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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 556

Gantibution from the Forest Service ©
_ HENRY S. GRAVES, Ferester_

Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 15, 1917:

MECHANICAL PROP! = 28 OF WOODS
GROWN IN THE UNITED STATES.

i A. NEWLIN, in Charge of Timber Tests
and THOMAS R.C. WILSON, Engineer i in
Forest Products

ee oY

CONTENTS ©

: Page -
Fursese of the Study . . .. =...» £ | Glessary . etapa tea °
Scone and Methed of LExperiments. . . 3 | Formule Used in Computing ec
Precautions to be G Giserved in the Use ef died Kita beer rience gre nett A

CU PALS ares en 8 ah ee Maple 27:5 ores ea cats .
Penis GnCreen Pan Der x 6 ke eo List of Publications and Papers Dealing
Data cn Aiy-dry PURSUE croc Se Coma with the Mechanical Properties of
Ezplanation of Tables Tea Papeete es SDSL regs Ohta ees ser en eereny ee eee
Exp? anaiien Oe ee SNS es -

WASHINGTON _
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

FOREST SERVICE. _

HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. _ :
ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Foyester.

| BRANCH OF RESEARCH. _ es ee
Re Barie H, Ciarp, Assistant Forester, in charge. ees:
mY : Be pt
io Forrest Propucts LABORATORY. :
. Canute P. Winstow, Director. eS nae
> - ° Frank J. Haniaver, in charge of Review. — ht: ae
_ «SECTION OF TIMBER TESTS+ gee
J. A. Newir, Engineer in Forest Products, in charge. ee

T. R. C. Witson, Engineer in Forest Products, —

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF pene See

Ny BULLETIN No. 556.
Sues
a ANS Contribution from the Forest Service

HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 15, 1917

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN
THE UNITED STATES.

By J. A. NEwLun, In Charge of Timber Tests, and Tuos. R. C. Witson, Engineer in
Forest Products.

CONTENTS.
Page Page
Urpose OF (DO SbUGY: 25. </-j--:js\'0 5005 -- 2-2 2s Lee XplanagiomOl RAO 4. c2 soe see ee eee ae 18
Scope and method of experiments..........- Sal |G lOSSALY: Sete oe eee oe ee ae gemenee 20
Precautions to be observed in the use of the Formule used in computing ........-.....-- 24
CES GF UGS ER GE SE Bits es Hi pear ae Asal Dayo Vie’. coe see one Ne ws ane Genes tale heel NN LG 26
Data on green timber..............-...------ (fice Bei} o) (eae Aart eas As stn ral ae a ge og 37
Dataoniair-dny, timbers se) 2262 oe. ae 62 oe 7 | List of publications and papers dealing with
Explanation of Tables 1 and 2............-.. 7 the mechanical properties of timber-........ 46

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.

This publication on the mechanical properties of wood makes
available for general use data which will serve as a basis for (1) the
comparison of species, (2) the choice of species for particular uses,
and (3) the establishment of correct working stresses.

The increasing scarcity of many species of timber which had become
more or less standard in various wood-using industries is opening
the field for other, species. Through long use the properties which
make the standard species valuable for a particular purpose are quite
well understood, but it is doubtful if many manufacturers know to
what extent other species possess those same qualities and to what
extent they might replace the standard species. Present conditions
will not permit long, tedious, and expensive experiments with com-
mercial forms to establish new species in the industries; and to avoid
this it is necessary to have definite information and data on both the
new and the old species. With such test data at hand it is possible
to compare the properties of a known species with those of any other.
The possibility of substitution generally reduces to the few species
which possess qualities approaching those previously in use. If the

91728°—Bull. 556—17——1

2 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

properties making a particular wood valuable for a certain purpose |

are known, the comparison is made the easier.
As an example of the foregoing, suppose it is desired to find a wood

for flooring for use in the place of maple. For flooring, hardness —

is the ruling factor, providing, of course, the wood possesses other
strength properties to a reasonable degree. Using hardness as a
basis for comparison, white oak should be as good or better than
maple for flooring, which is true. Using modulus of rupture, which
is a very important strength value in structural material but of very
little importance in flooring, as a basis for comparison, longleaf pine
or Douglas fir would unjustly be given preference to oak.

In addition to their value in expediting the search for substitute
woods, the data presented in this bulletin are of use to manufacturers
and others in furnishing definite information concerning the proper-
ties of all commercial woods. This information is used in many
different ways, several of which are briefly discussed in the following
paragraph.

In the preparation of specifications and grading rules for structural
timber it is essential to know the relation between physical and
mechanical properties, and the results of the tests here reported have
been used by a number of associations and societies in preparing
such rules. They are also used by architects and engineers in deter-
mining safe working stresses for wood in structures, in connection
with tests upon full-sized members. In the case of new uses for wood,
which frequently arise in special constructions, such as airplanes, for
instance, these data are of much help in selecting the species which
have the specific properties best fitting them for these uses.

In order to cover the ground successfully, this bulletin must fur-
nish information on all mechanical properties of wood; and with that
end in view no effort has been spared in making a complete compila-
tion of the information at hand. There are few uses of timber where
at least some of the properties given in the table are not of importance.

The Forest Service tests are standardized and the data contained
herein on any one species are directly comparable with similar data
on any other species listed. These tests obviously eliminate a great
amount of duplication which would result from individual investi-
gations. Industries anxious to find new species to supplant waning
supplies of present material would doubtless make tests adapted
to their own particular purpose which would probably throw no
light on other properties valuable for uses not in their line. In many
cases the tendency would be to keep secret such findings in order to
meet more effectively competition from other firms; and even
though the data from all such individual tests were available, an intel-
ligent comparison of species could not be made because of the lack
of standardization of methods of test.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 3

SCOPE AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTS.
ORIGIN OF DATA.

The data in this bulletin are based upon about 130,000 tests,
probably the greatest number ever made in one series upon any ma-
terial, For this reason, and for others explained later, the data are
the most thorough and accurate that are available on the mechanical
properties of American woods. The tests were begun about six years
ago at the Forest Products Laboratory, which is maintained by the
United States Forest Service with the cooperation of the University
of Wisconsin. One hundred and twenty-six species of wood have
been tested, and it is planned to continue the series until all species
which are important, or which give promise of becoming so, have

been included. -
SMALL CLEAR SPECIMENS USED.

Small clear specimens are used in the tests in order that considera-
tion of the influence of defects may be eliminated from calculations
to determine the relation between strength and density, moisture,
locality of growth, soil conditions, etc. These various relations are
referred to in the present bulletin, however, only when it is necessary
in order to render the data thoroughly understandable. The speci-
mens are 2 by 2 inches in cross section. Bending specimens are 30
inches long; others shorter, depending on the kind of test.

SELECTION OF MATERIAL.

The material for any given species and locality is cut from typical
trees, usually five in number. These are selected by representatives
of the Forest Service, careful descriptions being made of each tree and
of the conditions under which it has grown. As a rule the test
specimens are taken from the top 4 feet of the 16-foot butt log. The
number of test specimens from each tree varies from 40 to 120,
depending on the size of the tree. Eventually each important species
will be represented by tests from at least five typical trees from each
of several localities distributed throughout its range of growth.

OTHER DATA INCLUDED.

Data derived from tests previously made by the Forest Service and
under practically the same conditions as the present series are in-
cluded in Tables 1 and 2. The tests were made at Purdue Univer-
sity and at the Universities of Colorado, California, and Washington
in cooperation with those institutions.

TESTS ON LARGE TIMBERS.

