
*See  p.  G.j7  sq. 


§  415.  In  France.  83a 


the  provision?  he  made  for  building  new  churches  and  restor- 
ing those  that  were  going  to  decay.  The  church  of  St.  Clo- 
tilde,  at  Paris,  built  in  the  Gothic  style,  was  wholly  his  work. 
Among  those  restored  by  him  were  ISTotre  Dame  and  St. 
Denys  at  Paris,  and  others  at  Tours,  Rheims,  Amiens,  Char- 
tres,  Sens,  Poitiers,  and  in  other  cities  of  France.  At  his 
suggestion,  new  bishoprics  were  established  in  France  and 
Algiers,  and  proper  religious  ministrations  provided  for  the 
army.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  about  the  year  1860,  his  atti- 
tude toward  the  Pope  gave  fise  to  grave  suspicions,  which 
were  shown  by  subsequent  events  to  have  been  well  founded  ; 
for  the  French  army,  which  had  been  provided  for  the  Pope's 
protection  in  1849,  was  virtually  withdrawn  in  1866.  Louis 
Veuillot  and  others  of  the  Univers  school,  who,  together  with 
the  great  majority  of  the  clergy,  had  given  their  unqualified 
support  to  the  Emperor  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1852,  began 
now  to  take  alarm  and  to  give  expression  to  their  apprehen- 
sions. The  Liberal  Party,  under  the  lead  of  Montalembert, 
Lenormand,  Cochin,  de  Broglie,  Foisset,  and  the  other  writers 
on  the  stafl'  of  the  Corres'pondant  newspaper,  had  declined 
from  the  very  outset  to  give  any  sort  of  sanction  to  what  they 
designated  the  "  successful  crime."  Poujoulat,  Capefigue,Lau- 
rentie,  Henri  de  Riancey,  and  notably  ^e>T?/er,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Legitimist  Party,  w^ere  still  more  emphatic  and 
outspoken  in  their  opposition  to  the  new  Empire. 

Amid  all  these  religious  and  political  changes  France  still 
continued  to  be  an  object  of  special  solicitude  to  Pius  IX.  In 
an  allocution,  delivered  September  11,  1848,  he  deplored  the 
death  of  Denys  d'Affre,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  was  killed 
on  the  barricades,  vainly  attempting  to  prevent  the  effusion 
of  blood  and  to  restore  peace.  In  a  brief,  dated  March  21, 
1853,  he  praised  the  French  bishops  for  their  zeal  in  holding 
provincial  councils,  restoring  the  Roman  Liturgy  in  their  dio- 
ceses, and  for  their  devotion  to  the  Holy  See.  By  the  bull 
Ubi  yrimam,  of  January  5th,  he  raised  the  see  of  Rennes  to 
the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  with  Quimper,  Vannes,  and  St. 
Brieux  as  its  suffragans.  New  sees  were  established  at  Laval 
and  Reunion,  and  in  1866  Algiers  was  raised  to  un  archbish- 
opric, having  for  its  suffragans  Oran  and  Constantine.  By  tho 
accession  of  Nizza  and  Savoy  to  the  Empire,  the  archbish- 


836  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

opric  of  Chambferyand  its  three  suffragan  sees,  together  with 
the  exempt  see  of  ISTizza,  became  part  of  the  Church  of  France, 
in  which  there  are  at  present  seventeen  ecclesiastical  prov* 
inces  and  thirty-six  millions  of  Catholics.  The  bishops  as  a 
body  are  most  Avorth}'  men,  wonderfully  energetic,  and  many 
of  them  are  gifted  with  splendid  mental  endowments  and 
distinguished  for  their  learning,  their  eloquence,  and  their 
firmness  of  character,  Gallicanism,  which,  during  the  days 
of  the  July  government,  showed  so  many  portentous  signs 
of  returning  life,  has  become  nearly,  if  not  quite  extinct. 
Laboring  by  the  side  of  the  bishops  is  a  body  of  clergy  re- 
markable for  the  purity  of  their  lives,  the  dignity  of  their 
manners,  and  their  zeal  in  saving  souls.  They  are  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  people,  which  is  the  very  best  proof  that  they 
deserve  to  be  so. 

The  Religious  of  both  sexes  zealously  at  work  in  France 
are  very  numerous.  Putting  aside  the  many  communities  of 
women,  the  Benedictines,  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  Capuchins, 
Carthusians,  and  Trappists,  among  the  greater  Orders,  have 
establishments  in  the  country.  The  religious  Congregations 
of  men,  to  some  of  which  the  State  has  given  its  approval, 
are  still  more  numerous.  Of  these  it  will  be  sufficient  to  name 
the  Lazarists,  Sulpicians,  and  Christian  Brothers.  In  the 
year  1854,  243,699  pupils  attended  the  schools  under  the  care 
of  the  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine,  and  77,600  the  schools 
in  charge  of  other  communities  of  Brothers;  and  in  the  in- 
terval between  1854  and  1866  the  number  of  their  schools  had 
increased  500.  In  1860,  previously  to  the  anjiexation  of  Sa- 
voy, there  were  in  France  2,972  houses  of  female  Religious. 
Of  these  the  inmates  of  553  were  entirely  devoted  to  the  ed- 
ucation of  youth  ;  of  302  entirely  to  the  care  of  the  sick  ;  of 
2,101  to  both  these  offices  combined  ;  and  of  16  to  contempla-// 
tion  and  the  perpetual  adoration  of  God  in  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. Close  upon  two-thirds  of  the  girls  of  France  are  edu- 
cated by  Sisters  of  various  Orders,  a  fact  which  will  account 
for  the  appreciation  which  is  there  put  upon  Christian  home 
life.  The  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Augustinian  and 
UrsuUne  Nmis,  have  earned  an  enviable  reputation  as  teachers 
in  the  hiijher  branches  of  female  education.     Much  has  been 


§  415.   In  France.  837 


done  to  preserve  a  high  standard  of  Christian  morality  among 
the  people  by  the  Society  of  !St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  This  society 
is  under  the  supervision  of  a  president,  resident  at  Paris,  and 
has  affiliated  conferences  in  all  the  cities  of  France  and  in 
some  of  the  more  important  towns,^ 

The  Society  of  St.  Francis  Regis  has  also  done  an  immense 
deal  of  good.  Its  object  is  to  unite  those  living  in  concubin- 
age in  lawful  marriage,  to  secure  them  as  man  and  wife  their 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  rights,  to  legitimate  their  children,  to 
restore  to  them  those  that  had  been  placed  in  a  foundling- 
house,  and,  by  thus  placing  them  on  a  proper  footing  in  both 
Church  and  State  and  reconciling  them  to  their  families,  save 
them  from  utter  ruin  and  make  them  useful  members  of  soci- 
ety. Akin  to  this  is  the  Society  for  the  Protection,  of  Unfortu- 
nate Yomifi  Girls.,  whose  virtue  is  exposed  to  special  tempta- 
tion. To  those  who  live  at  a  distance  this  society  supplies 
the  means  to  enable  them  to  return  to  their  homes.  To  re- 
claim those  who  have  fallen  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
and  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  spare  neither  labor  nor  per- 
sonal sacrifice. 

The  various  Congregations  and  Associations,  the  sole  aim 
of  whose  members  is  to  give  themselves  up  to  works  of  Chris- 
tian charity,  have  a  special  claim  on  our  sympathy  and  admi- 
ration. Foremost  among  these,  everywhere  and  at  all  times 
since  their  institution,  have  stood  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  of  St. 
Charles  Borromeo,  and  of  *S^^.  Vincent  de  Paul.  These  are  to 
be  found  wherever  the  sick  are  to  be  ministered  unto,  the  sor- 
rowful to  be  comforted,  or  the  needy  to  be  relieved.  In  the 
war.  of  the  Crimea,  in  the  wars  in  Italy,  Mexico,  and  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  late  Franco-Prussian  war,  they  won 
the  admiration  and  gratitude  of  all  by  their  deeds  of  heroic 
charity.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  established  at 
Nancy,  have  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  been  doing  a 
world  of  good  in  ministering  to  the  wants  of  the  poor  Ger- 
mans of  Paris.^  The  work-houses  for  criminals  are  under  the 
care  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Ghost;    the  Brothers  of  St, 


1  See  p.  400. 

'A.  Niedermayer,  The  Germans  of  Paris,  Freiburg,  1862. 


838  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1, 


Gabriel  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb  ;  and  abandoned  or  lost 
children  are  sought  out  and  provided  for  by  the  Brothers  of 
St.  Joseph.  Blind  children  are  educated  by  the  Sisters  of  St 
Paul,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  themselves  blind  ;  and  the  labors 
of  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth  and  Bethlehem  extend  to  the  holy 
places  whence  they  take  their  names.  The  special  object  of 
the  Confiregation  of  the  Brothers  of  St.  Vincevt  de  Paul,  recently 
founded,  is  to  promote  the  religious  observance  of  Sundays, 
but  also  to  take  charge  of  orphan  boys.  The  object  of  the 
Society  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  founded  by  Bishop  Janson,  of 
Nancy,  is  to  provide  means  to  rescue  children  exposed  in 
China,  to  baptize  them,  and,  in  case  of  death,  to  bury  them 
as  Christians.  Baron  Conchy  founded  the  Schools  of  the 
Orient,  into  which  children,  lost  or  abandoned  by  their  parents 
in  Mohammedan  countries,  are  gathered  and  cared  for.  In 
striking  contrast  with  these  splendid  achievements  inspired 
by  faith,  with  these  sublime  manifestations  of  Catholic  life, 
with  these  magnificent  witnesses  of  the  charity  of  which 
Paris  possesses  such  a  wealth,  are  the  demoralization,  the  fri- 
volity, the  impiety,  which  one  meets  with  in  nearly  every 
walk  of  life  in  their  most  repulsive  forms.  Whether  in  good 
deeds  or  evil  France  is  equally  great.  While  the  Catholic  is 
disposed  to  look  at  her  fairer  and  better  side,  and  to  describe 
with  pardonable  enthusiasm  the  marvelous  creations  of  the 
religious  zeal  and  charity  of  her  true  sons,^  tourists  and  novel- 
writers,  more  frivolous  than  the  most  frivolous  of  the  French, 
take  a  cynical  delight  in  exposing  vice  and  scandal,  which 
they  have  been  at  pains  to  seek  out ;  and,  after  dressing  them 
up  in  all  the  circumstance  of  detail  with  a  wealth  and  rich- 
ness of  imagery  and  a  copiousness  and  beauty  of  diction 
worthy  a  higher  theme,  they  send  them  forth  into  the  world 
us  the  "  Mysteries  of  the  Modern  Babylon." 

But  France  was  not  content  with  having  prosperous  and 
beneficent  associations  within  the  limits  of  her  own  territoiv. 
Her  great  people  desired  the  conversion  of  idolatrous  nations, 
and  for  this  purpose  they  gave  generously  of  their  blood 
and  treasure.     The  Missionary  Society  of  Lyons  collects  four 


»Cf.  Hettinger,  letter  10,  pp.  167  sq. 


415.   In  France.  839 


millions  of  francs  annually  in  France  alone  for  tlie  support  of 
the  foreign  missions,  and  sends  forth  of  the  sons  of  France 
more  missionaries  than  do  all  the  other  nations  of  Europe 
put  together. 

l)uring  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX.  great  advances  have 
been  made  in  the  scientific  treatment  of  religious  truths. 
Among  those  who  have  been  conspicuous  in  this  field  are  the 
learned  and  eloquent  pulpit  orators  Bautain,  Lacordaire,  0.  P., 
and  Ravujnan,  S.  J.,  who  labored  with  a  large  measure  of 
success  to  lead  the  minds  of  men  back  to  Catholic  teaching, 
and  to  demonstrate  that  every  high  and  noble  aspiration  of 
the  age,  whether  as  regards  liberty,  or  science,  or  art,  or  so- 
cial reforms,  or  the  regeneration  of  Europe,  could  be  realized 
and  made  enduring  by  and  through  the  Church  and  in  no 
other  way.  They  were  followed  in  the  same  line  of  argument 
by  Felix,  S.  J.;  Mivjard ;  and  the  ex-Carmelite,  Hyacinth. 
There  were  also  many  bishops  distinguished  for  pulpit  elo- 
quence, of  whom  the  best  known  are  Diipanloup,  Bishop  of 
Orleans;  Pz'e,  Bishop  of  Poitiers ;  and  LandrSot,  Avahhi^ho^ 
of  Rheinis.  Among  the  other  important  names  in  religious 
literature  are  those  of  Abbe  Segur ;  Nicolas,'^  the  jurist;  Keller,^ 
a  deputy  from  Alsace ;  and  Guizot,  the  Protestant  Minister 
of  Louis  Philippe,  whose  Meditations  chretienves  and  VEglise 
et  la  societe  chretienne  exercised  a  wide  and  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  minds  of  the  better  classes. 

The  aim  of  M.  JRenan,  the  Oriental  scholar,  is  directly  an-  , 
tagonistic  to  that  of  the  authors  just  quoted.  In  his  Life  of 
Jesus,  his  AjJostles,  his  St.  Paul,  his  Antichrist,  and  his  recently 
published  Gospels,  all  being  contributions  to  his  History  of  the 
Origins  of  Christianity,^  he  has  renewed  the  oft-repeated  at- 
tempt to  strip  Christianity  of  its  supernatural  character,  its 
Founder  of  His  divinity,  and  the  'Sew  Testament  miracles  of 
their  claims  to  credibility.  Many  able  apologists  at  once  came 
forward  to  dofouM  rlio  priiu-iiilcs  and  the  facts  that  form  the 
groundwork  of  their  faith.    They  were  not  long  in  dissipating 


1  Nicolas,  Etudes  sur  le  (iliristianisme. 

i  Keller.  I'Eglise  et   les  principes  de  1789;    Church,  State,  and  Liberty  (in 
Germ.),  Mcntz,  186G. 
3  See  the  Nation  of  Sept.  '20.  1877.    (Tk.) 


840  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

the  illusive  charm  which  the  Eastern  dreamer  had  thrown 
about  his  sentimental  and  blasphemous  works.  The  Abb6, 
now  Bishop,  Freppel;  Pere  Gratry ;  Archbishop  Darboy,  of 
'  Paris  ;  Bisliop  3hignan,  of  Chalons  ;  and  Pressense,  a  Protest- 
ant theologian,  were  among  the  most  eminent  of  Renan's  op- 
ponents. In  the  French  Senate,  Marshal  Canrobert  stated  that 
he  hoped  no  one  of  that  body  would  express  the  slightest 
sympathy  with  one  who  had  dared  to  deny  the  divinity  of 
Christ  and  proclaim  himself  the  uncompromising  enemy  of 
the  faith  of  their  fathers,  which  has  been  at  all  times  the  re- 
ligion of  the  great  bulk  of  the  French  people.  For  himself, 
he  said,  he  formally  protested  against  so  wicked  a  doctrine. 

The  necessity  of  making  lohilosopldcal  studies  more  severely 
methodical  was  now  generally  conceded  ;  and,  after  the  pub- 
lication of  the  works  of  Bautain,  Bonald,  and  Bonnett}',  none 
of  which  exercised  any  decisive  influence  on  public  thought, 
P^re  Gratry  published  his  writings  on  the  same  suhjects.^  But 
even  he  was  not  entirely  successful  in  separating  the  theolog- 
ical from  the  strictly  philosophical.  One  gain,  however,  had 
been  made :  the  7raditioncdism  introduced  by  Lamennais,  and 
supported  in  a  modified  form  by  Bautain,  Bonnetty,  and  P^re 
Chastel,  S.  J.,  became  virtually  extinct.  In  the  study  of  the- 
ology,  many,  following  the  example  of  Lacordaire,  took  as  their 
author  St,  Thomas  ;  while  others,  like  Ginoulliac,  studied  still 
more  ancient  writers.  Great  progress  was  made  m  the  study 
of  moral  theology  by  Carriere,  the  Superior  of  St.  Sulpice ;. 
Cardinal  Gousset;  and  Father  Gury,  S.  J.^  Taking  Liguori 
for  their  guide,  they  broke  through  the  tyranny  of  Jansenistic 
rigorism  so  prevalent  in  France  ever  since  its  origin  down  al- 
most to  our  own  days.  Bouix^  wrote  on  Canon  Law;  and 
Uohrbacher,  Blanc,  Darras,  Benier,  and  others  on  general 
Church  history.     Some  excellent  monographies,  treating  of 

1  His  philjsophical  writings  are  :  1.  0?i  the  Knowledge  of  the  Soul;  2.  On  the 
Knowledge  of  God;  3.  Un  the  Knowledge  of  Man,  confiidered  in  his  Intellectual 
End-jwments      (Transl.  into  Germ,  by  Dr.  Phalilcr,  Katisbon,  6  vols.) 

2  Vie  du  Pere  J.  P.  Gury,  Paris  and  Lyons,  1807.  (Tr.) 

'  De  principiis  juris  canonici,  Paris,  1852.  He  has  also  written  tracts,  De 
Episcopo,  De  Capitulis,  De  Jure  Regularium,  and  other  subjects;  and  P,eva» 
des  Sciences  ecclesiastiques. 


§415.   In  France.  841 


particular  periods  and  persons,  ecclesiastical  institutions  and 
countries,  were  written  by  Gorini,^  Povjoulat,  Colombet,  Rochel, 
Ratisbonne,  Davin,  Castan,  Samon,  Jager,  Monfalembert,  Cre- 
tineau-Joly,  Albert  cle  Broglie,  Cwpefi.gue,  Prut,  and  Dom.  Piolin, 
In  exegetics  and  the  study  of  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek 
texts  much  was  accomplished  by  Pere  de  Valrogcr^  and  P^re 
Gratry^  le  Hir,  Professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  J.  B.  Glaire* 
Barges,  Garnet,^  and  Bishop  31eignan,^  the  last  named  being 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  Biblical  literature  of  Germany. 
To  the  energy,  courage,  and  indomitable  perseverance  of  the 
Abb6  ifligne,  Catholics  are  indebted  for  a  complete  edition  of 
the  works  of  the  Latin  Fathers  of  the  Church  down  to  Inno- 
cent III.  (1215),  in  217  vols.,  quarto  ;  and  of  the  Greek  Fath- 
ers, down  to  the  sixteenth  century,  in  162  vols.  Although 
these  editions  are  not  quite  satisfactory  in  textual  accuracy, 
they  have,  nevertheless,  been  of  great  service  in  facilitating 
the  study  of  ecclesiastical  literature.^  The  edition  of  the 
works  of  St.  Basil,  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Ambrose,  and  St.  Au- 
gustine, published  by  the  Gaume  Bros.,  after  the  text  of  the 
Benedictine  editions,  are  open  to  the  same  objection.  It  must 
be  added,  however,  that  the  Spicilegium  Solesmensc  (4  vols.) 
and  the  Jus  Graecum  (2  vols.)  of  the  Benedictine,  Dom  Pitra, 
are  of  unusual  merit,  and  like  praise  may  be  given  to  other 
works  of  the  Reformed  Congregation  of  Benedictines,  as,  for 
example,  Origines  de  UEglise  de  Rome  and  the  liturgical  writ- 
ings of  Dom  Gueranger.  Caillau  and  Guillon,  Bishop  Cruice 
of  Marseilles,  Abbe  Frcppcl,  and  Dr.  Nolle,  a  German  by  birth, 
were  all  successful  and  learned  patristic  students  ;  while  Ville- 
main  and  Charpentier  contributed  by  their  writings  to  diltuse 
a  taste  for  a  study  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  Gallia 
Christiana  and  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  works  begun  in 


1  Defense  de  I'eglise,  4  vols. 

2  Introduction  aux  liveres  du  N.  T. 
^  Commentaires  sur  St.  ]\Iatthieu. 

*  Intrcduction  hist,  et  crit.  de  I'ancien  et  nouveau  Test, 
^  Histoire  de  I'ancien  et  du  nouveau  Test. 
*Les  prophetios  messianiques. 

^  Migne's  publications  are  discussed  in  detail  in  the  art.  of  Hergenroiher,  in 
Ucusch's  Periodical  of  Theolog.  Literat.,  18G7,  Nos.  10  and  13. 


842  Period  3.     Mpoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

the  last  century  by  the  Benedictines,  and  left  ofi"  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Revolution,  were  again  taken  up  and  continued 
by  the  members  of  the  same  Order  in  the  present  century. 
Victor  Palme  has  published  a  splendid  edition  of  the  Lives  of 
the  Saints  by  the  Bollandists,  more  than  sixty  volumes,  folio, 
having  already  appeared.  A  powerful  stimulus  was  given  to 
the  study  of  the  Christian  Middle  Ages  by  the  ^cole  des 
diaries  and  the  Bibliotheque  de  Vecole  des  chartes,  edited  by  de 
Wailly,  Delisle,  Quicherat,  Boutaric,  and  others. 

In  Christian  antiquities  much  of  an  important  character  was 
accomplished  hy  Raoul-Roehette,  Charles  and  Francis  Lenor- 
mand,  Coc,  Greppe,  Labus,  Perret,^  Martigny,^  and  Didron  ;' 
Texier,  Renier,  and  particularly  Le  Plant,  gained  eminence 
in  the  study  of  Christian  epigraphies;  and  for  their  histories  of 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting,  Gailhabaud  and  Cahours, 
Jesuits,  and  de  Camnont,  Rio,^  and  Viollet-le-duc  acquired  some 
celebrity.  The  last  named  was  a  warm  advocate  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Finally,  Lambillotte  labored  earnestly  to  promote 
the  study  of  church  nmsic. 

There  are  French  periodicals  representing  nearly  every 
branch  of  ecclesiastical  science.  Etudes  religieuses,  historiques 
et  litteraires  was  founded  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  Daniel  and 
Gagarin,  and,  until  the  close  of  1871,  edited  by  de  Buck,  a  Bel- 
gian, and  one  of  the  ablest  men  in  the  Society.  There  were  also 
the  Revue  des  sciences  ecclesiastiques  and  the  Correspondant,  the 
latter  under  the  direction  of  Count  Montalembert  (flSTO). 
Of  the  \)Voiiessed\y  political  journals,  those  most  zealous  in  the 
Catholic  cause  are  Le  Monde,  founded  in  1860  ;  Z/'  Union,  ed- 
ited by  Laurentie,  Henri  de  Riancey,  his  brother  Charles,  lately 
dead,  and  Poujoulat ;  the  Journal  des  villes  et  Campagnes  and 
U  Univers,  which  was  suppressed  in  1860,  and  superseded  by 
Le  3Ionde,  but  again  appeared  in  1867,  under  the  editorial 
management  of  Louis  Veuillot,  who  is  also  the  author  of  Les 
Parfums  de  Rorne ;  and  the  lately  suspended  Revue  Catholique  dc 

'  Catacombes  do  Eome,  6  vols.,  large  fol.,  with  many  colored  lithographs  and 
fac-similes  of  Christian  inscriptions.  (Tr.) 
^  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  chr6tiennes. 

*  Annales  archeologiques. 

*  De  I'Art  chretien. 


§  416.  Ill  Bebjiam  and  Holland.  843 

V Alsace.  MontaUmbert,  in  speaking  of  the  death  of  Lacor- 
daire,  represented  his  dead  friend  as  believing  that  both  the 
Civiltci  CattoHca  and  L'Urdvers  were  too  mediaeval  in  their 
tendencies,  a  charge  which  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  under- 
stand. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  1872,  Pins  IX.  i-eproved  all  editora 
who,  in  their  ardent  advocacy  of  a  cause,  forgot  the  laws  of 
charity. 

§416.  In  Belgium  and.  Hollaiid., 

Belgium,  which  is  French  in  language  and  character,  is  also 
French  in  its  manifestations  of  religious  life.  Like  France, 
Belgium  has  a  wealth  of  charitable  associations,  possesses  a 
large  number  of  religious  houses,  and  contributes  abundantly 
to  the  work  of  the  foreign  missions.  In  1829  there  were  in  the 
country  280  houses  of  Religious;  in  1846  the  number  had  in- 
creased to  779,  and  since  then  it  has  been  considerably  aug- 
mented. As  in  France,  so  also  in  Belgium,  there  exists,  side 
by  side  with  the  most  cheering  evidences  of  a  healthy  relig- 
ious life,  indubitable  signs  of  a  corruption  as  deep  and  repul- 
sive as  it  could  well  be.  These  are  visible  in  the  license  of 
the  press  ;  in  au  intemperate  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
to  priests  and  to  Religious;  and  in  an  avowed  purpose  to 
overturn  the  Church  and  clear  the  country  of  the  last  rem- 
nant of  Christianity.  Such  was  the  diabolical  spirit  that 
actuated  the  so-called  Liberals,  the  four  thousand  Freemasons, 
and  the  sect  of  the  Solidaires,  when  they  pledged  themselves 
as  a  body  and  individually  not  to  call  a  priest  to  their  bedside 
when  dying,  nor  to  permit  one  to  be  called  to  any  of  their 
associates.  In  a  congress  held  at  Liege  in  1866,  mainly  com- 
posed of  students,  they  professed  the  grossest  atheism,  natu- 
ralism, and  communism.  These  professions  were  so  alarming 
that  the  French  government  thought  it  worth  while  to  take 
measures  against  such  of  its  subjects  as  participated  in  the 
congress. 

In  1857,  oil  the  occasion  of  the  passage  of  the  law  relative 
to  charitable  institutions,^  the  mob,  incited  by  the  attacks  of  the 


'  Freibury  Eccl.  Gazette,  year  1857,  nros.  5  and  6. 


844  Period  3.     Ej,och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

liberal  press,  committed  deeds  of  scandalous  violence  against 
churches  and  the  houses  of  Religious.  These  excesses  were 
again  on  the  point  of  breaking  out  in  1864,  after  the  notorious 
i(e  Buck  lawsuit,'^  but  were  prevented  by  the  decision  and  en^ 
ergy  of  the  magistracy.  At  a  time  when  every  othei  class  of 
citizens  were  coerced  on  account  of  their  religion,  the  Free- 
masons enjoyed  the  fullest  liberty,  and  might  hold  public 
meetings  and  march  in  procession  through  the  streets  without 
hindrance.  As  is  usual,  however,  the  Jesuits  were  the  first  to 
feel  the  effects  of  these  revolutionary  outbreaks.  In  the 
twelve  colleges  under  their  charge  they  were  educating  two 
thousand  young  men  belonging  to  the  better  families  of  the 
country.  This  it  was  that  gave  offense  at  the  Lodges,  whose 
aim  is  "  to  destroy  Catholicity  and  to  extinguish  the  very  idea  of 
Christianity"  and  whose  members  are  under  oath  "  to  jmrsue 
kings  and  religious  charlatans  with  a  never-ending  hatred,  as 
the  ptsts  of  society  and  the  world."  But  Belgium  is  not 
wholly  composed  of  enemies  of  the  Church  and  disturbers  of 
the  public  peace  ;  her  population  is  essentially  conservative 
and  religious.  Their  faith  is  kept  strong  and  vigorous,  and 
their  good  works  are  directed  and  encouraged  by  an  exem- 
plary and  active  priesthood  and  by  a  prosperous  regular 
clergy  of  exceptional  zeal.  Here  as  elsewhere  the  pious  and 
noble  congregations  of  women  are  numerous  and  flourishing. 
In  the  Chambers  the  Catholic  party  is  fully  the  equal  of  the 
Liberal  party  in  both  numbers  and  ability  ;  and  a  well  organ- 
ized Catholic  press,  of  exceptional  energy  and  talent,  opposes 
successfully  the  assaults  of  the  licentious  press  of  the  Liberals. 
Among  the  ablest  conducted  journals  on  the  Catholic  side  are 
the  Journal  de  Bruxelles,  the  Journal  d'Anvers,  the  Patrie  of 
Bruges,  the  Bien  public  of  Ghent,  the  Moniteur  of  Louvain, 
UAmi  de  V  Ordre  of  Naniur,  Le  Courrier  de  la  Sambre,  U  Union 
de  Charleroy,  Le  Nouvelliste  de  Verviers,  etc. 

The  University  of  Louvain  holds  the  first  place  among  the 
Catholic  educational  establishments  of  Belgium.  Its  histoiy  haa 
been  one  of  uninterrupted  success.     When  opened  in  1835  it 


^  The  de  Buck  Lawsuit  at   Brussels  before  the  Tribunal  of  Truth,  2d  ed, 
Freiburg,  1865. 


§  416.    In  Belgium  and  Holland.  845 

had  an  attendance  of  eighty-six  students.  This  number  has 
been  increasing  under  the  successive  rectors — de  Ram,  who 
died  in  1865;  LafovU,  who  died  in  1871;  and  Nameche,\\iQ 
present  incumbent — the  total  number  attending  all  the  "  fac- 
ulties" being  now  about  eight  hundred.  Its  course  of  scien- 
tific studies  is  published  annually  in  the  University  report,' 
and  the  best  productions  of  its  professors  are  given  to  the 
world  in  the  Revue  Catholique  de  Louvain. 

A  fresh  impulse  was  given  to  religious  life  in  Belgium  by 
the  Catholic  Congress  of  Malines,  tirst  held  in  1863.  There 
were  about  4,000  persons  present,  representing  every  class  of 
society  and  various  nationalities.  There  were  representatives 
there  from  France  and  Spain,  from  Portugal  and  England, 
and  from  Germany  and  the  United  States.^  Although  pri- 
marily intended  to  be  a  Congress  <jf  laymen,  many  priests  and 
bishops  participated  in  the  proceedings,  to  which  a  special 
signiiicance  was  given  by  the  able  speeches  of  Bishop  Dwpan- 
loup,  Cardinal  Wiseman,  and  Count  Monialembert,  on  religious 
liberty.  Science,  art,  charities,  and  popular  education  were 
discussed  in  special  Committees ;  but  the  subject  of  the  ^^  daily 
press,"  which  has  become  one  of  such  vital  importance  to  Catho- 
lics, excited  more  interest  and  claimed  a  larger  share  of  atten- 
tion than  any  other  question.  These  Congresses,  if  continued, 
will  tend  to  organize  the  Catholics  of  Belgium,  and  will  en- 
able them  to  provide  against  threatened  dangers  in  both 
Church  and  State. 

The  progress  of  Catholicity  in  Holland,  though  more  silent, 
is  not  less  real  and  solid  than  in  Belgium.  The  restoration  of 
the  hierarchy  in  1853  by  Pius  IX.,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances 
and  indignant  protests  of  the  Calvinists  and  Jansenists,  put 
fresh  life  and  vigor  into  the  Church  and  Catholics  of  that 
country.  The  opposition  to  this  measure  was  so  bitter  and 
persistent  that  the  government  instructed  its  embassador  at 
Rome  to   use  his  influence  to  have  the  act  revoked.     The 


1  Lannuaire  de  I'universUe  catholique  contains,  beside  a  schema  of  the  course 
of  studies,  statistics  concerning  professors  and  students,  promotions  made,  obit- 
uaries of  deceased  members  of  the  Faculties,  etc. 

'^A.  JSiedermayer,  Malines  and  Wiirzburg,  being  Sketches  and  Pen  Pictures 
made  in  the  Catholic  Congresses  of  Belgium  and  Germany,  Freiburg,  1865. 


846  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Catholics  had  now  an  archiepiscopal  see  at  Utrecht,  the  very 
citadel  of  Jansenism,  the  siitfragan  sees  being  Haarlem,  Her- 
zogenhosch,  Breda,  and  Roermonde.  By  the  Constitution  of 
1848,  liberty  of  conscience  was  granted  to  the  people  of  Hol- 
land, and  this  measure  was  shortly  followed  by  the  enactment 
of  a  liberal  school-law.  Of  course  the  Catholics  made  the  best 
of  the  advantages  thus  placed  within  their  reach  by  at  once 
establishing  schools  and  giving  them  in  charge  to  Religious 
Orders,  whose  number  was  now  increased.  The  Bishop  of 
Eoermonde,  besides  his  clerical  seminary  at  Rolduc,  estab- 
lished a  seminary  for  young  men  intended  for  the  scholastic 
profession,  in  which  he  provided  for  the  education  of  thirty 
students.  The  Religious  Orders,  which  re-entered  the  coun- 
try only  in  1830,  possessed  in  1862  thirty-eight  convents  of 
men,  including  the  houses  of  the  Jesuits,  and  one  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  of  women.  Of  the  latter  the  Ursulines  of 
Tildonk,  in  Belgium,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Tilburg 
devote  themselves  chiefly  to  the  education  of  young  ladies. 
The  Protestants  naturall}^  took  alarm  at  the  growth  of  Cath- 
olicity, once  it  had  been  given  a  fair  field,  and  made  a  futile 
attempt  to  have  a  law  passed  making  education  at  once  free 
and  compulsory.  As  it  was,  the  government  inspectors  of 
schools,  who  were  mainly  Protestant,  gave  no  little  annoyance 
to  Catholics  in  the  matter  of  education,  and  never  missed  an 
opportunity  to  place  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  advance. 
But  the  bishops  and  clergy,  both  secular  and  regular,  were 
active  and  vigilant,  and  rarely  failed  to  baffle  these  attempts. 
The  Catholics,  too,  fully  appreciated  the  advantages  of  the 
press  ;  it  gave  them  an  opportunity  of  setting  themselves  right 
before  the  public.  Books,  magazines,  newspapers,  and  alma- 
nacs, treating  of  current  subjects,  and  written  in  a  popular 
style,  began  to  pour  from  the  printing-press,  and  grew  in 
number  as  days  went  on.  In  theological  literature  the  Dutch 
also  produced  some  works  of  merit,  as,  for  example,  the  Moral 
Theology  of  Van  de  Velde  and  the  Canon  Law  of  Professor  Van 
de  Burgt,  of  Utrecht.  Professor  Broere,  the  poet  and  pulpit 
orator;  Dr.  Nuyens ;  Professor  Wensing  and  Alberdingk 
Thijm,  were  also  authors  of  distinction.  Habets  and  Willems 
acquired  some  reputation  in  the  field  of  ecclesiastical,  profane, 


§  417.  In   Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  847 

and  art  history.  De  Catholik.  a  periodical  edited  by  the  pro- 
fessors of  theology  at  Warmond,  largely  contributes  toward 
keeping  literary  life  active,  while  the  questions  of  the  hour 
are  abl}'  discussed  in  several  newspapers  of  Limburg  and 
]t^orth  Brabant,  but  chiefly  in  De  Tyd,  of  Amsterdam.  The 
results  of  these  efibrts  have  been  cheering  and  abundantly 
satisfactory,  for  of  the  population  of  Holland,  3,700,000,  close 
upon  one-half  are  now  within  the  pale  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Unhappily,  the  Jansenist  schism  has  been  perpetuated  down 
to  our  own  day.  In  the  dioceses  of  TJtrecht  and  Haarlem  there 
are  about  5,000  Jansenists,  distributed  into  twenty-five  con- 
gregations. The  diocese  of  Deventer  is  simply  a  misnomer, 
as  it  contains  not  a  single  schismatic  congregation.  The  bish- 
ops of  these  sees  have  all  been  excommunicated  b}'  Rome. 
If  the  aid  contributed  by  France  toward  the  maintenance  of 
the  Jansenistic  Seminary  at  Utrecht  were  cut  off,  both  it  and 
the  schism  it  perpetuates  would  soon  cease  to  exist.  In  1856 
the  bishops  of  the  Jansenist  Church  of  Holland  protested 
against  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  in  1874 
formally  allied  themselves  to  the  Old  Catholics  of  Germany. 
In  spite  of  the  strenuous  efforts  of  the  Freemasons  of  Belgium 
to  retard  the  progress  of  the  Church  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Luxemburg,  a  dependency  of  Holland,  the  evidences  of  reviv- 
ing life  and  activity  are  encouraging  and  substantial.  An 
episcopal  see  was  established  at  Luxemburg,  June  17,  1870, 
and  facilities  afforded  by  the  opening  of  a  greater  Seminary  at 
the  same  place  for  the  study  of  theology,  archaeology,  and 
church-music.  Catholic  interests  find  able  advocates  in  La 
voix  de  Luxembourg  and  other  journals  of  nearly,  if  not  quite 
equal  merit. 

§  417.    In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Dr.  Moufang,  Card.  Wiseman  and  the  Services  he  rendered  to  Science  and 
the  Church,  two  lectures,  Mentz,  1865.  Dr.  ISicwynan,  Apologia  pro  vita  sua 
being  a  Reply  to  a  Pamphlet  entitled  "  What,  then,  does  Dr.  Newman  :Mpan?' 
(translated  into  German  by  the  Kev.  Schicndelefi,  Cologne,  1865.) 

The  prophetic  words  uttered  by  the  sagacious  Bossuet,  at  a 
time   when   Anglicans   entertained  only  feelings  of  intense 


848  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1, 


hatred  and  malignant  hostility  toward  the  Catholic  Church, 
are  being  veritied  in  our  own  day.  Speaking  of  the  English 
people,  he  said :  "J.  nation  so  wise  can  not  long  remain  deluded. 
Its  professed  reverence  for  the  Fathers  and  its  deep  and  patieyit 
study  of  antiquity  will  lead  it  back  to  the  teaching  of  the  primitive 
ages^  ^  Dr.  Newman  also  refers  in  his  Apologia,  to  "  '  a  much 
venerated  clergyman  of  the  last  generation/  who  said,  shortly 
before  his  death,  '■Depend  on  it,  the  day  will  come  when  those 
great  doctrines,  now  buried,  will  be  brought  out  to  the  light  of  day, 
and  then  the  effect  will  be  fearful.^  "  ^ 

Nicholas  Wiseman  said  John  Henry  JSewman  have  done  more 
than  any  other  men  of  the  present  century  to  start  the  move- 
ment toward  the  Catholic  Church  in  England.  The  religious 
agitation  in  England,  known  as  Puseyism  or  the  Traetarian 
Movement,^  which  seemed  called  forth  by  the  Spirit,  who 
breatheth  where  He  will,  counted  among  its  promoters  clergy- 
men scattered  all  over  the  country,  and  representing  almost 
every  shade  of  social  and  intellectual  life.  Speaking  of  the 
antecedents  of  those  identified  with  the  Movement,  Dr.  N'ew- 
raan  says  : 

"  Dr.  Hook  and  Mr.  Churton  represented  the  high  Church  dignitaries  of  the 
last  century  ;  Mr.  Perceval,  the  Tory  aristocracy  ;  Mr.  Keble  came  from  a  coun- 
try parsonage  ;  Mr.  Palmer  from  Ireland  ;  Dr.  Pusey  from  the  Universities  of 
Germany,  and  the  study  of  Arabic  31 SS.;  Mr.  Dods worth  from  the  study  of 
Prophecy ;  Mr.  Oakley  had  gained  his  views,  as  he  himself  expressed  it,  '  partly 
by  study,  partly  by  reflection,  partly  by  conversation  with  one  or  two  friends, 
inquirers  like  himself;'  while  I  speak  of  myself  as  being  'much  indebted  to 
the  friendship  of  Archbishop  Whately.'  And  thus  I  am  led  on  to  ask.'  he 
continues,  '""What  head  of  a  sect  is  there?  What  march  of  opinions  can  be 
traced  from  mind  among  preachers  such  as  these?  They  are  one  and  all,  in 
their  degree,  the  organs  of  one  Sentiment,  which  has  risen  simultaneously  in 
many  places  very  mysteriously.'  "  * 


1  Bossuet,  Histoire  des  variations  des  eglises  protestantes,  liv.  VII ,  c.  114. 
•  "^Apologia,  etc.,  New  York,  1865,  p.  140.  (Tr.) 

8  See  a  full  account  of  the  Movement  in  the  Apolorjia  of  Dr.  Newman,  Part 
IV.  Dr.  Newman  began  the  Tracts,  as  he  says,  "out  of  his  own  head,"  and 
hence  the  name  Tractarianism,  which  was  changed  to  Puseyism  after  Dr.  Pusey 
joined  the  Movement,  because  he  became  its  leader,  having  qualifications  for 
tliat  office  which  Newman  did  not  possess.    (Tr.) 

*  Apologia,  etc.,  pp.  140,  141.  (Tr.) 


§  417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  849 

This  Alovement,  simultaneously  set  on  foot  in  so  many 
quarters  of  the  kingdom  by  men  of  antecedents  so  various, 
finally  centered  in  Oxford.  From  this  point  its  leaders  began 
to  propagate  their  doctrines.  Taking  the  Thirty-nine  Articles 
as  a  basis,  they  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Fathers 
with  an  eagerness  that  amounted  to  enthusiasm,  in  the  hope 
of  removing  the  vagueness  of  doctrine  and  correcting  the 
laxity  of  discipline,  wliich  they  felt  to  be  blots  upon  the  An- 
glicaL  Church.  Justification  and  the  Eucharist  were  the  first 
subjects  to  which  they  turned  their  thoughts.  The  fruits  of 
these  labors  were  the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  of  which,  as  Dr. 
Newman  says,  he  was  "  the  editor  and  mainly  the  author."  ^ 
The  first  of  these  was  issued  in  1833.  A^iostolic  succession  is 
insisted  on  as  the  only  mark  of  the  presence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  and  ecclesiastical  tradition  is  set  forth  as  a  necessary 
complement  to  Scripture  in  determining  precisely  and  ade- 
quately what  belongs  to  the  body  of  Catholic  truth.  As  has 
been  said,  the  authors  of  the  Movement  took  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  as  the  groundwork  of  their  position.  They  hoped  to 
find  them  sufliciently  elastic  to  be  able  to  touch  the  Anglican 
Church  with  one  extreme  of  them,  and  the  Catholic,  or,  as 
they  said.  Church  of  Eome,  with  the  other.  In  other  words, 
they  wished  to  eftect  a  compromise  between  the  Roman  and 
the  Anglican  doctrines  by  principles  such  as  are  indicated  by 
the  name  Via  Media,  wliich  they  chose  to  characterize  the 
drift  of  the  Movement.  It  was  found,  however,  that  this  line 
of  argument  was  impossible,  and  after  the  publication  of 
Tract  90,  in  1841,  it  had  to  be  given  up.  In  this  Tract  the 
author,  Dr.  Newmaii,  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  England  is  a  branch  of  the  great  Catholic 
Church,  and  that  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  may  be  harmonized 
with  the  Decrees  of  Trent.^  About  this  time  the  Anglican 
bishops  opposed  the  publication  of  the  Tracts,  and  they  were 
in  consequence  discontinued.     Owing  to  the  intellectual  difii- 

^  Apologia,  p.  88.  (Tk.) 

2  "  It  is  a  duty  which  we  owe  both  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  to  our  own, 
to  take  our  reformed  confessions  in  the  most  Catholic  sense  they  will  admit. 
We  have  no  duty  toward  their  framers."     Apologia,  p.  172.  (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 54 


>S50  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

cnlties  he  felt  at  not  being  allowed  to  put  his  own  sense  upon 
the  Articles,  Dr.  N"ewman  "  intended  to  gradually  fall  back 
into  Lay  Communion,"  and  with  this  thought  before  hia 
mind,  resigned  his  parish  of  St.  Mary's,  Oxford,  in  the  autumn 
of  1843,  and  withdrew  into  private  life  at  Littlemore.  To  put 
an  end  to  what  he  calls  his  "  vague  misgivings"  at  this  pe- 
riod, he  "  determined  to  write  an  Essay  on  Doctrinal  Develop- 
ment," ^  which  he  commenced  in  the  beginning  of  1845,  and 
continued  working  at  through  the  summer.  "As  I  advanced," 
he  says,  "  my  views  so  cleared  that  instead  of  speaking  any 
more  of  '  the  Roman  Catholics,'  I  boldly  called  them  Catho- 
lics. Before  I  got  to  the  end,  I  resolved  to  be  received,  and 
the  book  remains  in  the  state  in  which  it  was  then,  unfin- 
ished." ^  He  was  received  into  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church 
October  8,  1845,  by  Father  Dominic,  a  Passionist.  His  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  large  numbers  of  the  Anglican  clergy 
and  of  the  aristocracy.  In  1867  the  number  of  distinguished 
converts  to  the  Catholic  Church  in  England  amounted  to  867, 
of  whom  243  had  been  Anglican  ministers.  Although  Dr. 
Pusey  publicly  defended  the  ground  taken  by  Dr.  Newman  in 
Tract  90,  he  has  not  followed  his  example  in  entering  the 
Church  of  Rome.  He  clung  to  the  old  line  of  argument,  and 
seemed  unable  to  shake  off  its  contradictory  principles.  He 
claimed  that  it  was  quite  possible  to  be  a  Catholic  at  heart, 
while  one  was  seemingly  a  Protestant ;  and  added  that  the 
Anglican  Church  ought  to  sever  all  connection  with  Protest- 
antism, and  that,  when  she  had  done  so,  her  children  ought 
not  to  leave  her.  The  Anglican  Church  was  not  for  him,  as 
for  Dr.  Newman,  a  way  leading  up  to  the  Church  of  Rome.^ 


1  Apologia,  p.  257.  (Tr.) 

2  Ibid.,  p.  261.  (Tr.) 

3  "The  Church  of  England  has  been  the  instrument  of  Providence  in  confer- 
ring great  benefits  on  me;  had  I  been  born  in  Dissent,  perhaps  I  should  never 
have  been  baptized ;  had  I  been  born  an  English  Presbyterian,  perhaps  T 
should  never  have  known  our  Lord's  divinity;  had  I  not  come  to  Oxford,  per- 
haps I  should  never  have  heard  of  the  visible  Church,  or  of  Tradition,  or  othei 
Catholic  doctrines.  And  as  I  have  received  so  much  good  from  the  Anglican 
Establishment  itself,  can  I  have  the  heart,  or  rather  the  want  of  charity,  con- 
sidering that  it  does  for  so  many  others  what  it  has  done  for  me,  to  wish  to  see 
it  overthrown?"     Apologia,  p.  322.  (Tr.) 


§  417.    In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  851 

"  Soon,"  says  Dr.  ITewman,  "  Dr.  Wiseman,  in  whose  Vicari- 
ate Oxford  lay,  called  me  to  Oscott,  and  I  went  there  with 
others  ;  afterwards  he  sent  me  to  Rome,  and  finally  placed  me 
in  Birmingham."  ^ 

In  1847  Dr.  Newman  became  a  Father  of  the  Oratory  of  St. 
Philip  JN'eri,  and  began  to  labor  for  the  Chnrch  in  England 
with  the  spirit  and  zeal  of  his  patron.  In  1850  he  organized 
the  Catholic  University  of  Dublin,  and  continued  its  Rector 
for  five  years.  He  then  returned  to  the  House  of  the  Oratory 
at  Birmingham,  in  connection  with  which  he  started  a  school 
of  higher  studies,  in  which  many  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
young  men  of  England  have  been  educated. 

Cardinal  (then  Dr.)  Wiseman  took  a  lively  interest  and  an 
active  part  in  the  Movement  in  England  toward  the  Catholic 
Church.  This  eminent  man  was  born  at  Seville,  in  Spain,  of 
Irish  Catholic  parents,  August  2,  1802.  He  spent  his  early 
years  in  Ireland,  and  received  his  first  education  at  Water- 
ford,  whence  he  passed  over  to  England,  spending  some  time 
at  the  College  of  St.  Cuthbert,  Ushaw,  near  Durham.  Feel- 
ing himself  called  to  the  ministry,  he,  with  five  other  young 
men,  set  out  for  Rome  (1818),  where  he  entered  the  English 
College,  ^nst  then  opened,  after  having  been  closed  for  nearly 
a  generation.  Here  he  remained  twenty-two  years,  laying  up 
that  vast  store  of  knowledge,  of  which,  while  there,  and  after 
his  return  to  England,  he  turned  to  such  excellent  account. 
His  vigorous  apologetical  and  polemical  writings,  so  replete 
with  the  gentle  and  winning  grace  which  charity  gives,  did  a 
vast  deal  of  good  in  England.  Many  of  these  were  published 
while  he  was  still  Rector  of  the  English  College  at  Rome. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1836  to  take  part  in  the  Tractarian 
Movement.  He  subsequently  said  he  "  had  been  surprised,  on 
visiting  England  in  1835,  to  find  how  little  attention  it  had 
yet  excited  among  Catholics."^  In  1836,  he,  together  with 
Mr.  Quin  and  Daniel  O'Connell,  commenced  the  publication 
of  the  Dublin  Beview,  the  aim  and  scope  of  which  were  thua 
stated  by  Dr.  Wiseman  : 


1  Apologia,  p.  262.    (Tr.) 

2  Card.  Manning,  Miscellanies,  etc.,  New  York,  1877,  p.  153.  (Tr.) 


852  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

"To  watch  its  (the  Oxford  Movement's)  progress;  to  observe  its  phases;  to 
'nfluence,  if  possible,  its  direction;  to  move  it  gently  toward  complete  attain- 
ment of  its  unconscious  aims ;  and,  moreover,  to  protest  against  its  errors ;  ta 
warn  against  its  dangers ;  to  provide  arguments  against  its  new  mode  of  at- 
tack ;  and  to  keep  lifted  up  the  mask  of  beauty  under  which  it  had,  in  sincer- 
ity, covered  the  ghastly  and  soulless  features  of  Protestantism; — these  were  the 
duties  which  the  new  Review  undertook  to  perform,  or  which,  in  no  small  de» 
grec,  it  was  expressly  created  to  discharge."  ^ 

The  first  nnmber  appeared  in  May,  1836. 

His  Lectures  on  the  Connection  of  Science  and  Revealed,  Rc' 
ligion  were  published  this  same  year,  and  also  his  Lectures  on 
the  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church,  both  of  which  were  well 
received,  and  exercised  a  wide  and  powerful  influence. 

In  1840  Dr.  Wiseman  was  appointed  Coadjutor  Vicar- Apos- 
tolic of  the  Midland  District  of  England,  with  the  title  of 
Bishop  of  Melipotamus  in  partibus  injidelium,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  was  named  President  of  St.  Mary's  College  of  Oscott,  near 
Birmingham,  where  he  took  up  his  residence.  This  was  then 
the  great  seat  of  Catholic  learning  in  England,  and  his  ap- 
pointment to  so  important  a  charge  was  hailed  with  joy  by 
many,  who  had  received  the  better  part  of  their  education 
under  his  guidance.  One  of  the  works  in  which  he  labored 
most  earnestly  was  to  bring  the  Catholics  of  England  to  un- 
derstand that  in  believing  the  teachings  of  the  Church  and 
keeping  the  Commandments,  they  were  only  doing  part  of 
their  duty  ;  they  must  also  adopt  her  practices,  fall  in  with 
her  customs,  and  be  in  full  sympathy  with  her  spirit.  These 
thoughts  were  brought  out  with  striking  force  and  vigor  in  a 
Pastoral  he  published  in  1849. 

As  has  been  remarked  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  Gregory 
XVI.,  on  the  11th  of  May,  1840,  increased  the  number  of  dis- 
tricts from  four  to  eight ;  and  Pius  IX.,  by  the  bull  Universalis 
Ecclesiae,  of  September  29,  1850,  restored  the  hierarchy  to 
Enw-land.  It  consisted  of  twelve  bishoprics  and  the  archbish- 
opric  of  "Westminster,^  to  which  Dr.  Wiseman  was  appointed, 

*  Card.  Manning,  Miscellanies,  etc.,  p.  153.  (Tu.) 

2  The  ecclesiastical  province  consists  of  the  Metropolitan  See  of  Westmin- 
ster, with  the  suffragan  sees  of  Beverley,  Birmingham,  Clifton,  Hexham  and 
Newcastle,  Liverpool,  Menevia  and  Newport,  Northampton,  Nottingham,  Ply- 
mouth, Salford,  Shrewsbury,  and  Southwark.  Total  of  Priests  in  England  and 
"Wales  (in  1878),  1,8"28;  of  churches,  chapels,  and  stations,  1,076.    (Tr.) 


§  417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  853 

and  was  at  the  same  time  created  Cardinal.  This  measure  re- 
vived the  old  hatred  of  Catholics,  and  evoked  a  storm  of 
religious  excitement.  Catholics  were  sneered  at  and  insulted  ; 
assailed  with  sarcasm  and  railery  ;  made  the  objects  of  bold 
an  1  reckless  denunciation  ;  dealt  with  unfairly  in  the  courts 
of  justice,  and  misrepresented  in  the  pulpits  of  the  Establish- 
ment and  Dissent ;  pertinaciously  reviled  in  the  newspapers, 
and  violently  declaimed  against  by  popular  speakers.  The 
cry  of  ^'■No  Popery"  went  up  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to 
the  other,  and  mobs  were  gathered  together  by  the  magic  of 
its  sound.  At  the  opening  of  Parliament,  in  the  year  1851, 
Lord  John  Russell  introduced  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assump- 
tion  Bill,  by  which  any  one  not  entitled  by  law  to  do  so  was 
forbidden  to  assume  or  use  the  name,  stj^le,  or  title  of  arch- 
bishop, bishop,  or  dean  of  "  any  place  in  the  United  King- 
dom." By  the  Class  and  Convent  Bill,  priests  and  religious 
were  prohibited  to  appear  in  public  in  the  dr^iss  of  their  Order, 
and  provision  was  made  for  an  investigation  of  convents,  to 
ascertain  if  any  of  the  inmates  were  there  against  their  will. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Cardinal  Wiseman,  acting  with  the 
firmness  and  dignity  so  characteristic  of  apostolic  men,  pub- 
lished his  celebrated  address  to  Englishmen,  entitled  An  Ap- 
peal to  the  Reason  and  Good  Feeling  of  the  People  of  England  on 
(he  Subject  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy,^  and  announced  his  inten- 
tion of  delivering  a  course  of  controversial  lectures  at  his 
cathedral.  This  firmness  is  all  the  more  admirable  from  the 
fact  that  at  this  very  time  Mr,  Reynolds  declared  in  Parlia- 
ment that  "'  the  Anti-Popery  agitation  has  risen  to  such  a 
height  throughout  the  country  that  he  was  astonished  the 
Cardinal  had  not  been  burnt  in  person  instead  of  in  effigy," 
But  the  Cardinal  held  his  ground,  and  was  not  only  victorious 
in  the  long  run,  but  even  extorted  the  admiration  of  his  coun- 
trymen.^ Conversions  became  frequent;  and  in  1851  thirty- 
three  Anglican  ministers  came  into  the  Church,  among  whom 


1  Translated  into  Germ.,  Eatisbon,  1851.     Cf.  Buss,  Hist,  of  the  Pft'-secution 
of  the  Cath.  Church  in  England,  1851. 

2  The  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  was  deprecated  at  that  time  by  many,  who 
confidently  asserted  that  the  measure  would  indefinitely  retard  the  growt>'  of 


854  Period  3.     Ejjoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

was  Manning,  then  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  Anglican 
clergy,  and  Henry  and  Robert  Wilberforce,  brothers  of  Samuel 
Wilberforce,  Bishop  of  Oxford.  The  Concordat  made  about 
this  time  between  Austria  and  the  Holy  See  was  the  occasion 
of  another  burst  of  popular  fury,  which  the  Cardinal  suc- 
ceeded in  calming  by  a  second  course  of  lectures  on  Concord- 
ats.^ He  held  the  first  provincial  council  at  Oscott  in  1852, 
with  a  view  to  give  to  his  province  a  thoroughly  ecclesiastical 
organization.  Two  others  were  subsequently  held  by  him  at 
the  same  place.  His  numerous  lectures,  delivered  before  large 
and  cultivated  audiences,  on  almost  every  variety  of  subject — 
On  Religion  and  Science;  On  the  Points  of  Contact  between 
Science  and  Art;^  On  the  Connection  between  the  Arts  of  Design 
and  those  of  Production ;  On  the  Influence  of  Words  on  Thought 
and  Civilization;  On  the  Ceremonies  of  Holy  Week;  On  the  Real 
Presence;  On  the  Doctrines  of  the  Church;  together  with  his 
essays  and  other  writings,  but  particularly  his  Fabiola,  or  a 
Church  of  the  Catacombs,  that  singularly  truthful  and  vivid 
picture  of  the  trials  and  persecutions  of  the  Church  in  the 
early  ages,  gave  him  a  reputation  both  at  home  and  abroad 
of  being  one  of  the  most  finished  and  scholarly  writers  of  his 
age.  The  Callista  of  Dr.  l^ewman  is  a  work  similar  in  char- 
acter to  the  Fabiola  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  the  author's  aim 
being  to  give  a  picture  of  the  Church  in  Africa  during  the 
latter  days  of  the  persecutions.  These  two  works,  the  first 
of  a  new  school,  were  shortly  followed  by  others,  illustrative 
of  Catholic  life  in  the  difierent  ages  of  the  Church,  and  very 
effective  in  breaking  down  a  host  of  prejudices  against  her 
institutions  and  the  persons  identified  with  her  interests  and 
history.     Of  the  writers  who  gained  distinction  in  this  new 

the  Church  in  England.  That  such  has  not  been  the  case,  but  that  the  reverse 
has  taken  place,  is  shown  by  Cardinal  Manning  by  the  following  figures  ; 

Churches.  Priests. 

1830 410 

1840 457 542 

1850 587 788 

1862 824 1215 

— Miscellanies,  p.  42.  (Tr.) 
*Four  Lectures  on  Concordats,  Germ.,  Cologne,  1856. 
'Germ,  by  Reusch,  Cologne,  1863. 


417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  855 


field,   Spencer  Northcote   {The   Roman   Catacombs),   Macguire 
{Rome  and  its  Ruler),  and  Lady  FuUerton,  deserve  mention.^ 

Father  Faher,^  formerly  Superior  of  the  Oratory  in  London, 
and  his  Brothers  of  the  Oratory,  together  with  some  laymen, 
whom  they  associated  with  themselves  in  the  work,  edited 
'  and  published  a  series  of  ascetical  writings,  which  were  well 
received,  and  did  a  great  deal  of  good  in  other  countries  as 
well  as  in  England  (flSGS).  In  a  magnificent  speech,  made 
at  the  Second  Congress  of  Malines,  Cardinal  Wiseman  spoke 
with  gratitude  and  exultation  of  the  progress  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  England,  the  result  of  the  combined  labors  of  mea 
who  were  single-minded  and  in  earnest  in  their  w^ork.  The 
w^hole  life  of  the  great  Cardinal  was  a  verification  of  the  words 
uttered  by  him  on  his  death-bed.  "i  have  always,''  said  he, 
^'■allowed  others  to  do  as  much  good  as  they  would;  I  have  never 
stood  in  the  way  of  any  one ;  and  God  has  blessed  my  manner 
of  acting."  He  referred  here  to  the  Tablet,  a  w^eekly  news- 
paper, the  first  number  of  which  appeared  May  16,  1840.  It 
was  edited  for  fifteen  years  by  Mr.  Frederic  Lucas,  a  convert 
from  Quakerism,  and  one  of  the  most  accomplished  and  schol- 
arly writers  of  England.  The  tone  of  the  paper  was  then, 
and  has  continued  to  be  so  since,  in.dependent,  though  thor- 
oughly loyal  to  the  Church  and  the  Holy  See.  It  permits  in 
its  columns  the  discussion  of  all  questions  on  which  a  difier- 
ence  of  opinion  is  allowed  by  the  Church,  never  excluding 
papers  because  it  discovers  in  their  authors'  argument  a  di- 
vergence from  its  own  line  of  thought.  It  pursued  a  middle 
course  between  the  Lublin  Review,  edited  by  Lr.  Ward,  and 
the  Home  and  Foreign  Review,  edited  by  Lord  Acton,  the  former 

1  Cf.  Collection  of  the  Classical  Works  of  Modern  Literature  in  England; 
Germ,  translation,  published  at  Cologne  by  Bachem. 

2  His  published  writings  after  his  conversion  are  as  follows :  "  Catholic 
Hymns"  and  an  "Essay  on  Beatification  and  Canonization"  (1848);  "The 
Spirit  and  Genius  of  St.  Philip  Neri "  (1850);  "Catholic  Home  Missions" 
(1851);  "All  for  Jesus"  (185-1);  "Growth  in  Holiness"  (1856)  ;  "The  Blessed 
Sacrament"  (1856);  "  The  Creator  and  the  Creature"  (1857);  "The  Foot  of 
the  Cross,  or  the  Sorrows  of  Mary;"  "Spiritual  Conferences"  (1859);  "Beth- 
lehem;" "The  Precious  151ood,"  etc.  A  complete  edition  of  his  ascetical 
works  has  been  republished  (partly  from  advance  sheets)  by  John  Murphy  ^ 
Co.,  Baltimore.     See  Bowden's  "  Life  of  F.  TV.  Faber,"  1869.  (Tr.) 


856  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

of  Ultramontane  and  the  latter  of  liberal  tendencies.  There  are 
also  two  other  weekly  newspapers  of  high  merit  published  in 
London,  viz  :  The  Weekly  Begister  and  the  Westminster  Gazette^ 
the  latter  started  in  the  beginning  of  1867.  Like  the  Tablet^ 
Avhile  giving  all  needful  attention  to  the  current  topics  of  the 
day,  they  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  ability  with  which 
the  relations  of  Church  and  State  are  discussed  in  their  col- 
umns ;  for  their  discriminating  reviews  and  notices  of  new 
books;  for  their  foreign  correspondence;  and  for  their  tem- 
perate and  thorough  treatment  of  political  and  social  ques- 
tions. One  of  the  ablest  periodicals  of  any  denomination  in 
England  is  the  Month  and  Catholic  Review,  conducted  by  the 
Jesuits. 

By  the  death  of  Cardinal  Wiseman,  which  occurred  Febru- 
ary 15,  1865,  the  Church  lost  one  of  the  most  active,  learned, 
and  worthy  bi-shops  of  this  century.  To  an  elegant  and  classic 
taste  he  united  deep  and  varied  learning,  embracing  in  its 
range  theology  and  the  natural  sciences,  canon  law,  history, 
and  archaeology.  He  was,  moreover,  distinguished  for  great 
prudence,  for  gracious  manners  and  easy  address,  for  dignity 
and  firmness  of  character,  and  for  those  other  virtues  charac- 
teristic of  a  prelate  and  prince  of  the  Church. 

The  late  Ritualistic  movement,  led  by  Dr.  Pusey,  and,  like 
the  Tractarian  Movement,  having  its  center  of  operations  at 
Oxford,  has  inspired  a  hope  that  through  its  influence  many 
may  be  led  into  the  Catholic  Church.  The  advocates  of  Rit- 
ualism claim  that  under  the  actual  circumstances,  if  the  re- 
ligious and  social  condition  of  the  people  is  to  be  improved, 
the  rites,  the  ceremonies,  vestments,  and  institutions  of  the 
primitive  Church,  wdiich  the  Protestants  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury set  aside,  must  be  again  adopted.  Since  the  publication 
by  Dr.  Pusey  of  his  PJirenicon,  the  tentative  efforts  to  conform 
the  Anglican  Ritual  to  that  of  the  old  Church  have  been  still 
more  marked  and  frequent.^  Dr.  Pusey  and  the  Rev.  31r. 
Humble  have  both  strenuously  insisted  on  penance  as  a  true 
Sacrament,  implj'ing  the  obligation  of  auricular  confession  of 


1  Cf.  The  Present  State  of  the  Movement  in  the  Anglican  High  Church  to. 
ward  Catholicity,  with  Important  Documents,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1867. 


§  417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Sol 

sins  in  detail ;  and  while  the  hitter  affirms  that  this  Sacrament 
is  the  only  adequate  preventative  of  infanticide,  tne  former 
declares  that  it  is  a  most  efficacious  means  of  drawing  youth 
off  from  vices  peculiar  to  that  season  of  life  and  making  them 
better  members  of  society.  The  Eitualists  are  also  ardent 
advocates  of  monastic  life.  "  The  foundations  of  the  entire 
structure  of  the  Missions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church." 
says  J)r.  Mackenzie  Wallcot,  "  have  been  laid  by  members  cf 
Religious  Orders,  who  practice  self-denial  in  an  heroic  degree. 
In  our  system  everything  is  left  in  the  hands  of  the  secular 
clergy,  and  its  utter  failure  proves  conclusively  that  it  needs 
to  be  organized  anew.  The  conversion  of  the  whole  of  Eu- 
rope by  the  Monastic  Orders  shows  what  can  be  done  by  the 
combined  effiDrts  of  men  united  by  the  most  sacred  ties." 
These  sentiments  were  also  shared  hy  Dr.  Mead.ow,  who  warmlj- 
advocated  the  policy  of  placing  the  hospitals  and  workhouses 
in  charge  of  religious  communities  of  women. 

Ci\v<l\WiA  Planning ,  Cardinal  Wiseman's  successor  in  the  see 
of  Westminster,  has  labored  zealously  to  turn  to  the  best  ac- 
count this  movement  toward  the  Catholic  Church,  He  is  an 
ornament  to  the  Church,  and  one  of  the  most  able,  hard 
working,  and  exemplary  of  living  prelates.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor, he  is  possessed  of  tine  mental  endowments,  and  is  an 
accurate  scholar,  a  deep  thinker,  and  a  vigorous  and  graceful 
writer  ;  and  like  him,  too,  he  has  fairly  compelled  the  admira- 
tion of  his  countrymen  by  his  honest,  manly,  and  outspoken 
course.  His  writings  are  numerous,  the  most  important  being 
The  Glories  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  The  Temporal  Missioji  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  The  Internal  Mission  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  The  Tern- 
voral  Power  of  the  Pope,  The  Independence  of  the  Holy  See,  Siii 
and  its  Consequences,  The  Love  of  Jesus  to  Penitents,  Petri 
Privilegium,  The  Fourfold  Sovereignty  of  God  (2  vols.),  The 
Four  Great  ecils  of  the  Day,  Sermons  on  Ecclesiastical  Subjects 
(3  vols.),  'The  True  Story  of  the  Vatican  Councd,  besides  essays, 
reviews,  addresses,  and  controversial  papers,  some  of  which 
have  been  recently  published  in  a  volume  of  Miscellanies. 


858  Period  3.     E-poch  2.     Part  2.     Chayter  1. 


IRELAND. 

Jacob  Neher,  Eccl.  Geography,  3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1865-1868.  Flor.  Riess,  S.J., 
The  Modern  State  and  Christian  Schools,  Freiburg,  1868.  Catholic  World^ 
June,  1869. 

According  to  the  statistics  given  in  the  Caiholic  Almanac  for  1878  (p.  96), 
there  are  in  Ireland  4  archbishops,  24  bishops,'  1,004  priests,  1,721  admin- 
istrators, curates,  chaplains,  professors,  etc.,  in  colleges  and  schools;  444  regu- 
lars; or  a  total  of  3,172  priests;  or  including  bishops,  private  chaplains,  etc., 
3,450.  They  are  a  zealous,  hard-working,  and  exemplary  body,  and  are 
wholly  supported  by  the  voluntary,  but  generous  contributions  of  the  faithful.' 
A  taste  for  learning  is  kept  alive  and  encouraged  among  them  by  theological 
conferences,  held  in  each  diocese  four  times  a  year.  As  a  rule,  the  several  bish- 
ops preside  in  person  over  these  conferences,  and  by  their  presence  and  wise 
supervision  stimulate  the  clergy  to  pursue  their  studies  with  greater  zeal  and 
regularity.  There  are  in  each  diocese,  besides  a  vicar-general,  titular  canons, 
and  as  early  as  1862  there  were  in  Ireland  nine  chapters  canonically  established. 
In  filling  a  vacant  see,  which,  during  the  interval,  is  administered  by  a  vicar- 
capitular,  the  parish-priests  of  the  diocese  in  which  the  vacancy  occurs  send  on 
three  names  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  at  Eome,  one 
of  which  is,  with  rare  exceptions,  selected  and  approved  by  the  Pope.  The 
Cardinal  Protector  of  the  Irish  Church,  resident  in  Eome,  names  the  Deans  of 
Chapters;  the  bishops  of  the  country  appoint  to  all  other  preferments. 

If  Ireland  is  not  to-day  Protestant  in  religion,  it  is  certainly  not  because  nu- 
merous and  gigantic  efforts  have  not  been  made  to  induce  the  people  to  apos- 
tatize from  the  faith  of  their  fathers.  Perhaps  the  most  potent,  as  well  as  the 
most  plausible  and  insidious  of  these,  was  the  establishment  of  the  System  of 
National  Schools.  Even  men  usually  clear-headed  and  sagacious  in  judging  of 
questions  and  measures  affecting  the  interests  of  the  Catholics  of  Ireland  seemed 
to  have  been  deceived  as  to  the  real  character  of  the  National  Schools.  That 
the  National  Schools  were  really  designed  to  subvert  the  faith  of  the  Catholic 
people  of  Ireland  is  evident  from  the  words  of  Dr.  Whately,  the  Protestant 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  who  was  one  of  the  first  Commissioners  appointed  to 
serve  on  the  National  Board.  "  The  education,"  said  he  "  supplied  by  the  Na- 
tional Board  is  gradually  undermining  the  vast  fabric  of  the  Irish  Roman 
Catholic  Church."  ^  And  to  show  that  this  was  precisely  what  he  intended  the 
schools  to  do,  and  that  stealthily  and  insidiously,  he  went  on  to  say  :  "  I  be- 


1  Exclisive  of  two  bishops  with  no  local  jurisdiction  in  Ireland. 

2  The  Freeynan's  Journal  Church  Commission  gave  the  following  statistics  as 
to  the  revenue  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Ireland  in  1868: 

Income  af  the  Bishops  and  the  Parochial  Clergy £340,480 

Pvegular  Clergy 55,000 

Maintenance,  ilepairs,  and  Extensions  of  Churches 116,050 

Hospitals,  Orphanages,  Asylums,  Colleges,  Seminaries,  Schools,  etc 250,000 

Total £762,030 

»  Life  of  Dr.  Whately,  p.  244.  (Tr.) 


§417.  Ill    Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  859 

lieve,  as  I  said  the  other  day,  that  mixed  education  is  gradually  enlightening 
the  mass  of  the  people,  and  that  if  we  give  it  up,  we  give  up  the  only  hope  of 
weaning  the  Irish  from  the  abuses  of  Popery.  But  1  can  not  venture  openly 
to  profess  this  opinion.  I  can  not  openly  support  the  Education  Board  as  an 
instrument  of  conversion.  I  have  to  fight  its  battles  with  one  hand,  aud  that 
my  best,  tied  behind  me."  ^  The  history  of  the  National  Schools  is  an  iiiustra- 
tion  of  how  Catholics  may  innocently  commit  themselves  to  measures,  appar- 
ently the  most  beneficial,  and  in  reality  the  most  perilous.  It  was  shown  by 
testimony  laid  before  Parliament  in  the  year  1825  that  the  instruction  given  in 
Ireland  was  miserably  insuflacient,  and  objectionable  on  other  grounds.  It  was 
therefore  proposed  to  establish  a  National  System  of  Education,  which  should 
be  acceptable  to  persons  of  all  religious  professions.  The  plan  was  submitted 
in  1826  to  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  who  refused  to  give  it  their  approval 
unless  the  faith  of  the  Pwoman  Catholic  children  were  fully  protected.  As  a 
guarantee  of  this  they  required  that  Catholic  teachers  should  be  appointed  in 
all  schools  in  which  the  Catholic  children  were  in  the  majority;  that  in  schools 
in  which  they  were  in  a  minority  a  Catholic  assistant  should  be  employed , 
that  Catholic  masters  and  mistresses  should  themselves  have  been  educated  in 
Catholic  schools ;  and  that  the  school-books  used  should  be  approved  by  the 
Catholic  prelates.'^  In  1828  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  expressed 
themselves  in  favor  of  non-sectarian  education  in  Ireland,  and  in  1831  Mr. 
Stanley,  afterwards  Lord  Derby,  in  a  letter  written  to  the  Duke  of  Leinster, 
stated  that  the  government  was  about  to  create  a  Board,  of  which  his  (Jrace 
was  to  be  President,  to  superintend  a  system  of  National  Education.  In  this 
letter  Mr.  Stanley  drew  out  the  main  features  of  the  System.  He  stated  thai 
the  Board  must  not  permit  the  reading  of  Scripture  by  all  classes  of  pupils , 
that  the  clergy  of  all  denominations  were  to  be  treated  with  perfect  equality, 
and  that  they  were  to  be  free  to  give  religious  instruction  to  the  children  ol 
their  respective  creeds.  This  letter,  when  made  public,  roused  the  indignation 
of  Protestants  of  all  shades  of  opinion.  At  a  public  meeting,  held  in  the  Eo- 
tunda  of  Dublin  in  1832,  they  protested  agamst  the  exclusion  of  the  Bible  fron^ 
the  schools,  and  the  Anglican  bishops  cried  out  with  equal  energy  against  hav- 
ing the  superintendence  of  National  Education  taken  out  of  their  hands  and 
vested  in  a  Board  composed  of  men  of  various  and  ccmflicting  religious  opin- 
ions. They  soon,  however,  became  not  only  reconciled  to  the  system,  but  its 
most  ardent  admirers  and  energetic  supporters.  The  leading  denominations  of 
Ireland  had  representatives  on  the  Board.  Archbishop  Murray,  of  Dublin, 
represented  the  Catholics;  Dr.  Whately,  the  Anglicans;  and  Eev.  James  Car- 
lisle, the  Presbyterians.  As  years  went  on  the  number  of  Commissioners  in- 
creased, until  it  finally  reached  twenty,  half  of  whom  were  Catholics  and  half 
Protestants. 

In  1850  Dr.  Cullen  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and  sh.yrtly  after 
a  bull  was  published  convoking  a  National  Synod,  to  meet  at  Thui  Les.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  important  events  of  this  century  in  the  hi;..ory  of  the 


1  Life  of  Dr.  Whately,  p.  246.  (Tr.) 

*  See  Pastoral  Address  of  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  to  thb  Clergy  and 
Laity  of  Ireland,  1820.  (Tr.) 


860  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Port  2.     Chapter  1. 

Church  in  Ireland.  Its  decrees  are  numerous  and  important,  and  refer  chiefly 
to  the  manners  of  the  clergy,  to  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  worship,  and  the 
administration  of  the  Sacraments,  insisting  particularly  on  the  correction  of 
abuses  and  the  restoration  of  such  needful  and  laudable  observances  as  had 
fallen  into  disuse.^  The  bishops  disapproved,  without  directly  condemning,  the 
National  Schools;  and  demanded  that  all  books  used  in  them,  containing  any- 
thing contrary  to  Catholic  teaching,  .should  be  thrown  out,  and  that  books  used 
in  schools  frequented  by  Catholic  children  should  have  the  approval  of  the 
bishops.'^  The  Queen's  Colleges,  opened  for  the  entrance  of  students  in  1849, 
were  conducted  on  precisely  the  same  principles  as  the  National  Schools.  At 
the  instance  of  Joh7i  McHale,  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  who  has  been  since  1825 
the  determined  foe  of  mixed  education  and  the  consistent  advocate  of  separate 
schools,  these  colleges  had  been  condemned  by  Kome,  October  18,  1848.^  They 
were  again  condemned  in  unqualified  terms  by  the  Synod  of  Thurles.  It  was 
declared  improper  for  bishops  to  take  any  part  in  their  management,  and  priests 
were  forbidden  to  have  any  connection  with  them,  either  as  Professors  or  Deans 
of  Eesidences.  Catholic  young  men  were  warned  not  to  enter  them,  on  ac- 
count of  the  danger  to  which  their  faith  and  morals  would  be  exposed.'*  In  the 
meantime  it  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishops  to  act  as  might  seem  best 
in  regard  to  the  National  Schools. 

Finally,  at  a  meeting  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  Ireland,  at  Maynooth 
College,  on  the  18th  of  August,  1869,  presided  over  by  Archbishop  Cullen,  who 
had  been  transferred  to  Dublin  on  the  death  of  Archbishop  Murray,  in  1852, 
the  system  of  mixed  education,  whether  primary^  intermediate,  or  university, 
was  condemned  "  as  grievously  and  intrinsically  dangerous  to  the  faith  and 
morals  of  Catholic  youth."*  At  the  request  of  the  Bishops  of  Ireland,  this 
condemnation  was  confirmed  by  Eome  in  the  same  year.^  The  bishops,  long 
desirous  of  having  a  place  of  Higher  Education,  where  Catholic  young  men 
might  go  without  peril  to  their  faith  and  morals,  at  length,  on  the  3d  of  No- 
vember, 1854,  opened  a  Catholic  University  in  Dublin.  They  have  sent  memo- 
rials to  government,  representing  that  Catholics  can  not  be  said  to  possess  re- 
ligious equality  as  long  as  they  do  not  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as 
their  Protestant  fellow-countrymen  in  the  matter  of  education,  and  therefore 


^Decreta  Synodi  Plenartae  Episcop.  Hiberniae  apud  Thurles,  Dublin,  1851.  (Tr.) 

"^Ihkl,  pp.  50  sq.   (Tr.) 

3  The  bill  creating  these  Colleges  was  introduced  May  9,  1845.  (Tr.) 

*  Decreta  Synodi  Flen.,  etc.,  pp.  59  sq.  (Tr.) 

5  Pastoral  Address  of  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Ireland,  Dublin, 
1871.  (Tr.) 

^  The  injustice  of  the  system  of  National  Schools  in  Ireland  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  statistics : 

"1.  There  are  2,454  schools,  containing  373,756  Catholic  children,  with  not  a 
Protestant  child." 

''  2.  There  are  2,483  schools,  having  821,641  Catholic  children,  with  only 
24,381  Protestant  children." 

"That  is,  in  4,937 — nearly  5,000 — schools,  with  695,397  Catholic  children, 
there  are  no  more  than  21,381  Protestant."  Card.  Manning,  Miscellanies,  >.i>t 
ter  to  P:arl  Grey,  1868.  (Tr.) 


§  417.  In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  861 

asking  that  a  charter,  authorizing  the  conferring  of  degrees  in  the  secular 
branches,  be  granted  to  the  Catholic  University,  and  a  suitable  endowment  b« 
provided  for  its  support,  or  that  some  other  arrangement  be  made  by  which 
Catholics  may  participate  in  university  privileges  without  compromising  their 
consciences.^  Up  to  the  present  moment,  the  govcrment  has  not  shown  tho 
least  disposition  ti^satisfy  these  just  demands,  and  the  bishops  have  been  obliged 
to  sliift  as  best  they  can.  Thanks  to  the  noble  generosity  of  the  Catholics  of 
Ireland  and  tho  assistance  received  from  their  brethren  in  other  lands,  the 
Catholic  University  of  Dublin,  in  spite  of  the  injustice  of  government  in  with- 
holding a  charter,  is  in  a  comparatively  flourishing  condition.'^ 

Besides  the  College  of  Maynooth  and  the  Missionary  College  of  All  Hallows, 
there  are  thirteen  other  excellent  ecclesiastical  seminaries  in  Ireland.^ 

By  the  disestablishment  and  disendowment  of  the  English  Church  in  Ire- 
land, through  the  Irish  Church  Act  of  1869,  one  of  the  most  stupendous  griev- 
ances with  which  a  people  was  ever  afflicted  was  removed.  This  act  was  justly 
characterized  by  Mr.  Gladstone,  its  author,  as  "tho  most  grave  and  arduous 
work  of  legislation  that  had  ever  been  laid  before  the  House  of  Commons,"  and 
was  one  of  the  boldest  and  most  thorough  attempts  that  had  yet  been  made  to 
partially  correct  the  accumulated  wrongs  and  wicked  legislation  of  three  cen- 
turies. Not  only  had  the  Irish  people  been  despoiled  of  their  churches,  abbeys, 
and  convents,  and  of  their  ecclesiastical  and  charitable  institutions;  but,  in  ad- 
dition to  all  this,  they  were  forced  to  pay  out  of  their  poverty  and  hard  earn- 
ings for  the  support  of  an  alien  Church  and  a  detested  clergy. 

The  capitalized  value  of  the  ecclesiastical  property  of  Ireland  and  the  addi 
tional  annual  revenue,  literally  stolen  from  the  Catholic  people  of  that  coun- 
try,  represented  in  money,  even  after  it  had  been  reduced,  in  the  words  of  Mr. 
Gladstone,  "by  the  almost  unbounded  waste  of  li^'e-tenants  and  the  wisdom  or 
un-wisdom  of  well-intentioned  parliaments,"  the  sum  of  £16,000,000,  in  the  year 

1868.  After  a  protracted  and  exciting  debate,  the  bill  to  disestablish  and  dis- 
endow the  Irish  Establishment  passed  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  and  received 
the  royal  assent  July  26,  1869.  It  provided  that  on  the  1st  day  of  January, 
1871,  the  Established  Church  should  cease  to  exist  in  Ireland,  and  its  archbish- 
ops and  bishops  be  disqualified  to  sit  in  Parliament;  that  churches  in  actual 
use  should  be  handed  over  to  the  representatives  of  the  several  congregations, 
who  were  technically  designated  "governing  bodies;"  that  all  other  proper- 
ties, interests,  etc.,  should  be  taken  possession  of  by  a  Commission,  and  disposed 
of  or  reconveyed  after  January  1,  1871,  as  the  act  directed;  that  archbishops, 
bishops,  and  others  holding  benefices  or  preferments  in  the  Irish  Establishment 
should  receive  an  annuity  equal  in  amount  to  their  ordinary  incomes  during 
the  terra  of  their  natural  lives,  or  while  they  continued  to  perform  the  duties 
of  their  several  ecclesiastical  offices;  that  the  regiiun  donum  of  the  Presbyte- 
rians should  be  withdrawn,  and  that,  in  addition  to  a  grant  of  a  sum,  equal  to 
seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  to  their  College  at  Belfast,  they  should  receive  in 

'  See  Resolutions  of  the  Bishops  assembled  at  Maynooth  College,  August  18, 

1869.  (Tr.) 

-  According  to  the  Fifth  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission,  pp.  25,  26,  the  sunj 
collected  in  187-4  was  £187,000.  (Tk.) 

^  Freeman's  Journal  Church  Commission,  p.  385.  (Tr.) 


862  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

compensation  the  annual  interest  on  a  sura  equal  to  about  four  millions  of  dol 
lars ;  and  that  the  grant  to  Maynooth  College  should  also  be  withdrawn,  and 
the  interest  of  a  sum  equal  to  less  than  half  that  set  aside  for  the  Presbyteri- 
ans  be  appropriated  for  the  support  of  that  institution.  The  bill  is  very  lengthy 
and  very  detailed,  but  these  are  its  chief  provisions.^ 

The  Irish  are  literally  a  missionary  people,  and  their  influence  in  carrying 
the  faith  to  other  lands  and  perpetuating  it  there  can  only  be  properly  appre- 
ciatsd  by  a  reference  to  the  statistics  of  emigration,  which  was  at  full  tide  in 
1840.  From  1845  to  1854,  inclusive,  1,512,100  souls  left  the  country,  chiefly  for 
America  and  Australia;  from  1853  to  1860  the  average  number  of  immigrants 
annually  to  the  United  States  was  71,856,  and  during  the  ten  following  years 
69,084;  in  1871  it  was  65,591;  in  1874,48,186;  in  1875,  31,433;  and  in  1876 
only  16,432.  The  total  number  of  Irish  immigrants  to  the  United  States  for  the 
last  thirty  years  is  about  two  millions.  As  the  great  bulk  of  these  settled  in 
the  larger  cities,  their  influence  upon  the  growth  of  Catholicity  and  the  forma- 
tion of  public  opinion  in  regard  to  the  Church  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

iSTumerous  important  works  have  been  published  within  the  last  forty  year? 
by  eminent  Irish  scholars,  whose  names  are  known  wherever  the  English  lan- 
guage is  spoken,  and  many  of  their  theological  writings  are  of  great  value. 
There  is  hardly  a  considerable  town  in  the  whole  Island  that  has  not  a  news- 
paper Catholic  in  tone  and  doing  good  service  in  the  interest  of  the  Church. 
There  are  also  some  periodicals  of  merit,  of  which  it  will  be  suflicient  to  men- 
tion the  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record,  a  monthly  journal,  conducted  by  a  society 
of  clergymen,  under  the  sanction  of  Cardinal  CuUen;  Ihe  Irish  Monthly;  and 
the  Carlow  College  Magazine. 

SCOTLAND. 

Lord  Clarendon  said  in  1660  that  the  religion  of  Scotland  consisted  in  an 
"  abhorrence  of  Popery."  The  religious  history  of  that  country  from  the  date 
of  the  Keformation  down  to  very  recent  times  has  been  a  verification  of  this 
utterance.  As  late  as  the  year  1700,  a  priest  coming  into  the  country  was 
liable  to  the  penalty  of  death,  and  scarcely  any  mitigation  of  this  hostile  legis- 
lation in  regard  to  Catholics  took  place  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Still  missionaries  were  not  deterred  from  coming  into  the  country  from 
fear  of  barbarous  enactments.  An  apostolic  vicariate  was  erected  there  in  1695 
by  Innocent  XII.  and  another  by  Clement  XII.  In  the  year  1800  there  were 
in  all  Scotland  only  15,000  Catholics ;  by  1850  this  number  had  swelled  to 
200,000,  and  by  1864  to  400,000.  In  1800  there  was  not  a  single  priest  regis- 
tered in  Scotland;  in  1810  there  were  21  ;  in  1848,  100;  in  1804,  178;  in  1873, 
225;  and,  at  present,  1878,  260. 

In  the  year  1800  there  was  not  a  Catholic  church  in  tlie  country ;  in  1810 
thare  was  only  one  ;  in  1850  there  were  93  ;  in  1873,  222  ;  and  in  1878,  236.  In 
1850  Scotland  possessed  70  Catholic  schools,  and  in  1864, 13  convents  of  females. 

By  the  bull  (Quanta  laetitia  affecti  sirnus,  of  February  13,  1827,  Leo  XII.  di- 
vided the  country  into  three  Districts  or  Apostolic  Vicariates,  the  Eastern, 
"Western,  and  Northern.  As  has  been  stated  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  there 
is  a  seminary  at  Blairs,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dee,  approved  by  the  Propa- 


'  See  The  Catholic  World  for  May,  1869. 


§  418.   In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  863 

ganda  in  1832,  and  another,  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Felix,  at  Giffordhall, 
both  in  the  Eastern  District.  On  the  occasion  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  the  con- 
secration of  Pius  IX.  as  bishop,  the  Vicars  Apostolic  of  Scotland  asked  for  the 
restoration  of  the  hierarchy  to  that  country,  and  received  a  promise  that  their 
request  would  be  granted  as  soon  as  the  condition  of  the  Church  there  would 
warrant  the  measure.  The  papers  relative  to  the  subject  were  printed,  and  Dn 
the  19th  of  January,  1878,  delivered  to  Cardinal  Franchi  for  distribution  to 
the  Cardinals  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  for  action  at  their  meet- 
ing to  be  held  on  the  28th  of  the  same  month.i  On  the  29th,  or  the  day  after 
the  meeting  of  the  Cardinals,  Pope  Pius  IX.  (t  February  7,  1878)  restored  the 
hierarchy  to  Scotland.  St.  Andrews  and  Glasgow  were  made  archiepiscopal 
sees ;  and  the  four  sees  of  Aberdeen,  Galloway  (with  seat  at  Dumfries),  Dunkeld 
(with  seat  at  Perth),  and  Argyll  and  the  Isles  (with  seat  at  Oban),  were  made 
suffragan  to  St.  Andrews.^ 

§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

'\Beda  Weber,  Pen-pictures  of  the  Life  of  the  Church  in  Germany,  ]\Ientz,  1858 

After  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  Protestants  gained  the 
ascendancy  in  Germany,  and  their  newly-acquired  power  was 
used  to  oppress  the  Church.  A  spirit  of  religious  indifferent- 
ism  began  to  spread  among  the  people,  which  the  evil  influ- 
ence of  Rationalism,  the  natural  ally  of  Protestantism,  did 
much  to  strengthen  and  perpetuate.  The  terrible  and  disas- 
trous effects  that  followed  the  French  Revolution  were  still  felt. 
The  Church  was  spoiled  of  her  possessions  ;  her  external  or- 
ganization was  shattered  by  the  suppression  of  bishoprics, 
chapters,  and  convents;  and  she  was  no  longer  permitted  to 
govern  herself.  This  state  of  affairs  was  slightly,  but  only 
sHghtly,  improved  by  the  Concordats  entered  into  with  the 
Holy  See.  (See  §  396.)  The  Catholics  of  Germany  began  to 
lose  heart;  they  no  longer  dared  to  speak  out  and  demand  their 
rights.  There  was  also  a  blight  upon  their  intellectual  life ; 
scientific  and  theological  works  from  their  pens  became  daily 
more  rare,  until  finally  they  ceased  almost  entirely  to  appear. 

The  following  causes  contributed  to  rouse  them  from  this 
state  of  lethargy,  to  attach  them  more  warmly  to  the  Church, 
and,  in  consequence,  to  make  them  more  active  and  zealous 
in  her  defense  : 

I.  At  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  a  number  of 

^London  Tablet  of  January  26,  1878.  (Tr.) 
'*  Liverpool  Times,  February  1,  1878.  (Tr.) 


864  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

illustrious  converts  came  into  the  Church.  The  first  of  these 
was  Count  Frederic  Leopold  von  Stolberg,  who  was  shortly  fol- 
lowed by  Frederic  Schlegel,  Charles  Louis  Haller,  Adam  IlluUer, 
Beckedorf,  Jarke,  Fhillips,  the  two  31dllers,  Uerbst,  the  laboi'i- 
ons  Louis  Clarus  (Vdlk),  Hurter,  Gfrdrer,  Ida  liahn,  Daumer, 
Ldnimer,  Krafft,  Baumstark,  and  many  others.^  Ardenth^ 
devoted  to  the  Church,  and  loving  her  with  an  enthusiastic 
love,  these  Catholic  champions  set  themselves  to  the  work  of 
defending  her  doctrines  and  portraj'ing  to  the  world  her  man- 
ifold beauties. 

II.  The  outrageous  abuse  and  the  vile  calumnies  heaped 
upon  Count  Stolberg  and  other  converts  to  Catholicity  ;  the 
celebration,  between  the  years  1817  and  1846,  of  jubilees,  com- 
memoratiug  the  third  centenary  of  the  introduction  of  Pro- 
testantism, into  various  countries  ;  and  the  malignant  hatred 
against  the  Church  displayed  by  Protestants  on  these  occa- 
sions, their  wanton  outrage  of  the  feelings  of  Catholics,  and 
their  extravagant  honors  to  the  memory  of  Luther,^  revived 
the  dormant  spirit  of  faith  among  the  sons  of  the  Church, 
and  taught  them  that  if  they  would  be  helped  they  must  help 
themselves.  First  of  all,  it  was  necessary  to  set  themselves 
right  before  the  public,  to  defend  Catholic  doctrine,  to  correct 
misrepresentation,  to  brand  calumnies  as  they  deserved,  and 
for  this  purpose  they  started  the  excellent  periodicals,  The 
Catholic  of  Jlentz  and  The  Theological  Quarterly  of  Tubingen. 
A-gain,  they  began  to  make  historical  research  a  serious  study, 
pursuing  their  labors  with  greater  zeal  and  profit  as  da^'s  went 
on,  thereby  exposing  and  dissipating  a  cloud  of  falsehoods 
and  misre[)resentations  in  writers  of  both  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  history,  which,  as  de  JlJaistre  truthfully  remarked,  has 
been  for  the  last  three  hundred  years  "  a  conspiracy  against 
the  truth."  The  Catholics  of  Germany  appreciated  the  fact 
that  if  they  would  put  the  truth  clearly  before  the  minds  of 
their  countrymen,  set  forth  the  nature,  the  characteristics,  and 
the  dignit}^  of  the  Church,  and  facilitate  the  return  of  their 


*  Rosenthal,  Life  Pictures  of  Converts  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  SchafF- 
•iausen,  1865  sq.,  3  vols.,  with  Supplement. 

2  Consta.ntine  Christ  (nom  de  plume),  Examination  of  the  Sermons  of  Living 
Eeforraers,  in  Eelation  to  Tolerance  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  Katisbon,  1845. 


§  418.  In  Germany  mid  Switzerland.  865 

separated  brethren  to  her  fold,  they  must  retake  the  ground 
they  had  lost  in  the  field  of  history,  and  this  they  proceeded 
to  do,  and  did  triumphantly,  '^o  man  of  Germany  probably 
exer(;ised  a  more  decisive  influence  in  this  movement  than  the 
gifted  Joseph  von  Gbrres ;  and  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  it 
was  preciseW  a  calm  and  judicial  study  of  the  history  of  the 
Church  in  the  Middle  Ages  that  led  men  like  Hurter  and 
Gfrorer  to  profess  her  teachings,  and  made  John  Frederic 
Bohmer,  of  Frankfort,  one  of  the  most  profound  historical 
students  of  this  century,  whose  delight  it  was  to  be  styled  an 
^'Apologist  of  the  Church,"  the  head  of  a  numerous  school  of 
Catholic  historians,  with  whom  the  study  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was  a  specialty.^ 

III.  The  ^^ Symbolism  "  of  Mbhler,  contrasting  the  dogmatic 
difierences  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  as  set  forth  in 
the  Confessions  of  each,  appeared  immediately  after  the  cen- 
tenary jubilee,  commemorating  the  Diet  and  the  Confession 
of  Augsburg,  and  produced  upon  the  public  mind  a  sensation 
simihir  to  that  of  a  clap  of  thunder  in  a  clear  sky.  The  doc- 
trines of  the  Catholic  Church  and  those  of  Lutheranism  and 
the  Reformed  Church  are  here  set  side  by  side  in  so  striking, 
luminous,  and  masterly  a  way,  that  Protestant  theologians, 
who  had  heretofore  pursued  the  policy  of  superciliously  ig- 
noring the  writings  of  Catholics,  feeling  they  could  do  so  no 
longer  with  safety,  now  published  many  criticisms  of  the  work, 
and  made  it  the  text  of  lectures  in  their  universities,  doing 
their  best,  but  in  vain,  to  refute  it.  The  Universities  of  Tu- 
bingen and  Munich,  with  both  of  which  this  great  writer  was 


1  Of  the  disciples  of  Bohmer,  it  will  be  suflScient  to  name  Aschbach,  Ficker 
Hofler,  .Janssen,  Junkmann,  Stumpf,  and  Will.  The  historians,  Chmel  and 
Kopp,  the  former  an  Austrian  and  the  latter  a  Swiss,  and  Liitolf,  of  Lucerne 
took  pride  in  calling  him  their  master  and  imitating  him  as  their  model 
Potthasi,  of  Berlin,  followed  Bohmer's  method  of  using  sources.  Of  the  Cath- 
olics who  have  written  on  modem  history,  the  following  have  gained  the  great- 
est name:  Cornelius,  Kampschulte,  Gindely,  Koch,  .Jorg,  Holzwarth,  Huffet 
and  Onno  KLopp,  the  last  named  being  thoroughly  Catholic  in  tone.  The  states- 
men, Alfred  von  Reumovt  and  Baron  von  Hiibner,  have  given  to  their  histori 
cal  works  all  the  grace  and  elegance  of  artistic  finish.  Cf.  Janssen.  The  Life 
Letters,  and  Occasional  Writings  of  J.  Fr.  Bbhmfr,  Freiburg,  1868. 
VOL.    Ill — 00 


866  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


connected,  may  be  justly  proud  of  his  fame,  which  has  added 
not  a  little  to  their  own.  On  his  tomb  is  inscribed  the  epi- 
taph :  '■'■The  Defender  of  the  Faith,  the  Ornament  of  Letters,  the 
Comfort  of  the  Church,''  which  will  tell  to  future  generations 
the  work  done  by  this  great  man  for  Catholicity,  particularly 
in  Germany. 

IV.  This  work,  together  with  what  is  known  as  c4ie  Cata- 
strophe,  or,  more  properly,  the  Event  of  Cologne,^  produced  a 
wide  and  profound  impression  in  Germany.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  the  Historico-poUtical  Papers  began  to  be  issued.  It 
was  at  this  time,  too,  that  Joseph  von  Gbrres  pleaded  the  cause 
of  the  Church,  her  authority,  and  her  greatness,  so  manfully, 
eloquently,  and  triumphantly,  in  his  Athanasius  and  the  Tri- 
arians,  that  now,  as  formerly,  by  his  powerful  protests  in  the 
Rhenish  Mercury  against  the  despotism  of  Napoleon  in  Ger- 
many, he  merited  the  title  of  "-The  Fifth  Great  Power"  His 
dying  words,  "  7'Ae  State  rules,  the  Church  protests,"  contained 
a  prophecy  that  has  been  verified  by  events.^ 

"V".  To  her  surprise  and  against  her  will,  the  Church  was  at 
this  time  aided  in  her  conflict  against  despotism  by  the  sect 
of  the  Rongeanists,  or,  as  they  preferred  to  call  themselves, 
German  Catholics.  We  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  again  of 
this  sect  in  a  subsequent  paragraph.^ 

VI.  The  memorable  events  of  the  year  1848  contributed  not  a 
little  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  Church  in  Germany, 
The  Revolution  that  had  its  origin  in  France  swept  over 
nearly  every  country  of  Europe,  and  the  German  sovereigns 
ft)und  themselves  forced  to  grant  to  their  subjects  the  rights 
and  the  freedom  that  had  been  so  long  withheld.  This  con- 
vulsion, though  political  in  its  origin  and  essence,  was  not 
without  its  influence  upon  the  Church.  But  while  the  thrones 
of  princes  were  tottering  and  falling  to  the  ground,  the  fabric 
of  the  Church,  strong  in  the  strength  of  a  divine  organiza- 
tion, bore  up  under  the  shock,  and  now,  as  when  the  Roman 
Empire  was  going  to  pieces,  stood  firm  and  erect  amid  sur- 

iSeep.  766  sq. 

^Jos.  Gbrres,  Complete  Works,  edited  by  Mary  von  Gorres,  Munich,  1854- 
1858. 
»  See  g  421. 


•  §  418.   In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  867 

rounding  desolation  and  ruin.  i^Tow,  as  then,  it  was  plain,  she 
contained  within  herself  an  imperishable  principle  of  indefecti- 
bility.  To  the  bishops  the  present  seemed  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity to  demand  for  the  Church  the  restoration  of  those 
rights,  without  which  it  was  impossible  for  her  to  carry  out 
her  high  mission.  Accordingly,  at  the  invitation  of  John  von 
Geissel,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  the  bishops  of  Germany  met  at 
Wurzburg,  and  continued  in  session  from  the  21st  of  October 
to  the  16th  of  November,  taking  counsel  as  to  the  best  means 
of  raising  the  Church  from  the  depth  into  which  she  had 
fallen.  The  following  were  the  results  of  their  long  and  ar- 
duous labors :  1.  They  addressed  a  very  able  and  aff'ectional 
pastoral  letter  to  the  Catholics  of  Germany  ;  2.  They  sent  a  most 
pressing  and  cheering  exhortation  to  the  clergy ;  3.  They  drew 
up  a  memorial  to  the  German  sovereigns,  which  the  bishops  of 
the  respective  governments  were  charged  to  conmiunicate  of- 
ficially to  the  proper  auth«nnties.     In  this  they  said  : 

"  The  Bishops  of  Germany  do  not  desire  a  separation  of  Church  and  State; 
they  ask  only  for  the  fuller  liberty  and  more  complete  independence  of  the 
Church.  As  to  those  who  differ  from  them  in  belief,  they  will  always  exhibit 
that  charit}',  forbearance,  and  justice  so  necessary  to  the  peace  and  well-being 
of  citizens  of  whatever  profession  of  faith  they  may  be,  without,  however,  giv- 
ing any  countenance  to  indifferentism,  so  destructive  of  every  form  of  religion. 
Having  received  a  divine  commission  to  teach,  they  demand  the  fullest  freedom 
in  the  matter  of  education  and  instruction,  including  the  right  of  founding  and 
governing  their  own  institutions  of  learning,  of  directing  their  own  schools,  of 
administering  their  own  school-funds,  of  selecting  the  text-books  of  religion, 
of  watching  over  the  religious  instruction  of  both  the  primary  and  higher 
schools,  and  of  having  the  exclusive  management  of  their  own  seminaries. 
They  declare  the  interference  of  the  State  in  the  examination  of  candidates  for 
admission  into  clerical  seminaries,  and  in  the  competitive  trials  of  priests  for 
parochial  appointments,  an  unwarrantable  infringement  on  the  liberty  of  the 
Church  and  the  rights  of  bishops,  who  alone  are  competent  to  judge  of  the 
learning  and  moral  character  of  those  desiring  to  become  ministers  of  the 
Church.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Church's  office  to  minister  to  the  temporal,  as  well 
as  to  the  spiritual  well-being  of  nations,  and  to  discharge  this  duty  she  must  bo 
in  possession  of  the  necessary  freedom.  But,  above  and  beyond  all,  the  bishops 
demand  the  right,  which  is  theirs  by  every  title,  of  controlling  all  matters  of 
mblic  worship,  and,  hence,  of  form,ing  religious  associations  and  founding  con- 
vents. Tliey  further  claim  the  right  of  administering  all  ecclesiastical  property ; 
they  protest  most  solemnly  against  the  injurious  imputation  that  their  relations 
to  the  See  of  Rome  constitute  a  crime  against  German  nationality,  and  are  dan- 
gerous to  the  State ;  they  denounce  as  un-Gorman  the  practice  of  setting  spies 


868  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1 

to  observe  "what  goes  on  in  the  intercourse  between  pastors  and  their  flocks; 
and,  finally,  they  express  their  unalterable  devotion  and  attachment  to  the 
Head  of  the  Church,  the  Center  and  Fledge  of  Catholic  unity,  and  declare  a 
placetum  regiwn,  of  whatever  character,  a  violation  of  the  Church's  'mpre- 
scriptible  rights,  and  wholly  incompatible  with  the  enjoyment  of  (oaiplete 
freedom." 

Oil  their  return  to  their  dioceses,  the  bishops  did  their  best 
to  carry  out  the  measures  to  which  they  had  pledged  them- 
selves. Those  of  Prussia,  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical province  of  the  Upper  Ehine  agreed  among  themselves 
to  draw  up  se[)arate  memorials,  to  be  presented  to  their  several 
governments. 

The  complaints  of  the  bishops  obtained  a  respectful  hear- 
ing, and,  in  Prussia,  the  Xllth,  Xlllth,  and  XVth  Articles 
of  the  new  Constitution  embodied  the  substance  of  their  de- 
mands. Article  XII.  provides  that  "  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
Evangelical,  and  all  other  religious  societies,  shall  direct  and 
administer  their  own  affairs,  and  that  they  shall  possess  and 
control  all  houses,  foundations,  and  properties  set  apart  for 
purposes  of  worship,  education,  and  charity."  By  Article 
XIII.,  religious  associations  were  permitted  to  communicate 
freely  with  their  superiors,  and  to  publish  all  ordinances,  with- 
out any  restriction,  other  than  what  was  imposed  upon  publi- 
cations of  any  other  character.  By  Article  XV.,  the  State 
cedes  the  right,  hitherto  claimed,  of  nominating  and  appoint- 
ing to  church-livings,  except  in  cases  of  patronage,  or  where 
special  provision  is  made  to  the  contrary. 

In  Austria,  also,  the  bishops  obtained  a  hearing,  and  their 
voice  was  potent  to  rouse  the  Catholics  of  that  country  from 
their  lethargy  to  a  zeal  and  activity  that  carried  the  memories 
of  the  people  back  to  the  days  of  Frederic  ISchlegel  and  Bishop 
Frint.  After  having  put  down  the  revolutionary  demonstra- 
tions of  his  subjects  in  the  German  and  Italian  provinces  and 
in  Hungary,  the  Emperor  Francis  Joseph,  on  the  18th  of  April, 
1850,  granted,  provisionally,  until  some  more  satisfactory  ar- 
rangements could  be  made,  the  demands  made  by  the  bishops 
who  had  met  at  Vienna  on  the  15th  of  July  of  the  preceding 
year.  These  were,  in  substance,  that  the  imperial  placet 
should  be  given  up  ;  that  the  bishops  should  be  permitted  to 


§  418.  In  German;/  and  Switzerland.  869 

communicate  freely  with  the  Holy  See  ;  and  that  iu  all  mat 
ters  pertaining  to  public  worship  and  ecclesiastical  discipline 
they  should  enjoy  the  most  ample  freedom.  A  Concordat  was 
concluded  between  Austria  aud  the  Holy  See,  August  18, 
1855,  by  which  the  relations  of  Church  and  State  were  defi- 
nitely established,  the  Emperor  renouncing  the  principles  of 
Josephism,  by  which  the  Church  had  been  so  long  held  in 
bondage.  To  the  bishops  who  went  to  thank  him  for  his 
spirit  of  fairness  to  the  Church,  the  Emperor  remarked  :  "  My 
wish  is  to  secure  the  temporal  welfare  of  my  subjects,  and  not 
to  stand  in  the  way  of  their  eternal  salvation.  To  this  end  all 
my  efibrts  are  directed."  Notwithstanding  that  the  Emperor 
granted,  purely  of  his  own  good  will,  more  extensive  liberties 
to  the  Protestant  subjects  of  his  Empire  than  their  brethren 
enjoyed,  even  in  any  Protestant  State  of  Germany  at  that 
time,  this  did  not  prevent  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  both  in 
Austria  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  from  crying  out  and 
clamoring  against  the  Concordat,  as  they  had  done  on  a  former 
occasion  in  the  cases  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden  ;  and  now, 
as  then,  they  labored  most  strenuously  to  prevent  its  execu- 
tion, and,  if  possible,  to  suppress  it  altogether.  For  a  dozen 
years  after  it  had  been  concluded,  few,  if  any,  of  its  provisions 
were  carried  into  effect ;  and,  strange  to  say,  the  first  time  a 
really  practical  eflbrt  was  made  in  this  direction,  it  was  in  re- 
gard to  the  order  to  be  observed  in  cemeteries  in  which  Cath- 
olics and  Protestants  were  alike  buried.  To  allow  the  con- 
troversy to  be  narrowed  down  to  an  issue  concerning  the 
dead,  while  so  many  questions  of  vital  importance  to  the  liv- 
ing were  still  unsettled,  showed  a  lack  of  judgment  and  tact 
somewhere.  The  enemies  of  the  Church  still  continued  to 
clamor  against  tlie  Concordat,  asserting  that  its  provisions 
were  detrimental  to  the  relations,  whether  civil  or  religious, 
which  should  exist  between  Catholics  and  non-Catholics.  So 
persistent  and  determined  was  this  hostility,  and  so  plausible 
the  arguments  by  which  it  was  sustained,  that  many  really 
well-meaning  Catholics  began  to  express  a  wish  that  the  Con- 
cordat had  never  been  concluded,  and  were  now  quite  willing 
to  see  it  either  revoked  or  annulled.  When  it  was  finally 
abolished,  August  9, 1870,  the  event  gave  greater  surprise  and 


870  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

pain  to  the  Holy  Father  than  under  other  circumstauees  it 
would  have  doue,  from  the  fact  that  the  momeut  was  one  of 
exceptional  gravity  and  peril  to  the  Holy  See.  As  early  as 
1868,  three  laws,  highly  prejudicial  to  the  interests  cf  the 
Church,  were  laid  by  the  government  before  the  States  Gen- 
eral, and  passed  by  that  body.  Of  these  the  first  referred  to 
civil  marriage,  the  second  to  u7idenominational  schools,  and  the 
third  to  the  relations  of  citizens  of  all  religious  creeds  to  each 
T)ther. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  PROVINCE    OF   THE    UPPER   RHINE.     (Cf.  §  409.) 

The  conflict  between  the  Church  and  the  Civil  authority  in  this  Province  was 
more  bitter  and  protracted  than  in  any  other  part  of  Germany.  When,  in 
1848,  the  policy  pursued  by  governments  in  regard  to  Church  and  State  began 
to  produce  its  baneful  and  legitimate  results,  particularly  in  Baden,  Vieari, 
Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  judged  that  the  moment  had  arrived  for  demanding  ^ 
for  the  Church  the  restoration  of  those  rights  which  had  been  so  long  and  so 
persistently  withheld,  and,  above  all,  of  the  riglit  of  governing  herself,  without 
the  interference  of  the  civil  authority.  There  were  many  reasons  why  at  least 
the  Catholic  Church  in  Baden  should  enjoy  full  freedom  and  be  the  equal  of 
any  other  before  the  law.  Prussia,  then  the  most  considerable  Protestant  State 
of  Germany,  had  recently  granted  more  extensive  rights  and  larger  liberty  to 
the  Church ;  everything  in  the  German  States  seemed  to  indicate  a  tendency 
toward  uniformity,  whether  in  legislation,  in  weights  and  measures,  or  in  coin 
and  taxation  ;  and,  finally,  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  Baden  was  Catholic. 
The  men  at  the  head  of  the  government  failed  to  appreciate  these  reasons,  or, 
if  appreciating  them,  declined  to  act  upon  them.  In  1851,  the  archbishop  and 
bishops  of  the  other  States  of  the  Province  of  the  Upper  Khine  drew  up  a  me- 
morial, petitioning  their  governments  fcr  the  same  rights  that  had  been  de- 
manded by  Archbishop  Yicari.  In  consequence,  the  civil  representatives  of 
the  several  States  constituting  this  Ecclesiastical  Province  came  together  for 
consultation  at  Carlsruhe.  In  the  meantime  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold  died 
(April  24,  1852),  and  his  death  was  the  occasion  of  still  further  widening  the 
breach  between  the  government  of  Baden  and  Archbishop  Yicari.  On  former 
occasions,  some  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  for  whom  a  violation  of  con- 
science had  fewer  terrors  than  the  thought  of  giving  displeasure  to  civil  gov- 
ernments, had  consented  to  say  solemn  Masses  of  requiein  on  the  death  of  Pro- 
testant princes.  A  Mass  of  this  character  was  now  demanded  for  Duke 
Leopold.  Archbishop  Vieari  respectfully,  but  firmly,  refused  either  to  fay  it 
himself  or  to  permit  another  to  do  so;  first,  because  he  was  convince!  that 
Masses  should  not  be  offered  for  persons,  who,  like  Protestants,  do  not  even 
believe  in  their  efficacy ;  and  next,  because  an  order  of  the  Pope  had  been 


» March  21,  1848. 


§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  871 


lately  published  in  Bavaria,  forbidding  tiie  saying  of  such  Masses.'  He,  how 
ever,  ordered  other  appropriate  funeral  services  for  the  illustrio.is  Duke,  in 
whose  death  he  had  lost  a  munificent  benefactor.  With  these  the  goTernment 
was  not  content.  It  insisted  upon  having  a  solemn  Mass  of  requiem,  and  prom- 
ised its  protection  to  such  priests  as  would  saj'  it  in  defiance  of  the  archbishop's 
order.  Some  were  found  base  enough  to  comply,  and  received  the  usual  reward 
of  men  who  break  faith  with  their  ecclesiastical  superiors  to  secure  the  favor 
of  the  world.  When  these  priests  were  threatened  with  punishment  the  gov- 
ernment declined  to  interfere  ;  but  they  were  let  off  with  the  very  light  penalty 
of  making  a  spiritual  reti-eat,  at  St.  Peters  Seminary,  which  was  conducted  by 
Father  Ruh,  S.  J.  After  waiting  in  vain  for  some  definite  action  on  the  part 
of  the  civil  authorities,  Herman,^  the  metropolitan,  in  February,  1853,  sum- 
moned the  bishops  of  the  suflTagan  sees  of  Mentz,  Rottenburg,  Limburg,  and. 
Fulda  to  meet  him  in  conference  at  Freiburg.  They  resolved  to  send  memo- 
rials to  their  respective  governments  to  the  eflfect  that  they  would  again,  at  an 
early  day,  set  forth  their  claims  and  the  reasons  by  which  they  were  supported, 
and  thenceforth  act  as  if  they  had  been  granted.  Their  demands,  embodied  in 
a  Memorial,  dated  March  5,  1853,  were  denied  by  the  governments,  and  they 
accordingly  met  again  at  Freiburg,  and  in  a  Memorial,  dated  June  18,  1853, 
after  reiterating  whatever  they  had  previously  said,  they  added  that  they  could 
not  believe  there  was  any  serious  intention  of  doing  such  extraordinary  violence 
to  their  consciences,  simply  because  they  made  certain  claims  for  the  Church, 
which  were  thought  incompatible  with  the  rights  of  the  State,  but  which,  by 
ordinance  of  God,  are  essential  to  the  freedom  of  ecclesiastical  government. 
They  went  on  to  say  that  these  claims  had  been  formerly  so  completely  con- 
ceded in  Germany  that  no  one  thought  of  questioning  them;  that  they  vvere 
provided  for  in  the  bulls  Provido  solersque  and  Ad  Dominici  grrgis  custoid'am, 
containing  the  stipulations  entered  into  with  the  Holy  See  ;  and  that  the  Clii.'r''h 
in  the  Electorate  of  Hesse,  one  of  the  States  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Provii.ee  ci' 
the  Upper  llhine,  was  at  that  moment  in  the  enjoyment  of  nearly  all  of  them. 
The  bishops  claimed  the  right  of  full  control  over  the  education  and  appoint- 
ment of  their  clergy  and  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  whether 
in  regard  to  priests  or  laymen  ;  they  also  claimed  the  right  to  build  and  to 
possess  Catholic  schools  ;  to  found  institutes  and  form  associations,  ana  ao  what- 
ever else  might  be  necessarj'^  to  the  maintenance  and  development  of  religious 
life ;  and,  finally,  to  have  the  complete  administration  of  the  property  guaran- 
teed to  the  Church  by  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  and  the  Commissioners  of  the 
German  Empire. 


1  Dereser,  a  Catholic  priest  of  Carlsruhe,  had  already  raised  similar  objections 
on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  the  Grand  Duke  Charles  Frederic.  His  lan- 
guage was  somewhat  intemperate,  and  his  imprudence  was  punished  with 
exile.  Cf  Catholic  Affairs  in  Baden,  Pt.  I.,  op.  23,  2i  ;  also  The  Catholic  of 
1828,  No.  4 ;  Athanasia,  by  Boikei-t,  Wiirzburg,  1847,  Yol.  I.,  No.  1 ;  Dbllin- 
ger,  Rights  and  Duties  of  the  Church  toward  the  Dead  of  other  Denominations, 
Freiburg,  1852  [Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  1842). 

'^  Md.st,  Dogmatical  and  Historical  Treatise  on  the  Legal  Position  of  Arcli 
bishops,  Freiburg,  1847. 


872  Period  3.     JS/)o^A  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

The  various  governments  declined  to  make  any  concessions  other  than  those- 
of  March  3,  1853,  and  threatened  to  proceed  against  such  persons  as  would  go 
beyond  them.  Archbishop  Herman  continued  to  call  upon  the  High  Consistory 
(formerly  the  Catholic  Ecclesiastical  Department),  either  to  concede  the  de- 
mands of  the  ^Memorial  or  to  resign  their  positions,  threatening  them  with  ex- 
communication in  case  of  refusal.  He  also  insisted  that  the  competitive  exam- 
inations for  admission  into  ecclesiastical  seminaries  should  be  conducted  vnthoui 
the  presence  of  a  government  commissioner.  The  government  of  Baden  ap- 
pointed (November  7,  1853)  Burger,  Mayor  of  I'reiburg,  mandatory  to  the 
Crown,  and  required  that  all  commands  issuing  from  the  archbishop  she  aid  be 
submitted  to  his  inspection,  or  otherwise  be  declared  void ;  and  that  any  of  the 
clergy  obeying  the  archbishop's  instructions  should  be  punished  as  common 
criminals.  The  archbishop  in  turn  excommunicated  both  the  members  of  the 
High  Consistory  and  the  Mandatary  to  the  Crown,  and  published  a  Pastoral 
Letter,  protesting  against  the  encroachments  of  the  civil  authority  upon  his 
rights.  Shortly  after,  he  appointed  to  several  vacant  parishes,  to  which  neither 
the  government  nor  private  individuals  possessed  the  right  of  presentation. 
The  government  now  began  to  carry  out  its  threat  of  November,  1853,  by  ar- 
resting and  imprisoning  priests  who  yielded  obedience  to  their  archbishop,  but 
as  they  were  nearly  all  found  to  be  guilty,  the  inconvenience  arising  from  their 
apprehension  in  a  body,  and  the  possible  danger  of  such  a  measure,  were  ap- 
preciated, and  they  were  considerately  let  off  with  fines,  bearing  no  proportion 
to  the  charges  that  were  brought  against  them. 

Pius  IX.  protested  against  the  action  of  the  government  in  two  allocutions, 
the  one  dated  December  19,  1853,  and  the  other  January  9,  1854 ;  and  the  epis- 
copate of  Europe  and  America,  diocesan  societies  and  associations,  and  even 
individual  distinguished  laymen  of  name,  sent  letters  and  addresses  expressing 
their  sympathy  with  the  archbishop  and  their  admiration  of  his  courage. 

By  new  ordinances  of  April  18th  and  Ma,y  6th  and  18th,  the  government 
Btill  further  encroached  upon  the  rights  of  the  Church  in  the  administration  oj 
ecclesiastical  property.  Against  these  the  archbishop  protested,  May  5.  1854, 
stating  that,  according  to  Canon  Law,  local  ecclesiastical  property  should  be 
administered  by  a  board  of  trustees,  sworn  to  conscientiously  perform  their 
duties.  These  events  roused  considerable  indignation  in  the  Catholic  districts, 
and  it  was  feared  that  some  demonstration  might  be  made  against  the  govern- 
ment. To  prevent  this,  large  bodies  of  troops  were  brought  together  where 
danger  was  most  apprehended,  and  the  public  discontent  was  considerably  aug- 
mented by  the  prevailing  scarcity  of  food.  The  archbishop  was  placed  under 
arrest,  and  criminal  proceedings  were  instituted  against  him  on  the  ground  that 
he  had  violated  his  oath  of  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  the  laws  of  the  country. 
From  the  2(;d  to  the  30th  of  May  his  palace  was  guarded  by  soldiers,  and  dur- 
ing this  interval  the  churches  of  his  diocese  wore  an  aspect  of  mourning.  The 
bells  ceased  to  ring,  and  the  organs  were  hushed  ;  the  only  sounds  heard  were 
the  accents  of  prayer,  as  the  faithful  implored  the  divine  aid  for  their  courage- 
ous pastor.  When  he  was  again  set  at  liberty  the  archbishop  defended  himself 
against  the  charges  imputed  to  him,  in  a  pastoral  letter,  which  was  read  from 
all  the  pulpits  of  his  diocese  on  the  8d  of  June,  1854.  In  this,  the  venerable 
old  man,  now  eighty-two  years  of  age,  triumphantly  vindicated  his  conduct. 


