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XL. THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE. By PROFESSOR
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THE CONTEMPORAR Y SCIENCE SERIES.
EDITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS.
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
THE
MEDITERRANEAN RACE:
A STUDY OF THE ORIGIN OF
EUROPEAN PEOPLES.
BY
G. SERGI,
PROFESSOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN TUB UNIVERSITY
OK HOilE.
WITH 93 ILLUSTRATIONS.
LONDON:
WALTER SCOTT, PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
1901.
PREFACE.
\ViiEN this little book was first published in an Italian
edition in 1895, and in a German edition in 1897, I
was still unable to obtain many anthropological data
needed to complete tha picture of the primitive in-
habitants of Europe. In the English edition the
book is less incomplete, richer in anthropological
and ethnological documents, and hence more con-
clusive ; it also contains replies to various objections
which have been brought forward. This English
edition, therefore, is not so much a translation of a
work already published as a new book, both in form
and arrangement.
The conclusions I have sought to maintain arc the
following : —
(i.) The primitive populations ol Europe, after
Homo Neandertlialensis, originated in Africa; these
constituted the entire population of.Neplitliic^times.
(2.) The basin of the Mediterranean was the chief
centre of movement whence the African migrations
reached the centre and the north of Europe.
(3.) From the great African stock were formed
three varieties, in accordance with differing telluric
and geographic conditions : one peculiarly African,
VI PREFACE.
remaining in the continent where it originated ;
another, the Mediterranean, which occupied the basin
of that sea; and a third, the Nordic, which reached
the north of Europe. These three varieties are the
three great branches of one species, which I call
Eurafrican, because it occupied, and still occupies,
a large portion of the two continents of Africa and
Europe.
(4.) These three human varieties have nothing in
common with the so-called Aryan races ; it is an
error to maintain that the Germans and the Scandi-
navians, blond dolichocephals or long-heads (of the
Reihengraber and Viking types), are Aryans ; they
are Eurafricans of the Nordic variety.
(5.) The Aryans are of Asiatic origin, and con-
stitute a variety of the Eurasiatic species; the
physical characters of their skeletons are different
from those of the Eurafricans.
(6.) The primitive civilisation of the Eurafricans
is Afro-Mediterranean, becoming eventually Afro-
European.
(7.) The Myjrense.an civilisation had its origin in
Asia, and was transformed by diffusion in the Medi-
terranean.
(8.) The two classic civilisations, Greek and Latin,
were not Aryan, but Mediterranean. The Aryans
were savages when they invaded Europe : they de-
stroyed in part the superior civilisation of the
Neolithic populations, and could not have created
the Greco-Latin civilisation.
PREFACE. vii
(9.) In the course of the Aryan invasions the
languages of the Eurafrican species in Europe were
transformed in Italy, Greece, and elsewhere, Celtic,
German, Slavonic, etc., being genuine branches of
the Aryan tongue; in other cases the Aryan lan-
guages underwent a transformation, preserving some
elements of the conquered tongues, as in the Neo-
Celtic of Wales.
Some of these conclusions no longer arouse the
same opposition as when I first brought them
forward. The arguments meeting with most resist-
ance are those tending to overthrow the ancient
conception of an Aryan civilisation. The future will
enable us to see these questions more clearly.
G. SERGI.
ROME, February, igor.
I-
j.
CONTENTS.
P.U;R
PREFACE v
CHAPTER I.
THE PHASES OF INDO GERMANISM i
The Early Phase— The New Phase — Germanism — The
Alleged Homeric Evidence — Celts or Lithuanians? — The
Western Asiatic Origin.
CHAPTER II.
THE PEOPLES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN 28
The Problems— The Mediterranean Hasin— The Racial
Names of the Mediterranean Family -Method of the
Investigation.
CHAPTER III.
THE CENTRE OF DIFFUSION OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN FAMILY 39
The Cradle of the Mediterranean Stock— The Il.imilcs.
X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
THE LIBYANS 45
Libyans on Egyptian Monuments— The Evidence of Hero-
dotus and other Classic Writers — The Berbers — Origin of
the Libyans — The Myth of Atlantis— The African Blonds —
Physical Characters of the Libyans.
CHAPTER V.
THE EGYPTIANS 84
The African Origin of the Egyptians— The Art of Writing —
Physical Anthropology of the Egyptians.
CHAPTER VI.
THE WESTERN LIBYANS ... ... ... ... 114
Craniology of the Ancient Berbers— The Physical Char-
acters of the Modern Population.
CHAPTER VII.
THE CANARY ISLANDS ... ... ... ... 128
The Origins of the Canary Population— Physical Characters
of the Population.
CHAPTER VIII.
SYRIA AND ASIA MINOR M4
The Hittites— The Armenoids of Lycia— Cyprus— The
Phoenicians.
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER IX.
MM
TMK EUROPEAN PEOPLES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN 157
The Invasion of Europe— The Iberians— The Ligurians—
The Pelasjjians— The Italic Problem— The Etruscans.
CHAPTER X.
MIGRATIONS BEYOND THE MEDITERRANEAN ... 186
Current opinions regarding the first inhabitants of Europe —
Euroi>e not peopled from the North— Homo Neandcr-
thalen&is.
CHAPTER XI.
MIGRATIONS HEYOND THE MEDITERRANEAN— con-
tinued
205
Great Britain— France— Switzerland— Germany— Bohemia
— Scandinavia — Russia.
CHAPTER xir.
MINGLING .. 233
The Euro|xran Pigmies— The Neolithic Brachyccphals—
The End of the Diffusion and the New Invaders of Europe.
xii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
PAGE
THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OK THE MEDITER-
RANEAN AND ALLIED STOCKS ... ... ... 247
General Physical Characters— The Eurafrican Species —
The Eurasiatic Species.
CHAPTER XIV.
MEDITERRANEAN CIVILISATION AND ITS DIFFUSION
IN EUROPE 266
Architecture of Tombs— Culture— Writing— Language.
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
CHAPTER I.
THE PHASES OF INDO-GERMANISM.
The Early Phase — The New Phase — Germanism — The Alleged
Homeric Evidence— Cells or Lithuanians f — The Western
Asiatic Origin.
The Early Phase. — Whenever there has been any
attempt to explain the origin of civilisation and of
the races called Aryan, whether in the Mediterranean
or in Central Europe, all archaeologists, linguists, and
anthropologists have until recent years been domi-
nated by the conviction that both civilisation and
peoples must have their unquestionable cradle in Asia. /
It is well known that this conviction has been largely
determined by the discovery of Sanscrit, which has
served as a foundation for the comparative study of
the languages called Aryan, Indo-European, and also
Indo-Germanic. Thus " Arya" was assumed to be the
centre of dispersion, at all events in part, according to
primitive ideas of Biblical source transported from the
valley of Mesopotamia to the Hindu Kusch, and
Europe became an Asiatic colony into which civili-
sation had been imported together with its population.
I need not refer to the scientific enthusiasm pro-
I
2 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
duced by the study of Indian books and of com-
parative philology, nor to the eminent men who
employed their intellect and activity in building up
a literature which honours every European country.
I will only recall that, as in earlier times it was
believed that every tongue was derived from Hebrew,
so it was now believed that European tongues, with
the exception of a few classed among other linguistic
families, were all derived from one mother tongue
together with those of the Asiatic group; and it
appeared that Sanscrit, more than its sister tongues,
inherited the maternal characters in form and sound.
It was not long before these principles were applied
to European ethnology and anthropology. Civilisa-
tion was supposed to come from Asia, the cradle of
the Aryan speech and people, the centre of dispersion
of European nations. European peoples in various
troops, and at various successive periods, had set
out from the common Asiatic centre and established
themselves in their different seats in Europe, bearing
with them a common patrimony of language and
civil and religious institutions; there were thus
various distinct groups, like the Italo-Greeks, the
Celts, the Letto-Slavs, the Germans, originally con-
stituting a single people with the Asiatic group of
Indo-Iranians.
According to the more general opinion, the Aryans
had invaded Europe from east to west, and then from
north to south, subjugating the primitive and savage
peoples they met with in the course of their occupa-
tion. During various pauses, of different length,
before reaching their final destinations, they had
begun to vary and diverge in language and other
social manifestations, constituting so many distinct
THE EARLY PHASE. 3
varieties of the original single stock. The Italo-
(iivcks would thus have been united during their
t'ust pause in Europe, and would have had language,
religion, and customs in common; then they would
have separated into two quite distinct groups, occupy-
ing their definite scats in the two peninsulas of the
Mediterranean, Italy and Greece, where, finally, each
group would have become a distinct and charac-
teristic people, an Aryan variety.
Thus it happened that Greeks and Italians were
two distinct peoples, whose common origin and com-
mon patrimony of language and civilisation were
concealed by the appearance of new and special
forms arising in their own peculiar seats. The same
phenomenon was supposed to have occurred in the
case of the other European groups, Slavonic, Celtic,
and Germanic, and of the Asiatic or Indo-Iranian
groups. All these peoples, developing separately, and
varying in their development according to region,
became strangers to each other; it was Sanscrit, with
the scries of studies to which it gave rise, which un-
veiled the intimate relationship between languages so
diverse and peoples so remote. Some, like Pick, have
even wished to show that these European peoples are
only a single people with many languages, which
must be regarded as dialects of a single national
tongue. When that is admitted, the two classic
peoples of antiquity, Greeks and Latins, are essen-
tially Aryans, and their civilisation is wholly of
Aryan character.
Hut Indo-Germanism was not satisfied with these
results, which \vcre regarded as unquestionable; it
invaded other regions and peoples at first excluded
from the I nd<>- European stock, and attempted to
4 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
reduce the ancient relic of Iberian language, Basque,
to the Aryan root, as well as Armenian. Nor
was that enough: a language which appeared
mysterious, and was so far indecipherable, must
also be brought into the Indo-Germanic field, and
extraordinary mental efforts (it is enough to refer to
Corssen) were made to reconstruct Etruscan grammar
according to Aryan morphology.
Anthropology, meanwhile, investigating the physi-
cal characters of European peoples, though without
studying them deeply or completely, made it clear
that between ancient Italians, Greeks, Celts, Ger-
mans, and Slavs there were profound and character-
istic differences which showed clearly that they could
not all belong together to the same human root; that
there might be linguistic relationship without blood
relationship, and that various peoples might have a
common civilisation without having a common origin.
Thus anthropology sought out the characteristics of
European peoples on its own account, independently
of linguistics and its results; but on coming to the
study of origins it could not neglect linguistic,
archaeological, and historical studies as auxiliaries
to its own efforts as regards the most ancient epochs
of humanity. Falae-ethnology and palae-anthropology
were born of the research into fossil man in Europe and
elsewhere; the first of these, especially, soon adapted
itself to the results acquired by linguistics, and looked
towards the east as the cradle of European peoples
and their civilisation.
/ Thus Indo-Gcrmanism led to almost entire forget-
fulness of the most ancient civilisations of the earth,
| those born in the valleys of the Euphrates and the
r Tigris, and in the valley of the Nile; no influence was
THE NEW PHASE. 5
granted to them over Greco- Roman classic civilisation,
almost none anywhere in the Mediterranean; Asiatic
Indians were sought as the bearers of civilisation in
E&ypti a"d Indo-Germans in Northern Africa and
Western Asia.
The New Phase. — This enthusiastic period of
Indo-Germanism was followed by another period
with other characters which, in a more or less
modified form, has lasted to the present day.
When it was recognised that the peoples of
Aryan tongue and civilisation are not anthropolo-
gically a single stock, the idea arose that among
these one must represent the authentic and original
Aryan stock, while the other peoples must merely / -
have been Aryanised, receiving their language and/
civilisation from the first. But in the working out of
this inquiry, and the special and general investigations
regarding the various manifestations of Aryan civili-
sation, some doubts arose among linguists and philo-
logists as to the Asiatic origin of the European stock ; /
in some, indeed, doubt grew to a conviction that
Asia was not the cradle of the Aryans. Latham,
Benfey, and Geiger were the first to think of a
European origin for the Aryans. To-day the old
hypothesis of the immigration from Asia into Europe ,
is still maintained by a few of the eminent original
upholders of the eastern origin, who, like Max Miiller
to the last, are unwilling to abandon their ancient
convictions; later archaeologists and linguists, philolo-
gists and palai-cthnologists, have supported the theory
of a European origin with keen enthusiasm, while
among anthropologists there is either doubt or tacit
acquiescence.
If the populations speaking Aryan languages
6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
derived from one people with one mother tongue
constitute distinct families, as they undoubtedly do,
which is the Aryan population, or the genuine Aryan
stock, in which the movement of Aryan civilisation
arose ? What do the other populations possessing
Aryan language and civilisation represent? Where
is the centre or cradle of the primitive Aryan stock ?
These problems closely touch the populations and
civilisation of the Mediterranean, because the two
classic peoples of antiquity, who exerted the greatest
influence on the ancient and modern worlds, belong
to the Mediterranean ; it is necessary, therefore, to
discuss these problems, at all events briefly, before
coming to others which more directly concern the
Greek and Italian peoples and their civilisation.
But it may not be useless to point out, first of all,
that from the analytic studies and criticisms bearing
on the Indo-European linguistic patrimony a fact
emerges which is worthy to be noted, since it seems
to me to be of capital importance in the solution of
the anthropological problems of Europe. In the
early days of the study of the Indo-European
languages it was accepted as a demonstrated fact
that the vocabulary of all the Aryan tongues was
common, at all events in its more fundamental parts,
including the elementary cognitions useful to human
life ; that all the elements that subserve social life,
the family, primitive religion, inventions, useful arts,
were indicated in the various Indo-European languages
by words of common origin ; that the traditions of
the common country, and the animals, plants, and
metals employed in primitive conditions, might be
read in the spoken or written linguistic documents.
But all this common patrimony has continually
THE NU\V PHASE. 7
diminished when subjected to criticism, and has ,
been reduced to a few elements. Hence it appears —
or so at least it seems to me that we must interpret
the linguistic phenomena — that among all the peoples
of Aryan tongue the language was an importation,
learned and assimilated by each people according to
its own habitual phonetic conditions, which con-
stituted the physiological laws of its primitive
pronunciation ; whence were derived change and
transformation according to these laws, which were
different for each people. The phenomenon is not
new, and seems to me precisely similar to that
produced by the importation of the Latin tongue
into Gaul, Spain, and other countries, where the
populations, possessing their own languages, in
assimilating Latin talked it as the phonetic and
physiological conditionsof their own tongue demanded,/
— thus giving birth to the various Romance tongues.
At this distance of time it is difficult to ascertain
what people originally possessed the Aryan speech
and civilisation, and propagated it or imposed it on
other European peoples of different physical type.
But it seems to me impossible to admit that a people
among whom the language is more fragmentary than
in others, and the civilisation still in a rudimentary
state, can have been that which originally carried
both speech and civilisation to peoples who afterwards
became famous in history for their political and civil
greatness. How far we arc to-day from those posi-
tions which were regarded as unquestionable by Pictct, /
Max Miiller, Hopp, Pott, and others, may be clearly
seen in the recent works of Schradcr and others.
Such considerations may serve to show that these
problems are not simple and isolated, but various,
8 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
complicated, and bound together, and that their
solution depends on the united and convergent
researches of ethnological and anthropological
science; archaeological and linguistic investigations,
carried on separately, can never, in my opinion, reach
decisive and sure results.
The second phase of Indo-Germanism is therefore
still determined by the fact that linguists and
historians, ethnologists and anthropologists, have
entered the field to show the European origin of the
Aryan stock, although the name Aryan no longer
befits a people having origin in Europe. The more
enthusiastic, in settling this great problem, have
brought together in a compact phalanx all the
arguments offered by archaeology, linguistics, and
anthropology, and have engaged with confidence in
the struggle. In spite of the divergence of results,
both as regards the physical type of the primitive
Aryan stock and the localisation of its centre of
origin and dispersion, many agree in believing that
the Aryan peoples of the Mediterranean, the Greeks
and Italians, emigrated into their two peninsulas
from the centre or the north of Europe, conquering
and subjugating the first inhabitants, to whom they
imparted their speech and civilisation.
It may be useful to examine some of the argu-
ments which appear a convincing demonstration to
those who are unprepared to meet them or surprised
by their vivacity.
Germanism. — I mean by " Germanism " the theory
which attempts to prove that the Germans are the
primitive Aryans; Poschc and Pcnka l are the boldest
1 Th. Posche, Die A>ier, Jena, 1878; C. Fenka, Die Herknnft der
Aii'er, Wicn, l8S6.
GERMANISM. 9
upholders of the view that sees the fair race every-
where. " The fair race is found from the Arctic
Ocean to the Sahara, from the Atlantic to Lake
Baikal and the Indus; the southern shore of the
North Sea is their centre of diffusion; there is the
chief station of the fair race; and from these shores
of the Baltic they moved in all directions." Thus
wrote Posche; but Penka, who equally recognised
the extension of the fair race, only found it as an
exception in regions remote from the centre of origin,
and sought to justify the rarity of the type by
climatic conditions to which the fair Aryans could
not adapt themselves and so disappeared. If this
argument may in some degree hold good for extreme
climates like those of Scandinavia and Africa,
Central and Southern Europe and India, it scarcely
holds good for the difference between Central
Europe and the Mediterranean, between Germany,
Italy, and Greece, or between Bavaria, Wurtemberg,
Prussia, and the Baltic regions.
The fair races speaking an Indo-Germanic tongue, /
like the Celts, Germans, and Slavs, wrote Posche,
have subjugated the non - Indo-Germanic brown
races and imposed their language and civilisation
upon them; even though the fair race was small in
number, it has acted in the same manner as when
"the ancient fair Indo-Gcrmans attacked the Finns,
subjugated them, made them prisoners by thousands,
reduced them to slavery, and little by little in-
corporated them." Thus the fair-haired people, a
pure Indo-Germanic race for Posche, Pcnka, and
others, reached Greece and Italy, subjugated their
primitive brown populations, and gave them their
own Aryan speech and civilisation. In Homer and
10 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
in traditions these writers believe they find traces
of the dominion of the fair-haired lords of these
lands.
Thus the hypothesis that the fair race is the
primitive and authentic Aryan race is more than a
theory for these writers ; it is a thesis, and the proofs
of the thesis always set out from the presupposition
that the Aryans are fair. Penka also maintains that
Scandinavia has been the cradle and centre of
diffusion of the fair race, the characteristics of which
are white skin, blue eyes, high stature, and an elon-
gated or dolichocephalic head. The arguments may
be summarised in the following propositions: (i)
the type of the inhabitants of Scandinavia is identical
with the physical type of the pure Aryans ; (2) this
type has persisted unchanged in that peninsula from
prehistoric times; (3) the Aryan type is identical with
the palaeolithic type of Central Europe; (4) the fauna
and flora of Scandinavia are in harmony with linguis-
tic results as to the place of origin of the Aryans;
(5) the Stone Age in Scandinavia corresponds to
the culture of the primitive Aryan race before its
expansion.
If we look into Penka's arguments we soon dis-
cover that between two of them — the persistence
of the Scandinavian type and the identity of the
Aryan type with the palaeolithic type of Central
Europe — there is no__agrcemcnt, but contradiction.
The Neanderthal type is for Penka the palaeolithic
type; now between this and the Teutonic dolicho-
cephalic type, which for German authors is that of
the Reihcngrabcr, there is an enormous difference;
one might even say an abyss lies between them.
The difference is so great that Virchow considers
GERMANISM. II
the Neanderthal skull pathological,1 Davis explained |
it by synostosis, while, indeed, it seems to me normal I
only because it is found at Brux and at Spy in un- 1
changed form, without pathological signs. It would
seem that for Pcnka dolichocephaly is enough to
show the identity of the Quaternary and the Germanic
types, but in that case all dolichocephalic skulls,
even Australian, might be considered Indo-Gcrmanic.
Penka, indeed, feels constrained to admit develop-
ment, and the transformation of the Neanderthaloid
type into the Germanic, which contradicts his
principle of the persistency of type, accepted for the
Scandinavian type. There is, however, no middle
path. Either the Scandinavian type is the per-
sistent primitive Aryan type, in which case the
palaeolithic type of Central Europe is not Aryan,
or the palaeolithic type is primitive, and then the
Scandinavian type is derived, and consequently not
persistent, but recent There is another fact against
Pcnka's assertions, i.e., the contemporaneous occur-
rence of the untransformed Aryan Neanderthaloid
type with the transformed Aryan Scandinavian type,
if it is true, as it unquestionably is, that the two forms
still persist.2
Since, however, the fact of the persistence of
cranial types is now assured in anthropology, and
since the persistency of the Neanderthal type, now
1 On the ground that the Neanderthal skull, as well as the other^
bones of the skeleton, revealed a numlwr of pathological changes,
Virchow reached the conclusion that we arc here in presence of an
individu.il specimen which cannot lie regarded as typical of a race until
confirmed l>y further discoveries. (Zfi/stAri/t fiir Ethnologie, 1872,
p. 157; also i*., 1894, p. 427.)
• See in my Sftde e Varicta Umane; "Cli abitanti piimilivi di
turopa," 1900.
12 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
rare and disappearing, has been shown, it is im-
possible to admit that the Aryan type is palae-
olithic in the sense understood by Penka.
But let us examine more closely the so-called
Germanic type, which ought to be fair, of high
stature, with blue eyes, and elongated head. Let
us see how it js distributed in its own country, in
Germany and the neighbouring regions, which are
now Germanic lands. In order to be brief, I will
simply transcribe the exact summary of the labours
of German anthropologists made by Moschen, when
speaking of the modern population of Germany with
special reference to the origin of the Trentine popula-
tion1:— "The old doctrine of the dolichocephaly of
the modern Germans had already been attacked by
Welcker,2 who summed up the results of his researches
on this subject in the following words : ' The modern
Germans are in part brachycephalic, in part ortho-
cephalic, never (speaking here of averages) dolicho-
cephalic;' and he added that 'if the primitive
Germanic stock was dolichocephalic, we must say
that the Germans of old Germanic stock are only
found in insignificant numbers in Germany.' Later
researches have shown that the present populations
of southern Germany are in great part brachycephals,
among whom mesocephals are rare and dolichocephals
quite isolated. Only in Central and Northern Germany
are dolichocephals found more or less numerously, and
they only become prevalent in the extreme north,
in Denmark and Sweden. Let us examine a few
1 "I Caratteri fisici e le oiigini dei Trentini," Arch, per
P Aiitropologiat Florence, 1892.
8 Ueber IVachsthum und Ban des Mcnschlichen Schadels, Leipzig,
1862, p. 65; and " Kran. Mitlheilungen," in Archiv fur Anlh.,
lid. i., 1866, pp. 149-150.
GERMANISM. 13
figures. In the Tyrol, Holl1 has found among 1820
skulls examined in various valleys only 33 dolicho-
ccphals, representing 1.8 per cent, while the meso-
cephals arc in a proportion of 14.9 per cent, and the
brachyccphals (with the hyper-brachycephals) in that
of 83.2 per cent; while Ranke2 found among 100
skulls of Antcrium, near Bolzano, no dolichocephals,
IO mesocephals, and 90 brachycephals ; and among
100 skulls of the valley of Eno, near Innsbruck, again
no dolichocephals, 23 mesocephals, and 77 brachy-
cephals. In upper and lower Austria and in the
Salzburg district, Zuckerkandl3 measured 300 skulls ;
the dolichocephals were in the proportion of 2.7
per cent., the mesocephals 23 per cent, and the
brachycephals 74.3 per cent In southern Bavaria,
of some 100 skulls measured by Ranke, the dolicho-
cephals were in the minute proportion of 0.8 per
cent, the mesocephals 16.3 per cent., the brachy-
cephals 82.9 per cent.4 In southern Baden, of
100 modern skulls of which Ecker has published
measurements, there were no dolichocephals, and
the brachycephals were in the proportion of 84
per cent6 In northern Bavaria, Ranke measured
250 skulls, of which 12 per cent were dolicho-
cephals, 20 per cent mesocephals, and 68 per
cent, brachyccphals. In Fricsland, Virchow found
1 8 per cent, dolichocephals, 51 per cent mcso-
1 " Ueber die im Tirol vorkommenden Schiidelformen," Alitth.
Ant hi of. GeselL \V>en, Bd. xv., Heft 2.
* Beitrdf^e :i/r fhys. Anthrop. der Hayern" Milnchen, 1883, p. 94,
tab. \i.-\ii.
* "Beitriige zur Craniologie der Deutschen in Oesterr," Mitth.
A nth. (Jesell. ll'ien, 1883.
* flfifniff, etc., pp. 22-23.
8 Cran/'a tiermanitt merid. ofdd.% Freiburg, 1865.
14 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
ccphals, and 31 per cent, brachycephals. Among 83
Danish skulls Schmidt found 57 per cent, dolicho-
cephals, 37 per cent, mesocephals, and 5 per cent,
brachycephals. According to Retzius1 and Ecker,2
dolichocephaly predominates among the modern
Swedes, in every respect agreeing with the skulls
of the ancient Franks of the Reihengraber."
From the statistics of colour of hair and eyes in
Austria, Switzerland, and Germany,3 it appears that
" the brown area extends from the west of Austria
through Switzerland (fair n.i per cent., brown 25.7
per cent.), Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and Alsace-
Lorraine, hence in all southern Germany, where the
frequency of blonds varies from 18.4 to 24.5 percent,
and of brunets from 25.2 to 19.2 per cent. In
central Germany the blonds gradually increase in
a northerly direction, varying from 25.3 to 32.5 per
cent, while the brunets gradually diminish in the
same direction, varying from 18.22 to 13.2 per cent
It is only in northern Germany that the blonds
decidedly predominate, varying from 33.5 to 433
per cent, while the brunets vary between 12. 1 and
6.9 per cent" In the whole German empire, according
to Virchow's statistics, the blonds are, on the average,
31.8 per cent, the brunets 14.05 per cent, and the
mixed type 54 1 5 per cent.
1 " Ueber die Schadelformen der Nordbewohnern," Eth. Schrijteit,
Stockholm, 1864. pp. 1-24.
2 Of. fit., pp. 30-91.
3 " Gcsammtl>ericht iiber die von der deutschcn anthr. Gescll.
veranlassten Erhebungen iil>er die Farbe der Haut, der Haare und dor
Augen," etc., Aichiv f. Anthr., xvi , 1886, von R. Virchow ;
Kollmann, "Die statist. Erhebunjjcn," etc., Deukschriflen Gesell.
fitr Natiirwiss., xxviii., Basel, 1881 ; Schimmer, " Erhelmngen iil>er
die Farbe, etc., bei den Schulkindern Oesterreichs/' Mitth. Anlhr.
Gesell. 'Wien, 1884.
GERMANISM. I,
It is worth while to consider some of Virchow's
opinions, concerning facts of so much weight, both
regarding the physical characters of the skull and the
external characters of colour of skin, eyes, and hair.
At the Congress of German Anthropologists at
Dresden in 1874, Virchow spoke regarding the ex-
tension of brachycephalic skulls in historical and prc-
historical times.1 He discussed a Finnic theory
which he seemed disposed to accept, and he formu-
lated the problem as follows : " Can we anywhere
find traces, either in ancient or modern times, of a
Finnic population, and are the Finnic or Lapponic
types, or, as is said in France, the Esthonic, those that
stand at the basis of the development of the actual
population ? " At the end of a long discussion Vir- '
chow was disposed to admit that the Finns -have
contributed to the brachyccphaly of the north and
the Ligurians to that of the south. A little later,
discussing in a special work1 the facts of German
anthropology, he said : " No one has proved that all {
Germans possess the same cranial form, or, in other ) /
words, that they formed a single nation, like the more
pure type that we see among the Suevi and the
Franks." He admits, that is, that various types have
formed the Germanic people. At the Congress of
Karlsruhe, in 1885, he again expressed his opinion
when presenting the results of the inquiry into colour
of hair and eyes.3 In order to explain the large
proportion of bruncts in Germany he proposes three
hypotheses: (i) two stocks entered Germany, one
1 Anhivf. Anthrof>., \V\. vii.
a Htilriige zur physiichtn Anlhrof>. der Deutsthen, clc., Ik-ilin, 1877,
p. 36 »•
minilberichl," etc , Axhiv f. Anffi., xvi., 1886.
16 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
fair, the other dark, so that the population was mixed
from the first ; this theory he does not accept ; (2)
the fair was transformed by Darwinian methods ; but
this transformation is not possible, because there is
not sufficient difference of physical conditions be-
tween northern and southern Germany to produce
such a change ; it is known that other German
anthropologists, such as Holl1 and Ranke,2 have
mistakenly admitted such a possibility; (3) there has
been a varied and continuous mixture of types
belonging to various populations. Virchow believes
that mixture can establish a race, that a fair popula-
tion can become dark by mixture, and vice versd.
Thus the Celts had much influence ; we know, he
says, that where the Celts entered the population is
dark ; " I am prepared to believe," he adds, " that
the primitive Celtic, like the primitive Italic, popula-
tion was not formed of blond but of brunet Aryans."
These doubts and difficulties expressed by Virchow
concerning the minority of the fair dolichocephalic
race in Germany suffice to show how fantastic are the
easy demonstrations of Posche and Penka. Virchow
himself asks if the supposed authentic German type
is not disappearing. And these two authors wish to
show that this is' what is happening. Penka, as I ;
have said, believes that the pure Germanic type has
diminished in Germany, and is only exceptionally
found in southern Europe, in Italy and Greece,
because it has not withstood the climate of those
regions. We may leave aside Italy and Greece, the
climate of which is not liable to destroy the Germanic
or any other race ; if, however, we consider Germany
1 " Ueber die im Tirol," etc., of. cif.
2 Beitriige, etc., op. fit., p. 123.
GERMANISM. 17
itself we cannot reasonably grant that the climate of
Bavaria and Wurtcmbcrg is not adapted to the Ger-
manic race, and I need not contest so improbable a
statement.
It seems to me that the existence of ji pure Gcr-^
manic stock cannot be demonstrated, whether in
prehistoric or in protohistoric times. We do not find
in Germany a pure dolichocephalic race, tall, fair,
numerous, diffused widely throughout Europe ; we
find instead a mixed population of varying type in
all the prehistoric graves of German territory.
Von Holder, the author of a work on Wurtembcrg
skulls which is of fundamental importance in the
study of Teutonic anthropology,1 has found a series
of the most diverse types, Germanic, Turanian, Sar-
matian, pure and mixed, in his opinion, with no
predominant Germanic type. Lissauer finds a mix-
ture of forms among ancient Prussian skulls, while
Virchow, who has examined a vast number of skulls!
from old Germanic graves, finds the most varying 1
shapes among the primitive population of Germanic I
soil.8
Why, then, affirm that the dolichocephalic type is
disappearing, or has disappeared, when in reality it
has never predominated on Germanic soil? Virchow
never said a truer thing when he affirmed that the
Germans have shown various types of skulls from the
first, and were never a homogeneous nation with a
1 /.nsaiHmtns!tllnn; tier /'// Wiirteinberg vorkommcthien SchaJel-
fomifn, Stuttgart, 1876.
* Cf. ZtituMftfSr Ethnologic, IM. x., Lissauer, "Crania Prussica,"
iml. cef. 63-86; Bel. xii., Virchow, " Altc Berliner Schatlel," incl. cef.
78-86; it/., " Schiidel von Ncuesta«Iter J-'cMc," ind. cef. 68-85; xiii ,
i'./., " Schiitlel von Kirlia (Thuring.)," ind. cef. 80-86; /'</., " \..n
Spanil.iu," iml. cef. 78.6 83, etc.
2
1 8 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
pure type that might be found among the Suevi and
the Franks. I believe that I am in the right, since my
opinion is founded on anthropological and historical
data, when I affirm that at their origin the Germans
were not a distinct people from the Celts or from the
Slavs, with both of whom they were always united
and often confused. The Franks of the fifth century
were a northern people, less mixed in earlier times,
and hence appearing somewhat more uniform in the
graves of the Rhine district at a rather late epoch.
The Alleged Homeric Evidence. — These brief con-
siderations seem to me to be sufficient to show that
since it is difficult to find the Germans in their own
home we cannot expect to find them as an Aryan
stock in Greece and Italy, subjugating the dark
populations and creating the two great Mediter-
ranean civilisations, Hellenic and Latin, also called
Aryan ; still less can we connect them with the more
ancient Mycenaean or yEgean civilisation, as it is
to-day called. ,The disappearance of the Germanic
type among the Mediterranean populations, assumed
by Penka, is a necessity imposed by the fact that this
type is sought in vain where it is supposed to have
dominated, except as a sporadic element easy to
explain through the course of ages by the immigra-
tion of races or families or individuals.
But I cannot pass in silence the supposed testimony
to the presence of the fair type in Greece, and to its
superiority over the darker population, furnished by
the Homeric poems, in which, it is affirmed, the
heroes and gods are described as of the fair type
with blue eyes. I have made a special investigation
into this point and here present the results.
In Homer Athena is glankopis; glaukos means
THE ALLEGED HOMERIC EVIDENCE. IQ
blue, like the sea and the unclouded sky; it is also
equivalent to phoberos, terrible (of the eyes); the
olive is glaukos also, and Athena is the guardian
of the olive; it also means shining, and is said of
the dawn and the stars. In Athena's case glaitkopis
means that her eyes are brilliant and terrible.
Empedocles uses glaukopis of the moon, and it is
even doubtful if in Homer it ever means blue.
Apollo in Homer is c/irysaoros, that is to say
bearing a golden sword; the title of "fair" is later;
xant/ws is never used of Apollo in Homer, and if
he were fair it would be like the sun. Apollo with
golden hair, chrysokoman, is found in Euripides
and Athenaeus, as " fair Dionysus " is found also in
Euripides, that is to say at a much later time.
Xanthos means a reddish fairness, and also brown.
Artemis is eustefhanos; there is nothing as to being
fair.
Aphrodite is chryse, golden, that is to say, brilliant,
splendid, not fair.
Demeter is xantlie, fair, it is true, but we must
remember that Demeter (Ceres) is the symbol of
harvest, fair like the spike of corn, as of Poseidon
(Neptune), who is kyanochaites, that is to say with
bluish, blackish, even black hair, like the dark and
deep waves of ocean; kyanos is black, blue-black,
violet, in Homer sometimes blacker than melas.
In Demeter, therefore, the title of fair is only a
symbol for the colour of harvest.
Eos, the dawn, is c/irysothronos, riwdodaktyhs>
krokopeplos, because the colour of dawn is golden,
rosy, and red.
Thetis, on the other hand, is argyropeza, i.e., with
silver feet, the foaming wavelets of the sea.
2O THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Hera (Juno) is chrysotlironos, leukolenos, ettkoinos,
and Kalypsos is only eitkouios ; neither is fair.
Achilles, however, is xantJios like Rhaclamanthus;
but xantJios means not only fair, but also chestnut,
brown, and bees are xanthai.
It results from this analysis that in Homer none
of the divinities arc fair in the ethnographic sense
of the word; only Achilles and Rhadamanthus
might be considered fair if we accept the word
xantJios in its later sense. No other hero is described
as fair.
In regard to the Homeric expressions in heroic
narratives relating to the men of a previous age
confronted with contemporaries,1 no one can fail
to recognise that it is always usual to magnify past
times and celebrated heroes.
The Romans had also their Flavi, which indicates
that fair persons were uncommon, and required a
special name, but does not indicate that the Ger-
manic type was considered aristocratic or dominant.
I could bring forward a wealth of facts to show
that what I have just stated regarding the anthro-
pological characters of the Homeric gods and heroes
may also be said, and with more reason, of the types
of Greek and Rornan statuary which, though in the
case of divinities they may be conventionalised, do
not in the slightest degree recall the features of a
northern race;* in the delicacy of the cranial and
facial forms, in smoothness of surface, in the absence
of exaggerated frontal bosses and supra-orbital arches,
in the harmony of the curves, in the facial oval, in
the rather low foreheads, they recall the beautiful and
harmonious heads of the brown Mediterranean race.
1 Iliad, v. 304, xii. 583, xx. 287.
' BLTS OK LITHUANIANS? 21
\Yinkclmami noted the correspondence between the
types of Italian art and the population, and wrote
that in the finest districts of Italy one met few of
tlu'-c roughly outlined faces of uncertain or defective
expression such as are met so often on the other side
of the Alps; on the contrary, the features are distinct
and vivacious, and the forms of the face large and
full, with all the features in harmony.1
Thus we are not able to see any sound evidence
in the Greek and Latin peoples to indicate that a
northern race dominated the two peninsulas in primi-
tive times; the idea is an illusion of Indo-Germanism.
Celts or Lithuanians ? — As a variant of Indo-Gcr-
manism we are confronted by Ccltism, maintained
chiefly by the French, as a reaction against the
theory of the superiority and supremacy of the blond
Germanic type. Mortillct, Ujfalvy, and others, have
maintained that the bearers of European neolithic
civilisation were the Celtic brachyccphals, not the
German dolichoccphals ; and Ujfalvy has justly '
observed that the superiority of a race consists
not merely in physical energy and restlessness, but
in pre-eminence of mental faculty, showing itself in
artistic and intellectual genius, as in the Greeks and
Latins. I would add that a race cannot even be said
to be physically superior if it is unable to resist the
mild climate of the Mediterranean, but disappears as
required by Pcnka's theory.
This opinion coincides, in great part, with that
of Taylor, who contests the right of the blond
dolichocephalic Germanic stock to represent the
original Aryan race which bore language and civilisa-
tion to other peoples. Taylor, indeed, contests that
1 Ctichichte tfer A'misf, Stuttgart, 1847, vol. i., Bk. i., p. 33.
22 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
right also to the Celts, but he concedes much to them
since he regards brachycephaly as a character of great
superiority.1
He maintains that the Lithuanians, whom he
f believes, not quite accurately, to be brachycephalic,
are the authentic primitive Aryans, and that from
them the Celto-Latins received their language, and
with it the Aryan civilisation. His arguments are in
large part linguistic, but also ethnological and anthro-
pological. He believes he has proved that the
neolithic population of the pile-dwellings of southern
Germany and Switzerland and northern Italy may
be identified with the brachycephalic ancestors of
the race he calls Celto-Latin.
To maintain this position it was necessary to
create an anthropological theory, and this Canon
Taylor has done. He assumes that the Ligurians
are brachycephalic, as indeed is still erroneously
believed by German and French anthropologists;
Romans and Umbrians, most of the Italic popula-
tion, together with the Hellenic stock, are declared
to be brachycephalic. According to Taylor, the
brachycephals are the superior race ; thus he writes :
— " Virchow, Broca, and Calori agree that the brachy-
cephalic or ' Turanian ' skull is a higher form than
the dolichocephalic. The most degraded of existing
races, such as the Australians, Tasmanians, Papuas,
Veddahs, Negroes, Hottentots, and Bosjemen, as well
as the aboriginal forest tribes of India, are typically
dolichocephalic ; while the Burmese, the Chinese,
the Japanese, and the natives of Central Europe
are typically brachycephalic. The fact that the
1 Isaac Taylor, The Origin of the Aryans, Contemporary Science
/ Series, London, 1889.
THE WESTKKN ASIATIC ORIGIN. 2J
Accadians, who belonged to the Turanian race, had,
some 7000 years ago, attained a high stage of
culture, from which the civilisation of the Semites
was derived, is a fact which makes it more probable
that the language and civilisation of Europe was
derived from the brachycephalic rather than from
the dolichocephalic race"1 Now, all this is fanciful,
and it is not necessary to confute it ; moreover, the
Latins and other Italic peoples, the Greeks and
the Egyptians, are for the most part dolichocephalic.
I remember that shortly after the publication of his
book, Canon Taylor visited me at the Gabinetto di
Antropologia ; I had not yet overcome the surprise
produced by a book in which — however valuable it may
be in other respects — the facts were on this point so
changed, and I led him into the Museum and showed
him the ancient Roman and Etruscan heads, for the
most part dolichocephalic, and then conducted him
to the Prehistoric Museum to point out that in the
Ligurian skeletons of Finalmarina the heads are
elongated and not brachycephalic. He was surprised,
but I do not know if he was convinced, for those who
are not accustomed to the direct observation of facts
arc more impressed by ideas, especially when on
these ideas they have erected an elaborate edifice.
In this respect Taylor has surpassed Posche and
Penka.
The Western Asiatic Origin. — Archaeologists, it
seems to me, reveal a defect in their methods for
investigating the origins and diffusion of a civilisation
when they take little or no account of the physical
characters of the peoples among whom the civilisation
is found ; historians maintain the same defect, and
1 Origin of the Aryans, p. 241.
24 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
both alike arc content with ethnic names and pass
over the physical characters of nations, or else trust
to language, most often a deceptive method of recog-
nising a race or a people. The difficulties surrounding
the question of the origin and diffusion of the ALgean
or Mycenaean civilisation becomes greater when we
are ignorant of the race that produced it, its exten-
sion, origin, and dispersion. To believe that two
peoples belong to two different stocks because they
have different languages and unlike civilisations is
often a mistake ; and to believe that two peoples are
of the same stock because their languages and civilisa-
tions are similar or related may also be a mistake.
The Mediterranean is a sphinx with various faces,
and to solve its enigma we need to know the stock or
stocks that have peopled it.
I shall attempt the anthropological solution of this
enigma in the following pages. It may first, however,
be well to refer to a recent dogmatic attempt to solve
this problem which shows how necessary it is that all
the scientific methods, ethnographical, archaeological,
anthropological, linguistic, as well as geographical,
should converge in the solution of the problem of the
origin and diffusion of Mediterranean civilisation. I
refer to the attempt, of Padre Cesare de Cara in his
work on the Hethei-Felasgi.1 The chief object of
this investigation is to show that a very ancient
people, neither of Aryan nor Semitic origin, from time
immemorial occupied Syria and Asia Minor, and
thence in various successive migrations peopled
Greece and Italy, bearing with them their own native
civilisation as it existed in Asia and afterwards in
1 Gli Ilelhii-rdasgi: Ricenhe di Sloria e di Archcologia Orientah,
Greca ed Italiaiia, Rome, 1894.
THE WESTERN ASIATIC ORIGIN. 2$
the yEgean. This is the Pelasgic people of ancient
history and Greco-Italian tradition, in Asia Minor
and Syria, Eteo, Hctheo, or Hittite, as it is variously
written; thus the Hetheo-Pelasgic people would be a
single stock with two names, one Asiatic and primi-
tive, Khatti, Khcti, Hcthei, as it was known to the
Assyro-Babylonians, the Egyptians, and the Hebrews,
corresponding to its national name in its own tongue;
the other name derived and in a Greek form, signify-
ing wandering or colonial Hethei. Early Greek and 1
Italian civilisation would thus be born in Western ,
Asia and exported by the primitive Hethei in their '
migration. This people, or rather confederation of
peoples in this author's opinion, possessing a vast
dominion not only in Asia Minor up to the Euphrates,
but in Colchis, the Euxine, in Scythia, would be
neither Aryan nor Semitic, but Hamitic, having a /
common origin with the Egyptians and Babylonians,
both of Hamitic origin according to this author, like
many African peoples. They would have possessed
neither Semitic language nor civilisation, and would
have alike preceded the Semites in Phoenicia, thus
being pre- Phoenician, and the Hellenes in Greece.
Accepting this centre of diffusion, the author stops at
the Italian peninsula, when he finds the Pelasgians,
and goes no further westward to the Iberian
peninsula. Pelasgic traditions stop there also, and
other racial names are found, Ligurian and Iberian,
as in northern Africa the Libyans, a people belong-
ing, as we shall sec, to the primitive Mediterranean
stock. Thus De Cara's study docs not suffice to
give any explanation of the civilisation which \\x
find in primitive days to the west of Italy and in
northern Africa, nor of the origin of the people in
26 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
these regions, where the author does not appear to
find the Hethei-Pelasgi. He reaches his conclusions
by the study of the recent discoveries in the Asiatic
/ East and in Egypt, as well as of the recent discovery,
in Troy, Cyprus, and Crete, of pre-Hellenic Greece
and prehistoric Italy; he places all this wealth of
archaeological knowledge in relationship with the
historical traditions and the mythologies of the
ancient Greek and Latin writers and with the in-
scriptions on the Egyptian monuments, recording the
peoples with whom the Egyptians came in contact.
In all this De Cara shows wonderful intellectual
ability, unusual courage in the interpretation of
Hittite monuments, and, above all, a method which,
I believe, will be of great use in the future in the
interpretation of the Hittite language — that is to say,
the comparison of what is believed to be the Hittite
language with ancient Egyptian as two branches of
the same stock, which he calls Hamitic. Thus he
attempts to explain all the names of towns, rivers,
districts in Asia Minor, now Grecianised, not by com-
parison with Aryan or Semitic languages, but with
Egyptian. Frequently the explanation seems suc-
cessful, in other cases forced ; although it is probable
that he has often abused etymological resem-
blance, it seems to me that he has opened the right
road, and that he has revealed the method of de-
ciphering the mysteries of Mediterranean ethnography.
Indo-Germanism, however, receives a heavy blow, in
my opinion, in so far as it is the theory hitherto
adopted to interpret the most ancient civilisation of
the Mediterranean basin.
But among the great difficulties which De Cara has
to overcome in maintaining that the Hittitcs have
THE WESTERN ASIATIC ORIGIN. 27
appeared from the cast, bearing their original civilisa-
tion towards the west, is that of explaining how it is
that in the west, including Greece and Italy, no indi-
cation can be discovered of Hittite writing and art ; /
hitherto, in fact, it has been impossible to find that
either the mysterious and indecipherable Hittite in-
scriptions, or the bas-reliefs on the rocks, as in Asia
Minor and Syria, in the slightest degree suggest any
common origin for ^Egean and Hittite civilisations.1
De Cara thus has to reject any influence of Assyro-
Babylonian art on that of the Hittites, making it an
independent art, which seems impossible ; it appears
to me that there is more Mesopotamian art among the
Hittites than Hittite art in the Mediterranean. If
Cyprus contains elements of Hittite civilisation, and
many elements of Mesopotamian origin,2 this is not
surprising on account of its geographical position.
But of this I shall have to speak later.
I cannot agree, therefore, with this distinguished
writer concerning the Asiatic origin of the Mediter-
ranean peoples, but I recognise that he has brought
about a new phase of the problem of Mediterranean
civilisation and its creators, and that his opinions
have many points of contact with the inductions I
shall here have to bring forward.
1 Kcinach has already brought forward (his objection.
* De Cara, "Cipro," Civi/til Catlolica, Nos. 1070 e 1072, Rome,
1895; OhnefaUch-Richtcr, Aj'fros, die Dilxl unJ Homer, Berlin, 1893.
CHAPTER II.
THE PEOPLES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
The Problems — The Mediterranean Basin — The Racial Names
oj the Mediterranean Family — Method of the Investigation.
The Problems. — Among the problems which agitate
archaeologists and ethnologists there are two that
are intimately related to each other : the origin of
Mediterranean civilisation, and the origin of bronze
in Europe together with its importation into the
regions where that civilisation is most developed.
These two problems, complex and important in
themselves, are connected with many secondary
problems, or problems which seem to be secondary,
and these help to solve the first when they can them-
selves be solved with full assurance. If the East
exerts any influence over Mediterranean civilisation,
how far does that influence extend ? Has there been
any Egyptian influence in the ^Egean Sea? Who
were the Etruscans ? Did they arrive by Alpine
routes, or are they a maritime colony of eastern
origin ? Who were the Pelasgians ? Were they an
imaginary people, or a people possessing real exist-
ence and importance among the populations of the
Mediterranean ?
Many have believed that these and similar prob-
lems may be solved by archaeology and philology
alone, or by means of tradition. They have more
THE PKOBLKMS. 2Q
or less completely ignored the assistance which can
be given by ethnographic anthropology and the study
of the physical characters of the races among which
the civilisations are found, following the migrations
of the races in various regions, their power and
their decadence in the struggle with peoples of other
stock. The race or the stock which is diffused by
emigration bears with it also a civilisation which like-
wise undergoes modifications but always preserves its
original characters. A stock which always preserves
its physical characters, in spite of the infiltration of
foreign racial elements, and which predominantly
retains its own primitive racial composition, must be
sufficiently strong and resistant to impress the char-/
acters of its own civilisation also on the elements
which it meets and becomes mixed with. A stock
which in its savage or half-savage state is so
numerous and so strong that it can people a vast
portion of the globe, and when civilised can conquer
and dominate by arms an immense territory, may
also create a civilisation and propagate that Such
considerations may enable us to see that physical
anthropology is an indispensable aid in the solution
of these problems.
Until recent years the Greeks and the Romans
were regarded as Aryan, and then as Aryanised,
peoples; the great discoveries in the Mediterranean
have overturned all these views. To-day, although
a few belated supporters of Aryanism still remain,
it is becoming clear that the most ancient civilisation
of the Mediterranean is not of Aryan origin but the
product of a stock composed of many consanguine-
ous peoples, which occupied the Mediterranean from
a common centre of diffusion, through bearing
30 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
different racial names. This stock, which I term
Mediterranean, has formed the subject of my studies
for many years, in the hop3 that I may be able to
contribute to the solution of the problems I have
stated.
The Mediterranean Basin. — The basin of the Medi-
terranean is not merely European ; Asia and Africa
also form part of it, and it may be said that its waters
formed a point of contact for three-quarters of the
ancient world. In this contact arose and developed
the civilisation which has chiefly influenced modern
peoples, and which continues its influence; the other
civilisations perished completely or belonged to a
world less in touch with the social life of humanity,
though they may have constituted grandiose states
like Babylonia and Assyria. Of these we possess
to-day the historical records, which have an artistic
and monumental value, but their social order, which
is so large a part of a nation's civilisation, has left no
influence on modern life, while Latin civilisation
still lives, more or less transformed, in modern social
life. The peoples nearest to Asia, and which most
strongly felt Asiatic influence in their development,
have sunk like the Asiatic peoples, some having
disappeared even from history; to-day we have to
disinter them from among the remains of their
monuments and their indecipherable language.
The Mediterranean has presented the most favour-
able conditions for the development of a civilisation
more cosmopolitan than those born in the valleys of
great rivers like the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Nile,
or the five great rivers of India. The Mediterranean,
with its large and small peninsulas, its numerous
islands, its water-ways to other seas, and to the
THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN. 3!
interior of the surrounding land, has furnished points
of contact and struggle between many nations,
arousing the internal and external activity of each,
in the direction most useful to its existence and
growth.
To these may be added other natural conditions
which have made the basin of the Mediterranean one
of the happiest habitable regions of the globe: its
temperate climate, the fertility of its soil, the abun-
dance of its produce in every kind. Hardly do we
leave this happy basin than we enter deserts in
Libya, Syria, and Arabia, or regions considered in-
hospitable in ancient times, like Scythia and Central
Europe; the Black Sea was by the Romans con-
sidered an inhospittible region in comparison with
Italy, in which the centre of development of civilisa-
tion, was not the valley of the Po, but the central and
southern regions; just as in Greece it was not in
Macedonia that art and philosophy flourished.
Into this basin from time immemorial has been
poured a human stock divided into many peoples, of
which the origin and point of departure has hitherto
been unknown in spite of the numerous and varied
conjectures of historians, archreologists, and ethnolo-
gists, some finding the place of origin in the Asiatic
Orient, some in the North, others believing that some
race or people, without name or culture, remained as
a foundation of the population but was dominated
by powerful and civilised invaders. I hope to show,
however, that there was really a centre of dispersion
of the Mediterranean stock, which in far remote
times, probably Quaternary, anterior to all tradition,
occupied the regions which surround this great basin,
and that the various peoples derived from this stock
32 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
have possessed the most ancient native civilisation in
the countries, islands, and peninsulas they occupied.
I believe, further, that we must not make an absolute
separation, such as is commonly made, between the
various regions of this basin; the invaders or im-
migrants in the Mediterranean spread both to east
and west, to south and to north, of the sea; that
is to say, they inhabited Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt,
Libya and the rest of Northern Africa, Greece,- Italy,
and the Iberian peninsula.
Thus this geographical region is an anthropological
unit; it is not Asia nor Africa nor Europe which has
become the centre of civilisation and of dispersion, it
is the whole basin of the Mediterranean. This stock,
with its various ethnic names, constitutes a family
of peoples which I have long denominated " Mediter-
ranean " on account of their geographical position and
anthropological stability. The family is not confined
to this basin, but has become diffused towards the
west, the north, and the east, invading the Canary
Islands, Western and Central Europe, Great Britain,
France, Switzerland, and Southern Russia.
The Racial Names of tlie Mediterranean Family. —
The racia! names of the primitive peoples of the
Mediterranean may be reduced to four, each of them
comprising more or less numerous divisions and sub-
divisions, owing to migrations as well as the influence
of chiefs or geographical position. These four names
correspond to the four great branches of the family
which in various ways and through long ages have
remixed, fought as enemies, immigrated or emigrated
at different periods and by new roads or old roads,
to escape destruction or to seek better means of
existence. By separating, the various branches and
RACIAL NAMES. 33
their divisions acquired special characters, as happens
by segregation in the animal and vegetable kingdoms
generally, becoming variations of the primitive stock
in language, customs, and civilisation, only preserving
the chief common characters, and among these the
physical characters of the family invariably persist
for ages.
These four primitive racial names live in history
and as geographical names, though the peoples and
their civilisation have changed ; by this means alone
we can find the traces of the invaders and immigrants
in the Mediteiranean and their various primitive
seats; this fact is at the same time an indication that
the branches of the Mediterranean family were not
exiles or small tribes, and only for a brief period the
conquerors of the great basin, for they must have
been numerous and powerful to survive all the
changes and struggles of these peoples through long
millenniums.