A large number of tests have also been made by the Forest Service
on full-sized timbers, such as bridge stringers, factory-building tim-
bers, and car sills. These tests have demonstrated the influence of

defects such as knots, shakes, and checks on strength, and they serve

4 BULLETIN 556, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘1
as a guide to the use of data from tests on small specimens in estab- _

lishing working stresses and grading rules for structural timbers. The ©

z

results of tests of this kind on a number of species have already been —
published. (See list of publications, p. 46.)

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE USE OF THE DATA.

Careful attention must be given to the natural variability of timber
in order to make correct use of timber-test data. The following sug-
gestions are offered as a guide to the use of the data given herein.
Definitions of the various technical terms, with illustrations, are given
on pages 7 to 18.

COMPARISON WITH DATA IN OTHER PUBLICATIONS.

In comparing the data in this publication with those in other pub-
lications, it must be kept in mind that scarcely any two series of
tests have been made under the same conditions and that very fre-
quently so little is specified concerning the character of the material
and the methods of test as to make close comparisons impossible. A
specific instance is furnished by the results of Sargent’s tests! and
those given in Forest Service Circular 15. These two publications
are chosen as illustrations because of the numerous attempts which
have been made to compare the figures in them with each other and
with those obtained under the present series. Sargent made about
2,700 tests on 300 species of American woods; but he did not take
into account what may have been relative large variations in mois-
ture content, and he selected his specimens from the lower end of the
butt logs—in most cases the best although most variable portion of
the tree. The lack of data upon moisture content is an insurmount-
able barrier to comparison with the present series, since differences
of moisture content between two groups of tests may be sufficient
to cause as much as 100 per cent difference in the strength data.
Circular 15, ‘Summary of Mechanical Tests on Thirty-two Species of
American Woods,” containing the results of about 30,000 tests, takes
moisture into consideration, but allows of no comparison with the
present series because of the selection of material with defects as
found in the tree. Since no record of the extent or position of these
defects in the test piece are now available, no estimate can be made
as to the strength of the clear wood.

Data from other publications of the Forest Service which are
known to be strictly comparable to those obtained from the present
series of tests are included in Tables 1 and 2. The reader is cautioned
against any attempt at the comparison of the data in this publication
with those in any previous one dealing with tests on small clear
pieces.

1 Made for the Tenth United States Census, and results published in Vol. IX of the Tenth Census
Reports.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES, 45

Also, in making comparisons, it is important that the data should
really be representative of the classes of material which it is proposed
to compare. For example, it is not just to take the figures derived
from Rocky Mountain Douglas fir, which is known to be inferior to
| the Pacific coast type,! as representative of the coast fir. Nor in
| general can a comparison of species properly be made from results of
tests on large timbers alone; for in practically all cases the large
timbers tested have not been selected as representative of the species,
but have been chosen to determine the effect of defects, the effect of
preservative treatment, or for the solution of other and similar
problems.

Comparisons should not be made with greater refinement than the
data justify. The change which additional tests would probably
make in the average values and the probable variation of a given
stick or lot of material from these average values should be considered.
Numerical measures of these probable variations are given in Table 3.

CAUSES OF VARIATIONS IN STRENGTH.

Variations in strength of timber can be accounted for more accu-
rately than is usually supposed. In some species there is a difference
in strength in wood from different positions in the tree, different
localities of growth, etc. But such variations have been overesti-
mated, and a knowledge of them is not essential in order to estimate
with a fair degree of accuracy the properties of a piece of timber.
Differences in strength are usually due to differences in defects,
moisture content, or density, or to combinations of these.

Defects are not considered in this publication. Their effects on
structural timbers are discussed in Forest Service Bulletin 108; and
limitations on their size, character, and location are given in the
erading rules for structural timber which have been recommended
by the Forest Service.’

Differences of moisture content cause considerable variation in the
strength values of air-dry or partially air-dry material, but have no
effect as long as all material is thoroughly green.

One of the principal factors causing differences in strength is
variable density. As might be expected, the greater the density of a

given stick or the more wood it has * per unit volume, the stronger is
the stick.

1 See also ‘‘ Localities Where Grown,”’ p. 8.

2See ‘‘Discussion of the Proposed Forest Service Rules for Grading the Strength of Southern Pine
Structural Timbers,” by H. S. Betts, Proceedings of Am. Soc. for Test. Materials, Vol. XV, 1915, p.368.

3 Accurate determinations made at the Forest Products Laboratory on seven species of wood, including
both hardwood and coniferous species, showed a range of only about 4% per cent in the density of the wood
substance, or material of which the cell walls are composed. Since the density of wood substance is so
nearly constant, it may be said that the density or specific gravity of a given piece of wood is a measure
of the amount of wood substance contained in it.

6 . BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MISUSE OF TERMS.

Considerable confusion often arises from the use of general terms
in a limited sense, or with different meanings by different persons.
For instance, strength, in the broad sense of the word, is the summa-
tion of the mechanical properties or the ability of a material to resist
stresses or deformations of various sorts. While such properties as
hardness, stiffness, and toughness are not always thought of in con-
nection with the term ‘‘strength,”’ they are unconsciously included
when, in a specific mstance, they are important. This may be
ulustrated by some comparisons of oak and longleaf pime. For
floor beams or posts, the pine, because of its strength and stiffness as
a beam, a8 a shght advantage over the oak and is considered

“stronger.” For handles, vehicle or implement parts, oak, because
of its greater toughness, or ee ei is decidedly
superior to the pine and is considered ‘‘stronger.’’ Thus it is seen
that the term “‘strength’’ may refer to any one of many properties
or combinations of properties, and is necessarily indefinite in meaning
unless so modified as to indicate one particular thing. To say, then,
that one species is stronger than another is a meaningless statement
unless it is specified in what particular respect it excels.

The term strength, in its more restricted sense, is the ability
to resist stress of a single kind, or the stresses developed in one
kind of a constructional member, as strength in shear, strength
in compression, strength as a beam, strength as a column. Used in
this way, the term is specific and allows no chance of confusion.

RELATION OF PROPERTIES TO USES.

There are many properties of wood, such as taste imparted to
foodstuffs, odor, ease of working, ability to take finish and to main-
tain shape, resistance to decay, etc., which, of course, are not given
in the accompanying tables, but which are very important m some
uses to which timber is put. In very few instances will strength
data of themselves be sufficient to determine the value of a species
for a given use.

There are few, if any, cases in which two species have all the various
properties to the same degree or in the same relative proportion.
This fact accounts for the special uses of the different species and for
the difficulty in finding substitutes for certain species in particular
uses. Confusion arises from comparing species for a certain use upon
the basis of properties or strength values which are not of first
importance in that use. The most important strength values are: In
large beams, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and shear; in
long columns, modulus of elasticity and crushing strength in com-
pression parallel to grain; in material for spokes, tongues, or poles,
ax handles, etc., modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, work to

| MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES, %

maximum load in static bending, and height of drop in impact. In
flooring, the desirable properties are hardness and slight shrinkage.

DATA ON GREEN TIMBER.

Table 1 gives the values obtained from tests on green material.
It will be noted that there is a large variation in the moisture content
of the various species. All, however, were tested at approximately

-the moisture content of the living tree and are well above the limit

below which differences in moisture content produce differences in
strength. Table 1 is more reliable than Table 2, because it is based
on a much larger number of tests and on tests which are not in-
fluenced by variations in moisture content. 3

DATA ON AIR-DRY TIMBER.

Table 2, which gives the values obtained in tests of air-dry timber,
should be considered as supplementary to Table 1. This table is
necessary because the properties of all species are not changed in the
same proportion by drying and all the properties are not equally
affected.

Some of the properties of air-dry wood are subject to rapid change
with change in moisture content. For this reason it is necessary in
comparing species on the basis of Table 2 to make proper allowance
for whatever differences may be shown in the column of moisture
content. Table 3 includes figures showing the approximate changes
which are made in the various properties of air-dry wood by the
addition or subtraction of 1 per cent of moisture.

