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(FISH)

Hne Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Bluefish

•'-^7 ftg 1989

he bluefish, a trophy species hotly pursued by anglers due to its reputation as a champion '
battler and a voracious predator, is native to both the American and European-African
sts of the Atlantic Ocean. Along the western Atlantic it is abundant from Argent^fljvei^Ji^ Of MaSSaChUSSttS
1, and it occasionally occurs as far north as Nova Scotia. D'^OSitOrV COPV

Bluefish is something of a misnomer, as this species is most commonly a sea-green color aboveC
ing into a silvery shade on its lower sides and belly. A
e adult blue-
has a stout
'y and a large

that extends
teriorly below and
ond the eye. The
er jaw juts out
iceably. Both

upper and
er jaws are

y armed with large, conically shaped canine
th. The dorsal fin (A on diagram above) is divided

o two sections. The first section, about half as long and high as the second, has a
ies of stiff spines supporting the soft tissues of the fin. The second or posterior dorsal
is equal in length to the anal fin (B above).

Bluefish rarely exceed 20 pounds and 40 inches in length. The North American record
efish, caught in North Carolina, weighed 31 pounds 12 ounces. The Massachusens record fish,
ded at Graves Light in 1 982, weighed 27 pounds 4 ounces. The larger fish caught during a given
- generally run between 10-15 pounds. The graph on the back page shows the relationship
een the average weight and length of bluefish from 1 to 14 years of age.
Both male and female bluefish reach sexual maturity by the time they are 2 years old. The
undity (number of eggs produced) of females is related to their size, with a 21 -inch female
ducing about 900,000 eggs and a 23-inch female about 1,100,000 eggs per year.

Habits

luefish inhabit both inshore and offshore areas of coastal regions, with young-of-the-year
fish (those in the first year of life), called "snappers," often frequenting estuaries and river
uths. This species normally travels in large schools, which may contain up to several thousand
ividuals. One unusually large school sighted in Narragansett Bay in 1901 was estimated to be
ead over a 4 to 5 mile distance.

Bluefish display an annual migration pattern that is keyed to the seasonal warming and cooling
coastal waters. They begin arriving along the southern New England coast during April and
ay. The earliest catches in southern Massachusetts waters occur in mid-May, but substantial

■■■MB

University of Massachuset

Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Bluefish

TrA?.C6l989
he bluefish, a trophy species hotly pursued by anglers due to its reputation as a champion
battler and a voracious predator, is native to both the American and European- African .
coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. Along the western Atlantic it is abundant from Argent^j^jvCt^jj^ OT lvi3SS3CnUS6ttS
Cod, and it occasionally occurs as far north as Nova Scotia. O^pOSitOry COPV

Bluefish is something of a misnomer, as this species is most commonly a sea-green color above,
fading into a silvery shade on its lower sides and belly. ife^ A
The adult blue-
fish has a stout
body and a large
mouth that extends
posteriorly below and
beyond the eye. The
lower jaw juts out
noticeably. Both
the upper and
lower jaws are

fully armed with large, conically shaped canine
teeth. The dorsal fm (A on diagram above) is divided

into two sections. The first section, about half as long and high as the second, has a
series of stiff spines supporting the soft tissues of the fin. The second or posterior dorsal
fin is equal in length to the anal fm (B above).

Bluefish rarely exceed 20 pounds and 40 inches in length. The North American record
bluefish, caught in North Carolina, weighed 31 pounds 12 ounces. The Massachusetts record fish,
landed at Graves Light in 1982, weighed 27 pounds 4 ounces. The larger fish caught during a given
year generally run between 10-15 pounds. The graph on the back page shows the relationship
between the average weight and length of bluefish from 1 to 14 years of age.

Both male and female bluefish reach sexual maturity by the time they are 2 years old. The
fecundity (number of eggs produced) of females is related to their size, with a 21 -inch female
producing about 900,000 eggs and a 23-inch female about 1,100,000 eggs per year.

Habits

Bluefish inhabit both inshore and offshore areas of coastal regions, with young-of-the-year
fish (those in the first year of life), called "snappers," often frequenting estuaries and river
mouths. This species normally travels in large schools, which may contain up to several thousand
individuals. One unusually large school sighted in Narragansett Bay in 1901 was estimated to be
spread over a 4 to 5 mile distance.

Bluefish display an annual migration pattern that is keyed to the seasonal warming and cooling
of coastal waters. They begin arriving along the southern New England coast during April and
May. The earliest catches in southern Massachusetts waters occur in mid-May, but substantial

numbers of fish typically do not arrive before Memorial Day. Two- to 4-pound fish generally
arrive first in Massachusetts waters, moving into harbors and estuaries in great numbers. Larger
fish arrive somewhat later in the spring, initially inhabiting deeper waters but moving progres-
sively shoreward into shallow areas as the summer progresses. Adult bluefish largely disappear
from the coastal waters of southern New England during October as water temperatures cool to 60
degrees F. Adults may occasionally stray far southward during the winter; one bluefish tagged off
the coast of New York was recaptured in January three years later off the coast of Cuba. Although
many adult fish migrate southward in the fall, their major migratory movement appears to be
offshore toward the warmer, deep waters of the continental shelf.

Bluefish occurring between Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and New England spawn between
June and August. Spawning occurs primarily offshore, over the continental shelf when water
temperatures warm to between 64 and 72 degrees F. After hatching, larvae inhabit surface waters
and are swept along the continental shelf by prevailing currents. The number of offspring
surviving to enter the population in a given year is influenced by the circulation patterns of
currents on the continental shelf. If larvae are moved shoreward to suitable habitats, many survive;
if they are moved away from shore off the continental shelf, high mortality caused by starvation
results.

Snappers eat a variety of small-bodied animals, such as copepods, shrimp, small lobsters and
crabs, larval fish, and larval mollusks. Adult bluefish are opportunistic feeders, commonly
focusing upon schooling species such as menhaden, squid, sand eels, herring, mackerel, and
alewives, as well as scup, butterfish, and cunners.

Bluefish generally feed in schools, actively pursuing prey in tidal rips or in inshore
shallows where food is easier to catch. The feeding behavior of this species is
legendary. Bluefish are reputed to dash wildly about within schools of
prey species, biting, crippling, and killing numerous small fish that do
not get eaten. They frequently drive schools of prey species into
shallow inshore areas where it becomes easier to cripple or catch fish that
are trying to escape. Occasionally, during particularly frenzied feeding activity,
schooling fish such as menhaden will literally be driven to shore, leaving a number of fish beached
along the wave line. Although this occurs relatively infrequently, an occasional beach littered with
dead fish has given rise to the bluefish's exaggerated reputation as a vicious predator.

Management

In New England waters, the bluefish has a long history of periods of abundance
interspersed with periods of scarcity. Records from colonial times indicate that bluefish
populations collapsed from high to low densities in New England during the mid- 18th century.
Similarly, the number of bluefish was greatly reduced along the north shore of Massachusetts Bay
twice between the mid- 19th and 20th centuries. Bluefish south of Cape Cod Bay showed a pattern

of high densities prior to 1930, low densities from that time to the mid- 1940s, and a rebound to
high densities by 1950. These cycles of abundance and scarcity, typical throughout the east coast,
are greatly influenced by annual reproductive success and the survival of offspring.

In recent years, the total harvest by recreational anglers (which is typically at least 90% of the
total fishing harvest) has been reasonably stable, although a 40% decline in angler harvest occurred
from 1980 and 1984. Snapper and 1-year-old bluefish have dominated recreational catches since
1979, and fish over 8 years of age have been landed only rarely during the same time period. The
number of reproductively mature fish has declined 55% since its most recent peak in 1979,
dropping the estimated number of adults coastwide to a level similar to that of the mid-1970s. The
current fishery is being harvested at or slightly above a level that bluefish populations can sustain.
Although there are currently no angling restrictions for bluefish, the Atlantic States Marine
Fisheries Commission is developing a coastwide management plan that will help protect this
important recreational species.

Angling and Handling Tips

The greatest success in angling for snappers occurs from August through Sept-

ember. Fishing for adult bluefish generally improves through the summer as more
fish start moving into inshore areas, and extends through October, after which waters cool and
the fish migrate offshore and southward.

Snappers are caught in estuaries and bays, and adults are caught along rocky and sandy shores
and from boats. Many anglers prefer light spinning rods with a less than 8-pound test line when
fishing for snappers. When fishing for adults, the style of rod and the line strength will vary
depending upon whether one uses spinning or conventional gear to cast, troll, or drift bait. Small
swimming lures and drifted bait (silversides or sand eels) are frequently used for snapf>ers or small
adults. Anglers use a variety of plugs, sand eel-type jigs, and squid-like lures when casting or
trolling for larger adults. Pogies, mackerel, or eels are the preferred live baits. When these are not

available, many types of cut bait also do well. Wire leaders are a must when bait fishing, in order to
prevent a hooked bluefish fi-om cutting the line with its sharp teeth.

Bluefish anglers fish from boat or shore along nearly every harbor entrance, town dock, beach,
and jetty in the state. Cape Cod and the Islands (Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket), the Cape Cod
Canal (particularly Sandwich and Sagamore), the Boston Harbor Islands, Marblehead, Manches-
ter, Cape Ann up to Salisbury, Plum Island, and the mouth of the Merrimac River all attract a
large number of anglers.

As with most fish, the quality of the flesh, and thus its flavor, will be best if the bluefish is
gutted and iced as soon as possible after capture. The soft-textured bluefish flesh has a high oil
content. When concentrated, fish oils (recently discovered to be of great importance in maintain-
ing human cardiovascular health) can
create a strong flavor that is not favored
by many people. Bluefish fillets can be
marinated in acidic foods such as
vinegar, lemon or lime juices, or wine, or
they can be cooked with fresh vegetables
such as tomatoes and onions. These
methods will lighten the flavor as well as
retain the oils that confer the full health
benefits associated with eating fish.

30-

^ 20

C
u

►J

15-

Weight 0.3 1.3 2.9 4.8 7.0 9.2 11.1 12.7 13.9 15.1 16.1 16.8 17.7
m Lbs.

Age 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 10 11 12 13

Michael R. Ross
Department of Forestry
and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

Supported by Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act, through the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of
Fisheries, Wildlife, and Environmental Law Enforcement, Executive Office of Environmental Affairs.

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Lewando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60: 12/87-lOM

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries >/

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Black Sea Bass

The black sea bass occurs along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from Cape Cod to
Florida, reaching greatest abundance between the Capes of New Jersey and North
Carolina. This species generally does not occur in the Gulf of Maine, but it is an important
groundfish west and south of Cape Cod.

Black sea bass are fairly stout-bodied fish, with a long dorsal fm (marked A on diagram^]^
large pectoral (B) and pelvic fins (C). The rounded tail sometimes has a
long streamer trailing out from the top edge. Each gill cover (D)
has a flat spine near the outer edge.
Mature males have a fleshy dorsal
hump just anterior to
the dorsal fin.

The background
color of black sea bass
(smokey gray, brown,
or bluish black) is
mottled with darker
patches and light speckles.
The belly is only shghtiy lighter than the
sides. The dorsal fin is marked with whitish

mottling, while all the other fins have dark spots. Young sea bass are green
or brown with a dark lateral stripe ruiming from the head to the tail.

The largest black sea bass caught by an angler in Massachusetts waters
weighed 8 pounds. However, most adults do not exceed 1.5 pounds. A 12-inch
fish generally weighs 1 pound, while an 18- to 20-inch fish weighs about 3 pounds.

The black sea bass has an unusual life cycle: most individuals are hermaphroditic, reproducing
both as a female and a male at some time in their lives. Although some fish are males from the time
they reach sexual maturity, most produce eggs when they first mature. At some subsequent point
the ovary tissues in these fish become non-functional, while at the same time testes commence
production of sperm. The age at which individuals "switch" from female to male is variable,
although most fish have done so before they are 8 years old. In heavily exploited populations in
which larger, older males are selectively harvested, the resulting dearth of males causes females to
change sex at a younger age and smaller size than would be the case in populations less depleted by
fishing. The effects of reduced abundance of males and reduced average size of females on the
reproductive capacity of sea bass populations is not yet understood.

ot ^Aassachusetts
'itorv Copy

Habits

Black sea bass generally overwinter at depths of from 240 to more than 600 feet, with fish
inhabiting deeper waters in the New Jersey-New York region than in the mid-Atlantic
region to the south. Few fish occur north of Cape May (New Jersey) in the winter, although some

are known to travel extensively between Nantucket Shoals and Cape Hatteras at depths to nearly
1100 feet. In the spring this species displays a general northward and inshore movement,
expanding its range as far north as Cape Cod from May to October. During the summer, adult sea
bass gather around rocky bottoms, sunken wrecks, old pilings, and wharves. At this time of year
they are most abundant at depths of less than 120 feet. Young-of-the-year and yearlings tend to
summer in estuaries, which are critically important nursery grounds for this species. In southern
Massachusetts, young-of-the-year start to enter estuaries in August and move offshore to depths of
from 180 to 360 feet during the fall. The largest adults in southern New England tend to begin their
annual offshore and southerly migration as early as August, while juveniles and smaller adults
migrate later in the fall.

Black sea bass reproduce from February to July, with the spawning season starting earliest in
the southern portion of their range and progressing northward as spring passes. Off the southern
New England coast, they reproduce from mid-May until the end of June. The eggs are buoyant,
floating in the water column until they hatch 1 Vi to 5 days after fertilization. The larvae drift in
bays, inlets, and offshore areas; they become bottom-dwelling when they have grown to about '/a
inch in length.

Juvenile and adult black sea bass feed upon a variety of benthic (bottom-dwelling) inverte-
brates such as rock crabs, hermit crabs, squids, and razor clams.

he abundance of black sea bass along the East Coast has been declining for over three

^ decades. Funhermore, the average size fish harvested both commercially and recreation-
ally has been decreasing since about 1950, indicating that larger, older fish have become increas-
ingly scarce.

Commercial harvests have been based upon otter trawl and wooden pot (similar to a lobster
trap) fisheries. Annual landings from trawlers are typically greatest from September to March,
when black sea bass are distributed more offshore than in summer months. The total annual catch
from trawl fisheries peaked in the early 1950s. Yearly landings for the entire mid- Atlantic region
peaked at nearly 21,000,000 pounds in 1952, and then plummeted to less than 5% of that level by

Pots are fished from spring through late fall, enabling fishermen to harvest sea bass in areas
where rugged underwater terrain makes trawling ineffective. Pot fisheries developed rapidly along
much of the East Coast in the 1950s. After an initial period of annual increases in harvest, pot
fisheries have usually declined fairly rapidly even when the number of pots fished continued to
increase. Data from the New York State pot fishery clearly exhibit this trend. In 1961, a total of 400
pots harvested 77,000 pounds of black sea bass in New York's waters. In 1965, a five-fold increase
in the number of pots fished produced only 2.4 times as great a catch. By 1967, over 40 times as
many pots produced a catch that was 17% smaller than in 1961, and by 1971 catch levels were 37%

Management

1970.

lower than in 1961 . The pot fishery off Massachusetts developed more recently than in other more
southerly waters, but has been expanding rapidly over the last five years, particularly in Nantucket
Sound. This expansion has caused increasing concern over issues of overharvest and gear conflict
in Massachusetts waters.

The recreational fishery has added to the decline in population abundance along the Atlantic
Coast. In 1965 over half of the total catch of black sea bass was credited to recreational fishing. One
survey indicated that, by 1970, the recreational catch was at least several times as great as the
commercial harvest. Angling pressure has increased markedly in recent years. In the north
Atlantic region, including Cape Cod, recreational harvest increased nearly 500 percent between
198 1 and 1 986. Over the same time period, recreational harvest increased about 1400 percent in the
mid- Atlantic region. From Cape Hatteras to Nova Scotia, harvest increased from 8,100,000 to
31,200,000 fish between 1985 and 1986; in 1986, the black sea bass ranked second to scup in
numbers harvested recreationally in that geographic area. As with the commercial fisheries, the
average size of fish caught by anglers has decreased in recent years. The average size black sea bass
caught in 1986 was 9 to 10 inches in length.

The expansion in both the pot fishery and the level of recreational harvest in recent years led
the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries to establish a minimum legal size limit (12 inches
in 1987) to protect this valuable fishery in Massachusetts waters.

Angling and Handling Tips

When many anglers hear someone mention "bass," they often think first of stripers or
freshwater black bass. Yet the black sea bass provides a fight and a flavor that attract a
strong angler following. Long known by commercial fishermen as "rock bass," this species also
carries the somewhat endearing name of "old
humpback," due to the enlarged area above the
head that is characteristic of many old males

The best time to fish for black sea
bass is from May through summer,
when they are closest to shore
Any underwater structures,
such as those associated with
wrecks, jetties, and piers,
will attract this species.

Although they can be
found from near
shore to depths
of about 120
feet, the

largest males tend to be found in deeper waters within this depth range.

The black sea bass is predominantly a bottom-feeder, although it will occasionally strike at
plugs, jigs, or lures. Thus, bait fishing with strips of squid or fish is the most productive method.
The most commonly caught fish weigh from V2 to 2 pounds. You can receive the greatest
enjoyment when catching fish in this size range by using a medium-weight spinning outfit with
8-pound test line. Although a sea bass has a large mouth, use a #2 bait-holder hook tied above a
small sinker; this fish normally hesitates to grab bait strung on large cod hooks.

The firm, white flesh of this species is a favorite of many. Bass are easy to fillet, especially when
chilled, and yield a thick slice of meat. Some fillets are thick enough to slice lengthwise or to cut
into nuggets for frying. Larger fish can be cut into steaks and cooked like striped bass. In
restaurants, black sea bass are often offered as "squirrel fish," and Chinese restaurants will serve
delicious whole deep-fried bass as "Hunan fish."

Try broiling black sea bass fillets. When broiling, fold under the thin section from the tail area
to allow more even cooking. Place the fish in a greased pan, sprinkle with fresh ground pepper and
paprika, and dot with butter or olive oil. Broil 5 to 6 minutes on each side, depending upon
thickness, until the fillets are golden-brown. Be careful not to cook too long, as the fillets will dry
and become somewhat leathery.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Striped Bass

The striped bass, or "striper," one of the most avidly pursued of all coastal sport fish, is native to
most of the East Coast, ranging from the lower St. Lawrence River in Canada to northern
Florida, and along portions of the Gulf of Mexico. The striped bass has been prized in Massachusetts
since colonial times. In 1 670, Plymouth Colony established a free school with income from co
bass fisheries. Thus, one of the first public schools in America was supported by this hi
resource. The unique angling qualities of this trophy species and its adaptabil-
ity to freshwater environments have led to a major North
American range expansion within the last 100 years.
A valuable fishery has
been created on the
West Coast and inland
fisheries have been devel
oped in 31 states by
stocking the striped
bass into lakes and
reservoirs.

