Natural History Museum Library
STDRC
L S. \13V
MONTHLY JOURNAL OF NATURAL SCIENCE
eDitei) by
JOHN. H- COOKE,
B. Sc., F.G.S., F.E. G. S., etc.
“Hear the truths that Nature loves to tell ”
VOLUME I.
•TUNE 1891 TO MAY 1892.
*
■
.
MALTA: G. Muscat, 48, Stracla Mercanti.
LONDON: W. P. Collins, 157, Gt. Portland St.
NEW YORK: B, Westermann & Co., 812, Broadway,
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v. » jU..b mfn-M <*I SSA . „ £j
INDEX TO VOLUME I.
Page.
Academy French The 36
AStna lavas 148. 165
African earthworms 6
Alps Glaciers of 166
Algeria weather in 36
Algae preservation of 67
Annual geological congress 20
Armenia 187
Archeological discovery 183
Astronomical researches 17
Atmospheric effects 43
Balearic Isles The 53
Beetles of Gibraltar 112
Bee Keeping 139
Beneden Van Prof 63. 143
Birds longevety of 107
Birds Our 90
Birds Habits of 155
Biddulph Sir R 29. 51. 83. 114
Black Sea Survey of 75
Black Sea exploration of 181
Botany of Egypt 125
Bovallius Dr. C 19
Bryozoa of Northern Italy 12
Brookite ... 12
Brun H. E ... 69
Burial prehistoric 53
Caruana Gatto A 85. 106. 127. 148. 165
Canary origin of 123
Capellini Prof. G 2
Camel endurance of... 138
Catalogue a remarkable *.. 183
Caves in Corsica 20
Cephalonia natural phenomena ... ... 69
Cephalonia climate of 63
Chrysophrys in Malta Miocene 118
Charadrius Pluvialis ... 140
Climate of Malta 102
Climate of Cephalonia 63
Clausilia a new ... 148
Climate of Tunis 172
Cooke J. H., 7. 37. 48. 57. 70. 75. 78. 88. 102.
118. 129. 143. 152 176
Coleoptera of Gibraltar ... 12
Coral reefs formation of 7
Corsica ... 141
Colours of plants 19
Coral Island a. ... ... ... ... 82
Crocodilian remains 28
Currents of Mediterranean 107
Cyprus ... ... 29. 51. 83. 114
Deep Sea explorations ... ... ... 159
Pisease potatoe of 53
Disease of oranges ...
Dioplodon farnisinae..
Druce G. D
Dragon Flies
Earthwrom The
Ear land A
Earthquakes
Echinoderms of Malta
Egean sea ornithology of
Egg plant
Estivisation
Explosion in Italy ...
Exchanges
Explorations in Mediterran
Exploration in Black Sea
Expedition deep sea..
Famine in Russia ...
Figs culture of
Foraminifera history of
Foraminifera Maltese
Fossil deer
Fossil fish in Upper Limest
Fossil remains at Arpino
Fossil leviathans
Fossil whale
Foster W. G
Frequency of Storms
France Societies of ...
Fungus a parasitic ...
Fungus Melitensis ...
Gabes Gulf of
Garde de la P.
Geological Society ...
Geographical Congress
Geological Congress...
Geological photograjjhic c
Gibraltar Beetles
Grape-stone use of ...
Harting J
Henslow Rev. Prof....
Health Resorts
Horizon distance of...
Horse modifications of
Iguanodon Belgium...
Insect plagues. _ ...
Insect tranformations
Jervis G. Cav.
Johnston-Lavis Dr. ...
Lampedusa
Lavas of HCtna
Lepidoptera of Mediterrane
Lepidoptera of Malta
Leviathans fossil
Light diffused..
*
INDEX TO VOLUME 1.
Light penetrating power.
Limpet strength of ...
Locust Plague in Algeria
Locust plague in Tunis
Maltese Fossil Echinoidea..
Maltese Islands, Meteorology
.Maltese Islands Geology of 22.
Maltese chelonian a.
Maltese echinodenns
Maltese mammals .
Maltese Climate
Maltese lepidoptera.
Maltese chrysophrys
Malta natural history
Maltese Islands soil of
Manna of Syria
Massey W. Ji...
Mammals fossil
Marrat T.
Marobia The ...
Manganese nodules
Mediterranean molluscs
Mediterranean tideless
Mediterranean temperature of
Mediterranean Zoology of.
Mediterranean a retrospect of
Mediterranean depth of ..
Mediterranean sharks
Mediterranean Lepidoptera
Mediterranean colours of ..
Mellard Reade T
Meteorological phenomena..
Military pigeons
Mineral Spring
Mice Plague ...
Mountain formation
Mount Dol discovery at
Moss Flora of Malta..
Mosquito destruction of
Molluscan fauna of Red Sea
Murray Dr. J.
Museums Home
Mummy Wheat
Natural Science in Tunis ..
Natural Resemblances
'Natural History of Malta ..
Neptunia
Oxvcepbalids The
Ophyrs Apifera
Olive in Malta
Ornithology of the vEgean .
Orange Diseases of
Oysters disappearance of ..
Oysters strength of
Phoenicians in Mediterranean
Phosphate beds round London
Palestine Salt Mountain
Pantelleria sketch of..
Penzig Prof
Pigeons military
Playfair Sir Lambert , .
37
88
45
48. 70
. 118
64. 99
45.
93
182
17
167
169
168
129. 152
4
138
123
102
106 133
118
61
164
166
33
116
77
155
5
109
123
53
12
13
27
75
147
183
135. 161
183
99
79. 93
183
64. 99.
135
12
151
123
109
34
90
171
18
77
61
53
19
53
97
75
79
156
182
180
20
88
93
174
99
141
Plants strange
Pleistocene Beds Gozo
Pomerania mineral wealth of
Pompeii excavations at
Poppy Cultivation of
Programme Our
Prehistoric Village ...
Prehistoric Remains..
Rain making
Reindeer in Bavaria..
Red Sea Molluscan fauna
Rhus vernicifera
Russia famine in
Sardine Life Habits of
Samos fossils
Sahara origin of
Sawdust as bricks ...
Salt Mountain A. ...
Separation of Europe & Africa
Sicily Geological Congress in
Sirocco as a disintegrating agent
Sharks in Mediterranean
Sickenberger Prof. ...
Smyth Warington Sir
Smith E. C
Soil of Maltese Islands
Societies of France ...
Spondylus Disappearance of
Spectroscopic photography
Sponge fisheries in Lampedusa
Stereodon Melitensis
Star, a new
Strange plants
Survey in Black Sea
Sunshine in Malta
Syrian Greyhound The
Tagliaferro C.
Tarantula of Mediterranean
Taylor Miss J.
Theories of Mountan Formation 45
Theory latest of volcanoes...
Toggetti Prof.
Treasures subterranean of Italy
Tunisian locust plague
Tunis development of
Tunis climate of
Turkey mineral wealth of ...
Vesuvius eruption of
Vine diseases
Vine and olive culture
Volcanoes South Italian
Volcanoes Latest theory of
Waves of Mediterranean ...
Waterspouts in Mediterranean
Walker J. J., R.N. ...
Walmsley W. H. ...
Whale fossil
Weather prognostics..
Wind action in Egypt
Zoological Stations ...
Zoological fact a curious
27
64. 99
21. 54
177
7, 20
172
27
146
1
154
155
138
53
109
107
183
156
116. 167
33
171
88
140
75
. 157
75
151
67
109
164
122
165
166
143
122. 176
176
177
75
172
73
173
- 155
82
135. 161
113
160
5
167
171
172
183
140. 154
107
69
90
113
154
165
150. 112
67
124.
153
156
178
43
139
r rm
ip
A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF NATURAL SCIENCE. A
EDITED BY JOHN H. COOKE, B.Sc., F.G.S.
-A, *4*
Registei ed.
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Yol. I, No. 1.
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CONTENTS.
— — Pag.
Programme . . 1
A short history of the foraminifera in Italy— Prof.
G. Cappellini . * 2
A new Maltese Chelonian 4
Manganese Nodules ..5
The subterranean treasures of Italy — Cav. G.
Jervis, F.G.S.. . 5
African earthworms 6
Deep sea exploration in the Mediterranean 6
Formation of coral-reefs in recent seas . . 7
Notes on the discovery of a Pleistocene bed at
Gozo— The Editor . . . 7
Notes dr News: — The Bryozoa of Northern Italy —
Apology in the Mediterranean— The Coleoptera
of Gibraltar &c. &c. .... 12
Exchange Column 12
NOTICES.
The Mediterranean Naturalist is published
on the 1st oj each month. Annual subscription ds.
By post 5s.
Communications for the Editor should be ad-
dressed to Highland House, St. Julians, Malta.
NOTE: Among the gentlemen who are going to contri-
bute articles to our future numbers are the following:—
Professor G. Capellini, Sena.tore del Regno. Bologna
II Cav. G. Jervis F.G.S. Director of the Royal Museum,
M.R.C.S., F.G.S.. B.Sc., &c.
Turin.
Dr. Johnstone La vis M.D
Naples.
T. Mellard Reade, C E F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A., Liverpool.
Lt, General Sir Robt. Biddulph K.C.M.G. late High -Com-
missioner for Cyprus.
Dr. 55. Hunter M.B., Cairo.
To Correspondents.
A ll communications intended for insertion should
be written on one side of the paper only; and should
■reach the Editor on or before the 12th of the month.
Whenever an answer is required through the post ,
a stamped and directed, envelope should, be enclosed.
Secretaries of Societies are invited to for ward us
reports of their proceedings ; and Curators of
Museums will confer a favour by informing us of
any new and important additions that may be
vi'.ide to their collection^,
PROGRAMME-
j
HE principal object, that we have in
view in thus adding another publi-
cation to the already long list of periodical
literature, is to provide naturalists with a
paper that shall be devoted to the natural
history of the Mediterranean and of its
islands and of its shores.
If we are to judge by the numerous en-
quiries that are constantly being made for
such a paper, it would seem that we are
supplying a long felt want; and therefore
any further apologies for its appearance
would be superfluous.
I he number of those, who are engaged in
studying the various branches of the natu-
ral history of the Mediterranean and the
adjoining districts, is large., and their work
is of the highest scientific interest and im-
portance; but hitherto many of the results
of their labours have been made known
ortly to a limited few, and this, because
they have been published either by societies
whose journals are not accessible to the ma-
jority of workers, or because they are so
scattered in the field of scientific literature
that the regular gleaning of them has been
rendered a most laborious, if not an imprac-
ticable task.
As far as lies in our power, we shall ga-
ther together such results and report them
for the benefit of our readers.
Original articles on Mediterranean geo-
logy, zoology, and botany will form a pro-
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
minent feature of the journal, and will, we
trust, be the means of doing much towards
creating interest, and stimulating research
in these sciences.
Space will be set apart for the comparison
of notes, and for the discussion of scientific
questions of current interest.
.Reviews of scientific literature will also
appear; and & precis of the most important
articles will be given.
Such are a few of the more prominent
features of the programme which we shall
endeavour to follow". To enable us to carry
it out effectively, we would invite the aid
*/ *
of our readers and other scientific workers;
for the success of a journal of this descrip-
tion depends not so much on the exertions
of its Editor, as on the cooperation of its
contributors. While, therefore, asking them
to accord us their hearty support, we pro-
mise to spare no pains to render “The Me-
diterranean Naturalist” worthy of their
confidence, and of the sciences whose hum-
ble servitor it aspires to be.
»OCOOOCCXDC<- ■
A short history of the study of the
Foraminifera In Italy
by Professor G. Capellini, f
The study of the Rhizopods, that have played
such an important part in the constitution both of
the calcareous and siliceous rocks from the most re-
mote geological ages, lias lately acquired a still'
greater importance in consequence of the discover-
ies made in the ocean depths by means of the
investigations that were carried out during the
voyages of the “Lightning”, and of the “Porcu-
pine” from 1868-70, of the “Challenger’ from 1872-
76, of the “Blake”, of the “Travailleur” 1880-82, of
the “Falisman” 1883, and of other English, Ameri-
can, and French ships, and latterly by the expedi
tion which was undertaken by the “Vettor Pisani.”
* Read before the Royal Academy of Science of
Bologna,
It was, during these expeditions, that the
intimate relations that exist between the calcareous
rocks, and the glorigerina ooze which was collected
at a depth of about 4000 metres, and between the
siliceous rocks and the radiolarian mud that was
found in even greather dephts, were established.
, This branch of study, as l have already had
occasion to record, (1) had its origin Bologna in
the year 1730, owing to the patient researches and
fortunate discoveries of Jacopo BortolomeoBeccari,
who gave an account of them to our Academy in a
memoir which was afterwards published in the
first volume of the Commentaries under the title:
“De bononiensi arena quadem.”
Beceari demonstrated that the yellow sands of
the hills around Bologna were deposited in the
depths of the sea, and in the course of his researches
with the microscope, he succeeded in finding,
mixed w ith the grains of sand, large quantities of
minute shells, that he showed to be of marine
origin and which he named “Corni cli Ammone”.
It is well known to all who are engaged in the
study of natural history, that after these discover-
ies of Beccari, Jano Planco(2) found many varieties
of similar shells on the shores of Rimini and thus
while adding considerably to the Roman natural-
ist’s personal reputation, the discovery also had
the effect of inducing others to occupy themselves
in similar researches.
A mong these we note the names of Gualtieri of
Florence 1742, and Ferdinando Bassi of Bologna
1757. (3)
Bassi not only discovered the microscopical
“ Corni di Ammone o Nautili ” that are now
included among the foraminifera, but he also
(1 ) Capellini . G. — Geologia e Faleontologia del
Bolognese. Cenno storico. Bologna 1862.
Capellini. G. — SulVanalisi meccanica delle roc-
cie crittomere per mezzo delle lamine sottili e del
microscopio. Rendie asc. Sc. Bol. , 3 febbraio 1875.
Capellini. G. — II macigno di Borretta e le
Roccie a Globigerine dell1 2 3 Apennino Bolognese, mem.
accad. delle Sc. di Bologna , Serie IV. Tom. II.
1880.
(2) Blanco J. — Be conckis minus notis liber.
1739.
(3) Bassi F. — Be quibusdorn exiguis madreporis
agri bononiensis. Bon. Sc. Art. Inst. Acad. Comm,
Vol. IV. Opuscula pag. 1 9 Bon 1757.
Fornasini G. — I foraminiferi della Tabella
Oryctographica esistente net Museo geologico di
Bologna , Boll. Sue. geol. Ual. Roma 188 f
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
8
made accurate sections of these and of other forms
of the polythalamia for the purpose of studying
the number and forms of the chambers.
Of these sections, we still have examples preser-
ved in the historical collection of the geological
museum, and by their means we are able to show
to Italy the kind of investigation which has since
acquired such great importance in consequence of
the labours of the naturalists Munier-Chalmas and
Schlumberger (4) who have been carrying out in-
vestigations on the dimorphism of the foraminifera
in France, and the researches of Fornasini who
is recognised as an authority (5) on the subject
not only by these authors, but also by all others
who are engaged in this branch of study.
After Bassi, Father Ambrogio Soldani of Prato-
vecchio published at &iena in the year 1780 his
celebrated observations on the Nautilus and am-
monite regions of Tuscany, (6) and afterwards, by
means of his great work “Testaceographia ac
zoophytographia parva et microscopm” which was
written 1789-1798, he rendered his own name
immortal and secured to Italy the great honour of
having been the first to encourage and develope
the branch of zoology and paleontology that had
been commenced a half a century before by
means of the discovery which was made by the
Bologna scientist.
(Jf ) Munier-Chalmas — Sur de dimorphisme des
Num.midites, Bull. Soc. qeol. de France , 3e Serie ,
T. VIII , p. 300 , Paris , 1880.
Schlumberger — Sur le Biloculina depre&sa d'Orb.
au point de vue du dimorphisme des foraminif e-res.
Assoc, francaise pour VAvancement des Sciences.
Congres de Rouen , 1883.
Munier-Chalmas et Schlumberger — Nouvelles
oberservation sur le dimorphisme des foraminif eres.
Comptes rend us des seances de V Acad, des Sciences
de Paris. Seance 28 Alai 1883 .
(5) Schlumberger ■ — Note sur les Biloculina bul-
loides d’Orb. et B. ringeus Lam. (Bull. Soc. Geol.
France , 3e Serie, T. XV. p. 119) — 1887.
Schlumberger — Note sur les Foraminif eres fos-
siles de la province d Angola (Bull. Soc. Geol.
France , 3e Serie, T. XVI) Paris, 1888.
(6) Soldani A. Saggio orittografico ovvero osser-
vazioni sopra le terre nautiliche ed ammonitiche
della Toscana con appendice e catalogo dei piccoli
testacci . Siena, 1780.
Soldani A. — Testaceographice ac Zoophitogra-
phice parva? et microscopicm Tomus primus. Senis
mdcclxxxi x—Tomus secundus , mdccxcviii.
For many years no Italian naturalist followed
the brilliant example that had been set by Soldani.
Micheiotti in 1841 (7) and Oronzio Gabriele
Costa in 1855 endeavoured to revive the study of
the foraminifera; and the latter devoted himself
to the fauna of Southern Italy. (8)
Almost contemporaneously Giuseppe Meneghini
studied and arranged the more common of the
tertiary foraminifera of Tuscany; while shortly
after, his pupil Orazio Silvestri evinced a desire
to continue the work of the great Soldani.
But Silvestri, unfortunately, confined his atten-
tion to a memoir on the Nodosarie, an exhaustive
treatise that was not published until after the
author had abandoned the study of the rhizopods,
and at a time when he was devoting all of his
energies to the study of chemistry. (9)
During the period 1859-1879 Giuseppe Seguenza
made known to us the foraminifera of Sicily, and
in part also that of Calabria (10); while in 1880
Guglielmo Terrigi figured the foraminifera of the
tertiary formations of Rome (11).
(7) Micheiotti G. — Saggio storico sui Rizopodi
caratteristici dei terrem sopra. cretacei (Mem. Soc.
Ital. Sc. vol. xxii ).
(8) Costa 0. G.— Foraminif eri fossili delle
marne terziarie di Messina. Mem. accad. Sc. di
Napoli, vol. II. Napoli 1855.
Costa 0. G. — Paleontologia del regno di Napoli
Parte Ida. Atti Ac-c. Poniana. vol . VII. Napoli
1856.
(9) Silvestri 0. -Le Nodosa rie fossili net ter re-
no subapennmo itahano e viventi nei mari d Italia.
(Atti dell Ace. Gioenia di scienze nat. Sen. 3a. vol.
VII) Catania. 1872.
(16) Seguenza G. — Intorno ad, un v.uovo genere
di Foraminif em fossile del terreno Miocenico di
Messina. (Eco Feloritano, Giorn. di Sc. lett. ed
arti, anno V. Sen. 2a.) Messina, 1859.
Seguenza : G. — Prime ricerche intorno ai Rizo-
pod i fossili delle argile pleistoceniche del dintorno
di Catania (Atti Acc. Gioenia di Sc. nat. Sen. 2a.
vol. XVIII.) Catania, 1862 .
Seguenza G. — Descrizione dei Foraminif eri mo -
notalamici delle marne mioceniche del distretto di
Messina. Messina, 1862.
Seguenza G. — Le Formaziom terziarie nella
provincia di Reggio (Calabria). (Atti della R.
Accad. clei Iincei, Serie 8a. Mem. classe Sc. f si eke
e nat. vol. VI.) Roma , 1879.
(11) Terrigi G. — Fauna vaticana a foraminiferi
delle sabbie gialle nel plioceno subapennino supe-
riore. ( AttSdel la Accad. pont. dei Nuovi line
vol. XXXIII.) Roma, 1880.
4
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
In the mean-time Carlo Fornasini of Bologna,
the laureate in natural science in 1877, after having
throughly prepared himself in this branch of study,
went to Vienna, Monaco, Berlin, Brussels, and
Paris for the purpose of studying the collections
in those places, and in order that he might consult
those who had made the study their speciality.
The work, by which Fornasini made himself
first known, referred to the Pliocene Marls of Pon-
ticello and Savena ; interesting localities that have
since been honoured by the visits of the most
eminent geologists, among whom may be noted
Herbert, Prestwick, Renevier, Fontannes, Han then,
Van-den Broeck and Rutot, the last having gone
there expressly for the purpose of examining the
clay, from which Fornasini had obtained the fora-
ininifera, that he has figured in his works.
Fornasini has given remarkable proofs of his
patience and perseverance, for he has already
published a large number of works that deal
exclusively with the foraminifera, and about which
I shall here cite the opinion which was expressed
by Dollfus of Paris in the “Bivista geologica uni-
versale” of last year.
i j
Gustavo Dollfus, after having declared that
Fornasini, in consequence of his many and inter-
esting researches about the foraminifera, is fol-
lowing in the footsteps of Gaultieri, Planco, and
Soklani, proceeds to state that Fornasini was
engaged on a great work that had reference to the
numerous and varied forms of the little animals
whose remains occur in such abundance in Italian
Strata.
He passes in review some of Fornasini’s
more recent publications, and, after referring to
the work entitled “Be vision e del foraminiferi
illustrati dal Soklani” as a “ oeuvre considerable ”
he thus concludes: * * S’il etait possible de faire
une reproduction des planches de Soldani que
leur rarete eloigm de la plupart des travaiUeurs ,
elle deviendraie.nl , avec le travail de revision de
M. Fornasini , le livre. de chevet de tons les
etudiants micrographes” (12)
Unfortunately the. desired reproduction is im-
possible as, after having given rare proofs of his
(12) Annuaire geologique universe!, Revue de
Geologie ei Paleontologies 2e parties Foraminiferes ,
par Gustave Dollfus , pag. 207 , 208. Paris 1887,
untiring zeal and perseverance, after having spent
more than thirty years on the work of which he
published the first volume in 1789 and which he
illustrated with one hundred and seventy-nine
plates, the indefatigable priest was “discouraged
by the unfavourable reception that the book met
with at the hands of the public after all his labour
and anticipations, and in a moment of ill humour
he consigned the greater part of' the second volume
to the flames, and threw the engraving blocks into
the melting-pot.”
Giambattista Brocchi in his famous discourse
“Sui progressi dello studio della Conchiologia fos-
sile in Italia” which was pubblished in 1814, re-
marks that “Though Soldani had a right to the
appreciation of the people, yet he made a mistake
in thus limiting the scope of his work by confining
his attention to the formations of his own country
only, for he adds in a tone of indignation, “The
taste for natural sciences seemed to be then
declining, and it was the custom of the Italians
who were then living (1789) to show a certain
fastidiousness or carelessness, or to speak more
correctly a certain contempt for native genius,
and a blind, servile, and stupid admiration for
that of strangers.” (13)
I trust that this important branch of study,
which had its origin in Bologna, will continue to
produce from among us such talented workers,
and exact thinkers.
A New Maltese Chelonian.
Trionyx Melitensis.
Mr. R. Lydekker, B.A., F.G.S., of the British
Museum read a paper at a recent meeting of the
Geological Society of London* in which he figured
and described a portion of the middle and right
half of the anterior region of the Carapace of a
large Chelonian, referable to the family Triony-
chidse, which had been obtained by Dr. John
Murray during his visit to Malta in the summer
of 1890.
In many respects it is distinctly analagous to
certain species of Trionyx (viz. T. gangeticus T.
Leithi , and T . hurum) that at present exist in the
(13) Brocchi. G. — Conchiologia fossile subapen-
nina. Tomo I. p. LPIV , LX VII. Milano 181 J.
* Vol. XL VII. Xo. 185. Quart: Journ: Geo.Foc:
the mediterranean naturalist
*>
Indian seas, while in others, the resemblances are
such as would seem to indicate that it is closely
allied to the existing Chitra indica.
After describing the characteristic features of
the specimen and pointing out the affinities and
differences that it bears to the genus Chitra , and
the genus Trionyx , the author concludes by sum-
ming up the evidences in favour of the latter, and
accordingly proposes to name the new fossil
T rionyx Melitensis.
Manganese nodules
At a recent meeting of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh Dr. John Murray communicated the
results of his researches on the form, structure,
and distribution of manganese nodules in the deep
sea.
He found that, as a rule, the nuclei of these
nodules consisted of fragments of pumice stone;
but that shark’s teeth, earbones of whales and
fragments of rocks not infrequently supplied their
place.
He found them in the greatest abundance in
deep water where organic life was scarce, whereas
in the waters in which shore deposits are being :
laid down and in which organic life is the greatest,
they were found to be of comparatively rare
occurrence.
There is some difference of opinion as to the
causes that have led to the formation of these no-
dules. Dr. Murray, however, expresses an opinion
that the manganese has been deposited from so-
lution in the sea water by way of the carbonates.
It is interesting to note that similar manganese j
nodules are often met with in the Malta “Globi-
gerina Limestone” (Bed IV). There are several
very fine specimens in the Malta University
Museum.
i
The Subterranean Treasures of Italy.
( “ I Tesori Sotterranei deli’Italia”, per il
Cavaliere Guglielmo Jervis, Conservatore R. Mus.
Indusfc. Ital. F.G.S., &c.) is the title of a most
valuable and interesting work, in four volumes,
which has just been acquired for the Malta
Public Library. Vols. I to III treat of the
topographical mineralogy of Italy; and vol. IV
treats of its economic geology.
The fourth volume, especially, is full of matters
of such interest to the man of science and to
the general reader, that a brief description of
it will, no doubt, be of some service in indicat-
ing the scope of the subject and the mode of
its treatment.
The kingdom is divided into three main
divisions viz. “The Alps,” “The Appenines” and
the “Islands of Sardinia and Sicily,” each of
which is worked out with great minuteness
of detail with reference to its mineral waters,
fossii fuels and economic rocks.
A description of the geological features of each
district is given, arid the economic value of the
various rocks of which the strata are composed,
is noted with reference to their suitability for
building and decorative purposes, and for
the manufacture of cements, stucco, lime &c.
Descriptions and illustrations of the kinds of
stone used by the Etruscans & Romans, by
the Greek, Egyptian, Phoenician and Pelasgiau
colonists of Southern Italy and by their modern
descendants, in the construction of their temp-
les ond other public edifices, occupy consider-
able space; and this, together with the interesting
descriptive notices of the classical antiquities
of the erst while mistress of the world, form
a section, that will be of absorbing interest both
to the classical, and the scientific scholar alike.
Directions as to the routes to the localities
in which the economic rocks may be studied
to the best advantage are given.
Of these Carrara, Rome, Tivoli, Naples, Syra-
cuse and Sardinia are specially mentioned.
Pages XI-XIV are taken up with descriptions
of the materials used, in the construction of
the principal monuments of Rome’s former
glory.
From these we select the following:
Roman amphitheatre at Verona made of
compact Jurassic marble; the Pantheon at Rome,
with granite columns; the cathedral of Milan,
of pre-paleozoic marble; pavement of the “Via
Appia” of post piiocene basalt; the baker’s
house at Pompeii with mill stones of late
Tertiary leucitic lava.
Then follows a list of the names of the
Authors who have written works descriptive of
6
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
the economic rocks of Italy; and a brief exposition
of the geological principles that should underly
works of this description is given. The nature
of the various cements &c. are then entered
into, and the lithological characters of the
various kinds of stone are described. The
work is profusely illustrated, with cuts re-
presenting the antiquities of the kingdom, and
the regions from which the principal building
stones are obtained.
The work has now been 30 years in course
of preparation, and the information that it
contains is of so valuable a nature that a copy
of it has been ordered by the Italian Government
for every public library, and every Chamber of
Commerce in Italy.
It is also to be found on the shelves of
most of the principal institutions of Europe,
for it is indispensable alike to the scientist and
the capitalist.
African Earthworms,
The last Kew Bulletin contains a report by
Mr. Alvan Millson, the Assistant Colonial Secre
tary of Lagos; on Yortiba Land, the native ter-
ritory adjacent to Lagos. After describing the
wasteful system of cultivation employed by the
natives and the wonderful rapidity with which the
soil recovers from it, he says the mystery is solved
in a simple and unexpected manner during the
dry season. The whole surface of the ground
beneath the grass is seen to be covered by rows
of cylindrical worm casts. These vary in height
from a quarter of an inch to three inches, and
exist in astonishing numbers. It is in many place,
impossible to press a finger upon the ground
without tonching one. For scores of square miles
they cover the surface of the soil, closely packed,
upright, and burnt by the sun into rigid rolls of
hardened clay. The rains ultimately break them
down into a fine powder, rich in plant food and
lending itself easily to the hoe of the farmer.
These casts are very different in form from those
which are common in English gardens. On digging
down, the soil is found to be drilled in all directions
by a countless multitude of worms drills, while from j
13 inches to 2 feet in depth the worms are found
in great number in the moist subsoil. It is
impossible to estimate their number per cubic
foot, as the quantity varies according to the
season and the locality. Having carefully removed
the worm casts of one season from two separate
square feet of land at a considerable distance
from one another, and chosen at random, Mr.
Millson found the weight to be 10-f pounds in
a thoroughly dry state. This gives a mean of
over 5 pounds per square foot, and a total of not
less than 62,233 tons of subsoil brought to the
surface on each square mile of cultivable land in
the Yoruba country every year. This work goes
on unceasingly year after year, and to the untiring
labors of its earthworms this part of West Africa
owes the livelihood of its people. Where the
worms do not work, the Yoruba knows that it is
useless to make his farm.
Estimating 1 square yard of dry earth by
2 feet deep as weighing half a ton, there is
an annual movement of earth per square yard
of a depth of 2 feet amounting to not less than
45 pounds. From this it appears that every
particle of earth in each ton of soil, to the
depth of 2 feet, is brought to the surface once
in twenty — seven years. If seems more then
probable that the comparative freedom of this
part of West Africa from dangerous malarial
fevers is due, in part at least, to the work
of earth worms in ventilating and constantly
bringing to the surface the soil in which the
malarial germs live and breed. From speci-
mens which Mr. Millson has sent home it
appears the worm belongs to a new species of
the genus siphonogaster. The type of the genus
has been quite lately described from the Nile
mud. Sci: Amer:
Deep Sea exploration in the
Mediterranean.
The investigations which the expedition sent
out by the Vienna Academy of Sciences has
been carrying out in the eastern portion of the
Mediterranean have been very successful. The
investigations concerning the depth and general
characteristics of the sea, and the presence of life
in it, were carried out at seventy two distinct
points. The greatest depths. (3700 metres, or over
2 ^ miles), were found near the great depression
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
7
which runs between Malta and Cerigo — a deep
valley running in a direction from ncrth to south,
and with a depth varying from 3500 to 4000
metres, the descent being much more abrupt on
the Greek side than on the Italian and Sicilian
side. Experiments as to light showed that the
waters are more transparent near the African
coast than in the northern portions. There, white
metal plates were discernable at a depth of nearly
144 feet. Sensitive plates were still found capable
of being acted upon by a light at a depth of nearly
550 yards (2 | furlongs), at a point 200 marine
miles north of Ben-Ghazi ; on being drawn up
they were found to have been blackened.
The acid constituents of the sea- water seem to
be the same at the greatest depth as near the
surface, nor is any difference in the quantity of the
ammoniaeal constituents perceptible between the
upper and the lowest levels, with the exception
that every where close to. the bottom the quantity
of ammoniaeal ingredients is notable.
The deep sea region of the Eastern Mediterranean
is very poor in animal life. A dredge at a depth
of 3000 metres brought up no animal specimens
at all, but at a depth of 2000 metres leaf-formed
algce were discovered similar to those found at
the same depth in the Atlantic by the Panton ex-
pedition. Bci. Gos.
Formation of Coral reefs in recent seas.
The question of the origin and nature of coral
reefs was fully discussed by I)r. John Murray at a
recent meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
He first referred to the experiments that have
recently been made with reference to the secretion
and solution of carbonate of lime. He said that
carbonate of lime remains are found in great
abundance at the sea bottom in shallow waters, but
the amount steadily diminishes as the depth in-
creases, until at 4,000 fathoms almost every trace
has disappeared.
This is due to the solvent action of the water
as the organisms slowly fall to the bottom.
Everywhere within 500 fathoms of the surface the
ocean teems with life. The Greely expedition
was starving within ten feet of abundant food,
which might have been obtained by breaking a
hole through the ice and using a shirt as a drag-net.
Dr. Murray then proceeded to discuss his theory
of the formation of coral reefs, bringing forward,
in reply to objections by Dana and others, some
recently obtained facts regarding the existence of
shallow regions in what is, on the whole, deep
water. He showed that carbonate of lime is con-
tinually produced in great quantity in warn’1*
tropical water by the action of sulphate of iimA
in solution on effete products.
This explains the great growth of coral on
certain shores in tropical regions.
The absence of coral on certain shores in
tropical districts is explained by the uprise of
cold water due to winds blowing offshore.
The paper was illustrated by an elaborate
series of lime-light diagrams.
Notes on the discovery
of a “Pleistocene Bed” at Gozo.
In the year 1874 a letter signed by Messrs
Fielden and Maxwell appeared in the Maltese
Journal UH Barth,'’ in which attention was drawn
to a post-pliocene deposit, that was said to have
been discovered in the vicinity of Gala Duera and
II Kala in Gozo. A specimen of the deposit
together with a number of shells that were found
in the bed, were forwarded to Prof: Seguenza,
who, after having examined them, expressed an
opinion that the discovery was one of much
importance. (1)
From that time to this, no further attention
appears to have been paid to the matter. During
the latter portion of the summer of 1890, while
engaged in investigating the geology of the Dueira
district, I first discovered evidences of the bed
to which Messrs Maxwell and Fielden had
alluded seventeen years before.
Gala Dueira is a small bay, which is situated at
the western extremity of Gozo.
Its southern and eastern shores are bounded by
mural cliffs of Lower Coralline Limestone, that
tower above the level of the sea to a height,
which varies from 150 to 200 feet. (2)
In consequence of a fault, that extends from
Monsciar at the head of Uied-el-Arab to Dueira,
the eastern boundary of the bay has been let clown,
(1 ) It Barth. 1874.
(2) The following table s hows the order in which
the Maltese formations occur.
Dr. Murray’s classification.
Capt. Spratt & Dr. Adam’s
classification.
I. Upper Coral. Limestone
II. Greensands
III. Clay beds
IV. Globigerina Limestone
V. Lower Coral. Limestone.
I. Upper Coral. Limestone
II. Sand bed
III. Marl beds
IV. Freestone
V. Lower Limcstoi\es -
8 'THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
a.nd the cliffs are, therefore., no more than 20 feet
tigh in some parts, while, towards the west, the
strata shelve gradually off and finally disappear in
the sea.
At the mouth of the bay there is an outlier of
the Lower Coralline Limestone, which is known
as the Fungus or General’s Rock.
It was once, apparently, a continuation of the
now depressed northern boundary.
The bay itself forms the embouchure of the
Dueira valley, the catchment area of which Is
bounded on either side by a fault of considerable
magnitude. That on the northern side extends
from the General’s Rock to the northern base of
the hill known as Ghar-Ilma. The down-throw j
that has resulted from this fracture has depressed
the area to the south of it to about 40 feet below
the top surface of the Lower Limestone escarp
meat, which lies exposed along the line of fault.
The fault on the southern side of the bay
extends from Dueira, via Monsciar to Miggiar
Scini, and the result of its fracture has been to
depress the area to the north of its line. The
accompanying map will show the relative posi-
tions of these two faults, and the efFec they have
had on the area that lies between them.
The strata, that have thus been let down, are
much broken and displaced; and, on the southern
slope especially, there are several minor faults all
of which trend in a direction that is at right angles
to the main fracture.
The beds on both sides of the valley slope at
varying angles, in many cases the inclination
being as much as 45° and even 60° out of the
horizontal.
The beds dip inwards; and the result of the
synclinal, which lias thus been formed, is the
Duera valley, the bed of which is represented by
the trough of the syncline.
The southern slopes are very uniform in outline;
but those on the northern sides are divided into a
series of smaller valleys or gullies, down which
miniature torrents pour their waters for a few
occasional hours in the winter time.
The deposits of which the sides of the valley are
composed do not consist of the Lower Coralline
Limestone (Bed V) as is represented in the geolo-
gical map of the Island, which was published by
Ducie, Spratt, Adams, and Murray.
The Lower Limestone is entirely absent save
bound the valley.
The bed and sides consist of representatives of
all of the formations that are to be found interstra-
tified between the Upper and Lower Coralline
Limestones in other parts of the island viz. the
Globigerina Limestone, the Marl and the Green-
sands.
The Globigerina bed is the predominant rock;
but both the blue and yellow clays and the Green-
sands are found in abundance along the Southern
slopes.
Fringing the upper portion of the sides of the
valley the Lower Limestone may be seen marking
the line of fault with the Globigerina beds of the
undisturbed district above, and those of the
depressed area beneath it.
The former relation that existed between the
depressed area and its surroundings is therefore
distinctly apparent.
I have entered thus into detail because some
misapprehension appears to have formerly existed
with reference to the geology of this part of the
island. Instead of being a valley of erosion simi-
lar to the Kaura, Scini, Sclendi, Asel, and Zebbug
gorges, it is simply a depressed area, wdiich has
been let down bv the dislocation of the strata on
either side of it.
It is also important that these details should be
carefully noted, as on their correct representation
depends the proofs that much be adduced for
proving the relationship which formerly existed
between the Pleistocene deposits found in the
valley below the line of fault, and those found on
the summit of the slopes above it.
It was while engaged in noting the points of
difference between the geology of the district as it
is represented on Ducie’s map, and that which
actually exists, that I first came across the Pleisto-
cene bed which I am about to describe.
Starting at the head of the valley and proceed
ing towards its mouth, the Globigerina strata will
be seen sloping down the valley side, at angles of
varying magnitude, and breaking off abruptly
towards the lower edge they form cliffs of trom
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
ft
10 to. 15 feet in height. Fringing the slopes
that lie beneath these escapraents, there is a bed
of yellowish grey loam. The deposit may be
traced for some distance down the valley; but in
some places, owing to the denuding action of se-
veral small streams that have cut their way
through it, it will be found to occur in patches
only. It is situated at a height of from 20 to 30
feet above the present bed of the valley; and it
extends east and west for a distance of about 30
yards, and north and south for about 15 yards.
It is lenticular in
shape, but breaks
off abruptly at the
lower side, and an
escarpment is thus
formed which
show’s the maxi-
mum thickness of
the bed to be about
7 feet, while at
the extremities it
thins out to 18 in-
ches and a foot.
Its upper surface
is extremely hard;
and, like the sur-
faces of the sur-
rounding strata, it
has been much
honeycombed and
otherwise weather-
worn.
The materials of
which it is compo-
sed are very uni
form, both in gene-
ral appearance and
in arrangement. They consist for the most part
of fine detrital matter, the product, apparently,
of the erosive action of atmospheric, forces on the
Upper Coralline, the Greensands, and the Glo-
bigerina beds.
The deposit is divisible into two well marked
zones, the most persistent features of each of
which are the irregularity of its divisional planes,
and its non crystalline character.
The top zone consists of an impure, imperfectly
formed limestone of a whitish colour: and it is
usually overlain by a thin stalagmitic layer of
about one inch, or less, in thickness. A chemical
analysis shewed a sample of this part of the bed
to consist of 80 % of carbonate of Lime, the re-
maining 10 % being made up of quartz, glauconite
& alumina.
In many parts of the bed, minute tabular per
forations are noticeable traversing tha rock in
all directions.
They vary considerably both in length and in
; the diameter of the bore.
None of them
exceed x\- of an inch.
in diameter, while1
many are muclh
less.
These capillary
tubes often piay
an important parts
in determining the
direction in which
the rock cleaves.
They are, howe-
ver, not persistent
throughout the for-
mation, and are
more numerous in
some parts of it
■ than in others.
This upper divi-
sion 'is very fossi-
liferons, but, owing
to the imperfect
character of the
rock, the mamma-
lian remains that
occur are seldom
found in a perfect
condition; and even when found entire, they are
often so rotten that they crumble to pieces: finder
the slightest pressure.
Besides large quantities of land-shells and mam-
malian remains, the teeth and vertebrae of sharks,
echinoderms, several species of corals, an d other
representatives of a marine fauna occur.
All of these latter have, however, been .derived
from the Globigerina Limestone.
The following is a list of the organic re mains
that I found in this bed.
Map of the south-western extremity of Gozo.
— _ _ _ _ — _ Faults.
Pleistocene beds.
10
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURAL ST
MARINE
Two teeth (Oxyrhina hastilis), ) ,
One tooth (Oxyrhina xipodon), f mUch wate™ora
Roth of these species are characteristic of Beds
2. 3 and. 4.
Water w&rn specimens of Flabellum, Zoantha-
rias, and Corallines
One echiuoderm (Brissus sp).
All of these had evidently, been derived from
Tied IV.
L AND SHELLS
Heir/ vermiculata. (Common)
He\ix aspersa, „
dbelix sp, ? Very common.
Helix candissima.
Helix sp. ?
Cyclostoma sp. ?
Bulimus decollatus.
Bulimus sp. ?
Mammalia : —
Teeth, bones, and horn cores of ruminants.
These were sent to the British museum :
but in consequence of their bad state of preserv-
ation they were pronounced to be undeter-
minable.
Fqraminifera
In the washings of about two pounds of the :
material, the following species were observed. ;
Orbulina universa, d’Orb.
Globigerina bulloides.
Cristellaria sp. ?
Clavulina cylindrica. Hantken.
Truncatulina ungeriana. d'Orb.
Nodosaria sp.? several broken.
N. „ oblique-stria ta, Reuss, broken.
Many fragments of others.
These also have, apparently, been derived from
Beds II. III. & IV. *
Of the land shells the most numerous are those
belonging to the Helicidce. The specimens are j
generally in an excellent state of preservation; in
some cases, even the original colour of the bands
is preserved. The most numerous are the shells
of a minute Helix sp. ?
Next in descending order occurs a layer of yel-
lowish-grey loamy earth, but the transition between
* Notes on the Malta Marl by J, II. Cooke “ II
JNaturalista Maltese ” April 1891 ,
it and the overlying limestone is so gradual, as to
render it a matter oi considerable difficulty to de-
termine where the one ends and the other begins.
This loam is non-plastic and is very homoge-
neous. Being of a loose texture it easily disinte- *
grates; and thus large portions are constantly
breaking away and strewing the slopes with
their debris.
Like the overlying limestone, this loam abounds
in fossil landshells; but no mammalian remains
appear to be present.
Water-worn, pebbles of all shapes and sizes
occur interspersed throughout every part of the
formation; but though they are more numerous
in the loam than in the indurated rock above it,
they are, in the aggregate, much smaller.
An examination of a number of these pebbles
shows that they have been derived from the three
great limestone formations of the islands, (Beds
1. IV. & V.) in approximately the following pro-
portions : —
Bed I. Upper Limestone 10 to 15 %
Bed IV. Globigerina Limestone 50 to 70 %
Bed V. Lower Limestone 20 to 30 %
Black Limestone 10 to 15 %
All of these pebbles are much harder than the
rocks from which they have been derived; and,
when broken, they usually present the appearance
of being surrounded by a hard external ring of rock
of a semicrystalline character, within which is
encased a nucleus of limestone that is similar in
every respect to the beds that are in the imme-
diate vicinity.
This change in the external part of the pebble
is apparently due to the infiltration of limewater,
“the lime of which has been deposited in the
interstices of the stone in consequence of the
evaporation of the water; and thus the stone has
Teen rendered more compact and of a closer tex-
ture than when the water was first absorbed in it.
The same phenomenon is observable whereever
the Limestone beds of the Maltese series crop
out as a surface deposit. Another feature of this
Pleistocene formation is the extraordinary quan-
tity of black limestone pebbles that abound in
Notwithstanding a diligent search in the
district around, I was unable to discover any
traces of a formation that possessed the same
11
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
lithological characteristics as are exhibited by
these pebbles. Their origin is, therefore, at
present a mystery.
Proceeding down the valley in a westerly direc-
tion, four mounds of blue and yellow clay, (the
marl beds of Spratt, and Adams), are to be seen
resting conformably on the southern slope at
an elevation of about 20 feet above the bottom of
the valley; and in two instances patches of the
black and yellow sands, that are invariably
found to overlie the marl formation in other parts
of the island, are also present.
On the summits of these clay heaps there occur
other portions of the Pleistocene bed ; but unlike
those that have just been described, they are not
in situ , but have been formed apparently by the
degradation of beds that were originally situated
higher up the slopes.
The materials of which they are composed
appear to differ but little from those of the other
portions of the bed, save in the total absence of
perfect shells, and in the comminuted condition in
which the fossil bones are found.
Such are the principal characteristics of the
Pleistocene deposits that are found along the
southern slope of the Dueira valley.
If now, the road which winds up the hill-side
towards Gebel-ta-Ben Giorgio be traversed, the
observer will pass from the Giobigerina Limestone
of the depressed district, across the line of fault
marked by the Lower Limestone, to the Giobi-
gerina above it.
On the right hand side of the pathway that
runs through this elevated region, and at a distance
of about a quarter of a mile from the village of S.
Giorgio another remmant of the bed is to be seen.
Descending the hill again, and crossing to the
northern slopes similar accumulations of even
greater extent are to be met with.
These portions of the beds, however, present
many striking points of dissimilarity to those that
we have just noted on the southern sides of the
valley.
Like the deposits on the opposite slopes they
extend in an East and West direction, and they
lie unconformably on the Giobigerina Limestone.
They occupy a kind of platform on the hillside;
and, towards the lower boundai y they break off
and form escarpments of from 6 to 8 feet in
height.
The section may be thus divided.
A. A greyish non-crystalline, slightly indurated
limestone. Helices and other land shells occur
in abundance; but no mammalian remains are
present.
B. Limestone of a similar character to A, inters-
tratihed with irregular layers of stalagmite.
These layers vary from | to £ of an inch in
thickness.
C. A layer of boulders and pebbles, all of which
have apparently been derived from Beds IV.
and V. Some of the boulders measure 18
inches and 2 feet in length; and all of them are
rounded and otherwise much waterworn.
D. Loam intermixed with great quantities of
smaller pebbles are found in this seam in great
abundance.
E. A yellowish grey loam, similar in every res-
pect to that which occurs at the base of the
other deposits. It also abounds with land-
shells, but no mammalian remains appeared to
be present.
The distinct evidences of stratification that are
apparent in the deposits on both sides of the valley,
afford unequivocal proofs of their sequous origin;
and this conclusion is still further borne out by
the rounded and otherwise waterworn state of the
pebbles that occur so plentifully in them.
The finer detritus, the pebbles, the shells, and
the mammalian remains have all, apparently, been
collected from the surfaces of the surrounding
country by the agency of freshets and inundations
of a similar character.
That no ordinary floods such as now occasionally
occur in the winter time could have been engaged
in the work of erosion and transportation is de
monstrated not only by the contents of the beds
themselves, but also by the nature of the gorges
that have been cut in the strata in the immediate
vicinity. Of these the Kaura gorge, a deep and
rugged valley of erosion, is a striking example,
the character of which points to the former exist
ence of a much greater catchment basin than that
which now exists, and to climatal conditions that
must have been in direct variance to those that
pow endure,
12
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
What the origin of the torrential volumes of |
water was, that thus denuded down the face of the
country I have not now the opportunity of dis-
cussing. |
It would seem, however, that at the time that
these deposits were laid down, Gozo greatly !
exceeded its present limits, and that it was j
watered by rivers of considerable volume. Indeed I
it is not improbable that the Maltese Islands then
formed a part of the continent of Europe, and
that these beds were deposited by the freshets
that periodically deluged the country in conseq-
uence of the melting of the snow-fields and of
the mer de glace that then occupied the greater
portion of the continent of Europe.
J. H. Cooke
<<OCOOOCCOO<
NOTES AND NEWS.
To the first part of the current volume of the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London Mr. A. W, Waters, F.G.S., has contributed
an excellent article on the Bryozoa of Northern
Italy , in which he has added considerably to the
results that have already been obtained by Rem s,
Gottardi, Suess, and others who have worked on
the same subject.
The specimens that he has figured and described ,
were collected by himself from localities in the I
Yincentine, at Val diLonte, Montecchio, Maggiore, I
Brendola, Malo and Priabona; and also from near
Ferrari di Monte Baldo, The paper is illustrated
with four well executed lithographs.
Professor Striiver lately announced, in a commu-
nication to the Academy of the Lincei, that he had
detected the presence of the mineral BrooJdte in
the earth of some caves near Beura in the Ossola
valley.
His discovery is of much interest, as, hitherto,
the presence of this mineral in Italian strata has
been unknown.
At Mont Dol in Brittany a remarkable discovery
was lately made in a surface accumulation that
extends over an area of about 1900 square metres.
The teeth and bones of nearly one hundred
elephants were exhumed, the latter of which were
found to be much broken and charred.
The matter is now engaging the attention of
several able geologists and paleontologists, as,
judging by the condition of the splintered bones
and their surroundings, some important evidences,
having reference to prehistoric man, are expected
to be forthcoming.
In the number of “Nature" dated March 26th
1891 there is an interesting biography, and an ex
cellent engraving of the great French savant L.
Pasteur.
In the January number of the “Neptunia” an
Italian zoological magazine published at Venice
there is an interesting article on the zoological
work that has been done in the marine laboratory
of Luc-sur-Mer in Normandy.
This station owes its origin to Prof. Deslong-
champs of the Faculty of Sciences at Caen, who
established it in 1883. During the seven years
that it has been in existence it lias been succes-
sively under the direction of Profs. Delage and
Lafline by whom much valuable work has been
done, the results of which have appeared in the
Transactions of several of the French scientific
societies.
Among the many articles that have already
appeared we note a memoir “On the organization
of the Choetoptera” by Prof. Laffine; “Researches
on the sponges of the Manclie” by M. Topset; “On
the Inkbag of the Mollusca” by M. Leteilier, and
an account of the work that is being done at the
zoological station at Rapallo.
In the Quarterly statement that has just been
issued by the Palestine exploration fund there are
two papers that are of special interest. The one
on land tenure, and agriculture in Syria and Pales-
tine by the Rev. G. E. Post, and the other by Mr.
James Glaisher F. R, S. in which a comparison
between the highest and lowest temperature of
the air, and the range of temperature in England
and Palestine during the last ten years ending
1889, is given.
At the last meeting of the Entomological Society
of London a paper was read by Mr.G.C. Champion
entitled “On the Coleoptera collected by Mr. J. J.
Walker R.N. in the neighbourhood of Gibraltar,
with descriptions of new species.5’
Exchange Column.
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initials) and full address at the end.
I am desirous of exchanging minerals from Ve-
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uncommon metamorphic rocks. (Standard size
for rocks is 10 x 12 centimetres). 1 also wish for
photographs or pictures of physical geology and
especially of Volcanoes and volcanic rocks, and
can otter in return photographs of Vesuvius, of
the Naples volcanic district, and of Iceland.
I can offer my own publications on Vulcanologv
and Seismology, for others.
Dr. Johnstoae-Lavis, 7 Chiatamone. Naples.
Italy.
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Vol. I, No. 2. MALTA, JULY 1st. 1891.
CONTENTS.
— — Page
1 A retrospective periplus of the Mediterranean Sea
Cav. W. Jervis, F. G.S. — — — 13
2 The locust plague in Egypt and Algeria — — 17
3 Recent researches of G. B. Sc&iaparelli at Milan. — 17
4 Natural science in Tunis — — — 18
5 The Oxycephalids by Professor Dr. C. Bovallius — 19
t> Preservation of the colours of plants, G. D. Druce,
M.A., F.L.S. — — - - 19
7 Phosphate beds around London — — — 20
8 Discovery of coves in Corsica — — — 20
9 The Gozo Pleistocene Bed — — — 20
10 News of the Month Earthquake in Italy— The
Maltese Lepidoptera— “L’Annuaire G6ologique
Universel” — — — — 20
11 The Eruption of Vesuvius — Dr. Johnston-Lavis,
M.D., F.G.S., B.Sc., etc, — — — 21
12 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands,
The Editor — — — — 22
13 Science notes:— Greatest depth of the Mediterranean
—The Samos fossils— Excavation at Pompeii etc. 27
11 Correspondence— Exchange Column — — 28
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A retrospective periplus of the
Mediterranean Sea
Let us go round ,
A nd let the sail be slack, the course be slow,
That at our leisure, as we coast along,
We may contemplate, and from each scene
Receive its influence
Rogers.
Ages ago, long run out~~so we learn from geolo-
gical research — the Mediterranean sea was incom-
parably larger than at present, forming an immense
ocean, com muni mating eastward through the Black
Sea and the sea of Aral besides occupying a vast
tract of Central Asia to the confines of Bokhara.
Together with the Bed Sea with which it was
then united, it washed the north-west shores of
the largest island in the globe, but which, owing
to the subsequent accumulation of blown sea-sand,
now forming the isthmus of Suez, was eventually
joined on to Asia; while, from the gulf of Cabes
in close proximity to Malta, a magnificent arm of
the sea washed the southern shores of a long
sub-tropical island, now* united to the main land
and constituting Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis,
and covering the greater part of Northern Afri a,
opened out free communication from Egypt to the
Atlantic between Senegal and Morocco,
But having successively lost in pristine extent,
as if in a sulky fit, it seemed determined to leave
indelible traces of desolation, if not of actual
curse, everywhere behind in the form of its desert
sandy bottom, where to this day no vegetable or
animal life can find subsistance where the hurtful
sirocco and typhoon originate, and where water,
the universal blessing of nature, is unknown
alike to the heavens above or on the earth beneath
Moreover, the sub-tropical climate of its northern
shores became considerably lowered, and snow for
the first time appeared on the mountain tops, the
types of animal and vegetable life undergoing
profound changes.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST;
sooie persons |1»
naturalist may &?in- ^ title of Mediterranean
to a pr blitjfetio^ .ad strange, not to say unsuited
language. T’ a, especially one in the English
ffiay be mat such an indea is greatly hazarded
curso*' confidently proved from the foregoing
pr y remarks, and it is to be hoped that in the
jar future the readers may realize that innume-
rable subjects of the deepest interest fall directly
within its sphere of action, and that they may be
led to pay greater attention to the study of natu-
ral objects and phenomena, many of which have
probably passed before them, perhaps without d ue
observation, and consequently without having
afforded them either pleasure or profit. To the
Naturalist the noblest study is certainly that of
man himself, and in opening up this periodical, to
him let us dedicate a few rapid reflections.
The very name of Mediterranean Sea, of which
we propose to make a retrospective periplus, or
circumnavigation, is enshrouded with a conti-
nuous throng of unparalleled histoi leal asso-
ciations, which go far back into the hazy past,
blending on the one hand with the mytholo-
gical lore of Eastern civilization, as handed
down to us through the elegant verses of the
Greek and Roman poets, and on the other
the still remoter horizon of the inspired history or
the Semitic race, which settled on its eastern
shores shortly after the deluge and "hose
characteristics, habits, occupations, aspirations,
religious faiths are so vividly portrayed in the
bible, that the more we learn of that ancient
people the more we are struck with the pho-
tographic accuracy of the description, and the
more we sympathise with them in all their
troubled history, for to them we owe an un-
paralleled debt of gratitude.
At present the Mediterranean sea forms the
boundary between civilization and barbarism,
and, sad to say, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria Morocco
play a very insignificant part in the history of
the world.
AiAlas/ how often have ruthless scimitars
» Flashed through the lattice , and a swarthy crew
Dragged forth, ere long to number them for sale ,
Lire long to part them in their agony.
Parent and child ... ... ...
But when, ah when, do they that can forbear
To crush the unresisting l /Strange that men.
Creatures so frail „ so soon, alas! to die,
Should have the power, the will to make this world
A dismal prison house , and life itself,
Life in its prime, a burden and a curse
To him who never wronged them? Who that breathes
Would not , when first he heard it, turn away
As from a tale monstrous, incredible ?”
Rogers.
J
Yet Carthage once ruled with powerful sway;
and we have seen how, still befcre that time, over
the trackless wastes of the Sahara rolled the waves
of the sea. Our century of boasted progress must
needs make up earnestly for loss of time if she
will aspire to the glory of bringing the swarthy
sons of the still Dark Continent within the pale
of civilised nations, to enjoy like liberty and good
government with ourselves.
Sailing eastwards we come to the land of
the Nile, ever symbolized by the sphynx and the
hieroglyphs; the land of mystery and paradox,
whose everlasting monuments are ot unrivalled
massiveness, whose sons have smarted under the
merciless oppression of others, as they unmerci-
fully oppressed, and who of yore mummified with
equal religious care the corpses of their sovereigns,
of their priests, and of their cats! Here lordly
Thebes once stood, but now vanished from the
face of the globe; here stretched the laud of
Goschen, and behind it the ancient bed of the
sea. Further behind is the scene of the miraculous
passage of the Red Sea by the children of Israel,
600,000 men, besides women and children, in all
some two millions of souls; while under those waves
lie buried the mouldering skeletons of the whole
Egyptian host.
But what a change the magic wand of Lesseps
and his engineers has brought about here! He
has almost restored Africa to the condition of an
island, which it held in very recent geological
times. Civilization, commerce, goodwill between
man and man, now smoothly flow through those
straits, and help to build up apace the golden
empire of Greater Britain at the antipodes.
Thousands of years ago full many a walled city
might have been espied from the eastern shores of
the Mediterranean, for there lived the stalwart
Philistine, of more than ordinary stature, a tur-
bulant predatory nation, the terror of the children
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
15
of Israel, and one of whose kings, the giant Goliah,
was killed by the smooth pebble from the brook
slung by the youthful David.
Then there were the Hitites, a most extensive
nation, which exerted so much power, and played
such an important part in the early history of
Palestine and the surrounding countries, but of
whose own history we are only just beginning to
learn some piece-meal notion through the search-
light of recent exploiations.
Nor must we forget the ever wandering sons of
the desert, the descendants of Abraham and
Ismael, and whose distinctive mark has been that,
“their hand has been against every man, and
every man’s hand against them”— as, alas! it still
too often continues to be.
It was in tents, often pitched within sight of
the azure expanse of the Great Sea, that the
grand old patriarch Abraham, after leaving his
native land, Ur of the Chaldeas, for precisely 100
years ruled in primoeval simplicity, his command
being a law to all, his numerous retainers and
their offspring forming much of a family with
their lord, and, when necessary, going to battle
with him against hostile chiefs.
It was the glorious region washed by the eastern
skirts of the Great Sea which God swore to give
to Abraham and his posterity as a reward for his
obedience, promising to make his seed as the
sand which was upon the sea-shore — where
Abraham had doubtless often wandered— for num-
ber; and when after 400 years of captivity and
durance vile in Egypt, when his descendants re-
turned to take possession of the promised land, we
find Caleb and Joshua ladened with the phenomenal
cluster of grapes which told so plainly of the
soil and the magnificence of the sub-tropical
climate'. But all of this is thrown into the shade
by the grand scenes of the life, death, and resur-
rection of Christ, which took place on the borders
of the Mediterranean, from whose stormy crest
the apostle sailed, whose earnest teaching was to
overturn the colossal pagan empire of Coesar, and
to declare the illegality of slavery.
Was it not when the waters of the Mediterra-
nean rose above the everlasting snowy peak of
Mont Blanc, Kasbek, and Ararat, that that most
magnificent specimen or marine architecture, the
ark, safely bore the priceless freight which served to
link the antidiluvial world with our own, while on
the subsiding ilood shone forth in all of its pris-
matic effulgence the first rainbow of promise?
Strange must the anomaly appear to Britons that
such a keenly commercial people as the Jews,
Noah’s lineal heirs, should never have built a lar-
ger craft to float on the waters than cockle-shell
fishing boats such as those on the Lake of Galilee!
Not so their immediate neighbours the Phoenicians.
Tyre early became the emporium of the civilized
world: to her million merchant princes the Medi-
terranean was the highway by which material
prosperity, wealth, luxury, poured all of their re-
sources into the lap of her citizens. From this
port caravans of camels started for Assyria, Persia,
Arabia, distant India: never of old were such
untold treasures concentrated as there, or did such
motley representatives of oriental races jostle each
other as in her dingy, narrow streets eager to dis-
play her magnificence; nothing could become her
pride but the purple-dyed silks and cloths which
the Emperors of Rome long after adoptee! as the
emblem of imperial majesty. Listen, to the un-
matched description given in the prophet Ezekiel,
chap. XXVII.
“ Tyre situated at the entry of the sea; a mer-
chant of the people for many isles which said. “/
am of perfect of beauty; whose borders were in the
midst of the sea, whose builders perfected her beauty ,
who made all her shipboards of fir t rees of Senir ,
and. took cedars from Lebanon to make masts for
her. Of the oaks of Bathan did they make her
oars , the company of the Ashurites made her ben-
ches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittion.
Fine linen with braided work from Egypt was that
which she spread forth to ' be her sail; blue and
purple from the isles of Elishah teas that which
covered her. The inhabitants of Zidon and, Arvad
- were her mariners; her wise men that were in her
were her pilots; the ancients of Gebal and the wise
men thereof were her calkers, all of the ships of the
sea with their mariners were in her to trad- in her
merchandize. They of Persia, and of Lud, and of
Phut were in her army, her men of war, they hanged
the shield and helmet in her , they set forth an come-
liness. The men of Arvad with her army were upon
her walls round about, and the Gammadins were
in her towers; they hanged the shields upon her
walls round about , they made her bea uty perfect.
16
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Tarshish was her , , 7 r , , ;
... j - AU * er chant by reason of the mul-
titude oj all maid „ . , -77 , ' 7
t j of riches; with silver tin, ana
lead the# trad , / . . , m 7 , 7
Meshech ,ed at her fairs. Javan, Tubal o n a
and r Tere her merchants, they traded in sla ves
£ vessels of brass in her markets: they of the
Muse of Togarmah traded in her fairs with horses
and horsemen and mules. The men of Dehan were
her merchants; they brought her, for a present,
horns of ivory and ebony . Syria was her mer-
chant, and traded with her in emeralds, purple
broidered work, fine linen, coral, and agate.
Judah, and the land of Israel were her mer-
chants; they traded in her market, wheat of Minnith
and of Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm.
Damascus was her merchant for the multitude of
the wares of her making, for the multitude of all
riches, in the wine of Helbon and white woo1 i ‘an.
also, and Javan, going to and fro, occupied in her
fairs; bright iron, cassia and calamus, were in her
market.
Dehan was her merchant for precious cloths , for
chariots.
Arabia and all the princes oj Kedar, they occu-
pied with her in lambs , and rams, and goa ts, in these
were they her merchants. The merchants of Sheba
andRaamah, they were her merchants; they oc-
cupied in her fairs with chief of all spices, and
with all precious stones and gold. Par am, and
Canneh, and Eden, the merchants of Sheba, Asshur,
or edifices of such perfect taste and sublime pro
portions, the contemplation of whose mutilated
ruins fill the cultured mind with mute delight.
“ Fair Greece ! sad relic of departed worth!
Immortal though no more, though fallen , great".
Byron.
Here Alexander — meteor like — for a moment
ruled the destinies of the world, and as immedia-
tely his colossal empire collapsed and fell to the
ground.
Schliemann tells us that in excavating at His-
sarlik he found the remains of one city under the
other in repeated order each indicating the work
of reconstruction after a terrible defeat and des-
truction, the older excavations bringing to light a
civilization prior, by centuries, to that described
by Homer.
But men of such primitive greatness knew
nothing of the decrepitude of modern times, and
were not to be baffled: they began again afresh,
and the new city soon arose in all its splendour.
“ Comes not a low whisper from the ground,
A sigh as though the immemorable past
Breathed here a long, slow breath ?
Lost nations sleep below ; an empire here.
Is dust; and deeper, deeper still ,
Dim shadowy peoples are the mould that warms
The roots of every flower that blooms and blows:"
Sharp.
and Chilmad were her merchants.
These were her merchants in all sorts of things,
in blue cloths , and broidered work , and in chests of
rich apparel , bound with cords and made of cedar ,
among her merchandise. The ships of Tarshish did
say of her in her market, and she was replenished
and made very glorious in the midst of the seas.
When her wares went forth out of the seas she filled
many people; she did enrich the kings of the earth
with the multitude of her riches and of her mer-
chandized
Do not such such extensive and varied imports
and exports seem almost comparable to those of
the largest ports of the present day?
Proceeding to the north we reach the classic
lands which have been the stage of full many of
the noblest deeds of humanity, the birth-place of
not a few men of transcendental wisdom; than
which no other people ever possessed language so
musically chaste and so expressive, art so refined,
Both parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
skirt the Adriatic shores whose few ports possess a
primary importance for a great portion of Southern
Europe. Placed in the vanguard of European
civilization, the work of the Austrian government
is peculiarly arduous, and the integrity of her ter-
ritory is a pledge for the protection of Europe
from the inroads of barbarism.
Here we have unified Italy, the outcome of
Magna Graecia, Etruria, Rome, and other illustrious
predecessors; a land which has produced such
men as Julius Caesar, Augustus, Cicero, Virgil,
Archimedes, Dante, Michel Angelo, Cavour, Gari-
baldi, Victor Emanuel. Rome once ruled the
destinies of the world, but fell because’her citizens
could not govern themselves, enfeebled as they
were through rapine, corruption, and effeminacy.
Who shall measure the rivers of human blood for
which Rome must one day answer; blood of mas-
sacred nations, blood of Christian martyrs ?
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
17
The ancient history of Italy, presents wonder-
ful events and great characters : we hail the
phoemx like resuscitation after having been for
centuries the terre des morts , and her consolidation
under the wise sceptre of the House of Savoy
was an unquestionable boon to Europe; nor
need Italy return to the past, for under the ins-
piration of diffused education and civil and relL
gious liberty, a far higher civilizaton is before her.
What colossal progress has not France made in
the course of this century? Never let ns forget
what she formerly was, the unparalleled diffi-
culties she had to contend with on account of rc°
p eated invasion of her territory, however true it
may be that she it was who provoked it through
fault of her own.
Yet her people have surmounted every barrier;
their activity and perseverance are phenomenal:
the manufactures, agriculture, and commerce of
the country have developed in an incredible man-
ner; within the memory of the inhabitants Paris,
.as well as all of the great provincial cities, have
been rebuilt and modernized, and the port of
Marseilles, with its cosmopolitan thousands, pre-
sents much analogy to that of Liverpool. But
let it be confessed that the Frenchman, who takes
more delight in the theatre and coffee house than
in his home, is not a good colonist, nor ever will
be until social welfare and order replace politics
in his preoccupations, and until his habits become j
more domesticated. j
Spain closes the periplus. The Phoenicians early
knew her geographical importance, when they j
founded Cadiz (Cadiz) as the western port of call ;
Carthagena recalls Carthage ; Palos brings back all j
our recollections of Columbus and his great Span- j
ish protectors.. Brilliant has been the history of j
Spain on several occasions; her people are chival-
rous; her immense natural resources are still und- |
eveloped, and the country which once stood before j
England as regards her colonies has need of closer
contact with her northern neighbours, from whom
she may yet learn some useful lessons, recognising,
above all things that the Middle Ages are gone for-
ever. But the Mediterranean is also studded with
countless gems of various sizes in the shape of
islands, and the little one in its very centre —
Malta— may be considered the most precious of all !
Turin, W. Jervis,
The locust plague in Egypt & Algeria.
The raids made by the locusts on the sugar,
maize, and cotton crops in Upper and Lower
Egypt, Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis are now as-
suming most serious proportions, and have alrea-
dy caused irremediable loss both to the govern-
ments of the districts and to a large number of
growers and mercantile firms.
No visitation for the past 40 years has created
such widespread devastation, as has the present
one. From the reports, that have been sent in, it
seems that the principal part of the mischief is
due to two species of the insect, Acridium peregri -
num and Stauronctus maraceanus , the former of
which is supposed to be the locust of the bibie.
Both species periodically invade Algeria from
the direction of the Sahara where they breed in
the more barren and elevated parts of the desert.
There, in the verdureless and friable soil, the fe-
male bores a number of small holes with her ovi-
positor, ands lays in them in agglutinated masses,
the eggs, from which the coming generation
is to be produced. As a rule the eggs take
about one month to hatch. Upon emerging from
the egg the young locust feeds voraciously upon
whafhever plant life may be within reach, and
after about two months, it developes wings and
migrates in swarms to other and more fertile
regions.
The vigorous steps for their extermination that
have been initiated by the Government and that
have been carried out by the provincial Mudirs
have this year been of but little avail, and it is
feared that, unless more stringent and effective
measures are adopted before next season, that the
number of eggs that will have been deposited in
the fertile regions, will be the cause of even a more
serious visitation next year.
Becent researches of G. B. Schiaparelli
made at Milan University.
Schiapparelli has overcome the difficulties of
observing the rotation and physical condition of
the planet Mercury, that are due to its proximity
to the sun and to the fact that it can only be ob-
orved in full daylight and through an atmosphere
18
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
which is constantly illuminated. He carried our
a continuous series of observations on the spots
of Mercury by means of the new large refractor
which has recently been installed at Milan. With
regard to the rotation of the planet, he finds that
the motion of Mercury round the .sun is similar to
that of our moon round the earth, and that it
always presents .the same hemisphere to the sun.
It, however, possesses a greater flibration of lon-
gitude.” Hence three-eights of the planet’s sur-
face is continually in the blaze of the sun, and an
observer in this region sees the sun oscillate in
the sky over an arc of 47°, the double oscillation
taking a period of 88 earth-days. Another three-
eighths of the planets surface is turned away
from the sun, and is consequently in continual
darkness, being only illuminated by refracted rays
and twilights. In the intervening tract of one
quarter of the surface there is a single alteration
day and night during, each interval of 88 days, the
length of the day and of the night varying at each
place according to its position, but constant for
the same place.
The possibility of the existence of organic life :
will depend upon the existence of an atmosphere
capable of distributing the sun’s warmth. Schia-
parelli thinks he has discovered indications of an
atmosphere in white clouds appearing as bright !
spots, and rendering the image of the spots indis-
tinct.
He supposes the dark spots to be tracts of water,
and these he finds are not aggregated into large
tracts forming oceans, but appear to branch and
ramify through the land as canals. Such an alter-
nation of land and water he thinks would cause a
more complete equilibrium of temperature.. The
peculiarity in the rotation of Mercury is an excep-
tion among the planets, but common among the
satellites of the planets. Mercury has no satellite,
so that it presents a remarkable divergence from
the prevalent condition among the planets.
Natural Science in Tunis.
The scientific explorations of Tunis, since it
came under the dominion of France in 1881, says
the Contemporary Review , is apparently making
good progress. Two volumes, dealing with some
the results already obtained, have recently
reached us, both cf which are deserving of rhe
attention of geologists. In one of them we have
descriptions of a series of fossil mollusca, obtained
from some of the cretaceous formations of the
country, and in the other a set of plates illustra-
ting a portion of the formations met with.
The specimens dealt with were collected in 1885
and 1886 in the region which lies to the south of
the elevated plateau of Tunis, and from the stand-
point of the paleontologist, are of considerable
value and importance. In an introduction which
precedes the technical descriptions, M. Peron
briefly discusses the chief features of the creta-
ceous fauna of Tunis, lays down the principles
which have guided himself and his collaborateur
in the making and determining of species, and
corellates his conclusions with those obtained
from a study of the cretaceous rocks of other
countries.
As might have been expected from the conti-
nuity and similarity of geological structure which
they exhibit, Tunis and Algeria have a similar
fossil fauna, and hence the work done on the
paleontology of the latter country by M. Coquand
has materially assisted the others in the task they
have undertaken.
But while admitting to the full the value of the
assistance rendered them by M. Coquand, both by
his writings, and in other ways, we think they are
justified in claiming the credit of having advance
considerably beyond the position he attained, and
of having introduced something like order into a
subject which was somewhat chaotic. Here as in
many other cases, species and genera have been
founded on insufficient material; individual varia-
tions have not been allowed for, and the determi-
nations of earlier investigators have been ignored.
Hence the difficulties met with by the others in
the determination of the species and the interpre-
tation of their relations to previously described
forms were both real and considerable. These
difficulties were especially felt in dealing with the
Gasteropoda , most of which had to be reclassified,
even the generic character in some instances hav-
ing been misconceived or confounded.
Perhaps the greatest service they have rendered
to paleontology, however is the great reduction
they have been able to effect in the number of
species of Ammonites., Plicatula and Ostrea, a
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
19
reduction which not only systematises simply and
• clearly the knowledge already acquired, but will
greatly facilitate the progress of future investi-
gations.
Some of these changes take effect in the volume
before us, which embraces the Cephalopoda and
the Gasteropoda, and the rest will, no doubt, be
introduced in subsequent volumes.
Of the technical descriptions which make up
the great bulk of the volume, we need only say
that they are as full, as precise, and as vivid as
could be wished, and include no useless or super-
fluous details.
The Oxycephalids by Carl Bovallins.
This exhaustive and elaborate memoir, written
by the professor of Natural History in the Uni-
versity of Upsala constitutes an important addi-
tion to the literature on the Amphipoda.
From the introduction, we learn that the author
had a two-fold object in view in thus publishing
the results of his researches, the first in order that
he might have an opportunity of stating his rea-
sons for the systematic arrangment of the genera
and species of the Amphipoda that he has adopted,
and secondly in order that he might be able to
commucate some fresh results that he had recen-
tly obtained.
The memoir is divided into four parts.
I. Historical notes on the Oxycephalids.
II. The systematical position of the Oxycephalids,
III. Morphological notes on the Oxycephalids.
IV. The Oxycephalidean genera and species.
The value of the work is still further enhanced
by the profuse manner in which it is illustrated,
there being 87 illustrations in the text, and 7
appended plates.
Preservation of the colours of plants,.
BY G. D. I)RUCE, M.A., F.L.S. (1)
One great complaint about dry plants is that
the colour goes or becomes altered, but a great
deal may be effected by careful drying.
(1) From a paper “ The History of Botany — 1
Herbaria ' read before the Chemists Assistants' j
Association London .
My friend, Dr. Sehonland, told me of a plan
they had in the Beilin herbarium of dipping the
specimen in three parts of sulphurous acid and
one of methylated spirit.
The flowers are immersed until bleached, or in
the case of white ones, from a few seconds to
seven minutes, according to the texture of the
flower; they are taken out, and the superfluous
moisture allowed to be absorbed by a piece of
bibulous paper, and then dried in the ordinary
way. Gradually the colour comes back and is then
permanent.
The rationale of the process appears to be this.
The destruction or alteration of the plants colour
in drying is probably owing to a ferment. We
know that hay allowed to ferment or heat becomes
spoiled.
So with herbarium specimens, overheating or
allowing them to remain in damp papers is abso-
lutely destructive to colour. Some colours appear
to be especially fugitive or sensitive. Blues become
brown, whites become brown or black, pinks
change to brown, and yellow sometimes changes to
green. Now, I take it, the sulphurous acid not
only deoxidizes the colour, but, combined with
methylated spirit, destroys the ferment. On
exposure to air, or in process of time, the plant
again becomes oxidized and the colour reappears.
That the spirit may be useful in hardening the
cell wrall is also probable. There is some difficulty
with flaccid flowers, for when dipped in the solu-
tion they become so pulpy as to render it very
difficult to lay them out properly. Such specimens
may be first put in parchment paper, and pressed
in it.
It answers admirably for our Oampanulacoe,
Orchidacaoe, and also for the parasitic Cusciita or
semi-parasitic Lathrea, Bartsiana, and Orobanche.
My experience is that pink colours are generally
darkened by it. I am told it answers well for the
Cow-wheats and Asperula. My experience with
the former is not as yet satisfactory. Care must
be taken to use fresh sulphurous acid free from
sulphuric. I have found that slight traces of the
latter are sufficient to change delicate blues to
pink, and thus to give false impressions.
20
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Phosphate Beds around London.
The news that reaches us from London of the
recent discovery of valuable mineral deposits in the
neighbourhood of Taplow, is but another example
of the important part that scientific investigation
plays in assisting to develope the internal resour-
ces of a country.
Deposits of phosphatic chalk have been found
in the Thames Basin, and from the analyses
that have been made, it would seen that they are
as rich, if not richer in phosphoric acid than are
the products of the French, and Belgian beds, that
are so largely used in England for agricultural
purposes.
F urther investigations are now being made, and
is no doubt but that the discovery will lead to the j
establishment of a thriving industry in the
district.
It is estimated that upwards of 40,000 tons of
the mineral are imported from Belgium into Eng-
land every year. How far this discovery will
affect the foreign markets remains to be seen.
Discovery of Oaves in Corsica.
At a distance of about miles from Ponte
Lecchia, in Corsica, a series of cavernous grottoes
has been discovered that extends underground
for a distance that has been estimated to be not
less than 37 miles.
The entrance that leads to these subterranean
galleries is very small, and difficult of access; but
after entering, the galleries the passages widen out
and assume magnificent proportions, some of the
caves being as much as 25 yards high. It is
supposed that the galleries abut on the cliff face
on the coast of Ravellata near Calvi, as the party
that, undertook the exploration of them, frequently
heard the muffled roar of the waves in the distance.
The exploring party was engaged for upwards of
eight hours in the search for the farther extremi-
ty; but were unable to find it. Arrangments are
to be made for a complete investigation of the
caves.
The Gozo Pleistocene Bed. (1)
Mr. E. A. Smith, the President of the Concholo-
gical Society of Great Britain, has determined the
shells found in the above bed (1) to be as follows.
Pomatias
melitensis
(Sow).
Helix
pisana
(Mull).
Do.
striata
(Drap).
Do.
vermicularis
(Mii 11).
Do.
virgata?
(Montague).
Do.
caperata?
o-OOOOOCCOO-* —
NEWS OP THE MONTH
An earthquake took place at 2. 5. a.m., on the
seventh of June in Northern Italy, the greatest
intensity appearing to have been a little to the
north of Verona as a centre.
The village which most suffered was Tregnago,
situated a short distance to the N. E. of Verona.
Here a large proportion of the houses were injured
by fissures, to such an extent . as to have rendered
them unsafe to live in. Some damage was also
caused to several houses in other places, among
j the rest at Verona, where it has been affirmed
| that the floating wooden mills on the Adige were
I momentarily stopped by the concussion produced
by the shock. The earthquake region extended
as far as Venice, Modena, Chiavari, Turin, Domo-
dossola, etc. Beyond this the shokcs may have
been sensible to very delicate seismicai instruments,
though not sufficicieDtly strong to have been
otherwise manifest; so that, as in the case of the
West Alpine earthquake of 23rd. February, 1887,
it is extremely problematic whether it had the
remotest connection with any volcano.
Up to the present moment we have no news
relating to the shock in the Tyrol or Switzerland,
where it must also have been felt.
One person was killed and five others wounded
by fall of houses. Two women died of fright —
but that was not the fault of the earthquake.
The movement was undulatory and subsultory;
no accounts received specify tho vorticose move-
ment, characteristic of the focus of violent earth-
quakes, and which are so disastrous to buildings.
(1) Med; Na,t; Vol. J. No, I pag. 10,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
21
Another earthquake shock was feit at 8. 30, a.m. !
on the 11th June, at Verona and elsewhere, espe-
cially at Tregnago and Baddia Calavena, at which
latter place further injury was caused to the
houses.
A series of articles on the Maltese Lepidoptera,
written by Mr. Caruana Gatto, B.A. is now ap-
pearing in the Italian review of Natural Sciences.
Dr. Johnstone-Lavis. M.D., M.R.C.S., B. bs Sc.
F.G.S., etc. of 9 Chiatamone Naples has again
been entrusted with the work of writing the
article on Vulcanology and Seismology for “FAn-
nuaire Geologique Universel.”
In order that the article may be made as
complete as possible, Dr. Johnstone-Lavis will be
glad to receive any memoirs on these subjects
that may have been published of late. To facilitate
the work of reference and to obviate the possibili-
ty of any important points being over-looked, he
desires that authors will send him copies of any
papers that they may have written on the subject,
together with a summary of the contents.
A recent telegram from Algiers says that the
French savant, M. Kunchel Herculais, the presi-
dent of the Ethnological Society, who was em-
ployed on the Government mission of investigating
the locust plague in Algeria, has met with a
horrible death. While examining a deposit of
locust eggs at the village of Sidierall, he was
overcome with fatigue and the heat and fell to the
ground. While sleeping he was attached by a
swarm of locusts.
On awaking he struggled desperately to escape
from the living flood. He set Are to the insect
ladened bushes near him, but all of his efforts
proved ineffectual, and when finally the locusts left
the spot, his corpse was found. His hair, and
necktie had been entirely devoured.
M. Herculais was a member of the French
Academy, and the author of several valuable
works on insects.
| The Eruption of Vesuvius
of June 7th. 1891.
During the latter part of last year and com-
mencement of the present, the central activity has
very slightly varied, except about the new year,
when it was considerably increased, rising to the
third or fourth degree simultaneous with the
stoppage of the lateral outflow of lava that had
been going on since August 7th. 1890. Since
then up to the present outburst, the central
activity has been generally at the first degree,
and the cone of eruption has slowly grown in
height.
On June 1st. there was a crater within the
central eruptive cone of about 50m. in diameter
near the centre of which was the eruptive vent
surrounded by another embryonic eruptive cone.
On that day four small eruptive mouths opened
around the embryonic cone in the bottom of the
central crater, the smallest being to the E.
Thus the volcano remained till June 7th. at
10 a.m. when activity stopped, only a small
quantity of vapour escaping from central vents.
At midday a radial cleft opened at the north toe
of the cone of eruption (May 1889 June 1891)
traversing towards its east end and the little sickle-
shaped ridge, the remnant of 1885-86 crater. At
4 to 4 30 p.m. shocks of earthquake commenced,
limited only to the upper slopes of Vesuvius an 1
simultaneous with the extension of the radial
fissure down the side of the cone for nearly half
its way opposite the Punta del Nasone of Mon-
te Somma from which, at about 5 30 p.m. issued
a little lava, whilst from the upper extremity of
the fissure at the toe of the cone of eruption
much vapour issued so that from Naples the
smoke plume arose from this point. From 5, 30
to 7 p.m. the fissure still extended lower, accom-
pained from time to time by local earthquake,
noises, and the elevation of columns of black dusty
smoke. At a few muntes to 7, the floor of the
Atrio del. Cavallo was reached and a remarkably
black column of smoke had arisen.
My friend Dr. L. Sambon saw this column arise
and came to inform me immediately, as I had
left off watching the mountain at 5. 30. After tak-
ing a photo of the mountain, we left Naples at
9 p. m. and spent some time in enquiries at Resina
a!* ^
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
and near the Observatory. Everything was new/
dark, as the mountain had calmed down at 8 p.m.
At 2 a. m. June 8th, we were at the extremity
of the Observatory ridge and commenced to wend
our way across the lava surface towards Monte
Semina. We were at the lowest part of the
depression at the W. and of the A trio del Cavallo
where it joins the Fossa dells Vetrana and along
which some of the largest lava streams have ;
flowed ( 1855, 1872, etc. ) when suddenly on our
right, above us (2.23a.m.) avast quantity
of bright red vapour arose from the new outpour
of lava and which Illuminated all the wild crag j
o the inner walls of Monte Somma. We hast- ■
ened our steps as much as the road arid ou Ian
tern would allow us, so as to reach the escarq
ment of Monte Somma, the foot of which was
followed till near the Punta del asone and
close to the theatre of eruption. Here we tim-
bered up some distance above the level of the
Atrio to watch events whilst we ate our late :
supper or early breakfast. Along the slope of
the great cone in the line of fissure were a Tv
luminous points from a few pieces of still un-
cooled lava of the little that had oozed forth
from the lower half of the fissure. At about GO
or 80 yards from the foot of the great cone two
or three fountains of lava were throwing up jets
of molten rock for 2 or 3 m. and the lava was
slowly spreading out on the almost horizontal
plain of the Atrio in several tongues. The lava
must have still been high in the maim chimney,
as the vapour that issued at the top of the fissure
showed slightly the illumination. So we remained
till daylight when we could see the fissure on the
side of the cone. The mouth that formed at
5.30 the previous day was still smoking a little,
whilst the fissure below it sent off several rami-
fications at an acute angle like the branches of
an inverted tree from several of which, little
streams of lava had been given out, where they
had soon consolidated. We now followed the
base of the great cone to the lower rail 'wav sta-
tion, where we found all the people up and
dressed, frightened by the strong shock and
noises at 2. 23 a. m. coincident with the fresh
outflow of iava that we had witnessed, but which
shocks we had not felt, although they were des-
cribed as the strongest that had occurred.