It will be noted from Tables i and 2 that in-most properties the
dry material excels the green. In structural design, however, no
allowance should be made for such increase in strength, because in
large timbers it is a very indefinite quantity. The increased strength
of the wood fibers is usually offset by checks and other defects result-
ing from drying. Moreover, many structural timbers are subject to
moisture changes, and the outer fibers may at any time become wet
enough to reduce the mechanical properties to the level of those of
ereen timber. For these reasons the strength of green material
should be made the basis of stresses to be used in structural design.

EXPLANATION OF TABLES 1 AND 2.
(See tables on pp. 27 and 37.)
NAMES OF SPECIES.

Many of the species have numerous common names, and not
infrequently one common name is applied to several species. This
leads to so much confusion that it is necessary to refer to a standard
nomenclature. The common and botanical names used in the tables
are those given in Forest Service Bulletin 17, ‘‘Check List of the

Forest Trees of the United States.”’

8 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LOCALITIES WHERE GROWN.

In the second column of the tables are listed the States in which the
test specimens originated. The locality of growth has in some cases
an influence on the strength of timber. This influence is, however,
usually overestimated; just as great differences exist ordinarily
between stands of different character grown in the same section of
the country as between stands grown in widely separated regions.
For this reason it is considered better to average the various localities
together. Douglas fir, however, has not been averaged in this man-
ner, Silviculturists have recognized that there are two well-marked
types * and various intergradations of Douglas fir. Strength tests _
contim this fact and show that there is actually a difference in strength
between the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast types of Douglas
fir. For this reason averages are given for the Coast and for the
Rocky Mountain regions rather than for the species as a whole.

NUMBER OF TREES.

The number of trees from which test specimens were taken is given
in the third column of Table 1. As previously mentioned, five is the
usual number from a single locality.

NUMBER OF RINGS PER INCH.

Rings per inch is an inverse measure of the rate of growth. It is
taken along a radial line on the end section of each specimen. One
ring, consisting of a band of springwood and a band of summerwood,
is formed by each year’s growth; consequently, few rings per inch
indicate fast growth, and vice versa.

Rate of growth is extremely variable, and the values given are to
be taken as averages of the material tested only. Rate of growth
has no definite relation to strength in the sense of strength being in
proportion, either directly or inversely, to the rate of growth. Tim-
ber of any species which has grown with exceptional slowness is
usually below the average of the species in strength values. In the
coniferous species material of very rapid growth is also very likely
to be below the average in strength. Among many of the hardwood ?
species, however, timber of rapid growth is usually above the average
in strength properties.

1 See Forest Service Circular 150, ‘‘Douglas Fir: A Study of the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain
Forms.”

2 A broad classification of timber species divides them into two groups: (1) Angiosperms, or trees with
broad leaves, usually deciduous, the so-called ‘“‘hardwoods’’; (2) gymnosperms, or trees with needle or
scalelike leaves, usually evergreen, most of them cone bearing, the so-called “‘softwoods.”? The two groups
are popularly spoken of as ‘‘hardwoods”’ and “‘softwoods,”’ or “‘hardwoods”’ and “conifers.”” The terms
“hardwoods” and ‘‘softwoods’’-are therefore indicative of botanical classification and are not descriptive
of the quality of the wood with respect to hardness. Such ‘‘hardwoods”’ as basswood and aspen are low
in the scale of hardness; while the southern pines, tamarack, larch, and others, although called “softwoods,”
are quite hard.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES, 9
SUMMERWOOD.

The amount of summerwood is expressed in per cent of the entire
cross section. (See definition of summerwood, p. 23.) Itis measured
along a representative radial line.

In many species the proportion of summerwood is indicative of the
density; and different proportions of summerwood are usually accom-
panied by different densities and strength values. When the change
from springwood to summerwood is not marked or the contrast
between them is not sharp, no accurate measurement can be made
and the results have no practical value.

In southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, one-third or more summer-
wood, except when associated with rapid irregular growth, indicates
material of a quality suitable for use as structual timber.

MOISTURE CONTENT.

Moisture content is the weight of water contained in the wood,
expressed in per cent of the oven-dry weight of the wood. Moisture
content is determined by weighing a small section of the test specimen
and then drying it at 100° C. in freely circulating air until its weight
becomes constant; the loss of weight is then divided by the dry weight
to give the proportion of moisture, and this is usually expressed in
per cent of the dry weight. Consequently, ‘‘moisture’”’ as deter-
mined includes any other substances besides water volatile at 100° C.
which may be in the wood.

The various species differ widely as to the amount of moisture
contained in the wood of the living tree. For example, white ash and
black locust are always comparatively dry; black ash and the oaks
have about twice, and chestnut and buckeye three times, as much
water aS white ash. The coniferous species also show wide range in
moisture content. White and red cedars are comparatively dry;
cypress and white fir contain large amounts of water.

Moisture content sometimes varies with position in the tree. Most
coniferous species have a large proportion of moisture in the sapwood
and a much smaller proportion in the heartwood. In some the heart-
wood is very wet at the base of the tree, but comparatively dry higher
up. Most hardwoods, or broad-leaved species, show a fairly uniform
distribution of moisture throughout the tree.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

Specific gravity is the weight of any given substance divided by the
weight of an equal volume of pure water at its greatest density.
Obviously, the weight of wood in a given volume changes with the
shrinkage and swelling caused by changes in moisture. Consequently,
specific gravity is an indefinite quantity unless the circumstances
under which it is determined are specified. Each of the columns
91728°—Bull. 556—17——2

10 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

of specific gravity figures given in this table is based on the weight of
the wood when oven dry and on its volume when green or at a
specified stage of drying.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY BASED ON VOLUME WHEN GREEN.

In the determination of the figures for specific gravity based on
volume when green the test specimens are weighed and measured
when green. Their oven-dry weight is then computed by dividing
the weight when green by 1 plus the proportion of moisture, moisture
being determined as described in previous paragraphs. The specific-
gravity data based on green volume are more reliable than the data
based on air-dry or oven-dry volume because they are based on the
largest number of determinations, and these determinations are
unaffected by the shrinkage of the wood. Specific gravity so deter-
mined is, aside from actual strength data, the best criterion of the
strength of clear wood of any species.

It has been found that in oak, more than in any other species or
group of closely related species, pieces of the same density may vary
widely in mechanical properties. Occasional very dense pieces of oak
are for some unknown reason low in strength; but in all species
specimens of low density are invariably weak.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY BASED ON AIR-DRY VOLUME.

Specific gravity based on air-dry volume is obtained in the same
manner as that based on volume when green, except that the volume
measurements are made after the material has been air dried. The
data in the tables are less reliable than those for the specific gravity on
green volume because they are based on fewer determinations and are
affected by variations in the shrinkage which has taken place.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY BASED ON OVEN-DRY VOLUME.

In determining the specific gravity based on oven-dry volume, the
volume as well as the weight is taken after the specimens are dried
to a practically constant weight in air at 100° C. The difference
between specific gravity based on green volume and that on oven-dry
volume is due to the shrinkage, and one may be determined from the
other if the shrinkage in volume is known. Specific gravity on oven-
dry volume = specific gravity based on volume when green + (1 —
the shrinkage.)

The specific gravity based on volume when oven dry and the shrink-
age in volume (see columns 8 and 10, Table 1) determinations were
made on the same specimens, of which there were usually four from
each tree. The specific gravity based on green volume was deter-
mined from a much larger number of specimens and is consequently
somewhat more reliable. Because these two specific gravities were

re ee en

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 11

determined from different specimens the equation given at the end of
the preceding paragraph does not hold exactly when applied to the
data in columns 7, 8, and 10 of Table 1.

WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT.