The Iberians gave its name to the great peninsula
of the south-west of Europe, Spain with Portugal;
the Ligurians under various names occupied various
parts of Italy, joining the Iberians through southern
France; the PeJasgians occupied the peninsula and
islands of Greece, passed into Italy at different
periods, and were diffused through Asia Minor under
the obscure names of Khatti, Hethei, Chittim, Hit-
; finally, the Libyans occupied northern Africa
under various names, of which the most glorious was
that of Egyptians.
In the vicissitudes of ages, rc-minglings and
struggles, invasions and dominations, caused some
peoples and regions to change their names while others
remained unchanged : Greece was old Pelasgia, the
3
34 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
land of the Khatti became Phoenicia, Italy assumed
the historical name which it has borne unchanged for
many thousand years, Africa was sub-divided among
various nations. The stock became more mixed,
without doubt, but unchanged in the main in racial
composition ; new and foreign elements were indeed
added, but these never disturbed, nor do they now
disturb, the primitive character of the Mediterranean
race which constitutes a distinct stock in itself with its
own very marked characters, not to be confounded
with those of any other European or Asiatic stock ;
it is morphologically the finest brunet race which
has appeared in Europe, is derived neither from the
black nor white peoples, but constitutes an autonomous
stock in the human family.
Method of the Investigation. — Before seeking the
origin of the various branches of the Mediterranean
family, and their centre of movement and diffusion,
I propose to pass them in brief review. Our investi-
gation will have an anthropological character which
may even seem exclusive, since we shall not take
account of the various civilisations and their different
epochs among Mediterranean peoples. It is not so,
however; without the aid of the history of civilisation,
of traditions, of geography, without the aid of the
marvellous discoveries of ancient monuments in the
Mediterranean basin, and without the wealth of
objects disinterred in Egypt, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troy,
Crete, Cyprus, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, there would
be much greater obscurity in Mediterranean anthro-
pology; it would be impossible to find a solution of
the problem, still less a synthetic reconstruction such
as I am about to attempt. Thus we need to study
the primitive civilisation of the Mediterranean in
METHOD OF THE INVESTIGATION. 35
order to re-compose the great human nucleus which
appeared there at an unknown distance of time and
still remains unchanged, for the greater part, in its
composition, in spite of new foreign elements which
have penetrated from many sides and in different
epochs.
A doubt may, however, assail us when we attempt
an anthropological solution of this intricate problem,
and that is lest the learned, archaeologists or
historians, should feel no faith in any attempt of
anthropology to resolve the problems of history
or of past races. The lack of results which has led
to this scepticism docs not, however, lie in anthro-
pology, but in a bad method ; .with a rational and
natural method we cannot fail of result A method
which is only in appearance a method inevitably
leads to errors and can produce no results ; if the
archaeologists have had no faith in anthropology they
have been justified.
A celebrated anthropologist, when measuring the
heads of the mummies of the Pharaohs, preserved in
the Pyramids, wrote that the Egyptians belonged to
the white race. His statement meant nothing ; we
could construct a syllogism showing that the Egyptians
are Germans, since the latter also are fair. De
Quatrefages classified the Abyssinians among the
white races ; but if they are black, how can they be
white? If I had followed the old and irrational
method hitherto followed by anthropologists, I could
not have ascertained the affinities among the various
Mediterranean peoples which have enabled me to
attempt a reconstruction which is the result of a
systematic analysis in every direction.
Ever since I have been able to show that anthro-
36 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
pological method should not be different from
zoological method, I have chiefly turned my atten-
tion to the morphology of the skull as revealing those
internal physical characters of human stocks which
remain constant through long ages and at far remote
spots. As a zoologist can recognise the character of
an animal species or variety belonging to any region
of the globe or any period of time, so also should an
anthropologist if he follows the same method of
investigating the morphological characters of the
skull. This method has guided me in my investi-
gations into the present problem, and has given
me unexpected results which were often afterwards
confirmed by archaeology or history. It may there-
fore be easily understood how much help anthro-
pology may bring to the other investigations con-
cerning the origin and paths of civilisation, and I
trust that it will gain a confidence which it has
not always possessed hitherto.
I have followed the various peoples with their
racial names in ancient and modern history ; I have
examined when possible the ancient and modern
skulls belonging to each branch of the races .in
question, and I have met with a fact that is at once
surprising and curious, and that is that there exist
about a dozen cranial forms, by me termed varieties,
common alike to all the peoples called Iberian,
Ligurian, the central Italic as well as the southern
and insular Italic region, the Greek peoples, Asia
Minor, ancient Egypt, and all northern Africa now
occupied by the Berbers and Kabyles. Other cranial
varieties with less numerous characters are also found
in these regions mixed with the first-mentioned
varieties ; they appear to be foreign racial elements
METHOD OF THE INVEbl IGATION. 37
that have mingled with the other throughout the
Mediterranean basin.
I have been able to follow and compare these
cranial forms from the Iberian peninsula of neolithic
times to prehistoric Liguria, from Etruria to Latium
and neolithic Sicily, from Greece to the Troad and
Hissarlik, in graves of the Mycenaean period in Crete;
I have compared these with ancient series from Egypt
and Tunis, and I have found the same forms and
varieties with their subordinate forms still pre-
dominant This analysis, cariicd out by a uniform
method, has revealed another important point, and
that is that the ancient cranial forms invariably re-
semble the modern forms of the same regions, except
that some foreign element has become intermingled.
Persistence of physical characters through long ages
and vicissitudes is thus proved ; without such con-
stancy science would be helpless. The same fact
leads to a result which may seem unexpected, and
that is that from its origin the Mediterranean stock
has not changed; in spite of foreign invasions the
racial composition remains the same ; the new
elements have not been able to disintegrate it nor
to alter its general physiognomy.
The cranial morphology of the Mediterranean
family in its four chief branches — Iberians, Ligurians,
Pelasgians, Libyans — and their minor disjoined
branches, possesses special characters, clearly dis-
tinct from that of the peoples of the centre and
east of Europe ; my analyses and the nomenclature
I have adopted for cranial forms enable us to recog-
nise them in whatever part of the world we may meet
them, so special and easily distinguishable arc their
characters. Among these forms the pentagonoid, the
38 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
ovoid, and the ellipsoid come first, while others, such
as the platycephalic and the cuneiform, are less
numerous.1 I am able to affirm that these characters
are not found among the Celtic, Germanic, Finnic, or /
other populations, and any one who is accustomed to
such analysis may easily recognise any foreign or
adventitious element which may have penetrated into
the Mediterranean from the north or the east.
Another phenomenon, however, is revealed by the
analysis of the cranial forms of the various branches
of this great family, and that is that these varieties
are differently mingled in the composition of a nation,
which thus receives a different physiognomy, accord-
ing as some forms are more numerous and prominent
than others. There is thus an appearance of diversity
which is almost or quite absent when we consider the
whole family.2
1 For a description of these and other cranial types sec Sergi, Specie
e Variet^ Utttatte, Bocca, Turin, 1900, chaps, iv. and v.
3 Cf. Sergi, Africa: Anti-apologia della slirpe camitica, Turin, 1897,
as regards the methods and results referred to above ; also Arii e
Italic i: At lor no all' Italia preistorica, Turin, 1898, for many related
facts.
CHAPTER III.
THE CENTRE OF DIFFUSION OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN FAMILY.
The Cradle of the Mediterranean Stock— The Hamiies.
The Cradle of the Mediterranean Stock. — I owe it
chiefly to my craniological method that I have been
able to see the characteristic resemblances and differ-
ences among this chaos of peoples, formed from the
most ancient times, and re-mingled with each other
and with foreign elements. No pre-conception has in-
fluenced me in attempting to re-unite in one synthesis
the analytic elements of my researches; it has come
naturally as the result of previously established facts
which were themselves a revelation, as I studied in
succession the peoples of the Mediterranean and their
physical characters, especially the forms of the skull
and face. The ancient skulls of continental and in-
sular Italy, and the persistence of their forms in the
modern population, wherever it has been preserved,
the skulls of the Iberian peninsula, of Greece, of
ancient Egypt, then those of the rest of northern
Africa and of the Canary Islands, all revealed by
their constant uniformity, and the uninterrupted suc-
cession of the same forms, that they must necessarily
belong to a single original stock.
But that original stock could not have its cradle in
the basin of the Mediterranean, a basin more fitted
40 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
for the confluence of peoples and for their active
development ; the cradle whence they dispersed in
many directions was more probably in Africa. The
study of the fauna and flora of the Mediterranean
exhibits the same phenomenon and becomes another
argument in favour of the African origin of the
Mediterranean peoples.
To-day, however, some years after I first reached
this conviction, a confirmation, almost unexpected,
has come from prehistoric archaeology and related
studies, as I shall show in the sequel when discussing
the primitive civilisations of the Mediterranean stock.
For the present, keeping within the domain of
physical anthropology, we shall find confirmation
and demonstration in an almost complete study of
certain African populations occupying an extended
area and possessing marked homogeneity in skeletal
characters, to a less extent also in external characters,
as well as in the languages formerly and still spoken.
I refer to the populations which pass under the old
name of Hamitic, chiefly on account of the linguistic
characters which have contributed to classify and
group them in a single stock.
The Hamites. — As I have said, many of the peoples
called Hamitic still preserve their ancient language
in a more or less altered form ; among these may be
included the inhabitants of the Sahara, the Berbers
of every type and every region, while many others
have wholly or partially lost their language, like the
Egyptians, the Wahuma, the Masai. But they still
show the physical character of their stock in spite of
the incongruous and hybrid forms which have re-
sulted. These physical characters — I mean the
fundamental skeletal, and especially cranial and
THE HAM1I 41
facial characters — are common to the populations of
the Mediterranean ; so that it may be said that the
area of the so-called llamitic stock extends from IO°
north latitude towards the west,- and from 8" south
latitude towards the east, throughout the Mediter-
ranean. We shall sec, however, that it is not con-
fined to this basis, but has extended into Europe at
the north.
I divide the Hamites of Africa into two great
branches, an eastern branch in the north-east of the
continent, and a northern one in the north-west
/. Eastern Branch: —
1. Ancient and modern Egyptians (Copts,
Fellaheen), excluding the Arabs.
2. Nubians, Bejas.
3. Abyssinians.
4. Gallas, Danakil, Somali's.
5. Masai.
6. Wahuma or Watusi.
//. Northern Branch: —
1. Berbers of Mediterranean, Atlantic, and
Sahara.
2. Tcbus or Tubus.
3. Fulahs or Fulbe's.
4. Guanchcs of the Canaries.1
Of these populations the Egyptians are still Mediter-
ranean, and the Berbers Mediterranean and in part
Atlantic ; the name " Berber," which is recent, corre-
sponds, in great part at least, to the ancient " Libyan,"
and is the name which I shall here adopt.
Now the convergence of physical characters in all
1 See Scrgi, A/rita, .'..
42 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
these populations, while it leads us to regard them as
forming a single human stock, also suggests that their
origin must be found in Africa. In the Italian
edition of this work I had placed the centre of origin
and diffusion of this stock in East Africa in the
region of the great lakes, near the sources of the
Nile, and including Somaliland. Many arguments
led me to that conclusion, especially the very ancient
existence of a population which in the Egyptian
monuments is recorded as giving origin to their race,
the Punti, and whose physical characters resemble
and are often identical with those of the Egyptians ;
also the discovery of flint implements resembling
those of palaeolithic age in Europe, and the existence
of unexplored tumuli in the territories of the Dinkas
and the Somali's.
The flint implements of palaeolithic type have been
found by Revoil, Jousseanne, Scton-Karr,1 and others.
Seton-Karr believes that the stone implements of
Somaliland arc scattered over the whole region,
but probably mostly beneath the present surface, in a
region bounded approximately by the Red Sea and
lat 9° 30' N., and between long. 44" and 45° E. The
same explorer gives some indication as to the relation
that these implements bear to the soil and the geo-
logical features of the country.
Little is yet known of the tumuli of which RcVoil
has given various drawings. Bottago also saw some
of these, and was told that they were the work of
Galla tribes, to which statement he objects that no
1 Cf. Sergi, Africa, pp. 175, 193, 197; Seton-Karr, "Discovery of
Evidences of the Paleolithic Stone Age in Somaliland," Jour. Anth.
Insl.t 1896, p. 271; and for criticisms on some points by Dr. II. O.
Forbes, see Nature, igth April 1900.
THE HAMITES. 43
such constructions arc seen in the country of the
Gallas.
In North Africa and Sahara also very numerous
flint arrow-heads and fragments of worked flint have
been found, a certain proof of the existence of a large
population.1 The idea has thus arisen that Sahara
rather than Eastern Africa was the original home of
the populations which have occupied the Mediter-
ranean basin and Hamitic Africa, or Africa north of
the Sudan.2
It appears to me now, however, that to establish
absolutely the place of origin of a human stock is
neither an easy nor safe task ; we can only indicate
approximately, in the present case, the most probable
region of Africa. If it seems to me most reasonable
to look to the region of the great lakes, it is because
that region is most favourable to human existence,
and if similar conditions were also to be found in the
Sahara at the Quaternary epoch, I will not deny to .
that district also the possibility of being the cradle /
of the human species which has had so large a part
in the destinies of the world.
At this point I must defend my opinion against an
inaccurate interpretation of it by the eminent French
anthropologist, Zaborowski, who has attributed to
me the statement that the Egyptians are diffused
through Asia Minor, Southern Russia, and else- \\
where.3 My statement is that a human stock, neither \
Egyptian nor Iberian, nor Pclasgic, nor Ligurian, has j
1 Tissot, Gfographie Comparer de la province romaine d\4friqne,
1'aris, Tome I., 1884, p. 398 ; Bourde, La frame an Sudan, p. 399.
- Ki-.inc, Man Past and Tie sent, Cambridge, 1899, pp. 450 el sty.
1 " Du Dnicstre 4 la Caspicnnc," /•'/<//. Sec. tTAnth. dt Paris, 1896,
pp. 8 1 et sf,/.
44 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
shown itself in successive emigrations and in various
directions, and has formed the four peoples at a later
date designated by the names Egyptian, Libyan,
Iberian, Pelasgic, and Ligurian, with their successive
later sub-divisions bearing new racial names. I could
not imagine that the Egyptians of history, so rich in
civilisation, had carried a prehistoric civilisation into
southern Russia, as Zaborowski makes me say, since,
as he himself now admits, I supposed that it was the
ancestors of the Libyans, Iberians, Egyptians, and
Pelasgians who had peopled the various regions of
the Mediterranean, including Asia Minor, and then
also southern Russia
But I also supposed — and the supposition has now
been confirmed by discoveries in Egypt — that the
Egyptians were a branch of the Libyans, and thus I
extended the name of Libyan to all the African
populations of northern Africa, from Egypt to
Morocco, including those of the Sahara. The
Egyptians would thus be a detached branch of the
primitive Libyans, an opinion very far removed from
the belief, attributed to me, that the Egyptians went
to Russia. Concerning the anthropological evidence
for the wide diffusion of the African stock there will
be more to say when I deal in turn with each people,
or fraction of a people, possessing recognisable
physical characters.1
1 For an exact interpretation of my opinions see A. J. Evans, " The
Eastern Question in Anthropology," Presidential Address in Anthro-
pological Section, British Assocb^ion, Liverpool, 1896 {Nature, 1st
Oct. 1896).
CHAPTER IV.
THE LIBYANS.
Ubyans on Egyptian Monuments — The Evidence of Herodotus
and other Classic Writers — The Berbers — Oiigin oj the
IJpyans — The Myth of Atlantis — The African Blonds —
Physical Characters of the Libyans.
Libyans on Egyptian Monuments. — On the* Egyptian
monuments we find a few vague references to the
Libyans, fewer and more indefinite than those regard-
ing the Hamitic and other peoples in the south of
Egypt. Brugsch, in the ethnographic lists of ancient
Egypt, found the Psylli in the Pit with light red-
coloured skin and black hair falling in tresses, the
beard also being black; and the Asbyta; in the Sopet
at the west of the modern oasis of Farafrah with
light red-coloured skin and red beard and hair.1
Asbytae and Psylli should be regarded as two portions
of the Libyan family, as may be concluded from later
information derived from other sources ; the names
of Lebu and Tchenu or Tamahu are recorded more
often on the monuments, and seem to represent the
Libyans of geographers and historians. On the maps,
however, the Tehenu and the Lebu appear as two
peoples, the first near Egypt, the second more to the
west
It is important to observe the pictorial representa-
1 Dit Alta&ftisehe Volkertaftl, p. 74.
46 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tion from which it has been concluded that the Lcbu
and the Tchenu were a white race with blue eyes
and fair hair like the Germans. It is true that on
Egyptian monuments the Tchenu are painted with
skin of a bright red, and red or yellow beard and
blue eyes ; but we also find that many personages are
depicted with red as well as green eyes, though there
is no reason to suspect that the races to which they
belonged possessed an iris of either colour.1 Rosellini,
in his Plate CLVIII., shows us a group of persons
with yellow skin, black hair and beards, and
green eyes, and another with pale rose skin, black
hair, and red eyes; in Plate CLIX. a group with
yellow skin, yellowish beard and blue eyes, and again
a group of three individuals of whom the middle
individual shows a brick-red, Egyptian complexion,
and blue eyes. It is unnecessary to prove that these
combinations do not indicate racial varieties.
Miiller observes, with reference to the Tehenu,
that they bear -a name which is commonly inter-
preted as meaning light-coloured, but that there
can be no doubt that the root Thn only signifies
"brilliant" and not white.2 We must not forget
that the Asbytae and Psylli, already referred to, are
represented with a fair skin and black beard and
hair. It is certainly an important question as
regards the origin of the Libyan populations, the
more so as to-day we find a blond element among
the Berbers of the north coast and Morocco, and it
is claimed that they furnish the primitive type of
the Libyans represented in Egyptian pictures.
The Evidence of Herodotus and other Classic
1 See Sergi, Africa, cap. ii.
* Asien und Eurofa, p. 14.
THE EVIDENCE OF HERODOTUS, ETC. 47
Writers. — The most ancient ethnographic observa-
tions, after the Egyptian, arc those furnished by
Herodotus, who by Libya generally meant Africa
outside Egypt, which he regarded as the natural
frontier between Asia and Libya, making it as it
were a distinct continent by itself,1 notwithstanding the
opinion of Vivien de Saint-Martin, who believed that
Herodotus placed the borders of Libya at Mount
Casius, near the isthmus of Suez,2 where he simply
placed the eastern border of Egypt3 Herodotus
also gives a more restricted meaning to Libya, dis-
tinguishing it from Ethiopia, as may be gathered
from various passages and from his ethnographic
division of the populations. His clearest indications,
which he obtained in Egypt itself on the occasion of
his visit, as well as from other travellers and navi-
gators to the Libyan coasts, are those concerning the
tribes of the sea-board ; but he also knew something
of the tribes of the interior, beginning with the oasis
of Ammon. I need not discuss the accuracy or in-
accuracy of the itineraries described by Herodotus,
nor the geographical position of the places mentioned ;
I have only to occupy myself with the ethnography.4
Herodotus knew the desert of Libya and many of
its oases, and he speaks in various places of that of
Ammon and its inhabitants, whom he believes to be
a mixed people of Egyptian and Ethiopian origin,
with a language that partakes of those of both races;
he knows also Augila, a date-bearing country where
the Nasamoncs go to gather dates.
1 Book IT., cap. xvii.
1 Lt Nord de T Afrique, pp. 29- 30.
» Book II., 158.
4 Cf. Vivien de Saint-Martin, 0/. <•//., for a discussion of various
geographical questions in Herodotus.
48 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Herodotus also enumerates the tribes he found on
the western borders of Egypt The first of these are
the Adyrmachidse, who have the same customs as the
Egyptians, except that they dress like other Libyans;
then come the Giligammae, who inhabit the country
to the west as far as the island of Aphrodisais; then
the Asbytae, who dwell above Cyrene, in the interior.
The Auschisae come next to the Asbytae on the west,
above Barce, and extend as far as the Hesperides.
In the same region are found the Cabales, a people
small in number, who extend along the sea-coast
towards Tauchira, in the district of Barce. The
Nasamones, a large tribe, are to the west of the
Auschisae, and leave their flocks in summer to gather
dates.
The Psylli are neighbours of the Nasamones, but
having perished on account of the extraordinary
barrenness of the country, the latter have occupied
their territory. To the south, beyond the Nasamones
and the Psylli,' in a district where wild beasts are
found, live the Garamantes, who avoid intercourse
with other peoples ; they have no weapons, and
cannot defend themselves. Vivien de Saint-Martin
remarks, concerning the Garamantes, that Herodotus
elsewhere says of this people that they are ten days'
journey distant from Augila, and that they fight
against the Ethiopians, using chariots with four
horses. They would thus be two different peoples.
The neighbours of the Garamantes on the sea towards
the west were the Macae, then the Gindanes, and to
the south of these the Lotophagi, who, along the sea,
border on the Machlyes, closely resembling them in
customs and extending to the river Triton, which falls
into the Lake Tritonis. The Ausenses, on the opposite
THE EVIDENCE OF HERODOTUS, ETC 49
side of the river, also dwell on Lake Tritonis; to the
north arc the Maxyes, the Zavcccs, and the Gizantes
or Zygantcs.
Beyond this region Herodotus knows little or
nothing definite; he has heard that ten days' journey
beyond the Garamantes, in the interior of Libya,
thcic is a mountain of salt and a spring where the
inhabitants are called Atarantes; and that ten days'
journey beyond this begin the Atlas Mountains, which
extend as- far as the Pillars of Hercules; the people
dwelling there he calls Atlantes.1
At this point Herodotus ends his enumeration of
Libyan tribes, among which he further distinguishes
between those that are nomadic and those that are
sedentary and agricultural. " From Egypt as far as
Lake Tritonis the Libyans lead a pastoral life, living
on flesh and milk. The Libyans to the west of Lake
Tritonis are not shepherds."2 This is only true in a
relative sense, remarks Saint-Martin. It is certain
that between Egypt and the Syrtes the naturally
bare and arid soil is more adapted to a pastoral and
nomad life, while between the Syrtes and the Pillars
of Hercules it is more suited to cultivation ; but
Herodotus was wrong in believing that to the west
of Tritonis, in a land considered by Greeks and
Romans as above all a country of nomads and shep-
herds, no nomads were to be found.3
The Petiplus of Scilax only records four Libyan
populations : the Marmarides, from Egypt to the
1 1 -peridcs ; the Nasamoncs, from that spot to the
great Syrtes ; the Macae, on the coast of the same
» IV., 184.
- ILnnlotus, IV., caps. 186-187.
J Of. (it., pp. 60-6 1.
50 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
gulf towards the west; and the Lotophagi, as far as
the lesser Syrtes.1 Diodorus Siculus speaks, in refer-
ence to the expedition of Agathoclcs, of three Libyan
tribes, the Micatani and Zufoni, who are nomads,
and the Asfodelodi, who by the colour of their skin
resemble the Ethiopians.2
The Roman wars in Africa extended the know-
ledge of Libyan tribes, and gave to various popula-
tions their racial names. The Afri appeared in the
district of Carthage, called Africa; the Numidi, which
is apparently a translation of the Greek Nomades;
the Mauri, who gave their name to Mauritania,
called also Manrusi by the Greeks.3 The expedition
of Suetonius Paulinus to the south of the Atlas
enables us to know the Getuli;4 that of Cornelius
Balbus to Fezzan5 and the expeditions of Septimius
Flaccus and of Julius Maternus to the south of Fezzan,
as far as the country of Agisimba, carry us to the
centre of Africa.0
To identify regions and the populations inhabiting
them from the data of ancient writers and those of
modern explorers is not easy, nor always fruitful;
because the notices of Greek and Latin writers have
reached us in a fragmentary and imperfect form, or
in brief summaries like those of Pliny, and because
racial and geographic names have undergone com-
plete transformation, especially as a consequence of
the Arab invasions.7
1 Scilax, reriplns, 108-110.
2 XX., 38, 57; XX VI., 27.
3 Mela, i. 4; Sallust, Jug. xix. ; Pliny, Nat. Hist., v. I, 2;
Slrabo, xvii., iii. 2. * Pliny, v. I. ° Pliny, v. 5.
B Ptolemy, Gtogr., Prolog, viii.
7 Full and valuable notes and elucidations niayln: found in Vivien de
Saint- Martin, o/>. (it. ; also in Carette, " Kecherchcs stir 1'origine el les
THE EVIDENCE OF HERODOTUS, ETC $1
In speaking of the extreme limits reached by the
Romans in Africa, we must discuss the expedition of
Septimius Flaccus and Julius Maternus to the south
of Fezzan. The record of this expedition is furnished
by Marinus as quoted by Ptolemy: "Septimius
Flaccus, moving with an army from Libya against
the Ethiopians, arrived in three months, after leaving
the Garamantcs towards the south." "Julius Mater-
nus, having left Leptis Magna and Garama, and
joined with the king of the Garamantes, marched
towards the south against the Ethiopians, and after
four months arrived at Agisimba of the Ethiopians,
where rhinoceroses are found." 1 I will not repeat the
details of journeys and distances given by Ptolemy and
other writers, but I think we may accept the opinion
of Saint-Martin, who places Agisimba towards 16°
and 1 8° N.L. in the oasis of Asben.2 Nor must I omit
to mention that in the oasis of Atarantes, of which
Herodotus speaks, Barth believes that we may recog-
nise one of the oases of Asben ; he connects the name
Atarantes with Atara, in the Haussa language, which
means reunite and signifies population ( Volksge-
meinde}. It is true, he adds, that no mine is to be
found in the mountain of Asben, but we find instead
the salt deposits of Bilma, with an antiquity of some
two thousand three hundred years, which must have
been utilised in these regions.3
Both references show that the interior of Africa
migrations clcs principales tribus tie 1'Afriquc septcntrionalc,'* Ex-
ploration scitnlifique i/e rAltfrie, Paris, 1853, tome iii. ; and Tissot,
" ( leographie comparce dc la province romaine d'Afrique," Ex/>lor,
:!ijtijtie de la 7'unisit, Paris, 1884, tome i.
1 I'li'U-my, (,'fop:, lot. tit.
* Of. (it., p|> 215 -22\.
(.'tntralafrikanixher VotaMarien, Parl I., p. cii.
52 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
was by no means unknown either to the Egyptians,
who carried on commerce there with caravans, or to
the Romans who penetrated thither with their armies.
Unfortunately, concerning the Roman expedition into
Central Africa we possess no definite knowledge; it
would have furnished us with information of great
historical value as to the populations of these regions.
Herodotus, while affirming that the Libyans are
numerous and of various stocks,1 concludes, after
enumerating the tribes and population of the coast
and interior, by saying that the races (ethnea) in all
Libya may be reduced to four, two of these being
i indigenous and two foreign. The Ethiopians and
the Libyans are the indigenous races, the first dwell-
ing to the south, the second to the north; the Phoe-
nicians and Greeks are the foreign races.2 The word
ethnos is used by Herodotus in two senses, the one
general, the other more restricted, just as we use the
word " race " in an ambiguous manner. Thus Libya
has a generic significance for the whole African con-
tinent, and a particular significance for the region
inhabited by the Libyans proper; the Ethiopians
are the black stock. What physical characters the
Libyans possessed we are not told by the Greek
historian. Scilax, among the ancients, mentions fair
Libyans, and at a later date Procopius speaks of a
population with white skin and fair hair. It seems
that Callimachus also noted the fair Libyan women
among the inhabitants of Cyrenaica. In the interior
of Libya, besides the Garamantes and the Getuli,
there were also, according to Ptolemy, the Melano-
Getuli or black Getuli; this is another vague expres-
sion concerning a physical character of the Libyan
1 IV., 167. 2 IV., 197.
THE EVIDENCE OF HERODOTUS, ETC. 53
population. It must be inferred, as a negative con-
clusion, that the Libyan populations of the coast and
many of the interior were fair in the generic sense
of the word, since we do not find any special indica-
tion of this character, as we do by accident for the
fair element, and more definitely for the black com-
plexion of the more southern Getuli.
The language of these Libyan peoples was " pro-
foundly distinct from the Semitic languages, though
having traits of resemblance to them." l They also
possessed a method of writing which constituted what
was called the Libyan alphabet. It may be recognised
in the Berber hills of the Ahaggar, and with a few
slight modifications it is the same as that still used
by the Tuaregs. It may be reconstituted from know-
ledge of the Targu alphabet in the bilingual in-
scriptions of Thugga.* The Berber alphabet is
substantially identical with the Libyan.'
The geographical and racial names of Libya
changed ; Libya became Africa; the coast popula-
tion lost the names by which they were known to
Herodotus and the geographers who followed him;
the names of Cyrenaica and Africa appeared for
Carthaginian territory, of Numidia, of Mauritania, and
hence the Afri, the Numidi, the Mauri. Nor did
the changes cease at this point ; to the general name
of Libyans succeeded that of Berbers, which to-day is
being lost, to give place to other names, such, for
instance, as Schellachs or the Shluh. Geographers
and ethnographers have disputed concerning the
1 Kenan, 'La Socie'tc' Bcrbcrc," Rtvue Jet Deux Maudes, 1873.
1 Tissot, Gtograpkie cottiparfe, etc., p. 517.
* Tissot, (>/>. fit., pp. 518 el scq.\ cf. the following chapter on the
Egyptians.
54 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
origins of these various successive names which have
designated the regions and inhabitants of Africa.
Libya, it is said, came from the name of a tribe,
Luba or Lovvata, pronounced Levata or Lebata, and
changed by the Greek colonists of Cyrene in their
own language into Libyes or Libya} Hence the
generalisation of the name Libya to the region known
to the Greeks, and to the populations distinct from
the Ethiopians.
The name of Africa was restricted to the territory
of Carthage ; the Romans eventually used it to de-
signate all the Libyan regions, and to-day it serves
to indicate the whole of the vast continent. Con-
cerning the origin of the word Africa many opinions
have been expressed, and it is possible that, like
Libya, it may also be derived from the name of a
tribe.2
The Berbers. — Berber is the name still used to-day
to designate the Libyans of northern Africa and the
Sahara, as well as of western Morocco. The primi-
tive and etymological significance of this name is
disputed. Berber may be the same as Barbar, a
general designation for the great region of the
Somalis, Barbaria, and identical with Barabra Nubians,
and hence without the evil significance wrongly
attributed to the Greek and Roman names. It may
have indicated a stock with fairly similar linguistic
characters.3 Carette and Saint-Martin find in the
names Barbars, Sabarbares, Sabarbures, the special
designation of a number of fractions of the indi-
1 Saint-Martin, op. «'/., p. 150.
2 Saint-Martin, op. cit., pp. 150 el se<j.\ Carette, op. «'/., p. 306;
Tissot, op. eft., pp. 389 et stq.
* Saint-Martin, op. fit., passim.
THE UEKUEKS. 55
genous stock of Africa, and not a Greek or Roman
designation. The Romans confused the racial
names which they found among the natives with
their own word Barbari.1 Carette believes that the
Arab invaders, who experienced the first serious
resistance to their arms among the Berbers of Sus,
extended that name to all the natives of northern
Africa. He considers it probable that in antiquity
the name Barbari, and that of Berber- of Okba,
whence are derived Barbaria and Barbary, were at
first applied only to one people, and that the Arabs,
preoccupied by the resistance they experienced from
that savage and idolatrous people, generalised the
term. " However that may be," he concludes, " the
name Berber was substituted for Libyan at the
Mussulman conquest, and Arab geographers term
Belad-cl-Berber or Berberia the whole of northern
Africa comprised between Barca and the Atlantic, that
is to say, ancient Libya."2
Tissot accepts Carette's opinion for the most part,
but it docs not seem to him probable that the Arabs
gave as a general name for all the Libyan populations
a term which they had found in mid course of their
invasion, fie thinks it more likely that they met
with the name at the very threshold of Africa, that is
to say in Egypt.3
Libyans or Berbers, we to-day understand by these
general names no longer a tribe but a race, as many
would describe it, a branch of the Hamitic stock, as
is indicated by the language which remains un-
changed after so many changes and invasions by
Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, and, more
1 Saint- Martin, op. «.-//., p. 80; Cart-tie, of. (it., pp. 13 et st</.
1 Of. tit., pp. 16-17. ' Of. dt.t p. 397.
56 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
numerous than any, Arabs. But even the name
Berber has died out ; there only remain various
divisions of the same Berber or Libyan family, with
national names, assumed for different purposes. It
seems that, in Morocco especially, for the name
Berbers is substituted Scellachs, distinguished from
the Arab invaders, the Negroes, and the mixed popu-
lation inhabiting the Libyan region.
Origin of the Libyans. — If we recall the linguistic
classification of Lepsius we find that the second
branch of the Hamitic tongues is the Libyan,
variously subdivided ; from the linguistic point of
view, therefore, the Libyans belong to the Hamitic
stock, and it would seem easy to infer that they are
racially related to the Egyptian and other eastern
Hamites. It cannot be supposed that they are of
different origin from the Hamites, and learned their
language through having been subjugated by them
at some ancient epoch, for there is no reason to
suppose that the-Egyptians ever conquered that great
African region which was and is occupied by the
Libyans. Egyptian dominion over the Libyans of
the Mediterranean was limited to the most eastern
tribes, and even then seems to have been only tempo-
rary. With the tribes of the interior the Egyptians
had commercial relationship, but no rule over them,
and we know clearly the western limits of the do-
minion of the Pharaohs. The Libyan tongue, so
widely spoken from the western borders of Egypt to
the Atlantic, and from the Mediterranean to the
Sahara, is the original speech of that Hamitic branch,
and not imported.
Libyan writing is also different from historical
Egyptian writing ; whatever may be the origin of
ORIGIN OK THE LIBYANS. 57
th.it writing, it seems to have nothing in common with
lhat adopted by the most ancient highly civilised
people of the Mediterranean. This fact supports the
evidence in favour of the language not being imported.
Though many hypotheses have been advanced as
to the origin of the Libyans, no traditions exist, if we
except one transmitted to us by Sallust, and gathered
from a history by Hiempsal, King of Numidia.
" Originally," writes Sallust, " Africa was inhabited
by the Getuli and the Libyans, rough and uncivilised
peoples, who lived on the flesh of wild animals and
on grass like the beasts. They were not ruled either
by custom or by law, or by any authority; they were
wanderers, resting wherever darkness surprised them.
But the Africans narrate that when Hercules died in
Spain, his army, composed of various peoples, having
lost its leader and many desiring the "command,
dispersed. There were there Medes, Persians, and
Armenians, who, embarking in ships, occupied the
maritime territory. The Persians went near the
ocean, and for dwellings made use of their overturned
ships, since they could not find materials in the fields,
nor were able to buy or barter them from Spain ; the
sea and ignorance of the language impeded com-
merce. They mingled slowly with the Getuli by
marriage, and since they often changed their settle-
ments, were called Numidi." Hiempsal proceeded to
describe how these invaders obtained honour and glory
by subjugating the native Libyans.1 Much has been
written concerning this passage in Sallust, but it
seems to me to teach us nothing but the national
vanity of the Numidian writer Hiempsal, who desires
us to accept the lofty origin of his Numidian fcllow-
1 Jujurtha, xvii., xviii.
58 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
countrymen. The problem as to the origin of the
Libyans and the Getuli remains unsolved, and we only
know that they were the first indigenous populations.
The story of the Medes, Persians, and Armenians in
Spain with Hercules remains merely a legend.
The Myth of Atlantis. — Not less legendary, it seems
to me, is the myth of the Atlantides, that great island
in the Atlantic, now vanished, from which the first
inhabitants of North Africa are said to have come.
If the existence of Atlantis is not contradicted by
geology, even if it has been considered necessary, in
order to explain certain geological features of Spain
and of the west and north coasts of Africa, its exist-
ence must still be placed anterior to the quaternary
epoch, when at earliest we could fix the origin of the
African population.1
D'Arbois de Jubainville, who believes that tradition
shows Iberian influence from Great Britain to Egypt,
and who finds Iberians everywhere — in Italy, on the
Rhine, in North Africa — seeks the origin of the Iberians
in this same submerged Atlantis.2 I do not under-
stand why it is necessary to search for the origin of
the Libyans in a vanished island when there are
ample proofs of the relationship of the Libyans to
the other Hamites; apart from other evidence, their
language also in its fundamental elements is in
common. From the west, beyond the Pillars of
Hercules, to the east of Africa, the evidence is in
favour of the African origin ; in the east the living
historical elements arc preserved, and we find wide
1 Cf. the arguments for the existence of Atlantis in the Appendix to
Tissot, La Province Romaine (TAfriijtu, pp. 665 et seq.
3 Les Premiers Habitatiis a'Eiuo/e, Paris, 2nd ed., 1889, pp 24 --'5 -
and see Hartmnnn, Die Nigrifier, pp. 274 el seq.
Till- AFRICAN BLONDS. 59
diffusion in every direction; in the west we only find
an expanse of ocean and the Fortunate Islands, the
possible relic of a continent submerged long before any
human stock could people it. The Canary Islands
even reveal their African origin in their plants and
their animals as well as in their human population.
Tlu African Blonds. — The problem of the origin of
the Libyans is intimately related with the existence
of the blond element found in Tunis, Algeria, and
Morocco, and with the great series of megalithic
monuments scattered over northern and western
Africa wherever the Berber population exists. On
the ground of climate, it has been thought impossible
that the blond racial elements could be of African
origin ; the land of the blonds is the north, never the
south — such seemed to be the most acceptable opinion.
The megalithic monuments, found not only in Tunis
and Algeria, but in Morocco and other parts of
Northern Africa, are of the same character as those
found in Europe — Spain and Portugal, the west of
France especially, Great Britain, Denmark — as well
as in many islands of the Mediterranean.
These two facts, thus indicating a convergence of
African and European origins, have led to the sug-
gestion that we must seek the origin of the Libyans
and their civilisation, at all events as regards the
megalithic monuments, in Europe rather than in
Africa. According to an ancient opinion, perhaps
the earliest, the blonds of the Atlantic region were
due to the invasion of the Vandals, afterwards con-
quered by Belisarius.1
1 Bertrand believes that a dolmen race has made the rircuit of the
world, tussing through Kurojx: and Africa and everywhere leaving
behind it monuments that are identical in form. (De la Distribution
dei Dolmens J la surface de fa fratiit, Paris, 1860.)
60 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
It certainly seems to be proved that the existence
of the blonds in North Africa is of very ancient date,
much anterior to the invasion of the Vandals. From
various monuments it appears that the Egyptians
knew them, having come into conflict with them.
For the earlier theory, therefore, another was sub-
stituted, according to which a blond race, having
traversed Europe, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar,
and entering Africa mingled with the indigenous
brunet element, which, perhaps arising in the Sahara,
had proceeded northwards. French ethnologists and
anthropologists of eminence supported this view, and
it may be well to examine it.
General Faidherbe, who in various writings has
occupied himself with the ethnology and anthropology
of Libya, summarising his views regarding Algeria,
writes: — "In the region with which we are occupied,
we find to-day beside the elements — Arab, Negro,
European — whose origin we know, another element,
still more numerous, which forms about three-quarters
of the total population (nine millions out of twelve
million souls), speaking a dialect of the same language
called Berber, or having abandoned that language for
Arabic within the past thousand years. This fact
dominates the pr6blem: the language which extends
from Egypt to the Atlantic, including the Canaries,
where the ancient names of places and populations
are Berber, and from the Mediterranean to the Sahara,
indicates one people, one race. Those who speak the
language resemble physically, in general, the Egyptian
natives, though less brown, as well as certain popula-
tions of the same latitudes in Arabia and neighbouring
Asiatic countries; they have a bilious tint and black
hair and eyes. We have no historical data concern-
THE AFRICAN BLONDS. 6l
ing the origin of this people identified with the
Berber language, just as we have none also for the
Egyptians, but its existence is indicated by the
Egyptian annals of about 6000 years ago." After
recalling the two names, Lebu and Tamahu, by
which the Egyptians knew the Libyans, Faidherbe
passes on to the blonds. " Between one thousand
and two thousand years before the Christian era a
new race appeared at the west of Egypt Already,
about 1700 B.C, during the XVIIIth dynasty, the
mother of Amenhotep IV. was a blond with blue
eyes and rosy skin, of origin foreign to the Delta;
but during the XlXth dynasty, towards 1400 B.C.,
there was a great invasion of nomads with blue eyes
and fair hair coming from the west towards Egypt.
During the reign of Seti I. the Libyans seriously
attacked lower Egypt together with their allies and
the Mediterranean peoples. Seti's son, Ramses II.,
stayed their advance, but under Menoptah, the son of
Ramses II., the invasion became formidable, and the
most terrible of the invaders were the blonds, who
finally established themselves in Egypt and furnished
the king with troops. Blonds in Africa, with a
modern climate which is the same as that of historic
times, are an anomaly. These blonds came into
Africa across the Straits of Gibraltar from the land
of the blonds, Northern Europe, and as evidence of
their migration we find the dolmens, which extend
in a continuous line from the shores of the Baltic to
Tunis. These blonds from the north subjugated the
native Libyans or allied themselves with .them [Faid-
herbe here recalls Sallust's legend] ; they adopted
their language and were confused with them by the
Egyptians under the name of Tamahu; finally they
02 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
mingled with them by crossing. Traces of them
remain among nearly all the populations which speak
or have spoken the Berber tongue. At certain points
blonds are disseminated or agglomerated. We may
call Berber the population which resulted from the
mingling of the native Libyans with the northern
blonds."1
Topinard, who followed up Faidherbe's observa-
tions on Algeria, especially occupied himself with
this blond element in the Berber population, and
enumerated five theories which might account for
their presence. Thus they might be (i) the residue
of the Vandals, as Shaw thought ; or (2) mercenaries
brought into Africa, especially from Gaul, by the
Romans ; or (3) a population from the East, dating
from the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt ; or
(4) a fair race existing from time immemorial in
North Africa, whence they sent an expedition towards
Egypt, and also towards the north, where they con-
structed dolmens ; or, finally (5), they may have
come from the north, as Faidherbe believed.
A little later, Tissot, who resided in Morocco, while
pointing out the existence of the same megalithic
monuments in that region, occupied himself with the
blond elements of the population and its components.
He considered that the blonds formed more than a
third part of the population of Morocco, as Drum-
mond Hay had stated, and that two-thirds of the
Rif colony established at Tangier were composed of
individuals of blond and chestnut type, the other
third of a brown type resembling the European
population of the south-west of France. The Berbers
1 " Instructions sur 1'Anthropologie <1e 1'AlgeVie," Bull. Soc. Anth.
Paris, 2ml series, viii., 1873, PP- ^°3 <"' sef-
THE AFRICAN BLONDS. 63
of northern and central Morocco have a European
physiognomy, as also the independent Berbers of the
south and the mountains ; and their customs and
habits approximate them to the French. On the
heights of the Atlas chain the population is blond ;
many have eyes that are blue, grey, or green like a
cat's. But the population on the southern slopes of
the Atlas towards the Sahara are of brown type, with
black eyes, and resemble the Sicilians in physiog-
nomy. Tissot also believed he could discern a third
brown type, of eastern character. Influenced, it
seems to me, by racial names and the opinions of
others, Tissot believed he could find the Libyans
proper in two races, blond and brown, corresponding
to the French : the Getuli in the brown southern
race, the Numidians in the eastern type, and Melano-
Gctuli in the brown race crossed with Negro
elements.1
A few years later, when compiling an important
work on the comparative geography of Roman
Africa, Tissot admitted the existence of an autoch-
thonous race in the Sahara, demonstrated by the
flint implements found in the desert region, and the
superposition of a race coming from Europe. These
two races he supposed to have fused and so formed
the Libyan or Berber stock, the two racial elements
still preserving their brown and blond physical
characters.2
Broca also was of this opinion, which he maintained
against that of Shaw and others.3 DC Quatrcfages, on
1 " Sur les Monuments Mq;ali(l)ii|ucs ct les Populations blondes du
Maroc," /'<•.-//<• if.liithrofotogie, v , 1876.
* Gfojraf>hie <w///«//r>, pp. 398 el st<j.
3 " I.cs IVupk-N M»n<K i-t Irs M.mimun's Mt'galithiqucs dans
l'Afri<|iio septentrionalf," A'fo. if. -tilth,, v., 1876.
64 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
the other hand, believed that the presence of the blond
element in North Africa remained unexplained.1
Together with the above opinions we find others,
especially those of Desor and Letourneux among the
older writers, which are wholly or partly opposed to
those of Faidherbe and Broca. Desor remarks that
the modern inhabitants of the Atlas do not preserve
the physiognomy which the Egyptians have ascribed
to the Tamahu. He finds that the inhabitants of
the oasis of Suf are hardly to be distinguished from
Europeans, and to Martin, who accompanied Desor,
some of the children looked like scholars in some
Provencal or Languedocian village school. These
blonds might be the residue of the primitive Tamahu.
Desor asks if we ought not to reverse our search and
admit an immigration of the fair race from northern
Africa into Europe rather than in the reverse
direction.
Letourneux, again, in a letter to Desor,2 describes
and classifies the sepulchral monuments of Eastern
Algeria, and distinguishes between those of which
the Berber origin is certain, those called Celtic, and
those not yet classified. Regarding the first there
is no doubt ; as to the second he remarks that the
accumulation at s"ome spots shows that they were
raised by a long series of generations, and must
belong to different epochs; he can find none of the
Roman age. These monuments are varied, and some
have a special character. He refuses to believe that
these monuments are connected with the Celts, who
were not the only people who constructed dolmens.
1 Hffloire Ghttrale des Races Humaines, 1889, p. 486.
2 " Sur les Monuments funcraires de l'A1g£rie orientate," Archiv
fur A nth. , vol. ii.
THE AFRICAN BLONPS. 65
As to whether the Berbers raised these monuments,
he replies that this question brings us to the origin
and establishment of the Berbers in Africa, and that
examination of the bones found in these same monu-
ments may help us to settle the question. A great
step would be made if we could identify the Berbers
with the blond Tamahu race recorded in Egypt.
He himself believes that he has found traces of the
Tamahu in place-names, such as the city of
Thamugas (or rather Thamugadi), of Thamu, and
so on.
At the meeting of the French Association for the
Advancement of Science, held at Algiers in 1881, a
discussion took place in the anthropological section
concerning these megalith ic mon u men ts. Martin
stated the following conclusions: — (i) The mcgaliTFuc
tombs of Algeria and northern Africa generally
belong to the same race which erected similar monu-
ments in Gaul and Spain. (2) The artistic inferiority
of the African monuments suggests that the African
cemeteries were constructed at a date anterior to the
great cemeteries of the Morbihan and our chief
European monuments. The Celts would thus have
passed into Africa at a very remote period, immedi-
ately after the conque>t of Spain, and would not have
made the same progress as their fellow-countrymen
in Europe. (3) Proof is wanting to show that the
mcgalithic tombs of North Africa belong to the
Tamahu, but it is probable that these were the
blond Libyans spoken of by some Greek geographers,
and that these blond Libyans were Celts from Spain
who conquered the aborigines of North Africa.1
1 Pari*. 1882. Cf. Borsari, Gfosrafia Elnt'ogica e Slorica del.'a
Tripoli niiini t /'(--.an, etc., N.\|>k-s iSSS, | p. 11 ft iff.
5
66 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Martin's second conclusion is worthy of attention ;
finding the construction of the African monuments
inferior to those of Europe, he argues that the Celts
who remained in Europe progressed while the colonists
in Africa remained savage. Would not these Celts,
however, have erected some of their crude monuments
in Europe before emigration ? The facts only become
more inexplicable with the aid of this variant of the
opinion concerning the origin of the megalithic monu-
ments and the blonds
There has, I believe, been no further discussion
concerning the blonds of Africa; the phenomenon
seemed so abnormal that every one has sought an
explanation in accordance with his own scientific
tendencies. Thus Pruner-Bey wrote: — "Admitted
that there exist in Kabylia or elsewhere individuals
or small groups of individuals of xanthoid character,
are we authorised to establish a whole system of
ethnogenesis on this single character ? Are we to
allow the whole melanic mass, with its well-marked
skull and physical type, to be absorbed by a small
fraction only differing in the colour of the hair? In
short, the African Berber compared to the Negro and
the Hottentot corresponds to the Finn in relation to
the other circurnpolar tribes in the north ; he is the
nearest relation to the Egyptian in every respect, and
constitutes an intermediate form between the Semite
and the African of the south."1
Hartmann is unable to accept the theories by which
French ethnologists and anthropologists explain the
presence of the blond element in North Africa and
the megalithic monuments. With regard to the first,
1 Les Carthaginoh en Fiance, p. 51; cf. Hartmann, Die Nigiitier,
p. ^64.
THE AFRICAN BLONDS. 67
he remarks that we must consider the quantity and
quality of this blond African clement, and he believes
that the real blond, resembling the Teuton, docs not
exist there at all, what we find being reddish-brown
or ash-coloured individuals (the French cendrf), as
also Pruner-Bey affirms.1 Topinard, again, describing
the characters of the Kabylcs, remarks that the hair,
and especially the beard, are often chestnut or
reddish.2
The blond element docs not appear to be large;
among 400 Turcos at Bona five were found with fair,
and twenty with chestnut hair.3 Bertholon, among
344 individuals in the north-west of Tunis, found
2.03 per cent with blond and red hair, 9.01 per cent,
with intermediate, perhaps chestnut tints, and 88.95
dark.4 It is true that Tissot states that in Morocco
about one-third of the population is blond, but he
gives no definite statistics. It is more important to
note that he finds that the greater number of blonds is
on the heights of the Atlas mountains, and on their
northern rather than on their southern slopes. Both
as regards the quantity and quality of the blond
element, Hartmann, taking into consideration the
physical characters of the Berbers, considers that the
blond Tamahu and the reddish Magreb population
must find their explanation within Africa itself.5
It may be as Hartmann believes, and I may add
1 Hartmann, op. cit., pp. 263-4.
• Amhropologie de rAlg/rie, p. 627.
' Hartmann, he. tit., p. 263.
4 " F.xploration Anthropologique de la Khoumiric," fSnll. Gt0g.
Hut. et Deseript., 1891, No. 4; Colliijnon, " Repartition <le la Coulcur
«K-- Yeux et ties Chevcux chez les Tunisiens se*<len(aires," Kev. (fAnthi:,
1 888.
8 Lot. tit., p. 264.
68 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
certain considerations which tend to show that the
Celtic theory of the African blonds cannot be main-
tained.
If we turn, as others have done in this connection,
to the Egyptian monuments, we find that the customs
of the Lebu and Tamahu were entirely Libyan.
Their clothing and their ornaments were African, and
had nothing European about them. Tissot himself
states that the same customs prevail among the
Amazigh of the Rif, among certain Tripoli tribes
and so on.1 On the other hand, the European allies
of the Libyans, such as the Siculi, Sards, and lonians,
and also the Cypriots and Phoenicians, retained
customs showing another civilisation, though still
Mediterranean. Now if it is true that a European
race had invaded Africa, and had thrown itself against
Egypt, showing itself, according to Faidherbe, more
terrible than the natives, how is it that it was not
distinguished by customs different from those of the
natives? How is it that it was supplied with the
same African ornaments, such as ostrich feathers?
Why do we find the hair dressed in the African and
not in the European manner? Yet there must have
been great differences, if the one race came from the
north of Europe and the other from the Sahara. It
cannot be said that they had become fused with the
natives whose tongue they had adopted, if it is true
that they attacked Egypt a short time after their
arrival in Africa. And if they were such strong and
proud conquerors, it is unlikely that they would have
abandoned their own language for that of the
conquered barbarians. We may also oppose the
Celtic theory of the blond element in Africa by the
1 Geographic comfarje, pp. 473-4-
THE AFRICAN BLONDS. 69
results of Celtic anthropology established by Broca
and others. According to Broca and subsequent
investigators, such as Hovelacque, the Celts were
brachyccphalic brunets,1 not dolichocephalic blonds,
as many historians and some anthropologists have
supposed.2 The blonds of Africa, as appears from
various measurements, are dolichocephalic.3 Pruner-
Bcy found conformity of type between the Berber
and Egyptian skulls,4 and from an examination of
the skulls from the Roknia graves he deduced the
curious and important conclusion that they exhibited
a type resembling that of ancient Italian skulls, and
he hence suspected that there had been emigration
through Sicily to Tunis.5 Without for the moment
accepting or rejecting this opinion of Pruner-Bcy's
regarding the cranial type of the ancient Italians, we
may note that he could not see the least indication
of Celtic characters in the skulls of the mcgalithic
monuments.
It might be responded that the blonds were Teu-
tonic, and therefore dolichocephalic, perhaps even of
the Reihengrabcr type. No one, however, has abso-
lutely asserted this, and if they were regarded as
Teutons we should have to consider the objections
arising from this supposed acclimatisation in Africa
of a north European race. Moreover, if the Teutonic
clement constructed the megalithic monuments of
1 Broca, "La Race Celliquc Ancicnne el Modcrnc," Kev ifAnth.,
1873; I lovelacquc, " Lc Crane Savoyard," ib , 1877; Scrgi, Liguri t
Celti tulla Valtc del Po, Florence, 1883.
- His and Kiitimeycr, Crania Helvetica, p. 34 ; Virc, " La Kabylic
du Djurjurn," />«//., (it., 1893, iv. 5.