Having ascended the summit of Tv esuvius we
found the central crater rapidly enlarging by the
falling in of its edges. From the new fissure at
its summit was issuing much vapour under pres-
sure, and so rich in Sulphurous acid as even in
traces to be intolerable; and the hot air coming
from innumerable new fissures rendered approach
very difficult. We did in fact once jump across
part of the fissure, but returned much quick er on
account of the hot irritant vapours. An approa*. h
from the opposite side was equally unsuccessful.
At some old futnaroles on the 1872 crater plain
I collected some crust of Boric acid, and alum, both
rare products at this volcano.
One of three terminations we may expect to
these phenomena which are very characteristic of
a lateral disruption so common at Vesuvius :
1st. Should the lava cool sufficiently to plug the
radial dyke no further phenomena will occur,
and activity will be restored to the central vent.
2nd. If this plugging only partially take place
lava may dribble forth for months, but probably
the escape of vapour will soon be restored
to the central vent.
3rd. If the rent should widen, considering how low
it extends we may expect a grand eruption
which might rival that of 1872, which com-
menced near the .same spot and much in the
same way: the mechanism by which this occurs
I have explained elsewhere. (1)
H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands
by John H. Cooke
The Maltese Islands have of late years oc-
cupied a considerable share of the attention of
naturalists, and they are, therefore, by no means
a terra incognita either to the botanist or to the
geologist.
But while the botany of the Islands has been
making most marked progress in the hands of the
late Professor Gulia and his collaborators, the
(1) If. J. J. L. The Relation-ship of the Struc-
ture of Igneous Rocks to the Conditions of their
Formation. — Scieniif. Proceed. R. Dublin Soc.
y.ol. V, New Ser. pp. 112-156.
THE MEDITERT A XE AN NATURALIST
28
geology Las been much neglected, and, until the
arrival of Dr. John Murray of Edinburgh in the
Springs of 1889-90, but little work can be said to
have been effected for the last twenty years.
Among those who have been specially engaged
on Maltese geology, the names of Spratt, Adams,
Limbs, and Murray, stand pre-eminent.
All of these workers have labonred during the
last half century, and, therefore, the views that
they have expressed, are more or less in accord
with the latest theories of geological science.
peroi at Vienna, by offering him, a large elephant’s
molar, which they asserted, had been found in the
vicinity of Jerusalem. They represented this
tooth as having formerly belonged to the giant
Og, and in support of their statement, they aver-
red that the cave contained a tablet bearing the
Chaldean inscription
“Here lies the giant Og.”
The folk-lore of India, China, Rome, Greece,
and of all of those nations possessing an ancient
iiberature, abounds with myths having for their
But records show, that it was not in the present
century only that observers had been attracted to,
and had attempted some explanation of the physi-
cal phenomena of the islands. Dana(l) in his
“Manual of Geology1’ notes, that in the year 1670,
Scilla, the Sicilian painter, made several sketches
of the remains of a huge carnivorous whale, Zeu-
glodon, that he had met with in the Maltese beds;
these sketches Scilla (2) afterwards embodied in a
work entitled “De corporibus marinus,” a copy of
which still exists in the public library of Valletta.
In 1647, Abela,(3) the Maltese historian, men
tions the discovery of certain large bones, which he
assumed to be the remains of a giant race of people
that had formerly inhabited the Maltese Islands.
The size of the bones indicated an immense
stature, and he therefore inferred that they were
the remains of the fabled race known as the
“Cyclops”.
That such races had formerly existed was a
common belief among all classes in the middle
ages.
{ origin the colossal organic remains that have been
| exhumed from the strata: myths, that were the
more readily accepted because they were often
supported by the expressed opinion of the most
eminent sages of the time. St. Augustine, speak-
ing of the existence of man before the flood, refers
to the physical degeneracy of his times, and leads
his hearers to believe in the former existence of a
race of men of gigantic proportions. He says, “I,
myself, along with some others, saw on the shore
at Utica a man’s molar tooth of such a size that,
if it were cut down into teeth such as we have, a
hundred, I fancy, could have been made out of it”.
And Strabo, Pliny, and Herodotus, respectively, in
their works, proffer similar opinions, concerning
the origin of the colossal teeth and bones that haci
come under their notice.
During the period that elapsed between the
issue of Abela’s work and 1791, there are no
records to show that any attempts had been made
either to controvert or to supplant the theory that
he had propounded.
Mediaeval literature teems with accounts con-
cerning them, and, therefore, Abela’s opinion was
neither original nor singular. Cervantes causes
his Don Quixote to tell us in one of his raphsodies,
that, “In the island of Sicily, there have been
found long bones, and shoulder bones so huge, that
their size manifests their owners to have been
giants; for this truth geometry sets beyond
doubt”.
And Lambecius, too, gives us a very quaint
account of the manner in which certain savants of
Constantinople sought to impose upon the Em-
(1) Dana Prof. J. “ Manual of Geology” p. 169.
(%) Scilla '“De Corporibus Marinus” 1670.
(8) Abela, F. F. “ Descrittione cli Malta” 161$.
In 1791, however, a writer named Dolomieu (1)
came forward and in a work entitled, “Malta par
un voyageur Francais,” he not only entered into a
detailed description of the Maltese strata, but he
also attempted an explanation of the, more
striking of tie physical phenomena connected with
them.
The work contains much that is highly credita-
ble to the intelligence of the author; but in conse-
quence of the very incomplete state in which the
Science of geology then was, the deductions "hat
he has drawn from his observations can now be
considered as being of but little or no value.
(1) Dolomieu “ Malta par un voyageur Francais
p. p. 74.
24
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
In 1843 the late Admiral (then Captain) Spratt
commenced a series of investigations, which were
conducted with such success, that the attention of
several eminent scientists was drawn to the
strata of the islands, and the stratigraphy and
paleontology formed the subjects of several papers
that appeared in the geological magazines of their
times. (1)
Since then many new facts have come to light,
the recording of which is necessary if the chain of
evidences in the geological history of the Islands
would be made complete.
My four years residence in Malta has given me
an opportunity of not only examining those that
have been recorded by other observers, but it has
also enabled me to undertake a systematic exa-
mination of the island’s geology, the result of
which has been the discovery of several new and
and interesting evidences bearing on their former
physical history.
In the following papers I propose to give a brief
account of these phenomena, and at the same time
to add such other particulars relating to Maltese
geology as will enable those interested in the
subject to form a fair estimate of the present
stage of the enquiry. * *
The group, known as the Maltese Islands, con
sists of the islands of Malta, Gozo, and Comino,
together with several barren, rocky islets of
varying sizes, the principal of which are Filfola,
and Cominotto
They are situated in the Mediterranean at a
distance of 60 miles to the south of Sicily, and 200
miles to the north of Cape Calipia, the nearest
point in Africa.
On the north they are connected with Sicily by
means of a sub-aequous plateau, the depth of
submergence of which does not exceed 70 fathoms
in any part; while to the south, a deep channel
having an average depth of 230 fathoms, and
(1) See Proc. Geol. See. 184$, 185 A, 1855 , 1860 ,
1862, 1863 , 1864, 1865, 1866 , 1867, 1868 , 1869, 1870.
* The following should be read in conjuctim
with these papers: —
1. Pamphlet of the “ Geology of Malta!'’ by Capt.
Spratt , R. N. 185f
2. u Notes on the Nile Valley and Malta,” by
Dr. Leith Adams 1870.
3. “ The Maltese Islands with special reference
to their geological structure” from the Scottish Geo-
graphical Magazine , by Dr, J. Murray , Sept. 1890.
which is 190 miles long and from 60 to 100 miles
wide, forms a natural boundary between them
and Africa.
Malta is the principal island of the group both
in size and commercial importance. Its greatest
length measured from the Marfa to Marsa Sirocco
is 17 miles, and its greatest breadth is 10 miles.
Though less fertile than the sister island of Gozo,
its population is nearly eight times as numerous.
The causes that have given rise to this curious
anomaly will be the more readily understood
after a consideration of the distribution of the
strata, and of their peculiar characteristics.
At the present time there appears to be some
uncertainly as to which division of geological time-
the Maltese strata properly belong.
Spratt(l), and Adams(8) considered them asbeing
of Miocene Age; but Jones(3) considered them as
belonging to the Eocene. Fuchs, (4) the Austrian
I geologist, on the other hand refers the upper for-
! mations to the Miocene, and the lowest formation
of the series to the Oligocene. Dr. John Murray, (5)
while agreeing with the Fuchsian theory, points
out the fact that a striking analogy exists between
the microscopic sections of the Malta Globigerina
limestones, and the sections of the Pliocene rocks
of Sicily.
From several comparisons that I have
made of the Malta Globigerina rock with the
“Pietra Leccese” of Italy, and of the Malta marls
with the clays from San Ruffillo near Bologna;
and from a careful consideration of the evidences
that have been adduced by other students of the
strata, I am inclined to believe that the Fuchsian
theory approximates more nearly to the truth
than either of the others. Paleontologically the
Maltese strata offer strong resemblances to the
Miocene beds of Tournay and Brittany(4), to the
Black Crag of Belgium, to the Miocene forma-
tions of the Vienna Basin, to those of Dego, Cal-
(1) “On the Geology of Malta and Gozo ’ by T.
Spratt. Valletta 1854.
(2) “ Malta & the Nile Valley ' A. L. Adams.
Edinburgh , 1870. '
(3) “Fossil for aminif era of Malta ' T. R. Jones.
Geologist vol. VII. 1864.
(4) “Das alter d.er Tertiarsckichten von Malta ”
Th. Fuchs. Sitr. d. K. K. A had. der. JF?ss. Wien.
Ed. vol. XXII. p. 67.
(5) “The Maltese Islands” John Murray, Scot.
Geog . Mag. Sept. 1890 ,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
25
caire and Belforte in Italy, the marine Molasse of
Hungary, the Sotska beds of Styria, the Pectun-
culus beds of Hungary, and the Miocene beds of
Jamaica, Sicily(l), and Algeria.
The following table gives the order of superpo-
sition of the Maltese formations.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
[Formation
{
Thick-
ness
Sub-divisions
Localities for study
1
Quarter-
| nary beds
various
fa. Alluvium
f b. Pebbles &
gravels
c. Ossiferous
breccias.
! d. V alley
I drifts
The valley & plains
Fom-ir-rieh and
Mars-el-forn.
Malak, Scirocco &
Melleha.
Dueira, Lmtahleb.
Upper Co-
ralline Li-
mestone
250 ft.
fa. Compact,
white lime-
stone of a
breccia like
-< texture.
b. Soft, por-
ous, red
coralline
V limestone
Chambray & Mel-
leha
Green-
sands
50 ft.
fa. Compact,
yellow
j sandstone
'i b. Friable
biack
V sandstone
Dingl cliffs.
Oh elm us.
Blue Clay
i
fa. Yellov»
f clay.
\Jb. Blue clay.
Gomerino.
Ghain Tofflha
Globige-
rina Lime-
stone
200 ft.
f Variously
coloured
1 beds, inter-
■i stratified
[ with from
| four to six no-
Vdule seams.
Luca, Tign6,
and
Fom-ir-rieh.
Lower Co-
ralline Li-
stone.
250 ft.
fa. Semicry-
stalline
J limestone
} b. hi on cry-
stalline
v limestone.
Ricasoli.
Duera.
In the above table, I have adopted Dr.
Murray’s nomenclature.
The deposits thus arranged, may be divided into
three groups. The first is composed of ossiferous
breccias and valley drifts (3); and they are analo-
gous to the Quarternary deposits of Nubia, Alge-
ria, Candia, Sicily, (2) and Gibraltar.
The second comprises the various sub-divisions
of the Upper Coralline Limestone, and resembles
,the Leith-Kalk of the Vienna Basin.
( 1 ) Seguenza G. “Le formazioni Terzarie neila
Provincia di Reggio (Calabria)” 1877.
(2) Falconer “On the fossil remains of Flephas
Melitensis ” Paleontological Memoirs Volume II.
London .
(8) Cooke , J. II. Med. Naturalist , VqL I. No. 1
dage 7, June 1891 ,
The third group is made up of the remaining
five beds, and answers to the Miocene beds, of
Schio, Dego, Calcare, Mont Titano, and Belforte
in Italy.
The general dip of the Maltese strata is in a north
east and an east-north-east direction; but in some
localities, it has been somewhat affected by faults
and other local displacements. In Malta this dip
is more pronounced than in Gozo, and, as a conse-
quent result, the plysical contour of the northern
coasts of the two islands presents some striking
contrasts.
The strata of Malta shelve off at a low angle
towards the north, and the shores, therefore, are
lowlying and present a tame and monotonous
aspect when viewed from the sea.
In Gozo the original horizontality is more or
less preserved, and the coast line there consists
of an unbroken series of precipitous cliffs, that
impart to the shore line an effect that is at once
bold and picturesque.
They are composed of the Lower Coralline
Limestone, and, rising sheer from the depths of
the sea, they tower at a height of between 300 and
400 feet above the Mediterranean waters.
From the edge of their summits and falling back
in gently undulating curves, lie the Globigerina
deposits, capped with the sombre coloured clays,
and the golden-hued sand-stones, while, crowning
the whole, lie the variegated strata of the Upper
Coralline beds, the mural precipices and craggy
escarpments of which, stand out in bold relief
against the clear blue Mediterranean sky.
The terraced slopes, that lie between these
upper and lower cliffs, offer some remarkable
examples of the effects of atmospheric denudation
on the rocks composing them.
From the escarpments on the hillsides, and
from the faces of the cliffs, huge masses of partly-
detached rock stand out at varying angles from
the parent bed; and so unstable do many of them
appear to be, that it seems as though but a touch
is wanting to cause them to break away, and to
precipitate themselves into the valleys beneath
Examples of this kind are very common all
round the coasts; but the cliffs on the northern
side of St. Paul’s Bay, and those along the south-
ern coasts of both islands afford some of the best
examples,
26
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Strewn along the sides of the escapments in a
state of wild confusion, lie rock masses of every
conceivable size and shape, all of which have at
some previous time formed a part of the cliffs that
now rise some hundreds of feet above them.
The denuding agents of the atmosphere have
contributed much towards this scene of destruction.
Of these, frost, no doubt, played an important part
during that period when the greater part of Europe
was enveloped in a “mer dc glace,” and when
arctic conditions of climate prevailed where tem-
perate and even semitropical conditions now j
exist. (1)
But it is to wind and rain that the greatest
amount of destruction seems to have been due.
Their insidious attacks upon the sand and marl,
that underlie the Upper Coralline Limestone,
have wasted away these beds, and the upper
deposits being thus undermined, have broken
away in masses and have strewn the slopes with
their debris.
At Fom-ir-Rieh, Ghain-Toffiha and Karra ba
there are several examples of areas consisting of
many acres, that have broken off and have sunk to
lower levels in consequence of the eroding action
that the underground springs have had upon their
unstable foundations.
The south and south-western shores of Malta
appear to have been more subject to these landslips
than any other part of the two islands, a fact that is
attributable to the south-westerly dip of the strata
between Carmola and Fom-ir-rieh. The rocks in
these localities have, therefore, a tendency to
slide along their dip-planes, and hence, when
their foundations are removed, even in part,
fractures of considerable extent occur.
How constant is the occurrence of these down-
throws, is strikingly demonstrated by the Phoeni-
cian cart-tracks, that are found in various locali
ties along the southern shores.
Many of these, after traversing the islands for
some distance inland, trend towards the coast, and j
there break off at the very edge of the cliffs. The
folk-lore of the people contains many curious
(1) Jones (Prof, Rupt.) “ On the Geology of
Gibraltar.” Geo. Soc. Journ vol X XXI V. 1878.
Geikie “ Prehistoric Europe?
fables relating to them, (1) but all of the accounts
that are given agree in referring their origin to a
time when the islands constituted a portion of the
neighbouring continents.
That they are of very ancient origin, and that
they serve to indicate some extensive changes in
the configuration of the islands, there seems to be
no doubt; but there does not appear to be any
foundation for the statement that, at the time of
their formation, the islands extended much
beyond their present limits.
The ruts that terminate so abruptly at the
cliffs-edge, probably, once formed a portion of a
roadway that skirted the top of the Tipper Coral-
line Limestone cliffs, and these, after being sub-
jected to those processes of erosion to which
reference has just been made, broke away from
the main mass of the formation, and thus oblite-
rated all traces of the former roadway that had
existed along their summits.
The northern shores of both islands are much
more indented than are those on the south. The
succession of bays extending from Mars-el-Forn in
Gozo, to Marsa Scala in Malta, and the elevations
that lie between the bays, attest to the severe
lateral pressure to which certain portions of the
beds have been subjected.
Whether this pressure has been due to a shrin-
kage of the earth’s crust consequent on the secular
cooling of the globe, or to changes in the position
of the land masses in the vicinity, that have been
brought about by volcanic or other agencies, we
are not in a position to determine. The results,
however, show that the general tendency of the
pressure has been to elevated and depress the
strata, to a greater or lesser degree, throughout
the whole length of the islands.
At Fom-ir-rieh, Karraba, St. Pauls Bay, the
island of Comino, and Dueira these synclinal
curves are especially marked, while in many
other localities the strata have given way under
the strain, and fissures and faults have been
formed in consequence.
The effect of many of the fractures has been to
change the relative position of the strata to the
extent of several hundreds of feet.
(1) Cooke J. II. “Sketches in , and about Malta”
Valletta 1891 ,
i VvIikllM
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
27
An examination of the geological map, which
accompanies this paper, will show, that all of the
faults trend in the same direction.
The Great Fault, which extends from Madda-
lena on the north to some distance beyond Fom-
ir-Rieh on the south, the fault that caused the
separation of Comino from Malta, the dual faults
at St. Pauls Bay and Melleha, and most of the
minor fractures at Marsa Seala, Tignb and Mars-
el-Forn, will be found to lie in a N. E. and S. W.
direction.
The pressure that gave rise to these, seems
therefore, to have passed along the major axis of
the islands, that is, in a N. W. and S. E. direction ; J
and it was exerted at right angles to these faults j
and in a line with the synclinal foldings.
To this rule there are two notable exceptions.
The first is the Malak fault, and the other Is the
Miggiar Scini and the Dueira faults, both of which
lie in a direction that is almost at right angles to
the Great Fault.
(To he continued.)
— >000000000 —
SCIENCE NOTES.
A project is now on foot for the establish-
ment of a marine station at Sebastopol,
which is to be erected on the lines of the
Zoological station at Naples, though on a
smaller scale.
The greatest depth found by Captain,
Spratt, R,N. in the Western Mediterranean
basin was between Sicily, Sardinia and
Africa, where the line showed about
10,000 feet, fa little over two miles).
Recent measurements in the Eastern
basin by Commander Magnaghi of the Ita-
lian. Navy have yielded as a maximum
13,556 feet, (nearly 2f miles), between the
islands of Malta and Candia,
Cav. G.. Gollcher of Malta has recently
acquired a magnificent specimen of Tridac-
na gigas from the Indian seas. It measures
2 feet 3 inches, bv 1 feet 8 inches, and
weighs 152 lbs.
A large quantity of fossil mammalian
remains belonging to a new fauna has
recently been obtained from a tertiary
deposit in Samos — an island in the Turkish
Archipelago, lying immediately opposite
the town of Ephesus, and to the south-
south-west of Smyrna.
Their discovery has been principally due
to the labours of Dr. Forsyth- Major, who
sjient upwards of two years in the explo-
ration of the Pliocene fauna of Samos,
during which period he obtained two very
important collections, one of which is now
in the Geneva Museum, and the other in
the British Museum.
Neither of them has yet been thoroughly
examined. Among the specimens are a
number of forms specifically identical with
Pie mammals from the equivalent deposits
of Pikermi in Attica, Baltavar in Hungary,
and Maragha in Persia: and also several
new' types, of which a large ruminant
Samotherium is the most remarkable.
These remains are of much interest
inasmuch as they afford evidences of a
I much wider distribution of forms in by-
gone ages.
In the course of the excavations at
Pompeii the bodies of a man and a woman
were exhumed from a deposit of volcanic
ash, which was. situate just within the
Stabian Gate.
Imbedded in the formation were also
found the impressions of the branches,
foliage, and fruit of a tree Laura nobilis,
the berries of which ripen only towards
the end of the Autumn.
The discovery has an important bearing
on the question of the time of the year at
which the eruption took place, since it
tends to show that it was in November, and
not in August, as it has hitherto been sup-
posed to have been.
28
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
At a recent meeting of the Academy of the
Lincei Prof. G. Capellini drew the attention
of the members to certain fossil remains j
that had been discovered in the “Argile
scagliose” of Gombola in Modanese, and
which had originally been referred to as
being the remains of a crocodilian.
He entered somewhat at length into the
distinguishing characteristics of the speci-
men, and concluded by showing that they
were the fragments of a trunk of Ichtho-
savsvus camplodon , which had been washed
from out of the inferior cretaceous strata of
the district by the action of running water.
r ,
The powder magazine explosion that
lately occured at Porta Portese has been
made the subject of a series of interesting
observations by Prof. Tacchini, the results of
which have just been published in t he pro-
ceedings of the Lincei.
The instruments in the meteorological
observatory at Rome were particularly af-
fected, and gave rise to some extraordinary
phenomena, the most marked of which was
the action of the air pressure on the barome-
ter, which caused a sudden fall of the mercu-
ry 11 J millimetres below the normal curve.
The sound of the explosion was heard at
Ischia, Pasaro and Forli, places that are si-
tuated upwards of 156 miles distant from
Rome.
The earth-tremors, that followed the shock,
powerfully affected theseismieal instruments
of the districts around, and gave rise to the
impression that an earthquake had occured.
The undulations were felt some time
before the sound of the expolsion was heard;
and Prof. Tacchini proceeds to demonstrate
that the earth movements were transmitted
with a velocity, that was double of that of
that of the sound-waves.
Correspondence.
Rome, June I2th. 1891.
Sir,
Will you permit me to direct the attention of
your readers to the importance of making full and
accurate observations of all earth-quake shocks
that may, in future, affect the areas in which they
dwell. The Mediterranean district is especially
suited for the making of a series of seismological
observations both on account of the constancy
of the recurrence of earth-tremors, and of the
limited areas that are usually affected.
A complete seismic record for a definite earth-
quake area would be of the greatest scientific
value, and such accounts, and observations, if
forwarded to the “Mediterranean Naturalist/5
would serve as valuable sourse of information
for future workers.
Yours truly
F. Baker.
( We commend the above letter to notice of our
readers, . We shall be glad to accord the space for
any authenticated accounts of earthquakes in the
Mediterranean area. Ed. M. N. )
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Vol. I., No. 3.
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CONTENTS.
— <►* — Page
1 Cyprus.— Lt. Gen. Sir R. Biddulpk, G.C.M.G., C.p 29
2 The Culture of Figs -W. F. Massey 33
3 The Origin and Character of the Sahara.— Dr. John
Murray. ' 34
4 Notes and News, — A new fossil deer.— The wea-
ther in Algeria.— Prizes of the French Academy.
—Prof. Crova on diffused light.— Civil honours
for scientific men & c. &c. 36
o Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
—John H. Cooke. 37
6 Discovery of fossil remains at Arpino. 42
7 Insect plagues around the Mediterranean. 43
8 A eirs of the Month: — Earthquake in Verona.— Dr,
Jolmston-Lavis’s new work.— French zoological
stations. — Atmospheric effects in the Mediter-
ranean.—A new fungus parasite &c. & c. 43
9 Exchange! Column 44
NOTICES.
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o
o
CYPRUS,
by Lieut.-General Sir R. Biddulph, g.c.m.g., o.b.,
late H, M. High Commissioner, Cyprus.
The island of Cyprus is the third largest in the
Mediterranean, being inferior in size only to Sicily
and Sardinia. Its area is 3584 square miles. Its
principal features are two mountain ranges, run-
ning pretty well parallel to each other from east
to west. The northernmost of these two ranges
extends almost the whole length of the island
from Cape Kormakiti on the north-west to Cape
St. Andrea at the end of the horn-like promontory
which stretches for 40 miles from the north-east
of the island. This promontory is called the
Oarpas, and the low mountain chain running
through it is called the Carpas range. The
westernmost and higher portion of the northern
range is called the Kyrenia range, and rises to an
altitude of 3340 feet. This range is of a remark-
ably picturesque outline, in some parts extremely
rugged It is mostly a single ridge without any
remarkable spurs, and its summit is about two
miles from the northern coast. It can be crossed
in many places, but there are three well-defined
passes over it, viz. the Akatou Pass, which sepa-
rates the Kyrenia and Carpas ranges; the Kyrenia
Pass, which is due south of the town of Kyrenia,
and forms the approach to it from Nicosia; and
the Myrtou Pass, further west. The chief moun-
tain peaks of this range are Kornos, 3105 feet;
Bnffavento, 3140; and Pentedaktylos, 2400. The
last named is a remarkably shaped rock in the
centre of the Kyrenian range, owing its name to
its shape, the word Pentedaktylos signifying in
Greek “five-lingered.” Beneath this rock there
rushes out southward from the mountain side, at
an altitude of 870 feet, a torrent of water, which
never ceases to flow summer or winter, and which,
descending into the great plain in the centre of
the island, carries its fertilising streams to the
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dW.SJ
THE MEDITERRANEAN N ATI it A LIST
31
The southern range of mountains is of a much
more extensive nature than the northern range,
which I have just been describing. The eastern-
most point of this range is the mountain of Santa
Croce, so called from the church of the Holy Cross
which stands on its summit. This mountain,
which is 2260 feet in height, is of a peculiar shape,
and from its isolated position it forms a prominent
landmark, not only for vessels approaching the
port of Larnaca, but also for those entering Fa-
magusta. Beginning then from this point the
southern range rapidly rises to considerable
altitudes, finally culminating in Mount Troodos,
the highest point in Cyprus, 6406 feet above the
sea-level. The other chief peaks in the southern
range are, Adelphe, 5305 feet, and Machera, 4674
feet. But it is not only in altitude that the
Troodos range is distinguished; numerous spurs
run down to the north and south, and as we
proceed furthe west these radiate out to greater
distances, so that half way between Troodos and
the sea, the mountain range is not less than 20
miles wide. Here there are very considerable
forest, many miles in extent, rarely visited save by
wandering flocks and by wood-cutters, and af-
fording shelter to the moufflon, or wild sheep of
Europe, some 200 or 300 of which still roam over
these hills.
On the map it will be seen that numerous rivers
descend from both sides of the southern range.
These are mostly dry in summer, but after rain
their waters descend with violence, filling up the
river-beds in the plains, carrying away trees and
cultivated patches, and often rushing in a turbid
stream into the bays of Famagusta and Morphou.
Between the two mountain ranges which I have
thus briefly described there lies a great plain
called the Mesaorea, which is the most fertile part
of Cyprus, growing large crops of wheat, barley,
and cotton. It was evidently once the bottom of
the sea, for in many parts are large beds of
marine shells — gigantic oysters and others — all
clustered in masses. A noticeable feature of this
plain is the number of flat-topped plateaux of
various sizes, where the rock seems to have resisted
the action of the water. The tops of these plateaux
are clothed with short herbage, affording a scanty
provision for flocks, and are usually from 100 to 200
eet above the plain.
The rivers which descend from the hills carry
down large quantities of alluvial soil, and this
forms in the eastern part of the Mesaorea a rich
deposit, something similar to the Delta of the Nile.
The two rivers which mainly contribute to this
plain are the Pediauis and the Idalia, the former
taking its rise from the northern slopes of Mount
Machera and the latter from the eastern slopes of
the same mountain.
The Pediseus flows nothward to Nicosia, and
encircling that city, continues its course eastward
through the Mesaorea, receiving the drainage of
the northern range during its course, and falls
into the sea near the ruins of the ancient city of
Salamis. The Idalia, passing to the south of
Nicosia through the classic valley of Dali, also
flows eastward, and falls into the sea at Salamis,
about half a mile from the mouth of the Pediseus.
The beds of these rivers have, however, become so
choked up with alluvisil deposit towards the end
of their course, that their waters overflow the plain
and mingle together, so that their separate mouths
can with difficulty be distinguished.
The only other considerable river rises on the
northern slopes of Mount Adelphe, and after flow-
ing to the north for about 20 miles, turns to the
west, and passing the populous village of Morphou,
flows into the Bay of Morphou.
The normal condition of these rivers is to be
without water, but whenever there is a heavy
rainfall in the mountains, the river “comes down A
as it is called, and runs for one, two, or more days.
During the winter months, from December to
February, this frequently happens, and I have
known the river Pediseus to be running for six
weeks together, but this is rare.
It occasionally happens that the water descends
with great suddenness and violence, causing disa
strous floods. In December 1880, a storm of rain
of the greatest violence burst over the valley of
the Garilis, a small river which flows into the sea
at Limassol. Six inches of rain were registered in
three hours at the military cantonment at Pole
midia, 3i miles from Limassul. The water over-
flowed the narrow channel and flooded the town
of Limassol, washing down many houses, destroy
ing much property, and causing the death of
several persons. A similar calamity is reported to
have occurred at Nicosia about twenty-five years
82
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
ago. The river Pediseus, bursting its banks at a
point just outside the western gate of the city,
forced open that gate, which had been closed, and
rushing through the town to the Famagusta Gate
on the east side, the waters closed that gate, and,
finding no egress, flooded all the lowlying central
parts of the city, causing great damage and loss of
life. The inhabitants of the Mesaorea are never
more pleased than when the rivers come town |
abundantly, but from the want of proper storage
and direction, much of the water runs waste into
the sea, and much land is rendered uncultivable
from being hooded. Since the British occupation
an ancient canal has been repaired which carries
off some of the surplus waters of the Pediaeus, and ;
irrigates a considerable tract of country but the I
question of water storage in Cyprus in one for j
which there is much scope.
Considerable supplies of water for irrigation
purposes are obtained by sinking wells. A long
chain of wells are sunk at distances of five or six
yards apart, and being connected b;y underground
galleries, a channel is thus formed which conveys
the water to a reservoir constructed at the foot of
the last well, and it is thence raised to the surface
by the waterwheel; or in some cases the level of
the ground admits of the channel being brought
out on the surface. In this way the town of Ni-
cosia is supplied with excellent water, which is
brought in two aqueducts from a distance of some
miles. Larnaca and Famagusta and other towns
have similar aqueducts.
Closely connected with the water supply is the
forest question.
Cyprus was anciently clothed with forests. In
Old Testament times much shipbuilding took
place. In Balaam’s prophecy we read that “ships
shall come from the coast of Chittim”, and it
was with Cyprus timber that Alexander the Great
built the fleets which he launched on the Tigris
and Euphrates. At the present time the forests
are confined to the mountain ranges, and threaten
to disappear altogether.
At the time of the Egyptian occupation of
Cyprus, vast quantities of timber were cut down,
and carried to Egypt. In this way the whole
country round Larnaca was completely denuded
of trees. Previous to that time, the low hills to
the west of Larnaca were covered, with forest. Now
but a few dwarfed and scattered specimens remain.
It is not till we approach the mountain of Troodos
that we find anything like a real forest. Here,
on the spot where the summer encampment of
the troops is fixed, there are some magnificent
specimens of the Pinos Laricio , which clothe the
mountains from an altitude of 4500 feet upwards.
The Aleppo pine furnishes, however, nine-tenths
of the forests. It attains very fine dimensions in
Cyprus, and flourishes on all sorts of mineral
soils to an altitude of 4500 to 5000 feet. Trees
of 10 feet in circumference are frequently met
with. The forests continue westward from Troodos,
though much encroached upon, and cruelly
misused by reckless felling, and tapping for resin,
until we pass the monastery of Kikko. Between
this point and the sea, to the extremity of tht
watershed, there are real forests, and those cl a
very considerable extent, covering an area of
over 200 square miles. These owe their immu-
nity partly to their large extent; but more espe-
cially because the spurs and valleys leading to
them are of so difficult a nature that the transport
of timber is not easily effected. It is here that the
few remaining cedars of Cyprus are to be found;
occupying a space of seven or eight square miles,
at a mean altitude of 4500 feet. They resembled
the Atlas cedar; none of the trees exceed 80 years
of age, an insignificant age for a species that
reaches 2000 yeais.
The crest of the northern range is also fringed
with trees, and there are other patches of forest
land containing brushwood and a few trees. On
the whole, the forest lands of Cyprus occupy an
area of 400 square miles. At the time of the
British occupation, the ravages of the woodcutter
were to be seen in full operation, and it cannot be
doubted that it was only a question of time when
the last remaining forests of Cyprus should
antirely disappear.
The destruction of the forests dates, however,
from modern times. For many centuries a vigorous
felling went on, which gave to the wood of Cyprus
an unique reputation in the Eastern world. 1 have
already alluded to the fleets built by Alexander
the Great from Cyprus timber; the Venetians also
took immense quantities for their commerce and
marine. But this would only affect the old and
f fine trees, because young trees are of no use for
IHE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
shipbuilding; hence the forests would always be
renewed from the young trees. Great damage
must, however, have been done by the mines which
were so extensively worked by the Phoenicians
and the Romans, as trees of ail sorts and sizes
would be used for fuel. With the cessation of the
mining, the forests must have again recovered
themselves; and the true causes of the modern
destruction of the forests are stated to be three in
number, viz. fitful cultivation, fire, and the grazing
of goats.
It is beyond the province of this paper to enter
into detail on these points. They have been most
ably dealt with by a French gentleman who was
for three years the principal forest officer of
Cyprus. But it may be interesting just to draw
attention to the manner in which Cyprus is over-
run by goats, which are the greatest enemies to
forests in every country where they exist.
Taking five Mediterranean countries where
goats abound, we find that there are: —
In Italy 14 goats per sq. miles, 63 per 1000 inhabitants.
„ Sicilf 16 „ 74 „
„ Portugal 27 ,, 210 „
,. Sardinia 25 374 .,
„ Cyprus 64 ,, 1430 ,,
Cyprus, in fact, contains more goats in proportion
to its area and population than any country in the
world.
(To he continued.)
The Culture of Figs,
W. F. Massey.
A large portion of North Carolina is well adapted
to the culture of the fig, and in every part of the
State a supply for home use can be had by taking
a little trouble in growing the trees in proper
shape for protecting them in winter. The writer
for many years succeeded in growing, fine crops of
of figs in a cold and elevated locality in northern
Maryland, where the mercury dropped below
Zero nearly every winter. The method used -will be
explained further on. All over the low country of
eastern and southern North Carolina the fig thrives
luxuriantly, and needs little, if any, winter protec-
tion, except in unusually severe winters. In all
this section the culture of improved varieties
gmiht he made profitable,
With a view to distribute among the cultivators
of the States, the North Carolina Experiment
Station has procured, through the United States
Department of Agriculture at Washington, cut-
tings of the best varieties from fig-growing
countries of southern Europe and Asia Minor,
These include all the famous sorts used for
drying and exportation.
In tropical countries the fig is an ever green tree,
growing and bearing fruit almost perpetually, but
in countries where sharp frosts occur in winter it
assumes the character of a deciduous tree.
When the frosts are not too severe, or when
the trees are protected from them, the rudimen-
tary figs, borne on the young branches in late
autumn, instead of falling off, as most immature
fruits would do, seem to rest dormant, and in the
Spring renew their growth and ripen off into the
first crop, which always gives larger and finer fruit
than the late summer and autumn crops. If we
give the trees protection in winter, these imma-
ture figs can be carried through quite severe
winters, but with the careless culture which the
fig receives in North Carolina they are usually
lost. The fig may be grown from seed, cuttings,
or layers. The seed of the freshly imported dried
figs will usually grow readily, and will generally
reproduce a variety vrith certainty from cuttings of
well ripened one year old wood, or layers must be
used.
In propagating from cuttings, young shoots
growing on the sides of older stems, and not the
rank and pithy shoots from the base, are best.
These should be cut off in autumn after the
leaves fall, with a “heel” of the older wood. Set
the cuttings at once in dry sandy soil nearly their
entire length, and then make a ridge of soil over
them thick enough to keep out frost. When Spring
opens, carefully scrape away this cover of soil so
as to expose the tops of the cuttings, and they
well soon break into growth and make fine plants
by autumn. Layers are made by binding down a
shoot of last year’s growth, cutting a slit in the
side of the shoot nearly half way through, so that
the end of the shoot can be turned up and tied to
a stake, and the incision buried in the soil. This
should be done in Spring, and by Autumn the
layer can be separated from the plant with a good
supply of its own. Where there is a greenhouse
34
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
convenient, and command of heat can be had, the
plants can be rapidly increased in winter from
single eyes of the mature wood. These are potted
when rooted, and planted out in nursery rows in
Spring, making large bushes by Autumn.
People who have not studied the structure of
plants commonly suppose that figs have no bloom.
This is far from being the case, for the (lowers are
wonderfully numerous. The fruit of the fig, popu-
larly so called, is simply the floral receptack and
the whole interior is covered with minute flowers.
After these flowers have set seed the receptacle
continues to grow and ripen, forming, with the
seed carpels within, the edible fruit.
The best shape to grow fig trees in frosty
climates is in the form of a spreading bush or
shrub, branched from the ground. Little pruning
is needed. The rank, sappy shoots from the
ground should be kept down after enough limb
are formed to make the head. The best figs are
grown on the short-jointed shoots produced on
the older wood, and the pruning should be mainly
the shortening back of the branches lightly, after
the crop has been gathered, to encourage the
production of these shoots the following year.
Where the winter temperature seldom falls
below 18°. or 20°. above Zero figs will need no
special protection, but will be all the better for
being planted in a situation sheltered from cold
winds. In cold climates figs can be easily pro-
tected in winter if branched from the ground.
This is done by gathering the branches together in
four bundles, after the leaves have fallen, and
bending them flat to the ground in the outline of
a cross. Fasten the branches down with forked
pegs, and them cover with earth. Let the earth
cover be fully six inches thick and in very severe
climates cover the mound, when winter has fully
set in, with straw or forest leaves, to prevent too
severe freezing. The earth cover will be sufficient
anywhere in North Carolina; anywhere east and
south of Raleigh no special protection will be
needed. In the upland region about Raleigh they
will be safer if bent to the ground and a few pine
bushes laid over them. There is no good reason
why, in the coast region at least, the culture of
the fig for drying might not be profitably pursued.
At any rate, figs preserved in glass or tin will
always meet a ready sale, and in the immediate
vicinity of the larger towns the sale of fresh figs
could be made profitable to a limited extent.
With the extension of canning and pr -serving
factories in various parts of the State, the culture
of the fig can be extended indefinitely. In the
careless method of culture now practiced here,
or rather the no culture at all, the fig bush has
to fight for existence with the weeds and wild
growth in fence corners, and no pains being taken
to protect it in winter, the figs formed in the fall
of the year are usually destroyed by the winter
and spring frosts. These fall set figs, if saved
I over winter, make the finest fruit of the season,
and ripen in early summer, while almost the only
figs now known here are the late summer and
autumn crop, which are much inferior in size
and quality to the early crop. On the immediate
coast in the vicinity of salt water the fig flourishes
and grows to a large size, but anywhere in the
interior the crop will be better by keeping them
pruned to bushes of six or seven feet high, and
giving them whatever protection the situation
; requires. Our plantation of figs at the North
! Carolina Experiment Station is not yet developed
i to such an extent as will enable us to distributed
long cuttings at present. We shall use all our
wood the present winter in propagating under
glass from single eyes, and hope in the spring of
1891 to have a moderate supply of young plants
for distribution in the eastern and southern sec-
tions. Those applying for plants will be required
to file a written agreement to give them proper
care, to keep the varieties distinct, and to report
to the director of the station in regard to the
quality and productiveness and the comparative
hardiness of the trees. Applications complying
with these terms should he sent in during
February and March, and will be filed as long
as the supply of plants lasts. , w
N. 0. Ag. Expt. Bulletin.
Dr. John Murray on the Origin and
Character of the Sahara.
At the last annual meeting of the Scottish
Meteorological Society Dr. John Murray read a
paper on the meteorological conditions of desert
regions, with special reference to the Sahara, the
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
35
northern border of which he had recently visited.
He pointed out that the arid regions of the world
were distributed in two bands, north and south
of the equator. They were all inland drainage
areas, or areas where the streams had no con-
nection with the sea. They were also regions
where evaporation was in excess, for if the latter
were in excess the water would rise till it could
flow into the sea, as in the case of the great lake
district of North America, and the area would no
longer be one of inland drainage. The largest of
the deserts, the Sahara, was about three and a
half million square miles in area, and the area of
all the deserts of the world to-gether was about
11,500,000 square miles. That was to say, over
one fifth of the land of the world had no outlet
for drainage to the sea, and in all that area
evaporation was greater than precipitation.
This area corresponded very closely with the
regions of the world where the rainfall was less
than 10 inches annually. In no place in the world
could there be got such enormous ranges of tem-
perature as in the deserts. In the Sahara the tem-
perature sometimes fell from 100 degrees during
the day to the freezing point during the night.
That arose from the great dryness of the atmo-
sphere, and from the radiation that took place
from the burning soil after the sun had set. These
inland drainage areas corresponded very much in
their barometric phenomena. In all desert regions
during summer ail the winds blew in to them.
In winter the reverse took place — the winds flowed
out of them, and that held good both for the
northern and the southern hemispheres. This
let to the low rainfall, for the great majority of
these regions were more or less bounded by high
hills. The winds came into the deserts over these
hills, and the vapour was precipitated from the
atmosphere by the hills, with the results that
when the winds reached the interior regions there
wras nothing left to be deposited. If there were
not hills all round any desert area, as in the case
of Northern Asia, the winds passed from a colder
to a warmer climate, and as they got to warmer
regions they were able to contain more vapour,
and none was precipitated. Dr. Murray then pro-
ceeded to give an account of his own views and
impressions as to the Sahara. During the Chal-
in the bed of the Atlantic for a long distance west
of the African coast opposite the Sahara, and in
the bed of the Indian Ocean to the south ot
Australia, small grains of red quartz sand, and
they had found scarcely a trace of such in the
sea-bed in any other part of the world. He
suspected this quartz sand had been blown out
from the Sahara in the one case, and from the
Australian desert in the other. On his journey
southward through Algeria, he found the country
as far as Tougourt converted into a garden by
means of artesian wells. At Tougourt the real
sandy part of the desert began, and he made
excursions into it, with that town as his head-
quarters. He exhibited to the meeting a specimen
of the sand, of a light yellowish-brown colour, and
exceedingly fine in the grains. There were, he
said, a good many clay particles in it, and the
quartz particles, which were also numerous, were
identical with those they had got in the bottom of
the Atlantic. There was no doubt that the winds
from the desert carried the sand a long way out to
sea. He had also examined the region geologically,
and the formation of the rocks was entirely that
of fresh water, and of quaternary date. The great
majority of geographers and geologists Had. expres-
sed the belief that th,e whole of the Sahara was an
old sea-bed, but he was of opinion that it had
never as a whole been covered by the sea since
Cretaceous or Devonian times; and no part of it,
he believed, had been, covered by the ocean since
Tertiary times. The whole question about the
discovery of shells seemed to rest upon one com-
mon species being found very rarely in one region
of the desert. He thought that, owing to recent
researches, the opinion as to the Sahara, being an
old sea bottom was very likely to disappear from
our text-books. He considered that the features
of the region had been produced by atmospheric
conditions. The sand was the product o:f the
disintegration of the rocks in situ. The existing
rock was not far below the surface, and by digging
down to it, the hard sandy particles were found
embedded in the stone. The sun shone or the
locks and they expanded. The sudden cooling at
night broke them up, the wind carried away the
smaller particles, and so continually were the
rocks being disintegrated by means of changes
other than water, although water perhaps had in
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
times past piayed a greater r<Me there than it did
now. There was a range of hills in the desert,
7000 feet high, and for three months of the year
their summits were covered with snow. Descend-
ing the hills were old river-courses, some of great
length. Much oi the region, he considered, had
once been a large freshwater lake. Speaking of
the commercial aspect of the Sahara, he said it
was difficult to go there without becoming enthu-
siastic about it. But there seemed to be no limit
to the amount of water that was to be got by
sinking artesian wells. The cultivation of palms
was extending to an enormous extent, and the
French expected to carry on their railway to
Tougourt in the next few years. It. G . S. J ourn
NOTES AND NEWS.
Mr. R. Lydekker lately read a paper be-
fore the Zoological Society of London on a
Cervine jaw which was obtained from a
pleistocene deposit in Algeria, and which j
appears to indicate the former existence ;
in that country of a large deer allied to
Cervus cashmirianus. For this new form
Mr. Lydekker has proposed the name
Cervus Algericus.
The honey of the Malta bees has long j
been noted both for its purity, and for its J
delicious flavour. The latter is largely
due to the extensive crops of sulla (clover)
that are annually raised throughout the
islands, from which the bees derive the
largest proportion of their material. It
is estimated that to collect one pound of
honey from clover, 62,000 heads of clover
must be deprived of nectar, and, 3,750,000 j
visits from the bees must be made.
In our next number the first of a series of
articles on “The formation of Mountain
Chains” will appear, written by Mr. T. Meb
lard-Reade O.E., F.G.S., F,R,I,B,A.: the emi-
nent physicist whose book on the subject has
attracted so much attention in the scientific
world, and whose theory has had such an
influence on current geological thought.^
Since Livingstone’s memorable journey
across the “Dark Continent,’ Africa lias
been crossed no less than twelve times.
The Portuguese traveller Silva Porto fol-
lowed Livingstone, Cameron crossed.it in
1873, Stanley in 1874, Major Serpa Pinto
in 1877, the Italian Mattucci in 1880, Cap.
Wissman in 1881, Ivens and Capello the
Portuguese explorers in 188^, and in 1885
by the Swedish Commissioner Lieutenant
Gleerup. Since then Stanley has recrossed
it, and Captain Frivier of the French army
as also performed the same task.
Among the prizes that are to he awarded
by the French Academy in 1892 is the
Jecker prize of 10,000 fr. for discoveries in
organic chemistry; the Brean prize of
100,000 fr. (£4,000) for the discovery of
a cure, or preventive of Asiatic cholera; the
Argo gold medal for an}^ discovery that
may have been of real service to science;
the Leconte prize of 50,000 fr. for any in-
vention or work on natural history, physics,
mathematics, chemistry, or physiology; and
the Montyon prize for the best contrivance
whereby the ordinary occupations of life
may he carried out with the minimum of
danger.
In a communication that M. Mares late
lv made to the French Meteorological So-
ciety it was shown that the weather in
Algeria had been as remarkable as had
that which had characterized the last win-
ter, and spring in Europe.
The author stated that in many localities
the excessive rain-fall had prevented the
sowing of seeds, and in the mountainous
districts, where the sowing had taken place
early, the seed had been swept away by
the torrents. About the third week in
January a heavy fall of snow lay on the
Mitidja and the Sahel for two whole days.
The writer states that for the last thirty
five years, although he had sometimes seen
snow fall, it did not lie an instant on the
ground.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
87
SccflCOV tzCZO-QQ
$*PcU(Zf
£<ZCtiOytV fcCVOAA S £ S&uXh AdanA.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands,
by John H. Cooke.
• ( con tin ued )
These forces of compression seem to have been
the original causes that gave a general undulatory
outline to certain portions of the strata, and
thus by determining the position of the islands5
principal watersheds, they prepared the way for
the formation of the hills and valleys.
But though they were the origin, they were
not the agents of their formation.
The ruggedness of
surface contour, and
the wholesale denu-
dation that now cha-
racterizes the scenery
of Gozo, and north-
western Malta, owe
their origin to other
and less ostentatious
forces, which, if more
dilatory in their me-
thods were yet none
the less effective in
their operations,
A few' walks along
the coasts, and the
hill-sides will bring
vividly before the
mind of the observer
the active manner in
which the three hench-
men of ‘Nature-— Fire,
Air, and Water — have
been at work in disin-
tegrating the rock sur-
faces and moulding the islands' contour. The faces
of the cliffs and faults, the sides of the hills and
valleys, alike tell the same tale and point to
the silent though effective manner in which
Nature brings her forces to bear, in order to
attain her end. The barren and denuded cliffs
of jlied-el-Asel, and Dueira, attest to the
irresistible power of the waves, that once laved
their water-worn and pkolas-bored sides, while
the fantastic shapes into which the honey-
combed and fretted rock .-ur faces are even now
Szc- Ivum, <xcvo4t> SAe %^-oX
Torr&JEfajnra*
75 4 cbjav/ Tof a o XoT/i-e a& Arnhv .
Oj - OlohtgeriyrojbLinvestxmye .
b = Securos of fossil seawe&cb .
XzkaaJXo aJk
$-
being wrought, indicate that, though far beyond
the reach of the waves, they are still subjected
to the attacks of other foes equally powerful
and untiring.
The soft Globigerina Limestone and the
softer sand and marl beds, are particular!}
susceptible to this constant wear and tear of the
atmosphere; and the consequence is, that where-
ever these beds are found to predominate,
there the soil of the country is more abundant
and the scenery is more diversified.
The long-continued dry weather of the sum -
mer months, followed
by the moisture
ladened w nds from
Africa, have played an
important part in this
work of erosion.
Fissures, that at first
appeared as mere
cracks in the strata,
have been gradually
enlarged by the disin-
tegration of their sides,
and the rains of win-
ter, entering the chan-
nels that have been
thus prepared, have
formed torrents, the
waters of which have
greatly facilitated the
work of destruction.
In this manner the
anticlinals and fissures
have been so extended
and enlarged as to
have lost their origi-
enyenujias
c* Cauve
nal character, and to have assumed the charac-
teristics of gorges and valleys.
The contour of the surface* of both islands has
been thus moulded and so rapidly does the work of
erosion even now proceed, that, it is only by the
watchful industry of the husbandman in banking
up the sides of the valleys with debris, and pro-
tecting the accumulated soil with stone walls
of considerable thickness, that the superficial
wTaste is retarded sufficiently to allow him to
till and grow in the soil such of the neces-
38
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
“Traced in a map, the landscape lies,
In cultured beauty stretching wide."
saries of life as will suffice for the support of
himself and of his family.
Were it not for this intervention,, the surface
strata of the Maltese beds would not long
resist the perpetual wear and tear; but here
it is that the beneficent wisdom of the Creator
is shown.
The forces of Nature are so distributed, that
they often render their own efforts abortive;
and by acting in antagonism, the one neutra-
lizes the effects of the other.
The subcerial forces act upon the rock-sur-
faces and in course of time they convert the
superficial areas into soil. The rains of winter |
then wash this away, and thus new surfaces
are presented to be acted upon in precisely
the same manner as the former had been. Here
the husbandman steps in, and by means of
artificial contrivances, he diverts the drainage,
tills and protects the newly-formeci soil, and
sowTs the seed which is to bring forth the
future crop.
The rootlets disseminate themselves through-
out the mass, and by firmly binding it together,
they form a covering for the underlying rock
which effectually resists any further denudation.
It is by the instrumentality of processes
such as these that the islands have been made
to assume their present aspect; and were it
not for them, many of the most fertile valleys
of the islands would be rendered quite barren,
while others would lose such a large propor-
tion of the soil that is annually being formed
by the waste of the surrounding rocks, as to
cause them to become much less product-
ive than they now are.
The Binjemma plateau, which is situated to
the south-west of Malta, is intersected by
numerous valleys and gorges all of which
furnish innumerable instances of the conserva-
tive, and destructive effects of Nature’s handi
work.
Of these Boschetto, Emtahlep, and St. Pauls
valley will perhaps afford the geologist some
of the best opportunities for the study of this
phase of the geological history of the islands.
Boschetto lies about two miles to the south
of Citta Yecchia, and is much resorted to on
account of its varied and interesting scenery.
while Emtahlep, with its rippling springs, its
orchards, and its verdure covered slopes is
situated about three miles to the west of the
city. Water is found there in great abundance,
but, owing to the numerous faulting* in t ie
strata, much of it finds its way into the fis-
sures, and from thence into the sea.
In Gozo, there are a large number of similar
valleys, chief among which are Bamla and
Marsa-el-Foru; but though they offer special
attractions to the botanist and the entomolo-
gist, yet they cannot be recommended to the
geologist, as the outcrops of the beds are in-
variably masked with taluses, that have resulted
from the degradation of the superincumbent
strata, and therefore the work of examination
is rendered both tedious and uncertain.
These fertile valleys always occur whereevcr
the upper beds (1) crop out. In the Lower
Coralline Limestone districts, however, sterile,
rocky gorges take their place, and they are
generally found either to abut on the coast,
or else to occupy the low-lying lands in the
vicinity of the sea.
The most typical of this class are Dueira
in Gozo, and Uied-el-Asel in Malta, the water
worn sides of both of which, attest to the
presence of the waters of the sea at a com-
paratively recent date, when probably they
formed harbours, similar to those existing on
the eastern coast at the present time. The
abrupt termination of the Gargur, and the
Musta gorges are strikingly analagous to the
mouths of the Grand and of the Marsamuscetto
harbours.
A depression of a few feet would again
submerge a considerable portion of the northern
part of Malta, and would be the means of
refilling many of the ancient creeks and har-
bours of the islands.
Thus, such a depression would, by filling the
valleys of Tal Puales and St. Pauls cause a
considerable extension of Melleha Bay, and
St. Paul’s bay.
(1) Beds /, //, III dc IV. Med . Nat. Vol. I
No, d
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
89
It would submerge a large part of the Nasciar
plain, and would add to the length of St. George's
Creek, St. Julians bay, Marsa Scala, and Marsa
Scirocco Bay.
All of these bear evident traces of the for-
mer presence of the sea. Nor are they the
only evidences that testify to the oscillations
to which the islands have been subjected. A
never ending contest has been, and still is going
on between the land and ffie waters around
them, in which each has alternately gained the
mastery; but in the latest phase, the land has,
bit by bit, gradually asserted itself and has
won back the territories of which it has been
despoiled.
The protracted nature of the struggle is plainly
shown by the craggy and cavernous condition of
the sea cliffs, that abound along the southern
coasts of the islands.
At Magira, Ras-el-Kaus, Ahmar, and Ghain Tof-
fiha, flat, raised, marginal ledges skirt the shore,
situated at varying heights above the sea level, and
on some of these, as at Toffiha, are insulated, table-
shaped stacks of upper limestone, which, being
sufficiently hard to enable them to successfully
withstand the constant attacks, that wore dovm
the softer material around them, novr stand alone,
bearing unequivocal testimony to the power of the
elements that had shaped them, and to the dura-
tion of the ages that must have elapsed ere they
were reared to their present positions.
The Faults : —
The relationship that exists between the physi-
cal character, and the internal structure of the
Maltese Islands is well illustrated in the valleys
and hills to which reference has just been made.
We have seen that the strata does not preserve
that uniform horizontality that it had when depo-
sited, but that in many localities it takes a slightly
undulatory form, a change of position that was
probably caused by the lateral pressure which was
exerted when the faults of the islands were
formed.
The elevations and valleys that lie to the north
of the Great Fault and in the vicinity of Ghain |
Toffiha, Redum Majesa, Fom-ir-rieh, and Melleha
afford some of the best illustrations of the effects
of these compressive forces.
The strata of several hills in these areas show
evidences of dipping inwards, that is, they lie in
slight synclinal curves.
It is to this condition of the strata that the
combes and valleys in the district appear to owe
their existence. The Northern coast, too, abounds
with similar examples, especially the strata that
lies on either side of Melleha Bay, St. Paul’s Bay
and the Straits of Frioul.
South of the Malta Grand Fault these synclinal
curves are not so well marked, though here and
there along the southern cliffs of Malta examples
are to be met with. Thus Benghisa Gap owes its
origin to the synclinal bending of the rocks in its
course, and the cliffs under Maddaiena chapel
exhibit further similar evidences.
Between the surface contour of northern and
southern Malta there is however a marked con
trast, and compeared with the north, the strata of
the southern area are practically horizontal save
for a slight north-easterly dip. This contrast is
due primarily to the oscillations of level to which
the islands have been subjected, and which have
caused the depression of the whole of the area that
lies between the northern side of the Grand
Fault of Malta and the southern side of that of
Gozo.
The Grand Fault or principal fault of Malta
extends from the Maddaiena Bay on the we.
coast to Fom-ir-rieh on the east coast.
At Fom-ir-rieh the beds of the Upper Coralline
Limestone, and the Marl on the northern side of
the fault are opposed oil the south by vertical
cliffs of Lower Limestone, that attain a height of
nearly 350 feet. The faces of both sides of the
fault are covered abundantly with well defined
examples of “slickensides”, the depth of the scor-
ings of which, sufficiently attest to the enormous
grinding processes to which the rocks were sub-
jected when the depression took place. At Naxaro.
the cliffs of the fault are but 150 feet in height,
but from, thence they increase until Maddaiena is
reached where they end abruptly at a height of
about 350 feet above the sea level.
Standing on the summit of the escarpment in
the vicinity of Naxaro and taking either Citta
Vecchia or Chemmuna as points for observation,
the inclination of the beds to the south may be
traced in an east-south-easterly direction until
40
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
they disappear beneath the water of the sea all
along the coast. The surface of this part of the
island takes the form of an unco dating plain in
which the Globigerina Limestone and the Lower
Coralline Limestone alternately appear. The latter
crops out in the vicinity of the Lunatic Asylum,
at Musta, on the coast of St. Julians and Pem-
broke, the coast to the east of Licasoli, the cliffs
at Marsa Scala, and the lower porti ons of the cliffs
along the south coast of Malta; but in no case
does the surface area of the outcrops exceed a few
hundred square yards in extent, and therefore the
area of exposed Lower Limestone bears but a
small ratio to that of the Globigerina deposits.
On the northern side, the depression of the dis-
trict has submerged the coast outcrops of tin se
beds, and the superior deposits have therefore
been brought to the sea-level.
It is an interesting fact to note that most of the
principal faults of Malta and Gozo trend in the
same direction, that is they run almost due east
and west, and therefore are nearly parallel to one
another.
If the Grand Fault and the other principal
fractures be produced in an easterly direction it
will be found that they will all meet at nearly the
same point beneath the waters of the sea in about
55°. lat.
It would appear, therefore, as though these
fractures owed their origin to one common cause,
and that the pressure which gave rise to them
must have passed along the major axis of the
islands.
Faults at St. FauTs Bay : —
The strata on either side of St. Pauls Bay have
been much crushed and broken by these compres-
sive forces. The valley is bounded on either side
by a compound fracture, both of which extend
right across the island, and in a direction that is
parallel to the Great Fault and to one another.
The fault of the northern side of the valley con-
sists of two parallel fractures, which coalesce
beneath Selmone and passes or. through Selmone
Island to the eastern shore.
The lines of disturbance may be traced right
across the island, as they are clearly marked by a
range of Upper Coralline Limestone cliffs, the
sides of which have been worn into caves and fis-
sures of ail sizes by the chemical action of the
! atmosphere.
The throw of the fault varies from 30° to 60’,
i and averages about 130 feet.
On the southern side, the line of displacement
| is even more pronounced, and like that on the
northern side it consists of two parallel fractures,
j both of which abut on the western coast in the
vicinity of Ghain-Toffiha, and, after traversing
the island they coalesce at the head of St. Paul’s
Bay, and finally disappear beneath the waters of
the Mediterranean. The western extremity of
this fault afft rds many remarkable examples of
! the bending and crushing effect that these dis-
| placements have had upon the strata. The area
' that is situated between these two sets of faults
i dips in a south-easterly direction, and is depressed
! to such an extent that the upper beds that form
j the bottom of the valley have been brought into
• juxtaposition with the Globigerina Limestone
| along the southern line of disturbance. The ave-
j rage dip throughout the valley is about 20°, but
| B
at Selmone Island it is much greater. The strata
of these islets have been -considerably tilted, in
some instances lying at an angle of 60° with the
horizon. Besides these two fractures there are
numerous others of a minor character, but gene-
rally they are but superficial rents, that have
| probably been caused by the overstrained contor-
i tions of the strata.
The Melleha Faults: —
Like St. Pauls Bay, the valley and bay of
Melleha are bounded on either side by faults that
are parallel to one another, and that are slightly
inclined in a south-easterly direction towards the
Grand Fault. The area between them has been
depressed, and a valley has been formed the
eastern extremity of which now lies beneath the
waters of the Mediterranean. The fault on the
southern side of the bay extends from the eastern
.. to the western shores of the island. Its throw
varies considerably throughout its length, being
the greatest towards its extremities ; thus, below
the village of Melleha its downthrow is about 100
feet, while at Melleha Point and Pedum Majesa
it is 130 feet.
THE ME DIT ER E A A NEN KATE RA LIST
41
On the northern side of the bay the fracture
does not appear to be so extensive; but this is
owing to its partial submergence beneath the
v aters of the bay. Like its complement on the
southern side it extends from shore to shore, and
in the same direction.
The throw of the fault is due south, and its
angle varies from 30° to 55°.
The average length of the throw is 120 feet.
The immediate effect of these two faults has been
to cause a further depression in an already de-
pressed area. The top beds of the Upper Coral-
line Limestone have thus been brought to the
sea-level, and are now so rapidly being encroached
upon by the sea, that in the course of a compara-
tively short period of time, the peninsula of the
Marfa, that forms the northern extremity of Malta,
will be converted into an island similar to Comino.
The Malalc Fault: —
The displacements, that we have just been
considering, traverse the island in a direction that
is parallel to that of its shorter axis. To these the
fault at Malak is a notable exception. This fracture
trends in a direction that is at right angles to the
Grand Fault, and parallel to the major axis of the
island. It extends from Torre Hamra, near Crendi,
to the south western side of the little bay of St.
Giorgio, a distance of about two and a half miles.
The effect of the Malak downthrow has been to
depress, and submerge the whole of ihe h is its that
were formerly situated in this part of A island,
with the exception of the narrow strip oi the up-
per beds that now skirts the cliffs at the se a ho el
and the islet of Filfola, which is situated at a
distance of about three miles from the shore.
The surface of this remmant is in many places,
covered with detrital material that has been
derived from the degradation of the surrounding
upper areas, and which has formed a breccia
consisting of large quantities of mammalian
remains and rolled pebbles, the whole being bound
together by means of calcareous infiltrations.
Below Torre Hamra another faulting has occur-
red in the depressed area, the total downthrow of
the two displacements amounting to about 400 feet.
The Upper Coralline Limestone has been much
contorted and broken in its downward descent,
and in some of the little bays that here fringe the
shore, it offers some peculiar examples of curves
and foldings. The breccia that caps this down-
throw is the “Elephant bed” of Dr. Adams. It is
literally full of the bones and molars of the
elephants that had formerly made Malta their
home.
It was in this locality, too, that the now7 famous
Malak Caverns w'ere discovered, in which Dr.
Adam’s worked so successfully when studying the
ancient mammalian fauna of the islands.
Minor faults : —
The dislocations of the strata, and the conse-
quent slight alterations in their relative positions
to one another, that occur in St. Julian’s Bay, the
Marsamuscetto harbour, and other localities are
usually so small as to be hardly wrorthy of being
classed with the great faults. But they make up
in number w7hat is wanting in magnitude, and we
shall therefore here note a few of the more im-
portant of them.
To the south of Dingli a fault traverses the
strata from the coast to Boschetto, but the down
throw is but a few feet. At the mouth of the
Emtahleb valley there is another, that is of
somewhat greater magnitude. It runs in a direc
tion that is parallel to the Malak Fault, and
therefore at right angles to the Grand Fault.
It has been the cause of depressing a conside-
rable area to a depth of about 100 feet.
On the south-eastern side of St. Julian’s bay
there are several depressions where the Globige-
rina has been let down to distances varying from
one to ten feet; while at Tigne. Bicasoii, Marsa
Scala, Marsa Sirocco, Mars-el-Forn, the number of
these minor dislocations is legion. Some idea of
nature and extent of these may be obtained from
Fig {*).
Near the village of Crendi there is a circular
fault that has caused the downthrow of an area, of
about 70 square yards, which is known as Macluba.
It is similar in many respects to the circular
depression at Dueira. but it is not so extensive.
A more detailed account of it Mil be given w hen
dismissing the caves of the islands.
The Gozo Faults: —
The system of the faultings in Gozo is more
complex than is that of Malta; but there is a great
similarity in the accompanying phenomena which
* See Med: Fat: JTo. J, Sept. 1891.
42
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
tends to prove that the Gozo and Malta faults
were either contemporaneous and therefore de-
pendent upon the same causes, or that the one
system was but an after consequence of the other,
owing to the line of weakness in the islands struc-
ture that the first series of fractures had caused.
The Grand Fault of Gozo consists of two great
branches, the one extending from Dueira to Chan-
bray, and lying in a direction that is parallel to
the Malak fault, and the other extending from
Ras ii Kala to Chambray, and lying in a direction
that is parallel to that of the Grand Fault of
Malta.
The result of the latter displacement has been
to depress the area to the south of its line and to
bring all of the superior deposits on a level with
the middle beds of the Globigerina Limestone.
This fault is the complement of the Malta Grand
Fault. They were probably formed contempo-
raneously and so caused the depression of the
whole of the area lying between them.
At Ras-il-Kala where this fault abuts on the
coast, another downthrow has taken place the line
of dispiacment of which trends in a direction that
is more south west than is that of the Grand
Fault; it extends as far as Chambray, while
another fracture runs parallel to it from Madonna
della Kala to the same point.
The area at the north-eastern extremity of Gozo
is much broken up by a series of complex fractures,
that have given rise to triangular down-throws
and up-throws.
The southern portion of the main fracture is
more simple in its nature.
It has resulted in the depression of the whole of
the area that lies to the south of it, and which
extends from Miggiar Scini to Gala tal Sclendi,
It diverges at Monsciar and passes on to Dueira,
where, in conjunction with another fault on the
northern side of Dueira bay it has caused the
depression now known as the Dueira Valley.
Just below Gebei ta Ben Georgio the throw of the
fault is about 150 feet, but towards St. Paolo the
throw does not average more that 80 feet.
Beside these, there are numerous other minor
displacements along the southern coast of the
island, but none of them are of any considerable
magnitude. Between Ras-el-Tre’oona and Ras-el-
Newhela three or four of these fractures occur, all
* /■«
of which are at right angles to the main line of
disturbance, and parallel to the Malta Grand fault.
The throws, however, are insignificant, as in no
instance do they exceed 10 ft; and are often very
much less.
On the northern side of the Dueira bay a circu-
lar fracture has occurred, which has been the cause
of the sinking in of the superior deposits to a depth
of at least 300 feet. Within the depression die Glo-
bigerina Limestone, the Marl and small portions of
the Upper Coralline Limestone are found in situ ,
the surface of the topmost layer of which is situa-
ted at a depth of 50 feet below the surface of the
clilfs of Lower Limestone that lie around it.
Denudation is rapidly progressing as the sea has
eaten its way through the Lower Limestone, and
is now degrading the remnant of these upper beds,
so that in the course of a comparatively short
space of time, nought but the escarpment of the
Lower Limestone will be left to bear evidence to
the downthrow that had taken place there.
(To be continued.)
Discovery of fossil remains at Arpino.
Prof. G. B. Cacciamali lately made an interest-
ing discovery of fossil mammalian remains during
! the construction of the branch railway to Arce-
Lora, in the Arpino district. The excavations
were carried through a formation the upper part
of which was composed of alternate layers of tufi
and conglomerate, while the lowest consists of a
bluish mud of pliocene origin.
Large quantities of teeth and bones were found
embedded in the conglomerate, a number of which
were extracted and submitted to Professor Meh of
Rome for identification. Among them were found
a lower and an upper jaw with molars in situ of a
deer (Cervus elephas fossilis). Detacted molars of
deer, and the jaws and molars of a pig. (Sus
scropha fossilis).
In the recent beds the remains that were disco-
vered were even tnore curious and interesting,
consisting of the inferior molars of Bos primi-
gen-ius , and the canine teeth of Hippotamus major .
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
43
Insect plagues around the Mediterranean.
Insect plagues seem especially active this year,
though agriculturists had hoped that the hard
winter would have killed most of their enemies.
The Bavarian forests are being perfectly devastat-
ed by the caterpillar of the Nun-Moth, which
eats right through the wood of strong trees,
especially of firs and pines. The various officials
give the people lectures on the moth and the means
of its destruction, while even the school children
are employed to kill the pest, and special prayers
are offered in church for the arrest of the plague.
Hitherto the large sums of money spent on various
methods of killing the moth, have produced little
result. So, too, with the locusts in Algeria, which
defy all efforts to restrict their advance. The vines
are the worst sufferers and while the masculine
population of the various districts burn the eggs,
cover the various insects with lime and so forth,
the women and children march about with old
trumpets, gongs, drums, and tin pans making a
hideous noise to frighten the 'locusts away.
In the central Sahara, the locusts have cleared
the pasture lands so completely that the Tomareg
Arabs have been driven out of their haunts
towards Tunis for lack of food. In E^ypt the
plague is more under control, but great alarm is
felt nevertherless. Graphic.
NEWS OF THE MONTH
On the night of June 30th. various parts
of the province of V erona were visited by
a recurrence of strong earthquakes.
At Tregnago, where the recent shocks
were especially severe, and at Cogolo, seve-
ral walls, and the wooden supports of a
number of houses collapsed.
The people at both places rushed from
their houses in alarm, and sought safety in
the open fields. No loss of life is reported.
A new work on “The South Italian Vol-
canoes,” edited by Dr. Johnston- La vis is
about to be published at Naples, It will con-
tain an account of. the excursion that was
made under the auspices of the Geologists’
Association of London in 1889; and also
papers, descriptive of the different localities
visited, written by Messrs Johnston-Lavis,
Platania,Sambon,Zezi, and Madame Antonia
Lavis. A bibliography of the volcanic dis-
tricts will be appended.
Prof. Marion has founded a marine station
at Endoume near Marseilles, for the purpose
of making a special study of the fishes of
the Mediterranean; and Dr. K. Dubois,
Professor of Physiology in the Faculty of
Science at Toulon has opened a marine
station at Tamaris, near Toulon.
The Atmospheric effects, that the clear,
translucent air of the Mediterranean often
gives rise to, were particularly exemplified
on several occasions during last month.
During the clear weather that prevailed in
the middle of July the phenomenon of
irregular diffraction was especially shown
by the raising of the line of sight to such
an extent, that objects at great distances,
that are at other times completely concealed
from view, were apparently raised so much
above their true position as to be clearly
discernible from the shores of Malta and
Gozo. The cliffs of the coast- line, and the
undulatory contour of the mountains of
Sicily were to be seen distinctly with the
naked eye on the 11th. and 12th inst:
while the outlines of Etna stood boldly out
against the clear, azure sky, and though
44
THE MEDITERRANEAN NAT' ERA LIST
situated at a distance of upwards of 100
miles away, yet the form of the mountain
was perfectly recognisable.
In the course of some experiments that
have lately been carried out on certain
plantations in the vicinity of Algiers, Sigr.
Trabut discovered that locusts are liable to
a disease that gives rise to a high rate of
mortality among them.
A fungus parasite has been found grow-
ing on the bodies of these insects, which
Trabut has named Botrytis acrid iorium, j
before whose attacks they rapidly succumb.
Trabut is now engaged on further ex- ;
periments for the purpose of ascertaining
how far it will be possible to cultivate this
parasite, in order that it may be utilised
against the noxious insects whose ravages
o o
have lately caused such irremediable
damage to the crops of the country.
Two manganese mines have been opened near
Ordou in Trebizond. The one, Bos-Tepeh, is si-
tuated about a half an hour from town, and the
other, Alajadam, some two hours to the east near
the sea. Both seem to be surface mines, yielding
for the time being about 64 per cent of manganese.
The final concession has not yet been obtained,
though Mr. Koerner, the engineer in charge, is
aliowed the right of shipping the ore to the extent
of 1000 tons.
The right of felling trees in the 665,0000 square
miles of the Kerassond forests, and in the 497,000
square miles of the Tireboli forests, has been ceded
by Government to private speculators.
They are in hopes of realising large profits by
the sale of timber, firewood &c., in and out of the
country. The wood obtainable in those parts
consists mainly of oak, pine, chestnut, fir, birch,
beech, and cornel.
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slides, mounted or unmounted of other
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Editor of the “Mediterranean Naturalist"
48 Strada Mercanti, Valletta, Malta.
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THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST.
V Monthly Journal of Natural Science. Subscription 5/ per uuu»m».
Contents-June. | Gontents-July,
■<)
1 Programme
A short history of the foraminifera in Italy— Prof
G. Cappellini
3 A new Maltese Chelonian . . .
4 Manganese Nodules . ...
.) The subterranean treasures of Italy — Cav. G
Jervis, F.G.S.
A friean earthworms
7 Deep sea exploration in the Mediterranean
8 Formation of coral-reefs in recent seas
9 Notes on the discovery of a Pleistocelie bed at
Gozo— The Editor
10 Notes & IVeirs:— The BryozOa of Northern Italy—
Zoology in the Mediterranean— The Coleoptera
of Gibraltar &c. &c. . . .
i 1 Exchange Column
Page
1
12
12
O'* — - Page
1 A retrospective periplus of the M( <l iu-n-:, , > a u Sea
Cav. W. Jervis, F,G.S. — - 13
2 The locust plague in Egypt and Algeria — — 17
3 -Recent researches of G. B. Schiaparelli at Ml iso. —17
4 Natural science in Tunis — - 18
5 The Oxycephalids by Professor Dr. C. Bovaiiiu. - 19
(J Preservation of the colours of plant.-. 1 * 3 4 * * 7 8 9 10 !>. Druee
M.A., F.L.S. — — — —19
7 Phosphate beds around London — - —20
8 Discovery of caves in Corsica — . 20
9 The Gozo Pleistocene Bed — - 20
10 Nrirs of the Month: — Earthquake in Italy The
Maltese Lepidoptera — “L" Annual re ' iG.'i • ’ - ique
Universel” — — —20
11 The Eruption of Vesuvius — Dr. A inisi .>.T a vis,
M.D., F.G.S., B.Sc., etc. — 21
12 Observations on the Geology of the Mair.**.*.- iT.mds,
The Editor — — 22
13 Science notes:— Greatest depth of the M.-.tireiTnuean
—The Samos fossils- Excavation at Pmupe-i etc. 27
14 Correspondence— Exc hange Colunu
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CONTENTS.
' — ~ — Page
1 Theories of Mountain Formation— T. Mellarcl Reacle
C.E., F.G.S., etc 15
2 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands '
—John H. Cooke 18
3 Cyprus, (cont.)— Lt. Gen. R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G., C.B. 51
4 Rare occurrence of Ophrs Apifera 53
5 Science Gossip: — Acclimatation of the reindeer in
Bavaria — British trade with Northern Africa—
The Balearic Isles — The potatoe disease — “La
Neptunia”— Discovery of a prehistoric burial
ground near Palermo— Temperature of the Me-
diterranean, etc. etc 53
C) The Eruption of Vesuvius 1891— Dr. IT. J. Johnston-
Lavis, M.D., M.R.C.S., B.Sc., F.G.S., etc. .. .54
7 Notes on the recent foraminifera of Malta— Messrs
Earland & J. H- Cooke . . 57
8 AT of the Month: — Crova on diffused light — The
Geological Society of Germany- international
Geographical Congress— Erica Meet if err av ea, etc. 59
9 Books &c. received 00
10 Exchange Column 00
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4
Theories of Mountain Formation.
By T. Mellard Reade, C.E.,F.G.S.,F.R.I.B.A.
Part I. *
THE origin of the surface features of the earth
has always been a subject of interest to observing
and thinking men. Some of these features — such
as, for instance, deltas — were from a very early age
recognised as the work of agents still in force. The
delta of the Nile, it was obvious, even to Greek
philosophers unaccustomed to geological reasoning,
had been laid down by the river itself. Rounded
pebbles found in the rocks, it was correctly infer-
red, had been so shaped by moving water.
Such geological inferences as these have been
probably, to a greater or less extent, common to
all historic time.
It is also a peculiarity of the human mind that
it must frame hypotheses to account for what it
sees. The first formed, of course, are little better
than , hrewd guesses at truth; but it would be dif-
ficult to point to any existing theory which had
not been to some extent guessed in the hoary past;
and thus limited we may correctly say “there is
nothing new under the sun.5'
To those who understand the processes of scienti
fic discovery it is hardly necessary to point out that
there is no such thing as absolute truth. Expla-
nations of phenomena must take their shape and
color from the state of science at the time, and,
while no explanation is absolutely true, on the
other hand few are absolutely false. As a rule,
there is some small kernel of truth to be found in
every attempt made by a reasonable man to explain
to himself what he sees.
It is only within the last hundred years that
geology has been systematically studied, so that if
theories relating to the formation of the surface
features of the earth have been crude and undeve-
* These articles appeared in their original form
in u Research" .
They have since been revised and added to by the
author for the columns of the Med: Wat;
46
THE MED ITERIi AN E AT NATURALIST
Japed it is only what might have been predicated
of them. A true theory must take account of all
the phenomena found in connection with the effect
it professes to explain. How, then, could this
have been done of the crust oi the earth before
the nature of that crust had been approximately
ascertained?
The origin of Mountain Ranges is a subject
which hitherto has not received much systematic
study. It is true that several eminent men have
made valuable suggestions as to the forces which
they think have been left in a very crude and unfi-
nished state, and the proofs offered not being of a
quantitative nature have scarcely been satisfactory.
Indeed the facts of mountain geology without
which no theory of any value could be formulated
have become known of late years.
After having devoted many years to the study
of the dynamics of Mountain formation my views
were set forth fully and scientifically in a work
published in the latter part of 1886 * but it was
thought that a general view of the leading features
of my theory might prove of general interest, as
well as forming an introduction to the larger work.
Doubtless the primitive idea of the origin, not
only of mountains but of valleys, is that still held
by people who have not thought much on such sub-
jects, that they are due to “convulsions of nature”,
and earthquakes and volcanoes are pointed to as
remnants of foices which acted with greater
intensity in former ages. It is, therefore, in-
teresting to find, in the travels of Sir John Man-
devillo, the following rather different attempt to
account for the origin of hills and valleys. “And
thus have mountains and hills been, and valleys,
which arose only from Noah’s flood, that washed
the soft and tender ground, and fell down into
valleys, and the hard earth and rock remain moun-
tains where the soft and tender earth was worn
away by the water and fell and become valleys.”
W e have only td substitute “subserial denuda-
tion” for Noah’s flood and we have to a large
extent the modern notion of the origin of these
surface features as first systematically developed
by Hutton.
* “ Origin of Mountain Ranges, ‘Considered Ex-
perimewtally, Structurally, Dynamically , and in
Relation to their Geological History.”
Avicenna, an Arabian physician of the tenth
century, writing on the cause of mountains, says
“some are formed by e- setitiai, others by accidental
causes.” A violent earthquake, by which land is
elevated and becomes a mountain is an illustration
of the “essential.” Excavation by water, by which
cavities are produced and adjoining lands made
to stand out and form eminences, is an illustration
of the “accidental.” Confined air seeking vent, by
which plains have been upheaved into hills, is one of
tne geological ideas Ovid credits Pythagoras with.
Probably most people’s elementary ideas now go
very little further than the foregoing. I confess
that I studied geology myself for many years with-
out having anything but the haziest notions on the
subject. That grand work, Lye Its Principles , to
which geology and geologists are so much indebted,
is unsatisfactory on the subject of the origin of
mountain ranges, inasmuch as it is more of the
destructive than constructive order. Lyell plainly
sees and shows how the theory of Elie de Beau-
mont, the only systematic theory then in existence,
was in conflict with geological facts; but in my
opinion Lyell fails, or, rather, does not try, to for-
mulate any theory which may take its place.
It appears that the idea underlying de Beau-
mont’s theory had occurred long before to Sir Isaac
Newton. He suggested that the cooling of the
interior of the earth would produce compression in
the outer crust through gravitation, as the crust
in following the shrinking centre would be com-
pelled to adapt inself to a less extensive area;
hence ridges or mountains would be thrown up.
This in the crude form is the idea underlying what
is called the “contraction theory” of mountain for-
mation, which has hitherto occupied perhaps the
first place as an explanation of the origin of moun-
tains. It is true that many geologists have been
inclined to place expansion by heat as a cause
more in conformity with geological fact, and it was
long since pointed out by Babbage, Scrope and
Herschel that the laying down of sediment would
of itself cause a rise of temperature in the crust,
in the same way that a top coat or blanket does in
the human body.
The theory was, however, never by them suffi-
ciently developed to take the place of the earlier
“contraction theory,” which has held its own as
apparently invoking the only known cause suffi-
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
47
ciently potent to account for such grand features
as mountain ranges, though Captain Hutton, of
Christchurch, X ew Zealand, pushed the reasoning
further in a very suggestive paper published some
years back in the Geological Magazine.
The contraction theory, as stated by its ex-
ponents, was doubtless sufficient — and, indeed, as
Lyell pointed out, much more than sufficient — to
account for the upheaval of all the known ranges
considered as so many cubic miles of rock.
Notwithstanding that so many mathematicians
and physicists had worked at the problem, the
underlying idea was that whole of the solid crust
of the earth — a very vague term — must be in com-
pression by the cooling of the nucleus, the favourite/
illustration being taken from the apple in which
the core consisting of the fruit contracts by drying,
while the rind remains of the same dimensions,
or nearly so and is consequently thrown into
wrinkles. Who does not remember the familiar
“wrinkled hand’’ photographed in Nasmyth and
Carpenter’s work on the Moon, as another illus-
tration, though the appositeness of the analogy is,
to say the least, doubtful. That most supporters
of the theory without further inquiry accepted the
position that all the rigid crust of the earth must
be in compression is sufficiently evidenced by the
remarks in Prestwich’s Geology , vol. II., p. 540
(1887), where even the possibility of a shell 800
miles thick being in compression is discussed but
rejected. Prestwich, along with some other
geologists, thinks that the hard crust of the earth
rests upon a semi-fluid zone, and that the whole
of the crust, whatever thickness it may be, is in
compression. Although this is not always ex-
pressly stated by the upholders of the contraction
theory, it, so far as ray acquaintance with the
subject extends, inferentially forms the basis of
their reasoning. At any rate, whether considered
partially fluid or solid throughout, they assume
the earth to be divided into a contracting nucleus
and an uncontracting crust, and we are left to put
any quantitative value we like upon either. This
may be seen by a reference to Geikie’s Pert- Hook
of Geology , and Green’s Physical Geology, both
justly considered standard geological works.
In my Origin of Mountain Range*, published
towards the end of 1886, I pointed out that the
crust of the earth, whatever thickness we assign to I
it, must, on the assumption of secular cooling,
excepting at the surface, be itself contracting. If
we assume the earth to be solid throughout, and
to be divided into a series of thin shells, each
under shell, commencing with the one immediately
below the surface, will circumferentially contract
more than the one above or enclosing it until the
zone of maximum contraction is reached, when the
underlying shells will contract less than those
overlying them, till a depth is attained at which
there is practically no contraction. As the earth is
cooling from the outside, and the mean increase of
heat downwards is about 1° in 60 feet — and even
less, as estimated by some authorities — a simple
calculation will show that the cooling of the body
of the. earth is now of only a superficial character,
not, practically speaking, penetrating above 200
miles. From this it will be seen that the radial
contraction of the earth is limited to the depth to
which it has cooled from the exterior, and there-
fore the apple illustration, where the core contracts
throughout , is quite misleading.
Vague general statements instead of quantitative
determinations are responsible for much incon-
clusive geological reasoning.
It may be almost taken as an axiom that
physical without quantitative reasoning is, more
often than not, quite misleading. But, to return
from this digression, it is readily seen that the
radial contraction of the earth must be of limited
quantity, and, this being so at a certain calculable
depth, the mean rate of circumferential contrac-
tion must be equal to the mean rate of radial
contraction.
The shell at this depth, whether the nucleus be
fluid or solid, will be neither in compression nor
tension, while all above will be in compression and
all below' in tension. Speaking exactly, this neutral
zone may be looked upon as a shell infinitesimally
thin, and it has since been appropriately named by
Rev. 0. Fisher the “level of no strain.” The whole
of this reasoning with an illustrative diagram, may
be seen in Chapter XL of my Origin of Mountain
Ranges, and it is there shown that this zone or
level-of-no-strain in our globe, cannot be situated
many miles below' the surface.
Since my chapter was written, the subject has
been investigated by Davison, Darwin, and Fisher.
The first of these mathematicians contributed a
48
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
paper to the Royal Society, in which he estimates
that the level of no strain is now, after the lapse
of about 174 million years, about five miles deep,
while Darwin places it at two miles deep in 100
million years since consolidation, and the Rev. 0.
Eisher at less. My own calculations agree pretty
closely with the two latter, but the depth will vary
according to the assumed data of consolidation,
co-efficient of expansion of rock, Ac., upon which
the estimate is based. The agreement of these
independent investigators is, however, remark-
able.