Several character-
istics distinguish the striper from other fish found
in coastal Massachusetts waters. The striped bass

has a large mouth, with jaws extending backward to below the eye. It has
two prominent spines on the gill covers (A on diagram). The first (most anterior) of
its two well-developed and separated dorsal fins (B) possesses a series of sharp, stiff-
ened spines. The anal fin (C), with its three sharp spines, is about as long as the poste-
rior dorsal fin. The striper's upper body is bluish to dark olive, and its sides and belly are silvery. Seven or
eight narrow stripes extending lengthwise from the back of the head to the base of the tail form the most
easily recognized characteristic of this species.

Striped bass can live up to 40 years and can reach weights greater than 100 pounds, although
individuals larger than 50 pounds are rare. The all-tackle angling record fish, taken in New Jersey in 1972,
weighed 78 '/2 pounds and measured 72 inches long. The Massachusetts record of 73 pounds has been
equalled on three occasions, the most recent of which was at Nauset Beach in 1981. The following table
lists average lengths and weights of striped bass at selected ages; the fish were collected in the Chesapeake
Bay and Albermarle Sound (North Carolina) regions.

Females reach significantly greater sizes than do males; most stripers over 30 pounds are female.
Thus, the term "bulls," originally coined to describe extremely large individuals, has been more

accurately changed to "cows" in recent times.

uea

Age

Length in Inches

Weight in Lbs.

in Years

female male

female

18.5 17.0

3.0

29.3 26.5

7.2

40.2 34.3

20.0

45.9 42.8

42.0

The number of eggs produced by a female
striped bass is directly related to the size of its
body; a 12 -pound female may produce about
850,000 eggs, and a 55 -pound female about
4,200,000 eggs. Although males reach sexual
maturity at two or three years of age, no females
mature before the age of four, and some not until
the age of six. The size of females at sexual matu-
rity has been used as a criterion for establishing minimum legal size limit regulations in recent years.

:chusetts

Habits

Striped bass are rarely found more than several miles from the shoreline. Anglers usually catch
stripers in river mouths, in small, shallow bays and estuaries, and along rocky shorelines and
sandy beaches. The striped bass is a schooling species, moving about in small groups during the first two
years of life, and thereafter feeding and migrating in large schools. Only females exceeding 30 pounds
show any tendency to be solitary.

Schools of striped bass less than three years of age (sometimes called "schoolies" by anglers)
occasionally travel far upstream into rivers such as the Hudson, Connecticut, and Merrimac. Although
adult striped bass move into rivers to reproduce, fish less than three years old probably make such
journeys to take advantage of a river's abundant food resources.

Striped bass normally do not migrate during the first two years of life. However, adult stripers
generally migrate northward in the spring and summer months and return south in the fall. Individuals
that hatch in the Hudson River generally do not migrate beyond Cape Cod to the north and Cape May to
the south. Fish hatched in the Chesapeake Bay exhibit more extensive migrations, some being captured as
far north as the Bay of Fundy in coastal Canada.

Stripers are strictly spring to fall transients in Massachusetts. Only a few fish inhabiting coastal
Massachusetts waters in the summer have been known to overwinter in the mouths of southern New
England streams. Some stripers frequenting coastal Massachusetts in the summer will overwinter in the
mouth of the Hudson River, while many spend winter along the New Jersey coast or in the Delaware and
Chesapeake Bays.

Stripers reproduce in rivers and the brackish areas of estuaries. Spawning occurs from the spring to
early summer, with the greatest activity occurring when the water warms to about 65 degrees F. The eggs
drift in currents until they hatch 1 V2 to 3 days after being fertilized. Because newly hatched larvae are
nearly helpless, striped bass suffer their highest rate of natural mortality during the several weeks after
hatching.

The major spawning activity for the entire East Coast fishery occurs in the Hudson River, the
Chesapeake Bay, and the Roanoke River-Albermarle Sound watershed. Striped bass are most abundant
in the New England and mid-Atlantic states following years when reproduction in the Chesapeake Bay
has been particularly successful, suggesting that much of the East Coast is strongly dependent upon the
success of spawning in that one watershed.

Striped bass eat a variety of foods, including fish such as alewives, flounder, sea herring, menhaden,
mummichogs, sand lance, silver hake, tomcod, smelt, silversides, and eels, as well as lobsters, crabs, soft
clams, small mussels, annelids (sea worms), and squid. They feed most actively at dusk and dawn,
although some feeding occurs throughout the day. During midsummer they tend to become more
nocturnal. Stripers are particularly active in areas with tidal and current flows and in the wash of breaking
waves along the shore, where fish, crabs, and clams become easy prey as they are tossed about in the
turbulent water.

Management

Striped bass populations have a history of periods of abundance interspersed with periods of
scarcity. A major coast-wide reduction in abundance occurred at the end of the 19th century. No
catches of stripers were reported north of Boston for 30 years after 1897. Populations had recovered
somewhat by 1921, and an unusually successful year of reproduction in 1934 was followed by 6 years of
markedly increased abundance. Great numbers of juvenile fish were recorded in Massachusetts waters in
the mid- 1940s, and high numbers of increasingly larger individuals followed for a period of years. Such
information suggests that striped bass populations are dominated for extended periods by fish hatched

28-

14-

7 -

Annual Reproductive Success of the Striped Bass
in Chesapeake Bay, Measured as the Number of Juvenile
Fish Caught per Seine Haul During Survey Collections.

1954

1962

1970
Year

1978

1986

during occasional years of unusually successful reproduction. Also, a year of successful reproduction is
often followed by a series of years when spawning fails or is so limited in success that relatively few new
fish enter the population. The last peak year of reproductive success in the Chesapeake Bay was 1970
(note figure). Levels of reproduction have been consistently low since then; 1 982 represents the only year

in this decade in which even modest numbers of juve-
niles have been produced. Thus, most of the bass har-
vested in the last ten years have come from the spawn-
ing effort of 1970. The recent extremely prolonged
period of reproductive failure has caused a steady
decline in striped bass abundance. This decline has
been reflected in decreasing success by anglers. For
example, the estimated catch by anglers from the Gulf
of Maine to the mid- Atlantic region fell from 6,600,000
pounds in 1979 to 1,700,000 pounds in 1985.

The decline in the abundance of stripers coming
from the Chesapeake Bay is felt to be caused by a
combination of factors, including the presence of a
variety of pollutants in spawning grounds, fishing pres-
sure, and feeding and nutritional problems of larvae.

A rapidly changing management plan has been
developed in response to the severely depleted status of
the striped bass. Prior to the mid-1970s, management
of striped bass was carried out more or less indepen-
dently by each coastal state. In 1979, Congress
amended the Anadromous Fish Act to create the Emer-
gency Striped Bass Study Program. In 1981, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
(ASMFC) adopted a coastwide management plan, to be acted upon by each coastal state. This plan
recommended minimum size limits for fish caught in nursery rivers and in coastal areas, and restricted
fishing on spawning grounds during the spawning season. In response to constantly dwindling numbers
of stripers on the East Coast, this plan was amended in 1 984 to reduce the number offish harvested by an
additional 50%, and further amended in 1985 to protect females hatched in
1982 until they have spawned at least once. This last amendment pro-
posed a minimum size limit of 33 inches for the fall of
1987, which corresponds to the size at which most
females have reached sexual maturity. In
cooperation with this amended coast
wide plan, the Massachusetts Divi
sion of Marine Fisheries estab
lished closed seasons to
commercial harvest and a
one fish per day recrea-
tional catch and posses-
sion limit in 1984, and

increased the minimum legal size limit to 33 inches for 1987.
Congress recently extended the Atlantic Striped Bass Conserva-
tion Act, which requires all coastal states to abide by provisions
of the amended ASMFC
Management Plan.

Meanwhile, a new management plan currently in preparation is to become effective when striped bass
populations are restored to more desirable levels. Unlike the existing plan, which can only effect changes
through a lengthy amendment process, the new plan is expected to identify a range of management
options that can be considered as changing population levels dictate.

I he striped bass is so highly prized for its size, battle on the line, and culinary merit, that many
anglers consider it the premier game fish in Massachusetts. This species can be found
from May to November along the entire Massachusetts coastline. Angling at dusk or dawn provides the
greatest success during most of the season, but night fishing is often best during the midsummer
"doldrums." Anglers are most successful when fishing the shoreline in areas where tidal rips, strong
currents, or wave action create turbulent, "live" water.

Some anglers who ply the beaches with swimming plugs and live eels, prefer the 10- to 12-foot surf
rod and conventional reel spooled with 30- to 40-pound line. However, a medium to heavy spinning rod
with 12- to 20-pound test line is considered ideal by many anglers for plugging, jigging, or offering
bottom-fished baits to bass. Lures are attached directly to the line with a snap swivel. When bait fishing,
the preferred rig consists of a pyramid sinker attached as a fish finder, and a long leader with a brightly
colored float attached close to the hook. The float keeps the bait away from bottom-dwelling crabs and
skates.

Live lining of "herring," menhaden (pogies), or mackerel can be a very productive means of taking
large bass. A fairly stiff boat rod with a conventional reel is the preferred rig. Bait fish are hooked through
the back or snout using either a single or treble hook.

When trolling for bass adjacent to shoreline areas, the rod should be equipped with a high-ratio
conventional reel and carboloy guides to prevent line wear. By choosing among monofilament, lead-core
or wire lines, depths from the surface to the bottom can be trolled. Many lures, including swimming
plugs, jigs, tubes, and umbrella rigs — as well as live herring and menhaden — lend themselves well to
trolling for stripers.

Large bass can be steaked, then baked, broiled or grilled. If steaks are cut particularly thick, they can
be stuffed with slices of bacon, onions, tomatoes, green peppers, parsley, apples, and even cranberries,
and spiced to taste. Place the lightly-floured fish in a foiled baking dish, add one cup of mild red wine and
bake at 400 degrees until the flesh flakes.

Michael R. Ross Robert C. Biagi

Department of Forestr>' and Wildlife Management Cooperative Extension

University of Massachusetts University of Massachusetts

Angling and Handling Tips

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension •

Cooperati

Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Atlantic Cod

erhaps more than any other member of Massachusetts' rich array of natural resources, the
Atlantic cod is recognized as a symbol of the Commonwealth's natural heritapp^j^.This.
species, so entwined in the early history of settlement of coastal Massachusetts
that a model (referred to as the "Sacred Cod") hangs in the statehouse, is native
to most of the North Atlantic Ocean. In the northwest Atlantic it
inhabits waters from western Greenland south to Cape
Hatteras, North Carolina, and is most abun-
dant from the coast of
northern Labrador to the
Nantucket Shoals region
off Massachusetts.

Cod are easily dis-
tinguished from most other marine fish by
their three rounded dorsal fins (A on diagram above)
and two anal fins (B above) that are mirror images of the

second and third dorsals. They also have a prominent barbel ("whisker") on the chin.

Cod lack the large dark blotch on the side that is characteristic of the closely related haddock.
The square or indented outline of the cod's tail differs from the rounded tail of the tomcod. The
cod also lacks the slender, elongate extensions of the pelvic fins (fins marked C above) characteris-
tic of the tomcod.

Individuals vary widely in color. Most cod are grayish green to reddish brown on their backs
and sides, and white on their bellies. They are speckled on the upper portion of their bodies, the
sides of their heads, and their fins and tails. The lateral line (D above), a series of pores that allows
fish to detect disturbances in the water, is conspicuously lighter than the dark sides of the body.

Cod occasionally reach lengths in excess of 5 to 6 feet. The heaviest fish on record, caught off
the Massachusetts coast by a commercial vessel, weighed over 200 pounds. The Massachusetts
angling record was set by a fish weighing 85 pounds 10 ounces, boated on Jeffries Ledge in 1984. In
recent years, harvested cod very rarely weigh more than 100 pounds, with 50- to 60-pound fish
normally the largest sizes taken. Offshore cod tend to be larger than inshore ones, the former
frequently reaching sizes of 25 pounds and 40 to 42 inches in length while the latter usually weigh 6
to 12 pounds and measure 27 to 34 inches in length. One-year-old fish are typically 7 to 12,
2-year-olds 14 to 17, and 3-year-olds 19 to 22 inches in length.

Both sexes usually reproduce for the first time when 5 or 6 years old. The fecundity (number of
eggs produced in a given year) of females increases with size and age. A 40-inch female may lay
about 3 million eggs, and a 50-inch female up to 9 million eggs in one spawning season.

f '.A:? C S 1989

university of Massachusetts
Dapository Copy

Habits

Atlantic cod live in a variety- of habitats but generally are found at depths of 200 to 360 feet
and in temperatures ranging from 34 to 46 degrees F in the summer, and at depths of 295
to 440 feet and in temperatures of 36 to 39 degrees F in the winter. They seldom are found deeper
than 660 feet.

Cod undergo seasonal migrations in the more northerly and southerly reaches of their range in
the northwest Atlantic. Those fish inhabiting polar waters in the summer and autumn migrate to
more southerly and deeper waters in winter and spring, while fish summering in the Nantucket
Shoals region overwinter along the New Jersey coast. Fish inhabiting the region between coastal
Nova Scotia and Cape Cod do not exhibit predictable seasonal migrations. Some move consider-
able distances in search of food or in response to overcrowding at certain spawning grounds, but
generally adults in our region remain within limited areas of uniform physical conditions. Cod do
not swim about in large schools, but they do travel in small groups when searching for food.

The cod is a winter spawner. It reproduces from November to December along the

coast of southern New En-
to 350 feet, with the greatest
activity occurring in about
200 feet of water. Adults
inhabiting inshore areas
generally move offshore to
reproduce.

Larvae measuring
about 0.2 inches hatch from 10 to 40 days
after spawning, depending upon water tem-
peratures. The larvae inhabit the open water column feeding
upon microscopic copepods for 2 to 3 months after hatching.
Then they move to the bottom where they hide and feed among
rocks and algae until they are large enough to swim away from
predators.

The smaller bottom-dwelling cod feed mainly upon small crustaceans such as
shrimp and amphipods. Adults will eat almost anything small enough to fit into
their mouths, including clams, cockles, mussels, and other moUusks, as well as crabs, lobsters, and
sea urchins. Adults also pursue schooling fish, eating substantial numbers of herring, capelin,
shad, mackerel, silver hake, young haddock, and other species. Voraciously pursuing a variety of
potential food, cod will occasionally dine upon some ver\' exotic items; ducks, shoes, jewelry, and
rope have been found in the stomachs of captured cod.

Young cod are eaten by many species offish, including pollock and larger cod. Once juvenile
cod grow to about 8 inches, they can effectively swim away from many of their potential predators.
Adult cod occasionally fall prey to spiny dogfish and sharks.

Management

The cod has been an extremely valuable resource for several centuries in Massachusetts. Its
extensive use as a food dates back to the earliest period of European settlement in coastal
New England. In colonial times, it was deemed so important that in 1639 the General Court of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony ordered that cod could no longer be used as fertilizer by farmers. This
action was one of the first recorded attempts at natural resource conservation and management on
this continent.

Although one of the earliest fisheries resources to be broadly utilized after European settle-
ment in New England, cod populations along the U.S. coast proved to be very resilient. Cod
apparently withstood more than 3 centuries of harvest without displaying major, long-term
reductions in abundance. However, mid-twentieth century advances in fishing technology and the
introduction into the northwest Atlantic of distant-water foreign fishing fleets during the late
1950s led to a period of reduced abundance and major annual fluctuations in population size.
During the mid-1980s commercial vessels captured mostly 3-to-5 year-old fish, indicating that few
larger, older individuals remain along the North American coast.

Recreational harvest constitutes a modest portion of the total cod landed. From 1979 to 1984,
recreational harvest averaged about 13% of the total cod harvest in the Gulf of Maine, and about
10% on Georges Bank and areas to the south.

Cod harvest in the Fishery Conservation Zone (FCZ; 3 miles to 200 miles from the shoreline)
falls under the Northeast Multispecies Fishery Management Plan of the New England Fisheries
Management Council. Regulations under this plan include minimum legal size limits for commer-
cial and recreational harvest (17 inches for the latter), area closures, and mesh size regulations for
commercial trawl nets. In Massachusetts territorial waters, the Massachusetts Division of Marine
Fisheries has established minimum legal size limits (15 inches for recreational fishing and 19
inches for commercial fishing for 1987) to protect the spawning potential of cod populations. In the
fall of 1987, a proposal was under consideration to increase the minimum size limit for the
recreational fishery in inshore areas to 17 inches in order to standardize regulations with those in
the FCZ.

Angling and Handling Tips

Many anglers fish for cod on offshore grounds in private or party boats. A IVi- to 9-foot
medium to stiff rod with a conventional 4/0 reel is required when pursuing this species
offshore. The reel should be spooled with 50-pound test dacron line. Many of the most successful
anglers use jigs with teasers. Ten- to 20-ounce Vike or Norwegian-style jigs are popular; some
anglers prefer to replace the treble hook on such lures with a 10/0 or larger hook that has a red
surge tube over the shank. Jigs should be tied to a monofilament leader fastened to the rod's line by
a black swivel. The lure is completed by attaching a red, green, black, or white tube teaser worm on

a large 8/0 hook to the swivel. Such a rigging resembles a large fish chasing smaller bait fish, an
effect that causes many fish to strike at the teaser being "chased" by the jig.

Although jigs produce big fish, bait also brings good luck to the angler. When rigging for bait,
attach a 10- to 20-ounce sinker to a 3- way swivel using line that is lighter than that on the reel; if the
sinker snags the bottom, all of the rig except the sinker can be recovered. Eighteen inches of
80-pound test monofilament with one or two 4/0 or 5/0 snelled Sproat hooks tied along its length
should be attached to the second swivel leg. A commercial "Scotsman" or double-hook cod rig can
be substituted for the homemade rig. Sand eels, mackerel, strips of herring and other fish, or crabs
can be used as bait. However, a large piece of clam with its entrails trailing from the hook is the
favored bait of many anglers. Clam hunks should be replaced when they turn pale.

In the early spring as water temperatures are beginning to rise, cod can be fished along the
shoreline during early morning or from late evening until night. Typical gear includes a rod and
reel with 1 5- to 20-pound test line rigged with a 2-ounce or larger pyramid sinker on a fish finder.
Sea worms or clams on 3/0 hooks are used as bait.

Cod should be iced after capture to retain their delicate flavor; if they are iced in a large cooler,
the melt water should be drained occasionally so the fish do not soak in warming water.

The white, flaky meat of cod has traditionally been Massachusetts' equivalent to "a chicken in
every pot." This flavorful fish can be baked, broiled, boiled/poached, fried, made into cakes or
chowder, or salted for long-term storage without loss of flavor or nutrition. The roe (eggs),
tongues, and especially cheeks are considered delicacies by many. Poaching is nearly universally
enjoyed as a method of cooking this species. To poach, add cod fillets or steaks and slices of lemon
to rapidly boiling, lightly salted water. When the water resumes boiling, remove the pot from the
stove and let it stand for 5 to 10 minutes until the meat flakes. Drain and cover with a sauce or add
melted butter or margarine. For an excellent baked dish, stuff a cod with a "hot" breakfast sausage
roll mixed with Italian-flavored bread crumbs or mashed potatoes. Bake at 350 degrees until the
cod flakes.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe Robert C. Biagi

Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Cooperative Extension

University of Massachusetts University of Massachusetts

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Lezvando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60:12/87-10M

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

V/' ,.,

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Cunner

'■'••CSI989

The cunner, a ubiquitous little species occurring all along the Massachusetts coastline, is
native to the northwest Atlantic from Newfoundland to the Capes of New Jersey and
occasionally to the Chesapeake Bay. It is most abundant within the Massachusetts Bay region.

