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5 


MEMOIES  OE  THE  MANCHESTER 
LITERARY  AND 
PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


Ui, 

E^H- 

OJOIES 


OF  THE 


MANCHESTER 

»*  * 

LITERARY  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY, 


THIRD  SERIES. 


TENTH  VOLUME. 


LONDON: 

TAYLOR  AND  FRANCIS, 

Red  Lion  Court,  Fleet  Street. 


1887. 


AliEKE 


FLAM  MAM. 


PRINTED  BY  TAYLOR  AND  FRANCIS, 

RED  LION  COURT,  FLEET  STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

I. — Some  Novel  Phenomena  of  Chemical  Action  attending  the 

Efflux  from  a Capillary  Tube.  By  R.  S.  Bale,  B.A i 

II. — On  the  Composition  of  Projections  in  Geometry  of  Two 

Dimensions.  By  James  Bottomley,  B.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.C.S.  ...  6 

III.  —On  some  Undescribed  Tracks  of  Invertebrate  Animals  from 

the  Yoredale  Rocks,  and  on  some  Inorganic  Phenomena, 
produced  on  Tidal  Shores,  simidatiug  Plant-remains.  By 
Professor  W.  C.  Williamson,  LL.D.,  E.R.S.,  President. 
(Plates  I.,  II.,  III.,  IIP.) 19 

IV.  — On  the  Structure,  the  Occurrence  in  Lancashire,  and  the 

probable  Source,  of  Naias  grcminea,  Delile,  var.  Belilei, 
Magnus.  By  Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S.  (Plates  IV.-VII.)...  29 

V. — Notes  on  the  Subgenus  Cylinder  (Montfort)  of  Conus.  By  J. 

Cosmo  Melyill,  M. A.,  F.L.S.  (Plate  VIII.)  76 

VI.— Memoir  of  Robert  Angus  S.mitii,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S., 

&c.  By  BnwARD  Schunck,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  &c 90 

VII. — On  a Property  of  the  Magneto-electric  Current  to  control  and 
render  Synchronous  the  Rotations  of  the  Armatures  of  a 
number  of  Electro-magnetic  Induction-machines.  By 
Henry  Wilue,  Esq 102 

VIII. — On  the  Influence  of  Gas-  and  Water-pipes  in  Determining  the 
Direction  of  a Discharge  of  Lightning.  By  Henry  Wilde, 

Esq 1 12 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE  PAGE 

IX. — On  the  Origin  of  Elementary  Substances,  and  on  some  new 
Relations  of  their  Atomic  Weights.  By  Henry  Wilde, 

Esq ii8 

X. — On  the  Velocity  with  which  Air  rushes  into  a Vacuum,  and  on 
some  Phenomena  attending  the  Discharge  of  Atmospheres 
of  Higher  into  Atmospheres  of  Lower  Density.  By  Henry 


Wilde,  Esq.  (and  Table.)  146 

XI. — On  the  Flow  of  Gases.  By  Professor  Osborne  Reynolds, 

LL.D.,  F.R.S 164 

XII. — On  the  Efflux  of  Air  as  modified  by  the  Form  of  the  Dischar- 
ging Orifice.  By  Henry  Wilde,  Esq 182 


XIII. — On  the  Morphology  of  Pinites  oblongus  {Abies  ohlonga  of 
Lindley  and  Hutton).  By  Wm.  Ck.awpord  Williamson, 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  Owens  College. 


(Plate  IX.)  189 

XIV. — On  the  Plymenoptera  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  By  the  Rev. 

T.  Blackburn,  B.A.,  and  P.  Cameron 194 


XV. — The  Pollution  of  the  River  Irwell  and  its  Tributaries.  By 

Charles  A.  Burgiiardt,  Ph.D.  (Plates  X.-XIII.  & Table.)  245 

XVI. — On  the  Relations  of  Calamodendron  to  Calamites.  By  Pro- 
fessor W.  C.  Williamson,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (Plates  XIV.- 
XVI.)  255 


NOTE. 

The  Authors  of  the  several  Papers  contained  in  this 
Volume  are  themselves  accountable  for  all  the  statements 
and  reasonings  which  they  have  offered.  In  these  par- 
ticulars the  Society  must  not  be  considered  as  in  any  way 
responsible. 


MEMOIRS 


OP  THE 

MANCHESTEE 

LITERARY  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


I.  Some  Novel  Phenomena  of  Chemical  Action  attending 
the  Efflux  from  a Capillary  Tube.  By  R.  S.  Dale^ 

B.A. 

Read  December  i6th,  1884. 


The  results  obtained  in  the  experiments  I propose  to 
describe  were  the  outcome  of  a desire  to  know  what,  if 
any,  mechanical  action  took  place  when  two  solutions 
capable  of  forming  a precipitate  were  slowly  mixed ; 
next  to  find  the  nature  of  such  mechanical  action,  and 
latterly,  if  possible,  to  measure  it.  I have  made  no 
attempt  in  the  latter  direction,  but  propose  describing  a 
series  of  experiments  which  have  yielded  some  very  novel 
effects. 

No.  I.  Solutions  of  lead  acetate  and  potassium  dichromate 
were  allowed  to  travel  in  opposite  directions  along 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


B 


2 MR.  R.  S.  DALE  ON  SOME  NOVEL  PHENOMENA  OF 

a thread  placed  in  the  field  of  a microscope.  At 
the  moment  of  mixing^  very  considerable  disturb- 
ance took  place,  accompanied  with  a whirling 
motion.  This  method  not  olfering  results  which 
could  be  easily  registered,  it  occurred  to  me  to 
cause  one  solution  to  flow  into  the  other  through 
a capillary  tube  or  syphon.  The  apparatus  used 
was  of  the  simplest  possible  description,  consisting 
of  a pair  of  cylinders  connected  by  a capillary 
syphon,  the  efiluent  end  of  which  was  bent 
upwards.  One  cylinder  was  raised  slightly  above 
the  other  to  ensure  a flow.  I have  a photograph 
of  the  general  arrangement  adopted. 

No.  2.  Solutions  of  lead  acetate  and  potassium  dichromate 
were  allowed  to  mix  in  this  manner.  The  latter 
salt  was  passed  into  the  former.  The  capillary 
syphon  was  charged  with  water,  and  after  this  had 
passed  through  the  heavier  fluid  a series  of  vortex 
rings  began  to  be  formed  at  the  point  of  the  tube. 
Later  one  attached  itself  to  the  tube,  and  others  to 
this,  until  a tube  was  built  up  through  which  the 
potassium  ‘ dichromate  was  passed,  without  any 
chemical  action  taking  place,  to  the  top  of  the  lead 
acetate.  This  action  continued  until  the  system 
reached  an  equilibrium.  Fearing  that  I could  not 
show  the  experiments  before  the  Society,  I photo- 
graphed some  of  them,  and  they  show  exceedingly 
well  the  curious  growths  of  lead  chromate  which 
were  thus  produced.  With  these  two  substances 
to  obtain  a single  tube  was  most  difficult,  and  only 
a series  could  be  obtained  with  anything  like  cer- 
tainty. 

An  experiment  was  made  reversing  the  fluids. 


CHEMICAL  ACTION  FROM  A CAPILLARY  TUBE. 


8 


The  same  results  were  obtained^  though  the  growth 
was  less  stable,  as  the  potassium  dichromate  being 
of  much  smaller  specific  gravity,  no  support  was 
given  to  the  lead  chromate  formed,  and  thus  the 
growth  continually  fell  off  the  point  of  the 
syphon. 

No.  3.  A cold  saturated  solution  of  sodium  sulphate  was 
passed  into  a saturated  solution  of  barium  chloride. 
A perfectly  straight  tube  was  obtained,  which 
formed  with  great  rapidity  and  was  very  stable. 
This  result  was  most  unlooked  for,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  great  density  of  barium  sulphate. 

No.  4.  A solution  of  ammonium  oxalate  was  passed  into  a 
solution  of  calcium  chloride.  These  particular 
solutions  were  chosen  because  the  amorphous  cal- 
cium oxalate  first  produced,  on  mixing  these  solu- 
tions rapidly,  becomes  crystalline,  and  the  effect 
could  not  be  surmised  on  mixing  with  a capillary 
tube.  The  usual  phenomena  took  place  until  the 
tube  reached  the  height  of  about  one  inch,  when 
the  amorphous  calcium  oxalate  suddenly  changed 
to  the  crystalline  variety,  and  apparently  stopped 
the  action,  as  no  further  upward  growth  took  place. 
On  careful  examination,  however,  of  the  point  of 
the  growth,  a fluid  was  noticed  to  emerge,  which 
had  no  action  on  the  surrounding  calcium  chloride, 
showing  that  chemical  action  was  still  going  on. 
Now,  the  upward  growth  having  ceased,  it  was 
inevitable  that  the  tube  should  become  wider,  and 
this  is  what  really  took  place.  On  another  expe- 
riment I obtained  a nearly  spherical  body  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

No.  5.  Action  of  ammonia  on  ferrous  sulphate.  A very 

B 2 


4 MR.  R.  S.  DALE  ON  SOME  NOVEL  PHENOMENA  OF 

thick  tube  of  ferrous  hydrate  was  formed,  which  I 
am  able  to  show  you,  as  it  is  by  no  means  fragile. 
It  has,  of  course,  been,  since  out  of  the  fluid,  par- 
tially converted  into  ferric  oxide. 

No.  6.  Sodium  carbonate  on  copper  sulphate.  In  this 
case  a crystalline  copper  earbonate  was  obtained  of 
two  shades,  one  a bright  blue  resembling  azurite 
(if  it  be  not  actually  that  substance),  and  another 
a bright  green  resembling  malachite.  I am  able 
to  show  this  tube. 

No.  7.  Ammonium  sulphide  on  copper  sulphate.  An 
action  closely  resembling,  in  many  particulars,  the 
action  of  ammonia  on  ferrous  sulphate. 

No.  8.  Sodium  carbonate  on  calcium  chloride.  The  com- 
mencement of  the  action  was  marked  by  the  for- 
mation of  a perfectly  transparent  and  highly 
refractive  sheath  of  calcium  carbonate,  which  did 
not  show  any  signs  of  crystallization  until  about 
half  an  inch  in  length.  On  examination,  after  the 
lapse  of  about  twelve  hours,  a crystalline  tube  of 
calcium  carbonate  had  made  its  way  to  the  top  of 
the  containing  cylinder.  This  tube  was  composed 
of  -minute,  but  well-defined  crystals.  I found  it 
impossible  to  retain  it  in  its  perfect  shape  for 
inspection  here. 

No.  9.  Sodium  carbonate  on  barium  chloride.  A very 
similar  action  to  that  mentioned  in  experiment 
No.  7,  but  at  no  time  Avas  a transparent  substance 
noted,  the  growth  being  quite  opaque  and  not 
palpably  crystalline. 

No.  10.  Hydrochloric  acid  on  sodium  silicate.  Here  a 
AA^ell-marked  action  took  place,  and  a tube  of  silica 


CHEMICAL  ACTION  FROM  A CAPILLARY  TUBE. 


5 


was  produced,  a portion  of  which  I am  able  to 
show. 

No.  II.  Knowing  the  silica  produced  by  the  action  of 
ammonium  chloride  on  sodium  silicate  was  much 
denser  than  that  obtained  in  the  previous  experi- 
ment, I caused  these  substances  to  act  on  each 
other,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a very  long  tube 
of  silica  of  considerable  thickness.  I am  able  to 
show  this  also. 

No.  12.  Ferrocyanide  of  potassium  on  ferrous  sulphate. 
Notwithstanding  the  extreme  lightness  of  the  blue 
precipitate  produced  by  these  solutions,  a perfect 
tube  was  obtained,  which  reached  the  surface  of 
the  ferrous  sulphate. 

Many  experiments  on  the  above  lines  will  readily 
suggest  themselves  ; but  I think  I have  described  sufficient 
to  call  attention  to  this,  to  me,  novel  method  of  experi- 
ment, and  I must  leave  it  to  some  future  occasion  to 
describe  such  others  as  may  show  any  peculiarities  worth 
noting.  I purposely  refrain  from  making  any  theoretical 
deductions,  with  the  one  exception  that  it  is  pretty  certain 
that  these  phenomena  are  inseparably  connected  with 
vortex-action,  the  tubes  being  undoubtedly  built  up  of  a 
series  of  vortex-rings. 


6 


DK.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


II. 


On  the  Composition  of  Projections  in  Geometry  of  Two 
Dimensions.  By  James  Bottomley^  B.A.^  D.Sc.^ 


F.C.S. 


Read  January  13th,  1885. 


In  previous  papers  (ProeeedingSj  vol.  xxi.  page  i88  et  seq. ; 
Memoirs^  vol.  viii.  3rd  series^  page  218  et  seq.)  it  has  been 
shown  how,  by  the  eomposition  of  two  projeetions,  namely, 
of  that  of  a line  on  a line,  and  of  that  of  a plane  on  a 
plane,  we  may  derive  from  a solid  another  solid  of  which 
the  volume  bears  to  the  volume  of  the  former  the  ratio 
where  n denotes  the  cosine  of  the  angle  between  the  primi- 
tive axis  and  the  fixed  axis.  The  kind  of  projection  there 
contemplated  has  its  analogue  in  geometry  of  two  dimen- 
sions. The  projections  to  be  compounded  in  this  case  are 
those  of  tu'o  lines  on  two  lines.  As  the  simplest  case,  let 
Oj7,  Oy  be  two  fixed  rectangular  axes,  and  ABC  a rectangle 


in  the  plane  of  these  axes ; let  / and  m be  the  cosines  of 
the  angles  made  by  AC  with  Ox  and  Oy.  Project  AB  on 
Ox ; then  we  shall  have 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


7 


If  AC  were  projeeted  on  Oy,  the  length  of  the  projection 
would  be  mkC ; from  the  point  D draw  a perpendicular 
such  that 

DF=mAC,  (2) 

and  complete  the  parallelogram.  Multiplying  together 
(i)  and  (2)^  we  get 

DE.DF=m"AB.  AC; 

AB  . AC  is  the  area  of  the  primitive  parallelogram^  and 
FD  . DE  is  the  area  of  the  parallelogram  FDE.  By  pro- 
jecting on  the  line  Oy,  we  may  obtain^  in  a similar  manner, 
another  parallelogram  such  that 

NK.KL  = Z^AB.  AC. 

Hence  A,;  and  A^  denoting  the  projected  areas,  we  have 

A,;  -p  Ay=AP  + Am^ , 

= A- 
for 

If  the  rectangle  CAB  have  any  motion  of  translation,  this 
will  affect  the  positions,  but  not  the  magnitudes,  of  the 
projections ; if  the  rectangle  have  a motion  of  rotation 
round  any  axis  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  each  projection 
will  vary  in  magnitude,  but  their  sum  will  be  constant. 

The  reasoning  of  the  above  simple  case  may  be  extended 
to  any  plane  area  bounded  by  curved  lines ; for  we  may 
suppose  the  area  to  be  rigidly  connected  with  two  straight 
lines  on  its  plane,  and  at  right  angles;  then  the  whole 
area  may  be  considered  as  the  limit  of  a series  of  elemen- 
tary parallelograms  whose  sides  are  parallel  to  these  axes. 
If  a denote  the  area  of  one  of  these  elements,  its  projection 
Uj,  on  a line  parallel  to  the  axis  of  x,  will  be  m^a,  and 
summing,  we  have 


8 


DR,  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


'^^a  denoting  the  area  of  the  primitive  figure,  which  we 
may  also  write  A,  and  denoting  the  area  of  some 
geometrical  figure  built  up  by  piling  one  on  another  the 
successive  projected  rectangles.  This  area  we  may  also 
denote  by  A^.  In  a similar  manner  we  may  pile  one  on 
another  the  projections  on  lines  parallel  to  the  axis  of  y, 
and  if  Ay  denote  the  area  of  the  figure  so  generated,  being 
the  limit  of  we  shall  have  on  addition 

A^.  -|-  Ay  = AV“  4"  Atn^  — A. 

Of  the  two  axes  rigidly  connected  with  the  movable  area, 
one  may  he  termed  the  primitive  axis,  and  the  other  the 
complementary  axis.  If  L be  the  greatest  dimension  of 
the  curve  parallel  to  the  primitive  axis,  and  if  we  draw 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  x two  straight  lines  distant  from 
each  other  vrih ; then,  in  building  up  the  a?-projection,  we 
have  some  choice  in  the  manner  of  doing  so,  provided 
that  none  of  the  curve  so  generated  lie  outside  the  above- 
hounding  lines.  In  what  follows  I have  proceeded  accord- 
ing to  the  method  adopted  in  projecting  a solid,  given  in 
a previous  j)aper. 

Let  the  primitive  axis  AB  and  complementary  axis  ED 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


9 


intersect  in  a point  C,  of  which  the  coordinates  are  x=a, 
y = b.  Draw  FG  parallel  to  ED,  and  GK  parallel  to  Oy ; 
on  GK  take  a length  KL,  so  that  NG  being  parallel  to 
AB, 

KL=mNG; 

then  L will  be  a point  on  the  projected  curve.  If  through 
L we  draw  parallel  to  O.*’  a line  LM  such  that 

LM=mFG, 


then  M will  be  another  point  on  the  curve.  By  proceed- 
ing in  this  manner,  the  entire  curve  may  be  constructed. 
A curve  generated  in  this  manner  from  the  primitive  curve 
may,  for  brevity,  be  termed  its  projectrix. 

The  equation  to  the  primitive  being  given,  that  of  its 
projectrix  may  be  deduced  as  follows  : — 

NG=CG  cosGCH, 

X and  y being  coordinates  of  G,  we  shall  have 


cos  GCH  = 


{x  — a)l+  {y — b)m  _ 
CG  ^ 


therefore 

and 


NG  —{x  — a)l-{-{y  — b)m ; 
KL  = m{(x  — a)l+  (y—b)m} ; 


therefore,  if  y and  ^ be  coordinates  of  the  corresponding 
point  on  the  projectrix,  we  shall  have 


l=OK  = ^, (3) 

'q  = m{l{x  — a)-\-m{y—b)],  ...  (4) 


and  if  the  in  imitive  curve  be 


/(./;,  y)  =0, 


10 


DR.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


the  projectrix  will  be 


,f(^ 


m 


)=0. 


From  the  relation  between  the  eoordinates^  we  may  infer 
that  the  equation  to  the  projeetrix  will  be  of  the  same 

degree  as  that  of  the  primitive.  Also  sinee  vanishes 


d^y 


when  vanishes,  if  the  primitive  has  any  singularities, 

the  projectrix  will  have  some  singularity  at  the  corre- 
sponding points. 

That  portion  of  the  primitive  area  lying  below  the  line 
ED  will  on  projection  be  situated  below  the  axis  of  x. 

The  relation  between  the  areas  of  the  primitive  curve 
and  its  projectrix  may  readily  be  obtained  by  means  of 
equations  (3)  and  (4)  : — 


or  J 


by  substitution  this  becomes 

— a)  + {y—b)m}dx, 


In  equation  (4)  make  v = o,  then  we  obtain 
{x  — a)  I + {y  — b)m  = o. 

This  is  the  equation  to  the  complementary  axis,  and  the 
limits  in  (5)  show  that  the  integration  is  to  extend  from 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


11 


this  axis  to  all  points  above ; hence^  between  corresponding 
limits,  we  have 

Ax=ni^A. 


Also  if  be  any  arbitrary  function  of  x,  we  may  show 
in  a similar  manner  that 


9 


d^dt]  = rrd' 


9 


y 

dx  dy. 

i 

h (o?— a) 

m 


As  a particular  example  of  the  foregoing  remarks,  suppose 
the  primitive  curve  to  be  a circle  of  radius  c,  and  suppose 
the  primitive  axis  to  be  a line  through  its  centre ; then 

{x—ay+  {y  — by  = c^. 

By  substitution  we  obtain  for  the  projectrix 

m‘^{x—a)-\{y—lm(x  — a)Y  = m'^c^.  . . (6) 

To  simplify  this  remove  the  origin  to  the  point  x=a, 
y=o,  and  then  refer  it  to  new  axes,  so  that  6,  the  angle 
between  the  new  and  old  axes  of  x,  fulfils  the  following 
condition : — 

tau26>=^; (7) 


then  the  equation  assumes  the  form 


_ , -f-  — — ''  — I j 

I — 4-3»i^)  (i  —ni^)  i 4-m^  + ^(i  +3?%^)  (i  —m^) 

this  represents  an  ellipse  of  which  the  area  is 

If  we  suppose  the  primitive  circle  to  revolve  round  an 
axis  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  then  m becomes  a variable 
quantity,  and  equation  (6)  will  contain  a single  variable 


13 


DR.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


parameter.  Differentiating  with  regard  to  m,  we  obtain 
the  following  equation  : — 

I 7Yh^\ 

\y  — ml{x — a)  [s  iy — {x  — a)  y j-  =o. 

The  condition 

y —ml{x  — a)  = o, 

along  with  equation  {6),  gives  the  condition 
x=a±c; 

the  two  lines  represented  by  this  equation  touch  all  the 
ellipses  generated  by  varying  m. 

The  condition 

2y-{x-a)-j=o, 
gives  for  m and  I the  values 

_ ‘^y 

^ _ x—a 

\/¥f+{os—aY 

These  values  introduced  into  equation  (6)  give  the  follow- 
ing equation : — 

i6y*-\-^y^{x  — aY  + [x—aY= 

an  equation  which  is  resolvable  into  the  two  following  : — 


each  of  these  equations  represents  an  ellipse^  of  which  the 
major  axis  is  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  and  the 
minor  axis  to  the  radius  j both  ellipses  touch  the  axis  of 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


13 


X and  each  other  at  the  point  x — a,  y = o,  one  being 
situate  above  the  axis  and  the  other  below. 

Locus  of  the  Extremities  of  the  Major  and  Minor  Axis. — 
Both  the  magnitude  of  the  major  axis  of  the  projectrix 
and  its  inclination  to  the  axis  of  x are  functions  of  m.  If 
r be  the  length  of  the  major  axis^  from  equation  (8)  we 
have 

m^c\/  2 

r = —j=  - ; 

V I ^^(i  + 3m^)  (i— m^) 

eliminating  m between  this  equation  and  (7),  we  obtain 
for  the  polar  equation  to  the  curve  traced  out  by  the 
extremities  of  the  major  axis 


V'i+(sec^6»-|-)" 

From  the  form  of  the  equation  it  is  evident  that  the 
major  axis  will  have  a maximum  value  and  this  will 
be  the  case  when 

cos  6— 

The  form  of  the  curve  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure, 


where  the  dotted  curve  represents  a circle  of  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  primitive  circle.  The  curve  cuts  the  axis  of 


14 


DR.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


X at  the  origin  and  at  the  point  x — C',  it  cuts  the  circle  at 
the  point  r—c,  (9=45°;  point  the  inclination  of  its 

tangent  is  tan~’^.  Below  the  axis  of  x there  is  a branch 
PBC  similar  to  the  one  above  the  axis^  and  to  the  left  of 
the  axis  of  y there  is  a branch  PDEF  similar  to  the  one 
on  the  right. 

The  major  axis  of  the  ellipse  is  generally  greater  than 
the  radius  of  the  circle.  But  of  the  curve  just  described 
a portion  lies  within  the  circle,  and  for  such  points  the 
radius  is  less  than  c ; the  connection  of  this  portion  of  the 
curve  with  the  axes  of  the  ellipses  may  be  established  as 
follows.  Let  r,  be  the  length  of  the  minor  axis  of  the 
projectrix ; then  from  (8)  we  have 

m^cs/i 

^ I — / / • ' * 

V I +m^+  V (i  4-  3m^)  (i  — m^) 

Eliminating  m between  this  equation  and  (7)  we  obtain 
the  equation 

_ c 

' V/I-+ (cosec^^— 1-)^ 

But  if  6^  be  the  inclination  of  the  minor  axis  to  the  axis 
of  X,  measured  in  the  positive  direction,  we  shall  have 


hence  the  polar  equation  to  the  minor  axis  is 

c 

V'|+ (sec^^,— 1-)^ 

This  equation  is  of  the  same  form  as  (9),  but  the  minor 
axis  is  generally  less  than  c ; hence  it  follows  that  those 
portions  of  the  curve  which  lie  outside  the  circle  are 
traced  out  by  the  extremities  of  the  major  axis,  and  those 
portions  lying  within  the  circle  are  traced  out  by  the 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


15 


extremities  of  the  minor  axis.  By  the  aid  of  this  eurve 
we  may  readily  obtain  any  ellipse  which  may  be  derived  by 
projection  from  a given  circle — any  line  through  the  centre 
and  terminated  by  the  external  branches  will  be  a major 
axis  j to  obtain  the  corresponding  minor  axis,  draw  a line 
at  right  angles,  then  the  portion  intercepted  between  the 
internal  branches  will  give  the  magnitude  of  the  minor 
axis. 