Theoretically, the depth of the level-of- no-strain
varies as the time, and the amount of rock crushed
may be represented by a cone the base of which
is the difference in area between the surface of the
globe before, and the surface after contraction
having a height equal to the depth of the level-of-
no-strain. It will thus be seen that the cubic
quantity of rock crushed will be only one-third of
what it would he with a crust the thickness of the
depth of the level-of-no-strain and unaffected by
cooling in its own substance. It follows from
these various considerations that the compression
of so thin a shell is inadequate to account for the
upheaval of mountain ranges as we see them upon
the earth, and that geological facts are eloquent
against this explanation of what is colloquially
called “mountain building.”
The discovery of the existence of a neutral zone
or level-of-no-strain in a cooling globe has revo-
lutionised geological thought as is clearly stated
in the able Smithsonian review of Geological
Science for the years 1887 and 1888 by Professor
Me Gee.
An examination of most great ranges show that
they have a central core of gueissic and granitic
rocks forced up through the overlying sedimen-
taries, which are folded into loops between the
intrusive tongues of gneiss.
The phenomena of mountain structure lead us
to the conviction that the lateral pressure increases
with the depth instead of diminishing, as it should
do on the contraction hypothesis.
It is from these considerations, together with a
wide range of geological inferences, that lead me
to reject the contraction explanation of mountain
formation, and to seek for another more in con-
formity with nature Ip a future number T pro
pose to give an outline of my own views as to the
structure and origin of these great corrugations
of our earth. ( To he continued.)
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands.
by John H. Cooke
( continued .)
The caves & fissures of the Islands: —
Like all freestone districts, the Maltese strata
present unequivocal evidences of the destructive
forces of the elements air and water. In the course
of his peregrinations around the cliffs and through
the gorges of the islands, the attention of the
observer will be especially attracted to the great
number of caverns that occur in their limited area.
They are remarkable, however, for their number,
rather than for their proportions, for few of them
attain any considerable size. This is largely due
to the nature of the strata in which they have been
formed, as, owing to their comparative softness the
caverns usually collapse when they reach a certain
limit. But small as they are, most of them are
invested either with a mythical or an historical
importance. The ancient inhabitants of Malta,
like those of the neighbouring countries, were ever
ready to assign to the heroic all that wTas in the
least incomprehensible to them.
The folk-lore of nations teems with examples of
the manner in which natural phenomena have
awakened the curiosity and fear of the untutored
mind, and it has been, when labouring under the
delusions that such feelings as these excite, that
the extravagances and fables, that are often
handed down to us as history, have had their
origin.
ISTuma is said to have consulted Egeria in a cave,
which is still shown at Rome; and the caves of
| Sicily have, from time immemorial, been credited
i as being the favourite haunt of a gigantic race of
| ghouls. •
In Malta, the grotto dedicated to Calypso, at once
recalls the fable of Homer; while the Har-Hasan
cave conjures up vivid lieroical scenes of the deeds
of derring do that were formerly perpetrated on
| the high seas by the chieftan with whose name
; the cave is now associated,
THE M EDI TER 11 USE AN NATURALIST
49
The Malta caves ma}' be classed under two
heads; those that have been formed by the mecha-
nical erosion of the sea, assisted by the chemical
processes of the atmosphere; and those that owe
their origin to the percolation of rainwater satu
rated with carbonic acid, through the fissures that
have been formed in the island’s strata.
Examples of the former occur all around the
coast lines of the islands, but they may be stu-
died to the best advantage whereever the Upper
Coralline Limestone appears at the sea-level along
the coast. The romantic scenery of the western
coast of Comino owes its origin to these causes.
There, the whole of the deposits that underly the
Upper Coralline Limestone have been submerged,
leaving this bed as the sole representative of the
area that once united Malta and Gozo.
Lmlike the northern and southern shores, those
of the east and the west present to the Mediterra-
nean waters a succession of precipitous cliffs and
weather beaten headlands, that attain a height
varying from 100 to 180 ft. Compared with the
cliffs on the south coast of Malta, they may appear
somewhat insignificant; but their want of altitude
is fully compensated for, by the wildness of their
contour, and the picturesque groupings of the
detached masses that lie among their bases. All
of the energies of the devastating forces of nature
have been concentrated on the work of destruction,
and have left behind indelible records of the ter-
rible rigour of their attacks. Rock masses have
been torn away, and hurled to incredible distances,
thus forming a series of sunken reefs, and fan-
tastically shaped islets, which, in tempestuous
weather, are $t once the refuge of the myriads of
gulls and rock pigeons, that have there fashioned
a home, and the dread of the fishermen, who gain
a scanty livelihood, by toiling in the surrounding
waters. The mural cliffs of many of these islets
tower to a height, that is but little less than that
of the cliffs of the formation of which they once
formed a part; but, while possessing all the
majesty of proportion of the parent bed, they have
also a rugged beauty so entirely their own, that it
constitutes a feature in the sea scape, which by
the contrast, tends to bring other not less remark-
able features quite into a position of subordi-
nation.
It is to the north-cast wind, that these disastrous
effects among the cliffs and precipices of the islands
are to be attributed; This wind blows, during
the winter time, with unremitting fury for many
days together: and one has but to watch the huge
breakers, that are then raised, and hurled with
resistless violence agai ast the shores of the isles,
to be able to form a good idea of the magnitude of
their power, and of the amount of destruction that
they are capable of effecting. The atmosphere
takes no mean part in these operations; but its
efforts are chiefly confined to the softening down
of the angularities which the constant fractures
in the strata, have given rise to. But extensive as
is the amount of work for which it is responsible,
its effects can in no way, be compared with those
wrought by the action of the sea waves Even the
least observant, in the course of a ramble around
Comino’s shores, cannot but be forcibly impressed
with the truth of tills assertion.
Whenever the waves have been unsuccessful in
their attempts at destruction with one set of oper-
ations, they have fallen back upon their exhaust-
less resources, and have utilised another set.
Where sheer force has failed, they have employed
more insidious methods to attain their end; and
thus, masses, vTiose bulk, and weight have enabled
them to successfully withstand the tempests of
centuries, have yet been compelled to yield to the
silent working of those less ostentatious, though
not Jess formidable enemies, which, with never
tiring zeal, have perforated them through and
i through, thus forming caverns and archways of in-
tricate forms and of majestic proportions. But
nature, like a fitful child, that clashes to the ground
the card-house, which it has taken so much time
and patience to build up, does not long remain con-
tent with the work upon which she has spent her
energies in the fashioning. She creates, but to
destroy; and works as energetically in the work
of destruction, as she does in the work of fabri-
cation.
The mazy windings of the cliffs, crags, stacks,
caverns, archways, and buttresses that abound
along the coastlines of the islets afford indubitable
proofs of her destructive effects; and after the
monotonous aspect of the surface of the adjacent
island of Comino, with the sterility of its scanty
soil and the solitude of its deserted slopes, such
50
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
scenes of ruin and devastation as are here present-
ed, give rise to reflections, that seldom fail to im-
press the observer with the might of the power
of the elements and the comparative insignificant',
of that of man.
Gala Hein, a little bay situate between Comit .
and Cominotto, is of special interest to the lover
of nature.
The scene, that is presented to the view Iron)
the lofty summits of the cliffs of Comino, offers
some charming contrasts; but it is not to be com
pared with that which this little bay and it- sur-
roundings afford.
On a bright day its waters present an endless
succession of the most brilliant colours, which
commences with a deep blue, and from thence
passes through every conceivable gradation of
green, orange, and white after attaining the last of
which it again graduates onward in the distance,
to that cerulean blue, that is so characteristic of
Mediterranean waters,
Hor is the setting less effective than the picture.
The rays of a tropical sun diffuse a silvery sheen,
that hangs over the whole like a soft transparent
drapery; while the countless reflections, from the
wavelets that play in the path of every beam
scintillate and sparkle, with a lustre, such as even
the Kooh-i-nor — though it might equal— could
never excel.
The sombre looking entrances to tin- caverns,
and the wildly fantastic shapes that many of them
assume, form an appropriate contrast to the calm
stilless and the rich colouring around, and by thus
serving to heighten the effect oi the scene they
seldom fail to create an impression such as can
never be recalled without conjuring up a host of
agreeable reminiscences.
For the geologist, the sides of these caves are
of unusual interest, as they literally teem with
the remains of creatures that formerly lived and
died in the waters in which the islands were built
up. They form a sarcophagus of such antiquity
that the most ancient of the Egyptian tombs is
but of yesterday in comparison .
In the islets on the opposite side, other caves
occur: some, squat and irregular in their outline;
others all that is graceful and symetrical.
Caves, in whose wave-wasted sides broad
platforms have been scooped out, and are now7
; filled vritli cool, crystal waters, that might almost
serve as baths: —
“Where-in sea-nymphs might lie
With languid limbs, in summer’s sultry hours. '
And these wave-formed caves are typical of those
that are, now in course of. formation all around
the southern coasts of both islands.
In the Lower Limestone they are, however, not
quite so picturesque, though they appear to be
much more solid and substantial. Here and there
where the waves have enlarged a fissure or fault and
have formed a small bay, the precise nature of the
Lower Limestone cavern may be seen to advan-
tage. They are generally found to lie in one of
the softer veins of the rock, from which the inces-
sant lashing of the sea, assisted by the chemical
action of the air, has eroded the material of those
portions, whose chemical composition and structure
were the least suited to withstand the constant
! and insidious attacks directed against them. The
| material that has thus been worn from out the
i cliff face strews the beach as boulders and pebbles,
I the polished and fractured state of which serve as
mute, though significant witnesses of the part that
they too have occasionally played iu the work of
destruction.
The “Globigerina" cliffs around Sliema, and
Tigne have been worn in a similar manner, but
the caves found there are neither so large in size,
nor so complicated in structure as are those that
are found to occur in the superincumbent and the
subjacent beds. The deposit is not well adapted
for the formation of caverns, as it readily disin-
tegrates and splits up. All around the shores of
Ghar-id-dud, Marsa-Sirocco, and Mars-el-Forn
numberless examples of the manner in which this
has been done, are to be seen.
At Ghar-id-dud, especially, there are at least
six well marked examples of caves whose sides
and roofs have collapsed under the strain to which
they have been subjected after the excavating
agents have reached a certain limit.
(To be continued.)
* Fo r a further description of the caves of this
bay see. “Sketches in and about Malta ” price Is.
Valletta, 1891,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
51
CYPRUS,
by Lieut. -General Sir R. Biddulph, g.c.m.g., c.b.,
late H. M. High Commissioner, Cyprus.
The manner in which the destruction of forests
is accomplished by goats, is described by Darwin
and others with regard to the island of St. Helena.
‘‘The goats were introduced into the island in 1502,
and increased there in a short time beyond all :
measure. But as they only destroyed the young
trees and respected the old, their ravages were not
at first perceived. In 1710 the forests were still
very thick; but in 1724 the old trees having ar-
rived at the term of their existence, and having
nearly all fallen, and those that ought to have
replaced them not having sprung up, the forests
disappeared almost suddenly, and were replaced
by thick grass. The climatic disturbance thus j
caused to the island was very great and mischie- j
vous. In 1731 all stray animals were destroyed;
but too late, as is always the case.” Darwin
writing in 1836, adds: “Sandy Bay is nowadays so
arid that it was necessary for me to see an official
record to believe that trees had ever grown there. 5
The French forest officer whom I have men-
tioned, M. Madon, made a very careful examina-
tion of the best-preserved parts of the forests,
and showed the following results: —
(1) For every hundred trees which were stand-
ing, there were 72 that had been felled and were
left lying on the ground to rot.
(2) For the same number of standing trees (100)
there were only 25 seedlings.
The first shows the result of wasteful and reck-
less woodcutting. The second is the result of the
indiscriminate pasturage of goats.
I have dwelt a little on this forest question
because it has very sensibly affected the wealth
and productiveness of the island. As the forests
disappeared, so did the soil that covered the hills.
That soil was washed down to the plains, choked
the river-beds and formed malarious swamps, the
hills became bare rocks incapable of growing a
blade of grass, and the locust at once took posses-
sion of the barren ground, whilst the absence of
trees deprived the earth of its annually fertilising
agent, leaf -mould. There is now a stony desert at
the south-east of the island between Famagusta
and Lamaca, where tradition says there was
formerly a large forest, and to the east of the
Mesaorea, on the now dry and desolate plateau,
there are many lime-kilns now in ruins, which
could not have been supplied except by a vegeta-
tion that has now altogether disappeared.
I have alluded to the appearance of the locust
as being connected with the disappearance of the
forests, and so much has been said about the
locusts of Cyprus that I must not wholly pass
them by without mention. The Cyprus locust is
a small species, indigenous to the island, and is
not the great migratory locust which is so well
known. The young locusts make their appearance
early in March, like very small flies in appearance,
but they grow rapidly, and in a few days begin to
hop along in masses. They do not begin to fly for
about six weeks, and it is during the crawling
stage that their destruction is effected. After
they begin to fly nothing further can be done.
The inventor of the system used fer destroying
them is Mr. Mattei, a gentleman of Italian extrac-
tion, whose family have been long settled in
Cyprus. He had observed their habit of moving
straight in masses, so that on arriving at any deep
ditch or well, they fell in and were unable to
extricate themselves. On one occasion he was
watching a large swarm which approached the
city of Nicosia; on reaching the walls they
climbed up them, and where the top of the wall
wras broken they entered the town, but in some
; places there was a smooth band of plaster on the
top of the wall. He observed that they could not
walk on this smooth surface, but fell back into
the ditch. At once the idea flashed into his mind
of making an artificial wrall with a slippery top to
it to arrest their march. Filled with the idea he
hurried home, arid the first thing that met his
sight was a table-cover of shiny American cloth.
Dragging it off* the table he began to cut it up
into strips, in spite of the remonstrance of his
wife, who thought he was out of his mind. These
strips he sewed on to the top edge of lengths of
canvas, and this originated the system w hick has
continued with little change to the present time.
Briefly the system was this: long screens of
canvas about three feet high, with a band of
oilcloth four inches wide running along the top
edge of the screen, were stretched along the
ground, supported by stakes driven into the
52
THE MEDITERRANEAN' KATE KAL1.ST
ground at intervals. These screens often extend
for several miles, and are placed so as to cross the
line of march of the locusts. At the foot of the
screen, pits about five feet long, 2\ feet wide, and
three feet deep, were dug, a wooden frame covered
with zinc was put on the top of the pit so as to
cover its edges. The locusts on arriving at the
screen climb up it, but on reaching the top they
find the strip of slippery wax-cloth, and fall down.
After trying it over and over again, they turn the
direction of their march and hop along at the foot
of the screen, till they presently meet one of the
pits and fall into it. They climb up the sides to
get out again, but are met by the smooth zinc
surface at the edge, and fall back into the pit;
others come hopping in on top of them, and they
are soon smothered by each other.
The system has been maintained by us in. prin-
ciple, but has been improved in detail. The
wooden frames have been abandoned, and strips
of zinc are used instead, which are laid on the
ground, overlapping the edges of the pits. By
this means they can be adapted to pits of am
size, and a great saving is effected in the coast of
transport, for when a swarm of locusts has been
destroyed the screens and traps are taken up,
packed on mules and donkeys, and carried off
somewhere else. In places where the locusts are
thick or where they tend to accumulate, such as
the mouth of a small ravine, very large pits are
dug, covering a surface of 80 to 100 square feet.
The locusts come pouring into these like a water-
fall, and making the same rushing kind of noise.
When once the locusts begin to fly the traps are
useless. The period for the locust campaign only
lasts, therefore, for about six weeks, and every-
thing depends on an active prosecution of the
campaign during that period. If large swarm
escape the whole work has to be gone over again
the next year.
It was this consideration that led me to see that
it was necessary to centralise the management of
the locust campaign under one head. When each
commissioner managed it in his own district,
swarms constantly escaped from one district to
another, and it was impossible to alot beforehand
the screens and traps according to the wants of
each district. Much time was lost in sending
jpterial from one district to another, I therefore '
placed the whole under the Government engineer,
and as public works were stopped for the time,
all his organised labour was turned on to the
work of locust destruction. The result was mo.st
successful. The number of locusts had been gra-
dually increasing from 1879 to 1882. That year
the conduct of the campaign was partially cen-
tralised, and the numbers of 1882 remained sta-
tionary. Lu 1883 the operations were thoroughly
centralised under the Government engineer, and
when the season opened in 1884 a large decrease
was perceptible. The destruction was very com-
!
| plete that year, and thenceforward it was only
! necessary to have operations on a minor scale, so
I as to keep down any swarms that appeared. In
! 1885 I was able to report that the operations had
! practically come to a successful conclusion, and it
j has since been only necessary to prevent the few
j that annually appear, from increasing so as to
! make a fresh head again.
The greatest number which, it was calculated.
! were destroyed in one year was 195,000 millions in
! 1883, and the following year 56,000 millions. The
! estimated number of eggs laid by those that escaped
i in 1883 was 169.432 millions, and in 1887 it was
i 1216 millions, of which probably one-half would
not come to maturity. The extraordinary fecun-
dity of the locust is such that one pair of locusts
left uninterruptedly to breed, would in ten years
reach 2000 millions, even if one-half of the eggs
| failed to hatch out or were otherwise des-
i
i troy eel.
(To be continued.)
I Rare occurrence of OPERS APIFERA
in Malta
Professor'G. Gulia v as the first to note the oc-
currence this orchid in Malta, and in his work on
the orchids of Malta, which was published in the
columns of '‘Barth5’, he not only designates it as
being “extremely rare”, but he also observes that
had found but one single example of it.
Mr. Armitage, however, informed me that he
had collected many specimens at One inn ; but
he still considered it as being one of the rarest of
the Maltese orchids.
I was somewhat surprised at this for in April
last Rear Admiral Lord Walter Kerr, who is con- "
THE A 1 El) IT K BRAN EA N N AT U KAL 1 ST
<Yo
siderably interested in the Maltese Flora, found
two or three examples of the same plant in the
valley of Imtahlep ; and in the course of an excur-
sion that I had with him to Fiddien , towards the
end of April last, I collected a great number of
these beautiful plants which were growing in the
moist earth in the bottom of the valley.
Lord Kerr afterwards found other examples at
Boschetto.
It appears that this has been an exceptional
year for them ; but I fear that if not “extremely
rare' . it will not be so easy to find them.
A. Caj: cana-Ga tto .
Science Gossip.
In the course of some excavations in the marl
beds near Wissenfeld, in Prussia, the remains of a
huge prehistoric reptile were unearthed.
Unfortunately the workmen had disperse-., the
remains ere attention was called to the matter;
but judging from the dimensions of the vertebne
and other bones that have been preserved, the
animal must have been a leviathan in point of
size. The remains have been taken to Berlin for
identification.
Experiments are being made in Bavaria, and in
the Hartz mountains for the purpose of acclima-
tising the reindeer. Should the government be
successful in its endeavours, the introduction of
these animals will be die means of creating a new,
and a thriving industry for the peasants of the
district, for not only may they be utilised as
beasts of burden, and for agricultural purposes,
but they are also very prolific, their flesh affords
•excellent venison for the markets, and they give
an abundance of rich milk.
The sponge fishery season has recommenced at
Lampedusa, and from the accounts that have
reached us the results of the fishers promise to be
highly successful from a pecuniary point of view:
The sponges obtained from the banks are of a
quality that is much sought after in the market, as
they are not only much finer in texture but they
arealso a colour equal to if not superior to the best
of the Cyprus sponges.
The Government of Cyprus invite tenders for
; the sponge fisheries around the Island of Cyprus.
These industries should afford excellent opportun-
ities to naturalists for the study of Mediterranean
Zoology.
The example, that has been set in Malta, by
“The Society for prevention of cruelty to animals”
might, with advantage be followed in many other
countries around the Mediterranean. The Malta
Society has given evidence of its intention to pro-
tect its dumb proteges by issuing to the public a
neatly printed card containing full directions as to
the course that should be adopted by a passer-by
| towards those that illuse their beasts.
The suggestions are thoroughly practical, and
easily applied; and there can be no doubt but
that if carried out impartially, they will be the
means of considerably mitigating the sufferings of
the beasts of burden of the islands.
Copies of the suggestions may be had on ap-
plication to A. Caruana-Gatto Esqr., 31 S trad a
Federico, Valletta.
In the May number of the ' Annals and Magazine
of Natural History” the Lev. Canon Norman,
F.B.S., has contributed an interesting article on
the question as to the validity of Cyclostoma asa
generic name in conchology.
After the annexation of Merv, a part of that
territory, comprising about 386 square miles, was
formed into a private estate for the Emperor of
Russia. It lies 28 miles from the town of Merv
and near the railway station of Bairam-Ali. About
forty miles from this station an immense dam
has nearly been completed to check the waters of
the Mtirgab, which will be used for the irrigation
of the property. Next spring, when the irrigation
canals have been constructed, a fifth of the estate
will be colonised. For this purpose Mohammedan
settlers from Ferghana 'will be chosen, these being
best able to endure the dry and hot climate of the
Merv Oasis, where the thermometer often stands
in summer as high as from 112° to 120° Falx
Deutsche Rundschau Bd. XII,
54
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
In the quarterly proceedings of the Manchester
Geographical Society there is a most instructive
article by Mr. Gustav Jacoby on '‘British trad. ■
with Algeria, Tunis, and the Sahara, the principal
object of which is to direct the attention of Brit
ish merchants to those markets in Northern Af-
rica from which the French are, apparently, bent
on ousting us, if we will allow them.
The Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria
has just issued a further instalment of his magni-
ficent work on the Balearic Islands. The present
volume contains an exhaustive descriptive account
of Minorca.
The Potato Disease.— Two forms of disease
exist in potatoes. One is caused by a fungus
known as Phytophora infestans. In this the lea-
ves shew brown spots, which, if careful! exa-
mined, exhibit a whitish border; this whitish
down in the fungus in question. The leaf becomes
flabby as the spot extends, and ultimately dies.
The tuber itself remains hard, but shews brown
spots and has a disagreeable taste when cooked.
The other disease, in which the tuber softens, is
caused by a bacterium known as Closteridium
butyrieum , a species which is able to dissolve the
cell walls, and to develop, butyric acid, by which,
however, the starch contained in the tissue is not
materially affected. After the potatoes are dug
up this last disease may be arrested by putting
the tubers in a dry, light, airy place.
“La Neptunia;’ is the title of a new journal of
natural history, that has lately been started at
Venice. Among the many branches of natural
science to which it is devoted, the following oc-
cupy a prominent place.
1. Physics of the sea, (bathymetrical, thermo-
metrical <kc.
2. Animals and plaits of the sea.
3. Marine stations, laboratories, &c.
4. The culture of fish, and Ocean expeditions.
We strongly recommend this journal to all who
take an interest in the natural and physical history
of the Mediterranean and the adjoining seas.
Subscribers should address Dr. D. Levi-Morenos.
S, Samuele 3422,— Venice.
An interesting discovery, consisting of a prehis-
toric burial-ground, containing implements and
other remains referable to the stone-age, has been
made in Isnello, in the province of Palermo,
Sicily.
The general temperature of the Mediterranean
from a depth of 50 fathoms down to the bottom is
almost constantly 56' F. whatever may be the sur-
face elevation of the bottom. This is a greater
contrast to that of the Atlantic, which at a similar
depth is at least 3° colder, and which at 1,000
fathoms sinks to 40° Fall.
Among the articles that will appear in our
columns during the next six months are the fol-
lowing:— The tarantula of the Mediterranean. The
physiology of the Carobtree. Piecent foraminifera
of the Mediterranean. The Natural history of
Corsica. Plant resemblances. The Lepidoptera ( f
the Maltese Islands. The Sirocco as an agent if
denudation.
The Eruption of Vesuvius
of June 7th 1891.
My suggestion that the second alternative type
of eruptive activity would be that pursued by the
volcano, which I published in several uewpapers,
has been fully confirmed. Now for a period of
over a month lava has continued to dribble forth,
activity has returned to the central vent and no
great changes have occurred.
The throat of the volcano commenced to be
cleared on June 9th, the vapour forcing its way
up from the crater bottom at intervals through
the choke of loose materials, and rose above as a
column of dust; at the same time the powerful
vapour blast issuing from the upper extremity of
the lateral rift of which mention is made in my
first letter. Each day I was kept informed of the
state of the volcano by the kindness of Messrs
Ferber and Treiber, the director and engineer res-
pectively of the Vesuvian Railway.
On June 15th I considered it right to again
visit the mountain, and had the good fortune to
be accompanied by Messrs Elliot, Lmden, Green,
Newstead, and Treiber, several of whom are excel-
THE MEDITLHIEYNEAA N ATI KALIST
DO
lent photographers so that with two of my own
machines we were able to make an extensive pic-
torial record of some very unique formations.
We ascended to the point of issue of the lava at
the junction of the foot of great Vesuvian cone
and the Altrio del Cavallo. Here the first lava
had cooled sufficiently to allow us to walk over it,
but beneath our feet could still be seen, in a few
holes, the flowing lava. At the foot of the great
cone and extending for half was across the Altrio
along the radius of the eruptive rent as if this
The lava had first flowed towards the escarpment
of Mount Somma in a fan like manner so that the
j eastern extremity reached that great natural
sect ion just beneath the Punta del Nasone. Still
following the natural inclination of the ground it
turned to the TV. and on June the 15th. was op
posite dyke 16 advancing at a very slow rate.
The lava is a vitreous and coarse grained rock
especially in the included leucite crystals, whilst
the surface is of the coarded or “pahochol” type.
This is due to the magma being one that has been
had continued so far were a series of driblet cone
fumaroles. We counted 7 complete and well formed
examples, besides numerous abortive ones, (see
Fig.) Most. were giving out jets of intensely heated
vapour which was liberated from the lava flow-
ing beneath and which soon carbonized a piece
of wood placed in it. Around the lips of the
upper opening, haematite with fused chlorides
of potash, soda, iron, copper, etc., were being
condensed and trickling down the outersurface
of the fumarole consolidated into curious vari-
egated stalactites of very deliquescent nature.
simmering since January in the chimney of the vol-
cano, so that most of its dissolved H 2 0 had been
boiled off and so allowing it to cool wflthout the
formation of scoria from the vapour that otherwise
would escape after its exit. Leucite I have also
demonstrated to be formed while the magma is
simmering under low pressure with free escape
for vapour in upper part of the volcanic chimney.
See:— H. J. J. L.— The Geology of Monte Somma and
Vesuvius, being a study in Vulcanology.— Q. J. G. S. Lond.
Vol. XL. and Relationship of the structure of Igneous
Rocks to the Conditions of their formation,- Sci, Proceed,
It. Dublin Soc., Vol, Y,
' rii E ME D 1 T ElUt ANEAE A ATI. PAL! AJ
50
and that even with several precautions, so that the
At the summit of the great cone the crumbling
in. of the edges was constantly going on but the
upper extremity of the lateral rift at the foot of
the cone of eruption and at the summit of the j
great Vesuvian cone had nearly ceased t< give j
forth vapour. Along the line of rent on the i
mountain side no fumaroles or other sigus of
activity were visible except quite at the foot where
those commence of which I have spoken.
Up till June 26th. there was a struggle to clear
the upper part of the volcanic chimney of the
impeding materials which were constantly being
added to by the slips from the craters edge; but on
that evening a dull red glow was visible in the
crater bottom showing that a fairly clear passage
had been temporarily made So. the continuous
escape of vapour, and also that the lava was at no
very great depth from the summit of the volcano.
This, of course, indicates that the lateral opening
was insufficient to drain off much of the lava
which occupies the chimney above the level of the
lateral outlet. Had such evacuation really taken
place the eruption would have assumed enormous
proportions from the actual amount of lava above
the tap, but more from frothing up of that below
that level, in consequence of the relief of pressure
that would then occur. Of course during all these
days, the ejection of dust often took place giving
the smoke a peculiar dark grey color. Further
destruction of the crater edge again occurred so as
to partly block the outlet, and it was not till our
next visit that it again cleared.
On June 30th. I again paid, a visit to the crater-
in company with my friend Mi A. Green. All the
summit of the great cone was covered by a thick
coating of dust and sand upon the surface of
which were the usual white and yellowish green
chloride crusts seen in such occasions so rich in
copper as to plate with that metal the iron nails
of our boots. The crater had considerably
enlarged, the edges were in an extremely unstable
state with often considerable strips marked off by
cracks parallel to the free edge, so that with a
slight push with a stick, it was possible to detach
large masses of the loose fragmentary materials
which form the sides of the crater in the recent
cone of eruption. So dangerous were the edges
that it was but in two places that my experience
indicated as being. safe to approach and look over,
accident to Senor Silva Jardina who accidentally
lost his life is not to be wondered at.
On looking down some 45 to 50 m. beneath us,
we could see the glow from a month some 2 or 3
metres in diameter. The walls of the crater were
concave so that although overhanging at the top yet
a plumb line let fall from the edge would strike
the bottom of the cliff. The crater bottom was
roughly plane, due to the combination of a talus
all round, and an attempt at a cone around the
main vent. It will be thus seen that the crater
cavity was of the form of a convex sided cylinder
j or simph barrel-shaped with its upper end some
45 to 50 m. in its maximum diameter at the top.
With much difficulty we made our way around
to the north side of the cone of eruption which
had now lost its usual loose scoria surface which
was buried beneath a thick coat of sand and dust
with a thin saline crust on its surface. The up-
per limit of the radial rift, which we were pre-
vented from examining three weeks before on
account of its giving out so much vapour as to
constitute the temporary escape aperture of the
volcano, had now become quiescent so that we
I could fully examine it. It only gave out a cur-
rent of hot air, but 1 was able to collect some fine
masses of crystallized Molysite and Kremersite
from its edges. Its average breadth was about
o‘ 50 m. where it traversed compact lava, but had
disappeared as soon as the looser fragmentary
materials were reached. The real azimuth of its
orientation, which we could now determine with
greater accuracy than when we were walking over
hot rock and enveloped in hot irritating vapours,
proves to be, as it radiates away from the axis of
Vesuvius, about 15° AY. of N. It curves then a
little to the north, and near the foot of the great
cone it again assumes nearly the same azimuth as
at starting, an arrangement which is quite evi-
dent when the Vesuvian cone is regarded from
the Punta del Nasoue. From that, the highest
point of Somma, the lower extremity of the
rift lies a little to the right or W, and faces that
part of the Somma ridge which corresponds to the
extremity of the Yallone Cancherone.
As one stands on the Punta del Nasone and
embraces that magnificent view of Vesuvius and
the Atrio del Cavallo one sees at their feet the
THE MEDITERRAKKAN NATURALIST
new lava stream in the form of the letter L the
horizontal portion of which is still being prolonged
down the Atrio towards the Fossa della Yetrana.
In the morning of the 30th of t June much dust
had fallen at the lower railway station, of which
we collected some bags full. It is the usual fine
sandy material of these eruptions and consists of
the pulverized materials of the cone of eruption.
Having passed the night at the lower railway
station, the next day we crossed the Atrio, ascended
to the W. extremity of the ridge of Soinrna, and
followed this along so as get a general birds-eye
view of the whole scene of the eruption, and take
photographs of the more important points. In
the middle of the ridge we found a thin coating of
fine red dust, which had reached thus far from the
crater. Much of the Atrio was also covered by the
same material. Scaling the cliff face just beyond
the Cognulo di Ottajano to the Atrio del Cavallo
we again visited the lower point of outburst. Most
of the beautiful fumaroles were in a state of ruin
and lined by good sized cristals of haematite and
mixed chloride crusts. Here the lava was quite
solid though at one point was a hole some 50 m.
from the base of the great cone, where we could
see the molten rock flowing lazily along about a
metre beneath our feet.
The lava of the end of the flow was making
considerable progress to the westwards and stood
opposite dyke 13.
Since then few changes have taken place in the
mountain — the crater still gets larger, dust is
thrown out and the lava descends. These pheno-
mena are capable of continuing for months if the
drainage opening does not enlarge. As the erup-
tion progresses I will send your further details.
H. J. Johnstox-L a v is.
Notes on the Recent Foraminifera
of Malta,
BY
E. A. Eabland & J. If. Cooke.
STATION I.
The material from which the following forami-
niferal forms were obtained was dredged from
the French Creek of the Grand Harbour, Valletta,
Malta, in 5 fathoms of water, It consisted of a
| tenacious, dark-blue, highly calcareous mud, that
was made up of clayey particles intermixed with
fragments of the remains of Gasteropods, Crusta-
ceans, Echinoderms, Folyzoa, Ostracodes, Lamel-
libranchs, Calcareous Algae, and small, starved
specimens of foraminifera.
The creek is surrounded on three sides by the
| Globigerina Limestone, (the second formation in
j the ascending order of the Malta series of rocks),
| which is highly susceptible to atmospheric influ-
! ences, and which, therefore, weathers readily.
This rock consists of about 80 per cent of Cal-
cium Carbonate, nearly, the whole of which is
made up of foraminifera. As the creek receives
die drainage of an extensive area in which this
rock predominates at the surface, a no inconsi-
derable quantity of the fossil foraminifera is
periodically carried down and deposited with the
recent forms in the bottom mud. Many of these
were met with in the washings, during the after
examination.
An analysis of a sample of the mud showed it to
consist of 75 per cent of Carbonate of Lime, the
other 25 per cent being made np of alumina,
sponge spicules, diatomaceous forms, fragments of
quartz, angite, felspars, coal-dust ifec.
The following is the result of Mr. Earland’s
examination, and his notes on the specimens
found.
The material contained a number of ostracoda
and other remains, but presented few forms of
interest, most of the foraminifera being rather
poor specimens.
Forty-six species in all were determined from the
small amount of material examined (about 2
ounces, the residue after washing, of several pounds
of dredging).
The most noticeable forms obtained were : —
Bolivina nobilis , Hantken. Several specimens
referable to this species, were discovered. They
present all the characteristics of the form as figured
iu the Challenger Monograph, but are. not very
strongly marked. The species has only previously
been reported in the recent state from the South
Pacific, where it was found in several localities
by the Challenger expedition. The origin;}
specimens were fossils from the Miocene of
Hungary
58 THE MEDITE HR AN fi AN NATTER ALT ST
Gaudryina fdijormis. Berthelin. Several speci-
mens, similar in appearance to the small variety
found on the Irish coast by Mr. J. Wright.
Nodosaria calomorpha. Rem*. One very fine
specimen, having four chambers, a very unusual
number.
Spirillina vivipara. Ehrenherg. A good many
specimens of this form were observed.
A considerable number of foramioifera were
observed which were evidently fo*siis derived
from the Miocene strata of the island. Tlw-e
included many of the commoner fossil fori
Globigerina, Truncatulina praccincta, Ac. Ac.
Several weak and doubtful specimens were also
obtained from the gathering which cannot at
present be assigned to any species with cer-
tainty.
A complete list of the foraminifera observed in
the gathering follows. It .should be noted that
the words ‘‘Common,' “Bare,” etc. following a
form, refer to its relation to other foraminifera
only, and not to the bn lk of the gathering, of
which the whole of the foraminifera form only a
small proportion.
No.
Name
B EM ARKS
MILIOLIDAE .
1.
Nubecularia lucifuga.
Do franco.
Rare.
2.
Miliolina tricarinata.
d Orhign y.
Rare.
3.
Miliolina bicornis.
Walker d Jacob .
Not uncommon.
4.
Miliolina fichteliana.
d’Orbigny
Very rare indeed.
5.
Miliolina trigonula.
Lamarck.
Verv rare.
6.
Miliolina seminulum.
Linne.
Common, but not typical.
Hr
i .
Miliolina subrotunda.
Montagu.
Fairly common.
8.
Miliolina (Siginoilina) secans
d Orhign]/.
One specimen.
9.
Spiroloculina grata.
Terquem.
Starved and poor. Common.
10.
Spiroloculina impressa.
Torque m.
Common.
11.
Spiroloculina excavata.
<f Orhign y.
Common.
12.
Spiroloculina nitida.
cf Orbiqny.
Common.
13.
Cornuspira involvens.
Deuss.
Common, but small.
14.
Vertebralina striata.
d Orhign y.
Rather common.
15.
Peneroplis pertusus.
For dal.
Common, but poor.
16.
Orbitolites duplex.
Carpenter.
A few very small A poor specimens.
LITU OLID AE.
17.
Haplophr agin i u m ca n ar iense
d' Orhign y.
Very rare
T EXTV Lx
iRI DAE.
18.
Textularia concava.
Karror.
One very weak specimen.
19.
Textularia agglutinans.
nn Orhign y.
Several specimens.
20.
Textularia gramen.
d’ Orhign y.
Single specimen.
21.
Verneuilina polystropha.
Reim.
Common.
22.
Verneuilina spinulosa.
ReusA.
One fine specimen.
23.
Gaudryina fil iform is.
Berthelin .
Several small shells.
24.
Bulimina aculeata.
of Orhign y.
One specimen.
25.
Bulimina marginata.
d Orhign y.
Common.
26.
Yirgulina schreibersiana.
Gzjzek.
Not uncommon.
27.
Bolivina nobilis.
Ilantken.
Very rare.
28.
Bolivina punctata.
cf Orhign y.
Common. Some specimens were mar-
ked with fant striae at the initial
end. 'thus apparently marking a trail-
sition stage with the last form.
LAG ENID AE.
29.
Lagena sulcata.
Walker At Jacob.
One very poor specimen
30.
Lagena graciilima.
Seguenza.
Very rare
31.
Lagena laevis.
Montagu.
Uncommon.
32.
Lagena lucida.
Reuss.
Very rare. One found.
33.
Nodosaria calomorpha.
Rows.
One extremely fine specimen.
34.
Polymorphina gibba,
%
U Orhign y.
Very rare, One specimen.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
No.
N A M E
Remarks
ROT All DAE.
35.
Spirillina vivipara.
Fhrenberg.
Fairly common.
36.
Eatellina corrugata.
Williamson.
Rare.
37.
Discorbina globularis.
( TOrbigny .
One specimen.
38.
Discorbina vilardeboana.
JOrbigny.
Not uncommon.
39.
Discorbina valvulata.
JOrbigny.
Rare and poor.
40.
Planorbulina mediterranensis.
JOrbigny.
Fairly common.
41.
Truncatulina lobatula.
Walker A Jacob.
Common.
42.
Ilotalia beccarii.
Lhinc.
Smalls specimens common.
XUMMULIXIDAF.
43.
Nonionina scaplia.
Fichte/ & Moll.
Common.
44.
Polystoinella striato punctata.
Fichtcl A Moll.
Rare.
45.
Polystomella crispa.
Fichte l A Moll.
Several specimens.
46.
Polystomella macella
Linne.
Rare but very typical.
NEWS OF THE MONTH
Prof. Crova lately communicated the re-
t/
suits of his observations on the diffused
light of the heavens to the Academy of
Sciences of Paris. Crova has found that
the blue colour of the heavens is most in-
tense during the months of December, Jan-
uary, March and September, while it is the
least so during the months of February,
July, August and November.
The colour is the most marked in the morn-
ing, it becomes weaker in the warm hours
of the day, and stronger towards evening.
The differences are, according to Crova, due
to the presence of dust in the atmosphere
together with infinitesimally small globules
of water, and also to the presence of a
small quantity of vapour irregularly dis-
tributed through the air.
On the 7th ult. S. M. the King of Italy
honored the Accademy of the Lincei with
his presence and distributed the scientific j
honours of the year. The Natural Science
honours w ere conferred on Professors Gestro,
Piccone, Sacco, Tuccirnei and Ricchieri.
The Deutsche Geologische Gesellscaft
held their annual convocation from the 9th
to the 12 th of August last, at Freiburg in
Saxony.
V '
An International Geographical Congress
assembled at Berlin on the 10th of August,
and extended its sittings over four days.
Representatives of all of the principal
Geographical Societies of Europe and Ame-
rica were* present. Among the subjects
that were brought forward for consideration
were, the elaboration of a map of the world
on a scale of 1-1,000,000, for the purpose
of demonstrating how little is really known
of the countries of Europe; a discussion as
to the means that should be adopted to
procure uniformity in the spelling of geo-
graphical names; and the adoption of an
universal hour.
00
THE M EMTERH ANEAN NAT l UAL 1ST
Erica Mediterranea: — This fine plant
would -seem to have fairly established itself
in the British Isles judging’ from the recent
accounts that we have received of it. N ot
only does it occur in abundance in the
northern and eastern parts of Ireland, but
it is also equally plentiful in the south east
of England.
The Accademia delle Scienze dellTstituo
di Bologna offers a gold medal of 1000 lire
value (£ 40) “to the author of a memoir
based on certain data of chemistry, or
physics for a new apparatus for the.* preven-
tion or extinction of. fires.” The manuscripts
must be ready before May 10th. 1892.
Books, Sec. received.
International Review of Science — Jour-
nal of the Manchester Geo: Soc: — Nature
Notes — The Naturalist — Quart: Journ: Geol:
Soc: Lon: — Proc. of the Royal Geo: Soc: —
Bolletino dei Musei di Zoologia Turin —
Bivista Italiana di Scienze Natural! — La
Rivista Medica — Le Naturaliste — La Far-
macia — Science Gossip — Sulla forma della
Terra, Dr. A Calabro -Lombardo — Monogra-
phia degli ofidi Italian!, Prof. L. Camerano
— Prima contribuzione alia fauna lepidot-
terologia dell’ isola di Malta — A. Camera
Gatto. B.A. — Revue Scientifique — Proceed-
ings of the Smithsonian Institution.
Exchange Column.
Notices are inserted in this column free of
charge. We request that all exchanges may be
signed with name (oi initials) and full address
I at the end.
Foraminifera and Crustacea from the
! Mediterranean offered in exchange for
works on Nat: Hist: T. A. L. cjo Editor of
| Med: Nat: Highland House. St. Julians.
Malta.
Microscope for sale. Mahogany case.
! j inch and 1 inch objectives, one eyepiece.
Editor of Med: Nat: Highland House, Malta
Offered lantern slides, unmounted, of the
1 geological, and picturesque features of the
Maltese Islands in exchange for lantern
: slides, mounted or unmounted of other
geological phenomena. M. C. care of the
Editor of the “Mediterranean Naturalist’
! 48 Strada Mereanti, Valletta, Malta.
Wanted for cash or exchange, Hincke’s
“History of the British Zoophytes”, John-
son’s “British Zoophytes”, and Pennington’s
“Natural History of British Zoophytes".
The Editor of the “Mediterranean Natu-
ralist” 48 Strada Mereanti, Valletta, Malta.
Wanted dredging's containing foramini-
ferous materials from any part of the Me-
diterranean, papers on the foraminifera, or
good micro-slides. A. Earland, 3 Eton
Grove, Dacre Park, Lee S. E.
Editor J. H. Cooke E.Sc., F.G.S. Malta.
<srp~TT
OCX. V)
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATL R A LIST
til
Zb e IRo^al Ibotel
BY
M. CINI & Co.
30.. Str. Mercanti, Valletta Malta.
(Eo erg accomodation for families.)
Ibotel b’Hngleterre
(Established 1856.)
Entrance No 3 t, Sir. Stretta
EXCELLENT TABLE U II GTE
Charges Moderate J. Belluti Proprietor.
JL
(Gazes Coupons accepted)
flboreU 0 ibotel
( Established 1830.)
TaV)le D'hote (strictly private)
Breakfasts at any hour, and served
in each apartment if required.
150, Strada Forni, Valletta -Malta.
Zbc Jmpetial Ibotel
Str. Santa Lucia, Valletta,
and Strada Ridolfo, Sliema --Malta.
High class cuisine and accomodation .
»
l 2 it li
VV
f
GEOLOGICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
p. p. 130, Price one shilling. May be had from John Muscat,
48 Strada Mercanti, Valletta.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST,
A. Monthly Journal of Natural Science. Subscription 5/- per annum.
Contents-July,
— >■* — Page
t A retrospective periplus of the Mediterranean Sea
Cav. W. Jervis, F.G.S. 13
2 The locust plague in Egypt and Algeria 17
3 Recent researches of G. B. Schiaparelli at Milan. 17
4 Natural science in Tunis 18
d The Oxycephalids by Professor Dr. C. Bovallius 19
6 Preservation of the colours of plants, G. D. Druee,
M.A., F.L.S. 19
7 Phosphate beds around London : 0
8 Discovery of caves in Corsica 20
9 The Gozo Pleistocene Bed 20
>0 News of the Month: — Earthquake in Italy- The
Maltese Lepidoptera— “L’Annuaire Gdologique
Universel” 20
U The Eruption of Vesuvius — Dr. Johnston-Lavis,
M.D., F.G.S. , B.Sc., etc. 21
12 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands,
The Editor 22
23 Science 'r otes:— Greatest depth of the Mediterranean
— The Samos fossils— Excavation at Pompeii etc. 27
1.4 C Correspondence— Exchange Column 28
Contents- August,
Page
1 Cyprus. — Lt. Gen. Sir R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G.. : ’.B.
2 The Culture of Figs -W. F. .Massej
3 The Origin and Character of the Sahara.— Dr. John
Murray.
4 Notes and News.— A new fossil deer.-- The wea-
ther in Algeria.— Prizes of the French Academy.
-Prof. Crova on diffused light.— Civil honours
for scientific men See. &e.
5 Observations on the Geology of the Mali ese 1 da nd >.
—John H. Cooke.
<> Discovery of fossil remains at Arpino.
7 Insect plagues around, the Mediterranean.
8 \evs of the Months— Earthquake in Verona.- -Dr.
Johnston-La vis’s net. work. — French zoological
stations.— Atmospheric effects in the Mediter-
ranean.—A new fungus parasite &c. &o.
9 Exchange Column
29
33
38
37
12
43
43
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CONTENTS.
— o« — Page
1 The Natural History of Malta. Rev. Prof. Hcns-
low M.A,,F.G. S. 61
2 Note on “Dioplodon farnesince.” Prof. P. J. Van
Beneden. 63
3 Climate of Cephalonia. T. M. 63
4 Theories of of Mountain Formation. T. Mellard
Reade, C.E.,F.G.S. 64
5 Preservation of Algae. W. H. Walrasley. 67
6 Sir Warington. W. Smyth MA..F.R.S. 61
7 Vine and Olive culture in Algeria. H. E. Brun. 69
8 Deforestation of Servia. 69
9 Remarkable natural phenomena at Cephalonia,
W. G. Foster. 69
10 Observations of the Geology of the Maltese
Islands. J. H. Cooke. 70
11 The Syrian Greyhound. J. E. Harting. 73
12 Science Gossip:— Survey in the Black Sea.— Sharks
in the Mediterranean.— Ornithology of the Aegean
Sea.— Geological Congress in Sicily, etc. etc. 75
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D
The Natural History of Malta. *
By Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
THE Maltese Islands are seven or more in num-
ber. Malta, the largest, is fifteen miles in length
and seven and a half broad; Gozo, next in size, is
nine by five miles; Comino, about a mile long;
Cominetto about half-a-mile; Salmone, close to the
scene of St. Pauls shipwreck, can be crossed in
three minutes; Filfola, three miles from the south
coast, is about 800 yards long; the sole quadru-
pedal inhabitant of this little rock is a bronze-black
variety of the green Lizard, so common in Malta.
Lastly, the General’s Rock, an isolated fragment
of Gozo, is noted for the Cynomoriurn coccineum
or “Fungus Melitensis,” a curious flowering para-
site, closely resembling in shape the fungus
Coprinus.
They are all composed of limestone, with one
intercalated layer of Marl. Geologists separate
the strata into, (1) Lower Limestone; (2) Calca-
reous Sandstone (really a slightly siliceous lime-
stone); (3) Marl; (4) Upper Limestone; all being
of Miocene age. The only other epoch represented
is the Quaternary, by tlie Cave fauna. The beds
incline from N.E. and E.N.E.; agreeing with the
Sicilian and Apennine chains. Though the beds
are marine, they indicate the proximity of land by
the presence of the Halitherium, Dugong, Mana-
tee, Seals, Crocodiles, <fcc., found in the strata.
About 20 species of fossil fish occur, including an
abundance of teeth of the large Carcharodon Me-
galodon , and of smaller sharks’ teeth, e.g., the
book-toothed Corax aduncus , Oxyrkina (3 sp.)<l:c.,
popularly called St. Paul’s teeth. Of Mollusca,
about 75 species are known, including ten Pectens,
four Scalar ias, and four species of Naidilus. The
Terebratuloe have three species. Echinoderms are
largely represented; 45 species being known, in-
(*) Abstract of a lecture delivered before the
Ealing Scientific Society.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
eluding nine of Clypeastus. A fine bed of corn/
occurs on tire south cliffs.
The relics of the caves and fissures representing
the quaternary fauna are remarkable. A gigantic
swan as well as many land and water birds; fresh
water turtles, two feet in length and a large lizard:
Hippopotamus Pentlandi , Elephas Mnaidrce , E.
Meiitensis , and E. Falconeri , the last two being
pigmies four feet in length; and an enormous Dor-
mouse about the size of a half grown rabbit.
These constitute the principal remains found.
Of the caves in which these remains occur some
are on the summit of the cliff facing the south
300 to 400 feet above the sea. Others are inland.
A red earth enclosing the bones and teeth Iras
also filled gaps or fissures in the limestone rock,
when the whole of the terrestrial surface was
denuded. Water-worn pebbles are found in some
of the caves as well as stratified soil and stones.
A large “swallow-hole” shewing proof of running
water in the smooth and channelled walls is now
situated on the slope of a sleep hill near the end
of one of the harbours of Valletta.
To reproduce the original conformation of the
land, when the above animals were alive, we must
imagine the bottom of the old Miocene sea to
become dry land, Europe and Africa being united,
the site of the Mediterranean constituting a low
lying country with large rivers, lakes, swamps, and
forests. The land subsequently sank, the Atlantic
found its way in, and as far as Malta is concerned
completely denuded it down to the bare rock. On
rising again Malta formed the extremity of a pen-
insula united to Sicily; but 100 fathoms of water
still lay between Malta and Africa. Malta now
became peopled with a Sicilian Fauna and Flora.
One more subsidence of some 70 fathoms, isolated
the Maltese islands.
The land slopes gently northwards in the direct-
ion of Sicily, but terminates very abruptly by a
large fault running parallel to the south coast,
which rises precipitously to several hundred feet
above the sea.
Numerous other faults shew indications of some
violence in the separation and disruption of the
Maltese islands; and it is remarkable that seismic
phenomena are not now in sympathy with Etna
so much as with the volcanic disturbances in the
Greek Archipelago.
The existing Fauna. — Of mammalia there are 20
species, including seven bats, the hedgehog, weasel,
and ferret; Norway, water, and common rat, mouse,
rabbit, scale, and four cetaceans. Of Reptiles
there are two harmless snakes,* four species of
lizard, a sea tortoise, and a frog. Of birds there
are only ten permanent residents; but a great
variety of migratory birds visit the islands. There
is a large rookery, but, a there are no trees, the
rooks build in the precipitous rocks on the south
| of the island. Of land shells there are about 40
species, the freshwater are about 20 in number.
The existing Flora. — The plants are purely Sici-
lian, one only not being known out of Malta, Cen-
taurea crassifolia, a fleshy leaved plant, growing
in the rocky sidesof a valley, and bearing pink heads
of flowers. Oxalis cernua, from the Cape, was intro-
duced in 1806, and a late arrival, of about ten years
residence, has established itself within the fortifi-
cations of Valletta, namely, a “Crucifer” of the
name Enarthrocarpus pterocarpus, from N. Africa.
As there are no Avoods, meadows, or swampy
places, except a few in miniature, perennials are
less numerous than annuals, though many species
propagate by bulbils, Ac. The indigenous flora is
distributed over three kinds of districts, viz., cul-
tivated fields, together with road sides; the “Wieds”
or uncultivated narrow gorges or valleys, and un-
cultivated rocky surfaces. Of the more remarkable
plants, the following may be mentioned. In the
fields occur the purple Anemone coronaria; “Love
in a Mist,” Nigella Damascena; white Mignonette,
Reseda alba; crimson Gladiolus segetum; several
species of pink, andAA'hite floAvered onions, Allium;
sp. ; the Feather Hyacinth, Bellevallia camosa, a
crimson corn-salad, Fedia cornucopia, Ac. The
roadsides and waste ground afford such plants as
the ubiquitous yellow Oxalis cernua, single and
double; three species of Marigold or Calendula ;
the Borage, Borago officinalis; a Avhite floAvered
Henbane, Hyosciamus albus; the squirting cucum-
ber, Ecballium Elaterium the Annual Daisy, Beilis
annua; a pink Catchfiy, Sirene cericea; a small
buttercup, Ranunculus bullatus; the annual 'Mer-
cury, Mercurialis annua; and three nettles, but
not our common Urtica dioica, are most abundant.
* The Maltese have a tradition that, St. Paul,
like St. Patrick in Ireland , drove out the venomous
snakes !
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
63
The exposed rocky places supply Capers, Cap-
paris spinosa, the garden Stock, Matthiola incana;
the wall pellitory Parietaria, officinalis, which
covers the rocks and walls in every direction; a
variety with leaves like the poplar, var, “populi-
folia,” seems peculiar to Malta. Great quantities
of the pink flowered Heath, Erica multiflora, and
the “polyanthus” Hyacinthus Tazetta are brought
to market. Inula crithmoides, a shrub with
yellow composite flowers and fleshy leaves, res-
embling furze-bushes in the distance, abounds
along the rocky coasts. It is upon this as a host
plant that the parasite Cynomoriura lives. Ma-
gnificent thistle-like plants abound, as Cynara
cardunculus, with enormous leaves, as well as the
Acanthus mollis, the foliage of which is represent-
ed on the Corinthian capitals. Labiatse are well
represented, a large flowered Phlomis fruticosus
as well as the garden sage, Salvia officinalis, and
Rosemary, Rosmarinus officinalis, both pink and
white varieties; a dwarf Iris, Sisyrinchium, and
the little purple Romulea bulbocodium are every-
where; a tall ‘white flowered Asphodel, Asplrodelus
ramos us; a Sarsaparilla, Smilax aspera is a com-
mon prickly climber over walls and rocks; the
Medicinal Squill, Scilla maritima and its ally,
sicula are abundant. The white Lily, Lilium can-
didum was a native, but it has been exterminated
by florists, and is only occasionally seen by the
houses of peasants. Of Orchids, there are nine
species of Ophrys, e.g. 0. bombiliflora and 0. fusca
being particularly abundant; the spider Ophrys
less so, and the bee Ophrys is very rare. Nine
species of Orchis occur.
The largest orders are Leguminosae, which in-
cludes 17 species of clover, Trifolium, and Urnbel-
liferae which has 22 genera and 32 species; illus-
trating the well-known feature of island floras,
that the proportion of genera is large in compari-
son with the number of species; thus in this order |
there are 1*5 s.p. to each genus.
Of cultivated trees, the only which is universally
distributed is the Carob, or fc>t. John’s Bread,
Ceratonia Siliqua; but as the land is so exposed
they are stunted, with much twisted boughs. In
some of the deep valleys they grow to a respect-
able size.
Dates and the dwarf Fan Palms are few and far
between, as the former cannot ripen its fruit, and 1
the natives object to all superfluous trees as ab-
stracting nourishment from their crops. Figs,
mulberries, oranges, and lemons, are the principal
trees cultivated.
Note on “Dioplodon farneaince,”
We have received the following interesting
communication from Professor P. J. Van Beneden
of Louvain.
J’ail’honneur de presenter 4 1’Academie un ex-
emplaire d’un nouveau Memoire fort interessant
du professeur Capellini: il a pour objet un rostre
de Ziphioide fossile decouvert dans les environs de
Rome, et qu’i.1 rapporte 4 une espece nouvelle, sous
le nom de dioplodon fame since.
Ces travaux sur les Ziphioides ont pour nous un
tres haut interet. On sait que dans le vaste ossuaire
des environs dAnvers, les Cetaces de cette famille
dominaient, et il importe de pourvoir comparer
ceux qui habitaient le bassin de la Mediterranee
avec ceux du bassin de la rner du Nord.
Nous savons aujourd’hui que la mer Noire pos-
sedait, 4 la fin de Fepoque tertiaire, des baleines
qui lui etaient propres; la geologie nous a appris
aussi que le detroit du Bosphore n’existait pas
alors et que ces Cetaces pouvaient aller prendre
leurs ebats dan les eaux de la mer Arctique.
Nous savons 6galement aujourd’hui qui la mer
Noire n’a plus aucun Cetace propre et que les trois
dauphins qu’elle renferme, originates de l’Atlanti-
que, n’ont pu penetrer dans cette mer interieure
que depuis la formation du detroit de Gibraltar et
du Bosphore.
The climate of Gephalonia.
The climate of the Greek island, Cepha-
! Ionia has been lately described by Dr. Partsch
in Peterminn' s Mittch . Among the many details
which the learned doctor there gives, the fol-
lowing are perhaps some of the most interesting.
At Angostoli the temperature reaches a maximum
in July of 25°. 3. Cen, whereas at Corfu and Patras
it does not get so high as this until August. After
several days of calm and bright sunshine the air
becomes ladened with moisture, and the atmos-
phere is then hot, close, and unbearable. Yet the
04
' THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
natives go but little to the wooded hills behind,
where the temperature goes down sometimes to
15°. 5. cen. or lower, even on the hottest days.
Mules bring down snow mightly in summer from
covered pits in the hills, to supply the restau-
rants and hotels. As to rain, there is a sharp con-
trast between the wet winter half, and the dry
summer half of the year. The registered rainfall
shows (3-J inches) for the latter against 36 inches
for the former.
The autumn rains are ushered in by severe
thunderstorms. November, and December are the
wettest months, but about Christmas there is
usually a short spell of fine weather. March is
extremely variable, and often very wet. With
May begin the rainless months, and the drought
sometimes lasts considerably over a hundred days.
Five months have sometimes passed with but a
slight shower. Snow seldom falls in Angostoli,
but it often falls on the hills. Dew is plentiful in
summer, and is often very injurious to the crops
owing to the salt precipitate that it forms. Wind
is greatest in winter, southerly and southeasterly
winds especially prevailing. A hot south-wind
(the lambaditta) blows in the early summer, and it
has a prejudicial effect upon the vegetation. The
fresh north-east wind (the maestro) is the most
invigorating, and it is usually accompanied by
dense masses of cumulus cloud which clothe the
the hilis around.
T. M.
Theories of Mountain Formation.
By T. Millard Reade, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A.
Part II.
THE first requirements of a geological theory
are that it should conform to, and explain observ-
ations made in the field.
No speculations, however ingenious, are of much
value in a geological sense if only deductively ar-
rived at . hence a first requisite in the elaboration
of a true theory of the origin of mountain ranges
is an intimate knowledge of their geological
structure.
The careful observations of eminent geologists
over the accessible portions of the known world
go to prove that the universal characteristic of
mountain ranges is the enormous thickness of the
sedimentary deposits of which they are composed.
This fact was first brought prominently forward
in connection with the Appalachian chain by Prof.
James Hall, of New York; and it is no less true of
the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, and
the Caucasian, Himalaya, and Ural Mountains.
Of these, we possess the most knowledge of the
Alps and Appalachians, the combined thickness of
the various formations of which they are severally
composed being estimated by competent geologists
at from eight to ten miles. It is a true generalisa-
tion that the necessary preliminary to mountain
building is great previous sedimentation. This, as
all know who are at all acquainted with the
principles of geology, means the destruction of so
much land elsewhere, combined usually with the
accretions from volcanoes either in the form of
ashes or lava streams, or both. It is also none the
less evident to the student of geology that this,
again, means the lapse of enormous periods of geo-
logical time.
When we come to consider in what way these
various strata are arranged in mountain chains,
we find, as a universal fact which there is no gain-
saying, that strata which have been aqueously laid
down in approximately horizontal positions are in
the regions of mountain ranges thrown into folds,
and sometimes bent, contorted, and twisted into
the most extraordinary convolutions.
The one opinion novr held by geologists and
physicists is, that these effects are mainly due to
lateral pressure, but, as I have already showm
much difference of opinion exists as to the origin
of this pressure. Not only are soiid rocks folded
into loops, but as a general rule — to which there
are only a few exceptions known, and these I
think are more apparent than real— there is in each
great range a cential core composed of gneissic
and granitic rocks, which often expands towards
the summit, throwing the sedimentary beds
through more than a right angle, producing an
actual inversion of the strata, and what is called
in geological parlance, “fan structure.” It is rocks
of this nature that at present are, and for some
years past have been, the subject of much interest-
ing study and controversy.
The age and origin of these foundation rocks are
not by any means yet settled, but whether com-
posed of metamorphosed sediments, or whether
they are volcanic complexes altered and made
TIIK MEDITERRANEAN NAT UK A LIST
65
schistose by pressure, or are partly granitic intrus-
ions, it is evident to anyone practically familia.
with dynamical principles that they have been
subjected to enormous pressure deep down in the
earth, and have been thereby forced up, behaving
under such pressure in most respects like plastic
bodies.
It will be seen from this only too short descript-
ion that the characteristics of great mountain
ranges are in the regions of the ranges, great fold-
ings of the strata, semi-plastic intrusions forming
the central, or what formerly was the central core
of the range, often enclosing the sedimentary folds
in a manner expressively likened to “button-holes,”
and frequently, in addition, intrusions of true gra-
nite, and trappean or igneous dyke-rocks. These
folds are, excepting in the case of those buried in
the earth, truncated by erosion and atmospheric
influences, so that even in geologically recent
ranges as much rock has apparently been removed
as that which remains above the general surface
level; while, in the case of older chains, such as the
Urals and the Appalachians, the remaining port-
ions are mere worn down stumps. This is the case
with our Snowdonian and Cumbrian mountains,
and still more is it so with the mountain fragments
of the Highlands of Scotland, as irrefragably
proved by the labours of our modern school of
geologists, and the further fruitful labours of the
survey since it cast off the meshes of the supposed
succession of rocks woven and left us as an infor-
mal legacy by the iate Sir Roderick Murchison.
In addition to folding there has been discovered
in these North-west Highland regions an extraor-
dinary series of lateral dislocations and reversed
faults which appear to be unique, and the effect of
adaption by shearing instead of folding, to changed
conditions cf space resulting from enormous lateral
pressure.
If however, we travel transversely from the
centre of a great range, on one side if not on both,
after crossing the outcrop of the strata and the
“foot-hills,” we find that the beds which in the
range proper are bent and contorted into violent
folds take on more gentle undulations as we recede
from the mountains until they recover in the plains
ar almost horizontal position.
Travelling towards the mountains, there is
usually a gentle and long ascent before we reach
their base — a feature noticeable in the eastern
approach to the Andes and the Rockies, and also
the French approach to the Alps.
1 have now, I think, said sufficient to show the
intimate connection that exists between the build-
ing up or accretion of strata on the earth’s crust,
and their after formation into mountains.
But what arc really the relations of one to the
other? Are they one of cau.-,e and effect?
The upholders of the “contraction” theory
recognised them as such, and met the difficulty by
saying that the locus of accumulation is necessarily
a weak place in the bosom of the earth, and
therefore the earth’s crust in cr ishing-in squeezed
and folded the unconsolidated deposit instead of
the hard rock existing elsewhere. Till is an ex
planation it will be wrell to consider before
broaching my own views on the subj*. t. At first
sight it certainly seems to possess the defect of
being too neatly contrived to meet the difficulty.
It assumes what is not proved; for all great areas
of sedimentation must, if the hypothesis be true,
be w'eak places in the earth’s crust.
Nature, unfortunately, is not arranged on ^o
beautifully harmonious a system; and i‘ \.e on
the true principles of geology inquire into v hat
is taking place on the earth now, we have no
grounds to suppose that such selective areas — if £
may use the term — are those to which sediments
are universally carried. On the contrary . tl re
appears to be an impartial distribution of sediment
dependent on a vast variety of factors, ther or
in addition to any that may be traced to a local
weakness of the earth’s crust. As I have elsewhere
shown* the North Atlantic is now' receiving
directly or indirectly the drainage and detritus
from about tAventy-one millions of square miles of
land, or more than one-third the total land area f
the globe. On the American or western side, on
which there must now exist beneath the surr ice
of the ocean enormous geologically recent and, - >
to speak, unused deposits, wre have some of t ut-
most stable land on the globe, as instar.ee th
Archtean Crystalline rocks of Canada and the
Brazils, while between them we have the volcanic
and unstable basin of the Gulf of Mexico rec jiv-
ing the drainage of the Mississipi. W hen we
* Origin of Mountain Ranges, p. 306,
60
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
consider that the earth throughout as a mass is
declared by such good physicists as Sir William
Thomson and George Darwin to be as solid as
steel from the surface to the centre, it would seem
ather foolish to search for specially weak places
under sedimentary areas. If, however, it’could be
shown that lateral pressure consequent upon the
shrinkage of the under-layers of the earth’s crust,
and acting only to the depth of a few miles below
the surface — that is, to the level-of-no-strain — is
capable of piling up the crust into mountain
ranges, the explanation is a feasible one, as no
doubt the upper layers of mere sediment would be
weaker than the surrounding buttresses of old
rocks.
The structure of all great ranges, as known
through the labours of geologists the world over,
negatives this supposition, and shows that we
must seek for a deeper-seated force than that
derivable from the secular contraction of the globe.
What can this force be? It was shown long ago by
Babbage, Scrope, and Herschell that the laying
down of beds of sediment must produce a rise of
temperature in the rocks below. Borings, well
sinkings, and mining have shown that as the earth
is penetrated the temperature rises, and tin's is
true of new deposits as well as of old rocks. Many
observations have been made of the rate of increase
of temperature, which show that it varies to the
extent of 1° Fahr. in 281 feet at Anzin, in the
North of France, to 1° .in 157 '2 feet in lie Minas
Geraes Mines in Brazil. There is a regular but
slow outflow of heat taking place from the earth,
so that when a sedimentary layer or covering
accumulates at any locality on the earth’s surface,
all the layers of that sediment eventually get
heated to the normal temperature due to the depth
and the conducting power of the rock.
Thus, for example, if the rate of increase is V in
60 feet, a deposit 6,000 feet thick would become
eventually 100° hotter on the under side or base
than at the surface, and all intermediate depths
would take their proportionate temperature.
Planes of equal temperature in the earth’s have
been called iscgeotherms. It is not an attractive-
looking word, certainly, but the authorities having
adopted it all we have to do is to follow suit,
especially as the word expresses an exact thought.
It will, thus be seen that the laying down of sedi-
ment first affects the temperature of the immediate
underlayers, but eventually it is felt to profound
depths. Now what will be the effect of this rise
of temperature on the portion of the earth’s crust
so affected? Everyone knows that heat expands
and loss of heat contracts substances, but in vary-
ing degrees. To determine the amount I made a
series of experiments on various rocks, and I found
that the mean linear expansion was 2.77 feet per
mile for every 100° Fahr. In small pieces of rock
very exact and minute measurements are necessary
even to detect any alteration of dimensions, the
change of bulk being proportionately small; but
when the dimensions are magnified so as to include
sections of the earth’s crust the change of bulk is
measured by cubic miles. This, like many other
things, is all a matter of relation , and it takes time
! and thought for the tyro to accustom himself to
think that great effects can from little causes spring.
If, however, there is one thing which geology
teaches the patient investigator it is not to despise
apparently small forces. We see this every day,
yet we learn not. Every one-hundredth part of an
inch of rain means one ton per acre. A ton seems
a great deal when collected together, whereas one-
hundredth of an inch seems beneath notice. So it
is with the forces of expansion; by alteration of
temperature they pass unnoticed until some large
structure is dependent upon these forces being
effectively provided for. A hot sun on one side of
the Menai or Britannia tube will twist it three
inches laterally and two and a-half inches verti-
cally where it is free to move. During the very
hot summer of last year the rails of many railways
had to be taken up and shortened, although it is
customary to allow for expansion at each joint,
and the holes of the fish-plate bolts binding them
together are made slightly oval to meet the
difficulty. No large engineering work is properly
designed unless provision is made for meeting the
changes of bulk caused by changes of temperature.
Metal plates for roofing, such as in lead gutters
and flats, have to be laid in sections so as to be
free to move, for, if soldered together in one length,
they will soon tear themselves to pieces.
Notwithstanding these precautions, all old lead
gutters and fiats are full of wrinkles and ridges,
produced by infinitesimal changes, which end in
the forcing up of these ridges. Each expansion by
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
67
increase, of temperature bends tlie lead a little,
while the contraction caused by decrease of tem-
perature does not bring it back to its original form.
Who has not noticed the ridges in a lead-lined
bath or sink? These are due to the same cause,
and are the accumulated effect of frequent minute
changes caused by expansion and contraction.
But how do these familiar facts bear upon the
“Origin of Mountain Ranges?'’ It will be my
object in the next article to show this.
(To be continued.)
Preservation of Algae.
Having been perfectly successful in preserving
the colour of many of our fresh-water algae, it
may be that the same method would prove suc-
cessful with desmids. My plan is simply to have
a wide mouthed bottle, with a glass stopper, filled
with distilled water in which X have placed a
number of pieces of camphor.
When it is desired to mount the algae I place a
portion of the same in some of this camphor water,
to which a few drops of glycerine have been added,
in a watch glass.
At first it will become a yellow, lemon colour,
but after a few hours the original green returns in
its full vividness, and then I at once mount in the
cell with a portion of the fluid.
A specimen of Draparnaldia plumosa mounted
20 years ago in this way is today as beautifully
green as at first, and the chlorophyl seems to be
unchanged.
W. H. Walmsey.
Sir Warington, W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S.
The death of this celebrated naturalist, the
brother of His Excellency Sir H. A. Smyth,
K.C.M.G., R.A., the present governor of these
islands, has left a gap in the ranks of scientists
that it will be difficult to fill up.
His scientific work in Asia Minor, Syria and
Egypt placed him in the front rank of Mediter-
ranean Naturalists, and paved the way to those
posts of honour which he afterwards so worthily
filled. The estimation in which he was held by
his brother-labourers may be well guaged by the
following brief account of his career which was
given by Dr. A. Geikie LL.D., F.R.S., at a recent
meeting of the Geological Society of London.
Wairington W. Smyth was bom in 1817 at
Naples, where his maternal grandfather, Mr.
Thomas Warington, was British Consul. His
father, Admiral W. H. Smyth, F.R.S., spent many
years in the Admiralty Survey of the Mediterra-
nean. He wrote papers on astronomical and
geographical subjects, as well as separate works on
Sicily and the Mediterranean, which marked him
out as one of the most scientific naval officers of
his time. The son was sent home to be educated
in this country, and was placed at Westminister
and Bedford Schools, subsequently entering at
Trinity College, Cambridge. Endowed with a
constitution of rare vigour, and a passion for active
exercise, he threw himself with ardour into the
sports of the University, formed one of the win-
ning University Crew in 1839, and as “head of the
river” rowed with such energy as to be nicknamed
“the steam-engine.”
Leaving Cambridge with a travelling bachelor-
ship, he spent more than four years in journeying
over a large part of Europe, extending his rambles
into Asia Minor, the borders of Kurdistan, Syria,
and Egypt. Having already begun to look with
interest on minerals and rocks, he made it one of
his main objects in this prolonged tour to visit
mines and to see for himself how the various ores
occur in nature. His sojourn fin Germany and
Austria gave him the opportunity of making the
acquaintance of such men as Humboldt, Yon Buch,
Von Dechen, Naumami, Haidinger,and Von Hauer.
At one time he is found attending lectures
on Mineralogy; at another time he is to be seen
exploring coal-fields or descending silver-mines, or
pushing his way through salt-works, or ransacking
bone-caves, Again we hear of him among the
rugged sunburnt rocks of Monte Cristo or encamped
with Waltershausen near the summit-snows of
Etna. A winter on the Nile is followed by a more
adventurous ramble through Palestine and
Northern Syria to Aleppo and the Upper Tigris.
This prolonged absence abroad not only gave him
a wide experience of practical mining-matters, but
afforded him opportunities of cultivating that
familiarity with foreign habits and foreign lan-
guages which made him in the end an ideal Foreign
Secretary for a Geological Society.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
lieturning to this country in 1844 he made the
acquaintance of De la Beche, Director-General
of the Geological Survey, who, with his intuitive
perception of the merits of a good man tor his
purpose, soon engaged him. as Mining-geologist c ■>
the staff of the Survey. In that capacity Smyth
made explorations in England and Wales and
in Ireland, besides mapping some districts with
his own hand. When a few years later (1851)
the School of Mines was organized, he was ap-
pointed Lecturer on Mining and Mineralogy, and
he continued to give his mining lectures dow n to
the very end. His wTide knowledge of all that
relates to the extraction of minerals from the
crust of the earth led to his being called on to
undertake many additional duties. He was ap-
pointed Chief Mineral Inspector to the Office of
Woods and Forests, and also Mineral Inspector
to the Duchy of Cornwall. Besides acting as
adviser to the Crown in all mining questions, he
was often requested to give his services on Com-
mittees and Commission. He was appointed
Chairman of the Royal Commission which, in
1879, was formed to enquire into the subject of
accidents in mines, and he had the main share in
drawing up the voluminous Report of the seven
years of enquiry spent in this laborious and im-
portant investigation. It was more especially in
recognition of this service that he received the
honour of knighthood in 1887.
All through life one of the busiest of men, he yet
had the happy art, by quietly keeping his toils
in the background, to seem to be possessed of
ample leisure ready to be placed at the service
of any f rinds who wanted to talk with him or
any student who sought his advice. Always on
the outlook for additions to his knowledge and
ever ready to impart to others what he had
gained, himself, he seldom cared to publish what
he knew. Early in life he wrote an account of
his wanderings in the East, which appeared in
1854 under the title of “A Year with the Turks.55
A few memoirs by him, chiefly on mineral veins
and mining localities, found a place in the “Me
moirs of the Geological Survey55 and the “Tran-
sactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall.55
He wrote also occasional articles, such as that on |
Mining in lire’s “Dictionary,55 likewise a small
but standard Treatise on Coal and Coal-mining, I
of which the seventh edition appeared last year.
Up to within the last year or two of his life
he showed but little sign of advancing age. His
step seemed as light, his eye as keen, his mind
as active as in his early days. But a weakness
of the heart began to make itself felt and forced
him to abridge some of his more fatiguing duties.
He came to the evening gathering of the Royal
Society last summer, where he looked perhaps
better than he had done for some time previously,
and talked in his old cheerful way. Next morn-
ing, 19th June, sitting in his library with his
students’ examination-papers before him, he
quietly passed away, dying as he had lived, in
harness.
It is not from the bulk, nor even from the
intrinsic importance of his published work, that
the services of Sir Warington Smyth to the
cause of science are to be estimated. More ef-
ficient and widespread, perhaps, than the in-
fluence of his writings, was that of his personal
example and teaching. Every year he sent forth
a body of students trained by him in the habits
of careful observation, of cautions induction, and
of manly outspoken honesty which were his own
distinguishing characteristics. These men, scat-
tered ail over the world, carried with them the
impress of his instruction, and no more un-
alloyed pleasure ever came to him than the
tidings that his pupils had done him credit in the
career on which he had started them.
Among the beneficent influences of his honoured
life we Fellows of the Geological Society count
those not the least which he exerted for us during
his long and intimate association with us. He
joined our body in 1845. For more than thirty
years he served on our Council filling successi-
vely the offices of Secretary, Vice-President, and
President, and for the last seventeen years sitting
at the Council-table as Foreign Secretary. In
every capacity in which he could be useful to us
he was ever ready to give us the benefit of his
experience and wise counsels. We mourn his
death with sincere sorrow, and though “the sweet
benefit of time55 will doubtless soften our regret,
we shall never cease to remember with affec-
tionate regard the distinguished colleague and the
generous-hearted friend whom we have lost in
Warington Smyth,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
69
Vine and Olive culture in Algeria.
Among the many dangers that beset the viti-
culture of Algeria, the most formidable are those
due to atmospheric disturbances. In spring, hail-
storms frequently destroy the young shoots, the
flowers are often ruined by fogs, and the ripe
fruit by the sirocco.
Another serious enemy is the Phylloxera, but
the officials have been fairly successful in dealing
with this pest. Another is the Altise, a small
beetle which causes great destruction, particularly
when in its larval condition. The mode of killing
the Altise, commonly adopted is to place bundles
of grass and vine cuttings around the yard when
winter is approaching; in this the insects conceal
themselves in large compact masses, and the whole
is then set on fire.
Other diseases, the oidium, anthrachnosis, pero-
nospera, and chlorosis. It is calculated that the
want of intelligent treatment of these diseases
causes the owners of the vineyards to lose annually
nearly a third of the crop.
The olive seems to grow everywhere in Algeria
except in marsh ground, and attains dimensions
quite unknown on the northern coast of the
Mediterranean.
H. E. B&tjn.
Deforestation of Servia.
►Servia is rapidly being disafforested, and from
the reports that have lately been made it seems
that the most lamentable effects are already fol-
lowing on the great want of foresight that has
been shown.
Since the declaration of Servian independence,
the Servian peasants have cleared vast tracts of
land of the fine woods with which they were
formerly covered, for the purposes of agriculture,
and the usual consequences of drought in summer
and heavy floods in winter are already beginning
to manifest themselves.
The government have endeavoured to interfere,
but most of the restrictions that they have passed !
have been carried out in such a perfunctory
manner that their statutes are considered but as
a dead letter, I
The south and the south-west of Servia contain
the finest supplies of timber, and it is from these
districts that the greater part of the oak staves
that are used in cask-making, are obtained.
At Vrania, along the Turkish frontier, there are
some magnificent oak forests; while the fir, the
juniper and the walnut thrive luxuriantly on the
great Kopavnik Range, and on the heights of the
Nischava valley, and Zlatibor.
Remarkable natural phenomenon
near Cephalonia.
BY
W. G. Fostepw
On the western side of the Bay of Argostoli there
is a heaving rock, which, unchanged by the roughest
or calmest weather, rocks to and fro with the
regularity of a pendulum. It is separated from a
fixed mass of rock against which it opens and
shuts in its perfect motion; at one time it will
jam a knife in the crevice, from which in a few
seconds, extraction would be impossible, whilst
the next moment you can easily insert your hand
when its maximum aperture has been reached.
The phenomena has been carefully examined
by many scientific men, divers have been sent
below to ascertain if it be the result of a detached
rock from a neighbouring cliff having fallen on to
another and thus becoming very finely balanced,
as all logan stones usually are.
However it was not only shown to be a perfectly
solid rock, but it does not require the motion of
water to sway it. as so often we find it erroneously
stated, the motive power for swaying it being
furnished by an apparently inexplicable cause.
Nearly opposite to this rocking stone, another
remarkable phenomenon is to be found, consisting
of a body of water, equal in bulk to about a
million gallons per day, running in from the sea
at four points on the coast rapidly for a certain
distance until it gradually becomes sucked intc
the earth and disappears. By conducting the
water into an artificial canal for a few yards, and
by collecting the four points of supply into one
enough motive power is obtained to drive two
mills. The stream after being thus utilised, is
allowed to follow its own course, and is lost among
the rocks It has no possible outlet.
Zante.
70
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands.
by John H, Cooke.
(continued.)
Of the caverns that have been formed by the
action of rain, wind, and the atmosphere, the most
interesting and picturesque are those that occur,
like the marine caves, in the highest and lowest of
the series of the Maltese formations. These often
take the form of mere excavations in the limestone
escarpments, that have been worn out by wind
and rain; but oftener still they occur as long !
tunnel-like apertures, that have either been formed
along a softer vein of the rock by the action of
underground water, or have had their origin in
some fissure that has afterwards been enlarged by
the combined action of air, rain, and running
water.
Of this latter class the “(Thar Hasan” cave may
be considered as being typical. It is situated or.
the southern coast of Malta, and it consists of a
funnel shaped dilatation, with several fissures and
smaller tunnels branching off from its extremities
and sides. Three of these branches are of a size
sufficient to allow of a person traversing them;
but passage through the others is impracticable on
account of its narrow dimensions. These larger
branch fissures also ramify in various directions, '
and in several cases the ramifications return upon
the main branch, and thus form circular and ellip-
tical courses.
There are three entrances to the cave, all of
which abut, on the cliff face, but access is pract-
icable to but one, that which forms the mouth of
the main cave: the others can be approached only
by making a detour of the branch fissures.
The contour of the cave walls, and the irregular
manner in which the projecting crags and bosses
of the cave have been worn, as also the character j
of the heavy yellow clay which covers the bottom j
of the cave would seen to indicate that the pas- j
sages owe their origin to the action of running
water. Even in the summer time a copious supply
of dripping water finds its way into the cave, while
in winter a miniature stream, meanders onwards
and precipitates itself over the cliff into the sea.
Most of the w?ater finds its way into the cavern
through the numerous swallow holes with which
the roof is perforated, and which are no doubt in
connection with the surface.
The cave commands a fine view of the Mediter-
ranean; but considering the difficulty, not to say
danger, that is attendant on obtaining access to it,
it is questionable whether the pleasure that is to
be derived from a visit is commensurate with
the trouble and risk that must be incurred.
Intermixed with the clay that strews the bottom,
are larged quantities of recent bones referable to
species of doves, gulls, bats, and rats such as at
present find a slieleter and a home with-in its
precints.
Fragments of pottery, too, are abundantly strewn
about; but they are all of an apparently rece. t
type.
The remoteness of its situation and these evi-
dences of its having had occupants at some time
or other, have been held by the country-people, to
be of sufficient importance to entitle the cave to a
prominent position in their legendary lore, but
m this instance the reference is oi an historical,
rather than of a supernatural character. The cave
is supposed to have once served as a retreat for a
notable Saracen sea-pirate, who continued to live
in Malta for some time after the edict had been
passed for the expulsion of his fellow-countrymen.
In the valleys of Marsa-Scirocco, Uied-el-Hasel,
Uied-in-Citta, Uied Siggieui, there are numerous
caverns of a similar character, but none of them
are as large as Ghar Hasan.
Most of these caves owe their origin to the action
of underground springs, the waters of which, after
percolating through the surface strata have found
a passage into the rock fissures, and, by enlarging
them, have formed these cavities and tunnels. It
is to these numerous underground excavations
and the breaking in of their roofs that a large
majority of the minor faults that occur in the
Globigerina Limestone are due.
One of the most remarkable of these depressions
is that which occurs in the vicinity of the villages
of Crendi, and which is known as “Makluba.,:(*)
It assumes the shape of a cylindrical hollow
and forms the centre of what was once an elevated
plain, that extended from Casals Sail, Monkar,
and Agathe to the sea.
(*) Makluha signifies, “ overturned U
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
This elevated tract of ground is now of a basin-
like shape, the sides of which slope inwards and
culminate in a sudden down thrown.
The sides of the hollow are perpendicular, and
extremely rugged; and they show here and there,
distinct scorings, that appear to have the character,
of “slickensides,” which have been caused by the
friction of the opposing strata in its descent.
Access may be had to the bottom by means of a
series of rudely fashioned steps, that have been
cut in the sides for the accomodation of the great
number of visitors that annually go to the place.
Covering the bottom there is a rich alluvial soil,
in which the carob, the cactus, and the fig-tree
flourish luxuriantly all the year round.
According to the traditions of the villagers the
chasm marks the site of a village, which in times,
past, was visited by Divine Wrath as a punish-
ment for the manifold offences of which the inha-
bitants had been guilty and therefore, from that
time to this, the place has been known as Makluba
or the “overturned.”
Such is the legend that is connected with it;
the geological facts are, however, much at variance
with the villagers’ folk lore.
Leading immediately from the hollow, and run-
ning southwards in the direction of the sea, are
two fissures, which extend for some considerable
distance into the Lower Limestone. They were,
probably, formed prior to the formation of the
underground cavern which caused this sinking in
of the superior deposits; and thus their existence
facilitated the ingress of the water, which, satu-
rated with carbonic acid, eroded the cave, and
also assisted its egress, when it was ladened with
the eroded material. A large underground cavern
was thus formed in the limestone, the roof of
wlricn was, in consequence of the magnitude of
the dimensions of the cavern, left in a very
unstable condition, and it was thus rendered
susceptible to the least movement.
A. shock may have been given by an earthquake,
which, by enlarging the fissure already formed,
caused the undermined stratum to obey the laws
of gravity, and to descend to the level at which
we now find it. The total area occupied by the
cavity is about 70 square yards.