§  418.  Til  Germany  and  Switzerland.  873 

and  showed  that,  in  a  season  of  almost  general  defection,  he  had  remained  loyal 
to  the  Slate.  In  the  meantime,  the  government  sent  Count  Leiningen,  and, 
some  time  later,  Brumier,  Counselor  of  State,  to  Kome,  to  open  negotiations 
with  the  Holy  See.  The  bishops  of  the  Upper  Rhine  had  declared  in  their 
Memorial  that,  in  the  case  the  government  should  succeed  in  adjusting  the  ex- 
isting  difBculties  with  the  Holy  Father,  "  they  would  cheerfully  submit  to  the 
ordinances  and  instructions  of  Rome."  After  protracted  and  wearisome  delaysi, 
the  so-called  Freliml)iary  Articles  were  agreed  upon  at  Rome  on  the  17th  of 
June  and  the  7th  of  September.  It  was  agreed  that  all  legal  proceedings 
against  both  the  archbishop  and  his  clergy  should  be  withdrawn,  and  that 
Church  property  should  be  administered  as  it  had  been  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  controversy.  The  archbis^hop,  on  his  part,  consented  to  forego,  for 
the  time  being,  his  contested  rights,  and  content  himself  with  the  privilege  of 
naming  appointees  to  vacant  parishes,  under  the  title  of  parish  vicars,  to  whom 
the  government  allowed  the  usual  emoluments. 

A  Convention  between  Wiirtemberg  and  the  Holy  See  was  concluded  July 
22,  1857,  and  in  publishing  it  the  government  honestly  stated  i  "  that  it  was 
only  just  to  listen  to  the  demands  of  the  bishops  representing  the  Ecclesiastical 
Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  inasmuch  as  it  was  freely  admitted  that  the  con- 
dition of  ecclesiastical  affaire  there  was  abnormal,  and  by  no  means  in  accord  with 
the  prescriptions  of  Canon  Law."  A  similar  Convention  was  concluded  on  the 
28th  of  June,  1859,  between  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden  and  Pius  IX? 


'  Dr.  Florian  Riess,  S.  J.,  The  Wiirtemberg  Concordat,  an  Essay,  Freiburg, 
1858. 

2  The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  acts  and  principal  documents  referring 
to  this  controversy :  The  Restoration  of  Canon  Law  in  the  Eccl.  Prov.  of  the 
Upper  Rhine,  by  a  German  Statesman,  Stuttg.  1853.  Memorial  of  the  Episco- 
pate of  the  Eccl.  Prov.  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  Fbg.  1853.  Reply  of  the  Archbp. 
of  Freiburg  to  the  Decree  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  dated  March  5,  1853, 
Fbg.  1853.  Examination  of  the  Resolutions  adopted  by  the  Governments  of 
the  Eccl.  Prov.  of  the  Upper  Rhine  on  the  occasion  of  the  Bishops'  Memorial 
of  March  5,  1853,  Schaffhausen,  1853.  The  Rights  of  the  Church,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Eccl.  Controversy  in  Baden,  with  special  reference  to  the  Lawful- 
ness of  Excommunication,  etc.,  Mentz,  1853.  Hirscher,  Hints  in  Aid  of  a  Just 
View  of  the  Present  Eccl.  Controversy,  Fbg.  1854.  Lieher,  On  the  AtTairs  of  the 
Eccl.  Prov.  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  Fbg.,  1853.  Baron  von  Ketteler,  Bp.  of  Mentz, 
The  Ri;j:hts  and  Legal  Guarantees  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  Germany,  Mentz,  1854. 
(Seiiz),  The  Legal  Relations  of  the  Cath.  Bps.  of  Germany  to  the  Governments 
of  the  German  States,  Mentz,  1854.  C.  Bader,  An  Exposition  of  the  Contro- 
versy,  based  on  Public  Documents,  in  the  '■^German  (^uartcrly'^  of  1854,  Nros. 
65,  66,  68;  and  by  the  smne,  The  Catholic  Church  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  Prbg.  1860.  Addresses  to  the  Most  Rev.  Archbisliop  Herman  von  Yi- 
cari,  from  Various  Parts  of  the  Catholic  World,  occasioned  hy  the  Eccl.  C]on- 
troversy  in  Baden,  Mentz,  1854,  4  nros.  The  writings  of  his  adversaries  ara 
given  by  Warnkoniy,  On  the  Conflict  of  the  Episcopacy  of  the  Prov.  of  the 
Upper  Rhine  with  the  Civil  Government,  Erlangen,  1853.  Other  Hints  on  the 
True  Nature  (auch  zur  Orientirung  liber)  of  the  Present  Eccl.  Controversy 


874  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


These  Conventions  were  of  short  duration.  The  Protestants  met  in  confer' 
ence  at  Durlach,  and  with  the  aid  of  some  Liberal  Catholics  and  a  majority  of 
the  Professors  of  the  University  of  Freiburg-,  created  such  an  agitation  that 
when  the  Convention  of  Baden  came  before  the  Chambers  it  was  promptly  re- 
jected March  30,  1860.  The  Wiirtemberg  Convention  was  similarly  rejected 
March  16,  1861.  Both  the  Pope  and  the  archbishop  protested  against  this  fla- 
grant violation  of  solemn  engagements,  but  to  no  purpose ;  the  governments 
and  the  chambers  were  equally  determined  to  sustain  their  action.  In  Baden 
a  more  liberal  law  than  had  previously  existed  was  passed  for  the  regulation  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  which,  Minister  Lamey  said,  embodied  the  substance  of 
the  Convention  just  annulled.'  A  law  of  a  similar  character,  passed  January 
30,  1862,  was  substituted  for  the  Convention  by  the  government  of  Wiirtem- 
berg. Bishop  von  Ketteler,  who  placed  little  reliance  in  the  Conventions  en- 
tered into  with  Rome  by  the  governments  of  this  Ecclesiastical  Province,  made 
a  personal  appeal  to  that  of  Hesse- Darmstadt  in  behalf  of  his  own  diocese  of 
Mentz.^  He  secured  moderately  favorable  terms,  but  like  those  agreed  upon 
between  Rome  and  Baden  and  Wiirtemberg,  they  met  with  opposition  in  the 
Upper  Chamber,  in  1866,  and  he  was  in  consequence  obliged  to  relinquish 
them,  expressing  the  hope,  however,  that  the  government,  while  executing  the 
existing  laws,  would  exercise  such  wisdom  and  moderation  as  might  seem  nec- 
essary to  guarantee  the  rights  and  advance  the  interests  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
Archbishop  von  Vicari  adopted  a  similar  policy,  and,  as  early  as  November, 

1861,  came  to  an  understanding  with  the  authorities  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden  concerning  certain  provisions  of  the  Law  of  October  9,  1860.  The  ad- 
justment of  difficulties  was  rendered  comparatively  easy  in  his  case  from  the 
fact  that  Paragraphs  I.  and  VII.  of  the  Law  guaranteed  the  independence  of 
the  Church.  Having  expressed  a  wish  that  the  government  would  secure  the 
Church  in  the  enjoyment  of  her  existing  rights,  in  regard  to  Catholic  schools, 
foundations,  and  revenues,  he  received  a  promise,  on  the  5th  of  November,  1861, 
that  no  change  would  be  made  in  these  matters.  In  the  face  of  these  pledges, 
and  in  defiance  of  the  protests  of  the  archbishop  and  the  remonstrances  of  the 
Catholic  subjects  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  a  sovereign  edict  was  issued,  August  12, 

1862,  providing  for  the  organization  of  an  Undenominational  School  Board,  de- 
claring Catholic  schools  institutions  of  the  State,  and  taking  the  administration 
of  the  funds,  set  apart  for  the  support  of  Catholic  establishments  of  learning 


with  Reference  to  Hirscher's  Writings,  Carlsruhe,  1854.  State  Sovereignty  and 
Church  Authority,  being  a  Letter  to  Hirscher,  Darmstadt,  1854.  Truth  and 
Semblance  (against  Hirscher),  Carlsruhe,  1854.  Archbp.  Herman  of  Freiburg 
and  the  Government  of  Baden,  Lps.  1854.  The  Bishops'  Struggle  on  the 
Rhine,  Frcft.  1854.  Venedey,  The  Pataria  of  the  Xlth  and  XlXth  Centuries 
^against  the  addresses  to  the  Archbp.),  Aarau,  1854. 

'  '-Dr.  Maas,  The  Convention  of  Baden  and  the  Legal  Proceedings  arising  out 
of  its  Execution  (Archives  of  Cath.  Can.  Law,  by  Moy,  1860  and  1861).  The 
work  was  published  separately  at  Innsbruck,  1861,  together  with  an  account  of 
the  literature  relating  to  the  same  subject. 

"^  Dr.  Seiiz,  The  Affair  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  He9s«» 
Mentz,  1861. 


§  418.  In   Germany  and  Switzerland.  875 

and  charity,  from  the  Catholic  Committee  on  foundations,  and  transferring  it 
to  non-Catholic  State  officials,  to  whom,  it  was  said,  it  of  right  belonged.  This 
was  a  bolder  stroke  than  had  yet  been  dealt  at  the  liberties  of  the  Catholics. 
It  brought  tho  controversy  home  to  their  own  doors.  To  have  their  children 
deprived  of  such  education  as  they  wished  to  give  them  was  something  they 
could  fully  understand  and  appi-eciate.  They  held  public  meetings,  organized 
public  demonstrations,  and  availed  themselves  of  every  possible  legal  mean?  to 
express  their  dissatisfaction  with  the  school-law  and  to  place  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  its  execution.  The  clergy,  though  no  longer  ex  officio  directors  of  edu- 
cation, were  still  eligible  to  the  office  of  School  Commissioners;  but  the  arch- 
bishop forbade  them  to  take  any  position  on  the  Boards,  and  ordered  them  to 
confine  themselves  in  the  matter  of  education  to  the  instruction  of  the  people 
in  religious  truths.  This  deprived  the  Commission,  particularly  in  the  rural 
districts,  of  the  assistance  of  the  only  persons  capable  of  properly  superintend- 
ing and  managing  the  schools,  a  circumstance  that  was  seriously  detrimental 
to  the  interests  of  national  education.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1864,  Pope  Pius 
IX.  addressed  a  letter  to  Herman  von  Vicari,  Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  praising 
the  constancy  and  courage  of  that  prelate  in  defending  the  rights  of  the  Church, 
particularly  in  the  matter  of  education.  Education,  said  the  Holy  Father, 
without  religious  training  and  instruction,  can  produce  only  an  impious  and  a 
perverse  generation.  This  is  pre-eminently  true  of  primary  Instruction.  In 
primary  schools,  in  which  are  gathered  together  the  tender  youth  of  all  classes, 
religious  instruction  must  invariably  hold  the  first  place,  and  all  other  branches 
be  subservient  and  accessory  to  it.  Hence,  such  schools  must  of  necessity  be 
under  the  care  and  protection  of  the  Church,  and  all  attempts  to  withdraw 
them  from  her  guardianship  and  authority  spring  from  a  desire  to  extinguish 
the  divine  light  of  faith  among  peoples  and  nations.  Those  who  aim  at  sepa- 
rating religion  from  education,  and  expelling  the  influence  of  tho  Church  from 
the  school-room,  aim  equally  at  overthrowing  her  empire  over  souls,  and  ask 
her  to  forego  the  work  of  man's  salvation.  It  is,  therefore,  the  duty  of  the 
Church,  not  only  to  insist  upon  her  right  of  imparting  religious  instruction  in 
the  school-room,  but  also  to  warn  Catholic  parents  that  schools  from  which 
Catholic  teaching  is  excluded  can  hardly,  if  at  all,  be  frequented  with  a  safe 
conscience.! 

In  the  midst  of  these  politico-religious  agitations,  the  archbishop,  broken  in 
health  and  borne  down  with  weight  of  years,  ended  his  troubled  episcopate  at 
the  age  of  ninety-five,  xVpril  13,  1868.  He  had  celebrated,  on  the  25th  of  the 
preceding  month,  his  silver  jubilee,  or  twenty- fifth  anniversary,  as  metropolitao 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  Province  of  the  Upper  Khine,  amid  the  general  rejoicingf 
of  the  Catholics  of  his  flock. 

Owing  to  the  difficulties,  which  necessarily  arose  between  the  3IetropolitaD 
Chapter  and  the  government,  in  the  selection  of  a  proper  person  to  succeed  to 
the  see,  it  has  continued  vacant  down  to  the  present  moment.  An  under- 
standing, however,  has  been  arrived  at  between  the  .ivil  authorities,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Vicar-Capitular  and  titular  Bishop,  Dr.  Kiibel,  on  the  other 


»  Cf.  Archives  of  Canon  Law,  1864.  (,Tr.) 


876  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     ChapUr  1, 


concerning  the  administration  of  Church  property  and  the  admission  of  priestt 
to  serve  on  local  School  Boards,  but  it  is  only  provisional  and  temporary.^ 


Contrasting  the  Church  in  Germany  since  1848  with  her 
condition  at  the  opening  of  the  century,  we  see  many  tokens 
of  a  revival  of  religious  life  and  of  the  enjoyment  of  a  larger 
freedom,  which  are  very  consoling  to  those  who  have  her  in- 
terests at  heart.  At  the  close  of  the  last  century  and  the  be- 
ginning of  this,  everything  seemed  hastening  to  destruction 
or  already  in  ruins ;  Catholic  progress  had  nearly  ceased  ; 
Catholic  life  had  become  almost  extinct;  every  one  appeared 
possessed  of  a  fatal  spirit  of  listlessness  and  indifi'erence  ;  men 
of  scientific  attainments  had  lost  all  manliness  and  dignity, 
and  either  abstained  altogether  from  speaking  out  in  defense 
of  the  Church,  or,  if  they  did  so  at  all,  their  hesitating  ac- 
cents and  faltering  words  showed  but  too  plainly  that  their 
loyalty  to  truth  was  seriously  impaired  b}'  their  dread  of  giv- 
ing oft'ense  to  princes  and  sovereigns. 

Things  have  now  everywhere  undergone  a  change  more  or 
less  encouraging.  The  Church  has  recovered  from  the  effects 
of  secularization,  and  her  external  organization  is  again  re- 
stored ;  she  is  now  poor,  and  no  longer  tempts  cupidity  or 
excites  envy ;  her  interests,  heretofore  neglected,  or  only 
indifi'erently  promoted,  are  now  jealously  guarded  by  an  act- 
ive and  vigilant  prfss ;  ^  firmness  and  courage  have  succeeded 
to  hesitancy  and  cowardice  ;  formerly,  wholly  ignored  or  elic- 
iting only  the    contemptuous   pit}'  of  Protestants,   she  now 

1  The  publishing, house  of  Herder,  at  Freiburg,  has  issued  the  following  works 
relative  to  the  school  question :  Memorial  of  the  Archbishop  of  Freiburg  on 
the  Condition  of  Schools,  1863 ;  Official  Documents  on  the  School  Question  in 
Baden,  First  Number  (18G4),  Second  (1866) ;  Memorial  of  the  Catholic  Clergy 
of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  concerning  Keform  in  the  Public  Schools,  1863. 

-The  following  are  the  headings  of  the  subjects  treated  in  a  work  entitled 
The  Catholic  Press  of  Germany,  published  at  Freiburg,  in  Brisgovia,  in  1861  : 
1.  Political  papers ;  2.  Purely  ecclesiastical  organs;  3.  Periodicals  devoted  to 
science,  literature,  and  art ;  4.  Journals  and  magazines  devoted  to  political  and 
social  science  and  belles-lettres.  Cf.,  also.  The  Power  of  the  Press,  or  A  Word 
in  Season,  Katisbon,  1866.  Molitor,  The  Organization  of  the  Catholic  Daily 
Press,  Spire,  1867 ;  and  J.  Lukas,  The  Press  an  Instrument  of  Confusion,  Eat« 
iflbon,  1867. 


§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  877 

causes  them  intense  and  unnecessary  alarm,  and  provokea 
their  malignant  hostilit}'.  To  them  Catholics  say,  in  the  words 
of  St.  Ambrose  :  "  We  have  no  wish  to  frighten  you,  nor  will  wn 
be  frightened  by  you,  ^'Nec  terrenms  nee  timemus." 

We  see  ample  proofs  of  this  revival  of  Catholicity  in  Ger- 
many in  the  increased  freedorji  enjoyed  by  the  bishops  and 
in  the  zeal  and  energy  with  which  they  take  up  and  carry  for- 
ward whatever  promotes  the  interests  or  contributes  to  the 
glory  of  the  Church.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century  they 
were  indifferent,  if  not  actually  hostile,  to  the  Head  of  the 
Church  ;  the}^  are  now  among  his  ablest  defenders  and  most 
ardent  sympathissers.  Melchior  von  JXepenbrock,  John  von 
Geissel,  Othmar  von  Rauscher,^  Herman  von  Vicari,  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  bishops,  encouraged  and  stimulated  by  the  exam- 
ple of  the  illustrious  archbishops,  Clemens  Augustus  von  Droste 
and  31artin  von  Dunin^  displayed  in  the  government  of  their 
several  dioceses  a  vigorous  and  varied  activity  quite  unknown 
for  years  in  Germany,  Provincial  and  diocesan  synods,  which 
had  been  long  interrupted,  were  again  held.  Pastoral  letters 
were  written,  as  the  occasion  required,  whose  spirit  carries 
the  mind  to  the  early  days  of  the  Church.  After  the  pattern 
of  the  Fathers,  the  bishops  wrote  treatises  upon  great  relig- 
ious and  social  questions,  which,  for  eloquence  and  beauty  of 
style,  will  compare  favorably  with  their  great  models.  The 
sacerdotal  spirit  was  revived,  strengthened,  and  kept  alive  by 
spiritual  retreats,  held  annually;  and  the  better  to  keep  their 
energies  from  flagging  and  their  zeal  from  growing  cold,  many 
of  the  priests,  on  the  eleven-hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Boniface,  in  1855,  solemnly  pledged  them- 
selves to  repair  once  in  the  year  to  Fulda,  for  the  purpose  of 
going  through  the  spiritual  exercises.  The  right  of  association _ 
which  was  also  recognized  as  inherent  in  the  Church,  gave 
rise  to  numerous  congregations  of  men  and  vmmen.  Apart 
from  the  fact  that  these  are  essential  to  the  full  development 
of  Christianity,  they  are  also  necessary  to  minister  to  the 


1  Card,  von  Razischer,  Pastoral,  Sermons,  and  Addresses,  Vienna,  18G0. 
>  See  p.  766  sq. 


878  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha-pter  1. 

wants  of  society.^  This  was  acknowledged  by  K^apoleon  I., 
who,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Concordat  of  1801,  declared  : 
"  I  have  need  of  monasteries  for  great  crimes,  great  virtues, 
and  great  misfortunes."  These  institutions,  to  which  so  much 
hostility  was  manifested  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  now 
rose  rapidly  in  public  favor.  Not  content  with  reviving  re- 
ligious life  by  cultivating  a  spirit  of  prayer  within  the  walls 
of  their  convents,  and  going  about  giving  missions  to  the 
people,  the  religious  of  both  sexes  ministered  to  the  wants 
and  relieved  the  sufferings  of  all  classes  of  society  with  a 
spirit  of  loving  generosity  and  disinterested  self-sacrifice  at 
once  admirable  and  heroic.  Emulating  the  French  Sisters  of 
Charity  in  the  war  of  the  Crimea,  the  female  religious  of  Ger- 
many moved  like  angels  of  mercy  over  the  battle-fields  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  in  1864;  of  Bohemia,  during  the  fratri- 
cidal war  of  1866;  and  of  France,  during  the  war  of  1870, 
encouraging  the  living  and  comforting  the  dying. 

Associations  of  laymen  were  also  formed,  who  vied  with  the 
religious  in  works  of  charity  and  general  beneficence.  The 
first  of  these  was  organized  at  Mentz,  the  metropolitan  see 
of  St.  Boniface,  and  called  the  "-Pias  Society,'''  after  the  then 
illustrious  Head  of  the  Church.  In  their  tirst  General  Con- 
gress, from  the  3d  to  the  5th  of  October,  1848,  presided  over 
by  von  Buss,  of  Freiburg,  one  of  the  ablest  champions  of  the 
Catholic  cause,^  they  resolved  that  all  the  Catholic  societies 
of  Germany  should  form  a  Union,  to  be  known  as  "  7 he  Cath- 
olic Association  of  Germany ;"  that  its  character  should  be,  not 
political,  but  purely  religious ;  that  it  should  be  entirely  subject 
to  the  Pope,  the  bishops,  and  the  clergy  ;  and  that  general 
congresses  should  be  held  at  intervals,  to  be  determined  by 
the  last  General  Congress.  Its  objects  were  stated  to  be  to  se- 
cure and  retain  the  liberties  necessary  for  the  Catholic  Church 


1  Cf.  Vol.  I.,  p.  744,  "Freiburg  Kirchenblatt."  nros.  23-25,  of  the  year  1858, 
and  the  magnificent  speech  of  Dr.  Moufang  in  the  Eleventh  General  Assembly 
of  the  Catholic  Associations  at  Freiburg  in  1859,  in  the  official  report,  p.  223- 
230.  Cf.,  also,  Schels,  The  Modern  Religious  Congregations  of  Women  and 
their  Legal  Relations,  SchafFhausen,  1857.  Schuppe,  The  Nature  and  Legal 
Position  of  Modern  Religious  Associations  of  Women,  Mentz,  1869. 

"  Cf.  Werner,  Hist  of  Cath.  Theology  since  the  Council  of  Trent,  p.  513-516. 


§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  879 

ill  the  exercise  of  her  legitimate  functions  ;  to  promote  the 
religious  and  social  condition  of  the  people  by  teaching  and  ex- 
ample ;  and,  above  all,  to  cultivate  among  its  members  a  love 
for  works  of  Christian  charity.  The  bishops  assembled  at 
"VVurzbnrg,  November,  13,  1848,  expressed  their  entire  appro- 
val of  the  Association,  and  Pins  IX.,  writing  from  Gaeta, 
Fehruar}'  10,  1849,  did  the  same,  and  graciously  conferred 
upon  it  his  apostolic  benediction.^  From  this  time  forth  Gen- 
eral Congresses  were  held  annually  in  one  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Germany.^  These  were  attended  by  large  numbers 
of  the  loyal  children  of  the  Church,  both  clerical  and  lay, 
and  gave  a  powerful  stimulus  to  religious  life  and  works  of 
Christian  charity.  At  the  very  first  General  Congress,  the 
Societies  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  St.  Elizabeth  were  founded  ; 
and  in  the  succeeding  Congresses  the  Society  of  SL  Boniface, 
for  providing  missions  for  Catholics  whose  lot  is  cast  among 
Protestants,  and  the  Trades  Union  Association,  were  founded 
and  perfected.  Some  idea  may  be  had  of  the  good  accom- 
plished by  the  St.  Boniface  Society  from  the  fact  that  since 
its  organization  the  missions,  which  it  was  designed  to  pro- 
mote, have  increased  sixty-one  per  cent.  The  Trades  Union, 
which  has  about  sixty  thousand  members,  is  of  vast  impor- 
tance from  a  social  point  of  view.  Among  tliose  who  la- 
bored most  earnestly  for  its  success  were  Adolphus  Koljring, 
of  Cologne,  a  man  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  poor;  Alban  Stolz,  of  Freiburg,  the  gifted  Cath- 
olic popular  writer  ;  and  Dr.  A.  Gruscha,  of  Vienna.  The 
Society  for  Catholic  Art,  The  Vienna  Catholic  Literary  Gazette 
(since  1854),  and  The  Society  for  the  Publication  of  Pamphlets, 
all  had  their  orisrin  in  these  Cons^resses  of  the  Catholic  Asso- 


'  For  a  detailed  statement  of  their  origin  and  operations,  cf.  the  "Official  E«- 
port"  of  the  Eleventh  General  Assembly  at  Freiburg,  in  Brisgovia,  ibid.,  1860 
p.  15-35. 

2  They  were  held  successively  at  Mentz,  1848;  Breslau,  1849;  Eatisbon ; 
Linz;  Mentz;  Miinster ;  Vienna;  Lintz;  Salzburg ;  Cologne,  1858;  Freiburg; 
Prague;  3Iunich;  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  Frankfort-on-the-!Main  ;  Wiirzburg; 
Treves,  1865;  in  1866  suspended  by  reason  of  the  German  fratricidal  war; 
Innsbruck,  1867;  Bamberg,  1868;  Diisseldorf,  1869;  in  1870  no  Congress,  on 
account  of  the  Franco-German  war;  Mentz,  1871.  An  o-fficial  report  of  each 
Congress  was  made  and  published. 


880  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

ciation  of  Germany.  Among  the  other  enterprises  proposed 
by  it  were  the  foundation  of  a  free  Catholic  University;  the 
support  of  eminent  Catholic  scholars ;  the  religious  care  of 
the  Catholic  Germans  dispersed  in  the  various  capitals  of  Eu- 
rope ;  the  organization  of  Catholic  committees  on  emigration 
at  Hamburg,  Antwerp,  and  Havre  ;  the  spread  of  the  Sodality 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  all  the  callings  of  life,  but  particu- 
larly am()ng  the  younger  merchants  ;  the  publication  oi  tracts 
for  the  times^  with  a  view  to  refuting  the  slanders  of  the  anti- 
Catholic  press  and  disarming  prejudice  against  the  Church ; 
the  investigation  of  the  questions  concerning  workingmen ;  and, 
finally,  the  devising  of  the  most  efBcient  means  for  resisting 
the  threatened  danger  of  separation  of  Church  and  School. 
The  Association  also  solemnly  protested,  time  and  again, 
against  the  invasion  and  sacrilegious  usurpation  of  the  States 
of  the  Church  ;  against  the  persecution  of  Catholics  in  Po- 
land and  Ireland,  in  Mecklenburg  and  Schleswig-Holstein  ; 
and  against  the  injustice  done  to  Catholics  in  the  States  of 
Germany,  where,  though  legally  and  theoretically  enjoying 
equal  rights  with  their  Protestant  fellow-countrymen,  they 
were  far  from  doing  so  practically  and  in  reality.^  The  words 
uttered  in  the  Congresses  literally  went  out  to  the  ends  of  all 
Germany,  everywhere  evoking  a  hearty  response,  stirring  up 
the  zeal  of  the  faithful,  and  kindling  anew  a  love  for  the  old 
Church. 

Generous  donations  of  money  were  contributed  by  the  mem- 
bers, with  the  aid  of  which  new  parishes  were  organized  and 
many  new  churches  built  in  the  pure  Gothic  style,  while  those 
that  were  unfinished  were  completed,  and  those  going  to  decay 
restored.  The  ornamentation  of  these  churches,  both  in  the 
interior  and  on  the  exterior,  was  symbolical  of  the  mysteries 
of  the  Blessed  Trinity,  commemorative  of  events  in  the  lives 
of  the  Saints  of  God,  and  in  the  most  approved  style  of  7'e- 
vived  Christian  art.     There  were  tokens  everj^where  of  greater 

1  Published  at  Soest,  Miinster,  Frankfort-on-the  Main,  and  at  Vienna. 

^Cf.  Memorial  on  the  Equality  of  Rights  (of  Catholics  and  Protestants)  at 
the  University  of  Bonn,  Freiburg  in  Brisgovia,  1802 ;  Illustration  of  the  Equal- 
ity of  Rights  in  Prussia  in  Regard  to  Higher  and  Intermediate  Schools,  ibid., 
18G2. 


§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  881 

zeal  and  earnestness.  The  people  grew  more  religious,  the 
churches  were  more  thronged,  the  Sacraments  of  Penance 
and  the  Eucharist  were  more  frequented, /j^nma^es  and  other 
extraordinary  forms  of  devotion  gained  in  popular  favor,  and  a 
decided  preference  was  manifested  for  the  grave  and  stateh* 
church  music  of  earlier  ages  and  for  the  older  forms  of  prayer 
and  meditation,  whose  etiicacious,  sweet,  and  soothing  influ- 
ence over  mind  and  heart  was  soon  apparent.  The  face  of  the 
land  seemed  changed,  and  it  was  this  vision  of  beauty  that 
impelled  Beda  Weber,  a  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  and  one  of 
the  most  loyal  sons  of  the  Church,  who  has  given  so  ravishing 
a  picture  of  it  in  his  Cartoons,  to  cry  out  in  a  spirit  of  exult- 
ant gladness,  shortly  before  his  death,  that  he  rejoiced  to  see 
Germany  once  more  openly  Catholic.  But  the  picture,  though 
beautiful  in  the  foreground,  had  dark  shadows  in  the  distance. 
The  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  as  will  always  happen  in  great 
revivals  of  faith  and  devotion,  carried  them  in  some  instances 
to  excess.  Outward  demonstration  was  mistaken  for  true 
piet}^  of  heart,  eccentricity  for  more  rigorous  observance,  and 
moroseness  for  austerity.  Miracles  without  warrant  and  proph- 
ecies without  authentication  gained  credence  with  the  multi- 
tude, and  upright  men  were  shocked  to  witness  the  scandalous 
lives  of  some  who  professed  to  be  practical  Catholics,  l^or 
was  this  all.  Many,  yielding  to  the  materialistic  tendencies 
of  the  age,  to  its  selfishness  and  its  sensuality,  ceased  to  act 
from  principle  or  from  high  motives,  and  lost  all  steadiness 
and  nobility  of  character.  They  grew  indifferent  to  the 
Church,  careless  of  her  interests,  neglectful  of  her  ministra- 
trations,  and,  not  unfrequently,  declaimed  against  her  teach- 
ings, and  avowed  themselves  her  open  enemies.  In  a  Avord — ■ 
and  it  is  well  to  say  it  openly  before  the  world — never  have 
apostasies  from  the  Church  and  from  Christianity  itself  been 
more  numerous  and  alarming  than  in  our  own  day.  "  It  is 
doubtful,"  said  Vincent  Gasser,  Prince-Bishop  of  Brixen,  "  if 
the  Catholic  Church  has  ever  had  to  sustain  more  terrible 
assaults.  When  she  first  set  out  on  her  march  of  victory  over 
the  world,  she  found  the  human  race  sunk  in  materialism 
and  sick  with  the  sickness  of  death.  But  the  poison  was 
VOL.  Ill — 56 


882  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

then  external  to  her.     It  has  now  shown  marks  of  its  pres- 
ence in  her  own  body."  ^ 

The  history  of  Catholicity  in  Switzerland  presents  an  alter- 
nation of  good  and  bad  fortune.^  Two  causes  may  be  men- 
tioned as  mainly  instrumental  in  remedying  the  evils  conse-. 
quent  upon  the  suppression  of  the  convents  in  Argovia  and 
the  disastrous  war  of  the  Sonderbund.  In  the  first  place,  the 
bishops  were  zealous,  active,  and  laborious,  and  some  of  them, 
of  whom  Dr.  Greith  was  the  most  eminent,  were  accomplished 
writers;  and  next,  the  laymen,  with  that  natural  genius  for 
organization  so  peculiar  to  their  countrymen,  formed  associa- 
tions for  various  charitable  purposes.  Such  was  the  character 
of  the  Society  of  Pius  IX.,  the  Society  of  Students,  and  the  So- 
ciety of  Artists.  When  fresh  controversies  arose  between  the 
civil  authorities  of  Argovia,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Bishop 
of  Bale-Soleure  and  the  Pajtal  ]!»J"uncio,  on  the  other,  concern- 
ing mixed  marriages  ;  and  in  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall,  concerning 
the  school  question,  the  power  of  the  Catholic  press,  its  ability, 
and  harmony  of  action  attracted  universal  attention.^  After 
the  accession  to  power  at  Geneva  of  James  Fazy  and  his  po- 
litical adherents,  who  professed  a  liberal  policy  toward  the 
Church,  Bishop  Marilley,  who  had  been  since  1848  the  victim 
of  unceasing  persecution,  and  was  now  in  exile,  was  permitted 
to  return  to  his  diocese  (1856),  and  on  the  8th  of  September, 
1859,  dedicated  a  magnificent  Gothic  church  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  in  the  presence  of  four  bishops  and  one  hundred  and 
fifty  priests,  in  the  very  citadel  of  Calvinism,  where,  until  the 
year  1793,  it  had  been  a  capital  oflense  to  say  Mass.  In  1872 
this  venerable  confessor  of  the  faith  was  succeeded  in  the  see 
of  Geneva  by  Bishop  3Iermillod,  an  eloquent  preacher  and  a 
capable  administrator. 

The  growth  of  Catholicity  in  the  home  of  Calvin  and  the 
nursery  of  his  teachings  is  very  considerable,  whether  the 

1  Cf.  his  speech,  delivered  at  the  Eighteenth  General  Congress  of  the  Catholic 
Association,  at  Innsbruck,  1867. 

2  See  ?  405. 

3  The  Swiss  Gazette ;  The  Ecclesiastical  Gazette  of  Switzerland,  published 
at  Sol*ure;  The  Literary  and  Artistic  Paper  of  Lucerne;  The  Catholic  School 
Journal  of  Switzerland ;  The  Historical  Papers  of  Switzerland,  etc. 


§  418.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland.  883 

number  or  the  influence  of  its  professors  be  considered.  In 
1866,  when  it  was  proposed  to  force  upon  the  country  some 
objectionable  reforms,  the  Catholics  unanimously  opposed 
them,  and  largely  contributed  to  their  rejection.  The  revival 
of  learning  and  religious  life  in  Switzerland  is  mainly  the 
work  of  the  Benedictines  of  the  venerable  monastery  of  JEin- 
siedeln,  among  whom  there  have  been  many  writers  of  distin- 
guished merit,  like  Fathers  Gallus  Morel  and  Charles  Brandes. 
The  ancient  monastery  of  Bheinau,  after  an  unbroken  exist- 
ence of  eleven  hundred  years,  was  suppressed  in  1862  by  the 
government  of  the  Canton  of  Ziirich  ;  and  the  last  remaining 
convent  of  women  in  the  Canton  of  Argovia,  situated  at  Ba- 
den, was  closed  in  1867.  But,  strange  to  say,  there  are  at 
present  more  convents  and  religious  institutions  in  Catholic 
Switzerland  than  she  possessed  before  the  war  of  the  Separate 
Confederacy.  There  appears,  however,  to  be  no  end  to  the 
persecution  of  the  Church  in  that  country.  In  1859  the  right 
of  jurisdiction,  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  Bishops  of  Milan  and 
Como,  in  the  Canton  of  Tessino,  was  abrogated  ;  the  right  of 
dismissing  pastors  and  appointing  others  to  their  places  vested 
in  the  individual  congregations  ;  the  entire  superintendence 
of  worship  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  police ;  and  Catholic 
schools  were  closed.  The  spirit  of  persecution  once  more 
broke  out  in  Geneva  ;  the  teaching  Orders  were  driven  out ; 
Bishop  Mermillod,  the  Vicar  Apostolic,  expelled  (February 
17,  1873) ;  laws  enacted  for  the  regulation  of  worship  ;  and 
pastors,  who  refused  to  take  the  oath,  deposed,  and  apostate 
priests  appointed  in  their  room.  Dr.  Greith  has  set  forth,  in 
a  number  of  memorials,  the  persecutions  suffered  by  the  Cath- 
olics of  the  Canton  of  Saint-Gall,  of  which  he  was  bishop. 
But  perhaps  no  diocese  of  Switzerland  was  so  severely  tried 
as  that  of  Basic.  The  Deputies  of  the  seven  Cantons  com- 
prising this  diocese,  assembled  in  conference,  decided  to  close 
the  ecclesiastical  seminary  of  Soleure,  which  had  been  opened 
in  1858,  many  convents  in  the  various  Cantons  having  been 
previously  suppressed.  The  Deputies  also  sent  a  peremptory 
command  to  Mgr.  E.  Lachat^  Bishop  of  Basle,  to  explain  his 
course  in  regard  to  papal  infallibility,  and  to  withdraw  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  passed  upon  the  Old  Catholic 


884  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


pastors,  Egli^  Gschwind,  and  others.  The  bishop,  having  re- 
fused compliance,  was  deposed  on  the  29th  of  January,  1873, 
and  on  the  17th  of  the  following  April  expelled  from  Soleure. 
In  the  mountains  of  Jura  the  priests,  who  are  sufficiently 
loyal  and  courageous  to  obey  their  bishops,  expiate  their  fidel- 
ity either  in  prison  or  exile;  and,  in  the  meantime, the  people 
are  deprived  of  the  ministrations  of  religion,  as  they  refuse 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  apostate  priests,  who  come  to  fill 
the  places  of  those  taken  from  them.  The  Catholic  Church 
of  Zurich  was  taken  from  its  legal  owners,  and  given  to  the 
"  Old  Catholics,"  whose  preachers,  acting  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  Radicals,  the  enemies  of  all  religion,  go  up  and  down 
the  country  heaping  abuse  and  slander  upon  Catholics  and 
their  faith.  The  bishops  have  time  and  again  sent  expostula- 
tions to  the  Federal  Council,  complaining  of  these  wrongs, 
and  the  Papal  Nuncio  has  frequently  protested  against  this 
abridgment  of  the  liberties  of  the  Church  by  those  Avho  pro- 
fess to  be  the  champions  of  freedom,  but  neither  expostula- 
tions nor  protests  have  produced  the  slightest  etfect.  The 
Holy  Father,  Pius  IX.,  often  sent  words  of  encouragement 
and  comfort  to  the  Swiss,  and  on  the  21st  of  November,  1873, 
condemned  the  action  of  the  Federal  Council,  whereupon  this 
body,  in  January,  1874,  ordered  the  Papal  Nuncio  to  leave  the 
country.^ 

But,  apart  from  these  persecutions,  the  progress  of  the 
Church  in  Switzerland  has  been  rapid  and  important,  and  no 
one  has  contributed  more  to  it  than  the  Capuchin,  Theodosius 
Florentini,^  Vicar  General  of  Coire,  who  died  February  15, 
1865. 

This  child  of  the  mountains  exercised  a  wonderful  influence  over  the  minds 
of  men.  He  was  tall  of  stature,  his  constitution  was  robust,  and  his  carriage 
manly  and  dignified;  he  was  skilled  in  philosophy  and  theology,  and  was  gifted 
with  an  eminently  practical  mind  and  a  heart  delicately  sensitive  to  the  spirit- 
ual and  corporal  needs  of  his  fellow  men.  Few  men  have  been  more  devoted 
to  the  Church,  more  active  in  her  interests,  and  more  reliant  on  God.  He  was 
by  turn   a  school-master,  a  professor,  a  parish-priest,  a  manufacturer,  and  a 


'  Cf.  Bruck,  Ch.  Hist.,  pp.  782  sq.     The  sources  for  this  portion  of  the  history 
may  also  be  found  there.  (Tr.) 

2  A  Short  Biography  of  Father  Theodosius  Florentifii,  Coire,  18G5. 


§  419.    Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  885 

vicar-general,  and  his  success  in  these  various  and  varied  positions  was  uniform 
and  remarkable.  He  founded  schools  and  academies  for  boys  and  girls,  and  pro- 
vided them  with  competent  teachers;  he  opened  hospitals  and  orphanages ;  he 
introduced  silk-weaving,  straw-platting,  knitting,  and  the  manufacture  of  cot- 
ton into  various  districts  of  Switzerland  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  woollen  goods 
into  far  away  Bohemia;  and  was  thus  instrumental  in  banishing  poverty  from 
these  localities ;  but  his  thoughts  were  chiefly  occupied  with  founding  monastic 
houses  and  providing  religious  instruction  for  the  people.  Having  perfected 
the  organization  and  discipline  of  existing  monasteries,  and  directed  the  ener- 
gies of  their  inmates  to  the  work  contemplated  by  their  founders,  he  estab- 
lished at  Schwytz  the  College  of  Mary  of  Help,  including  a  lyceum,  a  gymna- 
sium, a  smaller  seminary,  and  a  training  school,  to  which  he  appointed  eleven 
clerical  and  eight  lay  professors.  But  the  most  splendid  creation  of  his  zeal 
was  the  Hospital  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Coire,  to  which  a  novitiate  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  was  attached,  until  the  foundation  of  their  house  at  IngenboJd,  from 
which  so  many  of  these  devoted  heroines  go  forth  to  carry  the  blessings  of  their 
ministrations  to  the  neighboring  districts.  They  were  called  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  the  Holy  Cross.  The  range  of  their  employment  was  wide  and  va- 
ried, and  they  spread  rapidly  through  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland,  and  estab- 
lished missions  in  Austria,  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  and  Prussia.  Millions 
of  money  were  required  to  start  these  numerous  enterprises  and  keep  them 
going,  but^  Father  Theodosius  never  seemed  to  want;  his  inventive  charity 
provided  means  where  utter  failure  would  have  overtaken  others.  Whenever 
he  felt  that  there  was  a  call  upon  him  to  relieve  some  pressing  need  of  his  fel- 
low men,  seizing  his  pilgrim's  stafl",  he  would  set  forth  on  foot,  traversing  Italy 
from  the  Alps  to  the  Straits  of  Messina,  preaching  along  the  whole  route  of  his 
journey,  and  collecting  for  his  contemplated  works  of  benevolence  and  charity. 
He  would  do  the  same  in  Switzerland,  in  Bavaria,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Ba- 
den, and  in  Austria,  where  especially  his  appeals  met  with  a  prompt  and  gen- 
erous response.  His  easy  address  and  winning  mannei's  won  him  the  good  will 
and  esteem  of  those  not  of  his  own  faith.  The  last  words  penned  by  his  hand 
express  the  rule  of  his  life  and  contain  the  secret  of  his  success.  When  on  his 
death-bed  at  Heiden,  in  the  Canton  of  Appenzell,  being  requested  by  one  of  the 
company  of  the  friends  who  stood  by  him  to  leave  them  some  remembrance, 
he  wrote  on  the  page  of  a  memorandum  book  this  old  Catholic  maxim:  In  ne- 
cessariis  unitas,  in  dub  lis  libertas,  in  omnibus  ca7'itas. 

%  419.  Catholic  Literature  in  Germany  since  the  Opening  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century. 

*  Theoaurus  librorum  rei  catholicae.  Manual  of  Catholic  Bibliography, 
Wiirzburg,  1848-18-50,  2  vols.  Hulskamp  and  Rump,  Literary  Guide  (Liter- 
arischer  Handweiser),  1862-1866.  To  this  is  added  the  very  practical  alpha- 
betical index,  t  Charles  Wernei;  Hist,  of  Catholic  Theology  in  Germany  from 
the  Council  of  Trent,  Munich,  1866.  By  the  same.  Hist,  of  Apologetical  and 
Controversial  Literature.  Vol.  V.,  Schaffhausen,  1867  (Hist,  of  Christian  Apol- 
ogetics in  these  Latter  Days). 


886  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Traces  of  the  spirit  of  Josepbism  did  not  wholly  disappear 
from  the  theological  literature  of  Germany  until  after  the 
Church  had  come  triumphant  out  of  the  conflict  in  which  she 
had  been  engaged,  when  men  rose  up,  even  from  among  her 
enemies,  whose  splendid  intellectual  gifts  and  generous  im- 
pulses enabled  them  to  comprehend  and  appreciate  the  truth, 
and  fitted  them  to  defend  it  with  that  breadth  of  view,  eleva- 
tion of  sentiment,  and  persuasive  beauty  of  language  which 
the  Spirit  of  God  alone  inspires.  Among  these  were  the  il- 
lustrious converts  of  whom  mention  has  already  been  made.^ 
Their  theological  writings  are  distinguished  by  that  breadth 
and  dignity  of  treatment  so  becoming  the  most  noble  of  sci- 
ences. As  Stolberg  led  the  way  to  a  more  profound  study  of 
history,  and  in  particular  of  Church  history,  so  was  Schlegel 
the  pioneer  of  Catholic  journalism  in  Germany.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  German  Museum,  which  was  followed  by  the 
Europe,  the  Athenaeum,  the  Austrian  Observer,  and  other  jour- 
nals devoted  to  the  defense  of  Catholic  doctrine  and  the  elu- 
cidation of  every  branch  of  science,  embracing  in  their  scope 
the  treatment  of  theology,  ecclesiastical  histor}^,  political 
economy,  philosophy,  philology,  poetry,  and  the  fine  arts.^ 

Schlegel,  being  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  many  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  what  was  known  as  the  Romantic  School,  his  con- 
version to  Catholicity,  when  it  took  place  in  1829,  produced  a 


^  We  may  be  permitted  to  quote  here  the  splendid  testimony  which  Hoiry 
Heine  has  borne  to  the  Catholic  Church.  "  I  am  too  well  acquainted  with  his- 
tory," says  he,  "  not  to  be  struck  with  admiration  at  that  gigantic  monument 
known  as  the  Catholic  Church.  Call  her  the  bastile  of  the  soul,  if  you  like; 
say,  if  you  will,  that  she  is  defended  by  imbeciles;  it  is  still  true  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  take  this  bastile,  and  many  a  rash  assailant  will  yet  perish  before  her 
walls.  As  a  thinker  and  a  metaphysician,  I  have  ever  been  forced  to  admire 
the  consistency  of  her  dogmas,  and  even  as  a  poet  I  feel  bound  to  pay  her  the 
«ame  homage." 

^  Cfr.  WilUain  von  Schiitz,  Anticelsus,  a  Quarterly,  1842,  nro.  1 ;  Staudenmiiicr, 
Remembrance  of  Frederic  von  Schlegel,  Tubingen  Quarterly,  1832,  p.  G07-G50. 
Schlegel's  Earlier  Works,  Vienna,  1822-1826,  10  vols.;  then,  Lectures  on  Mod- 
ern History,  Vienna,  1811 ;  Philosophy  of  History,  Vienna,  1829 ;  Philosophy 
of  Life,  Vienna,  1827;  Philosophy  of  Language,  Vienna,  1830.  The  last  four, 
and  other  works,  have  been  translated  into  English.  His  posthumous  works 
were  published  by  Windisehmann,  Bonn,  1836,  1837,  2  vols.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  15  vols.,  1822-1846. 


§  419.    Catholic  Literature  in  Germany^  etc.  887 

powerful  efi'ect  on  the  minds  of  many  of  his  former  friends, 
and,  while  it  was  instrumental  in  bringing  some  into  the 
Church,  it  entirely  alienated  others.  Adam  JlilUer,  a  man  of 
extensive  learning,  treated  politics  from  a  Catholic  point  of 
view  in  the  German  State  Advertiser  (Deutsche  Staatsanzeiger),^ 
and  Jarcke  and  Phillips  followed  him  in  the  same  field  with 
equal  ability  in  the  Berlin  Political  Weekly?'  These  journals 
were  the  forerunners  of  the  ecclesiastico-politiccd  papers,  of 
which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  farther  on.  These 
were  days  wlien  the  Catholic  Church  was  misunderstood  and 
her  doctrines  falsilied  and  misrepresented,  and  hence  there 
was  an  urgent  need  of  Catholic  apologists  to  correct  slanders 
and  refute  false  statements.  This  was  ably  done  by  Kastner, 
Abbot  Prec/dl,  Brenner,  Geiger,  and  others ;  while  Binterim, 
possessing  a  vast  store  of  historical  knowledge,  and  as  zealoua 
as  he  was  learned,  labored  for  close  upon  half  a  century  with 
unflagging  energy  in  the  interests  of  the  Church  (f  1855). 
Popular  expositions  of  Catholic  doctrine  were  written  by 
Onymus,  Ildephonsus  Schwarz,  Sambuga,  Schwarzhueher,  Wid- 
mer^  and  Bishop  Print;  but  none  of  these  attracted  so  large 
a  share  of  attention  by  their  writings  as  Bishop  iS'azYer,  whose 
Fundamental  Doctrines  of  Religion  inspired  a  respect  for  Chris- 
tianity in  the  minds  of  university  students,  and  tausht  them 
that  religion,  and  religion  alone,  is  capable  of  raising  man  to 
his  true  dignity.  He  also  translated  the  Letters  of  All  Ages, 
which  contributed  powerfully  to  withdraw  many  from  the  se- 
ductions of  false  science,  and  lead  them  back  to  the  truth. 
"He  stood  like  a  solitary  light-house  in  the  midst  of  the 
surging  waves  of  rationalism  and  unbelief,  and  to  him  all 
those  who  still  believed  in  Christ  and  hoped  for  salvation 
through  Him,  turned  their  wistful  gaze."  ^ 

Schnappinger,  of  Freiburg,  Galara,  Ilagel,  and  Waibel  wrote 
chiefly  on  positive  theology,  but  their  works  are  much  inferior 
to  those  of  Liebermann,  who  has  been  quite  recently  followed 


^  Adam  von  Muller,  Complete  Works,  Munich,  1839  sq, 

^Jarcke,  Miscellanea,  Munich,  1839  sq.,  3  vols.  Phillips,  Miscellany,  Katisbon, 
3  vols. 

^Aichinr/er,  in  his  Preface  to  the  Life  of  John  Michael  Sailer,  Bishop  of  llat- 
isbon,  Freiburg,  1865. 


Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cluqiter  1. 

bj  Prunyi,  Penka,  Schwetz,  and  some  others.  Oberthur  gave 
special  prominence  to  the  biblical  side  of  theology;^  while 
Hermes,  taking  Stattler  as  his  model,  aimed  at  correcting  the 
influence  of  Kantism,  by  constructing  dogmatical  theology 
upon  a  strictly  philosophical  basis,  and  showing  the  close  and 
essential  connection  between  the  several  dogmas,  one  by  one. 
and  all  the  rest.^  Zimmer,^  and  in  a  measure  Seber*  also,  fol- 
lowing in  the  wake  of  Hermes,  attempted  to  build  a  system 
of  theology  upon  the  principles  of  Schelling's  philosophy  of 
identity.  Dobmayer^  and  Brenner^  took  as  the  basis  of  their 
system  the  idea  of  the  City  of  God,  but,  failing  to  give  con- 
sistency to  their  plan,  they  Anally  abandoned  it;  whence 
Bittner  made  another  effort  to  do  justice  to  the  subject.^ 

Besides  his  other  valuable  contributions  to  Catholic  theol- 
ogy, Drey  also  wM-ote  a  masterly  apology  for  Christianity.^ 
After  the  example  cf  Dobmayer,  Francis  Baader  treated  dog- 
matical theology  from  a  speculative  point  of  view,  but  in  his 
philosophical  notions  he  was  too  close  a  follower  of  the  theo- 
sophic  system  of  Jacob  Bohme,''  and  was  not  unfrequently  at 
variance  with  the  teachings  of  the  Church.  His  disciple, 
Francis  Uoffmann,^^  of  Wiirzburg,  though  a  more  orderly  and 

^  ScJmnppinger,  Doctrina  dogmatum  eccles.  christ.  cathol.  ad  usus  academ., 
Aug.  Vind.  1816,  2  T.  As  to  the  others,  see  Thesaurus,  etc.  Fr.  Liebermann, 
Institt.  tbeolog.,  in  several  editions,  Mentz.  Prunyi,  Theol.  dogmatica  chris- 
tiano-catholica.  Penka,  Praelectiones  ex  theologia  dogmat.  exaratae.  Scliwetz, 
Theologia  dogmatica  catholica.     Oberthur,  Idea  biblica  ecclesiae  Dei. 

2  Vide  infra,  §  419. 

^ Zlmmer,  Veritas  christ.  religionis  s.  theol.  chr.  dogm.  II.  P.  Aug.  Vindelic. 
1789,  1790;  Theol.  christ.  specialis  ac  theoret.,  Landish.  1802-1806;  Philosophy 
of  Religion,  Landshut,  1805. 

*Seber,  Eeligion  and  Theology,  Cologne,  1828. 

5  Dobmayer,  Systema  theolog.  cath.  opus  posthum.  cur.  Senestrey.  VIII.  T., 
Solisb.  1807-1819;  In  compend.  redact,  ab  E.  Salomon,  2  T.,  Solisb.  1813. 

6 Delineation  of  Theology  from  "The  City  of  God,"  Bamberg,  1817-1819,  3 
vols.  Revised  edition,  entitled  System  of  Catholic  Speculative  (?)  Theology, 
Ratisbon,  1838. 

^  I'ranc.  Biitneri,  Posn.  doctoris  et  professoris  theologi  de  civitate  divina  oom- 
mentarii,  Mogunt.  1845.     (Compend.  dogm.  complet.) 

^  Von  Drey,  Apology  or  Scientific  Demonstration  of  the  Divinity  of  Chris- 
tianity, Mentz,  1838,  3  vols. 

9  See  p.  814. 

1"  /'"■.   Hoffmann,    Introduction    to    the    Speculative   Teachings   of    Baader, 


§  419.  Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  889 

luminous  writer  than  his  master,  upon  many  of  whose  obscure, 
passages  he  threw  a  flood  of  light,  is,  nevertheless,  at  times 
difficult  to  understand.  Of  the  writers  who  treated  specula- 
tive theolog\',  Giinther,^  Fapsf,^  Veiih^  of  Vienna,  Klee*  StaU' 
denmaier/'  Ku/in,'^  JBaltzer,  Berlage,  Dieringer,  Oswald,  Zukrigl, 
and  Denziger  are  remarkable  for  their  lucidity  and  scientific 
precision.  The  last  named  published  a  very  careful  review 
of  the  dogmatic  decisions  of  the  Church.  Sheeben  gave  life 
and  warmth  to  his  treatise  on  dogmatic  theology  by  introdu- 
cing into  his  scholasticism  an  element  of  mysticism;^  but  per- 


Aschaffenburg,  1836;  Introduction  to  Theology  and  Philosophy,  ibid.,  1836; 
Edition  of  Baader's  Works. 

^  AntJiony  GMn^/ie?-(t  February  24, 1863),  Introduction  to  Speculative  Theology 
in  the  form  of  Letters,  Vienna,  1828  and  1846-1848,  2  vols. ;  Lights  North  and 
South  on  the  Horizon  of  Speculative  Theology,  Vienna,  1832;  The  Feast  of 
Peregrinus,  Vienna,  1830;  Eurystheus  and  Heracles,  Vienna,  1843;  Thomas  a 
Scrupulis,  Vienna,  1835;  The  Paces  of  Janus  in  Ilelation  to  Philosophy  and 
Theology,  the  joint  production  of  himself  and  Papst,  Vienna,  1834  ;  The  "  Juste- 
Milieux"  of  German  Philoscphy  in  the  Present  Age,  Vienna,  1838  and  1843; 
The  Last  Symbol,  1844  ;  Outlines  of  Metaphysics,  1848 ;  Lydia,  or  an  Annuary 
of  Philosophy,  written  conjointly  with  Veith. 

^ Papsi,  Is  there  a  Philosophy  of  Positive  Christianity?  Cologne,  1832. 
Man  and  His  History,  Vienna,  1830.  On  Ecstasy,  Cologne,  1833.  Adam  and 
Christ. 

3  Veith,  The  "  Our  Father,"  or  Illustrations  of  the  Lord's  Praj'er,  Vienna, 
1831;  3d  ed.,  1842;  Engl,  transl.  by  E.  Cox,  London,  1849.  "  Eucharistia," 
Vienna,  1847.     Homilies,  5  vols.    (Tr.) 

^^  Klee,  System  of  Catholic  Dogmatics,  Bonn,  1831.  Dogmatics,  Mentz,  1839, 
3  vols.  History  of  Dogmas,  Mentz,  1837  sq.,  2  vols.  Outlines  of  Catholic 
Morals,  posthumous  ed.,  by  Himtoben,  Mentz,  1843. 

^  Staudenm,aier  (f  1856),  Hist,  of  the  Election  of  Bishops,  Tubingen,  1830. 
The  Practical  Manifestation  of  the  Gifts  of  the  Spirit  ( Tub.  quart,  1828),  Tub. 
1835.  Scotus  Erigena,  Frkft.  1833.  Encyclopaedia  of  Theological  Sciences 
(Mentz,  1834),  2d  ed..  Vol.  I.,  1840.  Universities  and  the  Interior  Organization 
of  Scientific  Instruction,  Freiburg,  1839.  Philosophy  of  Christianity,  or  Meta- 
physics of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Giessen,  1840,  Vol.  I.  Genius  of  Christianity 
(Mentz,  1835),  7th  ed.,  1860,  2  vols.  Nature  of  the  Cath.  Church,  Freiburg, 
1845.  About  Religious  Pacification  in  the  Future,  Freiburg,  1846,  3  pts.  Chris- 
tian Dogmatics,  Freiburg,  1844  pq.  Picligious  Mi.<sion  of  the  Present  Age,  Frei- 
burg, 1848.  Cfr.  Freibarfj  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  11.31  sq.;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  22, 
p.  387. 

^  Kuh7i,  Jacobi  and  the  Philosophy  of  His  Age,  Mentz,  1834.  Catholic  Dog- 
matics, Tilbingen,  1846  sq. ;  2d  ed.,  1859. 

7  Berlar/e,  Apologetics  of  the  Church,  Miinster,  1834.  Introduction  to  and 
Systematization  of  Catholic  Dogmatics,  ^liinster,  1834,  6  vols.     Dieringer,  S^s- 


890  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

haps  no  writer  of  this  century  did  more  to  rouse  men  from 
the  indifi'erence  into  which  they  were  lapsing,  in  consequence 
of  the  negative  character  of  Protestantism,  than  John  Adam 
Mohler,^  whose  Symbolism,  in  which  is  embodied  so  extensive 
a  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  patristic  science, 
carried  the  thoughts  of  his  contemporaries,  whether  clerical 
or  lay,  back  to  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  and  produced 
upon  their  minds  a  powerful  impression  in  favor  of  Catholic- 
ity. In  the  hope  of  making  a  stand  against  the  growing  in- 
fidelity of  the  age,  Reinerding,  Ehrlich,  Voseii,  and  Hettinger^ 
published  apologetical  writings  in  defense  of  the  doctrines 
that  were  most  violently  assailed.  Bishops  ion  Ketteler,  of 
Mentz,  and  Conrad  Martin,  of  Paderborn,  both  men  of  unusual 
learning  and  ability,  also  dissipated  many  errors  in  doctrine, 
and  corrected  many  prejudices  against  the  Church  by  their 
apologetical  works.^     Ii:  is  gratifying  to  see  the  zeal  and  even 

tematism  of  the  Divine  Facts  of  Christianity,  2d  ed.,  Mentz,  1857.  Manual  of 
Catholic  Dogmatics,  5th  ed.,  Mentz,  1865.  Catechism  for  the  Laity,  Mentz, 
1865.  H.  Oswald,  Dogmatic  Teaching  on  the  Sacraments,  2d  ed.,  Miinster, 
1864.  (His  "Dogmatic  Mariology,"  Lat. :  3Iariologia  Dogmatica,  hoc  est: 
Systematica  expositio  totius  doctrinae  de  B.  Yirgine,  was,  by  decree  of  Decem- 
ber 6,  1855,  put  on  the  Index.  Auetor  laudabillter  se  subjecit  et  opus  reprohavit. 
Index,  libror.  prohib.,  p.  239,  ed.  Mechlin.,  1860.  (Tr.)  Zukrigl,  Scientific  Vin- 
dication of  the  Christian  Dogma  of  the  Trinity,  Vienna,  1846.  Denzinger,  Four 
Books  of  Keligious  Knowledge,  AViirzburg,  1846,  2  vols.,  and  Enchiridion  sym- 
bolorum  et  deflnitionum  de  rebus  fidei  et  morum,  Wircebuvgi,  ed.  IV.,  1865. 
Scheeben,  The  Mysteries  of  the  Christian  Eeligion,  Freiburg,  1865. 

1  Moehler  (f  April  12,  1838),  Unity  of  the  Church,  2d  ed.,  1847.  -Si!.  Athnna- 
sius  the  Great  and  the  Church  of  His  Age,  Mentz,  2d  ed.,  1844.  Symbolisyn,  or 
Doctrinal  Differences  between  Protestants  and  Catholics,  Mentz,  1833;  8th  ed., 
1872;  Engl,  transl.  by  J.  B.  Robertson,  New  York,  1844.  New  Investigations 
of  the  Doctrinal  Points  Controverted  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  2d 
ed.,  Mentz,  1835.  Miscellanea,  published  by  Doellinger,  Eatisbon,  1839,  2  vols. 
See  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  159  sq. ;  Fr.  tr..  Vol.  15,  p.  166  sq. 
Woerner-Gams  (The  Life  of),  John  Adam  Moehler,  Eatisbon,  1866. 

^  Rei'nerding,  Theologia  fundamentalis,  Miinster,  1864.  Ehrlich,  Fundamen- 
tal Theology,  Prague,  1859  sq.  Vosen,  Christianity  and  the  Protests  of  Its  Ad- 
versaries against  It,  2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1864.  Hettinger,  Apologia  of  Christian- 
ity, 4tb  ed.,  Freiburg,  1872  (is  being  transl.  into  Portuguese).  Cfr.  Literary 
Gnide,  No.  32,  p.  54  sq. 

^  Bp.  von  Ketteler,  The  Eights  and  Guarantees  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Ger- 
many, 5th  ed.,  1854;  Liberty  and  Authority  of  the  Church,  7th  ed.,  1862;  The 
Labor  Question  and  Christianity,  3d  ed.,  1864 ;   May  a  Christian  who  has  Faith 


§  419.   Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  891 

enthusiasm  with  which  the  history  of  dogma,  almost  totally 
neglected  since  the  time  of  Petavins  and  Thomassin,  has  been 
again  taken  np  in  these  latter  days  by  Klee,  Worter,  SchwanCy 
and  Zohl;  and  it  is  equally  gratifying  to  see  the  evidences  of 
a  returning  taste  for  the  study  of  biblical  theology} 

31oral  theology  has  been  treated  with  considerable  freedom 
and  some  ability  by  recent  authors,  and  notably  by  GeishUttner, 
Reyberger,  Schenkl,  Wanker,  and  Riegler,  whose  works  are  in- 
fected with  the  prevailing  philosophy  of  the  age,  and  are 
philisophical  treatises  on  ethics,  rather  than  expositions  of 
Christian  morality.  Their  works  were  superseded  hy  Sailer's 
Moral  Theology  (1817)  and  Stajrf's  Christian  Morals,^  and  these 
in  turn,  as  well  as  those  of  Braun  and  Vogelsang,  which  were 
tainted  with  the  errors  of  Hermes,  by  the  writings  of  Hirscher,^ 


be  a  Freemason  ?  About  Religious  Instruction  in  Public  Schools  ;  Our  Situatioa 
in  Germany  after  the  War  of  18G6,  6th  ed.,  1867.  (The  True  Basis  of  Relig- 
ious Pacification,  3d  ed.,  1868;  The  Ecumenical  Council  and  Its  Influence  on 
Our  Age,  5th  ed.,  1869;  The  Views  of  Dr.  Palk,  Minister  of  Worship,  concern- 
ing the  Catholic  Church,  from  his  Speech  of  December  10,  1873  (1874).  Bp. 
Conrad  Martin.  Science  of  Things  Divine,  being  Lectures  for  the  Educated 
Classes;  A  Bishop's  Word  to  the  Protestants  of  Germany;  Second  Work  of  a 
Bishop  (concerning  St.  Boniface's  Society),  etc.     (Tr.) 

1  Klee,  Hist,  of  Dogmatics,  1837.  Woerier^  The  Connection  of  Free-will  with 
Grace,  until  the  Age  of  St.  Augustine,  Freiburg,  1856,  2  vols.;  Pelagian- 
ism,  Freiburg,  1866.  Schwane,  Hist,  of  Dogmas,  Miinster,  1862  sq.,  2  vols. 
ZoM,  Hist,  of  the  Dogmas  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Innspruck,  1865.  Works  on 
biblical  theology  have  been  published,  above  all,  by  Bade,  Koeiiig,  Scholz,  and 
Simar.     Vide  infra,  p.  893,  n.  3. 

^Sailer's  Complete  Works,  revised  and  augmented;  published  by  Widmer, 
Sulzbach,  1830-1841,  in  40  pts.  Cfr.  Services  rendered  by  Sailer  to  the  Cause 
of  Catholic  Science  (  The  Catholic,  1842,  September  number,  p.  247-264).  Stapf, 
Christian  Morality,  Innspruck,  1841,  1842,  4  vols. ;  Latin,  Oeniponti,  1841, 
1842  (ed.  V.) 

^  Hirscher  (t  September  4,  1865),  Connection  of  the  Gospel  with  Modern 
Scholastic  Theology,  Tiibingen,  1823.  Reflections  on  the  Lenten  Goapds  and 
those  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Year  (in  many  editions)  ;  Catechetics,  4th  ed.,  Tii- 
bingen, 1840;  Christian  Morality,  Tiibingen,  1835  sq.,  3  vols,  (in  several  edi- 
tions) ;  Life  of  Jesus;  Large  and  Small  Catechism  ;  Answers  to  the  Great  Re- 
ligious Questions  of  the  Day,  Freiburg,  1846  sq. ;  Life  of  ^lary ;  Principal 
Articles  of  the  Catholic  Faith ;  Reflections  on  the  Epistles  of  the  Sundays ; 
His  Apprehensions  as  to  the  Efficiency  of  Our  Religious  Instruction,  Freiburg, 
1863;  On  Illusions,  Freiburg,  1865;  His  Smaller  Writings,  Freiburg,  1808 
Cf.  Woerter,  Panegyric  of  John  Baptist  Hirscher,  Freiburg,  1866. 


892  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

who,  from  the  very  outset  of  his  career  as  a  writer,  set  aside 
what  he  considered  a  corruptiou  of  Scholasticism,  and  con- 
fined himself  in  his  Christian  Morals  to  a  simple  and  concise 
exposition  of  the  ethical  teaching  of  the  Gospel.  This  work, 
which,  as  it  were,  opened  up  a  new  view  of  the  Kingdom  of 
God,  was  received  with  universal  applause  by  his  contempo- 
raries, whose  faith  it  strengthened,  and  whose  charity  it  pu- 
rified. Like  Mohler,  he  exercised  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  religious  and  ecclesiastical  tendencies  of  his  age  and 
country,  and  his  Catechisms  and  Socratic  Method  of  Instruction 
were  potent  in  giving  direction  to  the  religious  instruction  of 
youth.  The  Christian  tone  and  purely  etchical  treatment  of 
morality  having  been  thus  restored,  quite  a  number  of  works 
on  the  science  appeared  in  rapid  succession  from  the  pens  of 
Probst  (1848),  Martin,  Rietter  (1848  and  1867),  Werner  (1850 
and  1863),  Fuchs  (1851),  Elger  (1852),  Jocham  (1852),  Dieck- 
hoof  (1853),  Bittner,  Hdhnlein  (1855),  Simar  (1866),  Ernst 
Milller,^  Kbssing  (1868),  Linsenmann,  and  Pruner,  some  of 
whom  gave  a  more  positive  character  to  the  subject,  while 
others  revived  the  scholastic  method,  and  overcharged  their 
writings  with  casuistrj'  and  canon  law.^ 

A  great  deal  has  also  been  done  in  these  latter  days  to  ad- 
vance the  study  of  Scripture  and  its  kindred  branches.  The 
work  accomplished  in  this  field  by  Professor  Ja/m  ^  of  Vienna 
and  Professor  Eug  of  Freiburg  (f  1846),  the  latter  a  man  of 
exceptionally  fine  mental  endowments,  but  daring  in  his 
speculations,  has  received  and  largely  merited  the  grateful 
recognition  of  the  learned  world.  They  were  followed  by 
Feilmoser,^  Unterkircher,^  Herbst,  Welte,^  Movers,  Scholz  of 'Bonn, 
Friedlieb,  Haneberg,  Heusch,  Danko,  Scholz  of  Breslau,  31aier 


1  Theologia  Moralis,  Viennae,  1868,  1869. 

2  Cf.  Literary  Guide,  nros.  56-59,  year  1867. 

'  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  Biblical  Archaeology. 

*  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

*  Introductio  in  N.  Test. 

*  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament. 


§  419.   Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  893 

aud  lieithmayr,  Langen,^  LiUterbeck,^  and  others.  Jahn,  Arig- 
ler,  Gerhaiiser,  Alber,  Unterkircher,  Banolder,  Lohnis,  Schmiiter, 
Jbomb,  Gilntner,  Kohlgruber,  and  Wilke,  a  convert,  wrote  on 
hermeneutics,  the  last  named  being  also  the  author  of  the 
Lexicon  Graeco-Laiinum  in  Novum  Testamentum.  Popular 
expositions  of  the  N"e\v  Testament  were  written  by  Sehna.p- 
pinger,  Kisiemaker,  and  Massl;  and  of  the  entire  Bible  by 
Braun,  Brentajio,  Dereser-Scholz,  Allioli,  and  conjointly  hj Loch 
and  jReischl.  Commentaries  aiming  at  giving  a  deeper  view 
of  the  sense  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
were  written  by  Gugler,  Leopold  Schmid,  Welte,  Schegg,Reinke, 
Bade,  Konig,  Thalhojer,  Beusch,  Klee,  Mack,  Stengel,  Adalbert 
Maier  of  Freiburg,  31aier  of  Bamberg,  Aberle  and  Himpel  of 
Tiibingen,  Windischmann,  Reithmaijr,  Stern,  Bisping,  Arnoldi, 
Langen,  Grimm,  Simar,  and  Rohling? 


^  Seholz,  Introd.  to  the  Books  of  the  O.  and  of  the  N.  T.,  Cologne,  1845  sq.; 
Biblical  Archaeology,  Bonn,  1834;  Novum  Testamentum  graece,  Lips.  1830 
eq.,  2  T.  Haneberg,  Essay  of  a  Hist,  of  Biblical  Eevelation,  being  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  of  the  New  Testament,  1850;  3d  ed.,  Eat- 
isbon,  1863.  The  Arabic  Translation  of  the  Psalms  by  Saadia  Reviewed,  1840; 
Eeligious  Antiquities,  1842;  2d  ed.,  186G.  Messmer^  Hist,  of  the  Eevelation, 
Freiburg,  1857,  2  vols.  Reusch,  Manual  of  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Freiburg,  1859;  4th  ed.,  1870.  Danko,  Historia  revelationis  div.  Vet.  et  Nov. 
Testam.,  Viennae,  1862-1867,  3  T.  Schulz,  Manual  of  the  Old  Testament  The- 
ology, Eatisbon,  1861,  2  vols. 

^Lutterbeck,  Doctrinal  System  of  the  N.  T.,  Mentz,  1852,  2  vols. 

'  Gugler,  Explanation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  through  Themselves,  Lucerne, 
1817  sq.,  2  vols.  Schmid,  Interpretation  of  Genesis,  Miinster,  1834,  1835. 
Welte,  The  Book  of  .Job.  Schegg,  Explanation  of  the  Psalms,  of  Isaias,  of  the 
Minor  Prophets,  and  of  the  Gospels.  Reinke,  De  Messiae  expiatore,  passuro  ct 
morituro ;  Prophecy  concerning  the  B.  Virgin  and  Inimanuel ;  .Jacob's  Bless- 
ing ;  Brief  Explanation  of  the  O.  T. ;  Messianic  Psalms;  Greater  and  Minor 
Prophets,  etc.  Bade,  Christology  of  the  O.  T.,  Munster,  2  vols.  Koenig,  The- 
ology of  the  Psalms,  Freiburg,  1857.  The  Idea  of  Immortality  in  the  Book 
of  Job,  Freiburg,  1855.  Old  Testament  Eoyalty,  Freiburg,  1863.  About  Wala- 
fried  Strabo  (Freiburg  Diocesan  Archives,  Vol.  III.)  Thalhofer,  Exposition 
of  the  Psalms,  Eatisbon,  1857,  and  frequently.  Reuse/if  Interpretation  of  the 
Books  of  Baruch  and  Tobias,  Freiburg,  1853  sq.  Klee,  Interpretation  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  and  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Eomans  and  to  the  Hebrews. 
Mack,  Commentary  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  Tuebin- 
gen,  1836.  Stengel,  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Eoman!:^  publ.  by  Beck,  2 
vols.,  Freiburg,  1836.  Adalbert  Maier,  Introduction  to  the  Books  of  the  N.  T., 
Freiburg,  1852;  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  Freiburg,  1843;  Oe 


894  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

The  objections  drawn  from  the  natural  sciences  against  the 
history  of  the  creation,  as  related  in  the  Book  of  Genesis,  have 
been  time  and  again  ably  refuted  or  reconciled  with  the  letter 
of  the  Sacred  Text  by  Eeusch,  Bosizio,  Veith,  Battzer,  and 
Michelis} 

Most  of  the  authors  who  have  written  on  Church  history 
have  been  already  named  in  the  Introduction,  but  the  follow^- 
ing  may  be  added  to  the  list  as  deserving  special  praise  for 
their  excellent  monographs,  viz :  Dbllinger,  Floss,  Hefele, 
Scharpff,  Ginzel,  Kunstmann,  Dilx,  Schwab,  Gfrdrer,  Alfred 
von  Reumont,  von  Buhner,  Charles  Werner,  the  most  prolific 
of  modern  theological  writers;  Bamberger,  Marx,  Hergen- 
rother,  Reinkens,  Gams,  Hagemann,  Friedrich,  Funk,  Hills- 
kamp.  Rump,  and  others.  In  canon  law,  works  have  been 
produced  by  Sauter,  Frey,  Schenkl,  Pelka,  Walter,  von  Brosle, 
Cherier,  Miiller,  Phillips,  Permaneder,  Buss,  Gitzler,  Beidtel, 
Pachmami,  Rosshirt,  Seitz,  von  BJoy  and  Vering,  31aassen,  Hiiffer, 
Schulte,  Kober,  Schopf,  and  Kunstmann,  Sentis,  and  finally 
Gej'lach. 

The  attention  that  has  recently  been  given  to  the  study  of 
Patrology,  or  the  history  of  Christian  literature,  has  been  very 
beneficial  in  many  ways  to  Catholic  theology.  The  first  im- 
pulse to  this  branch  of  ecclesiastical  science  was  given  by 

the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans,  1847  ;  On  the  First  and  Second  to  the  Corinthians  ; 
On  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Christology  of  the  New  Testament,  1871. 
Reithmayr  (of  Munich),  Introd.  to  the  Canonical  Books  of  the  N.  T.,  Katis- 
bon,  1852.  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Eomans,  1845  ;  to  the  Galatians, 
1865.  Windischmanv,  Explanation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  JMentz, 
1843.  Stern,  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse,  Schaffhausen,  1854.  Bisping, 
Manual  of  Exegetics  for  the  Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul;  the  Gospels  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  4  vols.,  to  the  Catholic  Epistles,  partly  in  new  editions, 
Miinster,  1855  sq.  Arnoldi,  Commentary  on  St.  Matthew,  Treves,  1856. 
La7igen,  The  Last  Days  of  Jesus,  being  a  Biblico-Historical  Essay,  Freiburg, 
1864;  The  Condition  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  during  the  Times  of  Jesus  Christ, 
Freiburg,  1866.  Grimm,  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  Katisbon,  1868;  The 
Samaritans,  etc.,  Munich,  1854.  Simar,  The  Theology  of  St.  Paul,  Freiburg, 
1864. 

1  '^Reusch,  The  Holy  Bible  and  Nature,  2d  ed.,  Freiburg,  1866.  Bosizio,  Hex- 
ahemeron  and  Geology,  Mentz,  1865.  Veith,  The  Beginnings  of  Mankind, 
Vienna,  1865.  Baltzer,  The  Mosaic  Account  of  Creation,  Lps.  1866  sq.  Mi- 
chelis.  in  the  periodical  "  Nature  and  Revelation." 


§  419.  Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  895 

Mahler}  He  was  followed  by  Winter,  Wiest,  Busse,  Goldwitzer^ 
Locherer,  and  Anver/arn,  whose  works  on  patrology  are  of 
comparatively  small  value;  they,  however,  led  the  way  for 
abler  men  in  the  same  field,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Permanechr  and  Fessler,  who  w^-otc  in  Latin,  and  Deutingery 
llagon,  and  Alzog,^  who  wrote  in  German.  Valuable  contri- 
butions were  made  to  Syriac  literature  by  Pius  Zingerle^ 
O.  S.  B.,  and  Bickell 

The  beginning  made  by  Austrian  scholars  on  Pastoral  The- 
ology during  the  preceding  Epoch  bore  abundant  fruit  in  the 
present.  Sailer,  the  first  author  of  considerable  merit  in  this 
branch,  was  followed  in  rapid  succession  by  Schwa.rzel^  Poioon- 
dra,  Peichenherger,  Hinterberger,  Zenner^  Gollowitz,  Prockmann, 
Herzog,  Widmer,  Haiker,  Zwickcnp-flug  and  Amberger,  Pohl  of 
Breslau,  Kerschbaumcr  of  St.  Polten,  Schuch  of  Kremsmiinster, 
and  Benger  and  Gassner.  Homiletics  and  catechetics  were  also 
treated  as  specialties  by  many  writers  ;  ^  the  former  by  liirscher, 
Jluller,  tStolz,  Schuster,  Deharbe-  Wilmers,  Jacob  Schmitt,  and 
others;  and  the  latter  by  Zarbl,  Laberentz,  Pluck,  etc.;  while 
Schmid,  Lilft,  Flack,  Kossing,  and  Probst  wrote  on  Liturgy. 

The  vital  importance  attached  to  the  religious  instruction 
of  the  people  during  these  latter  years  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
distinctive  characteristics  of  modern  times,  and  to  be  appre- 
ciated equally  by  clergymen  and  laymen.  Acting  under  the 
advice  of  Sailer,  Bernard  Overberg,  of  Miinster,  a  priest  of 
great  simplicity  of  life  and  dignity  of  manners,  drew  out  in 
writing  a  plan  for  a  model  parish-school ;  but  he  did  not  stop 
here ;  he  at  once  opened  and  conducted  a  school  such  as  he 
bad  designed,  and  was  gratified,  after  much  labor  and  disin- 
terested self-sacrifice,  at  seeing  the  scheme  crowned  with  com- 
plete success.*     Similar  experiments  were  tried,  but  with  less 

1  Moehler's  Patrology,  published  by  Relthmayr,  Vol.  1.,  Eatisbon,  1840. 

^  Permaneder,  Bibliotheca  patristica,  Landishuti,  1841  sq.,  3  T.  (the  first  three 
centuries).  Fessler,  Institutiones  Patrologiae,  Oeniponte,  1850,  1851,  2  T.  (to 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  a.  d.  604).  Deutingcr,  Genius  of  Christian  Tradition, 
Eatisbon,  1830  sq.,  2  vols.  Alzog,  Institutes  of  Patrology,  Freiburg;  1st  ed., 
1866 ;  2d  ed.,  1869 ;  8d  ed.,  1876  :  there  are,  besides,  several  editions  in  French. 

'  Graf,  A  Critical  Exposition  of  the  Present  Condition  of  Practical  Divinity, 
Tuebingen,  1841. 

*  Ho  died  November  9,  1826. 


896  Period  3.     Eyoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

success,  by  Braun  in  Bavaria,  by  Werkmeisier  in  Wiirtemberg, 
unci  by  Demeter  in  Baden. 

"Woi'ks  on  pedagogics  were  written  by  Stapf,  31ilde,  Hergen- 
rother,  Barthd,  and  Dursc/i,  that  of  the  last-named  being  es- 
pe(;ially  good.  But  the  most  eminent  writer  in  this  branch 
of  ecclesiastical  science  was  Kellner,  First  Counsellor  of  State 
and  Commissioner  of  Education,  whose  writings  have  done 
a  vast  deal  of  good.^  Besides  the  praiseworthy  and  merito- 
rious efforts  of  Giles  Jais  and  Christopher  Schmid  to  provide 
religious  instruction  lor  old  and  young,  Alban  Stolz  and  Con- 
rad von  Bolanden,  of  the  diocese  of  Spire,  have  achieved  em- 
inent success  in  the  same  Held,  and,  as  writers  of  religious 
tales  and  other  works  of  a  similar  drift,  have  never  been 
equaled.^  The  Encyclopaedia  of  Systematic  Education  and  In- 
struction, according  to  the  Principles  of  Catholic  Teaching, 
edited  by  the  parish-priests.  Dr.  Bolfus,  of  Baden,  and  Fr. 
Pfister,  of  Wiirtemberg,  was  the  outcome  and  product  of  these 
labors.^  Important  services  to  Catholic  popular  education 
were  rendered  by  the  Congregation  of  the  Mechitarists, 
founded  at  Vienna,  for  the  diffusion  of  Catholic  literature ;  by 
the  Library  Association  of  Bavaria  :  but,  above  all,  by  the 
Association  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  at  Bonn.  Silbert,  of  Vi- 
enna, a  man  of  line  literary  tastes,  aided  in  the  same  work  by 
his  admirable  translations  of  the  best  ascetical  writings,  both 
ancient  and  modern.  Translations  of  similar  works  were 
published  and  distributed  among  the  people  in  Bohemia,  and 

^B.  Overberff,  Method  of  Proper  Instruction  (1793),  6th  ed.,  Miinster,  1825. 
Hist,  of  the  Old  and  of  the  New  Testament,  2  vols.;  Manual  of  Eeligion,  2 
vols.;  Large  and  Small  Catechism  (Complete  ed.  of  Pedagogical  Works,  Miin- 
ster, 1825-1833,  6  vols.)  Cfr.  the  Life  and  Work  of  B.  Overberg,  Delineated  by 
One  of  His  llelatives,  Miinster,  1829.  Krabbe,  Life  of  Bernard  Overberg^  Miin- 
ster, 1835.  Kellner,  National  Education  {Volksschulkunde),  5th  ed.,  Essen, 
1862;  Sketches  and  Portraits  drawn  from  the  History  of  Education,  ibid.,  1862, 
8  vols.  German  Reader  and  Instructor  {Deutsches  Lese-und  Bildungsbuch),  3d 
cd.,  Ereiburg,  1864,  etc. 

"^  Almanac  for  Tnr\Q  and  Eternity  (since  1843) ;  Legend  {smcQ  1853);  Greek 
{Sjmnisches)  to  the  Educated  Classes.  A  Visit  to  Shem,  Cham,  and  Japhet; 
St.  Elizabeth;  The  Conflict  of  My  Soul.  Conrad  von  Bolanden,  Complete 
Works,  People's  edition,  Eatisbon,  1872. 

3  Mentz,  2d  ed.,  1872  sq.,  in  4  vols. 


§  419.   Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  897 

:at  Miinster,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Ratisbon,  Cologno,  SebafFhausen, 
and  Mentz,  Ludwig  Claras  (Volk),  a  convert,  being  especially 
distinguished  for  ease  and  grace  as  u  translator.  ISevcral 
poems,  for  the  most  part  breathing  a  true  Catholic  spirit,  were 
ahio  written  ;  many  of  the  old  hymns  of  the  Church  cleverly 
translated  ;  graphic  sketches  published  of  those  grand  old 
characters  of  former  ages,  whose  joy  it  was  to  walk  in  the 
light  of  God's  countenance  and  to  die  in  the  sweetness  of  His 
peace;  and  tales  of  charming  simplicity  and  winning  interest 
composed  for  children  by  men  and  women  whose  hearts  were 
as  innocent  as  the  hearts  of  those  for  whom  they  wrote.  Of 
these  writers  it  will  be  sufficient  to  instance  the  following; 
Frederic  Schlegel,  Wessenberg,  Clement  Brentano,  Schlosser,  K'6- 
nigsfeld,  Simrock,  JJiepenbrock,  Ed.  con  Scheiik,  von  JEichendorf, 
.Jean  Bapt.  Bousseau,  Gaido  Gorrcs,  Count  Pocci,  Edw.  Vogt, 
Beda  Weber,  Pius  Zingerle,  Ladislaus  Pyrker,  Christopher  Schmid, 
Gallus  llorel,  Oskar  von  Bedwitz,  Father  Ze.il,  Pope,  Gedeon 
von  der  Heide,  Countess  Ida  Hahn-Hahn,  Annette  von  Droste- 
Hillshoff,  and  Emily  Bingseis.  There  were  also  many  able 
Catholic  representatives  among  the  historians  of  literature,^ 
politics,^  and  Christian  art.  The  scope  of  Catholic  literature 
has  been  widened  by  recent  works  on  ecclesiastical  statistics,  for 
which  the  Catholic  world  owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Father 
Charles  of  St.  Aloysius,  Schulte,  Neher,  and  Gams. 

The  literary  and  scientific  activity,  of  which  we  have  been 
giving  instances,  was  largely  due  to  the  Catholic  periodical  lit- 
erature of  Germany^^  to  which  a  powerful  impulse  was  given 
above  fifty  years  ago  by  Frederic  Schlegel.  Tliere  were  many 
Catholic  periodicals,  some  of  course  of  inferior  merit,  but  the 
two  that  have  exercised  the  widest  and  deepest  influence  on 
Catholics  and  Protestants  alike  were,  first,  The  Theological 
Quarterly  of  Tiihingen,  founded  in  1819,  which,  paticularly 
while  it  was  partially  under  the  editorial  management  of 
Mohler  (after  1828),  gave  ample  proof  that  Catholicity,  being 

'  By  von  Eichendorff  atid  Lindenuinn. 
*Seo  Vol.  I.,  p.  29,  note  3 ;  and  Vol.  II.,  p.  865,  note  1. 
*Cf.  The  Catholic,  1843,  .TanuHry  nro.,  pp.  1-17. 
VOL.    Ill — 57 


898  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

founded  on  the  unchangeable  principles  of  truth,  could  hold 
its  own,  not  only  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life,  but  against 
the  most  searching  investigations  of  science  ;  and,  second, 
The  Catholic,  founded  in  1821,  which,  loyal  to  its  motto,  Chris- 
tianus  mihi  nomen,  Catholicus  cognomen,  stirred  up  the  con- 
sciences of  Catholics  and  taught  them  to  set  a  proper  val  .le 
upon  their  dignity,  at  a  season  when  the  spirit  of  indifference 
was  more  generally  diffused  than  in  any  former  age ;  when 
Catholic  doctrine  seemed  fading  or  already  effaced  from  the 
minds  of  men  ;  and  when  the  negations  of  Protestantism  and 
rationalistic  philosophy  appeared  to  have  become  everywhere 
triumphant.  Since  1859,  The  Catholic,  under  the  editorial 
management  of  Heinrich  and  Moufai^g,  has  been  exclusively 
devoted  to  Catholic  science  and  ecclesiastical  life,  its  specialty 
being  mediaeval  theology.  These  two  periodicals  were  fol- 
lowed by  several  others,  which  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  prevalent  tone  as  f  )llows  :  1.  The  Scientific,  or  those 
whose  drift  was  similar  to  that  of  The  Tilbiyigeii  Quarterly,  in- 
cluding The  New  Theological  Journal  of  Vienna,  edited,  until 
1840,  by  Pletz ;  Hug's  Gazette,  in  the  interest  of  the  clergy  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Freiburg,  founded  in  1828  ;  The  Journal 
of  Catholic  Theology  and  Philosophy,  founded  in  1833,  and  ed- 
ited by  the  disciples  of  Hermes  ;  The  Annals  of  Christian  The- 
ology and  Philosophy,  founded  in  1834,  and  published  at  Gies- 
eeu  ;  The  Theological  Journal  of  Freiburg,  founded  in  1839 ; 
The  Archives  of  Theological  Literature,  founded  in  1842,  and 
published  at  Munich  ;  The  Catholic  Peview  of  Science  and  Arts, 
founded  by  Dieringer ;  The  Organ  of  Christian  Art,  edited  by 
Baudri,  of  Cologne  ;  Church,  Decoration,  edited  by  Laib  and 
Schioartz,  of  Stuttgart ;  The  Journal  of  Canon  Law  and  Pas- 
toral Theology,  edited  hy  Dr.  Seitz ;  Nature  and  Pevelationy 
founded  in  1855,  with  a  view  to  harmonize  the  study  of  na- 
ture and  the  dogmas  of  faith ;  7 he  Archives  of  Catholic  Canon 
Law,  founded  in  1857,  and  edited  by  Moy  and  Vering ;  and,- 
after  some  of  the  above  had  been  discontinued,  the  following 
were  started  in  their  room:  The  Catholic  Literary  Journal  oi 
Vienna,  founded  in  1854;  The  Literary  Guide,  founded  in 
1862,  and  edited  by  HiUskamp  and  Bump,  of  Miinster,  its  aim 
being  to  review  the  literature  of  Germany  and  other  countries, 


§  419.   Catholic  Literature  in  Germany,  etc.  899 

to  give  critiques  ai;:l  notices  of  books  and  other  publications, 
and  to  furnish  such  information  concerning  literary  subjects 
and  literary  men  as  might  be  acceptable  to  its  readers  ;  The 
Literary  and  Theological  Journal  of  Criticism,  founded  in  1866, 
and  edited  by  JReusch,  of  Bonn,  which,  in  the  early  days  of 
ita  existence,  counted  among  its  contributors  some  of  the  best 
taient  of  Germany,  but  during  the  Vatican  Council  drifted 
into  the  vagaries  of  the  "Old  Catholics;"  and  the  Historieo- 
poliiieal  Pa'pers,  founded  in  1838,  and  published  at  Munich, 
numbering  among  its  corps  of  writers  many  men  of  great 
learning  and  fine  mental  endowments,  who  did  much  to  give 
a  Catholic  tone  to  politics,  religious  life,  science,  and  art ;  re- 
futed the  misrepresentations  of  Protestant  historians ;  and 
combated  the  erroneous  political  theories  of  modern  times, 
particularly  the  perilous  doctrines  of  Liberalism.  Works  of 
a  similar  character  appearing  in  foreign  countries  were  trans- 
lated and  published  hy  Dr.  Huttler,  of  Augsburg,  in  The  Cath- 
olic StU'lies,  founded  in  1865,  and  embracing  in  the  scope  of 
its  subjects  religion,  history,  science,  art,  and  social  politics. 

2.  Periodicals  having  special  reference  to  pastoral  ministra- 
tions, as,  for  example.  The  Monthly  Eeview  of  Practical  Theol- 
ogy, published  at  Linz,  and  which,  owing  to  its  purely  practical 
character,  was  eminently  popular,  there  being  four  editions  of 
it  published  during  the  most  successful  period  of  its  existence  ; 
The  Pastoral  Archives  of  Constance;  the  Athanasia,  edited  by 
Beukert ;  The  Pastor,  edited  by  Zarbl ;  The  Archives  of  Pas- 
toral Conferences  held  in  the  diocese  of  Augsburg,  founded  in 
1848,  and  edited  by  Merkle,  and  the  Pastoral  Papers  of  31u- 
nich,  Cologne,  Miinster,  Eichstddt,  and  Pai/erborn. 

3.  Dailies  and  Weeklies,  specially  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
the  clergy,  as,  for  instance.  The  Friend  of  RelUjion ;.  Sion ; 
The  Catholic  Journals  of  Frankfort,  Passau,  and  Switzerland  ; 
The  Catholic  Ecclesiastical  Gazette  of  Vienna  ; '  The  Church 
Journal  of  Silesia;  The  South  German,  subsequently  of  Frei- 
burg ;  The  Rhenish  Ecclesiastical  Papers,  and  those  of  Mentz, 
Miinster,  Munich,  Hildesheim,  Salzburg,  Linz,  and  other  cities. 
The  Augsburg  Post-Gazette  and  several  other  papers.  Catholic 

'  Edited  by  Dr.  Sebastian  Brimner. 


900  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chajyter  1, 


in  tone,  have  sprung  up  since  1844,  of  which  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  instance  The  South  German  Gazette  ;  The  Messenger 
of  the  People,  published  at  Munich;  The  Journal  of  Mentz; 
The  People's  Magazine,  subsequently  called  the  Deatschland , 
then  The  Cologne  Gazette,  and  now  The  People's  Gazette ;  The 
People's  Paper,  published  at  Stuttgart ;  The  Westphalia  Mer- 
cury; The  Echo  of  the  Present,  published  at  Aix-la-Chapelle; 
The  Friend  of  the  People,  published  at  Vienna  ;  The  Observer, 
published  at  Baden  ;  The  Germania,  published  at  Berlin;  and 
The  Imperial  Gazette,  published  at  Bonn,  beside  quite  a  num- 
ber of  illustrated  weeklies. 

The  best  productions  of  the  editors  of  these  papers  and  pe- 
riodicals were  collected  and  published  in  the  Ecclesiastical 
Cyclopaedias oi  Wetzer  and  Wette  and  of  Aschbach,  the  former 
issued  at  Freiburg  and  the  latter  at  Frankfort. 

§  420.  Activity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany  in  the  Field  of  Spec- 
ulative Theology. 

t  Aloysius  Schmid,  Activity  displayed  by  Catholics  in  the  Domain  of  Science, 
tlunich,  1862.     Cf.  Chas.  Wer^ier,  Hist,  of  Cath.  Theol..  pp.  405  sq. 

The  impulse  given  to  the  study  of  philosophy  by  recent 
ovents  and  the  desire  to  harmonize  its  principles  and  deduc- 
tions with  the  teachings  of  faith  led  to  very  important  results. 
After  it  had  been  found  impossible  to  reconcile  the  philosophy 
')f  either  Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  or  Hegel  with  the  system 
of  Catholic  theology,  various  attempts  were  made,  first  by 
Frederic  Schlegel,  Molitor,'  and  Baader,  and  subsequently  by 
other  writers,  to  build  up  a  complete  system  of  Christian  phi- 
losophy, which,  while  leaving  faith  intact,  would  serve  as  a 
weapon  of  defense  to  ward  off  the  numerous  attacks  made 
npon  it.  Of  those  who  labored  to  realize  this  idea  it  will  be 
enough  to  quote  the  names  of  Hermes,  Esser,  Elvenich,  von 
Droste,  Braun,  Achterfeld,  and  Baltzer,  representing  one 
school ;  and  of  GUnther,  Papst,  Veith,  Hock,  and  Knoodt, 
representing  another.     Many  of  the  questions  belonging  to 


1  Molitor,  Philosophy  of  History,  or  Tradition,  Frankfort  and  Miinster,  1828 
sq.,  3  pts. 


§  420.  Adicitij  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany,  etc.        901 

Bpeculatlve  theology  and  philosophy  were  also  ably  discussed 
by  Sengler  of  Freiburg,  Schmitt  of  Bamberg,  Leopold  Schmid 
of  Giessen,  Deutinger  of  Munich,  Volkmuth,  Massman,  Sche- 
nach,  Katzenberfjer  of  Bamberg,  Denzinger  and  Francis  Bren- 
ia?]c  of  Wiirzburg,  Huber,  Oischinger,  Suing,  Uschold,  Becker, 
Kaulich,  Hagemann  of  Miinster,  Charles  Werner,  and  others. 
When  Frohscham.tner,  a  professor  at  Munich,  began  to  defend 
philosophical  propositions  at  variance  with  the  teachings  of 
the  Catholic  faith,  Clemens  and  Stockl  of  Miinster,  Plassman  ol 
Paderborn,  von  Schdzler,  Scheeben,  and  other  writers  for  The 
Catholic  of  Mentz,  entered  the  field  against  him,  and,  follow- 
ing in  the  wake  of  Father  Kleutgen,  S.  J.,  of  Rome,  earnestly 
advocated  a  return  to  the  teachings  of  the  Schoolmen,  and,  in 
particular,  to  the  theology  of  St.  Thomas  and  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle.  On  the  other  hand,  Michelis,  of  Braunsberg,  in- 
sisted with  equal  earnestness  on  the  necessity  of  correctly  un- 
derstanding and  properly  applying  to  theology  the  original 
principles  of  the  philosophy  of  Plato.^ 

We  will  here  dwell  a  little  in  detail  upon  these  three  move- 
ments, because  of  their  importance,  and  first  upon  that  of 
which  Hermes,  professor  at  Miinster,  and  subsequently  at 
Bonn,  was  the  leader. 

George  Hermes  died  at  Bonn,  March  26,1831.  The  follow- 
ing w^ords,  inscribed  on  his  tomb,  unlike  most  epitaphs,  have 
the  merit  of  being  truthful:  "From  his  earliest  youth  this 
truly  great  man  sacrificed  all  the  pleasures  of  life  to  his  thirst 
for  knowledge  of  sacred  things  and  to  his  zeal  for  the  Chris- 
tian religion  ;  and  no  master  of  this  or  any  other  age  has  in- 
spired in  his  pupils  feelings  of  such  tender  attachment  and 
loyal  devotion."  And,  we  may  add,  never  has  master  guided 
pupils,  whether  in  their  studies  or  in  their  daily  conduct,  with 
greater  wisdom  and  prudence.     Fully  believing  in  his  own, 

>  p.  Kleutgen.  S.  J.,  The  Theology  of  Past  Ages,  Miinster,  1853  sq.,  8  vols.; 
Philosophy  of  Past  Ages,  ibid.,  1860  sq.,  2  vols.  Against  this:  Mlc/ielis,  Ob- 
servations on  the  Philosophy  of  Past  Ages,  Defended  by  Father  Kleutgen, 
Freiburg,  1865.  The  same,  The  Philosophy  of  Plato  in  Its  Intimate  Connec- 
tion with  Revealed  Truth,  Munster,  1859,  2  pts.  Dr.  Becker,  The  Philosophical 
System  of  Plato  in  Its  Relation  to  Christian  Dogma,  taken  from  quite  a  dif- 
ferent point  of  view  of  the  subject,  Freiburg,  1862. 


902  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

he  was  impatient  and  even  intolerant  of  all  other  systems,  and 
this  spirit  of  exclusiveness  interfered  with  his  breadth  of  view%' 
incapacitating  him  to  judge  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  as 
a  whole  and  in  their  multitudinous  relations,  and  leading  both 
him  and  his  disciples  unconsciously  to  introduce  a  rational- 
istic and  Pelagian  element  into  their  treatment.  His  system 
was  in  consequence  condemned  at  Rome,  SepternDer  26, 1835, 
and  the  justice  ^  of  the  judgment  was  plainly  established  whea 
Professor  Baltzer,  probably  the  most  vigorous  of  all  his  disci- 
ples, openly  advocated  Semi-Rationalism  and  Semi-Pelagian- 
ism  in  his  exposition  of  Hermesianism.'  After  the  publica- 
tion of  the  brief  of  condemnation,  the  more  obstinate  of  his 
disciples,  refusing  to  yield,  defended  themselves,  like  the  Jan- 
senists  in  a  former  age,*  by  declaring  that  the  doctrines  con- 
demned by  the  Holy  Father  had  not  been  taught  by  Hermes, 
and  were  not  to  be  found  in  his  writings.  Two  of  the  more 
prominent  of  these,  Professors  i!^7venzc/!,  of  Breslau,  and  Braun^ 
of  Bonn,  after  some  preliminary  correspondence  with  the 
Holy  See,  oft'ered  to  appear  personally  and  prove  that  their 

1  Cfr.  Esser,  Recollections  of  George  Hermes,  Cologne,  1832,  pp.  135,  136. 
Works  of  Hermes,  On  the  Intrinsic  Truth  of  Christianity,  Miinster,  1805; 
Philosophical  Introduction  to  Catholic  Theology,  Miinster,  1819 ;  Positive  In- 
troduction, ibid.,  1829 ;  Catholic  Dogmatics,  published  by  Achterfeld,  Munster, 
1831  sq.,  3  vols. 

^  Pro  memoy-ia,  in  the  Affair  of  Hermesianism,  Mentz,  1837.  {Meckel),  The 
Doctrines  of  Hermes  with  Respect  to  their  Condemnation  by  the  Pope.  ^lentz, 
1837.  Berlaje,  Introduction  to  Catholic  Dogmatics  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
Papal  Condemnation  of  the  Doctrine  of  Hermes,  Munster,  1839.  A  pretty 
full  statement  of  this  controversy  is  found  in  Niediier,  Philosophiae  Hermesii 
Bonnensis  novar.  rer.  in  theol.  exordii  explicatio  et  esistimatio,  Lps.  1889. 
Niedner  arrives  at  the  following  conclusion :  "  Hermes  is  far  from  having 
strengthened  the  basis  of  revelation  by  his  philosophy."'  The  first  charge 
against  Hermes  (by  Windischnann)  in  ''■The  Catholic"  1825,  October  number, 
p.  1  sq.,  and,  especially,  November  number,  p.  158  sq.  The  Replies  (by  Droste?) 
In  Smets'  Catholic  Monthly,  spec,  ed.,  Cologne,  1825,  Vol.  I.,  p.  81  sq. ;  Vol.  II., 
p.  101-107.  Cfr.  Kreiizhage,  The  Connection  of  the  Hermesian  System  with 
Christian  Science,  Munster,  1838,  note  1,  and  llifit.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VII., 
p.  6-J8  sq.  Myletor,  Hermesianism  reviewed  from  Its  Dogmatical  Point  of 
View,  Ratisbon,  1845. 

^  Baltzer,  Essay  in  Aid  of  an  Impartial  Judgment  on  Catholicism  and  Pr»ii. 
testantism,  2d  number,  pp.  156  and  264  in  the  notes,  Breslau,  1840. 

♦See  §  365. 


§  420.  Acticity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany,  etc.        903 

statement  was  correct ;  but  Itome  peremptorily  declined  to 
enter  upon  so  useless  a  discussion,  broke  off  all  negotiations, 
and  demanded  an  unqualified  submission  to  the  brief  of  con- 
demnation/ Several  of  the  professors  at  the  Seminary  of 
Treves,  favorable  to  the  teachings  of  Hermes,  now  signified 
their  readiness  to  cheerfully  submit,  without  qualification,  to 
the  decree  of  the  Holy  See,  and,  in  consequence,  drew  up  an 
act  of  renunciation,  which  they  placed  in  the  hands  of  their 
bishop,  at  the  same  time  forwarding  a  copy  to  the  Holy  Father. 
To  the  more  loyal  of  the  followers  of  Hermes  this  act  gave 
ofiense,  and  produced  a  temporary  rupture  between  the  Rhen- 
ish clergy  and  those  of  Westphalia. 

While  Hermes  gave  too  great  importance  to  the  office  of  the 
reason  in  arriving  at  the  knowledge  of  revealed  truth,  Pro- 
fessor Bautain,  of  Strasburg,  went  to  the  other  extreme,  de- 
nying the  legitimate  functions  of  the  human  intellect  as  an 
■instrument  of  such  knowledge.  His  bishop  condemned  his 
teaching  as  dangerous,  and  the  Holy  See  fully  sustained  the 
decision.^ 

By  Professor  Braun,  of  Bonn,  this  judgment  was  inter- 
preted as  an  approval  of  the  teachings  of  Hermes,  as  if  there 
could  be  no  via  me(/?'a  between  Bantainism  and  Hermesianism. 
When  Braun  and  his  friends  persisted  in  their  errors,  a  formal 
complaint  was  made  against  them  at  Rome,  and  sustained  by 
the  Holy  See.^  Bautain  and  his  followers,  after  some  previous 
discussion  at  Rome,  humbly  and  unreservedly  acquiesced  in 

1  Braun  et  Elvenich,  Acta  Romana,  Lips.  1838.  Cfr.  therewith  Hist,  and 
PoUt.  Papers,  Vol.  II.,  p.  526-543.  Braun  et  Elvenich,  Meletemata  theologica. 
Lps.  1838  ;  German  revised  edition,  "  Theologische  Studien  mit  Anmerkungen,'' 
Cologne,  18i9. 

^Rapport  a  Mgr.  I'eveque  de  Strasbourg,  sur  les  ccrits  de  M.  I'abbe  Bautain, 
Paris,  1838.  Moehler,  A  Letter  Missive  to  M.  Bautain,  in  his  Complete  Works, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  141-164.  Cfr.  A  Brief  Review  of  M.  Bautahis  Theory  (in  The 
Catholic,  1835,  Vol.  57,  p.  125  sq.,  p.  286  sq.),  and  many  articles  in  the  Bo7i}i 
Review. 

8 1 Braun,  The  Tenets  of  Hermesianism,  etc.,  Bonn,  1835.  Laocoon,  or  Hermes 
and  Perrone,  by  Daniel  Bernhardi  (Braun),  Cologne,  1840.  This  work  in 
Latiii:  Laocoon  sive  Hermesius  et  Perronius.  Latins  conversus  et  variis  addi* 
tamentis  auctus,  Bonnae,  1842. 


904  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

the  judgment  of  the  Holy  Father.^  Professors  Achterfeld  and 
Braun,  obstinately  refusing  to  submit  to  the  Papal  Brief,  con- 
demning the  writings  of  Hermes,  were  declared  by  the  Coad- 
jutor-Archbishop of  Cologne  disqualified  to  hold  their  chairs 
in  the  University,  and  were  accordingly  retired  by  the  gov- 
ernment, in  1844,  but  left  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  full  sala- 
ries.2  Being  sincerely  attached  to  the  Church,  they  could 
not  bring  themselves  to  break  openly  with  her  Head,  lohorn 
they  had  ever  recognized,  both  by  deed  and  word,  as  the  true  suc- 
cessor to  St.  Peter.  After  having  sent  them  an  encyclical  let- 
ter, pointing  out  the  errors  of  Hermes,  and  summoning  them 
in  a  spirit  of  paternal  kindness  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of 
the  Holy  See,  which  entirely  failed  of  its  purpose,  Pius  IX. 
renewed  the  censure  passed  upon  Hermesianism  by  Gre- 
gory XYU 

A  similar  controversy  arose  in  1850  concerning  Anthony 
Giinther,  a  secular  priest  of  Vienna,  and  his  disciples,  who 
were  charged  with  unduly  exaggerating  the  claims  of  science 
and  correspondingly  ignoring  those  of  the  authority  of  the 
Church.  After  an  animated  controversy,  both  parties  laid 
the  points  at  issue  before  the  Holy  See  for  decision.*     By  a 

1  The  Catholic,  1841,  Suppl.  to  February  number.  Tubi7igen  Quart.,  1841,^ 
p.  371  sq. 

2  The  explanations  given  by  Professors  Braun  and  Achterfeld  of  the  grounds 
of  their  refusal  to  submit  to  the  Pope's  decision  are  found  in  the  Bonn  Review, 
new  series,  year  IV.,  nro.  4,  and  some  articles  of  The  Catholic  of  1844,  nros.  1, 
4,  and  16. 

3  Cfr.  The  Ca.tholic,  1847,  September  number.  Bonn  Review  of  Philos.  and 
Theol.,  ed.  by  Achterfeld  and  Braun,  nro.  64. 

*  Arguments  for  and  against  Giinther,  in  the  Old  and  in  the  Aew  Sion;  in  the 
Aupsburff  Post-Gazette ;  in  the  Wiirzburg  Catholic  Weekly.  Mattes,  Giinther 
and  His  Points  of  Approach  to  the  New  School  of  Theology  (  Tubingen  Quart., 
1844,  3d  nro.,  p.  347-416).  Clemens,  The  Speculative  Theology  of  Giinther  and 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Cologne,  1853.  Baltzer,  Kew  Theological 
Letters,  addressed  to  Dr.  Anthony  Giinther,  Breslau,  1853,  two  series.  Knoodt, 
Giinther  and  Clemens,  Vienna,  1853.  Clemens,  Manifest  Opposition  of  Giin- 
ther's  Speculation  to  the  Doctrine  of  the  Catholic  Church,  by  Professor  luioodty 
Cologne,  1853.  Oischinger,  The  Philosophy  of  Giinther,  Schaflfhausen,  1852. 
Michelis,  The  Philosophy  of  Giinther  Pteviewed,  Miinster,  1854.  Zukrigl,  Crit- 
ical Investigation  into  the  Essence  of  the  liational  Spirit  and  the  Psycho-Cor- 
poreal Nature  of  Man,  Katisbon,  1854.  Hitzfelder,  The  Latest  Discussions  on 
the  Speculative  Theology  of  Dr.  A.  Ouniher  and  of  His  School  {^Tub.  Quart., 


§  420.  Activity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany,  etc.        905 

decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Index,  dated  Jan- 
uary 8,  1857,  Giinther's  entire  works  were  condemned,  and 
to  the  great  joy  of  the  Holy  Father,  the  humble  priest  promptly 
and  cheerfully  submitted  to  the  decision.  He  died  February 
24,  1863.  It  can  not,  however,  be  denied  that  Giinther,  like 
Baader,  rendered  important  services  to  Catholic  science;  and 
being  a  more  skillful  and  acute  dialectician  than  the  latter,  he 
was  better  able  to  make  a  successful  stand  against  Protestant 
philosophy,  the  more  so  in  that  he  was  firmly  persuaded  that 
the  principles  underlying  his  philosophical  system  were 
grounded  on  the  unalterable  teachings  of  Catholic  theology. 
Like  Hermes  he  manifested  a  tendency  to  a  rationalistic  bias 
of  thought,  and,  failing  to  clearly  apprehend  and  set  forth  the 
distinction  between  formalism  and  realism  in  logic,  he  arrived 
at  incorrect  conclusions  concerning  the  Trinity  and  erroneous 
views  on  creation.  He  also  failed  to  properl}'  appreciate  the 
relation  of  empiricism  to  idealism,  of  faith  to  science,  and  of 
spirit  to  matter,  and,  by  consequence,  of  the  divine  to  the  human 
nature  in  Christ.^  To  him,  however,  above  all  others,  in  mod- 
ern times,  is  due  the  credit  of  having  revived  the  study  of 
the  science  of  theology  in  Austria. 

Frohschammer,  a  professor  at  Munich,  and  a  prolific  writer, 
advanced  some  startling  propositions  on  the  origin  of  the 
soul,  advocating  the  theory  of  traducianism,  which  he  carried 

1851,  Nro.  1).  The  sa7ne,  The  Theology  and  Polemics  of  the  partisans  of  Giin- 
ther (Tub.  Qica7-i.,  1854,  Nro.  4).  Giinther's  Eeply  thereto,  in  the  last  volume 
of  Lydla,  A.  D.,  1854.  Anthony  Giinther  and  the  Discussions  on  His  Philos- 
ophy (by  a  Catholic  Divine),  in  the  Augsb.  Univ.  Gazette,  Suppl.  to  Nros.  105, 
106,  107,  of  18G3.  The  Ameriam  Cyclop,  says  :  "  A.  Giinther  was  eminent  as  a 
writer  on  philosophical  subjects.  But  while  he  coml^ated  the  views  of  Hegel 
end  Herbart,  and  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church 
with  the  teachings  of  modern  philosophy,  he  unjustly  blumed  the  Fathers  ':>f 
the  Chur:h  and  the  scholastics  for  having  eraploj^ed  pagan  conceptions  .n 
seeking  to  impress  the  truths  of  religion."  All  his  works,  as  given  above,  at 
p.  889,  abstruse  as  are  their  contents,  were  in  a  Latin  translation  (by  Flir), 
after  nine  years'  close  examination,  placed  on  the  Index  Expurgaiorius  (January 
8,  1857).  Auctor,  so  says  the  Index  at  p.  146,  datis  Uteris  ad  SS.  D.  N.  Plum, 
P.  P.  IX.  sub  die  10  Febr.  (1857),  ingenue,  religiose  ac  laudabiliter  se  sub- 
jecii.  (Tk.) 

'  9eo  the  Papal  Brief,  which  is  found  in  the  work  entitled  "  Pius  IX.  as  Pope 
and  as  King,"  p.  117. 


906  Period  3.     Epocli  2.     Part  2.     CMi^ter  1. 

to  the  extreme  of  generationism.  He  also  pleaded  in  strong 
and  unmistakable  language  for  the  complete  and  absolute  sep- 
aration of  philosophy  from  theology.  His  writings  were  con- 
demned by  the  Holy  See  December  11,  1862.^  The  writings 
of  two  other  professors  at  the  University  of  Munich,  Ruber 
and  Pichler,  were  also  condemned ;  those  of  the  former  because 
their  authoi*  had  advanced  certain  errors  concerning  Scotus 
Engena ;  and  those  of  the  latter,  because  they  contained  a 
defense  of  the  Greek  Schism  at  variance  with  historical  facts 
and  detrimental  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  including  strictures 
on  the  authority  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Index  and 
the  binding  force  of  its  decrees.^  Many  theologians,  believ- 
ing that  the  origin  of  these  errors  lay  in  the  abandonment  of 
the  old  scholastic  methods,^  formed  a  new  school,  known  as 
Keo-Scholasticism,  and,  forgetful  of  the  Catholic  maxim — In 
dubiis  libertas,  in  omnibus  caritas — declaimed  intemperately 
against  the  advocates  of  modern  speculative  methods,  even 
going  the  length  of  questioning  their  loyalty  to  the  Church. 
This  conduct  was  all  the  more  reprehensible,  in  that  the  ad- 
vocates of  the  new  scientific  methods  had  not  manifested  the 
least  hostility  to  the  Schoolmen  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  bore 
willing  witness  to  their  loftiness  of  thought  and  their  activity, 
the  impulse  they  had  given  to  the  human  mind  and  the  ser- 
vices they  had  rendered  to  science.  Nay,  more,  Charles 
Werner,  one  of   their  number,  made  a  special  study  of  the 


1  Frohscha)n'»er,  On  the  Origin  of  the  Human  Soul,  Munich,  1854;  Intro- 
duction to  Philosophy,  ibid.,  1858 ;  On  the  Liberty  of  Science,  several  articles 
in  the  periodical  ''Athenaeum ; "  On  the  Rights  of  Philosophy  and  Scholasti- 
cism, Munich,  1863.  Cfr.  Dr.  Becker,  The  Liberty  and  the  Rights  of  the  New 
Philosophy,  by  Frohschammer,  reviewed,  Spire,  1863 ;  and  in  The  Catholic  of 
186S,  Vol.  I.,  p.  385-407;  and  Vol.  II.:  ''Frohschammer  and  the  Apostolic 
See,"  three  articles.  See  also  Dr.  O.  A.  Brownsoris  Quarterly  Review,  year 
1863. 

2  The  Roman  Congregation  of  the  Index  and  Its  Powers,  Munich,  1863.  In 
an  opposite  spirit :  "  Authorization,  Objects,  and  Organs  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Index;"  "  History  of  the  Congr.  of  the  Index;"  "Authority  of  the  S. 
C>ngr.  of  the  Index."  These  three  articles  have  appeared  in  The  Catholic  of 
Mentz.  1864,  Vol.  I.  Cfr.,  especially,  Heijmans,  De  ecclesiastica  librorum 
aliovumque  scriptorum  in  Belgia  prohibitorum  discipiina  disquisitio,  Brux.  184'J. 

5  1 .  Kleutgen,  S.  J.,  Theology  and  Philosophy  of  Past  Ages.  Cfr.  Dieringer, 
Theo   >gy  of  the  Past  and  of  the  Present  Ages. 


§  420.  Activity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany,  etc.        907 

works  of  St.  Thomas  and  Suarez,  two  ot  the  most  eminent  of 
the  Schoolmen,  giving  a  wonderfully  vivid  and  truthful  pic- 
ture of  their  lives,  their  labors,  and  their  influence.  But  they 
did  protest  against  |:)ietensions  like  those  set  forth  in  the  work 
of  Plassmann,^  by  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  restrict  Uiod- 
ern  science  to  methods  which  have  been  long  since  given  up 
in  the  study  of  theology  and  piiilosophy,  as  if  the  example 
of  St.  Thomas  himself,  who  was  so  tolerant  of  the  opinions  of 
others,  were  not  a  solemn  warning  against  a  proceeding  so  un- 
reasonable. To  discard  modern  methods,  better  adapted  to 
the  present  development  of  science,  and  to  again  introduce 
into  schools  the  old  peripatetic  and  scholastic  methods,  would 
be  even  to  disregard  the  injunction  contained  in  the  words  of 
St.  Matthew,  ix.  16.  After  some  desultory  skirmishing,  di- 
rected against  the  N'eo-Scholastics,  chiefly  by  Mattes,^  Oischinger, 
and  Deutinger,  the  controversy  finally  assumed  a  more  definite 
shape  in  the  hands  of  Professor  Clemens^  of  Miinster,  and  Pro- 
fessor Kuhn,  of  Tiibingen,  the  former  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  Philosophy  the  Handmaid  of  Theology  [Philosophia  an- 
cilla  theologiae,  1865),  and  the  latter  of  another  entitled  The 
Connection  between  Theology  and  Philosophy.  Both  of  the  dis- 
putants conceded  that  the  real  question  at  issue  was  to  deter- 
mine what  are  precisely  the  relations  of  the  natural  to  the 
supernatural  order ;  and  while  Clemens  admitted  that  philos- 
ophy and  theology  are  quite  distinct  from  and  independent  of 
each  other,  he  still  maintained  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  a 
theological  philosophy,  to  which  divine  revelation  holds  the 
relation  of  an  external  authority  and  rule  of  guidance.  On 
the  other  hand,  Kuhu  maintained  that  if  the  integrity  of 
Catholic  principles  was  to  be  preserved,  and  the  Lutheran 


1  The  School  of  St.  Thomas,  5  vols. 

'^Mattes,  Ancient  and  Modern  Scholasticism  (Tubing.  Quart.  Kev.  of  Theol., 
-844,  1845).  Deutinger,  The  Principle  of  Modern  Philosophy  and  Christian 
Science,  1857.     Cfr,  The  Catholic  of  186(5,  Vol.  I.,  p.  693  sq. 

^Clemens,  Our  Position  in  Philosophy  {The  Catholic,  new  series,  year  1859,  in 
two  articles).  The  same,  De  Scholasticonim  sentcntia,  philosophiam  esse  theo- 
logiae ancillam,  Monastcrii,  1865.  Kuhn,  Discussion  on  Philosophy  and  The- 
ology, Tiibingen,  1860.  The  Ilist.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Concerning  a  Free  Cath- 
olic University  in  Germany,  Tiibingen.  1863;  The  Natural  and  Supernatuml 
being  a  Keply  to  the  Charges  made  by  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers. 


908  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1. 

error,  concerning  the  incapacity  of  the  human  mind  to  acquire 
an}  knowledge  of  truth  by  its  unaided  efforts,  avoided,  it  must 
necessarily  be  admitted  that  philosophy,  whether  in  its  incep- 
tion, its  development,  or  its  maturity,  is  wholly  the  product 
of  the  natural  powers  of  the  intellect,  working  independently 
of  the  lights  of  supernatural  revelation  and  the  inspiration 
of  positive  faith. 

After  the  death  of  Clemens  (at  Rome,  February  24,  1862), 
and  even  during  his  lifetime,  the  controversy  was  taken  up  by 
the  writers  for  The  Catholic  of  3Jentz,  and  by  Scheeben  and 
Dr.  Schdzler,  two  i)rominent  contributors  to  Ihe  Historico- 
political  Papers,  who  concentrated  their  energies  on  determin- 
ing the  precise  sense  of  the  term  Supernatural,  or,  as  it  is  now 
written,  Super-nature,  and  fixing  definitely  the  import  of  the 
ideas  conveyed  by  the  words  liberty,  nature,  personality,  and 
grace.  By  Schjizler  grace  was  held  to  be  an  endowmeyit,  re- 
storing human  nature  to  its  completeness ;  by  Kuhu,  a  gift  by 
which  man  is  perfected  in  his  personality.^ 

As  days  went  on  the  coi^.troversy  drifted  into  those  inter- 
minable subtleties  and  distinctions,  wdiich  are  to  be  met  with 
in  wearisome  reiteration  in  the  quarrels  between  the  Thomists 
and  the  Scot.ists  of  a  former  age,  and  more  recently  between  the 
Jesuits  and  Dominicans  during  the  period  of  Jansenism.  The 
language  of  the  disputants  grew  vague  and  shadowy  and  their 
reasoning  obscure.  For  the  present  the  faintest  hope  of  a 
definite  solution  of  the  question  could  not  be  entertained.  In 
the  midst  of  this  confusion  and  conflict,  A.  Schmid,  then  a 
professor  at  Dillingen,  but  subsequently  at  Munich,  made  an 
attempt,  in  which  he  was  less  successful  than  he  deserved  to 
be,"  to  harmonize  the  differences  of  the  two  parties  and  bring 
about  a  reconciliation.  A  second  attempt  was  made  by  Zol- 
linger, Haneberg,  and  Alzoq,^  who  called  a  conference  of  the 

^Scheeben,  Nature  and  Grace,  Mentz,  1861.  Von  Schdzler,  Natural  and  Su- 
pernatural, being  a  Criticism  of  Kuhn's  Theology,  Mentz,  1866. 