The  equation  to  the  curve  in  rectangular  coordinates  is 
y^  = ocf^[c^  — X^')  ; 

its  area  is  two  thirds  the  area  of  the  primitive  circle. 

As  previously  stated,  we  have  some  choice  of  method  in 
constructing  a projected  curved  area ; in  (6)  the  elemen- 
tary rectangles  have  been  so  piled  up  that  their  centres  lie 
on  the  line 

m ma 

that  is,  on  a line  parallel  to  the  primitive  axis.  If  the 
locus  of  the  middle  points  were  the  line 


y= 


m ma 


we  should  obtain  an  equation  of  the  form 

m‘^[x  — aY  + \ml{x  — a)y  (4— = 

representing  an  ellipse  of  which  the  perimeter  is  equal 
to  the  perimeter  of  the  primitive  circle.  If  any  line 
y = h cut  this  ellipse,  the  length  of  the  section  will  be 
— this  will  also  be  the  length  of  the  section 
made  by  the  same  line  with  (6) . 

Invet'se  Problems  in  Projection. — In  the  foregoing 
remarks  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  primitive  curve 
has  been  given  and  the  projectrix  obtained  by  means  of 


16 


DR.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  ON  COMPOUND 


equations  (3)  and  (4) ; but  it  is  evident  that  by  means  of 
the  same  equations  we  may  solve  inverse  problems,  viz. 
given  the  equation  to  the  projectrix  to  deduce  that  of  the 
primitive.  If  the  equation  to  the  projectrix  be  given  in 
the  form 


Suppose  the  projectrix  to  be  the  circle 

— 

we  shall  obtain  for  the  primitive  the  ellipse 

{x — «)^(i  + 2,m}l[x  — d)  {y  — b)  — = 

The  semiaxes  of  this  ellipse  are 

Cs/2 


Although  the  projection  of  this  ellipse  on  the  axis  of  x 
may  be  a circle,  its  projection  on  the  axis  of  y will  not 
simultaneously  be  a circle.  The  projectrix  in  this  case 
will  be 

{x—lm{y  — b)y  + [y  — by  = l^c^, 

representing  an  ellipse  of  which  the  semiaxes  are 

cV-  sj  2 


Mcn)=o, 

that  of  the  primitive  will  be  of  the  form 


and 


\/ 1 +>/(!  + 3m^)(i  — 

cs/  2 


\/ 1 +m^—  \/(i  +3^^)  (i  —m^) 


and 


\/ 1 + 2mH^  + + I 

Cf  i/2 


\/ 1 + — i/4»^^/^  + 1 


PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


17 


Relation  of  Perimeters  of  the  Primitive  and  its  Projec- 
trices. — In  a former  paper  it  was  shown  that  if  on  a 
primitive  solid  we  draw  any  arbitrary  eurve  of  length  s, 
and  if  s^,  Sy,  s^  denote  the  lengths  of  the  eurves  passing 
through  the  eorresponding  points  of  the  projeeted  solids, 
then  a simple  relation  ean  be  found  amongst  the  differ- 
entials of  these  quantities.  A similar  proposition  holds 
in  geometry  of  two  dimensions,  the  relation  in  this  case 
being  between  the  perimeters  of  the  primitive  and  its 
projeetriees.  Differentiating  (3)  and  (4)  and  squaring  we 
obtain 

drf  = nd  [I  dx  -h  m dy) 

and  77,  being  the  corresponding  points  on  the  y-projec- 
trix,  we  shall  have 

Vi  = y, 

= iy-b)m), 

whence 

dr)f  = dy^, 

d^f  = r (/  dx  -t-  m dy) 

By  addition  we  have 

+ drf‘ + d^f  + dyf  = dx^ + dy^  + {I  dx -1- m dy)^ . (10) 

ds  being  the  arc  of  the  perimeter  extending  from  the 
point  X,  y to  the  point  x + dx,  y + dy,  and  ds^,  dsy  being 
the  arcs  of  the  projeetriees  between  corresponding  points, 
we  shall  have 

ds^  =dx^  -\-dy^, 
dsf  = d^"-  -\-drf, 
dSy"  = d^f-\-dyf‘, 

also  if  be  the  angle  between  the  direction  of  the  primi- 

SER.  III.  VOL.  X.  c 


18  ON  COMPOUND  PROJECTION  IN  TWO  DIMENSIONS. 


tive  axis  and  the  tangent  at  any  point  to  the  primitive 
curve^  we  have 

, ,dx  dy 

cos  (6  = / -^  + m : 

^ ds  ds 

therefore,  by  substitution,  equation  (lo)  may  be  put  in 
the  form 

v' + dSy  = \/ 1 + cos^<^  . ds. 

If  we  suppose  the  primitive  area  to  revolve  round  any 
axis  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  since  the  primitive  axis  is 
rigidly  connected  with  it,  the  expression  J'v/i  +cos^^  . ds 
will  he  invariable ; replacing  it  by  c,  we  shall  have  then 

j*  V dSx  + ds^  = c. 

Relation  of  Projectrices  of  Higher  Orders. — From  a 
primitive  may  he  derived  two  projectrices ; but  each  of 
these  may  in  its  turn  he  regarded  as  a primitive  that  may 
be  operated  upon  in  a similar  manner;  then,  on  a repe- 
tition of  the  process,  we  shall  obtain  four  projectrices. 
The  relation  of  the  area  of  these  to  that  of  the  primitive 
may  be  obtained  as  follows.  A^.  being  the  primary  pro- 
jectrix  on  the  axis  of  x,  the  secondary  projectrices  which 
may  be  derived  from  it  may  be  denoted  by  (Aa,)^  and 


(Ax)y,  and  we  shall  have 

(Ax);^  = ^W'^A, (ll) 

{k^)y  — 7n^l^A (12) 


If  {kfjx  and  {Afjy  denote  the  secondary  projectrices 
which  may  be  derived  from  Ay,  we  shall  have 

(Ay)x  = /WA, (13) 

~ (^4) 


ON  SOME  TRACKS  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


19 


By  addition  of  these  four  equations  we  obtain 

(A-a;)a;  + (Aa;)y  + + (A^)^  = A(m'^+  2171^1^  + Z‘^) 

= A(m"  + r)^=A. 

From  this  it  seems  likely  that  if  we  repeated  the  operation 
n times  the  aggregate  of  the  2^*  areas  obtained  would  be 
equal  to  the  primitive  area,  and  it  may  be  readily  shown 
that  if  the  proposition  be  true  after  n operations,  it  will  be 
true  after  n+i  operations.  But  it  has  been  shown  to  be 
true  when  n is  equal  to  2,  therefore  when  n is  equal  to  3, 
therefore  when  n is  equal  to  4 &c.,  and  so  the  proposition 
is  generally  true. 


III.  On  some  Undescrihed  Tracks  of  Invertebrate  Animals 
from  the  Yoredale  Rocks,  and  on  some  Inorganic 
Phenomena,  produced  on  Tidal  Shores,  simulating 
Plant -remains.  By  Professor  W.  C.  Williamson, 

LL.D.,  F.B.S.,  President. 


Read  February  lotb,  1885. 


[Plates  L,  II.,  III.,  & III'.] 

About  two  years  ago  I reeeived  from  the  Bev.  Isidore 
Kavannah,  of  Montreal,  then  a student  of  Stonyhurst 
College  in  Lancashire,  some  interesting  objects  which  he 
had  discovered  upon  some  loose  blocks  of  stone  strewing 
the  shore  of  the  river  Kibble,  close  to  the  College.  The 
raised  bank  of  the  river,  at  that  point,  consists  of  hard 
beds  of  Yoredale  rock  separated  by  thin  layers  of  softer 
material.  A careful  examination  of  the  locality  left  no 
doubt  on  my  mind  that  the  specimens  had  fallen  from  the 
under  surface  of  one  of  these  hard  beds.  Though  we  failed 

c2 


20  PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  SOME  UNDESCRIBED 

at  that  time  to  discover  any  such  in  situ,  at  a later  date 
Mr.  Kavannah  was  more  successful.  He  then  obtained 
some  fine  examples  from  the  under  surfaces  of  some  of 
these  undisturbed  beds^  making  it  certain  that  the  objects 
immediately  to  be  described  belong  to  the  Yoredale 
division  of  the  Carboniferous  strata. 

Like  so  many  allied  remains  obtained  from  Silurian 
deposits^  these  objects  stand  out  in  bold  relief  from  the 
inferior  surfaces  of  the  rock-layers_,  of  which  their  sub- 
stance is  a mere  extension.  The  peculiar  sculpturings 
characterizing  these  convex  surfaces  are  wholly  superficial,, 
indicating  that  they  are  but  casts  of  concave  tracks  once 
existing  on  the  surface  of  the  subjacent  stratum.  The 
dimensions  of  those  excavated  tracks  are  faithfully,  though 
invertedly,  represented  by  the  prominent  configurations  of 
the  objects  before  us. 

The  specimen  (Plate  I.  fig.  i)  represents  a slab  twice  the 
size  of  the  photograph,  upon  which  are  three  more  or  less 
defined  meandering  ridges.  The  longest  of  these  runs  from 
a to  a.  A considerable  portion  of  it  is  almost  obliterated ; 
but  at  each  extremity  it  preserves  its  characteristic  features. 
At  b and  c are  two  shorter  ones,  each  of  which  commences 
in  an  undefined  irregular  elevation ; b near  the  centre  of 
the  slab,  and  c at  c? ; but  both  acquire  their  peculiar 
sculpturings  at  the  extremities  b and  c.  Assuming  that 
the  creatures  which  made  these  tracks  moved  towards  the 
lower  margin  of  the  specimen,  the  appearances  suggest 
that  in  the  cases  b and  c they  terminated  their  strolls  by 
sinking  into  the  sand,  as  many  recent  invertebrates  do, 
on  reaching  the  spots  where  each  of  two  of  the  tracks  end 
in  an  irregular  mass,  as  represented  at  d. 

The  average  diameter  of  each  of  these  tracks  is  from 
five  to  six  tenths  of  an  inch.  Their  elevation,  represent- 
ing the  depth  of  the  original  tracks,  is  sometimes  four 


TRACKS  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


21 


tenths  of  an  inch;  usually,  however,  they  fall  short  of  this 
depth.  A median  furrow  runs  along  the  entire  length  of 
the  track  in  these  casts,  representing  some  median  abdo- 
minal groove  in  the  living  organism.  Numerous  parallel 
ridges  and  alternating  furrows  proceed  outwards,  down- 
wards, and  backwards  (?)  from  this  groove,  about  ten  such 
ridges  occurring  in  each  lineal  inch.  Along  the  summit 
of  each  of  these  lateral  ridges  we  have  a row  of  small 
tubercles,  about  twenty  to  an  inch.  These  tubercles 
sometimes  appear  to  be  the  summits  of  obtuse  elevations 
which  pass  obliquely  down  one  side  of  each  ridge,  disap- 
pearing as  they  reach  the  median  line  of  the  contiguous 
furrow,  the  opposite  side  of  which  presents  no  such 
appearances.  These  small  sculpturings  suggest  that  the 
appendages  (legs  ?)  of  the  animal  to  which  the  primary 
and  secondary  ridges  and  furrows  are  due  had  serrated  or 
crenulated  margins.  Fig.  2,  Plate  III.,  represents  the 
arrangements  in  question  diagrammatically,  the  appear- 
ances being  made  rather  stronger  than  in  reality  to  illus- 
trate their  general  features. 

The  surface  of  the  slab  (fig.  i)  is  covered  with  parallel, 
rounded  ridges  and  furrows  of  varying  depths  and  eleva- 
tions. These  may  represent  drainage- lines,  but  they  also 
suggest  somewhat  strongly  the  idea  of  a wind-blown 
surface  of  sand. 

Fig.  3 represents  a second  fragment,  in  which  the  lateral 
ridges  and  furrows  of  one  of  the  two  tracks  are  less 
uniformly  regular,  some  of  them  being  stronger  than  in 
the  case  of  fig.  i ; but  here  again  the  track  is  connected  at 
the  end  on  its  right  with  an  irregular  boss,  representing  a 
corresponding  depression  on  the  primaeval  beach. 

These  objects  correspond  closely  to  those  supposed 
vegetable  organisms  to  which  Schimper  has  assigned  the 
name  of  Chrossocorda.  Though  I am  altogether  unable 


22  PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  SOME  UNDESCRIBED 

to  share  Schimper^s  belief  in  their  vegetable  origin,  I see 
no  objection  to  retaining  his  name.  So  far  as  I am  aware, 
all  the  examples  of  Chrossochorda  hitherto  known  have 
been  obtained  from  strata  of  much  older  age  than  the 
Yoredale  series.  But,  besides  this  difference  of  age,  these 
Carboniferous  forms  differ  from  all  the  older  ones  in  pos- 
sessing the  line  of  tubercles  along  the  summit  of  each  of  the 
secondary  ridges  already  referred  to.  These  objects  may 
therefore  be  distinguished  as  Chrossochorda  tuberculata. 

What  animal  produced  the  hollow  tracks  of  which 
these  fossils  are  casts  in  relief,  we  have  no  means  of 
knowing.  There  is  an  obvious  resemblance  between  them 
and  the  tracks  which  Dr.  Nathorst  obtained  by  allowing 
the  Crustacean  Corophium  longicorne  to  walk  and  swim 
over  prepared  mud*.  In  several  similar  tracks  figured  by 
Dr.  Nathorst  we  find  the  line  of  footsteps  terminating  in 
enlarged  irregular  depressions,  corresponding  to  the  bosses 
seen  in  figs,  ic?  & 3. 

Plate  I.  fig.  4 represents  a track  of  an  entirely  different 
kind,  from  a quarry  of  Carboniferous  flagstones  near 
Hawes  t-  I presume  that  in  this  case  we  have  not  the 
cast,  but  the  actual  indented  track  of  the  animal  that  has 
left  its  footsteps  on  the  smooth  sands.  The  length  of  the 
stone  is  lyf  inches.  Each  separate  group  of  impressions 
consists  of  four  pairs  of  slightly  curved  indentations,  each 
octant  occupying  a square  i^  of  an  inch  from  a to  b, 
41  of  an  inch  from  c to  d,  and  nearly- from  e to  / of 
the  accompanying  lignograph.  The  markings  suggest  the 
idea  of  having  been  made  by  four  pairs  of  abdominal  plates 
rather  than  by  crustacean  limbs.  The  distances  between 

* Om  spar  af  nagra  evertebrerade  Djur  m.  m.,  och  deras  paleontologiska 
betydelse,  af  A.  G.  Nathorst.  Stockholm,  1881.  Tail.  i.  figs.  1-2. 

t Mr.  J.  W.  Davis  says,  “ The  footprints  are  from  a quarry  of  flagstones 
and  grey  slates  about  a mile  from  Hawes,  on  the  road  to  Muker.  The 
horizon  is  above  the  Hardrow  Limestone.” 


TRACKS  01’  INVERTEBRATK  ANIMALS. 


23 


the  anterior  pair  a and  h,  and  the  corresponding  pair  h 
and  c in  fig,  4,  is  exactly  of  an  inch.  There  is  no 


trace  of  any  defined  median  vertical  line^  but  there  is 
a distinct  elevation  in  each  of  the  areas  separating  the 
parallel  curved  grooves,  and  the  vertical  median  line 
between  each  two  rows  is  also  faintly  raised,  as  if,  in  the 
latter  case,  a slight  concavity  existed  at  the  corresponding 
part  of  the  living  animal.  What  that  creature  may  have 
been  is  more  than  doubtful.  Except  what  appears  in  the 
successive  octants,  no  continuous  trail  of  any  kind  appears 
on  the  slab,  making  it  obvious  that  the  creature  possessed 
no  Trilobite-like  tail  or  sternal  ridge.  The  object  may 
safely  he  placed  in  the  genus  Protichnites , and  he  distin- 
guished as  P.  Davisi,  after  my  friend  J.  W.  Davis,  Esq., 
E.G-.S.,  of  Halifax,  by  whom  the  specimen  was  found,  and 
who  has  kindly  allowed  me  to  describe  it  in  this  memoir. 

Leaving  these  two  relics  of  a past  age,  I would  now 
direct  attention  to  some  phenomena  of  modern  origin, 
which  I have  recently  observed  on  the  sea-shore.  Two 
summers  ago  my  attention  was  arrested  by  some  remark- 
able appearances  on  the  sands  left  bare  by  the  retreating 
tide  at  Llanfairfechau  in  North  Wales.  Watching  the 
formation  of  these  appearances,  it  soon  became  obvious 
that  they  were  formed  by  small  drainage-streams  flowing 
either  towards  the  sea  or  towards  large  temporary  depres- 
sions in  the  sand  running  more  or  less  parallel  with  the 


24  PROF.  W,  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  SOME  UNDESCRIBED 

sea-line.  The  contours  produced  by  many  of  the  smaller 
tributaries,  where  they  united  to  form  larger  streamlets, 
suggested  to  my  mind  the  extreme  probability  that  the 
casts  of  such  sculptured  areas  would,  if  found  in  any  of 
the  older  strata,  be  undistinguishable  from  many  of  the  so- 
called  fossil  Fucoids found  in  these  strata.  Working 
carefully,  I succeeded  in  obtaining  a number  of  plaster 
casts  of  these  grooved  surfaces,  some  of  which  are  accu- 
rately represented,  through  the  aid  of  photography,  by  the 
several  figures  5-1 1 on  Plate  II.,  and  figs.  12  & 13  on 
Plate  III.  The  leaf-like  peripheral  outline  of  some  of 
these  figures  has  no  significance,  it  being  merely  that 
assumed  by  the  flowing  of  the  semi-fluid  plaster  of  Paris 
when  poured  upon  the  sand;  but  it  is  otherwise  with  the 
plant-like  ramifications  revealed  on  the  surface  of  each 
cast.  Had  such  specimens  been  found  on  the  inferior 
surfaces  of  ancient  flagstones,  I have  little  doubt  but  that 
they  would  have  appeared  in  the  pages  of  Schimper,  and 
other  authors  with  similar  views,  as  Palaeozoic  Fucoidal 
forms  of  plant-life ; anyhow  their  publication  may  benefit 
some  of  our  younger  and  more  ardent  palaeontologists,  by 
suggesting  caution  ere  they  give  names  and  places  in  the 
annals  of  Palaeophytology,  to  objects  which  may  be  as 
wholly  inorganic  as  those  which  I have  just  described. 
Nearly  all  the  configurations  of  this  kind  which  I 
discovered  at  Llanfairfechan  were  of  the  same  character 
as  those  represented  by  figures  5—13  of  my  Plates.  On 
visiting  the  sands  to  the  north  of  Barmouth  during  the 
summer  of  1884  I made  diligent  search,  in  the  expectation 
of  finding  there  similar  configurations.  Products  of  tidal 
action  and  drainage  were  not  wanting,  but  to  my  surprise 
those  of  the  new  locality  were  wholly  diflFerent  from  what 
I found  on  the  Carnarvonshire  coast. 

Figs.  14  & 15  are  photographs  of  casts  made  at  Bar- 
mouth, and  represent  the  results  of  a double  action,  viz.  the 


TRACKS  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


25 


production  of  ripp]e-marks_,  and  a subsequent  seulpturing 
by  drainage-currents.  Tbe  ripple-marks^  at  the  point  in 
question,  curved  diagonally  across  the  lines  subsequently 
followed  by  tbe  drainage-streamlets.  Hence  tbe  surface 
of  the  sand  was  cut  up  into  tbe  very  regular,  diagonally 
arranged,  contours  represented  in  Plate  III.  fig.  14.  We 
have  here  two  sets  of  regular  ripple-marks,  one  of  which 
passes  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  margin  of  the  figure, 
from  right  to  left.  A second  and  more  sharply  defined  set 
crosses  these  diagonally,  i.  e.  from  left  to  right.  These 
lines  were,  of  course,  formed  under  the  water.  When 
the  tide  had  retreated  sufficiently,  drainage-lines  began  to 
form  j but  these  pursued  their  direct  course  down  the 
sloping  sand-bank  towards  the  sea.  The  result  of  this 
triple  action  was  the  formation  of  a series  of  regularly 
arranged,  acuminate  contours,  the  surfaces  of  which  were 
characterized  by  longitudinal  flutings,  resembling  the  over- 
lapping scale- leaves  of  some  Cycadean  stem.  They  readily 
might,  an-d  probably  would,  have  been  mistaken  for  such, 
had  they  been  discovered  on  some  slab  of  Oolitic  sandstone. 

Fig.  15  exhibits  a slight  difference  from  fig.  14.  Here 
we  had  only  one  diagonal  series  of  ripple-marks,  followed 
by  the  formation  of  drainage-lines  as  before.  The  result 
is  an  effect  not  unlike  that  of  two  or  three  corrugated 
Laminarian  fronds  overlapping  one  another. 

I have  no  doubt  that  further  investigation  will  bring  to 
light  other  examples  of  inorganic  configurations  simulating 
organic  forms.  I am  somewhat  surprised  that  so  little 
attention  has  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  results  of  littoral 
drainage-lines.  Sir  J.  W.  Dawson  figures  an  example  of 
one  such  result,  but  of  very  different  aspect  from  those 
now  described,  in  his  memoir  on  tracks  of  Invertebrata 
in  Silliman^s  American  Journal,  entitled  “ On  the  Foot- 
prints of  Limulus  as  compared  with  the  Protichnites  of  the 
Potsdam  Sandstone^’’  (1862).  But  I have  not  met  with  any 


26  PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  SOME  UNDESCRIBED 

other  detailed  illustrations  of  drainage-lines  contributing 
towards  the  formation  of  pseudo-orgauic  structures*^  still 
less  to  the  combination  of  drainage-lines  and  ripple-marks 
in  producing  analogous  results ; yet  the  literature  of  the 
subject  of  tracks  and  pseudo -vegetable  forms  has  now 
become  a very  copious  one. 

In  his  extremely  valuable  memoir  some  Tracks 

of  Invertebrate  Animals  &c.^  and  their  Palaeontological 
Import^"’ t.  Dr.  Nathorst  has  published  a bibliography  of 
the  subject  treated  in  his  memoir,  containing  no  less  than 
130  references  to  writers  who  have  dealt  with  various 
aspects  of  the  subject  between  the  years  1823  and  1881 
inclusive.  Many  of  these  writers  have  regarded  the  objects 
to  which  they  have  referred  as  the  tracks  or  footsteps  of 
various  invertebrates  left  upon  the  sandy  or  muddy  shores 
which  they  frequented;  but  a large  proportion  of  the 
authors  have  referred  these  objects  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  especially  to  the  Pucoidal  section  of  it.  The 
extent  to  which  this  has  been  done  is  shown  in  the  pages 
of  Schimper^s  ^ Paleontologie  Vegetale,^  where  a large 
number  of  genera,  and  a still  larger  one  of  species,  have 
been  created  out  of  extremely  vague  and  indefinite  objects. 
More  recently  the  Marquis  de  Saporta  has  published  his 
volume,  entitled  ^L^Evolution  du  Regne  Vegdtale^  (Paris, 
1881),  in  which  he  adopts  freely  the  conclusions  of 
Schimper,  and  recognizes  in  these  doubtful  objects  vai’ious 
definite  forms  of  marine  Algae. 