At Dueira in Gozo, there is a similar depression ;
but it is on a nn,ieh grander scale than is that of
71
Makluba. A huge circular fault has there brought
all of the superior deposits to a depth of 200
feet below the surface level of the Lower Coral-
line Limestone. On the western side the Lower
Coralline Limestone cliffs have been eaten through
by the sea and a small bay has thus been formed
the only outlet of which is the tunnel that per-
forates the cliff sides. Active denudation of the
remnants of the beds IV, III, II and I, that still
exist within the depressed area, is even now going
on and that so rapidly too, that in a comparatively
short space of time, no trace of the former presence
of these beds will be left.
Unlike the Makluba hollow, the downthrow has
not been uniform ail round, as is shown by the
height of the cliffs that surround the depression.
Thus while those on the eastern side, tower to
a height of 200 feet, those on the western side are
but 50 feet high. This great difference is partly
due to the decided westerly dip that the Lower
Limestone here takes.
On the western side, access to the bottom of the
depression may be had by means of a broad, easy
gradient that leads down to a beach of shingle,
pebbles, and boulders. Judging from the general
contour of the surrounding area, and the manner
in which the depressed upper deposits that lie
within, have been worn away it would . appear as
if a considerable volume of freshwater had former-
ly here found an outlet into the sea. Such a torrent
would have assisted considerably in the perfora-
tion of the cliff face, and it is only by the means
of such a torrent that the five-sixths of the basins
that is now almost empty, could have been so
effectually cleaved of all of the Marl, Greensands,
and Upper Coralline Limestone - debris that for-
merly existed in it. Even now the waters of the
Kaura Gorge, a steep, and rugged valley are perio-
dically poured down the old waterway during the
winter time; and they still carry on the work of
erosion.
The district for some miles around has beer,
much faulted and broken up; and it should be
visited if only for the wildness, and uncouthnes,
of its scenery. It has a bold ruggedness and
a barren wildness such as are not to be met
with in any other part of the islands.
The fantastic architecture, and bold outlines of
the General’s rock, and its outliers; the variegated
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
72
hues of the lofty mural cliffs of Ras-il-Wardia,
that here attain the maximum height of 450 feet,
and that,
“Rise like ramparts all along
The blue sea’s border.”
the tremendons down-throw of the strata of the
Dueira Basin; these, together with the cold,
neutral grey of the rock masses, relieved by the
rich, -warm colouring of the patches of soil that
here and. there chequer the surface, and the hill
sides, when bathed in the purple and crimson
rays of a Mediterranean sunset, combine to make
up a scene, which contains all of the essential
elements of the sublime, and picturesque.
Unlike most limestone districts, the Maltese
area is singularly deficient in any really fine
examples of cavernous excavations.
The reasons for this I have already stated are
due primarily to the lithological character of the
strata.
At Gozo, however, there is a small but very
interesting example of a stalactite cave, and being !
the only good example of the kind in the island,
it is therefore the more noteworthy.
It is situated on the “Ta-Sciara” hill, in the
vicinity of Mars-el-Forn Bay. Gozo, and as it was
not discovered until the latter part of the year
1888, it is, therefore, still in a good state of
preservation.
It is located under a field, that is in close pro-
ximity to the village church of Sciara; and access
may be had to it, by means of a hole in the surface,
and, also, by a door way.
Both of these entrances have been built by
the farmer in possession, since the discovery of
the cave, for the accommodation of the numerous
tourists that annually visit the place; for though
small, it contains within its limited area, “shapes
and forms” that are at once the wonder and ad-
miration of all who behold them.
To obtain entrance, a descent of about 16 feet
is necessary, but there is no difficulty attendant
on this, as the series of steps, that have been cut
in the rock, renders the task both an easy, and a
convenient one.
The known dimensions of the cave are about
80 feet in length, and about 60 feet in width; but,
judging from the numerous smaller caverns and
tunnels, that occur around the sides, it would
appear as though it extends over a much greater
area.
When lighted up with tapers, or with mag-
nesium Avire, the interior presents a very charming
and picturesque appearance.
Suspended from the roof, like icicles hanging
from the branches of a tree after a severe frost,
are thousands of crystalline, semitransparent sta-
lactites, the colours of which range from a snowy
white to a deep golden yellow.
Through the sides and roof of the cave, a never
failing supply of lime-charged Avater, sloAvly finds
its way, and decorates, Avitli living pearls, the
pendants and traceries that hang around. As the
light of the tapers is tliroAA n on these, and on the
encrustations of lime that stand out, in many
places, in bold relief from the smooth, alabaster
like sides both of the cave and of its columns, the
light, that is reflected, sheds a softness and
mellowness around, that has the effect of causing
the background of the cave to appear as though
' it Avere hung with the most delicate of crystalline
draperies.
Rising from the floor in yellow pyramidal mas-
ses, ihat gradually taper off as a clear translucent
white, are countless stalagmites, many of which
are still undergoing the processes of formation;
Avhile others have united themselves with the
pendant stalactites, and have formed fantastic co-
lumns, from Avhose irregular, and strangely fashion-
ed sides, the light scintillates and sparkles with
the brilliancy of diamonds. In the middle of the
cave, several of these columns have attained ex-
ceptionally large proportions. Many of the pendant
stalactites do not descend in a perpendicular direc-
tion, but they curve slightly towards one another,
and tend to form festoons, the loops of AA’hich,
sweep in graceful curves in every direction.
And to Avhat causes may Ave attribute the origin
of this fairy-like grotto? “Every thing in nature,”
observes the great essayist, Emerson, “is engaged
in Avriting its own history;” and, it is a remark,
that expresses in terse, and definite language, a
rule to Avhich Ave can find no exception.
The autobiography of this cave is as plainly
written, as though it had been inscribed in a book,
— as indeed it really has been— for Avhat is nature,
but a book, that is replete with the most wonder-
ful histories, and the most beautiful imageries,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
/ *>
';W
The ca ve owes its origin to the chemical action of
the carbonic acid gas, which is held in solution by
the rain water, that percolates through the lime-
stone roof. Pure water, when alone, has but little
effect on lime; but in conjuncton with carbonic
acid, it is peculiarly destructive. The rain that
descends upon the hills of Malta and Gozo obtains
a supply of this gas from two sources. It absorbs
it, though in inappreciable quantities from the
atmosphere; and, after its descent, it obtains it
from the vegetable matter, with which the surface
of the ground is covered. The humus, formed by
decaying vegetable matter, evolves large quantities
of this gas; and, as it is very soluble, it is readily
seized upon and absoi bed by the water. In this par-
ticular instance the overlying soil is thickly planted
with cactus, and it is from the decomposition of
this plant that the water obtains a large propor-
tion of the gas, which afterwards enables it to do
its work so effectively.
By the action of this acid, the insoluble carbo-
nate of lime, of which the limestone is largely
composed, is converted into a soluble form, which
is known to chemists as bi-carbonate, and in this
form it is held in solution until the water evapo-
rates, and redeposits it as an insoluble carbonate
again.
It is to this redeposition of lime that the forma-
tion of these beautiful though fantastic columns,
is due.
Facing the Banda valley, on the eastern side of
the same hill, there is an example of another ca-
vern, that had a somewhat similar origin; but,
which cannot be compared with “Ta-Ninu” either
in its form and dimensions, or the beauty of its
contents. It shares, with another cave at Melleha,
the honour of being supposed to be the traditional
grotto, in which the goldess Calypso held her
court, and carried on her amours with Telema-
chus.
The spot has been immortalised alike by Fenelon
in his work “A ventures de Telemaque,” and by
Homer in the fifth book of the Iliad, where the
great poet thus describes it: —
“Large was the grot in which the nymph he found,
The fair haired nymph with every beauty crowned,
She sat and sung: the rocks resound her lays;
The cave was brightened with a rising blaze;
Cedar arid frankincense, an odorous pile,
Flam’d on the hearth, and wide perfumed the isle;
While she, with work and song the time divides,
And through the loom the golden shutter guides.
Without the grot, a various sylvan scene
Appear’d around, and groves of living green;
Poplars and alders ever quivering play’d,
And nodding cypress form’d a fragrant shade
On whose high branches, waving with the sA-rm,
The birds of broadest wing their mansion form;
The chough, the sea-mew, the loquacious crow,
And scream aloft, and skim the deeps below.
Depending vines the shelving caverns screen,
With purple clusters blushing through the green.
Four limpid fountains from the cliffs distil.
And every fountain pours a several rill,
In mazy windings wandering down the hill:
Where blooming meads with vivid greens were
crowned,
And glowing violets spread their odours round;
A scene, where, if a god should cast his sight,
A god might gaze, and wonder with delight.”
But where are now the “groves of poplars, and
of alders”, the “limpid fountains and the mazy
windings”!
But for the commanding view of the island,
that is to be obtained in its vicinity, the toilsome
walk, that has to be undertaken to reach the place,
would certainly not be repaid by the amount of
pleasure, that a sight of this commonplace rock
excavation would afford. The stern reality is
rendered even more disappointing on account of
the description in which the poet has immortal-
ised. it, and the historical halo in which he has
enshrined it.
(To be continued.)
The Syrian Greyhound.
J. E. Hakting.
The Syrian Greyhound is a very beautiful spec!
men of the race: smaller, and with less length of
limb than the English Greyhound, and conse-
quently with a shorter stride, the rapidity of his
movements and the toughness and tenacity of his
muscles, render him no unworthy scion of the stock
to which his British cousin belongs.
74
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURARIST
Moreover, his long, feathery, tufted tail seems to ■
act as a rudder to him, when in full flight across
those breezy plains — an advantage which marks
the difference between the* Syrian and other grey-
hounds, to whom, in other respects, he bears the
closest affinity. In the eyes and faces of the choic-
est specimens of these dogs there shines an expres-
sion of winning and almost human intelligence:
yet, once launched in pursuit of game, they are as
bloodthirsty as the sleuth-hound.
The dog in Egypt, as throughout the East, with
this exception, is a homeless and I ouseless vaga-
bond, and semi-savage, prowling in packs, acting
as scavenger only, and never domesticated because
considered “unclean,” by Mussulman law and
custom.
The Prince Halim had the courage to brave this
prejudice, and kept his greyhounds for the chase.
But he also kept another and more curious cl, s
of creatures for the hunting of the Gazelle, pro-
bably. the fastest in its movements of any wingless
animal, viz, hunting-hawks, which seemed the
genuine descendants of the “falcon gentle,” which ,
was wont to afford such rare sport to our ancestors
in the Middle Ages.
The hawk used for this purpose is not the ordi-
nary large Egyptian one, which hovers over the
city of Cairo, poised in air on its wide w ings, or
circling around in search of quarry, but a smaller
and fiercer bird, desert born and bred, with keen
eyes and sharp talons, of which the larger brother
stands in wholesome awe. These birds, trained
much as were the medioeval falcons, seem to love
the chase as much as their master, although their
quarry be- not the Heron, but the Gazelle.
Their services were only brought into requisition
after the chase had continued some time, and as an
adjunct to the pursuit of men, dogs, and horses, all
concentrating their energies against the life and li-
berty of the most lovely, graceful, and inoffensive
of wild creatures, almost the sole tenants of these
arid wilds. After advancing a few miles into
the desert, which presents one flat, dead, unbroken
level of hard gritty soil (not sand), unrelieved by
any shrub, grass, flower, or tree, bounded only by
the horizon, and producing almost the illusion of
a sea view, suddenly half a dozen slender, shapely
forms spring up, and stand in bold relief against
the sky, with heads erect, like statuary, some half '
mile distant. The sight seems at once to infuse
new fire and vigour into the horses, dogs,
and men, all of whom are immediately launched
like thunderbolts in the direction of the quarry,
which, pausing, motionless for a moment, breaks
into full flight the next, bounding marvellous
distances at each spring, and soon leaving even the
fleet greyhounds toiling hopelessly in the rear;
the distance between them visibly increasing, as
the tireles Gazelles almost fly forwards inspired
by fear. The scene now becomes most animated,
exciting, and picturesque, with the floating bur-
nouses of the Bedouin or Egyptian riders, and
the gay attire of horse and man, and the gallant
Arab coursers stretching out to full speed with
expanded nostrils and protruding eyes, and the
feathery tails of the Syrian greyhounds wav ing
like banners as they bound after the flying Ga-
zelle. But vain are the efforts of all their ene-
mies to gain upon, or even to keep pace with,
the graceful children of the Desert.
Horses, men, and dogs are falling rapidly be-
hind; and even the forms of the Gazelles are
becoming indistinct, and with difficulty discer-
nible, except to the eagle eyes of the Prince and
his Bedouins, when a new allyr is summoned to
the assistance of the hunters, and a new foe
launched at the heads of the triumphant fugi-
tives. Bising in his shovel-stirrups, in full career,
with the grace and dexterity of an Eastern rider,
Prince Halim, slipping oft' the hood from the
head of the hawk he carries on his right hand,
with a peculiar shrill cry launched the bird into
the air in the direction of the fast disappearing
quarry. Thus released, the hawk circles rapidly
upward until almost lost to sight, a mere speck
suspended in blue ether, and seemingly motion-
less in the cloudless sky, blazing under the
fierce Eastern sun in a flood of light. A mo-
ment later the hawk can be seen shooting
downwards like a lighting flash on the Gazelle,
buffeting its head and blinding its eyes with the
rapid bknvs of its strong wings. Almost frantic
with fear and fury the Gazelle soon frees itself
from its feathered assailant by striking its head
upon the ground, and then resumes its flight;
but the relief is only momentary, for the per-
tinacious assailant as soon as shaken off renews
the attack, coming down on the antelope’s head
75
the mediterranean naturalist
again and again, releasing it only long enough j
to avoid being crushed or impaled upon its sharp
brow horns. Blinded at last and wearied by
these attacks, confused by the cries of the ap-
proaching huntsmen, the terrified and exhausted
Gazelle falls an easy prey to the Greyhounds
and pursuing horsemen. Sometimes a young or
badly-trained bird would fall a victim to his in-
terference; for the efforts of the Gazelle to
destroy, as well as to shake off, his tormentors,
inspired by the instinct of self-preservation, are
often as energetic as piteous to witness.” The
reader is not told what species of hawk is thus
employed, but it is evidently not the Goshawk,
for it is described as circling rapidly upward
until almost lost to sight. The flight is that of
a falcon, and unless there be some poetic license
in the description, which it is difficult to conceive
if the author were really an eye-witness of the
sport, it must be a falcon of some kind that is
used, and a powerful one too. The Peregrine
would scarcely be strong enough; it has nothing
like the grip of the Goshawk, as I know from
having carried both. The Icelander or the Jer-
falcon would, in all probability, not be obtain-
able; the Lanner and the Barbary Falcon would
be too small. What, then, is the species?— -Nat:
Hist. Rev.
Science Gossip.
The following is the areage of the principal
islands of the Mediterranean.
Sicily 10,500 sq. miles. Corsica 3337 sq. miles.
Sardinia 9,000 sq. miles. Crete 3320 sq. miles.
Cyprus 3584 sq. miles.
The last few months have been an anxious time
for the olive, grain, and almond growers of Algeria,
and Morocco, on account of the irreparable losses
that have been inflicted by the ravages of the
locusts.
The evil is, however, not altogether an unqua-
lified one, for the natives, both Jews, and Mahom-
rnedans, largely use the insects as food.
Tire locusts are collected in bags, and are taken
into the towns, where, after being boiled in salt
and water, they are parched over a clear fire.
The flavour of the insect, thus dried, is by no
means disagreeable, but resembles to a great
extent, the flavour of the prawn.
To the Cornhill for August Mr. Grant Allen
contributes a most interesting article in which he
points out that it is a great mistake to suppose
that it is in the tropics only where nature furnishes
the most gorgeous floral display.
“As a matter of fact, people who know the hot
world well can tell you that the average tropical
woodland is much more like the dark shade of
Box Hill or the deepest glades of the Black
Forest. For really fine floral display in the mass,
all at once, you must go, not to Ceylon, Sumatra,
Jamaica, but to the far north of Canada, the
Bernese Oberland, the moors of Inverness-shire,
the North Cape of Norway.
Flowers are loviiest where the climate is coldest;
forests are greenest, most luxuriant, least blos-
soming, where the conditions of life are richest,
warmest, fiercest.”
We beg to call the attention of our readers to
the “Special Notice” on the first page of this
number.
The article on “Cyprus” by Lieut. General Sir
R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G.,C,B., will be continued in
our next issue.
At the last meeting of the Geographical Society
of Berlin Dr. Kretschmer delivered his report of
the results of his studies and investigations in the
Italian libraries for cartographical material of the
Middle ages.
He was successful in discovering several “wheel
and compass maps,” that have hitherto been
unknown. It is the intention of the Society to
publish them in connection with the celebration
of the 400th. anniversary of the discovery of
America.
76
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATt RALTST
The Thernomoretz , a Russian survey ship unde
the direction of M. M. Schlindier Androussoff,
and Wrangel, is about to start on an expedition of
exploration in the Black Sea. No expense has
been spared by the Russian government to insure
the success of the expedition, and it is conse-
quently expected that the scientific results will
be of the highest importance.
The connection that lias been established bet-
ween the Indian Ocean, by way of the Red Sea,
and the Mediterraneon, has been the means of
partially restoring the former physical conditions
of the Mediterranean Area.
Of late years most marked changes have been
noted in the climate of the area; the average
mean degree of humidity is now much higher, and
the extremes of temperature are more marked,
while the Sirocco instead of being an occasional,
is now a constant visitant to the shores.
The fauna, too, is undergoing remarkable
changes, and it is now a not unusual occurrence to
find the Great White Shark of the Indian Seas,
which was until lately quite unknown in these
regions, disporting itself in the waters of the
Eastern basin of the Mediterranean. The waters
of the Adriatic are especially favoured by these
unwelcome intruders, owing no doubt to the more
equable temperature of its waters.
During the late naval manoeuvres, a specimen
of the white shark was caught that weighed four
tons, and that measured 33 feet in length.
Our contemporary “La Neptunia” contains a
brief, but interesting account of the equipment of
the Italian war ships “Scilla,” and the object of
the proposed scientific expedition in the Mediter-
ranean in which it is about to be engaged.
The 255th. anniversary of the foundation of the
University of IJtretch has just been observed with
great pomp and magnificence.
A correspondent writes, “It may interest th
of your readers who take an interest in the oi
thology of the Mediterranean, to know the birds
that are the most commonly met with in the
eastern basin. While anchored in Besika-Bay a
violent thunderstorm broke over the ship at about
7 a.m. after which the rigging of the vessel lite-
rally swarmed with birds among which I discermed
Turtle-doves, Swallows, Grey-headed Wagtails,
Titlarks, Whinchats, Striated Bunting, Shear-
waters, and Cuckoos.
Up the Dardanelles the most common birds ap-
peared to be the Shearwater, and a very pretty
gull with a black-head, and bright red legs and
beak. I shot one of the latter, and am taking the
skin home with me.”
The Geological Society of Italy have organized
a series of excursions to Sicily to take place
during the month of October.
On the 2nd. 3rd. and 4th. of the month,
Taormina will be made the head quarters, and
numerous trips will be made in the neighbour-
hood for the purpose of examining the local
formations.
On the 5th. instant the party are to proceed
to Catania; and on the following day Etna is to
be explored.
The 8th. instant is to be spent among the
scientific institutions of the Sicilian city; while
from the 9th. to the 12th. instant will be taken
up with visiting and studying the various strata
of Monte Pellegrino, Palermo, and Lereara,
Further particulars of the programme may be
had on application to Prof. R. Meli, 51, Via
Teatro Valle Roma.
A quarterly review, which is to be entirely
devoted to the geology of Italy is about to be
published at Rome under the direction of Messrs
M. Cermenati and A. Tellini. The annual sub-
scription is five shillings. Address “Eassegna
delle scienze geologiche — Roma.”
Editor J. H. Cooke B,Sc., F.G.S. Malta.
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1 Cyprus. — Lt. Gen. Sir R. Biddulpb, G.C.M.G., C.B. 29
2 The Culture of Figs -W„ F. Massey
•1 The Origin and Character of the Sahara. — Dr. John
Murray.
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5 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
—John H„ Cooke.
-6 Discovery of fossil remains at Arpino.
7 Insect plagues around the Mediterranean.
S J\ews of the Month:— Earthquake in Verona.— Dr.
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2 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
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3 Cyprus, (oont.) — Lt. Gen. R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G., C.B. 51
4 Rare occurrence of Ophrs Apif era . 53
5 Science Gossip:— Acclimatation of the reindeer in
Bavaria— British trade with Northern Africa—
The Balearic Isles— The potatoe disease—' La
Neptunia” — Discovery of a prehistoric burial
ground near Palermo— Temperature of the Me-
diterranean, etc. etc 53
6 The Eruption of Vesuvius 1891— Dr. H. J. Jobnston-
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7 Notes on the recent foraminifera of Malta— Messrs
Earland & J. H. Cooke . . .57
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CONTENTS.
— o« — Page
1 Natural Rsemblances— F. P. Marrat. 77
2 The Minerals Springs of Roumania. 79
3 Diseases of the Mediterranean Orange -J.H. Cooke. 79
4 A Coral Island on the Great Barrier Reef— Miss J.
E. Taylor. 82
5 Cyprus, (continued) -Lieut. -Gen., Sir R. Biddul'ph,
G.C.M.G., C.B. 83
6 Notes on the Lepidoptera of Malta — Alf. Caruana
Gatto, B.A. 85
7 The Salt Mountain of Palestine. 88
8 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
— J. H. Cooke. 88
9 Science Gossip: — Home Museums—' The South Ita-
lian Volcanos— Dragon Flies. V. Mosquitoes—
Penetrating power of light— Forthcoming scien-
tific publications. &c. See. 90
10 Correspondence: Our Birds. 92
11 Exchange Column. 92
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8
Notes on Some Natural Resemblances.
BY
F. P. Mart, at,
Free Public Museum , Liverpool :
During observations extending over a large
number of years, I have been much Interested in
noticing the curious and pleasing fact that certain
specimens in different groups of natural objects
resemble each other so greatly that the mind, of
the student is at once struck with the" reflection —
.May not the whole have been modelled after the
plan of a few originating types? The examples which
I am about to give in this paper are only selected
from such objects as readily, present themselves,
without paying any regard to the relation-ship or
the affinity that might be supposed to exist
amongst them. All that is aimed at is the general
resemblance which they bear to each other.
The materials from which these observations
have been drawn are .-contained in. the drawers oi
some of the table-cases exposed in the Free Public
Museum, Liverpool, and may be seen in Bird
Booms Nos. 1, 2, and 3 on the right hand side of
the Stone Gallery, which is reached at the top of
the stone steps facing the entrance.
Taking, firstly, the Mineral. Kingdom, we find
but few examples here afforded for comparison in
consequence of the rigidity of most of the species.
A single specimen of Chalcedony in my own ca-
binet is the only one that may be said to resemble
a plant. This piece is remarkable for its general
resemblance to a tree fungus, known to botanists
as a Polyporus. Everyone is acquainted with those
curious dendritic markings so frequently seen on
the various slates, leptinit.es, old red sandstones,
&c. A charming specimen roccurs io the second case
on the left hand side of the centre space of the.
Phillip’s Collection in the Liverpool Museum, in
which white Gotham marble forms the base and
the beautiful dendritic black oxide of manganese
the picture upon it. Landscape-marble, ruin
marble, and ruin-jasper are other examples which
may be enumerated in passing. The radiated brown
sulphate of Baryta, known as Devon marble, much
resembles a Section of wood, and, indeed, is often
mistaken for fossil wood.
From the extraordinary variation occurring a-
mong the Fungi, we should naturally except that
some of the species would be found to resemble
certain forms in other natural kingdoms. The
beautiful little “bird’s nest’’ fungus (Crueibufnm
vulgare) is wonderfully like a small bird's nest,
>78
THE MEDITERRANEAN
with the eggs lying at the bottom; indeed, it
would not be too great a stretcli of imagination to
suppose that it represented the nest of a tiny hum-
ming-bird. The sponges, too, which spring up in
an almost endless variety of forms, supply us with
many typical examples. Thus, the “bird’s nest”
sponge (Labaria hemispheric, a) closely resembles
the actual nest of a bird, not only in form, but in
the loose texture of the interior. Two other allied
sponges, Halteria Carpenteri and Pheronemn
Grayi , are each of this type. Another of the spoil
ges, Spongia infundibulum, is fashioned on simi-
lar lines to those of the coral, Turbina, ria crater,
both being funnel-shaped. A number of sponges
and corals also occur of cup-like or variform si ape
which are by no means rare, and each of these
two groups often exhibits bottle-shaped, calabash
and pod-like variations. It does not always follow,
as a natural consequence, that resemblances be
tween one living from and another should only
arise in closely-allied groups; thus we have the
following examples selected from the gorgonids:—
Pterogorgia , pinnata , petechizans , <&>■. which re-
semble the plumes of a bird.
Again, the Paragorgia arbor ea (a northern form
of Gorgonid) closely resembles a piece of ginger;
whilst the Rhyl logorgia dila ta ta h as 1 1 1 e external
form of an oak leaf, and the dainty Xiphogorgia
anceps in its growth might be compared to some
of the narrow leaved ferns.
The narrow, clavate stems of almost any spe-
cies of the coral genus Seriatopora have represen-
tative types in the genus C lav aria , a fungus.
Another form of fungus is so translucent that, in
general appearance, it could serve to place side by
side with some species of floating, jelly, -fish, such
as Aurelia , ( Ihrysaora , or Rhysostoma. The large
masses of semi-circular coral, known as “brain-
stones,” are very much like the labyrinthic mean-
dering markings of the brain. Again, one of the
lowest order of corals, Millepora alcicornis — so
named from the numerous small pores that dot
its surface — has several resemblances. It resem-
bles, in the first places, the palmated horns of the
elk, and almost every species of deer could find a
small set of horns similar to its own amongst the
varieties occurring on the rocky sea shore where it
is found. Stylaster is another very beautiful genus
of coral, which, if it were not for its brilliant co-
lours, we might place near the prickly gorse bush.
Lophoseris, with its rounded, lobed, and radiated
branches is by no means unlike the polyperi of
our trees. Two other forms, Prim.noa and Ca.li-
gorgia might be compared with the light and Open
work in the feathers of the heron or egret.
Antipathies is also much like those last mentioned,
but partakes more of the appearance of stiff, bu-
shy, and shiny shrubs. The red coral ( Corallum
rubrum) resembles a strong, thick repeatedly-bran-
ched red tree, the tips of its branches being pecu-
liarly sharp pointed.
Certain corn
ds have the
margin
1 tl
leir orifices
sharp, meeting
' at various
angles-
— fill
ich
as may be
seen in the Pi
topi ust f'(( f
7/ —
- q
plan which
is repeated in
t lie sponge
Tuba /,
mdcheri
ft i
a. Another
coral type, D<
\choc vnia j
•im<
7,
consist of a
series of unite*
rl
LI HI U< /n, I let
wing tin
g n
iar
gin of the
apertures rour
ided as if f(
>lded in
war
■ds,
and a very
similar group *
of Z ornithic
Is is f oi
unil
c> occur in
the genus Pat
ytlioa.
Numerous e
xamples mi
ght be j
rrjv(
of the long
slender-branch
LOCI S|)On£fG.>
; but 1 ’
will
or
ilv mention
a few of the L
>est known
i ns tan
CCS
I he fresh-
\ water S pong-ilia flumat il< <, occurring in the canals
j and ponds near Liverpool, and the Jlalichandtia
oculata (a species found in the Mersey).
Trees have also representative forms in a group
, of corals named Dendrophyllia, amongst which
I are the Mediterranean scented coral Dendrophy-
! ha rcbinum and the black coral P. nigrescens. rl hat
marvel of beauty, Madrcpura erhianata, and seve-
| ral species in the genus Oeulina , are tree-like in
i form. Gup-shaped corals, sponges, Ac., are com pa -
I ratively common; one of the largest, as well as the
j best known species is Neptune’s Gup-sponge. Fan-
I shaped corals and sponges are not so numerous,
i the former being usually rather small, but they
j form an interesting group for the student. The
i Chinese Flahellum pavoninurn, or peacock’s-tail
! coral, and the following sponges — Spongia Jla hel-
ium and flag el l if or mis, are representatives. In
the Zoanthid series we find some remarkable
specimens, one of which- the Rmtilla Americana
— has all the appearance of a fungus with the stem
placed in a side slit, of the pileus. Those very re-
markable objects, the Sea-pens, resemble — as their
name implies— a b unt quill with its side feathers.
Although we may not be able to say that cer-
tain generic groups always possess any striking
likeness to each other, still, the following resem-
blance in the mode of supplying the progeny who
live in closely-allied groups is interesting. The
shells of a certain genus of stationary mollusca,
the, Yenagoda. are perforated on one side from top
to bottom, so that the water m iy pass into the
tubes of the animal without its being compelled
to crawl out. In the coral genus, Distichopora , an
external and perforated slit performs the same
office; that is, it conveys water and food without
the necessity of moving from its house. Another
coral, the prickly Echinophora, won 1 d well compare
with of the cactus tribe; - the circular depres-
sions in the plant, surrounded with radiated,
needle-like spines, are by no means dissimilar
from these in the coral. I do not think that these
pines, either in the coral or the plant, may be
viewed as defensive weapon s, because the coral
has as many holes bored in i by its enemies as
most other corals have, and the cactus plant suf-
fers quite as much from the animals which feed
upon it as most other plants do.
We can hardly regard this subject in the light
of “Mimicry”; at all events, it seems impossible to
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
79
assign any useful or protective purpose to the fact
that one natural object possesses a strong resem-
blance in form to another in a totally different
group. Perhaps a more careful study of the subject
may throw some light upon it, and we may then
hope to find a solution to this rather difficult
question.
I have simply called these “natural resemblan-
ces,” because in the present state of our knowledge
they appear to be nothing more noteworthy.
In this subject there is full scope for work in a
new field, and one that is certainly not likely to
soon come to an end. In pointing out the variable
nature of the objects in the foregoing observations
it will not be the first time that my pen has an-
nounced the fact that endless variation is the rule,
and not the exception to the rule in Nature.
The Mineral Springs of Ronmania.
The mineral waters of Roumania have long been
noted for their medicinal properties. They are of
three kinds, ferruginous, sulphurous, and alkaline ;
and they are not confined to any particular loca-
lity but are found in every part of the kingdom.
The springs of Preidal and Cornu in the district
of Prahova contain both iodine and bromine in
abundance. With the exception of the springs at
Cozia, which has a temperature of 75° centegrade,
all of the waters are quite cold.
The following is the description given by M.
Pierre Poenar of the Salt Lake Balta-Alba, at the
end of his account of the mineral riches of Rouma-
nia. This lake is situated at 12 kilometres (about 7?
miles) from the town of Rimnik- Sarat, in the mid-
dle of a vast plain; it is 7 kilom. (about 4 \ miles)
long, and varies in breadth from two to three
hundred metres; its depth is from one to two
metres only. The water of this lake is very salt,
and forms saline deposits on the borders, where
it is of a reddish-brown colour, and nauseous to
the taste, on account of the multitudes of its a-
quatic birds, whose excrement (guano) is cons-
tantly driven upon the shores, At a few yards
from the side, the water is very clear, colourless,
and odourless; but has a strong saline taste, though
rather bitter. Its specific gravity is 1.112; and
its mean temperature 19° Centigrade (15° Reau-
mur). The bottom of the lake near the centre
is level, very firm, and sandy; whilst the shores
present a bottom of black greasy mud, exhaling
constantly an odour of sulphuretted hydrogen.
This mud contains the remains of the numer-
ous aquatic plants which cover nearly the whole
surface of the water in the shallower parts. It is
much used in cutaneous diseases, rheumatisms,
scrofula, &c. The mud is applied to the affected
part, and is allowed to dry in the sun. This treat-
ment is repeated several times in the day; and
a bath is taken in the lake at night and morn-
ing. The lake Balta-Alba appears to owe its
origin to subterranean springs passing through
some of the layers of salt spoken of above. Its
water has been incompletely analysed; it contains
chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda, with a
little carbonate of lime and sulphate of magnesia.
Diseases of the Mediterranean Orange.
The extent to which the systematic culture of
the orange tree is practised in the regions around
the western basin of the Mediterranean is so great,
that the export of the fruit constitutes one of the
principal and most lucrative industries of the
district.
In Southern France, Spain, Italy, Sicily, and
many of the Islands of the Mediterranean, large
areas of land are devoted to the cultivation of the
groves ; and a large percentage of the population of
these districts is dependent upon the results of
the yearly crops for their means of subsistence.
The many variable circumstances, that affect the
growth and the propagation of the orange-plant,
render its cultivation but an uncertain mode of
livelihood. Of these, the most common are causes,
having their origin either in the climatic or
geognostic peculiarities of the country, or in di-
seases that have been induced by the presence of
insectivorous or other animate foes. So extensive
indeed, have been the ravages of these and other
causes of a similar nature, that the damage done
has often been the origin of the most widespread
misery among the cultivators, in consequence of
the incalculable loss that has followed the failure
of the crops. Capital and labour have alike been
involved, and have alike suffered.
Latterly, however, the attention of the scientist,
as well as of the capitalist has been drawn towards
the subject; and now, considered from a utilita-
rian point of view, no branch of research can be
said to have had more careful thought bestowed
upon it, or to have been productive of more real
good to society, than that which relates to the
study of practical entomology.
Insect-pests, have ever been one of the greatest
evils that the agriculturist has had to contend with.
Between the members of the animal, and the
vegetable creation there are many and striking
resemblances, of which the tendency to tentative
disease and ultimate decay is, perhaps, not the
least remarkable. Plants, like animals, are healthy
or unhealthy according to the conditions under
which they are called into existence, and accord-
ing to the methods that are employed in bringing
them to maturity. Like animals, too, they are,
liable to diseases, the characteristic symptoms of
which are sometimes exhibited externally, and
admit of a ready application of suitable remedies ;
and sometimes are so obscure, that a skilful diag-
nosis founded on an intimate acquaintance with
the nature, structure, and habits of the plant is
necessary, before either the cause or the remedy
can be known. Rapid strides have been made in
this direction of late years, though, paradoxical
80
THE MEDITERRANEAN
NATURALIST
as the assertion may appear, it is nevertheless,
a fact, that now ithstan ding the scientific methods
that are now employed in the cultivation ni
plant life, that both the number, mid the so\
rity of the diseases that the modern agriculture list
has to combat, are much more formidable t i • , • ■
those with which his predecessors v, ere tn mbhi !.
The system of unduly forcing, and of over ibri ii
sing the plants is in a great degree answerable for
this, for by creating conditions that arc. opposed to
the natural processes, the plants are thus predis-
posed to diseases, which as time passes, get
more varied iu their forms, and more in! mi if •
in their effects.
The modern systems, too, often interfere with the
balance of Nature by destroying not only tic
injurious insects, but also the parasites, birds, and
animals that are their natural foes, an that
would, if not interfered with, tend to keep Ac e
scourges in subjection.
The rapid means of transit that now exist
between different parts of the world, and the
extensive interchange of commodities that, un in
rally follows are also instrumental in fos'ering
and disseminating disease. It was thus that the
scale insect Icerya purchasi , which made so •];
havoc in the orange groves of Cape Colony a b -'
years ago, found its way among the Californian
fruit trees; and it was thus that the Hessian -tiy
was transported from the United States to the
cultivated regions of Europe.
The devastation that insect pests have wrought
during the last thirty years has not been con-
fined to any one family of plants, or to any
special region of the globe; though certain
families appear to have suffered more severe1;/ in
particular localities than in others.
Judging from the stastistics that have boon
given to us by such authorities as Hubbard of the
United States, and Miss Omcrod of Cape Colony,
the Mediterranean fruit in general, and the orange
in particular, is more liable to disease than is
the fruit of Florida, California, Cape Colony or
any other great fruit growing centre.
The reasons for this incongruity will be more
apparent after a brief consideration of some of the
most common of the forms of disease.
An abnormal condition of the Mediterranean
orange plant is invariably marked by unmistakea-
ble evidences of disease, of which the splitting of
the fruit, the searing of the leaves, and the con-
stant falling of both leaves and fruit from the tree
are of the most frequent occurrence.
As a rule, such signs as these are but the premo-
nitory symptoms of worse evils; but, if they be
but properly and methodically treated, a tempo-
rary cure may be effected.
This form of disease is of frequent occurrence
in the orange groves of Malta, Sicily, Barbary,
and Italy, where the equable climatic conditions
that prevail, tend to promote the longevity and
the propagation of the parasites ( Hciniptcm) to
win
>in the misc
hi id-
is du<
Though they
ai t*
in-
vet<
mate encmh
's to
the n
ICC
dy bug ( Dart
flu/U
u< ),
ano
ther orange
SCO
•urge,
y<
jt the havoc 1
hat they
ere?
ite by puuct
‘ii pin
ig the
f
ruit and cuusi
ng it to
rot.
and fall to
the <
grown
I,
is often so gr<
eat ai
s to
rieci
essitate the
rub’
iption
o;
f drastic met)
is
for
thei
r extermina
tion
F
or some vet
irs }
iast, o
on
siderable dam
mge
lias
heei
n d me in Si
cily
and Ii
tal
y by the rava
iges (
>f- a
spec
fies of bark-
lice
know]
as the Mealy-1
bug.
It
belc
ings to the s
sub-i
familv
c
f necinct ', and i
■ pro
pa-
gate
58 its species
; wit
h sue)
l r
apidity that th
ic leaves
of tl
he infested
tree
s are
r;
tpidlv covered
with a
dirt
y, white tic
ICCIll
ent iv
lat
ter in which
the e
| are laid and hatched. The fruit of the trees, that
are. so attacked, never come to maturity.
Another mite that is equally dreaded, and which
is exceedingly common in Sicily, is the orange
louse Ca/uindium citri.
Its presence many be known by the peculiar
white substance with which it encrusts the
leaves, and by the black fungus which grows
whomever the adult ejects the honcydow that it
secretes. It is this black fungoid growth that
gives tlie sooty .appearance to the leaves, which
is so characteristic of this disease. They arc
exceedingly destructive in their habits; and no
kind of fruit is free from their attacks. Their
fecundity is enormous, it being estimated that
every female produces from 200 to 500 young; and
the young mature, and produce a new brood in
about three months.
In the Malta and Sicilian orange, the smut
fungus often extends to the fruit itself and makes
a brownish ring on the outer skin, which gives
to the orange the appearance of a russet apple.
Th s is, however, n >t to be confounded with the
d sease which is caused by the rust mite.
The rusty appearance, that many oranges have,
especially those from Sicily, is due to the presence
of minute parasites ( TyphUnlromus ohimrux)
which embed themselves in the epithelial cells of
the outer rind of the fruit, in such numbers, as
to impart to it a rusty, brownish colour. This
disease is very common all round the Mediter-
ranean. It neither affects the growth nor the
quality of the fruit to any appreciable extent;
yet the unsightly appearance that it causes the
oranges to present, lowers then commercial value
in the market.
Of the scale insects, the most dreaded both
in the orange groves of the Mediterranean,
and the coffee plantations of Arabia is the
mealy-bug. Dactt/lopins destructor was the chief
cause of the ravages in the orange groves in
Italy, and Southern France in 1806, (L’Abbe
Loquez); and from the records that have since
been kept, it is to be held accountable for much
of the mischief that, is now being done.
It usually deposits its eggs on the under side
of the leaf, from whence the young larvae spread
in all directions, soon after they are hatched.
IflE MEDITERRANEAN NATi UALiST 81
The smut fungus is an invariable sign of its
presence.
Dactyhpius Adonidmn. Lin. is another species
that is equally as common, and as destructive as
D. destructor. In 1882-1883 it committed much
havoc both in Italy and in Morocco.
Among the most efficacious of the precaution-
ary measures that are recommended for the exter-
mination, or the prevention of the spread of this
insect, are the thinning of the branches of the
trees, and the regular washing of the trunk and
branches with emulsions made soap and water,
of kerosene highly diluted with water, or with
sour milk and water.
Plenty of light is a sine qua non , and clean-
liness must be punctiliously observed. The free
use of powdered sulphur is also an effective
remedy. The best way to apply it being to mix
the sulphur in water, and spray the trees with the
mixture. The sulphur causes the scales to reli-
quish their hold and fall to the ground, where
they may be at once chotroyed%
For some years part much damage has been
done in the Malta fruit gardens by insect pests;
and so general was the distress of the gardeners in
1888, that a commission was appointed by the
late Governor to .enquire into the causes, and to
suggest remedies for the evil.
The Committee under the presidency of Major
General Hales Wilkie entered into correspondence
with several notable entomologists, among whom
were Miss Omerod, Prof. Targumi Fozzetti, Prof.
C. Emery, and Prof. Penziz, and from them much
valuable information was elicited.
it was discovered that the diseased trees were
infested with the scale insect Coccus he spend- von;
and that it was to this insect that the splitting and
falling of the fruit was largely due.
The following mode of treatment for its exter-
mination was recommended by the Malta Commis-
sion.
If necessary the trees should be pruned. The
foliage should then be syringed from beneath
with the an emulsion, in order that the under
portions of the leaves should be well washed.
To make the emulsion take four pounds of soft
soap, and a quart of parafine oil. Mix the soap
with a gallon of hot water until it is of the consis-
tency of treacle, after which add the oil slowly,
and mix rapidly .
Dilute this with nine gallons of warm water;
and keep it thoroughly mixed while using.
After the mixture has been on the trees for two
days, the leaves should be well syringed with clean
water, so as to remove, the soap and the dead
insects.
Sometimes this process has to be repeated; but
usually one operation is sufficient.
But extensive as is the mischief wrought by
its attacks, they are not to be compared with
those for which the orange fly, “Trypeia5' Cerati-
dus ciiriperda , is to be held responsible. For many
years past it has been devastating the fruit gardens
of the Mediterranean region, and it was chiefly
to its destructive propensities that the fruit famine
of 1888 was due.
This season (1891) the pears, apricots, and figs
are alike more or less effected by it, and so nume-
rous do the insects appear to be, that it is hardly
to be expected that the’ orange groves of the is-
lands will escape entirely free.
It is when the fruit is arriving at maturity that
the fly makes its first appearance.
It then punctures the fruit, and lays its eggs
within it, and in the course of eight or ten days a
large, white, fleshy grub, without legs, and having
two small black hooks at the front of the body,
which it alternately protrudes and retracts, is de-
veloped. The functions of these hooks are to tear
the membranes of the fruit, in order that it may
obtain access to the contained juices. Its presence
in the fruit may usually be detected by the ring of
discolouration that surrounds the punctured hole.
It does not confine its attention to any fruit in
particular, but it attacks alike the pear, peach,
pomegranate, nectarine, apricot, and prickly pear.
The fruit in which the larvae develope usually fail
tc the ground and while there the grub eats its
way out, and undergoes its metamorphosis on the
ground beneath the tree. The following descrip-
tion of the full grown fly will enable the observer
to instantly recognise it. “It is half the size of
the common fly. The wings are transparent, with
about sixteen very small black spots at the base
and margins, and four dark yellowish dots, having
different directions. Its feet are yellow; and the
male has two clubbed atennae.
Its abdomen is yellow beneath; and its thorax
is black, smooth, and shiny.
it is very active, and is very tenacious of life,
being able to endure 12 days of fasting. It is
fond of sugary aliments.
The male is somewhat larger that the female.
The whole period of metamorphasis occupies about
sixty days/’ {(Julia.)
Many suggestions w ere made for the extermina-
tion of this scourge; but all of them entailed con-
siderable trouble and expense.
Anipng the plans suggested was that of collect-
ing all fallen fruit before the maggots had time to
come forth and bury themselves in the soil, and
placing it in tanks of water, where a mash might
be made that afterwards might be utilized as
manure"
The spraying of the trees with a weak solution
of petroleum and water; and wrapping each fruit
in a muslin bag were also found to be efficacious.
Such are a few of the more common pests that
infest the fruit of these regions. Stastisties,
however, show that the Mediterranean area does
not stand alone. Cape Colony, Florida, India all
are alike troubled in this respect, and all suffer
in a greater or a lesser degree from the same
causes.
82
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Of late years considerable interest has been
evinced in the matter, and committees of inves-
tigation have been appointed in different parts of
the globe for the purpose of devising some means
whereby the evil effects of insect ravages may be
minimised as much as possible.
Most of these investigations have been carried j
out on a strictly scientific basis, and they have \
not only been the means of enabling us to increase j
our knowledge of the extent of the insect-world4
but they have also given us an opportunity of ,
obtaining an insight into the life histories ( >f J
insects in general, and of that of insect pests in
particular.
This systematic study of insect habits and
characteristics has shown more clearly than any
other branch of Zoology, the exact relations in
which insects and plants hand to one another;
and it has enabled us to appreciate the more fully
that theory of “adaptation of insects to plants,
and of plants to insects, and the mutual de-
pendence of the one upon the other”, which the
great master-mind of Darwin conceived and pro-
pounded upwards of a quarter of a century ago.
J. H. Cooke.
A Coral Island on the Great BarrierReef.
We left Sandy Cape, a Northern point of Trazeos
Island about 8.30. a. m. and steamed away to Lady
Eliot Island. I can’t give you the exact position’of
the Island, but it lies, I think, east of Gladstone on
the Queensland Coast, and is at the S. E. corner of
the Great Barrier Rqef. The Light-house is first
seen; this comes into view from the deck of the
steamer at a distance of about 11 miles, and 13 from
the bridge. When you can first really see the
Island it looks like a long, low, black bank against
the sky, with the Lighthouse standing isolated in
the centre. Is the black mass all coral, I asked? “No,
those are trees.” Trees on a Coral Island ! Here
was the first blow to my preconceived notions of
what a coral Island ought to be. A few graceful
palms I did not mind, but clumps of trees! Nearer
still a stretch of what looked like light, brown
sand, (but it was coral.) Then a low white bank. I
lost sight of the Island for a moment as the
steamer turned, and when I saw it again, being
now quite close, it burst upon me with a thrill of
surprise. A long, low bank of white coral; abso-
lutely white it looked; white as the coral of one’s
* Extract from a letter from Miss J. E.
Taylor Maryborough , Queensland to , T. Mellard
JReade. Esqr. Liverpool .
dreams, white as driven snow against the deep blue
colour of the water. This is all that can be seen,
a shelving bank of white coial, isolated masses of
trees, the lighthouse, and two small woodenhouses.
I should judge that the Island is about threequar-
ters of a mile long, and half a mile broad. We all got
into a boat and went ashore. White masses of coral
gleam through the clear water which is of the love-
liest colors, in patches of brilliant, emerald green
and sapphire blue. On landing you think how
different this is from the coral atoll one has so
often read of, the ring of white, set in a blue ocean,
the few graceful palm trees raising their heads
heaven-wards, and within, the pale green waters
of the Lagoon. The beach here is made up of
broken pieces of coral of every size, shape, and
form, and in every state of wear, from fresh pieces
recently detached from the living coral, to pieces
worn so thin that they look like artificially
smoothed marble.
When you mount this bank which has a max-
imum height of twelve feet above the sea level, you
see neither Lagoon, nor bare expanse of white coral
rock, but an exceedingly level stretch of grass-
grown land. Here and there, in patches, are bare
spaces of grey coral conglomerate, grey as any
ancient limestone of carboniferous times and
evidently founded upon the parent reef, for pieces
of coral rock of all Shapes and sizes, together with
imbedded shells are plainly to be seen. The grass
consists of conch grass, Kangaroo grass (which was
! planted here by the lighthouse keepers wife) and
one on two other kinds. One on two small plants
as wild Carrot, sour grass, and others some with
small succulent leaves, but none of any size. Two
trees appear to flourish on the Island; the Pan-
da uns (or Bread fruit tree as it is commonly called
here, though it is not' the true bread fruit), the
other, whose name I do not at present know, grows
in close clusters. The tops of the trees are shorn
smooth in a regular curve, ascending gradually
from the ocean side of the Island. The leaves are
large and green, sub-rotund in shape with entire
margins, venation reticulate on the pennate type.
The wood when dry is very friable, crumbling to
the touch. A third tree has been planted there
and seems to do well; its leaves are said to be
peculiarly fattening to goats. Of land fauna
there is little except grasshoppers, which are a
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
83
perfect pest. Goats and sheep, are both reared
here but there are, at present, too few people on
the Island to eat them, so they live in peace.
Round the greater part of the Island there is,
at the top of the gradually sloping band of coral
fragments I have already mentioned, a second
ridge which the Lighthouse Keeper’s wife told me
had been thrown up almost entirely during the
last, great gale. Below this sloping bank of broken
coral to about a distance of a quarter of a mile to
lowtide level, grows a great variety of small
branched corals, the average size being about as
big as a large cabbage. There are also many kinds
of small stone coral, like what I think I have
heard people call “brain stone” coral. All these
corals do not grow together into a solid continuous
mass, but like a forest of trees, here thickly, there
more sparsely. Many sCange sea-beasts are to be
seen here, the Beche de Mer looking like a great
black, slimy, animated sausage. A great, green
repulsive looking slug, like a gigantic, green,
frilled snail. Large blue star fishes, giant clams
with their exquisitely tinted shells, which it is
said, snap-shut with sufficient force to take your
foot off; but I dont know if this is so. I did not
try. Echini armed with their numerous spines
lie snugly ensconced in cosy nooks.
But the colours of the coral itself were disap-
pointing. There were none of the vivid pinks and
greens in these shallow water corals that one
hears such wonderful descriptions of. Beyond the
area of shallow water is a long line of breakers
showing the outer limit of the reef, and beyond it
again are the deep blue waters of the Pacific
Ocean. Well, those are my impressions of the
Island, it was a delightful experience, and one I
am glad to have had. I shall go again if f get the
chance. You could make a level}- collection of
things if you were there long enough.
CYPRUS,
by Lieut.-General Sir R. Biddulph, g.c.m.g., c.b.,
late H. M. High Commissioner, Cyprus.
( Continued.)
The total cost of the locust destruction from
1879 to 188.5, was 66,000/; but as the loss to the
crops in a single year, had no steps been taken to
destroy them, would have been not less than
80,000/., the outlay has been recouped many
times over. The manner in which locusts destroy
green vegetation is perfectly appalling. With
marvellous rapidity, and regardless of any in-
; terruption, they strip off every green thing, and
i in a few hours the green fields which they
attack disappear, leaving a few brown stalks
issuing from what appears to be a fallow field.
The Cyprus locust lays its eggs in hard rocky
ground. Each female deposits a cocoon, which
contains usually, thirty-two eggs. The female
bores a hole in the ground to nearly the depth of
her own body, and there deposits the cocoon, which
she then covers over with earth. Attempts were
made at first to destroy the locusts by collecting
the eggs, but though as much as 1300 tons weight
were collected in one year, it was found to be a
useless expense, and that the screen system could
not be dispensed with.
The prevalence of locusts in Cyprus is noted in
an old chronicle of the thirteenth century, but
it is only since the forests were destroyed that
they have made head in the manner which has
been so notable in modern times. It is not likely
that the great breeding grounds of the locusts
will ever again be clothed with forest; and we
must look for the disappearance of the locust
when the population increases, and with it the
cultivation.
The population of Cyprus at the census of
1881 was 186,000, of whom one-quarter are Ma-
hometans, and the remainder of the Creek
Church. It is said that under the Venetians
the population was 2,000,000, but it is believed
that it did not exceed half that number. An
English traveller who visited Cyprus in 1815,
states that the population then was between
60,000 and 70,000, and the , produce of the Island
was then so small that the population must
have been very scanty.
The people are almost wholly agricultural, the
principal products being wheat, barley, cottoiq
carobs, olives, and grapes. From the latter is
made an excellent wine, which has been famous
from the earliest ages. It was the excellence of
the wine which led to the Ottoman conquest of
Cyprus by Selim II. That monarch, being very
found of wine, sent an expedition, in 1570, to
take the island. The agricultural operations are
84
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
•WAS
carried on in a most primitive manner, and tire
wine is manufactured in the rudest way, the
bunches of grapes being squeezed under planks,
and obtaining a rough acrid taste from the stalks
and grape-stones which are squeezed with them.
The amount of wine made every year in ( y is
is about 1,600,000 gallons, of which about four-
fifths is exported, chiefly to France, Egypt, and
Turkey.
The agricultural prosperity of Cyprus is a
matter of the gravest interest to the Government,
for on that prosperity the revenue entirely
depends. There are hardly any large properties in
Cyprus, and still fewer instances of land worked
on the tenant former system. It is emphatically
a land of peasant proprietors, with the result that
there are no wealthy persons and no beggars. ,
Property is universally divided amongst the j
children, and again subdivided, so that one hears
of a man owning the sixteenth part of a hovel
that is not worth as many shillings. To such an
extent is the subdivision carried out, that there
are no less than 600,000 registered holdings o!
real property, i= e. more than three for each inha-
bitant. On each holding there is a land tax of
of four per 1000 of its registered value, and the
collection of such small sums from s:> many
owners causes much labour and difficulty. The
chief tax on land is, however, the tithe, which is,
under Turkish law, the actual tenth part of the
• produce. It is not quite right to speak of it as
a tax, it is really a reserved rent. In Mahometan
countries all the land belongs to the State, i. e.
the Crown. As each country was conquered the
Sultan granted the lands, reserving one-teutli of
the produce as rent, and the land passes subject 1
to that reservation. Nor can it be said to be a a
excessive rent. In India we find one-sixth, one-
fourth, and even one-third reserved. Joseph
reserved one-fifth in the land of Egypt In En-
gland the landlord is supposed to get one-third,
leaving two-thirds for the tenant occupier.
At might be expected, in a country which is
almost wholly occupied by peasants, the houses
are poor, and exhibit little architectural skill or
beauty. They are mostly built of sun-dried
bricks; the* villages usually contain from twenty
to eighty houses, and there are but few consi-
derable towns. The principal of these are : the
capital, Nicosia, situated in the centre of the
island, and having 12,000 inhabitants; Larnaca, the
chief seaport, with about 7000 inhabitants; and Li-
massol, also on the south coast, with about 6000
inhabitants These two ports divide between them
nearly the whole of the sea-borne trade, Larnaca
taking nearly half the exports and three-quarters
of the imports, and Limassol the rest of the imports
and about half the exports. There is also a small
export trade from the ports of Famagusta, Papho,
and Lefka, and a moderate trade at Ivyrenia,
chiefly carried on with the opposite coast of Ka-
ramania. To facilitate trade good iron piers have
been built at Larnaca and Limassol; and a break
water at Kyrenia, where the small country vessels
suffered much in winter from northerly gales.
The town of Nicosia presents a pleasing and
picturesque appearance to the traveller approach-
ing it from the south. It lies compactly situated
within a line of old fortification, which describe a
regular circle round the town. As there is no
suburb outside the wall, the ramparts neatly finish
off the houses, whose roofs appear above them in
in pleasing irregularity. The area enclosed by the
fortifications is less than a square mile, but at
least half of it is occupied by gardens, as nearly
every house has a garden attached to it; and
viewed from the heights above, the houses are
are mixed with palm-trees, and orange-trees, the
latter in great abundance, and scenting the air
of the streets quite heavily when in blossom.
Rising above all the surrounding buildings is
the old Latin cathedral, now a mosque, with two
handsome minarets built on to it. This is kept
in very good repair, and underneath the carpets
which cover the floor may be seen the old grave-
stones with the names and effigies of knights and
ladies with Latin or old French inscriptions.
Before the Turkish conquest in 1570, Nicosia
occupied a much larger area than it does at pre-
sent; but in anticipation of the Turkish attack,
and probably in order to facilitate the defence,
the old fortifications were thrown down, and the
present ramparts constructed to enclose a much
smaller area. All the houses outside the new line
of defences were destroyed, and the old ramparts
may still be easily traced although they are an-
nually ploughed over.
85
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
The point where the Turks attacked was marked
for future ages by the erection of a mosque on
the breach. There it stands to this day, being
called the “Standard-bearer’s Msoque.” It marks
the spot where the leader of the Turkish stor-
ming party planted the flag of the Crescent on
the very summit of the breach, and there he
fell. The Moslems, however, pressed ..forward and
drove the Venetians backwards into the town.
The defence of the latter must have been most
gallant as they fell bek on the Governor’s pala-
ce. The track of the conquerors may be traced
to this day by the tombs of their leaders who
fell during their advance, and, according to Tur-
kish custom, were subsequently buried where they
fell. The Standard-bearer was buried on the sum -
mit of the breach where the mosque now stands.
At intervals along the streets leading to the old
palace, now the “Ivonak” or Government Office,
are the tombs of others of the Turkish leaders,
and when we get to the Kodak they are nume-
rous. In the gateway itself is one, just outside
is another, others in the courtyard and in the
garden, and some upstairs in the rooms. You
open a door of one of the offices, and in the
corner is a tomb covered with a green flag. AH
the tombs are similarly cared for, and it strikes
me as a fine soldierly trait of the Turkish cha-
racter thus to hand down in perpetual remem
brance the fame of the soldiers who achieved the
Ottoman conquests, by the silent witness of their
tombs on the spots where they fell. At the time
of the British occupation, everything seemed to
to have been left untouched since the arrival of
the Turks. On the ramparts there were the Vene-
tian guns — large bronze pieces, each profusely
ornamented and engiaved with the name of the
founder and the badges of the Republic; the car-
riages quite unserviceable from the effect of time;
the shot, round and barshot, neatly piled up by
the side of each gun; the magazines filled with
powder, and over the door of the principal one,
the armoured headpiece of a horse, such as you
may see in the Tower of London — the last relic
in Cyi >rus of the Venetian Knights.
Notes on the Lepidoptera of Malta.
Entomological studies, and I may venture to say
all researches regarding the entomofauna of these
islands, have been so completely neglected that
even the favourite study of the Lepidoptera has
been everlooked to such an extent that a complete
and exact catalogue of the few species that are to
be found in the islands, has not yet been published.
This might be attributed to the small number
of local species, and to their little importance,
which, with few exceptions, have neither led col-
lectors to care for them, nor naturalists to apply
themselves to this particular study.
But though the species are neither rare nor pe-
culiar to these islands, it does not therefore follow
that they are undeserving of attention.
They should be known and recorded if it be but
for the purpose of rendering the knowledge of our
entomological fauna more complete.
In the course of my botanical rambles in various
localities of the island at different seasons of the
year I made a point of collecting the butterflies
that I. met with, putting them carefully away for
after study. I must gratefully acknowledge the
very valuable assistance that was accorded me in
my work by my esteemed friend Mr. R. Brif-
fa P.A.A., who not only assisted me in collecting
the specimens, but who also lent me his aid by
comparing my notes as to locality and time with
those of his own. To Mr. Bagusa and Dr. Riggio
I am also indebted for the great courtesy shown to
me, and for the determination and explanation of
some of the species, many of which they compared
with others both in the Museum of Palermo, and
in their own collections.
To the celebrated lepidopterists Dr. Staudinger
and to Dr. Failia Tedaldi I am also indebted
for like services, and I now beg to offer them my
sincere thanks. To ascertain what had previously
been done, in order that I might know what to
add to our present knowledge and what to modify,
I had to make a bibliographical research. I *ef erred
to the collections thatJiad already been made by
those who bad interested themselves in the study
but so few were they, that with the exception of
the collections of Mr. Brifla which contain nu-
merous selected a ud well kept examples, that u
(To be continued.)
86
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
M. Car uana Gatto, my uncle, and that of my own,
I was, I am sorry to say, unable to find any other
in the island.
Father Libassi had one which up to some time
ago could be seen at the University of Valletta,
but having been badly kept and neglected it was
quite useless, “There remaining nothing in it” as
Mr. Fraser observed in a letter written to “Nature'1
in 1889 “but an empty box”. The late Prof. (Julia
also had one, which he utilized for his “Corso di
Entomologia”, but it appears that it is now no
longer in existence.
The oldest lists of Maltese insects extant is a
manuscript one which was drawn up by Dr.
Schembri the late Rector of Valletta U niversity.For
many’ years it lay in the library of the institution
unknown to any one, until through the kindness of
Prof. N. Tagliaferro it was brought to my notice
and used by me. It is, however, nothing but a
mere enumeration of the species that were contain-
ed in the collection of Father Libassi: and ii it
there are 13 Rapoloceri, five of which I do not
think were taken in Malta, and this, because there
are several other examples in the same collection,
that are certainly foreign to the island. These
five species are Pitris napi , P. crotaegi , Satyrvs
bathseba , Arginnis aclippe and C olios hyale.
The other species are : — Papilio machaon , Va-
nessa atalanta , V. Cardui , Piet is brassicce , Saty-
rus janira, S. maegera , Rhodocera rhamni.
In a series of letters writting by Mr. George
Waring under the title of “Letters of a naturalist
from Malta and Sicily” and published in 1843
there is a brief reference to the Colias ednsa , to
Papilio machaon arid to the Pieris brassica: which
were found here. W. Tallack in his book “Malta
under the Phoenicians-, Knights, and English” 1861
adds P. Dap lid ice, C. hyale , Pol ageslis and II.
Janira.
The first book which treated exclusively of Mal-
tese insects was the “Corso elementaredi Entorno-
logia maltese” which was published in 1858 by Prof.
G. Gulia; but the elementary character of the work,
and the abundance of uncertain facts and. undeter-
mined species take away a great deal of the value
that it would otherwise have had. Referring to
the butterflies, Prof. Gulia enumerates the follow-
ing 12 species: — P. brassicoe et. var. crucivora , P.
napi , Rhodocera rhamni , R. cleopatra , V, atalanta ,
Ochsenhumeria cardui, P. machaon , P. podalirius ,
E. edusa , C. lesbia , Polyam. phle.as , P . argus.
Of these P. podalirius , P. napi , C. lesbia, Pol.
argus and the var, crucivora of P. brassicce have
no right to be figured among the Maltese species;
and consequently in his “Repertorio di Storia Na-
turale” which was kindly lent to me by Dr. Gulia
I find that under the heading Farfett (the Maltese
word for butterflies in general) lie has left out the
last three species, and added instead II. janira, II.
maegera, C. pamphtlus , and P. daplidice which
were at first omitted.
Of this “Repertorio” but very few copies were
originally printed, and the work is, therefore, now
a very rare one.
The Rev. G. Godwin in his little volume “The
Geology, Botany, and Natural History of the
Maltese Islands, 1882” refers to the above men-
tioned entomological course, but without nothing
either the corrections or the addenda.
More recently still, Mr. Fraser inserted a short
note “Maltese butterflies” in “Nature ’’January 2nd.
1890, wherein he mentions G or 8 species by their
English names, and notes the smaller proportions
of the Maltese species when compared with the
same species on the Continent; and among others
that he says he observed flying about in the garden
of his hotel at Sliema were the “Tortoise shells”
under which name are included Vanessa urticae,
and the V. polycroos. I am, however, inclined
to think that he must have mistaken these for V.
cardui, and the V. atalanta which are often so
changed in appearance byr exposure to wind and
rain as to make them at first sight appear to be-
long to other species; for there can be no doubt
but that neither V. urticae nor V. polycroos exist
in the islands much less are they to be found in
abundance, as Mr. Fraser asserts.
Kirby in his “European Butterflies ’, too, assigns
Malta as being an habitat of C. hyale, and C. edusa,
and he states that they make their first appearance
in February. For my part I am more inclined to
the opinion expressed by Dr. Staudinger, that
the faded variety of the female C. edusa , must
have been mistaken for C. hyale.
The following catalogue comprises the species
which were observed and collected by me.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
87
EHOPALOCERA
Papilionidae
Gen. Papilio L.
1. Maehaon L. v. sphyrus IIb: — Maltese Far-
fett-tal-feigel, St. Macaone, Eng. Swallow Tail.
Frequent in gardens from March to November,
but especially so during the months of April and
September, Caterpillars are to be found in August
and September for the most part on the rue. Chr-
ysalles of the last hibernate. Like the Maehaon of
Sicily, the Malta species belongs to the var. sphyrus
from which I do not see any other difference ex-
cept that the marginal “lunules” of the upper
wings are seldom ferruginous. Even Mr. Ragusa
to whom I have shown our species, considers it as
belonging to the Sicilian variety. Mr. Fraser ex-
presses the exact facts of the case when he asserts
that the individuals of our species do not generally
attain the normal dimensions of the typical form.
Pieridae
Gen. Pier is Schrk.
2. Brassicae L. — Maltese Farfett tal womb. It.
Grande cavolaia , Eng. Large cabbage white. Very
common in all parts of the islands and at all sea-
sons, but especially so between February and
March. Caterpillars infest the cabbage fields, and
often cause great loss to the country-people, who,
before cutting the plants, examine them several
times one by one, and take away the insects and
kill them.
3. Rapae L. ef var minor Costa: — Maltese
Farfett tal cromb zghair , Italian Rapaiuola Eng.
Small cabbage white.
Very abundant like the preceding, and at the
same season. The black spots on the wings vary
in size, and like the “minor” form is generally to
be found in summer
3. Daplidice L. — Eng. Bath white.
From March to November, it is to be found
though not frequently in uncultivated places as at
Fort Manoel, Corradino etc.
Gen. Colias. F.
5. Edusa L. — Malt. Zolfina , Eng. Clouded
yelloiv. Common in fields, grassy places and valleys
during ail seasons but especially so in Autumn. It
is rare from December to February. Kirby fixes its
appearance here in March; but it is also to be
found in February, and sometimes during the fine
days of January (Briffal).
The colours of the females of this species are
often very pale; and it was this that probably led
others to take it for the C. hyale.
Gen. Rhodocera. B.
0. Rhamni B. — Malt. Farfett tal ziu , It. Cedro-
nella , Eng. Brimsone Butterfly.
Prof. Gulia says that this species is common in
gardens together with R. cleopatra; on the con-
trary it is very rare, and I have only seen it in the
collection of Mr. Briffa who took it in Spring time
in the Hasting’s garden in Valletta, and he saw
another flying over the terrare on the 16th of
March, and on the same day another of the same
species was seen near Pembroke Camp by Mr.
Phillip de la Garde.
7. Cleopatra L.
Less rare than the preceding, but yet not com-
mon, and limited for the most part to the gardens
and valleys af the western side of the Islands
Mr. Briffa collected it at Gneina and Imtahleb and
Prof. F. Debono also showed me a specimen which
had beeu taken in the Botanic Gardens in June.
Lycaenidae
Gen. Polyammatus Latr.
8. Phleas L. — It. Polyammato Xante , Eng.
Common Copper.
Common in gardens, valleys, and grassy plains:
localities, Boschetto, Hied Encita, Corradino ets.
Var. Eleus F. — It is the form of a deeper colour
which predominates in the Summer.
Gen. Lycaena F.
9. Baetica L. — Malt. Farfett i/chal, It. Azzurrina.
Frequently found in gardens and valleys in the
summer time, especially upon Duranta plumerii
and upon Rhaseoius caracalla e. g. St. Antonio’s
Gardens, The Botanical Garden, Boschetto etc.
10. A strarcke Bgstr : — It. Argo bruno. Eng.
Brown argus Common in the Spring and Summer
on the plains and in the gardens and valleys, e. g.
Boschetto, Emtahleb, Uied el Ghasel etc.
11. Icarus Roth: — Malt. Farfett i/chal, It. Az-
zurrina, Eng. Common Blue.
Of the same frequency, and found in the same
places as the preceding from March to November
e. g. Marsa, Corradino etc.
For the determination of this species which lias
hitherto been confounded with the Argus I am in-
debted to Dr.Riggio, who also showed the examples
that I sent to him, to Dr. Failla.
The wings vary in the width of the white marg-
gins; and in the spots which are more or less
distinct.
Alfred Caruana Gatto.
(to he continued).
The Salt Mountain of Palestine.
At the south end of the Dead Sea a salt moun-
tain has been naturally formed, which attains a
height of nearly 600 feet above the level of the
sea, and which is about six miles long, and
three-quarters of a mile broad.
It runs along the shore line in some places
extending to the very water’s edge. It is situated
at the opposite end to that into which the Jordan
discharges its waters; and the waters in its vici-
nity are therefore much salter than are those at
the northern extremity.
Dow far the salts extend underground is not
yet known; neither have we am means of ascer-
taining its age, but Dr. S. Merrill states that in
some places it is covered with overlying earthy
deposits of evident antiquity, and of great
thickness.
The government adds very considerably toils
revenue by causing the salt to be worked under
their immediate supervision, and by retaining the
exclusive right to the trade that is carried on with
this commodity in different parts of Palestine.
Dr. Merril tells us in a letter to the “Scientific
American” that if Arabs, or the natives of the
country were found getting salt from the Dead
Sea, or from this mountain, that they would be at
once arrested. The working of these salt deposits
for foreign export would be the means of consi-
derably increasing the prosperity of the country,
but, unfortunately, at present the Turkish govern-
ment will not sanction any project of the kind.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands.
' BY
John H. Cooke.
(continued).
When we take into consideration the nature of
the numerous and varied changes that the islands
have undergone, it would be surprising indeed
were not some evidences forthcoming to enable
one to judge of the origin of the causes that had
given rise to them.
The area has been succ essively, the bed of an
ocean, a part of a continent, an extensive bland,
and now, in its latest phase, we see it as a group
of islets situated in the middle of a great land-
locked sea. »
Nor has the history of its inhabitants been of
a less varied nature. It is still a moot point as to
whether the evidences, that are forthcoming, are
sufficient to justify us in admitting that man was
present in Malta during the Pleistocene age.
Those that have been adduced, so far, are of a
very fragmentary and inconclusive nature; (1)
though it would seem that careful research may
result in the obtaining of more definite informa-
tion on the subject.
Nor so, however, are the evidences of the occu-
pation of .the islands by the forms of the brute,
and of the vegetable creation during that period.
The osseous breccias that clothe the southern
slopes of the islands, and the contents of the
numerous caves and fissures, afford evidences that
prove that Malta was formerly the centre of an
extensive and well watered country, on the banks
of whose rivers and valleys there existed a flora
and a fauna, that, at least, equalled that which
now luxuriates in the basins of the Amazon and
the La Platte.
When the connection between Europe and Af-
rica existed by way of Malta, a luxuriant vegeta-
tion clothed the intermediate area, and an oppor-
tunity was thus afforded to those types of the
animal and vegetable kingdom, that then existed
in the southern parts of Europe and the northern
parts of Africa, to migrate from the one locality
to the other, and to thoroughly establish them-
selves. It was the great analogy, that was found
to exist between the flora and the fauna of the
two shores, that led Heer, the Swiss savant, to
consider, not only that such a connection had for-
merly existed, but also that it had prevailed for a
considerable length of time.
In Algeria, Morocco and Tunis as in Spain and
Portugal, large numbers of plants grow that are
identical; while of the 3000 plants that have been
(1 ) Davy. “Observations on Malta)' voL I.p.IIL
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
89
found in Algeria, upwards of eightly per cent are
to be found flourishing in Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily
and along the southern shores of Europe even as
far east as the Grecian Islands.
The lentisk, arbutus, myrtle, cistus, tree heath,
and many others that are found in Algeria, are
identical with those that grow in Corsica and
Sardinia; while the dwarf palm ( Chamcierops
kumilis) grows spontaneouly alike in Corsica,
Sardinia, Algeria, Tunis, Sicily and in the islands
of the Levant. The tailed baetrachians, that are
found in these countries, is also another remark-
able evidence of this continuity of the Mediter-
ranean fauna.
Prof. Gervais, (1) points out the' similarity bet-
ween the genera and species of the living insect-
ivora in the north of Africa, and those in the
south of Europe; and Dawson (2) observes that
the porcupine of Algeria presents no distinctive
characters of sufficient importance to justify it
being considered of a different species to the
European one.
The inferences to be drawn from the above facts
have been corroborated by the work of the Admi-
ralty Survey in the Mediterranean.
Between Sicily and Malta there are two banks
the Aventure bank on the west, and the bank
on the east, the elevation of both which to a
height of but 40 fathoms would again create a
passage of dry land between the two islands.
Between Malta and the African mainland the
soundings showed a depth of 344 fathoms.
Supposing, therefore, that the sea bed should
be elevated 400 fathoms, a broad isthmus would
again connect the continents, and Malta would
from a part of the centre of it.
That such an elevation of the Mediterranean
region has occurred in time past is shown by the
remnants of moraines, and other evidences of
of glacier action that are now to be seen in the
mountains of Lebanon, of Anatolia, (3) and of the
Atlas mountains.
When glaciers and snow fields existed in
these districts, the whole area of the Mediter-
ranean must have been situated at a much
(1) Gervais, “Animaux Vertebres I Grants et
Fossiles A p. 1,8.
(2) Dawson , 11 Cave Hunting ” p. 8 SO.
(8) Nature , vol. V, p. 1,1+1,; vol. 0, p. 586.
greater elevation that now; at an elevation,
in fact, such as would have raised the bed of the
Mediterranean and have made a land passage both
between Gibraltar and Morocco, and between
Italy and Tripoli (1). In accounting for these
and other phenomena of a similar nature Dawson
computes the elevation to have been between 6000
and 7000 ft. while Profs. Ramsay and Geikie con-
sider an upheaval of from 1500 to 2000 feet to
have been sufficient to have effected the same
results (2).
Nor are the paleontological evidences that are
afforded, less conclusive. That Malta was inha-
bited, and that free communication once existed
between Europe and Africa by way of Malta, are
proved by the mammalian, and other remains
that have been discovered in Malta, and in the
regions that lie on either side of it.
The caves of Malta, Sicily and Italy abound with
fossil mammals of a purely African type. The
remains of Elephas africanus have, been found in
great quantities in the caves of Syracuse, of Pa-
lermo, and of San Teodoro; and intermingled
with them have also been found two species of
African hippopotami. (3). The presence also of the
bones and teeth of Elephas antiq-uus , and of Ursus
fero.r , a species of bear whose remains occur in
abundance in the Gibraltar caves, in the caves of
Provence and Mentone, as well as in the caves of
Sicily, afford evidences of this elevation, and
point to a connection between Sicily and Europe
prior to the formation of the Straits of Messina. The
Maltese-Sicilian isthmus that connected the two
continents, afforded the means of migration to ani-
mals and plants alike. And as the remainsof animals
of a distinctly African type are at the present day
to be found in Europe, so also are the remains of
animals of a distinctly European type to be found
in Africa. M. Bayle described an interesting
stratum of clay that he found at Mansourah in
Algeria, and with the assistance of Prof. Gervais
it was demonstrated that the remains that were
found in it, contained among others, the molars
(1) Dawson TIT , "‘Cave Hunting", p. 880.
(2) Ramsey A. C. and J. Geikie on “77/ Ge >-
logy of Gibraltar '. Quart. Journ. Gt /. Aw., vol.
XXiHV, p. p. 587, 531.
(3) Falconer. Paleontological memoirs v. II
. 51,3.
90
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
and bones of an elephant, E. meridi mails, which
in the pleistocene age had its headquarters in i
Northern Italy, but which had roamed as far
south as Northern Africa by means of this land
connection, via Malta. (1)
To this mass of evidence the Pleistocene Beds
of Malta, have likewise furnished their quota of
proofs.
The river detritus, and conglomerate that are to
be found in the caves and fissures of the islands
abound with the remains of at least three distinct
species of elephants, with those of a hippopotamus,
of a giant swan, of a giant dormouse, and of other
animals. Of the elephants, two were of a species j
that attained a size that barely exceeded that of a j
Newf jundlxnd dog. Both have laso been found
ni abundance in a fossil state in the caves near Pa-
lermo by Baron Anca; and their molars were
pronounced by Dr. Falconer to be identical with
those of E. africanus.
In the Malak and the Mellaha caverns of Malta
Dr. L. Adams found also the bones and molars
of pigmy hippopotami. II. pentlandi , the
geographical range of which has been shown
to have extended all over southern Europe as far I
east as the Peloponese. In the caves of Palermo
its bones were found in such quantities that, a
few years ago, they were exported by the ship-load
from the country for the purpose of making
lamp-black. (2).
The presence of these animals in the Maltese
Islands, in northern Africa, and in southern
Europe, can only be explained on the supposition
that the Maltese Islands once formed a part of a
land mass of considerable area: and that, that land
mass must have been in direct communication
both- with Europe and Africa.
Of the climate, and other physical conditions of
this epoch, we know but little. The opinions that
are held by geologists, are conflicting; and consi-
derable difficulty is therefore experienced when
attempting to draw definite conclusions from the
facts that have, up to the present, been collected,
and from the arguments that they have adduced
in explanation of them. Some of the facts, how-
(1) “ Bull Soc Geol. Ft .” 2 ser., I XL , p. SOL
( 2) For a detailed account of the specific cha-
racters of these extinct animals see Ad ants work ,
and Falconers “ Paleontological Memoirs.
ever, speak for themselves; and if carefully consi-
dered, they enable us to obtain an approximate
idea of the nature of the conditions that prevailed
in past ages.
Let us wander forth into the wilds of primaeval
Malta, and judge for ourselves of the mutations
that occurred during the enormous tracts of
time, that have intervene 1 between this and then.
(To be continued.)
Science Gossip.
The current number of ‘'Nature Notes ’, the
Selbornian magazine contains an interesting and
practical article on ‘'Home Museums” which is
well worthy of attention.
The principal electric lamp, that is being used
at the London Naval Exhibition, was made by an
Italian, Sig Amirante. It gives a light, the inten-
sity of which is equal to that of five million
candles.
A most interesting series of articles on the “Per-
sistence of the cranial form in the province of
Aquila, from Neolithic to Modern times” are now
appearing in the current issues of “La Bivista
Italiana di Scienze Naturali. "
M essrs Sampson Low & Marston have just
published the work entitled “The South Italian
Volcanoes” by Dr. Johnston-Lavis, M.D.,M.R.C.S.,
&e. which was announced in our columns two
months ago. We hope, in a future number, to be
able to give our readers a short resume of its chief
features.
The influence of food upon the rate of formation
of carbonic acid says the “Scientific American” has
been made a matter of special study in France;
and it has been found out that during the first
hour after a meal, the quantity of C02 exhaled
increases till it reaches a maximum three or four
hours after the meal, when it falls off again.
Plenty of fresh air is desirable from one to three
hours after a meal.
In an essay on “Dragon-flies v. Mosquitoes’-
which gained the first prize in an open competi
tion for the best methods of destroying the mos-
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
91
quito and the house-fly, Mrs. C. B. Aaron brings
forward some very serious indictments against
these household pests.
Not only do they assist materially in the dis-
semination of Bacteria, and thus serve as efficient
propagators of infectious diseases, but she also
adds that they act as carriers of such parasites as
Filaria, and some species of Toenia. For their
extermination she suggests several mechanical and
easily applied methods, among which may be
noted, the free use of crude petroleum in all
damp places, and in all collections of stagnant
waters.
The oils floats on the surface and when the larvse
come to the surface to breathe, the oil clogs the
breathing tubes and thus suffocates them.
Other methods are discussed such as the rearing
of the dragon-fly which is a natural enemy of the
mosquito; but this is not recommended owing to
the trouble and uncertainly that are entailed.
In the museum of postage stamps at Vienna,
says the “Nuova Autologin”, there is a collection
of 100,000 examples; among the rarest and most
valuable of which are the stamps that were used
on the dispatches that were sent during the Fran-
co-Prussian war of 1870-1871.
A statistical table, showing the comparative fre-
quency of storms and of lightning in various parts
of the world, has been drawn up, and from it we
have obtained the following particulars.
In Java, 97 days of the year are stormy; in Su-
matra, 86 days; Hindostan, 56 days; Rio de Janeiro,
51 days; Italy, 38 days; Holland, 18 days; France,
Austria and Russia, 16 days; Spain, and Portugal,
15 days; Switzerland and Finland, 8 days; England,
and Scotland, 7 days; Norway, 4 days; China, 3
days. In Malta the average is 12 days for thun-
derstorms, and 18 days per year for lightning.
Prof. Duncan, F.R.S. in his interesting work on
the “Transformation of Insects” gives the following
decription of the life history of that troublesome, !
but in these regions, very familiar pest, the flea.
Fleas lay their eggs in cracks, in cushions, and
in boards, or in the midst of dust, and their larvae,
which have no legs, and which therefore must live
where they have been born, can only exist in con-
sequence of the nourishment brought to them by
the adults. Were they abandoned, they would
perish, but they have excellent mothers who never
leave them; for after a flea, should it be a mother,
has gorged itself with blood, it seeks its young and
disgorges a small quantity, so as to keep them
alive. The larvae shut themselves up in silken
cocoons when they have attained their full size,
and undergo their metamorphosis into the condi-
tion of nymphs.
Among Messrs Sonnenschien’s scientific publi
cations during the present Tutumn we note the
following.
The Colours of Animals. By Prof. Reddaed,
of the Zoological Society’s Gardens and Guy’s
Hospital, London. With Coloured and other Plates
and Woodcuts.
Man and Mammals. By Dr. Oscar Hertwig,'
Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Beilin. Translated and Edited from the
Third German Edition (with the assistance of the
Author) by Dr. E. L. Mark, Professor of Anatomy
in Harvard University. (Printed in England.)
With 389 Illustrations and 2 Coloured Plates.
Invertebrates. By Drs. Korschelt and Heider,
of the University of Berlin. Translated and
Edited by Dr. E. L. Mark, Professor of Anatomy
in Harvard University. With several hundred
Illustrations. (Printed in England.)
Text-Book of Animal Paleontology. By Dr.
Thomas Roberts, of the Woodwardian Museum,
Cambridge. Designed as a Supplement to Claus
and Sedgwick’s “Text-Book of Zoology”. Illustrated.
Text-Book of Geology. Adapted from the work
of Dr. Emanuel Kayser, Professor in the Univer-
sity of Mar bug, by Philip Bale, of St. John’s
College, Cambridge. With Illustrations.
Text-Book of Zoology. By Dr. C. Claus, of the
University of Vienna, and Adam Sedgwick, M.A.
F.R.S., Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College,
Cambridge and Examiner in Zoology to the Uni-
versity of London. Vo!. II.: Mollusca to Man.
Third Edition.
The many experiments that have been carried
on in the Mediterranean for the purpose of deter-
mining the penetrating power of light have been
attended with some curious and interesting
results.
92
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
■ The-metLedsHisnally employed Lave consisted
in placing gelatino-bromide photographic plates
at different depth- under the water; the plate-
being lowered by 'a sounding lead, and protcUd
from the: action1 of the sea water by a varnish
Experiments were tirade about 1,300 to 1 .100
meters off the Cape of Mont Boron, at Viile-
Franelie in the Gulf of Nice, and in water about
550 meters deep. During April the limit of pene-
tration of ‘the .daylight about midday, during fine
weather, was found to be about 400 meters. Other
observations showed that there, is a penetration of
300 meters all the time the sun is above the hori-
zon, and of 350' meters during eight hours of the
day.
Correspondence.
Our Birds.
Valletta-Malta.
.Sir
During my rambles about the islands I have
repeatedly had my attention attracted to the great
number of so called “sportsmen" that infest the
fields and highways for the purpose of shooting
the few biids that endeavour to find a home in
the valleys. Nothing is sacred. to these butchers:
they shoot all and every thing that come in their
way, though they seem to devote their special
attention to the extermination of our robins and
sparrows. On Sunday last, while in the vicinity of
Maddalena, I met a party of youths from the
adjoining casals, seven of whom carried guns. Is
it possible that all of these have been granted li-
cences by the authorities ? I hardly think so, for at
least three of these embryo hunters were but
little over 1 2 years of age.
At a time, when so much distress has been oc-
casioned by the attacks of the orange fly on the
fruits of the islands, it surely, behoves the autho-
rities to take steps to present such wholesale
slaughter of the feathery guardians of our orchards.
Birds are the natural enemies of flies and insects
of all kinds, and a decrease in their numbers
must necessarily be followed by an increase in the
number of insects pests.
Apart, therefore, from all feelings of sentimen-
talism, the birds should be protected if it be but
for the purpose of assisting the agriculturists of
the islands; and this might readily he done either
by limiting the number of shooting licenses issued,
or at least by carring out the existing regulations
more stringently, and calling to account all of
those who use firearms without the necessary
permit.
Yours faithfully
A. Visitor.
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Italian dictionary. Address J. W. 10 Strada
Ridolfo, Sliema, Malta.
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change for Maltese Jepidoptera & hemiptera.
Address. F.W. W.C/o Editor “Mediterranean
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To Curators of Museums: — Specimens of
the “ Fungus Melitensis ” — Gyno norium
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Contents* October.
— — Page
1 The Natural History of Malta. Rev. Prof. Hens-
low M.A„F.G.S. 01
2 Note on “Dioplodon f&mesinoe.” Prof. P. J. Van
Bene den. 63
3 Climate of Cephalonia. T. M. C*
4 Theories of of Mountain Formation. T. Meilard
Reade. C.E.,F,G.S.