3 Ikrlholon, op. tit.
4 Hartmann, op. tit., p. 272.
• Bouryuignat, cited by Hartmann, op. cit., p. 273.
?O THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Africa and Europe, we ought to find a much greater
number of primitive blonds in Spain, in the west of
France, and in Great Britain before the Celtic inva-
sions of the neolithic age. Now it is precisely this
element which is rare in the west of France and in
Spain, due rather to recent than to prehistoric im-
migrations.
In opposition to the theory of a migration from
the north of Europe to the west and then to Africa,
I am, on the contrary, convinced that a migration of
the African racial element took place in primitive
times from the south towards the north. The types
of Cro-Magnon, L'Homme-Mort, and other French
and Belgian localities, bear witness to the presence
of an African stock in the same region in which we
find the dolmens and other megalithic monuments
erroneously attributed to the Celts.1
As regards rnegajithfc and sepulchral monuments
in general, of various forms, after studying their con-
struction and diffusion throughout the Mediterranean,
on the North African coast, including Egypt, and in
various parts of Europe, I am convinced that they
owe their origin to a stock which I have called
Mediterranean, but which is of African origin. The
term "Mediterranean," as I use it^ lM&""fioF~'the ex-
tension given to it by French anthropologists, and by
those who follow Muller's classification. I understand
by it all those primitive peoples who have occupied
Ithe basin of the Mediterranean, and have such funda-
mental physical characters in common as to enable us 1
to assign to them a single place of origin, which must 1
be in east Africa and to the north of the Equator.
1 Cf. Verneau, Rapport sur tine Mission scientifique dans r Archiptl
Canaricit, Paris, 1887.
THE AFRICAN BLONDS. 7 1
The French give the race, as they term it, a more
restricted and partial sense, so as to exclude many of
the populations which belong to it.
This stock, thus widely extended, must have had
primitive funeral customs, which it preserved until
they were destroyed by new and stronger influences,
after the neolithic epoch had partially modified them
in the regions where that foreign influence was pre-
dominant, as appeared in Greece, Italy, Great Britain,
and some parts of Central Europe. At first the dead »*>„*.
were deposited in grottoes and caves, and the artistic ^
development of the sepulchral monuments in struc- ' ^
turc and form increased with the growth of civilisa-
tion among the various fractions scattered through
the great basin and towards Europe. Asia Minor
possessed artistic tombs, and it is sufficient to recall
the tomb of Alyattes, described by Herodotus; Greece
also possessed artistic sepulchral monuments in the
Mycenaean age, as shown by the tombs of the Atrida;;
Egypt developed in a colossal manner the conception
and execution of the sepulchral monument, which
consisted of a chambered tumulus in which the dead
man lay as though he were alive and inhabiting his
own house.
Libya, or the southern and western part of the
Mediterranean, with its populations shows us the
primitive diffusion of the Mediterranean stock, and
hence the scries of its sepulchral monuments repre-
sents civilisation from its most primitive to its most
developed forms under the Numidians and other
Libyan tribes. We find here, therefore, not only the
monuments improperly called Celtic, but also the
mortuary grottoes and caves ; and we find tombs to
which nothing in Europe corresponds, because they
72 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE,
were constructed when the two regions were separated
by the invasion of other stocks which transformed
the funeral customs of the primitive inhabitants of
Europe. The Basina, Sciuscc, and Madghasen are
monuments of purely Libyan character ; the last are
really architectural works, apparently influenced from
Greece, showing an evolution towards the tumulus,
especially among the Numidians.1 The Celts and the
Germans never reached Libya, as some believe ; if
they had, they would have modified the funeral cus-
toms by introducing cremation, as they did in Europe
in the neolithic age.
In primitive times, therefore, that is to say in those
times recorded by the Egyptian monuments, we must
exclude the influence of any stock not of Mediter-
ranean character ; the confederation of the Siculi, the
Sards, and other Mediterranean peoples, with the
Libyans against Egypt, represents the alliance of
many peoples belonging to the same western stock
against the oriental Egyptian power. The European
stock, Celtic or Teutonic, had not yet appeared to the
south and west of Europe to hinder any further diffu-
sion of the Mediterranean stock, and to displace it from
its latest seats. It seems to me impossible, therefore,
to find in the blonds of Africa a racial element from
northern Europe. If they had come at so early a
period they would have radically modified Libyan
civilisation, beginning with funeral customs, as I have
already said, and imposed their own language ; this
supposition is absolutely excluded.
It cannot be argued that the European element was
too small to impose its customs and language; if that
1 Cf. Letourneux, op. cif., fi^. 59; Tissot, op. cit., p. 499 el se<j.,
and figs. 55, 56.
Till- A! U> AN ULONDS. 73
were the case it would quickly have disappeared by
absorption, or selection, or the difficulty of adaptation
to the African climate. To have descendants down
to our own times it must have been very large; and
in that case it would have created a new civilisation
and perpetuated its own tongue.
Must we, therefore, regard the presence of blonds
in Africa as inexplicable?
In Livi's work on military anthropometry1 a very
important fact is brought out concerning the distribu-
tion of blonds in relation to height above the sea-
level. He finds that in Piedmont, Liguria, Vcncto,
Emilia, Lombardy, Tuscany, the Marches, Lazio,
Campania, Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, and Sardinia,
above 401 metres over sea -level the blonds pre-
dominate over the brunets ; below 400 metres the
brunets predominate. Umbria is an exception, for
here the two elements arc nearly equal, also Abruzzi,
where the brunct element prevails, an exception which
Livi explains by the fact that these two provinces are
hilly almost throughout, so that we could scarcely
expect to find any marked difference between the
small plain regions and the surrounding hills. lie
attributes the phenomenon to a special action ot
mountains on pigmentation ; through their height
they thus have the same influence as latitude.
If we turn to the region where the blonds in Africa
are most numerous — that is to say, Morocco — we
observe at once not only that, like the whole of
Northern Libya, it is situated in the temperate zone,
between about 36* and 29°3o' of lat. N., but that it
constitutes the enormous nucleus of the Atlas chain.
1 .///.'/ .•'fometria iiiililare, I'arlc I., Rome, 1896, pp. 65 et sty.,
fig. n.
74 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
The heights above sea-level vary between 600 and
1 2,000 feet.1 There is therefore a region of perpetual
snow, and a cold region constituted by valleys not
very unlike some Alpine and Apennine valleys. May
we not conclude that the same Libyan stock, estab-
lished in North Africa from time immemorial (we
now have evidence of an early stone age), had under-
gone the diverse influences of external conditions of
climate and soil forming variations in external physical
characters ? We may perhaps see in the eastern
Hamitic branch, exposed to different conditions of
latitude and soil, from Egypt to Central Africa,
a series of variations so characteristic as to form,
by pigmentation alone, distinct varieties of the
same stock. If the fundamental internal characters
of the blond and brunet Libyans are the same, I am
disposed to believe that the external differences, in
colour of hair skin, and eyes, aie due to the influence
of altitude.
The centre of formation of the blond element in
North Africa would thus be in the Atlas valleys,
especially in Morocco, and this would explain the
fact that we find the greater number ot blonds in this
region. From this centre there would have been, in
ancient and succeeding times, a certain diffusion into
the neighbouring countries as far as the sea in Algeria
and Tunis. Possibly in ancient times this movement
was a rapid emigration, and hence an invasion towards
the east in union with the brunet populations ; and
the presence of blonds among the brunets must have
caused great surprise, as among the Romans at the
time of the invasion ot the Gauls, composed of brunet
1 Thomson, Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco, London,
1889.
CHARACTERS OK T1IK LIBYANS. 75
Celts and blond Teutons. Although we can only
assign a relative value to the pictorial ethnography of
Egypt, we must suppose that, in the presence of this
new and unexpected blond type with blue eyes, the
Egyptians represented the Libyans with these char-
acters, not taking into consideration the brunets.
Quedenfeldt, it is true, would return to the opinion
of those who see the Vandals in the African blonds,
because, he states, in the great Atlas, to the south, he
could not find one; he attempts to give various ex-
planations of the presence of blonds, by referring it to
Spanish families, to European refugees, to the construc-
tion of Fez, which furnishes a shelter from the dark-
ening influence of the sun.1 I do not wish to deny
that on the coast of Morocco, as on that of Algeria
and Tunis, there are foreign elements from Europe
and elsewhere, and I would admit with Quedenfeldt
that many blonds have come from Europe ; but it
seems to me impossible thus to explain the blonds in
the valleys of the Atlas chain.
Physical Characters of tlie Libyans. — 1 1 we seek to
ascertain the physical characters of the Libyans from
the evidence offered by the Egyptian monuments, we
shall find ourselves considerably perplexed, in spite of
what is affirmed by some as to the truthful character
of the pictured and sculptured representations on
these monuments. We find three types represented
under the names of Tamahu and Lcbu, and all three
different The most characteristic Tamahu type
shows a slightly aquiline nose, a well-cut mouth with
thin lips, rather elongated chin, little beard and very
short moustache ; the hair is worn in little falling
1 "Eintheilung und Yc%rbrcitung dcr Berberbcvulkerung im Mar-
okko," Zt. /. EthHologie, xx., 1888, pp 115, 189, 190.
70 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tresses like the people of Pun, with one long tress
descending in front of the car as far as the neck, and
twisted into a spiral ; two large ostrich feathers adorn
the head (Fig. i).1 The second type (Fig. 2) differs
notably from the first; the nose is strongly aquiline
and the forehead receding, the lips thick and the
beard long, so that as represented on the monuments
it might be regarded as a Semitic type. A third
head, representing a chief of the Lebu, shows an
FIG. i. — Tamahu (Rosellini).
aquiline nose, more elevated than the others, promi-
nent lips, a long beard differently arranged from that
of the second figure ; the forehead seems to show
exaggerated prominence of the supra-orbital arches
(Fig. 3>2
What can we conclude from these three types?
Which is correct ? Poole regards the first as the real
Libyan mythological type, and thinks that all may
represent sub-races; he compares the third type with
a Shardana or Sard type very slightly differing from
Kosellini, Plate clx.
Kosellini, 1'latc cxlii , 3.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LIRVANS 77
it.1 He believes also, in my opinion incorrectly, that
the last two types arc strongly accentuated forms of
the first. I cannot sec this resemblance; it is enough
to note the slight development of the beard in the
first, and its fulness in the other.
More noteworthy is the opinion of Flower (ex-
pressed at the same time as Poole's), who believed
that in the third form and in the Shardana2 we
may recognise the Ncandcrthaloid type. It is quite
probable, he remarked, that these people from the
Fir.. 2.— Tamahu (Roscllini).
north were the descendants of a primitive European
population which crossed into Africa by the Straits
of Gibraltar. Poolc accepts this opinion, which he
calls an important discovery, as to an aquiline variety
of the Nordic population with prominent supra-orbital
arches, representing the primitive European type.
Hut to discover the Ncandcrthaloid type in Africa,
a primitive European race at the period of the XlXth
I )ynasty, seems to me, with all due regard to Flower's
1 I'oole, "The Egyptian Classification of the Knees of Man," Jo::r.
Antli. /list., v.il. xvi., iSS;, pp. 371 el stq.
3 Roscllini, Plate cxliii. , to.
78 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
1 opinion, a work of the imagination. Moreover, to
discover it with a nose of the character called Semitic,
Mand to make it a new variety of the Neanderthaloid
(type, seems to me an altogether baseless conception.
II cannot agree that the primitive European type was
prevalent in the Mediterranean among Sards and
Libyans, as these two distinguished English authori-
ties are prepared to do, on the evidence furnished by
two Egyptian drawings which may be merely con-
ventional.
FIG. 3.— Lebu (Rosellini).
The type most approaching truth must be the first,
which in costume a\so bears the characters of primitive
civilisation, as well as th , undeveloped beard peculiar
to the varieties ofi(ciie Hamitic race. This type is
repeated on t^1 , Egyptian monuments with slight
variations; r'.o beard is worn as by the Arabs, and
the arms are tattooed.1
Unfortunately we have no explicit notices concern-
ing the physical characters of the Libyans from any
Greek or Roman source, notwithstanding the intimate
1 Lepsins, Denkmaler, Plate III.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LIBYANS. 79
relations between these two nations of antiquity and
Africa. They have only handed on to us geographical
information and racial names, which we may in part
identify with new names transformed from the old.
If we wish to have exact ideas concerning the Libyans
we must therefore examine the modern Berbers, who
arc still numerous in the extensive region they have
inhabited from time immemorial, remaining un-
changed, it seems, in their customs and in their
anthropological characters, in spite of the foreign
domination they have undergone, especially in the
northern zone, at the hands of Phoenicians, Greeks,
and Romans in ancient times, of Vandals, and finally
Arabs in more recent times.1
From such information as we have, and from the
neglect of the ancients to describe the physical
characters of the Libyans, we gain the general idea
that in facial characters and colour of hair and eyes
these people resembled the inhabitants of Southern
Europe. On this account, perhaps, in the eyes of
the Greeks and Romans, the northern Libyans may
not have seemed to call for particular description ;
the attribution of Persian, Armenian, and Median
origin to the Numidians by Hiempsal indicates that
the Libyans resembled the peoples in whom their
origin was then sought. At Rome an orator or
other person ol Libyan origin was not distinguished
1 Boissier (L'Aftiqtte Komaint, 1895, p. 315) writes on this point:—
" Of all these only Bcrl>ers remain; they have absorbed everything. 1
kn»w not if anthropology, by investigating the colour of their skin or
the conformation of their bodies, will ever distinguish among them the
descendants of these various vanished peoples ; but in their ideas, their
customs, their Ixrlicfs, their manner of thinking and living, there is
nothing I'lurnician, nothing Roman, nothing Vandal; it is the lierber
alone who cmei:
80 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
from a Roman, and in Greece and Egypt no distinc-
tion in physical traits was attributed to the Libyans
who sojourned there. In the long and severe Punic
wars the cavalry, and perhaps the whole army of
Hannibal which passed into Italy, was composed of
Numidians and other Libyans or Berbers, and their
figures and appearance attracted no attention as
unlike those of south European peoples. There
must have been considerable if not complete resem-
blance. The reports ot the Roman generals who
penetrated into the Fez district, as far even as
Agisimba, have not reached us ; but geographers like
Strabo and Ptolemy speak of the Melano-Getuli,
Leuco-Ethtopi, and so on, thus implying the existence
of mixed races, or those of European form with dark
or negroid coloration. This is fully confirmed by
travellers who, penetrating into the southern regions
of Libya, have found peoples of dark complexion
with hair and facial form not unlike the northern
Libyans. This is what we might expect to find in
the case of a stock so widely extended from north to
south, under such varied and different conditions of
climate.
The Libyan stock is very ancient, as is shown by
the worked stone .implements found in the Sahara
and to the north of the Atlas. " The latest explora-
tions in the northern Sahara," Tissot remarks,1 " lead
us to regard it as one of the most ancient known
habitations of the human species." "The soil of the
Sahara," says Bourdc, "yields flint arrow-heads, and
fragments from the working of these arrow-heads in
immense quantity, an undeniable proof of the
existence of a large population which found a
1 Op. fit., p 398.
PHYSICAL CIIAKAiTKkS OK THE LIBYANS. 8l
climate favourable to life in a region which to-day
seems devoted to eternal sterility."1 "The work-
shops are usually found on the edge of the daia,
depressions in the soil often found in the chalk
platform which separates El-Lua from the Sccbka of
the Mzab. The more important are situated to the
south of the wells of Zebbascia in the valley of
Ain-Macin, near the cromlech of Sidi-Mcsca-a, at
El-Hassi, on the platform of Noumar, and at El-
Golea. We may also find them in the great dunes
of Machgarden ; they disappear at Hassi-Berkan to
reappear more numerously in the Wed-Mia, and
especially in the neighbourhood of Wargla. A
certain number of these Sahara flints are very worn ;
the angles are blunted and the facets polished by the '
action of the sand borne by the winds ; flints trans-
ported by torrents seldom present so worn an
appearance. A long period of time must therefore
have elapsed to allow these effects to be produced, \
and we must attribute a great age to these imple-
ments. It is also to be noted that the flints worn by
the sand are of coarser form than the others ; this
would agree with their relative antiquity. They are
chiefly met with in the south and near £l-Golea.
The flints from the north, those- of Zebbascia and
Wargla, for instance, offer on the contrary highly
finished types. Dr. Wcissgcrber argues from these
differences that the populations of the south date
further back than those of the north, and that they
gradually emigrated from the south towards the sea-
coast, leaving behind them the desert, from which
they were probably driven out The direct descend-
ants of these aborigines of the Sahara," this author
1 Bourde, IM Frame an SouJait, quoted by Tissot, op. «'/., p. 399.
6
82 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
continues, "seem to be represented in the east by the
Barabra of the Nile valley, at the centre by the
Garamantic race of the highlands of Fezzan, the oases
of Nefzana and Wed-Suef, to the west by the Rucgha
or inhabitants of Wed-Righ and the Berbers of Sus in
Morocco. Although of very dark complexion, these
peoples differ essentially from Negroes in their features
and hair. They call themselves Khomri, bruncts,
and consider it an insult to be coupled with Negroes."1
In this connection also we may appeal to the
opinion of Carettc, who writes that " the autochthonous
population of Wed-Righ marks the transition in com-
plexion and features between the white and the black
race. The complexion is not the more or less bronzed
tint of the southern white population, but a different
and special colour, nearer to black than to white.
They Have neither the flattened nose nor the thick
lips of the black race, though their features are not
wholly those of the white race. They constitute an
intermediate race, connected with both the two foreign
races from which they are separated, and which they
approximate."2
These conclusions are very important as regards
the origin- of the Libyan populations in particular, and
the Hamitcs in general. We see an intimate con-
nection with the populations of the eastern branch of
the Hamitic stock, which by its great extension from
the Nile valley meets the north-western branch, both
melting into the Mediterranean race, and forming as
fair-skinned a population as if they were derived from
a white race.
1 Tissot, op. cil. , pp. 399-400.
2 Online et Migration des princfpales Trifws de rAlgJric, pp.
30S-306.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LIBYANS. 83
As we have seen, in antiquity the name Libyan
was only given to the populations at the west of
Egypt, and at the first glance it seems that Egypt has
nothing in common with Libya. This happens because
in Kgypt a new and higher civilisation developed,
assuming a special form distinct from Libyan civili-
sation. But the latest discoveries in Egypt itself
have now shown, as we shall sec, that the Egyptians,
before they assumed new forms and raised themselves
above all the other African peoples of the same stock,
possessed their civilisation in common with the western
Libyans. They were thus a racial branch from the
same stock which gave origin to the Libyans specially
so-called, one of the four peoples of the Mediter-
ranean.
CHAPTER V.
THE EGYPTIANS.
The African Origin of the Egyptians— The Art of Writing —
Physical Anthropology of the Egyptians,
A FEW years ago it seemed that there was nothing
further to say concerning the origin of the Egyptians;
but recent discoveries revealing the existence of a
civilisation anterior to that of history have renewed
the discussion, while the problem has at the same
time become more complicated. In this discussion
I have taken part by accepting, and seeking to
support with anthropological arguments, the African
origin of the Egyptians.1
According to a somewhat late tradition of the
Egyptians, they came from the land of Punt It is
difficult to determine this region, and various opinions
have arisen regarding the interpretation of the
Egyptian texts. Egyptologists only agree in believ-
ing that this land of Punt must be placed to the
south of Egypt, either in Somaliland or in southern
Arabia, or in a region including both lands, as
Flinders Petrje, Sayce, and others incline to think.
Sayce2 considers that the Egyptians are a branch
of the so-called Caucasian race, like the Semites, but
1 Africa, Turin, 1897, cap. i.
2 Races of the Old Testament, chap, v., London, 1891 ; cf. Flinders
Petrie, History of Egypt, vol. i., pp. 11-13, London, 1894.
THE AFRICAN ORIGIN OF THE EGYPTIANS. 85
belonging to the Hamitic stock, and that because
Mizraim was a descendant of Ham. He believes that
the ruddy skin of the Egyptians, as represented on
their monuments, is due to the action of the sun ;
he believes that they are of the same race as the men
of Punt, also represented of a brick-red colour on the
monuments. The people of Punt, according to
Sayce, came to Africa from Arabia. He accepts
the ultimate unity of origin of the Semites and the
Hamitcs, an opinion to which many incline to-day,
and this naturally leads to the conclusion that the
Egyptians, 33 well as all the other Hamitic peoples,
came from Asia.
It may be well to recall what Brugsch considers
that he has been able to establish concerning Egyp-
tian geography and ethnography as presented on the
monuments.1 He distinguishes three groups among
the populations of the south, ojie being tRe inhabit-
ants of Punt, and he believes that the land of Punt lay
along the whole African coast of the Red Sea as far
as the Straits of Babelmandeb ; a study of the Harris
papyrus leads him to the conclusion that it makes no
reference to any Arabian region, but includes the
Troglodytic coast from north to south, beginning
perhaps at Myoshormos, this supposition being con-
firmed by the great geographic list of Karnac. The
inscription on the temple in the valley of Assassif, to
the west of Thebes, in which is described the great
expedition of Queen Hatshepsu to the land of Punt,
reads : " We sailed on the sea, and began a fair
voyage towards the divine land, that is to say, the
west coast of Arabia, and the journey towards the
1 " Die Altiigyptische Volkcrtafeln," Fifth Congress of Orientalists,
Berlin, iSSi.
86
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
land of Punt was happily resumed."1 Here Arabia is
clearly distinguished from the African land of Punt,
Fu;. 4.— A Punt Chief (Marietta),
and all doubt as to whether this much discussed region
1 Brugsch, of. cit., pp. 69, 70.
TI IK AFRICAN ORIGIN OF THE EGYPTIANS. 87
is to be sought in Africa or elsewhere seems to be
dissipated.
The determination of this question is of some
interest to the anthropologist and ethnologist of
Egypt and of the peoples to the south of that land.
Naville, discussing recent excavations at Deir-el-
liahari, expressly says when speaking of fragments
connected with the celebrated wall of Punt: "Small
as these fragments often are, they give us important
information as to the nature of the land of Punt. Its
African character comes out more and more clearly.
Although the name of Punt may have applied also
to the coast of South Arabia, it is certain that the
Egyptian boats sent by Queen Hatshcpsu anchored
on the African shore."1
Mullcr2 gives precise indications concerning the
people of Punt which serve to bring them into con-
nection with the modern populations of the coast of
Somaliland, and, like Brugsch, he excludes the theory
that Punt also includes the south-west of Arabia.
He finds that the physical and ethnographic features
of the people of Punt arc African of the type com-
monly called Caucasian, and that they belong to the
same stock as the Egyptians. The Prince of Punt,
carved at Deir-cl-Bahari, possesses, in common with
Egyptian princes, the long pointed beard, and he
carries a boomerang, which was among the weapons
of Egypt ; he also wears a scries of rings on the right
leg3 (Fig. 4).
1 Griffith, Egypt Exploration Fund, Anhaological Report \ 1895,
P 34-
•; ttni Eurofa n<uh Altagyftischtn Dcnkinnleni, Leipzig, 1892.
3 Mariellc Bey, V'cya^t dans At Ilaiilt /:\T/W, \.>1. ii . p. (._» ;
Af>ica,\>.TJ; Krall, " Das Land Punt," A AL.il. ,;,> \\', ,//.//.://,
NVicn, iS<x>, Ud. cxxi., pp. 75-77.
88 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
But this all appears but mere conjecture concerning
the origin of the Egyptians compared with the new
facts revealed during the last few years ; the tradition
of the land of Punt, though preserved on the monu-
ments, is relatively recent, and too distant from the
origin of the race, especially since the historical indi-
cations have been succeeded by prehistoric, relating
to the ages termed palaeolithic, neolithic, aeneolithic,
the last being that of copper united tothe most
beautiful and perfect stone implements that have ever
existed. It now seems that all that has hitherto been
believed concerning the Egyptians must be pro-
foundly modified, both as regards the origin of their
civilisation and the populations which at various
epochs have produced that civilisation.
Putting aside Amelineau, the two explorers who
have made the greatest discoveries are Flinders
Petrie and De Morgan, and both of these have set
forth the conclusions which they draw from their own
discoveries concerning the origins of the Egyptian
people and civilisation. They have resolutely main-
tained that two races at least have inhabited Egypt,
one African and indigenous, the other immigrating
from Asia, bearing with it the civilisation of the
Pharaohs, and subjugating the first indigenous and
savage population. The discoveries at Abydos, Na-
qada, and Ballas have aided in confirming these
opinions, in spite of the fact that the two explorers
differ in their interpretation of the tombs at Naqada
and Ballas.
At Nag ad a the fortunate English explorer dis-
covered an immense tomb revealing a civilisation
unlike that of the Pharaohs. It was genuine neolithic
civilisation with some copper objects, the graves
THE AFRICAN ORIGIN OF THE EGYPTIANS. 89
la-ing very similar to those in Europe of the same
epoch, that is to say with shrivelled corpses in a
crouching position, together with certain variations
of funeral custom difficult to explain, such as the
dismemberment of the body, the separation of the
head, which was buried apart or with a few other
bones, the absence of some parts of the bodies, a
disordered re-mingling in unviolated graves (Fig. 5).
FIG. 5. — A Prehistoric Egyptian Tomb (Dc Morgan).
It seemed to Flinders Pctrie that the population
which had left this vast sepulchre was a new people,
and he called it the " new race," which arriving
between B.C. 3000 and 3500, between the ancient and
middle Egyptian empire, had destroyed or expelled
the Egyptian population and entirely occupied the
Thcbaid. He argued, from the absence of Egyptian
objects belonging to this epoch in Upper Egypt, that
the dominion of this "new race" lasted for three
j
90 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
centuries. This nc\v people, thus attaining full
Egyptian dominion, were Libyans. Pctric main-
tained this opinion not only on the ground of funeral
customs and products, that is by the whole civilisa-
tion, but also by examination of the numerous skulls
found in the graves.
These skulls have, in fact, been subjected to a
summary comparison in measurement with those of
Roknia studied by Faidherbe, and it is affirmed that
they differ from Egyptian skulls in capacity, more
especially, and by the nasal index, while they are very
.similar to the modern skulls of Algiers, and to the
ancient skulls ot Roknia, and that they are, there-
fore, Libyan. The same author thus summarises
the characters of the " new race " in comparison
with those of the Egyptians of the times of the
Pharaohs1 : —
EGYPTIAN NKW RACE
CHARACTERISTICS. CHARACTERISTICS.
Inscription. Rude marks, not grouped.
Sculpture. Great incapacity for form.
Chamber tombs. Roofed grave pits.
Tombs in cliffs. Graves in valleys.
Coffins. « Burial in clothing.
Extruded burial. Contracted burial.
Mummification. Cutting up the body.
Skull capacity, 1460. Capacity, 1310.
Nasal index, 48.3. Nasal index, 53.7.
Weapons, bows, and arrows. Forked flint lances.
Copper-edged stick. Quadrangular dagger.
Amulets buried. Ashes buried.
Mirrors of copper. Slate palettes.
1 A'aijdtla and Rallas, London, 1896, p. 60.
THE AFRICAN ORIGIN OF THE EGYPTIANS. 91
EGYPTIAN NEW RACE
(I I A R ACTERISTICS. CHARACTERISTICS.
Scarabs. Fine flint bracelets.
Canopic jars. Jars of fats.
Pottery, wheel made. Pottery, hand-made.
Red polished.
Red and black.
White line on red.
Decorated.
Incised.
At first sight these characters give the impression
that we are dealing with a population foreign to
Egyptian history, and with a civilisation not only
different but inferior; Petrie's opinion seems to be
justified. But an accurate study of the civilisation
of Naqada and an extended comparison with other
discoveries, including those at Abydos, clearly shows
that Pctric had been dazzled by the unexpected
novelty of the discovery. DC Morgan, who continued
the excavations at Naqada and discovered new
graves, including a royal tomb, presenting data of
great importance for the primitive history of Egypt,
interprets the facts differently from Petric, and con-
siders that the " new race " should rather be called
the " old race," since hc^ regards it as representing the
aborigines, the first inhabitants of Egypt before the
invasion of the true Egyptians.1
I cannot here reproduce all the reasons brought
forward by DC Morgan against the opinion of Petric,
lmt they seem to me for the most part just, and I
accept his conclusion that we arc here concerned with
a primitive population, not one that arrived at a late
1 A\ -i henhet stir Us On'gincs de T Eiyftf, I'arU, 1897, p. 16.
92 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
epoch of the old Egyptian empire, as also I accept his
opinion that we find here a civilisation anterior to
that of the Pharaohs in its definite and well-known
forms. But I cannot follow De Morgan when he
attempts to show, even with the aid of anthropology,
that the prehistoric population was different from the
Egyptian, which he would bring from Asia. Many
arguments against his opinions may be found in his
own discoveries at Naqada and elsewhere, and in
the physical characters of the skulls described by
Fouquet, as well as by Petrie.
First of all we may note the method of burial
adopted in the necropolis of Naqada and elsewhere,
so well investigated by Wiedemann, who, though
desiring to show the Asiatic origin of the Egyptians,
really furnishes arguments favourable to the opposite
opinion of an African origin. Excavation in a
necropolis of the Naqada type shows that the men of
that period had three methods of burial: "Either the
grave received the disseminated and incomplete
bones, or the skeleton was placed in a position
recalling that of the foitus, or the body was burnt in
a monumental tomb," as seems to have been the case
with a royal tomb explored by De Morgan, though
this has been doubted and even denied by others.1
Wiedemann, however, accepts this conclusion, and
also agrees that these three usages are unlike the
classical customs of the Egyptians, but he believes it
may be shown that they are intimately united with
the Egyptian religion and with the worship of Osiris
and Horus, as learnt from the Book of the Dead
and the ritual formulae of the Egyptians. Referring to
1 See DC Bissing, " Les Origines cle 1'Egypte," I^Anthropologie,
vol. ix , p. 415.
THE AFRICAN ORIGIN OF THE EGYPTIANS. 93
dismemberment, Wicdemann states that " the vestiges
of this very ancient custom have never completely
disappeared, and arc preserved not on'y in the texts
but also in actual practices. Up to a very late period
the lower part of the foot of the mummy was dis-
located, and in other cases the phallus of the corpse
was cut off in order to be embalmed separately and
buried near the mummy." This explains, in his
opinion, the dismemberment and disorder of the
bodies in the graves discovered by Petrie, and hence
a custom which was symbolically preserved down to
the latest epoch cf Egyptian history. As regards the
absence of portions of the body, explained by Petrie
as due to a special kind of anthropophagy, with the
object of -inheriting the virtues of the dead,1 Wiede-
mann gives no satisfactory explanation, but cannot
accept anthropophagy.
Wiedemann finds a similar survival of the burning
of the dead in Egyptian customs and rites, and con-
cludes by saying: ' I dare to hope that the preceding
pages have sufficiently proved that the record of the
customs of the epoch of Naqada, and the religious
ideas united with' them, had not disappeared among
the Egyptians of later times. The immediate con-
sequence of this continuity is*that we cannot maintain
the widely diffused hypothesis that the people of
Naqada belong to a different race from the historical
Egyptians." Then, however, he proceeds to alternate
this just conclusion by an opposite conclusion of
sufficiently strange character; " to influence Egyptian
religion so decisively," he remarks, " the race with
whom these ideas originated must have had intimate
relations with that from which the Egyptians were
1 Naqada an,i Ballas, pp. 32, 62.
94 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
derived ; it formed one of the elements of which was
composed what we are accustomed to call Egyptian
civilisation." And he proceeds to state that we can-
not admit an evolution of the funeral customs of
Naqada into the custom, which became general
among the Egyptians, of embalming the corpse; this
custom, he argues, must have been imported by a
new race, from elsewhere, which conquered the
primitive race and made them helots.1 It is difficult
to conceive how a race in a state of servitude could
have so great an influence on its conquerors as to cause
them to accept its burial customs, constituting the
patrimony of the religion of the dead. Pctrie, it may
be added, suspects that Osiris was a Libyan divinity.2
This transformation of burial customs has con-
vinced me that there has been a real evolution up to
the definite form of embalming which then remained
constant. Of this Fouquet, in his craniological ex-
amination, found evident traces in the skulls of Beit-
Allam, of Guebel-Silsileh, and other places. There
exist, he states', in the skulls of the rude stone epoch
in Egypt, deposits of bitumen mixed with cerebral
substance, and this bitumen could not have been
introduced by the nasal passages, the brain not
having been removed, 'but only by the occipital
foramen, after the head had been cut off; and Petrie
repeatedly states that the head was generally cut off
in the graves he explored.3 De Morgan is com-
pelled to admit that the burial customs of the early
Egyptians were not yet fixed.4 If this was so, it
1 Wicdcmann, in De Morgan, op. cit., 1897.
- Naqada and Ballas^ p. 62.
3 De Morgan, of. ci(., vol. ii., 1897, pp. 346 el seq.
* Op. «y., p. 17.
THK ART OF WRITING. 95
cannot be affirmed that the historical Egyptians were
not the descendants of those who left their graves at
Abydos, Naqada, and Dallas — that is to say, the graves
of neolithic civilisation. Besides, the royal tomb at
Naqada, regarded as the tomb of Menes, the founder
of the first dynasty, clearly shows a transition be-
tween neolithic civilisation and a new civilisation
slowly acquiring its definite characters.
The Art of Writing. — An argument which seems
decisive in favour of the opinion that the Egyptians
were a new race of immigrants, conquering the
Libyan race, regarded as that of neolithic civilisation,
is found in their writing, which had no existence
among the Libyans. Petrie, as we have seen, among
the distinguishing characters of Egyptians and
Libyans, places the inscriptions on one side and
on the other " rude marks, not grouped," as peculiar
to the " new race." Now it is true that the Libyans
possessed only linear alphabetic signs, as we may see
by Pctric's plates (LI.-LVII.) and the examples given
by De Morgan ; but it is well to recall also that
these signs, called by their discoverers " marks,"
without having any alphabetical significance attri-
buted to them, are really writing signs, many of
which still remain in the alphabet of the Tuaregs, as
Evans has shown.1 They may be brought into line
with the pre- Phoenician writing of the Mediterranean
and the prc-neolithic of other parts of Europe, as I
shall show later on. We cannot, therefore, affirm
that the Libyans had no writing in the general
significance of the word.
It is a very interesting fact, however, that these
1 "Further DiM-nvcrics of Cretan and .K^can Script," Journal of
llelltnic 5/«.//Vf, vol. xiii., 1897.
96
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
alphabet-like forms were not abandoned by the
population at the epoch of Abydos and Naqada,
being used contemporaneously with writing of Egyp-
tian type — that is to say, hieroglyphics. De Morgan
gives examples of terra-cotta vases with signs that
indicate the royal ensign and yet bear such marks.
M/
tttt
FIG. 6. — Marks on Pottery at Abydos (De Morgan).
Tegnier, in other monuments like those of Abydos
(Fig. 6) excavated by Amelineau, demonstrates not
only the contemporary use of alphabet-like signs with
hieroglyphic inscriptions, but also inscriptions which
seem to be transcriptions, because they are either
linear or groups of such signs, as in some vases from
FIG. 7. — Impressions of a Cylinder and Designs on Pots for
the Tomb of King Den (De Morgan).
Abydos.1 This implies, it seems to me, that the use
of the new writing was not yet universal, but that at
the period of the first dynasty at Naqada, as indicated
by the royal tomb of Mencs, we find a period of
transition ; like the burial and other customs, writing
was also being transformed (Fig. 7).
1 De Morgan, of. ci(>, vol. ii., p. 236, figs. 787-795.
TIIK ART OK WRITING.
More surprising than all seem to me to be those
ivory tablets found in the royal tomb at Naqada, on
which are signs, probably numerical, of the same type
as those met with on European dolmens, and having
nothing in common with the Egyptian ideographic
characters (Fig. 8). These signs, also, are doubtless
Libyan, and were employed together with the writing
considered Egyptian.
Here, however, it is necessary that I should refer to
a different interpretation furnished by Arthur Evans
in the study already mentioned. He calls " Proto-
Egyptians" or " Egypto- Libyans " these peoples
Tic.. 8. — Ivory Tablets showing Linear Writing (De Morgan).
whom Petrie calls " new race " or " Libyans " and
all other archaeologists " Libyans," and he likewise
believes that the people of the times of the Pharaohs
immigrated into Egypt from Asia, bringing with
them the civilisation and writing properly called
Egyptian.
" The linear characters found on the Proto-Egyptian
pottery at Naqada," he recognises, " recur to a con-
siderable extent on pottery found in tombs of the
earliest dynastic period at Abydos, side by side with
true hieroglyphic forms. At Abydos there is per-
7
pS THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
ccptiblc a certain reaction of linear indigenous signs
on the more elaborate and pictorial characters of the
Pharaonic people. Thus in several cases the linear
forms here are simply Egyptian hieroglyphs very
rudely scrawled.
"This reduction of the more elaborate hieroglyphic
forms to simple linear signs, which at Abydos is quite
unmistakable, finds a certain amount of analogy on
the still earlier indigenous vessels of Naqada, and
suggests some curious questions. We now know
that by the time of Menes the highly developed
hieroglyphic script of the dynastic Egyptians had
taken firm root in the country. But a large propor-
tion of the hieroglyphic signs— the lotus-sprays and
river-craft, the water-birds, fishes, crocodiles, and other
characteristic animals, already by the time of the first
dynasty become conventionistic types — are of indi-
genous Nilotic origin. It follows then that many of
the elements of hieroglyphic writing had been growing
upon the banks of the Nile long before the time of
the first historic dynasty. If the race that brought
these pictorial elements to maturity is to be regarded
as distinct from the old inhabitants of the land, whose
remains have now been recognised at Naqada and
elsewhere, it milst at least have been brought into
very early contact with them. Hence there is a
possibility that the beginning of hieroglyphic script
reacted on the linear native signs at a much remoter
date than that of Mcnes. And the hieroglyphic
figures themselves — how far may they not simply
represent the coming to life of still earlier linear
types?"1
The arguments of this able writer and his state-
1 Op. fit., pp. 3S3-3^4.
THK ART OF WRITING. 99
mcnts concerning the two forms of writing seem to
me to show clearly the relation between both, and the
difficulty of separating them absolutely: "Both at
Naqada and Abydos," he points out, " characters of
more pictographic aspect — and in some cases identical
with Egyptian hieroglyphic forms — are at times
coupled with the linear signs." The same pheno-
menon is repeated in the Mediterranean, in Crete,
and during the /Egean age. Evans's remarks imply
a recognition on his part that the origin of Egyptian
writing is to be found among what arc commonly
called the aborigines, the Libyans, or by him /
Proto - Egyptians, and imply doubt whether there /
is any race here distinct from the aboriginal
Libyan.
In the same way we may view what Evans observes
concerning a steatite cylinder in the Petrie collection,
and another of clay in the Gizch Museum, which De
Morgan refers to the first dynasty, and regards as an
Asiatic importation due to the Egyptian invasion.1
Evans, on the contrary, comparing it with a prism-
seal of steatite from Karnac, refers it to his Proto-
Egyptians, the Libyans of Wicdcmann and others,
as a hybrid product due to a partial survival of these
primitive inhabitants in the Nile valley, an imitation
of the cylinders of Asiatic and Egyptian origin,
without being either one or the other ("combined
with other features which are neither Pharaonic nor
Chaldaean "). On the other hand, he admits that the
entire civilisation of historical Egypt was influenced
by this pre-existing indigenous element, the assimila-
tion of which was a work of centuries. He rightly
finds the same art again in the Mediterranean,
1 Retktrckts, etc , p. 257, fig 857
100 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
especially at Crete, and in the civilisation of the
yEgean.1
In all this we may see the same phenomenon that
we have already seen in writing, and in the method
of burial : an incipient form of the new Egyptian
civilisation among the so-called aborigines, a Libyan
population, slowly developing and leaving behind the
traces of its origin. For it is difficult to be convinced
that such an indigenous element which, as Evans
himself points out, influenced the whole of historical
Egyptian civilisation, should reproduce these rude
cylinders the type of which was taken from Egypt
itself and the Chaldreans ; as, on the other hand,
we cannot admit, on the strength of the analogy
of a cylinder, that Egyptian civilisation, so unlike in
its forms, and so unique, was derived from Chaldaea.
If we turn to consider the Egyptian language, I
believe that everything favours an African origin.
It may be, as Maspcro, Sayce, and others affirm, that
Egyptian is intimately related with the Semitic
tongues, and that Hamitic and Semitic are two
branches of the same trunk; but they each have their
own definite forms, with many characters that are
common and many that are divergent While also
in Arabia, where th,e source of the Egyptian stock is
sought, there is not the slightest indication of any
Hamitic language or dialect, in Africa not only is
ancient Egyptian Hamitic but so are a whole series of
languages spoken by numerous populations to the
south of Europe and the west, through the Sahara to
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, as I have shown
when dealing with the Hamitic stock in Africa.2 We
1 "Further Discoveries," etc., pp. 362-369
* Africa, pp I IO et seq.
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. !OI
may be permitted to wonder, therefore, when we see
the Egyptian language invoked as an argument in
favour of an Asiatic Semitic, and more especially
Arabian, origin, for it is not easy to understand how a
stock so extended and so numerous in Africa, sub-
divided into many populations, should come from a
region where it has not left the slightest trace of
itself.
I will not enter into other details, as regards, for
instance, the products, such as the vases and their
typical forms and decorations ; others, possessing
greater competence, have occupied themselves with
this matter and shown the continuity, evolution, and
natural transformation ot the different types at
various Egyptian epochs, from the stone age to the
historical age, as also they have shown the errors of
De Morgan and his lack of intuition in interpreting
the monuments he has discovered.1 Others also,
arguing against the Asiatic origin, have shown that
both the animals and the plants known to the
Egyptians were of African origin.2 We shall here
be occupied with the anthropological characters of
the ancient prehistorical and historical Egyptians,
since, as Petrie, De Morgan, Schweinfurth, and many
others believe, anthropology may be called in to con-
firm the theory of an Asiatic origin.
Physical Anthropology of the Egyptians. — If we
examine the criteria which have been applied to the
skulls excavated at Naqada by Pctric, and at El-
Amrah, Heit-Allam, Naqada, Gucbel-Silsilch, and
elsewhere by De Morgan, we shall not be surprised at
1 See De Bissing, op. (it.
* De Mortillet. Zal»>r<>\vski, Pk'lrement, " \A Pierre et les Mclaux
en Knyptc," Hull. Soc. cTAnth., 1896.
102 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
the conclusions which have been drawn concerning
their racial origin. No wonder, therefore, that a
German writer has been able to write concerning the
incapacity of craniology to distinguish human races;1
if I had no other criterion I would renounce it as
useless, since it leads to such conclusions as those
reached by Petrie and De Morgan as the outcome of
their archaeological work. Use has here, in fact, been
made of the old and discredited method of the cephalic
index which only indicates artificial and conventional
distinctions, those which have served to divide the
prehistoric skulls of Egypt into two diverse races.
The Naqada skulls, brought to Europe by Petrie,
were studied by Thomson and Thane, whose con-
clusions were that " we have to deal with a race with
a small skull, indicating a hot climate at their source
with a very long head but very upright profile. • That
they have no connection with the Guanche, but agree
closely with the Algerian, both ancient and modern
The nose was short and prominently aquiline, but
not wide." These skulls are Libyan, not Egyptian, to
which latter are attributed greater capacity and higher
index.2 If, however, we consider the plate in which
the measurements are graphically represented, we find
that the cranial capacity varies from between about
noo c.c. to 1500 c.c., while the indices vary from 65
to 80, the greater number being between 70 and 75;
thus the average of 74.1 fails to express the truth, for
the skulls fall into two groups, one with an index of
71, the other of 74, a fact, however, which seems to
have no significance.
Petric's skulls .verc only studied in a summary
1 Kretschmer in De Bissing, o/>. at., p. 257.
'2 Naqada and Bellas, pp. 51-54, PI LXXIV.
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. IO3
manner; DC Morgan's, on the contrary, were investi-
gated in detail by Dr. Fouquct. There arc eleven in
tlu- first scries, that of EI-Amrah, and Fouquet found
that ten of these were dolichocephalic to a more or
less exaggerated extent, while one was mcsaticcphalic
(75-55) J that alone could be Egyptian, because the
average index attributed by Broca to the ancient
Egyptians was mcsaticcphalic ! Fouquct forgot that
the average index is not the individual index, and
that Broca's series with an average index of 75.58
might be composed of skulls with indices between
70 and 80. On the other hand, the difference
between a skull with an index of 75.55 and one with
an index of 74.73 is less than unity, and furnishes an
absurdly inadequate basis for the supposition of a
difference of race. This time Fouquet reaches no
absolute conclusion,1 but in his study of the other
scries he reaches conclusions which arc certainly
strange,- and are very far. from confirming, as he
imagines, the Asiatic origin of the Egyptians, all the
less since he now overturns the criterion he had before
accepted, and admits that skulls with an average
index of 70.6 were those of the Asiatics who came to
occupy Egypt and introduce the new civilisation.
Zaborowski, it seems to me, was right when he
severely criticised Fouquct's methods; in spite of the
numerical differences he found uniformity in the
skulls excavated from these graves, and I regret that
he changed his opinion in consequence of Vcrneau's
objections.3 Schweinfurth also believes that there is
1 DC Morgan, of. ft., vol. i , Appendix, p. 241.
8 (>/. tit., vol. ii.. pp. 377 379
3 /alx>ruw>ki, " IA-- K.KV- | ichistoriqucs tie I'ancicnnc Egypte."
Bull. Sot. Antk , Paris, 1898.
104 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
a great difference of race in the skulls found by De
Morgan and Petrie, and thus seeks to confirm a
legend of his own concerning the immigration of an
Egyptian people, the Ha mites, from Arabia, and of
another, coming from the valleys of the Euphrates
and the Tigris, which carried with it the great
Egyptian civilisation and the art of writing.1
From the first time that I saw the cranial forms in
Fouquet's studies of the Egyptians my only surprise
was at the closeness of their resemblance to other
Egyptian skulls of the Pharaonic epochs, and at
the same time to other skulls which I have attributed
to the Mediterranean stock, and, in the widest sense,
to the Eurafrican species. I perceived that an
attempt had been made to distinguish two or three
different races among these skulls solely on the
ground of differences in average cephalic index, and
I could not wonder that archaeologists and others
have little faith in results obtained by such methods.
It is true, as Verneau has stated in replying to
Zaborowski's observations, that there are variations
in these skulls, both as regards the cephalic indices
and the absolute measurements ; but such variations
do not give us the right to construct numerous, or
even two, races. According to my method of cranial
forms, it is the forms alone that we have to take into
consideration, and I have shown that the same cranial
form may vary in measurements and in index without
losing its characters; this is a natural method, such
as is employed in .zoology. How many species of
lark we should have if we calculated by measurement
their indices of length and breadth ! I have been
i"Uel>cr den Ursprung clef ^Egypter," Vcrhandhingen Benin
Gesellschafl f. Ant/i., igth June, 1897.
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. IO$
able to show that the parts composing the face are
more subject to variation than any others,1 and in the
prehistoric Egyptian skulls we may sec this, just as
\ve may see that they present the same variations of
form— ellipsoid, ovoid, pcntagonoid — as any other
series of the species to which they belong. And the
same may be said concerning the cranial capacity, in
respect to which I have often shown that there are
large capacities and small capacities, which may be
considered as similar variations, when they arc well
defined.2
Although we only possess the averages and not the separate
measurements of the skulls found by Petrie at Naqada, we have
the measurements of those studied by Fouquet, though I regret
that in his figures of the skulls he has not presented the tionnti
•vtrficalis, or view from above, the most important of all. Now
if we compare the absolute length of the skulls examined by
him with the length of the skulls from the Canaries studied by
Verneau,1 we shall have an opposed result in regard to size,
not having the measurements of capacity, to those given of the
relations of the Naqada skulls, concerning which it is said that
the capacity is very much less than that of European, Mongol,
or Egyptian, and distinctly different from the Guanche.4
PREHISTORIC EGYPTIAN SKULLS FROM THE
SKULLS. CANARIES.
LENGTH.
Male.
Per Cent
Per Cent.
6.49.
5
170
7-
16.66
55.84.
43
180
19.
45-23
SI.I7-
24
190
1$.
3570
6.49.
5
200
l.
2.38
1 C>ani African! e Ciani A merit am, Florence, 1892.
* Cf. Sftcie e Variela nmane, Turin, 1900.
* L'ne Mitsion scitiiti/it/ue >/ans CAnkiptl Caaarfeii, I'.iris, 1887.
* NaqaJa ami Ballot, p. 52.
106 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
PREHISTORIC EGYPTIAN SKULLS FROM THE
SKULLS. CANARII-.-.
LENGTH.
Female.
Per Cent. Per Cent.
2.13 i 160 3 7.90
36.17 17 170 20 52.63
55-32 26 180 15 3947
6.36 3 190 o o.o
Both Series together.
0.80 F 160 3 3.75
17-74 22 170 27 33.75
55-64 69 180 34 42.50
21.77 27 190 15 18.75
4.03 5 200 i 1.25
TOTAL 100 124
The result is that the majority of the skulls have a length ol
over 180 mm. in the two series united, male with female; in the
separate series the prehistoric Egyptian male skulls show a
greater number at 180 and. at 200, and a less number at 190,
than those from the Canaries. In the female skulls the greater
length is in favour of the prehistoric Egyptians; and thus the
two series compensate each other, and we cannot say that on
the average any great difference exists between them. Whether
Petrie's Naqada skulls are different from the other prehistoric
Egyptian skulls is n^erely a matter of computation, and we see
that Petrie's skulls have on the average a length of 180.5,
Morgan's and Fouquet's i8t, while those from the Canaries
have an average length of 178, that is, male and female
together. This is enough to show that no great difference
exists between the skulls from the Canaries and the pre-
historic skulls of the Libyan or " new race." We could also
show by measurements that no difference exists between
Egyptian skulls and European skulls of the same type as those
of the "new race " and the prehistoric Egyptians.
This criticism is necessary in order to prove that craniometry
is a kind of kabbala and will prove anything and everything
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. IO7
one wishes ; what strange things it will demonstrate 5s shown
l>y FoiK|iict, who brings in Indians, Hottentots, Kaffirs, Bush-
men, and so on, in order to interpret prehistoric Egyptian
skulls. It is the sense of reality which is lost in such cranio-
metric clucubrations. In saying this, however, I have no wish
to justify Rcinach, who is more fantastic even than the others.
Leaving out of consideration what has been said
concerning fine and coarse Egyptian types by Pruner-
Bey first, and afterwards by Schmidt,1 and coming to
the capacity of the Egyptian skull, we find that the
average capacity ot pure Egyptian skulls is 1,394 c-c-»
with a maximum of 1,725 and a minimum of 1,155,
while Petric for his "new race" skulls gives two
averages of 1 ,298 and 1,315 c.c., according as we include
or exclude a series of small feminine skulls. But, as
we have seen, the series oscillates between capacities
of i,iooand 1,500. The difference between the two
groups is not great, and hence the introduction of a
small series of skulls of extreme capacity is enough
to raise or lower it.
In my own study of a scries of 87 Egyptian skulls
I found the high average of 1,445 c-c-> w'tn oscillations
between 1,220 and 1,740. I must observe, however,
that I only measured 18 of these — i.e., those which I
regarded as typical in my own classification, so that
this average is only founded on 18 skulls, of which
two were 1,710 and 1,740, thus suddenly raising the
result. De Blasio,2 however, who has measured all of
these skulls that were measurable (71) gives a total
average of 1,314.5, which is precisely that of Petrie's
" new race." If, therefore, Petric seeks anthropological
proof of the distinction between the historical Egyp-
1 Cf. Af>i<at cap. i.
* Lt I'ar/f.'i) uniane netf EgilSo Anlifo, Naples, 1893.
108 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tians and the Libyan population in cranial capacity,
no such proofs exists. The only proof, and an un-
answerable one, is to be found in the comparison of
forms between the skulls of the historical Egyptians
— that is to say, the mummies — and the prehistoric
race, whether we call the latter " new " with Petrie or
" old " with De Morgan.
The skulls studied by Dr. Fouquet in De Morgan's
FIG. 9. — Skull from Hierakonpolis,
Beloides Libycus (Macalister).
two volumes are viewed from the side .and in front,
not from above (nonna vertical is\ which, by the
method which I have adopted for many years, would
have served to determine the variety under which
they should be classed, and enable a comparison to
be made with Egyptian skulls of the historical epochs.
Notwithstanding this, from the descriptions given by
Fouquet and the views he presents, I can see in these
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. IOQ
skulls the common forms, ellipsoid, pentagonoid, and
ovoid, with variations corresponding to sub-variety,
FIG. 10. — Skull from Hicrakonpulis,
Ovoides (Macalister).
Fin. II. — Skull from Ilicrakonpolis,
rcntagonoide* afutus (Macalister).
such as I have found in series in which the evidence
was definitely presented. I can say the same of the
IIO THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
skulls represented by Flinders Pctrie in his book on
Naqada and Ballas. Being unwilling, however, to
remain content with the information thus obtained, I
have endeavoured to procure photographs ot the
skulls excavated by Petrie, in the norma verticals.