The  Marquis  de  Saporta  first  replied  to  the  memoir  of 
M.  Nathorst  in  a volume  entitled  ^ Les  Organismes  pro- 
blematiqucs  des  anciennes  Mers,^  1882,  and  two  days  ago 
I received  from  him  a second  volume,  entitled  ‘A  projios 

* My  ignorance  of  the  Swedish  language  has  led  me  to  overlook  the  fact 
that  Dr.  Nathorst  figures  an  example  of  this  kind  on  p.  21  of  his  memoir 
supplied  to  him  from  Gothland  by  Professor  Lindstrom  (July  25th,  1885). 

t Om  spar  af  nagra  evertebrerade  Djur  m.  m.,  och  deras  paleontologiska 
betydelse,  af  A.  G.  Nathorst.  Stockholm,  1881. 


TRACKS  OF  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


27 


des  Algues  Fossiles/  having  the  same  objeet  as  the  pre- 
ceding one*.  These  two  volumes  embody  every  argument 
that  can  he  advanced  in  favour  of  the  v^egetable  origin  of 
the  objects  in  dispute.  Much  of  the  discussion  turns 
upon  the  point  illustrated  by  figs,  i & 3 of  my  present 
memoir^  viz.  that  nearly  all  the  debated  structures  stand 
out  in  prominent  demi-relief  from  the  undersides  of  the 
slabs  of  which  they  form  a part;  and  thatj  as  is  conspi- 
cuously the  case  with  my  specimens^  what  ought  to  repre- 
sent the  substance  of  the  supposed  organism  is  merely  an 
extension  of  the  inorganic  rock  overlying  the  sculptured 
surfaces.  M.  Saporta  takes  much  pains  to  show  that  many 
unquestionable  fossil  plants  are  found  in  this  same  condition 
of  demi-relief.  This  is  true ; but  we  find  abundance  of  the 
same  plants  in  different  conditions,  in  which  substance  and 
even  structures  are  equally  preserved.  Hence  we  are  able 
to  identify  the  specimens  seen  only  in  semi-relief  by  the 
aid  of  the  more  perfect  examples.  But  in  the  case  of 
such  specimens  as  my  figs,  i & 3,  we  have  hitherto  failed 
to  obtain  any  trace  of  either  substance  or  structure.  M. 
Saporta,  in  his  latest  memoir,  seems  to  have  found  some 
specimens  of  the  genus  Biserites,  in  which  he  can  trace 
what  he  describes  as  le  contour  entier  de  la  Bilobite.'’^ 
This  only  shows  a possibility  that  one  of  the  many  objects 
to  which  the  name  of  Bilobites  has  been  given  may  have 
been  plants. 

These  views  were  attacked  in  a formidable  manner  by 
Dr.  Nathorst  in  the  memoir  above  referred  to.  This 
important  memoir  embodies  the  results  of  a series  of  exact 
experiments,  in  which  various  aquatic  animals  were  allowed 
to  travel  under  water,  leaving  behind  them  very  definite 
tracks  in  fine  mud  as  they  did  so.  Dr.  Nathorst  succeeded 
in  obtaining  very  perfect  casts  of  those  tracks,  and,  in 

* The  resemblance  of  M.  Saporta’s  figure  of  Vexillmn  Besglandi,  on  p.  42  of 
the  latter  volume,  to  ray  fig.  15  on  Plate  IIT.  is  too  striking  to  be  overlooked. 


28 


ON  SOME  TRACKS  OP  INVERTEBRATE  ANIMALS. 


order  that  his  representations  of  them  should  owe  nothing 
to  the  imagination  of  his  artist,  he  employed  photography, 
that  unerring  delineator,  in  illustrating  his  memoir ; an 
example  which  I have  followed  on  the  present  occasion. 

Examples  of  what  are  prohahly  concretionary  objects 
occasionally  occur  of  such  a magnitude  as  to  make  it 
improbable  in  the  highest  degree  that  they  can  have  been 
of  vegetable  origin.  Some  of  these  might  be  regarded  as 
a huge  form  of  Dictyonema,  in  which  the  fibres  forming  the 
network  are  six  inches  in  circumference,  and  the  enclosed 
meshes  a foot  wide.  At  the  junction  of  the  lowermost 
beds  of  the  Coralline  Oolite  with  the  uppermost  beds  of 
the  Calcareous  Grit  at  Filey  Brig  in  Yorkshire,  acres  of 
the  contiguous  surfaces  of  the  two  rocks  are  covered  with 
such  a huge  network  of  coarse  inorganic  sandstone,  in 
which  the  cylindric  form  is  sufficiently  perfect;  but  after 
prolonged  study  of  these  ramifying  objects,  all  that 
Professor  Phillips  could  say  of  them  is  that  ‘^Ghey  are 
ramified  masses  of  doubtful  origin,  which  appear  like 
dichotomous  cylindrical  sponges  Thoroughly  familiar 
with  these  structures,  I never  for  a moment  doubted  their 
inorganic  character.  Such  objects  can  have  no  weight 
with  the  student  of  Evolution,  and  until  we  obtain  more 
definite  proofs  than  we  have  hitherto  obtained  of  the 
vegetable  nature  of  most  of  these  dubious  Palaeozoic 
Algae,^^  we  must  reject  their  testimony  when  framing  a 
pedigree  for  the  vegetable  kingdom.  At  the  same  time 
I regard  the  existence  of  an  abundant  marine  vegetation 
during  the  Palaeozoic  ages  as  an  inevitable  corollary  of 
the  fact  that  the  rocks  of  those  ages  abound  in  the 
remains  of  Phytophagous  animals.  But  many  sources  of 
error  surround  us  when  we  endeavour  to  demonstrate 
that  existence  by  means  of  the  anomalous  objects  which 
those  rocks  have  already  supplied  to  us. 

* Geology  of  tlie  Yorkshire  Coast,  2nd  edition,  p.  io6. 


ON  STRUCTURE  ETC.  OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI.  29 

INDEX  TO  THE  EIGUEES. 

Plate  I. 

Fig.  I.  Slab  of  Yoredale  rock,  with  tracks  of  Chrossocarda  tuberculata,  Will. 
Half  the  nat.  size. 

2.  Diagrammatic  repre.sentation  of  a portion  of  one  of  the  above  tracks. 

3.  A second  fragment,  with  two  tracks  of  somewhat  moi’e  strongly 

defined  contour  than  those  of  fig.  i.  Nat.  size. 

4.  Track  of  Protichnifes  Bavisi,  Will.  Two  fifths  of  the  natural  size. 

Plates  II.  & III. 

5-13.  Casts  of  a series  of  drainage-lines  from  the  coast  of  North  Wales 
at  Llanfairfechan. 

Plate  III'. 

14,  15.  Two  similar  casts  from  the  coast  north  of  Barmouth. 

These  figures  are  all  copied  by  an  autotype  process  from  photographs, 
kindly  taken  for  the  pui-pose  of  illustrating  this  memoir,  by  Alfred 
Brothers,  Esq.,  F.E.A.S.,  of  Manchester. 


IV.  On  the  Structure,  the  Occurrence  in  Lancashire,  and 
the  probable  Source,  of  Naias  graminea^  Delile, 
var.  Delilei,  Magnus.  By  Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S. 


Eead  April  29th,  1884. 


(Plates  IV.-VII.) 

Page 

Pago 

I.  Introduction 

29 

XII. 

The  Pollen 

55 

II.  The  Genus  and  its  Divi- 

XIII. 

Fertilization  

57 

sions 

31 

XIV. 

The  Fruit  

58 

III.  Synonymy  of  the  Plant. . . 

32 

XV. 

The  Eoots  

62 

IV.  The  Stem  

34 

XVI. 

The  Lancashire  Locality 

63 

V.  The  Leaves  

36 

XVII. 

Geographical  Distri- 

VI.  The  Leaf-spines  

37 

bution  

66 

VII.  The  Leaf-sheath  

40 

XVIII. 

Its  probable  Source  ... 

67 

VIII.  Leaf-structure  

45 

XIX. 

A Histological  Peculi- 

IX.  The  Inflorescence 

47 

arity  

69 

X.  The  Pistilliferous  Flower 

50 

XX. 

Explanation  of  the 

XI.  The  An theriferous  Flower 

52 

Figures 

72 

I.  Introduction, 

Naias  qraminea,  Del.  (Plate  IV.  fig.  i),  aud  Ohara  Braunii, 
Gmel.,  were  first  reported  as  occurring  in  a natural  state 


30 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


in  England  at  the  Meeting  of  tlie  British  Association  at 
Southport  in  September  1883.  Their  addition  to  the  flora 
of  South  Lancashire  and  of  Britain  is  due  to  the  Biological 
Society  of  Ashton and  to  Mr.  John  Whitehead^  of  Dukin- 
field.  They  were  discovered  during  the  exploration  of  the 
Ashton-under-Lyne  district  in  acquiring  tlie  necessary 
material  for  the  compilation  of  a fauna  and  flora  of  the 
neighbourhood,,  for  presentation  to  the  Biological  Section 
of  the  British  Association.  An  abstract  of  this  communi- 
cation^ made  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Byrom^  of  Ashton,  is  printed 
on  pp.  541-543  of  the  ‘^Report  of  the  Fifty-third  Meeting 
of  the  British  Association.^ 

Few  portions  of  Great  Britain  are  so  well  known, 
hotanically,  as  most  of  the  northern  counties  of  England, 
and  yet  a concerted  systematic  examination  of  so  well- 
worked  a district  as  Ashton  has  brought  to  light  many 
novelties,  besides  tv/o,  if  not  three,  plants  not  previously 
known  to  he  British.  To  those  who  know  what  a large 
number  of  practical  botanists  there  are  in  the  north  of 
England,  and  with  what  zest  so  many  of  their  number 
pursue  botanical  studies  in  their  hard-earned  leisure,  it  has 
always  seemed  a matter  for  regret  that  so  little  of  their 
accumulated  knowledge  finds  its  way  into  print ; and  the 
instance  of  what  has  been  done  by  the  Ashton  botanists 
should  stimulate  other  local  societies  to  make  similar 
efforts. 

The  actual  discoverer  of  the  Naias  was  Mr.  James  Lee, 
of  Denton ; he  brought  it  to  Mr.  Whitehead,  who  sent  it 
to  me  early  in  September  of  last  year  as  a possible  Naias ^ 
and,  from  plants  which  I afterwards  gathered  in  situ  with 
the  discoverer  and  Messrs.  Whitehead  and  Byrom,  it  was 
finally  determined  by  Mr.  H.  N.  Ridley,  of  the  British 
Museum,  to  be  Naias  graminea^  Del.,  or  Caulinia  alag- 
nensis,  Pollini.  Subsequently  Dr.  Magnus,  of  Berlin,  has 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAll.  DELILEI. 


31 


given  it  tlie  varietal  name  of  Delilei,  on  account  of  a 
structural  peculiarity  referred  to  on  pages  46  and  69. 

II.  The  Genus  and  its  Divisions. 

The  genus  gives  its  name  to  the  natural  order  Naiadacese, 
which  is  allied  to  the  Potamogetonace8e_,  but  systematists 
are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  respective  limits  of 
either  family.  Willdenow  separated  the  group  to  which 
N,  graminea  belongs  from  Naias  proper under  the  generic 
name  of  Caulinia'^,  on  account  of  the  male  flowers  not 
having  the  quadrifid  perianth  of  Naias  proper ; but  Robert 
Brown  reunited  the  two  groups  of  Naias  and  Caulinia  into 
Naias,  Linn.  There  is  no  doubt_,  however^  that  each  of 
these  divisions  forms  a very  natural  group  sharply  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  by  well-marked  characters  drawn 
from  the  leaf_,  stem,  and  fruit.  All  these  points  have  been 
carefully  worked  out  by  Dr.  P.  Magnus  in  a work  which 
he  modestly  entitled  ^ Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Gattung 
Najas,  L.^  (Berlin,  1870);  and  no  one  can  investigate  the 
morphology  and  anatomy  of  a plant  of  this  genus  without 
admiring  the  minute  and  conscientious  investigations  of 
this  author.  In  preparing  the  following  notes  I have 
referred  again  and  again  to  this  memoir,  and  I cannot 
speak  too  highly  of  the  help  derived  from  it. 

Dr.  Magnus  gives  the  following  diagnoses  of  the  two 
subdivisions  of  the  genus,  viz. : — 

§ Eunajas,  Asch. — Spine-teeth  chiefly  on  the  stem  and 
backs  of  the  leaves.  Flowers  dioecious  (?  in  all) . Anther 
four- chambered  (?  always).  Seed-shell  consisting  of  a 
many-layered  stony  parenchyma.  Conducting  bundles  of 
the  stem  divided  from  the  intercellular  spaces  by  two  to 
three  layers  of  parenchyma-cells.  Leaf  furnished  with  a 

* ‘Memoires  de  rAeaderaie  Eoyale  des  Sciences  de  Berlin,  1798,  classe  de 
Philosophie  Experimentale,’  page  87. 


32 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


small-celled  epiderm^,  which  rises  very  sharply  from  the 
large  parenchyma-cells  of  the  leaf. 

“ § Caulinia^  Willd. — Spine-teeth  absent  from  the  stem 
and  hacks  of  leaves,  blowers  in  most  species  monoecious 
(?  in  all).  Anther  one-  to  four-chambered.  Seed-shell 
formed  of  three  layers  of  cellular  tissue.  Conducting 
bundles  of  the  stem  divided  from  the  intercellular  spaces 
by  a layer  of  parenchyma-cells ; leaf  without  the  small- 
celled  epiderm.^^ — Beitrdge,  pp.  55,  56. 

The  plant  which  forms  the  subject  of  this  notice  belongs 
to  the  section  Caulinia,  and  its  synonymy  and  principal 
book-references  are  the  following  : — 

III.  Synonymy  of  the  Plant. 

Najas  Delile,  Flore  de  I’Egypte;  Memoire  sur  les  plantes  qui 

croissent  spontaneraent  en  Egypt®,  par  Alire  Eaffeneau  Delile,  p.  i ; 
Florse  AEgyptiacffi  illustrat.io  No.  874,  p.  75  ; Explication  des  planches, 
p.  282,  pi.  50.  fig.  3. 

Chamisso,  Aquatics  qufedam  divei-Eas  afiinitatis;  Linnsea,  vol.  iv.  1829, 

pp.  502,  503- 

Kunth,  Enumeratio  Plantarum.  &c.,  tom.  iii.  p.  115. 

Boissier,  Flora  Orientalis,  vol.  v.  p.  28, 

Compendio  della  Flora  Italiana  compilato  per  cura  dei  Professor! 
V.  Cesati,  G.  Passerini,  e G.  Gibelli,  par.  i.  p.  205. 

Najas  alagnensis,  Pollini,  Hort.  et  provinc.  Veron.  pi.  nov.  vel  min.  cogn. 
p.  26 ; Flora  Veronensis  quam  in  prodromum  Florae  Italiae  septen- 
trionalis  exhibit  Cyrus  PoUinius,  tom.  iii.  p.  49  (1824). 

L.  Eeichenbach,  Flora  Germanica  Excursoria,  No.  920,  p.  151. 

Chamisso,  Aquaticae  quaedam  diversie  affinitatis;  Linnasa,  vol.  iv.  p.  502 
(1829). 

Antonii  Bertolonii,  M.D.,  Flora  Italica  sistens  plantas  in  Italia  et  in 
insulis  cir  cum  stantibus  sponte  nascentes,  tom.  x.  fasc.  iii.  p.  296. 

Naias  serristipula,  Nocc.  et  Balb.  Ic.  FI.  Ticin.  tab.  1 5 ex  specim.  sicc. 
delineata. 

Naias  tenuifolia,  Aschers.,  Atti  della  Societa  Italiana  di  Scienze  naturali, 
pp.  267  & 268  ; non  E..  Br. 

Najas  graminea,  Del.,  var.  Belilei,  Magnus,  Berichte  der  deutschen  bota- 
nischen  Gesellschaft,  Band  i.  Heft  10,  Jahrg.  1883,  pp.  522  & 523. 

Caulinia  alagnensis,  Pollini,  Plant.  Veron.  26. 

Diar.  Brugnatelli  Gioru.  ann.  1816,  t.  ix.  p.  175. 


i 


OP  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DELILEI.  33 

IjlufF  efc  Fingerhuth,  Compenclivim  Florte  Germanije,  sectio  i.  ed.  alt.  ii. 
P-  5^5- 

Flora  Italiana,  . . . . di  Filippo  Parlatore,  toI.  iii.  pp.  665,  666. 

Caulinia  intermedia,  Balb.  Flench,  recentium  stirpium,  quas  Pedemon- 
tante  florae  addendas  censet  &c. ; in  Mem.  della  E.  Accad.  di  Tor, 
ann.  1818,  tom.  23.  p.  105. 

Balb.  et  Nocca,  Flor.  Ticin.  tom.  ii.  p.  163,  tab.  15. 

Nocca,  Clay.  ii.  p.  91. 

Caulinia  microj^hylla,  Nocc.  et  Balb.  Flor.  Ticin.  tom.  ii.  p.  163,  tab.  16. 

It  still  remains  a question  whether  this  plant  should 
bear  Delile^s  name  or  Pollini^s  name,  according  as  the 
one  or  the  other  had  priority  in  publication,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Prof.  Ascherson  in  ^Atti  della  Societh 
Italiana,^  vol.  x.  p.  267,  where  he  shows  that  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  plant  of  Pollini  was  certainly  published  in 
18143  whilst  the  Memoir  of  Delile,  although  perhaps 
printed  in  1813,  was  not  published  until  some  later  year. 
I cannot  elucidate  this  point  further,  as  my  copy  of 
Delile  has  no  titlepage,  and  my  edition  of  Pollini’s  ^ Flora 
Veronensis^  is  that  of  1824.  Pollini^s  herbarium-specimen 
of  the  Italian  plant  is  preserved  among  the  possessions  of 
the  Society  of  Naturalists  of  Rhenish  Westphalia,  in 
Bonn. 

The  Italian  plant  is  not  the  same  as  Robert  Brownes 
Naias  tenuifolia,  Prodr.  FI.  Nov.  Holland,  p.  545,  published 
in  1810,  on  account  of  the  entirely  different  structure  of 
the  male  flower  (see  Plate  VI.  fig.  15)3  otherwise  the 
name  would  have  taken  precedence  of  Pollini^s  and 
Delile^s. 

Whether  the  plant  found  in  Japan,  at  Yokohama,  is 
identical  with  Naias  graminea,  Del.,  is  uncertain  3 but  the 
description  of  it  by  Herr  C.  J.  Maximowicz  may  stand  for 
the  Lancashire  plant : — Mollis  elongata,  foliis  verticil- 
latis  patentibus  rectis  argute  spinoso-serrulatis,  apice  2-3 
cuspidatis,  dentibus  incurvis  1-cellulosis  minutis3  stipulis 
distinctissimis  lanceolatis  foliaceis  folii  ad  instar  serrulatis  3 


SEE.  III.  VOL.  X. 


D 


34 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


fructu  lineari-oblongo^  granulato.  Nippon,  in  fossis  circa 
Yokohamam  semel  inveni  fructiferam^'’*. 

IV.  The  Stem. 

The  stems  vary  in  length  from  a few  inches  to  upwards 
of  two  feet,  and  they  have  many  branches.  Considering 
the  large  number  of  leaves  which  they  support,  the  stems 
are  comparatively  weak ; they  do  not  vary  much  in 
diameter  from  the  base  to  the  summit;  vertical  sections 
of  the  upper  internodes  are  not  quite  so  circular  as  those 
of  the  lower  internocles. 


Fig.  42. 


If  we  examine  one  of  these  internodes  we  find  that  the 
centre  of  the  shaft  consists  of  a small  channel,  surrounded 
by  two  or  three  layers  of  elongate  cells  somewhat  closely 

* Diagnoses  breves  plantariim  novarum  Japonic  et  Mandsburia?.,  in  Bul- 
letin de  I’Acad.  Imp.  des  Sciences  de  St.  Petersbourg,  vol.  sii.  pp.  71,  72 
(^868). 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


35 


aggregated ; surrounding  these  is  a layer  of  much  larger 
cells^  hexagonal  in  outline^  and  having  thinner  walls  than 
those  which  protect  the  central  channel.  From  this  cen- 
tral mass  radiates  a series  of  from  eight  to  twelve  prolon- 
gations of  the  central  hexagonal  cells^  meeting  as  many 
outgrowths  from  the  tissue  which  forms  the  circumference 
of  the  internode^  and  arranged  like  the  spokes  of  a wheel. 
See  fig.  42. 

The  rays  enclose  an  equal  number  of  large  intercellular 
cavities^  each  cavity  being  bounded  by  the  central  and 
peripheral  parenchyma  at  either  end.  The  cavities  occur 
in  every  internode^  whatever  its  age^  but  they  are  limited 
in  the  direction  of  the  axis  by  the  node.  The  rays  consist 
of  a single  row  of  cells,  except  at  the  points  where  they 
join  the  circumference  and  centre ; they  are  not  always  as 
regular  as  they  are  drawn  in  fig.  42,  as  they  occasionally 
branch  at  each  end  so  as  to  enclose  a smaller  intercellular 
cavity. 

The  circumferential  tissue  of  each  internode  consists  of 
three  or  four  rows  of  elongate  cells  having  a hexagonal 
outline,  with  sinuous  edges.  The  cells  are  all  uniform  in 
size,  the  outermost  layer  not  being  smaller  than  the  rest, 
as  it  is  in  Naias  flexilis.  The  external  edge  of  the  outer 
row  of  cells  is  slightly  thickened,  but  I cannot  detect  any 
epidermal  cells. 

In  the  posthumous  work  of  Prof.  Parlatore,  entitled 
‘ Tavole  per  una  Anatomia  delle  piante  aquatiche,^^  ^ a 
drawing  is  given  of  the  transverse  section  of  the  Italian 
Naias  graminea ; hut  it  differs  from  my  drawing  (fig.  42) 
in  showing  an  epidermis  of  distinct  square-shaped  cells. 
The  central  bundle  is  also  made  to  consist  of  about  half  a 
dozen  rows  of  cells,  smaller  in  size  than  I find  them  in  the 
Reddish  plant.  I reproduce  Parlatore’s  figure  on  Plate  VII, 
fig.  36. 

D 2 


36 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


Chatiiij  in  liis  valuable  but  incomplete  work^  ^Anatomie 
comparee  des  Vegetaux/  did  not  quite  reacli  the  Naia- 
dacese  in  tlie  volume  devoted  to  aquatic  plants^  or  bis 
drawings  would  have  been  useful  for  comparison  j it  is 
much  to  be  desired  that  this  fine  work  bad  been  completed, 
as  well  for  tbe  parasitic  plants  as  for  tbe  aquatic.  Tbe 
Naiadae  are  not  yet  figured  by  Eeicbenbacb  in  bis  ^ leones 
Florae  Germanicae  et  Helveticae/  &c. 


Tbe  leaves  grow  in  tufts  at  tbe  side  of  each  internode, 
and  they  are  ratber  more  lateral  than  they  are  represented 
in  Delile^s  figure,  reproduced  two  thirds  tbe  original  size 
in  Plate  V.  fig.  3.  In  tbe  living  state,  as  seen  in  tbe  water 
from  above,  they  have  a light  olive-green  shade,  much 
duller  than  that  of  tbe  bright  green  leaves  of  Naias  flexilis. 
In  the  dried  state  they  become  much  darker,  particularly 
in  tbe  older  leaves,  but  tbe  younger  tufts  retain  the  light 
green  colour  of  tbe  living  plant. 


In  shape  tbe  leaves  are  linear,  broadly  channelled  in 


V.  The  Leaves. 


Fig.  43, 


Fig.  44. 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DELILEI.  37 

their  lower  portion  (figs.  64  & 65),  thiekened  in  the  region 
of  the  midrib  (figs.  60-63),  and  slightly  keeled  on  their 
lower  surface;  in  length  they  vary  from  ^ inch  to  if  inch, 
and  they  are  ~ inch  broad  or  less  (see  Plate  IV.  fig.  2) . 
The  sides  of  the  fully-developed  leaf  are  parallel  for  the 
greater  portion  of  their  length,  but  at  their  base  they 
widen  out  into  a broad  sheath  bearing  two  upright  auricles 
applied  to  the  stem  and  half-clasping  it  (figs.  52-55).  The 
extremity  of  the  leaf  is  gradually  attenuated,  and  ends  in 
from  one  to  three  spines  (fig.  43)  ; the  extremities  are 
frequently  truncate,  so  that  the  spines  give  it  a cuspidate 
character  (fig.  44). 