5 Preservation of Algae. W. H. Walnj^ley.
6 Sir VVarington. W. Smyth MA..F.R.S.
7 Vine and Olive culture in Algeria. H. E. Brum ■ >:./
8 Deforestation of Servia.
9 Remarkable natural phenomena at Cephalonia.
W. G. Foster. 09
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11 The Syrian Greyhound. J. E. Hurting.
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Ports, Champagnes etc.
a flDontbl? journal of natural Science
Vol. I., No. 7. MALTA, DECEMBER 1st. 1891.
CONTENTS-
— ♦<> — Page
1 Sketch of the Geology of Pantelleria, importance of
its thermal springs to the Maltese— Car. G.
Jerris, F.G.S. 93
2 The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev. Professor
Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 97
3 Military Pigeons 99
4 Theories of Mountain Formation— T. Mellard Reade,
C.E., F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A., 99
5 The Climate of the Maltese Islands— J. H. Cooke. 102
6 Notes on the Lepidoptera of Malta— Alf. Caruana
Gatto, B.A. 106
7 Science Gossip: — “La Natura” — Vine diseases — Lon
gevity of Birds— Area and currents of the Medi-
terranean—Rhus vernicifera— Belgium Iguano-
dons, &c. &c. 107
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Sketch of the Geology of Pantelleria,
importance of its thermal springs to the
Maltese.
One hundred and forty miles to the West of
Valletta is the little town of Pantelleria, built at
the northern extremity of the island of the same
name, which constitutes one of the 1 2 Sicilian
volcanoes, and is likewise the largest of the nume-
rous outlying islands belonging to Sicily.
Pantelleria, situated midway between Sicily and
Tunisia, in that part of the Mediterranean known
as the African Sea, is exclusi vely of volcanic ori-
gin. The view from the sea on entering the little
port is fine and highly picturesque, the town occii
pying the gently rising ground behind the beach
while the cultivated land on the slope of Monte
Sant’ Elia is pleasantly dotted over with small
houses in the midst of vegetation of a southern
type. Above all, in the background and flanked
by minor eminences, rises the Montagna Grande,
the height of which is not so very much less than
that of Vesuvius, while the entire mountain mass
of the island taken together is fai greater, and
the general outline to my mind, infinitely more
beautiful.
Somewhat elliptical in form, Pantelleria measures
8 1 miles in length from N.W. to S.E.; its breadth
in the direction of N.E. to SPY. is 4j miles, and the
area 25,423 acres. Towards the south of Pantel-
leria rises the Montagna Grande, 838 metres (2742
feet) above the level of the Mediterranean, sepa-
rated by a narrow ravine or valley on its southern
slope from the Gibel, the Arabic word for .noun-
tain, redundantly called Monte Gibele, 700 metres
(2298 ft.) high. Still further south is the Cudda
Attalora 580 metres (1837 ft.), while Monte Gelk-
harnar, to the west of the Montagna Grande, rises
to the height of 230 metres (9 :-8 ft.), and lastly,
Monte Sant’ Elia, already alluded to, above the
town of Pantelleria, about the same h ight as the
94
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
former one. Long lines of bold precipitous cliffs
many hundreds of feet high are prevalent on the
south and east sides of the island, clearly marking
the considerable wear of the coast line, while at
the northern extremity the ground slopes gently
towards the sea, and thus we are prepared to find
that the depth of vcater in the lilliputian port is
only about two fathoms in mid channel, just suffi-
cient for small coasting and fishing craft to take
shelter behind the Eastern point.
This remote corner of Europe is the home of
7178 persons, who are well nigh unknown to the
rest of humanity, and who know still less of the
world themselves, with the rise and fall of emp-
ires. to care to rack their brains with the bock
learning of their fellow men, or trouble themselves
with inquiring into such superfluous matters as
steam machinery or electric lighting. Pantelleria
town has 3167 souls; the remaining 4148 inhabi-
tants are divided among five scattered groups of
country cottages, rather than villages, for as “Judah
and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine
and his fig tree” in the days of King Solomon,
(I Kings, chapt. 25), so it literally now is with the
Pantellerians under king Humbert, viz: — Khamma
1374; Scauri 1319; Napolicibile 510; Margana 596;
Bugeber 349. Administratively all belong to the
commune of Pantelleria, which forms part ol the
province of Trapani.
The tracks used by the Pantellerians have been
preserved with the most religious care in the pre-
cise condition in which they were long before the
glorious days of Carthage, which rose almost in
sight of the island; and in jolting along these rough
stony places it needs to be lamentably devoid of
all the pleasures of inspiration not to have proud
visions of the good old times when Mother Earth
was some 3000 years younger than she is now, and
had been drenched with the life’s blood of some
billions less of her sons, pitted in mortal strife
agains peach other for no purpose but the wanton
pleasure of destruction. .Descending from these
heights, the matter of fact geologist gets easily
reconciled to the slight inconveniences of the way,
finding a splendid race of large asses to ride upon
similar to those of Egypt, as he passes, hammer in
hand, through vineyards and plantations of cotton,
capers and other vegetation, grown on the rich
decomposing volcanic soil, and freely alternating
wfith a variety of lithological forms of eruptive
rock, here scoriaceous, further on massive or cel-
lular, m some cases rough to the touch, elsewhere
so like the prosaic refuse heaps of some common
black bottle works as to require close inspection
in order to disillusionize him.
To the best of my knowledge no eruption of
this volcano is recorded during historic times, but
it is evident that the numerous prehistoric erup-
tions which took place in succession emanated not
only from the centre crater, as generally happens
with Vesuvius, but likewise fron numerous lateral
vents, now forming the various minor eminences
met with in various parts of the island. But
it would not at all surprise us should an eruption
of considerable local importance break out here at
some later date, seeing that to a certain extent
much analogy of constitution may be traced be-
tween the islands of Pantelleria, Lipari with its
satellite Vulcan o, and Ischia, in the two latter of
w hich islands we know of more than one recorded
eruption during historic times, although many
authors seem to be disposed to classify them
among extinct volcanoes.
In order to complete this rapid sketch of Pan-
telleria, ofl* the coast of which a submarine erup-
tion took place last October, preceded by earth-
quake shocks it will be useful to say a few words
about the general configuration of the bed of the
African Sea in this neighbourhood, between the
coasts of Sicily and Tunisia.
In a direct line the distance by sea from Pantel-
leria to the nearest point in Sicily is 53 miles;
to Africa it is only 34 miles. For a distance of
9 miles towards Sicily the greatest depth of water
is from 130 to 240 fathoms, and in one spot it
even reaches 315 fathoms. Further on towards
Sicily the 100 fathom contour line, the deepest
measurement found in that direction, embraces a
wide area, the depth diminishing to the 50 fathom
contour line as we proceed onwards from 3 to 5
miles. A slight upheaval of the bed of the sea of
only 40 fathoms would convert the Adventure
Bank, situated at about 40 miles from Pantelleria
towards Marsala, into a long island, larger even
than Pantelleria itself, measuring 14 miles long
from N. E. to S. W. by 3 miles broad, and
rising but slightly under 200 feet above the sea
level.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
95
Again: 37 miles from Pantelleria to the N. E.
and 25 miles from the town of Sciacca on the
south coast of Sicily, is the Graham Shoal, marking
the spot where the submarine eruption took place
in the year 1831, resulting in the formation of
Graham Island, which before Christmas day of
the same year sunk beneath the waves, never yet
to reappear. The summit of this new volcano was
seen for many years at a depth of only 10 feet
below the surface of the water, but subsequent-
ly it subsided considerably, and in all proba-
bility this year it will have undergone considerable
change of level, owing to the volcanic phemonona
above alluded to. Several lesser submarine
eminences are noticeable within the 100 fathom
contour line, which is shewn by English soundings
made in this neighbourhood to have a diameter
of from 10 to 15 miles. Outside this contour line,
at distances varying from 2 to 10 miles, the deep-
est soundings are to be met with, ranging from
130 to 169 fathoms — these latter depths being
nearest the shoal.
Proceeding in the opposite direction, the 100
fathom contour line is never more than 12 miles
distant from the Tunisian coast, and the greatest
depths outside this line towards Pantelleria are
from 172 fathoms to 250 fathoms.
In a word, generalizing: the greatest depth of
the sea appears to be within the distance of
only a few miles from Pantelleria; and from the
Adventure Bank and Graham Shoal, which are
submarine volcanoes, further off, the depth regu-
larly diminishes in approaching land constituted
of sedimentary strata. East of Pantelleria, in the
direction of Malta, we find the two little volcanic
islands of Linosa and Lampedusa, so that this is
exclusively a volcanic region, characterized more-
over by habitual lethargy rather than activity, a
word scarcely applicable to any of the island
volcanoes around Sicily, though none of them are
by any means extinct.
Like Ischia, Pantelleria boasts of thermo-
mineral springs, highly mineralized, which might
assume much therapeutic and economic impor-
tance, yet in modern times they have never
attracted attention, such as theRomans and Arabs
at least gave them, if not former people, in
centuries long ago passed into oblivion, for the
Musselman were expelled from this island in
the year 1147. They could not now be less known
in Italy and elsewhere, even to scientific men,
than if they had risen on the shores of the
Victoria Nyanza: and that is a vast pity , espe-
cially, as far as regards Malta , to the inhabitants
and visitors of which , these powerful medicinal
waters might prove an inestimable blessing in
numerous classes of chronic ailments.
Is it permissible that such a state of things
as this should persist a single year longer, or
must we have to deplore that the recent volcanic
eruption, which may be justly considered to be a
huge advertising arrangement in an universal lan-
guage planned by restless old Vulcan himself to
attract travellers and invalids to his favourite
haunts, has been merely a mans parturiens , with
the signal of the ridiculus mus ?
With due respect for such a high functionary
of the British Government I cannot too strongly
impress upon His Excellency the Governor of
Malta the importance of delegating one or two
of the most capable and energetic of the medical
men of the island to proceed to Pantelleria at the
public expense at the proper season , and stay
there for a few months , in order to study with
the utmost care the curative effects of the thermo-
mineral waters , and plan the most practical and
efficient method of sending patients there during
the summer; indeed , many military men who are
suffering from a variety of chronic complaints
incident to their rough mode of life and rapid
transfer from one climate to another , would find
this place very convenient as to distance , expecially
if they could combine to obtain steam communica-
tion occasionally with Malta.
But in order to effect all this it would be abso-
lutely necessary to erect some decent bathing-
establishment on the spot, provided with the
requisite apparatus of the most improved construc-
tion, and that, during the bathing season, it should
be put in charge of an experience medical man
from Malta, in default of which necessary precau-
tion, waters of such strength might easily prove
fatal to many persons ignorant of the diseases
for which the baths were intended. In this manner
Pantelleria might become a very important thermo-
mineral station at a few hours distance from Malta.
This is but a very broad suggestion, but I
feel assured that the civil and military authori-
96
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
ties, as well as the scientific and commercial men
at Valletta, will not to allow such a practical
suggestion to fall unheeded to the ground, and
that the local press will generously reproduce
these considerations to the greatest extent, insist-
ing on their immediate actuation for the service
of suffering humanity. A few thousand o als
would suffice to carry out this plan and that > a
practical and moreover, remunerative mann r,
once started the mineral-water and vapour bat ha
alike would become very popular, and v> ould he
patronized by many distinguished military -
on their way home from India, burdened v .1
various painful affections resulting from exposuie
to climate, and would enable them to return
England to pass the evening of life cm their own
beloved shores, invigorated in body and brighter
in spirits.
I will not here repeat all I have elsewhere
written on the subject of Pantelleria, or indeed of
the mineral wealth and the mineral Springs of
Sicily in general, but refer the reader to the
volumes already published. * We will novv giv o a
rapid glance at them.
To the east of the island, round the lake, are the
thermo-mineral waters known to the inhabitants
under the name of Le Candareddi de lu Bayo u.
The Bagnu , improperly so called, is simply an
ancient volcanic crater, formed of vitreous rocks
about a mile in circumference: it is not far
from the Bagno Secco. Owing doubless to the
admixture of rain water, the temperature is lower
than that of the Candareddu de lu Bagnu.
Northwards of this is the A- qua della Gratia d/i
Gadir, consisting of several springs close to the
seashore, and owing their therm ality and mine-
ralization simply to the chemical decomposition of
liparite and cossyrite in the presence of atmospheric
influences.
About 12 miles from the town of Pantelleria, and
at the S. W. end of the island, is the Acqua della
Gala Nita , the most highly thermalized of any, a
fact which is due to the decomposition of the white
liparite: it is therefore easy to account for
* Jervis, G. — I Tesori soUerranei dell Italia Vo/.
Ill, — Le Isole, illustrated.
Jervis, G —G uid 'a alle Acque Miner ali dell Italia
a Meridionale, illustrated ,
the thermality of the sea itself in this precise
locality.
The Acqua dJ Porto di Saura Basso, on t lie
same side ol the island, some 5 miles nearer the
town, is also very hot.
Proceeding northwards along the west coast,
some 5 miles
known as the
to have been
Arabs. This 5
sea or land, 1
from the town, is the hot spring
Acqua salina di Bata ria, supposed
used for baths by the Romans or
pot is rather dilticult of access by
eing situated in a grotto. The water
comes out of pumice stone underlying liparite,
but it doubtless derives its-high temperature and
mineral constituents from this latter rock.
•do, or emanations of
eating the subterranean
decomposition in the
:1 the Bagno secco. This
i in the midst of the
or Sudatorium. The
n ployed by the Arabs
mother fumaiolo , called
Next
COl
ne
the
fuman
aqueous
vap
our
, simply indi
seat of
stre
mg
ch
lemical
volcanic
roc-
I'O
K.S,
an<
1 termec
is situate
id ii
i a
litt
le grotto
rock, ai
nd
for
ms
Stufa
di Khasc
in, was
for:
tnerly en
Stuja as
a S
uaator
ium. A
the* Fare
ira
Grc
tiich
e is met
of Mont
e R
USS1
0.
As to
the
mi
n.er
als met
Pan teller
ia,
me
nti<
9n may
formed in the ancient J'umaioli, but in quantities
too insignificant to be of any economic importance.
Such is the quantity of alkaline bicarbonates in
the waters of the Candareddu de lu Bagnu, and
j the Cala Nita as to react powerfully upon the
! silica of the rock in contact with them. It is
first transformed into soluble gelatinous silica, and
then deposited in the form of dirty white or gray
opal. Obsidian is common among the volcanic
products, and is clue, as it well known, to the
rapid cooling of the rock, such as takes place in
submarine eruptions, similar to the one which
manifested itself this autumn. Pozzolana and
pumice stone are also common, besides minerals
of purely scientific interest. But here I will
stop for the present, hoping to persuade Prof.
Cooke to devote some time to a visit to Pantel-
leria in order to enlarge our acquaintance with
the geology of this interesting island.
Turin G. Jervis.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
97
The Botany and Geology of Egypt.
BY REV. PROFESSOR HEN'S LOW, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
BOTANY. *
Egypt is conveniently divisible into five regions
— (1) the Mediterranean, (2) the Nilotic, (3) the
Oases, (4) the Red Sea Coast, and (5) the Deserts.
The deserts are sub-dividSd into the Libyan on the
’.vest of the Nile, the Isthmian on the north-east;
and the northern and southern halves of the Arab-
ian, on the east side of the Nile.
(1) : The Mediterranean coast being intersected
by lakes and inland waters and salt marshes, plants
peculiarly characteristc of saline areas find their
natural habitats here. Thus the order Chenopo-
diacese, which contains several saline species, are
well-represented, about two thirds of the species be-
ing found there — five out of seven species of Tam-
arix, and all the members of the Frankeniaceee, tec.
(2) : The Nile delta and valley are areas of culti-
vation. A number of introduced plants are found
in these districts, but a peculiar feature which stri-
kes one is the almost entire freedom from weeds
amongst the enormous stretches of corn, clover, Ac
This is probably due to the fact that the land is
inundated for four months, which would kill any
seeds left in the ground. With regard to aquatic
plants, the Nile and artificial canal, as a rule con-
tain next to none, as the water is always muddy.
The ditches and irrigating streams have a few, espe-
cially sedges; but of other plants the few following
furnish the main supply : Two water-lilies, Nym-
phace Lotus and cwrulea, four members of Ela-
tinaceoe, our familiar Epilobiun hit su turn, two
water-plantains (one being the British Aiisma
Plata go), a species of Eamasonium, five of our
Engi ish pond-weeds and Ruppia maritima, five I
species of Naias, four duck- weeds and one bull-rush
Typha angustata; the ancient Papyrus Autiquo-
rum being now extinct
Nos. 3 and 4, are limited floras, and call for no
special observation.
(5): The most interesting parts of the Egyptian
flora are undoubtedly the plants of the deserts, in
that they shew most remarkable adaptions to meet
the extreme difficulties of their environment, in
maintaining their existence against the intense heat,
light and drought during ten months in the year.
* Abstract of lecture deli vered before the Society.
As to the general character of the deserts, the
appearance consists of a chaotic confusion of low
hills and rock masses, with deeply-cut ravines
(wadys) and valleys, resembling the numerous
ramifications of streams, though now without wa-
ter. They divide and rejoin, cutting up the desert
into a landscape of wild confusion.
The vegetation is solely confined to the depress-
ions in which water has flowed during the short
rainy season. The year has two periods, February
and March during which months rain falls, and
the dry season lasting for the other ten months,
during which time the vegetation has to depend
to a very great extent upon dew for moisture.
At the end of January, a thick mist ushers in the
rainy period, when the knotty stumps and bushes
begin to put on their foliage, and young plants and
annuals sprout up everywhere. From the beginning
of May it all disappears, the annuals perish, and out
of thousands of individual seedlings perhaps two
per cent succeed in establishing themselves. There
is no struggle for existence amongst the plants
themselves — that is, between one another — but
solely with their physical environment.
The general features of the perennials are gnar-
led and stunted stems of great hardness, and freq-
uently spinescent. The leaves are very small and
densely hairy, though some few are glabrous, thick
and succulent. The surface is frequently coated
with a waxy secretion. The thick coating of hair,
and the glaucous hue due to the wax, conveys a
blue-grey tint to the desert plants instead of the
familiar green of our customary English flora.
A peculiarity, apparently in direct connection with
the climate, is that certain individuals of normally
annual duration may become biennials, and peren-
nials, if their roots happen to run deep enough so as
to be able to store up sufficient water to maintain
the lower part of the stem alive; thus heliotropes
usually after fruiting, but they may form coral-like
roots if they go deep enough, which survive the
summer: the excrescence being a sort of hypertro-
phied cortical tissue which acts as a reservoir.
On the other hand, perennials may perish at the
end of the first year, if the local water supply be
insufficient.
Each organ has some special adaptation to resist
the difficulties of. growth. First, with regard to
roots. The first noticeable feature is their relative.
98
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
ly great length; so that while the upper layers of
the sand may be heated to 140 degrees F., the plant
can still flourish since the root fibres extend to
great depths. Thus, a plant of Monsonia niveci of
one year has a small rosette of three or four leaves,
the roots of which may be 20 inches in length.
The roots of some bushy plants have been found
to be two yards and seven inches long. Some roots
may even become twenty times the length of the
stem. The Colocinth grows singly, has large soft '
leaves, without any means of preventing an excess i
of transpiration, for a cut shoot fades within a few
minutes; yet it flourishes unshaded through the
whole summer.
On some roots tuberous swellings occur, which I
would seem to act as reservoirs of water; such
occurs on species of Frodium ,
With regard to stems, they are often knotted and
gnarled at the base with a stunted growth When
they grow to good sized bushes, they are often
spinescent. One of the largest, and a typical desert
plant, is Zilla myagroides. In some cases they are
almost or quite leafless, thus reducing the transpir-
ing surface to a minimum.
The anatomy of many stems shew the whole of
the cortex to be converted into a colourless water-
storing tissue; the elements consisting of long thin-
walled cells, which store up water absorbed by the
roots or leaves, or both, this cortex subsequently
forming a dense layer of cork, Avhich acts as a pro-
tection. In some cases, the pith acts as storage
instead of the cortex.
A common form of stem is the spine, but spiny
processes are often homologous with leaves, as in
Astragalus , Fagonia , &c. These spines, besides be-
ing hard in consequence of the poverty of water,
which always reduces the amount of cellular tissue,
act as a storage of such water as the plants can get.
The peculiarities of the leaves of desert plants
are certainly the most noticeable, they being main -
ly centred in securing protection against loss of
water by transpiration.
First as to the epidermis and cuticle. The latter
is much thickened and often coated with wax, and
strongly striated. The hairs are often entirely or
partially coated with wax as well.
Hairs form one of the most general kinds of pro-
tection, often forming a dense felt over the surface
when they are stellate, by their rays thickly inter-
lacing. The hairs, besides acting as non-conductors,
also act as absorbents as well, for dew is of course
retained by a felt-like mass. Even when the hairs
are coated with wax they may be partially free
from it at the base, or gashed and riddled with
holes through the waxy layer, allowing dew to be
absorbed. The interior walls, both of the hairs and
epidermal cells, may become more or less of a
mucilaginous character by the absoption of water,
and thus tend to retard subsequent evaporation.
J ust as in all the storage tissues the water becomes
thickened, so that its loss by evaporation is greatly
hindered. In some cases there are jointed hairs
which act as storage, e. g ., Atriplex desn'ti. If the
water becomes exhausted, these hairs collapse and
stick together, forming a parchment-like layer over
the epidermis, affording a strong and excellent
protection against excessive transpiration.
The epidermis is often a storage tissue, the cells
bulging both outwards and inwards forming
bladder-like structures, scattered thinly or thickly,
or in rows over the surface of the leaf. The ice-plant,
which grows about Alexandria, is a familiar exam-
ple.
With regard to the form of the leaves, the size is
mostly very small or even minute. If they be
deeply divided, the lobes will be very narrow. The
edges are often wavy or in rolled. When first
formed on the commencement of the rainy season
they grow larger, but during the drought these
sometimes perish, and smaller leaves only are
produced.
The anatomical structure is also correlated to the
environment. The chlorophyllous tissue is very
dense, palisade cells being on both sides, while the
mesophyl is compacted with polygonal green cells.
In some case the mesophyl acts as a storage tissue.
This occurs, e.g., in aloes. Under the epidermis is
a large layer of chlorophyllous tissue, which covers
the central mass of thin-walled rounded cells,
containing a colourless semi-fluid matter, which,
when, extracted, hardens into the bitter aloes of
pharmacy; wdiile living, however, it appears to acts
as a storage of water, the bitter substance held
in solution probably preventing the water,
from evaporating, just as in other plants it
becomes mucilaginous or gummy.
Besides the above features, one of the most
remarkable is the secretion of salts, which are
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
99
highly hygrometric and absorb the dew, which they
transfer into the interior of the plant. One of the
best instances is Reaumuria hirtella , allied to Ta-
marix , which also does the same to some degree.
Reaumuria is a shrub growing sometimes to two
01 three feet high. After rain and the leaves have
been well washed, on the following morning the
leaves are found to be covered with drops, the
result apparently in this case of root-pressure. As
the day advances, the leaves become dry and are
then covered with a fine powder, consisting of salts
of chloride of calcium and of magnesium. These
are secreted by special glands in the epidermis.
They act as absorbents when the rainy season is
over, and the plants have to depend almost enti-
rely upon the dew for their supply of moisture.
The above constitute some of the more remarka-
ble structures which enable desert plants to thrive
in the most inhospitable region of the world.
(To be continued.)
Military Pigeons,
Since the success of the carrier pigeon service
during the siege of Paris in 1 870-“ 1, European
governments have given considerable attention
to the rearing and training of pigeons. In Fr
ce, according to Lieut. Col. De Rochas, most of
the fortresses now contain dovecotes, and 47
departments have private societies for pigeon
training, the total number of trained pigeons in
the country being about 100,000, and Paris alone
having 8, 000 trained and 10,000 untrained
pigeons. In Germany there are about 20 mili-
tary pigeon stations, and in 1888 there were 78
private societies with 52,240 carrier pigeons.
In Italy there are dovecots at 23 military sta-
tions. Spain has a very complete system of pi-
geon service, dovecotes having been established
at 18 stations, the greatest distance between any
two designed to communicate directly being from
Madrid to Malaga, 240 miles. In Portugal there
are 14 stations, in Russia, 5 stations, that at
Brest-Litowsk having 1000 pigeons; in Switzer-
land, 4 stations; in Austria 2 stations and seve-
ral projected ones; considerable government en-
couragment being given also to private trainers.
Sweden has one station; Denmark, a private
society in 12 sections; Belgium, many private
trainers, with an estimated total of more than
600,000 pigeons. Holland has a regular pigeon
postal service between Java and Sumatra; and
England, a number of cotes in garrisoned cities.
Theories of Mountain Formation.
BY T. MeLLAED ReADE, C.E., F.G.S., F.E.l.B.A.
Part III.
In concluding the last article I promised to
explain in what way the illustration given of the
effects of expansion on various materials bears
upon the origin of mountain ranges.
But before doing this I must ask the reader to
pardon a little digression, as I wish to call atten-
tion to the discussion which took place at the
Geological Section of the British Association on
the 10th of September 1888 on Profesor E. W.
Clay pole’s paper entitled a (1) “Note on Some
Recent Investigations into the Condition of the
Earth.” This paper dwelt with the discovery of a
“level-of-no-strain” in a cooling globe already
explained in the first article.
It so happened that none of the men whose
name are associated with this investigation -were
present, and as I was admittedly fortunate enough
to be the first to announce the discovery (2) it may
not be inappropriate for me to correct some of the
misconceptions that seemed to prevail among the
disputants. Professor Claypole said — “Of the
actual existence of such a zone, after a careful
study of these investigations, scarcely a doubt can
entertained,” but suggested that the numerical
calculations of the depth at which it now lies
might be in error, as we have many examples of
rocks being “forced up from a depth greatly ex-
ceeding this limit.” The speakers who followed
mostly contended that such a neutral zone, where
the cooling produces neither compression nor ex-
tension, could have no existence, as there wrere ex-
amples in all quarters of the globe shelving that
rocks had been squeezed, contorted, and forced up
from much greater depths. The President most
emphatically wound up the discussion by declaring
his utter disbelief in the existence of a “ievel-of-
no-strain” in our earth, having arrived at this con-
viction through his geological experience, which
( 1) Reported in Sclent pic A "a Sejtt. Ufth ISSS ■
(3) Origin of Mountain Range. s, chajihr XL.
100
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
told him that the deepest and oldest rocks were
the most crushed and folded, whereas on the “level-
of-no-strain” theory they ought to be the least
disturbed.
These sentiments— for a good deal of it was
geological sentiment and righteous indignation
against mathematicians — caused me much amuse-
ment. Anyone may see for himself who takes the
trouble to study my “Origin of Mountain Ranges”
that similar geological arguments are therein used
to show that mountain ranges have not been
thrown up by compression induced by the earth’s
contraction, which compression, as is proved by the
discovery of the level-of-of-strain in a cooling
globe, does not even now affect the earth’s crust
below the depth of a few miles. This was, in fact
one of the many reasons which induced me to look
for another origin for the earth-foldings distin-
guishing mountain regions.
The speakers referred to at the British Associa-
tion, unconsciously begging the question, took it
for granted that earth-foldings and contortions
could be produced in no other way than on the
shrinking-apple system, therefore the “level-of-no-
strain” was a myth — an invention of the. enemy,
the mathematician and physicist. Q.E.D, Let us
now see if there is not a method of explaining these
wonderful evidences of pressure found in mountain
regions without invoking secular contraction as
the direct cause, and in a way more consistent
with geological facts, which, as I before said, must
be our guide and court o appeal in forming theo-
ries of the earth.
As already pointed out, the effect of the deposi-
tion of sediment is to raise the temperature of the
underlying rocks. For the sake of employing
round figures in illustration, let us say the heat
gradient or rise of temperature downwards in a
given area of sedimentation is 100° per mi.le = l°
per o2'8 feet, then the accumulation of 10 miles in
thickness of sediment would raise the temperature
of the underlying rocks IOC-'.", the sediment them-
selves taking at the surface the mean yearly tem-
perature of the locality say 50° and at the base
being 1000' hotter. The mean rise of temperature
of the 10 miles of sediment would then be '500°.
SuHi a thickness of sediments may seem astoun-
ding to 1 hr vsc ho u e unfamiliar with geological
facts, but the most eminent geologists tell us that
the combined thickness of the strata of many great
mountain ranges reaches this limit. As such a
depth is twice as great as any known part of the
ocean, it may justly be inferred that the weight of
the pile of detrital matter has helped to displace
the foundation matter of the globe upon which it
has been built.
The underlayers at some unknown depth in the
earth have flowed laterally from the area of sedi-
mentation outwards, but of the manner in which
the surrounding rocks are affected we have as yet
no direct geological evidence.
It must be understood that these operations of
Nature take periods measured by millions of years
and during this time with increasing weight, heat,
and chemical action, the unsoliditied deposits get
consolidated into beds of rock capable of with-
standing considerable lateral stress. As they are
solidifying they are increasing in temperature and
exerting a lateral thrust which is buttressed by
the surrounding rigid area of old rocks, while the
beds themselves are kept from rising in folds by
the weight of sediment with which they are
loaded.
But not only are the sediments themselves affec-
ted by these internal stresses: the underlying old
and rigid foundation rocks are subjected to still
greater stresses, as their mean temperature has
risen twice as much as that of the overlying sedi-
ments. In addition, they are less capable of being
squeezed into a smaller compass.
We see, therefore, that all the rocks in the area
of sedimentation are subject to two opposite for-
ces— one of increasing expansion by heat, and the
other of increasing and countervailing vertical
pressure by loading. The piling up of the sedi-
ment at first proceeds at a more rapid rate than
the mean rise of temperature of all the underlying
crust of the earth due to the deposition of the
imperfectly conducting covering of new rocks. The
sediments themselves also become worse conduc-
tors of the outflowing heat of the globe, as they
lose their water by pressure, wet rock being a much
better conductor than dry rock, as conclusively pro-
ved by experiments in the laboratory.
To what extent, then, can mechanical pressure
resist the tendency of rocks to increase in bulk by
rise of temperature. We really have no satisfactory
data to go upon as regards cubical expansion, but
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
101
as regards linear expansion it is found that an in-
crease of 14c Far. will expand wrought iron To«ooo
and steel Xg while, on the other hand, one ton
in weight per square inch of section will compress
iron and steel to the same extent. A rod of rock
10 miles long (the thickness of our sediments) and
and one square inch in section would weigh about
30 tons. I am not aware of any experiments on
the compression of rock within elastic limits having
been made; but, for the sake of illustration, were
the co-efficient the same for rock as wrought iron
a rise of temperature of 420° at the bottom would
be required to balance the vertical weight and keep
the length intact if the rod were placed on end.
This illustration is merely given to enable the mind
— however imperfectly —to grasp to some extent
the nature of the forces to be dealt with. It is thus
seen, if the preceding proposition be granted, that
that a time must come when the forces of expan-
sion over come those of weight. What will then
happen?
Many geologists aud physicists have speculated
upcn the effect of expansion upon the rocks of the
earth’s crust. It is a strange fact that almost ail have
considered only linear vertical expansion. A very
little consideration will, however, serve to show
that the rise of temperature of a given section of
the earth’s crust will expand it in three directions,
that is cubic-ally; but as the lateral expansion in
two directions is resisted by the surrounding
areas, the tendency is for increase of bulk to take
place vertically, thus making the mean vertical
rise of the whole heated area three times what
would result from linear expansion alone.
But, as I have pointed out in Chapter IX. of
the “Origin of Mountain Ranges” the increase of
bulk of the heated area would tend to dispose
itself along lines of weakness, so that instead of
the mass being elevated over the wdioie area it
would rise in ridges. I have satisfied myself of
this by experiment, but to prove it in detail here
wrould take too much space. Those who wish to be
informed further had better consult the plates of
the original work.
The greatest internal stresses will exist in the
base of the deposits and the original underlying
rocks, and those subject to the overlying wreight and
thi enormous expansive force within them will flow
like lead under a die. This is no fanciful statement j
but one proved by geological investigation of the
earth’ s crust, when it is seen that the most rigid
rocks have been bent, folded, squeezed, lengthened
or thickened in the most extraordinary manner. But
in the case of old massive gneisses or complexes
composed of igneous rocks, it has sometimes hap-
pened that the yielding has been by shearing, where-
by enormous masses of rock have been bodily shifted
along fault planes, such as have lately been des -
cribed by 'the Geological Survey as existing in
the Highlands of Scotland. I : other cases, as in
the Appalachians, when folding could go no fur-
ther, shearing has taken place in the same way.
In this manner old formations have been piled
upon younger ones in a way to deceive the eye
of even the practised geologist, who thought he
was looking upon a regular and natural sequence
of rocks. Indeed, patches of rocks have been
bodily shifted considerable distances, and it is
only just lately owing to the labours of many geo-
logists that this fact has been fully recognised and
the complicated structure of a typical mountain
district is now in a fair way of being unravelled.
But it will no doubt be asked how can the small
increase of bulk caused by expansion effect such
tremendous results? The bestanswer to the question
is by a calculation. I set no value on statements or
theories involving quantity unless they be reduced
to figures, The best way to prick a scientific blad-
der inflated by the theorist who despises numbers
is to put it into figures. Were the author in every
case to perform this for himself, many grand theo-
ries would never see the light, excepting it be that
of the fire!
Let us consider what increase of bulk would
ensue from the heating of an area of the earth’s
crust, 500 miles by 500 miles, and 20 miles thick
to a mean of 1000°, Fahr. Such a cubic mass is
very much less than many areas which have been
affected by sedimentation in the way already poin-
ted out. The increase of bulk clue to expansion
would in round numbers amount to 73,000 cubic
miles, which is not a bad material capital to begin
our mountain building with.
If we allow 26,000 cubic, miles for loss by com-
pression and in other ways we shall have 52,000
cubic miles left for effective mountain building or
sufficient to form a ridge of triangular section 500
I miles long, 50 miles wide, aud 4 miles high.
102
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
There are, of course, many intricate details and
agencies that cannot be discussed in an article of
limited scope, like the present one. When we come
to consider the actual structure of known moun-
tain ranges, it will be the time to inquire whether
internal stresses by increase of bulk through ex-
pansion by heat can account for their characteristic
forms and structure.
There is, however, another important principle |
which must not be overlooked. It is this: Every i
r'se of temperature, however small, goes towards !
the lateral pushing up of mountain ridges The j
rocky material by expansion is actually moved by j
slow degrees towards the locus of the mountain
range whereby its bulk grows; subsequent con-
traction cannot bring it back again any more than
it can efface the ridging up of sheet lead caused
by small increases of temperature already refer-
red to, consequently the effects are cumulative.
Contraction is the cause of a different set of phe-
nomena, which will be considered in another ar-
ticle. One aspect of the question will be readily
apprehended. It is this: The greatest stresses are
by this theory the deepest seated, which accords
with the facts insisted upon at the British Asso-
ciation discussion, and urged as fatal to the ex-
istence of a “level-of-no-strain” in the earth, na-
mely, that the oldest and deepest seated rocks
generally show the most evidences of pressure.
Such facts do not disprove the existence of a “level
-of -no-strain’5 in the earth; they only show that we
must look to another source than the contraction
of the earth for the cause of mountain upheaval
and indicate that other forces come into play which
obscure, if they do not obliterate, the mathema-
tically-deduced effects of the contraction of a cool-
ing globe.
The theory of which this is but a slight out-
line I designate “A Theory of the Origin of
Mountain-Ranges by Sedimentary Landing and
Cumulative Recurrent Expansion
(to be continued).
The Climate of the Maltese Islands.
“Adieu, ye joys of La Vallette!
Adieu, sirocco, sun and sweat!
I’ll not offend with words uncivil
And wish thee rudely at the Devil;
But only stare from out my casement,
And ask, for what is such a place meant?”
Byron.
And yet there are few places situated within
the same parallels, that enjoy so equable a climate
as do the Maltese Islands.
The short sojourn made by the ordinary visitor
is not of sufficient length to allow of a just esti-
mate of the climate being formed; and, moreover,
situated as the principal city of Malta is, in the
most unpicturesque, and uninviting part of the
island, where there is neither tree nor shrub, hill
nor valley to relieve the monotony of the long-
drawn swellings, and uudulatory outlines that
sweep from the eastern extremity of Malta to the
foot of the Binjemmas, the tourist has but few
opportunities of seeing the more fertile districts,
and so the impressions that his short acquaintance
with the “Fiordel Monde” make on him, are often
the reverse of being favourable, and the disappoint-
ment that is thus engendered finds vent in an
indiscriminate condemnation of all and everything
connected with the place, in the course of which
the climate receives its due share of opprobium.
That the strictures passed on the climate are
unjust, may best be proved by a brief consider-
ation of the principal facts connected with the
meteorological phenomena of the islands.
The geographical position of Malta and Oozo,
serves as a fair index of the nature of the meteo-
rological conditions, that the physical geographer
might expect to find.
Situated in the midst of an extensive land-
locked sea, the waters of which serve in the sum-
mer to modify and cool the blasts that sweep over
from the burning plains of Africa, and in the
winter to raise the temperature of the icy winds
that blow from the snow-clad summits of the
mountains of southern Europe, the Maltese Islands
may be said to occupy a unique position; for the
equalizing influences of the surrounding waters
render them much less subject to variations of
temperature, aud while they enjoy the mild and
bracing springs that characterize the areas on
either side of them, they experience neither the
extreme heat of the southern summer, nor the
piercing cold of the northern winter.
In order that the nature of the differences that
exist can be the better appreciated, I propose in
the following brief observations to institute a
comparison between some of the meteorological
phenomena of these islands, and similar pheno-
mena in the south-east of England ; and for this
purpose, and to avoid entering into wearisome
statistical details, I shall consider the climate of
the two areas under the broad headings of the
distribution of heat during the different months
and seasons, the variations of air pressure during
the same periods, the rainfull and its distribution
during the year, the dryness or moisture of the
air, and the prevailing winds.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
10
o
O
With reference to the temperature, records show
that the thermometer has a smaller range in
Malta than in any other place in or around the
Mediterranean.
From the summary of observations which is
i published every month by the Jesuit Fathers at
! Malta, it will be seen that the annual average
temperature of the island is 64^° Fall., and the
following diagram will show how very little it
varies from year to year.
80!
75°
70!
es°
60!
55?
5fi!
45?
40!
r
1
I Jan.
Fab.
Mar.
April
May
H — —
June | July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.!
1
!
V
f
/
/
/
>
i
\
\
/
/
/
\
\
\
\
✓
i
/
\
V
\
/
/
• -J -
/
/
/
■
\
i
/
Y
/
J
/
/
i/
\
X
/
i
Jan.
Feb,
I Mar.
i
April
May
June
.
July
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
a. Range of Temperature at Meats,.
b. Rang-.' Temperature at Gov: iw ich.
The significance of these calculations is the
more clearly seen when we remember that the
average adopted mean temperature at Greenwich
is 49° Fah. By comparison, therefore, with the
temperatare of Greenwich, that of Malta would
prima-facie appear to be but 15l° warmer, but this
does not in the least represent the important dif-
ferences that really exist.
In order that the relative average tempera-
tures m the two countries may be compared, it
is necessary to take the various seasons seriatim.
The following tabular statement will indicate
more exactly the real extent of the variations.
G rcen wich Mai ta
Spring, (March, April ar.d May) 40.9° 90.8°
Summer, (June, July and August) 60.0° 72.6°
Autumn,’ (Sept., Oct. and Nov.) 49.9° 08.4°
Winter, (Dec., Jan. and Feb.) 38.2° 54.4'
By means of these data it will be seen that the
Winter and Spring seasons in the Maltese Islands
correspond to the English summer; while the
temperature of the Maltese Summer and Autumn
is but approximately 12° in excess of that of F.n-
gland. But it is not so much by the actual mean
height of the thermometer, as by its range, that
the climate of the Maltese Islands should be
judged.
In England, this range is often very great espe-
cially during the Winter, Spring and Autumn
months, for then, days that have been warm, are
often succeded by evenings that are very chilly,
and even frosty. In Malta such ranges of tempe-
rature as these are unknown at any time of the
year; and the climate is therefore more tquable
and less liable to injuriously affect either animal
or plant life. The thermometer indicates through-
out the year a gradual rise and a gradual fall.
The extent of its variations will be understood by
referring to the following table which shows the
mean daily range for every month of the year,
contrasted with the temperature it the same time
at Greenwich,
104
THE MEDITERRANEAN N..TI KAI.K!
Month
Greenwich.
Malta
January
10. 0°
10. 6°
February
12. 3
11. 7
1
i
March
15. 2
12. 4
|
April
19. 1
13. 3
May
20. 2
15. 0
1
June
20. 8
14. 8
|
July
21. 3
16. 9
(
August
20. 0
15. 4
I
September
19. 8
14. 1
October
14. 6
11. 4
November
11. 7
10. 8
j
i December
9. 5
9. 8
It will be seen from this table that in Malta, as
in England, the greatest range occurs in July
when the days are longest; and the smallest
range in December, when the days are shortest.
But while the absolute mean temperature of
Greenwich in Juiy averages 61. 8°, that of Malta
is 72. 6°, a difference that renders the English
summer evenings much more bracing than are
those of Malta, though the liability to colds and
analagous diseases is much greater in the former
than in the latter country.
In winter, on the other hand, while the average
mean at Greenwich is 36.3° (.Jan.) with an average
range of 10°, that of Malta is 53° with the same
range. The Maltese winter is therefore equivalent
to the finest of English Springs; and it is gene-
rally characterised by fine, cool, and bracing
weather.
The effect of this equability of the Maltese
climate is strikingly shown by the vegetation
which flourishes luxuriantly for fully nine months
of the year in the rich and fertile soil that clothes
the plains, and the slopes of the hills and valleys.
Arboreal vegetation is rare ; but this is due to the
want of a sufficient depth of soil, for \vhere-ever
trees have been introduced, and properly cared
for they have flourished vigorously. Grapes,
melons, and tomatoes are cultivated in the open
fields.
These facts sufficiently indicate the mildness of
the Malta climate, but neither these nor thermo-
metric results furnish such conclusive evidences as
does the growth of exotic plants in the open.
Thermometric results are often deceptive and do
not furnish an accurate standard of comparison
as regards the temperature that- actually affects
the body. Thus given tivo days with the same
conditions as to sun and sky, but on the one a
brisk breeze is blowing, while on the other no
wind arises, the former will seem much wanner
and more agreeable than the latter. And yet the
thermometer will probably register the same de-
gree on both days. This difference in the felt
temperature is clue to the rapid evaporation from
the surface of the body that has been induced by
the current of air. The thermometer therefore
cannot always be looked upon as an unfailing
index of the sensible temperature of a climate:
but the state of its vegetation furnishes a faithful
picture of its true characters.
In both Malta and Gozo exotics of extraordinary
beauty and vigour thrive in the open ail the year
round. During July and August there is a dearth
of vegetation in the more elevated parts of the
islands, owing to the very small rainfall of those
months; but in the valleys and along the outcrops
of the marl beds, the water-bearing stratum of the
Islands, agriculture is carried on all the year
round.
Except during the prevalence of the Sirocco,
the air of the Islands is seldom saturated with
moisture. The greatest degree of humidity occurs
in December, January and February, that is
during the coldest months of the year, while the
least extreme of humidity occurs in July, the
hottest month.
The absence of swamps, marshes and other
similar natural water receptacles must influence
the climate, too, in a minor degree, and tend to
render the air less humid.
The mean annual rainfall varies but slightly
from year to year; and at no time is it excessive.
Compared with the mean-rainfall of the countries
bordering the north of the Mediterranean which
averages 33 inches, that of Malta is small. Thus
the mean average rainfall of 1886-1887 was but
17. 6 inches, while that of 1888-1890 was 20 inch,
and in 1889 it was as high as 26. 044. The pre-
vious year 1888, however, it was but 13. 7 inches,
the great difference being dee to the delay of the
winter rains of 1888 until January 1889.
The average rainfall of each month during the
above period was 1. 7 inches. January, November
and December are the wettest months of the year;
while June and July are the dryest.
It is an exceptional occurrence for rain to fall
in July. The average fall for Juiy for the past
8 years is zero. The months in which rain fall
during the smallest number of days are May,
June, July, and August; and during the greatest
number of days in January and December. The
proportion of fine days to wet ones is, however,
very large even in the wettest season of the year.
Thus the mean average for the last 8 years has
been 12 days for each month.
Estimating the total area of all of the islands as
being 11 7,361 square miles (such was the result of the
official survey made by Lieut Worsley It. E.), and
the mean annual rainfall for the last eight years
as being 19 inches, we find that the total quant-
tity of rain that fails on the islands per year
amounts to 32,451,700,000,000 gallons, or about
eighty billions of gallons per day.
Reckoning the population of the islands at
160,000, this gives 500,000 gallons per individual
per diem, an allowance that the thirstiest of mor-
tals find but little cause to grumble at.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
105
There are however, many deductions to be made
such as the absorptive nature of the Globigeri'na
limestone that occurs as the surface deposit of
upwards of two-thirds of the total area of Malta
and Gozo, and which is capable of absorbing and
retaining about one sixth of its own weight of
water; the water that is lost by evaporation,
and by fissures in the valley beds; the torrents
that form immediately after the storm, and which
rush onwards to the sea with the boiling, eddying
storm waters that have been collected from the
surrounding slopes; and the absorptive power of
the vegetation in the fertile parts of the islands.
But large quantities find their way into the
underground natural reservoirs that have been
formed in the limestones, while greater quantities
still are retained, at the surface of the marl bed
which lies interstratified between the two great
limestone beds of the island.
The water supply of the island might-therefore
be almost considered as being inexhaustible.
Another most important factor in influencing
the climate of the Islands is the distribution of
the winds. The absolute force of the wind on an
average is never great, though the islands are
occasionally visited by storms of considerable
fury. From the measurements, as recorded by
the instruments at the meteorological station of
St. Ignatius’s college, it is shown that the greatest
absolute force is generally attained in January
and December, during which months north-wes-
terly winds prevail. In September, October, and
November there is a preponderance of wind from
the south-east, and it is to its debilitating effects
that the adverse opinions, that are occasionally
passed upon the climate of Malta and its depen-
dencies, are to be attributed — opinions that are
often largely influenced by the particular state of
the individual’s constitution.
This wind, which is called the Sirocco, blows
directly from the dry, arid plains of Africa, and,
though its enervating heat is considerably modi-
fied by the passage across the waters of the Medi-
terranean, yet it arrives on these shores, ladened
wAh moisture, and, by overshadowing the islands
with a dull, lea.de n-hued canopy of clouds, and by
depositing its clammy moisture upon everything
whith which it comes in contact, it gives the inha-
bitants unequivocal proofs of its presence.
It acts prejudicially upon the constitutions of
natives and foreigners alike; but it varies in the
degree in which it affects differently constituted
individuals. It generally gives rise to a feeling of
lassitude, and is often accompanied by dispepsia
of an acute form. It has its commercial drawbacks
too. Whilst it prevails, many trades have to be
in part suspended. Neither paint, nor glue will
then set ; and wood quickly warps and splits.
The usual period for which it lasts is three days;
but during the months of September, and October
it often blows uninterruptedly for a whole week.
The struggle for pre-eminence that takes place
between this wind and the north-easterly winds,
which are known as “Gregale,” generally leads to
thunderstorms during the course of which light-
ning plays in the sky with extreme frequency and
brilliancy.
The rainy season is usually ushered in about
the time in the Autumnal equinox by a “Gregale.”
In the summer months, June, July and August
the heat of the sun is considerably tempered by
the land, and see breezes that then blow, so that
the heat of these months is never felt during the
same period of the year, to the same extent as is
that of the cities of Southern Europe.
The azure blue of the Mediterranean sky, and
the remarkable clearness of the Mediterranean at-
mosphere are proverbial.
In Malta both are particularly exemplified. Save
during “Gregale, ”or “Sirocco” the sky is seldom
completely overcast. Estimating a completely over-
cast sky as being 10, the average mean amount of
cloud for the last eight years is but 3‘ 5, and in
no month of the year does it exceeds 5. The
minimum is generally reached during July, when
the brilliancy of the atmospheric effects are often
of a remarkable character. It is no uncommon
occurrence for the inhabitants of Malta to be able
to distinctly see Etna, and the coast line of Sicily,
which are situated upwards of a 100 miles away,
with the naked eye. The unusual clearness of
the air, and the irregnlar diffraction that is thus
caused from water into air, raise the line of sight ;
and therefore objects that are really below the
horizon are brought within the field of view.
Fogs but rarely occur, save in the early part of
the day during the winter months. Occasionally in
the summer, light mists form, but these gather
together in the "grey twilight of the early morning,
and rapidly dissipate into nothingness as soon as
the morning sun rises high enough to make the
influence of its rays felt.
The atmospheric effects of these swath ine,
gauze-like, summer mists are often very fine; but
they will not compare with those that accompany
the setting of a Mediterranean su l.
A Malta sunset in the winter time is something
to see and to admire. Nature then indulges in
her most capricious fancies, and chequers the
heavens with forms of every conceivable shade
and hue.
The slopes and summits of the hills are enveloped
in fantastic cloud masses, that exhibit the most
gorgeous colourings, from amid which, wraiths of
crimson and purple peep forth and illumine the
country round with a mellow light that tones
down and softens the irregularities andthe harsher
features of the landscape, thus imparting to them
for the nonce a charm of appearance such as they
never appear to be invested with upon any other
occasion. And crowning the whole is the sun
itself, a molten mass of unsurpassed loveliness,
bathed in a glorious flood of light; and as it slowly
sinks behind the distant hills, it radiates outwards
arid upwards streams of living gold, some of
which fall aslant the verdure covered slopes,
105
TTTE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
'while others, penetrate the heavens and stand out
as an effective contrast to the rich tints that
surround them.
And as the light wanes, and the kaleidoscopic
changes of colour become less marked, so the
charm of the scene increases, until the sun final! . !
disappears behind the ridges of the western |
plateaux.
The colourings then melt away, the clouds |
disappears vapourously, the twilight deepens, and
in a short space of time darkness creeps in and
rapidly envelopes the land in the mantle of night.
In the foregoing observations I have endea-
voured to show that the climate of the Maltese |
Islands does not deserve the severe strictures
that are so often passed upon it. It will
compare favourably with the most frequented of
Mediterranean health resorts. The lack of a diver-
sified landscape, the limited area of the is!; ml
the exile from home associations, and the' mono
tonous routine of island life, — these are some of
the causes that play the greatest shore in a [.set-
ting the digestion, and in inducing those fed dies
of dissatisfaction and. querillity that are so often j
attributed to the ill effects of the islands' dim; o-
There are of course occasions when the climate is
trying; but such are not frequent, and tak'ng it
all the year round, in no part of Europe is the
same degree of mildness and equability to be 1
found.
Jon isr II. Cooke.
Notes on the Lepidoptera of Malta.
(concluded.)
Nymphalidse. Gen. Vanessa T.
12. Atalanta L. — Malt. Fa-rfdt-tal-horric. r, It.
Vanessa talanta. Eng. Red Admiral. Frequent in
gardens, valleys, and fields during the year par-
ticularly in Autumn. The larvae feed on nettles.
13. Cardiff. — It. Vanessa, Eng. Painted Lady.
Very common all the year round in open and
sunny places, rocky plains, gardens, fields etc; but
less frequent from November to February. The
caterpillars feed on mallows and nettles, and are
very abundant in autumn when changing into pupce
they either develop themselves after a few days, or
spend the winter under stones or attached to the
branches of trees.
Satyridae. Gen. Pararge Hb.
14. Megaera L. — Var. Tigelius Bo. Png. Wall
Brown. Frequent on walls, in roads, and in uncul-
tivated places between February and November:
but in winter it is less common. I believe that
our form, like the Sicilian one, must rank with the
var . tic/dius.
15. Aegei
ria L. —
Eng. Speckled woo<
1 (
m- Wood
Argus. A h
>calized
species. It is limited
to
gardens.
and fertile v
’alleys li
ike Gneina, Boschett'
hi
mtahleb,
Ghirgenti,
Uied-e
1-gbir, Uied-Encita,
etc. It is
common in
these lo
►cali ties from March
to
Novem-
ber; but in
winter
it is rare.
Gen. Epineplffle. Hb.
1G. JaniraL. — Var. HispullaHb. — Eng. Meadow
Brown. Very common between March and October
in fields, gardens and valleys. The male is often
of a
dark
: bran
vnish colou
r.
Gen.
Coe
nonyi
npha Hb.
17
. Famphil
us L.— Eng,
. Small
1 heath. Common
fVom
Mai
•eh to
November
in dry
places and rocky
valle
ys, 1
ields,
etc. togethe
r witli
i the var. Lyllus
I'dt).
whi
ch is
, however,
rarer.
Corradin >, En-
cita,
etc.
Fr
om
this
catalogue i
t will
be seen that E
was
just
ified
in alludin
g to
the comparative
unimportance of our butterflies: besides, the af-
finity of the Maltese fauna to that of Sicily is also
confirmed here, for it will be seen that all varie-
ties are common to the two islands, i. e., P. s/>hyrus
of the P. machaon , V. deux of the P. phUas v.
tigelius of the P. maegera, and the v. lyllus of C.
painphillus, and that no forms are found in Malta
that are not also found in Sicily.
The lack of the most delicate and beautiful forms
when compared with those of the neighbouring
ts'and is a remarkable feature which is due, I
believe, to the unfavourable climatic conditions
and to the insufficient protection that they find
here.
From our not having, in fact, mountains or
hills of any considerable height, no alpine species
are to be found; the absence of woods next, and
the scarcity of trees, whilst depriving many lepi-
doptera,— those with riendrophagous* caterpillars,
— of their means of subsistence leave the various
species exposed to the wind and to the winter
rains, to the burning sun and to the drought of
the summer months. It follows that our species,
which are of the commonest in Europe, aie of
that class that are the best adapted to withstand
atmospheric influences and that enjoy a very wide
distribution.
Our butterfly-fauna are generally characterized
by a great unifoimity in their colours, which is
necessarily owing to the small number of species
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
107
— which causes the frequent occurrences of the
same forms; and from the want of contrast in
the markings and colour. Beside, thir abundance
on the continent takes from them much of the
interest that the collector might otherwise have
had in them.
Thus of the elegant Vanes sae we have only the
V. cardini and the V. atalanta and these occur
in great numbers. Of the Theclae, Melitae , the
Arginni , the Melanargiae and of the family of
the Hesperidae we have none; and only two
species of the pretty Licenae are found. But on
the northern coast of Africa and in Sicily all of
these genera are largely represented.
The non presence of plants adapted for their
nourishment affords another reason for their
absence; but it is not such that double the
number of species might not find nourishment on
our indigenous plants. The nettle is very common
here, and we have not the Vanessa io , nor the
Urticae; the Parietaria is extremely common as
well, but the Vanessa egea is not met with; P.
napi , A. crataegi , Thais polixena, and many of the
Arginni and Saliridae which do not grace our
country would also be able to find nourishment
here.
With regard to the predominant colours, as one
would expect, the light ones prevail and yellow is
the most common. This led me to observe many
times that it is really the best protection of the
species which are more frequent from May to
September, as they are scarcely visible on the soil
covered with dry grass and parched herbage.
Besides the relative rarity of the females in
comparison with the males I note that the obser-
vation made by Messrs Palumbo and Failla Te-
daldi on the Sicilian species, that the summer
forms are of a deeper colour and are much smaller
than are those that prevail in other seasons, applies
also to us.
Lastly the best time for collecting is spring and
autumn, when in the course of a ramble through
the country one is sure of meeting almost all our
butterflies. In winter most of the species are not
to be seen and the others are never frequent.
My notes refer to the general features of our
butterfly-fauna, and, as I said, they are the result
of observations that extended over but a short
period. I make no pretensions of having exhausted
the subject, but I wish on the contrary that further
diligent researches may make additions to the list
which I have given; still, I do not think that
there will be much to add to it; but with reference
to the moths I am in hopes of collecting a good
number of interesting forms, which will enable me
to do with them what I have already done with
the butterflies.
Note — To confirm what I said with regard to
the absence of C alias diyale from Malta, Mr. Ph.
de la Garde, R.N., has comunicated to me a letter
which he had received from Mr. Kirby of the
British Museum, who had determined for him as
Colias edusa , var. htlice lib. a pale form taken by
him at Marsa in May last, a variety which was
mistaken for the hyale from which it could never
be distinguished when on the wing. In the same
month Mr. Briffa showed me another fine speci-
men, almost perfectly white and with very dark
wings, of this variety of C. edusa , which he
had also taken at Marsa, coupled with a typical
male of the deepest yellow. I think therefore
that G. hyale may with certainty be eliminated
from the list of Maltese species, substituting in
its stead C. edusa,, ab. helice Hb. which though,
much rarer is found in the same localities as the
typical form.
Alfred Caruana Gatto.
Science Gossip.
A new scientific periodical is about to be pub-
lished at Florence under the title of uLa Natural
It is to be a “Universal review of the natural
sciences and of their applications.”
A French experimenter has discovered that if
a mixture of|hydrocarbon vapors and air is led
over a specially arranged platinum apparatus, the
latter becomes heated almost to fusion, and will
then remain luminous if suddenly plunged into
water.
At a recent meeting of the Zoological Society
of London,, Mr. R. Lydekker read a paper on “The,
Pleistocene Birds of Sardinia and Corsica.
108
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
The “Nuovo Giornale Botanico” for October
contains a paper by Sig. Martelii, in which he
discusses the effects of a vine-disease which has
appeared in the vicinity of Florence, and which he
considers to be analagous to the “black rot” caused
by a Pyrenomycetous fungus (Physalospora Bed-
tv till).
The eggplant (Solanum melongena) which is so :
common in the Grecian Archipelago, has, among i
the sailors of the Levant the reputation of being
the harbinger of foul weather. Its first appea-
rance, they say, is invariably ushered in by a
strong gale from the north-east, that lasts se •era)
days.
The entire area of the Mediterranean and Black
Seas has been estimated at upwards of a million
square miles, and the volume of the rivers which
are discharged into them at *226 cubic miles. All
this, and much more is evaporated annually.
It is a well known fact that birds enjoy much
longer terms of life than do mammals. Hesiod
and Pliny, both tell us of rooks that lived to the
patriarchal age of 700 years, and that the average,
life of a raven was 240 years. How far this was cor-
rect we cannot determine. It, however, well known
that they outlive man; while swans have been
known to live 200 years, chaffinches, and nightin-
gales have been kept in confinement for 40 years.
Girardin tells us that he had a heron for 52 years,
and that he knew of two storks that built their
nests in the same place for forty years.
The distance at which the horizon is situated
from an observer may be readily ascertained
provided that the exact height of the observer’s eye
above sea level be known. Thus at sea, if the
eye be five feet above the sea-level, the distance
of the horizon will be three miles: if sixty feet,
ten miles.
Through the Straits of Gibraltar, two currents
are constantly flowing, the one being superimposed
on the other. The upper and more copious one
flows in from the Atlantic at a rate of nearly
three miles an hour, or 140,000 cubic metres per
second, and supplies the difference between the
rainfall and evaporation, while an undercurrent
of warmer water, which has undergone concen-
tration by evaporation, is continually flowing
out at about half the above rate of movement,
getting rid of the excess of salinity, even thus,
however, leaving the Mediterranean salter than
any other part of the ocean except the Bed Sea.
In the eastern portion a similar phenomenon oc-
curs, when the fresher waters of the Black sea flow
as a surface current through the Dardanelles, and
the salter water of the Mediterranean pour in
below it. — »
In the “Independance Beige,” M. Hectot Chai-
nage contributed an interesting article concerning
the fossil iguanodons that were discovered in the
Bernisart Colliery in Belguim in 1879. The crea-
tures were of immense size and in general appea-
rance they somewhat resembled the kangaroo; but
they were much bigger. The Belgium government
undertook the expense of the excavation, and 100
tons of bones occupying in all 22 railway waggons
were sent to Brussels. Elaborate precautions were
taken to preserve the remains from the atmosphere,
as having been so long buried in the alluvium in
which they were found, there was a danger of them
falling to pieces. They were, accordingly, ail coated
with plaster and wrapped in cloth, after which they
! were dipped in gelatine, and the skeletons of the
creatures were rebuilt from them. These processes
have occupied 12 years. Five skeletons have now
been completed; and tLey may be seen in the Mu-
seum at Brussels.
The juice of the lacquer-tree (Rhus vernicifera )
is the natural varnish upon which depends the
famous lacquer work of the Japanese. Specimens
of the tree were brought from Japan 16 years ago
and planted in the Botanical Garden at Frankfort,
where they have flourished and have yielded
seeds from which thrifty young trees have sprung.
This place now has 34 healthy trees 30 feet high
and 2 feet in circumference near the ground. To
determine whether the juice is affected by its
changed conditions, Prof. Bein has sent samples
to Japanese artists for trial, and is having com-
parative analyses made by eminent chemists. If
the reports are favourable, it is expected that the
lacquer-tree will be quite extensively planted in
Germany, and that Europeans will be instructed
in the art of lacquering wood by some skilled
worker from Japan.
In Symond’s Monthly Meteorological Magazine
for October last, it is noted that the most cloudy
station in the British Empire is Hobart in
Tasmania, and that the least cloudy place is
Malta.
Editor. J. H. Cooke. B.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
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Contents-November.
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79
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Natural Rsemblanccs— F. P. Marrat.
The Minerals Springs of Roumania.
Diseases of the Mediterranean Orange -J.H. Cooke.
A Coral Island on the Great Barrier Reef-Miss J.
E. Taylor, 82
Cyprus, (continued) -Lieut.-Gen.,' Sir R. Biddulph.
G.C.M.G., C.B. S3
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The Salt Mountain of Palestine. 88
Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
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Science Gossip;— Home Museums- The South Ita-
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Exchange Column. 92
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Natural Resemblances— F. P. Mar rat. 77
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Diseases of the Mediterranean Orange- - J. H. Cooke. 79
A Coral Island on the Great Barrier Reef— Miss J.
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Contents-December.
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2 The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev. Professor
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E IB>outbl\> Journal of natural Science.
Vol. I., No. 8. MALTA, JANUARY 1st. 1892.
CONTENTS.
- — «■« — Page
1 Remarks upon the Relationship of the Molluscan
Fauna of the Red Sea and Mediterranean— Edgar
A. Smith, F.Z.S. 109
2 The Geological Photographs Committee of the
British Association and its work. Ill
3 Notes on Ant’s — Nest Beetles at Gibraltar and
Tangier- J. J. Walker, R.N., F.E.S. 112
4 The Latest Theory of V ol canoes. 113
6 Cyprus— Lt. Gen. Sir R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G.. C.B. 114
6 The Samos Fossil Mammals. 116
7 Occurrence of “Chrysophrys” in the Malta Miocene. 118
8 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
by J. H. Cooke. 118
9 Notes and News: — Learned societies France — “Ste-
reodon Melitensis”— Expedition of the Yittor Pisani
—Earthquakes in February— Destruction of the
Mosquito— Fossil leviathans— Origin of the Canary
—The Mediterranean as a tideless sea— Maltese
Mammalian Fauna— “Rassegna delle Scienze Geo-
logiche in Italia” etc. etc. . 122
10 Discovery of the remains of a fossil whale near Citta
Yecchia. 124
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Remarks upon the Relationship of the
Molluscan Fauna of the Red Sea and
Mediterranean.
Edgar A. Smith, E.Z.S.
The subject of the relationship of the Faunas T
the Mediterranean and Red Seas is most attractiv;
and has been more or less fully discussed by R. A.
Philippi, Paul Fischer, R. MacAndrew, A. Essex,
and A. H. Cooke,
Certain species have been regarded by some of
these authors as common to the two seas, and
has been conjectured by them that an inter
mingling of the faunas of these seas has occurred
in past ages when a junction of their waters ap-
parently existed. Species which are commonly
regarded as Mediterranean, and which occur in the
Gulf of Suez, are supposed to have gradually
migrated southward, and, when the two sea
became separated, to have established themselves
as permanent inhabitants of the warmer waters.
Now, after a careful study of the geographical
distribution of these species, finding that all exist
also far east in the Indian Ocean, having a much
greater range in this direction than through the
Mediterranean and some distance into the Ath
tic, and considering the Xndo-Pacific -character of
the Red-Sea fauna, it seems to me equally or more
reasonable to suppose that the Mediterranean
specimens were derived from a Red-Sea source
than vice versd. It may be urged in opposition
■ to this theory, how is it that such and such species
have been found at Suez only, and at no other
part of the Red-Sea ? The answer to this is sim-
ply, that the shores of the Red Sea hav onh
been cursorily examined in a few place:-, and 1
fully anticipate that, whenever other more sou-
thern parts have been as well investigated as filie
Gulf of Suez,- most of these species will be met
with. Already two out of the eight have been
recorded as far south as Assab.
110
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Geographical distribution of species is such an
enigma in many cases that one feels reluctance in
launching forth any theory whatever. Some
species, at far as our present knowledge of them
extends, appear to have an almost unlimited range;
whilst, on the contrary, other allied forms seem
to be equally restricted. As examples. I may
instance Area lactea and A. olivacea. The former
little species ranges through the Mediterranean
Into the Atlantic as far north as this country,
southward along the West of Africa past the
1 flan tic Islands to Ascension Island, on to the
Gape of Good Hope and Natal, and finally it is
known from the Red Sea and Philippine Islands.
The other species, A. olivacea, the distribution of
which, as far as we know, is as limited as that of A.
lactea, is extensive, has at present only been
recorded from the Philippines. I could multiply
eases of this kind, but the one mentioned is suffi-
cient to demonstrate the unaccountable difference j
in the distribution of allied forms. There seems
to be an unfathomable something in their nature
which permits the one to live under very varied
conditions, in temperatures greatly differing, and
in waters of which the chemical composition is
dissimilar, and on the other hand which does not
allow the other to exist excepting under special
and limited conditions. It is so in the vegetable
kingdom. Do we not find some plants which will
grow almost anywhere, in all kinds of soil, whereas
to others existence appears to be possible only
amid very special surroundings? Being cognisant
of such facts as these, it is with much diffidence
that I have suggested the migration, so to speak,
of the species in question, or some of them at least,
from the Red Sea into the Mediterranean. How-
ever, taking all points into consideration, I think
this supposition is likely to be as correct as the
view usually entertained.
Some support to i,his theory is derived from a
A ; f - he emigration of species from the Red
'Sea to tlw k xditerranean and vice versd since the
opening ot the Suez Canal. From the reports
upon- the subject by Fuchs (1), Keller (2), Kru-
( J ) Die geologische Beschaffenhe.it der Landenge
von Suez. Wien , 1877.
( ') Neue Denkschrift. allgem . Sceweiz. Qesellsch.
1883 , vol, xxviii . pt. 3.
kenberg(l), and others, it is evident that there is a
greater pilgrimage taking place northward than
towards the south, and this, to some extent, is
possibly attributable to the movemeut of the
current from the Red Sea to the Bitter Lakes
being faster than that from the Mediterranean
southward, for there is a flow in both directions,
owing to the great evaporation in the Bitter
Lakes. At present two Red Sea forms Mytilus
variabilis and Mactra olorina , have been taken
living at or near Port Said; on the contrary, no
Mediterranean species has as yet got through to
Suez, but Cardium edule (if correctly identified)
is said to have almost reached there. Although
certain species may extend northward and to the
south, it yet remains to be seen if they become
modified to any extent, supposing the altered
temperature and chemical composition of the
water into which they may have migrated permit
I their race to be perpetuated.
I can well imagine that eventually it will be
found that all the rest of the species have as wide
and very nearly the same distribution as Area
lactea , and therefore the possibility is suggested
that their presence in the Mediterranean may have
originated from the Atlantic end and not from the
eastern or Red Sea extremity. Suggestive of this
is the fact that specimens of the same species from
the Atlantic Islands (Madeira, Canaries Ac.) and
the Mediterranaan are absolutely identical, where-
as, in some instances at all events, in the Red
Sea equivalents some slight modifications are
noticeable.
The following table also lends some support to
this proposition. It will be noticed that, starting
I from Australia (2) and the Philippine Islands, all
are found in the Red Sea, four at the Cape, one
has been recorded from St. Helena, one from
Ascension, six from the Atlantic Islands, and all
vin the Mediterranean.
(1) Yergl-physiolog. Studien , 1888, 2nd ser.,
5th part , 1st .half \
(2) Euthria cornea was recorded from New
Caledonia by Brazier in 1889, and the \Challenger'
dredged off Sydney about 10 species of Afollusca.
which are inseparable from N. Atlantic forms ...
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
1
Name of Species.
i®
■4-' dT
CD W?
3*
i S. Africa.
St. Helena.
Ascension.
Atlantic Is.
Mediterranean.
*
&
#
• • »
• • ■
#
*
#
*
#
• • •
*
#
#
#
*
#
&
• « «
*
...|
#
*
Chiton sicvlus ......
„ discrepans
Philine operta
Lima inilata
Area lactea
Venerupis irus
Petrie ola lithophaga
Gaslrochcena dubia. .
*
#
#
#
*
*•
#
#
#
It is quite possible that most of these species
may have been carried across the Indian Ocean (1)
to the Cape in various states of development,
for we know that a very large quantity of pumice
thrown into the sea during the eruption of Krakatoa
in 1883 was drifted in that direction, indicating
the course likely to be taken by larval and
pelagic forms or even by adult organisms (like the
last live of the above species) if attached by a
byssus to, or burrowing into, floating substances
like pumice. Passing the Cape they may have
extended up the West- African side of the Atlantic
past the Atlantic Islands (2), and so on into the
Mediterranean, at the entrance of which at Gi-
braltar, the main strong surface current is from the
Atlantic eastward, which would of course be fa-
vourable to the influx of species from that sea.
As I have before stated, this is all mere con-
jecture, and we have to assume a starting-point
somewhere in the East, for which we have no
grounds. The proposition that species common
to the Red Sea and the Mediterranean may have
originated in the East, holds good also in regard
to three of the four species which I consider suf-
ficiently different from the Mediterranean species
to be regarded as distinct. Even if we consider
them practically identical, as Mr. Cooke does, we
find that they have as near representatives in the
(1) We conjecture that the ocean-currents took
the same direction in bygone days: what grounds
have we for th s ?
(2) Vide my reports on the Mollusca of St.
Helena omd Ascension Island (P„ Z. S. 1890 , pp.
247,817).
Indo-Pacific. In the case of the fourth species,
Tellina isseli, I am not aware that it has been
found anywhere except in the Gulf of Suez, a fact
which to some extent confirms its distinctness
from the Mediterranean T. balaustina , consider-
ing that all the other species common to the wo
seas have an enormous distribution.
In the foregoing observations no reference has
been made to the light which Palaeontology may
throw upon the subject of distribution of the spe-
cies in question. It is true that most of them s
found fossil in the Miocene, Pliocene, and ot
Tertiary rocks of Italy, Sicily, &c., a fact -
would seem to indicate a long establish™ '.m
in the northern hemisphere. On the oth
hand, a number of recent Mediterranean arc
Atlantic forms have already been recorded fr
the Tertiary deposits of Australia (1); and we me.;
therefore conjecture that when the Palaeontology
of Australia and other eastern countries
been more fully worked out, many more so-called
European species will be discovered. Such being
the case, I fail to perceive that the evidence af-
forded by Palaeontology lends more support to
any one of the theories of distribution set forth
than to another. Probably all are wrong.
Proc. Zoo. Soc. London.
The Geological Photographs Commi e
of the British Association and its Wo A
From the copy of the second report of the ado
Committee which the secretary Mr. O. V . deli's
has favoured us with, we note that no efforts have
been spared to render the work of this important
branch of the British Association of the highest
scientific value. Since last year the scope of the
operations of the Committee has been considerably
extended and many societies have been induced to
enter with spirit into the scheme. The object that
the Committee has in view is, i;to arrange for the
collection, preservation, and systematic registra-
tion of photographs of geological interest in the
United Kinghdom:” and judging from the lists
that are appended to the report there can be no
doubt but that the work that is being done will
prove itself to be of incalculable benefit both to
(1) R. Etheridge , jun., Gat. Australian Fossils ,
1878.
. vnt generation of geologists and to future
- ; The example that the British Association
_ set is such as might be advantageously followed
; the i acting geological societies of the continent.
Ir an International Committee were formed, and
so.b- commit, tes were appointed for the purpose of
carrying out a similar scheme in Europe, there
■would be no lack of workers forthcoming to
further the object in view; and the results in so
w as taoy ''elate to geological science, would be
invaluable.
i on iint’s-nest beetles at Gibraltar
- Tangier; with especial reference to
the HISTERIDJ2.
BY J. J. WALKER, R.N., F.E.8.
Among the numerous species of Coleoptera—
about 1800, at a moderate estimate — which were
collected by me on both sides of the Straits
during my recent stay of two years and a half
at Gibraltar in H.M.S. “Grappler,”the Myrmecphila
were, I think, my chief favourites. I was sti-
mulated to give special attention to them first,
by the discovery at Tangier, in March, 1887, [of
a very fine and distinct species of Sternoccelis ,
which has since been described by Mr. Geo.
Lewis under the name of S. acutangulus (Ent.
Mo. Mag., vol. xxiv, p. 164), and subsequently
by the wonderful series of ant’s-nest Ulster s
captured by that gentleman in the same locality
in the spring of 1888, which he was kind en-
ough to showr me when passing through Gibral-
tar. The lucid and admirable paper “ On the
capture of FormicariousHisteridae5’ since'published
by him (“Entomologist,” vol. xxi, p. 289, et seq.)
almost exhausts the subject of the habits of
these marvellous little beetles, and the follow-
ing notes, as far as the Risteridce are concerned,
must be regarded as mainly supplementary to
that paper.
Of the four species of Myrmecophiious Ris-
teridce which came under my notice, all were
found exclusively with ants of the genus Aph-
amocrast <-r, living under stones, and almost entirely
"wiili one species, viz., the black, pubescent A.
testaceo-pilosa , Lucas. Curiously enough, how-
ever, the very first ‘‘ant’s-nest Hitter" I ever saw
alive— the original specimen of Sternoccelis acu-
— occurred at Tangier in a small
nest of the bright red A. sarboa , Mayr, and on
one subsequent occasion only, I found both S.
acutangulus and Eretmotus tangerianus , Mars.,
with the same ant. The commonest species ap-
pears to be S. arachnoicles , Fairm., which is by
no means rare near Tangier, though I did not
meet with it in such numbers as did Mr.
Lewis : this species occurred only on the African
side of the Straits, while the little S. fusculus ,
Schmidt, was only found very rarely near Gib-
raltar, being apparently represented at Tangier
by the allied S. uiaum'tanicus, Lewris, a species
I did not obtain. Sternoccelis acutangulus and
Eretmotus tangerianus occur both at Tangier
and Gibraltar.
Although Aphoenog aster testaceo-pilosa is a gene-
rally distributed and very abundant ant through-
out the district, according to my experience
it was of no use searching its nest for Coleoptera
of any kind, except on the stiffest clay soil,
wrhich, near Gibraltar, is limited to two small
spots — one at the western foot of the Sierra
Carbonera, near the village of Campamento, and
within easy walking distance of the Bock, the
other near the Sierra Lorca, some three miles
beyond San Roque, Another very good-looking
place, which I was unfortunately able to visit
on but few occasions, is the low undulating
country behind Algebras, where, on March 16th
of this year, I found seven specimens of S.
acutangulus in one small nest. At Tangier the
clay soil is more predominant, especially near
the massive ruins of Tingis or “ Old Tangier, ”
three miles east of the present town, which
locality was kindly indicated to me by Mr.
Lewis. A large amount of moisture is necessary
to a successful search, as in fine dry weather
any number of nests might be examined without
finding a single j Ulster in them, while a sunny
afternoon, after recent rain, was sure to produce
one or more specimens. The greatest haul I
ever made in one day wTas at Tangier, on Decem-
ber 20th, 1888 — a day of cold wind and almost
incessant driving rain — when I took twenty-four
specimens of ant’s-nest Histers , including nine
Eretmotus tangerianus.
The presence of larvae or pupae in the nests
is also essential to that of the Risters , and a
• <Y
&
112
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
tanguls , Lewis
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
*1 1 O
1 Id
I have never found the Histers in any of then
preparatory stages, but having occasionally come
the ants disappear from under the stones when
the hot weather sets in, and retire to cooler
places, it is useless to look for their attendant
Coleoptera between May and October. 1 have,
it is true, found thriving nests of Aphcenogaster
testaceo-pilosa, full of “ brood " as early as
October 27th, but have not met with any Histers
before November 17th: the latest date on which
they have occurred to me is May 14th, when I
found one or two S. archnoides with very ma-
ture pupae of the ant; the soil (at Tangier)
being then baked almost as hard as a brick by
the sun. February and March appear to be the
months in which they may be looked for with
the greatest prospect of success.
The search for ant5s:nest Hister entails no
small amount of patience and exertion, as I do
not think that more than two or three per cent,
of the ant’s-nest contain them, and the stones
(which it is as well invariably to turn as gently
as possible, and to carefully replace after inves-
tigation) are often of great size and weight.
Still, it is a pretty sight, and one which com-
pensates for a great deal of strain to the eyes,
as well as to the back, to see a Sternoccelis or
Eretmotus lying motionless among the hurrying
crowd of ants, and then suddenly developing an
amount of leg quite surprising in so small a crea-
ture, marching off daintily on the tips of its
toes (or rather tarsi) with a ludicrous resemblance,
in its gait and appearance, to a tiny crab. As
Mr. Lewis suggests (l. c., p. 291) the ants ap-
pear to regard these intruders with a certain
amount of philosophic indifference, as “an evil
which they are. unable to divert : ” their compara-
tively weak mandibles being ineffective against
the hard armour and tightly packed limbs of
the beetles, which devour the helpless brood with
impunity. I have more than once taken S.
acutangulus with a half-eaten larva in its jaws,
and they are usually to be found clinging to the
masses of larvse where these lie thickest. On
the other hand, I once (but once only) saw an
ant take up a S. arachnoides in its mandibles
and carry it off into a lower gallery of the nest,
but this may have been done under the influence
of alarm, the frightened ant seizing on the first
object that came in its way.
across somewhat immature specimens of S. acu-
tangulus in the ant’s-nest, I am inci ned to the
'*idea that the larvae, like the perfect insects, will
eventually be found there. The beetles usually
occur singly, or at most two or three in one nest,
but, occasionally, several species are found toge-
ther. Thus, on December 28th 1888, 1 found, in a
not very populous colony of ants, three S, acutan-
gulus, one S. arachnoides , and four Eretmotus tan-
gerianus — in all eight specimens. I have also
taken half a dozen S. arachnoides from a single
nest, this species-, being apparently (as Mr. Lewis
has also observed) more gregarious in its habits
than the others,
( To he continued . )
The Latest Theory of Volcanoes
Through the courtesy of Mr. 0. W. Jeffs the
Secretary of the Geological Photographs Com-
mittee of the British Association we are enabled
to give our readers the following details of a p&pc .
entitled “The Volcanoes of Southern Italy: :a.
a note on the latest theory of Volcanic Action/''
which he read before the Chester Society of Na-
tural Science.
The first part of the paper was chiefly occu r ,
by a description of a series of photographs illustra-
ting the craters and lava streams of ' - ■
Stromboli, Etna, and Vuieano These • •
taken last year (shortly before the recent err
of Vulcano) by Dr. Tempest Anderson, of o
were shown by him at the British As sc
Bath last September. Amongst these were u •
taneous pictures of the craters of Vesuviu
Yucano during eruption, that showed very \Jv
the discharge of steam and showering of as
which usually takes place. The ruined te: wd
Serapis, with its columns, nude fameu
observations of Sir Charles Lye.il, ..a u u
in his classical work, “ The Principles of < ..
was also shown. After conducting Id ■
through an imaginary town in Southern Tnd;
the less known region of the Lipari Islands J \
Jeffs devoted the remainder of his paper to a
discussion on th« main elements of volcanic acuon
114
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATUE A Ll ST
which were regarded as twofold: The existence
of a high temperature at certain points within the
earths crust, and the presence of quantities of
water and gas imprisoned in the rocks. Proofs of
the former were to be seen in the molten condition
of the matter issuing from volcanoes, and of the
latter in the vast quantities of steam and gases
thrown out during an eruption. The condition of
the earth’s interior has long been a problem. Man
has always felt a desire to know what was in the
earth, and volcanoes were one means of gaining an
insight into the hidden regions below the surface
of the globe. The old idea, so long held, that we
are dwelling upon a thin stratum, or crust, cover-
ing an enormous well of molten matter, was hardly
supported by recent researches of geologists and
.i: is. The idea is gradually gaining ground
in volcanic action is not due to the existence of
a universal resevoir of incandescent matter, but to
aha local development of heat at moderate depths
from the surface and in parts of the crust indepen-
dent from one another. Mr. Mellard Reade has
lately given to the world one of those original and
striking theories with which the most progressive
of the physical sciences is enriched from time to
ime. In his “ Origin of Mountain Ranges, ” Mr.
eade has called attention to the intimate connec-
cmr: existing between volcanic action and moun
building! Ail mountain ranges have once been
au of sedimentation, and in all ranges volcanic
orifices Have been broken through old denuded
i ocks. According to his theory the deep-seated
o" ; are regarded as practically solid, through
v are, although hot; but this material, if at the
le, where the pressure would be less, would
assume a form nearly liquid or flowing, a condition
: . ;.3 “potentially-molten.” The rocks become
-'.feted by continued deposits over them, water is
' bsoned in tnem, and steam is generated, which
is che sole essential phenomenon of volcanoes. The
nsion of the rocks causes the production of
. res, through which water penetrates, and an
explosion ensues. The welling-out of lava in a
molten state is caused by the expanded matter
rinding a relief through suitable vents or lines of
weakness in the crust of the earth. Mr. Logan
bobley has recently arrived at a similar conclu-
sion Hitherto the cubical expansion of rooks
under a rise of isogeotherms has been overlooked,
until pointed out by Mr. Reade. The movement of
rock masses caused by this expansion results in
the phenomena which are found to accompany the
formation of great mountain ranges and the
eruption of volcanic matter in all parts of the
globe. The chemical theory as ably advocated by
Professor Prestwich need not be altogether dis-
carded, but the effects of this action were regarded
as of secondary consequence. Mr. Jeffs, in con-
clusion, maintained that many physical causes
operated in producing volcanic action. The relation
between one set of volcanic phenomena andanother,
and the origin of those great movements which
have been recorded throughout all the geologic
ages, have long been mysteries requiring the most
devoted study of the physics of the earth’s crust to
afford us even a glimpse of their solution.
CYPRUS,
by Lieut.-General Sir R. Biddulph, g.c.m.g., c.b.,
late H. M High Commissioner, Cyprus.
(concluded.)
After Nicosia fell, Famagusta still held for many
months. It was the last stronghold of the Vene-
tians, and its gallant defence by the Venetian
governor, Bragadino, is a matter of history. For
eleven months he withstood the constant attacks
of the Turks, and at last, worn out by losses and
famine, he surrendered. The Turks, destitute of
all sense of chivalry towards a brave enemy, reven-
ged themselves for the losses they had experienced
by flaying him alive. His skin was ultimately
given up to the Venetians, and was deposited in an
urn which was placed in one of the churches jn
Venice, where it is still to be seen.
Famagusta was fortified like Nicosia, and was
jealously guarded by the Turks, The walls were
kept in good order, and the Venetian guns remain-
ed on the ramparts. Near the water-gate, in a
casemated room, were found heaps of decayed and
rusty armour, which evidently had been thrown
there after the capture of the city, and had remain-
ed there ever since. But though the walls of
Famagusta are in good repair, the city within is in
mins. Never was there such a city of ruins; in
the midst appear open spaces of ground, some even
being ploughed and sown. About 800 persons, ail
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Turks, live within the walls, A new town, called
Yaroshia, has sprung up half a mile outside the
gates, where all the business is carried on. The old
cathedral of Eamagusta is a very striking building,
terribly ruined, but still used as a mosqufe, like the
old cathedral of Nicosia, to which I have alluded.
The only other fortress of any consequence was
the fort of Kyrenia, a mediaeval-looking castle pic-
turesquely situated at the water’s edge, and occu-
pying one side of the small harbour of Kyrenia. It
is now used as a prison.
Three ruined castles, dating from the times of
that Crusades, are situated on the northern range
hills. The most important of these is the Castle
of St. Hilarion, situated about half a mile to the
west of the Kyrenia Pass, and 2380 feet above the
sea. Parts of it are in a fair state of preservation,
and from the extent of its walls it must have re-
quired a garrison of at least500men. It was besieged
and taken by Richard Coeur de Lion when he lan-
ded in Cyprus on his way to Palestine. It is easily
approached from the east, but on other sides it is
inaccessible.
