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MEMOIRS 


OF THE 


LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL 


SOCIETY OF MANCHESTER. 


THIRD SERIES. 


THIRD VOLUME, 


LONDON: H. BAILLIERE, 219 Recent Srrzer, 
AND 290 Broapway, New York. 
PARIS: J. BAILLIERE, Ruz Havrerevinse. 


1868. 


piahedleh oof Leal as 


M26 


PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, 


RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 


CONTENTS 

ARTICLE PAGE 

I.—On the Composition of the Atmosphere. By R. Ancus Surrn, 
Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of the Society.................. te 

II.—Notes on Marine Shells found in Stratified Drift near Maccles- 
field. By R.D. Darpisures, B.A., F.G.S. ...... ce eee 56 

TIJ.—On some Products derived from Indigo-blue. By Epwarp 
IS CEN UIN Cees ODD) ERE Sees cg te lan clcrae ape ate Rayuia ote dreloaiclociaie Sele we ae 66 


TV.—On some Physiological Effects of Carbonic Acid and Ventilation. 
* By R. Aneus Smrtu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of the 


SCLC UY ater ete se tere eto eatin sei stewie galsinni veinfotisajaeleativsuie mi gl. 
V.—Further Observations on the Permian and ‘Triassic Strata of 

Lancashire. By HE. W. Binnny, E.R.S., F.G.S................ 108 
VI.—On the Plumules or Battledore Scales of Lycenide. By Jonn 

IPAS ONG RIS Cite Nae cerantreieacirieticigeensetatneneaccantacaamen seme eaasset 128 


VII:—Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions and their 
subsequent Application to different purposes. By J. C. 

AUD) yee SCP V ldrea | ger ae Me enter Ucerauntac amaintrctanem re vorselosiae oesis oer 134 
VIII.—On the amount of Carbonic Acid contained in the Air above the 
Trish Sea. By T. E. Tuorrs, Assistant in the Private Labo- 
ratory, Owens College. Communicated by Professor H. E. 

Roscoz, F.R.S. &c. ....... Boe bebe Nnsatenbeieucmecen saa necee 150 

IX.—Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions and their — 

subsequent Application to different purposes.—Part II. By 

Diy CD VERSO Vas ty cua tedueseciawene seseichsabinteieddsicaseeces 161 
X.—Questions regarding the Life-History of the Foraminifera, sug- 
gested by examinations of their dead shells. By Tuomas 

PASE COCKE IVIEID) Saree er enema Sete ANS ae aie tte iene ie o'vie S's 175 
XI.—On Air from the Mid-Atlantic, and from some London Law 

Courts. By R. Aneus Suits, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President... 181 
XII.—On Minimetric Analysis. By R. AEDS Smitu, Ph.D., F.R.S., 


(idee CAR i(0 elDLn Cenc cne RCE oRSBEr aS RR IRE COCR GOEL ECE CHOC a oReC Ce I TaHeRES 187 
XIIT.—Catalogue of Binary Stars, with Tntredcione Remarks. By 
ALFRED BROTHERS, FUR.A.S.  ...0.....ccceccsececceccccsevceaceeeees 204 


XTV.—On Mosses new to Britain. By G. H. Hunt, Bsq. ............... 231 


vl CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE PAGE 

XV.—On Polymorphina tubulosa. By Tuomas Aucocn, M.D. ... 244 
XVI.—On the Mean Weekly Temperature at Old Trafford, Man- 
chester, for the Seventeen Years 1850 to 1866. By G. V. 

Vernon, WARGAGS:, BUMES!.  sccccscccceccceccsodeccesseseenteeeeeee 250 
XVII.—Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions, and 
their subsequent Application to different purposes. Part 

DT. By J.C. Dyer, Esq Vibe psceccese seen eee ee eeeee 253 
XVIII.—Further Remarks on the Plumules or Battledore Scales of 
some of the Lepidoptera, with Illustrations by Mr. J. 

SipesoTHam. By Joun Watson, Hsq. ...........---.eeeeeeees 259 
XIX.—On the variable Star R Vulpecule. a=20% 58™ 22°98. 
0=+23°17'2'. Ep. 1865°0. By Grorce Knorr, F.R.A.S. 


Communicated by Josrpu BaxenpELL, F.R.A.S. ............ 270 
XX.—Observations of the Meteoric Shower of November 13-14, 
1866. By Joseru BaxEnpent, FVR.AS. ................0000 275 
XXI.— Observations of the New Variable Star, T Corone. By Josupx 
IBAXENDEDL, HOREANS )) icnsesatnedseseee en avect asec eeenanaeee ees 279 


XXII.—Notes on Varieties of Sarothamnus scoparius, Koch, and 
Stachys betonica, Beuth., from the Lizard, Cornwall. By 


CHARLES BAIiEy, (Hsq). 2.065 ccenenecng soos sles senesisaseaieeeeiiee 284 
XXITII.—Notes on Wood-eating Coleoptera. By JosErpn SIDEBOTHAM, 
NSO Rs jaeewsieSackaaeseaanegalseepemea dees sbenenacaest Ateseeeeeeee eee 288 


XXITV.—On a New Form of the Dynamic Method for Measuring the 
Magnetic Dip. By Sir Wixiu14m Tomson, M.A., D.C.L., 


F.R.S., &c., Honorary Member of the Society ............... 291 
XXV.—Observations on the Alteration of the Freezing-point in Ther- 
mometers. By Dr. J. P. Jounz, F.R.S., V.P. ............ 292 


XXVI,—On the Microscopical Examination of Coal-Ash, or Dust from 
the Flue of a Furnace, illustrated by the Microscope. By 
J. B: DAncEr, BURGAS. oecutcos oon esasanceeee spe see eee eee 293 
XXVIT.—Notes on Cotton-Spimning Machinery. Roving-Frames. 
Byd.C: Dyer; Wsq:) Vee ic cecsacaqesc sees cece ae eee eee 297 


| “The Authors of the several Papers contained in this 
Volume are themselves accountable for all the sieve 
- sal reasonings which they have offered. In these par- 


- ticulars the Society must not be considered as in any way 


~ responsible. 


MEMOIRS 


OF THE 


LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


OF MANCHESTER. 


I. On the Composition of the Atmosphere. By R. Anceus 
Smith, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President of the Society. 


Read November 15th, 1864. 


In this paper I have given, first, the inquiry into the 
composition of the atmosphere contained in a report to 
the Royal Mines Commission; and secondly, a subse- 
quent inquiry, chiefly relating to specimens taken from 
various parts of Scotland, but including some from other 
countries. | 
When it was found necessary to compare the air of 
mines with the standard atmosphere, I found that, although 
I had read on the subject, I was unable to tell the composi- 
tion of the air with great certainty and exactness. After 
examining many analyses, I came to the conclusion that 
the mean of Regnault’s Paris analyses gave the oxygen 
very correctly as 20°96; and, after examining many speci- 
mens, I still consider that as a fair mean. But, lest this 
should be disputed, I took 20°9 as the number, which 
SER. III. VOL. III. B 


2 


2 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


would sufficiently serve the purpose, and prevent any one 
from asserting that I was endeavouring to make out a 
case against the air underground. This number had 
already been taken by high authorities as mdicating the 
amount of oxygen. 

For my own satisfaction, however, it was needful to 
add greatly to the data from which to judge. Finding, 
too, that the numbers given by chemists varied exceed- 
ingly, I felt it necessary to quire into the cause of the 
discrepancy. 

I believe I have shown that the air of various places gives, 
from local causes, a difference in the amount of oxygen, 
and that this difference, although apparently very small, 
does in reality indicate important changes of quality, or, 
in other words, that the amount of oxygen is in reality an 
important guide in considering the purity of an atmosphere, 
although we must deal, not with percentages, but with 
parts in ten thousand. 


Amount of Oxygen in Pure Air. 


When Priestley discovered oxygen, he examined the air 
of various places, and found the amounts of this gas to 
differ to the extent of 6 per cent. He used as a test nitric 
oxide, which combines with the oxygen, after which both 
gases, viz. the combined oxygen and nitric oxide, are 
absorbed by water. At one time he obtained one-fifth of 
oxygen, which is nearly the exact amount; but he did not 
seize the idea forcibly. 

Scheele found from 20 to 30 per cent., and others found 
still greater variations, until Cavendish showed, by 500 
examinations of atmospheric air, that it had a nearly con- 
stant composition, and arrived at a mean of oxygen equal 
to 20°833 per cent.* 


* See Dr. George Wilson’s calculations in his Life of Cavendish. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


Gay-Lussac and Humboldt, after many experiments, which 


gave from 20'9 to 21°2, settled on a mean of ....,............. 210 p.c. 
Gay-Lussac himself gave as a mean of the air from mountains 
and from Paris ............ Se saccuniaicsneianenanes modbacscOsodecnedoun 21°49 
(21°08 
| 20°98 
21°03 
21°03 
21°13 
21°15 
21°08 
De Saussure examined the air at Chambeisy and found ...... 21°09 
20°98 
, 21086 
21°006 
211 
210 
(2104 
WMiernitemasenescecnasesccn ctnesckteteentdeccsecscssssesscsoass 2X05 
BerthollebtOUMG °. cps .cuesicecxaneces-veces cagccncanbencosoaunce sooee 2105 P.C. 
PROMI NOMIC OMe nwaacceeasciaceas) -ninseishiveecsseaeeesnscdaceseasens ae ARS 
Hl) anpVgieceseae cesses sobs n sen sewa tte ae aside caidomebicdswew@eceiisdcdesegesses 21° 
Vogel found on the Baltic ........... Bae ee cise teas tees calet daesinn cs 21°59 
Hermbstadt COR Reise tet e trcaahtrnsed esau teiosaecelscistaeccanis oo ©6215 
Dalton, at Manchester ..........00.esesecesseeess Bele senttae Been OR 
By PsN pMecanistctisisiswieisclsieeisicreisiacisia/cloretale papaoocéeoeeso8 e. 20°8 
: 3 (in a N.E. aa) daiecmacoue es csmecestaas 21°15 
x > oneccdcuanctnogéeoosoosesc aadacnosedsces aconcocg PASH) 
o ” snogdochdseadsbds Tdasotobnobeanopoesobososencgse 20°73 
6 Ph on ter BODCOSE COR EIOCOEG Soceeeccne Suniewnlslesicisialevisiveicie » 20°85 
a5 poten aseeee cee Sn gddoscanooqgconoDRecosoobadaNGe0] ees ZO-O5 
Doyere found ....... Sodboaee sgesonsnososnssosocanaoe Soowed 2075 = t0. 21°5 
Regnault gave as the result of 100 specimensin Paris 20°913 20°999 
GprommlyOns ANG ATOUNG, ciivcccscemseiesseesienec sees 20°918 20°966 
BOM eberlin eonccecss Sododande npooosocsen6e0c sesesseee 20°908 20°998 
to ,, Madrid .......... eubacwccassterae: poondGadKddes 20°916 207982 
23 ,, Geneva and Switzerland ............. Scene 2.0°909 20°993 
15 ,, Toulon and Mediterranean ............00... 20°912 20°982 
5 ,, Atlantic Orean ............ oogoascecaooconoecoon | FASRE)GS 20°965 
1 , Ecuador... SC aD OJON SCHOO AU SOLO SER OOCEROELC 20°960 
2 ,, Pichincha, Tieton tha Mont Blane seseee 20°949 20°981 
Mean of all foregoing .......,.seseesessseees 20°949 207988 


Mean of the Paris specimens, 20°96. 


RB 2 


A DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


Bunsen’s analyses of air at Heidelberg are as follows :— 


Oxygen. Oxygen. 

20°970 20°927 Pp. Cs 

20°963 20°919 

20°927 20°880 

20°914 20°921 

20°950 20°892 

2.0°906 20°840 

20°943 20°859 

2.0°927 20°925 

2.0°934 ZEN 

20°928 20°937 

20°91 2.0°952 

20°889 20°953 

20°928 20°964. 

20°927 20°960 
Average ...... AOOPL'. cnosen Lowest ...... 2.0°840 
R. F. Marchand finds ..........0+006 20°9 t0 21°03 

IMIG BRB.¢ooosq000sn 0H s000RSa0GD000000000 20°97 

Grahamgeivesi.wmessecgdeseseecne cee 20°9 
Ge b1g PIVES Hs. sueensclseeeeecsaaelse wal 2019 


Regnault has made the greatest number of analyses; no 
man can doubt his power of analyzing well, and he is famous, 
above all things, for his laborious accuracy. Probably 
his analyses represent most nearly the true composition 
of the atmosphere. 'The analyses made by Bunsen deserve 
equal respect: he is also a man famous for the minute 
accuracy of his details, and I would not for a moment 
put him second to Regnault or to any man; both stand 
before us as the best specimens of chemical investigators— 
both living, andin their prime. This is a strong argument 
for preferrmg their work to the work of chemists of a past 
generation. These two have greatly improved the methods 
of analysis. Still I prefer to take Regnault’s results, be- 
cause they are obtained by a more extensive inquiry. Per-' 
haps the court of the laboratory where Bunsen obtained 
his specimens may have contained less oxygen than the 
purest air; at any rate, we cannot doubt Bunsen’s accuracy, 
especially when he gives us these as model analyses. 


COMPOSITION OF THE “\TMOSPHERE. 5 


Judging from all the analyses, I am more inclined to 
look on a very favourable specimen of air as proved to 
contain— 


(Oha xia Soe cconcencooccsacoaneoaoee 20°96 
INGEROP CW oie ee cee ccsesessanele ses 79°00 
Carbonic acid ..............:00008: 04 

100°00 


But this is evidently subject to numberless changes. To 
be moderate, I have assumed 20'9 of oxygen; and Graham 
and Liebig have done so before me. This is done simply 
to be within the mark when speaking of the mines. 


Analyses made by various Methods. 


The earliest analyses were made with gases soluble in 
liquids. Nitric oxide united with the oxygen of the air; 
and the resulting compound was absorbed. . But, taking 
all together, they agree with the latest results as well as 
can be expected. If we examine the results obtained by 
weighing, we find remarkable differences. It would be 
difficult to illustrate this difference more clearly than by 
the analyses of Lewy. When he used the balance he 
found— | , ALi | 


Air of the German Ocean. 


Oxygen. 
2nd August 1841 ...... Covered ...... 2.0°4.59 
3rd Os) scasee PINE Ts: wens. -| 201423 
3rd Os Beene GlOR Eonoencee 2.0°4.50 
4th do. asses Os Gases. 20°4.32 
22nd May 1842 ...... Covered ...... 20°884 
spinel © 6@s ———“Geonad INTNG) “oeacacs0e 20°91 
23rd do. ...eee| Covered ...... 20°893 
24th Goigtey | tees: dot Pass 21°010 

_ 24th do. Meese OOS = ec asics 20°839 


6 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


Air of Guadaloupe. | 
Oxygen in 
100 vol. 
Petit Canal ............c0:c0000 20 Nov. 1842...| Calm ...} 20°839 
ony yeeseesseeeeewenon rene 20 do. ...|Calm...| 20-821 
GOie Yo siaseacscseeaneenes 21 do. ...| Fine ...| 20°848 
ab Sooadbosabanceecbenos 23. do. ...| Covered] 207929 
do. sopannegbedoosn09000" 23. +do.  ...| Calm...} 20°667 ‘ 
Mangrove on the River Salée] 27 do. ...| Calm...| 20°839 . _« 
do. do. 28 do. ...| Fine ...} 20°504 
do. do. 23 A 1dOsse) ests eat epee 2.0°522 
Petit Bourg ........s+e000 coe... 29 do. ...| Fine ...| 20802 


When he used Spe by hydrogen, his results were 
as follows :— 


Lewy’s Analyses of the Air of the Atlantic Ocean. Car- 
bonic acid in 1000 parts. (Annales de Chimie et de Phys., 
vol. xxxiv., 1852.) 


Hach a mean of 


3 Analyses. 
1847. ces 
one | Oxygen 
Acid per oan 
per 
1000. 
1 Dec. | Cloudy ....... ..| 0°4881| 21°05170] We left Havre on the 25th 
November. The weather 
was wet, and remained so 
all the time we were in the 
Channel. 
4 Dec. | Clear............ 0°3338) 20°96321 
8 Dec. | A little cloudy | 0°5497| 21°05945] 54 leagues from Madeira. 
17 Dec. | Clear ............ 0°5771| 21°06030] 30 leagues south of tropics. 
18 Dec.} Do. .........00 0°334.6] 20°96139) Middle between Africa and 
18 Dec.| A little cloudy | 0°5420|21°06099| America. 
19 Dec.| Clear ............ 0°3388| 20°96074) Sea phosphorescent. 
26 Dec.| Do. ....0...00.. 0°5288| 21°05889 
28 Dec.| Do. ....... eeeee| 0°5093| 21°05636 
20) Deen ap oneenscteeeses 0°5143| 21°05789 
31 Dec.| Do. ......0060s. 0°3767| 21°01114| Entering port of Santa 
Marta. 


Locality. 


© veecce 


Esperanza ...... 


Guaduas 


Santa Ana...... 


Bogota .. 


Montserrat 


a 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


~ Air of New Granada. 


Mean of three 
Analyses. 


1848. | Weather. | Car- 
bonie | Oxygen 
acid per] per cent. 


Santa Marta ...| 25 Jan. |Clear 
Mompox 
Rio Magdalena) 18 Feb. 
Rio Magdalena] 3 Mar. 
Honda .... 


7 Feb. | Do. 


Covered ... 


1000. 


6 | 21°02379 


seeeee| O°3947 | 21°04936 


9 | 21°03222 


0°45 54. | 20°99826 


29 Mar. |Verycloudy| 0°3226 | 20°99237 


5 Apr. |Clear 


8 July |Cloudy 


eoceee I°I2z0 


sbaocd| CPG 


3 | 20°54833| Suffocating hot; 
wood burning 


near. 
5 | 20°33075| Do. 
8 | 20°99691 

3 | 20°544.79 Do. 


0°4994 | 21703196 


5 | 20798995] Rain beginning. 


Lewy’s Analyses of the Air of Bogota, 2645 metres 
above the Sea. ; 


Carbonic 
acid in 
1000 parts. 

1850. 
7 Mar. | Clear. .| 073864 
12 April} do. ..| 073664 
$ May | Covered | 0°3609 
9 May | do. 0°382.4 
15 June| do. o°4192 
24. July | Clear 0°4249 
1g Aug. | Cloudy.| 075043 
23 Aug. | Clear 0°48 12 
1 Sept. | Cloudy .| 0°6178 
2 Sept. | Clear 07649 
2 Sept. | Cloudy.) 16291 
2 Sept. | do. 1°7040 
3 Sept. | Clear. .| 1°5853 
3 Sept. | Cloudy.| 4°8963 
3 Sept.| do. ..| 4:9043 
4 Sept.| do. ..| 173261 
4 Sept. | Covered | 0°8648 
8 Sept. | Cloudy.) 1:2829 
9 Sept.| do. ..| 07512 
10 Sept. | Clear 0°4.583 
12 Sept. | Cloudy.| 04709 


0°47 51 


Oxygen 
im 100 
parts. 


21°02099 
21°00382 
20°99032 
20°99250 
20°99 506 
21°01765 
2101411 
21°01826 
21°024.34. 
21°01700 
20°96629 
2103011 
21°01976 
21°03176 
21°03197 
21°02927 
21700355 
21°02097 
21°03082 
21°03199 
21°02689 
21°02377 


Fine. 
After rain. 
Wet. 

Wet. 

Less wet. 


Very fine. 


The upper part of Montserrat 
was covered with ciouds, 
and a white veil descended 
from the mountain. Many 
persons became ill. Thinks 
the carbonic acid due to a 
wind called Las Quemas. 
After rain it disappeared. 


8 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


It would appear as if he went in both cases slightly to 
excess ; but it is not well to attempt to judge on this point. 

Dumas and Boussingault together and Brunner obtain 
also less oxygen; they used weights; and they also are 
men standing, like Regnault and Bunsen, in the foremost 
rank. 


Oxygen 
per cent. 
Paris Dumas & Boussingault. 
Brussels ... ; M. Stas. 
Genéve M. Marignac. 
Bern M. Brunner. 
Faulhorn 
Groningen ............ 20°793 | Verver. 
Copenhagen ......... 20°811 


In looking over the analyses already presented, some 
of them means of hundreds, and the whole representing 
many years of labour, we see at once how many give the 
amount of oxygen tobe above 20'9. As a rule those num- 
bers which fall below 20°9 represent air from cities and less 
pure places or from high mountains, or they have been ob- 
tained by weighing the oxygen, a method which seems 
always to give lower results. Take the conclusion of 
Cavendish, wonderful at the time, that the average was 
20°833, we are surprised at the accuracy of the man who 
used a method by which no one now seems able to obtain 
any reliable results. It cannot be supposed to take from 
the honour of Cavendish, if we add one-tenth of a per cent. 
to his figures after sixty years of scientific activity has made 
that apparatus the plaything of boys which in his time it 
required a philosopher to handle. He used acid liquids ; 
_ and how easy it is to lose a fraction of a per cent. every 
man who has worked with gas must know and feel most 
keenly. If, however, any one shall object to this reasoning, 
we must put up against him Saussure, a man using the 
same method, and we find his average much higher, viz. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 9 


21°05. ‘This also is strengthened by the labours of Gay- 
Lussac, Berthollet, Thomson, Davy, and Humboldt, all 
men to whom we must attend. Cavendish could not de- 
cide that the London air differed from that of the country. 
(See Dr. Wilson’s Life of Cavendish.) 

Dalton laboured long on gases; and although his thoughts 
were generally greater than his experiments when a theory 
could be found, few men could so persistently labour out 
the facts where no theory existed. On the composition of 
the air of Manchester he is moderate, and, it seems to me, 
just. | 

Dumas and Boussingault in conjunction, and also Brunner, 
gave results by weighing the oxygen. The air was con- 
veyed in bottles, and the bottles themselves were filled by 
sending them free of air, and allowing the air for analysis 
to flow in. There are objections to this method. It is 
extremely dependent on the accuracy of the apparatus used, 
and, if I am at all right in my judgment, the tendency is to 
diminish the amount of oxygen; for although the specific 
gravity of nitrogen does not differ greatly from that of 
oxygen, it does differ, and is lighter. At any rate I believe 
the list of analyses given to be a fair representation of the 
work done. They may be taken as the evidence of the 
scientific world on the subject. 

Regnault’s analyses are’very beautiful, and the uniformity 
of his results predisposes us strongly im their favour. Their 
number comes in to increase their importance. 

Another reason why I admire the results of Regnault is 
one of a kind which affects all men, and which may be ex- 
cused. They agree with my own, made in an open part of 
Manchester. His results are 20°913-20'99 for Paris; and 
all the numbers he made are above 20°9 until he comes to 
unwholesome places with putrid waters. A similar reason 
leads me to believe in the analyses by Bunsen, and those of 
Dalton made in Manchester, as I found like results when 


10 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


air from close places was examined. Those of Dr. Frank- 
land are also corroborative. 

It will be seen that I now consider 20'9 as representing 
air very inferior only, leaving out any reference to that from 
great heights. Even with this liberal allowance I found | 
only 10°67 per cent. of the specimens of the air of mines 
capable of comparing with normal air. 


Air deviating from the adopted Standard. 
Air from Heights. 


Oxygen. 
Daltonere.ncssrerste er eeeer Teh gellliaayy AceaseapnGoeons30090035550% 2.0" 64, 
bs sdledaaauaecenaaeneee Siict’) * lsaleaisioitislen @altec aah oer eee EE 20°63 
ron asheiphtlofigGooteebirea.c-ettoes- esse ee eeeee eee eee 20°7 
p a TiS; OOO Mas? (ules de niole ewes ae auemissteeee eee neaeh eee 20°62 
LETH PULOET I sooacoogocconsnos006 Maa OPIN oss ctent tose stiastane nee eeeee 20°91 
Boussingault ............... 548 metres high.................006 20°7 
BoBeonuoBdaoHoR Santa 6) 2643 es. .-esene- nse ee ZOlOs 
Air Dronnne by Green from a height of 11,300 feet............ Die 
Frankland .................. Chamounixieesnenen setae eee eetee 20°894. 
Sy h + caideinetinpeineciaseee Top of Mont Blanc ............... 20°963 
CORR LE ean) HEARSE hr Adare & Grand Miulétets..csssssseeneeceeeee 20°802 
TESTE neo ooscnocnogsoceaanoeS Jura and other mountains ...... 2.0°3 
(Weaond0ss0n0a0s000000000000 noosbor vee 21°63 
Configliachi .................. SETPOINT soonsonnopsngssnooaascoabonsss 21 
Mieain iis. snsr-uescesrescestuiinentceseceneee een aac neeeeeee 20°818 


I leave out some under 20:2, and still we have a rather 
curious result—a lower number on the hills than on the 
plains. I do not profess to be fully satisfied with these 
results ; we require a few hundred, or at least a few dozen 
analyses; still these statements are before us, and cannot 
be removed without much labour. The results of Frank- 
land and Boussingault especially are striking, and require 
an explanation. Let us again compare results obtained by 
Dumas and Boussingault (Annales de Chimie, 1841). 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


Oxygen. 


By weight, 22°93 
9» —- 2.306 
” 23°03 
0 23°01 
+p 23°00 
6 23°00 
33 23°08 
2 22°07 
” 22°89 


Oxygen. 
By weight, 22°96 
” 23°09 


Air of Paris. 


Calculated to volume* ... 
«.- 20°356 
eee 20°828 
..- 20°810 


From the Faulhorn. 


Calculated to volume * 


Brunner found ............ sibne copes 


Oxygen. 
20°729 


e. 20°802 
. 20°802 
.» 20°826 
. 20°864. 
. 20°70 


20°864. 


Oxygen. 


... 20°766 
.. 20°882 
+ 20°774. 
». 20°674. 

... 20°774 


20°774 


V1 


Although, for reasons given, I prefer the actual numbers 
obtained by Regnault, the comparative numbers in Paris 
and in the Faulhorn are equally valuable for the purpose 


of showing differences. 


weighing. 


These analyses were made by 


Dr. W. A. Miller examined air collected during a balloon 
ascent, in August 1852, at a height of 18,000 feet, and also 


* The results are calculated into volumes, taking 1°1057, the number taken 
by the analysts as the sp. gr. of oxygen. 


ily.) DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


a sample collected near the surface at the same time, with 
the following results :— 


Air 18,000 Air near 

feet high. the earth. 
Percentage of oxygen ............ 20°88 20°92 

Dr. Frankland* found at— 

Oxygen. Carbonic acid. 
Grands Muléts .................. 20°802 5 opitrine 
Summit of Mont Blanc......... 20°963 o'061 
Chamounise,...necsseesneansen eter 20°894 0°063 


He thinks it probable that the carbonic acid is generally, 
but not invariably, greater in the higher regions of the 
atmosphere. Messrs. H. and A. Schlagintweit found the 
carbonic acid to increase up to the height of 11,000 feet. 

If the carbonic acid of the higher regions be really greater 
than in the best air below, and the oxygen less, it will pro- 
bably be in part owing to the oxidation having been com- 
pleted more fully. De Saussure considered it to be owing 
to the action of vegetation decomposing the acid and giving 
out oxygen at the surface. The organic matter will pro- 
bably be entirely removed by thorough oxidation in great 
oceans of air. The process which converts oxygen into 
ozone would seem very well fitted for removing all organic 
matter. This, then, might lead to the existence of a 
smaller amount of oxygen in the air above, and the riddle 
would be solved. The diminution of the oxygen is pro- 
bably a disadvantage—although to such a small extent is it 
so, that there is abundant compensation in the purification 
consequent on the removal of organic substances. We 
shall have, then, a distinct variety of air on mountaims 
differing from that of the plams. In the one there would 
be more carbonic acid and less oxygen, with no organic 
matter—constituting mountain air; whilst the air of the 
plains would have more oxygen, less carbonic acid, and 
more or less organic matter. 


* “ On the air of Mont Blanc,” Journal of the Chemical Society, for 1861. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 13 


It is exceedingly probable that the difference of com- 
position is somewhat connected with the existence of water 
in the atmosphere; or it may be simply the result of 
separation caused by the weight of the gases—a result, cer- 
tainly, which has been much discussed and is well known 
not to exist in proportion to the weight, and one by no 
means probable, considering the investigations of Graham : 
but that the physical cause may after all be struggling so 
as to make itself in some way felt, it is perhaps rather 
daring for us to deny absolutely. If the oxygen were 
diminished without the increase of the carbonic acid, it 
would be safest to advocate the latter reason. The reasons 
given in the previous paragraph agree best with the state 
of our knowledge. However, the discussion on this subject 
would be better postponed until we become absolutely sure 
of more facts. 


Air of Impure Places. 


Reliable analyses of the air of impure places are less 
numerous than those given ; but decided results have been 
obtained, showing at least a deviation from the numbers 
found on analyzing fresh air. 


Observer. Oxygen. 
Configliachi ......... Air of rice-fields ............+0 20°8 
6) sosann009 Crowded places .............. 20°3 
Regnault ............ Toulon harbour ..........0... 20°35 
) Syl Gusdonacseneane AlgICVS .....0.00.5.s0ccnseeecesees 20°42 
Sob secagasseroces 3p. _eodonaDSbaDDooAGTEGOCAGasoE 20°395 
pun ocoseBROneCE Bengal Bay ........00+-------+-- 20°46 
Suh, el Satta esereets 0. over bad water ..| 20°387 
2.0°368 
20°808 
I found in the middle of Manchester, in a place 20°807 
closely surrounded and exposed to smoke ...... 20°613 
j 20°793 
20°79 


AVEYVABC....0..0e00000- 20°652 


14 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


The following results have been sent me by Dr. Frank- 
land :— 
Air from laboratory of Owens College, 1852. 


Oxygen 

November .........ceceeeees 20°383 
WMecemberkreeessssssesese ese 20°898 
DIG bO MWe vonsewe naimcsees 20°868 
IDithOmeeccecessscccnecees . 20°876 


M. Leblanc, in his researches into the composition of 
the air (Ann. de Chimie et de Ph. t. v., 3rd series, 1842, 
p- 248), gives the following analyses of inferior and impure 
air :— 

(The amounts are given in weights, but have been 
calculated into volumes.) 


Oxygen by | Oxygen; by |Carbonic acid : 
weight, volume, by weight, 
per 1000. | per cent. per 1000, 

1. Conservatory of Equatorial 

Plants, Terre de Buffon, 6 

o’clock in the evening ...... 230°1 20°81 2 
2. Seven o’clock next morning.. 229°6 20°76 ol 
3. Chemical Theatre, Sorbonne, 

betore}leciunemereree ee eee: 224°3 20°28 6°5 
7m DAKO ERISIO | iadgacnéquassuacKesge 219°6 19°86 10°3 
5. Bedroom in morning ......... 229°4. 20°74. O'4 
6. Hall of hospital three hours 

after shutting the windows 2.29°1 20°72 o8 
7. Same at 8 o’clock morning .. 227°2 20°54. 2°8 
8. Sleeping-room at the Sal- 

pétriere, atmosphere sensi- 

bly sbadsc2e. eat easenccecr 225°2 20°36 8:0 
g. Another in a similar state ... 22.6°0 20°44. 5°8 
10. Salle d’Asyle, 116 children; 

smell bad also ...........0.5- 227°1 20°53 2°7 
11. Salle d’Heole Primaire, 2d 

arrondissement............... 2284 20°65 
1z. Same, incompletely ventila- 

ted; nosmell ..,............ 200 sec 4°7 
13. Same, quite closed ; a sensa- 

tion of heat, quickened re- 

Spimations sescseaeecaeseceene 501 9ac 37 
14. Chamber of Deputies, in the 

ventilating-shaft ; no smell. 220 ane 2°5 
15. Opera Comique, pit before 

endlotmplayl na eesees pon06 cin 000 2°3 
16. Same theatre, centre boxes... 500 o00 43 
17. Close stable, Ecole Militaire 225°5 20°39 1°05 


18. Same stable, ventilated by 
WHISTLES) on agoobanagccnoon0ac0.56 229'0 20°71 22 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 15 


Tt was with these results before me that I began the 
inquiry ; and althotigh not expected to speak of the composi- 
tion of the air generally, it seemed quite necessary to make 
some experiments, that it might be compared with the air 
of mines. 

Having this great array of analyses, an abstract of the 
life-labours of many men, we seem to have before us proof 
sufficient of a decided variation in the composition of the air. 
The variation is really so great in some places, that we must 
admit some powerful local cause. In filthy places, and in 
marshy spots at a high temperature, the cause cannot be 
doubted ; and how can we doubt the same change to occur 
in places that are badly ventilated? When carbonic acid 
increases, is it wonderful that oxygen should diminish ? 
Notwithstanding all this, there is no firmly founded faith 
amongst scientific men regarding the subject. The evidence - 
has not been brought fully before them, and probably some 
links may be wanting. Seemg the question in this state, 
I was desirous of throwmg some light upon it, and indeed 
had already come to believe strongly in the variations, 
because of some which had been observed when making 
occasional analyses for the trial of new apparatus, or for 
instruction and trial of skill. 

Under this impression, specimens of air were collected 
from the front of the laboratory and from behind, near an 
ash-pit, each at the same time; and the analyses, along 
with some others, are given in the followimg Table. 
Afterwards it will be seen that the carbonic acid of the 
same spot was also estimated; and the result is that not 
only is there a diminution of oxygen in the less pure spot, 
but the carbonic acid, although greater than in the pure air, 
is not sufficient to make up the vacancy left by the deficiency 
of oxygen, leading us to look for other gases also that tend 
to increase the impurity. This is an unexpected result, 
and, to my mind, one which has in it much value. But, 


16 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


like all other investigations, after leadmg us onward one 
step, it shows us that there is another to take. 

If emanations arise from foul places, they must occupy 
space. They are mixed gases and vapours. When we use 
caustic soda to absorb the carbonic acid, perhaps we absorb 
some vapours also, and indeed I always find that in a eudio- 
meter we are apt to obtain too much carbonic acid in cases 
where the quantity is small, unless extreme care is used. 


Street and Suburb Air, Manchester, compared with Closet 
or Midden Air. 


Time Air from closet or midden| Air from front door of 
behind laboratory. Laboratory. 
1863. | Oxygen, vols. per cent. | Oxygen, vols. per cent. 

Dec. 1. 20°80 20°90 
» 10. 20°35 20°96 
pp idle 20°79 20°98 
aS kes 20°72 20°90 
pp 85}o 20°37 20°90 
BS i 20°76 20°02 
39 No 20°59. 20°96 
Se Ss 20°85 20°78 
5 <5 20°90 20°33 
wie Loe 20°21 20°91 
eee nase 20°58 20°92 
oD 20°74. 20°37 
os Maras 20°40 21°02 
ase dass 20°77 21°00 
LO: 20°99 20°33 
sel ech 20°70 20°98 
Aheb ware 20°82 20°88 
A aM 20°46 21°01 
Bee ce ace 20°87 
op eddtc 20°56 20°92 
” ” 20°79 21°02 
spe hs 20°64, 20°88 
Etat 20°94. 20°91 
ae tye 20°67 210! 
9 Be 20°53 20°96 
55; ease 20°71 20°92 
1864. 

Feb. 26. 20°66 21°01 
m9 Bho 500 21°05 
9 20. aes 20°98 
ane 200 20°99 
sl a00 21°OI 
” ” sive 20°94. 

Average 20°70 20°943 


Compare also the specimens from the city of Perth, p. 24. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 1% 


The meaning of these numbers may be further illus- 
trated. Let us put together all the deviations from 21 per 
cent. in air from the front of the laboratory and from less 
pure places (the front may not, after all, give the best air), 
we have— 


From backs of houses 


Good air. } and impure places. 
"IO E "20 
“o4 "15 
oy . "21 
SD Co) 28 
"10 13 
"o2-4- "24. 
04. ‘41 
"22 "15 
17 : *I0 
“09 ‘79 
08 "42z 
13 ; “26 
*o2-+ *60 
Tojo) "27 
17 "Or 
‘O2 "30 
"I2- "12 
“or +. “Sur 
"13 44 
"08 "21 
"02+ “36 
*I2 "06 
“09 “33 
‘08+ "47 
"O04 "29 
"08 
‘OI 
‘05 
"02 
‘ol 
“OI 
"06 

Average......00+ 07065 (sub- Average. .....00. °293 


tracting those with +-). 


This is a remarkable illustration, to my eye, and a conclusive 
proof. 

The results are very distinct; there is nothing exagge- 
rated about them. There are no ereat deviations to astonish 
us ; and there are so many irregularities, that if two or three 
analyses only were made the effect would be bewildering 
or uncertain: by making numerous analyses we are able to 

SER. 11I: VOL. III. Cc 


18 “DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


show a steady diminution of oxygen, on one side, with occa- 
sional risings as the wind may blow here or there, and a 
steady rise of oxygen, on the other, with occasional fallings 
also, as the wind may chance to carry smoke or other 
gases. 

The laboratory stands in an open space, which contains 
certainly a burial-ground in the centre, but is very much 
freer from the smoke of the town than the streets are; no 
manufactories exist beyond or between it and the country. 
The wind from west and south blows over many houses, 
but over no large chimneys. 

The results clearly show a difference between the air of 
more and less pure places, and render the oxygen test more 
valuable than it hitherto has been supposed to be. Un- 
fortunately so many analyses are required, that the test 
cannot be popular; but as one to be resorted to when 
the occasion warrants the labour it stands very clear. And 
indeed how can it be otherwise? We see putrid matter 
laid on the ground, and find it disappearing rapidly, and 
yet we are told that it is not accompanied by loss of 
oxygen; it is not credible, and the results given show it 
to be incorrect. 

It may perhaps be said that, although some of the speci- 
mens contain less than 20°9 oxygen, if they came from a 
clear atmosphere, such air could not be considered very 
bad. This reasonmg cannot hold. Analyses are after all 
subject to error, and the average is the only number on 
which we can rely. It may even happen that the small 
changes are caused by accidents which may give impurity. 
For example, take gusts of impure air even in the air of a 
. street generally pure. 

It is abundantly clear that whenever we leave the region 
of the uncontaminated or very little contaminated open air 
we obtain a diminution of oxygen, although that diminu- 
tion is very small; this small loss is therefore a proof of 


— e— 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 19 


impurity. In crowded rooms, theatres, cow-houses, stables, 
and laboratories it is easily proved, and that diminution is 
enough in decided cases to bring the figures various stages 
below 20°9. 


Oxygen of the Air in wet and in dry foggy weather. 


Continuing the subject and going further into detail : 
In very wet weather in Manchester, and still before the 
laboratory, the following results were obtained :— 


Oxygen. 
20°90 
2101 
21-01 

Sees} 
20°96 


104°93 


Ayerage........-... 20°98 


In dry foggy and frosty weather, when the smoke of 
Manchester had no exit from the town, the results were— 


EN/caIsICen tne OlTOWdR s. eh ereeree tiene cis-oe 20°90 
PAYS ADOT ALON ae te sees case daneamiehae: sessice 20°90 
At laboratory, afternoon ..................008 20°91 


5 FOVEMOON ........-ceececeeeae 21'O1 
as ALHALTIOON eeecescceeweeecese 20°82 


Average 20°91 


20°82 and 20°89 were found in a dense fog, such as has 
rarely visited Manchester. The eyes began to smart, and 
in walking on the pavement carters were met leading their 
horses into shops in the day-time—we can scarcely say in 
the daylight. 

Thus we have certified, by experiment as well as the 
testimony of the senses, the inferiority of the air at certain 
times, and these senses seem to estimate on certain occa- 

c2 


20 , DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


sions an amount as small as 0:07; but, so far as we know, 
they do not estimate the loss of oxygen, but the corre- 
sponding increase of impurities. In the yard at the back 
of the laboratory the amount is less than before the labora- 
tory, and is as follows :— 

Oxygen. 

20°80 

21°01 


eos 
20°84 
21°09 


Average............ 20°936 


Thus we have the series— 


In very wet weather, in front .........:...0 20°98 
At all times, an average of 32 experiments 20°947 
Behind, in medium weather _...........-.. 20°936 
In foggy frost ............-.-06 vee 900665000 20°91 
Over ash-pits ............00 HabeoEonespponaadd 20°706 


These results surprise me as I write. They come from 
analyses made some months ago, and without the hope of 
such a fine gradation of qualities. They seem also to show 
that we are exposed to currents of good air in the worst, 
and of bad air in the best atmospheres, in towns like Man- 
chester. This is suggested also by that number, 21-or 
or more, so curiously turning up in the analyses of most 
persons. ; 


In Dwelling-rooms, &c. 


If we go to dwelling-rooms, &c., we find the same diminu- 
tion of oxygen where there is insufficient ventilation :— 


Before the door of a house in a suburb of Manchester, 


the air gave of oxygen ............ doslaudis dunenisaelaneiaes 20°96 
In the sitting-room, not very close ....................- 20°39 
In avery small room, with a petroleum lamp burning, 

a good deal of draught ..........:.200..-2seesssseereeee 20°84. 
After 6 hours .............. BOOREUE SER COB aBOSD SEOODS000000 20°83 
Pit of theatre, February 13th, 1864, 11.30 P.M. ....+ 20°74 


Gallery, February 15th, 10.30 P.M. .....,)--seececrereee 20°63 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 21 


, 


In Sneoconees and Stables. 


If, again, we enter cow-houses and stables, the same 
results are obtained. The following six are so uniform, 
they seem to be as good as thousands, and are obtained 
from the only specimens collected. I went in the morning 
after the cows had been milked and fed, and therefore 
after the air had been allowed to enter. The houses still 
had a close smell. The stables were badly closed, and one 
was open ; the specimens were taken near to the horses, as 
far from the doors as possible, avoiding the direct breath 
of the animals. I cannot say they are fair examples of the 
air breathed by the horses or cattle alone; but they are 
very fair specimens of the kind of air breathed by those 
who work in or visit stables. Two of the stables were for 
cab-horses, the doors half open ; a third was a gentleman’s . 
stable of four stalls, but there was only one horse; the 
door was shut. The air seemed good for a stable, and still 
the loss of oxygen is visible in the analysis :— 


Oxygen. 


Rab Tee tes Ast oh PRR ae 20°75 


In such places as have been last described it would not 
be pleasant to live, and in the atmosphere of the theatre 
we know how much desire of fresh air is produced. Yet 
none of these numbers are so low as 20°6, the number 
assumed as marking the beginning of very bad air. The 
temperature of the theatre in the pit was 78° F., and this 
is a common temperature in the mines. By taking 
Leblanc’s analyses a somewhat different number might be 
arrived at; but even he finds 20°54 only after a hospital 
window had been shut all night, and 20°53 in a room with 


22 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


116 children. Five of his analyses give numbers below 
20°6. These are bad cases. 

So far I had written on oxygen for the Mines Commis- 
sion. Since that time many other specimens have been 
collected by myself and assistants. 

Those from Scotland are sufficiently numerous to seek a 
place for themselves, and, at the risk of diminishing the 
clearness of the arrangement, they may be here introduced. 


I must also confess that I am unable to persuade myself to 


write a new and independent paper on the subject, having 
so lately completed the report; the method of merely in- 
serting the latest matter must therefore be adopted. 


Specimens from Scotland. 


Mountamous Districts. 


Top. Oxygen. _. Bottom. Oxygen. 
BenUNevisccescnscseesaaee 207g | Bem Nevis .tc..-.-:-ee sees 20°93 
Shoe yin talaetanieslechaeseyaerenaae 20°96 i. | aewceta tenn eeeeeeee 20°91 
Sal MLS aneoacdondebNedcdae] 20°94. jo), (he ae eee 20°89 
jo) Waite cece dantideiss 20°88 
ah a Mucemestreeeeemeetnint cr 2101. 
Lochin-y-gair (Balmoral) ..| 20°94 | Lochin-y-gair (Balmoral) ..| 20°80 
Finan eh vaadonanceobooGe 20°95 spe P  saalee mentees 21°00 
Ben Wed eic. seca eoee ASO |W IS ALEC cococodceacmbosecene- 21°02 
Ru) absboaoMbanKeasneecce 20°97 
sh hg: eaesetueaveweaetanea: 20°97 
Ben Viowlichpesseeeeesse eee Any || IEE WOTTON ccoocncoossaces2> 20°87 
FE OR eno cucsooase: 20°33 
Ben-na-bourd ..........0.... 21°03 | Ben-na-bourd .............. 21°18 
Ben Momond.s vs.:ceescse sec Zaig4.) | Ben Bomondye2e-eyeseeeeee 20°95 
nye nt becatecuddsusacesdae 21°08 
See hs Gabeo ad laNaasien: 20°91 
Ben Muich Dhu ............ 21°00 
Fey“) Maddobsoacdes 21°07 
PRRANdn Get saccaOner rare 21°02 
PRPC ecanannuadnas 20°99 
poe Peak aaseden es 20°93 
oT MUN eer Sec eracce 21°01 
Ochill PEM ee esse 21°05 
jit bt L eattincmea decent 21°07 
Moncrieffe Hill............... 20°93 
MGA fei. sensasencenee 20°98 Mean dice neeeeeree 20°94. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 23 


Districts not Mountainous, or only partly so. 


Oxygen. |Means. 


Shore at Lossiemouth ............... 21°05 
i. ae BS eosin seceanah 20° 
INES ale Rape Ge ecrananne Rennancceced Beane oe 21°00 
Inverness, at Moray Hrith ....2.-.| 20°89 
5 fe Seayslaaiaas ..| 20°89 
Pe : Pee te eaniaeceaae 20°86 
AVP e aati feepailei ies sciecisiangtesac (ae sha aes 20°83 
Inverness, behind the Town ...... 20°88 
(Inverness specimens taken in 


very clear weather.) 


Sea-shore, Oban .........-..+08 ee 20°98 
Edinburgh, Prince’s Street ......... 20°99 
; SEL Ae saan 20°92 
3 Calton Hill ...;........ 20°94 
i JMIGEIIN: She seucbtabesasodoneacoonbe soceeecscdoe 20°95 
PAO WAAC tess sacle d ie sles s <ties ose sestie zeae 20°94. 
mM ce ataeaiethtievcieinsinse Gacti'Gert 20°95 
Me cusses ate tees due skbacnleceoes= 21°02 
INNER Geedeeehe bon ieoncopeaaoeees ede sgnaseees 20°96] 
Aberdeen, sea-shore .............-..+- OO | oedacnes Wind from sea, N. ; 
evening. 
i 55 woe ai aeisis sieiesiscisisies 210! ies 
ms gn po emeeaeaae wonacood 21°07 
IWIGEII Sees epanpnanerecccioarsnscne bacapantaer 21°04 
Errol, marshy ground ............... ZOO ee enase Windy and cloudy. 
35 Peete iret scene cunt hate 20°96 
MCAT 53sec -acet neeuensseusoie|aeesandddens 20°94. 2 
Caledonian Canal (near Inverness)| 20°88 |......... Ou) and windy, 
Tullo ee Ree ena 20°88 
Be cece cosou men aenecneres ees 21°00 
Mic aM a canceonetsact/ces once sens |Jareasensaes 2,0°90 
Tayn Inn (near Oban)............... 20°92 
A mal idle ol eiichichteawans 20°86 
Mica ez coins ianevseniteat echnical sotsede ote 20°89 
Braemar-on-the-Dee.................- DATO. SR ea Cloudy. 
JE [UUSIB IG foogubaecHecano: cueeon an rem aeee an 21°03 
MartHorestinsseercsrsers tenet ececere: BICC, \\snoaanooe Rain and sunshine. 
Tig, PURE see cme eanwstoaes aeniains 21°02 
Se RED RM icici coisas ainicsaoeeereeees 21°08 
aN cea arses came 20°88 
IVICAMIS soeseet sscsee mt eemuaeseneec|ieaneevoasen 21°00 
Forest near Braemar ............... 20°37 


Mean of the above, 20°959 or 20°96. 


Some impurity rising from the water near Inverness has 
lowered the otherwise very mei average of these analyses, 
20°98. 


24 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 
Air from worst places in the City of Perth. 


Oxygen.| Mean. 


Close; 70 South Street. sp2-c2--0.-secee-sseeeen ores 20°87 
CV IRO TENET, so -cooonnqansoscdooeoc0s0RNS | 20°92 

“1 Pa Be eer te Shen anseOsnpaatosnes 20°94. 

SP Bane NeEtcoce Codcooaroadciae 20°93 

Weaver’ 8 Close, IPOMATIUIN ese ecene seek eee 20°96 
Femi fe aotoecna passesoSoneone 20°94 

St; Panl’s Closes. vacate ee 20°96 
Scbats oe neaee asus Sa Suna ennees hears 20°99 

Long Close, ‘off Gases PS TEES Ficosocooaooodennocooes 20°94 
a eecvecesccccces Conn 20°90 

Weaver's shop, 44 Pomarium ....scssscscssesees 20°88 
Pe Abe terbeccossoconddos 20°93 

Close, 28 Watergate .........csececeees apa0ne000000 || Biron 
From a conduit, Athole Crescent ............... 20°93 
Ruaseeccccosads 20°95 
Close, 82 South Street ....cccscseccseveeee poosdcel uNeLr 
From a conduit, Athole Crescent ............... 20°84. 
x i Pa lata ye cocemoceusaads 20°89 
Hewit’s Close, 148 South Street .............:006 20°97 
on i ee eeeesee Sseeeaes se] 2:00 

From conduit, Stormont Street ...............0. 20°90 
Close, 44 Meal Vennel...............csescc-s-+eess- 20°90 

IWIGENY, “Sadopnobseap0G00R1 dasoGaooaoHoONGODONDS|lboDoobasu 20°935 


Scotch Analyses classified. 


Oxygen. _ 
Mean of the sea-shore and the heath ................ 20°999 
Mean of the tops of hills ................s0ssceeeseeeee 20°98 - 
Mean of the bottoms of hills...............:0.0sseceee 20°94 
Mean of all places not mountainous.................- 20°978 
Mean of inferior parts of a town (favourable, 2. e. 
wincly; weather) yeecsmaeteeeseestecreneeeeee seer eeeee 20°935 
Mean of lower marshy, &c., places ...............00- 20°922 
Mean’ of the forests..2..cscss-s.seerece erences eateees 20°97 
Mean of alla. ni..wrccassdenen eerassensceneceease eee 20°959 
or 20°96 


I conclude, therefore, that in order to obtain the mean, 
20°96, it is needful to include very inferior air. It is, there- 
fore, the mean composition of air as it is found in whole- 
some and less wholesome places, not the mean of the finest 
atmospheres. 

It will be seen that here the sea-shore and open places 
still command the highest amount of oxygen, although the 


a 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 25 


higher hills are not the most deficient—it may be, because 
in Scotland really high mountains do not exist, and also 
because, unlike the great ranges of the Alps and the Hima- 
layas, the Scotch hills have much sea and little land from 
which to draw their supplies. 

It may be remarked that the averages of the hills above 
and below, viz. 20°98 and 20°94, give exactly the number, 
20°96, which was taken as a fair sample of air. 


Marshy or confined Places, Switzerland, &c. 


Oxygen. | Means. 


; 


Aug. 1864. | Sion, Upper Valley of the Rhone, Switzer- 
land (morning), over water, marly | 20°86 


grass @eovreorrgreee eeecocee Per eeHeseoeteeeerene 
(| 2101 
20°94 
21°05 
21°02 
+ Sion (morning) over water and brush- | 20°96 
WBE! Sodndnsoccodeededboupsadeoooqcunadosnae 20°94 
20°95 
| 20°33 
21°00 
{| 20°90 
JNIZE IA op ohacconeppnoctagacanshdseccdonosse|posodtEeBeD 20°95 
20°92 
Sept. 1864.| Reddish, near Manchester, among 20°98 
Drushwo0d ....00...cceeesserreesoecencones 20°95 
20°90 
WMT CAIIIN See conte peace cecee see ceodareenselsarataeceees 20°937 
20°94 
PATS O44 |b OLUTIMeTI neater anemones: seosenens 20°97 
; 20°95 
WIGAN! 7 Snadoqooedcocogatonspspmcundobedatel DacobungHonD 20°953 
ae Chamounix, Montanvert .................. { Bee 
MICA seme ete eencljonnctidedeed «sae basee dnc oi 21-01 
ae 20°97 
re Verdin, in the Sologne..................04 { Bee 
: IMouzeroul titrecsss ss oscnersasecucunesceaences { He 
20°90 
IWIGERB. oSondcqacncsesnoaseqsdeongHegooosboal|aDo>0ne200nS 20°95 


As there is so much cretinism at Sion, and as goitre is 
found in the whole valley, I thought it important to obtain 
some specimens of the atmosphere from the marshes them- 
selves. The air was taken from the surface of the water 


26 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


or from the brushwood. The time was too favourable, as 
there was a considerable breeze ; but I had not patience to 
wait, and, as it turned out, it would have been necessary to 
wait a longtime. I consider the matter well worth further 
inquiry, and should be happy to make the analyses, if 
Specimens were sent, as I may not soon be in the same 
spot again. 

The specimens from the Sologne are very few. They 
were brought without any hope of a result. Had I known 
as much as I do now, more would have been brought. 
The book of Dr. Burdel, entitled ‘Recherches sur les 
Fiévres Paludiennes,’ excited a curiosity to see the dis- 
trict ; but there seemed such a free air and such an open 
country, with such a dry sandy soil, that I doubted if any- 
thing like emanations could be found. I saw only few and 
small ponds. Seeing how careful the search must be, it is 
well not to be too confident until numerous analyses are 
made. Dr. Burdel does not believe in any difference of 
analysis, and seems to refer the unwholesome state to the 
action of the electricity of the atmosphere and the heat 
and cold. It is a courageous thing at the present time to 
refer any phenomenon to electricity ; it has been overdone 
so much, that people now imagine it must never be done, 
and are afraid to mention it, thus deciding on the other 
side. It seemed to me when in Switzerland that the fre- 
quency of discharges on the mountains, with their absence 
in the valleys, was itself a proof of difference of condition 
in the two places. On plains the heavens and earth seem 
to equalize their electricity more uniformly ; in these hilly 
regions it is done at certain high pomts. If the flow of 

“this electricity is valuable to us, its loss is detrimental ; 
and if the discharges are made violently from one poimt, 
instead of steadily and slowly from wide surfaces, the con- 
dition of these surfaces must be modified. On looking at 
Mont Blane for a fortnight, and seeing nightly discharges 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 27 


from its summit, I was naturally led to look on the sub- 
ject in this way, and to add this to Dr. Burdel’s opinion, 
although I confess I do not understand the part he wishes 
the electricity to play. All I can see is, that there is a 
difference in these hilly regions. I do not pretend to see 
anything affecting animal life that can result from the 
difference ; and in the Sologne there are not the moun- 
tainous ranges to account for any such differences. 
Experiment has led me to form the followmg 


TasLe of the Composition of the Air of pure and impure 
places, beginning with that contaiing most oxygen, 
although probably not the very richest specimen :— 


Oxygen 

N.E. sea-shore and open heath (Scotland)............-.s000+-. 2.0°999 
Mopsqoim bull s\(Scotland)) We ac.-nsceocses esac codeqdencsvenr evens 20°98 
In a suburb of Manchester in wet weather ............000... 20°98 
3 Pr Fabs onan uae eAd na SOS SEENDSaAE 20°96 

In the outer circle of Manchester, not raining ............... 20°947 

TD Oiy FORMS Out LEVIN “Geoncence sae CooaseodobescupebeocoESqd0d COBEBOCS 20°935 

Swampy places, favourable weather .........c00.ssecseeeeeeeee 20°922 
to 20°95 
im foe and froshim Manchester ............s...cesse-ceooeesouss 20°91 


In a sitting-room, which felt close, but not excessively so... 20°89 
In a small room with petroleum-lamp, well ventilated ... 20°84 


ID MiSO}s BMNEYE bre JVONERES)| “Gc onopocucausenccaecdocc auenocadadocucoLeBaca 20°83 
TBING OIE WOSRUINE, TG) Wiis, poosecésecocoogpeueaeonaondHAcocoocoer=buC 20°74. 
About backs of houses and closets ............ss.:0.....20000ee 20°70 
Calenyae Longo aM me tatiana cian erase eases cots resaiesctes > 20°36 
Tm large cavities 19 MINES .......... eee eee ence cet e eee ee es sce DOUG 
IRAS(GUUERETUS) « cadsaeaoeropoBendesacer Beado.sudcn ob opsR econ dane ee SannOe 20°65 
(Win lee-BITEHINS «ozo asboonsenjooosnbenoes bos) ses on gbe seco sO DOE UE Ssuse00 55 20°424. 
ATIF SUMAN Heese stacmesneocnnts te sedis sevens snsatwamrs erie tivieaueewes 20°14. 
When candles go out ....... cece cece eee eeee ee eee erence eee 18°5 
The worst specimen yet examined in the mine............... 18°27 
Very difficult to remain in for many minutes ......... SsAcne 172 


It has been shown that air in places where putrefaction 
may be supposed to be going on has been found by other ob- 
servers to contain less oxygen than pure air. This inquiry 
puts the subject in a somewhat clearer light than hitherto, 


28 . DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


and shows us that those places containing impurities, and 
which are in or near all our houses, are also subjected to a 
diminution of oxygen. The diminution is not entirely 
made up by carbonic acid, and must be made up by other 
substances. This diminution is very sensible when it 
comes to 20°75, or even in some places 20°85, being equal 
to a removal of 02 to o'1 of oxygen; so that it mdicates 
more clearly in some cases than the carbonic-acid test 
does. These cases are probably such as allow for the 
absorption of oxygen into the soil or elsewhere. We do 
not require to seek deadly places for air with diminished 
oxygen; the air of every house is subjected to this diminu- 
tion, which must of necessity be an indication of the amount 
of impurity existing in the air, although giving no clue to 
the quality of that impurity, which may be more or less 
innocent or noxious. 

It is well known that oxygen over putrid substances is 
absorbed, whilst carbonic acid and other gases take its 
place. This reasoning does not touch the question, What 
is the effect of a loss of oxygen when no impurities take its 
place ?—a condition little known. I wish particularly to 
say that it is probable that the objection to the air which 
has a little less oxygen than the normal amount may not 
arise from this fact itself. The loss of oxygen may only 
be an indication of the presence of a pernicious body. 


Carsonic ACID OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


Horace de Saussure first paid minute attention to the 
carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and showed its presence 
on the mountains of Switzerland as well as on the plains. 
‘He used lime-water. His results were published in his 
‘Voyages dans les Alpes’? in 1796. His son Théodore in 
1828 published a résumé of a much fuller inquiry, and in 
1830 the complete account. He used a vessel of 34 litres 
in volume, and washed the air with baryta-water, collecting 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 29 


the carbonate of baryta precipitated. This is a laborious 
process ; but, considering the great accuracy of the operator 
and the long experience which he gained, we may place the 
greatest confidence in his results. I am disposed to think 
that there may be a little excess in his results; but this 
will not affect the comparative amounts found at different 
times, and which form the most interesting part of the 
inquiry. He says* :— 

“The quantity of carbonic acid in the open air in the 
same place is subject to almost continual change, equally 
with the temperature, the winds, the rain, and the atmo- 
spheric pressure. The observations which I have made 
since 1816 until the month of June of this year, in a 
meadow at Chambeisy, three quarters of a league from 
Geneva, indicate that the mean quantity of carbonic acid 
in volume which 10,000 parts of air contain is equal to 5, 
or more exactly to 4:9. The maximum of this gas is 6:2 ; 
the minimum is 3°7. | 

“The observations published (‘ Bibliothéque Univ.’ vol.i.) 
show as maximum in the same place a greater proportion of 
acid ; but it is probable that this excess was the result of the 
imperfection of the experiment. 

«The augmentation of the average quantity of carbonic 
acid in summer, and its diminution in winter, are mani- 
fested at different stations,—in the country as in the city, 
upon the Lake of Geneva and upon a hill, in calm and dis- 
turbed air. According to an average of thirty observations 
made at Chambeisy, during seven years, with baryta-water, 
the quantity of carbonic acid in the months of December, 
January, and February, at midday, is to that of June, 
July, and August as 77 to 100. 

“This ratio is not constant throughout every year. 
There are times which form exceptions, and in which the 
quantity of carbonic acid in summer is inferior to that in 


* Annales de Ch. et de Ph. vol. xxxviii., 1828. 


30 - DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


winter, or vice versd. Thus after many years of observa- 
tion, the mean quantity of carbonic acid in the month of 
January in 10,000 of air is 4:23; but the quantity of car- 
bonic acid in the month of January 1828, which was ex- 
traordinary for the mildness of its temperature, rises to 5°I. 
The average quantity of carbonic acid in the month of 
August, taken in different years, is 5°68; but after an 
average taken from four observations (the results of which 
closely approximate) in the month of August 1828, which 
was singularly cold and wet, the quantity of carbonic acid 
at noon was only 4°45. 

«The difference in the quantities of carbonic acid con- 
tained in the atmosphere in calm weather, during day and 
night, is one of the most remarkable results of my late 
observations. The following is the table of experiments 
which I have made, in open country, at noon and at eleven 
o’clock in the evening of the same day. (The Table in 
the original gives the quantities of carbonic acid in 10,000 
parts, but for uniformity’s sake they are here altered mto 
percentages.) 


| Evening, 
Moga 11 o’clock. 
May 22nd, 1827 ...... “O581 "0623 
Uulby Fly gg, a0 058 "062 
SAO Ge, 5) —wobaae "0561 ‘o601 
IWGivs GIN; 39 Goc008 "043 "04.86 
May 3186, 1828......... 0475 70565 
AIO) BIO, 55 GonocoKR "0506 0583 
AJUIAS BOHM, 55“ Snoonnos 0539 "0522 
Ap SoTSts i soi nassau 0432 0606 
ANU, TOUT, 55) eosdan00e "0429 "0582 


“Tt results from these observations, that the air contains 
in calm weather more carbonic acid during the night than 
during the day. The only exception to this result was on 
June 26th, 1828, during extremely violent wind, whilst all 
the other observations were made in calm weather or in 
slightly disturbed air. I have acquired sufficient experi- 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 31 


ence in this kind of work to affirm that the general differ- 
ence which is found in this fale could not result from 
errors of observation. 

“Tt remains for me to discover if this difference is main- 
tained in the middle of winter, or when vegetation is 
inactive. — : | 

«The air taken at the middle of Lake Leman, opposite 
to Chambeisy, contains on an average a little less car- 
bonic acid than the air taken a hundred toises from the 
bank. After eight observations, made at different periods, 
on the same days at noon the quantities of carbonic acid 
at the two stations are as 100 to 98°5; but the air of 
both places follows the same variations relatively to the 
seasons. 

“The air of Geneva contains more carbonic acid than the 
air of a meadow at Chambeisy—almost in the ratio of 100° 
to 92, from six observations made at the same time at both 
stations. A greater purity in the air of the country could 
be foreseen. I cite this result only because the other 
eudiometrical experiments indicate no difference in the air 
of those two places, and as it shows the utility of the ex- 
periment by which this result was obtaimed.” 

At first Saussure was led to believe that rain increased 
the carbonic acid, but changed his mind on finding, on 
the contrary, that this acid increased in dry weather even 
with a freezing temperature. 


32 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


For the Lake of Geneva and the neighbouring ie 


his numbers are*:— 


Carbonic On the 


Date. Time. acid at Lake of © 
Chambeisy. | Geneva. 
1826. 
IDE OG) sccasonsqcs Mid-day.......s.csscesee "0421 0385 
1827. 
May 22) ......ceses Gitta Risensesseeteecce "0540 "0502 
Julyi2: Gi, Cithoy Be. eee ds kebaee ces 0523 0578 
ANTI) ‘Ganaegooooas CittO: aciceSeceaieaceno-ee "0521 "0542 
1828. 
Nept. 28 vsn..ssccse- CittO eae wentecceecoenen "04.95 "04.74, 
SAUNIG sseeccosecsstlessaseedecers SooAbo0aKa0DRAGE “0491 "0446 
BLE ate Abe ne reste [sci meinarnp nao tracod oe siacan csc "0481 "0441 
AUG: 12 ccaticcoscses|sacsucesnaecess codec manent "0408 0392 
de URS oepasdae Bein lease uaesnendecaceoncoecd cea: 0422 0410 
Sept.[2 Grescsnscasoes|eccmetenaspeceseecuasansccsen *O414 0320 
Sept. 26 .........006 Night vccssewecacesnceaees "0493 0430 
1829. 
INES Booasasoaadaoae WET EB EY nconoonssonoacc<o. "044.5 04.76 
Marchi 7.5. \ecscctateediccese chou con scene ccaeene 04.63 70465 
April 18ij.scssucie nes eeeecesss sees paocedaad63d00 0429 "0422 
July 7 “cessscecases INIfht So cecesasenseere a 0534. "O51 
dial 03 G5ceco0e0n0n Mid-day................. "0435 04.08 
O76 al hc MAP RR RR RO Vb "0354. "0342 
Octo1g cect cesere| UNI GHt ee cccocesesseowsecece 0416 0368 


Mean .......... "0460 0439 ° 


_ De Saussure found also more carbonic acid in the town of 
Geneva than outside at Chambeisy. The numbers are— 


1s At In 
Dates Dae: Chambeisy. | Geneva. 
1827. 
Feb. 12 ..... WING EG Ei rcagosgangosones6s 0358 0455 
IER PPP GdogoBocades | badanaodcddsaddosbaceqqageco0e 0540 0569 
May 261s. cncatescen|sacunomausctetesssecsmenacsceas "0471 0528 
AMIE NG?, inns cae ees|cecswastsciasciesseecmecteneesese 04.53 04.76 
1828. 
PAINE 2580. sesease ase se Peisteccoestesesewnaiicessiateaer 04.2.6 0427 
JHE, LO, cooocacna000|lansancocs00snanonasesonq0a80%9 0462 0482 
Ja\jayull NS (spon donseboe aconcovesdscabedASdoooSab5baCo 0465 05 
CA Gort Broneannrcise tances pascsossoccuconcsarcac® 0390 044. 
J ae aoseoc000007 Mid-night onomnsoodanceds "0407 ease 
SO 4b cennoseaadoe 11 at sip Sqonas00b0000s "0441 "0439 
Sept. 5 sessesancces eepeeestaninns 0382 0420 
QOGhi, Taescitanseesardlcdceccessacneen ie entasce sease "O41 4. 0423 
OG; 2 eassdeusesucdlnceeosesnene sac asmensenecuons "0367 0405 
Mean ......... "0437 04.68 


* Ann. de Ch. et de Ph. vol. xliv., 1830. 


a, a sO 4 pau 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 33 


In the day the carbonic acid at Chambeisy is 0°0445, 
and at night 0:0402; in Geneva during day 0°0485, and 
at night 0:0414. The difference for the country is 0'0043, 
and for the town 0:0073. The diminution at night is 
greater in the town, where less fuel is burnt and people are 
shut up. 

One of the most curious results of De Saussure’s inquiry 
is, that the carbonic acid on the mountains is actually 
greater than on the plains. It will be interesting to give 
these figures, as they are often referred to, and seldom 
seen. It may be remembered here that there was some 
reason to believe in a diminution of oxygen in mountain 
air to a minute extent. The increase of carbonic acid is a 


corroboration. 


. Carbonic Carbonic 
Height of 2) 5 oa 
: : acid in the | acid in the 
Name of mountain. moe ahs GERD Rao Gein 
Te SSUES || sanyo plain. 
‘WB DONS coon eeoocoanceeBEBsuOOOs6 1267 "0461 "0474. 
Grand Saléve-sur-Crevin ...... 377 "0557 0482 
Hermitage (Petit Saléve)...... 331 "0544 0482 
Ma OLE: cee Jecsnssseassecseues toc’ 1267 "0491 70446 
Vasserode-sous-la-Dole ...... 908 "0481 044.6 
Grand Saléve-sur-Grange- e *0367* 
MOUINTER 2 ehetesacs-ceseees } 945 94:13 { 03591 
Col de la Faucille............... 963 "0443 "0414, 
Cito 7) “sctveecesesoces 963 "04.54 "O45 
ClittOm ina nip eaesesee sess al wiseetsone 70369 "0387 
GittO wee eee sesces vticais|: vtaseeaess 0360 0322 
Gitto 4 weae-tc8 soci800 HOSE aCe "0422 0355 
ChitGOR ary dgieosa-tacscosenal bacncenes: "0395 "0315 


He refers the difference to the rain below, and the 
moisture of the ground, and to vegetation, which dimi- 
nishes the carbonic acid and increases the oxygen. He 
finds also that the mountain air does not change at night 
as the air below does. He finds a minute increase of car- 
bonie acid arising from violent winds, and thinks this may 
arise from the upper mixing with the lower strata; his 
evidence on this point may be explained by the fact that 


* At foot. _ + At Chambeisy. 
SER. III. VOL. III. D 


o4 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


he found a decrease on June 20th during a violent wind, 
probably from the same cause, namely mixing. 

De Luna has lately examined the air of Madrid, with the 
following results* :— 


Air of Madrid, outside the walls, during month of March: 
(1st series.) 


Place. | Oxygen. Carbonic acid 


per cent. 
it oao0ce 20°71 0°05 
Dinrasiths 20°79 0°03 
Boone. 20°77 0'03 
oops 20°77 0°05 
TR go8dge 20°73 0°06 
6 eesses 2075 0°03 
i este 2.0°70 0°06 
3 annooe 20°74, 0°05 
Y ana00s 20°69 0°09 
TO ceeree 20°81 0°02 
M3 Macopoe | 20°79 0°03 
WB sooace 20°78 0°04. 


Air of Madrid, within the walls, during month of April. 
(2nd series.) 


Place. | Oxygen. | Carbonic acid. 


i anes 20°70 0°06 
ONE SROHOE 20°70 0°06 
Ba siovebe 20°77 0°03 
Ay haces 20°75 0°05 
Bi tharerewiers 20°70 0°06 
O ésac0 20°69 0°06 
@ 905000 20°78 O°05 
6) oootos 20°69 0°08 
Cymaproae 20°70 0°06 
© ageaco 20°78 0°04 
HI) ‘seco 20°80 0°03 
Teens 20°73 0°04. 


— 


The amounts of oxygen are very small, and of carbonic 
acid very high. Solutions were used for the oxygen, and 
permanganate of potash for the organic matter. 


* Estudios Quimicos sobre el aire atmosférico de Madrid, por D. Ramon 
Torres Munoz de Luna. Madrid, 1860. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ao” 


Hospitals. 
Rooms. Oxygen. oe 
Hospital ge- 20152 O32 
new lel zo 5° oe 
| 20°49 0°43 
Hospital de 28105 S27 
la Princesa a oe oy 


The experiments of Mr. Lewy on the Atlantic Ocean and 
in America show a great irregularity. They are given on 
pages 6 and 7. We do not see clearly why there should 
be a rise in the carbonic acid from *0333 to ‘0577 at sea. 
The great inequalities on the land are interesting, and 
especially at Bogota, where meteorological influences in- 
terfere to render the amount great and diminish health. 

Dalton had made experiments on the atmosphere with 
lime-water, but by no means such as are satisfactory. Mr. 
Hadfield, who had learned in his school, improved the pro- 
cess very much. He used a bottle of 471-498 cub. in., 
fitted with a cap and stop-cock, and filled it by means of a 
bellows. He tested the lme-water with sulphuric acid, 
before and after shaking with the air, or after it had stood 
for some days. He obtained 0°80 vol. per 1000. This is 
high as a constant result ; but as he lived on the borders of 
a putrid canal at Cornbrook, it may not be too high. His 
results are found in the ‘ Memoirs of the Literary and Philo- 
sophical Society of Manchester,’ 2nd series, vol vi., 1842. 

Dr. Boswell Reid* made trials with various amounts of 
carbonate of lime in water, as indications of the carbonic 
acid absorbed. After passing the air through a solution, 
he compared the result with these trials, keeping the pre- 
cipitates in bottles. This use of lime he called a carbono- 


* <Tllustrations of the Theory and Practice of Ventilation,’ Py David 
Boswell Reid, M.D., F.R.S.H., &c.: Longman, 1844. 


D2 


36 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


meter. The results were comparative, but I do not find 
‘that they were quantitative. These precipitates change so 
much that they cannot be used for comparison after a few 
hours. 

Pettenkofer lately took up the subject, using lime (now, 
I believe, baryta) to remove the carbonic acid from the 
air, and oxalic acid to test the solution. The bottles in 
which the experiments were made were dried with great 
care, and the solution of oxalic acid made very delicate. 
One cubic centimetre of this solution was made equal to a 
milligramme of lime, but it may also be made equal to a cubic 
centimetre of carbonic acid. The strength, however, must 
vary with the air. If the air is very bad, a stronger solu- 
tion may be used. Indeed this is rather a difficulty in the 
process, as you cannot use one solution for all conditions, 
on account of its extreme delicacy. The carbonic acid 
saturates part of the lime, and the amount remaining is 
tested with oxalic acid to see how much is still uncombined. 
The point of neutralization is found by putting a drop of 
the liquid on a piece of turmeric paper. 

The plan is very beautiful and complete. In principle 
it is exactly that of Hadfield’s ; but oxalic acid is used, and 
the experiment made more delicately. 

He gives 0°5 per mille or ‘05 per cent., as the amount 
in the air generally at Munich. ‘This is above the number 
of Saussure, and both are above the numbers found here. 
Munich is 1690 feet, Geneva 1154 feet above the sea. In 
the Handwéorterbuch der Chemie, under “ Ventilation,” 
Pettenkofer gives a summary of the amount of carbonic 
acid in dwelling-houses, as follows :— 

In a dwelling-house, during the day, 0°054. 

After a while it increased to 0°065, 0°061, 0°064, 0°068, 
0074, and 0°087. Mean 0:068. 

Tn a bed-room at night, with closed windows, 0230. 

Partly open, 0°082. 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 37 


' He found the following amounts of carbonic acid per 
cent., on examining public places, hospitals, prisons, &c. :— 


232 “143 223, 
2.26 307 247 
334 261 "131 
"186 278 "495 
"362 "429 "536 
“317 

Schools ......... *41c 567 *200 
"229 "558. 


Limit of Carbonic Acid in Dwelling-houses. 


Dr. Reid’s labours are much to be admired; he did 
much for the subject of ventilation in this and other 
countries. J am disposed, therefore, to have great respect 
for his opinion, that air containmg between o'r and 0:2 
per cent. of carbonic acid cannot be proved to be injurious 
—although certainty has not been arrived at. This, how- 
ever, we know, that this amount of carbonic acid, at least 
when given out by human beings and at a temperature not 
cold, is very offensive, if not on account of the acid, still of 
its accompaniments. 

Pettenkofer, after great attention to the subject, concludes 
that I per 1000 marks the limit of bad and good air, and 
that those who can plead for more have lost the refined use ~ 
of their senses. He then inquires into the cause of this 
feeling, as there is neither a want of oxygen nor a great 
amount of carbonic acid, attributing the feeling experienced 
to the prevention of a proper flow of heat, and in part, very 
ingeniously, to the existence of such bodies as butyric and 
valerianic acids, which saturate a large volume, and so 
prevent further evaporation. In other words, he attributes 
the depressing feeling to organic matter, as I have also 
done, although lately obliged to give a large share of the 
blame to carbonic acid. 

Pettenkofer finds also that a lowering of temperature. 
ventilates a room more rapidly than opening a window... 


38 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


In order to find the amount of fresh air which must be 
supplied to any dwelling, he explains that the carbonic acid 
of the expired air is about 4 per cent., or 40 per mille. The 
mean in the air is 0°5, and that of a good air for a room 


is 0'7. This gives a difference of 0:2. Then 40 = 200. 


If we must keep up the freshness of the air, we must add 
200 times the volume of the air that is expired. Ifa man 
breathes out 300 litres in an hour, there must be added 
60,000 litres of fresh air=2118'96 cubic feet. At. the 
same time it is shown how much more rapid the change of 
air is when out of doors, where the air is consequently 
pleasanter, proving that even the apparently excessive 
amount obtained indoors was not all that was desired. . 

Pettenkofer mentions that it has been found necessary 
in some hospitals in Paris to use exactly this amount of. 
60,000 litres in order to prevent all smell. 

If it were desired to keep the air at o°6 per mille, the 


calculation would be 2° = 400 times. We cannot do better 


than adopt the figures for bad and good air given by Dr. 
Reid, or rather Professor Pettenkofer, as far as they will 
suit circumstances. Here we must put the amount of 
carbonic acid in the atmosphere at 04 at the most, in- 
stead of 0°5; and it is exceedingly probable that in many 
parts of England it will be found constantly less, as it cer- 
tainly is frequently. This would make it possible to have 
a dwelling-room at 0°6, instead of 0°7. But practically we 
are not always favoured with such ventilation, even in 
England ; and Germany seems to be much worse, judging 
from the analyses of Pettenkofer, &. In some cases we 
may, with Dr. Reid, allow more carbonic acid. Dr. Reid 
was not exaggerating, although he was frequently blamed, 
when he insisted on supplying 600 cubic feet per hour 
for an individual; and we see in the ‘Journal of the 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 89 


_ Chemical Society’ for 1858, that Dr. Roscoe found 1200 
to be nearer the demand in a hospital. Dr. Arnott, a re- 
vered authority on ventilation, demands 1200. I shall 
return to this question. 


Carbonic Acid of the Air in England. 

It may be allowed first to quote a calculation of mine in 
the ‘Chem. Soc. Journal,’ 1859. 

Allowing the air to go at the average rate of twelve miles 
an hour*, it will sweep over the three or four miles of 
Manchester three times an hour, or thirty-six times in 
twelve hours. 

Taking the height of air affected to be 300 feet, as we 
must assume something, we have carbonic acid— 


From coals ............s.ce.00c0eee 070091 per cent. 
» expired air ............... 070002 45 
Call the usual amount 0°06 ... 0°06 55 
00693 nh 


But call the usual amount 0°03, as it sometimes is, or 
even below it, we have— 


IOIRaNEN COENS Cocoosonnnosaenaceanonsodacce 0°0091 
pn breathing ee cncasssseeascstecsecee 0°0002 
By mURUE NU Rhiye Giantncdeneam cua Beoppee 00300 


0°0393 per cent. or 0°393 per thousand. 