The  margins  of  the  sides,  sheath,  and  free  extremity  are 
studded  with  erect,  unicellular,  yellowish-brown  spines 
(figs.  47-49),  whose  colour  presents  a contrast  to  the 
transparent  marginal  cell-walls,  and  to  the  green  contents 
of  the  cells  of  the  lamina  of  the  leaf.  The  spines  are 
acuminate,  slightly  curved,  and  gradually  narrowed  from 
the  base  to  the  sharp  point, 

VI.  The  Leaf-spines. 

The  form  of  the  spine,  or  tooth,  on  the  margin  of  the 
leaf  furnishes  good  discriminating  characters  between  the 
various  species  of  Naias,  as  was  long  ago  pointed  out  by 
the  late  Al.  Braun  in.  the  Journal  of  Botany,^  vol.  ii.  1864, 
pp.  274-279. 

The  simplest  form  of  tooth  is  that  of  N.  flexilis,  where, 
in  Dr.  Boswelbs  Loch-Cluny  specimens,  the  base  of  the 
spine  is  in  the  same  plane  as  the  leaf-margin.  The  spine 
springs  from  a dilatation  between  two  of  the  marginal 
leaf-cells  (fig.  45),  each  of  which  nearly  equally  supports 
the  spine  to  the  extent  of  one  third  its  length,  rarely 
more.  Sometimes  the  two  marginal  cells  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  spine  (see  fig.  46). 


38 


MB.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


In  Naias  graminea  the  type  of  spine  is  similar^  hut  it 
differs  from  that  of  N.  flexilis  in  having  a bi-celled  base 
whose  sides  unequally  support  the  spine.  The  lowermost 
of  the  two  basal  cells  diverges^  at  its  upper  end_,  from  the 
line  of  the  leaf-margin^  so  as  to  wholly  support  the  lower 
end  of  the  spine  (see  fig.  47).  The  uppermost  cell^  on  the 
other  hand_,  acts  as  a support  to  the  inner  side  of  the  spine 
for  fully  one  half  its  length  j it  also  partially  underlies  the 
upper  end  of  the  lowermost  basal  cell_,  and  thus  its  three- 
sided  profile  fills  up  the  axil  of  the  spine  and  adds  con- 


siderably to  its  rigidity,  as  compared  with  the  arrangement 
in  N.  flexilis  (comp.  fig.  45) . Occasionally  a third  cell 
makes  its  appearance,  as  shown  in  fig.  48,  and  not  infre- 
quently there  is  an  auxiliary  spine  between  the  upper 
supporting  cell  and  the  original  spine  (see  fig.  49) . In 
all  these  cases,  however,  the  axillary,  or  nppermost,  basal 
cell  distinguishes  the  type  of  tooth  from  the  characteristic 
tooth  of  N.  flexilis.  Cesati  gives  figures  of  the  dentition 
of  these  two  species  in  plate  ii.  of  ‘ Linnsea,^  vol.  xxxvi. ; 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DELILEI. 


39 


but  he  makes  that  of  N.  alaganensis  much  nearer  to  that 
of  N.  flexilis  than  I find  it  to  be  in  the  Manchester  plant. 

A third  type  of  spine  is  furnished  by  Naias  minor,  All. 
{Caulinia  fragilis,  W.).  This  shows  an  advance  upon  the 
basal  arrangement  of  the  spines  of  N.  flexilis  and  N.  gra- 
minea,  in  being  formed  of  more  than  three  cells  (see  fig.  50). 
The  entire  tooth  stands  much  above  the  line  of  cells  which 
forms  the  margin  of  the  leaf. 


Upon  comparing  these  figures  (which  I have  carefully 
made  from  typical  specimens)  with  those  given  by  Braun 
on  p.  275^  vol.  ii.  of  the  ^Journal  of  Botany^  (1864) it  will 
be  seen  that  my  drawings  present  considerable  variation 
from  his,  particularly  in  N.  flexilis.  It  is  possible  that 
Braun^s  figures  were  meant  to  be  diagrammatic,  and 
representative  of  groups  rather  than  of  species ; for  con- 
venience of  reference  I have  reproduced  them  in  Plate  VI. 
figs.  6-8. 

The  other  end  of  the  series  of  types  of  spines  is  repre- 
sented by  the  tooth  of  N.  major,  where  there  is  not  only  a 
multicellular  base,  but  the  spine  itself  is  compound ; one 


40 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


terminal  dark  brown  cell  resting  upon  several  elongate 
dark  brown  cells_,  tbe  whole  forming  a very  conspicuous 
tooth  standing  well  out  from  the  plane  of  the  leaf-margin. 
Fig.  51  gives  a tooth  of  this  speeies  from  one  of  the  late 
Dr.  Wirtgen^s  specimens  from  the  mouth  of  the  Moselle, 
near  Coblentz. 

In  N.  graminea  the  spines  are  situated  on  the  leaf- 
margins  only  (never  on  the  midrib)  at  intervals  equal  to 
from  one  half  to  the  whole  breadth  of  the  leaf.  Figs.  47-49 
have  been  drawn  from  spines  on  the  edge  of  the  middle 
portion  of  the  leaf.  Their  shape  is  constant  on  the  sides 
of  the  lamina,  but  they  become  longer  on  the  sheath  and 
at  the  apex  of  the  leaf. 

VII.  The  Leaf-sheath. 

The  leaf-sheath  is  another  important  character  in  distin- 
guishing the  species  of  Naiadse,  the  extent  of  the  dilatation. 

Fig.  52. 


OF  NAIAS  GEAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


41 


and  the  form  of  the  auricle  when  present^  furnishing  useful 
marks  of  discrimination.  The  types  given  by  Braun  in 
the  ‘'Journal  of  Botany/  vol.  ii.  p.  274^  are  redrawn  on 
Plate  VI.  figs.  io-i4j  hut,  as  will  be  seen  from  what 
follows,  the  Beddish  plant  differs  considerably  from  Braun^s 
figure  of  N.  graminea,  unless  he  meant  it  to  serve  as  a 
general  figure  of  the  type  of  sheath  in  his  super-species 
N.  tenuifolia. 

In  the  English  Naias  graminea  the  base  of  the  lamina 
of  the  outermost  pair  of  leaves  suddenly  dilates  into  a pair 
of  upright  auricles  or  ears,  which  are  continued  below  so 
as  to  form  a more  or  less  ample  sheath  (see  fig.  52) ; the 
size  of  the  sheath  presents  considerable  variations,  accord- 
ing to  the  age  and  the  position  of  the  leaf  to  which  it 
belongs  (see  figs.  52-55).  I see  no  trace  of  any  intra- 
vaginal  scales  (squarnulae)  at  the  base  of  the  leaf-sheath, 
such  as  are  found  in  Naias  major  and  in  the  allied  genus 


I'ig-  53- 


42 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


Phucagrostis.  Fig.  29^  Plate  VI.,  shows  the  scales  of 
Naias  major  in  situ ; one  of  the  scales  is  drawn  separately 
in  fig.  30  on  the  same  Plate. 

The  auricles  in  their  turn  vary  in  shape  and  size,  but  I 
have  not  met  with  them  so  regularly  oval  nor  so  acute  as 
they  are  represented  in  Braun^s  figure  (fig.  14,  Plate  VI.) ; 
on  the  contrary,  I never  find  them  acute,  and,  though 
somewhat  parallel-sided,  they  gradually  taper  from  their 
base  to  their  elongate  truncate  apex  (see  figs.  52  & 54). 
More  often  than  not  the  auricle  is  larger  on  one  side  than 
the  other,  as  in  figs.  54  & 55.  The  auricles  are  confined 


Fig.  54-  Fig.  55. 


principally  to  the  first  pair  of  leaves  of  each  fascicle,  and 
the  sheaths  of  the  pair  embrace  the  leaf;  most  often  these 
are  the  only  leaves  in  the  fascicle  which  possess  auricles 
(see  Delile^s  figure  on  Plate  V.  fig.  4).  The  next  pair  of 
leaves  has  auricles  which,  when  present,  form  a more  acute 
sinus  with  the  lamina  (fig.  55) ; but  as  we  approach  the 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI. 


43 


centre  of  each  fascicle  the  leaves  are  destitute  of  auricles^ 
and  pass  into  short  lanceolate  bracts^  in  the  midst  of  which 
we  find  the  flowers. 

In  Scotch  specimens  of  Naias  flexilis  the  leaf-sheath  is 
of  another  type ; the  base  of  the  limb  widens  out  into  a 
sheath  more  than  twice  the  breadth  of  the  limb,  and  at  an 
angle  of  about  45° ; but  there  is  no  approach  to  an  auricle 
on  either  side.  The  shoulders  of  the  sheath  are  crowded 
with  teeth,  but  they  are  infrequent  on  the  sides.  See 
figs.  56  & 57^  and  compare  them  with  the  slightly  different 
figure  of  Braun  on  Plate  VI.  fig.  10. 


For  drawings  of  the  leaf-sheaths  of  Naias  minor  and 
N.  major,  see  Plate  VI.  figs.  9 & 29,  and  compare  the 
former  with  Braun^s  figure,  Plate  VI.  fig.  ii. 

The  margins  of  the  auricles  of  N.  graminea,  and  more 
particularly  their  free  extremities  and  inner  sides,  are 
crowded  with  strong,  spiny,  tawny-brown  cells,  similar  to 
those  on  the  lamina;  but  they  occur  at  much  shorter 
intervals,  and  the  cells  at  the  base  of  the  spines  are  more 


Fig.  56. 


Fig.  57- 


44 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


loosely  aggregated  (see  fig.  58)^  so  that  there  is  no  well- 
defined  series  of  marginal  cells  as  in  the  lamina.  The 
basal  cells  which  support  the  spines  have  their  longest 
diameter  in  the  direction  of  the  spine. 


Fig.  58. 


Fig-  59- 


In  N.  flexilis  (fig.  59)  the  cells  are  more  loosely  aggre- 
gated also,  but  the  line  of  marginal  cells,  though  not  so 
well  defined  as  in  the  lamina,  is  more  clearly  apparent 
than  it  is  in  N.  graminea.  The  cells  of  the  sheath,  as  well 
as  the  marginal  cells  of  the  lamina,  of  N.  flexilis  are  larger 
and  longer  than  they  are  in  N.  graminea)  but  the  two 
species  maybe  distinguished  by  the  length  of  the  imbedded 
portion  of  the  spine,  which,  in  N.  flexilis,  is  less,  and  in 
N.  graminea  is  more,  than  one  third  of  its  free  length. 
The  leaf-cells  of  N.  flexilis  generally  are  larger  than  those 


OP  NAIAS  GRAMINEA_,  VAR.  DELILEI.  45 

of  N.  graminea  (compare  figs.  45  & 46  witli  figs.  47-49^ 
and  fig.  58  with  fig.  59^  all  of  which  are  drawn  to  the  same 
scale) . 

VIII.  Leaf-structure. 

The  anatomy  of  the  leaves  of  iV.  graminea  is  simple. 
The  margins  of  the  lamina  to  the  extent  of  one  third  the 
breadth  are  composed  of  two  layers  of  cells  (see  figs.  63  & 
65)^  which,  in  the  Reddish  specimens,  do  not  present  that 
contrast  in  the  size  of  the  eells  of  the  superior  and  infe- 
rior layers  which  Dr.  Magnus  mentions  on  p.  51  of  his 
^Beitrage.^  No  doubt  the  cells  of  the  convex  side  of  the 
lamina  are  slightly  the  smaller,  hut  the  difierence  is  not 
so  marked  as  represented  in  Plate  VII.  figs.  31-33,  which 
are  copied  from  the  figures  given  by  Dr.  Magnus. 

There  are  no  stomata  on  the  leaves  and  no  epidermis ; 
hut  the  surface-cells  in  all  parts  of  the  plant  have 
intermixed  with  them  reddish-pink  pigment-cells,  which 
become  brown  with  age.  They  are  probably  resinous,  as 
they  are  the  last  to  decay;  similar  cells  occur  in  other 
species  of  Naias. 

The  eentral  portion  of  the  leaf  is  much  thicker  than  the 
sides,  because  at  this  point  the  two  layers  of  the  lamina 
diverge  from  each  other  so  as  to  enclose  a central  bundle 
of  small-sized  cells,  surrounded  by  a layer  of  six  or  eight 
larger-sized  cells.  On  either  side  of  this  central  tissue  are 


two  intercellular  cavities,  which  greatly  exceed  in  size  the 
cells  whieh  bound  them  (see  figs.  60-65). 


46 


ME.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTUEE  ETC. 


In  his  ^ Beitrage/  pp.  51  & 52,  Magnus  describes  Naias 
graminea  as  possessing  bast -cells  in  certain  fixed  positions 
in  the  leaf^  namely close  to  the  margin^  and  immediately 
above  and  below  the  central  bundle  on  the  upper  and  lower 
surfaces  of  the  leaf  (see  figs.  31-33  on  Plate  VII.) . These 
bast-cells  I cannot  discover^  after  prolonged  search,  in 
any  portion  of  the  Reddish  plants ; but  as  Magnus  states 
(p.  52)  that  Damietta  specimens  collected  by  Ehrenberg, 
and  Cairo  specimens  collected  by  Schweinfurth,  also  have 
these  bast-cells  wanting,  it  is  clear  that  the  Reddish  plant 
corresponds  in  this  particular  with  the  plants  from  Lower 
Egypt. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  plant  from  the  Italian  stations 
possesses  bast-cells.  I found  them  clearly 
marked  in  specimens  in  my  herbarium  col- 
lected by  Signor  Malinverni,  “ in  stagnis  fossis 
et  oryzetis  circa  Quintum  Vercellensis  ditionis 
pagum  sestate  1875;'’^  the  accompanying  figure 
has  been  drawn  from  the  leaf  of  one  of  these 
plants  (fig.  66). 

The  line  of  libriform  cells  is  the  central  one 
of  the  three  series  which  I have  drawn  j it  is 
most  clearly  apparent,  when  viewed  as  a trans- 
parent object,  from  the  circumstance  that  its 
cells  do  not  contain  chlorophyll,  and  hence  it 
is  visible  as  a transparent  colourless  line  in  the 
midst  of  green  tissue. 

An  isolated  bast-cell  is  given  in  fig.  34  on 
Plate  VII.,  and  their  position  in  the  leaf  is 
shown  in  figs.  31-33  on  the  same  Plate  at 
the  points  marked  b.  In  the  upper  part  of  fig.  32  the 
single  cell  seems  to  have  been  multiplied  into  three,  but,  as 
Dr.  Magnus  explains  in  his  memoir,  these  long  Y-shaped 
cells  are  arranged  in  a single  linear  series  at  the  edge 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


47 


of  the  leaf;  the  bifurcating  end  of  one  cell  encloses  the 
solitary  attenuated  end  of. the  one  next  to  it;  a section  at 
such  a junction  severs  the  three  interlocked  ends  of  two 
contiguous  cells. 

The  absence  of  this  libriform  tissue  in  the  Lancashire 
plant  has  a bearing  in  determining  its  source^  as  will  be 
noticed  further  on. 

Between  the  Italian  and  the  Lancashire  plants  I notice 
one  other  point  of  difference,  which  may  be  due  to  the 
period  of  growth.  Above  and  below  the  central  bundle  of 
the  leaf,  but  particularly  on  the  lower  surface,  the  external 
cells  of  MalinvernTs  specimens  from  Vercelli  are  densely 
packed  with  starch-grains,  very  similar  to  what  is  met 
with  in  the  external  membrane  of  the  fruit.  Although 
starch-granules  are  present  in  the  membrane  of  the  fruits 
of  the  Lancashire  plant,  I have  failed  to  discover  a single 
instance  of  their  occurring  in  quantity  in  the  leaves. 

All  the  cells  of  the  leaf  exhibit  a very  striking  circu- 
lation of  their  contents  against  the  cell-walls ; the  chloro- 
phyllean  granules  and  other  protoplasmic  bodies  being 
very  large,  and  the  cell-walls  being  very  transparent,  the 
plant  furnishes  a splendid  illustration  of  circulation,  more 
than  any  plant  which  I have  examined. 


IX.  The  Inflorescence, 

The  construction  of  the  flowers  of  the  genus  Naias 
and  their  morphology  have  been  minutely  studied  by 
Dr.  Magnus,  and  the  results  given  in  his  ^Beitrage,^ 
pp.  26-33.  referring  to  the  development  of  a side- 
shoot  of  N.  graminea,  he  says  that  many  of  the  internodes 
are  suppressed,  and  that  from  three  to  five  pairs  of  leaves 
spring  from  the  axis  before  we  reach  the  flowers,  which 
occur  to  the  number  of  from  two  to  four  all  in  one  node. 


48 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


He  adds  that  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  male  flowers 
are  found  on  those  parts  of  the  shoots  which  have  long 
internodes^  while  the  female  flowers  occur  only  on  those 
shoots  where  the  internodes  are  suppressed. 

This  was  not  the  structure  in  the  Lancashire  plant. 
Quite  as  often  as  not  pistilliferous  flowers  were  found  in 
the  axil  of  the  first  pair  of  leaves  of  the  tuft.  Anthe- 
riferous  and  pistilliferous  flowers  are  found  side  by  side 
(see  figs.  67  & 68)  in  the  axil  of  the  same  leaf.  Both 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  68. 


kinds  of  flowers  are  also  found  in  all  stages  of  develop* 
mentj  quite  yonug  ones  lying  side-hy-side  with  those  more 
developed. 

The  great  majority  of  the  plants  produced  fully-deve- 
loped flowers^  both  male  and  female^  the  latter  being  much 


OP  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI. 


49 


the  more  numerous.  The  species  is  monoecious  ; even  in 
those  instances  in  which  I found  only  female  flowers  on 
the  individual  branch,  I could  not  be  sure  that  male 
flowers  had  not  been  produced,  or  would  not  have  been 
produced  later  on.  It  was  not  usual,  though  by  no  means 
infrequent,  to  find  both  sexes  in  the  same  fascicle,  at  equal 
stages  of  development  (figs.  67  & 68),  and  mature  and 
immature  flowers  enclosed  by  the  same  bract  (see  figs.  81 
& 86). 


Fig.  69. 


The  flowers  begin  to  occur  immediately  within  the  axil 
of  the  first  pair  of  leaves  in  each  fascicle,  but  there  is 
frequently  an  outlying  pair  of  leaves  below  the  fascicle 
which  does  not  contain  flowers.  The  oldest  flowers  are 
always  at  the  base  of  the  fascicle.  When  mature,  the 
fruits  are  plainly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  (see  Delile^s 
figure  on  Plate  V.  fig.  4),  but  they  can  be  detected,  when 
present,  by  the  touch.  The  female  flowers  are  rarely 
solitary,  but  occur  in  twos,  threes,  or  fours ; in  the  earlier 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


E 


50 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


stages  of  development  they  are  sometimes  more  nume- 
rous. The  male  flowers  are  more  often  solitary.  In  the 
centre  of  the  fascicle  are  the  youngest  flowers  (see 
figs.  68  & 69). 

In  appearance  the  flowers  look  as  if  they  were  ordinary 
anthers  and  pistils,  i.  e.  as  if  they  possessed  no  perianth ; 
but  Dr.  Magnus  has  shown  that  their  outermost  covering 
is  really  a perianth  which  more  or  less  closely  invests  the 
anthers  and  pistils.  In  fig.  16  on  Plate  VI.  the  perianth 
has  been  drawn  back  from  the  exposed  anther  of  N.  major. 
Figs.  22,  24,  25,  and  28  show  the  natural  reflexion  of  the 
perianth-leaves  in  the  male  flower  of  N.  major. 

All  the  flowers  are  sessile,  and  I have  endeavoured  to 
convey,  in  the  accompanying  figures,  accurate  represen- 
tations of  each. 

X.  The  Pistilliferous  Flower. 

The  female  flower  consists  of  an  elongate  flask-shaped 
body,  with  a long  neck  which  bifurcates  at  its  free  end 
(figs.  68  & 70),  like  the  bifid  stigma  of  a Car  ex,  such  as 
C.  ovalis.  The  outer  covering  is  the  perianth ; the  body 
which  it  encloses  is  the  pistil. 

In  its  early  stage  the  lower,  or  flask-shaped,  portion 
consists  of  a globose  or  ovate  body,  surmounted  by  a flat 
parallel-sided  band,  of  nearly  the  same  breadth  as  the 
lower  portion  (fig.  67) . The  upper  portion,  or  neck  of  the 
flask,  divides  about  halfway  up  into  two  divisions,  like  the 
stigma  of  an  ordinary  flowering  plant  (see  fig.  71).  This 
stigmatoid  portion  attains  its  maximum  length  very  early. 
The  basal  portion  contains  a single  anatropous  ovule,  and 
it  enlarges  both  outwards  and  upwards  until  it  is  twice  the 
length  of  the  style-like  portion  (see  fig.  70). 

The  investing  membrane  (fig.  88),  which  can  be  removed 
Like  the  calyptra  of  a Polytrichum,  is  made  up  of  one  or 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DELILEI. 


51 


two  layers  of  cells,  whieh  vary  in  shape  aceording  to  their 
position.  The  portion  which  covers  the  ovule  consists  of 
elongate  cells  with  truncate  ends,  and  these  cells  are 
densely  packed  with  rounded  grains  of  starch  very  uniform 
in  size.  The  starch  makes  its  appearance  in  the  later 


Fig.  70. 


stages  of  the  growth  of  the  membrane.  The  portion  which 
covers  the  long  neck  of  the  flask-shaped  body  is  also 
mostly  composed  of  long  cells ; hut  the  cells  which  occur 
on  the  margins  of  the  stigmatoid  divisions  of  the  free  ends 
are  only  one  third  the  length  of  the  central  cells,  and  their 
outer  ends  are  somewhat  enlarged,  so  as  to  make  the  edge 
of  the  stigmatoid  divisions  minutely  papillate,  as  if  to 
afford  better  attachment  for  the  grains  of  pollen  (fig.  72). 
The  cells  of  the  base  of  the  neck  are  much  broader  than 
any  of  those  in  other  parts  of  the  investing  membrane, 
and  they  are  also  more  loosely  aggregated  at  that  point. 

A central  canal  runs  throughout  the  narrow  portion 


52 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


whicli  simulates  the  style^  and  at  the  point  where  it 
reaches  the  chamber  which  contains  the  ovule  it  becomes 
slightly  constricted  (fig.  71)  ; hut  immediately  below  the 
constriction  it  widens  out  into  a cupola-shaped  cavity, 
whose  upper  portion,  or  roof,  is  lined  with  a few  unicellular 
hairs  (figs.  72  & 73).  Below  this  cavity  is  the  ovule.  The 
accompanying  drawings  (figs.  67-73)  illustrate  the  female 
fiower  in  some  of  its  stages  of  development. 

No  portion  of  the  pistilhferous  fiower  hears  any  spines 
similar  to  those  which  occur  on  the  bracts  and  leaves ; 
such  spines  are  present  in  some  of  the  species  of  Naias, 


XI.  The  Antherieerous  Flower. 

The  male  flowers  are  not  so  numerous  as  the  female 
flowers,  and  they  grow  intermixed  with  them.  Although 
I have  frequently  found  plants  of  Naias  graminea  in  which 
none  hut  pistilhferous  flowers  could  be  detected  at  the 
period  of  examination,  such  tendency  towards  dioecism 
never  showed  itself  when  anther-bearing  flowers  were 
present.  When  the  latter  occurred  on  a plant  pistilhferous 
flowers  were  invariably  present,  and  oftener  than  not  side 
by  side  with  them  (see  figs.  67  & 68). 

My  observations  of  the  anther  do  not  quite  coincide 
with  the  descriptions  and  figure  given  by  Dr.  Magnus ; I 
have  consequently  given  a larger  number  of  illustrative 
drawings  of  this  organ.  The  drawing  of  Dr.  Magnus  is 
reproduced  on  Plate  VII.  i,n  fig.  35. 