The cunner is distinctive in appearance, differing markedly from most other species of fish
caught by anglers in Massachusetts waters. This species has a small mouth containing several rows

of jaw teeth which are arranged in a manner unil/6rS/fl^ nf k/t I

that gives the fish a "buck-toothed" ...^^^^IssiiaM^ DdDO^ f ^^^^^^^Sett<^

appearance. The /^^h^ rU^ilOjy Qgpy I

cunner has a single, «. *• . \

long dorsal fin (A on
diagram), the ante-
rior three-quarters of
which possesses a
series of about 18
sharp spines. The
pectoral fins (B), pel-
vic fins (C), and tail are rounded in out-
line. The roof of the mouth and floor of the
throat each contain a patch of knoblike teeth

that are used for grinding food. The cunner is similar to the closely-
related tautog, but differs from this species in having a slimmer body, a
more pointed snout, and noticeably thinner lips.

The color of the cunner is as variable as the wide number of background colors found in the
habitats in which it lives. For example, fish caught among red seaweeds tend to display reddish or
rust-colored tones, those found on mud bottoms are often dark sepia, those on sandy substrates are
pale brown speckled with black dots, and those taken from deep waters may be a rich red. Any of
these colors may have a striking bluish iridescence or be mingled together in a mottled pattern.

Cunner may reach a maximum size of 3 pounds and 15 to 17 inches in length. However, most
fish are 6 to 10 inches long and weigh less than one pound, and few individuals exceed 12 inches in
length. One-year-old fish are generally 2 inches, 3-year-olds 5 to 6 inches, and 6-year-olds about 8
to 10 inches in length. Males and females become sexually mature by the age of 2.

Habits

Cunner inhabit very shallow inshore waters from the tide mark downward in the northern
part of their range, but tend to be found at depths of at least 1 5 to 20 feet south of New
York. Cunner often move up into the larger salt creeks of estuaries. They generally remain within 5
or 6 miles of shore throughout their range, although occasional fish have been collected in the
shallow areas of Georges Bank. Cunner do not form into schools; they are found on the bottom
alone or in small groups, resting or swimming slowly among the eelgrass and rocks.

The cunner tends to be a year-round resident of Massachusetts waters, exhibiting no migra-
tions to other regions regardless of season. However, this species may move to deeper waters
during periods in the summer and winter in order to escape drastic and rapid temperature changes
occurring in shoreline areas. The cunner is rarely found in waters over 70 degrees F.

Cunner in the Massachusetts Bay region reproduce within 2 miles of shore from late spring
through September. Peak spawning activity usually occurs during late May and early June. The
buoyant cunner eggs hatch IVi to 3 days after fertilization, depending upon water temperature.
The tiny larvae begin feeding on microscopic copepods as soon as their yolk sacs are absorbed and
their teeth are developed.

Juvenile and adult cunner feed actively throughout daylight hours, eating many species of
invertebrates including amphipods, isopods, shrimp, small lobsters and crabs, worms, mussels,
barnacles, and small clams. Hard-shelled foods such as mussels and clams are crushed by the
cunner's powerful jaws and sharp teeth. Small fish such as silversides, sticklebacks, and mummi-
chogs normally form only a modest proportion of the cunner's diet.

Cunner are eaten by a variety of fish species, including sculpin, tomcod, and skates. Night
herons and other fish-eating birds catch younger cunner in shallow bays and estuaries.

he cunner was a favored "pan fish" in the 19th Century. During the 1870s, small boats

^ fishing out of Boston harvested up to 300,000 pounds of cunner annually. At the turn of
the 20th Century, Maine reported annual harvests of 1 50,000 to over 280,000 pounds. Due in part
to a reduction in market interest, commercial harvests dropped dramatically shortly after 1900;
only 10,000 pounds were harvested along the entire Massachusetts coastline by 1919.

Cunner have retained an identity as a recreational species due to their availability and almost
pesky nature in striking baits intended for other species. Although most are caught incidentally
and released due to their small size, cunner remain a favorite of youthful anglers who are looking
for constant action and are unconcerned about the size of the fish that provides it.

he cunner is noted for the quickness with which it cleans bait from the hook. Thus, the best

iA. way to catch this pesky little bait stealer is to use the toughest-textured bait you can find.
Small strips of squid or conch are popular baits. These should be attached to a small hook with
minimal weight tied to the line. Large sinkers will mask the tug produced by cunner grabbing at a
baited hook. The line should be held in the fingers in order to feel the light taps produced when the
bait is grabbed. Since cunner are small, the hook should be set with moderate force; too great a tug

Management

Angling and Handling Tips

will lose the fish. Anglers catch the most fish and get the best battle out of this feisty species by
using an ultra-light spinning outfit with 4-pound test line.

Early records indicate that hook-and-line captured cunner occasionally reached up to several
pounds. However, most individuals landed will weigh less than Vi pound and measure no more
than 10 inches in length. The size of the cunner was not viewed as a drawback by the 1 9th century
cook who could fit several cunner into a single pan and cook them simultaneously. Consumer
preference today has turned from pan fish to larger-bodied species with thick fillets. However, the
cunner offers flavorful, lean, white flesh to those with the patience needed to clean it.

If you plan to prepare whole, "dressed" fish, you need to scale the cunner. Scaling is easily
accomplished with a commercial scaler, a dull knife, or even the edge of a spoon. After scaling,
make a cut completely through the fish, starting behind the gills and moving to the vent. This will
allow you to remove the head, gills, and most of the gut with a single cut. Whole, cleaned fish are
best when fried or baked with appropriate seasoning. After cooking, fins and bones will easily pull
away from the flesh.

With patience, cunner can also be filleted. Fried or baked fillets that have been dipped in a beer
batter is a dining favorite of many. To make a beer batter, mix 1 or 2 eggs, V^ to 1 cup of beer or ale
(the amount determines the thickness of the batter when cooked), one cup of flour (or a cup of
pancake mix), and a teaspoon of baking powder (leave out the baking powder if using pancake
mix). Add salt and pepper to taste.

Remember, if you are fishing in the future for big fish and are being harassed by this little bait
stealer, you have 3 choices. You can switch to artificial lures, move to another spot, or catch enough
of these avaricious creatures to make an excellent meal.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Lewando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United Stales Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60:12/87-10M

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts CcKJperative E

perative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

''llllnHl

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Summer Flounder

<50V£R;;,.; f.,

The summer flounder, or "fluke," a flatfish noted for its fighting ability and flavor, is found ^^'^L^Ci i Ci ^
in coastal waters from the southern Gulf of Maine to Florida. Important recreational and i ' ■»
commercial fisheries for this species occur from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. ' ' • ^ v 5 1989

Like other species of flatfish, the fluke has both eyes on one side of its head and rests fift.the .j.
ocean floor on its side (refer to the bulletin on win- ^>j*y?%^^^^^^;5^W, UilluerSky Of MaSSaCh|JSett<;

ter flounder in this series for a more detailed jj0^^^W4^^^^^^^<f^ t'SPOSltOry CODV

description of this adaptation). The fluke -t/^M/MiiAi^t^MMmW/M}^/^ rj
is called a left-handed flatfish
because its eyes are on the upper
surface of the head when the
fish is facing left. This spe-
cies has a very large
mouth that extends below
and beyond its eyes. The
left-handed windowpane
flounder differs from the
summer flounder in having a much
rounder body; in addition, the anterior
rays in the dorsal fin (the dorsal fin of the
fluke is marked A) of the windowpane are branched,
forming a conspicuous fringe, and the posterior outline of
the tail is rounded. The physically similar fourspot flounder differs from
the fluke in having four large dark spots encircled by faint pinkish rings on its body.

Summer flounder are called the chameleons of the sea because of their ability to change color
to match the bottom on which they are found. Generally they are white below and darker above,
but they can turn various shades of gray, blue, green -orange, and almost black. The upper part of
the fluke's body is marked with scattered spots that are darker than the general body color.

The angling record for summer flounder in Massachusetts is 21 pounds 8 ounces. Although
the largest fluke may weigh up to 26 pounds, the average adult weighs 2 to 5 pounds and measures
17 to 25 inches long. A 15- to 16-inch fish (which is only 2 to 3 years old) weighs about 1 to 1 V\
pounds, a 20-inch fish about 3 to V/i pounds, a 30-inch fish 10 pounds, and a 37-inch fish 20
pounds. Females may live up to 20 years and weigh more than 20 pounds, while males rarely
exceed 7 years of age and 3 to 5 pounds in weight.

Both males and females become sexually mature at the age of 3. The fecundity (number of eggs
produced in a single spawning season) of females increases with size and weight. A 14-inch female
produces about 460,000, and a 27-inch female about 4,200,000, eggs in a season.

Habits

Summer flounder inhabit inshore areas of Massachusetts during the warmer periods of the
year. Fluke prefer eelgrass beds and wharf pihngs because of the protection they offer.
When threatened, they quickly bury all but their beady eyes in the sand or escape at surprisingly
high speeds. In the summer, small and medium-sized adults are found on the sandy and muddy
bottoms of bays, harbors, and along the open coastline. Most of the larger fish tend to stay in
somewhat deeper water (50 to 60 feet). With the approach of fall, summer flounder migrate to
more offshore waters in depths from 150 to more than 500 feet.

Reproduction takes place in the fall, as soon as the fish begin migrating to wintering grounds.
Peak spawning activity occurs from early September through early November in water tempera-
tures of 53 to 66 degrees F and at depths of 60 to 160 feet. The center of spawning activity occurs off
the coasts of New York and New Jersey, with less concentrated activity occurring in southern New
England waters.

The eggs float in the water column, hatching 72 to 75 hours after being laid. After hatching, the
larvae are carried into bays and estuaries where they will spend the early portion of their lives.
Autumn water-circulation patterns in southern New England tend to distribute surviving larval
fish southward along the coast, resulting in the virtual absence of young summer flounder in
Massachusetts waters.

The summer flounder, which depends upon sight to capture its food, feeds most aaively
during daylight hours. Juveniles feed upon small shrimp and other crustaceans, while adults eat a
variety of fish, including small winter flounder, menhaden, sand lance, red hake, silversides,
bluefish, weakfish, and mummichogs, as well as invertebrates such as blue crabs, squid, sand
shrimp, opossum shrimp, and mollusks. Adults are very active predators, often chasing schools of
small fish to the surface and leaping out of the water in pursuit of them. This behavior clearly
distinguishes the summer flounder from the other more sluggish species of inshore flatfish.

Status and Management

Historically, the summer flounder has been among the most important commercial and
recreational flatfishes on the East Coast. The commercial catch in Massachusetts has been
modest compared to catches along the mid-Atlantic states, but the population summering in
Massachusetts coastal waters faces an intensive offshore otter trawl fishery in the winter and
spring. Commercial catches in the southern part of the fluke's range were stable from the 1950s to
the early 1970s, while those in the northern portion of its range persistently declined over the same
time period. In 1974 it was estimated that total commercial and recreational harvests exceeded a
level that should be sustained for any extended period of time. Despite this caution, total harvest
has exceeded the 1974 level in the 1980s.

Recreational fishing has always been a major component of the total fluke harvest, often

exceeding commercial catches in the mid- Atlantic states. The recreational catch ranged from 26 to
60% of the total harvest from 1979 to 1984 on a coast-wide basis. Certain regions have historically
supported tremendous recreational fishing. One such region, the Great South Bay of Long Island,
reported as many as 2,000,000 fluke landed yearly during the late 1950s and early 1960s. The total
coastal recreational catch from 1979 to 1984 ranged from 5,000,000,000 to 18,900,000,000 fish.

Although population levels in the 1980s have been somewhat higher than they were in the
1960s and 1970s, persistently high harvest levels may once more reduce this species' abundance.
The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission developed a Summer Flounder Management
Plan that was adopted by coastal states from Massachusetts to North Carolina in 1982. This plan
established a minimum legal size limit of 14 inches to protect this important coastal fishery
resource.

Angling and Handling Tips

Fluke are well-known for the aggressive way they grab bait and battle when hooked,
offer a particular challenge to the angler bold enough to use light tackle. Average-
fluke, sometimes called "flatties," weigh about 2 to 4 pounds, while the aptly named
"doormats" (so-called due to their similarity in size to a welcome mat) weigh 8 or
more pounds and provide memorable battles for the angler lucky enough to hook
them.

Summer flounder start to move inshore in July and provide action until
waters begin cooling near the end of September. They can be
found on sandy or muddy bottoms in many inshore habitats
and are particularly abundant in fast-moving rips that gather
debris and bait fish.

Anglers troll, chum, still-fish, and cast for fluke, but the most
popular method is drifting the bait along the bot-
tom. When drifting, the bail of the reel -. . . • :
should be open and the line ...... -1 '." - . - ■ .

held by the finger. Once ^ v:- !

the line stops drifting r-/. .. v'."\:V';-i^^r:^-ii^'r^^ ■ •

and is tugged, it
should run free for
a moment to let
the fish get the bait

in its mouth before the hook is set. Casting a baited red and white bucktail rig from boat or shore
can also be a rewarding approach. The jig should be retrieved with a slow, pumping action. When a
fluke grabs the rig, the rod tip should be lowered to slacken the line; when the line tightens again,
the hook can be set.

Shoreline anglers use medium-weight spinning gear spooled with 12-pound test line, while
boat anglers fishing deeper water with strong currents need 15- to 20-pound test line on light to
medium conventional gear to match the larger fish found there. Commercial rigs with spinners are
used by many anglers. One favorite is a to 1 Vi ounce weighted bucktail that can be baited with
strips of fresh or frozen squid or bait fish such as sand lance. If these baits aren't available, 4- to
5-inch strips of meat cut from the tails offish such as sea robins can be used. Some anglers prefer
strips of meat from the belly area of a fluke or bluefish, or half of a snapper bluefish.

A few anglers prefer homemade rigs made by tying a 1- to 2-ounce sinker to the end of the line
and a "dropper loop" or three-way swivel 4 inches above the sinker. A 3-foot leader with a 1/0 to
3/0 hook is attached to the loop or swivel. A 4- to 5-inch strip of squid split along half its length is
attached to the hook along with a baitfish hooked through the lips. This rig is bounced along the
bottom as the angler drifts or casts.

The white, flaky meat of the summer flounder is highly rated due to its delicate flavor and
texture. This versatile fish provides delightful dining when steamed, poached, baked, broiled,
sauteed, fried, or microwaved. Large "door mats" can be quarter-filleted for most recipes or cut
into steaks and grilled over charcoal or gas.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Ms

Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

'///

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Winter Flounder

gover:-;

r ■ c s 1989

The winter flounder, one of the most common and popular recreational species in New
England, is highly favored because of its fine flavor and thick fillets. It ranges from
southern Labrador to the waters of South Carolina and Georgia and is most abundant from the

Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Chesapeake Bay. This species' name derives from its tendency to n^t(YfVersity Of MaSSBChUSStti
during the winter months to shallower inshore waters, where it is easily caught. It is frequently [)ppOSitOry COPV
called a "blackback" when it is smaller than 3 pounds and a "lemon sole" when it is larger.

Like all flatfish, the winter flounder has both eyes on one side of the head. A newly hatched
flatfish larva has one eye on each side of its head, but within months it adapts to a bottom-dwelling
lifestyle, by which time one eye has moved to the other side of the head. Unlike most other
bottom-dwelling fish that rest by lying on their bellies, a
flatfish rests and swims on its side. Having both
eyes on one side of its head enables the flatfish
to rest on the ocean's floor while directing
both eyes upward.

The winter floun-
der is referred to as a
right-handed floun-
der because the
eyes are located on
its upper surface
when the fish is
pointing to the right

This species is oval in shape, with a body that is
about two times as long as it is wide. Its small mouth
does not extend backward to below the eye. The
lateral line (A on diagram above), a series of pores used
to detect local turbulence in the water, runs in a nearly

straight line from the head to the base of the tail. The dorsal fin (B above) originates opposite the
forward edges of the eyes and follows the length of the body at a uniform height. The anal fin (C
above) also extends the length of the body, but is noticeably highest near its midpoint.

The color of this species is highly vari-

South of Cape Cod

Georges Bank

Age

length in inches

male female

7.5 8.5

10.0 8.5

11.9 13.8

15.8 18.5

14.6 16.5

18.5 22.0

17.2 18.5

20.5 24.1

able, since the winter flounder can change
color to mimic the bottom on which it rests.
However, the scaled upper side of the body
of most individuals ranges from a muddy or
reddish brown to black, and the scaleless
underside is white. Smaller fish are gener-
ally paler and have a less uniform color
pattern than larger, older fish.
The largest recorded winter flounder caught by a commercial boat weighed 8 pounds and was
25 inches long. This fish was taken on Georges Bank, where many of the larger winter flounder are

caught. The Massachusetts anghng record, set by a fish caught in Massachusetts Bay in 1982,
stands at 6 pounds. Female winter flounder grow faster than males and attain larger maximum
sizes. The table on the preceding page lists average lengths at selected ages for winter flounder
from two geographic regions.

Both male and female winter flounder normally reach sexual maturity' at 3 years of age. The
fecundity (number of eggs produced in a year) increases with body size, with smaller females
producing about 500,000, and larger females around 1,500,000 eggs per year.

Habits

Winter flounder are caught in almost any shallow bay or estuary where the bottom is sandy
or silty. They frequently move into the brackish water of river mouths and also range into
the deeper waters of the Nantucket Shoals region and the shallower areas of Georges Bank. When
they are on soft bottoms, they lie buried in the mud, dashing out occasionally to feed on
invertebrates moving close by.

This is one of the most stationary of fishes, displaying a very limited seasonal migration. Fish
overwinter in inshore areas. As summer approaches, the shallow inland waters become warm, and
the larger fish move offshore to deeper water. Juveniles will remain in estuaries for up to 3 years,
moving offshore as they grow older. Although a given population usually remains fairly stationary,
there is evidence of wide-scale movement of some individuals, f)erhaps in search of food.

In New England, reproduction occurs in estuaries from January to May, with peak activity
during February and March when water temperatures are the coldest of the year, ranging from 32
to 39 degrees F. Evidence suggests that specific individuals return for many years to the same site
to spawn.

Unlike the floating eggs of all other local flatfish, eggs of the winter flounder clump . " •
together in masses on the bottom. Eggs, usually laid on clean sand, hatch 15 to 18 . - ; ; •
days after being released. By the time the larvae are 1/3 inch long, they have
undergone complete metamorphosis, the left eye having migrated to the v . ■

right side of the body. Monality is highest during larval stages, partly d
to predators such as striped killifish and jellyfish.