^  For  a  statement  of  the  scientific  tendency  and  a  thorough  examination  of 
von  Schazler's  work,  see  The  Theological  and  Literary  Review,  ed.  by  Reuseh, 
year  18C6,  Nros.  18-22. 

'The  Labors  of  the  Scholars'  Convention  in  Munich,  from  September  28  U 
October  1,  1863. 


§  420.  Activity  of  the  Catholics  of  Germany,  etc.        909 

most  learned  men  of  both  sides  to  meet  at  Munich.  The  op- 
posing parties  being  mutually  suspicious  of  each  other,  little 
if  anything  was  accomplished.  Even  the  Neo-Scholastics 
acknowledged,  however,  that  the  deputies  had  the  best  of  in- 
tentions, and  that,  had  it  not  been  found  necessary  to  adjourn 
the  conference,  it  might  have  rendered  important  services 
toward  the  adjustment  of  the  differences  that  separated  these 
two  schools  of  thought.^ 

Many  attempts  have  been  recentl}'  made  to  harmonize  the 
difficulties  arising  out  of  the  relations  of  philosophy  to  theol- 
ogy, and,  in  particular,  of  modern  to  scholastic  philosophy. 
The  way  had  been  made  clear  for  these  by  Charles  Werner  in 
his  inquiry  as  to  whether  a  Christian  could  exercise  full  liberty  of 
thought  in  the  study  of  philosophy,  without  detriment  to  Catholic 
doctrine  or  turning  his  hack  on  theology  and  the  Church.^ 

Schmid  and  Wbrter,^  who  had  been  charged  by  Schiizler 
with  holding  erroneous  doctrines,  fully  vindicated  their  or- 
thodoxy, and  their  able  and  lucid  exposition  must  have  con- 
vinced their  assailant  that  his  imputation  was  unmerited. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  advocates  of  both  schools  to  bear  in 
mind  that  the  differences  between  them,  if  a  judgment  may 
be  formed  from  the  works  alreadj-  published,  are  not  nearly 
so  great  as  those  that  divided  the  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages ; 
and  it  will  be  also  to  their  advantage  and  honor  if  they  mu- 
tually give  their  adversaries  credit  with  being  equally  as  loyal 
as  themselves  to  Mother  Church,  and  equally  devoted  to  the 


1  Cfr.  The  Convention  of  Catholic  Scholars,  in  The  Catholic  of  1864,  Yol.  II., 
pp.  95-111,  and  196-221.  This  article  winds  up  with  the  Papal  Brief,  accom- 
panied with  cautions.  Michelis,  Church  or  Party  ?  A  Frank  and  Open  Word 
to  the  German  Episcopacy,  Miinster,  1864.  Heri/enroether,  Church  and  No 
Party,  Wiirzburg,  1865.  The  Adverse  Kepresentation  of  the  Labors  of  the 
Scholars'  Convention,  in  the  Civtltd  Caitolica ;  translated  into  German  under 
the  title  The  Past  and  the  Present  of  Theology,  ^Mentz,  18G4 ;  was  partially  re- 
futed by  The  Catholic  of  1864,  Vol.  II.,  p.  109. 

^  Werner,  Manner  of  Coming  to  an  Agreement  on  the  Nature  and  Object  of 
Christian  Philosophy  at  the  Present  Epoch,  Schaffh.  1867.  The  same,  On  the 
Essence  and  Idea  of  the  Human  Soul,  2d  ed  ,  Brixen,  1868. 

'^Schmid,  Science  and  Authority,  with  a  special  reference  to  Schiizler's  works, 
entitled  "  New  Investigations  on  the  Dogma  of  Grace  and  the  ISature  of  Chris- 
tian Faith,"  Munich,  1868.  Worter,  Repulsion  of  the  Latest  Attacks  against 
the  Present  Faculty  of  Cath.  Theology  at  the  Univ.  of  Freiburg,  1868. 


910  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1, 

true  interests  of  sacred  science.  Then,  like  the  great  theolo- 
gians of  the  early  and  Middle  Ages,  they  will  really  advance 
the  progress  of  science,  and  contribute  to  the  solution  of  the 
most  difficult  problems. 

§  421.   Sects  in  Germany. 

During  the  period  of  the  despotic  domination  of  Napoleon 
and  the  consequent  disorders  in  the  Church,  many  false  mys- 
tical sects  sprung  up  in  Austria.  Martin  Poos  indulged  in 
some  fanciful  reveries,  and  taught  in  vague  and  incoherent 
language  the  Lutheran  doctrine  ot  justification  by  faith  alone. 
He  was  pursued,  arrested,  cast  into  prison,  and  finally  expelled 
the  diocese  of  Linz,  but  not  until  after  he  had  perverted  many 
of  the  clergy  and  made  them  his  followers.  He  died  pastor 
of  Sayn,  near  Neuwied,  in  1825. 

Thomas  Poschl,  a  native  of  Bohemia,  founded  a  still  more 
fanatical  sect  in  the  same  diocese.  God  and  the  Blessed  Vir- 
gin, he  and  his  followers  said,  appeared  to  them,  commanding 
them  to  purify  themselves.  The  process  of  purification  con- 
sisted in  taking  a  powder,  whose  secret  powers  were  potent 
to  drive  the  devil  from  their  bodies.  ITapoleon  they  regarded 
as  the  forerunner  of  Antichrist,  and  his  reign  as  the  inaugu- 
ration of  the  millennium.  This  fanaticism  rose  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  in  Holy  Week  of  1817  they  immolated  a  human 
being.  The  sect  was  then  suppressed  by  government  in  Salz- 
burg, and  the  fanatical  sectaries  rendered  harmless  by  being 
shut  up  in  prison.  Poschl  ended  his  days  in  1837  in  the  hos- 
pital for  infirm  priests  at  Vienna. 

The  sect  of  the  31anhartians,  founded  by  Hagleitner,  a  priest, 
had  its  origin  in  the  valley  of  the  Prixen,  a  portion  of  Tyrol, 
belonsrinsr  to  the  diocese  of  Salzburg.  These  sectaries  were 
the  determined  and  implacable  foes  of  all  who  had  taken  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon,  particularly  if  they  were 
priests,  who,  by  so  doing,  they  contended,  had  incurred 
equally  with  the  usurper  the  sentence  of  excommunication 
directed  against  him.  Two  of  their  number,  Mangl  ard 
Mair,  having  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  in  1825,  were 
there  disabused  of  their  errors  by  Mauro  Capellari,  afterward 


§  421.   Sects  in  Germany.  911 

Gregory  XVI.,^  and  permitted  to  again  receive  the  Sacra- 
ments ;  and  they  in  their  turn  brought  back  the  bulk  of  their 
followers.  The  politico-religious  sect  of  the  Salpetrians, 
which  sprung  up  in  the  south-east  part  of  the  Black  Forest, 
in  1764,  w^as  in  many  respects  similar  to  that  of  the  Manhar- 
tians.  They  openly  refused  obedience  to  the  abbot  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Blaise ;  defied  the  authority  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Austria,  and  later  on  of  Baden  ;  and  excited  the 
people  against  Demeter,  Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  and  his 
clergy,  who,  they  said,  were  not  Roman  Catholics.  They  left 
off"  going  to  church,  declined  to  send  their  children  to  school, 
and,  when  legally  prosecuted,  paid  the  stipulated  fine,  rather 
than  submit.  They  appealed  to  Rome,  and  some  of  them 
went  there  in  person  to  present  their  claims,  but  to  no  pur- 
pose.    By  1838  they  had  nearly,  if  not  quite,  disappeared.^ 

An  agitation  of  wider  scope  and  more  threatening  dimen- 
sions was  that  whose  promoters  were  designated  as  enlightened 
or  liberal  Catholics,  and  were  subsequently  known  as  German 
Catholics.  Influenced  by  the  prevalent  tone  of  Protestant 
literature  and  swayed  by  Protestant  principles,  by  which  even 
good  Catholics  had  become  infected,  they  aimed  at  subverting 
the  whole  economy  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Priests  and  lay- 
men, calling  themselves  enligldened  and  liberal,  but  indiscreet, 
and  possessing  little  knowledge  of  the  matter  in  hand,  advo- 
cated the  abolition  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  ofiSces  of  the 
Church,  the  simplification  of  her  ceremonies  and  their  adapt- 
ation to  the  spirit  of  modern  times,  the  abrogation  of  the 
rule  of  celibacy  among  the  clergy,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
German  national  Church,  besides  a  number  of  other  innova- 
tions. These  views  were  propagated  through  the  writings  of 
Wessenberg  and  in  the  pages  of  The  Annuary  of  Vim;  The 
Candid  Leaves,  edited  by  Pflanz ;  The  Catholic  Leaves,  edited 
by  Fischer;  and  The  Canonical  Guardian,  edited  by  Alexander 
3T'dller  and  his  colleagues,   Carore,  Fridolin  Hiiber,   lieichlin- 


1  Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  829  sq.,  s.  v.  ^'Schwdrmerei ;"  Fr.  tr., 
Vol.  8,  p.  365.  Ginzel  (Austrian  Quarterly,  1867) ;  Essay  of  a  Hist,  of  KelJg- 
ious  Fanaticism,  Martin  Boos,  etc. 

-t^''-  Hnnsjacob,  The  Salpetrians  Examined  and  Exposed,  1st  and  2d  en- 
larged ed.,  Waldshut,  1867. 


912  rerio.l  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Melchgg,  Snhreiber,  and  others,  most  of  whom  had  long  since 
interiorly  apostatized,  and  were  onl}^  restrained  by  interested 
motives  from  breaking  altogether  with  the  Catholic  Church.^ 
These  reformers  were  particularly  active  in  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Baden,  in  Wiirtemburg  and  Switzerland,  and,  for  a  season,' 
in  the  territory  of  Treves  and  in  Saxony;  and  the  Theiner 
brothers  imported  the  new  Ideas  into  Silesia.^  Augustine 
Theiner,  the  younger  of  these,  after  an  extended  trip  through 
England  and  France,  settled  at  Rome,  where  he  renounced 
his  former  errors,  and  by  his  historical  works  rendered  an 
important  service  to  Catholic  literature.  He  died  at  Civit^ 
Yecchia,  August  9,  1874.^     Fischer,  a  Catholic  priest  and  pro- 

1  "Why  the  ^Liberals'  still  Kemain  within  the  Fold  of  the  Catholic  Church" 
\Bo7in  Review,  Nro.  1,  p.  190);  Pldlalethes  (Bp.  Eeisach),  'What  have  we  to 
Expect  from  the  Keformers  of  Offenbach  and  of  Saint-Gall?"  being  a  Dialogue 
between  a  Parish-Priest  and  his  Parishioners,  Mentz,  1835.  Cfr.  "Keform  of 
the  Church,"  in  The  Catholic  of  1833,  January  number,  p.  84  sq.,  and  "The 
Catholic  Church  and  the  Eeformers,"  1841,  January,  February,  April,  July, 
October,  and  November  numbers,  and  The  South  Gertnan  Eccl.  Journal,  1841, 
Nro.  34. 

2  ( Jno.  Anth.  Theiner),  The  Catholic  Church  in  Silesia,  Altenburg,  1826 ; 
assisted  by  his  brother:  The  Forced  Celibacy  of  the  Catholic  Priests,  Alten- 
buro-,  1828,  3  vols.  Cfr.  Bra.nn,  On  the  Writings  of  Professor  Anthony  Theiner, 
Bonn,  1829.  Dr.  Franke,  Sketch  of  a  Great  Keformer,  where  A7ith.  Theiner 
is  delineated  from  the  point  of  view  of  his  science  and  of  his  life,  Glatz,  1845. 

^Aug.  Theiner,  De  Pseudo-Isidoriana  canonum  collectione,  Wratislaviae, 
1827.  Hist,  of  Clerical  Seminaries,  Mentz,  1835.  Lettere  storico-critiche  in- 
torno  alle  "  Cinque  Piaghe  della  Santa  Chiesa "  del  Chiarissimo  D.  Antonio 
Piosmini  Serbati,  1848;  Latin  tr.,  Naples,  1849.  As  keeper  of  the  secret 
archives  of  the  Vatican  (fr.  1851),  he  issued  various  compilations  illustrating 
the  eccl.  hist,  of  nearly  all  the  different  Christian  nations,  viz.,  Sweden  and  Her 
Relation  to  the  Holy  See ;  Latest  Situation  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  Poland  and 
Russia;  Hist,  of  the  Conversion  of  the  Reigning  Houses  of  Brunswick  and 
Saxony  to  the  Cath.  Church;  Hungaria  sacra;  Monuments  historiques  de  Rus- 
sie  1859,  2  T.,  f.  Continuation  of  the  Annates  Ecclesiastici  of  Baronius,  3 
vols.,  fol.,  1856  sq. ;  Codex  Diplomaticus  Dominii  temporalis  Sanctae  Sedis,  6 
vols.,  fol.,  Rome,  1861-1863;  Smaller  work,  in  answer  to  Passaglia's  appeal  to 
the  Italian  bishops,  1864.  In  1869  he  entered  into  a  correspondence  with  Dr. 
Doellinger  and  Prof.  Friedrich,  and  was  barred  all  access  to  the  archives.  In 
1874  Theiner  visited  Austria  to  make  arrangements  for  publishing  hi-*  Acta 
genuina  SS.  cecum.  Cone.  Trid.,  etc.,  Zagrabiae,  1874,  2  T.,  4to,  a  work  of  ques- 
tionable accuracy  and  fidelity ;  also  his  Hist,  of  Clement  XIV.,  written  in  an- 
swer to  Cretineau-Joly's  Hist,  of  the  Suppression  of  the  .Jesuits  (2  vols.,  Lps. 
and  Paris,  1853),  led  to  a  long  and  bitter  pamphlet  controversy.  (Tr  ) 


§  421.    Sects  in  Germany.  913 

fessor  of  moral  theology  at  Lucerne,  pursued  quite  a  diflerent 
course.  JS'ot  content  with  taking  a  wife,  he  had  the  indeli- 
cacy, when  one  of  his  children  died,  to  invite  his  friends  to 
the  funeral.  In  the  present  age  the  import  of  such  conduct 
can  not  be  mistaken,  and  men  guilty  of  it  must  in  time,  if  not 
at  once,  cut  themselves  ofi'  from  the  Church.  Though  they 
may  call  themselves  Catholics,  they  are  such  only  in  name. 
Being  destitute  of  all  religious  conviction,  it  is  impossible  for 
them  to  openly  profess  for  any  length  of  time  doctrines  which 
they  secretly  deny.  And  their  position  will  be  rendered  all 
the  more  difficult  in  the  measure  in  which  Catholic  faith  grows 
more  living  and  energetic,  religious  literature  more  Catholic 
in  tone,  and  the  faithful  become  more  ardently  attached  to  the 
teachings  and  laws  of  the  Church.  This  will  l)e  particularly 
the  case  at  a  time  when  it  is  the  tendency  of  political  events 
to  separate  persons  of  different  religious  creeds  by  sharp  lines 
of  demarcation.  Such  has  been,  in  matter  of  fact,  the  history 
of  these  liberal  Catholics.  They  remained  in  the  Church  as 
long  as  they  could,  and  when  a  formal  separation  became  im- 
perative, they  sought  only  a  decent  pretext.  This  was  soon 
supplied.  John  Ronge,  a  suspended  Silesian  priest,  professed 
to  be  shocked  at  the  honors  paid  to  the  Holy  Coat^  at  Treves, 
which  was  exhibited  to  the  faithful  in  the  cathedral  of  that 
city  during  a  pilgrimage,  lasting  from  the  18th  of  August  to 
the  6th  of  October,  1844;  and  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Mgr. 
Arnoldi,  the  bishop  (f  January  9, 18(34),  he  publicly  denounced 
the  whole  affair  as  shameless  idolatry.  His  next  act  was  to 
issue  a  call  to  the  "  German  Catholics  "  to  secede  from  Kome. 
The  writers  for  the  Liberal  and  Protestant  press  of  Saxony 
and  Silesia,  feigning  to  believe  his  impious  slanders,  grew  vir- 


1  Marx,  Prof,  of  Ch.  H.,  Hist,  of  the  Holy  Ccat,  Treves,  1844.  J.  von  Goer, 
res,  The  Pilgrimage  to  Treves,  Katisbon,  1845.  Against  Gildemeisier' s  ani 
SybeVs  pamphlet,  entitled  "  The  Holy  Coat  of  Treves  and  the  Twenty  Other 
Seamless  Coats."  CYemens  published  "The  Holy  Coat  of  Treves  and  Protest- 
ant Criticism,"  Coblentz,  1845  ;  and  "  The  Holy  Coat  of  Treves  and  No  Other, 
or  The  Censorious  Tailors  of  Bonn,"  by  a  Pilgrim  of  Coblentz,  Coblentz,  1845. 
Dr.  Hansen,  District  Physician  of  Treves,  Peport  and  Official  Documents  Re.t*- 
tive  to  the  Miraculous  Cures  Wrought  during  the  Exhibition  of  the  Holy  Coat 
of  Treves,  in  1844,  Treves,  1845. 
VOL.  Ill — 58 


914  Period  3.     Ej^och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

tuously  indignant.  Their  inveterate  liatred  of  Catholicity 
again  broke  forth,  and  found  expression  in  vituperative  and 
fiery  denunciations  of  the  Pope,  whom  they  designated  aa 
the  tyrant  of  consciences  and  the  shame  of  Germany.  Cath- 
olic priests  were  derided  and  insulted  ;  the  obsolete  and  sav- 
age polemics  of  a  by-gone  age  was  revived  ;  false  confessions 
of  faith  and  ludicrous  forms  of  abjuration,  which  Catholics 
had  a  hundred  times  indignantly  disclaimed,  were  again  sent 
forth  to  the  world  as  genuine  Catholic  documents ;  and  all 
manner  of  untruthful  reports  were  set  afloat  concerning  bish- 
ops. By  such  cruel  and  dishonest  methods  of  warfare,  pur- 
sued with  a  consistency  and  a  patience  that  lent  to  misrepre- 
sentation and  falsehood  the  color  of  truth  and  honesty,  were 
many  laymen  and  priests  finally  prevailed  upon  to  separate 
themselves  from  the  Catholic  Church.^  Ronge,  a  man  wholly 
destitute  of  theological  knowledge,  and  whose  life  bore  not 
the  slightest  token  of  a  religious  mind,  was  thus  led  on  by 
force  of  circumstances  to  play  the  part  of  a  reformer,  and, 
much  to  his  own  surprise  and  possibly  to  his  amusement,  was 
hailed  as  another  Luther,  whose  memory  would  be  held  in  ben- 
ediction by  future  generations.  Assuming  with  simulated 
gravity  the  character  of  a  reformer,  he  organized  a  religious 
community  at  Breslau,  rejecting  all  but  two  of  the  Sacraments^ 
and  even  these  he  so  diluted  and  explained  away  that  they 
ceased  to  have  either  meaning  or  import.  The  "  friends  of 
enlightenment,"  as  those  who  had  been  slapping  Ronge  on  the 
back  and  cheering  him  on  delighted  to  be  called,  were  not  a 
little  astonished  to  see  themselves  left  far  away  behind  in  the 
race  of  radicalism  by  their  precocious  neophyte.  Ronge,  of 
course,  had  imitators.  Czerski,  a  priest,  having  disregarded 
his  vows  of  celibacy  and  given  public  scandal,  was  condemned 
by  his  superiors  to  undergo  a  punishment,  which,  considering 
the  offense,  was  extremely  hght.  He,  however,  refused  to 
submit,  and,  desiring  to  give  color  of  legalit}'  to  his  course, 


1  Balizer,  Liberty  of  the  Press  and  Censorship,  with  Eegard  to  the  Pilgrim- 
Rce  of  Treves,  Breslau,  1845.  Christ,  Examination  of  the  Latest  Reform  Ser- 
»»u>ns  and  and  anti-Catholic  Literature,  Eatisbon,  1845.  The  Industrial  Expo- 
Bition  of  Berlin  and  the  Exposition  of  the  Holy  Coat  of  Treves.  Letter  of  a 
Berl.m  Protestant,  Miinster,  1845. 


421.    Sects  in  Germany.  915 


became  the  founder  of  a  new  commuuity  of  sectaries  at 
ScbDeidemuhl,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Poseu.  Although 
these  were  thoroughly  Protestant  in  principle  and  doctrine, 
especially  concerning  the  Sacraments,  they  had  the  eflrontery 
to  call  themselves  Catholics}  Nevertheless,  at  the  so-called 
Council  of  Leipsig,  March  22,  1845,  Czers/d  put  his  signature 
to  a  formulary  of  faith,  which,  from  a  Christian  point  of  view, 
is  absolute  nihilism.^  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  sect  which 
presumptuously  arrogated  to  itself  the  title  of  ^^  German  Cath- 
olic" and  even  called  itself  the  ^'■Christian  Catholic  and  Apos- 
tolic Church."  Ullmann,  himself  a  Protestant,  has  very  justly 
remarked  that  the  founders  of  this  sect  had  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  Catholicity,  as  portrayed  in  history,  and  had  there- 
fore no  shadow  of  right  to  call  themselves  '^Catholics."  '  True 
Catholics  were  very  naturally  indignant  at  the  assumption, 
but  their  indignation  was  still  further  intensified  when  gov- 
ernments, with  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  insult  conveyed  in 
the  title,  styled  these  arrogant  sectaries  '■^Dissenting  Catholics." 
Actuated  by  motives  of  long-cherished  hostility  to  the  Cath- 
olic religion,  the  Prussian  government  permitted  these  apos- 
tles of  impiety  and  enemies  of  Christianity  to  go  up  and  down 
freely  through  the  kingdom,  everywhere  misrepresenting  by 
word  and  writing  the  Catholic  Church,  her  doctrines  and  her 
institutions,  and  reviling  and  deriding  Catholics,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  rights  of  the  latter  had  been  most 
solemnly  guaranteed,  and  they  themselves  promised  immunity 
from  insult  and  outrage.  But  the  Berlin  government  soon 
learned  that  its  anticipations  were  incorrect  and  its  hopes 
groundless.  The  sectaries  did  indeed  succeed  in  gaining  over 
a  few  Catholics,  who  were  such  only  in  7iame  and  appearance, 


1  Analysis  of  the  "Confession  of  Schneidemiih],"  Posen  (Dec),  1844.  Open 
Letter  to  Czerski,  by  a  Roman  Catholic  Priest,  once  his  Schoolmate,  Posen, 
1845.  Open  Letter  to  Roman  Catholics  on  the  Justification  of  Czerski,  by 
Junk,  Lissa,  1845. 

^  Leipsig  Symbol:  I  believe  in  God  the  Father,  who,  by  His  omnipotent  word, 
created  the  world,  and  governs  in  truth,  in  justice,  and  in  love.  I  believe  in 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Christian  Church,  holy  and  universal ;  in  the  remission  of 
Bin  and  life  everlasting.     Amen. 

3  Ullmann,  My  Misgivings  as  to  the  German  Catholic  Movement  {Theoloffieal 
Studies  and  Criticisms,  year  1845,  Nro.  IV.) 


916  Perhd  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

but  they  did  incomparably  greater  liarm  to  Protestantism^  out 
of  which  their  principles  sprunsr,  and  to  which  they  were 
therefore  naturally  allied.  Protestant  free-thinkers,  or  the 
"friends  of  enlightenment,"  encouraged  hy  the  attitude  of 
the  government  toward  the  sectaries,  boldly  demanded  for 
themselves  the  freedom  that  had  been  so  cheerfully  granted 
to  apostate  Catholics.^  '■'■The  schism,''  said  Protestant  theolo- 
gians, "  has  sunk  deeper  into  the  Protestant  than  into  the  Catholic 
Church."^  The  agitation  was  at  first,  to  all  appearances,  a 
purely  religious  one  ;  but  it  was  not  long  until  a  revolutionary 
and  communistic  element  was  imported  into  it  by  one  Dowiat. 
The  principles  that  had  been  applied  to  religion  were  now  ap- 
plied to  politics,  and  it  soon  became  evident  that  they  tended 
to  unsettle  the  foundations  of  the  throne,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  altar.  Gervinus,^  who  had  witnessed  the  early  efibrts  of 
sectaries  with  satisfaction,  and  had  contributed  not  a  little  to 
their  success,  now  frankly  avowed  that  the  underlying  princi- 
ples of  this  insidious  movement  were  political,  and  not  theo- 
logical, and  that  it  was  driven  forward  by  appeals  to  the  pas- 
sions of  the  people.  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel,  and  Austria  had 
already  made  a  stand  against  the  movement,  and  Prussia,  now 
waking  to  a  sense  of  her  own  danger,  began  to  take  se- 
vere measures  against  the  so-called  "  Dissenting  Catholics." 
Strange  to  sa}'',  they  never  made  but  one  convert  of  eminent 
ability  and  sincere  piety  to  their  opinions,  and  never  pub- 
lished a  theological  periodical  adequately  meeting  even  the 
most  moderate  demands  of  science.  The  nearest  approach  to 
such  a  publication  was  tlie  Catholic  Church  Reform  (monthly) 
of  Berlin,  which  was  susjiended  after  a  short  existence.  The 
tone  of  its  articles  was  a  verification  of  the  words  of  Lessing, 
in  one  of  his  letters,  written  in  1769.  "  Don't  speak  to  me," 
said  he,  "  of  yonv  freedom  of  thought  and  speech  at  Berlin. 
There  is  no  freedom  there  except  that  of  putting  on  sale  the 
insults  any  one  may  choose  to  fling  at  religion,  and  every 

^  "  The  Protestants,"  said  Konge,  in  a  letter,  "  come  to  us  because  they  desire 
liberty ;  and  yet  they  experience  only  oppression  and  tyranny  from  govern- 
ments." 

'^Kohler  and  Klopsch,  Eepertory  of  Ch.  H.,  Glogau,  1845,  p.  345. 

'Mission  of  the  German  Catholics,  Heidelberg,  1845. 


§  421.   Sects  in  Germany.  917 

honest  man  should  blush  to  make  use  of  such  freedom.'' 
John  Ronge,  during  the  remainder  of  his  restless  life,  con- 
tinued to  propagate  his  errors,  and  made  many  ineflectual  at 
tempts  to  organize  communities  in  different  cities  and  towns 
On  the  7th  of  May,  1872,  he  was  fined  and  cast  into  prison  at 
Frankfort,  when  he  was  informed  by  the  "  German  Catholics" 
of  that  city  that  his  services  would  be  dispensed  with  for  the 
future,  and  that  he  would  do  well  to  seek  some  other  j&eld  of 
labor. 

While  these  events  were  a  severe  trial  to  Catholics,  whether 
priests  or  laymen,  they  also  furnished  an  occasion  for  the  pub- 
lication of  a  variety  of  works,  in  which  the  more  majestic 
and  deeper  views  of  Catholicity,  hitherto  to  be  found  only  in 
writings  designed  for  the  learned,  were  given  to  the  world  in 
a  popular  form  and  in  language  at  once  easily  intelligible  and 
attractive.  The  effect  was  instantaneous  and  consoling.  The 
teachings  of  the  Church  became  better  known,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, more  appreciated  and  loved ;  and  those  who  had 
been  hitherto  hesitating  in  belief,  and  indifferent  in  practice, 
put  aside  all  indecision,  and  grewfii'm  in  their  faith  and  strict 
in  their  observance.  The  leaders  of  the  various  scattered 
communities  of  "German  Catholics"  are  still  busily  at  work 
in  devising  a  religion  of  the  future,  adequate  to  the  wants  of 
^ure  and  regenerate  humanity.  Of  course  their  efforts  have  all 
been  disastrous  failures,  but  they  draw  a  melancholy  consola- 
tion from  the  congenial  labor  of  giving  currency  to  obsolete 


^  Staudenmaier,  The  Nature  of  the  Catholic  Church,  being  a  Reply  to  Her 
Adversaries,  Freiburg,  1845.  Idem,  On  the  Religious  Peace  of  the  Future, 
Freiburg,  1846,  3  pts.  Hirscher,  Study  on  the  Great  Religious  Questions  of  the 
Day,  Dedicated  to  the  Higher  and  Middle  Classes,  together  with  an  Examina- 
tion into  the  Motion  of  Deputy  Zittcl,  relative  to  the  Equality  of  Seceding  Dis- 
senters before  the  Law,  Freiburg,  1846.  Scharpff,  Catholicism  and  Rationalism, 
Tubingen,  1845.  Von  Linde,  Reflections  on  the  Recent  Ecclesiastical  Events, 
considered  in  their  Relations  to  Right  and  Policy,  Mentz,  1845.  Idem,  Church 
Establishment,  Liberty  of  Conscience,  and  Religious  Associations,  ibid.,  1845. 
Sporschil  Practical  Difficulties  of  any  Attempt  at  Establishing  an  Apostolic 
and  Catholic  Denomination  in  Germany,  and  two  other  works,  by  the  same, 
Lps.  1845.  Peter  and  Pazd,  Being  a  .Monthly  in  the  Interest  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  amidst  the  Troubles  of  the  Day,  ed.  by  Dr.  Hast,  of  Berlin,  and  the 
Collection  of  Seasonable  Writmgs  in  Defense  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  chiefly 
the  Hist  and  Polif.  Papers,  A^ols.  15-18,  years  1845,  184G. 


918  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  1- 

prejudices  against  the  Catholic  Churcli  and  to  imputations  as 
false  as  they  are  cruel  and  injurious. 

§  422.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia  and  Poland. 

For  Literature,  cf.  §  410. 

The  depressed  condition  of  the  Church  in  Russia  is  in  mei- 
aucholy  contrast  with  the  revival  of  Catholic  life  in  the  vari 
ous  countries  whose  history  we  have  been  reviewing.  Not- 
withstanding that  a  comparatively  liberal  Constitution  had 
been  granted  under  Alexander  II.,  the  persecution  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Russia  and  Poland,  which  had  been  begun 
under  the  Emperor  i^icholas,  by  a  strange  anomaly,  was  not 
abated,  but  intensified.^ 

After  the  celebration  of  the  tenth  centenary  of  the  founda- 
cicn  of  the  Empire,  in  1862,  when  a  splendid  fac-simile  edition 
of  Tischendorfs  Codex  Sinaiticus,^  containing  the  most  ancient 
aid  best  authenticated  Greek  text  of  the  Bible,  was  pub- 
lished, and  after  tha  suppression  of  the  insurrection  in  Poland, 
in  1863,  the  persecution  grew  more  violent  and  systematic* 
It  was  the  design  to  extirpate  at  a  blow  both  the  religion  and 
the  nationality  of  Poland,  for  the  religious  and  patriotic  feel- 
ings of  the  Poles  are  so  closely  interwoven  as  to  be  practically 
inseparable.  The  gallant  struggle  of  this  heroic  people  to 
maintain  their  national  existence  failed  either  to  elicit  the 
admiration  or  excite  the  pity  of  their  brutal  conquerors. 
Their  patriotic  aspirations  were  literally  extinguished  in 
blood.  Priests  and  monks,  when  not  shot  or  strangled,  were 
carried  away  into  desolate  Siberia.  On  the  28th  of  ISTovem- 
ber,  1864,  one  hundred  and  four  monasteries  were  abolished, 
and  their  inmates,  surprised  and  seized  the  evening  before, 


*  Baron  A.  v.  Haxthausen,  The  Constitution  of  Russia  and  the  Laws  of  1861, 
Leipsig,  18G6. 

2  This  is  the  photo-lithographioal  fac-simile  edition  of  the  whole  Sinaitic 
Bihle,  published  at  the  expense  of  the  Emperor  of  Eussia,  in  4  vols.  (3  for  the 
Old  and  1  for  the  N.  T.;  the  latter  is  148  folios),  under  the  title  Bihliorum  Co- 
dsx  Sinaiticus  Petropolitanus.  Auspiciis  augustissimi  imp.  Alex.  II.,  ed.  Const. 
Tischendorf,  Petropoli,  1862.  A  copy  of  this  rare  edition  is  in  the  Astor  Li- 
brary of  New  York.  (Tr.) 

*  Mofiiulembert,  I'lnsurrection  Polonaise,  Paris,  1863. 


§  422.   The  Catholic  Church  in  Russia  and  Poland.      919 

forcibly  hurried  away  into  distant  exile.  The  banished  Cath- 
olic priests  were  replaced  by  Greek  popes,  and  Catholics  them- 
selves compelled  by  barbarous  enactments  and  cruel  torturea 
to  conform  to  the  Ruthuenian  Liturgy,  and  have  their  chil- 
dren baptized  by  schismatical  priests,  whom  they  abhorred. 
The  Augsburg  Universal  Gazette,  speaking  of  these  events, 
in  an  issue  of  recent  date,^  says  :  "  In  the  district  of  Siedlec 
the  peasants  still  refuse  to  take  part  in  divine  services  cele- 
brated by  Russian  priests.  They  meet  clandestinely  on  Sun- 
days for  private  devotions,  and  conceal  their  children,  to  keep 
them  out  of  the  way  of  the  popes.  The  Russian  magistrates 
endeavor  to  win  over  the  refractory  peasants  by  the  arts  of 
persuasion.  They  arrest  the  leaders  and  cast  them  into  prison, 
but  again  set  them  at  liberty  when  they  see  the  peasants  or- 
ganizing and  preparing  to  resort  to  violent  measures  for  the 
liberation  of  the  prisoners." 

In  the  hope  of  making  the  Church  entirely  subservient  to 
the  Civil  Power,  the  Tzar,  by  confiscating  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, deprived  her  ministers  of  all  means  of  independent  sup- 
port, and  allowed  them  instead  a  salary  from  the  government. 
Plus  IX.  protested  vehemently  against  these  violent  measures,^ 
but  to  no  purpose.  The  Russian  embassador  even  went  the 
length  of  insulting  the  Pope  in  his  own  apartments,  when  of- 
fering him  the  congratulations  of  the  season  on  ]^e\v  Tear's 
Day  of  1866,  and  the  Holy  Father  was  forced,  in  self-defense, 
to  order  the  vulgar  representative  of  the  northern  barbarian 
out  of  his  presence.  Diplomatic  relations  between  the  cabi- 
net of  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Holy  See  were  immediately 
broken  off,  and  the  violence  of  the  persecution  against  the 
Catholics  of  Russia  and  Poland  still  further  increased.  Bishop 
Dupanloup  gave   expression  to  the  sorrow  and  indignation 


1  Augsb.  Univ.  Gaz.,  No.  265,  of  September  22,  1867,  p.  4217. 

2  The  Eoman  official  document  of  1842,  comprising  ninety  articles  of  proof, 
issued  under  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  was  followed  by  a  further  complaint  of  Pius 
IX.  at  Christmas,  1866,  368  pages,  4to:  Esposizione  documentata  sulle  costanti 
cure  del  sommo  Pontefice  Pio  IX.,  a  riparo  dei  mail  cho  soffre  la  chiesa  catto- 
lica  nei  dominii  di  Kussia  e  di  Polonia.  In  January,  1878,  Cardinal  Simeoni 
published  a  Memorandum,  signed  by  Pius  IX.,  exposing  the  treachery  of  Rus- 
sian diplomacy.  (Tr.) 


920  Period  8.     Ej>och  2.     Part  2.     CfuqHer  1. 

which  these  cruel  proceedings  inspired  in  every  generous 
bosom  in  his  report  of  the  Centenary  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul 
at  Eome.^  "  At  a  time,"  said  he,  "  when  five  hundred  bishopa 
are  gathered  about  the  common  Father  of  Christendom,  rep- 
resenting the  nations  of  the  world,  there  is  one  country  dear 
1o  us  above  all  others  by  its  sufi'erings,  its  fidelity,  and  its  he- 
roism, ichose  chief  pastors  are  absent.  O,  dear  Church  of  Po- 
land !  in  vain  have  we  sought  for  but  a  single  one  of  thy 
bishops,  that  we  might  kiss  his  hands  as  we  would  those  of  a 
martyr's,  but  none  was  to  be  found.  Alas,  oh  Poland,  when 
will  they  cease  to  tear  the  bleeding  from  the  bosom  of  thy 
Mother  and  ours  ?  " 

Since  1872  there  have  been  indications,  though  very  slight 
ones,  that  some  satisfactory  understanding  may  be  arrived  at 
between  Rome  and  St.  Petersburs^.^ 


'  The  Late  Festivals  of  Home,  tr.  fr.  the  French  into  Germ.,  by  Dr.  Riifjes, 
Essen,  18G7,  p.  14. 

*  We  subjoin  here  the  hierarchical  organization  of  the  Russian  "  Orthodox 
Church,"  directed  by  the  ''Holy  Synod."  Metropolitan  Sees:  1.  Kiev  and 
Halicz ;  2.  Novgorod  and  St.  Peterabiirg ;  3.  Moscow  and  Kolomna ;  4.  Knsan 
and  Sviajsk ;  5.  Asimchan  and  Enotaievsk ;  6.  Tobolsk  and  West  Siberia: 
7.  Jaroslav  and  Rostow;  8.  Pskov,  Livonia,  and  Courland ;  9.  Riazan  and  Sa- 
raisk;  10.  Tver,  with  the  seat  at  Kaschin ;  11.  Cherson\  12.  Sebastopol; 
13.  Tc/term^ow  and  Niechin  ;  \i.  Minsk  and  Bobrousk  ;  15.  Podolia  and  Bniis- 
lav,  with  the  seat  at  Kamieniec;  16.  Kishenev  and  Chotim :  17.  White  Russia 
and  Lithua?iia;  18.  Vladimir  and.  Susdal ;  19.  Vologda  and  TJstjuk.  Episcopal 
Sees:  1.  J?- A;MfeA;  and  East  Siberia;  2.  Mohileo  and  Mstislav;  OZo«e^6' A;  and  Pe- 
trozavodsk; 4.  iV'o?;o  Tc/terZ;as/;  and  Georgievski ;  b.  Ekaterinoslav;  Q.Smolensk 
and  Dogorobousoh  ;  7.  Nishnei  Novgorod  and  Arsamas ;  8.  Kursk  and  Bielgo- 
rod;  Q.Polotsk;  10.  (Tw^a  and  Bielev;  11.  Viatka  and  Slobodskoi ;  12.  Archan- 
gelsk  and  Kholmogori;  13.  Voronesh  and  Zadonski ;  14.  Kostroma  and  Galitch; 
15.  Tambov  and  Chatsk;  10.  Orel  and  Sievsk ;  17.  Poltava  and  Pereuislav ; 
18.  Volhynia  and  Zltomir ;  19.  Perm  and  Ekaterinburg;  20.  Kharkov  and 
Ucraine;  21.  Ostrog ;  22.  Pirisk;  23.  Tomsk;  24.  Wilna;  25.  Vitebsk;  26.  War- 
saw. Total,  forty-five  eparchies  or  dioceses.  There  are,  moreover,  ten  vicari- 
ates erected  in  provinces  with  a  preponderating  Catholic  or  Protestant  popula- 
tion. The  Russian  prelates,  from  the  reign  of  Catharine  XL  (1764),  have  been 
divided  into  thi-ee  classes,  answering  to  the  military  grades  of  general-in-chief, 
lieutenant-general,  and  major-general.  Their  tenure  is  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
Tzar.  Those  of  the  first  rank  receive  an  annual  salary  of  1,500,  those  of  the 
second  1,200,  and  those  of  the  third  1,000  rubles;  the  prelates  are  also  allowed 
money  for  the  table,  for  six  horses  for  their  consistories  (5 — 7  members),  their 
numerous  cathedral  clergy,  officials,  and  menial  servants.  The  secular  clergy, 
from  the  color  of  their  liturgical  vestments,  are  desigi;ated  as  the  white,  whilst 


§  423.   The  31issions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  921 

§  423.   The  JlJissions  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Cfioix  de  Leitres  edifiantes  et  curicuses  jusqu'  a  1808,  continuees  jusqu'  on  1820 
dans  les  Nouvelles  Lettres  edifiantes,  auxquelles  se  lient  les  Annales  de  la  pro- 
pagation de  la  foi  (from  1822],  Germ.,  Cologne,  1834  sq. ;  and  Einsiedeln,  Syn 
opsis  of  the  History  and  Statistics  of  Catholic  3Iissions  during  the  first  forty 
years  of  this  century  are  given  in  the  Univers,  September  13,  1839.  Cfr.  Sion, 
October  of  1839,  and  January  of  1840;  September,  Nro.  113;  November,  Nro. 
142,  Supplem.  New  Synopsis  in  the  volumes  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith, 
1857,  Nro.  IV.,  p.  57  sq.  Father  Charles  of  Saint  Aloysius,  The  Catholic 
Church  in  Her  Actual  Extension  over  the  Earth,  Ratisbon,  1845.  P.  Witi- 
mann,  Beauty  of  the  Church  in  Her  Missions,  etc.  *  Gatns,  Vol.  III., 
pp.  595-759,  with  documents.  '\  He7trio)>,  Catholic  Missions,  Vol.  IV.,  pp. 
703-802.  t Hah}i,  Hist,  of  Catholic  Missions  from  the  Times  of  Jesus  Christ 
down  to  our  Own  Day,  Cologne,  1858.  t  Margraf,  The  Church  and  Slavery 
from  the  Discovery  of  America,  Tiibingen,  1865.  Kalkar,  History  of  tho 
Roman  Catholic  Missions,  in  Danish  ;  Germ,  ed.,  in  collaboration  with  the  au- 
thor, edited  by  Michelsen,  Erlangen,  1SG7.  E.  von  Wedell,  Hist,  and  Geogr. 
Atlas,  Nro.  VI.,  map  34.  W.  J.  Kip,  "  Jesuit  Missions  in  North  America,"' 
New  York,  1846.  De  Smei,  Oregon  Missions,  1847.  Hue,  Christianity  in 
China,  Tartary,  and  Thibet,  2  vols ,  London,  1853.  T.  G.  Shea,  Hist,  of  Catho- 
lic Missions  among  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  U.  S.,  New  York,  1855.  Relations 
des  Jesuites,  3  vols.,  Quebec,  1858.  T.  W.  M.  Marshall,  Christian  Missions, 
Their  Agents  and  Their  Results,  2  vols.,  London  and  Brussels,  1862;  New 
York,  1864.  J.  Neher,  Eccl.  Geogr.  and  Statistics,  3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1864-1868. 
Qrundemann,  Missionary  Atlas,  Gotha,  1867-1871.  Catholic  Missions  (an  illus- 
trated monthly),  Freiburg  and  St.  Louis,  1873  sq. 

Obedient  to  the  injunction  of  Our  Lord  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel to  all  nations  and  to  every  creature,  the  Catholic  Cliurch 
has  in  all  ages  sent  her  missionaries  into  everj'  part  of  the 
habitable  globe.^  kSince  the  rise  of  Protestantism,  and  nota- 
bly since  the  defection  of  the  great  maritime  powers  from  the 
Church,  two  classes  of  missionaries  have  unhappily  come 
face  to  face  in  nearly  every  country  of  the  world,  mutually 
opposed  to  each  other,  and  the  one  not  unfrequently  undoing 
the  work  of  the  other.  But,  in  the  face  of  ever}^  obstacle,  the 
Catholic  religion  has  gone  steadily  forward,  gaining  triumph 
after  triumpli,  until  at  last  there  is  not  a  corner  of  the  earth 
in  which  its  teachings  are  not  proclaimed  and  professed.  In 
the  present  century  the  glorious  field  of  missionary  work,  in 

the  monks  are  styled  tho  black  clergy.     See  Jacob  Neher,  Eccl.  Geogr.,  Vol.  II., 
pp.  416-426.  (Tr.) 

1 A  Few  Words  on  the  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Tubingen  <^uart. 
Review,  1825. 


922  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1, 


which  the  great  St.  Pravcis  Xavier  was  first  to  labor  iu  mod- 
ern times,  has  been  cultivated  with  encouraging  success. 

The  Missions  may  be  conveniently  distributed  into  the  fol- 
lowing five  geographical  divisions : 

I.  The  Pastern  Missions,  comprising  the  Crimean  Penin- 
sula, the  Grecian  Archipelago,  Constantinople,  Syria,  Arme- 
Tiia,  Persia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  ]^ubia,  and  Abyssinia. 

II.  The  Lidia  Missions,  extending  as  far  as  the  Philippine 
Island?, 

III.  The  Missions  of  China,  iuclading  Siam,  Cochin-China, 
Tung-King,  and  Japan. 

IV.  The  American  Missions,  which,  starting  at  Hudson's 
Bay,  include  the  Canadas,  British  America,  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, the  country  along  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  An- 
tilles, ending  at  Paraguay. 

V.  The  Missions  of  Oceanica,  including  Australia. 

These  missions,  though  under  the  direction  of  the  Propa- 
ganda at  Rome,  are  mainly  supported  by  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1822 ;  by  the 
Association  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus,  founded  at  Paris 
in  1844;  by  the  Leopoldine  Association  of  Austria;  by  the 
Association  of  (King)  Louis  of  Bavaria ;  and  by  the  St.  Francis 
Xavier  Association,  in  the  archdiocese  of  Cologne.  There  is 
also  a  number  of  institutions  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
specially  devoted  to  the  work  of  training  missionaries,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  College  of  the  Propaganda  at  Rome,  the  most 
famous  missionary  establishment  in  the  world  ;  Saint-Lazare, 
or  the  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions,  and  the  Seminary  of  St. 
Esprit,  at  Paris ;  the  Seminary  of  the  Marists  at  Lyons;  the 
College  of  All  Hallows,  near  Dublin,  Ireland ;  St.  Joseph's  Col- 
lege at  Mill  Hill,  near  Jjondon,  England,  exclusively  devoted 
to  missionary  work  among  the  negroes;  the  Chinese  College  at 
Naples;  the  Seminary  for  the  Missions  of  Central  Africa  at 
Verona;  besides  other  missionary  colleges  in  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine, at  Milan,  Louvain,  and  near  Brussels.  Moreover,  the  Re- 
ligious Orders,  as  a  rule,  train  some  of  their  members  for  for- 
eign missionary  work,  and  man}'  of  them  have  special  houses  set 
apart  for  the  purpose.  Many  dioceses  and  vicariates-apostolic 
In  Pagan  lands  are  given  in  charge  by  the  Propaganda  to  the 


§  428.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  923 

various  Religious  Orders,  on  the  understanding  that  they  are 
to  supply  them  with  a  number  of  priests  adequate  to  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  missions.  The  Orders  most  numerously  rep- 
resented in  the  foreign  missions  are  the  Jesuits,  the  Francis- 
cans, the  Dominicans,  the  Lazarists,  the  Picpus  Society,  the 
Marists,  the  Capuchins,  and  the  Carmelites.  There  are  also 
seminaries,  like  that  of  Penang  in  British  Asia,  established  in 
purely  missionary  countries,  for  the  education  of  such  of  the 
natives  as  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  evangel- 
izing their  countrymen.  The  progress  of  the  far-away  mis- 
sions is  given  in  the  Annuario  Pontificio,  now  called  the  Ge- 
rarchia  CattoUca,  from  which  we  learn  that  new  bishoprics 
and  apostolic  vicariates  are  annually  established  in  them.^ 

I.    EASTERN    MISSIONS. 

In  the  new  Kingdom  of  Greece,  where  there  are  ten  or  twelve  schismatical 
bishops  and  three  bishops  and  two  priests  recognizing  the  authority  of  the  Per- 
manent Holy  Synod  of  Kussia,  introduced  July  23,  1833,2  there  is  already  one 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop  at  Nnxos,  together  with  five  bishops,  residing  re- 
spectively at  Andres,  Skio,  Syra,  Tinos,  and  Santorln?  There  is  also  an  archie- 
piscopal  see  at  Athens.  The  total  number  of  Catholics  in  these  bishoprics  is 
about  30,000.  Mgr.  Aloysius  Maria  BLancis,  Bishop  of  Syra,  is  the  Apostolic 
Legate,  and  is  recognized  by  the  government  as  such.  New  churches  have 
been  recently  built  at  Athens,  Piraeus,  Hiracli,  Patras,  and  Navarino. 

The  Catholic  Church  is  spread  over  the  whole  of  European,  Asiatic,  and  Af- 
rican Turkey,  where  she  has  sixty-six  episcopal  and  archiepiscopal  sees,  eleven  vi- 
cariates, and  two  apostolic  prefectures.  Of  these,  eleven  episcopal  and  two  arch- 
iepiscopal sees  are  situated  in  European  Turkey.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are 
about  900,000  Catholics  in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey;  260,000  in  the 
former,  and  640,000  in  the  latter  provinces,  all  of  whom  have  been  bitterly  per- 
secuted. 

There  is  a  patriarch  in  Constantinople,  and  eight  episcopal  sees  and  five  apos- 
tolic vicariates  in  Bulgaria,*  Walachia,  Moldavia,  Serbia,  Macedonia,  Albania, 


'  Cf.  American  Cyclopaedia,  art.  Missions  (Foreign).  (Tk.) 

^Cf.  Schmitf,  Hist,  of  the  Modern  Greek  and  Russian  Church,  pp.  178  sq.; 
Ilefele,  Supplement  to  Ch.  Hist.,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  439,  443. 

^  Gerarchia  CattoUca,  year  1877,  pp.  34  and  41.  (Tr.) 

*0n  the  18th  of  December,  18G0,  two  hundred  Bulgarian  notables  petitioned 
Mgr.  Brunoni,  the  Pope's  Delegate  at  Constantinople,  for  their  nation's  read- 
mission  to  the  Catholic  Church.  On  the  21st  of  January,  1861,  Pius  I  S.  ex- 
pressed the  excess  of  his  joy  over  this  auspicious  event.  But  schism,  heresy, 
and  Islamism  conspired  against  the  Church  of  God,  and  prevented  the  consum- 
mation of  the  act;  many  Bulgarian  villages,  however,  with  their  priests,  re- 
mained steadfast  in  their  professions  of  union  with  Rome.    (Tk.) 


924  Period.  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha-pter  1. 

Bosnia,  and  HerzpEjovina,  where,  in  spite  of  the  crafty  opposition  of  the  Gre^k 
Schismatics,  the  brutal  violence  of  the  Mussulman,  and  the  intrigues  of  the 
Eussians,  much  progress  has  been  made  by  the  combined  effort  of  the  Laza- 
rists,  Minorites,  Capuchins,  Italian  Passionists,  and  Sisters  of  Charity.^ 

The  United  Ai'menians,  besides  a  special  patriarch,  residing  at  Bsommar,  on 
MoKnt  Libanus,  have  also  a  primate  archbishop  at  Constantinople,  who,  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Adrianople,  September  14,  1829,  was  honored 
with  the  dignity  of  the  patriarchal  office.  On  the  11th  of  .July,  1830,  Arch- 
bishop Xurigian,  who  had  been  consecrated  at  Home,  received  the  pallium  from 
PiuS  VIII.  New  bishoprics  were  established  for  the  Catholic  Armenians  by 
Gregory  XVI.  in  1832,  and  by  Pius  IX.  in  1854.  Pius  IX.^  found  it  necessary 
to  reprehend  the  conduct  of  some  of  the  clergy,  who,  under  the  pretext  of  pro- 
moting Catholic  unity,  thwarted  the  efforts  of  the  Holy  See  to  maintain  the  old 
Armenian  Eite,  and  conformed  to  that  of  the  Schismatics.  They  also  advo- 
cated the  abolition  of  certain  usages,  which  had  been  lawfully  introduced,  and 
had  a  special  significance,  in  that  they  showed  the  detestation  of  the  Catholic 
Armenians  for  schism  and  their  attachment  to  Catholic  unity. 

When  the  Armenian  bishops  failed  to  come  to  the  Vatican  Council,  and  it 
became  known  that  they  were  secretly  agitating  against  unity  at  home,  Pius 
IX.  appointed  Mgr.  Hassun  Patriarch,  who,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  have 
bis  authority  recognized  by  the  Armenians  of  Turkey,  except  those  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  are  obedient  to  the  Holy  See,  returned  to  Rome  in  July,  1872. 

Abdul  Medshid,  on  his  accession  to  power,  yielding  to  the  representations  of 
the  European  Cabinets,  promised,  in  an  ofhcial  document,  dated  November  3, 
1839,  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  Christians;  but  his  good  intentions 
were  rendered  nugatory  by  the  fanaticism  of  the  Turks.  By  the  Hnitl-Hu- 
mayum,  or  Edict  of  Toleration,  issued  in  1856,  at  the  close  of  the  war  against 
Eussia,  the  Sultan  granted  to  the  Chistians  equal  rights  with  his  Moslem  sub- 
jects, including  the  right  to  bear  arms  and  to  appear  on  equal  terms  in  the 
courts  of  justice;  but,  in  matter  of  fact,  the  Christians  were  no  better  off  than 
they  had  been  before  the  Edict  was  issued,  as  is  abundantly  established  by  the 
fact  that  a  frightful  massacre  of  the  Christians  took  place  on  Mt.  Libanus  in 
July,  18(50,3  and  in  Bulgaria  in  1876.  The  self-sacrificing  devotion  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  in  caring  for  the  soldiers  wounded  in  the  war  of  1855  against 
Eussia,  elicited  even  at  Constantinople  a  sympathetic  admiration  for  their  hero- 
ism. It  was  hoped  that  the  visit  of  the  Sultan  to  the  World's  Fair  at  Paris,  in 
1867,  and  subsequently  to  the  Courts  of  London  and  Vie?itia,  and  his  conference 
with  the  King  of  Prussia,  at  Coblentz,  would  enlarge  his  views  and  expand  his 
sympathies,  and  that  the  result  of  these  influences  would  be  visible  in  the  civ- 
ilization  of  Turkey  and  the  more  humane  treatment  of  his  Christian  subjects. 
If  these  blessings  are  ever  to  come  upon  Turkey,  they  will  be  due  mainly  to 
the  great  labors  of  the  Lazarists,  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  the  Christian 
Brothers,  who  have  opened  schools  all  over  the  country.    The  main  hope  of  the 


^  Augsb.  Univ.  Gaz.,  February  21,  1843.     Freiburg   Eccl.   Cyclop.,  Vol.  XI., 
pp.  831  sq.;   Fr.  tr..  Vol.  24,  pp.  249  sq.     Gams,  Vol.  I.,  p.  183  sq. 
»Cfr.  Pius  IX.  as  Pope  and  King,  Vienna,  1865,  pp.  177-180. 
*  Cf.  Piizipios- Beg,  L'Orient,  les  reformes  bj-zantines,  Paris,  1853. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  925 

Christians  for  an  improved  condition  of  affairs  lies  in  the  desire  of  the  Turks 
to  have  their  children  properly  educated,  and  in  the  ability  (  f  the  former  to 
give  such  education. 

But  it  is  in  Asiatic  Turkey,^  and  particularly  in  the  Levant,  or  that  stretch- 
of  sea-coast  lying  along  the  Mediterranean  from  Constantinople  to  Alexandria, 
that  the  Lazarists,  under  the  protection  of  Austria  and  France,  have  put  forth 
their  greatest  energies  and  gained  their  most  splendid  triumphs.  The  Catholic 
Church  has  a  special  interest  in  these  countries,  for  their  memories  are  asso- 
ciated in  her  history  with  some  of  her  most  cherished  traditions.^  Here,  too, 
the  schools  are  her  chief  instrument  of  influence,  and  in  conducting  them  the 
Jesuits  and  Franciscans  emulate  the  zeal  and  labors  of  the  Lazarists.  "While 
the  Capuchins  were  erecting  schools  in  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Alep-po^  and 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  achieving  their  usual  success  at  Smyrna,  the  Jesuits  were 
setting  up  new  missions  in  Syria.^  Veneration  for  the  sacred  places,  hallowed 
by  scenes  in  the  life  of  Our  Lord  and  His  Apostles,  was  revived  by  pilgrim- 
ages to  the  cradle  of  Christianity,  which  were  encouraged  and  aided  by  the 
French  and  Austrian  governments,  and  rendered  more  practicable  by  the 
foundation  at  Jerusalem  of  a  Hospice  for  Pilgrims,  the  creation  of  the  munifi- 
cent generosity  of  the  Imperial  House  of  Hapsburg.  In  Egypt  and  Syria, 
where  heretofore  the  Franciscan  convents  connected  with  the  Custody  of  the 
Holj  Sepulcher  could  barely  manage  to  subsist,  there  are  now  numerous  relig- 
ious houses  and  institutions,  amply  supported  bj'^  the  contributions  that  pour  in 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.*  Educational  establishments  were  opened  by  the 
Capuchins  in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  after  these  countries  had  been  detached 
from  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Aleppo,  the  former  in  1837  and  the  latter  in  1843. 
Thus  is  the  way  being  noiselessly  and  gradually  prepared  for  a  return  of  the 
schismatical  sects  of  the  East  to  the  Iloman  Catholic  Church,  to  which  they 
are  indebted  for  all  that  dignified  and  ennobled  their  history  in  the  past.  "  It 
can  not  be  denied,"  says  Dr.  Durbin,  an  American  and  a  Protestant,  "  that  the 
high  degree  of  civilization  formerly  reached  by  these  countries  was  wholly  due 
to  their  union  with  the  Catholic  Church."  ^  At  present  the  most  ardent  advo- 
cates for  union  with  Rome  are  the  patriarch  of  the  Maronttes,  the  patriarch  of 
the  Melchite  Greeks,  the  patriarch  of  the  Syrians,  the  patriarch  of  the  Arme- 
nians in  Cilicia  and  Mesopotamia,  and  the  patriarch  of  the  Chaldeans.  The 
condition  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  which  once  possessed  three  hundred 
churches,  and  has  now  only  four  thousand  Catholics,  is  by  no  means  encour- 
aging. 


^* Freiburg  Eccl.  Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  XI.,  pp.  334-339;  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  66-74; 
Fr.  trans.,  Vol.  XXIV.,  pp.  25  sq. ;  Vol.  II.,  pp.  50-59.  Gams,  Vol.  III.,  pp. 
595-644. 

^Scholz,  A  Journey  between  Alexandria,  and  Syria,  Lps.  1822,  p.  203. 

3  Father  Charles  of  Saint  Aloysius,  1.  c,  pp.  72-103. 

*  At  Cologne  there  was  formed,  on  June  30,  1855,  the  Associatioji  of  the  Holy 
Sepulcher,  in  furtherance  of  the  Catholic  interests  in  the  Holy  Land.  It  has 
published,  without  interruption,  since  1857,  a  Journal  under  the  Title  "7Vi« 
Holy  Landr 

6  Observations  in  the  East,  by  John  P.  Durbin,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  287,  527. 


926  Period  3.     Ei^och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

"While  the  Catholic  missions  of  Palestine,  poor  in  the  wealth  of  the  world, 
but  rich  in  the  zeal  and  love  of  God,  are  accomplishing  such  great  things,  the 
Anglo-Pr-ussian  episcopal  see  of  St.  James  of  Jerusalem,^  with  an  endowment  of 
•  120,000  gilders  a  year,  does  not  possess  a  single  parish.  The  general  look  of 
contentment  and  ease,  which  strike  every  one  as  characteristic  of  the  house- 
hold of  the  bishop  and  the  attaches  of  the  mission,  and  which  are  in  such  strik- 
ing contrast  with  the  squalor  and  poverty  of  the  population,  in  whose  spiritual 
interests  the  members  of  this  expensive  establishment  are  supposed  to  be  work- 
ing, leaves  the  reluctant  impression  upon  the  minds  even  of  Protestants  that 
the  whole  enterprise  is  a  sort  of  "  religious  luxury." 

In  Persia  the  Catholic  missionaries,  and  notably  the  French  Lazarists,  are 
active  and  zealous,  and,  by  the  puritj'  of  their  lives  and  their  disregard  of 
worldly  wealth  and  conveniences,  have  gained  the  respect  and  extorted  the 
admiration  even  of  the  disciples  of  Mohammed ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  American  Protestant  missionaries,  supplied  from  Boston  with  almost  un- 
limited amounts  of  money,  which  they  lavishly  distribute  among  the  inhabit- 
ants, have  made  comparatively  small  progress.''^  In  1834  the  Shah  of  Persia 
issued  a  firman,  securing  Father  Deuberia,  Superior  of  the  Armenian  Mission, 
against  molestation  or  vexatious  interference.'^ 

A  College  for  Poreign  Missions  has  been  erected  in  Western  Persia,  with 
funds  supplied  from  Lyons,  by  Eugene  Bore,  who  has  been  instrumental  in 
bringing  many  other  blessings  upon  the  country.  Through  the  influence  of 
Prance,  the  Catholics  of  Persia  have  had  many  of  their  churches  restored. 
There  is  a  small  but  faithful  community  of  Catholics  at  Kerak,  not  far  from 
the  Dead  Sea,  in  Arabia,  for  whom  a  church  sufficiently  large  for  their  accom- 
modation was  built  in  1848. 

II.    INDIA    MISSIONS. 

In  East  India  *  the  first  bishopric  was  established  at  Goa  in  1534,  and  raised 
l3  an  archbishopric  in  1557,  with  Cochin,  Cranganore,  and  Meliapoor  in  Hither 
India,  Malacca  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  Macao  in  China,  as  suffragan  sees. 
The  controversy  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans  relative  to  the  Malabar 
Customs,  which  was  decided  adversely  to  the  former  by  the  Papal  Legate, 
Tournon,  in  1704,  and  again  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  July  21, 1742,  interrupted 
the  harmonious  relations  previously  existing  between  these  two  great  Orders ; 
and  the  subsequent  suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  while  it  was  not  with- 
out some  retarding  influence  upon  the  missions  under  its  charge,  did  not  per- 
ceptibly stay  their  progress.  From  the  year  1673  onwards  Jolin  de  Britto,  a 
Bon  of  the  Viceroy  of  Brazil,  and  his  companions  followed  in  the  footsteps  of 
Francis  Xavier,  and,  like  him,  were  endowed  with  the  gift  of  miracles.  Francis 
Lainez,  during  an  apostolate  of  above  thirty  years,  converted  more  than  fifty 
thousand  idolators.     The  Indian  missions  continued  in  a  flourishing  condiiion 


'  CI.  ffpfele,  Supplem.  of  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  477  ;  Dr.  Braun,  Jerusalem,  2d 
ed.,  p.  215,  Freiburg,  1867. 

^Marshall  Christian  Missions,  Vol.  II.,  p.  121.  (Tr.) 

'  Hoenighaus,  Cath.  Eccl.  Gaz.,  Nro.  80,  and  the  text  of  the  Letter,  Nro.  88. 

*  Gams,  Vol.  III.,  p.  608;  Mullbaner,  The  Catholic  Missions  in  East  India. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Cntholic  Church.  027 

until  17G0,  when  they  ceased  to  exist,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of  the 
Jesuits  by  the  government  of  Tortugal.  After  the  power  of  Portugal  had  de- 
clined and  the  English  Company  had  established  its  authority  in  East  India, 
Popes  Alexaxder  VII.  and  Innoce.nt  XII.  sent  thither  apostolic  vicars,  and  an 
apostolic  vicariate  was  permanently  fixed  at  Bombay.  Thereupon  the  ofli:'ers 
of  the  East  India  Company,  by  an  order  of  the  7th  of  August,  1791,  forbade 
the  Archbishop  of  Goa  to  exercise  any  authority  over  the  Catholics  of  Bombay. 
The  sees  of  Cranganore,  Cochin,  and  Meliapoor,  situated  within  the  territory 
occupied  by  the  Company,  after  falling  vacant,  were  not  again  filled,  because 
Portugal,  having  the  right  of  presentation,  would  not  exercise  it  now,  that  the 
country  was  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  In  1832  the  Holy  See  warned  the 
Court  of  Lisbon  that  the  appointments  must  be  made  or  the  privilege /or>naW?/ 
abdicated,  and  receiving  no  answer,  established  (^1834-37),  with  the  concur- 
rence of  the  English  government,  apostolic  vicariates  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  Ma- 
dura, and  on  the  island  of  Ceylon.  The  Chapter  of  Goa  protested  against  the 
action  of  the  Holy  See,  forbade  any  one,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  to 
hold  intercourse  with  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  and  encouraged  the  priests  of 
Goa  to  oppose  the  missionaries  who  remained  obedient  to  Eome,  thus  creating 
a  schism,  which  Joseph  de  Sylva  y  Torres,  nominated  by  the  Chapter  in  1843, 
and  upon  the  most  solemn  pledges  of  keeping  the  peace,  confirmed  by  Gregory 
XVI.  Archbishop  of  Goa,  was  lo  perpetuate.  A  facile  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  the  schismatical  clergy,  and  a  vehement  advocate  of  the  claims  of  the  Court 
of  Lisbon,  the  new  archbishop  at  once  conferred  priests'  orders  on  eight  hun- 
dred illiterate  men,  who  went  up  and  down  through  the  vicariates  with  the 
diabolical  purpose  of  doing  all  the  mischief  they  could,  and  really  succeeded  in 
driving  about  240,000  Catholics  into  schism.  After  a  protracted  negotiation 
with  the  Cabinet  of  Lisbon,  Pius  IX.  finally  had  Sylva  y  Torres  called  home 
from  Goa.  But,  in  total  disregard  of  the  Pope's  Allocution  of  February  1  7, 
1851,  Anthony  Maria  Suarez,  styling  himself  Vicar  General  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Goa,  at  Bombay,  encouraged  by  de  JIatta,  Bishop  of  Macao,  did  his  best  to 
perpetuate  the  schism.  For  resisting  the  attempts  of  the  latter,  Anastasius 
Hartmann,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Patna  and  Administrator  of  Bombay,  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  a  church  from  the  furj'  of  the  schismatics,  where,  being  shut 
up  from  the  13th  to  the  20th  of  March,  1853,  he  nearly  died  of  starvation. 
And  when  Pius  IX.,  on  the  8th  of  the  following  May,  threatened  the  unworthy 
Bishop  of  Macao  with  the  censures  of  the  Church,  the  outcry  against  Kome  in 
the  Portuguese  Chamber  grew  so  violent  that  the  Papal  Nuncio  was  on  the 
point  of  quitting  the  country.  The  negotiations  between  Eome  and  the  Court 
of  Lisbon,  relative  to  the  Goa  schism,  were  brought  to  a  satisfactory  close  ia 
1859. 

Besides  the  episcopal  sees  in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Qoa  (viz.,  Cochitiy 
Meliapoor,  and  Malacca),  there  are  numerous  apostolic  vicariates  in  India,  viz: 
In  Hither  India,  those  of  Agra,  Borr>,bay, — divided  into  two  districts,  Northern 
and  Southern, — Mangalore,  Mysore,  Cohnbatoor,  Verapoli,  Qutloii,  Colombo,  Jaf- 
naiiapatam,  Madura,  Pondichery,  Madras,  Hyderabad,  Vizagapatam,  Paina, 
Western  and  Eastern  Bengal,  with  residences  respectively  at  Calcutta  and 
Dacca,  and  the  apostolic  prefecture  of  Central  Bengal.  In  Farther  India,  those 
of  Eastern,  Northern,  and  Southern  Burrnah ;   and  in   the  island  of  Java,  a 


928  Period  3.     Eyoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

dependency  of  Holland,  that  of  Batavl'i.  The  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
schism  of  Goa,  and  the  revolt  against  the  English  in  1857,  all  contributed,  at 
different  times  and  each  in  its  own  way,  to  retard,  without,  however,  wholly 
obstructing  the  spread  of  Catholicity  in  these  missionary  lands.  Had  not  the 
Jesuits  been  suppressed,  it  is  probable,  as  a  Protestant  writer  tells  us,i  that  they 
would  have  succeeded  in  converting,  not  only  the  whole  of  India,  but  China 
also;  and  even  after  these  missions  had  been  abandoned  for  above  fifty  years 
(1760  to  1820),  the  missionaries,  who  returned  at  the  end  of  that  time,  were  as- 
tonished to  find  more  than  a  million,  or,  including  the  schismatics  of  Goa,  over 
twelve  hundred  thousmid  still  fervently  attached  to  the  faith  that  had  been 
preached  to  their  fathers.  And  not  only  has  the  Church  held  her  own  in  these 
lands.  It  is  shown  by  statistical  reports  that  the  churches  founded  by  St. 
Francis  Xavier  and  his  successors  receive  some  thousands  of  converts  annually. 
In  1859  five  thousand  schismatics  were  reconciled  to  the  Church,  and  nine  hun- 
dred idolators  and  Protestants  converted  in  the  vicariate  of  Madura  alone,  and 
in  1875  the  total  number  of  conversions  in  the  eighteen  vicariates  of  Hither 
India  was  above  ten  thousand.^  There  were  in  1859  forty-three  Jesuits  in  these 
missions,  a  number  of  colleges  and  schools  for  educating  priests  and  training 
catechists,  five  orphanages,  three  hospitals,  besides  convents  of  Carmelite  and 
Franciscan  nuns. 

III.    MISSIONS    OF    CHINA    AND    THE    ADJACENT    TERKITORIES. 

In  Farther  India,  including  Burmah,  Siam,  Annam,  together  with  Tungking, 
Cochin-China,  etc.,  the  apostolic  vicariates  of  Pegue  and  Ava,  which  had  been 
established  in  1744  for  the  Empire  of  Burmah,  had  been  long  vacant  and  the 
missions  long  deserted  for  lack  of  laborers,  when  Pius  VII.  came  to  the  pontif- 
ical throne.  A  new  vicar  was  appointed  by  him,  and  the  mission  given  in 
charge  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  at  Turin.  In  1848  there 
were  4,000  Christians  in  the  mission  of  Burmah  out  of  a  population  of  9,000,000. 
The  apostolic  vicariate  of  West  Siam,  to  which  portions  of  that  of  Pegue  and 
Ava  have  been  annexed,  has  been  quite  recently  established.  For  many  years 
Pallegoix,  Apostolic  Vicar  and  Bishop  of  Mallos,  labored  zealously  in  the  King- 
dom of  Siam,  and,  after  great  efforts  to  overcome  the  aversion  of  the  natives  to 
Christianity,  finally  succeeded  in  converting  about  7,000  of  them.  In  the  mis- 
sion of  East-Sin.m  there  is  a  seminary,  situated  at  Bangkok,  in  which  young 
men  are  educated  for  the  priesthood.  In  1854  there  were  thirty  seminarists  in 
this  institution.  There  are  also  several  primary  schools  inthe  mission,  besides 
four  convents  of  females,  belonging  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Servants  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  who  are  wholly  devoted  to  the  work  of  instructing  children 
and  catechumens  of  their  own  sex. 

In  Annam  and  Cochin-China  the  missions  are  more  promising,  notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that,  after  the  accession  of  M'm-Menh,  in  1820,  the  Christians  there 
passed  through  one  of  the  most  ferocious  persecutions  ever  waged  in  any  age 
or  country.    During  the  twenty  years  that  this  persecution  lasted  they  displayed 


'  Mr.  George  Campbell,  quoted  by  Marshall,  Christian  Missions,  Vol.  I.,  pp, 
245  sq.  (Tr.) 

2  Catholic  Missions,  Freiburg,  1877,  p.  G8.  (Tr.) 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  929 

■all  the  heroism  of  the  early  martyrs  of  the  Church,  and  their  numbers  steadily 
increased  until  it  reached  one  hundred  thousand.  The  Christian  world  learned 
of  these  events  with  feelings  of  mingled  joy  and  sorrow  from  an  allocution, 
published  by  Gregory  XVI.  on  the  27th  of  April,  1840. 

During  the  short  reign  of  Tieu-Trl  (f  1847)  the  violence  of  the  persecution 
somewhat  abated,  owing  mainly  to  the  fear  inspired  by  the  thunders  of  English 
cannon  along  the  coast  of  China  and  to  the  success  of  the  French  naval  com- 
mander, l^apierre,  who,  in  the  space  of  an  hour,  utterly  annihilated  the  fleet  of 
Cochin-China. 

The  persecutions  were  renewed  under  his  successor,  Tu-duc.  In  1850  the 
Christian  inhabitants  of  the  village  of  Ly-tou-pa,  numbering  two  hundred  and 
forty,  were  inhumanly  tortured  because  they  would  not  consent  to  give  up  their 
faith.  In  1851  Father  Dnchos  died  in  prison  ;  Father  Augustine  Schaeffler,  a 
French  priest  from  Nancy,  was  beheaded  in  the  same  year ;  and  Father  Bon- 
nard  on  the  1st  of  May  of  the  following  year.  Above  9,500  Christians  were 
carried  off  by  the  cholera  in  1851,  but  their  loss  was  more  than  compensated  by 
fresh  accessions. 

Unfortunately,  the  appearance  of  a  French  man-of-war  outside  the  harbor  of 
Tiiron,  in  1857,  had  the  effect  of  making  the  King  of  Annnm  suspicious  of  his 
Christian  subjects,  whose  lot  grew  daily  more  intolerable,  until  finally,  after 
the  departure  of  the  vessel,  a  general  persecution  broke  out  against  them  in 
1858.  There  was  hardly  a  habitation  that  had  sheltered  a  Christian  left  stand- 
ing, and  schools,  seminaries,  convents,  and  houses  of  religious  were  all  destroyed* 
Still  the  missionaries  held  their  ground,  and,  after  the  storm  had  gone  by,  again 
began  work.  Thanks  to  their  courage,  zeal,  and  activity,  numbers  of  adults 
are  being  now  daily  baptized.  According  to  the  Annals  of  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith,'  there  were  in  Annain.  in  1858,  in  spite  of  the  martyrdoms,  fourteen 
bishops,  besides  above  thirty  in  China  Proper,  sixty  European  and  two  hundred 
and  forty  native  priests,  sixteen  hundred  native  female  religious,  and  five  hun- 
dred and  thirty  thousand  Christians. 

In  Tibet,  Horatio  della  Penna  was  partially  successful  in  evangelizing  the 
natives.  In  1744,  when  he  and  his  brethren  were  expelled  the  country,  they 
passed  over  into  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul  of  India.  The  apostolic  vi- 
cariate of  Tibet  and  Gyra  was  established  in  1808,  and  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Capuchins.  In  the  years  1845  and  184G  the  Lazarists  Hue  and 
Gahet  penetrated  into  Tibet  as  far  as  Lassa,  where  they  made  many  converts, 
but  were  subsequently  ordered  to  quit  the  country,  in  consequence  of  a  demand 
made  to  the  Tibetan  authorities  by  the  resident  embassador  of  China.  Another 
attempt  was  made  in  1851  and  1852  to  enter  the  country  from  the  Indian  side 
^f  the  Himalayah  mountains,  but  the  courageous  missionaries  were  seized 
and  put  to  death  before  they  had  succeeded  in  making  any  conversions. 

When  Joseph  Maria  Chauveau  was  appointed  apostolic  vicar  for  Tibet,  in 
Septem.ber,  1804,  a  fresh  persecution  broke  out  against  the  Christians,  during 
■which  mauy  died  for  their  faith. 


» No.  119. 

VOL.  Ill — 59 


930  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha'pter  1. 

In  China  Proper'^  the  condition  of  the  Christians  varied  with  the  opinions  ot 
the  reigning  monarch.  Towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Keen-h'ufi  (1735- 
1795)  the  missionaries  were  taken  into  favor;  during  the  early  da_ys  of  the 
reign  of  his  successor,  Kea-Mng  (1795-1820),  they  were  agitated  with  alternate 
hopes  and  misgivings ;  but,  as  time  went  on,  the  Emperor,  yielding  to  the  so. 
licitations  of  the  mandarins,  began  a  violent  persecution  against  the  Christiana. 
According  to  the  testimony  of  Giitzlaff,  a  Protestant  missionary,  who  died  in 
1851,  "thousands  of  Catholics  perished  by  the  axe  of  the  executioner.'"  Thfc 
persecution  was  at  its  worst  in  1815,  when  the  apostolic  vicar,  Dv^resse,  aftet 
forty  years  (1776-1815)  of  fruitful  missionary  work,  died  the  death  fa  martyr 
and  a  saint,  September  14,  1815.  In  an  allocution  of  September  '2b  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  Pius  VII.  took  occasion  to  speak  of  him  in  terms  of  the  highest 
praise. 

Father  Clei,  a  Lazarist,  at  the  advanced  age  of  seventy-two,  and  Father 
Che?!,  a  native  of  China,  together  with  a  number  of  laymen,  like  Dufresse,  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  confessing  their  faith.  Apart  from  some  vexatious  annoy, 
ances  from  the  mandarins,  the  Christians  enjoyed  a  season  of  comparative  quiet 
during  the  reign  of  Taou-Kwnng,  from  1820  till  1850.  In  1839,  however,  the 
French  missionary  Perboyre,  after  having  seen  five  Christians  beheaded  before 
his  eyes,  was  subjected  to  the  most  inhuman  torments,  and  finally  put  to  death 
in  the  province  of  Hoo-pih.  His  three  brothers,  who  had  remained  at  home, 
being  also  desirous  of  winning  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  set  out  for  China, 
after  having  received  the  news  of  their  brother's  death.  While  these  events 
were  taking  place,  the  first  Anglo-Chinese  Opium  war  broke  out,  resulting,  in 
1842,  in  the  Treaty  of  Nanking,  by  which  the  "  Son  of  Heaven  "  bound  himself 
to  pay  to  the  "  Red-whiskered  Barbarians,"  as  he  called  the  English,  a  war  in- 
demnity of  $21,000,000,  and  to  open,  besides  the  port  of  Canton,  those  of  Amoy, 
Fuh-chow-Foo,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghai  to  foreign  trade. 

On  the  joint  demand  of  France  and  the  United  States,  a  promise  was  given 
that  native  Christians  should  not  be  molested;  that  foreigners  should  be  al- 
lowed to  build  churches  and  chapels  in  five  of  the  sea-port  cities;  and  that  mis- 
sionaries in  the  interior,  if  seized,  should  be  delivered  up  to  the  nearest  French 
Consul.  This  was  a  virtual  abdication  of  the  Chinese  principle  of  exclusion. 
On  the  accession  of  Heen-fung,  February  5,  1850,  the  old  Chinese  party  again 
rallied,  and  urged  upon  the  new  Emperor  the  necessity  of  setting  aside  the 
Treaty  of  Nanking  and  of  assuming  an  aggressive  attitude  toward  foreigners. 
After  a  long  succession  of  intrigues,  secretly  carried  on  against  the  Engli.sh, 
open  hostilities  finally  broke  out  in  Canton  in  October,  1856.  As  the  Chinese 
had  also  broke  faith  with  France  by  the  murder  of  Fere  CIiirpdeLnine  in  the 
same  year,  the  laiter  country  at  once  united  with  England  in  demanding  satis- 
faction. Canton  was  stormed,  and  yielded,  after  a  feeble  re:5istaMce,,  in  1857; 
and  the  allied  forces,  ascending  the  rivers  in  light  boat?,  penetrated  into  the 
interior  of  the  country.  The  Emperor  was  forced  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
peace,  the  articles  of  which  are  thus  described  by  Baron  Gros,  the  French  Plen- 
ipotentiary, writing  to  his  government,  under  date  of  July  19,  1858.     "The 


'  Gams,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  196  sq.     Hist,  and  Polii.  Papers,  Vol.  41,  Pen-pictures 
and  Sketches  of  China,  five  articles;  cf.,  especially,  pp.  1049  sq. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  931 

vast  Empire  of  China,"  said  he,  "  is  open  to  Christianity,  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  it  to  the  industry  and  commerce  of  the  West.  Our  diplomatic  agents  will 
reside,  as  occasion  may  require,  at  Peking,  and  our  inissionaries  have  leave  to  go 
all  over  the  Empire.  A  Chinese  embassador  will  be  sent  to  Paris,  and  the  laws 
against  the  Christians  will  be  abrogated."  This  treaty,  though  fenced  about 
with  every  sort  of  diplomatic  formality,  was  not  carried  into  execution,  and,  in 
consequence,  France  and  England  again,  in  December,  1859,  began  hostilities, 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Peking  and  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Tien- 
tsin, October  24,  1860.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  1858 
should  be  enforced  ;  that  certain  other  concessions,  besides  those  there  provided 
for,  should  be  granted  to  the  Christians;  that  a  war  indemnity  of  8,000,000  of 
taels  should  be  paid  to  the  allied  powers ;  and  that  some  valuable  privileges 
should  be  accorded  to  France.  The  Catholics,  besides  having  a  cathedral  and 
four  churches  restored  to  them  at  Pekimj,  were  permitted  to  build  another  at 
Canton,  the  corner-stone  of  which  was  brought  from  Jerusalem.  The  tyranni- 
cal and  voluptuous  Heen-fimg  died  shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty, 
in  the  summer  of  the  following  year,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Tjmg-che, 
then  only  five  years  of  age.  Tung-che  having  died  without  issue,  January  12, 
1875,  the  succession  passed  from  the  direct  line  of  the  Tsing  dynasty.  His 
cousin,  then  not  quite  four  years  of  age,  was  chosen  in  his  room,  under  the  title 
of  Kwang-seu  or  "Succession  of  Glory."  ^  The  government  was  temporarily 
vested  in  two  women  of  singular  moderation  and  prudence.  Still  persecutions 
did  not  entirely  cease  in  the  provinces,  but  the  instances  that  occurred  were  the 
work  of  officials,  and  had  not  either  the  sanction  or  the  sympathy  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Quite  the  contrary.  In  1862  a  high  official  was  dismissed  because 
he  had  been  implicated  in  the  murder  of  Abbe  Neel.  a  missionary  in  Kwei- 
Chow,  and  his  four  lay  assistants,  on  the  17th  of  February.  The  Chinese 
general,  'JMen-ta-jen,  a  disreputable  character,  who  subsequently  fell  into  dis- 
grace, afl'ecting  to  regard  as  rebels  the  numerous  disciples  of  the  Abbe  N^el, 
whom  his  bishop,  Mgr.  Faurie,  called  a  saint,  instigated  the  mandarin,  Tay-lou- 
tche,  to  put  them  to  death.  During  each  successive  year  since  1850,  Europeans 
and  natives,  priests  and  laymen,  men  and  women,  have  cheerfully  offered  their 
lives  in  witness  of  the  truth  of  their  faith.  Of  the  native  priests,  Andrew 
Koung,  Superior  of  the  College  of  Hoo-pih,  perished  in  1852 ;  Father  Philip 
Minh,  in  1853;  Father  Huong,  in  1856;  and  Father  Paul  Tinh  and  another,  in 
1857.  On  the  31st  of  January  of  the  last-named  year,  remarkable  for  the  great 
number  of  martyrs  it  gave  to  the  Church,  four  Christians  were  beheaded ;  on 
the  day  following  eleven  ;  and  two  days  later  ten  ;  all  in  the  same  town.  The 
executions  continued  during  the  following  months  of  April  and  31ay,  and  en 
the  20th  of  July,  Bishop  Diaz,  a  Spaniard,  was  beheaded,  after  along  and  fruitful 
career  as  a  missionary.  His  head  was  recovered  in  1858  by  some  fishermen,  and 
brought  to  Bishop  Melchiur,  who  was  himself  shortly  to  undergo  a  still  more 
terrible  fate,  being  literally  hacked  to  pieces.  From  the  days  of  Ricci  to  the 
present,  the  history  of  Catholicity  in  China  has  been  one  of  persecution,  ddel- 
ity,  and  martyrdom. 

There  are  at  present  twenty-two  apostolic  vicariates  in  China   Proper,  viz : 


^Encyclopaedia  Brttanniea,  London  and  Philadelphia,  1877,  art.  China.  (Tr.) 


932  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Kwang-tung,  Fuh-  Keen,  Che-Keang,  Kiang-fiu,  NortJiern,  Ensfern,  andi  Soufheastern 
Chili,  Hoo-nan,  Northern,  Eastern,  Western,  and  Southwestern  Hoo-pieh,  Nan- 
king,  Keang-se,  Kwang-se,  Yun-nan,  Kivei-chow,  Northern,  Southern,  Eastern, 
and  Westejm  Sze-chuen,  and  Hong-Kong.  There  are  also  three  apostolic  prefect, 
ures,  viz :  Hat-nan,  Ku-ang-tnng,  and  Kwang-se.  There  are  many  apostolic  vi- 
cariates in  the  neii^hboring  territories.  To  the  South,  in  Indo-CMna  or  Farther 
India,  the  following :  Eastern  and  Western  Siam,  Camboja,  Western,  Eastern, 
and  North.er7i  Annum  or  Cochin-China.  and  Central,  Southern,  and  Western 
Tung-king ;  and  to  the  North,  Corea,  Japan,  Manchooria,  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and, 
finally,  the  apostolic  prefecture  of  the  French  Colonies  in  East  India.  There 
were  in  the  whole  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  in  1859,  196  European  priests  and 
428  of  native  birth,  besides  eighteen  Catholic  seminaries.  In  the  year  1868 
there  were  in  China  Proper  158  European  and  169  Chinese  priests,  and  a  Cath- 
olic population  of  325,000 ;  but,  including  the  dependencies,  of  more  than  a 
million.!  Through  the  instrumentality  of  the  ^'•Society  of  the  Holy  Childhood,''' 
359,388  Chinese  children  received  the  grace  of  Baptism  up  to  1857,  of  whom  9,168 
had  been  purchased;  in  1875,  300,000  foundlings  were  baptized,  50,000  of  whom 
survived  and  were  brought  up. 

The  comparatively  unknown  Peninsula  of  Corea,  into  which  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries had  penetrated  as  early  as  1632,  and  where  they  have  been  laboring 
ever  since,  forms  in  itself  an  isolated  apostolic  vicariate.  There  is  no  country 
of  the  world  in  which  the  Church  has  had  as  many  martyrs  in  modern  times 
as  in  this.  Alexis  Huang  the  Young,  suspected  of  favoring  a  policy  which 
would  open  the  country  to  missionaries,  was  put  to  death.  May  21,  1801,  after 
having  borne  up  under  frightful  tortures,  his  last  words  being  :  "  I  die  for  the 
religion  of  the  Lord  of  Heaven."  Being  almost  entirely  destitute  of  priests, 
the  Coreans  made  a  most  piteous  appeal  to  Pope  Pius  VII.  and  the  bishops  of 
the  Catholic  world  to  come  to  their  relief.  "We  beg  of  you,"  they  said,  "in 
virtue  of  the  merits  of  our  martyrs,  to  send  us  priests  at  once ;  we  make  the 
request  with  tears  of  blood  in  our  eyes."  In  Corea  a  persecution  broke  out 
simultaneously  with  that  of  China.  In  the  interval  between  April  and  De- 
cember, 1839,  Bishop  Imherf,  his  two  brothers,  and  above  a  hundred  native 
Christians  of  both  sexes,  suffered  martyrdom  ;  and  in  the  short  space  of  forty 
years  three  hundred  martyrs  died,  confessing  the  faith,  in  the  Peninsula. 

After  the  persecution  had  ceased,  the  Christians  enjoyed  a  few  years  of  com- 
parative quiet,  and  in  1859  there  were  16,000  Catholics  in  the  country.  A  fresh 
persecution  broke  out  in  1866,  in  the  course  of  which  Bishop  Verneux,  his  co 
adjutor,  and  many  priests  were  martyred. 

From  the  year  1596  the  Catholics  of  Japan  passed  through  a  half  a  century 
of  almost  uninterrupted  persecution,  in  the  course  of  which  they  endured  tor- 
tures, to  which  for  refined,  malignant,  and  inhuman  cruelty,  those  borne  by  the 
early  martyrs  of  the  Church  can  not  be  compared.  Such  was  the  feeling  of 
distrust  entertained  by  the  Japanese  for  Europeans,  after  this  persecution,  that 
nearly  the  whole  country  was  closed  against  them.  The  Dutch  alone,  impelled 
by  lust  of  gain,  purchased  on  the  most  humiliating  terms  the  privilege  of  re- 
maining in  the  country  and  keeping  possession  of  their  manufacturing  estab- 

!  Cf.  The  Madras  Catholic  Almanac  of  1868  and  the  Gerarchm  Cattolu:a, 
Rome,  1877.  (Tb.) 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  933 

lishments  on  the  island  of  Desima,  near  the  city  of  I^nngdsuki.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  naval  expedition,  sent  out  by  the  United  States  in  1858,  had  taught 
the  Japanese  a  lesson,  that  the  government  of  the  Mikado  consented  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  with  that  country,  which  was  followed  by  others  with  England 
and  the  continental  nations,  opening  the  great  city  of  Nangasaki  and  the 
smaller  towns  of  Simoda  and  Hokadadi  to  foreigners.  A  Catholic  church  was 
erected  in  1862  at  Yokahama  by  Gerard,  the  apostolic  prefect.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  recent  visit  of  the  Japanese  Embassy  to  the  great  cities  of  North 
America  and  the  capitals  of  Europe  will  have  the  effect  of  inspiring  a  more 
generous  policy  towards  the  Christians  of  the  Island-Empire,  which  is  now  an 
apostolic  vicariate. 

It  would  seem  that  after  so  long  an  eclipse,  a  new  light  has  dawned  upon 
Africa,  once  the  nursery  of  great  Doctors  of  the  Church.  The  new  see  of 
Algiers  received  its  first  incumbent,  Mgr.  Dupuch,  January  5,  1839,  but  the 
first  considerable  progress  was  reported  by  his  successor,  Mgr.  Pavy,  in  1854. 
Gregory  XVI.  paid  a  very  fitting  and  delicate  tribute  to  the  revived  African 
Church,  and  one,  too,  well  calculated  to  awaken  the  memories  of  its  past  great- 
ness, when  he  presented  its  first  bishop.  Mgr.  Dupuch,  with  a  valuable  relic  of 
St.  Augustine,  which  was  translated  from  Toulon  to  Hippo,  on  the  24th  of  Oc- 
tober, 1842,  by  seven  bishops,  with  unusual  pomp  and  ceremony,  and  deposited 
in  a  church  of  the  city,  in  which  the  great  African  Doctor  shut  himself  up  to 
die,  with  the  shouts  of  the  barbarian  invaders  of  his  country  ringing  in  his 
ears.  In  1867,  during  the  incumbency  of  Mgr.  Lavige.rie,  Algiers,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Napoleon  III.,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric,  with  Orati 
and  Consiantine  as  sufl'ragan  sees.  The  bishopric  of  Ceiita  has  been  established 
for  Fez  and  Morocco,  containing  about  14,000  Catholics,  of  whom  8,000  reside 
in  the  episcopal  city.  The  recent  victories  of  the  Spaniards  have  had  the  ef- 
fect of  materially  improving  their  condition.  In  Tvnis,  where  there  are  at 
present  3,000  Catholics,  an  apostolic  prefecture  was  established  in  1634  by  Ur- 
ban VIII.,  which  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  apostolic  vicariate  by  Gregory 
XVI.,  March  21,  1843,  with  Fidelis  Sutter,  a  Capuchin,  as  incumbent. 

Egypt  and  Arabia,  formerly  attached  to  the  Custody  of  the  Holy  Land,  were 
erected  into  a  separate  apostolic  vicariate  in  1837,  with  the  seat  at  Alexandria. 
Perpetuus  Guasco,  a  Franciscan,  was  the  first  incumbent.  The  Franciscans,  of 
whom  there  are  about  seventy  in  these  missions,  have  convents  at  Cairo,  Ro- 
setta,  Damietta,  Fayoom,  Alexandria,  and  other  cities,  and  through  their  zeal 
naany  Coptic  Christians  have  been  reconciled  to  the  Holy  See.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  vicariate  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  15,000,  of  whom  7,000  re- 
side at  Alexandria,  and  religious  institutions  are  comparatively  numerous  and 
are  daily  on  the  increase.  The  Franciscans  are  assisted  in  their  labors  by  the 
Lazarisfs,  the  Sisters  of  Ckarltg,  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  These 
devoted  women  have  the  direction  of  schools,  workhouses,  and  houses  of  ret.uge, 
and,  owing  to  the  epidemics  with  wliich  the  country  is  so  frequently  visited  at 
times  endure  extreme  privation. 

Abyssinia,  which  constituted  an  apostolic  prefecture  until  1847,  when  ii  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  an  apostolic  vicariate,  contains  a  number  of  flourishing 
missions,  mainly  due  to  the  zeal  of  the  Lazarists  and  to  the  protection  nf 
France.     Justinus  de  Jacobin,  a  man  eminent  for  piety  and  learning,  was  ap- 


934  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  "i. 

pointed  the  first  vicar,  and  from  this  time  forth  many  native  priests  asked  to 
be  received  into  the  Church.  Since  the  incursion  of  the  Gnllas,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  ancient  Empire  of  Abyssinia,  though  temporarily  united  in  recent 
times  during  the  reign  of  the  unfortunate  Emperor  Theodorus,  has  been  split 
up  into  the  three  virtually  independent  kingdoms  of  Amhara,  Tigre,  and  Shoa. 
The  schismatical  Abyssinians  would  long  since  have  entered  the  Church,  if  iiot 
deterred  by  their  Abuna  or  Metropolitan,  and  forcibly  prevented  by  the  Mos- 
lems. There  are  prosperous  missions,  in  spite  of  adverse  circumstances,  at 
Keren  and  Massowah.  In  1859,  Ubye,  King  of  Tigre,  dispatched  an  Embassy 
to  Rome  to  make  his  submission  to  the  Holy  See,  and,  in  consequence,  above 
10,000  Abyssinians,  including  many  eminent  ecclesiastics,  abjured  their  schism, 
and  yielded  obedience  to  the  Church.  Among  the  Gnllas  and  Sldrunns,  where 
the  Capuchins  are  laboring  earnestly,  missionary  stations  have  been  established 
at  Kafa,  Guera,  Gammara,  and  Borro,  Bishop  Massata  received  the  abjuration 
of  Teclafa  and  of  more  than  a  thousand  monks,  over  whom  he  ruled,  and  pen- 
etrated into  the  country  as  far  as  Sennaar  and  even  beyond  it.  He  consecrated 
a  coadjutor  in  1859. 

Our  knowledge  of  Central  Africa  has  been  largely  increased  in  recent  times 
through  the  well-known  labors  of  Dr.  Livingston,  Captain  Speke,  Lieutenant 
Ca7neron,  Mr.  Stanley,  Mr.  Barth,  Mr.  Schweinfurth,  and  other  German,  En- 
glish, American,  and  French  explorers  and  scientists.  The  fidelity,  courage, 
and  endurance  of  these  men  are  worthy  of  all  praise,  and  the  large  stores  of 
information  contributed  by  them  to  the  solution  of  the  various  questions  con- 
cerning Africa  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  But  the  motives  that  prompt 
missionaries  to  enter  the  country  are  still  higher  and  nobler.  They  go  there, 
not  to  gain  the  praise  and  applause  of  the  world,  nor  even,  primarily  at  least, 
to  add  to  the  stock  of  human  knowledge,  though  they  have  done  much  in  this 
field  also,  but  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  gain  souls  to  Christ. 

Gregory  XVI.,  on  the  od  of  April,  1846,  shortly  before  his  death,  established 
an  apostolic  vicariate  for  Central  Africa,  according  to  a  plan  suggested  by  Max 
Ryllo,  a  Polish  Jesuit.  After  having  labored  as  a  missionary  in  Syria,  and 
served  for  a  time  as  Kector  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  at  Kome,  Pvyllo, 
accompanied  by  a  brother  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  four  secular  priests, 
among  whom  was  Dr.  Knoblecher,  a  native  of  Laibach,  penetrated,  in  1847, 
into' the  hitherto  unknown  districts  of  Central  Africa.  On  the  11th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1848,  the  band  of  missionaries  arrived  at  Khartoom,  the  modern  capital 
of  Nubia,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  "White  and  Blue  Nile,  and  of  easy 
access  from  Europe,  and  resolved  to  make  this  place  the  seat  of  the  new  vicari- 
ate. After  the  death  of  Father  Ryllo,  June  17,  1849,  Dr.  Knoblecher,  who  was 
named  his  successor,  unaided  by  the  Propaganda,  explored  the  territory  along 
the  "White  Nile,  in  search  of  available  missionary  stations,  and  in  1850  hastened 
back  to  Europe  to  obtain  priests  and  material  aid  to  enable  him  to  carry  out  his 
designs.  The  Imperial  Court  of  Austria  took  up  his  project  with  zeal,  and  the 
St.  Mary's  Society,  presided  over  by  the  aulic  counsellor.  Dr.  Hurter,  was 
founded  in  the  interest  of  the  new  enterprise.  Accompanied  by  five  German 
priests,  and  in  the  most  sanguine  frame  of  mind,  the  pro-vicar,  having  returned 
to  Khartoom,  ex})lored,  on  board  his  own  vessel,  the  Stella  Mutiititta.  the  White 
Nile  as  fa.  as  Gondokoro,  in  search  of  a  site  for  a  missionary  station  among  the 


423.   The  31issions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  935 


Baggahri.  This  was  finally  fixed  at  Heiligenkreuz,  where  many  new  mission- 
aries shortly  arrived  from  Germany,  but  their  number  was  soon  reduced  by 
death.  More  than  twenty  fell  victims  to  the  insidious  effects  of  the  climate, 
and  Dr.  Knoblecher  died  at  Naples,  April  13,  1858.  He  was  succeeded  by  Dr. 
Kirchner,  of  the  diocese  of  Bamberg,  who,  desirous  of  locating  the  mission  in 
a  more  healthy  district,  fixed  upon  the  village  of  Shellal,  near  Assuan,  on  the 
confines  of  Egypt  and  Nubia.  With  a  view  to  providing  for  the  mission  a 
suflScient  and  unfailing  number  of  missionaries,  he  had  it  transferred  by  the 
Propaganda,  in  18G1,  to  the  Franciscans.  Eheinthaler,  O.  S.  F.,  the  new  pro- 
vicar,  with  thirtj^-two  members  of  his  Order,  tooii  charge  of  the  missions,  but 
fell  a  victim  to  his  zeal  in  1862. 

By  18G5  the  bulk  of  these  Franciscans  had  likewise  perished,  and  it  was 
found  necessary  to  give  up  the  stations,  with  the  exception  of  Khartoom,  where 
two  Fathers  and  one  Brother  remained.  More  than  forty  missionaries  had 
been  cut  oflT  by  disease,  even  before  they  had  acquired  a  sufficient  familiarity 
with  the  language  of  the  country  to  enable  them  to  make  themselves  useful. 
But,  if  they  accomplished  little  permanent  good  for  religion  during  their  short 
stay  in  Central  Africa,  they  made  very  valuable  contributions  to  science.  The 
names  of  Knoblecher,  Duryak,  Beltrame,  Morlang,  Vinco,  Kaufmann,  Kirch- 
ner, Gossuer,  and  Mosgan  will  ever  find  a  place  among  the  most  eminent  of 
African  explorers;  and  their  voyages  of  discovery,  their  accurate  geographical 
researches,  their  meteorological  observations,  and  their  ethnographical  and  lin- 
guistic studies,  have  added  vastly  to  the  stock  of  knowledge  concerning  the  Nile 
regions  and  their  inhabitants.  Although  ten  years  elapsed  before  another  pro- 
vicar  was  appointed  to  the  African  missions,  they  did  not  become  wholly  ex- 
tinct. In  1854  two  institutions  were  founded  at  Naples  by  Ludovico  di  Caso- 
ria,  the  one  for  boys  and  the  other  for  girls,  where  children  were  brought  at 
proper  age  from  Khartoom  to  be  educated  and  again  sent  back  to  labor  for  the 
salvation  of  their  countrymen  and  women.  In  1805  sixty  negro  boys  and  one 
hundred  negro  girls  were  sent  to  the  house  of  the  Propaganda  at  Shellal,  to  be 
distributed  according  to  the  needs  of  the  missions. 

In  1872  Don  Comboni  was  appointed  pro-vicar.  He  began  work  on  a  new 
plan.  Seeing  the  paramount  necessity  of  acclimatizing  those  who  were  to 
work  in  the  missions  of  Central  Africa,  he  founded  a  seminary  at  Vero7ia  for 
the  education  of  priests  and  a  novitiate  for  the  training  of  Sisters.  From  thiis 
place  they  passed  over  to  Fostat,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cairo,  where  they  as- 
sumed the  direction  of  schools,  and  after  a  sufficient  time  spent  there  went  to 
the  interior.  The  first  of  these  devoted  bands,  under  the  guidance  of  Don 
Carcereri,  settled  at  Ei  Obeid,  the  capital  of  Kordofan,  in  1872.  In  1873  Com- 
boni conducted  from  Europe  to  Khartoom  a  colony  of  forty  persons,  eighteen 
of  whom  were  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  all  native  x\fricans  and  Asiatics.  In  1874 
Comboni  divided  his  vicariate  into  two  districts,  Northern  and  Southern,  and 
in  1875  intrusted  the  former,  including  the  provinces  of  Jierber,  in  Upper  N^u- 
bia;  Suakin,  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea;  and  Tafca,  on  the  northern  fron- 
tier of  Abyssinia,  to  the  Camillists ;  while  he  kept  the  latter,  including  the 
former  Kingdom  of  Dongola,  for  himself.  He  was  consecrated  bishop  in  1877, 
and  appointed  vicar  apostolic  of  Central  Africa.' 

1  Freiburg  Cath.  Eccl.  Gazette,  1858,  pp.  154  sq.     Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers.  Vol. 


936  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Although  the  Cope  of  Good  Hope  had  been  rounded  by  the  Portuguese  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  not  colonized  until  the  seventeenth,  when  the 
Dutch  Boers  settled  there.  They  were  followed  by  some  French  Huguenots, 
and  Calvinism  became  the  prevailing  religion  of  the  Colony.  In  1806  Cape 
Colony  passed  under  British  rule,  and  shortly  afterward  Catholic  missionaries 
began  to  find  their  way  into  it.  Previously  to  1847  the  Church  there  was  un- 
der the  jurisdiction  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  3Iauritius  or  Isle  de  Prance,  but 
in  that  year  an  apostolic  vicariate  was  established,  its  first  incumbent  being 
Mgr.  Griffith.,  who  took  up  his  residence  at  Grahamsiown.  The  number  of 
Catholics  increased  so  rapidly  that  it  was  found  necessary  in  1851  to  divide  the 
Colony  into  two  disti-icts,  Eastern  and  Western;  and  in  1874  to  establish  the- 
Apostolic  Prefecture  of  Central  Copeland,  with  the  seat  at  Georgetown,  which 
embraced  a  portion  of  what  was  formerly  the  "Western  District.  St.  Aidan'3 
College,  under  the  direction  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  opened  St  Grahams- 
town  on  the  31st  of  January,  1876.' 

Little,  if  any,  progress  has  been  made  in  the  missions  of  Guinea,  Senegambia, 
and  Madagascar.  Of  seventy-five  missionaries,  belonging  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  sent  to  the  Guinea  missions  within  an  interval  of  eleven 
years,  forty-two  either  died  prematurely  or  were  rendered  unfit  for  service  by 
sickness.  It  became  apparent  that  the  only  hope  of  achieving  permanent  suc- 
cess lay  in  the  education  of  native  priests,  and,  in  consequence,  a  seminary  was 
founded  for  this  purpose  at  Lyons  in  1854.  An  apostolic  vicariate  was  estab- 
lished for  Senegambia  in  the  same  year;  and  on  the  28th  of  August,  1860,  an- 
other was  established  for  Sierra  Leone,  and  a  third  for  Dahomey,  the  seat  of  the 
latter  being  at  Aghomey.  Guinea,  Natal,  and  Madagascar  have  each  an  apos- 
tolic vicariate;  and  Tripoli,  Senegal,  Saharra,  the  Islands  of  Annobon,  Corisco, 
Fernando  Po  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  Congo,  Central  Capeland,  Nossibe,  Ste. 
Marie,  Mayotte  and  Comorro  Islands,  and  Zanzibar,  have  each  an  apostolic 
prefecture.^ 

IV.    AMERICAN    MISSIONS. 

The  Church  in  America  is  full  of  life  and  activity,  and  is  daily  gaining  fresh 
triumphs.  In  spite  of  the  reverses  sustained  in  the  last  century,  her  growtti 
has  been  rapid  and  steady.  On  this  Continent  there  are  177  bishoprics,  15 
apostolic  vicariates,  and  4  apostolic  prefectures,  the  Catholic  population  being 
about  55.000,000.3 


39,  pp.  372  sq.,  601  sq.,  653  sq.,  666  sq.  The  Cologne  and  Munich  Annals  of  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith ;  The  Catholic  Missions,  Freiburg  and  St.  Louis,  year 
1873,  pp.  62  and  92;  year  1876,  p.  87.  A  Full  Report,  in  1867,  of  the  African 
Institutes  of  Egypt,  established  by  Daniel  Comboni,  Vienna,  1871.  (Tr.) 

1  Catholic  Missions,  1876,  pp.  22  and  169  sq.  (Tr.) 

2  Gerarchia  Caltolica,  1877,  pp.  61,  62.  (Tu.) 

3  For  statistics,  consult  Cath.  Almanac  of  1878;  Gerarchia  Cattoliea  of  1877. 
For  geneial  information,  see  Wittmann,  1.  c,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  18-253;  Henrion  and 
Hahn.  For  details  concerning  special  countries,  consult  the  Freiburg  Eeel. 
Cyclopaed.,  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  34-50;  Fr.  tr.,  Vol.  1,  pp.  235-288.  Gams,  1.  c,  Vol. 
III.,  pp.  644-674.     a  Kane  Murray,  Ch.  H.  of  the  U.  S. ;  5th  ed..  New  York, 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  937 

In  the  year  1831  the  sachems  of  the  Algonquins  and  Iroquois  sent  to  the 
Holy  Father  some  articles  made  with  their  own  hands,  accompanied  with  the 
following  touching  letter:  "Thou  art  the  iShepherd  of  all  the  faithful;  thou 
hast  taught  Ub  to  know  Jesus  Christ ;  tiiou  didst  send  us  the  men  of  the  hlack 
robe,  saying  to  them,  '  Go,  seek  the  Indians ;  they  are  my  children  ;  help  and 
assist  them.'  Thou  art  our  Father,  and  we  will  never  acknowledge  any  other. 
Should  our  descendants  forget  thee  and  lapse  into  error,  show  them  these  gifts, 
and  they  will  return  to  thee."  In  spite  of  the  difficulties  nuturally  growing 
out  of  the  suspicion  with  which  the  English  government  of  Canada  has  re- 
garded the  Church,  the  Indians  of  the  Province  of  Quebec  are  entirely  Catholic; 
while  in  the  Province  of  Ontario  there  are  also  many  considerable  Catholic 
communities  among  them.  The  bishops,  apostolic  vicars,  and  missionaries  en- 
gaged in  these  countries  displayed  so  great  zeal  and  were  so  successful  in  thei« 
labors  that  Gregory  XVI.,  by  a  bull  dated  July  12,  1844,  united  all  the  dioceses 
of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada  in  one  province,  in  which  were  included  the  me- 
tropolitan see  of  (Quebec,  established  in  1G74,  and  the  suffragan  sees  of  Kingston, 
Montreal,  and  Toronto,  established  respectively  in  1826,  1836,  and  1842.  To 
these  were  added,  as  time  went  on,  those  of  .SY.  Boniface  (1842),  Ottawa  (1848), 
Three  Rivers  {\Hb-l),  St.  Hyacinth  (1852),  London  {l%^&),  Hatnilton  (ISuH),  Si. 
Albert's  (1859),  Saint-Germain  of  Rlmouski  (1867),  and  the  apostolic  vicariates 
of  Athabaska-Mackenzie  (1853),  and  British  Columbia  (1863). 

In  1870  a  second  province  was  formed,  with  Toronto  as  the  metropolitan  see, 
and  Kingston,  Hamilton,  London,  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Northern 
Canada  (established  1874),  in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  as  suffragans.  A  third 
province,  that  of  .SY.  Boniface,  was  formed  in  1871,  including  the  archiepiscopal 
see  of  St.  Boniface,  the  diocese  of  St.  Albert,  and  the  apostolic  vicariates  of 
Athabaska-Mackenzie  and  British  Columbia. 

Halifax  was  created  a  bishopric  in  1843  and  an  archbishopric  in  1852,  with 
Charlotte  town,  P.  E.  Island  (1832)  ;  St.  John  ,  N.  B.  (1842)  ;  Arichat,  with  seat 
&\,  Antigonish  [l^^ii)  \  and  Chatliam,  N.  B.  (1860),  as  suffragan  sees;  the  dio- 
ceses of  .S'^.  John  and  Harbor  Grace,  Newfoundland,  being  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See.  By  a  decree  dated  September  17,  1871,  the  western  portion 
of  the  island  of  Newfoundland  was  made  an  apostolic  prefecture,  called  St. 
George.  The  French  islands,  St.  Pierre  and  Miguelon,  off  the  Southern  coast 
of  Newfoundland,  form  likewise  an  apostolic  prefecture. 

Father  Burke  labored  with  eminent  success  as  a  missionary  for  twenty  years 
in  what  is  now  the  Provi^ice  of  Halifax.  He  died  in  1827,  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  direction  of  the  mission  by  Rev.  William  Frazer  (1821-1840)  and  William 
Walsh,  th(}  first  Archbishop  of  Halifax.  His  successor  was  the  Most  Rev. 
Thomas  L.  Conolly,  consecrated  Bishop  of  St.  Jahn  .  N.  B.,  in  1852,  and  trans- 
ferred to  Halifax  in  1859.  He  was  succeeded  in  1877  by  the  present  archbishop, 
Most  Rev.  Michael  Hannan.  The  diocese  of  Vancouver^  Island  belongs  to  the 
Province  of  Oregon,  in  the  United  States.  Its  bishop,  Mgr.  Seghers,  who  hai 
also  charge  of  Alaska,  sailed  up  the  river  Yukon  in  July,  1877,  as  far  as  Nulat<> 
in  search  of  a  suitable  position  for  a  missionary  station. 


1877.     Lembke,  O.  S..  B.,  Life  and  Labors  of  Prince  Gallitzin,  being  a  Supple. 
ment  totheHist.of  Cath.  Missions  in  North  America  (1799-1840),  Miinster,  1861. 


938  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

There  is  probably  no  country  of  the  world  in  which  the  Church  is  making 
such  rapid  progress  as  in  the  United  States  of  North  America  There  are,  it  is 
true,  Protestant  sects,  representing  almost  every  form  of  belief,  and  even  every 
shade  of  thought  of  which  the  human  mind  is  capable;  but  as  for  any  definite 
and  filed  religious  system,  held  consistently  and  uniformly  by  a  large  body  of 
men  from  supernatural  motives,  there  is  none.  The  multitudinous  and  varied 
sects  of  Protestantism  prove  conclusively  that  as  a  systematic  body  of  religious 
teaching  it  has  ceased,  and  ceased  forever,  to  exercise  any  beneficial  influence 
over  the  minds  of  men,  and  that  as  an  organization  it  has  literally  gone  to 
pieces.  True,  there  are  many  churches  under  ostensibly  the  same  denomina- 
tional title,  but  every  American  knows  that  no  two  of  their  ministers  be- 
lieve or  teach  the  same  doctrines,  and  that  the  minds  of  the  hearers,  if  not 
completely  indifferent  or  thoroughly  saturated  with  infidelity,  are  still  more 
hopelessly  confused  than  those  of  their  so-called  teachers.  Protestantism  in 
the  United  iStates,  except  in  a  few  isolated  cases,  has  lost  all  positive  religious 
meaning,  unless  man-worship  be  received  as  a  truth  revealed  of  God.  Any  one 
who  has  the  slightest  acquaintance  with  non-Catholic  society  in  the  United 
States  will  bear  us  out  when  we  say  that  it  is  the  preacher,  and  not  the  teach- 
ing, that  constitutes  the  attraction  of  the  various  Protestant  churches,  and  par- 
ticularly of  those  known  as  the  fashionable  churches  of  the  cities  and  larger 
towns.  There  is,  however,  one  office  which  those  professing  to  represent  Pro- 
testantism perform  with  creditable  zeal  and  consistency — they  keep  alive  the 
anti-Catholic  prejudice.  The  Catholic  Church  has  been  so  long  shut  out  from 
all  influence  in  countries  where  the  English  language  is  spoken,  that,  not  only 
the  religious,  but  the  political,  social,  and  professional  traditions  of  these  coun- 
tries have  grown  hostile  to  her  and  suspicious  of  her  claims.  The  very  litera- 
ture is  poisoned  with  this  ubiquitous  and  all-pervading  tradition.  No  historical 
controversy  is  carried  on  without  an  appeal  being  made  to  it ;  no  politico-relig- 
ious question  is  discussed  without  reference  to  some  exceptional  fact  in  history, 
colored  by  succeeding  generations  of  writers  under  the  influence  of  the  same 
tradition.  It  has  now  ceased  to  be  distinctively  Protestant,  because  Protest- 
antism is  no  more;  it  has  become  the  heritage  of  English  institutions  and  of 
English  literature,  and  will  be  as  difficult  to  remove  as  the  malaria  from  the 
atmosphere  of  the  Eoman  Campagna.  The  minds  of  the  bulk  of  English- 
speaking  people  are  still  sensitive  of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and  to  irritate 
this  sensibility  is  the  office  those  professing  to  teach  Protestantism  are  most  in- 
tent upon  performing.  But  the  negative  and  disintegrating  character  of  Pro- 
testantism, while  it  is  deplorable  as  a  phase  of  religious  life,  serves  to  throw  the 
unity,  the  majesty,  and  the  perpetuity  of  the  Catholic  Church  into  bolder  relief 
in  the  United  States.  The  following  statistics  will  serve  to  give,  at  least  in 
outline,  some  idea  of  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the  Church  in  this  portior 
of  North  America: 

In  New  Mexico,  which  has  been  a  portion  of  the  United  States  since  1810, 
the  bishopric  of  Santa  Fe,  established  in  1850,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an 
archbishopric  in  1875,  and  includes  the  apostolic  vicariates  of  Colorado  (18C8) 
and  Arizona  (1869).  The  number  of  Catholics,  which  is  rapidlj' on  the  increase, 
is  at  present  about  110,000,  of  whom  8,000  are  Pueblo  Indians  (that  is,  dwelling 
in  villages),  1,000  native  Americans,  and  the  rest  Mexicans.     The  Christian 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  939 

Brothers  have  a  college  at  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  another  at  Las 
Vegas,  the  professors  of  which  conduct  the  Rivisin  Catolica  newspaper. 

In  Texas  the  mission  of  San  Antonio  was  founded  above  a  century  and  a  half 
ago  by  the  Franciscans,  who  were  expelled  the  country  in  1812,  anu  "^vhen  they 
returned  in  1840  found  only  10,000  Catholics  of  the  130,000  they  had  left  be- 
hind them.  The  apostolic  vicariate  of  Texas,  established  in  1840,  became  tne 
bishopric  of  Galveston  in  1847,  and  in  1874  was  divided  into  the  bishopric  of  San 
Antonio  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Brownsville.  The  first  incumbent  of  the 
see  of  Galveston  was  Mgr.  Odin,  who  made  several  voyages  to  Europe  in  the 
interest  of  his  diocese,  and  brought  back  with  him  a  number  of  zealous  priests, 
ready  to  share  his  labors.  The  missions  of  Father  Weninger,  S.  ,1.,  have  been 
here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  remarkably  successful  in  reviving  fervor 
of  religious  life  among  the  Catholics.  The  Lazarists,  the  Oblates  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception,  the  Benedictines,  the  Brothers  of  Mary,  the  Sisters  of  the 
Incarnation,  and  the  Ursulines  have  all  houses  in  this  State,  and  are  actively 
at  work  in  their  several  fields  of  labor. 

Previously  to  the  independence  of  the  original  colonies,  many  English  Cath 
olics,  to  escape  penal  restrictions  and  civil  disabilities  at  home,  immigrated  thither, 
but  their  number  never  exceeded  25,000.  During  the  War  of  Independence, 
they  were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  London, 
the  incumbent  being  then  the  celebrated  Bishop  Challoner ;  but  after  the  close 
of  the  war  it  was  thought  proper  to  place  the  United  States  under  a  distinct 
ecclesiastical  administration,  and  accordingly  in  1789  the  see  of  Baltimore  was 
established,  and  the  Right  Rev.  John  Carroll  appointed  its  first  bishop.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  United  States  increased  rapidly,  mainly  through 
immigration  from  Ireland  and  Germany,  and  in  1848  was  set  down  at  1,500,000, 
and  is  at  present  variously  estimated,  the  highest  number  being  8,000,000,  and 
the  lowest  5,000,000.  By  a  brief  dated  April  8,  1808,  Pius  VII.  raised  Balti- 
more to  the  rank  of  a  metropolitan  see,  with  New  Orleans  (established  in  1793), 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Bardstowu  (now  Louisville)  as  suffragans. 
The  saintly  Bishop  Flaget  was  the  first  incumbent  of  the  last  named  see.  The 
bishopric  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  was  established  in  1820,  and  Dr.  England,  re- 
cently from  Ireland,  appointed  its  first  bishop.  Those  of  Cincinnati  and  Rich- 
mond were  both  established  in  1821,  the  first  incumbent  of  the  former  being 
Bishop  Fenwiek,  O.  S.  D.,  and  Dr.  Kelly  of  the  latter.  Mobile  was  established 
in  1824;  St.  Louis  in  1826;  Detroit  in  1832;  Vincennes  in  1834;  Dubuque, 
Nashville,  and  Natchez  in  1837;  Sat  Francisco  in  1840;  Pittsburg,  Little  Rock, 
and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Oregon  in  1843 ;  Chicago,  Hartford,  and  Milwaukee 
in  1844;  and  in  1846  Oregon  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric.  The 
eees  oi  Albany,  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  and  Galveston  were  established  in  1847,  and 
'St.  Louis  raised  to  an  archbishopric  in  the  same  year,  with  the  Most  Rev.  P.  R. 
Kenrick  as  incumbent.  In  1850,  Pius  IX.,  then  in  exile  at  Gaeta,  raised  Neva 
York,  Cincinnati,  and  New  Orleans  to  metropolitan  rank,  their  respective  incum- 
bents being  Most  Rev.  John  Hughes,  Most  Rev.  Jolm  B.  Purcell,  and  Most  Rev. 
A.  Blanc;  and  at  the  same  time  established  the  sees  of  Wheeling,  Savannah,  and 
St.  Paul,  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Santa  Fe,  in  New  ^lexico;  transferred 
the  episcopal  see  of  \Valla-Walla  to  Nesqually,  appointed  a  bishop  to  Montery 


940  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

in  Upper  California,  and  erected  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Kansas,  and  in  the 
following  year  that  of  Nebraska. 