When  young  they  are  oval-shaped  bodies  borne  upon  a 
very  short  stalk  (see  figs.  74  & 76).  So  much  do  they 
resemble  the  anther  of  an  ordinary  flowering-plant  that  I 
was  a long  time  in  realizing  that  the  outer  body  which  I 
was  examining  was  the  membrane  which  formed  the  peri- 
anth. The  perianth  closely  invests  the  anther  throughout 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DEHLEI. 


53 


all  its  stages  of  growth,  and,  from  all  that  I have  seen,  it 
keeps  pace  uniformly  with  the  growth  of  the  membrane  of 
the  anther. 

The  anthers  of  this  genus,  according  to  Dr.  Magnus,  are 
axis-growths  which,  when  ripening,  are  pushed  through 
the  perianth,  rupturing  that  membrane  somewhat  irregu- 
larly, and  they  finally  dehisce  at  their  apex.  That  the 
anthers  of  the  Deddish  plant  dehisce  at  the  apex  there  is 
no  doubt,  hut  I have  seen  no  trace  of  the  rupturing  of  the 
outer  perianth-membrane  through  the  emergence  of  the 
anther  proper ; on  the  contrary,  the  summit  of  the  flower 
presents  a regularity  of  parts  for  which  Dr.  Magnus’s 
observations  did  not  prepare  me.  The  rupturing  of  the 
perianth  in  N.  major  is  shown  in  fig^s.  22  & 28  on 
Plate  VI. 


Fig.  74.  Fig.  75.  Fig.  76. 


In  an  early  stage  the  antheriferous  flower  of  N.  graminea 
has  its  outer  membrane  prolonged  into  two  erect  rounded 
ears,  which  are  continued  down  the  sides  as  keels  or  ridges 
(figs.  67  & 75).  The  young  pollen  at  this  stage  is  distinctly 
seen  through  the  membranes  of  the  flower  and  of  the 
anther  (fig.  76).  The  anther  then  becomes  more  elongate 
by  its  upward  growth ; a slight  groove  makes  its  appear- 
ance longitudinally,  corresponding  with  the  principal 
dissepiment  of  the  anther  (fig.  68) ; the  upright  ears  and 
the  keels  lose  their  prominence,  and  the  separate  pollen- 
grains  are  not  so  distinguishable  (fig.  77).  Finally,  the 
mature  quadrilocular  anther  is  an  ovoid  cylindrical  body 


54 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


having  two  narrow  parallel  ridges  passing  over  the  summit, 
and  descending  about  halfway  down  the  covering  of  the 
flower  (fig.  78).  For  comparison,  see  an  antheriferous 
flower  of  N.  minor  in  Plate  VI.  fig.  17;  a transverse  sec- 
tion of  N.  major  in  fig.  18;  a vertical  section  of  V.  major 
in  fig.  23 ; a vertical  section  of  V.  minor  in  fig.  27  ; and  a 
vertical  section  of  N.  major  in  fig.  21. 


Fig.  77.  Fig.  78. 


The  membrane  which  invests  the  anther  is  formed  of 
close-ranked,  elongate,  translucent  cells,  six  to  twelve 
times  as  long  as  broad,  and  tinged  with  a beautiful  rose- 
colour  ; the  superposition  of  this  rosy  membrane  over  the 
lemon-coloured  pollen  of  the  anther  gives  the  flower  a 
tawny-orange  appearance,  which  readily  attracts  notice, 
even  without  the  aid  of  a lens.  The  cells  which  compose 
the  ridges  in  the  upper  half  of  the  flower  are  larger  and 
broader  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  membrane. 

Robert  Brownes  V.  tenuifolia  has  considerable  affinity 
with  the  Manchester  plant,  but,  independent  of  other 
diflPerences,  the  anther  is  very  dissimilar  on  account  of  its 
external  tunic  terminating  in  a narrow  elongate  beak, 
which  bears  a number  of  brown  spiny  teeth  at  its  free  end 
(see  fig.  15,  Plate  VI.).  At  the  period  of  dehiscence  the 


OP  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DRLILEI.  55 

internal  tunic  which  contains  the  pollen  separates  itself 
from  the  external  membrane^  hut,  instead  of  its  emerging 
through  the  summit  of  the  beak  of  the  perianth,  it  is 
thrust  through  a rupture  in  the  side. 

In  N.  graminea  the  external  membrane  closely  invests 
the  inner  membrane,  but  it  is  not  projected  beyond  it  in 
the  form  of  a beak ; and  I have  not  seen  a vestige  of  a 
brown  spiny  cell  on  any  portion  of  the  male  flower. 

XII.  The  Pollen. 

The  pollen  of  the  various  species  of  Naias  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  much  noticed  by  observers.  Magnus  does 
not  allude  to  it,  nor  give  any  figures  of  pollen-grains  for 
any  of  the  species  ; and  contradictory  statements  are  made 
by  some  authors.  Thus  the  drawings  of  Braun,  engraved 
in  fasc.  x.  plate  i.  of  the  ‘ Genera  plantarum  florse  ger- 
manicse^  of  Nees  ah  Esenbeck,  show  a globose  pollen  for 
Naias  minor  {Caulinia  fragilis)  in  situ,  and  for  Naias  major 
in  separate  grains  (see  PI.  VI.  fig.  19),  and  in  his  diagnosis 
of  the  genus  {Caulinia)  he  specifies  pollen  glohosum, 
magnum  This  statement  seems  to  he  the  foundation 
for  the  similar  statement  in  the  works  of  later  authors, 
one  of  the  most  recent  being  given  in  the  ‘ Genera  plan- 
tarum^  of  Bentham  and  Hooker,  vol.  hi.  p.  1018,  viz. 

pollen  glohosum.'’^  In  the  ^ Compendio  della  Flora 
Italiana^  of  Cesati,  Passerini,  and  Gibelli,  part  i,  p.  204, 
tab.  xxvii.  fig.  i,  the  pollen  of  N.  major  is  elliptico-cylin- 
drical,  like  a grain  of  rice,  say  from  two  to  three  times 
longer  than  broad  (see  PI.  VI.  fig.  26) . In  the  ‘ Flora 
Danica,’  plate  2121,  the  pollen  of  Najas  marina  [Caulinia 
fragilis)  is  of  an  elliptical  form,  not  quite  twice  as  long  as 
broad. 

This  divergence  of  form  in  the  pollen-grain  of  Naias 
major  suggests,  at  first  sight,  inaccuracy  of  observation 


56 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


but  I have  found  botb  globose  and  elongate  pollen  in  tbe 
antbers  of  tbe  Lancashire  Naias  graminea.  Tbe  globular 
form  is  represented  in  fig.  79,  and  the  elliptical  form  is 
given  in  fig.  80j  botb  drawn  to  tbe  same  scale.  Undoubtedly 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  80, 


the  pollen  is  globular  in  its  early  stages^  but^  after  select- 
ing what  appeared  to  be  perfectly  mature  anthers  just  at 
the  period  of  dehiscence,  the  pollen  which  emerged  was 
found  to  be  globose,  as  drawn,  in  one  anther,  and  elliptico- 
cylindrical  in  another  anther.  Whether  the  globose  pollen 
ultimately  passes  into  the  elliptical  form,  and  thus  the 
latter  represents  the  mature  pollen,  or  whether  there  is  a 
dimorphism  in  the  pollen-grain,  I cannot  pronounce;  I 
can  only  certify  to  the  occurrence  of  both  forms  in  plants 
from  the  same  station,  and  that  the  globose  form  is  much 
the  rarer  of  the  two. 

In  its  fresh  state  the  pollen-grain  is  of  a pale  yellow 
colour,  and  its  contents  are  granular.  It  must  be  produced 
in  great  abundance,  as  I have  frequently  found  it  in  a free 
state  in  the  water  of  the  glass  jars  which  have  held  the 
living  plant  during  these  investigations ; grains  also  occur 
floating  about  in  the  chloride  of  calcium  solution  which  I 
use  for  mounting  the  dissections  of  the  plant  for  perma- 
nent microscopic  examination. 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI. 


57 


XIII.  Fertilization. 

The  pollination  of  Naias  graminea  is  entirely  effected  in 
the  watei’j  as  there  is  no  provision  for  an  elongation  of  the 
peduncle  to  raise  the  pistilliferous  flowers  up  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  as  in  Potamogeton  Zizii,  Valisneria, 
Anacharis,  and  other  aquatic  plants.  The  structure  of  the 
inflorescence  forbids  its  being  considered  a cleistogamous 
flower ; whether  it  is  an  aquatic  type  of  an  anemophilous 
or  an  entomophilous  plant  I cannot  determine. 

Some  observations  I have  noted  for  recording  here  are 
of  some  interest,  as  they  suggest  that  pollination  is  effected 
in  two  ways.  In  the  station  in  which  the  Naias  occurs 
near  Manchester  the  very  slight  natural  flow  of  the  water 
in  the  canal  towards  the  locks  is  quite  sufiicient  for  the 
transport  of  the  pollen,  and,  though  I have  not  purposely 
taken  any  of  the  canal  water  to  see  if  it  contained  free 
pollen,  my  home  observations  leave  me  no  doubt  that 
pollen  is  carried  to  the  pistilliferous  flowers  by  the  cur- 
rent j in  such  case  the  plant  would  be  hydrophilous. 
While,  however,  examining  portions  of  a living  plant  on 
which  were  ripe  anthers,  I noticed  a colony  of  Vorticellidse 
attached  to  one  of  the  fascicles  of  leaves ; the  grace  and 
activity  of  its  movements  led  me  to  watch  it  for  a con- 
siderable time,  and  whilst  so  watching  it  I witnessed  grains 
of  pollen  whirled  in  all  directions,  or  drawn  into  the 
vortex  of  the  animal  by  its  marginal  cilia.  The  alternate 
contraction  and  elongation  of  the  elastic  and  thread-like 
pedicles  of  the  colony  kept  the  pollen-grains  in  constant 
motion,  which  left  me  no  doubt  that  at  times  the  grains 
would  be  directly  borne  to  the  stigmatoid  appendages  of 
the  pistilliferous  flowers. 

The  canal-water  is  most  prolific  in  animal  life ; beetles, 
molluscs,  leeches,  rotifers,  polyps,  larvie  of  insects,  &c.. 


58 


MR.  C,  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC, 


must  surely  prove  potent  factors  in  transporting  pollen  not 
only  in  the  tepid  water  of  the  Reddish  canal^  but  in  the 
still  water  of  pools  and  ditches.  If  we  carefully  look  for 
instances  of  their  intervention  we  cannot  fail  to  find 
distinctive  protozophiious  plants^  dependent  for  their  fer- 
tilization upon  animal  life  in  the  aqueous  worlds  in  muck 
the  same  way  as  we  find  entomophilous  plants  in  the 
aerial  world. 

It  is  a very  happy  circumstance  that  Sir  Joseph  Hooker 
should  have  indicated,  in  the  new  edition  of  his  Students 
Flora ^ recently  published,  the  forms  of  pollination  which 
prevail  in  many  of  our  native  plants,  where  known. 
Sprengel,  Darwin,  Muller,  Lubbock,  Kerner,  and  many 
others  have  largely  increased  our  knowledge  of  this  sub- 
ject for  terrestrial  plants,  but  its  extent  after  all  is  very 
limited ; we  have  but  ascended  a few  steps  leading  up  to 
the  vestibule,  whilst  the  great  temple  of  truth  is  beyond  ; 
while,  as  regards  aquatic  plants,  and  particularly  those 
which  are  wholly  submersed  throughout  their  lives,  like 
Naias  graminea,  St?'atiotes,  &c,,  our  knowledge  is  even 
more  limited.  Hence  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  has  earned  the 
thanks  of  British  botanists  by  bringing  into  prominence 
this  important  feature  in  the  economy  of  our  native 
plants. 

XIV.  The  Fruit. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  fertilization  of  the  ovule  the  outer 
membrane  of  the  flower — the  perianth — and  the  investing 
membrane  of  the  ovule  contained  within  the  perianth,  both 
remain  transparent  or  semitransparent.  After  pollination 
has  taken  place  the  membrane  of  the  ovule  becomes  turbid 
and  thickens,  while  the  ovule  itself  enlarges  and  becomes  a 
mature  fruit,  covered  with  a testa  formed  of  thick- walled 
cells  (figs.  81-83). 

The  fruit  is  sculptured  with  a network  of  raised  ridges. 


59 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 
which  thus  produce  depressions  in  the  shell ; this  sculpture 
Fig.  8 1.  Fig.  83.  Fig.  82. 


seems  to  have  its  seat  in  one  of  the  inner  membranes  of 
the  shell,  since  it  cannot  always  be  distinguished  through 
the  most  external  layer.  As  far  as  I have  been  able  to 
make  it  out,  it  is  somewhat  after  the  character  of  the 
aceompanying  fig.  843  but  this  must  be  looked  upon  as 

Fig.  84.  Fig.  85. 


a diagrammatie  interpretation  of  what  is  supposed  to  be 
seen,  rather  than  an  actual  representation  of  fact.  In 
the  same  way  I have  drawn  the  testa  of  Naias  flexiUs  in 
fig.  85  from  a single  mature  fruit  in  one  of  Dr.  Boswelks 
Loch-Cluny  specimens ; I am  more  sure  of  the  correctness 
of  this  figure  than  of  that  of  N.  graminea,  but  it  repre- 
sents what  is  seen  in  a single  fruit  only.  It  would  there- 


60 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


fore  appear  that  the  sculpture  of  N.  flexilis  is  quadran- 
gular^ while  that  of  N.  graminea  is  hexagonal ; but  too 
much  must  not  be  made  of  observations  founded  on  such 
a limited  basis. 

According  to  the  observations  of  Cesati*  the  fruits  of 
the  Italian  N.  alaganensis  are  granulose -punctate^  which 
fairly  well  describes  the  appearance  of  the  outer  covering 
of  the  Manchester  plant ; but  Cesati^s  figure  in  ‘ Linnsea/ 
Z.  c.  table  ii.  fig.  id,  makes  the  fruit  much  more  papillate 
than  I find  it  in  the  Lancashire  form.  On  the  other  hand, 
this  same  observer  makes  the  fruit  of  N.  flexilis  shining 
and  obscurely  angular,  and  he  so  draws  it  in  his  plate. 

The  explanation  of  this  difierence  in  the  form  of  sculp- 
turing is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  external  mem- 
brane more  or  less  obscures  the  underlying  layer,  and  thus 
the  latter  is  seen  by  observers  according  as  the  trans- 
parency of  the  outer  layer  admits  of  it.  For  the  further 
elucidation  of  this  point,  I have  reproduced  the  figures  of 
Dr.  Magnus  in  Plate  YII.,  where  figs.  40  & 41  show  the 
arrangement  of  the  coats  of  the  fruit  of  N.  graminea  from 
Cairo,  and  figs.  37-39  those  of  A^.  flexilis. 

At  Reddish  mature  fruits  of  N.  graminea  are  produced 
in  great  abundance;  scarcely  a plant  occurred  without 
fruits.  In  the  many  hundred  plants  which  I have  examined 
I have  not  seen  a single  instance  where  the  beak  of  the  fruit 
was  other  than  bifid,  unless  it  had  broken  ofiT  altogether, 
as  represented  in  figs.  81  & 83,  and  in  the  middle  fruit  of 
fisr.  86.  This  division  of  the  beak  into  two  branches  is  a 

o 

constant  character,  and  very  clearly  distinguishes  it  from 
the  four-rayed  beak  of  Naias  flexilis  (fig.  87). 

One  other  point  of  differentiation  between  Naias  gra- 
minea and  N.  flexilis  rests  in  the  shape  of  the  fruit.  In 

* “ Die  Pflanzrrelt  im  Gebiete  zwiscben  dem  Tessin,  dem  Po,  der  Sesia 
und  den  Alpen”  (Linnaa,  Tol.  xxxii.  1863,  pages  259  & 260). 


OF  NAIAS  GllAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


61 


the  former  the  ends  are  more  abruptly  narrowed  into  the 
base  and  the  beak  than  they  are  in  the  latter,  which 
has  gradually  narrowing  ends;  compare  figs.  86  & 87. 
CesatFs  figures  in  ^ Linnsea,^  xxxii.  plate  2,  confirm  this 
conclusion. 


Fig.  86. 


The  perianth  easily  separates  from  the  fruit ; it  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  88.  The  portion  which  covers  the  body  of 
the  fruit  consists  of  a single  layer  of  cells. 


62 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


XV.  The  Roots. 

The  roots  are  o£  great  lengthy  creeping  in  the  soft  black 
mud  of  the  bed  of  the  canal ; they  are  given  off  from  the 
nodes  in  verticils.  They  are  capillary^  uniform  in  diameter, 
even  when  nine  inches  long,  tawny-orange  in  colour,  and 
I have  not  seen  them  branch. 

In  internal  structure  they  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
stems.  There  is  a central  channel  surrounded  by  a mass 
of  elongate  cells  hexagonal  in  outline,  smaller  in  size,  and 
with  thinner  walls  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  cells  within 
the  cylinder.  Outside  this  area  is  a row  of  cells  whose 
walls  are  darker  coloured  than  any  of  the  others  (except 
the  cells  which  form  the  exterior  of  the  cylinder),  and 
they  so  arrange  themselves  as  to  form  a sheath  round 
the  central  cells ; from  this  row  of  cells  numerous  short 
branches  are  given  off  which  enclose  intracellular  cavities 
similar  to  those  in  the  stem,  but  much  smaller  and  more 
circular  (see  fig.  89) . These  cavities  are  regularly  arranged 


Fig.  89. 


in  one  series  round  the  central  mass,  as  in  the  stem,  but 
there  are  occasionally  outlying  cavities  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  external  orange-coloured  cells,  as  shown  in 


or  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI.  63 

fig.  89.  Enclosing  the  whole  is  a layer  of  larger- sized 
cells  of  a dark  brown  colour,  and  more  angular  in  outline 
than  any  of  the  other  cells.  In  the  midst  of  these  cells, 
but  on  the  outermost  side,  are  a few  eells  filled  with  a rich 
tawny-brown  pigment.  The  walls  of  the  eircumferential 
cells  are  all  very  thin,  and  they  have  the  rich  colour  of  the 
pigment-eells. 

In  addition  to  the  roots  proper  the  plant  gives  off 
adventitious  roots  from  the  stem-nodes,  as  represented  in 
Plate  IV.  These  are  generally  given  off  singly  from 
between  the  first  pair  of  leaves  of  the  fascicle ; oceasion- 
ally  two  proceed  from  the  same  node,  but  in  sueh  case  the 
seeond  root  emerges  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  node.  In 
the  lower  portions  of  the  stem  the  adventitious  roots 
become  more  numerous  from  each  node,  and  they  begin 
to  aequire  the  orange  colour  of  the  roots  proper.  They 
attain  a length  of  from  half  an  inch  to  six  inches  or  more, 
and  they  have  a similar  internal  strueture  to  that  of  the 
roots  proper ; the  peripheral  cells,  however,  do  not  possess 
the  angular  character  nor  the  tawny  colour  of  the  outer 
layer  in  the  lower  roots.  The  tissue  is  more  loosely 
aggregated ; the  intracellular  cavities  are  fewer  in  number 
and  smaller,  scarcely  exceeding  the  size  of  the  cells  which 
surround  them.  The  central  cavity  is  present,  as  well  as 
the  surrounding  sheath,  but  the  cells  of  the  latter  are 
fewer  than  they  are  in  the  root  proper.  The  external  cells 
do  not  differ  much  from  the  inner  cells  either  in  shape  or 
in  colour,  the  rich  pigment  of  the  corresponding  layer  in 
the  root  being  absent. 

XVI.  The  Lancashire  Locality. 

The  occurrence  of  a Naias  in  Lancashire  was  so 
unexpected  a eireumstance  that  I was  pleased,  through 
Mr.  Whitehead^s  kindness,  to  have  the  opportunity  of 


64 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


seeing  the  plant  in  its  station  in  the  canal  at  Reddish, 
near  Manchester.  The  precise  locality  was  not  intended 
to  he  published,  but  as  the  station  seems  to  be  well  known 
to  so  many  local  botanists,  there  is  no  further  need  to 
suppress  it. 

When  I first  visited,  the  canal,  on  the  14th  September, 
1883,  the  Naias  grew  in  an  area  of  about  a quarter  of  a 
mile  in  length  ,*  in  some  portions  of  this  space  it  was  the 
prevailing  plant,  wholly  covering  the  canal-bed,  while  in 
other  portions  it  was  intermixed  with  Potaniogeton  rufes- 
cens,  P.  obtusifolius,  P.  crispus,  P.  pusillus,  Myriophyllum, 
and  Anacharis.  Except  in  so  far  that  the  station,  like 
most  canals,  was  an  artificial  one  artificially  supported, 
there  seemed  nothing  in  the  accompanying  vegetation  to 
suggest  that  the  Naias  was  not  aboriginal.  All  the  other 
plants  were  of  the  prevailing  canal  character,  the  non- 
native Anacharis  being  as  much  at  home  as  any  of  them. 

The  temperature  of  the  canal  water  is,  however,  arti- 
ficially raised  by  the  discharge  of  hot  water  from  boilers 
and  condensing-tanks  attached  to  the  cotton-mills  and 
other  works  which  are  erected  on  the  banks  of  the  canal. 
In  the  declining  evening  of  my  first  visit  the  water  was 
quite  warm,  say  about  90°  Fahr.  This  abnormal  tempe- 
rature must  be  looked  upon  as  the  important  factor  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  maintained  by  this  plant.  In  sub- 
sequent visits  to  the  canal  the  temperature  of  the  water 
was  not  met  with  so  high  as  it  was  found  on  the  first 
occasion ; still,  with  the  fitful  discharge  of  hot  water  into 
the  canal  at  many  points,  its  average  temperature  must  be 
many  degrees  above  the  normal  point  for  the  neighbour- 
hood. It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  vegetation 
which  grows  in  this  tepid  body  of  water  would  have  shown 
signs  of  luxuriance,  but  such  does  not  appear  to  be  the 
ease.  The  most  striking  variation  is  met  with  in  Pota- 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


65 


mogeton  crispus,  which  becomes  dwarfed^  particularly  in 
stations  where  there  is  an  inflowing  stream  of  warm 
water. 

Two  other  plants  which  grow  in  the  same  canal  ought 
to  be  noticed  in  this  connection.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
Chara  Braunii,  Gmel.^  which  the  Messrs.  Groves  figured 
and  described  in  the  Journal  of  Botany^  for  January 
1884^  t.  242^  p.  3.  This  plant  affects  the  edges  of  the 
canalj  but  it  also  occurs  in  the  deeper  water  of  the  centre, 
where  it  is  more  liable  to  be  cut  down  by  the  passing 
barges.  Another  interesting  plant  grows  with  the  Chara, 
whose  identity  is  by  no  means  settled,  and  it  may  prove 
worthy  of  a more  detailed  notice,  viz.  a species  of  Zanni- 
chellia. 

Mr.  Whitehead  had  mentioned  to  me,  on  the  occasion 
of  our  joint  visit,  that  Z.palustris  had  been  recently  found 
in  the  canal,  and,  as  it  was  an  infrequent  plant  in  the 
district  surrounding  Manchester,  I was  anxious  to  procure 
specimens,  although  it  involved  a moonlight  search.  It 
was  while  hunting  for  this  plant  that,  unknown  to  myself 
or  to  my  companions,  I collected  the  Chara  in  the  dark- 
ness ; the  specimens  were  very  fragmentary,  but  from  them 
Mr.  Arthur  Bennett  determined  the  plant  to  be  the 
Chara  Braunii,  new  to  the  British  Mora.  In  justice  to 
Mr.  Whitehead  it  ought  to  be  stated  that  he  and 
Mr.  Armitage  had  collected  it  in  the  same  station  a fort- 
night or  so  prior  to  my  visit. 