By the courtesy of Professor Macalister (in whose
hands some of the skulls had been placed) I have
Fie'. 12. — Ancient Egyptian Skull, Be'.oidcs
s (Sergi).
been able to obtain six, for which I here desire to
thank Professor Macalister. Although the number
is small, these six photographs present one of beloid
shape (already known as Splienoides jEgyptiacus), two
moid, and three pentagonotd ; craniometrically they are
dolichocephalic or mesoccphalic. Beloid is a new
name,1 and corresponds to Sphcnoides oblongus in
1 See my Specie e Varieti) itmatit.
IMlYsir.M. ANTHROPOLOGY (>i EGYPTIANS III
scries I have previously examined ;' I now term it
Sn'/oif/t's LibycHSt because found among the skulls of
Roknia (see Chap. VI). The ovoid and pcntagonoid
are not new among the forms found in the Mediter-
ranean and in historical Egypt I here present the
three characteristic forms of prehistoric and historic
Egyptian skulls (Figs. 9-11).
Fie. 13. — Ancient Egyptian Skull, Pcnla^onoidts
afuttis (Sergi).
In six skulls it is impossible to find all the forms
found in my scries and in other large scries of
historical Egyptian skulls. The only characteristi-
cally Mediterranean form, however, which is lacking is
the ellipsoidal, which is common in the race and was
1 Afiiia, cap. 5.
112
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
numerously represented among the 86 skulls I have
examined elsewhere. Many ellipsoidal skulls arc also
to be found in Fouquet's series (Figs. 12-14).
Not only in this comparison of prehistoric skulls
with those of the dynasties do we find that both show
the same forms and therefore belong to the same
FIG. 14. — Ancient Egyptian Skull, xxi. Dynasty,
Ovoidcs (Sergi).
stock, but also by an examination of the royal
mummies of Deir-el-Bahari, which, as I have found,
yield ellipsoidal and pentagonal forms as well as one
beloid.
On these grounds the conviction has grown in my
mind that there is no difference of race between the
historical Egyptians and the men who preceded them,
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF EGYPTIANS. 113
the so-called I'roto-Egyptians of Evans, and Morgan's
"old race." Both alike belong to the Mediterranean
stock, and arc of African origin.1
1 I must here state that Professor Pctrie has, some time since,
modified his opinion regarding the "new race.'' Speaking of objects
finiiul in the toml>s of this, population, he writes: — "These were at
first temporarily assigned to a new race, as we knew nothing more
alxuit them; hut further research had shown that they could now l>e
safely assigned to the pro-dynastic stock alx>ut 5000 B.C., and even
earlier." And he goes on to express an opinion which may here be
noted, s:nce it coincides with my own: — "In the graves of this
aboriginal race there were found certain Iwwls of black clay with
patterns imprinted upon them. These were of much importance in
discussing the relation of their civilisation to that of others in the
Mediterranean area.'1 At the same time, Professor Petrie maintains
hi* opinion that this | opulation, now termed by him pre-dynastic,
differs in tyjx; from that of historical limes. —Jour. Anlh.
1899, p. 202.
CHAPTER VI.
THE WESTERN LIBYANS.
Craniology of the Ancient Berbers — The Physical Characters of
the Modern Population.
Craniology of the Ancient Berbers. — I have elsewhere
classified the Libyans who now bear the general name
of Berbers with various sub-divisions, into those of
the Mediterranean, the Sahara,, and the Atlas.1 We
need not here consider to what extent the Berbers
have become mixed with the Arab invaders, for the
mingling with Semitic elements has taken place in
comparatively recent times ; -and if during antiquity
invaders, who might more or less have altered the
racial composition, entered Mediterranean Libya, it
seems that little or no change actually occurred, for
the Punic, Roman, and other introduced elements
were eliminated and disappeared, it may be said, by
natural selection; in a territory not propitious for
colonisation ; even to-day it seems that French mor-
tality in Algeria is greater than native mortality.
Nor does it appear that the natives easily mingle
with their conquerors;2 the Arabs, now so numerous
in Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli, have but partly
changed the primitive population, either as regards
physical characters or language. If foreign elements
1 Africa, Parte II.
* Boissier, L'Afriquc Komaine, 1896, pp. 303-308.
CRANIOLOT.Y OF THE ANCIENT BERBERS. 11$
have not disappeared they have assumed the racial
physiognomy of the region, the Punic, Roman, and
Greek elements taking on physical characters of
the Libyan type, so that to-day it is impossible to
distinguish them from true native Libyans. This
conclusion is on the whole accepted by Faidhcrbe,1
and the skulls of the new and old Libyans bear
witness to it
FIG. 15.— Skull from Roknia, BehiJes
Libyan (Faidherbe).
Those Libyans who are to the west of Egypt and
the Libyan desert I group under the name of Western
Libyans, in order to distinguish them from the
Egyptians whom I regard as also Libyans. General
Faidherbe's ancient skulls belonging to this group
appear in his study without any extensive apparatus
of measurements and theories. The numerous figures
1 " Recherchcs anthropologiques sur les tnral>caux mlgnlithiqucs <!c
Roknia," /?*//. Acadimie a't/iffone, iS6t>.
Il6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
he gives, however, and his excellent descriptions,
render it an easy task to interpret the cranial forms
of the twenty heads he studied.
According to my method these heads are of four varieties,
with certain sub-varieties : —
I. BELOID: a, libycus (Fig. 15). II. ELLIPSOID (Fig. 16):
<7, Corythocephalus ; £, Isocampylos. III. OoiD : a, Latus;
fi, subtilis. IV. PENTAGONOID : a, Acutus (Fig. 17); b, subtilis
(Fig. 18); c, asper; dt planus; e, convexus.
Fia. 16. — Skull from Roknia,
Ellipsoidcs (Faidherbe).
All these forms are common to the peoples of the Mediter-
ranean, including, as we have seen, the prehistoric and historic
Egyptians. The Beloid are five in number, and are dis-
tinguished from the Egyptian and those of the Siculi by being
long and slender, yet preserving the type. On account of this
difference I call this form Beloides Libycus; we have already
found an example of this type among the prehistoric Egyptians.
As taken from Faidherbe the type is here shown. The Ellip-
soid are four, all fine in form ; one of these is the Corytho-
CRANIOLOGY OK THE ANCIENT BERBERS. 117
ccphalus, also found in Egypt, the helmet-shaped skull ; the
others arc the very common Isoaimftylos. Of ovoid shapes,
J.ti/us and Subliit's arc found- The pcntagonoids are numerous,
but varying greatly.
If we consider these twenty skulls from the stand-
point of craniometry, we find that eighteen arc
dolichocephalic and mcsoccphalic, and two brachy-
cephalic ; of the latter one has an index of 80. 1, the
other of 84.3. But when we consider that these two
FlC. 17. — Skull from Roknin, Pentagonoulet
cunt us (Faiilherbc).
indices belong to pentagonoid skulls which have a
large breadth only on account of excessive develop-
ment of the parietal bosses, we shall find no cause for
surprise.1 The pentagonoid is very broad, since it is
low and flattened. Hence it can scarcely be said that
these two skulls are foreign to the Libyan scries.
1 Sec Scr^i, " Lc furmc del cranio uniaim nello svcluppo fetalc in
relazione allc forme adultu" (A'iz: di Biobgia, ii. 67, 1900), for the
justification of this view.
Il8 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
The Physical Characters of tJie Modern Population.
— Examining the modern populations, we should ex-
pect to find amid the primitive elements other elements
foreign to the stock, since from most ancient times the
Mediterranean has been slowly penetrated by large
emigrations of many Asiatic racial elements, a fact of
which we can find very clear evidence. The Arabs
have, above all, attempted to change the anthropologi-
cal physiognomy of Libyan Africa ; the population of
FlG. 18. — Skull from Roknia, Pentagonoides
sitbtilis (Faidherbe).
Arab origin in Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli,
according to Carette, amounts to 4,800,000, while the
Libyan Berbers are about 7,500,000 in number.1 As
I have already remarked, however, in spite of this
enormous number of Arabs, the primitive population
has preserved its own characters. In addition to this
population, moreover, others have entered, especially
1 Carette, Originc et Migrations dcs frincifales tribus
pp. 440 441.
CIIAK.\< TKUS OF MODKKN HKKIiKKS. IIQ
in the pure Mediterranean zone, above all from
Kurope, such as Italians, Spaniards, French, and
other racial elements, variously mixed.
French anthropologists have chiefly investigated
some of the modern populations of Mediterranean
Africa, and, it seems to me, they have shown, in
harmony with what I have said above, that it is not
original and primitive, as we might be inclined to
believe, but the result of immigration during various
epochs.
Topinard endeavoured to determine Arab types
and Berber types, and also mixed types, Arabiscd
Berbers ;l but his considerations seem to me very
vague and uncertain, and incapable of yielding any
positive result.
Collignon carried on an investigation, with reference
to colour of hair and eyes, of the sedentary Tunis
population; this was also important from the large
number of individuals (2,030) examined. Of light
eyes he found 3.5 per cent., of light hair, 04 per cent. ;
while of dark eyes there were 76 per cent, and of
dark hair 92.9 per cent.2
Another study by Collignon deals with the general
ethnography of Tunis, and contains observations on
stature, as well as on the cephalic, nasal, and facial
indices.3 We must, however, confine ourselves to the
cephalic index, because this has been used to support
various theoretical views which overturn the natural
order of anthropological facts in the Mediterranean,
1 Anthrofvhgie tie r.-ti'^'n'e, p. 616; " Klutle cranionu'lrique dc
Biskra," .•/>«. fntntahf /<>///• /'.;.-.//;.>•. t/ts ffi., lOlh scss., Algiers, lS8l.
8 " Repartition <lc la coulctir <lcs ycn\ et <lcs chcveux chez Ics
TuniMcns siMcntain-N." AV,-7/<- </'.//;.' hiofologie, iSSS.
3 " Etude sur 1'Kthnographic gent-rale <le la Tunisic," /?«//. de
Gtografhfe kisloriifiie et dtscn'ftii'f, Paris, 1887.
120 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
and especially in Africa. The number of brachy-
cephals, according to this author, is 132 out of 1,133
subjects examined, and they have an index of from
80 to 8 1, a very low one, because the author includes
several subjects with a mesocephalic index of 79; this
would be about 12 per cent, if all the 132 were true
brachycephals. From my examination, however, it
appears that the true brachycephals may be reduced
to a very small number, which we may call sporadic,
the infiltration of a foreign element Thus I cannot
follow Collignon, when, in accordance with the mis-
taken notion of French anthropologists that the
Ligurians are brachycephalic, he regards these
brachycephals as constituting a Ligurian element.
Bertholon, completing the observations of Collignon
on Tunis,1 also finds a brachycephalic element, so
small, however, that it has no effect on the general
average of the population whose cephalic index
oscillates between 70 and 76.11, nor on that of 36
skulls whose average is 72.97. In a further study
Bertholon, like Collignon, finds a Ligurian brachy-
cephalic element in Africa.2 Exploring the island of
Gerba, he found among 330 subjects examined an
index of 79.84, with an oscillation between 71 and 87.
If we include among the brachycephalic the indices
of 80 and upwards, we find that they amount to 33
per cent., while the dolichocephalic and mesocephalic
are 66 per cent. Brachycephaly is therefore more
marked here than Bertholon found it to be in Tunis
and Khumiria.
- "Exploration anthropologique de la Khoumirie," Bull, cie
Geographic ; 1891.
5 " Exploration anthropologique de 1'isle de Gcrki," L\-lnt/iroJ>o.'ogiet
viii., 1897.
( 1IAK.\< TKKS OF MODERN BKRHKRS. 121
If we compare the results obtained from the skulls
of Roknia with Collignon's and Bertholon's observa-
tions among the modern populations, we find, as we
might expect, that while among the former there arc
no brachycephalic skulls of foreign type (since, as I
have already remarked, the two pentagonoids are of
Mediterranean type), among the cranial forms of the
modern populations we discover brachycephalic heads
of Asiatic type, such as we meet more or less
numerously or sporadically in Europe. That was
to be expected, because Northern Africa has received
Asiatic and European colonies which naturally were
not composed of racial elements formed from one
type only. The same fact may be observed in other
parts of the Mediterranean, as in Sicily1 and in Spain,
where the brachycephalic Asiatic has penetrated from
prehistoric ages.
I may here remark that my own observations,
carried on in accordance with the method already
referred to, prove that the old Libyan shapes are
perpetuated among the modern Berbers, mingled
with a foreign element which has penetrated during
the course of ages. In the Anthropological Museum
at Rome there are twenty Tunis skulls which I have
studied and classified, and I have ascertained that
they repeat the well-known forms found in Egypt
and elsewhere in Africa.
I. EI.LIPSOIDKS: I, Ell. biconcavus; 2, Ell. brevifrons; 3,
Parallelcpipedoides africus. II. OvoiDKS: I, Ov. latus; 2, Ov.
subtilis; 3, Ov. platymetopus. III. PENTAC.oitoiDES: i, Pent.
plnnus; 2, Pent, declivis; 3, Pent, subtilis; 4, Acmonoides
siculus; 5, I'tiu. a. utus. IV. HKI.OIDKS /KciYl'TIACUs. V. Tk\-
PKZOIDKS: I, Trap. lonijisMimis; 2, Pyrgoides rom.nniv
1 Sec Scr^i, " Crani prci.sloiici tldla Sicilia," Atli Six. nun. di
Antrof., Roma, 4900.
122 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
I. Ellipsoidal.— 'There are only two skulls of this variety,
with differences in their special characters; they belong to two
sub-varieties: Ell. biconcavus and Ell. brevifrons. The first is
from Sfax ; it is old, of medium capacity, and not easy to
measure, being rather rotten; the character that makes it bicon-
cave is the fact that the two temporo-parietal sides, instead of
being flat or protuberant, as usually happens, are concave, so
that the ellipse approximates the figure 8. This singular form
might seem pathological, and would have seemed so to me if I.
had not been warned by previous observation of other skulls of
similar form in the modern Roman collection, and also among
very ancient skulls.
No. 1387, male, cephalic index 69.2, facial index 45, nasal
index 62. It will be seen that this is a very narrow skull, with
a short face, platyrhine but not prognathous.
The Ell. brevifrons form was described by me among the
old Roman skulls,1 and need not be described again ; this
African skull is of the same type, and comes from Begia.
No. 1376, male, capacity 1420, cephalic index 71.3, facial
index 50, nasal index 48.2.
3. Parallelepipedoides afiicaiius, described by me elsewhere
as a skull of fine proportions, superior to the Sardiniensis, and
found in Abyssinia.2
No. 1379, of Gabes, masculine, capacity 1230, cephalic index
72.7, facial index 53, nasal index 42.3.
I 1. Ovoid. — i. Of the Ov. latus, on various occasions described
among skulls of the Mediterranean and East Africa, two were
found: No. 1377, of Biserta, masculine, capacity 1449, cephalic
index 80.7, facial index 528, nasal index 45.1; No. 1391, of
Tabarca, masculine, capacity 1280, cephalic index 77.3, facial
index 54, nasal index 52.8. 2. Of the Ov. subtilis, also common
in the Mediterranean and East Africa, were three examples:
No. 1392, of Bab-Gurgiani, masculine, capacity 1444, cephalic
index 73.5, facial index 56, nasal index 45.3; No. 1385, of Mon-
astir, feminine, capacity 1300, cephalic index 72.8, facial index
52, nasal index 45.1; No. 1393 of Bab-Oliva, infantile, capacity
1270, cephalic index 762, facial index 55, nasal index 53.7.
This last had not attained definite shape, and showed, especially
1 " Studi di antropologia lazialc," Accad. Medica di Jtoma, 1895.
2 In A/I icat loc. cit.
CHARACTERS OF MODERN BERUERS.
123
in the parietal bosses, an angularity which is not characteristic
of ovoid skulls. 3. Ov. pla/yinctofius, so called because the
frontal bone is flattened and slopes forward ; it has much
resemblance with the Ell. platymclopus of Egypt and Abys-
sinia; No. 1388, of Susa, feminine, capacity 1290, cephalic
index 76.2, facial index 53 4, nasal index 39 2, and characteristic
as a type of this sub-variety; No. 1382, rather youthful and not
yet definitely formed, but belonging to this type; capacity 1415,
cephalic index 78.6, facial index 74.9, nasal index 43.8. HI.
Pcntagonoids. — This category always contains many sub-forms,
F»G. 19. — Skull from Ain-Draham,
Penta^onoides subtilis (Sergi).
and it is not surprising that the five skulls of the group belong
to five different classes, i. Pent, plarnts, No. 1379, of Jeriann,
is infantile but typical, with cephalic index of 75.4, nasal index
47.4. 2. Pent, decliris, so called because the curve of separation
between the frontal and cerebral regions up to beyond the
brcgtAa for at least five or six centimetres backwards, forms an
inclined plane with almost parallel sides. The parietal bones
are sharp, and much directed backwards, and the anterior sides
of the pentagon are very long compared to the posterior sides.
124
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
It is a singular shape, but resembles some ovoid skulls found in
Sicily.1 No. 1381, of Kerwan, male, capacity 1440, cephalic
index 73.3, facial index 51, nasal index 46.3. 3. The rent,
subtilis was described by me among the skulls of Abyssinia as
found among the Bogos; this from Tunis is very similar (see
Fig. 19). No. 1375, from Ain-Draham, female, capacity 1070,
cephalic index 70, facial index 50, nasal index 45.3. 4. Acmo-
iioides. — This form really has five sides, but the two posterior
are shortened, and the angle formed by the occipital is smaller
FlG. 2O. — Skull from Tunis, Pentagonoidcs
« acutus (Sergi).
than that of the acute pentagonoid. No. 1394, of Zaquan, male,
capacity 1335, cephalic index 72.8, facial index 50, nasal index
45.5. 5. Pent, acutus (see Fig. 20). No. 737, capacity 1350,
cephalic index 73.4, facial index 51, nasal index 50. IV. Beloid.
— There was only one skull of this class — already described in
dealing with Egyptian skulls and the Libyans of Roknia — and
that was infantile, And not well defined in type. No. 1390, from
Tabarca, infantile, probably female, cephalic index 74.7, facial
1 See Moschen, " Quattro decadi di crani modern! dalla Sicilia,"
Alti Soc. Veneto-Trtntina, Padua, 1893, fig. 16.
CHARACTERS OF MODERN BERnF.RS. 125
index 56 7, nasal index 50. V. Trafiezoids. — Trapezoides
it'tigi'ssi'mus. — This new form of trapczoid was exhibited in two
skulls, one male, the other female, but perfectly alike except in
sexual characters. They arc very long and low, while typical
trapezoids are short and rather high in relation to length.
.They have receding frontals, and the occipital is protuberant
behind; they arc prognathous. It is the first time I have seen
such a shape, and I cannot express any opinion about it until
further observations are possible. No. 1384, from Megcz-cl-
Rab, male, capacity 1435, cephalic index 69.5, facial index 56,
nasal index 51.8. No. 1380, from Gerba, female, capacity 1330,
cephalic index 70.8, facial index 59, nasal index 46. 2 Trap.
pyr£oidtS) or tower-like. No. 1383, from Megez-el-IJab, male,
capacity 1320, cephalic index 82.1, facial index 55.2, nasal index
45.3. No. 1389, from Tamezart (Gabes), male, capacity 1325,
cephalic index 76.8, facial index 53.6, nasal index 47.1.
In comparing the skulls from Roknia \\ith mine
from Tunis it is at once seen that (except the trape-
zoids) all belong to the same varieties, the differences
being found only in the sub-varieties, as is natural in
such small scries as these. If we make a wider com-
parison, between Egyptian skulls and those of other
Mediterranean populations, we shall find that the
sub-varieties are common to every population in the
Mediterranean. In regard to the cephalic index I
must say that only two brachycephalic skulls are
found in the Tunis scries, but one is a broad ovoid
(cephalic index 80.7) and therefore of Mediterranean
type; the other (the pyrgoid) alone is foreign. It is
necessary to call attention to this fact, since Kcanc, in
his recent work, Man Past and Present, considers
that the brachycephalic element found amidst the
Ktiropcan dolichoccphals is partly of African origin
and partly of Asiatic origin. Now we have seen that
it is only in modern times that brachyccphals have
been found in North Africa in any considerable
126 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
number, and then only as a subordinate type; in
antiquity they were exceptional and sporadic, not
only in Africa but throughout the Mediterranean.
If we examine the skulls of East Africa, of Abyssinia,
of Somaliiand, ot the Gallas, a brachycephalic skull is
always very exceptional.1
In the Sahara, again, and in the west towards the
Atlantic — that is, in the region including Libyans or
Berbers — all the information that reaches us only
confirm the results already reached regarding the
Mediterranean Libyans. Unfortunately I have no
personal observations to present regarding the forms
ot the skull in these regions, except only as regards
three skulls from the island of Arguin on the
Atlantic coast ot Africa, and sufficiently near the
mainland to be considered as an appendage of the
Sahara and of Magreb, which under some aspects
may be considered an extension of Morocco. I
know that three skulls are too few, but with my
zoological method they express something and furnish
an important indication. They belong to two of the
commonest Mediterranean varieties.
One is Ell. depressus, capacity 1515, cephalic index 72.2,
height index 66.3, facial indices 58.1 and 96 8, nasal index 43.1.
The other two are t>voids : Ov. dLgypliacus, capacity 1450,
cephalic index 72.5, height index 72, facial indices 56 and 93,
nasal index 45.2 ; Ov. lophoides, on account of a protuberance
on the cranial roof, capacity 1385, cephalic index 77.6, height
index 76.8, facial indices 54 and 88.7, nasal index 54.3. This
last skull, however, is h>brid since the face is negroid.
But to compensate fey- the absence of skulls we have
observations on the living face. These reveal the
presence of the varieties of the Eurafrican species
1 a. Africa.
CHARACTERS OF MODERN DERRERS. 127
found in Hamitic Africa and throughout the Mediter-
ranean— that is to say, the forms of the face I describe
as ellipsoid, ovoid, pentagonal, and resembling a
parallelogram, while the face of the Ovoides •/£".£f/-
tiacus of. Arguin is dolicho-cllipsoid, and the nasal
index is leptorhinc in two skulls and meso-lcptorhinc
in the living.1
1 For details, sec Africa, Parle 1 1.
CHAPTER VII.
THE CANARY ISLANDS.
The Origins of the Cana>y Population— Physical Charactcts
of the Population.
T/ie Origins of the Canary Population. — It seems
unnecessary to refer to the opinions of ancient
historians concerning the origin of the population of
the Canary Islands, for they are merely conjectural and
often fantastic, being sometimes united with ill-founded
traditions. Investigations worthy of attention only
begin with the naturalists wlro in modern times have
studied the islands and their products and inhabitants
with scientific methods. We owe to the researches
of Berthelot, Broca, Faidherbe, and Chil, in the first
place, and afterwards to the more special investiga-
tions of Vcrneau and more recently of Meyer and
Luschan, whatever light has been thrown on the
populations who have inhabited the Canary Islands.1
1 Berlhelot, Anliquitfs Canaricnnes, Paris, 1839 ; Baker Webb and
S. Berthelot, Histoire iiatttrelle des f'es Canaries, Paris, 1839; Bioca,
Revue d'Anthiopologic, iv., 1874; Faidherbe, Quelques mots sur
rethnologie de VArchipel Canarien, Paris, 1875 ; Chil y Naranjo,
Rstudios Hisloricos, cliniatol6^icos y palol6gicos de las Is/as Canarias,
Las Palnias, 1876-89 ; Verneau, Kappo>t sur une Mission scientijiqiie
dans FArchipcl Canarien, Paris, 1887; ib., Cinq annees de sejour aux
ties Canaries, Paris, 1891 ; ib., " De la pluralitc des races humaincs
de 1'Archipel Canarien" (Bull. Sot. Anthrop., 1878); ib., " Habita-
tions et sepultures des ancicns habitants des lies Canaries " (A'evtie
tfA nlhrop. ), 1879 ; ib., " Les Semites aux ties Canaries'" (Bull , fit.,
ORIGINS OF CANARY POPULATION. \2<)
The primary problem has been that of the origins
of the Canary population. Bcrthclot. founding his
opinion chiefly on language, believed that it was
derived from tribes of the western Atlas, Brpca that
it came from North Africa, and Faidherbe that it is
a mixture of Wolofs, Libyans, blond Europeans, and
even Canaanites. Verncau attempted to prove that
the Canarians belong to the Cro-Magnon race and
emigrated from the north. It is useless to refer to
the opinions of those who believe that the race is of
American origin or constitutes a residuum of the
population of the poetic Atlantis, for the origins of
a people can only be learnt by the study of their
physical and ethnographic characters. The method
that has guided us so far is that of following the
distribution of such characters, especially the physical
traits, in the various regions, and noting the resem-
blances or dissimilarities which unite or separate a
population in relation to a stock with well-established
characters. If a population is studied by itself,
without relation to others, it cannot be classified,
and we cannot learn its origins. Let us therefore
ask what are the physical characters of the Canary
population.
Physical Characters of tlie Population. — Dr Chil
measured 169 ancient skulls from Grand Canary,
Teneriflc, Gomcra, and Ferro, finding among them
1881); ib , " Sur les anciens habitants de la Islctn " ; Meyer, Die
Intel Tent'ife, Leipzig, 1896 ; " Ueber die Urbewohner der Canar-
ischcn Inseln," in Adolf Baslian Festschrift, 1'crlin, 1896 ; Von
Luschnu, " Anhang Uber cine Schadclsammlung von den Canarischen
Inseln," Meyer's />/> fusel Tenetife : " Drci trepanirle Schadel von
Tencrif-.-" (I'trkantilnn^en der Bet liner anlhrop. Geseltschaft, 1896);
Virchow, " Schadvt mit Carionecrosis der Sagiltaigegcnd "
13O THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
only 8 that were brachycephalic, the average index
for the whole number being 76.3. It varied a
little in the different islands — in Grand Canary
76.7, in Teneriffe 78, in Gomera 77.2, in Ferro
73.2. He concludes that the race which peopled
the Canaries was dolichocephalic ; and he believes
that it was related to the troglodytes of the
Homme-Mort Cavern, of Cro-Magnon, of Vezere,
as well as to the Spanish Basques, the Berbers,
the Egyptians, and the Corsicans ; also that the
race was the same throughout the Archipelago,
the variations being due to mixture among the
invaders. He also believes that Grand Canary
possessed the real type of the pure aboriginal race,
while the Teneriffe skulls belonged to a coarser type
He attaches no importance to the blond element
found in the Archipelago, since such an element is
found also in Egypt and among the ancient Libyans.1
Very different from Dr. Chil's conclusions are those
of Dr. Verneau, who has written an important work on
a large number of skulls and long bones belonging to
the ancient inhabitants of the islands in order to
reach decisive conclusions. As is known, the ancient
colonists of the Archipelago of the Canaries were
called Guanches, and Verneau proposes to determine
whether or not other races were mingled with the
Guanches. Stature in the first place and then cranial
form have indicated to Verneau that the Guanches
were mixed with other racial elements. It was in
Teneriffe that the Guanche element predominated
in a least mixed shape ; Gomera, Grand Canary, and
Ferro, he believes, contained a population that was
mingled in various proportions. At Teneriffe a high
1 Op. til. , vol. ii. , p. 305 and plates ; also pp. 273 et seq.
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 131
stature prevails among the men, 45.8 per cent, being
between m. 1.70 and m. 1.86, and 47.8 per cent,
between m. 1.65 and m. 1.70; the general male
average is 1.70, while in the female sex it is only
about 1.53. At Gomera a low stature predominates,
67.69 per cent, being m. 1.60 and less. At Grand
Canary the proportion varies according to locality,
at Isleta 58.90 being of high stature and 5.90 of low,
while at Santa Lucia, at Aguimcs, and at San
Bartolomo the proportion varies between 28.65 ar|d
42 per cent. Taken altogether, the island shows an
average stature, as at Teneriffe, of m. 1.70 with a
maximum of m. 1.81 and a minimum of m. 1.58. In
the island of Ferro the proportion descends ; from
1.65 to 1.75 it is from 23.33 to 45.10 per cent,
while the low stature oscillates between 28 and 51
per cent
From these data Verneau argues the presence of
many different races of great and small stature.
Since he attributes the high stature to the Guanches,
it follows that Teneriffe had a more homogeneous
population of Guanche stock with few foreign
elements, while Grand Canary had a very varied
population ; this he attempts to prove also by
examination of the skulls.
If we consider cranial capacity, the male skulls of
Teneriffe are large, with an average of 1,672 cc., with
a maximum of 1,900 and a minimum of 1,410; the
female skulls have an average of 1432 c.c, with a
maximum of 1,600 and a minimum of 1,3 1 5. Not less
high is the capacity of the Gomera skulls, with an
average of 1,607 (maximum 1,627, minimum 1,440)
for the males, and an average of 1,349 (maximum
1,375, minimum 1,255) for the females. At Grand
132 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Canary the total average was 1,513 with wide varia-
tions. Ferro has also yielded masculine skulls with
capacity varying widely between 1,280 and 1,625, and
feminine skulls between 1,260 and 1,685; in Palma
the masculine range is between 1,335 and 1>735-
As I have elsewhere often stated (in my Varietb
Umani), I believe that wide oscillations in cranial
capacity cannot be regarded as due to individual
variation, and therefore, with Verneau, I accept the
presence in the Canaries of many different racial
elements. This would confirm the indication already
supplied by the differences in stature. I would only
observe that there is a divergence between the data
of stature and those of cranial capacity as regards
Gomera, where the capacity equals that found at
Teneriffe, and at Grand Canary also the cranial
capacity, like the stature, is relatively high, though
the variations are greater than at Teneriffe.
We may turn to the data furnished by the islands as regards
cephalic index, following Verneau. (I reduce the quinary
division of the French to the simpler ternary division of the
Germans.) At Teneriffe Verneau found: —
Male Skulls.
Per Cent.
Dolichocephalic 37.00
Mesocephalic 40.70
Brachycephalic 22.30
Female Skulls.
Dolichocephalic ..... 16.67
Mesocephalic 5^-33
Brachycephalic . . , . . 25.00
At Gomera:
Male Skulls.
Dolichocephalic 15.39
Mesocephalic 45- '5
Brachycephalic 38.46
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 133
Female Skulls.
Per Cent.
Mesoccphalic 25.00
Brachycephalic 75-OO
At Grand Canary are found, according to locality:
Dolichocephalic . . from 25.00 to 50.00
Mesocephalic . . „ 17.00 „ 75.00
Brachycephalic . . „ 5.88 „ 12.50
At Ferrot
Dolichocephalic, in the east 30.00, in the south 35.30
Mesocephalic, „ 7000, „ 32.35
At Palma we find dolichocephalic and mesocephalic with
variations in the two sexes between 71.96 and 78.53.
The largest number of brachycephals is to be found
at Gomera, and especially among the women ; only a
few are found among the Grand Canary skulls; none
at Palma and Ferro. The population of the archi-
pelago would seem to be more homogeneous con-
sidered according to cephalic index than according
to cranial capacity or stature.
As regards the facial index, I have thought it desirable to
reduce the measure of facial height (taken by Verneau from the
ophryon) to the height from the naso-frontal suture, a method
I have adopted for many years past I have obtained it by
adding the nasal height to the inter-maxillary height, measured
by Verneau.
In his results Verneau gives averages together with the
maxima and minima, but seldom the individual data. Com-
pelled to follow him, I have found great divergence of results.
His averages, as well as his maxima and minima, but rarely
correspond to those obtained by my method, which is more
exact since it has fixed anatomical points. For Teneriffe I have
obtained average male indices of 52 to 52.9 (maxima 55, 56.5,
minima 47.7, 50); for Gomera indices of 59, 57, 53, 48; for
('•rand Canary average indices of 52.5 to 57.7 (maxima 59.80 and
60, minima 48.7 and 51.2); for Ferro averages of 52 and 53
(maxima 54, 56, 58, and minima 48.8, 50); for Talma the indices
oscillate between 50.4 and 55.6.
134 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Summarising the figures obtained as regarding
facial index, it appears that the greater number show
the presence of the elongated or leptoprosopic type
of face, this type often showing extreme forms with
indices of 55 to 60 ; the chaemoprosopic or broad-faced
are rare, only 9 times in 73 cases, or at a percentual rate
of 12.3. These results lead us to conclusions very
unlike those of Verneau, who believes that the true
Guanche type possesses a short broad face.
In Verneau's opinion the Guanches have been
variously mixed with the racial elements which
perhaps arrived at the same time to colonise the
islands. He considers that the Guanches are of the
Cro-Magnon race, and that at Teneriffe they present its
characters in stature, skull, and face; mingled with this
he finds a Semitic element whence results the mixed
type most common in the island. He adds a third
but less numerous type with a short head and broad
nose. At Teneriffe the true Guanche race is most
numerous, while at Gomera it is scarcely found at all.
At Grand Canary, where Chil finds the Guanches
present, Verneau only finds a chaos of racial elements.
Although dolichocephaly is common, and brachy-
cephaly rare, the stature is high on the whole, and
hence he believes that here, as at Teneriffe, only to a
greater extent, a Semitic element has entered. Thus,
taking the island altogether, he finds: (i) Guanches,
(2) Semites, (3) crosses between these two, (4) a type
with short head and brow, of unknown origin, (5)
another type, perhaps Berber, at the north of the
island. At Ferro and Palma the phenomena are
similar.
A final investigation is concerned with the colour
of the skin, eyes, and hair. Tradition refers to blonds
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 135
in the Canaries; the poet Viana represents the
princess Dacil with Teutonic complexion; Vicra
y Clavijo, Berthclot, and Millares state that they
have seen mummies with blond hair. Verncau saw
some with red hair, which he attributes to the action
of mummification, as in Peruvian mummies. At the
same time he is inclined to admit the existence of
blonds at TenerirTe, where he has met children, and
sometimes adults, with blond hair and also with blue
eyes. Among the adults some have chestnut hair,
more or less light, while some arc real blonds. He
accepts these blonds without hesitation as descendants
of the ancient Guanches.
If we judge Dr. Verncau's conclusions by his facts,
regarded in the light of other craniological criteria
than the rough method of the cephalic index or
stereotyped shapes, we shall certainly find some of
his inductions inacccptable. Verncau exerts himself
to find the pentagonal or sub-pentagonal forms as
necessary characteristics of the Cro-Magnon skull,
and when he finds ellipsoid or ovoid skulls he sees
Semitic or hybrid skulls. I have often shown that
even amongst the most homogeneous populations
there is no single cranial type or single stereotyped
form; Cro-Magnon skulls present varied types, and
not merely that 01 the celebrated old skull on which
some would stereotype all the individuals belonging
to the same race.
More than this : Verneau finds that the Guanche
type, as he conceives it, is unlike that of the Hcrbers ;
and therefore he considers it European, and in
addition blond and white, with light eyes like a
Teutonic type, although, according to his own state-
ments, there arc few blonds now in the islands, and
136 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
IK) evidence of blondness among the mummified
human remains. As regards the face, he believes
that the Guanchc type was broad and short, like the
Cro-Magnon skull. But by his own measurements
we have found that the indices are leptoprosopic and
even exaggerated, up to 60.
I believe we may conclude, on the basis of Ver-
neau's own observations, that the population of the
Canaries was mingled before the conquest, and that
there were two chief elements, one of Guanches, doli-
chocephalic and mesocephalic, with leptoprosopic
face, the other an undetermined racial element with
short head, short and broad face. There is also a
third element, of secondary rank, dolichocephalic and
mesocephalic, short face, short stature, but we are not
entitled to call it Semitic. If such an element were
present it would be difficult to distinguish it clearly.
Let us, however, turn to the opinions of two other
more recent observers, Meyer and F. von Luschan.
Meyer has himself summarised his ideas and those
of Von Luschan concerning the Guanches, whom they
believe to have been blonds of white skin, and dis-
tinguished from two other types which also inhabited
the Canaries. Thus there would be three physically
different types. «
The jirst type is formed by the .Guanches. whose
stature, according to those investigators, was between
m. 1.70 and 1.90, bodies robust and head large,
markedly dolichocephalic. The forehead was well
developed, the occiput strong and low, the face low
and broad, the eyes large, the jaws very wide, the
cephalic index is 78, the vertical index 73. The nose
was relatively short, the teeth but slightly prominent.
On the whole, the skull has most resemblance to the
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 137
prehistoric type of Cro-Magnon. The hair was U
blond, reddish, or light chestnut ; the skin and eyes
light. This Guanche type was diffused throughout
all the islands, but was purest and most numerous in
Tencriffe.
The second type was of stature m. 1.65 to 1.67,
slender 7n~body, and with a delicate mcsocephalic
skull. The face was long and narrow, the nose
narrow. The cephalic index is 81, the vertical index
73. A resemblance to the Hamitic skull cannot fail
to be recognised. The hair was black, the skin a light
brown, the eyes dark. This type is specially found at
Grand Canary, Pal ma, and Fcrro, but not at Gomera.
The third type was of shorter stature on the
average than the two previous types. The bones
were slender, the skull hypsibrachycephalic, very
short, broad, and high. The face was long and
narrow, the nose narrow and straight. The cephalic
index was 84, the vertical index 79.5. This cranial
shape is entirely identical with that called by Von
Luschan the Armenoid pre-Semitic of Western Asia.
The colour of hair, skin, and eyes most probably
corresponded with that of the brunet types of
Western Asia. This type was widespread and pure
at Gomera, where the second type was absent, but is
also traceable in the rest of the archipelago.
If we classify these three types, these investigators
conclude, we have: (i) Dolichocephals related to the
very ancient Cro-Magnon race ; (2) Mesocephals of
Hamitic relationship; (3) Hypsibrachycephals related
to the prc-Semitic Armcnoids of Western Asia.1
1 " Ueber die Url>cwohner der Canarischen Inseln," Festschrift /«>
A. Bastion, Merlin, 1896; cf. Von I.uschan's appendix to Die Inset
Tenerife, Leipzig, 1896.
138 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
It will be seen that the two distinguished German
authorities differ considerably from Verneau ; they
accept Verneau's Guanche type entirely, but the
delicate type with a cephalic index of 8 1 — that
is, brachycephalic, not mesocephalic — is for them
Hamitic, and the brachycephals of 84 are Armenoid.
Let us consider Von Luschan's data. He finds
among 50 skulls i dolichocephalic, 22 mesocephalic,
27 brachycephalic, following the classification of the
Frankfort Convention; for the facial index (following
the same classification) we have 40 leptoprosopic (i.e.,
in the proportion of 80 per cent.) and 10 chamaepro-
sopic (in the proportion of 20 per cent). If, how-
ever, we adopt my classification we have the indices
in the proportion of 70 per cent, leptoprosopic, 35.22
mesoprosopic, and 8 per cent, chamaeprosopic (only 4
cases). These figures are founded on Von Luschan's
own data ; l and they agree with the observations of
Verneau, who at Teneriffe in 18 cases only twice
found chamaeprosopic (between 47.7 and 48.7), though
Teneriffe is the island in which, according to these
authors, the Guanche elements are most numerous.
At Gomera it was only found once among 13 cases,
at Grand Canary twice among 28, at Ferro three
times among 18, at Pal ma not at all.
The short and broad type of face is therefore very
seldom found, while the type with long or even very
long face, which we have learned to know among the
Hamites of the whole African zone from east to west,
is common and widely diffused. But among the
Hamites we have only exceptionally found a skull
with a cephalic index of Si; it is usually dolicho-
cephalic and mesocephalic. I will here present the
1 See Meyer, Die Insel Tenerife.
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 139
results, as regards skull shape, of an examination of
the small collection of crania from the Canaries pos-
sessed by the Rome Museum of Anthropology. Here
is the list : —
I ELLIPSOIDS: I, Ell. corythocephalus; 2, Ell. proophryo-
ats; 3, Parallclepipedoides, (a) africus, (/>) canaiiensis. II.
OVOIDES: i, O. lobatus. III. PENTAGONOIDS : i, Pent,
planus; 2, Pent, acutus. IV. PLATYCEPHALUS: i, Stenoplaty-
cephalus. V. SPHENOIDS: i, Sph. tetragonus panws; 2, Sph.
cyrtocephalus oblongus; 3, Sph. canariensis.
FIG. 21. — Sfhenoides canaricnsh (Scrjji).
It is unnecessary to describe all the skulls of this little scries,
as their characters may be at once inferred frorn. their names,
and the reader who has followed me so far will recognise that
many of them are common to the Mediterranean. I will only
say a few words concerning those that deserve special attention.
The Parallele(>if>cdi>idcs ainaricnse is distinguished from the
elsewhere described,1 by being larger, showing a
1 See Afrita.
I4O
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
more complete parallelism and a very developed frontal bone,
elevated above the plane of the cranial vault. The Sienoplaly-
cephalus is a small low flattened skull, with the characters found
in the microcephalic crania of the Mediterranean, and in Russia
at the Kurgan epoch.1 This cranial form thus found in the
midst of ancient skulls from the Canaries, has an important
bearing, in my opinion, on the African origin of European
pigmies which I suggested some years ago. Another type
which merits special attention is the Sphenoides canariensis ;
Fl(». 22. — Sphenoides canariensis (Sergi).
this is a male skull of capacity 1,530 c.c., cephalic index 81.3,
vertical index 71.8, facial index 53.5, nasal index 43.6 (Figs.
21, 22). This wedge-shaped form approaches the round
sphenoid,2 but it is broader in front, low like a platycephalic
skull, and with very short and receding forehead; the large
mastoid apophyses are so placed that the skull inclines back-
J Sergi, Varieta microcefaliche e Pigmci di Eiiropa, Roma, 1893; ifi.,
Specie e Varieta ttwarte, Turin, 1900.
8 Cf. Sergi, Sin ii di antropolog ia lazialt, Rome, 1895.
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 14!
ward instead ot ascending in front This skull is unique in
the collection, but I have found many similar in Von Luschan's
collection at Berlin, and it is represented in Plate I. of Meyer's
memoir.1 This, it appears to me, is the skull which Von
Luschan terms Armenoid.
It may be well to point out that the Armenoid
type was described by Von Luschan on the occasion
of his travels in Lycia and in his study of the Tach-
tadshy skull. This skull, though brachycephalic, has
a different form ; generally the occiput slopes vertically
or a little obliquely so as to approach the vertical;
the summit of the cranial height is much behind the
bregma, and from the summit there is an oblique
descent towards the forehead. Viewed from the side,
the skull has a trapezoidal appearance.2 Mine and
those of Meyer do not altogether resemble the Arme-
noid type of Asia Minor, and it seems to me, there-
fore, that Meyer's third type from the Canaries cannot
with any probability be described as Armenoid. I
call it Canariense, because I have never seen a similar
cranial form elsewhere. I do not wish to imply that
it arose in this archipelago, but it is foreign to the
Hamitic type which mainly dominates here.
From a craniometric point of view the skulls of my
series comprise: 2 dolichoccphals, 6 mesocephals, 4
brachycephals with the minimum brachycephalic index
(81); as regards facial index 4 are leptoprosopic
(average index 54.3), 4 mesoprosopic (average 50.4),
and 4 chamaeprosopic (average 81.5); as regards nasal
index there are 5 leptorhinc (average index 44.9), 3
mesorhinc (average 51.3), 4 platyrhinc (average 55.2).
1 See also Fig. c in appendix to Meyer, Die Intel Tenerife, p. 298.
• Cf. "Die Tachtadschy,'1 Arckiv fur Anthrojolosie, xix., 1891,
fit's. 15, 16, 17.
142 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
When we consider these from the point of view of
form, all the varieties, with the exception of one sub-
variety, the SpJicnoidcs Canariensis^ are found to be
common to the groups of Hamitic stock in Africa
and in the Mediterranean among the populations of
Southern Europe. It is sufficient to compare the list
of the Canary varieties with the other lists to become
convinced of the resemblance. This is to me a satis-
factory result, considering the small number of skulls,
and shows the community of origin and of stock
between the inhabitants of the Canary Islands and
the Hamites.
With this general affirmation, however, I do not
wish to deny that among the Hamites of the Canaries
there were not other and foreign racial elements.
The differences in stature, in cranial capacity, and in
part in cranial and facial shape, indicate the presence
of mixture, as affirmed by Verneau, Meyer, and Von
Luschan.
It is difficult to know the origin of the type I have
called SpJienoides Canariensis. At first, noticing that
the brachycephals in the skulls studied by Verneau
were chiefly among the women, I thought that this
type might have owed its origin to the introduction
of slave women into the archipelago, and that their
offspring, including males, were btechycephalic. It
would still, however, be difficult to tell where they
came from, and I think it useless to invent new
hypotheses.
The list includes the Stenoplatycephalus, of small
capacity, and with similar if not identical characters,
which I have found in the Mediterranean and in
Russia among the pigmies. Although this skull has
a higher capacity than among the pigmies, I have
CHARACTERS OF CANARY POPULATION. 143
no hesitation in regarding it as of the same type and
variety. It that is so, this skull indicates that the
pigmies came into the Mediterranean through Africa,
and hence with other racial elements passed into the
Canaries, where they help, to a large extent, to ex-
plain the presence of very low statures.
What shall we say, finally, as to the origin of the
Guanchcs, concerning whom so many theories have
been set forth ? Admitting that they have characters
in common with the residue of the so-called Cro-
Magnon race, shall we agree with Verneau that they
migrated from the north ? Contrary to that opinion,
I have concluded that primitive Europe received its
population in large part from Africa; as regards the
Canaries, we may conclude with still greater reason
that the primitive population migrated from Africa,
and constituted the last expansion of African emigra-
tion towards the west. This is confirmed by the
ethnology, and especially by the linear writing of
the so-called Libyan type. The brachyccphals con-
stituted a foreign element of unknown origin.
CHAPTER VIII.
SYRIA AND ASIA MINOR.
The Hiltiles—The Armenoids of Lycia— Cyprus— 7 he P/tce-
nicians.
The Hiitites, — We have no reason to suppose that the
movement of emigration in the east of Africa stopped
at the Nile valley; we may suppose that it extended
towards the east of Egypt, into Syria and the regions
around Syria, and thence into Asia Minor. It is
possible that in Syria this immigration encountered
the primitive inhabitants, or a population coming
from northern Arabia, and mingled with them or
subjugated them.
After the celebrated Oriental discoveries in the
Mesopotamian .Valley, and the elucidation of the
Egyptian monuments, came the discovery in Asia
Minor and Syria of other monuments and of inscrip-
tions in unknown and indecipherable hieroglyphics.
They showed that a powerful and energetic nation at
a very remote period appeared as it were between the
two oldest empires of the world in the character of a
terrible enemy. This powerful nation was that of the
Kheti, Khatti, or Hittites — the name was variously
pronounced by different peoples — and their racial
components were of older date than the Phoenician
dominion in Syria and the Hellenisation of Asia
Minor. They constituted a pre-Phcenician and pre-
Hellcnic power in the Eastern Mediterranean.
THE IIITTITES. 145
To explain the enigmas presented by the Hittitcs
studies of all kinds arc not lacking. English, German,
and American scholars have devoted their most
serious attention to the matter, and among Italians
leather Ccsare DC Cara has written two very interest-
ing works, noteworthy for the erudition and logical
reasoning employed in establishing the facts and
drawing conclusions from them.1 It is agreed that
thejanguage of the Hittites was not Semitic — though
almost nothing is known of it — nor Aryan; it is
suspected to be a Hamitic tongue, though such a
statement certainly has only a va^ue meaning. Such
De Cara believes it to be, and he relates it therefore
to Egyptian and to Babylonian, which for him is also
Hamitic, and he endeavours, with this conviction, to
interpret the racial, geographical, and other names by
comparison with the Egyptian language. This is a
new method which will, I believe, furnish important
results for the ethnography of the Mediterranean,
where hitherto it has been usual to interpret every-
thing on an Aryan or Indo-Germanic basis.
For De Cara the Hittitcs are Pejasgians. and one
with the Hyksos who invaded Egypt ; this he seems
to me to have proved. He considers that their
primitive scat was in the high regiojis_of_Syria, and
that their dominion included Syria, Asia Minor,
Armenia, the Black Sea district, and southern Scythia
— that is to say, around the Black Sea and Sea of
Azov ; these regions being independent of the other
more westerly countries, Greece and Italy. In his
opinion, the Hittite stock peopled the Mediterranean,
at least as far as Italy, setting out from its eastern
coast, or Western Asia. In speaking of the Hittite
1 Cli Ilelhe:- /'<•/.»<;;/, Rome, 1894; Gli Hyhos, Rome, 1889.
1O
146 Till: MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
dominion in Asia he is unable to accept all the
peoples included under the name Hittite as one race ;
he regards them as a confederacy. Now, if it is true
that the dominion of the Hittitcs in Asia included all
the peoples and regions to which De Cara extends
the name Hittite, he is right in considering them as a
confederacy in the political sense, because they were
often united in fighting against the Egyptians or
the Babylonians or the Assyrians. It is easy to
imagine also that some peoples were tributary to the
true Hittites, and being dominated by them had been
thus influenced in their civil and religious life. De
Cara is not concerned with the physical type of the
Hittites, and with reason, for that problem cannot be
solved by linguistics or archaeology alone. His
important conclusion, however, agreeing with my
own investigations, remains: the Hittitcs, as the
primitive inhabitants of Syria and Asia Minor, are
a Mediterranean people, like the western Pelasgians,
who are of the- same stock as the eastern Pelasgians.
English arcluL'olo^ists, however, including Wright.1
Saycc,2 and others, regard the Hittites as a Turanian
or Mongolian race of yellow complexion. Their
arguments, it is true, are by no means conclusive;
they find evidence in the absence of beard in the
figures carved on rocks or painted by the Egyptians
on their monuments, in the mode of wearing the hair
by which it has the appearance in profile of a Chinese
pig-tail, in the profile of their faces as drawn by the
1 The Empire of the Hiitites, and eel., London, 1886.
- The Hillites ; id., Tin Races oj the Old Testament, London,
1891; cf. Condor, "llitiilo Ethnology," /our. Aiitkro/oloffcal ///*/.,
vol. xvii. , 1887-8; it/., "The Early Races of Western Asia," Join:
Anthi . /»s/., vol. xi.x., 1889-90
THE IIITTITES.
147
Egyptians, though in this last case Saycc believes
that the Egyptians were caricaturing their enemies.
But if we carefully examine the figures in the
Hittitc monuments we find some personages with
beards, and others without ; thus the two figures in
Plate XIV. (Fig. 23), which is the reproduction of a
bas-relief at Ibreez, by Davis,1 from Wright's work,
FIG. 23.— Bas-relief at Ibreez (Davis).
have full beards, so also the figure seen in Plate XVI 1 1.
or the false Sesostris of Herodotus ; in the long
series in Plate XXIV. (Fig. 24), reproduced from
Perrot and Guillaume,2 individuals with beards are
mingled with others without beards. Any one who
1 Transactions of the Rit>l. Society, iv., 1876.
* Explorations archJologiqutt de la Galalie tt de la Bitkynie, Paris,
1862.
148
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE".
imagined that the Egyptians, who arc for the most
part painted and carved without beards and without
hair, belonged to a race unprovided in this respect,
would doubtless be in error, and no one has looked
upon the Egyptians as Turanian. The hair is worn
in two lateral locks, one on the right, the other on
the left, not in a single lock as would appear in
profile. The facial profile in the Egyptian monu-
ments would seem to indicate prognathism rather
than flattening of the face; the profiles on the Hittite
monuments, on the other hand, are orthognathous
FIG. 24.— Hittiles (Perrot and Guillaume).
and regular, often beautiful ; I can see no traces of
the Mongolian type.
The Armenoids of Lycia. — An anthropological
study by Dr. von Luschan1 in L.ycia and the neigh-
bouring regions would lead us to believe in the
existence of a primitive race with hypsibrachyccphalic
(that is, high and short) skull, an Armenian or
Armenoid race, which had peopled this region, and
1 F. von Luschan and Petcrsen, Keisen in Lykieii, Afylias, ttnJ
Kibirate, Vienna, 1889; id., "Die Tachtadschy und andere Ueherreste
tier alien Bevolkerung Lyciens," Archivf. Ant/t., vol. xix., 1891.
mi: ARM I:\OIDS OF LYCIA. 149
pci haps also the other regions of Asia Minor. Since
Von Luschan's conclusions mi^ht induce us to regard
this race as representing the Hittitcs, and hence lead
archaeologists and historians astray, I wish to show
that such an identification could not be accepted.
Luschan measured in Lycia 177 individuals of the
Mohammedan faith, and found among them both
extreme dolichocephaly and extreme brachycephaly ;
in some regions the dolichoccphals outnumbered
the brachycephals ; in others the latter were more
numerous. He also measured 179 individuals belong-
ing to the Greek Church, and found that the two forms
were almost equally common among them. He then
asked himself: Who are the primitive inhabitants
of Lycia? A series of ancient skulls might furnish
the answer, but unfortunately in the Lycian tombs
with bilingual inscriptions at Limyra only one skull
could be found and that was imperfect, though com-
parable to a Tachtadshy skull, also imperfect, and to
an Armenian skull, again imperfect ; all three were
of the same hypsibrachycephalic type. The author
further studied 93 skulls from Adalia, finding 25
brachycephalic and 68 dolichocephalic and meso-
ccphalic. He compared these dolichocephalic skulls
with a Bedouin skull from Palmyra and with another
of the thirteenth century from Limyra, reaching the
conclusion that the primitive Lycian population was
hypsibrachycephalic, but that in very ancient times
the dolichocephals arrived from two different direc-
tions, from Greece and from Arabia. Luschan hence
believes that the population is composed of a primitive
A i monoid clement and of two secondary elements,
Greek and Arabian.