Weight per cubic foot, like specific gravity, is a very indefinite
quantity unless the circumstances under which it is determined are
specified. The variability is also large, as may be realized from a
consideration of the following: The specific gravity of some speci-
mens may be twice that of others of the same species; occasionally a
piece may contain nearly as much resin as wood; the moisture con-
tent may be as little as 4 or 5 per cent of the dry weight of the
wood in the case of kiln-dry lumber, or it may be as great as 200 per
cent in green timber, as is occasionally the case in the sapwood of
some of the coniferous species.

WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT GREEN.

Weight per cubic foot green is the weight per cubic foot of the
wood (including moisture) as it comes from the living tree. The
various species differ largely as to the wetness of the green wood.
The hardwoods as arule do not exhibit any considerable variation
with the position in the tree. The conifers, on the other hand, show a
wide variation in moisture content between the heartwood and sap-
wood and, in some instances, between wood from the upper and lower
parts of the tree. Tamarack and cypress, however, have a compara-
tively uniform moisture content throughout the tree. Sugar pine
and western larch are frequently very heavy because of moisture and
resin at the butt. Longleaf pine and some other species have a very
low moisture content in the heartwood, while the sapwood is very
wet. When this is the case, young thrifty trees with a large propor-
tion of sapwood are much heavier than old overmature trees with a
small amount of sapwood.

Variations of 4 per cent above or below the averages given are to
be expected in any lot of material of a species which has fairly uniform
moisture content. If the species is one that does not have a uniform
distribution of moisture, about twice as great a variation may be
expected. Under exceptional conditions the weight of green timber
of some of the conifers may vary as much as 30 per cent from the
average.

WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT AIR DRY.

The weights given for air-dry wood are for wood with 12 per cent
moisture. A variation of 4 per cent in any given lot of material .
even at this moisture content is to be expected. Large timbers

1See definition of air dry (glossary, p. 20).

12 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

ordinarily have more than 12 per cent moisture and average from —

10 to 15 per cent heavier than the listed weights.
SHRINKAGE FROM GREEN TO OVEN DRY.

When wood is dried below the fiber saturation point (see glossary,
p. 21), shrinkage begins and continues until the moisture is all driven
off. Shrinkage along the length of timber is very small. Shrinkage
in directions at right angles to the grain is very much greater and
varies from 2 or 3 per cent to about 20 per cent. Radial shrinkage
is about three-fifths as great as tangential shrinkage (see glossary,
pp. 22 and 23.) Shrinkage in volume is of course the resultant of
shrinkages along the fibers and in the radial and tangential direc-
tions. However, shrinkage in volume and radial and tangential
shrinkages were independently determined in the present series of
tests. The first was determined from four specimens, and each of the
others from one specimen from each tree.

All shrinkages given are expressed in percentages of the original
or green dimensions, and are total shrinkages to zero moisture
Shrinkage to an air dry condition of about 12 per cent moisture is
sometimes more and sometimes less than half the total shrinkage.
At about 12 per cent moisture the volume changes by about one-
half of 1 per cent for each moisture content change of 1 per cent.
Shrinkage in volume is important in measuring cordwood.

Radial shrinkage is the measure of the change in width of a quarter-
sawed or edge-grain board. In most species at about 12 per cent
moisture a moisture content change of 1 per cent may be expected
to cause a change of about three-sixteenths of 1 per cent in the
width of sucha board. This is equivalent to three thirty-seconds of
an inch change in the width of a 10-inch board for a 5 per cent
change in moisture (5 X35 per cent of 10 inches = 3; of an inch).

Tangential shrinkage is the measure of the change in width of a
flat sawed board. At about 12 per cent moisture a moisture content
change of 1 per cent may be expected to cause a change of about
five-sixteenths of 1 per cent in the width of such a board, which is
equivalent to five thirty-seconds of an inch change in the width of
a 10-inch board for 5 per cent change in moisture.

Both radial and tangential shrinkages are important in flooring,
fixtures, and any construction which is to remain well joined under
changing atmospheric conditions.

STATIC BENDING.

In the static bending test a 2 by 2 by 30 inch beam is supported

over a 28-inch span. Loading is applied to its center and at a
constant rate of deflection until the beam fails. Readings of load
and deflection are taken simultaneously.

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PLATE I.

STATIC BENDING TEST.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 13

The values derived from this test are applicable to beams of any
size by the use of the formule given on page 24, except for the de-
fects that occur in the larger sizes.

In all cases it is best to use the results from tests of green material
in determining allowable working stresses in large timbers, since
defects are usually introduced in drying large timbers with the result
that often there is no increase of strength. However, timbers which
are always dry may be allowed a slightly higher stress than those
exposed to the weather or subject to moisture.

FIBER STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT.

Fiber stress at elastic limit (see definition, p. 21) is very important
in determining the proper working stresses for a beam. A beam
loaded to its elastic limit in static bending for a short time will
recover its form immediately upon removal of the load. If the
same load is allowed to remain, complete failure will ultimately
- result. Consequently, the necessity of keeping working stresses
below the elastic limit is apparent. It is recommended, however,
that working stresses be calculated not from the elastic limit, but
from the modulus of rupture, and for the following reasons: There is
a personal element in determining the elastic limit; slight inaccuracies
in measurements of deflections often cause considerable error in
elastic limit values; defects in structural timbers may be such that,
in testing, certain portions are stressed to or beyond the elastic
limit without discovery; and there is an element of safety in the
differential of strength between the elastic limit and modulus of

rupture values.
MODULUS OF RUPTURE.

Modulus of rupture is the computed fiber stress in the outermost
fibers of a beam at the maximum load and is a measure of the ability
of a beam to support a slowly applied load for a very short time.
The formula by which modulus of rupture is computed is the same
as that for fiber stress at elastic limit, the maximum load being
substituted for the elastic limit load. The assumptions on which
this formula are based hold only up to the elastic limit, hence modu-
lus of rupture is not a true fiber stress. It is, however, a universally
accepted term, and the values are quite comparable for various
species and sizes of timber. It is a definite quantity, and the per-
sonal factor does not enter to any great extent into obtaining it.
It is consequently not so subject to error as the fiber stress at elastic
limit, and for that reason is used more than any other value to
represent the strength of wood. Modulus of rupture should always
be considered in calculating the strength of beams to be used as
stringers, floor joists, etc. A green structural timber, if compara-

14 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tively free from defects, can be expected to have a modulus of
rupture about three-fourths as large as that of small clear pieces cut
from it.

The modulus of rupture of small clear individual pieces will occa-
sionally vary more than 40 per cent above or below the average
modulus of rupture. Pieces giving very low values are almost
invariably lacking in density, while very strong pieces are excep-
tionally dense.

Figures on the variation of modulus of rupture are given in
Table 3.

Safe working stresses for carefully selected structural timbers,
with all exceptionally light pieces excluded, subjected to bending
in dry interior construction and where only small deflections are
allowable are about one-fifth the modulus of rupture values given
m the table for green material. (Table 1.) In some interior con-
struction where beams may be allowed to sag somewhat without
damage, the working stresses may be slightly increased. But for
timbers used in bridges or other structures exposed to moisture, the
working stress should be slightly lower. However, beams can not
be correctly designed on the basis of outer fiber stress in bending
alone. Strength in longitudinal shear must also be taken into
account. (See p. 17 for allowable shearing stress.)

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.

The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness or rigidity
of a material. In the case of a beam modulus of elasticity is a
measure of its resistance to deflection. The formula (see p. 24)
connecting modulus of elasticity, load, and deflection shows that
the deflection under a given load varies inversely as the modulus
oftelasticity; that is, a beam with a high modulus deflects but little.
Modulus of elasticity is of value in computing the deflections of
joists, beams, stringers, etc., and in computing safe loads for columns.
The values given are derived from the static bending test, but are
applicable to both beams and columns.