The  Zannichellia  grows  in  the  soft  mud,  in  the  shallower 
parts  of  the  canal,  with  Chara  Braunii  and  Potamogeton 
pusillus ; it  also  occurs  in  places  where  the  water  scarcely 
covers  it.  It  would  appear  to  flower  and  fruit  in  the  mud 
as  well  as  in  the  water,  but  the  fruits  which  are  produced 
in  mud  are  of  a very  pale  yellow-green,  on  account  of 
their  imperfect  exposure  to  the  light.  From  the  dwarf 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


F 


66 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


creeping  habit  of  the  plant  it  seems  to  have  an  affinity 
with  the  form  of  Z.  palustris,  named  Z.  repens,  Boenningh. 
The  characters  of  the  Reddish  plant  agree  with  the 
description  of  Z.  repens  in  essential  points^  hut  the  stigma 
is  not  usually  more  enlarged  than  in  Z.  palustris,  whereas 
this  feature  is  a decided  character^  both  in  the  diagnosis 
and  in  Reichenbach’s  plate*.  In  the  spring  and  early 
summer  it  has  large  reserve-buds  of  the  size  of  peas^  from 
which  the  shoots  take  their  rise. 

One  of  its  peculiarities  is^  that  it  has  four  or  five  rows 
of  spines  or  protuberances  on  the  dorsal  and  ventral  edges 
of  many  of  its  carpels,  and  much  more  prominent  than 
they  are  in  Z.  pedunculata,  Z.  gibberosa,  and  Z.  polycarpa. 

Delile  reports  f finding  Zannichellia  palustris  in  a lake 
near  to  Fareskour  in  Lower  Egypt,  along  with  Naias 
muricata.  It  would  be  interesting  to  determine  whether 
the  form  is  the  same  as  that  which  occurs  in  the  canal  at 
Reddish.  Local  botanists  also  ought  to  keep  an  eye  upon 
the  possible  occurrence  of  the  rare  Naias  muricata,  figured 
and  described  by  Delile  •,  so  far,  it  has  only  been  recorded 
for  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

The  locality  which  produces  such  an  extra-anglican 
species  as  Naias  graminea  must  be  worth  exploring  for  the 
animal  life  which  is  fostered  by  the  same  high  temperature 
which  has  sustained  the  Chara  and  the  Naias. 

XVII.  Geographical  Distribution. 

Naias  graminea  is  distributed  over  a wide  area.  It 
occurs  in  a natural  state  in  the  northern  and  central  parts 
of  Africa,  in  Syria  (Plain  of  Sharon : ‘ Memoirs  of  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund,^  Fauna  and  Flora,  p.  416), 
and  Persia,  in  the  Indian  Archipelago  and  other  warm 

* ‘leones  Flora  Grermanica,’  &c.,  vol.  vii.  fig.  20,  pi.  xvi. 
t ‘Flore  de  I’Egypte,’  vol.  ii.  p.  281,  and  also  on  page  75  imder  No.  872. 


OP  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI.  67 

regions  of  Asia,  and  probably  in  Japan.  It  does  not  occur 
in  Europe  except  as  a colonist,  it  having  been  introduced 
(according  to  the  Italian  botanists)  with  East-Indian  rice, 
into  districts  where  that  cereal  is  cultivated,  as  in  the 
plains  of  Lombardy  and  Venice;  the  Italian  localities  are 
given  in  Cesati^s  ^ Compendio  della  Flora  Italiana,^  as 
Alagna  in  Novara,  Balzola  between  Vercelli  and  Casale, 
Merlato  near  Milan,  Upper  Vercellese,  Strasoldo  nel  Friuli 
near  Palmanavo.  It  has  also  been  reported  from  the 
extreme  north-eastern  portion  of  Austria;  but  it  is  not 
native  in  any  of  its  European  stations,  and  it  is  an  intro- 
duction in  Lancashire.  It  becomes,  therefore,  an  inter- 
esting question  to  account  for  its  appearance  in  a country 
which  does  not  grow  the  rice  which  it  consumes. 

XVIII.  Its  probable  Source. 

When  this  plant  was  exhibited  at  the  British  Association 
at  Southport,  in  September  1883,  I expressed  the  opinion 
in  the  Biological  Section  that  it  had  probably  been  intro- 
duced into  the  Reddish  locality  with  Egyptian  cotton. 
This  class  of  cotton  is  not  one  of  the  staple  articles  of 
consumption  in  the  Stockport  district,  but  there  is  one 
mill  on  the  banks  of  the  canal  (HouldswortUs)  which 
consumes  Egyptian  cotton  largely,  and  from  it,  if  not  from 
others,  the  fruits  of  the  Naias  may  have  been  transported 
to  the  canal.  Last  autumn  Mr.  J.  Cosmo  Melvill  and 
myself  carefully  examined  the  large  condensing-tank  in 
the  yard  of  this  mill,  but  we  could  not  find  a trace  of  the 
plant;  the  water  was  of  a high  temperature,  and  little 
vegetation  was  found  in  it,  but  its  depth  was  beyond  our 
means  of  properly  exploring  it. 

Alire  Raffenau  Delile*  gives  an  account  of  the  culture 

* ‘ M6moire  sur  les  plantes  qui  croissent  spontan6ment  en  Egypte,’  vol.  ii. 
pp.  16,  17. 


68  MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 

of  rice  in  Egypt^  and  shows  that  the  water  used  for  the 
young  plants  is  drawn  from  the  Nile  by  fixed  machines 
during  the  principal  part  of  the  year;  but  in  times  of 
inundation^  during  the  rising  of  the  river^  the  water  is 
naturally  distributed^  its  partieular  eourse  being  regulated 
by  the  embankments  whieh  proteet  the  fields.  He  states 
that  the  Naias  graminea  grows  in  the  canals  of  the  rice- 
fields  at  Eosetta  and  in  the  Delta^  but  he  considered  it 
only  a variety  of  Naias  fragilis,  whieh  grows  in  the  same 
waters. 

The  irrigation  of  modern  Egyptian  eotton-plantations 
will  be  effected  by  mueh  the  same  means^  the  Nile^  with 
its  artifieial  ramifieations^  being  the  chief  water-supply  of 
the  country.  Fruits  of  the  Naias  may  reaeh  Egypt  from 
Abyssinia^  or  from  the  great  lakes  of  Equatorial  Africa; 
the  Nile  water  supplied  to  the  growing  cotton-plant  will 
be  accompanied  by  these  fraits_,  some  of  which  would  be 
left  dry  upon  the  surface  after  the  water  had  pereolated 
through  the  upper  soil^  hut  they  would  not  germinate  there. 
Either  by  the  ageney  of  the  wind^  or  through  accidental 
contaet  with  the  soil,  they  become  mixed  with  the  cotton 
exported  to  England.  When  the  bales  of  cotton  reach  the 
Lancashire  mills,  the  fruits  of  the  Naias  would  be  removed 
in  the  blowing-room,  or  by  the  carding-engines.  The 
refuse  is  turned  out  of  the  mill  into  the  yard,  whence  the 
wind  and  other  ageneies  transport  the  fruits  into  the  tepid 
water  of  the  canal ; here  they  meet  with  a suitable  nidus 
for  germination  and  growth,  and  the  result  is  the  appear- 
ance of  an  alien  in  our  flora. 

If  these  surmises  have  any  substratum  of  truth,  the 
Naias  may  occm*  in  any  mill-pond  eonnected  with  works 
where  Egyptian  cotton  is  used,  and  where  the  water  is 
raised  to  a permanently  high  temperature  by  the  conden- 
sation of  steam  from  the  boiler.  As  Egyptian  cotton  is 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA,  VAR.  DELILEI. 


69 


largely  used  in  Bolton^  the  mill-ponds  and  canals  of  that 
neighbourhood  may  be  expected  to  contain  Naias  graminea 
and  other  Egyptian  aquatic  plants,  as  Naias  muricata,  Del., 
Chara  Braunii,  Gmel.,  &c. 

The  Egyptian  origin  of  the  plant  is  to  some  extent 
confirmed  by  the  form  of  Chara  Braunii  which  grows  at 
Reddish  being  very  near  the  form  of  that  species  which 
occurs  in  Northern  Africa.  Whether  there  is  anything 
showing  an  affinity  to  the  Egyptian  plant  in  the  peculiar 
form  of  Zannichellia  which  grows  in  the  same  canal,  I 
have  not  the  means  of  determining ; but  both  it  and  the 
Chara  Braunii  are  so  often  associated  together  as  to  give 
a strong  colour  to  the  surmise  of  their  common  origin. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  recorded  distribution  of  Chara 
Braunii,  however,  to  forbid  its  being  ultimately  shown  to 
be  aboriginal ; but  until  it  is  recorded  from  other  British 
stations,  with  fewer  doubtful  surroundings  than  it  has  in 
the  Manchester  station,  it  can  only  be  looked  upon  as  a 
colonist. 


XIX.  A Histological  Peculiarity. 

A strong  proof  of  its  Egyptian  extraction  is  furnished 
from  the  histological  side.  This  part  of  the  case  has  been 
dealt  with  by  Dr.  Magnus,  in  a paper  read  to  the  German 
Botanical  Association  at  Berlin,  December  nth,  1883,  and 
I make  no  apology  for  reproducing  here  the  substance  of 
this  interesting  communication.  In  describing  the  struc- 
ture of  the  leaves  of  Naias  graminea  on  page  46,  I 
mentioned  that  there  were  two  forms  of  the  plant — one 
possessing  peculiar  libriform  cells  near  the  margin  of  the 
leaf;  the  other  destitute  of  these  bast-cells.  This  latter 
form  Dr.  Magnus  names  the  var.  Delilei,  and  he  states 
that  the  English  specimens  belong  to  this  variety,  and 
indubitably  prove  their  Egyptian  source.  The  following 


70  MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 

are  some  extracts  from  tlie  paper  of  Dr.  Magnus,  published 
iu  the  ^Berichte  der  deutsch.  botauischeu  Gesellschaft/ 
Jahrg.  1883,  Baud  i.  Heft  10  : — 

“1  have  examined  the  specimens  of  Najas  graminea 
collected  by  Delile  in  the  rice-fields  near  Rosetta,  as  also 
those  obtained  by  Schweinfurth  near  Benha-el-assl  in  the 
Nile  Delta,  and  have  found  them  to  be  without  bast- 
nerves.  They  are  also  wanting  in  a specimen  collected 
by  Gaillardet,  near  Saida  in  Syi’ia,  which  has  been  kindly 
communicated  to  me  by  M.  Boissier.  I was  further 
enabled,  through  the  kind  communication  of  Professor 
Ascherson,  to  examine  specimens  of  Najas  graminea,  Del., 
collected  by  him  during  his  travels  in  the  Libyan  Desert, 
in  the  Oasis  of  Dachl,  as  also  specimens  collected  by 
Schweinfurth  in  the  Great  Oasis  (Chargeh).  From  this 
it  would  appear  that  the  Najas  graminea,  Del.,  collected 
in  a brook  at  xAin-Scherif  near  Kasr  Dachl,  as  well  as 
those  collected  by  Ascherson  near  El  Chargeh,  likewise 
have  leaves  without  hbriform  cells,  like  the  plants  of 
Lower  Egypt.  On  the  other  hand,  the  N.  graminea  col- 
lected some  weeks  later  in  the  same  ditches  in  Ain-Scherif 
by  Ascherson,  as  well  as  from  a warm  spring-hole  in  Kasr 
Dachl,  as  also  the  specimens  collected  by  Schweinfurth 
near  Chargeh,  have  all  well-developed  bast-nerves,  similar 
to  the  plants  of  Cordofan,  Djur,  Algeria,  Celebes,  &c.  . . . 

The  absence  of  these  bast-nerves  in  a variety  of  Najas 
graminea  is  the  more  peculiar,  as  through  the  construc- 
tion of  the  male  fiower  of  N.  tenuifolia,  R.  Br.  [see  fig.  15, 
Plate  VI.],  from  Australia,  which  difiers  so  materially, 
has  precisely  the  same  bast-nerves  in  exactly  the  same 
shaped  libriform  cells  on  the  leaves ; consequently  these 
bast-nerves  represent  the  distinctive  character  of  a group 

of  allied  species,  but  still  subject  to  valuations 

“ I have  mentioned  above  that  the  one  set  of  specimens 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEAj  VAR.  DELILEI.  71 

from  Kasr-Dachl  and  Chargeh  had  leaves  without  bast- 
nerves^  and  that  another  set  had  them ; that  is,  that  the 
one  set  belong  to  the  var.  Delilei,  while  the  other  agrees 
with  the  form  which  appears  in  Cordofan,  Djur,  Algiers, 
&c.  This  would  appear  to  be  a clear  proof  that  the  oases 
of  the  Libyan  Desert  have  received  their  flora  from  Egypt 
as  well  as  from  Central  Africa.  This  agrees  with  the 
results  of  the  investigations  which  Ascherson  furnished  to 
the  ^Botanische  Zeitung^  for  1874,  pages  641-644. 

These  explanations  would,  however,  seem  to  be  some- 
what contradictory,  seeing  that  the  English  specimens  are 
remarkable  for  their  great  length  of  leaf,  whereas  the 
leaves  of  N.  graminea  from  Cairo  and  Damietta  are  very 
short.  But  a minute  examination  of  form  teaches  us  that 
we  must  not  attach  much  importance  to  the  question  of 
the  length  of  leaves,  which  is  influenced,  as  in  most  water- 
plants,  by  the  depth,  current,  bed,  and  temperature  of 
the  water.  Thus  we  find  that  the  specimens  collected  by 
Professor  Ascherson  in  the  Dachl  Oasis,  from  the  deeper 
pools  (half  a metre  deep) , have  long  leaves  as  well  as  bast- 
nerves,  and  yet  the  Enghsh  specimens  have  longer  leaves 
without  bast-nerves ; while  the  Egyptian  specimens  have 
shorter  leaves  without  bast-nerves.  Thus,  again,  we  find 
the  N.  graminea,  Del.,  growing  in  the  shallow  ditches  of 
the  rice-fields  of  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  has  short  leaves 
with  bast-nerves,  whereas  the  Najas  graminea  from  Celebes 
has  very  long  leaves  with  bast-nerves.  In  short,  we  see 
that  the  length  or  shortness  of  the  leaves  has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  the  formation  of  the  variety,  and 
nothing  to  do  with  the  histological  formation  of  the  leaf- 
tissue. 

It  is  nevertheless  possible  that  the  var.  Delilei,  deprived 
of  the  bast-nerves,  has  been  developed  in  the  quiet  stag- 
nant waters  of  the  overflowed  Nile,  as  in  these  stagnant 


72  MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 

waters  the  meehanical  eells  would  become  deprived  of 
their  functions.  Thus  we  find  Schwendener_,  in  his  ex- 
haustive work,  ‘ The  Mechanical  Principle  in  the  Anato- 
mical Construction  of  Monocotyledons/  Leipzig,  1874, 
page  122,  remarking  that  Potamogeton  fluitans  in  its  cus- 
tomary habitat  of  running  water  has  a developed  system 
of  bark-hundles,  whereas  the  var.  /3  stagnalis,  Koch,  is 
completely  deprived  of  same. 

The  var.  Pelilei,  found  in  the  stagnant  waters  of  the 
overflowed  Nile,  is  a most  persistent  and  constant  one,  as 
during  a period  of  a hundred  years  it  has  been  indubitably 
collected  by  Delile,  Schweinfurth,  and  Ehrenberg  in  Lower 
Egypt.  Its  unaltered  appearance  in  England  and  in  the 
oases  shows  its  constancy  and  total  independence  of 
habitats,  whilst  its  formation  has  probably  been  caused  by 
the  same."’^ 

It  now  only  remains  to  me  to  tender  my  acknowledg- 
ments to  Mr.  Ridley,  Mr.  Arthur  Bennett,  Dr.  Magnus, 
Professor  Ascherson,  Mr.  Beeby,  and  Mr.  James  Britten, 
for  their  kind  assistance  during  the  preparation  of  this 
paper. 


XX.  Explanation  of  the  Figures. 

Plate  IV. 

Fig.  I.  The  upper  portion  of  a branch  of  V.  graminea,  from  Eeddish;  nat. 
size. 

2.  Two  of  the  leaves  from  same,  drawn  rather  broader  than  the  natural 

size,  the  sheaths  and  auricles  flattened  out. 

Plate  V. 

3.  Upper  portion  of  a branch  of  N.  graminea  from  Lower  Egypt. 

Copied  from  Delile’s  drawing  in  his  ‘Flore  de  I’Egypte,’  but 
reduced  to  two  thirds  original  size. 

4.  Base  of  a leaf-fascicle,  showing  leaf-auricles,  fruits,  &c. ; slightly- 

enlarged.  From  Belile’s  ‘ Flore  de  I’Egypte.’ 

5.  Section  of  fruit;  enlarged.  From  Delile’s  ‘Flore  de  I’Bgypte.’ 


OF  NAIAS  GRAMINEA^  VAR.  DELILEI.  73 

Plate  VI. 

Pigs.  6-8.  Arrangement  of  the  cells  of  the  marginal  spines  on  the  leaf  of ; — 
(6)  N.Jlexilis,  (7)  N.  graminea,  (8)  N.  minor  and  iV.  arguta.  From 
Dr.  Alexander  Braun’s  sketches  in  ‘Journal  of  Botany,’  1864. 
vol.  ii.  p.  275. 

9.  Form  of  sheath  at  base  of  leaf  of  N.  minor.  From  ‘ Compendio 
della  Flora  Italiana  ’ of  Oesati,  Passerini,  and  Gibelli,  tav.  xxviii. 
fig.  I n. 

10-14.  Form  of  sheath  at  base  of  leaf  of : — (10)  N.Jlexilis,  (i  i)  iV.  minor, 
(12)  N.  minor,  var.  setacea,  (13)  N.  falciculata,  and  (14)  N.  gra- 
minea.  All  copied  from  Dr.  A.  Braun’s  woodcuts  in  ‘ Journal  of 
Botany,’  1864,  vol.  ii.  p.  274. 

15.  Male  flower  of  N.  tenuifolia,  E.  Br. ; enlarged  J/-.  From  Magnus’s 

‘ Beitrage,’  plate  iv.  fig,  5. 

16.  Anther  of  N.  major,  with  the  perianth  reflexed;  enlarged.  From 

‘ Genera  Plantarum  Florae  Germanic®,’  Th.  Fr.  Lud.  Nees  ah 
Esenbeck,  fasc.  vi.  Naias,  fig.  5. 

17.  Male  flower  of  N. minor;  enlarged.  Nees  ah  Esenbeck,  1.  c.  fig.  24. 

18.  Transverse  section  of  male  flower  of  N.  major.  Nees  ah  Esenbeck, 

1.  c.  fig.  7. 

19.  Pollen  of  N.  major;  enlarged.  Nees  ab  Esenbeck,  1.  0.  fig.  8. 

20.  Male  flower  of  N.  major,  with  the  perianth  drawn  back ; enlarged. 

From  ‘ Iconographia  familiarum  naturalium  regni  vegetabilis,’ 
Dr.  Adalbert  Schnizlein,  Heft  v.  pi.  71.  fig.  4. 

21.  Vertical  section  of  male  flower  of  N.  major  ; enlarged.  Schnizlein, 

1.  c.  fig.  6. 

22.  Male  flower  of  N.  major,  showing  the  separation  of  the  perianth 

from  the  anther ; enlarged.  Schnizlein,  1.  c.  fig.  7. 

23.  Vertical  section  of  a male  flower  of  N.  major.  From  ‘ Compendio 

della  Flora  Italiana,’  1.  c.  fig.  i b. 

24  & 25.  Dehiscence  of  the  perianth  of  N.  major,  after  the  observations 
of  Braun;  enlarged.  Nees  ab  Esenbeck,  1.  c.  figs.  9 & 10. 

26.  Grains  of  pollen  of  N.  major,  with  fovilla ; enlarged  From 

‘ Compend.  FI.  It.’  1.  c.  fig.  i d. 

27.  Vertical  section  of  a male  flower  of  N.  minor.  All. ; enlarged. 

‘ Compend.  FI.  It.’  1.  c.  fig.  i e. 

28.  Male  flower  of  N.  major;  enlarged  ‘Compend.  FI.  It.’  1.  c. 

fig.  1 a. 

29.  Base  of  leaf  of  N.  major,  with  the  sheath  opened.  Intravaginal 

scales  at  the  base  of  the  sheath,  one  on  each  side ; enlarged  |. 
‘ Compend.  FI.  It.’  1.  c.  fig.  i m. 

30.  Intravaginal  scale  of  N.  major ; enlarged  ‘ Compend.  FI.  It.’  1.  c. 

fig.  1 0, 

Plate  VII. 

31.  Transverse  section  of  the  middle  of  the  leaf  of  N.  graminea,  Del. 

enlarged  -I-.  Magnus,  ‘Beitrage,’  pi.  vi.  fig.  3. 


74 


MR.  C.  BAILEY  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  ETC. 


Fig.  32.  Transverse  section  of  the  side  of  the  leaf  of  N.  graminea,  Del.,  from 
Celebes ; enlarged  Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’  pi.  vi.  fig.  2. 

33.  Transverse  section  of  the  leaf  of  N.  graminea,  Del.,  from  Celebes; 

enlarged  Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’  pi.  vi.  fig.  i. 

In  figs.  31-33  the  leading  bundles  are  drawn  schematically: 
intercellular  spaces,  6= bast-cells. 

34.  Isolated  bast-cell  from  the  leaf  of  N,  graminea,  from  Celebes ; 

enlarged  -®-.  Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’  pi.  vi.  fig.  46. 

35.  Male  flower  of  JV.  graminea-,  enlarged  -\®.  Magnus,  ‘Beitrage,’ 

pi.  iii.  fig.  6. 

36.  Transverse  section  of  the  stem  of  Caulinia  alaganensis.  From 

‘ Tavole  per  una  Anatomia  delle  piante  aquatiche,’  Parlatore, 
pi.  vi.  fig.  3. 

37.  Surface-view  of  the  outer  cell-layer  of  the  unripe  seed  of  N,  flexilis ; 

Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’  pi.  v.  fig.  9. 

38.  Diagonal  section  of  the  nearly  ripe  seed-shell  of  N.fleocilis;  enlarged 

Lf  Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’  pi.  v.  fig.  8. 

39  & 40.  Diagonal  sections  of  the  still  (?  if  not  always)  unripe  seed-shell 
of  N.  graminea,  from  Cairo ; enlarged  Magnus,  ‘ Beitrage,’ 

pi.  V.  fig.  II. 

41.  Diagonal  section  of  the  quite  ripe  seed-shell  of  N.  graminea,  from 

Cairo;  enlarged  Magnus,  ‘Beitrage,’  pi.  v.  fig.  12. 

Figures  in  the  Letterpress. 

All  the  figures  are  drawn  from  Reddish  specimens  of  Naias  gra- 
minea, Del.,  var.  Belilei,  Magnus,  except  when  stated  otherwise. 

42.  N.  graminea. — Transverse  section  of  stem,  drawn  diagrammatically ; 

enlarged  -j-. 

43  & 44.  N.  graminea. — Ends  of  leaves,  showing  dentition ; enlarged 
45  & 46.  iV.  Jlexilis. — Spines  on  margins  of  leaves,  from  specimens  col- 
lected by  Dr.  Boswell  in  Loch  Cluny,  near  Blairgowrie,  Perth- 
shire; enlarged  See  ‘Journal  of  Botany,’  No.  154,  1875, 

p.  297. 

47-49.  N.  graminea. — Spines  on  margin  of  middle  portion  of  leaf ; 
enlarged  if-. 

50.  N.  minor, — Tooth  of  leaf  from  one  of  Archbishop  Haynald’s  spe- 

cimens, from  ponds  in  his  park  at  Kalocsa,  Hungary;  enlarged 

15  6 
“Y-. 

51.  N.  major. — Tooth  of  leaf  from  plant  collected  near  Coblentz  by 

Dr.  Ph.  Wirtgen ; enlarged  J-f 

52.  ~N.  graminea. — Large  leaf-sheath  from  leaf  of  first  pair ; enlarged  V- 

53.  N.  graminea. — Usual  form  of  leaf-sheath  from  leaf  of  first  pair; 

enlarged 

54.  Is.  graminea. — Usual  form  of  leaf-sheath  from  leaf  of  first  pair,  with 

irregular-sized  auricles  ; enlarged  -V^. 


OF  NAIAS  VAR.  DELILEI. 


75 


Fig.  55.  N.  graminea. from  leaf  of  second  pair  ; enlarged  Jy^. 