The ruins of another castle are found on the top
of Buffa Vento, which is nearly the highest peak
on the northern range, and about halfway between
Pentedaktylon and the Kyrenia Pass. Very little
remains of this ruin, and the most perfect portion,
containing a fine Gothic window, was much dama-
ged by an earthquake five or six years ago. The
castle is most difficult of access, and its building
must have been a work of great labour. It can now
only be approached by climbing from the foot of
the hills.
The third ruined castle on the northern range is
Kantara, situated in the Carpas at an altitude of
over 2000 feet. It is in a better state of preserva-
tion than the castle of Buffa Vento, though not so
good as St. Hilarion. It is called by the Greeks
“ Ekatonspitia ” (hundred houses). Prom the castle
of Kantara, looking westward along the northern
shore, is one of the most beautiful views in the
whole island.
There is another beautiful ruin in the -northern
range, viz. the old monastery of Bellapais, about
three miles from Kyrenia. The refectory is still in
good repair, and the rest of the building, though
roofless, shows distinctly the monks dormitories,
the chapter room, cloisters, &c. The chapel of the
15
monastery is still used as the village church. The
tracery of the windows and cloisters is very perf :l
in many places.
These ruins all date back from the middle ages,
mostly from the time of the Lusignan d r v. 0*
ancient buildings of an earlier date there are h a
few remaining. Probably the oldest complete buil-
ding is the church of the Holy Cross, on the top of
the mountain of SantaCroce, which is stated by the
Mas Latrie to have been founded in the fourth
century. The lower part of the walls is evidently
a far more ancient heathen temple.
There are other places, mostly in ruins, of little
architectural interest, but interesting by their tra-
ditions, such as the tomb of St. Barnabas (concer-
ning which there is a curious tradition), the old
Tower of Kolossi, near Limassol, and ancient cities
and temples, whose ruins yield old statues, of no
very striking merit, to the antiquity hunter.
Extensive ruins, three miles north of Famagusta,
indicate the site of Salamis, once a most flourishing
seaport, the place where St. Paul landed when he
visited Cyprus. It evidently was a wealthy place,
and ruined columns, still remaining, show that an
aqueduct conveyed water to the city from the spring
at Kythrea, a distance of 25 miles as the crow files.
At Larnaca is the site of the ancient port and
citadel of Kitium (or Chittim). A hill called Bam-
boolah marks the site of the latter, and yields to
the excavator large blocks of finely cut stone.
There are two ancient independent monasteries,
both situated on the southern range, viz. Kikko,
which stands on the watershed of the Troondos
range at an altitude of 3800 feet, and Mac cere,
which is further east and is most picturesque!;
situated on the northern slopes of the southern
range. Kikko was founded 800 years ago, but tf ::
old building was destroyed by fire in 1817, and then
lost all its books and MSS. It is very wealthy,
being a shrine of some sanctity, and receiving man;
pilgrims every year. It possesses property,
only in Cyprus, but also in parts of Turkey, bot i
in Europe and Asia, and considerable property in
Tiflis.
Machera is not so large or wealthy as Kikko, but
it is in some respects a more interesting spot.
Amongst other objects of interest, it possesses :
picture of a former abbot, who subsequent’ y be-
came archbishop of Cyprus, and was hanged by the
116
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Turks with, the other bishops in 1823. If we may
trust to tradition, he was probably the ablest man
•who ever occupied the archipiscopal see. The
portrait is a striking one, and was executed, I think,
in Wallachia, where he had been sent on a mission
when only a young member of the monastery of
Mackera.
If time did not fail me, I should like to prolong
this subject, and to take you with me in imagina-
tion to some of the beautiful spots which are to be
found in Cyprus, to enter the houses and see the
towns people at their avocations, the women weav-
ing silk at the primitive looms, of which specimens
were shown in the Colonial Exhibition three years
ago ; to visit die villages; to listen to the shepherds
piping to their flocks; to follow the mountain
racks, where amidst the murmuring of the streams,
by the side of a hazel copse, or under a shady
old walnut tree, you might listen to the cawing of
of the crows and imagine yourself in England. B it
there is something besides time that fails me, and
tl at is the capacity to do justice to the infinite
variety of scenery which Cyprus affords, to depict
adequately the charm of travelling through every
part of the island, pitching one’s tent in every
variety of spot; now' on a village green; now on a
mountain side; one day in the depths of the silent
;‘orests, another day by a babbling stream under
the shade of magnificent palm-trees; or again
seeking shelter from the sun in the old refectory of
the. monks of Bella Pais.
If my failure to depict such scenes would induce
any of you to go and visit them for yourselves,
you would be amply repaid. Tho exhilarating air
imparts a peculiar charm to the scenery, which is
heightened by the simplicity and hospitality of the
villagers. To be in a country so near to civiliza-
tion, and yet where news from the outside world
arrives only once a fortnight, and where there are
no railways ! Such is the place to refresh the mind
wearied with daily papers, telegrams, sensational
news, and advertisements, with the postman com-
ing ten times a day with letters which you don’t
want to get.
It is t remarkable fact that most of those who
nave been resident in Cyprus want to go back to it
again. For my own part there is no country which
I would so gladly revisit for a holiday, and I can
therefore conscientiously recommend it 10 those
who wish to escape from England during the
trying months of January to April in this country.
The Samos fossil Mammals.
The labours of Prof. C. J. Forsyth Major in
the Tertiary beds of Samos, a small island in
the Turkish Archipelago, lying opposite the town
of Ephesus, were repaid by the discovery of a
most unique series of fossil remains of mammals.
The collection, which was the result of his
three years work, was lately purchased by the
trustees cf the British Museum, and it has been
deposited by them in the South Kensington
Natural History Department.
In an account of these remains that was sent
to Nature a correspondent gives a most detailed
description both of the remains and of the de-
posits in which they were found to occur. He
tells us lkthat the deposit appears to be absolutely
full of the hones of mammals; and in this res-
pect it agrees with the contemporary deposits of
the celebrated Pikermi ravine near Athens, the
wonderful mammalian fauna of which has been
fully made known to us by the labours and
writings of Prof : Albert Gaudry, of the Paris
Museum, and other paleontologists”.
He then proceeds, to say that the deposits at
Samos have, one great advantage over those of
Pikermi. Thus, in the latter locality the rock
in which the bones are embedded is stained of
a brownish-red colour, and very frequently adheres
so closely to the bones that they cannot be
properly cleaned from matrix; whereas in the
case of Samos the rock is of a huffish- white,
and can be completely removed from the speci-
mens. This whitish colour of the Samos bones
renders them peculiarly attractive objects in a
museum ; and the contrast between the white
bones and the palebrown of the enamel of the
teeth in the magnificent series of skulls now
displayed in the Museum is very striking. So
well preserved, indeed, are these specimens that
many of the skulls are almost as well suited for
precise anatomical comparison as those of existing
species.
The number of specimens from these deposits
acquired by the Museum, is no less than 533;
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
117
the whole of these, with the exception of one
bone of a bird, belonging to mammals. As
another collection of at least equal extent has
been acquired by the Museum at Geneva, the
importance of this newly discovered fossil fauna
may be readily estimated.
The discovery of this ossiferous deposit, taken
in conjunction with that of the equivalent beds
at Maragha, in Persia, which were brought to the
notice of scientific world only a few years ago, in-
dicates that there is still hope of much further
knowledge of the Tertiary mammalian fauna
being eventually obtained by the full exploration
of regions lying beyond the European area. As
we have already mentioned, the Samos deposits
are the equivalents in point of time with those
of Pikermi in
Attica, and of
Maragha in Per -
sia ; this identi-
fication resting
upon the general
similarity of the
fauna of the
three areas, al-
though each lo-
cality has some
peculiar types
not known in
the others. The
researches of Mr,
W. T. Blanford and others have shown that we
must assign a Pliocene age to the deposits at
Pikermi. And with our present knowledge, the
Pikermi fauna may now be traced from Baltavar
in Hungary, though Greece, thence to Samos,
Persia, Baluchistan, the Punjab, and so to the
Siwalik Hills of Northern India, the mammalian
fauna of which was the first to be brought to
light though the classic labours of Falconer and
Cautley. From this fauna, which forms a belt
in the regions surrounding the whole of the
north-eastern frontier of Africa, it is now pretty
certain that the modern mammalian fauna of
that continent wTas derived ; and it is noteworthy
that the fauna of Samos, and still more that of
the Siwalik, contains the greater number of
forms most closely allied to those of Africa. In
Pikermi and Samos no true elephants occur, but
in the Siwalik elephants more or less closely
allied to the existing African and Indian species
are abundantly represented.
Among the mammals discovered at Samos, a
large number are identical with those occurring
at Pikermi. - Thus, the well-known three-toed
horse ( JHpparion ) is especially common in both
localities. The rhinoceroses and mastodons like
wise appear to have been, in most cases at least,
specifically the same. Again, many of the ant-
elopes found at Pikermi, some of which are
allied to the African oryx and others to the
koodoo, reappear at Samos. A large ruminant
from Samos, as yet undescribed, but to which
the provisional name Criotherium has been applied,
appears, however, to be an antelope totally un-
like any existing
form. In this
remarkable ani-
mal the horns
are set on the
extreme vertex
of the skull, as
in the harte-
beest, the gnu,
and the ox, but
are extremely
short, tightly
twisted, and
bent right in
front of thefore-
head, in a manner totally unlike that found in any
existing antelope.
Perhaps, however, the most remarkable of the
new mammals discovered at Samos is the large
ruminant for which the name Samotherium has
been proposed. Of the skull of this creature
we are enabled, by the courtesy of Dr. Wood-
ward, to give a figure. It will be seen from
this figure that the general proportions and contour
of the skull are very similar to those of the
giraffe; and the molar teeth are practically
indistinguishable from, those of the latter. The
remarkable feature of this skull is, however, the
presence of a pair of upright horn-cores, situated
immediately over the eyes, and inseparably con-
nected with the frontal bones, of which indeed
as in the antelopes, they form mere projections
This condition is very different from that ob
Skull of a Samotherium.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
118
taming in the giraffe, in which, it need hardly
be said, the so-called horns are short bony pro-
cesses, covered with skin in the living condition,
and entirely distinct from the frontal bone*.
The horn-core of the samothere are, indeed, very
similar to those of certain Pikermi antelopes,
and were, in all probability, sheathed in horn
in the living animal. This ruminant appears,
therefore, to indicate a close genetic connection
between the giraffes and the antelopes ; and since
the giraffe itself is very closely allied to the
deer, while the extinct Indian sivathere exhibits
many points of affinity with the giraffe, but
appears to have had deer-like antlers which
were never shed, we see how little importance
can really be attached to horns and antlers as
indicative of want of affinity, or the reverse,
between their respective owners. Indeed, there
can now be but little doubt that deer, giraffes,
prongbucks, and antelopes, are all descended
from a common stock; the intermediate and
annectant types having mostly died out, althought
the evidence of their former existence is now
slowly but surely accumulating.
The only other mammals calling for especial
notice are a species of aard-vark (Orycteropus)
and a pangolin.
Occurrence of “Chrysophrys” in the
Malta Miocene.
The occurrence of the remains of the fish Chry-
sophrys in the Maltese Miocene has not hitherto
been recorded, it will therefore be of interest to
Maltese geologists to learn that I have found the
teeth of this fish in the Marl, in the Globigerina
Limestone, and in the Greensands.
Professor Capellini very kindly determined the
specimen from the Marl bed.
J. H. C.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands
BY
John H. Cooke.
( continued from. No. 5.)
Taking up our position, therefore, on one of
the Binjemma heights in the vicinity of Gebel
Ciautar or Chain Toffiha, and gazing down from
our coign of vantage upon the wide expanse of
mountainous, forestclad country around, a scene
of varied and picturesque beauty confronts us.
Hill and dale, mountain and valley, lake and
rivulet form one vast panorama that extends as
far as the eye can reach.
The tinkling music of purling streams, whose
waters appear, in the blight sunshine, as silvery
threads entwined among the dark, green foliage
of the palms, ferns, swamp cypresses, laurels,
mimosas, oaks, myrtles, and acacias that clothe
the slopes, attracts our attention, and causes t-he
eye to involuntary follow the courses that the
streams pursue as they meander onward to the
broad and noble river, that wrinds along the bases
of the hills to the southward.
Let us saunter through the forests of club-
mosses, ferns, and palm-trees that cover the hill
sides around us; and let us observe, more closely,
the animal life with which these wilds are tenanted.
The air is alive with the twittering and screams
of feathered songsters, that are carolling forth
their melodious music from the branches of the
trees around. Soft balmy breezes lightly kiss the
foliage, and cause it to respond in murmuring
whispers to their advances. Swarms of midges,
dragonflies, and ether flies (Syrphus) rise from
the green sward and mosses, and with drowsy
hum dart upward, coquetting with the sunbeams
that here and there pierce the moving canopy of
leaves and branches, and exhibiting in a never
ending variety the brilliant colouring of their
wings, and the matchless symetry of their pro-
portions. A monster swan, Cygnus falconeri, (1)
that was a few moments since, foraging in the
rank verdure of the morasses that fringe the
river’s bank, has now taken flight, and is rapidly
moving towards the flocks of its companious
( Cygnus Melitensis and C. A lor) (2) whose snowy
white forms we see in the distance glancing in the
sunshine as they hurry onward with swift and
noisy motion towards the calm, glassy waters of
the lake that lies to the eastwards.
And on the most prominent of the many
pinnacles that fringe the ravine stands in ma-
jestic and watchful solitude, a magnificent vulture
(1) Falconer Dr. Paleontological Memoirs Vol.
II. 300. 305. 307.
(2) Parker. Trans. Zoolog. Soc. Vol. VI. 119.
119
THE MEDITERRANEAN naturalist
Gyps melitensis (1) whose size exceeds by one
fifth that of the well-known Vultur monachus ,
and which is therefore the largest accipiter known
except Harpagornis.
It is watching with greedy eyes the group of
cranes, Grus melitensis, who are hastening towards
the borders of the lake in search of their morn-
ing meal.
The air teems with life
“The insect youth are on the wing,
Eager to taste the honied Spring,
And float amid the liquid noon;
Some lightly o’er the current skim,
Some show their gaily, gilded trim,
Quick glaring to the sun.”
And there, daintily skipping in fearsome haste
from bough to bough, is a sleek, soft-eyed little
creature, which, in appearance strongly resembles
the dormouse that now infests our cornfields,
but which, in size and habits, is more nearly
alHed to the squirrel species.
It is a squirrel-iike mouse Myoxus melitensis ,
that has been enjoying a hasty repast amid the
profusion of wild fruits with which the surroun -
ding woods abound.
And as we proceed onward, we find that the
jungle thickens, and trees of a larger and stronger
growth, among which the oak and the acacias
are specially predominant, take the place of the
more fragile and delicate vegetation that crowns
the summits of the hills.
Have a care, for these wilds are tenanted by
creatures that recognise but one law, that of might;
and woe betide those that are unable to hold
their own against them.
See yonder group of snorting, dusky levia-
thans, that are now rounding the base of the neigh-
bouring hill. The huge beasts Elephas Mna-
drae , belong to a species of elephants at least
equal, if not greater, in point of size, than those
that are now found in the northern provinces of
India. We will allows them to pass; and then
we will wander down to their feeding ground.
Passing through a glade, that is carpeted with
a waving pile of the most delicate green, and
which is redolent with the perfume of the blossoms
(1 ). LydekJcer. R. — “ On the remains of some
Large Extinct Birds from the. Cavern Deposits of
Malta. Froc. Zool. Boc. 1890. p. 1^08.
of the buckthorn, and the dogwood, we
emerge into the open, and find ourselves in
the vicinity of the place lately occupied by the
herd.
The delicate fronds of the ferns lay bruised ana
broken around us; and, intermixed with the twigs
and foliage of the poplar Populus balsamoides and
P. rnutabilis, and the beautiful Podogonoce , lay
the tender, green filaments of the club mosses, that
had been either crushed by the broken branches,
or had been trampled out of all semblance to their
former-selves by the formidable animals that had
just passed over them.
And now emerging from the farther extre-
mity of the glade we see another group. In
form and colour the animals differ kbut little
from the leviathans that have just passed; but
in size they are by comparison pigmies indeed.
The smallest of them, Elephas falconeri barely
exceeds in height an average Newfoundland dog;
while the others belonging to the species Elephas
Melitensis attain a size that is not greater than an
average sized donkey. See ! they are now busily
engaged in breaking off, with their diminutive
trunks, the succulent shoots of the trees that their
larger and more powerful brethren had borne down
in the course of their progress down the hill
We will leave them to enjoy their repast,
and we will wend our way down the slopes
towards the lake, whose waters lap the eastern
bases of the Binjemmas, and there watch the
sportive antics of the shoals of animals that lie
basking on its surface, and gambolling on its
sedgy banks.
Near the mouths of the numerous affluents,
that discharge their waters into the basin, are
numbers of hippopotami, some swimming hither
and thither, others lying motionless on the calm,
still surface of the lake.
With his tough hide, and huge jaws, the
Maltese riv er-horse, Hippopotami ' pentlandi, would
methinks prove himself to be a formidable toe
to any that would have the hardihood to
oppose him.
One of them has now landed, and is dragging bis
ponderous bulk up the steep banks. May-hap, he
is after some dainty morsel wherewith to satisfy
the cravings of the enormous appetite, that such a
body must possess. His unceremonious advent
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
120
among the sedges appears to have aroused several
large turtles for yonder are two or three of them
slowly making for the water, weighed down by
the large osseous carapaces, that stand them in
such good stead as a protection from the numerous
enemies around them.
And now that we have seen the bright side of
Nature in these favoured regions shall we remain
to observe it in its darker aspects?
Shall we remain to watch nature in her labour
throes ; while these land areas are being riven
from end to end by the convulsive efforts of the
subterranean forces that are constantly accumula-
ting beneath them; and when the three henchmen
of Nature, Fire, Air, and Water shall combine to
wipe out of existence all traces of the fertility, and
abundance that we now see before us.
No! such scenes are not for us. We will
retrace our steps and in the quiet and seclusion
of the valleys and gorges, in the caverns and
on the plains we shall find an abundance of
eloquent witnesses of the vissicitudes that the
islands have undergone since those remote ages.
The cliffs and scaurs still rear aloft their ruin cres-
ted summits in all their primaeval ruggedness, and
the caverns and gorges, from their glooomy, awe
inspiring depths still furnish us with mementoes
of the creatures that formerly dwelt within their
precints.
But the forests have now gone, the rivers and
lakes have disappeared, and where once they ex-
tended nought now remains but a heaving waste
of waters. The Maltese Islands are all that is left
of the once extensive area that joined the two
great continents; and even they have been so
changed that but for the animal remains that have
been locked up and sealed within their caves it
would have been difficult, if not impossible, to
have been able to have demonstrated the intimate
relations which we now know the islands formerly
bore to the land areas on either side of them. But
for these same evidences, the scenes that once
made these islands so “fresh and fair” would long
since have passed from the mind of man,
and have melted away among the misty shadows
of antiquity, and so that portion of the chain of
events that links Malta past with Malta present
would have been irrecoverably lost to us,
And even now we can conceive of a time when,
in the never-ending cycle of changes which governs
Nature’s actions all of these evidences too will be
ultimately effaced, and in the memory of future
generations the history of the islands’s occupation
by man, and indeed, its very existence will, like a
cloud rapidly drifting out of sight, have sunk be-
hind the horizon of human forgetfulness.
But that stage has not yet been reached.
The caverns and their entombed remains are
still left to us; and they serve to bridge over
the gulf of time that separates the past from
the present. Within the precints of these mau-
soleums of Nature we ffnd the most incongruous
associations: there the bones of the elephant lie
peacefully with those of the dormouse, and the
remains of the hippopotamus comingle with those
of the swan.
The very nature of the physical conditions
that endured at the time w7hen these heter-
ogeneos masses of animal remains were thus
gathered together, is there photographed in the
sands, clays, and breccias that lie so abundantly
along the lines of valleys and the coasts of the
islands.
But of these I shall have more to say when
considering the superficial accumulations of the
Quarternary period.
The majority of the ossiferous caves of Malta
are to be found in the Oligocene strata, as it
is the beds that comprise this series that are
the best adapted for withstanding the erosive
action of the atmosphere.
Of these the principal are the Gandia Fissure,
the Shantin Fissure, the Zebbug Cave, the
Malak Cave, the Middle Cave, the Mnadra Gap,
the Benhisa Gap, St. Leonard’s Fissure, and
the Melliha Cave.
The Gandia Fissure is situated in the Lower
Coralline Limestone about a quarter of a mile
from the village of Micabiba. It was system-
atically explored by Dr. Leith Adams in the
year 1865, (1) and a considerable quantity of
elephants bones and molars, remains of dormice,
and bones of aquatic birds were found intermixed
with the red earth with which the rent was
filled. J
(1) Adams A. L, “ Nile Valley and Malta ”,
p, p, 165,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
121
Fossils found in the Candia Fissure.
1. Bones & teeth of dormice, Myoxus Melitensis.
2. Bones of aquatic birds, Cygnus Falconeri.
3. Remains of Elephas Antiquus (1 ).
4. Remains of E. Falconeri.
The Shantin Fissure is a rent which is situa-
ted at about a half a mile from the Ganclia cave,
between the villages of Micabiba and Luca.
Like the Gandia Fissure it was found to /be
filled with red earth and fragments of limestone,
intermixed with which were the molars, tusks,
ribs, and vertebrae of several species of elephants.
Among the most noteworthy of the specimens
found in this gap was a portion of a tusk, one
foot nine inches in length, and seventeen inches
in circumference. If is still to be seen in the
Valletta museum.
M The Zebbug Cave: — In the gorge that lies bet-
ween the Marsa and the villages of Siggieui and
Zebbug there are several caverns in the Globi-
gerina Limestone. It was while examining these
in 1859 that Oapt Spratt discovered this fissure,
the measurements of which are 75 feet long, Ob
feet high, with a width that varies from feet
to a few inches. Dr. Falconer, (2) Mr. Busk and
Mr. Parker (3) gave a lengthy description of the
fossils that Capt Spratt obtained from this rent
among which whese abundant remains of elephants,
and birds.
The Middle Cave , the Malak Cave, and the
Mnaidra Gap. These three caves, which are si-
tuated on the southern coast of Malta, in close
proximity to the ruins of Mnaidra, were disco-
vered and excavated by Dr. Adams in 1866. A
careful examination of their contents, led to the
discovery of an osseous breccia that contained a
great abundance of the remains of a gigantic
dormouse {Myoxus Melitensis) of land birds, (An-
dres), and (Cygnus Falconeri) (1). In the Mna-
dra cave, the tusks and molars of elephants were
dso found in great profusion.
(1; See Falconers memoirs. Vol. 11. pp. 176. 251.
(2) Falconer' s Pal. Mem. Vol. 11. p. 305.
(3) Proc. Geol. Soc. Vol. XXIII. p. 287. op. at
IF. R. Parket , u Preliminary notes on some fossil
Ards from the Zebbug Cave. Malta, Trans.
Zool. Soc. Vol. VI. p. 119,
Unlike the deposits in most of the other caves,
these were in each case, sealed down by thick
layers of stalagmite, beneath which the organic
remains were discovered.
Although, the caves were well explored, still
much remains for the interested observer. Large
quantities of the deposit are still in situ , from
which with a little care the bones and teeth of
the ancient animals, of Malta may be easily
extracted. About twenty yards to the N. West of
the Middle cave there is a talus of bone breccia
lying on the slopes, the block of which literally
teem with the bones and molars of hippopotami.
The Benhisa Gap: is a small creek, situated
at the south eastern extremity of Malta, and is
so called on account of its proximity to the tower
.of the same name.
Adams examined it in 1864 and found it to con-
tain a heterogeneous mass of pebbles intermixed
with red earth and elephantine remains, together
with the bones of freshwater tortoises (1), of
dormice, and of large birds.
Altogether he collected the remains of about
two dozen elephants, the greater portion of which
were referable to the pigmy elephant E. Falconeri.
St. Leonard's Fissure: — This is the only ossi-
ferous care or fissure that has yet been discovered
on the northen coast of Malta.
It is situated on the coast a fer hundred yards
to the north of the village of St. Leonards, and
about a mile and a half to the east of Ricasoll
The gap contained a quantity of grey calcareous
drift, in which Adams found some molars of the
dwarf elephant Elephas. Falconeri.
The Melleha Cave : — This cave occurred in the
Upper Coralline Limestone, in close proximity to
the Church of Melleha. In 1863 Dr. Adams
found several teeth and portions of tusks refera-
ble to Hippopotami Pentlancli , (1) and Capt.
Spratt gave an interesting description of the
conglomerate that occurs there, and in which
similar teeth and bones were afterwards found.
The preceding resume of the work that has
been done in the Malta caves is necessarily a brief
one. My object will however be accomplished if I
(1). Adams “ On some bones of fossil chelonians
from Malta ” Quapt.J ourn.Geol.Soc.v.XXII. p. 59 4.
(1 ) T. A. B. Spratt, “On the bone caves of
Melleha! Quart, Journ. Geol, Soc. XXIII. p. 2S3,
122
The mediterranean naturalist
had said sufficient to encourage others to consult
the published memoirs of the authors whom I
have mentioned, or if I have aroused sufficient
interest in the subject to stimulate them to fur
ther investigations in it.
(to be continued ).
NOTES AND NEWS.
We desire to call our readers attention to the |
fact that numbers 1, 2, and 3, of the Mediterranean |
Naturalist are now out of print. The remainder '
of the back numbers may still be had.
Recent statistics show that France has 525
learned Societies, of which 135 have been officially
recognized as of national importance. Of the
total, number, 95 are historical and social ; 95 agri-
cultural and horticultural; 57 medical and phar-
maceutical; 45 scientific; 41 artistic; 37 geogra
phical; and the rest miscellaneous, including pho-
tographic, statistical and ballooning associations.
An article on “ Sicreodon Melitensis ” by Mr.
John H. Cooke, f.g.s., etc., appeared in the cur-
rent numbei of the Geological Magazine.
A correspondent writes to know if the little
Golden Plover, Charadrius Virginiacus is often
seen in the Maltese Islands, and if so at what
season of the year. Perhaps some of our readers
will inform him through our columns.
During the recent expedition of the Vittor Pi-
sani extensive collections of animals and plants
were brought from the Red Sea and the Aegean
Sea by the officers of the Italian Navy.
They are now to be placed at the service of all
who a*-e willing to pursue histological and mor-
phological researches, and systematic and faunistic
investigations.
The last earthquake of note that took place in
Ma’ta occurred in February 1887. It is a remark-
able fact that some of the mest destructive earth-
quakes on record, also took place in the same
month. The great earthquake of Lisbon in Feb-
ruary 1531 during which 30, COO people lost their
lives; that of Aquila in It Jy, in February 1703, j
during which 5000 persons were d* • royed ; the
series of earthquake shocks in Southern Italy and j
Sic' y ' February 1783 that caused the death of 1
several thousands ; the great earthquake in Cen-
tral America in February 1797 by which 40,000
persons lost their lives in one second of time, and
the recent Chilian earthquake in February.
Not the least curious of recent applications of
science is the use of spectacles for the production
of high stepping horses. The spectacles, designed
and first made by a London firm of opticians, con-
sist of eye enclosing frames of stiff leather and
deep concave glasses of large size. They cause
the ground in front of the horse to appear raised,
and he accordingly steps high. Persistence in the
use of the spectacles on young animals is said to
give wonderful results. It is suggested that spec-
tacles are also often desirable for correcting the
vision of horses, and that certain vice such as
shying, which is generally due to short sight might
be cured by means of eye-glasses.
Many thousands of tons of sulla (clover) and
wheat are annually grown in the Maltese Islands
but the latter does not thrive to the same extent
as does the former. This is probably due to the
greater adaptibility of the clover to its environ-
ment, but more especially to that peculiarity which
it possesses in common with all leguminous plants
of being able to extract free nitrogen from the
atmosphere.
It is a process, the modus operandi of which is
as yet unknown, and this, too, notwithstanding
the diligent researches of the most eminent che-
mists that have lived during the last quarter of a
century. Twenty two years ago the French Gov-
ernment offered a prize of £ 10,000 to the chemist
who solved the problem.
The reward has not yet been claimed.
A correspondent of Nature suggests a very sim-
ple plan for the destruction of that familiar pest
the mosquito. He tells us that the method was
tried in the Riviera a few years ago by an English
gentleman who had some property there.
The place in question is a peninsula and "or that
reason it is excep ronally open to separate treat-
ment. On the Riv'e a fresh -water is a somewhat
rare commodity, and u lias therefore to be stored
in tanks and other s nail receptacles. The larvae
of the mosquito live only in resh water, conse-
quently the tanks are usi a!iy the only places that
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
128
breed them in any considerable quantity. In the
tanks on his property he placed a pair of carp, a
fish that is passionately fond of the l&rvse, and in
a short time he completely extirpated the insects.
The plan is not one that could be adopted every-
where, but it is worth bringing under the notice
of those whose circumstances are similar to those
of the Riviera.
At the last meeting of the French Academy of
Sciences a photograph of some fossil leviathans
that have recently been obtained from the Moun-
tain Limestone was exhibited.
Among the specimens there delineated was a
portion of an Atlantosaurus , whose body was
about 80 feet in length. Another monster was
the Brontosaurus which had a body about 50 feet
in length, and an exceedingly small head.
While a third, the Triceratops , was distinguished
by a peculiar hood-like appendage on the head
that bristled with spines, and by two horns beneath
the eyes and one on the nose.
Its head was about six and a half feet long and
terminated in a beak like that of a bird.
Modern discoveries have shown that the prehis-
toric fauna of the Maltese Islands was of a unique
order for it embraced Dot only a great number of
species that were common to both Europe and to
Africa, but it also included a number of animals
that appear to have been peculiar to this locality.
Of the most striking of these mention may be
made of Elephas melitensis , an undersized ele-
phant; Elephas 7)inaidrce, a large elephant found
in a cave near the ruins of Mnaidra; Myoxus me-
litensis, a gigantic dormouse; Myoxus cartel, a
dormouse named after Dr. Carter; and to these
we may now add a large crane Grus melitensis ;
and a very large vulture Gyps melitensis.
In the course of the excavations that have been
carried out in Egypt during the past year many
valuable and interesting discoveries have been
made.
The documents especially, says “Biblia” throw a
most interesting light upon many of the social
conditions of Egypt at that time and upon the
method pursued by the Ptolomies in settling their
soldiers in that country and then Hellenizing it.
But perhaps the most important and interesting
feature of the whole business is the source from
which these manuscripts were obtained. Mr. Pe-
trie has discovered what was suspected by others
before his time, that many mummy-cases are not
made of wood, nor yet of a solid and homogeneous
mass of papier-mache or other substance. But
they are built up of single sheets of paper, pasted
one upon the other, until the necessary thickness
is obtained. In many cases the paper thus used
is nothing less than old manuscripts torn up and
put to this base employment. How many mummy
cases are thus composed of manuscripts is a matter
of interesting speculation, as is also the question
what priceless literary treasures have been thus
disposed of. Mr. Petrie has shown that it is pos-
sible, after all these centuries, to resolve the mum-
my-cases into their original sheets, and so to
cleanse and restore them as to make them legible.
The possibilities of future discoveries that are
thus opened up are incalculably great, and the
prospect can scarcely fail to stimulate popular
interest in Egyptian research.
We have received the first number of “Rassegna
delie Scienze Geologiche in Italia” a new review
of Geological Science which is being published at
Rome under the joint editorship of Messrs M.
Cermenati and A. Fellini.
Among the many interesting articles that it
contains are a detailed account of the late eruption
of Vesuvius written by the wellknown vulcanolo-
gist Dr, Johnston-Lavis, and a bibliography of the
memoirs bearing on Italian geology that have been
written during the past year.
The work is a very useful one, and it should be
in the hands of all who desire to be kept posted in
Italian geology.
The canary, that is now mund so plentifully all
round the shores of the Mediterranean, was intro-
duced into Europe in 1478 by Henry of Spain,
who brought a number of them from the Canary
Inlands. For over a century the Spaniards did a
thriving trade by supplying the birds, at a very
high price, to bird fanciers in the neighbouring
countries. A book on “Canaries” that was publish-
ed at Rome in 1622, tells us that this monopoly
was broken up by a curious mischance.
A large number of birds had been sent to Spain
in a ship, but a storm arising, the vessel was dri-
124
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
ven on the Italian Coast and wrecked. Finding a
genial climate the birds established themselves
and rapidly spread over Southern Europe. In
colour, these Mediterranean birds differ consider-
able from the typical cage canary. As a rule they
are of a brown colour, shading off into grey and a
greenish yellow and they have strong, rich, mellow
voices.
For all practical purposes the Mediterranean
may be accepted as being, what it is popularly
supposed ?to be, a tideless sea, but it is not so in
reality. In many places there is a distinct rise
and fall, though this is more frequently due to
winds and currents than to lunar attraction. At
Venice there is a rise of from one to two feet in
spring tides, according to the prevalence of winds
up or down the Adriatic, but in that sea itself the
tides are so weak that they can hardly be recogni-
sed, except during the prevalence of the Bora, our
old friend Boreas , which generally7 raises a sur-
charge along the coast of Italy. In many straits
and narrow arms of the sea there is a periodical
flux and reflux, but the only place where tidal
influence, properly so called, is unmistakably ob-
served is in. the Lesser Syrtis, or Gulf of Gabes.
There the ride runs at the rate of two or three
knots an hour, and the rise and fall varies from
th ree to eight feet. It is most marked and regular
at Djerba, the Homeric island of the Lotophagi.
One must be careful in landing there in a boat, so
as not to be left high and dry a mile or two from
the shore. Perhaps the companions of Ulysses
were caught by the receding tide, and it was not
only7 a banquet of dates, the “honey-sweet fruit of
the lotus,” or the potent wine which is made from
it, which made them forgetful of their homeward
way.
Discovery of the remains of a fossil whale
near Citta Vecchia.
Some-time since a discovery of an unusually
interesting description was made in one of the low
cliff sections of a held situated midway between
Notabile and Casal Dingli.
It consisted of a portion of the body, ribs, and
vertebrae of a fossil cetacean.
The remains were found in the transition bed
which is subjacent to the deposit that forms the
capping of all of the hills of Malta and Gozo; and
which is known as the Upper Coralline Limestone.
This transition bed is unusually pregnant with the
remains of the former inhabitants of the waters in
which the Maltese Island were built up.
Sharks’ teeth belonging to ten distinct species,
crabs, and the remains of numerous tribes of shell
fish are plentifully distributed throughout it.
In the present instance, the men employed in
the exhumation of this interesting relic of bygone
ages, were not careful enough in developing the
skeleton and the result was that only a portion of
it was obtained; and even that is in a somewhat
fragmentary condition.
It has been conveyed to the Museum of the
Malta University, "where it may now be seen. The
most important parts viz: the jaws and the caudal
vertebras have not yet been discovered and it is
therefore needful to exercise some caution before
committing oneself to an opinion.
These deficiencies have rendered the work of
determining the species to which it belonged,
somewhat doubtful; though enough has been
discovered to afford approximate, if not conclusive,
evidence of the genus.
There seems no reason to doubt but that the
remains are those of a member of one of the
numerous families of cetaceans that frequented
the sea which formerly rolled over the area now
known to us as the Maltese Islands.
Of these, the remains of the dugong,the menatee
(the mermaid, beloved of poets and fable-mongers)
the dolphin, and those of several species of whales
have been found to be specially abundant.
The present specimen is small one, being not
more than 10 or 12 feet in length, and when
compared with the remains of some that have
been discovered at Chelmus in Gozo and other
parts of the Islands, is must be accounted but a
midget. Dr. Adams records the discovery of a
tooth belonging to a carnivorous whale, Zeu-
glodon Cetoides, an animal which was not less
than 60 or 70 feet in length.
Such a monster as this must indeed have been
the terror of the seas in which it lived. It is now,
happily7 extinct.
To the reflective mind discoveries of this kind
will serve to furnish ample food for the speculative
faculties. They afford conclusive evidence of tie
great changes and oscillations of level that these
islands have undergone in ages, which, geologically
speaking, are yet quite recent; and by7 the irrefu-
table character of their arguments they enable us
to glean some information of the nature of the
physical conditions that endured prior to the
advent of man.
Sowildand impracticable would such asuggestion
as this have been considered fifty years ago, that
had it then been propounded it would have been
unceremoniously dismissed as being no more than
the day dream of a mere visionary; yet inductive
reasoning, based upon such evidence as discoveries
of this kind afford, have enabled man to make such
strides in geological science, that the day is now
not far distant when the physical conditions of
the earth in prehistoric times will be as familiar
to him as are those of his own day.
Editor. J. H. Cooke. B.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
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1 Sketch of the Geology of Pantelleria, importance of
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Jervis, F.G.S. 93
2 The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev. Professor
Henslow, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 97
3 Military Pigeons 99
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C.E., F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A., 99
5 The Climate of the Maltese Islands— J. II. Cooke. 102
b Notes on the Lepidoptera of Malta — Alf. Caruana
Gatto, B. A. P05
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Contents- January.
— — Page
1 Remarks upon the Relationship of the Molluscan
Fauna of the Red Sea and Mediterranean— Edgar
A. Smith, F.Z.S. 409
2 The Geological Photographs Committee of the
British Association e ni its work. Ill
3 Notes on Ant’s— Nest Beetles at Gibraltar ai.i
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4 The Latest Theory of Volcanoes, 113
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6 The Samos Fossil Mammals. 11 -
7 Occurrence of “Chrysophrys” in the Malta Miocene. IIS
8 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
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9 JV Acs and News:— Learned societies France— “'Ste-
reodonMelitensis” — Expedition of the ViteorPisani
—Earthquakes in February— Destruction of the
Mosquito— Fossil leviathans— Origin of the Canary
— The Mediterranean as a tideless sea— Maltese
Mammalian Fauna— “Rassegnu delle Scienze Geo-
logiche in Italia” etc. etc. 122
10 Discovery of the remains of a fossil whale near \ :
Vecchia. 124
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CONTENTS.
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1 The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev, Prof:
Henslow, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 125
2 The “Fungus Melitensis—A. Caruana Gatto, B.A. 127
3 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands—
John H. Cooke 129
4 Mediterranean Lepidoptera. Phillip de la Garde R.N. 133
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C.E., F.G.S., F,R.I.B.A. 135
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9
The Botany and Geology of Egypt.
BY
Eev. Professor Henslow m.a.,f.l.s.,f.g.s.
The Geology of Egypt is not of a very compli-
cated character, though the age of some heels is
difficult to assign. Commencing with the oldest
period, the beds consist of — (I), a foundvdor:. of
crumpled Lauren tian rocks, with intrusive masses
and veins of granitic or aqueo-igneous reeks* as
in the island of Biggeh at Fhilae. These strata
are principally developed in the hilly country
between the Nile and the Pled Sea. (3), Argil-
laceous , chloritic and other schists, probably pre-
Cambrian. These are also penetrate ! by basAtic
and felspathic intrusive dykes. These igneous
rocks are in the neighbourhood of the Second
Cataract, and supplied the Ancient Egyptians with
the materials for many of their statues, and the
polished blocks of syenite in the intern or of the
great pyramid. (3) The above palaeozoic crys tal-
line rocks subsequently formed insular tracts in a
shallow sea, against which sandstones were de-
posited. This latter now constitutes the desert
sandstone, supposed to be of carbon: sror.s or
devonian age, as it contains Lepidodendron mosai-
cum. It is conformable with. the next— (4) — or
Nubian' sandstone, which has been various con-
sidered as palseozoic or lower cretaceous. the
probability seems to be that this part c ” Africa
was dry land throughout the whole A the
Mesozoic epoch, and that the uppermost bees cf
sandstone became denuded and were hi in ’’sfcruied
as cretaceous beds. During the middle and later
period of the cretaceous epoch the land was sub-
merged, and the deposits now constitute several
distinctly recognisable, though confer liable, strata
visible in the great oasis. They contain species of
familiar genera, such as Inoceram-us , Sponaylus,
Gryphcea; Sea-urchins such as our common
British Anananchytes ovatus ; sponges, like the
ventriculites of our Brighton flint-pebbles.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
126
This cretaceous depression continued on through
the Eocene period in which great thicknesses of
limestone beds (5) were deposited. These eocene
strata are divisible into three series, the lower
reaching from the south to about the 26th parallel
of latitude. The middle eocene extends thence to
Cairo, The upper eocene is scarcely represented
there, but occurs more largely a long way off— in
the western side of the Libyan desert — where it
appears at heights from 70 metres below , to 130
meters above the level of the sea.
The most characteristic fossils are the numerous
species of NummuUies , so called from tiie resem-
blance of the larger kinds to pieces of money
i (nummus). A large number of the mollusca are
the same as in our own eocene beds, c. g., Nautilus
ziczac , common to the London clay and the Paris
basin.
The Middle Eocene is well represented at the
Mokattam hills, which rise to 61ft. behind the
citadel of Cairo: The same beds support the
Great Pyramid, but they constitute a “down-
throw/' being only 160ft. above the Nile, which
flows along the line of fault. Nummidites , Gize-
hensis , curvispira, discorbina , &c., are characteristic
ot the basement beds of this Middle Eocene series,
associated with Cerithium giganteum , and other
species familiar to English geologists.
Above the preceding bed follows others, with
shells shewing a correspondence with the lower
Parisian beds, containing Pecten porisiensis , &c.
Much gypsum occurs in these beds here.
This Mokattam limestone contains flints resem-
bling those of the U pper Chalk. By the weathering
of the limestone, they form complete surface
layers. On the west of the Nile most denudation
has taken place, so that- there pebbles occur strewn
over the desert. They split through the action of
heat and cold, for the temperature often varies to
the extent of 35 degrees in seven hours. They are
often coloured in bands by oxide of iron.
A brown uppermost layer contains many oysters,
Coma , Valuta, Turritella , and the characteristic
bivalves, Placuna and Carolia .
the Upper Eocene strata are developed, as sta-
ted, mainly at the extreme western part of the
Libyan desert. They consist of limestone beds of
10 metres in thickness, and are the equivalent of
the Barton Clay.
The first important elevation took place at the
close of the Eocene times, so that the beds of that
I age formed .soils for trees of the genus Nicolio, as
I well of palms and pines, now constituting the
| well-known fossil forests near Cairo. They belong
’ to eight genera, including one palm, a conifer, seven
j exogens, some of which were from 70ft. to 80ft. in
j height. They are allied to the existing Sudan flora.
A bill called Gebel-ahmar, or the red mountain,
! is supposed to be also of Miocene age. It is com-
posed of sandstones and conglomerates, and
coutains what have been supposed to be
old Geyser-pipes. The induration of the rocks,
! and silicification of the trunks of the trees,
| are thought to be due to these old hot
1 silicious springs. The hard sandstone is used for
! millstone and statues, a very ancient one being at
| Ismailia.
No recognised deposits occur of the Pliocene age,
as during this time the land was continental, the
the Nile emptying itself into a great enclosed
saline basin on the east.
As the elevation of Lower Egypt took place,
the Nile valley became still more contracted,
patches of sea-beaches being now discoverable at
intervals as at Mokattam, near the Great Pyra-
mid and up to Silsilis, proving that an arm of the
sea extended far up the Nile. These beaches also
occur at Alexandria, the Red Sea, Syria, Jaffa, and
at Beyroot to the height of 200ft., indicating an
extensive pleistocene submergence.
As an illustration, in the cliffs behind the tombs
of the Khalifs at Cairo, and at an elevation of
about 30ft., the rocks, are perforated by the Litho-
domus of the Mediterranean Sea, and abound with
Ostrea cueullata of the Red Sea, as well as with
Balani , ail being of existing species.
Near the Pyramids there is another example at
the summit of a knoll known as Het-el-orab, or”
Crow’s Wall;” where a depression occurs between
it and the Pyramids, which is partly natural and
partly artificial, as the Sphinx is cut out of the
solid rock. The beach consists of rounded frag-
ments of limestone, with a few basaltic-like pebbles,
the interstices being packed with oyster shells. It
is about 40ft. above the bottom of the valley.
As the land rose and the sea retreated, Egypt
became higher than at present, as sand is found at
a depth of 30ft. to 40ft, below the Nile mud, show-
127
" ' ' • r~^ ^ ?r
the Mediterranean naturalist
ing that the Delta was at that time part of the
desert, when the Nile ran in a deep channel and
perhaps more to the east than now, the fresh water
deposits occurring at the Isthmus of Suez being
probably of this period.
A subsequent slight depression near the begin-
ning of the historical period placed it in a position
to receive and retain the mud. It has been calcu-
lated that the Nile mud is deposited at the rate of
nearly five inches in a hundred years. This will
give a date of about 10,000 years for the growth of
the Delta.
The first period of human occupation is indicated
by flint implements. That there was a stone age in
Egypt appears to be now well established and
recognised since 1869. Many implements have been
found about Thebes, in the Oasis, and elsewhere.
They consist of flakes, cores (usually one-sided
only), hammers, arrow-heads, lances, scrapers,
saws, heads of hatchets, <fcc.
The Egyptians, as Herodotus tells us, continued
to use flints for the purposes of mummification, <fec.,
though iron was of course in use.
The numerous depressions and elevations of
Egypt, as well as dislocated strata on the east and
west side of the Nile, indicate the action of great
forces, so that the fact of earthquakes having taken
place is not surprising. The frightful havoc done
to the temples in Upper Egypt can apparently
only have been caused by earthquakes.
The valley of the Nile was primarily determined
by ridges of the old crystalline rocks on the east-
which caused the flow of drainage to proceed
northwards, and prevented a direct communication
with the Red Sea. It was also influenced by the
fractures and faults occurring in the elevation of
the Eocene beds the west side of the Nile being
a downthrow which produced lines of weakness
along the course of the present valley. Much of the
actual cutting of the valley must have been effected
by the sea in times of pleistocene submergence.
Many inland cliffs and “Wadys” were then formed
together with the scattering of boulders from the
eastern crystalline mountains over the Libyan
desert as at Denderah.
That the Nile, or perhaps a branch of it, once
flowed eastwards appears to be probable from the
existence of fresh water strata around Xsmailia,
occupying the highest part immediately north of
the town on the Isthmus of Suez, and extending a
considerable distance east and west. They consist
of a thin-bedded grey limestone in horizontal beds,
resting on marls, sands, and clays, with gypsum
and nodules of chalcedony. This formation would
seem to imply the discharge of the Nile, or of a
considerable branch of it, eastwards — not into a
marine estuary, but into a saline lake. This may
perhaps account for the identity of the Nile and
Jordan fishes, the latter river having had some
communication with this eastern branch of the
Nile.
The “Fungus Melitensis.”
This plant ~was believed to be peculiar to
the Maltese Islands only, a belief in which I also
shared, and which I expressed to Dr. J. Murray
during his late visit. Now, however, it has been
shown that the above name is but a local synonym
for uCynomorium coecineurn L. arid that the plant
has a much wider range than has hitherto been
supposed a fact which led Prof. Carmel refer to it
in the International Congress held at Florence in
1874 as — “une des grandes raretes de la flore
europeenne. Une plante que pas un botaniste peu-
tetre sur cent n’a Foccasion de voir vivante.”
But these facts do not detract from its interest,
and a few details bearing upon it may not therefore
be considered out of place in a journal that is de-
voted to the Natural History of the Mediterranean
and its islands.
The misleading character of its popular name is
now well known. It has no more right to he called
“Melitensis, than it has to be called a fungus,
although this is its pharmaceutical name in Linn.
Materia Medica where in 1749 the plant, under
the binomial nomenclature, received the name
which it now bears.
In the Maltese vernacular it is called “Gherk el
general/5 or “Gherk signur,” which means. “The
general’s root”, because the first known habitat was
on the Hagra tal general , a detached rock situated
at the north western extremity Oi Gozo, and which
received the name of the “Fungus rock” in conse-
quence of its presence.
The medicinal virtues of the plant were fabu-
lously exaggerated in former times, and have thus
led to its being mentioned in nearly every work hat
■'**
128
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
lias been published about the Maltese Islands since
the time of the G. Master Lasearis. The Cominen-
datore Abela refers to it in his “Descritione di
Malta’5 in 1847, where he speaks of it as a herb of
a reddish colour, which when dried and reduced
to a fine powder has most salutary effects if used
as a drink in cases of dysentery. (L. 1. Not. N.).
The first to note the plant scientifically was J. J.
Bonamico who, prior to 1670, wrote a pamphlet
on it entitled uDe fuco spicato coccineo melitense /’
and P. Boccone in 1697, described it in his “Museo
di Fisica,” and in a note he dedicated it to Sir J.
Hoskin Bart, President of the Royal Society of
London.
In this work he records many observations
about the “Fungus ihypciides coccineus. tuberous
melitensid ’ as he calls it; and he mentions several
other places besides Malta, in which it occurs. lie
speaks at considerable length, according to the
popular ideas of his times, of its medicinal pro-
perties; and in support of his statements he men-
tions several remarkable cures that were due to
its efficacious properties
Me call it “ Thypoides owing to its resemblance
to the stems of the iypka; and he suggests that it
might be usefully employed instead of other
medicines.
Bonamico's ideas on the plant, were reproduced
in Count Ciantar’s Malta Illustrata , 1772; and
his quaint ideas on the subject are a sample of the
first stage of science of the pioneers of Maltese
Natural History. He observes that Abela was
not exact in calling the fungus a herb, whilst it
ought to be called a fruit, and that he was like-
wise mistaken in restricting its habitat to the
“Hagra tal general” because it grows also on the
opposite coast of Gozo at Dueira.
In speaking of its uses he describes the manner
in which it ought to be prepared and given, and
he extends its effects to cases of Apoplexy and
Gomorrea. Nothing is known he says, how it
came to be discovered, but that some Maltese
women banished to Gozo were the first to learn its
valuable properties, and among whom later on
prevailed the custom to hang the plant on their
breasts as an amulet of future happiness, but, he
severely adds, a Capuchin Missionary put a stop
to this custom. Ciantar concludes saying that in
his time the Fungus was reserved for the Grand
Master’s use, which Prof. Gulia confirms in his
“Repertorio Botanico Maltese ,” 1855, asserting that
two men for 50 Scudi each year were charged with
the custody of the Fungus, and a Proclamation
issued in 1800 under Sir Alexander Ball ordered
that the ruies regarding the protection of the
Fungus were to stand good as under the previous
Goverment, prohibiting to persons of all conditions
to collect it without a permit from His Excellency
or from his Secretary.
These measures show clearly how much prized
the Fungus was and what an active search for
if went on, and I do not know of any other indi-
genous plant so much cared for and protected
except the “ Ononis ravusissima ” commonly called
“ Broxga which was and is still used for baking
purposes, about which there is a paragraph in
Book VII. C. XII., of the Codice Municipaie
promulgated under G. M. De Rohan, prohibiting
its being cut before 2>Iay under a penalty of
“30 tail”.
Now a days the Fungus is only looked for as a
botanic curiosity, its medicinal properties not
being made much of.
I have been often asked the best way to
obtain specimens of it from the abrupt places
where it grows. Since the interruption cf the
rope comunication with the General’s Rock this
is generally not a very easy thing, but I have
always managed to have it by going in its
time of flowering to the cliffs off Casal Dingli
where it is also to be found on the rocks overlook-
ing the sea, and there ask for it of some country-
man of the locality, as many know of its value
and would be glad to fetch if on consideration of
a trifling gratuity.
Its flowering time is April and May.
The Cynotnorium is the only representative of
the Order of Balanophoraceae in Europe and is
distinguished as Parlatore observes from its con-
genera because these prefer inland woody districts
while the Cynomorium is to be found only in
sandy places and along the coasts. It lives para-
sitic on maritime plants such as Atriplex portula-
coides L., Inula chrytmoicles L., Salsola fruticosa
L., etc. Its distribution as given by the same
Parlatore is wide enough, embracing Cadiz, Car-
thage, Aranjuez, Sardinia, Italy, Favignona, Lam-
pedusa, Malta, Tunis, Algiers, the Island of Lance-
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
129
rotta and Mount Sinai’s region, but it is never a
common oiant.
The rock varies in its lithological structure in
various part of Tie beds, sometimes being very
Linnaeus on Brown’s authority adds Jamaica
to its habitat (Mas. Med. 52 A Sp. pi. 1375, Amaer.
Acad.' I. 2; 351), but Weddal remarks that it is
probable that he mistook an Helosis for it.
It must be added lastly that the Cynomorium
has been thoroughly studied in Weddell’s “Me-
moir per le Cynon cocc. 1841” which contains all
considerable information on the subject.
Alf. Cartt ana Gatto.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands
BY
John H. Cooke.
I have, so far, been considering the general
geological and physical features of the Islands.
I will now proceed to investigate more closely
the numerous phenomena that exemplify the laws
to which the strata owe their structural charac-
teristics, and to note the principal facts relating
to their stratigraphy, lithology, and paleontology.
The Loiver Coralline Limestone: — This forma-
tion is the lowest of the series of strata of which
the Maltese Islands are composed. It extends
throughout the length and breadth of all of the
islands, but it is not exposed to any great extent
in either Malta or Gozo, nor does it appear in the
islets of Filfola, Comino, and Cominotto. In Malta
it forms mural cliffs that extend all along the
southern coast, and which in many parts rise to
a height of upwards of 400 feet above the level
of the sea. The surface exposures are limited
in area and are found to occur cnly in the eastern
half of the island. The denudation to which
the overlying Globigerina Limestone has been
subjected has laid bare tracts of it of varying
extent around Marsa Scala, the greater part of
the area between Casals Aseiak, Chircop, and
the shores of Marsa Sirocco, the shores of Ricasoli,
St. Julians, the Dragonara, Pembroke, and the
Salines; and in the interior, the areas in the vici-
nity of the Lunatic Asylum, Zebbug, and Musta.
In the islands of Gozo where the work of
denudation has not been so effective, a much
smaller area lies exposed. The sides of the north-
west, and south-west coasts are the only localities.
granular, and having a coarse oatmeal texture,
and sometimes being of a decided crystalline
character.
Dr. Murray subjected several specimens to a
chemical analysis the results of which showed
the rock to contain about 97. 5 per cent of carbo-
nate of .time, the remaining 5 .per cent being made
up of oxide of iron, alumina, and minute grains of
quartz, augite, felspars, tourmaline, and glauconite.
It contains no phosphoric acid or the merest
traces of it, and this combined with the extreme
hardness of the rock tends to render the soil
formed from it very poor in quality, and very
scant in quantity.
It furnishes large quantities of excellent build-
ing material, the softer kinds being largely
used for external decorative purposes, while the
harder varieties, which take a good polish and are
therefore known locally as (( Gozo Marble” or
“ Gozo Granite,” are nsec in si b-marme construc-
tions.. and in those portions of buildings that are
subjected to hard wear and -tear ana in which
durability is therefore a sirxt cua non.
Of the thickness of the formation it is impossible
to give any definite information as there are no
means of determining how far the esc extends
below the sea level, but at Emtahieb and Duera
the Lower Limestone cliffs tower to a height of
about 400 feet, while the 50 fathom line runs close
in shore in both of these localities so that we
may conclude that thickness is much greater than
that which is shown by the cliff faces.
Every portion of the bed abounds with organic
remains, but as a rule the extreme hardness of
the matrix in which they are embedded renders
the work of extracting them, a cask of great
difficulty. Dr. John Murray’s researches showed
the rock to be made up almost entirely of
Nullipores ( Lithothanmion), and other calcareous
Algae, intermixed with which were Foraminifera
fragments of Molluscs, Polyzoa, Corals, and
Echinoderms. Diatomacse (navieulce) and coral-
lines are specially numerous in the lower divisions
of the bed;- while the corals Styloccenia lobato
rotundata, and Denarophillia irregularis occur in
separate masses in abundance in the upper por-
tions. The shores of Duera Bay in Gozo, of the
130
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Dragonara in Malta and of other localities where
this bed lies exposed, abound with a beautiful
sea-urchin Scutella subrotunda , which forms depo-
sits of from two to three feet in thickness. This
scutella bed generally marks the line of demarca-
tion between the Lower Coralline Limestone and
Globigerina Limestone, but it is sometimes
replaced, as at
Ricasoli, by a
soft, white va-
riety of rock a-
bounding with
the spines and
tests of several
species of Cida-
ris with quanti-
ties of Heieros-
tegina and with
great numbers,
of a small bra-
chiopod Thed-
dium adarnsi. .
At II Mara,
Fommer-Rih,
and Migiar Sci-
ni, too, the
rocks along the
shores contain
considerable
quantities of the
flat forami aile-
rons molluscs
Heterostegina ,
but as a rule
they are much
larger, and more
strongly deve-
loped than are
the Heterostegi-
na depressa of
the “Green-
sand” bed. Along the shores of St. Julians Bay in
Malta, and in the Munsciar Gorge in Gozo a very
large species of Heterostegina occurs in consider-
able quantities. It often attains the size of a half
a crown piece, and therefore to distinguish it from
the smaller varieties Dr. Adams named it Hete-
rostegina Strichlandi.
Another organism that is equally abundant
near St. Leonardo and St. Qeorgio is a thin, flat,
discoidal foraminifera Orbitoides Mantelli , most
of which attain a diameter of from 3 to 4 inches,
and associated with them is another species of
a biconvex form Orbitoides despansus (Sowerby.)
The mollusca and the echinodermata are also
largely represented as will be seen upon referring
to the list of
the fossils of
this formation.
In the semicry-
stalline portions
of the upper
parts of the bed
the smooth, gol-
den colored, but-
ton-shaped
teeth of the
large skate My-
liobates , are
found associa-
ted with the pa-
latine teeth of a
large globe-fish
Diodon ; and at
F o m m - e r- R i h
at the same ho-
rizon there is an
extensive bed
composed of
Ostrea navicu-
laris , and 0. bob-
layei.
Owing to the
crystalline cha-
racter of the
rock, the diffi-
culty of obtai-
ning access to
the best sections
of it, and its
extremely hard nature this formation has not been
so thoroughly worked out as the other beds have.
Further researches will, therefore, I have no doubt,
be the means of making many more additions to
its fossil fauna.
The Globigerina Limestone: — Until recently,
j this portion of the Maltese deposits was known as
i the “Sandstone” or “Freestone” group. Captain
■g * fel
on $4
131
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Spratt, Dr. Adams, Von Th Fuchs, and other geo-
logists considered it as such, and it was not until
the results of the investigations of Dr. John
Murray were made known, that the real signifi-
cance of the misnomer was apparent.
From the analyses made by Dr. Murray it was
shown that there was but 12.88 per cent of inso-
luble matter in the samples that he analysed, and
that, that residue was made up of silica, ferric
oxide, alumina and a small quantity of lime. On
the other hand, there was found to be as much
as 80.24 per cent of carbonate of lime. (1)
Sections of the rock were made, and were
examined under the microscope, and it was shown,
that the carbonate of lime consisted of the shells
of foraminifera, the greater number of which
were GLobigerina.
The name of the deposit was therefore changed
to one that more accurately described the charac-
teristics of the formation, and instead of “Sand-
stone”, it is now known as the “ Gl-obigerina
Limestone
The formation extends throughout both islands;
but in the north western and western parts the
deposits, that overlie it, entirely mask it from
view. In these localities, the only means of access
to it, are those afforded by the outcrops along the
hill sides, the faces of the faults, and the sides of
the valleys.
But in the East, and South. East of Malta, and
in the South West of Gozo, a very different state
of things prevails.
In so thorough a manner have the upper depo-
sits, there, been denuded down, that not a vestige
of them remains in an area, that may be taken as
representing at least two thirds of the extent of
the two islands. Over this area, the Globigerina
Limestone forms, with few exceptions, the surface
deposit.
In several localities, there are isolated patches,
where the eroding agents have laid bare the
underlying Coralline Limestone; but so insigni-
ficant are they in size, that their aggregated areas
would not amount to one twentieth of the total
area of the islands. It is principally in the western
half of Malta, that they are to be found; thus at
(1) “ The Maltese Islands with special reference
their Geological structure” Dr, J* Murray 1889.
the north-eastern extremity of the Great Fault,
and proceeding in the direction of the line ox the
Fault to within a short distance of Ta Binjcmma,
some excellent sections are exposed to view.
A limited area around Musta, Zebbug, the
Lunatic Asylum, the shores of St. George’s and
St. Julian’s Bay, from the shooting range at Rica-
soli to Zoncar Tower, the shores of Marsa Scala,
and the whole of the cliffs extending from Marsa
Sirocco in a north-westerly direction to Fommer
Rih, will afford good oppportunities for studying
the nature of the work, that was effected when
the Globigerina deposits were swept from these
areas.
In Gozo, the work of denudation has not been
so extensive; and the Globigerina bed, even where
exposed at the surface, preserves a uniform
thickness throughout. The only remarkable ex-
ceptions to this, are found in the gorges of Migiar
Scini, Cala Sclendi and Gala Duera, in each of
which the Lower Limestone has been laid bare*
The distribution of the formation as a surface de-
posit, is more complicated in Gozo than in Malta.
The Globigerina beds of Gozo, lie exposed over
an area equal in extent to about one fifth of that
in which it is found to occur in Malta.
The stone of the formation varies too consider-
ably in colour and quality.
The .late Admiral Spratt, considered that the
formation was made up of at least, five varieties of
rock. But this is, a question, upon which there is
some difference of opinion, as the kinds of rock,
of which the bed is composed, are very various in
their character, and appearance and in the posi-
tions of the horizons that they occupy in different
parts of the formation. All of the different varie-
ties are fine-grained, and are of a porous texture.
They are, therefore, easily tooled; and are much,
used for building purposes. The prevailing c our
of the rock is a whitish grey, son
retimes inc
Im-
ing to a yellow, and then passing
into a rede
lisk
or orange brown. Situated at abo
nt fhp mi,
U.U C-LLC 111 - L
Idle
of the formation, there is a dark-bl
ue rock, wl
rich
persistently occupies the same re
alive posit
don
throughout the bed. It is of
rn exceed!.
perishable nature, and is, therefore,
Out lime l
ised
for economic purposes. At Slier
rp • v
na, iigne
and
at Marsa Sirocco sections of it
, exhibitin
g a
considerable thickness, are to be
m ail along
the
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
132
shore cliff's. This variation in the colour of the
strata, is due in a great measure, to the varying
states of combination of the iron that pervades
them.
The gradations from a cold-grey to a yellowish
hue through which the various divisions of the
bed pass, are due to the extent to which this
admixture takes place. Dr. Dawson, in a paper
read before the Geological Society (I) advocates
the view that the colouration of rocks is due
to the decomposition of iron pyrites and that the
sulphuretted hydrogen produced by the decay
of organic matter acting on the sesquioxide
converts it into bisulphide, and thus a colouring
matter is formed; and further researches con-
ducted by other well known scientists seem to
support this hypothesis. (2)
There are, however, some cases among the Mal-
tese rocks which Dr. John Murray considers
admit of a simpler explanation. It is his opinion
that the original colour of the whole cf the
formation, was a dark-blue; and that the colours
that the rockjjias now assumed are the result of the
oxidation of the iron pyrites, that it originally
contained. He says “While these rocks are, for
the most part, of a reddish or yellow colour,
along the cliffs on the coast, and in the cutting for
the New Dock, there are large, more or less,
circular bluish patches, and it is noticed, that these
blue patches are removed to the greatest distance
from faults and fissures. In the bluish, or grey-
coloured upper-beds, and even in the over- lying
blue clay itself, the rocks on each side of a fissure
have a red colour, the thickness of this reddish
band on either side of the faub or fissure being
less, as a rule, the more the bed contains.
The microscopic section of the red rocks and
the blue patches show no difference, so far as
concerns the organisms, but the blue patches
contain iron pyrites, which is absent in the red
rock through oxidation, the iron pyrites often
filling the for aminif era and forming casts of the
shells.
(1 ) Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc. Vol. XXXIII. Ji-
ll I
(2) Dr. Sterry Hunt. Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc.
June 1859. J. W. Young “ Chemistry of Carbo-
niferous., and Old Red Sandstones I
It thus appears more than probable, that these
blue patches will ultimately disappear with further
oxidation; indeed it is evident to me, that at the
time these Globigerina rocks were first raised
above the sea, they were all of a blue colour, and
that the red colour is entirely due to subsequent
oxidation, the more porous calcareous bed having
been oxidised at a more rapid rate, than those
containing a large quantity of clayey matter.”
Interstratified with the beds of this formation
are several seams, or layers of phosphatic nodules,
that consist, for the most part of aggregations
of brownish masses, together with a great abun-
dance of the phosphatised remains of mollusca,
echinoderms, corals, whales, dolphins, sharks,
rays, seals, turtles and other creatures; the whole
being firmly bound together by the fine calcareous
matter, that was rained down upon them from the
waters of the ocean above.
All of them, when broken, will be found to
contain an organism, around which the phosphatic
matter has segregated.
The fossilised remains of the contained orga-
nism, too are generally of a brownish biack hue, a
condition, that is probably owing to the combina-
tion, either of the phosphoric acid contained in
the organism, or that derived from the animal
remains around, with the iron contained in the
rock.
It is to the phosphate of iron thus formed, that
the change in their original appearance is due.
These nodules seams often attain a thickness of
from 2 to 3 feet; and, at least one of them extends
throughout the length and breadth of both
islands.
A remnant of one may be seen at Tignk point
marking the transition between the Globigerina
Limestone, and the Lower Coralline Limestone;
while another, of considerable thickness may be
seen on the shores of St. Paul’s Bay,
In some localities, these seams are entirely
absent, and in others they thin out from a thick-
ness of two and three feet to as many inches.
The cliffs at Marsa Scala, at the Gozo light-
house, at Dueira, and at Fouim-er-Rih, offer
every facility for a close examination.
At Fomrn-«r-Rih, four seams are very distinctly
marked ; but that which usual indicates the line
of transition between the Globigerina limestone
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
133
and the Lower Coralline limestone attains thegreat-
est thickness, and is the richest in organic remains.
All of the fossils contained in the seams are
indigenous to the formation. The nodules are of
all shapes and sizes, and their exterior surfaces,
usually, present an exceedingly wrinkled and
coriaceous appearance.
With the exception of the one at the junction
of the Lower Limestone and the Globigerina bed,
these nodule seams are, by no means, uniformly
distributed throughout the island. The lowest
seam is important both an account of its persist-
ence, and of the invariable character of the orga-
nic remains that it contains.
(to be continued.)
Mediterranean Lepidoptera.
While serving a three years’ commission on
board one of H. M. Ships in the Mediterranean
opportunities presented themselves to me of
insect hunting at various parts on that Station.
Of one place, Marmarie, that we visited
probably very little is known and I much re-
gretted that circumstances prevented me taking
more than two walks there for Entomological
purposes. This bay seems to be an ideal spot
for the purpose, lowljdng and well-watered woods,
and plains, as well as lofty hills more or less
tree covered being within easy reach from the
landing place. Among the low-lying woods which
are principally composed of gum trees I noticed a
single specimen of Vannessa antiopa , as well as an
especially large number of Papilio podalirius ,
Hipparchia ailionia, and Hyper ompa her a. At
the back of the village in a fig orchard near a
watercourse, I captured an absolutely perfect
specimen of Papilio machaon , the only one of the
species seen. Limenitis Camilla is also found
here as a very local insect but plentiful where
occurring at all. Amongst the Blues I caught
boeticus , argiolus telicanus , astrarche , and icarus
var: icarinus.
Navarino is another place that from a Lepi-
dopterists point of view would well repay a visit.
The country here is not so varied as at Marmarice
and it is as -well to confine attention to the plains
and gullies only. On them in large numbers are
found 2d elites dldyma var:, Colzas edusa , Papilio
Machaon and podalirius, and more rarely Gonev-
tervx rhamni and cleopatra.
At Spezia the characters of the insects is con-
siderably different, Hymphalidce and Hespeiidce
being the most generally found. The Satirince are
especially well represented by Hipparchia briseis
and ailionia , Gcenonympha arcania taid pamphilus
var etc. Leucophasia sinapis and erysime are
also frequent.
Of the seventeen butterflies known to inhabit
Malta I have caught between March and May,
Oieris brassiccs , rapee, and daplidice , Celias edusa ,
Papilio Machaon var : Sphyrus, Lasio nmaia
megara, Epinephile hispidla, Gcenonympha, Pam-
philus (and a var:), Vanessa Cardui Chrysophanus
Phloeas, and Polyommatus icarus and boeticus; and
have seen Gonepteryx rhamnis, Vanessa atalanta,
and Colias edusa var: helice; leaving unaccounted
for Gonepteryx cleopatra , La&iommata egeria , and
Poiyomma tus astrarche.
Colias hyale has been reported as occuring at
Malta but probably by mistake for C. helice.
Many varieties of butterflies are found on the
syringas and flowering shrubs and bushes generally
in the King’s Gardens and around the lagoon at
Corfu. More Especially Limenitis Camilla ,
Vanessa atalanta, Satyrus roxeiana, Melitce did-
yrna , Pamphila sylvanus, and Thymelicus actceon,
in the King’s Gardens and Colias Edusa , Papilio
machaon, Pieris daplidice, and Hipparchia semele
by the lagoon. Two specimens (male and female)
of Papilio alexojior were caught by a friend of
mine while driving along a high road.
Malamocco which is not much better than a
sandbank has as might be expected little more
than Polyommati and Ccenonympha but there are
scattered specimens of Lasiommata megara, Pieris
rapee and Laplidice, and locally a few Hesperidce^
There is a happy hunting ground up the valleys
to the west of Trieste. Aporia crathcegi, Poly-
ommatus adonis and cegcn , and various species of
Melitcea and Thecla being the most frequent be-
sides a few Colias hyale , Satyrus adrasta, Argyn-
Laphne , and Polyommatus alcon ,
At Cattaro the weather was too hot (96" in the
shade at 4.0 p.m.) to be energetic otherwise proba-
bly the result of a day's work would have been
very satisfactory as vegetation is luxuriant.
134 THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Hipparchia proserpina occurs at Rosas Ray
Aglossa pinguinalis
(E. Coast of Spain), and Fiume. At the latter
Botys ferrugalis
place I also saw Apatura iris (or a var: of it) and
Tortrices fonr. sp.
Ephaleroptera ictericana
on the top of a hill a single specimen of Papilio
Tineoe, four. sp.
alexanor . Epinephile ida is common on the Dal-
Pterophorus sp.
matian Coast.
Deilephila eupliorbiae
I shall be very glad to answer by letter any
(fiom pupa)
Lasiocampa quercus
queries concerning
the localities mentioned.
(from larva)
Philip de la Garde.
Calocampa exoleta (from larva)
9.6.90
Jaffa
Pieris rapae
„ daplidice
List
of Lepidopteka
1 Lycaena thersamon
Captured in the Mediterranean.
20.6 9)
Lnnasol
Epinephile hispulla
Spilothyrus marrubn
|
29.6.90
Marmance
Hipparchia allionia
DATE
PLACE
NAME
and
|
3.7.90
,, fatua
27.6.89
Civ.Vecchia
Melanargia procida
Ccenonympha pamphilus
Zygaena erythrus
Limenitis Camilla
„ groslini
Colias edusa
Lasiocampa sp.
Papilio podalirius
Clisiocampa castrensis
,, machaon
10.7.89
Port Mahon
Liparis disnar
Chrysophanus eleus
- 9.29
Stamphalia
Acherontia atropos
Polyommatus argiolus
- 10.89
Nauplia
Hipparchia fatua
„ boeticus
and
„ icarus var. icarinus
19.7.91
Epinephile lupinus
Hypcrcompa hera
Caenonympha pamphilus
Camptogramma bilineata var.
Leucophasia restiva
testaceolata
„ erysime
10.7.90
Navarino
Hipparchia fatua
Polyommatus argiolus
and
,, icarus
9.7.91
Epinephile hispulla
telicanus
to
Cha rocampa celerio
13.7.91
„ lupinus
Acidalia ornata
Lasiommata megcera
Cram bus sp.
„ egeria var.
- 3.90
Malta
Aspilates citraria
Csenonympha pamphilus
Cornifrons ulcer a tans var.
Meliteea didyma var.
4.11.90
Macroglossa stellatarum
Vanessa cardui
- 3.91
Lasiommata megaera
Pieris brassicase
to
Epinephile hispulla
„ rapee
- 5.91
Ccenonympha pamphilus
Gonepteryx rhamni
Pier is brassicae
„ cleopatra
,, rapse
Colias edusa
„ daplidice
Leucophasia oestiva
Colias edusa
Chrysophanus eleus
Papilio machaon var. sp. hyrns
Polyommatus argiolus
Chrysophanus phlaeas
„ telicanus
Polyommatus boeticus
Pamphila nostrodamus
„ icarus
Epilothyrus marrubii
Callarctia pudica
Macroglossa stellatarum
Deiopeia pulchella
Margaronia unionalis
Lasiocampa sicula
Mecyna Poligonalis var.
Plusia gamma
7.9.90
Spezia
Hipparchia allionia
Triphaena pronuba
and
Sy n th yin ia m on ogramm a
8.9.90
„ briseis
Acidalia asellaria?
Epinephile sp.
Venusia sp.
„ hispulla
Eubolia sp.
Ccenonympha arcania
Pyralis sp.
„ pamphilus
I
„ farinalis
}l „ var.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
135
Argynnis dia
Pieris brassicae
rapae
Colias edusa
Leucophasia erysime
„ sinapis
Polyommatus icarus
„ telicanus
Pamphila comma
Tlianaos tages
Fidonia atomaria
Satyrus roxelana
Hipparchia semele
Epinephile hispulla
Coenonympha pamphilus var.
lyllus
Melitae didyma
Vanessa atalanta
„ C. Album
» Egea
Limenitis Camilla
Melanergia larissa var.
Pieris brassicae
„ daplidice
Etrymon W Album
Polyommatus icarus
„ telicanus
Pamphila sylvanus
Thymelicus actaeon
Zygaena filipendulae
„ punctum
Arctia villica
Callimorpha jacobaem
(to be continued ).
Theories of Mountain Formation.
BY T. MeLLAPJ) ReADE, C.E., P.G.S., F.R.I.B.A.
Part IV.
It will be understood from the principles enun-
ciated in Part III. that the surface layers of the
earth, are unaffected by expansion; it is only as
they become buried in sediment that increasing
heat can affect them. On the other hand, what geo-
logical indications have we in them of the effects of
the secular contraction of the globe? The con-
tr&ctionists point to the folds of the great mountain
ranges, but these, as already shown, only occur in
areas of sedimentation. It would certainly seem
that the secular contraction of the earth, if capable
of producing these effects, should not be confined
to areas of great sedimentation. We should expect
to find old rocks in areas of denudation also
thrown into folds and mountain ranges. As a
matter of fact, no instance can be pointed to of a
mountain range which has been entirely formed of
old rocks. Old rocks are disclosed by the denudation
of a range itself, but these have been the “foun-
dation stones” of the range itself.
If but one mountain range could be shown by
the contractionists, to have been produced without
the aid of sedimentation, their theory would be
founded on a sounder basis of induction than it is
at present. But it will be said, “even admitting
the view that you take of the effect of secular
contraction, and the existence of a level-of-no-strain
in a cooling globe, the compression of the under
layers of the earth must have produced some
geological effects.” Secular contraction may have
left its mark on the earth in some way not at
present understood, and it will take a great deal
of investigation of a less crude character than
seems to satisfy some geologists, to settle this point.
If, however, we consider that the layers of the
earth in compression now — on the favourable
supposition that the surface remains constant and
unalterd except by such compression, which is the
condition assumed in all the calculations of jthe
depth of the level-of-no-strain — is at the maximum
estimate under five miles, and the minimum under
two miles deep, we get a clue to the absence of
geological evidences of secular contraction. There
are very few calculations of geological time — at all
events by those who have studied geology — that
put the earth’s history at less than 100,ot)0,000
years, my own calculations being much in excess
of that figure; (1) but for the purposes of mathe-
matics one important condition in the calculation of
the level-of-no-strain has been omitted, and that is
denudation. I have pointed out in the “Origin of
Mountain Ranges” that this agency would go far to-
wards obliterating the geological effects of secular
contraction.
As a rule, those geologists who believe that the
earth’s corrugations result from the contraction of
the earth’s nucleus also contend that geological
agencies, such as those producing denudation
were much more active in the early ages of our
planet, in which case a greater thickness of the
earth’s crust must have been removed in a given
time than what I am disposed to allow. Let us,
(1) Chemical Denudation in relation to geolo-
gical time ,
24.5.91
to
27.5.91
and
6.7.91
Corfu
136
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
however, take the low rats of denudation of 1 foe .,
in 4.000 years. (:} Then, in 100,000,000 year, the'
denudation would amount to 25,000 feet, distri-
buted evenly over the land areas of the globe. In
mountain regions this figure would be exceeded
many fold, as calculations are given by American
geologists of denudations equal to, or exceeding,
this that have taken place in late geological per-
iods in particular Pereas of the United States.
My own opinion is that the denudation of the
land areas of our globe since the dawn of geological
history has vastly exceeded this figure, but as
Mercutio in “Borneo and Juliet” says of his wound,
“ ’Tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church
door ; but ’tis enough, ’twill serve.”
In round figures, live miles of denudation would
equal the maximum calculation of the de; th of the
level-of-no-strain. What would be the effect of
this conditioning agency on the position of the
level-of -no-strain? In the absence of other anta-
gonistic forces if would remove most of the
evidences of compression produced by secular
contraction in the outer iind of the earth.
The problem is an exceedingly complex one, and
to some extent involves the question of the per-
manence of continents and oceans; but ever-
granting for the sake of argument what I do not
believe .is the fact, that continents have a ’ways
been where they are now, the removal of this
amount of rock would of itself lower the isogeo-
therms to the same extent. That iy if a layer of
the earth situated rive miles deep were denuded of
its covering till it reached the surface, it would
have its temperature lowered, contraction would
take place, and the conditions upon which the
calculations of the depth of the level-of-no-strain
are made would be materially modified. On the
other hand if, as I believe with Hutton, Lyell, and
the older school of geologists, every portion of the
surface of the globe has been at one time or another
subject to denudation, and the total amount of
material removed from one sits to another is much
in excess of the calculation given, the non-existence
of corrugations traceable to secular contraction
is not remarkable.
(1) See “ Denudation of the tivo Americas .” —
Presidential Address, Liverpool Geological Socie-
ty, 1884-5.
But as I have pointed out elsewhere (1) if the
shrinkage of the Earths nucleus were an active
force now, the outer crust would be in a constant
state of stress so that any artificial excavation
made in rock in any part of the globe would re-
lease a portion of this stress to the extent of the
area and depth of such excavation. No such
general state of stress in the Earths Crust is dis-
coverable but local stresses do exist which are
released by quarrying operations so that trenches
cut across the floor of a quarry sometimes sud-
denly close up, instances being detailed in the
paper referred to. The rarity of this interesting
phenomenon is a proof that the Crust of the
Earth at the surface is not generally in a state of
compression.
It is impossible for me, within the limits of
these papers, to go into details as io the way the
folds of mountain ranges have been produced. I
am compelled to refer the reader to my original
work on the subject, and to the diagrams and
examples therein. I may mention, however, that
the lengths of the mountain folds measured along
the courses of the beds and the reproduced denu-
ded arehs are, fallaceous as a test of the original
lengths of the beds. In many cases the length of a
bed has been increased by lateral squeezing, and
often the arch has never extended over the moun-
tain tcp. It has been broken and separated by
the protrusion of the underlying beds.
But if expansion is produced by the rise of
temperature induced by sedimentation, contraction
will result from the lowering of temperature
initiated by denudation. Do we find geological
evidences of such contraction? will be the first
question of the practical investigator. To which
I answer yes; the phenomenon of normal faulting
is due to contraction.
It is strange, but true, that the theorists who
refer the corrugation of the earth’s surface to
secular contraction, pass over the difficulties pre-
sented by the existence of normal faults very
lightly. The explanation generally offered is that
they are fractures of the earth’s crust produced by
its sinking upon the cooling nucleus. This expla-
nation is not very much more lucid than if we were
( 1 ) The Cause of Active Compression stress in
rocks and recent rock Flexures. American Jour,
of Science. Vol. XLI. 1891 p.p. 409 -41 f.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
137
to say they are due to the “convulsions of nature”
— a fraudulent explanation that used to satisfy our
forefathers. The sinking of the crust, if it be an
explanation of the forcing up of mountain ranges
by lateral pressure, fails to explain normal fault-
ing, which is a phenomenon of an opposite
nature.
Yet normal faulting is one of the most important
factors in geology. Mountain ranges do not exist
everywhere ; there are always extensive level and
little-disturbed plains in connection with them,
such as the plains of Central Europe and the
American Prairies. It would however, be difficult
to find a geological map in which the observer has
had the opportunity of actually seeing the struc-
ture of the earth, which is not full of faults. Con-
torted regions, as a rule, possess fewer of these
characteristic fractures than the more level plains.
It may safely be said that the absence of faults in
a geological map is more due to their obscuration
by drift coverings than to their non-existence.
Geological mappers, of course, do not put in what
they cannot see or reasonably infer. In proof of
this it is only necessary to point to the wonderful
system of fracturing which is always delineated in
coal regions, where the opportunities of examining
the strata are far fuller than in other regions.
The distinguishing feature of normal faulting
is that the “hade” or slope of the fault is in the
direction of the downthrow. An earthslip in a
cutting gives one a good notion of what has taken
place, but faulting is, as a rule, sharper in the
fracture and more regular. Many geologists have
pointed out that it is “as if the strata had been
drawn apart.” If they have been drawn apart it is
obvious it cannot have been done by the same
cause which previously squeezed them together
and ridged them up into mountains. Normal
faulting is posterior to folding. The student of the
subject may take up almost any geological section
of folded strata, and he will find that normal
faults cut through the folds, and that, as a rule, if
the downthrow side were lifted up to the extent of
the throw, the curves of the fold would be conti-
nuous.
It seems to me as plain as anything can be that
the cause producing the folds could not produce
the normal faults. What, then, do they result
from?
The only cause we know of capable of drawing
the strata apart is contraction by cooling. Here we
have what we were looking for, namely, the effects
of the sinking of the isogeotherms as opposed to
the compression and mountain upheavals produced
by their rise.
I have already explained that the upheaval of a
mountain range by lateral pressure resulting from
cubic expansion ends in the actual transference of
materials to the locus cf the range. When the
internal energies have for the time exhausted
themselves, and the isogeotherms sink cubic can-
traction takes place. The weight of the portion of
t he earth affected will allow of the existence of no
cavities beyond a certain depth, consequently the
strata have to accomodate themselves to the new
conditions of space, which they do by shearing
into wedge-like forms which, by gravitation, fit
together again and close up the opening. A very
interesting illustration of the truth of these prin-
ciples has lately been observed 'and described by
me. (1) A banded silty clay in the Glacial Drift
at Neviri Carnarvonshire just the sort of deposit
to exhibit and mark any break of continuity
which might occur was divided by a system of
Normal Faults reproducing in minafcure all the
characteristics of such Faulting including the hade
to the downthrow, the dropping in of wedge-siiaped
blocks and the occasional curve of the bands down-
wards on one side of the Fault and upwards on
the other. These Faults were as if cut with a
knife and fitted closely; the whole being like a
diagram of a Faulted Coal Field. The cause was
evidently loss of bulk by loss of moisture or cu-
bical shrinkage. Substitute shrinkage by loss of
heat and the parallel becomes exact. It has
been pointed out already that expansion by rise
of temperature under sedimentary areas was
conceived to be a geological agent by Babbage,
Herschell, and Scrope, but as an explanation of
mountain building it was left by them in a very
crude form. The dynamical effects were not fully
traced, and cubical expansion was uu thought of.
Great praise is due to Captain Hutton for the
impetus he gave to the theory by supplying
elements that were previously lacking in it. I am
not aware, however, of the existence of any
(T) A minature illustration of Normal Faulting.
Geo. Mag. November 1891 y>. 487.
138
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
systematic theory of normal faulting before the
one broached by me in the aOrigin of Mountain
Kanges” (Chapter viii.) Detached thoughts on the
subject there have been, and it would not be
difficult to prove that glimmerings of light have
occurred to many without the illumination being
sufficient to allow the observer to commit himself
to anything like a complete generalisation.