I think we can explain Luschan's facts in a manner
ISO THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
more in harmony with other facts. According to
this interpretation the skull forms of Adalia (such as
Luschan's Fig. 95), the Palmyra Bedouin, and the
Limyra skull of the thirteenth century belong to the
primitive population, while the ancient Limyra skull
of Armenoid type represents a stock which slowly
infiltrated Lycia and possibly other parts of Asia
Minor. In other words, the dolichocephalic forms
described by Von Luschan are the same as those
found in other parts of Asia Minor occupied by the
Pelasgians, the same that we find in Egypt, to the
south of Egypt, and in East Africa generally. These
cranial forms belong to the Hittites, who, as we have
already seen reason to believe, emigrated into Asia
through Egypt. We may compare a skull from
the temple of Wady Hamz, which is pentagonoid ; l
Palmyra skulls, some pentagonoid, others ovoid,
forms found in Egypt and East Africa;2 skulls
excavated at Hissarlik and examined by Virchow,
some ellipsoidal like those of Palmyra and Adalia,
others with a more special form of ellipse constantly
found in Africa and in the Mediterranean as far as
the extreme west, in Spain and Portugal, and in the
neolithic interments of Great Britain — i.e., an ellipse
compressed at the sides, like the skull of the warrior
in Schliemann's Ilios (Fig. 25, Figs. 973-976 of the
English edition), which I term the Pelasgian ellipsoid.
I find that all these forms are common to the
countries we have explored, to Egypt, and to
Ethiopia.
On these grounds I am convinced that the primitive
population of Lycia and the rest of Asia Minor, as
1 Jour. Anth. //«/., vol. viii , Plate IX., 1878-79.
* foif. Anlh. /«*/., vol. i., 1871-72.
"I UK AUMKXolPS 01- LYc I A. 15!
also of Syria, is of the same type as the Egyptian,
and derived from the same centre of diffusion. This
primitive population constituted the Hittite nation,
which, in this case, could not have been Turanian, as
Wright and Sayce believe, nor of brachycephalic
Armcnoid type, as Lusch.in argues. As I have
already remarked, it is probable that the immigrants
encountered a population coming from Northern
Fie. 25.— Skull from Troy, Ellipsoidet
felasgicus (Virchow).
Arabia, but as the skull characters of the two races
were allied, it is difficult to distinguish them.
Luschan's Armcnoid brachycephals, of whom a
single skull is found in the Limyra graves, are
certainly Armenian, and it need not surprise us to
find that even at the period of the Hittite domination
there was such an infiltration into Asia Minor and
also Syria. If there was an alliance, as it seems, or
152 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
a domination of the Hittites over the Armenians, the
entrance of Armenian elements into the Hittite
region was natural. The Armenian movement to-
wards the west and south has continued, especially
where important changes, by dissolving the dominant
nation, have enabled the Armenian population to
progress without obstacle. In confirmation of this, I
may mention that I have found skulls of Luschan's
Armenoid type in Egyptian collections, such as that
of Moilano in the Museo Civico, though they are only
of sporadic occurrence, some four or five in the whole
scries; in Sicily also I have found them among
aeneolithic skulls of Mediterranean type.1 The true
and authentic Hittite stock, with its original anthro-
pological characters, must be explored on the sea-
coast; certainly Hittite domination, extending to-
wards the interior, has carried with it many racial
elements of the stock, but on the whole the allied or
tributary population has not been changed. That is
why I think De Cara has done well to be cautious in
not regarding the Hittite populations as a race, but
only as a federation. Moreover, a single skull, dis-
covered in the tombs of bilingual inscription (Greek
and archaic Aramaic), and posterior to the dominion
of the Hittite stock, can prove nothing in this respect
Cyprus. — Cyprus, so near to Asia Minor, and so
closely connected with it, shows in its population the
same craniological characters of African origin and
facial types common to the Mediterranean, as we may
see from its terra-cotta figurines (Fig. 26) and its
monuments.
If, as appears, we may rely on what Dr. Ohnc-
1 " Crani preistorici dclla Sicilia, ".//// Soc. roin.ina Antropol«gial
vol. \i., 1899.
CYPRUS. 153
falsch-Richtcr has written regarding the new data
found at Cyprus and the successive periods of civilisa-
tion there, we have two very ancient periods which
show how foreign Asia was to Cyprus in prehistoric
and primitive times. According to Ohnefalsch-
Richter, the second period would be towards the first
half of the fourth thousand years before Christ, a
prc- Phrygian and pre-Hittite period, and co-eval with
the first city of Hissarlik. The first period is still
FlC. 26. — Tcrra-cotta figurine of Cyprus (Tubbs).
more ancient, and would begin in the second half o(
the fourth thousand years, B.C. 3500; it is absent at
Hissarlik and is therefore anterior to the first city,
and termed by this author the prehistoric pre- Hissar-
lik period of Cyprus. This civilisation, anterior,
according to Ohnefalsch-Richter, to any Asiatic in-
fluence, is autochthonous. Moreover, he believes that
the Libyan civilisation at Ballas and Naqada, as
discovered by Flinders Pctric, and that called Libyan-
154 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Amoritic at Tell-el-Hesy in Palestine, are an importa-
tion from Cyprus.1 Now this would prove direct
communication between prehistoric or Libyan Egypt,
as we may call it, Cyprus, and the coast of Asia Minor,
which thus would not have given to Cyprus but have
received from it. With regard to direct relations, and
the importations from Cyprus and prehistoric Egypt,
the same author believes that it is necessary to discover
new data before we can reach more exact conclusions
concerning the mystery, as he calls it, of the Libyan
population.
We have no reasons for denying early relations
between prehistoric Egypt and Cyprus, and between
this island and Asia Minor. Such relations would be
the natural result of the diffusion of the African stock
towards the east in prehistoric times, long anterior to
the beginnings of the use of the metals; copper, as
has often been stated, probably came to Egypt from
Cyprus.
The Ph&nicians. — With regard to the Phoenicians
we are in some 'obscurity. Those who, with Petric
and Sayce, rely on the testimony of the homophonies
from the Old Testament, or from anthropological
types revealed by Egyptian monuments, consider them
to be Hamites, originating in South Arabia, where also
they'would seek the origin of the Egyptians. Punites,
Pceni, Phcenices, would be the same name and refer
to the same race.2 It is true that the Egyptians have
represented them of a brick-red colour, like them-
selves, and like the Punites; and it is true that the
1 " Neues iiber die auf Cypern Ausgrabungcn," Z/. fiir Ethnologi/,
Veihandinngen, 1899.
2 Petrie, A History of Egypt, vol. i., p. 14; Sayce, The Races of the
Old Testament, 1891, chapter vi.
TIIK PIUKXICIAN-v '55
portraits of the Phoenicians of Damascus do not
differ from those of the Punites, nor ot the other
inhabitants of Syria (Figs. 27, 28). But can we
absolutely trust them?
On the other hand, there are some who consider
that the Phoenicians were Semites. This view is
found especially among historians, who chiefly rely
on the language. Although Semitic, it appears to
present some peculiarities; this is not, however, a
question which we can enter into.
So far as I can judge by the few skulls which I
have seen at the Academy of Science at Turin, and
FIG. 27.— Syrian (Petric). FIG. 28.— Punitc (1'ctrie).
which were studied by Lombroso, or by others
examined by Mantegazza and Zannetti, by Collignon,
and by Bertholon,1 I should conclude that the
Phoenicians do not differ from the Egyptians.
The Turin skulls were presented by General
1 Lombroso, I .\-lntisemitismo, Turin, 1894, Appendix III.; Mante-
gazza e Zannrtti, " Note Antropologiche sulla Sardegna," Arch, ftr
FAntrof>*t vol. vi ; Collignon, "Cranes de la Necropole Phcnicicnne
de Mahidin," J'.lnfhro'ologie, iii., 1891; licrlholon, "Note sur
deux cranes I'heniciens trouvcs en Tunisic," />., 1890, vol. ii.; " Docu-
ments anthropologiques sur les Ph«5nicies," Bull. Sof. Attlhrop. d«
Lyoii, xi., 1892.
156 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Ccsnola, having been excavated by him at Cyprus
in Phoenician tombs, together with idols, phalli, and
Phoenician inscriptions of the epoch of Sennacherib,
or towards the seventh century B.C. They are six in
number, one being brachycephalic, one mesocephalic,
and four dolichocephalic. As classified by Lombroso
in accordance with my method, they show the follow-
ing forms: RJiomboides, brachycephalic, as all rhom-
boid skulls are, Splienoides stenometopus (Bcloides\
Pentagonoides acutus, Ellipsoides isocampylos, Trape-
zoides ; the sixth is pathological, and therefore not
classified. All these cranial forms arc such as I have
found in Egypt, in Hamitic Africa, and in the
Mediterranean.1
Although the skulls examined by the above-named
authors were not classified according to my method,
but in accordance with other and less conclusive
methods, those of mere craniometry, the figures
given by the authors show that the skulls do not
differ from the types prevalent in the Mediterranean,
and characteristic of the stock there dominant.
On these grounds I believe that the Phoenicians
belonged to the same stock in which are included
the Egyptians and other Libyan peoples, and the
Hamites of Africa and Europe generally, but that
at a relatively late period they underwent Semitic
influence, especially in language, their anthropological
origin being thus concealed. Such a phenomenon is
not new, the modern Egyptians themselves furnishing
an evident example of it.
1 Cf. Africa, p. 385.
CHAPTER IX.
THE EUROPEAN PEOPLES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
The Invasion of Europe — The Iberians — The Ugurians—Thc-
Pelasgians — The Italic Problem— The Eiiuscans.
The Invasion of Europe. — We have found that there
arc four racial names indicating the four great
branches of the Mediterranean stock. Of the branch
occupying North Africa — the Libyans and that
people who represented them so gloriously under
the name of Egyptians — I have already spoken. It
remains to speak of the branches which occupied
Europe, and especially the great peninsulas which
still preserve in large part their primitive names and
inhabitants. I refer to the Ligurians, the Pelasgians,
and the Iberians, concerning whom much has been
.written and many theories set forth by anthropolo-
gists and historians. Here the difficulties seem to
be great, not as regards the demonstration of the
affinity between the three branches, which contain the
same physical ethnic elements, but on account of the
numerous errors which prevail regarding their anthro-
pology, and of the persistence with which they are
preserved. Thus it was that when some years ago I
wrote regarding the African origin of these European
racial branches only a few here and there, like Arthur
Evans, received my opinions with favour; most
153 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
anthropologists found them fantastic and insub-
stantial.
Things have changed since then. The archaeological
discoveries in prehistoric Egypt and Cyprus, together
with those in Greece itself, have demonstrated the
part played by Africa in the civilisation of Mediter-
ranean Europe, and my opinion has gained more
credit. Archaeologists also have themselves inde-
pendently approached it, and considered it -probable.
Ethnologists, like Keanc1 and Brinton,2 accept the
African origin of the first European stocks in the
Mediterranean, and also in the centre of the continent.
Bathed by the waters ol the Mediterranean, Europe
is separated from the two great continents with which
it forms the basin, on the east by the Hellespont,
and on the west by the Straits of Gibraltar ; but
these waters are no obstacles to the progress of
migration, nor are the more ample waters of the whole
Mediterranean, since the innumerable islands scattered
over it serve as bridges or stations, and the peninsulas
stretch out their arms towards Africa as though to
welcome it. The emigrants had the sea before them,
and the evidence shows that at various points they
passed over it. It seems that from Egy_pt. before yet-
Egypt was known m history, African colonists passed
over to Greece by the islands, perhaps first of all
Crete ; from the region nf Numidia they probably
crossed over into Sicily, Sardinia, Southern, Central,
and Northern Italy, Southern France ; by Gibraltar
they invaded the Iberian peninsula. Almost the same
roads of invasion were followed by the Arabs in the
eighth century.
1 A. II. Keanc, Jtfan Past and Present, 1899.
2 D. Brinton, Knees and Peoples, New York, 1890.
TIIK IHKKIANS. 159
These three possible routes for the invasion of
Kuropc by the Mediterranean were followed by the /
three branches of our stock called the Iberians, the
Ligurians, and the 1'clasgians. No doubt distinctions
had art'ipn in the three divisions, variations in cos-
tume, language, and the accessory physical elements,
according to the grouping of the racial types con-
stituting the various branches and sub-divisions ; but
the fundamental common characters were preserved,
and are still preserved, throughout the whole Mediter-
ranean. Many variations in customs must be derived
from the region occupied by the migrants with the
special conditions of its soil and social state. But
notwithstanding these influences, the piimitive char-
acters of the stock, as it is easy to show, have still been
preserved.
In course of time the three branches have been
displaced in some parts, and been re-mixed ; they
have grown hostile to each other and fought. The
sub-divisions have adopted various names, either
from their leaders, the regions they have occupied,
or some other circumstance, and have hence become
strangers or enemies to each other. And since the
races that are most closely allied in their elements
make the fiercest foes, as we see among animal
species, the original stock has been divided up into
pans that arc everywhere hostile to one another.
It would be possible to follow these various
changes, but here we need only occupy ourselves
with the primitive invasions and immigrations, when
the racial names were not so well determined as they
were in later and historical times.
The Iberians. — Concerning the primitive inhabit-
ants of the Iberian pcninsu'a, their physical char-
i6o
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
acters and cranial forms, we possess undeniable evi-
dence; the Kjokkenmodings of Mugcm, the grottoes
of Casa da Moura (Fig. 29), and the discoveries con-
cerning the early metal age in the south-east of
Spain,1 have demonstrated the existence of cranial
types which are undoubtedly of African origin. In
them we may discover types which we have already
seen in Hissarlik, in North Africa, in Ethiopia, in
Egypt' 'n Italy, and in Greece. They show a special
form which I do not hesitate to call Pelasgic, since it
FIG. 29. — Skull from Casa da Moura (Cartailrnc).
I. Ovo:des ; 2. Ellips. pelasgicus.
is so often seen among populations which are without
doubt Pelasgic ; their ovoid and ellipsoid forms arc
those belonging to the cast and north of Africa, from
Somaliland and Egypt, to the Canaries.
This general statement may seem erroneous, since
amid the prehistoric skulls of African form we find
brachycephalic skulls of other forms. F. de Paula
1 Cf. Cartailhac, Ages prihistoriqnes de CRspagne et Jit Portugal,
Paris, 1886; Siret, Les premiers ages dn metal au norJ-tsl de 1'Espagne,
Antwerp, 1887; Sergi, " Sugli abitanti primitivi del Mediterraneo,"
Florence, Arch, per fAntrof., 1892; Brussels, 1892; Rome, 1892;
" Crani siculi ncolitici," Ko'l, /'a'f/tt. /fa'., 1891, Parma.
THE IBERIANS. l6l
and Oliviera, who have examined the skulls from
Mugem, Casa da Moura, and elsewhere, state that
they have found forms like those of Furfooz and
others, belonging to my cuneiform and sphenoid
types, which are foreign to the Mediterranean. It is
true that the prevailing type is Mediterranean, usually
called dolichocephalic, and that in the great Mugcm
scries two skulls only are brachyccphalic and sphe-
noidal ; still they exist1 Also in the series of skulls
discovered by Siret, brachycephalic forms are found
among the predominant dolichocephalic and meso-
cephalic skulls of African form.2
It is necessary to point out that we are here dealing
with a period towards the end of the neolithic age and
the beginning of the age of metals, a period at which,
as I will show later, begins the first slow Asiatic ,
immigration by the eastern Mediterranean and by
the land to the east, through Russia and Central
Europe. Thus brachyccphalic Asiatic types are
found not only in the Iberian peninsula, but in
many Mediterranean regions3 and in the centre of
Europe.4
At the same time the studies of Broca on the
Basques, as well as of Thurnam, have shown the
persistence of the Iberian branch, not only in
physical characters, but also in language and customs.
Observations on the modern populations of Spain
and Portugal have also shown that, notwithstanding
1 Cartailhac, " &»pagne et Poilug.il," Anthropologie, iv.
* Sirct, op. cit.
* Sergi, " Crani preistorici clclla Sicilia," At.'i Sot. torn, di Ant:
vol. vi., 1899.
4 Itroca, Altmoires sur let Basques, 1872; Thmn.im, "Further Re-
searches on the two principal forms of Ancient British Skulls," Memoirs
Sot. Anthropology t vol. iii.
11
162 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
invasions from the end of the neolithic period and
after the beginning of the age of metals, the primitive
type of African origin has remained predominant
Dr. Ferraz de Macedo, among 1000 modern Portu-
guese skulls, found only 70 brachycephalic, with 512
dolichocephalic, and 418 mesocephalic.1 Professor
Oloriz of Madrid among over 8000 heads found
only 26.47 per cent brachycephalic, the dolicho-
cephalic and mesocephalic being 73.53 per cent., thus
giving an average mesocephalic index to Spain, as
to the Spanish Basques.2
The Ligurians. — This important branch of the
Mediterranean stock, ever since Nicolucci's first
anthropological researches,3 has not only been ill
understood, but assigned a false origin and incorrect
physical characters, since it has been supposed to be
brachycephalic and of Mongolian or Turanian stock.
Even to-day, notwithstanding the studies of Lombroso,
Issel, Livi, and myself, dating back for many years,
and notwithstanding the prehistoric evidence found
in Ligurian districts, and the persistence of the primi-
tive Ligurian element in the present population, the
error is still maintained by foreign anthropologists,
especially by the French, who persist in regarding
the Ligurians as brown-skinned Turanians. From
1 Cf. Estacio da Vega, Palecethnologia. Antigttitades Monumentaef do
Al^arvt, Lisbon, 1886-87, vol. ii., p. 493.
'2 Distribution geografica del indict cefalico en Espaila, Madrid, 1894.
I cannot accept the theories of Collignon concerning the Basques, and
therefore do not here take them into account. See " Les Basques,"
Memoires dela SociM d'Anthropologie de Paris, 1895. See also Keane,
Man Past and Present, pp. 460 et seij., as to the linguistic analogies
between the Basques and the Berbers.
a Nicolucci, La Stirpe Ligtire in Italia nei tempi antichi e net
modern?', Naples, 1864.
THE LIGURIAN9. 163
Mcntone to Ventimiglia (Fig. 30) the neolithic sepul-
chral grottoes have revealed skeletons belonging to the
true original stock, which show clearly the various
cranial forms characterising the great Mediterranean
race throughout the basin.1
The Ligurian stock was very widely diffused ; it /
occupied the south of France, being linked with the '
FIG. 30. — Ancient Ligurian Skull from the grotto
of Finalmarina, Ellipsoides (Sergi).
Iberians of Spain and mingling with them at the
point of junction ; it occupied nearly the whole of
Northern Italy, and without doubt much of the centre
1 Vemeau, " Nouvelle dccouverte de squclettes pre"historiques aux
Baoussc-Koussc,'' L'Anthrof., vol. iii. ; E. Kivicre, De Fanti^ititf de
thomme, tff., stir Its Alfes Afaritimes, Paris, 1879; Serfi'» " Ligiiri c
Celli nclla valle del Po," Florence, 1883, Arch, per 4ntn>p. \ Livi,
1 64 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
of Latium, under the name of Siculi, as well as all the
islands. To-day an Italian province, Liguria, pre-
serves the name and the stock itself, in part mixed
with Piedmontese Celts, yet easily distinguishable.
The cranial form remains invariably persistent from
the time of its appearance, as I have often been able
to demonstrate. The Ligurians of the south of
France mingled with the Celts, who arrived later,
and it is the Celto-Ligurians who are known to
history, The Provencal population still reveals the
presence of the two different stocks.
From researches over the whole of the Italian
peninsula and islands, it appears that the inhabitants
of Central Italy on the hither side of the Apennines,
ancient Etruria, ancient Umbria, now restricted to
the western region ot the Apennines, Piccno, Sabina,
Latium, down to the extreme south, with the three
islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, have possessed
in common, and still possess in great part, a series of
cranial forms, among which are found others, less
numerous and apparently foreign to the common
type. These forms or types are thus common there-
fore with those of Egypt, North Africa, and the
Iberian peninsula. I have been able to demonstrate
this fact in a series of studies on Latium and other
parts of the Italian peninsula and islands. The
primitive Italian stocks would thus possess com-
munity of origin with those of the other Mediter-
ranean regions, and hence with those of East Africa,
" L'indice cefalico degli Italian!," Arch, per r Anti-apologia, Florence,
xvi., 1886; Issel, Liguria geologica e pi tis/onca, 1892, vol. ii., pp. 331
et seq. ; Ilerve, Revue AfetisueHe de fecole (FAnlhropelogie, vol. iv.,
1896, and elsewhere; Oloriz, Distribution geograjica del inJice cefalico
en Espafla, pp. 266-67.
THK PELASGIANS. 165
the centre of diffusion of the great race which has
peopled the basin.1
The Pelasgians. — To the great Mediterranean family,
already including the Iberians, Ligurians, and Libyans,
must now be added another similarly primitive popula-
tion, an individualised branch of African origin like the
others, which has been discussed with varied fortune by
historians and arcrueologists : I refer to the Pelasgians.
Great obscurity has enwrapped the Pelasgians, who
have been pointed out to us as a mysterious people of
unknown origin. Now they are being discussed, but
only in the light of inscriptions and linguistic remains.
It is time that anthropology entered into the discussion,
for thus only, it seems to me, may we find the solution
of the problem.
The solution of the Pelasgian problem will also be
the solution of the Etruscan problem, for the relation
of the Etruscans to the Pelasgians is no longer
doubtful; the Lemnos inscription removes all doubt on
this matter.2 The Etruscans are western Pelasgians,
1 Cf. Sergi, " La Stirpe Ligurenel Bologncse," Attidi Storia palria,
etc., Bologna, 1883 ; " Liguri e Cclli," cit. ; " Antropologia storica del
Bolognese," Atti% cit., 1884; " Di alcune Varieta uniane della
Sardcgna,'1 Boll. Ace. Medica di Roma, 1892; " Di alcune Varieta
umane della Sicilia," Acccui. Lined, 1892; " Crani Siculi neolitici,"
Boll. Palet. ital., 1892 ; " Dcgli abitanti primiiivi del Mediterraneo,"
Ank. per fAntiop., Florence, 1892 ; Transactions of the Moscow
Congress, 1893 ; A communication to the Anthropological Society of
UnisM-N, Tome xi., 1893; " Studi di Antropologia laziale," Afc. Med.
di Koma, 1895; "Crani prcistorici «lella Sicilia," Alii Sot. row. di
Antrop., 1899, vol. vi. ; Arii e Italia, 1898. Cf. also Pulle, " Profile
antrop. dell' Italia," Arch. ptrrAntrof> , 1898; Pieroni, " Della stirpe
Ligure nella darfagnana," Hull. Soc. I'eneto, 1892 ; Verneau, Notivelle
Dhotn-erle de SqiulelUs prehistoritjnes aiix Baomst-Rotnst frts de
Afenlon, cit.
1 Cf. Pauli, Eint Vorgriechiulu Inschrift VJH Ltmnos, Leipzig,
1886; Hesselmeyer, Die relas^erfra^e, Tubingen, 1890.
l66 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
while the Pelasgic family chiefly extends between
Greece and Asia Minor.
While the primitive inhabitants of the Mediter-
ranean basin, represented by Iberians, Ligurians, and
Libyans, are revealed as already occupying the
Iberian peninsula, Southern France, Italy, Sicily,
Sardinia, and Corsica, on the European side, and
while they occupied the African side from the Red
Sea to Gibraltar, and also the Atlantic coast, a large
zone, from Italy to Asia Minor, is still missing, before
we can complete the Mediterranean basin. What
name had, or could have, the primitive people who
occupied this great zone extending from Europe to
Asia? Here we can no longer speak of Iberians,
Ligurians, or Libyans, and yet before this region was
Hellenised a population must have existed here.
This we must regard as the Pelasgian, a race related
to the other Mediterranean branches, a great branch
of the immense family, with many physical characters
in common, as we shall see ; African also, like the
Libyans, Iberians, and Ligurians.
This general induction concerning the origin of the
Pelasgians becomes clearer in the particular case of
the Etruscans, concerning whom we possess more
numerous and better confirmed documents, among
others the undeciphered language which some are
still making efforts to interpret, perhaps in vain, since
it resists every comparison with other ancient dead
languages. We know with certainty that it is neither
a Semitic nor Indo-European language, equally foreign
to either family; whence Ottfried MUller declared the
Etruscans a primitive people (Un>olk\ whom it is
impossible to classify linguistically and ethnologically.
Hesselmeyer reaches a similar conclusion concerning
j-~
TffEl PELASGIANS. « 1 67
the Pclasgo-Tyrrhenians, a dying primitive people,
subdued by later occupants of the soil.
To demonstrate my thesis that the Pelasgians, and
with them the Etruscans, were of African origin, a
branch of the great Mediterranean family, I will first
deal with the traditions recorded by Herodotus, con-
firmed as they are by my own researches and induc-
tions. The anthropological arguments I will turn to
later.
Herodotus mentions the Pelasgians in speaking of
Greek origins, and writes: "The Athenians are of
Pelasgic, the Lacedaemenians of Hellenic, origin."1
" When the Pelasgians occupied all the region now
called Greece, the Athenians were Pelasgians and
were called Kranai ; when Cecrops ruled they were
called Cecropidi ; under Erethes they were trans-
formed into Athenians, and finally lonians, from
lonus, the son of Xutus."2 Since these statements do
not, however, express all that Herodotus meant, it is
well to add his further explanatory observations : " I
cannot with certainty say what was the language of
the Pelasgians, but if we may judge by that still
spoken by the existing Pelasgians, such as the
Crcstoni, above the Tyrrhenians, neighbours of the
Dorians, and once inhabiting Thcssaly, or the inhabit-
ants of Placea and Scilax on the Hellespont, once of
the same country as the Athenians ; and if we recall
the names, now transformed, of so many other Pelas-
gian cities, we may say that the Pelasgians spoke a
barbaric language. And if this was common to the
whole Pclasgian stock, the Athenian stock, being
Pelasgian, changed its language at the same time as
the change occurred in Greece."8 And, as if this were
1 Book I., 56. » Book IV., 44. » Book I., 57.
168 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
not sufficient, he adds : "The Hellenic stock, already
separated from the Pelasgian, was weak, and from
being weak in numbers it grew by mingling with
other barbaric stocks ; but the Pelasgians, it seems to
me, never increased."1 The substance of all this is
that the first inhabitants of Attica, as of the rest of
Greece, were Pelasgians, and that a new stock, the
Greeks, changed the language of the country and was
incorporated with the Pelasgians, a few Pelasgian
cities, with the same language and the same primitive
customs, still remaining here and there in Greece.2
It is noteworthy that Herodotus refers to the trans-
formed, that is, Hellenised, names of Pelasgian cities,
as indicating the extension of the Pelasgian stock.3
That Herodotus really means that the Pelasgians
were barbarians, unlike the Greeks, appears from
another passage where he says that " the Pelasgians,
already Hellenised, united themselves with the
Athenians when the latter began to call themselves
Hellenes."4 Again,5 his narration of how the Pelas-
gians were driven out of Athens, and his reference to
the construction ot the so-called Pelasgian wall, are
facts which only critics prejudiced by preconceived
ideas can call in question. They show also that the
Pelasgians had been subjugated by the new racial
element, the Hellenic, and then assimilated, whence
the relative disappearance of their name. We see also
how they were compelled to expatriate themselves
from one region to another as the Hellenic invasion
1 Book I., 58.
- Cf. Pauli, op. cit.t whose inductions, with those of G. Meyer, con-
firm Ileroclotus's narrative.
8 Cf. Sergi, " Varieta umane della Russia e del Meditcrraneo," Aft.
Sac. rom. antropologia, 1894.
4 Book II., 51. " Book VI., 137.
THE PELASGIANS. 169
progressed, and how they made attempts, vainly no
doubt, to re-capture their lost territories.
But these barbarous Pelasgians were not so bar-
barous or so incapable as may appear at the first
glance; Homer calls them "divine" ("dioi te
Pelasgoi ") in the Iliad and Odyssey, and finds them
at the walls of Troy, together with the Carians, the
FIG. 31.— Greek Skull from Megan,
Fentagonoides obtusus (Sergi).
Peoni, the Lelegi, led by Ippotous from Asiatic Lar-
issa ; and in Crete, together with other peoples.
Moreover, many elements of Greek religious worship
come from them, directly or indirectly ; thus, the
Dodonian Jupiter was Pclasgic.1 Herodotus narrates
a legend concerning this deity, and interprets it in
1 Iliad, xvi. 233.
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
his own manner.1 From this it appears that the
origin of the Dodonian Jupiter is to be found in
Libya, whence he was brought by the Pelasgians into
Greece, when Greece was still Pelasgia. The Greeks,
the Hellenes, accepted the worship of this Jupiter, as
they accepted the worship of other exotic deities,
FIG. 32. — Italian Skull from Novilara, Ellipsoides
\ pelasgtcus rotttnJtts (Sergi).
retaining the original name recorded by Homer and
Herodotus.
Here Herodotus begins to narrate the more im-
portant relations between Pelasgia (now called
Greece), Egypt, and Libya, and thus we have a first
revelation of Pelasgic origins. Herodotus finds that
1 n. ,54-56.
THE I'KLASGIANS. 17 1
the worship of Hercules in Egypt is very ancient, and
cannot be of Greek origin, but that, on the contrary,
the Greek Hercules must be of Egyptian origin. To
prove this, Herodotus refers to the worship of Nep-
tune, and of the Dioscuri, unknown to the Egyptians.
He goes further and points out that at Phoenician
Tyre there is a temple dedicated to Hercules, whose
worship is here associated with the origin of Tyre,
which took place 2,300 years earlier. He also visited
the temple of Thasus, where he found the Thasian
Hercules. Hence the worship of Hercules is not of
Hellenic origin, but anterior to the Hellenes.1 So
also with the worship of Bacchus, and of the phallus,
which Herodotus found in Egypt, and believes to
have been thence exported to Greece ; nor by chance
is the name of Cadmus Tyrian.8
The list of the relations between Egypt and
Greece is not, however, closed here. Herodotus con-
siders that the names of nearly all the gods of Greece
are derived from Egypt, the Pelasgians being the
intermediaries who brought them into Greece ;3 and
he attributes absolutely to the same Pelasgians the
worship of Mercury and the Cabiric mysteries which
he supposes to have been brought by them into
Samothrace.4 Neptune, not adored in Egypt, came
to the Greeks from Libya, and it would be use-
less to seek his origin outside Libya, where he is
held in honour by all/' Nor does he hesitate to
affirm that the garments and the aegis of the statues
of the Grecian Minerva were derived from the cos-
tume of Libyan women, as also the ornaments of the
palladium ; and Herodotus further believes that the
MI., 43, 44- 'II., 50-52. ML, 50.
* II., 48, 49. « II., 5'.
172 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
cries during the sacrifices were derived from the loud
shrieks of the Libyan women in their rites.1
The element of truth in all these alleged relations
between Hellenic, Egyptian, Phoenician, and Libyan
cults is that we need not seek the origins of Greek
religion in India, in the primitive beliefs of the so-
called I ndo- Europeans, but in the Mediterranean
itself, partly in the valley of the Euphrates and the
Tigris, by Asiatic and Egyptian intermediaries. Then
followed new elements which, for the sake of being
better understood, I am willing to call Indo-European,
but these new elements were superposed on the first,
with which they amalgamated, transforming them but
little. Hence the Hellenes, with a vanity similar to
that of all other populations, regarded themselves as
the first people, the autochthons, men par excellence.
The eastern part of the Mediterranean basin was
beneath the direct influence of Mesopotamian civilisa-
tion, that being the most ancient, and the first to
infiltrate through, Asia Minor; a new influence, the
so-called Indo-European, followed.
The Italic Problem. — Thus it happened that the
great Mediterranean family — which I divide into the
comprehensive groups of Iberians, Ligurians, Libyans
proper, and Pelasglans, and regard as of African
origin — underwent various fates in the history of
Mediterranean civilisation. When the new Indo-
European element appeared, the primitive European
peoples of the Mediterranean were subjected to a
process of transformation; Egypt, which possessed a
very ancient and solid civilisation, maintained -itself
for a long time; the Libyans of Nor^h Africa remained
as they were ; the Pelasgians were decomposed under
1 IV., 189.
THE ITALIC PROBLEM. 173
Hellenic influence; the Ligurians and Iberians were
cKangcd by the Roman power. It would be an error,
however, to believe that a numerous Aryan population
emigrated from Asia or North Europe and occupied
the Mediterranean basin, destroying the previous
populations. The Hellenic stock which changed
Pelasgia into Greece, importing a new language and
FIG. 33 —Italian Skull from Novilara, Ellipsoides
f€lasgiciis (Scrgi).
a new civilisation, was a small nucleus which increased
by aggregation with the primitive inhabitants, the
Pelasgians, as Herodotus expressly states: " the Greek
stock, separated from the Pelasgic, was weak and
small in number at first ; it increased by means of
many other barbarous and numerous stocks."1 Thus
it is that any one to-day who studies the racial
1 I-, 58-
174
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
elements of Greece and Latin Italy necessarily finds
that the primitive elements of the Mediterranean
prevail in greatest amount, varying in different
regions; the Indo-European or Aryan elements are
very rare.
The general result is that the Pelasgians had their
FlG. 34. — Skull from Alfedena, OoiJes longissimtts (Scrgi).
chief seat — after the emigration from Africa, and prob-
ably from Egypt, before the great Egyptian civilisa-
tion was established — in the eastern Mediterranean,
and chiefly in the Greek peninsula, the whole of the
Greek archipelago, and in Western Asia. Doubtless
colonies emigrated from the eastern towards the
THE ITALIC PROBLEM. 17$
western part, under different racial names, especially
into Italy and its islands, and perhaps also towards
Iberia, where there are undoubted Pclasgic remains,
pre-Myccnaean and Mycenxan.
We have evident proof that the Pclasgians were a
branch of the Mediterranean family in the study and
comparison of ancient and modern skulls in Greece
FIG. 35.— Skull from Alfcdena, OoiJes plantis (Sergi).
and its islands, and also in Italy. The Asiatic
invasions, from whatever direction they came, pro-
duced mingling of race, but no alteration of type in
the ancient inhabitants1 (Figs. 32-38).
1 Scrgi, " Etruschi e Pelasgi," Nttova Antologia, 1893; id., " Crani
<li Creta dell' epoca miccnca," Atti Sot. torn, di .-/////<»/., vol. ii., 1895;
" Studi di antropologia laziale," Boll. Aecad. niedica di Kama, vol.
xxi., 1895. Cf. Virchow, " Ueber gricchische Schadcl aus alter und
neuer Zeit und iiber eincn Schadel von Mcnidi der fur den des Sophoklcs
1/6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
The Italici. — In a little book published a few years
ago1 I have sought to show, with the help of many
arguments and anthropological data, that the Italici
are not of Aryan stock, and that it is due only to the
comparisons produced by linguistic classifications that
this error has been perpetuated among archaeologists
and historians. This Italic problem is really a
European problem, because it concerns not only Italy,
but Greece, and those nations of the centre and north
of Europe which, after the Aryan or Eurasiatic in-
vasion, became barbarous again and remained semi-
'~\ f\ lybarbarous until Latin civilisation intervened.
We have found that Italy was inhabited up to the
A* Neolithic epoch by a homogeneous population of
^- Mediterranean stock, who were afterwards called the
Ligurians and the Pelasgians; that towards the end
of the Neolithic period, in a period called by Italian
e archaeologists ./Eneolithic, because we already begin
to find the use"~oT~pure copper, there is the first
indication of the intrusion" of a _new_race with physical
characters (brachycephaly) unlike those of the Medi-
terranean peoples; and that finally there was a large
invasion of this new race from the north, leading to
the occupation of ^considerable part of the Po valley,
and constituting a vast Umbrian domain, after pass-
ing the Apennines, from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhine
Sea, as far as Latium, and from there to the Tiber
towards its mouth and lower part.
We have also seen that these invaders carried with
them a new language and new customs, among others
gehalten ist," Akad. der Wissemeh,, Berlin, 1893; an(^ Nicolucci,
" Antropologia della Grecia," A*. Acad. di Nafoli, 1867; not for their
opinions, however, but for the plates.
1 Arii e Italici, Turin, 1898.
THE ITALICI.
that of burning the dead. The dominion which they
maintained for several centuries led to a change in
the custom of burying, previously found among all
the Mediterranean peoples, and to a change in the
language of the invaders, which, as spoken by Mediter-
ranean mouths having already a language of their own,
underwent many phonetic alterations, and adopted
into its vocabulary many words of the native language.
Fir.. 36.— Skull from Alfedena, EllipsoLlu ewboluus (Scrgi).
Similar phenomena occurred in the Greek peninsula
when the Pclasgians, the first inhabitants, underwent
the same fate as the Italic!.
The evidence furnished by burial-places — that is to
say, the skeletons in the ancient tombs of the early
Mediterranean inhabitants of Italy and those of the
Aryan invaders, have shown clearly the mingling of
two stocks; while in spots where the Aryans have not
12
1/8
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
penetrated there are only traces of a single stock,
without blending with foreign races.
These facts have convinced me that the name
Italici belongs properly to the early inhabitants of
Italy, as also the name Italy belongs to the southern
region, which the Aryans in their first invasions never
reached, and that the Aryans were strangers to the
FIG. 37. — Skull from Alfedena, Pentagonoidcs acitttis (Scrgi).
Italici, indeed only temporary invaders, though their
dominion succeeded in transforming the native
language and some of the customs. We may find
some testimony in the language, and in remains of the
stock mixed with the early inhabitants, remains which
still persist in Central Italy and in Tuscany, with the
same physical characters as the prehistoric invaders
possessed, while in the valley of the Po the invaders
THE ITALICI. 1/9
definitely changed the anthropological physiognomy,
without succeeding in annulling the old and primitive
population.1
Hence I believe that archaeologists are in error
when they continue to regard the Italici as above all
Aryans;2 as also are the linguists in persisting to
affirm the existence of a primitive racial Greco-Italic
group, with prc-formed and reconstituted languages,
which, after being first united, was divided into two
portions, one invading Italy, the other Greece, bearing
a higher civilisation, and languages already existing
in the form of Greek and Latin. Some linguists are
convinced of this error; among others, DC Cara in
Italy, who accepts the view that I have long advocated,
and Kcanc in England, although the latter supplies a
variant to my interpretation.3
Thus I affirm that the Italici, of Mediterranean
origin, were forced through violent invasion to adopt
the Aryan language, as also, for some time as far
as Central Italy, they were subjugated by Aryan
dominion, until the development of new elements of
Mediterranean civilisation changed the course of
events. Then the customs which Aryan dominion
had caused to disappear began to flourish again;
thus cremation ceased, or only remained as a sur-
vival among the few.
The language assumed its own proper physiognomy
when Rome united beneath its power the various
Italic regions; before that dominion it had been a
1 This appears from a study by GiulTiida, " I-a Stature in Rapporto
allc forme craniche," Atti &<K. rom. Antrof., vol. v., 1898; also
MoNt-hen, lot. (it.
* Pullc, " Profilo antropologico dell' Italia," Florence, 1898, pp. 21,
>33-
3 A fan Pasf and Present, pp. 512 513.
l8o THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
series of heterogeneous forms due to the varying
influence of surviving primitive dialects and the
varying effects of Aryan influence.
The Etruscans.— 1hz Etruscan problem has as
many different aspects as a polyhedron; there is the
question of origin, of civilisation, of physical characters,
of chronology, oi language, of influence exercised
.
FlG. 38.— Skull from Alfedena, Pcntagotioides atuttts (Scrgi).
within and outside Italy. I do not profess to solve
this problem in these few pages, in which the Etrus-
cans only enter as an incident, and not as the chief
object of my work.
In the Italian edition of this book I denominated
the Etruscans the " Later Pelasgians," as a separate
Pelasgic branch in Asia Minor, sailing towards Italy
at a relatively late period as compared with the pre-
THE ETRUSCANS. iSl
historic Pclasgic emigrations which populated Greece,
and in part Italy also. I had substantially accepted
the tradition of Herodotus against the opinion of the
Germans that the Raseni were the Alpine Rhrctians
who had descended into Central Italy. This latter
opinion is now altogether thrown aside; it is as absurd
as if we were to argue that the sun rises in the west.
After Brizio, who maintained with very powerful
arguments that the Etruscans came from the eastern
Mediterranean,1 another distinguished investigator,
Montelius, has thrown the weight of his authority on
to the same side.2 I am not, however, convinced of
the probability of Montelius's chronology, which would
put back the arrival of the Etruscans to the eleventh
century B.C. I still stand by my old opinion that that
event cannot be put earlier than the second half of
the eighth century, as also Arthur Evans believes,
and the observations of Myres seem to me just.3
This problem of chronology, however, requires further
discussion.
With the anthropological characters of the Etrus-
cans I have dealt at length elsewhere, and have shown
that the mingling of two racial types in Etruscan
tombs is due to mixture with the earlier Umbrian
population, so that subsequently the graves in which
burial was practised naturally present both the Medi-
terranean type and the foreign type which came later
with the Aryan invasion. I have also shown that the
" obesus Etruscus " of Catullus belongs to the foreign,
not to the Etruscan element, and that, strange to say,
1 I<i rror-enifiiia itegli Etrusthi, Bologna, 1885.
• "The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy,''y0//r. Anlh /us/., vol.
xxvi., 1897 ; cf. my Arii e llalici, cap. iv.
* Montelius, " Prc-classical Chronology in Greece and Ilaly,'' Jour.
Anth. /as/., hi. cit.
182
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
it still persists in Etruria, as I have myself observed,
while the true Etruscan type is clearly visible in the
paintings in the more ancient tombs, and in some of
the tcrra-cotta sarcophagi. The great tombs in the
Chiusi district are without doubt genuinely Etruscan,
and in these we find depicted various scenes from
life and many human figures. I have found no
FIG. 39.— Etruscan Skull from Cere, Ellipsoidcs
embolicus (Sergi).
obese type there, but only the slender and delicate
forms, with elongated face, of the Mediterranean
type. The obese type, therefore, with large head and
broad face, is foreign, and not Etruscan.1
The physical characters of the Etruscans were thus
1 Cf. for details Arii e Italia, cap. v.; " In Etruria," I'ifa Italiatia,
Rome, 1897 ; for the " Obcsus Elruscus," Rivista Modenta di CttHtirat
Florence, 1898.
THE ETRUSCANS. 183
of the Mediterranean type; they were true and
genuine Italic!; and, as others have also maintained,
they belonged to the Pelasgic branch (Figs. 39, 40).
Among other arguments in support of this position
may be mentioned the inscription at Lemnos, long
since well known, with its characters closely approach-
ing the Etruscan, and like those undeciphcred. In
regard to this I have only to say, as I have written
elsewhere, that Etruscan must represent the Pelasgic
language, a linguistic branch of the Mediterranean
tongue, now lost, and related, as Brinton supposes, to
the Libyan languages.1
To persist in maintaining, like Corssen, and more
recently Deccke and Lattes, that Aryo-Italic affinities
are to be found here is to- fall under a delusion
probably due to the fact that in Italy Etruscan must
have undergone this influence, in the midst of a popu-
lation under Aryan influence, yet very superficially,
and perhaps only in some inflexions pronounced in
the Etruscan manner, and hence altered.2 The
Etruscan language will always be the crux of
obstinate philo-Aryan linguists, who will never be
able to find the key to interpret it
It maybe admitted that the Etruscan colony which
occupied the Umbrian territory could not have been
very numerous, but by its superiority in civilisation
it was able to dominate, morally and materially,
the surrounding population, and was hence able
to influence change of customs, among others
the mode of burial, which afterwards was nearly
1 " The Ethnological Affinities of ihc Ancient Etruscans," Prot. Am.
/'hit. -Yor., I'hiladclidiia, vol. xxvi., 1889; ?'<*., "On Etruscan and
Libyan Names," lot. tit., vol. xxviii., 1890.
8 Sec Arii e Italici, p. 175.
184 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
always mixed, inhumation and cremation existing
side by side among the subjugated population, as I
have myself been able to observe when assisting in
the excavation of poor and common graves in this
region.
True primitive Etruscan tombs are chambered, and
more or less rich and spacious; those dug out in the
rock or earth, though chambered yet small and poor,
FIG. 40. — Etruscan Skull from Cere, Ellipsoidcs embolicus (Sergi).
must belong to the common folk who had been
Etruscanised, Hence it is easy to argue that not all
the skeletons in the Etruscan territory are Etruscan ;
the greater part must belong to a population anterior
to the Etruscan colonisation, though it underwent the
influence of the new dominion.
This influence, strong as it was, was not strong
enough to transform the language of the conquered
THE ETRUSCANS. 185
into that of the conquerors; after the destruction of
the Etruscan dominion the Etruscan language dis-
appeared for ever, leaving in stone records inscriptions
that are undeciphered and indecipherable, in spite of
the fact that sometimes they are bilingual.
The true and permanent Etruscan influence was
that of the civilisation taken as a whole, both as the
point of departure for the future Latin civilisation, and
also as an expansion of the civilisation of the eastern
Mediterranean in Italy and towards Central and
Northern Europe.
CHAPTER X.
MIGRATIONS BEYOND THE MEDITERRANEAN.
Current opinions regarding the first inhabitants of Europe—
Europe not peopled from the North — Homo Neandcr-
thalensis.
Current opinions regarding the first inhabitants of
Europe. — Now that we have seen what manner of
people constituted the primitive population of the
Mediterranean basin, we have to inquire whether the
African emigration proceeded still further towards
the north beyond the great basin. This inquiry is
interesting not only from the anthropological point of
view, but also as regards ethnology and the origins
and diffusion of the civilisations which have succeeded
one another in Europe and the Mediterranean itself.
But in entering on this fresh investigation it is
opportune to recall a principle which lies at the
foundation of the rrtethod employed in my researches.
I have written elsewhere1 : — " It is necessary, it seems
to me, to begin anew as though no classification yet
existed, and to begin with a simple and rational
method ; it is necessary to study a human group by
means of its constant characters, without any refer-
ence to its history or its state of culture, to establish
the characters revealed by analysis and to follow them
in other human groups in geographical distribution,
1 Africa, Trefazione, p. viii.
FIRST INHAIUTANTS OF EUROPE. 187
without pre-occupying ourselves too much with their
secondary characters and the variations which occur
in these, to explain, in short, the causes of these
variations and to determine human varieties."
The reader who has followed me so far will see
that I have carried out this principle in analysing the
peoples of the Mediterranean, whose cradle and a
large part of their distribution is to be found in
Africa; the same principle has guided me in investi-
gating the Hamitic stock in Africa and in classifying
it among human varieties. This same principle will
serve us in inquiring whether the African migra-
tions, besides peopling the Mediterranean, have also
occupied other parts of Europe. Before entering on
this inquiry I will briefly summarise the dominant
opinions regarding the first inhabitants of Europe.
It was De Quatrefages, the most eminent of French
anthropologists, who risked a general synthesis of the
primitive inhabitants of Europe. He was a man of
large intellect and of deep intuitions, while Broca was
occupied with the details of the data of anthropo-
logical science, of which he may be regarded as the
founder in France, and seldom ventured on any
synthesis of its elements, in his time scattered and
uncertain. Perhaps in this he showed that prudence
which is one of the highest qualities of -.veil-balanced
minds; but it is useful, and perhaps even necessary,
to attempt a synthesis, even though only provisional,
of the mass of disconnected facts ; such a synthesis
becomes a point of departure for later researches
and interpretations, and is useful to the progress of
knowledge.
De Quatrcfagcs's work was continuous and always
developing, though always in the same sense and the
1 88 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
same direction. The reader of his works on the
human species, on the skulls of human races, on fossil
man and primitive man, will find few changes; the
direction of ideas and affirmations is identical through-
out. At the period when he wrote, the well-known
discoveries at Cro-Magnon, Crenelle, Furfooz, and
elsewhere had not been revised ; like other anthro-
pologists and ethnologists, he regarded them as
quaternary. With this conviction, due to the age
in which he wrote, he reconstructed the primitive
quaternary races, of which he concluded there were
six: the race of Canstadt, the race of Cro-Magnon,
the mesocephalic race of Furfooz, the sub-brachy-
cephalic race of Furfooz, the race of Crenelle, and
finally the race of Truchere. " All these races
belonged to the quaternary epoch, which immediately
preceded our own."1 Tertiary man, the earliest man
for De Quatrefages, was a precursor of quaternary
man and of Canstadt race. He was not an evolu-
tionist, and he did not accept, like G. de Mortillet, an
intermediary being between man and the anthropoid
apes. He accepted the Castenedolo man, the dis-
coveries of Bourgeois and those of Capellini in
Tuscany with regard to pliocene man.
When he maintained the continuation of the Cro-
Magnon race to the neolithic period, against the
arguments of De Baye, Broca, Hamy (his eminent
collaborator and the successor to his chair), and
others, he relied chiefly on the implements of the
Cro-Magnon man, which resemble the neolithic, and
since at that time the Cro-Magnon man was regarded
as quaternary he was right It mast be said to the
honour of his perspicacity that he accepted the per-
1 Homines fossilts ct Homines sauvages, p. 59. Paris, 1884.
FIRST INHABITANTS OF EUROPE. 189
sistcncc of the quaternary populations, such as he
believed them to be and had named them, and refused
to admit that hiatus between the palaeolithic and
neolithic epochs which was accepted by all his con-
temporaries, including even Mortillet. Time has
shown that he was right, and Piette's discovery of a
pre-neolithic period has confirmed the opinions of
the anthropologist of the Paris Museum of Natural
History.1
Many corrections, however, have to be made in
the so-called quaternary discoveries at Cro-Magnon,
Crenelle, Furfooz, and elsewhere,2 and few remains
are now recognised as of that early epoch, except
some fragments bearing witness to the physical shape
of man. In spite of recent doubts, the Neanderthal
skull remains as evidence of quaternary man, and
some skeletons, with fragments from the relatively
recent Magdalen ian quaternary epoch, between palaeo-
lithic and neolithic times. Cro-Magnon, Crenelle, and
Furfooz are neolithic and of different periods.
Thus many of the theories set forth by De Quatre-
fages and others fall to the ground ; if we admit that
the skulls of Crenelle, Truchere, and Trou-du-Frontal
are not quaternary, any hypothesis as to the origin
of quaternary brachycephaly is unnecessary, for it is
only in the latest neolithic graves that brachycephals
appear.
Of French anthropologists who since De Quatre-
fages have attempted a synthesis of the early inhabi-
1 DC Quatrefages, I' t spice Ilumaine, Paris, 1877; Histoire ge'ttlrale
d . A',iffs J/HHiaines, Paris, 1889; DC Quatrefages and Hamy, Crania
Ethnica, Paris, 1882.
•' Among these must be mentioned that at Cantelupn in Latium,
regarded :is ijuntcrnar)-, and now recognised as late neolithic -thai is to
say, a-ncolithic.
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tants of Europe, De Mortillet, Herv6, and Salmon are
the most notable, and those showing the least dis-
agreement in their facts and explanations.
Salmon divides the Stone Age into three great
periods : the quaternary palaeolithic, the mesolithic
as characterised by the Magdalenian epoch, and the
neolithic. With regard to human types, as shown by
crania, he accepts the division made by Herv6, who
divides the quaternary or first period of the Palaeo-
lithic Age into lower, middle, and upper, distinctly
seen in the Chelle, Moustier, and Magdalenian
epochs. He considers that we know nothing of
lower quaternary man, but that we know middle and
upper quaternary man by means of the skulls from
Spy, Laugerie-Basse, and Chancel ade. The Mag-
dalenian form of Laugerie-Chancelade survived
through the mesolithic transition, and is to be found
in the early neolithic form of Baumes-Chaudes.
This type was followed by the brachyccphalic of
Gaul, immigrating before the neolithic dolichocephal,
and then that of Crenelle. Lastly came the neolithic
dolichocephal, a new immigrant, bringing new ele-
ments of civilisation together with polished stone
implements.1
Herv£ finds that the Magdalenian race was con-
tinued in the Neolithic represented at Baumes-
Chaudes-Cro-Magnon ; this descendant of Chance-
lade had nothing in common with the man of
Neanderthal. As regards the brachycephalic type,
Herv£ believes that there was an immigration at
1 Cf. Salmon, " Sur 1'utilite* de la nouvclle division palelhnologiqne
de 1'age de la pierrc," Bull. Soc. Dauphinoisc cTEthnoIogie, etc.,
Grenoble, 1894; id., " De"nombrement et types des cranes neolithiques
de la Gaule," Revue mtnsticlle d' Anthropologiet Paris, 1895.
FIRST INHABITANTS OF EUROPE. IQI
the beginning of this age, the brachycephals of
Crenelle representing their vanguard, then already
diffused over a vast portion of Western Europe.
This element, during the Neolithic Age, mingled with
the ancient long-headed race.1
For De Mortillet things happened somewhat differ-
ently. A convinced evolutionist, he believed that
the race of Neanderthal and Spy was continued in
the forms of Laugerie and Chancelade, which were
thus a transformation of the well-known quaternary
type. There followed an invasion of brachycephals,
similar to that accepted by Hcrv^ and Salmon, and
the appearance of the ancient tall dolichocephals.