In building construction the means by which the various members
are held in place, inequalities in workmanship on the various parts,
differences in the quality of the timber in al] parts of the structure,
and shrinkage due to the adjustment of the moisture content of
the various members to that of their surroundings give rise to
unequalized local stresses, often very large. When these stresses
become equalized through the gradual readjustment of the mem-
bers, deflections greater than those calculated from the average
moduli of elasticity will be found. For this reason it is good prac-
tice in the design of structures to use values for moduli of elasticity
about one-half those given in Table 1.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED SLATES. 15

WORK TO ELASTIC LIMIT.

Work to elastic limit in static bending is a measure of-the work
which a beam is able to resist or the shock which it can absorb
without being stressed beyond the elastic limit as determined under
slowly applied loads.

WORK TO MAXIMUM LOAD.

Work to maximum load in static bending represents the ability of
the timber to absorb shock withaslight permanent or semi-permanent
deformation and with some injury to the timber. Wood, especially
in small sizes, can be bent somewhat beyond its elastic limit with only
slight injury if the load is removed at once. Work to maximum load
is a measure of the combined strength and toughness of a material
under bending stresses. Superiority in this quality is the character-
istic which makes hickory better than ash, and oak better than
longleaf pine, for such uses as handles and vehicle parts. Mary
species yield butt cuts that exceed upper cuts in combined strength
and toughness, hickory showing this characteristic most markedly.
The superiority of butt cuts of hickory to upper cuts for ax handles
is well known to experienced woodsmen.

IMPACT BENDING.

The impact bending test is made upon a beam 2 by 2 by 30 inches
over a 28-inch span. <A 50-pound hammer is dropped upon the stick
at the center of the span, first from.a height of 1 inch, next 2 inches,
etc., up to 10 inches, then increasing 2 inches at a time until complete
failure occurs. The deflections of the specimen are recorded on a
revolving drum by a pointer attached to the hammer. This pointer
also records the position the specimen assumes after the shock.
Thus data are obtained for determining the various properties of the
wood when subjected to shock.

FIBER STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT.

Fiber stress at elastic limit is the greatest stress to which a timber
may be subjected under impact loading and recover immediately.
Fiber stress at elastic limit in impact is approximately double the
fiber stress at elastic limit in static bending. This is an expression
of the fact that a small beam, if suddenly strained, bends approxi-
mately twice as far to the elastic limit as when loaded slowly. (See
also fiber stress at elastic limit, p. 13.)

WORK TO ELASTIC LIMIT.

Work in bending to the elastic limit in impact is a measure of the
ability of a timber to absorb shock and recover therefrom imme-
diately and without injury. The values apply only to resistance

16 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to falling bodies or to other conditions in which the stress is applied
and relieved in one-twenty-fifth of a second or less. It represents a
quality important in tool handles and in athletic goods, such as base-

ball bats.

HEIGHT OF_DROP.

Height of drop is the maximum or last drop of the hammer. It
represents a quality important in articles which are occasionally
stressed under a shock beyond their elastic limit, such as handles and
vehicle and implement parts.

COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

In the compression parallel to grain test a 2 by 2 by 8 inch block is
compressed in the direction of its length. Deformation is measured
between two collars attached 6 inches apart to the specimen.

FIBER STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT.

Fiber stress at elastic limit in compression parallel to the grain is
not much used because in most cases it is More convenient to use
maximum crushing strength, which is less variable and easier to
obtain. The value is important in the derivation of safe working
stresses for structural timber. (See also fiber stress at elastic limit,
glossary, p. 21.)

MAXIMUM CRUSHING STRENGTH.

The maximum crushing strength is the maximum ability of a short
block to sustain a slowly applied load. It is obtained by dividing
the maximum load obtained in the test by the area of cross section
of the block. This property is important in estimating the strength -
of columns.

Tests of the crushing strength, because of their simplicity, are
frequently the only tests used in studyimg the effect of various
influences or processes on strength. Crushing strength is not neces-
sarily representative of the other strength properties; consequently,
when used alone, it will occasionally lead to erroneous conclusions.
For instance, it was found that the crushing strength of some timbers
was increased 10 per cent by a certain heat treatment. Other tests,
however, revealed the fact that their resistance to shock had been
reduced about 50 per cent.

A safe working stress for carefully selected structural timbers used
as columns and in dry interior construction, all exceptionally light
pieces excluded, is about one-third the crushing strength as given
in the table for tests on green materials (Table 1). If the column is
longer than about 10 times its least diameter, some formula should
be used which will take care of the increased stress which would be
caused by eccentric loading or by the bending of the column. (Such

PLATE II.

Bul. 556, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

IMPACT TESTING MACHINE.

PLATE III.

iculture.

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Bul. 556, U. S. Dept

"ISA, NIVYS) OL TATIVYVd NOISSSYdNOgQ

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 17

formule are discussed in the various textbooks on mechanics and
strength of materials.)

COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN.

In the compression perpendicular to grain test, a block 2 by 2
inches in cross section and 6 inches long is laid upon its side and
pressure applied to it through a cast-iron plate 2 inches wide laid
across the center of the piece and at right angles to its length. Hence
but one-third of the surface is directly subjected to compression.

The only strength value obtained in this test is the fiber stress at
elastic limit. It represents the maximum stress which can be applied
to the timber without injury. It is important in computing the
bearing area for beams, stringers, joists, etc., and in comparing
species for railroad ties.

Two-thirds of the fiber stress at elastic limit, as given in the table
for tests on green material, may be used as a safe stress in dry interior
construction.

HARDNESS.

Hardness is tested by measuring the load required to embed a
0.444-inch ball to one-half its diameter in the wood. This test is a
modification of one originated by Janka.1 |

The hardness test is applied to end, radial, and tangential surfaces
of the timber. There is no consistent difference between radial and
tangential hardnesses and they are averaged and tabulated as “‘side
hardness.”’ End hardness is usually greater than side hardness.
The quality represented by these figures is important in woods for
paving blocks, railroad ties, furniture, flooring, etc.

SHEARING STRENGTH PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

The shearing test is made by applying force to a 2 by 2 inch lip
projecting from the side of a block. The shearing stress is the maxi-
mum force required to shear off the projection divided by the area
of the plane of failure.

Shearing strength parallel to the grain is a measure of tho ability
of timber to resist slipping of one part upon another along the grain.
Shearing stress is produced to a greater or less degree in most uses
of timber. It is most important in beams, where it is known as
horizontal shear—the stress tending to cause the upper half of the
beam to slide upon the lower. It is also important in the design of
various kinds of timber joints.

Only about one-eighth of the values given in the table for green
material (Table 1) should be used as allowable stress in horizontal

1“ Die Harte des Holzes,’’ by Gabriel Janka, k. k. Forst-und Dominenverwalter: Mitteilung der k. k.
forstlichen Versuchsanstaltin Mariabrunn, Wien, 1906.

91728°—Bull. 556—17——3

18 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

shear in beams. For small details, in timbers unaffected by shakes
or checks, the allowable stress may be taken as one-fourth the value
listed for green timber.

TENSION PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN.

The tension perpendicular to grain tests are made on specimens
2 inches square and 24 inches long, the tension area being 1 by 2
inches. The tension force is applied perpendicular to the grain.
The values are of use in estimating the resistance of timber to the
splitting actions of bolts and other fastenings. A factor of 5 should
be applied to the values in Table 1 to get the allowable stress for
design; i. e., one-fifth the values given in the tables.

EXPLANATION OF TABLE 3.
(See table on p. 45.)

The figures in Table 3 are presented as an aid to the interpreta-
tion of data given in Tables 1 and 2 and are explained as follows:

COLUMN 2.