56  & 57.  N.Jlexilifi- — Leaf-sheath  from  Scotch  specimens ; enlarged 

58.  N.  gramm^- — Spines  on  margin  of  auricles ; enlarged 

59.  — Spines  on  margin  of  auricles  from  Loch  Oluny;  they 
are  the  first  four  which  occur  on  the  left  shoulder  of  fig.  57,  above 
the  minute  spine,  nearest  the  base  of  the  sheath ; enlarged 

60-65.  N.  graminea. — Transverse  sections  of  leaves,  beginning  near  the 
summit ; enlarged 

66.  N.  alaganensis. — Libriform  cells  in  margin  of  leaf,  from  Malin- 

verni’s  Italian  specimens ; enlarged  if-.  The  libriform  cells  are 
the  long  cells  without  cell-contents. 

67.  N.  graminea. — Young  antheriferous  and  pistilliferous  fiowers  grow- 

ing side  by  side ; enlarged  y®-. 

68.  N.  graminea. — Older  antheriferous  and  pistilliferous  flowers  grow- 

ing side  by  side ; enlarged  -y-. 

69.  N.  graminea, — Portion  of  central  infiorescence ; enlarged 

70.  N.  graminea. — Pistilliferous  fiower  with  contiguous  bracts ; enlarged 

I 8 

T'* 

71.  N.  graminea. — Young  pistiUiferous  flower ; enlarged -y-. 

72  & 73.  N.  graminea. — Young  pistilhferous  flowers,  showing  the  stig- 
matoid  appendages ; enlarged  -\®-. 

74  & 75.  N.  graminea. — Young  antheriferous  flowers;  enlarged 

76.  N.  graminea. — Young  antheriferous  flower,  showing  immature 

pollen ; enlarged 

77.  JV. graminea. — Antheriferous  flower  not  fully  ripe;  enlarged 

78.  N.  graminea. — Mature  antheriferous  flower;  enlarged 

79.  N.  graminea. — G-lobose  pollen ; enlarged 

80.  N.  graminea. — Elliptico-cylindrical  pollen ; enlarged  if 

81.  N.  graminea. — Fruit,  vrith  immature  pistilliferous  flower  in  the 

same  bract ; enlarged  V'- 

82  & 83.  Y.  graminea. — Fruits  nearly  mature;  enlarged  -\®-. 

84.  N.  graminea. — Supposed  ridges  and  pits,  of  hexagonal  outline,  on 

surface  of  fruit,  as  seen  with  a yfy  objective,  Lieberkuhn,  and  Kelner 
B eyepiece. 

85.  N.flexilis. — Eidges  and  pits,  of  quadrangular  outline,  on  surface  of 

fruit,  as  seen  with  a y"V  objective,  Lieberkuhn,  and  a Eelner  B eye- 
piece. 

86.  N.  graminea. — Three  mature  fruits  and  an  immature  pistilliferous 

flower  in  the  same  verticil ; enlarged 

87.  Y.  flexilis. — Mature  fruit  from  Loch-Gluny  specimen ; enlarged 

88.  Y.  graminea. — Perianth  removed  from  fruit;  enlarged  -V-. 

89.  Y.  graminea. — Transverse  section  of  the  root;  enlaz'ged  V. 


76 


MR.  J.  COSMO  oN 


V.  Notes  on  the  Subgenus  Cylinder  {Moui^fort)  of  Conus. 
By  J.  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S*. 

Eead  before  the  Microscopical  and  Natural-History  Section, 
February  i6,  1885. 


Few  genera  stand  out  more  naturally  and  prominently  in  ^ 
the  animal  kingdom  than  the  large  assemblage  of  Mollusca 
associated  under  the  name  of  Conus  (L.).  Few  fall  so 
naturally  into  subdivisions  and^  as  a rule^  present  such 
well-marked  specific  difFerences.  Recognized  as  they  all 
are  at  a glance  by  the  inversely  conical  shell,  with  length- 
ened narrow  aperture  and  simple  inner  lip,  they  are,  with 
but  one  exception,  natives  of  tropical  or  subtropical  seas, 
the  exception  being  a not  uncommon  S.  Mediterranean 
shell  (C.  mediterraneus,  L.).  They  approach  in  form, 
through  C.  Orbignyi  and  others  of  the  section  Leptoconus, 
to  the  Pleurotomse,  especially  shells  of  the  section  Genota, 
e.  g.  mitriformis  and  papalis ; and,  on  the  other  hand, 
through  C.  mitratus,  of  the  subgenus  Hermes,  to  the 
anomalous  genus  Dibaphus,  and,  through  that,  again,  to 
the  Mitres. 

This  is  as  regards  the  form  only  : for  the  mollusc  itself 
differs  in  some  important  particulars,  and  hence  the  Cones 
are  classed  by  themselves  in  the  suborder  Toxifera,  of 
Gasteropoda  Pectinibranchiata,  differing  from  the  other 
allied  suborder  Proboscidifera — to  which  the  Pleurotomse 
and  Mitres,  just  alluded  to,  belong — by  the  proboscis  being 
furnished  with  a tube  containing  bundles  of  sharp,  needle- 
like, barbed  teeth  at  the  end,  instead  of  the  usual  lingual 
band,  covered  with  short  teeth.  This  tube,  according  to 
Adams,  is  extended  below,  at  right  angles  to  the  cavity. 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


77 


into  a conical  prolongation,  provided  with  two  series  of 
hooked  and  subulate  teeth.  Indeed,  the  bite  of  C.  textile, 
C.  aulicus,  and  C.  marmoreus  is  most  severe,  espeeially  as 
it  is  supposed  that  venom  is  introduced  into  the  wound, 
causing  great  difficulty  in  healing,  while  the  pain  continues 
intense  for  a long  period. 

Many  monographs  and  illustrated  descriptions  of  this 
diversified  genus  have  been  published,  the  best  known 
being  Reeves's  ^ Conchologia  Iconica,'’  vol.  i.  (1843-44), 
with  a Supplement  of  8 plates,  dated  some  years  later, 
337  species  being  described  in  all,  and  Sowerby^s  'The- 
saurus Conchy liorum'’  (1869),  forming  vol.  iii.  of  the 
work,  450  species. 

Kiener,  ' Coquilles  Vivantes,^  324  species. 

WeinkaulF,  in  Kiister^s  continuation  of  Martin  and 
Chemnitz^s  ' Conchylien  Cahinet-*  (1875),  describes  ’411 
species. 

The  latest  monograph  is  that  of  Mr.  G.  W.  Tryon,  jun., 
of  Philadelphia  (published  1884),  in  which  about  450 
species,  not  including  varieties,  are  recognized.  He  bases 
his  classification  on  WeinkaulF^s  Catalogue,  dividing  the 
genus  into  seventeen  sections,  of  which  the  Texti,  forming 
the  last  or  17th  group,  are  equivalent  to  the  suhgenus 
Cylinder,  of  Montfort,  now  under  discussion. 

Most  conchologists,  however,  including  the  brothers 
Paetel,  in  their  'Conchylien  Sammlung,'’  2nd  ed.  1884, 
still  follow  the  lines  of  Messrs.  H.  & A.  Adams,  as  given 
in  their  recent ' MoUusca^  (1858),  and  which  appears  to  me 
to  he  simple  and  less  artificial.  As  all  agree,  however,  in 
the  limitation  of  the  group  now  under  discussion,  it  is  out 
of  place  to  enter  into  the  merits  or  demerits  of  the  various 
plans  proposed  for  the  arrangement  of  the  whole  genus. 

Out  of  450  species  known  of  Conus,  but  26  are  cata* 
logued  by  H.  & A.  Adams,  as  appertaining  to  Cylinder-, 


78 


MR.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


but  in  Sowerby^s  ^ Thesaurus^  (1870)  36  are  mentioned. 
Tryon^  of  Philadelphia,  in  his  elaborate  monograph  just 
alluded  to — the  ‘ Manual  of  Conchology/  vol.  vi. — calls  but 
17  of  these  true  species,  with  10  subspecies,  and  also  cites 
12  slight  varieties,  classed  almost  as  synonyms,  the  total 
number  of  named  forms  coming  up  to  39.  Of  these  37 
are  exhibited  in  the  present  collection. 

The  subgenus  Cylinder  may  be  briefly  thus  charac- 
terized : — 

Shell  subconic,  smooth,  or  very  lightly  striated ; spire 
elevated ; whorls  never  coronated,  numerous ; body -whorl 
ventricose,  notched  at  the  suture;  aperture  effuse  at  the 
fore  part. 

The  species,^^  writes  Mr.  Arthur  Adams,  of  this 
section  are  all  very  rich  in  the  style  of  their  colouring, 
and  a somewhat  similar  reticulated  kind  of  pattern  runs 
through  the  entire  series. 

Some  very  widely  differing  Cones,  e.  g.  C.  arcMthalassus, 
ammiralis,  acuminatus , and  cordigerus  (a  var.  of  nobilis) 
among  the  Leptoconi,  and  G.  araclinoideus  and  C.  nicoba- 
ricus,  among  the  Marmorei  have  a similar  reticulated 
pattern.  All  these  differ,  however,  materially  in  form, 
either,  as  in  the  last  section  mentioned,  by  the  coronation 
of  the  whorls,  or,  in  the  former,  by  the  grooved  and 
sculptured  spire,  and  more  truly  conical  shape. 

The  only  species  which  presents  any  difficulty  at  first 
sight  is  a variety  of  C.  cordigerus  (Sowb.),  which,  in  the 
specimen  exhibited,  approaches  so  nearly  to  C.  omaria, 
as  to  suggest  a mimetic  principle  among  the  molluscs 
similar  to  that  which  is  known  to  exist  in  other  branches 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  Cylinder,  so  far  as 
known,  is  almost  exclusively  eastern,  many  species  being 
found  ubiquitously  in  the  eastern  tropics,  from  E.  Africa 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


79 


to  Ceylon,  Mauritius,  the  Philippines,  and  New  Caledonia. 
Two  speeies,  or  forms  of  one  {C.  victoritB  (Reeve)  and 
complanatus  (Sowb.)),  occur  in  Australia;  C,  pyramidalis 
(Lam.)  is  also  a native  of  the  same  seas;  C.  racemosus 
(Sowb.),  an  unique  form  in  my  collection,  is  from  the 
Sandwich  Isles ; C.  lucidus  (Mawe)  from  the  west  coast  of 
Central  America;  and  a doubtful  form,  C.  Dalli  (Stearns), 
recently  described  from  a single  specimen,  is  reported  from 
the  Gulf  of  California.  This  shell,  apparently,  from  the 
figure,  a variety  of  C.  textile  (L.),  is  especially  interesting 
as  aflbrding  a western  habitat  for  a species  very  universally 
distributed  in  the  east,  but  not  known  before  to  impinge 
on  American  shores 

The  locality  in  which  these  Molluscs  are  found,  in 
common  with  others  of  the  family,  is  in  fissures  of  rocks, 
especially  in  coral-reefs,  where  they  lead  a predatory 
existence,  feeding  on  other  Mollusca  &c. 

After  a very  careful  study  of  the  Protean  forms  of  the 
Textile  Cones,  the  forms  would  seem  to  come  under  five 
heads,  the  first  head  having  three  divisions.  I propose  to 
class  them  as  follows  ; — 

I.  Textilia. 

a.  vera. 

b.  abbates. 

c.  pyramidalia. 

II.  Retiferi. 

III.  Lucidi. 

IV.  Aulici. 

a.  crocati. 

b.  episcopi. 

V.  Aurei. 

Of  these  the  first  and  fourth,  as  might  be  expected. 


80 


MR.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


harbour  the  largest  number  of  species,  the  second  and 
third  containing  one  species  apiece,  and  the  last  two  or 
three  species. 

I.  Textilia. 
a.  vera. 

Shell  yellow-brown,  with  undulating  longitudinal  lines 
of  umber,  interrupted  by  triangular  white  spaces;  spire 
raised,  similarly  marked. 

Under  this  I group  the  well-known  C.  textile  (L.),  the 
“ Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  of  the  old  conchologists  : 
an  exceedingly  variable  shell,  whose  forms  and  limita- 
tions it  is  almost  impossible  to  define.  It  abounds  in  all 
eastern  tropical  seas,  and,  as  before  observed,  a form,  the 
C.  Dalli  (Stearns),  has  been  detected  once  on  the  Califor- 
nian coast. 

The  named  forms  of  C.  textile  are  as  follows : — 

i.  tigrinus  (Sowb.).  More  or  less  destitute  of  the  brown 

bands  and  brown  longitudinal  markings. 

ii.  vicarius  (Lam,).  Pattern  coarser  and  larger  in  detail, 

greater  preponderance  of  white  triangular  patches. 

iii.  verriculum  (Peeve).  Short  and  stumpy,  and  coarsely 

marked. 

iv.  concatenatus  (Sowb.).  Like  No.  iii.,  but  of  simple 

zigzag  marking. 

V.  scriptus  (Sowb.).  A delicately  striated  form,  more 
finely  marked  than  canonicus,  but  otherwise  similar. 

vi.  canonicus  (Brug.).  No  brown  markings,  more  finely 

marked  than  vicarius ; a very  distinct  and  well- 
known  form. 

vii.  condensus  (Sowb,).  A beautiful  small  shell,  with 

constant  pink  tinge,  marked  as  scriptus. 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


81 


viii.  corbula  (Sowb.).  Of  very  effuse  growth^  ventricose^ 

confusedly  marked. 

ix.  euetrios  (Melvill  & Sowb.).  Similar  to  corbula,  but 

of  different  shape,  and  the  markings  more  regular. 
Unique  in  my  collection.  Locality  unknown. 

X.  (Stearns).  Of  lighter  build.  Spire  convex  j mouth 
roseate.  California.  Unknown  in  European  col- 
lections as  yet. 

All  these,  except  tigrinus,  are  called  actual  species  by 
most  authors ; but  it  seems  best  to  merge  them  as 
varieties. 

b.  abbates. 

The  texture  and  markings  finer,  and  spire,  as  a rule, 
more  depressed  than  in  the  first  group. 

C.  abbas  (Brug.).  Very  beautif  ully  and  intricately  marked 
with  smaller  reticulations ; very  distinct  from  any 
other  species. 

C.  panniculus  (Lam.).  Perhaps  a form  of  abbas. 

Var.  textilinus  (Kiener).  Of  more  pyriform  shape,  but 
similar  markings.  I possess  Kiener ’s  original  type. 

C.  archiepiscopus  (Hwass).  Very  richly  and  minutely 
ornamented. 

C . panniculus  seems  to  connect  this  and  abbas  : it  is,  in 
fact,  with  some  hesitation  I keep  them  separate. 

C.  Victories  (Beeve) . Of  much  lighter  growth  than  any  of 
the  preceding ; the  greyish  flames  peculiar.  From 
Australia.  It  is  a most  distinct  species. 

Var.  complanatus  (Sowb.).  Only  a more  ventricose, 
squarely  based  variety  of  C.  Victories. 

c.  pyramidalia. 

It  is  in  this  group  that  the  Textile  group  reaches  its 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


G 


82 


ME.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


maximum  of  beauty  and  perfection.  The  lengthened  and 
graceful  pyramidal  shape  and  straight  lip  amply  charac- 
terize it. 

C. pyramidalis  (Lam.) . “A.  species/"’  "writes  Tryon^  “ often 
misunderstood.  Its  lengthened  form  and  simple 
interlaced  network  fully  distinguish  it.”  A var.  con- 
volutus  has  been  described  of  more  brilliant  colour- 
ing. There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  this  species, 
through  the  var.  tigrinus,  is  connected  with  the  true 
Textilia. 

C.  telatus  (Reeve).  Is  more  conical  than  most  of  the 
Textile  Cones.  In’ the  British  Museum  this  is  placed 
among  the  Leptoconi,  next  to  ammiralis,  which,  in 
its  markings,  it  much  resembles. 

C.  Pauluccice  (Sowb.).  Allied  on  the  one  hand  to  C.  aureus 
and  on  the  other  to  C.  gloria  maris.  Of  very  straight 
pyramidal  growth,  very  richly  and  handsomely 
marked  with  warm  chestnut  and  orange.  A native 
of  Mauritius,  it  was  only  recently  (1877)  described 
by  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  from  a specimen  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Marchioness  Paulucci,  at  Florence. 
Three  or  four  specimens  besides  the  type  are  known, 
one  of  which  is  here  exhibited. 

C.  gloria  maris  (Chemn.) . Larger,  very  gradually  taper- 
ing j mouth  very  straight  and  long ; spire  squarely 
elevated ; reticulations  exceedingly  fine,  regular,  and 
minute ; orange  blotches  not  so  conspicuous  pro- 
portionately. To  this  I will  refer  later. 

C.  legatus  (Lam.).  A distinct  form,  not,  to  my  mind, 
the  young  of  canonicus,  to  which  Tryon  assigns  it. 
Noticeable,  by  great  prominence  in  the  longitudinal 
chocolate  blotches,  with  a suffusion  of  pink,  which 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


83 


is  always  present  in  the  speeies^  over  the  whole  shell, 
and  by  its  somewhat  eompressed  eonical  shape. 

II.  Retieeri. 

C.  retifer  (Menke)  = solidus  (Sowb.).  One  speeies  only. 
Amply  charaeterized  by  its  pyriform  outline,  great 
solidity,  and  eoarse  retieulations.  Native  of  Eastern 
seas. 

III.  Lucidi. 

C.  lucidus  (Mawe)  —reticulatus  (Sowb.) . The  only  speeies. 
Very  peeuliar  in  its  more  eonical  shape,  areolate  and 
regular  marking,  and  violet  aperture.  The  locality 
also  is  curious  : La  Plata  Island,  west  coast  of 
Central  America. 

IV.  Aulici. 

Shells,  as  a rule,  narrow  in  proportion  to  their  length ; 
spire  rounded,  elevated,  marking,  on  most  of  the  species, 
very  bold  and  distinct  dark  chestnut  or  chocolate-brown 
blotches,  alternating  with  lines  of  large  white  spots  inter- 
laced with  coarse  network. 

a.  crocati. 

Surface  orange-yellow,  often  nearly  suffusing  the  entire 
shell.  Though  the  type  (C.  crocatus)  is  distinct  enough, 
it  is  connected  by  intermediate  gradations  with  the  Aulici 
proper. 

C.  colubrinus  (Lam.).  Yellow,  with  oblong  white  spots. 
A very  uncommon  and  curious  species. 

C.  crocatus  (Lam.).  A very  handsome  orange-yellow 
conical  species,  with  white  spots  and  markings 
broader  than  long,  very  variable  in  their  disposition. 
Some  specimens  are  almost  unicolorous  yellow. 
This  species,  at  first  sight,  has  less  resemblance  to 

g2 


84 


MR.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


the  Textile  Cones  than  any  other  of  the  group. 
Native  of  Ceylon. 

C.  racemosus  (Sowb.).  Shell  brownish  orange,  solid, 
smooth ; spire  convex,  with  obscure  articulated 
brown  and  white  revolving  lines  and  clusters  of  tri- 
angular white  spots  sparingly  agglomerated.  Unique 
in  my  collection;  formerly  in  that  of  Mr.  Bewley, 
of  Liverpool,  and  subsequently  in  S.  PrevosUs,  of 
Alen9on. 

b.  episcopi. 

Under  this  head  come  a very  variable  assortment  of 
shells,  grouped  mostly,  hut,  I think,  wrongly,  by  Tryon 
under  the  head  C.  omaria,  with  the  exception  of  aulicus 
and  Elisce. 

C.  Elisce  (Kiener).  Shell  very  closely  reticulated  with 
chocolate-brown,  so  as  to  appear  like  a uniform 
brown  surface  with  innumerable  white  specks. 
From  Madagascar.  A very  distinct  species,  though 
somewhat  like  C.  racemosus. 

C.  prcelatus  (Hwass).  Always  suffused  and  clouded  with 
grey ; very  distinct. 

C.  magnificus  (Reeve) . A truly  magnificent  species,  very 
variable,  hut  always  recognizable.  In  form  like 
episcopus,  with  very  obtuse  spire  marked  as  in  the 
body  of  the  shell  in  a regular  continuation ; shell 
pink,  much  sufiPused  with  dark  chocolate  and  very 
delicate  reticulation.  From  the  Philippines. 

C.  episcopus  (Hwass).  Variable,  and  no  doubt  allied  to 
omaria,  but  the  greater  size  and  greater  boldness  in 
marking  are  always  sure  to  distinguish  it.  Native 
of  all  Eastern  seas. 

C.  omaria  (Hwass).  Very  variable.  Among  the  speci- 
mens exhibited  are  some  resembling  C.  cordigerus 


THE  STJBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


85 


(Sowb.)j  and  others  like  C.  nocturnus  and  Bandanus 
in  other  sections,  to  which  I provisionally  give  the 
name  marmoricolor.  Another  specimen,  again,  re- 
sembles C.  magus,  a variable  Eastern  species,  here 
called  magdides.  A detailed  description  of  this 
species  seems  impossible. 

C.  pennaceus  (Born.)  is  a variety. 

C.  ruhiginosus  (Hwass)  is  likewise  a variety,  but  both 
are  more  constant  than  some  of  the  forms  of  the 
type. 

C.  Madagascariensis  (Sowb.).  Though  placed  by  Tryon 
as  a variety  of  C.  archiepiscopus,  it  is  far  removed 
from  that  species,  and  really  approaches  C.  omaria. 
It  is  a small,  neatly  marked,  very  finely  reticulated 
species,  native,  as  its  name  implies,  of  Madagascar. 

C.  aulicus  (L.).  The  largest  and  boldest-marked  species 
of  the  genus,  attaining  sometimes  a length  of 
nearly  6 inches.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  form 
and  revolving  striae,  and  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any 
species  but  the  next. 

C.  auratus  (Lam.).  Merged  into  C.  aulicus  by  Tryon, 
with  which  I can  hardly  agree ; the  curious  zigzag 
efiiect  of  the  alternations  of  warm  chestnut-brown 
coloration  and  small  articulations  well  represented 
in  the  specimen  here  exhibited,  as  well  as  in  the 
plate  in  Reeve,  Conch.  Icon.,  sufficiently  serve  to 
distinguish  it. 

V.  Aurei. 

Shells  subcylindrical,  merging  into  the  next  subgenus 

Hermes,  ribbed  transversely ; spire  elevated,  very  obtuse, 

convex. 

C.  aureus  (Hwass).  A distinct  species,  though  similar  in 
its  markings  to  C.  Pauluccice  and  some  others. 


86 


MR.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


C.  claviis  (Linn.).  A very  beantifnl  species,  delicately 
marbled  witb  orange-brown  and  white  reticulations ; 
its  form  is  oblong ; spire  convex,  spotted.  Native 
of  Java  and  the  Philippines  and  New  Caledonia. 
Try  on  and  Adams  place  this  species  in  Hermes, 
between  C.  Nussatella  and  circumcisus,  but  I think 
it  falls  more  naturally  in  here. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  one  more  species  of  the  Textile 
Cones  has  been  lately  described,  C.  Prevostianus  (Sowb.). 
The  specimen  is  unique,  and  I have  not  seen  it,  but  it 
would  seem  to  come  under  the  section  Pyramidalia. 

But  my  chief  object  in  calling  attention  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Textile  Cones  was  to  compare  the  Conns 
gloria  maris  (Chemn.)  with  its  congeners. 

Although  I placed  it  near  pyramidalis,  it  really  stands 
per  se,  prominent  among  all  of  its  kindred  for  beauty  of 
shape  and  excellence  of  pattern.  As  Beeve  observes,  the 
reticulations  are  so  fine  as  to  defy  the  skill  of  the  litho- 
grapher. Hence  no  drawing  ever  does  the  species  justice. 

It  was  originally  described  by  Chemnitz  (Conchylien 
Cabinet)  in  the  year  1788,  ^^ex  Museo  Moltkiano ; ” but 
the  shell  seems  to  have  received  its  name,  though  no 
description  was  published,  about  the  year  1756  or  1758, 
in  the  Museum  Schluyterianum,  Berlin. 

The  nomenclature  of  Chemnitz,  describing  in  the  pre- 
binomial era,  is  not  always  accepted  by  writers,  but  this 
species  will  always  be  especially  associated  with  him, 
although  Hwass  is  sometimes  given  as  the  authority  for 
the  name. 