At  the  request  of  the  Bishops  of  the  United  States,  assembled  in  the  First 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  the  Holy  See  established  in  1853  the  sees  of 
Brooklyn,  Burlington,  Covington,  Erie,  Satc.hltoches,  Newark,  and  Portland; 
and  in  the  same  year  San  Francisco  was  made  an  archbishopric.  In  1857  the 
sees  of  Alton,  Saut  Ste.  Marie  (transferred  in  1865  to  Marquette),  Fort  Wayne, 
and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Florida  were  established ;  and  in  1868,  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  those  of  Columbus, 
G'?-ass  Valley  (which  replaced  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Marysville,  established 
in  1861),  Green  Bay,  Harrisburg,  La  Crosse,  Rochester,  Scranton,  St.  JosepKs, 
and  Wilmington;  together  with  the  apostolic  vicariates  of  Colorado,  North  Car- 
oli7ia,  and  Idaho  (two  districts).  In  1869  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Arizona  (with 
Beat  at  Tucson)  was  established;  in  1870  the  see  at  Springfield;  in  1872  those 
of  Ogdensburg  and  Providence ;  and  in  1874  that  of  San  Antonio  and  the  apos- 
tolic vicariate  of  Brownsville  (with  seat  at  Corpus  Christl).  In  1875  the  bish- 
oprics of  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Milwaukee,  and  Santa  F^  were  raised  to  metro- 
politan rank,  and  an  apostolic  vicariate  given  to  Northern  Minnesota  (with  seat 
2X  St.  Cloud);  in  1876  an  apostolic  prefecture  was  established  for  the  7«rfi'aw 
Territory ;  and,  finally,  in  1877  Peoria  was  made  a  bishopric,  and  the  apostolic 
vicariate  of  Kansas  changed  into  the  episcopal  see  of  Leavenworth. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States,  with  their  several  metropolitan  and  suffragan  sees,  from 
which  a  pretty  fair  estimate  may  be  formed  of  the  growth  of  Catholicity  in  the 
great  American  Union  in  the  course  of  a  century: 

I.  Province  of  Baltimore,  comprising  the  States  of  Maryland,  Delaware, 
Virginia,  AVest  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  East 
Florida.  Metropolitan  see  :  Baltimore,  MA.  Suffragan  sees :  Charleston,  S.C.; 
Richmond,  Va. ;  Savannah,  Ga. ;  St,  Augustine,  Fla. ;  Wheeling,  W.  Va. ;  Wil- 
mington, Del. ;  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  North  Carolina. 

II.  Province  of  Philadelphia,  comprising  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Me- 
tropolitan See:  Philadelphia.  Suffragan  sees:  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny,  Har- 
risburg, Scrajiton.  and  Erie. 

III.  Province  of  New  York,  comprising  the  States  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey.  Metropolitan  see:  New  York.  Suffragan  sees:  Albany,  Brooklyn, 
Buffalo,  Rochester,  Ogdensburg,  all  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  Newark,  in 
New  Jersey. 

IV.  Province  of  Boston,  comprising  the  New  England  States.  Metropolitan 
see :  Boston,  Mass.  Suffragan  sees :  Springfield,  Mass. ;  Burlington,  Vt. ;  Port- 
land, Me. ;  Hartford,  Conn. ;  and  Providence,  K.  I. 

V.  Province  of  Cincinnati,  comprising  the  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Southern 
Michigan,  and  Kentucky.  Metropolitan  see:  Cincinnati,  O.  Suffragan  sees: 
Cleveland  and  Columbus,  O. ;  Detroit,  Mich.;  Louisville  and  Covington,  Ky, ; 
and  Vincennes  and  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

VI.  Province  of  Milwaukee,  comprising  the  States  of  Wisconsin  and  Min- 
nesota, Northern  Michigan,  and  Dakota  Territory.  Metropolitan  see:  Mil- 
tcaukee,  Wis.     Suffragan  sees  :   Green  Bay  and  La  Crosse,  Wis. ;  Marquette  and 


423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  941 


Saut  Ste.  Marie,  Mich.;  Si.  PauL,  ]\Iinn.;  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  North- 
ern Minnesota. 

VII.  Province  of  St.  Louis,  comprising  the  States  of  Missouri,  Illinois,  Ten- 
nessee, Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Indian  Territory.  Metropolitan  see :  Si. 
Louis,  Mo.  Suffragan  sees:  St.  Joseph'' s,  .Mo.;  Alton,  Peoria,  and  Chicago,  111.; 
Dubuque,  Iowa;  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Leavenworth,  Kan.;  and  the  apostolic  vi- 
cariate  of  Nebraska,  with  seat  at  Omaha. 

VIII.  Province  of  New  Orleans,  comprising  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Arkansas.  Metropolitan  see:  New  Orlea?is,  La. 
Suffragan  sees:  Natchitoches,  La.;  Mobile,  Ala.;  Natchez,  .Miss.;  Little  Rock, 
Ark. ;  Galveston  and  San  Antojiio,  and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Brownsville, 
Texas. 

IX.  Province  of  San  Francisco,  comprising  the  States  of  California  and  Ne- 
vada and  all  the  territory  lying  west  of  the  Rio  Colorado.  Metropolitan  see : 
San  Francisco.  Suffragan  sees:  Grass  Valley,  Montery  (and  Los  Angelas),  both 
in  California. 

X.  Province  of  Oregon,  comprising  the  State  of  Oregon,  Washington  Terri- 
tory, Idaho,  Vancouver's  Island,  and  Alaska.  Metropolitan  see:  Oregon,  W. T. 
Suffragan  sees:  Nesqually,  W.  T. ;  Vancouver's  Island  (with  seat  at  Victoria); 
and  the  apostolic  vicariate  of  Idaho. 

XL  Province  of  Santa  Fe,  comprising  New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and  Arizona. 
Metropolitan  see:  Santa  Fe,  N.  M.  Suffragan  apostolic  vicariates:  Colorado 
and  Arizona. 

There  are  also  six  mitred  abbots  in  the  United  States,  viz  :  one  at  St.  Vince7ii's 
Pa.;  one  at  St.  Meinrads  Ind. ;  one  at  Clinton,  Minn.;  one  at  Atchison,  Kan.; 
one  at  Geihsemani,  Ky. ;  and  one  at  New  Melleray,  Iowa.  The  first  four  be- 
long to  the  Order  of  Si.  Benedict,  and  the  last  two  to  that  of  La  Trappe. 

According  to  the  Catholic  Almanac  of  1878,  there  are  in  the  United  States, 
belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church,  11  ecclesiastical  provinces,  59  archiepiscopal 
and  episcopal  sees,  7  apostolic  vicariates,  1  apostolic  prefecture,  6  mitred  ab- 
bots, 5,548  priests,  5,634  churches,  1,777  chapels  and  stations,  21  theological 
g^minaries,  1,121  ecclesiastical  students,  74  colleges,  519  academies  and  select 
schools,  2,180  parish  schools,  248  orphanages,  and  102  hospitals. 

The  bishops  of  the  United  States,  who,  by  absolute,  inalienable  right,  and 
not  by  tolerance  or  concession  or  privilege,  worship  God  according  to  the  dic- 
tates of  their  conscience,  obedient  to  the  instructions  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
began  to  hold  provincial  and  national  synods  as  soon  as  circumstances  permit- 
ted them  to  do  so.  Seven  provincial  councils  were  held  in  Baltimore  between 
the  years  1829  and  1849,  and  two  national  councils  have  been  held  in  the 
same  city.  Provincial  councils  were  also  held  in  several  other  metropolitan 
cities.  The  First  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  presided  over  by  the  31cst 
\\(^\'.  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  and  Apostolic  Delegate 
of  the  Holy  See,  was  held  in  M  ly,  18-52,  there  being  six  archbishops  and  twen- 
ty-oix  bishops  in  attendance.  By  a  decree  of  July  25.  1858,  the  prerogative  of 
precedence  was  vested  in  the  see  of  Baltimore,  thus  giving  the  archbishop  of 
that  city  the  right  to  preside  at  all  plenary  councils  or  other  ecclesiastical  as- 
Bemblages  of  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  the  United  States. 

The  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  held  in  October,  1866,  was  pre* 


942  Period  3.     JEpoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

sided  over  by  the  Most  Eev.  MariJn  John  Spalding,  as  Apostolic  Delegate  of  tlie 
Holy  See,  and  attended  by  forty-four  archbishops  and  bishops,  two  mitred  ab- 
bots, many  superiors  of  Religious  Orders,  and  a  large  number  of  theologians. 

The  contributions  to  the  theological  and  ecclesiastical  literature  of  the  United 
Stales  made  by  Archbishop  Kenrick'  and  Archbishop  Spalding  are  both  numer- 
ous  and  valuable.  Eoth  were  men  of  eminent  piety  and  learning.  An  elegant 
life  of  the  latter  has  been  written  by  his  nephew,  the  present  Bishop  of  Peoria.* 
Since  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  many  great  bishops,  whose  lives  have 
lent  a  luster  to  the  Church  in  America,  have  passed  to  their  reward.  The  most 
eminent  of  these  are  Brute,  Flaget,  David,  Dubois,  England,  Eosati,  the  two 
Fenwicks  (one  of  Cincinnati  and  the  other  of  Boston),  Hughes,^  Kenrick,  and 
Spalding,  whose  names  will  be  held  in  grateful  and  abiding  remembrance  by 
succeeding  generations.* 

The  Eeligious  Orders  in  the  United  States  are  so  numerous,  and  the  scope 
of  their  labors  so  extensive,  that  it  is  diflScult  in  a  work  like  this  to  do  more  than 
enumerate  them. 

In  point  of  time,  the  Sulpiciaus  were  the  first  to  make  a  permanent  settle- 
ment in  the  States  of  North  America.  Of  this  Congregation,  founded  in  1645 
by  M.  Olier,  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  educating  and  training  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  four  Fathers  and  three  seminarists,  sent  out  by  M.  Emery, 
under  the  care  of  Father  Cliarles  Nagot  (tl806),  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1791,  and,  after  some  time,  opened  the  Theological  Seminary  of  St.  Marijs,  Bal- 
timore, to  which  was  attached  a  collegiate  or  preparatory  department.  The 
latter  was  subsequently  removed  to  Ellicot  City,  Howard  county,  Md.  In 
March,  1822,  Pius  VII.  granted  the  Faculty  of  St.  Mary's  the  right  of  confer- 
ring  University  degrees.  This  Congregation  gave  to  the  young  Church  in 
America  many  of  the  brightest  ornauients  in  both  orders  of  her  hierarchy, 


1  The  works  of  Most  Kev.  F.  P.  Kenrick  are :  The  Catholic  Doctrine  of  Jus- 
tification, Philadelphia,  1  vol. ;  The  Primacy  of  the  Apostolic  See,  ibid.,  1838 
(tr.  into  Germ,  by  Steinbacher,  N.  Y.,  1853);  Theologia  Dogmatica,  3  vols., 
Phila.,  1839,  1840;  Theologia  Moralis,  ibid.,  1841  (rev.  ed.,  Mechlin,  1861); 
Treatise  on  Baptism  and  Confirmation,  Phila.,  1843,  Bait.,  1852;  Vindication 
of  the  Cath.  Church,  Bait.,  1855;  Translation  (and  Annotation)  of  all  the 
Books  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.,  publ.  at  N.  Y.  and  Bait.  betw.  1849-1860.  (Tr.) 

2  Most  Eev.  M.  J.  Spalding^ s  works  :  Evidences  of  Catholicity,  Louisville,  1847 
(4th  ed.,  Baltimore,  1866);  Life  of  Bishop  Flaget,  Louisville,  1852;  Miscella- 
nea, ibid.,  1855;  Eeviews,  Lectures,  and  Essays,  ibid.,  1855;  Sketches  of  Ivy., 
ibid.;  A  Hist,  of  the  Prot.  Eef.  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  2  vols.,  Louis- 
rille,  1860  (4th  ed.,  Bait.,  1866);  Hist,  of  Engl.  Lit.,  N.  Y.,  1862;  Spir.  Eetr., 
Louisville,  1864.  The  Life  of  the  Most  Eev.  M.  J.  Spalding,  D.D.,  Archbishop 
)f  Baltimore,  by  J.  L.  Spalding,  S.  T.  L.,  New  York,  1873.  (Tr.) 

»  His  Life,  by  J.  R.  O.  Hassard,  New  Y'ork,  1866  ;  His  Works,  ed.  by  L.  Ke- 
hoe,  New  York,  1865;  Hughes  and  Breckinridge's  Controversy,  Philadelphia, 
1835.  (Tr.) 

•See  R.  H.  darkens  Lives  of  Deceased  Bishops  of  the  U.  S.,  N.  Y.,  1872, 
2  vols.  (Tr.) 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  943 

among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Flaget,  Marechnl,  Bruie,  Dubois,  Dubourg^ 
Nagot,  Badin,  Richard,  and  Fredet. 

We  have  already  seen  that  previously  to  the  suppression  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  its  members  were  among  the  first  and  greatest  missionaries  in  the  coun- 
try. After  its  suppression,  Charles  Carroll  and  six  companions,  who  arrived 
from  Europe  at  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  perpetuated  its  traditions 
in  the  Socieiy  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  under  the  direction  of  the  Kev, 
Robert  Molyneux,  which  they  entered  May  10,  1805.  Other  members  of  the 
suppressed  Society,  as  they  arrived  from  Europe,  were  sent  to  the  old  Jetuit 
missions  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  or  as  professors  to  the  Collegt  of 
Georgetown,  D.  C.  Thfe  Colleges  under  the  charge  of  the  restored  Society 
(1814)  have  been  already  enumerated  (at  p.  685) ;  but  their  greatest  educa- 
tional establishment  for  higher  studies  in  the  United  States,  and  one  of  the 
foremost  Catholic  philosophical  and  theological  schools  of  the  world,  is  that  at 
Woodstock,  Md.,  where  the  young  men  of  the  Society  are  trained  in  these 
branches.  Their  principal  novitiate  is  at  Frederick,  in  the  same  State.  There 
are  two  Provinces  belonging  to  the  Society  in  the  United  States,  namely,  those 
of  Maryla7id  and  Missouri,  besides  the  five  missions  of  New  Vork,  New  Orleans, 
California,  New  Mexico,  and  Buffalo.  The  Society  within  the  United  States 
contains  about  750  members.  The  "missions"  given  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers 
have  been  attended  with  unparalleled  success,  and  the  names  oi  DeSmet,  McEl- 
roy,  Smnrius,  Damen,  and  Weninger  are  familiar  to  every  Catholic  American. 

The  first  house  of  the  Do-minicans  in  the  United  States  was  founded  at  .S'^. 
Rose's,  Ky.,  by  the  Rev.  Edwai'd  D.  Fenwick,  subsequently  Bishop  of  Cincin- 
nati, who,  accompanied  by  three  Fathers  from  the  English  mission,  arrived 
from  Europe  in  1805.  The  convent  of  St.  Joseph's,  Perry  county,  Ohio,  was 
founded  in  1818,  and  Rev.  Nicholas  Young,  who  assisted  Father  Fenwick  in 
building  the  first  chapel  in  the  same  State,  is  still  alive,  being  now  past  eighty, 
but  still  hale  and  hearty.  Bishop  Fenwick,  after  his  appointment  to  the  see  of 
Cincinnati,  introduced  into  his  diocese  the  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  and  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity  from  Emmittsburg-.  In  1852,  when  the  latter  affiliated  with 
the  Mother  House  in  Paris,  the  colony  in  the  diocese  of  Cincinnati,  then  as 
now  presided  over  by  the  venerable  Archbishop  Purcell,  clung  to  the  traditions 
and  dress  of  Mother  Seton,  and  formed  a  separate  community,  which  is  now  in 
a  very  flourishing  condition,  numbering  two  hundred  and  fifty  members,  scat- 
tered through  many  dioceses,  and  having  charge  of  parochial  schools,  orphan- 
ages, hospitals,  and  a  foundling  house.  The  Dominican  Fathers  are  mainly 
occupied  in  giving  missions  and  teaching  in  collei;es.  The  Order  has  eight  es- 
tablishments in  the  United  States,  two  of  which  are  in  Kentucky,  two  in  Ohio, 
one  in  Tennessee,  one  in  New  York,  one  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  one  in  New 
Jersey,  besides  other  houses  in  California.  Not  including  the  members  in  the 
last  named  State,  there  are  about  fifty  Dominican  priests  in  the  United  States. 
The  present  Archbishop  of  San  Francisco,  Most  Rev.  Sadoc  ALemany,  and  the 
present  Bishop  of  St.  Paul,  Right  Rev.  Thomas  L.  Grace,  were  formerly  men.- 
bers  of  the  Order. 

The  Benedictines,  of  whom  there  are  at  present  about  300  in  the  United  States, 
were  introduced  in  184G  by  the  Right  Rev.  Abbot  General  Bomfacius  Wimmer, 
of  Metten,  Bavaria.     Besides  nine  Priories,  they  have  Abbacies  at  St.  Vincent's, 


944  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chcqner  1. 

Penn.;  St.  Louis  on  the  Lake,  Minn.;  and  Atchison,  Kan.  The  Swiss  Bene- 
dictines, from  Maria  Einsiedeln,  founded  an  abbey  at  St.  Meinrad's,  Ind.,  which 
is  now  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  There  is  also  a  college  attached  to 
each  of  these  abbeys,  all  of  which  are  prospering. 

There  are  many  branches  of  the  numerous  family  of  the  Franciscans  in  the 
United  States.  The  Recollects,  who  camo  to  Cincinnati,  O.,  more  than  thirtj' 
years  ago,  have  a  Gymnasium  in  that  city,  and  attached  to  the  same  Custody 
Jinder  the  patronage  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  Houses  of  Study  at  Oldenbury 
Ind.,  and  Louisville,  Ky.  The  Recollects  have  also  Colleges  at  TeutopoUs  and 
Quincy,  111. :  and  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.  A  colony  of  Franciscans  from  Rome  set- 
tled at  Alleghany,  New  York,  in  1854,  where  they  havfe  a  College.  The  Capu- 
chins have  a  house  in  New  York  and  another  in  Wisconsin,  to  which  Calvary 
(.'ollege  is  attached.  The  Conventunls  have  many  important  establishments  in 
the  United  States,  and  conduct  two  Colleges,  one  at  Loreio,  Pa.,  founded  in 
1847,  and  another  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

The  first  Trappists  came  to  the  United  States  in  1805,  but  subsequently  set- 
tled in  Nova  Scotia,  where  they  founded  the  abbey  of  xYew  Clairvaux.  The 
next  colony,  in  charge  of  Father  Euti-opius,  arrived  in  1848,  and  settled  at 
Gethsemane,  Nelson  county,  Ky.,  where  they  have  now  a  large  and  beautiful 
abbey,  under  the  patronage  of  Our  Lady  of  La  Trappe.  A  third  colony  from 
Ireland  went  to  Iowa,  and  founded  the  flourishing  abbey  of  iWw  Melleray. 

A  colony  of  Augustmians,  from  Dublin,  Ireland,  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1790,  and  settled  in  Philadelphia,  where  they  largely  contributed  to  the 
spread  and  progress  of  Catholicity.  They  were  burnt  out  by  a  mob  in  1844, 
but  the  church  and  rectory  of  St.  Augustine  were  subsequently  rebuilt.  They 
are  tolerably  numerous,  and  have  at  the  present  time  thirteen  establishments  in 
the  country,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  monastery  of  Villanova,  near  Philadel- 
phia, to  which  a  College,  with  the  privileges  of  a  University,  is  attached. 

In  1815  the  Priests  of  the  Congreyntion  of  the  Mission  were  brought  from 
Home  to  New  Orleans  by  Bishop  Dubourg,  and  three  years  later  founded  the 
Seminary  of  St.  3Iary's  of  the  Barrens,  Perry  county.  Mo.,  which  was  for  many 
years  the  nursery  of  the  missionaries  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  priests 
of  this  Congregation  now  number  about  eightj',  are  chiefly  engaged  in  giving 
missions,  and  possess  thirteen  religious  houses.  They  have  churches  in  St. 
Uouis,  New  Orleans,  Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  and  other  large  cities,  and  con- 
duct, besides  St.  Mary's  of  the  Barrens,  St.  Vincent's  Seminary  and  College, 
Cape  Girardeau,  Mo. ;  the  Seminary  of  Our  Lady  of  Angels,  Niagara  Falls, 
N.  Y. ;  St.  John  li.'s  Seminary  and  College,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  St.  Vincent's 
College,  Los  Angeles.  Cal. ;  and  Germantown  Day  College,  Pa. 

In  1832  three  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redee-»er  arrived 
at  Baltimore  from  Austria,  and  took  charge  of  the  rapidly  growing  German 
Catholic  population  of  that  city,  and  gradually  extended  their  labors  to  Catho- 
lics of  other  nationalities.  The  Congregation  now  counts  about  one  hundred 
and  sixty  members,  who  have  the  care  of  churches  in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia, 
Pittsburg,  New  York,  New  Orleans,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  in  others  of  the 
more  considerable  cities.  On  November  5,  1875,  the  Redemptorists  of  the 
United  States  were  divided  into  the  two  Provinces  of  Baltimore  and  St.  Louis. 
Their  House  of  Studies  is  at  llchester,  Md.     The  late  learned  Bishop  Neumann, 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  945 

of  Philadelphia,  belonged  to  this  Congregation,  as  does  also  Bishop  Gross,  at 
present  of  Savannah. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  founded  in  France  immediately  after  the 
Eevolution,  and  approved  by  the  Holy  See  as  a  teaching  body,  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1841  by  Father  Sorin,  the  present  General.  Besides 
the  Mother  House,  Notre  Dame,  near  South  Bend,  Ind.,  it  has  nineteen  houses 
scattered  through  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Ohio,  and  Texas.  Their  more 
considerable  educational  establishments  are  the  University  of  Notre  Dame,  near 
South  Bend,  Ind.,  where  the  Ave  Maria,  a  magazine,  devoted  exclusively  to 
promoting  the  honor  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  is  published;  St.  ilary's  College, 
Galveston,  Texas ;  and  the  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Watertown,  Wisconsin. 
There  are  at  present  more  than  two  hundred  members  in  the  Congregation,  in- 
cluding priests  and  brothers. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood,  founded  by  the  venerable  Gas- 
par  Bufalo  (t  1837),  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  Father  de  Sales 
Brunner  in  1844,  and  now  possesses  many  religious  houses  and  two  Seminaries, 
one  at  Carthagena,  O.,  and  another  at  Rohnerville,  Cal. 

The  fii'st  band  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  founded  in  France  in 
1684  by  the  venerable  Johyi  B.  de  la  Salle,  and  approved  by  Benedict  XIII.  in 
1725,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1846,  and  began  work  first  at  Baltimore,  and 
shortly  after  at  New  York.  These  efficient  educators  conduct  colleges  at  New 
York,  Baltimore,  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco  (two),  Philadelphia,  Buffalo,  Mem.- 
phis,  Prairie  du  Chlen,  and  Sunta  Fc,  besides  numerous  schools  and  academies 
in  the  more  important  cities,  which  are  attended  by  about  26,000  pupils.  Their 
number  is  above  700,  and  they  possess  altogether  49  establishments  of  various 
kinds,  of  which  seven  are  orphanages,  the  best  known  of  these  latter  being  the 
Catholic  Protectory  at  Westchester,  N.  Y. 

The  Brothers  of  Mary,  also  devoted  lo  education,  founded  in  France  in  1817 
by  Kev.  Wm.  Jos.  Cheminade,  and  approved  by  Gregory  XVI.  in  1839,  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1849,  and  possess  at  present  23  houses  in 
the  States  of  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Maryland,  Illinois,  Louisiana, 
and  Texas. 

The  Congregation  of  Missionary  Priests,  known  as  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Im- 
maculate, founded  in  1816  by  Mgr.  Charles  de  Mazcnod,  subsequently  Bishop  of 
Marseilles,  and  approved  by  Leo  XII.  in  1826,  after  laboring  zealously  among 
the  Indian  tribes  of  Athabasca-Mackenzie  for  many  years,  crossed  over  to  the 
United  States  in  1848,  where  they  have  now  seven  houses,  and  conduct  St. 
Mary's  College,  Galveston,  Texas ;  St.  Joseph's,  Brownsville,  Texas  ;  and  St.  Mi- 
chael's, Jefferson,  La.  They  have  also  charge  of  an  Indian  school  and  five  In- 
dian missions  in  Washington  Territory. 

The  Passionists,  founded  in  1735  by  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  whose  aim  was  to 
combine  the  activity  of  the  .Jesuit  with  the  austerity  of  the  Trappist,  were  first 
introduced  into  the  United  States  from  Rome  by  Bishop  O'Connor,  of  Pittsburg, 
in  1853.  They  are  chiefly  engaged  in  giving  missions,  and  their  missions  through- 
out the  country  have  been  uniformly  eminently  successful.  They  have  at  present 
prosperous  houses  at  Birmingham,  Pa.;  Hoboken  and  Dunkirk,  N.  Y. ;  Balti- 
more, Md.  iuul  Cincinnati,  ().. 
VOL.  Ill — 60 


946  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Tho  Xavcriiin  Broi/iers.  founded  at  Bruucs,  Belgium,  by  Brother  Francis 
Xavier  (Thos.  Jos.  Jlyken)  in  1839,  and  introduced  into  tho  United  States  by 
Bishop  Spalding,  of  Louisville,  in  1854,  have  under  their  charge,  besides  eight 
parochial  schools,  Mt.  St.  Joseph's  College,  Carrollton,  Md.,  incorporated  in  1876. 

The  Congregation  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  founded  by  the  Very  Rev.  /.  T. 
Hecker  in  1858,  was  intended  to  meet  and  supply  the  religious  wants  peculiar 
to  Americans,  and  is  characteristically  a  missionary  Congregation.  It  possesse.<t 
as  yet  only  one  house  in  the  United  States,  that  of  ISIew  York  city.  The  CatJi- 
olic  World  and  the  Catholic  Publication  Society  are  both  the  products  of  thia 
Congregation,  which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  have  a  long  career  of  usefulness. 

The  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Resurrection  conduct  St.  Mary's  Col- 
lege, Marion  county,  Ky. 

The  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  have  a  House  of  Studies  and  a  Novitiate 
at  IVaiertown,  in  the  diocese  of  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. 

It  is  impossible,  in  a  work  like  this,  to  give  a  detailed  history  of  the  numerous 
Religious  Okders  and  Congregations  of  "VYomen  in  the  United  States. 
Their  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  is  beyond  all  praise,  and  the  blessings  their  labors 
have  brought  upon  the  Catholics  of  that  country  beyond  computation.  No 
better  testimony  to  their  merits  could  be  given  than  that  contained  in  the 
words  applied  to  them  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Second  Plenary  Council  of  Balti 
more  (Nro.  415].^ 

The  number  of  Catholic  Colleges  and  Seminaries  in  thf  Unites 
States  for  the  education  and  training  of  young  men,  whether  seculars  or  eccle- 
siastics, has  increased  with  the  growth  of  the  Church,  and  is  at  present  about 
seventy-five.  Those  under  the  care  of  Religious  Orders  have  already  been  no- 
ticed, and  it  only  remains  to  say  a  few  words  of  those  conducted  by  secular 
priests. 

Mt.  St.  Mary's  College,  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1809  by  the  Rev 
Father  Dubois,  later  on  Bishop  of  New  York,  and  was  subsequently  directed 
by  Father  Brute,  who  has  been  called  its  "  Good  Angel,"  and  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Purcell,  the  present  Archbishop  of  Cincinnati,  during  whose  incumbency  it 
obtained  (1830)  the  power  of  conferring  degrees.  Among  the  illustrious  men 
whom  it  has  given  to  the  Church  in  America  the  names  of  Archbishop  Hughes, 
Archbishop  Purcell,  and  Cardinal  McCloskey  stand  pre-eminent. 

The  Seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borj-otueo,  at  Overbrook,  Pa.,  was  founded  by 
Bishop  Kenrick,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1838,  and  at  once  empowered  to  confer  de- 
grees. The  discipline  of  this  institution  is  strictly  in  accord  with  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Dr.  Corcoran,  the  distinguished  theologian. 
Oriental  scholar,  and  editor  of  the  American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review,  which 
has  taken  the  place  of  the  famous  Brownson's  Quarterly,  suspended  at  the 
close  of  1875,  is  a  member  of  its  Faculty.  The  building  itself,  erected  under 
the  auspices  of  Archbishop  Wood,  is  one  of  the  finest  structures  in  the  world 
devoted  to  the  purposes  of  Catholic  education,  and  cost  above  a  half  a  million 
of  dollars. 

Mt.  St.  Mary's  of  the  West,  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  founded  by  Archbishop  Pin"- 
eell  in  1848,  and  opened  for  the  reception  of  students  on  October  2,  1851,  re- 


iThe  following  statistical  table  from  the  Church   History  of   the   United 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church. 


947 


ceived  a  charter  empowering  it  to  confer  collegiate  degrees  in  1856.  By  the 
Provincial  Council  of  1858  it  was  made  the  provincial  seminary  for  theological, 
and  St.  Thomas\  near  Bardstown,  Ky.,  founded  by  Bishop  David  in  1814,  and 
subsequently  transferred  to  St.  Joseph's,  Bardstown,  for  preparatory  or  collegi- 
ate studies.  Since  1863  Mt.  St.  Mary's  has  been  a  strictly  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tion. Its  collegiate  course  embraces  seven  and  its  theological  three  years.  It 
■contains  a  valuable  library,  numbering  about  16,000  volumes. 

The  Seminary  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  was  founded  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Salzmann,  in  Julj-,  1855,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Most  Eev.  M. 
Henni,  first  Bishop  and  Archbishop  of  Milwaukee.     It  is  provided  at  present 


States,  by  Mr.  J.  GKane  Murray,  is  tolerably  full  and  accurate,  and  will  give 
a  pretty  correct  'dea  of  the  Keligious  Orders  and  Congregations  of  women  in 
that  country : 


Name  of  Order. 


•a 

■a 

a 

= 

■a  0) 

■5  o«J 

o  *.  . 

-.=  P 
a 

o  . 

li 

5 

A 
< 

o 

o 

1 

s 

s 

< 

"3 

'3, 
o 

1535 

1727 

12 

12 

154-2 

179U 

2 

luio 

1SU8 

18 

18 

180!) 

1809 

102 

1 

50 

38 

30 

18U'J 

1809 

81 

16 

48 

13 

2 

1809 

1809 

31 

5 

25 

3 

2 

1800 

1818 

20 

20 

15 

2 

1812 

1812 

1812 

1812 

1296 

1823 

1829 

1829 

1650 

1836 

60 

42 

20 

9 

1834 

1843 

1830 

1843 

55 

50 

30 

30 

20 

1651 

1843 

17 



1804 

1840 

22 

1S12 

1839 

1597 

1847 

108 

1777 

1854 

5 

1747 

1854 

3 

3 

2 

1843 

1854 

10 

o 

8 

4 

9 

1233 

1S70 

1 

1 

1849 

1868 

7 

5 

1 

1 

1840 

1868 

18 

5S 


Uraulines... 
Carmelite§. 


Visitatiou  Niius 

fiisters  of  Charity  (Eiumirtsburg,  Md.) 
Sisters  of  Charity  (Mt.  St.Vincent'a,  N.Y.) 
♦Sisters  of  Charity   (St.   Joseph's,   Delhi, 

Hamilton  county,  0.) 

Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

Sisters  of  Charity  (of  Nazareth) 

Sisters  of  Loreto 

Dominican  Nuns 

Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross 


3('>0 

31 

Circa 

:;5f) 

1151 
600 

250 
819 
290 
326 


Sisters  of  Mercy 

Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 


Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 

Sisters  of  Providence , 

School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 

Presentation  Nuns 

dray  Nuns , 

Sisters  of  Charity  (of  the  House  of  Provi- 
dence)  

Servite  Sisters 

Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  (Jhrist 

Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor 


100 
1500 

250 
Circa 
1350 

500 
Circa 

350 


1000 
150 
28 

64 
7 

62 
200 


^Added  by  Translator. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  should  also  be  enumerated  :  Sisters  of 
the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis;  Sisters  of  St.  Claire;  Benedictine  Nuns;  La- 
dies of  the  Incarnate  Word ;  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity ;  Daughters  of 
the  Cross;  Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence  (colored);  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  ;  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  of  Namur ;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names ; 
Sisters  of  St.  Ann  ;  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis ;  Sisters  of  the  Precious 
Blood;  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity ;  Sisters  of  the  Agonizing  Heart  of  Jesus; 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Childhood;  Sister  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Heart;  Sis- 
ters of  the  Humility  of  Mary ;  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  ;  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Family ;  and  the  Polish  Sisters  of  St.  Felix ;  in  all  forty-fire  Re- 
ligious Orders  of  women  in  the  Union. 


9-48  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     CAap^er  1. 

■with  a  corps  of  thirteen  professors,  and  attended  by  265  students,  133  of  whom 
are  studying  theology  and  philosophy. 

St.  Joseph's  Provineial  Theological  Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  was  founded 
in  1864  by  Archbishop  Hughes.  Its  first  corps  of  professors  came  from  Belgium, 
but  some  chairs  have  been  since  filled  by  Americans. 

The  Seminary  of  the  Immaculaie  Conception,  South  Orange,  N.  J.,  connected 
•with  Seton  Hall  College,  was  founded  in  1850  by  the  Right  Kev.  J.  Roosevelt 
Bayley,  then  Bishop  of  Newark,  but  subsequently  appointed  to  the  archiepisce- 
pal  see  of  Baltimore,  where  he  died  in  1877.  This  institution  was  empowered 
to  confer  degrees  in  1861. 

There  are  also  theological  seminaries  conducted  by  secular  priests  at  IJew  Or- 
leans, Louisville,  and  Cleveland ;  and  preparatory  seminaries  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.; 
Norfolk,  Va. ;  Savannah,  Ga. ;  and  Bardstown,  Ky. ;  and  a  number  of  students 
studying  for  the  dioceses  of  the  United  States  at  the  North  American  College, 
Rome;  at  the  American  College,  Louvaln ;  at  St.  Sulpice,  Paris;  and  at  the 
Grand  Seminary  of  Montreal. 

Great  as  are  the  advantages  enjoyed  by  the  Catholics  of  the  United  States  in 
the  matter  of  higher  education,  they  are  by  no  means  equal  to  those  enjoyed 
by  their  co-religionists  and  neighbors  of  Canada.  The  latter  have  also  a  well 
organized  system  of  Public  Schools,  which  here,  as  in  Australia  and  Capeland, 
receive  a  due  proportion  of  the  public  funds  set  apart  for  educational  purposes. 

The  Laval  University,  founded  in  1852,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Seminary  oj 
(Quebec,  founded  in  1663  by  Mgr.  Laval,  first  Bishop  of  Canada.  It  was  em- 
powered by  royal  charter  to  confer  degrees  in  arts,  science,  law,  and  medicine, 
and  by  the  Holy  See  in  theology,  and  has  26  professors. 

At  Quebec  there  is  a  Greater  Seyninary,&.iiendLQ(!i  by  42  students,  and  a  Lesser 
attended  by  225  interns  and  293  externs.  In  the  same  diocese  are  the  se^ni 
naries  of  Notre  Dame  de  Levis,  St.  Ann,  and  that  of  Chlcoutimi,  completed  ia 
1873. 

In  the  diocese  of  Montreal  the  institutions  of  learning  are  still  more  nuiwier- 
ous.  The  Sulpieians  have  here  their  Grand  Seminary,  with  200  seminarists 
reading  theology;  their  Seminary  for  Philosophy,  and  their  College  for  prepara- 
tory studies,  besides  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  the  Seminary  of  St.  '^I'ereaa, 
and  the  College  of  the  Assumption;  all  under  their  care.  St.  Mary's  College 
of  Montreal  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesur..  The 
Clercs  de  St.  Viateur,  numbering  over  one  hundred,  have  their  Novirwate  and 
a  College  at  JoUette ;  another  College  at  Bonrget,  in  the  diocese  of  i'Jontreal, 
and  have  charge  of  twenty-one  establishments  besides,  eighteen  of  vcich  are  in 
the  province  of  Quebec  and  three  in  the  United  States. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  has  its  provincial  houss  tor  Canada, 
Notre  Dame  Cote  des  Neiges,  near  Montreal,  and  in  the  same  d-Asese  the  Cul- 
leges  of  St.  Laurent,  Notre  Dame,  and  St.  Jerome. 

The  diocesan  seminary  of  the  diocese  of  Ottawa  and  Ottawa  College  arc  bota 
conducted  by  the  Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate. 

The  dioceses  of  St.  Germain  de  Rimouski,  St.  Hyacinth,  ShThrooke,  and  Thret 
Rivers  have  each  a  seminary  at  the  episcopal  seat,  and  tbe  Jast  named  has  a 
second  one  at  Nicolei. 

In  the  Province  of  Toronto,  Ontario,  are  the  following  educational  estaolishi 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  949 

ments:  St.  Michael's  College,  embracing  preparatory  and  theological  depart- 
ments, and  De  La  Salle  histituie,  the  former  conducted  by  the  Basilian  Fathers, 
and  the  latter  by  the  Christian  Brothers,  and  both  situated  in  the  city  of  To- 
ronto ;  Si.  Jerome's  College,  Berlin,  in  the  diocese  of  Hamilton ;  a  School  for 
Boys,  in  charge  of  the  Christian  Brothers  at  King.'ston;  and  Assumption  College 
»t  Sapdwicl,  in  the  diocese  of  London,  under  the  care  of  the  Basilian  Fathers. 
In  the  Province  of  Halifax  the  following :  St  Mary's  College,  Halifax ;  St. 
{''rancis  Xavier's  College,  Antigonish  ;  St.  Dunstan's  Co^^e^re,-  Charlottetown; 
St.  Michael's  College,  Chatham;  St.  Joseph's  College,  Memramcook,  near  St. 
John's,  N.  B. ;  St.  Bonaventure' s  College,  St.  John's,  Newfoundland  (exempt 
diocese) ;  and  the  College  of  St.  Pierre,  on  the  French  island  of  the  same  name, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

In  the  Province  of  St.  Boniface  the  following :  The  Seminary  and  College  of 
St.  Boniface,  embracing  classical  and  theological  departments ;  St.  Albert's  Col- 
lege; St.  Louis'  School,  at  New  "Westminster,  British  Columbia;  and  St.  Louis 
College,  at  Victoria,  Vancouver's  Island. 

CATHOLIC    JOURNALISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND    CANADA. 

The  first  Catholic  journal  published  in  the  United  States  was  The  U.  S. 
Catholic  Miscella7iy,  founded  in  1822  by  Bishop  England,  of  Charleston,  S.  C, 
who  was  its  chief  editor  for  twenty  years.  It  was  an  able  exponent  of  Catho- 
lic opinion  while  it  existed,  but,  owing  to  the  political  complications  at  the 
South  and  the  breaking  out  of  the  war,  was  unfortunately  suspended  in  1861. 
The  Truth  Teller  was  issued  in  New  York  also  in  1822,  and  in  1833  The  Catho- 
lic Diary,  both  of  which  have  long  since  ceased  to  appear.  The  first  number 
of  The  Jesuit  was  issued  at  Boston  in  1829;  of  The  United  States  Catholic  Free 
Press  at  Hartford  in  1830;  and  of  The  Catholic  Telegraph  at  Cincinnati  in  1831. 
The  first  two  have  been  many  years  suspended,  and  the  last  is  therefore  the 
oldest  Catholic  paper  in  the  United  States.  It  was  founded  by  the  saintly 
Bishop  Fenwick,  O.  S.  D.,  and  has  been  at  all  times  an  uncompromising,  though 
temperate  advocate  of  Catholic  truth.  The  Very  Kev.  Edward  Purcell,  a  forci- 
ble and  elegant  writer,  of  whom  Dr.  Brownson  once  said  that  if  his  fugitive 
verses  were  collected,  they  would  form  a  volume  of  the  finest  poetry  in  the 
language,  was  for  many  years  its  editor-in-chief. 

The  Boston  Pilot,  the  second  oldest,  and  at  one  time  the  most  widely  circu- 
lated Catholic  paper  in  the  United  States,  was  founded  in  1837.  Its  tone  has 
been  consistently  and  uniformly  one  of  loyalty  to  the  Church  and  of  fidelity  to 
the  interests  of  Catholic  Irishmen,  who  owe  to  it  a  deep  debt  of  gratitude.  In 
the  year  1837,  the  same  in  which  the  controversy  between  Bishop  Purcell  ana 
Alexander  Campbell  took  place,  the  first  German  Catholic  weekly  published  in 
the  United  States  was  issued  at  Cincinnati.  This  was  the  Wahrheitsfrcund, 
founded  by  the  Rev.  M.  Henni,  now  Archbishop  of  31ilwaukee.  This  paper 
is  at  present  under  the  control  of  the  Benziger  Bros.,  has  a  large  circulation, 
and  is  warmly  devoted  to  the  cause  of  Catholicity  and  to  the  interests  of  the 
Germans  of  the  Northwest.  The  Katholische  Klrchenzeitung  of  New  York, 
founded  nine  years  later,  and  ably  edited  by  MaximiUan  (Jertel,  was  at  one 
time  very  widely  circulated. 

The  New  York  Freeman's  Journal,  published  at  ISIew  York,  was  founded  in 


950  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

1840,  and  has  been  edited  since  1847  by  Mr,  James  A.  McMasier,  a  vigoioua 
and  at  tin:;es  intemperate  writer,  but  an  uncompromising  champion  of  the  rights 
of  the  Church  and  the  prerogatives  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  Pittsburgh  Catholic  was  founded  in  1844  by  the  learned  Bishop  O'Connor, 
and  has  ever  since  reflected  the  piety  and  ardent  attachment  to  Catholic  prin- 
ciples that  characterized  its  first  editor.  In  the  same  year  the  first  number  of 
the  Propagatem-  Catholique  of  New  Orleans  appeared,  and  is  now  published  in 
both  English  and  French. 

The  Catholic  Mirror,  the  oflacial  organ  of  the  province  of  Baltimore,  was  ^r?\ 
iss'aed  in  that  city  in  1849. 

In  1857  the  Americcm  Celt,  after  it  had  existed  for  five  years,  was  superseded 
by  the  New  York  Tablet,  which  is  still  prospering,  and  is  an  able  and  temperate 
defender  of  Catholic  truth,  though  apparently  too  much  of  an  advertising  me- 
dium for  its  publishers. 

The  Katholische  Volkszeitung  of  Baltimore,  which  has  the  largest  subscription 
list  of  any  German  Catholic  paper  in  America,  and  the  Katholische  Wochen- 
blatt  of  Chicago,  which  is  unusually  enterprising  in  placing  early  news  before 
its  readers,  were  both  founded  in  1860. 

The  Aoe  Maria  (magazine),  founded  in  1865  by  Very  Kev.  E.  Sorin,  C.  S.  C, 
At  Notre  Dame,  Ind.,  was  for  a  time  edited  by  the  late  Father  Gillespie,  and  in 
1866  received  an  approbation  from  the  Holy  See. 

The  Katholischer  Olaube7isboie  of  Louisville,  and  The  Catholic  Standard  of 
Philadelphia  were  both  founded  in  1866,  the  first  editor  of  the  latter  being  th.j 
Kev.  Jaynes  Keogh,  D.D.  This  paper,  at  present  edited  by  Mr.  G.  D.  Wolf,  ha* 
been  specially  enterprising  of  late,  and  is  now  in  the  front  rank  of  Catholi'; 
journals  in  the  United  States. 

The  New  Orleans  Morning  Star,  one  of  the  most  widely  circulated  of  South- 
ern journals,  appeared  in  1868,  and  The  Louisville  Advocate  was  revived  for  the 
third  time  in  1869,  but  is  again  suspended. 

The  Irish  World,  founded  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in  1870,  by  Mr.  P.  Ford, 
is  an  independent  and  intemperate  advocate  of  everything  Irish,  and,  by  ita 
reckless  and  heated  denunciations,  has  done  infinitely  more  harm  than  good  to 
the  Catholic  cause. 

The  Catholic  Review  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  founded  in  1872  by  its 
present  editor,  Mr.  P.  V.  Hickey,  is  thoroughly  Catholic  in  principle,  dignified 
in  tone,  and  in  literary  merit  of  exceptional  excellence. 

Among  the  Catholic  weeklies  that  have  most  recently  appeared  are  The  Cath- 
olic Temperance  Abstinence  Union  of  New  York;  ihQ  Hartford  Catholic ;  The 
Lake  Shore  Visitor  of  Erie  (1873) ;  The  Ohio  Waisetifreund  (1873) ;  The  Catho- 
lic Universe  of  Cleveland,  founded  by  Bishop  Gilmour  in  1874;  The  Chicago 
Pilot;  The  Catholic  Columbian  of  Columbus,  O.,  founded  in  1875  by  the  Right 
Eev.  S.  II.  Rosecrans,  its  chief  editor,  whose  brilliant  and  condensed  paragiaphs 
frequently  suggest  more  matter  for  thought  than  the  editorials  of  most  writers; 
IVie  Illustrated  Weekly  of  New  York,  founded  by  Colonel  McOee  in  1876,  and 
as  a  rule  a  most  creditable  production. 

All  the  papers  enumerated  above  are  weeklies. 

There  are  only  two  Catholic  newspapers  issued  daily  in  the  wholt-  ot  the 
North  American  Continent,  namely,  the  Nouveau  Monde  of  Montreal,  Canada* 


§  423.   The  31issions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  951 

and  the  America  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  U.  S. ;  the  former  published  in  French  and 
the  latter  in  German. 

The  first  Catholic  newspaper  published  in  English  in  Canada  was  The  Moih- 
treal  True  IViiness,  founded  by  Mr.  Clerk,  in  1850.  This  was  followed  by  T/ie 
Morning  Freeman  of  St.  John's,  N.  B.,  an  excellent  paper ;  by  The  Irish  Canw' 
dian  of  Toronto,  founded  by  Mr.  P.  Boyle,  its  present  editor,  in  1863 ;  and  by 
The  Tribune  of  Toronto,  founded  in  1874,  both  of  which  are  sterling  Catholic 
journals. 

The  U.  S.  Catholic  Magazbie,  started  in  1842,  and  suspended  in  1849,  was  the 
lirst  monthly  periodical  of  marked  ability  that  appeared  in  the  United  States, 
ar  d  was,  during  the  term  of  its  existence,  under.tbe  editorial  management  of 
Kev.  Dr.  Charles  White  (f  1878)  and  Eev.  Dr.  M.J.  Spalding. 

The  Metropolitan  of  Baltimore,  the  first  number  of  which  was  issued  in  1853 
and  the  last  in  1858,  though  not  so  solid  as  the  magazine,  was  more  acceptable 
to  a  larger  class  of  readers. 

The  Catholic  World  of  New  York,  founded  in  1865  by  the  Very  Rev.  I.  T. 
Jlecker,  C.  S.  P.,  is  the  ablest,  as  well  as  the  most  successful  monthly  that  has 
yet  appeared  in  the  United  States,  and  will  compare  favorably  with  those  of 
any  other  country. 

The  Catholic  Record  oi  Philadelphia,  founded  in  1871,  though  modest  in  ap- 
pearance, is  ably  edited,  and  contains  some  instructive  and  charming  articles. 
Its  tone,  too,  like  that  of  the  Catholic  World,  is  heartily  Catholic. 

Among  the  German  Catholic  monthly  periodicals  are  the  Pastoral-Blatt,  pub- 
li.shed  at  St.  Louis,  and  founded  in  1866;  the  Alie  und  Neue  Welt  (illustrated), 
founded  in  1866,  and  published  by  the  Benziger  Bros.;  the  Kaiholische  Mis- 
sionen  (illustrated),  founded  in  1873,  and  published  at  St.  Louis  by  B.  Herder; 
und  the  Deutscher  ffausschatz  in  Wort  und  Bild,  founded  in  1874,  and  published 
by  F.  Pustet. 

Brownson's  Review,  the  first  series  of  which  extended  from  1844  to  1864,  and 
the  second  from  1873  to  1875,  was  certainly  the  ablest  Catholic  quarterly  that 
has  yet  appeared  in  the  United  States;  and  although  exception  was  taken  to 
Bome  of  the  utterances  of  its  editor,  he  was  never  accused  of  conscious  disloy- 
alty, either  to  the  spirit  or  the  letter  of  Catholic  teaching,  and  in  the  last  pages 
of  the  last  issue  of  his  great  Review,  submitted  all  he  had  ever  written,  with 
the  humility  and  docility  of  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church,  to  the  judgment  of 
the  Holy  See  (t  April  17,  1875). 

The  American  Catholic  Quarterly  of  Philadelphia  was  founded  in  1876,  with 
Dr.  Corcoran  as  its  chief  editor.  Among  its  contributors  are  some  of  the 
ablest  ecclesiastics  of  the  Church  in  America,  and  many  distinguished  foreign- 
ers. It  would  be  venturing  too  much,  however,  to  say  that  it  has  as  yet  real- 
ized the  high  hopes  its  appearance  inspired,  or  that  all  its  contributors  are  quite 
up  to  the  standard  required  in  a  first-class  English  Catholic  Quarterly. 

From  the  above  brief  outline  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  quite  as  many  news- 
papers and  periodicals  in  the  United  States,  considering  the  Catholic  population, 
as  in  any  other  country  of  the  world ;  but  it  must  be  added  that  among  all  the 
weekly  journals  there  is  not  one  that  can  fairly  be  called  a  model  Catholic  paper, 
or  that,  as  a  reliable  vehicle  of  Catholic  news  or  an  able  and  dignified  exponent 
of  Catholic  opinion,  at  all  approaches  the  English  weeklies. 


952  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 


MEXICO. 

The  United  States  of  Mexico,  once  the  Empire  of  l\ie  Aztecs  {Mexitli),  aftet 
a  long  struggle,  frequently  interrupted,  and  as  often  renewed,  between  tho 
years  1810  and  1824,  finally  became  independent  of  Spain,  and,  as  originally 
constituted,  consisted  of  nineteen  States  and  five  Territories.  The  population 
of  Mexico  is  mainly  made  up  of  Spaniards,  Creoles,  Mestizos,  and  Indiars 
The  Catholic  Church,  which  is  the  only  one  recognized  by  the  government,  en- 
joyed comparative  prosperity  until  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  it  became  evident  that  a  storm  was  approaching.  As  usual,  the  first  vis- 
itations of  its  fury  fell  upon  tjie  Jesuits,  who,  though  they  had  either  conferred 
or  brought  greater  blessings  upon  the  country  than  any  other  body  of  men, 
were  banished  in  1767,  and  their  property  confiscated.  As  Wolfgang  Menzel 
very  justly  remarks,  the  sweet  peace  and  childlike  contentment  of  the  inhabit- 
ants were  disturbed  by  the  introduction  into  the  country  from  Europe  of  a 
false  'philosophy  and  the  revolutionary  principles  of  European  Freemasonry. 
Fascinated  by  the  siren  voice  of  liberty,  they  pursued  it  as  a  phantom,  and 
finally  woke  to  the  stern  conviction  that  the  hopes  it  inspired  were  delusive  and 
its  promises  a  snare. 

Few  men  have  deserved  better  of  the  country  than  Francisco  Antonio  de  Lo- 
renzuna,  Patriarch  of  the  Indies,  and  formerly  Archbishop  of  Toledo  (f  April, 
1804),  who  presided  over  the  Fourth  Provincial  Council  of  Mexico,  in 
either  17(36  or  1111}  From  the  day  the  Mexicans  became  politically  an  in- 
dependent people  they  have  been  a  prey  to  unceasing  intestine  dissensions,  and 
have  at  length  lapsed  into  a  state  of  almost  hopeless  anarchy.  Since  then  the 
government  of  the  country,  whose  chief  executive  bears  the  title  of  President, 
has  passed  alternately  into  the  hands  of  one  of  the  two  dominant  political  par- 
ties of  Freemasons,  the  Escosesos,  or  Centralists,  and  the  Yorklnos,  or  Federalists. 

By  the  Constitution  of  1824,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  article  relating 
to  religious  freedom,  was  little  more  than  a  transcript  of  that  of  the  United 
States,  the  Catholic  Church  was  declared  to  be  the  only  one  tolerated  by  the 
Confederacy.  In  the  course  of  the  years  1824  and  1825  a  friendly  correspond- 
ence was  carried  on  with  regard  to  ecclesiastical  aff'airs  between  Pope  Leo  XII. 
and  President  Victoria.  During  the  ascendancy  of  the  Democratic  government 
of  the  Yorkinos,  bishoprics  falling  vacant  were  not  filled,  and  in  1829  there  was 
but  a  single  bishop  in  all  Mexico.  This  condition  of  things  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  Convention  with  the  Holy  See,  which  was  proclaimed  on  the  IGth  of 
May,  1831,  as  a  fundamental  law  of  the  State.  Naturally  enough,  it  was  op- 
posed by  the  Spanish  Court,  which  still  claimed  the  right  of  presenting  to  bish- 
oprics, and  for  similar  reasons  by  the  Liberals,  but  was  sustained  by  the  Mexi- 
can government.  Under  the  presidency  of  Santa  Anna  (from  1833),  Congress 
passed  laws  suppressing  convents  and  abolishing  the  compulsory  payment  of 
tithes;  and  it  was  proposed  to  confiscate  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  ap- 
propriate  it  to  the  payment  of  the  national  debt.  These  measures  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  people,  who  were  at  heart  still  warmly  attached  to  the 


»  WiUmann,  1.  c,  pp.  191-212;   Gams,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  49-56,  and  Vol.  III.,  pp 
674  8q. 


423.   The  Missions  of  tU  Catholic  Church.  953 


Church  and  the  Holy  See,  and  uprisings  took  place,  which  resulted  in  1835  in 
the  abrogation  of  the  Constitution  of  1824,  and  the  concentration  of  all  political 
power  in  the  hands  of  Santa  Anna.  This  usurpation  was  resented  by  Texas^ 
which  declared  itself  independent  of  Mexico  in  183G,  and  nine  years  later  was 
annexed  to  the  United  States ;  and  by  Upper  California  and  New  Mexico,  both 
of  which  seceded  from  the  Mexican  llepublic  in  February,  1848.  Herrera,  who 
Bucceeded  Santa  Anna  as  President  in  1818,  endeavored  to  adjust  the  differences 
between  Church  and  State,  and  to  have  a  Nuncio  appointed  for  Mexico,  but 
without  success.  The  latter  measure,  which  had  been  in  contemphition  during 
the  lifetime  of  Gregory  XVI.,  was  brought  to  a  successful  issue  in  1851,  under 
the  presidency  of  Arisfa,  but  had  little  or  no  influence  on  the  relations  of  polit- 
ical  parties  in  the  country.  Mgr.  Clementi,  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  failed  to 
inspire  confidence  or  to  attract  to  himself  the  unwavering  sympathy  of  any 
party  ;  ^  and  the  negotiations  preparatory  to  the  conclusion  of  a  Concordat  with 
the  Holy  See  came  to  an  abrupt  termination  in  1853,  when  Arista  was  driven 
from  power,  to  be  succeeded  in  the  following  year  by  Santa  Anna,  under  whom 
the  condition  of  the  Church  became  still  worse. 

In  an  allocution  of  December  15,  1856,  Pope  Pius  IX.  complained  that  by 
the  enactments  of  that  and  preceding  years  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  had  been 
declared  void,  the  Church  despoiled  of  her  estates  and  possessions,  the  Bishops 
of  Puebla  and  Guadalaxara  exiled,  religious  encouraged  to  quit  their  monaste- 
ries, and  other  steps  taken  by  the  government  highly  detrimental  to  the  inter- 
ests of  religion.  Santa  Anna  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by  Alvarez  in 
1855,  but,  after  a  short  absence  from  power,  again  became  chief  magistrate  for 
the  third  time,  only  to  give  way  to  General  Comonfort  in  1856,  under  whom 
the  Church  was  more  bitterly  persecuted  than  even  under  Santa  Anna  him- 
self The  result  of  this  hostility  to  the  Church  was  an  insurrection,  which 
placed  General  Zuloaga  at  the  head  of  affairs  in  1858.  In  a  letter,  dated  Jan- 
uary, 1858,  Zuloaga  assured  the  Holy  Father  that  the  Mexicans  had  always  re- 
garded loyalty  to  the  Holy  See  as  their  first  and  highest  duty,  and  deeply  re- 
gretted the  persecution  to  which  the  Church  had  been  subjected;  that,  thougt 
the  recent  enactments  against  the  freedom  of  the  Church  and  the  laws  contis 
eating  ecclesiastical  property  might  lead  him  to  believe  that  the  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants  had  abjured  the  faith  of  their  ancestors  and  grown  hostile  to  the 
Holy  See,  such  was  not  in  matter  of  fact  the  case ;  that  the  abrogation  of  the 
offensive  statutes  had  given  sincere  and  universal  joy  to  the  nation  ;  and  that 
His  Holiness  might  rest  assured  that  harmony  between  Church  and  State  was 
now  fully  restored.^  Had  Zuloaga  remained  at  the  head  of  affairs,  he  would 
have  pursued  a  policy  certainly  friendly,  and  possibly  highly  favorable  to  the 
Church;  but  having  been  driven  from  power  in  1859,  he  was  unable  to  carry 
out  his  conciliatory  measures.  In  a  second  allocution,  dated  September  30, 
1861,  Pius  IX.  again  protested  against  the  iniquitous  laws,  directed,  not  alone 
against  the  authority,  but  also  against  the  teachings  of  the  Church.  He  com- 
plained that  ecclesiastical  estates  had  been  declared  national  property  and  con- 
fiscated; that  churches  had  been  plundered;  that  priests,  religious,  and  nuna 


1  W.  Menzel,  Hist,  of  Our  Own  Days,  Stuttgart,  1860,  p.  318. 
'Freiburg  Kirchenblaii,  1858,  pp.  157  sq. 


954  Period  3.     Epoch  2.    .Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

had  been  treated  with  indignity ;  and  that  bishops,  after  having  been  subjected 
to  all  manner  of  outrage,  had  been  expelled  the  country.* 

Most  of  the  exiled  bishops  took  up  their  residences  in  Eome,  and,  on  their 
representation,  the  Pope  made  a  now  division  of  the  dioceses  of  Mexico,  many 
of  which  were  excessively  large.  This  measure  was  made  public  in  an  allscu- 
tian  of  March  16,  1803.2  The  hopes  of  the  friends  of  the  Church  revived  when^ 
on  the  10th  of  July,  18G3,  the  Assembly  of  Notables,  by  a  vote  of  250  against 
20,  declared  in  favor  of  an  hereditary  monarchy  under  a  Eoman  Catholic  Em- 
peror. The  crown  was  oifered  to  Maximilian  of  Austria,  who  landed  at  Vera 
Cruz  May  20,  1864,  and  entered  the  Mexican  capital  on  the  12th  of  the  follow- 
ing June,  under  the  title  of  Maximilian  I.,  Emperor  of  Mexico.  Maximilian 
was  reputed  to  have  been  the  most  accomplished  prince  of  Europe,  and  his 
misfortunes  in  Mexico  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  rashness  of  his  friends,  the  du- 
plicity of  his  patrons,  and  the  unreasonable  and  persistent  hostility  of  his  ene- 
mies, rather  than  to  any  lack  of  ability  on  his  part  or  to  any  antagonism  of  the 
religious  principles  by  which  he  was  guided,  with  the  legitimate  aspirations  of  a 
people  desirous  of  being  great  and  free.  Directly  on  bis  arrival  in  the  City  of 
Mexico,  the  clerical  party  demanded  the  immediate  and  unconditional  restora- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  property  confiscated  and  sold  during  the  ascendancy 
of  Juarez  and  the  French  regency.  As  this  amounted  to  about  one-third  of  the 
real  estate  of  the  Empire  and  one-half  of  the  immovable  property  of  the  mu- 
nicipalities, and  had  already  passed  from  the  first  to  the  second,  and  in  some 
instances  to  the  third  purchaser,  it  was  plainly  impossible  for  the  Emperor  to 
satisfy  this  demand.  When  Mgr.  Meglia,  the  Papal  Nuncio,  avowed  his  ina- 
bility to  find  any  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question,  Maximilian  threw  him- 
self into  the  arms  of  the  liberal  party,  and  on  the  27th  of  December,  1864,  in- 
structed his  ministers  to  bring  in  a  bill,  which  was  immediately  passed  by  the 
chambers,  vesting  the  management  and  sale  of  ecclesiastical  property  in  the 
Council  of  State. 

In  the  meantime  Mgr.  Meglia  resigned  his  position,  May  27,  1865;  and  a 
committee,  followed  some  time  later  by  Father  Fischer,  was  sent  to  Kome  to 
adjust  matters,  but  before  anything  could  be  accomplished  the  Empire  had 
ceased  to  exist.  At  the  demand  of  the  United  States  government,  which  per- 
emptorily refused  to  recognize  Maximilian,  the  French  troops,  under  Marshal 
Buzaine,  were  withdrawn  early  in  1867.  The  Emperor  was,  in  consequence, 
left  to  contend  at  fearful  odds  against  the  republican  General  Escobedo,  and, 
after  a  series  of  disasters,  was  finally  made  prisoner  at  Queretaro  on  the  15th 
of  May,  1867,  and  on  the  19th  of  the  succeeding  June  he,  together  with  his  two 
g,enerals,  Miramon  and  Mejia.  was  shot. 

Juarez  re-entered  the  City  of  Mexico  July  IG,  and  was  elected  President  in 
th'j  following  October.  He  was  the  first  of  the  Mexican  presidents  to  serve  the 
full  term  of  his  office.  He  died  in  1872.  The  triumphs  of  the  Republic,  how- 
aver,  did  not  put  an  end  either  to  civil  war  or  religious  persecution,  and  in  1875 
eeveie  laws  were  again  enacted  against  the  Church. 

According  to  the  Gotha  Almanac,  the  population  of  Mexico  in  1868  was 


^  Moy,  Archives  of  Canon  Law,  1862,  Vol.  VII.  (I.),  p.  117. 
>Cf.  Moy,  Archives,  1863,  Vol.  IX.  (III.),  p.  433  sq. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Gdholic  Church.  955 

8,259,000,  which,  with  the  exception  of  about  100,000  infidel  Indians  and  a  few 
strangers,  is  entirely  Catholic.  In  1848  there  was  one  metropolitan  and  eleven 
suffragan  sees  and  1,235  parishes  in  the  whole  countr}^  which  is  about  six  times 
the  size  of  Italy.  The  number  was  manifestly  insuflScient,  and,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  Pius  IX.,  in  18G3,  divided  the  country  into  three  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces,  and  astablished  six  new  bishoprics.  The  following  is  the  present  eccle- 
siastical oiganization  : 

I.  Metropolitan  see:  Mexico.  Suffragan  sees:  Victoria,  Puebla,  Chiapa, 
Oaxaca,  Yucatan  (or  Merida),  Vera  Cruz,  Chilapa,  and  Tulancingo. 

II.  Metropolitan  see:  Michoacan  (with  seat  at  Morelia).  Suffragan  sees: 
San  Luis  de  Potosi,  Queretaro,  Leon,  and  Zamora. 

III.  Metropolitan  see  :  Guadalaxara.  Suffragan  sees  :  Durango,  Linares  (with 
seat  at  Monterey),  Sonora,  and  Zacatecas,  and  the  Vic.  Ap.  of  Lower  California.* 

In  former  times,  each  Cathedral  had  its  chapter,  where,  according  to  an  en- 
actment of  the  Third  Provincial  Council,  held  in  1585,  there  should  be  a  dean, 
an  archdeacon,  a  chantor,  a  theologian,  a  treasurer,  ten  canons,  six  prebendaries, 
and  six  ecclesiastics,  with  competent  revenues.''^  By  permission  of  the  Holy 
See,  granted  in  1830,  the  Chapters  propose  three  candidates  for  a  vacant  epis- 
copal see  ;  of  these  the  government  selects  one,  upon  whom  the  Pope  confers 
canonical  investiture.^  As  long  as  Mexico  was  a  dependency  of  Spain,  thj 
bishops  exercised  the  same  jurisdiction,  and  were  subject  to  the  same  limitation* 
as  those  of  the  3Iother  Country,  where  the  Canon  Law  of  the  Church  was  in 
force,  but  under  the  Eepublic  their  condition  was  wholly  changed.*  During 
the  same  period  the  bishops  had  very  handsome  revenues,  the  largest  being 
about  $130,000  or  pesos,  and  the  smallest  about  $25,000  ;  at  present  the  revenues 
range  from  $5,000  to  $10,000.  This  is  the  nominal  sum  set  down  in  the  public 
budget,  but  in  matter  of  fact  both  bishops  and  priests  are  supported  by  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  the  faithful.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at  pres- 
ent about  10,000  priests  in  Mexico,  3,223  of  whom  are  secular  clergy.  They  are 
educated  in  the  older  diocesan  seminaries  and  in  monasteries,  and,  since  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Spanish  ecclesiastics  by  President  Guerrero,  are  mostly  Indians. 
Although  only  moderately  educated,  they  are  exemplary  and  zealous  in  the 
discharge  of  their  duties.^ 

No  class  of  men  have  done  more  for  Mexico  than  the  Religiotis  Orders,  and 
none  have  been  more  shamelessly  and  ungratefully  treated  by  the  Republican 
government.  The  Jesuits  were  banished  by  the  Spanish  government  first  in 
17G7,  and  their  colleges,  convents,  and  great  wealth  declared  confiscated  to  the 
Crown ;  and  were  again  similarly  dealt  with  by  the  Republic.  The  Francis- 
cans, Augustinians,  and  Dominicans,  though  never  formally  suppressed,  were 
despoiled  of  all  their  property. 

In  1810  there  were  149  convents  in  Mexico,  containing  1,931  monks,  and 


1  Moy,  Archiv.  18G3,  Vol.  IX.  (III.),  p.  433  sq.;   Gerarch.  Cait.,  1877,  pp.  53, 
64,  G2. 

2  Moroni,  Vol.  II.,  p.  14. 

3  Gams,  1.  c,  p.  083. 

<  Conf.  Hergenroiher,  The  Negotiations  of  Spain  with  the  Holy  See,  in  Moy'g 
Archiv.,  Vol.  X.  (II.)  sq. 

^Merz,  1.  c.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  138. 


956  Period  8.     E-poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

distributed  into  thirteen  provinces,  six  of  which  belonged  to  the  Franciscans, 
three  to  the  Dominicans,  two  to  the  Augustinians,  one  to  the  Carmelites,  and 
one  to  the  Mercederians.  There  were  at  the  same  date  six  missionary  colleges, 
containing  o29  students.^  The  capitalized  value  of  the  property  belonging  to 
the  Eeligious  Orders  was  between  nine  and  ten  millions  of  pesos.^  In  1845 
there  were  150  convents  of  men,  68  of  which  belonged  to  the  Franciscan.s,  25 
1':  the  Dominicans,  22  to  the  Augustinians,  19  to  the  Order  of  Mercy,  and  16  to 
the  Carmelites;  ^  and  in  1856  there  were  146  convents  and  1,139  monks.  The 
entire  property  of  these  Eeligious  Orders  was  confiscated  by  President  Comon- 
fort.  In  1860  the  Eecollect  Franciscans  possessed  30  religious  houses,  the 
Dominicans  25,  the  Augustinians  10,  and  the  Carmelites  10,  while  the  Jesuit;? 
were  established  at  Mexico ;  the  Oratorians  at  Mexico,  Puebla,  and  Guadalax- 
ara ;  the  Benedictines  at  Mexico ;  and  the  Brothers  of  Charity  at  Mexico  and 
Oaxaca. 

In  1810  there  were  57  convents  of  women  in  Mexico,  containing  1,962  in- 
mates ;  in  1845,  50  convents  and  2,000  religious  ;  and  in  1856,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  Baron  von  Eichthofen,  39  convents  and  3,160  religious.  All  Or- 
ders of  female  religious  were  suppressed  by  act  of  government  in  1863;  the 
Sisters  of  Charity,  who  had  been  introduced  into  the  country  from  Europe 
about  1845,  being  the  only  religious  community  of  women  recognized.* 

There  is  but  one  University^  in  the  country,  that  of  the  City  of  Mexico, 
founded  in  1551,  having  22  professors  and  a  library  of  50,000  volumes. 

There  are  colleges  in  every  considerable  town,  35  of  which  are  under  eccle- 
siastical supervision,  besides  37  seminaries  and  2  high  schools  or  lyceums,  situ- 
ated at  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Guanajuato. 

Primary  schools  do  not  exist  except  in  the  larger  cities,  which,  it  is  said,  is 
due  more  to  republican  misgovernment  than  to  the  neglect  of  the  clergy,  who  are 
not  permitted  to  exercise  their  energies  in  thia  field.  Between  the  years  1822 
and  1850,  what  is  known  as  the  Bell-Lancaster  System  of  Mutual  Instruction* 
was  introduced  by  the  Director  General  of  Primary  Instruction,  with  a  view 
to  educate  the  people  out  of  what  was  called  by  euphemism  their  "  fanat- 
icism." 

The  Emperor  Maximilian  designed  to  introduce  a  complete  and  thorough 
system  of  public  instruction,  and  to  raise  the  standard  of  studies  to  that  of  the 
best  schools  of  Europe,  but  time  was  not  given  him  to  carry  out  his  benevolent 
and  enlightened  purposes.' 

Almost  every  town  has  its  orphanage,  its  house  of  refuge,  and  its  hospital ; 
there  are  numerous  confraternities ;  ^  and  the  greater  feasts  of  the  Church  ar« 
celebrated  with  unusual  pomp  and  splendor.^ 

1  Gams,  1.  c,  p.  677. 

2  The  same,  p.  679. 
s  The  same,  p.  689. 

*  Salzburg  Kirchenblatt,  1863,  p.  158. 

6  Cf.  Hist,  and  Polii.  Papers,  Vol.  52,  p.  949. 

•  (tarns,  1.  c,  p.  862. 

''Salzburg  Kirchenblatt,  1865,  p.  268. 
BThesflJHC,  1863,  p.  315. 
•il/erz,  1.  c,  p.  139. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  957 

While  the  standard  of  religion  and  morality  is  confessedly  low  among  the 
Mexicans,!  the  religious  sentiment  of  the  people,  though  perverted,  is  deep  and 
universal ;  their  charity,  whether  public  or  private,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  the  notorious  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  is  without  a  parallel  in  the  world ;  and 
ia  mental  endowments  they  are  not  surpassed  by  any  other  people.  AVith 
peace  and  good  government,  they  would,  there  is  hardly  a  doubt,  take  their 
place  among  the  foremost  nations  of  the  earth. 


Central  Amkeica,  which,  since  1525,  had  been  subject  to  Spain,  after  a  pro- 
tracted and  obstinate  struggle,  lasting  from  1815  to  1823,  became  finally  independ- 
ent, and  formed  a  Federal  Kepublic,  comprising  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  with  a  total  population  of  2,605,000.  A  civil  con- 
flict, however,  continued  to  rage  between  the  Monarchists  and  the  Republicans 
until  the  dissolution  of  the  Confederacy  in  1839,  during  which  the  Catholic  Church 
suffered  severely.  In  this  year  Carrera  became  Dictator  v.i  Guatemala,  the  largest 
of  the  five  Independent  Republics;  and  in  July,  1843,  the  Jesuits,  whose  labors 
had  brought  so  many  blessings  upon  that  country,  and  who  were  still  held  in 
grateful  remembrance  by  the  people,  were  recalled  by  order  of  the  Congress, 
and  the  zeal  and  activity  which  they  still  continue  to  display  promise  well  for 
the  future  of  the  country.  Many  monasteries  were  restored  and  a  Concordat 
concluded  with  the  Holy  See  in  1852.  A  Concordat  was  also  concluded  with 
the  Republic  of  Costa  Rica  and  a  bishopric  established  at  San  Jose  by  Pius  IX., 
March  2,  1850,  after  this  State  became  independent  of  the  Republic  of  Nica- 
ragua, to  which  it  had  belonged  since  the  dissolution  of  the  Confederacy  of 
Central  America.  Its  population,  as  oflicially  stated  in  1861,  was  120,000,  of 
whom  30,000  belonged  to  San  Jose,  where  there  is  a  so-called  University,  with 
six  professors  and  about  100  students. 

The  condition  of  the  Church  in  the  republics  of  Nicaragua  and  Honduras  is 
by  no  means  as  promising  as  in  Costa  Rica.  There  is  an  episcopal  see  at  the 
city  of  Nicaragua ;  another  at  Comayagua,  in  Honduras ;  and  a  third  at  San 
Salvador,  in  the  Republic  of  the  same  name,  but  its  cathedral  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed with  the  city  by  an  earthquake,  April  16,  1854. 

In  the  West  Indies  '^  there  are  four  archiepiscopal  and  nine  episcopal  sees 
and  two  apostolic  vicariates,  distributed  as  follows :  San  Domingo  (no  suffra- 
gans), Port-au-Prince,  five ;  Santiago  de  Cuba,  three ;  Puerto  de  Espaiia,  two; 
Martinique  and  Basseterre,  suff'ragans  of  the  metropolitan  see  of  Bordeaux,  each 
one;  and  Cura9ao  and  Jamaica,  each  an  apostolic  vicariate.  The  total  popula- 
tion of  the  West  Indies  in  1862  was  4,071,022,  of  whom  3,500,000  are  Catholic, 
and  about  500,000  Protestant.'  There  are  ecclesiastical  seminaries  at  San  Do- 
mingo, Puerto  Rico,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  CuraQao,  but  these  are  by  no  means 
equal  to  supply  an  adequate  number  of  priests,  of  whom  there  is  a  great  lack. 
Among  the  Religious  Orders,  whose  labors  are  most  productive  of  good,  are  th« 
Jesuits,  the  Redemptorists,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  the  Sacred 


^  Kalkar,  1.  c,  p.  217. 

^Jas.  Neher,  Eccl.  Geog.,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  401  sq. 

»  Ga77is,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  715-722. 


958  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

Heart  of  Mary,  and  the  Christian  Brothers ;  and  of  females,  the  Ladies  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  St.  Maurice  of  Chatres,  and  the  Sa- 
cred Heart  of  Mary.  There  are  Universities  at  Havana  and  San  Domingo, 
6ome  high  schools,  and  many  private  institutions  of  learning. 

The  AVest  Indies  are  divided  into  the  following  four  ecclesiastical  provinces : 
San  Domingo,  Port-au-Prince,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  Puerto  de  Espana.  Tha 
Province  of  San  Domingo  comprises  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island,  which 
formerly  belonged  to  Spain ;  the  Lesser  Antilles,  belonging  to  Spain  ;  and  the 
Virgin  Islands.  The  population  of  the  Island  of  San  Domingo  itself  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  700,000.  The  Church  here  was  in  a  tolerably  prosperous  con- 
dition until  the  date  of  the  declaration  of  independence  (1803),  since  when, 
owing  to  numerous  changes  of  government  and  incessant  wars,  ecclesiastical 
affa'rs  have  greatly  declined,  and  between  the  years  1830  and  1850  there  was 
not  a  single  bishop  in  the  Island.  In  the  Wcsterti  or  French  portion,  where  the 
aboriginal  Indians  were  exterminated  by  the  cruelty  of  the  early  Spaniards 
and  replaced  by  slaves  from  Africa,  there  is  now  a  Kepublic  of  negroes,  with 
the  capital  at  Port-au-Prince.  Their  conversion  was  first  undertaken  by  the 
Dominicans,  and  subsequently  by  the  Jesuits,  who  were  expelled  in  1768.  At- 
tempts were  made  by  Gregory  XVI.  and  Pius  IX.  to  improve  the  condition  of 
the  Church  in  this  portion  of  the  island,  but  with  very  little  success,  owing 
chiefly  to  the  malignant  agitation  kept  up  by  the  Protestants,  who  received 
hearty  encouragement  from  their  friends  in  Europe.  Bishoprics  were  estab- 
lished in  1862  at  Les  Cayes,  Cape  Hayti,  Gonaives,  and  Port-de-Paix,  but  most 
of  them  have  ever  since  remained  without  incumbents. 

In  the  Eastern  portion,  forming  since  1813  the  Dominican  Republic,  with  a 
population  of  136,500,  the  Creoles  declared  Catholicity  the  religion  of  the  State; 
and  John  Monetti  was  appointed  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  San  Domingo,  bui 
was  expelled  in  1853  through  the  agency  of  English  Freemasons. 

No  improvement  took  place  during  the  ephemeral  rule  of  the  Spaniards, 
from  1861  to  1865,  and  when  they  were  driven  from  the  island  the  Spanish 
bishops  were  forced  to  leave  with  them.  An  effort  was  made  in  1866  by  the 
Redemptorist  Father,  Louis  Buggenons,  to  again  establish  relations  between 
the  Eepublic  and  the  Holy  See,  but  since  that  time  the  country  has  been  almost 
continuously  disturbed  by  intestine  struggles.  The  archiepiscopal  see  of  San 
Domingo  is  at  present  administered  by  a  vicar  apostolic.^ 

The  prospects  of  the  Church  are  somewhat  more  encouraging  in  the  islands 
belonging  to  Spain.  In  Cuba,  the  population  of  which  in  1872  was  1,370,211, 
of  whom  730,750  were  vfhites,  34,000  Chinese  and  Hindoo  coolies,  and  605,461 
blacks,  there  is  an  archbishopric  at  Sa7itlago  de  Cuba  and  suffragan  bishoprics 
at  San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana,  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  in  the  island  of  the  same 
name.  Puerto  Rico,  with  a  population  of  700,000,  of  whom  600,000  are  Catholics, 
was  by  Pius  VII.,  in  1816,  made  suffragan  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  San  Do- 
mingo,  but  is  now  again  suffragan  to  Santiago  de  Cuba ;  ^  and  Jamaica,  with  a 

1  Oerarchia  Cattolica,  year  1877,  p.  193.  (Tr.) 

'Cfr.  Neher,  Eccl.  Geogr.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  409,  and  Gerarchia  Cattolica  of  1877. 
p.  52.  (Tr.) 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  959 

population  in  1871  of  506,154,  of  whom  only  13,101  are  whites,  has  an  apostolic 
vicariate.  All  things  considered,  the  Church  is  more  prosperous  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Island  of  Ti'inidad,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  than  in  any  other  portion  of  the  West  Indies.  In  1850  the 
apostolic  vicariate  of  Trinidad  was  changed  into  the  archbishopric  of  Port  of 
Spain  (Puerto  de  Espafia),  the  capital,  to  which  tlie  bishopric  of  Roseau,  on  tbe 
Island  of  Dominica,  is  suffragan.  This  ecclesiastical  province  contains  about 
340,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  200,000  are  Catholics.  There  was  a  provincial 
council  held  in  1854.  Of  the  Religious  Orders,  the  most  numerous  and  active 
are  the  Jesuits,  the  Eudists,  the  Eedemptorists,  who  have  been  lately  intro- 
duced, the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Ciugny,  and  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
The  bishopric  of  Basseterre,^  which  replaced  the  apostolic  prefecture  of  Guade- 
loupe, September  27,  1850,  had  in  1863  two  vicars-general,  eighty-five  priests,  a 
seminary  at  the  episcopal  see,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  137,000.  At  the 
same  date  the  apostolic  prefecture  of  Martinique  was  abolished,  and  the  see 
of  For t-de- France,  subsequently  transferred  to  Saint-Pierre,  established  in  its 
stead.2 


The  position  of  the  Church  in  South  America,  and  notably  in  that  portion 
of  it  which  revolted  from  Spain,  forming  now  the  ten  republics  of  New  Granada, 
Venezuela,  Ecuador,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Chili,  Argentina,  Buenos  Ayres,  Uruguay, 
and  Paraguay,  has  in  recent  times  been  the  reverse  of  encouraging.  The  bish- 
oprics of  JVew  Granada  were  made  suffragan  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Santa 
Fe  de  Bogota,  and  those  of  Venezuela  to  that  of  Caracas,^  by  Leo  XII.,  and  the 
see  of  New  Pamplona  was  established  in  1836  by  Gregory  XVI.,  and  added  to 
the  former  province.  The  Jesuits  had  been  recalled,  and  the  hopes  of  Catholics 
had  barely  begun  to  revive,  when  a  violent  persecution  against  the  Church 
broke  out  in  New  Granada.  The  Jesuits  were  once  more  expelled;  ecclesiasti- 
cal estates,  whether  belonging  to  the  secular  or  regular  clergy,  were  confis- 
cated; bishops  were  forcibly  ejected  from  their  sees;  and  in  1852  President 
Lopez  announced  a  formal  separation  between  Church  and  State.  In  an  allo- 
cution of  September  27,  1852,  Pius  IX.,  as  chief  Pastor  of  the  Church,  protested 
against  these  hostile  enactments,  and  bestowed  special  praise  upon  Archbishop 
Mosquera,  who  had  courageously  withstood  the  assaults  of  the  impious  up  to 
the  day  of  his  banishment,  and  died  an  exile  at  Marseilles,  on  his  way  to  Kome, 
December  10,  1853. 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  the  Church  in  New  Granada  is  the 
new  political  constitution,  studiously  elaborated  upon  the  principles  of  the  most 
radical  democracy ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  blighting  influence  of  an  irre- 
ligious  and  immoral  press,  whose  evil  effects  are  only  too  terribly  visible  in  thft 


1  Cf.  the  Bull  of  Erection,  in  the  Acta  Pii  IX.  and  in  La  France  eccl.  1861, 
p.  703  sq. 

2Cf.  the  Bull  of  Erection,  in  La  France  eccl.  1851,  p.  697. 

3  To  the  Archbishop  of  Bogota  are  suffragan  the  Bishops  of  Cartagena,  Santa 
Marta,  Popayan,  Panama,  Pamplona  Nueva,  Antioquia  Medellin,  and  Pasto  ; 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Caracas,  the  Bishops  of  Merida,  Angostura,  Cuyo,  Cola- 
boza,  and  Barquisimeto 


960  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

atrocious  attempts  that  are  daily  made  upon  human  life.  In  the  Eepublic  of 
Ecuador,  the  Jesuits  were  likewise  recalled,  but,  as  in  New  Granada,  only  to  be 
again  expelled.  Although  Quito,  the  capital,  is  the  seat  of  an  archiepiscopal 
see,  to  which  the  bishoprics  of  Cuenca,  Guayaquil,  Ibarra,  Riobamba.  Loxa.  and 
Puerto  Viejo  are  suffragan,  the  condition  of  religion  is  by  no  means  promising.^ 
Maria  Anna  Paredes,  surnamed  the  Lily  of  Quito,  who  died  in  1645,  was  de- 
clared blessed  by  Pius  IX. 

The  metropolitan  see  for  the  Republics  of  Bolivia  and  Paraguay  is  Charcas, 
with  residence  at  Sucre  or  La  Plata  or  Chuquisaca,  to  which  the  following  sees 
are  suffragan:  La  Paz  de  Ayacucho ;  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  at  Misque  Pocona; 
Cochabamba ;  and  Paraguay  or  Assuncion.'^  The  bishoprics  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
New  Cordova,  and  Tucuman,  in  which  ecclesiastical  life  was  entirely  paralyzed 
during  the  dictatorship  of  Kosas  (1835-1852),  also  belonged  to  the  province  of 
Charcas  until  the  year  1865.  After  the  overthrow  of  llosas,  relations  were  once 
more  established  with  the  Holy  See.^ 

The  labors  of  the  missionaries  in  Ouiana,  or  Guayana,  in  recent  times  have 
been  successful  and  encouraging.*  Under  the  name  of  Guiana  is  included  that 
stretch  of  coast  lying  between  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Maranon  or  Amazon 
and  Orinoco,  which,  having  been  neglected  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese, 
was  colonized  by  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch.  British  and  Dutch  Guiana 
each  contain  an  apostolic  vicariate,  and  French  Guiana  an  apostolic  prefecture. 
The  Catholic  population  of  all  Guiana  in  1871  was  90,750,  or  about  one-third 
of  all  the  inhabitants.  Of  these,  52,250  belong  to  Dem.erara  or  British  Guiana, 
12,500  to  Surinam  or  Dutch  Guiana,  and  26,000  to  Cayenne  or  French  Guiana. 
In  French  Guiana,  toward  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  Father  Lombard  ex- 
hibited a  most  laudable  spirit  of  self-sacrifice,  which  was  zealously  emulated  by 
his  successors  in  the  same  field  of  labor,  among  whom  Fathers  Besson,  Carnave, 
Tourree,  Autilhac,  and  Huberlatd  deserve  special  mention.  During  a  terrible 
epidemic  which  raged  in  Dutch  Guiana,  Father  Grove  gave  an  example  of  the 
most  heroic  Christian  charity  and  unbounded  reliance  in  God ;  and,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  quarter  of  this  century.  Father  Hynks,  a  Dominican, 
achieved  unexampled  success  in  his  missionary  labors  among  the  negroes  of 
British  Giuana. 

But  of  all  the  countries  once  forming  the  territory  of  the  colony  belonging 
to  Spain,  Chili  and  Peru,^  notably  the  latter,  have  given  the  most  assuring  evi- 
dences of  ardent  piety  and  vigorous  religious  life.  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru, 
was  the  home  of  St.  Rose,  and  the  see  of  Saiiit  Turibius,  the  former  the  first 
canonized  Saint,  and  the  latter  the  St.  Charles  Borromeo  of  the  New  World. 
But  even  in  these  countries  protracted  civil  wars  have  had  the  effect  of  reducing 
the  number  of  priests  and  greatly  retarding  the  growth  of  religion.  In  Chili, 
where  the  Jesuits  now  possess  a  number  of  religious  houses,  they  are  again 
actively  at  work  conducting  schools  and  directing  souls,  with  the  gratifying  re- 


»  Gams,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  700  sq. 
^  Ibid.,  pp.  706  sq. 
'  Ibid.,  pp.  712  sq. 

♦  Witimann,  Vol.  I.,  p.  136;   Gayns,  Vol.  III.,  p.  722. 

*  WiUmann,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  157  sq. ;   Garas,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  707  sq. 


423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  961 


suits  that  everywliere  uttend  tho  labors  of  these  devoted  men.  There  is  a  nor- 
mal school  at  Santiago,  where  teachers  are  trained  for  the  provincial  missions. 
The  suffragan  bishoprics  of  Lima,  the  metropolitan  see  of  Peru,  are  Arequipa, 
Cuzco,  Truxilio,  Muynas  or  Chachapoyas,  Guamanga  or  Ayacucho,  and  Hu- 
dnuco  and  Puho ;  and  of  Santiago,  the  metropolitan  see  of  Chili;  Concepcion, 
Serena  or  Coquimbo,  and  San  Carlos  di  Ancud. 

The  Catholic  population  of  Chili,  which  writers  tell  us  is  the  most  prosperous 
Republic  of  the  New  World,  is  about  two  millions,  and  the  Catholic  the  estab- 
lished Church  of  the  JState.  The  Araucanian  Indians  are  for  the  most  part 
heathen  ;  but  since  1841  the  Capuchins  have  had  missions  established  among 
thum  with  the  most  encouraging  results,  and  more  recently  the  Jesuits  have 
sent  laborers  into  the  same  field.  The  clergy,  though  not  sulBciently  numerous, 
come  mainly  from  upper  classes  of  society,  and  receive  an  excellent  education, 
either  at  the  University  of  Santiago  or  at  one  of  the  missionary  colleges  at 
Chiloe,  Valdivia,  and  Concepcion.  There  is  also  in  Chili  an  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences;  some  sixty  colleges  and  academies,  at  fifty  of  which  instruction  is  gratu- 
itous ;  one  thousand  primary  schools,  attended  by  40,000  children ;  four  hun. 
dred  intermediate  schools ;  forty-one  convents  of  men  and  seven  of  women. 
The  flourishing  condition  of  the  schools  in  this  country  is  due  for  the  mo.st  part 
to  the  active  zeal  of  the  Keligious  Orders. 

The  ecclesiastical  province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  as  constituted  in  1865,  comprises, 
besides  the  metropolitan  see  of  the  same  name,  the  suffragan  sees  of  Cordova, 
San  Juan  de  Cuyo,  Parana,  and  Salta,  situated  in  the  Argentine  Confederation 
or  the  United  States  of  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  population  is  about  1,340,000, 
nearly  all  of  whom  are  Catholics.  There  is  a  University  conducted  by  the  So- 
ciety of  Jesus  at  Buenos  Ayres,  a  greater  seminary  at  Cordova,  a  lesser  semi- 
nary  at  San  Juan,  a  Jesuit  college  at  Santa  Fe,  and  a  Franciscan  college  at  Rio- 
quarta.     Education  is  general  and  compulsory. 

The  bishopric  of  Assuncion  embraces  the  entire  Republic  of  Paraguay,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-five  departments,  with  a  population  of  l,o37,4ol. 

In  Brazil^  the  work  of  evangelizing  the  country,  which  was  going  prosper- 
ously forward  under  the  Jesuits,  was  interrupted  by  the  persecution  of  Pom bal, 
who  had  the  members  of  the  Society  expelled  the  country  with  circumstances 
of  exceptional  brutality  and  outrage,  and  amid  the  tears  of  the  Brazilians,  who 
were  sincerely  and  ardently  attached  to  these  noble  missionaries.  Fortunately, 
the  LcKarists  were  at  hand  to  enter  upon  the  work  the  Jesuits  were  forced  to 
leave  ofl",  to  whom  they  proved  themselves  worthy  successors.  The  people  of 
Brazil,  who  have  never  wavered  in  their  attachment  to  the  Holy  See,  gave  a 
sii;nal  proof  of  their  loyalty  in  the  year  1834,  when  the  government  declined  to 
recognize  the  bishop  appointed  by  Home  to  the  diocese  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The 
whole  country,  with  a  population  of  11,780,000,-'  all  of  whom,  except  about 
600,000,  are  Catholics,  constitutes  but  one  ecclesiastical  province.  Bahia  or  Sau 
Salvador  is  the  metropolitan  see,  to  which  the  bishoprics  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  or 

1  Wtttmann,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  143-156;   Gams,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  191  sq. 

■•'So  La,  Rivlsta  Catoiiea  of  Las  Vegas  (in  New  Mexico),  in  the  year  1876,  at 
page  273.    The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica{Yo\.  I.,  p.  625),  from  the  census  taken 
in  1872,  gives  but  10,095,978.  (Tr.) 
VOL.    Ill — 61 


962  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  1. 

San  Sebastian,  Belem  or  Para,  Ctibaha  or  Cuyaba,  OUnda  or  Pernambuco,  .Saw 
Lt^iz  de.'Maranham^  Mariana.,  Goyaz,  San  Paolo  and  .S'ff^i  Pedro,  in  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Diamantbio  and  Fortalezza  or  Ceara,  are  suffragan.  In 
all  these  dioceses,  with  the  exception  of  three,  there  are  ecclesiastical  seminaries ; 
still,  owing  to  the  petty  annoyances  and  unwarrantable  interference  of  govern- 
ment, inspired  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  by  the  Freemasons,  the  supply  of  priests 
is  miserably  insufficient.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  who  are  nominated 
by  the  Emperor,  in  virtue  of  his  office  of  Grand  Master  of  the  Military  Order 
of  Christ,  is  very  much  restricted,  and  as  a  rule  cathedral  chapters  do  not  exist. 
The  Eeligious  Orders  are  zealous  and  active,  and  flourish,  in  spite  of  the  fierce 
assaults  made  upon  them  by  the  irreligious  portion  of  the  press.  The  Capu- 
chins, Jesuits,  and  Lazarists  are  laboring  earnestly  to  convert  the  natives,  who 
constitute  150  tribes,  live  in  scattered  villages,  and  belong  for  the  most  part  to 
the  mixed  race  of  the  Tvpis.  The  Lazarists  have  quite  a  large  missionary  col- 
lege at  Caraca,  in  the  diocese  of  Mariana.  There  is  a  University  at  San 
Paolo,  possessing,  however,  neither  a  theological  nor  a  medical  faculty;  two 
medical  colleges,  styled  Universities,  at  Eio  and  Bahia ;  two  faculties  of  law  at 
Recife  and  San  Paolo;  and  168  high  schools  and  2,500  primary  schools  in  the 
entire  country.  The  Church  is  wholly  excluded  from  the  management  of  Pub- 
lic Listructmi,  the  State  claiming  and  exercising  complete  control.  Notwith- 
standing these  drawbacks,  about  three-fifths  of  the  population  are  well  in- 
structed in  the  Catholic  faith,  and  are  more  prosperous  and  happy  than  the 
inhabitants  of  other  countries  in  South  America  under  English  and  Protestant 
influence.! 

The  Eastern  Republic  of  Uruguay,  called  also  Montevideo,  from  the  name  of 
its  capital,  which  formerly  formed  part  of  the  bishopric  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was 
made  an  apostolic  vicariate  in  1848.  Its  population,  which  is  almost  entirely 
Catholic,  was  350,000  in  1863,  of  whom  about  150,000  were  foreigners.  The 
apostolic  vicar  and  the  prefect  of  the  Franciscans  for  the  missions  of  South 
America  both  reside  at  Montevideo. 

Of  late  years  the  Catholic  Church  has  been  making  rapid  advances  in  the 
Philippine  Islands.  There  has  been  a  bishopric  since  1525  and  an  archbish- 
opric since  1621  at  Manila,  the  capital  of  the  Island  of  Luzon,  and  there  are 
bishoprics  at  Neo-Caceres,  Zebu  or  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus,  Xew  Segovia,  and 
Jaro  or  St.  Elizabeth. 

In  Au8TRA.LASiA,2  howevcr,  the  progress  of  the  Catholic  missions  has  beer» 
seriously  impeded  by  the  opposition  of  the  Methodists  ;  by  the  suspicion  roused 
in  the  breasts  of  the  natives  on  account  of  the  protection  afforded  the  mission- 
aries by  the  French  in  some  of  the  Soutii  Sea  Islands,  and  by  the  frightful  im- 
morality and  hideous  cannibalism  prevalent  in  these  countries.  As  is  natur;.., 
from  the  fact  that  England's  power  is  here  supreme,  the  bulk  of  the  colonists 
fire  Anglicans,  who  have  an  archbishopric  at  Sidney  and  bishoprics  at  Adelaide, 
Melbourne,  New  Castle,  and  Perth  in  Australia,  or  New  Holland. 

An  apostolic  vicariate,  of  which  Dr.  John  Polding,  an  English  Benedictine, 
was  the  first  incumbent,  was  established  in  1835,  with  jurisdiction  over  Aus- 


•  Witiman,  Vol.  II.,  p.  531,  quoted  by  Kalker,  p.  272. 
»Cf.  Father  Charles  a  S.  Aloysio,  pp.  104-117. 


§  423.   The  Missions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  963 

tralia,  Tasmania  (formerly  Van  Diemen's  Land),  iSTorfolk,  and  other  islands, 
with  a  population  estimated  in  1869  at  2,050,000.^  To  these  islands  are  sent  all 
persons  transported  from  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  who,  having  been  in 
former  times  mostly  Irish  Catholics,  and  whose  greatest  crime  was  their  faith, 
brought  abundant  blessings  upon  the  land  of  their  exile.  They  at  once  asked 
for  priests,  who  were  sent  them,  and  although  their  missions  were  opposed 
by  the  British  government  between  the  years  1810  and  1820,  they  contained 
in  1840  as  many  as  twenty-three  priests,  two  of  whom  were  in  the  Island  of 
Tasmania  and  two  in  the  Island  of  Norfolk.  Reformed  convicta  and  fresh  im- 
migrants laid  the  foundations  of  new  settlements,  and  the  Catholics  increased 
6o  rapidly  through  the  unwearied  labors  of  Dr.  Folding  and  Father  Ullathorne, 
that  in  1842  it  was  found  necessary  to  establish  an  archiepiscopal  sec  at  Sidney, 
in  New  South  Wales,  and  suffragan  bishoprics  at  Adelaide,  in  South  Australia, 
and  at  Uobart  Town,  in  Tasmania.  By  1845  there  were  5G  Catholic  missiona- 
ries in  Australia,  31  Catholic  schools,  and  28  churches  and  chapels ;  and  in  the 
same  year  the  first  provincial  council  was  held.  So  unprecedented  was  the  growth 
of  Catholicity  that  in  1855  there  were  in  Sidney  alone,  which  then  contained 
65,000  inhabitants,  20,000  Catholics,  fourteen  Catholic  primary  schools,  a  female 
academy,  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  nuns,  and  a  college  for  boys.  The  see 
of  Perth,  in  Western  Australia,  was  established  in  1845;  that  of  Melbourne,  in 
Victoria,^  in  1847;  that  of  Victoria,  in  North  Australia,  in  1849:  and  in  1865 
the  see  of  Maitland  was  revived,  and  those  of  Brisbane  and  Bathurst  founded." 
In  1874  Melbourne  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank,  receiving  Bullnrai,  Sand- 
hurst, Adelaide,  Perth,  and  Hobart  Town  as  suffragan  sees,  whilst  the  metropol- 
itan, see  of  Sidney  retains  those  of  Goulburn,  Bathurst,  MaitUmd,  Armidale, 
Brisbane,  and  Victoria.  These  splendid  triumphs  were  achieved  mainly  through 
the  Benedictines  and  Jesuits.*  In  the  northern  Island  of  New  Zealand  the 
sees  of  Wellington  and  Auckland  have  been  established  since  1849,  and  in  the 
southern  island  that  of  Dunedin  since  1869. 

In  Western,  Eastern,  and  Central  Polynesia  apostolic  vicariates  have  existed 
since  1853,  the  missionaries  being  chiefly  engaged  in  converting  the  natives  of 
the  islands. 

In  Polynesia  the  Church  is  achieving  marked  success.  Of  the  3,000  inhabit- 
ants of  Uvea,  the  principal  of  the  Wallis  Islatids,  2,700  were  Catholics  in  1855. 
The  missions  on  the  Gambier  Islands  (Mangareva,  Akena,  Akamaru,  and  Ta- 
ravai),  conducted  by  the  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of  Picpus,  are  quite  flour- 


1"  Catholic  Missions  in  Australia.'  {Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Yq\.  IV.,  in 
three  articles.)  \*Ed.  Michelis,  The  Nations  of  the  South  Sea  and  the  Protest- 
ant and  Catholic  Missions,  Miinster,  1847.  Cf.  '-The  Catholic;'  1848.  3Iission- 
ary  Journal,  Nros.  18,  21,  22,  25,  27,  28,  29,  30,  52,  and  53.  Gams,  1.  c,  Vol. 
III.,  pp.  745-758. 

2  Sio)i,  1842,  Nro.  84. 

3  The  first  British  settlement  in  Australasia  was  made  in  New  South  Wales 
in  1788 ;  Tasmania  was  colonized  in  1825,  Western  Australia  in  1829,  South 
Australia  in  1834,  New  Zealand  in  1841,  Victoria  in  1851,  and  Queensland  in 
1859. 

*  Oerarehia  Cattoliea,  year  1877.  p.  56.  (Tr.) 


964  Period  -3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chcqjter  1. 

ishiriL;,  and  promise  to  become  the  center  of  missionary  enterprise  in  this  part 
of  the  world,  the  missionaries  having  already  extended  their  labors  to  the  Mar- 
quesas and  the  Sandwich  Islands}  Here,  too,  as  in  every  missionary  country  in 
the  world,  the  blood  of  martyrs  has  enriched  the  soil,  and  will  become  the  seed 
of  the  faith.  In  the  Wallis  Islands  Father  Chanel  was  martyred  by  Muru- 
Muru,  a  bloodthirsty  chief,  May  28,  1841  ;  Bishop  Epalle  was  murdered  by 
the  savages  of  the  Island  of  Isabella ;  and  in  1856  Father  Mozzuconi  and 
eighteen  of  the  crew  of  the  ship  Gazelle  met  a  similar  fate  at  the  hands  of  these 
sanguinary  islanders.  The  English  volunteered  to  send  a  man-of-war  to  punish 
the  perpetrators  of  the  murders  on  the  Island  of  Isabella,  but  the  missionaries 
declined  the  offer,  saying:  "■We  do  7ioi  avenge  otir  marlyrs ;  we  pray  for  their 
persecutors.^' 

The  missions  of  Polynesia  are  organized  into  the  apostolic  vicariates  :  1.  Of 
the  Samoa  or  Navigator  Islands;  2.  The  Marquesas  Islands;  3.  Melanasia  and 
Micronesia;  4.  New  Caledonia;  5.  Central  Oceanlca;  6.  The  Hawaiian  or  Sand- 
wich Islands;  7.  Tahiti  or  the  Society  Islands;  and  the  apostolic  prefectures  of 
the  Fiji  Islands,  New  Norwich,  and  Labuan  Island,  with  its  dependencies,  off  the 
northwestern  coast  of  Borneo.® 

If  there  be  any  one  fact,  which  recent  events  have  brought  prominently  for- 
ward, it  is  that  Europe  and  America  are  intent  upon  carrying  their  civilization 
and  their  intellectual  culture  to  the  farthest  corners  of  the  globe ;  and  hence 
the  Church  has  the  acceptable  duty  imposed  upon  her,  in  this  more  than  in  any 
former  age,  of  carrying  the  light  of  truth  and  the  blessings  of  religion  to  the 
heathen  of  every  land,  and  of  keeping  abreast  of  other  civilizing  influences, 
which,  unless  grounded  upon  the  name  and  the  faith  of  Christ,  can  have  neither 
stability  nor  perpetuity.  The  rapid  progress  uf  the  missions  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  these  latter  years  seems  to  point  to  the  approaching  fulfillment  of 
the  words  of  prophecy:  "  He  shall  rule  from  sea  to  sea,  and  to  the  farthest  ends 
of  the  earth.'' 


1  Concerning  the  missionary  operations  in  the  Ladrones  or  Mariana  Islands 
and  the  Caroline  Islands,  see  Wittmami,  Vol.  I.,  p.  300-330.  Freibg.  Eccl.  Cy- 
clop., Vol.  I.,  art.  '■'■Australia." 

»  Gerarchia  Gattolica,  1877,  pp.  62,  63.  (Tb.) 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY    OF    PROTESTANTISM. 

Bibliography  at  the  head  of  §  375.  Gieseler,  Review  of  the  Theological  Ten. 
dencies  of  the  Last  Fifty  Years,  Getting.  1837.  By  the  same.  Text-book  of  Ch. 
H.,  Vol.  V.  (from  1814  to  the  present  time),  Bonn,  1855.  llundeshagen,  German 
Protestantism,  Frankft.  (1846) ;  3d  ed.,  1849.  Schwarz^  Supplements  to  Actual 
Theology.  Lps.  (3d  ed.)  1864.  Vilmar,  The  Theology  of  Facts  opposed  to  the 
Theology  of  Ehetoric,  2d  ed.,  Marburg,  1856.  Baur,  Ch.  H.  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (Vol.  V.)  ;  Dornei\  Hist,  of  Protest.  Theology,  p.  741  sq. ;  Kalmis,  In- 
terior  Development  of  German  Protestantism  since  the  Middle  of  the  Last 
Century,  Lps.  1860;  Gasts,  Hist,  of  Protest.  Dogmatics,  Berlin,  1867;  Nippold, 
Manual  of  Modern  Ch.  H.,  p.  213  sq.  Protestantism  in  its  Self-dissolution, 
Schaffhausen,  1843,  signally  Vol.  II.  -\'^Jdrg,  Hist,  of  Protestantism  during 
the  Last  Years,  Freiburg,  1858,  2  vols.  -^Ritter,  Manual  of  Ch.  H.,  5th  ed., 
Vol.  II.,  p.  575-601. 

SECTION  FIRST. 

HISTORY    OF    THEOLOGY    AND   OF    THE    CHURCH    IX    GERMANY. 

§  424.  Futile  Efforts  to  Preserve  the  Symbols  of  Protestantism. 

Startled  by  the  novel  teachings,  which  the  writings  of 
Bahrdt^  were  chiefly  instrumental  in  bringing  into  existence 
and  making  popular,  the  orthodox  Protestants,  nnder  the  di- 
rection of  pastor  Urlsperger,  tirst  of  Augsburg  and  subse- 
quently of  Basle  (1775),  formed  a  Society  for  the  promotion 
of  sound  doctrine  and  true  happiness  ;  and  a  similar  Society, 
for  the  defense  of  religion,  was  formed  at  the  Hague  in  1786. 
In  Saxony  the  letters  of  Krug  on  the  perfectibility  of  revealed 
religion,  and  the  writings  of  Eck,  in  which  their  author  pre- 
tended to  explain  the  miracles  of  the  New  Testament  by  nat- 
ural causes,  were  both  prohibited  by  law.  Frederic  William 
II.  of  Prussia,  acting  under  the  advice  of  his  Minister  Woell- 
ner,  took  still  more  decided  steps  to  maintain  evangelical  Pro- 
testantism. On  the  9th  of  July,  1788,  he  promulgated  an 
Edict  of  Religion  against  the  philosophical  teachings  that  had 

-  Cf.  ?  377,  p.  698. 

(905) 


966  Period  3.     JEpoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

found  favor  with  Frederic  II.,  forbidding  them  to  be  an- 
nounced to  the  people  from  the  pulpit.  In  1790  the  Consisto- 
ries were  instructed  to  advance  no  one  to  an  ecclesiastical 
position  who  held  erroneous  views  on  the  fundamental  truths 
of  Christianity  or  who  declined  to  accept  the  national  cate- 
chism. Pastor  Hermes  and  Professor  Hilmer,  of  Breslau,  were 
associated  with  Woellner  to  see  that  these  provisions  were 
carried  into  effect,  and  a  Board  of  Examiners  was  formed  in 
the  Superior  Consistory  of  Berlin,  with  instructions  to  exact 
of  all  pastors,  professors,  and  school-teachers,  before  entering 
upon  the  duties  of  their  several  offices,  a  written  declaration 
that  they  would  carry  out  the  instructions  of  government. 
The  trial  of  pastor  Schulz,  oi  Gielsdorf,  and  his  deposition  in 
1791,  produced  quite  a  sensation.  Many  works  were  pub- 
lished on  this  occasion,^  the  chief  topics  under  discussion  being 
the  extent  of  the  binding  force  of  the  Symbols  and  of  the  ju- 
risdiction of  princes  in  matters  of  religion. 

Frederic  William  III.,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  in 
1797,  at  once  abolished  the  Board  of  Examiners,  and  pro- 
claimed that  every  one  should  have  full  religious  freedom. 

Kant  (t  1804),  viewing  the  subject  in  quite  a  different  light, 
rejected  the  superficial  theology  of  his  age,  and  in  particular 
denounced  its  enfeebling  influence  upon  the  moral  principle. 
He  was  from  the  start  the  consistent  enemy  of  the  popular 
philosophy  of  Steinbart,  which  degraded  virtue  by  making  it, 
not  something  valuable  for  its  own  sake,  but  only  a  means  of 
acquiring  happiness.  Kant,  on  the  other  hand,  aimed  at  giv- 
ing a  positive  value  to  the  moral  principle.  His  works,  as 
they  are  the  beginning,  so  do  they  contain  the  underlying 
philosophical  principles  of  the  rationalistic  theolog}'  of  Ger- 
many. After  having  attempted  to  establish  in  his  Critique  of 
Pure  Reason  (1781)  that  the  human  mind  is  incapable  of 
knowing  the  highest  truths  with  absolute  certainty,  he  admit- 
ted in  his  Critique  of  Practical  Reason  (1788)  the  existence  of 

1  He>ike,  Animadversions  on  all  the  Writings,  occasioned  bj'  the  Prussian 
Edict  of  Religion,  Kiel,  1793.  See,  above  all,  Tholuck's  Miscellanea,  Ft.  II., 
p.  125  sq.,  and  Volkmar,  The  Trial  of  Pastor  Schulz,  of  Gielsdorf,  Friend  of 
Enlightenment  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Exposed  from  the  Judicial  Act»- 
Lps.  1846, 


§  424.  Efforts  to  Preserve  Symbols  of  Protestantism.     967 

a  moral  conscience,  which,  he  maintained,  is  the  true  basis 
upon  which  our  conviction  of  the  objective  reality  of  a  su- 
preme moral  law  and  of  a  sovereign  good,  which  is  the  object 
of  this  law,  can  alone  rest.  In  his  work,  entitled  Religion 
within  the  Limits  of  Pure  Reason  (1793),  he  applies  to  the 
(Church  and  to  the  Christian  dogmas  his  purely  ethical  relig- 
ious conceptions,  which  are  based  solely  on  the  moral  law,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  metaphysics.  According  to  his  view,  re- 
ligion is  only  an  aid  to  morality,  and  Christianity  itself  a 
school  of  morals.  Practical  Reason,  that  is,  reason  within  the 
limits  of  experience,  is  the  one  only  source  of  religion,  because 
it  is  the  basis  of  the  moral  law,  which,  in  its  turn,  unlike  dog- 
matic truths,  is  alone  demonstrable  by  reason,  and  should  there- 
fore be  universally  accepted. 

The  advocates  of  pure  reason,  thus  assailed  by  Kant,  did 
not  consider  themselves  vanquished.  Flatt,^  among  the  theo- 
logians, and  Jacobi^  (f  1819),  among  the  philosophers,  at  once 
rallied  to  its  defense.  Jacobi's  theory  was  diametrically  op- 
posed to  that  of  Kant.  Kant  admitted  only  a  subjective  real- 
ity ;  Jacobi  affirmed  that  there  was  also  an  objective  reality 
in  such  conceptions  as  God,  the  soul,  immortality,  and  the 
like.  Kant  denied  that  faith  is  a  source  of  knowledge  in  the 
strict  sense  to  the  reason  ;  Jacobi  held  that  there  is  an  interior 
rerelation  or  moral  intuition,  through  which  the  intellect  ap- 
prehends metaphysical  truths  as  clearly  and  as  firmly  as  it 
does  those  of  experience  through  the  medium  of  the  senses, 
and  that  this  revelation  is  the  only  source  of  our  knowledge  of 
divine  things.  The  objective  realism  of  Jacobi,  and  also  the 
aesthetical  ideas  of  Fries,  exercised  a  marked  influence  upon 
theology.    Still  the  teachings  of  Kant  may  be  fairl}'  considered 


'  Flait,  Essay  of  a  Theory  determining  the  Idea  and  Principle  of  Causality, 
and  Laying  the  Foundation  of  Natural  Theology,  with  lleference  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Kant,  Lps.  1788.  Letters  on  the  ]\Ioral  Foundation  of  Religious 
Knowledge,  with  Reference  to  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,  Tubingen,  1789.  Ob- 
servatioiies  quaedam  ad  coinparandam  Kantianani  di^ciplinam  cuin  chr.  doc- 
trina  pertinentes,  Tiibing.  1792. 

•''  Jncobi,  Of  Things  Divine  and  Their  Revelation,  Lps.  (1811 ),  IS'J-J  ;  Completa 
Works,  Lps.  1812  sq.,  6  vols.;  Correspondence,  Lps.  1825  sq.,  2  vols,  t  Kuhn, 
Jacobi  and  the  Philosophy  of  His  Age,  Mentz,  1834.  Staudenmaier,  Philosophy 
of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  p.  756  sq. 


968  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     ChajJter  2. 

the  legitimate  source  of  the  theological  system,  which,  since 
the  time  of  Beinhard,  has  borne  the  name  of  Rationalism,  and 
whose  one  supreme  law  is  reason,  or  those  natural  endowments, 
which  being  possessed  by  all  men,  are  regarded  as  a  sort  of 
natural  revelation  from  God.  Since  the  death  of  Kant,  his 
system  has  found  many  defenders.  Among  the  ablest  of  these 
we  ma}^  mention  Eckermann,  Teller,  Henke,  and  Jieftrunk; 
Eoehr,^  General  Superintendent  of  Weimar,  its  popular,  and 
Wegscheider,^  Professor  at  Halle,  its  dogmatic  apologist;  and 
Paidus,^  Professor  at  Jena,  and  subsequently  at  Wiirzburg  and 
Heidelberg,  who  gave  to  it  an  exegetical  interyjretation.  Ar- 
rogating to  themselves  the  title  of  champions  of  science  and 
liberty,  these  learned  but  superficial  men,  by  completely  ig- 
noring the  historical  character  of  divine  revelation,  and  deal- 
ing with  the  Holy  Scriptures  flippantly  and  in  bad  faith,  have 
given  a  fresh  example  to  the  world  of  the  degradation  to  which 
reason  may  be  reduced  when,  setting  aside  the  light  of  lawful 
authority,  it  rises  in  its  pride  and  becomes  a  guide  unto  itself. 
Their  shallow  and  coarse  rationalism,  which  will  not  accept 
anything  excejit  what  falls  under  the  senses  and  yet  pretends 
to  explain  all  things,  while  stripping  Christianity  of  its  deep 
meaning,  has  nothing  of  its  own  to  ofter  to  intellect,  yearning 
for  truths  that  will  not  pass  away,  or  to  souls  languishing  for 
light  other  than  this  world  can  give.  "  To  treat  Christianity 
with  such  levity,"  says  Schelling* "  is  not  to  understand,  but 
to  misunderstand  it;  is  not  to  clear  up  its  difficulties,  but  to 
brush  them  aside."  And,  speaking  of  modern  rationalists, 
he  adds:  "They  are  men  of  little  ability,  and  yet  thej^  are 
unbelievers  ;  they  are  destitute  of  piety,  and  yet  they  wear  a 
certain  solemn  gravity;  they  resemble  those  wretched  spirits, 
placed  by  Dante  in  the  vestibule  of  the  infernal  regions,  who 
are  rejected  of  Heaven  and  shut  out  from  Hell.    The  one  aim 


1  Roehr,  Letters  on  Kationalism,  Aix-la-Chapelle  (Zeitz),  ]813,  and  the  Preach- 
er's  Critical  Sermon-books,  fr.  1820.  Fundamental  Dogmas  of  the  Evangelical 
Church,  Neustadt  (1832),  1834. 

2  Wegscheider,  Instit.  theol.  christ.  dogm.,  Halae,  1815;  ed.  VII.,  1833. 

^  Paidus,  Commentaries  on  the  First  Three  Gospels,  3  vols.,  Heidelberg,  183i>- 
1833;  on  St.  John's  Gospel;  Life  of  Jesus,  2  vols.,  Heidelberg,  1828. 
♦  Schellinff,  Lectures  on  the  Method  of  Universitary  Studies,  2d  ed.,  p.  198  sq 


§  424.  Mfforts  to  Preserve  Symbols  of  Protestantism.     969 

of  their  'sound'  exegetics,  their  enlighteued  psychology,  and 
their  tolerant  morality  seems  to  be  to  strip  Christianity  of  all 
speculative  depth  and  dogmatic  truth  of  all  certitude.  Ac- 
cording to  them  Christianity  is  a  fact  which  must  be  subjected 
to  the  tests  of  history  and  experience,  and  its  revelation  a 
miracle,  which  must  be  explained  by  the  criterions  of  sense. 
Now,  since  divine  truth,  because  of  its  very  nature,  can  not 
be  either  known  or  demonstrated  by  experience,  the  advocates 
of  naturalism  are  certain  to  have  things  all  their  own  way," 

But  Schelling  himself,  being  an  avowed  'pantheist,  could  not 
consistently  employ  such  language,  and  on  another  occasion 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  pen  these  words :  "  One  can  scarcel} 
rid  oneself  of  the  thought  that  the  so-called  Biblical  Books: 
are  a  great  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Christianity.  And,  in 
matter  of  fact,  their  religions  teaching  can  not  be  compared 
for  excellence  with  that  of  many  works  written  both  before 
them  and  since,  and  notably  with  that  contained  in  the  Vedas 
of  the  Hindoos." 

The  Hours  of  Devotion,  hy  Zschokke,  a  collection  of  soothing 
rhapsodies,  pnblished  at  Argovia  from  1809,  were  at  once  the 
most  complete  and  most  popular  expression  of  rationalistic  ex- 
egetics ;  ^  and  the  nnprecedented  favor  with  which  they  were 
received  was  a  melancholy  proof  of  the  spirit  of  indifferentism 
which  everywhere  prevailed.  Luther  had  taught  that  man  is 
justified  by  faith  ;  here  it  was  asserted  that  man  is  justified 
by  uprightness  of  conduct,  of  which,  however,  one  is  to  be  him- 
self the  sole  judge,  thus  fostering  in  his  heart  a  spirit  of  pride 
and  self-love. 

A  reaction,  however,  soon  set  in,  and  the  principles  of  ra- 
tionalism in  religion  were  promptly  met  by  a  supernatural 
system,  based  upon  divine  revelation,  as  set  forth  in  HoUi  Writ, 
and,  in  a  measure,  interpreted  by  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
chief  leaders,  and  mainly  the  defenders  of  this  movoinent, 
were  Reinhard.  (f  1812),  Storr  (f  1805),  Schwarz,  Schoft,  Kaappy 
Tittmann,    and   Steudel,   besides    nearly   all    the    older-school 


1  Cfr.  Criticism  of  the  Hours  of  Devotion,  Vienna,  1824.  hen,  Anti-ChristiuL 
Tendency  of  the  Hours  of  Devotion,  Cologne,  1827.  The  Hours  of  Devotiorv. 
a  "Work  of  Satan,  by  Dr.  G.  Chrisilich,  Soleure,  1818.  Freiburg  Eccl.  Journa^ 
1867  Nros.  5-9. 


970  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 


theologians  of  Tiibingeu,  iucluding  Hahn,  Tlwluck,  and  others, 
who,  by  putting  prominently  forward  the  divinely  revealed 
character  of  the  historical  Books  of  the  Bible,  rendered  a  val- 
uable service  to  exegetics.^  Among  these  writers  Tholuck 
was  especially  eminent  for  his  great  learning,  the  theoretical 
and  practical  character  of  his  writings,  and  the  influence 
which  he  personally  exerted.  Other  theologians,  like  Tzschir- 
ner  (f  1828)  and  Br etschn eider  labored  to  bring  these  two  di- 
vergent tendencies  together,  and  asserted  that  "  rationalism 
and  supernaturalism  could  exist  harmoniously  together 
without  difiiculty  in  the  Protestant  system,"  which  is  equiva- 
lent to  saying  that  to  differ  in  matters  of  faith  is  a  dogma  of 
Protestantism. 

§  425.  Influence  of  Modern  Philosophy. 

The  philosophical  systems  of  Schelling^  (11854)  and  Jacobi, 
that  of  the  former  being  in  its  new  phase  of  a  positive  philoso- 
phy, pantheistic  rather  than  Christian  in  its  tendencies,  exer- 
cised in  their  fuller  development  a  marked  influence  upon 
theology.  A  powerful  and  permanent  impulse  was  given  to 
these  systems  hy  Frederic  Schleiermacher  (f  1834),  a  theologian 
and  philosopher,  who  received  his  education  with  the  Mora- 
vians or  United  Brethren,  m.iking  part  of  his  studies  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  and  completing  them  at  the  University  of  Halle.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  sentimental  in  religion,  and  enjoys  the 
questionable  honor  of  having  said  that  "  the  different  systems 
of  religious  philosophy,  known  as  orthodoxy,  pietism,  and  ration- 

^  Storr,  Christian  Dogmatics,  published  by  Flaft,  Stuttg.  1803,  2  vols.  Rein- 
hard,  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  Dogmatics,  published  by  Berger,  1801 ;  by  Kein- 
hard  himself,  1806  ;  by  Schott,  1818.  Schwarz,  Outlines  of  Protestant  Dogmatics, 
1816.  Kvopp,  Lectures  on  Christian  Dogmas,  according  to  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Evangelical  Church,  1827.  Ha/m,  Manual  of  Christian  Faith,  Lps.  1828. 
Stendel,  Dogmas  of  the  Protestant  Evangelical  Church,  Tubingen,  1834.  T/io- 
luck,  Doctrine  of  Sin  and  Expiation,  1823  sq.;  Biblical  Commentaries;  Char- 
acter of  Eationalist  Polemics,  Halle,  1840;  Miscellaneous  AYritings,  Gotha, 
1839,  2  vols. ;  His  Works,  ibid.,  1862,  4  vols. 