The figures given in column 2 are to be applied to the data in
Table 2. They are, of course, only approximate, as the exact vari-
ation of any property with change in moisture content is different
for each species... They will assist in rendering more nearly com-
parable data which are noncomparable because of differences of
moisture.

Example: It is desired to compare the modulus of rupture of air-
dry locust with that of air-dry bitternut hickory. The hickory
has a modulus of rupture of 18,850 at 9.2 per cent moisture and the
locust a modulus of rupture of 20,700 at 10 per cent moisture (see
Table 2). According to Table 3, a 1 per cent change of moisture
causes a 4 per cent change of modulus of rupture. Changing the
hickory from 9.2 to 10 per cent moisture will decrease the strength
by (10 — 9.2) x 4 per cent = 3.2 per cent; 3.2 per cent of 18,850 =
600. Then the moduli or rupture of black locust and bitternut hick-
ory, when placed on a comparable basis, each being at 10 per cent
moisture, are 20,700 and 18,250 pounds per square inch, respectively.
The accuracy of this moisture reduction is greatest across small
intervals. As the interval or difference of moisture increases the
accuracy becomes less.

COLUMN 3.

Study of the data presented in this bulletin has shown that each
of the shrmkage and strength properties of a given species can be
estimated with fair accuracy from the average specific gravity,
since each varies according to some power of the specific gravity.

1 See Forest Service Bulletin 70 and Circular 108,

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 19

This power is given in column 3. Suppose, for example, it is de-
sired to estimate the comparative strength in modulus of rupture
and work to maximum load of a stick of timber whose specific grav-
ity is known to be 25 per cent above the average. Since modulus
of rupture varies as the first and work to maximum load as the sec-
ond power of the specific gravity (see Table 3), it is probable that
the modulus of rupture and work to maximum load are, respectively,
about 125 and 156 per cent (1.56 = 1.25?) of the average values for

the species.
COLUMNS 4 AND 5.

The figures in columns 4 and 5 are derived from the original-data
on which the averages given in Table 1 are based, by the use of the
processes usually employed to determine the accuracy of experi-
mental data. They are not to be taken as too rigidly applicable to
these averages (Table 1), but are a convenient approximate measure
of the reliability of the averages and of the probability that an
individual tree of a given species will be of average quality in any
given property.

COLUMN 4.

The probable error of the species average as given in this column
is a measure of the reliability of the present averages and of the
probable change in these averages by future tests. For example:
The probable error in modulus of rupture is given as 4 per cent;
this means that there is one chance in four that the present average
modulus of rupture for a given species Gf based on tests from five
trees) is below 96 per cent (= 100 — 4) of the true average, two chances
in four that it is between 96 and 104 per cent of the true average.
It follows that the two possibilities: (1) That the present average
will be changed more than 4 per cent by future tests, and (2) that it
will not be so changed, are equally probable. There is about one
chance in 100 that the average will be changed by four times the
probable error, or in this case 16 per cent.

The figures given apply to cases where five trees have been tested.
When the number tested is other than five the probable variation
can be obtained from the rule that the probable variation varies
inversely as the square root of the number of trees tested. For
instance, if 20 trees have been tested, the probable variation of the

average modulus of rupture is 3 x 4 per cent, or 2 per cent.

COLUMN 5.

Column 5 gives the probable variation from the species average of
the average of tests from an individual tree taken at random. For
instance, the figure given for modulus ot rupture is 9 per cent, which
means that there is one chance in four that the modulus of rupture of a

20 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tree taken at random will be below 91 per cent of the species average,
one chance in four that it will be above 109 per cent, and two chances
in four, or one chance in two, that it will be between 91 and 109 per
cent of this average. There is also about one chance in 100 that
the random tree will vary from the average an amount equal to four
times the probable variation, or in this case 36 per cent.

GLOSSARY.

AIR DRY.
(See p. 7.)

Air-dry condition is the normal condition, with respect to moisture,
of wood exposed to the air, although this condition may have been
obtained by artificial means. The term ‘‘air dried’? means dried by
exposure to the air, while ‘‘ kiln dried”’ indicates artificial drying.

Air dry is a very general term and may mean any degree of dryness
from about 6 per cent moisture, as in furniture stock, to over 30 per
cent moisture, as in timber dried to reduce its shipping weight. The
degree of dryness in timber depends upon species, size, and the con-
ditions under which the material is dried, especially such as humidity,
method of piling, shelter, time of drying, etc. For instance, the
wood of the conifers dries much more rapidly, on the average, than
that of the hardwoods. Douglas fir bridge timbers will fall to about
30 per cent moisture in 2 years. Inch lumber of the same species,
under the same conditions, will dry to 15 per cent moisture in con-
siderably less time, and small-sized timber dried in a heated room
will in some cases reach 6 per cent moisture. The same species, in
the same sizes, piled in the same manner under shelter out of doors,
‘will scarcely ever fall below 12 per cent moisture.

DENSE.

Dense, as applied to wood, means compact, heavy (when dry),
containing much wood substance in small space (see footnote, p. 5).
For example, hickory is a very dense wood.

The oven-dry specific gravity is a measure of the density of wood.
This figure is based on the weight, exclusive of moisture, but including
rosin and other substances not volatile at 100° C.

ELASTIC LIMIT.
(See pp. 13, 14, and 15.)

The elastic limit (sometimes called proportional limit) is that
point where the distortion ceases to be in proportion to the load.
For example, if a beam deflects one-sixteenth of an inch with a 50-
pound load it will deflect one-eighth of an inch with 100 pounds, and
so on, each additional load of 50 pounds causing an additional de-
flection of one-sixteenth of an inch until the “elastic limit’’ is reached,

-

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 21

after which the deflections increase more rapidly than the increase
in load.
A timber stressed beyond the elastic limit will not resume its
original form immediately upon the removal of the load.
ELASTICITY.

Elasticity 1s the property (possessed by most materials) of chang-
ing form with the application of force and recovering at once upon
release from the force. 3

In any elastic material the amount of compression or deformation
is proportional to the force applied.

Air and other gases under compression are elastic. The most
commonly recognized elastic material is rubber. Timber is elastic
within comparatively narrow limits. :

The term “very elastic’”’ as applied to wood is indefinite, because it
may mean that the force required to produce a given deformation is
ereat and the recovery sudden as in an ivory ball (see ‘‘ Modulus of
elasticity’’); or that the amount of distortion to the elastic limit is
great, as in a rubber ball, or that the wood possesses high elastic
resilience, a combination of the two properties. (See ‘ Elastic resili-
ence”’ or ‘‘ Work to the elastic limit.’’)

FIBER SATURATION POINT.
(See p. 11.)

Green wood usually contains water within the cell walls and “free’’
water in the pores. In drying, the water in the pores is the first to
be evaporated. The fiber saturation point is that point at which no
water exists in the pores of the timber but at which the cell walls are
still saturated with moisture. The fiber saturation point varies with
the species. The ordinary proportion of moisture—based on the dry
weight of the wood—at the fiber saturation point is from 20 to 30

per cent. ‘
FIBER STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT.

(See pp. 13, 15, and 16.)

Fiber stress at elastic limit is the stress obtained in a timber by
loading it to its elastic limit. It is the greatest stress the timber
will take under a given loading and immediately return to its former
position.

FLEXIBILITY.

Flexibility is that quality which renders a material capable of

being bent without breaking. Thus, green timber is more flexible

than dry. f
GREEN.

Green is the condition of timber as taken from the living tree.

Immediately upon being sawed from the tree lumber begins to
lose moisture and otherwise change its condition. The rapidity of
these changes is determined by the species, humidity, and circu-
lation of air, heat, etc.