Wesee then that the combustion of coal and the breathing 
will produce carbonic acid amounting only to a third of that 
in the purest air generally found, or one-fourth of that in 
air having 0°04. It is certainly remarkable that the amount 
which I calculated as that which ought to exist should be 
found, by experiment, to be correct to the third decimal 
place, according to Dr. Roscoe. At the same time my own 
numbers are a little higher, and in extreme cases much 
higher. 

Dr. Roscoe has found the carbonic acid to be as low as 
0°027 per cent. outside of Manchester in wet weather, and 

* Mr. Hartnup, F.R.A.S., finds it 12°62 at Liverpool. 


40 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


near the sea. o043—rather more than in Manchester. 
This favours the idea of oxygen coming from vegetation, or 
rather of carbonic acid being absorbed to such extent as to 
influence the experiments. I do not obtain quite the same. 
Dr. Roscoe has put down for Manchester ......... 0'0392 per cent. 
xy 5 the country............ 0'04.02 A 
a a Manchester district.. 070394 9 

That the amount should be less or even equal in Man- 
chester is scarcely to be explained, especially as, even in 
Geneva, Saussure found more than in the country. Had 
the country places been mountainous, the observations 
would have been better understood. 

At the same time I made some experiments which gave 
higher numbers, varying from 0°049 per cent. to “15 per 
cent. These, with the exclusion of four which are very 
high, give an average of 0:0544. The four were taken 
under circumstances which make me believe they are cor- 
rect; some places are continually exposed to gusts from 
chimneys, which must contain a high amount of acid. 

Lately I undertook a much larger number of experiments, 
using Pettenkofer’s method of analysis. The bottle used 
is of a different shape from Pettenkofer’s, and the bellows 
are different, but the method is essentially the same. The 
bottle has a very wide mouth, so as to allow the hand to 
enter; and drying is performed by means of a pure linen 
cloth which has been washed m acid and distilled water. 
This saves a great deal of trouble; and repeated analyses 
have proved that neither from the hand nor the cloth does 
any hindrance to accuracy arise. The bellows pump is one 
that I have used for emptying the bottles of air for the per- 
-manganate test. The bottle and pump are figured in the 
first paper. When the bottle is cleaned and dried, the 
baryta is added, and the elastic cover is then put on. 

The following results were obtained after nearly 200 ex- 
periments were made in Manchester and London :— 


41 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


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46 


DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


The following summary may be made of the Manchester 


results :— 
Average of Car- 
bonic acid per cent. 
In Manchester streets in usual weather ............ 900 0°0403 
A Dinah de Key 4 ieee een seeeeoocioc sudan snccactia so bassconcesiono c 070679 
About middens, of which there are thousands ...... 0°0774. 
Average of all the town specimens.........0ec0.-ss00e 00442 
Hogsiexcepted! Seo sn. soscue-secetracesced: ocPeeeeeeee 0°0424, 
Fogs and middens excepted ........s.sscesesseee 070403 
Where the fields begin .........scccecssccscssssseesrscscess 0°0369 
Hnlicloserbullcinossewnsresedenee eee een eere reece 071604, 
Minimum lotisnburbsicenssenccsstes scene sere ete eereeee 0°0291 


When approaching the country the amount seems occa- 
sionally very low; probably the lower grounds, with much 
vegetation, are subject to variations below and above the 
standard, and such as are not found in exposed or bare 


regions. 


There may be noticed in Manchester a tendency towards 
increase of carbonic acid as the day advances, as if at times 
the ventilation could not keep down the increase of acid : 


this is contrary to the results in a country place. 


There 


is less after rain, and less during high winds. 


Carbonic Acid on the River Thames, April 1864. 


Locality. Wind. 


Surrey side.............06... 45 
Before the Houses of Parliament. Pe 


Lambeth Bridge :— 


City Sid eh eerererne-nercmess FF 


Mean of ro experiments ...| ............ 


ist deter. 


Carbonic 
acid per 
cent. 


"0354 
"0383 
"0333 


°0313 


(0344 
0298 


10329 
0329 


(3485) 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 47 


Carbonic Acid in the Open Places of London. 


Locality. Wind. 1st deter. | 2nd deter. 
elem akin ae setasecscvovecosseauss ne S.W. "0334. "0334 
TRIS BERT Goo puconacassopadedsonsencedae S.E., from | +0306 "0299 
City. 
Regent’s Park .......00......0006 qoson!| = dNlal Dp 0304. 0304. 
St. James’s Park ..............cc0.005 a 70285 
Duke of York’s Column ...... ahora % "0285 “0280 
| LE SFE1OL OBI 7 ChooeenoadoecenpnoudocnecneSbe 
Mean of 5 experiments ......] ............ "0301 


Locality. Wind. | Carbonic acid present. 
ist exp. | 2nd exp. 
Cheapside, Post Office end......... S.W. "0352 0337 
Outside the Exchange............... 9 | 0398 
Newgate Street ............c.cceeeeeees _ "0413 
Oxford St., above Regent’s Circus E. 0344 "0344. 
Lower Thames Street ............... 9 "0428 
Small Alley, Smithfield ............ 3 "0337 
Small Court, Smithfield ............ 5 "0398 
Small Court, Upper Marsh, Lam- 
etl ese ene eR Se eriseriene nas ccaaue én "0382 
New Cut, Lower Marsh, Lam- 
pethiee ie. scckdscessasitbewacscasoene's 4 "04.13 
Top of the Monument............... 3 70398 "0405 
Mean of ro experiments ... se 0380 


Mean of 25 experiments in 
WOnG On: sinescantewosareeeses Ks 0341 


With the aid of Dr. Bernays, of St. Thomas’s Hospital, 
I have also obtained the amount of carbonic acid in close 
places in London. . 


Carbonic Acid in Close Places in London. 


Per centage 


by volume. 
Chancery Court, closed doors, 7 feet from ground, March 3 ... 0193 
Sumengpicetstromyoroundlsco ss :etcanemc ices. gucsoseete sds ioec te ces 0203 
Chancery Court, door wide open, 4 feet fom ground, 11.40 A.M., 
March 5 .......... Pelee earets rac coum ice uate astral cinactatsilaslslesisicoee 0°0507 
Same, 12.40 P.M., 5 feet from ground ...................ccceceeeee eee 0'045 
Strand Theatre, gallery, 10 P.M. ............cccceee ceceee eee ee eee een es O10 


Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 10.3 P.M. ........-0s-eeeceeeeeeeeees O1lL 


48 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


Carbonic Acid in Close Places in London (continued). 


Per centage 


by volume, 
Surrey Theatre, boxes, March 7, 12 P.M. ...cscessscsvesencensesengence 0218 
OlyMpic;: 11.30 PMs aecsesecccecesparie cosesaseemseseceaecensceneeceeneeee 00817 
SaMeC,..§ 5. TL Poms de tacas seis srelosteletedter si Ons eiessieseeteiae setactec ee nace eee O'1O14 
Victoria Theatre, boxes, 24th March, 10 P.M...........+.sceeeeeereee o"126 
Haymarket Theatre, dress circle, 18th March, 11.30 P.M.......... 0°0757 
Queen’s Ward, St. Thomas’s Hospital, 3.25 P.M. ...........ss0000e 07040 
Edward’s Ward, St. Thomas’s Hospital, 3.30 P.M...............-06- 0052 
Victoria Theatre, boxes, April 4 ..............secscecnerenseeceeeeacees 0076 
Effingham, 10.30 p.m., April 9, Whitechapel .............. Pre ence ~. 0126 
Pavilion, 10.11 p.M., April. (Whitechapel) ..................00e0ee O°152 
City of London Theatre, pit, 11.15 p.M., April 16 .................. 0°2.52 
‘Standard Theatre, pit, 11 p.m., April 16 (Strand) .................. 0°320 


Pettenkofer informs us that the air of Munich may be 
taken as containing about 0°05 per cent. of carbonic acid ; 
with us it is certainly below this amount; and if raised to 
0:05 by breathing, one would perceive it. May we con- 
clude that such a small amount is imperceptible without 
organic emanations? Munich is very high; the air must 
sweep over the whole continent to come to it; it may 
wash up the carbonic acid, and, perhaps, oxidize the organic 
matter. 

Air with a very small loss of oxygen is perceptibly deterio- 
rated if its place is occupied with carbonic acid and exhala- 
tions from the person, although we are not able to say how 
far this is the case when carbonic acid alone is substituted 
for this small amount of oxygen. 

On the Thames it is clearly seen that the open river is 
purer than the streets when the water is not putrid. It is 
purer above, at Westminster, than at London Bridge. 
London is freer from this gas than Manchester, although 
not equal to the parks in March and April, when the ex- 
periments were made. When the new sewers are complete, 
the difference will probably be perceptible. 

These analyses indicate that a very minute amount -of 
carbonic acid shows deterioration of air sufficient for the 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 49. 


senses to observe. The senses observe a difference between 
Manchester and the outskirts. The difference is 0°0034 
per cent. The senses observe it in London, where the dif- 
ference between the streets and parks is 0'0040 per cent. 
They observe it also on the Thames and in wet weather. 
But they do not observe it in Munich, which has more 
carbonic acid than even these towns, and more than the 
New Cut or Lower Thames Street. The conclusion is, 
that carbonic acid in these small amounts is not that which 
annoys us. In some towns it is no doubt sulphurous acid, 
in others organic matter and gases from putrefaction. 

It does not follow that we must therefore neglect carbonic 
acid; on the contrary, it ought to be examined minutely, so 
that not the smallest increase be allowed, if possible; not 
that we know certainly of any positive evil which it can 
do of itself in these small quantities, but because it almost 
always comes in bad company. 

In the above analyses the air conte ‘0774 1s really 
worse than that containing ‘1604 and even 0°3, because 
over the middens there is a little sulphuretted hydrogen. 
It is well, then, in such cases to use a double test. Indeed 
it is probable enough that other gases besides sulphuretted 
hydrogen, such as marsh gas and hydrogen, products of 
decomposition, are issuing from cesspools and middens. 
I should not say probable; it is really certain. These 
gases, including the carbonic acid, show the reason why 
less oxygen should be found in such places. 

I believe these analyses are of importance in the inquiry 
into the state of the air of all places, as they teach us the 
meaning of a deviation from the normal amount of carbonic 
acid as well as of oxygen in the air. A deviation of 0:2 is 
painful to us when it is caused by simple want of ventila- 
tion. If it is accompanied with gases of putrefaction, it 
is much more hurtful, as some of these are very deadly. 

These analyses teach us to be very careful not to allow 
SER. III. VOL. II. Vera E 


50 - DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


the air to become deteriorated even to a very minute extent, 
and that a figure in the third decimal place is not to be 
despised ; but they teach us more—namely, that in some 
places, such as high mountains, a slight increase of carbonic 
acid, such as is found in the third, or even to the length of 
2. in the second place, is rather a proof that the oxygen of 
the air has done its work well and purified the atmosphere, 
and that this increase is probably owing to pure carbonic 
acid. It would be well to have those experiments of 
Schlagintweit confirmed, where 0:07 and o:og are found 
on high mountains. To conclude, we all avoid an atmo- 
sphere containing o'1 of carbonic acid in crowded rooms ; 
and the universal belief of civilized men is that it is not 
only odious but unwholesome. When men speak of good 
ventilation in dwelling-houses, they mean, without knowing 
it, air with less than 0°07 of carbonic acid. We must not 
conclude that, because the quantity of carbonic acid is 
small, the effect is small; the conclusion is rather that 
minute changes in the amount of this acid are of the highest 
importance. 


Carbonic Acid in Scotland. | 


Having written so far, it was desired to throw more light 
on the subject by obtaining specimens from purely rural 
and hilly districts ; and for this purpose Scotland was pre- 
ferred. The uniformity in the numbers is something re- 
markable. There is no difference in the second decimal 
place, even in one instance, until we enter atown. I must 
therefore consider ‘0336 per cent. as the amount of car- 
bonic acid in the pure winds of the north of this island. 
“Any amount above that is a deviation from purity. If 
we have any regard to the third place of decimals, we find 
there nothing to indicate a deterioration; and we can 
scarcely hope to rely on the fourth place. Still the results 
in the fourth place are not to be rejected: we find them 


= 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 51 


the highest on the plains, less at 1000 and 2000 feet, and 
more again at 3000 to 4000 feet, making differences of three 
in a million, and so at 3000 feet beginning to increase, as 
other observers have stated to be the case at great eleva- 
tions. 


Mode of Reading the Numbers. 


When we read of a fraction per cent., we imagine the 
amount to be very small; and if the fraction isin the second 
decimal place, we have no faith in it. We are quite wrong. 
The amount of sulphuric acid im the air runs into the fourth 
or fifth decimal place, and the actual sulphur in it still 
further removed, and yet a greater effect is produced on 
the atmosphere than is indicated by the amount shown in 
the oxygen or carbonic acid volumes. In speaking of these 
gases, we have been accustomed to disregard minute differ- 
ences, and one-tenth of a per cent. of oxygen more or less 
is indifferently given or taken. It may, however, assist us 
if we disregard the decimal point, and im the oxygen volume 
with three decimal places read the number as full and parts 
in 10,000: we shall then find that the difference between 
21°00 per cent. of oxygen and 20°90 is really 10 in 10,000 
of the air and 0°47 per cent. of the oxygen. This amount 
in the case of some gases is simply intolerable ; and although 
not perceptible as regards oxygen, it may not be less effi- 
cient. I conclude from these inquiries that we must pay 
attention to the number in the second place for oxygen : 
perhaps at a future time we may arrive at the third. 

In the case of carbonic acid we must attend to the third 
even now, as I believe, and even to the fourth or one part in 
million. The numbers are all put down as fractions, and 
may be read as fractions per cent.; but they may all be 
read as whole numbers, disregarding the decimal point. 
Thus 0314 will mean 314 in a million. Between this and 
"0400 we have 86 in a million, which is no trifling amount 

E2 


52 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH ON THE 


even to the senses in the case of many gases, and we must 
learn that the effect of poisons on health is not in propor- 
tion to the effect on the sensations. 

Let us consider what is meant by this 86 im a million. A 
room twice the size of one not unusual, or two 30 feet 
long, 24 wide, and 15 high, will contain 21,600 cubic feet, 
or 37,324,800 cubic inches. If we introduce 0:0086 per 
cent., we bring 3209 cubic inches of carbonic acid into 
the room, which will be considered a large amount if 
put together in vessels: it is nearly 12 gallons. During 
fogs there will be an addition of nearly five times the 
amount = 60 gallons, or 405 in a million. If we goto a 
very moderately close building, we add 1235 in a million, 
or 14 times the first amount, or 168 gallons. If we go toa 
room as close as a crowded theatre, take the number given 
for one in London 0°320, we add 2831 in a million, or 377 
gallons. And when we come to the state of air in mines, 
we have various numbers, in a few instances rising to more 
than 2 per cent.—nearly a million cubic inches, which would 
be 578 cubic feet, out of the supposed room, which does 
not differ far from this in which I now speak [the Meet- 
ing-room of the Literary and Philosophical Society of 
Manchester]. . 

In order to read off the amount in a million, there ought 
always to be four figures after the decimal point. 


“MN ‘teeTQ | Oz£o. 6z£0. 


Iz£o. (Fave, [P2220 CG9909; “AY Cale OFF “ony 7 Seseceisien ie cies wen OL LLOVAY usg 
ILLo. 6z£o0. ee ctoeeerece wa S 6c ee ore ee te ee eorssscosss “cc bc 


doy ye “nt Aq “AA N ‘Apno 
N “4 WE SOHO) Lzto. SEfo, €z£o. zbSo, |r “Wy II ‘or ‘sny BSSSOSOOOROOOOOGOomonnr Ipey veg 


"GOOF 4B “ AA" NI ‘TB9TO 


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“AN ‘Apnopo “oor el S££0. ovfo, { S£E0, Ifo, feces yor (9 -qdag fret terres TOTTTBYTIIG 
60 “MN ‘A410 pue Apnoyo ‘doy 4V PESo. | cose ° seereeeeross TIOOU ZI 66 wet ccesesccscoesee 66 66 
19 “MAN ‘uted oor 4W 6£ £0, o$ fo. +HEo, OS£0, fcr wa €  §% qdag |rcereeeess*  puoutory weg 
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A : of 66 bye bolo zZblo ‘ 66 soccer erece (13 66 (73 
Se eeN eel ee OES: 3 Lzto, gto wd ‘ov -sny |" Temoerg reeu TIE 
fang eee he f ag ‘d 73 nes zELo. tbtLo sae oo . 66 G wees eecreeceeccece 0G 6c 
HOOF Oty 4 MN Apnoyo “doz uo geco. O. LEEo. gt£o. teececccsces seg § ‘or ‘SuY secre eteceverrssoe ites-A-urgoery 
“UleL Surpzzirp pue 4stur yoryy ‘doy uO I SE0 +E 9S£o. zb£o. coors steers GG G weecsecers sane G 3 6c 
“AN ‘Apnoyo 4005 4 j 92%0. LS Go. Gfifeie, Proescccse sn Ga Ap Haran [pee -ocaao anand ny Tomy weg 
{ 61L0. 6z£o. seceee OOOO gf 9 CG ec ecco seestsecerssece 3 ‘cc 


eocere Supun0b00 ‘ ae So000000G000 ceceseeee iG 6 
‘x ‘xe1g | LPEo. ERS Oa toe Mire cee ee ses 
- . : ‘ £ oofo. ee eee seecces 5 06 (Gl IODOCOOUOOOOOOOR aeeee 66 66 
MN “teoyo pue Apur ja oofo. Sos || Betcs | Paemarecoo reg eds Calm cacrsb cee ata torrente 
6c ac ececccesecerrece 6 3 


*M ‘Apnoyo pue Aput A S1£0. 
“MN ‘josuns ‘gpnojo MO se eesere . 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


>, S1Lo. eercee seceeereser* THOOU ZI ‘9 “any eet eee eeeesesrs con gee JMouury 
66 ecg ale Noe OST EE UIeJUMOFITe yy, 


a ee 
{ Ifo. 
! 


; r i 190, secces eee ceccetere 66 (73 eee ccceecccsces 
pura “°g ‘Apnopo pue Aput A, orto. 6b, | cere fevers toon ex § -Bay foresees [TEL egerzotto 
seccee DAS 2 eee eeeestes “cc (33 Beco eet ess eeenesesers thane eee “ce 
“pnojo pue Apurjy obvfo. Bae aie mar Oh Bmp fer tteee re tag 
‘doy yy | 003 9V 
‘SYIVULOY, ‘UBOTL ‘sjaed 001 *OUL], ‘208 
aes UL plow ortmoqae—) 


‘ENVILOOQG—aIONVW OINOGUVO 


DR. R. ANGUS 


SMITH ON THE 


Carbonic Acid. 


Places not 1000 feet high. 


Name of Place. nore 

IPOEtDY fesec nese cebenee eee 0341 

Wy llapasabaduieainaniseatee solnudeer 0340 
Moncrieffe Hill............... 0340 
Kalifountain Hill.......... >| ‘0331 
Kinnoull Hill ............... 0315 
Errol (marshy ground)...... 0314 
Foot of Ben Ledi............ 0335 
Foot of Ben Voirlich ...... 0329 
Aberdeen .......csseceececeees 0329 
dilate Boopaccechaetonas.Jdoooasoden 0347 


Inverness (Moray Frith) ...| - 


Inverness (above the town)) 0341 
Caledonian Canal............ 0341 
IDET INES. conscaseodes0a0000000 0329 
Foot of Ben Nevis (Ben- 

TENN) pgondodscsesonsnono0sacD 0346 
Obani suareissscoeeecr eee 0348 
Foot of Ben Lomond ...... 0350 
Forest near Killiecrankie 

I EPI Wan pose aeeenesunanacosdas 0353 
Foot of Schehallion (Tum- 

eH IBTACLERS)) cooooeaconacoec 0340 

Meariiersesseee 0337 


Places between 1000 & 2000 ft. high. 


Name of Place. OO) 

Ioo pts. 
Birnana Ela es nee eeee eee "0300 
OyP TN TSW sycgpscooscsocwscc 0347 
Braemar (Castletown) ...... 0344. 
Ballochhine Forest ......... "0332 
Hill near Castletown ...... "0334 
Mar Forest ..........c2.e.05s 0339 
Braemar (on the Dee) ...... 0344 
Schehallion ...........0.....- 0335 
Mean ......... "0334 


Carbonie Acid. 


Places between 2000 & 3000 ft. high. 


Places above 3000 feet high. 


Name of Place. CO, in - Name of Place. CO, in 

100 pts. 100 pts. 
Ben Lomond.................. 0339 | Ben Muich Dhu ............ 0356 
Ben-na-Courd ............... }8)7/ || Leven INES) ccagisnoaces Gooscoses "0327 
Teta YOANN sooassoseso0005000 OZH6) || letein USC scocsqngascaa000900¢ 0327 
Lachin-y-gair ............00. "0335 
Mean .........| 0332 Mean ......... 0336 


Mean of all the foregoing in 


Scotland 


COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 


Carbonic Acid. 


CO, in CO, in 
Place ioe “pis. Forests. 100 pts 
aHACTM AT) | acs ece- sce se ect. 0346 | Ballochbine Forest, near 
ron 0 BML eeacobke mea eseardcee 0342 Castletown ............... "0340 
9). Wpleeanceeaerennsses os 70344 | Ditto, ditto .........00....« O32 5 
MIAT MM rss ans et caaccttas 50344 ||| Ditto Gusto et -- sees -eee--6 0327 
RD esses cesescaseiten'- 0344 | Mar Forest, ditto............ 0336 
SM ocr Saas a deaesarees 70344 | Ditto, ditto .............0..:. 0337 
‘Rommel Bridge. .... 2.00: Hegyis) || IDMinnoy, Guin) “onenanesdecnoeeee "0343 
Forest near Killikrankie 
Bass om cena ter ouacceestin: 0353 
Mean ......... 0343 Meant -cec.ase. 0337 
Carbonic Acid—close Places in Perth City. 
CO, in | 
Name of Place. | Time. 2 
| 100 pts. 
Close, 148 South Street ....:.............] Oct. 10, 11 A.M. | *0399 
Over a conduit, Athole Crescent......... Oct. 12, 7.25 A.M. | ‘o4o1 
On North Inch, near the last... ........ Oct. 12, 8 A.M. "0352 
(Cia ikem nea escdacsw ane ane hala Suc sacs wees Oct. 12, 1 P.M. "0324. 
raver Ope testis tet yccinonnaease vein eke case Oct. 12, 3 P.M. "0332 
RAT OI ey ees iastfaclisisvietscasecktlnn snrsiacie te isle =| Oct. 12, 10 PM. | °0573 
Paul’s Close, Newrow ...........-...------ Oct? 14, 8 A.M. "0430 
Close, 44 Pomarium ...................5. Oct. 17, 9 P.M. "0508 
Close, 82 South Street....................- Oct. 18, 11} A.M. | 0464 
ClosewaauRomartumas feo -esccc.scaeea--s _ Oct. 18, 12.20 P.M. 0353 
ee 
IWIGBIY Gesonnacoacenco |etcceeetereanececcenecs "04136 
Weaver's Shop, 56 Pomarium ......... Oct. 17, 9.40 P.M. | °2674 


We must carefully study the numbers in the City of 
Perth. The whole week was windy ; but still the amount 
is higher than round the city at some distance. Although 
there is much irregularity in the instance at Craigie, above 
the town the number is high. The analysis was repeated 
with the same result: the reason is not clear; chimneys 
On Kinnoul Hill and Errol the amount 
is lower than in any case, although the latter was wet and 
I must take the 
amount in the town on a calm day. There is, however, 


may suggest one. 
marshy. Such inquiries scarcely end. 


sufficient given to prove that, taking the oxygen and the 


56 MR. R. D. DARBISHIRE ON MARINE SIIELLS 


carbonic acid together, there are indications which, al- 
though minute, may be found to correspond to great 
effects. The close places of the town have been of late 
very unhealthy. 

I conclude by repeating that it is important to observe 
minute fractions in the amount of oxygen and carbonic acid 
in the air. 


II. Notes on Marine Shells found in Stratified Drift near 
Macclesfield. By R. D. Darsisuire, B.A., F.G.S. 


Read November 29th, 1864. 


In August last Mr. Sainter, of Macclesfield, requested me _ 
to examine a large quantity of fragments of shells which 
he and Mr. J. Lowe, under his directions, had collected 
from sand and shingle exposed during repeated cuttings 
made in the progress of the new cemetery-grounds now 
being formed on the north side of the town. I have since 
made several visits to the place, and from that mass of speci- 
mens, and my own smaller series, have been able to arrange 
the list which I now submit. I venture to think that it 
presents certain considerations of peculiar interest. — 

It is to be regretted that careful observations were not 
made during the progress of the works, and due notes 
taken of the particular beds and conditions in which dif- 
ferent shells have occurred. Messrs. Sainter and Lowe 
have been very diligent in collecting such specimens as 
they could find, and in buying from the workmen,—the 
latter a practice which could scarcely fail (as indeed it 
did not fail) of producing a supply of showy specimens, in-. 
cluding Murex, Cyprea, and Pteroceras of tropical origin, 


FOUND NEAR MACCLESFIELD. 57 


and other shells utterly strange to the English Drift. This 
accident is referred to because in some cases it would seem 
certain that shells from some recent British beach have 
been used to similarly profitable advantage. Spurious re- 
mains of the latter class, obviously introduced to meet the 
novel demand, while they are often more difficult to detect, 
throw suspicion upon some specimens which may after all 
be genuine. 

There are, nevertheless, many undoubted fossils; and 
the list is larger than has yet been published of such re- 
mains in this neighbourhood. It is offered as a small 
contribution towards the multitude of observations on 
which at some future time a solution of the perplexities 
of the so-called ‘ Drift” of the district may, it is to be 
hoped, be founded. 

The beds in question are situated on the easterly side of 
the road from Macclesfield, past the Free Park, and on the 
north side of a small ravine which runs from the road, 
skirting the Cemetery Hill on its south-easterly declivity, 
to open into the valley of the Bollin. They were exposed 
chiefly on a south-easterly face along the ravine, but have 
been much defaced by terraces and ballast-tips, so that very 
little actual section can now be examined. 

Situated at an elevation of between 500 and 600 feet 
above the sea-level, these beds show a vertical thickness of 
about 70 feet under the loam. They consist of fine (run- 
ning) sand, fine and coarse shingle, and very coarse gravel 
of rounded pebbles, up to the size of a man’s head or 
larger. I did not observe scratches on any of these pebbles. 
These materials are stratified, in general, horizontally, but 
exhibit considerable irregularity in the extension and levels 
of particular portions of successive strata. On both sec- 


- tions (north and south, and east and west) almost every 


layer shows various examples of false bedding, the whole 
presenting a characteristically marie aspect, and telling 


t 
58 MR. R. D. DARBISHIRE ON MARINE SHELLS 


of the ebb and flow of currents, varying at short intervals, 
and probably not far from a coast-line. These sands rest 
upon a bed of marl with scratched boulders, the so-called 
Lower Boulder-clay of the Geological Survey. On the 
clay, in a shallow hollow at the bottom of the ravine, lies 
a bed of peat, over the surface of which a rill finds its way 
to join the Bollin. 

As a trivial instance of the concurrence of remains, I 
may mention that during these cuttings there have been 
found, in the superficial loam, many of the small tobacco- 
pipe-heads, of Dutch manufacture, of the 17th century, 
and below them a silver coin of Edward the Second, and, 
in the same bed, in the lower part of the ravine, a curious 
very ancient weight, made of burnt clay, for smking 
fishing-nets. 

In the peat are found abundant hazel-nuts. 

On no section, during several visits, was I able to find 
the shells in situ in quantity; but Mr. Lowe speaks of 
having observed the occurrence of fragments in layers. 

In the following list the obviously spurious shells have 
not been noticed. A few species, particular specimens of 
which appear to be of doubtful authenticity, are marked 
in the 5th column with the letter D. It is, however, not 
impossible that some of these questionable remains may 
yet be genuine. 

All the specimens are either much broken, even into 
small fragments, or much rolled and worn. A certain 
number may be put on one side as bearing the appearance 
of greater comparative freshness, having parted with less 
animal matter. These uniformly show signs of great attri- 
tion: they are noted in the 4th column. The specimens 
noted in the 3rd column present, as a whole, a facies of 
more complete fossilization, are often even friable and all, 
except only in the case of minute convolute shells parti- 
cularly, broken up into little pieces. 


FOUND NEAR MACCLESFIELD. 59 


The two groups have probably come from different beds, 
the first mentioned being from a newer deposit. 

References :—a, abundant; c, common ; f, frequent; r, 
rare; and v.r, very rare. D, some specimens probably 
spurious. 

As some of the species are of peculiar interest, and iden- 
tified from small fragments only, it may be worth while to 
state that none have been named except from remains 
showing undoubted and distinctive characteristics *. 


Frequency 
: Pa 3 
Species. 3 E Remarks. 
e) a 
iS in 
1.| Pholas crispata, Linn....| v.¥. - 
Dn candida, Linn....... we v.r. | Two questionable umbonal 
: fragments, D. 
3. | Mya truncata, Linm....... f, r. | Hinge and other fragments. 
+4: arenaria, Linn.......| VY. ..- | One characteristic umbonal 
5. | Psammobia ferroénsis, | and hinge-fragment. 
(QTM: cescee soscssocced) te ... | Many fragments, all very 
; much worn and remark- 
ably thick. 
6.| Donax anatinus, Lam....| v.r.| ... | One fragment, D. 
7.| Tellina solidula, Pwl¢....|  ¢. f. Whole valvesand fragments. 
Many very D. 
8.| Mactra solida, Linn. ...| x. yr. | Valves and fragments. 
g.| Lutraria elliptica, Lam. | v.r.| ... | Characteristic hinge-frag- 
ments. 
10. | Cytherea chione, Linn....|  f. .... | Umbonal portions & hinges 
of several individuals ; 
also lateral fragments. 
r1.| Venus striatula, Donovan at oe ae 
12. | Artemis lincta, Pulé. ...| r. ... | Hinge-fragments. 
13. | Cyprina islandica, Linn.| c. ... | Hinge-fragments andothers, 
: small and all much worn. 
14.| Astarte elliptica, Brown.| r. ... | Fragments. 
15. arctica, Gray ...... c. ... | Fragments. 
16.| Cardium echinatum, fi ... | Fragments. 
DM sch and euleseaeilasainis sie } Yr. Whole valves, D. 


* While Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys’s valuable manual is still incomplete, it 
appears most convenient to follow the nomenclature of Messrs. Forbes and 
Hanley’s ‘ British Mollusca.’ 

+ Corbula nucleus, Linn., has also oceurred (older v. r.). 


60 


MR. R. D. DARBISHIRE ON MARINE SHELLS 


TaBLE (continued). 


Frequency. 
Species. B 5 
o) a 
Go oO 
17.| Cardium aculeatum (?), 
TAN operon sete Hoon v.1. 
18. rusticum, Jinn. ...| Y. 
Ig. norvegicum, Speng-| v.r. 
ler. 
20.| —— edule, Linn.......... : Ee 
21.| Mytilus edulis, Linn. ...| ff. 
22.| Modiola modiolus, Zinn.| yr. 
2s || INOUE soacagacooococanKe 000 ae v.Y. 
24.| Arca lactea, Linn.......... ne y.r. 
Bios || LEfee RVR WRS) Sonoqonncoocnos v.r. 
26.| Pecten opercularis, lim v.r. 
27.| Ostrea edulis, Linn....... are = 
28.| Patella vulgata, Linn. ... { a ie xy 
29.| Dentalium entalis, Linn.|  r. 
30. abyssorum, Sars...) ... v.r. 
31.| Trochus cinerarius, Linn.| ... v.r. 
32.| Littorina littorea, Zinn. .| ... v.Y. 
33- rudis, Donovan...... o0e v.Y. 
34. littoralis, Zinn. ...| ... Welt 
35.| Turritella communis, a. 
TRUSSO. Gesndencbeoausen00 #3 c. 
36.| Aporrhais pespelicani, | { r. 200 
TANNA ere meee es Be I 
37.| Natica nitida, Donovan... ... v.r. 
38. monilifera, Lam. . 500 v.r. 
39. | Murex erinaceus, Linn. . ve aS 
40. | Purpura lapillus, Zinn. . ie a 
41. | Nassa reticulata, Linn....|4 "°** f. 
42. incrassata, Miiller...) v.r. 
43.| Buccinum undatum, 
TANS beaks Sateen r. r. 


Remarks. 


Two fragments, so named 
in Mr. Sainter’s collec- 
tion. May be of this 
species; but quzere. 

Several characteristic frag- 
ments. 

One characteristic frag- 
ment, 

Fragments. 

Whole valves, D. 


A fragment. 
Valves, apparently genu- 
ine. 


Fragments. 


(Several fragments are very 
D. 


1D) 
(J. G. Jeffreys. ) 


One in Mr. Sainter’s col- 
lection seems genuine, 
others D ; xo fragments. 

Fragments broken, rolled, 
and much worn; some 


D. 
D. 


Fragments. 
D. 
D. 


One young specimen. 
Fragments. 

Entire, much rolled, ? D. 
Fragments. 

Entire, much rolled, ?D. 
Fragments. 

Entire, much rolled, ? D. 


Fragments. Certain speci- 
mens D. 


FOUND NEAR MACCLESFIELD. 61 


 Tasie (continued) .. 


Frequency. 
° o oH 
Species. ts 2 Remarks. 
e) A 
ao ins 

44.| Fusus gracilis, Zovén ...|-v.r.| ... | One young, genuine. An- 
other specimen, adult, in 
Mr. Sainter’s collection, 
may be genuine; another, 
with epidermis, spuri- 
ous. 

45. antiquus, Linn. . t. Fragments, much rolled. 

46. | Trophon clathratus,Linn.|  f. Bamffius, Donovan. Large 
and small. 

47.| Mangelia turricula, Mon- 

LOD Unni asia seb abe | a ... | Several, large and small. 
48. rufa, Montagu ...... r. 
49.| Cyprea europa, Mon- 
GGNS Respooerso5saquDseeee v.r. 
50. | Cliona (two species) ...... ie ... | In Turritella, and frag- 


ments of Bivalves. 


Of the foregoing forty-nine species of marine shells, all 
are noted in Prof. E. Forbes’s digested list of Pleistocene 
fossils of the British Isles (Mem. Geological Survey, vol. i.), 
except the following :— 


Pholas candida (D.). | Arca lactea. 

Cytherea chione. Littorina littoralis. 
Cardium rusticum. Dentatum abyssorum 
aculeatum (?). | 


(this last, perhaps, not identified by Prof. Forbes). 

Of those which appear in that list, the following are 
noted by Mr. McAndrew (Geog. Distribution of Testaceous 
Mollusca in the South Atlantic and Mediterranean, 1854) 
as reaching their southern limit within the British seas :— 


Cyprina islandica. | Astarte arctica. 
Astarte elliptica. Trophon clathratus. 


And the followmg to extend southwards as far as the 
British Channel :— 


Mya truncata. : Buccinum undatum. 
arenaria. | Fusus gracilis. 
Modiola modiolus. —— antiquus. 


The latter 10 species are in fact northern shells extending 


62 MR. R. D. DAKBISHIRE ON MARINE SHELLS 


southwards. Of the remaining 32 species, the whole now 
range considerably southward of the British Isles, but, as a 
set, present a characteristically British aspect. 

The remarkable feature of the Macclesfield list is there- 
fore to be found in the 7 species not in Prof. Forbes’s list, 
all the rest being already well known as members of the 
Pleistocene and recent faunas of these isles. Of these 7 not 
one appears in Mr. M¢Andrew’s “ List of Mollusca observed 
between Drontheim and the North Cape” (Annals of Nat. 
Hist., May 1856), nor in Danielssen’s ‘ Zoological Notes of 
the Scandinavian coast,’ 1857, except Littorina hittoralis, a 
shell which, from its peculiarly littoral habit and its restric- 
tion to the fucus-herbage of the tidal rocks, may very well 
be absent from an extensive deposit of shingle. 

The remaining 6 are all shells of species which at present 
reach their northern limit within the British seas extend- 
ing on our western shores, from the Spanish province. 


Cytherea chione, Cardium aculeatum (?), 
Cardium rusticum, Arca lactea, 


are characteristically shells of a Spanish or southern type. 
The Cytherea is not now found north of Caernarvon Bay, 
nor in the German Ocean: it is “essentially a southern 
species.” The Cardia barely frequent the coasts of Devon- 
shire and Cornwall. Cardium aculeatum is said to have 
been dredged off Bergen; but C. rusticum is not known 
east of the Channel. As a matter of historical geology, the 
Cytherea tnhabited British seas during the Miocene period 
of the Coralline Crag, but has not occurred in the Red Crag. 
The Arca occurs in both beds; the Cardia in neither. Mr. 
J. Smith is quoted as having found C. rusticum in newer 
Pliocene beds in Worcestershire*. 

* It may be worth while to describe the specimens of these species. C. 
chione, six umbonal fragments, three showing complete dentition, one less 


complete, and two half the hinge. Three fragments from the ventral region ; 
all considerably worn.. C. rusticwm, several fragments, one showing poste- 


FOUND NEAR MACCLESFIELD. 63 


On comparing the present list with that of the Caernar- 
vonshire deposit on Moel Tryfaen, as the most elevated of 
known drift fossils, we have as yet found out of 60 species 
only 32 at Macclesfield, the excess of the Welsh list con- 
sisting of arctic forms. The 18 which occur in the present 
series, and not on Moel Tryfaen, consist of the 7 southern 
shells and 11 others which are all of British rather than 
arctic distribution. 

The Macclesfield series is, therefore, distinguished from 
that of Moel Tryfaen by the absence of the northern, and 
presence of the southern shells. 

Comparing the present list with a list of shells found in 
an estuarme deposit at Kelsey Hill, near Hull, somewhat 
fuller than that given by Mr. Prestwich (Geol. Journal, 
Xvll. 443), we find 24 common to the two, and all the 
northern and all the southern absent from the Hull list. 
The remaining absentees are all species of shells now com- 
mon in British seas, whose non-occurrence in that bed is 
not without explanation im the greater limitation of the 
series and the position of the deposit near the great river 
that supplied it with its Elephants’ teeth and its Cyrena 
fluminalis. 

This latter comparison, however, is interesting in that 
it affords evidence that the Cheshire beds were deposited 
in a sea that beat from the westward against the Derby- 
shire Hills after the period had commenced during which 
the physical conditions of the western sea have differed as 
they now do from those of the eastern. On the other hand, 
the presence of the three shells I have referred to (C. chione, 


rior lateral tooth, ligamental crevice, and a portion of adjacent surface, the 
others very characteristic fragments from the central and marginal regions 
of the valve. C. aculeatum, two fragments. These present, however, an 
appearance very similar to certain deeper-water forms of C. echinatum, and 
may be of that species. They differ, however, in the direction of C. acu- 
leatum from the fragments of C. echinatwm occurring along with them. Arca 
lactea, two almost perfect valves, apparently genuine. 


64: MR. R. D. DARBISHIRE ON MARINE SHELLS 


C. rusticum, and A. lactea) in the Macclesfield list indi- 
cates a larger extension northwards into the basin of the 
Irish Sea, than now obtains, of the so-called southern or 
Spanish fauna. This might mdeed be expected. A depres- 
sion of the Welsh land, such as hoarded the shells of south- 
ern Spain in the recesses of the valley of the Mersey, would 
now heap the same species in the sources of the Dovey and 
far up the Severn valley. . 

It will be recollected, moreover, that a depression of 600 
feet would leave only a few rocky islands on the east and 
south of what is now the mainland of Ireland, and probably 
carry some degrees further to the eastward that warmer 
influence which has been ascribed to the impact of the Gulf- 
stream on the zoologically speaking rich Atlantic shores of 
modern Ireland. 

The tidal current alone of so weighty a mass of water 
would carry to or maintain the species of the warmer seas 
at their furthest extension, past the site of the present St. 
George’s Channel. 

I am not able to state what lands would be submerged 
by a similar depression of the cou to the south-west of 
Macclesfield. 


P.S.—I am tempted by the interest of an observation 
which I have just made, and which bears especially on one 
poit in my remarks, to add the following :— 

Mr. Green, of the Geological Survey, called my atten- 
tion to a patch of gravel discovered by Mr. Prestwich some 
years ago, in which that gentleman had found fragments 
of shells at an elevation considerably greater than that of 
the Cemetery Hill—namely, about 1200 feet above the sea. 
This deposit I have just visited. 

It appears in an escarpment on the north side of a brook, 
near the Buxton new road, about half a mile eastward of 
the first toll-bar out of Macclesfield. It is of precisely 


FOUND NEAR MACCLESFIELD. 65 


similar character to the cemetery-beds, except that the dry 
sand is somewhat clogged, and in places interleaved as it 
were, by a reddish clay, full of, and frequently laminated 
by, layers of very small scales of mica. 

Under somewhat unfavourable meteorological soudtiens ; 
I made out the height to-be from 1120 to 1160 feet above 
the sea-level. At this spot I picked out from amongst 
fine shingle, stratified in beds of rounded but, so far as 
I noted, unscratched stones, fragments of 12 species, as 
follows :— 


Psammolia ferroensis. Cardium echinatum. 

Tellina solidula. Cardium edule. 

Mactra. Mytilus. 

Cytherea chione (a characteristic Turritella communis. 
hinge-fragment, and another). Fusus antiquus. 

Artemis lincta. Trophon. 


Astarte arctica. 


The occurrence of the Cytherea in this bed at a height 
of 600 feet above the beds examined on the west of Maccles- 
field is very curious, and adds a formidable consideration 
to the many difficulties which seem as yet to delay the 
solution of the “ Drift’ problem. 

The two beds appear to have been deposited under very 
similar conditions, and alike belong, I believe, to the beds 
which the Ordnance Geologists intercaleate between their 
higher and lower Boulder-clays. I understand that the 
higher clay has not been proved above Mr. Prestwich’s 
patch. 

It is difficult to conceive of the deposit of a continuous © 
bed of shingle 600 feet deep, with precisely similar fossils 
in its highest and lowest layers, and of the removal of the 
whole of this formation except a few patches of each layer 
lying within a space of 6 miles. It is more difficult to 
suppose that the cemetery-beds can be a redistribution of 
such portions of Mr. Prestwich’s gravel as the wave of a 
retreating sea carried away while the land was rising. It 

SER. III. VOL, III. eee F 


66 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


is scarcely more easy to believe that the cemetery-beds 
and those of the higher land are merely portions of a de- 
posit under similar conditions on a rising coast, the incline 
being not less than 600 feet in 6 miles. Can there have 
been a local alteration of level ? 


III. On some Products derived from Indigo-blue. 
By Epwarp Scuuncx, Pu.D., F.RB.S. 


Read January roth, 1865. 


My experiments on the formation of indigo-blue, an account 
of which I had the honour of presenting to this Society 
several years ago, led me to make some inquiries regarding 
the processes employed in tropical countries for the pro- 
duction of indigo from the various plants yielding that 
dye-stuff. I found that all the authors who have written 
on the subject agree in affirming that the process of fer- 
mentation, which is the one usually adopted for the purpose 
of extracting the colour from the plant, requires to be con- 
ducted with the greatest care, in order to yield a successful 
result. Unless certain precautions are adopted, a product 
of very inferior quality will be obtamed; in some cases, 
indeed, the colouring matter is entirely lost. This will 
not be surprising to any one who considers that though 
indigo-blue, when once formed, is a very stable compound, 
the substance existing in the cells of the plant from which 
it originates, and which I have named indican, is decom- 
posed with the greatest facility in various ways ; that indigo- 
blue is only one of its products of decomposition, and may 
be formed or not, according to the nature of the process to 
which it is submitted. With this sufficiently obvious ex- 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 67 


planation I should have been inclined to rest contented, 
had I not acquired a knowledge of some other facts relating 
to indigo-blue, to which the same explanation cannot be 
applied, but which evidently belong to the same class. 

It is well known to those dyers who employ the so-called 
woad-vat, in which the reduction of the indigo-blue is 
effected by the action of various organic matters, such as 
woad, madder, and bran, together with lime, that if the 
process be not carefully managed it may change its cha- 
racter entirely, the contents of the vat entering into a state 
of complete putrefaction—a change which results in the 
total destruction, or at least disappearance, of the colouring 
matter. Now this phenomenon, the reality of which cannot 
be doubted, though its nature has never been subjected to 
scientific scrutiny, cannot be explaimed in accordance with ~ 
what is at present known regarding indigo-blue, which is 
considered by chemists to be a body of sucha stable cha- 
racter as not to be decomposed by any except very potent 
agents, such as chlorine, bromine, and nitric acid. In no 
work on scientific chemistry is it stated that imdigo-blue 
may be decomposed by any process of fermentation or putre- 
faction, in the same way as sugar or albumen. 

In my experiments on indigo-blue I have generally em- 
ployed for its reduction and purification the process of 
Fritzsche, which consists in acting on it with a mixture of 
alcohol, grape-sugar, and caustic soda. The colouring 
matter dissolves when the mixture is heated, and is again 
deposited on exposure to the atmosphere in crystalline 
needles. Now in performing this operation with very 
small quantities of mdigo-blue and an excess of alcohol 
and grape-sugar, I found that the colouring matter did 
not make its appearance again on agitating the solution 
with air. The yellow colour of the liquid passed as usual 
through red to green; but, instead of the indigo-blue being 
precipitated, the whole became yellow or brownish-yellow, 

F2 


68 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


and the colouring matter disappeared entirely. In this 
way I had the mortification of losing a quantity of indigo- 
blue, which I had prepared with much labour from human 
urine, though the loss resulted, as it afterwards turned out, | 
in some gain of information. 

This fact was also difficult to account for, since it is 
usually supposed that by the combined action of reducing 
agents and alkalies indigo-blue merely takes up an atom 
of hydrogen and then dissolves, and, by the action of the 
atmospheric oxygen is again precipitated, unchanged and 
undiminished in quantity. 

In order to ascertain on what the disappearance of the 
colourimg matter in this case depends, I first dissolved a 
small quantity of indigo-blue by means of grape-sugar and 
caustic soda, using water as a solvent instead of alcohol ; 
but though the indigo-blue was kept for a long time in 
solution, and heat was applied at the same time to assist 
the action, it made its appearance again on exposure to the 
air, apparently undiminished in quantity. In another ex- 
periment, in which alcohol was used as the menstruum 
and protoxide of tin as the reducing agent, the same result 
was arrived at. It was therefore apparent that the dis- 
appearance of the colouring matter was due to the com- 
bined action of the alcohol and the grape-sugar, not to the 
separate action of either. By the use of a great excess of 
these two agents, together with caustic soda and the long- 
continued application of heat to the solution, I succeeded 
in causing several grammes of indigo-blue to disappear 
entirely. I avoid the word decompose, because, as I shall 
show, the colouring matter is not decomposed, but enters 
~ into new forms of combination. 

It now occurred to me that since, by the action of caustic 
alkalies on sugar, acetic and formic acids are formed, the 
effect produced by the grape-sugar in this process might in 
reality be due to the presence of one or both of these acids 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 69 


rather than to that of the sugar itself. My supposition 
was completely verified by experiment. On treating some 
pure indigo-blue with alcohol, to which an alkaline solution 
of protoxide of tin was added until it dissolved, then adding 
acetate of soda and digesting at a moderate heat, the indigo- 
blue after some time ceased to be deposited on exposure to 
the air, or even agitation; it had entirely disappeared. 
The same thing occurred when formiate of soda was em- 
ployed in the place of acetate. It was evident, therefore, 
that in this process acetic or formic acid was capable of 
playing the same part as grape-sugar; and as the use of 
the latter might have tended to introduce complications, 
In consequence of the formation of secondary products, I 
ceased to employ it in my subsequent experiments. The 
object of the present communication is to give an account 
of the combined action of alcohol, acetate of soda, and 
caustic alkali on indigo-blue, and the products thereby 
formed. 

At the commencement of the investigation I imagined 
that it was an essential condition that the indigo-blue 
should be im a state of solution; but I soon found that 
this was not necessary. The operation succeeds equally 
well if indigo-blue freshly precipitated or in fine powder be 
employed. The plan which I adopted was quite simple. 
Pure indigo-blue was introduced into a large quantity of 
ordinary spirits of wine, and, after being well agitated, the 
mixture was raised to the boiling-pomt. A quantity of 
pure acetate of soda, previously deprived of its water of 
crystallization, and a little solid caustic soda were then 
added, and the boilmg was continued for several hours. A 
reduction of a portion of the indigo-blue took place in the 
first instance, as was evident from the deep red colour of 
the liquid. On agitating with air, this red colour disap- 
peared for a moment, the indigo-blue being precipitated in 
powder, to be again dissolved on boiling the liquid ; but 


70 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


after some time the liquid acquired a dark-brown colour, 
and deposited nothing on exposure or agitation. The 
process was then completed. There sometimes remained 
a residue of indigo-blue, which obstinately resisted the ac- 
tion of the boiling liquid; but, on pourig off the latter, 
and adding fresh materials, it generally disappeared rapidly. 
I found it advisable to employ only a small quantity of 
indigo-blue at a time, as the process is a slow one, and 
requires a great excess of alcohol and acetate of soda. 
The presence of caustic alkali I found to be quite essential, 
as no perceptible action took place without it; but the 
quantity required was not large. The stronger the alcohol, 
and, generally speaking, the freer from water all the sub- 
stances employed were, the more rapidly was the process 
completed. 

In order to obtain the products resultmg from this 
process, I proceeded as follows :—The dark-brown alcoholic 
liquid containing them was first mixed with sulphuric acid 
until it had acquired a slightly acid reaction, and it was 
then evaporated. During evaporation, brown resimous 
masses were deposited; and on adding water, when the 
evaporation was nearly completed, a fresh quantity of resin- 
like matter was thrown down. The liquid filtered from 
this matter was still brown. It was evaporated to a syrup, 
which, after standing some time, became solid from the 
formation of crystals, consisting chiefly of acetate of soda. 
The whole mass of crystals was then dissolved in boiling 
alcohol, and tolerably strong sulphuric acid was added to 
the solution, until no more sulphate of soda was precipitated, 
care being taken to avoid an excess of the acid. 'The liquid, 
after standing some time, was filtered and evaporated, so 
as to drive off the acetic acid as well as the alcohol. When 
the evaporation was nearly completed, water was added, 
which threw down a large quantity of a brown pulverulent 
substance, as well as a little brown resin, which, after 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. om 


filtration, were added to the resinous matter previously 
obtained. The filtered liquid had lost much of its brown 
colour. I shall return to it presently. 

The products insoluble in water obtained in this manner 
consist partly of resimous, partly of pulverulent substances. 
Among these products there are at least five distinct sub- 
stances, which I have succeeded in separating from one 
another by the use of various solvents; but it is probable 
that small quantities of other substances closely resembling 
them are also formed at the same time. These bodies are 
all unfortunately amorphous, and possess very few charac- 
' teristic properties. It is indeed only their origin and mode 
of formation which impart to them any interest ; and I shall 
therefore refrain from adding to the already cumbrous 
mass of terms with which organic chemistry has to deal 
by inventing names for them, but shall simply distinguish — 
them by the letters of the alphabet. 

The process adopted for the separation of these substances 
from one another was as follows :—The whole of the mass 
insoluble in water was first treated with boiling water in 
order to remove all the sulphate and acetate of soda. It 
was then dried, finely pounded, and treated with successive 
doses of ether, as long as anything dissolved. The ethereal 
liquid, which had a rich reddish-brown colour, was filtered 
and evaporated, when it left a resin-like residue of the same 
colour. This residue was digested with weak caustic am- 
monia, which dissolved a great portion of it. The portion 
insoluble in ammonia was filtered off, washed, dried, and 
then treated with ether, which generally left a small quan- 
tity of brown powder undissolved. The filtered ethereal 
solution was evaporated, and the residue was dissolved in 
cold alcohol, which left behind a little resinous matter. 
The filtered liquid left on evaporation a brittle, brownish- 
yellow resin, which I assume to be an unmixed substance, 
and shall distinguish by the letter A. The matter dissolved 


ie DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


by the ammonia was precipitated by acid in thick flocks, 
which, after being filtered off, washed, and dried, were 
treated with ether. The ether left some brown powder un- 
dissolved, which was separated by filtration. The liquid 
was evaporated, and the residue was treated again with 
ether, in order to separate a little more of the brown 
powder. The substance was then introduced into a hot 
solution of carbonate of ammonia, which, if not too con- 
centrated, dissolved the greatest part of it, leavmg only 
some brown powder behind. If, as sometimes happened, 
the solution of carbonate of ammonia was not sufficiently 
dilute, very little was dissolved by it, the greatest part of - 
the substance sinking to the bottom of the vessel as a viscid 
resinous mass, which dissolved, however, almost entirely 
on pouring off the liquid and adding pure water. The 
addition of acid to the filtered solution produced a brown 
flocculent precipitate, which was filtered off, washed with 
water, and treated with cold alcohol. The filtered alcoholic 
solution left, on evaporation, a resinous body hardly to be 
distinguished in appearance from the preceding, and which 
I will denote by the letter B. 

The matter insoluble in ether, constituting by far the 
larger part of the whole mass, was first treated with a little 
cold alcohol, to which it communicated a dark-brown colour. 
The filtered alcoholic liquid left, on evaporation, a brown 
resinous residue, which was not further examined, since it 
was sure to contain some of that well-known product of 
decomposition which-is formed by the action of caustic 
fixed alkalies on alcohol, and which, being also resinous, I 
saw no prospect of being able to separate from any product 
‘derived from indigo-blue which might be mixed with it. 
The portion left undissolved by the cold alcohol was, after 
being dried, a brown powder, which consisted of three sub- 
stances. In order‘to separate these from one another, the 
mixture was first subjected to the action of boiling dilute 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 73 


caustic soda-lye, in which one of the three was found to be 
insoluble. The alkaline liquid, which was of a dark-brown 
colour, was filtered, and the residue left undissolved was 
again treated with alkali in order to remove the whole of 
the soluble portion, and it was then treated with a boiling 
alcoholic solution of caustic soda, in which the greatest part 
dissolved with ease. The dark-brown solution was filtered 
and then mixed with an excess of hydrochloric acid, which 
precipitated the greatest part of the substance as a dark- 
brown powder. This was collected on a filter, washed with 
alcohol until all the acid and chloride of sodium were re- 
moved and dried. This body I will distinguish by the 
letter C. The caustic soda-lye contained the two other 
substances in solution, and it was accordingly mixed with 
an excess of acid, which produced an abundant brown 
fiocculent precipitate. This was collected on a filter, well 
washed with water, and then treated with a boiling solu- 
tion of acetate of soda, which dissolved part of it, thereby 
acquiring a brown colour. The liquid was filtered boiling 
hot, and the residue was treated with fresh solution of 
acetate of soda, the process being repeated as long as the 
boiling liquid acquired any colour. The residue left un- 
dissolved by the acetate of soda was treated with boiling 
alcohol containing a little ammonia, in which it dissolved 
with ease, forming a dark-brown solution, from which the 
greatest part was again precipitated on the addition of an 
excess of hydrochloric acid as a brown powder. This was 
filtered off, well washed with alcohol,sand dried. This body 
may be denoted by the letter D. The substance held in 
solution by the acetate of soda was precipitated by sul- 
phuric acid in brown flocks, which were filtered off, well 
washed with water, and then treated with boiling alcohol, 
in which they dissolved completely. The alcoholic solution 
deposited, on cooling, a brown powder, which was collected 
on a filter, washed with a little cold alcohol, and dried. 


74: DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


To this product I apply, for the sake of distinction, the 
letter E. 

The acid liquid filtered from the mixture of substances 
insoluble in water still contained in solution a product of 
decomposition derived from the indigo-blue. It was evapo- 
rated until crystals began to appear on its surface, and it 
was then set aside and allowed to stand for some time, 
when a large quantity of crystals was gradually deposited. 
After separation from the mother liquor, these crystals 
appeared of a brown colour ; but by recrystallization from 
boiling water and decolorization with animal charcoal, they 
were rendered white and pure. They were then found to 
have the properties and composition of anthranilic acid, 
the well-known product formed by the action of caustic 
alkalies on indigo-blue. The mother liquor of the crystals 
left, on evaporation, a thick brown syrup, which seemed to 
be a compound of anthranilic acid and acetic acid. On 
dissolving it mm water, adding sulphuric acid to the solution 
and evaporating, I obtained a quantity of crystals, which 
were purified by crystallization, first from water and then 
from boiling alcohol. They differed in appearance from 
anthranilic acid, and consisted indeed of a compound of 
the latter with sulphuric acid. The same compound is 
obtained in place of uncombined anthranilic acid, if a great 
excess of sulphuric acid beyond what is required to unite 
with the free soda and that combined with acetic acid and 
the various products yielded by the process has been em- 
ployed in the first instance. The sulphate, being more 
soluble in water than the free acid, does not crystallize so 
easily from the brown syrup which the liquid always leaves 
on evaporation, and hence it is advisable not to use an 
excess of sulphuric acid in the process above described for 
the separation of the anthranilic acid. 

As regards their properties, the products insoluble in 
water present very little that is of terest. The body A 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 75 


is a brittle, amorphous, brownish-yellow resin, transparent 
in thin layers. At a temperature of 100°C. it becomes 
soft and semi-liquid. When heated on platinum foil, it 
-burns with a bright flame, leaving much charcoal, which, 
on being heated, disappears without leaving any ash. It 
is decomposed by boiling. nitric acid, yielding a product of 
decomposition in crystalline needles. It is quite insoluble 
in alkaline liquids, such as caustic potash, soda, and am- 
monia, even when a reducing agent, such as protoxide of 
tin, is added; but it is decomposed on being heated with 
dry soda-lime, giving off alkaline fumes having a peculiar 
penetrating odour. The body B can hardly be distin- 
guished by its external appearance from A, with which it 
has also many properties in common ; but it is easily soluble 
in caustic and carbonated alkalies, yielding yellow solutions, 
from which it is precipitated by acids in brown flocks. The 
compounds with baryta, lime, lead, silver, and copper pre- 
pared by double decomposition are brown or yellow, and 
insoluble in water. When treated with boiling nitric acid 
it behaves like A, yielding also a product of decomposition 
crystallizing in needles. The body C is a brown powder, 
which, on being heated, burns without previously melting ; 
it is insoluble, like A, in watery solutions of alkalies, and 
very little soluble in alcohol alone, but easily soluble in an 
alcoholic solution of soda. D resembles C in most of its 
properties, but differs from it by its solubility in caustic 
and carbonated alkalies. E is a reddish-brown powder, — 
soluble in alkalies, and more easily-soluble in alcohol than 
C and D, but distinguished from the others chiefly by its 
solubility im acetate of soda. 

The composition of these bodies is, however, a matter of 
some interest, since it is only from a knowledge of their 
composition that any light can be thrown on the nature of 
this curious process. I shall, therefore, proceed to give a 
short account of the results yielded by the analysis of these 


76 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


products which will lead to a few remarks regarding their 
mode of formation and probable constitution. 


ANS 


Of this body I made two series of analyses, the speci- 
mens being prepared on different occasions. Unfortunately 
the results to which they led did not harmonize, though no 
difference could be detected in the external properties of 
the two specimens. 

I. 0°3275 grm. dried at 100° C., and burnt with oxide of 
copper and oxygen, gave 0°9135 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2360 grm. water. 

0°5390 grm., burnt with soda-lime, gave 0°2470 grm. 
chloride of platinum and ammonium. 

II. 0°3290 grm. of the same gave 0'9165 grm. carbonic 
acid and 0'2335 grm. water. 

These numbers lead to the formula Cs, H,, NOs, which 
requires 


Experiment. 
Calculation. ie mal 
Op aetrocacancone 372 76°07 76°07 75°97 
Eg inessccnereee 39 7°97 a S;c0 7°88 
dar Waipeonandacce 14 2°86 2°37 
OM Tastes seek 64 13°10 13°06 
489 100°00 100"00 


In order to explain the formation of a body of this com- 
position in this process, it is necessary to assume that 1 
atom of indigo-blue has combined with 8 atoms of alcohol, 
3 ats. of acetic acid, and 2 ats. of carbonic acid, the 
whole losing 26 ats. of water, and forming 1 at. of the 
substance, since 


Indigo-blue. Alcohol. Acetic acid. 
Coo Hyp NO, +26 HO=C,, H, NO,+8 (C,H, 0,) +3 (C,H, O,)4+2C0,,. 


On the next occasion, though the method of preparation 
was exactly the same as that above described, the analysis 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. Th 


of the substance led to different results, as the following 
details will show :— 

I. 0°3810 grm. gave 1:0600 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2385 grm. water. 

0°7280 grm. gave 0°5000 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. : 

II. 0'4015 grm. gave 1'1200 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2500 grm. water. 

0°6235 grm. gave 0°4265 germ. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

These numbers lead to the formula C,, H,, N,O,., which 
requires 


Experiment. 
Calculation. I. II. 
Cee ncaaeucies 480 75°94. 75°87 76°07 
18 Anta haapnoenee 44 6°96 6°95 6:91 
EN ages estas velia 28 + 4°43 4°31 4°29 
Oar Ue ar nwaes 80 12°67 12°87 12°73 
623 100°00 100°00 100°00 


Though this formula differs widely from the first, it 
presupposes a similar mode of formation for the substance, 
the only difference consisting in the relative quantities 
of the elements uniting to produce it, as will be seen from 
the following equation :— 

Indigo-blue. Alcohol. Acetic acid. 
C,, H,, N, O,.+28 HO=2(C,, H, NO,)+9(C,H,0,)+2(C, H, O,)+4C0,. 

It appears, therefore, that in both cases its formation was 
due to the union of indigo-blue with alcohol, acetic acid, 
and carbonic acid, accompanied by the loss of a certain 
proportion of water. The alcohol and acetic acid are in- 
gredients employed in the process ; but it is not easy to see 
whence the carbonic acid is derived. I think, however, it 
may originate in the formation of anthranilic acid. This 
acid, as is well known, is produced by the action of caustic 
alkalies on indigo-blue, which, taking up water and oxygen, 


78 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


yields anthranilic acid and carbonic acid, in accordance 
with the following equation :— 

Indigo-blue. Anthranilic acid. 

C,, H, NO,+2HO+4,0=C,, H,NO,+2C0,. 

The oxygen in this case must be derived from water, the 
hydrogen of which, instead of beimg set at liberty, probably 
unites with a portion of the indigo-blue, forming reduced 
indigo, which dissolves in the caustic alkali. Hence the 
partial reduction and solution of the indigo-blue, which, as 
mentioned above, is observed at the commencement of the 
process. The carbonic acid does not, as might natu- 
rally be supposed, combine with the alkali, but unites in 
statu nascentt with alcohol, acetic acid, and a portion of the 
indigo-blue to form the body A. That it should do so in 
the presence of an excess of alkali is not more surprising 
than that acetic acid should, under the same circumstances, 
leave the base with which it is combined in order to form 
a perfectly neutral body—a fact of which there can be no 
doubt. 


B. 


Of this body also two series of analyses were made, the 
material bemg obtained at the same time as that of the 
two series of A. ‘The first series yielded the following 
results :— 

I. 0°3315 grm. gave o°8925 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2465 grm. water. 

0°5270 grm. gave 0'2645 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

II. 0°3330 grm. gave o°9g015 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2445 grm. water. 

05420 grm. gave 03190 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

III. 0°3390 grm. gave o'g195 grm. carbonic acid and 
0'2530 grm. water. , 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 79 


0°5230 grm. gave 0'2625 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

These numbers correspond with the formula C,, H,, NOx, 
which requires 


Experiment. 
Calculation. I. pelle II. 
Oyo serereees 312 73°41 7342 73:83 73:97 
Ee ieapetssws 656 OE 8:23 8:26 8°15 8-29 
INN ravecnsces 14 3°29 3°15 3°69 3°15 
(Q)5) oRocoodos 64. 15°07 15°17 14°33 14°59 
425 100°00 T00°00 =: TOQ0'0CO~——- 100°00 


This body is therefore formed by the union of 1 at. of 
indigo-blue, 6 ats. of alcohol, and 3 ats. of acetic acid, 
18 ats. of water being eliminated, as will be seen by the 
following equation :— 


Indigo-blue. Alcohol. Acetic acid. 
C,.H,, NO,+183HO=C,, H, NO,+6(C, H, O,)+3(C, H, O,). 


The second series of analyses made of this body gave the 
following results :-— 


I. 0°4420 grm. gave 1°0810 grm. carbonic acid and 
O°2515 grm. water. 

0°6550 grm. gave 0°3865 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

II. 0'4610 grm. gave 1°1820 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°2745 grm. water. 

0°5085 grm. gave 0°3325 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. . 

These numbers lead to the formula C,, H,, NO,, which 
requires 


Experiment. 

Calculation. I. II. 
(O)ng) Cooocoepsa6cacd 240 70°38 _ 69°86 69°92 
Lee at nchiclucias 23 6°74. 6°62 6°61 
ING)! Seceaetecie ooo | Wit 410 | 3°70 4°10 
O)s cocceconcee nooo AL 18:78 19°82 19°37 


341 ) Koloyfole) 1900°00 100°00 


80 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


In this case the composition is to be explained by sup- 
posing that 3 ats. of alcohol and 3 ats. of acetic acid have 
combined with 1 at. of indigo-blue to form 1 at. of the 
substance, since 


Indigo-blue Alcohol. Acetic acid 
C,H, NO,+12HO=C,, H, NO, +3(C, H, 0,)+3(C, H, O,). 

It appears, therefore, that in the case of this body, as in 
that of A, the composition may vary extremely, without 
any corresponding difference in external appearance and 
properties. The difference in composition in both eases is 
owing to the different proportion between the elements— 
indigo-blue, alcohol, acetic acid, and carbonic acid—of 
which they are composed. The two formule to which 
the analyses of B led, viz. C,, H,, NO, and C,, H,, NOs, 
differ from one another by a multiple of CH, and they 
therefore represent homologous bodies. 


Cc: 


This body is formed in relatively small quantities, and I 
only obtained sufficient for one analysis, which yielded the 
following results :— 

03600 grm. gave 0°9790 grm. carbonic acid and o: 1605 
grm. water. 

0°5435 grm. gave 0°5175 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

Hence it is to be inferred that the formula is C,; H,, NO,, 
which requires 


Calculation. Experiment. 
(Che. oaneoncboonsnoaco 168 74°66 74°16 
ELE es cabeeetecacenes TI 4°88 4°95 
INGiaiecuecermnnsteons 14 6°22 5°98 
Ojncresenecec ents eee 32 14°24 14°91 
225 100700 100°00 


This formula leads to the conclusion that the formation 
of the compound is due to the union of 1 at. of indigo-blue 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 81 


with 1 at. of alcohol and 2 ats. of acetic acid, and the 
elimination of 8 ats, of water, for 


Indigo-blue. Alcohol, Acetic acid. 
C,, H,, NO,+8HO=C,, H; NO,+C, H, O,+2(C, H, 0,). 


D. 

This body is formed in abundance during this process, 
and I think it probable that its composition is always the 
same, as the following analytical results will tend to show:— 

I. 0°3540 grm. of the substance, dried at 100°C., and 
burnt as usual, gave 0°9360 grm. carbonic acid and 0°1635 
grm. water. 

0°5630 grm. gave 0°5540 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

II. 0°2325grm., prepared on another occasion, gave 
0°6030 grm. carbonic acid and 0:0985 grm. water. 

0°5700 grm. gave 0°5435 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. : 

The formula with which these numbers most closely 
correspond is C,,H,,N,O,., which requires the following 
values :— 


Calculation. iE ee 

OER oeeaeatesns 336 70°79 7211 70°73 
131 eoneeaepEp bade 24 5712 5713 . 4°70 
ING, ooaneaquance 28 . 5°98 6°18 . 5°98 
(GO) aneieadanpoeates 80 171 16°58 18°59 
468 100°00 100°00 100°00 


_ The deficiency of carbon in the second analysis may be 
partly due to the extreme difficulty with which the com- 
bustion of the substance is effected—a difficulty which is 
always experienced in the case of such bodies as become 
charred when heated without previously melting. 

If the formula of C, C,, H,, NO,, be doubled, it will be 
found to differ from that of D merely by 2 HO less. The 
formation of both bodies is therefore to be explained in the 

SER. III. VOL. III. G 


82 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


same manner. 'The body C may, indeed, be considered as 
the anhydride of D, the resemblance between the two 
substances, as regards their appearance and properties, 
being so great that it is only by their behaviour to caustic 
alkalies that they can be distinguished. 


E. 


Of this body I only obtained a quantity sufficient for two 
analyses, and I must, therefore, leave it doubtful whether 
its composition is uniform or not. 

I. 0°4355 grm. gave 1°1050 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°1770 grm. water. 

0°5995 grm. gave O° 5740 erm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

TI. 0°4685 grm. gave 1°1890 grm. carbonic acid and 
0°1930 grm. water. 

0'5615 grm. gave 0°5560 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

These numbers lead to the formula C,, H,, NO,, which 
requires 


Calculation. Dey ewe 
Coy iasvantionence 168 69°70 69°20 69°21 
ET Wisks scale anes II 4°56 4°51 4°57 
IND ists comico 14 5°80 6:01 6°21 
Ons sccosaehes 48 19°94 20:28 20°01 
241 100°00 190°00 100°CO 


If this formula be correct, it follows that 2 ats. of indigo- 
blue combine with 1 at. of alcohol and 5 ats. of acetic acid 
in order to form, after elimination of 14 ats. of water, 2 ats. 

of the body E, since 
| Indigo-blue. Alcohol. _—_ Acetic acid. 
2(C,, H,, NO,)+14HO=2(C,, H; NO,)+C, H, O,+5(C, H, O,). 

On comparing the formula of E with that of C, it will 
he seen that the former merely differs from the latter by 
2 ats. oxygen, so that C+20=H. 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 83 


Anthranilic Acid. 


Though there could be no doubt, after an examination of 
the properties of the crystallized acid formed in this process, 
of its identity with anthranilic acid, still I conceived that 
its analysis, if not altogether indispensable, might prove of 
some interest. The results obtained were as follows :— 

I. 0°3135 grm., dried at 100° C., gave 0°7035 grm. car- 
bonic acid and 0:1500 grm. water. 

04050 grm., burnt with soda-lime, gave 0'2890 grm. 
metallic platinum. 

II. 0°1664 grm. gave 0°3720 grm. carbonic acid and 
00780 grm. water. 

0°5590 erm. gave 49 cc. of moist nitrogen at 7° C. and 
759°2 millims. pressure, equivalent to 47°25 cc. dry nitrogen 
at o° C. and 760 millims. pressure, or 0'0591 grm. 

These numbers correspond with the formula C,, H, NO,, 
which is that of anthranilic acid, as the followmg compa- 
rison of the composition with that required by theory will 


show :— 
Calculation. DgpeHLASD 
(OE oe neaeemaeat 84 61°31 61°19 60°97 
Aa Msctchness 7 510 5°31 5°20 
IN| ST aaemeeine 14 10°25 10°13 10°58 
ON evict 32 23°38 23°37 23°25 
137° 100700 100°00 100°CO 


Since under ordinary circumstances this acid can only be 
obtained by the long-continued action of boilmg concen- 
trated, alkaline lye on indigo-blue, its formation in this 
process, in which only a small quantity of caustic soda dis- 
solved in a large quantity of alcohol was employed, is re- 
markable. ‘There can be little doubt that its formation in 
this case is connected in some way with that of the other 
substances, and could not be effected by the mere action of 
a dilute alcoholic solution of caustic alkali on indigo-blue. 

The experiments just described suggest a few general 

G2 


84. DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


remarks on this process and the products to which it gives 
rise. 

1. Though I have no doubt that the products, of the pro- 
perties and composition of which I have just given an 
account, are distinct chemical compounds, still it might. 
be objected that some of them were not free from an ad- 
mixture of products of decomposition derived from alcohol 
alone, the action of caustic alkali on alcohol being a process 
not very well understood. In order to satisfy myself on 
this poimt, I took an alcoholic solution of caustic soda, 
boiled it for some time, and then evaporated it im contact 
with the air. The solution became brown ; and on adding 
water and an excess of acid, after evaporation of the 
alcohol, I obtained a brown flocculent precipitate, which, 
being filtered off and washed, was dissolved im alcohol. 
The solution left, on evaporation, a dark brown resinous 
residue, which I found to be quite insoluble in ether. That 
portion of the products obtamed in this process which was 
insoluble in water and ether, but easily soluble in alcohol 
and alkalies, was therefore certain to contain some of this 
resinous matter; and I therefore laid the whole of it aside, 
and gave up all further examination of it. It is certainly 
true that by the action of alkali on alcohol in closed vessels 
a totally different product is. obtained—a product which 
differs from the other by its solubility in ether, and its 
total insolubility in alkalies, and shows a striking resem- 
blance to the body A, which is also soluble in ether and 
insoluble in alkalies. Still, as my process was conducted 
in open vessels and not under pressure, I think it is not pro- 
bable that any of this substance was formed*. 


* According to Liebig, the colour which an alcoholic solution of caustic 
potash assumes in contact with the air is due to aldehyde-resin, the product 
of decomposition formed by the action of caustic alkalies on aldehyde. 
Weidenbusch (Annalen der Chemie u. Pharmacie, B. lxvi. S. 153), however, 
states that the true aldehyde-resin is almost insoluble in alkalies ; and in con- 
sequence of the diserepancy in the accounts of this body, I requested Mr. A. 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 85 


2. From what has been stated above, it follows that all 
the products, except anthranilic acid, are formed by a very 
simple process, which consists merely in indigo-blue com- 
bining with alcohol and acetic acid in various proportions, 
and yielding compounds in which none of the constituents 
as such can be detected. _It is, therefore, not a process of 
decomposition, but rather a synthetical process, a building 
up of complex bodies from others of a simpler constitution. 
This is proved by the fact of water bemg eliminated during 
the process, whereas in all cases in which complex organic 
‘substances are decomposed into simpler ones water is 
absorbed. This elimination of water proceeds so far, that 
some of the products, notwithstanding that they are formed 
-by the addition to indigo-blue of many atoms of alcohol and 
acetic acid (bodies having much less carbon and more 
oxygen), are found to contain even more carbon than 
indigo-blue itself, a great proportion of the water both of 
the alcohol and the acetic acid having been separated. Is 
it not possible that processes of a similar nature may go on 
within the cells of plants, the chief function of which is 
known to consist, chemically speaking, in the construction 
of complex bodies from others of a simpler composition ? 
Is not the power residing in the vegetable cell which 
enables it to neutralize very potent chemical affinities 
somewhat of the same nature as that which, in this process, 
causes the acetic acid to leave the strong base with which 


Mylius to make some experiments on the action of caustic alkalies on alcohol 
in sealed tubes. He obtained by this action a resin of a fine reddish-yellow 
colour, solubie in ether, but totally insoluble in watery solutions of alkalies. 
Its properties so nearly resemble those of the true aldehyde-resin, as described 
by Weidenbusch, and its composition differs so little from that of the latter, 
that it seems very probable that the two resins may be identical. If so, it 
follows that aldehyde-resin is certainly formed by the action of caustic 
alkalies on alcohol, but only under pressure in sealed tubes. The resin 
formed in open vessels in contact with the air is totally different. For 
further particulars regarding this peculiar action I must refer to the account 
of Mr. Mylius’s experiments contained in the Proceedings of the Society, 
February 21st, 1865. 


86 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


it is combined in order to unite with alcohol and indigo- 
blue, for which it cannot be supposed to have any strong 
chemical affinity ? 

3. The physical properties of these compounds do not 
seem to depend in any way on those of their constituents. 
Nevertheless it is to be observed that those containing the 
largest proportion of alcohol are insoluble in alkalies, 
whilst those in which the indigo-blue preponderates are the 
least soluble in alcohol and ether. 

4. No law or rule can be detected determining the number 
of atoms of alcohol and acetic acid which are capable of 
uniting with the mdigo-blue. Were the series more exten- 
sive, it is probable that some such law might be found to 
prevail. It may be remarked, however, that all the pro- 
ducts insoluble in water, with one exception, contain either 
8 or 10 equivalents of oxygen (assuming the formula of C 
to be doubled), as will be seen from the followmg tabular 
view of their formule :— 


Cys H,, N 0, 
A. pat { C50 Hy, N, 0,, 

Ce H,; N QO, 
Bi CHEN OF 
OB ae, OF EES NEO, 
Diskus C,, H,,N,0,, 
A Dae C,,H,,N 0, 


5. Regarding the rational formule or probable internal 
constitution of these compounds I hardly venture to indulge 
in any speculations. They might be considered as conju- 
gated compounds—compounds of which organic chemistry 
affords so many examples; and it might consequently be 
possible to obtain from them, by decomposition, some of the 

‘simpler bodies which are known to have entered into their 
composition. I have, however, been unable to discover any 
facts in favour of this view. Neither indigo-blue nor any 
of its products of decomposition can be obtained from them 
by any means which I have tried. In one experiment 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 87 


which I made for this purpose, and which consisted in sub- 
jecting the body D to the action of caustic soda, I obtained 
neither anthranilic acid nor acetic acid, as might have been 
expected. By evaporating the alkaline solution to dryness, 
and heating the residue to incipient fusion, the substance 
was partly converted into a black humus-like matter, in-— 
soluble not only in water and alcohol, but also in alkalies. 

The alkali was supersaturated with sulphuric acid, and the 

liquid was distilled, when a trace of what I suppose to be 

formic acid passed over. The liquid yielded no anthranilic 

acid. 