Larval and juvenile winter flounder feed on the egg, larval, and adult
stages of various invertebrates. Adults feed on a great variety of organ-
isms including shrimp, clams, polychaete worms, fish fry, and bits of
seaweed. Winter flounder will bite almost any bait, provided the hook
is small enough. They feed mainly during daylight hours and are more
active during flooding or ebbing tides than during slack water periods.

Management

Each year anglers catch more winter flounder than any other species offish in New England
coastal waters. Presently only the bluefish attracts a greater number of anglers. Recrea-
tional angling is a major component of the total annual harvest of this species, accounting for 30%
to 46% of the yearly poundage harvested between 1979 and 1985.

Although winter flounder populations historically showed less tendency to fluctuate in
abundance than did some other New England groundfish species, harvest levels had dropped by
the mid- 1 930s. Improved fishing technology and the introduction of foreign distant-water fishing
fleets into the New England region increased fishing pressure throughout the 1950s and 1960s. In
1976, the U.S. 200-mile fishery management zone was established, markedly limiting fishing by
foreign vessels within this protected area. However, since winter flounder fisheries include an
important inshore component that was not exploited by foreign vessels, the establishment of the
200-mile fishery management zone in 1976 did not markedly reduce total harvests. Winter
flounder fisheries were most heavily exploited in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Catches have
declined almost yearly since 1981. It is now believed that this species is being harvested at levels
that cannot be sustained in the future.

Commercial harvests are regulated under the Northeast Multispecies Fishery Management
Plan of the New England Fishery Management Council. The plan includes minimum legal size
limits and area closures to protect juvenile fish. The Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries
has established regulations for inshore populations that include a minimum legal size limit for fish
(12 inches in 1987) and a February 1 to April 30 closure of all waters within 1 mile of the shoreline.

This closure suspends all commercial harvests, and restricts recreational
;•: fishing to one line and two hooks per angler. Both of these regulations

; : - ^^^^ ; are meant to protect the reproductive potential of this species

:};.•:^;^^.^.^;•;^^ . . by preventing harvest until the fish reach an age where

Angling and Handling Tips

Inshore blackback fishing usually begins in early spring and lasts until the end of May,
when flounder move farther offshore. When blackbacks return to inshore areas in Sep-
tember, anglers fish for them until the weather becomes too unpleasant in late fall. Anglers pursue
this species from docks, jetties, and party and private boats in nearly all Massachusetts bays and
estuary mouths. Areas characterized by sandy mud substrates and patches of eelgrass provide
anglers with the greatest opportunity for success.

Winter flounder provide the most enjoyable action when caught on light tackle. Most anglers
use 10- to 15-pound test line on a 6'/2 foot medium-action spinning rod or a small boat rod. Heavier
equipment is needed when tidal currents require sinkers of more than 1 or 2 ounces to hold bait to
the bottom — a must when fishing for this bottom fish. Flounder hooks with attached snells or
leaders can be fastened to the end of a wire spreader with a sinker attached to its center, or tied
directly to the line 12 to 18 inches below a sinker. Many anglers believe that attaching yellow beads
above the hook or using yellow sinkers will attract greater numbers of blackbacks.

Many anglers recommend chumming. Ground or crushed clams or mussels in a mesh bag or
"chum pot" are frequently used, while handfuls of com from a freshly op)ened can are also favored.
Sandworms are considered the best bait for winter flounder, but bloodworms and clams also are
commonly used. Some anglers prefer strips of squid and even night crawlers. The key is to use ver>'
little bait; an inch of worm will work best. Blackbacks can quickly and quietly sneak in and take
bait; thus, unattended rods lose fish. The rod should be raised often to check for fish as well as to
attract them.

No fish lends itself to more imaginative dishes than does the winter flounder. Its texture and
delicate flavor are well-suited to sauces, spices, fruits, vegetables, and other seafoods. Few species
can be mixed with so many things and still stand out. Winter flounder can be fried, steamed,
baked, microwaved, or broiled, and can be substituted for other species in most fish recipes.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension

• Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

'■liUflUHt^'

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Haddock

m C 5 1989

isitory Copy

The haddock, a member of the cod family renowned as splendid table fare, inhabits both the |yi3SS3ChUS6ttS
American and European coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. In the northwest Atlantic, it rr
from the southern end of the Grand Banks to Cape Cod in the summer, and it extends its r:
southward to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in the winter.

Haddock, like the closely related cod, pollock, and tomcod, are easily distinguished from other
coastal Massachusetts fish by their three dorsal and two anal fins (A and B, respectively, on
diagram below). The front dorsal fin is triangular in shape and taller than the
following two. The posterior two are squarish, the middle dorsal being slightly
larger than the last. Of the two anal fins, the second or posterior one is a mirror
image of the third dorsal fin. Haddock can be distinguished
from the other closely related members of the cod family by
a black lateral line
(C on diagram; the
lateral line is a series
of sensory pores
that detect local
disturbances in
the water) and a

large spot on each side of the body over
the pectoral fins (pectoral fin marked D)

The top of the head, the back, and the upper sides
are a dark purplish-grey. The lower sides are shiny grey
tinged with pink, and the belly and lower head are white. The haddock ]

dorsal fins, pectoral fins, and tail; the anal fins are pale and spotted with black at the base.

The largest recorded haddock, which was landed by a commercial vessel, weighed 37 pounds
and measured 44 inches in length. The Massachusetts angling record for haddock is 20 pounds, set
by one fish caught on Stellwagen Bank in 1972 and one at Boston Lightship in 1974. One-year-old
fish may reach 6 inches, two-year-olds 12 inches, and three-year-olds about 17 inches in length.
Few haddock exceed 20 to 24 inches in length, 3 to 5 pounds in weight, and 9 to 10 years of age.

Both males and females are sexually mature by the time they are 2 or 3 years old. The fecimdity
(number of eggs produced in a year) of females is related to their body size. Females weighing 2.2
pounds produce about 170,000 eggs, while the largest females may release as many as 3,000,000
eggs in one spawning season.

Habits

Haddock inhabit deep, cool waters, rarely entering estuaries or river mouths. They are
primarily found at depths of 140 to 450 feet and generally avoid depths of less than 30.
Haddock prefer substrates of gravel, smooth rock, or sand littered with shells, and water tempera-
tures of 35 to 50 degrees F. They migrate seasonally to areas that provide optimal habitat

conditions. In winter, haddock move to deep water where the temperature is warmer and more
constant than that in shallower areas. Most overwinter offshore from southern New Jersey to Cape
Hatteras. By early spring they seek more northerly areas in New England, moving into shallower
waters of the Gulf of Maine and Georges Bank, where they remain all summer.

The haddock off Massachusetts reproduce on sandy, rocky, or muddy bottoms from January
to June, showing the greatest activity in March and April. Spawning occurs offshore at depths of
100 to 600 feet and in temperatures of 35 to 45 degrees F. Georges Bank is the most productive
spawning area for haddock in the northwest Atlantic.

The buoyant eggs drift in the water, hatching in approximately 15 days. Young haddock will
float near the surface for up to 3 months after hatching, drifting with the prevailing currents.
Subsequently they will move to the ocean floor, which they inhabit for the rest of their lives.

Haddock suffer extremely high death rates during early life stages. Many die from starvation
or predation by species such as cod and pollock. However, the number of larvae that survive in a
given year is often chiefly determined by their location when they are ready to become bottom
dwellers. If the currents in which they have been suspended have carried them far offshore from
the continental shelf, few larvae will survive. Thus, the number of fishes surviving early life stages
is highly variable and unpredictable from year to year. Haddock populations charaaeristically
suffer through extended series of years when few fish survive early life stages. Recreational and
commercial harvests have a great effect upon this species since individuals removed from the
population by fishing are not necessarily replaced by reproduction.

Before descending to the ocean floor, larval haddock feed upon microscopic copepods.
Bonom-dwelling juveniles and adults feed upon almost any slow-moving invertebrate including
small crabs, sea worms, clams, starfish, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, and occasionally squid.
Herring, sand lance, small eels, or other young fish only rarely occur in their diet.

Management

Historically, the haddock was abundant throughout the open waters of the Gulf of Maine
and on all offshore banks, especially Georges Bank. The Georges Bank-South Channel
area was one of the most productive haddock grounds in the world. This species also occurred in
many areas of the coastal belt within 15 to 20 miles of land.

In the 20th century, however, the haddock has displayed wide fluctuations in abundance. The
commercial fishing industry, boosted by new markets for fresh fish and frozen fillets,' harvested
over 220,000,000 pounds of haddock in 1929. Annual harvests from 1930 to 1947 dropped to 25%
to 67% of that in 1929. Concern over this reduction in harvest was a major impetus in establishing
the International Commission of Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF), a multi-national
attempt at managing fisheries resources. In the mid-1950s, foreign countries estabhshed distant-

water fishing fleets in the northwest Atlantic, a development that further depleted the fragile
haddock populations. From 1977 to 1982, haddock within the U.S. 200-mile fishery management

zone were managed under a
plan developed by the New
England Fishery Management
Council (NEFMC). This plan
consisted of catch quotas, sea-
sonal spawning area closures,
and mesh size regulations.
Commercial harvests are cur-
rently regulated under the
Northeast Multispecies
Fishery Management Plan of
the NEFMC. Minimum legal
size hmits for fish harvested
both commercially and recrea-
tionally, and an increase in the
time covered by the spawning
area closure, have been added
to the original regulations in
the new plan.

In spite of these manage-
ment efforts, haddock populations in the Gulf of Maine declined by 82% from 1977 to 1985,
with Georges Bank showing a similar trend (see figure). Haddock populations in both regions are
currently composed offish from only several year classes (all fish
born in a given year), with most recent years' reproductive
efforts adding few new fish to the depleted resource.

In order to aid this fragile fishery toward recov-
ery, the Massachu-
setts Division

of Marine ..^^^P^^
Fisheries
maintains
minimum legal
size hmits for fish
caught by recreational
anglers and commercial
fishermen (15 and 19 inches,
respectively, in 1987) within
Massachusetts' territorial waters

400,000-

A Changes in Abundance of Haddock
1 \ in the Georges Bank Region
\ 1964-1985

300,000-

200,000-

100,000-

64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84
Year

Angling and Handling Tips

1—4 ew fish are more delicately flavored or more finely fleshed than the haddock. Traditionally,
^ haddock fillets are marketed with their distinctively colored skin intaa as a sign to
consumers that the high price they are paying is indeed purchasing this highly valued fish.

Haddock are caught fi"om spring to fall, with fishing activity generally greatest in August and
September. Anglers pursue this deep-water species from private, charter, or party boats.

A medium-action 8-foot boat rod with a fast-tapering tip is preferred by many anglers. A
sensitive rod is necessary to feel the light bumps the haddock creates when it grabs a baited hook.
Forty-pound test monofilament line on a high-speed conventional reel is usually recommended.
Heavy line is necessary even though the haddock is a modest-sized species because anglers fishing
in deep waters cannot predict what other larger fish might grab the bait. Old-timers often favor
braided line, feeling that it does not have as much stretch as monofilament and more easily hooks a
fish in deeper waters.

A typical haddock rig consists of the following. A swivel (to prevent twisting) is tied to one end
of a 4-foot piece of 50-pound test leader. A bank sinker is looped to the other end of the leader.
Number 6/0 or smaller hooks, with a short piece of yellow surge wound over their shanks, are
attached to the leader by two 6 to 10 inch long "droppers," or loops. Ten to 20 ounces of sinker are
needed to hold the rig on the bottom, depending upon currents and depths. Fresh clams or squid
are very successful baits.

After the baited rig is lowered to the bottom, all slack should be retrieved. Unlike the cod,
which gives a sharp yank, haddock bite in a series of light bumps. These slight taps can best be felt
if the line is held between a thumb and finger. Because haddock have soft mouths, they are easily
lost if not properly played after being hooked. When a haddock taps the bait, the hook should be set
with a steady pull rather than a jerk, and the fish should be steadily retrieved without pumping the
rod.

The meat of haddock is lean and white. It is less firm than cod and flakes beautifully when
cooked. Haddock is excellent baked, broiled, poached, microwaved, or used in chowders and
stews. Traditionally, New Englanders fry haddock fillets or bake them whole with a bread crumb
and spice stuffing. For a change of pace, try the following simple New England style of poaching.
Rub the inside of a dressed haddock with salt, wrap it in cheesecloth, and cook it in boiling water or
bouillon for 25 or 30 minutes, or until it flakes. Remove it to a platter, garnish, surround with
alternating boiled potatoes and cooked beets, and serve with mushroom soup as a sauce.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe Robert C. Biagi

Department of Foresir>' and Wildlife Management Cooperative Extension

University of Massachusetts University of Massachusetts

Supported by Federal Aid in Spori Fish Restoration Act, through the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries, Department of
Fisheries, Wildlife, and Environmental Law Enforcement, Executive Office of Environmental Affairs.

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Lewando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United Slates Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60:I2/87-10M

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

7- UMM-^: iK-^/

University of Massachusetts C

Cooperative Extension

• Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

' Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

oom::

Halibut

University of Massachusetts

TD3P0sitory CoDV
he Atlantic halibut, a giant amongst the flatfish, is native to both sides of the Atlantic
Ocean. In the western Atlantic it ranges from the coast of Greenland to New Jersey. It is
most abundant from Nantucket Shoals to the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, the southern portion
of the Grand Bank, and the deep waters of the outer continental shelf off Labrador.

Like other flatfish, halibut have both eyes on one side of the head. When they are newly
hatched larvae, these fish have one eye on each side of the head; as they grow, one eye migrates, and
the body becomes markedly flattened. In the halibut, this metamorphosis is completed when the
fish is less than 1 V2 inches long. The halibut is called a right-handed species because both eyes
occur on the right side of the body. When resting on the
ocean floor, it lies on its "blind" left side. Other
flattened bottom dwellers such as skates and
rays rest on their
broadly expanded bel-
lies; such fish do not
possess the specialization
of eye position displayed
by the flatfish.

The halibut differs
markedly from other
right-handed flatfish

in the northwest Atlantic. Its body is less broadly
flattened and thicker. It has a large mouth that extends
posteriorally to below the eyes and contains sharp, curved
teeth. The dorsal and anal fins (A and B respectively on dia-
gram) are decidedly highest at their middle. The posterior edge

of the tail is concave, and the lateral line (a series of sensory pores that detect vibrations in the
water) is noticeably arched at its anterior end (C on diagram).

Halibut range in color from olive -brown to chocolate or almost black on the upper side.
Younger fish are usually paler and blotched. The blind or lower side is pure white in smaller fish or
mottled with gray in larger fish.

Halibut are the largest of all flatfish. The largest northwestern Atlantic halibut on record
weighed about 700 pounds. However, fish exceeding 300 pounds were considered rarities even
before this species was depleted due to fishing pressure. The angling record for Massachusetts
waters weighed 250 pounds. Most "large" halibut commercially landed weigh from 50 to 200
pounds.

Females are somewhat longer and heavier than males of the same age. Hahbut grow very
slowly. Five-year-old fish average about 22 inches in length, and weigh 3 to 4 pounds; 10-year-olds
range from about 30 to 55 inches in length and weigh from 12 to 60 pounds. It has been estimated
that the immense fish weighing 400 or more pounds may be as much as half a century old.

Females become sexually mature at about 9 or 10 years of age, while males do so somewhat
earlier. The fecundity (number of eggs produced in a given spawning season) of females increases
with size and weight. A female Atlantic hahbut of about 200 pounds produces as many as 2, 180,000
eggs in a season.

Habits

Halibut are found in subarctic waters; they prefer temperatures from 36 to 47 degrees F and
depths from 200 to 3,000 feet. As young fish, they inhabit shallower areas, but move into
progressively deeper waters as they grow. Thus, the largest, oldest specimens tend to occur in the
deeper waters inhabited by this species. Although they are bottom dwellers, individuals are
occasionally sighted feeding at the surface. They live on sand, gravel, or clay bottoms, tending to
avoid mud and rock substrates.

Halibut display seasonal movement patterns associated with changes in water temperature. In
the southern portion of their range, they tend to be found in shallow areas such as Georges Bank
and Nantucket Shoals only in the winter and spring; as water temperatures rise in the summer to
the upper 40s F, these fish withdraw to deeper waters. In the northern portion of their range,
halibut tend to move to deeper waters with more stable water temperatures in the fall as shallower
areas cool to the low 30s F.

Halibut reproduce from December to February. In the northwestern Atlantic, peak spawning
activity occurs in January. Halibut reproduce on the ocean bottom at depths of from 900 to over
2,000 feet, and are believed to congregate at particular spawning sites every year.

Although laid on the bottom, the eggs subsequently are suspended in the water column at
depths of 180 to 300 feet, and at temperatures between 37 and 39 degrees F. After hatching, larval
halibut remain suspended in the water column, feeding upon plankton and drifting in currents.
During this time, halibut tend to rise slowly in the water column and drift toward more inshore
areas. Thus, by the time they metamorphose, young halibut settle to the substrate as bottom
dwellers in waters much shallower than those they may occupy later in life.

Halibut feed mainly on groundfish, but occasionally eat a variety of
shellfish. Their diet includes whatever species happen
to be most abundant at a particular time, including
cod, cusk, haddock, sculpins, silver hake, herring,
sand lance, flounders, crabs, lobsters, shrimps,
clams, and mussels. Seabirds have even been found
in the occasional specimen. In turn, adult halibut
are eaten by seals and Greenland sharks. They serve
as a major dietary item for the latter, when
available.

-ViiMiriTlrS'-

Management

In colonial times the halibut was abundant from the Massachusetts coast northward, but
held little value as a food fish. However, by 1820 a demand for this species had developed
in the Boston market; this demand has strengthened ever since that time, even as halibut
populations have been progressively depleted. The numbers of fish landed annually from Cape
Cod, Massachusetts Bay, the coastal Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, and Nantucket Shoals had
dropped significantly by 1850. Halibut populating the deep water slopes off Georges Bank were
also markedly depleted by 1870, even though the difficulty associated with fishing these areas had
largely prevented their exploitation until the middle of the 19th century. Thus, the Atlantic halibut
showed the effects of fishing pressure earlier than nearly any other species in the northwestern
Atlantic. In recent years, Atlantic halibut have been harvested largely as by-catch (landed by
vessels fishing for other species), although a modest baited-line fishery operating in coastal waters
off the Gulf of Maine is partially directed toward halibut. Halibut populations have shown no
tendency to recover even though fishing pressure directed toward them has lessened in the 20th
century.

Slow-growing, long-lived species that live an extended number of years before reaching sexual
maturity are particularly susceptible to population collapse in the face of human exploitation, since
fish taken from the population by fishing are not replaced very rapidly. Because it has such an
extended life cycle, the halibut would require long-term restrictions on harvest in order to recover.
Such restrictions would be confounded by the tendency of this species to be landed as by-catch by
boats fishing for other more abundant species. Thus, long-term recovery of the halibut would
require prolonged restrictions on fishing for all groundfish species living in similar habitats. For
this reason, regulations have not been established that specifically restrict commercial fishing for
this species. Likewise, as of 1988 no regulations restricting recreational harvest of this species in
waters off the Massachusetts coast have been established.