Thus for this eminent French ethnologist there was a
formation of neolithic races on the basis of a trans-
formation of the first quaternary type of Neanderthal
and Spy. This opinion, though maintained by Mor-
tillet during many years, has not been accepted in
France nor elsewhere.2
The problem of ancient races seems to be simplified
for French anthropologists since such races appear to
be reducible to four : a primitive quaternary dolicho-
cephalic, that of Neanderthal-Spy ; a mesolithic, also
quaternary, but recent, that of Chancelade- Laugerie ;
a third, brachyccphalic, of the Crenelle type; a fourth,
new dolichocephalic neolithic type, of recent arrival,
and represented by the GcnayJ^6te-^Or} skull. But
this is an illusion; there arc many complications and
many seconcTaTy divisions, though these arc in part
1 Hcrve", " I .a Race dcs Troglodytes Magdallnicns," Kevue tie
J'A.o/e tf A »///., 1893; it/., " DUtrilmtion en France dc la Race Nco-
liihique de Baumes-Chaudcs," Revue de rJtfole, etc., 1894,
- J'rfds il'Anfhrvfo.'oipe, p. 372, 1887 ; id., " Les Hrachyccphales
Ncnliihiqucs," Ktvue de FEcoU, etc., 1894-5.
IQ2 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
reduced by nerve" after a detailed analysis of the
skulls of brachycephalic type.
In the Crania EtJinica four types and four races of
this brachycephalic character were recognised; nerve"
reduces to three the morphological neolithic types of
Furfooz and Crenelle, of which the two types of
Furfooz represent two sub-types, varieties due to a
crossing with the indigenous element. Crenelle is
the pure race, that of the neolithic brachycephals.1
The two types of Furfooz — one sub-brachycephalic,
the other mesaticephalic — derived, according to
nerve", from the pure brachycephal of Crenelle, are
widely distributed, reaching as far as the Mediter-
ranean. Where brachycephals and sub-brachycephals
exist, mesaticephals are also to be found ; but the
converse is not true, mesaticephaly having a much
wider area of extension than the other three forms.
But how is it possible to find a large number of
mesaticephals where the brachycephals, from which
they are supposed to be derived, are not found ?
nerve" thus explains this phenomenon : the brachy-
cephals found in the two chief regions, the Belgic and
the Allobrogic, as he terms them, only reached the
mesaticephalic area in small number, being absorbed
by the long-headed population, leaving a number of
half-breeds, the mesaticephals. In my opinion, how-
ever, the theory that mesaticephals are the result of
crossing is a fundamental error. If the pure types
are absorbed I do not see how the cross-breeds can
resist, for we know that types due to mingling of race
disappear, allowing the pure type to re-appear. To
me it seems that the mesaticephals are as primitive
as the dolichocephals and the brachycephals.
J Herve, " Les Brachycephales Ncolithiques," loc. cit.
FIRST INHABITANTS OF EUROPE. 193
For De Quatrefages the Crenelle brachyccphals (a
quaternary population, as he supposes) were Lapps;
I Icrvd and other French anthropologists also believe
in a Lapp immigration. The difference between De
Quatrefages and the others is only one of epoch,
which is now supposed to be towards the end of
the neolithic age, if not indeed at the beginning of
the age of metals.
It is important, however, to know the origins of
the Magdalenian race as interpreted by Herv£,
Salmon, and others; we must remark that this race
may now be summarised in the formula Chancelade-
Cro-Magnon-Baumcs-Chaudes. De Quatrefages,
Hamy, and at a later date Ve'rneau considered that
the Cro-Magnon race, then believed to be quaternary,
migrated from the north to the south, and also
occupied the Mediterranean basin with Africa,
excluding Egypt and the Canary Islands. It was
the so-called hyperborean theory of human palaeon-
tology, which Hamy maintained and subsequently
abandoned. Now Herv£ and others record this fact
with complacency, but regretting that so able an anthro-
pologist as Hamy should have abandoned the position.
Herv£ still maintains the old hyperborean theory,
supporting his arguments more especially by Testut's
observations regarding Chancelade man, and by other
indications of ethnological character.
At Chancelade in Dordogne was discovered a
quaternary station of the epoch called Magdalenian,
and in it a human skeleton. From an investigation
by Testut1 it appeared that the skull (Fig. 41) has a
capacity of i./^occ, a length of 193 mm.; breadth, 139;
height, 150; with indices, respectively, of 72.02 and
1 "Recherches," etc , B»ll. Sec. Atith. dt Lyon, vol. viii., 1889.
'3
194 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
77.7. The face has a bi-zygomatic breadth of 140 mm.,
and a height of 77, with index of 55 ; the nose has an
index of 42.6. Hence the skull is dolichocephalic,
hypsicephalic, leptoprosopic, and leptorhinc.
Testut declares that this Chancelade skull shows
the characteristics of the higher races. To the in-
dividual with this large cranial capacity he attributes
a stature of 1.50 m., according to his own calculations;
fresh calculations raise the height to 1.592 m., but it
remains low.
At the same time Testut observes that this cranial
FIG. 41.— Chancelade Skull (Testut).
type had nothing in common with that of Neander-
thal and Spy, while it has a resemblance to the skulls
of Cro-Magnon, Sordes, L'Homme-Mort, and Laugerie-
Basse, whether these belong to upper quaternary
or neolithic times. Towards the end of his study he
asks if the Chancelade man belonged to the same
racial type as the Cro-Magnon man, and he replies in
the negative, on the ground that the latter had a
stature of 1. 80 to 1.90 m., and the former.of only 1.5001.,
the former also having a broad face with bi-zygomatic
diameter of 143 mm., and the latter a long face with
FIRST INHAHITANTS OF EUROPE. 195
bi-zygomatic diameter of 140, and greater facial
height.
These are, in fact, important differences, the chief
among them being those in stature and in facial
index. As regards the first point, we cannot explain
how a skull of such large capacity should be normally
united with so low a stature, if we were not rendered
suspicious by shape and curvature of the thighs, the
relatively excessive development of the upper limbs
as compared to the lower, the large dimensions of the
foot, and other facts and indications of abnormality,
which lead us to think of a rachitic and deformed
skeleton.
Testut, however, finds analogies between the Chan-
cclade and the Eskimo skull, and brings forward a
scries of cephalic indices. Apart from the fact, which
I have so often encountered, that indices may serve
to approximate the most diverse forms, and to
separate the most homogeneous, I could show that
cranial height indices of from 77 to 80 arc common in
the skulls of northern and eastern Africa, including
ancient Egypt, and I could show a series of skulls of
the eighth century B.C., discovered at Novilara(Pesaro),
in which the roof-shaped form (stcgoides} is common
to many, with a face of indices between 55 and 60,
and vertical forms similar to that of Chanceladc,
which I have termed Pelasgicus, Thus the Chance-
lade skull appears to me a Pelasgicus stegoides of the
Ellipsoides class, still found to-day in East Africa.
Why refer to the Eskimo a skull to be found so near
as the Mediterranean ? Testut himself admits that
the Chancelade skull resembles those of Cro-Magnon,
Sordes, and Laugerie.
Hcrve" takes up the problem of the Magdalenian
IQO THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
race, and separating it from the type of Neanderthal
and Spy, accepts the conclusions of Testut concerning
the origins of the Chancelade type; he finds its con-
tinuation at Laugerie, Cro-Magnon, and Sordes, that
is to say that the Magdalenian race is continued into
the Neolithic ; he also confirms Testut's hypothesis
concerning its northern origin, calling attention to
some of the industrial products of the Magdalenian
epoch which recall those of the Eskimo and other
northern populations.1 Thus for French anthropolo-
gists the men who peopled Europe in the quaternary
epoch were either derived by transformation from the
Neanderthal and Spy type, as Mortillet believed, or
they came from the polar regions, and were related
to the Lapps and the Eskimo.
Boyd Dawkins also finds a relationship between
the cave-men and the Eskimo, chiefly in their imple-
ments and utensils, which are very similar, as also their
ornaments, but instead of deriving the primitive in-
habitants of Europe from the north, he believes that the
Eskimo are the representatives of the cave-men driven
out of their ancient regions in Europe and Asia. He
writes: — "All these points of connection between the
cave-men and the Eskimo can, in my opinion, be
explained only on the hypothesis that they belong to
the same race. To the objection that savage tribes,
living under the same conditions, might independently
invent the same implements, and that, therefore, the
correspondence in question does not necessarily imply
a unity of race, the answer may be made, that there
are no savage tribes known which use the same set of
implements without being connected by blood. The
ruder and more common instruments, such as flakes,
1 Herve", " La Race des Troglodytes Magdaleniens," toe. cif.
FIRST IXIIAIJITAXTS OF EUROPE. K)7
and in a lesser degree scrapers, are of little value in
classification, but where a whole set agrees, intended
for various uses, and some of them rising above the
most common wants ol savage life, the argument as
to race is of considerable weight It is still further
strengthened by the identity of art The articles
found in the caves of Britain, Belgium, France, or
Switzerland differ scarcely more from those used in
west Georgia than the latter from those of Greenland
or Melville Peninsula.
" From these considerations it may be gathered that
the Eskimo are probably the representatives of the
cave-men, and protected within the Arctic Circle
from those causes by which they have been driven
from Europe and Asia. Unaccustomed to war them-
selves, they were probably driven from Europe and
Asia by other tribes in the same manner as within
the last century they have been driven further north
by the attacks of the Red Indians."1
If we could accept the considerations brought for-
ward by Dawkins, his conclusion would be near to the
truth. But we have similar examples among popula-
tions very distant from each other; must we, therefore,
on this ground accept unity of race? It seems to
me, on the other hand, that the resemblances in the
geological and climatic conditions of Europe at that
remote epoch, were the cause of the similarity in the
products of the primitive inhabitants of Europe in
Switzerland, Belgium, and Great Britain to those of
the Eskimo.
The German anthropologists have no general
theories concerning the primitive inhabitants of
Europe. They have endeavoured to discover the
1 Early Man in Britain, pp. 241-42.
198 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Aryans, and especially the German Aryans, believing
that they can recognise these in the tall long-headed
blonds of the so-called Reihengrdber.
Europe not Peopled from the North. — One of the
chief and characteristic defects in the work of anthro-
pologists in all countries is (as I have sought to show
on various occasions) the lack of a true taxonomic
method; in other words, there is no sound criterion
of classification. Cephalic indices are not sufficient,
and anthropologists often abuse them, or regard them
as of secondary value, without supplying any sure
and stable character in their place. If we ask Herve
and Salmon to furnish a calculable and convincing
difference between the Magdalenian dolichocephals
and the other neolithic peoples, they cannot do so.
The numerical variation of a few units cannot con-
stitute a difference of race; an index of 74 is in its
ethnic significance the same as one of 76 and 77, and
it would be absurd to suppose otherwise. While it is
generally agreed that the Neanderthal cranial type
is different from such a type as that of Cro-Magnon,
Mortillet, relying exclusively on the current method
of indices, was justified in regarding them as both of
the same race.
But let us consider the form of the skull: a skull
with a wedge-shaped occiput is different from a skull
with a rounded occiput, in spite of any similarity in
cephalic index ; thus the Chancelade skull may be
placed among Eskimo skulls as regards cephalic index
and capacity, though skulls of identical type are found
in Egypt, in East Africa, in the Canaries, in Italy.
Shall we say then that Europe and a part of Africa
have been peopled from the North Pole, and that the
Egyptians were of Eskimo origin? I do not know
EUROPE NOT PEOPLED FROM THE NORTH. 199
how it is possible to maintain any such hypothesis of
the northern origin of European peoples, thus over-
throwing not only the origins of man but of the
whole flora and fauna.
A Scandinavian naturalist, in a work dealing with
the flora and fauna of that peninsula, confirms the
statement that Scandinavia was not inhabited before
the neolithic epoch. Of palaeolithic man scarcely a
vestige can be found, and the importers of neolithic
culture, he writes, must have migrated from Africa or
the Iberian peninsula ; such an immigration would be ,
in harmonious relationship with an increase in the/
temperature of the climate of Europe after the glacial
epoch.1 This statement is in full accord with the
prehistoric data, according to Montclius, an authority
above suspicion in the accuracy of his observations.2
If, therefore, on account of the low temperature
northern Europe could not be inhabited by man
until after the glacial epoch, it is not easy to see
how the centre and south of Europe could be invaded
by a race originating in the north in the quaternary /
epoch; for if Chancelade, Laugerie-Basse, and other
places show the Eskimo type, according to Testut
and Herv<5, and the implements of Laugerie are also
of northern type, there must have been a migration
from the north to the south, at that remote epoch, of
a population arising in a clime even more unfavour-
able than that region is now.
We cannot accept the evidence of the cephalic
1 Andersen, Srtusta v>'ix(i;'ir/tltns his/oria, i R'orthtt fi
Stockholm, 1896; cf. Krause, " Die Anfang <lcr Kultur in Scandinavia,"
Globus, LXXI. 9, z;ih Fcl>. 1897.
* Montclius " Do 1-oilmlurUk.i IViiixlcrna in Skanclinavicn,''
Manadsblad, Stockholm, 1893; /'</., l.es Ttmfs Prthisloiiqties tn
SuMe et dam let an/res I'ays .V. ami -nai-tf, Paris, 1805, p. 1 1.
2OO THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
index when that evidence is contradicted by other
important facts. Nor can I consider exact the other
criterion, in accordance with which we must unite all
the physical and even psychological characters of man
in order to establish a classification of races. I have
maintained for some years that we need only select a
single character and can classify by means of that,
completing the classification, or rather the classified
types, by such other characters as may be found.
But the character to be selected as the means of
Fin. 42. — Calvaria of Pithecanthropus
(Dubois).
classification must' be constant, persistent, stable, and
then the other characters may be used to complete
the established type. I have found such a character
in the form of the skull, in spite of the slight varia-
tions it may present, because I have been able to
recognise its stability from the earliest appearance of
man in prehistoric times. The method has now been
proved by practical applications, and I have succeeded
in establishing certain human groups with a certainty
derived from numerous and homogeneous observa-
HOMO NEANDEKTIIALENSIS.
201
tions.1 The same criterion serves to delineate the
natural history of the first inhabitants of Europe.
Homo Neanderthalensis. — It is definitely accepted
that the Neanderthal skull is the most ancient witness
to the appearance in Europe of man with well-defined
osteological characters ; we may leave the question
of tertiary man unprejudiced in order to deal with
quaternary man. If the human remains of Castenedolo
FIG. 43. —Skull of the Pithecanthropus crectus
(Dubois and Manouvrier).
represent tertiary man of the Pliocene epoch, it would
not be very surprising not to find them lower ; an
intermediary type scarcely seems to me probable, be-
cause such types could hardly resist and survive. The
Pitktcanthrop** (Figs. 42, 43) of Java, it is true, is an
animal with some human characteristics, but, in my
1 See especially Africa, 1897, and my recent book, Specie e Varittb
Umane: Prindpl e Alttodo J'una Sitlcmalica Antropologica, 1900.
202 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
opinion, it is not man nor the intermediary type; it
is a higher type of the other anthropomorphic species.1
The history of evolution shows us species which re-
present stages of progress in form and structure, but
not transitory types. Hence, it seems to me, neither
is the Pithecanthropus a precursor, in Mortillet's sense,
nor is Neanderthal man a species evolved from it, to
evolve still further in the successive European forms
such as are visible in the man of Chancelade and Cro-
Magnon. The Neanderthal type seems to me a
species distinct by itself, the most ancient that we
know in quaternary times, and distinguishable in sub-
sequent epochs, leaving few but sure records of its
existence even in the present epoch.
Homo Neandertlialensis (Fig. 44) is thus, according
to my criteria, a European species, originating in
Europe in early quaternary, or possibly late tertiary
times; on this point we still know nothing definite. It
has been found in the caves of Neanderthal, Spy, and
other spots in Central Europe. I cannot believe that
Nicolucci's Isola del Liri skull is quaternary ; its
shape resembles the most recent higher European
forms, and it appears to me to belong to the Eur-
african species. The Olmo skull also, formerly
regarded as tertiaYy, is very dubious, and seems to
me to belong to the bronze age. Hitherto Homo
Neanderthalensis has not been found in southern
Europe, only to the north of the Alps, and in
England the fragments from /Tilbury and Bury St
Edmunds are regarded as belonging to the type.
It is important to point out that Homo Neander-
1 For some account of the Pil/iccaiiffirofns credits skull, as to the
human character of which anthropologists arc not agreed, see Dcnikcr,
Races of Man , pp. 359-361.
HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS.
203
thalensis has not completely disappeared in Europe
in spite of the arrival of a new species from Africa,
but persists in the Baltic, in Friesland, as Spengel
has shown.1 De Quatrefages admitted this survival.
Davis also pointed out examples, and in some Fries-
land skulls studied by Sasse and Virchow2 I have
found the Neanderthal type, as also I have been able
to show it in a mixed form in other regions of central
Europe.
FlG. 44.— Spy Skull, first quaternary race (Fraipont and Jacques).
It is desirable to note this survival of the Ne-
anderthal man for various reasons. It shows the
persistence of cranial forms through many thousand
years and in spite of mixture with other species;
it also shows that the forms subsequently pre-
vailing arc not — a* believed by Pcnka and, on
other grounds and with another scientific object,
1 S|>cngel, " Schadcl vim Neanderthal-Typus," Ar<h. f. An(h.t viii.,
1875.
* Sasse, " Schiidel aus dem Nordhollandischen Wotfriohnd," AiJi.
f. Anth., \\., 1876; Virchow, Beit rage t he. n't.
204 TIIK MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Mortillct — derived from Homo Neandertlialcnsis.
Such facts justify the principles, including that of
the persistence of forms, which I have maintained
for some time past.
Excluding, therefore, the Neanderthal man from
our inquiry, we may turn to the subsequent human
varieties which, as we shall see, still constitute for
the most part the basis of the present populations.
The available data, belonging in part to the last
quaternary epoch, but chiefly to neolithic days,
extend from Switzerland to Scandinavia, from the
west of France to southern Russia. They show us,
unless we wish to overturn the natural order in the
origins of the fauna and flora, that Europe was not
peopled in prehistoric times from the polar circle
but from tropical regions.
CHAPTER XI.
MIGRATIONS BEYOND THE MEDITERRANEAN
(continued}.
Great Britain — France — Switzerland — Germany — fiohemia —
Scandinavia —Russia.
Great Britain. — More than thirty years ago Thur-
nam showed that in the long-chambered tumuli of
England, especially in the south-west, in Wilts and
Gloucestershire, were deposited the dead of a primi-
tive population, long-headed or dolichocephalic, and
with special characters, while the round tumuli re-
vealed the remains of another distinct stock, with
short and broad heads, or brachyccphalic. The men
of the Long Barrows, according to Thurnam, were
dolichoccphals ; the men of the Round Barrows,
brachycephals.1 Greenwcll further showed that in
the majority of the sepulchral tumuli bronze is only
exceptionally found ; in 379 graves, in 78 of which
the remains were cremated and in 301 buried, bronze
was only found 14 times among the buried, and twice
among the cremated.2 Thurnam believed that the
dolichocephalic stock was anterior to the brachy-
cephalic, which had imported the bronze, as also
1 " On the two principal Forms of ancient British and Gaulish Skulls,"
Memoir* of Ike Amhrop. Society of /.otiifott, vol. i. ; " Further Re-
searches," etc., in Mtmoirst fit., vol. iii. ; Crania Britannica, in col-
lalxiration with Davis.
1 British flar/emx, Oxford, 1877.
2O6
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
did Green well, and others after them, including
Garson. The later stock, it was believed, had come
from Belgium and France ; it had conquered and in
part displaced the earlier population, in part mixed
with them, as appeared from mingling in the graves,
finally becoming dominant : this new stock was the
Celtic.
FlG. 45. — Skull from British Barrow, Ovoides longissimus
(Greenwell and Rolleston).
It is important to note that the primitive long-
headed stock is by Thurnam and others, who have
examined the skulls, regarded as immigrating from
the Iberian peninsula, and hence called the Iberian
stock. Thurnam compared the British skulls with
the Basque skulls studied by Broca, and found great
GREAT BRITAIN. 2O/
resemblance in form.1 I have compared the forms of
the skulls from the British graves with ancient and
modern Mediterranean skulls, and have found those
characteristic of Spain, of Portugal taken from
Mugem, of the Italian caves, of Greece, of Hissarlik,
of East Africa. 1 have found among them the ellip-
soidal shape with compressed sides, which I call
FIG. 46. — Skull from British Barrow, E llipsoides felafgictis
(Grccnwell and Rolleston).
Pelasgic,2 also found at Casa da Moura, at Novi-
lara, and in Abyssinia, where it is fairly common, and
the fine oval forms described as common, by those
who have studied them, throughout peninsular and
1 Cf. Thurnam, of. tit., vol. i., p. 133, figs. 12 and 13; p. 162, figs
15 and 16; plate I., figs. I (o 3; also Dawkins, Early Man in Britain,
London, 1 880, rh. ix.
8 Cf. Thurnam, " Further Researches,'' etc., vol. iii., plale i., the
three characteristic figures from South Wilts, Crania Britanni(at plale
ii. (22), xvi. (33), xxr. (24), xxvi. (50).
208 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
insular Greece, Latium, and the rest of Italy, Spain,
North and East Africa, including ancient Egypt. I
have also seen and recognised Etruscan forms, Cretan
of the Mycenrean era, and others similar (Figs. 45 to
47). These facts convince me that the Mediterranean
stock, which with one of its branches had occupied the
Iberian peninsula, extended beyond the Pyrenees and
invaded France, as we shall see, and then Britain,
constructing tumuli for its dead wherever it took
possession.
Dr. Garson has confirmed with considerable fresh
evidence the arguments of Thurnam and others, in a
lecture on early British races.1 " Osteological remains
of the Neolithic people," he remarks, " are distributed
all over Britain, from the south of England to the
extreme north of Scotland. They are most numerous
in the south-west of England, especially in Wilts
and Gloucestershire, the part of the country occupied
by the Drobuni, or Silures, at the beginning of
the historic period. They have been found in con-
siderable numbers in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and
Stafford. Huxley and Wilson have described the
same race from horned cairns in Caithness, and
from other places, of Scotland. I have described
them from Wiltshire, Yorkshire, Middlesex, and from
Orkney."
The general description given by Garson of the
characters of the skeletons is very interesting, because
it may apply to those of East Africa, Egypt, and
other parts of the Mediterranean. " The characters of
the skeletons are well marked," he tells us. "The
skull is large and well formed, the calvaria is long
and proportionally narrow, having a cephalic index
1 Nature, I5lh and 22nd Nov., 1894.
GREAT HK11AIN.
209
of about 70, and of oval shape.1 The superciliary
ridges and glabella are moderately or even feebly
developed, the forehead is well formed, narrow, and
curves gracefully to the occiput, which is full and
rounded. The upper margins of the orbits are thin,
and the malar bones are never prominent ; the pro-
file of the face is vertical, and there is no tendency
to prognathism ; the chin is prominent, the sym-
phcsial angle is from 70 to 80 degrees ; the length
Fir.. 47. — Skull from British Barrow, Ellipsoides sphyroidt*
(Green well and Rollcston).
of the face from the root of the nose is comparatively
short, but as a whole the face is oval in form ; the
jaws are small and fine, the teeth are of medium size,
and generally in a good state of preservation, not
much worn down. The last molar is always the
smallest tooth of that series. The facial characters
1 II may be remarked that anthropologies have hitherto considered
both ellipsoid and pcnlagonoid skulls o\al; 1 ilU.in^uish between these
two foi ins.
14
2IO THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
are mild, and without exaggerated development in
any one direction ; the same may be said of the
calvaria generally. The stature of the Neolithic
people is short; it averages 1.674 m. (5 ft. 6£ in.)."
Dr. Garson expresses himself clearly concerning
the extension of the Neolithic race ; he believes that
the evidence renders it probable that the Neolithic
population occupied at that time all the west of
Europe, and in agreement with many other ob-
servers, considers it identical with the Iberian race,
of which the Basques may be regarded as a residue.
Garson also considers that the Neolithic people are
not extinct in Britain, their descendants remaining
to-day. It is true that subsequent invaders drove
them, in many instances, to particular parts of
the country, and they also mixed with their con-
querors.1
France. — At a period when the caves at Cro-Mag-
non and L'Homme-Mort were not yet discovered,
Thurnam had seen and studied the skulls from the
tumuli of Meudon, Noyelles-sur-Mer, Nogent-les-
Vierges, Chaumont, Orrouy, Avignon, and others,
compared them with those from the British barrows,
and concluded that they were of the same stock, the
race that had occupied the British Isles having also
at the same epoch established itself in France.
Many fresh discoveries were, however, made in
France, first that of Cro-Magnon, then those of
L'Homme-Mort, Solutre, Engis, Laugerie- Basse,
Bruniquel, and many others. The male skull from
Cro-Magnon, as is well known, served as a type for
comparison with subsequent discoveries, and as it was
regarded as quaternary by most anthropologists at
1 Daw kins, Early Alan in Britain, fig. 112, p. 318, ch. ix.
FRANCE. 211
that time, it became the representative of a race
which French anthropologists found diffused in many
parts of Europe, the Canaries, and Africa, where the
Berbers, according to Broca, are its modern re-
presentatives. As we have already seen, opinions
in France have undergone revision. Cro-Magnon
is neolithic, like Baumcs-Chaudcs and numberless
other caves and g\ M\ x^ ; the late quaternary epoch is
represented by Chancelade and Laugerie, in Dor-
dogne. We have reason to believe that the first
migrations from Africa to Europe took place precisely
in the late quaternary epoch, and we find, by ex-
amination of the cranial shapes, that the skulls of
Laugerie and Chancelade represent the first African
migrants ; the more or less ancient neolithic peoples
are the migrants who succeeded, belonging to the
same stock, which, perhaps at different epochs,
became diffused throughout the European continent.
French anthropologists have recognised the Cro-
Magnon form in some Spanish skulls discovered by
Sirct, as also in some found in the caves of Mentone
and other parts of the Ligurian Riviera. Now that
the Cro-Magnon skull is rcognised as neolithic, I do
not believe that it is necessary to assume an immigra-
tion of neolithic dolichoccphals, as they are called
in France, belonging to a different stock from
the Baumes-Chaudes dolichocephals, considered by
Hervd and others as continuing the Laugerie-Chance-
lade race. Both may be regarded as of the same
family; the difference of a few units in the cephalic
index cannot justify us in regarding them as of
different race and origin.
Nor do I believe that the form of the Cro-Magnon
skull can be regarded as exceptional, as Salmon
212 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
thinks , l it is a pcntagonoid, as De Quatrefages
recognised, and this form is found in all the Mediter-
ranean and related families. Similarly I do not
believe that we should see racial differences in skulls
because one has a rounded occiput, another is wedge-
shaped, or with a heel or chignon, as the French
anthropologists say ; we may consider these as asso-
ciated sub-forms within the same stock, variations of
a single type.
The African migration which traversed the Mediter-
ranean and occupied the southern regions of Europe
must have reached France by two roads, that is, by
Spain across the Pyrenees, and by the Rhone. Thus
it happens that we find traces and remains in the
south of France, especially in Langucdoc, where that
branch of the Mediterranean family called Ligurian
extends from the Iberian peninsula as far as Italy,
while another branch, the Iberian, first occupying the
peninsula which took its name, passed the Pyrenees,
became spread over France, and migrated slowly into
the British Isles. In Caesar's time the Aquitani were
to be found between the Garonne and the Pyrenees in
contact with the Celts, who had confined them there
by invading France, just as the Belgae threw them
against the Celts and enclosed them between the
Seine and the Garonne.
If we take into consideration the caves and the
graves of the dolmens discovered and examined
in France, the stock must have been very numerous,
especially in this epoch called neolithic. In an
interesting summary of our knowledge with regard
to the neolithic skulls of Gaul, Salmon refers to 140
1 Dinoinbrements ei Typts des Crdius iieolithiqtus, Paris, 1896,
p. II.
SWITZERLAND. 213
localities with graves containing skulls that could
be examined, and about 4000 neolithic graves in
which the skulls are either lost or no longer measur-
able.1 This large number of graves serves to show
the density of the neolithic population.
Switzerland. — I have found new and almost un-
expected evidence concerning the expansion of the
Mediterranean stock in prehistoric Switzerland. This
evidence is furnished by the very ancient skulls be-
longing to the Helvetian peoples of the stone, copper,
and bronze ages.2 These not only presented different
characters from those recorded by His and Riiti-
mcycr8 many years previously, but they preserved in
a surprising manner the most genuine characters of
East African types. To my surprise I recognised the
forms belonging to the Mediterranean stock among a
population in which I had never suspected their
existence. Among these forms predominated very
marked pentagonoids, Egyptian rhomboids, ellipsoids,
and ovoids, all very common in the Mediterranean
population.
It is impossible not to infer from these facts an
ancient migration towards the centre of France, such
as that which is borne witness to by the Cro-Magnon
race. I believe that the easiest road such a migration
could have followed is that through the Rhone Valley,
where we find the Ligurians of the same family, and
then turning towards the east, where the immigrants
occupied the Alpine heights which to-day are Switzer-
land. Afterwards the Celts arrived here, wholly or
1 IM. dt.
* Cf. Studcr and Dannwarlh, Cranica Ile'velUa Anliijtia, Lrip/i •;,
1894, and my classification of such skulls in Artkiv fur An~'lirofvlogiet
vol. xxiii., 1895.
» Cf. Crania //ehfti.a, Basel, 1864.
214 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
partly driving out the early inhabitants, a phenomenon
which happened also in France, Britain, and the Po
valley.
Thus I wrote in the Italian edition of this work some years
ago, and at a later date1 drew various conclusions as to the early
inhabitants of Europe, and especially of Switzerland. At that
time I knew of no neolithic skulls having forms foreign to those
of the Mediterranean. Professor Ripley of Boston has, how-
ever, opposed my interpretation, believing that in the skulls
studied by Studer and Bannwarth there is evidence of the
presence of the race that, with Linnaeus, he calls Alpine :
" Sergi's attempt to interpret the data otherwise is entirely
erroneous."3 Now, it is true that if we cling to the data of the
cephalic index the Helvetian skulls of Studer and Bannwarth
are dolichocephalic, mesocephalic, and brachycephalic ; but if we
classify them by their shape, as I have done, then we find that
the brachycephals of this series do not reveal a racial element
foreign to the Mediterranean.
Of the 35 skulls only 33 could be classified, and these
belong to five varieties (with their sub-varieties), as follows : —
I. RHOMBOIDES ^EGYPTICUS. II. PENTAGONOIDES : a, Brevis ;
t>, Obtusus ; c, Acutus (Fig. 48) ; d, Convexus. III. ELL1PSO-
IDES a, Stegoides , £, Cuneatus ; r, Isopericampylos; d, Clito-
cephalus. IV. OOIDES • a, Medius ; t>, Parvus. V. BELOIDES3:
a, Subtilis ; b, Convexus. Now it is to be noted that the
rhomboid and some pentagonoids have a brachycephalic index.
Yet both are Mediterranean forms, and I have found them in
ancient Egypt.4 T*he authors who classify by the cephalic index
are right in bringing this objection against me, but, as I have
often shown, this criterion of classification is erroneous, con-
fusing various shapes together ; it is artificial and not natural, as
is a classification based on shape.
If, however, a few brachycephalic skulls of really foreign form
had been found I shoulr1 not bs surprised, now that I know how
large is the number of such types which infiltrated Europe
1 Arii e Italici, cap. iii.
• Ripley, The Races of Europe, New York, 1899, p. 501.
a It should l>e noted that this name takes the place of Sphenoides ; see
my Sfede e Varic'.h L'uiane, 1900.
4 Stig'i abitanli fritnitiz'i del Jlfedtterraneo, Florence, 1892.
GERMANY.
towards the end of the neolithic epoch, and my conclusions
would not on this account have suffered severely. In fact, I
find recorded a skull from the lake dwellings in Switzerland
which is not only brachycephalic, but of a shape that is foreign
to the Mediterranean stock ; yet it is neolithic. This skull was
described and figured by Pitard j1 though incomplete it is
FIG. 48. — Skull from Auvernicr of the Bronze Ag<", Penlagoiioides
aculus (Sergi).
visibly a Plalycephaliis orbicularis^ a form having nothing in
common with Mediterranean forms. Thus 1 maintain the
opinion that the primitive inhabitants of Switzerland were of
African origin, like those of the Mediterranean.
Germany. — From the studies of Eckcr and Von
Holder on the skeletons of the Alcmanni and Franks
1 L Anthropologie% vol. x., No. 3, 1898, p. 281.
2l6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
from the Rhine graves was developed the cranial
type of the Reihengraber. It thus came to be
believed that the Aryan Germans were the people
with the physical characters attributed to the
Germans of the fifth century whose skeletons are
preserved in the Rhine graves : lofty stature, dolicho-
cephalic skull, white skin, blue eyes, fair hair. But
these graves contained other and different types, for
the Alemanni and Franks were not and could not be
without racial mixture. In spite, however, of the
obstacle placed in the way of the Reihengraber
Aryan theory by the existence of those different
types, ever since that time it has entered into the
ideas and sentiments of German anthropologists, as
well as of others who are not Germans.
Holder believes that the theory and the discovery
are confirmed by the neolithic and later graves of
Germany. In a study of the skeletons from the pre-
Roman Hiigelgraber, in which he investigates skulls
belonging to the ages of stone and of bronze, the
Hallstatt period, the beginning of the iron age, and
the La Tene period, he reaches this conclusion : —
"The investigation of 114 skulls of the pre-Roman
epoch, examined according to the scheme of the
Frankfort Convention, has yielded 64 dolichocephalic
with index from 60 to 75, 34 mesocephalic with index
from 75.4 to 79.4, and 16 brachycephalic from 80.1 to
89.8. The dolichocephalic and mesocephalic, which
all have the essential characters of the Germanic
type, are of the form already found in the Alemannic
graves in our country. In the pre-Roman epoch the
same racial elements occupied the soil of central and
northern Germany free from the Roman dominion.
Since these regions of our great country, as above
GERMANY. 217
said, were occupied by the pure dolichocephalic
Teutonic stock, it is easy to understand that in the
Roman tombs at first only a few brachycephals,
about 2 per cent., are met with, and that as we
advance in the middle ages these become more
numerous as contact with the southern brachycephals
becomes greater.
" A similar relationship may be found also in the
pre- Roman graves where the population was already
in contact for many centuries with the brachyccphalic
zone and then underwent a stronger mixture than in
the population of the more ancient tombs — that is to
say, about 14.3 per cent
" A clear idea of this process may be had by
examining the cranial forms of the stone age and of
that of La Tene. Only two skulls belonging to the
stone age have been measured, with indices of 71.2
and 72.4. Of the bronze epoch were found four
masculine skulls with indices between 72.3 and 754«
and four feminine with indices between 70.4 and
77-1. together with one of 83.8 ; of the Hallstatt
period were 49 masculine skulls, of which 46 between
60.0 and 79.2, and three between 80.3 and 86.9 ; also
38 feminine skulls, of which 29 between 68.6 and
78.7, and nine between 80. 1 and 89.8.
"Of the La Tene period there were 15 skulls, 10
masculine, of which nine between 67.3 and 76.8, and
one of 81.3 ; also five feminine, with inclusion of a
child's, three between 75.4 and 79, and two of 81.2
and 82.7.
" On the whole, it must be admitted that the
increase of the brachyccphalic element becomes
greater the nearer we approach the region of Roman
dominion ; thus it was that the great mass of brachy-
2l8 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
cephals reached our land, and that the Germanic
element receded."1
The process described by Von Holder is exact* it
seems to me, only it is inexact to regard as Teutonic
and Aryan the prehistoric dolichocephalic and meso-
cephalic element which harmonises with the Alemannic
and Prankish element of the Roman graves (Reihen-
graber). This element, from the stone age up to
historic times, is anterior to the Aryan invasion, and
therefore not Germanic — merely Germanised, I would
say — in language and customs. Here is the knot in
the problem which the German anthropologists have
been unable to untie in order to reach the natural
solution, and yet for long past Germany has yielded
neolithic burial-places which clearly show the char-
acteristics of the primitive population of Germany
and Europe generally, from south to north. One
of the most interesting of these discoveries, made
many years ago, is that of Hinkelstein, near Mon-
sheim. It was- discussed by Lindenschmit, and the
skulls were studied by Ecker. These skulls were
incomplete, one with cephalic index of 71.1, the other
of 76.2 ; according to my classification, one is a long
ovoid (Ooides longns), the other a flat ovoid (Ooides
planus). To these was added another skull, from
Oberingelheim, which was brachyccphalic (81.9), but
an acute pentagonoid in shape (as may be seen from
the figure given by Ecker himself), and not different
from the acute pentagonoids of the Mediterranean2
(Fig. 49)-
1 Untersuchungen iiber die Skelctlfundc in den Vorromischen
Hiigelgrdbern Wiirtcmbergs und Hohenzollc r/is, Stuttgart, 1894.
2 Lindenschmit, "Das Graberfeld am Hinkelstein bei Monsheim;"
Ecker, " Einige Bemerkungen ul>er die Skelette," etc., Plates III.-IV.,
Archivfiir Anthropohg if, iii., 1868.
GERMANY 2IQ
Very interesting is the neolithic burial-place dis-
covered at Worms by Kohl and described by him.
The skeletons were examined by Virchow, and the
skulls include five dolichocephals between 71.6 and
73.5, and one mesocephal of 78.7 j1 that is to say
that they correspond to the Reihengraber types.
After these important discoveries at Worms, Pro-
fessor Mehlis occupied himself with the much debated
Fir.. 49. — Reihcngial>er Skull, rtnlazonoities actt 'tit
(Von Holder).
question of the origins of the first Germanic and
especially neolithic populations. Comparing them
with the Ligurians of southern France and of Italy,
he decidedly asserts that these neolithic dolicho- /
cephals of Germany are also Ligurians.2 In the
Italian edition of this book I limited the diffusion of
1 Kohl, Neue prahisloritche J-'nn It ans Worm* tinii Ungtburg,
Win ins 1896; Zeidfhri/l fiir F.thiio'o^it, 1897, pp. 464-7.
* " Die Ligurerfrage," Archivfur Anth.y xxvi., 1899.
220 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE,
the stock to Switzerland and Great Britain, towards
the west and north, and for lack of personal observa-
tion would not venture to go beyond these limits
towards the centre and north of Europe. But a visit
to Germany, a year later, which afforded me an
opportunity of observing the Reihengraber cranial
types, together with Dr. von Holder, convinced me
that they are of the same stock which peopled the
Mediterranean. Its diffusion was therefore more
extended than I had believed, and I then decided
to declare my opinion, and wrote a note on the
so-called Reihengraber type and its relation to
Mediterranean types.1 Now, without attaching im-
portance to the racial name of Ligurian, I note with
satisfaction the opinion of a German, who finds
convergence or even identity of stock between the
neolithic population of Germany and the Ligurians
of Italy and France. Thus we are on the right road,
and the Teutonic problem of the Aryans begins to
find in Germany itself its natural solution: the so-
called Reihgngrabcr types are not Germanic Aryans,
but belong to the pre- Aryan population.
Bohemia. — Here we are still on German territory;
that is to say, the primitive neolithic population is the
same, and shows the same characters; the region now
Slav was not yet Slav, just as it is not Teutonic in
the region where German is spoken.
Near Lobositz on the Elbe, Weinzerl of Prague
discovered a vast burial-place, which he has fully
described.2 In its deeper strata the burial-place is
1 " Ueber die sogennnnten Reihengral>er-typus," Centra.'blatt. f.
Anth., 1898.
3 "Die prahistorische Wohnplntz uml die Begranisstatte auf der
Liisskuppe sudostlich von Lobositz," Zt. f. Ethnologic, 1895; 1897, in
Verhandlungen, pp. 42 et seq
SCANDINAVIA. 221
neolithic, containing graves in which the bodies had
been buried in the earth in a crouching and bent
position, then graves showing a stage of transition,
then graves where incineration had been practised,
and finally Roman graves. In subsequent years Wein-
zerl made new discoveries in the same district; the
skulls were of the dolichocephalic form already noted,
and as evidence that the long-headed neolithic popu-
lation were different from the later population
possessing bronze and burning their dead, instances
were found in which the neolithic stiatum of graves
lay beneath the stratum belonging to the bronze
age.1 I can find no difference between these graves
and those found by Kohl in the Teutonic district
Dr. Matiegka has examined various Bohemian
neolithic graves, in which the bodies are bent, as in
almost all the neolithic graves of Europe, as well as
of Egypt, and he gives indices of the skulls which
are exactly those of the Germanic dolichocephals.2
I could enumerate other burial-places in Bohemia,
as well as in Slav districts outside Bohemia, illustrat-
ing the same fact: that the first inhabitants of the
region possessed cranial characters resembling those
of the primitive populations of the Mediterranean,
and belonged to the same family.
Scandinavia. — I have already remarked that in
the Scandinavian peninsula no trace of palaeolithic
man can be found, so that the country was only
inhabited from the neolithic epoch. I have also
quoted the opinion of the Scandinavian naturalist,
Andersen, who, in studying the fauna and flora of
the peninsula, and considering the conditions of the
1 Let. tit.
* //rofy u ikrunjrwi kosliami v Cethdtk, I'rogue, 1892.
222 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
climate, concludes that the importers of neolithic
civilisation must have been immigrants from Africa
and the Iberian peninsula. My own studies and
observations of the physical characters of the skeletons
of Scandinavia bring me to the same conclusion,
more especially since I have come to see that the
Reihengraber Germanic type represents a northern
race of African origin.1
Retzius long since concluded -that in Scandinavia,
as in Holland, the form of the skull of the primitive
inhabitants was elongated or dolichocephalic ;2 the
graves of the stone age bore witness to this fact,3
which is fully confirmed by the persistence ot this
type up to the present, in spite of the infiltrations of
a new and different people.
Justus Barth of Christiania has studied 161 Nor-
wegian skulls from the ancient city of Tonsberg,
and elsewhere in the south-east of Norway; they are
some five hundred years old, as well as other skulls
of the Viking age, that is to say, the iron age and the
immediately preceding period. Now 153 such skulls
have yielded the following results: — Dolichocephalic,
64 (41.8 per cent); mesocephalic, 80 (52.3 per cent);
brachycephalic, 9 {5.9 per cent). If, on the grounds
previously given, we regard the dolichocephalic and
mesocephalic as a single type, we have the enormous
majority of 144, or 94.1 per cent, against 5.9 per cent,
brachycephalic.
" Among these skulls," this author remarks, " is
frequently met a very distinct form which I have
1 Arii e Italic!, cap. vi. , ix.
3 Ethnologische Schriften, Stockholm, 1864.
3 Arbo, "Ossements humains de 1'age de la pierre en Norw^ge,"
Revue cCAnth., 1882; cf. Congrls inter not. d'Anth. prthist. <J Stock-
holm, 1874, discussion by Dr. Diiben.
SCANDINAVIA. 223
termed ' Viking type/ since a large number of
characteristic and noteworthy specimens belong to
the Viking epoch, both in the Museum of the
Anatomical Institute at Christiania and elsewhere.
This type cannot be claimed as peculiar to Norway;
it is an archaeo-Germanic type, to judge from its
agreement in form with the type long known as
Reihengrabcr. The Viking type is not only found
very frequently amidst ancient Norwegian skulls, but
also among our contemporaries, especially in dolicho-
cephalic and mesocephalic regions." l
I here reproduce (Fig. 50) from Barth's Plate II.
the skull called " Viking type," or rather one of such
types; it is a very fine specimen of acute pentagonoid ;
the other plates show various ellipsoid forms, neither
more nor less than the Reihengraber and Mediter-
ranean types.
Certainly it is not to be expected that throughout
Norway and in the interior of the peninsula the old
Viking type should predominate, for from the bronze
age onwards new peoples migrated into Scandinavia,
although in less number than in Central Europe.
From Arbo's studies of the living population, it
appears that there are districts where the ancient
type still predominates to an enormous extent, and
others where the brachyccphals predominate. Thus
he found in Nordre Osterdal that the brachycephals
were 43.3 per cent ; in Soudre Osterdal, 23. t per cent. ;
in Nordre Guldbrandsdal, 12.7 per cent.; in Soudre
Guldbrandsdal, 29.3; Kyfylke, 68.6; Joderen, 81.9;
Dalarna, 75.8; Stavanger, 55.8.
On this point Arbo makes an important observa-
1 O tiniii antnjua in par It at Uiitali Noi wtgi*c Met iJianaJis iirve/i/a,
Christian i.i, 1896.
224
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tion. " While in the Stavangcr district," he writes,
" the brachycephalic racial element predominates
from the sea towards the mountains, in that of Lister-
Mandal (West Agder) there is a successive diminu-
tion of this element from the west towards the east,
FIG. 50. — Skull of Viking type from Norway, Pentagjuoida
acutus (Barlh).
with corresponding increase of the dolichocephals and
mesocephals ; but in a still more marked degree from
the sea to the culminating point of the valleys, which
here run north and south. Thus, while the average
index towards the coast and in the low valleys is still
SCANDINAVIA. 22$
brachycephalic (at least as we go towards the east),
it becomes mesocephalic in the high valleys."1 This
shows that the ancient long-headed population was
pushed up the valleys by the broad-headed immi-
grants, who, as may be seen from Arbo's plate of
cranial types, have cuneiform and platycephalic
heads.2
The fact that the primitive inhabitants of Scan-
dinavia, if we leave out of question the Lapp
infiltration, are of the same physical type as that
termed Reihengraber — wrongly believed, especially
by German anthropologists, to be the genuine Aryan
— together with their persistence even to-day, in
spite of foreign immigration, Lapp, Finnic, German
Aryan, from every side, have led to the illusion of
Penka and others concerning the European origin of
the Aryans, whose cradle has been sought precisely
in Scandinavia. I have elsewhere brought forward
good reasons to show that the Scandinavians occupied
the peninsula only from the neolithic epoch, when the
Aryan invasion drove the ancient stock towards the
north, that is to say, towards the Baltic, where a
portion of them crossed into Scandinavia and settled
To-day the cranial and skeletal facial forms show the /
relationship of the Scandinavians to the Mediterranean /
and African stock, while in other physical characters,
such as stature and pigmentation, they constitute a
distinct variety. Kcanc has objected to this relation-
ship : — " Hut too much seems to be built on the
common characters of these dolicho skulls, the two
1 Aibo, Fortsat.'e Bidrag til Nonlnntn tenet An'Mro/vlogi, Chris-
tinuia, 1895-1897; " La Carte <\c I'lndice ccphnlique en Noru-
I.'Anlhrofoh^it, 1887.
1 Cf. op. fit., iii., 1805 pp. 20 21.
15
226 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
races being in most other respects quite different, the
northerners tall, almost gigantic blonds, of robust if
somewhat coarse physique, the southerners dark,
short or medium-sized, with finely-proportioned but
slender figures." x When dealing with the physical
characters of the Eurafrican variety, we shall see
what weight should be attached to this objection.
Moreover, it is not merely dolichocephaly which
unites the two varieties, but the existence of cranial
variations common to both.
FIG. 51.— Kurgan Skull from Tver, EllipsoiJts embolicus (Sergi).
Russia. — The first skull from Russia attributed
without doubt to the stone age was discovered by
Count Uvarof in the Government of Volosovo; it
was examined by many, and showed a cephalic index
of 80. Numerous skulls have been discovered since,
though not always examined, among them some
painted with red ochre, such as have been found in
Bohemia, Germany, and Italy, especially in Ligurin,
1 A fan Past and Present, pp. 513^4.
RUSSIA. 227
and then in Latium and Sicily.1 Those examined
according to craniometrical methods are dolicho-
cephalic or mcsocephalic ; both alike, as well as the
conditions under which they were found, bear witness
to the presence of the stock which peopled the south
and centre of Europe.
It is also interesting to know the results yielded by
the numerous kurgans (or tumuli) of Russia. These
kurgans are to be found from the Black Sea to the
extreme north of the Empire. In 1892, at the time of
the International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-
historic Archaeology, I was able to study a large
number of skulls from the kurgans in the Moscow
Anthropological Museum. I well remember the
surprise I experienced on unexpectedly meeting
cranial types already known to me, types I had
studied in Italy, and had found in the peninsula
itself or the islands, a type which had belonged
to the ancient Greeks and the Egyptians of the old
dynasties..
When publishing a catalogue of the varieties found
in Russia,2 I wrote as follows : — " I venture to say
that when I am able to publish my complete study
of ancient Russia, much that is now accepted in
anthropology will undergo change. The methods
hitherto adopted, uncertain and unfruitful, together
with historical traditions modified by various scientific
formulae, have assigned an Asiatic origin to the primi-
tive peoples of European Russia. Nor is this the only
1 Cf. summaries in A rthivfiir Anlh. , xiv. , 1882, xxvi., 1899; Sticda,
- dor Kussischcn Litcralur ; Kin (loin Slcnalter angehoriger
!el, von Tichomirow ; '' Sergi, Ligmi e Celti nella valle del /'»,
Florence, 1883.
'-' " Vnricta umanc dclla Russia e del Mediterraneo : Calalogo
sistcmatico," Atli delta Socie'h romana di Anlrofologia, Rome, 1894.
228 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
error which we see to-day through the abundance of
accumulated facts of observation, and the comparison
of human varieties in the Mediterranean ; it is Africa
which, above all, has contributed the chief number of
varieties to the Mediterranean and to southern and
eastern Europe ; Asia came later, to furnish an
clement which has been superposed at a relatively
recent date, and which has not greatly modified the
FIG. 52. — Kurgan Skull from Ccrnikov, BeloiJts
agyptiacus (Sergi).
racial elements of the Mediterranean, though it has
somewhat cnanged those of Russia. Sure and un-
questionable Evidence of this is furnished by the
human heads from the kurgans and the old Russian
burial-places."
In examining and determining the cranial forms
which I found in *he Moscow Museum, I followed
the method of the zoologist, who, when visiting a fresh
region of the earth, and arranging the genera and
RUSSIA. 229
species and varieties of its fauna, adopts the existing
names of recognised forms, and determines the geo-
graphical distribution of animals. Among the forms
I examined I recognised forms I already knew as
belonging to the Mediterranean, the fine pentagonal
forms, ellipsoids and ovoids, with the same characters
they possess in the Mediterranean : I saw also the
secondary forms due to various migrations of peoples
1*IG. 53. — Kurgan Skull from Smolensk,
acutus (Sergi).
at the mo^t remote epochs, and I became convinced
that the first colonists of southern Russia came from /
the Mediterranean. The road they traversed must
have been the Pn>i><>ntis, by the Hlack Sea, and the
Chersonese. If the Mediterranean elements may be
found as far as the tumuli of the north — and I saw
some from near Lake Ladoga and St. Petersburg —
the fact may easily be explained when we think
230 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
of the slow infiltration and penetration of racial
elements, either by mixture with other stocks or
by the subjection -and displacement of peoples.
It may not be uninteresting here to refer to the
opinion of Bogdanof, who has had every opportunity
of examining the cranial types of the kurgans, and
has described them in many special memoirs. He
finds that the primitive population of Russia was
long-headed, and clearly distinct from the brachy-
cephalic population which came later, and that this
primitive population, instead of disappearing, became
mixed with the invaders, still preserving numerical
preponderance, as the proportions between dolicho-
cephals and brachycephals in different tumuli, as at
Cernikov, Tver, Novgorod, and elsewhere, clearly
shows. Moreover, he affirms that these dolicho-
cephalic skulls are not different from the so-called
Reihengraber types of Germany, nor from the ancient
Swedish skulls ; and I may add that neither are they
different, as I have many times found, from those of
the Mediterranean. Hence Bogdanof concluded, in
his special report to the International Congress of
Prehistoric Anthropology at Moscow, that the original
population ot Russia was dolichocephalic, with well-
formed, clear-cut forehead, not receding, and long face.
Since these Russian long-heads are also found in
other European lands, such as Austria, Germany,
Sweden, and probably Denmark, he thinks that they
are best called the primitive dolichocephalic and
leptoprosopic Europeans. He excludes, therefore, the
populations of the south, which he believes to be of
another origin. In this, as I have already said, he
errs, but he approaches the truth when he admits
that the so-called primitive Teutons, primitive Slavs,
RUSSIA. 231
primitive Danes, primitive Swiss, constitute a primitive
European population (Urenropder)* Doubtlos the
true Germans, Slavs, Danes, and Swiss are later and
not belonging to the prehistoric populations.
Bogdanofs principal conclusions concerning the
inhabitants of Russia agree with my examination of
the skulls collected from the kunrans and studied
FIG. 54. — Kurgan Skull from Moscow,
Ellipsoides africtu (Scrgi).
by the Russian anthropologist. They only differ in
this, that he excludes the prehistoric inhabitants of
southern Kuropc, while I consider that these, like
ihose of central and western as well as northern and
1 Cf. Ankiv fiir A nth., vol. xiv., 1882, xxvi. 1889, summary by
Siicda of Russian anthropology; Bogdanof, "Qucllc est la Race la
plus anciennc <le la Russic Ccniralc ? " Moscow International Congress,
1892.
232 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
eastern Europe, have a single origin in Africa. I also
find that primitive types prevail in the kurgans and
diminish in the Moscow cemeteries of the sixteenth
century. Of 1,160 skulls studied, in fact, I found
that among the primitive population 56.56 were of
the Mediterranean or Reihengraber type, and 43.43
per cent foreign, while in the Moscow cemeteries the
old population appeared diminished, being 45.58 per
cent., and the new arrivals were 54.61 per cent1
Bogdanof himself had written that the dolichocephalic
population gave way to the brachycephals.2
There can be no doubt that southern Russia
especially, like the whole of western Europe, received
its first inhabitants from Africa : the cranial types
remain to attest the common origin (Figs. 51-54).