In this respect these compounds resemble some of the se- 
condary products which are formed during the decomposi- 
tion of indican by acids, and from which no indigo-blue can 
be obtained, though they must be supposed to contain the 
elements of that body and of various organic acids, such as’ 
formic, acetic, and propionic acids. Indeed, the resem- 
_blance between the two series of compounds extends also 
to their physical properties. For instance, the body A 
resembles indifulvine, one of the products derived from 
indican, both being brownish-yellow resins insoluble in 
alkalies. B is very similar to indiretine; and D is so like 
indifuscine, that the two can hardly be distinguished from 
one another. There may, in fact, be some analogy in the 
composition of the ‘two last-named bodies. Indifuscine 
may, as I have shown on a former occasion, be considered 


as a compound of indigo-blue and propionic acid minus _ 


water, as may be seen by the following equation :— 


Indifuscine. Indigo-blue. Propionic acid. 


C,, H,, N, O,,+2 HO=2(C,, H; NO,) + 2(C, H, O,). 
In lke manner D may be supposed to contain the same 


elements Cae in a different proportion, since 


Indigo-blue. Propionic acid. 
Csg H.W, O,)-+10HO=2(C,, H; NO,)+4(C, H, O,). 


Analogies such as these, unsupported by experimental 
proof, may be only fanciful. Nevertheless they may prove 


88 DR. EDWARD SCHUNCK ON SOME 


of some use in facilitating the classification of facts. At 
all events, the circumstance of indigo-blue yielding, by the 
combined action of alcohol, acetie acid, and alkalies, bodies 
so closely resembling the products obtained along with 
indigo-blue in the decomposition of mdican seems to afford 
a striking confirmation of the view which I have taken 
regarding the composition of these products. 

There is another point of view from which these bodies 
may be considered. They may be represented as substitu- 
tion products of indigo-blue, one or more of the atoms of 
hydrogen in the latter being replaced by one or more or- 
ganic radicals. For mstanee, the body C may be looked 
upon as the hydrate of a compound, in which one atom of 
the hydrogen of indigo-blue is replaced by phenyl (C,, H,), 
since , 
C,, H,,NO,=C,, H,(C,, H,)NO,+2 HO. 

‘In order to obtain some confirmation for this hypothesis 
I took some of the body D, of which 1 had a considerable . 
quantity, and which only differs from C by contaiming 
more water, and subjected it to the action of hydriodic 
acid and phosphorus in a sealed tube. By the action of 
the nascent hydrogen I expected that indigo-blue might 
possibly be regenerated, but the experiment led only to a 
negative result; for though the tube was heated in the 
water-bath for several days, the substance, on its bemg 
opened, was found to be almost unchanged, a small part 
only having’ been converted into a resinous matter easily 
soluble in alcohol. <A similar negative result was: obtained 
when an amalgam of sodium was employed as a source of 
hydrogen. After these failures I felt but little encourage- 
ment in making further experiments in this direction; and 
this part of the snbject must, therefore, be left in its pre- 
sent state of obscurity. 

6. The occasional disappearance of the indigo-blue in 
the woad-vat, In consequence of mismanagement, now 


PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 89 


admits of an explanation, which will probably be allowed 
to be the correct one. By the fermentation of the sugar 
contained in the madder and other materials employed, 
alcohol is generated, which in its turn may yield some 
acetic acid; and, alcohol, acetic acid, and a base (lime) 
being present, nothing further is required for the develop- 
ment of the process above described. By neutralizing a 
portion of the lime when necessary, the danger of losing 
colouring-matter is to some extent obviated; but I would 
venture to suggest, as a means of rendering it still less, the 
avoiding all materials containing much sugar or starch— 
substances which might, by their decomposition, lead to 
the formation of alcohol. 


When, in the process above described, formiate of soda is 
employed instead of.acetate of soda, exactly the same phe- 
nomena are observed. The indigo-blue gradually disap- 
pears, and a dark brown alcoholic liquid is obtained, which 
is found to contain bodies closely resembling those formed 
by means of acetate of soda. By operating on a tolerably 
large quantity of material, I was enabled to ascertain the 
presence in this liquid of anthranilic acid, and of three 
products corresponding to, and having the same physical 
properties as, the bodies B, D, and HE. They were separated 
from one another by the same means as the latter, the first 
being a brownish-yellow resin, easily soluble in alcohol _ 
and ether, as well as in alkalies ; the second,a brown powder, 
soluble in alkalies, but soluble with difficulty in alcohol 
and ether; whilst the third was a reddish-brown powder, 
distinguished by its solubility in a boiling solution of 
acetate of soda—a property which afforded a ready means 
of separating it from the others. No compounds insoluble 
in alkalies, and corresponding to the bodies A and C, were’ 
formed with formiate of soda. The analysis of the com- 
pound resembling B yielded the following results :— 


90 ON SOME PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM INDIGO-BLUE. 


0'2960 grm. gave 0°7565 grm. carbonic acid and 071920 


grm. water. 
03615 grm. gave o'IgI5 grm. chloride of platinum and 


ammonium. 


These numbers lead to the formula C,, H,, NO,., which 
requires 


Calculation. Experiment. 
Cin petneseeee -neeeeee + 288 70°07 69°70 
BF op sSessaanieeamansnues 29 7°05 7°20 
IN, | cavaesaaevnnstemaeton 14 3°40 BQO 
(Oy abaoaceosacdosdcoens 80 19°48 19°78 
41I = I00"00 100°00 


The substance, it will be seen, is formed by the union of 
6 ats. of alcohol, 4 ats. of formic acid, and 1 at. of indigo- 
blue, accompanied by the separation of 20 ats. of water, 


since 
Indigo-blue. Al@ohol. Formie acid. 


C,, H,, NO,,+20HO=C,, H, NO,+6(C,H, O,)+4(C, H, 0,). 

The composition of the substance corresponding to E 
was also determined, the results being as follows :— 

0'1960 grm. gave 0'4500 grm. carbonic acid and 0°0820 
grm. water. 

0°3635 grm. gave 0°3250 grm. chloride of platinum and 
ammonium. 

These numbers correspond with the formula C,,H,, NOx; 
but the only formula which can lead to an explanation of 
the manner in which the substance is formed, though it 
gives a calculated composition not agreeing quite so well 
with the experiment, is C,, H,, NOs, which requires 


Calculation, Experiment. 
Oh a Mondcuqdodase600020000 156 63°15 ' 62°61 
Tale cogesadonccoso.nocHiad 13 5°26 4°64 
IN Fae cseiea teommeeca cee 14 5°66 5°61 
Oe eaccaanteecaceseecit 64. 25°93 27°14 
247 I00°0O 100°00 


Assuming this to be the correct formula, its formation 


‘PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CARBONIC ACID, ETC. 91 


would take place in accordance with the following equa- 
tion :— 
Indigo-blue. Aleohot. Formic acid. 

2(C,, H,, NO,)+10HO =2(C,, H, NO,)+3(C, H, O,)+-4(C, H, 0,). 

It will be seen that the same law regarding the number 
of atoms of oxygen prevails here as in the case of the bodies 
before described, this number being either 8 or 10. 

If in this process ordinary alcohol is replaced by methylic 
alcohol, the same effect is produced, provided acetate of 
soda is employed; but a mixture of methylic alcohol, 
formiate of soda, and caustic soda does not act in the same 
manner on indigo-blue, which remains unchanged, however 
long it may be left in contact with the boiling liquid. It 
appears, therefore, that one of the two agents, ethylic alcohol 
or acetic acid, is quite essential. One of the two may be 
replaced by an homglogous body; but when both are so- 
replaced, the indigo-blue remains intact. 


IV. On some Physiological Effects of Carbonic Acid and 
Ventilation. By R. Aneus Suitu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 
President of the Society. 


Read January 24th, 1865. 


In a report on the air of mines and confined places, there 
was given a chapter on the action of the pulse when car- 
bonic acid accumulated in the air. It is proposed to repeat 
that chapter, and to supplement it with additional experi- 
ments. The experiments, when not otherwise explained, 
were made in an air-tight lead chamber described in the 
report alluded to. It may be well first to show the amount 
of carbonic acid exhaled. This will be done by giving the 


92 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


amount per cent. in the air of the chamber. This experi- 
ment was the beginning of the inquiry. I expected that 
the amount of carbonic acid exhaled would diminish, and 
with it the amount of strength in the muscles; but these 
points could not be reached by the methods employed. The 
amount of oxygen used is for the time the same, although 
there is less in the atmosphere. I shall not pretend to say 
how the health is affected further than this, that a change 
is observed in the respiration and the pulse. I must 
leave physiologists to tell what mischief this will ultimately 
cause; but I cannot doubt that the circulation is diminished, 
and that the lungs endeavour to compensate for this by 
more rapid action. How much each person can bear of 
this change will depend on circumstances which, it appears 
to me, physiologists cannot estimate. 


ca 
Tasie B.—One Person in the close Chamber. 


Carbonic acid. 


1st day. and day. 
After 20 minutes...... 0°18 per cent. ...... o'rg per cent. 
» 40 eb Gaesa O32e1 HeAtente 0°36 i 
Sou eT (MOUN pkeneeces O49 seseee O'F4N 
», 80 minutes...... CLO 2, puis him Unease. 0°64 4 
jp TOO’ 453) PAS eetee Oyen as. Gatade 0°75 2 
» 2 hours........ 0°88 Beene Core: 0°89 rc 
», 140 minutes...... 1°06 mye ot Meetiaee 1°03 45 
», 160 Pp oncGa. 1k oXS) BAER Se Sccitiog 1°22 a5 
3 OWS ococncece 1°25 sso ies cee 1°34. 
», 200 minutes...... 1°52 ny Geeeee 1°48 Fy 
3) 220 ay = Q00080 1°54. AE Me eonod 1°60 é 
a CS MEOTE 55000000 BAG Fl pets daisies rsi i 
5, 260 minutes...... jae faoewns 1°98 3 
AP ORI MG ecose Paap rte Sra 2°10 FA 
SSS LLOULES eertorselet Hh - dogeoc 2: 2c aaeys 


I have not had timeto attend to thefull explanation of each 
experiment, and some require a continuation of the inquiry; 
but this last must not be passed over without special notice. 
The amount breathed every hour is the same—no matter 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. -93 


whether there be 0:04 or 2 per cent. of carbonic acid in 
the air, and no matter although there be 20°94 or only 18°8 of 
oxygen. This is strongly corroborative of the views taken 
by Liebig, but other circumstances tend on the other hand 
to show that this state of things is kept up at the sacrifice 
of the comfort, to say the least, of other vital functions. 
There must of course be a limit, but I was afraid to go 
farther than I went. In one experiment the breathing was 
changed from 16 inspirations per minute to 22, the pulse fell 
from 76 to 55, whilst it was so weak that it was difficult to 
find. My assistant was in the chamber this time; I re- 
quested him to attend to his pulse and. breathing, as on 
another occasion when there was still more carbonic acid 
in the air, namely, 3°9 per cent., my breathing rose up to 
26 inspirations, and my pulse became so weak as to cause 
alarm. ‘This has happened so regularly that it must be put — 
down as the result of poisoning with carbonic acid. On 
one occasion there was a comparatively large amount of 
oxygen in the room, viz. 20°1. The carbonic acid had been 
driven in upon fresh air, and no oxygen removed. Even 
here the pulse was weak, although the breathing was not 
very difficult, and the candles burnt moderately well. 

The conclusion is, that in the air containing an increased 
amount of carbonic acid, this gas alone, even without the 
other hurtful ingredients, such as organic matter, begins 
to poison, and men exposed to it are really gasping for 
breath without knowimg it. All the other hurtful condi- 
tions contribute their powerful aid. 

As I came on this result at the end of the inquiry into 
the composition of the air of mines, it is not easy to do it 
justice. We learn much from it. We learn that the blood 
can take its oxygen out of very impure mixtures; but we 
learn also that some functions are meantime suffering 
greatly. It is, to my view, a most important thing to 
show that with an amount of oxygen not less than is 


94 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


found in the air of some mines, and an amount of car- 
bonic acid actually less, such extraordinary changes should 
result in the functions of a healthy man. We want no 
other experiment than this to prove great evil arising 
from impure air, either in mines or elsewhere. 

In order to obtain similar results in a shorter time, five 
persons entered the lead chamber, expecting to have in one 
hour the same results that were obtained by one person in 
five hours. The figures are here given ; it is seen that they 
are not exactly the same as previously. Time causes us to 
yield, although we may struggle against the evil influences 
for an hour or so. The effects are not exactly such as were 
expected. The pulse begins to be irregular very soon, and 
certainly when the air contains 0:4 per cent. of carbonic 
acid, in three cases 0'2. It rises and falls, but at last 
begins to fall. In all cases, however, it becomes very weak, 
as in the first experiment. 

With the younger it rose rapidly at first, and seems to 
indicate the more rapid struggle for life with the more 
advanced ; it was a steady determination not to be changed 
by external circumstances, although they gradually caused 
a change at last. 

These figures will probably induce many others to con- 
tinue the inquiry. 

May it not be useful to lower the pulse in this method 
in some cases? If so, must the experiment be tried with 
pure carbonic acid? And how much was due to the car- 
bonic acid, and how much to organic matter? All these 
are interesting questions. Meantime the question is so 
far answered, that we see the effects due to the want of 
ventilation. 


' CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 95 


Taste C.—Beats of the Pulse. Five Persons in the 
Chamber. Observations every 5 minutes. 


SLO x abe shang oodoNShosoageDUeOO 59 | 76 | 90 | 75 | 72 
=m 2G ‘3 Renee nsesceecersoncccece: 72174 | 91 | 74 | 70 
no 2 mn doomanaionyseqssonN0 Scipaonbe 79 | 74 | 89 | 741 72 
» 28 Wile npceuooneeseeacouneennCnCeee 79 |77 | 91 | 71 | 74 
iO $ Me areoecchoeuinccaseesnges 74 | 81 | 89 | 70 | 71 
aa tees jp. | -dbcudebasokoneosndobenatecd 78 | 79 | 87 | 74. | 68 | 72°F. 
» 40 Sh. apdonddesdacssdbosbeasegnoae 73 | 76 | 89 | 76 | 70 
» 45 * CAN SGSHE REDON OB OCHTOOSOSDEE 72 | 79 | 90 | 73} 72 
see HES) > doo cou OddoboUOFOnHOneOKOObE TA | 72 | 891 72, 7x 
33. S85 Sohn Bic euccleeciasiectiw seiommmecisiee 7° | 73 | 89 | 72 | 70 
» 60 Sia) Woleisceisisereis’s sae Saas OO aOe 66 | 73 | 88 | 73 | 72 
OG Wed Ebina ins sidsicn serelsiaa Saneiaefcte a 66 | 74 | 88 | 72 | 70 
a) VO 3) ObdoHnaga0RGodbenDdos0HnD oe 69 | 73 | 86] 71 | 69 
on GAS Sp. MaSaGdade pbdnondecououeHb8E 70 | 70 | 85 | 71 | 7o 
y 80 Bye dae setae sites eciereivam sae seats 73, | 7° | 86 | 70 | 69 
» coming out 5 minutes pcoosn doctoose 66 | 68 | 89 | 68 | 68 
PRBEGHNOUNG|: s.b cian custescceenseeceemesents 63] 74) 84 | 74 | 73 
” ” VRS ec esivisiseucemess ocpadocnands 61 75 85 74 73 


Number of Respirations. 


Normale ct secseersses Roraesceessiracaeeones 20 | 153| 22 | 20 | 20 

After 33 minutes ......sessceeees pooaoecoo26 24 | 163| 25 | 20 | 25 
5 odd uododountadonedunsedOLe au r7eleeG \220) 245 

On coming out after 5 minutes ......... 20 | 16 | 23 | 19 | 21 


After 5 minutes. 


Organic matter not pleasant. 


After 15 minutes. 
A. Pulse stronger and quicker. 
B. Irregular pulse, but strong. 
-C. Weaker, and already difficult to feel. 
D. Same to the feeling. 
BE. Much weaker. 


After 25 minutes. 
A. Stronger. 
B. Irregular. 
C. Irregular and weak. 
D. Irregular. 


96 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


After 45 minutes. 


Organic matter less sensible than at first to the majority. 
D feels air to be bad. 


After 50 minutes. 


A can scarcely feel his pulse; several attempts made to 
count it. Still feels quite well. 

B begins to fell head uneasy. 

C feels his heart beat more than usual. 

D. Pulse weak. 

K. Pulse very weak. 

Here every one was observed to be sighing, aiehonen 
all were cheerful. 


After 6 minutes. 

B. Flushed. 

C and D. Headache began slightly. 

The effect of company was considerable in preventing 
the lowering of the pulse by keeping the mind cheerful. 

But the experiment, Table F, shows that even when quite 
alone the pulse did not lower when the air was pure. 

This experiment differs from that of Table D. The im- 
pure air was formed five times more rapidly, and the results 
were not so perceptible. It would appear that we can resist 
for a short time when we cannot resist for a long time. 

The irregularity of most of the pulses is apparent. 

A was the youngest, bemg about 17, and having a na- 
turally low pulse ; his was raised. 

B was about 21 years old; his pulse went lower, then 
higher, then finally lower. 

C, about 24; his pulse went higher, then sank to nearly 
its usual point, but he was the most affected in sensation. 

D, 27; his pulse went higher and then lower, 

K, 47; his.pulse went lower, higher, and lower, but he 
felt no discomfort ; forehead began slightly to warm. 


ro 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. SG 


It is remarkable that the breathing increased in all 
eases, and that it went back to its normal amount very 
rapidly. 


Tapite D.—One Person in the Lead Chamber. Respira- 
tion and Beats of the Pulse taken every 10 minutes. 


| Tempera-| Carbonic 
Time Pul Heapie ae acid in the 
Deas Celsius. |same periods. 
h. m. é : 
IO 55 73 15°5 182 o°04. 
min. a 
After 10.........00 73 16 18-2 O14 
5p | BO@vodasaooccasl) 972 16 18°2 O°187 
5p. @{Okeeaoashseae a1 17 18°4. o°261 
7 i@oooscobeodss 71 16 184 0°335 
ng B@eeendaceodea 70 16 18°5 0°408 
a OOsseceoasuoee 68 16 18°6 07482 
9) FikSbosacoosonne 67 16°5 18°7 0°556 
i @bousacd ono!) 7 17 18°8 0°629 
eli OOdseesanasens 66 17 18°9 0°703 
45) LOOr cites cess 65 18 19°0 ) O77 
spa LL Orresisicas ase 65 18°5 190 0850 
PRED Ofscidenhicees 64. 19 19'0 0924. 
99 U3@roaooscooace 63 19 19°2 0°997 
59 HAClawecca" coed) OF 19°5 19°I 1/071 
5p ui{®oca6da0 soee-| 62, 20 Ig'I 1°I45 
Pee MlOO weed seaeerne 62 20 191 1218 
mp  U7@ecodae onagdel| |i 20 191 1292 
5p Ts@ooognooocad 60 21 191 1°366 
57 U@@edsodooaoe .| 60 22 19°2 1°439 
39 PCQsdcase seen] 59 23 1972 1°513 
5) Bt@onocdoscose. 58 24. 19°4. 1°587 
on 22@vcocod000000 57 24 | 194 1°661 
5p Oe @sesoesooonce 57 Ann 19°4 1°734 


Taste E.—When the door was opened. 


Time. . Pulse. | Respiration. 
After 10 minutes............ 59 22 
3 HH) gy oopeone000 ool! GO) 19°5 
m 32 np ooagendescod 60 19 
» 40 Se ela ate oG0 60 18 
» 50 39s lees ew cences 60 17 


SER. III. VOL. III. H 


98 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF | 


TaBLe F'.—Sitting quiet for an hour in the Lead Chamber 


in pure air. 
Time. Pulse. | Respiration. 
4" 50m 75 17 
After 10 minutes ..........4. 76 17 
” 20 ). aoanooedn000 76 17 
foie: (0) ean pilenimrscesseicunnnice 76 17 
5S aA OF Cnay ah reme oe stawece 77 17 
sPPoegOL sige Phe veesenaoes 76 17 
Rg OO) HAR Ta ee Be earns 76 17 


From this we learn that the same quiet condition in pure 
air produced no change. 

Experiments B, C, and D, on the beats of the pulse, 
seem decisive. The air affects the pulse when the ventila- 
tion is such that the amount of carbonic acid reaches 0°18. 
The question of carbonic acid and organic matter, viz., 
which is the most hurtful, must be decided by other ex- 
periments. My belief is that much is due to the carbonic 
acid, because the progress of the pulse downwards is so 
regular, and I believe that the organic matter does not in- 
crease so regularly. This may not be true at the tempera- 
ture given, and is another point to be ascertained. 

But leaving out all the details, the great broad fact re- 
mains that carbonic acid and other emanations from the 
person diminish the circulation, and hasten the respiration, 
and that the effect is perceptible when the per-centage of 
carbonic acid reaches 0°18, or say one-fifth of a per cent. . 
certainly. If, however, we do not wish to infer too much 
from one beat of the pulse, let us, for rough practice, say 


q per cent. 


EFFECT ON THE PULSE AND BREATHING 


Artificial carbonic acid being inhaled along with the 
organic exhalations of the body. 


oe 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 99 


1 per cent. of Carbonic Acid. 


Pulsations. 
68. 
After 5 minutes ..........cseccceees 68. 
AMM LDU Mas siaicleiayeis etererolcieisislces sleesiatele sieys 68, 70, 70, 70, 69, 70. 
2 22 0 coooodscn0con0nnse0000 pooonec YAS 7kCb 
op GYD) Gaasaacasooocn spg0g907800808000 68, 68, 66. 
oy. SYMUO) Gucanondasaboddaned dahasapabts 65, 65, 66, 66, 66. 
NENA 2ULOW seicieierietecieisteiscietsiestlewieisicte seis 67, 68. 
PUR GSURLO f seacremrertecidenainceuene so ease 66, 66. 
a GR) < sotaoaasagnco0capn0cadosode00e 64, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63, 63. 


2 per cent. Carbonic Acid. 


Pulse. Inspirations. 
18 
After 5 minutes ......... GAME rmacosreceescscscs 19 
» 10 Pan en aor 6Oe = Jesu sseahsiwensens 19 
9p a8 RoW haatieraats naltiee BiG eeciminmstilssicitcern 20 
pee) ey, eae alwieiaane Gabe cieacereacssegieest 20 
eS Sahota Seweictes g: (OST sandotagnnocesodona 21, pulse very weak. 
SAGO: Se Whos teatenaeel Gate Seen wdewecdons 21 
6 28 npi. ccdeucdece, Ok} sandesdoarnddodadd 21 
» 40 Asn efs selects GA aanseseiiinc dieters 21z 
» 45 Bint ipoddnedoes Oc in chbodaneoosacHsdee 22 
Me SOL RT aphes aaneenene OP) orAbponectoaons veo 225 
mp §8 Sr > obondabod (8) nocosocnca0ge0004 23 
3 00) Nie edee sce el Ober ee'sissth wtadeedaes 23 
» 95 NOME eS aree GON si. eedetestineces es 235° 
» 70 We. Saatoweate GO teceeee tease cues 23+ 
2 minutes after coming out ............ 68. 


Here the pulse was very much affected even in the number 
of beats, but the effect was observed principally in its great 
weakness: it sometimes tried to recover its number, but 
this was not observed to take place with regard to the 


strength. 
3 per cent. Carbonic Acid. 
Pulse. Inspirations. 
© oacncsooaode 17 
After 10 minutes ...... (67) cosnasbcenns 21 Acidity perceptible 
SURE CUT neva Wiiincoticianss Gig yescsuececees 21 to the smell. 
TE ZOW cesta esas 6gi eloasecessen 222 
5 Ps a Beh ts 62) Rinwatsacce 23 


H 2 


100 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


Here the pulse became so weak that it was difficult to 
count the beats. There was also a very unpleasant feeling. 
The door was opened, and two other young men entered. 
Of course a good deal of carbonic acid was removed, but 
not more than from £ to £ per cent. In ten minutes the 
pulse of the eldest, B., fell from 


79 Inspirations rose from 18 
to 75 to 22 
Unpleasantness felt. 


Here, as in the experiment recorded previously, the pulse 
of A. rose. 


At first it was 63 Inspirations 21 
It rose to 69 rose to 25 


As pulse very feeble. There is always a slight rise at 
the beginning. This rise was very decided in the case of 
A. It always results in a fall, and would no doubt have 
done so in this case had A. remained longer. This, how- 
ever, would not have been safe, as, even in these two minutes, 
his pulse was almost imperceptible, and he could not count 
it himself. 

In the above cases the persons who breathed sat in the 
lead chamber, and of course the organic matter from their 
bodies escaped into the air around them. Still we know 
that the organic matter would not produce these effects 
without the carbonic acid, simply because when we remain 
in the chamber much longer without pouring in carbonic 
acid the pulse does not become so weak, whilst the organic 
matter is of course accumulated to an extent much greater 
than it could have been with artificial carbonic acid. 

Whilst I gave abundant credit to the organic matter for 
doing evil, I could not refuse to blame the carbonic acid ; 
but as a friend was still dissatisfied with the argument if 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 101 


applied to smaller amounts of carbonic acid, the following 
experiments were made. In them the organic matter is 
entirely excluded. For the first, in which 1 per cent. of 
carbonic acid was mixed with the air, several aspirators of 
flexible material were filled with the mixture, and the air 
was inhaled from the aspirators by the mouth, whilst it was 
exhaled from the nostrils. The carbonic acid was made 
from bicarbonate of soda, and passed through a solution of 
bicarbonate of soda to remove mineral acids. 


With 1 per cent. of Carbonic Acid. 


Pulse. Pulse 

66 After 14 minutes ......... 66 

After 2 minutes ......... 67 » 16 Ba, wibooenedes 64 
Heres oes Bitie ss ae peert 67 » 8 Ante Rapoenease 64. 

mn 6 Sle tee ey 68 » 20 Ref Me oC Sree 64 
is Wk musnaoernes 67 Ain oy Se <a ae ee 63 
10 Tiina wide weie 68 » 26 Sas I connate 63 

ah 63 Sth) taseewenises 67 


In this experiment the difficulty of supplying air was felt 
to be considerable ; and the aspirations having become less 
agreeable and regular, they were not counted. 

In order to remove all difficulty, the lead chamber was 
charged with the mixture to be breathed, and the operator 
sat outside inhaling the air through a wide tube with ease. 
Of course a similar amount of air entered, and this was 
supplied through some small chinks, which were not care- 
fully filled up. The change taking place in the air of the 
chamber from this latter cause only would scarcely be 
perceptible in half an hour, and then it would be against 
the success of the experiment. The uniformity of results 
is therefore very remarkable. 


102 = pR. R. ANGUS SMITH——PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


With o:5 per cent. Carbonic Acid. 


Pulse. Inspirations. 

76 ..cee doneposonacna6os 17 
After 5 minutes............ 76 
oy 30) A Waid aaandante 76 

ou a ecoemcoccnnon 94!) ogaroqp00 A peBnouta 20 
yp 2 ioe fesse egeaaes 73 
» 2S da gleeseseceise 71 

» 30 mre pdspoagan00DS Fie spancasanosbond podne: He 
28 Mi, pacancoscnse 71 


Hy Le) ae Sbdeabdoobons FE ss sevasie qpsiddsooa0e 24 


With 0:25 per cent. of Carbonic Acid. 


Pulse. Inspirations. 

7S) gaoooonesnondosoaaban 17 
After 5 minutes........ nove 7 
9 IO 29 @eecccccccee 73 

» 35 Mra godaddeandoge FE} oa00c000 econenccoses LG) 
p 22 Mibioceeeesetace 70 
» 25 Fyulousisjsateia elses 69 

» 3 5 d90608000000 (19) “aecenoosoaoaapenudods 21 


Here a disturbance is seen at once, more fully in the 
breathing. Owing to the mode of draiming the reservoir 


of air breathed, it would not have been fair to proceed 
further. 


With ot per cent. of Carbonic Acid. 


Pulse. Inspirations. 

GIG oooosscootso00c0qG086 18 
After 5 minutes........... 72 
Ay AKC) 6) CaGADDOHOCGO 73 

55 4G 5)  eddoG00000N6 Fs} coosondooa00009000000 19 
yp 6X9) CPLMebdospcedad 72 
28 i) dweadapcees BB yp 
» so 59 00000800000 72 

» 35 9) Seeccccceeece 73 ceccece Ceccereererecs 19 
» 40 Ap cansoedonood 73 

1». GH mp  caocosso0000 GX ccooss00000¢ Batelsiaaietels 19 

Average ..... 3 724. 18°75 


Here there is a disturbance perceptible of two on the 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 103 


pulse ; and I may say that the experiment is scarcely fair 
after 25 minutes. The disturbance on the inspirations is 
more uniform. It is, for example, more perceptible than 
in the next case. 

Pure air was breathed in the same position as in the 
previous cases, D. sitting outside the lead chamber, which 
_ had been well ventilated. This experiment was made in 
order to ascertain the influence of breathing through a 
tube, as it was feared lest some mechanical difficulties 
might have interfered with the value of the operations. 
The result shows that no such difficulties occurred. There 
is a little diversity of one above and one below the average 
of the pulse, and the breathing is a little lower in one 
case, instead of being resolutely higher as in every other 
case given, even when so little as one-tenth of a per cent. 
of carbonic acid was used. 


Ordinary Atmosphere in the Lead Chamber; breathing 
through the tubes as before. 


Pulse. Inspirations. 
Gilt, coooabdiasooacnséaqund 18 
After 5 minutes 74 
» 10 ” 75 
25 mo GES consadecondaseq005000 18 
9 +20 ” 74 
ch ee ie aaa 
eo $2 “sh 95 cocsooncecceeonendeg Le! 
» 35 » 74 
” 4o 2) 74 
» 45 og. Gf} isaoboqeso0Be0N 0960000 17 
» 5° » 74 
» 55 » 74 
» 60 1  FPB_ooaogaccoasocoe000000 18 
Average ......00. 741 17°8 


Tn a report on the air of mines I discussed questions relat- 
ing to the absorption of oxygen and poisoning by carbonic 
acid, quoting several opinions of eminent chemists. The im- 
portant point is this: How can the blood be influenced by 


104 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


a diminution in the amount of oxygen to the extent of o-1 
or even I per cent? Liebig says, “In a closed space 8 
feet long, g feet high, and 8 wide a man could not breathe 
24 hours without uneasiness.” This is equal to living 
about 5 hours and a half in my lead chamber; and in that 
time, by sitting quietly, we may avoid uneasiness ; but the 
air will be very bad, candles will scarcely burn, some will 
go out, and any person entering suddenly will be very 
unwell. The sensations are gradually affected, and nothing 
striking is observed; the senses are diminishing in power. 
If we look at the important total acts, the circulation of 
the blood and the respiration, we find that death has begun, _ 
so to speak, and the life is going out as quietly as the ~ 
candle. 

Nearly all the usual experiments on breathing in impure 
air have been made violently and not with small amounts of 
impurity, and during avery long interval of time; a rabbit 
has been killed in a few minutes, and the same air has been 
breathed until it has attamed its maximum impurity. Lie- 
big says, “Lavoisier and Seguin found that the carbonic acid 
of respired air, when again inspired, may be raised to 10 per 
cent., but not beyond that amount, even when respiration 
was continued, which it could be only for a very short 
time. This proportion of carbonic acid may be regarded 
as the limit at which life is endangered in man.” 

We can scarcely look on this experiment as sufficient. 
I became distinctly faint mm 4 per cent. of carbonic acid, 
the others around me were very uncomfortable in even 
less; one fainted im 2 per cent., which did not affect my 
senses. We can, when in very good condition, bear 4 per 
cent. for a quarter of an hour at least, so that life is not 
endangered suddenly ; but I am disposed to think that no 
one could live long in such air. When hours are spoken 
of, the danger to life of any amount less than this is not 
immediate when the person is healthy. The constant 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 105 


lowering of the pulse, even in much less Impure air, must 
have a gradual effect on the vitality; which effect will be 
seeh in some persons in a few hours, in some after days, 
and in others perhaps years. It is probable that to live 
during the whole 24 hours of the day in any air containing 
above 1 per cent. would bring results on the health very 
rapidly ; but no men are exposed to this, so far as I know; 
the usual exposure is only for three or four hours, seldom 
during the whole working time; and even with this the 
pulse is kept permanently low, as will be seen in Dr. Pea- 
cock’s report. 

Now comes the question, If the oxygen of the air is 

taken up by the blood by chemical affinity, why should 
the presence of carbonic acid affect it, and therefore why 
should it be a matter of importance whether the amount 
of oxygen be small or great? 

ist. The absorption cannot be wholly chemical ; it must, 
to some extent, follow the physical laws of absorption, if we 
may so call them. In this case the amount absorbed will 
be in proportion to the bulk of the two gases presented to 
the liquid. The smallest increase of either gas will make 
a difference. I entered on this more fully in a former 
paper. 

and. If the absorption is purely chemical, knowing as 
we do that the work of absorption must be done rapidly, 
the amount absorbed must still depend on the amount 
presented. 

3rd. In either case it will require a certain amount of 
oxygen to drive out the carbonic acid. 

If blood contaims Io per cent. of oxygen and 5 of car- 
bonic acid, add one per cent., or one-tenth, or one-hundredth 
per cent. of oxygen more, and a certain amount of carbonic 
acid will be removed. 

Viewing blood as a liquid like water, this would be the 
case, I suppose, if we gave it time. Viewing it as a che- 


106 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH—PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF 


mical solution, it would be still more the case. If we add 
oxygen to protocarbonate of iron in water, the carbonic 
acid is driven out in proportion to the rapidity with which 
the oxygen is absorbed, and of course the oxygen is ab- 
sorbed with greater rapidity if the liquid contains less car- 
bonic acid. 

If, again, we view the blood and the membranes rather 
as porous bodies, we have the question still more clearly 
answered ; and there are reasons why we should believe the 
action somewhat to resemble the action of these bodies. 
Whenever charcoal, a porous body, is filled with one gas 
and is put into another, a certain amount of the first is 
driven out with great force; the result is not a mere 
mixture taking place quietly, but an instant forcible dif- 
fusive and absorbent action. If we view the carbonic acid 
as driven out by the oxygen, taking any of the three views, 
the actual amount of the gases present must be of the 
greatest importance. 

The amount of carbonic acid im the lungs is always 
considerable. If the air mspired has more or less oxygen, 
the proportions are first changed in the lungs, then the 
act of absorption takes place, when the proportions must 
again be changed. We must remember that we breathe 
every three seconds, so that the change in the lungs is 
made rapidly; andthe absorption will also be rapid, although 
the chemical changes taking place in the blood may be 
slower. 

I must be careful in speaking of such subjects; but I 
trust I do not go farther than is legitimate for a chemist. 

If we consider the effect of even one beat of the heart in 
- a minute in a mechanical pomt of view, we need not be 
surprised at a change of result in the health. If the 
amount of blood sent by the heart is three ounces, we 
have, for every beat of the pulse lost per minute, a dimin- 
ished circulation of many gallons of blood per day; for 


CARBONIC ACID AND VENTILATION. 107 


every beat less, the corresponding amount is taken from 
the circulation. But even this is not the whole difference 
because the beats become excessively feeble. 'The blood 
seemed to require to remain in the lungs rather longer, in 
order to obtain its oxygen, whilst the breathing supplied 
air more rapidly; so that in some cases there were found 
to be an addition of nearly one-half the number of inspira- 
tions. In one case especially the pulse was raised, not 
sunk; and in most cases it was raised a little for a short 
time at first, as if an inferior blood were endeavouring to 
do equal work by moving more rapidly. 

Medical men have objected to the argument that any 
evil result can arise from these effects, saying that man is 
formed so as to resist such influences, and is not so weak 
as to be confined within such small lmits. When the 
ground gives way under a man he cannot resist, he can 
generate no force contrary to gravitation, except a few 
movements or leaps from the ground itself if the sinking 
is not too rapid. When the heart ceases beating man 
cannot resist, as he needs the beating heart itself to gene- 
rate his power. If the heart is feeble, he may breathe fast to 
supply it rapidly with oxidized blood, and to a certain ex- 
tent succeeds ; but he must take this compensation force 
from some place. I cannot pretend to give an opinion on 
the result of an unnatural slowness of pulse, and an un- 
natural rapidity of breathing ; but that they are evil omens 
is true, or we have long been deceived. In mimes and 
such places the evil is exaggerated, because the exertion 
required to climb the ladders leads to an increased activity 
of the heart. 

If the gas by which the oxygen in air is diluted were 
insoluble, the result might be very different, and we might 
probably remain in air with less than 10 per cent. of 
oxygen. In one condition, namely, in high regions, some- 
thing similar to this occurs; the amount of oxygen is 


108 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


diminished by rarefaction. But even if no rarefaction 
took place, we could breathe in air having much less 
oxygen than in the worst metal mines we know, if the 
carbonic acid was removed. This Liebig states, and so far 
I have proved it, that by removing the carbonic acid by 
lime from air in which breathing was uncomfortable, the 
whole seemed quite fresh; candles also burned better. 
This I have elsewhere described. Nitrogen and some other 
gases, marsh gas for example, not uniting chemically, and 
not being altered to a great extent mechanically, but above 
all not being driven out from any compound in the blood, 
either by the addition or otherwise of oxygen, do not pro- 
duce effects so violent as carbonic acid. 

Whatever the explanation be, my conclusion from the 
experiments is, that the smallest diminution of oxygen in 
the air breathed affects animal life, if its place is supplied 
with carbonic acid. 


V. Further Observations on the Permian and Triassic 
Strata of Lancashire. 
By E. W. Bryney, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


Read March 21st, 1865. 


Introductory Remarks. 


In previous memoirs, published in the Transactions of the 
Society,* I have given what information I possessed in a 
fragmentary state, just as I obtained it, of the Permian 
strata of Lancashire and the north-western counties of 

* Transactions of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 


vol, xii. (2nd series), vol. xiii. (2nd series), vol. ii. (3rd series), vol. iii. (3rd 
series). 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 109 


Westmoreland, Cumberland, and Dumfries, as well as the 
north-western corner of Yorkshire. I took sections where 
I was fortunate enough to obtam them; but I made no 
attempt to lay the strata down continuously on a map, my 
materials being far from sufficient for such a purpose. 

By looking at a geological map of the county of Lan- 
caster, the observer will find a great gap between the Per- 
mian beds of Grimshaw Delph, Bradley Brook, and Skillaw 
Clough, to the north-west of Wigan, and the sections 
described by me at Rougham Point near Cartmel, and 
Stank near Ulverston. The lower Coal-Measures from 
Harrock Hill can be traced pretty well towards Chorley, 
and thence to near Withnell; and then the millstone grit 
runs to Hoghton, through Salmesbury and Alston, and 
across the country, not very well seen, to Griesdale, Scor- 
ton, Cleveley, Hllel, Ashton, near Abbey Lighthouse on the 
Lune, over the mouth of that river to Robshaw point, 
and on to Heysham. ‘The country forming the western 
boundary of the above lne is a low district, a good deal 
covered up with drift, and affording few natural sections 
to show clearly the relation of the carboniferous to the 
Permian strata. The district probably may afford some 
sections if carefully investigated; but up to this time it 
has been quietly dismissed by colouring it red for Trias. 

In this communication I intend to give a little more in- 
formation, which I have lately obtained in a line from 
Hoghton Tower to Fleetwood, at Roach Bridge, Salmes- 
bury, and Alston, also at Cockersand Abbey, south of the 
mouth of the Lune, and Robshaw Point and Heysham to 
the north of the same river; having first made a few re- 
marks on some singular red sandstones, hitherto classed as 
Trias, in the neighbourhood of Whiston and Rainford, near 
St. Helen’s, and laid down as such on the maps of the 
Geological Survey, as well as a soft red sandstone, classed 
as Lower Permian by Mr. Hull, near Manchester. 


110 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


On the Hard and Soft Sandstones of the Knowsley, 
Whiston, St. Helen’s, and Manchester Districts. 


No doubt it is a very difficult matter to determine with 
absolute certainty where the Trias strata end and the Per- 
mian begin when there are no organic remains to guide 
us, and we have to trust to a bed of red marl or a deposit — 
of red sandstone. In my several memoirs published on 
this subject, so far as South Lancashire was concerned, 
the red marls and limestones of Newtown and Bedford are 
assumed to be the uppermost Permian deposits found. It 
is quite true, as stated in my third memoir, “ Some of the 
sections near Manchester, especially that seen in the valley 
of the Irk, in Cheetham and Newtown, would apparently 
show that the red marls containing limestones and fossils 
of the genera Bakevellia, Schizodus, &c., passed into the 
overlying Trias;” but as a whole it was assumed from 
other facts that the red sandstone of the Trias was uncon- 
formable to the underlying permian beds. In a paper 
published by Sir R. I. Murchison and Professor Harkness, 
printed in the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ 
for May 1864, as well as in my last memoir, the thick 
red sandstones of St. Bees are described as Permian and 
not as Trias, and were traced down, as Professor Sedgwick 
had previously followed them, into Furness, near Haw- 
coat and Barrow. Anyone who sees the red sandstones, 
much used for building purposes at Shawk, Maryport, and 
St. Bees, and compares them with that at Hawcoat, will 
not be able to distinguish the one from the others. It is 
only from their physical characters that we can compare 
these sandstones ; for up to this time, so far as my know- 
ledge extends, no organic remains have been met with in 
them. Now, this is bringing a Permian red sandstone 
aboye the Newtown and Bedford red marls and limestones, 
and introduces, for the first time, an Upper Permian sand- 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 111 


stone into Lancashire; and this rock runs into the Trias 
so regularly that it will be very difficult to separate it by 
any well marked boundary from the lower soft sandstone 
or pebble-beds of the Trias, as laid down and described in 
the maps and memoirs of the Geological Survey. 

It is pretty clear, if some of these Permian and Triassic 
sandstones are to be classed by their physical characters 
alone, that certain of the latter rocks, as laid down by the 
Geological Survey in the Huyton, Croxteth, and Knowsley 
districts, will probably have to be put into the Permian, 
for no one can tell the red flaggy sandstone of Knowsley 
Quarry from the Hawcoat and St. Bees sandstones, and it 
must be taken as Permian, just as the Hawcoat rock is 
identified with that at St. Bees. 

The Triassic beds in South Lancashire, as seen near ~ 
Liverpool, according to Mr. Hull, are as follows* :— 

Formation. Division. Subdivision. : 
1. Red Marl, with beds of Upper Keuper 
Sandstone. 
( Keuper | 2. Lower Keuper Sandstone, or Water- 


stone, with a Base of Breccia, or Con- 
glomerate. 


New Red 


SENSOR 1. Upper Red and Mottled Sandstone. 


\ Bunter , 2. Pebble-beds. 
3. Lower Red and Mottled Sandstone. 
Next, as seen near Manchester, where the same author 


classes the bunter as composed of 


1. Upper red and mottled sandstone. 
2. Pebble-beds. 


It will be seen from the above classification that the lower 
soft red mottled sandstone of Liverpool is left out at Man- 
chester altogether, the lowest member of the Trias there 
being the pebble-beds. There certainly is the Collyhurst 
or Vauxhall sandstone, which would pass very well for the 
lower soft red; but the Newtown fossils found above it 


* Manchester Geological Society’s Transactions, vol. ii. p. 23. 


112 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


clearly cut off that rock from the Trias, and establish it 
with the Permian beyond all question. 

I have not made any division of the bunter portions of 
the Trias. No doubt they are useful in different places, 
and have sometimes to be varied with the districts to which 
they are applied. In the north, about Carlisle, up to this 
time only one bed of soft red sandstone without pebbles 
has come under my notice. But at Sutton, as previously 
alluded to, there is a soft red sandstone without pebbles 
resting on Permian red marls, which cover a conglomerate 
lying on Permian red sandstone. Similar sandstones, in 
the same position, are seen near the canal at Bedford, 
below Messrs. Hampson and Co.’s Print-works at Clayton 
Bridge, Manchester, and near Messrs. Brocklehurst’s Lime- 
works at Ardwick, near Manchester. There is also a soft 
red sandstone, apparently dipping, under the pebble-beds 
of Heaton Mersey, near Stockport, well seen on the banks 
of the Mersey from Stockport to Fogg Brook, which 
would well pass for the lower soft sandstone of the Trias ; 
but for some reason with which I am unacquainted, the 
gentlemen connected with the survey prefer (I am in- 
formed) to class this sandstone underlying the pebble beds 
with the Permian rather than the Trias. 

It appears that throughout the western part of Cheshire 
and the adjoming county of Flint, as well as in West 
Lancashire, where there are few, if any, Permian strata 
exposed, the Geological Survey has always had a lower 
soft red and mottled sandstone ; but when the east part of 
Lancashire is reached, and undoubted Permian beds found, 
this supposed lowest member of the Trias disappears.* 


* Tt was once suggested by me that it was possible the permian red marls 
and limestones might have thinned out to the west, and thus caused some 
difficulty in identifying this soft sandstone, which is hard to distinguish from 
the Collyhurst sandstones, but such a solution was not entertained by Mr. 
Hull. Manchester Geological Society’s Transactions, vol. ii. p. 33. 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 113 


The soft yellow and variegated sandstones of Whiston, 
Croxteth Park, and Huyton, all resting unconformably on 
coal-measures, described by Mr. Hull, are evidently of the 
same age as the Rainford and Grimshaw Delph beds. 
Unfortunately in no instance have any red marls been yet 
found lying either above or below them. I have described 
the two latter as Permian, whilst Mr. Hull thinks they are 
the lower red and mottled sandstone of the Trias. But with 
respect to the Knowsley Quarry, it so much resembles the 
St. Bees and Hawcoat Upper Permian sandstones that, if 
they were found in Furness, Sir R. I. Murchison and 
Professor Harkness would, without doubt, claim them as 
Permian. 

It is many years since I first saw the Knowsley Quarry, 
and I then in my note-book remarked that these sand- 
stones, especially that belonging to Mr. Littler, could not 
be distinguished from the Upper Permian sandstones of the 
neighbourhood of Dumfries, which I had just returned 
from examining. Now, if they can be proved to imme- 
diately overlie the coarse-grained, false-bedded, soft red 
and mottled sandstones of Whiston and Croxteth Park, 
both the latter as well as the former will have to be classed 
as Permian rocks, according to the present geological no- 
menclature of the north-west of England; and I think 
that the new sections I now describe at Roach Bridge, 
Cockersand Abbey, and Robshaw Point tend to confirm 
this view. 

In all the quarries of Lancashire where the Trias sand- 
stones have been wrought, I have never seen so hard and 
thin-bedded a stone as that found at Knowsley. It was 
formerly used for paving-sets in Liverpool; and large 
quantities of 1t were broken for road-metal purposes, for 
which I have seldom known a Trias rock used. Some of its 
beds also afforded fine-grained flags, with faces as smooth 
as any Permian sandstone I have ever seen in the neighbour- 

SER. III. VOL. III. I 


114 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


hood of Dumfries. A good example of pebble-beds is seen 
at Kirkby Rough ; but this rock bears no resemblance to 
the stone at Knowsley Quarry, and the two stones cannot 
well be classed as the same from their characters. 


On the Soft Red Sandstone at Ardwick. — 


Mr. Hull, in his memoir previously quoted, and the map 
accompanying it, brings in by a fault a piece of Permian 
sandstone between the Lime Works and Ardwick Bridge, 
Manchester. When Mr. Mellor some years since kindly 
took me down the pit and showed me this sandstone, it 
certainly did appear very much like the Permian soft red 
sand of Collyhurst; but I saw no evidence of any fault, 
further than that it rested on the eroded beds of the upper 
coal-measures of Ardwick, and was of course unconform- 
able to them. In my last memoir I described this sand- 
stone as Trias, and Isee no reason for altering my opinion. 
I had seen the rock some years before near the weir above 
Ardwick Bridge, and traced it to the latter place. On the 
dip it has been bored through at Mr. Buchan’s, Messrs. 
Gallimore’s, Hoyle and Son’s, and Leese and Co.’s Works, 
and the red marls and limestones found under it. In 
position, it occupies the place of Mr. Hull’s soft and 
mottled sandstone; and its characters and position warrant 
its being classed as that rock, rather than with the Vaux- 
hall sandstone, so far as I have been able to ascertain. 


General Description of the District North of Preston. 


As it is desirable to attempt to connect the Permian de- 
posits of the south and west of Lancashire with those in 
the north of the county, as seen at Rougham Point, near 
Cartmel, and Stank, near Furness Abbey, I give the result 
of some of my late examinations. The only section hitherto 
seen by me near Preston is one in the Ribble, below that 


——— 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 115 


town, and appears to be a portion of the pebble-beds of 

the Trias. It extends up the valley of the Darwen to the 

weir above Bannister Hall, where the soft and variegated 

sandstones, apparently pebble-beds, are seen; and, after a 

distance of one-third of a mile, soft yellow variegated and 

red sandstones, at the base.of which a conglomerate (Per-— 
mian) rests unconformably on what appears to be limestone- 

shale. 

The Ribble, between Walton and Lower Brockholes 
Bridge, does not afford any evidence, so far as I saw, of 
the underlying strata until we reach the latter place, where 
a soft red sandstone, apparently the pebble-beds of the 
Trias, makes it appearance, and is seen all the way past 
Samlesbury Chapel and Lower Hall to near Barton’s 
Boat, where it rests unconformably on Lower Carboniferous 
strata. 

Near Cockersand Abbey, on the south side of the mouth 
of the Lune, west of the town of Lancaster, below high- 
water mark, is a small patch of what appears to be Per- 
mian sandstone. 

To the north of the last-named place, across the Lune, 
at Robshaw Point, the same soft red sandstone makes its 
appearance on the beach covered by the tide, and appears 
to be a continuation of that rock seen to the south, but 
much better exposed. With these exceptions, no further 
evidence has yet been obtained of any Permian beds until 
we reach Rougham Point. From this last-named place to 
Stank is a portion of Morecambe Bay, and a low sandy 
district, of which little or nothing is known. At the old 
magnesian-limestone quarry at Holebeck, near Stank, de- 
seribed by me many years since*, Mr. Bolton, of Sedgwick 
Cottage, near Ulverston, informs me that a bore-hole had 
been made which showed blue shale to the depth of 150 

* Transactions of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 


vol. viii. (2nd series), p. 423. 


12 


116 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


feet to occur under such limestone. What is the age of 
this shale I have no means of determining; but, from the 
old attempts near the place to sink for coal, most probably 
they will be found to be of Carboniferous age. If this be 


so, it proves the absence of the Robshaw Point sandstone 
there: 


Section from Fleetwood to Roach Bridge*. 


Distance, 25 miles. 


In running over the country from the Irish Sea near 
Fleetwood to the millstone-grit hills near Hoghton, very 
little evidence of the underlyimg rocks can be obtamed, 
owing to the thick covering of drift which envelopes the 
district between the first-named place and Preston. Here 
the river Ribble has excavated through the beds of drift, 
so as to expose some of the underlying strata. At Fleet- 
wood, by the bore lately made there by Her Majesty’s 
Government in their search for water, 409 feet of Keuper 
marls were penetrated. Further eastward at Poulton 
Breck many years since, in a bore made for coal, the same 
strata, with the overlying drift-deposits, were penetrated 
537 feet. About Kirkham I am not aware what Triassic 
beds have been met with; but I should suppose the upper 
portions of the Bunter would be found on going through 
the drift, and that these strata extend to Preston, where, 
in the bed of the Ribble, a little above the East Lancashire 

* In this and the following sections illustrating the present memoir, the’ 


references will be the following :— 


Trias _7. Upper Red Marls and Waterstones. 
ee Ck 6. Upper New Red Sandstone, Bunter. 
5. Red Marls, with gypsum and conglomerate. 
Permian ...... 4. Lower New Red Sandstone. At Roach Bridge 
it contains a bed of fine conglomerate. 
Daxhoustosans { 1’ Lower Coal-measures. 
1'’ Mountain-limestone series. 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 117 


Railway Bridge, the pebble-beds make their appearance. 


They consist of a soft red sandstone, containing rounded 


pebbles of white and brown quartz, and dip at a consider- 
able angle to the 8.S.E. Only a small portion of the rock 
is exposed, so that no other dip could be obtaimed, which 
on the whole, if it could’ be seen more extensively, most 
probably is more to the west. 


Section from Preston to Roach Bridge. 


Distance, 4 miles. 


On following the river up to Walton, little evidence of. 


the Trias is to be seen, so far as I observed ; but on track- 


ing the Darwen a couple of miles to the turn of the river, 
above the Bannister Hall Print Works, a soft red sandstone, 
much bedded, makes its appearance, which dips W.S.W. 
at an angle of g°. After following this rock up the river, 
rounded pebbles of brown and white quartz are seen in it, 
as well as small pockets of red marl. At the weir the 
same sandstone appears in great force, and the river flows 
over it and forms a cascade. A bed of micaceous shale, of 
a red colour, 1 foot 6 inches in thickness, divides the rock. 
The dip is to the west, at 18°. Nothing is seen in the 
river for about half a mile, and there is space for a great 
deposit of a lower soft red sandstone (Trias) or Permian red 
marls ; but no evidence is to be had of the strata until the 
most westerly houses of Roach Bridge are reached. At 
Roach Bridge, in Samlesbury, an interesting section is seen 
on the banks of the river. The strata consists of a soft 
yellow sandstone, ripple-marked and false-bedded, some 
of the lower portions of which have formerly been used for 
building purposes, but with little success, as the perishing 


118 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


walls testify. The dip is to the west, at an angle of 12°. 
On proceeding up the river, the yellow sandstone changes’ 
into a rock of a dark red soft sandstone of considerable 
thickness, and then the same becomes divided by bands of 
red shale. Next comes a bed of fine conglomerate, 6 inches 
in thickness, consisting of fine pebbles of red and white 
quartz, well rounded, some of them being of the size of a 
small pea, cemented together by a red calcareous paste. 
The rock effervesces briskly when treated with sulphuric 
acid. Under the conglomerate occurs a bed of red lumpy 
shale, 2 feet in thickness, and then a few feet of variegated 
white and purple clays. All these beds dip to the west, at 
an angle of 12°. Some Io feet of ground is not seen; and 
then appears a bed of black laminated shales, contammmg 
large rounded nodules of limestone, full of Gonzatites, dip- 
ping to the south at an angle of 40°. They appear like 
limestone shales from their general characters, but they 
may be a bed of shales belonging to the millstone-grits ; 
the Goniatites would not enable me to speak with certainty. 

These soft, red, yellow, and variegated sandstones, with 
their thin bed of calcareous conglomerate, appear to me to 
be of Permian age, and they rest quite unconformably on 
the edges of the black shales. 

A little to the south of Roach Bridge the millstone-grits 
make their appearance. In Hoghton, at a quarry known by 
the name of the Hollies, they are seen in the form of a hard 
gritstone of a red colour, the upper part of the rock, to the 
depth of 2 feet, bemg of a greenish-brown hue, and much 
decomposed. It dips to the W.N.W., at 20°. 

The following is a rough estimate of the thickness of 
the Triassic and Permian strata, as seen in the Darwen 
section :— 

be ft. in. 
Trias (pebble-beds) =F: = .: |. about iagomme 
Space not seen .-'.ue. 3) yj about, Zoom 


“ TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 119 


ft. in. 

Soft, red, yellow, and variegated sand- 

SEOneo mee ea a ta). -aADOUL-400 , O 
Bands of sandstone, parted by red shale, 

about 30 Oo 

Conglomerate (calcareous). . . . . Oo 6 

Red lumpy shale . oo ie eae ae 

Memicxabcd smglesis es kis oy 5. O 


After these Lower Carboniferous strata disappear, beds 
of millstone-grit are seen at Wildbottoms and Owlet Holes. 
Further up the stream, near to Sir W. Hoghton’s corn- 
mill, below Feniscowles Hall, a red sandstone, containing 
no remains of plants, makes its appearance, and dips to the 
S.S.H. at an angle of 12°. This stone, from its appear- 
ance, has sometimes been taken for a Permian or Triassic 
rock rather than a carboniferous deposit; but it unques- 
tionably belongs to the lower coal-measures. On its rise 
it is succeeded by the latter strata, dipping to the north- 
west at an angle of 12°; and, above the bridge, small seams 
of coal have been wrought. 

So far as my examination of the valley of the Darwen ~ 
has proceeded, I have never been able to trace any Triassic 
or Permian deposits to the east of the black carboniferous 
shales containing Goniatites seen above Roach Bridge. 


Section from Preston to Samlesbury, opposite Alston Hall. 
Distance, 5 miles. 
SW NE 


The bed of the river Ribble, from Walton to the bridge 
at Lower Brockholes, affords little evidence of the under- 
lying strata. At the last-named place, however, a soft red 
sandstone, like the Trias in the Ribble below Preston, makes 
its appearance, dipping to the west at a small angle, and 


120 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


continues in the bed of the river to Salmesbury Chapel, 
below which place it appears as a soft red sandstone, much 
bedded, and without pebbles, and dips W.S.W. at an 
angle of 9°. It occupies the river-course up to Mr. Swift’s 
house at Salmesbury Lower Hall, where it dips W.S. W.at 8°. 
It is also seen in asmall stream, called Besser Brook, below — 
Mr. Fisher Armitstead’s house. After leaving Lower Hall 
I found pebbles in the stone, but not abundantly, of brown 
and white quartz, one of an oblong shape, 2 inches in 
diameter, and small pockets of red marl. On reaching the 
side of the wood there, Mr. Armitstead showed me a small 
quarry which he had opened for getting building-stone 
that he had used in the erection of his farm-buildings. It 
was soft when first quarried, but became harder on exposure 
to the atmosphere. In this quarry was a bed of red marl, 
6 inches in thickness, used by the farmers for marking 
their sheep. The red sandstone can be seen in the river, 
past the turn below Mr. Barton’s farm-house, and then for 
a short distance, less than 100 yards, on the rise of the 
strata, till and clay are seen until you reach the ferry 
called Barton’s Boat, where occurs a bed of dark blue 
shale and fine-grained sandstones, dipping to the south at 
an angle of 29°. These appear to extend up the river, 
past Alston Hall on towards Ribchester, and no tidings 
could be had of any more red rock in that direction. The 
soft red sandstone in the Ribble appeared in every respect 
like those previously described near Bannister Hall, and 
seems to belong to the pebble-beds of the Trias; but I did 
not see anything like the red and yellow sandstones and 
conglomerate of Roach Bridge, previously described. The 
~ Lower Carboniferous rocks at Barton’s Boat, by their dip, 
appeared to me to be a continuation of the Lower Carboni- 
ferous strata seen in the Darwen, and previously described ; 
but the rocks lyimg on it appeared to be Trias rather than 
Permian. From the dip of the strata below Preston and 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 121 


Salmesbury, there appears to be a synclinal axis, similar 
to what is seen in the Ribble and Darwen, between Preston 
and Roach Bridge, and previously described. 

These pebble-beds are of great thickness; and the pebbles, 
although only in the middle portion of the rock, and found 
very sparingly, undoubtedly do occur. It is probable 
that the lower portions of the red sandstone seen in the 
Darwen at Bannister Hall Weir, and below Barton’s farm 
in Salmesbury, may belong to the lower soft and mottled 
red sandstone. There is ample space for that rock. 

From the neighbourhood of Salmesbury up to near Scor- 
ton I have not carefully examined the country to say with 
certainty what it consists of; but I have heard of no sec- 
tions showing the relation of the Triassic and Permian beds 
to the millstone-grits or limestone shales. 

In a valley to the south of Scorton, known by the name 
of Griesdale, is a bed of black shale containing large nodules 
of ironstone, some of them of a rich red colour. They, as 
well as a coarse gritstone seen in the same neighbourhood, 
dip a little west of south, at an angle of 35°. These beds 
appear to belong to the millstone-grit series, and can be 
traced at intervals through Scorton, Cleveley, and Ellel. 
Tn Cleveley I have seen that rock in the form of a soft 
reddish-brown sandstone of coarse grain, which dipped 
slightly west of south, at an angle of 16°. 

Further north, in Ashton, at a place called the Outer - 
Park Quarry, the millstone-grit is seen as a fine-grained 
sandstone, of a beautiful white colour, quite soft when first 
taken from the quarry, especially the upper beds of it, and 
much used as a building-stone. It is one of the most clear 
and pure silicious grits that has ever come under my notice, 
and appears to be well suited for glass and china manu- 
factures, and for making cores for iron castings. Some of 
the beds contain pebbles of white quartz, and traces of 


122 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


Sigillaria and other coal-plants are found in it. The dip 
is to the E.S.E., at an angle of 12°. 

In a quarry in an adjoiming field to the Outer Park 
Quarry, the stone, evidently a millstone, is of a reddish 
colour, and dips to the south at 14°. 

These millstones appear to run under the country to the _ 
Abbey Light, at the mouth of the Lune, and then across 
that river to Robshaw Point* and on to Heysham; but on 
their west side they do not, to my knowledge, afford any 
sections showing their relation with Permian or Triassic 
rocks, except at Cockersand Abbey and Robshaw Point. 

A little to the south of Cockersand Abbey, near to the 
mouth of the Lune, below high-water mark, is seen a soft 
sandstone of a dark red, variegated by patches of a yellowish- 
brown colour, very false bedded, and containing no pebbles. 
There it dips to the south at an angle of 6°. 

On the beach just below the Abbey the dip was due 
west at 15°, and nearer the Abbey still it dipped N.W. at 
15°. This variety of dip may arise from the extraordinary 
false bedding, making it extremely difficult to get the true 
dip of the rock. I took it to be a soft Permian sandstone, 
similar to that formerly described by me under the con- 
glomerate at Rougham Point near Humfray Head; but 
although I saw numerous large pieces of the latter rock 
lying on the beach below the Abbey, I found none in situ. 
I was informed that the Abbey Light-house was built 
on a fine-grained, light-coloured sandstone, something like 
the Ashton stone ; but I did not see it myself. This ap- 
pears probable, as the Permian sandstone ranges across the 
mouth of the Lune, and makes its appearance on the beach 
below high-water mark, on the north side of the mouth of 
that river, at Robshaw Point, the cliff being of millstone- 
grit. 


* This is the name of the place, given to me by a man living near it. 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 123 


Robshaw Point Section. 


Distance, 4 mile. 


This is seen on the north of the Lune, about 2 miles 
south of Heysham. The cliff from that village to near 
Robshaw Point is composed of millstone-grit, of dark red 
colour*. Near Heysham it is traversed by a vein of 
sulphate of barytes and red oxide of iron, running in a 
direction from N.E. to S.W. The dip of the strata there 
is W.N.W., at an angle of 23°. As you approach Robshaw 
Point, the millstone is not so coarse im grain, has a good 
deal of false bedding in it, and is parted by layers of red 
stone and red shale. The dip in the chff is to the south, 
at an angle of 11°. Below the cliff, on the beach, a piece 
of millstone is seen dippmg W.S.W.at 20°. A little to the 
south of this point, about 350 yards, is seen a patch of soft 
red sandstone, coarse in grain, but contaming no pebbles, 
mottled with brown and white colours, having traces of 
black oxide of manganese in it, and very false-bedded. 
Near to high-water mark it dips to the W.S.W. at 35°; 
but at its extreme west, about 300 yards towards low-water 
mark, its dip is only 22°. Itsrange is W.N.W. and E.S.E. 
No trace of a conglomerate could be seen on its dip, the 
uppermost beds disappearing in the sand. Onits W.N.W. 
range it likewise disappeared in the sand, and could not be 
traced nearer than 350 yards to the patch of millstone on 
the beach previously alluded to. 

Altogether about 120 yards in thickness of this Permian 
sandstone is exposed; and, from its range and dip, it appears 


* This stone is coloured as Trias in the Geological Map of the Geological 
Society. 


124, MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


to be a continuation of the same sandstone before described 
at Cockersand Abbey, and most probably ranges across 
Morecambe Bay to Rougham Point, near Humfray Head. 
In all its characters it exactly resembles the soft red Per- 
mian sandstone of that place, and it rests unconformably 
on millstone-grit, like the same rock there does on mountain 
limestone. Although the overlying Permian conglomerate, 
as seen at Rougham Point, is not met with, as previously 
stated, in situ, it lies about as boulders in considerable 
quantities on the shores north and south of the mouth of 
the Lune, both at Robshaw Point and Cockersand Abbey. 


Concluding Remarks. 


The sections of Rougham Point, Robshaw Point, Cocker- 
sand Abbey, and Roach Bridge all show a soft variegated 
red and yellow sandstone, of Permian age, resting uncon- 
formably on Carboniferous rocks, in a similar manner to 
what is seen at Grimshaw Delph, Rainford, Croxteth 
Park, and on the Manchester and Liverpool Railway at 
Whiston, and in all probability will be proved to be of the 
same age. 

The country, owing to the thick covermg of drift, is 
very difficult to examine; but it is to be hoped that all 
the facts ascertained by boring for coal, and in other sub- 
terranean searches, will be recorded and published, so as 
to give us some further materials to reason on. 

The Bannister Hall and Roach Bridge section, if the 
lower beds are proved to be of Permian age by the occur- 
rence of red shales or marls in the covered-up beds (which 
I think most probably may be the case), will show us a 
thin bed of calcareous conglomerate, at the base a soft red 
sandstone, instead of at the top of that rock, as seen at 
Cheetham Weir Hole, near Manchester. This is not unlike 
a conglomerate bed previously described by me in my last 
memoir, as occurring in a similar position on the banks of 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 125 


the Esk immediately above Canobie Bridge. All our in- 
vestigations in the Permian deposits lead us to expect great 
changes and variations in the beds, and to be prepared to 
accept sections such as they are found, without predicting 
what they should be in a new district. At some future 
time there may be materials for placmg them on a map 
provisionally ; but at present it is only in my power to 
collect a few disjomted sections, and preserve them as 
guides for future workers. 

After the great change which has of late years been made 
in the classification of the rocks formerly known as new 
red sandstone found north of Manchester and Liverpool, 
considerable portions of Trias having been transferred to 
Permian, so that when we reach Carlisle little has been left 
of the former rock, in my opinion probably less than it is 
fairly entitled to. 

The arbitrary lines of division in the Carboniferous and 
Permian formations, and the passage of the one into the 
other, and the latter into Trias, although doubtless at some 
places well-marked and distinct, and admitting of no doubt ; 
at other points, pass one into the other so gradually as to 
render it hard to tell where one ends and the other begins, 
when there are no organic remains to guide us, but simply 
beds of red sandstone and red marl. 

All passage-beds require careful examination; and 
when we have to trust to the composition of the beds 
alone, without the aid of fossils, our views ought to be 
expressed in anything but dogmatic language. Doubtless 
we have much yet to learn of the highest Coal-Measures 
and the lowest Permian beds, which is not rendered easier 
by Mr. Scott’s discoveries of unconformable Coal-Measures 
in the Coal Brookdale district, and Professor Ramsay and 
Mr. Aveline’s description of apparently unconformable 
Coal-Measures near Rotherham in Yorkshire. Added to 
this, when we have a great thickness of unproductive Coal- 


126 MR. E. W. BINNEY ON THE PERMIAN AND 


Measures to investigate, which nobody will, if he knows it, 
explore more than once, we have not anything like the 
chance of knowing barren Coal-Measures like a rich and 
profitable series of workable beds. . 

All mining engineers dislike what they term “red 
ground,” and do not trouble themselves much with inves- 
tigating strata containing little or no coal, and their in- 
vestigation is left to the geologist. Even many of the 
latter dislike examining red clays and sandstones, usually 
very barren of organic remains, and not at all enticing 
to collectors of pretty specimens. 

The occurrence of a series of strata lymg between the up- 
permost Coal-Measures yet noticed and the lower soft sand- 
stone of Collyhurst, and generally unconformable to both 
such Carboniferous and Permian strata, is now pretty well 
proved in some districts, as at Whitehaven, Astley, Allesley, 
Moira, and other places. I think a series of Coal-Measures, 
from which Mr. Edwin Baugh, of Bewdley, has obtamed a 
valuable collection of coal-plants, will also come into this 
division, as was supposed would be the case by my esteemed 
friend Dr.Geinitz, who says in his ‘Dyas’ * “ he had not ob- 
tained any certain information as to the existence in Eng- 
land of a lower ‘ Rothliegende,’ or in general of any 
lower division of the Dyas. From the observations previ- 
ously made in these pages, it appears that the absence of 
the hornstone porphyry (‘ Felsitporphyr’ proper) just in 
those districts of England has a bearing upon this question. 
It is repeatedly remarked that the existence of most of 
the porphyries are linked to the lower period of the Dyas, 
and, vice versd, that the formation of the lower ‘ Rothlie- 
gende’ stands im close relation to the porphyries.” 

“The existence in England of the lower ‘ Rothliegende’. 


* «Dyas or Permian Formation in England” (translation from ‘ Dyas,’ 
&e., of Dr. Geinitz), Transactions of Manchester Geological Society, vol. iii. 


p- 144. 


TRIASSIC STRATA OF LANCASHIRE. 174 


which is so general in Germany, and there forms such an 
imposing bed, might perhaps be most easily traced in the 
neighbourhood of Kidderminster. It is at least indicated 
by the presence, in a reddish sandstone, of Walchia pini- 
formis, Schl., which I saw in the collection of Mr. G. E. 
Roberts, together with some less distinct fossils. The ex- 
haustive collection of specimens from the upper portion of 
the Coal-Measures of Wribbenhall, near Bewdley, made by 
Mr. Edwin Baugh, will no doubt greatly contribute to the 
more exact determination of the paleontographical rela- 
tions between the Coal-Measures and the Dyas in this 
district.” . 

In my former communications I have noticed at some 
length, in my description of the upper Coal-Measures of 
Canobie and the Whitehaven sandstone, these beds, ana — 
compared them with a similar sandstone found in the same 
position at Astley, near Manchester, and Moira,near Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch. Mr. H. H. Howell, F.G.S., in his excellent 
paper on the Geology of the Warwickshire Coal-Field*, 
describes at length the Spirorbis-limestone with great 
care, and shows its value as a datum-lme in the upper 
coal-field. When my last paper was printed, I had not 
seen Mr. Howell’s communication, or I should have noticed 
it. He had previously named this limestone Spirorbis, 
aud I, not knowing the circumstance, had done the same. 
Of course the name belongs to him, and not to me. This 
much, however, I will say, that I have never read a more 
carefully prepared and useful description of upper coal- 
measures than is contaimed in his memoir. It remains for 
other geologists to give us similar descriptions of the higher 
division of the western coal-fields, and then we are likely 
to know where the Carboniferous strata end, and the Per- 
mian begin, which is probably not so clear at present as is 
to be desired. 

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. 


128 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


The Allesley sandstone, from which it is believed the 
beautiful specimens .of fossil wood now in the Warwick 
Museum came from, so far as it has come under my obser- 
vation, will have to be classed as of the same age as the 
Whitehaven, Astley, and Moira sandstones, and which in 
Germany would be called Lower Rothliegende. As I have — 
previously stated, some of the sandstones in the neighbour- 
hood of Bewdley, as Dr. Geinitz supposed, will most likely 
have also to be added. With the assistance of Mr. H. 
Baugh, I have obtained evidence of the occurrence of the 
Spirorbis-limestone at Prizeley and Guibhouse, near Cleo- 
bury Mortimer; but as yet I have not been able to prove 
that Mr. Baugh’s plant-beds, found in the cuttmg at Cun- 
dalls, near Bewdley, are Carboniferous strata lying above 
this limestone, although it is probable such may be the 
case. All the geologists im the district about Bewdley 
will render good service to science by satisfactorily deter- 
mining this point. 


VI. On the Plumules or Battledore Scales of liyceenides 
By Joun Watson, Esq. 


[Read before the Microscopical Section, January 16th, 1865.] 


Havrne on a former occasion drawn your attention to the 
plumules of some genera of Pieridze with the intention of 
showing that they serve for the identification of species in 
that family of the Lepidoptera, I now, with the same aim, 
request your attention to the microscopic examination of 
the (so-called) Battledore Scales of some genera of the 
Lycenide, which exhibit similar generic and specific alli- 
ances and differences, and answer the same purpose of 
identification. 


The name “ Battledore” is not appropriate. Looking 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LYCENIDZ. 129 


upon them as flat surfaces, it would be so with many ; but 
they are more or less globose or cylindrical, and have 
manifest rotundity. I prefer the name of plumules, given 
to their congeners among the Pieride. 

They are most beautiful microscopic objects, and interest- 
ing in a physiological sense, displaying how variously and 
marvellously creative power has worked in these minute 
organisms, always with the same end in view. 

The especial function of the plumules of the Pieride 
was suggested in my former paper to be that of air- 
vessels, giving buoyancy to the insects ; and these Lycena 
scales, by their balloon shape, are eminently fitted for 
this service, and even in a greater degree render it 
probable that certain Lepidoptera possess at least two 
kinds of scales, performing different offices in the eco- 
nomy of the insects. These plumules are attached to 
the wings by an apparently hollow peduncle. They show 
striez-like ribs, suitable for binding, strengthening, and 
distending or contracting their balloon-like forms; these 
ribs are more or less beaded or articulated, by which dif- 
ferent scales are bound or bent in various ways. ‘The end 
opposite to that of insertion is closed or covered with ap- 
parently ciliary apparatus; and they lie in rows between 
and under the ordinary scales, which may therefore be 
elevated or depressed at the pleasure of the insects by the 
regulated inflation of the plumules. They differ in separate 
species in every conceivable way—in form, in the number 
and articulation of the ribs, in transparency, in size, and 
in the length and shape of the peduncle ; and among them 
are found some very anomalous forms, as in the plumules 
of the Pieridez. - In that family, Pieris agathina possesses 
an abnormal and unique form; and so, in the Lycenide, 
Lycena betica resembles it in this peculiarity. 

And as in the Pieride, so in the Lyczenide, it is only on 
the males that these scales are found; it is probable that 

SER. III. VOM. III. K 


130 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


this mark of virility may indicate the comparative vigour 
or age of the insects. On some individuals of the same 
species they are much more abundant than on others ; and, 
again, in some species they are plentiful, and im others 
scarce; and in some individuals of all species it is difficult 
to find them at all. On newly caught specimens, however, | 
they are most easily found. 

It is the genus Lycena, with its neighbour Danis, which 
affords the scales now submitted to your inspection. The 
upper-side of the wings of the males is generally bright 
blue, but at all events with more or less blue irrorations ; 
the males of certain species, however, are brown. The 
females are generally brown ; but even when they have blue 
surfaces I have found no plumules on them, while on the 
males which have any tinges or reflections of blue these 
scales are present. No species, however, the males of which 
are brown, yields these scales; and yet it is not m these 
peculiar scales that the pigment or colour-reflection re- 
sides. To a very eminent lepidopterist I lately wrote, ask- 
ing if he was aware of any other physiological difference 
between the blue and brown species. His reply was, “that 
he could not think there was any other difference, but 
that it was a most interesting fact that when these males 
imitate the females: in colour they lose another male cha- 
racteristic.”’ a 3 

Mr. Sidebotham has,-with habitual industry and kind- 
ness, drawn figures of a large number of these scales ; and 
they are now placed before you. These drawings are as 
truthful as beautiful; the slides were mounted from insects 
in my own cabinet, and I believe reliance may be placed 
on the correctness of the nomenclature and habitat. These 
slides and insects are also here for your inspection. 

Nos. 1a, 40, 42 a, 46, and 50 belong to the genus Lycena. 
Nos. 47, 48, 49, 52, and 53 belong to the genus Danis, ac- 
cording to the arrangement of Doubleday, Westwood, and 


_BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LYCZENIDZA. 131 


Hewitson, in their ‘Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera,’ the 
text-book of general diurnal lepidopterists. The under- 
sides of the insects of this genus are unlike those of Lycena, 
but have a family resemblance of their own. In constitu- 
ting this a genus, our authors say of it, “ With general 
characters of Lycena, it appears very (perhaps too) close 
to Lycena.” This is said without reference having been 
made to other than the usual tests. The scales have cer- 
tainly a peculiarity of their own. 

The remarkable figures 38 to 41 on Plate II. cannot fail 
to attract attention; and at first sight 1t would be thought 
that they can have no relation to the others, and that 
the insects could have no natural affinity; but similar 
differences (inconsistencies, if you will) exist in the Pie- 
ridz, and it does not appear that insects nearly allied — 
in other respects are always furnished with similar plu- 
mules. It is, however, possible that similarity in this 
respect may hereafter influence entomologists in their 
arrangements. 

The scales represented by figures 1 to 37 and 42 to 53 
on Plates I., II., and ITI. are from insects inhabiting vari- 
ous localities all over the world, each with certain geo- 
graphical limits. Most Butterflies have a rather narrow 
range of habitat, as is the case with other animals; and 
some are confined to very strait localities. For example, 
Morpho Ganymede is known only as inhabiting a certain 
district of Bogota, the family Acrza is found almost only 
in Africa, Ageronia only in Brazil; but Pyrameis cardui 
ranges over the whole world, and Vanissa Antiopa is ex- 
cluded only from Africa. Now Lycena betica, figs. 38, 39, 
and 40 on Plate II., is also a cosmopolite, inhabiting all the 
localities of those represented in Plates I., IJ., and III. 
In the ‘ Diurnal Genera,’ before referred to, its habitat is 
given as “ Southern Europe, Java, South Africa, Mauritius, 
Madagascar, Africa, India.””? It has also been found in 

K 2 


1382 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


Great Britain; and I may add to the list Australia, the 
insect from which fig. No. 40 was taken having been 
captured by Mr. Diggles at Moreton Bay. Figs. 38 and 
39 are also from Moreton Bay, and mere varieties of the 
same insect. 

Collectors are now receiving from Australia insects . 
previously known as appertaining only to the Indian 
archipelago; and it is remarkable that while this island 
has an insect fauna of its own, it should also possess the 
insects of neighbouring though distant lands, and yet 
that its peculiar fauna, animal and vegetable, should be 
distinct. 