Angling and Handling Tips

Few fish reach the size and provide the battle of the
halibut. This prized species is difficult to find due to its
scarcity and its preference for relatively deep waters. Party
boat captains can find areas with good halibut habitat, but
the major element necessary to encounter one of these
fish is luck. Landing a large individual is dependent
upon gear and skill.

Halibut can be caught while fishing a wide variety
of baits used for other species, or while deep-water jigging
for cod. Optimal halibut gear includes medium to heavy cod

fishing rods and 6/0 reels spooled with 60- to 80-pound test dacron line. When fishing with bait '
such as clams, add 4 to 5 feet of monofilament leader with large 8/0 cod hooks. Ten-to 20-ounce
Swedish jigs or 16- to 20-ounce bank sinkers may be needed to hold the bait on the bottom in 200-
to 300-foot depths.

Halibut that are hooked are occasionally lost due to stripped or broken lines, broken reels, or
even twisted gaffs. Halibut frequently make only a short run with the bait immediately after being
hooked. If this happens, the angler should retrieve as much line as possible and prepare for a
prolonged battle with a powerful fish.

The thick, firm, and sweet-flavored steak of the Atlantic halibut is a popular, versatile meat
that can be baked, broiled, grilled, sauteed, or steamed. To grill, take halibut steaks about 1 Vi
inches thick, flour, and baste with a mixture of melted butter (mayonnaise or margarine), lime
juice, and white wine. Place the steaks on a hot, oiled grill for a total of 5 to 10 minutes per inch of
thickness, turning once. The steaks are done when they flake.

Pan-baked halibut is also a favorite. Marinate one-inch thick steaks for several hours in Vi cup
of olive oil, freshly ground pepper, and seafood seasoning. Heat the marinade in an iron skillet,
flour the steaks, and lightly brown them in the skillet. Place the skillet in an oven at 375 degrees F
for 10 to 15 minutes, basting with the marinade. After cooking, add white wine to make a light
sauce, and serve the halibut with a quartered lemon.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University onviassachusett^ Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

A tlantic Mackerel

he Atlantic mackerel, a popular recreational species because of its seasonal zh\m^2^^ja^y Qf

... ''5,

voracious feeding habits, is native to both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. On our coas
ranges along the continental shelf from Labrador south to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina

The swift-swimming mackerel has a streamlined body that is about five times as long as it is
wide, a long, pointed head, and a mouth with numerous, small teeth. It has two large dorsal fms (A
on diagram) and one anal fm (B). The tail is broad and deeply forked and is preceded by a series of
fmlets on the dorsal and ventral sides (C). The tiny scales of the mackerel make the
fish feel velvety when stroked.

The upper sides of the mackerel are dark gray to
blue, and the head is
almost black. Up to 33
blackish bands run ver-
tically on each side of
the body. This bold
striped pattern eas-
ily distinguishes the mackerel from other recreational
species in coastal Massachusetts waters. A dark stripe

runs lengthwise along the body below the banded area. The lower sides and the gill
covers are silvery, and the belly is silvery white.

Mackerel may grow as large as IV2 pounds, but the largest caught by angling in Massachusetts
weighed 2 pounds 12 ounces. In recent years, the largest harvested by commercial boats have
rarely weighed more than 3 pounds and measured more than 18 inches long, while most have not
exceeded 12 to 14 inches. The maximum age for mackerel is about 20 years.

Many males and females reach sexual maturity at the age of 2, and all do so by 4. The fecundity
(number of eggs produced in a given spawning season) of females increases as a function of age and
size, with an individual female spawning from 550,000 to 1,000,000 eggs per season.

Habits

Mackerel are typically open-ocean fish, but large schools occasionally stray into estuaries
and harbors in search of food. Most mackerel inhabit the iimer half of the continental
shelf, with none straying beyond the shelf s outer edge. Although frequendy found near the
water's surface, they also can be found as far down as 600 feet.

Mackerel range over extensive areas, traveling in schools that often contain many thousands of
fish. All individuals within a specific school tend to be the same size. Mackerel swim at high speeds
for extended periods of time while searching for food. For example, small 1 -year-old mackerel can
swim at an average speed of 13 miles per hour. Since cruising speed increases significandy with age
and size, scientists believe that conformity of body size within a specific school is necessary to allow
all fish to maintain identical swimming speeds.

Mackerel migrate from southerly, offshore waters in winter to northerly, inshore waters in the
warmer months. They typically arrive in our waters by the end of June; when they do not, anglers j
can expect low catches throughout the summer. Mackerel residing in Massachusetts waters in the!
summer move southward by September, but they are normally replaced for at least part of the fall '
by northern populations moving down from Canada. By late November, these northern fish move i
well offshore on the Continental Shelf to overwinter.

Mackerel reproduce from spring through summer, with the more northerly fish spawning
later in the season. In coastal Massachusetts, spawning activity peaks in June. The mid- Atlantic
Bight and the Gulf of St. Lawrence represent the two greatest spawning grounds for this species.

Mackerel spawn near the surface, and the eggs float in the water column. Hatching occurs
within 90 to 102 hours when the water is 55 to 57 degrees F. Larval mackerel form into schools
about 40 days after hatching, at which time they are approximately 2 inches long.

The mortahty rates of larval mackerel fluctuate from year to year, but are generally very high.
Fewer then 10 larvae out of every 1,000,000 eggs produced may survive years when wind-driven
currents drive them far offshore over the Continental Shelf. Predation and starvation are other
factors accounting for much of the death rate of yoimg fish.

Young mackerel feed on microscopic copepods. As they grow, they feed on progressively
larger prey. Adults will eat any fish smaller than themselves, feeding heavily upon small herring,
sand lance, and young mackerel. They also commonly consume a variet}' of invertebrates such as
copepods, crab larvae, squid, and shrimp. Their voracious feeding behavior leads them to strike at
a wide array of baits thrown in their paths by anglers. In the spring, mackerel are thin-bodied
because they have eaten very little during the winter; conversely, in late summer and fall they are
usually fat from feeding upon abundant inshore foods.

Numerous animals feed upon mackerel, including whales, porpoises, mackerel sharks,
thresher sharks, dogfish, cod, tuna, bluefish, and striped bass. Squid feed on small mackerel, and
sea birds snatch this species from the surface waters.

he Atlantic mackerel has exhibited rapidly fluctuating population densities since colonial

^ times. Fluctuations typically occur more rapidly and to greater extremes than do those of
many other fish. Peak years of abundance usually have produced record harvests; for example, in
1885, 100,000,000 pounds were landed in Massachusetts ports alone. Such periods were normally
followed by rapid reductions in catch; after 1885, harvest levels dropped to as low as 580,000
pounds for the entire east coast by 1910. In 1916, the catch was 25 times greater than that in 1910.
Gulf of Maine harvests in peak years were occasionally 50 to 100 times greater than in poor years.

Management

40-

2.0-

1.0.

Abundance (in pounds)
of Atlantic Mackerel
from Labrador
to North Carolina,
1963 to 1985

The most recent shifts in population abundance are shown in the figure below. It is beUeved that
these fluctuations are due to the highly variable success of reproduction from year to year and to
the effects of fishing.

In the 1940s, the mackerel ranked behind only the haddock, cod, and redfish (ocean perch) in
commercial value in the northeastern U.S. The appearance of the foreign distant- water fishing
fleet in the 1960s led ICNAF (International Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries) to
allocate catch quotas to all nations participating in the fishery between 1973 and 1977. Since

passage of the Magnuson Fishery Conserva-
tion and Management Act (the "200-mile
limit law"), the Mid- Atlantic Fishery Man-
agement Council has been responsible for
developing Atlantic mackerel management
plans.

Although reproductive success was poor
from 1975 to 1979, it markedly improved in
the 1980s, with 1982 the best year in more
than a decade. U.S. commercial harvests
were stable between 1978 and 1984, and by
1985 mackerel had become abundant enough
to allow a controlled joint venture (joint
harvest by a foreign fleet and the U.S.
industry).

Recreational fishing accounted for 2 to
19% of the total harvest from 1978 to 1985,
averaging about 9'/2% annually. The low fig-
ure of 2% (in 1985) was due to a marked increase in commercial catches, not a reduction in
recreational fishing. Currently there are no regulations restricting the recreational harvest of
Atlantic mackerel in coastal Massachusetts.

Year

Angling and Handling Tips

A medium spimiing rig spooled with 15-pound test line is best for casting, although adven-
turesome anglers may use medium- or light-action spinning rods with a single 1 -ounce mackerel
jig or a saltwater fly rod rigged with a streamer. Any metal lure that resembles a sand eel or other
bait fish can be used when casting (for example, a miniature Hopkins, Kastmaster, or leadhead, or
even small plugs). After casting, lures should be allowed to flutter down through the water for a
moment, then jerked and retrieved rapidly.

Many anglers fishing from a boat use the mackerel tree, which is a small diamond jig preceded
by 2 or more 1/0 surge tube worms. The tree is jigged so that it resembles a larger fish chasing small
bait fish. Typically the jig is dropped to the bottom, lifted with a jerk, and allowed to settle; this
action should be repeated at a rapid pace.

Mackerel can also be pursued with bait such as sand eels, sea worms, squid, or small fish on
long shank hooks with on-line sinkers. Mackerel strike hard and then momentarily release the bait
before attempting to swallow it. Therefore, the greatest success is achieved by setting the hook on
the second strike.

Mackerel lose their flavor rapidly if they are not kept cool. Fish should be iced immediately
upon capture if possible. If ice isn't available, they should be kept wet in a burlap bag that is
frequently dampened; evaporation from the bag will help keep the fish cool.

Salted mackerel with potatoes and biscuits is a traditional New England Sunday breakfast.
This species is also enjoyed by many who prefer a more conventional approach to eating fish. The
mackerel carries high concentrations of Omega-3 oil, valued for its important impact upon human
cardiovascular health. Many people prefer marinating mackerel in citrus juices to lighten the full
flavor that the oil imparts to the flesh. Marinated mackerel that has been cooked skin down on a
covered grill provides the angler with a pleasurable ending to a day's successful fishing.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

""""""mijff,

' Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

White Martin

1989

The white marlin, a highly prized game species of the eastern coast of the United SllS^giSf^ ^^^htlS'^th
native to the western Atlantic Ocean from the northern coast of Brazil to Cape Cod. It is v Copy **
abundant throughout the year from the Caribbean to southern Florida, and is seasonally abundant
from Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, to Cape Cod.

The white marlin resembles the larger and more southerly distributed blue
marlin, but
differs in hav-
ing a rounded
instead of a pointed
anterior dorsal fm (A
on diagram) and lighter
coloration on its sides
and belly. The white
marlin has a much
shorter "sword"
(elongate projec-
tion of the
snout and upper

jaw) and a much longer dorsal fin than the swordfish; it also has scales, whereas adult swordfish are
scaleless.

The white marlin is bright greenish blue dorsally, fading to pale blue laterally, and to white on
its belly. The sides are striped with as many as a dozen light blue or purple vertical bands. The
dorsal fin is blue with dark spots.

The largest white marlin landed by a recreational angler in Massachusetts waters weighed 131
pounds. However, most weigh less than 60 pounds. Little is known about the growth rates of this
species, but females tend to grow larger than males. The maximum age is thought to be somewhat
greater than 10 years.

Female white marlin reach sexual maturity at the weight of about 44 pounds. The fecundity
(number of eggs produced in a season) of females increases with age and weight, with a 60-pound
female producing about 5,125,000 eggs and an 80-pound female about 10,500,000 eggs in a year.

Habits

White marlin are oceanic, ranging from coastal waters to well beyond the continental shelf
of the U.S. They are transient in Massachusetts, moving northward to the southern New
England region in the summer and migrating southward by the beginning of fall. The marlin
occasionally occurs as far north as Nova Scotia, but the waters off the southern and eastern shores
of Cape Cod are its normal northern limit. Major currents appear to play an important role in
migratory and distribution patterns of this species, which is frequently found in greatest abun-
dance within or near the Gulf Stream when along our eastern coast. White marlin are often found

in shoals, submarine canyons, or steep drop-offs of the ocean floor where current boundaries,
upwelHngs, and thermal fronts tend to concentrate food resources.

White marlin spawn during April and May throughout the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and in
the straits of Florida. Little is known about the survival of larvae and juvenile fish. Each year up to
40% of all adult white marlin die either from fishing or natural causes.

White marlin larvae feed on microscopic organisms until they are large enough to pursue
larger prey. Adults feed mainly on small schooling species, including herring, squid, and ancho-
vies, but the composition of their diet can differ markedly from one region to another.

Management

A recreational fishery for white marlin has existed off the coast of the U.S. since the early
1900s. However, prior to 1950, this fishery was limited to a few areas. Since then, a
coast- wide fishery has developed for this species.

In recent years, competition for the white marlin has intensified between the recreational
fishery, the yellowfin tuna or swordfish longline fisheries that capture it as by-catch (incidental
catch while fishing for other species) in more southern waters, and a directed commercial fishery.
Mortality due to commercial harvest is felt to be reducing this resource to potentially critical levels.
The average total harvest in the years 1977 to 1979 was about half the average for the previous
10-year period (which was approximately 2,200,000 pounds or 44,000 fish). Total harvest in the
1980s has increased somewhat, but remains below that of the 1966 to 1976 period.

The New England, Mid- Atlantic, South Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico Regional
Fishery Management Councils have prepared a draft Atlantic Billfish Fishery Management Plan
that addresses the conservation of white marlin. This proposed plan contains regulations meant to
protect the white marlin resource for recreational harvest. Regulations in the plan include:

1. prohibiting the sale of any landed fish (in order to prevent further development of a
commercial market for this species),

2. requiring the release of all fish weighing less than 50 pounds (in order to reduce
significantly mortality caused by the recreational fishery), and

3. prohibiting longline and drift net commercial vessels from keeping it as by-catch (in order
to maximize the release of live fish by the commercial boats most likely to catch them).

Since the white marlin is oceanic, the Atlantic population extends far beyond U.S. territorial
waters. For this reason, the proposed plan suggests that the management regime for white marlin
should complement any initiatives undertaken through international agreements.

In December 1987, previous to final disposition of the draft management plan, the New
England Council voted to prohibit the sale of white marlin. This followed similar action taken in
the summer of 1 987 by the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries to protect this resource in
Massachusetts waters.

Angling and Handling Tips

In recent years, an increase in the number of offshore private and charter boats that fish for
billfish has led to greater numbers of marhn being sighted and caught in our waters.
Anglers usually call upon an array of indicators to locate this pelagic species. In order to have a
successful trip, the angler must be able to correctly interpret a number of factors, such as: water
temperature changes, weed lines, water color changes, fathom curves, and the presence of schools
of bait fish or of sea birds. Therefore, many prefer to charter an experienced boat and captain when
fishing for white marlin.

Unlike the closely related blue marlin, that tends to travel singly, white marlin occasionally
gather in small groups while feeding. When white marlin are spotted, careful presentation of bait
or lures can often lead to a strike.

Those anglers that use the more traditional method of trolling prefer stout rods and reels that
can handle 450 yards of 50 pound test hne. Anglers experiment with sizes, shapes, styles, and colors
of lures to achieve the greatest success. Hex heads, daisy chains, green machines, and smokers are

all favored lures.

Casting live or frozen bait to fish seen fin-
ning the surface waters is preferred by many
anglers. Spinning outfits fitted with 20 pound test line
are typically used when casting. The line is doubled
directly to a size 6/0 offset "sailfish" hook. Live tinker
mackerel, scup, and northern ballyhoo, or frozen Spanish min-
nows or mullet are commonly used baits.

In the U.S., marlin historically have been considered a non-
food gamefish; thus, anglers in the past typically released their catch.
Catch-and-release is still being promoted as one means of conserving the
marlin resource. However, as consumers become more willing to experi-
ment with fish that have traditionally not been eaten, more white marlin are
being retained as seafood. The marlin is esteemed in the Caribbean and
Latin America, where it traditionally has been grilled, broiled, or baked.
Smoked marlin is also considered a delicacy. Marlin can be cooked using
any recipe written for swordfish, mako shark, or even fresh tuna.

Marlin kabobs offer an interesting dining change. Marinate chunks of
marlin in olive oil and lemon juice for at least one hour. Alternate the meat on
the skewer with vegetables such as zucchini, yellow squash, onions, green
peppers, tomatoes, and broccoli; then brush with the marinade. Season and grill
on a hot fire, or broil, turning and basting for 1 5 to 20 minutes.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and WildHfe Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

xJniversity

3M/

of Alas

assachusetts Cooperative Extension

Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

7.H

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Monkfish

'I? Off

The monkfish, also known as the goosefish or angler, is native to the eastern coas^ll^^^O/ M^qo
America from Newfoundland to North Carolina. It also inhabits the Gulf of Mexico Sp^c/f/j-, n '^USsfh
waters off Brazil. ^^'^ iOpy *^

The monkfish is so unique in appearance, it cannot be confused with any other fish of coastal
Massachusetts. It has an enormous head and mouth and a flattened body of strikingly modest
proportion in relation to the head. The eyes are on top of the head, pointing upward.
The lower jaw projects so far beyond the upper that its 2 to 3 rows of slender,
curved teeth are

exposed even ^s-,^ .^ss^..*^ d

when the
mouth is
closed. The
upper jaw also

possesses large, curved teeth, ^~^''*'*^'^s^^*s#^f^^^^.'^^
and there are several rows of thorn-like teeth on the roof of
the mouth. The gill openings, positioned behind the pectoral fins (fms
marked A on diagram), lack the gill covers seen in most bony fish. The

dorsal fin (B) is preceded by a row of 3 elongate rays, the most anterior of which has a fleshy pad
that is used to lure small fish close to the huge mouth.

A monkfish is usually brown dorsally and pale to a white on its belly. The tips of the dorsal fms,
pectoral fins, and tail are black.

Monkfish can reach 4 feet in length and up to 50 pounds in weight. They are 6 to 9 inches long
at l'/2, 14 to 19 inches long at 2'/2, and 21 inches long at 3 years of age.

Both males and females reach sexual maturity after they have reached 30 inches or more in
length, at which time they are at least 4 years old. Fecundity (the number of eggs produced in a
given season) increases with age and size. Females may produce over 1,300,000 eggs per season.

Habits

In the southern New England region, monkfish are found from a few feet below tide line to
depths of over 2,000 feet on the Continental Slope. They live on various types of substrate,
including sand, gravel, rocks, beds of broken shells, and mud. Monkfish are tolerant of a wide
range of temperatures; they have been collected in waters from as cold as 32 to as warm as 70
degrees F. However, even though monkfish do not display temperature-driven seasonal migra-
tions, they may descend into deeper waters during summer or winter to avoid the temperature
extremes found in inshore waters at those times of year.