1 Seigi, "Al Congresso di Mosca," Alti Soc. rom. Ant., vol. v.,
1898.
2 " Beschreibung von Schadeln aus alien Moskauer Bcgrabnisstatten,"
summary by Stieda, Archiv, tit., xiv., 1882.
C1IA1TER XII.
RACIAL MINGLING.
The Etnopean Pigmies — The Neolithic Brachycephals—The
End of the Diffusion ami the Nnv Invaders of Europe.
The European Pigmies. — If we may affirm the uni-
formity of the racial types in the populations of the
Mediterranean family within and without the great
basin, it must not be supposed that these types alone
constituted the populations I have rapidly sketched ;
in the midst of these are other types with physical
characters plainly revealing another stock, or even
other African stocks, which have mingled with the
stock whose history I have attempted to outline.
These stocks are inferior in the physical characters
they present, of little or no aesthetic beauty, and of
inferior development as regards cranial capacity and
stature. They constitute a secondary, I might say
accessory population, of little historical importance
in the development of Mediterranean civilisation and
the expansion of the chief stock.
Even this secondary population may be followed
in analysing the racial elements which have composed
the nations within and without the Mediterranean,
and it is their head forms, shown in the skulls, which
icvcal the characteristic differences separating them
from the dominating and directing stock. Attention
may specially be directed to a stock which some
234 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
years ago I discovered in the Mediterranean and in
Russia, of single origin but mixed with the families
of peoples already described, and also coming, as I
am led to believe, from Africa : I refer to the pigmy
microcephalic stock.1
In various parts of Italy I have found heads so
small, though normal in anatomical constitution, that
FlG. 55.— /Eneolithic Skull from near Volterra, Italy,
Sphcuoides latus (Sergi).
I have been obliged to call them microcephalic, like
others I have seen from Melanesia.2 I have seen
1 See "Varieta umane microccfaliche e pigmei d'Europa,''.50/'/£////M
Accad. medico, di Roma, xix., 1893; " Ueber die europaischen Pyg-
miien," Communication to Congress of Innsbriick, Corrcspondenz-Blatt
der Deutschen anthropol. Gescllschaft, n. IO, 1894. Cf. "I Pigmei
d' Europa," Nncn-a Antologia, Rome, 1893.
• See my classification in "Variela umane della Melanesia," Boll.
Afcad. medica di Roma, 1892; "-Le varieta umane, Principi e metodo
di classificazione," Alti Societil romana di AntropoJogia, vol. i., Rome,
; Specie e Varictb Umane, ft'/., 1900.
THE EUROPEAN PIGMIKS.
235
similar types from the kurgans and ancient burial-
places of Russia, and among the skulls which in the
Mediterranean pass under the name of Phoenician.
The types or shapes of these skulls are different, for
the most part, from those belonging to the great
stock, and they often present characters of inferiority
Fie. 56.— Eurafrican Skull from Abyssinia, Ellifsoides
idts (Sergi).
in their structure. Many, including all those I have
measured and consider to belong to the pigmy stock,
are inferior in cranial capacity to the Nigritoes, or
eastern pigmies.
The study of the living population in Italy, from
the point of view of stature, confirms the indications
derived from examination of the skulls as to the
236 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
existence of a pigmy population. I found that among
the male population at twenty years of age there were
1.63 per cent, individuals between 1.25 m. and 1.45 m.,
and 14.49 per cent, between 1.25 m. and 1.53 m.
Calculating together the male and female population,
considered as thirty millions, there would be in
absolute figures 978,000 male and female pigmies
between 1.2501. and 1.45 m, and 4,347,000 between
1.25 m. and 1.55 m., an enormous number for a popu-
lation of thirty millions.
The low stature, the structure of the head, various
external physical characters and peculiarities of the
skeleton of the face and its fleshy coverings, led me to
infer that in very ancient times there was an invasion
of pigmies from Africa into the Mediterranean, also
invading Russia and probably other European regions.
It must also be supposed that the external physical
characters have been modified by the long stay in
Europe, and by mingling with the tall and fine stock
from which hybrid forms would be derived.
The discovery of pigmies in neolithic graves of
Switzerland confirmed my opinion as to their origin,
more especially as in these graves were found orna-
ments formed of shells of Mediterranean origin, and
as the head type in these Swiss pigmies resembled
some at least (for the Swiss pigmies were few in
number) that I had studied among the pigmies of the
Mediterranean and Russia.1 Kollmann, on the other
hand, refuses to accept an African invasion, and
regards the pigmies as earlier than the tall race,
which was derived from them — a theory which I
1 Cf. Kollmnnii, "Das Schwcizcrhiltl l>ei Schaflfhausen uml Py.i;m;ieii
in Europn," Zl. /. Eth., 1894; Crania Helvetica Antiijita, (it., pp.
lS-20.
THE NEOLITHIC BRACHYCEPHALS. 237
cannot regard as possible. Virchow and Schmidt,
again, believe that they only represent individual
variations, and not a separate stock or racial variety.1
These two anthropologists regard the pigmies as indi-
vidual variations, because they believe that a people
constitutes a race and not a composition of elements
of different races — a common error among anthro-
pologists, though this is not the place to demonstrate
it.2
The geographical distribution of these pigmies
further confirms the belief in their African origin;
they must have mixed with the tall stock and
followed it in its migrations through Europe, just as
they have formed an inferior stratum of the Mediter-
ranean population. In Italy they are especially
common in the southern provinces and in the islands
of Sicily and Sardinia, while they are much less
frequently found in the Po valley and in Piedmont,
where, indeed, there seem to be almost none.
Of other minglings, not numerous, it is true, there
is no need to speak here. They seem to show, how-
ever, that even at very remote epochs men, either1
individually or in more or less numerous bodies, have
moved from their places of origin and mingled withy
other peoples.
The Neolithic Brachycephals. — In reading Salmon's
fine study of the neolithic skulls of Gaul, we meet
with interesting statistics of the cranial types ; of
688 neolithic skulls examined, 397 are dolicho-
cephalic, 145 mcsocephalic, and 146 brachycephalic,
1 Virchow, festsitzung der Btr'.in GeselUchaft Verhandlungtn, ijth
1894; Schmidt, d'/wiit, No. 4, 1895.
* Cf. my note, " Intorno ai Tiymci d' Eurupa," Att. Soc. rotn. di
.-////., vol. ii., 1895; ilso Sfffie e I'ariet,) ( *///.;//<•, 1900.
238 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
It, according to my criterion, we unite the dolicho-
cephalic and mesocephalic, they constitute 78.8 per
cent, of the whole, and the brachycephalic 21.2 per
cent.
These brachycephals are found not only in the
neolithic graves of France ; they are also found in
Italy. In the Buca della Fate of Monte Tignoso,
FIG. 57. — Eurafrican Skull from Abyssinia, EliipsoiJes
cuntattts (Scrgi).
near Livorno, many years ago, a neolithic grave
yielded several human skeletons; two skulls only
were preserved, and these are now to be found in the
Rome Museum of Anthropology; one of them is
brachycephalic of cuneiform type. Near Volterra
also a similar grave has yielded similar skulls, to be
found in the Rome Museum (Fig. 55). Prehistoric
THE NEOLITHIC BRACIIYCEPHALS.
239
Sicily, of the first Sicul period, according to Orsi's
classification, shows similar cuneiform brachyccphalic
skulls.
How are we to interpret these facts ?
In another work1 I have shown how the pacific
infiltration of new elements reaching Europe from
Asia may explain the presence of such human types,
before the great invasions which so greatly changed
FlG. 58.— Eurafrican Skull from Abyssinia,
Ptntagonoide* acutus (Sergi).
the anthropological face of Europe. I still maintain
the same opinion in spite of some objections. These
new racial elements in no respect changed the customs
of the neolithic population with which they mixed ; the
immigrants accepted those customs entirely, including
those which touch the deepest feelings, those referring
to burial ; that is to say that they adopted inhumation.
1 Arii t Ilalid, pp. 130 et teq.
240 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Nothing new is indeed seen, except here and there
the presence of copper objects.
This has, with justice, led to the belief that the
presence of the brachyccphals is confined to the close
of the neolithic period and the introduction of copper;
in Italy this period is termed cencolitJiic, that is to say,
the period of copper and polished stone together.
To this period are ascribed the graves of Cantalupo,
Monte Tignoso, Volterra, and others similar ; we are
already at the dawn of the age of metals.1 In France
it is difficult to discern the epochs so distinctly, but,
doubtless, here also, as in Italy, the neolithic brachy-
cephals must have arrived in the last or aeneolithic
period.
As regards the brachycephals with cuneiform
skulls, in the neolithic graves of Sicily, I have shown
that they are of Asiatic type, their arrival being due
to the varied relations of Sicily with the eastern
Mediterranean in prehistoric times, as clearly wit-
nessed by the 'presence of objects of pre- Phoenician
character.2 This is not, however, the opinion of
Professor Keane, who in his very important recent
work believes it may be admitted that some of
the European brachycephals arrived from Africa
together with the dolichocephals.3 He seeks to
justify this opinion by the existence of certain
brachy cephalic types found by Collignon in the
present population of the island of Gerba and in
Tunis. I have, however, already pointed out that
1 See Colini, "II scpolcrelo di Remcilcllo e il periodo eneolitico in
Italia," Bolletlinodi Paletiiologfa Ilaliana, 1899-1900.
* " Crani preistorici della Sicilia," Alt. Soc. rom. Antrof., vol. vi. ,
i., 1899.
3 Man Past and Piestnf, cit. , pp. 454 el teq.
THE END OF THE DIFFUSION, ETC. 2J(l
the present state of a population which has been
mixed during a long series of historical periods,
cannot, except in special cases, lead us to any safe con-
clusions regarding the primitive population. More-
over, the Roknia skulls, although possessing a
brachycephalic index, belong to known Mediter-
ranean types, as I have previously stated (Chapter
VI.)
We may be perfectly assured that the truly brachy-
cephalic types of Italy, Spain, and France are of
Asiatic origin, some arriving from the cast by sea, /
like those of Sicily, others coming by land, either
from the cast or north, like the Lapps; they preceded
the violent invasions which also came by land. Africa,
in its homogeneous population, which constitutes a
Eurafrican variety, has never possessed cuneiform
and spheroidal brachyccphals as indigenous elements.
The end of the diffusion, aiui the new invaders of
Europe. — The stock, originating in Africa, which I
call Mediterranean, because in the Mediterranean it
developed its aptitudes and civilisations, contiibuted
without doubt, from primitive times till the late
quaternary period, to the population of the whole
Mediterranean and of many other regions of Europe,
as I have shown in the preceding pages. Its
evident traces arc found in the dolmens and caves
of France, in the Long Barrows of Great Britain, at
Casa da Moura and Mugcm in the Iberian peninsula,
in the neolithic graves of Switzerland, in many
tumuli in Russia, and even as far as the Canaries.
All these have yielded typical skulls, showing
the same characters found in the Mediterranean
populations, whether Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian, or
Egyptian, and allied to those of East Africa. More-
16
242
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
over, there still exist whole Mediterranean popula-
tions which, in spite of mingling with other peoples
and of historical vicissitudes, still preserve their
primitive racial elements.
Towards the end of the neolithic period, and after
the first and pacific appearance of the Asiatic tribes
which insinuated themselves in the midst of the early
inhabitants, a great anthropological change took place
FIG. 59. — Scandinavian Skull of Viking type. Eurafrican
species, Pentagonoidcs acuttis (Earth).
in Europe, affecting even the Mediterranean, although
in a slight degree. A new and different stock, strong
and numerous, advanced from the east, and. spread
through the centre, west, and south of Europe, over-
flowing the primitive stock, in many regions succeed-
ing in displacing it, in others in subjugating it This
stock, being of Asiatic origin, I call Eurasiatic, on
account of its diffusion in Asia, its place of origin,
THE END OF THE DIFFUSION, ETC 2.J3
and in Europe, where it succeeded in dominating the
entire population.
This new stock is, by its physical characters, visible
and distinguishable in English burial-places, espe-
cially the Round Barrows, as has been shown by
Thurnam and other English anthropologists ; it is
also seen in France, whence it seems to have passed
Fir.. Go.— Dolicho-cili|is(iid face, Mummy of Ramses II.
Eurafrican species (Maspero).
over to the British Isles. In France, the_£ellsr a
branch of the new stock, drove back the Iberian
tribcs/which still continued to live beyond the
Garonne up to the epoch of Cro-Magnon, while other
Celtic fractions penetrated Spain, and others ad-
vanced into the valley of the Rhone and mixed
with the Iberians and Ligurians. In Savoy and in
Switzerland they supplanted the primitive popula-
244 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
tion, and achieved nearly as much in the Po valley,
confining the primitive Ligurian inhabitants within
the present narrow region of Liguria at the foot of
the Apennines.
At the same time these Asiatic invaders, afterwards
receiving the racial names of Germans and Slavs,
spread into Germany, Bohemia, the valley of the
Danube, extending into the Balkan peninsula, and
as far as Asia Minor. It was at this period that
Scandinavia was peopled, for the primitive inhabitants
of the European continent were driven towards the
north by the new invaders, reaching the Baltic Sea,
and thence the Scandinavian peninsula. Here the
remains of the ancient stock of African origin are
very numerous, even more so than in northern Ger-
many. Here also they acquired a special physiog-
nomy well known to-day as peculiar to the Swedish
and Norwegian populations.
Thus was introduced an almost general change in
the races of Western and Central Europe, England,
France, Southern Germany, Switzerland, and Russia,
while a partial change took place in the Mediter-
ranean regions of Europe. Where the new stock met
with more resistance only a few sporadic elements
were able to find admission ; where it found le?s it
mixed with or completely supplanted the old popula-
tion.
Italy, as I have said, except in the Po valley,
remained as in primitive times, few new elements
being introduced into its stock ; the population of
the centre, the south, and the islands, although con-
taining elements of Asiatic origin, was not changed
because the elements that prevailed are still primitive,
a composition of the various branches — Iberian and
Till: l.NI) OF THE DIlllMnN, 1 2.\$
Ligurian, Pclasgian and Libyan — of the African or
Mediterranean stock. The Iberian peninsula may
also boast that its old stock is preponderant In
Greece and Asia Minor the concourse of foreign
elements was much greater, while Egypt, in spite of
r'u;. Gi.— Duliclin -cllip.-xml face, Micsa of Uganda.
Kurafrican species (Stanley).
the afflux of many peoples, still preserves much of its
old stock. The rest of Africa has undergone mixture,
even very recently, but its new elements arc mostly
of Arabian and very seldom of Asiatic origin.
lint even when the racial physiognomy has been
246 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
totally changed, the ancient Mediterranean stock has
not altogether disappeared. English anthropolo-
gists note it as still existing in their country,1 and
so also the French. In Russia I have observed traces
of the Mediterranean race among the numerous and
varied stocks composing the population, as also I
have been able to recognise it in the skulls from the
kurgans and the cemeteries of recent historical times.
In Scandinavia, as before pointed out, the remains of
the ancient stock are most numerous of all.
1 In a recent book (John Rhys and David Brynnior Jones, The
Welsh People, 1900) the African origin of the primitive population of
Great Britain has been confirmed. It is here shown that the Neo-
Cellic language preserves in its syntax the Hamitic and especially
Egyptian type (pp. 23 et seq., 34, 74). In an appendix (B), written by
Morris Jones ("Pre- Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic"), the affinity of
Hamitic syntax to the Neo-Celtic is more particularly demonstrated,
and this conclusion reached : "And if iheie is evidence that this is so
—if we find, on comparison, that Neo-Celtic syntax agrees with
Hamitic on almost every point where it differs from Aryan — we have the
linguistic complement of the anthropological evidence, and the strongest
corroboration of the theory of the kinship of the early inhabitants of
Britain to the North African white race " (p. 6lS).
CHAPTER XIII.
THE rilVSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN AND ALLIED STOCKS.
General Physical Characters— The Euraftican Species— The
Eut astatic Species.
General Physical Characters. — It will be seen how in
investigating the population of the "Mediterranean I
have been gradually led to extend my researches
beyond that region, and to obtain wider results. New
analyses have revealed the racial relationships not
only of many African populations still inhabiting the
land of their origin, but also of many European
populations which have hithcriajEscaped comparative
analysis, or arc supposed to belong to other human
stocks.
It is a necessity of method for every naturalist to
leave the geographical region which he is studying in
order to understand the characters of the animal and
vegetable species distributed in that region; so also
for the anthropologist when investigating a human
stock or variety. Like any other naturalist, the
anthropologist must seek for the geographical dis-
tribution of a species, its variations, the divergencies
met in different branches or varieties ; nor must he
be led astray 'by some divergent character, which
might suggest some other than its true and natural
248
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
origin, or some affinity which is only due to secondary
characters.
It is this difficulty that we have to meet, as well
as the fact that these inductions conflict with the
suppositions of many anthropologists who have
studied races and peoples by methods which I cannot
regard as natural methods, as, for instance, by means
of the external cutaneous characters, or by linguistic
or by historical methods, which last methods espe-
cially can never yield acceptable results in physical
FIG. 62. — Ovoid face, Buharin from Nubia.
Kurafrican species (Scrgi).
anthropology. I have studied, as a naturalist and by
natural methods, the Mediterranean stock and those
united with it by common physical origin. I will
briefly set forth the conclusions I have reached as
regards physical characters.
In another work1 I have described at length those
African populations which, by the language which
many of them speak or have spoken, are called
Hamitic; these mingle with the African Mcditer-
1 Africa, cap. x. and xx.
GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS 249
iniican populations, described in this work, which
belong to the stock that for some time past I have
called Mediterranean. The area of geographical
distribution of these African populations is immense,
for it reaches from the Red Sea to the Atlantic, from
the equator, and even beyond the equator, to the
Mediterranean. In this vast area we find, when we
exclude racial mixtures, that the physical characters
of the skeleton, as regards head and face, are uniform,
Fir.. 63. — Ovoid face, Kgypt. Eun-Jiican
species (Scrjji).
but that the physical characters of the skin and
intermediate parts, that is to say the development
and form of the soft parts, vary. This uniformity of
the cranio-facial skeletal characters, which I consider
the guiding thread in anthropological research, has
led me to regard as a single human stock all the
varieties distributed in the area already mentioned.
In the varying cutaneous coloration I see an effect
of temperature, of climate, of alimentation, and of the
manner of life.
250
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Now, to come to the Mediterranean stock, I must
make the same distinction of physical characters, that
is to say, external, internal, and intermediate. As
I have already described it elsewhere, this stock in
FlG. 64. — Long quadrangular face, Shoan.
Eurafrican species (Traversi).
its external characters is a brown human variety,
neither white nor negroid, but pure in its elements,
that is to say not a product of the mixture of Whites
with Negroes or negroid peoples. It is generally
M.M-.KAI. PHYSICAL CHARACTKKS.
251
believed that the brown type is derived by mixture,
and it is placed among varieties of the White race,
the Mediterranean peoples being thus made a branch
of that race. This scarcely seems to me exact, for
from the behaviour of the external characters in our
Mediterranean variety they appear to be of primitive
Fir.. 65. — PfBtftgMUd face, a Ci.i'l.i. EuraCrican
s|>ccics (Tra\xr*i).
formation, since they arc constant within the limits of
the populations included under this variety. These
external characters are the brown colour of the skin,
eyes (chestnut or black iris), hair, beard, and the hair
on other parts of the body.
If we consider the other characters as a whole, we
find that the body is well formed and proportioned,
252 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
of medium stature, oscillating between m. 1.60 and
in. 1.70, the nose is either leptorhine or mcsorhine
(i'e., more or less narrow), the apertures of the eyes
horizontal and rather large, the lips sometimes thin
and sometimes a little thick and fleshy, the ears
standing away from the head, the forehead nearer
the vertical than receding, and smooth, often short,
the cheek-bones not high nor too distant from each
other, the face not flattened, of oval and ellipsoidal
•contour, the neck long and rounded ; in face and
look and facial gesture there is an expression of
grace, vivacity, and aesthetic beauty. In the mascu-
line sex there is well-defined muscularity, the tendency
to undue fleshiness being rare ; in the women, the
secondary sexual characters, the breasts and hips, are
well developed.
It is the cranial and facial forms that lead us to
accept the consanguinity of the African Hamites, of
red-brown and black colour, with the Mediterranean
peoples ; the 'same characters reveal the consan-
guinity of the primitive inhabitants of Europe, and
of their remains in various regions and among
various peoples, with the populations of the Mediter-
ranean, and henc,e also with the Hamites of Africa.
For some time past I have reached the conclusion
that the so-called Reihcngraber type of the Germans
and the Viking type of the Scandinavians, being
identical in character with the Mediterranean and
Hamitic types, had the same African origin ; the
populations with these cranial and facial forms in the
north of Europe arc, as I have shown, of African
origin, separate branches of the same trunk.
The objections to be made to these conclusions are
chiefly two : that these Germanic and Scandinavian
GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.
253
peoples of long skulls and oval faces arc blonds in
hair and beard, with white skins and blue eyes ; anJ
that they are, moreover, of higher stature than the
Mediterranean brunets. This latter objection has
been brought forward by Kcanc.
Flo. 65.— Ellipsoid face, Morocco
species (Monbard).
Eurnfrican
Now, as regards coloration, we may admit, as I have
already admitted, as regards the difference between
the Mediterranean people and those of east and
equatorial Africa, that it is the result of many ex-
ternal conditions. Temperature is one, and perhaps
the chief, of these conditions; for when we consider
254 TIIE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
the residence ol a population during many thousand
years — that is, from the quaternary epoch to the
neolithic and onwards — in a climate where thermal
action is weak, we must agree that a kind of albinism
would be produced, and hence a decoloration of pig-
ment in all parts of the body, especially in the skin
and its appendages. This phenomenon is general
in the formation of human races, and gives them
characters which, once acquired, may be considered
constant, even with a change of locality. To-day, in
fact, we see brunets and blonds mixed in various
climates, without losing the hereditary colour they
have acquired.
| We may therefore conclude that as residence under
the equator has produced the red-brown and black
coloration of the stock, and residence in the Medi-
terranean the brown colour, so northern Europe has
given origin to the white skin, blond hair, and blue
or grey eyes. I believe we may consider this a
beautiful example of the formation and variation of
external characters among a section of the human
race which from time immemorial has been diffused
by migrations between the equator and the arctic
circle, and has focmed its external characters accord-
ing to the variations of latitude and the concomitant
external conditions.
The objection regarding the stature of the Ger-
manic or Scandinavian-European type scarcely
appears to me to be stronger. In Scandinavia,
according to the observations of Hultkrantz and
Arbo, only a part of the population presents a
very high stature with respect to other European
regions, the average being m. 1.69, while the popula-
tion of the British Isles exceeds in stature that of
GENERAL PHYSICAL CHARACTERS.
Sweden and Norway. Moreover, we find here and
therein Kuropc various groups of populations above
the average stature, as in Bosnia, and in Italy in
Veneto and Garfagnana, and I have been able to
observe, though not in compact groups, gigantic
individuals in the population of Puglia, of Catania,
and also of Latium. Nor is that all; in east Africa,
among the Gallas and Somalis, may be found peoples,
like the Dinkas, of stature higher than m. i./o and
i.8a
Ripley explains the greater stature of English and
some other peoples as partly due to advantageous ex-
ternal conditions, that is as a product of the social
environment.1 I do not dissent from this opinion,
but I believe that the sociological factor alone is not
sufficient for the formation of stature ; we have to
take into consideration other biological conditions,
external and internal, which it would here be out of
place to discuss.
Certainly stature is a character which cannot be
passed over in the classification of races; but it is not
a primary character which can destroy the value of
other characters which already possess an unques-
tionable importance; it can only serve as a means
of sub-dividing human races and sub-races, as in the
present case.
Thus we may conclude that when we observe
the peoples of various racial names belonging to
the Mediterranean stock, including both those in the
African regions, called Hamitic, and those in the
north, we sec a large part of mankind exhibiting
constant and persistent characters, from the late
tliiatcrnary period to the neolithic period, and from
1 Rij.lcy, The Races of Europe, p. So.
256
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
that on to modern times. These characters arc those
of the skull and the face.
It is not necessary to describe these characters
further ; but it may be useful to summarise them.
Throughout this immense stock, from the equator
in Africa to the Arctic circle in Scandinavia, we have
found four characteristic and constant cranial forms,
FIG. 67. — Long quadrangular face, Sicily.
Eurafrican species (Mantia).
always found together in every region and in every
clime, with whatever variations in external characters;
these are the pentagonal (Pentagonoides\ ellipsoidal
(Ellipsoides)> ovoid (Ovoides\ and the arrow-shaped
{Beloides). These four forms represent four cranial
varieties, each with a series of variations which con-
stitute sub-varieties or sub-forms, corresponding to
THE EURAFRICAN SPECIES. 257
the type to which they belong, and which are dis-
tributed in different proportions in the groups of
populations.
Together with the cranium and its forms, we have
to consider the face, both as a whole and in its various
parts. In a special study I have been able to show
that the face in its outlines assumes forms analogous
to those of the skull as seen from above (i.e., in the
norina verticalis). Ellipsoidal, ovoid, triangular, and
FIG. 68. — KUipsnid face, Sardinia, Iialy.
Kurafrican species (Sergi).
p.-uallelogrammatic forms are common to the whole
Mediterranean stock, and these iforms are associated
with the cranial forms distinctive of the stock.1
The Eurafrican Species. — The important question
arises as to what these cranial and facial forms which
we have thus found so common in the great basin, as
well as in the peoples of northern Africa and northern
Kurope, really represent. I have said that they
1 See my Specie e I'ariela I'maiif, cap. ix. and Appendix II ; also
Afr.ca, c.i p. \\.
'7
258 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
present themselves like the variations of a well
determined zoological species, for these varieties
are constant and persistent, always associated
together in the stock in which they appear, and
they have thc-ir own particular variations, corre-
sponding to sub-forms or, as I term them, sub-
varieties. In other human families 1 have found
other variations, equally common in the groups and
branches into which they are divided, and equally
mixed in the formation of each branch of the family.
On account of the dissimilar architecture which these
other cranial forms present with those of the face, it is
impossible to admit that they are of the same species
as those belonging to the Mediterranean groups.
This comparison and a corresponding series of
variations have convinced me that this human family,
including so many groups of peoples between the
equator and the north of Europe, is really a
zoological species.
This human species, with cranial and facial
characters thus well determined, I call Eurafrican;1
and this because, having had its origin in Africa,
where it is still represented by many peoples, it has
been diffused from prehistoric times in Europe, and
has formed the basis of the most primitive population.
This Eurafrican species is not Brinton's race, nor
Keane's Caucasian race, for it contains none of the
racial elements with cephalic forms, by some termed
brachycephalic, which, according to my classifica-
tion, are cuneiform, spheroidal, and platycephalic;
these, I consider, belong to another human species.
My Eurafrican species has absolute uniformity of
cephalic and facial forms throughout its geographical
1 Africa, cap. xx. ; Arii e Italici, cap. ix.
THE EURAFRICAN SPECIES. 259
distribution, which is very wide, and beneath what-
ever colour of skin and hair.
Practically, we may consider the cranial type
single, for the four variations are always found
together, and we may divide the whole Eurafrican
species into races according to the colour of the
skin. As I have already pointed out, we have to
admit that the variations in pigmentation have taken
place in the long course of ages through the influence
of environmental conditions ; thus, independently of
bony variations, races have naturally been formed.
The Eurafrican species thus falls into three races : the
African, with red-brown and black pigmentation ;
the Merfiffrnwtan^of brunet complexion, inhabiting
the great basin including part of northern Africa,
formerly occupying Asia Minor, the three great
peninsulas of Europe, the Mediterranean islands, and
the Canaries, as well as a portion of western, central,
and eastern Europe, now difficult to determine ;
finally, a Nordic race, of blond skin and hair, blue or
grey eyes, most numerously represented in Scandi-
navia, north Germany and England.
Thus the Mediterranean stock is a race or variety
of the Eurafrican species, and differs from the two
other varieties chiefly in colour. As I have already
indicated, it is not confined to the limits of the
Mediterranean, for to-day populations with the
identical characters of the stock may be found else-
where in Europe, as in Great Britain. The varied
movements of peoples have caused mingling of the
two varieties, Mediterranean and Nordic, the brown
and the white, and their descendants show corre-
spondingly mixed coloration of the eyes, hair, and
skin.
in some
diffused,
25O THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Other variations have been produced
regions of Europe where the species is
variations which may be called regional or local,
both in stature, in muscular and adipose development,
and in facial physiognomy. It is easy to understand
how certain types in the population of Great Britain,
FlG. 69. — Dolicho-ellipsoid face, Italy.
Euralrican species (Sergi).
observed by Beddoe, have thus been formed.1 Such
variations may constitute sub-races, but in general it
is enough to say that they constitute the physiognomy
of a population, for it is important to note that this
phenomenon is dependent on external physical as
well as sociological conditions, which may lead into
1 The Races of Britain, 1885.
THK KUKAIKK AN SPKCIES.
26l
error those who think they distinguish race in a
people's physiognomy.
The results I have obtained in the investigation of
the physical characters of the Mediterranean stock
have been logically and rigorously drawn from the
zoological method I have adopted. By means of a
single character, constant and persistent, we have
been able to re-unite many populations which
Fio. 70. — Ovoid face, Italy. Eurafrican
species (Sergi).
appeared unlike in racial name and in external
physical characters ; thus we have reconstituted the
species. The introduction of another character, i.e.
pigmentation, enables us to make a natural division
into races ; while a final sub-division is made by
means of new characters acquired in the different
regions inhabited by the same species.1
1 Cf. Ripley, The Ractt of Europe^ pp. 467 et set/., whcie the same
conclusions seem to be accepted, at least in part.
262
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
T/ie Eurasiatic Species. — The anthropological unity
of Europe, existing from the late quaternary epoch
and greatly increased during neolithic times, was
broken, at first peacefully and to but a slight extent,
and afterwards violently, by a new species coming
from Asia. As we have already found, at the end of
the neolithic epoch the burial-places reveal elements
FIG. 71.— Triangular face. Eurafrican
species (Sergi).
foreign to the Eurafrican species, the so-called French
neolithic brachycephals. These penetrated, slowly
and sporadically, as far as Italy, peacefully, we may
suppose, for they produced no change in neolithic
customs, and they accepted the burial custom of
inhumation. But then. they began to come in larger
and hence more turbulent bodies, and caused many
changes both in the anthropological distribution of
TI1K KUKASIATIC Sl'ECli 263
populations and in customs. These invaders were'
savages, inferior to the neolithic Europeans, whose
civilisation they in large part destroyed, re-plunging
Europe into barbarism, also introducing the new burial/
custom of cremation, together with other customs
which it is not necessary to investigate here, ancj
transforming the existing languages into their own,
which was a flexional language. To-day this new \
anthropological family, which also constitutes a
zoological unit, bears three chief names, indicating
three characteristic linguistic groups — that is to say,
Celts. Germans, and Slays.
The physical characters of the new people arc
visible in their cranial and facial forms, which are
those of the neolithic brachycephals. In various
writings I have dealt with this people; l it is sufficient
to mention here that the skull shows four primary
forms: cuboid, cuneiform or sphenoid, spheroid, and
platycephalic, all corresponding to broad, brachy-
cephalic skulls, and not reducible to Eurafrican forms.
According to my criterion, these forms are varieties
of an anthropological species, which must be regarded
as arising in Asia, where we may suppose it had its
cradle. I term it the Eurasiatic species, because,
since the invasions just mentioned, it has occupied
a large part of Europe. Others, with Linnzeus, have
termed these Asiatics Homo Alpinns; it seems to me
erroneous, however, to preserve this name, for these
people are not only found in the Alps but they are
also found in Germany and France, and they occupy
the plains of Russia, that is to say a great part of
Central Europe from cast to west, as well as the
valley of the Po, which is anything but Alpine,
1 See, e.g. , Specie e Varied Umane.
264
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
I am convinced that this Eurasiatic species is of
Asiatic origin; since Ujfalvy has found in the Hindu-
Kusch the same types that are found in Europe;1
and since their cephalic forms are all Asiatic, and
are found not only among the so-called Aryans of
FIG. 72 — Dolicho-ovoid face, German, Reihengriilicr type.
Eurafrican species (Von Holder).
the Hindu-Kusch, but among the Mongols and others.
I am also convinced that this Eurasiatic species has
yielded those populations- called Aryan, and to-day
\ represented by three chief branches, the Celts, the
1 L*s Aryem au nord et au sud de P f/imioti- /Conch, Paris, 1896;
Kipley, Kates of Europe, pp. 470 et sftj.
TIIK EURASIA! 1C SPKCI 265
Germans, and the Slavs; while the populations, out-
side these three branches, which have been called
Aryan on linguistic grounds, i.e., the Latins,
Hellenes, and Germans of the Reihcngrabcr type,
are not Aryans, though Aryaniscd in language. I
am, finally, convinced that these Aryans when they
invaded Europe were savages, very inferior in
civilisation to the neolithic Eurafricans, and that
hence they were not the importers of a new and
superior civilisation, as has been stated by those who
were in ignorance of the real facts.
This is not the place to speak at length of the
Kurasiatics; on another occasion I propose to deal
with their physical characters and their primitive
civilisation.
CHAPTER XIV.
MEDITERRANEAN CIVILISATION AND ITS DIFFUSION
IN EUROPE.
Architecture of Tombs — Culture — Writing — Language.
Architecture of Tombs. — The burial customs of ancient
and modern peoples not only present a curious study,
but they furnish indications of the ideas and feel-
ings which peoples have cherished regarding human
existence. There are two forms of burial which may
be said to be universal: the preservation of the dead
by various methods, and their destruction by fire or
other means. It often happens that a burial custom
may serve to indicate a stock; sometimes it supplies
important evidence of the presence or dominance of
some other stock, and at times it is difficult to dis-
tinguish the effects of the mixture ot stocks. In the
Mediterranean stock the primitive funeral custom,
preserved unchanged in many regions, is the preserva-
tion of \human remains by inhumation; the tomb, in
its architecture, shows special features peculiar to this
stock, in all the regions where it is diffused and
established, although apparently there are differences
in the external constructions of the graves which at
first sight would give the impression of varying
origin.
The dominant feature in the tombs of the Mediter-
ranean stock is to be found in the fact that the dead
ARCHITECTURE OF TOMBS. 267
were deposited in more or less spacious chambers,
whether natural, like grottoes and caves, or artificial,
and in the further fact — which seems, but is not,
accessory — that the tombs emerged above the surface
and assumed a peculiar form. The grotto or cave,
if natural, is found in mountains; ifartificial.it may
either be in mountains or beneath the surface in level
country, but in the latter case an artificial mound of
earth or stones, or both mixed, may be raised over it
Flfl. 73. — Dolichocephalic Frenchmen of Dordognc. Eurafric.in
species (Collignon).
The grottoes may contain more than one individual,
even several families, and the corpses may be deposited
there at different periods.
Sometimes, however, it is not possible to excavate
artificial grottoes on account of the nature of the soil,
and then they arc constructed with huge stones
according to the greater or less facilities possessed,
and the more or less favourable conditions of the
district A subterranean grotto may thus be con-
structed with stones, above or beneath the soil, and
268 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
possessing pillars to support the artificial roof. If
over these constructions earth is piled and a mound
raised, we have tumuli, long or circular, with a cone
or rounded, or we have dolmens, which are chambers
covered by great slabs of stone, and we have more
perfect constructions made with worked stones.
Now any one who, in the light of this primitive
conception, considers the ancient burying-places from
Asia Minor to Egypt, from Libya to the Atlantic,
from Greece to Italy and its islands, from the Iberian
peninsula to Great Britain, in Central Europe and
in Russia, will find throughout the apparent diver-
sity of architecture the same essential feature: the
chambered tomb (of varying size) in which the corpse
lies, without being covered by earth.
In the Ligurian Riviera, the Ligurians are buried
in natural chambers, as also in Vczere in France
where is found that branch of the Mediterranean
family called Cro-Magnon from the cave in which
their ancient remains were found. This cave, it is
known, with others, including those with Ligurian
remains, are probably of quaternary age. In the
Iberian peninsula natural grottoes are employed as
graves, while artificial grottoes are also excavated
beneath the surface, similar to those at Syracuse and
Palermo in Sicily. In the Balearic Islands chambered
tombs are found beneath the surface, and are more
complex in their internal construction, as Cartailhac
has shown ; while at Cyprus Ohnefalsch-Richter has
discovered some of the same type as those of the
Siculi and Iberians. Throughout Northern Africa are
found dolmens and sepulchral tumuli like those of
France, Britain, and Corsica, and in Russia the early
kunrans have the same character.
ARCHITECTURE OF TOMBS. 269
The most artistic tombs arc found in Asia Minor,
ulu-rc they arc excavated in the mountains; a I
celebrated example is that in Lydia described by
Herodotus, the tomb of Alyattcs, which must have
been an artistic pyramid. Greece has the treasure of
Atreus in Myccnas, Sardinia its numerous monuments,
regarded as mysterious, and Egypt has its pyramids,
the grandest sepulchral tumuli which a people has
ever erected. To a careful observer the interior of
a pyramid, as a sepulchre, is not different from
a British tumulus, or from a Russian kurgan, or
from the nurags or the dolmens or the artificial
grottoes of Spain and Sicily; the differences arc
according as there is more or less subterranean space,
as the art is rough and primitive or more advanced
and perfected. The exterior, it is fairly obvious, is
different; but a tumulus is a pyramid in embryo, and
the pyramid is a tumulus in its most magnificently
colossal form; it is, moreover, well known that the
pyramids developed out of more modest modes of
burial. If this were the proper place for such an
exposition, I could show that the Etruscan chambered
tomb belongs to the same type as the Egyptian
pyramids and the tumuli, and that the paintings and
scenes from real life in the Etruscan tombs arc
comparable to those of the pyramids.
Thus, wherever the Mediterranean stock established
itself, it preserve.! its primitive burial custom of in-
humation and the characteristic architecture of the
chambered tomb ; the varying exterior which renders
the tombs of some regions different, depends on local
conditions, more especially the nature of the soil, and
also on the special circumstances of each particular
branch of the common stock, and the various con-
2/0 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
dition of development of its civilisation and political
power, the influences which it had undergone in
contact with other nations. When, later on, various
branches of the Mediterranean stock were conquered
by that Eurasiatic stock which has been called proto-
Celtic, or by some other Eurasiatic branch; or when
the new stock only came into relation with the Medi-
FlG. 74. — Islander of Lewis (Hebrides), Northern Race.
Eurafrican species (Bed doe).
terranean stock, the influences were reciprocal and
a noteworthy phenomenon may be observed. The
conquerors, as may be seen in the English tumuli,
adopted the funeral custom existing among the con-
quered, the tumuli and the dolmens, but to some
extent they at the same time introduced crema-
tion. Where the contact of the two stocks was
effected without violence each preserved its own
ARCHITECTURE OF TOMBS.
271
custom ; in the terramare of the Po cremation is
practised by the inhabitants, and the tombs are of
very poor character, while in the same valley of the
Po the Ligurians, where they still exist, preserved the
burial type of the stock to which they belonged,
adopting cremation also, perhaps from the Eurasiatic
FIG. 75. — Anglian type, common in north and north-east of
England. Eurafrican specie*, Northern Race (Beddoe).
peoples.1 But in the more advanced stage of the
bronze age in Italy, as at Villanova, where the same
type of civilisation is found, cremation is the accepted
funeral rite. These sepulchres are attributed to the
Umbrians or to the Italic!, typically considered,
1 Not from Italic influences, as supposed by Pigorini, " I Lipuri nelle
toml* dclla prima eta del ferro di Golasecca," A(tad. Lined, Rome,
1*94
272
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
both by Pigorini, who believes that these Italic! are
the people of the terrainare, and by Brizio, who
regards them as Indo- Europeans from beyond the
Alps. On my part, having shown the unity of the
FIG. 76. — Englishwoman of Plymouth (Devon).
Eurafrican species (Bediloe).
Mediterranean stock, and hence the filiation of the
Italici to that stock, I believe that at that rather late
epoch, this people, together with the importation of
bronze, had also undergone the influences of the new
CULTURE. 2/3
civilisation as well as of the new burial customs. The
same thing had happened also in Greece.
These sepulchral monuments, therefore — tumuli,
dolmens, pyramids, nurags, the constructions of the
Balearic Islands and those of Pantcllaria, the natural
and artificial grottoes of the Mediterranean region —
contain the bones of the Mediterranean stock which,
from the early days during which it peopled the
Mediterranean and a large part of Europe, dominated
the sea and the land during so long a period.
Culture. — Any one who, while investigating Euro-
pean origins, encounters that epoch which French
ethnologists have called, with De Mortillet, Magda-
lenian — an epoch which may be considered as the
last European palaeolithic period — marvels to find
artistic products which are wonderful for their realism
and their technical execution. The bear of the grotto
of Massat, near Toulouse, the mammoth of La
Madeleine, the reindeer of the grotto of Thayingen,
near Lake Constance, the horses, human figures,
bisons, and other animals carved in bone and horn,
in large part found in Dordogne, and finally the
carvings in relief found by Piette at Brassempouy
and Mas-d'Azil, all show clearly the character of the
ait at this period, so ancient and so remote from
modern civilisation.1
In my opinion, as already expressed elsewhere,2
these prehistoric artists who possessed such developed
artistic feelings arc the precursors of the historical
1 Cf. Wilson, " Prehistoric Art ; ..r, the Origin of Art as manifested
in the work of Prehistoric Man," Ktforl of Lr.S. National .Musduit for
/.?</>, Washing'on, 1898. In this vork, with the aid of clear and
Itcautiful illustrations, all the prehistoric discoveries «>f Kurope ami
Ainriii M are brought together.
* Arii € /talifi.
IS
2/4
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
artists who created the marvellous works of Egypt,
Greece, and Rome. And if it is true, as I have sought
to show, that a stock coming from Africa was diffused
during quaternary times throughout the Mediter-
ranean and over all Europe, and that this stock, by
me now classified as the Eurafrican species, continued
its existence into neolithic times, and later in the
FIG. 77. — Norwegian of South Osterdal. Ceph. ind., 70.2.
- Northern race. Eurafrican species (Arlxj).
successive ages of metal, it is to this stock that we
must attribute these artistic manifestations which
were afterwards to assume such marvellous forms and
to reach their height in the classic art of the Mediter-
ranean. This conviction has grown within me as I
have observed the constant convergence of physical
characters among the primitive inhabitants of these
regions, and belief in this unity of the stock is con-
CULTURE. 275
finned by the persistent artistic tendency which it
has shown even in epochs so remote.
The Neolithic age presents a singular uniformity,
from prehistoric Egypt to Scandinavia, from the
British Isles to the Black Sea, and throughout the
whole Mediterranean. This uniformity is chiefly
shown in the shape and ornamentation of the pottery
and in the working of the stone, as well as in the
curious mode of burying the dead, in a doubled-up
and crouching position, except in rare instances, and
in the grotto tombs, with chambers of more or less
artistic character, of which I have already spoken.
Such uniformity records and confirms the anthropo-
logical uniformity of the various populations from
whom these customs and this art proceeded. This
neolithic uniformity corrects in part the discontinuity
of the Magdalcnian period, for at present the mani-
festations of that period do not appear to be so
continuous or so extended as those of the Neolithic
period. It is reasonable, however, to believe that in
quaternary times the population was less numerous
and less diffused, and that among some portions of
it the artistic tendency, which we find so advanced
among other portions, had not yet developed.
Concerning this epoch, so important in the history
of mankind and especially in the history of the Eur-
african species, we possess to-day valuable documents
in prehistoric Egypt and in the eastern Mediterranean,
in both which regions a very archaic indigenous civilisa-
tion appears. In fact, the discoveries of 1'ctrie, of Amc-
lincau, and of DC Morgan show that prehistoric Egypt
was not influenced by any oriental civilisation, as many
authors have been inclined to believe. I have, however,
already dealt with this matter, and have concluded that
2/6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
the historical Egyptian civilisation is a continuation
and a development of the prehistoric, so that there is
no need to assume an Asiatic immigration. Certainly
we cannot absolutely exclude all relations with Asia,
on account of the proximity of Egypt to that region,
but the prehistoric civilisation of Egypt is purely
Libyan, and in comparison with contemporary Euro-
pean civilisation very developed, as may be seen by
its products and by the exquisitely worked flints.
If we turn to the facts revealed at Cyprus we find
for the most part a confirmation of the views here
expressed regarding the origins of Mediterranean
civilisation. And as I have already said, Ohnefalsch-
Richter's fresh explorations in this island have lately
shown how ancient the civilisation there is, anterior
to any Asiatic influence, even anterior to the corre-
sponding periods at Hissarlik. He has also affirmed
the relationship of Cyprus with the Nile valley, since
a common civilisation existed in prehistoric times and
an exchange of manufactures. This civilisation is
not Asiatic, but indigenous and very ancient; it may
be termed Afro-Mediterranean.
Asiatic influences came later, perhaps some thousand
years later, if the «first Cyprus period, as Ohnefalsch-
Richter concludes, is anterior to the last Hissarlik
stratum, which stratum, it appears to me, cannot be
considered Asiatic, though situated in the Troas, but
Mediterranean, since it is exempt from Mesopotamian
and Hittite influence and common with the primitive
Mediterranean civilisation, that of Cyprus especially,
so as to lead Ohnefalsch-Richtcr and Myres to regard
it as an importation from Cyprus.1
1 Ohnefalsch-Richter, " Xeues Uber die auf Cypern Ausgrabungen,''
«''; PP- 39, 353-
CULTURE. 277
It appears to me also that, in the recesses of the
eastern Mediterranean, in Libyan Egypt, in the
western regions of Asia Minor, as well as in the
western Mediterranean and in Europe generally to
the north of the great basin, the civilisation that we
call neolithic, and in its later development, when
copper was used as well as worked stone, seneolithic,
is indigenous and free from Asiatic influences. It
seems to me that in this civilisation we see a unity
corresponding to that of the Eurafrican species which
possessed it and created it, although indeed certain
variations of development and form appeared in
different districts, due to biological as well as to
regional causes. In Sicily Orsi has discovered forms
of primitive civilisation analogous to those of the
most ancient strata of Cyprus and Hissarlik, though
in spite of the analogies there seemed something
special and independent in the civilisation of the
island, possessing its own peculiar characters. But
oriental importations soon reached the island, and
then began imitation.
By means of the skulls exhumed by Orsi, and
belonging to his first Siculic period, the yEneolithic
period, I have been able to show the oriental current
to the west, especially in Sicily, at that remote epoch.
Amidst the Mediterranean cranial forms I have found
foreign shapes which I judge to be of Asiatic origin,
chiefly from the region of the Caucasus and Armenia.1
But while the presence of Asiatic heads in the
Mediterranean proves relations with the east, it can-
not be said to disprove the statement already made
as to the purely indigenous nature of the Afro-
Mediterranean civilisation. These foreign skulls
1 "Cranii preistorici ilcllu Sicilia," fit.
2/8 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
merely show the tendencies of populations to flow
towards centres of commercial movement, and hence
to mingle and emigrate with those who are leading
such movements. We may thus interpret the
presence of foreign, and especially Caucasic and
Armenian elements in the west at this remote period,
together with the absence of the influence of any
corresponding Asiatic civilisation. This may be seen
by the objects found, some of them local products,
and others imported, but always Mediterranean.
But it was the metallic art, the use of copper and
bronze, which was destined to change the whole physi-
ognomy of these ages and develop the latent germs of
Mediterranean civilisation. While discoveries in Egypt
seem to show that bronze was only known there at
a relatively late date, it is now established that at
Cyprus the use of copper existed at a very remote
period, anterior, it seems, to the last Hissarlik period.
Ohnefalsch-Richtcr even doubts the existence of a
stone age in Cyprus, on account of the very small
number of flints yet found in the island j1 and Myres
also believes that " the stone age is apparently not
represented in Cyprus as a distinct period of long
duration ; "'2 while copper and soon afterwards bronze
are found in abundance. In 1895 I had already
written that " the origin of the use of metals in the
Mediterranean may be found in Cyprus, the island of
copper ; thence its use was diffused through other
Mediterranean regions, and through the Black Sea,
and thence probably by the Danube into Hungary."3
1 Op. «'/., pp. 32, 300.
1 " Copper and Bronze in Cyprus and in South-East Europe," four.
Aifhrop. Inst., Nov. 1897.
3 Origins e Diffusioiu de/la Slirpe AfeJ:tcrraiiea, pp. 134-5.
< n.TUki-:. 279
To-day the fact that Cyprus was the centre of diffu-
sion of copper and then of bronze throughout the
Mediterranean and Europe generally, seems confirmed
by new discoveries, and by explorers like Ohncfalsch-
Richter and Myrcs, who have been able to show the
contemporaneous existence, at least in part, of the
copper age in Cyprus with the late neolithic period
in other regions ; as likewise it seems to be shown
that the primitive types ot axes came from this island,
and were diffused throughout the Mediterranean and
Europe.1
The civilisation which I have termed Afro-Mediter-
ranean, and which might perhaps be better called
indigenous A fro- European, was succeeded by more
or less powerful Asiatic influences, until ue reach a
new type of civilisation characterised by the art and
architecture of the city and the acropolis, the so-
called Mycenaean or ./Egean civilisation.
To realise the oriental characters in Mycenaean
art it is sufficient to observe the golden model of a
temple, found in the fourth sepulchre of Mycenae, the
siege scene on a silver vase recalling similar if not
identical representations in Nineveh and Babylon, the
lion hunt on a bronze blade, certain steles with reliefs
representing a chariot drawn by a horse, many gem
intaglios, and very many productions in gold and
silver.5 I am therefore surprised to find Flinders
Petrie, one of the best authorities on the eastern
Mediterranean, stating that " the whole of the early
civilisation of the Peloponnesus, commonly now
1 Op. tit.
- Schlicmann, Afyken*, Ixindon, 1888; Tsountas and Manatt, Tkt
Mytenean Age, I»ndon, 1897; Hall.hcrr and Orsi, Anti(ki(A del?
ant to i/i Zeus Idco, Florence, 1888.
280 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
known as the ' Mykcnajan period,' is a branch of the
civilisation of the bronze age in Europe, which had
but little contact with the East. Gaul, Hungary,
Italy, Greece, and Libya all enjoyed a simultaneous
civilisation which brought these countries far more
into contact with one another than with the Asiatic
lands which played so great a part in the later-Greece
culture.1
Nor can we attribute any value to the argument of
Tsountas regarding the supposed northern origin of
the Mycenxans. Two of these arguments have been
sufficiently answered by Dorpfeld, I refer to the form
of the roofs of the Mycenaean houses which Tsountas
supposes to be gable roofs, and to the basements of
the houses which, he considers, resemble those of
the pile huts, both constructions by him regarded as
peculiar to northern countries. The comparison with
the terramare of the Po valley, as interpreted by
Pigorini, is still more fallacious and erroneous, as I
have shown at length elsewhere.2
The opinion of Reinach on this matter, though
brilliantly set forth in his "Mirage Oriental,"3 scarcely
seems to me worth discussion. I dealt with it in the
Italian edition of this work, but I now consider it
unnecessary to do so, since he has found no followers,
and his conclusions are indeed contrary to the evident
nature of the facts.
For Montelius the Mycetiicans are the Tyrrhenians
and Pelasgians of Asia Minor, since, he writes, " it is
evident that the Mycensean civilisation in Greece is
1 "The Egyptian Bases of Greek History," Journal of Hellenic
Studies, xi., 1890.
1 Tsountas and Manalt, cit., pp. xxvii., xxix., xxx., 70, 325; chs.
iv. , vi., xiv. ; Sergi, Arii c Italici, cap. ii.
9 L'Ant/iroJtologie, 1893.
CULTURE. 28l
due not only to an influence from another country,
but to immigration of a new people. That this
people — or at least the great majority of the immi-
grants— cnmc from Asia Minor is proved by the im-
portant fact, which, however, has not been sufficiently
noticed, that the Mycenaean tombs are of the same
kind as those common in Asia Minor. . . . The lions
on the famous gate of Mycenae and numerous other
objects point also in the direction of Asia Minor,
because similar remains have been discovered there,
but do not exist in Phoenicia or Egypt."1 He also
believes, as I have already remarked, that the Tyr-
rhenians who came to Italy, or the Ktruscans, were
Pelasgians emigrating from Greece, united with re-
lated peoples from Asia Minor.
Ohnefalsch-Richter considers that Arcadians, La-
conians, Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians, Lycians, all took part
in Mycenaean civilisation.2 I am not prepared to
deny this, and would only remark that it is hypo-
thetical ; it is possible, even natural, that many racial
elements should have assisted in the formation and
expansion of Mycenaean civilisation, but it is difficult
to determine with precision what these elements and
their national names were. However this may have
been, all these racial elements belonged to the
Mediterranean stock, as localised portions in different
regions with different names, and my conviction is
that they belonged to the Pelasgian branch, for this
branch from prehistoric times occupied, as I have
already pointed out, the east of the basin, includ-
ing Asia Minor, the /Kgcan Sea, and the Greek
peninsula.
1 "The Tyrrhenians in Greece and Italy," tit.
J Of. (it., pp. 356-365.