^Riiier  Hist,  of  Philos.,  Vol.  XII.;  Freiburg  Theol.  Journal,  Vol.  VIII.; 
Hut.  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vols.  IX.  and  X. 


425.  Influence  of  3Iodern  Philosophy.  971 


alism,  have  each  rational  grounds  of  defense."  *  Be  Wetie-  be- 
came his  colleague,  without,  however,  fully  adopting  his 
views.  While  the  character  of  the  teaching  of  these  two  men 
was,  on  the  whole,  rationalistic,  they  remained  aloof  from 
Rationalists,  properly  so  called,  by  whom  they  were  re- 
proached with  holding  illogical  propositions,  and  being  pan- 
theists in  disguise.  They  replied  :  "  You  claim  that  reason 
is  your  supreme  guide,  and  you  have  not  yet  been  able  to 
state  scientifically  what  that  reason  is  or  what  are  its  relations 
to  religion."  Twesten  and  Nitzsch,  of  Berlin;  Charles  Base 
and  Baunigarlen-Crusius,  of  Jena;  Ullmann,  of  Heidelberg; 
and  Julius  Miiller,  of  Halle,^  pursued  a  similar  line  of  thought, 
all  adhering  more  or  less  closely  to  orthodox  teaching;  while 
Marheineke, 'Professor  at  Berlin  (f  1846) ;  Daub  and  Iiothe,oi' 
Heidelberg;^  and  Baur,  of  Tubingen,  were  wholly  under  the 
influence  of  Ilegel,^  whose  philosophy  gave  tone  and  color  to 
all  they  wrote.  They  particularly  admired  the  Hegelian  phi- 
losophy, the  terminology  of  which  had  about  it  a  certain 
Biblical  flavor,  "  because  it  made  religion  the  one  important 
thing,  the  knowledge  of  which  in  its  essense  is  the  perfection 
of  wisdom  ;  and  because  it  taught  that  the  Christian  religion, 
in  its  ecclesiastical  constitution,  has  a  deeper  and  wider  sig- 
nificance than  modern  Rationalism  is  willing  to  allow."  It  is 
certainly  strange  that  men  could  so  completely  misconceive 
the  true  character  of  Christianity  as  to  fancy  that  they  were 
able  to  find  its  true  spirit  in  the  teachings  of  Hegel,  who  held 

^  Schleiermacher,  Christian  Faith,  according  to  the  Principles  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  Berlin  (1821),  1830  sq.,  2  vols.  Cfr.  Nippold,  Ch.  H.  of  Our 
Own  Days,  p.  213-239,  with  Bibliography  concerning  Schleiermacher. 

"^  De  Wette,  Hist.  Development  of  Christian  Dogmatics,  Berlin  (1816),  1821, 
2  vols. 

3  Twesten^  Lectures  on  Dogma,  from  the  Compendium  of  de  Wette,  4th  ed., 
1838,  2  vols.  Niizsch,  System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  Bonn,  1829  sq.  Hase, 
iManual  of  Evangelical  Dogmatics  (182G),  2d  ed.,  Lps.  1838.  Ullmann,  The 
Impeccability  of  Jesus,  Gth  ed.,  Hamburg,  1853.  Julius  Muller,  The  Docrrine 
of  Sin,  1389  sq. 

*  Roihe,  The  Beginnings  of  the  Church  and  Its  Organization,  Wittenberg, 
1843;  Theological  Ethics,  ibid.,  1845-1848,  3  vols. 

*  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Religion,  published  by  Marheineke,  Berlin, 
1832,  2  vols. 


972  Period  3.     Ejjoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

that  the  Reason  of  God  is  impersonal,  and  becomes  self-cou- 
scious  only  in  the  intellect  of  man,  thus  destroying  at  a  blow 
both  divine  and  human  freedom,  leading  mankind  back  from 
the  pure  light  of  the  Gospel  to  pagan  darkness,  and  making 
fatalism  (dvdyxy/)  the  supreme  arbiter  of  all  things.  Accord- 
ing to  Hegel,  evil  becomes  necessarily  manifest  when  the  soul 
is  occupied  in  developing  its  spiritual  self- consciousness. 
Like  his  other  teachings,  his  apotheosis  of  the  State  is  also  bor- 
rowed from  Paganism.^ 

The  essentially  anti-Christian  tendency  of  Hegel's  philoso- 
phy became  at  once  manifest  on  the  death  of  its  author.  His 
disciples  divided  into  two  schools,  one  of  which  denied  out- 
right the  facts  of  Sacred  History  and  even  the  immortality  of 
the  soul  ;  while  the  other,  though  still  defending  some  relig- 
ious truths,  did  so  only  because  they  regarded  them  as  faith- 
ful expressions  of  the  mind  of  their  master.  The  leader  of 
the  former  school  was  David  Strauss,  of  Tiibingen,  who  had 
learned  his  theology  from  Baur  and  his  philosophy  from 
Hegel,  and  who,  in  his  notorious  Life  of  Jesus,  carried  the 
principles  of  historical  criticism  and  rationalism,  which  were 
the  legitimate  product  of  Protestantism,  to  their  last  extremes  ; 
pronouncing  the  historical  narrative  of  the  New  Testament  a 
collection  of  myths}  This  work,  which,  though  audaciously 
negative  in  character,  and  containing  little  more  than  the  ar- 
guments of  so  flippant  a  writer  as  Edelmann,^  displayed  un- 
usual dialectical  skill,  and  challenged  the  ablest  Protestant 
theologians  of  the  age  to  the  defense  of  the  person  of  Christ, 
as  set  forth  in  history.  Their  efforts  w^ere  not  uniformly  suc- 
cessful, nor  their  arguments  wholly  convincing,  and  fears  be- 
gan to  be  entertained  that  teaching  so  utterly  subversive  of 
Christianity  would  exercise  a  most  injurious  effect  upon  the 
masses  of  believers,  when  an  event  took  place  that  checked 
the  current  of  infidelity.    When  Strauss  was  appointed  to  the 

^  Cfr  Staudenmaier,  Exposition  and  Criticism  of  the  Hegelian  System, 
Mentz,  1844. 

2  Bonn  Review,  Nro.  17,  p.  250  sq.  The  "Writings  on  the  Life  of  Jesus,  by 
Strauss,  in  Rkeinwald s  Kepertory,  art.  I.  and  art.  II.  of  the  November  nro^ 
1858.     Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  p.  826-842. 

»  See  §  377,  p.  596,  note  2. 


§  425,   liiflaeii.ee  of  Modern  Philosophy.  973 

chair  of  Christian  Dogma  at  Ziiricb,  the  people  rose  in  open 
revolt,  and  forced  him  to  sever  his  connection  with  the  Uni- 
versity and  withdraw  from  the  city,  thus  depriving  him  of  a 
prestige  which  such  a  position  would  naturally  give/  The 
work  of  Strauss,  it  would  seem,  is  the  last  wc  shall  bear  of 
the  heresies  relative  to  the  Person  of  Christ,  for  it  is  itself  a 
proof  that  nothing  more  can  bo  said.  Strauss'  arguments 
have  not  even  the  merit  of  originality.  His  Christology,  the 
central  point  of  his  dogmatic  teaching,  coincides  literally  with 
that  of  the  Jew  P/v'lo,  who  represented  Christ  and  the  Logos 
as  mankind,  thus  bringing  the  cycle  of  heresies  to  a  close 
at  the  very  point  at  which  it  started  eighteen  centuries 
ago.- 

While  the  minds  of  men  were  thus  straying  farther  and 
farther  from  the  central  truths  of  Christianity,  there  suddenly 
arose  a  party  of  daring  thinkers  and  aggressive  innovators, 
known  as  the  party  of  Young  Germany.^  They  changed  the 
errors  of  Hegel  on  the  development  of  God  in  history  into  a 
revolutionary  and  socialistic  theory,  and,  while  professing  the 
coarsest  Pantheism,  advocated,  in  opposition  to  the  spiritual- 
ism of  Christianity,  the  complete  emancipation  of  the  carnal 
passions  from  all  restraints.  They  gradually  lost  ground,  and 
finall}'  totally  disappeared  in  the  presence  of  determined  op- 
position, but  only  to  be  succeeded  by  another  school  of  the 
disciples  of  Hegel,  whose  organs  were  the  Anniiary  of  Mallei 
and  the  Germcui  Annuary,  from  1840,  edited  by  Arnold  Huge, 
Their  teachings,  which  they  defended  with  a  startling  disre- 
gard of  the  claims  of  reason,  were  closely  allied  to  the  theol- 
ogy of  >Sirauss,  and  were,  they  said,  to  be  erected  on  the  ruiua 


'  Cfr.  "Dr.  Strauss'  Call  to  Zurich"  {Hist,  and  PoHt.  Papers,  Yo\.  III.,  p. 
321-349).  Gelze7%  The  Discord  occasioned  by  Strauss'  Call  to  Zurich  in  1839. 
Supplements  to  the  History  of  Protestantism.  Hamburg,  1843. 

2  Strauss,  Christian  Doctrine  considered  in  its  Historical  Development  and 
its  Opposition  to  Modern  Science,  Tubingen  and  Stuttgart,  1840  sq.,  2  vols. 
The  Doctrinal  Points  Alone,  in  a  Popular  Exposition,  by  Philalethes,  Constance, 
1841  sq.  According  to  Strauss,  as  well  as  according  to  Philo,  the  J.oijos  is  Ma7i. 
kind,  when  ho  said:  av/xirav  aud-pu-uv  yfcof.  De  somniis,  lib.  II.  (0pp.  cd. 
Mang.,  T.  I.,  p.  683.)  Staudenmaier,  Philosophy  of  Christianity,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
810-819. 

'  Heine,  Gutzkoro,  Laiibe,  and  others.    Cfr.  Rheinwald,  Kepertory,  1834,  Nro.  5. 


974  Feriod  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 


of  Christianity,  which  was  forever  overthrown.  They  asserted 
that  the  office  of  the  Protestant  Church  was  to  destroy  faith 
in  the  Christianity  of  the  Gospel  ;  that  Lnther  Avas  the  fore- 
runner of  Hegel,  who  was  immeasurably  the  superior  of  the 
great  reformer ;  and  that  Protestantism,  discarding  even  the 
methods  of  moral  discipline  and  in  alliance  with  science  and 
culture,  could  continue  to  exist  without  the  Bible,  which  is, 
after  all,  only  a  bundle  of  grotesque  errors  of  every  sort, 
sometimes  afi'ecting  the  most  vital  questions,  and  should 
therefore  be  cast  aside  as  antiquated  and  misleading.  After 
the  failure  of  Feuerbach  ^  and  Bruno  Bauer  ^  to  defend  the  re- 
ligious views  of  Strauss,  Fur/e  gave  them  a  political  and  social 
application,  frankly  avowing,  notably  in  his  Programme  of 
1843,  that  liberalism  had  grown  old  and  efl'ete,  and  should  be 
replaced  by  democracy  and  communism.  Hericegh,  a  poet  of 
Stuttgart,  called  upon  the  people  "  to  cast  the  crosses  down 
and  make  swords  of  them."' 

When  this  movement,  which  professed  to  be  only  a  philo- 
sophical and  political  one,  had  failed  of  its  purpose,  a  school 
of  coarse  rationalists,  consisting  of  the  disciples  of  Wegschevler^ 
of  Halle  ;  :Schulz,  of  Breslau  ;  Foehr,  of  Weimar  ;  and  Faulus, 
of  Heidelberg,  sprung  up,  assuming  the  seductive  title  of 
Friends  of  Fnlif/hte/nvevt.  They  set  forth  their  teachings  in 
the  newspapers  and  proclaimed  them  by  word  of  mouth  at 
public  meetings,  in  the  hope  of  regaining  among  the  masses 
and  the  ?iO-c'd\\ed^^  enb'ghtejied''  the  ground  they  had  lost  on 
the  battle-iield  of  Protestant  theology.  Skillfully  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  agitation  caused  among  Catholics  by  the  Fon- 
gian  movement,  the  principles  of  which  were  strikingly  in 
accord  with  those  of  the  new  school,  they  pushed  their  claims 
with  vigor  and  sometimes  with  success.  The  preachers,  Ihipp, 
of  Koenigsberg  ;  JJhlich,  of  Madgeburg ;  Wislicenus,  of  Halle  ; 
and  Krause,  of  Breslau,  who  professed  a  superficial  Kational- 
ism  and  put  the  most  arbitrary  interpretation  on  Scripture, 
had  quite  a  numerous  following.     They  formed  new  religious 

^  J'Cuei-bach,  Essense  of  Christianity,  Lps.  1841.  See  *Criticism  of  this  work 
it  the  Freiburg  Journal  of  Theology,  1842,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  151  sq. 

»  Bruno  Bauer,  The  Evangelical  National  Church  of  Prussia  and  Science,  2d 
ed.,  Lps.  1842. 


§  426.  Free  Interpretation  of  Holy  Scriptures.  975 

communities,  in  which  not  only  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic 
symbols  were  denied,  but  every  shred  of  positive  Christianity 
abhorred  and  rejected.  Of  this  fact  the  sermons  delivered  by 
these  apostles,  the  memorial  accepted  by  the  Congregation  in 
charge  of  Dr.  Rupp  at  Koenigsberg,  and  the  declaration 
adopted  by  a  majority  of  the  representatives  of  the  new  com- 
munities, to  the  efi'ect  that  the  old  form  of  administerim/  Bap- 
tism "  in  the  name  of  the  Blessed  Trinity  "  ought  to  be  rejected, 
and  one  running  in  the  name  of  God  and  of  the  congregation" 
substituted,  afford  abundant  and  convincing  proof. 

§  426.   The  Ultimate  Besults  of  the  Free  Interpretation  of  Holy 

Scriptures. 

Pntting  wholly  out  of  sight  the  inspired  character  of  the 
writings  of  the  Bible,  and  utterly  ignoring  ecclesiastical  teach- 
ing, Semler  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  principle  of  absolute 
freedom  in  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scriptures.  Many 
writers  like  Griesbach  (smce  17Sb),  Lachmann  (since  1<^31),  and 
Tischendorf  (since  1840),'  encouraged  by  the  philosophic  spirit 
of  the  age,  employed  this  method  in  thi>ir  works,  and  partic- 
ularly in  their  introductions  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
where  the  authenticity  of  many  of  the  Sacred  Books,  espec- 
ially of  the  Old  Testament,  is  assailed  with  shocking  levity 
and  a  captious  refinement  of  criticism.  The  Books  of  the 
New  Testament,  which  had  been  vehemently  attacked  by  De 
Wette,  notabl}^  in  his  Introduction,  and  by  the  writers  of  the 
modern  school  of  Tubingen,  were  defended  by  Guericke,  Fbrard, 
Thiersch,  Iteuss  of  Strasburg,  Bleek,  and  others;^  while  those 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  defended  b}^  Hengstenberg,  Haever- 
niek,  Kurtz,  Oehler,  Bleek,  Delitzsch,  and  many  more  scholars 


1  He  died  December  6,  1874. 

2  Guericke,  Materials  for  an  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  Halle,  1829; 
and  Hist,  and  Crit.  Introd.  to  the  New  Testament,  Halle,  1843.  Tldersch,  Es- 
say of  a  Critique  of  the  New  Testament  from  the  True  Historical  Point  of 
View,  Erlangen,  1845;  and  A  Few  Words  on  the  Authenticity  of  the  N.  T. 
Eooks,  against  Baur's  work  entitled,  The  Critic  and  the  Fanatic,  Erlangen, 
1845.  Rcuss,  Hist,  of  the  Books  of  the  N.  T.,  4th  ed.,  Brunswick,  1864.  Bleek 
(Professor  of  Bonn,  f  1859),  Introd.  to  the  N.  T.,  Berlin,  1862. 


976  Period  3.     Ei^och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

of  ability.^  In  the  domain  of  philological  interpretation,  tlie 
works  of  Ewald,  Knobel,  Hupfeld,  Ke.il,  Hitzig,  Berthan,  and 
Thenius,  to  mention  only  a  few,  have  considerable  merit. 
Winer,^  Friizsche,  Meyer,  of  Hanover,  and  in  a  measure  De 
Wette,  Bleek,  and  Boltzmann,^  undertook  to  defend  exegeties 
against  the  prevalent  sceptical  spirit  of  the  age,  which  was 
especially  prominent  in  tlie  writings  of  Br.  Faulus,  of  Heidel- 
berg, who  attempted  to  explain  away  all  miracles.  These 
learned  men  set  themselves  to  the  special  task  of  ascertaining 
by  a  close  study  of  the  idioms  of  the  language  in  which  the 
Books  of  the  New  Testament  were  written,  and  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  rules  of  hermeneutics,  the  precise  literal  sense 
of  what  the  writers  had  said,  irrespective  of  the  truth  which 
the  meaning  conveyed  or  of  its  consequences,  which,  they 
said,  was  a  question  belonging  to  another  branch  of  theology. 
Usteri,  Riickert,  Baumgarten-Crusius,*  and  others,  by  showing 
that  the  Biblical  ideas  are  consistent  one  with  another  and 


1  Hengstenberff,  Materials  for  an  Introd.  to  tiie  O.  T.,  Berlin,  1831,  2  vols. ; 
the  Psalms,  Christology  of  the  O.  T.  (1829),  Berlin,  1854,  3  vols.;  and  the 
Prophecies  of  Ezechiel,  1867  sq.  Hciverniek,  Manual  of  Hist,  and  Crit.  Introd. 
to  the  O.  T.,  Erlangen,  1836  sq.  Kurtz,  Hist,  of  the  O.  T.,  Berlin,  1853  sq.,  2 
vols.  Ranhe,  Investigations  on  the  Unity  of  the  Pentateuch,  Erlangen,  1834 
sq.,  2  vols.  Oe/>Ler,  Prolegomena  for  the  Theology  of  the  O.  T.  Bleek,  Introd. 
to  the  O.  T.,  Berlin,  1865.  DelUzsch,  Theology  of  the  Biblical  Prophecies,  Lps. 
1845;  on  Genesis,  2d  ed.,  Lps.  1853;  on  the  Canticle  of  Canticles,  1851,  and  on 
the  Psalms,  Lps.  1859  ;  on  Job,  18G4  ;  Isaias.  Since  1863  he  has  been  engaged 
with  Kelt  in  preparing  a  complete  commentary  on  the  O.  T. ;  several  volumes 
have  appeared,  and,  like  most  of  his  works,  have  been  translated  and  repub- 
lished in  Edinburgh.  (Tr.) 

2  Grammar  of  the  Primitive  Idiom  of  the  New  Testament,  Lps.  1822;  6th 
ed.,  1855.  Buitmrmn,  Grammar  of  the  Primitive  Idiom  of  the  N.  T.,  Berlin, 
1859. 

^Friizsche,  Evangel.  Matth.  et  Marci  recensuit  cum  comment.,  Lps.  1826  sq., 
T.  I.,  II.,  Comm'^nt.  in  ep.  ad  Romanos.  Meyer,  Critical  Commentary  on  the 
N.  T.,  Gottingen  (1882),  1846  sq.  De  Wette,  Abridged  Manual  of  Exegesis  fur 
the  N.  T.,  Lps.  1836  sq.,  in  several  editions.  Bleek,  Commentary  on  the  Epistle 
to  the  Heb'-ews,  3  vols. ;  Synoptical  Explanation  of  the  First  Three  Go.spels, 
2  vols.,  pub',  by  Holtzmnnn. 

♦  Usteri,  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  1833 ;  Doctrine  of  the 
Apostle  St.  Paul.  Ruckert,  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans;  to  the 
Corinthians;  to  the  Galatians.  Among  the  posthumous  writings  of  Baumgar- 
te/i- C-^v.sius,  see  his  explanations  of  almost  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
Jena,  1  ?45  sq.,  4  vols. 


126.   Free  Interpretation  of  Holy  Scriptures.         977 


hang  well  together,  endeavored  to  give  an  explanation  of 
them,  which  would  be  intellectually  satisfactory  and  commend 
itself  to  the  reason.  Each,  of  course,  had  his  peculiar  way 
of  viewing  the  subject,  but  their  general  drift  was  the  same. 
Exegetics  in  the  meantime  gained  much  in  truth  and  dig- 
nity from  the  writings  of  Liicke,  Tholuck,  Olshausen,  and  Be- 
litzsch,^  who  sought  their  inspiration  chiefly  in  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church  and  from  the  arguments  brought  to  light  by  a 
study  of  original  texts.  Billroth  announced  with  classic  pe- 
dantry "  that  if  exegetics  was  to  be  successful  in  the  third 
stadium  of  its  race,  it  could  not  ignore  modern  philosophy," 
meaning  Hegel's,  but  fortunatel}^  no  one  paid  attention  to  his 
conceited  statement.^  The  Selections  from  the  Bible,  with 
notes,  commenced  in  1858  by  Bitter  von  Bunsen  (f  1860),  the 
well-known  diplomatist  and  theologian,  and  continued  by 
others,  will  also  entirely  fail  of  its  purpose,  whicli  is  to  be  a 
sort  of  popular  book  of  instruction  for  the  ^^  Christian  Commu- 
nity.'' First  of  all,  it  lacks  the  simplicity  and  easy  grace  of 
style  indispensably  necessary  in  such  a  work ;  and,  again,  it 
is  too  diffuse  to  be  read  by  the  bulk  of  the  people,  who  are 
influenced  only  by  great  underlying  truths,  which  are  at  once 
essential  and  incontestable.  That  this  work  has  unquestion- 
able merit  can  not  be  denied ;  but  it  is  equally  undeniable 
that,  in  spite  of  the  "  reinstated  higher  criticism  "  of  which  the 
author  speaks  so  often  and  so  complacently,  and  the  philolog- 
ical learning,  v:h\Qh.  is  literall}''  overwhelming,  it  is  a  disastrous 
failure  for  the  purpose  which  it  was  specially  intended  to 
serve,  which  was  to  harmonize  Biblical  facts  with  modern 
ideas.  The  Bible,  with  doctrinal  and  homiletical  notes  by  J.  P. 
Langen,^  assisted  by  Schro&der,  Fay,  Bdhr,  Zockler,  Ndgelsbach, 
Lechner,  and  other  writers,  has  been  more  successful. 

^  Lucke,  Commentary  on  the  "Writings  of  St.  John,  Bonn,  1820  sq.,  3  vols. 
Tholuck.  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  ;  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Eo- 
mans  and  to  the  Hebrews;  on  the  Sermon  of  the  Mount.  Olshausen,  Com- 
mentary on  the  N.  T.  unto  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  inclusively, 
Konigsberg,  1836,  continued  and  finished  by  Ebrard,  1854.  Delitzsc/i,  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  Lps.  1857. 

'•^  liillroth,  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  Lps.  1833,  p.  X. 

^La7igen,  Bible,  with  Notes,  O.  and  N.  T.,  Bielefeld.  1867  sq. 
VOL.  Ill — 62 


978  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

§  427.   The  Theology  of  Compromise  and  Lidependent  Theology. 

In  the  midst  of  these  active  disintegrating  influences  a 
school  of  theology  sprung  up,  composed  of  men  of  eminent 
ability  and  high  character,  who  entertained  the  illusory  hope 
of  uniting  the  conflicting  parties  b}^  compromise.  The  leader 
of  this  school  was  the  learned  and  amiable  Ullmann,  of  Hei- 
delberg, subsequently  of  Carlsruhe,  who  was  followed  in  the 
same  line  of  thought  by  JSIitzsch,  of  Bonn  and  Berlin,  in  his 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine;  by  Julius  Milller,  in  his  Doc- 
trine on  Sill ;  by  Albert  Liebner,  in  his  Christian  Dogmatics 
from  a  Christological  Point  of  Vieio ;  by  Darner,  in  his  History 
of  the  Development  of  the  Doctrine  relative  to  the  Person  of  Christ; 
by  Lange,  in  his  Christian  Dogmatics;  and  by  Bishop  3Iar- 
tensen,  of  Copenhagen,  in  a  work  bearing  the  same  title  as 
that  of  Lange.^ 

Viewing  Christianity  in  the  same  light  as  Schleiermacher, 
not  as  a  body  of  truths,  but  as  an  active  creative  principle, 
and  regarding  the  Personality  of  Christ,  or  the  God.man,  as  its 
central  idea,  Ullmann,  impelled  by  a  desire  to  be  conciliatory, 
threw  his  cardinal  tenet  into  this  formula:-  '■'■Christianity  is 
divine  in  essense  and  human  inform;  divine  in  origin  and  human 
in  development.'^  This  formula  was  directh'  opposed,  and  prob- 
ably intended  to  be  so,  to  the  earlier  school  of  supernatural- 
ists,  who  held  Christianity  to  be  in  every  sense  divine,  super- 
human, miraculous,  and,  from  a  historical  point  of  view, 
inexplicable.  These  opinions  did  not  meet  with  unqualified 
approval,  even  from  Tillman's  own  followers,  and  their  ex- 
pression was  characterized  by  rationalists  like  Baur,  of  Tii- 
bingen,  as  meaningless  phraseology,  which  left  all  questions 
precisely  where  they  were  before,  Avas  calculated  to  serve  no 
useful  purpose,  and  was  wholly  illusory  and  misleading.^ 

Schwarz  was  still  more  harsh  in  his  criticism  of  the  opin- 
ions of  Ullmann,  styling  them  half-truths  and  useless  conces- 
sions, and  designating  the  whole  system  as  a  dishonest  super- 

1  Translated  from  the  Danish  into  German,  4th  ed.,  1858. 
^  Ullmann,  Essense  of  Christianity,  4th  ed.,  Gotha,  1854. 
*Baur,  Ch.  H.,  Vol.  V.  (19th  century),  p.  405  sq. 


§  427.   The  Theology  of  Compromise,  etc.  979 

rationalism,  in  that  its  advocates,  whom  he  characterized  as 
eclectic  philosophers,  destitute  alike  of  the  ability  and  courage 
to  form  a  new  school,^  while  accepting  the  general  principle 
of  miracles  antecedently,  were  anxious  to  get  rid  of  them  one 
by  one  in  detail. 

The  Rationalists  were,  if  possible,  still  more  severe  on  the 
Pectoral  Theology  of  Neancler  {Pectus  est  quod  theologiun  facit), 
who,  in  his  Life  of  Jesus,  in  reply  to  8trauss,  fell  into  the 
glaring  absurdity  of  .professing  to  be  a  believer  while  he  con- 
tinued io  criticise.  The  supernatural  facts  related  in  his  His- 
tory of  the  Church,  it  was  said,  would  find  a  more  fitting  place 
in  a  collection  of  anecdotes. 

The  hostility  to  the  advocates  of  compromise,  who,  because 
of  their  pacific  sentiments,  were  selected  by  preference  to  fill 
chairs  in  the  Universities  and  high  ecclesiastical  positions, 
grew  daily  more  intense  and  bitter,  and  was  especially  di- 
rected against  the  theological  faculties  of  Gottingen  and  Halle. 
It  was  mainly  led  by  their  own  disciples,  many  of  whom  had 
grown  into  orthodox  Lutherans.  The  nejn  Agenda  or  Eitual, 
which  was  regarded  as  Catholic  in  tendencj',  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical discipline  introduced  by  the  General  Synod  of  1855, 
evoked  such  a  storm  among  the  liberal  students  of  Heidelberg 
that  Ullmann  was  forced  to  resign  his  office  of  President  of 
the  High  Consistory  of  Carlsruhe  in  1860.  Baffled  in  his  plans 
and  disappointed  in  his  hopes,  Ullmann  ended  his  laborious 
life  in  1865,  while  still  in  the  prime  of  life  and  the  full  vigor 
of  his  intellectual  powers.^ 

Dissatisfied  with  the  theology  of  compromise,  many  divines 
were  anxious  to  assume  a  more  independent  attitude,  and  to 
the  views  of  such  men  Richard  Rothe,  of  Heidelberg  (f  1867), 
gave  definite  expression  in  his  work  entitled  "  Theological 
Ethics,''  which,  in  spite  of  its  title,  is  dogmatic,  rather  than 
ethical  in  character,  it  being  a  methodically  developed  theo- 
logical syst'im,  containing  a  strong  theosophic  element.  The 
chief  aim  of  the  work  is  to  replace  by  theism  the  pantheistic 


1  Schwarz,  Contribution  toward  the  Hist,  of  Most  Modern  Theology,  3d  ed., 
pp.  371,  372. 

*  Cf.  Beyscklag,  Dr.  Charles  Ullmann,  a  Memorial,  Gotha,  1867. 


980  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

views  of  the  world  advanced  by  Schleierniacher  and  Hegel.  He 
also  gave  special  prominence  to  the  theory  of  "  unconscious 
Christianity,'''  and  offended  many  by  reviving  the  doctrine 
concerning  the  "  merging  of  the  Church  in  the  &ate,"  which,  he 
said,  was  delivered  to  the  early  Christian  Church.  Pntting 
aside  the  many  vague  and  ambiguous  statements  of  this  au- 
thor, we  may  sum  up  his  idea  of  Christianity  in  his  own 
words,  which  is  that  "  it  is  a  pure  and  perfectly  developed  hu- 
manity, and  the  kingdom  of  God  an  association  of  religious  and 
moral  men''  As  to  any  supernatural  influence  exercised  by 
the  Church  on  mankind,  he  does  not  say  a  word  ;  quite  the 
contrary,  he  maintains  that  humanity  was  gradually  devel- 
oped by  the  moral  forces  implanted  by  nature  in  the  human 
race.^  Between  Eothe  and  J.  H.  Fichte,  of  Tiibingen,  and 
^Yeisse,  of  Leipsig,  there  was  a  certain  affinity,  which  was  de- 
veloped by  the  former  in  his  Speculative  Theology  (1846),  and 
by  the  latter  in  his  Speculative  Dogmatics,^  though  neither  of 
them  was  at  all  the  equal  of  Rothe  in  speculative  power  or 
perspicuity  of  style.  The  leading  purpose  of  Rothe  was  to 
prevent  the  intellectual  horizon  opened  upon  the  view  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  from  being  again  nar- 
rowed, and  to  show  that  the  old  teaching  concerning  the  Holy 
Scriptures  and  their  inspiration;  the  doctrine  of  St.  Athana- 
sius  on  the  Trinity;  the  deflnitions  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don  on  the  '^  communicatio  idiomatum"  in  the  Person  of 
Christ;  and  the  magical  (sic)  effects  of  the  Sacraments  and 
the  doctrine  of  satisfaction,  as  set  forth  by  St.  Auselm,  could 
never  again  be  accepted  as  convictions  by  educated  men. 
This  same  purpose  was  pursued  with  indefatigable  labor 
and  restless  energy  hj  Baur  and  the  entire  New  School,  v;h\ch 
he  had  formed  at  Tiibingen,  and  by  Schenkel,  of  Heidel- 
berg; but  was,  however,  only  preparatory  to  an  ulterior  ob- 
ject, which  was  to  assimilate  modern  philosophy  with  Chris- 
tianity, to  abolish  the  Christian  community  as  the  Church  of  the 

1  Conf.  AUfiaus,  The  Christ  of  Kothe  (Periodical  for  Universal  Theology  and 
Church,  33d  year,  Nro.  2) ;  Von  Solms,  Review  of  Theol.  Speculation,  accord- 
ing to  Rothe,  Wittenbg.  1872. 

» 1855-1860,  2  vols. 


,     §  427.    The  Theology  of  Compromise,  etc.  981 

people,  and  to  replace  it  by  another,  whose  only  profession 
should  be  a  coarse  and  frigid  rationalism,  clad  in  vague  and 
meaningless  philosophical  and  theological  phraseology.  Baur 
set  out  by  denying  the  authenticity  of  the  Books  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  he  said  were  only  a  part  of  the  popular  lit- 
erature in  vogue  in  the  first  century  and  the  early  half  of  the 
second  ;  and  he  was  soon  followed  in  the  same  line  of  argu- 
ment by  Bruno  Bauer,  Zeller,  and  Schwegler}  This  attack  he 
followed  up  by  giving  a  rationalistic  explanation  of  "  Chris- 
tianity as  a  religion  of  purely  human  origin,"  a  task  to  which 
he  brought  an  almost  exhaustless  store  of  erudition  and  a 
dazzling  sophistry.  He  died  in  1860,  and  was  regarded  by 
those  who  shared  his  views  as  second  only  to  Schleiermacher.^ 
If  Christianity  has  not  been  stripped  of  its  divine  character, 
it  is  only  just  to  Baur  to  say  that  it  was  not  his  fault.  He 
had  a  great  admiration  for  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  whom  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  compare  to  Christ,  but  in  supporting  the  com- 
parison it  was  but  natural  that  he  should  fail  as  signally  as 
Philostratus,  the  biographer  of  Apollonius,  had  failed  before 
him.^ 

Daniel  Schenkei,  a  native  of  Switzerland  and  a  pupil  of  De 
Wette's,  was  regarded  in  the  early  part  of  his  literary  career^ 
as  belonging  to  the  school  of  the  theology  of  compromise,  and 
on  this  account,  owing  mainly  to  the  patronage  of  Ullmann, 
was  called  to  fill  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  It 
is  said  that  his  alienation  from  his  early  associates  and  his  as- 
sumption of  the  character  of  a  champion  of  Liberal  Protest- 
antism were  in  a  large  measure  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence 
exercised  upon  his  mind  by  Bansen's  work,  "  The  Signs  of 
the  limes,"  and  by  the  efforts  of  Stahl,  a  jurist  of  Berlin,  to 
establish  a  hierarchy  resembling  in  many  respects  that  of  the 

1  Bruno  Bauer,  Criticism  of  the  Gospel  Narrative  of  the  First  Three  Evan- 
gelists, Lps.  1841,  2  vols.  Theological  Annals,  by  Zeller ;  Contemporary  An- 
nals, by  Schwegler ;  Hist,  of  Montanism  (1841),  and  the  "  Post-Apostolic  Age," 
1846,  2  vols.,  by  the  same. 

2  Cfr.  Schwarz,  "  Materials  toward  a  Hist,  of  Modern  Theology,"  3d  ed.,  p.  148 
eq.,  where  he  also  mentions  the  principal  works  of  Baur. 

3  Christ,  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  Tilbingen,  1832. 

*  Schenkei,  The  Essense  of  Protesta^itism,  1847;  I'd  ed.,  1862, 


982  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chayter  2. 

Catholic  Church.  "Between  having  my  conscience  tyran- 
nized over  by  a  despotic  authority  and  obligatory  symbols," 
said  he,  "  and  having  it  emancipated  from  restrictions  and 
oppression  that  are  alien  to  Protestantism,  my  choice  can  not 
be  doubtful."  ^  He,  however,  stoutly  affirmed  that  his  theo- 
logical convictions  had  undergone  no  change,  but  that  the 
j)Osition  of  the  theological  schools  had  been  reversed ;  and  to 
prove  his  assertion  he  published  his  second  and  more  consid- 
erable work,  entitled  Christian  Dogmatics  ^  from  the  -point  of 
view  of  conscience,  a  title  which,  aside  from  its  vagueness, 
was  borrowed  from  Bunsen,  his  opponent.  Many  of  his  the- 
ological critics  claimed  that,  not  only  had  he  frequently  lost 
sight  of  his  avowed  principle  of  freedom  of  conscience  in 
treating  his  dogmatical  propositions,  but  that  many  of  these, 
instead  of  being  in  harmony  with  the  religious  conscience  of  the 
age,  were  merely  reproductions  of  a  theological  school,  which  he 
himself  had  branded  as  antiquated,  tyrannous,  and  enslaving. 
To  escape  this  imputation  he  published  in  1863  his  work  '■'•On 
the  Culture  of  the  Evangelical  Theologian,'^  in  which  he  declared 
that  the  Protestant  Church  has  no  need  oi  priests ;  that  the 
church  of  the  people,  as  at  present  constituted,  recognizes  no 
distinction  of  clergymen  and  laymen  ;  and  that,  therefore, 
theologians  should  be  no  longer  educated  with  a  view  to  be- 
coming the  dispensers  of  the  means  of  grace,  but  preachers 
of  the  Gospel,  instructors  of  youth,  guardians  of  the  poor, 
and  counsellors  of  those  in  distress. 

The  way  was  now  prepared  for  the  publication  of  his  ^'■Pic- 
ture of  the  Character  of  Jesus,  a  Biblical  Essay"  (1864),  which 
in  its  essential  features  is  no  less  radical  than  "  The  Life  of 
Jesus,"  by  Penan,  issued  sometime  before.  While  denying 
the  Divinity  of  Christ  outright,  he  takes  the  airs  of  one  to 
whom  the  teachings  of  Strauss  and  Renan  give  offense,  and 
makes  an  empty  pretense  of  still  believing  in  miracles.  Such  ex- 
pressions as  these  are  frequent :  "  Here  Doctor  Strauss  and  I 
part  company;"  "i  am  aware  there  is  a  point  where  reason 


'  Schenkel,  Protestant  Independence  in  Her  Actual  Straggle  against  Ecciesi 
astical  Reaction. 

» 1858,  1859,  in  two  vols. 


§  427.   The   Theology  of  Compromise,  etc.  083 

must  stop{!)  though  our  relations  to  the  celestial  powers  con- 
tinue uninterrupted;"  "Here  faith  begins,  and  here,  too,  1 
cease  to  reject  miracles."  But,  while  professing  a  general  be- 
lief in  miracles,  he  was  careful,  when  those  of  the  Gospel  came 
up  for  discussion,  one  by  one,  to  utterly  destroy,  in  as  far  as 
he  was  able,  their  miraculous  character,  by  subjecting  them  to 
the  tests  of  rationalistic  criticism.  He  ffives  a  fisrurative  in- 
terpretation  of  the  marvelous  miracle  wrought  by  Jesus  at 
the  marriage-feast  of  Cana,  saying  that  "  Jesus,  by  tlie  influ- 
ence of  His  presence,  changed  the  water  of  trivial  and  ordi- 
nary conversation  into  the  vnne  of  elevated  and,  glowing  sjyeech." 
He  positively  refuses  to  believe  in  "  the  miraculous  resurrection 
of  the  human  body  of  Jesus,"  but  still  admits  that  after  death 
He  took  upon  Him  a  i)ersonal  glory  in  a  higher  and  more  real 
condition  of  existence,  and  continues  in  His  glorified  Person- 
ality to  exercise  an  influence  upon  the  body  of  His  disciples. 
The  ministers  of  Baden,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and 
nineteen,  together  with  all  the  orthodox  Protestant  ministers 
of  Germany,  entered  a  unanimous  pro^es^  against  the  innova- 
tions of  Schenkel,  demanding  at  least  his  removal  from  the 
ofiice  of  director  of  the  Preachers'  Seminary,  to  which,  they 
said,  he  could  not  himself  consistently  object,  as  he  liad,  for  a 
like  oftense,  been  mainly  instrumental  in  securing  the  expul- 
sion of  Cuno  Fischer  from  the  University  of  Heidelberg, 
where  he  was  only  a  private  teacher  of  'philosophy.  Their  pro- 
tests were  without  eftect.  He  was  sustained  by  the  High  Ec- 
clesiastical Council  and  by  the  Synod  of  Carlsruhe,  on  the 
ground  that  his  teachings  were  entirely  compatible  with  Pro- 
testantism. This  is  an  authoritative  admission  that  every 
heresy  and  the  wildest  aberrations  of  the  human  mind  may 
all  find  a  congenial  home  in  the  Protestant  Church.  But 
Schenkel  was  not  so  leniently  dealt  with  by  Strauss,  who  made 
him  the  victim  of  his  "inexorable"  criticism.  After  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Lives  of  Jesus,  by  Schenkel  and  Renan,  Strauss 
recast  his  former  Life,  and  reissued  it  at  Leipsig  in  1864,  under 
the  title  of  a  JLife  of  Jesus  for  the  German  People,  and  followed 
it  up  with  a  most  scathing  and  savage  pamphlet  against 
Schenkel,  entitled  Heal  31en  and  Pretenders  (Die  Ganzen  und 
die  Halben). 


984  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 


§  428.  Revival  of  Lutheranism — Modern  Orthodoxy. 

It  was  quite  natural  that  the  disintegrating  tendency  of  the 
movement  just  described  should  evoke  opposition  and  create 
a  reaction,  which,  originating  in  practical  religious  life,  grad- 
ually made  its  way  into  the  field  of  science.  The  memory  of 
Luther  was  revived,  and  tokens  began  to  appear  which  pointed 
unmistakably  to  the  growth  of  the  religious  sentiment.  As 
these  signs  manifested  their  presence  simultaneously  in  Ger- 
many and  Holland,  in  Denmark  and  Switzerland,  in  England 
and  in  France,  it  would  seem  that  the  movement  ought  to  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  natural  and  necessary  development. 

In  the  midst  of  the  political  convulsions  that  marked  the 
opening  of  the  present  century,  Schleiermacher^  reawakened 
spiritual  fervor  in  the  hearts  of  many  ;  while  the  romantic 
poetry  of  the  two  Schlegels,  of  Tieck,  of  JSTovalis,  and  others, 
which  carried  men's  minds  back  to  the  days  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  their  inspiring  and  holy  influences,  and  to  the  gen- 
erous sacrifices  made  in  the  wars  of  liberation,  kindled  again 
the  smoldering  flame  of  religion  in  the  breasts  of  the  German 
people,  and  warmed  their  torpid  piety  to  a  glow.  The  cen- 
tenary jubilees  of  1817  and  succeeding  years,  commemorative 
of  the  Reformation,  served  to  bring  before  the  minds  of  Pro- 
testants the  strong  contrast  between  the  lethargy  of  their  re- 
ligious convictions  and  feelings  and  the  strong  faith  and  ardent 
piety  of  their  ancestors.  Claus  Harms,  a  popular  preacher  of 
Kiel  (t  1855),  in  whom,  it  was  said,  religious  feeling  gushed 
forth  with  all  the  freshness  of  water  from  a  mountain  spring, 
was  the  first  to  give  expression  to  the  sentiments  inspired  by 
this  revival,     A  thorough-going  Lutheran  of  the  primitive 


^Discourses  07i  Religion,  Addressed  to  Men  of  Culture,  to  Ann  Them  against 
Her  Detractors,  Berlin,  1799.  Monologues,  Being  a  New- Year's  Gift  to  the  Ed- 
ucated, Berlin,  1800;  4th  ed.,  1829.  With  both  of  these  works  form  a  strange 
contrast  his  "Confidential  Letters,"  written  at  the  same  time,  "on  Lucinde  " 
(a  very  obscene  Romance  by  Frederic  Schlegel),  which  (in  a  renewed  sep- 
arate edition  by  Gutzkow,  Hamburg,  1835)  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  was  the 
subject  of  the  most  diverse  criticisms.  In  his  ^^  Christmas  Celebration,^^  pub- 
lished subsequently  (1803),  he  already  manifested  his  estrangement  from  the 
pantheism  of  Spinoza,  and  adopted  the  theological  idea%  which  he  stated  later 
on  in  his  "Doci7'ine  of  Faith,"  Berlin,  1821. 


§  428.  Revival  of  Lutheranism — Modern  Orthodoxy.    985 

school,  he  published,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Jubilee  of  the 
Reformation,  ninety -five  theses,  in  which  he  not  only  repeated 
the  Protestant  doctrine  of  the  utter  depravation  of  man  after 
the  fall  and  salvation  by  faith  alone,  but  rebuked  the  religiou.s 
indifference  of  Protestants,  and  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of 
returning  to  the  unadulterated  teaching  of  Luther.  "  I  could 
write  on  the  nail  of  my  thumb,"  said  he,  with  more  truth 
than  irony,  "all  the  positive  doctrines  that  are  still  believed." 
His  seventy-fifth  thesis  was  directed  especially  against  the  cd- 
liaiice  proposed  Ijy  Prussia  between  the  Lutheran  and  lieformed 
Churches.  In  1821,  when  a  special  Liturgy  or  "-Agenda," 
containing  what  was  called  a  "  neutral"  rite  tor  the  Eucharist, 
was  granted  to  the  Reformed  Church,  Claus  Harms  expressed 
his  indignation  in  these  words  :  "  It  is  proposed,"  said  he  "  to 
bring  by  marriage  a  large  dower  to  the  Church  of  Luther, 
which  is  regarded  as  a  handmaid.  Beware  that  you  do  con- 
summate this  contract  over  the  tomb  where  repose  the  bonea 
of  Luther.  If  you  do,  he  may  come  to  life  again,  and  then 
woe  to  you." 

The  aim  of  the  new  school  was  briefly  stated  to  be  "  a  re- 
turn from  Rationalism  to  primitive  orthodox  theology,  a  going 
out  from  the  desert  of  liberal  philosophy  into  the  Promised 
Land  of  the  Reformation."  Those  who  labored  most  strenu- 
ously for  the  accomplishment  of  this  design  in  Germany  were  : 
Scheibel,  a  professor  at  the  University  of  Breslau  ;  Kellner  nud 
Wehrhan,  Silesian  pastors,  who  sacrificed  their  positions  to 
their  conscientious  convictions;  Heubner,  of  Wittenberg; 
Sartorius,  of  Koenigsberg  ;  and  Harless,  a  professor  at  Er- 
langen,  and  subsequently  General  Superintendent  for  Bavaria, 
wlio,  apart  from  the  high  position  he  occupied  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  exercised  a  powerful  influence  over  the  minds  of  the 
butter  classes  of  men  by  his  writings  on  Ethics,  his  Commentary 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  his  Theological  Cyclopaedia, 
and  the  journal  entitled  For  Protestantism  and  the  Church,  of 
which  he  was  the  founder.  The  movement  soon  received  an- 
other powerful  ally  in  the  Universal  Periodical  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  and  Theology,  founded  in  1840  by  Gueric/ce  and  Rudet 
bach;  while  among  the  laity  Huschke,  the  jurist,  and  the  phi- 
losopher, Steffen-i,  ably  advocated  the  same  cause.     It  is  owing 


1)86  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cluqitcr  2. 


to  the  influence  of  these  several  causes,  operating  toward  a 
definite  end,  that  the  theological  faculties  of  the  Universities 
of  Erlangen^  Rostock^  and  Dorpat  have  recently  become  strictly 
Lutheran  in  their  teachings.  Since  1825  Grumltvig  has  been 
laboring  with  equal  zeal  and  ardor  for  the  restoration  of  Lu- 
theranism  in  Denmark,  and  in  consequence  was  engaged  in  a 
spirited  discussion  with  Professor  Clausen,  a  devoted  disciple 
of  Schleiermacher's,  on  the  questions  which  were  so  pro- 
foundly agitating  the  Church  in  Germany.^ 

In  opposition  to  those  who  desired  the  restoration  of  primi- 
tive orthodoxy  and  the  symbols  of  Luther,  there  arose  what 
was  known  as  the  neo-orthodox  school,  which,  without  placing 
itself  in  direct  antagonism  to  the  old  Lutherans,  advocated 
above  and  beyond  everything  else  a  State  religion  and  a  State 
theology.  As  such  a  theology  was  necessarily  dependent  on 
the  religious  whims  and  political  views  of  princes,  the  Neo- 
Lutherans  saw  themselves  obliged  to  change  their  religion 
every  time  they  changed  their  ruler.  The  leading  representa- 
tive of  this  school  was  Hengstenberg,  who,  while  attending  a 
conventicle  at  Basle,  in  1823,  passed  through  the  interior  ex- 
perience commonly  known  as  ^^  getting  religion,''  after  which 
he  went  to  Berlin,  where,  in  1828,  he,  together  with  Schleier- 
macher  and  Neander  (flSGO),  received  an  appointment  as 
State  Professor  of  Theology.  He  gathered  about  him  a  party 
of  pietists,  who,  uniting  with  the  intolerant  spirit  of  Luther 
the  fervid  mysticism  of  Spener,  rose  rapidly  in  consideration 
among  people  of  authority,  rank,  and  distinction  at  the  capi- 
tal. Without  holding  any  definite  creed,  Hengstenberg  pro- 
claimed himself,  in  the  columns  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
Gazette,  the  champion  of  Protestant  orthodoxy,  and  branded 
whoever  differed  from  his  views  as  a  heretic,  being  particularly 
violent  in  his  denunciation  of  the  rationalistic  theologians, 
Wegscheider  and  Gesenius,  of  Halle,  and  David  Schulz,  of 
Breslau.  To  the  reproach  addressed  to  him  from  many  quar- 
ters, that  his  teachings  were  destroying  the  confidence  which 

^  Grundtviff,  Theol.  Monthly.  Clmisen,  On  Catholicism  and  Protestantism, 
Copenhagen,  1825;  transl.  from  the  Danish  into  German  by  Fries,  Neustadt, 
1828,  3  vols.     Conf.  Jorg,  Hist,  of  Protestantism,  Vol.  II.,  p.  314-356. 


428.  Reoival  of  Lutheranism-  -Modern  Orthodoxy.    987 


students  had  heretofore  reposed  in  their  professors,  he  promptly 
replied  that  if  the  professor  v)ere  a  rationalist,  to  repose  confidence 
in  him.  would  not  be  a  duty  on  the  part  of  the  Christian  student^ 
but  a  sin.  In  1835  he  broke  faith  with  his  former  allies,  who 
claimed  to  be  "  loyal  to  their  confession,"  and  became  a  warm 
supporter  of  the  Prussian  Evangehcal  Union.  For  this  step 
he  gave  these  reasons:  "The  difference,"  said  he,  "between 
the  teachings  of  Luther  and  those  of  Calvin  on  the  Lord's 
Supper  are  of  no  consequence  ;  a  confession  of  faith  and  the- 
ology is  always  sure  to  bring  its  own  punishment.  If  the 
heart  be  filled  with  aftairs  of  secondary  importance,  those  of 
vital  interest  can  find  no  place  in  it.  And,"  referring  to  the 
Union,  he  added,  "  what  God  has  joined  ought  not  be  put 
asunder."  His  opponents  animadverted  with  caustic  severity 
upon  his  conduct,  reproaching  him,  among  other  things,  with 
having  "  arrogated  to  himself  the  character  of  a  prophet,  while  he 
loas  in  truth  oscillating  between  that  of  a  servile  political  parasite 
and  an  ecclesiastical  demagogue."  ^  Still  it  can  not  be  denied 
that  Hengstenberg  and  the  able  and  eminent  laymen,  like 
Goschel,  Henry  Leo,  Gerlach,  Huber,  and  Stahl,  who  shared 
his  opinions  and  his  labors,  and  wliose  tone  was  at  times  strik- 
ingly Catholic,  have  done  much  to  preserve  the  divine  and 
positive  character  of  Christianity  and  its  principal  dogmas,  to 
maintain  Christian  morality,  to  revive  religious  life,  and  to 
counteract  the  evil  influences  of  freethinkers  and  Freemasons. 
With  a  view  to  making  a  stand  against  tl)e  extreme  conse- 
quences to  which  the  opinions  of  Lutherans  like  Vilmar  iu 
Electoral  Hesse,  Kliefoth  in  Mecklenburg,  and  others,  who 
took  their  inspiration  from  the  officials  of  government,  were 
leading,  there  arose  another  school,  whose  representatives, 
among  whom  were  Hofnann,'  of  Erlangen  ;  Kahnis,  of  Leip- 
sig;^  and  Baumgarlen,  of  Rostock,  demanded  that  modem 
theology  should  be  subjected  to  fewer  restraints,  and  that  there 
should  be  a  more  unfettered  application  of  the  fundamental 


'  Scwarz,  Materials  in  Aid  of  a  History  of  Modern  Theology,  3d  ed.,  p.  88. 

*0n  this  subject  he  published  his  Prophecy  and  Fulfillment,  1841-1844,  and 
his  Proof  Drawn  from  Holy  Writ,  1852-18o5,  3  vols. 

^On  the  Interior  Progre-s  of  Prntestantism,  2d  ed.,  1860;  Dogmatics,  1861 ; 
The  German  Pieformation,  Lcipsig,  1872. 


1*88  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     C/xtpfer  2. 

Protestant  principle  of  free  inquiry.  Baumgarten  had  been 
at  one  time  a  disciple  of  Hengstenberg's,  but  was  subsequently 
captivated  by  the  mystical  and  theosophic  teachings  of  Hof- 
rnann.  Between  all  these  men  and  Delitzsch,  the  learned  com- 
mentator, Kurtz  of  Dorpat,  and  Luthardt  of  Leipsig,  there 
were  E\any  points  of  contact  and  affinity.  Hofmann  was 
sharp!}  rebuked  for  his  arbitrary  interpretations  of  Scripture 
and  his  doctrine  oi  atonement,  which  was  in  direct  antagonism 
to  that  set  forth  in  the  Symbolical  Books  ;  while  the  defection 
of  Kahnis  from  Lutheranism  produced  a  profound  sensation 
and  provoked  the  bitterest  animadversion.  "  This  man," 
said  Hengstenberg,  in  a  tone  of  angry  complaint,^  "  with  a 
hardihood  quite  unusual  among  theologians,  has  dared  to  raise 
doubts  concerning  the  authenticity,  credibility,  and  inspira- 
tion of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  to  assail  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  and  the  Last  Supper.  If  one  like  him, 
smarting  under  disappointment,  who  has  gathered  from  the 
refuse  of  Rationalism  what  he  fancied  to  be  sound  doctrine, 
can  make  converts  among  us,  then  is  our  cause  certainly  hope- 
less." For  a  still  smaller  divergence  from  orthodox  Lutheran 
doctrine,  Baumgarten  was  deprived  of  his  chair  in  the  Uni- 
versity. 

Kemark.— In  Kiedner's  Manual  of  Christian  Ch.  H.,  ed.  of  1866,  p.  898-904, 
and  in  •■•■  Dorner''s  Hist,  of  Protest.  Theol.,  p.  861-887,  a  synopsis  will  be  found 
of  the  extensive  literary  works  in  the  different  branches  of  theology,  such  as 
Exegesis;  the  History  of  Religion;  Dogmaiics;  Ethics;  Matters  relating  to 
conimoyi  and  higher  schools;  Ecclesiastical  functions ;  Sacred  Poetry ;  and  Hyni- 
vology.  For  a  more  detailed  account  of  works  on  ecclesiastical  history  be- 
tween the  years  1825  and  1850,  Engelhardt  may  be  consulted  ;  and  for  the  years 
between  1850  and  1860,  Uhlhorn,  in  the  Journal  of  Hist.  Theology,  founded  by 
Illgen,  and  continued  first  by  Niedner,  and  subsequently  by  Kahnis,  from  the 
year  1850  to  1861.  It  is  a  remarkable  and  encouraging  fact  that  tlie  study  of 
Canon  Law  has  in  these  latter  years  been  revived,  first  oy  EicIi,ho->-fi  (1831).  and 
perseveringly  cultivated,  both  as  a  whole  and  in  special  branches,  with  premis- 
ing success  by  Grolman  (1832),  Richter  (1841,  8th  ed.,  by  Dove,  1867),  Ei(;kell, 
Otto  Mejer  (3d  ed.,  1815),  Bluhme  (1858,  2d  ed.,  1868),  Wasserschlebni,  Dovc^ 
Wnischius,  Friedberg,  Waitz,  Roth,  Hiibler,  and  Sohm. 

After  the  appearance  of  the  works  of  Augusti,  Jiheinwald,  and  BoeAmer  (see 
Vol.  I.,  p.  20,  n.  2),  considerable  additions  were  made  to  the  science  of  arch- 


1  In  the  New  Year's  number  of  his  Ecclesiastioul  Journal  for  1862. 


§  429.  Important  ReligioiLs  Movements  of  Germany.     989 

aeology  by  Piper  in  his  Monumental  Theology,  preceded  by  an  Introduction, 
and  publisiied  at  Berlin,  1867. 

§  429.   Th,  More  Important  Religious  3Jovements  of  Germany. 

(a.)    IN    PRUSSIA. 

1.  The  steadily  increasing  danger  to  Protestantism,  result- 
ing from  divergencies  of  opinion  so  various  and  conflicting, 
upon  subjects  so  vital  and  essential  as  the  faith  of  a  church 
and  its  authoritative  expositions,  set  Protestants  to  thinking, 
and  caused  them  to  long  for  union  among  themselves. 

Between  the  years  1798  and  1817,  and  again  between  1817  and  1829,  and 
from  that  day  to  this,  the  P.oyal  House  of  Prussia  has  labored  unceasingly  to 
bring  about  a  union  between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  Churches.  In  a 
cabinet  order  of  July  18,  1798,  the  hope  was  expressed  that  the  two  confessions, 
if  they  could  not  unite  in  doctrine,  would  at  least  adopt  a  common  liturgy. 
This  project  miscarried,  owing  to  the  influence  of  political  events  and  the  de- 
termined opposition  it  met  with  from  theologians.  In  the  royal  edict  of  Fred- 
eric William  III.,  addressed  to  all  the  Consistories,  Synods,  and  Superintendents 
of  his  kingdom,  ordering  the  celebration  of  the  third  centennial  jubilee,  it  was 
stated,  though  hardly  meant,  that  the  very  idea  implied  by  the  Keforraation 
and  the  spirit  evoked  by  Protestantispi  lyer-e  in  Ihemselves  sufficient  bonch  oj 
union.  There  was,  it  was  said,  no  thoui  ht  of  transforming  the  Lutheran  into 
the  Reformed  or  the  Reformed  into  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  simply  to  form 
of  the  two  one  evangelical  church,  in  which  the  spirit  of  their  foimders  should  be 
reneioedl  Notwithstanding  that  no  formulary  could  be  devised  sufficiently 
elastic  to  embrace  both  these  branches  of  Lutheranism  without  destroying 
some  portions  valued  by  each,  the  idea  of  union  on  some  basis  daily  gained 
ground.  The  Union  was  first  realized  by  the  ministers  resident  at  Berlin, 
whence  it  made  its  way  slowly  into  other  countries,  and  was  accepted  in  Rhen- 
ish Bavaria  in  1819,  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1820,  and  in  Baden  in  1821.  In  1822  ii 
Liturgy  or  Agenda  was  published  by  royal  authority  for  the  use  of  the  Court 
Chapel  and  Cathedral  Church  of  Berlin,  and  its  general  adoption  recommended. 
"From  a  cabinet  order  of  May  28,  1825,  we  learn  that  5,343  churches,  out  of 
7,782,  complied  with  the  King's  request,  and  introduced  the  Liturgy.  It  was, 
however,  soon  assailed  on  the  ground  that  it  tended  to  mix  up  the  affairs  of  the 
State  with  the  afi"airs  of  the  Church,  and  that  it  was  antiquated  both  in  matter 
and  form,  and  contained  a  strong  element  of  Catholicism.  A  heated  discussion 
followed,  some  contending  "that  the  Union  was  the  natural  result  of  advanced 
culture,  and  not  the  arbitrary  work  of  the  will  of  men,"  an  assertion  of  which 
Schleiermacher  claimed  he  had  furnished  abundant  proof  in  his  Expositio:i  of 
Faith;  while  others  denounced  the  frequent  changes  of  doctrine  on  the  Loi^s 
Supper  and  Predestination,  and  characterized  the  Union  as  a  merely  exterior 
and  meaningless  act,  having  no  foundation  other  than  that  of  torpid  indiScr- 
euce.     A  revised  edition  of  the  Liturgy,  which  app'wred  in  1828,  containing 


990  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     ChajHer  2. 

Bupplenients  adapted  to  the  local  peculiarities  of  Pomerania,  Brandenburg, 
Saxonj,  and  Silesia,  had  the  effect  of  temporarily  suspending  the  discussion. 

Nevertheless,  the  agitation  against  the  Union,  started  by  Clans  Harms,  was 
continued  by  Schelbel,  Kellner,  and  Wehrhan,  in  Silesia,  and  by  Guericke,  Eu- 
delbach,  and  others,  in  Saxony.  In  Silesia  the  opposition  was  put  down  by  an 
armed  force,  headed  by  the  orthodox  Dr.  Hahn,  who  was  subsequently  appointed 
Superintendent-General.  Dr.  Hengstcnberg  reproached  his  former  colleagues 
with  advoca  .ng  an  exclusive  and  bigoted  form  of  Lutheranism,  comparing 
their  course  i.-  that  of  men  who  had  suddenly  awoke  after  a  sleep  of  three  hun- 
dred years.i  The  quarrels  thus  introduced  among  the  orthodox  Lutherans  and 
the  severe  measures  taken  by  Frederic  William  III.  to  repress  the  opposition 
of  the  '^rebels"  continued  to  retard  the  work  of  Union,  and  in  the  meantime 
the  King  died  "in  trouble"  (1840),  but  not  until  he  had  made  Protestants  and 
Catholics  alike  feel  the  full  weight  of  his  despotism. 

2.  From  his  successor,  Frederic  William  IV.,  both  Churches  looked  confi- 
dently forward  to  a  more  liberal  policy,  and  their  hopes  were  not  disappointed. 
Personally  the  King  was  well  disposed  toward  the  oppressed  Lutherans,  and 
the  abortive  attempt  made  by  him,  in  concert  with  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, to  establish  the  Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  of  St.  James  in  Jerusalem' 
also  operated  in  their  favor,  it  being  very  generally  condemned  in  Germany. 

The  Archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Posen,  together  with  a  number  of  Old  Lu- 
therans, who  had  been  cast  into  prison  by  his  father,  were  now  set  at  liberty 
by  order  of  Frederic  William;  and,  with  his  permission,  granted  July 23,  1845, 
a  number  of  Lutheran  Separatist  Churches  were  organized.  As  a  further  step 
toward  granting  the  Lutheran  Church  liberty  to  govern  itself,  the  King  con- 
voked a  General  Synod,  to  convene  at  Berlin  August  29,  1846,  consisting  of 
thirty-seven  representatives  of  the  clergy  and  thirty-eight  of  the  laity,  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Minister  of  Worship.  The  subjects  brought  forward  for 
deliberation,  which  were  first  distributed  to  eight  Committees  and  discussed  in 
sixty  Plenary  Sessions,  were  the  following:  (a.)  Unioii.  The  report  on  this 
subject  was  made  by  Julius  Miiller,  of  Halle,  and  a  resolution  carried  to  the 
effect  that  the  consent  of  the  parties  was  the  only  legal  basis  for  "  the  establish- 
ment of  an  Evangelical  Church.  (6.)  Creed,  or  the  obligation  of  the  clergy  to 
make  some  confession  of  faith.  This  subject  was  reported  by  Nitzsch,  of  Bonn, 
who  proposed  that  a  formulary,  which  had  been  drawn  up,  and  consisted  of  ex- 
tracts from  Holy  Scripture,  but  contained  no  definite  doctrinal  teaching,  should 
be  accepted  by  all  persons  taking  Orders  for  the  future.  The  suggestion  was 
adopted,  (c.)  Constitution  of  the  Church.  On  motion  of  Stahl,  who  reported 
this  subject,  it  was  resolved  that  the  Council  of  Presbyters  and  the  Consistories 
should  be  composed  of  clerical  and  lay  members,  and  that,  besides  the  Perma- 
nent Consistory,  there  should  be  a  General  Synod,  in  which  the  clerical  and  lay 
bodies  should  be  equally  represented. 

The  decisions  of  the  Synod  met  with  determined  and  powerful  opposition, 
particularly  from  Hengstcnberg^ s  Ecclesiastical  Gazette.  It  was  denounced  as  a 
Robber  Synod,  and  its  members  stigmatized  as  faithless  custodians  and  traitors 


» See  Vol.  I.,  p.  488. 
«  See  2  423,  p.  926. 


§  429.  Important  lldigious  Movements  of  Germany.     991 

to  Christ,  and  it  was  found  impossible  to  carry  into  effect  the  decrees  passed  by 
the  majority. 

3.  In  opposition  to  the  orthodox  and  pietist  "Obscurantists,"  who  were  grow- 
ing  daily  in  numbers  and  influence,  there  arose  the  party  styled  the  "  Friends 
of  Enlightenment"  who,  under  the  direction  of  their  leaders,  Rvpp,  Wislicenus, 
and  V/dich,  founded  "free  religious  communities"  at  Koenigsberg  and  Magde- 
burg and  in  Thuringia.  They  prospered  as  long  as  thej'-  were  not  interfered 
with  by  government,  and  skillfully  took  advantage  of  the  agitation  caused  \j 
the  "  German  Catholics."  i  They  professed  what  they  designated  as  a  practical 
Christianity,  based  upon  a  rationalistic  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  and  in  har- 
mony with  the  progress  of  the  nineteenth  century.  With  the  me"  jbers  of  the 
New  School  of  Progressists  at  Tubingen,  they  pronounced  the  labors  of  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  whether  Protestant"  or  Catholic,  in  both  hemispheres,  utterly 
useless,  on  the  ground  that  the  work  would  be  done  quite  as  well  and  better 
by  the  march  of  civilizing  influences  and  the  wisdom  of  pagan  schools. 

4.  The  mystical  and  pietistic  sects  that  sprung  up  here  and  there,  and  of 
which  further  mention  will  shortly  be  made,  were  in  every  sense  directly  op- 
posed to  those  of  which  we  have  just  been  speaking. 

(6.)    OUTSIDE    OF    PRUSSIA. 

In  other  countries  of  Germany  outside  of  Prussia,  religious  movements  also 
took  place,  which  reflected  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  their  several  authors. 
In  Mecklenburg,  a  party  under  the  influence  of  the  rigid  Lutherans,  Kllefoth 
and  Mejer,  made  vigorous  and  persevering  efforts  to  restore  the  Lutheran 
dogma,  worship,  and  discipline ;  and  in  Bavaria  a  similar  movement  was  set  on 
foot  by  Harless.  in  concert  with  the  Lutheran  Faculty  of  Theology  at  Erlangen. 
Here  it  seems  to  have  been  in  a  large  measure  successful,  for  Professor  Tlioni- 
asius,'^  a  man  of  learning  and  high  character,  gave  an  encouraging  report  of 
"the  revival  of  evangelical  life  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Bavaria."  In  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  however,  even  the  ardent  zeal  of  Ebrard  was 
powerless  to  effect  a  return  to  the  older  Symbols.  The  members  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  organized  and  protested  against  the  decisions  of  the  General 
Synods  of  1853  and  1857,  rejected  the  new  Catechism  and  the  new  Book  of 
Hymns,  and  demanded  the  maintenance  of  the  Union,  which  imposed  upon 
them  no  definite  profession  of  faith.  "  Desirous  of  living  in  peace  with  his 
people,"  King  Maximilian  carefully  abstained  from  using  any  compulsory 
measures. 

Prelate  Ullmann  encountered  an  opposition  not  less  obstinate  than  that 
against  which  Ebrard  had  struggled  in  vain,  when,  after  the  condemnation  of 
HebeVs  Bible  History,  he  attempted  to  introduce  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden 
tne  Lutheran  Catechism  and  that  of  Heidelberg  and  a  corresponding  liturgy* 


»  See  pp.  913  sq. 

^  Thomasius,  Fragment  of  the  Eccl.  Hist,  of  South  Germany,  Erlangen,  1867. 
Origenes,  Being  a  Supplement  to  a  Hist,  of  Dogma,  Niirnberg,  1867.  Evan- 
gelical, Lutheran  Dogmatics,  1857  sq. 

» See  I  427. 


992  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

The  reiterated  efforts  to  force  the  preachers  of  the  Duchy  of  Altenburg  and 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse  to  adopt  the  Symbolical  Books,  or  at  least  the  work 
entitled  Positive  Christimiity,  as  a  guide  for  the  education  of  youth  and  the  in- 
struction of  the  people,  were  all  signal  failures.' 

In  Electoral  Hesse,  the  conflict  between  the  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  for  the 
ascendency  was  bitter  and  persistent.  It  would  seem  that  the  recent  work  of 
Dorner  has  had  the  effect  of  allaying  the  animosity  called  forth  by  these  discus- 
sions, and  of  facilitating  the  accomplishment  of  the  designs  of  Prussia  with  re- 
gard to  the  Union  of  sects.^ 

§  430.  Religious  and  Charitable  Societies. 

After  the  learning  of  theologians  and  the  diplomacy  of  princes  had  proved 
inadequate  to  accomplish  the  work  of  Union,  more  practical  means  were  re- 
sorted to  and  frequently  with  success. 

1.  The  Evangelical  Conference,  convened  at  Berlin  in  1846,  at  the  in.stance  of 
the  governments  of  Wiirtemberg  and  Prussia,  pursued  the  course  that  had  so 
often  proved  futile,  confining  itself  to  the  vague  statement  that  the  Scriptures 
should  be  accepted  as  the  rule  of  belief  and  saving  doctrine,  and  the  dogma  of 
justification  by  faith  retained.  The  Ecclesiastical  Conference,  which  subsequently 
replaced  it,  and  has  since  1852  been  holding  its  sessions  at  regular  intervals  at 
Pentecost,  first  annually,  and  more  recently  every  second  year,  in  Eisenach,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Wariburg,  proposed  to  itself  a  more  definite  work,  such  as  col- 
lecting statistics  of  churches,  compiling  canticles  worthy  of  preservati(m,  and 
revising  and  harmonizing  with  the  spirit  of  the  age  Luther's  translation  of  the 
Bible. 

2.  In  1845  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  consisting  of  "  Evangelical  Christians 
belonging  to  various  churches  and  countries,"  associated  together  for  the  pur- 
pose of  "concentrating  the  strength  of  an  enlightened  Protestantism  against 
the  encroachments  of  Popery  and  Puseyism,  and  to  promote  the  interests  of 
Scriptural  Christianity,"  was  formed  in  England.  Its  first  meeting,  attended 
by  the  Evangelicals  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was  held  at  Liverpool  in 
October,  1848,  whence  it  spread  to  the  more  important  cities  and  towns  of  these 
countries,  and  branches  of  it  have  been  established  on  the  Continent  of  Europe 
and  in  the  United  States.  It  met  with  favor  from  Frederic  William  lY.,  at 
whose  invitation  one  of  its  general  meetings  was  held  at  Berlin  in  1857.  Sim- 
ilar meetings  were  held  at  Paris  in  1855,  at  Geneva  in  1862,  and  at  New  York 
in  1873.  The  alliance  has  been  uniformly  opposed  by  the  High  Church  party 
in  England,  and  by  both  Lutherans  and  Eationalists  in  Germany,  while  in  the 
United  States  many  were  deterred  from  entering  it,  previously  to  the  Civil  "War. 
owing  to  its  attitude  toward  slavery. 


'  Cf.  Baltzer,  Attempts  at  Eeconciliation,  etc.,  Nro.  II.,  pp.  73-75.  Bretschnei- 
der,  The  Insufficiency  of  Compulsory  Measures  to  have  the  Symbol  adopted  in 
the  Evangelical  Church  demonstrated  from  the  Sjnnbolic  Books  Themselves, 
Lps.  1841. 

^Cf.  \Hage7nann,  Hist,  of  Protest.  Theology  viewed  in  the  Light  of  Criticism, 
Bonn,  1867. 


§  430.  Religious  and  Charitable  Societies.  993 

o.  The  Protectory,  known  as  the  ••liauhe  Ilaus,"  founded  in  1833,  near  Ham- 
burg, by  Wichern,  as  a  refuge  for  abandoned  or  neglected  children,  was  an  em- 
inently successful  enterprise,  received  the  approbation  of  the  Protestant  Eccle- 
siastical Synod,  held  at  Wittenberg  in  1848,  and  has  ever  since  been  doing  a 
deal  of  good. 

4.  The  Institute  of  Deaconesses,  founded  in  180G  at  Kaiserswerth,  by  Fliedner, 
a  Protestant  preacher,  on  the  model  of  the  Catholic  Sisters  of  Charity,  has  also 
prospered.  There  are  many  houses  of  them  in  Germany,  and  similar  societies 
exist  in  England  and  the  United  States,  under  the  name  of  Ladies'  District- 
visiting  Societies,  Dorcas  Societies,  etc.  Colonies  of  the  Institute  of  Fliedner 
went  even  to  Jerusalem,  Smyrna,  and  Alexandria.  They  serve  the  sick,  visit 
prisoners,  have  charge  of  reformatory  houses  for  Magdalens  and  lunatic  asy- 
lums, and  co-operated  with  the  '^Knights  of  St.  Joh}},"  restored  by  Frederic 
"William  IV.,  in  caring  for  the  sick  and  wounded  on  the  battle-fields  of  Slesvig- 
Holstein,  liohemia,  and  France. 

6.  A  very  extensive  association  has  been  formed  for  the  relief  of  Protestants 
living  in  Catholic  countries.  Its  name  has  a  flavor  of  intolerance  about  it.  It 
is  called  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Association,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  organized 
by  G^rossmann,  of  Leipsig,  in  1832,  on  the  second  centennial  anniversary  of  the 
death  of  Sweden's  great  King,  whose  claim  to  be  styled  the  Protector  of  Pro 
testantism  in  Germany  is,  however,  very  doubtful.  Zimmermnnn,  of  Darm- 
stadt, succeeded  to  Grossmann  as  the  leading  spirit  of  the  Association,  which, 
in  spite  of  its  rather  unpatriotic  name,  might  be  regarded  as  no  more  than  a 
peaceful  rival  of  the  Catholic  Saint  Boniface  Society,  except  for  the  fact  that 
its  directors  seize  every  possible  occasion  to  display  their  intolerance,  which  is 
painfully  manifest  in  the  publications  known  as  the  Gnstnvus  Augustus  Calen- 
dars. The  Association  rapidly  made  its  way  to  public  favor,  and  has  in  conse- 
quence immense  means  at  its  disposal.  Tip  to  the  present  time  it  has  disbursed 
220,000  thalers  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  157,000  in  Hungary,  142.000  in  Bohemia, 
120,000  in  Austria  Proper,  and  124,000  in  Moravia,  Carinthia,  and  Styria,  all 
of  which  is  applied  to  building  churches  and  promoting  the  general  interests 
of  Protestantism. 

6.  Finally,  a  number  of  preachers,  devoted  to  the  older  and  more  orthodox 
forms  of  Lutheranism,  met  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Castle  of  Wittenberg  in  1848, 
and  founded  an  Association  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  the  principles  of  faith 
and  making  a  stand  against  the  prevalent  decadence  of  the  times.  Its  aims 
and  its  progress  were  brought  before  the  public  by  means  of  meetings  held 
every  second  year,  at  which  Bethmann-Holweg  and  Stahl  usually  presided.  The 
Association  met  successively  at  Wittenberg,  Stuttgart,  Elberfeld,  Bremen,  Ber- 
lin, Frankfort,  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  Barmen,  Brandenburg,  Altenburg,  and  Neu- 
stadt  on  the  Hardt  (1867).  At  the  outset  its  members  professed  a  positive  form 
of  belief,  but  as  time  went  on,  the  effects  of  the  corroding  spirit  of  dissolution 
inherent  in  Protestantism  began  to  appear,  and  the  only  link  that  continued  to 
hold  them  together  was  their  common  hatred  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Finally, 
during  the  presidency  of  Bluntschli,  and  on  the  motion  of  Professor  Holtz- 
mann,  of  Heidelberg,  "  the  teachings  of  Schenkel  were  declared  to  be  author- 
ized  by  the  Protestant  Church,"  the  decrees  of  the  General  Assembly  of 
VOL.    Ill — 63 


994  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

Carlsruhe  (18671  approved,  and  the  protests  of  the  clergy  of  Baden  disregarded 
and  repudiated. 


SECTION  SECOND. 

HISTORY   OF   PROTESTANTISM    OUTSIDE   OF   GERMANY. 

For  biMi-graphy,  see  Niedner's  Manual  of  Church  History,  ed.  of  1866,  p.  921- 
929,  and  Dr.  a>as.  Base's  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  9th  ed.,  p.  622-645; 
Engl,  tr.,  New  York,  1873,  p.  597  sq. 

§  431.   Protestantism  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  Holland,  FrancCy 
Great  Britain,  and  America. 

The  influence  of  vGerman  theology  was  first  felt  in  Denmark,  where  it  was 
propagated  by  Clausen,  a  disciple  of  Schleiermacher's,  who,  though  a  deputy 
and  minister  of  State,  was  an  ardent  student  of  divinity,  and  by  Miinier  and 
the  two  bishops,  JSIartensen  and  Mynster.  When,  in  1826,  Clausen  was  brought 
to  trial  and  condemned  on  the  complaint  of  GrujicUvig,  as  a  fomentor  of  idolatry, 
he  threw  up  his  parochial  charge  ;  but  this  only  increased  his  activity  to  pro- 
mote the  progress  of  illegal  religious  conventicles.  With  the  assistance  of 
Kierkeyaard,  he  finally  succeeded  in  establishing  a  national  church,  fiercely  op- 
posed to  religious  innovations  of  every  kind  from  Germany,  and  the  center  of 
a  determined  hostility  against  the  Lutheran  clergy,  the  representatives  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Denmark.  Through  his  persevering  efforts,  between 
the  years  1855  and  1857,  liberty  of  conscience  was  granted  to  the  Danish  peo- 
ple, who  were  no  longer  legally  obliged  to  attend  the  services  of  the  State 
church  or  to  have  their  children  baptized  by  its  ministers.  The  Catholic  Church 
also  reaped  the  benefits  of  this  agitation  and  its  results. 

In  Sweden  the  position  of  the  Church  is  quite  different.  Here  the  influence 
of  German  theology  has  been  hardly  felt  outside  the  lecture-room.  The  infa- 
mous laws  of  1686  operate  equally  against  Dissenters  and  Catholics,  and  conver- 
sion to  Catholicism  is  punished  with  banishment.  Since  1803  the  enactment  of 
1726  against  religious  conventicles  has  been  rigidly  enforced  in  the  case  of  the 
Pietists,  who,  because  of  their  assiduous  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the  works  of 
Luther,  have  received  the  name  of  Lasnre.  Fines  and  imprisonments  are  the 
punishments  usually  inflicted  upon  them  ;  but  in  Fin-».ark,  where  the  people  are 
poor  and  enthusiastically  religious,  the  law  has  entailed  extreme  hardship,  as 
those  of  the  inhabitants  who  choose  to  remain  loyal  to  their  convictions  have 
been  forced  to  part  with  their  reindeer  to  satisfy  its  exactions.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  the  laws  have  been  leniently  enforced  or  their  infringement 
prudently  overlooked.  "Bishop"'  Esaias  Teener,  by  his  writings,  and  notably 
by  his  Frithiofs  Saga,  has  acquired  some  fame  as  a  poet. 

Between  German  Switzerland  and  Germany  the  relations  have  been  more  in- 
timate. German  theologians  held  professors'  chairs  at  the  Universities  of 
Basle,  Berne,  and  Zurich,  and  Swiss  theologians  in  turn  at  many  of  the  Uni- 
versities of  Germany.     Of  the  former,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  instance  De  Wetie 


§  431.  Protestantism  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  etc.  995 


at  Basle,  Otho  Fridolin  Frltzsche  and  Keim  at  Zurich,  and  Oelphe  at  Berne; 
and  of  the  latter,  Gelzer  at  Berlin,  Hcrzog  at  Erlanc;en,  and  Schenkel  at  Heidel- 
berg. Tliere  were  also  many  Swiss  theologians,  who  became  prominent  at 
home  in  the  religious  movement,  among  whom  were  Hagenbach,  of  Basle, 
and  Alexnjiiler  Schicr.i/zer.  Bohrin(i<:t\  llcnnj  Lamj.  and  Ilirzel,  of  Ziirieh.  In 
Switzerland,  a  republican  constitution,  the  right  of  congregations  to  select  their 
own  pastors,  and  the  absence  of  any  obligation  to  believe  in  symbols,  all  con- 
tributed CO  foster  extreme  views  in  religion.  That  the  same  spirit  that  per- 
vaded practical  life  was  also  dominant  in  the  schools  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  David  Strauss  was  called  to  Zurich  in  1839  and  Zeller  to  Berne  in  1847,  to 
teach  theology.  From  the  wealthy  city  of  Basle,  the  seat  of  numerous  mis- 
sionary and  Bible  Societies,  multitudinous  tracts  have  been  issued  and  scattered 
all  over  Germany,  with  a  view  to  propagating  modern  pietism.  But,  as  we 
shall  see  in  a  subsequent  paragraph,  this  city  was  also  the  home  of  iendeiicies 
the  most  divergent  and  of  parties  the  most  antagonistic. 

Between  the  people  of  German  Switzerland  and  HolUunl,  or  that  portion  of 
the  Alpine  country  inhabited  by  a  German  population,  and  the  lowland  re- 
gions lying  along  the  Rhine  from  its  source  to  its  mouth,  there  exists  now  as 
formerly  a  close  resemblance  and  affinity.  In  both  these  countries,  in  whict 
the  Reformed  is  the  dominant  religion,  one  meets  with  the  most  devoted  at- 
tachment to  rigorous  formularies  and  symbols  of  faith,  existing  side  by  side, 
with  a  readiness  to  adopt  the  most  extreme  theological  views.  This  latter  ten- 
dency has  been  fostered  in  Holland  by  the  Voices  of  the  Times,  a  periodical, 
since  1859  published  in  Switzerland.  The  poets,  Bilderdyk  and  Isaac  da  Costa, 
appealed  urgently  to  their  countrymen  to  return  to  the  more  primitive  ortho- 
dox teachings  of  their  Church ;  while  the  young  clergj'man,  Henry  de  Cock, 
warmly  defended  the  decrees  of  the  famous  Synod  of  Dordrecht,^  threatening 
that,  if  they  were  not  adhered  to,  he  and  the  numerous  body  who  shared  his 
opinions  would  separate  from  the  national  church.  In  consequence  the  Sepa^ 
ratists  were  arrested,  lined,  and  imprisoned,  as  disturbers  of  the  peace,  until 
1839,  when  they  were  permitted  by  royal  order  to  establisli  Christian  Separatist 
Congregations.  When,  in  1848,  the  principle  of  religious  freedom  was  granted 
as  a  part  of  the  radical  reforms  in  government  introduced  in  that  year,  the 
Independent  Synodal  System  was  organized.  By  this  arrangement  all  ecclesi- 
astical  affairs  are  submitted  to  the  action  of  a  General  Synod,  which  meets  an- 
nually at  The  Hague,  and  to  which  ten  provincial  synods  and  the  three  Theo- 
logical Faculties  of  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen  send  delegates.  The 
General  Synod  ^.Iso  appoints  a  Commission,  by  which  all  business  is  transacted 
in  the  interval  between  the  sessions  of  that  body.  Since  then  there  has  been  a 
very  decided  tendency  visible  among  the  Dutch  theologians  toward  more  inde- 
pendent views  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  and  a  greater  attachment  to  eviuifielical 
theology. 

Mention  should  also  be  made,  in  connection  with  the  Separatist  movement 
led  by  de  Cock,  of  the  Lutheran  Re-established  Church,  founded  at  Amsterdam 
in  1791;  of  the  religious  community  called  "^Chrlsto  sacrum,"  founded  at  Delft 


>  See  g  340,  pp.  327  sq. 


996  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

between  the  years  1797  and  1801;  and  of  the  Niemoe  Lichtess,  a  sort  of 
Quakers,  founded  in  1845.1 

There  are  also  many  points  of  resemblance  between  French  Switzerland  and 
that  portion  of  France  Inhabited  by  Cnlvinists,  the  explanation  of  which  is  to  b« 
sought  in  the  common  origin  of  the  religion  of  both  districts  and  in  the  simi- 
larity of  the  language  and  manners  of  the  people.  In  Geneva,  the  citaiel  of 
Calvinism,  the  influence  of  J.  J.  Rousseau  caused  a  noticable  deterioration  of 
the  high  standard  of  Christian  morality  previously  maintained.  Simultane- 
ously with  the  celebration  of  the  centennial  jubilee  in  honor  of  the  Eeforma- 
tion,  a  number  of  zealous  preachers,  associated  under  the  common  name  of  the 
"Venerable  Compag7iie,"  avowed  themselves  the  ardent  advocates  and  defenders 
of  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Orthodox  Calvinism.  At  this  time  also  Mad- 
ame  de  Kritdener,  a  woman  of  unusual  spirit  and  considerable  influence  with 
several  princes,  became  the  head  of  a  sect  composed  of  Swiss  Calvinists  and 
English  Methodists,  who  advocated  a  revival  of  ^'■Evangelical"  Christianity, 
and  were  contemptuously  called  Momiers.  They  were  hated  and  in  some  in- 
stances violently  assaulted  by  the  people,  whose  innocent  amusements  they  de- 
nounced, and  persecuted  by  the  government,  hy  which  they  were  regarded  aa 
Separatists.  After  the  Revolution  of  1830,  however,  when  religious  freedom 
was  proclaimed,  the  persecution  ceased,  but  a  reaction  set  in  against  them, 
which  took  definite  shape  in  The  Evangelical  Society  of  Geneva.  Under  the 
auspices  of  this  Society  a  college  was  founded  and  placed  under  the  direction 
of  the  learned  and  zealous  Merle  d^Aubigne,  for  the  education  of  rigidly  ortho- 
dox ministers.  In  1835  the  jubilee,  commemorative  of  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation  into  Geneva,  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  and  circumstance. 
By  the  Revolution  of  1846  the  Evangelical  Society  was  overthrown,  and  the 
administration  of  the  afl"airs  of  the  National  Church  vested  in  a  Consistory, 
whose  members  were  elected  by  the  Congregations.  It  had  also  been  rigor- 
ously inculcated  by  the  orthodox  theologians  of  Berne  that  the  Church  was  ab- 
solutely dependent  upon  the  State;  but  Vinet,  at  Lausanne  (f  1847),  and  the 
adherents  of  the  ^^Free  Church  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud"  began  an  agitation  ia 
favor  of  the  contrary  doctrine,  which  gradually  gained  ground  among  the 
clergy,  who,  as  time  went  on,  lost  their  official  character.''^  Liberal  religious  views 
spread  so  rapidly  and  became  so  generally  difl'used  among  the  Calvinists  of 
Switzerland  that  at  the  ter-c.entennial  anniversary  of  the  death  of  their  founder, 
in  1864,  they  repudiated  his  claim  to  the  title  of  a  national  hero,  and  emphat- 
ically protested  against  his  religious  system  as  cruelly  despotic.^ 

By  the  two  revolutions  of  1830  and  1848,  but  chiefly  by  the  prevalence  of 
modern  ideas,  the  condition  of  Protestants  in  France  has  been  greatly  ame- 
liorated, and,  as  a  consequence,  their  number  has  largely  increased,  and  they 
now  carry  on  an  active  propagandism  publicly  and  without  restraint.  They 
were  at  one  time  so  hopeful  that  their  intention  of  converting  the  entire  coun- 
try  was  boastfully  announced  from  Geneva,    llfaut  evangeliser  la  France,  they 


1  They  took  as  the  underlying  principle  of  their  creed  the  words  of  Acta^ 
iv.  12. 
» Conf.  Herzog's  Encyclopaedia,  Vol.  XVII.,  art. "  Vinet,"  p.  766-820. 
»  See  i  321,  p.  149. 


§  431.  Protestantism  in  Denmark,  Sweden^  etc.         997 

said,  but  their  progress  was  arrested  by  dissensions  within  their  own  body. 
Among  the  most  active  and  potent  organizations  of  these  sectaries  was  the 
Societe  evangelique,  founded  at  Paris  in  1832,  which,  mainly  througli  the  influ- 
ence of  the  newspaper  Le  Semetir  and  that  exerted  by  Vinet  at  Lausanne,  was 
at  one  time  quite  numerous.  Its  agents  made  themselves  so  offensive  by  osten- 
tatiously hawking  Bibles  and  tracts  containing  libelous  slanders  on  Catholics 
and  members  of  the  lleformed  Church,  that  the  police  were  obliged  to  interfce 
in  the  interests  of  public  peace,  and  for  a  short  interval  the  Societe  was  under 
the  ban  of  the  law.  Another  of  these  organizations  is  the  Union  des  eglises 
cvamji.llqvm  de  France,  founded  in  1848  by  Count  Gasparin  and  Fre.dei-ic  Monod. 
These  sectaries,  who  profess  a  sort  of  symbol,  composed  of  selections  from  the 
devotional  portions  of  the  writings  of  St.  John  and  St.  Paul,  are  most  malig- 
nant in  their  hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church,  because  her  priests  receive  a 
salary  from  the  government.  Other  organizations  were  formed  of  a  kindred 
character,  and  professing  either  Methodist  or  Baptist  doctrines,  but  by  no 
means  of  equal  importance. 

Diametrically  opposed  to  all  these  was  the  ultra-rationalistic  party,  repre- 
sented by  men  like  Pecaui,  Reville,  and  the  younger  Coguerel,  and  some  time 
later  by  Edmond  Scherer  and  Colani,  who,  being  disciples  of  the  Tubingen 
school  of  Baur,  denied  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity  and  controverted  the 
authenticity  of  its  miracles.  The  outcome  and  fullest  expression  of  the  tenets 
of  this  school  was  The  Life  of  Jesus  and  other  works  on  the  origin  of  Christian- 
ity by  Rennn.  It  was  successfully  opposed  by  M.  de  Pressense,^  in  his  numerous 
writings,  and  by  M.  Guizoi  (t  1877),  at  one  time  Alinister  of  State,  in  his  Medi- 
iations  and  Eglise  et  societe  cretienne.  At  the  last  Synod,  held  in  Paris  in 
June,  1872,  Colani  and  Coquerel  were  vehemently  attacked  by  M.  de  Pressens^, 
who  triumphantly  vindicated  on  that  occasion  the  supernatural  character  of 
Christianity.  When  the  Orthodox  Profession  of  Faith  was  submitted  to  the 
Synod,  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  numerous  minority  of  Materialists,  or,  as 
they  prefer  to  call  themselves.  Liberals,  against  it ;  and  it  only  passed  by  « 
majority  of  sixteen,  the  vote  standing  sixty-one  affirmative  and  fortj'-five  nega- 
tive, iiut  in  charitable  associations,  in  which  French  Protestants  have  at- 
tempted to  rival  Catholics,  the  results  have  been  more  encouraging,  and  much 
good  has  been  done  through  their  agency. 

Among  the  Theological  Faculties  the  most  eminent  are,  first,  the  Orthodox 
Calvinistic  Faculty  of  Montauban,  and  next  the  Lutheran  Faculty  of  Stras- 
burg,  which,  being  in  close  contact  with  the  science  and  literature  of 
Germany,  have  produced  works  of  exceptional  excellence.  The  writings  of 
their  more  distinguished  representatives,  such  as  Matter,  Schmidt,  Baum,  and, 
above  all,  Reuss,  have  received  high  praise  from  Cerman  scholars.^ 

1  Edmond  de  Pressense,  Histoire  des  trois  premiers  siecles  de  I'eglise,  4  vols., 
Paris,  1858-1861  ;  Jesus-Christ,  son  temps,  sa  vie  et  ses  oeuvres,  3d  ed.,  1866; 
Le  Concile  du  Vatican,  1872;  La  liberte  religieuse  en  Europe  en  1870,  Paris, 
1874-  La  vie  morale  des  premiers  chretiens,  1875.  The  first  two  works  have 
been  translated  into  German  and  other  languages.  He  is  the  chief  editor 
of  the  Revue  chretienne,  which  he  founded.  The  bulletin  th6ologique  forms  a 
supplement  to  it. 

"^Reuss,  Hist,  of  the  N.  T.  Scriptures,  4th  ed.,  Brunswick,  1864;  Theological 


998  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  2. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  century  the  Established  Church  of  Enr/larid  and 
Kirk  of  ScolUind  have  displayed  remarkable  energy,  and  have  been  unusually 
active.  The  bishops  of  the  Established  Church,  possessing  comfortable  livings 
and  enormous  revenues,  and  strengthened  by  their  alliance  with  the  aristocracy, 
for  a  long  time  obstinately  refused  to  yield  to  the  demands  A  the  Dissenters, 
or,  in  obedience  to  the  wishes  of  government,  to  make  the  changes  which,  it 
was  urged,  the  circumstances  of  the  age  rendered  necessary  and  peremptory. 
As  a  consequence,  the  two  branches  of  the  Establishment,  the  High  Church  and 
the  Low  Church,  or  the  Evangelicals,  grew  daily  more  hostile  to  each  other; 
and  while  the  Evangelicals  denounced  the  Catholic  tendencies  of  the  High- 
Churchmen,  the  High-Churchmen  denounced  with  equal  vehemence  the  Pro- 
testant tendencies  of  the  Evangelicals.  In  1833  a  rally  was  begun  in  favor  of 
High-Church  principles,  which  issued  in  what  are  known  as  the  Tractarian  or 
Puseyite  and  Ritualistic  movements,  the  former  headed  by  Dr.  Newman,  Dr. 
Pusey,  John  Keble,  and  other  Oxford  men,  and  both  having  the  effect  of  leading 
many  into  the  Catholic  Church. ^  These  events  still  further  incensed  the  Evan- 
gelicals, who,  availing  themselves  of  the  excited  state  of  religious  feeling  pro- 
duced by  the  late  Methodist  agitation,  renewed  their  demands  and  extorted 
some  concessions  from  the  Anglican  bishops.  The  position  of  both  rectors  and 
curates  was  much  improved,  and  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  people  better  served. 
Extraordinary  efforts  were  made  by  both  parties  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  diffusion  of  the  Bible;  numerous  churches  were  erected  and 
distress  of  every  kind  relieved.  Attention  was  also  given  to  Christian  morals, 
which  were  everywhere  decaying,  and  to  the  observance  of  Sunday,  which  was 
almost  universally  neglected  by  certain  classes.  Between  the  High-Church 
Party,  in  which  personality  was  lost  sight  of  and  loyalty  to  the  Church  promi- 
nently put  forward,  and  the  Low-Church  Party,  in  which  the  claims  of  the 
Church  were  made  secondary  to  the  claims  of  the  individual,  there  arose  a 
third,  styled  the  Broad  Church  Party,  whose  partisans  advocated  more  liberal 
or  broader  views  of  religion  and  Christian  life.^ 

In  opposition  at  once  to  the  apathy  of  tl;e  Established  Church,  to  the  Catho- 
lic tendencies  of  the  Puseyite  Movement,  and  to  the  indifference  to  any  religion 
whatever  prevalent  among  the  bulk  of  the  people,  an  association  called  the 
Evangelical  Alliance  was  formed  in  1845,  which,  ignoring  altogether  the  idea 
of  a  definite  Church,  professes  to  be  based  on  the  broad  principles  of  Christian- 
ity, a  creed  which  has  at  least  the  merit  of  elasticity,  and  may  embrace  any- 
thing or  nothing.* 


Science  among  the  French  Protestants  (Theological  Studies  and  Criticisms, 
1844,  No.  1).  "^ 
'See  HI 7,  pp.  848  sq. 

2  Cf.  Doimer,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  pp.  904-910.  Dr.  Arnold,  Master 
of  Rugby  from  1828  to  1842,  the  year  of  his  death,  is  generally  credited  with 
being  the  founder  of  this  Party,  and  Heve,  Whately,  and  Maurice  were  among 
its  ablest  representatives.  (Tr.) 

3  Dr.  Brow7ison,  speaking  of  the  Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  held 
in  New  York,  in  October,  1873,  says :  "  The  Protestantism  represented  by  it  is, 
as  a  power  in  society,  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  has  no  significance  for  the  pres- 


§  431.  Frotestaatism  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  etc.         999 

Puseyism  has  rendered  an  important  service  to  iheologicnl  science  by  reviving 
patristic  studies  and  stimulating  that  spirit  of  deep  research  which  is  so  promi- 
nent in  the  English  character,  and  which  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  im- 
portant ecclesiastical  documents  published  by  the  famous  Orientalist,  Cureton 
(b.  1808,  d.  1864J.1  It  also  created  a  taste  for  exegetics,  and  in  particular  for 
Christian  apologetics  or  evidences.  While  most  of  the  writers  at  this  time  re- 
mained within  the  traditional  bounds  of  Anglican  theology,  there  were  some 
who  went  a  long  way  beyond  them,  and  tlie  Essai/s  uyid  Reviews,  which  were 
the  maturest  and  fullest  expression  of  such  men,  produced  a  profound  sensa- 
tion when  they  appeared  in  1860.  To  the  great  scandal  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, it  was  soon  learned  that  among  the  authors  of  this  work  some  were  An- 
glican dignitaries.''  In  the  first  Essn-i/,  on  "The  Education  of  the  World"  the 
divine  interposition  in  human  afiairs  is  denied,  and  it  is  maintained  that  the 
present  religious  condition  of  mankind  is  the  result  of  natural  development;^ 
in  the  secoiu/,  the  authenticity  of  the  Bible  and  the  verity  of  its  prophecies  are 
denied;  in  the  thh-d.  it  is  attempted  to  prove  that  it  is  unreasonable  to  believe 
God  ever  wrought  miracles  or  created  the  world,  and,  as  a  consequence,  that 
creation  and  miracles  afford  no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  Divine  Being; 
in  the  foui-t/i,  it  is  maintained  that  the  Scriptural  characteristics  of  Jesus  belong, 
not  to  an  historical,  but  to  an  ideal  personage;  that  the  annunciation  is  like- 
wise ideal,  etc. ;  in  the  fifth,  the  Book  of  Genesis  is  said  to  have  been  written  by 
some  Hebrew  scientist,  who,  not  being  guided  by  modern  geological  researches, 
blundered  egregiously  ;  in  the  sixth,  on  "The  Tendencies  of  Religious  Thought 


ent.  It  is  neither  frankly  infidel  nor  frankly  Chri.«tian,  but  strives  to  be  a  little 
of  both.  It  has  no  principle  of  its  own,  but  borrows  infidel  principles  when  it 
would  fight  against  the  Church,  and  Church  principles  when  it  would  fight  in- 
fidelity. The  Alliance  claims  to  be  Christian,  and  its  aim  seems  to  be  to  wage 
a  relentless  war  against  Catholicity  on  the  right  and  rationalism  on  the  left; 
but,  unhappily  for  it,  it  has  no  base  for  its  operations  against  either,  and  is  un- 
able to  conduct  its  war  on  any  scientific  principles,  taken  either  from  reason  or 
revelation.  When  it  attacks  rationalism,  it  exposes  itself  to  the  merciless  at- 
tacks of  Catholics  in  flank;  and  when  it  turns  against  Catholics  it  exposes  it- 
self to  the  equally  merciless  attacks  of  the  rationalists  in  the  rear."  QuriTt. 
Revieiv,  January,  1874.  (Tr.) 

'Corpus  Ignatianum,  London,  1849;  Spicilegium  Syriacum,  London,  1855; 
Athanasii  epist.  festales,  London,  1848;  Hist.  eccl.  Johannis  episcopi  Ephes., 
Oxford,  1853. 

^  The  Essays  and  Reviews  were  seven  in  number,  the  productions  of  as  many 
writers,  and  published  in  February,  1860,  under  the  editorial  supervision  of 
Prof.  Joweti.  The  first  Essay  was  by  Dr.  Temple,  then  blaster  of  Kugby 
School;  the  second  by  Dr.  Rowland  Williams,  Vice-Principal  of  Lampeter,  a. 
Welsh  College;  the  third  hylslv.  Baden  Powell,  Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry 
at  Oxford;  the  fourth  by  the  Rev.  H.  B.  Wilson,  Vicar  of  Great  Stoughton; 
the  fifth  by  Mr.  C  Goodwin,  a  layman ;  the  sixth  by  the  Rev.  Mark  Patiison, 
then  fellow  and  afterward  Rector  of  Lincoln  College,  Oxford ;  and  the  last  by 
the  Editor,  Mr.  Jowett,  Regius  Professor  of  Greek  at  Oxford.  (Tr.) 

'This  is  only  a  plagiarism  of  Lessing's  Essay  on  the  same  subject.  (Tr., 


1000         Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

in  England  from  1688  to  1750,"  there  is  little  remarkable,  except  what  it  de- 
rives from  its  questionable  company;  in  the  seventh,  on  the  "Interpretation  of 
Scripture"  inspiration  is  denied,  and  an  effort  made  to  adapt  Scriptures  to  the 
theories  set  forth  in  the  preceding  Essays.  The  doctrines  contained  in  thip 
work  were  condemned  as  "pernicious,"  and  their  tendencies  as  "heretical,"  by 
the  Convocations  of  Canterbury  and  York  in  July,  1864.  Two  of  its  authors 
were  condemned  by  the  Court  of  Arches  and  suspended  for  a  year  from  their 
benefices  in  1862;  but  the  judgment  was  reversed  by  the  Crown  in  Council  on 
the  8th  of  February,  1864,  when  it  was  judicially  stated  that  "  on  the  design  and 
general  tendency"  of  the  Essays  and  Reviews,  the  Committee  "neither  can  nor 
do  pronounce  any  opinion."  '  Dr.  Colenso,  Bishop  of  Natal,  in  Southeastern 
Africa,  who,  having  adopted  the  principles  of  modern  rationalistic  criticism, 
published  in  1862  his  work,  entitled  "  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua 
Critically  Examined,"  denying  these  to  be  records  of  even  "historical  truth," 
was  requested  by  all  the  Anglican  bishops  of  England  and  Ireland,  except 
three,  to  resign  his  see^  which  refusing  to  do,  he  was  tried  by  a  provincial  synod 
at  Cape  Town,  and  formally  deposed  by  his  Metropolitan,  November  27,  1863; 
but  the  decision  was  subsequently  reversed  by  the  Crown  in  Council,  on  th& 
ground  that  "the  Bishop  of  Cape  Town  has  no  jurisdiction  over  the  Bishop  of 
Natal."  2 

Ever  since  the  union  of  Scotland  with  England,  in  1707,  the  Constitution  of 
the  True  Kirk  has  been  a  prominent  subject  of  discussion,  one  of  the  more  vital 
questions  being  whether  the  right  of  nominating  ministers  to  parishes  resides  in 
the  congregations  or  in  the  landed  proprietors,  who  claim  the  right  of  patron- 
age in  the  Eeformed  Church  of  that  country. 

Although  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  been  ex- 
plicitly recognized  at  various  times  by  the  English  government,  and  expressly 
guaranteed  by  William  and  Mary  in  1688,  and  again  by  the  Act  of  Union  in 
1707,  still  in  1712  an  act  was  passed  by  the  British  Parliament  restoring  the 
right  of  patronage  in  Scotland.  This  act  gave  rise  to  many  and  violent  dissen- 
sions  in  the  Kirk,  and  was  the  occasion  of  numerous  separations  from  it,  which 
have  been  perpetuated  down  to  the  present  day.  But  notwithstanding  that 
the  right  of  patronage  was  enforced  for  above  a  century,  there  was  as  yet  no 
direct  invasion  of  ecclesiastical  authority  by  the  civil  courts  or  the  civil  power, 
the  right  of  presentation  being  regarded  as  only  a  civil  prerogative,  entitling 
the  appointee,  who  received  ecclesiastical  recognition  from  the  authorities  of 
the  Kirk,  to  the  benefice  and  its  emoluments.     Moreover,  in  the  exercise  of  the 


•  See  Blunt,  Diet. of  Sects,  etc.,  art.  "  Broad  Church;  "  also  Cardinal  Manning, 
England  and  Christendom,  London,  1867,  pp.  3-79.  We  have  spoken  in  detail 
of  the  Essays  and  Reviews^  not  because  they  possess  any  intrinsic  value,  but 
because  they  are  historical  and  mark  an  epoch,  being  the  most  notorious,  if  not 
the  best,  production  of  a  very  indifferent  school.  Andreas  Wagner,  Professor 
of  Natural  Sciences  at  the  University  of  Munich,  to  whom  they  were  handed 
by  the  Editor  of  the  Evangelische  Kirchenzeitung  (Vorwort,  1862)  to  determin® 
their  scientific  value,  returned  them  with  the  remark  that  "  the  book  was  be- 
neath all  criticism."   (Tr.) 

'Blunt,  Ibid.  (Tr.)     Cf.  Dorner,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Theology,  pp.  910-915. 


§  431.  Protestantism  in  Denmark^  Sweden,  etc.       1001 

right  of  patronage,  care  was  taken  to  observe  the  ancient  custom  of  having  th^ 
"■call"  made,  by  the parishiou<rs,  though  it  was  at  best  only  an  empty  form. 

In  these  latter  days,  when  the  Church  of  Scotland,  like  those  of  other  coun- 
tries, has  sprung  into  vigorous  life,  the  old  Puritanic  leaven  has  permeated  the 
masses  and  once  more  aroused  the  old  spirit  of  independence.  The  ques- 
tion of  patronage  began  to  be  again  agitated,  and  an  Anti-Patirmaf/e  Society 
was  founded  in  1825  by  Dr.  Andrew  Thompson,  a  leading  minister  of  Edin- 
burgh. But  the  contest  was  not  formally  inaugurated  until  1833,  when  Dr. 
Thomas  Chalmers,  a  minister  of  Glasgow,  proposed  to  the  General  Assembly 
of  that  year  a  Yeto  Act,  providing  that  any  presentation  should  be  set  aside  if 
opposed  by  one-half  of  the  male  heads  of  families,  with  or  without  specific 
reason,  if  they  were  communicants.  The  proposition  was  rejected,  but  one  of 
equivalent  import  presented  and  carried  in  the  following  year  against  the  Mod- 
erates,  who  were  gradually  losing  ground.  The  case  of  Mr.  Robert  Young,  who 
was  rejected  by  a  large  majority  of  qualified  heads  of  families,  was  made  a  test 
case,  and,  after  having  been  carried  from  one  court  to  another,  was  finally  de- 
cided in  the  English  House  of  Lords  against  the  Non-Inirusionists,  and  the 
Veto  declared  illegal.  Finally,  the  General  Assembly  agreed  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  bill  in  Parliament  providing  that,  unless  it  were  proved  that  the  op- 
position to  the  presentee  proceeded  from  factious  and  unreasonable  prejudice, 
the  instructions  of  the  Veto  should  be  carried  out;  but  this  was  thrown  out  on 
technical  grounds  in  1842.  The  Non-Intrusionists  sent  a  Petition  of  Eight, 
embodying  their  claims,  to  Parliament  in  1843,  and  when  they  learned  that  it 
had  been  rejected  in  the  House  of  Commons,  they  met  in  General  Assembly  on 
the  18th  of  May  of  the  same  year,  and  after  protesting  against  the  action  of 
Parliament,  headed  by  Dr.  Welsh,  the  Moderator,  and  Dr.  Chalmers,  451  of 
them  formally  seceded  from  the  Establishment,  and  organized  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Free  Kirk  of  Scotland.  The  old  spirit  of  the  Covenanters 
once  more  swept  over  the  country,  and  it  was  not  long  until  every  parish  had 
its  Free  Kirk  and  Manse,  and  a  "Sustentation  Fund"  was  rapidly  raised,  which 
in  1874  yielded  £150  to  each  of  775  ministers,  not  including  the  special  collec- 
tions of  the  congregations.  There  were,  in  1874,  920  congregations  and  597 
schools  in  Scotland  belonging  to  the  Free  Kirk,  and  a  number  of  aflaliated  con- 
gregations in  England,  Ireland,  and  the  United  States,  and  in  Canada  and 
other  colonies  of  England.  Colleges  for  educating  ministers  were  also  founded 
at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen.  Much  of  the  asperity  which  at  first 
existed  between  the  Free  Kirk  and  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland  has 
already  disappeared.'  The  great  schism,  in  the  Cliurch  of  Scotland  gave  occa- 
sion to  others  of  lesser  importance,  the  chief  of  which  was  that  of  the  Irving- 
ties,  who  believe  in  a  renewal  of  the  prophetic  and  apostolic  o2ice.s,  and  call 
themselves  the  "  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church." 

The  peculiar  characteristics  of  Protestantism  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America  are  mainly  due  to  the  varied  nationalities  from  which  its  yopulation 
has  been  recruited  and  to  the  principle  of  complete  separation  of  Church  ayia 
State,  which  is  rigorously-  carried  out,  the  various  religious  congregations  being 
regarded  by  the  government  as  merely  civil  corporations.     Notwithstanding 


1  Blunt,  Diet  of  Sects,  etc.,  art.  "  Free  Kirk  of  Scotland."  (Tr.) 


1002  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

that  no  formal  recognition  of  any  Church  exists,  Christianity  is  tacitly  recog- 
nized as  part  of  the  Common  Law ;  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  Day  is  strin- 
gently enforced ;  and  public  prayers  are  daily  offered  up  in  legislative  bodies 
while  in  session.^  There  is  no  discrimination  between  truth  and  error,  and  all 
opinions  and  creeds  may  be  freely  held  and  propagated,  whether  in  private  or 
public,  provided  only  the  rights  of  others  are  not  invaded  or  morality  openly 
outraged.  There  exists  there,  side  by  side,  every  form  of  religious  belief, 
ancient  and  modern,  and  new  sects  are  daily  multiplying.  There  are  to  be 
found  pietists  and  illuminati,  and  the  superstitious  votaries  of  the  fooleries  of 
turning-tables,  spirit-rappings,  spirit-mediums,  and  planchettes,  in  which, 
strange  to  say,  these  people,  so  boastful  of  their  superior  enlightenment,  place 
implicit  reliance.  Still  Christianity  is  making  extraordinary  progress,  and 
promises  to  be  eventually  completely  triumphant. 

These  multitudinous  sects,  owing  to  their  feverish,  unstable,  and  evanescent 
existence,  have  not  gained  any  notable  distinction  in  the  fields  of  literature  and 
science,  or  produced  any  works  of  eminent  merit.  There  hardly  exists  a  ne- 
cessity to  impel  their  members  to  devote  themselves  to  the  learned  pursuits, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  supplied  from  England  and  Scotland,  but  notably  from 
Germany,  with  works  sufficiently  varied  to  suit  the  needs  of  minds  the  most 
divergent.  Schaff,  a  disciple  of  Neander's,  and  at  first  a  professor  at  Mercers- 
burg,  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  afterward  in  the  Union  Theological 
Seminary  of  New  York,  and  Nevbi,  an  equally  eminent  scholar,  have  been 
quite  successful  in  their  efforts  to  diffuse  Protestant  theology  among  both  the 
English-speaking  and  German  Protestants  of  the  United  States.*  The  polit- 
ical institutions  and  commercial  conditions  of  the  country  have  had  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  religious  character  of  the  people,  particularly  outside  the 
Catholic  Church.  The  absence  of  the  principle  of  conservatism  in  politics  has 
contributed,  probably  more  than  is  generally  supposed,  to  the  multiplication  of 
sects  with  slight  denominational  differences,  and  the  commercial  energy  of  the 
people  has  given  a  feverish,  though  spasmodic  activity  to  religious  enterprises. 
One  would  be  led  antecedently  to  expect  that  the  American  system  of  secular 
education  would  make  those  who  have  been  brought  up  under  its  influences  in- 
different to  the  distinctively  doctrinal  teachings  of  the  various  sects,  and  such 
is  in  matter  of  fact  the  case.  The  number  of  Americans  who  pay  any  atten- 
tion to  doctrinal  differences  is,  as  compared  with  the  entire  population,  re- 
markably small ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  positive  faith,  as  a  substan- 
tive and  definite  reality,  is  rapidly  fading  from  the  minds  of  the  great  bulk  of 
the  non-Catliolic  citizens.  Those  of  them  who  profess  to  be  religious  at  all,  do 
80  on  moral  rather  than  dogmatic  grounds,  or,  in  other  words,  act  from  merely 
human  rather  than  divine  motives.     They  do  not  believe  in  the  subjection  of 


>  Constitutions  of  several  States  and  of  the  U.  S.,  etc.,  New  York,  8vo. 
J  Story,  Exposition  of  the  Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  N.  York,  1847.  M.  McKmney, 
Arner.  Magistrate,  Philad.  1850,  pp.  689,  193,  203.  G.  T.  Curtis,  Hist,  of  the 
Const,  of  the  U.  S.,  New  Y''ork,  1854,  2  vols. 

2  Cfr.  Darner,  in  1.  c,  p.  915-918,  and  Schnff,  •'  America,"  or  the  Political,  So- 
cial, and  Ecclesiastico-Religious  Condition  of  the  United  States,  especially  in 
reference  to  the  Germans,  Berlin,  1864. 


§  432.  Enumeration  of  Sects,  Ancient  and  Modern.    1003 

the  intellect  to  any  constituted  magisterial  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  they  have  no  sanction  for  their  conduct  higher  than  a  vague 
conception  of  the  existence  of  God.  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  the  necessity  of 
a  moral  law.  Their  charities,  too,  which  are  probably  as  numerous  and  acx- 
dant  as  in  uny  country  of  the  world  except  France,  are  inspired,  not  bj  a  re- 
ligious conviction  of  the  necessity  of  giving  alms  and  ministering  to  the  poor 
and  the  outcast,  but  by  the  generous  promptings  nnd  benevolent  feelings  which 
are  so  prominent  in  the  American  character.  We  do  not  say  that  belief  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ  does  not  exist,  and  is  not  put  forward  by  religious  organiza- 
tions outside  the  Catholic  Church,  but  we  do  say  that  the  Incarnation,  together 
with  the  distinctive  doctrines  flowing  from  it  and  connected  with  it,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  scheme  of  man's  redemption  as  a  whole  and  in  detail,  is  not  under- 
stood by  the  bulk  of  the  American  people,  and  has  no  firm  hold  on  their  minds. 
In  fact,  the  non-Catholics  below  a  certain  degree  in  the  s-ocial  .-cale  rarely  enter 
a  church  at  all,  and  when  they  do  they  are  impelled  by  other  than  supernatural 
motives.  Of  the  churches  that  still  continue  to  teach  a  definite  creed,  in  as  far 
as  merely  human  authority  can  be  said  to  be  an  exponent  of  divine  truth,  the 
Episcopalian,  the  Presbyterian,  the  Methodist,  and  the  Baptist  have  been  the 
most  successful ;  and  it  must  be  said  that  they  have  contributed  not  a  little  to 
revive  religious  feeling  of  the  hazy,  indefinite  kind  we  have  described.  Relig- 
ious revivals  are  frequent,  and  their  efforts  are  temporarily  violent,  but,  like  all 
abnormal  agencies,  produce  no  permanent  result  for  good.  There  are  also  nu- 
merous Protestant  seminaries,  religious  periodicals  and  newspapers,  and  vast 
societies  for  removing  social  evils  and  evangelizing  the  poor,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  but  all  these  enterprises  labor  under  the  same  radical  defect.  They 
have  no  supernatural  sanction,  because  they  are  not  the  outgrowth  of  a  body 
of  positive  teaching,  which,  coming  from  God,  must  be  as  absolutely  one  and 
unchangeable  as  is  the  God  of  truth  Himself. 

§  432.  Enumeration  of  Sects,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

I.  The  Baptists  or  fiebaptizers,  so  numerous  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  were  introduced  into  Germany  in  1834,  through  the  preaching  of  the 
American  missionary,  0?ickcn}  After  remaining  for  a  time  in  Hamburg,  he 
visited  nearly  every  portion  of  Germany  and  Denmark,  and  made  a  small  num- 
ber of  converts  to  his  teaching  in  Prussia,  Wiirtemberg,  and  the  smaller  Ger- 
man States,  and  in  Switzerland.  This  pietistical  sect  rejected  the  authority  of 
Protestant  synods  and  the  Evangelical  Alliance  quite  as  courageously  as  the 
sectaries  of  the  same  name  had  that  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon. 

II.  Like  the  Anabaptists,  the  sect  of  Rationalistic  Unitariuns,  who  deny  the 
Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  has  been  revived  in  these  lat- 
ter days,  and  has  numerous  adherents,  both  in  England  and  the  United  States. 


^John  Gerard  Oncken  was  born  at  Varel,  Oldenburg,  about  1800.  He  was 
first  a  servant  and  subsequently  a  book  agent  for  the  Edinburgh  Bible  Society, 
and  afterward  became  a  missionary.  Cf.  Jorg,  Hist,  of  Totestantism,  VoL  II, 
pp.  16  sq. 


1004  Pp.riod  3.     Ejyoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  2. 

The  chief  apostle  in  the  latter  country  of  this  repulsive  rationalism  was  Mr 
Channing,  of  Boston,  -whose  disciples  are  also  known  as  Universalists. 

III.  The  Moravian  Brethren  and  the  Methodists,  though  widely  separated 
as  regards  doctrine,  have  both  labored  with  disinterested  zeal  to  revive  and 
stimulate  religious  life  in  Europe  and  America. 

lY.  Extreme  pietism  appeared  under  a  novel  and  remarkable  form  in  Wiir- 
temterg.  In  1818,  Hoffmann,  burgomaster  and  notary  of  Leonberg,  obtained 
a  license  from  the  government  to  form  a  religious  society  at  Kornthal  on  the 
model  of  the  communities  of  the  apostolic  age.  Its  members,  fully  persuaded 
that  the  convulsions  and  confusion  which  shall  precede  the  final  com,ing  of  Christ 
were  already  taking  place,  set  themselves  to  appease  as  best  they  could  the 
anger  of  God.  By  Bengel,  a  learned  exegetical  writer  of  Wiirtemberg,  the 
year  1836  was  assigned  as  the  date  of  the  end  of  the  world.  Christopher  Hoff- 
mann, inspector  of  the  Evangelical  school  near  Ludwigsburg,  who  had  been 
successful  over  David  Strauss  ^  for  a  seat  in  the  Frankfort  Parliament,  follow- 
ing in  the  footsteps  of  his  father,  and  despairing  of  the  political  and  ecclesias- 
tical condition  of  Europe,  founded  in  the  Hardthof,  near  Marburg,  in  1856,  a 
provisional  home  for  the  elect  of  God,  where  they  were  to  await  their  transla- 
tion to  Falestbie,  there  to  resume  the  life  of  true  Christians,  after  the  model 
foreshadowed  by  the  Prophets. 