Monkfish reproduce in shallow to deep water from spring through early fall. The timing in a
given region depends upon latitude; fish in New England spawn from late June to mid-September.
Large masses of eggs are shed in ribbon-like veils of mucus that may be 25 to 36 feet long and 2 to 3
feet wide. Within each mass eggs are arranged singly or in small groups in separated, hexagonal

compartments. The egg masses float within the water column. Soon after they hatch and their yolk
sacs are resorbed, fry begin feeding upon copepods, crustacean larvae, and glass worms. At this
point the fry are about 0.1 inch long. Fry metamorphose into bottom dwellers by the time they
have grown to about 2 inches in length.

The voracious monkfish becomes a fish eater by the time it starts bottom dwelling. Adults feed
upon a variety of fish such as spiny dogfish, skates, eels, sand lance, herring, mackerel, silver hake,
cod, haddock, flounders, tautog, and sea bass. "Angler" is a well-earned nickname for this species,
which often Hes motionless in eel grass, waving the "lure" at the end of its first dorsal ray. As small
fish approach, the monkfish gapes its mouth and hterally sucks them in.

Monkfish also eat numerous sea birds such as comorants, herring gulls, scoters, loons, and
diving water fowl. As a result, they are sometimes called "goosefish," although a full grown goose
has never been found in the stomach of a landed monkfish.

It is not unusual for a monkfish to contain up to half its own weight in its stomach. One
specimen taken in a net contained 21 flounders and a dogfish, while another had engulfed 7 ducks.
Its huge mouth also allows the monkfish to capture extremely large food items. One analyzed
specimen had eaten a 12-pound, 31 -inch-long haddock; another had a winter flounder nearly its
own size in its stomach. In spite of occasional catches of spectacularly large prey, the bulk of the
monkfish's diet apparently consists of large numbers of small fish.

Management

Historically, monkfish populations along the East Coast of the United States have not been
commercially harvested, as this species was not considered to be marketable. This is in
contrast to the closely related European monkfish, which was heavily exploited as early as the
1940s due to the high price it brought in English and Scottish ports. In recent years, the collapse of
the populations of high-value fish in the northwest Atlantic has led to an increase in the market
value of other species. Thus, the monkfish now commands a high price due to its greater
acceptance as a food fish. However, it is so sparsely distributed that no fishery has developed that is
specifically directed toward its harvest. The monkfish is typically landed as incidental catch by
commercial vessels directing their efforts toward other fish. Likewise, the recreational harvest of
monkfish consists mostly of individuals being by anglers fishing for other species. Therefore, the
numbers landed each year are extremely modest.

Although the commercial harvest may be increasing, there is no available evidence that the
monkfish off the Massachusetts coast are being reduced to critical levels. Because of this,
regulations governing the recreational or commercial harvest of this species have not been
estabhshed as of 1988.

Angling and Handling Tips

Monkfish are typically captured incidentally by anglers using live bait in pursuit of other
fish. This species is encountered so infrequently that few methods have been developed
specifically for pursuing and landing it. Since it typically eats a wide variety of organisms, the
monkfish can be hooked with many different types of live bait that are being fished near the bottom
for other large, predatory species.

Although called the "angler," this species is considered by most people to be far uglier than
any angler one might ever encounter! The monkfish's bizarre appearance has led more than one
inexperienced person to dump it over the side; however, the joke is on the angler, for over the side
of the boat went one of the best chunks of thick fillet that the sea can produce. Its firm, white meat
has been held in esteem in Europe for years. Its firm texture is considered similar to that of the
lobster; hence, it is referred to as "poor man's lobster." It is often found on restaurant menus as
"Lotte," or in supermarkets under its own name, and is frequently included in dishes such as
Spanish "Paella" and the French bouillabaisse.

After monkfish are filleted and skinned, they become a versatile dish that can be sauteed in a
pan or wok; broiled; added to chowder or stew; poached; or cut into strips, dipped in batter, and
deep fried. It is excellent when chunked and added to a kabob, since it stays together like red meat
does when grilled.

For an interesting appetizer, try monkfish cocktail. Bake a thick fillet in a 350 degree oven for
10 minutes per inch of thickness. After the fillet cools, shce it into short strips about the size of
shrimp. Chill, arrange on a bed of lettuce, and serve with a seafood cocktail sauce as monk
"shrimp."

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Pollock

0.7

The pollock (also called "Boston bluefish"), a popular fish available to anglers from ins
bays and estuaries to offshore banks, occurs on both sides of the North Atlantic. In the
northwestern Atlantic, it is found as far south as the Chesapeake Bay and as far north as the
southern Labrador and western Greenland coasts. The major center of abundance in the western
Atlantic occurs in the Gulf of Maine on the offshore banks and along the entire coastline from
Nantucket Shoals and Cape Cod to Cape Sable, Nova Scotia.

This species is one of the more deep-bodied members of the cod family. The
lower jaw, projecting beyond the upper, has a small chin
barbel ("whisker") in
young fish that is usually
missing in larger fish. The
pollock has 3 separate dorsal
fins (A on diagram) and 2
separate anal fins (B), as
do the cod, haddock,
and tomcod. The first

and the second dorsal fins are triangular in shape, with
the second noticeably longer than the first. The tail is
indented along its posterior edge, with both lobes of the fin
being pointed or angular. This species lacks the dark lateral blotch and black lateral line of the
haddock, the rounded tail and equal-sized dorsal fins of the tomcod, and the overhanging snout
and shorter lower jaw of the cod.

Pollock range from olive green to brownish green dorsally and pale gray to yellow laterally.
The belly is silvery. The lateral line (C on diagram), a series of sensory pores used to detect
disturbances in the water, is lighter than the upper sides of the body. Young pollock are darker and
yellower on the lower sides than are older, larger pollock.

The largest pollock landed by hook-and-line in Massachusetts weighed 44 pounds 7 ounces
and was caught at Cashes Ledge. Pollock grow about 5 inches a year for the first 3 years of life, 2 to
4 inches a year for the next 3 years, and about 1 to 2 inches a year thereafter. A 5-year-old pollock
may weigh 4 to 5 pounds and measure up to 25 inches in length, and a 9-year-old 8 to 10 pounds
and 30 inches in length. The maximum age reached by pollock is about 19 years.

Male pollock become sexually mature at 4 to 7 years, and females at 5 to 7 years of age.
Fecundity (the number of eggs a female produces in a given season) increases with age and size.
Large females may produce as many as 4,000,000 eggs in a spawning season.

^^'versity Of ^

Habits

Like other members of the cod family, pollock live on or near the bottom in areas of rocky
substrates. They are found from shallow waters to depths as great as 600 feet, depending
upon water temperatures and food availabiUty. Pollock can tolerate temperatures near 32 degrees
F, but off the Massachusetts coast they are most abundant in temperatures from 51 to 68
degrees F.

Large schools of pollock migrate inshore during spring, and move to offshore waters in the
colder months. Large schools of younger fish called "harbor pollock" move into estuaries and
shallow bays in the spring. They remain there until dropping inshore temperatures in the fall force
them to move offshore to deeper, and at that time of the year warmer, waters.

The western Gulf of Maine region is a major pollock spawning area. The mouth of Massachu-
setts Bay, southeast of Gloucester to the eastern slope of Stellwagen Bank, is a particularly active
area. Pollock generally spawn during the autumn and early winter in water 90 to 300 feet deep.
Spawning begins when the water cools to about 48 to 59 degrees F. The buoyant eggs hatch 6 to 9
days after fertilization, and the larvae remain near the surface for at least 3 months before moving
downward to become bottom-dwelling juveniles.

Pollock are largely daytime sight feeders. Yearlings eat microscopic crustaceans such as
copepods. Adults feed on large pelagic crustaceans such as shrimp and small fish such as herring,
sand lance, cod, haddock, and hake. Juvenile pollock occasionally are seen chasing schools of smelt
through estuaries in the fall. Unlike the more demersal (bottom-dwelling) cod, pollock will pursue
schools of small fish at any depth, occasionally driving them to the surface of the water where
frantic splashing can be seen as the prey attempt to escape. Pollock are noted for their voracious
behavior while feeding; one 9-inch specimen had 77 two-inch herring in its stomach when it was
captured during a feeding episode.

Management

Historically, the pollock had modest market value and was commercially harvested largely as
by-catch (caught while fishing for other species). As other coastal fisheries have declined in
abundance, the pollock has developed a higher market value and has become the target of moderate
commercial fishing effort. Commercial landings from the Scotian Shelf to Georges Bank have
gradually increased from around 50,000,000 pounds in 1968 to over 140,000,000 pounds in 1985.
This increase seems to have had modest effect on pollock abundance; the biomass of age 2 and
older pollock fluctuated slightly from the late 1970s to 1980, then increased significantly (as shown
in the figure).

Recreational harvest varied from less than 1% to 3% of the total yearly harvest of pollock from
1979 to 1985. The total yearly recreational harvest peaked at about 2,680,000 pounds in both 1982
and 1983.

C
3
O

•a

Abundance of Pollock in the
Georges Bank-Gulf of Maine-
Scotian Shelf Regions, 1970-1984.

Pollock within U.S. territorial waters are managed under the Multispecies Fishery Manage-
ment Plan of the New England Fisheries Management Council. Regulations controlling commer-
cial harvest include a 19-inch minimum legal size
hmit, mesh size regulations, and an area closure that
was established to protect spawning of the depleted
haddock fishery. Due in part to the modest level of
total harvest that is attributed to recreational an-
glers, it has not been necessary to regulate recrea-
tional harvest of the coastal pollock resource man-
aged by the Massachusetts Division of Marine
Fisheries as of 1987.

600,000,000

400,000,000

S 200,000,000

~i r

70 72

76 80
Year

Angling and Handling Tips

Pollock are aggressive, strong fighters that frequently strike at fast-moving lures. Anglers
pursue pollock from party boats, private boats, or
shoreline. Inshore fishing lasts fi
spring to very late fall, dependin
water temperatures, the presenc(
fish, and the fortitude of the ang
larger pollock tend to gather in c
shore waters, while the younger
fish ("harbor pol-
lock") frequent
areas along
the shoreline.

In deeper water, pollock are taken with the same tackle and rigs as those used for cod. A
medium/ heavy 7- to 9-foot "cod rod" and a 4/0 conventional reel spooled with 40- to 50-potmd
test dacron line are commonly used by anglers. Lures are especially effective on pollock. A 10- to
20-ounce Vike or Norwegian-type jig with a dropper/teaser tied about 3 feet above the jig is a
particularly popular rigging. Attaching the teaser to a 2- way swivel by a split ring or a bead chain
helps make the action more effective and does not weaken the line as a dropper can. When fishing
with this rig, allow it to settle to the bottom; then alternately retrieve a small amount of line, jig the
lure, and allow it to flutter downward before repeating the sequence. Pollock most frequendy
strike during the flutter downward. While most pollock are caught on jigs and teasers, they are also
taken with bait, such as clams with entrails hanging off the hook or 1- by 3-inch strips of fish.

In inshore areas, pollock are particularly active around breakwaters and other structures
during a moving tide. Early morning and evening produce the best results, but pollock can be
caught throughout the day. Smaller inshore pollock are often pursued with lighter spinning outfits
spooled with 12- to 15-pound test line. One-quaner- to 2-ounce lures such as streamers, lead-
heads, mackerel jigs, Kastmasters, and small plugs that resemble sand eels all catch fish. A small
strip of squid or other bait added to a metal lure can increase the angler's success.

A pollock should be iced at capture to preserve its excellent taste and delicate texture. The
nickname "Boston bluefish" reflects this species' appearance and fighting ability, not its culinary
uses. Its light, flaky flesh can be substituted for cod or haddock in most recipes. Pollock can be
poached, baked, broiled, grilled, or put into fish chowders. For an easily prepared meal, put a large
pollock fillet into a baking dish greased with margarine and cover it with a can of undiluted cream
of mushroom soup. Sprinkle with a little paprika and parsley. Bake at 400 degrees for 20 minutes or
more, depending upon the thickness of the fillet. The fillet is ready to eat when it begins to flake
easily. Serve the fish and sauce on a bed of rice, and enjoy a dehcious meal.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusens

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Letoando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougall,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60:12/87-10M

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of MassachusettyCooperati

Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Scup

'■<Cj r

he scup, or "porgy," known for its fine flavor and its avaricious pursuit of baited hooks, ' J JSPQ
occurs along the continental shelf of eastern North America. It is most common from Cape >,

- " , ^ ^"^y Of

Cod to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and is encountered only occasionally
north of Cape Ann.

The scup's laterally flattened body is about two times as long as
it is wide. The head, concave dorsally, has a small mouth and
high-set eyes. The scup has one long, continuous dor
sal fin (A on diagram above), which possesses a
series of one short and
eleven long spines ante-
riorly. The anal fin (B
below) also contains one
short spine followed by
several long ones. The tail
is deeply concave and
sharply pointed on the
corners. The pelvic
fins (C below) are located
directly below the pectoral fins (D).

The scup's body is a dull silvery color flecked with
light blue and displaying 12 to 15 inconspicuous horizontal
stripes. The head is marked with dark patches, and the belly is white.

The Massachusetts angling record for

Age

Length in Inches

4.3

6.3

7.9

9.1

scup is 5 pounds 14 ounces, but few adults
exceed 2 pounds in weight and 14 inches in length. The table lists
average lengths at ages 1 through 4. Both males and females reach
sexual maturity in their second year. Scup can live up to 20 years
of age, but most schools of scup contain no fish older than 3 to 4
years.

Habits

Adult scup form into schools of similar-sized individuals in areas with smooth or rocky
bottoms. They are particularly plentiful around piers, rocks, offshore ledges, jetties, and
mussel beds. They move inshore to southern coastal areas of Massachusetts in May and linger
there until October, when most swim to deeper waters offshore or migrate southward to the waters
between Cape May, New Jersey, and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. While along coastal
Massachusetts, scup are commonly found at depths of 6 to 120 feet. Young larvae live in very
shallow estuarine waters. Juvenile and adult scup move into harbors and along sandy beaches
during high tides, and then into deeper channels as the tides recede. Large scup generally occur
farther offshore than do smaller, younger ones.

The abundance of scup in a specific area is frequently influenced by water temperature. Scup
prefer temperatures greater than 45 degrees F and are most frequently encountered in water
temperatures from 55 to 77 degrees F. In New England, water temperatures in early fall
occasionally plunge below the scup's tolerance level, killing large numbers of fish.

In southern New England, scup spawn from May to August, with the peak level of activity
typically in June. The buoyant eggs hatch about 40 hours after fertilization. Within several days
after hatching, the larvae, having used all yolk reserves, begin to feed upon copepods and other
microscopic animals. Adult scup feed upon bottom invertebrates including small crabs, annelid
worms, clams, mussels, jellyfish, and sand dollars. Each year as many as 80% of all juvenile scup fall
prey to larger predators such as cod, bluefish, and weakfish.

Management

Recreational fishing constitutes a significant proportion of the total harvest of scup. From
1977 to 1985, an average of 24% (ranging from 1 7% to 33%) of the harvest of scup along the
east coast was taken by anglers.

Scup populations on the east coast have displayed periodic cycles of abundance over the last
twenty years, with any change in population density generally lasting for 2 to 4 years before being
reversed. Commercial and recreational catches peaked in the 1950s to 1960s, declined markedly by
the early 1970s, and recovered to relatively high levels before 1980. Much of the increase in harvest
in the 1970s is attributed to an increase in fixed gear and otter trawl activity' in the southern New
England region. Harvest levels have steadily declined since 1981, with 1985 commercial landings
24% below the average for the previous 7-year period and the 1984-1985 recreational catch the
lowest since 1972.

Scup are currently being harvested at the maximum level their populations can withstand. The
Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries has established a minimum legal size limit for scup (7
inches in 1987) to protect this species from the longterm effects that any additional increase in
harvest might engender.

Angling and Handling Tips

Scup feed frantically and fight energetically when hooked, thereby providing angling
enjoyment for the entire family. This little scrambler is especially fun for children, as a
school of actively feeding scup typically provides non-stop fishing action.

Scup provide particularly exciting battles when anglers use either a medium-weight spinning
or light-weight surf outfit carrying a 10-to 20-pound test line. Some anglers prefer jigging small
lures, but the overwhelming majority prefer bait fishing. A typical rig includes the following. A
bank sinker is tied to the end of the line. One to 3 snelled hooks (size #1 to #8) are then tied to loops

6 to 10 inches above the sinker. Sea worms, squid strips, and pieces of clam or fish work well as bait.
Squid strips are favored because they last well through the frantic attacks a school of scup will make
upon baited hooks.

Although scup are quick to grab a bait, they are
difficult to hook. For greatest success anglers
need to become adept at setting the hook as
soon as the tip of the fishing rod shows
the slightest dipping, or at lifting the
baited hooks gently off the bot-
tom to induce fish to strike
sharply rather than allowing
them to nibble at the bait.
Upon finding a school of
actively feeding scup,
some anglers lower the
bait to the bottom,
count to five and set
the hook, rather than
risk having their bait
stolen while waiting for the
subtle nibble of this fish.

Scup do not spoil as
quickly as many other fish,
which must be immediately
cleaned or placed in ice. Still,
timely icing and cleaning is recom-
mended in order to enjoy the full sweetness of this species' flavor. Simple methods of preparation
are best. Favored recipes include frying or poaching and serving with melted butter or margarine
and a slice of lemon or lime. Large scup are delicious when lightly coated with butter, margarine,
or mayonnaise and grilled over a charcoal or gas fire. Leaving the scaled skin on the fillets will help
hold the flesh together when grilling.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry
and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetcs Cooperative Extension •

Coopers

Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Mako Shark

Qovt

he mako shark, a recreational species renowned for the acrobatic battle it pro4/&i^/^^

^"1989

native to the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It occurs along the Atlantic Coast fro^
the Caribbean to as far north as the Gulf of Maine, where it is a summer resident only. ^^^^itOfy

The mako is a member of the mackerel shark family. This group is distinguished from other
North Atlantic sharks in having a half-moon-shaped tail with the lower lobe only slightly smaller
than the upper, and a caudal peduncle (A on diagram) that is widely expanded to form a distinctive
lateral keel. The mako is most easily distinguished from other members of this family in our region
by the shape of its
teeth, which do
not contain spurs
as do those of the
porbeagle shark,
and are more
pointed and con-
siderably sHmmer
than those of the
great white shark.

Typically the
mako is grayish-
blue dorsally, pal-
ing to white on the lower sides and belly.

The largest mako caught on hook and line, was landed off the coast of
New York. It weighed 1250 pounds and was over 10 feet in length. The
Massachusetts record, caught off Noman's Island in 1987, weighed 630
pounds. The largest makos may reach up to 13 feet in length, but average-
sized fish are 5 to 8 feet long. One-year-olds are about 47 inches, and 4-year-
olds about 78 inches in length.

Males become sexually mature when they are 3 to 4 years of age, while females mature at about
7 years of age. As in many sharks, fertilization of egg cells occurs internally in makos. The female
mako shark carries the developing young throughout a prolonged period of embryological
development. Thus, instead of releasing large numbers of eggs to be fertilized in the water column,
as most fish do, female mako sharks give birth to only one or several very large young.

^Opy

tts

Habits

ako sharks are oceanic fish, never occurring within coastal inshore waters less than 30 feet
deep. They are typically found at or near the surface in offshore areas.