22 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

Mechanical properties are the properties of wood which enable it
to resist deformations, loads, shocks, or forces. Thus the ability
to resist shearing forces is a mechanical property of timber. (See
“Strength. ”’)

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
(See p. 14.)

Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of stress per unit area to cor-
responding strain per unit length, the distortion or strain being
within the elastic hmit.

Numerically, the modulus of elasticity of a material is the force
in pounds required to stretch a sample of that material with a cross-
sectional area of 1 square inch to double its length, on the assump-
tion that the fibers would not be stressed beyond their elastic limit.
India rubber has a very low modulus of elasticity, while that of
steel is very high. It is, then, the measure of the stiffness or rigidity

of a substance.
MODULUS OF RUPTURE.

(See p. 13.)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.

Physical properties, as the term is used in this bulletin, are those
properties of wood which have to do with its structure, such as
density, cell arrangements, fiber length, etc. In its broad sense the
term physical properties includes all those properties listed as me-
chanical properties as well as those pertaiming to its structure.

RADIAL.

Radial means extending outward from a center or an axis. Thus
a radial surface in a tree is one extending from the pith of the tree
outward, such as the wide faces of a quarter-sawed board.

RINGS.
(See p. 8.)

Rings are those circular markings around the center of a tree
section which are produced by the contrast in density, hardness,
color, etc., between springwood and summerwood. One ring, known
as an annual ring, consists of a layer of springwood and a layer

of summerwood.
SHEAR.

(See p. 17.)

Shear is the name of the stress which tends to keep two adjoining
planes or surfaces of a body from sliding, one on the other, under
the influence of two equal and parallel forces acting in opposite
directions. A force which produces shear (or shearmg stress) In a
material is called a shearing force.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 23
SPRINGWOOD.

The lighter and more porous layer of wood in the annual rings of
a tree is known as the springwood or early wood. As the name
implies, it is produced in spring growth, or in the earlier part of

the growing season.
STRAIN.

The deformation or distortion produced by a stress or force is

known as strain.
STRENGTH.

(See p. 6.)

The term ‘‘strength” as ordinarily used is a very indefinite one.
It is usually thought of in connection with external loads or forces.

Strength in its broad sense is a measure of the mechanical prop-
erties, or of the ability of a timber to resist stress or deformation.
Thus, strength in shear, strength as a beam, strength as a post,
hardness, stiffness, toughness. These last three properties are not
always thought of in connection with the term strength, but are
unconsciously included whenever they are important in a specific -
use. See example of this as given on page 6.

Seldom, if ever, do any two species contain all the various proper-
ties in the same degree. This accounts for the special uses of the
different species.

Much confusion often arises from comparing species for a special
use on the basis of properties or strength values not of first impor-
tance in the specific instance.

STRESS.

Stress is distributed force.

Fiber stress is the distributed force tending to compress, tear apart,
or change the relative position of the wood fibers.

Stress is measured by the force per unit area. Thus a short col-
umn 2 inches square (4 square inches) and supporting a load of 2,000
pounds will be under a stress or fiber stress of 500 pounds per square

inch.
SUMMERWOOD.

(See p. 9.)

Summerwood is that denser layer of wood in the annual rings of a
tree which is put on in summer or the latter part of the growing
season.

TANGENTIAL.

Tangential, as applied in this publication, means tangent to or par-
allel to the curves of the annual rings in a cross section. Thus a tan-
gential surface is a surface perpendicular to the radius of a tree.

24 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

WORK.

(See p. 15.)

Work is the product of force and distance, or force acting through
distance.

Work is essential in stopping bodies in motion, or in causing motion
or change of motion of bodies.

Work is measured in inch-pounds, foot-pounds, ete.

An inch-pound is the work required to raise one pound 1 inch or to
move a body 1 inch against a resistance of 1 pound.

FORMUL USED IN COMPUTING.
LEGEND.

A= Area of cross section; square inches.
B=Area under plate in compression-perpendicular-to-grain tests,
square inches.
CS =Crushing strength, pounds per square inch.
E= Modulus of elasticity, pounds per square inch.
EL=Fiber stress at elastic limit, pounds per square inch. .-
J =Greatest calculated longitudinal shear, pounds per square inch.
K =Constant = 27.7 when weight is in pounds; 0.061 when weight
is In grams.
MR = Modulus of rupture, pounds per square inch.
P=Maximum load, pounds.
P’ =Load at elastic limit, pounds.
S=Dry specific gravity.
A= Total deflection or compression at elastic limit, inches.
b = Width, inches
d= Distance between centers of collars, inches.
h= Height, inches.
1=Span, inches (in compression parallel to grain 1=length).

BENDING.
Load applied at center:
MOMS ocr
rb ak
ia Sele Se
MD aaa al
1bpePixik
ce mee SE
U 3
E Rio

~ 4x bx b3xXA

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN’ UNITED STATES.

Uniformly distributed ied

0.75xPxl
ae xe
0.75 x P’ xl
BE px he
E= Rex
~~ 6.4Xbxh?xA
Any loading:
M=W6R <b x h?,-
Where M=moment in inch-pounds either external or internal
F =fiber stress for moment M.

29

Aaya c= where J=unit horizontal shear at any

point and V =total vertical shear at that point.

COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

ik
Co — an
Pp’
EL= WO
oF Ped
B= AXA
COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN.
P’
EL= B
SHEAR PARALLEL TO GRAIN.
Shear = -

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

weight x K

moisture
ae 41%

00K x volume of piece in cubic inches.

TABLE 1.

The data in Table 1 are derived from a considerably larger number
of tests and are therefore somewhat more reliable than those of
Table 2. Before an attempt is made to use these data, it is recom-
mended that the entire text of this bulletin be read carefully, par-
ticularly ‘‘Misuse of terms,’ page 6. Attention should be given to
‘Precautions to be observed in the use of data,’ page 4, to the
explanation of the column heads, pages 7 to 18, and to the discussion
and illustrations of the use of the variability figures given in Table 3.

Where an apparent discrepancy is found between figures in this
table and those in previous publications of the Forest Service, the
data herein given may be considered as the most accurate (See p. 4).

Safe working stresses for the design of structural timbers should
be based on the data in Table 1 rather than on those given in Table 2
for reasons presented elsewhere in this bulletin, particularly under
‘‘Data on air-dry timber,” page 7, and ‘‘Static bending,” page 12.

Safe working stresses will of necessity vary with the conditions
under which the timber is used. Factors for obtaining working
stresses for timber used in dry interior construction are given else-
where in this bulletin as follows:

Columns—Under ‘‘Maximum crushing strength,” page 16.

Details of jomts—Under ‘‘Shearing strength parallel to grain,”
page 17, and under ‘‘Tension perpendicular to grain,’’ page 18.

26

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BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

—_. .__. .

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TABLE 2.

Table 2 is to be considered supplementary to Table 1. In using
this table attention should be given to the comments on “‘Data on
air-dry timber,’ page 7, to the explanation of column heads, pages
7 to 18, to the figures on change of properties with changes of mois-
ture as given under ‘‘Shrinkage from green to oven dry,” page 12,
and in column 2 of Table 3; also to the explanation of column 2 of
Table 3. (See p. 18.)

36

37

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES.

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43

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES,

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES, 45

TaBLe 3.—Approximate figures for change of properties with change of moisture con-
tent; variation of properties with specific gravity; reliability of averages, and probable

deviations from averages of indiwidual trees and specimens.