The insect whose scale is shown by No. 41 has been 
lately named by Felder Dipsas lycenoides ; it is question- 
able whether it should be placed in the genus Dipsas. It 
is also from Moreton Bay, and evidently allied to betica. 
The beaded or articulated appearance at the upper end is 
very singular. The insect has an evident affinity with detica, 
but in no other instance have I found any scale approach- 
ing these. | 

The points desired to be insisted upon as useful in this 
investigation are— 7 

1. That these plumules are always identical in different 
individuals of the same species ; and therefore mere geo- 
graphical or other varieties may be detected by this test ; 
and that 

2. In species nearly allied, so closely as to make them 
difficult of distinction, these scales will be often found very 
different, forming very certain and unquestionable divi- 
sions; while, on the other hand, species of easy separation 
in other physiological peculiarities have sometimes almost 
identical plumules. 

Microscopists have seen in some of the Foraminifera 
exquisite forms of flasks and decanters ; and in these plu- 
mules no one can fail to observe their elegance, beauty, 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LYCHNIDE. 


133 


and applicability to industrial-art purposes for forms and 
engravings of wine-glasses and goblets. 

_ The following is a list of the names and habitats of the 
insects to which the drawings have reference :— 


Lycana. 

1. Alexis. Europe. 28. Methymna. Cape Town. 
z. Icarius. % 29. Adlianus. India. 

3. Dorylas. _,, 30. Elpis. 5 

4. Damon. ‘e 31. Celeno. s 

5. Adonis 32. Erebus. Europe. 

6. Acis. % 33- Kandarpa. India. 

7. Aigon. % 34. Argiolus. Europe. 

8. Coelestina. ,, 35. Unknown. 

g. Corydon. ,, 36. Pseudargiolus. Canada 
ro. Orbitulus. ,, West. 

11. Theophrastus. India. 37. Unknown. Australia. 
12. Alsus. Europe. 38. mn 

13. Huphemus. ,, 39. rf 66 

14. Melanops. ,, 40. 26 3 

15. Unknown, and not named. 41. Dipsas lyezenoides. Australia. 
16. Sebrus. Europe. 42. Lycena cardia. India. 
17. Argus. bg 43. —— Lacturnus. ,, 

18. Unknown, and not named. 44. —— Aratus. A 

19. Do. 45- —— Cneius. 5 

20. Optilete. Europe. 46. Unknown. % 

21. Hylas. ” 47. Danis Hylas. 
22. Cassius. Brazil. 48. —— New species. 

23. Unknown. India. 49. —— x 

24. Telicanus. Africa. 50. Lycena Alexis. 

25. Unknown. 51. ——? new species. 

26. Do. 52. Danis, new species. 
Die AGE 53- —— Sebe. 


134: MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


VII. Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions, 
and their subsequent application to different purposes.— 
Part I. By J. C. Dyer, Hsq., V.P. 


Read October 17th, 1865. 


1. On Lace-making by Machinery. 


Tue manufacture of lace, or “ bobbin-net,” at and near 
Nottingham was conducted by hand-working on cushions 
or ‘‘lace-frames” by women or young persons, and a large 
lace-trade had been established in that place when, about 
the beginning of this century, this method of forming the- 
lace by hand-work was superseded by machines driven by 
power. The change was brought about by the inventions 
of the late Mr. John Heathcoat, who afterwards became, 
and for many years was one of the Members of Parliament 
for Tiverton. 

In his early life, Mr. Heathcoat had been engaged in 
making the frames used in the stocking-weaving and by 
the bobbin-net makers, in which employment he had care- 
fully observed the process of forming the meshes of the 
lace by the workers on the cushions, and he conceived it 
possible to perform the like movements for guiding the 
threads to form the lace-meshes by means of mechanical 
instruments to be driven by rotative power. His first ex- 
periments were made as follows, viz., he procured some 
common twine, or packing-threads, and stretched them in 
a plane across his room, at the proper distances apart, to 
form the warp of the fabric to be wrought ; then, by means 
of common pliers, he passed the bobbins charged with 
thread between the cords, and delivered them into the 
jaws of other pliers on the opposite side of the warp, and 
then, giving a slight sideways motion to the pliers, the 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 135 


bobbins were returned back between the next two cords, 
and so on, moving from side to side to tie or form the 
meshes. 

With this rude apparatus Mr. Heathcoat found that the 
knots, or intersections of the threads, could be formed of 
the same kind as those made on the cushions by the hand- 
workers. | 

The next step was to contrive the form of bobbins that 
would pass back and forth between the threads, placed at 
the requisite distances apart to form the lace. For this 
purpose metallic disks were made, with grooves turned in 
their peripheries to contain the threads to be carried suc- 
cessively through the warp for weaving the lace. 

The machine for working the bobbins consisted of two 
bobbin-carriers, one on each side of the warp, mounted | 
and arranged so as to deliver and receive alternately the 
bobbins of thread from one side of the warp, to the other. 
The bobbins, or ¢hin disks, being placed in proper recesses 
in the carrying-frames, the required motions were given to 
them for conducting back and forth between the threads 
of the warp the bobbin-threads, and for transferring the 
bobbins to the opposite carrier-frame, to be again passed 
back through the warp. In this way the required number 
of bobbins, being duly arranged in their carrier-frames, 
were conducted back and forth (from the upper to the 
under side of the warp, and vice versé) to weave the lace. 

I do not mean to describe here the many ingenious 
movements employed to effect the operations above men- 
tioned, and which made them obey continuous rotative 
action, as they are set forth at large in the specifications of 
Mr. Heathcoat’s patents. 

The great saving of labour effected by the patent ma- 
chines rendered the bobbin-net trade unprofitable as it 
had been carried on upon the old system of working, 
consequently many hands employed therein were thrown 


136 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


out of work, and rauch local distress prevailed in that 
neighbourhood, which led to the “ Nottingham Riots,” 
“ Lace-frame Breaking,’ and other outrages that took — 
place about fifty years ago. Among these acts of violence 
was the entire destruction of Mr. Heathcoat’s establish- 
ment for lace-making with his patent machinery. The | 
great success of the inventions had excited such extensive 
and bitter hostility agaimst him and his partners in trade, 
that it appeared advisable, even for his personal safety, to 
leave that part of the country, and re-establish his works at 
some place quite disconnected with the cotton trade. Ac- 
cordingly he removed to Tiverton, Devonshire, where he 
erected a large lace-making establishment for using his new 
machines in safety. ‘These works have been contimued to 
the present time, and from time to time greatly extended, 
and successive new inventions and improvements have 
been introduced, the fruits of his fertile genius and 
enterprising spirit, which have made them eminently 
successful. 

Whilst engaged in devising changes and improvements 
in his lace-machines about forty-five years ago, Mr. Heath- 
coat came to Manchester for the purpose of examining 
the movements of my wire-card making machines, and by 
a careful analysis of them he was enabled to apply several 
of those movements to facilitate the improvements then 
making in his lace machinery. 

It mostly happens that the first effects of labour-saving 
imventions are to cause derangement and distress among 
those employed in the trades for which such inventions are 
brought into use, and this in proportion to the real effi- 
ciency of the new machines in reducing the cost of labour 
in working them. But the temporary evils thus arising 
are always counterbalanced by the advantages tu grow 
out of extending those trades, and thus affording em- 
ployment for a greater number of hands than could ever 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 137 


_ be employed by the superseded plans of working, and also 
by the employment of more capital at increased profits in 
the trades so improved and extended. These are the 
benefits conferred upon Society and Nations by men of 
original genius and great mental powers, such as were 
eminently displayed by the late John Heathcoat. The 
old bobbing-net trade giving support to a small circle of 
working people and petty dealers at Nottingham, has now 
become extended into a great branch of national industry, 
filling the world with all kinds of plain and gaudy lace- 
netting, from the “‘ mosquito net” to the most elegant and 
fantastic adornment of beauty and fashion. 

“Tt is a vulgar error”? to suppose that the several 
valuable machines now employed in our cotton and other 
manufactures were originally conceived and brought into 
successful operation at some one time by their respective 
inventors. 

The entire history of all important inventions goes to 
disprove this assumption, and to show that the most valu- 
able mechanical inventions in use have been patiently 
worked out from the simple conception of a new principle 
of action, to be substituted for the practice then in use. 
This, as above shown, was the origin of the method con- 
ceived and pursued with such marvellous success by Mr. 
Heathcoat in giving to his new lace-frames a thousand- 
fold power over the old ones worked by hand, for making 
plain and figured lace. ; 

_ We are not to limit our estimate of the value of Mr. 
Heathcoat’s inventions to their application in giving such 
a vast extension to this one branch of textile manufacture. 
His simple but clearly original thought was that of passing 
the threads of the woof through those of the warp, then 
delivering them into conductors on the opposite side, there 
to be repassed and delivered into the former conductors, 
the movements being under mechanical control in place of 


138 MR. J.C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF - 


hand-working. This original process being realized in 
lace-making, opened a new vista to other inventors, afford- 
ing them both instruction and incitement in their mecha- 
nical labours, and must have led to the application of the 
same principle—that of passing threads back and forth 
through warps, on which the beautiful embroidermg ma- 
chines are constructed. 

The acquired knowledge of each generation is the fountain 
from whence new lights flow to their successors ; so it is 
no derogation from the merits of those who contribute to 
the general stock by extending the limits of “ useful know- 
ledge,” although the germs of such extensions may be 
found in former practice, for it is wisely said, ‘‘ there is 
nothing new under the sun ;” yet in the usual sense I con- 
sider the invention of the embroidering machine, as now in 
operation at Messrs. Houldsworth, to embrace so many 
original and beautiful movements, as to entitle the authors 
of them to rank among the most talented mechanicians of 
our time. Again, I consider another most valuable and 
ingenious invention, also of foreign origin*, to be based 
upon the same idea—that of passimg from one to another 
set of holders and conductors the cotton in the combing 
machines now so extensively employed in separating the 
short and coarse from the long staple in carding fine 
cotton. 


2. On Wire-card making by Machinery. 


In the North American Colonies and States the manu- 
facture of woollen and cotton fabrics for domestic use, 
especially of the coarser sorts, had become a regular branch 
_ of industry in the winter months, when out-of-doors labour 


* The embroidering and the combing machines were first patented in 
France, and were each in a very imperfect state when brought to this country. 
They were taken up by Mr. Henry Houldsworth, by whose eminent talents 
and ingenuity they have been successively simplified and rendered practically 
valuable machines. 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 139 


was mostly suspended, the carding, spinning, and weaving 
by the ancient hand-machines being done in the farm- 
houses mostly by grown-up members of the families. 
These fabrics are called “ domestics,” to mark them as di- 
stinct from the finer and more ornamental kinds imported 
for “best dresses”? and other decorations. 

The hand-cards then in use were mostly obtained from 
England, though a portion of the coarser sorts were made 
in the several localities. About the close of the last century 
a change in the carding process was brought about by the 
introduction of the “cylinder carding engines” from 
England, by which the hand-carding was superseded, and 
the preparation for spinning more perfectly effected. Upon 
this change, in place of importing the hand-cards, a demand 
arose for the kind of wire-cards especially adapted for 
covering or clothing the cylinders of the new engines, and 
these could only be obtained from England. But the un- 
certainty and delays in importing these machine-cards to 
replace the worn-out or damaged cards on the cylinders 
had at times led to the “stoppage of the carding-mills,” 
and thereby created an urgent demand for domestic-made 
machine cards. 

In this state of the wire-card trade Mr. Amos Whitte- 
more (then residing near Boston, and having a small trade 
in hand-card making) began his experiments for construct- 
ing a Macuine to make cards by continuous rotative 
power. His first step was to examine the movements re- 
quired to form the wire staples, or “card-teeth,”’ as they 
were set in the sheets of leather to form the hand-cards. 
The complete card being formed with wire staples, the 
legs passed through the sheets of leather, and the lat 
crowns of the staples pressing against the leather, and the 
legs bent forwards to a slight angle with the sheet, so that 
when set in rows their points would successively take hold 
of the fibres to be carded, and arrange them evenly along 


140 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


the face of the card in loose sheets or layers, to be “ doffed” 
or removed for spinning. 

The successive motions to form and set the teeth in the 
leather, to complete the card, are as follow :— 

(1) The feeder, to draw the wire from a reel (in lengths 
about 13 inch) to form the staples. 
(2) To hold the wire in the middle between the SE 

bar and the presser. 

(3) To cut this wire off (from the supply coil) always 
in equal lengths. 

(4) The severed wire being held against the stapler-dar, - 
the stapler-wings are advanced so as to push forward the 
ends of the wire to form the staples. 

(5) Two piercers or steel pomts are then advanced, and 
pierce holes through the leather, just opposite the points 
of the staples, and then they are drawn back, and descend 
out of the way of the staple points. 

(6) The staple-bar and wings then advance with the 
staple, the points of which are guided by the wings into 
holes of the leather. . 

(7) The staple-bar then rises above the crown of the 
staple, and the presser advances and forces the crown home 
against the leather. 

(8) On the opposite side of the leather are placed the 
“ crookers,” or knee-benders, having loops or “ eye-open- 
ings” just above a fixed steel edge or bar, and the /egs of 
the staple are passed through these eyes, so that as they 
descend the wires are “crooked” or bent to the proper 
angle to form the carding surface. 

(9) All of the above-named parts return to their former 
positions, for repeating the same motions for making and 
setting the card-teeth, and then the sheet of leather 
(stretched in a frame) is moved upwards, just enough to 
set the next row of teeth, and stdeways the proper distance 
apart for the crowns of the staples, and so on continually 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 141 


to form the wire-cards of such sizes and kinds as are re- 
quired for carding-engines. 

Tn the old system of card-making several rude machines 
were made (1) for cutting the wires into the required 
lengths for the teeth; (2) for bending them into staples 
and giving the knee-bend ; and (3) for piercing the holes 

.Ia the sheets of leather; but the setting the teeth in the 
leather was the work of children, in which a large number 
were employed in and near Halifax, which had become 
the principal seat of the trade; and this card-setting was 
very bad for the eyes, sometimes even destroying the sight 
of the children so employed, and otherwise injuring them 
through the long hours and the very low wages paid for 
this work. Apart, therefore, from the saving of labour to 
be effected by a machine that would complete the cards with- 
out any hand-work, it would allow those children to be sent 
to school, instead of being thus injured by improper confine- 
ment at a kind of work unfittmg them for other employ- 
ment when grown up. However, the direct stimulus to 
Mr. Whittemore was, as above stated, to supply a pressing 
want of the time. When we look to the many delicate 
and distinct movements required for making and setting 
the card-teeth in rapid succession, so as to render the ma- 
chine practically successful, as against the old plan of 
working, it must be seen that he had undertaken a task 
of no small difficulty, requiring high inventive powers and 
an indomitable wil to realize the object in view. Still, as 
he had the idea of a complete machine matured in his 
mind, he persevered amidst great difficulties in his experi- 
ments, until he constructed a working model, on which his 
American patent was obtained. 

Having thus found it practicable to perform the opera- 
tions required in due succession by the rotation of a shaft, 
viz. (1) the feeding, (2) holding, (3) cutting off, and (4) 
bending the wires into the staples or teeth, (5) piercing 


142 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


the sheets of leather, (6) passing the staples through it, 
and (7) pressing their crowns home to the sheet, (8) crook- 
ing the teeth to the knee-bend, and then (9) advancing the 
leather sheet to receive the next row of teeth, — these 
complex and curious motions were produced by a series of 
“cams,” or excentric pieces of steel fixed on a shaft and 
turned by a winch. 

The invention, therefore, of ‘‘ making wire-cards by ma- 
chinery”’ was thus accomplished by Amos WHiITTEMORE, 
to whom the honour of this vention is solely due. 

In this machine, as in that of Mr. Heathcoat for lace- 
making, a new principle of action had been applied by Mr. 
Whittemore to produce and govern the movements for 
making wire-cards; namely, the “ wedge-pressure,” con- 
sisting of a series of “ cams,” or excentric curves revolving 
on a driving-shaft, and giving the alternate movements to 
the traversing parts of the machine in their exact order 
for making and setting the card-teeth, as before explaimed. 
Although in the old “ iron-forging ” and the “ cloth-fulling 
mills” the trip-hammers and the cloth-beaters were worked 
by radial levers or short arms from the driving-shafts, yet 
they were used merely for elevating the hammers and 
beaters, and not for guiding their motions, as the work 
was done, in both cases, by impact, viz., by the falling of 
the weights thus raised by the levers on the driving-shafts. 
On the other hand, the cam motions in Mr. Whittemore’s 
machines were guided and determined in their due order 
of succession to produce the nine distinct movements at 
each revolution of the driving-shaft, as before described. 

It will be shown further on that this new and very im- 
portant application of projecting curvilinear levers called 
“cam pieces,” fixed on driving-shafts, has since been ex- 
tensively adopted for giving “ intricate and regulated mo- 
tions” in many other machines that have been imvented 
and patented within the last fifty years. 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. — 148 


Without casting any slight upon the application of Mr. 

Whittemore’s cam motions by subsequent inventors, or 
calling in question the merits of the machines in which 
they are used exactly in the same way as in the wire-card 
making, it is but fair to say that, besides inventing his own 
machine, he thereby became the pioneer and guide to the 
pursuits of other able mechanicians in their labours for 
the advance of mechanical science. 
_ Mr. Whittemore, like most other inventors, met with 
many obstacles to bringing his machine into a “good 
working state” after it was invented, so far as regards the 
mechanical principles on which it was founded ; and many 
years elapsed thereafter before any profit could be realized 
from his patent card-making works. 

His path had been beset with both mechanical and — 
pecuniary difficulties, many of the former not having been 
anticipated to the extent that arose in practice. Mr. 
Whittemore had adapted his machine for setting in plain 
rows the kind of cards before nailed on boards for hand- 
carding, whilst those required for the new carding engines 
were of various kinds, widely differmg from the former 
sorts, such as plain, ribbed, and ftwilled in the setting, 
and in sheets, tops, and fillet cards of various lengths and 
breadths to suit the different sized engines. To meet the 
calls for these (already supplied by the hand makers in 
England) Mr. Whittemore had to devise many changes in 
the construction of the machine, to adapt it for making 
the several kinds of cards suited for the new cylinder card- 
ing, such changes taxing his inventive powers to meet the 
unlooked-for demands. 

In this incomplete state of the patent machine his bro- 
ther, Mr. William Whittemore, joined him to form a Com- 
pany in Boston for patent card-making, and for bringing 
the patent machines into more extensive use in America, 
and also for introducing it into England. 


144 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


With this latter view the Company sent out to me one 
of the fillet card-machines (in the year 1811) to be patented 
in this country, for the jot account of the Company and 
myself. I need not describe the state in which the inven- 
tion was thus “ communicated” to me, seeing that a very 
full and clear specification of the machine, with elaborate . 
drawings of all its separate parts, may be seen as enrolled 
at the Patent Offices. 

In the following year (1812) a patent card-making Com- 
pany was formed in London, under the direction of Mr. 
Henry Higginson (of Boston, then an American banker 
in London). After having a number of machines built in 
Birmingham, Mr. Higginson had them removed to Man- 
chester, where the first patent wire-card-making works 
were established on account of the joint patentees. 

In the course of constructing and putting the machines 
into operation, several alterations and improvements in 
their working parts were suggested, both by Mr. Higginson 
and myself, and by our joimt labours the machine was 
made far more simple in several of its movements, whereby 
it could be worked with much greater safety and speed 
than in its previous state. The business was then extended 
to about thirty machines, with their needful appendages, 
and the experiment seemed to afford good hopes of success, 
when unfortunately the factory, with all the machines and 
stock in trade, were destroyed by fire in January 1814. 

We had omitted to ensure the works, so that, when 
burnt down, it was an entire loss to the Company of some- 
thing over £6000. Under this discouraging state of the 
concern, the parties in America were unwilling to concur 
in rebuilding the works, preferring to sell out their in- 
terests in the English patents, which, having more con- 
fidence in the prospect of success, I finally purchased, and 
then became the sole proprietor of the patent; and Mr. 
Higginson having left and returned to Boston, I com- 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 145 


menced building the machines for re-starting the works on 
a large scale; and in doing this I made several other 
changes and improvements, which are set forth in the 
specification of my second patent, dated in 1815. 

I had from time to time made many changes in the 
different parts of the machine, and especially those to form 
the twill fillets and for controlling the inertia of the rapidly 
alternating movements in it, which so far increased the 
speed and safe working of the machine as to supersede 
entirely the original model machine as it came to me from 
America. | 

Some time after completing these improvements, I sent 
to Mr. Whittemore the working parts, or “head work,” 
of one of my machines for him to adopt, if thought useful, 
in the card-making works of the Company with which he . 
was connected, and which had been removed to New York ; 
and in return I was much gratified by receiving the assu- 
rance that he, and the parties concerned with him, had 
highly appreciated the improved construction so trans- 
mitted by me, and that great advantages would result from 
bringing them into use in their works. 

It is now over thirty years since I relinquished the card- 
making business in Manchester, which was subsequently 
transferred to Mr. James Walton (a gentleman highly 
distinguished as an able mechanician, and the author 
of several original and valuable inventions), by whom 
several further improvements were made in the card- 
machine, some of them rendering it still more safe and 
rapid in working. 

I may here observe, in conclusion, that several important 
and well-known inventions of our own times will rank 
higher in the annals of science than this of Mr. Whitte- 
more, especially those concerned with the vast moving 
forces employed in large engineering works, the con- 
trol of which forces requires a profound knowledge of the 

SER. IIT. VOL. III, matte L 


146 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


principles of action and reaction on which they depend; 
still I feel assured that “the perfect witness of all-seemg 
Jove” will assign to this invention of Mr. Whittemore 
the rank of being one of the highest exertions of inventive 
genius (as applied to the rapid succession of complicated 
motions to effect given results) that are anywhere to be 
found in successful practice in our times. 

The cam, or curvilinear wedge, action produced by re- 
volving shafts, as we have seen, was first employed by Mr. 
Whittemore for guiding a series of regulated motions in 
this card-machine ; but since that machine was brought 
ito use, many other inventors have availed themselves of 
the same cam action for producing similar motions in other 
valuable machines now in general use, among which may 
be mentioned that for making the eyes or shanks of metal 
buttons. Several of the motions in this machine very 
closely resemble those in the card-machine. 

Again, the machine for making “ wire reeds,” used in 
weaving (the invention of Capt. Wilkinson), which was 
greatly improved in its construction and rendered of value 
im practice by the late Mr. Richard Roberts, who built the 
machines for a patent reed manufactory in Manchester— 
this and the pin-making machine invented by Mr. L. 
Welman Wright, by which the wire is cut into proper 
lengths, and the pins pointed and headed and completed 
by the motions given by the driving-shaft—both of these 
inventions are evidently based on that of the card-machine. 


3. On Cutting Furs from Pelts. 


The next invention I have to notice will be of imterest, 
on account of its having proved, in an eminent degree, the 
parent source whence a great many other inventions have 
since sprung, several of which will be pointed out below,— 
namely the machine for cutting furs from pelts by re- 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 147 


volving cutters arranged spirally, to act against a fixed 
straight edge in the way of shears. In the year 1810 the 
model of a fur-cutting machine was forwarded to me in 
London by a Company in Boston, which had a patent for 
it in America, with instructions for me to obtain the 
English patent, and introduce it to the notice of the hat- 
manufacturers of this country, by whom it was supposed 
the machine would be largely used, as it had been by the 
same trade in America. In transmitting the model to me 
it was stated to have been the invention of a Mr. Bellows, 
a shopkeeper of Boston, of whom I had never before 
heard; and not having then or since received any direct 
communication from or concerning him as the inventor, 
I have no means of forming any opinion as to his being 
entitled to the honour of originating this curious and im- 
portant invention. I accordingly obtained the English 
patent; and for the construction of the machine and 
the principle of its action I refer to my specification, 
wherein they are fully set forth and explained—the pur- 
pose of this notice bemg rather to avoid the mechanical 
details, and speak of the principle of shearing by means 
of aseries of spiral cutters so fixed as to revolve round 
a common axis, their cutting edges moving in the line 
of a cylinder, so that one cutter shall come into con- 
tact with the fixed straight cutter, just as the preceding 
spiral cutter shall pass the other end of the former: thus 
the revolving cutters will come into successive action with 
the fixed straight edge; and it will be obvious that any 
fibrous or other yielding substance, being brought into 
contact with the straight edge, will be taken hold of between 
it and the revolving cutters, and thus cut or sheared off 
from the surfaces to which the fibres were before attached, 
such as furs from pelts, and many others to be noticed 
further on. 

When the patent was obtaimed I had a machine built, 

L2 


148 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


of full working-size, and got it put into operation at the 
large hat-making works of the Messrs. Hicks in the 
Borough. Some months after, those gentlemen reported 
that the machine appeared to work to their entire satisfac- 
tion, but not to their workmen’s! These latter had a 
sort of monopoly in the art of cutting the furs by hand- | 
shears or knives, and they would not stand having the 

machine-cutting continued in the works. It finally ap- 

peared that the cost of cutting the furs by hand was too 

small an item in the general expenses of hat-making to 

justify any interruption of the works for the small saving 

to be effected by the patent machine, which therefore they 

declined to adopt in their establishment. Upon the con- 

clusion of this experiment I was led to view the fur-cutting 

patent as an entire failure, and that to submit to lose all 

that had been expended on it were better than to press it 

further on the trade. If, therefore, the invention had not 

subsequently fructified in other hands, and for other pur- 
poses, I should never have thought it worth while to bring 

it into public notice beyond that unsuccessful trial. 

In the foregoing account we have seen that the in- 
ventor of this fur-cutting machine was “ unknown to fame” 
at the time of its transmission to England; and since then 
I have not received any further information concerning 
his being in any wise distinguished as a mechanician ; yet 
his name should be recorded in the history of modern in- 
ventions, as an honoured contributor to the advance of 
practical mechanics, if he be the real author of this ap- 
plication of the spiral cutters im successive contact with a 
straight one to perform the work of shearing fibres from 
the surfaces to which they are attached. I should here 
observe that the original machine was adapted to cut the 
pelts or skins into narrow slips from the furs, rather than 
the latter from pelts; but it soon became evident that this 
principle of shearing was equally applicable, and would 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 149 


prove of greater value, when applied ¢o shear the fibres off 
from surfaces without injuring them. 

About six months after my specification of the patent 
appeared in the ‘ Repository of Arts,’ I found that a 
patent had been taken out for chopping straw, roots, &c., 
by employing the same action of revolving spiral cutters 
against a fixed straight cutter; and this patent had a 
great run as a useful agricultural implement, which, as I 
was informed at the time, yielded a large profit to the 
inventor ; and, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, it 
was an invention. But the principle of it was evidently 
derived from the fur-cutting machine; and doubtless, if I 
had then possessed the art and mystery of claiming under 
patents for one purpose their application to many others, 
I might have then forestalled all of the subsequent uses 
of the revolving spiral cutters which were successively 
patented, besides that for straw-cutting—namely two or 
three patents for shearing the naps from cloths: some of 
these were very ingenious and valuable machines, but 
they are direct copies from the fur-cutting patent. This 
same principle has been applied in various ways since in 
preparing dye-stuff, paper-making, and others ; but without 
stopping to notice them separately, it will suffice to men- 
tion the lawn-mowing machines, now much in vogue, which 
are from the original fur-cutter. 


150 MR. T. EB. THORPE ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID 


VIII. On the Amount of Carbonic Acid contained in the Air 
above the Irish Sea. By 'T. E. Tuores, Assistant in the 
Private Laboratory, Owens College. Communicated by 
Professor H. E. Roscoz, F.R.S., &c. 


Read November 28th, 1865. 


Tue determination of the amount of carbonic acid con- 
tained in the atmosphere over the land has been made the 
subject of investigation by many experimenters ; and from 
the results obtained by Théodore de Saussure, Brunner, 
Boussingault, Angus Smith, and others, we are-acquainted 
with the exact proportion of this gas contained in the at- 
mosphere under varying circumstances of situation and 
weather. ; 

But hitherto the influence which, @ priori, must neces- 
sarily be exercised by large bodies of water on the propor- 
tion of carbonic acid in the atmosphere has scarcely been 
sufficiently studied. The fact that a considerable influence 
is exercised has certainly been noticed; but beyond the 
incomplete results of one or two observers, we have no 
numerical data from which to judge of the extent of this 
influence, and we therefore know but little of the changes 
in the comparative amount of the atmospheric carbonic 
acid as effected by the waters of the ocean. Dr. Roscoe 
therefore suggested that I should undertake some experi- 
ments on this subject, and kindly placed the necessary 
time and apparatus at my disposal. I may here be allowed 
to express my thanks for the kindness and for the advice 
and assistance I have received from him during the prose- 
cution of these experiments. 

It was noticed long ago by Vogel (Ann. of Phil. vi. 
1823, and Journ. de Pharm. t. vil. p. 461) that air col- 


CONTAINED IN THE AIR ABOVE THE IRISH SEA. I51 


lected over the Baltic, about half a mile from the coast at 
Doberam, contained so little carbonic acid, that baryta- 
water was scarcely rendered turbid by it. A repetition of 
the experiment made in 1822 by the same observer in the 
Channel, two leagues from Dieppe, by emptying a bottle 
of distilled water and testing the air with baryta solution, 
gave a perfectly similar result. 

Kriiger, at Rostock (Schw. xxxv. 379), also observed that 
the air did not render lime-water turbid when the wind 
came from the north, the direction of the Baltic, but that 
a considerable turbidity was produced by a wind blowing 
from the opposite direction, namely from the land. 

Théodore de Saussure (Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. xliv. 
1830) noticed that the air collected near the surface of 
Lake Séman generally contained less carbonic acid than air — 
taken at Chambeisy, half a league distant. 

The difference, however, is but slight: the means of 
eighteen determinations, made at different seasons of the 
year and at various times of the day, gave for the air of the 
lake 4°39, for the air of the land 4°60 m 10,000 volumes of 
air, or as 95 to 100. 

Watson (Brit. Assoc. Reports, iv. 1835, and Journ. fiir 
Prakt. Chemie, ii. 75, 1835) likewise found from deter- 
minations made near Bolton, that winds from the seaward 
contained less carbonic acid than when blowing from the 
land. Thus, on Nov. 6th, 1833, at 2 p.m., after much rain, 
and with a very strong west wind, the air contained 3°614 
vols. in 10,000 of air, and on Dec. 6th, in precisely similar 
circumstances as to wind and rain, exactly the same amount. 
Southerly and easterly winds from the land gave numbers 
varying from 4°196 to 4°730 in 10,000 vols. of air. These 
determinations were made by absorbing the carbonic acid 
in a known volume of air by means of a measured quantity 
of lime-water of known strength. After the expiration of 
a week, during which the vessel was frequently agitated, 


152 MR. TT. E. THORPE ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID 


the residual lime-water was neutralized by sulphuric acid 
of a certain strength ; and from the amount of that acid re- 
quired before and after absorption, the proportion of car- 
bonic acid in the air was easily calculated. 

A few experiments made in a similar manner by Colonel 
Emmet (Phil. Mag. xi. 18 37) at Bermuda, about the end — 
of September and beginning of October 1836, gave as a 
mean 1°25 vol. of carbonic acid in 10,000 vols. of air—a 
result considered, however, by Dalton, from whom the com- 
munication was received, to be only approximative, since 
the lime-water had not remained for a sufficient length of 
time in contact with the air. Emmet observed qualitatively, 
by means of lime-water, the invariable presence of carbonic 
acid in the atmosphere above the sea during the voyage 
out from England to Bermuda ; but the quantity apparently 
fluctuated, the film of carbonate forming sometimes more 
rapidly than at others. 

These old observations are, however, scarcely to be 
trusted as regards quantity, owing to the inaccurate nature 
of the methods employed. We now have to notice more 
recent and reliable determinations. : 

It appears from the experiments of Morren (Ann. de 
Chimie et de Phys. xxxii. 12, 1844), made near St. Malo, on 
the French coast of the Channel, on the nature of the gases 
which sea-water holds in solution at different periods of 
the day and during the various seasons of the year, that 
the alteration in the composition of these dissolved gases 
may possibly cause a sensible alteration in the composition 
of the atmosphere immediately above the sea. The air 
contained in sea-water consists of variable quantities of free 
carbonic acid, oxygen, and nitrogen,—the changes in the 
relative proportion of these gases depending (1) upon 
alteration of temperature, affecting the relative amounts of 
the dissolved gases in accordance with the laws of gaseous 
absorption, and (2) upon the variations in intensity of 


CONTAINED IN THE AIR ABOVE THE IRISH SEA. 153 


direct and diffused solar light, producing a corresponding 
effect upon the vitality of sea-plants and animals, and hence 
altering the composition of the dissolved gases. 

These conclusions of Morren are substantially confirmed 
by Lewy’s experiments (Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. xxxv. 
17, 1846) on the composition of the dissolved gases in the 
water of the Channel at Langrune (Calvados) ; but the 
two chemists differ somewhat in their statements of the 
extent of the variations in the composition of the dissolved 
gases. The limits of variation for the oxygen, according 
to Morren, are from 31 to 39 in 100 volumes of the gases ; 
according to Lewy from 32°5 to 3474. As the same 
quantity of gas, however, is not always evolved from the 
same volume of sea-water, but sensibly varies during the 
day, it is better, in stating the differences between the re- _ 
sults of the two observers, to compare the absolute amounts 
evolved from the quantity of water employed in the experi- 
ments. Thus, according to Morren, the amount of oxygen 
varies from 29°7 c.cm. to 53°6 c.cm. in 4'5 litres of sea-water, 
the amount always taken for experiment; whilst Lewy 
finds from 23 c.cm. to 29°I c.cm. only per 4°45 litres. In 
regard to the carbonic acid, the variations, according to 
Morren, are from 7°5 c.cm. to 21°0 c.cm. in 4°5 litres of 
water ; according to Lewy, from 10°6 c.cm. to 17°5 c.cm. 
in 4°45 litres. 

Morren’s determinations were made in the months of 
March, April, and May; those of Lewy nm August and 
September ; but this circumstance will hardly serve to ex- 
plain the disagreement in the above results, since, as 
the latter chemist points out, it is scarcely possible that 
the difference in the seasons can exercise so great an in- 
fluence. 

Both chemists, however, agree in attributing the ob- 
served differences in the composition of the dissolved gases 
in great part to the influence of direct and diffused solar 


154 MR. T. E. THORPE ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID 


light on the microscopic animalcula which, according to 
Ehrenberg, are always present in sea-water—hbasing their 
conclusions on the examination of the water left by the 
recession of the tide in the hollows of the rocks or shore, 
in which infusoria develope with great rapidity, and im 
which consequently under favourable circumstances, all 
these phenomena are eminently exhibited. 

If it is possible that the composition of the air above the 
sea in our latitude can be sensibly altered by this pheno- 
menon of the variation in the nature of the gases in solu- 
tion in sea-water, it is reasonable to expect that the atmo- 
sphere above the tropical oceans would manifest to a much 
larger extent variations in the relative amounts of carbonic 
acid and oxygen, since infusoria exist, as is well known, in 
enormous quantities m these oceans, and the composition 
of the air in their waters must necessarily undergo rapid 
variation, and a consequent evolution of the dissolved 
gases occur. Some experiments by Lewy on the com- 
position of the air of the Atlantic Ocean (Ann. de Chimie 
et de Phys. xxxiv. 14) tend to confirm this opmion. At the 
instance of the French Academy, Lewy collected air at 
different times during a voyage from Havre to Santa Marta. 
On subsequent analysis, the air collected durimg the day 
appeared to be sensibly richer in carbonic acid and oxygen 
than air collected in the night. On comparing the means 
of each series, we have, in 10,000 volumes of air, for 


The day The night 

(mean of 7 expts.). (4 expts.). 
Carbonic acid........ 5299 3°459 
Oxygen uit. eee 2105°801 2097°412 


This variation appeared to increase in proportion as the 
middle of the ocean was approached; and in air collected 
on December 18th, 1847, at about equal distances from 
Africa and America, the widest difference was observed :— 


CONTAINED IN THE AIR ABOVE THE IRISH SEA. 155 


Distance Mea s of 3 expts. 
Temp.| Temp. Weather Lat. & long. of Hae a eEP. 


| Hour. ° i 
of air.| of sea. W. (Paris). continent 


CO,. | Oxygen. 


C. © 7 o. .| leagues. 
3 A.M.| 21°°5| not |Finebreeze,j21 45 41 3) 435 | 3°346|2096°139 
given | unclouded. : 
°o| 24.°°5 |Do. slightly|21 9 4225| 412 | 5°420|2106'099 
clouded... 


3 P.M.| 24° 


The extent of this variation, as seen from the above 
Table, is 2°074 for the carbonic acid, and 9-960 for the 
oxygen in 10,000 volumes of air,—without doubt a very 
appreciable difference. 

This remarkable phenomenon may doubtless be accounted 
for, without any reference to the direct action of infusoria, 
by the heating effect of the sun on the sea-water, and the 
consequent disengagement during the day of gas propor- — 
tionately rich im carbonic acid and oxygen. During the 
night, on the other hand, as this source of action is re- 
moved, the disengagement may be assumed not to occur; 
and, following Lewy, one may perceive that this difference 
would become more appreciable and easier to trace in air at 
great distances from any continent than in air collected 
nearer the coasts, and consequently liable to be mixed 
with the air of the land. 

The specimens of air for the above experiments were col- 
lected in glass tubes of about 100 c.cm. capacity, in the 
manner prescribed by Regnault in his “ Instructions” to 
the sailors and others who aided him in collecting the air 
for his memorable research on the composition of the air 
at different parts of the globe. The analyses were executed 
eighteen or twenty months after, with the eudiometric ap- 
paratus of Regnault and Reiset; and the results are the 
means of three separate determinations of each specimen 
of air. The precision of the results in the case of carbonic 
acid is somewhat remarkable when we consider the diffi- 
culty generally experienced in accurately noting contrac- 


156 MR. T. E. THORPE ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID 


tions so minute as the absorption of the carbonic acid 
from a small volume of atmospheric air, and when we re- 
member the fact poimted out by Regnault in the investiga- 
tion above mentioned (Ann. de Chimie et de Phys. xxxvi. 
1852), that air which has remained for any great length of 
time in glass tubes invariably exhibits a notable diminution . 
in the amount of carbonic acid, since the glass absorbs a 
portion of this gas. 

The kind permission of the Honourable Board of Trinity 
House has enabled me, during the vacation of last summer, 
to make some additional experiments in this direction, on 
board the Bahama-bank light-vessel, situated in the Inish 
Sea, lat. 54° 21’, and long. 4°11’, seven miles W.N.W. of 
Ramsey, Isle of Man, and consequently nearly equidistant 
from the nearest shores of England, Scotland, and Ireland. 
Theship is placed to mark the proximity of a dangerous bank, 
by which, for the greater part of the day, a strong current, 
setting in from the southward, flows through the north 
channel, and thence into the Atlantic. 

These experiments were made in the early part of August, 
at the same periods of the twenty-four hours namely, about 
4am. and 4 p.m., or nearly the times of minimum and 
maximum temperature. 

Pettenkofer’s method of analysis was adopted, with the 
improvements in the practical details suggested by Angus 
Smith (Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester, 1865). This 
method is in principle similar to the one employed by 
Watson and Emmet, but admits of far more delicacy and 
precision in practice. Baryta- is substituted for hme-water, 
and oxalic for sulphuric acid. The solution of oxalic acid 
for these experiments was so made that one cubic centi- 
metre of it corresponded to one milligramme of carbonic 
acid ; it thus contained 2°864 grammes of pure crystallized 
oxalic acid per litre. Twenty-five cubic centimetres of the 
baryta solution were originally made to correspond to 


CONTAINED IN THE AIR ABOVE THE IRISH SEA. 157 


about twenty-eight of oxalic acid; but of course the exact 
strength of the baryta-water was ascertained previously to 
each experiment. 

The bottles were generally filled with the air by means 
of bellows ; but sometimes, when the wind was strong, it 
sufficed to hold them up. for a minute or two in such a 
manner that the air could circulate freely within. The 
baryta-water remained in contact with the enclosed air for 
three-quarters of an hour to one hour, during which time 
the bottles were frequently agitated. Although even this 
is longer perhaps than is actually required for the complete 
absorption of the carbonic acid, still, for the sake of con- 
clusiveness, in experiment 4 the bottles were allowed to 
stand for three hours, and in experiment 13 for six hours, 
before the solutions were tested. The capacities of the 
two bottles which served for all the experiments were 4815 _ 
e.cm. and 4960c.cm. The burette was Mohr’s modification, 
for which a table of calibration had been constructed by 
weighing and interpolating in the ordinary way. 

As an example of the process and mode of calculation, 
take the experiment where the baryta-water remained in 
contact with the air for six hours :— 

Aug. 17th ; time, sunrise ; bar. 753°1 millims. Tempera- 
ture: dry bulb 13°.9 C., wet bulb 12°.8 C.; wind W.S.W., 
fresh. Cloudy, amount of cloud (overcast =10) 9; nature 
of cloud, cirrostratus. Temperature of sea-water, 15°.0 C. 

50 c.cm. of baryta-water before experiment were equal to 
55°18 c.cm. oxalic acid. After the expiration of the six 
hours, 25 c.cm. of the baryta-water required 26°29 of oxalic 
acid solution for neutralization ; therefore the 50 c.cm. ori- 
ginally taken would require double this quantity, namely 
52°58 c.cm.; and 55°18—52°58=2°60. But as one cubic 
centimetre of oxalic acid solution is made equal to one milli- 
gramme of carbonic acid, this number corresponds to 2°6 
milligrammes of carbonic acid in the amount of air taken 


158 MR.T.E. THORPE ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID 


for experiment. The capacity of the bottle was 4815 c.em.; 

from this is to be subtracted the volume of air displaced by 

the baryta-water, namely 50 c.cm., and we have 4765 c.cm. 

as the amount of air containing 2°6 milligrammes of car- 

bonic acid. We have now, with the temperature and pres- 

sure of the air, and weight of one litre of carbonic acid at the 

standard temperature and pressure (namely 1:966 gramme), 
all the data from which to calculate the proportion in 

volumes of carbonic acid in 10,000 volumes of air. The 

calculation stands thus :— 


760 x 2°6 x 2869 X 10,000 __ 

7531 X 273 x 4765 x 1°966 

The fact that the various meteorological changes influ- 
ence to such a remarkable extent the nature and amount 
of the gases dissolved in sea-water renders it necessary, in 
any investigation on the constitution of the atmosphere 
over the sea, to take particular account of these me- 
teorological changes. Accordingly the temperature and 
pressure and degree of humidity of the air, direction and 
force (estimated, Beaufort’s system) of wind, amount (esti- 
mated, overcast =10) and nature of clouds, and general 
appearance of the day, together with the temperature of 
the sea-water and amount of sea-disturbance (1 to 9), were 
noted at the time of each experiment. 
_ The following Table shows the results of those observa- 
tions, together with the amount im volumes of the carbonic 


2°94 In 10,000 vols. of air. 


acid in 10,000 volumes of air. All the experiments which 
were made are here given. The hours of observation, as 
before stated, were 4 a.M, and 4 P.M. 


tg 


159 


CONTAINED IN THE AIR ABOVE THE IRISH SEA. 


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160 ON THE AMOUNT OF CARBONIC ACID IN THE AIR. 


In comparing these results with the following deter- | 
minations of the carbonic acid contained in land air, it is 
seen that the air of the Irish Sea contains a much smaller 
proportion of carbonic acid than the air of the neighbour- 
ing land. The most extensive observations on the land 


air have given aS means :— 


No. of Vols. in 


Observer. Locality. Expts. 10,000 of air. 

Th. de Saussure, Chambeisy, 104 4°I5 
Boussingault, Paris, 142 3°97 
Verver, Groningen, go 4°20 
Roscoe, st ser., London & Manchester, 108 2071 
»  2udser., - Manchester, 53 3°92 
Smith, ditto, 200 4°03 
General mean of land air .......... 4°04 

Mean of 26 expts. on sea air........ 3086 


It would also appear that no difference is discernible in 
the amount of carbonic acid in the air of day and night 
over the Irish Sea. On the other hand, from Saussure’s 
observations a decided difference may be traced between 
day and night air on the land—a conclusion subsequently 
confirmed by several experimenters. 

In noting the above mean, 3°08, and the apparent iden- 
tity in the amount of carbonic acid in the air of day and 
night over the sea, it should be borne in mind that July 
and August are in general the hottest periods of the year 
(these months were unusually hot this year, 1865), and 
that consequently all the influences may be supposed at 
work which would tend to increase the relative amount of 
carbonic acid, and render appreciable any difference in the 
air of night and day. 

The conclusions therefore to be drawn from these ex- 
periments are :— 

1. That the influence of the sea in our latitudes in abs- 


ON THE ORIGIN OF SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 161 


tracting the carbonic acid from the atmosphere is not so 
great as the old experiments of Vogel and others would 
lead us to suppose. 

2. That the sea in our latitudes does not act in increasing 
the amount of carbonic acid in the air above the ocean, as 
found by Lewy over the Atlantic near the equator. 

3. That the differences observed in the air of night and 
day by Lewy on the Atlantic, are not perceptible in the 
air above the Irish Sea. 

4. That in the month of August 1865, the mean quantity 
of carbonic acid in the atmosphere of the Irish Sea was 
3°08 in 10,000 volumes of air. 

In conclusion, I beg to acknowledge the kind attention 
which I received from Captain Temple, and from his crew, 
during my stay on board his ship. 


IX. Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions, 
and their subsequent application to different purposes.— 
Part II. By J. C. Dyrr, Esq., V.P. 


Read December 12th, 1865. 


On the Employment of Steel for Multiplying Engravings. 


_Arthe beginning of the present century (upon the death 
of Washington, and.in commemoration of that event) Mr. 
Jacob Perkins (then a silversmith at Newbury Port, near 
Boston) undertook to make and supply copies of a “ Wash- 
ington Medal ;” and as they were likely to command a 
large sale if speedily brought out, it occurred to him that 
this might be effected in a summary way, by the process 
of transferrmg the engraved design from prepared steel 
dies. — 


SER. IJ1. VOL. III. i M 


162 — MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


The medal (an eagle, motto, &c.) being engraved or 
sunk on a die of softened steel, the die was then hardened 
and served to stamp or impress the design, m relief, upon 
another softened steel die, which latter beg hardened, 
was employed as a stamp to transfer or raise the figures 
on the silver, rolled very thin, to form the medals. ' 

By this process Mr. Perkins was enabled to supply a 
vast number of the medals, from which he derived a con- 
siderable profit, as also great credit for his success, and 
encouragement to extend his new transferring process to 
other branches of engraving. 

His next application of the principle was to the printing 
of dank-notes, with very elaborate engravings, to discourage 
or prevent forgeries, by reason of the cost and difficulty of. 
imitating them by the hand-engraving of the forgers. For 
this purpose Mr. Perkins procured some cast-steel plates 
(about half an inch in thickness), and after making their 
surface smooth and level, he subjected them to the decar- 
bonizing process (explained in his patent), by which the 
surfaces, to the depth of about ;4, of an inch, were con- 
verted into very soft and pure iron. On these were then 
engraved, by hand, the letters and designs for the bank- 
notes, and the entire surface of the plate was covered with 
minute letters or figures, to render the bare labour of coun- 
terfeiting them a great hindrance, as well as that of the 
difficulty of imitation. The steel plates so prepared and 
engraved were next recarbonated by his process of cementa- 
tion with animal carbon, and then they were hardened and 
tempered for use. 

But instead of printing the notes from these plates, they 
were used as dies for making others to print with. Thus 
he prepared a cast-steel cylinder (its cireumference equal to 
the length of the plate), which in like manner was decar- 
bonated at the surface, and then mounted in an apparatus 
adapted for turning it over the engraved plate, under a very 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 163 


great pressure (effected by compound traversing levers), 
whereby the letters and figures engraved on the hardened 
plate were taken up in “relief,” or raised on the surface of 
the soft cylinder. This cylinder being then hardened and 
tempered, was used to transfer, by means of the same tra- 
yersing pressure, the entire work upon its surface to any 
number of copper plates for printing the notes—as in the 
case of prints; where a great many were wanted, then the 
cylinder was used to transfer the figures on it to softened 
steel plates, which, beg then hardened, served to give a 
vast number of impressions before it became “the worse 

for wear.” | 
The experiment by two or three banks of having their 
notes printed from transferred engravings “on Perkins’s 
patent process”? was so far successful, that subsequent 
forgeries were wholly upon the other banks, whose notes 
contained merely the requisite letters and some small design 
or figure to distinguish them, which work could be readily 
imitated, with slight labour or skill, by the common graving 
tool in the hands of the lowest class of artists. This, 
therefore, led to an extended demand for the application 
of Mr. Perkins’s plan of transferring engravings of very 
difficult execution by hand, and of great cost to the forger 
if so executed. To supply this demand from many banks, 
Mr. Perkins greatly extended his works, and was in a good 
way to obtain a fair return of profit, as well as of honour, 
for his invention, the practical value of which had thus 
been proved. But his path was then beset by opponents, 
who professed to have made the same discoveries, and to 
have performed the like process of transferring engravings 
before the date of the patent to Mr. Perkins, and on which 
pretence they proceeded to make bank-notes in opposition 
to, and in disregard of his patent right ; and as this right 
could only be sustained by expensive lawsuits, he became 
entangled with troubles and conflicts, which for a long 

M 2 


164 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


time impeded his labours, and greatly restricted his means 
of completing the many other schemes then conceived by 
him, and waiting to be matured. 

In the year 1809 Mr. Perkins communicated to me the 
entire details of his method of preparing the steel dies and 
transferring engravings for the prevention of forgeries, and. 
for multiplying engraved designs, with a view to having 
the invention patented in England for our jomt account. 
From the success attained in America, he anticipated the 
adoption of his system by the banks in this country, espe- 
cially as it was susceptible of great improvements in the 
style of work to be printed on the notes, from the high 
state of the graphic arts in London, as compared with what 
could be formed in America. Accordingly I took out 
patents, and minutely specified the method of carrying the 
invention into effect. I then obtaimed a very elaborate ~ 
and beautiful design, from the classic pencil of the late 
Mr. Robert Smirke, P.R.A., and had it engraved by Raim- 
bach on prepared steel, to be transferred to plates for print- 
ing bank-notes. But after many fruitless efforts to induce 
the banks of England and Scotland to take up the plan 
for their notes, I was obliged to give up the task as quite 
hopeless at that time; nor could I then induce the book- 
sellers to adopt the transferring system for illustrating 
works for the press, for which it was so well adapted, as it 
has since proved to be. 

The saying that “there is a time for all things,” seemed 
to apply in this case, and to show that the time had not 
arrived for exciting any general or strong interest on the 
question of the “ bank-note forgeries,” then so extensively 
practised, owing to the slight labour or ingenuity required 
to counterfeit the “one pound notes” in general circula- 
tion ; wherefore the frequent hanging of men for a feat so 
easily performed was suffered to continue for many years, 
without any loud calls upon the Bank to take some steps to 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 165 


remedy, or at least to check, an evil so extensive and so 
disgraceful to the Bank, as being the source of the paper 
circulation of the whole kingdom. If any excuse can be 
offered for such neglect, it may be said that, amidst the 
vicissitudes of the pending war, and the embarrassments 
consequent on the transition from war to peace, which for 
many years caused great disturbances in the circulating 
medium and in the general interests of commerce and in- 
dustry, it was difficult to awaken and concentrate public 
attention upon this great scandal, of relying solely upon 
the gallows for preventing forgeries. 

From such considerations it will be obvious that my 
feeble voice (with those of others who had proposed dif- 
ferent plans for the prevention of forgery) could not avail, 
even for getting any trials made to test the efficacy of 
“ Perkins’s transferring process,” and I therefore gave it 
up as a hopeless task, and submitted to the dead loss of the 
money already expended for the patent, and on the ex- 
periments I had made to establish the practical working of 
the transferring process, and its general application for 
cheaply multiplying elaborate engravings. 

It has been above shown that Mr. Perkins’s invention 
was not for engraving on steel plates for printing, nor for 
engraving on steel at all, but rather for engraving on iron of 
homogeneous structure. It was found that all wrought iron | 
is more or less fibrous, which rendered it unfit to receive 
delicate engraved work, hence it was necessary to employ 
east steel, which being decarbonated to a proper depth, 
gave a uniform surface of pure iron. On this surface the 
letters and designs were then engraved, and the surfaces 
were reconverted into steel for use; that is, to be employed 
as dies for transferring, or for printing direct from them, 
as before mentioned. 

This restatement of the nature of the invention seems 
called for, since it appears that many persons have supposed 


166 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


that “the invention of Perkins” was merely the substitu- 
tion of steel in place of copper for engraving upon. In 
fact, such a bare substitution of the one metal for the 
other would be no invention in any fair sense of the word. 
But the methods of obtaining the soft iron surfaces to 
receive the work on them, the converting of these sur- 
faces back into steel, and the transferrmg the engray- 
ings to other plates for printing, comprise together a 
series of novel processes, which will confer lasting honour 
upon the name of Jacob Perkins as the original author of 
them. 

It was some years before the troubles of the “ transition 
period” had so far subsided that public attention could 
again be drawn to the growing evils attending the circula- 
tion of a paper currency, so easily and extensively imitated 
by the bank-note forgers. In the meantime Mr. Perkins 
had removed to Philadelphia, and formed a company there 
for carrying on the engraving and printing business upon 
his patent system on a large scale. 

Having made known to him the better prospect then 
apparently opening for the adoption of his plans for pre- 
venting forgery in England, I recommended his coming 
over himself to explain them, and aid the artist here in 
putting the system into working order. Accordingly, in 
the year 1820, Mr. Perkins came to England, and, bemg 
over sanguine of success, brought with him a large staff of 
able artists, mechanics, &c.; but unluckily he could not 
bring any money to aid in commencing the intended Lon- 
don works on his new system. He and his partners had 
assumed that in England capital could always be obtained 
for conducting any really useful works, if proved to be 
safe and profitable in practice. Now this matter of proof 
was the question, and proved to be a bar to success 
with the monied class; so that to me alone (not of that 
class) they had to look for the current expenses of their 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 167 


entire mission, and this I could only bear for a few 
months. 

Besides his printmg and transferring apparatus, Mr. 
Perkins brought over several other new and interesting in- 
ventions and discoveries, both mechanical and philosophical, 
which created much inquiry in the scientific and artistic 
circles of London. Among the mechanical novelties was 
the “ Geometrical Lathe,” a triumph of skill in forming, by 
cutting or etching, minute intersecting lines on cylinders 
for printing delicate shades of gradual tints on grounds of 
paper or cloth. . 

The new plans for engraving designs, and the many 
improvements he had made in the machinery for trans- 
ferrmg by steel dies, were patented as improvements 
on the former patent, which had then some four years 
to run. : 

After some time the late Mr. Charles Heath, of high 
artistic celebrity, was induced to jom Mr. Perkins, and by 
a purchase of a share in the patents, became an active 
partner in the engraving and printing works, which were 
then commenced in Fleet Street, London, and have since 
been continued by their successors. 

It was found here, as in America, that to make an inven- 
tion of importance, and to secure it to its author by patent, 
is not enough to protect him in its exercise in peace and 
quietness. When at length Perkins’s steel engraving had 
been taken up by several banks and publishers, and was 
beginning to yield him some fame and profit, other artists 
soon appeared to compete with him for both, claiming to 
have done the same work long before him ! 

If the “transferrmg process” described in the patent 
of 1810 had in fact been practised before that time by the 
parties who, ten years later, denied his right as the original 
inventor, how came it to pass that no practical application 


168 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


of their plans for effecting the same process, nor any an- 
nouncement of such, had ever come before the public until 
after those of Perkins had begun to bear fruit? 

At this distance of time it were bootless to dwell on 
those adverse claims that served to impede the labours of 
My. Perkins in his untiring efforts to prove the value of. 
his new system for making and perpetuating exact copies 
of beautiful designs for printing on bank notes, or for 
illustrating books, . j 

Besides the printing on paper, as above described, Mr. 
Perkins’s system for transferring designs and patterns has 
been very extensively applied (since he led the way in 1809) 
to calico-printing, and other ornamental fabrics, wherein 
his processes were directly copied by parties to whom he 
had minutely explamed them in London. I had witnessed 
these communications, and warned Mr. Perkins of the 
danger of making them so loosely, but without effect. It 
seems “not worth while” to dwell on these cases now, or 
to name the parties so acting at that time. 

In later years we have seen the transferring process em- 
ployed to a vast extent in many other departments of the 
graphic art, such as post-office and receipt stamps and other 
prints, required in greater numbers than could be taken 
from other than steel plates or stamps. 

When any important discoveries in physical science are 
made they never die, whatever may chance to their authors. 
The new facts, when placed before the public, go forth like 
seeds cast upon fertile soil, yielding the fruits of continual 
progress (in the arts of civil society) among the families of 
men who seek improvement. It seems only just, then, 
that each generation should transmit to the next some re- 
cord of the names of those contemporaries to whose genius 
and talents the nations are indebted for such useful dis- 
coveries. Wherefore, in addition to the four distinguished 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 169 


inventors, whose names* I have brought (in former papers) 
to the special notice of the Society, I have (in the present 
one) aimed to place that of Jacob Perkins as a worthy con- 
tributor to the advance of those branches of art to which 
his original inventions have been applied. 


APPENDIX I. 


In tracing the progress of steel engraving, I had no 
thought of giving an account of the life and general re- 
searches of Mr. Perkins in the physical sciences, some of 
them having been long ago published and duly appreciated. 
Yet it may not be out of place here to refer to such of his © 
other discoveries as became suggestive of the many im- 
provements since made in kindred branches of knowledge. 

His “ Experiments on the Compressibility of Water,” 
made some time before he left America, were for ascertain- 
ing the truth of the old Florentine doctrine, that water was 
a “non-elastic” body; which doctrme, founded on the 
Florentine experiments, was still taught in the schools and 
elementary works, and generally accepted. But the “ Per- 
kins’s experiments” clearly established the elastic nature 
of water, and showed that it, like air, was compressible in 
volume, directly as the compressing forces. At that time 
Mr. Perkins fully believed this to be a new discovery, as 
he had never heard of the experiments of Canron, made 
some fifty years before. Though not strictly a “new dis- 
covery,” the experiments of Perkins were of high scien- 


* These are, (1) Robert Fulton, who first succeeded in “ practical steam 
navigation.” 

(2) Willian Eaton, inventor of the “self-acting mule.” 

(3) John Heathcoat, inventor of lace-making. 

(4) Amos Whittemore, inventor of wire-card making. 


170 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


tific value, because the compressing forces employed by 
Canton and by him were so widely different. Mr. Canton 
had applied the pressures from half an atmosphere, or from 

2 lbs. to 30 lbs. per square inch, while Perkins used pres- 
sures from 50 to 400 atmospheres, from 750 lbs. to 6000 lbs. 
per inch. The same rate of compression appeared in all — 
his experiments; and as this was the same as that shown 
by Canton, they may together be taken as proving the law 
of equal compression by equal forces. It will most likely 
be established that the same law will apply to all solid bodies 
as well as to liquids and vapours, unless the solids be dis- 
rupted by the forces. In short, that all known bodies are 
elastic will ere long become an admitted property of pon- 
derable matter may be safely predicted; thus disposing 
of the supposed division of material ponderable bodies into 
elastic and non-elastic. 

The apparatus employed by Mr. Perkins was, first, a cast- 
iron cylinder, the sides and bottom 3 inches thick, with a 
moveable top of equal strength. This, filled with water, 
had a force-pump, as in the hydraulic press, to measure the 
forces applied by the leverage and size of the induction 
pipe. ee 

Second, a small brass cylinder, with a piston fitted to 
slide in it, water-tight ; the cylinder half an inch im dia- 
meter, and of the length to have a column of ten inches 
long under the piston when drawn up tothe end. The 
piston-rod was graduated into divisions of 100 to the inch, 
and a sliding-ring fitted on it, so as to be pressed up on 
the rod as this was forced down upon the enclosed water, 
thus marking the descent in ;45 parts of aninch. The 
_ brass cylinder being under the same water-pressure inside 
and outside, was not subject to any stram to alter its 
capacity. 

Third, when the external pressure was removed, the 
water in the brass cylinder would of course expand to its 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 171 


former length, raising the piston, and marking the greatest 
compression effected. . 

Fourth, in each trial the diminished bulk of the water 
corresponded with the increased force applied; and it was 
found that under the pressure of 100 atmospheres the bulk 
of water was reduced one part in a hundred, and this rate, 
as before mentioned, was the same as had been shown by 
the experiments of Canton. 

Some time after the experiments of Perkins had been 
repeated and publicly shown in London, a course of similar 
experiments were made by Professor Cirsted, who em- 
ployed a stout glass vessel, and adopted a column of mer- 
cury to give the pressure, having the like inside instru- 
ments to mark the results. These being the same as those 
shown by Canton and Perkins, go to confirm the said law 
of compression, 


APPENDIX II. 
On Perkins’s Steam-Gun. 


Among the interesting inventions of Mr. Perkins were 
those for substituting high-pressure steam in place of gun- 
powder for small arms and artillery, so as to discharge pro- 
jectiles with far greater rapidity and destructive effect from 
batteries on sea and land, than could be done by any 
system of gunnery then in use. This scheme attracted 
great public attention at the time it was brought out (in 
1821). 

To carry this object into effect, Mr. Perkins had devised 
a plan for subjecting water to a more intense heat than 
could be done by any of the boilers then known. He em- 
ployed a great number of strong iron or copper tubes, 
placed near together, with their ends fastened into iron 
plates, and these fastened to other end-plates, formed 


172 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


cavities at each end of the tubes for receiving the water 
(by a force-pump at one end), and for emitting the steam 
at the other end. 

This tubular boiler, with its induction and eduction 
chambers, was fixed in the middle of a furnace, for the 
heat to act directly on the water in the tubes, the flame ~ 
circulating around them before passing off; thus, as Mr. 
Perkins phrased it, “ the water could be made red-hot, and 
flash into steam of force exceeding that of gunpowder.” 

He had then a gun-barrel fixed, with the breech end 
open just opposite the valve opening from the steam- 
chamber, and a moving apparatus for conducting the balls 
in rapid succession into the space between the end of the 
barrel and the outlet for the steam, so that by having the 
balls brought between the breech and the steam-valve, 
the latter, opening at the same time, allowed the steam to 
issue and propel the balls through the gun im rapid suc- 
cession, and with a force equal to the elastic pressure of the 
steam; and this, of course, might be continued as long as 
the heat from the furnace could maintain the required 
pressure. 

By experiment he found that from fifty to a hundred 
balls a minute could be shot forth to the end of the trial 
ground (some hundred yards, I believe), and made to strike 
a target with a force nearly or quite equal to those pro- 
jected by ordinary gunpowder. With these means of rapid | 
supply of balls and steam, by having a number of guns, 
say ten, so fixed to exits of steam from one furnace and 
tubular boiler, it is obvious that some 500 to 1000 balls 
might be discharged per minute, which would constitute a 
very formidable battery, compared with the most rapid 
firmg before known. 

These experiments were witnessed by the Duke of Wel- 
lington and many other eminent men, who took great 
interest n them. The causes that prevented their adoption 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 173 


in the public service may admit of the followmg explana- 
tion :—On ships of war, the danger from fire, and the in- 
convenience of having such a furnace with its apparatus 
placed on deck in a position for using the steam-gun 
effectually, were serious objections. Again, the time re- 
quired for gettmg up the steam, im cases of sudden en- 
counter with an enemy, might compel a surrender before 
a shot could be thrown from the steam-battery ; and a yet 
‘more serious objection to the plan arose from the injury 
to the tubes (contaming the water) from the unequal heat- 
ing in the furnace. The requisite heat bemg very intense 
softened some of the tubes, so that they gave way, and 
allowed water to escape into the fire. Although the 
quantity of water so escaping was too small to cause ex- 
plosions, yet it could deaden the fire, reduce the supply of | 
steam, and diminish the force of the projectiles, or entirely 
suspend them if many of the tubes were thus damaged. 
The leaking tubes could be easily replaced, and the boiler 
made again effective in a short time, yet “such pauses for 
preparation ” in the midst of battle must be fatal to the 
suspended arm; wherefore the famous “steam-gun ex- 
periments ” resulted in a loss of the heavy sums expended 
on them, and produced to the author nothing beyond some 
transient and barren fame. 

The after interest, however, attached to the plan of 
using tubular boilers, arose from this scheme serving to 
suggest the reversed use of the tubes, viz., by employing 
them as flues for the furnace, to convey the heat through 
them to the water surrounding them in an outer boiler; 
the water thus heated outside instead of inside the tubes 
by the flame passing through them, could not injure the 
tubes by outer pressure; nor could the heat, so passing 
through them, cause any partial injury, as in the former 
case. 


174 ON THE ORIGIN OF SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 


It appears, then, that Mr. Perkins’s invention was not 
barren to the outer world, since the use of tubular boilers 
by him led to their extended and beneficial employment in 
railway engines and steam-boats, and were, I believe, first 
employed by Stephenson, a few years after the steam-gun 
experiments had been put hors-de-combat ; and it would be ~ 
safe to foretell, that this description of boiler will ulti- 
mately be extended to all high-pressure steam-engines. 


Norr.—A though it is needless to describe the process of 
case-hardening, so generally known, it may be well to ex- 
plain that of decarbonating the steel plates for engraving ; 
this process is as follows :—The prepared steel plates are 
placed in a cast-iron box, and covered about an inch deep 
with an oxide of iron, prepared by subjecting iron-filings 
to alternate wetting and drying until they are mostly con- 
verted into red oxide. Over this covering a clay luting is 
placed, so as to exclude the air, and the box is then placed 
in a furnace and kept at a red heat for about sixty 
hours, when the oxide in contact with the steel will have 
taken up the carbon from its surface to the depth of about 
a sixteenth of an inch, and thus convert the surface into 
pure iron, as mentioned in the text. 

Any other oxide in the form of powder, in which the 
affinities are weaker than those of the oxide with carbon, 
might be employed in lieu of iron-filmgs. It is not im- 
probable that this fact of brmging oxygen in contact with 
cast iron in a melted state may have suggested the Bessemer 
process of purifying cast iron. 


‘ 


ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE FORAMINIFERA. 175 


X. Questions regarding the Life-History of the Foramini- 
fera, suggested by examinations of their dead shells. By 
Tuomas Atcocr, M.D. 


[Read before the Microscopical Section, October 16th, 1865.] 


THE specimens of Foraminifera which have suggested the 
following remarks were obtained from an extensive deposit 
of calcareous sand on the shore of Dogs Bay, near Round- 
stone. They are found in excellent condition, most of them 
being not at all worn and rarely broken; and their abun- 
dance may be understood from the fact that fully three- 
fourths of the whole mass of the sand consists of their shells. 
Though it may be generally true that dredging is the only 
satisfactory way of getting good material for examination, a 
deposit like this certainly forms an exception, and deserves 
thorough investigation; already it has yielded a greater 
number of distinct forms than are described by Prof. Wil- 
liamson from the whole extent of the British Seas ; seventy- 
four of them agree with forms figured in his ‘ Recent Fora- 
minifera of Great Britain,’ but the remainder are either 
very decided and remarkable varieties, or they are per- 
fectly distinct from any there described. 

This sand was first brought under my notice four years 
ago by Mr. Thomas Glover, who observing the great number 
of small shells of Mollusca it contaims, brought away a 
supply of the material with the intention of picking them 
out at leisure, and gave some of it to me for the same pur- 
pose. After having worked for some time at these small 
Mollusca, which are distinguishable without the aid of a 
microscope, and haying obtained in this way many beau- 
tiful and interesting species, I separated the finer from the 
coarser parts by means of a sieve, and gave the finer ma- 
terial a special examination. The extraordinary richness 


176 DR. THOMAS ALCOCK ON QUESTIONS REGARDING 


of this material soon became evident, and it is sufficient to 
say that daily examinations of it from that time to the 
present have not yet exhausted its novelties. Since I 
obtained the first sample, Mr. Glover has favoured me at 
various times with further supplies from this place and 
from neighbouring localities; Mr. Darbishire has also fur- 
nished me with a large stock of the Dogs Bay sand, and I 
received from the late Mr. Parry some remarkable material 
from the same place, obtained, however, under peculiar 
circumstances, having been skimmed from the surface of 
pools left by spring tides. In this case the sand of the 
shore had become thoroughly dry by exposure to the sun 
and air durimg the interval of the low tides, and when 
again covered by water, the lighter and more perfect of the 
Foraminifera floated on the surface, while broken specimens 
and the heavier kinds sank, so that in this way a selection 
was made naturally, like that resulting from the plan re- 
commended by Prof. Williamson for obtaming specimens 
from samples of sand which are too poor to be worth ex- 
amination in the ordinary way. 

This naturally selected sample has furnished some very 
- interesting results, by supplying great abundance of speci- 
mens of certain varieties comparatively rare in the rough 
sand; but at present I have seen in it only two marked 
forms which have not been met with in the other samples; 
these are two varieties of Lagena, namely, Lagena crenata, 
described and figured by Messrs. Parker and Jones in the 
‘Transactions of the Royal Society’ as from Swan River, 
Australia, but not hitherto recorded, so far as I am aware, 
as recent British; and Lagena antiqua, plate IV. fig. 3, a 
form which is very distinct in character from the other 
varieties ; it is opaque white, and appears finely granular 
in texture; its surface is without any raised markings, and 
at the base of the neck there is a projecting collar. 

My present intention, however, is not to describe varieties 


THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE FORAMINIFERA. MC) 


which may have hitherto escaped notice, but to lay before 
you certain conclusions respecting the life-history of some 
of the Foraminifera which I believe may be fairly drawn 
from an examination of their dead shells. This is asubject 
which appears to me not to have received all the attention 
it deserves, and I am satisfied that these empty shells are 
capable of affording still more information than they have 
yet given, since from their nature they retain permanently 
the impression of any passing condition of the animal at 
the time of their formation. In the first place, it is evident 
that the soft and yielding body of the Foraminifer acts as 
a mould upon which the shell is formed, and that it must 
remain still and without change of shape while the process 
goes on; it follows, therefore, that this formation of shell, 
so far as the foundation layer is concerned, must be looked 
upon as a single act, and probably one requiring no great 
length of time. But if the shell be moulded on the surface 
of the animal, as I conclude it must be, it is clear that from 
the first the animal will completely fill it, and whatever 
growth afterwards takes place must be continued outside. 
This is evidently the case in the many-chambered Fora- 
minifera, such as Rotalina, where an additional chamber is 
formed from time to time to protect the new growths ; but 
what provision is made where the perfect shell always con- 
sists of only a single chamber? The Dogs Bay sand, and 
especially Mr. Parry’s sample, contains in great abundance 
two forms of Foraminifera which I believe give some in- 
formation on this subject ; these are Orbulina universa and. 
Globigerina bulloides,—the former consisting of a hollow 
sphere, with many small perforations, and frequently a 
single larger one; the latter of a graduated series of small 
spheres attached together, and arranged in a helix-like 
form. These objects are interesting as being the prevailing 
shells in deep-sea dredgings, and they have been noted as 
abundant in the bed of the sea under the Gulf Stream ; 
SER. III. VOM. III. eh N 


178 MR. THOMAS ALCOCK ON QUESTIONS REGARDING 


but on the shores of this country they have not hitherto, 
so far as I am aware, been found anywhere in plenty, 
though they occur scantily in many localities; and their 
unusual abundance on this part of the west coast of Ireland 
may probably be due, therefore, to the influence of the 
Gulf Stream. Another poimt of interest about these two 
forms is, that they always occur together; and this fact, 
with a general agreement in their character, has led to a 
suspicion, long since entertained, I believe, by Prof. Wil- 
liamson, that there is some very close relationship between 
them. I find the Orbulina, or single-sphered form, of very 
different sizes, the largest being as much as six times the 
diameter of the smallest, with every possible intermediate 
gradation ; and, considering that the shell is needed for 
protection and support, but can only be made of the exact 
size of the body on which it is moulded, while that body 
will continue to grow, I cannot avoid the conclusion that, 
in this case, as often as a larger shell is required the 
animal must withdraw itself entirely from the old one and 
cast it off. The coating of sarcode, therefore, which is 
usually found on the outside of the shell, is more than a 
mere result of the coalescence of the bases of the pseudo- 
podia, for it consists of the whole additional growth of the 
animal since the shell was formed, and will continually in- 
crease in quantity, until at last a new one is required. I 
have one specimen where a large and perfect globe has 
the segment of another globe of similar size attached 
to one side of it, and I can account for this appearance 
in no other way than by supposing that instead of the 
animal having cast its shell as usual, the external sarcode 
has in this case collected itself into as much of a sphere as 
the circumstances would allow, on the outside of the ori- 
ginal globe, and has there covered itself with a supplemen- 
tary shell. 


But a consequence of this view—that the single-cham- 


THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE FORAMINIFERA. 179 


bered Foraminifera cast their shells at intervals to form 
new ones—is, that they must occasionally be freed for 
certain periods from the restraint of the shell, and be in a 
condition to effect that spontaneous division which is so 
striking a feature in the Rhizopoda. The specimens of 
double shells which I have: observed, including six or eight 
of Orbulina, four of Lagena, two of which are represented 
on Plate IV. figs. 4, 5, and about half a dozen of different 
varieties of Hntosolenia, are all of them of medium size, 
the pair in each case bemg together about equal to one 
large specimen of the same species; and these indicate, I 
believe, that here the process of self-division was arrested 
by the formation of the shell, probably to be again attempted 
with better success after the next change of shell. I have 
seen plenty of proof in Truncatulina lobata that fresh in- 
dividuals may be formed by portions of the sarcode being 
east off from full-grown animals, and afterwards covered 
by a shell; for specimens are not at all uncommon con- 
sisting either of a single chamber or of a group of two or 
three chambers, perfectly agreemg in their general cha- 
racter with the shell of Truncatulina ; but I have seen no 
proof that this happens with the single-chambered forms, 
though I have one curious specimen of a Lagena (Plate 1V. 
fig. 6) with a second very small one attached to its mouth, 
which might at first sight be looked upon as a proof that 
an off-shoot was here being detached, but before it could 
get free had become fixed to the parent by a premature 
formation of its shell. No specimens, however, anything 
like so small as this, have been found loose in the sand, 
which they ought to be if this were at all a usual mode of 
imcrease ; and the interpretation of the specimen is, I be- 
heve, that the animal, instead of withdrawing itself from 
its shell, either to form a new one of a larger size or to 
divide, has taken the unusual course of adding a supple- 
mentary chamber, just as in the instance before given of 
RON: 


180 ON THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE FORAMINIFERA. 


the Orbulina with a segment of another globe added to its 
surface. 

But there are other specimens of Orbulina found occa- 
sionally in the Dogs Bay sand which have a very special 
interest. D’Orbigny divided the shells of the Foramini- 
fera primarily into two groups, according as they were 
formed of one or of many chambers, the former bemg 
called monothalamous and the latter polythalamous shells ; 
but this division, though apparently so natural, has proved 
unsatisfactory, its effect being im many cases to separate 
widely apart forms which are closely related ; but m no 
ease is it more clearly shown to be untenable than in Or- 
bulina and Globigerina, which are proved, I believe, by the 
specimens now to be described, to be simply different states 
of one and the same species. That this is the case was 
announced in 1858 by L. F. Pourtales in ‘ Annals and 
Mag. of Nat. Hist.,’ his specimens illustrating the fact 
having been obtained from dredgings in the Gulf Stream. 
Dr. Carpenter mentions this announcement, but, after 
stating that he had himself looked in vain for appearances 
like those described, gives reasons why, as he believes, the 
observations are not likely to be correct; these reasons, 
however, are not unanswerable, and they lose their weight 
altogether in face of the specimens themselves, which show 
most indisputably the perfect Globigerina inside the sphere 
of the Orbulina (Plate IV. fig. 1). Pourtales explained this 
appearance by supposing that the Globigerina is the young 
of Orbulina, and is developed within it, until at last the 
parent-shell breaks to allow its escape; but there are many 
specimens from Dogs Bay which will not admit of this ex- 
planation, though they suggest a different one, and this 
equally applicable to them all. In the peculiar specimens 
to which I allude (Plate IV. fig. 2), the external appearance 
is that of a sphere made irregular by several rounded pro- 
jections, or portions of smaller spheres; but when they are 


ON AIR FROM OFF THE MID-ATLANTIC. 181 


viewed by transmitted light, they are seen to consist of a 
collection of spheres of graduated sizes, the largest nearly, 
but not quite, enclosing all the others. In the ordinary 
Globigerine, the chambers are formed in succession, as they 
are needed to protect additional growths of the animal, the 
-sarcode collecting from the outer surface of the already 
formed shell into the globular shape peculiar to the species, 
and placing itself in advance of the other chambers; but 
in the examples now under consideration this sarcode re- 
tains its position as a coating over the whole surface of the 
existing shell, and there acquires its shell-covering; the 
only difference, therefore, between these globes with an 
irregular surface and those having the Globigerina com- 
pletely enclosed within the outer sphere, is dependent on 
the greater or less amount of sarcode requiring to be covered _ 
by this last chamber. In both cases alike the next enlarge- 
ment needed will involve the withdrawal of the animal 
from the shell and the formation of an entirely new one, 
which will then appear in the characteristic form of Ordu- 
lina, as a simple hollow sphere. 


XI. On Air from off the Mid-Atlantic, and from some 
London Law Courts. By R. Aneus Smit, Pu.D., 
F.R.S., &c., President. ; 


Read February 20th, 1866. 


As my friend Mr. Alfred Fryer was going to the West 
Indies and America, I made up a box of tubes to hold 
specimens of air, adding also apparatus for its collection. 
He has brought me back some of the tubes filled; the 
rapidity of his movements prevented him from obtaining 
many. As Mr. Fryer is known to be a skilful experimenter, 
we may be sure that the specimens are well preserved. 


182 DR. R.A. SMITH ON AIR FROM OFF THE MID-ATLANTIC, 


The air from off the Atlantic is seen to contain more 
oxygen than any of the others. I did not expect that with 
such a small number any average could be obtained that 
could be usefully compared with other results; but we find 
here that the amount of oxygen is almost identical with 
that found by me in the air on the sea-shore and open 
heaths of Scotland, and the amounts found by others in 
places where the best air was obtained. In other words, 
this air stands in the first class as regards oxygen, and 
we could expect nothing less. 