Makos migrate to northerly latitudes during the warm months of summer. As waters cool in
the fall, they swim southward along the Continental Shelf to winter in the Caribbean.

Male sharks have two specialized copulatory organs, the claspers, which are derived from
pelvic fins (B on diagram). These allow sperm to be passed into the reproductive tract of the
female. After eggs are fertilized, they develop within the uteri of the female. Developing young are
nourished largely by yolk reserves deposited around the egg cells before fertilization. During later
stages of development, they may also feed upon unfertilized egg cells or uterine fluids. After about
one year of embryological development, a female mako gives birth to one or several young, each
measuring 24 to 31 inches in length. Shark offspring are generally much larger and more highly
developed than are newly hatched young in species that reproduce by external fertilization. Thus,
the prolonged period of internal incubation furnishes young sharks with a much higher probability
of survival than is characteristic of the majority of fish species.

Makos feed heavily upon schools of smaller fish such as mackerel and herring, but also attack
large fish such as the swordfish. In the southern New England region, bluefish can comprise up to
80% of this species' diet.

Management

In 1986, an estimated 2,322,000 sharks, excluding dogfish, were landed recreationally along
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. The middle Atlantic states landed the
highest proportion at approximately 1,141,000 fish; 33,000 sharks were harvested along the
northeast coast. The mako has been one of the most avidly sought shark species. It is pursued in
private or charter boats 20 to 60 feet long that are powered by everything from outboards to large
diesel engines.

Mako sharks are also harvested by commercial operations, taken either as by-catch by pelagic
longline vessels pursuing tuna, or by a bottom longline fishery directed specifically toward makos.
Shark bottom longline gear may be composed of up to 300 baited hooks strung along an 8-mile
line, and pelagic (mid-water column) tuna longline gear may have up to 2,200 baited hooks spaced
along a line up to 60 or 70 miles long.

A Preliminary Management Plan for Atlantic sharks was prepared in fall 1987 by the Regional
Management Councils (established by the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management
Act) in order to reduce the potentially conflicting interests of foreign and domestic fishermen,
including recreational anglers. This plan sets an annual quota for foreign landings, identifies
seasonal closures for regions off the Atlantic Coast, and establishes gear limitations (such as
minimum hook sizes) for foreign vessels participating in the directed shark longline fisher\'. As of
1988, no state regulations have been established to control harvest of this species in Massachusetts
territorial waters.

Angling and Handling Tips

he mako is one of the most exciting recreational species in our region. This species,
particularly noted for its spectacular leaping abilit>^ can be pursued without a major
investment in specialized equipment.

Most makos range from 50 to 300 pounds and can be landed with 30- to 50-
pound test dacron line. A strong wire leader that will resist cutting by the mako's sharp
teeth and rough skin is a necessity. The mako prefers baits with a high oil content,
such as bluefish and mackerel; however, it will strike at a variety' of baits when attracted
to them. Bait should be placed whole or in paired fillets on size 8/0 to 14/0 hooks.

A variety of tactics is used to attract sharks to the area of baited hooks. Sharks can
be attracted from great distances by low frequency vibrations set up by sound waves in the
water. Anglers pound or bang objects off the side of the boat or splash buckets in the water
as a means of attracting sharks. A few go to extremes, such as playing music from water-
proof speakers placed in the water.

Chumming is considered the most effective way to attract sharks. The simplest
method is to periodically ladle a mixture of ground fish and water over the side of
the boat, occasionally adding chunks of fish to the chum slick.

When a mako picks up the bait and starts swimming, line
should be free-spooled before the hook is set. After a brief
run, the hook should be set hard three or four times.
Extreme care should be taken when the fish is ready to
be landed. Once gaffed, a mako is capable of wrenching
the gaff from the angler's grip or bending it out of
shape. Never attempt
to boat the mako
prematurely; such
action will result in
a lost fish, destroyed

gear, or possibly severe
damage to the boat or
angler before the fish
subdued. It is best for the
novice shark fisherman to accompany
someone experienced, so that shark fishing can
be learned safely.

Although shark meat was long ago accepted as
desirable table fare by many cultures, only recently has it
been marketed under its own name in the United States. As
other traditional seafoods, such as swordfish, have become less avail-

able and more expensive, more people have been willing to substitute shark as a specialty fish item
in their menu.

The blood and tissues of sharks contain unusually high amounts of urea, which must be
drained to prevent the flesh from becoming unpalatable; thus, makos should be bled as soon as
possible after capture. Careful immediate icing is also a necessity to prevent the flesh from building
up an ammonia flavor. Mako steaks can be soaked in brine (use uniodized salt) and/or marinated in
citrus juice prior to cooking.

Grilling mako is quick and simple. Marinate one-inch-thick steaks in orange juice and lemon
slices for at least one hour. Remove from the marinade, pat dry and brush with mayonnaise or olive
oil, and add some freshly ground pepper. Grill on a hot fire or broil four inches from heat for five
minutes on a side and serve with a quartered hme.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusettf^ Cooperative Extension

• Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Tautog

^ ^ he tautog (or "tog"), a popular inshore game fish, has ranked as high as fourth

m recent Cbny ^^tts

years in poundage taken by recreational anglers in Massachusetts. This species lives along
the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to South Carolina, with the greatest number lying along
inshore waters from southern Cape Cod to the Delaware Capes. It does not sustain a recreational
fishery north of Massachusetts.

The tautog is a stout fish with a blunt nose and a thick-
lipped mouth that has large conical teeth in front
and flat crushing teeth in back. The single dorsal
fin (A on diagram) originates over the gill slit and
runs back nearly to the tail. The
anterior three-quarters of this
fin possesses a series of stiff,
sharp spines. The anal fin (B)
has three spines, and the paired
pelvic fins (C) have one spine
each.

The color of the tautog's dorsal
area ranges from dark green to black, with these
shades mottling a lighter background color on the

sides. The belly is only slightly lighter than the sides. The white chin characteristic
of large tautog has led many anglers to call this fish the "white chin."

Although capable of reaching relatively large sizes, tautog are very slow-growing. The largest
tautog caught with hook-and-line in Massachusetts weighed 22 pounds 9 ounces. However, the
average fish caught by anglers is 6 to 10 years old and weighs 2 to 4 pounds. The table below lists
the average lengths and weights attained by male and female tautog at selected ages. Males
typically grow faster and hve longer than females. The maximum age for males appears to be about

35 years.

Length

Weight

in Inches

lbs. and ozs.

males

0 3

0 9

2 0

3 7

5 8

12 to 15

10 0

18 to 27

Age

females

2
4
7

9 to 11
13 to 20

no data
available

Both sexes mature at 3 or 4 years of age.
The fecundity (number of eggs produced in a
spawning season) of females is directly related
to their size and weight. Females 12 inches
long and 1 pound in weight produce about
30,000 eggs, while females 20 inches long and
5 pounds produce about 196,000 eggs per
season.

Habits

In the northern part of their range, tautog are typically encountered within several miles of
shore in water less than 60 feet deep. More southern populations can be found somewhat
farther offshore. Tautog frequently follow flood tides inshore to feed in the intertidal areas, and
drop back to deeper waters with the following ebb tides.

Tautog are found in association with cover, hovering around steep, rocky shorelines or hiding
near wrecks, wharf pilings, piers, jetties, mussel and oyster beds, and boulder-strewn bottoms.
They generally stay within localized home ranges while feeding and resting. While on their
summering grounds, tautog establish a "home site," a protected spot in which they rest every
night. Small tautog do not venture far from their home site during the day, but adults range widely
when feeding.

Tautog do not undertake seasonal migration, but tend to move inshore as water temperatures
rise in spring, and overwinter in large groups offshore in waters 50 to 1 50 feet deep in areas where
the bottom is covered with large boulders. Fish less than 10 inches long may remain in shallow
estuaries throughout the winter. Some fish remain offshore all year, exhibiting no movement
except when searching for food or cover.

In Massachusetts, tautog reproduce from May until August, with peak spawning activity
occurring in June at water temperatures of 62 to 70 degrees F. Most spawning takes place inshore
in areas dominated by eelgrass beds. Although they intermix in large groups for the rest of the year,
tautog tend to remain in small, discrete groups during the spawning season. After reaching sexual
maturity, many fish return to the same spawning area each year throughout their lives.

The fertilized eggs are buoyant, floating for about 2 days before hatching. Within 4 days after
hatching, the larvae begin feeding on microscopic plankton.

Juvenile and adult tautog are exclusively daytime feeders, with feeding peaks at dawn and
dusk. They are usually so inactive at night that divers can easily catch them by hand as they lie
motionless on the bottom. Tautog feed upon shallow water invertebrates such as mussels, clams,
crabs, sand dollars, amphipods, shrimp, small lobsters, and barnacles. Juveniles and adults hving
around shoreline ledges feed heavily on blue mussels; their flat grinding teeth are well-suited for
crushing the hard shells of such animals.

Management

Tautog population levels have been generally stable since colonial times. This species has
historically had little market value, and thus has not been commercially exploited.
However, in recent years the poundage taken by commercial fishermen has increased markedly.
Between 1983 and 1986, the poundage of tautog landed by gear other than hook and line has
increased nearly three times, as indicated in the figure. This increase in harvest, generally
occurring throughout coastal areas of southern New England and New York, is due in part to an

increase in the tautog's market value as other traditionally more valuable commercial species
become less abundant and harder to catch. Slow-growing species such as the tautog can be reduced
in abundance easily by exploitation. One of the first signs of overexploitation of such species is a

marked reduction in the average size of
fish harvested; this phenomenon is cur-
rently being exhibited by tautog fisher-
ies. Massachusetts is monitoring the
effects of commercial and recreational
harvests to determine whether regula-
tions governing landings will be needed
in future years.

100,000-

80,000-

20,000-

Total Commercial Landings
of Tautog in Massachusetts

82
Year

Angling and Handling Tips

Tautog are hard-fighting, tough on tackle, and excellent on the table. Tog are one of the first
species available to anglers in the spring and one of the last available in the fall. Anglers are
particularly successful from April through May, and in early fall when tautog are concentrated in
the greatest numbers along shorelines. While the best
fishing is centered on Cape Cod, tautog can be
caught all along the Massachusetts coast
from Cape Ann to the South Shore.

Tog are
caught

either from a boat at anchor or by casting anywhere along Massachusetts' rocky shoreHnes.
Anglers use bait such as a large piece of seaworm, whole or halved crabs (green, rock, hermits, or
fiddlers), and pieces of conch, snails, or cracked clams.

A rod with "backbone" is required to catch this battling fish. Most anglers choose a medium-
action spinning or conventional rod with 20- to 30-pound test line, and use a "no hardware"
2-hook rig with a sinker tied to the bottom.

It is important to stay alert after casting or lowering the bait into the water, as fish often hit the
bait as soon as it reaches the bottom. All slack line should be taken in as soon as the bait stops
sinking. Once a fish picks up the bait, let it tap once or twice, and set the hook hard, lifting the tog
away from the bottom before the line becomes entangled in rocks.

The fine flavor of the tautog has often been likened to that of the red snapper. Traditionally, it
has been considered an ideal chowder fish. Its firm, mildly-flavored flesh also lends itself well to
baking and broiling, when using recipes developed for species such as striped bass.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries ^

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Tomcod

On/i

The tomcod, a popular winter recreational species along the Massachusetts coastline
native to most of the northwestern Atlantic, from the Canadian Maritime Provinces south
to Virginia. Its center of abundance extends from coastal Newfoundland to the New York bight
region. A typical inhabitant of brackish water, this fish is also found landlocked in several
freshwater lakes of coastal Canada.

Like other members of the cod family such as the haddock, cod, and pollock, the tomcod has
3 dorsal fins (A on diagram) and 2 anal fins (B). The tomcod can be distinguished most easily
from these other species by the presence of elongate
rays (support elements) in its pelvic fins
(C) and a rounded tail.

Tomcod are olive
or brownish-green on
the back and upper
sides, paling to white
or yellowish-gray on
the belly. The back and
sides are tinged with yellow
darkly mottled. The dorsal
the same color as the back,
pale gray.

The tomcod can weigh up to 1 '/4 pounds and measure 1 5 inches; however, most
individuals weigh less than a pound and measure less than 12 inches in length. Although some
tomcod reach 4 or 5 years of age, few exceed the age of 3.

Both males and females reach sexual maturity by the end of their first year. The fecundity
(number of eggs produced in a given season) of females increases with size and weight. Two- and
3-year-old females from the Weweantic River carried 6,000 to 30,000 eggs. In analyses of
Canadian populations, the largest females (14 inches in length) carried as many as 65,780 eggs.

ine, is ^ %y ^""^ts

Habits

The tomcod is a near-shore inhabitant along the Canadian and Gulf of Maine coasts; south
of Cape Cod it can be found somewhat farther from the coastline, although never
occurring more than 1 mile from shore, nor in water deeper than 20 feet. Although tomcod are
sometimes caught by anglers on open, exposed shores, most fish prefer shallow, protected bays and
the mouths of rivers with expansive eelgrass beds.

Tomcod are called "frostfish" because they appear in very shallow water during the fall and
winter. They exhibit no migratory pattern in the Gulf of Maine, but south of Cape Cod they tend
to move into deeper waters in the spring and summer and return to shallow bays and estuaries in
the late fall and winter. Tomcod are extremely tolerant of the sudden changes in temperature and
salinity that are characteristic of life in shallow estuarine waters.

Tomcod reproduce in brackish or freshwater areas of estuaries and streams from November to
early February, with peak spawning activity occurring from December to early January. The eggs
are demersal (sink to the bottom) and adhere in clumps to seaweeds, rocks, or other projections of
the substrate. The eggs hatch after 22 to 35 days, depending upon water temperature; eggs in
warmer waters hatch more rapidly than those in colder waters. Within several days after hatching,
larvae begin to feed on microscopic invertebrates.

Larvae normally drift downstream into the estuary, where they stay throughout their first
summer. Juvenile tomcod are found in greatest numbers in beds of eel grass, which provide them
with shelter and food resources. While in estuaries and quiet bays from October to May, adult
tomcod exhibit activity patterns keyed to tidal fluctuations. During flood tides they actively feed
over subtidal flats, while during ebb tides they move to deeper channels nearby.

Tomcod eat many types of fish and invertebrates. Shrimp and amphipods make up the
greatest portion of their diet. They also eat small molluscs, squid, marine worms, and small fish
such as smelt, sticklebacks, alewives, shad, herring, cunners, mummichogs, sand lance and even
young striped bass. Mainly bottom feeders, tomcod use the chin barbel and long rays of the pelvic
fins to detect food on the substrate over which they are swimming.

he tomcod supported a very modest inshore commercial fishery through the early 20th

^ Century. In 1929, about 28,000 pounds of tomcod were harvested and marketed in
Massachusetts, Maine, and the Canadian shores of the Gulf of Maine. In Massachusetts, the
commercial harvest was largely a hook-and-line fishery north, and a trap-and-weir fishery south of
Plymouth. By 1942, the commercial fishery had generally disappeared from Massachusetts, but
persisted in Maine and Nova Scotia, where 27,500 pounds were reported landed. No commercial
harvest of this species has occurred since the early 1950s.

The recreational fishery for tomcod is most active in the winter and early spring in estuaries
and in the mouths of coastal streams. This species is frequently caught incidentally during the
active recreational smelt fishery that is conducted along the Massachusetts coast. As of 1988, there
are no restrictions on recreational harvest of the tomcod in Massachusetts.

Management

Angling and Handling Tips

Tomcod are referred to as "frostfish" for good reason. The most active fishery for tomcod
occurs during this species' spawning migrations into tidal rivers in the winter, long after
most anglers have traded their fishing poles for a warm spot next to the fireplace. Thus, two of the
most important prerequisites for success are selecting a mild sunny day and wearing good warm
clothing!

Anglers pursue the tomcod from docks, bridges, and banks of shallow harbors, estuaries, and
tidal rivers. One cardinal rule is generally followed when fishing for tomcod: use light gear. A light
spinning rod and a reel spooled with 6-pound or lighter line is a typical outfit. Although tomcod
will strike small artificial lures that resemble shrimp or bait fish, most anglers use live or cut bait.
Clams, shrimp, cut fish, or sea worms placed on small hooks are popular baits. A sinker just heavy
enough to hold the bait near the bottom should be tied to the line.

The tomcod is a "pan fish" with a high meat-to-bone ratio. After a cold day of fishing, the
tomcod is an "out of the water and into the pan" treat that will delight those who try it. Tomcod are
_ are usually fried whole and served with tartar sauce or lemon;

they can also be broiled for a healthy and tasty meal. When
broiling, use a whole, gutted fish; leaving the head on yields
moister flesh after cooking. Fish should be dusted with
flour; dotted with butter, margarine, or a little oil;
and placed in an oiled baking pan. They should
be placed 3 inches from the heat and broiled
for 3 to 5 minutes per side, depending upon
size, until they are golden-brown.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Bluefin Tuna

70.

he bluefin tuna, the largest living species of bony fish, is a revered recreational wa)}y p '^USofi

coasts of North America.

important commercial species on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America
In the western Atlantic, it ranges from Newfoundland to the southern West Indies. It is a summer
visitor to the coast of Massachusetts.

Although a member of the mackerel family, a group noted for their streamlined appearance,
the bluefin is a robust species. The body tapers anteriorly to a pointed nose and posteriorly to a
slim caudal peduncle (A on diagram) and a deeply con-
cave tail. The two
dorsal fins (B) are
separated by a deep
notch, and the anal fin
(C) is similar in size and
shape to the posterior
dorsal fin. Like other
members of the
mackerel family,
bluefin tuna have a
series of small
finlets posterior to the
second dorsal fin and the anal fin.

Bluefin tuna are dark blue to almost black with a gray or green irides-
cence on the back and upper sides. The lower sides are silvery (occasion-
ally with an iridescent pink tinge), and are often marked with gray spots and bands. All the fins are
dark; the finlets are bright yellow, tipped in black.

Bluefin tuna are often categorized into four size groups: young school tuna (less than 28 inches
in length and 14 pounds in weight), school tuna (28 to 56 inches and 14 to 134 pounds), medium
tuna (57 to 76 inches and 1 35 to 309 pounds), and giant tuna (more than 76 inches and 309 pounds).
Tuna on the Atlantic Coast run considerably larger than do fish on the Pacific Coast or in the
Mediterranean Sea. Atlantic giants may reach lengths exceeding 10 feet and can weigh well over
1000 pounds. The largest bluefin tuna caught by an angler in Massachusetts waters weighed 1228
pounds. This rapidly growing species will often weigh about 10 pounds at 1 year, 35 pounds at 3
years, 90 pounds at 5 years, and over 300 pounds by 10 years of age. Fish in excess of 600 pounds
are normally at least 14 to 15 years old.

Bluefin tuna reach sexual maturity when they are about 4 years of age. The fecundity (number
of eggs produced in a single year) of females increases with increasing size and age; a 440-pound
female may produce over 25 million eggs.