For use with Tables 1

1 See explanation, p. li,

2 See explanation, p. 12.

and 2.
|
Average
Mee aa
or de- F robable
crease) in. PRI oe variation ;
value ef- aie Oli of present | Probable
fected by pe Baific average | variation
raising (or er (when of random
Property. lowering) | ,8r°* din from 5 | tree from
the mois- 6 anichn trees) average
ture con- aoe from true | for species.
tent 1 per ree os y species | (See p. 19.)
cent when (See 18 ) average,
at about DP. 7°.) | (See p. 19.)
12 per cent.
(See p. 18.)
1 2 3 4 5
: Per cent. Per cent Per cent.
Specific gravity based on volume when green..........-|...-.-..--..|---¢..2----- 3.8
NMEIe IG DemMCUDICG TOO ee ns aie ye weld alae eye = - ES | Aes Recent a] EE eae eH sec ir ay NG CA ne GR
SLT ACO er ree enemy orerarao es at eu cit ee NUN RRS ee RES | Ie | aaarote oan pe reap tokare ince rere
Static bending: : :
MIDETSEReSSiaL ClASbIGTIOIG en oe ccc ee et 6 1 5 12
IMO dtISHOfmU pune seen ee eee eI) Fle 4 1 4 9:
ModtitissOnelas tieiiye ces 2 cic os elo, eee tee 2 1 5 11
WVOTKSEOCLAS CT CH Tra tat eS es Se TO SINE Ra 8 2 7 16
WiOTrkstorma xia LOAM chest Se: Se circ tre WE aren 8—] 2 6 14
Impact bending:
iberstressiahelashioninait hee ogee es hae 4 1 4 8
-Work to elastic limit...-. cA atl Nites ANS yal gM ghee es 5 2 5 12
eis OMdnO Peer sacs se ee eee ele aes cle Doe —3 2 7 15
Compression parallel to grain:
Hibensiressabelasticuimihes a je. .U allo 52. sok 5 1 5 12
Crushing strength....-.....---. iA RSE PT es hee 4 1 4 9
Compression perpendicular to grain—fiber stress at
CHER acca hrs he DOE Ae ie ee Na GLA ener Cee ee 6 2 6 14
APTA TT SST Cee eee ee ase ee Ue LN ae 3 2 4 9
HAT GIN CSS s SIG Che acces nn ames dein ana m L ni su cen 1 2 5 10
Shearing strength parallel to grain................/..... 4 1 3 7
PenstonwperpenGgicular to eral 24. sel eel ll 1 2 5 12

3 The minus sign indicates decrease.

46 BULLETIN 556, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LIST ‘OF PUBLICATIONS AND PAPERS DEALING WITH THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TIMBER.

1. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS. Date of
Red Gum, with Discussion of Mechanical Properties of Red Gum Wood, Forest
Service Bulletin 58. 15 cents....- b LoS OA Se Ssbioa Sue cae SO eee ee 1905
Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden Ties, Forest Service Circular 46
DICCHIS: cone ces osu ERE cle ee See Oo ak eoLe ee on ae eee ee eee 1906
Effect of Moisture on Strength and Stiffness of Wood, Forest Service Bulletin 70.
ES CORBIS oc See SS Oe SER CP eg ints Fa ois os SS Se eos oat Be ee ae eee 1906

*Tests of Vehicle and Implements Woods, Forest Service Circular 142. 5cents. 1908
*Properties and Uses of Southern Pines, Forest Service Circular 164. 5cents.. 1909

The Commercial Hickories, Forest Service Bulletin 80. 15 cents............ 1910
Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir, Forest Service Bulletin 88. 15 cents..... 1911
Uses of Commercial Woods of United States—Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias,

orestaserace Dulleamon SO tents). oo 0.5.02. s. Se 1911
Uses of Commercial Woods of United States—Pines, Forest Service Bulletin 99.

HES NES ies Serene PEA ee heh o Rien toe Be ae ee 1911
Manufacture and Utilization of Hickory, Forest Service Circular 187. 5cents.. 1911
Tests of Structural Timbers, Forest Service Bulletin 108. 20 cents........... 1912
Fire-Killed Douglas Fir: A Study of Its Rate of Deterioration, Usability, and

Strength, Forest Service Bulletin 112. 10 cents........................--. 1912
Strength Values for Structural Timbers, Forest Service Circular 189. 5cents.. 1912
Mechanical Properties of Redwood, Forest Service Circular 193. 5 cents.....-. 1912
*Strength Tests of Cross-Arms, Forest Service Circular 204. 5 cents. .......... 1912
Mechanical Properties of Western Hemlock, Forest Service Bulletin 115. 15

Cenise 2 eee yess cope aes Stetina et 6 Seek bs eet. Sek cams eee 1913

Mechanical Properties of Western Larch, Forest Service Bulletin122. 10cents. 1913

Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in United States, Forest Service Circular

WS? OC ORES oe te 2s Sek po ss Se ee ae te i sae ee 1913
Tests of Packing Boxes, Forest Service Circular 214. 5 cents..............-- 1913
Uses of Commercial Woods of United States—Beech, Birches, and Maples, De-

patment, baiienn ds? AOcentae 2 5 ccc atin ems csie s ooo26 ase eee 1913
Tests of Rocky Mountain Woods for Telephone Poles, Department Bulletin 67.

SCCUIS eee tee Seek ae ee ee ee oes san ee pee So ee eee 1914
Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers, Department Bulletin 77. 5 cents..........-. 1914
Tests of Wooden Barrels, Department Bulletin 86. 5 cents............-.----. 1914
Strength Tests of Structural Timber Treated by Commercial Wood Preserving

Processes, Department Bulletin 286. 5 cents.......-.......----.---------- 1915

* Indicates supply is exhausted.

Department Bulletin 552.—‘“‘ The Seasoning of Wood” is also of special interest to those handling
timber. It can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C.

NotTEe.—Publications out of print can be consulted at many public libraries. In a number of cases they
have been superseded by more recent publications. Others can be obtained from the Superintendent af
Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington. D. C., at the price stated, until the supply is
exhausted. Remittances should be made by money order, or in coin (at sender’s risk); stamps can not
be accepted.

OE ——— ml SO

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOODS GROWN IN UNITED STATES. 47

2. PAPERS PREPARED BY FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY AND PUBLISHED IN PRO-
CEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES AND TECHNICAL, TRADE, AND OTHER JOURNALS.
Title. Author. Where published. Date.
A Few Deductions from Strength | Newlin, J. A...... American Lumberman.......... Jan. 16,1915.
Tests of American Woods.
Begun Affecting Structural Tim- | Betts, H.S........ Engineering Record............- Aug. 29, 1914.
ers.
Grading Rules of Yellow Pine Struc-|.....do...........- American Lumberman.......... Apr. 24,1915.
tural Timber Discussed.
Applicability of Yellow Pine Grad- | Newlin, J. A...... Engineering Record............. Oct. 3,1914.
ing Rules to Other Timbers.
Air Seasoning of Timber.......-.--. Kempfer, W. H...| American Railway Engineering
Bulletin 161.
Effect of Different Methods of Dry- | Tiemann, H. D...| Lumber World Review......... Apr. 10,1915.
ing on Strength of Wood.
*Fourth Progress Report on Tests of |....-............--- American Railway Engineering
Treated Ties. and Maintenance of Way Asso-
- é ciation Bulletin 124.
The Protection of Ties from Me- | Weiss, H. F....... Proceedings American Wood] 1914.
chanical Destruction. Preservers’ Association.
Greenheart: a Timber with Excep- | Armstrong, A. K .| Engineering Record............. Jan. 29 and
tional Properties. Feb.5,1916.
Variation in the Weight and | Newlin, J.A...... St. Louis Lumberman, Ameri-
Strength of Timber. can Lumberman, Southern

Lumberman, Lumber World

Review.
Structural Timber in the United | Betts, H. S., and | International Engineering Con- | Sept. 20-25,
States. Greeley, W. B. gress, San Francisco. 1915.

* Indicates supply is exhausted.

‘a ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.

AT

10 CENTS PER COPY
V

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