The amount of carbonic acid could not be taken with 
confidence in the small quantity of air at command. 

Perhaps in making these experiments we ought to be 
more careful in following the movements of nitrogen also. 
We are apt to allow that this gas makes way for the others, 
and undergoes no change itself. Of the three important 
gases of the air, this is the least liable to change. If the 
nitrogen remains constant, or nearly so, and the oxygen 
varies as much as I believe proved, is it only to make 
room for the constant quantity of 200, 300, or 400 of car- 
bonic acid in a million, as always found? By more careful 
observation we should add to our ability to say if the oxygen 
is found in the same condition as oxygen gas usually is, or 
if it is condensed, either by being combined-‘or changed 
allotropically ; we are in fact groping about for some 
powerful oxidizing agent which most persons allow to exist 
in the air in varying amounts more powerful than ordinary 
oxygen, although acting as oxygen. Weare much in the 
condition of Hooke and Mayow when looking for oxygen, 
they found what they called a nitro-aérial principle in the 
air ; in other words, that which is the characteristic of nitre. 
The question whether the powerful agent alluded to is ozone 
or some other thing is a minor one, although of the greatest 
interest. Although the amount is small, we can perceive 
it in breathing with the greatest ease; the effect is pro- 


AND FROM SOME LONDON LAW COURTS. . 183 


duced on the external senses, and then on the spirits, and 
on the state of the whole mind. With some persons 
the exhilaration is greater than suits the health in other 
respects. 

When we look at the analysis of the air from the island 
of Antigua we find some loss of oxygen ; this corresponds 
to the outer circle of Manchester during dry weather, but 
' not quite equal to the same in wet weather. In Antigua 
the morning was showery when the specimens were taken 
—April 11th, 1865, at 9 a.m. 

It is interesting and important to know that we can 
trace these small changes. It is probable that to them in 
part is due the character both of body and mind, not 
merely found in races, but im sections of the same race, 
separated perhaps by a hill or a stream, or raised from the ~ 
ground by a difference sometimes of a few feet only, 
although at times hundreds or thousands. 


Oxygen per cent. in some Specimens of Air. 


18 ft. above water. Fine day. St. John’s, Antigua. 
2.30 P.M. April 11th, 1865, 9 A.M. 
Lat. N. 43° 5', Long. W. 17° 12’. Showery morning. 
21°O0100 2.0°9600 
2.1°0000 20°9100 
2.0°9700 2.1°0000 
Mean 20°9900* Mean 2079500 
Law Court, from the lantern. 
Law Court, Feb. 2nd, 1866. 4-30 P.M., just as the 
Court was closing. 
2.0°6400 2.0°5000 
20°6700 20°4800 
Mean 20°6500 Mean 20°4900 


During a visit to London a scientific friend called my 
attention to a law court which was badly, or rather in no- 


* May be read 209,900 in a million, and so with the others. 


184 DR. R.A. SMITH ON AIR FROM OFF THE MID-ATLANTIC, 


way ventilated; and as I was very ready to please him, as 
well as desirous of increasing my list of analyses, I collected 
specimens. 

The court was extremely warm and unpleasant at the 
_ moment of entering, and even after some minutes it was 
not to be voluntarily borne; I therefore did not attempt to 
penetrate the mass of people, but took specimens of air 
when perhaps eight feet from the door. On coming out, 
the feeling of relief was remarkably pleasant. This feeling, 
as elsewhere explained, is usually accompanied with a re- 
storation of the normal action of the heart, and a calmer 
respiration. | 

The amount of oxygen in places not mountainous is 
given by me as 20°978—an average from many ana- 
lyses. London always stands well m examinations of air, 
and the parks will contain about 20'9800, and sometimes 
more, judging from the carbonic acid of which estimations 
have been made, leaving out the oxygen. We have then 
209,800 of oxygen in a million, but im the law court only 
206,500, or a loss of 3300 mamullion. Examining the 
Tables to which I have already alluded, we find no place 
above ground with such a small amount of oxygen, except 
the gallery of an extremely crowded theatre at half-past 
ten at night, when the whole evening had been spent in 
spoiling the atmosphere, and those places at the backs of 
our houses, which we are not expected to name, much less 
to inhabit. Although by analysis these places were as bad 
as the court, in reality they were less so, as the court tem- 
perature was very high, and the organic matter from per- 
spiration in proportion. The deleterious effects of this we 
are not yet able to judge of, the other we can to some 
extent measure. I say deliberately, that this court where 
I took the air was worse than the middens: alluded to. 

The warmer air rises, and that at the ceiling is generally 
the worst. This, however, depends upon circumstances ; 


AND FROM SOME LONDON LAW COURTS. 185 


if it has time to cool, from the height and space being 
great, the carbonic acid may be arrested before reaching a 
great height. 

If from a space filled with warm air in which many per- 
sons have breathed we fill a flask and weigh it, we shall 
find that, unless the carbonic acid is unusually great, the : 
weight is less than the weight of the same bulk of air taken 
before it was warmed by human beings. If we shut up 
the space and allow it to cool to its first temperature, and 
weigh a similar bulk of air, we find that it is really heavier 
than it was at first. Fortunately the warmth raises the air 
above us, and it seeks an exit away from our lungs; s 
that air rendered in this way impure is made lighter, but 
as soon as it cools, it is heavier than at first and falls down. 
To ventilate well, the air must be removed before it cools, 
and the heating, cooling, and ventilating must work in 
harmony. It is not easy to bring these agents to act so. 

The air raised into the lantern above the court was in- 
ferior to that below, and contained only 20°4800 of oxygen, 
being a loss of 50900 in a million. Nature never seems to 
offer us air with a loss of even 1000 in a million. Com- 
paring healthy places with healthy, the difference is about 
200, and perhaps this indicates a similar difference of vital 
principle in a climate. 

Ineed scarcely say that I found no such loss of oxygen in 
the mills of Manchester, or in any other inhabited place 
above ground during the day. If we seek air similarly 
degraded, we must.descend the shafts of mines, and there 
we find oxygen removed in some places to a much greater 
extent. As an average, however, the currents in a metalli- 
ferous mine gallery contain 20°6500 of oxygen, exactly the 
amount in the court, and the air under the shafts 20°424, 
almost exactly the amount in the lantern. I certainly am 
anxious to see legislation in favour of miners; but this is a 
circumstance rather adverse to my hopes. 


186 ON AIR FROM OFF THE MID-ATLANTIC. 


The organic matter, apart from the carbonic acid, is a 
subject still requiring much labour. On the windows in 
the upper part of the court there were streams of liquid; 
the hot vapour rising up in the court was cooled on the 
large surface of glass, and two or three ounces of the liquid 
were readily obtained. Many years ago I had examined 
this liquid, and found that it nourished microscopic vege- 
tables and animalcules ; when working with mine air, it was 
found that it had a strong smell of perspiration. In this 
case there was no mistaking the odour. The liquid was 
not purely from the air of the court, it had washed the 
windows, and of course taken dust with it and some soot. 
It would have been much better if the condensation had 
been effected in a purer vessel by means of ice, which I 
hope to do. Nevertheless this liquid showed its origin 
with distinctness. 

It contained a considerable amount of organic matter, 
some of it of a fatty kind. When examined with a micro- 
scope, it showed numberless floating bodies; most of them 
looked hike separate cells, some of them with central spots, 
indicating organic structure; but I was not able distinctly 
to identify any as being exactly similar to any either in the 
‘ Micrographic Dictionary’ or Pritchard’s volume. 

I do not suppose that any of these germs came from the 
breath or perspiration of individuals in court, but I mean to 
say that they would find nourishment there, and might 
probably increase. The existence of these germs in that 
place, although not taken from the air, shows them to have 
been carried by the air, and if so, capable of entermg our 
lungs, depositing themselves in all places, and carrying 
out their character, whether that be for good or evil. It 
will be readily seen that merely to refill a room with air is 
not ventilation where much of this matter exists. It can be 
removed only by abundant streams of air acting for a long 
time. If the house is shut up, the matter grows till the 


DR. R. A. SMITH ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 187 


air is so filled as to smell musty, although there may be a 
full measure of oxygen present; but if it is to be purified, 
the wind must blow and oxidize at the same time that it 
carries away mechanically. And if it removes, it must 
remove it toa spot. It is difficult to escape the presence 
of these minute bodies. 

One plant seemed to me to resemble the yeast plant, 
and one to resemble that found during the formation of 
vinegar; but neither I nor Mr. Dancer could on trial 
prove any fermentation. When treated with perman- 
ganate of potash, 150 grains took 06 cub. centim. of a 
solution; some days afterwards 0°7 without acid ; with acid 
the same amount took 1-1 cub. centim. of permanganate, 
and after ten days 1°9. It was undergoing some chemical 
action. The commonest observation would lead any one 
to say with Bacon, “out of question it is man’s sweat 
putrefied.”’ 


XII. On Minimetric Analysis. 
By R. Anevs Smitu, Px.D., F.R.S., &c., President. 


Read April 4th, 1865. 


Tests for Carbonic Acid and of Ventilation. 


AutHovueH the only impurity in air is not carbonic acid, as 
a rule the best chemical test for ventilation of rooms ren- 
dered impure by exhalations from the person is the presence 
and quantity of this gas. It will be seen in a former paper 
that baryta- and lime-water were tried for a long time in 
various ways, and after various stages became accurate in 
the able hands of H. Saussure; simple, and in theory com- 
pletely accurate, in the hands of Mr. Hadfield; and at last, 


188 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


by the greatest refinement, were used as scientific instru- 
ments by Pettenkofer. 

Et is not pleasant to speak of the history of discoveries, 
as we so often find that much that is discovered is so for 
the second time and not for the first; but it is extremely 
improbable that Pettenkofer knew of Hadfield, and it is _ 
very probable that Hadfield, whom I long knew, could not 
have carried out the refined experiments of Pettenkofer. 
Besides, the use made of the instrument by the Munich 
professor is more important than the instrument itself. 

It was one of my duties, in connexion with the Royal 
Mines Commission, to examine into the subject of tests, in 
order to find a simple method of determining the value of 
the airin mines. I saw clearly that my test for oxidizable 
matter was valueless in such places, and Pettenkofer’s could 
not be used comfortably, or at least would not be used. 
More simplicity was required. There must be little to 
carry, little to do, and little to think of. Nothing better 
than baryta or lime suggested itself. The comparison of 
precipitates of lime, as Dr. Boswell Reid recommended, 
failed long ago, because the precipitates changed in physical 
appearance; but his mode of keeping the extent of the pre- 
cipitate in the memory did not exactly fail, and was to be 
considered correct or otherwise, according to the memory, 
and according to the frequency of the experiment. 

Equal quantities of baryta-water were poured into two 
bottles; air was blown into them from the lungs until 
a decided precipitate formed, equal in both cases. The 
amount of precipitate was estimated by testing the amount 
of baryta still in solution. When this was done several 
times by two persons, the results were almost absolutely 
the same. Next day, these same two performed the ex- 
periment, relying on the memory of the precipitate of the 
previous day; and the results were that the oxalic acid 
required was 23°7 cub. centims., 23'2, and 23°2.. The 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 189 


difference in one case is 0°0005 gramme of carbonic acid, 
as every cub. centim. of the oxalic acid solution was equal to 
0°001 gramme of carbonic acid. This was repeated times 
without number, and served as a basis for a new mode of 
using the baryta- and lime-water test. To this method of 
analysis I have given the name Minmetric. We ascertain 
the smallest amount of air required to produce a precipitate 
of a given density. 

The same method can be employed to determine hydro- 
chloric acid, sulphuric and sulphurous acids, sulphuretted 
hydrogen, &c. 


Estimation of Carbonic Acid by Minimetric Analysis. 


1st. For Definite Amounts of Carbonic Acid.—lf we 
shake a bottle containing 644 cub. centims. or 23 ounces 
of common air, we obtain a precipitate such as that de- 
scribed above. Now, if air containing twice as much car- 
bonic acid were to be put into the bottle, the precipitate 
would be twice as great, but we could not ascertain its 
value by the eye. We cannot even make a probable ap- 
proach to it. If, however, we used a bottle just half the 
size of the first, the air being still twice as bad as the first 
specimen, we should have a precipitate exactly the same, 
because in fact the amount of carbonic acid would be exactly 
the same. If the air were four times as bad, we should 
then use a bottle four times smaller, and obtain a precipitate 
also exactly the same as the first; and so on down to the 
smallest dimensions. I go here in the belief that, although 
we cannot approach at all closely when endeavouring to 
obtain the comparative value of two precipitates, we can 
retain in the memory with great exactness the character of 
one precipitate of a given density. 

If, then, we wish the air of a place to be kept at any 
one given state of purity, we should require only to have a 


190 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


bottle corresponding to the amount of carbonic acid, and 
the trial could be made at once. This plan would not 
suffice for estimating the amount in any given air; it would 
estimate only one amount ; but it would show clearly when 
there was more and when less. 

When it was found so easy to remember a certain bulk — 
of precipitate, it became important to know what bulk 
would be the most easily remembered. Must it be a 
minute quantity, such as a chemist would call a trace, or 
must it be a quantity such as we should call milky? Neither 
suffice. The first is too small for certainty ; the second 
has no translucency, or so little that we cannot judge of 
the amount that hes behind. The quantity will be expressed 
most clearly by saying that the liquid is turbid and still 
translucent ; but not so that you could read through it. 
Any one may obtain it exactly by shaking a clear 23-ounce 
bottle with half an ounce of baryta-water in air containing 
0°04 per cent. carbonic acid; and this may easily and fre- 
quently be done to aid the memory. ‘To be more precise, 
it is a precipitate obtained by throwing down baryta with 
0°2515 cub. centim. of carbonic acid, or 0'°00224 gramme 
carbonate of baryta freshly precipitated in half an ounce of 
liquid. In Table I. all the formation actually necessary 
is given. Column 2 is for fine measurements in cubic cen- 
timetres, indicating the amount of air which will contain . 
the carbonic acid necessary for producing the precipitate 
of baryta when the proportion is according to any number 
in the first column. Column 3 is the same number, with 
the addition of 14°16 cub. centims., or half an ounce, which 
is the space occupied by the liquid. ‘This, then, gives the 
size of the bottle to be used. The fourth column also gives 
the size of bottle to be used, the numbers being avoirdupois ~ 
ounces; fractions are not in all cases given, and are not 
required so minutely as they are given in some. 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 191 


Tasxe I.—To be used when the point of observation is the 
precipitate described, page 190. Half an ounce of 
baryta water, containing about 0-08 gramme baryta. 


Air at 0° C., and 760 millims. bar. 


Carbonic acid] Volume of | Size of bottle,| Size of bottle, 

in the air, alr, in in in ounces 

per cent. | cub. centims.|cub. centims. | avoirdupois. 
0°03 838 853 30° 
0°04. 629 644. age 
0705 501 516 18- 
0°06 419 434. 16° 
0°07 359 374 13 
0-08 314 329 12° 
9°09 279 294. Io: 
o710 251 266 ; 
Ol 228 243 8°55 
O12 209 224. 7°33 
O13 193 208 3a 
O14 180 195 6°86 
O15 167 132 6°40 
O16. 157 172 6°05 
O17 148 163 5°74 
18 139 154 542% 
o'19 132 147 5°17 
0°20 125 140 4°92 
O21 119g 134 4°71 
0°22 114, 129 4°54. 
0°23 109 124, 4°36 
0-24 1O4 119 419 
025 100 115 4°04. 
0°26 96 III 3°90 

O57) 93 108 3°80 
0:28 go 105 3°70 
0.29 37 102 3°59 
0°30 84. 99 3°48 
0°40 63 78 2°74, 
0750 50 65 2°28 
0°60 42 57 2°00 
0"70 36 51 1°79 
0°80 31 46 1-61 
0°90 28 43 1°51 
1°00 25 40 1°40 
2°00 12 27 0°95 


Perhaps in some cases it may be found more convenient 
to use those sizes of bottles which do not give any preci- 
pitate or milkiness when half an ounce of baryta-water is 


* This size of bottle gives no precipitate in air with 0-04 per cent. car- 
bonie acid. 


192 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


shaken up with the air in them. The sizes corresponding 
to various percentages of carbonic acid are given in 
Table II. 


Taste II.—To be used when the point of observation is 
“no precipitate.” | Half an ounce of baryta-water, con- 
taining about 0°08 gramme baryta. 


Air at o° C., and 760 millims bar. 


Carbonic acid} Volume of Size of Size of bottle, 
in the air, air, In bottle, in in ounces 

per cent. | cub. centims. | cub. centims. | avoirdupois. 
0°03 185 199 7°06 
Font 139 OE 4 
0°05 III 125 444 
0°06 93 107 3°78 
0107 79 93 3°31 
0°08 70 84. 2°96 
0°09 62 76 2°69 
o°10 56 7° 2°46 
oll 51 65 2°29 
Olan 46 60 214 
Ouy 43 57 OH 
O14 40 54 1°90 
O15 37 51 1°31 
0°20 28 42 1-48 
0°25 22 36 1°29 
0°30 19 33 1°16 
0°40 14 28 I-04 
0°50 II Ds 0°89 

0°60 9 23 0°33 . 
0-70 8 22 o-78 
0°80 7 21 0°75 
0-90 6 20 o'72 
ae) 55) 19°7 Oe 


In order to use this Table, first in its application to ordi- 
nary circumstances in life, we may assume that a bottle 
holding 5°42 ounces will not give any precipitate in the air 
around houses if we live in a tolerably fair atmosphere. 
To try the experiment the bottle must be very wide-mouthed, 
so that we can put into it a rod covered with clean lnen, 
and rub the sides dry and clean; we must then fill it with 
the air of the place, either by blowing im air with a bellows, 
or putting a glass or caoutchouc tube into the bottle, and 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 193 


inhaling the air out of the bottle, so that fresh may enter. 
No way is more exact than this, if care is taken not to 
breathe into the bottle. This care is not at all difficult to 
take; and no amount of apparatus can be more accurate 
than this method, if done intelligently. If the slightest 
_ amount of breath goes into the bottle, the process of rubbing 
clean and drying must be undertaken anew. 

When the bottle is filled with the air of the place to be 
examined, add the half ounce of baryta-water, put on the 
stopper, and shake. If there is no precipitate, the air is 
not worse than 0:04 per cent. When it is desired to ascer- 
tain if it really contains as much as o'o4, then a bottle 
holding 7:06 ounces must be used. 

Having ascertained that the air around contains no more 
than 0°04, it may be decided that a sittimg-room shall not 
be allowed to contain more than 0°06, 0°07, or o°10 per 
cent. If the first, then a bottle holding 3°78 ounces is 
taken; if the air does not contain above 0°06 per cent., 
there will not be any precipitate in the liquid. If it is 
allowed to contain 0-10 per cent. (1 per thousand), and on 
some evenings many houses will contain this, then a bottle 
of 2:46 ounces is enough. : ’ 

If in workshops 0°25 per cent. is allowed, then a bottle 
holding 1°29 ounce is enough. 

This plan does not enable us to make an analysis of air. 
The person to whom the care of the atmosphere would be 
committed would have only one bottle of the proper size, 
and would only require to see that the air never gave any 
precipitate with that size of bottle. The order might be 
given for any required purity, and by this test an unedu- 
cated man could tell when the amount of carbonic acid was 
too great. 

For a private house the rule would be not to have the 
_ air above 0°07 at most; better to have less. 

The baryta-water need not be of any particular strength ; 
SER. III. VOL. III. ) 


194 _ DR, R. ANGUS SMITH 


a weak solution is sufficient. The strength used is given ; 
but the precipitate does not differ when the water is stronger, 
If, however, the water should be extremely weak, several 
times weaker than the above, there is a difference, The 
carbonate of baryta dissolves in the water to a very per- 
ceptible extent. The first precipitate made in baryta-water 
by oxalic acid also, although very white at the surface 
where there is much acid and before mixing, disappears on 
shaking to a perfectly transparent and brilliant liquid. I 
speak, however, of very weak solutions; a solution five 
times weaker than the one given as an example, wanld be 
incorrect on account of its weakness. 

Hitherto baryta has been spoken of; and it may well be 
asked why lime should not be preferred. The same pre- 
cipitate to all appearance may be got with lime-water. 
Tables III. and IV. are constructed for lime-water, on 
exactly the same principles as the former ones. It will be 
seen that lime is so soluble or so transparent that it requires 
three times as much space or air from which to collect its 
equivalent of carbonic acid needful to produce the required 
opacity. This is, of course, an objection. Still, lime is to 
bé had everywhere, and lime-water has not the poisonous 
properties ascribed to baryta-water. 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 195 


Taste III.—To be used when the point of observation is 
the precipitate described, page 194. Half an ounce of 
lime-water, containing 0°0195 gramme lime. 


Air at o° C. and 760 millims. bar. 


Carbonic Volume of -|Size of bottles] Size of bottle, 
acid in the air, to be used, in ounces 
- alr. /cub. centims. | cub. cenfims. | avoirdupois. 


0°03 2566 2581 gi 
0°04 1925 1940 63° 
705 1540 1555 oR 
0°06 1283 1298 46° 
0°07 F100 1115 39° 
0-08 963 978 34° 
0°09 8.56 871 31 
Cob Key 770 785 28° 
O11 700 715 25° 
O12 642 657 23° 
O13 593 608 22° 
O14: 550 565 Zo: 
O'15 513 528 18°59 
016 481 496 17°42 
CPL 453 468 16-48 
o1s 428 443 1560* 
O19 405 420 14°78 
0°20 385 400 14°08 
o-2r 367 382 13°45 
C22ee 350 365 12°85 
0°23 335 350 12°32 
0-24 321 336 11°83 
0°25 308 323 11°37 
0°26 296 311 10°95 
0°27 285 Zoo 10°56 
0°28 275 290 IO-21 
O29) ) 266 | 281 9°89 
0°30 257 272 9°58 
0°40 : 193 q 208 7°32 
0°50 | T69 5°95 
0°60 128 } 143) 5°03) 
0-70 110 125 4°40 
0°80 96 III 3°90 
0°90 85 } 100 3°50 
T-00 77 | 92 3°22 
2°00 38 53 ¥°36 


* This size of bottle gives no precipitate in air with o*o4 per cent. car- 
bonic acid. 


02 


196 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


TasLe [V.—To be used when the point of observation is 
“no precipitate.” Half an ounce of lime-water, con- 
taining 0'0195 gramme lime. 


Air at 0° C., and 760 millims bar. 


Carbonic acid| Volume of Size of Size of bottle, 
in the air, air, In bottle, in in ounces 
per cent. | cub. centims. | cub. centims. | avoirdupois. 
0°03 571 584. 20°63 
0°04. 428 443 ~ 15°60 
0°05 342 356 72°58 
0°06 2.85 299 10°57 
0°07 245 259 93 
0°08 214 228 3°05 
0°09 190 204. 721 
o'lo 171 185 6°54 
Ov1l 156 170 6-00 
O12 143 167 5°53 
O13 132 146 5°15 
O14 123 137 4°82 
O15 114 128 4°53 
0°20 86 100 3°52 
O25 69 33 2°92 
CRBe) 57 7% 251 
0°40 43 57 201 
0°50 34 48 1-71 
0°60 29 43 1°51 
0-70 25 39 1°36 
0°80 22 36 1°25 
0°90 19 33 1-17. 


1°00 17 31 1°10 


It is worth observing that the proportion of lime and 
baryta are nearly as their atomic weights. Perhaps more 
minute observation would make it quite the same. It was 
supposed that lead might give a similar proportion; but the 
texture of the precipitate was entirely different, the par- 
ticles much larger. This prevented it being used in a 
similar way, and obstructed the theory as well as the 
practice so far. | 

One of the main advantages of this process is that it 
requires no weighing and no measuring, and we may 
almost say no thinking; this idea is, perhaps, more fully 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 197 


carried out with the lime than with the baryta-water. 
Lime-water may be prepared of the same constant strength 
so closely that we may neglect the difference; with baryta 
we are apt to make the solution unnecessarily strong, and 
so waste it; but the experiment will still be the same. 
Lime-water is common; but baryta-water could also be 
prepared cheap, if there were a demand for it. 

The use of this method would enable us to distinguish air 
in this manner :—We could say, This is 6-ounce air, that 
is 4-ounce air, that is 2-ounce air (meaning that 6, 4, or 2 
ounces of it cause a precipitate in baryta-water) ; and any 
person would understand it, and prove it easily ; whilst 
vials, so often seen in cottages, might be converted into 
scientific instruments for sanitary purposes. 

2nd. For all amounts of Carbonic Acid, the bulk of air 
varying.—lf it be desired to ascertain the amount of car- 
bonic acid in air of which we know nothing, the following 
less simple apparatus is proposed :— 

An elastic india-rubber ball may be made to contain any 
given amount; let us suppose two ounces. When we press 
it in the hand we can drive out the whole air, or at least 
nearly the whole; we let it go, and it fillsagain. Ifa tube 
be fitted to it we can drive the air which has gone into 
the ball through baryta- or lime-water, and obtain the 
precipitate before spoken of at the beginning. It is 
preferable, however, to cause the air to pass through the 
baryta- or lime-water before entering the ball; and this 
ean easily be done. If the air be pure, it will require 
so many more balls to be emptied; if impure, a smaller 
number. 

If a ball with a simple tube is used for blowing into a 
liquid, that liquid is drawn up as soon as the ball expands, 
and many fillmgs cannot be made without inconvenience. 
If, however, a valve be placed between the liquid and the 
ball, there can be no return. This is the case in the tube 


198 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


A in the annexed figure: connected with the ball, there is 
a valve such as is used in air-pumps, preventing all entrance 
of air, but allowing it to pass out. Then, again, on tube 
B there is a valve of the same kind, preventing all egress 
of air, but allowing it to enter. The little instrument is 
therefore in reality an air-pump and a condenser. The air 
passes in at B, and goes out at A. | 


It is well to use always the same amount of solution, 
which may be, as in the previous method, half an ounce. 
If this liquid is put into an open vessel there is an escape 
of the carbonic acid, which ought to be retained, and also 
a collection of some from the atmosphere, which ought not 
to be absorbed. It is better, therefore, to use a bottle as. 
at C, with a small entrance-tube. 

The bottle should have the same capacity as the ball + 
the space required for the liquid. Previously to commencing 
the experiment, it must be filled with the air of the place: 
this is done by one or two pressures of the ball. The liquid. 
and cork are then put in their places, and the whole shaken 
up. That counts for one ballful of air. The ball is then 


ON MINIMETRIG ANALYSIS. 199 
emptied by pressure, and allowed to fill itself again througli 
the bottle. The fresh air gives up most of its carbonic acid 
in passing through the liquid; but as a little remains un- 
absorbed, the bottle is well shaken, so that the liquid may 
absorb all the carbonic acid. The operation is repeated 
until the desired precipitate is obtained. The number of 
ballfuls bemg counted, on referring to a Table such as 
the following, the percentage of carbonic acid is at once 
obtained :— 


With baryta-water. Aur at o° C., and 760 millims. bar. 


Number of 


ae Actual amount 
oe of the ae ae of caneonig aS 
pee | dicated miele aye 
or number o Fava: e ball, in 
ballfuls of air. cub. centims. 
I 0444 O°2515 
~ 2: 0°222 01257 
3 0-148 0°0838 
4 O'LIE 070629 
5 07088 070503 
6 0°074 o-0419 
7 07063 070359 ® 
8 07055: 070314 : 
9 OES oN 7/3) 
Io 0-044, 0°0251 
II 0-040 070229 
12 0°037 070209 
13 07034. 00193 
14 0°032 o0-0180 
15 0°0167 


6°029 


This Table is constructed for a ball of 2 ounces-capacity ; 
but of course any size of ball may be used, and a table 
constructed to suit it. For very bad air (above 0°07 per 
cent.) it is found advisable to use a ball of half the size. 

We might call the apparatus a finger-pump, if no better 
name is suggested. 

In using this ball it is well to observe the method by 
which the points of the fingers press into the’centre. If 
this is followed, the whole of the air may practically be 
driven out. The ball is thus divided into two parts’: one 


200 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


part is pressed between the palm of the hand and the 


finger ; the other is pressed between the surface of the © 


nails and the first joint of the thumb. 

This apparatus requires a little experience to produce 
confidence. Assistants have tried it along with Petten- 
kofer’s method and obtained remarkably accurate analyses, 
with fewer errors. I have not yet used it in scientific in- 
vestigations, and scarcely even practically, although with 
observing persons it is worthy, I believe, of all confidence, 
and especially if used daily, as in certain proposed imspec- 
tions would be the case. 

For practical purposes the state of the barometer may 
be neglected. 

3rd. The bulk of Air fixed, the Lime-Water varying.— 
_ There are many ways of ascertaining the amount of car- 
bonic acid in the air with great precision. An experimenter 
may make any one of them perfect, if he will only continue 
to use it until familiarity ensues. Lime-water may be used 
according to Table V. 


Taste V.—Neutralization with liime-water*. Capacity of 
bottle, 50 ounces. 


Air at 0° C., and 760 millims. bar. 


Carbonic acid} Quantity of ||Carbonic acid| Quantity of 
in the air, lime-water in the air, lime-water 
per cent. required. per cent. | required. 

prs. ers. 
0°03 120 O15 599 
0°04, 160 0°20 798 
0°05 200 O25 998 © 
0°06 239 0°30 1197 
0°07 279 0°40 1596 
0°08 319 0°50 1995 
0°09 359 0°60 2394 
o°10 399 0°79 2.793 
Ol 439 0°80 3192 
O12 479 0°90 3591 
O13 519 1-00 399° 
O°14. 559 


* The lime-water used is the ordinary lime-water diluted with 9 yolumes 
of pure distilled and fresh boiled water, 


jon hailing a als 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 201 


Here it is proposed that a bottle of 50 ounces capacity 
should have attached to it a flexible ball filled with a known 
quantity of lime-water. A little is squeezed into the bottle, © 
and shaken about until it becomes neutral; again a little 
more; and when there is no more carbonic acid to render 
more lime neutral, the operation ceases. But how are we 
to know when the liquid is neutral? Of the many sub- 
stances tried for this, perhaps turmeric was the best—a 
little bit of turmeric paper floating on the liquid itself. 
One of my assistants, Mr. Clement Higgins, tried the tur- 
meric in this way, and became very familiar with its use. 
The operation, however, was slow, and not satisfactory to me, 
although it can be made excellent with patienceand attention. 

The plan is not correct for large quantities of carbonic 
acid, because the liquid takes up so much of the vessel. 
‘This could be avoided by emptying it into another elastic — 
ball; but I have not cared to employ it so. 

The solution used by this method was lime-water ten 
times diluted. The manufacture of lime-water is a very 
good method of obtaining a pretty exact strength of a liquid 
without weighing. The lime-water which has plenty of 
lime at the bottom, remains much the same. There is a 
little change occasionally ; it would be well to determine 
the exact cause, and we might perhaps be able to start from 
the point of saturation, even for the most exact researches. 
The following results were obtained :—Four bottles of lime- 
water took of oxalic acid— 


Cub. centims. solution. 


1st. | 2nd. | 3rd. | 4th. 


A\jayall Gada, 14° (O) Ss seecosccondocvnee 19°5 | 19°6 | 1975 | 19°6 
After two days, 6° C ............ HOME GPS) GRE |) OR 
% Fy SoA CME suxatas 20°0 | 19°8 | 2071 | 19°9 
5 " TCO Mons see cater 19°9 | 20°05] 20°r | 207% 
3 4“ bee OF Fe perpennneoe 19'9 | 19°9 | 19°9 | 19°9 


1939 19°9 | -19°9 


202 DR. R. ANGUS SMITH 


This shows that, for the precipitate on the plan of Tables 
I. and III., lime-water is more than necessarily constant, 
and even enough for Table V., and may be used in some 
cases to save the purchase of a balance. 

Some years ago I proposed rosolic acid as an agent for 


ascertaining neutrality. It shows the neutral pomt with | 


extreme sharpness when oxalic or any liquid acid is used ; 
and we can tell to a small drop when to cease pouring. 
If all caustic solutions were coloured with it, it would help 
to point them out, as well as serve instead of litmus or 
turmeric. I did not obtain such successful experiments as 
I could have wished when trying it with carbonic acid 
lately. The last traces of colour are difficult to remove ; 
I hope to bring it on further some day. It is curious that 
lime- or baryta-water take up carbonic acid much less 


readily when rosolic acid is present. The latter portion of 


the experiment. is affected chiefly when the solutions be- 
come weak. It isasif the resinous consistence of the acid 
repelled the gas. When a liquid is used, such as oxalic acid 
in solution, the rapidity of action is very great, the same 
resinous quality causing the rosolic acid to shrink into its 
shapeless and colourless state with great suddenness. 

It may, however, be remarked that weak solutions of 
baryta and lime take up carbonic acid very slowly of them- 
selves, although rosolic acid renders the absorption still 
slower. 


Manganates and Ferrates as Tests for Carbonic Acid. 


In a former paper I mentioned that the carbonic acid of 
the air was capable of being estimated by observing its 
action on manganates. The green manganate was prepared 
in the usual way, or by adding caustic alkali to the. so-called 
permanganates, which, however, from this action appear 
rather as bi-manganates. The amount of acid required to 
convert the green to red may be found readily by a solu- 


——— 


ON MINIMETRIC ANALYSIS. 203 


tion of test acid, and the equivalent for carbonic acid cal- 
culated. The plan already described, with a ball from 
which the manganate is pressed, suits the test very well 
when the ball contains nothing which affects the salt. If 
the ball is objected to, we may adopt another method. 
This plan consists simply of a graduated tube like a pipette 
fitted into the cork of the bottle; a small quantity is 
allowed to flow down when required ; and when the liquid 
begins to become purple, there being no more carbonic 
acid to render it red, the experiment is finished : the amount 
used is read on the graduated tube. 

At Mr. Hutchinson’s alkali works I obtained from Mr. 
Powell a salt of ferric acid accidentally formed. It was 
_ analyzed by Dr.Roscoe. ‘This salt was expected to be still 
more sensitive to organic matter than chameleon. It was 
sensitive, certainly ; but it decomposed rather rapidly in the , 
light. It, however, can be used both for carbonic acid and 
oxidizable matter, in the same manner as the manganate. 
The action on light, however, is not quite sufficient to 
make the salt a good photometer. The objection to it for 
carbonic acid is that it does not keep well. 

The aspirator may be used for drawing the air through 
any of these solutions, and either the ball apparatus or two 
small bottles. Even one bottle may be used with great 
safety, if it is covered from the air, and the speed not very 
great; and by using Mr. Dancer’s apparatus the exact 
measurement of the air may be obtained. This proposal 
appears hke a return to Dr. Reid’s carbonometer, made 
somewhat more convenient and elegant, and exactly quan- 

titative. 
_ There may be varieties of tastes; but I expect the first 
and second methods to be very much used; they are very 
simple. It is quite possible to add many other methods 
and modifications, but I know of none so simple as these. 


204 MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


XIII. Catalogue of Binary Stars, with Introductory Re- 
marks. By AuFReD Brotuers, F.R.A.S. 


Read October 14th, 1866. 


From the time of the publication of the first catalogue of 
double stars by Sir William Herschel in 1782, the search 
for such objects has been one of unabated interest to. both 
professional and amateur astronomers; and the result has 
been the compilation of many other valuable catalogues. 
The number of double and triple stars discovered by Sir 
William Herschel and other observers down to the present 
time amounts to many thousands ; but of these, compara- 
tively few have been proved to be binary systems, as distin- 
guished from stars optically double. That such physical 
connexion might exist was suggested by Michell in 1767; 
but the honour of establishing the fact was reserved for 
Sir William Herschel, who appears not only to have ascer- 
tained the truth of the supposition beyond doubt, but also 
to have invented the instrument by which some of his 
measures were taken*. These early measures of Herschel, 
and those of Struve, Sir J. Herschel, Argelander, Smyth, 
Dawes, Secchi and others, form the foundation on which 
all the subsequent observations are based. They are con- 
tained, however, in works not generally accessible to the 
observer ; and I have no doubt that there are many ama- 
teurs who, like myself, have felt the imconvenience of 
having to refer to several sources for information relative 
to the positions and distances of the binary stars, and who 
would be glad to possess a more complete list than is 
usually found in elementary works on astronomy. I have 
therefore been induced to extend the plan of a catalogue 


* Phil. Trans. vol. xxi. p. §00. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS, 205 


which I had facially. prepared for my own use nly: and 
have included the results of the most recent observations 
of several eminent astronomers, which they have been kind 
enough to send me for the purpose. 

- This catalogue is intended to show at one view the 
measures of the late Admiral Smyth, taken at the Bedford 
Observatory during the years 1830 to 1842, and from 1843 
to 1858 at the observatory of the late Dr. Lee, at Hart- 
well; also, on the authority of Smyth, some of the mea- 
sures of the same objects by observers previous to 1830, 
including Sir William Herschel’s epochs from 1778 to 
1802, Struve’s from 1819 to 1836, and some others. In 
the columns, following the name of Admiral Smyth, will be 
found the names of the Rev. W. R. Dawes, the Rev. R. 
Main, Mr. Knott, the Baron Dembowski, Madler, the Rev. 
Father Secchi, Mr. Morton, and Mr. Talmage, with their 
measures of position and distance. The names of the ob- 
servers are arranged as nearly as possible in the order of 
the dates of observation ; so that a glance from the first 
name to the last on the list, under each particular star, 
shows at once the changes which have taken place during 
a period of about 90 years, and in some instances of more 
than a century. 

Tn the cases of stars which are known to have passed 
their perihelion, the dates are given: these dates are de- 
rived from various sources ; and it must be remarked that 
some computors give epochs which do not agree with those 
inserted. The orbital periods are stated on the authority 
of Admiral Smyth, and must in almost every instance be 
taken as approximations only. 

The objects are arranged in the order of right ascension, 
and the places of all those which have been observed by 
Smyth are reduced to the epoch 18650 by using his pre- 
cessions. There are, however, many objects in the cata- 
logue which were not observed by Smyth. In all these ex- 


206 . MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


ceptional cases the date (1860) is inserted, and the autho= 
rity quoted is Secchi. The magnitudes of all the stars 
taken from the ‘ Cycle’ are those given by Smyth, and 
in many instances do not agree with the observations of 
Dembowski and Secchi. In all other cases Secchi’s magni- 
tudes have been adopted. 

The colours are stated on the authority of Smyth, Webb, 
Main, and Secchi. It may be observed that the aperture 
of the telescope used probably influences the observer's 
estimate of colours, as I find from information received 
from Mr. Webb that, while using a refractor of 3°7 inches 
aperture, his colours are often quite different from those 
recorded as seen with one of 5°5 inches aperture, which 
was used for all his observations after 1863. 

The measures of Dembowski will be found in the 
‘ Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 1473 to 1475, and 
Nos. 1572 to 1574; and I have given the means of his 
measures for the years. Those of Mr. Dawes are de- 
rived from a list furnished by him; and the same re- 
mark applies to those of Mr. Knott. The ‘ Radcliffe Ob- 
servations’ for 1861-1863 have furnished the particulars of 
Mr. Main’s observations ; and to Professor Seechi I am 
indebted for his list of 1321 double stars measured at 
the Observatory of the Roman College, and also for a 
_ separate list by which the measures of some of the objects 
are brought down almost to the present date. 

The measures of Mr. Morton are derived from Lord 
Wrottesley’s “ Catalogue of the Positions and Distances of 
398 Double Stars,” contained in vol. xxix. of the ‘ Memoirs 
of the Royal Astronomical Society of London.’ Mr. Rom- 
berg’s measures are taken from the ‘ Leyton Astronomical 
Observations’ for 1862-64; those of Professor Kaiser 
will be found im No. 9 of vol. xxvi. of the ‘ Monthly 
Notices ;? and the measures by Mr. Talmage were made at 
Mr. Barclay’s Observatory at Leyton, and supplied for the 
purpose of this catalogue. . 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 207 


_ As some confusion has arisen in designating the star 
Flamsteed’s 51 Libre,” I have, at the suggestion of the 
Rev. W, R. Dawes, inserted it as “ Scorpii” (=F. 51 
Libre), as it undoubtedly belongs to Scorpio, which con- 
stellation otherwise has no star marked £, while Libra has 
three stars indicated by that letter. The remarks of Mr. 
Dawes respecting this star are interesting, and I venture 
to quote his own words; Mr. Dawes says :—“ The interest 


which attaches to £ Scorpii a os and C is so exceedingly 


small compared with that which belongs to A and B asa 
binary system, that I.can only account for the close and 
rapidly revolving pair being omitted by any of the observers 
to whose lists you refer by the very probable fact that 
their telescopes were not competent to show it as a double 
star. Its low situation, in these latitudes, increases the dif- 
ficulty of observing it successfully with telescopes which 
could divide it well.” Respecting Dembowski’s observa- 
tions on this triple star, Mr. Dawes also remarks :—“ Of 
igs and Che gives, 1863:14, P=70°-46, D=7°154, and, 
for 1865, P=71°02, D=7°112. Whatever weight may at- 
tach to these results, they rather go to negative the sup- 
position of C’s having any orbital movement in respect of | 
A and B. Indeed, notwithstandig the regular decrease 
of Struve’s angles, I have thought the motion. so doubtful 
as to require observations at long intervals only ; and I find 
Ihave not measured the star (C) since 1840°56, P=69°'45, 
D=7°43. Herschel Il. obtamed P=70°-93, D=7:07 in 
1831-38, and at the Cape P=77°-2 in 1834°35. These, 
compared with Dembowski’s more recent results, throw 
some doubt on former deductions. But no list of binary 
stars should be without A : B, the variation of angle having 
amounted to nearly 160° in 40 years, and about 150° since 
I began to. observe it.” 


208 MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S ~ 


Respecting the star 61 Cygni, Powell states (Mem. R. Ast. 
Soc. vol. xxxu. p. 95), “ Surely the movements of the com- 
ponents cannot be of an orbital nature ;” and Mr. Dawes 
also says, in a letter of 8th September 1866, “‘ The motion 
observed in 61 Cygni is not orbital, but rectilinear, arising 
from difference of proper motion.” On such authority 
perhaps the star ought to have been omitted; but itis one 
of Smyth’s binaries, and for that reason, as well as for the 
special interest attaching to it, it is retaied. 

The star € Herculis was observed to be single from about 
1863 to 1865 ; but the following remarks, contained in the 
letter from Mr. Dawes above quoted, may be of some in- 
terest :—“ From the extreme difficulty, or perhaps impos- 
sibility, of seemg € Herculis in the least elongated in 1863, 
I imagined it could not be otherwise than ‘single’ to 
telescopes of ordinary dimensions in 1865. I find, how- 
ever, that the small star has made more haste to emerge 
from its concealment than I supposed to be probable ;... 
but near the end of October I received a letter from Alvan 
Clark, informing me that with one of his exquisite object- 
glasses of 7 inches aperture he had seen € Herculis double. 
He gave me no particulars of angle or distance, and I con- 
fess I thought it likely there might be some mistake. On 
August 31st I turned an 8-inch refractor on to £ Herculis, 
and instantly saw the small star perfectly detached from 
the large one.” 

#' Herculis—Of this star I have not found any other 
measures than those by Mr. Dawes in 1858 and 1864, and 
by Mr. Knott in 1865; but as the change of the angle of 
position amounts in 17 years to about 20 degrees, the 
binary character of the object may, perhaps, be considered 
established. The measures by Alvan Clark, as published in 
1856, are not complete. $ 

a Cephiii—The first measures of this object appear to 
have been made by Admiral Smyth in 1843; and it is 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 209 


evident from Mr. Knott’s measures in 1865 that the star 
has changed its angle of position 34 degrees, and in dis- 
tance *65” in 22 years, and, consequently, must be added 
to the list of binaries. 

P. III. 98, 145 Leonis, 7 Orionis, and some others are 
inserted on the authority of only two observers; but they 
appear to be binary systems, and deserve attention. 

Since the date of the ‘Cycle’ the number of binary stars 
has been greatly increased; and several observers have 
favoured me with the names of stars which have changed 
their angles of position sufficiently to entitle them to a 
place amongst that class of objects; and they are accord- 
ingly inserted. 

To the gentlemen referred to I take this opportunity of 
returning my best thanks. 

With few exceptions, I have not included in this cata- 
logue any object which has shown a change of position of 
less than 10 degrees in 30 years. There are many stars 
which may eventually prove to be binary ; but their motions 
are extremely slow, and require examination at long inter- 
vals. Of the few stars forming the exception to the 
rule adopted, | may name Sirius, Antares, and a few others 
as interesting objects, and deserving close attention on the 
part of those observers who have telescopes of sufficient 
aperture to measure the angles of position and distances of 
such difficult objects. . 

'D. 5 and A. C. 5 refer respectively to the lists of double 
stars discovered by Mr. Dawes and Alvan Clark. 

I do not attach any importance to my own measures ; 
and the following are given merely to show tkat the work 
done with a telescope of 5 inches aperture may be useful 
in this department of astronomy, and that the possessors of 
such, and even smaller telescopes, may do good work by 
taking advantage of favourable states of the atmosphere. 

SER. III. VOL. IST. P 


210 -MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


The objects selected are those only which are conveniently 
situated at this season of the year :— 


Star. Epoch. _ Position. Distance. 
fo} i 
36 Andromede ............ 1866°760 34.9'03 1'29 
PY i123) Piscium gee epeeecreesers 1866°760 24°40 Wedged. 
G@ AMIS joo00adegdeG0n0090000 1866°769 197°40 Separated. 
€ Boots Gin sasacassensces tee 1366°725 325°70 2°59 
Bas lds OS Bara aaaostenet tenites 1866°769 238°60 
OpElevcullisheseereeeceer rears 1866°766 180'60 19°34 
61> Cyne mesreonsacemecetce 1866°701 III‘o1 18°37 
(age NojUien a uaaadoaNemachaconane 1866°766 337°40 3°58 


The first three stars on the above list may be considered 
good tests for the telescope; but m addition I may say 
that on several occasions I have seen the companion to 6 
Cygni; and, still further to test the matter, I requested a 
friend, who also could see the star, to place the position- 
line upon it, and a comparison of the angles showed that 
we had both seen the same object. 

With the following information before him, the ama- 
teur who has not access to more recent epochs than those 
contained in Smyth’s ‘ Cycle,’ may probably feel greater in- 
terest in his work, and more certain of his own measures ; 
for the pleasure of observing and recording observations is 
greatly enhanced when we feel that our results approach 
the accuracy of the more practised “ astrometer.” 

Of the 155 objects which this catalogue contains, 69 
appear to have direct, and 86 retrograde motion. 

It should perhaps be stated that some of the measures 
for 1866 depend on a small number of observations, and 
may be subject to correction. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


Crruet 316. = 2. 
R. A. (1860), 07 1™ 308. 
Dec. N. 78° 56’. 
Magnitudes, a =53, d =6. 
Colours : Secchi, 1857, yel., green. 


Posi- | Dis- 
SEBO, tion. |tance. 

fo} dae 
Struve ...... 1830°85] 341750] O81 
Madler ...... 13338°63| 338714) 0°69 
Dawes......... 1839°67| 336715] 0°70 


SCCM sscocooee 1857°52| 324°97| 0°38 
Talmage ...... 1865°76| 295756] ... 


Crruei 318. 
R. A. (1860) ob 8™ 788, 
Dee. N. 76° 10!. 
Mags. a =6, 6 =6}. 
Colours: Secchi, 1857, both white. 


SUTIN) “Geapae 1831°50| 124°02[ 0°53 
Madler ...... 1840°82| 11801] 0°52 
Secehiessc. sc. 1857°52| 10228] 0°69 
Dembowski ..| 1863:00] 103756] 0°50 


n CASSIOPES. = 60. 
R. A. ob 40™ 528. Dec. N. 57° 62”. 
Mags. a =4, 6 =73. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, p. whi., purp.; 
Webb, 1850, yel., p. garnet; Main, 

1861, white, lilac. 


Struve......... 1819°80| 80°12|10°80 
Smyth......... 1830°91| 87°80] 9°80 

gn oa6000000 1854°17| 108°30] 7°70 
Dawes......... 1854°00] 10960] 7°91 
Necchi@en-cace: 1857°14| 112°84) 7°85 
Dembowski ..) 1865°18| 125°66} 6°72 
Knott......... 1865°69| 125°59| 6°75 


Orbital period about 700 yrs.(Smyth). 


36 ANDROMED2. = 73. 
R. A. 08 47™ 368. Dec. N. 22° 53’ 53". 
Mags. a =6, 6 =7. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, br. oran., yel.; 
Webb, 1850, Main, 1861, both yel. 


Herschel...... 1330°78| 307°04| o°g0 
Struve......... 1832°44| 307°80] 0°84 
Smyth......... 1835°92| 315°70| 1°10 

fi.) Boowwodes 1852783] 335°80] 1°30 
Dawes......... 1859°83| 340°28] 1°19 
IWMI pseseeoee 1861°80)| 329°00) I°10 
Dembowski ..| 1865°25] 345°44| 1:21 
Knott ......... | 1865°69| 344°85] 1°35 
Talmage...... 1865°77| 346°48| 1:06 
SACOM oeactoo: 1866°05| 34.9°51| 1°31 


211 


P. 0. 251 Pisctum. 


ReAToremogs Dec: N: o° 13/3”. 


Mags. a =8, 6 = 

Colours: Smyth, 1838, p: orange, bl. 
Posi- | Dis- 
Ee tion. |tance. 

° M 
South ......... 1825°17| 296°27/18°37 
Smyth ...... 1832°98| 299°80|18"40 
By). woatieoedes 1838°03| 301°80|18°50 
oft > Caabonacba 1852°81| 305°10|18°80 
42, Curt. = 113. 


R. A. 12 12™ 548. Dec. 8. 1° 14’ 4”. 
Mags. a =6, 6 =8. 
Colours: Smyth, 1834, br. wh., white; 
Dembowski, 1863, both white. 


Smyth......... 1834°84| 332°80| 1°20 
Struve......... 1836'91| 334°30| 1°77 
Smyth......... 1857°97| 34460] 1°30 
Dawes......... 1854°51| 338°47| 1°16 
SECOM soaceese 1856748] 339°75| 1°16 
Main ......... 1861°90| 357°43] o790 
Dembowski .. 


1863°03) 343°03| 1°27 


P. I. 123 Piscrum. = 188. 
R. A. r5 28™ 508. Dec. N. 6° 57’ 157. 
Mags. a = 64, d =8. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, yel., p. white ; 
Webb, 1855, yellow; Main, 1862, 

deep yellow. 


SuGuiyeeeneeee 1830°23] 20°00] 1°46 
Smyth......... 1832°86| 19°80} 1°50 

Spine oocHONGa 1853°91| 26°30] 1°50 
Dawes......... 1853°81| 29°38| 1°26 
Necchisessedee- 1857°89| 29°10] 1°45 
ITEM, “ooecosoes 1862°02] 30°28] 1°24 
Dembowski ..| 1863°17| 28°69| 1°57 
P. 1. 209 Piscrum. = 186. 


R. A. (1860), in AT™ 08, 

Dec. N. 0° 5 or 

Mags. a =73, b=7 4 
Colours: Secchi, 13 57 both white. 
183112] 64°72 
1857°92| 267°52 
1863°85| 85°15 


There is evidently an error of 180° 
in one of these measures. Smyth in 
1833 has P =62°9, D =1°s. 


1°23 
0°42 


Dawes......... 0°30 


212 


a PIsciuM. = 202. 
R.A, 5538) Dee. iN..2° 6g! 
Mags. a =5, 6 =6. 
Colours: Smyth, 1846, p. gr., blue. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


fe} 4 

Herschel ...| 1779°80] 337:23] 5:12 
Smyth ......] 1834°92] 334°70] 3°60 

i hie 1846-92] 331°40| 3°50 

is) |. batanertos 1852-03] 329750] 3°50 
Dawes......... 1853°99| 328-10] 3°42 
SCCM csccon0 1856°16| 327°87| 3°35 
VEEO9 conosco 1858-05] 326°82] 3:19 
Morton ...... 1853-70] 326°46| 3°51 
IWEEHI Sncaoanoe 1861-90} 329°36| 3°15 
Dembowski ..| 1863-95] 326:28] 3:13 
Knott......... 1865°47| 325°76| 3°23 
‘Talmage...... 1865:76| 324:90| 3°48 
y ANDROMEDS. = 205. 


R. A. 18 55™ Sis Pee. INA CAGUCIS 


Mags. a =34, 6b =53 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, ite em. gr. 
Struve ...... 1830°02| 62°44 |10°33 
ID EW ESsoo00ad0c 1832°94| 64°05 |10°63 
Simnyibhyeeceeeee 1843°33| 61°60 |11-00 
Secchinernee Ee 1858°58| 62°79 |10°30 
IMIENTN Gangonoec 1861°85| 62°24] 9°53 
Dembowsli ..| 1862°96| 62°97 |10°42 
Romberg ...| 1863°13]} 62°65 |10°32 
Dawes......... 1863°86| 64:20 |10°47 
Morton ...... 1859°76| 63°11 |10°34 
Talmage...... 1865°81) 62°70] 9°47 
IGAOWE Jrosacaae 1865°67| 63:43 |10°36 


138 Ch O =5 6 =6°3. 


Colours: Smyth, p. yel., Caalebiae 


Struve......... 1842°72|/126°36 


Smyth......... 1852.99|115°00| 0.50 
Madler ...... 1855°02|/119°42| ... 

Secchi.........] 1858°99/108°52 | o-45 
Dawes) s--.-: 1863°86|/107°70 | 0°59 
Romberg. ...| 1863°99)107°58 | 0°60 
Dembowski ..| 1865°64)105-40 | 0-50 
Knott......... 1865°67|107°07 | 0°59 
Talmage...... 1865°76|/106°35 | 0°58 


_ 259 ANDROMED. > 228. 


R. A. pth) GAP Te (GS) 
Dec. N. 46° 50’. 
Mags. @ =7, 6 =7. 


Colours: Secchi, 1857, both yellow. 


1°08 


Struve ial 1831 ree 14 
103 


Madler ...... 1836°61/267°18 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


259 ANDROMEDH (continued). 
Epoch.| P. D 


Seccbitecnase: [ear 62|286-86 0°99 
Dembowski ..! 1862°96|286-50| 0-90 


= 257 PERsEt. 
R. A. (1860), ah Lge 68) 


Dec. N. 60° 55’. 

Mags. a =7, 6 = 
Colcurs: Secchi, 1857, oo white. 
Struve......... 1830°53| 164°93] 0.60 
Madler ...... 1837°38| 170-90] 0.56 
Secchieeeeterr 185748] 183-34 oe 
Dembowski ..| 1863°13] 183.50 


u CASSIOPE. = 262. 

R. A. (1860), 25 17™ 358. 

Dec. N. 66° 46’. 

A:B. 

Mags. a =44,b = 
Colours: Secchi, 1857, both yellow. 
Struve......... 1829°66|276°68 | 1°86 
Meadileraiea-ee 1831°64|275°33| 1°88 
Dawes..... ... 1848°09/265°50| 2°24 
Morton ...... 1856°03|265°40|] 2°01 
SECO cocacooe 1857°49/266°88 | 1°83 
Dembowski ..| 1862°99|265°87| 1-92 
Romberg 


...| 1863°95|268°77| 1°72 


> 278 CassioPEa. 
R. A. (1860); 22 25™ 365. 
Dec. N. 68° 41’. 
Mags. a =8, 6 =84. 
Colours: Secchi, 1857, both white. 


Struve......... 
Secchi......... 


82°05 
67°67 


1830°77 
1857°93 


0°43 
0°40 


114 Arretis. > 305. 


R. A. 1860, 25 39™ 368. 
Dec. N. 18° 46’. 
Mags. a =7, 6 =8. 
Colours: Secchi, 1858, both white. 


Struve......... 1830°95|330°87 | 1°58 
Dawes .| 1853°89/322°48 | 2°33 
SeCehiberereere 1857°89|322°23 | 2°56 
Dembowski ..| 1863-09/321°78 | 2°52 


= 


/ CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


¢ ARIETIS. > 333. 


eA 2" 51" 298. 
Dec. N. 20° 47' 57". 
Mags. a =5, 6 =63. 
Colours: sect 1863, p. yel. whitish ; 
Dembowski, 1863, white. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
io} i 

Struve......... 1830°16)188°87 | 0°54 
Smyth ...... 1835°77|193°50| 0°50 

3 ae de RS 1853°08|200°10} 1°00 
Dawes......... 1854°00]/195°55 | 1°01 
Saeelai o-ccpsave 1856°57|196°73 | 0°87 
Dembowski ..| 1862°99)194°72 | 0-80 
Knott ......... 1866°64/199°06| 1°14 
7 Tauri. = 412 


R. A. 1860, 3% 26™ o8. 
Dec. N. 23° 59’. 
A:B 


Mags. a =63, b =61. 


Colours: Secchi, 1856, both white. 
SEPUVE.. 40-5 1830°38|269'92 | 0°69 
Smyth ...... 1833°21|265:00| 0°70 
Madler ...... 1839°76\265°50| 0°55 
Dawes......... 1846°91/259°92| 0°65 
ecchiteeeresr 1856°35|256°78 | o-42 

- Dembowski ..| 1863°08/257-90| ... 
Knott ......... 1864°93|240°80]| 0750 
Talmage...... 1865°71|261:97| ... 


P. IIT. 98 Hripant. 


IB, dale @ a 29° Bos. 
Dee. N. 0° 8’ 49". 
Mags. a =64, 6 = 


- Colours: Smyth, 1845, y rel. o blue. 


1824-02 


1834-93 
184.5°81 


22 Gene 
231°80 
235192 


581 
5n99 
6:00 


= 460. 
46™ 48s. 


49 CEPHEI. 


R. A. Ce git 

Dec. N. 80° 18’. 

Mags. a ne 6 =6t. 
Colours: Secchi, 1857, both white. 


Struve......... 1830°89|352°56| 0°38 
Madler i. 3.- -1836°76/356°75 | 0°87 
Seechi......-.- 1857°90| 10°79| 0°72 
Dembowski ..| 1862°95] 15°61 | 0°70 


213 


> 511 CamEnoPardt. 

R. A. (1860), 42 6™-123. 

Dee. N. 58° 2! 36”. 

Mags. a =6, 6 =7. 
Colours: Secchi, 1858, yel., p. green. 
Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve......... 1829°52 420°00 O54 
Secchiteecresees 1858°01|302°02 | «e. 
Dembowski ..| 1863°61/294°07| «.- 
Tauri 230. = 535. 

R. A. 1860, s Te apt 

Dec. N. 11° 

Mags. a =7, ee = 
Colours: Secchi, 18 Be both white. 
Struve......... 1831°34/353°88 | 1°94 
Dawes......... 18 54°209/342°73 | 2°06 
Secchi....... --| 1856°51134.5°01 | 1°54 
Morton ...... 1860°011345°58| 1°60 
Dembowski ..| 1862°99}342°38 | 1°73 


2 CAMELOPARDI. > 566. 


R. A. en : age G8, 
Dee, IN. §Q° 
Mags. a a a a 


Colours: Secchi, 1858, yellow, blue. 
Struve......... 1829°79|311740| 1°58 
Madler ...... 1834°96|309°22 | 1°55 
Smyth......... 1836°28/308°70| 1°70 
Sec lieeeeeaces 1858°92/300°55| 1°73 
Dembowski ..| 1863°24/299°53 | 1°68 


= O77 Avurics. 
R. A. ee f 32™ 488. 
Dec. N. 37° 
Mags. a =73, as =, 

Colours : Secchi, 1857, both white. 


Struve......... 1829°57|278°88 | 1°58 
Madler -| 1835°81|274°19 | 1°64 
Secchniereeeee 1857°65|267°99| 1°63 
Dembowski ..| 1862°77|265°50| 1°62 


7 ORIONIS. D 5. 


The As GY pees ID eter Sh BO snl AU 
Mage. OSA ) =o 


Colours: white, purplish. 

Herschel ...\1781-99| single? 

Dawes........- 1848-04, 87°00 | 100 
Ro darpopneaceh 1866795 | 86°12] o-95 

Knott......... 1863°12| 88°92| 0794 
ek eapee sone 1866'94| 89.83] 1:02 


214 


= 932 Gemrnorum. 
R. A. 62 26™ 248. 
Mags. a =8, 6 =8}. 
Colours: Secchi (1857), both white. 


Dec. N. 14° 51’. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
fo) M 
SHADOWS ocn00000 1830°53/341°70| 2°42 
Madler ...... 1837°511339°56| 2°53 
Secchi......... 1857°16|334°38| 2°04 
Dawes......... 1859°15/332°07| 2°56 
Dembowski ..| 1863°41|333°27| 2°26 


12 Lyncts. = 948. 


R. A. 6" 34™ 188. 
Dee. N. 59° 34' 26". 
A:B. 


Mags. a =6, d =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1339, white, ruddy. 


Herschel...... 1780°68|181'°23 | x50 
SURUVE seaeeeee 1831°10)153°70| 1°53 
Smyth......... 1832°96|154°30| 1°60 

Mae be ear maa ee 1839°27|149'50| 1°60 
Dawes....... e.| 1848°22/143°35 | 1769 
Smyth......... 1852°96|143°70| 1°50 
Secchiz....-..- 1857°30/142°27| 1°68 
Morton ...... 1858°24)140°15 | 1°55 
IWMI sooo59000 1862°31/136°18| 1°53 
Dembowski ..| 1863°05|/138°57| 1°72 
Kaiser* ...... 1866:28/316°50| 1°64 


* This measure is evidently too 
large by 180°. 


A:C. c=7, bluish. 


Herschel...... 1780°68)302°33 | 9°38 
Struve .| 1831°10/304°20 | 8°67 
Smyth......... 1832°96/305°10| 8.60 
Dawes......... 1833°13/304°06 | 8°38 
Smyth......... 1852°96/306"30 | 9:00 
SECO .ccosacoe 1857°30|305°50| 8°66 
Morton ...... 1858°24/305°90| 8°56 
Main ........ 1862°31/303°58 | 8°97 
Dembowski ..| 1863:06/305°77 | 8.67 


Orbital period about 700 years. 


a Canis Magoris (Sirius). 


R. A. (1860) 6% 39™ 138. 
Dee. 8. 16° 31’ 47". 
Mags. a@ =1, 6 to. 


Colours: a white, 0...? 

Bond ......... 1862°10] 85°15 |10°37 
Dawes........- 1864°22| 34°86 |10°00 
Lassell ...... 186420] 80°15 | 9°67 
Struve, O. ...| 1864°22] 74°80 |10'92 
Kotte eereeee 1866'08] 77°15 |10°43 


Secchi......... 186628] 71°31 |10°10 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


38 GEMINORUM. = 982. 
R. A. 6247™ 18. Dec. N. 13° 20 56". 
Mags. a =5i, 6 =8. 
Colours: Smyth, 1849, light yellow, 
purple; Dawes, yellow, blue. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
fe} dl 

Herschel...... 1781°99|179°54.| 7°95 
Struve......... 1829°24|174°88 | 5°73 
Smyth......... 1836°10|171°80| 6°00 

soobnaoee 1849°19|170°'20| 5°60 
Fletcher ...... 1851°89|168°87 | 6:25 
Morton ...... 1854°14/168°58| 5°99 
Dawes......... 1854°17|167°49 | 5°86 
Secchipesseeeke 1856°11|169°30| 6°13 
Powell ...... 1861°12|165°30| 6°07 
Dembowski ..| 1863°02|166°30| 6°13 
IWIN s.ocascne 1863°14/167°48 | 5°96 
Romberg ...| 1863°11|167°28 | 6°36 


= 10387 Geminorum. 


18y 2s (1860), ie as 
Dec. N. 27° 27! ga" 
Mags. a =7, 6 =73. 


Colours: Secchi, 1856, both white. 
Struve......... 1330°42/332°67| I°11 
Madler ...... 1841°80/331°10| 1°33 
Dawes......... 1848°17|324°67 | 1°32 
Secchi......... 1856°67/323°07| 1°24 

- Dembowski ..| 1863°20/318-10| 1:22 


a GEMINORUM. = 1110. 


R. A. 75 25™ 59 

Dec. N. 32° 

Mags. a =3, ee =3- 
Galea Smyth, ae p. wh.; 


Webb, 1854, white; Main, 1863, 

yellow. 5 
Herschel...... 1778°27|302°47 | 5°16 
Smyth......... 1830°95|258°80 | 4-70 

9 _ soogosaee 1849°17/248°10 | 4°90 
Secchi........- 1855°82)24.5°13 | 5°36 
Main See eet 1863°14|239°00| 5°39 
Dembowski ..| 1863°03/241°66| 5°38 
Knott ......... 1865°04|239°71 | 5°42 
Dawes........- 1865°31/241°45 | 5°68 
Talmage...... 1866°13/237°30| 5°37 


Perihelion passage, 1855 (H). 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS, 


> 1157 Monocerotts. 


R. A. GEE), Page 308. 
Dec. 8. 2 
Mags. a ee b =83 


Gninics: Secchi, 1856, both white. 
Epoch.| P. D. 
2 fe) Uae 
Struve......... 1831°20/267°27| 1°59 
Secchi......... 1856°47|256°44.| 1°30 
Dembowski ..| 1863°11|256°77| 1°29 
85 Lyncts. = 1187. 
R. A. sre60); 8m o™ 428. 
Dec. N. 32° 37’. 
Mags. a =8, 6 =73. 
Colours: Secchi, both white. 
Struve......... 1829°50| 71°00 | 1°61 
Madler ...... 1837°69| 68°25] 1°62 
Secchi......... 1858°21| 61°65) 1°75 
Morton ...... 1860°28] 55°23] 1°83 
Dembowski ..| 1863715] 56°28| 1°83 
Z CAncri. = 1196. 
R. A. 85 g™ 288. 


Dec. N. 18° 3! 14". 
A:B 


Mags. a =6, b =. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, yel., orange; 
Webb, 1849, yellow. 


Herschel...... 178190] 3°28] 1°06 
Smyth......... 183223] 28°30] 1°30 

sacn00000 1853°17/322°70 | 0°90 
Fletcher ...... 1853°301321°06]| 1°10 
Secchi......... 1857°281303°92 | 0°77 
Dembowski ..| 1864°15!255°02 | 0-50 
Dawes......... 1865°30]243°42 | 0°63 
Knott ......... 1866°26/233°63] 0°78 
Secchi......... 1866°28|234°62| o-4o 


Perihelion passage, 1853. 


A:C. c=7%. 
Herschel...... 1781°90|181-44.| 8°05 
Smyth......... 1832°23/149°40] 5°40 
Fletcher ...... 1852°49|143°68 | 4°84. 
Smyth......... 1853°17|144°10] 4°80 
Dawes......... 1854°07/140°47 | 5°05 
Dembowski ..| 1865°17/139°72| 5°46 
Secchi......... 1866°28/140°70| 5°61 


215 


P, VIII. 13 Cancer. 
R. A. este), gh 5m 54s. 
Dec. N. 11° 16/. 
Mags. a 8, 6 =10. 
Colours: a white, 6...? 
Epoch.| P. D. 


= 1202. 


(o} a 
Struve......... 1829°551335°93 | 2°35 
Dawes......... 1848°24/328°57 | 2°22 
Secchieeen eres 1856°17/325'27| 2°06 
Dembowski ..| 1863°12/327°45 | 2°50 


e Hypra. > 12738. 


R. A. 85 39™ 38°. 
Dec. N. 6° 54’ 53”. 
Mags. a =4, 6 =82. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, p. yel., purp.; 
Webb, 1857, yel., ruddy; Main, 
1863, yellow, pale purple. 


Struve.........| 1830°60|195°58 | 3°33 
Smyth......... 1837°11|198'40 | 3°40 
Dawes......... 1851°32/208°48 | 3°44 
Fletcher ...... 1852°96/208°52 | 3°57 
Wilenba, Gscacosee 1863°17|200°53 | 3°40 
Dembowski ..| 1863°13/212°90| 3°47 
Secchi......... 1865°27|215°60| 3°47 
Talmage......| 1866°14/213°83| 3°87 


Orbital period about450yrs.(Smyth). 


157 Lyncts. > 1338. 


R. A. (1860) 92 12™ 128, 
Dec. N. 38° 46! ee 


Mags. a =64,6 = 

Colours: Secchi, both cars 

Struve......... 1829°53|121°14.| 1°76 
Madler ...... 1838°10|/127°10| 1°69 
Dawes......... 1354°20/134°64| 1°65 
Morton ...... 1854°24|137°30| 1°92 
Secchi......... 1856°30|137°18 | 1°63 
Dembowski ..| 1863°28]/14.0°95 | 1°59 
Talmage...... 1866°10|142°48 | 1°71 
 LEonis. = 1356. 


R. A. 98 21" 138. Dec. N. 9° 38’ 36". 
Mags. a =63, 6 =73. 
Cols.: Smyth, 1843, p. yel., greenish. 


Herschel...... 1783°26|110°54 | o-40 
Smyth......... 1832°I1|160°00 | 0°50 
I ssisiatoeriete 1843°14]/193°00| 0°30 
Dawes......... 1854°23/346°23 | 0°55 
Secchi......... 1856-42] 0°99} 0°35 
jm teams se.| 1866°29| 32°92] 0°30 


Perihelion passage, 1849. 


216 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


P. IX. 161 Sexrantis. 
R. A; (Hee 
Dec. N. 3° 1 6 
Mags. a =8, 6 =1o. 

Colours: Smyth, 1834, yellowish 
white, blue. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


S187 7: 
g6™ 6s: 


1830°24 14220 


3 3u 
Smyth......... 1834°26|145°00| 4°00 
Madler ...... 1836°47|140°61| 3°37 
Secchi......... 1856°27|129°45 | 3°11 
@ Ursm Masorts. O = 208. 
IRAN G2 yan" os) Dec NE Gace aor: 
Mags. a =5, 6 =53. 
Colours: 
Struve, O. ...| 1842°35] 8°45 | 0°52 
Dawes......... 1854°28) 25°89 | o'40 
Secchipepeseces 1857° “34 30°60 | 0°30 
Struye, O. ... 1866-42! 45°90| 0724 
8 SEXTANTIS. AC5. 
R. A. 9? 45™ 68. 
Dee) Sh 7-240!" 
Mags. a =6, 6 =63. 
Colours: Dawes, both white. 
Dawes....:.... 1854°20] 50°54| 0°55 
ssh itaerneneie 1860734] 33°21] o°50 
y Leonts. = 1424. 


i pAR OUR aos 
Dee. N. 20° 311” 35". 
Mags. @ =2, 6 =4. 
Colours: Smyth, 1343, bri. orange, 
greenish yel.; Webb, 1349, yellow, 
greenish yel. ; Main, 1362, yellow, 


greenish. 

Herschel...... 1782°71| 83°30| 3°00 
SUHATAVELooocosae 1832°75|103°46| 2°50 
Smythe eee 1833°20|102°50| 2°80 

aide eenisfele 1843°18|/107°20| 2°80 
Fletcher ...... 1853°21|108'43 | 3°00 
INIEWHaY Gascosana 1862°35|/107°19| 3°10 
Dembowski ..| 1863°28|109'29 | 2°85 
Necchilseen ss. 1865-04|110'29 | 3°18 
Dawes.....:... 1865°40|1t0°30| 3°17 
TGMO}HE Seonagone 1866°21|110'49 | 3°21 
Talmage...... 1866°20|111°44 | 3°17 


Leonts 145. > 1426. 
R. A. (1860), ro" 13™ 128. 
Dec. N. 7° 8". 

A:B. 
Mags. a =8, b =73. 
Colours: Secchi, both pale yellow. 
Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve......... 1832.26 256°77 0°62 
Dawestecceere: 1854°16|263°28 | 0°88 
Secchiteeeee: 1856.15|271°78 | 0°65 


> 1457 Sextantts. 


R. A. (1860), 
Dee. N. 6° 28 
Mags. a =7}, 6 =8. 

Colours: Secchi, 1856, both p. yeil. 


To! ga ™ays 
' 


SHAUN eonconc08 1829°55|287°35 | O°71 
Madler ...... 1837°531299°51| 0°74 
Dawes......... 1850°78|302°75 | 0792 
NECCMUP esr: 1856°24|307°55| 0°76 
Morton ...... 1857°28/312°58 | O60 
Dembowski ..| 1863°20|309°83 | o'91 
| 3 1516 Draconis. 
R. A. (1860), 1 a GE ADS, 
Dec. N. 74° 15’. 
Mags. a =7, 6 =75. 
Colours: gece 1856, both white. 
Struve......... 1831°54|298°70 | 9°93 
ponsesose 1835°56/301°67 | 8-42 
Dembowski .. 1854°55| 38°35 2°70 
Secchimeepere: 1856°20) 29°55 | 2°61 
Morton ....... 1860°21| 56°33 | 3°24 
| Dembowski ..| 1863°35] 70°05 | 4°14 
% Ursw Magonis. = 1523. 


R. A. rx 10™ 59°. 
DecniNrse: ieeole 
Mags. a =4, 6 =53. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, white; Webb, 
1848, white; Main, 1363, white. 


1780°33|143°47 | 3°50 

Struve......... 1827°26|229°30| 1°82 
Siniyit Heres ee 1835°37|180°20] 1°90 
s60080000 185%°31|123°50| 2°90 
Fletcher ...... 1857°40|111'25]| 2°99 
Dawes......... 1860°32/105°21 | 2°88 
SRaG nee SS 1864°50| 93°96] 2742 
Dembowski .. 1864°83] 91°96] 2°23 
Secchi......... 1864738] 92°88] 2°40 
Real saree mast 1865°51| 89°88] 2°53 

ppl» aabonab08 186€°30) 86°55] 2°25 
Maiseny reer 1866°4.5| 87°30| 2°08 


Perihelion passage, 1816. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. Pi 


u Luonis. = 1536- 
R. A. rx 16m 5c 
Dec. N. 11° 16' 38. 


Mags. a =4, b =73. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, pale yellow, 
light blue; Webb, 1849, pale yell., 
pale blue; Main, 1362, yell. blue, 


Epcch.| P. D. 
(o} 4 

SEEUVCs cess... 1827°28 | 97°00} 2°30 
Smyth......... 1836:40| 90°50] 2°40 

9) seeneeeee(1853°29 | 81°30] 2°50 
Main ......... 1862°25 | 73°54.| 2°72 
Dembowski ../1863°23 | 76°70] 2°51 
Secchi. -»|1865°27 | 76°55] 2°88 
Dawes........ 186540] 72°13 | 2°31 
Talmage...... 1866731 | 75°58) 3°17 
Virernis 191. = 1647. 


R. A. 1860, 12h 23™ 308. 
Dec. N. 10° 49! 
Mags. a=7%, 6 =8. 


30 Comm BERENICIS. = 1687. 
R. A. 122 46™ 398. 
Dec. N. 21° 58' 49”. 
AVE 18}, 


Mags. (Secchi), a =53, 6 =83. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, pale yell., 
lilac; Secchi, 1856, yellow, blue. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
° i 

Struve...... +»-/£829°99 | 25°39] 1°43 
Smyth......... 1834°38 | 30°00] 1°00 
39.  cod0Q0000 1843°32| 42°00] 1°50 
Secchieeessacte 1856°40| 41°45] 1°31 
Morton ...... 1856734] 50713] 1°32 
Dawes......... 1860°34.| 47°68 | 1°44 
Dembowski ..|1863°26 | 50°33] 1°30 
Knott ......... 1865°31| 52°387| 1°31 
42 Comm Berentcis. = 1728 


R. A. 13% 3m 268. 
Dec. N. 18° 14 Bae 


SER. ITI. VOL. III. 


Colours: Secchi, 18 56, both white. 
Mags. a =43, 6 =s. 
Struve......... BESerey poe Ons ris Colours: Smyth, 1842, both p. yell. ; 
Madler ...... 1835706 |204°23 | 1°20 Dembowski, 1863, both white. 
Dawes......... 1850°66 j211-72| 1°23 ‘ 
Secchi...... a 1856°35 |211°67| 1°19 Struve......... 1827°83| *9°50| 0°64 
Dembowski ..|1863°24 |212°90| 1°39 Seba cara 1836°41 |190°20 | 0°30 
Smyth........./1842°50 | *5:00] 0-30 
y Vircints. > 1670. ne dusentunee Ses 192°45 cay 
R, A. 22h 32 50h Deore es tee 
mia an eo oe soogocabe oe 193°41 | 0°36 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, silvery whi., SS ame HEED S82) | 8 
pale yell.; Webb, 1851, yellowish * These measures should perhaps be 
white ; do. 1863, pale yell.; Main, +180. 
1863, white. 
Mayer......... 1756700 |144°22| 6°50 
Hrersehel......1780/06 130'44'| 5°79 || p. XIII. 127 Vireiis: 3 1757. 
Struve......... 1825°32 |277°92 | 2°37 
Smyth......... 1831738] 74°90] 1:60 R. A. 138 are 238. 
9) tate eeeee 1837°21 |265°40| 0-60 Dec. N. 0° 22! 38”. 
seseneeee|1843°33 [19160 | I-90 Mags. a =8, b =o. 
Fletcher ...... 1858°38 |170°O1 | 3°56 Colours: Smyth, 1843, pale white, 
Smyth......... 1858°39 |169°90| 3°80 yellowish ; Secchi, 1856 white. 
Main)... .2.-:- 1863°30|164°35 | 4°05 
Secchi......... 1864-41 |165°54 | 4:28 Struve.........|1825°37] 10°00] 1°60 
Dawes......... 1865°42 |164-02 | 4°37 Smyth......... 1842°52| 37°90| 1°70 
Dembowski ..|1865°43 |164°10| 4:04 93 teeeeees-/1852°38 | 51°70 | 2°00 
Knott ......... 1865°45 |164°33 | 4°33 Secchi........./1856'38 52°94] 1°84 
Secchi......... 1866°31 |164:28 | 4°39 Dawes.........|1860°34| 54°31 | 2°31 
Talmage...... 1866°36/162°40| 4°51 Dembowski ..|1363°32 | 59°04.| 2°00 
NT eens ee: HOSES a ane Orbital period about 240 years, 
Perihelion passage, 1836. Smyth. 
Q 


| 
| 


218 


> 1768. 