282 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
It is very probable, therefore, that the eastern
importers of Mycenaean civilisation were the Pelasgo-
Tyrrhenians, as Montelius supposes, united with
other related peoples having no prominent racial
names. As we have already seen, the Asiatic immi-
grants, Pelasgians or Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians, were not
anthropologically foreign to the Mediterranean stock,
nor to the primitive inhabitants of the yEgean islands
and the Peloponnesus, who were likewise Pelasgians.
These already possessed a pre-Mycenaean civilisation
in common with the Mediterranean or Afro-Mediter-
ranean civilisation, and received from the new immi-
grants new elements of Pelasgic civilisation trans-
formed and evolved under Asiatic influences, probably
Mesopotamian and Hittite.
We then meet with a phenomenon which it is
important to note, and that is that this so-called
Mycenaean civilisation in the JEgcan preserved many
of its oriental characters, so as to render its imme-
diate derivation obvious, but when it spread towards
the west and the north, in the Mediterranean and in
Continental Europe, it began to lose many of these
characters and to acquire others peculiar to the popu-
lations which adopted it ; the oriental character thus
diminished togeth'er with distance from the centre of
propagation. As the Mycenaean civilisation spread
in Italy and Spain its eastern character became
attenuated, and still more as it spread through
Central and Northern Europe.
This is natural, since every people receives germs
from other regions but develops them, imitating an
art according to its own disposition and earlier condi-
tions, and thus gives a special physiognomy to a
product imported from another place. Many forms
CULTUUK. 283
and many artistic motives arc preserved in such a
migration, but they no longer retain their original
character.
Sicily offers an illustration of this statement.
Mycenaean civilisation penetrated there, as Orsi has
well shown ; and a superficial observation of the
vases, bronzes, and other objects from Orsi's first
Siculic period reveals the Mycenaean character of
many products. But these only represent a part of
the entire products which have very marked local
characters, not to be confounded with those of the
typical Mycenaean or any other products. A local
centre of production existed, and to this the My-
cenaean importation was added, as well as imitated
with more or less success. Nor is this the only
fact that we observe in Sicily ; the artistic wealth
which we admire at Mycenae, at Tiryns, at Crete, and
wherever else Mycenaean culture is found, only exists
as a mere shadow in Sicily, which seems to repre-
sent, as it were, the. dusk of the great light from the
./Cgean, whether from lack of mineral resources or
from some other cause.
There is, however, one fact which at first seems sur-
prising, the presence, that is, of objects of Myccna-an
character in the first Siculic period, which is an
it-neolithic period. 1 may refer to the two stones
which serve to close the tombs, with spiral orna-
mentation which is crude but of exactly the same
type as the Mycenaean ornamentation,1 as well as to
other imported or imitated objects (Fig. 86). It
is surprising because the Mediterranean aeneolithic
period is more ancient than the Mycenaean period,
1 Cf. Schliomann, Afycettir, fiys 145-157; Otsi, "La Nccropoli di
Caatclluccio," Bull. Falet, Ila.'iana, xvii., 1872. p. 8j, I'lalc VI.
284
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
and the explanation seems to be that in Sicily the
anieolithic period lasted on until the Mycenaean
period reached this district.
It is in the second Siculic period that we find the
FIG. 78.— Grave-stone from the Siculic Necropolis of
Castelluccio (Orsi).
most marked Mycenaean influences, with the fine
bronze swords and characteristic fibulae. Thus it
seems to me that what Orsi calls the second Siculic
period is really the period in which Mycenaean civili-
CULTURE. 285
sation is most evident and abundant, although products
of Siculic character neither disappear nor diminish, as
is clearly visible in the pottery, which, however, as
Orsi shows, presents different characters in the two
periods.1
I have been led to these conclusions by a recent
visit to the Archaeological Museum at Syracuse,
which may be read like a book written in clear
characters on account of the admirable arrangement
and order which has been introduced by the dis-
tinguished director, Professor Orsi, as also in conse-
quence of the demonstration which he himself has
courteously given me.
It is, however, in Italy and the Iberian peninsula
that Mycenaean culture seems to me to receive its
western explanation. While in the southernmost
part of the Italian peninsula we meet with a
civilisation very similar to the 'Siculic,2 in the central
portions, from Latium towards Ktruria, and in
Umbria and the valley of the Po, especially in the
neighbourhood of Bologna, we find a culture the
origin of which has given occasion to various in-
terpretations.
Thus, as I have pointed out in my A n't e
Italici, we have three types of culture : one primitive
and very ancient, the neolithic and amcolithic — i.e.,
the Afro-Mediterranean, now conscientiously and
accurately studied by Colini ;s a second which is
divisible into two periods, that of pure bronze and
1 " I.a Nccropoli cli Licodia Eubea," Bull, fns.'i'ufo Gtrm., vol.
xiii., 1898, pp. 347 el st,j.
• r.itrnni, " I'M Villaggio Siculo presso Matcra ncll' antica Apulia,''
Monumenti Antithi, A'. ./...;/. /.ftifei, Rome, 1898.
* // Sefolcrelo di Rtmedelto-iotto net />/ tifiano e il ftriodo entjhli.o
in Italia, Parle I., Rome, 1899.
286 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
that of the first iron age ; a third which may be
termed more particularly Etruscan.
In the first burial is by inhumation in natural and
artificial grottoes, or in the absence of these the
corpse is buried in the doubled-up position, as
observed in Sicily and elsewhere in the Mediter-
ranean. This culture is indigenous to the Mediter-
ranean without any Asiatic influence, but revealing
the influence of the culture of the eastern Mediter-
ranean, since copper could only have been imported
from Cyprus.
In the second period, including the bronze age and
the early iron age, burial is by incineration, a funeral
custom which I hold to be of absolutely Aryan
origin, as shown by its presence in the whole Po
valley, in the terremare of the bronze age, and in
the well tombs of Villanova, of Certosa, of Bologna,
in Etruria, and part of Latium. But this culture,
whether of pure bronze, or of bronze with the first
indications of iron, as found at Villanova and Vetu-
lonia, is an importation from the eastern Mediter-
ranean, with influences from that Asiatic culture which
had now become Mycenaean civilisation.
The third or Etruscan form of culture is sub-
stantially the same as the second ; but while the
second is more ancient, though it has already under-
gone a transformation, as already pointed out, losing
in part its Asiatic colouring, so well and clearly
preserved in the Mycenaean of the .digean, the third
is a direct Etruscan or Tyrrhenian importation, pre-
serving better than the second its eastern character,
though to a less degree than the original Mycenaean
or Asiatic.
This may be explained by the fact that while in
CULTURE. 287
Adriatic Umbria we do not know, except by tradition,
of any Pclasgian colonies, and hence the culture was
imported in the form of commercial products and then
imitated, in Etruria, whatever may be said to th2
contrary, we possess the certainty that an oriental
colony has preserved much of the original culture.
And while in the civilisation anterior to the Etruscan
period the funeral custom of incineration dominated,
since Aryan influences prevailed and the culture was
of Mycenasan origin, in the Etruscan period Aryan
domination had departed, giving place in the greater
part of Italy north and south of Etruria to Etruscan
influence; we hence find a return to the ancient custom
of inhumation peculiar to the Mediterranean stock.
Certainly archaeologists have had a difficulty in
recognising the eastern origin of the Villanova and
Etruscan civilisation on account of the loss or
diminution of oriental characters in the passage
towards the west, where new local centres of culture
were created, beginning naturally with the imitation
of importations. This phenomenon may be observed
elsewhere, in central and northern Europe, as I shall
have to point out, where the discrepancy is greater
since the importation is indirect and comes from the
south.
The signs are so evident, however, that Pigorini
himself, who persists in associating with the tcrramare
an Italico-Aryan population and a northern culture,
has been forced to recognise the relations between
these old stations and the ./Egcan, though he regards
these relations as late, a superposition of Mycenaean
culture over a terramarc culture of other and more
ancient origin,1 in opposition to Orsi and Peterscn,
1 ftnll. a'i /'jftttin. /fa/., vol. xx., p. 173; xxiii., p 85.
288 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
who admit an intimate relationship between the
ALgcan and the Italic culture of the ten-aware and
of Villanova.1
It is difficult to recognise this fact in the culture of
the early iron age in Italy, still more difficult to
recognise the similarity, in some cases even the
identity, between the bronze terramare products and
the Mycenaean ; it is so difficult that even yet it is
denied. To-day, however, after the detailed investi-
gation, especially by Montelius, of the products in
question, as well as by such comparisons as those
made by Orsi, I believe that there is no longer any
room for doubt.2
It is probable, as I have already said, that in its
introduction into upper Italy, this culture followed
two roads, one by sea, and the other along the
Danube and over the Alps. This would also ex-
plain the later expansion of the Hallstalt culture
to Watsch, to the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
and to the extended zone which I have elsewhere
described.3 The explanation of the variations which
we may find is to be sought in local conditions, the
products being imitated and hence varied with greater
freedom by the artist
Let us now, however, turn to the Iberian peninsula,
1 Petersen, " Comparazione fra le antichiti italiche e le egeo-
micenee," Bull., fit., xxiii., p. 81. Orsi finds everywhere that the
bronzes, swords, daggers, and other objects are of AFyceiiiran-
ter ram are form.
- The discovery of tombs showing incineration in Apulia and near
Taranto, in which were found bronze objects like those of the terra-
mare of the Po valley, and which have improperly been called terra-
mare, by no means invalidates my conclusions. It is quite possible
that Eurasiatic tribes of the proto-Slavonic branch reached Apulia by
sea from the opposite side of the Adriatic.
3 Arii e Ilalici, p. 145, fig. 38.
CULTURE. 289
where, in the now celebrated discoveries in south-east
Spain, we have revealed to us a rich and wonderful
culture. Here also there are clear and evident indi-
cations of Mycenaean influence, together with local
production,1 which at once gives rise to the idea that
oriental imports have awakened a latent activity, and
that the fortunate geological conditions of the
peninsula, rich in metals, have caused the artistic
production to rise easily to a level higher than that
of Sicily, which is poor in metals. Nor is it unreason-
able to believe, with Orsi, that many Iberian products
have reached Sicily, and that this island has thus
been affected not only by direct Mycenaean influence
but by a reflux and transmuted Mycenaean wave of
Iberian character.2
After Reinach's strange suppositions, however, a
master-hand like that of Montelius was needed in
order to delineate the movement of south-eastern
culture towards western and northern Europe. On
the basis of a special examination of copper and
bronze products, and in part also of pottery, Montelius
reaches the conclusion that the culture associated
with these two metals — one in the pure state and the
other alloyed with tin — reached central and northern
Europe from the Mediterranean. I will quote his
own words: — "In the countries to the south of the
northern region, as well as in western Europe, much
copper and tin are found. In these two districts the
influence of eastern culture is more ancient than in
the north, and through this influence a knowledge
1 Sirct, Iss Premiers Ages dit Mttal lians le snd ' esl at
'* " Mink-re tli sclce e sepolcri encolitici a Monte Tal»uto c Monte-
raccllo," /•'«//. i'a'ttltn. //a.'., \\iv., 1898, p. 200.
19
290
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
was acquired of the use of the metal as discovered in
the east. The northern region, during the stone age,
FIG. 79. — Alphabetiform signs from French dolmens.
was already in relation with the east through the
peoples of the south and west. There were two
roads by which the elements of eastern culture
CULTURE.
291
reached the north. One, which I call western,
followed the northern coasts of Africa as far as
Spain, and through France and by the British Islands
reached the shores of the North Sea, Germany, and
Scandinavia. The other, which I call southern,
penetrating the Balkan peninsula, or coming by the
FIG. 80. — A1phal>cliform signs from Mas-d'Azil (Pietle).
Adriatic coast, passed along the valley of the Danube
and continuing along German rivers, especially the
Moldau and the Elbe, reached the northern sea-
coasts."1
After a scries of comparisons, and evidence derived
1 " Die Chronologic tier Altcstcn Bronzenzeit in Nord Dcutschland
iiml Skandinavicn," Archivfiir Anthro(>ologitt xxvi., 1899, p. 465.
292 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
from the products, Montelius thus concludes: "All
this proves that very soon an influence from the
eastern Mediterranean, including Cyprus, was exer-
cised, leading to a knowledge of metals among the
peoples of the Balkan peninsula and the Danube
valley." He insists also that, as he had stated many
years before, bronze reached the north from the
Mediterranean, and not from the Phoenicians, and
that it was not even imported by the Celts or the
Germans.1 He believes that Italy has been the centre
of diffusion of bronze manufactures, but that at the
same time there were many local forms, of which,
however, the original types may be found in Italy.2
From the considerations brought forward by
Montelius, — and harmonising with my own conclu-
sions, as expressed on various occasions, regarding
the origins of Mediterranean civilisation and its
diffusion, — it appears that there has been a move-
ment of culture passing from one spot to another, as
from a focus of production ; but, on the other hand,
there appears to have been as it were the movement
of a wave propagated from a centre, in such a
manner that the waves, as they became remote from
the centre, grew broader and less marked, until they
disappeared, leaving only the signs of movement. It
is thus that Mediterranean culture appears after the
primitive Afro-Mediterranean period, which also had,
in part, more or less definite centres of diffusion. But
what we call the culture of metals, especially bronze,
arose in the east, moved towards the western Mediter-
ranean, reaching continental Europe through various
currents from south to north until it arrived at the
British Isles on one side, Germany and Scandinavia
1 op. «'/., pp. 480, 489. 2 Op. dt., pp. 506-509.
CULTURE. 293
on the other, and Central Russia through the Black
Sea.
But if the forms of Mediterranean culture were
gradually dispersed and lost through these roads of
dispersion, another important phenomenon also took
place; new kinds of production arose, especially under
favourable conditions, leading to local products which
departed wholly or in part from the original models
and from their technique. It is on account of this
phenomenon that the traces of the origins of European
culture have often been lost
The question finally arises : What relation has
bronze culture with the peoples called Aryan ? were
FIG. 81. — Linear writing signs on clay vessels (De Morgan).
they the importers of it ? Notwithstanding that I
attempted to show, some time ago, against the
prevalent opinions, that the Aryan invaders of
Europe were barbarians and savages and possessing
a culture inferior to that of the neolithic population,
I still admitted that they were the importers of
bronze.1 That view seemed to me correct, since, on
the whole, bronze appeared in Europe contempo-
raneously with the Aryan invasion. Not being an
archaeologist, I had not been able to examine the
shapes of such products, as has been done by com-
petent authorities ; and seeing the distribution of
1 Arii e /fa/iif, fi/.
294
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
bronze in Europe always accompanying the distribu-
tion of Aryan culture, especially in the graves which
show signs of cremation, I was led to suppose that
the two were connected and were both manifestations
of the same stock.
But the new analyses and new facts bearing on
Mediterranean civilisation and its diffusion, which we
FIG. 82. — Alphabetic signs of the Mycenaean epoch at Crete (Evans).
owe to the labours of Ohnefalsch-Richter, Myres,
Orsi, Montelius, and others ; the now better known
characters, moreover, of Mycenaean culture, which is
of bronze, having its source in the Asiatic east, and
being diffused throughout Europe by the movement
already described ; all this, together with the appear-
ance of new centres of production due to the propaga-
CULTURE.
295
lion of Mcditcrranco -Oiicntal culture, has led me
naturally to the conclusion that it was not the Aryans
who imported bronze into Europe, as has hitherto
been so widely believed.
A coincidence which united the diffusion of the
metallic arts of Asia and of the Mediterranean led to
the supposition of a causal connection; just as it led
Fir.. 83. — Comparison of alphabctifbrm signs (Evans).
to the supposition that the two great Mediterranean
civilisations of later times, Greek and Latin, were due
to the Aryans. Certainly the Aryans profited by the
metals that reached them from the civilisation they
were submerging by their invasion and their barbarism,
but they did not contribute to improve the technique,
since they were unskilled in the new art ; such
2g6 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
improvements always came to them from Mediter-
ranean regions.
I know that this conclusion will be opposed by
those who are crystallised in the old ideas arising
from the impressions produced by earlier researches;
but we need not fear ; the future will illumine the
truths that are still obscure.
Writing. — To complete the picture of Eurafrican
culture in Africa and Europe previous to the Asiatic
invasion, which marks a new epoch, it remains to
occupy ourselves with the alphabetiform linear
writing, the first indications of which appeared at a
very early time, anterior to the neolithic period.
The alphabetical characters of Libya and the
Canaries have long been known, chiefly through the
labours of Faidherbe, but such characters, though
they revealed relationship to the Phoenician, were not
interpreted in what seems the most natural manner
since the prehistoric discoveries in Egypt, and those
anterior to the neolithic period in Europe.
Lctourneau, in 1893, communicated to the Paris
Society of Anthropology certain observations of the
alphabetiform signs in megalithic inscriptions, and
showed that many of these signs resembled Phoenician
characters. He concluded : — " Among the signs im-
pressed on the megaliths and on the rocks of Celtic
countries, in Spain, in the Canaries, in Africa, we find
some which have an undeniable resemblance with
certain letters of the best known ancient alphabets
of African origin. The alphabetiform characters of
the megaliths and rocks are still crude, badly arranged
in inscriptions or isolated, sometimes employed as
motives of decoration. It is impossible to say what
real value we ought to attribute to these characters;
WRITING. 297
but we seem to be in presence of an alphabet in
course of formation, earlier than the best known
ancient alphabets, which all belong to historical
peoples. On the whole, these signs seem to indicate
that the builders of our megalithic monuments came
from the south and were related to the races of North
Africa."1
I have brought together some of these signs taken
from French dolmens (Fig. 79).
A more curious discovery was, however, made by
Piette among the remains of a period earlier than
that of the dolmens, altogether anterior to neolithic
times; that is to say at the end of the Magdalenian
epoch, in a period of transition from palaeolithic to
neolithic Europe; he discovered at Mas-d'Azil, in the
south-east of France, in a grotto he was excavating,
many pebbles coloured with peroxide of iron, and
showing alphabetiform signs, some of them similar to
those already found on the dolmens.
A specimen of these signs, from Piette's plates, will
be found in Fig. 80. Piette's investigation is of con-
siderable importance and reveals a fact worthy of
careful attention, as he himself points out when
making a comparison of the signs from the Mas-
d'Azil grotto with the Cypriote and jEgean characters
already in use in the Mediterranean before the so-
called discovery of the Phoenicians. He concludes: —
" A comparative study shows that nine of the Mas-
d'Azil graphic signs are identical with characters in the
Cypriote syllabary: Kot mo, fa, to, si, ve, sat //', fa.
Eight of the Mas-d'Azil signs, of which some are
also Cypriote, form part of the >Egean alphabet
Many ancient inscriptions from Asia Minor, also,
1 Bull. Je fa Sof. cTAntk. de Paris, April, 1893.
298
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
especially from the Troad, present characters re-
sembling the pictures from Mas-d'Azil. Recognising
in the Cypriote and yEgean alphabets, or in the
CRETAN
MCtAM
/-x+ rx+
BQ
CIO
/A
v
H
H
IX
ma
A/
V,V.
LlkYAN IN-
ICniPTIONS
•HOTIflNACH
-fx
[Tj
V
H w
pm
O
©
YK
29
o.Q
no
0
/v
;*»«
U:.
FIG. 84. — Comparative Table (Evans).
writing in use in Asia Minor before the Trojan war,
the characters of Mas-d'Azil, there is ground for
believing either that the invasions from the west to
the east carried into these regions at a very ancient
WRITING. 299
period the writing used in Pyrcnean districts, or
that the rudimentary writing of Mas-d'Azil was in
prehistoric times the common patrimony of the
Mediterranean littoral and the coasts of the Archi-
pelago." l
Putting aside, for the present, Piette's hypotheses
regarding the alphabetical signs, it is important to
D O
DO
x H ffl(D
cc
mm
A
FIG. 85 — Alphabet from the Canaries (Vcrneau).
show that many such signs existed in neolithic
Egyptian times. Fig. 81 shows some of these alpha-
betical signs, found incised in clay vessels, and
collected by De Morgan,2 which may be compared
1 "Etudes d'cthnographie prx'historiquc," 1? Anthropologie, vii.,
1896, with special atlas ; cf. Bordicr, " Origincs prlhistoriques de
IVcrilure," Bull. Sot. daupkinoiit d? ethnographic, iv., Grenoble, 1897.
• Ketkenfus stir rorigitte de fEgyfte, ii., p. 166, figs. 528-548,
1897.
30O THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
with those discovered in the eastern Mediterranean
by Arthur Evans, as Mycenaean or ^Egean, and of
course pre-Phoenician.
Arthur Evans, in an interesting study,1 has shown
the existence of writing in the Mediterranean, first at
Crete, and then at other localities in the ^Egean,
earlier than the writing called Phoenician. In Fig. 82
are reproduced some of the signs of Cretan writing,
according to Evans. In a more recent study, the
same able author has shown the convergence of the
Cretan and vEgean writing with the Proto-Egyptian
or Egypto-Libyan, as he calls the prehistoric Egyp-
tian writing, found at Ballas, Naqada, Abydos,
Kahun, and other prehistoric localities on Egyptian
soil (Fig. 83).2
Nor does Evans close the comparison here ; con-
vinced that the prehistoric Egyptians were Libyans,
and therefore of the same stock that peopled Africa
to the west of Egypt, including the Sahara, he shows
the convergence of Cretan, ^Egean, and Proto-
Egyptian writing with that now known in Libyan
inscriptions under the name of tijinagh, which includes
the Libyan alphabet (Fig. 84). A similar conver-
gence is evident with the alphabet of the Canaries,
allied to the Libyan of Africa (Fig. 85).
We may even extend the comparison still further
than Evans, who has confined himself to the Medi-
terranean, to prehistoric or Libyan Egypt, and to
Libya proper ; we may compare them, that is, to
the alphabetiform signs of Mas-d'Azil and of the
1 " Primitive Pictographs and a Pre-Phoenician Script from Crete, '
Jour. Hellenic Studies, 1894, vol. xiv.
2 "Further Discoveries of Cretan and ^Egean Script, with Libyan
and Proto-Egyptian Comparisons/'yowr. , «'/., 1897, xvii.
WRITING. 301
European dolmens, of which I have already given
some examples. Thus, in the little ivory tablets of
prehistoric Egypt (p. 97),1 we find signs identical
with those of the dolmens (Fig. 79), and with others
from Mas-d'Azil (Fig. 80), and it is easy to prove
that others of these latter signs are identical with
those of Cretan, vEgean, and Libyan writing, and
that of the Canaries. Such signs may still be seen
in certain cubes of earth or clay found in the fourth
city of Troy (Fig. 86), and reproduced in the Egyptian
ivory tablets already mentioned. Contemporary,
also, with Cypriote and yEgean writing is found that
scattered on vases and other clay vessels in the
Troad, in many of the Trojan cities.2 Similar forms of
writing appeared later, in the first iron age, in Italy.
Gozzadini transcribed the signs he found incised on
the terra-cotta vases of the Villanova and other graves
in the neighbourhood of Bologna. I have collected
and brought together these signs, by him called seals,
and regarded as mere workers' marks, according to
their shape and more complex formation, and I have
expressed the opinion that they must be a form of
writing, on account of the resemblance they exhibit
to the writing, afterwards called Phoenician, which
became universal in the Mediterranean and else-
where.3
Any one, indeed, who compares the signs of Villa-
nova with the most ancient Cypriote characters (Fig.
87), archaic Phosnician, the Mesa inscription, Cartha-
ginian money (Fig. 88), etc., will find, I will not say
identity, but resemblance of form. And in the same
1 De Morgan, op. (it., ii., 1897, p. 167, figs. 550-555
* Arii e //a/id, p. 2l6, fig. 47.
1 Arii e Italiei, (it., p. 218, fig. 47.
302
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
way, if we compare more recent characters, the Etruscan
(Fig. 89), and those we see incised on the mysterious
stele lately discovered in the Roman Forum (Fig. 90),
FIG. 86.— Terra-cotta objects from the fourth city of Troy
(Schliemann).
we shall obtain confirmation of the belief that the
characters called Phoenician are only a derived form
of the alphabetiform signs that appeared during
FIG. 87. — Tablet with Cypriote characters
(Ohnefalsch-Richter).
prehistoric times in Africa, in the Mediterranean, and
in Western Europe. The Phoenicians, if indeed it
was the Phoenicians who diffused the alphabet, only
systematised signs that were already known and
WRITING.
303
already indicated phonetic characters, reduced their
number, and thus rendered them simpler and more
communicable; each people which accepted the forms
I
B
q
>7
<\
TZN
WH
il
B
+
x
FIG. 88. — i. Archaic Phoenician characters.
2. Mesa inscription.
3. Incised stones.
4. II'-. mil. ul inscription.
5 Carthaginian coin.
6. Archaic Hebrew.
(Lcnoimant.)
modified them in its own way, so that they now appear
as if they had had different origins.
But alphabctiform characters have a still more
304 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
ancient origin, of symbolic and pictographic nature,
and in every part of the world we have indications of
writing. In our own part of the world also, there
must have been the same early origins, and indications
of this may be found in the Ligurian inscriptions
which originated at an unknown epoch.1 Any one
who carefully observes, for instance, Figs. 91-92,
sees at once that here are represented imple-
ments, animals, and men in a manner that recalls
American pictography. Similar also is the signifi-
cance of some of the inscriptions on the dolmens, as
is clear from Fig. 93, which reproduces one of these
carvings from Brittany; here are found human feet,
primitive axes, and other designs which must indicate
implements or other objects of unknown significance.
The same may be said regarding the carvings and
inscriptions found on Swiss rocks, the date of which
is undetermined and is indeed difficult to determine.2
The use of writing signs is thus very ancient in the
Eurafrican species, so ancient that it already reached
definite shape in the Magdalenian epoch, that is to
say, earlier than Neolithic times, while its diffusion
also is very ancient in the regions over which the
species was diffused, in Africa, in the Canaries, in the
Mediterranean, in western and central Europe. This
supplies additional evidence as to the high develop-
ment of civilisation among the races of the Mediter-
ranean basin, and among those portions of them
which adopted various racial names in proto-historic
1 Cf. Bucknell, " Le Incisione preibtoriche sulle rocce cli Fontalba,"
Atti Soc. Lig. di Sci. Nat., Genoa, 1897; Issel, " Rupe incisa dell'
Aquasanta," Atti, cif., 1899; /'</., " Iscrizioni scoperte nel Finalese, "
Bull. PaUthn. //«'., 1898.
- Reber, " Vorhistorische in Canton Wall is (Schweiz)," Axhiv f.
Ant/i., xx., pp. 375-3/7! xxi-» PP- 279-294; xxiv-. PP- 9i-"5-
LANGUAGE. 305
and historic times. At the time of the Asiatic in-
vasions and immigrations they were at a higher level
of civilisation than the new people who submerged
their civilisation and plunged the primitive inhabi-
tants into barbarism, until new germs arose in the
Mediterranean and furnished the two great forms of
Gr.tco- Latin civilisation.
From the history of primitive and prehistoric
writing we may draw the same conclusion as from
the history of the culture or cultures of Mediterranean
Europe; that is to say that this primitive civilisation
was in part of African origin, like the species itself,
in part an Asiatic importation, the latter being later
than the former, while the appearance of metals took
place at Cyprus, an island marked by its situation as
the bridge to unite the eastern Mediterranean to
western Asia, and also to form a connection with
Egypt and the yEgean ; by its mineral wealth Cyprus
becomes a point to which the Asiatic west and the
Mediterranean east alike flowed, a point at which the
civilisation of Asia accumulated, as well as that of
the Mediterranean from Mycenaean to classic Hellenic
times.
Language.— That portion of mankind which I have
called the Eurafrican species must have had a
language; this is a very important and curious
problem, at the same time one of the most difficult
and intricate for prevalent linguistic theories to solve.
Notwithstanding this I wish to express certain con-
victions which I have derived from ethnographic
inductions and from some linguistic facts. First of
all I will recall what I wrote some years ago when
investigating prehistoric Italy.
Having determined that the primitive populations
20
306 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACK.
of Italy were evidently of the Mediterranean stock, a
Eurafrican variety, and that the successive arrivals from
the north were of Asiatic origin, Cello-Slavs, as they
would to-day be called, or Proto-Celts and Proto-Slavs,
I wrote: " Archaeological and anthropological observa-
tions in Italy reveal, it is true, a regional fact, but at
the same time they serve to prepare the solution of
the Aryo-European problem. For if it is true, as
O m
ixi
CD
C > 9
FIG. 89 —Characters of the Etruscan alphabet.
results from the anthropological documents furnished
by the most ancient graves in Italy, that the Aiyans
who invaded Italy possessed brachycephalic heads of
various shapes — spheroidal, sphenoidal, and platy-
cephalic — the other Aryans who spoke German or
Slavonic must have possessed similar physical charac-
ters, if they were genuine Aryans. It would then be
the case also that the real Germanic Aryans were not
LANGUAGE
307
those of the Rcihcngrabcr cephalic type, but ihose
whose type was identical with that of the Slavs and
the Celts.
" If the archaeological monuments which I have
examined, and compared with others from the regions
where the Aryans represent the Proto-Cclts arid the
Proto-Slavs, indicate that the Aryans who invaded
Italy were also Proto-Celts and Proto-Slavs ; if the
FlG. 90. — Inscription from the Lapis niger monument in the
Roman Forum, northern side of the Stela.
documents discovered in the graves of Etruria, of
Latium, of Bologna, confirm this result, it cannot but
be admitted that such Aryans did not bring the Italic
language with them, but languages which must have
been of the same type as those to-day called Celtic /
and Slavonic, and derived from prehistoric Proto-
Slavic tongues, that is to say, they must have been
genuinely primitive Aryan tongues.
" Italy, on the other hand, at the period of the
308 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
Aryan invasion, must have possessed a language,
doubtless with many dialects, having nothing in
common with the Aryan tongues. If the stock
occupying it from time immemorial was the Medi-
terranean, which, as I have shown, was divided
into 'many peoples, including the Egyptians, the
Libyans, the Iberians, the languages must have been
of the same type as those spoken by Egyptians,
Libyans, and Iberians, that is to say, of what
is called the Hamitic type, and very different in
phonetic and morphological characters from the
Aryan.
" Hence it is natural to believe that the Aryans who
dominated the Italic populations in the Po valley and
central Italy not only transformed the customs but
also the language. To investigate the process of
formation of the Italic languages we do not need,
therefore, to go outside Italy. The Aryan language
when spoken by a people with another vocabulary,
other phonetics, other flexions, another syntax, could
not be preserved in its original forms and sounds ; it
had to undergo a transformation on the basis of
a language with different characters. The special
Aryan flexion had to undergo a particular alteration
in the mouth of him who spoke it incorrectly and
imperfectly. Hence may be observed a phenomenon
noted by linguists, the fragmentary character of
flexion often so complete in other languages of
Aryan type, and then a vocabulary different in great
part from other Aryan vocabularies, whether Greek,
Celtic, or Germanic."1 Hence I concluded generally
that the language of the Aryans transformed but did
not destroy the languages spoken in Greece and
1 Arii e Italici, cap. viii., p. 170.
LANGUAGE. 309
Italy, and that both must have contained the two
linguistic elements in different composition.1
Keanc, who accepts this conception, believes that he modifies
it by saying : "To me it appears rather that Aryan tongues
everywhere, so to say, took possession of the soil, and effaced
those previously current, but in so doing became themselves /
somewhat modified, especially in their vocabulary and phonetics.
Even their structure was disturbed by the conflict, so that there
were often great losses and reconstructions, as is plainly seen in
the Italic (Latin, Umbrian, Oscan) verbal system."3 But really
Keane is affirming the same thing, and the divergence is apparent
rather than real.*
Now if it is true that the Mediterranean stock is an
anthropological variety of the Eurafrican species, if
the Nordic is another variety of the same species, we
have to admit that the languages of these two varieties
must be of the same origin as the languages of the
African varieties, belonging^ that is to say, to the
linguistic group called Hamitic. It is known also
that of the Mediterranean varieties, ancient Egyptian
was one of the Hamitic languages like Libyan, as
Basque appears to be, an old Iberian residue. Nor is
that all, for we have to add to the Hamitic group of
the Mediterranean the Pelasgic language represented
by Etruscan, hitherto undeciphered because investi-
gators have violently sought to find in it the characters
of Aryan languages. Brinton attempted to lead
Etruscan back to Libyan, and hence to affirm the
ethnological affinity of the Etruscans with the
ancient Libyans,4 and I believe that along this path
1 Op. tit., p. 176.
8 Keane, Man Past and Present, pp. 512-13.
3 Cf. Kcanc, of. (if. , pp. 460 tt sty.
* "On Etruscan anil Libyan Names: a comparative study," Pioc.
Awer. Phifos. Sof., Philadelphia, xxviii. 132, 1890; ''The Ethno-
logical Affinities of the Ancient Etruscans," /£., xxvi., 1889.
3io
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
we may reach the interpretation of this mysterious
language, hitherto refractory to every investigation
from the Aryan standpoint. Nor need we wonder,
as I have already said elsewhere, to find in Etruscan
certain deceptive characters of Aryan flexion, since
FIG. 91.— Prehistoric inscription on the rocks of Val Fontanallxi (Bucknell).
such alterations were inevitable in Italy in the midst
of languages of Aryan flexion ; it is probably these
features which have led some linguists to find Aryan
characters here at all costs.1
1 Arii e It olid, p. 175.
LANGUAGE.
3't
I have much pleasure in referring here to an
address by Professor Ascoli at the Twelfth Inter-
national Congress of Orientalists at Rome. In this
address one of the most eminent of European
linguists refers to the new directions of science and
to the aid which ethnology and anthropology may
bring to various hypotheses. Coming to the position
of Latin in the Indo-European linguistic family, he
Fir.. 92. — Petrogliphs from Finalcsc, Liguria (Issel).
remarks : — " There must then have been a cause
for the inferiority of Latin apart from time or
climate, and this could only have been an ethno-
logical cause, due to special or new racial crossings.
We may take another example, again from the Indo-
European field. A merely descriptive writer notes
the regularity which governs the various reflections
with which a given phonetic clement of the original
312 THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
patrimony reverberates in the various languages of
the family. He notes this regularity and admires
it, but fails to understand it. Now the ethnologist
may initiate an explanation of such a wide extent
of fundamental phenomena. We are concerned with
an Aryan speech which comes into successive conflict
with various other speeches and subdues them, but
not without itself remaining injured or changed.
Under certain conditions a subdued and conquered
people loses its own language, but it subjects the
language of the conqueror to the habits of its own
vocal organ. Something of this kind happened in
the case of the Gaul who adapted Latin to his use.
We have then a kind of musical transposition which
passes with natural precision over all the material of
language.
" Thus there may be constructed the hypothesis of
the formation of various Indo-European complexes,
crossed with peoples who were irradiating from their
primary seat. ' But how shall we represent to our-
selves these complexes, especially as regards their
numerical importance? We here touch the great
problem which ethnology, anthropology, glottology,
and all history are even more eagerly pursuing, the
problem as to the number of individuals who may
reasonably be assigned to the various countries at
diverse epochs. The belief that a series of fine and
complete nations moved from a common centre to
people a large part of the world with Indo-Europeans
is dying, or already dead, together with a number of
other fables regarding the migrations of whole peoples
in various historical ages.
"So many ancient complexes of people speaking
Indo-European languages should lead us to imagine
LANGUAGE.
313
them as very small in size. Only with much labour
has the earth become populous. A poor clan be-
comes, in thousands of years, a nation. The imagina-
tion of writers has always seen ancient Europe
crowded with people, and the notion has not yet
died out. Thus, in regard to the phonetic combina-
tion KV, Oscan and Umbrian reach P while Latin
remains at KV (quod, pod, etc.), and similarly, leaving
FlG. 93. —Sculptured stones from dolmens in Brittany.
Greece, we find the Britons in opposition to the
Hibernians, and again hear of KV peoples and P
peoples in historical contrast to. each other. We are
really only in the presence of a mere peculiarity of
pronunciation marking a family which has become a
people."
The idea expressed in this discourse coincides in
great part with my own view, though I have no wish
to give it a greater extension than Ascoli himself
THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE.
would accept. Certainly, however, it cannot but be
true that the various languages of Aryan type have
been formed under the influence of other languages,
conquered, like the peoples who spoke them. My
supposition is that the Latin language shows this
phenomenon in a specially marked degree; and hence
when I recently observed the interpretations, furnished
by philologists, of the inscriptions on the stela dis-
covered in the Roman Forum, by means of Aryan
and more especially Nordic languages,1 I was greatly
surprised ; these interpreters have not understood
what has now been understood by the father of
Italian linguists and what I myself expressed some
years ago : Latin is not a language which reached
Italy in a beautiful and completed form, just as Italy
was not entered by an Italic people speaking Latin;
but Latin was formed in Italy itself, as well as all the
languages related to Latin, fragmentary in phonetics
and flexion. The stela of the Roman Forum, like
other ancient inscriptions, necessarily showed the
traces of the primitive Italic (Mediterranean) language
transformed by that of various invaders; to seek to
interpret it with the aid of Gothic or old German is
as absurd as it would be to seek to interpret Etruscan
or Pelasgic with the help of Sanscrit or Finnic.
In the other languages called Indo-European this
formation, so clear in the primitive Italic tongues, is
perhaps less apparent ; thus it may also be in
Greek, in spite of the fulness of its forms, and in
the Germanic tongues spoken by those populations
which, like the Italic and the Greek, underwent in-
vasion and transformation in customs and language.
1 " Stela con iscrizione Latina arcaica scoperta nel Foro Romano,"
Notizie d^.'i Scavi, Maggio, 1899.
LA MIL' AGE. 315
It is necessary to seek for this vanished language
from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, and we may
thus also find, perhaps, the real cause of the phonetic
transformations which now can be only accepted as
facts. As the present populations of Europe are in
varying proportions a compound of the old Eur-
african species and of the more recently arriving
Eurasiatic species, which brought with it flexional
languages of Aryan or Indo-European type, so also
the languages which seem to be altogether Aryan
have an archaic stratum, of Eurafrican origin, corre-
sponding to the languages otherwise called Hamitic,
like Egyptian and Libyan.1
1 As I have already observed (p. 246, note i), a proof of this
phenomenon has been brought into evidence by the authors of The
Wchh People, Prof. Rhys and D. Brynmor-Joncs, and especially Prof.
Morris Jones, through the analysis of the Neo-Celtic language. I
venture to assert that a study of the ancient Italic languages, conducted
with the intuition and method of Morris Jones, would remove the veil
of mystery that still enwraps them ; but to attain this end theie must
be a diminution of the philo-Aryanism of our linguists.
INDEX.
^neolithic period, 277
Africa, origin of name, 54 ; blonds
of, 59 tt seq.
Alphabetical characters, 296 et seq.
Andersen, 199
Anthropophagy in Egypt, alleged,
93
Arab racial types, 1 19
Arbo, 222
Architecture of tombs, 266 et seq.
Armenoid type of skull, 141, 148
it set/.
Arya, I
Aryans, origin of, 2 et sea., 21 et
sea., 29; in Italy, 178; invasion
of, 241 et seq. ; their lack of
culture, 295; their language,
307 et sea.
Ascoli, 311
Barrows, British, 205 et sea., 243
Barth, 222
Basques, anthropology of, 161
Beddoe, 260
Benfey, 5
Berl>ers, 53 et seq., \\\et seq.
Berthelot, 129
Bertholon, 67, 120
Biving, l.)e, 92
Blasio, De, 107
Blonds, of Africa, 59" et seq.; at
high level al>ove sea, 73
Bogdanof, 231
Bohemia, anthropology of, 220 et
ns.e</:
Booster, 79
Bordicr, 299
Brachycephals, alleged superiority
of, 22; in Neolithic times, 237
el seq.
Brinton, 158, 258, 309
Biitain, anthroi>ol<>gy of, 205 et
sea.
Brizio, I Si
Broca, 63, 69, 161
Bronze culture, 292 ft seq.
Brugsch, 45, 85
Brynmor -Jones, 246
Bucknell, 304
Burial customs, in Egypt, 92 //
seq.; among Mediterranean slock
generally, 266 et seq.
Cara, C. de, 24, 14$
Caret lc, 50, 55, Il8
Carlailhac, 1 60
Celts, 16, 18, 21 el seq., 69, 243
Chancelade type of skull, 193
Chil, 129
Collignon, 119
Coloration of Mediterranean race,
252
('••I 1.1 IT, 146
Cremation, in Egypt, alleged, 92;
among Mediterranean stock
generally, 270
Cretan writing signs, 300
Cro-Magnon type of skull, 135,
188, 193. 210
Culture of Mediterranean race, 273
et seq.
Cyprus, anthropology of, 152 et
seq. ; culture of, 276 et seq.
INDEX.
Davis, 203
Dawkins, 15., 197. 207
Dcir-el-Hahari, 87
Dcniker, 202
Dcsor, 64
Dolmen race, 59, 64
Dolmens, writing on, 97, 296 ft
seq.
Egypt to Greece, relations of, 170
et seq.
Egyptian language, 100
England, anthropology of, 205 et
set/.
Eskimo and European relation-
ships, alleged, 195 et seq.
Etruscans, 165, 180 et seq., 286 <tf
seq., 302, 309
Eurafrican species, 257 et seq.
Eurasiatic species, 241 et seq., 262
et seq.
Evans, A. J., 44, 95. 97, 157. iSi,
300
Eye-colour in Germany, 14
Face, anthropology of, 257
Faidherbe, 60, 1 1 5
Finnic type, 1 5
Flower, 77
Fouquet, 94, 103
France, anthropology of, 163, 188
et seq., 210 et seq.
Franks, 18
Fiiesland, Neanderthal type still
persisting in, 203 t
Garson, 208
Gciger, 5
Gerba, anthropology of, 120
Germans as primitive Aryans, 8
Germany, anthropology of modem,
1 2 el seq.
Great Biitain, anthropology of,
205 et seq.
Greece, anthropology of, 165 et
seq.
Greenwcll, 205
Grimth, 87
Guanches, anthropology of, 128
et seq.
Hair colour in Germany, 14
1 lamiles, 40 et seq.
Hartmann, 66
Hatshepsu, 85
Herodotus, anthropological evi-
dence from, 46 et seq., 167 et seq.
Herve, 190
Hieroglyphic script, 98
Hittiles, 25, 144 et sej.
Holder, 17, 220
Holl, Ij
Homer and the fair type in Greece,
1 3 et seq.
Homo Alpinns, 263
Iberians, 159 et seq.
Issel, 304
Italici, 176 et seq.
Italy, anthropology of, 164, 172
et seq.
Jones, M , 246
Kabyles, 67
Keane, 43, 125, 158, 162, 179,
225, 253, 258, 309
Kohl, 219
Kollmann, 236
Kurgan type of skull, 140, 226
et seq.
Language, Egyptian, TOO; of
Mediterranean race generally,
305 et seq.
Lapponic type, 15
Latham, 5
Latin, origin of, 314
Letourneau, 296
Letourneux, 64
Libyans, Sallust on, 57
Ligurians, 162 et seq
Linear writing characters, 97, 296
et seq.
Lissauer, 17
Lithuanians, 21 et seq.
Livi, 73
Lomhroso, 156
Luschan, F. von, 136, 148
INDEX.
319
Lycia, anthropology of, 148
Macalislcr, no
Martin, 65
Malirgka, J_M
Megalithic tombs in Africa, 64,
70
Mehlis, 219
Meyer, 136
Montelius, 181, 199, 288, 289
Morgan, De, 88, 91, 94, iO2,
275. 299
Mortillet, G. de, 191
Moschen. 12
Milller, Max, 5, 7
Miiller, O., 166
Mycencean culture, 279 ef set/,
Myres, 181, 276, 279, 294
Naqada, 88 et seq.
Naville, 87
Neanderthal type of skull, 10, 77,
191, 2OI et seq.
Neo-Celtic, 246
Neolithic times, brachycephals of,
237 et set/. ; uniformity of cul-
ture during, 275
" New race in Egypt, Petrie'-s
89 el set/., 113
Ohnefalsch-Richter, 152, 276, 279,
281, 294
Orsi, 277, 283
Palaeolithic implements in Africa,
42, 80
Pelas»ians, 165 tt st<j
Penka, 8 et seq.
Petrie, F., 84, 88, 95, 102, 113,
275- 279
Ph'i-nicians. anthropology of, 15
ft stq.\ their diffusion of al[.li.i
1*1, 302
Pi. let, 7
I'ietle, 273, 297
Pigmentation of Meiliterranean
253
Pigmies of Murop-, 233 ft teq.
Pigorini, 271, 287
Pit.ud, 215
rithtcanthrofus e>ef/ns, 2OI
Poole, 76
I'iischc, 8
Pott, 7
Pruncr Bey, 66, 69
Punites, 76, Betsey., 154
Quatrefages, 63,
Quedenfeldt, 75
Ranke. 13
Reihengraber type, 10, 14, 219,
220, 225, 252
Rcinach, 107, 289
Retzius. 222
Rhys, 246
Ripley, 214, 255, 261
Roknia skulls u$etseq.
Rossellini, 76
Russia, anthropology of, 226 et se./.
Saint-Martin, 47. 54
Salmon, 190, 212, 237
Sayce, 84. 146
Scandinavia, as cradle of white
race, 10; when first inhabited,
199; anthropology of, 221 et uq.
Schliemann, 283
Schmidt, 107, 237
Schrader, 7
Schweinfurlh, 103
Scilax, 49
Sepulture, in Africa, 64, 70 et
seq. ; among Mediterranean
stock generally, 266 et seq.
Seton-Karr, 42
Sicily, culture of, 283 e! seq.
Siret, 289
Slavs, 8, 230
Somaliland as cradle ol Mediter-
ranean race, 42
Spain, anthropoli>gy <»f, 150^ <e</.;
influence of, on Sicily, 289
Stature of Mediterranean race, 25 \
Slieda, 227
Switzerland, anthropology of, 213
320
INDEX.
Tamahu, 64, 68, 75 el seq.
Taylor, Canon, 21
Terramare culture, 287
Thane, 102
Thomson, IO2
Thurnam, 161, 205, 207
Tissot, 53. 62
Tombs, architecture of, 266 et seq.
Topinard, 62, 119
Tsountas, 280
Tuaregs, 53, 95
Tunis, anthropology or, 120 et set].
Ujfalvy, 264
Uvarof, 226
Vandals in Africa, supposed, 59
Verneau, 129, 130
Viking type of skull, 222 el seq.,
252
Virchow, 10, 15, 17, 203, 237
Weinzerl, 220
VVeisgerl)cr, 8 1
Welcker, 12
Wiedemann, 92
Wilson, 273
Wright, 146
Writing, in Egypt, 95 et se.j. ;
origins of, 296 ei seq.
Zaborowski, 43, 103
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29 PAPERS OP STBELE AND ADDISOU.
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31 VOLSUNGA SAGA.
32 SARTOR RESARTU3.
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84 LIFE OF LORD HERBERT.
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36 IBSEN'S PILLARS OF SOCIETY.
37 IRISH FAIRY AND FOLK TALES.
38 ESSAYS OF DR. JOHNSON.
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40 LANDOR'S PENTAMERON, &c.
41 POE'S TALES AND ESSAYS.
42 VICAR OF WAKEFIELD.
43 POLITICAL ORATIONS.
44 AUTOCRAT OK THE BREAKFAST-
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46 PROFESSOR AT THE BREAKFAST
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49 JANE EYRE.
50 ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND.
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68 TALES FROM \VoNI>i:i:l.ANI>.
C'.» .IKRROLirs E-SAY8.
70 THE RIGHTS OK WOMAN.
71 "THE ATHENIAN ORACLE."
72 ESSAYS OF SAINTE-BEUVE.
LECTIONS FROM PLATO.
74 HEINE'S TRAVEL SKETCHES.
75 MAID OF ORLEANS!
76 SYDNEY SMITH.
77 THE NEW SPIRIT.
73 MALORY'S BOOK OF MAR-
VELLOUS ADVENTURES.
70 HELPS' ESSAYS k APHORISMS
80 ESSAYS OF MONTAIGNE.
81 THACKERAY'S BARRY LYNDON.
' -MILLER'S WILLIAM TELL.
83 CARLYLE'S GERMAN ESSAYS.
84 LAMB'S ESSAYS.
85 WORDSWORTH'S PROSE
86 LEOPARD1 S DIALOGUES.
."7 THE INSI'Ki TOR-GENKUAL.
>- HACON'S ESSAYS.
KI 1'KoSK OF MILTON.
9t) PLATO'S REPUBLIC.
91 PASSAGES FROM FROISSART.
92 PROSE OF COLERIDGE.
T.INE IN ART AND LETTERS.
94 ESSAYS OF DE QUINJ'EY.
95 VASARI'S LIVES OF ITALIAN
PAINTERS.
96 LES-SING'S LAOCOON.
97 PLAYS OF MAETERLINCK.
98 WALTON'S COMPLETE ANGLER
99 LESSING'S NATHAN THE WISE
100 STUDIES BY REN AN.
101 MAXIMS OF GOETHE.
102 SCHOPENHAUER,
103 RENAN'S LIFE OF JESUS.
104 CONFESSIONS OF SAINT
AUGUSTINE.
105 PRINCIPLES OF SUCCESS IN
LITERATURE (G. H. Lewes).
106 WHAT IS ART! (Tolstoy).
107 WALTON'S LIVES.
108 RENAN'S ANTICHRIST.
109 ORATIONS OF CICERO.
110 REFLECTIONS ON THB REVOLU-
TION IN FRANCE (E. Burke).
111 LETTERS OF THE YOUNGER
PLINY. (Series I.)
112 Do. (Scries II.)
113 SELECTED THOUGHTS OP
BLAISE PASCAL.
114 SCOTS ESSAYISTS.
LonJon: WALTER Scon, Paternoster Square.
The Canterbury Poets.
EDITED BY WILLIAM SHARP. Cloth, Cut and Uncut Edges, is.; Red Roan,
Gilt Edges, 2s. 6d.; Pad. Morocco, Gilt Edges, 55.
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1 CHRISTIAN YEAR
2 COLERIDGE
3 LONGFELLOW
4 CAMPBELL
5 SHELLEY
6 WORDSWORTH
7 BLAKE
8 VVHITTIER
9 POE
10 CHATTERTON
11 BURNS. Songs
12 BURNS. Poems
13 MARLOWE
14 KEATS
15 HERBERT
16 HUGO
17 COWPER]
18 SHAKESPEARE'S POEMS, etc.
19 EMERSON
20 SONNETS OF THIS CEN-
TURY
21 WHITMAN
22 SCOTT. Lady of the Lake, etc.
23 SCOTT. Marmion, etc.
24 PRAED
25 HOGG
26 GOLDSMITH
27 LOVE LETTERS, etc.
28 SPENSER
29 CHILDREN OF THE POETS
30 JONSON
31 BYRON. Miscellaneous
32 BYRON. Don Juan
33 THE SONNETS OF EUROPE
34 RAMSAY
35 DOBELL
36 POPE
37 HEINE
38 BEAUMONT & FLETCHER
39 BOWLES, LAMB, etc.
40 SEA MUSIC
41 EARLY ENGLISH POETRY
42 HERRICK
43 BALLADES AND RONDEAUS
44 IRISH MINSTRELSY
45 MILTON'S PARADISE LOST
46 JACOBITE BALLADS
47 DAYS OF THE YEAR
48 AUSTRALIAN BALLADS
49 MOORE
London : WALTER SCOTT, Paternoster Square.
The Canterbury Poets -continued.
50 BORDER I;ALLADS
51 SONG-TIDE
52 DDKS OF HORACE
53 OSS I AN
54 FAIRY MUSIC
55 SOUTHEY
56 CHAUCER
57 GOLDEN TREASURY
58 POFMS OF WILD LIFE
59 PARADISE REGAINED
60 CRABBE
61 DORA GREENWELL
62 FAfST
63 AMERICAN SONNETS
64 LANDOR'S POEMS
65 GREEK ANTHOLOGY
66 HUNT AND HOOD
67 HUMOROUS POEMS
68 LYTTON'S PLAYS
69 GREAT ODES
70 MKKF.DITirS POEMS
71 IMITATION OF CHRIST
72 NAVAL SONGS
73 PAINTER POETS
74 WOMEN POETS
75 LOVK LYRICS
76 AMERICAN HUMOROUS
VLKSE
77 SCOTTISH MINOR POETS
78 CAVAI.II:R LYRISTS
79 GERMAN BALLADS
80 SONGS OF BE RANGER
81 RODEN NOEL'S POEMS
82 SONGS OF FREEDOM
83 CANADIAN POEMS
84 CONTEMPORARY SCOT-
TISH VERSE
85 POEMS OF NATURE
86 CRADLE SONGS
87 BALLADS OF SPORT
88 MATTHEW ARNOLD
89 CLOUGH'S BOTHIE
90 BROWNING'S POEMS
Pippa Passes, etc. Vol. I.
91 BROWNING'S POEMS
A Blot in the 'Scutcheon, etc.
Vol. 2.
92 BROWNING'S POEMS
Dramatic Lyrics. Vol. 3.
93 MACKAY'S LOVER'S MIS-
SAL
94 HENRY KIRKE WHITE
95 LYRA NICOTIAN A
96 AURORA LEIGH
97 TENNYSON'S POEMS
In Memoriam, etc.
98 TENNYSON'S POEMS
The Princess, etc.
99 WAR SONGS
100 JAMES THOMSON
101 ALEXANDER SMITH
London : WALTRK SCOTT, Paternoster Square.
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V.
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