Habits

Bluefin tuna travel both in schools and individually in inshore and offshore areas. They
rarely occur more than 300 feet below the surface and are occasionally sighted swimming
at the surface with their dorsal fins exposed above the water.

Bluefins follow extensive migratory routes within the Atlantic Ocean. Larger fish can tolerate
waters as low as 50 to 54 degrees F, but smaller fish stay in areas where temperatures do not fall
below 60 degrees F. Thus, giant tuna appear in New England waters by the end of June, having
moved northward along the Atlantic Coast from Florida, while smaller fish do not typically arrive
in our region until the late summer and fall. Reproduction takes place in the Straits of Florida from
May to early June, before this species' northward migration.

Unlike most fish whose body temperatures match the temperatures of the surrounding water,
tuna have the ability to regulate their internal body temperatures. This remarkable adaptation
allows bluefin tuna to maintain body temperatures within a 5 degree F limit when exposed to
waters with as much as a 30 degree F range. This temperature control helps tuna maintain very
high swimming speeds over prolonged periods of time. Bluefin tuna are noted open-water
predators, chasing and feeding upon schooling species such as herring, mackerel, silver hake, and
squid.

Management

Although historically a valued food fish in the Mediterranean and the West Coast of the
U.S., until this century bluefin were considered little more than a nuisance along the East
Coast of North America. Landings along the East Coast have increased dramatically as markets
have developed since the turn of the century. For example, annual landings for the coasts of Maine
and Massachusetts increased from less than 100,000 to nearly 2,000,000 pounds between 1919 and
1948. Over 6,250,000 pounds were landed in Massachusetts alone in 1975. Consistently increasing
fishing pressure along the entire East Coast during the past several decades has significandy
reduced the bluefin tuna resource. The value of bluefin tuna in the Japanese market has been a
major driving force in this recent period of intensive exploitation.

The range of this highly migratory species extends well beyond U.S. territorial waters. The
Magnuson Fishery Management and Conservation Act of 1976 (the "220-mile limit law")
specifically excludes the United States from having sole management responsibility for tuna
resources. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICC AT)
recommends catch quotas for the bluefin tuna; these quotas are meant to maintain the bluefin
resource at levels that will sustain future maximum harvests. Quotas are then allocated to nations
participating in this fishery (the United States, Canada, and Japan). Under this allocation system,
the United States has received approximately 52% of the total allowable armual harvest from 1982

to 1987. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is responsible for
regulating harvests by U.S. citizens and their vessels. The allocation to the United States is
presently divided among 5 categories of fisheries:

1. a limited-entry purse seine fishery,

2. a harpoon fishery,

3. a general fishery including hook and line,
hand line, and harpoon vessels.

4. an incidental catch fishery where bluefin
are landed by vessels fishing for other
species or other size classes of bluefin, and

5. an angling fishery for small fish.

Under this system, no one can participate in more than one cate-
gory. Fishing within any category may be regulated by closed
seasons, size and number limitations, and/or gear restrictions.
Once allocations intended for a particular category- are met,
the fishery for that category is closed for
the year. Within a season, the Assis-
tant Administrator for Fisheries
(NOAA) can adjust allotments
by drawing on a portion of
the total allocation that
has been held in
reserve.

Angling and Handling Tips

The bluefin tuna (or "horse mackerel," as it was once called) is the ultimate big-game fish. It
is more than a greatly desired trophy; it is also revered as a food species. Many anglers are
willing to endure the hours of fishing typically necessary to hook into a bluefin in order to land one
of these magnificent fish.

Bluefin are pursued largely from private and charter boats. The greatest success is achieved in
areas of pronounced drop-offs and deep trenches adjacent to shallower waters.

Many anglers prefer the stand-up tuna rods and a 4/0 to 6/0 reel spooled with 30 to 80-pound
test dacron line. These rods are shorter and easier to use than are trolling rods. A variety of artificial

lures including diamond jigs, spoons, leadhead tuna feathers, 6-inch plastic squids, multi-squid
rigs, daisy chains, and Kona or jet heads can be used. Live bait fishing is often accomplished by
chunking. This method consists of first dropping chum and pieces of fish overboard at frequent
intervals. After a few minutes, whole fish such as butterfish are placed on a 4/0 to 8/0 hook and
dropped overboard into the "chum shck."

Giant fish are rarely retained for home consumption due to their extremely high value in
Japanese markets. However, anglers often retain small school tuna for the table. Once landed, tuna
need immediate attention if their light flavor is to be fully retained. Tuna should be bled
immediately upon capture. Start by making a cut to the backbone just forward of the tail. Next, cut
about two inches into the flesh under the pectoral fin. Gut and chill the fish as soon as possible.
Later the tuna can be filleted, cut into steaks, and rinsed to flush out any remaining blood.

The Japanese prefer raw tuna prepared as sushi. However, the American palate typically
prefers cooked tuna. Tuna can be pressure cooked, broiled, baked, and grilled as a kabob or as
steaks covered with mayonnaise. Many people enjoy braising tuna. For this, tuna steaks should be
soaked in cold water for an hour, patted dry, dusted with flour, and sauteed in butter or olive oil.
After 10 minutes add pepper, parsley, seasoning of choice, and one cup of red or white wine. The
tuna should be basted with the liquid, and cooked until the sauce is reduced by about one half.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusens

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusens

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

Univershy of Massachiisetts Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries ^

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Weakfish

he weakfish, also called the squeteague or gray sea trout, ranges from southern Florida
north to Massachusetts Bay and occasionally to the waters off Nova Scotia. Abundant^''^
from the Virginia coast to the New Jersey shoreline, it occurs only as a summertime transient in'^Q^ '^<?''A
Massachusetts waters. Its occurrence north of Cape Cod is too spotty to sustain a recreational ^Op^ ^^^ff

fishery

The weakfish is a streamlined species, the body being about four times as long as it is deep. Its
head, about 1/3 the length of its body, has a pointed snout and large mouth. The upper jaw is
equipped with two large canine teeth and is shorter
than the lower jaw, which projects noticeably
beyond it. There are
two separate dorsal fins
(A on diagram). The
anterior dorsal is trian-
gular in shape and pos-
sesses a series of spines;
the posterior dorsal is
about three times the
length of the anterior. The anal fin (B)
is less than 1/2 as long as the posterior dc
sal. The tail is broad and slightly concave
outline.

Weakfish are dark green or olive above, and blazed with purple, blue, and gold on the back and
sides. Vertical rows of small dark spots occur on either side of the body. The belly is white. The
dorsal fins and tail are dark, the pelvic (C) and anal fins are yellow, and the pectoral fins (D) are
oUve, marked with yellow near the base.

The largest weakfish landed by a recreational angler in Massachusetts weighed 18 pounds 12
ounces. However, most weigh less than 6 pounds. Although avidly pursued as a sport fish, the
relatively slow-growing weakfish is at least several years old before it is large enough to be viewed
as a "keeper" by many anglers. Specimens that exceed 2 feet in length are at least 10 years old. The
adjoining table lists average lengths and weight ranges for weakfish up to the age of 6 years.
Both sexes become sexually mature at 3 to 4 years of age. The fecundity (number of eggs

produced in a season) of females
increases with age and size. An 1 1 inch
female produces about 260,000 eggs,
while a 22 inch female produces about
1,700,000 eggs in a given spawning
season.

Age

Length in Inches

Weight in Lbs.

7.5

less than 0.5

10.4

less than 0.5

12.2

0.7 to 1.0

14.8

1.0 to 1.5

17.1

1.3 to 1.8

18.9

1.7 to 2.5

Habits

The weakfish, although a frequent summer visitor to Cape Cod waters, is only occasionally
found in Massachusetts Bay. This species generally appears in southern Massachusetts in
May and leaves by October. Some fish move offshore to deeper, warmer waters in the winter, but
many are believed to migrate offshore and southward during this time of the year. Weakfish tend to
move about in schools of similar-sized individuals. Evidence from Delaware Bay suggests that in
the summer at least some of these schools are made up mostly of individuals of a single sex.

During the summer, weakfish inhabit inshore areas such as open sandy shorelines, bays and
estuaries, and even salt marsh creeks. They typically occur in water less than 30 feet deep.
Weakfish usually move about near the surface, although they also feed off the substrate in estuaries
and the surf of the open coast.

This species reproduces in the mid-Atlantic region from May to October. Spawning takes
place at night in estuaries and inshore areas. In years of high population abundance, weakfish may
spawn as far north as Woods Hole or even in Massachusetts Bay.

The buoyant eggs hatch 36 to 48 hours after fertilization. Initially, the larvae swim within the
water column, feeding upon microscopic plankton. When the larvae reach about 0.4 inches, they
move to the bottom of muddy creeks and coves.

Juvenile weakfish feed heavily upon small crustaceans, particularly shrimp. Adults occasion-
ally feed upon invertebrates such as crabs, shrimp, and squid. However, fish such as sand lance,
silversides, scup, mackerel, butterfish, and particularly juvenile menhaden constitute the major
portion of their diet.

Management

Historically, the abundance of weakfish along the southern New England coast has fluctu-
ated greatly, and this species occurs north of the southern shore of Cape Cod only when its
abundance peaks in the southern New England region.

Although supporting only a modest fishery in New England, the weakfish is avidly pursued
throughout the mid-Atlantic states. An estimated 1 1,106,000 fish were recreationally harvested in
the mid- Atlantic region in 1986, which ranked this species sixth among all recreational species of
that region.

As of spring 1988, there is no federal management plan overseeing the harvest of the weakfish,
although the Mid- Atlantic Fishery Management Council plans to develop a management strategy
in coming years. Since this species occurs only in modest numbers in Massachusetts' waters,
management of its fishery here would likely have little impact on its coastwide abundance, or its
continued occurrence in this state. Thus, the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries has not
established any regulations governing this species' harvest in our inshore waters. However, as
coastwide management plans are developed in the future, Massachusetts might establish regula-
tions as part of a multi-state effort in managing this resource.

Angling and Handling Tips

To catch weakfish, the angler needs to be aware of the bottom structures that provide cover
and cause currents to gather food for this species. These sites include docks, breakwaters,
rises in the bottom contour (such as sand bars), rocks that produce "rips" of water, deep water
drop-offs, and channels.

Typical gear includes a light- to medium-spinning outfit with a smooth drag and 8 to
15-pound test line. Weakfish cannot be "horsed in" with a heavy line because hooks will tear away
from their soft mouths, hence the name "weakfish."

Artificial lures are most effective in the spring and fall. Weakfish strike at a variety of lures,
including bright plastic shrimp, worms, bucktails, yellow leadheads, twisters, tubes, jigs, metal
lures, and sand eel imitations.

Anglers generally find baits more successful than lures in the heat of the summer. Weakfish
can be taken on a variety of baits including shrimp, seaworms, bunker, tinker mackerel, eels, strips
of squid, and sometimes snapper blues. Live baits on a 6/0 hook with a strong leader often work
best for big weakfish. Many anglers will use strips of bait on a standard 2-hook bottom rig with 2/0
or 3/0 hooks, up to 2 feet of monofilament leader, and a sinker (flat or round types for
bottom-fishing in calmer water, pyramid for fishing in surf).

The greatest success in landing weakfish is gained by anglers who show patience. The bail of
the reel should be open to allow the weakfish to run with the bait after picking it up. When the fish
stops running to swallow its catch, count to ten and set the hook, which by that time should be deep
into its throat. Patient retrieval of line is necessary to
prevent the hook from tearing away if the fish is
hooked in the mouth.

The flesh of weakfish, white
dish mid-stripe, has a mild, almost
sweet, flavor. "On-the-spot" icing
necessary to preserve its delicate
flavor and texture.

Weakfish can be pre-
pared in a variety of
ways. One popular
approach is to dip
weakfish in milk, dust
with flour, and saute in but-
ter or margarine for five minutes
turning once. Weakfish can be

steamed in broth, or broiled, until the meat flakes; then served with lemon. A popular method in
more southern areas is to stuff weakfish with crabmeat, wrap the fish in aluminum foil, and bake
over hot coals on the grill for 10 to 15 minutes.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202.

University of Massachusetts'Cooperative Extension • Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries \j

Marine Recreational Fisheries of Massachusetts

Y Windowpane

•<5

he windowpane flounder, or sand flounder, a common species in the shallows of Massa-

chusetts bays and out to Georges Bank, is native to the eastern coast of the United States . ^ '''^SSSgnk
from Maine to Florida. It is most abundant south of Cape Cod, and is abundant only in specific -^HOiy Qn^^ ^^^tts
areas north of the Cape.

Like other flatfish, windowpane flounders are laterally flattened and have both eyes located on
the upper side of the body. After hatching, larval flounders begin their lives with an eye on either
side of the head. However, as the larvae mature
one of the eyes migrates to the other side of
the head, and the body becomes
markedly flattened. Unlike most bot-
tom fish, which rest on their bel-
lies, flounders are able to lie on
one side with both eyes facing ^
upward. Windowpane
flounders are called left-
handed because both
eyes are on the upper
surface when the fish
is pointing to the left.

Windowpane
flounders are nearly
circular in shape and are
so thin that they appear
translucent when held up to
light. The tail is rounded at its
outer margin. The pelvic fins (A on
diagram) are broad-based and appear
nearly continuous with the anal fin (B
The first several rays of the windowpane's dorsal
fin (C) are branched and unconnected by membrane,
giving this fin a fringed appearance near the head. This characteristic
separates the windowpane from all other northwest Atlantic flatfish.

The windowpane varies less in color than do most shallow water flounders. Generally, it is pale
brown or olive green and mottled with irregularly-shaped small brown spots. The anal fin, dorsal

fin, and tail match the body color. The blind side is
white.

The maximum size of windowpane flounders is
about 18 inches in length and 2 pounds in weight.
Fish of 14 inches weigh about I pound. The young
grow rapidly during their first several years of life,
after which growth slows markedly. Females are

Age

Length in Inches

up to 7. 1

7.9 to 11.4

males 11.6 females 12.4

males 12.4 females 13.6

usually larger than males after the age of 3 years. Both sexes become sexually mature by 3 or 4 years
of age. The preceding table lists typical sizes of windowpane at several different ages.

Habits

Windowpane flounders live in shallow water on the sandy bottom, hence the name "sand
flounder." They occur from the intertidal zone to depths of nearly 150 feet in the
northern portion of their range, but can be found at depths up to 2,000 feet in more southern areas.
The windowpane is typically a year-round resident from southern New England northward.
Individual fish may wander considerable distances along the coast, causing frequent intermingling
among local populations. South of Cape Cod, these flounders tend to aggregate in shallow water in
summer and early fall, and move more offshore in winter and spring. Windowpane can tolerate
temperatures from 32 to 77 degrees F. However, this species' distribution is limited to areas where
summer water temperatures exceed 55 degrees F.

Windowpane flounders reproduce from spring to late summer in our region. Principal
spawning grounds range from Chesapeake Bay to Cape Cod, and spawning takes place in water
less than 120 feet deep. Estuaries serve as critical spawning habitat north of the New York Bight,
but seem less important to the south.

The eggs are buoyant, floating near the surface for about 8 days before hatching. Larvae
usually occur in water at depths of 65 to 131 feet. When they metamorphose to flatfish (before they
reach V2 inch in length), they move to the bottom, eventually descending to deeper waters as they
mature.

Adults analyzed from Long Island Sound fed mostly upon species of shrimp, with small fish
occurring only infrequently in their diet. Specimens from North Carolina contained fish as well as
crabs and shrimp, and fish analyzed from Woods Hole had eaten small hake, herring, sand lance,
and silversides. Various small invertebrates such as annelid worms, squids, and small molluscs also
have been foimd in windowpane stomachs.

Management

Historically, the windowpane had little commercial, and modest recreational, value. Its
small, thin body does not produce as desirable a fillet as other, larger bodied flatfish. A
commercial market developed for windowpane during World War II, but declined shortly
thereafter. Commercial landings peaked at less than 360,000 pounds in 1945.

The decline in abundance of other flatfish species, particularly the yellowtail flounder, has
prompted commerical vessels to land greater numbers of the windowpane in recent years. New
Bedford, Massachusetts, has been a center of this activity. Commercial and recreational harvests

remain relatively modest, although they are increasing annually. To protect the windowpane from
potential over-harvest, the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries maintains a minimum
legal size limit for this species.

Angling and Handling Tips

The windowpane has traditionally held only modest interest for anglers due to the difficulty
in removing fillets from its thin body. In recent years, anglers have directed increasing
attention toward this flavorful species because it continues to be available while other larger
inshore flatfish species become scarce.

Anglers catch windowpanes using gear and methods similar to those used for other flatfish,
such as the summer flounder. Many anglers prefer light tackle, such as a medium-action spinning
rod strung with 10- to 1 5-pound test line. Line this heavy is necessary because of the likelihood of
occasionally hooking other, somewhat larger species when fishing for windowpane. Size #1 hooks
with snells or leaders can be tied to the line 12 to 18 inches below a sinker. A variety of baits can be
used, such as sandworms, bloodworms, pieces of clams or even small strips of squid. However, fish
strips or sand eels, retrieved along the bottom, may provide the greatest angling success. Hooks
should be checked frequently in order to keep bait fresh.

Some anglers fillet this species, while others do not because they do not want to waste the meat
near the frame bones. They simply scale, gut, and remove the head from the fish. Whole, cleaned
windowpane are typicaly floured and pan fried.

Filleting the windowpane may be a greater challenge than catching it. Use a thin-bladed knife
to fillet this species. Cut behind the head and gill and slice down the lateral line to the tail. A raised
ridge of bones running from the head to the tail along the mid-lateral portion of the body naturally
divides the fillet on either side into upper and lower halves. To remove these fillets, position the
fish with its tail toward you. Cut along the frame, removing the fillet from the mid-line bones to the
dorsal fin; use the same method to remove the lower fillet from the same side. Turn the fish over
and repeat. Removing these fillets so that little meat is wasted requires experience. With practice,
each fish will provide 4 thin but tasty pieces of
meat.

Windowpane fillets have a mild, sweet
flavor and are excellent when prepared
with any flatfish recipe. Try the
two easy, quick methods of
cooking on the following
page.

1) Dredge fillets in flour. Saute them in butter or margarine until lightly browned,
turning each fillet once during cooking. Season to taste and sprinkle with parsley and
lemon juice.

2) Quick broil under high heat for several minutes, basting with butter, or margarine.
Add parsley and serve with a quarter wedge of lime.

Michael R. Ross and Laura A. Thorpe
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management
University of Massachusetts

Robert C. Biagi
Cooperative Extension
University of Massachusetts

Produced by Cooperative Extension Communications Center. Liz Scott, design; Nancy Haver, Roy Lewando, illustration. University of
Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture, and Massachusetts counties cooperating. Issued by E. Bruce MacDougail,
Dean, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension offers equal opportunity in programs and
employment. When a product name is mentioned, no discrimination is implied against similar or equivalent products. CR60:I2/87-10M

This publication is part of the Marine Recreational Fisheries series, available from the Division of Marine Fisheries, 100 Cambridge
Street, Boston, MA 02202. , ,

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