R. A. Nreee) eB 29™ 54% 
Dec. N. 37° 
Mags. a =5° :F R = 5/0; 


25 CAnuM VENATICORUM. 


Colours: Struve, white, blue. 
Epoch.| P. D. 
fo} ur 
Struve:........ 1831°51| 76°50| 1°07 
Madler ...... 1839'25 | 71°30] 1°06 
Dawes......... 1854°43 | 36°26] 0°35 
Secchi......... 185648 | 25°75 | ose 
Dawes......... 1865°44 | round 


> 1785 Boortts. 


R. A. (1860), 136 42™ 48s, 
Dec. N. 27° 41’. 
Mags. a =7, 6 =74. 


Colours: Secchi, 1856, both white. 

Struve......... 1830°12 |164°43| 3°48 
Madler ...... 1840°85 |172°10| 3°47 
SCCM oeno0000 1856°36 |185°97| 3:24 
Morton ...... 1859°29 |185°24.| 2°89 
Main ......... 1863°31 |191°15 | 2°78 
Dembowski ..|1864°97 |192°41 | 2°60 


> 1819 Virernts. 


R. A. (1860), 14> 8™ 185. 
Dee. N. 3° 47’. 
Mags. a =73, 6 =8. 


Colours: Secchi, 1859, both white. 
SPEUIVC Hse e set 1830°39 | 84:90| 0°98 

fy 000660056 183643 | 76:12] 1:12 
Dawes.........|1843°34.| 61°92] 1:02 
Secchi......... 1859°45 | 39°45| 1:00 
Dembowski ..|1863-01 | 32°35] 1°29 


> 1830 Boorts. 


R. A. ree o) aa 1I™ 128, 

Dec. N. 57° 

Mags. a =83 tes = 
Galnanee Secchi, AGS. “hts blue. 
Struve:........ 1830°89 |264:00| 4°84 
Madler ...... 1838°19 |267°60] 5°11 
Seccliimessren: 1860'06 |278°23 | 5°30 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


a Boovis. > 1864. 


R. A. 14% 34m 228, 
Dec. N. = oy) sm 
Mags. a =33,6 = 
Colours: grant "1846, rth white. 


Hpoch.| P. | D. 
° i 

Herschel...... 1779'72| 96°28| 6°17 
South ......... 1822°05 | 97°53 | 6°90 
SUMMVElesamee-e 1830°32,| 99°20| 5°83 
Smyth......... 1836°51 | 99°30| 6°00 
Secchi ...... 1856°79 |100°93 | 5°97 
Morton ...... 1857°34 |100°36 | 6°13 
Maine pecs: 1861-31 |100°80 | 6°18 
Romberg .../1863:27 |101°32 | 6°01 
TREWISED, o5aconne 1866°45 |100°60| 5°73 


> 1876 Lisrz. 


R. A. Ge 14h 39™ of, 
Dec. S. 6° 4 
Mags. a sae y = 38: 


Coles Secchi, 1856, both white. 

Struve...... o6(1832°33 | 51°73 | 1°18 
Secchi ...... 1856°87| 60°84. 1:00 
Dembowski ..|1863°39 | 65°87| 1:20 
e Boorts. = 1877. 


R. A. 142 39™ 58. 
Dec. N. 27° 38' 40”. 
Mags. a =3, 6 =7. 

Colours: Smyth, 1838, pale orange, 
sea-green ; Webb, 1850, light yell., 
greenish; Main, 1862, orange, 
greenish ; Secchi, 1855, yell., blue ; 
Struve, 1856, yellow, blue; Dem- 
bowski, 1865, yellow, blue. 


Herschel......|1779°67 |301°34,| 4°00 
Struve......... 1829°39 |320°58 | 2°64 
Smyth......... 1831°46 |321°60| 3°20 


severee-(1848°54 |322°10| 2°80 
Secchi. heatacen 185 5°37 |323°58| 2°60 


Main ........./1862°39 |324°24.| 2°60 
Dembowski ../1864°81 |324°70| 2°71 
Dawes......... 186548 |325°50| 2°92 
SECON socosene 1865°48 |324°70| 3°29 


Orbital period about 980 years, 
Smyth. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


~ Boots. = 1888. 


R. A. 14? 45™ 98. 
Dee. N. 19° ee 
Mags. a = 33, 6 =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, oran., purp.; 
Webb, 1850, clear yellow, reddish 


purple; Main, 1862, straw-colour 
and reddish. 
Hpoch.| BP: | D.- 
fo) i 
Herschel...... 1780°28| 24°07] 3°42 
Struve......... 1829°46 |334°11 | 7°22 
Smyth......... 1831°53 |332°10| 7°30 
3) eee senes- [184242 |322°90| 6:90 
op aE COORRESES 1852°38 |316°80| 6°50 
Dawes...... +e-/1854°46 |311°98 | 6°26 
Secchi ...... 1856788 |310°05 | 6:04 
Main ......... 1862°33 1305753] 5°68 
Dembowski ..1864-91 |301°58 | 5°44 
Secchi ...... 1865°77 |300°82 | 5°41 
Talmage......|1866°48 |298°53 | 5:c9 


Beielion passage, 1779. 


44 Booris. > 1909. 


R. A. 142 59™ 218. 
Dec. N. 48° 10! 52". 
Mags. a =5, 6 =6. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, white, grey ; 
Main, 1862, yellowish; Webb, 
1865, pale yellow, tawny. 


Herschel...... 11781°62| 60°06 | 1°50 
Struve......... 1832°24 |234‘01 | 2°86 
Smyth......... 1839°62 |235°30| 3°50 


soRaneans 1847°45 |236°20| 4°10 
Fletcher ....... 11851°47 |237°95 | 4°26 


Dawes......... 1854°74 |237°77.| 4°58 
Secchi......... 1856°40 |238°80| 4°55 
), Wile Saneeaoae 1862742 |238°30| 4°61 
Dembowski ..'1863°31 |239°53 | 4°75 


1 Corona Bormans. > 1932. 


R. A. (1860), 15” 12™ 188, 
Dec. N. 27° 21’. 
Mags. a =6, 6 =63. 


Colours: Secchi (1 $56), both white. 
Struves.-..2.-- 1830°28 |273°85 | 1°62 
Madler ...... 1339°52 |278°47 | 1°53 
Dawes...:....- 11854°40 |284°07 | 1°36 
Secchi......... ‘1856740 |285°37]| 1°14 
Dembowski ..'1863.28 |290°27 | 1°18 


n Coron&® BorEAuis. > 1937. 


R. A. 152 17™ 378. 
Dec. N. 30° 46' 44". 
Mags. a =6, b =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, white, golden 
yellow ; Webb, white, yell. ; Dem- 
bowski, 1863, white. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
i 

Herschel...... 1781'61 | 30°41 | IoC 
Struve......... 1826°76| 35°16| 1°08 
Smyth......... 1832°63 | 57°20] 0-80 
pr Maisseiseies 1842°58 |151°30| 0750 

or he meonoeeaee 1852°43 |246°80| 0750 
Secchi......... 1858°51 |359°19| 0°53 
Dembowski ..|1863°03 | 19°04] 0°81 
66 -.|1865°49| 27°40] 1:02 
Dawes......... 1865°44| 27°52| 1:07 
Secc hives pees 1865°50| 26:26] 0°79 
op GOeD0eKe" 1866°53/ 33°13| 1:12 


Perihelion passage, 1830. 


p? Bootis (P. XV. 74). = 1938: 
R. A. 15h 19” 2.5%. 
Dec. N. 37° 49! 18”. 
Mags. a=8, 6 =. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, greenish wh. ; 
Secchi, 1856, white, blue. 


Herschel..:... 1782°68 |357°14| 1°50 
SIHPWAIE)scogodce: 1829°73 |324°05 | 1°25 
Smyth......... 1832°31 |321°40| 1°30 

Salk staan: 1842°52 |306°10| o80 

Se dhtewenaaent 1853°60 |255°00| 0750 
Secchi......... 1857°44 |231°33| 0748 
Romberg .../1863°63 |195°80| 0°75 
TRINOUG ooagoeoee 1864°41 |193°64'| 0°50 
Dawes......... 1865°46 |190°07 | 0:48 
Dembowski ..|1865°13 |186:29 | 0:50 
Secchi 


Hooeae 186657 |180°30| 0°30 
Perihelion passage, 1849. —-: 


© SERPENTIS. > 1954. 


R. A. 15 2gm 21°. 

Dec. N. 10° 59’ 32”. 

Mags. a =3, 0 =5. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, bright white, 
bl. white; Miain, 1862, both white. 


Herschel...... 178299 |227°12 | 3:00 


Struve.........,1802°10 |208'50| ... 
South ......... 1821°33 |199°13| 3°05 
Smyth......... 1842°35 |196:20| 2:80 
59). p9panseor 1851°32 |196°50| 3-00 
Secchi ...... 1855-88 |195°52| 3:06 
[ Continued. 


Q2 


219 


2 


0 SERPENTIS (continued). 


Epoch.| P. D. 
° 4 
Morton ...... 1857°40 |193°40| 3°37 
Maines. 1862°33 |190°16| 2°96 
Dembowski ..|1863°43 |192°20| 3°19 
Knott......... 1865°41 |189°95 | 3°32 
IKGHiSereeeere 1865°54 |192°30| 3°18 
Dawes ...... 1865755 |1g1'22]| 3°24 
Talmage ...|1866°45 |189°80| 3742 
y Coron Bormatis. > 1967. 


R. A. 152 37™ 4. 
IDBEs IW AI? ag’ gel" 
Mags. a =4, 6 =61. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, ‘flushed wh., 
uncertain; Secchi, 1857, yellow, 
purple. 


Struve ...... 1826°75 |111'05| 0°72 
Smyth ...,.. 1839°69 |225°00| 0°30 
7 ' ) ooabee 1848°37 |295°00| 0°50 
Necchiquepese: 1857°51 |289°32 | 0°36 
Dawes ...... 1358°96 |281°46 | 0°47 
Dembowski ..|1862°56 |292'90 |wedg’d 
Secchi......... 1866°51 round. 


~Scorpir(=FI.51 Lisrz). 21998. 


R. A. 152 56™ 578. 
IDE, Sh US Go! 55”. 
A:B. 


Mages. a =44, 6 =s5. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, bright white, 
pale yellow; Webb, 1856, yellow, 
yellowish green. 


Herschel...... 1782°36| 7°58| 1:50 
Smmytlaeeepeeeee 1834°42| 6°60] 1:40 

Bye osbemeera: 1842°56| 23°50] 1°20 

Mf. aoanesoRo 1846°49 | 24°90] 1:00 
Secchi......... 1855954 53°60| 047 
Dembowski ..}1864°95 |152°02 | sep. 
Dawes.:......- 1865°54 |156°91 | 0°57 
SECC 900007 1866751 |161°00 | 0-4 + 

A:C. ¢ =7%, grey. 

Herschel...... 1780°39 | 88°37] 6°38 
Simniylaeeee ree 1834°42 | ~6"10| 7°20 
Dawes......... 1840°56| 69:45] 7°43 
Smyth......... 1846°49 | 68:10} 7:00 
Secchibeeereres 1855754] 70°47 | 7°50 
Main’ iin icee- 1861742 | 72°80] 6°93 
Dembowski ../1865°38 | 71°02 | 7°11 
Secehi* <....: 1865°49 |249'66| 7°10 


or Cais se should be —189°. 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


49 SurPeEntis. = 2021. 


R. A. 165 7™ 08, 
Dec News aasa 37". 
Mags. a =7, 6 =7}. 
Colours: Smyth, 1839, pale white, 


yellowish; Main, 1862, both whi. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
io} i“ 
Herschel...... 178318 |291°33 | 2°50 
South ......... 1823°28 |311°57| 4°21 
Struve......... 1832°70 |316°41 | 3°20 
Smyth......... 1839°29 |318°10| 3°30 
Dawes......... 1849°44 |321°27 | 3°34 
Smyth......... 1854°58 |323°00| 3°20 
Morton ...... 1855°48 |322°41 | 3°65 
SECM scos5000- 185601 |332°35 | 3°45 
Main ......... 1862°37 |323°43 | 3°53 
Dembowski ..|1864°80 |324°60| 3°53 


Orbital period, about 600 years. 


= 2026 Hercuuis. 
R. A. (1860), 16" 7™ 488, 
Dec. N. 7° 4a. 
Mags. a =383, 6 =oh. 
Chores Secchi, 1856, both yellow. 


Struve......... 1830794 |345°92 | 2°54. 
shauae 1838°05 |342°02| 2°39 


Secehi......... 1856°56 |325°60| 1°78 
Dembowski ..|1865°39 |326°10| 1°50 


o Coronz Bor 


R. A. 16% 9 nes 
Dec. N. 4 it! Tee" 
A:B. 


= 2032. 


Mags. a =6, 6 =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1843, white, smalt- 
blue; Webb, 1856, yellow, bluish ; 
Secchi, 1865, white, blue. 


Herschel...... 1802°74. 11°24| ... 
Struve...+...../1827°02] 89°21] 1°31 
Smyth......... 1839°67|145°10| 1°60 

boas acorkiai 1852°25 |176°80| 2°20 
Secchiterceenes 1857°61 |183'°57| 2°42 
Dembowski ..|1864°94 |191°24.| 2°79 
Dawes......... 1865°38 |191°48 | 3°08 
Secchiteaaesere 1865°81 |192°45 | 2°97 


Perihelion passage, 1826. 


A:C. ¢=11, dusky. 


Smyth......... 1830°76| g0°00|43°30 
pe de acleeeeene 1852°25 | 90°00|4.6°30 
Secchi......... 1855°61| 88-25)49°'45 
Dembowski .:|1862°60] 88°35/51-04 
Secchileeeensce 1866°62| 87°10 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. Papal 


a Scorrit (Antares). 


R. A. 165 21™ 78, 
Dee. 8. 26° 7’ 50". 
A 


7a. 


Mags. a =1, 6 =8. 
Colours: Secchi, red, blue. 


eee cee 


Dembowski .. 
Secchi 


\ Opxsivcut. 


Epoch. 


1848'02 
1856740 
1857°40 
1858°34 
1861-09 
1864°43 
1865°56 
1866:00 


R. A. 16" 24™ 68. 


Dec. N. 2° 


16! Cae 


Mags. a =4, 6 =6. 


Colours: 


Smyth, yellowish, smalt- 


blue; Webb, yellowish, tawny. 


Secchi 
Dembowski 


1783718 
1825°51 
1834-48 
1842°50 
1853°25 
1854-14 
1857750 
1860736 
18647538 


..|1865°49 


15 32 
331°80 
351°20 

1°40 
15°50 
14°00 
19°88 


0°50 
084. 
1-00 
IIo 
1°20 
1°31 
1°33 


PERS) | Gee 


22°18 
25°26 


1°25 


1°51 


Perihelion passage, 1798. 


@ Hercutis. 


> 2084. 


R. A. 162 36™ 128. 


Dec. N. 31° 


Mags 


Glo au 
iO =o, 0 =O. 


Colour: Smyth, 1842, yellowish wh., 
orange; Dembowski, 1863, a yell. ; 


Secchi, 1858, yellow, violet. 


seewee cee 


Secchi 
Dembowsk: .. 
Secchi 
Dawes......... 


eeeees 


1782°55 
1826°63 
1835°68 
1842°57 
1852°53 
1858°47 
1863°49 
1865°55 
1866°81 


69°18 
23°24 
190°00 
136°90 
33°80 
54°59 
342°45 
86°+ 


1°00 
O91 
0°50 
1°20 
1°30 
1°06 
wedg’d 


=r | single 


22.9°22 


0°83 


Perihelion passage, 1825. 


= 2106 Ornivcat. 
R. A. (1860) 160 44™ 308. 
Dec. N. 9° 39'. 
Mags. a =6'2, 6 =7°8 
Calgura: Secchi, 18 56, yell. wh., bl. 


Epoch.| P. D. 
fo) 1 
Struve......... 1827°31 |337°50| IOI 
Secchi: 1856°45 |328°40| 0°84 
Dembowski ../1863°53 |321°30| 0°50 
Hercuuis 167. = 2107. 


R. A. ee, 165 46™ 185. 
Dec. N 


Colours: Secchi, 18 ca salle blue. 
Struve........./1829°91 |148°63 | 1°12 
Madler ...... 1842°10 |161°70 | 1°03 
Dawes........:|1852°85 |176°36| 1°16 
Secchi ......... 1856°59 |175°43 | 0°97 
Dembowski ..|1865:08 |189°28 | 0°93 
P. XVI.270 Oputucut. = 2114. 


R. A. (1860), 162 55™ 
Dec. N. 8° 30’. 
Mags. a =7, 6 =8. 
Colours: Smyth, 1332, both white ; 
Morton, 1859, whi., bluish white. 


18s. 


Struve......... 1830°97 |135°40| 1°34 
Smyth......... 1832°41 |137°00| I°50 
Dawes 1847°63 |143°38 | ... 

Secchi ......... 1856°84.|145°25 | 1°25 
Morton ...... 1859°30 |147°38 | 1°31 
Hercunis 210. = 2120. 


It. A. (1860), 165 59™ 68. 


Dec. N. 28° 17’. 
Mags. a =63, 6 =9. 
Colours: Secchi, 1856, yellow, blue. 
Struve......... 1833:25| 3°80] 3°44 
Madler ...... 1842°30 |345°48 | 2°73 
Dawes......-- 11848°55 |322°72 | 2°31 
Morton ...... 1855°61 |298°50| 2°57 
Secchi........./1856°75 |290°45 | 2°48 
Dembowski ..|1865:09 |272°89| 2°98 
272°94| 3°56 


Talmage ...... 1866°44 


222 


p Draconis. 
R, A. 175 2™ 33°. 
Dee. N. 54° 39' 7". 
Mags. a =4, 6 =4}. 
Colours: Bmoies 1839, both white ; 
Main, 1862, both white. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


Herschel...... 1781°73 232°22 4°35 


Struve......... 1832°22 |205°06| 3°23 
Smyth......... 1839753 |200°30| 3°30 
GX adeB00000 1854°58 |190°70| 3°00 
Morton ...... 1854°67| *8-22 | 2°92 
Secchieeeeseee 1857°50 |188°37 | 2°74 
Dawes......... 1859°73 |185°47| 2°83 
Dembowski ..|1863°14| *2:42| 2°63 
JMIBTED soscaan0e 1862-41} ... | 2°84 
Seccht......... 1865°59 |181°84.| 2°79 
Orbital period, about 600 years 
(Smyth). 
* These measures should evidently 
be +180. 


36 Opniucut. 
R. A. 172 7™ 135, 
Dee. 8. 26° 23’ 23”. 
Mags. a =44, 6 =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1342, ruddy, pale 
yellow; Webb, 1854, both golden 
yellow. 


Maier nse. 1780°00 |360°00 |13°00 
South ......... 1825°17 |228°28 | 5:20 
Suny Weeeeeeee 1835°33 |221°40| 5:00 
Dawes......... 1841°59 |219°26| 4°78 
Smyth......... 1842°46 |216°60| 4:90 
98. dooo0c000 1857°39 |213°80| 4:60 
Secchi......... 1857°55 |211°30| 4:29 
IME ococosoce 1862°43 |212°47| 4°22 
0 Hercvis. > 3127. 
R. A. 17" 9™ 205. 
Dec. N. 25° o! 3". 


Mags. a =4, b =83. 

Colours: Smyth, 1839, greenish wh., 
grape red; Main, 1862, straw-co- 
loured, reddish; Webb, 1865, pale 
yellow, lilac. 


Herschel...... 1779'61 |162°28 |33°75 


Struve......... 1829°77 |173°42 |26°11 
Smyth......... 1839°62 |175°10 |24°50 
Secchi......... 1857°50 |177°97 |21°92 
Maine eeeeeeee 1862°38 |177°59 |20°02 
Dembowski ../1863°14.|179°39 |20°50 
Knott ...55..:- 1866°72 |179°61 |20°18 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


pe Hercuuis. 
Tits dak tae 19” 28, 
Dec. N. 37° 16’ 23”. 
Mags. a =4, 6 =5H. 
Colours: Smyth, 1839, inal white, 
pale emerald; Main, 1862, both 
bluish white. 


Epoch. | P. D. 


oO 4 

Herschel...... 1779°66 |300°21 | 2°97 
Struve......... 1830°35 |307°22| 3°60 
Smyth......... 1839°74.|308°90| 3°70 

Filia ACS Ree 1853°39 |310°50| 3°50 
Dawes......... 1854°73 |308°33 | 3°91 
Morton ...... 1855765 |309°45| 3°34 
Secchi... ---2- 1856°60 |309°71 | 3°83 
Main ......... 1862°37 |309°50| 3°61 


> 2173 Orpurucat. 


R. A. (1860), 175 24™ 128, 
Dec. 8. 0° 58'. 
Mags. a =6, 6 =6°8. 

Colours: Secchi, 1858, yell., orange. 


Struve......... 1830°84 132380 | 0°62 
Se aT 183671 | single 

Dawes......... 1848°45 |158°45 | 1°11 

Secchipesseeeee 1858°56 |325°92| 0°84 


p! Hercoris. > 2220. 
R. A. (1860), 175 41™ oF. 
Dec. N. 28° 48’. 
B:C. 


Mags. (Knott),6=10°5,c=10°7. 


Colours: Knott, bluish white. 
Dawes......... 1858°77| 59°91 | 2°02 
Sia meen eae 1864°43 |_77:59| 1°81 
Knott ......... 1865°43| 79°61] 1°83 
Dembowski ..|1865-44 | 81°98} 1:20 
7 OpHivcet. = 2262. 


R. A. 17% 55™ Aas 
Dec. 8. 8° 10! 36”. 
Mags. a =5, 6 =6. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, pale white. 


Herschel...... 1783°37 331°60 | oblong 
Struve......... 1836°62 199°90| 0744 
Smyth......... 1842°52 227°00] 0°90 

ah eteteas 1855°34 233°80| 1°10 
Dawes......... 1854°67 238-05 | 1:22 
Dembowski ..1863°05 244°57 | 1-40 
TSGSOUI Gogboodes 1863°59. 246°84 | 1°20 
Secchi ......... 1866°70 248:05 | 1°60 


Orbital period, about 130 years 
Smyth). 


70 Orntucut. > 2272. 


R. A. 17% 58™ 378. 
Dec. N. 2° 32' 30”. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 22 
e” Lyre 5. > 2383. 
C:D. 
Mags. ¢ =5, d =s}. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, both white ; 


Mags. a =44, 6 =7. 

Colours: Smyth, 1842, pale topaz, 
violet; Webb, 1850, yell.-orange ; 
Main, 1861, bright yell., reddish ; 
Dembowski, 1363, yell., rose-col. - 


Epoch.| P. D. 
jo} 

Herschel...... 1779'77| 90°00| 3°59 
“ple <eagoabe 1804°41 |318°48 | 2°56 
NURWVE..-....-- 1819°63 |168°42| 4°66 
South ......... 1825°56|148°18| 4°76 
Smyth......... 1835°56|130°60| 5°97 
op 5 sOOHeaeunG 1842°55 |122°40| 6°64. 
cp ospecbese 1852°44 |114°90| 6°50 
Dawes......... 1859°72 |109°33| 6°24 
IMIGTOO, Geneooaoe 1861°46 |107°30| 5°89 
Dembowski ..|1863°06 |104°96| 5°66 
Necehi tes 1863°51 |104°07| 5°28 
$f. coeosdose 1865°41 |102°69| 5°40 
a) | Abusers 1866760 |101'13| 5°27 


Perihelion passage, 1806. 


a Lyre. 
R. A. 182 32™ 208, 
Dee. N. 38° 39' 15". 
Mags. a =1, 6 =11. 


Colours: Smyth, 1843, p. sapphire, 
smalt-blue. 
Herschel...... 1792°32 |116°14 [42°99 
South ......... 1822°37 |132°07 |42°11 
Dawes......... 1830°42 |135°03 |42°46 
Smyth......... 1837°51 |137°90 |42°70 
9) cesta eee 1843°34 |14.0°30 |43°40 
Necchipasees: 1857°55 |148°70 |45°50 
Dembowski ..!1865°63 |150°12 |46°15 
el Lyra 4. = 2382. 


R. A. 18 a9" 51°. 
Dec. N. 39° 31' 43". 
A: B. 


Mags. a =5, 6 =63. 
Colours: Smyth, 1842, Fall ruddy ; 
Webb, 1849, yellow, tawny. 


Herschel...... 1779°83 | 33°55 | 3°54 
Struve......... 183144 | 26°06] 3°03 
Smyth......... 1842759] 20°60] 3:20 

Be dsiacatioc 1853°71 | 19°70] 3°00 
Secchi......... 1856:23 | 22°42] 3:07 
Dawes........- 1859°73| 19°32] 3°06 
Main 2.0.5. 1861°45 | 20°23] 3°06 
-Dembowski ../1863°09 | 19°35] 3°04 


Webb, 1849, both yellowish wh. ; 
Main, 1861, both white. 


Epoch.| P.-| D. 


.O i 

Herschel...... 1779°83 |173'28| 3°50 
Struve......... 1831°44 |155°10| 2°57 
Smyth......... 1842°59 |150°90| 2°60 

Bie! taeehae det 1853°71 |148°10| 2°50 
Secchijeeseess 1856°06 |148°40| 2°57 
Wien seesoccee 1861°45 |152°39| 2°43 
Dembowski ../1863°09 |143°97| 2°47 
Dawes......... 1865°75 |144°86| 2°56 


Smyth (Spec. Hart. 1853) considered 
that the relationship between e« 4 
and 5 Lyrz was not yet established, 
but that they have a common move- 
ment in space. 


> 2402 SerPentis. 


R. A. (1860), 18h 43™ 08. 

WMecwNemocks2!: 

Mags. a =8, 6 =84. 
Colours: Secchi, 1856, both white. 


Struve......... 1830°20 |197°67 | 0°74 
Madler ...... 1838°83 |204°31 | 0°69 
SCCM sconscsue 1856°64 |213°41| 0°89 


P. XVIII. 274 Antrnot. > 2434. 


R. A. 182 55™ 488. 
Dec. 8. 0° 53’ 56”. 
A:B. 


Mags. a =972, 6.=9g. 

Galoats: Smyth, 1838, both white. 
SWAT) aenoodoe 182267 |14.9°06 |26:09 

Anh paeeoseee 1831°57 |147°02 |25°56 
Madler ...... 1835753 |14.5°78 |25°4.5 
Smyth......... 1833°59 |146°80 |25:60 
Secchi ......... 1856°93 |138°87 |24°48 
Dembowski ../1864°66 |136°85 |24:29 

B:C. ¢ =16, blue. 

Struve......... 1831°57| 80°50] 1°93 
Smyth......... 1838°59 | 85:00] 2:00 
Secchi......... 1857°12| 68:70} 1:73 
Dembowski ..|1864°66 | 69°60| 2°79 


3 


9 


> 2455 VunrPecuua. 


R. A. CEESS 19 o™ 548. 
Dec. N. 21° bee 
Mags. a =73, 6= 

Colours: Secchi, 1857, a white. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


i 
SUEUR er sre sees 1823°77 144.47 4°92 
Madler ......|1839°29 |136°60] 4°41 
Morton ...... 1855°66 |124:20| 3°98 
SCC scosmose 1857°29 |123°01 | 3°70 


Dembowski ../1864:96 |115°53| 3°53 


P. XTX. 108 Draconis. > 2509. 


R. A. tooo) 19) REL Groh 
Dec. N. 62° 57’. 
Mags. a =63, b =8. 

Colours: Secchi, 1857, purple, green. 


SHHAURV@s ocoascoe 1832°30 |353°00| 0°52 
Niece hier aarerer 1857°42 |340°28 | 0°68 
Dembowski ..!1862°93 |343°78 | 0°80 
6 Cyent. > 2579. 


R. A. 19" 4o™ 458. 
Dec. N. 44° 48' 8". 
Mags. a =34, 0 =o. 

Colours: Smyth, 1842, pale yellow, 
sea-green; Secchi, 1856, yellow, 
violet; Dembowski, 1865, white, 
blue. 


Herschel...... 1783°72| 71°39] 2°50 
Struve......... 1826°55| 40°39] 1°91 
Smyth......... 1837°78| 30°90] 1°50 
Aj. oeiastelecirste 1842°56| 25°60] 1°80 
Se sO AON 1852°69| 14°70] 1°50 
Dembowski .. 1865°02 |350°76| 1°57 


Dawes......... 1865°38 |349°62 | 1°67 
Secchi......... 1865°54.|348°45 | 1°46 
Knott ......... 1366°68 |348°31 | 1°70 


Perihelion passage, 1860. 


O = 400 Cyent. 
k. A. 20? 5n 30%. 
Dee. N 4373342": 
Mags. a4 =7%, 6 =83. 


Colours : 

Struve, O. ...{1844°83 |336°90| 0°65 
Dawes........- 1853°89 |]320°55 | 0°65 
Struve, O. .../1861°62 |316°70} 0°62 


24, MR, ALFRED BROTHERS’S © 


> 2696 Denruint. 


R. A. Nee 20% 2676 

Dec. N. 4° 58’. 

Mags. a ay b =8h. 
Colours: Secchi, 1856, both white. 


Epcch.| P. 1D), 


SHAUN. oncaadoc 1831°06 29892 T'06 
Madler ...... 1838-27 |302°80 | 0°99 
Secchijeeeee-are 1856°6r |310°26 | 0172 
d Crent. O = 413. 
R. A. areee 20h 41™ 548. 
Dec. N. 35° 55'- 
Mags. a =6, 6 =7. 
Colours: both white. 
Struve, O. ...|1842°66 |122°35| 0°65 
Secchienererere 1859°61 |101°48 | 0°65 
iD) aweseeeeeee 1860°81| 96°51 | 0-72 
fill: Sdbaedoosp 1866°99| 92°51| 0°69 
4 Aquarit. = 2729. 
R. A. 20% 44™ 168. 
Dec. 8. 6° 7’ 45". 


Mags. a =6, 6 =8. 
Colours: Smyth, 1834, pale yellow, 
purple ; Secchi, 1856, both yellow. 


Herschel...... 178268 |351°30 | 0-30 


Struve......... 1825°59| 25°00] o°81 
Smyth,........ 1834°69| 45°00| 0°50 
Dawes........: 1854°75 |1o1°70 | 0°3- 
Secchi ......... 1856:81 |107°86| 0°30 
e HQuutLet. = 2737. 


R. AL 20% 52 208 
Dec. N. 3° 46’ 46”. 
A:B. 


Mags. a =55, 6 =73. 


Colours: Smyth, 1838, white, lilac: 
Dembowski, 1862, both white. 


Smyth......... 1838°83 |290°00] 0°50 
Secchi......... 1855°87 |287:44 | o81 
Dawes......... 1861°57 |285°43 | 0°96 
Dembowski ..|1862°64 |283°87 | 0-60 
Knott......... 1863°66 |287°11 | ror 

Pe sodacnane 186568 |288-08 | 1:07 
Secchi......... 1866:70 |290°25 | 1:06 


[ Continued. 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 22 
« Equuner (continued). 90 Praast. = 2799. 
R. A. (1860), 218 22™ 2,8, 
A:0. ¢ =7}, blue. Dex v AGS), ak " 
; Mags. a =63, 6 =73. 
Hpoods ae te _ || Colours: Secchi, 18 56, pale yellow. 
5 et Epoch.| P. D. 
Herschel...... 1780°59| 84:21 | 9°37 ea —- 
South ......... 1823°58| 79°21 |12°37 A t 
Smyth......... £833°77 | 77/60 |10"70 * || Struve.,....... 1831°82 |332°88 | 1°35 
opis J epegeaees 1838°83 | 78°10 |11'20 Madler ...... 1835°81 |332°90| 1°39 
Secchi......... 1855°87| 73°93 |10°55 Dawes......... 1854°74 |320°31 | 1:18 
Dembowski ..|1862°64.| 76°17 |10°33 SCOM.coascce 1856°27 |320°70| 1°23 
Secchi......... 1866°70 | 73°13 |10°55 Dembowski ..|1863:09 |317°57| 1°44 
P. XXII. 33 Pueast. = 2877. 
R. A. ee) 2h al as. 
Decs Ne 16°) 30! 
61 Cyent. = 2758. Mags. 4 =63, 6 =93. 
Colours: Secchi, 78 57, yellow, blue. 
R. A. 217 o™ ae Struve......... 1828-95 |316:45| 7°63 
Dee. N. 38° 3' 54”. Madler ...... 1836°57 |322°40| 7°83 
Mags. a =53, 0 =6. Seechippaeeece 1857°35 133745 | 8°56 
Odonee® Smyth, 1839, both yellow; || Dembowski ..|1863-67 |34220| 8-99 
Webb, 1850, both deep yellow; 
_ Main, 1861, both yellow. Z AQUARII. = 2909. 


Bradley ...... 1753°80| 35°24.|19°63 
IVE VET sac ono 1778°00| 50°58 |15°24 
Herschel...... 1780°72| 53°32 |16-08 
IPIAZZI ye ecc la. 1800700} 69°18 |18-20 
Bessel ......... 1812°30| 79°07 |16°74 
Struve......... 1819°90| 83:02 |15'20 
South ......... 1822°90| 34°41 |15°43 
Dawes......... 1830°66| 90°20 /15°70 
Smyth.....:... 1839°69| 96°30 /16°30 

oahy yaanect es 1848°07 | 99°80 |16°40 

5 = eaneanear 1853°80 |103°70 |17°00 
Secchi......... 1855°99 |105°93 |17°94. 
Main ......... 1861°35 |107°42 |17°89 
Dembowski ..|1865°15 |110°64.|138°55 
Knott......... 1866°72 |111°69 [18°76 


Orbital period, about 540 years 
(Smyth). 


A Zi NONE WAG A.C. 19. 
R. A. (1860), 21% ro™ 508. 
Dec. N. 63° 49! 48". 


Mags. a =74, 6 =7H. 
Colours: both pale yellow. 


Struve, O. .../1843+ Single. 
Dawes......... 1860°12 |246°25 | 0°89 
Upp nabepceneree 1866°33 |244°53 | 0°98 


R. A. 22h 21m 53°. 
Dee, S. ©? an! gq". 
Mags. a =4, 6 =4}. 


Colours: Smyth, 1842, very white, 
white: Webb, 1851, both p. yell. 
Herschel....../1779°70 | 18°21 | 4°56 
IPIEWAA poh cocooc 1800°00} 0°00) 3°+ 
Struve......... 1820°92 |358°18]| 4°40 
Smyth......... 1831°33 |356°00] 3°60 
SAP wecnatencs 1842°59 |348°90| 2°70 
Pict aomcaneee 1852°81 |346'90| 3°20 
Wien, Cosccoone 1861°78 |340°43 | 3°28 
Dembowski ..|1863'14.|339:04| 3°52 
Secchi......... 1866770 |347°83| 3°38 
Knott......... 1866°71 |337°01 | 3°64 
Dawes......... 1866-99 |336°33| 3°32 


Orbital period, about 750 years 
(Smyth). 


37 Pxaast. > 2912. 


R. A. 225 23m 9°. 
Dee. N. 3° 44! 54". 
Mags. a =6, 6 =73. 
Colours: Smyth, 1839, both white; 
Secchi, 1857, both white. 


Struve......... 1831°12 |112°63 | 1°16 
Smyth......... 1839°60 |118°90]| 1:10 
Dawes......... 1854°54 |118°53 |] o-gt 
Secchiree. 1857°09 |117°56| 0-74 


Orbital period, about 500 years 
_ (Smyth). 


226 


= 2934 Preast. 
aRIpAG (1860) 22h ages 
Dee. N. 20° 42". 
Mags. a =73, 6 = 

Colours : Seton 1856, one white. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve......... 1830°07 18733 1-22 
Madler ...... 1838-19 |182°21 | 1°20 
Secchiteeereres 1856°86 |168°23 | 1:10 


Dembowski ..|/1863°82 |164°70| 1:21 


a OEPHEI. 
R. A. 232 gg 6°. 
Dee. N. 74° 39) 29". 
A: a 


Mags. A =5, a =Io. 
Colaiee Smyth, 1843, deep yellow, 
purple. 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


P. XXIII. 69 Aquarir. > 3008. 


R. A. 2.30 16™ 478, 
Dec. §. 9% 12! 0" 
Mags. a =8, 6 =81. 
Colours: Smyth, 1834, both flushed ; 
Secchi, 1856, yellow, blue. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


(o} 4 2 
South ......... 1824°80 |274°04| 7°98 
Struve......... 1830°89 |273°33 | 7°54 
Siiythteeneeees 1834°79 |272°10| 7°50 
Madler ...... 1837°54.|271°16| 7°11 
SECC cancone 1856786 |265°57| 6-11 
Morton ...... 1859°91 |263°57| 5°58 
Dembowski ..|186308 |262°88| 5°59 


> 3062 Cassiorpna. 


Simnyithieeeeeaane 1843°77 |330°00| 1°80 eek (1860), 230 58™ 54°. 
Knott ......... 1865°71| 5°97| 1°15 Mass, N. 573 3 - J 
Ea ty) Br 
Colours: Secchi, 1857, it, 
o CEPHEI. = 3001. - a te os a Holl Ong 
erschel...... 1782°65 |320°70| ... 
Be ee moe Midler ...... 1825°81| 36°70] 1-26 
Mas : eG en Struve......... 1833°71 |108°57| 0°55 
BBS. ane mors Morton ...... 1856°90 |247°57| 1°32 
Colours: Secchi, 1858, yellow, blue. Secchi.........1857°60 |as4-4g| 26 
Struve......... 183284 |174°97 | 2°35 Dawes......... 1863°86 |265°61| 1-40 
Madler ...... 1839°55 /178'19 | 2°39 Dembowski ..}1865°18 |269°84.| 1°37 
some reettiees seein 2°47 || Knott........ 1865°71 |269°95| 1743 
orton ...... 1858-61 |186°51 | 2°60 Malena... 86e-o8 “Agee 
Powell ...... 186101 |184:00| ... Pena e 1008 Oe he Baas 
Main ......... 1862°57 |182°16| 2°28 Perihelion passage, 1837. 
APPENDIX. 


The discrepancies found in the measures of the following 
objects render it doubtful whether they should be classed 
with the binaries, although in many instances the difference 
in the angles of position amounts to several degrees; but, 
owing either to the closeness of the stars or their minute- 
ness, it is difficult to measure them. 

Since the date of Struve’s Catalogue, all the objects 
in the following List have been measured by Father Secchi 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


227 


and the Baron Dembowski, and some of them by Mr. 


Dawes and other observers: 


but. for comparison the 


epochs of Struve and Dembowski are considered suf- 


ficient. 


The right ascensions, declinations, and magnitudes are 
given for the year 1860 from Secchi’s Catalogue. 


> 44 AnpRoMED. 
R. A. of 30™ 368. 
Dec. N. 40° 33’. 
Mags. a =83, 6 =9'3. 
Epoch.| P. D. 


SLPAUREhoooeone 1829°382 258°84 7°86 
Dembowski ..|1865:09 |263°20| 8°66 


> 208, 10 Arteris. 

R. A. 1 55™ 425. 

Dee. N. 25° 16'. 

Mags. a =6, db =83. 
Struve......... 1833°05| 25°17 
Dembowski ..|1863°07 | 33°92 


1°98 
1°43 


= 234 Cassiopez. 

R. A: 22 7™ 68. 

Dec. N. 60° 42’. 

Mags. a =8, b =g°7. 
1831°55 |239'23 
1863745 |231°43 


Struve......... 
Dembowski .. 


0°83 
0°70 


> 295, 84 Cart. 


R. A. 2» 34™ 68. 
Dee. S. 1° 17’. 
Mags. a =6, b =10. 


334°62 
324°73 


4°35 
4°63 


Struve Pe ae 
Dembowski .. 


1831°90 
1863°97 


> 367 Cert. 
R. A. 3% 6™ 488. 
Dec. N. 0° 12’. 
Mags: a =8, b =8. 


Struve......... \1831°72 |281°40 


O95 
Dembowski ..[1864.01 |257°10 


0°50 


eee 


O = 97 Tauri. 
R. A. 45 58™ 58, 
Dec. N. 22° 53’ 6". 
Mags. a =64, 6 =73. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve, O. ...| 1849 Separated 
Dawes. ...00:+: 1866 Single 
> 728, 32 Ortronts. 

R. A. 52 23™ 185. 

Dec. N. 5° 50. 

Mags. a =5:2, b =63. 
Struve......... 1833°96 |207°75 | 1°04. 
Smyth......... 1839°20 |206:20 | 1°00 
Dembowski ../1863°33 |192°24 
= 749 Tavrt. 

R. A. 5 28™ 308. 

Dec. N. 26° 50’. 

Mags. a =63, 0 =6°6. 
Struve......... 1829°48 |203°45 | 0°67 
Dembowski ..|1862°98 “Soc | 0°60 
> 963, 14 Lyncis. 

R. A. 68 40™ 425. 

Dec. N. 59° 40’. 

Mags. a =6, 6 =6. 
Struve......... 1830°88| 51°51] 0°89 
Dembowski ..|1863°44| 59°53] 0°70 


= 997, » Canis Magoris. 
RB. A. 62 49™ oS. 
Dec. 8. 13° 48’. 
Mags. a =5, 6 =83. 
Struve......... 1831°20 |343°53 
Dembowski ..|1864°09 |337°20 


Bie, 
2°76 


228 


= 1216 Hypre. 


R. A. 8) r4™ 128, 
Dec. 8. 1° 
Mags. a =7, 6 =73. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve......... 1831°24 11517 O45 
Dembowski ../1863°35 |151°13 


> 13806, o? Ursa Masorts. 


MR. ALFRED BROTHERS’S 


> 1788, P. XIII. 238 Viremts. 


R. A. 132 NAT 428. 
Dee. 8. 7° 22!. 
Mags. a =63, b =7°3. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


Struve......... 1831°38 54°04 2°36 
Dembowski ../1864:85 | 67°70] 2°36 


= 1825, 121 Boors. 


1p lg GS Bt oh R. A. 142 1o™ 68, 

Dec. N. 67° 41’. Dec. Nazo%Are 

Mags. a =6°3, 6 =o}. Mags. a =7, 6 =8. 
Struve...... »+([1832°14 |263°55| 4°58 Struve......... 1830°66 |185°70| 3°44 
Dembowski ..}1863°19 |253°51| 3°25 Dembowski ..]1864°47 |178°80 | 3-89 
= 1316 Hypra. (A:B.) = 1837, P. XIV. 70. 

R. A. 9} o™ 548. R. A. 145 17™ 68, 

IDE. Sh O° gy Dee. 8. 11° 18’. 

Mags. a4 =7, 6 =114. Mags. a =7, 6 =8°6. 
Struve........ sloeee Bae 33 SGRUVO; scree 1829°83 |326°87| 1:49 
Dembowski ..!1864°84 |138'40 Dembowski ..|1865:07 |314-15 | 1°34 
> 1348, 110 Hypra. = 1863 Bootis. 

R. A. 9! 17™ 68. R. A. 14h 33™ 188, 

Dec. N. 6° 57’. Dec. N. 52° 10’. 

Mags. a =73, 0 =73. Mags. a =7, 6 =7°2.. 
Cfo 1831-02 334'3° I'09 Struve...... es 109°75 | 0°65 
Dembowski ..}1863°15 |328°15 | 1°66 Dembowski ..|1864°37 | 95°23 
> 1357 Hyper. = 1865, Z Boorts. 

* R. A. 92 21™ 305. R. A. 14> 34™ 3058, 

Weensageresy Dec. N. 14° 20’. 

Mags. a =7, 6 tod. Mags. a =43, 6 =s. 
Struve........./1831°20| 51°40| 7°54 Struve...... ee 30917 | 1°18 
Secchi......... 1856°27| 59°58 Dembowski ..|1864°78 |303°25 | 1-02 
= 1781 Virernts. = 1883 Boots. 

R. A. 13" 39™ 65. R. A. 14> 41™ 548, 

Dec. N. 5° 49'. Dec. N. 6° 33’. 

Mags. a =7, 6 =7°8. Mags. @ =7, 6 =7'4. 
Struve......... 1856°39 |246°56| o'99 Struve......... 1830°37 |271°96| 1:23 
Dembowski ..|1864°75 |251°77] 1:10 Dembowski ../1863°28 |262°70] 0:80 


CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


> 1934 Boorts. 


R. A. 152 12™ 248. 
Dec. N. 44° 18’. 
Mags. a =8-2, 6 =83. 


Epoch. | P. D. 


Struve ...... 1830°88 45°13 5°29 
Dembowski ...1864°88 | 38°10] 6°05 


= 1957 Serventis. 
R. A. 15> 29™ 18°. 


229 


> 2454 Lyra. 


R. A. 182 59™ 248. 
Dec. N. 30° 31'. 
Mags. a =8, 6 =9. 


Epoch.| P. D. 


NEUE nee cee 1831°50 203°97 0°75 
Dembowski ../1865°32 |225°97| 1°26 


> 2525, Creni 22. 
R. A. 19” 21™ 68. 


Dec. N. 13° 29’. IDG. IN. 7? ae 

Mags. a =8, b =9. Mags. a =7, b =73. 
Struve...... o BBS EEO, 203512 1-41 Sire nemeceee 1830°43 |255°90| 1°33 
Dembowski ..}1863°51 {155°79 | 1°53 Dembowski ..|1865°22 |240°384 | 0°60 
= 2165 Hercuuis 281. > 2544 Aquinz. (A: B.) 

R. A. 175 20™ 488. R. A. 195 30™ 248. 

Dec. N. 29° 35’. Dec. N. 8° o!. 

Mags. a =7%, 6 =83. Mags. a =7°2, 6 =93. 

Struve ......[1832°16| 45°72| 6°71 NEVE: 2 .--5-- 1828°99 [218-40 | 1°14 
Dembowski ..|1864°57| 51°17 | 7°10 Dembowski ..|1864°21 |208°90 | 1°20 
= 2199 Draconis. = 2556 Vunpecu.e. 

R. A. 175 36™ oS. R. A. 19" 33™ 248 

Dec. N- 55° 50’. Dec. N. 21° 55’ 

Mags. 4 =7, 6 =73. Mags. a =7, 6 =7. 
Struve......... 1830°94 |116°37 | 1°66 Struve......... 1829783 |188°40 | 0°56 
Dembowski ..}1863°06 |101°45 | 1°65 Dembowski ..|1864"91 |167°72 
> 2289 Hercuris 417. = 2576 Cyent. 

R. A. 182 3™ 548. R. A. 19% 40™ 188. 

Dec. N. 16° 27’. Dec. N. 33° 17’. 

Mags. a =64, 6 =7%. Mags. a =7°6, 6 =7°8. 
Struve......... 1829°96 |243°12| 1°20 Struve......... 1331°80 |318°80| 3°59 
Dembowski ..|1862°95 |234°33 | 1°24 Dembowski ..]1863°35 |308°85 | 3°27 
> 2487 Sacirrz. > 2744 Aquarit. 

R. A. 188 55™ 488. iit. AL, BO" BEES Gas. 

Dec. N. 18° 58’. Dec. N. 0° 59/. 

Mags. a =73, 6 =7°8s Mags. a =6%3, 6 =7'1. 
Struve........- 1839°79 | 80°84| 1°08 | Struve......... 1830°16 |190°54.| 1°52 
Dembowski ..|1863°06| 71°47! 0°80 Dembowski ../1863°24 |177°55| 1°50 


230 MR. A. BROTHERS’S CATALOGUE OF BINARY STARS. 


> 2746 Cyent. 
R. A. 20% 55™ o8, 


= 2976 Piscium. (B:C.) 


RAL 23 aU oss 


Dec. N. 38° 31’. Dec. N15 > 53". 
Mag. a =8, 6 =8°7. Mags. b =93, ¢ =9'9. 
Epoch.| P. | D. poche) SEs aida: 
fe} 4 fo} a 
Struve......... 1830°82 276°25 | 0°87 Struve......... 1828°43 |177°68 |15°88 
Dembowski ..|1863°33 |283°70 | 0°80 Secchipeeeveere 1857°41 |183°23 {16°31 
= 2804, Pucasi 29. — = 3046 Cert. 

R. A. 212 26™ 308. R. A. 232 49™ 308. 

Dee. N. 20° 6!. Dec. 8. 10° 16’. 

Mags. a =7'1, 6 =8. Mags. a =8, 6 =8'3. 
Struve......... 1831°62 |316°90| 2°90 Struve......... 1830°15 |232°20| 2°51 
Dembowski ..|1864°87 |324°52 | 2°75 Dembowski ..|1863°92 |241°05 | 2°90 
= 2928 Aquarit. > 3050, Anpromep# 37. 

R. A. 22" 32™ 68, RavAw2stioomn ass 

Dec. 8. 13° 20. Dec. N. 32° 57’. ‘ 

Mags. a =8, b =8°3. Mags. a =5°7, 6 =6°3. 
Struve......... peaete 327°70 | 4°69 SWANS ucasseoe 1832°65 |191°03 | 3°78 
Dembowski ..!1863°11 |319°35 | 438° Dembowski ..|1864°84 |199°52 | 3°17 
> 2944, P. XXIT. 219. (A:C.) = 3107, Opntvent. 

R. A. 22" 4o™ 368. R. A. 16 51™ 68, 

Dec. 8. 4° 57’. Dec. N. 4° 8’. 

Mags. a =7,€ =e. Mags. a == 05 i) = 8. 
SHHAUN@p2560000- 183 3°01 |157°32 |55°64 Struve.........[7831°83 |112°30| 1°59 
Dembowsk1 ..|1862°68 |14.6°67 |50°67 Dembowski ..|1864°53 |104°37 | 1°32 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. ol: 


XIV. On Mosses new to Britain. 
By G. E. Hunt, Esq. 


Read before the Microscopical and Natural History Sections, 
November 12th, 1866, 


Tue present Paper records the species of mosses that have 
been identified in Britain since the publication of Wilson’s 
‘ Bryologia Britannica,’ 1855. The number there described 
is about 450, and the additions amount to about 75 species. 
Doubtless much more yet remains to be done, for whilst 
‘some previously little-understood groups have been tho- 
roughly examined (such, for example, as Campylopus 
and Orthotrichum) some have hardly been studied—as e.g., 
Amblystegium, many species of which genus may be 
expected yet in Britain. Of all the groups, however, 
perhaps the one in the most confused and unsatisfactory 
state is that group of the Hypna called the Adunca, the 
species of which apparently each run through a series of 
forms similar outwardly in each species, according to the 
stations in which they grow. The various groups of mosses 
are intimately connected, showing that there is a gradual 
progression onwards between them; indeed there are few 
genera that have not close connecting links with those 
lower and higher than themselves. Thus Phascum is 
linked to Gymnostomum by the Phascum rostellatum and * 
G. squarrosum, both placed by Dr. Schimper in a sec 
tion Hymenostomum; Gymnostomum to Weissia through 
Weissia viridula, which sometimes is without a peristome. 
The Trichostoma gradually merge into Tortula through 
Trichostomum rigidulum &c., which Lindberg places in 
Tortula on account of the inclined teeth of the peristome ; 
and Tortula passes back into Pottia (a genus without a 
peristome) through Tortula cavifolia, a. species which Dr. 


232 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


Schimper has lately discovered to have the peristome of a ~ 
true Tortula, but so fragile that it has until lately escaped 
notice, falling off almost invariably with the operculum. 
It was formerly called Pottia cavifolia, var. gracilis. 
Pottia, again, merges, through Pottia minutula and Ana- 
calypta Starkeana (which, mdeed, may prove to be one 
species), into the latter genus. In many also of the 


mosses fruit is very rare; and this makes the task of dis- | 
crimination more difficult, and, in the case of new species, 
more uncertain, until after long and careful comparison. 
A great amount of light, however, has been thrown on the 
subject through Dr. Schimper’s invaluable publications ; 
and through the liberality of our continental friends, spe- 
_ eimens (which are certainly far more valuable than even 
the best descriptions) are more easily obtainable than for- 
merly. Of the 75 species considered to be well-authenti- 
cated as correct and new, 20 are mentioned in ‘ Berkeley’s 
Handbook,’ published in 1863. 

Andreea crassinervia, Br. Nearlyallied to A.rupestris, L. 
(A. Rothiit, Wils. Bry. Brit.). Common on rocks. The 
question rather seems to be, where in Britain the true 
A. rupestris occurs. ; 

Andreea falcata, Sch. Allied to the preceding. Disco- 
vered on rocks at Cryb-d-Yscil, Snowdon, by Dr. Schimper, 
June 1865. In Scotland, on hills near Callendar, by Mr. 
A. M‘Kinlay. 

Andreea alpestris,Sch. In Scotland, with the preceding, 
by Mr. A. M‘Kinlay. 

Sphagnum recurvum,P. Beauv. (S. Mougeotu,Sch.). Alhed 
to S. cuspidatum, but distinguished from it by its branch- 
leaves, recurved when dry, and elliptical, not attenuated 
towards the apex. It usually grows out of the water, whilst 
S. cuspidatum is almost submerged. The two species, how- 
ever, in the same circumstances, retain all their specific 
characters. Common in bogs throughout Britain, but 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 233 


fruiting less freely than S. cuspidatum. 8. laricinum, 
Spruce, is a variety of this species, and not of S. contortum 
as formerly supposed. A form intermediate between the 
two occurs abundantly on Carrington Moss. 

Sphagnum curvifolium, Wils. MS. Allied to S. sud- 
secundum, but differing in the cortical layer of the stem 
haying two or three rows of cellules (whilst there is only 
one row in S. subsecundum), in the absence of marginal 
pores to the leaves, and the entire acute leaves. A more 
brittle plant than its ally, discovered by Mr. Wilson in 
Cheshire, whose description I copy. I believe it to be very 
abundant near Portree, in Skye. 

Ephemerum tenerum, Br. and Sch. Weald of Sussex, 
Mr. Mitten. 

Seligeria tristicha, Brid. On calcareous rocks, Blair 
Athol. Berkeley’s Hand-book of Mosses, 1863. 

Seligeria calcicola, Mitt. (S. subcernua, Lindb. ; Gymno- 
stomum paucifolium, fide Carruthers in ‘Journal of Botany’). 
Allied to S. pusilla, but with the leaves of a brighter green, 
wider at the base, more acute above, nerve narrow. On 
chalk, Sussex Downs, Mr. Mitten. 

Dicranella curvata, Hedw. Llanberis, North Wales, 
Mr. Wilson. : 

Dicranum longifolium, Hedw. Ben Lawers, July 1866, 
Dr. Stirton. 

Dicranum viride, Lindb. Staffordshire, Mr. Bloxam ; 
identified by Mr. Wilson. 

Dicranum trichodes, Wils. Probably a Blindia, but, 1 
think, distinct from our British species Blindia acuta, to 
which, however, it is allied. Rocks near Bolton, J. White- 
head. | 

_Dicranodontium aristatum, Sch. First discovered by 
Mr. A. M‘Kinlay on rocks, Lennox woods, near Campsie ; 
occurs on nearly all the Scotch mountains, always, accord- 
ing to M‘Kinlay, in company with Dicranum circinatum, 

SER. III. VOL. Il. R 


234 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


Wils., of which he considers it a form. JD. circinatum 
occurs on wet rocks, as on Ben Voirloch, Loch Maree, &c., 
and has strongly faleate or circinate leaves, not decidu- 
ous; D. aristatum in dry places, and has the whole plant 
slender, and the leaves spreading, silky, delicate, and very 
deciduous. Under the microscope the two species are 
quite identical: fruit not known. 

Dicranodontium sericeum, Sch., Soccoth Hill, Arrochar, 
My. A. M‘Kinlay. A barren form of Dicranum hetero- 
mallum is very common on sandstone rocks, Cheshire, 
which may be confounded with this species. Fruit not 
known. 
Campylopus Schwarzii, Sch. (C. auriculatus, Wils. MS.). 
Exceedingly abundant in Scotland, and frequent in the 
south of Ireland, on rocks—also on Snowdon, North Wales ; 
liable to be overlooked as a state of C. flexuosus or C. 
longipilus. The structure of the leaf, however, more nearly 
resembles that of C. fragilis ; but the leaves are auricled 
at the base, have a nerve with only a single layer of large 
hyaline cells, and are not interspersed with flagella. 

Campylopus compactus, Sch. (C. Schimperi, Wils.). Fre- 
quent in the Scotch mountains, and also in the Hebrides 
and Shetland Isles. Allied to C. Schwarzii, but at once 
distinguished by its more slender habit and densely ces- 
pitose, compact habit of growth. 

Campylopus alpinus, Sch. (C. intermedius, Wils. MS.). 
On the moors near Llanberis, North Wales, and on rocks 
at Stronachlacher, Loch Katrine, G. K. Hunt ; near Arro- 
char, by Mr. M‘Kinlay, with fruit very sparing. To be con- 
founded with no species except Dicranodontium longirostre, 
from which it differs in its leaf, with longer, narrower 
cells in the lower part. The fruit is that of Campylopus. 

Campylopus Shawii, Wils. A most beautiful species (I 
think, nearest to C. setifolius), having long, setaceous, almost 
bristle-like leaves. Discovered by Mr. J. Shaw in the 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 235 


Outer Hebrides, July 1866. This and the preceding 
species, when found in dry situations, have the leaves fal- 
cate, and in wet ones frequently erect. 

Campylopus polytrichoides, De Notaris (C. longipilus, 
Br. & Sch. Bry. Eur., but not the Suppl. nor Wils. Bry. 
Brit.). Next to C. longipilus, but with more rigid stems, 
like those of a Polytrichum, and much shorter, wider leaves. 
Male only known. Cornwall, Jersey, and west of Ireland. 

Didymodon gemmescens, Mitt. MS. Leaves gemmi- 
parous, nerve excurrent ; allied to D. flexifolius. On old 
thatch, Amberley, Sussex, Mr. Mitten. 

Trichostomum sinuosum, Lindb. (Dicranella sinuosa, 
Wils. MS.). Leaves reflexed below, cirrous, serrate at 
the apex. Barren. On old walls, Bangor, Nov. 1863; on 
beech trees, Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, Mr. G. Davies. 

Trichostomum flavovirens, Br. Sands at Malahide, near 
Dublin, Dr. Moore ; Brighton, Sussex, Mr. G. Davies. 

Trichostomum cirrhifolium, Sch. Exceedingly abundant 
in crevices of rocks, Cromaglaun Mount, Killarney, with 
sete, July 1865, G.E. Hunt. Distinguished from Didy- 
modon cylindricus (Trichostomum tenuirostre, Hook.) by 
the more dilated bases of the longer leaves; nearest to 
that species. It is the Anectangium Hornschuchianum of 
Hook. and Tayl. Muse. Brit., but not the true species. 

Tortula cavifolia, Sch. (Pottia cavifolia, var. gracilis, 
Wils.) Mud-capped walls: Pontefract, Mr. Nowell; Oxford, 
Mr. Boswell. 

TortulaVahliana, Schultz. Near to T.oblongifolia, Wils., 
if not the same species. Angmering, Sussex, 1863, Mr. 
G. Davies. 

Tortula intermedia, Brid. Intermediate between T. 
rurals and T. levipila. Occurs plentifully on rocks and old 
walls in North Wales and Scotland, 

Tortula recurvifolia, Sch. Next to T. fallax, but dis- 
tinguished from it by its shorter, wider, papillose leaves, 

R 2 


236 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


trifariously arranged. Frequent on rocks and walls in 
mountainous districts. Fruit, which is very rare, occurred 
at Buxton, June 1865. 

Tortula fragilis, Wils. Distinguished from all other 
species of Tortula and Trichostomum by its very fragile 
and brittle leaves, thick, opaque above, with very large 
diaphanous cells below, and subulate in the upper por- 
tion, usually broken. Ben Lawers, Mr. A. M‘Kinlay, 
Sept. 1865. 

Grimmia commutata, Brid. Moncrieff Hill, Perth, by 
Dr. Stirton, July 1864; and more lately at Stenton Rocks, 
near Dunkeld, with fruit, Dec. 1865, Dr. White of 
Perth. 

Grimmia subsquarrosa, Wils. MS. Stenton Rocks, 
Dunkeld, Dr. White. 

Grimmia Hartmanii, Sch. Rocks, Wales and Scotland, 
probably not unfrequent. First poimted out by Mr. Wil- 
son. . | 

Orthotrichum Sturmu, Hoppe. Distinguished from O. 
rupestre by its mdistinctly 8-striated capsule, 16 equi- 
distant teeth, and absence of inner peristome. ‘Trap 
rocks, Scotland and Ireland. First pomted out by Dr. 
Wood. 

Orthotrichum anomalum, Hedw. and of Bry. Europea, 
but not of Bry. Brit., which is now named Orth. sazatile, 
Brid. Dr. Wood first pointed this out as a British species 
from specimens gathered at Aberdour, Fifeshire. Fre- 
quent in Scotland, occurs at Conway, always on trap rocks. 
Capsule 16-striated and peristome-teeth equidistant. .O. 
saxatile always on calcareous rocks ; capsule 8-striated and 
peristome-teeth in pairs. . 

Orthotrichum Shawti, Sch. (O. orneum, Wils. MS.). 
Distinguished from O. rupestre, which is abundant on trees 
in Scotland, by the beautiful white teeth of its peristome, 
reflexed so far as to lie back on the sides of the capsule, 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. PB 76 


16 in number, equidistant, no inner peristome, and by the 
glossy white, slightly hairy calyptra. On an ash-tree, 
Dailly, Ayrshire. Discovered by Mr. John Shaw. 

Orthotrichum pumilum, Sw. On ash trees at Inverkip 
and Dailly, Ayrshire. The O. pumilum of Wils., Bry. Brit., 
is O. fallax, Sw., and has a shorter, wider capsule than 
the present species. 

Orthotrichum obtusifolium, Schrad. Distinguished from 
all its allies by the plane, not recurved, margins of its 
ovate, ohtuse, gemmiparous leaves. On trees near York 
and Bristol. 

Ulota calvescens; Wils. Distinguished from U. crispa 
by its longer sete, and shorter capsule, not contracted 
below the mouth when dry, also by its smooth glossy 
calyptra. Fruit ripensin June. Discovered at Killarney, 
on young oaks, by Dr. Moore; Dailly and Loch Doon, on 
trees, Mr. John Shaw. he 

Zygodon gracilis, Wils. MS. Leaves plain at the 
margins, denticulate near the apex; areolation close and 
punctate above, large and pellucid below ; in habit much 
resembling Tortula recurvifolia, Sch. Old walls, Malham, 
Yorkshire. Discovered by Mr. J. Nowell, and fruit found 
by him, Sept. 1866. 

Atrichum angustatum, Brid. Inflorescence dioicous, 
leaves narrower, capsule narrower than in A. undulatum. 
Braes of Doune, with fruit, Mr. A. M‘Kinlay. Male plant 
in Sussex, Mr. Mitten. 

Atrichum tenellum, Rohl. Dioicous; a smaller, more 
slender plant than A. undulatum. Near Loch Goil Head ; 
near Killin, Perthshire. 

Atrichum laxifolium, James (A. crispum, Wils. MS.). 
A most beautiful species, differmg from 4. undulatum in: 
its dioicous inflorescence, shorter, wider leaves, and areola- 
tion twice as large. The male plant only found in Britain. 
Banks and rocks by the streams of the Saddleworth 


238 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


district. Borders of Oakmere, Cheshire, Mr. Wilson. 
The fertile plant is known in the United States. 

Timmia megapolitana, Hedw. Ben Lawers, 1866. Dr. 
Stirton. 

Polytrichum strictum, Menz. (P. juniperinum, var. B. 
strictum, Wils. Bry. Brit.). Mountain moors, common. 

Webera gracilis, Scleich. (W. Ludwigit, 8. gracilis, Sch. 
Syn. Muse. ; Bryum Schimperi, Wils. MS.). Allied to We- 
bera Ludwigit. Grows in very extended bright-green tufts 
on the grassyupper slopes of the mountains. Fruits onGoat 
Fell, Ben Lomond, and Ben Lawers ; barren on Snowdon. 

Bryum barbatum, Wils. MS. Very distinct in its ex- 
ceedingly fragile, loosely reticulated leaves and delicate 
stems. Perhaps allied to B. pallens. Ben Ledi, Dr. 
Stirton. 

Bryum neodamense, Itz. (B. pseudotriquetrum, var. cavi- 
folium,Sch.). Distinguished from B. pseudotriquetrum by its 
thread-like stems, wide-spreading, obtuse, concave, cucul- 
late leaves. In Southport, on places on the sands liable 
to inundation. 

Bryum latifolium, Scleich. (B. turbinatum, var. latifohum, 
Sch. Syn.). Atsight much resembling states of B. pseudo- 
triquetrum, but distinguished by its plain-margined leaves. 
Boggy places on Ben More; Shetland Isles, Shaw and 
M‘Kinlay. 

Bryum Sauteri, Br. and Sch. Mr. G. Davies has speci- 
mens of this species said to be from Teesdale (Spruce), and 
Mr. Mitten from Scotland. 

Bryum Muhlenbecku, Br. Although entered in Wilson’s 
Bry. Brit., this plant was not known as British until re- 
cently found on the Scotch mountains by Dr. C. Smith 
and Dr. Stirton. 

Bryum Duvalu, Voigt. Boggy places on the Clova 
mountains, Glen Lyon, Ben Lawers, Hartfell, near Moffatt, 
Helvellyn. 


= 
7 ~ 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 239 


Bryum murale, Wils. MS. (B. erythrocarpum, var. mu- 
rorum, Sch. Syn.). Distinguished from B. erythrocarpum 
by its more inflated capsule, of a deep purple, almost black 
colour when ripe. Grows only on the mortar of old 
walls. Marple, Cheshire. Frequentin North Wales. Kil- 
larney. B. erythrocarpum grows on heath and sandy 
ground. 

Bryum Funku, Schwegr. Sandy shore, Southport, Mr. 


Wilson. 
Mnium riparium, Mitt. MS. Allied to M. ortho- 


rhynchum, but the leaves with larger areolation, which 
much resembles that of M. serratum; that species, how- 
ever, has narrower leaves, and synoicous inflorescence ; 
the inflorescence of WM. riparium is dioicous. Sussex, in 
watery places, Mr. Mitten. 

— Mnium spinosum, Voigt. Ben Lawers, Mr. A. M‘Kinlay. 

Funaria microstoma, Br. and Sch. Capsule, when dry, 
smoother than that of F. hygrometrica; imner peristome 
rudimentary. Maresfield, Sussex, Mr. Mitten, May 1864 
(Seeman’s ‘ Journal of Botany,’ July 1864). 

Philonotis cespitosa, Wils. MS. Between P. calcarea 
and fontana; leaves more loosely areolated than in P. 
fontana; nerve about equally strong. Perigonial leaves 
acute, nerved to the apex. Plant slender. Male plant at 
Walton Swamp, Warrington, by Mr. Wilson. It has 
recently been found in Prussia. 

Philonotis parvula? Lindb. A very minute species, 
somewhat resembling P. marchica. Barren plant only 
found.. Shanklin, Isle of Wight, Mr. Wilson. 

Bartramia stricta, Brid. Leaves green or brown at the 
base, not white. Nerve excurrent ; peristome simple; in- 
florescence synoicous. Maresfield, Sussex, 1862. Dis- 
covered by Mr. G. Davies. 

The followimg four species are entered as varieties of 


Fissidens in Bry. Brit. :—. 


240 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


Fissidens viridulus, LL. Probably the plant so named 
in Bry. Brit. is a variety of F. pusillus. Inflorescence 
synoicous. Banks at Clitheroe, Dr. Wood. Near Bristol. 
Dr. Wood first pointed out the synoicous inflorescence as 
probably being a distinguishing feature in this species. 

Fissidens incurvus, Schwegr. Inflorescence monoicous. 
Male flower gemmiform, at the base of the fertile stem ; 
capsule curved, cernuous. The var. Lylei occurs in Che- 
shire, though very rarely. Varying in a single habitat from 
a minute plant, with 3 or 4 leaves, and setz 3 inch long, 
erect capsule, to a plant twice the size, with capsule 
slightly curved, and thence into true icurvus. The 
typical tmcurvus is very common on shady banks in Che- 
shire. 

Fissidens pusillus, Wils. Sandstone rocks. Difficult 
to distinguish from the small state of F. Lylei. 

Fissidens crassipes, Wils. Monoicous; male flower 
either gemmiform at the base of the fertile stem, or ter- 
minal on a long offshoot. A much stronger plant than 
the last, with larger leaves and thicker sete. Capsules 
erect. Frequent in sluices. Mr. Boswell sends magni- 
ficent specimens from Oxford, fully an inch long. 


Fissidens decipiens, De Not. (Fissidens rupestris, Wils. 
MS.). Alhed to F. adiantoides, but distinguished by its 
pale-margined thickened leaves, more slender growth, 
and shorter sete. Young plants, which, according to Mr. 
Wilson, are the males, are abundant, nestling between the 
wings of the leaves. Frequent on damp rocks and old 
walls throughout the more elevated parts of Britain. 

Habrodon Notarisii, Sch. First discovered by Mr. J. 
Nowell at Windermere, but not then distinguished. Killin, 
Perthshire, Mr. A. M‘Kinlay, July 1865. Devonshire, 
Mr. J. Nowell. On the trunks of elm and whitethorn. 
Previously only known in Sardinia and Italy. 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 241 


Myurella apiculata, Hub., distinguished from M. julacea 
(Leskia moniliformis, Wils.) by its less imbricated leaves, 
which terminate in a long apiculus. Ben Lawers, Perth- 
- shire. 

Brachythecium campestre, Br. On the ground, Mares- 
field, Sussex, Mr. Mitten. 

Brachythecium Mildeanum, Sch. This is the plant com- 
monly known in Britain as Hypnum salebrosum, occurring on 
the sands at Southport, Fifeshire, Dublin, Cornwall. The 
true H. salebrosum probably occurs on trees near Kirkham 
Abbey, Yorkshire, Rd. Spruce; also in Sussex. 

Brachythecium rutabulum, var. plumulosum, Sch. Has 
the aspect at first sight of a distinct species. Leaves usually 
narrower than in Hypnum rutabulum, somewhat striate, 
sradually tapering, acute, not acuminate ; and the plant has 
amore glossy aspect. On the same stems, however, occur. 
leaves like those of typical rutabulum. Sands at South- 
port. 

Eurhynchium Stokes, Turn. (H. prelongum, var. Stoke- 
sit, Wils. Bry. Brit.). Doubtless a common species, but 
liable to be overlooked as H. prelongum. On the conti- 
nent, on the other hand, where it is universally acknow- 
ledged, H. Swartz (a most distinct and beautiful spe- 
cies, common throughout Britam) and prelongum are 
confounded, H. Swartzii being apparently much the more 
common species there and usually distributed under. the 
name of H. prelongum. H. Stokesiti is known on rocks - 
in England, Wales, and Ireland. 4. prelongum has the 
stem-leaves widely cordate below, lengthened out into 
a long acumination, branch-leaves lanceolate; H. Stoke- 
sii, stem-leaves more shortly acuminated, and the branch- 
leaves ovate acuminate; H. Swartzi, both stem- and 
branch-leaves ovate, not acuminate. H. prelongum and 
Stokesii have the capsule olive, suddenly bent at its junc- 
tion with the sete; H. Swartzii, capsule reddish brown, 


24.2 MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 


subcernuous. The habit also of the three species is quite 
different. 

Eurhynchium hians, Hedw. (H. dispalatum, Wils. MS.). 
Allied to H. Swartzii, areole larger. Sussex, Mr. Mitten. 

Rhynchostegium megapolitanum, Bland (H. confertum, 
var.megapolitanum, Wils. Bry. Brit.). Sandy shores: South- 
port, Dublin, Hayle near Penzance, Sussex. I once saw 
the var. meridionale, Schr., at Southport. 

Hypnum giganteum, Schr. Frequent in bogs, but very 
rare in fruit. In fine fruit at Wybunbury Bog, Cheshire. 
Discovered by Mr. Wilson. 

Of the group Adunca we have four additional species, 
V1Z. :-— 

Hypnum intermedium, Lindb.=H. Cossoni, Schr. ? Fre- 
quent in bogs. 

Hypnum vernicosum, Lindb. (H. pellucidum, Wils, MS. ; 
H. aduncum, var. tenue, Wils. Bry. Brit.). Wybunbury Bog, 
Cheshire, Mr. Wilson. 

Hypnum Sendineri, Schr. Bogs, Scotland, A. McKinlay. 
Probably not unfrequent. 

Hypnum Wilson, Schr. (H. aduncum, Sch. Syn., but 
not of Berkeley’s Handbook, nor Wils. Bry. Brit., which 
are H. exannulatum, Giimb.). Abundant at Southport. 

Although the above four species are usually distinguished 
at once in the field, it is almost impossible to lay down any 
certain characters by which to identify them ; they are all 
dioicous, and may yet prove (distinct though they are in 
appearance) to form, along with H. exannulatum and H. 
Kneiffii, a single species. 

Whilst at this section, it is curious to mark the many 
species to which the name aduncum has been applied 
(Dr. Schimper has conclusively proved that it is really ap- 
plicable to the small form of H. Kneiffii) :— 

Ist. To H. commutatum B condensatum, together with 
FH. revolvens, by Hooker and Taylor. 


MR. G. E. HUNT ON MOSSES NEW TO BRITAIN. 243 


2nd. To H. exannulatum, by Wils. in Bry. Brit. 

3rd. To H. Wilsont of Schr. in Sch. Syn. Muse. 

4th. To H. vernicosum of Lindb., by Wils. MS.; auct. 
specs., R. A. Hedwig. 

5th. To H. Kneiffii, small form, which Dr. Schimper has 
recently shown to be the plant to which Hedwig originally 
gave the name of H. aduncum. 

Limnobium engyrium, Schr. Next L. palustre, but distin- 
guished by the very large fulvous alar cells of the leaves, 
and the shorter, wide, annulated capsule. Colour, a fine 
brown or red. Rocky streams: North Wales, Devonshire, 
Killarney. This, according to D. Schimper, may be distinct 
from the continental plant, and, as such, is named by him 
L. Mackayanum, Schr. It is more robust than European 
forms, but not more so than those from North America. 

Hypnum sulcatum, Schr. Allied to H. commutatum, but 
a much smaller, less robust plant; stems slightly pinnate, 
leaves less strongly nerved and striated. Prostrate in deep 
crevices of rocks: Ben Lawers, July 1865, G. EK. Hunt. 

Hypnum falcatum, Brid. (H. commutatum 8 condensa- 
tum, Wils. Bry. Brit.) ; H. controversum, Wils. MS.; H. ad- 
uncum, Hook.and Tayl.olim). Stems irregularly branched, 
capsule short, cernuous, leaves like those of H. commutatum. 
Bogs, very frequent. 

Hypnum imponens, Hedw. Much like H. cupressiforme, 
but distinguished by the large pellucid alar cells of the 
leaves and small phyllidia. Reigate Heath, Surrey, June © 
1864, female plant only, Mr. Mitten. See Seeman’s 
Journal of Botany, July 1864. 

Hypnum arcuatum, Lindb. (H. pratense 8, Wils. Bry. 
Brit.). Common in clay soils. 


DovusBtFUL SPECIES. 


Sphagnum auriculatum, Mitt. Apparently a var. of Sph. 


244 DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 


contortum, with stem-leaves very widely auricled at the 
-. base. Hayward Heath, Sussex, Mr. Mitten. 

Anectangium pellucidum, Wils. MS. Near Inverary,- 
Mr. Wilson, but probably a form only of A. compactum. 

Hypnum (Stereodon) canariense, Mitt. Like H. cupres- 
siforme, var. mamillatum, but differing in the sharply ser- 
rulate leaves, with shorter and wider cells. Turk Moun- ~ 
tain, Ireland, Mr. Wilson, 1859. 

Orthotrichum patens, Br. Dailly, Ayrshire, Dr. Schim- 
per. 

Dicranum robustum, mentioned in Schimper’s Syn. and 
Berkeley’s Handbook as perhaps occurring near Warring- 
ton, is not this species, but D. Schraderi. 'To the kindness 
of Mr. Wilson I am indebted for the sight of the plant in 
this habitat. He also mentioned to me the error. 


XV. On Polymorphina tubulosa. 
By Tuomas Axcocr, M.D. 


Read January 7th, 1867. 


In the course of examinations of the Dogs Bay sand, I 
have collected great numbers of detached branches of 
Polymorphina tubulosa, a form of foraminifer which is not 
likely ever to be found perfect in shore-sand. I have, 
however, met with several fine specimens of it with only 
the tips of the branches broken away ; but the most inter- 
esting examples are some which are more damaged, and 
show several structural features difficult, if not impossible, 
to be seen in any perfect specimens. The main body of 
the shell of Polymorphina tubulosa has the form of Prof. 


DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 245 


Williamson’s P. communis, and appears to be identical 
with it, this form, so far as I have seen, only taking on 
the peculiar final development characteristic of P. tubulosa. 
It consists, in the mature state, of the rounded shell of P. 
communis, more or less concealed by several covered pas- 
‘Sages, commencing at the mouth and taking a direction 
towards the base of the shell; these passages have their 
arched walls developed into tubular prolongations, extend- 
ing in all directions, and soon dividing irregularly into 
small branches, which, in one or two instances in the 
specimens shown, will be found to anastomose; they are 
either closed at their tips, as a small glass tube might be 
closed in the flame of a blowpipe, or they expand into 
little cauliflower-like excrescences, which arealso apparently 
closed. The shell composing the parts just described is 
very delicate and thin compared with that forming the 
rounded nucleus; and its outer surface is frosted with 
small glassy projections of an irregularly squared figure, 
like imperfectly formed crystals. It is evident that this 
is a hastily deposited shell-covermg on the sarcode, de- 
veloped since the last regular chamber of the shell was 
formed, and which, instead of collecting itself into a de- 
finite shape, to produce a chamber similar to the others, 
had been surprised, as it were, while fully expanded, 
by the calcifying. process, which consequently gives 
us a petrified representation of the ordinary appear- 
ance of this external sarcode with its pseudopodia pro- - 
truded, the probable suddenness of the process being illus- 
trated by the cauliflower excrescences which terminate 
many of the branches, and which have resulted from the 
contraction of the extremely fine terminal filaments of sar- 
code. It would appear that this is the final act in the life 
of the Polymorphina, its enfeebled vital power having been 
insufficient to gather together the sarcode for the formation 
of another regular chamber ; and therefore, properly speak- 


246 DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 


ing, the shell is fully formed and perfect before this last 
addition is made to it. There is evidence, however, in the 
specimens I have now, to show that the animal must have 
lived for a considerable time in a full-grown state before it 
thus terminated its existence by producing a permanent 
likeness of its living self. These specimens have their 
arched coverings, with the branches proceeding from them, ~ 
more or less broken away, so as to expose the floor beneath 
them, which consists of parts of the strong outer wall of 
the rounded nucleus, and which iu all the cases examined 
presents the same peculiar appearance. It is riddled 
through with many large holes, sometimes nearly circular, 
but oftener oval or kidney-shaped, and so numerous as to 
open a very free communication between the external sar- 
code and that in the interior of the shell. It is not un- 
usual to find Polymorphine (of a ditferent type from these) 
with a few small round holes in their outer walls; but 
they are scattered irregularly, are few in number, and have 
no evident relation either to one another, or to any 
structural peculiarity of the animal; whereas in the present 
case they are invariably contained within the area of the 
floor of the covered passages, and are so numerous, and 
encroach so much on each other, that in some parts they 
leave only narrow isthmuses of the original shell-wall be- 
tween them, and the larger holes have every appearance of 
having been formed by the union of several smaller ones. 
It is evident from a consideration of their character, that 
they have been produced by the removal of shell-material 
previously deposited ; and this gives them a physiological 
interest ; for though it is natural to suppose that a creature 
which has the power of precipitating carbonate of lime on 
its surface would also have the power of removing portions of 
it by solution or absorption, if required, the foraminifera 
are so structureless that we should hesitate to attribute to 
them this function without clear and positive proof. 


DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 24:7 


In order to follow the successive changes in the latter 
part of the life of this Polymorphina, as they are illustrated 
in the specimens before you, the large rounded shells of 
P. communis should be first noticed, in which no opening 
is perceptible excepting the mouth, showing that at this 
stage the numerous large holes which are afterwards formed 
have no existence. The great thickness of the outer walls, 
compared with that of the internal parts of the shell, shows 
that the animal must have existed for a considerable 
time in this condition, during which the surface has been 
strengthened by repeated deposits of calcareous matter 
from its coating of external sarcode; and the smoothness 
and evenness of this surface shows that the coating was at 
that time spread uniformly over the whole of it. But 
broken specimens of P. tubulosa show that a change in 
the disposition of the external sarcode has been afterwards — 
made; for in these it is found to have collected itself into 
two or three irregular bands, always commencing by one 
end at the mouth and extending towards the base of the 
shell—an arrangement clearly mapped out by the remains 
of its ultimately formed shell covering, fragments of which 
are seen still attached to the surface of the smooth rounded 
nucleus. 

The next event in the life of this Polymorphina is the 
formation of those numerous openings through the thick 
shell-walls, the observation of which in the. specimens 
before you has chiefly led me to introduce them to your 
notice. These show, by their definite position and the 
evidence they give of their progressive formation, that, 
when the external sarcode has once taken the form of 
bands, it remains permanently in that state, and that these 
bands hold a fixed position on the parts of the shell where 
they were at first placed. Among the specimens shown 
are some which only differ from ordinary shells of P. 
communis in being remarkably smooth on the surface, and 


248 DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 


in having numerous large holes, arranged in several rows 
radiating from the mouth towards the base of the shell, 
exactly as in undoubted specimens of P. tubulosa; but 
they are without the slightest trace of the external arched 
coverings and tubular branches. These might at first 
sight be set down as very much rolled and worn specimens 
of the ordinary P. tubulosa; but there is no evidence im 
the Dogs Bay sand of other kinds of foraminifera being 
worn to the extent which would be necessary to produce 
such a result; and the suggestion is uncalled for in this 
particular case, since it is evident that, at one part of the life 
of the animal, its shell must have presented the appearance 
of these specimens—unless it could be admitted that the 
holes are formed after the production of the shell covering 
on the expanded pseudopodia. But this last is clearly a 
single act, and its plan is evidently not such as would be 
adopted if the protection of sarcode were the object im 
view—the subdivision into many projecting branches most 
delicate and fragile at their points exposing it as much as 
possible to every injury, and therefore presenting a form 
and arrangement not at all likely to promote the comfort 
and convenience of the animal if it were to exist long in 
that state; and when to this we add that the pseudopodia, 
which are the means by which the foraminifera communi- 
cate with the external world, are sheathed by their shell 
covering so as to be incapable of action, and, moreover, 
that every part of the animal becomes completely enclosed, 
the conclusion seems inevitable that this is not a condition 
in which it passes any considerable portion of its life, but 
that it is, as already suggested, merely the closing and 
final act. The holes through the thick shell, however, 
present a different history; they show, by the quantity of 
shell-material removed, and by the way in which separate 
holes have run together, that time has been spent in their 
formation ; and they have also a clear and intelligible use 


DR. T. ALCOCK ON POLYMORPHINA TUBULOSA. 249 


in the economy of the animal, this being to open free 
communications between the internal and external sarcode. 
As to the process by which the shell-matter is removed, 
it seems impossible under the circumstances to suppose it 
done in any other way than by absorption by the sarcode 
in contact with it. Among the specimens shown is one of 
P. tubulosa which has been completely broken open; and 
this shows that the process of absorption is not confined to 
the outer walls, but that the inner partitions, which at first 
formed parts of the walls of the separate chambers, are 
also in great part removed, throwing the whole of the in- 
terior into one large irregular cavity. 

The quantity of carbonate of lime deposited, at once in 
the covering of the external sarcode and its pseudopodia, 
is so considerable that some unusual source might natu- 
rally be looked for to supply it; and this is apparently © 
found in the shell-material redissolved by the process just 
described, which must eventually lead to the sarcode being 
excessively charged with mineral matter, and may be con- 
sidered a sufficient reason for the final catastrophe ; and if 
the view here given of the later stages of the life of Poly- 
morphina tubulosa be correet, it adds another point of in- 
terest, by showing that the deposit of shell-material, in 
this one case at least, is more of a chemical than a vital 
act. 


SER. III. VOL. IIIf. : iS) 


250 MR. G. Vv. VERNON ON TEMPERATURE AT OLD TRAFFORD. 


XVI. On the Mean Weekly Temperature at Old Trafford, 
Manchester, for the Seventeen Years 1850 to 1866. 
By G. V. Vernon, F.R.A.S., F.M.S. 


Read before the Physical and Mathematical Section, January 3rd, 1867. 


As I am not aware that there have been any carefully 
deduced values of the mean temperature of this neighbour- 
hood, perhaps the data accompanying this paper may serve 
until such time as a more extended series can be obtained. 
I may state that the thermometers used have all been 
standard ones compared at Greenwich, and all the observa- 
tions have been reduced to that standard. The thermo- 
meters are placed upon a stand 4 feet from the ground, 
and carefully protected from radiation and other dis- 
turbing influences. 

Unavoidable omissions in my register I have been 

enabled to supply by the kindness of my friend Mr. John 
Curtis, F.M.S., whose thermometers are placed similarly 
to my own, and within a very short distance from my sta- 
tion. The mean values have generally been determined 
from the readings of the maximum and minimum ther- 
mometers in the shade, combined with readings of a stan- 
dard thermometer, read once a day, these observations 
being all made at 8 a.m.: in reducing them, Mr. Glaisher’s 
corrections for diurnal range have invariably been applied. 
Whilst upon this subject I would like to suggest the great 
desirability of having these corrections deduced from a 
-much longer series of observations; for although on the 
whole I find them to agree pretty closely, yet at times 
great differences exist, especially in comparing the mean 
temperature deduced from maximum and minimum read- 
ings with those of a standard thermometer read at certain 
fixed hours. 


MR. G. V. VERNON ON TEMPERATURE AT OLD TRAFFORD. 251 


The coldest weeks in the 17 years’ average appear to 
be those ending 7th and 14th January, and the warmest 
that ending July 22nd. 

The week ending December Boi appears to be the one 
in which the greatest variation of mean weekly tempera- 
. ture is likely to occur, and the one ending August 19th 
that in which the least variation occurs. : 

Taking the mean differences for each month, we obtain 
the following figures :— 


Mean difference. 


ie) 


Janwanyernnee cewaeas as Logo 
IXGITAHENAY nds 060 cae cds) con Le 
Marchomn Med. nk cu. 1 asKO 
PANTER MS son Mecca cee! aces recent D205 
May ono 600" 96. gad.) gag Ls 21] 
June pad! u yadoli Sbaee seas Menaouute5e b> 
July Meas uses | re Moan Nmgea 
PATIO USL: cee, Y shi) weceel veins wee 1) E20. 
September) crunk 2 | LO;20n, 
Octohoreeraess cee Weeie es 1HT634: 
November) i. ss “ses te 902 
iDeeinye dee sh | eee cay OD 


From this table we see that the greatest amount of 
variation occurs in December, and the least amount in 
August. 

October does not appear-to exhibit any abnormal varia- 
tion, although, from the amount of barometrical oscilla- 
tion doing so, it might have been expected it would do. 

I should like to see a much longer period observed for 
determining the values of the mean weekly temperature 
here, but hope, until such is the case, the values I have 
given may be deemed worthy of the confidence so short a 
period can deserve; and I can safely say, as the great mass 
of the observations were made by myself, that every care 
has been taken in order that they might be made cor- 
rectly. 

S.2 


252 MR.G.V. VERNON ON TEMPERATURE AT OLD TRAFFORD. 


Mean Weekly Temperature at Old Trafford, Manchester, 
106 feet above sea-level. 


1 5 35 ae = 
S25 | 288 £25 | 88s 
aS o HE a8 Bile 
: ghS | 8s e : gh | fae 
Week ending | & mt | BE & || Week ending | 8 > f 5 Eg 
gee ess gga |e 
se |AEs pamie b). = 
jo} fo) fo} fo} 
January 7 ...... 37°5 21°7 July BP dandec 60°0 13°4 
sj LEE nadace 37°5 15°0 99 |) So0de 53°3 10'7 
Pea Aosoee 38°3 13°9 ape. RGtasooee 60°6 16°9 
Hh  ERBiansobs 38°7 15"0 hi) 22 aos008 61-0 1271 
Feb. Bence 38-0 142 fo 48) conse 59°83 13°2 
pj » UL oovone 39°0 14°3 August 5...... 53°6 Pa 
a3, 0 DSheerces 38°5 22°38 i) Se ee 59°6 10°6 
59 2B socoae 37°7 232 u@aoohosll 7% 2) 
March 4...... 39°38 13°8 599 AD se0000 58-0 Ae 
tbl cacdds 39°5 I4'I Sept. 2 ...00. 578 6°4. 
as TS Sosa: 40°8 10°8 » (Waser 57°5 7°6 
9 25 ee 410 12‘2 55. ATO wmeasen 56'1 13°4 
ANE Tk sosone 42°4 16°3 i 2g locas 54°5 13°8 
Ay leepoad 45°4 1471 m ek ocaosdl GIES Io'l 
op 2iGheséaco 46°5 3:2 October 6 ...... 53°2 TPS 
op BB ongoos 48°0 I5'I Bp! 2kS}) ddnacs 49°8 112 
39 28) c00008 48°0 10°8 35. xO) ERE 49°0 12'7 
May Giescnce 47°3 12°38 i9 DP astovaes 471 16°6 
nS ie Renicrsne 49°3 12°9 Nov. Besser 44°7 8:7 
45 DON nas 52°83 18°4 Sy el Ouasenee 431 I4'0 
50 | yf deeded 54°4. 13°4 not 2 STWPMsissser 40°4 12°6 
June 3...-.| 54°7 12°6 oh ayn zaueeeens 40°6 16°38 
5 PK) ooooer|| et II'l Dee i SBaeAas 39'5 16°0 
ay of aooobe 572 I4'I 3 Sic ewes 40°! 14°3 
SRA ese 581 10°9 838) oneods 40°7 20°9 
ee ascnaae 39°0 18°6 
oy HO wesaeee 39'0 27° 


sae 


MR. J.C. DYER ON SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 253 


XVII. Notes on the Origin of several Mechanical Inventions, 
and their subsequent application to different purposes.— 
Part III. By J. C. Dymr, Ese., V.P. 


Read February 6th, 1866. 


On Nail-making by Machinery. 


Untit the early part of the present century, the use of 
wood in the construction of dwelling-houses and other 
buildings was very general in America. This caused a 
great consumption of nails, which were mostly imported 
from England, for the high price of labour among iron- 
workers prevented domestic nail-making, unless a more 
summary method could be devised for making them than 
by the hammer and anvil, which was then the general - 
practice. In this state of the trade many attempts had 
been made to substitute machinery for the hand-working, 
to supply the home market for nails. 

The kind of nails without heads, called “brads,” had 
long been made by cutting angular slips from the ends of 
hoop-iron plates, so that the new process to be discovered 
was that of forming the nail-heads by uniting the process 
of cutting the slips with one for pressing, in forming the 
heads of nails, and to effect these two operations by con~ 
tinuous movements from a driving-shaft. A machine was 
constructed for this purpose and patented in America by 
Mr. J.Odiorne about the year1806. Shortly after, a patent 
was also obtained by Mr. Jacob Perkins for his nail-making 
machine, which differed widely in its construction from 
the former, and effected the like purpose by completing 
the nails in one course of rotative action. At the time of 
obtaining those two patents, it was held doubtful as to 
which of the parties had first succeeded in putting his 
machine into practical operation ; and since the forms and. 


254 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


principles of action were quite distinct, each of the ma- 
chines was held to be so far a new invention as to render 
both patents good in law. 

A third patent for a nail-making machine was obtained 
by a Mr. Reed; but as this machine consisted of a mere 
combination of those of Odiorne and Perkins, it could at 
most be considered as containing some improvements on 
the former inventions. I understood it was so decided 
shortly after by the tribunals in some legal contests be- 
tween the respective patentees. In the year 1810 a com- 
pany in Boston *, having arranged with the patentees 
above mentioned, sent out to me in London models and 
specifications of each of the said nail-machines, with di- 
rections for patenting them in England, as “a communi- 
cation from abroad,” and for the jomt account of the com- 
pany and myself. 

Tt will suffice here to explain the main features of the 
mechanism in each of the above-named inventions, as 
the details of them may be seen at the Patent Office. The 
processes are as follows :— 

(1) In feeding the machine, plates of the proper width 
and thickness to form the nails are pushed endways over 
the fixed cutter, against a stop-gauge under the traversing 
cutter, and they are advanced at such an angle with the 
line of the cutters as to give to the severed pieces the 
proper taper to form the point and head ends of the nails, 
and the plates are turned over after each cut, to reverse 
the angle at the end for the next nail. The plate-iron is 
first rolled into sheets, some thirty inches wide, and then 
sheared transversely into slips to form the nails. By this 
means the fibres of the iron are lengthwise with the nails, 
which renders them flexible. 

(2) To cut off the slips to form the nails (the width of 


* «The Iron Works,” on the Charles River, of Messrs. J. and 8. Wells & 
Co., Boston. 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 255 


the plate being the length of the nails), fixed and moving 
cutters are used, the one placed on a solid bed, the other 
passing up and down their edges in contact, in the com- 
mon way of shearing iron. 

(3) One of the “gripping” or holding dies is placed 
just under the fixed cutter, the face of it and the cutter 
lying in the same plane, and the counter die moves for- 
ward to bring the grooves in both together, so as to hold 
the nails firmly, allowing a portion of the large ends to 
stand out beyond the dies, to form the heads of the nails. 

(4) The slips when severed are pressed down by the 
cutter, and a sliding piece advances (under the face of the 
cutter) to hold the nail against the face and prevent its 
falling, until it reaches the groove in the gripping dies. 

(5) The heading die then advances (the cutter having 
risen out of the way) and presses the projecting end of the 
nail into such kind of heads as are sunk in the end of the 
heading-die, say into the “ rose,” “clasp,” or “clout” heads 
of the trade. 

It often happens that success or failure, with power- 
driven machines, turns upon slight points in their con- 
struction ; and this appeared to apply to the patent nail- 
machines when they were first brought into use in this 
country. The making of cut nails was not a new manu- 
facture at that time: the method in practice was to cut 
and head the nails by two separate processes, the passing 
from one to the other, bemg done by hand; and this labour ~ 
was saved by uniting the cuttimg and heading in one 
course of operations by the patent machines. 

The practical advantages obtamed by these machines 
were found to be nearly inversely as the size of the nails 
made by them; hence the motive for using them chiefly to 
make the smaller sort of nails required in the market; 
but here an unlooked for obstacle arose—the new machine 
never having been used for, or adapted to, the making of 


256 MR. J. C. DYER ON THE ORIGIN OF 


any nails of less than about one inch in length, so that 
they could not be employed for making tacks, or very 
small nails, although this branch of the trade offered the 
greater chance of saving by self-acting machinery. It 
thus became an object of importance to make such changes 


in the patent machines as would fit them for making the 


tacks and small nails as well as the larger ones. 

To ascertain whether this could be effected, I began by 
tracing the successive movements to find where the de- 
fective action took place, and its cause. After the nails 
were cut, they were carried down to the heading-dies below 
the cutter so that the head ends would stand out from the 
gripping dies when the cutter rose out of the way of the 
heading die; but before the gripping dies closed upon the 
nail, a small presser advanced to hold the nail near the 
point, and prevent its falling out of the line of the dies ; 
but in the case of tacks or small nails, the greater weight 
of the other end caused it to fall and spoil the work. It 
therefore became necessary to have the nail held at the 
head end, in lieu of the pomt, when thus brought between 
the gripping dies, and for removing the holder out of the way 
to admit the advance of the heading die. ‘To effect this 
purpose I made the bed-cutter in two pieces to act together 


in one line for cutting, and the portion cutting the head | 


end, after serving to support the nail as above, to slide 
back out of the way of the heading, and by this simple 
contrivance, of dividing the bed-cutter into two parts, one 
fixed, the other moveable, the machine was quite as well 
adapted for making tacks and minute nails as it was before 
for making large ones; and this simple change rendered 
_ the patent nail-making a complete success; and by far the 
larger profits accruing from their use came from the ma- 
chines to which this slight change was applied. 

The course of movements of the several machines and 
their rate of working were exhibited by means of wooden 


SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 2a1 - 


models, constructed and adapted to make the nails and 
tacks from lead plates, merely by turning.a winch. These 
working models were shown and explained to many of the 
large manufacturers from the districts where the nail-mak- 
ing was mostly carried on. 

The average rate of working was about 100 per minute 
for nails, and 120 per minute for tacks. In after practice 
the tack-machines were found to average about 80,000 tacks 
per day of 10 working hours, whilst the best hand workers 
could only produce from 1200 to 1400 per day. Each 
machine being tended by one youth (similar to those em- 
ployed in hand making), it followed that one hand with 
the machine turned out as many tacks per day as would 
require over 60 working on the old plan with the hammer 
and anvil; wherefore this labour-saving machine, of 60 
for 1, was sure to supersede the hand makers im all kinds of 
tacks, except the few sorts required for special purposes ; 
and the average cost of the nails was also so far reduced as 
to ensure a very extensive demand for them; but the 
Dudley and other nail-makers could not be induced to 
change their system of working by adopting the patent 
machines. 

Shortly after, I succeeded in forming a company in 
London for establishing a patent nail manufactory on a 
large scale, to which company I transferred the patents, 
and undertook to superintend the building and starting of 
the machines for a period of six months; after which the - 
concern was left wholly in charge of the company, the 
principal party in which was then an eminent London 
banker, who supplied the capital, and, as head of the con- 
cern, selected the parties to be charged with the manage- 
ment of the busimess. Besides a small sum received in 
money, I was to receive in compensation for the patent | 
rights a certain share of the profits to arise from their 
exercise; but, from the lack of mechanical knowledge and 


258 MR. J.C. DYER ON SEVERAL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS. 


business talents that appeared in the management, as also 
from some differences about the capital in the concern, I 
was induced to consent to an outright sale to the Company 
of my contingent share of its profits at a price which did 
not exceed what my share ought to have produced per 
annum, if the affairs had been conducted with judgment — 
and prudence. I refrain from naming any of the parties, 
and have merely stated the above facts in justice to my- 
self and to my friends in America before mentioned. 

The principal movements in the nail-machine were given 
by the crank, lever, and wedge actions in common use, and 
therefore require no special notice; but in that invented 
by Mr. Perkins the heading dies were worked by what he 
called a “ Toggle-joint,” this beimg the finger-jomt. It 
was suggested to him by observing the process of layimg 
down floor-boards by carpenters :—that of nailing down 
two boards at some distance apart and placing several loose 
boards between them ; then, bringing the edges of the latter 
together, they are pressed down between the fixed boards 
with a force that pmches them into the smallest prac- 
ticable space without crushing the wood. This joint acts 
upon the principle of the wedge, with two circular faces 
meeting at the tangent to the circle, and thus acting 
like a pair of rollers, to pinch or press any body brought 
between them with a force limited only by the rigidity of 
the meeting faces. Now this force was found very efficient 
in pressing the ends of large nails into the several forms 
of heads required, and is here referred to because it has 
been since adopted and found very efficient in riveting- 
machines for making steam-boilers, bridge-girders, and in 
- some others of recent invention. 

The new system of nail-making, originating as above 
stated, has been so widely extended as to give profitable 
employment to many thousands of workmen, and to supply 
an important article of very extensive use, both for home 


MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OF LEPIDOPTERA. 259 


consumption and for exportation; wherefore it seemed 
proper briefly to record the names of the parties from 
whose joint labours have sprung this important and suc- 
cessful branch of manufacturing industry and trade. 


XVIII. Further Remarks on the Plumules or Battledore 
Scales of some of the Lepidoptera, with Illustrations by 
Mr. J.Sipresotuam. By Joun Watson, Esq. 


[Read before the Microscopical Section, March 25th, 1867. | 


Havine on two former occasions drawn attention to cer- 
tain peculiar scales belonging to the Rhapalocera division 
of the Lepidoptera, as serving in some degree for generic 
or specific classification, and having then limited my re- 
marks to the Pieridze and Lycznidz, I now beg to state 
the result of observations made in other families. 

In conjunction with my friend Mr. Sidebotham a com- 
plete treatise is in preparation, embracing the whole sub- 
ject of these plumules ; it is to be illustrated with several 
hundreds of figures; but the completion of the large 
number of plates necessary will occupy considerable time. 
The figures will be arranged in generic groups of all the 
species (or so-called species) which can be obtained, so 
that observers may judge whether or not the plumules of 
some differently named species are identical. 

In the first place, referring to the genus Pieris, already 
treated of, I desire to draw attention to a small group of 
species placed at the beginning of the genus, which display 
no plumules. There are four species, viz. Thestylis, an 
unnamed neighbour, Clemanthe, and Autothisbe: we have 
before seen that the plumules are the possession of the 
males only; now, while deficient in this peculiarity, these 
species have another of their own, viz. a strongly marked 


260 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


serrated costal margin of the upper wings, easily felt by 
running the finger along the edge. A short time ago I 
drew Mr. Hewitson’s attention to them, expressing a wish 
that they might be more correctly placed in a new genus. 
Mr. Hewitson had some time ago separated this group in 
his cabinet, and Mr. A. R. Wallace, who is at work on the 
Pieride, has done the same; and I was much pleased to — 
receive from him lately an inquiry respecting the absence 
of plumules, showing that he attaches value to the subject. 
He proposes to call the new genus Prioneris, from the saw- 
like structure of the costal margm*. The only other 
species of Pieris which I have examined without finding 
plumules are <Agathon, Protodice, and Callidice; the 
absence is very remarkable in the two latter, as their 
allies Daplidice and Hellica are abundantly supplied there- 
with. 

There is a group of this genus to which I did not allude 
in my first papers, being then doubtful whether its scale 
could be considered a plumule—that is, of a character sery- 
ing for distinction ; such scales are very abundant on P. Ly- 
cimnia, Flippantha, Isandra, and some congeners, showing 
that these are perhaps all varieties of one insect. You will 
see a figure of it on Pl. I. fig. 6a; and great has been my 
surprise to find a somewhat similar form in some members 
of the Danaide family, to which further reference will be 
made; these have not the bulb-and-socket apparatus. 

The interlinking of affinities, and the manner in which 
Nature loves to repeat her works with variations, are 
strikingly shown in the plumules generally ; and throughout 
the different families there may be observed assimilations 
_of form existing in widely separated groups, just as is the 
case in the insects themselves. 

* Tt is interesting to note that a similar serrated costa occurs in some 


species of Papilio, of Charaxes, and of Gonepteryx ; and these are all without 
plumules. 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LEPIDOPTERA. 261 


Plumules is not an appropriate name for some of the 
forms of the scales which serve for distinctive classifica- 
tion ; nor is battledores, which has been applied to those 
of the Lycena genus; a more universal name would be 
better, proclaiming their private and peculiar property ; and 
I would suggest Idiolepides (from ié:os, private and pecu- 
liar, and Aeris, a scale) ; but we will at present continue 
the former term, plumules. 

Before entering into a relation of the families and genera 
in which these objects are found, let me say something 
about them specially for microscopists. I have before 
described them as rotund or cylindrical; but a term sug- 
gested by Mr. Sidebotham, viz. bellows-shaped, is more 
characteristic and correct. It is manifest that, if the form 
of plumule of P. Rape were actually rotund or cylindrical, 
the peduncle and bulb would often, on a slide, be covered - 
with the membrane ; but, when mounted, the scale always 
shows the lobes on each side of the bulb, proving its, in 
some degree, appressed form. 

Then, as to the parts of the sect where they are to be 
found: generally on the upper surfaces of the wings, some- 
times most abundant on the primary, sometimes on the 
secondary ; usually in or near the discoidal cells of both 
wings ; but occasionally very strangely placed, as we shall 
presently see when referring to the genus Euplea. 

The best way of collecting and mounting is by gently 
pressing the wing of the insect against a glass slide, by 
which means a sufficient quantity of the scales will adhere ; 
to get a clean mounting, it is necessary to brush off the dirt 
which may be on the wing with a camel-hair pencil; but 
then care must be taken that the pencil does not convey 
scales to slides of other species; and, in fact, suspicious 
care must be used when mounting a number of slides, 
as the light scales will often be floating in the air and 
alighting unexpectedly on the slide which is under opera- 


262 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


tion. Then cover witha thin glass, and fix with paper. In 
some small insects it is more convenient to take off the 
scales in the first instance on the thin cover, and then 
to affix it to the slide. The plumules are mostly of so 
delicate a membranous structure, and so deficient in pig- 
ment, as to become too transparent (and sometimes almost 
invisible) in Canada balsam ; but it may be used with good ~ 
effect where they carry some amount of pigment; and the 
structure of those of the Lycenide is thereby beautifully 
shown, although these are among the most hyaline. In 
some genera and species they are so small and so finely 
striated as to make a }-inch object-glass desirable to re- 
solve them satisfactorily, or at least a 4, with a B or C eye- 
piece ; while a 2-inch is sufficient for others. 

The striz particularly should be observed with high 
powers. Occasionally scales of different species appear 
under a low power identical, but a higher one reveals a 
complete difference of structure. 

Taking for our text-book the ‘Genera of Diurnal Le- 
pidoptera’ of Doubleday, Westwood, and Hewitson, we 
proceed to state the additional families and genera where 
the plumules have been found. Throughout this work 
there is evidenced an inkling of the writer’s appreciation 
of the value of the scales, or of some of them, for aid in 
classification, but more in the direction of genera than of 
species; and the distinct character of the plumules is not 
recognized, nor the probability remarked that the insects 
are furnished with two classes of scales, as was suggested 
in a former article. In the consolidated treatise we are 
undertaking, we shall notice, seriatim, all the families and 
_ genera, with remarks on peculiarities of some scales, even 
when they do not assume the form of plumules. 

In the work above named, the Diurnal Lepidoptera are 
divided into 15 families. 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LEPIDOPTERA. 263 


Family 1. Pariuionip#.—No plumules found. 

Family YI. Pirrip#.—Found on many species already 
mentioned. 

Family W111. Acrroni1p#.—None. 

Family 1V. Danatpz.—It is in the genus Huplea 
only of this family that plumules have been found ; 
and they bear a very different form from that of -those 
of other genera, with the exception of an approach in 
Pieris Lycimma, Pl. V. fig. 6a*. The typical form of 
Euplea is shown in Pl. V. figs. r and 2; and I have 
found them on 13 species, whether or not all distinct 
may be questioned, but there can be no doubt about 
the two in the plate. When the plates containing all 
the figures are ready, their similarities and differences 
will be apparent. It is to my friend Mr. Labrey’s in- 
dustry and information that I owe a knowledge of these 
plumules. I had often examined the insects unsuccessfully : 
and it well might be so; for these scales are not found in 
the ordinary places, but, as I believe, only in the upper 
part of the secondary wings, where overlapped by the pri- 
mary and fringing the light-coloured patch on the inferior 
wings ; here they exist in Huplea Midamus in large and 
compact masses, presenting an appearance similar to a 
bed of bulrushes at the edge of a marshy lake. I cannot 
doubt that further search in this genus will be rewarded 
with valuable evidence as to the identity or difference of 
many species. 

Family V. He.icontiv#.—Here I have been able to find 
plumules in the genus Heliconia only, but in 26 species. 
They are of singular interest in our view of their use for 
classification and for the determination of species. (In 
illustration of the following remarks I produce specimens 
of the insects to which reference is made.) 


* The plates have been drawn by Mr. Sidebotham, specially for the illus- 
tration of this paper. 


264 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


Mr. Bates, in his ‘ Naturalist on the River Amazons,’ 
vi. pp. 251 &c. (1863), devotes some pages to show that 
many species of this genus have had a common origin, 
proving the “ manufacture of new species in nature.” He 
takes ‘‘ Melpomene, abundant in Guiana, Venezuela, and 
some parts of New Granada,” as the original species, and 
argues that Thelxiope, “ranging 2000 miles from east — 
to west, from the mouth of the Amazons to the eastern 
slopes of the Andes,” is merely a local modification; and 
yet he says that “if local conditions, acting directly on 
individuals, had originally produced this race or species, 
they certainly would have caused much modification of it 
in different parts of this region; for the Upper Amazons 
country differs greatly from the district near the Atlantic 
in climate, sequence of seasons, soil, forest-clothing, peri- 
odical inundations, and so forth.” He then proceeds to 
contend “ that there is some more subtle agency at work 
in the segregation of a race than the direct operation of 
external conditions,’ and that the principle of natural 
selection, as lately propounded by Darwin, “ seems to offer 
an intelligible explanation of the facts.” 

The plumules, however, enable an observer to detect 
without doubt the species: if those taken from any number 
of specimens of the species Melpomene, Thelxiope, Acde, 
and Vesta are examined, each can be named; but mere 
varieties of each species will exhibit the same plumule, as 
in the case of Thelaiope and Aglaope. Surely, if the Dar- 
winian theory were true, that a change is constantly in 
progress, we ought to find plumules of an undecided form — 
in some specimens, partaking of and hovering between 
_ the characteristics of their supposed ancestors. With all 
deference to Mr. Bates, whose opportunities of observa- 
tion have been great, 1 cannot but regard his theory as 
improbable and far-fetched. Why should Thelaiope have 
descended from Melpomene rather than the latter from 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LEPIDOPTERA. 265 


the former? and why suppose any necessity for derivation 
at all? Butterflies are often confined to narrow localities ; 
and when species are widely spread in various geographical 
habitats, varieties occur ; but the species continue recog- 
nizable, and the more specimens can be obtained the 
more certain is their determination. It is much more 
probable and philosophical to suppose that an intelligent 
Creator placed His creatures in such localities and con- 
ditions as suited their various requirements, and main- 
tained them there; and, as Mr. Bates says, “a proof of 
this perfect adaptation is shown by the swarming abun- 
dance of the species.” 

This swarming abundance and teeming variety of life 
in the Amazons region is not confined to the insect tribe ; 
for “ Prof. Agassiz, who has lately been engaged in ex- 
amining the fish of that river, states that he has not found ~ 
one fish in common with those of any other freshwater 
basin, that different parts of the Amazons have fishes 
peculiar to themselves, that a pool of only a few hundred 
square yards showed 200 kinds of fish (which is as many 
as the entire Mississippi can boast),and that in the Amazons 
itself 2000 different kinds exist.” (Atheneum, Mar. 23, 
1867.) . 
We must look in vaim for specific distinction, if such 
different insects as Heliconia Melpomene, and Thelxiope 
are to be regarded as of one common origin. Mr. Bates 
admits that “both are good and true species, in all the 
essential characters of species; for they do not pair to- 
gether when existing side by side, nor is there any appear- 
ance of reversion to an original common form under the 
same circumstances.” 

Family V1. Acrmipm.—No plumules fami 

Family VII. Nymruatip#.—Found in the following 
genera :— 

Eueides.—Here on 5 species they have been detected, 
SER, III. VOU. LID. . ui 


266 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


and they bear a very strong similarity to those of the 
Heliconide, the’ insects themselves being also alike. A 
comparison of Heliconia Vesta and Eueides Thales would 
induce a casual observer to regard them as almost identical ; 
but Mr. Hewitson* has pointed out “a difference in the 
position of the discoidal nervures of the posterior wing, 
as well as in the orange rays which proceed from the base 
of the posterior wing ;” and he well says, “ If a butterfly 
or a genus resemble another (though placed systemati- 
cally at a distance from it), let it be in colour or in form, 
it may be expected to resemble it in other characteristics.” 
The plumule of Hueides Thales you will see on Pl. V. 
fig. 5. | 

Colenis.—Found in 5 species, two of the forms being 
shown on Pl. V. fig. 6. 

Agraulis.— Found in 3 species, introducing a very dis- 
tinct type, which we shall see is, as it were, played upon 
and repeated with variations in other genera. Pl. VI. 
5 7 

Terinos.—On the two species of this genus which I 
possess there is a very peculiar pear-shaped scale, not, 
however, I think, a plumule. I notice this genus here in 
its place because it possesses hairs of a bifid form at the apex, 
of a character similar to some which will presently be 
noticed under the genus Argynnis. 

Lachnoptera.—This genus consists of a single species, 
“* Tole ;” and its very peculiar scale is shown on Pl. VI. 
fig. 8. It was noticed by Doubleday, who regarded it as 
probably of a sexual character, although he had never 
seen a female; nor have I. He describes it as “a hair- 
like scale, terminating in a vane like the feathers of the 
raquet-tailed humming-birds.” 

Argynnis.—Plumules found on 15 species. They have 
often been noticed by microscopists ; and two were figured 


* Journ. of Ent. yol. i. p. 156. 


BATTLEDORE SCALES OF LEPIDOPTERA. 267 


in the article by Deschamps, to which reference was made 
in my first paper. The type is shown on Pl. VI. fig. 9, 
and Pl. VII. fig. 17. Besides these plumules, however, 
there are found on some species some plumule-like hairs, 
as shown on Pl. VII. fig. 16. Many of the Lepidoptera 
possess fringes of long hairs, but with a simple pointed 
termination, while these have a large brush at the end. 
I doubt whether they should be regarded as serviceable 
for specific distinction; but further examination is desi- 
rable. It is strange that I have not succeeded in finding 
plumules on any individuals of the second section of the 
diurnal species of this genus, nor on any of the very closely 
allied genus “ Melitea.” These two genera have been 
much mixed together by entomological classifiers. Will the 
presence or absence of plumules serve for a permanent 
separation ? . 

Athyma.—Plumules have been found on II species, a 
type being shown on Pl. VI. fig. 10. I have searched in 
vain for them on the closely allied genus Neptis. There 
has been great difficulty in the generic separation of this 
group; but perhaps hereafter the existence of plumules 
may aid classifiers with regard to the allied genera LE 
Neptis, and Limenttis. 

Kteona Tistphone.—This insect, although placed among 
the Nymphalide in our text-book, belongs no doubt to the 
family Satyride, as is now generally admitted, and as its 
plumule would serve to prove. 

Thus we see that in the large family Nymphalide plu- 
mules have been discovered in but few genera, and those 
principally of the subfamily Argynnidze of some authors. 

- Familes VIII: and IX. Morrutp# and Brassotipa.— 
No plumules. ean 

- Family X. Savyrip#.—Here we have generally a well- 
marked type, subjéct, however, to ny aberrations: 

* Corades.—Fouiid in’ 3 species. 


268 MR. J. WATSON ON THE PLUMULES OR 


Taygetis—Found in 4 species. Pl. VI. fig. 11, exhibits 
the form of the plumule of 7. Rebecca, reminding us in its 
outline strongly of Pieris Belladonna; the striz, however, 
are very different; and this group does not possess the 
bulb-and-socket apparatus. 

Zophoessa.—Found in 1 species. 


Euptychia.—Found in § species. See the singular form — 


of that of Canthe, Pl. VII. fig. 13, reminding us again, by 
its large lobes, of some of the Pieride. 

Erebia.—Found in 13 species. A type shown in Pl. VII. 
fig. 14. 

Chionobas.—Found in 7 species. A most interesting 
northern group, principally inhabiting Lapland and Nor- 
way. 

Lasiommata.—Found in Io species, the forms of Mera 
and Megera having been figured by Deschamps. 

Satyrus.—Found in 32 species. A type, Beroé, is shown 
on Pl. VII. fig. 15. The plumule of Janira has long been 
known. 

Families X1., XII., and XIII. Evuryrs.ina, Lisytas- 
1Dz, and Erycrnip#.—No plumules found. 

Family X1V. Lycamnipz.—To these battledore: scales I 
have before called your attention. 

Family XV. Hesrprripx.—None found. 

Having thus completed an account of observations already 
made, I annex a Table showing an approximate estimate 
of the number of species where plumules have been found 
to exist, and of the genera possessing them. Doubiless 
there is room for further research ; and I would urge upon 
all a prosecution of this interesting study. I doubt not 
that among the Rhopalocera there will be further discov- 
eries made; and the Heterocera afford an untravelled field 
to an observer. It will be very interesting to entomologists 
to learn whether any plumules are to be found among 
them, or any other class of scales serving for generic or 
specific classification. 


BATTLEDORE SCALES Of LEPIDOPTERA, 


Genera in which Plumules have been found. 


P Species. 

Euterpe, about................-. 19 

Ontiay Bee Fc cee ea catocsek I 

PCRISW sano sneceneenereacase 132 

CASITA Crp ae Sat se BES R EEE 2 

ANTHINOO TETAS sosccencnecenondeaoe 29 

Whesiiag) 2520s. 52.86s<502+02003 4 

JIG IOTAC Dane ae ae 3 

PBMOM Ap erase ssoeceadesceersaenn: 11—Pieride ......... 20% 

BIN Ceavn cess ceases es seed 15—Danaide ...... 15 

HPC ania cuncn eee sk cc 26—Heliconide ..... 26 

HOMCIGES scant. ser esese ten eet 6 

Colenisws ta ee gecsir 5 

J NTI IDULIS) v esdasepboccmcenseenoccee 3 

MBenimasia.cea- eaten ahs see es b 

Machnopteraeeseeassce ee -. se I 

AD YM S Resear). Veoue seein 17 

pAtHVAN aoe veces ees te.seeeees 11—Nymphalide... 45 

Woradesr ais tthiee Silo} ie Sose 3 

ULERY EXE IST see ecee BeBe ae SAREE 4 

Pronoplilampscccsseessescetse: 9 

MD bi steeenceecececae sues siceser 5 

ZOPNOCSSA. ....-...oeoceeseeeases- I 

1B 1b 0 5 (Oa0 En ceemcocansonbnnsseecese 5 

More Lah ae setae asisieecneisccesione 13 

Chionobastess ae eecreee cos 7 

MariommMmatas.s.c.ss2-2-2e2e== fe) 

Satyrusiosscecccaeartsasaeeconsas 3 2—Satyride: Boceee 89 

Way CRNA san sseecese sons skes dees 121 

DAMIS\ hia. e faetesonseue estas =e: 9 

DT pSAsh es. Ssceseneiadsaease 1—Lycenide...... 131 
30 Genera. 507 Total ...... 507 


269 


270 MR. GEORGE KNOTT ON THE 


XIX. On the Variable Star R Vulpecule. a=20> 58™ 
22°95 O0=+23° 17°2'. Hp. 1865:0... By -Guoren 
Kwort, F.R.A.S. Communicated by JosrrpH Baxen- 
DELL, F.R.A.S. 


Read at a Meeting of the Physical and Mathematical Section, March rst, 1866. 


Tuts star, which is No. 457, hour xx, in the Palermo 
catalogue, was first recognized as variable, so far as I am 
aware, at the Observatory of Bonn. It appears to have 
been observed with some care by Dr. Winnecke at the 
Pulkowa Observatory ; and ima letter to the Rev. B. Main, 
printed in vol. xxi. of the Monthly notices of the Royal 
Astronomical Society, p. 285, that able astronomer assigns 
the following elements, “ which represent seven maxima 
observed in the course of three years, with reference to 
Piazzi’s estimations of magnitude in August, 1803,” viz.:— 


Period= 133°6 days. 
Epoch =1860, Nov. 6. 


Having observed this star with more or less regularity 
during the past four years, it occurred to me that it would 
be interesting to compare the elements resulting from a 
discussion of my own observations with those which had 
been deduced by Dr. Winnecke. ‘The results of this dis- 
cussion I have now the honour of presenting to the Man- 
chester Literary and Philosophical Society. 

Projecting my observations in the usual way, I obtain 
the following dates of maxima and minima, with the cor- 
responding magnitudes :— 


VARIABLE STAR R VULPECULE. Paya | 


Maxima. Minima. 
1861. Dec. 30°0, 8:4 mag. 1861. Oct. 26°3, 13°6 mag. 
MeO2 Ochs 15.0, 7:9 ,, 1863. Sept. 180, 1372 ,, 
*1863. Nov. 194, 7°6 ,, 1864. June 19°5,13°2 ,, 
1864. Aug. 16°3,7°5 ,, Nov. 4:0, 13°1 ,, 
1865. Jan. 73,77 4, 1865. Aug. 63,128 ,, 
May 25°5,7°8 ,, Dec. 14°3,13°77 » 
Oct. 5°5, 7°55 


Treating the seven observed maxima according to Mr. 
Baxendell’s method, we obtain the following elements :— 
a Period=137°59 days. 

Epoch = 1864, April 4°95. 

Comparing the observed times of maximum with those 
calculated from these elements, and also from those of Dr. 
Winnecke, we obtain the followmg differences between 
calculation and observation :— 


Knott’s Elements. Winnecke’s Elements. 


Cale. — Obs, Calc.— Obs. 
days. days. 
+1°41 —372 
—2°4I =5@ 
—o'or +04, 
+424 +71 
= 2D SF T°3 
—2°78 +17 
+3181 SEIS 


the sums of the squares of these numbers being 43°75 and 
143°78 respectively. But while it thus appears that my 
own observations accord moderately well with Dr. Win- 
necke’s elements, it must be confessed that these latter 
represent more satisfactorily than my own (as indeed might 
be expected) the magnitude-estimates of Piazzi in the year 
1807 and 1810, as given by Dr. Winnecke in No. 1224 of 
the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten.’ At the same time it 
must be remembered that my own elements were deduced 

* The projection of a series of his own observations of this maximum 
obligingly communicated to me by Mr. Bagendell, yields the following re- 


sults, in gratifying accordance with ay own :—Date of maximum, 1864, 
Noy. 18°9, mag. 7°5. : 


aie MR. GEORGE KNOTT ON THE 


solely from my own observations, without refereuce to any 
of earlier date. 

Treating the six observed minima in the same manner, 
we obtain the following elements, the period presenting a 
striking accordance with that deduced from the observed 


maxima— 
Period=137°55 days, 
Epoch =1864, June 17°50, 


the differences between the calculated and observed times 
of minima bemg— 
Cale. — Obs. 
days. 
12°35 
—1°60 
— 200° 
SOS 
—2°55 
+ 5°40 
An examination of the mean light-curve (a copy of 
which accompanies this communication), which was laid 
down from the coordinates resulting from a discussion of 
all the observations I have obtained, yields the following 


results :-— 


Mean magnitude at maximum .................. Gebel 
Mean magnitude at minimum .............. ance UGA 
Mean range of variation.......... OB Sasceciist 5°37 magnitudes 
Meanimagnitnderatscssstt. cere nnrece eeCe 10°32 
Interval from minimum to maximum ......... 660 days 
Interval from maximum to minimum ......... 71°6 days 
Interval from min. to mean mag................ 25°8 days 
Interval from mean mag. to max. .............. 40°2 days 
Interval from max. to mean mag................ 37°3 days 
Tnteryal from mean mag. to min. .......... +. 34°3 days 
Interval from mean mag. before to mean mag. 

AMAveye SAMER ANAL, 4 snok Aongnsabaoeacauareaoce030- 77°5 days 
Interval from mean mag. before to mean 

mag. after minimum .....................20.+-- 59°1 days 


An examination of the various results of observation and 
calculation given in the former part of this paper suggests 
the following general remarks :—Like many other variable 
stars, R Vulpecule increases more rapidly than it decreases, 


VARIABLE STAR R VULPECULA. 273 


The intervals between successive maxima and minima are 
subject to some little irregularity. And the observed 
magnitudes at maximum and minimum vary to the extent 
of some nine-tenths of a magnitude. Still, as compared 
with some other stars, the movements of this variable must 
be regarded as tolerably regular. Although by no means 
so highly coloured as some variables, I have frequently 
noted the star in my observation-book as “ruddy,” or 
“decidedly ruddy.” The maxima observable during the 
present year will fall, according to my own elements, on the 
following days :—July 9°5 and November 24°1. The observ- 
able minima will occur on May 6°3 and September 20°8. 
The stars which I have used for comparison with R 
Vulpeculz are shown in the small chart which accom- 
panies this paper ; and their magnitudes are as follows, the 
numbers in the cases of a, b,c, d,g, 1, m, n being the 


means between my own values and those assigned by Mr. 
Baxendell :— | 


a=7'! g=i10'0 
b=734 h=10'5 
c=8°3 k=10'9 
d=9'1 d= 114 
GOP 5) M=T19 
V=907 n=12°6 
20 hrs. 21 hrs. 
56 m. 58 m. om. 
+22° 45 
DAO! 
15! | 
el 


274 MR. G. KNOTT ON THE VARIABLE STAR R VULPECULE. 


The star 4 is variable to the extent of some few tenths 
of a magnitude, and may therefore with advantage be re- 
jected as a comparison star; g is a double star, the mag- 
nitude assigned above being that of the two components 
seen as one star. 

I cannot close this communication without gratefully 
acknowledging the courtesy and kindness of Mr. Baxendell — 
in freely communicating to me his own methods, and in 
affording me all necessary explanations in cases of doubt 
or difficulty. Itis to be hoped that the time is not far 
distant when the best methods of procedure in this branch 
of the science will find a place in our textbooks of practical 
astronomy. 


Mean Light-curve of R Vulpecule, as derived from the 
observations at the Woodcroft Observatory 
in the years 1861-1865. 


40 20 30 40 §0 60 7o 80 90 06 0 20 £30 
DAYS ~ DAYS. 


MR. J. BAXENDELL ON THE NOVEMBER METEORS. 275 


XX. Observations of the Meteoric Shower of Nov. 13-14, 
1866. By JosrpH Baxenpe xt, I.R.A.S. 


Read November 27th, 1866. 


Tue early part of the night of November 13th was very 
squally and cloudy, with showers of rain and hail, and 
occasional flashes of lightning. At about 12h. 15m. a 
break occurred near the zenith, and in a few minutes the 
clouds had almost entirely disappeared. My observations 
of the meteors commenced at 12h. 16m. Greenwich mean 
time, and were directed principally to the determination 
“of the time of maximum frequency, and the position of 
the radiant-point. The observations of frequency were 
as follows :— 


Number of 
Meteors observed. 

TErONia TIE TUsHN Crops Ge A Ae eae eeaeoaee 60 
32 Bde tins dasiore seceicelcieuaters 153 

48 GT 7: eats Sere SSSR CASE EOS aE 287 

wy 4: DOW on Miosraseind ee wes 378 

20 PO) “ah Alaa mea alam 122 

26 7G i Dea eat Ge ED 316 

14 19 DAM AD iments ute Say 54 

15 20 TNE BG. \sesdontadosbonopvedos 6 


From 13h. 42m. to 14h. 1gm., and again from 14h. 42m. 
to 15h. 20m., the observations were interrupted by clouds 
and rain, and only 73 meteors were counted during the 
two intervals. At 15h. 35m. clouds came on again very 
suddenly, and the sky remained obscured at 16h. 5m., 
when I ceased to watch. 

During the whole time of observation the sky was rarely 
entirely free from clouds for more than two or three minutes; 
but the errors arising from this cause are probably pretty 
evenly distributed through the intervals above given, and 
cannot, therefore, materially affect the final determination 


276 MR. JOSEPH BAXENDELL ON THE METEORIC 


of the time of maximum frequency. The results of the 
observations are as follows :— 


Average number of 
Meteors per minute. 


AG 2 ig pm reese eeeee areener cee a7 
7 Nota ees ender ace ana aeoOt AD 95 
ia anasponaedssnanaccacrdcende 17°9 

063) 2 lad aicie aves ee asmeaes sea 23°6 
23. ash jeases eb toosaseeaeeerses 20°3 
BAL. Saige Seihactiosn eee eee 19°7 
17 Base Yor Wl Space aBHneonAcnorannen Ane AG) 
IG S27 eS escort asec er neace O74 


The curve formed by a projection of these numbers gives 
13h. 12m. as the time of maximum frequency. The pro- 
bable error of this result can hardly exceed one minute. , 

In order to determine the position of the radiant-point, 
the positions of the intersecting pomts of the paths, con- 
tinued backwards, of a great number of pairs of meteors 
were noted. By far the greater number of these poimts 
fell on a space bounded by lines joming the stars y, &, p, €, 
and 7 Leonis; and, allowing equal weights to all the ob- 
_ servations, the mean position was found to be R. A. gh. 
Rohit Apes iil ey 3 Die, Az 57-5! north. Calculating 
the position referred to the ecliptic, we have lon. =143°41°0'; 
lat.=9° 54°5/ north. 

At the time of maximum frequency the earth was ad- 
vancing in the direction of a point on the ecliptic the lon- 
gitude of which was 141° 28°3', or 2° 12°7' less than that 
of the radiant. It appears, therefore, that the meteors 
were crossing the earth’s orbit from within outwards, and 
that their aphelion distance is very sensibly greater than 
the earth’s radius vector on the 13th of November. 

The velocity of the earth in its orbit on the 13th of No- 
vember is 18°38 miles per second, and the velocity of the 
November meteors when they enter the earth’s atmosphere 
has been found to be 40 miles per second. With these 
data and the latitude of the radiant.point as given above, 


> 


SHOWER OF NOVEMBER 13-14, 1866. 277 


9° 54°5' N., we find that the inclination of the orbit of the 
mass of meteors to the plane of the ecliptic is 17° 59', and 
that their orbital velocity at the time they encounter the 
earth is 22°31 miles per second. The excess of this ve- 
locity over that due to their distance from the sun arises, 
in part at least, from the accelerating effect of the earth’s 
attraction. 

An attempt was made to estimate roughly the relative 
numbers of meteors of different magnitudes, and it was 
found that they occurred in about the following propor- 
tions :— 

Out of every 100 meteors, 10 were above the 1st mag. ; the brightest 


of these were 2 to 3 times as bright as Sirius ; 
15 were between the 1st and 2nd mag. 


25 3 2nd and 3rd mag. 
30 . 3rd and ath mag. 
15 % 4th and sth mag. 


_ 5 were below the 5th mag. 


The average magnitude was 3:0. 

The trains left by many of the larger meteors had a 
beautiful emerald green colour ; others were of an ashy grey, 
and the remainder white. The meteors themselves were 
mostly white or bluish white; but many were of a fine 
golden colour. 

In order to give some idea of the great velocity with 
which the meteors enter the earth’s atmosphere, it may be 
remarked that it would be sufficient to carry a body through 
the entire circuit of the earth in an interval of less than 
ten and a half minutes. 

As I had the good fortune to witness the great meteoric 
shower which occurred on the morning of the 13th Nov. 
1833, I may state that the late display was far inferior to 
it, both in the number of meteors seen and in the brilliancy 
of the larger ones, and I am therefore inclined to think 
that a much finer display may be expected to occur in 
November next. At the time of the 1833 great shower I 


278 MR. J. BAXENDELL ON THE NOVEMBER METEORS. 


was at sea, off the west coast of central America; and 
although I then knew little about meteors, and the idea of 
a radiant-point had not, so far as I am aware, ever occurred 
to any astronomer or meteorologist, the tendency of the 
great majority of the meteors to diverge from a particular 
region of the heavens was so strongly marked that it at 
once engaged my attention; and I find, on referring to my © 
notes, that I fixed the central point of this region im the 
constellation Cancer, a few degrees east of the stars 6 and 
y, and not in Leo, as observed by Professor Olmsted and 
others in the north-eastern portion of the North American 
continent. A great number of the meteors, however, had 
other radiant-points ; and some of the finest moved in long 
horizontal arcs, or in directions nearly perpendicular to 
that of the main stream. This fact seems to me to be 
strongly opposed to the cosmical theory of meteorites, 
except on the rather improbable supposition that the 
earth, on that occasion, encountered two or more groups, 
all, at the same time, crossing each other’s orbit as well 
as the orbit of the earth. It may, however, be urged that 
such a supposition is hardly more unlikely than that which 
ascribes the November meteors to a rmg of small bodies 
moving round the sun in an orbit differmg little m magni- 
tude from the earth’s orbit, but the motion being retro- 
grade, or contrary to that of the earth, and therefore in- 
consistent with the general analogies of the solar system, 
and opposed to Laplace’s almost universally received ne- 
bular hypothesis. 


MR. J. BAXENDELL ON T CORON. 279 


XXI. Observations of the New Variable Star, T Corone. 
By Joszern Baxenpett, F.R.A,S. 


Read November 27th, 1866. 


WuiLz engaged on the night of the 15th of May last in 
observing some of the naked-eye variables, my attention 
was suddenly arrested by a strange and rather conspicuous 
star about a degree distant from e Corone, in the south 
following quadrant. It was at once carefully compared 
with some of the neighbouring stars, in order to ascertain 
its magnitude exactly ; and a rough determination of its 
position was made, which led me to conclude that it was 
identical with Argelander’s No. 2765 of Zone + 26°, 9°5 
magnitude, of the ‘ Bonner Sternverzeichniss,’—a conclu-_ 
sion which was fully confirmed the following night by more 
exact observations. On the night of the 7th of May I 
observed all the naked-eye variables then visible, and also 
several telescopic ones, and among the latter R and S 
Corone ; but this star, if at that time really visible, entirely 
escaped my notice; and as the nights between the 7th 
and 15th were cloudy at Manchester, I am unable to say 
at what date it attained its maximum brilliancy. My ob- 
servations of its magnitude, colour, &c. from the date of 
discovery to the present time are as follows, and I may add 
that all determinations of magnitude after the star became 
invisible to the naked eye were, with only three exceptions, 
made at Mr. Worthington’s observatory with his equa- 
torially mounted achromatic of five mches aperture, care 
being taken to use always the same eyepiece, a positive, 
having a magnifying-power of 68 times. 


280 MR. JOSEPH BAXENDELL ON THE 


Observations of T Coronz. 


Date. | Mag. Colour, &e. ‘ 
1866. 
May 15 3°7 | White, with a very slight yellow tinge, whiter than e. 
16 | 472 | Cream-coloured, but the light very bright, and star well 


defined, without any hazy appearance. 
9 | With naked eye. Cream-coloured, exactly similar to e. 
‘1 | With 5-in. Ach. power 68. ites 
3 | Cream-coloured or buff. At times I have an impression 
of a blue tinge, as if the yellow of the star were seen 
through a film of a blue tint. 
19 | 5°6 | Deep cream, buff, Bath-brick- or wash-leather-colour, with 
a tinge of blue over it.  thesame colour, but perhaps 
slightly lighter and without the blue, or at least with 
excessively little of it. Repeatedly examined also by 
Mr. Dancer and Mr. Williamson, with different powers, 
and their estimations of colour precisely the same as 
my own. 
20| 62 | Buff-coloured, with a tinge of blue, and deeper than é 
Coron, which is yellow or light buff. 
21 | 7°r | Leaden or slaty blue; the yellow colour has almost en- 

tirely disappeared. 

22 | 7°4 |The light of the star is dull, and is of a slaty blue or dark 
French white colour, or nearly like Smyth’s No. 4 blue. 
No traces of yellow or red can be clearly made out. 
23 7°5 | Dull grey or French white. Sometimes there seems to be 
a trace of yellow. 


24.| 7°7 | Dull white, with a slight tinge of yellow or orange. 
25| 7°8 | Dull and slightly orange-white. A shade of blue some- 
times suspected. 
26 | 80 | Dull orange-white. 
29 | 84 | Dull orange-yellow. 
June 8} 93 | Dull orange-yellow. 
Io} 9'2 | Dull orange-yellow. 
16 | 9°4 
17 | 9°5 
oS) | SES 
25| 9°6 | Orange-yellow. 
26 | 97 | Orange. 
July 11} 9°7 | Dull yellow. 
16 | 9°7 
19 | 9°6 
Zon On, 
21 | 9'6 
22} 9°5 | Dull pale orange. 
30 | 9'7 | Orange-yellow. 
Aug. 20 | 9°8 
2) FS 
31| 93 | Dull yellow. 
Sept.14 | 7°9 | Dull yellow, almost exactly Smyth’s yellow No. 3. 
15| 7°38 | Yellow. 
17| 7°9 | Pretty bright yellow. 
22) 7°9 
24| 7°8 | Yellow. 
30| 7°8 | 
Wee 


NEW VARIABLE STAR, T CORONA. 281 


TABLE (continued). 


Date. | Mag. Colour, &c. 
1866 
Oct. 6] 7°6 | Greyish yellow. 
8 | 7°6 
to} 7°5 | Yellow. 
14| 7°5 | Light yellow. 
19} 7°7 | Light yellow. 
28| 7°38 | Yellow. 
Nov. 6] 7:9 | Smyth’s orange No. 4. 
19 | 8°3 | Dull ruddy orange. 


It will be seen that the brightness of the star diminished 
with great rapidity for several days after my first observa- 
tion, and afterwards more gradually, and that on the 26th 
of June it had sunk to the 97 magnitude. It then re- 
mained with little change till about the 20th of August, 
when another rise commenced, and on the 15th of Sep- 
tember it had attaimed the 7°38 magnitude. On the roth 
and 14th of October it was of the 7°5 magnitude, and 
since the latter date its brightness has again slightly 
diminished. 

It will also be noticed that in the recent observations 
no mention is made of the blue tinge which formed so 
striking a feature in the colour of the star for some time 
after its first appearance. In connexion with this the 
following extract of a letter from Mr. Huggins, F.R.S., 
dated October 13th, will be interesting to the Members 
of the Society. Referring to T Corone the writer says, 
“T observed its spectrum on Sept. 16th, 27th, 28th, and 
October 8th. The bright lines are not now to be dis- 
tinguished. If they exist they cannot be much, if any, 
brighter than the parts of the spectrum where they occur. 
The observation of its spectrum is now very difficult.” — 

In the scale of magnitudes I have employed, the light- 
ratio is 2°512; but the expression in magnitudes of the 
brightness of a variable star gives a very imperfect idea of 
the nature and extent of its changes ; and as any specula- 

SER. III. VOL. III. U 


aon, _ MR. JOSEPH BAXENDELL ON THE 


tions respecting the causes of variability must be based 
upon a consideration of the variations in the intensity of 
the light, and not in the magnitude of the star, I have cal- 
culated the relative intensities of the ight of T Coronz 
for every night of observation, taking the intensity of the 
light of a roth magnitude star as unity. The results are 
given in the following Table :— 


Intensities of the Light of T Corone. 


Intensity, | 
Date. | Mag.| 1o mag. | Date. | Mag. ee Date. | Mag. pee 
being = 1°o.]| pele prays 
1866. 

May 15/| 3°7 3312 June 17| 9°5 1°6 Sept. 17] 7°9 6'9 
16 | 4:2 209'0 19] 9°5 | 1°6 22) 79 6°9 
17| 4°9 160°0 | 25| 9:6 | 174 24.| 7°8 7°6 
18| 53 758 | 26] 9°7 13 30| 7°38 76 
19| 5:6 57°5 July 11] 9°7 | 13 || Oct. 1] 7:7 33 
20| 6°2 3371 16] 9°7 | 13 6| 7:6 gt 
21| 71 14°4 19| 96 | 14 8| 76 | ot 
22) 74 TI°o 20) 9°7 13 IO| 75 h owe) 
23) 7°5 10°0 21} 96 | 14 14] 7°5 10'0 
24) 77 8°3 22| 95 | 1°6 19) 7a 
25| 7°8 76 30| 9°77 | 13 28 | 7°8 7°6 
26| 8:0 63 | Aug. 20] 9°8 | 1:2 || Nov. 6] 779 6"9 
29| 8-4 44. 27.1 9°5 16 I9| 83 4°38 

June 8] 93 1°9 311 9°93 | 1°9 
10 | 9:2 21 Sept. 14] 7°9 | 6:9 
16} 9°4 I°7 15| 7:8 | 7°6 . 


The outburst of T Coronz appears to have been first 
observed by Mr. J. Birmingham of Tuam, on the night 
of May 12, when its brightness was equal to, if not greater 
than, that of a Corone, the magnitude of which is 2°6. 
The relative intensity of the ight of the variable on that 
night was therefore not Jess than g12°1. Comparing this. 
with the intensities in the above Table, it will be seen that 
during the first ten days of the star’s appearance its light 
diminished with extraordinary rapidity, the intensity on 
the 22nd May being only 11:0 against g12°1 on the 12th 
when first seen by Mr. Birmingham, and 331°2 on the 
15th when first seen by myself. Since the 22nd of May 


NEW VARIABLE STAR, T CORONA. 283 


its changes have been comparatively slight. On the 20th 
of August the intensity was at a minimum, being only 1:2, 
or 74q Of its amount on the 12th of May. 

An inspection of the curve of intensities suggests strongly 
the idea that a force of an explosive character, such as 
could result only from the action of highly elastic gaseous 
matter, had been in operation to produce the sudden in- 
crease and subsequent rapid diminution of brightness 
which had taken place; but as some of the well-known 
periodical variables occasionally exhibit an equal, and even 
a greater rapidity of change, this view cannot at present 
be received with much confidence; and notwithstanding 
the remarkable and highly interesting conclusions which 
Mr. Huggins and Dr. W. A. Miller have drawn from the 
results of their spectroscopic observations of this new vari- 
able, we are constrained to admit that the cause of varia- © 
bility is still involved in the deepest mystery. 

The following Table contains the positions and magni- 
tudes of the stars with which I have compared T Coronz 
in the course of its changes. The positions are from the 
‘Bonner Sternverzeichniss,’ and the magnitudes are from 
my own observations. The magnitudes of some of these 
stars have been determined independently by Mr. Knott, 
F.R.A.S., and it is satisfactory to me to find that our re- 
sults are almost identical. 


u 2 


284. MR. CHARLES BAILEY ON VARIETIES OF 


_. | Dec. N. |Magni- 
No. Star. R.A. 1855°0.| gc, ae 
ny Senate Sale 4 
1 | Serpentis ...}15 39 29°3/15 53:1] 3°7 
2 | y Herculis...... 16 15 311/19 3073] 3°8 
3 | y Corone ...... 15 36 400/26 456) 42 
4 |e Corone ...... Sl 35727 rosnl) 43 
5 | 6 Corone ...... 43. 300|26 3175] 4:8 
6 | «Serpentis ... BO BPE ag TaPal ANS 
7 |e Corone ...... 55 382/30 I53| 51 
8 | 25 Herculis ..../16 20 14°8)37 42°7| 6°70 
g |Arg.2575+27° |15 56 382/27 ral 775 
ie) 3009 25 53. 23°8)25 Siz) 76 
II 2767 26 55) 21s 208 o450l era 
12 2762 26 52 3278 5772| 79 
13 2754 26 49 168 -26°3]} 8:0 
14 3003 25 52 393/25 59°5| 81 
15 2563 27 52 300/27 16°38) 81 
16 2769 26 55 289/26 48-0) 874 
17 2763 26 52 54°1 33°6| go 
18 2758 26 5i 49°5 9°99; 92 
19 2760 26 Gs GPs) 40°0} 94 
20 2761 26 52 2574 21°2| 9°6 
21 2764+26 Ba age! 33:9] 10°8 


I may state that two of these stars, Nos. 10 and 18, have 
shown decided indications of slight variability, the range 
of variation, so far as I have yet observed them, being 
about four-tenths of a magnitude. 


XXII. Notes on Varieties of Sarothamnus scoparius, Koch, 
and Stachys Betonica, Beuth., from the Lizard, Cornwall. 
By Cuarues Baitzy, Esq. 


Read December 11th, 1866. 


Tur Lizard district has long been known to be singularly 
prolific in critical and rare British plants; and the purpose 
of this communication is to draw the attention of botanists 
to what appear to be two undescribed but well-marked 
forms of the plants whose names are placed at the head of 
this notice, and which are found in that district. 


SAROTHAMNUS SCOPARIUS AND STACHYS BETONICA. 285 


I. Sarothamnus scoparius, Koch, var. 


It is only in recent years that this plant has been ad- 
mitted a Cornish species, Mr. H. C. Watson, in vol. i. of 
his ‘Cybele Britannica,’ p. 274, giving Devon, Isle of 
Wight, and Kent as its most southern limit; but in the 
additions included in vol. i. of the same work, Mr. Wat- 
son states (p. 404) that “ the south limit extends to Corn- 
wall, according to Mr. Gibson and Mr. Pascoe ”’—no details, 
however, being given as to the precise part of the county 
in which it occurs. The specimen exhibited was found 
growing in small patches on the cliffs of serpentine rock 
about Vellan Head, situate about four miles north-west of 
the Lizard Lights, and it differs from the normal form, 
here named var. a, in the following characters :— 


Var. a. erecta.—Stems erect, bushy; leaves stalked, the 
petioles as long as, or longer than, the leaflets ; leaf- 
lets elliptical-obovate, bluntish. 


Var. 8. prostrata.—Stems prostrate, spreading; leaves 
shortly stalked or sessile; leaflets ovate-acute, acu- 
minate. 


The Cornish form, here named £. prostraéa, differs from 
the normal plant chiefly in its habit of growth, which, in- 
stead of being erect and bushy, is remarkably prostrate, 
the branches spreading out in fan-shaped patches and 
growing flat upon the ground; the branches, particularly 
in the upper half, are densely clothed with short spreading 
hairs; the leaves have shorter stalks, with a greater ten- 
dency to suppress the two lateral leaflets, the majority of 
the leaves, in fact, bemg unifoliate; the pods are less 
numerous, have their dorsal and ventral sutures covered 
with long silky hairs, and are black rather than brown, 
shorter, and have fewer seeds. 

The season was too far advanced for any flowers to be 
met with, either on Vellan Head or in the small valley 


286 MR. CHARLES BAILEY ON VARIETIES OF 
running down from Jollytown, the only other locality in 
Cornwall where the plant was observed. 

II. Stachys Betonica, Bentham, var. 


Of this plant three well-marked forms have been de- 
scribed: a, Betonica hirta, Reich.; 6, B. serstina, Host. ; 


and c, B. stricta, Ait.; and in many respects the form about 


to be described agrees with the first of these forms. In 
Mr. Babington’s Manual (ed. v. p. 261) it is stated that 
“the English plant has the round crenate, not emarginate, 
lower lip of B. hirta (R.) ;” but Professor Boreau is of 
opinion that, while the three forms just named preserve 
their remarkable differences of aspect when cultivated to- 
gether, the distinctive characters furnished by the divisions 
of the corolla are but slightly constant. (Flore du Centre 
de la France, &c., ed. i. vol. 11. p. 530.) 

Stems decumbent, numerous, radiating from the root- 


stock, square above, rounded below, clothed with many ; 


short hairs, which are closely appressed in the upper part 
and poimting downwards, those in the lower part more 
spreading, but still much reflexed ; spikes slightly inclined, 
just raised above the ground, compressed-globose, the ver- 
ticils many-flowered, never distant; calyx covered with 
straight hairs, the sepals ending in stiff pomts; corolla 
three times longer than the calyx, the exterior covered 
with scattered shaggy hairs, which are long and silky at 
the base of the tube, but becoming shorter and more scat- 
tered as they approach the lip; opening of the mouth very 
wide, lower lip crenate, wavy ; lower leaves on long stalks, 
cordate at the base, oblong, regularly erenate, glandular on 
the under surface, with short scattered hairs; upper leaves 
lanceolate, on short stalks. 

Specimens of B. hirta, Reich., have not come under my 
notice, nor have I been able to meet with Reichenbach’s 
diagnosis; but the form described above seems to agree 


SAROTHAMNUS SCOPARIUS AND STACHYS BETONICA. 287 


very nearly with Professor Boreau’s description of that 
plant, which is here appended for the sake of comparison : 
“Stem clothed with many short stiff hairs ; leaves with 
soft long hairs, very distinctly crenate; spike short, mter- 
rupted ; calyx softly hairy at the summit; lower lip of the 
corolla rounded crenate”’ (Flore &c., loc. cit.). Myr. Ben- 
tham, in his ‘ Labiatarum genera et species,’ p. 532, gives, 
amongst the synonyms of his Stachys Betonica, “ Betonica 
hirta, Leyss., Reichb. Icon., Bot. Eur. 8. 4. t. 711,” which 
may be identical with B. hirta, Reich. ; but the only re- 
ference to it which I have met with is in Dr. Garke’s ‘ Flora 
von Nord-und-Mittel Deutschland,’ where it is shortly de- 
scribed as “ Var. a, hirta, Leyss.—Stem with short hairs, 
calyx rough-haired.”— (Ed. vi. p. 318.) 

TheCornish form isvery plentiful on the cliffs of “‘ Killas” 
rock, lying between Caerthilian and the Lizard Lights, 
growling with Genista tinctoria, L. , var. humifusa, Dicks., 
which it much resembles in. habit. The same form is 
also met with in several other parts of South-Western 
Cornwall, as at Cuddan Poimt and the Mount’s Bay dis- 
trict generally. 

The above communication was preceded by a few remarks 
on the following plants of South-Western Cornwall, speci- 
mens of which were exhibited at the Meeting :—= 


Raphanus maritimus, Sm. ............ Cliffs under the Lizard Lights: - 
Brassica alla, Ws ysishd sesecsja- cos siadeies 5 os i 
Arenaria verna, L., var. 8. Gerardi, 

VOU ierreter ectice camracn vee seiseies ae cesses Rocks at Rill Head. 
Spergularia rupestris, Lebél non 

(ET dso Shoe SEAGER ORAM obi REE Nanjissal Bay, Land’s End; plen- 

tiful. 
Tamarix Anglica, Webd............:..065 Mount’s Bay. 
Lavatera arborea, D. ..........002....0.05- Cliffs, Newlyn: 
Trifolium subterraneum, ZL. ......::.... Penzance. 
scalbrumy 270 i nised.....s-s006 Ss 


Anthyllis vulneraria; LZ: (4 very ro- 
[obi 10) 0001) | Geacnasaehasneaconsnaccsacaade Porthgwarra, Land’s End. 


288 MR. JOSEPH SIDEBOTHAM ON 


Anthyllis vulneraria, Z., var. 8. Dil- 
US SCM. Bos aooondbosoenonconsenonce Forming the herbage on the sandy 
downs above Whitsand Bay, and 
common elsewhere. 


Genista pilosa, LD. .........:.2ceeeeeeeneee Gue Graze. 
»  tinctoria, Z., var. 6. humi- 
tusa,D2cks.scccneeeescee nee Plentiful between Caerthilian and the 
Lizard Lights. 
Tllecebrum verticillatum, Z............. Madron Parish. 
Herniaria glabra, L. ..........0.00-20200- Common at the Lizard. 
Valerianella olitoria, Ménch............ Fields, Sennen Cove. - 
ai dentata, Koch ............ 3 5 65 
Wahlenbergia hederacea ............... St. Paul, and generally distributed. 
Irae WEIS, I, cosansoncosanssnaenoa0c9 Gomhilly, Pradannack, and Lizard 
Downs. 
550 (Cllianis: WA 5. se attsease eevee Edgecombe Downs, Carclew. 
Erythrea pulchella, Fries ............ Mount’s Bay. 
. centaurium, Pers. ............ A stunted broad-leaved form, from 
Porth Curnnow (non E. latifolia, 
Sm.). 
a littoralise/ireesteeeeeee tere ne Mount’s Bay. 
Sibthorpia Huropxa, Z. ............+.- St. Madron’s Well. 
Linaria Elatine, M7Ul..................008 Marazion. 
Allium sibiricum, Z, ...............000e0s Rill Head. 
Asparagus officinalis, Z.(?) ............ 7 
Asplenium lanceolatum, Huds.......... Whitsand Bay. 


XXIII. Notes on Wood-eating Coleoptera. 
By Josery Sipespotuam, Esq. 


Read December 11th, 1866. 


Tur number of species of Coleoptera that feed upon wood 
in this country is considerable, some attacking growing 
trees, others when cut down or partially decayed, others 
attack solid timber when cut up and used for buildings or 
furniture. The various species are not confined to one or 
two of the great divisions, but are to be found scattered 
through most of them, being found in the sections Necro- 


WOOD-EATING COLEOPTERA. 289 


phaga, Lamellicornes, Sternoxi, Malacodermata, Rhynco- 
phora, and Longicornes &c. 

As might be expected, their modes of attack on trees are 
as varied as their organization; and their study is one of 
great interest to naturalists, besides beimg of the greatest 
importance to the owners of plantations and forests. Some 
species mine in the bark, others between the bark and the 
solid wood, others in roots and branches, and there are 
few, if any, of our native trees that are not liable to attacks 
from one or more species. 

The amount of damage done to a forest when a few 
species get fairly established in it is very great; and too 
often the woodpeckers, which would assist in checking their 
ravages, are destroyed, because they bore holes in the trees 
to get at the insects. 

At the present time the fine spruces in Dunham Park | 
are bemg rapidly destroyed by one of the large Weevils, 
Hylobius abietis, and many ash trees by a small species 
mining in the bark, Hylesinus frazini. In the valleys of the 
Spean in Perthshire the alder trees are being destroyed by 
the larvee of Stenocarus bifasciatum. They begin the work, 
which is jomed in by some smaller species, to such effect 
that you may see there trees, 30 inches in diameter, through 
which you can thrust a walking-stick. 

A short time ago I accompanied a friend to his fishing- 
cottage in the north of Lancashire. It had been closed 
up for a little time, and the chairs and tables had been 
attacked by Anobiwm striatum, and although in appearance 
quite perfect, when touched almost crumbled to dust. 

I bring for exhibition a piece of bark mined by two 
species of beetle, of great interest to entomologists, Hyle- 
sinus vittatus and Nemosoma elongata. The latter species 
was taken in 1833 by Mr. Ingall, at Sydenham, and since 
then it has not been met with, except about three speci- 
mens, until the spring of this year, when my friend Dr. 


290 ON WOOD-EATING COLEOPTERA. 


Power found it in Warwickshire and investigated its habits, 
publishing an account in the ‘Entomologist.’ From his 
observations he ascertained that this species feeds on the 
larve of Hylesinus vittatus, carrying its galleries across so 
as to intercept and devour them. Having myself once 
found the Hylesinus in some old railings at Beeston, near 


Nottingham, when I was at the British Association Meeting ~ 


in August I again visited the place, and after careful search 


found some specimens of the rare Nemosoma in its mines 


across the tracks of Hylesinus. The portion of bark ex- 
hibited will show the mines, and the carded specimens will 
show the two species. 

Stevens mentions Colwich near Nottingham, on the 
authority of Dr. Howitt, as a locality for Nemosoma ; so 
no doubt by careful search it may be found in many other 
places around Nottingham. I also exhibit some bits of 
oak branches from Dunham mined by Scolytus intricatus, 
and a few other species of wood-boring Coleoptera found 


in this neighbourhood, with portions of wood attacked by 


them. 

Scolytus destructor, the species which has been so de- 
structive to elm trees near London and Paris, is not com- 
mon here, probably in some measure because Ulinus cam- 
pestris is not one of our common trees. 

To the entomologist the investigation of the specific dif- 
ferences, the habits and instincts, and the peculiar con- 
formation of these creatures to adapt them to their mode 
of life are sources of great pleasure ; but he is at the same 
time more impressed with the enormous amount of damage 
they inflict than an ordinary observer, and also with the 
_ want of knowledge of those who are interested in the pre- 
servation of our woods and forests. It may happen that 
the removal of a tree, or even a branch, when attacked by 
a particular species, may save a forest; but it must be done 
at the proper time, so as to destroy the insects with it 


SIR W. THOMSON ON THE MAGNETIC DIP... 291 


before they can escape to propagate their species ; and it 
certainly ought to be part of a qualification for a forester 
or park-keeper that he should know the life-history of these 
wood-boring beetles, and the plans that have been adopted 
for their destruction. 