At  Wildenspuch,  in  the  Canton  of  Ziirich,  the  pietistic  infatuation  was  carried 
to  an  incredible  excess.  Margaret  Peter,  an  unmarried  woman  and  the  daughter 
of  a  farmer,  by  association  with  men  calling  themselves  the  "Revived,"  and  by 
the  reading  ot  works  on  mysticism,  wrought  herself  up  to  such  a  pitch  of  ex- 
citement that  she  believed,  or  professed  to  believe,  that  events  of  extraordinary 
religious  import  were  shortly  to  take  place.  This  conviction  stimulated  her 
activity  for  the  salvation  of  herself  and  those  about  her.  Although  a  notorious 
adulteress,  she  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  the  religious  assemblies  of  the 
"  Kevived."  Stricken  with  remorse  of  conscience  and  the  victim  of  wounded 
spiritual  pride,  she  lacerated  her  body  most  cruelly,  stating  that  she  did  so  "  by 
command  of  God."  For  the  purpose,  as  she  pretended,  of  gaining  allies  to 
confound  the  devil  and  of  making  an  acceptable  offering  to  Christ,  she,  on  the 
15th  of  March,  1823,  had  her  brother  and  others  scourged  unto  the  shedding  of 
blood,  after  which  she  killed  her  sister  Elizabeth  with  a  club,  and  finally  had 
herself  put  to  deatli  by  crucifixion.  She  had  predicted  that  she  would  rise 
again  on  the  third  day,  but  failed  to  make  good  her  promise.^ 

Similar  exhibitions  of  devotion,  mortification,  and  lust  took  place  in  the  pie- 
tistical  conventicles  of  East  Prussia  and  the  Wupperthal.  A  Mr.  Stephan, 
pastor  of  a  congregation  of  Bohemians  in  Dresden,  after  having  induced  a  large 
number  of  persons  to  embrace  a  species  of  Lutheran  Pietism,  and  been  active 
in  encouraging  others  to  emigrate  to  America,  was  arrested,  brought  before 
the  courts,  and  convicted  of  having  seduced  many  married  and  single  women. 

Akin  to  this  utter  prostitution  of  religion  to  base  purposes  is  the  profession 
of  the  MoriHons,  or,  as  they  prefer  to  call  themselves.  The  Free  Church  of  Jesui 


•  Jdrg,  1.  c,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  203-280. 

^  L.   Meyer,  The  Frightful   Scenes   at  Wildenspuch,  2d  ed.,   Ziirich,   1824, 
Jarcke,  The  Frightful  Scenes  at  Wildenspuch  (Miscellanea),  Munich,  1839. 


432.  Enumeration  of  Sects,  Ancient  and  Modern.    1005 


Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints,  founded  in  1827  in  North  America  by  Joseph 
Smith}  Born  in  the  year  1805,  in  the  State  of  Vermont,  of  disreputable  par- 
ents,  Smith,  from  his  earliest  years,  was  a  visionary,  and  as  he  grew  in  age 
continued  meditative  and  solitary,  and  finally  professed  to  have  been  honored 
with  angelic  visits.  On  the  22d  of  September,  1827,  after  passing  through  a 
certain  disciplinary  preparation,  he  received  from  the  hands  of  his  angelic  vis- 
itants wonderful  records,  engraven  on  metallic  plates,  and  containing  the  his- 
tory of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  America.  The  first  of  these  were  the  Jared- 
iies,  a  wicked  and  bloodthirsty  race  ironi  Babel,  who  destroyed  each  other  in 
incessant  wars  ;  and  the  next  tne  American  Indians  or  the  descendants  of  Lehi, 
a  Jewish  patriarch,  who  set  out  from  Jerusalem  during  the  reign  of  Zedekias, 
and,  after  many  wanderings,  made  his  way  to  America.  These  aboriginal  tribes 
had  been  converted  by  Our  Lord  in  person,  but  subsequently  losing  their  faith, 
a  prophet  named  Mormon  wrote  out  their  history,  traditions,  religious  usages, 
etc.,  and  buried  the  record  in  the  earth.  This  wonderful  record,  believed  by 
the  Mormons  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  Bible,  was  brought  to  light  in 
1830,  but,  as  has  been  since  proven,  is  nearly  a  literal  transcript  of  a  romance 
left  in  manuscript  by  Solomon.  Spalding,  a  clergyman,  who  died  in  1816.  Pro- 
fessing to  be  a  prophet.  Smith  soon  gathered  about  him  a  large  number  of  dis- 
ciples, and  organized  his  first  church  at  Manchester,  N.  Y.,  in  1830 ;  but  in  the 
following  year  went  west  as  far  as  Kirtland,  O.,  where  his  followers  still  con- 
tinued to  increase.  A  colony  went  to  Missouri,  and  established  what  they 
called  the  "Zion"  at  the  town  of  Independence.  In  1838,  the  Saints,  to  the 
number  of  15,000,  quitted  Missouri,  and  passing  over  to  Illinois,  built  there 
JSauvoo,  or  the  City  of  Beauty,  of  which  Smith,  who  was  shot  by  a  mob  in 
1844,  became  the  supreme  ruler.  It  was  here  that  "celestial  marriage,"  or 
polygamy,  was  first  practiced. 

In  1845  the  hostility  of  the  ^^Geniiles"  grew  so  intense  and  threatening  that  the 
Mormons  were  forced  to  quit  Nauvoo,  and  passing  beyond  the  limits  of  civiliza- 
tion, they  settled  on  the  shores  of  Salt  Lake,  in  the  present  territory  of  Utah, 
in  1846.  From  this  new  Zion  missionaries  have  gone  forth  into  all  quarters  of 
the  world  to  make  converts  to  the  Church  of  the  Latter-Day  Saints.  They 
call  their  government  a  Theo-Democracy,  its  organization  consisting  of  a  presi- 
dency, a  patriarchate,  a  council  of  twelve,  a  college  of  seventy  or  the  propa- 
gandists, a  body  of  high-priests,  of  bishops,  of  elders,  of  priests  or  ministers, 
and  of  teachers  and  deacons  or  catechists,  and  church-collectors. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Mormons,  prescinding  altogether  from  its  gross  and  de- 
grading materialism,  is  the  most  grotesque  mass  of  absurd  rubbish  that  the 
human  mind  can  well  conceive. 

Their  distinctively  social  institution  of  polygamy  receives  its  sanction  from 
a  pretended  revelation  to  the  prophet  in  1843,  according  to  which  the  rank  an-i 
dignity  of  the  Saints  in  the  world  to  come  would  be  proportioned  to  the  num- 


1  Book  of  Mormon,  Book  of  Covenants.  The  former  work  has  been  several 
times  printed  since  1830,  even  in  German ;  tr.  by  Pratt,  Eine  Stimme  der  War- 
nung  und  Belehrung  fiir  alle  Volker,  from  the  English,  Hamburg,  1863. 
Turner,  Mormonism  in  all  Ages,  New  York,  1843.  *Jdrg,  Hist,  of  Protest, 
Vol.  II.,  p.  444-603.     Herzog's  Cyclop.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  1-17. 


1006  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  2. 

ber  of  their  wives  and  children  in  this.  There  is  also  among  them  a  partial 
community  of  goods,  and  they  have  very  justly  been  compared  in  many  re 
spects  to  the  Mohammedans.  The  origin  of  the  two  systems  rests  upon  a  ficti 
tious  revelation,  and  ihe  motives,  rewards,  and  punishments  are  strikingly  sim- 
ilar in  both.  The  sect  has  been  permitted  to  exist,  because  it  has  been  until 
quite  recently  beyond  the  bounds  of  civilization,  but  its  legal  or  forcible  sup- 
pression  is  only  a  question  of  years. 


V.  Edward  Irving  (t  1834),  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  minister,  who,  however, 
passed  most  of  his  public  life  in  London,  was  the  reputed  founder  of  a  very 
peculiar  form  of  sectarianism.  After  a  short  and  unsuccessful  ministry  in  Scot- 
land, he  came  to  London  in  1822,  and  was  soon  recognized  as  the  most  eloquent 
preacher  that  had  appeared  in  the  metropolis  for  years.  A  close  student  of  the 
Prophets,  of  Shakespeare  and  Byron,  his  language  was  naturally  elevated,  fer- 
vid, and  energetic,  and  his  church  was  thronged  with  the  elite  of  London  so- 
ciety. But,  as  time  went  on,  his  style  palled  upon  the  ears  of  his  hearers,  who 
deserted  him  in  large  numbers,  and  seeing  his  popularity  waning,  he  implored 
the  Holy  Ghost  with  passionate  earnestness  to  bestow  upon  him  the  gifts  of  the 
Apostles,  that  he  might  proclaim  to  the  world  in  fitting  terms  the  second  per- 
sonal coming  of  Christ,  which  he  believed  to  be  near  at  hand.  In  the  convic- 
tion that  his  prayer  had  been  heard,  he  began,  like  the  Christians  at  Corinth,  to 
preach  discourses  utterly;  incomprehensible  to  his  hearers,  and  to  fancy  that  he 
had  ecstatic  visions  {y?Maaair  ?.a?iElv).  He  was  tried  before  the  London  presby- 
tery on  the  charge  of  heresy  in  1830,  convicted,  and  deprived  of  his  charge  in 
1832,  and  in  the  following  year  deposed.  The  majority  of  his  congregation, 
captivated  by  the  brilliancy  and  eloquence  of  his  defense,  remained  loyal  to 
him,  and  with  these  originated  the  sect  of  Irvingitev,  or,  as  they  call  themselves, 
the  Apostolic  Catholic  Church.  They  believe  that  the  gift  of  prophecy  and  the 
apostolic  gift  of  tongues  are  inherent  and  perpetual  in  the  Church,  which  em- 
braces the  fourfold  ministry  of  apostles,  prophets,  evangelists,  and  pastors  or 
angels.  The  Irvingites  have  established  themselves  in  England,  Canada,  the 
United  States,  Prussia,  France,  and  Switzerland,  especially  at  Geneva,  but  they 
are  by  no  means  numerous.  In  Germany,  among  the  converts  to  this  new 
Church  of  the  Future,  were  the  pietist  theologian,  Thiersch,  of  Marburg,  and 
the  two  Catholic  priests,  Lutz,  of  Oberroth  in  Bavaria,  and  Spindler,  of  Augs- 
burg.i 

§  433.   Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Societies. 

Blumhardt,  Magazine  of  the  Most  llecent  Hist,  of  Evang.  Missions  and  Bible 
B-.icieties,  Basle,  1816.  The  Annual  Eeports  of  London,  Edinburgh,  Basle, 
Halle,  and  Berlin,  on  the  Success  of  the  Bible  Societies  and  the  Progress  of 
Evangelical  3Iissionary  Work  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, Berlin,  1828.     Steger,  Protestant  Missions,  Hof  (1838),  1844;  7iew  series 


^Jorg,  Hist,  of  Protest.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  77-203.  Lutz,  Farewell  Address  to  My 
Parish  of  Oberroth,  Kaufbeuren,  1857.  God's  Work  in  these  Latter  Daya, 
IJlm.  1857.     Jacobi,  The  Doctrine  of  the  Irvingites,  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1868. 


§  433.  Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Societies.       1007 

for  1830-1841,  Ibid.,  1842.  Wiggers,  Hist  of  Evang,  Missions,  Hamburg,  1845, 
2  vols.  Missionary  Keports  of  the  East  India  Missionary  Institute  at  Halle 
since  1849,  Halle,  1849  sq.  Kalkar,  Dewevangeliske  Missions-Historic.  Copen- 
hagen, 1857.  A  fine  and  carefully  elaborated  geographical  map,  giving  the 
Protestant  Missionary  Stations,  by  Tlieophilus  Koidg,  Berlin,  1851.  American 
Cyclopaedia,  art.  "  Missions,  Foreign."  Grunde}nann,  General  Missionary  Ailcs, 
Gotha,  1867-1871  (72  colored  maps),  merits  special  attention,  t  Wiseman,  Sieiril- 
ity  of  Missions  undertaken  by  Protestants;  Germ,  transl.,  Augsburg,  1835;  s 
similar  judgment  is  passed  by  a  Protestant  missionary  in  a  foreign  country, 
1840,  Nros.  119,  120,  and  by  Marshall  in  Christian  Missions. 

"We  have  already  stated  that  during  the  sixteenth  and  sev- 
enteenth centuries  there  was  comparatively  little  activity  in 
Protestant  missions. 

The  tirst  great  Protestant  missionary  society,  called  the 
^'-  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,''  was 
formed  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Having 
been  originally  designed  for  the  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  colonial  churches,  its  operations  have  been  con- 
fined to  the  British  colonies  in  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
Southern  Africa,  the  Seychelles,  Australia,  Tasmania,  and 
Kew  Zealand.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Church  of 
England. 

The  "  Scottish  Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowl- 
edge," founded  in  1709,  labored  for  some  years  among  the 
North  American  Indians,  but  without  producing  any  lasting 
results. 

From  1714  to  1845  the  Danish  Missions  wer9  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Royal  Missionary  College  and  Semniary  of  Copen- 
hagen. For  the  missions  of  East  India,  under  the  control  of 
the  same  college,  missionaries  trained  in  Franckc's  Institute 
at  Halle  were  as  a  rule  selected  ;  while,  for  those  of  Greenland, 
Danish  Lutheran  ministers  were  employed  from  the  year  1721 
onward.  The  latter,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Hans  Egede, 
succeeded  in  partially  civilizing  the  inhabitants,  and  converted 
about  ten  thousand  of  them  to  Christianity.'     Of  the  earh'er 


1  In  1835  the  chief  missions  of  this  association  were  transferred  to  the  Soci- 
ety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel;  and  in  1845,  with  the  transfer  of  the 
last  Danish  possessions  in  India  to  Great  Britain,  the  labors  of  the  College  of 
Missions  there  ceased  altogether.  Tiie  Greenland  Missions  have  passed  from 
the  control  of  the  Lutherans  into  the  hands  of  the  Moravians.   (Tr.) 


1008  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

evaugelical  missionaries,  the  Moravians  were  at  once  the  most 
earnest  and  the  most  successful.^  More  recently  several 
British  American  and  Continental  European  associations 
have  undertaken  to  propagate  Protestantism  among  the  hea- 
then. The  most  important  of  these  are  :  The  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Society,  founded  in  1792  ;  the  great  London  Missionary 
Society,  founded  in  1795  ;  the  Scotch  Blissionary  Society,  founded 
at  Edinburgh  in  1796  ;  and  the  Netherlands  Missionary  Society, 
founded  at  Rotterdam  in  1797,  mainly  through  the  influeuc6 
of  Dr.  Vanderkemp,  a  missionary  in  British  pay.  Of  the 
missionary  societies  founded  since  the  opening  of  the  present 
century,  the  most  efficient  are  the  Church  Missionary  Society, 
in  England,  organized  in  1799  ;  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions,  founded  at  Boston,  U.  S.,  in 
1810  ;  the  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  founded  at  London, 
England,  in  1817 ;  the  Welsh  Calmnistic  Methodist  Society, 
founded  in  1840  ;  the  Church  of  Scothmd  Society,  founded  in 
1824;  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland  Society,  founded  in  1843; 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  Society.  Among  the 
other  societies  established  in  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies  are : 
The  Glasgow  Missionary  Society, in  1796;  the  United  Secession 
Church's  Foreign  Mission,  1835  ;  the  Glasgow  African  Mis- 
sion Society,  1837  ;  the  Edinburgh  Medical  Missionary  Soci- 
ety, 1841  ;  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church's  Foreign  Mis- 
sion, 1842  ;  the  Loo  Choo  Naval  Mission,  1843 ;  the  Patagonian 
Mission,  1844;  the  English  Presbyterian,  1844;  the  Chinese 
Evangelization  Society,  1850  ;  and  the  Chinese  Society  for 
Furthering  the  Gospel,  1850.  One  of  the  most  useful  auxil- 
iary societies  at  work  in  India  is  the  Christian  Vernacular 
Education  Society. 

In  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  the  missions,  the  Continent  of 
Europe  has  remained  far  behind  England  and  America.    The 


1  The  missionary  fields  which  they  occupied  in  succession  were  the  Danish 
West  India  Islands  (1732),  Greenland  (1733),  North  American  Indians  (1734), 
Surinam  (1735),  South  Africa  (1736,  and  again  in  1792),  Jamaica  (1754),  An- 
tigua  (1756),  Barbadoes  (1765),  Labrador  (1770),  St.  Kitt's  (1775),  Tobago 
(1790,  and  again  in  1827),  the  Mosquito  coast  (1848),  Australia  (1849),  and 
Thibet  (1853).  They  now  count  in  ninety  stations  nearly  twenty-two  thousand 
communicants.     Cf.  Amer.  Oijclopaed.,  1.  c.  (Tr.) 


§  433.  Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Socidies.       1009 

Dutch  society  of  Rotterdam  has  ah'cady  been  mentioned.  The 
most  extensive  of  the  missionary  societies  of  continental  Europe 
is  that  of  Basle,  preceded  by  the  establishment  of  a  general 
missionary  seminary  in  1815.  An  independent  society,  tiie 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society  of  Basle,  was  founded  in 
1821,  which  now  sustains  missionaries  in  West  Africa,  India, 
and  China.  The  Basle  society  at  first  received  the  missionary 
contributions  of  Protestant  German}- ;  afterward  several  other 
societies  sprang  up.  Those  exclusively  or  mainly  Lutheran 
are  the  Berlin  Missionary  Societ}',  founded  in  1824,  and  sup- 
portmg  a  mission  in  Southern  Africa  with  thirty-one  stations 
and  forty-eight  laborers ;  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Mission- 
ary Association  of  Leipsig,  founded  in  1836,  and  occupying 
in  Southern  India  the  former  missionary  field  of  the  Danes; 
and  the  Hermannsburg  Society,  founded  in  1854,  which  sends 
out  entire  missionary  colonies,  especially  to  Bechuania  and 
Natal,  in  South  Africa.  Among  those  of  ecangelical  tendencies 
are  the  follovx'ing  :  The  Rhenish  Missionary  Society,  founded  in 
1828;  Gossner's  Missionary  Union,  founded  in  1836  ;  and  the 
ITorth  German  Missionary  Society,  founded  in  1836,  which 
have  missions  in  Africa,  India,  China,  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
and  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Special  associations  for  China 
have  been  formed  (from  1816-1849)  at  Cassel,  Barmen,  Dres- 
den, Halle,  Berlin,  and  in  Pomerania.  The  French  Reformed 
Church  has  had  a  missionary  society  since  1822,  which  sus- 
tains flourishing  missions  among  the  Bassutos  of  Southern 
Africa,  where  it  has  now  seventeen  stations.  Norway  founded 
a  foreign  missionarj'^  seminary  at  Bergen  in  1859,  and  Den- 
mark organized  its  own  missionary  society  in  June,  1860. 
There  are  now  fifty-two  Protestant  missionary  societies  en- 
gaged in  spreading  biblical  Christianity  among  the  heathen. 
These  societies  collect  and  spend,  in  the  aggregate,  annually 
over  $5,500,000. 

As  an  aid,  to  the  missionary  societies,  Bible  Societies  have 
been  organized  for  the  diftusion  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in 
every  tongue.  Nearly  simultaneously  with  the  foundation  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1804,  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  and  the  Religious  Tract  Society  came  into  ex- 
voL.  Ill — 64 


1010  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

istence.  They  are  most  important  auxiliaries  to  the  varioua 
missionary  societies,  for  which  they  form  a  sort  of  center  of 
operations,  and  have  enormous  resources  at  their  command. 
"With  no  desire  to  detract  from  the  good  Christian  missionaries 
have  done  by  translating  the  Bible  and  other  religious  worka 
into  many  languages,  or  from  the  really  great  contributions 
they  have  made  to  advance  knowledge  by  reducing  barbarous 
tongues  to  rules  and  preparing  grammars  and  dictionaries  of 
them,  we  can  not  but  regard  this  method  of  propagating 
Christianity  as  liable  to  many  abuses,  and  as  often  retarding 
rather  than  promoting  the  work  of  conversion.  First  of  all, 
the  translations  are  frequently  detestably  bad  ;  next,  the  read- 
ing of  the  Bible  icithout  note  or  comment  is  hardly  a  proper 
method  for  a  heathen  to  acquire  his  first  knowledge  of  Chris- 
tianity, when  Christians  themselves,  with  antecedent  Christian 
traditions  in  their  minds,  notoriously  disagree  as  to  the  proper 
interpretation  to  be  put  upon  its  words  ;  and,  finally,  the  Deu- 
tero-canonical  Books  are  regarded  by  Protestants  as  apocry- 
phal, and  since  the  j^ear  1831  have  been  excluded  from  the 
text  of  their  versions.  Moreover,  great  divergencies  of  opinion 
exist  among  missionaries  of  difierent  sects,  which  are  neces- 
sarily fatal  to  the  success  of  a  work,  requiring,  if  any  work 
does,  the  most  complete  harmony  of  belief  and  unity  of  ac- 
tion in  the  ministers  engaged  in  it.  To  preserve  an  appear- 
ance of  harmony,  the  German  Missionary  Societies  began,  in 
1846,  to  hold  general  assemblies  at  stated  intervals,  each  as- 
sembly being  held  in  a  different  city. 

Having  thus  considered  the  different  missionary  organiza- 
tions of  the  Protestant  world,  we  will  finally  pass  in  review 
the  principal  fields  of  missionary  labor,  and  see  whnt  has  been 
accomplished. 

The  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  i mmediately  after  its  organ- 
ization, sent  missionaries  to  the  north  of  India,  Dr.  Carey, 
its  organizer,  being  one  of  its  first  and  most  efficient.  Seram- 
pore  soon  became  the  center  of  successful  and  extensive  mis- 
sionary operations.  The  Bible,  entire  or  in  parts,  was  issued 
from  the  press  there  in  twenty-seven  different  versions,  and 
numerous  schools  were  opened.  The  Baptists  have  at  present 
missions   in  Western   Africa,    India,  China,    and    the  West 


§  433.  Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Societies.       1011 

Indies,  with  423  stations.  Missionaries  are  now  sent  to  India 
by  man}'  other  societies,  not  only  of  Great  Britain,  but  also 
of  the  United  States  and  Continental  Europe.  The  London 
Missionary  Society  sent  its  first  laborers,  twenty-nine  carefully 
selected  ministers,  to  the  South  Sea  Islam/s  in  1797,  where, 
after  twenty  years  of  difficulty  and  discouragement,  they  be- 
gan to  make  considerable  progress  in  'Jahiti,  the  chief  of  the 
Society  Islands,  and  subsequently  in  the  other  islands  also, 
many  of  which  are  now  entirely  Christian.  The  gentle  man- 
ners of  the  inhabitants  predispose  them  to  Christianity  and 
render  them  amenable  to  the  influences  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion.^ In  the  course  of  time  the  same  society  sent  mission- 
aries to  China,  the  Islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Mauri- 
tius, Southern  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  Guiana, Korth  America, 
and  also  to  the  Island  of  Madagascar,  where  they  made  con- 
siderable conquests,  mainly  through  the  enlightened  liberality 
of  King  Badama  I.  (fr.  1810),  who  received  them  kindly  and 
took  them  under  his  protection.  They  also  obtained  permis- 
sion from  the  King  to  open  schools  and  set  up  a  printing-press 
at  Antananarivo,  the  central  town  and  capital  of  the  whole 
island  of  Madagascar.  The  persecution  waged  by  Queen 
Banavalona  (fr.  1828  to  1861),  to  which  over  2,000  Chris- 
tians fell  victims,  whilst  others  hid  away  in  woods,  could 
not  extinguish  Christianity  in  her  dominions.  The  hopes  in 
spired  by  the  accession  of  Badama  II.  in  1861  were  abru[)tlji 
terminated  by  the  death  of  that  prince,  who  perished  in  a  pop 
ular  tumult  two  years  later.  His  successor,  Queen  Bosaheriiia 
in  a  treaty  concluded  with  England,  secured  liberty  of  con- 
science to  Christians.  The  Island  of  Mauritius,  which  became 
a  dependency  of  England  in  1810,  was  visited  by  ministers  of 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1814,  and  in  1852  created 
an  Anglican  bishopric.  The  Protestant  missions  on  the  Island 
of  Madagascar  are  directed  by  authorities  resident  here, 
while  the  Catholic  missions  on  the  same  great  island  are  con- 
ducted from  the  Island  of  lUunion.  The  most  distinguished 
of  the  Loudon  Society's  missionaries  are  Dr.  Bobert  Morri- 
son and  Karl  Gutzlaff,^  in  China,  and  Drs.  Moffat  and  Liv- 

1  Cf.  ''Ausland,"  1842,  Nros.  316  and  32S.  ' 

»  Born  at  Pyritz,  Pomerania,  in  1803,  he  died  in  Victoria,  Hong  Kong,  July 


1012  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

stone,^  ill  Africa.  Ttie  Anglicau  Church  Missionary  Society  se- 
lected as  its  first   missionary  field  Western  Africa.     As  iiu 

9,  185-1.  A  sonnet,  expressive  of  his  earnest  wish  to  become  a  missionary  tof 
tlie  heathen,  which  he  addressed  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  led  to  his  being  admit- 
ted as  a  student  into  the  missionary  institute  conducted  by  Jilnicke,  :n  Berlin. 
After  two  years  of  preparation,  he  obtained  his  first  appointment  Irom  th6 
Dutch  Missionary  Society  at  Kutterdam,  which  sent  h'm  to  Batavia  in  1826. 
There  he  married  a  rich  Englisli  lady,  and  during  liis  two  years'  sojourn  in 
Java  he  mastered  the  Chinese  language.  He  then  determined  to  go  on  his  own 
account  to  China.  Happening  in  the  summer  of  1828  to  fall  in  with  Tomlin, 
an  English  missionary  stationed  at  Siam,  he  went  with  him  to  Bangkok,  the 
capital,  the  aim  of  both  being  to  perfect  themselves  in  Chinese.  Thence  Giitz- 
lafl',  in  1831,  undertook  a  voyage  to  China,  and  Macao  now  became  his  principal 
station,  where  lie  formed  an  intimaXe  friendship  with  Robert  Morrison.  In 
conjunction  with  Med/mrst  and  two  other  friends,  Giitzlaff  began  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  into  Chinese.  With  the  assistance  of  Morrison,  he  founded 
a  society  for  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge  in  China,  published  a  Chinese 
monthly  magazine,  and  preached  at  Macao  and  elsewhere.  After  the  death  of 
Dr.  Morrison,  in  1834,  Giitzlaff  was  appointed  chief  interpreter  to  the  British 
superintendency.  The  difficulties  that  had  grown  up  between  the  Chinese  and 
British  had  obstructed  the  progress  of  the  missions.  During  the  war  he  ren- 
dered the  British  army  great  services  as  secretary  to  the  British  plenipotentiary, 
and  at  its  close,  in  1842,  as  mediator.  In  1844  he  organized  a  societj-,  ostensi- 
bly Chinese,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  Christianity  into  the  interior,  through 
the  medium  of  native  agents,  and  in  1S49  visited  Europe  in  behalf  of  the  pro- 
ject. He  was  finally  appointed  superintendent  of  trade,  which  office  he  held 
until  his  death.  Giitzlaft",  besides  his  translation  of  Biblical  works  into  various 
Asiatic  languages,  wrote  in  English,  "  History  of  the  Chinese  Empire,'"  London, 
1884;  "China  Opened,"  1838;  adjournal  of  Three  Voyages  along  the  Coast 
of  China"  (1831-1833);  and  a  "Life  of  Tao-Kuang,"  1851;  and  in  Chinese, 
"Pro  and  Contra."  Among  his  German  works  are:  Allgemeine  Lander-und 
Volkerkunde,  Ningpo,  1843  ;  GescJuchte  des  chhiesUchen  lieic/ies,  Stuttgart,  1847. 
Cfr.  Chambers'  and  American  Cyclopaedias,  s.  v.  (Tr.) 

1  David  Livingstone,  Scotch  Presbyterian  by  birth,  carried  away  by  religious 
enthusiasm  for  missionary  life,  studied  theology  and  medicine  at  Glasgow,  and 
offered  his  services  to  the  London  Society  as  a  missionary  to  Africa,  whither 
he  went  in  1840.  At  Natal  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  fellow  missionary, 
Robert  Moffat,  whose  daughter  he  afterward  married.  Soon  he  proceeded  in- 
land to  the  mission  station  Kuruman,  in  Bechuania,  where  he  labored  till  1849, 
■when  he  made  his  first  journey  in  search  of  Lake  Ngami,  which  be  discovered 
on  the  1st  of  August.  From  1852-185G  he  traversed  South  Africa  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  Lake  Ngami,  to  Linyanti ;  thence  to  the  western  coast 
in  lat.  10°  S. ;  then  returned  to  Linyanti ;  and,  after  passing  through  Tete,  de- 
scended the  Zambesi  to  the  sea,  passing  over  an  estimated  distance  of  11,000 
miles.  In  1857  be  published  in  England  his  first  book,  entitled  "  Missionary 
Travels  and  Kesearches  in  South  Africa."  In  1858  he  returned  to  Africa ; 
went  to  Quilii/iane,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Zambesi  river;  and  at  first  traveled 
N.  W.,  following  up  the  Zambesi  river.    He  then  diverged  to  the  north,  ox- 


§  433.  Protestant  Missions  and  Bible  Societies.       1013 

volunteers  could  be  found  in  England  for  this  arduous  mis- 
sion, the  society  commenced  its  operations  witli  the  pupils  of 
Jdnicke's  Missionary  Institute,  in  Berlin.  Fifteen  German 
missionaries  tried  (from  1804  to  1818)  to  evangelize  the  Rio 
Pongas,  but  their  efforts  were  baffled  by  the  deleterious  cli- 
mate and  the  intrigues  of  the  slave-traders;  yet,  after  1818, 
missionary  labors  were  attended  with  success  in  Sierra  Leone. 
The  Church  Society  erected  stations  in  India,  New  Zealand, 
in  Rupert's  Land  around  Hudson's  Bay,  in  the  West  Indies, 
in  China,  in  Abyssinia,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Niger.  In 
Eastern  India  an  Anglican  see  was  established  at  Calcutta  in 
1815,  and  three  suffragan  sees  at  Bombay  and  31adras  in  1833; 
and  finally  at  Colombo,  in  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Much  of  the 
success  of  the  missions  there  is  due  to  the  labors  of  Bishops 
Heber  (f  1826)  and  Wilson,  the  latter  of  whom  had  all  dis- 
tinction of  caste  abolished  among  Christian  Hindoos.  Still 
Christianity,  though  professad  by  some  of  the  most  gifted  of 
the  natives,  such  as  the  famous  Eammohun-Koy,  is  not  mak- 
ing many  conquests.  After  fifty  years  of  labor,  all  the  Pro- 
testant denominations,  according  to  the  statistical  tables  of 
Dr.  Mullen,  counted  in  1862  but  153,000  Christians  in  India. 
The  American  Board,  like  the  London  Society,  undenom- 
inational, but  mainly  representing  the  Congregationalists 
and  some  of  the  Presbyterian  churches,  at  present  has  mis- 
sions in  India,  China,  Japan,  South  Africa,  Turkey,  the 
Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Micronesian  Islands,  and 
among  the  North  American  Indians.  It  has  been  remarkably 
successful  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  (from  1819),  the  number 
of  members  in  its  churches  reachincr  at  one  time  more  than 


plonng  Lake  Nyassa,  which  he  discovered  in  1859,  and  afterward  explored  the 
country  W.  and  N.  W.  for  a  distance  of  about  300  miles.  In  186J,  Livingstone 
returned  to  England,  and  next  year  published  "  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to 
the  Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries."  He  immediately  set  out  on  another  expedi- 
tion, and  nothing  was  heard  of  him  for  years.  Finally,  the  "New  York  tJtjr- 
ald"  dispatched  Mr.  Stmdey,  one  of  its  correspondents,  in  search  of  the  missing 
traveler.  Mr.  Stanley  found  Livingstone  in  the  autumn  of  1871  at  Ujiji,  alive 
and  well.  Livingstone  and  Stanley  together  now  made  a  journey  to  tiie 
north  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  were  led  to  conclude  that  the  lake  had 
no  communication  with  the  Nile.  Mr.  Stanley  left  Livingstone  at  Unyam. 
yembe  in  March,  1872,  and  returned  to  England.  Livingstone  afterward 
reached  Lake  Bangweolo,  near  which  he  died  of  dysentery,  May  4,  1873.  (Tr.) 


1014  Pa^iod  3.     Ej)och  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

22,000 ;  the  present  number  is  12,360.  Many  of  the  Societ-^ 
and  Sandwich  Islands  have  embraced  Methodism.  In  recent 
times,  Methodists  have  labored  earnestly  to  convert  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Fiji  or  Viti  Islands,  and  in  1857  there  were  said 
to  be  54,281  attending  the  service  of  Wesleyan  missionaries.' 
The  Methodists  have  been  moderately  successful  in  the  king- 
dom of  Ashantee,  in  Africa,  and  also  on  the  southeast  coast. 

In  North  America,  the  31ethodists  and  Baptists  are  only  par- 
tiall}'  successful  in  their  eflbrts  to  gain  converts,  though  the 
German  Lutherans  make  considerable  progress. 

According  to  the  latest  statistical  reports,  Protestant  mis- 
sionary societies  support  about  5,000  missionaries,  scattered 
in  1,580  different  parts  of  the  globe.  Without  any  central 
Ruthority  or  common  principle  of  union,  representing  numer- 
ous societies  that  have  no  connection  with  each  other,  and 
destitute  of  the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  which  characterizes  the 
true  Catholic  priest,^  they  have  nothing  that  at  all  resembles 
the  splendid  and  elaborate  organization  of  the  Catholic  mis- 
j^ions.  But,  with  all  its  defects  and  shortcomings,  the  mission- 
ary zeal  displayed  in  the  present  and  preceding  centuries  by 
Protestantism  is  one  of  its  most  attractive  and  redeeming 
features.^ 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  rationalists  look  with  dis- 
favor upon  all  missionary  work,  because  the  missionaries  are 
engaged  in  propagating  teachings  which  in  their  eyes  have 
ao  value.  Rationalism  being  of  its  very  nature  barren  and 
destitute  of  every  vital  principle,  has  never  yet  either  in- 
spired or  produced  a  great  and  noble  work  ;  and  its  votaries 
"have  never  had  sufficient  faith  in  their  own  professions  to  go 


1  Cf.  Williams  and  Calvert's  Fiji  and  the  Tijians,  2  vols.,  London,  1858. 

2  The  Anglican  Church  Missionary  Society  pays  every  missioner  an  annual 
salary  of  6,000  francs,  1,000  for  his  wife,  and  500  for  every  infant  child.  Ac- 
cord "ng  t>  Rheinwalcl s  Ecclesiastical  Gazette  (Berlin,  1840,  Nro.  68),  the  ex 
per.ses  for  the  Protestant  missions  were  ihen  rated  at  14,000,000  francs.  The 
Catholic  Mission  Society,  the  only  one  yot  in  existence  in  the  Church,  spent  in 
1839  only  the  ninth  part  of  that  sum. 

'  The  Protestants  have  missionary  training  schools  established  at  Goap/^ri  (near 
Portsmouth),  in  England  (1801);  at  Andover  and  I'rmceton,  in  America;  at 
Berkel,  Rotterdam  (1810);  Basle  (1815);  Edinburgh  (1820);  Calcutta  (1821); 
Paris  (1824);  London  (1825) ;  Barmen  (1825) ;    Berlin  (1829). 


§  434.    Catholics  and  Frotestan's,  etc.  1015 


forth  and  preach  them  in  distant  lands  or  to  send  others  to 
do  so. 

The  Lutherans  of  Bavaria  showed  a  similar  spirit  in  desig- 
nating contributions  to  the  ISTiirnberg  Missionary  Society, 
the  wages  of  sin;  but  in  1852,  when  the  society  passed  wholly 
under  Lutheran  influence,  their  opinion  underwent  a  remark- 
able change. 

§  434.    Catholics  and  Protestants  and  their  Belations  to  Each 

Other. 

Cf.  Hisiorico-PoUUcal  Papers,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  31-47. 

During  that  predominantly  rationalistic  period  immediately 
preceding  and  immediately  following  the  French  Revolution, 
thQre  was  a  lull  in  polemic  strife  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants. Religious  indifference'^  everywhere  prevailed;  and 
while  some  professed  Deism  and  others  Atheism,  in  neither 
party  was  religious  conviction  sufiiciently  strong  or  religious 
feeling  sufiiciently  intense  to  give  occasion  to  polemic  contro- 
versy. People  had  ceased  to  give  any  attention  to  the  points 
of  difiereuce  that  distinguished  one  creed  from  another;  and, 
as  for  the  Catholic  Church  and  her  institutions,  those  who 
made  a  boast  of  their  superior  culture  and  enlightenment  no 
longer  thought  it  worth  while  to  take  any  notice  of  them. 
If  any  one  desirous  of  literary  notoriety  made  an  assault  upon 
the  Church,  he  did  so  from  a  political  rather  than  a  dogmatic 
point  of  view ;  or  he  attacked  some  particular  institution, 
such  as  the  Society  of  Jesus,  which  had  been  long  an  object 
of  hatred  to  parties  the  most  divergent  outside  the  Catholic 
body. 

Planck^  already  far  advanced  in  years,  having  had  neither 
share   in   nor  sympathy  with   the   revolutionary  movements 

1  Cfr.  Gengler,  Catholicity  and  Protestantism,  or  Indulging  a  Hope  of  their 
Lapsing  into  Indifferentism  (^Tubingen  (Quarterly  Review,  1832,  p.  203  sq.)  Seo 
also  Reflections  on  Indifference,  in  the  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  VIII., 
p,  751  sq. 

^Planck,  Outlines  of  a  Hist,  and  Comparative  Exposition  of  Dogmatical  Sys- 
tems, Cd  ed.,  Goettingen,  1822,  p.  77-83.  Cfr.  Brenner,  The  Ignorance  and  Dis- 
honesty of  Lutheran  Divines  Unmasked,  2d  ed.,  Bamberg,  1830. 


1016  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Fart  2.     Chcqiter  2. 

that  convulsed  his  age,  very  justly  repioached  Protestanta 
with  their  ignorance  of  Catholicism,  telling  them,  with  com- 
mendable frankness,  that  their  knowledge  of  it  was  little  bet- 
ter than  a  travesty  of  the  truth,  and  that  in  studying  it  they 
did  not  take  pains  to  inform  themselves  by  consulting  Cath- 
olic works  and  examining  Catholic  symbols,  the  only  authori- 
tative doctrinal  expositions  of  Catholic  faith,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, clung  to  the  old  traditionary  lies,  and,  when  seeking 
information  on  the  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church,  did  so 
in  the  works  of  hostile  writers,  b}'  whom  they  were  misrepre- 
sented. The  reproof  administered  by  Planck  and  Marhei- 
neke  to  the  Protestants  of  their  day  are  quite  as  applicable  to 
the  Protestants  of  our  own.  Catholic  doctrine  is  as  persist- 
ently misrepresented  and  falsified  now  as  then  in  Protestant 
catechisms  and  religious  works ;  among  others,  in  the  Cate- 
chism of  the  Synod  of  Duisburg,  published  in  1843,  with  a  view 
to  give  the  doctrinal  difl'erences  between  Catholics  and  Pro 
testants;^  and  Protestant  Faculties  of  Theology,  in  reporting 
upon  the  case  of  Bruno  Bauer,  carried  their  "  evangelical  zeal ' 
to  the  length  of  confounding  Catholicity  with  Deism  and  Kat- 
iiralism.^  Professor  Harless,  of  Erlangen,  a  leading  Protest- 
ant, had  the  indecency  to  publish  in  the  Protestant  Journal 
(July,  1843,  p.  77-86),  of  which  he  was  the  editor,  that  the 
Catholic  Church  is  the  whore  of  Babylon,  and  that  Popery 
was  introduced  into  Hayti  amid  bloodshed  and  licentiousness. 
"  Let  us  therefore  pray,"  he  added,  "  that  the  Lord  may  be 


^  Cf.  "Veracity  and  Impartiality  of  Protestant  Text- books,"  in  The  Catholic, 
August.  1841,  Supplement.  The  Catholic  Clergy  of  Crefeld  opposed  to  the 
Duisburg  Catechism,  a  Catechism  on  the  Differential  Doctrines,  Crefeld,  1844. 
ExaminaUon  of  the  Duisburg  Catechism  by  a  Catholic  Divine,  Diisseldorf,  1844. 
Trnih  and  its  Travesty,  or  the  Doctrines  of  the  Church  of  Eome,  opposed  to 
the  Defense  of  the  Duisburg  Catechism,  by  //.  J.  Grneher ;  reviewed  by  Dr. 
Henry  Rutjes,  2d  ed.,  Emmerich,  1845.  Balizer,  The  Christian  Dogma  of  Eter- 
nal Beatitude,  Mentz,  1844.  Idetn,  Theological  Letters,  Mentz,  1844;  2d  series, 
Breslau,  1845. 

2  Opinion  of  the  Prussian  Faculties  of  Protestant  Theology  on  the  Licentiate, 
33runo  Bauer,  Berlin,  1842;  a  sharp  reply  thereto  in  Bruno  Bauer  s  pamphlet, 
entitled  "The  Good  Cause  cf  Liberty  and  My  Own  Affairs,"  Zurich,  1843 
Criticisms  from  a  Catholic  point  of  view,  in  the  Tubing.  Q^uart.  Review  of  1842, 
p.  IGo  sq.;  and  in  The  Catholic  of  1844,  Sept.  nro.,  p.  115-117. 


§  434.    Catholics  and  Protestants,  etc.  1017 

pleased  to  destroy  with  the  breath  of  His  mouth  this  corrupt- 
ing and  sonl-destroying  institution." 

Religious  controversy  between  Catholics  and  Protestants 
once  more  ceased  almost  everywhere  during  the  continuance 
of  the  'N'apoleonic  Empire,  when  the  whole  German  people 
rose  up  as  a  single  man,  resolved  never  to  sheathe  the  sword 
until  they  had  rid  their  country  of  the  presence  of  a  foreign 
oppressor  ;  and,  again,  at  the  time  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
when  to  become  a  united  people  was  the  one  idea  that  domi- 
nated the  nations  of  Germany,  a  similar  absence  of  contro- 
versial rancor  was  noticeable.  But  the  calm  was  more  appar- 
ent than  real  ;  for,  when  the  claims  of  Catholics  were  brought 
before  the  Congress,  the  treatment  they  received  was  a  presage 
of  the  hostility  to  the  Church  displayed  at  a  later  day  ;  and, 
notwithstanding  that  Catholic  princes  had  united  with  Pro- 
testant princes  to  form  the  Germanic  Confederation,  and  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  all  denominations  were  secured  equal 
rights  by  Article  XVI.  of  the  Federal  Act,'  Catholics  were 
treated  with  unjust  discrimination,  and  their  expostulations, 
when  made,  evaded  by  the  Diet,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  in- 
competent to  deal  with  such  questions.^ 

The  celebration  of  the  ter-centeunial  jubilee  of  the  Reform- 
ation in  1817,  and  the  oft'ensive  bearing  of  Protestants  toward 
Catholics,  which  it  very  naturally  inspired  and  fostered,  re- 
vived the  polemical  spirit  of  a  former  age,  and  while  preachers 
from  their  pulpits  denounced  the  Church  with  vehement  bit- 
terness, ultra-Protestant  writers  assailed  her,  if  possible,  still 
more  fiercely  through  the  press.  This  outburst  of  religious 
animosity  became  general,  and  acquired  a  sort  of  historical 
importance,  from  the  fact  that  it  impressed  upon  Catholics  a 
sense  of  their  political  rights,  strengthened  their  faith,  and 
intensified  their  loyalty  to  the  Church.  In  Saxony,  where 
there  exists  a  perverse  disposition  to  prevent  a  reconciliation 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics,  the  occasion  was  eagerly 


1  Article  XVI.  reads  as  follows:  "  Difference  of  religion  shall  not  make  anj 
difference  in  the  enjoyment  of  civil  and  political  rights  throughout  tlie  Ger- 
manic Confederation." 

^  On  the  affiiir  of  Kettenburg,  see  ''The  Catholic,"  June,  1853.  See  al^f  above, 
at  page  880,  note  2,  the  writings  "On  Parity  in  Prussia." 


1018  Period  3.     E'poch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

seized  to  create  a  feeling  against  the  latter  on  political  grounds,' 
a  mode  of  misrepresentation  against  which  an  energetic  decla- 
ration was  made  by  the  bishops  of  England  at  this  very  time 
(1826).^  The  same  dishonest  tactics  were  resorted  to  after 
the  disastrous  and  fratricidal  w^ar  of  1866,  and  again  with  in- 
tensified virulence  after  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870  and 
1871.  On  the  former  occasion  the  Supreme  PrQtestant  Con- 
sistory of  Baden  was  seriously  compromised;  and  on  the  lat- 
ter the  Catholic  clergy  of  Prussia,  than  whom  there  is  not  a 
more  loyal  body  of  men  in  the  Empire,  and  notably  the 
Jesuits  and  other  Religious  Orders  of  both  sexes,  and  even  the 
bishops,  were  subjected,  under  the  Falk  laws  of  May  11,  1873, 
to  deprivation,  fines,  imprisonment,  and  exile.  These  laws, 
ostensibly  enacted  to  protect  the  rights  of  the  State,  have  ob- 
viously no  excuse  for  their  existence  other  than  that  of  para- 
lyzing the  energies  and  extinguishing  the  life  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  vain  did  a  farseeing  Swiss  tell  the  Germans,  on 
a  solemn  occasion  at  Frankfort  in  1862,  "  to  cease  their  relig- 
ious conflicts,  because,"  said  he,  "  they  are  the  death  of  Protest- 
antism, and  will  render  abortive  all  your  efforts  at  union." 

The  most  violent  personal  attack  which  these  religious  con- 
troversies called  forth  was  that  made  by  John  Henry  Voss,^  a 
Dutchman,  on  Stolberg,^  his  former  friend,  a  circumstance 
which  rendered  the  offense  unpardonable,  and  for  no  reason 
other  than  that  the  latter  saw  fit  to  exercise  the  Protestant 
prerogative  of  private  judgment  and  become  a  Catholic.  Tlio 
indignant  rejoinders  of  Catholic  writers  were  of  a  character 
to  fire  the  courage  of  the  most  listless  and  apathetic  of  their 

^  Tzsehirner,  Protestantism  and  Catholicism  from  a  Political  Point  of  View, 
4th  ed.,  Lps.  1824.  Abhot  M.  Precldl  answered  it  by  his  Examination  of 
Tzschirner's  Pamphlet,  Sulzbach,  1823.  Kemarks  of  a  Prussian  Protestant  on 
Tzschirner's  Onslaught  on  the  Catholic  Church,  Offenburg,  1824.  Another  Ex- 
amination of  Tzschirner's  Pamphlet,  by  WUliam  von  Schuiz,  1827. 

2  See  §403,  p.  733  sq. 

3  Voss,  How  did  Fred.  Stolberg  become  a  Slave  ?  Sophronizon,  1819,  Vol.  III. 
(Correspondence  between  H.  Voss  and  Jean  Paul. 

*  Stolberg,  Eeply  to  the  Libel  of  Aulic  Councillor  Voss,  Hamburg,  1820.  Cfr. 
Stolbeig  and  Dr.  Paulus,  of  Heidelberg  (by  Fr.  Geiger),  Mentz,  1820.  Stolberg 
and  Sophronizon,  or  The  Good  Faith  of  Doctor  Paulus,  Mentz,  1821.  Ilaseru 
Was  I  the  Devil's  Imp  when  I  turned  Catholic?   Hunzlau,  1854. 


§  434.   Catholics  and  Protestants,  etc.  1019 


co-religionists.  For  a  time  the  periodical  press  of  Germany 
introduced  offensive  personalities  into  polemical  discussions, 
and  converts  to  Catholicity  were  made  objects  of  satire  and 
ridicule  in  romances  written  expressly  for  the  purpose;'  but 
as  the  treatment  of  so  momentous  a  subject  in  so  flippant  a 
manner  was  out  of  harmony  with  the  staid  gravity  of  the 
German  character,  it  received  scant  encouragement,  and  was 
finally  abandoned.  Polemics  then  assumed  a  purely  scientific 
character,  and  this  date  marks  the  opening  of  the  controversy 
on  Symbolism,  or  the  historical  exposition  of  the  various  re- 
ligious systems  and  formularies  of  faith.  Marheineke^  assures 
us  that  his  chief  object  in  publishing  his  Symbolism  was  to 
correct  "  the  deep-seated  and  deplorable  ignorance,  not  only 
of  Protestant  laymen,  but  also  of  certain  theologians  and 
canonists,  concerning  Catholic  teaching,  which  was  most  ab- 
surdly misrepresented."  But,  in  spite  of  the  best  intentions, 
Marheineke  fell  into  the  very  fault  which  he  so  severely  re- 
buked in  others,  misstating  many  points  of  Catholic  doc- 
trine. The  writings  of  Winer,^  Guericke,  31arsh,  Planck, 
Koellner,  Thiersch,  and  in  a  measure  those  of  Boehmer,  are 
marred  by  the  same  blemish,  though  not  to  the  same  degree. 
To  the  surprise  of  every  one,  Charles  Hase  went  out  of  his 
way  in  his  Polemics,  a  work  of  little  value,  to  revive  the  old 

1  Bj-eisc/meider,  Henry  and  Antonio.  The  author  of  a  pamphlet  entitled 
"  Baron  von  Sandau  Reinstated  in  the  Tribunal  of  Sound  Criticism,"  Lps.  1839, 
p.  105,  justly  observes  ^'■that  woj-ks  of  such  a  character  will  pervert  the  jicdyment 
o/  indifferent  thinkers  and  scholars  for  a  half  a  century." 

2  Planck,  Outlines  of  a  Historical  and  Comparative  Exposition  of  the  Dog- 
matical Systems,  3d  ed.,  Goettingen,  1822.  Marheineke,  System  of  Catholicism, 
or  Comparative  Exposition  of  Doctrine  (or  Symbolism),  III.  Pts.,  Heidelberg, 
'1810-1814. 

^  Winer,  Comparative  Exposition  of  the  Doctrine  of  Different  Christian  De- 
nominations, Lps.  1824.  Klausen,  Constitutions  and  Rites  of  Catholicism  and 
Protestantism;  transl.  fr.  the  Danish  into  German,  2  vols.,  Keustadt,  1828- 
Guericke,  General  Christian  Symbolism.  Lps.  1839.  Marsh,  Comparative  Ex- 
position of  the  Anglican  and  lloman  Churches;  transl.  fr.  the  English  into 
Germ,  by  Dr.  Eisele,  Grimma,  1848.  Kbllner,  Symbolism  of  the  Christian  De- 
nominations, 2  vols.,  Hamburg,  1837-1844.  Thiersch,  Lectures  on  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism,  Erlangen,  18413.  Matthes,  Comparative  Symbolism  of  ail 
the  Christian  Denominations,  Lps.  1854.  Baier,  Symbolism  of  the  Christian 
Denominations,  Greifswalde  and  Lps.  1854  sq.  Bbhmer,  The  Differential  Doc 
trines  of  the  Catholic  and  Evangelical  Churches,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1857  sq. 


1020  PeriofI  3.     Epocli  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

quarrels  and  stir  up  fresh  hatred  between  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants; but  having  done  so,  he  had  no  right  to  complain  of 
the  acrimonious  tone  of  the  replies  which  so  unprovoked  an 
{issault  called  forth.^ 

After  remaining  for  a  long  time  on  the  defensive,^  Catholics 
assumed  an  emphatically  aggressive  attitude,  which  culmi- 
nated in  Moehlefs  splendid  work  on  Symbolism,  the  decisive 
influence  of  which  on  theological  science  and  the  develop- 
ment of  Catholicity  has  been  already  described.  Much  against 
the  author's  will,  he  was  forced  in  his  controversy  with  liis 
adversaries  to  abandon  the  pacific  and  dignified  language  of 
science,  and  to  speak  of  them  in  terms  of  indignant  rebuke.' 
When  such  was  the  spirit  that  animated  both  parties,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  "Catastrophe  of  Cologne"  should  have 
occasioned  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  a  controversy 
so  violent  that  it  raged  furiously  between  even  members  of 
the  same  family.  While,  on  the  one  hand,  Protestants  revived 
the  old  calumnies  against  the  Church  and  her  institutions,^ 
and  reproached  Catholics  themselves  with  being  intolerant; 
Catholics,  on  the  other,  charged  Protestants  with  having  low- 
ered the  standard  of  religious  controversy  by  stripping  it  of 
its  scientific  character  and  making  it  a  pretext  for  revolu- 
tionary movements,  and  of  having  inspired  the  iniquitous 
enactments  by  which  Catholics  are  even  at  the  present  day 
deprived  of  their  rights  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  slaves 


^Hase,  Polemics  against  the  Koman  Catholic  Church,  Lps.  1862 ;  2d  ed.,  '65 ;  3d, 
'71.  Replies  in  the  "  Episcopal  Letter  "  of  Bishop  Conrad^  of  Paderborn ;  in  "TVte 
Catholic^'  1864,  Vol.  I.,  p.  277-310;  by  Diertnger ;  by  Schidte,  JMan-traps  for 
Protestants,  Paderborn,  1865.  Cfr.  Vienna  General  Literary  Gazette,  1865, 
Nro.  16.  Speil,  The  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  opposition  to  Protest- 
ant Polemics,  Freiburg,  1865.  From  a  different  point  of  view:  Clnrus,  Liter- 
ary Sports,  Paderborn,  1806. 

-  See  p.  865. 

*  Moehler,  Symbolism,  etc.;  see  pp.  608  sq.  His  chief  opponents  were  Baui 
Nitzsch,  and  Marheineke.  Later  on,  Hilgers  wrote  Symbolical  Theology,  Bonn, 
18-41;  Buchmann,  Popular  Symbolism,  Mentz,  1843;  and  Thornas  Moore, 
Travels  of  an  Irish  Gentleman  in  Search  of  a  Religion,  1833. 

*It  was  said  that  converts  to  Catholicity,  in  making  their  confession  of  faitli, 
were  obliged  to  heap  maledictions  upon  their  Protestant  relatives,  and  that  the 
bull  "/n  Coetia  Domini"  is  still  read  annually,  both  of  whicl;  statements  were 
Knowingly /a^se,  and  the  former  wickedly  dishonest. 


§  434.  Catholics  and  Protestants,  etc.  1021 

in  Denmark,  Sweden,^  and  other  countries,  and  forbidden  to 
ring  the  bells  on  their  churches  in  the  Reformed  Cantons  of 
Zurich,  Basle,  etc.,  though  no  such  restrictions  arc  placed 
upon  Calvinists  in  the  Catholic  Canton  of  Soleure. 

At  this  time  it  was  thought  the  Protestant  King  of  Holland 
was  about  to  break  his  engagement  with  the  Countess  of 
d'Oultremont,  who  was  a  Catholic.  The  news  was  hailed  with 
joy  by  Protestants  throughout  the  country,  and  the  Handels- 
blad,  one  of  their  leading  newspapers,  forgetful  of  the  toler- 
ance of  which  it  professed  to  be  u  champion,  in  commenting 
on  it,  did  so  in  these  exultant  words:-  "The  King  has  won 
a  victory  over  himself.  iTetherlanders  rejoice,  in  that  he  has 
gained  a  triumph  such  as  few  of  those  heroes  whose  fame  fills 
the  world  have  achieved."  In  accord  with  this  spirit  of  in- 
tolerance was  the  conduct  of  Eisenlohr,  the  Protestant  eccle- 
siastical counsellor  of  the  Catholic  metropolis  of  Freiburg,  in 
Baden,  who,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  assembled  his  congre- 
gation in  church  on  the  Feast  of  Corpus  Christi,  "/or  the  pur- 
pose," as  he  announced  to  them  from  the  pulpit,  "  o/z(/7Y/i(;6'a?<;- 
ing  them  from  the  infection  of  Catholic  idolatry^  Abundant 
examples  of  the  same  spirit  might  be  given,  but  we  will  only 
advert,  in  passing  to  the  bitter  and  unjustifiable  assaults  upon 
Mgr.  LoAirent,  on  the  occasion  of  his  appointment  as  Bishop 
of  Hamburg  ;  to  the  reckless  denunciations  of  Queen  Victoria 
by  the  Tory  newspapers,  because  of  a  few  trifling  concessions 
made  to  the  Catholics  of  the  kingdom  ;  to  the  No-Popery  cry 
raised  when  the  Catholic  hierarch}'  was  restored  to  England 
in  1850  and  to  Holland  in  1853  ;  to  the  senseless  clamor 
against  the  Austrian  Concordat  in  1855  and  the  ignorant  mis- 
representation  of  the  definition  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the  preceding  year;  to  the  dis- 
honest tactics  employed  against  Superintendent  Hurler^  by 


1  There  are  some  remarkable  extracts  from  the  '^ Faedrelandet"  reproduced 
in  the  Augsburg  Universal  Gazette  of  1840,  ISTo.  34.  As  to  Sweden,  see  Cath. 
Eccl.  Gaz.,  1840,  Nos.  34,  37,  and  56.     Cf.  Sion,  1841,  No.  57. 

2  In  the  number  of  March  24,  1840.  Cf.  Cath.  Eccl.  Gaz.,  by  Hoenighaus, 
1840,  No.  35. 

^Hurter,  Antistes  of  Schaffhausen  and  His  so-called  Professional  Brethren, 
Schaffhausen,  1840. 


1022  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

his  so-called  Professional  Brethren  ;  to  the  Charlestown  and 
Philadelphia  riots  of  1834  and  1844  ;  ^  to  the  indecent  ribaldry 
against  the  Pope,  the  Church,  and  things  Catholic,  evoked 
by  the  Eongian  comedy ;  to  the  wicked  fabrication  of  formu- 
laries of  faith  and  forms  of  recantation  ascribed  to  Catholics ; 
and,  finally,  to  the  systematic  and  tyrannous  repression  of 
freedom  of  conscience  in  Switzerland,  and  to  the  slanderous 
misrepresentations  of  everything  Catholic  officially  enunciated 
at  the  ecclesiastical  synods  of  Berlin,  Wiesbaden,  Bremen, 
Frankfort,  Stuttgart,  and  other  cities. 

It  must,  however,  be  frankly  confessed  that  there  has  been 
no  lack  of  stinging  words  and  irritating  conduct  on  either 
side.  Since  it  is  inevitable  that  controversies  must  arise 
among  people  holding  and  acting  upon  opposite  religious 
principles,  it  is  eminently  desirable  that  they  should  be  con- 
ducted with  moderation  and  dignity,  and  be  allowed  to  disturb 
as  little  as  possible  the  amenities  of  social  life.  In  view  of  the 
determined  eftbrt  everywhere  being  made  to  obscure,  and,  if 
possible,  utterly  destroy  the  supernatural  character  of  the  Chris- 
tian and  every  other  religion,  to  ignore  the  controling  providence 
of  God  in  the  affairs  of  men  and  nations,  and  to  reject  the  divine 
authority  on  which  dogmatic  verities  are  based,  it  is  but  a  simple 
and  imperative  duty  with  Catholics  and  such  Protestants  as 
still  believe  in  a  revelation  and  profess  a  faith  to  unite  in  de- 
fending and  preserving  the  inestimable  treasure  of  revealed 
truth.  But,  above  all,  let  the  younger  clergy  understand  and 
take  it  seriously  to  heart  that  it  is  in  a  special  sense  their 
mission  to  demonstrate  the  truth  and  set  it  clearly  before  the 
minds  of  the  people ;  to  dwell  upon  the  grandeur  of  the 
Church  and  the  divine  power  residing  in  her  ;  and  to  show 
that  whenever  and  wherever  she  has  been  free  she  has  been 
quick  to  discover  and  prompt  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  the 
human  family.  In  this  way  they  will  conciliate  and  attract 
minds  now  alienated  from  her,  and  contribute  to  soothe  the 
asperities  of  polemic  strife  and  remove  the  obstacles  that  di- 
vide Christendom  outside  the  Catholic  Church  into  a  multi* 


»  The  Philadelphia  Eiot,  Hist,  and  Polit.  Papers,  Vol.  XIIT.,  pp.  837  sq. 


§  434.   Catholics  and  Protestants,  etc.  1023 

tude  of  conflicting  sects.^  The  same  advice  was  given  by 
Stark  in  1809  in  his  Banquet  of  Theodulus,  a  work  written  in 
excellent  temper,  with  the  laudable  design  of  conciliating 
Christians  of  every  profession. 

There  are  numerous  signs  which  go  to  show  that  the  divided 
state  of  Christendom  is  becoming  irksome  to  reflecting  minds  ; 
and  many  honest  Protestants,  if  they  do  not  at  once  enter  the 
Catholic  Church,^  are  disposed  to  listen  patiently  to  her  claims 
and  judge  them  impartially.^  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  Brenner*  and  Hoeninr/haus,^  in  traveling  through  Protest- 
ant countries,  found  many  of  the  inhabitants  well  disposed 
toward  the  Church.     It  is  also  a  promising  sign  to  And  en- 

'  According  to  the  statistical  report  given  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Gazette  of  Vi- 
enna, for  the  year  1853,  the  number  of  the  various  Christian  denominations  of 
the  world  are  as  follows:  Latin  Catholics,  194,500,000;  Greek  Catholics, 
4,500,000;  Armenian  Catholics.  200,000 ;  Maronite  Catholics,  530,000;  Syrian 
Catholics  (United  Jacobites),  35,000;  Chaldean  Catholics  (United  Nestorians), 
'20,000;  Koptic  Catholics,  15,000;  Syru-Chaldaic  Catholics  (United  Thomist 
Christians,  cf.  §§  123  and  124),  200,000;  total  number  of  Catholics,  200,000,000. 
Schismatic  Greeks,  64,000,000;  Schismatic  Armenians,  3,000,000;  Schismatic 
Ahyssinians,  1,800,000;  Schismatic  Syrians,  500,000;  Koptic  Monophysites 
200,000;  Syro-Chaldaic  Thomist  Christians,  100,000;  Chaldaic  Nestorians, 
500,000;  Koscolnics,  embracing  30  sects,  5,000,000;  total  Oriental  ScMs-mutical 
and  non-Catholic  Christians,  75,100,000.  Protestants  are  divided  into  40  larger 
and  110  lesser  parties.  The  Lutherans  number  18,000,000;  the  Anglicans, 
15,000,000 ;  the  so-called  United  Evangelicals,  i.  e.  Lutherans  and  Calvinists 
united  by  the  State,  12,000,000;  German,  Dutch,  and  Helvetic  Calvinists, 
7,000,000;  Methodists,  6,000,000 ;  Presbyterians  and  Calvinist  Baptists,  5,000,- 
000;  and  the  remaining  sects,  12,000,000;  total  Protestant  Christians,  80,000,000, 
or,  according  to  more  recent  reports,  89,000,000.  For  an  accurate  statistical 
statement  concerning  the  Catholic  Church,  see  The  Catholic  Bishoprics  of  the 
World,  by  Braumers,  Bergheim,  1861;  and  the  Annuario  Pontificio,  now  called 
La  Gerarchia  Cattolica,  published  yearly  at  Kome.  Cf.  Neher,  Ecclesiastical 
Geography  and  Statistics,  llatisbon,  1865-1868,  3  vols. 

'■^  Arendt  (private  lecturer  at  the  Protestant  faculty  of  Bonn  ;  died  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Louvain),  Statement  of  the  Motives  of  my  Conversion  to  the 
Catholic  Church,  Spire,  1882 ;  Hist,  of  Pope  Leo  the  Great,  Mentz,  1835. 

'^  Stark,  *  The  Banquet  of  Theodulus,  or  The  He-union  of  the  Different  Chris- 
tian Communions,  7th  ed.,  Frankfort,  1827 ;  Engl,  transl.,  Baltimore,  1868. 
The  Correspondence  of  Theodulus,  Frankfort,  1828. 

*  Bromcr,  Flashes  of  Light  among  Protestants,  or  New  Confessions  of  the 
Truth  made  by  its  Adversaries,  Bamberg,  1830. 

5  Hoenighaiis,  Eesult  of  my  Travels  through  Protestant  Territory,  or  Neces- 
sity of  Keturning  to  the  Catholic  Church,  Aschatfenburg  (1835),  1837. 


1024  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

lightened  Protestants,  whether  ministers  or  laymen,  using 
themselves  and  recommending  to  others  Catholic  works  of  de- 
votion and  instruction,  such  as  the  Folloioivg  of  Christ,  Spirit- 
ual  Voices  of  the  Middle  Ages,^  Massilloii's  Charges  or  Confer- 
ences on  the  Duties  of  the  Clergy,^  the  Pensees  of  Pascal,^  and 
the  Sermons  of  Perthold,  a  Franciscan  friar,  of  John  Tauter* 
and  others.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  the  conviction  is 
steadily  deepening  and  widening  that  the  Catholic  Church 
has  at  all  times  had  a  high  and  majestic  conception  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  Catholicity  itself  has  been  shamefully  mis- 
represented by  the  inveterate  prejudice  and  ignorant  hostility 
of  its  adversaries,  a  fact  to  which  Ludolph  von  Beckedorf  has 
drawn  public  attention  and  dwelt  upon  with  forcible  and  dig- 
nified earnestness.^  Moreover,  the  more  noble,  single-minded, 
and  religious  of  Protestants  are  precisely  those  who,  like  the 
Prodigal  Son,  begin  to  revive  the  memory  of  the  wealth  of 
blessings  their  forefathers  enjoyed  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  to  yearn  for  an  inheritance  that  should  be  theirs.  They 
listen  to  the  inspiring  chants  of  the  Church,  assist  at  her  re- 
ligious offices,  and  witness  the  beautiful  and  touching  rites 
and  customs  that  appeal  to  ej-e  and  ear  and  heart  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  Baptism,  Holy  Eucharist,  Confirmation,  Mar- 
riage, Penance,  and  Extreme  Unction,^  and,  turning  sorrow- 
fully away,  grieve  that  they  too  are  not  in  the  House  of  their 
Father.  And,  while  in  many  places  pictures  and  statues  are 
being  quietly  set  up  in  the  churches,  and  the  beautiful  Cath- 
olic practice  of  ringing  the  Angelus  at  sunrise,  midday,  and 
sunset  is  being  again  introduced,  in  others  the  proposal  to 

1  Galle,  Spiritual  Voices  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Halle,  1841. 

^  Massillon's  Charges,  Eccl.  Conferences  and  Synodal  Discourses  and  Episco- 
pal Mandates  on  the  Principal  Duties  of  the  Clergy ;  Engl,  transl.,  by  the  Kev. 
C.  II.  Boylan,  in  2  vols.,  dedicated  to  Bp.  John  McHale,  Dublin,  1825 ;  Germ, 
traiisl.,  by  Reineck,  Magdeburg,  1835-1836,  2  vols. 

^Pascal,,  Pensees  sur  la  religion  ;  Germ,  by  Blech,  with  prefa»;e  by  Neander, 
Beilin,  1835;  several  times  transl.  into  English  ;  the  original  ed.  of  1670,  with 
illustrations  by  Gaucherel,  reprinted  in  1874. 

*  Cf.  Vol.  II.,  p.  1035,  note  2. 

*  L.  von  Betkedorf,  A  Few  Words  of  Peace  and  Reconciliation,  3d  ed.,  Rat- 
isbon,  1852. 

^  Hengstenberg' s  Evangelical  Church  Gazette,  October  29,  1856.  Fnrtlior  de- 
tails, Jorg's  Hist,  of  Protestantism,  Vol.  I.,  p.  445-555. 


§  435.  Conclusion.  1025 


make  liturgical  ceremonies,  auricular  confession,  and  extreme 
unction  part  of  divine  service  has  given  occasion  to  animated 
discussion,  and  at  times  to  unseemly  struggles.  These  inno- 
vations were  attempted  at  Breslau  and  Stuttgart  by  the  Con- 
sistorial  Counsellors,  ^oAme?' and  ^a^^p;  and  in  England  an 
effort  was  made  to  restore  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  and 
the  ancient  catechumenate. 

We  may  enumerate  here,  and  we  do  so  with  pleasure,  a  few 
of  the  many  works  in  which  Protestants  have  emulated  the 
zeal  of  Catholics.  These  are  the  propagation  of  Christianity, 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  needy, 
and  the  cultivation  of  the  various  branches  of  Christian  art. 
If  the  restoration  of  the  cathedrals  of  Ratisbon,  Bamberg, 
Spire,  Cologne,  Strasburg,  and  other  cities  is  due  to  the 
artistic  skill,  enlightened  taste,  and  splendid  generosity  of 
the  Catholics,  the  restoration  of  the  churches  of  St.  Elizabeth 
at  Marburg,  of  Our  Lady  at  Esslingen,  and  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Basle,  not  to  mention  others,  is  due  to  the  same  qualities 
on  the  part  of  Protestants;  while  a  multitude  of  new  struc- 
tures have  been  erected  by  both. 

§  435.    Conclusion. 

We  have  now  brought  to  a  close  the  work  we  proposed  to 
ourselves,  which  was  to  draw  with  all  possible  fidelity  an  out- 
line of  the  History  of  the  Church  in  her  foundation  and  the 
principal  phases  of  her  development;  in  her  growth  and  con- 
flicts; in  her  sufferings  and  victories;  and,  finally,  in  the  tri- 
umphant maintenance  of  her  unchangeable  teachings  against 
the  ever-shifting  forms  of  heresy. 

We  have  seen  that  she  was  prefigured  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment;  that  she  was  established  by  Christ  and  made  prolific 
by  the  blood  of  the  Martyrs;  that  for  a  time  she  remained  in 
obscurity,  seeking  a  refuge  in  the  dwellings  of  private  indi- 
viduals and  an  asylum  in  the  Catacombs,  but  only  to  come 
forth  at  a  later  day  triumphant  and  glorious;  that  she  was 
victorious  over  Rome,  its  idols,  and  its  emperors ;  that  she 
became  the  civilizer  of  the  barbarian  hordes  of  the  North  and 
VOL.  Ill — 65 


1026  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Chapter  2. 

the  queen  and  mistress  of  the  nations,  which  submitted  with 
joyful  alacrity  to  her  spiritual  authority,  vested  in  St.  Peter 
and  his  successors ;  that  she  has  ever  been  the  patron  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  and  the  guardian  of  true  liberty ;  that  she 
has  been  unceasingly  in  conflict  with  error,  superstition,  and 
every  form  of  unbelief,  and  has  uniformly  vanquished  them 
all,  and  come  forth  unharmed  from  the  struggle;  that  when 
borne  down  with  grief  by  the  betrayal  and  desertion  of  her 
own  children,  she  has  been  consoled  and  gladdened  by  the 
accession  of  strangers  to  her  fold,  who  have  rivaled  her  most 
generous  sons  in  the  loyalty  of  their  attachment ;  that  she 
has  stood  firm  and  unshaken  amid  the  malignant  persecutiona 
which  she  has  endured  in  every  age  and  country  ;  that  every 
species  of  force  and  every  manner  of  weapon  have  been  used 
against  her,  and  that  she,  strong  in  the  strength  of  her  un- 
changeable doctrine,  her  unity  of  constitution,  and  her  abiding 
and  reliant  faith  in  the  promises  of  God,  has  successfully  re- 
sisted them  all,  and  by  the  incomparable  majesty  of  her  in- 
stitutions, the  number,  variety,  and  beneticent  character  of  her 
works,  and  the  heroic  devotion  of  her  ministers,  has  proven 
herself  superior  to  violence  and  fearless  of  aggression  ;  that, 
though  not  aflected  by  the  periodical  changes  of  the  times  and 
inaccessible  to  them,  she  alone  has  fully  comprehended  the 
wants  of  successive  ages,  and  has  been  alone  capable  of  ade- 
quately supplying  them  ;  that,  while  rising  above  the  intrigues, 
the  animosities,  and  the  struggles  of  social  and  political  rev- 
olutions, she  has  stilled  the  fierce  passions  that  they  evoked 
and  healed  the  rankling  wounds  that  they  inflicted  ;  and, 
finally,  we  have  seen  that  she  has  everywhere  and  always 
faithfully  labored  to  accomplish  the  work  committed  to  her 
of  converting  the  heathen  and  bringing  all  men  to  God  by 
subduing  all  to  the  light  and  easy  yoke  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
numerous  figures  foreshadowing  the  promised  work  of  man's 
redemption,  and  the  long  series  of  events,  commencing  with 
the  beginnings  of  time  and  leading  up  to  it,  found  their  reali- 
zation, perfection,  and  maturity  in  the  Church,  of  which  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  head,  who,  on  this  very  account,  has  ever  been 
and  must  ever  be  the  center  of  the  political  history  of  the  loorld. 
The  foundation  of  the  Church  marked  a  new  era,  the  charac- 


435.   Conclusion.  1027 


teristics  of  \Yhich  are  legible  on  every  page  of  the  U'orld'a 
history  from  that  day  to  this.  In  the  Church  all  nations  have 
sought  and  found  freedom,  peace,  and  order.  Alike  in  their 
X^rosperity  and  in  their  adversity,  in  their  pride  and  in  their 
humiliation,  they  have  been  objects  of  her  tender  care  and 
loving  solicitude.  She  sympathizes  with  them  in  their  strug- 
gles, rejoices  in  their  victories,  mourns  over  their  disasters, 
and  hails  their  regeneration  with  exultant  gladness.  The  me- 
diatrix between  earth  and  heaven,  she  is  the  link  uniting  the 
perishable  with  the  everlasting  ;  and  glorifying  God  in  man- 
kind, she  prepares  mankind  for  the  fullness  of  glory  in  God 
through  Jesus  Christ. 

The  guide  of  nations  and  peoples,  she  places  herself  at 
their  head,  and,  leading  them  on  to  the  full  light  of  the  Gos- 
pel, unites  them  all  under  the  one  standard  of  the  Cross. 
Having  subsisted  from  the  beginning,  she  will  continue  inde- 
fectible to  the  end,  a  glorious  Church,  one,  holy,  catholic,  and 
apostolic,  because  she  has  been  founded  by  the  power  of  the 
Most  High  ;  has  never  for  a  moment,  from  the  days  of  the 
Apostles  to  our  own,  been  shut  out  from  the  light  of  God's 
countenance  or  the  sweetness  of  His  love  ;  and  has  labored 
ceaselessly  and  assiduously  to  sanctify  the  world  through  the 
abiding  presence  and  active  influence  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
That  she  is  still  the  Spouse  of  Christ  and  bears  upon  her  the 
tokens  of  divinity,  and  that  her  children  are  as  believing  and 
obedient  in  this  as  in  any  former  age,  the  circumstances  at- 
tending the  celebration  at  Rome  of  the  eighteenth  centenary 
of  the  death  of  St.  Peter,  on  the  29th  of  June,  1867,  furnish 
the  most  abundant  proof;  wdiile,  at  the  same  time,  they  have 
given  an  impulse  to  faith  all  over  the  Christian  world,  and 
have  pointedly  rebuked  the  unbelief  so  characteristic  of  these 
latter  days.  And  what  she  has  done  in  time  past,  if  one  may 
trust  the  signs  now  rising  above  the  horizon,  she  will  do  in 
time  to  come  for  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Weary  of  their  long 
and  cheerless  wanderings,  they  will  again  lift  up  their  hearts 
in  hope  ;  turn  with  wistful  gaze  toward  the  Cross,  resplendent 
and  triumphant ;  and  seek  a  remedy  for  the  evils  that  threaten 
social  and  political  life  with  dissolution  in  the  Church  of 
Christ,  whose  fondest  care  it  has  ever  been  to  minister  to  the 


1028  Period  3.     Epoch  2.     Part  2.     Cha'pter  2. 

wounds  of  mankind  with  more  than  a  mother's  tenderness, 
and  to  relieve  pain  and  suffering  with  the  balm  that  oozes  out 
of  the  tree  of  the  Cross  and  the  soothing  potency  of  apostolic 
words.  In  Great  Britain,  in  America^  and  in  France^  the 
movement  has  already  begun.  The  people  of  these  countries 
are  returning  in  throngs,  like  erring  but  now  repentant  chil- 
dren, to  the  bosom  of  their  long  deserted  mother ;  and  the 
morning  star  of  Christianity  is  once  more  rising  over  the 
'peoples  of  Islam,  whose  mission  in  history  seems  to  have  come 
to  end.^ 

Blessed  be  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  in  and  through  His 
Church,  and  may  He  hasten  the  day  when  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants, united  in  one  fold  and  under  one  Shepherd,  will 
praise  and  bless  the  Son  of  God  with  accordant  voice,  and,  in 
the  full  consciousness  of  past  shortcomings  and  the  forgiv- 
ing generosity  of  present  joy,  cry  out :  "  We  have  all  some- 
thing to  reproach  ourselves  with  in  time  gone  by  ;  but  now, 
putting  all  differences  aside,  we  confess  that  the  Church,  the 
Immaculate  Spouse  of  Christ,  through  her  Infallible  Head, 
is  and  has  ever  been  and  ever  will  be  unerring  in  her  teach- 
ings and  holy  in  her  practice.  Having  strayed  from  the  right 
road  in  the,  past,  we  desire  for  the  future  to  labor  solely  for 
God's  honor  and  glory."  This  frank  confession  of  faults  on 
both  sides,  diff"erent  indeed  in  character,  but  faults  none  the 
less,  will  be  succeeded  by  n  great  feast  of  reconciliation,  and 


*  Witness  the  recent  establishment  and  endowment  by  private  munificence  of 
fix  free  Catholic  nm'versities,  viz.,  of  Paris,  Lille,  Poitiers,  Lyons,  Angers,  and 
Toulouse.  iTr.) 

■^  Weil^  in  his  Historical  and  Critical  Introduction  to  the  Koran,  speaks  in 
these  words  of  the  future  of  the  Islam :  "  If  it  be  asked  what  will  be  the  future 
of  Islam,  and  by  what  means  will  it  reach  the  high  degree  of  civilization  at 
which  Europe  has  arrived,  we  think  we  may  reply  that  it  will  follow  in  every 
respect  the  course  already  traversed  by  Judaism.  It  will  separate  tradition 
from  revelation,  properly  so  called,  and  establish  in  its  Sacred  Books  a  broad 
distinction  between  eternal  verities  and  simple  prescriptions.  Its  absorption 
witi  Christianity  will  be  the  more  easy,  from  the  fact  that  Mohammed  himself 
assigns  to  Christ  and  the  Blessed  Virgin  a  higher  rank  than  do  even  a  great 
many  Protestants.  Kationalism  is  a  necessary  step  in  the  conversion  of  both 
Jew  and  Moslem;  but,  once  they  have  reached  this  point,  they  appreciate  the 
necessity  of  a  positive  law,  and  go  straight  into  the  Catholic  Church." 


435.   Conclusion.  1029 


the  differences  of  centuries  will  be  utteriy  forgotten  in  the 
flood  of  heavenly  joj  that  will  sweep  over  all  hearts  once 
more  united  in  the  loving  Heart  of  Jesus. 

Already  Protestants  have  joined  in  generous  rivalry  with 
Catholics  in  building  up  the  twin  towers  of  the  majestic 
Cathedral  of  Cologne,  where  bells  are  destined  to  be  hung 
whose  peals  will  ring  out  upon  the  air  of  Germany,  carrying 
the  soothing  music  of  their  sounds  into  every  city  and  ham- 
let, to  summon  the  entire  people,  once  more  united  as  in 
pre-Reformation  days,  to  the  service  and  the  temple  of 
the  living  God,  and  to  fellowship  with  the  great  Catholic 
family.^ 

But,  alas  !  there  are  still  many  nations  nearly,  if  not  wholly, 
estranged  from  Christianity,  which  can  enter  the  kingdom 
of  God  only  through  great  tribulation.^  Even  in  Europe  the 
now  dominant  Liberals  and  Freemasons  have  entered  upon  a 
malignant  and  systematic  persecution  of  the  Church,  have 
set  themselves  to  the  diabolical  work  of  destroying  all  posi- 
tive faith,  and  have  caused  laws  to  be  enacted  by  which 
priests  are  subjected  for  imaginary  offenses  to  heavy  tines, 
imprisonment,  and  exile;  Religious  Orders  expelled  ;  and  other 
measures  equally  iniquitous  carried  out  under  pretense  of 
providing  for  the  well-being  of  the  State.  These  persecu- 
tious,  however,  will  serve  to  purify  the  Church,  to  renew  her 
strength,  and  give  her  fresh  beauty.  Let  hatred  be  as  satani(; 
as  it  may  and  wickedness  as  malignant,  they  will  both  prove 
ineffectual  against  the  Church.  There  resides  a  power  within 
her  that  is  not  of  man,  but  of  God,  and  though  her  triumjth 
may  be  delayed,  it  is  sure  to  be  glorious  in  the  end.     The 


^  Wolfgang  Memel,  reviewing  a  number  of  writings  on  the  Cologne  Cathe- 
dral (in  the  Literary  Fly-leaf  of  his  Morning  Gazette,  1843,  Nros.  1.2,  3),  uses 
words  of  similar  import;  and  Frederick  William  IV.,  in  laying  the  first  stone 
for  the  resumption  of  work  on  the  same  cathedral,  spoke  of  "  the  feelings  of 
brotherly  love  which  the  various  denominations  should  bear  toward  each  other, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  all  one,  being  united  under  Divine  Head." 

*  Acts  xiv.  21.  "  Will  Germany  become  Catholic  ?  "  by  the  author  of  Inqui- 
ries concerning  Catholicism,  Protestantism,  and  Liberty  of  Conscience,  Schaff- 
hausen,  1859.  Return  to  the  Catholic  Church  the  Problem  of  the  Age,  by  a 
Protestant,  Leipsig,  1851. 


1030  Period  3.     E:poch  2.     Fart  2.     Chapter  2. 

Spirit  of  Truth  will  once  more  move  over  the  face  of  the 
earth;  man's  soul  will  be  enlightened,  renewed,  beautified 
by  grace;  materialism,  seen  in  all  its  grossness  and  hideous 
ugliness,  will  evoke  only  feelings  of  loathing  disgust,  and 
mankind  will  tarn  again  in  repentant  gladness  to  God. 


IND   OF    VOLUME   THIRD, 


I.  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


POPES    AND    THE     ROMAX     EMPERORS 


Being  a  continuation  of  Vol.  II.,  j^-  1072. 


POPES. 

Hadrian    VI.    1522-1523    (a   Nether- 
lander). 

Clement  VII.  1523-1534. 

PaulIII.  1534-1549. 

Julius  III.  1550-1555. 

Marcellus  II.  (only  21  days.) 

Paul  IV.  1555-1559. 

Pius  IV.  1559-1565. 

St.  Pius  V.  1566-1572, 

Gregory  XIII.  1572-1585. 

Sixius  V.  1585-1590. 

Urban  VII.  (13  days.) 

Gregory  XIV.  ( 10  months  and  10  days.) 

Innocent  IX.  1591  (a  little  more  than  2 
months). 

Clement  VIII.  1592-16U5. 

Leo  XI.  (27  days.) 

Paul  V.  1605-1021. 

Gregory  XV.  1021-1623: 

Urban  VIII.  1623-1644. 

Innocent  X.  1644-1655. 

Alexander  VII.  1055-1667. 

Clement  IX.  1667-1669. 

Clement  X.  1670-1676. 

Innocent  XI.  1070-1689. 

Alexander  VIII.  1689-1691. 

Innocent  XII.  1691-1700. 

Clement  XL  1700-1721. 

Innocent  XIII.  1721-1724. 

Benedict  XIII.  1724-1730. 

Clement  XII.  1730-1740. 


EMPERORS. 


Charles  V.  1519-1556. 


Ferdinand  I.  1556-1564. 
Maximilian  II.  1564-1576. 

Rudolph  II.  1576-1612. 


Matthias,  1612-1619. 
Ferdinand  II.  1619-1637. 
Ferdinand  III.  1637-165" 

Leopold  I.  1657-1705. 


Joseph  I.  1705-1711. 
Charles  VI.  1711-1740. 


(1031) 


1032     Chronological  Table — Popes  and  llom.aa  Emperors. 


POPES. 

^'Benedict  XIV.  1740-1758. 

Clement  XIII.  1758-1769. 
Clement  XIV.  1769-1774. 

Pius  VI.  1775-1799. 
Pms  VII.  1800-1823. 
Leo  XII.  1823-1829. 

Pius  VIII.  1829-1830. 
Gregory  XVI.  1831-1846. 
Pius  IX.  1846-1878. 
Leo  XIII.  1878. 


EMPKRORS. 

Maria  Teresa  and  her  consort,  Fran- 
cis I.  1740-1765. 

(Charles  VII.  1742-1745,  Pretender.) 

Maria  Teresa  and  her  son,  Joseph  II. 
1765-1780. 

Joseph  II.  1780-1790. 

Leopold  II.  1790-1792. 

Francis  II.  1792-1806,  when  the  Ger- 
man Empire  was  dissolved. 


II.  CHRON^OLOGICAL  TABLE 


MOST    IMPORTANT     PERSONAGES    AND    EVENTS 

DURING  THE   THIRD   PERIOD  (1517-1878), 

FIRST  EPOCH  (1517-1648). 


DI0NT8IAN   ERA. 

1513-1521.  Pope  Leo  X..  in  1517,  has  an  indulgence  preached  in  behalf 
of  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's  church.  The  Dominican,  Teizel, 
preaches  the  indulgence  in  the  States  of  the  Elector  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Mentz. 

1517.  On  the  31st  of  October,  Luther,  preacher  and  professor  at  the  Uni- 

versity of  Wittenberi;,  affixes  ninety-five  propositions  on  indul- 
gences to  the  doors  of  the  church.  A  reply,  written  by  the  Do- 
minican, Sylvester  Prierias,  appears  shortly  after. 

1518.  In  the  month  of  April,  on  the  occasion  of  the  meeting  of  a  General 

Chapter  of  the  Augustinians  at  Heidelberg,  Luther  freely  avows 
anti-Catholic  propoi-itions,  forming  the  foundation  of  his  subse- 
quent teachings,  and  wins  over  to  his  cause  Bucer,  Schnepf,  and 
Brenz;  he  comes,  later  on,  before  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  presents 
himself  before  Cardinal  Cajetan,  and  appeals  from  the  Pope  ill 
informed  to  the  Pope  better  instructed.  The  Pope  appoints  Pro- 
magister  Gabriel  General  ;n'o  Um.  of  the  Augustinians.  At  Dan- 
zig the  monk,  James  Knade,  preaches  in  the  spirit  of  Luther. 

1519.  Death  of  Emperor  Maximilian.     Frederic  the  Wise  is  appointed 

Ptegent  of  the  Empire.  Luther  presents  himself  before  iNIiltitz 
at  Altenburg.  Disputation  at  Leipsig(June  27-July  16)  between 
Eck,  Carlstadt,  and  Luther.  Notwithstanding  Eck's  victory  over 
Luther,  the  latter  wins  over  to  his  cause  Melanchthon,  and  also 
the  turbulent  and  dissipated  nobles  of  the  times  (Ulrich  von  Hut- 
ten,  Francis  of  Sickingen),  whom  he  professes  to  regard  as  angels 
sent  for  his  service.  Olaf  and  Lawrence  Peterson  create  an  agi- 
tation in  Sweden  in  favor  of  Lutheranism.  In  Switzerland, 
Zwingli  opposes  Bernard  Samson,  a  preacher  of  indulgences 
Charles  v.,  Emperor,  1519-1556. 
1620.  Papal  bull  of  excommunication  against  Luther.  Dr.  Eck  and  the 
Papal  Legates,  Carraccioli  and  Aleandro.  Luther  publishes  in- 
flammatory  religious  and  political  writings,  such  as  the  '-Address 
to  the  Chrisilun  Nobles  of  Germany ;"  "  On  the  Babylonish  Captiv- 

(1033) 


1034 


Chronological  Table. 


9I0NYBIAN    ERA. 

ity  f^  "  0?!  Christian  Liberty;"  and  ^'Against  the  Bull  of  Anti- 
christ;" and,  finally,  on  the  10th  of  December,  he  burns,  together 
with  the  papal  bull,  the  Canon  Law,  many  scholastic  and  casuist- 
ical works,  and  the  controversial  writings  of  his  adversaries. 

1521.  Luther  comes  before  the  Diet  of  Worms ;    decree  issued  against 

him;  his  retirement  to  the  castle  of  Wartburg  (Patmos).  Loct 
theologici  of  Melanchthon.  Disturbances  at  Wittenberg,  occa- 
sioned by  Carlstadt,  Storch,  Thomas  Miinzer,  and  others. 

1522.  Luther  declares   against   the  Visionaries  of   Wittenberg.     Brenz 

preaches  Lutheranism  at  Hall,  in  Suabia.  Henry  VIII.  pub- 
lishes a  work  against  Luther.  The  writings  of  the  latter  are 
spread  through  Hungary  and  Transylvania. 

1622-1623.  Hadrian  VI.  His  Declaration  at  the  Diet  of  Niirnberg  through  his 
Legate,  Chieregatl,  and  his  View  of  Luther.  Bucer  and  Capito 
preach  Lutheranism  at  Strasburg.  Disputation  at  Zurich  (Janu- 
ary, 1523)  between  Faber  and  Zwingli,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  latter  wins  over  to  bis  side  Leo  Judae  and  Hetzer.  Margrave 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  in- 
vites the  I^utheran  preachers,  John  Brismann  and  Peter  Aman- 
dus,  to  come  into  his  States.  The  Bishops  of  Samland  and  Pome- 
sania  publicly  join  their  party  in  1524.  In  Sweden,  Gustavus 
Vasa  avails  himself  of  Lutheranism  to  obtain  his  ends.  Bugen- 
hagen,  preacher  at  Wittenberg. 

1623-1584.  Clement  VIL,  Pope.  His  relations  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and 
Francis  I.,  King  of  France. 
1624.  Weakness  of  the  Diet  of  Niirnberg  at  the  moment  of  its  close. 
Catholic  alliance  between  Austria  and  Bavaria,  participated  in  by 
twelve  bishops  of  Southern  Germany.  Violent  quarrel  between 
Luther  and  Carlstadt  on  the  Eucharist.  Scene  in  the  Black  Bear 
inn  of  Jena.  Controversy  between  Luther  and  Erasmus  on  Free 
Will.  Establishment  of  the  Order  of  Theatines  by  Caraffa. 
1525.  The  Peasants'  War  spreads  throughout  Germany.  Base  conduct 
of  Luther  and  Melanchthon  on  this  occasion.  Continuation  of 
the  Controversy  with  Erasmus  on  the  Eucharist.  Luther  mar- 
ries, and  arbitrarily  abolishes  the  Canon  of  the  Mass.  Death  of 
Frederic  the  AVise.  John  the  Constant.  Eck  publishes  his  En- 
chiridion  locoruin  communiuni  adv.  Lutherum,  and  Zwingli  his 
Commeiitarius  de  vera  et  falsa  religione. 

1626.  Lutheran  alliance  of  Torgau.     Eeligious  conference  of  Homburg. 

Denmark  declares  in  favor  of  Lutheranism,  in  consequence  of  the 
intrigues  of  Christiern  II.  (1513-1523)  and  Frederic  I.  Margrave 
Albert  marries  the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  Seculari- 
zation of  the  Duchy  of  Prussia. 

1627.  Capture  and  plunder  of  Rome  by  the  Imperialists.    Diet  of  Oden- 

see  in  Denmark.  Hypocrisy  of  Gustavus  Vasa  at  the  Diet  of 
Westeraes.     At   Basle,  the  adherents   of  Oecolampadius  obtain 


Important  Personages,  etc.,  of  the  Third  Period.       1035 

DI0KT8IAN    ERA. 

through  menaces  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship.  The  Ant- 
werp Polyglot  published  by  Catholics. 
1628.  Berthold  Llaller  preaches  the  new  doctrines  at  Berne.  Parochial 
visitation  in  Saxony.  The  Order  of  Capuchins  is  confirmed  by 
Pope  Clement  VII.  The  German  Theology,  written  by  Bishop 
Berthold,  of  Chiemsee.  Patrick  Hamilton  burnt  in  Scotland  for 
having  there  propagated  heretical  teachings. 

1529.  The  Assembly  of  Oerebro  accomplishes  the  work  of  Eeformation 

in  Sweden.  Diet  of  Spire,  where  the  Reformers  receive  the  name 
of  Protestants.     Conference  of  the  Lutherans  at  Copenhagen. 

1530.  Diet  of  Augsburg.     The  Augsburg  Confession,  composed   by  Mel- 

anchthon,  to  which  Faber,  Eck,  and  Cochlaeus  oppose  a  Catholic 
refutation.  Melanchtbon's  Apologia.  Establishment  at  Milan  of 
the  Order  of  Barnabites,  which  is  confirmed  in  15o2. 

1631.  League  of  Schmalkald  entered  into  by  the  Protestants.     Zwingli 

and  Oecolampadius  perish  during  the  war  of  religion,  which 
breaks  out  in  Switzerland.  Matthias  Devay  preaches  in  Hungary, 
first  Lutheranism,  and  soon  thereafter  Zwinglianism. 

1632.  Eeligious  peace  of  Niirnberg.     Death  of  John  the  Constant,  who  is 

replaced  by  John  Frederic  the  Magnanimous. 

1633.  Shameful  disorders  of  the  Anabaptists  at  Miinster.     Negotiations 

in  behalf  of  a  General  Council. 

1634.  Henry  VIII.  separates  from  Rome,  because  the  Pope  refuses  to 

sanction  his  adulterous  marriage.  Luther  publishes  a  complete 
translation  of  the  Bible,  at  which  he  had  been  working  since  1522. 
Oath  of  supremacy.  Thomas  Cranmer  is  appointed  vicar  general. 
Calvin  at  Basle. 
1684-1549.  Paul  HI.,  Pope.  His  efforts,  through  his  Nuncio,  Vergerius,  to  as- 
semble an  Ecumenical  Council. 

1635.  The  disorders  of  the  Anabaptists  put  down  at  Miinster.     The  Re- 

formation is  established  at  Geneva,  through  the  efforts  of  Farel 
and  Viret. 

1686.  Death  of  Erasmus  at  Basle.  Calvin  publishes  his  "  Institutes  of  the 
Christian  Religion,"  dedicated  to  Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  and  es- 
tablishes  himself  at  Geneva.  Bucer  and  Melanchthon  conjointly 
bring  about  the  Concordia  Vitehergensis.  Pope  Paul  IIL's  ency- 
clica,  calling  an  Ecumenical  Council  to  convene  at  Mantua  in 
1537,  is  unsuccessful. 

1637.  The  Protestant  Assembly  of  Schmalkald  carries  its  hatred  of  the 
Pope  to  the  very  verge  of  frenzy.  The  twenty-three  "  Articles  of 
Schmalkald"  present  a  striking  contrast  with  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession. Melanchtbon's  treatise,  entitled  De  potestate  et  primatu 
Papae.  Angela  de'  Merici  ("of  Brescia")  founds  the  Order  of 
Ursulines.  Bugcnhagen,  Superintendent  General  of  Saxony  from 
1536.  repairs  to  Denmark,  crowns  the  King  and  the  Queen,  and 
succeeds  in  establishing  the  Reformation.  Antiaomian  contro- 
vorsy  between  Luther  and  Agricola,  1537  1540. 


1036  Chronological  Table. 


DIONTSIAN    ERA. 

1538.  The  Holy  League  of  the  Catholic  Princes  is  formed  through  the  ef- 
forts of  Held^  Vice-Chancellor  to  the  Emperor.  Calvin  ,':  -iriven 
from  Geneva  on  account  of  his  violence. 

1639  Death  of  Duke  George  of  Saxony.  Henry,  his  brother,  successor, 
establishes  Lutheranism  by  force  in  his  States.  In  Brandenburg 
Lutheranism  is  similarly  introduced  by  Joachim  IL,  whose  char- 
acter is  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  his  illustrious  father, 
Joachim  I. 

1540.  The  Pope  confirms  the  Society  of  Jesus,  founded  by  Ignatius  of 

Loyola,  who  thus  opposes  a  barrier  against  Protestantism.  Relig- 
ious Conferences  at  Spire, Haguenau  andWorms.  The  Father  of 
the  Reformation  allows  polygamy  to  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse. 

1541.  Religious  Conference  and  Interim  of  Ratisbon.    Julius  Pflug,  Bishop 

of  Naumburg  ;  and  John  Gropper,  of  Cologne;  Melanchthon,  Pis- 
torius,  and  Bucer. 

1542.  St.  Francis  Xavier  sets  ofi"  upon  his  mission  to  India.     Death  of 

Cardinal  Contareni.     Death  of  Eck  in  1543. 
1646-1563.  Ecumenical  Council  of  Trent,  which,  notwithstanding  several 
interruptions,    is   continued   under  Paul   III.,   Julius   III.,   and 
Pius  IV.     Its  aim,  practical  reform,  which  it  did  much  to  accom- 
plish. 

1545.  During  the  Diet  of  Worms,  the  Protestants  once  more  refuse,  in 

language  unusually  coarse  and  violent,  to  take  any  part  in  the 
proposed  Council,  and  distribute  to  the  Catholic  deputies  copies 
of  Luther's  work  entitled  "  The  Papacy  an  Institution  of  the 
Devil." 

1546.  On  the  18th  of  February,  Luther  dies  at  Eisleben.     The  Elector 

Herman  of  Cologne  encounters  the  most  determined  opposition  to 
his  design  of  introducing  Lutheranism  in  his  States,  and  is  at 
length  deposed.     Diet  and  Conference  of  Ratisbon. 

1547.  Commencement  of  the  Schmalkaldic  War.     The   imperial  army 

makes  the  Elector  of  Saxony  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Miihlberg, 
and  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  surrenders.  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land and  Francis  I.  die,  and  are  succeeded  by  Edward  VI.  and 
Henry  II.  The  work  of  the  Reformation  is  carried  on  in  Eng- 
land by  Cranmer  and  Ridley,  and  in  Scotland  by  Knox.  Death 
of  Cardinal  Sadolet  and  of  Vatable. 

1548.  The  Augsburg  Interim.     The  Leipsig  Interim  gives  rise  to  the  adi- 

aphoristic  controversy.  St.  Philip  Neri  founds  the  Order  of  the 
B.  Trinity,  which,  later  on,  takes  the  name  of  the  Oratory.  Con- 
sensus Tiguri7ius,  1549.  Osiandrian  controversy  at  Koenigsberg, 
1549-1566.  Controversy  between  Amsdorf  and  George  Major  in 
1551.  Gruet  is  put  to  death  at  Geneva.  The  Jesuits  assume  the 
direction  of  the  theological  studies  at  Ingolstadt  in  1549.  Labors 
of  Peter  Canisius  in  Austria  in  1551. 
1660-1656.  Julius  III.,  Pope.  At  the  moment  when  several  Protestant  princes 
send  their  theologians  and  embassadors  to  Trent,  in  1551,  Prince 


Important  Personages,  etc.,  of  the  Third  Period.       1037 


DIONTSIAN   ERA. 

Maurice  of  Saxony,  committing  a  double  treason  against  the  Em- 
peror and  his  country,  constrains  the  Council  to  disperse  and  the 
Emperor  to  conclude  the  Treaty  of  Passau,  in  1552-1554.  Assem- 
bly at  Naumburg.  Extraordinary  concessions  made  by  the  Pro- 
testant theologians.  Micliael  Servede  is  burnt  by  the  Swiss 
Pieformers  in  1553,  and  a  little  later  (1566)  Gentilis  is  beheaded 
at  Berne. 
1555.  Keligious  Peace  of  Augsburg:  Reservahan  Ecclesiastician.  Syner- 
gistic controversy  between  Pfeffinger  and  Amsdorf.  Short  pontifi- 
cate of  Marcellus  II. 

1555-1559.  Paul  IV.,  Pope.  Death  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  .July  31,  1556. 
Thomas  Cranmer  is  burnt  at  the  stake.  Lainez  elected  General 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  Abdication  of  Charles  V.  Philip  XL, 
King  of  all  the  Spanish  dominions  in  1556.  Mary  Tudor,  the 
Catholic  Queen,  dies  in  1558.  She  is  succeeded  by  Elizabeth,  who 
uniformly  favors  the  Reformation. 

1569-1565.  Pius  IV.,  Pope.  Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor,  1556-1564.  The  .Jesuits 
establish  themselves  at  Cologne  in  1556;  at  Treves  in  1561;  at 
Montz  in  1562;  at  Augsburg  and  Dillingen  in  1563;  at  Posen 
and  other  places  in  1571.     Death  of  Melanchthon,  April  19,  1560. 

1562-1663.  The  Council  of  Trent  is  again  opened,  and  completes  its  labors.  In 
1564,  Pius  IV.  publishes  the  Professiofidel  Tride.ntina.  The  year 
previous,  Ursinus  and  Olivetanus  published  their  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism. Convocation  solemnly  ratifies  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  at 
London  in  1562.  Confessio  Belgica,  1562.  Corpus  doctrinae  chris- 
tianne  Saxonicuni ;  and  later,  Philippicum,  1560;  Pi'utenicutn, 
1566. 

1664-1676.  Maximilian  II.,  Emperor.  Pius  V.,  Pope,  1566-1672.  Catechismua 
Romajius,  1566;  Breviarium  Romanum,  1568.  Attempts  at  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  made  by  George 
Cassander,  George  Wizel,  Fred.  Staphylus,  and  Ad.  Contzen.  In 
1567,  Pius  V.  condemns  seventy-six  propositions  extracted  from 
the  works  of  Baius.  Convention  of  the  Polish  Dissidents  at  San- 
domir  in  1570.     Death  of  Calvin,  May  27,  1564.     Theodore  Beza. 

1572-1585.  Grenory  XIII.,  Pope.  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  1572.  Bull  of 
Gregory  XIII.  against  Baius,  1579.  The  Gregorian  Calendar 
published  in  1582.  Gebhard  the  Elector,  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
is  excommunicated  in  1583,  in  consequence  of  his  criminal  rela- 
tions with  Agnes  of  Mansfeld  and  his  hostile  designs  against  the 
Catholic  Church.  Bellarmmi  disputationes  de  controversis  c/iri's- 
tianaefidei  ariiculis,  Romae,  1581-1592.  Death  of  Maldonatus  in 
1583. 
1677  Formula  of  Concord.  The  Socinian  Catechism  and  Synod  of  Ra- 
kow,  1580.  Faustus  Socinus  in  Transylvania,  1578;  in  Poland, 
1579. 

1686-1690.  Sixtus  V.,  Pope.  He  publishes  a  faulty  edition  of  the  Vulgato. 
Mai-tyrologium  Romanum.     The  Pope's  decision  in  the  Contro- 


1038  Chronological  Table. 


nONTSIAN    ERA. 

versy  on  Grace  among  the  Jesuits.     L.  Molina.    Caesaris  Baronii 
Annates  ecclesiastici.     Death  of  Salmeron  in  1585. 

1590-1591.  Urban  VII.,  Gregory  XIV.,  and  Innocent  IX.,  Popes.  Death  of 
the  Elector,  Christian  I.  New  persecution  of  Crypto-Calvinism. 
Chancellor  Crell. 
1592.  Clevient  VIII.,  Pope.  He  publishes  a  thoroughly  revised  edition  of 
the  Vulgate,  and  reconciles  Henry  IV.  of  France  to  the  Church, 
1598.  By  the  edict  of  Nantes,  the  Protestants  obtain  the  free  ex- 
ercise of  religion  in  all  France.  The  Congregatio  de  Auxiliia 
meets  to  decide  the  question  of  Molinism.  Sigismund  III.,  King 
of  Poland  (1587-1632),  inherits  the  crown  of  Sweden  in  1592. 
His  critical  relations  with  Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermanland.  Death 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  1603.  James  I.  succeeds  her.  Controversy 
between  Arminius  and  Gomar  at  Leyden,  1601. 

1605-1621.  Paul  F.,  Pope.  The  quarrel  with  Venice,  commenced  under  Clem- 
ent VIII.  and  Leo  XL,  continues  during  this  pontificate.  Venice 
is  laid  under  interdict.  Bellarmin  and  Sarpi  continue  their  po- 
lemics. Controversy  on  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin.  Catholic  League  formed  in  Germany  under  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  1606.  Peter  de  BeruUe  founds  the  French  Oratory, 
1611.  Death  of  Esthius,  1613.  Congregation  of  St.  Maur,  1618. 
Cyril  Lucaris  makes  an  effort  to  bring  about  an  understanding 
between  the  Greek  and  Reformed  Churches.  Synod  of  Dordrecht, 
1618-1619. 

1618-1648.  Thirty  Years'  War.  Frederic  V.,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  is  de- 
feated near  Prague,  November  8,  1620.  Death  of  Bellarmin,  1620. 
Death  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  1622. 

1621-1623.  Gregory  XV.,  Pope.  Establishment  of  the  Congregatio  de  Propa- 
ganda Fide.  Constitution  regarding  future  papal  elections.  The 
Jesuit,  Petau,  teaches  theology  at  the  College  of  Paris;  he  dies 
in  1652. 

1623-1644.  Urban  VIII,  Pope.  He  establishes  a  seminary  for  the  propagation 
of  the  faith  {^^Collegium  Urbanum");  publishes  a  new  and 
amended  edition  of  the  Roman  Breviary,  1643;  and  bestows  priv- 
ileges upon  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
founds  the  Order  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission  ("  Lazarists")  and 
Urban  instructs  him  to  draft  a  Rule  for  them.  In  conjunction 
with  the  widow  Legras,  he  founds  the  Order  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  in  1629.  The  "Cautlo  C7-iin.inalis''  of  the  Jesuit,  Spee,  in 
1631.  Death  of  the  Jesuit,  Schall,  in  China,  1636.  Vit'tory  of 
Tilly  over  the  Danes  and  Lower  Saxons,  1626,  and  of  "Walienstein, 
1628. 
1629.  Restitution  Edict  promulgated  by  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.,  and 
re-establishment  of  the  status  quo  as  settled  by  the  Treaty  of  Pas- 
eau  in  1552.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden,  comes  to  Ger 
many  in  1630;  his  death  at  the  battle  of  Liitzen.     Defeat  of  the 


Important  Personages^  etc.,  of  the  TInrd  Period.      1039 

DI0NT8IAN    ERA. 

Swedes  at  Noerdlingen  by  the  imperial  troops  in  1634.  Death  of 
Cornelius  a  Lapide  in  1637. 
1640.  Publication  of  the  Augustinus  by  Jansenius,  at  first  Professor  of 
Louvain,  and  afterward  Bishop  of  Ypres.  He  dies  in  1G38.  Urban 
issues  against  this  work  his  bull  In  E>nine7iti,  1642.  HugoGrotiua 
publishes  his  Anywiationen  in  Vet.  et  ISov.  Tesiam.,  1641.  His 
death  in  1645.  Death  of  Bonfrere,  1643. 
1644-1655.  Innocent  X.,  Pope.  Ferdinand  ill.,  Emperor,  1637-1657.  Louis 
XIV.,  King  of  France,  1643-1715.  Petau  publishes  his  Theologica 
dogmata,  1644.  Arnauld,  Nicole,  Pascal,  and  others  write  in  favor 
of  Jansenism  and  against  the  Jesuits.  The  advocates  of  Jansen- 
ism called  Jansenists  and  Gentlemen  of  Port-Koyal,  1653.  Inno- 
cent condemns  the  five  propositions  of  Jansenius,  1645.  Collo- 
qimmi  caritativum  of  Thorn,  under  the  protection  of  Ladislaus 
lY. ;  between  GUixius  and  Calovius,  on  one  hand,  and  the  Jesuit, 
Schoenhofer,  on  the  other.  The  Regula  fidei  of  Francis  Veron,  a 
work  whose  aim  was  to  reconcile  Catholics  and  Protestants.  Paris 
Polyglot  Bible,  1645. 
1648.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia  takes  the  year  1624  as  the  "  7iormal "  year 
of  the  religious  situation  and  of  the  right  of  possession.  The  Pope, 
by  his  bull  Zelus  domus  Dei,  protests  against  the  articles  of  the 
Treaty  as  injurious  or  prejudicial  to  the  Catholic  religion.  Death 
of  the  Spaniard  Calasanze,  founder  of  the  Piarists.  Leo  Allatius 
publishes  his  work,  De  ecclesiae  Occident,  et  o7'ient.  perpetua  co7isen- 
sione.  D3ath  of  Descartes,  1650.  Charles  I.,  King  of  England 
from  1625,  is  made  prisoner,  and  beheaded  in  1649. 


SECOiTD  EPOCH  (1648-1878). 


PAET  FIEST. 

FROM    THE    PEACE    OF    WESTPHALIA    TO    THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION    (1789). 


665-1667.  Alexander  VII.,  Pope.  His  bull  against  the  Jansenists,  1656.  The 
Socinians  expelled  from  Poland,  1658.  Death  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  1660.  Seminary  of  the  Missions,  founded  at  Paris,  1663. 
The  Order  of  the  Trappists,  founded  by  Bouthillier  de  Kanc6, 
1662.  Death  of  Abbess  Arnauld  of  Port-Royal  in  1661,  and  Peter 
de  Marca,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  in  1662.  Re-establishment  of 
monarchy  in  England  under  Charles  II.,  1660.  In  the  same  year 
appear  the  Criiici  .wcri,  under  the  editorial  management  of  Pear- 
son.    In  1668,  Bossuet  publishes  his  Exposition  of  Catholic  Doc- 


1040  Chronological  Table. 


DIONTSIAN   ERA. 

trine^  demonstrating  to  many  of  the  Reformers  that  they  held 
wholly  erroneous  views  on  Catholicity.  Translation  of  the  Bible 
of  Mons  by  Arnauld,  the  Duke  of  Luynes,  Antoine  Lemaistre 
and  de  Sacy,  1667. 

16V0-1676.  Clement  X.,  Pope.  Death  of  Cardinal  Bona,  1674.  Influence  of 
Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue  as  preachers.  Marshal  Turenne  becomes 
a  Catholic,  1669.  New  Testament  of  Quesnel,  1671.  Spener  pub- 
lishes his  Collegia  pieiaiis,  from  1670,  exposing  the  errors  of  the 
Protestant  Church.  In  the  same  year  the  Traciatus  theologico- 
politicus  of  Spinoza  is  published,  1675.  Formula  consensus  Hel- 
veiiei.     Death  of  Paul  Gerhard,  1G76. 

1876-1689.  Innocent  XI.,  Pope.  His  controversy  with  Louis  XIV.  on  the 
right  of  regalia,  1682.  Defense  of  the  Four  Articles  by  Bossuet 
Death  of  Launoi,  1678.  Hypercriticism  of  Eichard  Simon.  The 
Spiritual  Guide  of  Molinos  gives  rise  to  Quietism  in  1675.  Sixty- 
eight  propositions  extracted  from  it  are  condemned.  The  Barna- 
bite,  Lacombe,  and  Mme.  Lamotte-Guyon.  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.  James  II.,  King  of  England.  Christian 
Thomasius,  compelled  to  leave  Leipsig,  withdraws  to  Halle  in 
1694,  where  he  founds  a  university,  in  conjunction  with  Francke. 
1683.  Siege  of  Vienna  by  the  Turks  ;  forced  by  Sobieski  to  raise  it.  The 
Polish  King  dies  in  1696. 

1691-1700.  Innocent  XII.,  Pope.  Controversy  between  Bossuet  and  Pension 
relative  to  the  teachings  of  Mme.  Guyon.  The  former  composes 
his  States  of  Prayer ;  the  latter  his  Maxims  of  the  Saints,  1697 ; 
twenty-three  propositions  of  the  latte-  censured  in  1699.  Noble 
victory  of  the  Archbishop  of  Cambrai  over  himself.  The  French 
episcopacy  and  Louis  XIV.  disapprove  the  Four  Articles  in  1692. 
Attempt  to  reunite  the  various  religious  parties  in  Hanover 
through  the  mediation  of  Bossuet,  van  der  Muelen,  Spinola,  and 
Leibnitz.  Francke,  preacher  and  professor  at  Halle,  1692. 
1697.  The  Peace  of  Ryswick  declares  that  in  the  German  countries  occu- 
pied by  France  the  Catholic  religion  shall  remain  in  statu  quo. 
Frederic  Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  re- 
turns to  the  Catholic  Church. 

1700-1721.  Clement  XL,  Pope.  He  protests  (1701)  against  the  assumption 
by  Frederic  I.  of  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia,  because  that  coun- 
try had  been  formerly  the  property  of  the  Church.  Tournon,  the 
Pope's  Legate  in  India  and  China,  1707.  Kodde.  Vicar  Apostolic 
and  Administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Utrecht,  is  deposed  as  a  Jan- 
senist.  Death  of  Ranee  in  1700;  of  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue  in 
1704.  Destruction  of  the  abbey  of  Port-Royal  in  1708.  One 
hundred  and  one  propositions  of  the  New  Testa-inent  by  Quesnel 
condemned  by  the  bull  Unigenitxis,  1713.  Malebranche,  Fenelon, 
and  Louis  XIV.  die  in  1715.  The  regency  is  intrusted  to  the 
Duke  of  Orleans.     Death  of  du  Pin  in  1719. 


Important  Personages,  etc.,  of  the  Third  Period.      1041 

DIONTSIAN    ERA. 

170G-1709.  Controversy  between  Pope  Clement  XI.  and  Emperor  Joseph  I., 
concerning  the  right  of  presejitation  and  the  Duchy  of  Parma. 
Charles  VI.,  last  Emperor  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  1711-1740. 
Attempt  in  Berlin  to  reunite  the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed, 
1703.  Ursinus,  Jablonski,  and  Leibnitz.  Deism  of  tlie  English- 
men, Collins  and  Tindal,  preceded  by  the  empiricism  of  Locke, 
who  died  in  1704.  The  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  head  of  a  philan- 
thropical  school,  dies  in  1713. 

1 721-1723.  Innocent  XIII.,  Pope.  His  negotiations  with  Emperor  Charles  VI. 
He  confirms,  in  France,  the  Order  of  the  Brothers  of  Christian 
Doctrine.  Death  of  the  apologist,  Iluet,  in  1721.  The  "Holy 
Synod,"  supreme  and  permanent,  established  by  Peter  I.  in  1721. 
Hans  Egede  in  Greenland.  Zinzendorf  and  the  Herrnhutters, 
from  1722. 

1724-1730.  Benedict  XIII.,  Pope.  He  convokes  Council  of  the  Lateran  in 
1725,  for  the  repression  of  abuses.  His  controversy  with  John  V., 
King  of  Portugal.  Institution  of  the  ofiice  of  St.  Gregory  VII. 
The  Methodists,  1729. 

1730-1740.  Clement  XII.,  Pope.  He  is  involved  in  fresh  complications  with 
Spain.  He  issues  a  bull  against  Freemasonry  (1738).  The  Con- 
gregation of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  founded  by  St.  Alfonso 
Maria  da  Liguori  in  1732.  The  Lutherans  emigrate  from  the 
Duchy  of  Salzburg  from  1731  to  1733.  The  enemies  of  Chris- 
tianit}',  Tindal,  W.oolston,  and  de  Mandeville,  die  in  1733.  Efibrts 
in  France  to  turn  Christianity  into  ridicule.  The  Wertheim 
Bible,  1735.  At  Amsterdam,  the  Biblical  critic  and  interpreter, 
Wetstein. 

1740-1758.  Important  pontificate  of  Benedict  XIV.  His  splendid  work,  De 
syyiodo  dioecesana.  Maria-Teresa,  1740-1780.  The  learned  3Iura- 
tori,  closely  connected  with  the  Pope  by  ties  of  friendship.  Hou- 
bigant  publishes  his  critical  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1753. 
Christianity  continues  to  be  attacked  by  the  Atheists  and  enemies 
of  the  Jesuits,  Voltaire,  d'Alembert,  Diderot,  the  political  econo- 
mists, and  J.  J.  Rousseau.  Death  of  Bengel  at  Stuttgart,  1742. 
Baron  Wolf  and  "Wetstein  die  in  1754.  Death  of  the  learned 
Mosheim  at  Goettingen  in  1755,  and  of  Baumgarten  at  Hallo  in 
1757. 

1768-1769.  Clement  XIII.,  Pope.  He  is  harassed  on  all  sides  with  complaint." 
and  accusations  against  the  Jesuits.  His  huW  A posiolicuni,  in  their 
favor,  produces  no  effect,  in  Portugal,  Pombal's  influence  brings 
about  their  suppression,  1759.  They  are  persecuted  and  suppressed 
in  France  in  1764;  in  Spain  in  1767;  and  in  Naples  in  1768. 
Death  of  Assemani  in  1768.  In  Germany,  French  Gallicanism  is 
transformed  into  Febronianism  (Hontheim),  1763.  Ernesti,  Sem- 
ler,  and  Teller  in  1767.  Reimarus  in  1768.  Controversy  on  tlu« 
legality  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Anglican  Church,  1766 

VOL.  Ill — 66 


1042  Chronological  Table. 


DIONTSIAN   ERA. 

1769-1774.  Clement  XIV.,  Pope.  Joseph  II.,  Emperor  from  1766  to  1790,  is 
restrained  within  the  limits  of  decency  during  the  lifetime  of 
Maria  Teresa,  who  dies  in  1780.  The  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  is 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  North.  The  Pope's  brief,  Domi- 
nus  ac  Redemj)ior  nosier,  sacrifices  the  Jesuits  to  the  Bourbon 
Courts.  The  Syfitem  of  Kaiure,  published  in  1770,  aims  at  annihi- 
lating religion  and  morality.  Death  of  Swedenborg  at  London 
in  1772. 

1776-1799.  Pius  VI.,  Pope.  From  1780,  Joseph  II.  becomes  the  leader  of  the 
enemies  of  the  Catholic  Church;  favors  the  Galilean  doctrines  of 
the  canonists,  Eybel  and  Kies,  as  well  as  lUuminism  and  Freema- 
sonry ;  and  establishes  "  General  Seminaries."  The  presence  of 
Pius  VI.  at  Vienna  changes  but  very  little  the  state  of  afiairs. 
Pwictuation  of  Ems.  Synod  of  Pistoia  in  Tuscany,  owing  to  the 
protection  of  the  Grand  Duke  Leopold,  brother  to  the  Emperor 
Scipio  Piicci,  in  1786.  The  llluminaii  in  Bavaria.  In  France,  ir- 
religion  and  war  against  Catholicity.  "Warnings  and  sinister 
predictions  of  the  clergy,  1780.  The  interpreter,  Eichhorn,  lec- 
tures at  Goettingen  from  1788,  and  propagates  Naturalism.  Death 
of  Ernesti  and  Lessing  in  1781;  of  Francis  Walch  in  1784;  of 
the  popular  philosopher,  Moses  Mendelssohn,  in  1785  ;  of  Michaelis 
and  Semler  in  1791.  Kant's  influence  on  theology.  Frederic 
William,  King  of  Prussia.  Edict  concerning  religion  issued  by 
Minister  Woellner  in  1788.     Spread  of  pure  Kationalism. 


PAET  SECOND. 

FROM   THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION    DOWN    TO    THE    PRESENT    DAT    (1789-1878). 


1789.  Outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  Joseph  II.  dies  in  despond- 
ency in  1790.  He  is  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Leopold  IL  (1790- 
1792),  who  is  in  turn  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II.  The  lat- 
ter, led  by  the  true  spirit  of  the  Holy  Christian  Empire,  declares 
himself,  at  a  critical  moment,  the  protector  of  the  Roman  Church 
and  of  the  Pope.  In  America,  the  See  of  Baltimore  is  estab- 
lished. 