Those who are interested in the question will do
well to read a paper by Mr. W. J. McGee, of the
United States Geological Survey ant. in the No-
vember number of the Geological Magazine .(1)
It is evident that American geologists are moving
in the direction of the explanations of the cor' uga-
tions of the earth’s surface herein advocated. It is
unnecessary to quarrel over the exact amount of
novelty of view to be awarded to this or that
investigator. If the view gains credence slowly, so
much the more stable are they likely to become.
Mr. McGee says — “A primary hypothesis ascrib-
ed the corrugation of the terrestial crust to con-
traction of the interior of the earth, accompanying
secular cooling more rapid than that of the exterior
shell. The common conception of the mechanism
of this process was familiarly illustrated by likening
the corrugated globe to a withered apple, and the
inequalities of the terrestial surface to the
wrinkles on the apple’s skin; and to the surprise
of most American geologists at least, this hy-
pothesis has been prominently advocated within a
year or two.”
No account of mountain formation would be
complete without some discussion of vulcanolgy.
To this phase of the dynamics of the earth I pro-
pose to devote the next article.
( To be continued.)
(1) “ Some difficulties in Dynamical Geology” p.
493. Geo. Mag , 1888.
In the Philosophical Magazine for Mary 1891
republished in the American Geologist. Nov. 1891,
those interested will find answers to recent criti-
cisms and, some reference to the history of these
ideas inic An outline of Mr. M.ellard Readds theory
of the origin of Mountain Ranges by sedimenta-
ry loading and cumulative recurrent expansion A
Science Gossip.
Messers. Dulau k Co. of Soho Square London,
and Mr. W. P. Collins of 154 Gt. Portland St.
London have just issued their book -catalogues, in
which every branch of natural science is represent d.
We have to acknowledge the receipt of one of
the most complete and useful works of the year.
The Annals of British Geology for 1890 is a book
which no geologist can afford to be without, in as
much at it contains hot only a full and accurate
list of the papers on geological science that were
published in Great Britain in 1890, but also a
critical digest and succint account of those papers
together with a number of personal items bearing
on the progress of science during the year. The
abstract of Dr. John Murray’s papers on the
Maltese Islands will be of special interest to
Maltese naturalists. The work may be obtained
from the author Prof. J. Blake, 43 Clifton Hill,
London, N. W.
In a paper on the camel, Herr Lehmann states
that neither heat nor cold, nor extreme daily or
yearly variations, impede the distribution of the
camel, — each race of camels being, however, best
adapted to the conditions of its native climate.
The dromedary of the Sahara enjoys its best health
in the desert, though a day of tropical heat may
be followed by a night several degrees below
freezing-point, and daily variations of 60° occur.
In Semipalatinsh again, where camels are found,
the annual variation sometimes reaches nearly 150°.
But the camel is very sensitive to moistare, and
desert caravans run much risk in entering regions
of tropical rain during the rainy season.
Prof. Edwin J. Houston remarks that, during
the general prevalence of moist warm air, a fall of
rain might be produced by the sudden opening
of cylinders of liquefied gases, whose expansion
would cause the chilling of the surrounding air
necessary to condense the moisture. The present
state of meteorological science justifies these con-
clusions :(1) That rain can never be made to fall
at will by mid-air explosions on any part of the
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
139
earth’s surface, irrespective of the climatic condi-
tions there existing, (2) That during certain
meteorological conditions mid-air explosions may-
result in rainfall over extended areas. (3) That
the liberation of energy necessary7 for such rain-
falls is not due, except initially, to the mid-air
explosion, but to the energy stored up in the moist
air from which the rain is derived. (4) That the
meteorological conditions which must exist for
the successful action of mid-air explosives would
probably in most though not in all cases them-
selves result in a natural production of rain. (5)
That a comparatively high difference of electric
potential between different parts of the air, or
between the air and the earth, is possibly favora-
ble for artificial rain-making when taken in
connection with other meteorological conditions. (6)
That an undirected mid-air explosion is not as
likely to produce a general up-rush of air.
We have received an intimation that among
the echinoclerms collected by Mr. John H. Cooke
in the Malta Miocene strata and sent by him
to the British Museum, there are five new species,
Echinus, nov. sp., Studeria , nov. sp Hemiaster , nov.
sp ., Agassizia , nov. sp ., and Lovenia nov. sp ., Mr. J.
W. Gregory, f.g.s.,f.z.s. of the British Museum has
undertaken the determination of them, and will
shortly publish a paper on the subject.
To the south of Algeria and Tunis there exists
a great depression stretching westward from the
Gulf of Gabes to a distance of about 235 miles, in
which are several chots or small lakes, sometimes
only marshes, and in many places covered with a
saline crust strong enough to bear the passage of
camels.
Systematic test borings in the districts of Ha-
genau, Zabern, Strasburg and Molsheim have
resulted in the discovery in the province of im-
mense bituminous deposits, for the exploitation
of which no fewer than seven large companies
have been formed to whom the whole stretch of
country between Hagenau and Sulz on the one side,
and Wasselnheim on the other, has been tempora-
rily transferred. Careful examination, according to
Industries , has shown that the petroliferous bitu-
men in Hagenau Forest is to be found at an average
depth of 820 ft. while in the other districts the depo-
sits have been met with at a depth of from 80 ft.
Some of the companies mentioned propose con-
structing a net-work of private railways connecting
the oil fields.
A curious application of zoological facts is given
by M. Fallot, of Marseilles. Last June some
fishermen discovered in the harbour of Marseilles a
floating body in an advanced stage of decomposi-
tion. The tissues presented the transformation
known as saponification and with the peculiar
appearance of the skin indicated, according to
standard medical authority, that the body had
not laid in the water more than four months and
a half. The clothing yet clung to the body, how-
ever, and was covered with barnacles. The e
were found to be of two successive generations,
and, as they are known to fix themselves to floating
objects during April and May, it was concluded
that the body had been in the water at least
thirteen months.
The introduction of the olive into Malta is at-
tributed to the Greeks, who colonised the island
about 700 P>. C. These people, — and especially
the Bliocians — ousted the Phoenicians from their
“pride of place” as the masters of the .Mediter-
ranean, and established colonies for themselves
in the Western Basin, in Spain, Sardinia, Corsica,
Southern France, and Malta, and thus propagated
not only their commerce but also their arts,
literature, and ideas. They have even left traces
of their blood, and it is to this that the women of
Provence are said to owe the classical beauty of
their features.
The largest bee keeper in the world, says the
Californian , is Mr. Harbison of California, who
has 6000 hives, producing 200,000 pounds of hone}
yearly. In Greece there are 30,000 hives, producing
3.000. 000 pounds of honey; in Denmark 80,000
producing 2,000,000; in Russia, 110,000. producing
the same ; in Belgium 200,000, producing 5,00< >,0~>0;
in Holland 240,000, producing 6,000,000; in France
950.000, producing 23,000,000; in Germany 1,450,-
000 and in Austria 1,550,000, each producing
140
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
40,000,000 pounds of honey. But in the United
States there are 2,900,000 hives, belonging to
70,000 bee-keepers, and producing 62,000,000
pounds of honey yearly.
Vesuvius is again in activity, and the areas in
the immediate vicinity have once more been
subjected to earthquakes of considerable intensity.
Streams of lava are flowing from the base of the
Great Gone, and hot springs have burst from
Mount Ossa.
At a recent influential meeting of the mayor and
the most prominent citizens of Liverpool it was
agreed that a Geographical Society for Liverpool
should be formed.
To a commercial community like Liverpool ac-
curate geographical knowledge such as a Society
of this kind would supply means economy in, and
expansion of its commerce, and therefore anything
that can be done to further the objects that it has
in view will greatly conduce to the prosperity < f,
not Liverpool alone, but a’ so to all of those com-
mercial communities with which Liverpool is
brought in contact.
Errata: page 104, instead of 117,361 square
miles, read 117,361 square acres.
An illustrated article entitled “The Scirocco as
an agent of denudation with special reference to
iis effects on the strata of the Maltese Islands”
from the pen of Mr. John H. Cooke appeared in
the last number of Science Gossip.
Apropos of the query which appeared in our
last issue having reference to the Golden Plover,
Mr. S. Manche, Malta writes, “That the Golden
Plover Charadrius Pluvialis is very common in
Malta from November to March, but the Asiatic
Golden Plover Charadrius Longipes or Virgin lo-
cus., is very rare, as is also the Kentish Plover,
Charadrius Cantianus , of which f. stuffed a speci-
men in May 1885.”
Severe shocks of earthquake are reported to
have occurred at Athens on the 11th. ult.
One of the most conclusive evidences as to
the true line of separation between Europe and
Africa is that which is offered by the fish fauna.
We find trout in the Atlantic region and in all
of the snow-fed rivers falling into the Mediter-
ranean; in Spain, Italy, Dalmatia; it occurs in
Mount Olympus, in rivers of Asia Minor, and
• even in the Lebanon, but nowhere in Palestine
i south of that range, in Egypt, or in the Sahara.
This freshwater salmonoid is not exactly the same
in all these localities, but is subject to a consi-
derable variation, sometimes amounting to specific
distinction. Nevertheless it is a European type
found in the Atlas, and it is not till we advance
into the Sahara at Tuggart, that we come to a
purely African form in the Chromidae, which have
a wide geographical distribution, being found
every where between that place, the Nile, and
Mozambique.
“Manipulation of the Microscope”, by Edward
Bausch is the title of an interesting volume which
we have received from Mr. W. P. Collins, Scien-
tific Bookseller, 157 Great Portland Street, London.
Having been written by a practical man the
advice which is given on the management and
care of the instrument are specially good, while
the innumerable hints, that it contains on the
manipulation of objectives, eyepieces, and sub-
tage illumination will render it most useful to the
advanced microscopist as well as to the learner.
It forms a welcome addition to the literature of
the microscope.
A Correspondent “A. O.” 59 Strada Levante,
Valletta, Malta wishes to receive Land shells,
Mosses, and Lichens from Cyprus, in exchange
for Land, and Freshwater shells, Lichens, and
Insects from Malta.
Editor. J. H. Cooke. B.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
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Contents-February.
Page
I Remarks upon the Relationship of the Molluscan
Fauna of the Red Sea and Mediterranean— Edgar
' A. Smith, F.Z.S. 109
2 The Geological Photographs Committee of the
British Association and its work. Ill
3 Notes on Ant’s— Nest Beetles at Gibraltar and
Tangier-J. J. Walker, R.N., F.E.S. 112
4 The Latest Theory of Volcanoes. 113
5 Cyprus— Lt. Gen. Sir R. Biddulph, G.C.M.G., G.B. 114
6 The Samos Fossil Mammals. 116
7 Occurrence of “Chrysophrys” in the Malta Miocene. 118
8 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
by J H. Cooke. 118
9 Notes and News:— Learned societies France— “Ste-
reodon Melitensis”— Expedition of the Vittor Pisani
—Earthquakes in February—! destruction of the
Mosquito— Fossil leviathans— Origin of the Canary
— The Mediterranean as a tideless sea— Maltese
Mammalian Fauna— “Rassfegna delle Science Gco-
logiche in Italia” etc. etc. - 122
10 Discovery of the remains of a fossil whale nearCitta
V ecchia. 124
1 The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev. Prof:
Henslow, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 125-
2 The “Fungus Melitensis- -A. Caruana Gatto, B.A. 127
3 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands—
John H. Cooke 129
4 Mediterranean I.epidoptera. Phillip de la Garde R.N. 133
5 Theories of Mountain Formation— T. Mellard Reade,
C.E., F.G.S., F,R.I.B.A. 135
6 Science Gossip:— Annals of British Geology— Endu-
rance of the camel— Rain-making— New Maltese
Echinoderms— Distribution of bee-hives— Vesu-
vius again active— Geographical Society for
Liverpool — The Golden Plover in Malta — Mani-
pulation of the Microscope — A curious applica-
tion of zoological facts -The olive in Malta &.C, 138
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Annals of British Geology 1890.
BY
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LONDON, DULAU & Co.
:
a ffDontblv Journal of Batura l Science.
Yol. I., No. 10.
MALTA, MARCH 1st. 1892.
CONTENTS.
— Page
1 Corsica— Sir. R. Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. 141
2 The Fossil Whale from Cittii Vecchia— Prof. Yan.
Beneden. 143
3 Lampedusa, and its sponge Fisheries— John H.
Cooke. 143
4 The Poppy and its Cultivation. 146
5 Mediterranean Lepidoptera— Phil, de la Garde R.N. 147
6 iEtna and its Lava. Streams J.E.S. • 148
7 New Clausilise from Malta— A. A Caruana Gatto
M.C.S, 148
8 Notes on Ant’s-Nest Beetles at Gibraltar and Tan-
gier— J. J. Walker R.N..F.E.S. 150
9 A Constribution to the Moss Flora of Malta— Prof.
E. Sickenberger. 151
10 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands
—John H. Cooke. 152
11 Notes and A eivs:— Vesuvius, — Excavations at Qr-
tygia.— A “weather lexicon.' —The tarantula.—
Prehistoric remains at Brunn. — Birds, and their
habits. — The Mare Ubbriaco — Researches of Pou-
chet— Weather prognostics in the Mediterranean,
&c. 154
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Description of Corsica
BY
Lieut. Col. Sir R. Lambert Playfair, k.o.m.g.
Corsica has been compared in shape to a closed
hand with the index finger extended, the latter
being the promontory, called Cape Corse. The
is land is traversed in its whole length by a chain
of high mountains, the general direction of which
is north and south, dividing it into two parts of
nearly equal extent. Placed, as it is, in the centre
of the \ Western Mediterranean, between the Alps
and the- Atlas, and with so great inequalities of
surface, it presents an epitome of the whole region
from the warm- sea-level co the Alpine character
of the interior, where the mountains rise to a
height of nealy 9,000 feet, and are clothed in snow
during the greater part of the year,
All the western coast, and more than two-
thirds of the whole island, are of granitic forma-
tion. The central range throws out spurs towards
the sea, forming on the western side numerous
bays of considerable size and depth. Nothing can
exceed the grandeur of the scenery on the coast,
which culminates in the celebrated Calanches de
Piana, a succession of stupendous ranite rocks
worn and hollowed out in the most fantastic man-
ner, fearful in their forms but soft and lovely in
in their colouring. There are many similar rocks
throughout the island, such as the Calanches
d’Evisa, the Fourches cTAsinao, and the Gorge of
Inzeca, where a river flows between great cliffs
and amongst boulders of green serpentine, a sight
never to be forgotten.
The eastern side of the island consists of primary
rocks, more or less easily disintegrated, the detri-
tus being washed down by rains, so as to form the
low plains bordering that coast. As the rivers
force their way through them with difficulty, mar-
142
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
sues and lagoons are created. These are hotbeds
of malarious fever in summer, dangerous even foi
the natives, who migrate to the hills at that season.
The forests, the great glory of the islands,
consist chiefly of oak, beech, birch, and the JJinut
laricio , indigenous to Corsica, and the monorch of
European conifers, which rises as straight as an
arrow sometimes to a height of 120 or 150 feet.
The Castagniccia, or country of the chestnut, is
an extensive and very beautiful district, expecially
when the trees are in full leaf. The fruit is more
useful to the people who inhabit the district than
even the date to the Arab. He has to cultivate his
palm trees laboriously, i rrigate them in so. m n e r, and
pick the fruit with the greatest care. The chestnut
demands no such attention ; it. grows spontaneous h
requires no cultivation, and the fruit fails of itsel!
when sufficiently ripe. It is the staple food of t ; •
people, who eat it in every form, even gi ving it to
their cattle instead of grain, while the sale of the
of the surplus furnishes them with the other
necessaries of life.
After the forests the most pleasing feature in
the island, and covering more than half its surface, j
is the macchie, or brushwood, before mentioned, ;
spreading its delicious -perfume through the air and
lighting up the landscape with a blaze of colour.
There is also a constant succesion of wild flowers,
liliaceous plants, orchids, cyclamen, and many
others. In one pine wood I saw the ground car-
peted with violets and primroses, while ferns,
from the common bracken to the noble Osmund a.
regalis, are found everywhere-.
The principal towns’ are Ajaccio on the south-
west, a well-known winter station,* the capital of
the island, full of memories and memorials of
Napoleon; Bastia to the north-east, the commercial
capital; Calvi to the north-west, a picturesque
stronghold rising high above the sea, and domi-
nating the surrounding country. The last is one
of the places that were always faithful to the
Genoese cause, and it still bears over the entrance
gate the inscription Civitas Calvi semper Jidei is.
It made a desperate resistance to the English in
1794 under Hood and Nelson, who reduced it
almost to a heap of ruins before it surrendered.
Nelson lost his eye in the engagement. A local
antiquary has tried to prove that Columbus was
born here, of Genoese parents, though he left at
an early age for Genoa.
Corte, in the interior of the island, the ancient
feudal capital, was the chief .'seat of Baoli's govern-
ment, as wrell as the headquarters of the short
lived English administration under Sir Gilbert
S Elliot. It is situated at the confluent of two
' rivers, the Restonica and the Tavignana, wdiicli
descend to the plains through a series of magnifi
cent gorges. High about the town, perched on
the summit of a rock, is the picturesque- citadel
built in the beginning of the fifteenth century.
In the extreme south is Bonifacio, another an-
cien fortress, not only strange .and beautiful in
itself, but commanding five views from its ram-
parts of Sardinia and the numerous islands on
both sides of the strait.
Cargese, twenty-eight miles north of Ajaccio, is
exceptionally interesting. In 1076 an emigration of
about 1,000 Greeks from Maina, in the Morea,
wearied with Turkish oppression, took place to
Genoa, whence they were sent to Corsica. A second
emigration of 400 started to join them in the
following year, but they were overtaken by the
Turkish fleet and massacred. The prosperity of the
small colony was not of long duration, because,
when the insurrection in Corsica against the
Genoese broke out, t lie Greeks, out of gratitude to
their protectors, refused to join in it. In conse-
quence, their villages were destroyed, their lands
confiscated, and their flocks driven away. They
fled for refuge to Ajaccio, and there remained, till
the advent of the French. It was one of the first
acts of Comte Marbeuf, on assuming the govern-
ment of the islands, to reinstate them in a new
domain, and he it was who built the present town
of Cargese. The inhabitants, though in full com-
I m union with the Church of Rome, still retain
their Greek Liturgy, and to some extent their
language, and live on the most cordial terms with
their Latin neighbours.
The vendetta has always been one of the characte-
ristic customs of Corsica, although prevailing more
in some parts of the island than in others. Such
feuds have been pursued with inveterate pertina-
city, frequently involving whole families from one
generation To another. The custom originated in
times when. Genoese justice was venal and corrupt,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
143
IWW
and men had to take the honour of their f am dies
into their own keeping. After Ravin gae complisiied
their vendetta, the “bandits,’ as they are called,
are accustomed to take refuge in the macchie, but
they are never to be confounded with robbers, end
there is no instance of strangers being molested by
them.
Corsica has an important ancient history, but
time will not permit me to enter into this subject-
in any detail. One episode, however, is especially
interesting. Seneca passed eight years here in
exile. A tower is pointed out on the w ^ coast of
Cap Corse which is said to have served as his
prison. Even the glorious views of sea and land
which it commands could not compensate him for
compulsory banishment from the fertile plains of
Italy. He may therefore be pardoned for his
petulant injustice to the physical geography of the
island when he penned his celebrated complaint,
thus rendered by Boswell: —
“Corsica, whom rocks terrific bound,
Where Nature spreads her wildest desert round,
In vain revolving seasons cheer thy soil,
Nor rip’ning fruits nor waving harvests smile;
Nor blooms the olive mid the winter drear—
The votive olive to Minerva dear.
See Spring returning spreads her milder reign!
Yet shoots no herb, no verdure clothes the plain,
\
No cool springs to quench the traveller’s thirst
From thy parched hills in grateful murmurs burst.
Nor, hapless Isle! thy barren shores around,
Is wholesome food, fair Ceres’ bounty, found.
Nor even the last sad gift the wretched claim,
The pile funereal and the sacred flame.
Naught here, alas! surrounding seas enclose,
Naught but an exile and an exile’s woes.”
Nor is this the place even to summarise the
modern history of the island, though nothing can
be more interesting than the story of the Pisan
domination, the long and tyrannical, rule of the*
Genoese, the struggle of the islanders during four
centuries to regain their independence, the mock
kingdom of Theodore, the wise rule of Pasquale
Paoli, the unfortunate English occupation, and the
subsequent conquest of the island by France.
0 Fossil Whale from. Oitta Vecchia.
171th reference to the description of the fossil
whale which appeared in the Mediterranean JSfa -
t'l ■ : list, VoS I. No. 8. Prof. P. Van Beneden of
Louvain writes, “I have read in the last number
o' you; journal that a Fossil Whale has been
discovered near Cittk Vecchia, and that several
bones have been recognized. This discovery is
of much interest both from a paleontological and
a geological point of view. It was in Malta that
the first Sou doc; on was discovered, and if these
bones belong to a Squalodon the discovery is one
of much, importance.
It is desirable that these bones should be deve-
loped with the greatest care, and solidified by a
naturalist.
From a geological point of view the discovery is
equally interesting. This animal was, doubtless,
embedded in the limestone at an epoch antece-
dent to the time when the Mediterranean was
connected with the Black Sea by way of the
Bosphorus, and with the Atlantic by way of the
Straits of Gibraltar.
We can trace the existence of these cetaceans
to the end of the . Miocene period during which
time the sea swarmed with great numbers of
them, many of which often emigrated to the
Kara Sea, and to the White Sea. The present
cetaceans of the Black Sea are subdivided into
three classes, but none of them are the descen-
dants of the ancient families.
These three kinds have emigrated from the
Atlantic Ocean, through the Black Sea: and nei-
ther the Black Sea nor theMediterranean now
contain any others than these.
It is, therefore, of the gratest importance than
the fossil cetaceans of the Mediterranean should
be carefully compared with the living species.”
Lampedusa, and its Sponge Fisheries.
The sponge beds that were lately discovered
off' the African coast have been the means of
144
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
giving a considerable impetus to trade among t m '
countries and islands of the Central a ‘ editor raver- n. ;
and at the same time have can ed public atten- j
tion to be directed to a region that had hithoito j
been a terra incognito to all but those wi:o lived
in its immediate vicinit. y
The principal centre of the trade at the pro- nt- j
time is Lampedusa, a'n island which is situated j
on the edge of a submarine plateau that extends
for a distance of about 60 miles in an ^easterly ,
direction from the coast of Tunis, and which j
after trending to the north, conn.; . itself with
Sicily by means of a submarine ridge known as t:
“Adventure Bank.”
Viewed from the sea on its eastern side, t ie j
island presents an undulating and low lying oa t-
line which is much broken up by numerous
small bays and creeks, none of wdiicb, bo wen
are sufficiently protected to serve as safe anchoj
ages for weather bound vessels.
Falling back from the shore in gentle declivit :
that are intersected by numerous i\ at
valleys, the land gradually rises towards the
north till it reaches the height of about 300 feet
above the sea level, after which it breaks off j
abruptly and forms along the no diem shore a '
line of precipitous cliffs that descend sheer to tin
water’s edge. These cliffs continue in n wester)
direction towards West Cape, a short distance
beyond which they break off abruptly at the mouth
of a deep and narrow valley.
On the opposite side of the valley mouth the
strata again rise, and a similar, though less pre-
cipitous coast-line prevails as far as the detached
rock which is known as Babbit Island.
The numerous fertile valleys and gorges that
abut on the shore, impart to it a diversified not
to say picturesque aspect, and tend to tone down
the harsher features of the landscape of the inte-
rior, which owing to the dearth of soil and the
tropical conditions of climate render themselves
so painfully apparent upon a first acquaintance. It
has been computed that the island contains about
1200 Maltese salms of land of agricultural value,
of which not more than 40 salms were cultivated
prior to the survey that was made in the early ;
part of the present century. Of these itwasascer- j
tained that 230 salms might readily be converted |
into first rate soil, 270 salms were specially adapted
to the growth of forage, vines etc., and the remain-
ing 700 salms would have served as excellent
pasture grounds.
At the baginning of the present century the
island was uninhabited, and as it was thought
that the French might take possession of it for
strategetic purposes, the British Authorities were
appealed to and were induced to take it over.
It was accordingly place in their hands and a
small colony of Maltese was sent over to it, to-
gether with a detachment of soldiers for its pro-
tection. The sojourn of the colonists was of but
brief duration ; they all shortly afterwards returned
to Malta, and in LSI 4 the island was again entirely
abandoned.
The Italians then took possession, and under
their care the resources of the island have been
largely developed.
It is now not only a valuable emporium, but it
is also the centre of one of the most thriving
industries of the Central Mediterranean, and
supports .a population of upwards of one thousand,
the majority of whom gain their livelihood by
agriculture and trading.
In the summer season, however, these numbers
are considerably augmented by foreigners who
come for the purpose of fishing for sponges on the
banks in the vicinity of the island.
It was in the year 1837 that the first evidences
of the existence of the sponge beds were discovered.
An Italian fisherman while trawling off the coast
struck one of the beds, and further researches
revealed to him the fact that considerable areas of
the plateau were covered with similar deposits the
sponges of which were of a much finer quality
than those found in the neighbouring Gulf of
Gabes, and other Tunisian sponge fishing grounds.
He at once communicated his discovery to the
Italian Authorities, and from them he obtained
a permit to work the beds. The news had, however,
in the meantine leaked out, and upon arriving at
the fishing grounds he found a score of Greek
boats at work on his preserves. The dispersal of
these led to further discoveries, and an extensive
and profitable industry was thus established in the
locality.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
145
Operations were at first confined to the shoals
near the shore, but they were afterwards extended
and are now concentrated on three banks which
are situated at a distance of about 30 miles from
Lampedusa. One of these lies to the north-west,
one to the north, and the third to the west of the
island.
Of these the last two are the most frequented,
as they are not only more extensive than the first,
but the sponges are of finer quality, and are there-
fore more marketable.
During the season a strange and motley crowd
assemble on and around the shores of Lampedusa.
Spaniards, French, Sicilians, Maltese, Greek, and
Italians engage in the work either by dredging
or diving for the sponges.
i gagova,” a word that has been borrowed from the
Greek. It consists of a bag shaped net, made of
stout hempen cord; and it is affixed to an iron
frame of a trapezoidal form which serves as the
mouth. The casting of the apparatus requires
considerable dexterity on the part of the men, so
as to insure its falling on the bottom with the
right side down.
When in the sea it is towed from the end of a
boom by means of a manilla rope, and the whole
apparatus is so adjusted that the net is main-
tained in a position directly in the wake of the
vessel. Should the sea, however, be rough, towing
operations have to be suspended as it is only
with a smooth sea. and a light fair wind, that the
dredge can be worked.
Of these, however, the predominating elements
are Sicilians, Greeks, and Italians.
The fishing season usually begins in May and
lasts till the middle of July: but many of the
boats continue operations until the commence-
ment of the Autumnal Equinox. When a good
“field” is struck the work goes merrily forward,
and the boats rapidly load and return to port: but
when as it sometimes happens the boats are
delayed either on account of stress of weather,
clerangment of apparatus, or other similar causes,
the time for which the crew was provisioned is
exceeded, and hardships naturally follow. The
life of the sponge fisher is an exceedingly laborious
one, and is not unattended with, considerable
danger. Exposure to the powerful rays of a semi-
tropical sun, the frequent and sudden changes of
temperature caused by the rapid alternations of
wet and dry, and the prolonged immersions are
but a few of the many privations that the Lam-
pedusan sponge-fishers have to undergo.
The boats used for the work are of the type
known as the “trabaccolo.” They are specially
adapted for dredging as they can be readily
handled, and are capable of sailing so close to the
wind that the rate of sailing can be varied to
any speed that may be required for the operations
of casting, of towing, and of hauling the net.
The average size of the boats is about 12 tons;
and they generally carry five men. The net that
is used for the work is of peculiar construction,
and it is known among the fisherman as “la
It is upon such occasions that the “palombari,”
or divers, show to the best advantage the supe-
riority of their system over that of the dredgers.
They can continue their work long after the
others have been compelled to suspend opera-
tions: and, not only can they work more rapidly,
but they are also enabled to pick the finest speci-
mens from the sea bed, and therefore the results
of their labours always command the highest
prices in the market.
Like the dredgers, they also use the “trabac-
colo” for their work. As a rule, two men do the
diving, while the other three attend to the diving
apparatus; but not more than one man from
each boat is in the water at the same time. They
usually remain under water for periods varying
from ten to twenty minutes; and they make five
and six descents a day.
The machine used for the work is constructed on
the “Sdebe Erma nan System,” and consists of
three cylinders, the whole apparatus being spe-
cially adapted for the hard wear and tear which
the nature of the work that it has to do entails.
The average cost of a complete diving outfit
is £ 100.
The advantages that the divers have over the
net- fishers is universally admitted ; but the initial
outlay that is required for the equipment of the
former is an insuperable obstacle to its adoption
by the majority of the fisherman.
146
-
THE MEDITERRANEAN N ATI RALLS T
As an instance of the amount of work that a .
diving boat can do in a season, : nd of J he mania, . :
in which this special kind of work pays, the fol-
lowing items may be compared.
The boat and the machine of the- divers cos, ,
about £180. and the working expenses for
season are about £ 240. This represent," : ■ ■ '
outlay of £ 400. The average ‘'take' k j
days work is 180 oche (225 lbs.) of the hi •••
quality sponges, the market value of wkuh i
about £ 144. Larger boats and sometimes
steamer attend on the divers i ud tran up then ;
cargoes so that the fishing boats ha\ e no occt 1
to leave the grounds until the. end of the season,
which generally lasts from ten to twelve week".
Contrasting these items we have.
Expenditure.
Income.
£
_£*
Cost of Boat and
Ten weeks “take”
Machine
160
averaging 180 oche of
Working expenses
sponges every 15 days
for the season
240
@ £144 per 180 oche.
= £144x5= 720
£ 400
*
£ 720
400
Clear profit £ 320
That is to say that each boat can clear between
£ 300 and £ 400 during the season. Before it is
ready for the market the sponge lias several
processes to go through. It is first maceraled,
washed, and dried after which if is clipped- , and
sorted into various grades according o its size read
quality. These processes, however, add but little
to the working expenses. The majority of the
sponges that come from the Lampedusa i. r r :i u
are of a much finer quality than are the varieties
obtained from Tunis, the Gulf of Gabes, and the
neighbouring coasts. This is principally due to
the marked differences that exist between the
nature of the sea bottom in these districts. It
has been shown that the close proximity of con-
tinental areas, and especially of river mouths is
inimical to the development of sponge life, owing
to the. muddy conditions of the bottom that
invariably exist there.
The sea bed in the vicinity of Lampedusa is
of a sandy and rocky character, and it is thus
specially suited to the life-habits of these pro-
tozoa. Cyprus, Rhodes, Crete, and the coasts of
Syria abound with beds of varying areas; and as
an example of the value of the products of this
form of industry it has been officially suited that
from Calymnos alone the value of the sponges
exported exceeds the value of £ 125,000 a nnualltf.
There is no doubt but that, judging from the
nature of the conditions . under which these
sponges grow, there are numerous similar beds
scattered over the great submarine plateau which
occupies the greater portion of the area of the
southern half of the Mediterranean. The confor-
mation and nature of the sea bed around the
Maltese Islands, the close proximity of the Tuni
sian and Lampedusan sponge fields, as well as the
more tangible' evidences that are afforded us on
the shores of Chain Toffiba, St. Paul’s Bay, and
Meileha Bay by the numerous sponges that are
cast up there after every storm afford proofs con-
clusive that Malta, too, has sponge-beds situated
at no great distance from heiv shores. Enterprise
and energy are all that are required to bring them
to light, and if these be forthcoming there will
then be no reason why, another regular and thriv-
ing industry should not be established in Maltese
waters.
J ohn H. Cooke.
The Poppy, its Cultivation and U^es.
The poppy is grown in India for opium over a
region about 600 miles long and 200 miles wide.
The plants come into full flower in February,
when three or four feet high, and each stem pro-
duces from two.. to five capsules about the size of a
duck’s egg. Before piercing these capsules, the
petals are collected, made into circular cakes from
10 co 14 inches in diameter, fried over a slow lire,
and preserved for covering for the drug. In the
morning it is collected in an earthenware pot, m
which it is exposed to the air — but uot to the sun
— for three or four weeks, when the raw opium is
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
147
ready for delivery at the factory. A coffee- j
coloured fluid exudes from the juice during the j
drying, and is separately treated fcr the drug.
The dried stems and leaves of the plants are
broken up into a coarse powder for packing the
drug, the oil is used for cooking and lighting, '
the seeds are sold as comfits, and the dry cake ,
left after extraction of the oil is given to cattle !
or used in medicine.
—
Mediterranean Lepidoptera
( continued ).
DATE
PLACE
NAME
2.6.91
and
Malamocco
4.6.91
11.6.91
Trieste
and
13.6.91
Acontia luctuosa
Plusia gamma
Acidalia sp.
„ aversata
„ imitata
Pyralis farinalis
Pyrausta purpuralis
Etenopteryx hybridalis
Duponchelia fovealis
Ephaleroptera ictericana
Coenony m pha pam pb.il us
var. lyllus
Lasiommata megaera
Pieris rapse
„ daplidice
Polyommatus astrarche
„ icarus
Pamphila sylvan us
Epilothyrus altheae
Acontia Solaris
Euclid ia gliphica
Agrophila sulphurilis
Acidalia ochrata
„ 'ornata
Botys cinctalis
„ nubilalis
Pionea margaritalis
Diasemia literalis
Tortrix sp.
Satyrus adrasta
Hipparchia fagi
Coenonympha arcania var.
Melitaea two -p.
,, mtheria
„ athalia
n phcebe
18.6.91jPola
25.6.91 Flume
28.6.91 Zara
30.6.91|Spalato
i
Argynnis daphne
Melanargia procida-
Aporia crataegi
Colias hyale
Leucophasia sinapi.
Polyommatus adonis
„ aegon
„ alcon
Thecla iiicis
„ rubi
Hesperia cynarae
Zygaena hedisari
„ transalpina
Syntomis phegia
Pseudoterpna cytisaria
Fidonia atomaria
Aplasta ononaria
Eubolia plumbaria
Rhodostrophia vibicaria
“ calabra
Nemophora sp,
Botys nubilalis
Ebulea verbascalis
Etenopterix hybridalis
Eletheia carnelia
Pterophorus pentadactylus
Satyrus adrasta
Vanessa polychloros
Argynnis cleodippe
Aporia crataegi
Thecla acaciae
Etrymon spini
Chrysophanus phlaeas
Polyommatus aegon
Boarmia rhomboidaria
Gram modes stolida
Botjrs fulvalis
Satyrus adrasta
Hipparchia actaeon var,
„ fagi
„ proserpina
Moiitoea athalia
Argynnis adippe
,, ^ ino
Pieris brassicae
Etrymon spini
Phodostrophia vibicaria
Nemophora sp.
I Acidalia sp.
Hipparchia briseis var.
Epinephile ida
Melitaea sp.
„ alpina
,, didyma
Gonepteryx rhamni
Colias hyale
1 Etrymon spini
! Thymelicus actaeon
„ lineola
Zygaena hedysari
,, ochsenheimeri
| Epinephile ida
Melitaea didyma
148
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
3.7.91 Cattaro
24.8.91 Rosas Bay
Note: —
Vanessa egea
Polyommatus astrarche
Idaea rufaria
Hipparchia fagi
Lasiommata egeria var.
Polyommatus battus
„ icarus
Thimelicus actaeon
Zygaena coronillae
Liparis dispar
Hipparchia proserpina
Lasiommata egeria
Deiopeia pulcliella
In cases where no specific name is given time
did not admit of completing the identification
but on a future occasion I may be able to giv
further particulars.
it thickens, congeals, and takes the form of a hard
stone called in common Sicilian sciara: but the
inflamed matter still remains liquid under this
crust, and being impelled by that issuing from the
mouth, it pushes forward by its weight that before,
and thus the torrent proceeds as long as the crater
continues to throw out fresh matter. It often
happens that the extremity of the stream hardens
to such a degree, that the liquified lava within
meets the same resistance as from a solid rock, in
which case, it sometimes rises and flows over the
indurated sciara as a new bed, in this manner it
has been known to climb hills of a considerable
height, at other times unable to force itself forward,
it strikes off at an angle taking a newdirection, lienee
P. G. the extraordinary appearance presented when the
i lava is observed to arrest its course on the very
| edge of a precipice, and, instead of pouring down
! its sides, to run along its verge in the guise of a
JStna, and its Lava Streams ' wall.
J. E. S.
Eicupero observes that the lavas of Hftna do not
always run with the same rapidity, but arc regula-
ted in their course by the nature of ■ declivity
over which they flow, and by the more or less
subtile or tenacious quality of the lava itself. It
is not therefore surprising that some streams |
should run many miles in a few days, such as the t. 1
in 1408, which in twelve days advanced nearly ten
miles; whereas others in whole years made but
little progress, for example that of 1614. which
took the direction of Randazzo, but in the te.
years, for which it continued running, extended to
no greater length than two miles. Sometimes the
same torrent differs incredibly in its velocity, tlaus '
Tedeschi says that in the eruption of 1669, the j
lava at intervals, ran a mile in the space of four
hours, at others in four days it only advanced a few
paces. In the year 1755 when two streams burst
at once from the same crater, and having ran
twenty four hours in succession, that which took a
southern direction, had made a progress of Only
two hundred paces; whilst the other in the same
period had reached a distance of eight miles.
Massa in his “ Sicilia in prospetiva” observes that
the lava on being ejected is hardened immediately
by the air, its surface soon looses its redness, and
becomes of a black or rusty iron colour; by degrees
New Clausilise from Malta.
Clausilia melitensis C. G. nov. sp.
Whilst studying the distribution of Clausilia
imitatrix Bttg. I noted that at Fakkania on the
abrupt cliffs called jRdum el Madliena off Yerdala
the Clausilia of the place was rather different from
the usual Cl. imiia.tr i. , but being in the summer
season I could only collect a few imperfect speci-
mens from which I could not decide if they
were simply aberrations of the type or not.
However wishing to ascertain if all the Clausilice
there assumed this local form I went again to the
same place last October and I collected some good
specimens, in which after examination I saw a
very marked difference from the typical form. I
sent them with others to Prof. Dr. 0. Boettger, the
! celebrated specialist for Clausilice , to whom I am
! very much indebted for his kind assistance in my
malacological studies, and he acknowledged them
; as a very interesting form and wrote to me saying
that it was more than a variety and that it might
rank’as a sub-species. Having sent to him some
1 new specimens later on, in answering me he refers
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
149
to them saying: — “In your fine Clausilia we have
a quite new and very distinct species,’ — and as I
had proposed to name it after him oscarina he
asks me to give to it another name e. g. melitensis ,
there being already many named for him. In de-
ference to his wishes as none of our Clausiliee ,
though almost all peculiar to the Island, bears
this name I adopt if with pleasure and following
his advice I give its differential diagnosis, trusting
to figure it wdien I shall deal with our land and
freshwater molluscs in greater detail: —
Clausilia ( Papillifera) melitensis, Cabuana
Gatto, n. sp.
Differt a Clausilia imitatrix Bttg. cui proximo
affinis est , testa prof undim punctato-rimata tue-
rito-fusiformi; isabell ino-grh ea; spira turrita;
apice minus obtuso . Anfr. 9-|-10-| planiores, ulti-
mus planissimus , non angustatus , bast, subpiano
clistinctius bier {.status, crista exterior e longiore
arcuata. Aperture, distincte minor , l amelia inf era
obsoleta, nunquam sigmoidea neque a basi in-
tuenti spiraliter recedens , in prof undo tester, pr act m
VESICLE INSTAR PECULIARITER INFLATA. Lunellct
magis profunda subventralis , brevis , lata , trian-
gularis; plica palatatis inf era nulla. — Patella
clausilii brevis lata , semicircularis, ligulee instcir
excavate , apice acutato.
Habitat — in insula Melita , ad locct proirupta
cquae appellant Rdum el Maddliena, non longe
a Verdalae Pa /agio.
Alt. 15-161, diam. med. 3|-3f mm; alt. apert. 3j,
lat. apert. 3 mm. —
Prof. Boettger remarks:— The patella or “trow-
el” of the clausilium is not sigmoid as in Cl. imit-
atrix, but semicircular and the inner form of the
lamella inf era in the broken shell next to the posi-
tion of the clausilium is quite peculiar and has no
analogy in any other known Clausilia, It looks
like a sphaerical bladder and comparing it with
the shape of the inner portion of the lamella inf era
of Cl. imitatrix a great diversity will be found.”
I expect to go to Filfola shortly and I have hopes
that the Clausilia of the rock is different from
both Cl. imitatrix and melitensis, and even if it is
not so I shall be glad to know to which of these
forms those of the islet belong, — Fielden having
already noted their remarkable size,
Clausilia oscitans Per, var. pseudosyra-
cusiAj C.G. nov. var.
This variety of Clausilia oscitans Per. was until
lately considered as the Cl. syracusana Phil. = ma-
crostoma Cantr. It is found labeled as such in all
collections of Maltese shells in Malta, it is given
by Mamo, Issel, Penoit, Gulia; and even after
Prof. Boettger’s demarcation between Cl. syracu-
sana and oscitans, Becker and Fischer in his Ma-
nuel de conchyologie put down the syracusana
amongst the Maltese shells.
I must confess that on my first beginning to
occupy myself with Maltese molluscs I was much
puzzled by this form which being found in Valletta
and its suburbs was nearer at hand and which
occurred to me as being exactly like the typical
Cl. syracusana Phil, which I collected from the
ramparts of Syracuse.
On sending it to Prof. Boettger he observed
that it had the disposition of its laminae similar
to that of Cl. oscitans and that therefore it must
fall under that head. But on comparing a great
number of specimens of this form with others of
Cl. oscitans from the country I came to the con-
clusion that all those persons wrho had mistaken
it for the syracusana were not after all much to
be blamed, because as it had been considered that
the habitat of the latter extended to Malta and
then meeting with this form which so much resem-
bled it they never thought of examining it closely
— and this led to the general opinion that besides
oscitans we have the syracusana until Boettger
clearly distinguished between them. But since it
is oscitans it must form a distinct variety and Prof,
Boettger also shared my views in this regard and
favoured me with its differential characters: —
Clausilia (Papillifera) oscitans, Fer. var.
PSEUDOSYEACUSIA, CaRUANA GaTTO. N.V.
Differt a typo testa majoore, magis fusiform i,
minus ventriosg, anfr. superst. plerumque 8-9, nee
6-7 dense costulatis — costis in anfr. penultimo 35-
40 nec densissime costulcUo — striatis (striis 85-105
in typo), apert. distincte magis verticali , basi mi-
nus recedente. Center urn et prexcipue apparatu cb - ic-
stredi typo simillima.
Habitat — Valletta} apud Meiitenses in rimis moe-
nium locisque proximis.
Alt. (elecoll.) 154-174, lat. med. 4l-4f mm; alt.
apert 4-4-^, lat. apert. 3l-4 mm.
A. Caruana Gatto.
150
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Notes on Ant’s-Nest Beetles at Gibraltar |
and Tangier; with Especial reference
to the Histeridse,
BY
J. J. Walker, r.n., f.e.s.
( continued from No. 8j
After heavy winter rains, the Sternoccdi are
sometimes to be found in flood rubbish., along
with a host of other beetles. It was in this way
that I first obtained the then undescribed S. fus
cuius , Schmidt, on January 10th, 1888; but it was
not until nearly two months later that I found one
specimen “at home” with AphCenogaster testaceo-
pilosa in the locality near the Sierra Lorca. It
was in the same spot, in March, 188S, that I found
Eretmotus tangerianus, at that time, I believe,
new to the European Fauna; a few more specimens
of this interesting species were obtained at the
Sierra Carbonera in the spring of 1889, but it
appears to be much rarer there then at Tange r.
I have never seen any of the species on the wing,
or travelling in any way in search of fresh quarters,
as Mr. Lewis (/. c.. p. 294) has met with the Eret-
motus at Tangier; but I imagine they must fly
sometimes, as the only specimen of S. acutangulus
which I found on the Rock of Gibraltar was shaken
out of a dry tuft of grass on a stony slope where
it could hardly have been washed down by the
rain, and where there were no ants within a
long distance, as far as I could ascertain
The only other beetle which appears regularly
to inhabit the nests of Aphanogaster testaceo-pilosa
is the black Dinarda nigrita , Rosenh. This insect
wTas not observed at Tangier, but it is no rarity
in the Gibraltar district, half a dozen specimens
being often found with one colony of ants. It is
usually seen clinging to the under-side of the
stone when raised, with the hind body turned up
over the back, and it runs with great speed when
disturbed. A fine Aleochara (crassicornis, Lac.,)
has occurred, but very rarely, with this ant at
Gibraltar and Tangier, in early spring; and stray
specimens of Coloucera formicaria , Mots., and
Thorictus gallicus, Peyer., are occasionally met
with, the latter looking, at the first glance, decep-
tively like a small SterwccdX
The large, powerful, and abundant and?
Aphamogaster barbara , L., is the host of several
very interesting species of Golcoptera , though I
have never found any Mister idee in its nests. The
chief of these guests is the minute and very
anomalous Carabid, Pseudotrcchus mutilatus,
Rosenh., which I first observed at Gibraltar in
November, 1886. It is a truly Myrmecophilous
insect, being invariably associated with this ant,
except when found accidentally in flood rubbish;
its chief resort being the sinuous galleries exca-
vated by the ants in the soil beneath the stones,
though it is not rarely seen running actively on
the under-side of the stone itself. The Pseudot-
rechus seldom occurs singly, two to three specimens
usually occurring in one nest, but I do not
remember to hr e found more than half a dozen
in a single co1 my. It is found throughout the
winter momlis, being, perhaps, most numerous
in February; and is generally, though sparingly,
distributed on the clay soils near Tangier and
Gibraltar, and I have also met with it at Esmir?
about twelve miles south of Ceuta, in Mo-
rocco.
The singular little flat, o\ al, yellow Heteromerorg
Oochrotus unicolor , Luc. (which reminds one of a
large Leptinus\ is the most common ant’s-nest
beetle throughout the district, and is entirely
confined to the nests of A. barbara , where it
sometimes occurs in very large numbers, especially
when there is a quantity of loose debris , husks
of grass seeds, &c., in the galleries of the nest.
With it, also frequently in some numbers, is found
the little Coluocera formicaria , Mots.; also two
species of the singular genus Merophysia , the
smaller of which (apparently undescribed) is re-
stricted to the nests of this ant; the large one,
M. carinulata , Rosenh., is found also with many
species of the smaller ants, always excepting the
two species of Cremcistog aster, whose sickly and
disagreeable odour (recalling that of butyric acid)
seems to be repulsive to insects of all sorts, and
even to the woodlice so frequently found in other
ant’s nest. Two species of Staphylinidce , Kraatzia
Icevicollis, Rey. and Homalota elongatula , Gr.,
occur somewhat sparingly in the barbara nests,
where also I have, on one or two occasions, found
Xantkolini.es longiventris , Heer, var., and the rare
Medon seminiger* Fairm.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
151
At Malaga, I have taken several specimens of
a Catopomorphm with A. barbara , and also found
a single specimen of this beetle on the summit
of the Djebel Mousa (Ape’s Hill), Morocco, at an
elevation of over 2800 feet but the species appa-
rently does not occur either at Gibraltar or
Tangier.
Besides an occasional straggler of Merophysia
carinulata, Mots., the populous colonies of the
big-headed, pale testaceous P he i dole megacephala ,
F., appear to give shelter to but one species of
Goleoptera , the extraordinary Paussus Favieri ,
Fairm. This beetle was found very soon after
my arrival at Gibraltar, and in some localities
(near Campamento for instance) it may be called
abundant, as I have taken as many as twenty
specimens from a single nest; it appears to be
found equally on sandy or clayey soils. There is
much in its general aspect which recalls that of
Claviger on an enlarged scale, but it is an even
more sluggish creature, being found motionless
where the ants are most densely clustered, to them;
though, as far as I can ascertain4 it preys on the
“brood” of the ants like th eSternocceli. Indeed, I
have never observed, with these southern ants,
anything at all resembling the solicitude shown
towards their Coleopterous inmates, as is exhibited
by our species towards Atemeles and Claviger , for
instance. The Poussus is found at Tangier, but
is not so abundant there as at Gibraltar.
This exhausts the list of Myrmecophilous beetles
which I have observed in the region of the Straits
of Gibraltar; and the other ants appear to have no
guests but the common Mefophgsia , with the
exception of the rare and singular Anochetus Ghi-
liariii , Spin., whose small colonies seem usually to
be quite free from beetles. On one occasion, how-
ever, at Tangier (December 9th, 18S7), I found
Pseudotrechus, Oochrotus , Goluocera , Merophysia ,
and Medon seminiger , Fairm., all out for a walk
together in the warm sunshine, on the top of a
stone, which covered an unusually large nest of
this ant.
My best thanks are due to Mr. Geo. Lewis for
the determination of the Bisteridoe, and to Dr.
Sharp for that of the remaining Goleoptera, also
to Mr. Edward Saunders for the names of the
ants mentioned in this article.
A contribution to the Moss Flora
of Malta.
A List of a collection of Mosses made in 1876 by
Frof. E. Sickenberger, of the Medical School,
Cairo, and determined by Willi. Baur (Karlsruhe)
and Dr. C. Muller (Halle). No member of the
Grimmiaceae and Orthotnehacem were found.
Splueranguim muticum, Schrb. Valletta , Sphm-
rangim triquetrum, Sprc. Valletta. Phascum cusoi
datum, Scliib. Valletta. Phascum curvicoliun, lied.
Gasal Cm mi. Phascum retrum, Sm. Valletta'.,
Ascia/i, J Jars a Scirocco , Gasal Cu/rmi. Gymnosto-
mum tortile, Sehwq. Wied Kerda ; Siggieui;
C hircop.
Gymnostomum calcareum, Ness et. H. Marsa:
Siggieui; Wied Balluta.
Dicranella varia, Hed, Marsa Praia.
Fissidens Cyprius, J ur. Vallone Misida; Wied
Balluta.
i ottia minutula, Sehwq. Casal Gurmi ; G 'orradi-
no; Sliema ; AsciaJc; Marsa Scala; Wied Balluta.
Pottia minutula, var. conica , Valletta.
Pottia tmneata, L. Corradino .
I ottia trun< ata B. major — P. intermedia, Fiirnr.
Seng lea; St Paul’s Bag.
Pottia venusta, J ur. Corradino; Marsa Scala.
Pottia Starkeana, Hed. Senglea; Misida ; Wied
Balluta; Marsa , Sliema; Asciak.
Jiuchdium verticillatum, Rr. E. Ghar IPassan —
Pi ohle des Hassan. Triekostomum mutabile, Br.
Wied Balluta. Triekostomum inflexum, Br. Male-
luba; Wied Balluta. Trichostomum Barbula,
Sehwq. Wied Kerda. Barbula ambigua, Br. E.
Casal Gurmi; Valletta. Barbula aloides, Koch.
Valletta. Barbula chloronotos, Br, E. Valletta;
Floriana (ramparts). Barbula vinealis, Br. Jul-
ietta. Barbula marginata, Br. E. Wied Balluta;
Vallone Misida. Barbula muralis, L. Casal Gargnr;
Wied Balluta. Eutosthodon fascicularis, Dicks.
Birchircara. Eutosthodon curvisetus, Sehwq
Marsa Scala; Cur mi; Siggieui.
Funaria calcarea, Wahlb. Marsa Scala with
Pottia veau sta.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATU RALLS!
Funaria calcarea, var. d. flacci* ia, Y at lone, Misida.
Funavia hygrometrica, var. d. calvescens Scliwq.
Zehbug.
Bryum bimum, Schrb. J Vied Balluta
Bryum erythrocarpum, Scliwq. Zeitun; Mama.
Bryum erythrocarpum, var. minor. Marsa Sealer
Bryum atropurpureum W. M. Cnrradino; Ma-
datena Bay; Wicd Balluta Wied Kerda.
Bryum Donianum, Grev. Wied Balluta.
Scleropodium illecebrum, Scliwq. Wied Kerda.
Eurhyncliium striatulum, Spr. Canal Curnii;
Wied Kerda; Wied Balluta, with Trial lostomum
inflex am.
Ifhynchostegium tenellum, Dicks. Malduba;
Wied Balluta; Wied Kerda.
Observations on the Geology of the
Maltese Islands
BY
John H. Cooke.
Proceeding now to consider the various divisions
of the Globigerina Limestone more in detail, we
find immediately underlying the ma, 1, a freestone
of a grey, and reddish white colour, which, owing
to its close, fine-grained texture is much used
for building, and other architectural purposes.
Its thickness varies from 15 to 20 feet. A
phosphatic seam averaging nine inches in thick-
ness is found underlying it in many localities,
as in the cliffs at Dingli, and the outcrops along
the sides of Kannotta hill, but the extent of it is
not very great in either place, and the fossils con-
tained in it are neither numerous nor well pre-
served.
Next in descending order is found a stratum
of soft, yellowish rock of variable character.
It is very susceptible to the disintegrating
action of the humid Sirocco, and it is therefore
J seldom made use of for building purposes when
! other stone is available. For the fossil hunter
it is, perhaps, the best horizon that can be chosen
for obtaining a representative set of the fossils of
this formation. At its base lies another seam of
phosphatic nodules, the majority of which consist
of an aggregation of irregularly shaped masses of
a brownish colour, and intermixed with them are
considerable quantities of pectens, corallines, cru-
! staceans, and the teeth and bones of sharks, the
I
I wdiole being firmly bound together by the forami-
| niferal and other calcareous matter of whicli the
overlying stratum of rock is composed. The
fossils found in this seam comprise all of the
species that occur in the bed upon which it rests.
Indeed, this is characteristic of all of the nodule
seams; and the knowledge of this fact will, there-
fore, save the geologist much time and labour
when collecting the fossils of the Globigerina Bed.
Of the fossil organisms that predominate are
numerous species of pectens , none of wdiich have
yet been critically examined, and echinoderms ,
cephalapods and crustaceans. The urchin Brissopis
creseenticus is the most common urchin in the seam.
Underlying this bed is a fine-grained freestone
which, owing to its many excellent qualities, is
largely used for building purposes.
The greater part of Valletta, Floriana Sliema,
and the churches of Malta and Gozo are built of
it. At Luca and Ta Gandia it attains a thickness
of from 40 to 50 feet, but at Naxaro it thins out
to 25 feet, and in other localities, notably St. Pauls
Bay, it is replaced by a very inferior variety.
The stone which is taken from the quarries of
Tad-dual, and Tal-Gauchi is of a yellowish wdiite
colour and is accounted among the best to be
found in the island. It is, therefore, in constant
request for sculptural and other decorative pur-
poses. It has remarkable weathering'properties
and it is, on this account, largely used for the
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
153
facings and copings of buildings, and for capitals,
vases, and balustrades. Two grave defects mili-
tate against its more extended use in high-class
architectural work. The first of these is its great
variability in colour, and the second is the fre-
quent occurrence of unsightly blotches in the
stone caused by the presence of concretionary
nodules of hematite and ironstone. These nodules
when cut through show ugly markings which
.disfigure the work in which they occur.
Among the men the markings are known as
“ suabcC' or finger-marks, a name that has been
suggested by the form that they most commonly
assume.
At Tal-Gandia, and Tal Balal a fine grained,
compact variety of this same bed is quarried, and.
is largely used in the construction of tomb-stones
and monuments.
At Inghieret , in the vicinity of the Marsa, and
also on the out-skirts of Birchircara there are
quarries from which several qualities of this same
bed are obtained, but they are ail inferior to,
and are, by no means, to be compared with the
stone quarried from the other places that I have
mentioned. Gozo is not behind either in the
quantity or quality of the stone that is quarried.
At Ta-Bardan in Sannat, a hard fine grained
free stone of a pale yellow colour is found, which
for durability and compactness is equal to the
best quarried in Malta. A considerable trade is
carried on in the manufacture and sale of small
stone stoves or ovens called “ kenur,” that are in
great request among the poorer classes of the
towns and casals. These stoves are made of a soft-
freestone, which is remarkable for the great
resistance that it offers to .heat. It is quarried
at Tal-Taflia near Rabato, Gozo.
Considered roughly the Globigerina formation
may be divided into three qualities of stone known
respectively as first quality, second quality and
third quality. (1)
The stone of the first quality is somewhat coarse
grained when compared with the others. It is
however much used for outdoor work as after
exposure to the air it acquires a hardness and com-
pactness which renders it very durable. The second
quality stone, when dry, presents the appearance
of being as good as, if not superior to that of the
first quality. But there is a material difference
between the two; a difference that is more easily
discernable in wet than in dry weather.
During the wet season this stone changes its
colour and readily exfoliates, and it is therefore
rendered comparatively useless for outdoor work.
Its brilliant white appearance and comparative
durability, when dry, are qualities too valuable to
be discarded, and it is therefore used very largely
for interior decorative purposes. The differences
of quality between these two kinds of stone are
strikingly demonstrated in the exterior walls of
the older houses of Luca and the surrounding
villages. If examined, even in the most cursory
manner, it will be seen that while many of the
stones have preserved their original size and shape,
others have wasted away to such an extent, that
many of them are reduced to less than one half
of their original bulk.
The third quality stone is of an exceedingly
rotten nature and soon spilts up and wastes away.
It is therefore seldom or never used for building
purposes, unless it be to serve as rubbish for
filling in foundations.
The thickness of the Globigerina formation is
not uniform. The eroding forces that have been at
work, have effected great changes in altering ihe
original thickness of the beds in different localities
and thus while at Luca and the surrounding areas
(1) By some, only the hard crystalline varieties
of the Upper, and Loioer Coralline Limestone are
regarded as first quality rock ‘} all o f the C lohigerma
Limestone being classed as second and third quality ,
154
in the vicinity the bed is found to attain it
maximum thickness of nearly 250 feet, at Tign .
St. Paul’s Bay, and Marsa Forno it is found to
attain but from 30 to 60 feet and at St. •• ui Ian’s
Bay and the other localities that were just now
mentioned, it thins out and. ultimately disappears
entirely.
The line of demarcation between the Lower
Limestone and the Globigerina Limestone is often
so obscure that it requires a very cl 3 examina-
tion to be enabled to trace it. As a ride the tran-
sition is marked either by a bed of urchins irkutell >.
striata , or by a seam of phosphatic nodules that
attains a thickness of from 2-h to 3 feet.
The nodules in this layer are of a very large
size, and the phosphatised remains that are found
associated with them are exceedingly numerous
The origin of these phosphatic layers which ore so
extensively developed in the Maltese Islands
affords us a problem of unusual interest.
From the natmo and condition of the remains
it is evident that they are due to some great chan-
ges that must have taken place in the physical
conditions of the sea, in which the organisms lived,
and which, by altering the conditions most fa-
vourable to their existence, caused them to die off
rapidly and leave their remains* distributed in
thick regular masses over the sea-bed. Large
quantities of the phospha tes have apparently been
derived from the remains of the cetaceans, saurian, ,
and other sea-monsters that swarmed in the sea-
t
water.
( To be continued .)
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATfR AXIS'!
~T1
I
avei
ige height trorn troug
waves of the Mediterranean di
between 14 and 18 feet; but ii
the waves that are driven in 1
ers that are so common in tin
often attain a height of 33 feel
NOTES AND NEWS.
The famous French Naturalist Professor Quat-
ref ages has just died at the ripe old age of eight-
two years.
crc
oi
gah
L^
an<
sprn
l,
a record
nprdollv
ptJClcUv
LU OI
All great eruptions of Vesuvius are
M. Pahnieri, director of the Vesu1
to take place at new or full moon, am
during eclipses. On the otl
Montessus, who has collect
than 60,000 earthquakes, fin
bances are distributed unifc
day and night, and that they have no relation +
moon culminations and astronomical seasons.
aughout
In the course of the excavations that arc now'
being carried out at Ortygia in Syracuse several
wells were discovered, the contents of which
have enabled the explorers to attribute their
origin to a period between the 7th and the 2nd
centuries B. G., and show that they wrnre abandon-
ed by the people when the city was depopulated
shortly after the Roman Conquest.
A large prehistoric village wTas lately discovered
at Arcevia in Italy, in which finely worked stone
implements, stone — ware with handles, and stag-
horn tools were found that evidently point to a
more advanced state of civilization than is usually
attributed to man during the stone age.
A ‘weather lexicon” has been prepared from the
records of the Hamburg Naval Observatory by
Herr Seemann. The days are classified by baro-
metric pressure and wTind direction, the idea being
to give a collection of daily weather charts in such
a form that a condition of the air over Europe
resembling that for which a forecast is desired
may be found. The former sequence of weaHier
may throw some light on the coming weather.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
155
Errata: — On page 102, “A Theory of the Origin
of Mountain Ranges by Sedimentary Landing &c”
for Landing read Loading.
The tarantula, which is one of the largest but
by no means the most venemous species of spiders
found in Europe is common in Spain, Southern
France, and Italy, and is found in great numbers
in Apalia, and round the town of Taranto.
The female tarantula is very prolific and exer-
cises great maternal care over her young.
She lays from 900 to 1000 eggs in the season,
which are divided into two broods, one of which
she hatches in the Spring, and the other in the
Autumn.
Near Brunn, .the capital of Moravia, important
discoveries of prehistoric remains have been made,
which are likely to attract 'the attention of palaeon-
tologists all over the globe. As a canal was being
dug, four and a half skulls were brought to light
of dolichocephalous (long-headed) character, and
of an exceedingly low' stage of development. The
same place contained bones and teeth of mammoth,
rhinoceros, and reindeer. Close to the skulls lay
more than 500 fossil snails, several caleinous stones
with holes in the middle, and a rude figure cut
out of a mammoth’s tooth with a hole running
through the middle.
In Germany, vegetable fibre is largely used in-
stead of animal wool for various fabrics for outer
garments and other purposes. Two establish-
ments near Breslau convert pine leaves into wrool
and flannels. Blankets of these materials are
exclusively employed in the hospitals, barracks
and prisons of Vienna and Breslau, and have the
great advantage of being vermin-proof. Uncler-
clothing made from vegetable wool keeps the
body comfortably warm. The shops producing
these goods are lighted with gas made from the
waste thrown off in the course of the manufacture.
It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding
the voluminous literature that has been written
on Birds and their habits, no writer has noticed
the preference that certain species of birds give
to certain trees.
Jays and rooks are found in the greatest num-
bers in oak-trees; Finches, in lime-trees; and
Black-caps among laurels. The Nightingale is
always found in the greatest numbers in nut gro-
ves, while the thrush evinces a decided preference
for the birch and ash.
The beech is the favourite tree of the Wood-
pecker; and the numerous families of Tits are
generally found in the greatest abundance among
the Black-thorn.
One of the most extraordinary of the many
curious natural phenomena with which the Medi-
terranean abounds in the “Marobia,” which derives
its name from “ Mare ubbriaco ”, or the “drunken
sea”.
It is off the southern coast , of -Sicily where it
may be viewed to the best advantage. Its approach
is usually indicated by a lurid over-cast sky, and
by an ominous stillness of the atmosphere.
The waters of the sea then heave, and rush up
on the over-lying shores of the adjacent land, and
then almost immediately retire again to their
former level. During its continuance, Admiral
Smyth tell us, the fish float helplessly on the surface
and are easily captured. These changes are rapid
and constant, and continue for periods ranging
from 30 minutes, to upwards of two hours.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
The “Marobia” is invariably the precursor of a !
gale from the southward. It is occassioned by the
meeting between Trapani and Cape San Mario of
a south-east wind from the Malta Channel with a
westerly wind blowing towards the north coast of
Sicily.
The recent researches of Pouchet during the j
years 1890-91, in the life-habits of the sardine
have been productive of some most interesting
results.
He tells us, among other things, that the sardine
does not deposit its eggs on the coast, and that it
eggs do not float on the surface of the water as
many naturalists have stated.
During his lengthened investigations in the
Bay of Concarneau Pouchet states that he never
succeded in obtaining a single mature sardine's
egg, and twice only, in the course of three years,
did he succeed in capturing a sardine that con-
tained a mature egg.
The experiments that have lately been carried
out by Messrs. Fremy and Verneuil for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the feasibility of manufactur-
ing the diamond and other precious stones, have
been most successful. The crystals of the diamond,
ruby, emerald, and topaz, that they have produced
correspond in all of their physical characteristics
with the natural species.
The following prognostics of Mediterranean
weather by the late Admiral Smyth, are according
to my experience, so reliable that I venture to
send them to you for the information of those
who may not have heard of them.
Small clouds increasing prove that their weight
prevents their rising in the air, and therefore
denote rain; while large clouds decreasing being
obviously under dissipation by solar heat, or winds
assure us of fine weather. Therefore, as their
ragged aspect shows the process of condensation,
the cirro-stratus and nimbus clouds invariably
announce rain; an uncommon twinkling of the
stars denotes humidity; the rising or setting
sun tinging the air with yellow, indicates vapour;
and the atmosphere assuming a reddish tint, sere-
nity. A lunar halo, coloured near her, is signifi-
cant of great humidity; and a cloudless night,
unaccompanied by heavy dew, betokens fine but
sultry weather.
Small masses of Cumuli, with detached flaky
clouds, mark settled weather and warm winds;
the elegant cirrus shows approaching change, while
Cumulo-Stratus with detached blackish and irre-
gular clouds preceed variable weather, and cold
winds.
Lightning near the horizon without thunder
indicates wind from opposite quarter, and the
same from high clouds announces fine weather.
The water in part being unusually clear, so that
the bottom is seen in several fathoms, prognosti-
cates the approach of a hard gale; as does also a
diaphanous atmosphere. It is, however, difficult
to catch the characteristics without experience in
observation.
F. M.
Mr. H. E. Craven of Matlock Bridge, England
is anxious to meet with foreign correspondents for
the purpose of exchanging Mediterranean shells
for British land and freshwater species.
Recent experiments have shown that in the dog
and the cat, as well as in the rabbit, the removal
of more than three-fourths of the liver is not fol-
lowed by serious consequences, and that the organ
regains its weight within 36 days.'
The sudden disappearance of oysters from places
where they were formerly numerous may be
explained by a recent remarkable visitation of
the harbor of Sydney, N. s. w. The water, in
places, suddenly assumed the color of blood. This
proved to be due to the invasion or rapid dove-
lopement of-a microscopic Glenoclium , which in a
few days destroyed half of the animals near the
land, and seriously injured the oyster-beds.
Editor. J. II. Cooke. E.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
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CRETACEOUS INVERTEBRATA, AND TERTIARY YERTEBRATA
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Zhe fSDebiterranean IRaturaltet
A Monthly Journal of Natural Science, Subscription 5/- per annum.
Contents-February.
— — Page
X The Botany and Geology of Egypt— Rev. Prof:
Henslow, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 125
2 /The “Fungus Melitensis -A. Caruana Gatto, B.A. 127
3 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Islands—
John H. Cooke 129
4 Mediterranean Lepidoptera. Phillip de la Garde R.N. 133
6 Theories of Mountain Formation— T, Mellard Reade,
C.E., F.G.8., FR.I.B.A 135
6 Science Gossip: — Annals of British Geology— Endu-
rance of the camel — Rain-making — New Maltese
Echinoderms- Distribution of bee-hives— Vesu-
vius again active— Geographical Society for
Liverpool— The Golden Plover in Malta— Mani-
pulation of the Microscope — A curious applica-
tion of zoological facts -The olive in Malta &c, 138
Contents-Marc'i.
— *<, — Page
1 Corsica— Sir, R. Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. 1+1
2 The Fossil Whale from Citti< Vecchia— Prof. Van.
Beneden, 143
3 Lampedusa, and its sponge Fisheries— John H.
Cooke. 143
4 The Poppy and its Cultivation. "46
5 Mediterranean Lepidoptera— Phil, de la Garde R.N. 147
6 ACtna and its Lava Streams J.E.S. 14S
7 New Clausilise from Malta — A. A. Caruana Gatto
M.C.S. 148
S Notes on Arft’s-N est Beetles at Gibraltar arid Tan-
gier-J.J. Walker R.N..F.E.S. 150
9 A Contribution to the JMoss Flora of Malta— Prof.
E. Sickenberger. 15j
10 Observations on the Geology of the Maltese Island
—John H. Cooke. 1
11 l\rotes and A eies1,,*— Vesuvius, — Excavations at Or-
tygia, — A “weather lexicon.” — The tarantula —
Prehistoric remains at Brunn. — Birds, and their
habits. — The Mare Ubbriaeo — Researches of Pou-
chet — Weather prognostics in the Mediterranean.
&c. U4
Published on the 1st. of each month, and can be obtained from ail Booksellers, and . ora the
Publisher, 48, Strada Mercanti, Valletta.
158
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
basins are restricted in size. In such districts a
large proportion of the denudation to which the
surface contour of the district owes its diversified
character, is to be attributed to the slow and
intermittent, though powerful, agency of this wind.
It is along the escarpments of the hills and
valleys, and in the cliff exposures that have a
south-easterly aspect, that its powers of erosion
are to be studied to the best advantage.
The flat-topped conical hills that form such a
distinguishing feature in Malta and Gozitan sce-
nery, owe their origin, in a great measure, to its
influence. The Globigerina Limestone, the fourth
bed from the top, forms the base of all of these
hills, and on account of its homogeneity and
softness of texture, it readily disintegrates before
the rapid alternations of dryness and humidity
that are the usual concomitants of the Sirocco.
This bed may be traced from the bottoms of all
of the valleys in the Binjemma and the Gozitan
plateaux, falling bad?, in long-draw swellings and
gentle undulations; and is covered with a rich and
productive soil, in which the crimson sulla (clover),
and the golden rye for which the islands are noted,
grow luxuriantly.
Capping this bed, and still Idling back in softly
rounded masses are the dun-coloured marls, the
taluses of which often descend the slopes to
distances that are double, and even treble the real
thickness of the bed. These marl outcrops are a
characteristic of Maltese hill scenery. They owe
their origin to the percolation of water through
the upper beds, whereby the marl is rendered
sodden, and then, being more susceptible to the
weight of the superincumbent rock than when dry,
it is pressed from out the strata, and precipitated
down the hill-sides.
The bases of the hills, therefore, have a cloak of
marl which effectually protects them from aerial
waste, while the upper portions, being without this
protective influence, rapidly waste away before the
humid winds, and thus the slopes of the valleys
are seldom precipitous, and the isolated hills
assume a distinctly conical form.
The hills and plateaux are in this way shielded
below by their own ruins, while the wasting away
of the upper portions causes them to gradually as
sume the tapering shape with which the student
of Maltese scenery is so familiar.
Unlike the Globigerina Limestone, the Upper
Coralline rock is not equally susceptible to the
influences of this wind. But certain portions of
the strata, situated in the middle of the formation,
weather much faster than do the layers either
above it or below' it.
In the majority of cases this formation is found
capping the hills of both islands, and forming
tablelands, the sides of which are bounded by
precipitous cliffs that attain a height which is
dependent upon the local thickness of the bed.
It also forms the surface deposits of several
undulating plains, and it frequently occurs as
shapeless hummock-like masses. These diversities
of form are due in a measure to the unequal wmste
that the rock undergoes, as its mineralogical com-
position varies considerably, some parts of the
strata being so hard as to be capable of withstand-
ing the combined action of the atmosphere for
centuries, while other portions readily disintegrate
on exposure.
It is to this unequal action that the formation
owes the craggy contour of its cliff outlines; and
it is this that causes it to offer such marked
contrasts to the gentler undulations of the softer
beds beneath. It is from this formation, too, that
the rock boulders that strew the slopes and beds
of the valleys of the islands, are derived.
The action of the sirocco and the rain upon the
sand-bed that serves as the foundations of the
formation, by gradually wearing it away, deprives
the upper bed of its support, and causes the cliffs
to break away in cyclopean masses, and to strew
the slopes of the hills and valleys •with their de-
bris; while other masses are detached and are tilted
so perilously out of the perpendicular that they
appear —
“As if an infant’s touch could urge
Its headlong passage down the verge.”
Such are a few of the effects that this powerful
eroding agent is, in part, accountable for; but it
has, of course, been assisted in its work by 'other
and equally powerful auxiliaries, without whose
co-operation its efforts could not have been so
effective. The main features of the country, the
hills, valleys, and gorges have had their direction
and extent largely influenced by the lay of the
strata; while the minor ones, such as the honey-
combed and fretted appearances presented by the
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
159
cliff-faces and rock-surfaces, have been influenced
by the lithological characters of the rock. These
are some of the assistants that have co-operated,
add to which the heat and drought of summer, and
the wet and cold of winter.
But effective as they are as helpers in the work
of waste, no single one of them can be pointed to
as being more potent, more active, more irresistible
than the sirocco.
Both in Malta and Gozo the principal valleys
lay in a north-west and a south-east direction; that
is to say, they lie in a line with the direction of
this wind.
Marsa Sirocco, an extensive bay on the east coast
of Malta, so called because this wind blows directly
into it, affords many striking examples of its
power. It is the largest bay in the islands, and
has four valleys abutting on its coast-line, each of
which lies in the same direction. But it is not
only in the general moulding of the country that
the sirocco is concerned. Its effects may be traced
in every crag and cavern, and on every rock,
boulder, or other rock-surface. The irregular
blocks of which the walls that serve as boundary-
partitions between the fields, and the tooled stones
of which the edifices in the towns and casals are
built afford equally striking evidences of its
power of erosion; and by their means both the rate
and the amount of the denudation may by estimat-
ed. It is a noteworthy feature in the exteriors of
Maltese walls and houses that the side which is
exposed to the sirocco always presents a very
eroded, time-worn and dilapidated appearance,
whereas the other sides, in comparison, are fresh
and unworn.
It is no uncommon occurrence to find the softer
stones in the sides of the houses that have a south-
east aspect, almost completely worn through, and
surrounded by other blocks, the harder portions of
which, such as the fossil contents, echinoids,
pectens, etc., stand out in bold relief from their
worn and wasted matrices. In the old fortifica-
tions that were erected by the Knights of St. John,
such phenomena as these are of frequent occur-
rence, and are very typical of sirocco denudation.
From a series of calculations that I have made
of the rate of the erosion of the Globigerina
Limestone blocks in a number of buildings and
fortifications of known ages, I estimate that the
rate of sirocco denudation averages of an inch
per square foot per year; that is about 16 cubic
yards per acre per year; or about 22 tons of
material are annually wasted from every acre of
surface.
In calculating this, numerous examples were
' taken, some being in proximity to the coast, while
others were obtained from the centres of both
islands. By so doing I believe i have obtained a
fair average rate, for there can be no doubt, but
that the rate of erosion is more rapid near the
coast than it is inland. The moisture-ladened
winds that sweep over the islands impregnate all
that they come in contact with, and the Globige-
rina rock being very porous, is therefore highly
susceptible to its influence.
The duration of time during which the sirocco
lasts is seldom long enough to enable it to do
more than affect the surface, and the period of
moisture is usually followed by conditions that
are diametrically opposed to those that prevailed
while the sirocco was blowing.
The frequent and rapid changes that the stone
thus undergoes, causes an abnormal expansion
and contraction of the superficial molecules, and
so tends to make the surfaces readily disintegrate
and peel off in large flakes.
The work of erosion is greatly assisted also by
the crystalization of the salt contained in the
moisture that this wind takes up in its passage
across the Mediterranean.
This moisture renders the stone surfaces highly
saliferous. Under the influence of the heat of a
semitropical sun, the moisture passes off, and the
salt crystallizes and pushes out the superficial
particles of the limestone, thus facilitating the
paring down process which so rapidly wastes the
rocks, and causes them to break up.
Johx H. Cooke.
Deep-Sea Explorations in the Eastern
Mediterranean.
The deep-sea explorations in the Eastern parts
of the Mediterranean, which were continued this
year by the Austrian Government, on board the
Pola, were rich in interesting results; they are
analysed by Prof. J. Luksch in the Sitzungsberichte
of the Vienna Academy (vol. 100, 2nd division),
and were briefly referred to in the ‘Proceedings’
160
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
for December. Leaving the Adriatic at Gape
Leuca, the Pola proceeded south to the latitude
of Navarino; thence she ran south-east to Canclia,
visiting also Cerigo Island and Santorin. Sailing
round the eastern part of Candia, the Pola pro-
ceeded to Alexandria, west along the African coast
to Bas Milhe, thence to Candia again, along the
south-western coast of that island, to Cerigo, Milo
and the Pyrseus. The soundings during this cruise
were extremely interesting, inasmuch as in lati-
tude *35° 44' 20" and longitude 21 r 44" 50" (about
50 nautical miles south-west from Cape Matapan)
the Pola found the depth of 4400 metres (2406 fa-
thoms), followed within a few miles further east
by a depth of 4080 metres 72236 fathoms), which
are the greatest depths recorded in the Mediterra-
nean. They have received from the Austrian Hy-
drographical Board the name of Pola Deep. The
great depression of the Mediterranean must thus
be shifted considerably east from its former cen-
tral position on our maps. Another deep area was
explored between Candia and Alexandria — the
depths attaining from 3310 metres (1810 fathoms)
some 20 miles south-east of Grandes Bay, and
from 2392 metres (1208 fathoms) to 2120 metres
(1322 fathoms) -within a short distance from Alex-
andria; the maximum depth sounded being 3068
metres (1678 fathoms) in 28° 39' 30" north latitude
and 33° 19' 54" east longitude. The full results of
the numerous and varied observations made on
board the Pola will be published when all calcu-
lations have been completed; but several interest-
ing facts are already indicated in the preliminary
report. The highest temperatures were found in
the first parts of the voyage, and are given as fol-
lows:—-Prom 80‘8° F. to 69° in the first 50 metres
(27 fathoms); from 69° to 62'5° in depths from 50
to 100 metres (27 to 55 fathoms); from 59° to 57°
in depths of from 200 metres (110 to 547 fathoms)
to 3000 metres (1640 fathoms). The lowest tem-
perature (52|°) was observed at the issue from the
Adriatic Sea, at a depth of 760 metres (415 fa-
thoms); at 4400 metres (2406 fathoms) the tempe-
rature was 56°. It was observed last year that in
the Central Mediterranean the density of the
water and its saturation with salt increased with
depth, and the same was observed in the western
part of this year’s cruise. But in the Eastern Me-
diterranean the density of water varies but very
little in the different strata (from P0297 to P0300),
and it is higher on the whole than in the West.
The transparence of the water is very great in the
Eastern Mediterranean; in three cases a white
disc was seen down to a depth of 54 metres (177
feet), but it disappeared from view at a depth of
32 metres (105 feet) at the above mentioned station
in the south-west of Cape Matapan. Many data
relative to the colour and transparence of water in
connection with the weather were collected, and
they will be analysed in subsequent reports. On
the whole, no less than 50 deep-sea soundings
were made — 27 soundings reaching depths of more
than 100 metres (547 fathoms). Prof. Luksch’s
paper is accompanied by a map.
Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.
Diseases of the Malta Orange.
In the reply to a letter sent by the late Major-
General Hales Wilkie respecting the causes of the
diseases of the Malta Orange, Prof: Tar: Toggetti
of the Boyal University, Florence writes. “I have
the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your
communication respecting the Maltese Orange
pest, and having received several days later speci-
mens of the insect of which you speak, I now
hasten to comply with the request contained in
your letter. First of all I find that the flies sent
to me, both male and female, correspond exactly
in their more prominent characters, as in their
antennae and frontal parts, with other flies, which
in the year 1881 were seen in Sicily and which
cause considerable damage not to the orange
cultivated -there, but to the fruit of the nectarine.
I referred the specimens to the genus Ceratites.
McLeay, ( Petalophora Macq. Tephritis, Wiedm.)
and I considered it to be C. hispanicus , a species
which was determined by Bremen from specimens
brought from Spain into Italy some time before
by the illustrious Gliiliani.
This species is, however, so similar to the form
described by McLeay under the name Cera.titis
Citriperda that Ghiliani without contesting the
name is inclined to consider it as being a variety
of the same.
This fly has been se-’eral times identified by
Ghiliani as C.capitata {Tephritis capitata Wiedm),
and I am also of the same opinion after the
description of the figures that I have now seen.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST 161
The other, Ceratitis citriperda McLeay, is a
species of the same genus, but of the island of
Mauritius. At all events C. capitata or C. hispanica
has been already found in Algeria and if the
assertion of Guerin is correct it is also to be
found in the Canary Islands (Madeira), and in the
island of the Azores (St. Michael).
In Sicily this insect has a preference for the
fruit of the nectarine, but it does not necessarily
follow that in other countries it confines its
attacks to this fruit alone, for in the island of
Mauritius it attacks ail kinds of fruit, as you
have had occasion to observe it to do likewise in
Malta. None of the writers whom I have consulted
speak of methods of destroying this insect, or of
ways by which its attacks might be rendered less
destructive: and as far as I know no steps were
taken in Sicily to destroy the insects that infested
the Nectarine.
However, it is my opinion that great benefit
would accrue by sacrificing the whole of the fruit
for a year or two by collecting the oranges before
they are quite ripe, and as soon as the larvae of
the insects appears. As a more expeditions method
I would suggest that the emulsion of Riley should
be used, and with another emulsion that I warmly
recommend, and which is prepared as follows : —
I. Olio di pesce 1 parts
Solfuro di carbonico 10 „
II. Potassa del commercio 2 parts
Water 10 „
Mix the No. I solution with No. II and dilute the
mixture with 50 times its bulk of water.
The amount of water may be increased to any
extent: and the oil and potash may be diminished,
or the Solfuzo di carbonico may be diminished at
will, and the emulsion even though rendered wea-
ker will undoubtedly kill the larvae, and they may
then be easily washed away either by the rain
(which is very rare in Malta), or they will disappear
in time, leaving the oranges free from the pest.
It would, however, be well to avoid doing this
during the time when the trees are sprouting or
blossoming.
Another substance which can also be used is
that which is known among chemists as nitro-
benzine, and commercialy as essence of mirabane;
this should be diluted with water and then well
shaken. Cyanide of potassium dissolved in the
preparation in the proportion of one part to every
1000 of water could be also tried.
All of these liquid substances should be applied
by spraying by means of a pump attacted to a
tube at the end of which is a rose. It is necessary
to be careful however, to use a metal tube for the
oily substances; and for the conducting tube a
tube of metal must be adopted or a tube of cloth,
but not of india-rubber.
The Americans, I think, would not hesitate to
cover the orange trees with a portable tent beneath
which they -would develop© the vapour of acido di
cianidrico, obtained from the decomposition of
Cyanide of Potassium, when acted on by chloric
acid. The effect would be no doubt excellent but
the application of it is very difficult and it is not
unattended by danger to the operators wffio neglect
the necessary precautions.
These then are the methods that I recommed
to be tried. I now desire for my own informa-
tion that you may be so good as to furnish me
with some particulars regarding the range of the
infection by the Ceratitis, either known or sup-
posed, in the infected districts, the damages
caused by it; and to forward me some specimens
of the orange with the larvae. This could be best
done I think by sending them in a tin or zinc
box pierced with air holes; if this could not be
done it would be sufficient if you were to send
some pieces of the peel with the larvae, or some
larvae alone enclosed in either a tin or a zinc tube,”
Both for these and for other particulars relating
to the diseases of the Malta Orange we are indebted
to the courtesy of Mr. E. Taglioferro , the lion. sec.
of the Malta Orange Commission to whom we noiv
beg to offer our sincere thanks . . (Ed. Med. Nat.)
Theories of Mountain Formation.
BY T. MeLLAED ReADE, C.E., F.G.S., F.K.I.B.A.
Part V.
(Conclusion.)
The relation between volcanic energy and moun-
tain formation are undoubtedly intimate, yet the
prevalent ideas on the subject are characterised by
obscurity.
Unfortunately phrases so often do duty for
thought, that it behoves every geological studen:
to ask himself as he goes along whether the expla-
nations offered of phenomena are really such, or
102
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
merely resolve themselves into involuntary at-
tempts to elude difficulties. Am ng these latter
I would class the notion recently resuscitated
that the sinking of the great ocean basins has
thrown up the marginal deposits into mountain
chains. A very slight acquaintance with geome-
try is sufficient to show that the lateral thrust
which, on the most favourable supposition, could
be produced in this way is infinitesimal. Take
the Atlantic as 2,000 miles wide and three miles
maximum depth, what thrust could this exert on
the shore lines, even if the bottom sunk the whole
depth in a hundred years? The depth of the in-
verted arch or segment is less than of the
span, and would be represented by a deflection of
one inch in a girder of 5*3 feet span: yet a deflection
of this amount would probably have to be repeated
thousands of times before the stability of tiie
terminal supports of such a girder would be
greatly affected. Notwithstanding this, we are
asked to believe that the folds of the Appala-
chians have been produced by the sinking of the
Atlantic bed. If the whole three miles of depres-
sion were converted into lateral thrust it would
be insufficient. If, on the other hand, the holders
of this theory imagine that the Atlantic bottom
rests on a semi-fluid mass of molten matter, which
it displaces and throws up on its margins— -an
assumption for which there is no warrant at all,
either physical or geological — we can only say
that the structure of mountain chains negatives
any such an explanation of their origin.