XXIV. On a New Form of the Dynamic Method for 
Measuring the Magnetic Dip. By Sir Witu1aM THom- 
son, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., &c., Honorary Member of 
the Society. 


Read April 16th, 1867. 


SEVEN years ago an apparatus was constructed for the 
natural philosophy class of the University of Glasgow for 
illustrating the induction of electric currents by the motion 
of a conductor across the lines of terrestrial magnetic force. 
This instrument consisted of a large circular coil of many 
turns of fine copper wire, made to rotate by wheelwork 
about an axis, which can be set to positions inclined at all 
angles to the vertical. A fixed circle, parallel to the plane 
containing these positions, measured the angles between 
them. The ends of: the coil were connected with fixed 
electrodes, so adjusted as to reverse the connexions every 
time the plane of the coil passes through the position per- 
pendicular to that plane. When in use, the instrument 
should be set as nearly as may be in the magnetic meridian. 
The fixed electrodes being jomed to the two ends of a coil 
of a delicate galvanometer, a large deflection is observed 
when the axis of rotation forms any considerable angle with 
the line of magnetic dip. On first trying the instrument 
1 perceived that its sensibility was such as to promise an 
extremely sensitive means for measuring the dip. Ac- 


292 DR. J. P. JOULE ON THE FREEZING-POINT. 


cordingly, soon after I had a small and more portable in- 
strument constructed for this special purpose; but up to 
this time I had not given it any sufficient trial. On the 
occasion of a recent visit, Dr. Joule assisted at some ex- 
periments with this instrument. The results have con- 
vinced us both that it will be quite practicable to improve 
it so that it may serve for a determination of the dip within 
a minute of angle. I hope, accordingly, before long to be 
able to communicate some decisive results to the Society, 
and to describe a convenient instrument which may be prac- 
tically useful for the observation of this element. 


XXV. Observations on the Alteration of the Freezing-point 
in Thermometers. By Dr. J. P. Joust, F.R.S., V.P. 


Read April 16th, 1367. 


Havine had in my possession, and in frequent use, for 
nearly a quarter of a century, two thermometers, of which 
Ihave from time to time taken the freezing-points, I think 
the results may offer some interest to the Society. Both 
thermometers are graduated on the stem, and are, I believe, 
the first in this country which were accurately calibrated. 
Thirteen divisions of one of them correspond to one degree 
Fahrenheit. It was made by Mr. Dancer, in the winter 
of 1843-44. My first observation of its freezing-point was 
made in April 1844. Calling this zero, my successive ob- 
servations have given 


o April 1844. 8:3 February 1853. 
55 February 1846. 9°5 April 1856. 
66 January 1848. t1't December 1860. 
69 April 1348. 118 March 1867. 


The total rise has been, therefore, -g1 of a degree Fahren- 


MR. J. B. DANCER ON COAL-ASH OR DUST. 2938 


heit. The other thermometer is not so sensitive, having 
less than four divisions to the degree. The total rise of 
its freezing-point has been only °6 of a degree; but this is 
probably owing to the time which elapsed between its con- 
struction and the first observation being rather greater 
than in the case of the other thermometer. The rise of 
the two thermometers has been almost identical during the 
last nineteen years. 
A projection of the observations given above is shown 
in the following diagram :— 


Divisions of Scale of the ~ 
Thermometer, 


Song eS: S 3 x 

oo + S00 va co \o \o 

La oo co “1 love) = co ies) 
La) = = _ a) 

ce qo = 

a) ise oO x 3 x 

& BB 2 D 3, o 

+ & 54 Fy < A = 


XXVI. On the Microscopical Examination of Coal-Ash or 
Dust from the Flie of a Furnace, illustrated by the as 
croscope. By J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S. 


Read April 2nd, 1867. 


WueEn coal is burnt in a furnace to which atmospheric air 
has free access, a portion is converted into gaseous and 
volatile matter, and the imcombustible substance which 
remains is the ash. The amount of ash in coals from dif- 
ferent localities is very variable; it is said to range from 


294: MR. J. B. DANCER ON COAL-ASH OR DUST 


1 to 35 per cent. The ash or dust which is the subject of 
this paper was collected from the flue of my steam-boiler 
furnace, in which common engine coal is used as fuel. 
This coal leaves a considerable amount of incombustible 
matter. A specimen of the dust is now before you; it is 
of a reddish-brown colour, and free from soot or carbona- 
ceous particles*. When this dust is examined under the 
microscope with a power of 40 or 50 diameters, it is found 
to consist of ferruginous matter and crystallized substances, 
some particles transparent, others white and red. It con- 
tains also a number of curious-looking objects, which vary 
considerably im size and “colour; the majority of these 
bodies are spherical, and when separated from the irre- 
gularly shaped particles forming the bulk of the dust, they 
become interesting objects for the microscope. I shall 
confine my remarks more especially to these globular 
bodies. Some of these are as perfect in form as the most 
carefully turned billiard-balls, and have a brilliant polish. 
The various colours which these globules exhibit give ad- 
ditional interest to their examination. Some are trans- 
parent crystal spheres, others are opaque white, many are 
yellow and brown, and variegated like polished agates or 
carnelian of different shades. The most abundant of the 
highly polished balls are black: there are others which 
look like rusty cannon-balls ; some of these have an aper- 
ture in them like a bomb-shell, and many are perforated 
in all directions. To obtain these objects the dust should 
be washed in a bowl and all the lightest particles allowed 
to float away; the remainder consists of fragmentary crys- 
talline and ferruginous substances ; mixed with these are 
the polished balls described, which, under the micro- 
scope, by a brilliant reflected light, look like little gems. 
To separate the spherical bodies from the irregular ones it 


* My attention was drawn'to this subject by Mr. Johnson, of Wigan, in 
November 1866. 


FROM THE FLUE OF A FURNACE. 295 


is only necessary to sprinkle some of this material on an 
inclined glass plate, and by gentle vibration the balls roll 
down and can thus be collected. Having satisfied our- 
selves with the examination under the microscope, it is 
natural that we should desire to know more about these 
novel objects. What is their elementary constitution ? 
Why are they spherical ? How do they get into the flue? 
I have not attempted a chemical analysis of these minute 
bodies, many of which are less than the rooth part of an 

inch in diameter. I can only therefore offer an opinion 
as to their probable constitution, judging from what is 
known of the chemical analysis of coal-ash, and from the 
appearance they present under the microscope. Referring 
to the chemical analysis of coal-ash, we find that it some- 
times contains silica, magnesia, alumina, sesquioxide of 
iron, lime, soda, potash, sulphate of calcium, anhydrous. 
sulphuric acid, anhydrous phosphoric acid, sulphur, and 
sometimes traces of copper and lead. The vegetable origin 
of coal is now generally admitted; and doubtless some of 
the substances I have just named have been taken up by 
the coal-plants, whilst other portions may: have collected 
in the locality where the coal was formed. As this is not 
immediately connected with our present inquiry, I proceed 
to speculate as to the constitution of these globular bodies. 
The transparent spheres I imagine to be silicates of soda 
or potash; the opaque white are most likely silicate of 
soda or potash combined with lime and alumina; the yellow 
and brown are silicates coloured by iron in different pro- 
portions. The black globes are not all alike in composi- 
tion ; some of these are silicates coloured by carbon, others 
are iron balls coated externally with a silicate. Many of 
these rusty cannon-balls are probably ferrous oxide formed 
by the action of heat on the iron-pyrites in the coal. 
There are also balls of black magnetic oxide: the perfor- 
ated shells are probably ferrous sulphides. The globular 


296 MR. J. B. DANCER ON COAL-ASH OR DUST. 


form of these bodies suggests that they have been thrown 
off in scintillations, such as are seen during the combus- 
tion of iron in oxygen gas, and whilst in a fluid state they 
assume a spheroidal form. They are carried by the draught 
into the flue, and being of greater specific gravity than the 
carbonaceous matter forming the smoke, they fall before 


the current of air has reached the chimney. Some of the ~ 


dust has been a considerable time in the flue, exposed to 
the intensely heated circulating flame; the reducing ac- 
tion of this would probably convert some of the oxide into 
metallic iron. Many of these balls have the appearance of 
reduced oxides. The flue-dust contains a larger amount 
of ferruginous matter than can be accounted for by the 
analysis of coal-ash. I think the surplus may be regarded 
as representing the wear and tear of the ironwork about 
the furnace, such as fire-bars, boiler-plates, &c. The brick- 
work and cement about the boiler and flues may also 
supply some of the silica, alumina, and iron for these balls, 
numbers of which are merely thin shells. The movements 
of these objects, caused by the approach of a magnet under 
the stage of the microscope, are somewhat amusing ; and it 
is at times startling to see the crystalline objects, both 
spherical and irregular, exhibit magnetic attraction: pro- 
bably they contain particles of iron imbedded in them ; if 
they do not, may we not imagine that there is some mag- 
netic compound in which the crystallme matter predomi- 


nates? When we consider the accidental condition under 


which this matter has combined, it is just possible that 
some new molecular arrangement or combination of ele- 
ments may have taken place. It is very probable that 
_ many of these polished balls are much more complex in 
their elementary constitution than I have stated. They 
are, in fact, a kind of glass, and many of them merely bulbs. 
Pelouze states that glass is probably an indefinite mixture 
of definite silicates. Glass, contaming small quantities of 


MR. J.C. DYER ON COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 297 


ferrous oxides and sodic sulphates, when exposed to sun- 
light becomes yellow ; and possibly some of these balls may 
have changed in colour since they came from the flue. 
Hydrochloric and nitric acids exert very little action on the 
ferruginous globes: this may be due, in some measure, to 
the high temperature at which the oxides have been formed ; 
in other cases they are no doubt protected by an external 
coating of some silicate. It would require much time 
and patience to collect a sufficient number of each kind 
of these minute objects for a chemical analysis; but the 
spectroscope might probably assist im revealing their con- 
stitution. When time. permits, I hope to resume the 
subject. 


“XXVII. Notes on Cotion-Spinning Machinery. Roving- 
Frames. By J. C. Dyzr, V.P. 


Read March 20th, 1866. 


In the preparation of cotton for spinning, several distinct 
classes of machines are employed, such as the clearing, 
scutching, and blowing machines, and the carding, dou- 
bling, and drawing engines, by which cotton is brought into 
the state of continuous slivers, or “ rovings,” before it 
comes to the “roving-frames.” These operations for 
clearing, carding, and- arranging the fibres into loose. 
ropes or rovings, are of a simple nature, and are sufficiently 
indicated by the names of the several machines used for 
that purpose; and as no special description of them seems 
called for, I proceed to consider the more intricate and 
scientific properties of the machines known as roving- 
frames, which come next to the mule-jenny in the order 
of scientific interest, on the ground of their having also 
SER. III. VOL. II. x 


298 MY. J. C. DYER ON 


engaged the labours of many ingenious and able mecha- 
nicians through a long course of years to bring them from 
a rude state into their present very accurate form of 
working. Hence it seems desirable to place on record 
an account of the successive changes and inventions 
that have been applied to this class of machines, as bemg 
a useful contribution to the “ History of Inventions ” 
connected with cotton-spinning during this century. 

A retrospect of this period will show our advanced and 
advancing knowledge of the “ mechanical sciences reduced. 
to practice,” to be the main source of our wealth and 
power as a nation; wherefore it will be held useful to 
have as full and fair notices as can be obtained of the 
progress in the several inventions that have led to the 


final success of the most intricate and scientific kinds of 


machinery now in general use. 

To make these roving-frames work safely, sha with the re- 
quisite accuracy in their several complex movements, was no 
easy task ; and many even of its constructors were unable to 
comprehend the principle of action to be brought under 
such exact control to make it work safely. To render 
this more evident, it will be necessary to trace the succes- 
sive operations required to reduce the slivers from the draw- 
ing-frames to the proper state for spinning. 

The rovings, after being equalized by repeated doubling 
and drawing, are’ brought (in tin cans) to the roving- 
frame, by which they are again reduced by the drawing- 
rollers, and then pass through the neck of the throttle- 
spindle and down one arm of the flyers, through a hook, 
from which they pass to, and are wound upon, the barrels 
of the bobbins. A slight’ twist is given to the rovings by 
the flyers, to prevent their being stretched in their passing 
to the bobbins. Supposing, in commencing, the diameter 
of the front rollers and that of the bobbin-barrels to be ex- 
actly the same, it is obvious that the rotative speed of the 


ss = 
">" i 2s 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 299 


delivering rollers and the taking-up barrels must also be the 
same, in order to convey the roving to the bobbins with- 
out causing any strain or looseness of the rovings. But 
this applies only to the first few laps of the rovings; for 
the barrels are enlarged by the successive coils of roving, 
and their rotative motions must be reduced accordingly. 
As the bobbins are being filled with rovings, their surface- 
motion must be made to correspond with that of the de- 
livering rollers, so as to take up equal lengths in equal times. 
The spindle and flyer that twist the rovings, and the bob- 
bins that take them up, are driven by separate first motions, 
whereby their speeds are.adapted to the required differences, 
to be noted further on. ‘The bobbin and fly frame was not 
strictly a new invention when first used as a roving-frame ; 
it was a modification of the throttle spinning-frame of 
Arkwright. The bobbins used for spinning are about 3 to 
34 inches long, and some 2 inches in diameter; those for 
the rovings are from 6 to 9 or 10 inches long, and 3 to 4 
inches in diameter. It was thus necessary to adapt the 
roving-frame to these larger-sized bobbins. But the essen- 
tial change from the throttle frame consisted in the addi- 
tion of the new apparatus for driving the bobbins apart 
from the spindles, by trains of wheels and pulleys, so as to 
ensure the differential motions for taking up the roving. 
This separate driving of the flyers and the bobbins was 
the problem to be solved by the new construction. To 
explain this, it should be stated that, in spmning, the 
spindles and flyers are driven to twist and deliver the 
threads to the bobbins, and the bobbins are carried round 
with the flyers by the pull of the threads, against a slight 
friction, as they are taken up by the bobbins; and the 
bobbins thus make fewer turns than the flyers, by the 
number of coils taken up by them. The tightness of 
winding on is thus determined by the strength of the 
threads, and the friction as drag of the bobbins. But as 
x2 


300 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


the rovings are slightly twisted, they have no strength for 

guiding the taking-up motions of the bobbins; wherefore 

they must be driven apart from the flyers, with a variable 

speed, as aforesaid. 

._ Had no more been required than to secure a regular 

diminishing speed of the bobbins directly as their di- 

ameters were enlarged by the rovings wound upon them,” 
the relative motions of the flyers and bobbins could be 

easily obtained by the common traversing straps working 

over reversed cone-pulleys. But frequent readjustments of 
those motions were required in using the different sorts of 
cotton (as coarse and fine, long and short staple, and the 

like), in which more or less twist was necessary to fit the 

roving for spinning ; and in the changes of twist the speed 

of the delivering rollers had also to be changed, and con- 

sequently that-of the bobbins for taking up such varying 

lengths of rovings in equal times. We must keep in view 

that if the rovings have too little twist, they will stretch 

and become uneven, through lack of strength to turn the 

bobbins in drawing them off for spinning. Now these fre- 

quent readjustments of the differential motions above men- 

tioned constitute the main difficulties in using the bobbins 

and fly frames. In carefully considering the nature of 
the operations performed by this machine, no surprise will 

be felt that so many years should have passed im trials to 

improve its working before the discovery of any effectual 

plan for securing the differential motion by a seli-regu- 

lating apparatus. 

From 1815 to 1825 I had witnessed the progress of the 
many improvements in the construction and the method of 
regulating the delicate movements of this roving-frame,— 
those of the greatest value in practice having been made 
or suggested by my late friend Mr. John Kennedy, of 
Ardwick Hall, whose well-earned fame as one of the most 
ingenious and talented mechanicians of his time is too 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 301 


well established to require any aid from my pen. I might 
also mention other able and distinguished mechanics who 
contributed to the improvements in building these frames ; 
' but it were no easy task to assign to each his true share 
in them. Besides, the “ differential motions” were still 
so imperfect in the principle of action as to call for other 
and more essential changes to secure the correctness re- 
quired for safe working. 

This defective state of the bobbin and fly frame had led 
to the imvention of a substitute for it, in which the bobbins 
were turned (in taking up the rovings) by surface friction 
instead of by central action. The operations of this new 
roving-frame are as follows, viz. :— 

In place of using the throttle-spindle and flyers, the 
rovings are conducted to and placed upon the bobbins by 
‘means of revolving tubes (arranged in a line with the roller- © 
beam), through which the rovings pass, and are compressed 
by being twisted and untwisted before they are placed 
upon the bobbins. A range of fluted cylinders, the length 
of the bobbins, are placed along a driving-shaft (the length 
of the roller-beam); and the bobbins, being mounted upon 
the cylinders (under suitable pressure), are carried round 
by the simple contact-friction of their surfaces. Thus the 
rovings are duly taken up and wound upon the bobbins 
as they pass from the roller-beam through the twisting- 
tubes to the surface of the bobbins. The cylinder-shaft is 
geared (by wheels or pulleys) to the axis of the front 
rollers, so as to make their speeds inversely as the diameters 
of the cylinders and delivering-rollers. Thus the equable 
surface-motion is secured for taking up the rovings, at 
whatever speed they may be given out from the roller- 
beam. A steel presser is placed just opposite to the nose- 
end of the tube; the rovings pass through a hole in the 
presser as they leave the tubes, and are firmly pressed 
upon the bobbins in being wound upon them. 


302 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


In the above processes the rovings are made compact, so 
that the bobbins contain a larger weight of cotton, and are 
more portable than on the old plan; and though without 
any twist, the rovings have sufficient strength to turn the 
bobbins in drawing them off for spinning. It is obvious” 
from the above that the differential motions in the bobbin 
and fly frame are superseded and wholly dispensed with, 
by turning the bobbins by the equable surface-motions 
employed in the patent tube frame, as above explaimed. 

The new roving-frame was first brought out at the 
“Taunton Cotton Works” of Messrs. Crocker and Richmond, 
of Boston, who informed me that it had been invented by 
a Mr. Danforth, who was employed in their works. In 
the year 1825 Mr. Charles Richmond, of that firm, came 
over to England and brought a working model of the new 
roving-frame, and placed it in my charge for the purpose of 
having it patented for the jomt account of his house in 
America and myself. Accordingly I obtained a patent for 
the invention in the form in which it had been thus com- 
municated tome. It was, however, so imperfect in its con- 
struction, that many improvements were obviously neces- 
sary to make it work to advantage in this country, and 
which were subsequently made under my directions, and 
patented as such for the same joint interest. I then sub- 
mitted the building of this frame to several of our then first- 
class machine-makers, with the exclusive right of intro- 
ducing it for use among the spimners. Among the houses 
to which this offer was successively made were Messrs. 
Cocker and Higgins, Messrs. Hughes and Wren, and Mr. 
Henry Gore. But, after the experiments and investigations 
_ they had respectively made, each of them declined to take 
the machine in charge, having come to the opinion that 
the invention could not be made to work with that accu- 
racy and economy which would justify its adoption ae the 
spinners in England. 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 303 


Having formed a favourable opinion of the principle 
of the invention, and believing it to be susceptible of 
ereat improvement in working by several changes in its 
construction, I could not allow the unfavourable conclusion 
come to by the above-mentioned parties to deter me from 
further efforts to bring the machine into practical operation 
in competing with the bobbin and fly frame. 

With a view, therefore, to have the tube frame fairly 
and fully tested, I commenced the Machine-making Works 
in Manchester, where they were subsequently built upon 
the improved plans that rendered them of practical im- 
portance for spinning most of the lower numbers of twist. 
But it took a long time, and required much patient labour, 
to effect the changes and improvements necessary before 
the tube frame could be brought into a state sufficiently 
simple and safe-working to prove its real merits and in- 
duce the spinners to adopt it in place of the fly frame. 

In the course of my experiments in building them, 
several frames were broken up before any certain success 
could be realized. But about the end of 1828 the demand 
for them began to extend ; and soon after, a large trade was 
- established in building the tube frames, then called the 
“Yankee Speeders” by some, and by others “ Dyer’s 
Frames”? or speeders. 

The extensive adoption of the tube frames for low num- 
bers led to many attempts to render them applicable for 
fine spinning also; but this could not be done without 
putting twist in the rovings to strengthen them when 
reduced enough for high numbers; and it was quite impos- 
sible to have any twist in rovings as they passed through the 
twisting and untwisting tubes; wherefore the bobbin and 
fly frame was still to be looked to for this branch of the 
trade. In this mstance (as we have seen in many other 
manufactures) we find how naturally one successful inven- 
tion suggests and leads to others of equal importance, as 


504 2 MR. J. €. DYER ON 


applied to kindred objects. Thus the action of the tube 
machine, in pressing and condensing the roving hard upon 
the bobbins, was seen to be an object of great importance 
if it could be applied to the fly frame. With this view 
my friend Mr. Henry Houldsworth made a series of experi- 
ments, by attaching a presser to one arm of the flyer, to 
act against the bobbms im the fly frame as im the tube ~ 
frame. By an arrangement with him, this new application 
of the presser was included in my second patent for “ Im- 
provements in Roving-frames.” This improvement so far 
changed the working of the bobbin and fly frame, that the 
scale soon after began to turn in its favour with the spinners. 
To show the relation of these two roving-frames to the 
work to be done by them, we must keep in view the dif- 
ferent degrees of tenuity of theroving required for fine 
and for coarse spinning. The rovings are im general 
drawn on the mule-beam some ten or twelvefold, say 
from one to ten or twelve yards in length. When they 
are for spinning the Nos. 30, 60, and 120 twist (taking 
the draft of one into ten), the rovings for those numbers 
must of course be reduced to the sizes of 3, 6, and 12 
hanks to the pound weight. 

The hank of 840 yards equals 2520, 5040, 10,080 yards 
to the pound weight. In practice it was found that rovings 
of the tenuity exceeding six hanks were too weak to draw 
off from the bobbins, unless they were slightly twisted, 
and the twist could only be given to the fly frame. In 
other respects the rovings from this frame were very 
defective, compared with those from the tube frame. 
The former being soft and loosely wound on, the bobbins 
_ were liable to injury in carrying from the roving- to the 
spinning-rooms. This made it necessary to use the old 
form of spools, or barrels with disk ends to support the 
rovings. But the bobbins on the tube frame were simple 
barrels without end disks, as the rovings are compressed 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 305. 


and wound hard on them, and the traverse endwise of 
the bobbins, diminishing im length with their increase of 
diameter, gave conical ends to the rovings, making them 
safely portable. From these considerations it was highly 
important to transfer to the fly frame the like movements 
for winding the rovings hard upon the bobbins, by uniting 
the compression to that of twist, in rovings for the higher 
numbers in spinning. 

In the tube frame the axes of the bobbins are horizontal, 
and the pressure of the rovings upon their surfaces is 
obtamed by simple weights attached to the tube carriers. 

But in the fly frame the bobbins are arranged vertically ; 
so that the pressure must be given by means of springs 
attached to the arms of the flyers, or by the centrifugal 
force of weights revolving with the flyers and acting upon 
the pressers. Now both of these plans of pressing the 
rovings upon the bobbins are very clearly described in 
the drawings and specifications of my said: patent for these 
improvements on the fly frames, as before mentioned ; 
notwithstanding which, we have since seen that some 
six or eight (so-called) inventions have been patented for 
various and very trivial changes in the forms and modes 
of applying the springs, and the centrifugal force of 
weights revolving with the arms of the flyers, to press 
the rovings on the bobbins. These patents have led to 
many legal contests, and afforded gainful work for the 
lawyers in seeking to award the honours and profits. 
pertaining to such inventions. 

- Tcome now to speak of the really valuable and beauti- 
ful invention for controlling the differential motions of the 
fly frame, made and patented by Mr. Henry Houldsworth. 
Having already explained the complex nature of the con- 
tinually varying rotations required to make the delivering, 
twisting, and winding-on motions agree (when changes in 
either are required), and also that those motions had before 


3806 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


been regulated mostly by the “trial and error” method, 
rather than by any reliable self-adjusting movements, the 
discovery of a very simple train of movements for maintain- 
ing the differential rotations required in the bobbin and 
fly frame will at once be recognized as an invention of a 
high order in mechanical science. From the proper 
limits of this paper, these notices must be confined to the - 
main features of the delicate movements and the general 
operations of the machinery in question; so that those 
wishing for the minute description of the different motions 
above-mentioned must consult the drawings and specifica- 
tions of them given in the patents, as before stated*. 


* The movements are as follows :— 
a. Rollers, 300 turns per minute. 
6. Rovings, 33 yards per minute. 
e. Flyers, 3300 turns per minute. 
d. Twist, 100 turns per foot=82 turns per inch. 
é. Bobbins, 300 turns per minute. 

Taking the front rollers and the bobbins to be of the same diameters at 
first, then by these proportions the rovings will be wound upon the bobbins 
without strain or slackness. But the speed of the rollers must be altered to 
suit the drawing to the different kinds of cotton, and then that of twist to 
the lengths delivered. Again, the speed of the bobbins must be changed 
as their size and shape alter by the rovings wound upon them. 

Now the problem is to make all the motions relatively the same as 
above, when the changes take place to meet the conditions stated. The 
following are the visible operations of the rovying-frame:—A strap descends 
from the driving-pulley, and works one fast and loose pulleys upon an axis 
fixed on one end of the frame. This axis is geared by changeable wheels 
and pinions to drive the rollers on the beams; and from the same axis, 
through proper wheels, pulleys, and bands, are driven the flyers and spindles 
for giving the twist, and by another train of gearing the bobbins for taking 
up the rovings. The length of the roving delivered depending on the speed 
of the front rollers, all changes of these, of course, require corresponding 
changes in the speeds of the flyers and bobbins. The continually varying 
speeds of the latter are obtained through the action of traversing straps, 
working over reversed cone-pulleys. ‘These straps traverse endwise on the 
_ cones, and the distances of such traverse motions are regulated by the 
“‘notch-bars,” viz. sliding plates so graduated that the division shall move 
the straps just enough to give the equable surface-motions to the bobbins 
through all their changes of size. These, then, comprise mostly what can be 
seen of these frames, or what can be set forth in words without the aid of 
drawings. 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 307 


However, to make the nature of the differential motions 
more readily comprehended by persons wholly unac- 
quainted with these compound motions, I may take a 
supposed case to illustrate them. Let a travelling car- 
riage, drawn by horse or any other moving power, have a 
common windlass fixed in it, with a rope wound upon the 
barrel and extending thence some yards behind, let the 
outer end of the rope be fastened to another carriage to be 
drawn after the first by the rope; then it is evident that 
the two carriages will move with the same speed so long 
as the tow-rope continues without any change of length, at 
whatever speed the first carriage be driven. But let a 
man in the leading carriage have charge of the winch to 
lengthen or shorten the rope (by winding it on or un- 
winding it from the barrel of the windlass) ; then the rate 
of taking up or giving out of .the rope will be the exact 
measure of the difference of speeds of the two carriages at 
each of the rates at which the leading one may be driven. 
Let the one move, say, ten miles the hour, the other must 
follow at the same rate whilst no change is made in the 
distance between them; but if the rope be wound up at 
the rate of one mile an hour, or unwound at the same 
rate, it follows that the speeds will respectively be as ten 
to eleven, and as ten to nine miles per hour,—and so on 
with every change made in the connecting link between the 
two moving bodies. In this case the will of the man at the 
winch regulates the differences of these principal moving 
bodies. But agai, the wheels of the two carriages may 
be of different diameters, and then their rotative motions 
will differ accordingly; and these revolving speeds will 
have their differences made to accord with the varying 
motions of the carriages. Now such are the kind of 
differences to be provided for in the bobbin and fly frame. 
The imvention of Mr. Houldsworth provides a correct 
substitute for such giving and taking of a rope to main- 


308 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


tain the relative speeds of the prime motions in the fly 
frame. This is effected by the action of three wheels or 
pulleys* revolving together, and geared so that one of 
them was driven faster and the other slower by the middle 
wheel, as the rotations of the latter were governed by those 
of the delivering-rollers. This apparatus at the time was 
known by the significant title of “ Houldsworth’s Jack-in- 
the-Box;” and in fact it did solve the “ differential pro- 
blem” which had so long baffled so many clear heads to 
master. I must be content with thus pomting out the 
general properties of the different classes of the roving- 
frames above noticed, as it would be vain to attempt a 
description of their minuter parts without drawings to 
illustrate them. 

The successful application of the presser and the Jack- 
in-the-Box again turned the scale in favour of the bobbin 
and fly frame as competing with the tube frame; and the 
former may be held as the most complete triumph of 
genius and scientific skill now exhibited in the cotton- 
mills, with the sole exception of the self-acting mule, as 


* This important invention of Mr. Houldsworth was at first carried into 
effect by pulleys and straps; but, from their liability to slippage, it was found 
desirable to substitute toothed wheels in place of pulleys. The suggestive 
nature of new discoveries was then strikingly shown; for this want soon 
drew the attention of other eminent mechanicians to the subject, among 
whom both Mr. John Kennedy and Mr. Peter Hwart succeeded in giving 
the same motions by means of three wheels so acting together that the 
middle wheel controlled the relative speeds of the outer ones, just as Mr. 
Houldsworth had done by the pulleys. Mr. Ewart employed mitre wheels, 
and Mr. Kennedy adopted spur-gearing ; and the latter, I believe, has been 
found the most simple and best in practice. It is also worthy of remark 
that, shortly after the application of the three mitre wheels to govern the 
varying motions in the roving-frame, it was found that the same action of 

‘three mitre wheels had for many years been in open use for giving a uni- 
form surface speed in the side lathe for turning conical pulleys, just such as 
are used in the roving-frames: so here was a curious discovery by Mr. 
Ewart of a new use for an old action of wheels, which he had often seen in 
operation with the turning-lathe, but dreamed not of its being of value for 
other purposes, until led thereto by the new want, as above. 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 309 


described in a former paper, of which this is a second 
part. 

It is about sixty years since Mr. John Kennedy adopted 
the following method of putting twist mto rovings, 
namely :—He placed a range of pulleys along the front of 
the drawing-frames, so as to revolve horizontally on fixed 
centre pins close to the floor. The top sides of the pulleys 
were dished, or turned hollow to receive the bottom ends 
of cans of rovings, making them revolve with the pulleys. 
These were driven by an endless cord passmg round them 
and thence up to the common driving-shaft. Thus, as the 
rovings were delivered from the drawing-frames into the 
~ cans, they were twisted in proportion to the speed of the 
pulleys and that of the delivering-rollers. But the 
eumbrous nature of this apparatus was found to limit 
the rotation of the cans to so low a speed, compared with 
that of the drawing-rollers, that the requisite amount of 
twist could not be given to the rovings without great loss 
of time, by retarding the drawing-process; so that this 
defect (of twisting by the cans) led to the application of 
the throstle-spindle and flyers, as before mentioned. 

The flyer-spimdles, in the first place, were adapted for 
very large bobbins, in what was called the “slubber- 
frame,” used in the first operation upon the rovings; and 
the next, or finishing-frame, was the bobbin and fly frame, 
the leading features and operations of which have been 
already explained, as also the successive changes effected - 
for improving them. It will thus be seen that the vicissi- 
tudes of these roving-frames afford striking proofs of the 
gradations through which most of our great mechanical 
inventions have had to pass ere they could be made to 
realize the aspirations of their original inventors. Look- 
ing to the high degree of perfection now displayed, and 
the mighty powers daily exerted by the several classes of 
machines employed in the cotton-mills, it seems of real 


310 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


importance that we should have some faithful records of 
the successive steps taken among our most talented ma- 
chinists to bring into their present state those gigantic 
‘aids to manufacturing industry which at once contribute 
so largely to our national wealth and power and afford 
so fair a ground of patriotic pride. This task can only be 
well performed by some of those who have witnessed or 
contributed to the gradual approaches to such triumphant 
issues of the labour, skill, and talent so long and patiently 
employed in working out these results*. A concise ac- 
count should be given of the manipulations of the cotton 
before it comes to the roving-frame :—(1) By the “ devil- 
ling-machine,” for opening the cotton from its compressed 
state in the bags. (2) Blowing-engine, for clearing and 
separating it from dirt and extraneous bodies. (3) The 
carding-engines for arranging the fibres in even sheets, 


* Tf we wish to know how any work is performed, we must consult those 
who have done the same kind of work. If we desire to understand the 
properties of any machine, we should have them explained by persons con- 
versant with the construction of such machines. 

In like manner, if we can hope to see plain and reliable accounts given of 
the progressive advances made in labour-saving machinery of late years, 
they must come (as said in the text) from ‘‘some of those who have witnessed 
and contributed to the gradual approaches to the state of perfection” now 
attained. I would therefore invoke the pens of the few eminent men still 
left who belong to the class thus named, to record (as I have humbly sought ~ 
to do) their own knowledge and experiences respecting the many other able 
contributors to the rapid advances in the science of practical mechanics in 
our times. 

I may here point to the example set by my highly sifted friend, William 
Fairbairn, LL.D. &c., whose long course of engineering practice and 
scientific labours have been of the highest order and importance in widening 
the fields and clearing the paths of the mechayical engineer; for Mr. 
Fairbairn has given to the public, through his valuable lectures and published 
works, the results of his experiments, and the principles disclosed by them, 
- as well as of his engineering labours, all of which are so plainly set forth as 
to enable the working man to comprehend them. 

I greatly wish that another much valued and able friend, Mr. Henry 
Houldsworth, would perform the same task respecting his own important 
inventions and labours for advancing the mechanical sciences, second only 
to those of Fairbairn. 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. oll 


and doffing these in the form of loose ropes or rovings. 
(4) The drawing-frames for doubling and elongating the 
rovings to equalize them for the roving-frames. Each of 
these should be traced from its former rude to its present 
efficient and beautiful state as practically realized. The 
subject also of a good paper might be to trace the several 
forms and methods of using the throstle and spindle and 
flyers which have been invented since the adoption of this 
form of spindle by Arkwright, but was taken by him from 
the very ancient “ wheel-and-distaff machine,” in which the 
single spindle and flyers with bobbins were used for spin- 
ning flax by hand,—also that the pointed or mule spindle 
was adopted from the equally ancient “‘ wheel-and-band ma- 
chine,” with single spindle, used for spinning wool by hand. 

Since Arkwright’s patent throstle came into use, there 
have been some dozen or more patents taken out for sub-. 
stitutes for the throstle and flyers. Some of them at first 
appeared likely to supersede the original form of the 
throstle spindle; but we find in this a curious exception 
to the general results of improvements by successive 
artists, who devise new modes of action in mechanics ; 
for the throstle-frame, as now constructed by our leading 
machinists, is substantially the same in principle and 
action as that of Arkwright. The greater speed and 
efficiency of modern frames is owmg to the advanced 
skill and knowledge of the builders of them, compared 
with the former. By this judicious construction they are 
much stronger, more durable, and less subject to derange- 
ments than formerly; but nothing really new has been 
added by way of invention. 

Besides the intricate and scientific character of the ma- 
chinery described in these notes, there are many others in 
the cotton-mills which should be explained in the like simple 
way in which I have aimed to do in this case. After 
the process of spinning, in order to prepare the finer sorts 


312 MR. J. C. DYER ON 


of yarn for the lace-frame, and for the many delicate 
fabrics wrought by the loom, they are mostly doubled or 
quadrupled, and the finishing touch given by the “ fiery 
ordeal” of passing each thread through the flame of gas, 
to singe, or clear them from all protruding fibre-ends, 
which leaves the filaments of cotton as smooth and bright 
as are those of glossy silk. When rightly” compre- 
hended, the cotton-mill, with its vast aggregations of 
statical and moving forces, cooperating in such perfect 
harmony, and thereby converting the matted and tangled 
masses of cotton into such even and delicately attenuated 
threads, must constitute a subject of admiration to the 
philosopher, the statesman, and the physicist. Wherefore, 
to have all of the separate operations employed for re- 
alizing these results so set forth as to render them of easy 
comprehension must be held worthy of the labours of 
those who may undertake to follow and complete the 
work still needful to the fulfilment of this task. 

In conclusion, I may observe that many elaborate 
treatises, some of them very able ones, have appeared on 
the steam-engine, from its first rude and very wasteful 
principles of action, down through the diverse forms and 
clearer principles since applied to the uses of steam- 
power, before arriving at the varied constructions and 
correct modes of working now in general use. We have 
also had some valuable treatises on the different classes of 
mill-gearing and engines for transmitting moving forces, 
from their sources to their destined purposes. Again, we 
have seen many well-written memoirs on the lives and 
labours of several of the great engineers of our times, as 
_ well as of those of earlier date, whose well-earned fame 
has been thus duly awarded. On the other hand, with 
the exception of the meagre details and disputes concern- 
ing the first projects and after inventions of Paul, Whyatt, 
Arkwright, Kay, and Compton, hardly any public notices 


COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY. 313 


have been seen of the great body of leading machinists 
_ whose genius, scientific skill, and persevering labours have 
been exerted to convert the former rude workshops of these 
districts into the scientific and powerful machine- and tool- 
making works that now abound in our great hives of indus- 
try, which create and sustain our vast cotton-trade. 

Upon these grounds I have endeavoured to do some 
slight though tardy justice to the names of some of the 
eminent contributors to the great advances achieved in the 
mechanical sciences, and especially in cotton-spinmning ma- 
chines by those with whom I have cooperated in some 
cases, and whose successful labours I have in many others 
witnessed, whereby the cotton-mill is placed among the 
most eminent of modern creations. 

On former occasions I have brought before the Society 
some brief accounts of the inventions of several eminent. 
mechanicians, to whom our age is indebted for substitu- 
ting power-driven machines for hand-labour ; and, as before 
said, it must be held important to obtain the like details of 
many other inventions, made within the last eventful 
period of 80 or go years, which would afford trustworthy 
materials for a methodical history of modern imventions, 
a work much called for, to follow Beckman’s valuable 
‘ History of Inventions’ down to his time. If this labour 
be long delayed, it will greatly increase by the loss of time, 
and its value diminish for lack of authenticity, which de- 
pends so much on the evidence of living witnesses. 

The papers above referred to are the following :— 

1. On the Introduction of Steam Navigation. 

2. The Mule-Jenny and Self-acting Mule. 

3. Lace-making by Power-driven Machinery, and Wire- 

card-making by Power-driven Machinery. 

4, Nail- and Tack-making by Power-driven Machinery. 

5. The use of Steel Dies for Engraving. 

6. The present paper, on Cotton-roving Frames. 

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THE COUNCIL 


LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 
OF MANCHESTER. 


Aprit 28, 1868. 


Presivent. 
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 


Utce-Prestvents. 
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.8, 
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Hoy. Mem. C.P.S., 
Inst. Ene. Scot., Putzos. Soc. Guascow, Anp Soc. Nat. Sc. Basen, 
. Corr. Mem. Roy. Acap. Sc. Turin. 
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G:S. 
JOSHPH CHESBOROUGH DYER. 


Secretaries. 


HENRY ENFIELD ROSCOH, B.A., Pu.D., F.RS., F.CS., 
Proressor of Cuemistry, Owens CoLunGcs. 
JOSEPH BAXENDELL, F.R.A.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Puys.-Econ. 
Soc. KonicsperG, anp Acap. Sc. Lir. Paurrmo. 


Creasurer. 
ROBERT WORTHINGTON, F.R.AS. 


Librarian. 
CHARLES BAILEY. 


@Other Members of the Council. 
Rev. WILLIAM GASKHLL, M.A. 
PETER SPENCH, F.C.S., M.S.A. 
GEORGE VENABLES VERNON, F.R.A.8., F.M.S., F. Ayre. Soc., 
Mem. Mer. Soc. Scor., anp Mer. Soc. France. 
JOHN BENJAMIN DANCHR, F-.R.A:S. 
WILLIAM JACK, M.A., Prorsssor or NAtuRAL PuiLosopny, 
: Owens CoLLEGE. 
WILLIAM LEESON DICKINSON. 


HONORARY MEMBERS. 


DATE OF ELECTION, 

1847, Apr, 20. Adams, John Couch, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.C.P.S., 
Lowndsean Prof. of Astron. and Geom. in the Uniy.. 
of Cambridge, Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Se. 
Boston. The Observatory, Cambridge. 

_ 1843, Apr. 18. Agassiz, Louis, For. Mem. R.S., For. Assoc., Imper. 
Instit. France, &e. Cambridge, Massachusets, U.S. 

1843, Apr. 18. Airy, George Biddell, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Astro- 
nomer Royal, V.P.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. R.S.E., 
R.LA., M.C.P.S., Chev. of the Prussian Order 
“ Pour le Mérite,’ Corr. Mem. Nat. Inst. Wash- 
ington, U.S., Imper. Inst. France, Imper. Acad. 
Se. Petersburg and Roy. Acad. Sc. Berlin, Mem. 
Acad. Se. and Lit. Palermo, Roy. Acadd. Se. 
Stockholm and Munich, Roy. Soc, Se. Copenhagen, 
and Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. Boston. The Royal 
Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.K. 


1849, Jan. 23. Bosworth, Rev. Joseph, LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., 
M.R.1.A., Corr. Mem. Roy. Soc. Northern Antiq. 
Copenhagen, Mem. Roy. Soc. Sc. Drontheim and 
Soc. Sc. Gothenburg, Prof. of Anglo-Saxon at the 
Uniy. Oxford. Water Stratford, near Buckingham. 

1860, Apr. 17. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. B.S., 
Prof. of Chemistry at the itiatee of Heidelberg. 
Heidelberg. 


1859, Jan. 25. Cayley, Arthur, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S. 2 Stone 
Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

1866, Oct. 80. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.A.S8., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy, Oxford. 


1868, Apr. 28. Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S, 
Bromley, Kent. 

1859, Jan. 25. De Morgan, Augustus, F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S., late Pro- 
fessor of Mathematics in Univ. Coll. London, 41 
Chalcot Villas, Adelaide Road, London, N.W. 

1844, Apr. 30. Dumas, Jean Baptiste, Gr. Off. Legion of Honour, 
For. Mem. R.S., Mem. Imper. Tnstit. France, &e. 
A? Rue Grenelle, St. Germain, Paris. 


3 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1860, Jan. 24. Fries, Elias, A.M., Prof. Emer. at the Univ. of Upsala, 


Comm. of the Swedish Order of the Northern Star, 
Chev. of the Danish Order of “ Dannebrog,” Mem. 
Swed. Acad., Roy. Acad. Sc. Stockholm and Roy. 
Soc. Sc. Upsala, &c. Upsala. 
1843, Feb. 7. Frisiani, nobile Paolo, Prof., late Astron. at the Observ. 
of Brera, Milan, Mem. Imper. Roy. Instit. of Lom- 
«bardy, Milan, and Ital. Soc. Se. Milan. 


1866, Jan. 23. Graham, Thomas, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., Master of the 
Mint, F.G.S., F.C.S., Hon. Memb. R.S. Ed., Inst. 
Imp. (Acad. Sci.) Par. Acad. Reg. Sc. Berlin, 
Monach. et Nat. Inst. Washington, Corresp. 4 
Gordon-square, London, W.C. 


1861, Jan. 22. Haidinger, Wilhelm Karl, Ph.D., M.D., Aulic Coun- 
cellor, Director of the I. R. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Chev. 
of the Austrian Order “ Franz Joseph,” and several 
other Orders, For. Mem. R.SS. L. and E., Corr. 
Mem. Imp. Instit. France, Mem. Imp. Acad. Se. 
Vienna, Hon. Mem. I. R. Soc. Phys. Vienna, Roy. 
Geogr. Soc. London, Imp. Geogr. Soc. St. Peters- 
burg, Roy. Soc. Nat. Sc. and Geol. Soc. of Hungary, 
&e., Mem. Roy. Acadd. Sc. Stockholm, Munich, 
and Brussels, Roy. Socc. Sc. Gottingen and Copen- 
hagen, &c., Corr. Mem. Imper. Acad. Sc. St. Peters- 
burg, I. R. Inst. Se. Venice, Roy. Acadd. Se. Berlin 
and Turin, Roy. Inst. of Lombardy, Milan, Roy. 
Caled. Hortic. Soc. Edinburgh, Imper. Soc. Nat. 
Se. Cherbourg, Soc. Sc. Batavia, Acad. Nat. Se. 
Philadelphia. 365 Landstrasse, Ungergasse, Vienna. 

1843, Feb. 7. Harcourt, Rey. William Venables Vernon, M.A., 
E.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., F.G.S.  Nuneham-park, 

Abingdon. . 

1853, Apr. 19. Hartnup, John, F.R.A.S. Observatory, Liverpool. 

1867, Apr. 30. Henry, Joseph, Professor, Secretary of the Smith- 

sonian Institution, Washington, U.S. 

1843, Apr. 18. Herschel, Sir John Frederick William, Bart., K.H., 
D.C.L., M.A., F.R.SS. L. and E., Hon. M.R.LA., 
F.G.S., M.C.P.S., Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour 
le Mérite,’” Corr. Mem. Imper. Instit. France, Mem. 
Imper. Acad. Sc. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Se. 
Berlin, Turin, Naples, and Brussels, Roy. Soce. Sc. 
Gottingen, Copenhagen, and Haarlem, Acad. dei 
Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Acadd. Padua, Bologna, 


4 


DA'TE OF ELECTION. 


1848, Jan. 25. 


1866, Jan. 23. 


1867, Apr. 2. 


1852, Oct. 19. 
1848, Oct. 31. 
1847, Apr. 20. 


1843, Feb. 7. 


Palermo, Modena, Acad. Gioen. Catania, Imper. 
Acad. Se. Dijon, Philom. Soc. Paris and Soc. Nat. 
Se. Switzerland. Collingwood, Hawkhurst, near 
Staplehurst, Kent. 

Hind, John Russell, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. me 
of the Nautical iAtlmonmele 

Hofmann, A. W., LL.D., Ph.D., PRS, F.C.8., Ord. 
Leg. Hon. 8. Sm. Lazar. et Maurit. Ital. Kq., Inst. 
Imp. (Acad. Sci.) Par., Acad. Imp. Sci. Petrop., 
Imp. Reg. Vindob. Acad. Reg. Sci. Amstelod., 
Berol., Monach., Taur., Soc. Philomat. Paris, Phil. 
Amer. Philad., Phys. Francof., Bat. Roterod., Nat. 
Neo-Granad. Nat. Halee. Univ. Cas., Phys. Med. 
Erlang. Indust. Mulh. Corresp. 10 Dorotheen- 
strasse, Berlin. 

Holland, Sir Henry, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.RS., 
Physician in Ordinary to the Queen, F.G.S., Coll. 
Reg. Med. Socius. 25 Brook-street, London, W. 


Kirkman, Rey. Thomas Penyngton, M.A., F-.R.S. 
Croft Rectory, near Warrington. 


Lassell, William, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. R.8.E., 
Hon. Mem. Philomath. Soc. Paris. Ray Lodge, 
Maidenhead. 

Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, For. Mem. RB.S., 
Comm. Legion of Honour, Mem. Imper. Instit. 
France, &c. L’observatoire Dieser val, Paris. 

Liebig, Justus Baron von, M.D., Ph.D. , Prof, of Chem. 
Univ. Munich, Conservator of Chem. Tans Munich, 
Chey. of the Ben Order “ Pour le Mérite,” &c., Hod 
Mem. R.SS. L. and E., Hon. M.R.1.A., For. Assoc. 
Imper. Instit. France, Hon. Mem. Univ. Dorpat and 
Med. Phys. Facult. Univ. Prague, Hon. Mem. and 
For. Assoc. Imper. Acad. Sc. Vienna, Roy. Acadd. 
Stockholm, Brussels, Amsterdam, Turin, Acad. Se. 
Bologna, Roy. Soce. Sc. Gothenburg, Gottingen, 
Copenhagen, Liége, Imper. Roy. Instit. of Lom- 
bardy, Milan, Corr. Mem. Imper. Acad. Se. Peters- 
burg, Roy. Acad. Sc. Madrid, Mem. Roy. Med. 
Chir. Soc. London and Perth, Roy. Scot. Soc. Arts, 
Botan. Soce. Edinburgh and Regensburg, Soce. 
Nat. Sc. Berlin, Dresden, Halle, Moscow, Lille, 
Ph. Soc. Glasgow, Agric. pore Munich, Giessen, 
&e. Munich. 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


5 


1854, Jan. 24. Morin, Arthur, Gr. Off. Legion of Honour, General 


of Brigade, Mem. Imper. Instit. France, formerly 
éléve Polytechn. School, Dir. Conserv. of Arts, 
Paris, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, Madrid 
and Turin, Acad. Georg. Florence, Imper. Acad. 
Metz, and Industr. Soc. Mulhouse. 3 Rue des 
Beaux-arts, Paris. 


1843, April 18. Moseley, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S., Cun Mem. 


Imper. Instit. France. Oloestens near Bristol. 


1821, Jan. 26. Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, 


Burton-on- Tren. 


1844, gol 30. Murchison, Sir Roderick Impey, G.C. St. 8., D.C.L., 


MAS HR.S., #.G.8:, ELS:, &e:, Dingo Ges: of 
the Gat Suen Pr. RGS., Teta Mem. R.S.E. 
and R.I.A., Mem. C.P.S. ad Imper. Acad. Se. 


_ Petersburg, Corr. Mem. Imper. Instit. France, Roy. 


Acadd. Se. Stockholm, Turin, Berlin and Brussels, 
Roy. Soc. Se. Copenhagen, Amer. Acad. Arts and 
Se. Boston, and Imper. Geogr. Soc. Petersburg, Hon. 
Mem. Imper. Soc. of Naturalists, Moscow, &c. 16° 


~ Belgrave-square, London, 8.W. 


1844, April 30. Owen, Richard, M.D., LL.D., F.B.S.,F.LS., F.GS., 


V.P.Z.S., Director of the Nat. Hist. Department, 
British Museum, Hon. F.R.C.S. Ireland, Hon. 
M.R.S.E., For. Assoc. Imper. Instit. France, Mem. 
Imper. Acadd. Sc. Vienna and Petersburg, Imper. 
Soc. of Naturalists Moscow, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Berlin, 
Turin, Madrid, Stockholm, Munich, Amsterdam, 
Naples, Brussels and Bologna, Roy. Soce. Se. Copen- 
hagen and Upsala, and Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. 
Boston, Corr. Mem. Philom. Soc. Paris, Mem. Acad. 
Georg. Florence, Soc. Se. Haarlem and Utrecht, 
Soc. of Phys. and Nat. Hist. Geneva, Acad. dei 
Nuovi Lincei, Rome, Roy. Acadd. Sc. Padua, Pa- 
lermo, Acad. Gioen. Catania, Phys. Soc. Berlin, 
Chev. of the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,” For. 
Assoc. Instit. Wetter., Philadelphia, New York, 
Boston, Impér. Acad. Med. Paris, and Imper. and 
Roy. Med. Soc. Vienna. British Museum, London, 
WiC: 


1851, Apr. 29. Playfair, Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., F.RBS., F.GS., F.CS., 


1856, Jan. 22. 


Professor of Chemistry Univ. Ed. Edinburgh. 


Poncelet, General Jean Victor, For. Mem. Jamsys (Cae 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1866, Jan. 23. 


1866, Jan. 23. 


1859, Apr. 19. 
1849, Jan. 23. 


1859, Apr. 19. 


1844, Apr. 30. 


1843, Feb. 7. 
1851, Apr. 29. 
1861, Jan. 22. 


1868, Apr. 28. 


1854, Jan. 24. 


6 


Off. Legion of Honour, Mem. Imper. Instit. France 
&e. 58 Rue de Vaugirard, Paris. 

Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S. 10 Kent-terrace, 
Regent’s-park-road, London, N.W. 


Ramsay, Andrew Crombie, F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of 
the Geological Survey of Great Britain, Professor of 
Geology, Royal School of Mines, Ord. S. Strum. 
Maur. et Lazar. Eq., Amer. Phil. Soc. Philad. 
Socius, et Nat. Se. Soc. Ital. Socius Corresp. ,&c. 
Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, 
S.W. 

Rankine, William John Macquorn, LL.D., F.R.SS. 
L. and E., Pres. Inst. Eng. Scot., Regius Professor 
of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Uniy. Glasgow. 
59 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

Rawson, Robert. Royal Dockyard, Portsmouth. 

Reichenbach, Carl, Baron yon. Gut Retssenberg, 
niichst Girinzing, Vienna. 


Sabine, Lieut.-General Edward, R.A., D.C.L., Treas. 
and P.R.S., F.R.A.S., Hon. Mem. C.P.8., Chev. of 
the Prussian Order “ Pour le Mérite,” Mem. Imper. 
Acad. Se. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Se. Berlin, 
Brussels, and Gottingen, Roy. Soc. Sc. Drontheim, 
Acad. Se. Philadelphia, Econ. Soc. Silesia, Nat. 
Hist. Soc. Lausanne and Roy. Batavian Soc., Corr. 
Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin, Nat. Instit. Washing- 
ton, U.S., Geogr. Soce. Paris, Berlin, and Petersburg. 
13 Ashley-place, Westminster, London, S.W. 

Sedgwick, Rev. Adam, M.A., F.R.S., Hon. M.R.LA., 
F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Woodwardian Lecturer Univ. 
Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

Stokes, George Gabriel, M.A., D.C.L., Sec. R.S., 
Lucasian Professor of Mathem. Univ. Cambridge, 
E.C.P.S., Mem. Batay. Soc. Rotterdam, Corr. Mem. 
Roy. Acad. Se. Berlin. Pembroke College, Cam- 
bridge. 

Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of 
Mathematics. Royal Miltary Academy, Woolwich, 
London, 8.E. 


Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh. 
Tayler, Rey. John James, B.A., Principal of Man- 


y : 

DATE OF ELECTION. 
chester New College. The Limes, Rosslyn, Hamp- 
stead. . 

1851, Apr. 29. Thomson, Sir William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and 
E., Prof. of Nat. Philos. Univ. Glasgow. 2 College, 

Glasgow. 

1868, Apr. 28. Tyndall, John, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution and 
Royal School of Mines, Acadd. et Socc. Philomath. 
Par. Reg. Sci. Gotting., Holland, Hartl. Phys. et 
Nat. Hist. Genev., Nat. Ges. Tigur. Halee, Marburg, 
Vratisvl., Upsal., Nat. Sc. Berol. Socius. Royal 
Institution, London, W. 


1850, Apr.30. Woodcroft, Bennet, F.R.S., Professor, Superint. of 
Regist. of Patents. Southampton Buildings, Lon- 
don, W.C. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


1860, Apr. 17. Ainsworth, Thomas. Cleator Mills, near Egremont, 
Whitehaven. 


1861, Jan. 22. Buckland, George, Professor, University College, To- 
ronto. Toronto. 


1867, Feb. 5. Cialdi, Alessandro, Commander, &c. Rome. 


1866, Jan. 23. De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corresp. Memb. Acadd., 
Sc.Turin and Caen, Soce. Agr. Lyons, Sci.Cherbourg, _ 
Liége, &c. 
1861, Apr. 2. Durand-Fardel, Max, M.D., Chev. of the Legion of 
Honour, &c. 36 Rue de Lille, Paris. 


1849, Apr.17. Girardin, J., Off. Legion of Honour, Corr, Mem. Im- 
per. Instit. France, &c. Lille. 

1862, Jan. 7. Gistel, Johannes Franz Xavier, Ph.D., late Prof. of 
Nat. Hist. and Geogr., Libr. Secr. and Conserv. at 
the Museum of Nat. Hist. Regensburg, Corr. Mem. 
Imper. Roy. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Acadd. and Soce. 
Se. Cherbourg, Caen, Dijon, Aix, Orleans, Angers, 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1812, Jan. 24. 


1850, Apr. 30. 


1816, Apr. 26. 
1838, Apr. 17. 


1862, Jan. 7. 


1859, Jan. 25. 


1857, Jan. 27. 


1861, Oct. 29. 
1864, Apr. 19. 


8 


_ Brussels, Rheims, Nantes, Antwerp, Linnean Soce. 
Caen, Angers, Marseilles, La Rochelle and Paris. 
19 Steinweg, Regensburg, Bavaria. 

Granville, Augustus Bozzi, M.D., F.R.S., V.P.0.5., 
M.R.C.P. Lond., M.R.C.S. Engl., Knt. of the Order 
of St. Michael of Bavaria, of the Crown of Wiir- 
temberg, of the Lion of Ziiringen of Baden, and of 
St. Maurice and St. Lazarus of Sardinia, For. Mem. | 
Imper. Acad. Sc. Petersburg, Roy. Acadd. Se. Turin 
and Naples, Nat. Hist. Soc. Dresden, Philom. Soce., 
Soc. Méd. d’Emulat. and Cercle Méd. Paris, Soce. 
Georg. and Curéo, Florence, Med.-Chir. Soce. Peters- 
burg and Berlin, Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. Se. Brus- 
sels, &c. 5 Cornwall-terrace, Warwick-square, Lon- 
don. 


Harley, Rev. Robert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lercester. 


Kenrick, Rev. John, M.A. York. 
Koechlin-Schouch, Daniel. Mrudhouse. 


Lancia di Brolo, Federico, Duc. Inspector of Studies, 
&e. Palermo. 

Le Jolis, Auguste-Frangois, Ph.D., Archiviste per- 

_ pétuel and late President of the Imper. Soc. Nat. 
Sc. Cherbourg, Mem. Imp. Leop.-Car. Acad. Nat. 
Se., Imp. Soc. Naturalists Moscow, Acad. Nat. Se. 
Philadelphia, Roy. Botan. Soce. Regensburg, Leiden, 
Edinburgh, Botan. Soc. Canada, Linnean Soce. 
Lyon, Bordeaux, and Caen, Physiogr. Soc. Lund, 
Imp. Roy. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Imp. Roy. Zool. and 
Botan. Soc. Vienna, Roy. Acad. Se. Lucca and 
Prague, Imp. Acad. Se. and Lit. Chambery, Tou- 
louse, Rouen, Caen, Lille, &e., Acad. Soce. Cher- 
bourg and- Angers, Hortic. Soc. Cherbourg, Roy. 
Acad. Archeol. Brussels, Soce. Nat. Se. Catania, 
Athens, Boston, Dorpat, Riga, &e. Cherbourg. 

Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.8., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem. 
Brit. Met. Soc., Hon. Mem. Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., 
Mem. Geol. Soc. Edinburgh, &c. Nottingham. 


Maury, Captain Mathew Fontaine, LL.D., &c. 
Mitchell, Jesse, Captain, Superintendent of the Go- 
vernnment Museum, Madras. 


9 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1862, Jan. 7. 


1851, Apr. 29. 


1808, Noy. 18. 


1867, Feb. 5. 


1834, Jan. 24. 
1858, Apr. 19. 


1861, Jan. 22. 


1861, Jan. 22. 


1837, Aug. 11. 


1865, Nov. 15. 


1824, Jan. 23. 


1865, Nov: 15, 


1867, Nov. 12. 


1840, Jan. 21. 


1858, Jan. 26. 


1847, Jan. 26. 


1867, Apr. 16. 


Nasmyth, James, C.E., F.R.A.S., &e. Penshurst, 
Tunbridge. 


Pincofts, Peter, M.D., Knt. of the Turkish Order of 
the “ Medjidié” 4th Cl., Mem. Coll. Phys. London, 
Brussels, and Dresden, Hon. and Corr. Mem. Med. 
and Phil. Soce. Antwerp, Athens, Brussels, Con- 
stantinople, Dresden, Rotterdam, Vienna, &c. 
Naples. 


Roget, Peter Mark, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. Lond., 
F.G.S8., F.R.A.S., V.P.S.A., Corr. Mem. Roy. Acad. 
Se. Turin. 18 Upper Bedford-place, London, W.C. 


Schonfeld, Edward, Ph.D., Director of the Mannheim 
Observatory. 


Watson, Henry Hough. Bolton, Lancashire. 
Wilkinson, Thomas Turner, F.R.A.S. Burnley. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS. 


Alcock, Thomas, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. Lond., 
M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S.A. Bowdon. 
Auson, Rey. George Henry Greville, M.A. Burch 
Rectory, Rusholme. 
Ashton; Thomas. 42 Portland-street. 


Bailey, Charles. 17 Kossuth-terrace, Moss Side. 

Barbour, Robert. 18 Aytoun-street. 

Barker, Thomas, M.A., Prof. Math. Owens College. 
Owens College. 

Barrow, John. 20 Bellevue-street, Hyde-road. 

Bateman, John Frederick, F.R.S., F.G.S., M. Inst. 
C.E. 16 Great George-street, Westminster. 

Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S., Corr. Mem. Roy. Phys. 
Keon. Soc. Konigsberg, and Ac. Se. and Lit. Pa- 
lermo. Crescent-road, Cheetham Hill. 

Bazley, Thomas, M.P. Hynsham Hall, Oxford. 

Beasley, Henry Charles. 3 Rook-street. 


10 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1847, Jan. 26. 


1858, Jan. 26. 


1854, Jan. 24. 


1842, Jan. 25. 


1821, Jan. 26. 
1861, Jan. 22. 


1855. Jan. 23. 


1839, Oct. 29. 
1855, Apr. 17. 
1861, Apr. 2. 

1844, Jan. 23. 


1860, Jan. 24. 
1867, Dec. 10. 


1846, Jan. 27. 


1864, Noy. 29. 


1859, Jan. 25. 
1858, Jan. 26. 
1852, Apr. 20. 


1842, Jan. 25. 
1854, Apr. 18. 


1841, Apr. 20. 


1853, Jan. 25. 
1859, Jan. 25. 


1861, Nov. 12. 


1847, Jan. 26. 


1851, Apr. 29. 


1848, Jan. 25. 
1861, Apr. 2. 
1854, Feb. 7. 


1842, Apr. 19. 
1868, Feb. 10. 


Bell, William. 51 King-street. 

Benson, Davis. 4 Chester-street. 

Beyer, Charles. Stanley-grove, Oxford-street. 

Binney, Edward William, F.R.S., F.G.S. 40 Cross- 
street. ; 

Blackwall, John, F.L.S. Hendre, Llanrwst. 

Bottomley, James. 2 Nelson-street, Lower Broughton. 

Bowman, Eddowes, M.A. Upper Park-road, Vic- 
toria Park. 

Bowman, Henry. Upper Park-road, Victoria Park. 

Brockbank, William. 37 Princess-street. 

Brogden, Henry. Brooklands, near Sale. 

Brooks, William Cunliffe, M.A. Bank, 92 King-street. 

Brothers, Alfred, F.R.A.S. 14 St. Ann’s-square. 

Broughton, Samuel. 258 Cheetham-hill Road. 

Browne, Henry, M.D., M.A., M.R.C.S. Engl. 206 
Oxford-street. 

Buxton, Edmund Charles, jun. 81 Peter-street. 

Carrick, Thomas. 37 Princess-street. 

Casartelli, Joseph. 43 Market-street. 

Chadwick, David, F.8.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. Cross- 
street Chambers. 

Charlewood, Henry. 5 Clarence-street. 

Christie, Richard Copley, M.A., Prof. Hist. Owens 
College. 7 St. James’s-square. 

Clay, Charles, M.D., Extr, L.R.C.P. Lond., L.B.C.S. 
Edin. 101 Piccadilly. 

Cottam, Samuel. 2 Lssex-street. 

Coward, Edward. Heaton Mersey, near Manchester. 

Coward, Thomas. Bowdon. 

Crace-Calvert, Frederick, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Corr. 
Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. Turin, Acad. Se. Rouen, 
Pharmac. Soc. Paris, and Industr. Soc. Mulhouse. 
Royal Institution, Bond-street. 

Crompton, Samuel, M.R.C.S. Engl, L.S.A., F.R. 
Med.-Chir. Soc. 69 Piccadilly. 

Crowther, Joseph Stretch. 28 Brazennose-street. 

Cunningham, William Alexander. Bank, 37 King-— 
street. 


Dale, John, F.C.S. 
Chester-road. 

Dancer, John Benjamin, F.R.A.S. 48 Cross-street. 

Darbishire, George Stanley. 14 John Dalton-street. 


Cornbrook Chemical Works, 


Ta 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1853, Apr. 19. 


1854, Jan. 24. 
1861, Dec. 10. 
1855, Jan. 23. 
1818, Apr. 24. 


1859, Jan. 25. 


1824, Oct. 29. 


1861, Jan. 22. 


1856, Apr. 29. 
1857, Apr. 21. 
1860, Apr. 17. 


1854, Jan. 24. 


1840, Jan. 21. 
1861, Apr. 30. 
1817, Jan. 24. 


1849, Oct. 80. 


1865, Nov. 28. 


1862, Nov. 4. 
1839, Jan. 22. 


1828, Oct. 31. 


1861, Apr. 30. 
1833, Apr. 26. 


1864, Mar. 22. 


1851, Apr. 29. 


1845, Apr. 29. 
1848, Oct. 31. 
1839, Jan. 22. 
1861, Apr. 2. 


1854, Jan. 24. 


Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, BA., F.G.S. 26 
George-street. 

Davies, David Reynold. 33 Dickinson-street. 

Deane, William King. 25 Greorge-street. 

Dickinson, William Leeson. 1 St. James’s-street. 

Dyer, Joseph Cheshorough. Henbury, near Maceles- 


field. 


Eadson, Richard. 75 Dale-Street. 


Fairbairn, William, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Corr. Mem. Imp. Inst. France, and Roy. Acad. Sc. 
Turin, Hon. Mem. Inst. Eng. Scot. and Yorksh. 
Phil. Soc. Polygon, Ardwick. 

Fisher, William Henry. 16 Tib-lane. 

Forrest, Henry Robert. 38 Clarence-street. 

Foster, Thomas Barham. 23 John Dalton-street. 

Francis, John. Town Hail. 

Fryer, Alfred. 4 Chester-street. 


Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. 46 Plymouth-grove. 

Gladstone, Murray, F.R.A.S. 24 Cross-strect. 

Greg, Robert Hyde, F.G.S. 2 Chancer ‘y-place, Booth- 
street. 

Greg, Robert Philips, F.G.S. 2 Chancery-place, Booth- 
street. 


Hampson, Francis. 63 King-street. 

Hart, Peter. 45 Back George- street. 

Hawkshaw, John, F.R.S., F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. 
Great George-street, Westminster, London, S.W. 

Henry, William Charles, M.D.,F.R.S. 11 Last-street, 
Lower Mosley-street. 

Heys, William Henry. Hazel Grove, i near Sigagie: : 

Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 26 Ken- 
sington Palace Gardens, tao: W. 

Heywood, Oliver. Bank, St. Ann’s-street. 

Higgin, James. Hulme Hall Chemical Works, Ches- 
ter-road. 

Higgins, James. King-street, Salford. 

Higson, Peter, F.G.S. 94 Cross-street. 

Hobson, John. Bakewell, Derbyshire. 

Hobson, John Thomas, Ph.D. West Leigh Lodge, 
Leigh, Lancashire. 

Holeroft, George. St. Mary’s Gate. 


38 


DATE OF ELECTION. 
23. 
27. 


1855, Jan. 
1846, Jan. 


1824, Jan. 


1857, Jan. 
1859, Jan. 


1866, Nov. 
1866, Nov. 


1850, Apr. 


1865, Jan. 
1821, Oct. 


1848, Apr. 


1842, Jan. 


1848, Jan. 
1852, Jan. 


1867, Nov. 


1862, Apr. 


18380, Apr. 


1860, Jan. 
1863, Dec. 


1850, Apr. ¢ 


1860, Jan. 


1839, Oct. 
1857, Jan. 
1854, Jan. 


1850, Apr. 


1859, Jan. 


1855, Oct. ¢ 
1829, Oct. « 
1858, Apr. 
1844, Apr. 


12 


Holden, Isaac. 64 Cross-street. 

Holden, James Platt. St. James’s Chambers, 3 South 
King-street. é 

Tlouldsworth, Henry. Newton-street Mills, 4 Little 
Lever-street. 

Hunt, Edward, B.A., F.C.S. 42 Quay-street, Salford: 

Hurst, Henry Alexander. 61 George-street. 


Jack, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, 
Owens College. Owens College. 

Jevons, William Stanley, M.A., Professor of Logic, 
&c., Owens College. Owens College. 

Johnson, Richard, F.C.8. Oak Bank, Fallowfield. 

Johnson, William B. Altrincham. 7 

Jordan, Joseph, F.R.C.S. Engl. 70 Bridge-street. 

Joule, Benjamin St. John Baptist. Thorncliff, Old 
Trafford. 

Joule, James Prescott, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Hon. 
Mem. C.P.S., and Inst. Eng. Scot., Corr. Mem. Roy. 
Acad. Se. Turin. Chiff Point, Higher Broughton, 
Manchester. 


Kay, Samuel. 66 Fountain-street. 

Kennedy, John Lawson. 47 Mosley-street. 

Kipping, James Stanley. Branch Bank of England. 
Knowles, Andrew. High-bank, Pendlebury. 


Langton, William. Manchester and Salford Bank, 
Mosley-street. 

Latham, Arthur George. 24 Cross-street. 

Leake, Robert. 100 Mosley-street. 

Leese, Joseph. Altrincham. 

Leigh, John, M.R.C.S. Engl, L.S.A., F.C.S. York 
Chambers, King-street. 

Lockett, Joseph. 100 Mosley-street. 

Longridge, Robert Bentink. 1 New Brown-street. 

Lowe, George Cliffe. 357 Lever-street. 

Lund, Edward, M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S.A. 22 Sé. John’s- 
street. 

Lynde, James Gascoigne, M. Inst. C.E., F.G.8. Zown 
fail. 


Mabley, William Tudor. 14 St. Ann’s-square. 

McConnel, James. Bent-hill, Prestwich. 

McConnel, William. 90 Henry-street, Oldham-road. 

McDougall, Alexander. The Haves, Chapel-en-le- 
Frith. 


7 = 


DATE OF ELECTION. 
1866, Nov. 13. 
1823, Jan. 24. 


1859; Jan. 25. 
1849, Apr. 17. 


1858, Apr. 20. 
1864, Nov. 1, 


1837, Jan. 27. 
1864, Mar. 8. 
1864, Mar. 22. 
1861, Oct. 29. 


1849, Jan. 23. 
1864, Mar. 22. 


1852, Jan. 27. 


1854, Feb. 7. 
1850, Jan. 24. 


1862, Dec. 30. 


1861, Jan. 22 


1844, Apr. 30. 


1861, Apr. 30. 
1861, Jan. 22. 


1866, Mar. 20. 
1861, Jan. 22. 
1857, Apr. 21. 


1854, Jan. 24. 
1860, Apr. 17. 


1861, Jan. 22. 


1854, Feb. 7. 


1859, Apr. 19. 


13 


McDougall, Arthur. 11 Riga-street, Hanover-street. 

Macfarlane, John. Edge-hill House, Coney-hill, Bridge 
of Allan, Scotland. - 

Maclure, John William, F.R.G.S. 2 Bond-street. 

Manchester, the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D., 
F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Corr. Mem. Arch. Inst. 


Rome. Drocesan Registry Office, 7 St. James’s- 
square. : 

Mather, Colin. Iron Works, Deal-street, Brown-street, 
Salford. 


Mather, William. 
street, Salford. 

Mellor, William. Zane Works, Ardwick. 

Micholls, Horatio. 7 Micholas-street. 

Montefiore, Leslie J. 17 Cannon-street. 

Morgan, John Edward, M.B., M.A., M.R.C.P. Lond., 

FR. Med. and Chir. 8. 1 St. Peter’s-square. 

Morris, David. 1 Market-place. 

Mudd, James. St. Ann’s-square. 


Iron Works, ree Brown- 


Nelson, James Emanuel. 17 Bridgewater-street, High-— 
street. 

Nevill, Thomas Henry. 19 George-str ah 

Newall, Henry. Hare-hill, Littleborough. 


Ogden, Samuel. 10 Back Mosley-street. 
O’Neill, Charles, F.C.S., Corr. Mem. Industr. Soc. 


Mulhouse. 4 Bank-place, St. Philip's Church, 
Salford. 
Ormerod, Henry Mere. 5 Clarence-street. 


Parlane, James. 16 Dickinson-street. 

Parr, George, jun. Phenix-works, Chapel-street, 
Ancoats. 

Patterson, John. Oak-mount, Withington. 

Perring, John Shae, M.Inst.C.E. 104 King-street. 

Platt, William Wilkinson. Lvon-works, Deal-street, 
Brown-street, Salford. 

Pochin, Henry Davis. 42 Quay-street, Salford. 

Pocklington, Rey. Joseph Nelsey, B.A. Rectory, St. 
Michael's, Hulme. 


Radford, William. 41 John Dalton-street. 

Ramsbottom, John. Ratlway-station, Crewe. 

Ransome, Arthur, B.A., M.B. Cantab., M.R.C.S. 1 S¢. 
Peter’ s-square. 


DATE OF ELECTION. 
25. 


1859, Jan. 
1860, Jan. 


‘1864, Dec. 


1822, Jan. 
1864, Jan. 
1858, Jan. 


1851, Apr. 


1842, Jan. 


1863, Apr. 


1855, Jan. 


1852, Apr. 


1865, Dec. 
1859, Jan. 
1838, Jan. 


1845, Apr. 


1864, Dec. 
1859, Jan. 


1851, Apr. 


1864, Dee. 


1852, Jan. 


1847, Apr. 


1858, Jan. 
1863, Oct. 


1814, Jan. 


1859, Jan. 


1856, Jan. 
1860, Apr 


1821, Apr. 


29. 
26. 


25. 
22. 
slits 
19. 


14 


Rideout, William Jackson. 11 Church-street. 
Roberts, William, M.D., B.A., M.R.C.P. Lond. 89 
Mosley-street. 
Robinson, John. 

street. 
Robinson, Samuel. Black Brook Cottage, Wilmslow. 
Rogerson, John. Gaythorn. 
Roscoe, Henry Enfield, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., 
Professor of Chemistry, Owens College. Owens 
College. 


Atlas-works, Great Bridgewater- 


Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, near Perth. 

Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, 
Kersal. 

Schwabe, Edmund Salis, B.A., F. Anthrop. Soc. 41 
George-street. 

Sharp, Edmund Hamilton. 
Trafford. 

Sidebotham, Joseph. 19 George-street. 

Simpson, Henry, M.D. 335 Oxford-street. 

Slage, John, jun. 12 Pall Mail. 

Smith, George Samuel Fereday, M.A., F.G.S. 2 Essex- 
street, King-street. 

Smith, Robert Angus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Corr. 
Mem. I.R. Geol. Inst. Vienna. 20 Devonshire-street, 
All Saints. 

Sonstadt, Edward. Brunswick-terrace, Prestwich. 

Sowler, Thomas. Red Lion-street, St. Ann’s-square. 

Spence, Peter, F.C.S., M.S.A. Alwm-works, Newton- 
heath. 

Spencer, Joseph. Brown-street. 

Standring, Thomas. 1 Precadilly. 

Stephens, James, F.R.C.S., L.S.A. 68 Bridge-street. 
Stewart, Charles Patrick. -Atlas-works, 88 Great 
Bridgewater-street, and Oaklands, Victorva-park: 
Stretton, Bartholomew. Bridgewater-place, High- 

street. 

Stuart, Robert. 


Seymour-grove, Old 


Ardwick-hall. 

Tait, Mortimer Lavater. 7 Church-street. 

Taylor, John Edward. 3 Cross-street. 

Trapp, Samuel Clement. 18 Cooper-street. 

Turner, Thomas, F.R.C.S. Enel., F.L.S., F.R. Med.- 
Chir. S., Hon. F. Harv. Soe. 77 Mosley-street. 


DATE OF ELECTION. 


1861, Apr. 30. 


1859, Jan. 25. 
1857, Jan. 27. 


1858, Jan. 26. 


1839, Jan. 22. 


1859, Jan. 25. 
1859, Apr. 19. 


1853, Apr. 19. 


1851, Apr. 29. 


1851, Jan. 21. 
1836, Jan. 22. 


1855, Oct. 30. 
1860, Apr. 17. 
1860, Apr. 17. 
1840, Apr. 28. 
1863, Noy. 17. 


1865, Feb. 21, 
1864, Nov. 1. 


15: 


Vernon, George Venables, F.R.AS., F.MS., I’. 
Anthrop. Soc. Mem. Met. Soe. Scotl., and Met. Soc. 
France. <Auburn-street, Piccadilly. 


Watson, John. Rose-hill, Bowdon. 

Webb, Thomas George. Gilass-works, Kuirby-street, 
Ancoats. 

Whitehead, James, M.D., M.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.C.S. 
Engl., L.S.A., M.R.LA., Corr. Mem. Soc. Nat. 
Phil. Dresden, Med. Chir. Soc. Zurich, and Obst. 
Soc. Edin., Mem. Obst. Soc. Lond. 87 Mosley- 
street. 

Whitworth, Joseph, F.R.S. Chorlton-street, Portland- 
street. 

Wilde, Henry. 37 Lever-street. 

Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Manchester and Salford 
Bank, Mosley-street. 

Williamson, Samuel Walker. St. Mark’-place, Cheet- 
ham-hill. 

Williamson, William Crawford, F.R.S., Professor of 

_ Natural History, Anat., and Physiol., Owens Col- 
lege, M.R.C.S. Engl. L.S.A. 172 Egerton-road, 
Fallowfield. 

Withington, George Bancroft. 24 Brown-street. 

Wood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Man- 
chester. 

Woodcock, Alonzo Buonaparte. Orchard Bank, 
Altrincham. 

Woodcroft, Rufus Dewar. Cornbrook Chemical-works, 
Chester-road. 

Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street. 

Worthington, Robert, F.R.A.S. 96 King-street. 

Worthington, Samuel Barton, C.E. Crescent-road, 
Cheetham-hill. 

Worthington, Thomas. John Dalton-street. 

Wright, William Cort, F.C.S. Whalley-range. 


Nore.—It is requested that any mistakes or alterations in the designa- 
tions or addresses of Members, as given in this list, be notified to the 


Inbrarian of the 


Society. 


iA 
AT 


TITUTION LIBRAR| 


NPAT 


3 9088 01303 565 


cf SMITHSONIAN INS
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