1789-1791.  The  Constituent  National  Assembly  of  France  declares  all  ecclesi- 
astical possession  national  property  (1789),  and  establishes  a  civi! 
constitution  for  the  clergy  (1791),  forcing  them  to  take  a  purely 
civil  oath.     Reduction  of  the  number  of  bishoprics. 

1791-1796.  The  Legislative  Assembly  and  the  National  Convention  ct;nsum- 
mate  this  impious  work.  Louis  XVI.  dies  on  the  scaffold,  Janu- 
ary 21,  1793.  Every  vestige  of  Christianity  disappears;  the 
Christian  calendar  is  replaced  by  the  unmeaning  Grecian  decade; 


Important  Personages^  etc.,  of  the  Third  Period.       1043 


DI0NT8IAN    ERA. 

and  the  Christian  worship  by  the  orgies  in  honor  of  the  God- 
dess of  Eeason,  November  7,  1793.  Eobespierre  decrees  the  ex- 
istence of  a  Supreme  Being  and  the  imn.ortality  of  the  soul,  July 
8,] 79-4.  Pius  YI.  protests  against  all  these  acts;  is  made  pris- 
oner by  the  French,  and  Kome  is  proclaimed  a  republic.  Death 
of  Pius  VI.  at  Valence,  on  the  29th  of  August,  1799.  Bonaparte 
First  Consul.  Griesbach  publishes  his  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 1796-1800. 

1800-1823.  Pius  VII.  elected  Pope  at  Venice.  Concordat  with  France,  1801. 
Influence  of  Chateaubriand.  He  publishes  his  Genius  of  Chris- 
tianiiy  in  1802.  In  Germany,  Count  Frederic  Leopold  of  Stol- 
berg  sets  the  example  of  a  return  to  Catholicity.  It  is  followed 
by  a  great  number  of  conversions.  In  Great  Britain  and  Amer- 
ica great  associations  for  Protestant  foreign  missions  are  founded, 
whilst  similar  societies  are  formed  on  the  European  continent, 
and  missionary  training  schools  are  established  at  Berlin  (I8O1), 
by  Janicke)  and  other  places. 

1801-1803.  Ptesolution  of  the  deputies  of  the  Empire  concerning  the  Treaty  <if 

Luneville  of  1801.     Charles   Theodore  of   Dalberg,  last  Elector 

and  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  1802.     Secularization  of  almost  all  e> 

clesiastical  princedoms  in  Germany. 

1804.  The  Jesuits  restored  in  Naples.     Pius  VII.  anoints  Bonaparte  Ei  i- 

peror,  and  is  shortly  at  variance  with  him. 
1806.  Dissolution  of   the   German   Empire.     The   Confederation  of  tl  0 
Khine  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Emperor  of  the  Frenc  1. 
The  States  of  the  Church  incorporated  into  the  French  Empii » 
1809.     The  Pope  carried  away  to  Savona. 
1808.  The  See  of  Baltimore  is  raised  to  metropolitan  rank. 

1811-1813.  The  National  Council  held  at  Paris  completely  disappoints  the 
expectations  of  the  Emperor,  who  wished  to  regulate  the  affairs 
of  the  Church  without  the  concurrence  of  the  Pope.  Preliminary 
articles  of  a  new  Concordat. 
1814.  After  Napoleon's  abdication,  Pius  VII.  returns  to  Kome,  and  by 
the  bull  Sollicitudo  omnium  ecclesiarum  re-establishes  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  Soon  after  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba  and  tho 
invasion  of  the  Papal  States  by  the  troops  of  Murat,  the  Pope  is 
obliged  to  again  withdraw  from  Kome.  Napoleon,  defeated  at 
Waterloo,  is  tran.sported  for  life  to  St.  Helena.  The  Pope  applies 
to  the  English  to  obtain  from  them  some  mitigation  of  the  hard 
lot  of  his  former  persecutor.  The  Holy  Alliance  of  1815.  Con- 
clusion of  several  Concordats  with  Catholic  and  non-Catholic 
princes  of  Germany,  1817-1829. 

1817-1818.  The  Irish  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  once  more  rejected  by  tho 
English  Parliament  in  1817.  Louis  XVIII.  renews  with  the  Pope 
(1817)  the  Concordat  of  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.,  which,  however, 
is  not  executed.  Establishment  of  the  .Jesuit  College  at  Fribourg 
in  Switzerland.     The  jubilee  of  the  Reformation  celebrated  in 


1044  Chronological  Table. 


DIONYSIAN   ERA. 

1817.  While  irritating  to  Catholics,  it  laid  bare  the  internal  dis- 
crepancies of  Protestants  and  their  entire  relinquishment  of  the 
Lutheran  symbol.  Violent  quarrel  occasioned  by  the  theses  of 
Nicholas  Harms.  Missionary  societies  and  training  institutes 
founded  at  Basle  in  1815  and  1816,  and  at  Berne  in  1824. 

i823-1829.  Leo  XII.,  Pope.     Concordats  concluded  by  him. 

182t:.  In  England,  the  entire  episcopacy  publishes  a  declaration,  aski^^ 
for  a  repeal  of  the  penal  laws  against  Catholics. 

1829-1830.  Pius  VIII.,  Pope.  He  is  consoled  for  the  revolutionary  movements 
in  Italy  by  the  conquest  of  Algiers  in  1830,  and  still  more  by 
the  religious  emancipation  of  the  Irish  on  the  13th  of  April,  1829. 
Revolution  of  July,  by  which  the  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons 
is  dethroned,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  called  to  the  throne.  The 
St.  Simonians.  The  Evangelical  Union  of  Prussia  in  1830  occa- 
sions divers  Lutheran  movements. 

1831.  Gregory  XVL,  Pope  (February  2).     He  displays  great  energy  un- 

der adverse  circumstances.     Death  of  Hegel  and  Hermes. 

1832.  Moehler's  Symbolism  appears  and  makes  a  deep  impression  all  over 

Germany.     Moehler  dies  on  the  ]2lh  of  April,  1838. 

1837.  November  20,  the  "Catastrophe  of  Cologne,"  simultaneous  with  a 
similar  movement  at  Posen.  The  Eussian  institution  of  the  Holy 
and  Permanent  Synod  is  transplanted  into  Greece,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  bishops  (August  4,  1833),  and  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople recognizes  the  independence  of  the  Orthodox  Church 
in  Hellas. 

1840.  Return  of  the  Archbishop  of  Posen  to  his  diocese  (tDecember  25, 
1842). 

1842.  Amicable  settlement  of  the  Cologne  differences.  This  event  causes 
a  very  decided  reaction  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  Church  through- 
out Germany.  Success  of  missionary  efforts.  Protestantism  more 
than  ever  rent  by  internal  dissensions.  A  great  many  writers 
exert  themselves  to  set  aside  the  Gospel  and  have  it  replaced  by 
modern  philosophy.  These  attempts  give  rise  to  others  of  a  di- 
rectly opposite  character.  The  General  Synod  of  Berlin  in  1846 
re-establishes  several  religious  feasts. 

1846.  Erection   of   Oregon   city   into   an   archiepiscopal   see.     Death  of 

Gregory  XVI.  and  accession  of  Pius  IX.  His  political  reforms. 
The  energy  displayed  by  this  Pope  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of 
every  country  excites  general  admiration. 

1847.  Establishment  of  the  Archbishopric  of  St.  Louis. 

1848.  The  general  enfranchisement  acquired  by  the  people  turns  to  the 

advantage  of  the  Church,  both  in  Catholic  and  Protestant  coun- 
tries. Liberty  of  the  press  and  right  of  association.  ■  Establish- 
ment of  the  Pius  Verein.  Its  first  general  assembly,  compo.sed  of 
laymen  and  ecclesiastics,  is  held  at  Mentz  from  the  3d  to  the  5th 
day  of  October.  The  German  archbishops  and  bishops  meet  at 
Wiirzburg  from  the  22d  of  October  to  the  IGth  of  November. 


Important  Personages,  etc.,  of  the  Third  Period.       1045 


DIONTSIAl-"    ERA. 

The  French  prelates  at  Paris  in  1849.  Meeting  in  other  ecclesi 
astical  provinces.     Kestoration  of  synods. 

1860-1860,  The  Catholic  hierarchy  re-established  in  England,  and  New  York, 
Cincinnati,  and  New  Orleans  created  archbishoprics  in  1850,  and 
San  Francisco  in  1853.  Concordats  entered  into  by  Pius  TX. 
with  Ptussia  in  1847;  with  Tuscany  and  Spain  in  1851  ;  with  Co- 
starica and  Guatemala  in  1852  ;  with  Austria  in  1855  ;  with  "Wiir- 
temberg  in  1857;  with  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  in  1859;  and 
with  Nicaragua  and  Sun  Salvador  in  1861.  Solemn  proclamation 
of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  December,  1854. 

1860-1872.  Cialdini's  soldiers  massacre  the  insignificant  pontifical  army  nea? 
Castel-Fidardo,  September"  18,  18G0.  The  States  of  the  Church 
are  reduced  to  the  "  Patrimony"  of  St.  Peter.  Treaty  of  Septem- 
ber 15,  1864,  between  France  and  Piedmont.  Eighteenth  cente- 
nary of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  1867.  New  revolutionary  attempts 
on  Pvome.  Intervention  of  France,  1867.  Vatican  Council,  1869- 
1870.  Franco-German  war,  1870.  Pxome  taken  by  the  Piedmont- 
ese  army,  September  20,  1870.  Protest  of  Pius  IX.,  September, 
1870.  I'ersecution  of  the  Church  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, 1872  sq.  Pievival  of  the  Catholic  spirit  in  France  after  the 
v.ar  and  in  countries  where  the  Church  is  persecuted. 

1873.  ]\Iay  laws  enacted  in  Germany  against  the  free  exercise  of  Catholic 

worship.  Expulsion  of  Picligious  Orders  from  Germany  and  other 
States.  Confiscation  of  Church  property  in  Italy.  Exile  of  Cath- 
olic bishops  from  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

1874.  Foundation  of  a  Catholic  University  in  England.     Continued  per- 

secution of  the  Church  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  Switzerland. 
Incipient  persecution  in  Austria.  General  persecution  of  the 
Catholic  press  in  the  European  countries.  Erection  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Melbourne. 
1876.  Appointment  of  the  first  American  cardinal.  Erection  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical provinces  of  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Milwaukee,  and 
Santa  Fe.  Eevival  of  Catholic  spirit  in  Italy,  owing  to  the  second 
Catholic  Congress.  Progress  of  higher  education  in  the  Catholic 
Universities  of  France. 

1876.  Eastern  question  in  Europe.     Massacre  of  Christians  in  Bulgaria. 

Servian  revolt.  Continued  interference  of  the  State  in  matters 
of  religion. 

1877.  War  between  Eussia  and  Turkey.    June  3,  Golden  jubilee  of  the 

Episcopate  of  Pius  IX.  Establishment  of  numerons  Catholic  uni- 
versities in  Franco  amidst  threatening  prospects  for  the  Catholic 
Church.     Catholic  congresses  of  Bergamo  and  Wiirzburg. 

1878.  Death   of  Victor  Emmanuel,   Pius    IX.,    Padre   Secchi,   and   Dr. 

Alzog.  Election  of  Leo  XIII.  Catholic  hierarchy  re-established 
in  Scotland. 


III.  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

OF  THE  COUNCILS  HELD  DUKING  THE  THIED  PEEIOD 


IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Paris,  1521.  Eouen,  1522.  Paris,  1528.  Bourges,  1528.  Montpellior,  1528. 
Cologne,  1536.  Trent  {Niveieenth  Ecumenical),  1545-1563.  Cologne,  1549. 
Poissy,  1554  (Assembly).  Pvheims,  1564.  Toledo,  1565.  Milan,  1565.  Cam- 
bray,  1565.  Milan,  1569.  Malines,  1569.  Milan,  1573,  1576,  1579.  Eouen, 
1581.  Milan,  1582  (being  the  sixth  provincial  council  held  by  St.  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  beside  eleven  diocesan  synods).  Memphis,  1582.  Rheims,  1583.  Tours^ 
1583.  Angers,  1583.  Bordeaux,  1583.  Bourges,  1583.  Lima  (in  South  Amer- 
ica), 1583.  Aix  (in  Provence),  1585.  Mexico,  1585.  Toulouse,  1590.  Avignon, 
1594.     Aquileia,  1596. 

IN  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  ordinance  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV.  de  Reform.,  c.  2),  that 
provincial  councils  should  be  held  every  three  years  and  diocesan  synods  every 
year,  was  even  more  generally  carried  out.  Of  those  numerous  provincial 
councils,  the  following  deserve  special  mention,  viz:  Petrikau,  1607.  Paris, 
1612.  Florence,  1619,  1637,  1645,  1681,  and  1691.  Lucca,  1661  and  1681. 
Velletri,  1673.  Naples,  1680.  Malines,  1607.  Narbonne,  1609.  Bordeaux, 
1624.  Tyrnau,  1630.  Constantinople,  1638,  1642,  and  1672  (against  Calvinist 
errors).     At  Lima,  1601,  1602,  and  1603. 

IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

Paris,  1713,  1714,  and  1720.  Latcran,  1725.  Of  Mount  Lebanon,  1736. 
False  Council  of  Pistoia,  1785,  and  the  so-called  National  Council  of  Flor- 
ence, 1787;  the  Congress  at  Ems  of  the  Rhenish  Electors,  held  in  1786,  and 
the  Assembly  of  the  '•  Constitutional "  bishops,  at  Paris  in  1797 ;  and,  more- 
over, that  of  Antioch  in  1806,  convoked  by  Germanus  Adami,  Abp.  of  Hierapo- 
lis  and  Visitor  Apostolic,  the  friend  of  Scipio  Ricci,  follows  in  the  same  drift. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  AssembUe  du  Clerge  of  1789  declares  against  the  pre- 
vailing  irreligiousness  and  immorality.  After  these  sorry  attempts  to  emu- 
late the  greater  councils,  even  the  diocesan  synods  disappear  in  all  countries 
of  Europe,  Italy  excepted.  John  Carroll,  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  was  the  first 
to  give  the  signal  of  their  revival  beyond  the  Atlantic  in  1791. 

IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

S3'nod  of  the  "  Constitutional  Bishops"  at  Paris,  1802.    So-called  National 
Council  of  Paris,  1811.     National  Council  of  Hungary,  1822.     Beginning  of 
(1046) 


Councils  during  the  Third  Period.  1047 

regular  Provincial  Councils  at  Baltimore,  from  1829.  In  Italy,  France,  Great 
Britain,  etc.,  from  1848.  At  Rome,  1854,  Conventus  Episcoporum  for  the  pro- 
clamation of  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
jVlary;  18G2,  for  the  canonization  of  the  Japanese  Martyrs;  1867,  for  the 
Eighteenth  Centenary  of  the  Martyrdom  of  the  Princes  of  the  Apostles.  In 
Germany  and  Austria,  assemblies  of  bishops  at  Wiirzburg,  Cologne,  and  Vi- 
enna (1846  and  1849);  afterward,  the  Provincial  Councils  of  Oran,  1857; 
Vienna,  1858;  Venice,  1859;  Prague  and  Cologne,  18G0;  Calocza.  1863.  Vaii' 
can.  1869.  1870  [Twentieth  Ecumenical) 


1048 


Modern  Councils. 


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GENERAL  INDEX. 


TOE    ROMAN    FIGURE    INDICATES   THE  VOLUME,  THE  ARABIC  FIGURE  THE  PAOS 


Abbacoraites,  II.  162,  360. 

Abbates  legitimi,  II.  162. 

Abasgi,  I.  502. 

Abdas,  Bp.  of  Susa,  I.  500. 

Abelard,  II.  747,  750,  1034. 

Abo,  See  of,  II.  231. 

Abo  of  Fleury,  II.  309. 

Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara,  III.  555. 

Abraxas,  I.  313. 

Absalom,  Bp.  of  Roskilde,  II.  802. 

Abyssinia,  I.  504,  III.  933. 

Acacius,    Patr.  of   Constantinople,  I. 

613. 
Acacius,  Bp.  of  Amida,  I.  500. 
Acacius,  Bp.  of  Berea,  I.  601. 
Acacius,  Bp.  of  Melitene,  I.  603. 
Academy  of  the  Cath.  Religion,  III. 

685. 
Academicians.  I.  91. 
Acephali,  I.  614. 
Acolyths,  I.  393. 
Acta  faoientes,  I.  275. 
Acta  Martyrum,  I.  23. 
Acta  Sanctorum  Bollandi,  I.  23. 
Adalbero,  Bp.  of  Wiirzburg,  II.  495. 
Adalbert  the  Frank,  heretic,  II.  174. 
Adalbert,  Archbp.  of  Bremen,  II.  235. 
Adalbert,   Archbp.  of  Magdeburg,  11. 

371. 
Adalbert.  Bp.  of  Prague,  II.  244,  248, 

251,  309. 
Adalbert,  Bp.  of  Wollin,  II.  802. 
Adam  of  Bremen,  I.  41. 
Adamnan,  II.  94. 

Adelphiua  and  the  Adelphians,  I.  758. 
Adiaphoristic  (controversy).  III.  137. 
Administrators,  I.,  650,  II.  131. 
Adoption  ism,  II.  176. 
Adoration  of  the  Eucharist,  I.  718. 
Advent,  I.  702. 

Advocati,  togati  et  armati,  II.  131. 
Advocatia  ecclesiae,  II.  131. 
Aedisius,  I.  504. 
Aegidius  (Giles),  of  Viterbo,  II.  918, 

1018. 


Aegidius  of  Colonna,  II.  624,  note  1. 

Aelurus,  priest,  I.  612. 

Aeneas  Sylvius,  II.  890,  894. 

Aerius,  priest  of  Sebaste,  1.  759. 

Aetius,  deacon  of  Antioch,  I.  540. 

Afra,  I.  282. 

Africa  (Propagation  of  Curistianity 
in).  See  Propagation  of  Christian- 
ity. 

Agapae,  I.  211,439;  they  i^ic  forbid- 
den, 439,  724. 

Agapete  I.  Pope,  I.  618. 

Agapete  II.,  Pope,  II.  296. 

Agatho,  Pope,  I.  640. 

Agenda  (controversy  on  the).  III.  985. 

'Ayiaafioc  {(puria/xdg),  I.  419. 

Agnes,  Empress,  II.  324. 

Agnes,  Martyr,  I.  282. 

Agnoetians,  I.  616. 

Agobard  of  Lyons,  II.  413. 

Agonistics,  I.  515. 

Agricola  (John),  III.  136,  315. 

Agrippinus,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  I.  240. 

Aldan,  Bishop,  II.  74. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Councils  of),  II.  101, 
181,  277. 

Aizana,  I.  504. 

Alanus  of  Eyssel,  or  ab  Insiilis,  II. 
757,  1035. 

Alaric,  II.  24. 

Albanians,  I.  502. 

Albert  the  Great,  II.  767,  798. 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Archbp.  of 
Mentz,  III.  11. 

Albert,  Grand  Master  of  the  Te-itcrio 
Order,  III.  156. 

Albigenses  (the),  II.  661. 

Alboin,  II.  122. 

Alboin  the  Saxon,  II.  122. 

Alcuin,  II.  172,  180,  379. 

Alemunnian  law,  II.  100. 

Alessandria,  II.  562. 

Alexander,  Patr.  of  Alexandria,  I. 
520. 

Alexander,  Bp.  of  Flaviades.  and  latei 
on  Patr.  of  Jerusalem,  1.  275,  376. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  II.  720,  766,  798. 
(1051) 


1052 


General  Index. 


Alexander  of  Hiearapolis,  I.  602. 
Alexander  Severus,  I.  270. 
Alexander  I.,  Pope,  I.  413. 
Alexander  II.,  Pope,  II.  330. 
Alexander  III.,    Pope,   II.   231,   559, 

G44,  665. 
Alexander  IV..  Pope,  II.  598. 
Alexander  V.,  Pope,  II.  856. 
Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  II.  907. 
Alexander  VII.,  Pope,  III.  479. 
Alexander  VIIL,  Pope,  III.  484. 
Alexandria  (Councils  of),  I.  522,  545, 

59G. 
Alexandria    Neo-platonist   School   of, 

291-492 
Alexandrian  School,  I.  374,  564,  653. 
Alexian  (the  Brothers),  II.  725. 
Alfred  the  Great,  II.  266,  380,  413. 
Al<;iers,  III.  933. 
Allah  Taala.  II.  192,  note  1. 
Allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Gnos- 
tics, I.  309 ;  of  Origen,  I.  380. 
Allegri,  III.  436. 
Alliance  (the  Holy),  III.' 682. 
All-saints.  Feast  of,  II.  397. 
All-souls-day,  II.  397. 
Alogi,  I.  349. 

Alphonso  IX.,  King  of  Leon,  II.  577. 
Altar,   I.  449,  plurality    of  altars,   I. 

690. 
Altman,  Bp.  of  Passau,  II.  373. 
Alvarus  Pelagius,  II.  832. 
Amalarius  of  Metz.,  II.  431. 
Amalarius  of  Treves,  II.  173. 
Amalric  of  Bena,  II.  584. 
Amandus,  Bp.  of  Strasburg,  II.  108. 
Ambrosian    (Ecclesiastical   Chant),   I. 

696. 
Ambrosian  Hymn,  I.  695. 
Ambrose  (St.),  Bp.  of  Milan,   I.  494, 

549,  564,  695,  728,  757,  II.  41. 
America  (Introduction  and  Spread  of 

Christianity  in).      See  Propagation 

of  Cliristianity . 
Ammianus    Marcellinus,  I.  462,   544, 

659.  i 

Ammonius  (the  Monk),  I.  752. 
Ammonius   Saccas    (the  philosopher), 

I.   291. 
Amphilochius,  Bp.  of  Iconium,  I.  546. 
Amsdorf,  III.  114,  121. 
Anabaptists,  III.  57,  94,  285. 
Anabaptists  of  Miinster,  III.  116. 
Analogia  fidei,  HI.  310. 
Anastasiiis  I.,  Pope  I.  557. 
Anastasius  II.,  Pope,  II.  48. 
Anastasius  I.,  Emperor,  I.  614. 
Anastasius  II.,  Emperor.  I.  643. 
Anastasius,  Iloman  Librarian,  I.  40. 
Anastasius  of  Thossalonica,  I.  676. 


Anatolius,  Patr.  of  Const.,  I.  607. 
Anchorites,  I.  453,  748. 
Ancient  documents,  I.  27,  note  2. 
Ancyra  (Synod  of),  I.  540. 
Anderson  (Lawrence),  III.  177. 
Andreae,  Valentine,   Chancellor,  IIL 

314. 
Andrew,  Apostle,  I.  184. 
Andrew  of  Pisa,  IL  1049. 
Angelomus,  Monk  of  Luxeuil,  II.  415. 
Angelus  Silesiu",  III.  434. 
Anglo-Saxons,  II.  51,  378. 
Anglican  Church,  III.  203. 
Anicetus.  Pope,  I.  445. 
Anr.am,  III.  928. 
Anniversary,  I.  454. 
Annunciation  (Feast  of  the),  I.  703. 
Anomoeians,  I.  539. 
Anselm  of  Canterbury,  II.  524,  740. 
Anselm  of  Laon,  II.  784. 
Ansgar  (St.),  II.  225. 
Anthemius,  I.  489. 
Anthimus,  Bp.  of  Trebisond,  I.  618. 
Anthropomorphists,  I.  557. 
Aiitidldngma  of  the  Metropolitan  Chap- 
ter of  Cologne,  III.  123. 
Antinomistical      (Controversy),     HI 

315. 
Antioch  (Christian  Community  of),  I. 

175,  237. 
Antioch  (School  of).  I.  387,  564,  591, 

653. 
Antioch  (Arian  Symbols  of),  I.  539. 
Antioch  (Councils  of),  I.  351,  367,  535. 
Anthony  (St.),  the  Hermit,  I.  453,  749. 
Anthony  of  Padua,  II.  721. 
Anthonists,  or  Hospitalers,  II.  697. 
Antitrinitarians,  I.  348,  III.  334. 
Antonius  Pius,  I.  265. 
Antoninus  (St.),  Archbp.  of  Florence, 

L  42,  II.  1051. 
Apelles,  I.  332. 
Apocryphal    books    on    the    Life    of 

Jesus,  I.   163,  and  the  Apostles,   I. 

234. 
Apollinaris  of   Hierapolis,  Apc'logist, 

I.  294. 
Apollinaris  (father  and  son)  of  Laodi- 

cea,  I.  562,  695. 
Apollinaris  of  Eavenna,  I.  241. 
Apollinarists,  I.  562. 
Apollonius  of  Tyana,  I.  98. 
Apologists,  Christian,  I.  293,   491,    II. 

205. 
Apostles,  I.  154;  their  labors,  1.  160. 
Apostolic  Brethren,  II.  675. 
Apostolic  Canons  and  Constitutions,  I 

234. 
Apostolic  Fathers,  I.  232. 
Apostolic  Age,  I.  233. 


General  Index. 


1053 


Appellants,  III.  506,  508. 

Appeal  from  thw  Church  to  the  State, 

first  instance  of,  I.  514. 
Appeals  to  the  Pope,  I.  671,  II.  633. 
Appeals  fi'om  the  Pope  to  a  General 

Council,  II.  627;  forbidden,  II.  871, 
Applause  in  Church,  I.  712. 
Aquarians,  I.  329. 
Aquila,  I.  176. 
Aquileja  (Synod),  I.  631. 
Arabia  (Christianity  in),  I.  238,  502. 
Arausio  (Orange),  Synod,  I.  588. 
Arcadius,  I.  487. 
Archbishop,  I.  663. 
Archdeacons,  I.  392,  651,  II.  352,  647 ; 

sometimes  laymen,  II.  137. 
Archdiaconate  and     archpresbyterate, 

II.  137. 
Archpriests,  I.  651,  II.  352. 
Architecture,  Gothic  or  Germanic,  II. 

1040. 
Archivists,  I.  651. 
Arethas,  Bp.  of  Caesarea,  II.  466. 
Ariald,  II.  376. 
Arianism,  I.  521. 

Arianism,  gradual  extinction  of,  1.544. 
Aristides,  Apologist,  I.  294. 
Aristotle,  I.  89,  and  especially,  II.  734, 

743,  765. 
Arius,  I.  519,  529. 
Aries   (Councils  of),  I.   424,  446,  514, 

538,  II.  161. 
Armagh  (See  of),  II.  55. 
Armenia,   Christian,    I,   501,  632,    II. 

945. 
Arminius,    and   the    Arminians,    III. 

326. 
Armistice  (Canonical).     See   Truce  of 

God. 
Arnaud,  I.  46,  III.  416,  501. 
Arnaud  Angelica,  III.  502. 
Arndt    (True    Christianity    by).    III. 

312. 
Arnobius,  Apologist,  I.  297. 
Arnold  (Ch.  Historian),  I.  55. 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  II.  541,  669. 
Arnold  of  Citeaux,  II.  666. 
Arras  (See  of),  II.  108. 
Art  (religious),  I.  448,  691,  II.  1038. 
Artemon,  Antitrinitarian,  I.  350. 
Articles  (the  Thirty-nine)  of  the  An- 
glican Church,  III.  211. 
Ascension  of  Our  Lord  (feast  of  the), 

I.  446,  699. 
A=cetics,  I.  452. 
Ascetical  (life),  I.  452. 
Ashcbetus,  Up.,  I.  503. 
Askidas,  Bp.  of  Caesarea,  I.  621. 
Assemani,  I.  40,  III.  5oo. 
Asses  (feast  of).  11.  794. 


Assumption  (feast  of  the).    See  Fes^Mwi 

Assumptionis  B.  M.  V. 
Asylum,  ecclesiastical,  I.  648. 
Asylums,  for  the  poor,  orphans,  sick, 

II.  641. 

Ataulf  or  Aistolphus,  II.  25. 

Aterbius,  I.  555. 

Athanasius  (St.),  I.  494,  527,  601,  3J7, 

752. 
Athanasius  (St.)  asks  the  protectivjn  jf 

Pope  Julius,  I.  534. 
Athanasius  (St.)  is  the  first  who  beara 

the  title  of  Archbishop,  1. 604,  note  1. 
Athenagoras,  Apologist,  I.  295. 
Athens  sees  the  re-opening  of  the  Neo 

Platonist  School  and  its  suppression 

I.  489,  492. 
Athens  an  archiepiscopal  see,  III.  923. 
Attempt  against  the  Temporal   Power 

of  the  Pope,  III.  673,  695,  788  sq. 
Attila.  II.  31. 

Atto,  Bp.  of  Vercelli,  II.  423. 
Aubespine,  I.  46. 
Audius  and  the  Audians,  I.  757. 
Augsburg    (Diet   and   Confession   of), 

III.  76. 

Augsburg  (Eeligious  peace  of),  III.  140. 

Augusti,  I.  59. 

Augustine  (St.),  Bp.  of  Hippo,  I.  342, 
423,  487,  496,  510,  549,  576,  594,  653, 
674,  696,  II.  41. 

Augustine  (St.)  His  opinion  on  the 
civic  virtues  of  the  Romans,  II.  24. 

Augustine  of  Canterbury,  II.  6P>. 

Augustinus  Triumphus,  II.  832. 

Augustinians,  II.  724,  III.  944. 

Aurelius,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  I.  573. 

Auricular  Confession,  I.  424,  II.  796. 

Austcritv,  exaggerated,  of  some  (Chris- 
tians, I.  457,-11.  1058. 

Australasia,  III.  962. 

Auxilius,  Bp.,  II.  55. 

Avars  (the),  II.  468. 

Avignon.  II.  819. 

Avila,  III.  424. 

Avitus,  Bp.  of  Vienno,  II.  48. 

Axuma,  1.  504. 

Azymites,  I.  722,  II.  463. 


B. 


Baader,  III.  888. 

Babylas,  Bp.  of  Autioch,  I.  275,  180. 

Bacon  (Roger),  II.  730,  782. 

Baco  of  Verulam,   III.  571,    note   2  ; 

593,  note  3. 
Barhdt,  III.  598. 
Baius  (Michael),  III.  424. 
Balaamites,  I.  226. 
Balde  (James),  S.  J.,  III.  383. 


1054 


General  Index. 


Ballerini,  III.  535. 

Ballerini  (Peter),  III.  543. 

Balnies,  III.  720. 

BalUer,  III.  889. 

Baluze,  I.  46. 

Bamberg  (See  of),  II.  372. 

Baptism,  I.  207,  416,  707. 

Baptism  of  St.  John,  I.  146. 

Baptism  first  ordinarily  administered 
by  bishops,  I.  390,  709;  in  case  of 
necessity,  laics  might  administer  it, 

I.  418,  709;  time  fixed  for  solemn 
baptism,  I.  419,  708,  II.  399;  putting 
off  receiving  baptism  until  death,  I. 
420,  707  ;  putting  off  the  baptism  of 
chiliren,  I.  708,  II.  399;  ceremonies 
of  baptism,  I.  707 ;  baptismal  feast 
of  the  Basilidians,  I.  315;  blessing 
of  the  baptismal  water,  I.  708. 

Baptism  (infants,  putting  off  of),  I.  708, 

II.  399. 
Baptisteries,  I.  691,  709. 
Baradai  (James),  I.  G32. 
Barbara  I.  283. 

Bar  Cochba,  I.  237. 

Bardesanes,  the  Gnostic,  I.  327. 

Bardo,  Archbp.  of  ]\Ientz,  II.  373. 

Barletta  (Gabriel),  II.  1037. 

Barnabas  (St.)  I.  184. 

Barnabites,  III.  388. 

Baronius  ( Caesar),  I.  44,  III.  423. 

Barruel,  III.  628. 

Barsumas,  Bp.  of  Nisibis,  I.  604. 

Bartholomew  (St.),  in  India,  I.  184. 

Bartholomew,  Holzhauser,  III.  372. 

Bartholomew's  (St.)  Day,  III.  277. 

Bartolino  of  Piacenza,  II.  848. 

Bartolomeo  (Fra),  II.  1051. 

Basil  (St.),  Bp.  of  Ancyra,  I.  541. 

Basil  (St.)  the  Great,  I.  545,  753. 

Basil  the  Macedonian,  II.  452. 

Basilicae,  I.  686  sq. 

Basilides,  the  Gnostic,  I.  310. 

Basiliscus,  Emperor,  I.  612. 

Basle  (Council  of),  II.  875. 

Basnage  (James  and  Samuel),  I.  60. 

Bauer  (Bruno),  III.  974,  981. 

Baur  (of  Tubingen),  I.  58,    III.  971, 

978. 
Baumgarten,  III.  599. 
Bautain,  III.  839,  903. 
Bavaria,  II.  98,  III.  382,  448. 
Bayle,  III.  527. 
Beatrice,  Margravine  of  Tuscany,  II. 

492. 
Beatus,  Abbot  of  Libana,  II.  179. 
Beausobre,  I.  59. 
Becanus,  III.  416. 
Bee  (Abbey  and  School  of),  II.  369. 
Becker,  I.  51. 


Becket  (St.  Thomas  a),  II.  563. 
Bede,  the  Venerable,  I.  40,  II.  169,  379. 

Beduins,  II.  191. 

Beghards,  Beguines,  Begutts,  II.  675i, 
724,  828. 

Bela,  II.  252. 

Belgium,  III.  284  sq.,  738  sq.,  843. 

Belisarius,  II.  29. 

Bellarmin,  III.  413  sq. 

Bellini,  Giovanni,  II.  105-4. 

Bells,  I.  691. 

Bembo,  II.  1003. 

Benedict  II.,  Pope,  II.  140. 

Benedict  III.,  II.  274. 

Benedict  IV.,  II.  294. 

Benedict  V.,  II.  305. 

Benedict  VL,  II.  308. 

Benedict  VII.,  II.  308. 

Benedict  VIII.,  II.  314. 

Benedict  IX.,  II.  316. 

Benedict  X.,  II.  325. 

Benedict  XL,  II.  819. 

Benedict  XII.,  II.  835. 

Benedict  XIII.,  II.  849,  III.  487. 

Benedict  XIV.,  III.  489,  390,  620. 

Benedict  (St.)  of  Aniane,   II.  181,  36a 

Benedict  Cajetanus,  II.  620. 

Benedict  Levita,  II.  272,  343. 

Benedict  (St.)  of  Nursia,  II.  41. 

Benedictines,  II.  41,  360,  682,  III.  520, 
760;  in  the  U.  S.,  III.  943. 

Benno  (St.),  Bp.  of  Meissen,  II.  246. 

Berault-Bercaotel,  I.  48. 

Berengar  of  Tours,  II.  369,  441. 

Bergen  (See  of),  II.  233. 

Bernard  (St.)   of   Clairvaux,    II.  540, 
685,  1034. 

Bernard  (St.),  Apostle  of  the  Pomera- 
nians, II.  154,  III.  737. 

Bernhardi,  III.  53. 

Bernward,  Bp.  of  Hildesheim,  II.  372, 
394. 

Bertha,  Prankish  Princess,  II.  64. 

Perthes,  I.  53. 

Berthold  of  Calabria,  II.  694. 

Berthold,  the  Franciscan,  II.  712. 

Berthold,  Bp.  of  Chiemsee,  III.  413. 

Berthold,  Bp.  of  Yxkiill,  II.  802. 

Berti  (Lawrence),  I.  50,  III.  535. 

Bertrand  de  Got,  II.  819. 

Berulle,  IIL  390. 

Beryllus,  Bp.  of  Bostra,  I    556. 

Bessarion,  II.  933,  1003. 

Beurreus  (Denys),  III.  180. 

Beveridge,  I.  59. 

Beza  (Theodore  de).  III.  149,  180,  311, 

Bialobrzeski,  III.  170. 

BibleSocieties(Protestarit),  III.  1009 sq. 

Bible  (reading  of  the),  II.  1012;  trans- 
lations of  the  Bible  into  the  vuliiai 


General  Index. 


1055 


tongue,  I.  501,  II.  22,  952,  1011,  III. 
93. 

Biblla  Pauperum,  II.  1037. 

Biel  (Gabriel),  11.  991. 

Billuart,  I.  472,  III.  519. 

Bingham,  I.  59. 

Binterim,  I.  20,  II.  13,  III.  621. 

Birkowski,  III.  170. 

Birthday  for  Heaven,  I.  302. 

Bishops,  I.  199  sq.;  have  the  prece- 
dence of  priests,  I.  199,  389,  623;  St. 
Jerome's  view  on  this  subject,  I. 
200;  their  relation  to  their  dioceses, 
I.  659,  II.  348 ;  and  with  the  Pope,  II. 
349,  632,  923 ;  they  are  called  priests, 
1.201,  390;  and  exercise  supreme  au- 
thority over  both  clergy  and  laity,  I. 
199;  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  I.  465, 
648;  they  are  obliged  to  visit  prison- 
ers every  Wednesday  and  Friday, 
I.  649;  rural  bishops  or  chorepiscopi, 
I.  394,  651,  II.  138. 

Blanc,  I.  48. 

Blood,  Congr.  of  the  Most  Precious, 
III.  945. 

Blumauer,  Aloysius,  III.  545. 

Bobbio,  II.  103. 

Boccaccio,  II.  1002. 

Bochart  (Samuel),  III.  311. 

Bockelsohn  (John),  III.  117. 

Bockhold  (John),  III.  117. 

Boehme  (James),  III.  314. 

Boethius,  II.  34,  168. 

BogomilesII.  811. 

Bogoris,  Bulgarian  Prince,  II.  469. 

Bohemia  (conversion  of),  II.  243. 

Bohemian  or  Moravian  Brethren,  II. 
971,  III.  164. 

Bojoari,  II.  106. 

Boleslaus  the  Pious,  II.  244. 

Boleslaus  Chrobry,  II.  241. 

Boleslaus  II.,  II.  250. 

Boleslaus  III.  {Krizywousty),  II.  248, 
note. 

Bolivia,  III.  960. 

Bollandists,  I.  23,  note  4. 

Bona  (Cardinal),  III.  534. 

Bonaventure  (St.),  II.  604,  721,  768, 
1035. 

Bonfrere  III.,  419. 

Boniface  (St.),  (Winfrid),  II.  98  sq.; 
introujces  the  custom  of  holding 
recrular  annual  synods,  II.  117. 

Boniface  VI.,  Pope,  II.  291. 

Boniface  VIII.,  II.  614. 

Bon i lace  IX.,  II.  848. 

Boniface,  See  of  St.,  Ill,  937. 

Bonosus,  ( Bp.  of  Sardica),  I.  562,  760. 

r>ook(Cath.  Book  Associa'ns),  III.  879. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  III.  204. 


Books  (Censorship  of),  II.  912,  IIL 
906. 

Boos  (Martin),  III.  910. 

Borgia  (St.  Francis),  III.  384. 

Borglum  (See  of),  II.  230. 

Borronieo  (St.  Charles),  III.  350,  423. 
438. 

Borziwoi,  II.  243. 

Bossuet,  I.  47,  II.  821,  note,  III.  148, 
50^,  518,  520,  540. 

Boulogne  (Abbe  de).  III.  703. 

Bourdaloue,  III.  522. 

Bradwardine,  II.  990. 

Braga  (Council  of),  I.  757. 

Brandenburg  (See  of),  II.  245. 

Brazil,  III.  409,  .580,  961. 

Bread  used  in  the  Eucharistic  Sacri- 
fice, 1.211,  722,  11.463. 

Bremen,  II.  123,  224. 

iirenner,  III.  888,  1042. 

Brenz,  III.  80,  87,  320. 

Brephotrophia,  II.  see  Infant  Asylums, 

Breslau,  II.  243,  note,  III.  159. 

Brethren  (the  so-called  of  Jesus),  I. 
142,  note  1. 

Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  II.  674. 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  II. 
1025. 

Bretagne,  or  Britanny,  II.  51. 

Britain  (Conversion  of),  II.  50. 

Bridget  (St.),  II.  57. 

Bridget  (St.),  or  Birgit,  or  Brigitte,  II. 
843,  997,  1018,  1023. 

Brothers  of  Mercy  and  Christian  Char- 
ity, III.  397. 

Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  III. 
945. 

Brothers  of  Mary,  III.  945. 

Bruno  (St.),  Pounder  of  the  Carthusi- 
ans, II.  689. 

Bruno,  Bri.  of  Cologne,  11.  371. 

Brunswick  (turns  Protestant),  IIL 
121. 

Bucer,  III.  87,  114,  310. 

Budaeus  (latinized  of  "Wra.  Bude), 
II.  1007. 

Buddhism,  I.  7G. 

Buenos  Ayres,  III.  961. 

Bugenhagcn,  IIL  190. 

Bulgarians,  II.  468. 

Bull  In  Coena  Domini,  III.  361,  369, 
492. 

BuUinger  (Henry),  III.  98. 

Burgundians,  II.  30. 

Burial,  Christian,  I.  453,  738. 

Burial,  Ecclesiastical,  refused,  1.  739. 

Burkhard  of  Worms,  II.  343,  373.  421. 

Burkhard  of  Wiirzburg,  IL  120. 

Burmah,  IIL  928. 

Bursfeld  (Congregation  of),  II.  1021. 


1056 


General  Index. 


J?iisch  (John),  II.  1021. 
Busenbaum,  III.  417,  519. 
Buxtorf,  III.  311. 
Byzantines,  I.  37-43. 
Bzorius,  I.  45. 


Cacault,  III.  655. 

Cadalous  of  Parma,  II.  331. 

Caecilian  of  Carthage,  I.  512. 

Caelestius,  I.  572. 

Caesar,  Augusta.     See  Saragassa. 

Caesarea  (School  of),  I.  653. 

Caesaropapacy,  III.  303. 

Caillou,  III.,  841. 

Cainites,  I.  319. 

Cajetan,  II.  922,  III.  19,  418. 

Caiasanze,  III.  396. 

Calderon,  III.  433. 

Calixt  (George),  III.  323,  588. 

Calixtines,  II.  971. 

Catixtus  II.,  Pope,  II.  534. 

Calixtus  III..  Pope,  II.  897. 

Calmet,  III.  521. 

Calovius,  III.  323,  446. 

Calvin,   III,  143  sq.;  his  system,  III. 

150;  and  his  exegesis,  III.  310. 
Camaldoli  (Congregation  of).  II.  364. 
Camaldolites,  II.  364. 
Campeggio,  III.  50,  192. 
Canada,  III.  937. 
Canisius,  III.  382,  415. 
Canon  (of  the  Mass),  I.  717. 
Canon  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.,  I.  509,  II. 

158. 
Canonical  (Life),  II.  158. 
Canonici,  II.  351 ;  regulares  et  saecula- 

res. 
Canonization,  II.  397. 
Canon  Law,  Studies  of,  II.  638. 
Canons  (Collection  of),  I.  684,  11.  269. 
Canossa  (Henry  IV.  at),  II.  500. 
Canterbury  (metropolis),  11.  05,  379. 
Canus  (Meichior),  III.  412. 
Canute  the  Great,  II.  233  ;  (St.)  299. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  III.  930. 
Capital   punishment   decreed    against 

heretics,  I.    757,  II.   475,  670,  979; 

and  justified  by   Luther,   Melanch- 

thon,  and  Calvin,  III.  301 ;  who  put 

it  in  execution.  III.  148. 
Capitation  tax  paid  by  the  Christians, 

II.  205,  389. 
Capito,  IIL  95,  104. 
Capitula  clausa,  II.  646. 
Capitularies  of  Charlemagne,  II.  182. 
Capitularies  of  Interrogation,  II.  161. 
Capua  (Council  of),  II.  511. 
Capuchins  (Order  of),  III.  386. 


Carraccioli,  III.  33. 

Cardinals,  II.  344,  644  ;  red  and  black, 
IIL  6'J9,  673. 

Carinthiaiis.  II.  239. 

Carlstadt,  III.  18,  53,  102. 

Carmelites,  II.  G94. 

Carpocrates,  I.  323. 

Carpzov.  III.  588,  591. 

Cartesius,  III.  517. 

Carthage,  I.  240. 

Carthage,  Metropolitan  Church  of 
Western  Africa,  I.  240. 

Carthage  (Councils  of),  I.  240,421,432, 
517,  579,' 723. 

Carthusians,  II.  560,  689. 

Casas  (Bartholomew  de  Las),  II.  i0G3. 

Casimir  I.,  II.  249. 

Cassander  (George),  III.  442. 

Ca.ssian  (John),  I.  586,  11.  41. 

Cassiodorus,  I.  38,  II.  34,  168. 

Castellio,  IIL  148,  316. 

Castelnau  (Peter  of),  II.  665. 

Castro  (Christopher),  III.420. 

Cataphrygians,  I.  345. 

Catechetical  (School  of  Alexandria). 
I.  374. 

Catechism  (the  Eoman),  III.  356,  573. 

Catechumenate,  1.417,  707,  726;  stud- 
ies made  in  it,  I.  425. 

Catechumenate  of  the  Jlanichaeans, 
I.  340. 

Cathari,  II.  662  ;  divers  names  of  the 
C,  11.664. 

Catharine  of  Siena,  II.  844,  1017. 

Cathedral  Chapters,  II.  646. 

Cathedral  Chapters  enact  their  own 
statutes,  11.  646. 

Cathedral  Chapters  independently  ad- 
minister their  own  estates.  II.  646. 

Cathedral  Chapters  exclusively  elect  the 
bishops,  11.  646. 

Cathedral  schools,  11.  173,  412,  729. 

Cave  (William),  I.  59. 

Ceillier,  I.  24,  46,  ,111  521. 

Cele.«tine  I.,  Pope,  I.  588. 

Celestiue  V..  Pope,  II.  612. 

Celibacy,  I.  398,  656,  II.  485. 

Celsus,  I.  288. 

Cenobites,  I.  752. 

Censorship  of  Books,  II.  912. 

Central  America,  III.  957. 

Centuriators,  I.  44. 

Cerdo,    I.  329. 

Cerinthus,  I.  223. 

Cerularius  (Michael),  II.  462. 

Ceylon,  I.  503. 

Chabot,  the  Capuchin,  III.  640. 

Chalcedon  (Council  of),  I.  608, 

Chulcidius  (Neo-Platonist).  I.  492 

Chaldean  Christians,  I.  604. 


General  Index. 


1057 


Challoner,  III.  192,  731. 

Chalons  (Council  of)  II.  161,  366. 

Chantal  (St.  Frances  of),  III.  393. 

Chanters,  I.  052. 

Chapels,  I.  448. 

Chaplains  (private),  II.  349. 

Chapters,  II.  351. 

Chapters,  Controversy  of  the  Three,  I. 

022. 
Chapters,  division  of  the  Holy  Scripture 

by,  II.  785. 
Charisma,  s.  confirmatio,  I.  420. 
Charitable  institutions,  I.  740,  II.  641. 
Charity  (Brothers  of),  III.  399. 
Charlemagne,  II.  145  sq.,  171. 
Charlemagne  is  crowned  Emperor,  II. 

148. 
Charles,  Duke  of  Sudermanland,  III. 

182. 
Charles  I.,  King  of  England,  III.  218. 
Charles  IV.,  Emperor,  II.  841. 
Charles  of  Anjou,  II.  598,  607. 
Charles  the  Fat,  II.  288. 
Charles  the  Bald,  II.  284. 
Charles  JMartel,  II.  50,  713. 
Charles  V.,  III.  34,  74,  135,  141. 
Charta  charitatis,  II.  684. 
Chartres  (School  of),  II.  369. 
Chase  (the)  forbidden  to  ecclesiastics, 

II.  159. 
Chateaubriand,  II.  821,  III.  659  sq. 
Chatel  (John),  III.  565. 
Cbatel  (F.  Francis),  III.  709. 
Chazari,  II.  468. 
Chemnitz,  III.  310,  321,  325. 
Cherier,  I.  53. 

Chieregati,  III.  41  (note  1),  45. 
Chiersy,  or  Cr^cy  (Council  of),  II.  272, 

429. 
Children,  III.  47. 
Chili,  III.  960. 
Chiliasm,  I.  224.  347,  II.  392. 
Chillingworth,  III.  330. 
China  (Propagation  of  Christianity  in), 

I.  504,  III.  405,  406,  576,  930  sq. 
Chinese,  1.  72. 

(.'hoisy,  Church  Historian,  I.  48. 
Choirs  of  the  Church,  I.  449,  689. 
Chorepiscopi.     See  Country  Bishops. 
Chosroes  II.,  I.  501. 
Christianity  (causes  of  the  rapid  spread 

of),  I.  254. 
Christians  (the),  I.  175. 
Christians  obtain   universal  and  abso- 
lute recognition  of  their  religion,  1. 

285. 
XplajM,  I.  420,  710. 
Xpiaro-diwc,  1 .  593. 
Christ  (doctrine  of  the  Church  on  the 

divinity  and  humanity  of),  1. 150,  365. 
VOL.  Ill — 67 


Christiern  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  III. 

188. 

Christiern  III.,  III.  190. 

Christopher,  II.  1055. 

Chrodegang,  II.  158. 

Chroniclers,  I.  41. 

Chronology,  I.  28. 

Chrysostum,  I.  486,  546,  557,  655,  727, 
738,  11.22;  has  recourse  to  Pope  In- 
nocent, 1.  559. 

Church  (idea  of  a),  1.  3;  the  Church 
established  by  Jesus  Christ,  I.  4,  152 
sq. ;  the  Catholic  Church,  I.  359,  note 
2;  visible  and  invisible  Church,  I. 
512. 

Church,  Greek,  II.,  189  sq.,  449  sq., 
931  sq. 

Church,  Lutheran,  III.  68  sq. 

Church,  separation  of  the  Church  from 
the  Synagogue,  I.  190;  the  Church 
for  the  first  time  acknowledged  as  a, 
lawful  religious  body,  I.  277,  inte- 
rior division  of  church  edifices,  I. 
689. 

Church,  the  Catholic,  exempted  froiL 
taxes,  I.  466 ;  obtains  tlie  rights  to 
accept  donations  and  legacies,  I. 
466,  648,  058,  II.  132,  354. 

Church  and  State,  I.  463  sq.,  469,  646. 
II.  135,  185,  253,  485  sq.,  529,  III. 
256. 

Church  property,  II.  355. 

Church  Architecture,  I.  086. 

Church  (Doctrine  of  the),  its  develop- 
ment, sources  of  it,  I.  358  sq.,  370  sq., 
506,  508. 

Church  Historians,  I.  34  sq.  to  61. 

Church  History,  I.  7  sq. ;  divisions  of 
the  same,  I.  18;  its  value,  I.  30. 

Church  Offices,  I.  199,  391,  685. 

Church  Ornaments,  I.  685,  II.  1041. 

Church  property  (immunity  of),  II.  357. 

Church,  punishment  inflicted  by  the, 
I.  429. 

Church  revenues  (distribution  of),  I. 
058. 

Churcli-song,  I.  210,  439,  096  sq. 

Church-song,  German,  II.  1032. 

Churches,  celebrated,  I.  686. 

Churches,  Gothic,  II.  1040. 

Chytraeus,  III.  182,  310,  321. 

Cimabue,  II.  1050. 

Circumcisionis  festum,  I.  702. 

Circumcellioncs,  or  Circelliones,  1.616. 

Cistercians,  II.  683,  1056. 

Clara  (St.)  of  Assisi,  and  the  nuns  ol 
her  order,  II.  715. 

Claudianus  Mamertus,  I.  695. 

Claudianus,  Emperor,  I.  188. 

Claudianus  of  Turin,  II.  222. 


1058 


General  Index. 


Clemangis  (Nicholas  de).  See  Nicho- 
las. 

Clement  of  Eome,  I.  203,  405. 

Clement  (St.)  of  Alexandria,  I.  295, 
371,  374,  375,  460. 

Clement  (St.),  first  Bp.  of  Mentz,  I. 
251. 

Clement  II.,  Pope,  II.  319. 

Clement  III.,  Pope,  II.  577. 

Clement  IV.,  Pope,  II.  599. 

Clement  V.,  Pope,  II.  820. 

Clement  VI.,  Pope,  II.  837. 

Clement  VII.,  Pope,  II.  847,  III.  50, 
109,  192. 

Clement  VIII..  Pope.  III.  364. 

Clement  IX.,  Pope,  III.  481. 

Clement  X.,  Pope,  I  [I.  482. 

Clement  XT..  Pope.  III.  485. 

Clement  XII..  Pope,  III.  4S8. 

Clement  XIII.,  Pope.  [II.  491. 

Clement  XIV.,  Pope,  III.  492,  569. 

Clement.  Augustus,  .Vrchbishop  of  Co- 
logne, III.  765. 

Clement,  Plavius,  I.  178. 

Clement,  an  Irish  heretical  Bishop,  II. 
175. 

Clement  (Jacques),  III.  281. 

Clementines,  I.  218,  332. 

Clergy  and  Laity,  I.  195. 

Clerici  et  Fratres  Vitae  Communis,  II. 
1025. 

Clergy,  I.  195,  395,  II.  156. 

Clergy  (Morals  of  the),  II.  156,  648, 
928. 

Clergy  (Education  of  the),  I.  395,  II. 
159,  406,  III.  514. 

Clergy  (Prohibitory  laws  restricting 
admission  among  the).  I.  652,  note 

I,  II.  134,  note  1. 

Clergy  qualified  to  take  their  places  in 
the  diet  of  the  empire,  II.  132. 

Clergy  forbidden  to  become  soldiers,  to 
bear  arms,  or  fight,  II.  135. 

Clerment  (Synods  of),  II.  401,  514. 

Cloisters.     See  Monasticism. 

Cloisters  produce  the  first  architects, 

II.  1045;  picture  of  true  cloistered 
life,  II.  725;  they  are  withdrawn 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops,  II. 
343,  365. 

Cloisters  of  women.     See  Nunneries. 
Cloveshove  (Council  of),  II.  379. 
Clovis  and  Clotilda,  11.47. 
Clugny  (Congr.  of),  II.  299,  361,  376, 

397. 
Coadjutor  bishops,  II.  350. 
Cobbett,  III.  192,  731. 
Cocceius,  III.  599. 
Cochem  (Martin),  III.  554. 
Cochin-China,  III.  928. 


Cochlaeus,  III.  18,  78,  413. 

Code  of  Denys  the  Little,  I.  683. 

Code  of  Frederic  II.,  II.  590. 

Coena — Bull  In  Coena  Domini,  III 
361,  309,  492. 

Colberg  (See  of),  II.  249. 

Collecta,  I.  712. 

Collegia  pietatis,  III.  590. 

Collegial  (System  of  Pfaff),  III.  305, 
586. 

Collegiate  Chapters,  II.  351. 

Collegiants,  III.  329. 

Collciiium  Germanicum,  III.  372. 

Collegium  licitum,  I.  277. 

Collet,  III.  519 

Collyridians,  I.  761. 

Cologne  (See  of),  II.  31,  108. 

Cologne,  Cathedral  of,  II.  1046. 

Cologne,  Archbishoprick,  II.  370. 

Cologne,  (Council  of),  II.  532. 

Coloman,  II.  108. 

Columha(St.),  II.  58. 

Columbanus  (St.),  II.  101,  163. 

Comlioni,  Vic.  Ap.,  III.  935. 

Commendoni    Papal   Legate,  III.  168. 

Community  of  goods  among  the  first 
Christians,  I.  207. 

Communicatio  idiomatum,  I.  592. 

Communion,  or  the  Eucharist,  center 
of  all  Christian  Worship,  I.  211, 
433,  710,  II.  400,  1027;  controversy 
on  the  Eucharist,  II.  430;  feast  of 
Corpus  Christi,  II.  1029 ;  persons 
must  be  fasting  in  order  to  receive 
the  Eucharist,  I.  723;  and  under 
o7ie  form,  I.  720 ;  still  communion 
under  both  forms  is  granted  to  the 
Hussites  by  the  Council  of  Basle.  II. 
970;  once  more  by  Pius  IV.,  III.  351. 

Compromise,  III.  866. 

Compromise  between  the  Uynamists 
and  .Modalists;  I.  356. 

Conception  (feast  of  the  Immaculate), 

II.  1030;  controversy  on  the  Immac. 
Conception,  II.  781,  III.  430;  de- 
clared a  dogma.  III.  796. 

Conceptual  ism,  II.  746. 
Conciliabulum  of  the  Oak,  I.  559. 
Conclave,  II.  606,  III.  366. 
Concomitantia,  II.  1028;  especially  in 

note  ■*. 
Concordance    of  the    Bible,    II.    785 

III.  419. 
Concordats,  II.  869,  895. 
Concordats   of    Princes,  II.  894,   IIL 

665,  687,  689. 
Concord  (Formula  and   Book  of).  III. 

322. 
Concordia  canonura,  I.  684. 
Concordia  Vitebergensis,  IIL.  112. 


General  Index. 


1059 


Concubinage  of  the  Clergy,  II.  169, 

323,  327,  358,  375,  380,  648,  930. 
Conductitii,  II.  646. 
Conference  between  the  Christian  Za- 

cheus   and   the    pagan    philosopher, 

ApoUonius,  I.  495. 
Confes.sio  Augustana,  III.  76. 
Confessio  Teirapolitana,  III.  83. 
Confe^sio  Helvetica,  III.  115. 
Confessio  Anglicana,  III.  211. 
Confessio  Belgica,  III.  286. 
Confessio  fidei  Tridentina,  III.  357. 
Confession,  1.  425,  727,  II.  795. 
Confession,  auricular,  I.  420,  727. 
Confession,  public,  I.  729. 
Confesso7-es,  I.  301. 
Confirmation,  1.  207.  420,  709. 
Confraternities,  I.  651,  II.  513, 
Confucius,  I.  72. 
Confutatio    Augustanae    Confessionis, 

111.79. 
Congregatio  de  auxiiiis,  III.  364. 
Congregatio  do  propaganda  Fide,  III. 

367. 
Congregatio  Interpretum  concilii,  III. 

358. 
Congregatio    Inquisition  is     haereticae 

pravil-ati.?,  III.  575. 
Congruism,  III.  427. 
Conrad  I.  (Kinn),  II.  300. 
Conrad  II.  (Emperor),  II.  316. 
Conrad  III.  (Emperor),  11.543. 
Conrad  IV.  (King),  11.  597. 
Conrad,  13p.  of  Constance,  II.  372. 
Conrad  of  Marburg,  II.  671. 
Conradin,  II.  598. 

Consalvi,  III.  655,  665  sq.,  674,  683,  689. 
Conscience  (Examinations  of),  II.  164, 

970. 
Consecration  of  bishops,  I.  397. 
Consensus  repetitus  ecclesiae   Luther- 

anae.  III.  324. 
Consensus  Patrum,  I.  511. 
Consensus  Tigurinus,  III.  155. 
Consistories,  Protestant,  III.  302. 
Consolamentum,  II.  603. 
Constance  (See  of),  II.  99;  Jesuits  at, 

III.  383. 
Constans  1.,  1.474. 
Constans  II.,  1.638. 
Constantine  the  Great,  i.  463,  499,  750. 
Constantine,  Copronymus,  11.144,  211. 
Constantine,  Pogonatus,  1.640,  762,  II. 

140,  239. 
Constantius,  I.  474,  502,  537. 
Constantinople,  1.  470. 
Constantinople,  Patriarchate  of,  I.  610. 
Constantinople,  Conference  of,  I.  617. 
Constitution  of  the  Cath.  Church,   I. 

389,  646. 


Constitution  of  Lothaire,  II.  258. 
Constitution  (civil)  of  the  Clergy,  III 

638. 
Constitution  dogmatical  de  Fide  CaiK- 

olica,  111.  820. 
Constitutuni,  I.  027,  and  Judicatum.  I. 

624,  of  Pope  Vigil ius. 
Contarini  (Cardinal),  III.  113,  419. 
Conversions  and   Converts,    III.   442, 

539,  847,  864. 
Convulsionaries,  111.  507. 
Copernicus,  III.  420. 
Copiatae,  I.  651,  note  3. 
Copts,  I.  631. 
Coran  (the),  II.  196  sq 
Corbie,  II.  123,  225. 
Corbinian,  II.  107. 
Cordova  (School  of),  II,  421. 
Cordova  (Synod  ofi,  II.  390. 
Corea,  III.  932. 

Cornelius,  Bp.  of  Kome,  I.  275,  392 
Cornelius  a  Lapide,  III.  420. 
Corner,  III.  422. 

Coronation  of  Kings,  II.  139,  342. 
Coroticus,  11.  50. 

Corpus  doctrinae  Prutenicum,  III.  319 
Corpus  Evangelicorum,  III.  585,  618. 
Corpus  Juris  canonic!,  its  origin  and 

division,  II.  038,  844  ;  divers  editions 

of  it,  I.  22,  note  2. 
Corpus  Christi   (feast  of),  II.  1029 
Correggio,  II.  1054. 
Corsica,  1.  489. 
Cortesius  (Paulus),  II.  1003. 
Corrupticolae.  I.  615. 
Corvey,  II.  123. 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  I.  503. 
Coster,  ill.  416. 
Cotelier,  I.  40. 

Cross,  Congr.  of  the  Holy,  III.  945. 
Council  (Prototype  of  a),    I.  206. 
Councils,    Ecumenical;  origin   of   th.< 

name  and  importance  of  Ecumenica 

Councils,  I.  677  sq. 

I.  Ecumenical   C,  1st,  of  Nic», 
I.  523. 
II.  Ecumenical,  1st,  of  Constanti- 
nople, I.  549,  563. 

III.  Ecumenical,   of    Ephesus,    I 

583. 

IV.  Ecumenical,  of  Chalcedon,  1 

608. 
V.  Ecumenical,  2d,  of  Constanti 
nople,  I.  027. 
VI.   Ecumenical,  3d,  of  Constanti 
nople,  1.  640. 
VII.  Ecumenical,  2d,  of  Nice,  II 
214. 
VIII.  Ecumenical,  4th,  of  Constan 
tinople,  II.  457 


1060 


General  Index. 


IX.  Ecumenical,  1st  Laleran,  II. 
536. 
X.  Ecumenical,   2d  Lateran,  II. 
542. 
XI.  Ecumenical,  3d  Lateran,  II. 

568. 
XII.  Ecumenical,  4th  Lateran,  II. 
583. 

XIII.  Ecumenical,    1st,    of    Lyons, 

II.  596. 

XIV.  Ecumenical,    2d,    of     Lyons, 

II.  604. 

XV.  Ecumenical,    at   Vienne,    II. 
826. 
Ecumenical,  of  Pisa,  II.  853. 
XVI.  Ecumenical,  of  Constance,  II. 
858. 
Ecumenical,  of  Basle,  11.875. 
XVII.  Ecumenical,  of  Ferrara-Flor- 
ence,  II.  932. 
XVIII.  Ecumenical,  5th  Lateran,  II. 
918. 
XIX.  Ecumenical,  ofTrent, III. 342. 
XX.  Ecumenical,   of  the  Vatican, 

III.  807. 

Acts  of  the  Councils.  I.  22,  note  1. 

Provincial  Councils,  I.  408. 
Country-bishops,  I.  394,  651,  II.  138. 
Courland  f conversion  of),  II.  172. 
Courland  turns  Protestant,  III.  172. 
(/ourt  (the  Roman ),  Supreme  Court  of 

Appeal,  II.  633. 
Court  chaplains,  II.  349. 
Coustant,  I.  46. 
Covenant  (thei.  III.  220. 
Cracow  (See  of),  II.  250. 
Cranmer  (Thomas),  III.  195 
Cranz  (Albert),  I.  42. 
Crecy,  II.  428. 

Crell  (Chancellor),  III.  808,  322. 
Crescent,  I.  251 ;  the  Cynic,  I.  267. 
Crescentius,  II.  307. 
Croatians,  II.  239. 
Cromwell  (Thomas),  III.  196,  200. 
Cromwell  (Oliver),  III.  222. 
Crosier  and  King,  I.  694,  II.  340,  487, 

534,  690. 
Cross    (image    of    the),    I.   449,   456; 

form  of  the  cross  in  churches,  I.  688 ; 

it   is   carried   away   into   Persia  by 

(/hosroes  II.,  I.  501 ;  abolition  of  the 

death  penalty  of  the  cross,  I.  466 ; 

the  cross   adopted  as  a  standard,  I. 

468;    mysterious   apparition   of  the 

cross,  I.  284,  482 ;  sign  of  the  cross, 

I.  457,  note  1  ;  exaltation  of  the  holy 

cross,  I.  704. 
Crown,  the  triple  of  the  Pope,  II.  631. 
Croyland  (Abbey  of),  II.  381. 
Crucifixion  abolished,  I.  466. 


Crusades,  II.  517;  results  of,  II.  610. 
Crypto-Calvinism,  III.  319. 
Culdees,  II.  387. 
Cullen  (Paul),  first  Irish  cardinal,  III 

793. 
Culm  (See  of),  II.  805. 
Cultus,  I.  210,  416,  685,  II.  395. 
CultUi  of  the  Protestants,  III.  305. 
Cycle  (the  Dionysian),  I.  28,  note  1,  39 
Cyprian,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  I.  276,  297, 

385,  391,  40S,  421. 
Cyril  (St.),  Bp.  of  Alexandria,  I.  495. 

595. 
Cyril  (St.)  of  -lerusalem,  I.  546,  700, 

713. 
Cyril  or  Constantine,  II.  240. 
Cyril  Lucaris,  III.  465. 
Cyrus,  Bp.  of  Alexandria,  I.  634. 
Czerski,  III.  914. 


D. 


D'Achery  Spicilegiura,  I.  46. 

Dagobert,  II.  40. 

Dalherg  (Theodor  or  Charle.*  of).  III, 

548,  678,  689. 
D'Alembert,  III.  527. 
Damasus  I.,  Pope,  I.  549. 
Damasus  II.,  Pope,  II.  319. 
Damian  (St.   Peter),  II.  324,  325,   399, 

410,  424. 
Dancers,  II.  1058. 
Dannenmayr;  I.  51. 
Dante,  11.  719,  822,  1001. 
Danz,  I.  57. 
Darboy.  III.  829,  840. 
Daub,  III.  971. 
David  of  Dinanto,  II.  673. 
Deanery,  II.  137,  352. 
Deans  and  Priors  in   Monasteries,  II. 

44. 
Deans  and  Provosts  of  Chapters,  II. 

647. 
Deans  and  Provosts  in  Synodal  Courts, 

II.  164. 

Deacons,  I.  203,  392;    subordinate  to 

Priests,  I.  392. 
Deaconesses,   I.  203,   note  3,   651,  III. 

993. 
Decius,  Emperor,  I.  273. 
Declaration  of   the  Galilean    Clergy, 

III.  497;    of   the   Catholic   Episco. 
pacy  in  England,  III.  735. 

Decretals  of  the  Popes,  I.  671,   683; 

false,  II.  269  sq. 
Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.,  II.  592,  639, 

642. 
Decretals  of  Boniface  VIII.,  II.  639. 
Decretals  of  Clement  V.,  II.  844. 
Decrees  of  the  Popes,  I.  22,  note  3. 


General  Index 


1061 


Defenders,  I.  651. 

Definitores,  II.  719. 

Dei  et  apostolicae  sedis  gratia^  II.  633. 

Deism,  III.  331,  649. 

Delitzsch,  III.  975. 

Delsignore,  I.  50. 

Delu£?e,  I.  102. 

Denina,  III.  534. 

Donmark  (Conversion  of;,  II.  227. 

Denmark,  Protestantism  in,  III.  188. 

Denuncialio  evan<;elica,  II.  611. 

Denvs  the  Areopascite  and  his  writ- 
ings, I.  567,  note, 'y  18,  II.  396. 

Denys,  Bp.  of  .Vlexandria,  I.  355,  424. 

Denys  the  Little,  I.  28,  note  1,  683,  II. 
39,  89,  168. 

Denys,  Bp.  of  .Milan,  I.  539. 

Denys  |«t.),  Bp.  of  Paris,  I.  244,  II. 
396,  749. 

Denys,  Bp.  of  Rome,  T.  355. 

Dereser  (Thaddeus),III.  876,  note,  893. 

Dcsiderius  the  Lombard,  II.  145. 

Desiderius  of  i\Ionte  Cassino,  II.  511. 

Dessau  (Assembly  of).  III.  -52. 

Development  of  Jesus,  I.  143. 

Development  of  Ecclesiastical  Science, 
I.  372,  510. 

Development,  Doctrinal.  See  Doc- 
trinal Development. 

Diaspora.  I.  177. 

Diderot,  III.  527. 

Didier  de  la  Cour,  III.  390. 

Didymus,  I.  546,  564. 

Diego,  Bp.  of  Osma,  II.  665,  709, 

Dies  Rogaiionum,  I.  700. 

Dies  Stationum,  I.  441. 

Diet  of  Electors,  II.  889  sq. 

Diet  of  Worms,  III.  38,  113. 

Diet  of  ISiirnberg,  III.  4-5,  50. 

Diet  of  Spire,  III.  71. 

Diet  of  Augsburg.  III.  19,  75. 

Diet  of  Ratisbon,  III.  113. 

Dio  of  Prusa,  I.  97. 

Diocesan  Synods,  I.  409,  682,  II.  137, 
351,  III.  371. 

Dioclesian,  I.  277. 

Diodore  of  Tarsus,  I.  546. 

Diognete  (letter  to),  I.  232,  455. 

Dioscorus,  I.  606. 

Diospolis  (Council  of),  I.  580. 

Diplomatics,  I.  27,  note  2. 

Diptychs,  I.  717,  718. 

Discipline  of  the  Secret,  I.  436,  725. 

Discipline,  Ecclesiastical,  I.  212,  II. 
165,  405. 

Dissidents  (Pro't  in  Poland),  III.  334. 

Dissidia.  theologico,  I.  5. 

Ditmar,  Bp.  of  Merseburg,  II.  373. 

Dobenek  (James  of),  Bp.  of  Pomesa- 
nia,  III.  156. 


Dobmayer,  III.  888. 

Docotae,  I.  225,  especially  308. 

Doctrinal  Development,  I.  358,  370, 
506. 

Dodwell,  I.  59. 

Doellinger.  I.  53,  489,  II.  191,  366. 

Dogmas  (Hist,  of),  I.  20,  note  1,  606. 

Dogmatics.  Catholic,  II.  733,  III.  411, 
549,  889  sq. 

Dolcino,  II.  676;  his  followers  con- 
demned, II.  828. 

Dombrowka,  II.  247. 

Dominic  (St.),  II.  665,  708. 

Dominic  (Loricatus),  II.  410. 

Dominica  in  alhi.i,  I.  699. 

Dominicans,  II.  710,  807. 

Dominico  Ghirlandajo,  II.  1050. 

Dominitian,  Bp.  of  Ancyra,  I.  621. 

Dominitian.  Emperor,  I.  189. 

Domitilla,  I.  188. 

Donatello,  II.  1049. 

Donation,  pretended,  of  Constantino, 
II.  924. 

Donati.^ts,  I.  515. 

Donatus,  I.  515. 

Donatus,  Hp.  of  Casaenigrae,  I.  516. 

Dordrecht  (Svnod  of).  III.  290,  327. 

Dorner,  I.  364,  III.  965. 

Dorpat  (See  of),  II.  803. 

Dorovernum,  II.  65. 

Dositheus;  heresiarch  of  Samaria,  I. 
171,  220. 

Douay  Seminary  for  Catholic  English- 
men, III.  214. 

Drey,  III.  888. 

Drontheim  (Sec  of),  II.  233. 

Druthmar,  the  Grammarian,  Monk  o( 
Corvey,  II.  415. 

Ducreux,  I.  48. 

Ducrey  (  Martin),  III.  659. 

Dungal,  Monk  of  St.  Denys,  II.  222. 

Dunin  (Martin  of).  Archbishop  of  Po- 
sen.  III.  768. 

Duns  Scotus,  II.  720,  779. 

Dunstan  (St.),  A rchbp.  of  Canterbury, 
II.  359,  381. 

Dupanloup,  814,  828  sq. 

Dupin,  I.  46. 

Durer  (Albert),  II.  1055. 

Durand,  I.  46. 

Durand  of  St.  Fourcjain,  II.  988. 

Dynamics,  I.  349. 


E. 


Easter,  I.  212,  442  sq..  698;  contro- 
versy on  the  celebration  of  Easter, 
I.  443,  525;  Councils  held  on  this  oc- 
casion, I.  446. 

Easter  confession,  II.  795. 


1062 


General  Index. 


Easter,  communion  at,  II.  795. 

East  Indies,  III.  403,  677  sq.,  926  sq. 

Ebbo,  Archbp.  of  Rheims,  II.  225, 
261. 

'E/3do/zdf  fisyn''.?!,  I.  699. 

Ebionites,  I.  217. 

Eboracuni.     See  Yo7'k: 

Eccebard,  II.  371,  420. 

Ecclesia  oatbedralis,  I.  662;  Matrix, 
ib. ;  Plebana,  ib. 

Eclv,  III.  IG,  17,  21,  33,  78,  80,  113. 

Ecijart  (:Master),  II.  679. 

Economists,  III.  528. 

Ecumenical.     See  Councils. 

Ecumenical  bishop.  See  Episcopus  uni- 
versiilis  or  Universal  bishop. 

Edehnann,  III.  596. 

Edessa  (School  of),  I.  653. 

Edict  of  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius  to 
the  Greek  communities  of  Asia,  I. 
266. 

Edict  of  Constantine  at  Milan,  I.  285. 

Edict  (theological)  of  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian, I.  623,  625. 

Edict  of  Justinus,  II.  623  sq. 

Edict  of  Emperor  Heraclius,  I.  637. 

Education  of  the  Clergy.     See  Clergy. 

Egbert,  II.  94. 

Egypt,  I.  82,  87,  239,  II.  203. 

Eichhorn,  III.  599. 

Eichstadt  (See  of),  II.  116. 

Einhard,  II.  182,  1094. 

'EKi?£(7«f  7?/f  Tr/orewf,  I.  637. 

Elbod,  II.  95. 

Election  of  bishops,  I.  395,  659;  the 
freedom  of  episcopal  elections  is 
gradually  destroyed,  I.  661,  II.  134; 
determined  struggle  to  re-establish 
it,  II.  340,  510  sq. ;  participation  of 
the  community  in  episcopal  elections, 
I.  396,  659 ;  the  election  of  bishops 
is  confirmed  by  the  Pope,  II.  633  sq. 

Elesbaan,  I.  503. 

Elevation,  I.  718,  II.  1027. 

Elias  of  Cortona,  II.  721. 

Eligius,  Bp.  of  Noyon,  II.  109. 

Elipandus.  Archbp.  of  Toledo,  II.  177. 

Elizabeth  (St.),  II.  790,  coll.  793. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  III. 
208  sq. 

Elkesseans,  I.  218. 

Elvira  (Council  of),  I.  450. 

Emanations  of  the  Gnostics.  I.  307. 

Emanations  of  the  Hindoos,  I.  75. 

Emancipation  of  the  Catholics  in  Eng- 
land, III.  730. 

Emancipation  of  slaves.     See  Slavery. 

Embolisnius,  I.  719. 

Emmeram  (St.),  II.  107. 
Emmeric,  II.  252. 


Emperor ;  the  share  which  the  enaperoT 
had  in  episcopal  elections,  I.  661,  11, 
134 ;  in  the  election  of  popes,  II, 
254,  302;  is  styled  Vicarius  Christi, 

II.  335. 

Empire;  tho  Holy  Roman  Empire  is 
considered  as  the  constitutional  pro- 
tector of  the  Church,  II.  150;  rela- 
tion of  the  Empire  to  the  papacy,  II. 
150;  as  a  token  of  this  relation,  the 
Emperor  is  ordained  a  cleric,  II. 
335  ;  he  sings  the  Gospel  in  the  Mass 
celebrated  by  the  Pope,  II.  860 ;  the 
symbolical  Imperial  globe,  II.  307 ; 
the  Empire  and  the  papacy  com- 
pared to  two  lights,  to  the  matrimo- 
nial alliance.  II.  574. 

Empire  (Latin),  II.  582. 

Ems  (Punctuation  of).  III.  647. 

Emser  (Jerome),  III.  24,  413. 

Encratites,  I.  329. 

Endura,  II.  663. 

Energumeni,  I.  393,  712. 

Enfantin,  III.  711. 

Engelhardt,  I.  57. 

England   (conversion   of),    II.  61   sq 
378 ;  turns  Protestant,  III.  194  sq.  , 
revival  of  Catholicity,  III.  725  sq 
848  ;  Papal  Legate  in,  II.  5G5. 

Enlightenment,  false.  III.  545. 

'Evw-;/coi',  I.  613. 

Eon  d'Etoilo  (Eudo  de  Stella),  II.  655 

Epaon  (Council  of),  II.  99. 

Eparchy,  I.  603. 

Ephesus  (Robber  Synod  of),  I.  607. 

Ephraem  (St.,  the  Syrian),  I.  328,  546 
695,  747. 

Epicureans,  I.  90. 

'E7r//cZ//<7<f,  I.  710,  II.  936. 

Epiphanius  (St.,  Bp.  of  Salamis),  I, 
546,  556,  558. 

Epiphany  (Feast  of),  I.  446,  701. 

Episcopal  system  of  the  Catholics,  II. 
818,  923. 

Episcopal  system  of  the  Protestants, 

III.  303  sq.,  585. 
Episcopius,  III,  328  sq. 
Episcopus  universalis,  I.  675. 
Epi^tolae    obscurorum     virorum,     II. 

1011,  III.  30. 
Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  II.  1006,  1011 

III.  130,  309. 
Eric  XIV..  III.  180. 
Erigena   (John   Scotus),   II.  417,  42a 

436,  441. 
Erlau  (See  of),  II.  251. 
Ermeland  (Varmia,  See  of),  II.  805. 
Ernesti  (J.  A.),  III.  599. 
Erpenius  (Thomas),  III.  311. 
Erwin  of  Steinbach,  II.  1046,  note. 


General  Index. 


1063 


Esky],  Archbp.  of  Lund,  II.  550. 
Espencaeus  (Claudius),  III. 273,  419. 
Essenians.  I.  121  sq. ;  divided  into  four 

clashes,  I.  218,  note  1. 
Esthonia  (conversion  of).  II.  803. 
Estius  pVilliam),  III.  421. 
'Erepooi  CTf;r.  I.  539. 
Ethelbort.King  of  Kent,  II.  64. 
Ethelwold.  Bp.  of  Winchester,  II.  381. 
Etherius,  Bp.  of  Osma.  II.  179. 
Eucharist,    t^ee  Vommwiion. 
Eucharistic  bread,  I.  211,  711.  II.  401. 
Eucharius,  1st  Bp.  of  Treves,  I.  251. 
Euchites  or  Kiiphemites,  I.  758. 
Eudoxia,  I.  558. 
Eugene  II..  Pope,  II.  257. 
Eugene  III.,   Pope,  II.  542. 
Eugene  IV.,  Pope,  II.  874. 
Eugene,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  II.  28. 
Eulogius,  Ijp.  of  Caesarea,  I.  580. 
Eunomius,  Bp.  of  Cj^ziciis,  I.  540. 
Eunapius,  Bp.  of  Sardes,  I.  492. 
Euric,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  II.  25. 
Eusebians.l.  539. 
Eusebiu.s,  Bp.  of  Caesarea,  I.  35,  494, 

522.  539,  555,  564. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Uorylaeiim,  I.  606. 
Eusebius,  Bp,  of  Emesa,  I.  565. 
Eusebius,    Bp.  of   ISIicomedia,    I.  522, 

530. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Vercelli,  I.  539,  II. 

41. 
Eustathius,  Bp.  of  Antioch,  I.  524,  530. 
Eustathius,  Bp.  of  Sebaste.  I.  752,  759. 
Eutyches,  I.  605. 
Eutychius,  Patr.  of  Alexandria,  I.  43, 

note. 
Euthymius,  monk,  I.  503. 
Euthj'mius,  Zigabenus,  II,  466,  811. 
Evagrius,  I.  37. 

Evodius,  Bp.  of  Antioch,  1. 179,  note  4. 
Exarchate,  I.  666. 
Exarchs,  I.  664. 

Excommunication,  I.  214,  425,  730. 
Excommunicatio   major   et   minor,    I. 

730,  11.411. 
Excommunicated    persons   prosecuted 

by  the  Stati-,  II.  105. 
Exegesis,  allegorical,  I.  309,  378    sq., 

380. 
Exegesis,  grammatical  and  historical, 

I.  338.     See  also  Holy  Scriptures. 
Exemptions,  II.  165. 
Exorcism  and   exorcists,   I.  393,   652 ; 

among  Protestants,  III.  308. 
Extravagantes,  II.  844. 
Extreme  Unction,  I.  211,  738,  II.  400. 
Eybel  (Valentine),  III.  496,  545. 
Eyck   (Van,    Hubert  and    John),  II. 

1065 


Faber,  Jesuit,  III.  375. 

Faber  of  Constance,  III.  92. 

Faber,  F.  W.,  the  Engl.  Oratorian,  III 

855. 
Fabian,  Bp.  of  Rome,  I.  243,  275. 
Fabion.  Bp.  of  Antioch,  I.  624. 
Fabre,  Jean  Claude,  the  Fr.  Orat.  I.  47. 
Facundiis  of  Hermianc.  I.  624. 
Faith  and  .Science,  I.  377,  564,  751,  II. 

412,  741,  751. 
Farel  (Wilbam),  III.  146. 
Farther  India,  III.  578,  927. 
Fasts,  I.  211,  442. 
Fasting,  davs  of,  1.  705. 
Fatalism,  L  86,  II.  198.  III.  99,  972. 
Fathers  of  the  Christian  doctrine.  III. 

395. 
Faustus,  Bp.  of  Hiez.  I.  587. 
Fe,  Sta.,  III.  938;  de  Bogota,  11.959. 
Feasts  of  Christ;  idea  of  them;  eccl. 

feasts,    I.   440,   697;    the   life   of   a 

Christian  a  perpetual   feast,  I.  211, 

440,  II.  1026. 
Febronius,  III.  542. 
Fecamp   (Abbey  and   School   of),  II. 

869. 
Fecht  (Peter),  III.  182. 
Feilmoser,  III.  892. 
Felicissimus,  I.  430. 
Felix  of  Aptunga,  I.  512. 
Felix  of  Urgel,  II.  177. 
Felix  of  ValoLs,  II.  698. 
Felix  II.,  Pope,  I.  614. 
Felix  v.,  Pope,  II.  890. 
Fenelon,  III.  503,  515,  522. 
Ferrandus  (Fulgentius),  I.  618,  623. 
Ferrara  (Council  of),  II.  932  sq. 
Fesch  (Cardinal),  III.  661,  671,  678. 
Festum   Annunciationis,  B.   M.  V.,  I. 

703.  II.  395. 
Festum  Assumptionis,  II.  395. 
Festum  Exaltationis  sanctae  crucis,  I. 

704. 
Festum  Innocentium,  I.  704. 
Festum  Nativitatis,  II.  395. 
Festum  Omnium  sanctorum,  I.  704. 
Festum  Petri  et  I'auli,  I.  704. 
Festum    Praesentationis,    I.    702,    II. 

395. 
Festum  Purificationis,  B.  M.  V.,  I.  702. 
Feudalism,  II.  132,  337. 
Feuerbach  (latest  phase  of  Protestant 

theology).  III   974. 
Fevre  (Jacques  le),  II.  1011. 
Fiesole  (Angelicoi,  II.  1050. 
Filioque,  I.  553,  II.  452. 
Fire  (philosophy  of).  III.  316. 


10G4 


General  Index. 


Firicicup  Maternus.  I.  495. 
Firmilian,  iJp.  of  Caesarea  in  Cappa- 

docia,  1.  423. 
First  fruits,  II.  650. 
Fisher,  Bp.    of  "Worcester,  II.    1007, 

III.  198. 
Flacius   (Matt.),   the   Illyrian,   I.  44, 

III.  137,  810,  817. 
Flagellants,  II.  1057  sq. 
Flavian  of  Antioch,  I.  548. 
Flavian  of  Constantinople.  I.  606. 
Flavins  Josephus,  I.  119. 
Flechier,  III.  522. 
Fleury,  I.  46. 
Flodo'ard,  I.  40,  II.  423. 
Florence  (Council  of),  II.  932. 
Florence  (Synod  of),  II.  323. 
Flores  martyriim,  I.  447. 
Florez,  III.  537. 

Floras  (Master  of  Lyons),  II.  429. 
Flotte  (Peter),  11.621  sq. 
Fo,  I.  72. 

Fonseca,  Scieuiia  Dei  media,  III.  427. 
Fontevrault  (Order  of),  II.  694. 
Fools  (Feast  of),  II.  794. 
Formosus,  Pope,  II.  290. 
Fossores,  I.  652. 
Foundling  houses.  II.  641. 
Fox  (George),  III.  608  sq. 
Fra  Bartolomeo,  II.  1051. 
Pra  Giovanni  Angelico  da  Fiesole,  II. 

1051. 
France   (efforts    of    Protestantism    to 

spread  in).  III.  270  sq. 
Francesco  Francia,  II.  1052. 
Francis  Apulus,  II.  978. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  II.  712,  807. 
Francis  of  Paula,  II.  1024. 
Francis  of  Sales,  III.  393. 
Francis  Xavier,  III.  403. 
Franciscans,  II.  712,  721,  807  sq.,  III. 

944. 
Franco,  II.  1056. 

Franke  (August  Herman),  III.  591. 
Frankenberg  (Cardinal),  III.  547. 
Frankfort  (Council  of),  II.  180,  220, 

372. 
Frankfort  (Diets  of  Princes),  II.  892. 
Frankfort  (Diets  of  Electors,  II.  836, 

893. 
Prankish  Empire  (religious  condition 

of  the  F.  Empire),  during  the  ninth, 

tenth    and   eleventh   centuries,    II. 

366. 
Franks  (the),  II.  46. 
Fratres  conventuales,  II.  1020. 
Fratres  minores,  II.  715. 
Fratres  de  communitate,  II.  1025. 
Fratres     regularis     observantiae,    II. 

1020. 


Fratricelli,  or  Beghards,  II.  828. 

Frayssinous,  III.  702. 

Frederic  I.,  II.  548  sq. 

Frederic  II.,  II.  576. 

Frederic  III.,  II.  890. 

Frederic  the  Wise,  Prince  Elector,  III 

14. 
Frederic  I.  of  Prussia,  III.  645. 
Frederic  "William  II.  of  Prussia,  III. 

965. 
Frederic  William  III.,   III.   762,  966,, 

989. 
Frederic  William  IV.,  III.  769,  9£0. 
Freemasonry,  III.  489,  557,  692  sq. 
Freethinkers,  III.  525,  557,  note. 
Freisingen  (See  of),  II.  107.  116. 
Fretella,  II.  23. 
Fridav  (dav  of  fasting),  I.  441. 
Fridolin,  11.  100. 
Print,  III.  b87. 

Frisians  (Conversion  of  the),  ''^I.  109- 
Fritzsche,  III.  976. 
Fritzlar  (See  of),  II.  116. 
Fructuosus,  Bp.  of  Braga,  II.  162. 
Fructus  medii  temporis,  II.  845. 
Frumentius,  Bp.  of  Abysinia,  I.  504. 
Fulbert  of  Chartres,  II.  424. 
Fulco  of  Neuilly,  11.  582,  1034. 
Fulda  (Monastery  of),  II.  119. 
Fulda  (School  of).  II.  173. 
Fulgentius  (Bp.  of  Kuspe),  I.  588,  TI. 

29. 
Fullness   of  Time   for   the   coming  of 

Christ,  I.  127. 
Fullo  (Peter),  I.  618. 
Functions,   ecclesiastical,    I.  198,   391, 

650. 
Funeral  orations,  I.  739. 
Funfldrchen  (See  of),  II.  251. 


G. 


Gabriel  (Pro-magister),  III.  18. 

Gaetano  of  Thiene,  III.  388. 

Gailer  of  Kaisersberg,  II.  922,  1036. 

Galilei,  III.  420. 

Galland,  St.  Gall,  II.  103,  173,  420, 

Gallandi,  III.  535. 

Gallerius,  I.  278. 

Galilean  liberties.  III.  498. 

Gaul  (propagation  of  Christianity  in)» 

I.  242  sq.,  II.  25. 
Gamaliel,  I.  123,  172. 
Gangra  (Synod  of),  I.  656,  769. 
Garibald,  II.  106. 
Garnet,  Jesuit,  III.  216. 
Garnier,  I.  46,  671. 
Gassner,  III.  557. 
Gaunilo,  Monk,  II.  742. 


General  Index. 


1065 


Gazette  of  Augsburg,  III.  814. 

Gazzaniga.  III.  553. 

Gebhard,  Prince,  Elector  of  Cologne, 
III.  448. 

Gebhard  of  Constance,  II.  513. 

Geisa,  II.  250. 

Geiseric,  I.  505,  II.  27. 

Geissel,  Archbp.  of  Cologne,  II.  108, 
note  2;  Cardinal,  III.  792,  877. 

Gelasius  II,  II.  533. 

Gemara,  I.  258. 

Gemistius  Pletho,  II.  1004. 

General  (Seminaries),  III.  545. 

General  (Vicars),  II.  647. 

Generationism,  I.  572. 

Gennadius.  I.  587. 

Genseric,  1.  505,  II.  27. 

Gentilis,  III.  148. 

Genuflectentes,  I.  428. 

Geography,  ecclesiastical,  I.  27. 

George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  III.  24,  37, 
54." 

Georgia,  I.  502  (Iberia). 

Gerard  (the  Franciscan),  II.  722  sq. 

Gerard  .John,  III.  312. 

Gerard,  Paul,  III.  312. 

Gerard,  I3p.  of  Toul,  II.  372. 

Gerard  (Segarelli).     See  Seqarelli. 

Gerbert,  II.  311,423,438;  Abbot,  III. 
553. 

Gerbet.  III.  777. 

German  hymn-books,  II.  1032,  III. 
422. 

Germans  (Religion  of  the),  II.  13;  in- 
troduction of  Cliristianity  among 
them,  II.  20  sq.,  9G  sq. ;  peculiar  sit- 
uation of  the  Church  among  them, 
II.  125  sq. ;  their  scientific  eflbrts 
and  first  results  thereof,  II.  173. 

German  theology,  heretical,  II.  971  ; 
orthodox  by  Berthold,  Bp.  of  Chiem- 
see,  III.  413. 

Germanus  (St.),  Bp.  of  Auxerre,  11.13. 

German  us,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
II.  210. 

Gerson,  II.  850,  855.  863,  997. 

Gerstungen  (Council  of),  II.  508. 

Gfrorer,  I  58. 

Ghibellines  and  Guelfs,  II.  576. 

Ghiberti  of  Florence,  II.  1049. 

Gieseler,  I.  57,  408,  II.  649,  III.  83. 

Giftschutz,  III.  554. 

Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  II.  753,  1034. 

Gilimer,  II.  29. 

Giotto,  II.  1050. 

Girardus,  II.  473. 

Giunta  of  Pisa,  II.  1050. 

Glass  (staining),  II.  1044. 

Glassius  (Solomon),  III.  310. 


Glastonbury,  II.  381. 

Globe,  the  imperial,  II.  307,  355. 

Gnesen  (Archbishopric  of),  II.  249. 

Gnosis  (false),  T.  204,  304. 

Gnosis  (true),  I.  371. 

Gnosticism,  1.304;  Egyptian,  I.  311; 

Syrian   I.  325;  Ebio^nitic,  I.  332. 
Goa,  Schism  of.  III.  927. 
Goar  (St.).  Hermit,  II.  108. 
Goch  (John  de),  II.  974. 
God  (Cath.  doctrine  on),  I.  363. 
Godeau,  Bp.  of  Vence,  I.  46. 
Godehard,  lip.  of  Hildesheim,  II.  372. 
Godfathers  and  Godmothers,  I.  418. 
Godfrey  of  Bordeaux,  II.  1034. 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  II.  522. 
Godfrey  of  Lukina,  II.  804. 
Godfrey  of  Strasburg,  II.  787. 
Godfrey  of  Vendome,  II.  534. 
Godomar,  II.  31. 
Goffine,  III.  554. 
Golius,  III.  311. 
Gomarus,  III.  326. 
Gonzalez.  Thyrsus,  III.  537. 
Gorres,  I.  410,  note  1,  II.  732,  III.  897. 
Gothe,  III.  605. 
Gother,  III.  731. 
Goths,  II.  20. 
Gottschalk,  II.  245,  425. 
Grabe,  I.  59. 
Grace  (Cath.  doctrine  and  controversy 

on),  I.  571. 11.425.  780,  III.  424,  505. 
Grammont  (Order  of),  II.  688. 
Gran,  Archbisliopric  of),  II.  251. 
Granvella  (Cardinal),  III.  285,  425. 
Gratian  (Decretum  of),  II.  638. 
Gratius  (Ortwin),  II.  1010. 
Graveson,  I.  48. 

Greek  (Church^,  II.  189,  449,  810;  re- 
unites with  the  Catholic  Church,  II. 

937. 
Greek  learning,  II.  811. 
Greeks   (Religion   and   Morals  of   the 

Pagan),  I.  85. 
Greenland  (Discovery  and  Conversion 

of),  11.235,  720,  111.617. 
Gregorian  Chant,  I.  696. 
Gregory,  Bp.  of  Elvira,  I.  543. 
Gregory,  Bp.,  the  Illuminator,  I.  501. 
Gregory    Bp.    of   Xazianzum,    I.  495, 

549,  555,  654,  679.  695. 
Gregory.    Bp.  of   Nyssa,    I.   516,  56i 

728,  732. 
Gregory,  Bp.  "  Thaumaturgus,"  I.  380 
Gregory,  Bp.  of  Tours.  I.  39,  II.  49. 
Gregory  of  Utrecht.  II.  121. 
Gregory  of  Cyprus,  II.  213. 
Gregory  of  Heimburg,  II.  893. 
Gregory  (St.),  the  great  Pope,  I.  65? 

675,  695,  II,  36,  62,  45. 


1066 


General  Index. 


Gregory  (St.)  II.,  Pope,  II.  113,  140, 

210. 
Gregory  (St.)  III.,  Pope,  II.  114,  140, 

210. 
Gregory  IV.,  Pope,  II.  226,  259  sq. 
Gregory  Y ..  Pope,  II.  309. 
Gregory  VI.,  Pope,  II.  318. 
Gregory    (St.)    VII.,    Pope,    II,   446, 

481  sq. 
Gregory  VIII.,  Pope,  II.  533,  570. 
Gregory  IX.,  Pope,  II.  588  sq. 
Gregory  X.,  Pope,  II.  604  sq. 
Gregory  XL,  Pope,  11.843. 
Gregory  XII.,  Pope,  II.  851. 
Gregory  XIII.,  Pope,  III.  278,  362. 
Gregory  XIV.,  Pope,  III.  364. 
Gregory  XV.,  Pope,  III.  366. 
Gregory  XVI.,  Pope,  III.  694  sq. 
Groot  (Gerard),  II.  1025. 
Gropper,  III.  113,  413. 
Grotius  (Hugo),  III.  311,  327,445,  599. 
Gruet.  III.  148. 
Guadalaxara,  III.  955. 
Gualbert,  John  (Congregation  of),  II. 

364. 
Guardian,  II.  718. 
Guericke,  I.  57,  III.  975,  985,  1019. 
Guiana,  III.  960. 
Guibert  of  Nogent,  II.  1035. 
Guibert,  Abbot  of  Gemblours,  II.  725. 
Guibert,  Bp.  of  Ravenna,  Antipope,  II. 

506. 
Guido,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  II.  378. 
Guido  Eeni,  III.  433. 
Guido  of  Siena,  II.  1050. 
Guido  of  Arezzo,  II.  1056. 
Guigo  (Prior),  II.  691. 
Guilds,  II.  641. 
Guitmund,  II.  733,  note  2. 
TvvalKeg  avvslaaKTot,  I.  402.  Cfr.  II.  648. 
Gundebald,  II.  30. 
Guntamund.  11.  29. 
Glinther  (Anthony)   of  Vienna,  III. 

889,  904. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  III.  453. 
Gustavus  Vasa,  III.  176. 
Guyon  (Joane),  III.  513  sq. 
Gyrovagi,  I.  753. 


Hadeby  (School  of),  II.  225. 
Hacon  the  Good,  II.  231. 
Hadrian,  Emperor,  I.  264. 
Hadrian  I.,  Pope,  II.  145. 
Hadrian  II.,  Pope,  II.  241,  283,  457. 
Hadrian  IV.,   Pope,    II.  547  sq. ;    his 
bull  cuiicerning   Ireland,  II.  554  sq. 
Hadrian  V.,  Pope,  II.  607. 
Hadrian  VI.,  Pope,  HI.  44  sq. 


Half  Fast-davs,  I.  441. 
Halberstadt  (See  of),  II.  123. 
Hales  (Alexander),  II.  766. 
Halifax,  III.  937. 
Halitgar,  Archbishop  of  Cambrai,  II. 

163,  417. 
Halitgar,  Monk.  II.  225. 
Hamburg  (Archbishopric  of),  II.  226. 
Hamburg-Bremen,  II.  224. 
Hamel,  III.  519. 
Hammer  (See  of),  II.  233. 
Hands  (imposition  of),  I.  197,  207,  420. 
Hanno   (St.),  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 

II.  330,  486. 
Harold  Haarfagr.  II.  231. 
Harold  Blaatand,  II.  232. 
Harold  the  Dane,  II.  224  sq. 
Harduin,  I.  22,  note.  III.  522,  565. 
Havless,  III.  985. 
Harms  (Nicholas),  III.  984. 
Hase,  I.  57,  III.  1019. 
Havelberg  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Haymo  (Bp.  of  Halberstadt),  I.  40,  II, 

173,  415. 
Hayti,  HI.  958. 

Hebrew  (Study  of),  II,  1008,  1009. 
Hedwia;e  (St.),  Queen  of  Poland,  H. 

10597 
Hefele,  I.  53.  II.  421,  819,  III.  894. 
Hegel,  III.  971. 
Hegesippus,  I.  34. 
Hegira,  II.  194. 

Hetdelberg  (Catechism  of),  III.  325. 
Helding  (Michael),  III.  136. 
Helena,  I.  459,  686. 
Heliogabalus,  I.  270. 
Helladius  of  Toledo,  II.  26. 
Helsen,  Abbe,  III.  740. 
Helvetia,  II.  98. 
Helvetius,  III.  528. 
Helvidius,  I.  761. 
Heming  (St.),  Archbishop  of  Upsala, 

II.  1060. 
Hemling,  Hans,  II.  1055. 
Hengstenberg.  Ill,  975,  986. 
Henke,  I.  56. 

Henning  Brabant,  III.  308, 
Hennuyer  (John  of  Lisieux),  111,279. 
Henriciani,  II.     See  Petrobrusians,  IL 

656. 
Henry  I.,  II,  301. 
Henry  II.,  II,  314. 
Henry  III.,  II.  321, 
Henry  IV..  II.  328,  332,  482  sq, 
Henry  V.,  II.  525. 
Henry  VI.,  II,  569. 
Henry  VII.,  II.  822. 
Henry  VIII.,   King  of  England,  III 

61,  192. 
Henry,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  III.  721. 


General  Index. 


1067 


Henry,  Archbishop  of  Gnesen,  IT.  578. 

Henry,  Monk  of  Lausanne,  II.  656. 

Henry,  Apostle  of  the  Finlanders,  II. 
231. 

Henry  of  Langenstein,  II.  848. 

Heptarchy,  II.  62. 

Heraclius,  I.  501,  633  sq. 

Herbert  (Count),  III.  525. 

Herbst  (Jesuit),  III.  180. 

Herder,  II.  3,  39,  III.  603. 

Heresy,  its  import,  I.  4,  359,  note  2. 

Heresy,  its  advantage,  I.  359. 

Heretics,  the  first,  1.  217. 

Heretics,  their  condemnation  to  death, 
II.  474 ;  first  instance  of  this  kind, 
I.  757  ;  reasons  for  such  proceedings 
in  the  M.  A.,  II.  670 ;  but  examples 
of  the  .same  nature  among  Protest- 
ants, III.  148,  301  ;  which  are  not 
justified  by  the  same  motives,  II. 
984. 

Heretics  (controversy  on  the  validity 
of  the  baptism  of,  I.  420. 

Heribert,  Heresiarch,  II.  473. 

Heribert,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  11.474. 

Herlembald,  II.  376. 

Herlen,  Frederic,  II.  1055. 

Herman,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  III. 
122,  136. 

Herman  Contractus,  I.  41,  II.  424. 

Herman,  Bp.  of  Metz,  II.  495. 

Herman  of  Salza,  Grand,  Master,  II. 
507. 

Herman,  Archbishop  of  Freiburg,  III. 
870  sq. 

Hermas,  I.  187,  232. 

Hermenegild,  II.  26. 

Hermes,  III.  888,  901  sq. 

Hermias,  Apologist,  I.  295. 

Hermits,  I.  453,^748. 

Hermogenes,  I.  325. 

Herod,  the  Great,  I.  115,  190. 

Herod  Aiitipas,  I.  190. 

Herod  Antipater,  I.  115. 

Herod  Agrippa.  I.  175,  190. 

Heroism  of  the  Christians,  I.  299  sq., 
456,  500,  II.  390. 

Herrnhutters.  III.  606  sq. 

Hessels  (John  and  Leonard),  III.  425. 

Hesshusius,  III.  320. 

Hessia  (Conversion  of),  II.  116. 

Hesycbasts,  II.  812, 

Hetzer,  III.  93. 

Hieracas,  Gnostic,  I.  347. 

Hierarchy,  I.  8,  198  sq. 

Hierocles,  I.  292,  492. 

Hieronymitcs,  II.  1023. 

Hierotheus,  Monk,  II.  250. 

Hilarion  (St. "I  I.  752. 

Hilary  (St.)  of  Aries,  I.  676,  II.  33. 


Hilary  (St.)   of  Poitiers,   I.  538,  544, 

549,  647. 
Hilary  the  layman,  I.  586. 
Hilda,  Abbes.s,  II.  91. 
Hildebert.  Bp.  of  Mans,  II.  530,  656, 

740.  II.  1034 
Hildebrand.  Monk,  II.  318,  321,  445. 
Hildegard  (St.),  II.  653,  763. 
Hildesheim  (See  of),  II.  123. 
Hildesheim  (School  of),  II.  373.  424. 
Hildesheim    (introduction   of  Protest' 

antism  in).  III.  122. 
Hincmar  of  Rheims,  II    222,  272,  356. 

410.  428. 
Hincmar  of  Laon,  II.  284. 
Hindoos,  I.  74. 
Hippo  (Synod  of),  I.  724. 
Hippolytus,  I.  353. 

Hirschau  (Congr.  of),  II.  173,  362,  420. 
Hirscher,  III.  891. 

History  (importance,  division,  and  ex- 
position of),  I.  5  sq. 
Hock,  11.421,  III.  900. 
Hofbauer,  HI.  755. 
Hogstraaten,  II.  1010,  III.  16. 
Hohenstaufen,  II.  547  sq. 
Holbein,  II.  1055,  III.  433. 
Holden  (II.),  111.444. 
Holland,  HI.  284  sq.,  738  sq.,  845. 
Holy  Ghost  (Descent  of  the),  I.  167  sq. 
Holy  Ghost  (Cath.  doctrine  on  the),  I. 

368,  11.453;  controversy  on,  1.550 

sq.,  II.  452. 
Holy  Scriptures ;  relation  of  the  Holy 

Scriptures  to  tradition,  I.  362. 
Holy  Scriptures;  interpretation  of  the, 

I.  302,  508,  III.  344. 
Holy  Scriptures ;    translations  of  the. 

See  TranfilatioHs. 
Holy  Seasons.     See  Seoso7i9. 
Holzhauser,  Bartholomew,  III.  372. 
Homage,  II.  339,  514,  537. 
Homerites,  I.  504. 
Homes  for  the  Aged,  II.  641. 
Homiliarium,  II.  160,  307,  402. 
Honorius  I.,  Pope,  I.  633  sq. 
Honorius  II.,  Pope,  II.  331.  539. 
Honorius  III.,  Pope,  II.  587,  710. 
Honorius  lY.,  Pope,  II.  609. 
Honorius,  Emperor,  I.  487,  582. 
Hontheim,  I.  51,  HI.  543. 
Hormisdas,  I.  614. 
Hortig,  1.  52. 

Hosius  (of  Cordova),  I.  523,  539. 
Hosius  (Stanislaus),  III.  169,  181,  360, 

413. 
Hospices,  free,  for  strangers,  II.  641. 
Hospitalers,  II.  702. 
Hospitals,  II.  041. 
Hospitia  Scotorum,  II.  384. 


1068 


General  Index. 


Hottinger  fHenry),  I.  60. 

Hroswilha,  xl.  422,  1000. 

Huesca  (Synod  of),  I.  682. 

Huet,  Bp.  of  Avranches,  III.  518. 

Hug,  I.  473  (note  1),  III.  892. 

Hugli  Capet,  II.  309. 

Hugh  a  St.  Caro,  II.  785. 

Hugh,  .Monk  of  Fleury,  II.  534. 

Hugh  Grotius.  III.     isQQ  Grotius. 

Hugh  of  Sens,  II.  757. 

Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  II.  758.  763,  785. 

Huguenots  in  France,  III.  272,  note  2. 

Humanists,  II.  1005,  III.  16. 

Humbert  of  Rornon,  II.  103-5. 

Hume,  III.  526. 

Humiliati,  or  the  Humbled,  II.  699. 

Hnnerich,  I.  505,  II.  28. 

Hungary  (Christianity  in),  II.  250. 

Hungary  (Protestantism  in).  III.  172. 

Hungary  (Xational  Council  of).  III. 
755. 

Huns,  II.  31. 

Huss  (John),  II.  953  sq. ;  his  death,  II. 
902 ;  there  was  no  violation  of  safe- 
conduct  in  his  regard,  II.  963. 

Hussites,  TI.  967,  III.  25,  164. 

Hussites  (the  Four  Articles  of  the),  II. 
970. 

Hutten  (Ulrich),  II.  1011,  III.  29. 

Hutter  (Leonard),  III.  324. 

Hy  (Monastery  on  the  island  of),  II.  59. 

Hydroparastatae,  I.  329. 

Hyginus,  Bp.  of  Cordova,  I.  756. 

Hymen aeus,  I.  205. 

Hymn-books,  German,  II.  1037,  III.422. 

Hymns  of  the  Church,  I.  210,  439,  695, 
II.  1032. 

Hypatia,  I.  487,  492. 

Hypsistarians,  I.  764,  note  2. 


Ibas  of  Edessa,  I.  604,  607,  622. 

Iberia.     See  Georgia,  I.  502. 

Iceland  (Conversion  of),  11.234;  Pro- 
testant, III.  191. 

Ichthyophagi,  II.  191. 

Iconium  (Synod  of),  I.  421. 

Iconoclasts,  II.  210. 

Idolatry,  forbidden,  I.  484,  II.  166. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  I.  232  sq.,  390,  401 
(note  2),  405,  437. 

Ignatius,  Patr.  of  Constantinople,  II. 
450,  457. 

Ignatius  of  Loyola,  III.  374. 

Ildephonse,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  II. 
26,  169. 

Illuminati  (Order  of  the).  III.  557. 

Images,  I.  449,  601,  II.  1048  sq. 

Images  (Controversy  on),  in  the  East, 


II.  206;    in  the   Frankish  Empire, 

II.  218. 
Immunities  of  Clergy,  II.  135,  356,  641. 
Imperiam  mundi  of  the  Emperor  of  the 

West,  II.  150. 
Imposition  of  hands,  1. 197,  207,  420. 
Impostores,  tres,  II.  594,  note  1. 
Ina,  King,  II.  80. 
Incarnation  (Heresy  on  the  dogma  of 

the),  I.   592  sq.,  604  sq.,  611.  ' 
Incense  burnt  at  the  altar,  I.  718. 
Independents,  III.  222. 
India  (Hither),  I.   74,   503,   III,  926; 

(Farther),  III,  928. 
Indians.     See  Hindoos. 
Indififerentism,  I.  638,  III.  868,  1015. 
Indigent  (Hospitals  for  the),  II.  641. 
Indigent  (Schools  for  the),  II.  39. 
Indulgences,  I.  129,  733,  II.  410,  797,. 

1006,  III.  11,  20,  356,  575. 
Indulgences  for  the  faithful  departed, 

II.  799. 
Infallibility,  papal,  III.  821. 
Infant-asylums,  II.  641. 
Infralapsarii,  III.  326. 
Ingolstadt.  III.  383. 
Innocent  1.,  Fope,  I.  559,  580. 
Innocent  II.,  Pope,  II.  539,  686. 
Innocent  III.,  Pope,  II.  574,  648,  665, 
Innocent  IV.,  Pope,  II.  595,  807. 
Innocent  V.,  Pope,  II.  607. 
Innocent  VI.,  Pope,  II.  832. 
Innocent  VII.,  Pope,  II.  851. 
Innocent  VIII.,  Pope,  II.  905. 
Innocent  IX.,  Pope,  III.  364. 
Innocent  X.,  Pope,  III.  367,  478. 
Innocent  XL,  Pope,  III.  483. 
Innocent  XII.,  Pope,  III.  484. 
Innocent  XIIL.  Pope,  I[I.  486. 
Inquisition,  Ecclesiastical,  II.  671,  979, 
Inquisition,  Spanish,  II.  984. 
Inquisitores  haereticae  pravitatis,   XL 

981  (note  1),  IIL  575. 
Inscriptions,  I.  25,  note  5. 
Inscription  of  Autun,  I.  436. 
Inspiration,  I.  508,  565,  III   418. 
Interdict,  II.  368,  408,  548,  796. 
Interim  «jf  Ratisbon,  III.  114. 
Interim  vif  Augsburg,  III.  136. 
Interim  of  Leipsig,  III.  137. 
Introitus,  I.  711. 
Investitures  (Controversy  on),  11.487, 

519,  526  ;  works  on  this  subject,  IL 

481  (note  1),  524  (note  2). 
lona  (island  of),  II.  59. 
Irenaeus   (St.)   Bp.  of   Lyons.  I.  243, 

363,  405,  410,  437. 
Irene  (Empress),  II.  214. 
Ireland  (Conversion  of),  II.  51,  383, 
Ireland  (Island  of  Saints),  II.  57. 


General  Index. 


10G9 


Ireland   (Attempts    to    Protestantize) 

III.  235  sq. 
Ireland  remains  Catholic,  III.  736. 
Ireland    (her  present   situation),   III. 

858  sq. 
Irvingites,  III.  1006. 
Isenbiehl,  III.  556. 
Isidore  (St.)  of  Pelusium,  I.  601. 
Isidore  (St.),  Archbishop  of  Seville.  I. 

683,  II.  2G,  162,  168,  269. 
Isidore  (Pseiidoj,  II.  268. 
Islam,  IL.  197. 
Isochristoi,  I.  622. 
Israelites  (the),  I.  100  sq. 
Isserinus,  Bp.  II.  55. 
Itala,  I.  509. 
Italy,  II.  374. 

Itbacius  of  Ossonuba  I.  756. 
Ivo  or  Yves  of  Chartres,  II.  530,  1034. 


Jaballali,  I.  503. 

Jablonski,  I.  60. 

Jacobellus,  II.  967. 

Jacobi,  III.  970. 

Jacobites,  I.  632. 

Jacopona.  author  of  the  Stabat  Mater, 

II.  1032. 
Jagollo,  II.  1059. 
Jager,  I.  48. 
Jahn,  III.  892. 
Jamblicus,  I.  489. 

James  the  Elder,  beheaded,  I.  175. 
James   the  Younger,  son  of  Alpheus, 

brother  of  the  Lord,  first  Bishop  of 

Jerusalem,  I.  183. 
James  Baradai.     See  Baradai, 
James  de'Ladercbi,  I.  45. 
James  de  Voragine,  II.  793. 
James  Zanzalus,  I.  632. 
Jansenius  (Cornelius),  Bp.  of  Ghent, 

III.  419. 

Jansenius  (Cornelius),  Bp.  of  Ypres, 
and  author  of  the  '■' Augusilnus"  III. 
428,  501  sq. 

Japan,  III.  404,  932. 

Jarcke,  III.  864,  887. 

Jeremiah  II.,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, III.  464. 

Jerome  (St.),  I.  486,  549,  667,  580,  654, 
673,  760,  11.23,  41. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  II.  965. 

Jerusalem  (destruction  of),  I.  190;  an 
event  most  important  for  the  success 
and  spread  of  the  Christian  Church, 
I.  101. 

Jerusalem  (Council  of),  I.  206. 

Jerusalem  (audacious  but  vain  efforts 
of  the  Emperor  Julian  to  rebuild  the 
temple  of),  I.  481. 


Jerusalem  conquered  by  Choaroes  II., 

I.  501. 

Jerusalem  conquered  by  Saladin,  II, 
570. 

.Jerusalem  (Synod  of),  I.  580. 

Jerusalem  (Dignity  of  the  Patriarch 
in  the  Church  of),  I.  667,  III.  792. 

Jesuats  (Order  of),  II.  1022. 

Jesuits;  foundation  of  the  <Jrder  of  J. 
its  constitution  and  object.  III.  375 
sq.;  they  can  not  be  commanded  tc 
commit  a  sin,  III.  378.  note  2;  their 
labors.  III.  169,  173,381  sq.,  428  sq.; 
suppression,  III.  562  sq. ;  and  re- 
storation of  the  Jesuits,  III.  683; 
Jesuit  Colleges  in  America,  III.  685. 

Jesus  Christ,  i.  138  sq.,  148  sq. 

Jews  (religious  and  political  history  of 
the),  1.  100  sq.;  they  obtain  privi- 
leges from  Julian  the  Apostate,  I. 
481. 

Jews  (conversion  of),  II.  1061. 

Jews  (persecution  of),  II.  1015,  1060. 

Jezdedsherd,  I.  500. 

Joachim  of  Floris,  II.  678,  722. 

Joachim  I.  of  Brandenburg,  Catholic, 
III.  84. 

Joachim  II.,  Protestant,  III.  112. 

Joane,  pretended  female  Pope,  11.266. 

Joasaph  II.,  Patr.  of  Constantinople, 

II.  934. 
.lohannites,  II.  702. 
John  (St.),  Baptist,  I.  144. 
John  (St.),  his  feast,  I.  704. 

John  (St.,  the  Evangelist),  I.  184,  189, 

226. 
John  I ,  Pope,  II.  34. 
John  II.,  Pope.  I.  618. 
John  IV.,  Pope,  I.  636. 
John  VIII.,  Pope,  II.  286,  459. 
John  IX.,  Pope,  II.  242,  293. 
John  X.,  Pope,  II.  294. 
John  XI..  Pope,  II.  296. 
John  XII.,  Pope,  II.  298  sq. 
John  XIII.,  Pope,  II.  244,  306. 
John  XIV.,  Pope,  II.  308. 
John  XV.,  Pope,  II.  308. 
John  XVI.,  Pope,  II.  310. 
John  XVII.,  Pope,  II.  313. 
John  XIX.,  Pope,  II.  316. 
John  XXL,  Pope,  II.  607. 
John  XX 1 1.,  Pope,  11.829. 
,Tohn  XXIIL.  Pope,  11.857. 
John  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  III.  180. 
.John  of  Antioch,  I.  603. 
John  of  Avila,  III.  424. 
John   Braske.   Bp.  of  Linkoping,  III, 

177. 
John  Buridan,  II.  989. 
John  Capistrano,  II.  1036. 


1070 


General  Index. 


John  Cassian,  I.  586. 

John  Columbine,  II.  1023. 

John,  Constant  (the),  III.  70. 

John,  Cross  (of  the),  III.  393. 

John  Damascene,  I.  644,  II.  210,  432, 

760. 
John,  Falkenberg  (of),  II.  871. 
John,  Faster  (the),  I.  666,  675. 
John  of  Fidanza,  II.  768. 
John  Frederic,  the  Magnanimous,  III. 

121. 
John  of  St.  Giles,  II.  720. 
John  of  Gishala,  I.  192. 
John  van  Goch,  II.  974. 
John  of  God,  III.  397. 
John  the  Grammarian,  II.  216. 
John  Gualbert,  II.  364. 
John  of  Jandun,  II.  831. 
John  of  Jerusalem,  I.  573. 
John,  Knights  of  St.  John,  II.  702. 
John  of  Leyden,  III.  117. 
John,  Archbp.  of  Lyons,  II.  530. 
John  Magnus  Gothus,  III.  177. 
John  de  Matha,  II.  608. 
John  of  Mecklenburg,  II.  246. 
John  the  ]Monk,  II.  626. 
John  of  Monte  Corvino,  II.  807. 
John  of  Oliva,  11.  723. 
John,  Bp.  of  Pavia,  II.  289. 
John  Philoponus,  I.  616. 
John  Polemar,  II.  875. 
John  of  Kagiisa,  II.  875. 
John,  Archbp.  of  Piavenna,    II.   280, 

375. 
John  of  Salisbury,  II.  761. 
John  the  Scholastic,  I.  682. 
John,  Archbp.  of  'J'aranto,  II.  882. 
John  Tolomei,  II.  1022. 
John  of  Tritenheim,  I.  42. 
John  Turrecremata,  II.  891. 
John  of  Vicenza,  II.  1034. 
Jonas,  Bp.  of  Orleans,  II.  222. 
Jordan,  Bp.  of  Posen,  II.  247. 
Jornandes,  II.  168. 
Josaphat    II.    of    Constantinople,    II. 

932. 
Joseph  II.,  III.  493,  544,  545,  620. 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  I.  161. 
Journalism  (Catholic)  in  North  Amer- 
ica, III.  949. 
Journalism  (Catholic)  in  Belgium,  III. 

844. 
Journalism    (Catholic)    in     England, 

III.  855.  ' 

Journalisr.-.  (Catholic)  in  France,  III. 

842. 
Journalism    (Catholic)    in    Germany, 

111.897.  ^ 

Jouri  alism     (Catholic)     in     Holland, 

III   846. 


•lournalism  (Catholic)   in    Italy,  IIL 

790. 
Journalism    (Catholic)    in     Portugal 

III.  831. 
Journalism   (Catholic)   in  Spain,  III,, 

833. 
Jovian  (Emperor),  I.  403. 
Jovinian  (Monk),  I.  759. 
Jubilee  (year  of),  II.  797. 
Judaizing  (Christians),  I.  216. 
Judas  Maccabeus,  II.  113. 
Judas  the  Apostle,  I.  154. 
Judicatum  of  Pope  Vigilius,  I.  624. 
Julian  the  Apostate,  I.  476. 
Julian  of  Eclanum,  I.  682. 
Julian  of  Halicarnassus,  I.  615. 
Julianists,  I.  515. 
Julin  (See  of),  II.     See  Wollin. 
Julius  I.,  Pope,  I.  675. 
Julius  II.,  Pope,  II.  915. 
Julius  ill.,  Pope,  III.  346. 
Jura  doinbdcalia,  II.  643. 
Jurisdiction  of  the  Clergy,  I.  465,  II. 