Volcanic energy is, in my view, another form or
manifestation of t. to forces which, under favoura-
ble conditions, give rise to the expansions of the
crust of the earth, which end in the production of
a mountain chain; Volcanoes are surface ma-
nifestations of this force, and any one who wishes
to study the sr bje t from this, the first point of
view, had better read Scrope’s classic Volcanoes
and the interesting treatise by Professor Judd
bearing the same title, published in the Interna-
tional Scientific Series.
There is, however, one aspect of the question
which has hardly yet received the attention it
deserves. It seems pretty conclusive that vol-
canic energy could not have continued active
from the dawn of geological history unless it were
Connected with the central heat. Hopldn’s and
Lyell’s suggestions that volcanoes may be fed
from isolated lakes of molten rock in the earth’s
crust does not commend itself to my mind, unless
these lakes are themselves fed from the central
reservoir.
No explanation of volcanic emission which does
not provide for getting the molten rock from a
depth of from 20 to 30 miles is complete. In the
first place, molten lava stands in the throat of a
volcano in some cases 12,000 feet above the sea
level, and with such a “hydraulic head,’’ unless it
were fed from some deep-seated source, the co-
lumn would lift up the earth-covering of the
resevoir, in the same way that a man can lift
himself by blowing down the tube of a pneumatic
bellows. The column of rock and the column of
lava must, to maintain stable conditions, have
nearly the same weight; but, if these columns be
(say) 20 miles deep, the lesser specific gravity of
the fluid lava will account for its emission at
heights of 12,000 feet above the sea. Unless the
lava, fluid at the surface, is solid or nearly solid
at its origin, it seems impossible to account for
the phenomenon of intermittent emission at the
surface: fdr, were the whole column of lava fluid
and fed from a fluid reservoir, gravitation of the
covering rock would produce continuous emission
until exhaustion took place, instead of that inter-
mittent emission which is the regular, or rather
irregular, mode in which volcanic action manifests
itself,
Prof. Judd, in his report to the Royal Society
on the eruption of Ivrakatoa, has shewn that when
the mixtures of silicates of which the Krakatoa
lavas consist contain water, then very fusible
glasses are formed. From this fact Professor Judd
infers that the slow percolation of water into rock
masses from above, and the consequent formation
of new compounds more readily acted upon by
subterranean heat, is capable of bringing about vol-
canic action These interesting discoveries throw
much light upon the immediate manifestations of
volcanic energy, but they are surface actions, and
do not account for the pumping up of the incan-
descent matter of the globe from below what is
called the “crust of the globe.” Unless there were
as I pointed out at the commencement of this
article, a continual renewal of incandescent matter
from a central reservoir, in the millions of ages
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
16$
that have elapsed since the earth became habitable
volcanic energy would have died out, whereas,
according to the best geologists, it is potentially as
active now as ever.
It is a very remarkable fact, that frequently in
grea'; ranges of mountains the crystalline nucleus
has been penetrated by igneous dykes long after
the elevation of the range, and volcanic cones have
been built upon the highest points. This holds
good with the Caucasus, where volcanic eruptions,
which took place at the close of the Tertiary epoch
acccording to E. Favre, only exercised a local effect
on the upheaval of the chain. The most conside-
rable cone and the highest peak is that of Fibrous,
which has arisen in the midst of crystalline rocks
w7here the eastern part of the Caucasus reaches its
greatest width. We may not unnaturally ask
ourselves why volcanic action should manifest
itself specially in this way, rather than that the
lava should break out at lower levels? It would
seem to point to the persistence of a focus, or of
foci of heat, under the range, remnants of the
heat energies which originally, by expansion of
the heavy overlying sediments which sealed them
up, gave rise to the range.
Yolcanic action has, in one form or another, al-
ways been present during the building of moun-
tain ranges. The sedimentary beds are often inter-
stratified with lava flows of great thickness, and
seemingly the combined sediments and lava sheets
have had to be piled up to a great thickness before
the energies necessary for mountain building have
accumulated sufficiently to initiate mountain move-
ments. That this has been the case we see a
good example in our own Snowdon, where the
sheets of trappean rock partake of the folds of the
mountain equally with the sedimentary beds.
From this it would appear that where there has been
great surface emission there has not been contem-
porary mountain building — except in a plateau-
like form, as in the Deccan in India and Colorado
in North America. If, as I infer, mountain build-
ing and volcanic action are different results of the
same heat energies, it follows that where there is
easy surface overflow there cannot be that intense
folding and crushing which are the predominant
characteristics of a great mountain range.
Our direct knowledge of volcanic action is li-
mited to surface phenomena. Mechanical know-
ledge almost as certainly leads to the inference
that it is really deep-seated. We cannot say
what takes place in the laboratory of nature 30
miles below our feet, but that variations and long-
pulsations of temperature take place we must
reasonably suppose. We have seen that the piling
up of sediments is one cause of this, but doubt-
less there are others we can only dimly guess at.
Emission at the surface of molten lava will produce
a movement of fresh magma towards the base of
the column or pipe: this means a renewal or
accession of heat, and it also means further che-
mical reaction and melting of surrounding rocks.
Expansion in volume of this magma, be it ever so
minute, will show in the volcanic column like the
mercury in a thermometer. Doubtless there are
resevoirs of lava in the solid crust itself fed from
the. nucleus, and an alteration of volume in the
solid surrounding rock, such as accompanies a
small change of temperature, will affect the lava
column in the same way as an alteration of the
bulk of the molten matter of the reservoir itself.
The late Mr. Mallet considered volcanic action
to be due to the crushing in of the crust of the
earth following upon secular refrigeration, and his
theory was therefore on the same basis at the
“contraction” theory of mountain formation. If,
however, this theory is incapable of explaining
mountain upheaval, still less can it account for
volcanic action; for, as is shown by the investi-
gations of the depth of the “level-of-no-strain”
crushing ceases a few miles below the surface,
Yolcanic action, as already shown, is initially deep
seated, and volcanoes must be fed from a zone of
the earth at depths so profound as to be well
within the contracting magma. Now, as con-
tracting matter cannot force itself up to the surface,
we must look to other agencies for the pushing
up of the incandescent matter of the interior,
which only becomes molten by the relief of pres-
sure on nearing the surface. This force is to be
found, I believe, in variations of temperature,
which increase the local bulk of particular sections
of the earth,
The problems discussed in this series of articles
are of a very difficult nature. They demand a
great variety of knowledge on the part of him who
would investigate them.
164
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
First and foremost, to properly grapple with
the questions that arise demands the possession of
a sound mechanical instinct. A theoretical ac-
quaintance with mechanics, though absolutely
essential, is of itself insufficient. A real living
acquaintance with the sort of forces to be dealt
with, bom of a long practical struggle with me-
chanical difficulties, seems to me not less requisite.
Chief of all, however, is it necessary to study the
phenomena of nature, not only in the field but in
the works of those geologists who have devoted
themselves to the unravelling of the earth’s secrets.
The successful investigator must sail very close to
the facts of nature; he must never lose sight of
them but continually square his theories with them.
Nothing is easier than to elaborate a system of
cosmogony in the closet, starting from some s imj be
axiom; but a theorist of this kind very soon parts
company with fact and nature, and sails off on an
imaginary cruise on his own account. Like Fuseli,
the painter, who is represented to have said of
himself — “Nature puts me out.” such a theorist
draws his pictures, and eventually his facts also,
from the stores of his inner consciousness. Our
theories should be explanations of what we see,
not a priori possibilities.
It is the great glory of geology that it brings
into strong action common sense and sound judg-
ment, and it has always seemed to me to be a
science specially adapted to the English, mind.
Be this as it may, there is scope in it for
the profoundest practical and theoretical know-
ledge.
The more wTe labour the more oppressive the j
feeling of our own inefficiency becomes; but, at
the same time, if progress be slow there is great
satisfaction in feeling that one has contributed a
stone or two to the great cairn of truth. Whether
such contributions are contained in these articles
it will be for time and the labour of others to tell.
The investigations upon which they are founded
have, at all events, enlarged my own horizon and
given me a clearer conception of some' of the
processes of nature; and, if this be the case,
I venture to hope that others also may derive
sorhe benefit from following the same mental j
processes.
The Soil of the Maltese Islands.
The soil of the Maltese Islands has, from the
earliest times, enjoyed the reputation of being
accounted among the most fertile of any district
in the Mediterranean.
The cloths made by the Phoenicians and Carthi-
ginians from cotton grown in the islands had a
world-wide repute; and the writings of Lucretius,
Siiius Italicus, and Cicero give us a very vivid
idea of the estimation in which the cloths made in
their time were held by the sumptuous Romans.
The great increase in the population of the
islands in modern times, and the increasing de-
mands that are therefore made on the soil to pro-
vide sustenance for the people, have taxed its
resources to the uttermost; but as far as can be
judged by the quantity and quality of the crops
that are grown, its fertility is in nowise diminished
a fact that is no doubt due to the inexhaustible
store of phosphates and other plant feeding mine-
rals contained in the islands’ strata. Among the
Maltese there is a prevalent opinion that the soil
of the islands is not indigeneous, but that it was
brought here from Sicily in the time of the
Knights.
The incorrectness of this view will be at once
apparent to all who will take the trouble to com-
pare the composition of the soils with that of the
rocks upon which they lie.
Mr. O. Chadwick writing to Dr. John Murray
gives a most ingenious demonstration against the
theory in the course of which he says,” The theory
of importation does not, to my mind, appear to be
probable.
It may be that some Grand Master imported
some ship-loads of soil, though no difference is to
be observed between any of the lands of the order,
and others in the neighbourhood. If we suppose
that out of 95 square miles which form the area of
Malta, not more than 10 are covered with red soil
to a depth of one foot six inches then we have
^ goo _ 15}488,000 cubic yards; at 200
cubic yards to a ship-load this gives 77,440 ship-
loads, or one ship a day for two centuries all of
which must have loaded at or near the same place
at Marsala, where I observe that a similar soil
overlies an apparently similar formation.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Tiie assumed 10 square miles is a guess only,
but the figures give an idea of the magnitude of
the operation. I am not acquainted with the
documentary evidence as to importation, but it
most be strong indeed to be accepted.
I have observed that the Maltese have a strong
tendency to adopt the most heroic and marvellous
solution of any given problem.”
Disappearance of Spondylus gaederopus,
L. and other species from Maltese Waters.
Reference was made in the last number of the
Mediterranean Naturalist anent the sudden, disap-
pearance of oysters from the harbour of Sydney
where they were formerly numerous, which disap-
pearance is due m that particular case to the inva-
sion of a Glenodium. This brought to my mind a
similar fact that took place in this part of the Medi-
terranean with the Spondylus gaederopus L. This
Spondylus up to 20 years ago was a very common
species here, so much so that it formed an article of
food in the markets and was known in the vernacu-
lar by the name of Gaidri , and even 10 years ago I
remember that I used to see if sold, though sparing-
ly, in the streets. Dr. Caruana in Mamo;s Catalo-
gue, and Benoit and Galea in theirs, note it as being
very common and quite rightly too. At present the
only specimens obtained are poor and of stunted
growth and even these are very rare and they bear
but little resemblance to the fine and malgrive
specimens that were formerly so plentiful and
which now are never seen; if is only on the beaches
that one can perhaps collect some bleached valves
of them: if they continue disappearing at this rate
they will in a very short period have to be accoun-
ted as an extinct species for these islands.
I may also add to the fast-disappearing Spon-
dylus , the Solen nayina; the Solecurtur coractatus
Gmel: known under the name of Stocci and
which were common at Renella; and the Purpura
hcemastoma L. which I see noted in the Cata-
logues of Maltese shells as common species. At
the present time this does not stand good with
regard to any of them and in the course of my
visits to the sea fruit market and in the dredgings
both of my friend Be, Galizia and of my own
we never came across specimens of either.
165
Whatever be the reason for this fact, it must
explain the disappearance of these molluscs from
every part of our shores because, the Solen ex-
cepted, they were not ' species confined to a single
locality, but were widely distributed, and we have
not before us a slight change in their frequency
but from a degree of very frequent occurence we
now find them to be almost totally extinct.
On the contrary Dosinia Exoleta L. seems to
have been rather, an uncommon species in Mamo’s
and Gulia’s time, while now this species is very
abundant indeed, in the Great Harbour at least,
where I have often, when dredging, obtained
hundreds of specimens.
The like may be noted of Ostrea lamellosa ,
Brocchi—Coccli which has taken in the markets
the place of Spondylus and which I believe has of
late greatly augmented in numbers.
Apart from the causes which have led to these
variations, there is nothing astonishing in these
changes which are constantly going on more or
less in the faunas and floras of all countries. I
trust that this will not be without some interest
to our naturalists.
Alfred Card ana Gatto.
Science Gossip.
The lavas ofJEtna contain a considerable num-
ber of minerals, but iron is only found in a
state of decomposition.
The mountain abounds in asphaltus, ’ Itumen.
and lapis obsidianus. Yitrolic and sulphurous
acid are often met with; and near spots burnt
by the lava alluminous schists are sometimes
found. The lavas enclose a variety of precious
stones such as garnets, hyacinths, and among
others that noble stone the chrysolite. An an-
cient lava near Aci. Reale yields zeolites of extra-
ordinary whiteness.
Water spouts are of frequent occurrence in the
Mediterranean at all seasons ot' the year but ex-
pecially so about the time of the Autumnal
Equinoxes.
The opposing winds that then contest for su-
premacy bring together dense masses of cloud's
and it is when these meet that the “spouts are
usually formed. In localities like the Straits of
166
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Gibraltar, Cape de Gat, St. Antonio, Cape Crux,
the Balearic Isles & Cape Bon where the changes
of wind are sudden and local currents of air are
induced, these phenomena are of such frequent oc-
currence, that Beete states that he knew of a vessel
that was becalmed with no less than seven water-
spouts around her all of which were seen moving
in different directions at the same time. The
formation of two and three at once is a common
occurrence.
Dwelling on the triumphs of spectroscopic pho-
tography, Sir Jiober Ball mentions that the move-
ments of the stars in a direct line towards or from
us, which were not noticeable on merely telescopic
examination, are now measured with wonderful
exactness. It is to the spectroscope also that we
are indebted for putting the measuring tape round
the girth of a star. Stars at such a distance that
if they were brought ten times nearer us would
still be too far away for measurement by the
ordinary processes of the observatory, have now
their diameter guaged. Of the dark satellite of
the variable Algol so much has been deduced
that Sir Robert is able to say: “.Here is an
object which we never have seen and apparently
never can expect to see, but yet we have been
able not only to weigh it and to measure it, but
also to determine its movements.”
Grape-stones Industries informs us are now
being made the subject of a series of chemical
investigations for the purpose of ascertaining to
what uses they can be put. The result has been
to show" that the oil is by no means dissimilar to
castor oil, resembling that substance in its high
acetye number and iodine number, a resemblance
which extends to its property of yielding Turkey
red oil on treatment with sulphuric acid. Direct
dyeing tests have shown the value of the discovery.
The confirmation of this result will, no doubt,
give rise to a lucrative industry.
At the last annual dinner of the Meteorological
Society Mr. G. J. Symons said he had observed that
meteorological observations seemed to have a won-
derful effect in promoting longevity; and in proof
of his statement, said that the average age of obser-
vers in correspondence with him was nearly 70
years.
As our readers probably know there is a large
army of private individuals who undertake such
observations as a labour of love, and who regularly
report to the central authority. We are glad to
learn that the work is so conducive to long life a
fact wdiich cannot fail in securing many others
willing to make records on such favourable terms.
A very singular manna-like substance, says the
Scientific American is that known as “Trehala” in
Syria and as “Shuggar Tigal” in India.
These have been considered as distinct products
though closely allied. The so-called manna con-
sists of oval shaped cases, averaging \ inch to £
inch in length, externally rough and irregular,
hard and brittle, of a grayish white color and with
a sweetish taste.
These cases are found attached by one side to
twigs of a species of JEchinops in Syria, and are
constructed by a small beetle which has been
described as Larinus subrugosus. The larva of
this insect collects a considerable quantity of sac-
charine aud amylaceous matter from the Ecliinops
and it constructs its dwelling by disgorging this
matter and moulding it in the form to cover itself.
Each case contains one insect only, and when this
has attained its perfect form, emerges at the upper
end. Analysis of these peculiar cocoons or nests
has proved them to contain gum, starch, and
sugar. Placed in water at an ordinary tempera-
ture they swell, partly dissolve, and become con-
verted into a pasty mass. They are collected in
Turkejr and Syria, and used as food, and they are
also exported in quantity to Constantinople and
other Turkish cities.
The glaciers of the Alps, according to Herr von
E. Richter, are now showing marked indications
of increase in size, after having been, diminishing
quite rapidly for about 30 years, with the excep-
tion of a transitory extension about 1875. From
the historical records of about three centuries, it
appears that the glaciers have had alternate pe-
riods of growth and diminution. In this time no
less than eight marked epochs of growth can be
traced, the first having begun in 1592, and the
last, excluding the slight one of 1875, in 1835, —
each having been followed by a period of glacier
retreat. The intervals between the epochs vary
from 20 to 47 years.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
167
The second number of the “Rassegna delle
Scienze Geologiche in Italia5’ has come to hand
and its contents are quite as interesting and as
valuable as those of the first number.
Besides the brief digests of the papers on
Italian geology, that were published during the
year 1891, there also appears the continuation of
Prof. A. Goiran’s paper on the Veronese earth-
quake of June last, and a short paper by Sig-
Pietro Zesi on the travertine and the water in
theMeighbourhood of. We again recommend it cor-
dially to our readers notice.
It is now the humble earthworm, exalted by
Darwin to the .position of the soil-tiller’s benefac-
tor, that is destined to become the dread of nervous
folk. Pasteur showed about a dozen years ago
that the bacterium of char bon may be taken up
from corpses by these creatures, and carried for
a considerable time in their bodies. Two other
French biologists, Lortet and Despeignes, have
since experimented on the line thus suggested,
and have satisfied themselves that these animals
can become the hosts for months of the tubercle
bacillus, which loses none of its virulence by its
change of abode. It is thus possible that earth-
worms— so universal and so active— may become
the means of spreading one of the most terrible
scourges of mankind. The work of these experi-
menters has a further interest in being the first
recorded demonstration of the “tubercularization”
of an invertebrate.
The Tunisian Locust Plague.
Some interesting notes bearing on this subject
appear in the current number of the “Garner.55 in
the course of which the writer informs us that
Acridium peregrinum. is the name of the locust
which invaded Tunis last year. The eggs hatch
in from 25 to 40 days. For the first 5 days after
being hatched the larval locusts are collected in
large masses on bushes and plants; they are then
easily destroyed by crushing or burning. They
are at first grey then black, and then greenish. On
the sixth or seventh day after being hatched the
immature locusts commence assembling for their
migratory march. They are only able to crawl in
this stage of their existence, and at first progress
at the rate of about 60 yards an hour; subsequen-
tly they march at a more rapid rate.
This crawling stage lasts for from 45 to 50 days,
and then the immature locusts turn reddish, and
attaching themselves to leaves assume their full
metamorphosis.
In the past year the locusts first appeared in
February flying from the south in a northerly direc-
tion. In April they reached the agricultural dis-
trict in the vicinity of Susa where they settled in
enormous numbers, depositing their eggs among
the olive plantations where the ground was parti-
cularly favourable for the purpose. On the thir-
teenth of April the locusts took to wing again and
went across the large cultivated plains of the
Engida, in Kaurwan, and then on to the wooded
and rock}?- hills of Zaghoum where the largest egg
deposit took place.
In May they were on the rice plains to the north
of Zaghoum, and the environs of Tunis and Bjesta
were invaded by large flights wfliich left consider-
able deposits of eggs.
The Government granted £ 4,166 to defray the
expenses of their destruction. The method found
most effective was drawing screens made of cotton
texture bordered by oilcloth across the line of
march, and twenty-five miles of those screens were
used and by their means the streams of young
locusts were diverted into trenches dug for their
reception lined with zinc, out of which they were
unable to crawd. A mixture of sixty parts of
creosote oil to forty of water was used for asphyx-
iating them, and was found the most effective for
the purpose.
In dealing with the mature swarms the beating
of tin cans by a regiment of soldiers was found an
effective way of scaring them from the crops.
Samos. Its Fossils and then' Age.
Mr. 0. E. Forsyth-Major gives us some interest-
ing notes bearing on the history of the prehistoric
Mediterranean in his paper, “Sur l’age de la faune
de Samos,” which was published in November
last in the “ Compiles rendus hebdom de FA cud.
dcs Sciences CXIII. p. 708. The author there
informs us that of 43 species of mammals found
in Samos, 25 are found in Pikermi, 7 in Baltavar,
7 at Mt. Lerberon, and 13 at Maragka. From
168
* THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
this lie concludes that the strata of these islands
are of the same age. The fauna car be traced
over an area extending from Spain to Persia, and
it affords evidences of the former presence of con-
tinental areas in the Mediterranean. On the
question as to what division of time it belongs to,
geologists and paleontologists are not agreed, for
while some would assign it to a period interme-
diate to the Miocene and Pliocene, others strongly
support the view that it belongs strictly to the
Pliocene.
F uchs states that the marine shells of Raphina
are of the same age as the bones of Pikermi
among which they are found., and therefore he
does not consider that there is any need to have
recourse to a later period.
The general opinion that the upper fauna of
Siwalikwas contemporaneous with that of Pikermi
has done much towards causing it to be considered
as being of Pliocene age. To the author, however,
it seems evident that it was even more recent
than that and in support of his contention he
mentions among other things the fact that the
two faunas have not a single species in common.
The following is a list of the remarkable fauna
discovered by the anther in the island.
Carnivore
Machairodus. sp. Felis neas . Major.
Lycyaena Cheer etis. Hens.
Hycena exirnia. Roth.
Ictiiherium Orbignyi. Gaud.
„ robustum. Gaud.
„ hipparionum Gaud.
Mustela palceattica. Weith
Promephitis Larteii. Gaud.
Meles maraghanus. Kittl.
Giraphidis.
Samotherium Boissieri. Maj.
Palceotragus Rouenii. Gaud.
Helladotherium Davernoyi . Gaud.
Cervidi.
Bremotherium (?) Pentelici. Gaud.
Equidi.
Hipparion mediterraneum. Hens.
„ minus Paolow (?)
Ancilipodl
Chalicotherium Pentelici. Gaud,
Rosicanti
Acanthomys Gaudryi. Dames.
Remains of tortoises and of birds.
Antilopidi
Palceoryx Pallassii Gaud.
„ rotundicornis. Gaud.
Protoryx Carolines. Maj.
Protoryx longiceps. Maj.
„ gaudryi. Maj .
„ Ilippolite. Maj.
Helicophora rotund icprn is. YVeith.
Gazella desperdita. Gaud.
„ sp.
” . SP-
Prostrepsiceros Wooclwardii Mai.
„ < sp. t
Paloeoreas Lindermayeri. Gaud.
Tragoceras Valinciennesi. Gaud.
,, amaltheus. Gaud.
Criotherium Argalioide; Maj.
Capra sp.
Suidi.
Bus erimanthius. Roth, et Wagns.
Rinocerontidi.
Eh. chygnathus. Wagn.
Eh. Schleiermacheri. Ivaup (?).
Proboscidiani.
Mastodon Pentelici. Gaud, and Lart.
„ Turicensis Schinz.
Dinotherium sp (?)
The Meteorology of the Maltese Islands.
The geographical position of Malta, and the
transluscence of its atmosphere for the greater part
of the year render the island specially suitable as a
station for observing and registering the meteoro-
logical phenomena of the Central Mediterranean.
Prior to the establishment of the observatory at
St. Ignatius College, St. Julians, no attempts seem
to have been made to carry on a regular and syste-
matic series of observations, and science is therefore
greatly indebtacl to the Jesuit Fathers under
whose direction the observatory was originated
and is now being maintained for the very valuable
results that are daily recorded in their College
observatory.
From the summary of the observations made by
the Rev. J. Scoles, S. J. during the year 1891 wTe
extract the following interesting items.
The highest temperature was recorded on the
8th. of June when the thermometers indicated a
temperature of 155'7° Fah. in the sun; while the
lowest reading taken on the 25th. of January was
32 5° Fah. On the same day the standing water on
the Marsa was frozen over, and on the 19th. of
January snow, (not hail nor sleet) fell at ISTotabile
and Dingli for a period of 8 hours. January 1891 was
the coldest month that had been experienced for
10 years. Thunderstorms pased on 13 days; lightn-
ing was seen on 20 days> and hail fell on 14 days,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
169
The variations in the range of the temperature
extended from 56° Fah. in January to82,5°Fah. in
August. No rain fell during the months of July
and August; and during May, June, July, August,
and September the total number of days upon
which rain fell was but 9, and then it averaged but
0T85 inches per month for the five months.
The greatest range of the thermometer was on
June 6th. when it was 35'9° Fah.
The total rainfall for the year was 17*2 inches a
result that closely approximated to the average
for the previous five years which is recorded as
being 17.6 inches. The total number of miles of
wind that passed over the islands also followed the
normal curve, 82,648 miles being indicated against
an average per year of 83,144 miles for the period
extending from 1886 — 1890.
The Maltse Fossil Echinoidea.
The Maltese Fossil Echinoidea and their evidence
on the corellation of the Maltese Rocks by J. W.
Gregory B.Sc., F.Z.S. of the British Museum
(Nat. Hist.), communicated to the Royal Society
of Edinburgh by Dr. John Murray.
In the year 1855 a paper on the Fossil Ec-hino-
derms of the Maltese Islands was written by Mr.
T. Wright and published in the Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist; and again in 1864 another paper on the
same subject was published in the Quart. Journ.
Geo. Soc. with additional notes by Dr. Leith
Adams.
The great progress that has been made of late
years in the study of the allied continental faunas
has rendered a revision of the Maltese Fossils
desirable and at the suggestion of Dr. John
Murray who visited the islands in 1889 — 1890,
Mr. J. W. Gregoryof the British Museum under-
took the work and has just published the result
of his investigations in a memoir bearing the
above title. From an examination of Dr. Wright’s
types, and of collections lent by Earl Ducie, Sir
A. Geikie, Dr. Woodward F.R.S. and Mr. J.H.
Cooke the author records 46 species in all, of
which. 23 are peculiar to the Maltese Islands, and
14 are new.
The following is a list of the new species, the
majority of which were found in the “ Cooke
Collection. ”
Species
"h
O
3
Up. Cor.
Limestone
CO
c
c3
CO
3
cu
CD
©
Clay
i
Clobigcrina
Limestone
g o
o g
o 3
s!
A r+
r' r+
0,3
i-3gl
Cidaris oligocenous
Greg
X
Echinus tortonicus
Greg
X
•
„ tongrianus
Greg
X
Heteroclypeus hemi-
sphmricus
Greg
X
X
„ subpentagonalis
Greg
X
Breynella equizonata
Greg
Echinolampas man-
zoni
Greg
X
„ posterolatus
Greg
X
Hemiaster vadosus
Greg
X
Pericomus corangui-
num
Greg
X
Brissus depressus
Greg
X
Metalia melitensis
Greg
X
Sarsella duncani
Greg
X
„ anteroalta
Greg
X
Though, this proportion of pecular forms is very
high, he assures us that all of them are distinct
species and that the differences between them and.
their nearest allies in the beds of the surrounding
areas, are well marked. The same feature is no-
ticeable in Corsica where, out of 45 species, 21 are
found in that island only, and again in Tuscany
where M. de Loriol found 8 new species, 2 only of
which are known to occur elsewhere. This loca-
lization of distinct species in such limited areas as
Malta, Tuscany, and Corsica the author considers
to be due to local subsidences by which basins
were formed that were separated from one another
by shallow waters.
The difficulties in the way of correlating the
Maltese beds he admits are great on account of
the distance at which the islands are situated
from the mainland, and owing to the want of
knowledge of the island invertebrata for, with
the exception of the echinoidea and the foramini-
fera, little or nothing has yet been done in this
direction. He does not accept Dr. Wright’s evi-
dence as many specimens from Egypt and Sicily
seem to have been incorporated in the Maltese
collection, and many errors in specific determina-
tions and geologic horizons have necessarily arisen,
A table showing the sequence of the Maltese
Rocks is then given, (see Med: Nat: No. 6 1891),
and the evidences afforded by the Echinoids are
summed up.
Comparisons are drawn between the Maltese
rocks and those of the Tongrian division of the
Calabrian formations, and similar deposits in
France.
The characteristic urchin of the Tongrian is
Scutella striatula. Marc, de Serr. and specimens
of this species are found in enormous quantities
in the upper division of the Malta Lower Coralline
Limestone. Echinus tongrianus. Greg, which is
170
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
also abundant in the Malta bed has for its allies E.
biarritzensis , Cont. from the Tongrian of the
Calcaire a Asteries in the south of France, and the
Vincentin beds. The conclusion, therefore, that
he arrives at is that the Malta Lower Limestone
is certainly of Oligocene age, and most probably
Tongrian/ The occurrence of considerable quan-
tities of Clypeasier altus , and its numerous varieties
C. pyra mulct l is , C . portentosus, C. alticostatus , C.
turritus, and G. tauricus (? J, and the equal abun-
dance C, marginatus established beyond a doubt
the synchronism existing between this formation
and the Helvetian stage of the Calabrian of
Sicily. The Upper Coralline Limestone may, with
equal certainty be assigned to the Tortonian both
on account of its superposition to the “Green-
sands” as well as owing to the similarity that exists
between the fossils found in it with those found
by Herr Fuchs in the Leith-Kalk of the vienna
Basin.
The Giobigerina Limestone and the Blue Clays
would then obviously belong to the Aquitanian.
In corellating them with this stage several
difficulties have to be overcome. For instance, we
are told that in the Aquitanian of Reggio although
the same genera of echinoids occur such as
Pericosmus , Spatangus, Sarseila , etc., yet not a
single one of the Maltese species is to be found.
Between the Zone a Pecten bonifaciensis of the
Aquitanian stage of Corsica, and the Sclilier of
Vienna differences also exist: but on the whole
the resemblances to the Maltese fauna are more
marked in these than they are in the Sicilian beds.
From a consideration of the dual affinities that
the Giobigerina fauna bear to the two groups of
species found in these beds, and which have the
characters of faunas of different depths the author
concludes that the equivalents of the Malta beds
stand thus: —
Not the least interesting part of this ’memoir is
the summary of the evidences that the echinoids
afford us for correlating the Malta beds with those
of the mainland.
He points out that the Miocene deposits of the
Mediterranean have been classified upon, two dif-
ferent principles, the most generally accepted
of which is that of Prof Suss who showed that
the Vienna sands and limestone are shallow water
beds, and that they are separated by a deep water
deposit. To the former he gave the name “Medi-
terranean Stufen,” and the intermediate bed he
called the “Schlier,” His classification has been
applied to the rocks in the greater part of the
eastern Mediterranean.
Herr Fuchs the Vienna geologist is a strong
supporter of Siiss’s classification, and he has shown
that it can be applied over an area extending to
Greece, Asia Minor, Malta, and Northern Africa.
Fuch’s views are borne out by the researches of
Karrer in the Vienna Basin, Manzoni in Italy, and
Mazzetta in Romagna. His conclusions are that the
Leith-Kalk is the littoral representative of the
Badner Tegel, that the Schlier along the Appenines
is the deep sea continuation of the Molassa Mar-
mosa and the Molasse Serpentinosa, and that the
Astian in Sicily is the shore deposit of the Zanclean.
Amid the Mediterranean Miocene he has there-
fore, worked out the same principles which Prof.
Lampworth had applied with such brilliant results
to the southern uplands of Scotland.
Herr Fuch’s labours were confined to the Central
Mediterranean. Andrusov applied the same prin-
ciples to the eastern portion, and to the Crimea.
In the “Black Clay with Meleta” he found Pecten
denudatus and other fossils characteristic of the
“Schlier,” and in the overlying limestone he recog-
nised a stratum corresponding to the “Med iterran
Stiffen.” Prof. Suss afterwards summarized these
results in his essay on the “Mittelmeer,” and Prof
Neumayer also gave a sketch on the same subject.
In the western Mediterranean Siiss’s system has
not met with such a ready acceptance.
The classification worked out by Professor C.
Mayer in Liguria has there been adopted and has
been applied, in France, Spain, and Algeria: and
even in the Vienna Basin it has supporters. Fuchs
showed that the Maltese rocks agreed with the
Austrian series, but Mr. Gregory in inclined to go
but a portion of the way with him, for as the Malte-
se area was situated on the border-line between the
two areas the strata therefore assume two diffe-
rent sets of characters, some of which agree with
the characters of the one half and some with
those of the other.
The occurence in the Malta beds of two groups
of echinoderms so widely different in their habits
and characters he attributes to the fact that the
Maltese area was then situated on the border line
which divided the Mediterranean into two parts,
each of which greatly differed from the other in its
physical aspects and conditions. The alternate eleva-
tions and despressions to which the Maltese area
was subjected led to corresponding changes in the
fauna; the shallow water forms from the northwest
Corsica.
Malta.
Vienna Basin.
Series.
Zone a Pecten bonifaciensis
J Lower Giobigerina Limestone
Sotzka Schichten
Aquitanian
< Upper „ „ j
(Horner „ j
Langhian
Zone a Pecten cristatus
Blue Clay f
t Schlier i
Zone h Cerites et Pleurotomes
Greensand
Grund. Schichten
Helvetian
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
71
thus became intermixed with the deep-water forms
that migrated from the eastern basin, and when
the elevation became permanent the deep water
forms finally left the Maltese area for the Adriatic
and left the shallow water ones in undisputed pos-
session.
The memoir has two plates appended containing
illustrations of 10 of the new species that Mr.
Gregory has added to the Maltese Echinoidea.
Mummy Wheat.
The land of the Pharohs is still a wonderland to
western civilization, and the many archeological
discoveries that have been made of late have still
further served to increase the veneration with which
it is regarded. Any relic, from a fragment of one of
the pyramids tothe skull of a mummy cat, or indeed
one of the fossil Pharohs themselves is eagerly
sought after and carefully cherished by the fortu
nate finder. Considering, therefore, the great
demand that there is for relics of this description it
is no wonder that when the legitimate supply fails
to meet the demands of the market, that illegiti-
mate means should be employed to supply the
deficiency. Of these frauds the so called Egyptian
mummy wheat is perhaps one of the most bare
faced of the many impostures that are practised on
the unwary Nilian traveller.
Prof. Henslow gave an interesting article on the
subject in Nature Notes 1890 and now Mr. Car-
ruthes f.r.s, has delivered a lecture on the same
subject in the course of which he tells us that the
extreme life of a grain of wheat was twelve years
He had tested this by experiments, and many
others had done the same, so it was quite certain
that they could not grow a seed of wheat after
this period had elapsed Of course, this
cut at the root of all stories about mummy wheat.
It was quite certain, as had been clearly establish-
ed again, that no seed which was buried with the
mummy at the time it was put in the coffin had
ever germinated. It was not only the examination
of the seed that would establish that; experiments
had been made to show that this was not the case.
He himself had examined a large number of seeds
in the British Museum, taken from mummies,
and they were all in the same condition that the
mummy itself was in. It would be impossible to
stretch out the arm of a mummy, because the
whole of the muscle was entirely burnt up by the
oxygen, and it was completely rigid. It was so
with the whole of those grains of wheat, and flax,
and various other seeds that were preserved — they
were in the same condition. They had been sub-
ject to the slow burning action of the oxygen, and
the whole of their vitality had disappeared. With
regard to what was known as mummy wheat, it
was only a form of corn that was still extensively
cultivated on the southern shores of the Mediter-
ranean, and was easily obtained from Arabs and
others, who were always ready to impose upon
travellers, who brought it home, as true mummy
wheat.
NOTES AND NEWS.
A method of purifying water invented by Dr.
Wm. Anderson, and successfully used at Antwerp,
consists in passing the water through a revolving
cylinder containing metallic iron in the form of
scraps or filings.
We have much pleasure in acknowledging the
receipt of a copy of the address which was deliver-
ed by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe, ll.d., f.l.s. before
the second international Ornithological Congress.
Tunis is being rapidly developed. The exploita-
tions that have lately been made have resulted in
the discovery of metalliferous deposits of consider-
able extent. Lead, zinc, and iron are the most abun-
dant and already four lead mines, and one iron
mine are at work. Silver, quicksilver, and copper
have also been found in veins, and gold is found,
in the sands of several of the rivers.
Sawdust is one of the last things that we should
have anticipated being utilized in the construction
of our dwellings. Engineer however informs us
that a German firm has perfected a plan whereby
sawdust may be made into bricks of extreme hard-
ness and durability. The sawdust is mixed with
acid, and afterwards moulded and compressed. The
material thus prepared is practicably non-com-
bustible.
La mpedusa . — Err a turn G orrige .
In the article on Pantelleria inserted in the
December number of the Mediterranean Natura-
list, I must apologize for having made an erro-
neous statement in saying that Lampedusa is a
volcanic island , whereas it consists exclusively of
Upper tertiary sedimentary rocks. The error wili
be found in Gatto’s book: E Italia: suoi Vulcan i
e Terremoti. I did not discover the mistake in
time, but seeing the Scientific importance of this
journal, in order not to propagate error, I
172
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
should feel much indebted if suscribers would
kindly strike their pens through the two words:
and Lampedusa (page 95, Column 1, line 36.)
T. Jeuvis.
Alluding to the rapid rate at which the sparrow
propagates its species a correspondent in Nature
Notes informs us that a short time ago the autho-
rities of a western city imported 5 sparrows to rid
the cotton plantations of the caterpillar plague,
and that in the course of three years their progeny
had increased to five millions.
According to a recent consular report there
are no minerals or metals of any consequence
at present mined in Pomerania, with the excep-
tion of small quantities of ironstone and a little
salt. Lime is found on the Dicvenow River,
and the Island of Riigen has inexhaustible beds of
chalk. Brown-coal pits have been opened at Po-
de.juch, on the northern edge of the Bahn plateau;
in the Valley of the Oder at Bahlow, Trampke,
and in the western part of the lake district; and
on the shores of the Baltic at Zaskenzien, in the
district of Lauenburg.
One of the finest climates in the world is that
of Tunis. Its air is pure, serene, and wholesome,
the thermometer ranging in general from about
45° to 87° Fah. with an average mean temperature
of 68' 5°. With rare exceptions the revolutions of
weather range between are 29'10 and 30'30 inches.
The cloudless skies that sometimes last for weeks
together are often wearisome enough to the regu-
lar resident and give much point to the little
anecdote which the late Admiral Smyth relates of
Captain Fothergill. This eccentric officer was
returning from India, where he had served for
years. Coming on deck when the vessel was enter-
ing the English Channel on a foggy November
morning, he turned to the lieutenant of the watch
and exclaimed. “Hah ! this is what I call some-
thing like.
None of your cursed eternal blue skies here,— -a
fellow can see his own breath now.”
Apropos of sunshine, the sunshine recording
instrument at St. Julians, Malta has registered
(reckoning a completely over cast sky as 10) 3'9 as
the average mean amount of cloud in Malta for
1891. That is to say that the inhabitants have en-
joyed 61 per cent of the highest possible amount of
sun-shine. The average for the previous 5 years
was 66 per cent, and in no single month has it’been
less than 40 per cent. What a contrast is not this
to the results recorded at the Observatory at Bun-
hillrow, London.
No sunshine was registered in either December,
1884, January, 1885, or December, 1890. Green-
wich only secures 25 per cent of the total duration,
while Kew Observatory has but 28 per cent.
From observations of the displacement of the
j lines of the solar spectrum, Prof. Duner, a Swedish
astronomer, has been able to measure the rapidity
of rotation of the sun with an exactness hitherto
unknown. He finds that that part of the surface
travels round the axis at the rate of a little more
than a mile a second, the solar day at the equator
being equal to 25 days and 12 hours of our reckon-
ing. A remarkable fact possible only with bodies
having a movable and gaseous surface — is that the
rotation varies in different parts of the sun, dimi-
nishing regularly from the equator toward the
poles. Near the poles it requires about 46 of our
days.
Books etc. received.
11 Sid Granite dell I sola del Giglio ” by Prof. R.
Meli, Rome.
“Elenco Bibliografico dell? pint, important i pub-
blicazioni dei manufatti e specialmente delleterre
cotte ” by Prof. R. Meli, Rome.
UA review of recent attempts to classify Birds”
by R, Bowcller Sharpe l.l.d., f.l.s. etc.
^ “ The Canadian Record of Science” Vol IV. No. 8.
“ Sopra La fauna del cost detto “ Schlier ” nel Bo-
lognese e neU Anconitano by Dott. Vittorio Simo-
nelli, Pisa.
“ The Maltese Fossil Echinoiclea and their evi-
dence on the correlation of the Maltese RocksX ol.
XXXVI. part HI. No. 22 Proc: Roy: Soc: by J. W.
Gregory B.Sc., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
u Scientific American ” March 1892, NewT York.
“ Mining and Engineering News' ; March 1892.
New York.
“ Neptunia ” by Dott. D. Levi Morenos, Venice.
uRivista Italian a di Scienze Natural t’ March
1892 by Sigisraondo Brogi, Siena.
“ Bollettino dei Musei di Zoologial della R. Uni-
versity di Torino. Vol. VI. Nos. 94-111.
uThe Naturalise by W. Denison Roebuck F.L.S.
March 1892.
“ The Channel Islands ” by Dr. Lorenzo G. Yates
F.L.S., F.G.S.A.
“ Rassegna delle Scienze Geologiche in Italia ” by
Messrs. M. Cermenati, and A. Tellini. Dec. 1891.
Rome.
“The Nautilus ” by H.A. Pilsbry, Philadelphia.
A monthly devoted to the interests of conchologists,
One dollar per year.
“i The Canadian Record of Science ” Vol. Nos.
1 to 8.
“ Results of Meteorological and Magnetical Obser-
vations for the year 1891. Stonyhurst College
Observatory.
Editor. J. H. Cooke. B.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
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1 Corsica— Sir. R, Lambert Playfair, K.C.M.G. 141
2 The Fossil Whale from Citth Vecchia— Prof. Van.
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3 Lampedusa, and its sponge Fisheries— John H.
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4 The Poppy and its Cultivation. 143
5 Mediterranean Lepidoptera— Phil. de la Garde R.N. 147
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Contents" April.
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2 Deep sea explorations in the Mediterranean 159
3 Diseases of the Malta Orange— Prof. T. Toggetti 160
4 Theories of Mountain Formation— T. Ivlcllard
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6 Disappearance of Spondylus goed&ropvs from Mal-
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11 The Maltese Fossil Ecliinoidea.
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Vol. L, No. 12. MALTA, MAY 1st. 1892.
I
CONTENTS.
— ►<>— Page
1 Diseases of the Malta Orange— C. Tagliaferro. 173
2 Fish Remains in the Upper Limestone of Malta—
J. H. C. 176
3 Maltese Mosses. 176
4 Estivation. 176
5 Notes on Stereodon Melitensis— John H. Cooke. 176
6 Some Strange Plants. 177
7 The New Star. 178
8 Wind-action in Egypt— W. M. Flinders Petrie. 178
9 Exploration in the Black Sea. 181
10 Notes and News:— Meeting of the Botanical Society
of France — Attacks of Mosquito— Famine in Rus-
sia—The horse and its modifications— Strength of
molluscs— Colours of the Mediterranean— Miss
E. A. Omerod— “Silver Thaw1’ -A remarkable ca-
talogue—etc. etc. 181
11 Notes on Books, etc. 181
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Diseases of the Malta Orange.
Introduction: — The insects with two membra-
nous wings known as Dipterans oi?3F to tho
study of the Naturalist various families with a
prodigious number of species many or which
infest man in his dwelling, such as mosquitoes and
hies, while others torment domestic animals as
the tick which is found on sheep and cows and the
gadfly on cattle.
Several of these insects are likewise pernicious
to the vegetable kingdom, consuming loaves,
flowers, and fruits.
The peach, cherry, and olive, besides other trees
are specially attacked by flies, the larvae of which
devour their fruits; thus proving very detrimental
to the cultivators of fruit-trees.
The orange trees, especially the mandarines are
attacked by a lively, small fly known to EooIcgisU
for the last sixty-three years. This £j seems to
have first visited this Island about fifteen year.;
ago, since which time, it has gradually increased
in number causing damages which during the last
three years have become most serious.
This insect belongs to the “Ceratitis” as clas-
sified by McLeay in the year 1829.
Men who claim the right of priority call this
species “Ceratitis Capitafa”. Wiedmann, a few
years before, described the same Diptera as
“Tephritis Capitata” — however the insect still
continues to the knowarby English entomologists
as “Ceratitis Citriperda” — as thus designated by
McLeay.
This species has for a long time been confused
with the “Ceratitis Qispanica” which is found on
the coast of the Mediterranean. But notwith-
standing its being looked upon by some as a
variety of the same it is still an entirely different
species
With a view of studying the biology of this
Diptera, the late Sir Henry Torrens named a
Committee, in 1889 under the presidency of the
174
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
late Major General Hales Wilkie, who having
made inquiries and studied the metamorphosis of
the insects, and placed himself in communication
with distinguished foreign professors, deemed it
his duty to make known to the public what he
and the Committee learnt relative to the insect in
question from both a technical and practical point
of view.
Biology: — The fly presents a sexual dimorphism
which consists in the male having two clubshaped
projections on the forehead.
It is very lively and hardy, so much so, that when
kept without food under a glass shade it main-
tained its energy for twelve days. The female flies
perforate the rind of fruits and deposit their eggs
therein, from which in a few days appear the
larvae, these destroying the pulp of the fruit causes
it to fall to the ground where it soon decays.
The spot perforated is indicated by a dark
stain, in the centre of which may be observed a
small hole, this admits the air necessary for the
respiration of the larvae and through it the latter
pass out when they cannot find other ways. These
openings in the fruit cause it to rot.
The female insect prefers to lay its eggs on the
side of the fruit most exposed to the sun because
these insects display their fullest energy under
the influence of the direct rays of the sun.
The larvae form their cocoons under ground but
one of the members of the Committee, Mr. Alfonso
Micallef, has observed in his garden cocoons in
the chinks of walls. This shows that the larvae
go there to undergo the metamorphosis in
chrysalis.
We have not been able so far to ascertain how
many generations are produced during the year
but it is certainly more than one.
The wings of this insect 'are semi-transparent
with about sixteen brown and yellowish spots. Its
claws are yellow, the head is of various colours,
the breast speckled and the belly dark yellow.
We have thought proper to give this brief descrip-
tion in order to refer the reader to that of the
renowned Professor Penzig of Genoa at page 472
of his work entitled — “Studi Bottanici sugli
agrumi e sulle piante affini.” — Roma Tipografia
Eredi Botra 1887.
Means proposed by the Professors cov suited and
by the Committee .
In order to rid gardens of this destructive
insect which not only consumes acid fruits but
also peaches, medlars etc: — at present scarce in
the market on account of this insect, it was pro-
posed by some to gather the infected fruit and
destroy it by burning. But Major General Hales
Wilkie suggested a plan which he himself had
tried in his own garden. This consists of
collecting all fallen fruit before the maggots had
time to come forth and bury themselves in the
soil, and placing it in tanks of water, where a
mash might be made that afterwards might be
utilized as manure.
The placing the fruit thus pounded in a pit dug
in the garden and covering it with quick lime is
highly recommended. The caustic property of
the quick lime kills the larvae.
The President had each fruit wrapped in a
muslin bag which was also found to be most
efficacious.
The celebrated Professor G. Canestrini of the
University of Padova favoured us with a letter
in which this zoologist expressed a hope that the
Dipterans in question, following natural laws,
after having appeared in such large swarms will
begin gradually to decrease in number to such a
degree as ultimately to inflict no appreciable
damage to harvests. Notwithstanding this how-
ever, the writer recommends prompt action to
be taken against such a pernicious insect.
We publish herewith a letter from Professor
Penzig who refers to a work from which we quote
the following remarks for public information.
Istituto Bottanico.
della R. University di Genova.
23, April 1889.
I have much pleasure in acknowledging the
receipt of your letter of the 19th inst, and in
reply I beg to inform you that the insects that
you sent me were Halterophona Hispanica.
Rondani Ceratitis hispanica. De Breme), a species
that is very similar to H. capitata. Rondani.
{Ceratitis citriperda. Me Leay). In the few pages
that I have enclosed with my letter and which
are taken from my work, “Studi botanici sugli
agrumi e sulle piante afini” Roma 1887 you. wall
find some detailed observations on life and habits
of this insect Page 473-477 which will I think be of
great interest to the Commission. I would specially
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
recommend the perusal of pages 475, 476 & 477 in
which suggestions are given as to the best methods
of destroying this pest. I do not doubt but that,
if the measures that are proposed be vigorously
adopted, the island will in a short time be rid of
the pernicious presence of the Haterophora .
At present I have nothing to add to the sugges-
tions that I have made in those pages, for expe-
rience has taught me that they are the best.
Should you require any furthur information, I
shall be at your service.
Yours truly
Prof. C. Penzig.
The injuries caused by “Haterophora Hispanica”
are sufficiently serious to make it important to
ascertain a means of thwarting the invasion of
such an unwelcome guest and it ought not be
difficult to place an obstacle in the way of its
excessive diffusion. It would suffice to apply
vigorously and on a large scale the following
treatment.
It is obvious that the stage during which we
can most easily seize this fatal insect is that of
the larval.
The developed insect with its wings and activity
can easily evade our persecution.
The pupae hidden in the ground are still more
difficult to find, but the larvae can easily be caught
during the stage of their development in the
fruit. In the regions infested by the “Halterop-
hora” or “ Ceratitis Citriperda ” it would be xieces-
sary for all owners ancl cultivators to send every
morning boys or women to gather in sacks all
the fallen fruit whether it shows or not the spots
characteristic of the fly, and that the fruit thus
gathered should be destroyed in the most radical
and economical way possible.
It has been proposed by some to burn it, but this
operation besides being awkward on account of
the quantity of water stored in the pulp of the
fruit, also involves the total loss of the same.
There are two means of destruction equally effi-
cacious which allow of the utilization of the
rotten fruit.
The first of these methods only applicable in
regions where there is plenty of water would be to
throw all fruit gathered into a special tank filled
1 / o
with water. The larvae would undoubtedly perish
and the mash formed, after the lapse of some time,
from the fruit in the water would make very good
manure. It would however be necessary to watch
carefully that the water level be constantly main-
tained somewhat above the fruits, because should
any of the latter be above the water the place
destined for the destruction of the larvae would
be turned into a great expository for the insect.
The other method is perhaps more rational
and easier to carry out.
The damaged fruit should be collected in deep
square pits excavated in the soil, the bottom and
sides of which should be coated with caustic lime
and as the fruit is gradually deposited in them
covered with a layer of quick lime; when the pit
is filled up it must be finally covered with a last
layer of lime and earth. The buried fruit in due
course decays, and the contents of the pits form a
rich accumulation of fertilizing substances of no
little value to agriculture,
Twro things should however be observed if the
desired effect is to be realized.
First, the collection of the fruit should not be
limited to the acid species, such as oranges and
lemons, but should be extended to peaches, pears,
apples, nectarines etc attacked by the “ Ceratitis
Citriperda” .
Secondly, it would be necessary for all cultiva-
tors to adopt the same treatment, since should a
single orchard or fruit grove infested by this insect,
be unattended to, it would immediately become
the centre of constant infection to all the neigh-
bouring gardens, and all the labour bestowred on
the others would be thus thrown away.
Many methods prescribed by various authors
were tried as well as others suggested by some of
the members of the Committee, especially by the
late President who spared no pains to find an eco-
nomical remedy of destroying this pest. Of the
methods suggested, some proved useful in banishing
these insects from the trees, but they were not easy
to carry out, and people did not care to apply them
because they involved some expense.
C. Tagliafeero.
Secretary to the Commission.
170
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
Fish remains in the Upper Limestone
of Malta.
Fish, remains in the Upper Coralline Limestone
of the Maltese Islands are considered by many
geological observers to be non-existent. There is
no doubt but that they are very rare, and therefore
when specimens are found the discovery is worth
recording. While engaged on this formation in the
vicinity of Miggiar Elma last week I was fortunate
enough to find embedded in division b. a fragment
of a fish bone, genus and species indeterminable,
which measured 5j inches long, 2f inch in width
and from | to f of an inch in thickness.
J. H. C.
Maltese Mosses.
To Prof. Sicken berger’s list of Maltese mosses
we may add a short reference to our Moss Flora
which appeared in Malpighia Yol. IV., fasc. V-YI,
1890 — under the name of — “Note cii Briologici
Italiana per Ugo Brizi
Of the six species here mentioned as received
by Prof. Pirotta from Mr. Alfred Caruana Gatto
the following must be added to Prof. Sicken-
berger’s list: — •
Eurhyn chium circinatum Schimh Bryum cirgen-
teum L . var. hirtellum Be Not of Tortilla, muralis
Hedw . Var. aestiva Paul de Beauu. Pleurochaete
squarrosa Brid .
Estivation.
A rarer and even more curious phenomenon
than hibernation, or winter sleep, is the estivation,
or torpidit}^ during the dry season, of certain
animals. As one of the mammals which is most
sensitive to heat and dryness, M. L. Cuonot
mentions the tanrec, of Madagascar, an insect-
eating creature resembling the hedgehog. It is
very active during the rainy season, but lies
torpid in a shallow burrow for nearly six months
in the dry period. The most remarkable summer
sleepers, however, are found in the group of
dipnoids, intermediate between the batrachians
and fishes, and comprising at present but three
animals — theLepidosiren paradoxa of the affluen ts
of the Amazon, the Protopterus annectens of
Gambia and Senegal, and the Ceratodus Forsteri
of Australia. Their anatomical structure resembles
that of the fishes, and a bronchial apparatus allows
them to breathe in the water, while a pulmonary
apparatus enables them to absorb the oxygen of
of the air. A careful study of the Protopterus
shows that during the entire dry season, lasting
about nine months, it remains buried in the
dried-up mud at a depth of five feet, and is sur-
rounded by a sort of cocoon, which encloses it
hermetically. Air penetrates through a narrow
channel to the animal, which in this state breathes
not only through a lung-into which the swimming-
bladder is transformed- l$ut through its wide mem-
branous tail. On the return of the rainy season,
the dried mucus covering the animal dissolves, and
the creature straightens out from its doubled-up
position, and swims in the water for three months.
Notes on Stereodon Melitensis, Owen.
By John H. Cooke, F.G.S., etc.
In the year 1865 portions of the upper and lower
jaws of a large extinct fish that had been found
imbedded in the Globigerina Limestone (1) of Malta
were submitted by Dr. Leith Adams to Professor
Owen for identification. Adams had considered
them as being the remains of a crocodilian; but
| in a paper that appeared in the Geological Maga-
zine for April, 1865, (2) Owen pronounced them to
be the remains of a large extinct fish that belonged
to “the cycloid order, and having sauroid denti-
tion,” and lie proposed that “this fine addition to
Miocene Tertiary fishes” should be known by the
name of Stereodon Melitensis.
A portion of the bony skeleton of a fish of the
same species was also discovered in the same loca-
lity; but as it was not sent with the other speci-
mens, it has been neither figured nor described.
In the course of his paper Owen repeatedly
refers to it, and finally concludes by saying, “It is
much to be desired that the rest of the skeleton of
this extinct fish should be figured.” No attempt
(1 ) Bed IV. The “ Freestone ” of Spratt and
Adams.
(2) “ Stereodon Melitensis ,” Owen , Geol. Mag ,
April , 1865 ,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
177
lias, hitherto, been made to carry out this sugges-
tion, and as no record of this interesting specimen
exists, I have therefore visited the Malta Museum
wherein the fossil is now deposited, and have
obtained the following particulars relating to it.
The specimen is oblong in shape, and measures
22§ inches from the snout to the 10th dorsal ver-
tebra. It consists of a fragment of the head, and
a portion of the vertebral column, the latter of
which extends as far as the 10th dorsal.
The vertebrae are circular in shape, and they
form a continuous chain which curves slightly in
a downward direction. They are well ossified,
but, unfortunately, most of them have been badly
developed from the matrix, and their character-
istic features have thereby been obliterated. The
1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 5th are, however, in an excellent
state of preservation; and the 10th vertebra dis-
tinctly shows deep lateral pits longitudinally ex-
tended. Each vertebra is bi-concave, and its body
is somewhat depressed towards the middle. Com-
pared with the posterior diameter, the antero-
posterior diameter is much the shorter of the two.
Posterior diameter of the 6th dorsal vertebra...
l£ inches.
Antero-posterior of the 6th dorsal vertebra...
| of an inch.
Posterior diameter of the 10th dorsal vertebra...
of an inch.
Antero-posterior of the 10th dorsal vertebra...
§ of an inch.
The average diameter of the posterior extremi-
ties is If inches.
Above and below each of the vertebrae exhibits
a broad protuberance, which forms the base of a
long, sword-shaped spine, the flattened sides of
which lie in a plane with the vertebral column,
while the thin edges lie in the direction of the
articular facets. These spines are anchylosecl with
the neural and haemal arches of the vertebrae. They
average three inches in length, and half an inch in
width. The neural spines spring obliquely upwards
and backwards from the centrum, while those on
the haemal side spring obliquely downwards and
backwards, and gradually become shorter and
more slender as the caudal extremity is ap-
proached.
There are m traces of scales.
Considerable portions of the bones of the head
have been preserved in the limestone matrix, but
most of them are so crushed as to be quite unreco-
gnizable.
A fragment of the left branch of the lower jaw,
containing a tooth which is similar in every
respect to those that formed the subject of Prof.
Owen’s paper, is intact, and thus affords an oppor-
tunity for the comparison of the two fossils.
Geological Magazine.
Some Strange Plants.
The line between the vegetable and animal
kingdoms is very narrowly drawn. Indeed, as all
naturalists are aware, there are certain forms of
lowly life which it is difficult to assign to either
kingdom, presenting as they do features which,
taken singly, might cause the one to be identified
now with one and now with the other. But- even
in more highly developed forms there are instances
of plants whose carnivorous habits seem to suggest
some survival of a former animal instinct, or at
least some strange adaptation to circumstances of
a nature entirely opposed to those by which the
great bulk of plant life is affected.
The Liverpool Post contains a description of an
adventure that befel a naturalist who has recently
returned from Central America. This gentleman
after two years study of the botany of that region,
has brought with him a story which, if it be any-
thing more than a ‘‘traveller’s tale,” may well
make us thankful that the woods of our temperate
clime contain nothing more inimical to the inte-
grity of the human form than burrs and briars.
He tells of a strange plant which he found in
one of the swamps surrounding the Nicaragua
lake. While hunting for specimens he heard his
dog cry out, as if in agony, from a distance. Run-
ning to the spot whence the animal’s cries came,
Mr. Dunstan found him enveloped in a perfect
network of what seemed to be a fine, rope- like
tissue of roots and fibres. The plant or vine
seemed composed entirely of bare, interlacing
stems, resembling more than anything else the
branches of a weeping w illow denuded of its foliage,
but of a dark, nearly black hue, and covered with,
a thick, viscid gum that exuded from the pores.
Drawing h;s knife Mr. Dunstan attempted to cut
178
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
the poor beast free; but it was width the very
greatest difficulty that he managed to sever the
fleshy muscular fibres of the plant. When the clog
was extricated from the coils of the plant Mr.
Dunstan saw to his horror that its body was
bloodstained, while the skin appeared to be actual-
ly sucked or puckered in spots, and the animal
staggered as if from exhaustion. In cutting the
vine the twigs curled like living, sinuous fingers
1 .... n n 'slmn.! and it required -no slight
force to free the member from their clinging grasp,
which left the flesh red and blistered. The tree
it seems is well-known to the natives, who relate
many stories of its death-dealing powers Its
appetite is voracious and insatiable, and in five
minutes it will suck the nourishment from a largo
lump of meat, rejecting the carcase as a spider
does that of a used-up fly. Another strange plant
that has lately been discoved flourishes in masse <
resembling huge gray bowlders from five to ten feet,
across, covered with lichens and grass, are seen in
the lowlands of the Falkland Islands, and each
one, proves to be a single umbelliferous plant, a
specimen of balsam-bog (Bolax glebaria). These
have grown so slowly, and have been so compres-
sed in branching, that they are almost as hard as
the rocks they resemble. The circlets of the leaves
and leaf buds are seen as a tiny hexagonal, mark-
ings, terminating a multitude of stems, which
have been steadily grooving for centuries. The
plant emits a pleasant odor in the warm sunshine,
and the top exudes an astringent gum that is
prized by the shepherds.
The New Star.
Nothing in the heavens has a greater interest
for astronomers than the so-called “new stars,
that occasionally appear, because nothing bears
greater possibilities of new revelations concerning
the mysteries of the universe and of those un-
known depths of space toward which the human
mind ever turns in helpless wonder. The new
star now shining' in Auriga was first detected on
Jan. 31 — not by a professional astronomer, but by
a clergyman of Edinburgh. It has been photo-
graphed, however, af the Harvard Observatory
two months before its discovery. It seems to
have reached its maximum, as a star of the fifth
magnitude^ in February, indicating that it will
not long remain in view. During the observa-
tions already made, spectroscopists have found
evidence of a double spectrum, and that one
component body of the star must be receding from
the earth at the tremendous rate of 300 miles per
second, while the other is approaching. In a pe-
riod of 20 days, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer could
obtain no proof of a revolution of one body about
the other. He concluded, however, that the chan-
ges observed are exactly what would be expected
according to his hypothesis that new stars are
produced by collisions of meteor-swarms, the rapid
fading of the star demonstrating that small bodies
and not large ones are engaged. Other astrono-
mers look upon the star as a variable of long
period, which at minimum sinks to invisibility.
Wind-action in Egypt.
By W. M. Flinders Petrie (1).
Egypt is an especially favourable country for
studying certain causes of geographical and geolo-
gical change. The absence of all effective vegeta-
tion above the Nile level, enables any one to see the
surface conditions at a glance. The absence of
rain, except in occasional storms, leaves the wind
action in remarkable prominence, and allows us
also to see the effects of a different climate, now
long past. And the presence of dated monuments
throughout the country, extending farther back
in history than any other series of man;s works,
gives more precision to estimates of time than can
be obtained elsewhere. Though my own work has
been among the historical remains, yet many geo-
logical evidences have come before me, to which I
wish to draw attention in hope that some thorough
examination of so valuable a district may be made.
The Isthmus of Suez is an important tract both
for the connection of that sea with the Mediter-
ranean, aud also for the various events connected'
with that region.. But the evidences of change
there are more complicated than we might suppose;
upheaval, depression, and denudation all coming
into play. That the Delta as a whole is sinking at
( 1 ) Bead to the Geographical Section of the,
British Association^ Newcastle ,
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
about the rate at which the Nile deposits are
being piled upon it, seems certain. At Naukratis,
on the west side of the Delta, the rise of land by-
deposits has been 4h inches per century; and at
Tanis on the east side, and nearer to the coast,
the water level as shown by a well there has risen
4j inches per century, though the councry is now
barely above the sea. At Ismaliyeh in the middle
of the Isthmus of Suez, the land has, on the con-
trary, risen. The present lake there is necessarily
on the sea-level, as the canal opens into it; and 10
or 15 feet above the water may be seen a line of
thin fragile shells which seem probably to have
been formed near the water surface, and which
cannot have been exposed for long ages, to
judge by their condition. The same late date
of this elevation is also shown by the pottery
of a Roman village stopping short at the
level of the shells, and not extending down to
the present water. The position of this site is
W. N. W. of Tusun, at the spot marked Ru. in the
War Office map. The elevation of this region
accords with the historical evidence of the head of
the Red Sea having extended up to Ismalieh; as,
when it was 15 feet lower, the submerged region
would have been much larger than at present.
These changes of level are, however but a part
of the modifiying forces. The wind-action, which
is so strikingly seen in this region, is probably
quite as powerful a cause of changes as the eleva-
tion of the land. The most visible signs of such a
force are seen on the western side of Lake Xsmai-
liyeh. Here a high sand-dune forms the limit of
the lake, sloping down into it at the angle of rest,
and often obliging the traveller to walk in order
to pass the foot of the slope. At such points as
this it is evident that the lake must be rapidly
filled up and modified. But the historical evi-
dence shows that the whole hills have been swept
away from the surrounding country in the last two
thousand years. The Greek camp of Daphnse,
about 12 miles from Kantara on the Suez Canal,
and bordering on the marshes of Lake Menzaleh
of the Mediterranean coast, was surrounded by a
wall of crude brick about 40 feet thick, and over a
mile in circuit. In proportion to the thickness, j
and to other such Egyptian town-walls, the height |
was certainly 30 feet, and probably more. Yet
the whole of this mass of hard mud brick has i
179
been so utterly swept away by the wind that only
the buried foundation remains. Rain has had no
share in the actual removal of the clay, as there is
no wash from the wall upon the ground on either
side. The whole mass, at least 40 feet by 30 in
section, has been carried away and deposited eise-
wdiere by the wind alone.
The above is not an isolated case. Some 15
miles to the west is the ancient cemetery of Tell
Nebesheh. The tombs have been buit of mud
brick in a large rise of sandy ground, such as is
often seen in the mud flats of the Delta. These
tombs were subterranean chambers about six feet
high, with well-shafts leading to them. But only
two or three now exist entire, sufficient to explain
the remains of the others. In most cases the
chamber has been nearly removed by the wind-
denudation of the whole hill. This shows that
about eight feet, or more, of soil has been carried
away in 2600 years, or nearly four inches per cen-
tury. The wall of crude brick around the temple
at Tell Nebesheh, though 30 to 40 feet thick, has
oeen swept away by the wind like the wall of
Daphnre, down to the ground-level.
The question naturally arises, where has all the
material thus removed, been deposited? In a con-
tinuous desert the sand-dunes may march on slow-
ly for years, and the furious sand-storms drop
their burdens only to be picked up again in the
next gale. But in a district intersected by mar-
shes and lakes there is a perpetual trap for all
loose material, and whatever touches the w*et
surface never rises again. Hence all the water
will be continually rendered shallower by constant
filling up in high winds, and great extents of
sandy marsh and very shallow lakes will be formed.
This is precisely what we find the most promi-
nent feature of ail this region.
Subtracting then the effects of the causes which
we have seen to be at work, the deposit of the
Nile, the changes of level of land, and the denuda-
tion by the wind, we may form some idea of what
the appearance of the district must have been
some few thousand years ago, when the earliest
monuments of human occupation were erected.
At that time the eastern side of the Delta must
have been more like a part of the neighbouring
desert, with hills about 30 or 40 feet high; the Nile-
flowing down between them, and spreading ou^
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
180
into the side valleys, depositing the Nile mud as a j
level bottom across the valleys. Gradually the
deposits rose, the wind ploughed down the hills,
and laid the material in the water around, until
at present we only see the tops of the denuded
hills just appearing as patches and ridges of sand
amid an expanse of mud. Meanwhile the coast
sank, and the large region of Menzaleh was in
Arab times inundated by the sea, and lost to cul-
tivation. The Isthmus at the same time was
rising; until, by the general elevation, and the
masses of sand blown into the water, the head of
the Red Sea was broken up and formed only a
chain of half-choked saline lakes, through which
the Suez Canal now runs. But whether we turn
to the north coast or to the isthmus, we see that
the wind-action is probably a cause of change of
equal power with the deposits of the Nile or the
variations of level of the land.
So far we have only reviewed the changes of
the historical period; but up the Nile valley are
some of the most brilliant evidences of the enor-
mous climatic differences which rendered the
country in the prehistoric human period wholly
different from what it now is. That the land was
lowTer, and that the Nile ran into a long estuary,
in prehistoric times is usually granted. But there
is also no question that a great rainfall over all
the country swelled the volume of the river, so that
it far exceeded the present stream of even the
inundation. The problems yet to be solved are,
what was the limit of salt water, and the limits
of river and estuary? What was the volume of
the Nile? and what was the dare in chronology
and in civilisation when the present state of the
country was established? As illustrations in point
I would instance the following examples. The
enormous rainfall of the Nile valley is shown
by the cliffs at Thebes. There a narrow ridge of
limestone, a sort of wall, separates the vertical
cliffs at Deir el Bahri from the equal precipices at
the head of the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings.
This ridge cannot possibly have received surface
flow from either end — nor, being limited by cliffs
on either side — can more than the catchment of a
few hundred feet in width have ever poured over
the edges of this dividing wall. Yet the hard
limestone is grooved out into a row of wide
pipe-shaped grooves down either face, the breath
j and close order of which show the volume of
rain which must have poured down them. The
same story is shown equally plainly in the water-
courses which cut up the Nile cliffs into a fringe
of ridges divided by deep ravines. These ravines
are often a couple of miles in length, and a quarter
of a mile in width, cut down through two or three
hundred feet depth of rock by a waterfall, of
which the evidence remains in the precipitous
head of the ravine, the polished rock surfaces over
which the cascade has poured, and the deep
cauldron scooped out by the descending stream.
Yet the catchment basins of such eroding forces
are sometimes not over a few square miles in
area.
That such erosion took place during the period
of the high level of water in the valley, be
it fluvial or estuarine, is shown by the height
reached by the great banks of debris washed
out of the ravines, and piled up as a foreshore to
the cliffs next below those torrential valleys. This
is very finely seen at Beni Hasan. And it seems
most probable that the celebrated wash-beds at
Thebes, in which General Pitt Rivers — and later
myself — have found wrought flints, were also
deposited beneath the water, by the torrent from
the Valley of the Kings’ Tombs. It seems im-
probable to suppose a subaerial stream spreading
out its material in such a wide fan; rather we see,
both here and at Beni Hasan, how a subaerial
stream will, on the contrary, cut through such
broad beds of subaqueous deposit by deep subse-
quent ploughings. That the age of the high water
was within the human period, and that therefore
the Theban beds might be subaqueous, is proved
by the river-worn palaeolith of characteristic ap-
pearance, which I picked up hundreds of feet
above the present Nile on the desert cliffs of
Esneh.
I have now briefly shown what an interesting
ground for research still awaits the geographer
and geologist in Egypt; and how the conditions
of the country render certain problems far more
simple than they are in lands with continuous
rainfall. Let us hope that our present facilities
in Egypt may bring about some complete study of
the subjects on wdiich we have now7 touched.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
181
Exploration in the Black Sea.
Or December 16th Captain Spindler read
before the Russian Geographical Society a paper
on his deep-sea explorations in the Black Sea
during last summer. They were made, in May,
on board the war-sloop Donets , and in July, on
board another war-sloop the Zaporojets , to com-
plete the explorations of the previous year, and
to verify more closely the interesting results of
that year’s researches, In May, the soundings
were carried on in the north-western parts of the
Black Sea, and along lines crossing the sea from
Sebastopol to Sinope, to Constantinople, and to
Varna. In July, they were made partly along the
same line, and partly in the south-east and along
the coasts of Anatolia and Caucasia. No less
than 128 soundings, of which 58 were at great
depths, were made during these two cruises, and
at each spot the temperature, the density, and
the salinity of the water were measured. Sam-
ples of water taken from depths above 100
fathoms were chemically analysed. The time
between these two cruises was given to the explo-
ration of the Sea of Azov on board the schooner
Kazbek . The Soundings made in 1890. The 100
fathoms’ line lies close to the shores of both the
Crimea and Anatolia, and the axis of the greatest
depression has a direction from south-west to
north-east. The steepest coast was found at Rizo,
situated between Batoum and Trebizond, where the
angle of inclination attains 10°. The water of the
Black Sea begins to be warmed by the air in May,
and in August its temperature is higher than
that of the atmosphere. The variations of tempe-
rature at the surface liebetwen 77c and 43° to 41°
Fahr., while on the northern shore it is sometimes
cooled down to 32° Fahr. Below a depth of 200
fathoms the temperature is invariably 48°, this
high temperature being due entirely to the deep
current of warmer and salter water which flows
from the Mediterranean through the Bosphorus, as
fully appears from this year’s soundings. The
annual variations of temperature due to the seasons
do not penetrate deeper than 100 fathoms, this
depth may also be taken as the average inferior
limit of organic life, the deeper strata of water
being infected with sulphureted hydrogen. As to
the Sea of Azov, which has no depth more than
eight fathoms, its water is so thoroughly mixed
by each gale, that no difference could be detected
between the temperatures and densities at the
surface and at the bottom. The observations upon
currents fully confirmed the existence of a circular
current which flows from the Crimea to the north-
west, and then south in the western part of the
sea. As to the flora and fauna of the Black Sea,
Captain Spindler is of opinion that his observa-
tions fully confirm the opinion current among
many Russian explorers, namely, that formerly it
was a closed basin, which had a fresh-water fauna;
but that since the Bosphorus was pierced, and
gave access to salt water, this latter took posses-
sion of the greater depths, and compelled the
former fresh-water fauna to migrate to the mouths
of the rivers. But further biological exploration
is required — this one fact being, however, quite
certain, viz., that below the 100 fathoms’ lay:r
there is no organic life, because the water is so
much impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen.
Proc. E. Geog . Soc .
NOTES AND NEWS.
A meeting of the members of the Botanical So-
ciety of France was held at Biskra in Algeria a
fortnight ago.
M uch as the Mediterranean mosquito has to ans-
wer for, the effects of its attacks are mild compared
with those of the mosquito of Newfoundland and
Northern Asia.
The sting of the pests in these districts is suffi-
ciently powerful to perforate a leather glove.
A writer in Nature giving a resume of the reasons
adduced by Dr. A. Woeskof of St. Petersburgh to
account for the famine in Russia, attributes it
principally to drought from August to October
1890 which injured the winter crops ; to partial
and insufficient snow which melted early in the
Spring and was followed by frost in April; and
182
THE -MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
lastly to drought and hot winds from May to
July 1891. *
In the southern portion of the Government of
Samara the prospect up to June 10th was excel-
lent, but the harvest was destroyed by two days
of hot winds on June 14 and 15. And in the sou-
thern central provinces also where the winter
crops had greatly suffered, a moderate harvest was
hoped for after the middle of July, but four hot
days from July 13 to 16 quite destroyed the crops.
There are, says Prof. W. H Flower, at least
seven modifications of the horse type, at present
or very recently existing, sufficiently distinct to be
recognized as species by all zoologists. They are,
however, all so closely allied that each will, at least
in captivity, cross with perfect freedom with any
of the others. The two species which are, perhaps
the furthest removed in general structure, — the
horse and the ass — produce, as is well known,
mules, which excel both their progenitors in some
qualities useful to man.
An interesting addition to the Museum of the
Malta University has recently been received from
Mr. John H. Cooke. It consists of a suite of the
Maltese Fossil Echinoidea, similar to those that
have lately been presented by the same gentleman
to the British Museum and to the University of
Bologna.
A correspondent to Nature gives the following
interesting facts relating to the strength possessed
by certain animals. The shell-less limpet pulls 1984
times its own weight when in the air. and about
double when immersed in water. Fasting fleas on
an average pull 1493 times their own dead weight,
while the Mediterranean cockle Venus verrucosa
can exert a pulling power equal to 2071 times the
weight of its own body.
So great is the power possessed by the oyster
that to open it a force equal to 1319.5 times the
weight of its shell less body is required.
The colours of the waters of the Mediterranean
vary considerably at different seasons of the year
and in different localities. During storms and
boisterous weather it assumes a deep green and
sometimes a brownish tint, but when calm and
undisturbed it is of a bright, deep blue. In the
Bosphorus, and among the islands of the archipe-
lago it is of varying tints in some places being of a
liquid blue graduating into a brighter green, and
in others assuming a blue o deep in its intensity
as to almost approach a purple.
For more than 2000 years, a dressed stone con-
taining 12,922 cubic feet — being 71 by 13 feet in
size — has rested on pillars in a quarry at Baalbac,
in Syria. It was intended for the foundations of
the temple of the Sun, a mile or more distant, to
which four stones nearly as large were actually
transported.
Coal is mined in Turkey, in Heracleaand Kosiu,
both on the Black Sea, and about 100 miles from
Constantinople. The mines at Heraclea are con-
trolled by the Ottoman Government; the Kosiu
mines by a private firm, Kurtschi & Co. The coal
obtained is inferior in quality to the English
mineral, especially to the Cardiff and Newcastle
coal.
A writer in Nature informs us that in connec-
tion with the celebration of the fourth centenary
of the discovery of America by Columbus, the
Italian Botanical Society invites the attendance
of botanists of all countries at a Botanical Inter-
national Congress, to be held at Genoa, from the
4th to the 11th of September.
In addition to the meeting for sceientific purpo-
ses, there will be excursions on the shores of the
Mediterranean and in the Maritime Alps; aid
during the same time will also take place the inau-
guration of the New Botanical Institute built and
presented to the University of Genoa by the
munificence of Mr Thos Hanbury, of La Mortola,
and the opening of an exhibition of Horticulture.
All communications should be addressed to Prof.
Penzig, of the University of Genoa.
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
183
The British Naturalist for April contains a ca-
pital portrait and a short biographical sketch of
Miss Eleanor A. Omerod the celebrated entomo-
logist.
As an authoress Miss Omerod’s name is a house-
hold word in the agricultural countries of Europe,
America, and Africa; but in the Mediterranean
districts she is especially well known for her re-
searches into, and practical remedies for the extir-
pation of the insect pests that infest them. In
1889-1890 her services were called into requisition
by the late Major General Hales Wilkie the Pre-
sident of the Malta Orange Disease Commission.
Professor Loeffler of the University of Greifs-
wald has just arrived in Greece, to which country
he has been invited by the Hellenic Government,
to give his assistance in a scheme for stamping
out the present plague of mice in Greece by the
use of the mouse typhus bacillus, which he disco-
vered.
From Helsingfors comes an account of an ex-
traordinary archaeological find, consisting of a
chest containing a quantity of ironwork, and a
parchment giving a Latin treatise on steam as a
force. The pieces of iron form a rudimentary
steam engine, which must date from the first half
of the twelfth century.
“Silver thaw,” or rain falling when the air is
below freezing point and congealing as it falls,
has been the subject of considerable study at
Scotland's mountain observatory on Ben Nevis.
The phenomenon indicates an inversion of air
temperature at the time, the hill-top being consi-
derably cooler than higher atmospheric levels.
During the six years ending with 1890, no less
than 198 cases of silver thaw were observed, hav-
ing a mean duration of 4| hours. The phenomenon
is practically confined to the winter months, being
rare from April to October and unknown in July.
It occurs usualling during a light wind, fluctuating
barometric pressure, rising temperature, and sel-
dom when the thermometer stands below 27°. It
is very often followed by severe gales.
The British Museum authorities have just is-
sued the second volume of a remarkable catalogue,
says the London Standard . Stored in the drawers
and cases of the Museum are some 50,000 in-
scribed pieces of terra cotta or clay tablets, form-
ing the rescued portions of the great libraries of
Assyria and Babylon. The great impetus given to
cuneiforn studies during the last few years in
Germany and America, where they form part of
the curriculum for a degree in Semitic languages,
has made it necessary that the treasures of the
British Museum, the centre of Assyrian studies,
should be catalogued, and the trustees have now
issued these volumes, containing a descriptive
catalogue of some 8,000 inscribed tablets The
insciptions in question come from the Kuyuryik
Mound, on the site of ancient Nineveh, which
marked the ruins of the great palace and library
founded by Assurbanipal, or Sardanapalus, in
B. C. 650. The tablets embrace every class of
literature, historical documents, hymns, prayers
and educational works, such as syllabaries or spell-
ing books and dictionaries. One of the most
interesting sections it that of the omen tablets,
produced by the court augurs and diviners. They
saw omens in all things — the flight of birds, swal-
lows, pigeons, the coiling of snakes, the movements
of scorpions, the winds, the clouds, and, above all,
the stars. The catalogues have been prepared by
Dr. Carl Bezoid, are beautifully arranged, and
will tend to make the collections more accessible
to students, and, in time, better known to the ge-
neral public, who depend on specialists for the
unravelling of the learning and wisdom of Chaldea.
Of the many brilliant discoveries that the emi-
nent Swiss chemist Mr. Ludwig has made of late
the most remarkable is the process that he has
invented for the economical supply of steam motive
power by means of coal. He tells us that by burn-
ing 125 tons of coal at a cost of £31 and making
full use of it for steam raising purposes he can at
the same time secure by a simple process that he
has invented four tons of sulphate of ammonia
from the smoke produced by the combustion of the
coal. The market value of this product is estima-
ted at £ 48.
184
THE MEDITERRANEAN NATURALIST
In the course of an address to the Royal Meteo-
rological Society given by Dr. C. Theodore Wil-
liams on the value of meteorological instruments
in the selection of health resorts some interesting
references were made to the principal of the Medi-
terranean watering places.
In the majority of cases, we an told, the reputa-
tion of health resorts depends entirely upon their
position and the degree to which they are sheltered
from the mistral, or north-west wind. Alluding
particularly to the Riviera he showed three prin-
cipal causes of the warm //inters for which the
district is noted (1). Its southern latitude, (2) the
the protection from cold winds afforded, by the
mountain ranges, and (3) the equalizing and warm-
ing influences of the Mediterranean Sea which,
being practically tideless, is always equally potent
not varying with hour and season. The weak
points of the French climate with its biting Mis-
tral, its cold Bise, and enervating Scirocco were
each in turn touched upon; but he concluded by
pronouncing the Riviera winter climate as being,
on the whole, clear, bright, and dry and with a tem-
perature from 8° to 10° higher than England, with
half the number of rainy days and four to five
times the number of bright ones.
Notes on Books, etc.
The New Science of Healing by Louis Kuhne.
Translated from the third German edition by Dr.
Thos. Baker. (Williams and Norgate. London
and Edinburgh. L. Kuhn Leipzig).
This work has for its object the exposition of
the principles of what the author calls the “One-
ness of all diseases,” and the methods that he
himself has practised in the course of a lengthened
experience as a physician. Originally the book
was published in German only but it has since
been translated both into French and English. It
is divided into three parts the first of which
contains a series of lectures on the nature, origin,
and cure of infant diseases, on rheumatism, gout,
fevers, mental and nervous diseases, and female
diseases.
It conclude0 with instructions for their treat-
ment by means of a strict dietary and the use of
friction, steam and other baths.
In part II. the author enters into detail respect-
ing the treatment and cure of wounds. Lung-
disease, cancer, heart-disease, leprosy, fevers, dis-
orders of the bladder and kidneys, and liver com-
plains, each in turn receive their meed of attention.
Part III. contains a number of reports of the cures
already effected. Containing, as this work does,
so many simple and easily applied remedies for
the multifarious “ills that flesh is heir to,” there
is no doubt but that, when known, it will be wel-
comed as a useful adjunct to every home library.
Journal of the British Archeological Society of
Rome 1801. (Roma).
This is a very interesting report of the proceed-
ings of the Society during the session 1891.
In addition to the transactions there are also
several papers on various subjects among which is
an account of a “Visit to the Temple of Diana at
Ephesus,” by F. S. Shenstone, J. p.
Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
and its neighbourhood. (Spottiswoode and Co.,
London).
This is the report made by Dr. Johnston Lavis
to the British Association at the Cardiff meeting
in 1891. In it he embodies the results of the in-
vestigations made by himself and his colleagues
into the causes of volcanic energy among the rocks
in the Neapolitan district and a detailed descrip-
tion of the phenomena that attended the eruption
of June last, an account of which has already
appeared in our columns.
During the month of July several changes took
place after which the phenomena gradually became
less frequent. The learned author considers that the
size and position of the fissures around the great
cone have rendered the cone somewhat unstable,
but that they are in a direction most favourable for
the next outburst. The report has five illustra-
tions showing the various kinds of fumaroles that
were formed after the eruptions.
Editor. J. H. Cooke. B.Sc., F.G.S., Malta.
ro LET
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VI
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MANCHESTER Exhibition 1887.
GOLD, MELBOURNE do 1888-89.
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THEORIES OF MOUNTAIN FORMATION
Considered Experimentally , Structurally , Dynamically , and in Relation to their Geological History.
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