356. 
Jus  canonicum,  II.  638,  844. 
Jus  circa  sacra,  I.  661,  note  3. 
Jus  Primarum  precum,  II.  640. 
Jus  spolii   et  regalium,   II.   355,  640, 

651. 
Jus  stolae,  II.  354. 

Justin  (St.),  Martyr,  I.  267,  294,  455. 
Justin  I.,  Emperor,  I.  614. 
Justin  II.,  Emperor,  I.  631. 
Justinian  I.,  Emperor   I.  489,  617,689, 

II.  34. 
Justinian    II.,    Emperor,    I.    768,    II. 

140. 
Justiniani,   Expounder    of    the    Holy 

Scriptures,  III.  422. 
Justus,  Archbp.  of  Canterbury,  II.  66. 
Juvavia.     See  Salzburg. 
Juvenalis  (Patriarch  of  Jerusalem),  I, 

611. 
Juvencus,  Priest,  I.  695. 


K. 


Ka^apoi.     See  Cathari. 

Kahnis,  III.  987. 

Kambula.     See  Peking. 

Kant,  III.  966  sq. 

Karnkowsky,  Archbp.  of  Gnosen,  III, 

169,  184. 
Kastner,  III.  887. 
Katerkamp,  I.  52. 
Kellner,  III.  896. 

Ken  rick,  F,  P.,  his  works,  III.  942. 
Kepler,  III.  310. 
Kerz,  I.  51. 
Kettler,  Godhard  von..  III.  172. 


General  Index. 


1071 


Kiew  (Metropolis  of),  II.  471 ;  the 
Metropolitans  in  union  with  the  Ko- 
man  Churcli,  II.  471. 

Kiew  (Council  of),  II.  471. 

Kilian  (St.),  II.  108. 

Kiss  of  Peace,  I.  211,  713,  719. 

Kistemaker,  III.  893. 

Klee  (Henry),  III.  889  sq.,  893. 

Klein,  I.  53. 

Kliefoth,  III.  987. 

Klopstock,  III.  G04. 

Kliipfel,  III.  552. 

Knights  ( Kelieious  Orders  of),  II. 
702  sq. 

Knights  of  the  Sword,  II.  707,  803. 

Knights  of  St.  John,  II.  702. 

Knights,  Brethren  of  Prussia,  II.  805. 

Knights  TemDlars,  II.  702. 

Knights,   I'eutonic.  II.  705,  1058. 

Knipperdolling,  III.  117. 

Knox  (John), III.  229  sq. 

Kranach  (Luke),  III.  30. 

Kraus  (F.  X.),  I.  54,  129-132,  II.  7  sq. 

Kurtz,  I.  58,  III.  988. 


Labat,  III.  529. 

Lacombe,  III.  513. 

Lacordaire,  III.  707,  713, 

Lactantius,  I.  385. 

Lainez,  III.  273,  384. 

Lamartine,  III.  702. 

Lambert  of  Aschaffenburg  (Hersfold), 

1.41. 
Lanibruschini,  III.  698. 
Lameiknais,  III.  702,  707  sq. 
Lamoriciere,  III.  788. 
Lamps,  ]ierpetual,  I.  690. 
Lamy  (Bernard),  III.  579. 
Landulf,  II.  375. 
Lanfranc,  Archbp.  of  Canterbury,  II. 

831,  424,  444. 
Lang  (Matthew),  II.  919. 
Lange,  I.  098. 

Languages,  gift  of,  I.  167,  210. 
Laodicea  (Council  of),  I.  724. 
Lapland,  II.  1060. 
Lapsi,  I.  274. 

Lateran  Synod,  I.  639,  II.  536,  542. 
Laleran  Ecumenical  Council,  II.  568, 

583,  918  sq. 
Latin,  language  and  liturgy,  II.  401, 

1032. 
Latitudinarians,  III.  330. 
Latrociniuin.     See  Ephesus. 
Laud,  Arclibp.    of    Canterbury,    III. 

219. 
Launoy,  I.  46. 
Laura,  Old  and  New,  I.  752. 


Laureacum.    See  Lorch. 
Laval  University,  III.  948. 
Lawrence  (St.),  JDeacon' and  Martyr, 

I.  276. 

Lawrence,  2d  Archbp.  of  Canterbury, 

II.  67. 

Lawrence  Valla,  I.  42,  II.  1003,  1013. 

Lay  Abbots,  II.  162,  360. 

Laymen  {lao^),  1. 197,  389  ;  are  allowed 

to  baptize  in  case  of  necessity,  I.  418. 
Lazarists,  III.  397. 
Lazi,  I.  502. 
Lectors,  I.  392,  652,  712. 
Legacies  made  to  the  Church,  I.  648, 

658. 
Legates  of  the  Pope,  I.  671,  II.  633. 
Legend,  the  Golden,  II.  793. 
Legends,  I.  26. 
Legio  fulminatrix,  I.  267. 
T.  egio  Thebaica,  I.  282. 
Legislation  supported  by  religion,  II. 

182  sq,  667  sq. 
Leibnitz,  III.  540.  594. 
Leidrad,  Archbp.  of  Lyons,  II.  181. 
Leipsig  (Disputation  of).  III.  22  sq. 
Leisentritt,  III.  422. 
Lejay  ( Polyglot  Bible  of),  III.  382, 417. 
Lelong  (Bibliotheca  sacra  of),  III.  521. 
Lenfant,  I.  59. 
Leo  (St.)  I.,  Pope,  I.  606,  675,  II.  31, 

140. 
Leo  (St.)  II.,  Pope.  I.  642  sq. 
Leo  (>,t.)  III.,  Pope,  II.  139,  147,  254, 

255. 
Leo  (St.)  IV.,  Pope,  II.  265,  413. 
Leo  VI.,  Pope,  II.  294. 
Leo  VII.,  Pope,  II.  296. 
Leo  VIII.,  Pope,  II.  304. 
Leo  IX.,  Pope,  11.  321,  327,  374,  444, 

446. 
Leo  X.,  Pope,  II.  920,  III.  18,  33. 
Leo  XL,  Pope,  III.  365. 
Leo  XII.,  Pope,  III.  691. 
Leo  XIIL,  Pope,  III.  1032,  1045. 
Leo  of  Achrida,  II.  463. 
Leo,  the  Armenian,  I.  763,  II.  216. 
Leo,  the  Isaurian,  I.  763,  II.  140,  20", 

214,217. 
Leo  Judae,  III.  93,  310. 
Leo,  the  Philosopher,  II.  461. 
Leontius,  monk,  I.  620. 
Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  II.  572. 
Leopold  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany, 

III.  536. 
Leovigild,  II.  26. 

Leporius,  Priest  of  Carthage,  I.  693. 
Leprosoria,  II.  641. 
Lesley  (Norman),  III.  229. 
Lessius,  Jesuit,  III.  418. 
Lessing,  III.  543,  602. 


1072 


General  Index. 


Leulizes.  II.  245. 

Leveleis,  III.  223. 

Levites,  Deacons,  I.  392. 

Libanius,  I.  485,  491. 

Libellatici.  I.  275. 

Liberiiis,  Pope.  I.  538,  541  sq. 

Liberties  (Gallican),  III.  483,  497. 

Libertines  of  Geneva,  III.  147. 

Libri  Carolini,  II.  219,  III.  306. 

Licinius,  I.  467. 

Liebormann,  III.  887. 

Liege  (School  of),  II.  373,  422. 

Life,  religious,  social,  and  moral  of  the 

Christians,  I.  207,  454,  739.  II.  153, 

790,  1014. 
Liie.  the  whole  of  a  Christian  a  feast. 

See  Featit- 
"  Liga  sancta,"  or  "  Holy  Alliance  of 

Niirnbcrg,"  III.  112. 
Liguori  (St.  Alphonsus),  III.  531  sq. 
Lincoln  (See  of),  I.  253. 
Lindisfarne,  II.  75 

Lingard  (John),  II.  50,  III.  191,  731. 
Linti:erides  (Claude  and  John  de),  III. 

423,  424. 
Linkoping  (See  of),  II.  231. 
Lissa  (General  Synod  of  the  Lutherans 

and  Calvinists),  III.  561. 
Litanies,  III.  573. 
Liti^rature  (the  most  modern  Catholic) 

m  Germany,  III.  886  sq. 
Literature  (Catholic)  in  England,  III. 

731. 
Litterne  Jormaiae  et  communicatoriae, 

I.  391,  397,  407. 
Lithuania,  II.  1058. 

Liturgy  of  the  apostolical  constitu- 
tions, I.  439. 

Liturgy  of  Jerusalem,  Alexandria, 
Constantinople,  etc.,  I.  710  sq. ;  the 
Western,  Rome,  Milan,  I.  711,  II. 
402;  the  Gallican,  11.403;  the  Mo- 
zarabic,  II.  402;  the  Slavic,  II.  241, 
244. 

Liturgy  of  Cranmer,  III.  203. 

Liturgy  of  John  III.,  King  of  Sweden, 

II.  182. 

Livonia  (Conversion  of),  II.  802. 
Livonia  passes  over  to  Protestantism, 

III.  172. 
Locherer,  I.  52. 

Locke  (empiricism  of),  III.  624,  594. 

A<5yof,  I.  228,  643. 

Aoyof  iv&Ld-BzToq,  I.  365,  and 

A<$yof  ■7rpo<popiK6c,  I-  366. 

A(5yof  aTTepjiariKdq,  I.  376. 

Lollhards,  II.  726. 

Lombards,  II.  35  sq. 

Lombard  (Peter),  II.  736,  755. 

London  (See  of),  I.  253,  II.  67. 


London  (Council  of),  II.  381. 

Loos  (Cornelius),  II.  984,  III.  440. 

Lorch  (Metrop.  Church  of),  I.  261,  II 
106,  240,  372. 

Loreto,  II.  1031. 

Lothaire  I.,  II.  256,  275. 

Lothaire  II.,  II.  258,  539. 

Louis  the  Bavarian,  II.  830. 

Louis  the  Child,  II.  291. 

Louis  the  German,  II.  264,  286. 

Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  II.  543. 

Louis  IX.  (St.),  King  of  France,  11. 
600,  619. 

Louis  XII ,  King  of  France,  II.  911. 

Louis  XIIL,  King  of  France,  III.  282. 

Louis  XIV.,  King  of  France,  III.  283, 
483,  517. 

Louis  XV.,  King  of  France,  III.  630. 

Louis  XVI..  King  ol'  France,  III.  631. 

Louis  XVIIL,  King  of  France,  III. 
699. 

Louis  the  Mild.  11.254,  366. 

Louis  Philip  of  France,  III.  706  sq. 

Louis,  King  of  Bavaria,  III.  759. 

Louis  of  Granada,  III.  424. 

Love-feasts.     See  Agapae. 

Luca  Signorelli,  II.  1052. 

Lucian  of  Samosata,  I.  289,  440. 

Lucian,  priest  of  Antioch,  I.  619,  565. 

Lucidus,  a  priest  of  Gaul,  I.  589. 

Lucifer  of  Cagliari  (Calaris),  I.  638, 
541. 

Luciferians,  I.  545. 

Lucilla.  I.  513. 

Lucius  II.,  Pope,  II.  541. 

Lucius  III.,  Pope,  II.  570. 

Liicke,  interpreter  of  the  Bible,  III. 
977. 

Ludger  (St.),  Bp.  of  Miinster,  II.  123. 

Ludmilla,  II.  243. 

Lugo,  S.  J.,  Cardinal,  great  theologian, 
III.  537. 

Luitpold,  Archbp.  of  Mentz,  II.  42&. 

Luitprand,  I.  40,  II.  423. 

Luke  (St.),  the  Evangelist,  I.  176. 

Luke  della  Robbia,  II.  1049. 

Lullus,  Archbp.  of  Mentz,  II.  115. 

Lull  us  Eaymundus,  II.  783,  807. 

Lumper,  I.  137. 

Luneville  (peace  of).  III.  654. 

Lund  (See  of),  II.  230. 

Lupoid  of  Bebenberg,  II.  832. 

Lupus  (St.),  Abbot  of  Ferrieres,  II. 
428. 

Lupus  (St.),  Bp;  of  Troyes,  II.  31,  32. 

Luther,  III.  8  sq. ;  condemned,  III. 
35  ;  his  lax  system,  III.  27  ;  his  mar- 
riage, III.  67 ;  his  translation  of  the 
Bible,  III.  93;  his  catechism,  III. 
71 ;     his   principles   on    matrimony, 


General  Ino.ex. 


1073 


III.  fj9 ;  his  principles  on  faith.  III. 
77  ;  his  opinion  on  certain  bool<s  of 
Holy  Writ,  III.  39,  note;  on  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church.  III.  107, 
note;  his  fatal  tendencies.  III.  oti, 
81  sq.,  129,  100;  his  sj'stem  of  exe- 
gesis, III.  129,  note  3;  his  death, 
III.  128;  judirnient  on  him,  III.  132. 

Lulhenins,  ill.^320. 

Lutheran  controversies,  III.  315  sq. 

Luxeuil,  II.  102. 

Lyons  ( Councils  of),  1. 590.  II.  596,' 604. 


M. 


Jkabillon,  I.  46. 

Macarius,  the  Elder  and  Younger,  I. 

752. 
Macedonians,  I.  549,  593. 
Macedonius,  Bp.  of  Constantinople.  I. 

549. 
Macchiavelli,  II.  1004. 
MacClo-key  (John),  first  North  Amer- 
ican Cardinal,  III.  793. 
3Iack  (discharge  of),  III.  777. 
Macon  (Council  of),  I.  698,  702. 
Macra  (Saint),  Synod  of,  II.  340. 
JVIaestricht  (See  of),  II.  108,  370. 
Magdeburg  Meti-opolitan  See  of).  245. 
Magi,  I.  81,  499. 

Magna  Charta  libertatum,  II.  581. 
Magnentius,  I.  474. 
Magyars,  II.  250. 
Mahommed,  II.  191  sq. 
Mai  (Cardinal),  III.  698. 
Maid  of  Orleans,  II.  1018. 
Maistre  (de).  III.  702. 
Major  (George),  III.  316. 
Majorinus,  I.  513. 
Maiehion,  Priest,  I.  351. 
IMaldonatus  (interpreter  of  the  Bible), 

III.  416,  421. 
Malebranche,  III.  519. 
]\Iamachi,  I.  40,  III.  535. 
r^Iamertus,  Archbp.  of  Vienne,  I.  695, 

700. 
^lamertus,  Priest.     See  Claudianus. 
-Maiiiitti,  II.  1009. 
Manharters,  III.  910. 
Manichaeism,  I.  3o6,  364. 
i^Ianichaeism,    severe     measures    em- 

oloycd  by  the  Emperors  against  it, 

■;    341. 
.■Manning  (J.  IL,  Cardinal),  III.  857. 
.Mannon,  II.  420. 
Maiisi,  I.  49,  724,  note  1,  III.  535. 
Mantegna,  Andrea,  II.  1054. 
Mantua  (Council  of),  II.  331. 
Manu  (laws  of),  I.  74. 
Jtlanual  labor  of  Monks.  I.  750. 
VOL.  Ill — (i8 


Manumissio  per  testamentum,  II.  648. 

Manutius  (Paul),  III.  416. 

>[arat.  III.  642  sq. 

-Marca  (Peter  de),  I.  46. 

.Marcellusof  .\ncyra,  I.  524,  531,  560. 

-Marcellus  II.,  Pope,  III.  348. 

-Marcia,  I.  268. 

-Marcianus,  I.  607. 

-Marcianus  of  .-Vrles,  I.  411. 

Marcion,  I.  329. 

Marcionites,  do  not  observe  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  secret,  I.  436. 

Marcus  .\urolius,  I.  266. 

Mardonius,  I.  477. 

Maret,  III.  828. 

Marheineke.  III.  971,  1016. 

.Mariana,  III.  383,  396. 

Marinus  II.,  or  "  Martin  III.,"  Pope, 
II.  296. 

Maris  the  Persian,  I.  604. 

Marius  .Mercator,  I.  573,  note  1. 

Mark  (St.)  the  Evangelist,  I.  184,  239. 

Mark,  John,  I.  176. 

Maronites,  I.  643,  II.  945,  III.  474. 

Marsilius  Ficinus,  II.  1004. 

.Marsilius  of  Padua,  II.  831. 

Martene  I.  46. 

Martin  I.,  Pone,  I.  639. 

Martin  IV.,  Pope,  II.  608. 

Martin  V.,  Pope,  II.  868. 

Martin  (St.)  of  Tours.  I.  757,  II.  41, 
396. 

Martin  of  Dunin.     See  Dwiin. 

Martini,  Archbp.  of  Florence,  III.  535. 

Martyrs  and  Martyrdom,  I.  299. 

Martyrs,  veneration  of,  I.  302,  454. 

Maruthas,  Bp.  of  Tagrit  in  Mesopota- 
mia, I.  500. 

Mary  (the  Blessed  Virgin),  I.  141,  184. 

Mary,  Immaculate  Conception  of,  aiid 
controversy  on  the  same,  II.  "♦^l, 
1030. 

Mary,  feast  of  the  Nativity  of,  II.  395. 

Mary,  cultus  or  veneration  of,  II.  39". 

Marv,  days  dedicated  to  her  honor,  I. 
702,  II.  399. 

Mary,  Queen  of  England,  III.  206. 

Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scotland,  III. 
213,  232. 

Mary,  Brothers  of  III.  945. 

.Masius  (Andrew),  III.  419. 

Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the,  I.  439,  668,  III. 
56,  350. 

Masses  said  for  the  souls  of  the  faith- 
ful  departed,  I.  720. 

Masaccio,  II.  1051. 

Massacre  of  the  Irish.  III.  252. 

Massalians,  I.  758. 

Massilian.^,  I.  586. 

Massillon,  III.  622. 


1074 


General  Index. 


M&ternus,  first  Bp.  of  Cologne,  I. 
251. 

31aternus  Firmicus,  I.  495. 

Mathilda  (Countess),  II.  49'2. 

Mathilda,  lier  donation,  II.  512. 

^lathilda.  Queen  of  England,  II.  492. 

Mathurins.     See  Trinitarians. 

Matrimony,  Sacrament  of,  I.  208,  450, 
735. 

Matrimony,  it  is  declared  to  be  indis- 
soluble, 1.  208,  452,  736. 

Matrimony,  subject  to  sacerdotal  bless- 
ing, I.  451,  735. 

Matrimony  forbidden  with  pagans,  I. 
451,  736. 

Matrimony  forbidden  with  heretics,  I. 
786. 

Matrimony  forbidden  with  blood  rela- 
tions to  the  seventh  degree,  I.  737, 
II.  400;  this  prohibition  restricted 
to  the  fourth  degree,  II.  400, 

Matteo  de'Ba.<si,  III,  386. 

Matthew  (St.),  ,\posile,  I.  183. 

Matthew  Lang,  Bp.  of  Gurk,  II.  919. 

Matthew  of  Paris,  I.  41. 

Matthew  (Father),  III.  738. 

Matthias,  Apostle,  I.  167,  184. 

Matthiesen,  III.  117. 

Maur,  (Congr.  of  St.),  III.  520. 

Maurice  (St.)  of  the  Thebaean  Legion, 

I.  282. 

Maurice  of  Saxony,  III.  134,  137. 
Maurus  (St.),  disciple  of  St.  Benedict, 

II.  45. 

Maurus,  Bp.  of  Bari,  I.  241. 
Maximilian  I.,  Emperor,  III.  7  sq. 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  III.  448. 
Maximilian  of  .Mexico,  III.  954. 
Maximilla,  I.  344. 
Maximus  the  Neo-Platonist,  I.  477. 
Maximus  the  Emperor,  I.  757. 
Maximus  the  Abbot,  I.  636. 
Mazarin,  III.  480. 
Mechitarists,  III.  473. 
-Mecklenburg  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Medina  (Bartholomew  of).  III.  417. 
Meinwerk,  II.  373. 
Meinwerk,  his  School,  II.  424. 
Meissen  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Melanchthon,  III.  24,  47,  53,   76  sq.. 

109,  319, 
Melania,  L  556. 
-Melbourne,  III.  963. 
Melchisedechians,  I.  350. 
Meletius  of  Lycopolis  (Schism  oi;),  I. 

432;  its  extinction,  I.  526. 
Meletian  Schism  at  Antioch,  I.  546. 
3Ieletius  of  Mopsuestia,  I.  602. 
-Meletius  of  Sebaste,  I.  547. 
Melito,  Apologist,  I.  294. 


Mellitus,  Archbp.  of  Canterbury,   II. 

66. 

Memnon,  Bp.  of  Ephesus,  I.  599. 

Menander,  I.  223. 

Mendicant  Orders,  II.  707  sq. 

Mendicant  Orders  ;  opposition  againnt 
them,  II.  719. 

Meng-tse,  I.  72. 

Mennas.  Patr.  of  Constantinople,  1. 61 9. 

Mennonites,  III.  331. 

Menoohius,  Interpreter  of  Holy  Writ, 
1X1.421. 

Mensurius,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  I.  512. 

Mentana,  II  L  789. 

iMentz  ( .Metropolitan  See  of),  II.  108. 

Mentz  (Councils  of),  IL  161.  332,  426. 

Mercier,  III.  648. 

Merseburg  (See  uf),  II.  245,  370. 

Mer-sennus,   III.  420. 

Mesopotamia  (  fheol.  School  of),  I.  65-'>. 

Meteiiipsycho-i<,  I.  76,  84. 

3Iethodists,  111.  610. 

Metho(liu.«,  Bp.  of  Tyre,  I.  556. 

Methodius,  Bp.  of  Pannonia  and  Mo- 
ravia, II.  240. 

Metropolitan  (the  three  great  sees),  I 
407,  663. 

Metropolitan  (force  of  the— organiza- 
tion), 1.406,  663,  II.  136,  348. 

Metropolitans,  I.  406. 

Metropolitans  (jurisdiction  of),  II.  348. 

.Metropolitans;  oath  of  fidelity  taken 
by  them  to  the  Pope,  II.  633 

Metz  (See  of;,  II.  108. 

xMetz  (Council  of),  II.  361. 

ilexico,  III.  952  sq. 

Jlezzofanti,  Cardinal,  III.  698. 

Michael  (Feast  of  St.),  I.  705,  II.  395. 

^lichael  Cerularius,  II.  463. 

Michael  of  Cesena,  II.  1020. 

Michael  III.,  Emperor,  II.  449. 

Michael  Palueologus,  II.  814. 

Michael  the  Stammerer,  11.217. 

Michaelis  (David),  III.  599. 

Michael  Angelo,  II.  1052. 

Michelis,  1.132,  II L  894, '901. 

Michl,  I.  51. 

iMieczyslaus,  II.  247. 

Middle  Ages  (general  character  of), 
II.  1. 

Middle  Ages  (peculiar  character  of  the 
y\.  A.,  from  a  religious  point  of 
view),  II.  125. 

Migne,  11.414,  IIL  713. 

Milan;  edict  of  toleration,  granting 
full  liberty  to  the  Christians,  pro- 
mulgated there,  I.  285. 

:Mihur(  Councils  of),  I.  538,  561. 

Mileve  (Council  of),  I.  581. 

Milites  Christi.     See  Domitista. 


General  Index. 


1075 


Milner,  Apost.  Vicar  in  England,  III. 

731. 

Milner.  Church  Historian,  I.  61. 

Miltiades,  Apologist,  I.  294. 

Miltitz  (Charles  of).  III.  20. 

Minden  (See  of),  II.  124,  370. 

Minims,  II.  1024. 

Minnesaenger,  II.  787,  794. 

Minorites.     See  Frnnciscans. 

Minutius  (Felixl,  Apologist,  I.  296. 

Miracles  (gift  of),  I.  210,  257,  II.  124; 
faith  in,  II.  791,  note. 

JSlissa,  I.  711. 

Missa  Catechumenorum,  I.  439,  711. 

Missa  Fidolium,  I.  713. 

Missa  Marceili,  III.  436. 

Missa  privatu,  II.  401. 

Missa  pro  defunctis,  I.  720,  739. 

Missa  praesanctificatorum,  I.  721. 

Missa  Votiva,  I.  720. 

Missal.  III.  356. 

Miss!  dominici,  II.  129. 

Missions,  modern,  III.  397,  401,532,921. 

Missions,  Institutes  and  Congregations 
for.  III.  397,  531,  922  sq. ;  in  Amer- 
ica, III.  944. 

Missions,  Protestant,   III.  616,  1007. 

Miter,  I.  693. 

Modestus,  Apostle  of  the  Carinthians, 
II.  239. 

Mohammed,  II.  192. 

Mohler  (John  Adam),  III.  865,  890, 
895 

Molanus  (Abbot),  III.  539. 

Molina  (Louis),  III.  426  sq. 

Molinos  (Michael),  III.  511. 

Monarchia  ecclesiastica  Siciliae,  II. 
328,  516. 

Monarchians,  I.  348. 

Monks  and  Monasticism,  I.  453,  II. 
161,  681  sq. ;  origin,  aim,  and  scope 
of  monastic  life,  I.  744  ;  monks  orig- 
inallj' all  laymen,  1.753;  congrega- 
tions of  monks  erected  in  the  East 
by  Pachoraius,  Ammonius,  and  Hi- 
larion,  I.  752 ;  in  the  West  by  Mar- 
tin of  Tours  and  Benedict  of  Nursia, 
II.  40  sq. ;  religious  reformation  by 
St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  II.  360. 

Monastic   Congregations    and    Orders, 

II.  360  sq.,  681  sq.,  728,  1019,  1022, 

III.  386  sq.,  530  sq.,  836. 
Mongols,  II.  807. 
Mongus  (Peter),  1.613. 
Monica  (St.),  I.  576. 
Monophysites,  I.  611,  631. 
Monothelites,  I.  633  sq. 
Monstrance,  II.  1027. 
Montalembert.  II.  8,  786,  III.  707,  835, 

845. 


Montanus  and  Montaniste,  I.  342. 
Monte  Cassino,  II.  43,  363. 
Montesquieu,  III.  627. 
Montfaucon,  I.  46. 
.Montholon,  III.  681,  note  2. 
Montpellier  (Council  of),  II.  667. 
Moore  (Thomas),  III.  732. 
More   (Sir   Thomas,    Chancellor),   II. 

1007,  III.  199. 
Moral  theolosiy,  II.  258;  III.  316,  619, 

891. 
Moravia  (Conversion  of),  II.  240. 
Moravian  Brethren,  II.  971,  III.  164, 

606,  1008. 
Morlin,  III.  319. 
Mormons,  III.  1004. 
Moses,  I.  103  sq. 
Moses  of  Chorene,  I.  502. 
Mosheim,  I.  55. 
Mozarabians,  II.  112. 
Mozarabic  liturgy,  II.  402  sq.,  1028, 
Muhlberg  (battle  of),  III.  135. 
Miiller  (Adam),  111.971. 
Miiller  (Henry),  III.  312. 
Miiller  (.Julius).  III.  271. 
Miinscher,  I.  60. 
Munster  (See  of),  II.  123,  370. 
Miinzer  (Thomas),  III.  57. 
Muratori,  I.  49  ;  III.  534. 
Muret,  on  St.  Bartholomew's  day,  III. 

278,  note  ». 
Murner    (Thomas,    satirist),    III.    30, 

note  2. 
Music  (religious),  I.  694,  II.  1055,  III. 

435,  881. 
Myconius,  III.  98. 
Mysteries  of  Paganism,  I.  63,  86. 
Mysticism,  II.  737,  747,  762,  993,  III. 

312;  false  mysticism,  III.  511. 


N. 


Nakatenus,  Jesuit,  III.  654. 

Name,  (Christian  in),  1.498. 

Names  (change  of  names  at  papal  elec- 
tions. First  instance  of  the  kind), 
II.  298. 

Nantes  (Edict  of),  III.  281  ;  its  revo- 
cation.  III.  283. 

Naoc,  I.  689. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  III.  654,  668. 

Napoleon  III.,  III.  834  sq. 

'^ip^ii^,  I.  689. 

Nas(John),  III.  413. 

Natalis,  Alexander,  I.  46,  III.  619. 

Natalis,  13p.  of  the  Antitrinitarians,  I 
350. 

Natalitia  Aiostolorum,  I.  704. 

Natalitia  .Martyruni,  I.  302,  456. 

National  (Council  of  Paris),  III,  670. 


1076 


General  Index. 


Nativity  (Feast  of  the),  I.  447,  702. 
Nativity,  (Chronological  fixing  of  the 

year  of  the  N.  of  Christ,  I.  139  sq. 
Naumburg  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Naxos,  III.  923. 
Nazarenes,  I.  218. 
Neander,  I.  56,  476,  647,  note,  II.  488, 

502,  7o2,  III.  979. 
Nectarius,   Patr.  of  Constantinople,  I. 

549,  731. 
Nefried  of  Narbonne,  II.  181. 
Neo-Caesarea  (Council  of),  I.  403. 
Neo-Evangelicals,  or  Pietists,  III. 986. 
Neo-Platonism,  I.  291,  381,  475,  492. 
Neo-Pythagoreans,  I.  290. 
Neri  (St.  Philip),  III.  389,  437. 
Nero,  Emperor,  I.  179. 
Nerva,  Emperor,  I.  189. 
Nestor,    Historian     of     the     Russian 

Church,  II.  472. 
Nestorius,  I.  592. 
Nestorians,  I.  592,  III.  474. 
Mestorians  in  China,  I.  503. 
Netherlands    (Protestantism    in    the), 

III.  284. 
Netherlands  (the  Catholic  Church  in 

the),  III.  738,  843  sq. 
Newman,  III.  848  sq. 
Nice  (Councils  of),  I.  446,  523,  II.  214. 
Nicephorus  Callisti.  I.  43. 
Nicetas  Choniates,  II.  810. 
Nicolaitanes,  I.  224. 
Nicolai's  German   Library,  III.  557. 
Nicholas  I.,  Pope,  II.  275,  469. 
Nicholas  II.,  Pope,  II.  325. 
Nicholas  III.,  Pope,  11.607. 
Nicholas  IV.,  Pope,  II.  610,  807. 
Nicholas  V.,  Pope,   II.  834,  895,  924, 

971. 
Nicholas  de  Clemangis,  II.  849,  879, 

992  1019. 
Nicholas  of   Cusa,  II.  878,   886,   894, 

900,  923,  929.  931. 
Nicholas  of  Flue,  II.  1016. 
Nicholas  de  Lyra,  II.  1008. 
Nicholas  of  Methone,  II.  810. 
Nicholas  of  Monte  Corvino,  II.  807. 
Nicholas  of  Myra.  11.  472. 
Nicholas  of  Pisa,  II.  1049. 
Nicole,  III.  416,  501. 
Nidaros.     See  Drontheim. 
Nihus  (Bartholomew),  III. 323,  445. 
Ninian,  British  Bp.,  II.  58. 
Niobes,  Stephen,  I.  616. 
Nisibis  (Theol.  School  of),  I.  653. 
Nobles  generally  chosen   canons,  II. 

646. 
Noetus,  I.  353. 

Noga^et  (William  de),  II.  621,  627. 
Nominal  Catholics,  I.  498,  III.  881. 


Nominalism,  II.  742,  990. 

Nomocanon,  I.  683. 

Nonantula  (Placidus  of),  II.  631. 

Nonantula  (Monastery  of),  II.  375. 

Non-conformists,  III.  212. 

Nonnus,  Monk,  I.  602. 

Norbert   (St.   Norbert  founder  of  th« 

Premonstratensians),  II.  692. 
Norbertines.     See  Premonstrotenniaiis. 
Noris,  Cardinal,  I.  49,  628,  note  2,  III. 

534. 
Normans,   II.  233,   322,   327  sq.,  484, 

506. 
Northumbria,  conversion  of,  II.  69. 
Norway  (conversion  of),  II.  231. 
Norway  turns  Protestant,  III.  191. 
Notaries,  I.  651. 
Notker  of  St.  Gall,  II.  371,  421. 
Notker  Labeo,  II.  421. 
Notker,  Bp.  of  Liege,  II.  373. 
Notker  Physicus,  I'l.  421. 
Nourry  (Nicholas  -le),  I.  46. 
Novatian  at  Rome,  I.  387,  431. 
Novatus  at  Carthage,  I.  430. 
Number,    total,    of    Christians,    III. 

1023. 
Nunciatures,  I.  671,  III.  369,  542,  548. 
Nuns,  I.  754. 
Nunneries,  I.  754,  II.  360. 
Nurnberg.     (Assembly  of  Princes  at), 

II.  577  ;  diet  of,  III.  44,  50. 


O. 


Oberthur,  III.  550,  888. 

Oblates  (Congr.  of).  III.  389. 

Oblations  or  Offerings,  I.  398,  713. 

Obotrites,  II.  245. 

Obstacles  opposed  to  the  Propagation 

of  Christianity,  I.  257,  498. 
Occam   (William),   II.   831,  838,  989, 

1020. 
O'Connell,  III.  726. 
Odensee  (See  of),  II.  229. 
Oderic  Raynaldus,  I.  45. 
Oderic  Vital,  I.  41. 
Odilo  and  Odo,  Abbots  of  Clugny,  II. 

362. 
Odoacer,  II.  33. 

Oecolampadius  III.  95  sq.,  105,  310. 
Oecumenius,  Bp.  of  Tricca,  II.  466. 
Offertory,  I.  713. 
Officials,  Episcopal,  II.  647. 
Officium,  B.  M.  V.,  II.  399. 
Officium,  Gregorii  VII.,  III.  488. 
Offroy  de  la  Mettrie  (Julian),  III.  528 
Olahi"   (Nicholas),    Archbp.    of    Gran 

III.  173. 
Olaf  (the  Fat),  II.  226. 
Olaf  Trygvesen,  II.  232,  235. 


General  Index. 


1077 


Olaf  fSt.),  II.  232. 

Olaf,  Skotkonung  II.  230. 

Oldenburg  (See  of),  II.  246. 

Oleg,  II.  470. 

Olga,  II.  470. 

Olier,  111.424,942. 

Oliva,  11.  804. 

Olivetan  (Peter),  III.  144. 

Olivetans,  II.  1022. 

Olmiitz  (See  of),  II.  243. 

Olshausen,  III.  977. 

Omar  (St.),  II.  109. 
O/uA/a,  I.  712. 

Ommiades,  1 1.  203. 

'0/ioinvcio^,  I.  539. 

'Ofiooi'Giog,  I.  351,  366,  625,  639. 

Ophites,  I.  316. 

Optatus  of  Mileve,  I.  511,  513,  516. 

Orange  (Council  of),  I.  588. 

Orariuna,  I.  693. 

Oratorians,  Italian,  French,  and  En- 
glish, III.  389,  735. 

Oratorio ;  origin  of  this  name.  III.  437. 

Ordeals,  II.  155. 

Orders,  religious.     See  Monasticifitn. 

Orders,  mendicant,  II.  707;  their  in- 
fluence, II.  719;  and  opposition 
raised  against  them,  719. 

Orders,  military  and  religious,  II.  700; 
in  Prussia,  11.  805. 

Ordination,  I.  199. 

Ordination  of  bishops,  I.  396,  734. 

Ordinationes  absolutae,  II.  159. 

Ordo  de  redemptione  captivorum.  See 
Trhutaria7is. 

Ordo  B.  Mariae  de  3Iercede.  See 
Trinitaria7is. 

Ordo  S.  Brigittae,  s.  Salvatoris,  II. 
1024. 

Orebites  (Party  of  Hussites),  II.  970. 

Organ,  I.  697;  II.  403,  1055. 

Organic  (articles).  III.  657. 

Oriental  (organization  of  studies),  II. 
1008. 

Origen,  I.  296,  374,  378,  456. 

Origenist  (Controversy),   I.  554,  620. 

Original  Sin  (propagation  ofj,  1.  572. 

Orlando  di  Lasso,  111.  437. 

Orleans  (Councils of),  1.682,  698,  11.49. 

Ornaments  (church),  I.  685,  II.  1044  sq. 

Orosius  (Paulus),  1.  38,  488,  496,  680. 

Orphan  Asylums,  II.  38,  641. 

Orphans.  Hussite  sect,  II.  970. 

Orsi,  Church  Historian,  I.  49. 

Usbor  (Synod  J),  II.  332. 

Osiander  (Luke),  I.  44,  III.  318. 

Osiandrist  (Controversv),  III.  157,  318. 

OsnabriicU  (See  of),  II!!  123. 

Ostensoria,  11.  1027. 

Ostiarii,  I.  393. 


Ostrogoths,  II.  21,  33. 

Oswald   (St.),   Jip.  of  Worcester,  IL 

381. 
Otfried  of  Weissenburg,  II.  416. 
Othlo,  Benedictine  oi  Katisbon,  II.  425. 
Otho  I.,  Emperor,  II.  301,  303,  305;  hii 

Diploma,  II.  302 
Otho  II.,  Emperor,  II.  307. 
Otho  ill.,  Emperor,  II.  308. 
Otho  IV.,  Emperor,  II.  576. 
Otho  of  Bamberg,  II.  801. 
Otho  of  Frcisingen,  I.  41. 
Ovaia,  meaning  and  use  of,  I.  366. 
Overberg,  III.  679,  895. 
Oxford  (Council  of),  II.  1026. 
Oxford  (School  of),  III.  734,  849. 


P. 


Pacca,  Cardinal,  III.  548,  666,  674,  683. 

Pachomius,  I.  754. 

Pack  (Othode),  III.  72. 

Pactum  Calixtinum,  II.  536. 

Paderborn  (See  of),  II.  123. 

Paderborn  (School  of),  II.  373,  424. 

Paganism,  I.  64,  484 ;  the  Gospel  an- 
nounced to  the  pagans,  I.  174;  ob- 
stacles put  in  the  way  of  the  Gospel, 
I.  257. 

Paganism  revived  by  Julian,  I.  477; 
reappearing  in  literature,  1 1.  1003. 

Paganus,  Paganismus,  I.  484. 

Pagi  (Anthony),  1.45. 

Pagi  (Francis),  II.  255,  note. 

Painting  on  glass,  II.  1044. 

Palestine  (Theological  School  of),  1.653. 

Palestrina,  HI.  435. 

Palladius,  II.  51. 

Pallavicini,  I.  49,  III.  34,  81,  132,  340, 
351,  notes  1  and  2. 

Pallium  of  bishops,  I.  693. 

Pallium  of  catechumens,  I.  419. 

Pallium  of  metropolitans,  1.  693,  II. 
140. 

Pallium,  a  toga  ad  pallium,  I.  419. 

Pallium  (metropolitan  power  attached 
to  the  I,  II.  343.  U33. 

Palmieri,  II.  1009. 

Pamphilus,  priest,  I.  555. 

Pantaenus,  I.  238,  374. 

Pantheism  of  the  pagans,  I.  91  ;  and 
of  tlie  heretics,  II.  418,  654,  672. 

Papa,  peculiar  title  of  the  Bishop  of 
Komc,  I.  675. 

Papal  (system),  II.  818,  923. 

Paphnutius,  I.  656. 

Papers,  Hist,  and  Polit.,  III.  866,  and 
passim. 

Papias,  I.  224,  227. 

Parabolani,  1.  651. 


1078 


General  Index. 


Parabrahma.  I.  76. 

Paracelsus,  III.  313. 

Paraguay  (Jesuit  Mission  in),  III.  409. 

Paris  (See  of),  I.  243;  Metropolitan 
See,  III.  564,  note  2. 

Paris  (University-  of),  II.  729. 

Paris  (Council  of),  11.221. 

Paris  (Francis),  III.  507. 

Parker  (Matthew),  III.  210. 

TiapaiKia,  I.  394,  662. 

Parochial  rights  in  episcopal  cities,  II. 
354. 

n.apoxoQi  I.  663. 

Pascal,  III.  501,  518,  565. 

Paschal  I.,  Pope,  II.  256. 

Paschal  II.,  Pope,  II.  523. 

Paschal  III.,  Pope,  II.  560. 

Paschal  (confession),  II.  795  sq. 

Pasehasius  Eadbert,  II.  416  sq.,  431. 

Passagians,  II.  657. 

Passau  (See  of),  II.  116,  157,  242,  873. 

Passau  (treaty  of).  III.  139. 

Passionists,  III.  945. 

Pastoral  of  Gregory  the  Great,  II.  38. 

Hdaxo-  aTavpuciuov,  I.  443. 

Tldaxo  avaaTacifiov,  I.  443. 

Patarini  (association  of  the),  II.  376. 

Patarini  (sect  of  the),  II.  376. 

Patriarchate  (extent  of  its  power),  I. 
664. 

Patriarchate  (Koman),  I.  665  sq. 

Patriarchs,  Christian,  I.  663 ;  deter- 
mination of  their  rights.  I.  668. 

Patriarchs,  Ecumenical,  1.666,  11.464. 

Patrician  dignity  of  the  Frankish 
kings,  II.  148. 

Patrick  (St.),  Apostle  of  Ireland),  II. 
52  sq. 

Patrimony  of  Peter,  II.  142;  impor- 
tance and  necessity  of  it,  II.  821, 
note. 

Patripassionists,  I.  352. 

Patronage  (right  of),  I.  663,  II.  349. 

Paul  (St.),  Apostle,  I.  171  sq. ;  his  ideas 
on  the  Church,  I.  204 ;  his  journeys, 
I.  175  sq. 

Paul  of  Alexandria,  I.  631. 

Paul  of  Constantinople,  I.  642. 

Paul  Cortesius,  II.  1003. 

Paul  the  Deacon,  II.  160,  171. 

Paul  of  Emesa,  I.  601. 

Paul  of  Samosata,  I.  350. 

Paul  of  Thebes,  1.  453,  74s. 

Paul  Waniefried,  II.  171,  375. 

Paul  II.,    Pope,  II.  901. 

Paul  III.,  Pope,  III.  341. 

Paul  IV.,  Pope.  III.  349. 

Paul  v..  Pope,  III.  355. 

Paulianists,  I.  351  ;  the  baptism  of  the 
Piiulianists  declared  invalid,  I.  424. 


Paulicians,  I.  761,  II.  473,  667. 
Paulinus  (St.)  of  Nola,  I.  695. 
Paulinus,    Patriarch     of    Aquileia,   1 

630,  II.  171. 
Paulists,  III.  '.145. 
Paulus,  Professor  of  Heidelberg,  III 

926. 
Pavia  (Council  of),  II.  315,  375,  400, 
Peace,  kiss  of,  I.  211,  713,  719. 
Pearson,  I.  59. 

Peasants  (war  of  the),  III.  58. 
Pedobaptism,  I.  708. 
Peking,  II.  807. 
Pelagianism,  I.  573  sq. ;  is  suppressed 

in  the  East,  I.  581  sq. 
Pelagius,  British  Monk,  I.  572. 
Pelagius  I.,  Pope,  I.  630. 
Pelagius  II.,  Pope,  I.  680. 
Pelagius,  Roman  Apocrisiarius,  I.  621. 
Pelagius  Alvarus.     See  Alvarus. 
Pelbart,  II.  1037. 
Pelican  (Conrad),  III.  311. 
Pella,  I.  193. 
Pelliccia,  I.  49,  III.  535. 
Pellisson,  III.  540. 
Penance  (Sacrament  of),  I.  209,   425, 

727. 
Penance  books,  I.  732. 
Penance,  public,  I.  729,  11.  164,  409. 
Penitential  Discipline,  I.  425  sq.,  727, 

II.  164,  409  sq.,  799,  1057  sq. 
Penitential  Discipline  at  first  directed 

by  the  bishops,  I.  429. 
Penitentiary  (Priests),  I.  429,  731  ;  he 

is  the  bishop's  representative  in  foro 

interno,  II.  648. 
Penitents  divided  into  four   classes,  I. 

428,  729,  II.  162,  409,  795,  1066. 
Pentecost,  I.  167,  446. 
Pepin  of  Heristal,  II.  50. 
Pepin,  II.  50,  143,  144;  his  donatio, 

II.     143;     augmented    by    Charle- 
magne, II.  145. 
Pepuzians,  I.  345. 
Peregrinus  Proteus,  I.  267. 
Il£pio(ievT>/g,  I.  662. 
Perpetua  and  Felicitas  (SS.),  I.  269. 
Perpiiiian,  III.  383. 
Perrone,  III.  690,  note  1. 
Persecutions  of  the  Christians,  I.  169, 

261,  285,  498,  II.  27. 
Persia   (Propagation    of    Christianity 

in),  I.  238,  499;  persecutions  of  the 

Christians  in,  I.  503. 
Perugino,  II.  1052. 
Pest-houses  for  lepers,  II.  641. 
Petavins,  I.  46,  III.  412,  519. 
Peter  (St.),  Apostle,  I.  154,  174;  head 

of  the  Church,  I.  180,  196;  his  apos- 

tolic  labors,  I.  179;  establisties  him- 


General  Index. 


1079 


self  at  Rome,  I.  179;   where  he  is 

crucified,   I.    181 ;    his    twenty-five 

yeara     Roman    pontificate,    1.    181, 

note  4. 
Peter  d' A  illy,  II.  852,  8G3. 
Peter  of  Alexandria,  I.  432. 
Peter  Am;indus,  III.  157. 
Peter  of  Audio,  II.  833. 
Peter^  Patr.  of  Antioch,  II.  465. 
Petei  of  Bruis,  II.  655. 
Peter  of  Castelnau,  II.  665. 
Peter  Clirysologus,  I.  606. 
Peter  Comcstor,  II.  730. 
Peter  Flotto,  11.621. 
Peter  the  Fuller,  I.  612. 
Peter  Gall e,  11.5,  III.  177. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  II.  520. 
Peter  Jacobson,  Bp.  of  Westeras,  III. 

177. 
Peter,  Patr.  of  Jerusalem,  I.  622. 
Peter  Lombard.     See  Lombard. 
Peter  Moiigus,  I.  613. 
Peter  Nolasco,  II.  699. 
Peter  of  Pisa,  II.  177. 
Peter  of  Poitiers,  II.  757. 
Peter  the  Venerable.  II.  683. 
Peter  de  Vineis,  II.  590,  597. 
Peter  Waldus,  II.  058. 
Peter's  pence,  II.  370.  III.  789. 
Peterson   (Olaf   and  Lawrence),    III. 

176. 
Petrarca,  II.  841.  1001. 
Petri kau  (Council  of).  III.  166. 
Petrobrusiani,  II.  656. 
Pflug  ^Julius),  III.  113,  121.  136. 
Phantasiastae,  T.  616. 
Pharisees,  I.  120. 
Philip  (.St.).  Apostle,  I.  184. 
Philip  the  Arabian,  I.  272  sq. 
Philip  Augustus,  King  of  France,  II. 

572,  o'^7. 
Philip  IV.,  the  Fair.  II.  618. 
Philip  of  Hessia,  III.  69,  116,  135;  his 

bigamy.  III.  119. 
Philip  of  Suabia,  576. 
Philip  II.,  (if  Spain,  III.  285. 
Philippine  Islands,  III.  962. 
Philippist-^.  III.  320. 
Phillips.  1.  23,  II.  13.  III.  894. 
Philo,  I.  118. 

Philology,  eccleoia.^tical,  I.  27,  note,  1. 
"Ph'lopatris"  (Dialogue).  1.491. 
Philopunus  (.lohn),  1.616. 
Philosoph}'  and  theologj'^,  I.  376,  386. 
Philosophy,  modern.  III.  593,  970  sq. 
Philostorgiu.s,  I.  37. 
Philostratus,  I.  290. 
Photinus,  I.  561. 
Photius,  II.    450,   466;    his    followers 

condemned,  II.  461. 


Physiocrats,  III.  528. 

Piacenza  (Synod  of),  II.  514. 

Piarists,  III.  :;96. 

Pico  della  Mirandola,  II.  1004. 

Picts,  II.  58. 

Pietism,  III.  590.  986,  1004. 

Pilate,  I.  145. 

Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  I.  741 
ll.  519,  III.  925. 

Pil<;;rimages  to  the  Shrines  of  Saint-.. 
11.  248. 

Pilgrimage  to  Rome,  II.  392.  410. 

Pilgrimage  to  Compostella,  I.  242,  II. 
404. 

Piligrim,  Bp.  of  Pas.sau,  II.  251,  371. 

Pirhing,  III.  5'.5. 

Pirkheimer  (Willibald.  III.  31.  34.  Oi, 
103. 

Pisa  (Council  of),  II.  803  sq. 

Pistorius,  III.  114. 

Pitra  (O.  S.  B.,  Cardinal),  III.  713. 

Pitrutt;  III.  554. 

Pius  1 1.,  Pope.  II.  900. 

Pius  III.,  Pope,  II.  914. 

Pius  IV.,  Pope,  III.  :;60. 

Pius  v..  Pope,  III.  361. 

Pius  VI..  Pope,  III.  493,  650. 

Pius  VII.,  Pope,  III.  652,  683. 

Pius  VI 1 1.,  Pope,  III.  693. 

Pius  IX.,  Pope,  111.  782  .-^q.,  791  sq. 

Placidus,  disciple  of  St.  Benedict,  II. 
45. 

Placidus,  Prior  of  Nonantula,  II.  531. 

Planck,  I.  56,  III.  64,  1019. 

Platina,  II.  903. 

Plato,  I.  88,  II.  743. 

Platonism  of  the  Fathers,  I.  131  sq^ 
381. 

Platonists,  1.88,  II.  1003. 

Plebeians  to  be  likewise  admitted  into 
Cathedral  Chapters,  II.  642,  note  2. 

Plenary  Councils  of  Baltimore,  III. 
941. 

Plenaries,  III.  1037. 

Pletho,  Themistius,  II.  1004. 

Plettcnberg  (  Walter  of).  III.  171. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  I.  210  (note  5),  468 

Plock  (See  of),ll.  249,  IIL  781. 

Plotinus,  1.  291. 

I'lutarch,  I.  290. 

Pneuniatomachoi,  I.  550. 

i'oeschl,  III.  910. 

I'oetry,  Christian.  I.  604. 

Poetry,  popular,  in  the  31.  A.,  II.  78<V 

Poland  (conversion  of),  II.  247.  SOU; 
synods  smd  sj-nodal  statutes  in  Pi>- 
land,  II.  578  (note  1),  III.  167;  at- 
tempts of  the  Protestants  to  drag  her 
into  their  sect.  III.  164  sq.;  partition 
of  Poland,  III.  561,  562. 


1080 


General  Index. 


Pole,  Cardinal.  III.  200,  207. 
Polemics  of  the  Pagans,  I.  287,  489. 
Polenz  (John  of),  Bp.  of  Samland,  III. 

166. 
Polycarp  (St.),  Bp.  of  Smyrna,  I.  227, 

267,  405,  445. 
Polycrates,  Bp.  of  Ephesus,  I.  248,445. 
Polyglot  (Bibles),  the  Complutensian, 

II.  1009;  the  Antwerp  and  Paris, 

III.  417. 
Polynesia,  II.  963. 
Polytheism,  I.  67. 
Pombal,  III.  563. 
Pomerania,  II.  249,  800. 
Pomesania  (See  of),  805. 
Pomponazzo  (Peter),  II.  1004. 
Pontanus,  III.  383. 
Ponticus,  I.  267. 

"Pontifex  JNIaximus,"  a  title,  still  re- 
tained by  Christian  Emperors,  I. 
469  ;  but  is  put  aside  by  Gratian,  I. 
485. 

Poor-houses.  II.  641. 

Pope,  title  reserved  for  the  Bishop  of 
Kome,  I.  674. 

Pope  ;  elections  of  Popes  ;  regulations 
of  Nicholas  II.  on  this  head,  II.  326; 
of  Alexander  III.,  II.  568;  of  Gre- 
gory X.,  III.  606 ;  of  Gregory  XV.. 
III.  366;  last  instance  of  a  papal 
election  being  ratified  by  the  secular 
power,  II.  484. 

Popes;  they  always  persevere  in  the 
true  faith,  I.  669,  note  1  on  p.  670; 
the  coronation  of  the  Popes,  11.344; 
first  instance  of  this  ceremony,  II. 
275;  the  Popes  fall  into  a  disgrace- 
ful dependence  upon  the  Marquis  of 
Tuscany,  II.  292;  they  convoke 
councils  and  confirm  their  acts,  II. 
633;  they  give  absolution  from  cer- 
tain grievous  crimes,  II.  633  ;  and 
grant  all  manner  of  dispensations, 
II.  633 ;  the  Tope  is  the  center  of 
Catholic  unity.  I.  203;  and  has  the 
primacy  of  honor  and  jurisdiction, 

I.  205,  355,  409,  422.  581.  588,  667, 
668  sq..  II.  138  sq.,  343,  406,  452,  464, 
585,  630;  is  the  Pope  superior  or  in- 
ferior to  the  council,  II.  863  sq. ;  bis 
relation  to  the  German  Christian 
Emperor,  II.  149,  185,  287,  305  sq., 
340;  Gemini  principes,  duo  lumina- 
ria,  et  duo  gladii,  I.  649,  1 1.  478,  489, 
591 ;  the  Pope's  position  after  the 
Eeformation,  III.  369,  471  sq.;  chro- 
nological table  of  the  Popes,  I.  767, 

II.  1069,  III.  1032 ;  the  Popes  pre- 
side over  councils,  I.  524  (note),  595, 


608,  668,  680;  the  Pope  alone  can 

depose  a  bishop,  1.  670. 
Popular  religious  chants,  I.  210,  439, 

696,  II.  1032. 
Popular  traditions,  I.  26. 
Popular  philosophy,  III.  595,  601. 
Porch  or  vestibule  of  a  church,  I.  689; 
Porphyrius,  pupil  of  Plotinus,  I.  278, 

292,  II.  743. 
Portiuncula,  II.  717. 
Port-Royal  (Abbey  of),  III.  502  sq. 
Portugal  (recent  religious  events  of), 

1117722  sq.,  830. 
Posen  (the  most  ancient  See  of  Poland),. 

II.  247  ;  Jordan,  first  bishop,  II.  247. 
Possevin,  Jesuit,  III.  183,  393,  416. 
Postulant,  II.  44. 
Pothinus  (St.),  Bp.  of  Lyons,  I.  243, 

267. 
Potken  (John),  II.  1010. 
Pott  (John  Henry),  III.  588. 
Powder-conspiracy,  III.  216. 
Powondra,  III.  895. 
Pradt  (Abbede),  III.  672. 
Praedicatores,  II.  710. 
Praefatio,  I.  716. 
Pragmatic  sanction,  II.  602. 
Pragmatic   sanction   of    Bourges,    II.. 

896,  921.  925,  III.  270. 
Prague  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Praxeas,  I.  352. 

Prayer,  seven  times  a  day,  I.  701,  II.  44. 
Praylus,  Bp.  of  Jerusalem,  I.  582. 
Preaching.    I.   712,   II.   1033;    by  the 

bishop,  I.  662. 
Prechtl  (Abbot),  III.  125  (note  1),  539' 

(note  2). 
Precistae,  II.  633. 
Precious  Blood  (Congr.  of  the).  Til 

945. 
Predestination,  I.  589,  II.  425,  III.  48 

99,  151. 
Premices.     See  First  Fruits. 
Premonstratensians  (Order  of),  II.  693 
Presbyter  (John),  III.  806. 
Presbyter  poenitentiarius,  I.  429,  731. 
Presbyters,  I.  199. 
Presbyters  subordinate   to   bishops,  I 

199;  they  begin  to  preach  before  the- 

bishop,  first  instance  of  the  kind  in 

the  West,   I.  662 ;   writings   on  the 

dignity  of  the  priesthood,  1.  654. 
Presbyterae,  I.  203,  note  3. 
Prierias,  III.  15. 
Priesthood,  universal,  I.  198. 
Priesthood,  special,  I.  197. 
Priesthood  and  royalty,  I.  649,  II.  341 
Priests  (ordination  of),  I.  196,  734 
Priestly,  I.  61. 


General  Index. 


108^ 


Primacy  of  the  Bp.  of  Rome.  See  Pope.i. 

Priinasias  of  Adrumetum,  II.  168. 

Primitive  revelation,  I.  63,  100. 

Princes  (Concordat  of),  II.  892. 

Prior,  II.  44,  718. 

Prisca  translatio,  I.  683. 

Priscilla,  1.  344. 

Priscillian,  1 .  755. 

Priscilliaaists,  I.  756. 

Private  chapels  of  the  nobles,  II.  349. 

Privileges   granted   by   the    Popes   to 

churches  and  monasteries,  II.  343. 
Privilegiiim  Fori,  II.  641. 
Probubilism,  III.  417. 
Proclus,    Patr.    of    Constantinople,    I. 

493,  003. 
Proolus,  Neo-Platonist,  I.  493. 
Procopius,  the  Elder  and  the  Younger, 

II.  970. 

Procuratores.     See  Acbninistraiors. 

Professio  fidei  Tridentina,  III.  357. 

Propaganda,  III.  401  sq.,  G85. 

Propagation  of  Christianity  in  Asia, 
I.  174,  184.  236,  499,  II.  806,  III. 
403,  576,  923  sq. ;  in  xVfriea,  I.  239, 
504,  II.  80S,  III.  411,  584,  933  sq.; 
in  America,  IL  1062,  111.409,579 
sq.,  936  sq.;  in  Australia.  III.  962 ; 
in  Europe,  I.  187.  241,  II.  21.  224, 
1058  sq. ;  obstacles  opposed  to  the 
propagation  of  Christianity,  I.  257, 
498,  II.  124. 

Proselytes  of  the  Gate  and  of  Justice, 
I.  120. 

Prosper  (St.),  I.  586. 

Proterius,  Patr.  of  Alexandria,  I.  612. 

Protestantism,  origin  of  the  name,  III. 
73;  spread  of  Protestantism  outside 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland,  III. 
156  sq. ;  character  of  Protestantism, 

III.  298;  causes  of  its  rapid  spread, 
III.  291. 

Protoctistoi,  I.  622. 

Protogenes,  Bp.  of  Sardica,  I.  523. 

Provincial  Councils,  I.  407,  II.  348; 
provisions  for  their  regular  holding, 
I.  681.  II.  886,  III.  355,  371. 

Provincial  of  the  Dominicans,  11.719. 

Prudentius  (hymns  of),  I.  695. 

Prud^ntius,  lip.  of  Troyes,  II.  428. 

Prussia  (Conversion  of),  11.804;  turns 
Protestant,  III.  156;  establishment 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  the 
Pope's  protestation  against  it.  III. 
485;  recent  conflict  of  Prussia  with 
the  Holy  See,  III.  765;  evangelical 
union.  III.  985. 

Pseudo-Synod  of  the  Oak,  I.  559. 

Psyche  (mvth  of),  I   98. 

Ptolemais,ll.  610. 


Ptolemy  de  Fiadonibus,  I.  41. 
Public  confession,  I.  427,  729. 
Public  Schools,  11.39,  171  sq. 
Pulcheria,  I.  607. 
Purcell,  Abp..  HI.  939,  943,  946;   Very 

Eev.  Edwar.i.  111.  949 
Puritans,  III.  212. 
Pusey,  III.  735,  848  sq. 
Pyrrhus  of  Constantinople,  I.  638  sq. 
Pythagoreans,  I.  87. 


Q- 


Quadragesimal  Fast,  I.  442.. 
Quadratus,  Bp.  of  Athens,  and  Apol- 
ogist, I.  294. 
Qmidrivium.  IT.  172,  1000. 
Quakers,  III.  G08. 

Quarterly  Amer.  Cath.  Rev.,  III.  946. 
Quartodecimans,  I.  446. 
Quelen,  Archbp.  of  Paris,  III.  706. 
Quensted,  III.  588. 
Quesnel,  III.  536. 
Quietism,  III.  510  sq. 
Quinisextum  ((Council),  I.  644. 


R. 


Raab  (See  of),  II.  251. 

Rabanus  3Iaurus,  II.  414,  428,  434. 

Rabulas,  Bp.  of  Edessa,  I.  603. 

Racine  ( Bonaventure),  I.  48. 

Rainaid  of  Dassel,  II.  553. 

Rakow  (Catechism  of),  III.  335. 

Ranee  (Bouthillicr  de).  III.  530. 

Raphael  of  Urbino,  II.  1052. 

Raskolniks,  III.  625. 

Ratherius,  Bp.  of  Verona,  II.  374,  note 

1,  422. 
Ratisbon  (See  of),  II.  105.  116;  Coun- 

cil  of  Ratisbon,   II.  180;  league  of 

the  Catholic  Princes,  III.  51 ;  dint 

of.  III.  113. 
Ratramnus,  Monk  of  Corvey,  II.  428, 

434. 
Ratzeburg  (See  of),  II.  245. 
Rauscher,  Cardinal,  I.  52. 
Rautenstrauck,  III.  544. 
Ravaillac  (Francis).  III.  282. 
Ravenna,  I.  241. 
Ravignan,  Jesuit,  III.  714. 
Raymond  VI.,  Count  of  Toulouse,  H 

666. 
Raymond  VII.,  Count  of  T.,  II.  983. 
Raymond  Lullus,  II.  783,  807. 
Raymond  Martini,  II.  1061. 
Raymond  of  Pennaforte,  II.  699,  784 
Raymond  du  Puy,  II.  702. 
Raymund  of  Sabunde,  II.  990. 
Raynaldus,  Oderic,  I.  45. 


1082 


General  Index. 


Eeaction   of   the   Protestants   against 

the  Kationalism  of  Bruno  Baur,  III. 

974. 
Readoption    of    fallen     Christians,    I. 

425  sq. 
Kealism,  Nominalism,  and  Conceptual- 
ism,  II.  742  sq.,  989. 
Heccared,  II.  26. 
Kecess,  III.  84,  115. 
Receveur,  I.  48. 
Recollects,  III.  944. 
Recommendation    (letters   of)    of    the 

Martyrs,  I.  430. 
Reconciliation  of  Sinners,  I.  427,  730. 
Redemptorists,  III.  581,  944. 
Reformed  Church,  III.  325;  divisions 

breaking    out    in    its    bosom.    III. 

325  sq. 
Regale  (controversy  on  the),  III.  482. 
Reginald,  Bp.  of  Spire,  II.  373. 
Regino  of  Prum,  I.  41,  II.  343,  421. 
Reginum.     See  RaAisbon. 
Regula  fidei,  I.  377. 
Reichenau,  II.  104. 
Reiffenstuel,  III.  556. 
Relations  between  Church  and  State  in 

Germany,  II.  125  sq. 
Religio  licita,  I.  277. 
Religion  (idea  of),  I.  1. 
Religion  of  the  pagan   Nations,   I.  64 

sq.,  II.  15,  237. 
Religion,  edict  concerning  religion  in 

Prussia,  III.  965. 
Religion  of  force,  II.  406. 
Religious    Conference     of     Marburg, 

III.  74. 
Religious    Conferences     of    Eatisbon, 

III.  113,  126. 
Religious  Conference   of   Thorn,  III. 

445. 
Religious  Conference  of  Worms,  III. 

442. 
Religious    Conferences  of  Baden  and 

Emmendingen,  III.  443. 
Religious   difierences    settled    by   the 

peace  of    Augsburg,   III.   136,   and 

N  urn  berg.  III.  86. 
Relics    (Aeneration    of)    among    Cath- 
olics, I.  302,  703,  760,   II.  404,  III. 

355  ;  anicmg  Protestants,  III.  133. 
Rembert,  II.  228. 
Remigius  (St.),  Archbp.  of  Rheims,  II. 

47,  396. 
Remigius  of  Lyons,  II.  428. 
Remismond,  II.  25. 
Remonstrants,  III.  326. 
Reparatus,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  I.  625. 
Reservatuni  ei-olcsiasticum.  III.  140. 
Residence,  duty  of,  in  monks,  II.  44. 
Kespoiisuries,  I.  696. 


Restitution  (edict  of),  III.462. 
Resun-ection  of  Christ,  I.  161.- 
Reuchlin,  II.  1009. 
Reval  (See  of),  II.  803. 
Revelation,  primitive,  I.  64  sq.,  100. 
Revolution,  French,  III.  629  sq. 
Rheims  (School  of),  II.  369,  423. 
Rheims   Seminarv    for    Catholic    En 

glishmen.  III.  214. 
Rheims,  Councils  of,  II.  168,  340,  657, 

693,  753. 
Rhense   (Electoral   Assembly  of),   II. 

836. 
Rhinocorura   (Theological   School  of), 

I.  653. 

Ribera,  de.  III.  537. 

Ricci  (Lawrence),  III.  571. 

Ricci  (Matthew),  III.  406. 

Ricci    (Scipio),    Bp.    of    Pistoja,    III. 

536  sq. 
Richard  of  Cornwallis,  II.  598. 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  II.  572. 
Richard  Simon,  III.  521. 
Richard  of  St.  Victor,  II.  761,  764. 
Richelieu,  III.  282,  455. 
Richer.  III.  369. 

Riculph,  Archbp.  of  Mentz,  II.  272. 
Rienzi  (Cola  de'),  II.  840. 
RifiFel  (works  of),  I.  463,  III.  3,  101  ; 

he  is  deposed.  III.  777. 
Riga,  II.  803. 

Right  of  the  Stronger,  II.  406. 
Rigorism  of  some   Christians,   I.  429, 

II.  410,  1057. 

Rimini  (Council  of),  I.  542. 

Ring  and  Crosier,  I.  694,  II.  340. 

Ritter  (J.  J.),  I.  53. 

llobber-Synod.     See  Ephesus. 

Robbia  (Luke  della).     See  Luke. 

Robert  of  Arbrissel,  II.  695. 

Robert  Molesme,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  11. 

683. 
Robert  Fludd,  III.  315. 
Robert  Guiscard,  11.  322,  327. 
Robert,  Bp.  of  Liege,  II.  1029 
Robert  Pulleyne,  II.  754,  766. 
Robespierre,  III.  642  sq. 
Roderic,  II.  111. 
Rodriguez,  III.  375,  424. 
Rogationum  dies,  I.  700. 
Roger  Bacon,  II.  782,  785. 
Roger  of  Beziers,  II.  666. 
Rohrbacher,  I.  48,  III.  713. 
Rohr,  III.  968. 
Rolfus,  III.  896. 
Romans  (religion  and  morals  of  the), 

I.  92. 
Romanus,  Monk,  II.  42. 
Rome  ;  her  importance  as  the  See  of 

the  Head  of  the  Church,  I.  410  sq.; 


General  Index. 


1083 


Councils  of  Rome,  I.  534,  663,  595, 

II.  210,  303,  319,  321,  326  sq.,  444  sq., 
485,  487. 

Rome- Scot,  II.  379. 

Romuald  (Congr.  of  St.),  II.  363. 

Ronge,  III.  913. 

Rosary    (Confraternity    of    the),    II. 

1033. 
Rosary  (Feast  of  the),  II.  1033. 
Rosary  mode  of  prayer,  II.  398,  1033. 
Roscelin,  II.  745. 
Rosecruciani,  III.  314. 
Roskild  (See  of),  II.  229. 
Rosmini-Serbati,  III.  696,  note  1. 
Rossi,  Minister,  III.  785. 
Rossi  (Bernard),  III.  535. 
Rossi,  Cavaliere  de',  I.  438,   note.   III. 

801. 
Rottmann  (Bernard),  III.  IIG. 
Rousseau  (J.  B.),  III.  897. 
Rousseau  (J.  J.),  III.  528. 
Royko,  I.  51. 

Rudolph  (Agricola),  II.  1006. 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  II.  607. 
Rudolph  of  Suabia,  II.  503,  506. 
Rue  (de  la),  I.  46,  III.  520. 
Rufinus,  Priest  of  Aquileja,  I.  37,  555. 
Kulinus,  Priest  of  Syria,  I.  573. 
Riigen   (Conversion  of  the  island  of), 

il.  802. 
Rule  of  Faith.     See  Regvla  Fidei. 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  IL  43. 
Rupert  of  Deutz,  II.  763. 
Rupert,  Bp.  of  Worms,  II.  106. 
Rupp,  III.  974. 

Rural  Bishops.     See  Chorepiscopi. 
Rural  Chapters,  II.  352. 
Russia  (Conversion  of),  II.  470. 
Russia ;  the  Catholic  Church  in  Russia, 

III.  779,  918. 

Russian  ;  Graeco-Russian  Church,  III. 

461  sq.,  622  sq.,  920. 
Rusticus,  Roman  Deacon,  I.  624. 
Ruttenstock,  I.  53. 
Ruysbroch  (John),  II.  996. 


Sabas  (St.i,  Abbot,  I.  752. 

Sabbath,  I.  212. 

Sabeans  or  Homerites.   See  that  name. 

Sabellius,  I.  353  sq. 

Saccarelli,  I.  49. 

Sacramentarians    (discussion   of    the), 

III.  102  sq. 
Sacred  Heart  (Ladies  of  the).  III.  836. 
Sacrament  (Feast  of  the  Blessed),  IL 

1029. 
Sacrifices,  private  forbidden),  1.  470; 

bloody  interdicted,  I.  470  ;  pagan  of 


ficials  instructed  not  to  participate 

in  public,  I.  471. 
Sacrifices  all  forbidden,  I.  471. 
Sacrilege  (law  against).  III.  703. 
Sacy  (Le  mai^tre  de),  III.  521. 
Sadduceaiis,  I.  121. 
Sadolet,  III.  419. 
Sagittarius,  I.  54. 

Sahag,  Patr.  of  the  Armenians,  1.  50L 
Sailer,  III.  887,  891. 
Sainte-Foi,  III.  711. 
Saint-Martin,  III.  659. 
Saints  ;   All  Saints'  Day,  I.  704,  II.  397. 
Saints  [ayioi],  name  of  the  Christians, 

I.  207. 
Saints  ;  earliest  object  <jf  the  true  ven- 
eration of  the,  I.  302,  II.  215. 
Saisette  (Bernard),  Bp.  of  Pamiers,  II. 

620. 
Salary  of  the  Clergy  bv  the  State,  IL 

650. 
Salmeron  (Alphonse),  III.  421. 
Salpetrians,  III.  911. 
Salvianus,  I.  488,  498,  II.  28. 
Salzburg,  II.  105,  116;  Protestant  em- 

igration  from  Salzburg,  III.  619. 
Samaritans,  I.  120. 
Sambuga,  III.  887. 
Samland  (See  of),  II.  805. 
Samosatenians,  I.  350. 
Samson  (Bernard),  111.91. 
Samuel  of  Worms,  II.  173. 
Santarel,  III.  369. 
Sarabaites,  I.  753. 
Saragossa  (Council  of),  I.  756. 
Sardica  (Council  of),  I.  536. 
Sarpi  (Paolo),  I.  49,  III.  340,  365,  369. 
Sartorius,  III.  985. 
Saturday  (fast  of),  I.  442. 
Saturday  consecrated  to  the  B.  V.,  II. 

399. 
Saturr.inus  the  Gnostic,  I.  325. 
Saul,  persecutor  of   the  Christians,  I 

171. 
Saul,  monastery  of,  II.  55. 
Savonarola,  II.  912,  1036. 
Saxons  (Conversion  of  the),  II.  120. 
Scandinavia,  II.  18. 
Scapular  (Confraternity  of  the),  11.696 
Schaff  (Dr.),  I.  57,  III.  1002. 
Schaffner  (M.)  II.  1055. 
Schall  (Adam),  III.  407. 
Scheibel,  III.  985. 
Schelling,  III.  970. 
Schenkcl,  III.  981,  983. 
Schiller,  III.  605. 
Schism  (definition  of),  I.  5. 
Schism,  Greek,  IL  463. 
Schism,  Western,  I.  630,  IL  845  sq. 
Schlogel  (Frederic  von).  III.  755. 


1084 


General  Index. 


Schleiermacher,  I.  60,  III.  970,  984. 

Schmalfuss,  I.  51. 

Schmalkalden  (Articles  of),  III.  111. 

Schmalkalden  ( League  of).  III.  85,  111. 

Schmalkalden  (War  of),  III.  134  sq. 

Schmalzgrueber,  III.  556. 

Schmid  (Christian),  I.  56  or  69, 

Schmidt  (J.  A.)  I.  54., 

Schmitt  (H.  J.),  III.  461. 

Schnepf,  III.  87. 

Schoen  (Martin),  II.  1055. 

Schola  Palatina,  II.  172. 

Scholastica  (St.),  II.  45. 

Scholasticism,  II.  733,   746,   765,  988, 

1064. 
Scholz,  III.  892. 
Schools,  divergent  theological,  I.  378, 

563. 
Schools    established    by   Bishops,   II. 

173,  412. 
School  of  Classics,  interdicted  to  the 

Christians  by  Julian,  I.  479. 
Schools   (Brothers  and  Sisters   of  the 

Christian),  III.  396,  661,  945. 
Schoolmen,  II.  973. 
Schrockh,  I.  55. 
Schwabacb  or  Torgau,  articles  of,  III, 

74. 
Schwarz,  Ildephonse,  III.  887. 
Schwarzel,  III.  554,  895. 
SchwMrzhuber,  III.  887. 
Schwegler,  III.  981. 
Schwenkfeld,  III.  332. 
Sciarra  Colonna,  II.  627. 
Science,    principles   of   theological,   I. 

370. 
Science,  divergent  forms  of  it,  I.  373. 

II.  732  sq. 

Scillitan  (Martyrs),  I.  269. 

Scotists,  II.  780. 

Scotland  (conversion  of),  II.  58;  she 

passes   over  to   Protestantism,   III. 

228  ;  Catholic  elements  in  Scotland, 

III.  735  ;  restoration  of  the  Catholic 
Hierarchy  in  Scotland,  III.  863. 

Seasons  (Holy),  I.  211,  442. 

Seclucmnus,  III.  158,  165. 

Sects,  idea  of,  I.  4. 

Sects,    fanatical    and    refractory,    II. 

653. 
Secularization,   first   practised   in   the 

peace  of  Westphalia,  III.  456. 
Secularization    of    the    States   of   the 

Church,  III.  606,  789. 
Secularization     of    the     ecclesiastical 

principalities  in  Germany,  III.  676. 
Secundus  of  Tigisis,  I.  513. 
Sedulius,  author  of  hymns,  I.  695,  II. 

38G. 
•Segarelli.  Gerard,  II.  675. 


Segneri,  III.  423. 

Seguier,  III.  529. 

Self-flagellation,  II.  410,  1057. 

Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  Metropolis,  I.  604 

Seleucia  (Council  of),  I.  542. 

Seleucia  (See  of),  I.  499. 

Seleucia,  the  residence  of  a  Nc8toriai> 

bishop,  I.  604. 
Seelburg  (See  of),  II.  803. 
Sees  of  Bishops,  I.  384. 
Seligenstadt  (See  of),  II,  vide  Halber- 

stadt. 
Selon  (See  of),  II.  803. 
Selvaggio,  1.  49,  III.  535. 
Semgallen,  II.  803. 
Semi-Arians,  I.  539. 
Seminaries,  clerical,   I.  653,  III.  354, 

372,  680,  946. 
Seminary    (Mt.    St.    Mary's    of    the 

West),  III.  946. 
Semi-Pelagians,  I.  580. 
Semler,  I.  55,  III.  599. 
Seneca,  I.  97. 
Separation    of  the   Church   from   the 

Synagogue,  I.  190. 
Separation  of  Church  and  State,  III. 

478. 
Septuagint  (Version),  I.  117,  III.  421. 
Sepulture,  Christian,  I.  453,  739. 
Serapeion  (destruction  of  the),  I.  486. 
Sergius  I.,  Pope,  I.  631. 
Sergius  II.,  Pope,  II.  264. 
Sergius  III.,  Pope,  II.  293. 
Sergius,    Patr.    of    Constantinople,   L 

633. 
Sergius  (Paul),  I.  174. 
Sermon,  I.  712. 
Servatus  Lupus,  II.  436. 
Servede  (Michael),  III.  148. 
Servians,  II.  239. 
Servites,  II.  723. 
Servus  Servorum  Dei,  I.  675. 
Sethiles,  I.  319. 

Severians  (Monophysites),  I.  615. 
Severians,  partisans  of  Tatian,  I.  328, 
Severin  (St.),  II.  105. 
Severus  of  Antioch,  I.  615. 
Severus,  Monk,  I.  614. 
Shaftesbury,  III.  525. 
Shapur,  II.  499. 
Sibylline  (oracles),  I.  255. 
Sicilian  (Vespers),  II.  608. 
Sicily  conquered  by  the  Normans  and 

received  as  a  fief  from  the  Holy  See, 

II.  .322,  516. 
Sickingen  (Francis  of),  III.  31. 
Sidney,  III.  963. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris  (St.),  Bp.  of  Cler. 

mont,  11.  25. 
Sieciechow  (abbey  of),  11.  248. 


General  Index. 


1085 


Siena  (Council  of),  II.  873. 

Sieyes,  III.  633. 

Sigismund  (St.),  King  of  the  Burgun- 

dians,  II.  .30. 
Sigismund,  Emperor,  II.  860. 
Sigismund   I.,   King   of   Poland,  III. 

164. 
Sigismund,  Augustus  II.,  III.  166. 
Sigismund  III.,  King  of  Poland  and 

Sweden,  III.  168. 
Signaculuni  sinus,  manuum  et  oris,  I. 

341. 
Sigonius  (Aurelius),  I.  49. 
Siguier,  III.  713. 
Silesia  (Conversion  of),  II.  248. 
Silesia   passes   over  to  Protestantism, 

III.  160. 
Simeon  (St.),  Bp.  of  Jerusalem,  I.  264. 
Simeon  JVletaphrastes,  II.  467. 
Simeon,  Bp.  of  Seleucia,  I.  499. 
Simeon   (St.)  the  Stylite,  I.  601,  734, 

754. 
Simon  the  Magician,  I.  171,^220. 
Simon  of  Montfort,  II.  666. 
Simon  Stock,  II.  695. 
Simony,  I.  220,  II.  159,  487. 
Simonv,  laws  passed  against,  II.   327, 

368,  511. 
Simplicius,  Neo-Platonist,  I.  493. 
Sin,  original.     See  Ori<)i7ial  sin.     Sins, 

absolution    from   which  was  denied 

even  to  the  dying,  I.  428  sq.;  detailed 

confession  of  sins,  I.  209,  425,   727, 

II.  796. 
Singing-sciiools,  I.  696,  II.  403. 
Siricius,  I.  671,  757. 
Sirmium  (Councils  of),  I.  540,  561. 
Sirmian  formularies  of  faith,  I.  641. 
Sirmond,  I.  46. 

Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit,  II.  674. 
Sixtus  IV.,  Pope,  II.  903. 
Si.xtus  v..  Pope,  III.  362. 
Skalholt  (See  of),  II.  235. 
Skara  (See  of),  II.  230. 
Skarga  (Peter),  III.  170,  423. 
Skepticism,  I.  95,  287,  II.  611. 
Skepticism,  historical.  III.  523. 
Skepticism  of  the  Neo-Peripatetics,  II. 

1U04. 
Slavery,  I.  69  ;  greatly  mitigated,  and 

linally  abolished,  by  Christianity,  I. 

457,  466,  703,  II.  643 
Slaves,  II.  236  sq. 
Sleepers,  the  Seven,  I.  275. 
Societies  for  the   propagation  of  good 

books.  III.  700,  759,  896. 
Socinians,  III.  335. 
Sooinus  (  Faustus),  III.  334;  (Lelius), 

HI.  334. 
Socrates,  Church  Historian,  I.  36. 


Soissons  (Council  oH,  II.  117,  281,746 

749. 
Somascs,  III.  388,  395. 
Sommier,  French  theologian.  III.  5U. 
Son  (if  God,  doctrine  of  the  Church  oi, 

Christ  as  the,  I.  364,  519  sq. 
Sophronius,    Monk   and  Patriarch   of 

Jerusalem,  I.  634. 
Sorbonne,  II.  848,  III.  429. 
Sorcery,  II.  1015,  III.  300. 
Sorores  de  Militia  Christi.  II.  711. 
Souls,  All-Souls'  day,  II.  397. 
South  America,  111.  959. 
Sozomenus,  Hermias,  I.  38. 
Spain,  propagation  of  Christianity  in, 
I.  242,   II.  25;  latest  events  there, 
III.  71-5,  831. 
Spalding,  M.  J.,  his  works,  III.  942. 
Spec  (Frederic  von-der),  II.  984,  III. 

434,  441,  588. 
Spener,  III.  589. 
Spire  (See  of),   II.  108. 
Spire  (Diet  of;,  III.  73. 
Spinola  (Christian  Kojas),  III.  539. 
Spinoza,  III.  594. 
Spirituales,  II.  723,  1020. 
Spittler,  I.  56. 

Spondanus  of  Pamiers,  I.  45. 
Sponsores  (fideijussores),  I.  418. 
Sprenger,  II.  1015. 
Squarcione  Giacomo,  II.  1054. 
Stanislaus  (St.),  lip.  of  Cracow,  11.250 
Stuudlin,  1.  5G. 
Stattler  (Benedict),  III.  552. 
Staudenmaier,  III.  889. 
Staupitz,  III.  10. 
Stavanger  (See  of),  II.  233. 
Stephen  I..  Pope,  I.  422,  424. 
Stephen  (11.)^  III.,  Pope,  II.  143. 
Stephen    (III.)    IV.,    Pope,     II.    146, 

note. 
Stephen  (IV.)  V.,  Pope,  II.  255. 
Stephen  (V.)  VI.,  Poi  e,  II.  289. 
Stephen  (VI.)  VII.,  P.>pe.  II.  291. 
Stephen  (VII.)  VIII..  Pope.  II.  296. 
Stephen  (VIII.)  IX.,  Pope.  II.  296. 
Stephen  (IX.).  X.,  Pope   II.  324. 
Stephen  (St.),  Protomartyr,  1. 170,  703. 
Stephen  (St.),  King  of  Hungarv,  II. 

251 . 
Stephen,  Bp.  of  Dora,  I.  637. 
Stephen  (St.)  Harding,  II.  684,  note  1. 
Stephen  of  Lisiac,  II.  689. 
Stephen  Niobes,  I.  610. 
Stephen  of  Tigerno,  II.  688. 
Stercoranism,  II.  433. 
Stewards.     See  Admittistrntora. 
Stigmatum,  festum,  II.  718. 
Stoics,  I.  90,  287. 
Stole,  I.  693. 


1086 


General  Index. 


Stolbers:  (Frederic  Leopold),  I.  51, 
Til.  679,  804. 

Stolz  (Alban),  III.  896. 

Storch  (Nicholas),  III.  53. 

Strasburg  (See  of),  II.  108. 

Strauss,  III.  972,  982,  983. 

Strengnas  (See  of),  II.  231. 

3trii?el  (Victorin),  III.  317. 

Stufleson  (Snorre),  II.  235,  1065. 

Sturm  (Abbot),  II.  117. 

Stylites.  1.  754. 

Suabia  (Mirror  of).  II.  549. 

Suarez,  Jesuit,  III.  416. 

Subiaco,  II.  42. 

Substance,  I.  366. 

Suevi,  II.  22. 

Suidas,  II.  467. 

Suidbert,  II.  110. 

Sulpic-ians,  III.  942,  948. 

Sulpitius  Severus,  I.  38. 

Sunday,  I.  441  ;  the  Manichaeans  fast 
on  Sundays,  I.  340;  the  Catholics  do 
not,  I.  441. 

Sunnia,  II.  23. 

Superattendents  or  Superintendents, 
111.  70,  303. 

Superpositio  jejunii,  I.  442. 

Superetition,  II.  1014;  among  Protest- 
ants, III.  303,  588. 

Support  of  the  clergy.     See  Tithes. 

Supralap.-arians,  III.  326. 

Supremacy  (oftth  of).  III.  195,  209. 

Surius,  III.  -123. 

Suso  (Henry),  II.  995. 

Sutri  (Council  of),  II.  318. 

Sweden  ;  her  conversion  to  Christian- 
ity, II.  230;  she  turns  Protestant, 
III.  170;  intolerant  down  to  the 
present  day.  III.  994. 

Swedenborg  (Emmanuel),  III.  614. 

Swerker,  King  of  Sweden,  II.  230. 

Switzerland  (Conversion  of),  II.  98. 

Switzerland;  her  religious  situation  at 
the  present  day.  III.  744,  882. 

Sylvester  I.,  Pope.  I.  523,  675. 

Sylvester  II.,  Pope,  II.  252,  314,  519. 

Symbol  of  the  Apostles,  I.  230  (note*), 
363;  is  enlarged  in  proportion  to  the 
new  heresies  arising,  I.  506  sq. 

Symbol  of  Nice,  I.  524,  note. 

Symbol  of  St.  Athanasius,  I.  552. 

Symbol,  the  Nicaeno-Constantinopoli- 
tan,  I.  551,  note  1. 

Symbol  of  Ephesus,  I.  601,  note  *. 

Symbol  of  Chai:.^3on,  I.  609,  note  *. 

Symbol  of  the  Illd  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, I.  (541,  note  1. 

Symbolic  books,  III.  299. 

Symbolism  considered  as  a  science, 
III.  1019  sq. 


Symeon.     See  Simeon. 

Symmachiis,  Consular  dignitarian,  XL 

34. 
Symmachiis,  Pope,  I.  614. 
Symmachus,  Prefect,  I.  491. 
Syncellus,  I.  651. 
Syncretism  (signification  of  the  word), 

III.  323,  note. 
Syncretic  Controversy,  III.  323. 
Synergistic  Controversy,  III.  317. 
Synesius,  I.  655,  695. 
Synnada  (Council  of),  I.  421. 
Synod,  the  holy  permanent,  of  Kussia, 

III.  624. 
Synodal  courts,  II.  351. 
"Lhvodog  tvdr/fiovaa,  I.  622,  664. 
Synods,  provincial,  held  in  abeyance, 

II.  348,  351. 
Syrian  us,  Neo-Platonist,  I.  492. 
System,  feudal,  II.  132,  339. 


Tabernacles,  II.  1027. 

Taborites,  II.  970. 

Talleyrand,  III.  634. 

Tamburini,  III.  536. 

Tanchelm,  II.  654. 

Tancred  of  Lecce,  II.  573. 

Tanner  (Adam),  II.  984. 

Tarasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 

II.  214. 
Tasso  (Torquato),  III.  433. 
Tatars  or  Tartars,  II.  468. 
Tatian,   Apologist  first,   I.  294;    then 

Gnostic,  I.  328. 
Tauler  (John),  II.  994,  1035. 
Telemachus,  Monk,  I.  741. 
Temperance  Societies,  III.  738. 
Templars,  Knights,  II.  703;  their  sup- 
pression, II.  827,  828. 
Territorial  (System),  III.  304,  585. 
Tertius  Ordo  de  poenitentia,  or  Ter- 

tiaries,  II.  716. 
Tertnllian,  I.  269,  296,  345,   360,  384, 

401,  456. 
Test-oath,  III.  225. 
Tetzel,  III.  12  sq. 
Teutonic  (Knights),  II.  705,  1058. 
Thaddeus,  Apostle,  I.  184. 
Thangbrand,  II.  232. 
Theatines,  III.  387. 
Thobaean  legion,  I.  281. 
Thebutis,  chief  of  the  Ebionites,  1. 217. 
Theganus,  II.  417. 
Themistius  and  his  partisans,  I.  492, 

G16. 
Themistius,  Neo-Platonist,  I.  492. 
Theodatus,   King   of   the    Ostrogoths 

II.  34. 


General  Index. 


1087 


Theodora,  Empress,  I.  618. 

Theodore  Askidas,  I.  621  ;  Bp.  of  Ceq- 

sarea,  I.  G25. 
Theodore,  Archbp.  of  Canterbury,  II. 

82. 
Theodore  Cassiteras,  II.  216. 
Theodore,  Lector  of  Constantinople,  I. 

l>  t . 
Theodore   of   Mopsuestia,  I.  594,  598, 

603.  622. 
Theodore,  Bp.  of  Pharan,  I.  633. 
Theodore  Studita,  II.  217. 
Theodoret,    Bp.  of  Cyrus,   I.   36,  495, 

598,  603,  618,  622. 
Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  II. 

33,  47. 
Theodosius  I.,  the  Great,  I.  485,  730. 
Theodosius  II.,   the  Younger,  I.  487, 

607. 
Theodosius,  Capuchin,  III.  884. 
Theodotus,  the  Elder,  the  Tanner,  I. 

349. 
Theodotus,  the  Younger,  the   !Money- 

changer,  I.  350. 
Theodiilph,  Bp.  of  Orleans,  TI.  173. 
Theological   (tendencies),   I.  370,  564, 

II.  745  sq.,  780. 
Theologumenu.  I.  5. 
Thi'ophilantropist?,  III.  649. 
Theophilus  of  .Alexandria,  I.  486. 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,   Apologist,   I. 

295. 
Theophylactus,   Archbp.   of   Achnda, 

II.  465. 
Theophylactus,   Archbp.  of  Bulgaria, 

II.  466. 
0£oro/cof,  I.  598. 
Teresa  (St.),  III.  392. 
Therapeutai,  I.  119. 
Thevin  (Council  of),  I.  632. 
Thiersch,  III.  975,  1006. 
Thirty  years'  war.  III.  447  sq. 
Tholuk,  III.  977.' 
Thomas,  Apostle,  1.184. 
Thomas  Aquinas.  II.  604,  769. 
Tiiomas  Barsumas.  I.  603. 
Thomas  a  Beckot,  II.  563  sq. 
Thomas  of   Celano   (author  of  "  Dies 

irae"),  II.  1032. 
Thomas  de  Vio  of  Gaeta.    See  Cajetun. 
Thomas  a  Kempis,  IT.  998,  1026. 
Thomas  Waldensis,  II.  952, 
'I'homas,  Ciiristians  of  St.  Thomas,  I. 

604. 
Thomasius,  III.  519,  991. 
Thomassini,  I.  46. 
Thomists,  11.  780. 

Thorn  (Conference  of),  III.  171,  445. 
Thrasamund,  II.  29. 
Thurificati,  I.  274,  430. 


Thurles,    (National    Synod    of),   III, 

859. 
Thyestian  (banquets),  I.  260,  437. 
Thym,  I.  60. 
Tiara,  I.  603. 

Tiberiu-s  Emperor,  I.  145,  189. 
Tillemont,  I.  47. 
Tilly,  III.  451. 
Timothy,  I.  176,  187. 
Tipasa  (  Martyrs  of),  I.  28. 
Tiraboschi,  III.  535. 
Tiridates,  King  of  Armenia,  I.  501. 
Tirini,  Interpreter,  III.  421. 
Tithes,  I.  397,  658,  II.  130,  355. 
Tithes  of  Saladin,  II.  571. 
Titian,  II.  1054,  III.  433. 
Titular    Bishops    {in   partibus,    infidt- 

Hum),  11.  648. 
Titus,  Homan  General,  I.  192. 
Titus,  di.^ciple  of  St.  Paul's,  I.  187. 
Toland,  III.  525. 
Toledo   (Councils  of),  I.  553,  730,  II. 

26. 
Toleration,  Edict  of  Joseph,  III.  620. 
Toleto  (Francis),  III.  417. 
Tolosa  (Council  of).  II.  391. 
Tongres  (See  of),  II.  108. 
Tonsure,   I.   694;  controversy  on   the 

tonsure,  II.  88. 
Torgau,   league  of  Protestant   princes 

made  at  T..  III.  52. 
'i'ostatus  (  Alphonse),  II.  1008. 
Toul  (See  of),  II.  108. 
Toulouse    (Council   of),   II.   391,  981, 

1026. 
Tournay  (See  of),  II.  108. 
Tournely,  III.  519. 
Tours  (Councils  of).  II.  161,  445. 
Tours  (School  of),  II.  369. 
Tradition,  yiharasaical,  I.  121. 
Tradition  of  the  Catholic  Church,  I. 

358  sq. 
Traditores,  I.  280,  513. 
Traduciaiiism,  I.  562. 
Trajan,  I.  263. 
Translation  of  Bishops  reserved  to  the 

Pope,  II.  633. 
Translations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  I 

108,   II.  22,   1011,  III.  43,  93,   165, 

422,  535. 
Transubstantiation,    I.    435.    713,    II. 

430  sq.,  442  sq. 
Transubstantiation,    when    this    wi  rd 

was  used  for  the  first  time,  II.  6S4; 

although  the  dogma  existed  at    all 

times,  I.  433.  713. 
Transylvania,  III.  174. 
Trappists,  III.  530;  in  America,  III. 

944. 
Trautson,  Archbp.  of  Vienna,  111.550. 


1088 


General  Index. 


Treaty  of  the  15th  of  Sept,  1864  (vio- 
lation of  the),  III.  789. 

Trent  (See  of),  II.  105. 

Trent  (Council  of),  negotiations  on  it, 
III.  124;  celebration  of  the  Coun- 
cil, III.  340  sq.,  acquiescence  in  its 
decrees.  III.  359  sq. 

I'reuga  Dei.     See  Truce  oj  God. 

Treves  (See  of),  II.  108. 

Tribonianus,  Jurisconsult,  I.  617. 

Tribur  (German  Council  of),  II.  370. 

Tribur  (Assembly  of),  II.  499. 

Trichotomy,(Platonian),  of  man,  I.  562. 

Trimurti  of  the  Hindoos,  I.  76. 

Trinitarians  (Order  of),  II.  698. 

Trinitas  and  T/i/ac  terms  employed  for 
the  first  time,  I.  369 ;  scientific  de- 
velopment of  this  dogma,  I.  368  sq. ; 
distortion  to  Tritheism,  II.  745  ;  de- 
nial of  this  mystery  by  the  Anti- 
trinitarians,  I.  348,  III.  334 ;  by  the 
Socinians,  III.  335;  modern  Katio- 
nalists.  III.  595. 

Trinity  (Religious  Order  of  the).  See 
Trbiitaj-innn. 

Trinitatis  festum,  II.  1031. 

Trinoda  necessitas,  II.  378. 

Tritenheim  (John),  I.  42. 

Tritheism,  I.  616,  II.  745. 

Triumphus,  Augustinus.  See  Augus- 
iine. 

Trivium,  II.  172,  1000. 

Trosly  (Council  of),  II.  361. 

Troubadours,  II.  669,  788. 

Truce  of  God,  II.  368,  407. 

Trullan  Synod,  I.  640,  644. 

Trullan  Svnod  (Ubservation),  I.  644. 

Turketul,'ll.  381. 

Turrecremata.     See  John. 

Turretin,  I.  60. 

Tursellin,  III.  383,  423. 

Tv-nc.  Edict  of  faith,  I.  638. 

Twesten,  III.  971. 

Tyniec  (Abbey  of),  II.  248. 

Tyrannicide,  doctrine  of.  III.  301, 
369. 

Tyre  (Pseudo-synod  of),  I.  531. 


U. 


Uchansky,  Archhp.   of   Gnesen,  III. 

168. 
Uhlich,  III.  974. 
Ulenberg,  III.  3,  422. 
(Jlfila,  II.  22. 
IJlric  (St.),  JBp.  of  Augsburg,  II.  371, 

397. 
Unigenitns,  Bull,  III.  505. 
Ilnion;   tentatives  of   union   between 

Protestants  and  Catholics,  III.539  sq. 


Union,  hypostatic,  of  the  two  natures 

in  J.  Christ,  1.365,  590,  601. 
Unitarians,  III.  334. 
United  States  of  North  America,  III. 

939  sq.,  1001  sq. 
Unity  of  the  Church,  I.  405  sq,  411. 
Unity  of  Faith,  I.  213,  361. 
Universal  (Bishop),  I.  675. 
Universities  II.  729,  1064. 
Unni,    Archbishop   of   Hamburg    and 

Bremen,  II.  228. 
Unwan,    Archbishop   of  Bremen,   II. 

373. 
'YTo.Traff/f,  I.  366, 
Upper  Rhine,  Eccl.  Prov.  of  the,  III. 

771  sq.,  870  sq. 
Ui>sala  (See  of).  Metropolis  of  Sweden, 

II.  231. 
Upsala  (Discussion  of).  III.  177. 
Urban  II.,  Pope,  II.  511.  515. 
Urban  IV.,  Pope,  II.  599,  1029. 
Urban  V.,  Pope,  II.  841,  1023. 
Urban  VI.,  Pope,  II.  846,  1030,  1059. 
Urban  VII,,  Pope,  III.  364. 
Urban  VI 1 1.,  Pope,  III.  367. 
Ursacius  of  Singidunum,  I,  537,  541. 
Ursula  (St.)   and   her  companions,  I. 

271,  note  3. 
Ursulines,  III.  394. 
Usher,  I.  59. 

Utrecht,  Metropolis,  II.  110. 
Utrecht    (Jansenist    Schism   of),   III. 

508,  741. 


Vairesse,  III.  526. 

Valdez  (Alphonse),  III.  41. 

Valence  (Councils  of),   I.  588,  II.  338, 

430. 
Valens,  Emperor,  I.  484,  545. 
Valens  of  Mursia,  in  Pannonia,  I.  637. 
Valentine,  the  Gnostic,  I.  319. 
Valentine,  the  Missionary,  II.  105. 
Valentinian  L,  I.  484. 
Valentinian  II.,  I.  484,  545. 
Valentinian  III.,  I.  488,  676. 
Vallarsi,  III.  535. 

Vallombrosa  (Order  of),  II.  364,  377. 
Vandals,  II.  26. 

Vannes  (Congr.  of  St.),  III.  391. 
Varlet  (Dominic),  III.  509. 
Vasquez,  III.  417.  428. 
Vega  (Lope  de).  III.  433. 
Vetth  (Emmanuel),  III.  889. 
Venema  (Herman),  I.  60. 
Veneration  of  the  Saints,   I.  302,  IL 

207  sq. 
Venice  (peace  of),  II.  562. 
Vercelli  (Council  of,  IL  444. 


General  Index. 


1089 


Verden  (See  of),  II.  123. 
Verdun  (See  of),  II.  108. 
Verdun  (treaty  of),  II.  263. 
Vergerius,  the  Pope's  Nuncio,  III.  110. 
Vernulaeus,  III.  383. 
Verona  (Council  of),  II.  980. 
Veronius,  III.  444. 
Vespasian,  Emperor,  I.  192. 
V^espasiani,  Bp.  of  Fano,  I.  693,  note. 
Vestibule  of  a  church,  I.  689. 
Viborg  (See  of),  II.  2:50. 
Vicars  of  the  Tope,  II.  343. 
Vicars  General,  II.  647. 
Victor  I.,  Pope,  I.  349,  352,  445. 
Victor  II.,  Pope,  II.  323. 
Victor  III.,  Pope,  II.  511. 
Victor  IV.,  Pope.  II.  554. 
Victorinu.s,  Bp.  of  Petavio.  I.  251. 
Victorinus  (hvmns  of),  I.  695. 
Vienne  (Council  of),  II.  823.     Conf.  I. 

243. 
Viger,  Jesuit,  III.  383. 
Vigil,  I.  447. 
Vigilantius,  I.  760. 
Vigilius,  Pope,  I.  624. 
Vigor,  III.  423. 

Villani  (Giovanni),  II.  816,  1002. 
Vilmar,  III.  965,  987. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,   I.  42,   II.   730, 

783. 
Vincent  (St.),  Bp.  of  Capua,  I.  543. 
Vincent  (St.)    Ferrer,    II.   849,   1035, 

1057. 
Vincent  of  Lerins,  I.  510,  587. 
Vincent  (St.)  of  Paul,  III.  398  sq. 
Vinci  (Leonardo  da),  II.  1051. 
Vindonissa  (See  of),  II.  99. 
Vi-nels  {'PqIqv  de).     Sec  Peter. 
Viret  (Peter),  III.  146. 
Virgilius,    Bp.   of    Salzburg,    II.   240 

385. 
Virginity,  I.  208,  398  sq. 
Vischer,  II.  1049. 
Visigoths,  II.  24. 
Visitation  (Feast  of  the)  of  the  B.  V., 

II.  1030. 

Visitation  (Order  of  the).  III.  393. 
Visitation  of  diocese  and  Visitors,  I. 

662,  II.  137. 
Visitation,  parochial,  II.  137. 
Vitalian,  Pope,  II.  82. 
Viterbo  (Giles  of),  II.  018,  1018. 
Vivcf!  (Louis   and   Erasmus),  II.  1007, 

III.  417. 
Voit,  1 II.  519. 

Voltaire,  II.  265,  III.  527,  570. 
Vo.ss,  I.  59. 

Votive  Masses,  I.  720. 
Vulfilach,  deacon,  stylite,  I.  754. 
Vulgate,  amended,  III.  363. 
VOL.  Ill — 69 


Vulgate,  new  amendment,  with  the  aid 
of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts.  li. 
785  sq..  III.  363. 


W 


Wadstena  (Convent  of),  II.  1024,  III 

186. 
"Wafers,  or  unleavened  altar-bread.   > 

722,  11.401. 
Walafried  Strabo,  II.  222,  415. 
AValbodo  (St.),  Up.  of  Liege,  II.  373. 
Walch,  Father  and  Son.  I.  55. 
Waldenscs,  II.  058  sq.,  708. 
Waldrada,  II.  279. 

Wallia,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  II.  25 
Walter,  or  (iauthier  of  St.  Victor,  II 

761. 
Walter  von  der  Vogelweide,  IT.  787. 
Walter  (writer  on  C.  L.),  III.  894. 
Waitram,    Bp.  of  Naumburg,  II.  502 

note. 
Ward,  Mary  (Visitation-nun,  III.  395 
Warsaw  (Peace  of  Eeligion),  III.  16S 
Warszewicki,  Jesuit,  III.  181. 
Wazon,  Bp.  of  Liege,  II.  374,  422. 
Wednesday  (fast-day),  I.  441,  II.  16 
Wegscheidor.  111.986. 
Weigel  (Valentin),  III.  313. 
Weigelians,  III.  313. 
Weigl,  II.  999,  note. 
Weisliaupt,  III.  557. 
Weislinger,   II.   1010,  note.  III.   541, 

619. 
Weismann,  Ch.  Hist.,  I.  55. 
Wenceslaus,  11.244. 
Wends,  II.  245. 
Weninger,  S.  J.,  III.  939. 
Wertheim  (Bible),  III.  596. 
,Wesel  (John),  II.  973. 
Wesley  (John  and  Charles),  III.  610. 
Wesprim  (See  of),  II.  251. 
Wessel  (JohnK  II.  975. 
Wessenberg,  III.  911. 
Westphalia  (Peace  of).  III.  456. 
Westeras   (See   of),    IL  231;    diet  of, 

III.  179. 
Wexio  (See  of),  II.  231. 
Wicelius  (George),  III.  443. 
Wicliffe,  II.  947. 
Wieland,  IIL  605. 
Wigand,  III.  320. 
AViHVid,  1 1.  84. 

William  II.,  King  of  Sicily,  II.  549. 
William  .Mien,  III.  214. 
William  of  Auvergne,  II.  767. 
William  of  Champeaux,  II.  085,  747. 
William  Durandus,  II.  826. 
William  Nogaret.     See  Nognrct. 
William  of  St.  Amour,  II.  721. 


1090 


General  Index. 


William  of  Plasian,  II.  626. 
William  of  Thierry,  II.  750,  763. 
William  of  Tvre,  I.  41. 
Willibrord  (St.),  Archbp.  of  Utrecht, 

II.  110. 
Willigis,  Archbp.  of  Mentz,   II.  309, 

312,  372. 
Wilna  (See  of),  II.  1059. 
Wimpina  (Conrad),  III.  15,  80. 
Windsheim,     monastery     of     Canons 

Res^ular,  II.  1026. 
AYindischmann,  I.  71,  III.  893. 
Windows,   stained  glass,  in   churches, 

II.  1044. 

Wine,  (practiceof  mingling  water  with 

the)  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar,  1. 723. 
Winer,  III.  976. 
Win  fried,  II.  113. 
Wirland  (See  of),  II.  803. 
Wiseman,    Cardinal,    III.    732,    848, 

851. 
Witasse,  III.  519. 
Witches,  trials  of,  II.  983,  1015. 
Witches,  combated  by  Catholics,  III. 

440. 
Witches,   upheld   by  Protestants,    II. 

984. 
Witiza,  II.  111. 
Wittekind,  II.  122. 
Wladimir  the  Great,  II.  471. 
Wladislaus  IV.,  King  of  Poland,  III. 

171. 
Wohlgemuth,  II.  1055. 
Wolf,  Church  Historian,  I.  51. 
W^olfenbuttel  (fragments  of),  III.  602. 
Wolfgang  (St.),   Bp.  of  Ratisbon,  II. 

372. 
Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,  II.  787. 
Wollin  (See  of),  II.  801. 
Wollner,  Prussian  minister,  III.  602, 

965. 
Wollmar,  Melchior,  III.  144. 
Woodstock  College,  Md.  III.  943. 
Works,  good   works,  controversy  on, 

III.  316. 

Worms  (Concordat  oH,  II.  536. 

Worms  (Diet  of),  III.'SS. 

Worms  (Assembly  of  Bishops  at),  II. 

495. 
Woolston,  III.  525. 


Worship.     See  Cultus. 

Wouters,  I.  48. 

Writers,  Ecclesiastical,  I.  22,  note  2. 

Wiihrer,  II.  4,  note  1. 

Wujek  (James),  Jesuit,  III.  169. 

Wulfram,  Bp.  of  Sens,  II.  110. 

Wiirzburg   (See  of),  II.  108;  (league- 

of).  III.  449 ;  (assembly  of  German 

bishops),  III.  867. 


Xaverian  Brothers,  III.  946. 
Xavier  (St.  Francis),  III.  403. 
Xenaias,  Bp.  of  Hierapolis,  I.  614. 
Xenodocheia,  II.  641. 
Xerophagj',  I.  705. 
Ximenes  (Cardinal),  II.  1009,  1063. 


Year  of  the  Birth  of  Christ,  I.  138. 
York  (See  of),  I.  2-33,  II.  66,  80. 
York  (Metropolis),  II.  379. 
York  (School  of),  II.  379. 
Yxkiill  (See  of),  II.  802. 


Z. 


Zaccaria,  III.  544. 

Zachary,  Pope,  II.  39,  50. 

Zeil,  Jesuit,  III.  897. 

Zeiiblom,  Barth.,  II.  1055. 

Zeitz  (See  of).  II.  245. 

Zeller,  III.  981. 

Zend-Avesta  and   people  of  Zend,    L 

79,  note  3. 
Zeno,  Emperor,  I.  613. 
Zimmer,  Dogmatician,  III.  888. 
Zinzpndorf,  III.  606. 
Ziska  (John),  II.  968. 
Zola,  I.  50 
Zoroaster,  I.  79. 
Zosimus,  Pope,  I.  581. 
Zosimus,  pagan  Historian,  I,  4G2.  • 
Ziilpich  (Tolbiacum)  (battle  ofj,  II.  47, 

102. 
Zwickau  (prophets  of).  III.  116 
Zwinglius,  III.   105,310;  his  system? 

III.  98  sq. 


LIST  OF  THE  INDIAN  TRIBES 


IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 


WniCATED    BY    THE     FOLLOWING    FIGURES    IN    THE    ECCLE3X4.STICAL     MAP   09 

NORTH   AMERICA. 


(From  Dr.  R.  Orundematm' s  Allgemeiner  Missions  Atlas,  pp.  59  sq.) 


Spokanes  and  Peiul.  d'Oreilles. 

Pualliip  Reservation. 

Skomishes,  incl.  Tonanda  Res. 

Maka  Res. 

Skomishes. 

Grande  Ronde  Res.    (Portions  of  15  dif- 
ferent Tribes.) 

Siletzes,  incl.  Cooses  and  Umpquas. 

Alsea  Res. 

Umatilla     Res.,     incl.    Wallawallas  and 
Cayuses,  14  Tribes. 

Wallawallas  and  Cayuses. 

Hot  Spring  Res.      (Wascoes,  Deschutes, 
&c.) 

Klamath  Res.,  Snakes. 

Snakes  and  Modocs. 

Smith  River  Res.,  \Vylackies. 

Round  Valley  Res.,  and  Nomelackee  Res. 
(Wylackies,  Cowcows,  and  Yucas.) 

Hoopa  Vallev  Res. 

Tule  River  Res. 

Cohauilas. 

King's  River  Indians. 

Yurnas,  Yavapais,  Mohaves,  Hualapais. 

Pi-Utes. 

Mohaves. 

Yunias. 

Hualapais. 

Pima  and  Maricopa  Res. 

Papagoes. 

\\'alker  River  Res. 

Pyramid    Lake    Res.      (Bannocks,    Sho- 
shones,  Pi-Utes,  and  Washoes.) 

Uinta  Res.,  Utas. 

Kastern    Shoshones.     (On    the    banks   of 
Wind  River,  near  Fort  Bridger.) 

Western  Shoshones. 

Pah-Edes  and  Pah-Utes. 

Shebarctches. 

Mohuache-Utas  and  Ticarilla-Apaches. 

Abiquiu  Agency.     (Wemenuche  and  Ca- 
pote Indians.) 

Mescal ero  Apaches. 

Other  savage  tribes  of  Apaches. 

Pueblo  In(iians,  settled  in  villages  (about 
S.oooCath). 

Navajoes. 

Tabequache  and  Grand  River  Uintas. 

Yankton  Res..  Sioux. 

Lower  Brul6  Res.,  Sioux. 

Crow  Creek  Res.,  Sioux. 

Little  Bend  Location,  Sioux. 

Onkpapas,  Yankton  Sioux  :  Blackfeet. 

Ft.  Bcrthold  Res.   (Assiniboine,  Grosven- 
tres,   Arikarrees,    Mandans,    Sissetons, 
and  others  Sioux.) 
47.  Devil's  Lake  Res. 
4S.  Traverse  Lake  Res. 
4S0.  Red  Wood  Res. 


Divers  Tribes  of  the  Sioux  Nation. 
Blackleet,  Piegeans,  Blood   Indians,  and 

Crows. 
Flathead  Res.,  incl.  Pend  d'Oreilles  and 

Kootenays. 
Bannocks  and  Shoshones. 
Bannocks  and  Shoshones. 
Nez  Perces. 
Cceur  d'Alene  Indians. 
Omaha  Res.,  incl.  Winnebagos. 
Santee  Agency,  Sioux. 

Pawnee  Res.,  and  some  Sac  and  Fox  In- 
dians. 
Otoe  Res.,  incl.  Missourias. 
Iowa  Indians. 
Arapahoes,   Chevennes,  Ogalalla   Sioux, 

&c. 
Kickapooes. 
Potawatoniies. 
Kaw  or  Kansas  Res. 
Sac  and  Fox  Indians  on  the  Banks  of  the 

Mississippi. 
Remnants  of  the  Peorias,  Weas,  Pianke- 

shas,  and  Kaskaskias. 
Miamis. 
Osages. 

Cheycnnes  and  Arapahoes. 
Com'anches,  Kiowas,  and  Apaches. 
Cherokees. 
Creeks. 
Seminoles. 
Choctaws. 
Chickasaws. 
Divers  tribes,  viz  :   Wichitas,   Shawnecs, 

Cacldoes,  Comanches. 
Oneidas. 

Mcnomonies  and  Stockbridtres  (Munsees). 
L'Ansee  Bay  Res.,  Chippeways. 
.  Odanah  Res..  Chippeways. 
.  Sandy  Lake  Res.,  Chippeways. 
Traverse  Bay  Indians,   Chippeways   and 

Ottawas. 
Saginaw  Indians,  Chippeways. 
Chippeways,  Ottawas,  ancf  Pottawatta- 
mies. 
Winnebagoshish,  Cass  Lake,  and   Leech 

Lake  Res. 
Red  Lake  Res 
White  Earth  L. 
Gull  L. 
Mille  L. 
Seneca  Res. 
Remnants  of  the  Oneidasand  Onanda^aA 
Sac  and  F"ox  Indians. 
Remnants  of  the  Cherokees. 
Remnants  of  Miamis. 
Remnants  of  Creeks. 
Sault  ."^te  Marie  Indians. 
Walpolc  Indians. 

(1091) 


:} 


Chippeways. 


TABLE 


OF  ALL   THE  SBBS   OF   THE   ANGLICAN    COMMUNION    OtJTSIBE    OF   THE    UNITED 
KINGDOM   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 

[Compiled  from  the  ^^CJiurch  Almanac"  fo7'  the  year  of  Our  Lord,  1878,  published 
at  New  York,  being  supplem,entary  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Atlas.\ 


A.— DIOCESES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

ARRANGED  ACCORDING   TO   THE   CHRONOLOGICAL    ORDER    OF   THEIR    ORGANIZA- 
TION,  TOGETHER   WITH   THE    RESIDENCES   OF   THE   INCUMBENTS. 


Connecticut,  17S3 ;  Middletown. 
Maryland,  1783  ;  Baltimore. 
Pennsylvania,  17S4  ;  Philadelphia. 
Massachusetts,  17S4;  Boston. 
New  Jersey,  1785;  Trenton. 
New  York,  17S5  ;  New  York. 
South  Caioiina,  1785  ;  Charleston. 
Virginia,  17S5  ;  Richmond. 
Vermont,  1790;  Burlington. 
Rhode  Island,  1790,  Providence. 
Delaware,  1791  ;  Wilmington. 
New  Hampshire,  1S02;  Concord. 
North  Carolina,  1S16;   Wilmington. 
Ohio,  1S18;  Cleveland. 
Maine,  1S20;  Portland. 
Georgia,  1823  ;  Atlanta. 
Mississippi,  I S25  ;  Vicksburg. 
Tennessee,  i82!5  ;  Memphis. 
Kentucky,  1829 ;  Louisville. 
Alabama,  1830  ;  Mobile. 
Michigan,  1S32  ;  Detroit. 
Illinois,  1S3S ;  Chicago. 
Western  Mew  York',  183S  ;  Buffalo. 
Florida,  183S  ;  Jacksonville. 
Indiana,  183S  ;  Indianapolis. 


Louisiana,  1S38  ;  New  Orleans. 

Missouri,  1839;  St.  Louis. 

Wisconsin,  1S47  ;  Milwaukee. 

Texas,  1849;  Galveston. 

California,  iSjo;  San  Francisco. 

Iowa,  1853  ;  Davenport. 

Minnesota,  1S57  ;  Faribault. 

Kansas,  iSqg;  Topeka. 

Pittsburg,  11865  ;  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Maine,  1867;  Portland,  Me. 

Nebraska,  1S6S;  Omaha. 

Easton,  1S6S  ;  Easton,  Md. 

Albany,  1S6S  ;  Albany. 

Central  New  York,  i8n8  ;  Syracuse. 

Long  Island,  1S6S  ;  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Arkansas,  1871  ;  Little  Rock. 

Central  Pennsylvania,  1S71  ;  Reading,  Pa. 

Western  Michigan,  1S71  ;  Grand  Rapids. 

Northern  New  Jersey,  1S74;  Orange,  N.J. 

Fond  du  Lac.  1875  ;  Fond  du  Lac. 

Soutliern  Ohio,  1S71;;  Cincinnati. 

West  Virginia,  1877  ;  Wheeling. 

Qiiincy,  1S77  ;  Quincy. 

Springfield,  1877;  Springfield. 


"MISSIONS,"     WITH     THE    SUBJOINED    RESIDENCES    PRESIDED      OVER    BT     "MIS- 
SIONARY  BISHOPS." 

Oregon  and  Washington,  Res.,  Portland;  Dakota,  Res.,  Omaha;  Colorado,  including- 
Wyoming.  Res.,  Denver;  Montana,  inclnding  Utah  and  Idaho,  Res.,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah; 
Nevada,  Res.,  Virginia  City  ;  Niobrara,  Res.,  Yankton  Agency,  Dak.;  Northern  Texas,  Res., 
Dallas  ;  Western  Texas,  Res.,  Sun  Antonio  ;  Northern  California,  Res.,  Benicia  ;  New  Mexico, 
including  Arizona.  The  Protestant  Epi.scopal  Cuhrch  of  the  United  States  also  provides  Mis- 
sionary Bishops  for  the  foreign  missionsof  Western  Africa,  Res..  Cape  Pahnas,  Lib.;  Shanghai, 
Res.,  Shanghai,  China  ;  Yedo,  Res.,  Yedo,  Japan.     Total  of  U.  S.  Dioceses,  49;  of  Missions,  13. 

B.— COLONIAL  AND  MISSIONAKY  SEES. 


British  North  America. — *Montreal,  Frederickton,  Nova  Scotia,  Columbia,  Ontario, 
Quebec,  ^Rupert's  I^and,  Toronto.  Huron,  Moosonee,  Algoma,  Athabasca,  Saskatchevan, 
Niagara,  and  Newfoundland. 

India. — *Calcutta,  Madras,  Bombay,  Lahore,  Colombo,  and  Labuan. 

West  Indies. — Guiana,  Jamaica,  Antigua,  Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  and  Nassau. 

China. — North  China  and  Victoria. 

Africa. — ^Capetown,  St.  Helena,  Niger,  Maritzburg,  Zululand,  Sierra  Leone,  Grahams- 
town,  Bloemfontein,  Mauritius,  KaftVaria,  Central  Africa,  and  Madagascar. 

Al'SThalasia. — *SidneY,  Adelaide,  Newcastle,  Goulburne,  Tasmania,  Nelson,  Bathurst, 
Grafton  and  Armidale,  Auckland,  Wellington,  Dunedin,  Ballarat,  Brisbane,  Melbourne,  Perth, 
and  Waiapua. 

Gibraltar  (Spain),  Falkland  Islands  (South  America),  Melanesia  (Western  Pacific),  Hono- 
lulu (Sandwich  Islands),  Hayti,  and  Jerusalem  (Palestine). 

♦  Metropolitan, 
(1092) 


^IS/dZEK^IGA.. 


Prepared  by  F.  J.  PABISCH.  Cincinnati.  O,  1S7S. 


eigDlBes 

the  See  of 

an  ArehbUhop. 

the  See  of 

a  Biahsp. 

a  Vicariute 

Apostolic. 

a  Frefectu 

d  Apostolic. 

an  Ahbacv 

" 

a  Dniversily. 

" 

a  CoUegt 

" 

seTeruI  Colleges. 

signifies  a  Theological  Semin: 
"        a  Preparatory  Semm: 

a  Miyor  Seminaiy  or  College, 

a  CoUegeandSemiiiaryoraCoUegeand  I       F 

Religious  Hoiueof  Studies  combined,  l       B 

a  Preparatory  andTheol.  Bern,  combined.  S. 

a  Catholic  Miuioa  A 


n  Imlmn  Kescr 
g  India 
J.  stands  for  Jesuit. 
F.         "  Franci§can. 

B.         "  Benedictine, 

Sulpician. 


M.  etands  for  Fathers  of  the  Mission. 

It.  "         Redemptoriat. 

Obi.         '■         Oblate  Fathers. 

Br.  "         Christian  Brothers. 

H.  Cr.      "  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Crc 

Congr.  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
Xaverian  Brothers. 
Capuchin  Fathers, 


Pr.  Bl. 


ThtfgvTtt  relative  to  Indian  Tribei  are  txplained  I'l  ihe  taiU  on  page  1091. 


"         Archblthop'i  Sm.  f/t  tlgnirr  "Orthodoi"  QrwkS* 

Bishop's  5m.  4      dgnlfia  ■  Prtl«clur«  Aposli 

P  "  Protestant  Miwioi 


UL 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Libraries 


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