The  following  is  the  bibliography  relating  to  this 
species,  C.  gloria  maris  (Chemnitz)  : — 

Chemnitz,  Conchylien  Cabinet,  lo.  p.  73,  t.  143.  f.  1324-25. 

Bruguiere,  Encycl.  Method,  p.  756,  n.  146,  Tabl.  pi.  347.  f.  7. 

Blainville,  Diet,  dee  Sciences  Nat.  tom.  x.  p.  260. 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


87 


Lamarck,  Annal.  du  Mus.  vol.  xv.  p.  438,  n.  176. 

Dillwyn,  Cat.  i.  p.  424. 

Wood,  Ind.  Test.  t.  16.  f.  134. 

Delessert,  Rec.  40.  f.  16, 

Sowerby,  TankerTille  Catalogue,  1825,  pi.  8.  f.  1,  2. 

Deshayes,  Lamarck,  2 ed.  xi.  p.  126. 

Reeve,  Conchologia  Iconica,  pi.  6.  f.  31. 

Kiener,  Coquilles  Vivantes,  p.  326,  t.  76.  f.  i. 

Sowerby,  Thesaurus  Conch,  pi.  24.  f.  526. 

Tryon  (G.  W.),  Manual  of  Conchology,  1884,  vol.  6.  pi.  29.  f.  90, 

There  is  also  a figure  of  the  species  in 

Chenu,  Manuel  de  Conchyliologie,  p.  249,  f.  1525. 

Dr.  S.  P.  Woodward,  in  ^Eecreative  Science^  (i860), 
says  : — The  rarest  of  all  Cones,  and  perhaps  of  all  shells, 
except  the  living  Pleurotomaria,  is  the  Conus  gloria  marls, 
which  those  old  Pagan  Dutchmen  worshipped,  as  did  the 
Greeks  the  Paphian  Venus.  Perhaps  it  was  this  Cone 
of  which  a Frenchman  is  related  to  have  had  the  only 
specimen  except  one  belonging  to  Hwass,  the  great 
Dutch  collector,  and  when  this  came  to  the  hammer  he 
outbid  every  rival,  and  then  crushed  it  beneath  his  heel, 
exclaiming,  ^Now  my  specimen  is  the  only  one.’  Doubt- 
less many  traditions  respecting  this  species  yet  linger  in 
the  marts  of  Amsterdam;  with  us  it  is  still  worth  ten 
times  its  weight  in  gold.” 

In  1825  the  elder  Mr.  Sowerby,  in  cataloguing  the  shells 
of  the  late  Earl  of  Tankerville — which  catalogue  formed 
the  medium  for  the  description,  for  the  first  time,  of 
many  now  well-known  species — notes,  in  his  preface  at 
the  lot  2463,  which  contained  a gloria  maris  : — We  have 
never  seen  more  than  two  specimens  of  this  shell,  namely, 
that  which  is  in  M.  Saulier’s  collection  in  Paris,  and  that 
which  adorns  the  Tankerville  collection.” 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  now  to  enumerate  the  where- 
abouts of  the  II  or  12  specimens  known  to  exist.  It  is  a 


88 


MR.  J.  COSMO  MELVILL  ON 


curious  fact  that  while  nearly  every  other  shelly  hitherto 
highly  esteemed^  has  been  brought  home  in  abundance  by 
explorers  and  collectors_,  this  and  one  or  two  others  like 
the  Cyprcea  leucodon,  C.  princeps,  C.  Broderipii,  C.  gut- 
tata, and  Conus  cervus  remain  as  they  were  in  the  days  of 
the  Duchess  of  Portland,  the  first  English  collector,  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century. 

The  land  of  its  nativity  is  known  : Jacna,  I.  of  Bohol, 
Philippines,  where  the  late  Mr.  Hugh  Cuming  found  two 
examples,  one  very  juvenile,  scarcely  more  than  an  inchin 
length.  But  its  rarity  there  was  so  great  that,  although  he 
employed  all  the  available  natives  in  dredging- expeditions, 
and  the  place  has  been  searched  frequently  since,  nothing 
of  the  kind  has  again  occurred.  Bumour  has  it  that  the 
original  very  circumscribed  locality  has  been  annihilated 
by  an  earthquake,  but  I cannot  hear  confirmation  of  this, 
though  it  is  exceedingly  likely,  the  whole  of  that  region 
being  extremely  volcanic. 

The  total  number  of  specimens  known  to  exist  is  1 2 ; of 
these  half  are  either  immature  or  in  very  poor  condition. 

There  are  five  in  this  country,  disposed  as  follows  : — 

Three  in  the  British-Museum  Collection  at  South  Ken- 
sington. Of  these  two  are  the  small  specimens,  one  only 
an  inch  and  a half  long,  the  other  a little  larger,  collected 
at  Jacna  by  Mr.  Hugh  Cuming  in  1838. 

The  third  is  the  specimen  formerly  in  the  Portland 
Collection,  then  in  the  Tankerville,  from  whence  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  late  Mr.  W.  J.  Broderip,  F.B.S., 
and  thence  into  the  National  Collection.  This  is  a fine, 
full-grown,  though  pale-marked  specimen,  and  is  illus- 
trated in  Sowerby^s  ‘ Catalogue  of  the  Tankerville  Collec- 
tion,^ but  very  highly  coloured. 

The  fourth  specimen  in  this  country  is  in  the  private 
collection  of  the  late  Mrs.  De  Burgh,  of  61  Eccleston 


THE  SUBGENUS  CYLINDER. 


89 


Square^  London^  S.W.,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  finest  speei- 
men  known.  Formerly  in  Mr.  Norrises  possession,  of 
Preston. 

The  fifth  is  the  specimen  now  exhibited,  as  being 
in  my  collection  at  Prestwich.  It  is  not  quite  so  large 
as  Mrs.  De  BurgVs  or  the  TankerviUe  specimen,  but 
as  finely  marked,  and  of  mature  growth.  Formerly  in 
Mr.  Lombe  TayloFs  hands,  it  passed  into  that  of  the  late 
Dr.  Prevost,  of  Aleu9on,  and  subsequently  into  mine. 

The  sixth  specimen  is  in  France,  but  a very  poor  one, 
collected  by  M.  Carl  Bock  in  his  eastern  travels,  and 
which  I saw  sold  with  a great  deal  of  competition  at 
Stevens’s  Auction  Booms  in  July  1880.  It  was  very 
water-worn,  and  with  a disfiguring  sea-break.  It  was 
purchased  by  Mr.  Bryce  Wright,  of  Regent  Street,  for 
M.  Dupuis,  of  St.  Omer. 

The  seventh  specimen  is  in  Italy.  One  formerly  in  the 
collection  of  the  Hon.  Mrs.  MacAdam  Cathcart,  sold 
to  the  Marehese  Paulucci,  of  Florence.  This  specimen  is 
described  by  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  to  me  as  being  fairly 
marked,  but  filed  in  the  mouth  and  not  in  good  con- 
dition. 

The  eighth,  a very  poor,  small  example,  is  in  the  col- 
lection of  Madame  Macard,  of  Utrecht,  Holland. 

In  the  same  country  it  is  also  reported  that  there  is 
a specimen  in  the  Amsterdam  Museum ; but,  on  writing 
for  more  particulars  to  Mr.  Sowerby,  to  whom  I am  much 
indebted  for  details,  he  assures  me  there  is  some  mistake 
as  to  this.  There  is,  however,  I believe,  one  in  the 
Museum  at  Rotterdam. 

The  tenth  example  known,  originally  in  M.  de  Verreaux’s 
possession,  is  now  in  that  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  at  Lisbon, 
to  whom  it  was  sold  by  Mr.  Damon,  of  Weymouth. 

In  the  United  States,  Mr.  Tryon  writes  me,  there  is  a 


90 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK. MEMOIR 


good  specimen  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York ; but  I know  nothing  of  its  history, 
or  whence  it  was  obtained. 

In  Australia  the  fine,  full-grown,  but  pale-coloured 
shell,  formerly  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  J.  Dennison,  of 
Liverpool,  was,  in  April  1865,  bought  by  Mr.  Lovell 
Reeve  for  the  Melbourne  Museum. 

There  are,  therefore,  eleven  or  twelve  specimens  at  most 
recorded  of  the  shell  not  inaptly  termed 

^^The  Glory  of  the  Sea.^^ 


VI.  Memoir  of  Robeut  An&us  Smite:,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  F.C.S.,  ^c.  By  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D., 
F.R.S.,  &c. 


Eead  April  21st,  1885. 


By  the  death  of  Robert  Angus  Smith  the  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society  has  sustained  a great  loss.  His  was 
a life  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  form  a just  estimate,  on 
account  of  the  many-sidedness  of  his  character  and  attain- 
ments. His  contributions  to  science  and  literature  will, 
indeed,  always  remain  accessible  to  the  judgment  of  pos- 
terity, but  there  is  much  in  his  character  and  his  relations 
to  the  world  which  should  be  recorded  ere  those  who  knew 
him  have  also  passed  away.  In  his  case,  fortunately,  the 
record  may  be  perfectly  unreserved,  for  here  there  are  no 
defacing  blots  to  be  concealed,  no  dark  shadows  to  be 
passed  over. 

Robert  Angus  Smith  was  born  in  Glasgow,  February 
15th,  1817,  being  the  twelfth  child  and  seventh  son  of 
John  Smith,  a manufacturer  of  that  city,  and  of  Janet  his 


OF  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH. 


91 


wifoj  daughter  of  James  Thomson^  who  was  an  owner  of 
flax  and  other  mills  at  Strathavon,  where  he  held  the  offlce 
of  baron-baillie.  Of  the  brothers^  those  who  attained  to 
maturity  were  all  men  of  remarkable  intellect.  The  eldest^ 
John  Smithy  was  for  many  years  a master  in  the  Perth 
Academy,,  and  paid  great  attention  to  optics.  A paper  by 
him  ^^On  the  Origin  of  Colour  and  the  Theory  of  Light 
will  be  found  in  vol.  i.  ser.  3 of  the  Society's  Memoirs. 
James  Smithy  a man  of  highly  original  character^  was  the 
author  of  several  works  on  religious  and  philosophical 
subjects.  Another  brother^  Michaiah^  was  a distinguished 
oriental  scholar^  while  J oseph^  the  youngest,  devoted  him- 
self to  science,  but  unfortunately  died  early.  The  father 
was,  by  all  accounts,  a very  earnest  man,  with  profound 
religious  convictions,  and  though  not  highly  successful  in 
worldly  pursuits,  was  able  to  give  his  sons  a good  educa- 
tion, such  as  the  schools  and  universities  of  Scotland  were 
and  are  presumably  still  able  to  ofier  even  to  men  of 
moderate  means.  Two  of  the  sons,  James  and  Michaiah, 
were  ordained  ministers  in  the  Scotch  Church.  At  that 
time,  however,  the  Irvingite  schism  was  exciting  the  minds 
and  engaging  the  sympathies  of  many,  especially  the 
young,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  father  as  well  as  several 
of  the  sons  felt  attracted  by  the  doctrines  promulgated  by 
Irving,  doctrines  which  could  not  possibly  find  sufficient 
scope  within  the  somewhat  contracted  sphere  of  a Calvi- 
nistic  communion.  So  far  as  the  subject  of  this  memoir 
is  concerned,  it  is  certain  that  his  sympathies  led  him 
more  in  the  direction  of  Anglicanism,  and  from  the  hints 
he  let  drop  at  various  times,  it  seems  that  it  was  only 
through  circumstances  that  he  was  prevented,  when  a 
choice  was  possible,  from  taking  orders  in  the  English 
Church.  After  passing  through  the  usual  course  at  the 
Glasgow  High  School,  and  spending  some  time  at  the 


92 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK. MEMOIR 


University  of  Glasgow^  a period  of  his  life  of  which  he 
seldom  spoke,  simply  perhaps  because  there  was  little  to 
say,  Smith  accepted  a post  as  tutor  to  a family  in  the 
Highlands,  but  was  soon  compelled  to  leave  from  ill-health. 
He  then  proceeded  to  England,  where  he  was  employed 
in  a similar  capacity  in  families  whose  peculiar  religious 
opinions  afford  some  indication  of  the  direction  in  which 
his  sympathies  at  that  time  tended.  With  the  Rev.  and 
Hon.  H.  E.  Bridgeman  he  spent  two  years,  and  with  him 
proceeded  to  Germany.  So  far  Smithes  tastes  and  pursuits 
had  been  purely  literary  and  theological.  His  education 
had  been  entirely  classical,  being  confined  to  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  ancient  languages,  such  as  was  in  his  day 
thought  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of  life,  an  acquaint- 
ance with  science,  mathematics,  or  modern  languages 
being  then  considered  comparatively  of  little  consequence. 
During  his  stay  in  Germany  one  of  the  tendencies  of  his 
many-sided  mind  revealed  itself.  Hearing  of  Professor 
Liebig,  whose  fame  was  then  spreading  through  Germany, 
his  attention  was  directed  towards  science,  this  tendency 
being  perhaps  encouraged  by  the  example  of  his  brother 
Joseph,  who  had  engaged  in  the  study  of  chemistry  under 
Professor  Penny,  of  Glasgow,  and  with  whom  he  corre- 
sponded. He  accordingly  proceeded  to  Giessen,  where  he 
worked  in  Liebig^s  laboratory  during  the  years  1840-41, 
and  where,  before  leaving,  he  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D. 
During  his  stay  at  Giessen  he  extended  his  knowledge  of 
the  German  language  and  literature,  and  also  paid  much 
attention  to  German  systems  of  philosophy,  a subject  that 
at  all  times  interested  him  greatly. 

It  may  perhaps  be  considered  a matter  for  regret  that 
Dr.  Smith’s  early  training  in  science  was  not  more  exten- 
sive, and  that  it  continued  for  so  short  a time.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  possible  that  a more  rigorous  training  in 


OP  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH. 


93 


natural  science  and  mathematies  might  have  detraeted 
from  the  catholicity  of  mind  and  wide  culture  which  were 
prominent  charaeteristies  of  his.  He  afforded,  indeed,  a 
conspieuons  example  in  favour  of  the  prineiple  held  by  the 
conservatives  in  edueation,  viz.  that  a thorough  classieal 
training  affords  a basis  on  which  a superstructure,  what- 
ever it  may  consist  of,  may  be  confidently  ereeted,  though, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  hazardous  to  found  general 
rules  on  such  exceptional  cases  as  his.  Soon  after  leaving 
Griessen,  Dr.  Smith  published  a translation  of  Liebig^s 
work  ^ On  the  Azotised  Nutritive  Principles  of  Plants.^ 
After  his  return  to  England,  at  the  end  of  1841,  he  was 
engaged  in  various  capacities  with  families  of  distinetion, 
and  at  this  time  the  early  inclination  towards  a theological 
career  seems  to  have  revived,  and  was  probably  only  given 
up  when  it  was  found  that  eircumstances,  such  as  the 
necessity  for  a preliminary  education  at  an  English  Uni- 
versity, plaeed  an  insuperable  barrier  in  the  way.  In  the 
year  1843  we  find  him  working  as  assistant  to  Dr.  Lyon 
Playfair,  with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted  at  Giessen, 
and  who  was  then  engaged  as  Professor  of  Chemistry  to  the 
Manchester  Loyal  Institution.  At  Manehester  Dr.  Smith 
finally  settled  down ; here,  with  the  exception  of  intervals 
of  travel,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  here  all  his 
most  important  work  was  done.  With  characters  com- 
bining many-sidedness  with  great  intensity  of  purpose  it 
is  often  a mere  aecident  that  determines  the  direction  the 
energies  shall  take.  Such  an  accident  occurred  in  the 
career  of  Dr.  Smith.  The  Health  of  Towns  Commission, 
of  which  Mr.  Edwin  Chadwick  was  the  moving  spirit, 
instituted  inquiries  in  Manchester  as  in  other  towns. 
Dr.  Playfair  was  much  interested  in  these  inquiries,  and 
Dr.  Smith  was  engaged  in  conducting  some  portion  of 
them,  their  object  being  more  practical  than  scientific. 


94 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK. MEMOIR 


This  circumstaDce  directed  Dr.  Smithes  attention  to  sani- 
tary matters,  and  led  him  to  commence  the  series  of 
investigations  which  occupied  a great  part  of  his  time  and 
attention  from  the  year  1844  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 

At  the  time  when  Dr.  Smith  commenced  his  researches 
sanitary  science  could  not  be  said  to  exist,  unless  a mere 
collection  of  unconnected  facts  can  be  dignified  with  the 
name  of  science.  Since  that  time  much  more  system  has 
been  introduced  into  the  subject,  and  a great  portion  of 
the  merit  of  having  developed  the  purely  scientific  side  of 
it  is  due  to  Dr.  Smith.  The  pathological  department  of 
the  subject  did  not,  as  may  be  supposed,  receive  so  much 
attention  from  him  as  the  physical ; nor  did  he,  I think, 
at  any  time  pronounce  decidedly  on  the  question  whether 
the  phenomena  with  which  sanitary  science  deals  are 
purely  organic  in  their  nature,  or  whether  they  are  not 
also  partly  due  to  merely  physical  causes.  What  he  did 
was  to  investigate  patiently  the  physical  and  chemical 
conditions  as  regards  outward  agents,  more  especially  the 
air  we  inhale  and  the  water  we  drink,  on  which  health  and 
disease  seem  to  depend.  No  doubt,  since  the  time  when 
he  entered  the  field,  our  views  on  this  subject  have  altered 
considerably.  It  is  now  held  that  most  diseases,  especially 
those  of  the  zymotic  class,  are  due  to  the  development  of 
organic  germs,  but  the  most  ardent  advocate  of  the  germ- 
theory  must  allow  that  there  are  physical  and  chemical  phe- 
nomena attending  disease  which  should  not  be  neglected, 
and  to  these  Dr.  Smith  chiefly  confined  his  attention,  now 
and  then  only  reverting  to  the  general  question  of  the 
causes  of  disease,  as  to  which  he  was  always  prepared  to 
modify  his  opinions  when  the  progress  of  discovery  required 
bim  to  do  so.  The  results  of  his  labours  are  contained  in 
a series  of  papers,  of  which  the  Hoyal  Society's  catalogue 
contains  a list,  though  an  incomplete  one,  beginning  with 


OF  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH. 


95 


one  entitled  “^^Some  Remarks  on  the  Air  and  Water  of 
Towns/^  published  in  the  Chemical  Society's  Journal, 
1845-48.  His  results  are  summed  up  in  an  independent 
work  entitled  ^Air  and  Rain/  and  published  in  1872. 
Much  of  Dr.  Smithy’s  work  was  necessarily  of  a purely 
qualitative  character,  for  the  phenomena  which  he  inves- 
tigated are  concerned  with  almost  infinitesimal  quantities 
of  matter.  Nevertheless,  whenever  it  was  possible,  he 
introduced  quantitative  methods,  as  when  examining  the 
amount  of  acid  contained  in  the  atmosphere,  of  which 
an  account  will  be  found  in  his  paper  On  Minimetric 
Analysis,^^  read  before  this  Society  in  the  Session  1865-66. 
This  paper  contains  a description  of  a very  simple  and 
ingenious  little  apparatus,  called  by  him  a “ finger-pump,^^ 
by  which  the  amount  of  impurity  in  the  atmosphere,  in 
the  shape  of  carbonic  acid  or  hydrochloric  acid,  can  be 
rapidly  and  easily  determined.  On  disinfectants,  to  which 
Dr.  Smithes  attention  was  naturally  directed,  he  worked 
much,  his  general  views  on  the  subject  being  contained  in 
a separate  work  published  in  1869,  and  entitled  ^Disin- 
fectants and  Disinfection.^  The  practical  result  of  his 
studies  in  this  direction  was  the  invention  of  a very  useful 
disinfectant,  which  was  introduced  by  Mr.  McDougall,  and 
is  still  largely  employed.  This  short  resume  may  perhaps 
suffice  to  give  some  idea  of  Dr.  Smithes  labours  on  air 
and  water  in  their  hygienic  relations ; but  before  closing  it 
some  allusion  should  be  made  to  his  able  report  “ On  the 
Air  of  Mines,^"’  chiefly  those  of  Cornwall,  presented  to 
Government,  by  whose  directions  the  inquiry  into  the 
atmospheric  conditions  prevailing  in  mines  was  under- 
taken. Dr.  Smithes  memoirs  on  purely  scientific  subjects 
are  not  numerous.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  those 
on  rosolic  acid,  on  the  absorption  of  gases  by  charcoal, 
which  he  supposed  to  take  place  in  certain  definite  propor- 


96 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK. MEMOIR 


tionSj  and  on  tlie  “ Measurement  o£  the  Actinism  of  the 
Snn^s  Rays  and  of  Daylight (Proceedings,  Royal  Society, 
XXX.  p.  355),  in  which  a novel  method  of  measurement  is 
described.  His  study  of  peat,  which  treated  of  a favourite 
subject  of  his,  was  perhaps  more  practical  than  scientific 
in  character.  Those  who  take  an  interest  in  the  subject 
of  the  formation  and  utilization  of  peat  should  refer  to 
his  papers  relating  to  it,  published  in  the  Society’s 
Memoirs. 

This  is  perhaps  not  the  place  to  mention  in  detail  his 
work  in  connection  with  technical  subjects,  but  one  of  his 
inventions  must  not  be  passed  over  in  silence,  viz.  that  for 
coating  iron  tubes  with  an  impermeable  varnish,  so  as  to 
preserve  them  from  corrosion.  Of  this  invention  experts 
entertain  the  very  highest  opinion,  and  it  may  safely  be 
said  that  had  be  been  endowed  with  more  worldly  pru- 
dence, he  might  by  this  invention  alone  have  amassed 
a considerable  fortune.  Like  many  other  inventors  he 
never  enjoyed  the  rewards  to  which  his  ingenuity  entitled 
him.  It  is  for  the  world  to  acknowledge,  by  words  at 
least,  the  benefits  he  conferred  on  it ; for  those  who  are 
unable  or  unwilling  to  fight  and  struggle  for  wealth  and 
position  it  has  no  other  recompense  to  offer. 

In  the  year  1864  Dr.  Smith  was  appointed  chief 
inspector  under  the  Alkali  Act,  which  had  just  previously 
been  passed  by  the  legislature,  a post  for  which  he  was, 
from  his  intimate  knowledge  of  atmospheric  contamination, 
eminently  fitted.  Great  complaints  having  arisen  regard- 
ing the  injury  done  to  crops  and  other  things  by  the 
emanations  from  alkali-works,  an  Act  was  passed,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  limit  the  amount  of  injurious  gases, 
especially  hydrochloric  acid,  which  should  be  allowed  to 
escape  from  the  flues  of  alkali-works. 

It  was  this  Act,  the  provisions  of  which  Dr.  Smith,  with 


OF  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH. 


97 


the  aid  of  his  sub-inspectors^  was  to  see  carried  out,  by 
constant  supervision  on  the  part  of  the  sub-inspectors  and 
frequent  periodical  visits  to  various  districts  by  himself. 
That  he  was  eminently  successful  in  his  attempts  to  secure 
for  the  public  the  benefits  which  the  legislature  had  in 
view  when  the  act  was  passed,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
conciliating  by  his  prudence  and  tact  those  who  were  to 
some  extent  restricted  and  interfered  with  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Act,  is  universally  conceded.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  in  other  hands  the  task  which  Dr.  Smith  was 
called  on  to  perform  might  not  have  been  accomplished, 
and  the  result  might  have  been  complete  failure.  To 
continue  what  he  began  according  to  methods  initiated 
by  him  is  a comparatively  easy  task.  As  chief  inspector 
under  the  Alkali  Act  Dr.  Smith  had  each  year  to  present  a 
report  of  the  proceedings  under  the  Act  for  the  preceding 
year.  These  reports,  of  which  the  last  (presented  in  1884) 
was  the  twentieth  of  the  series,  contain  much  information 
over  and  above  what  mere  official  summaries  might  be 
expected  to  give,  and  they  should  be  carefully  studied  by 
all  who  are  interested  in  hygiene  in  its  relation  to  manu- 
factures. 

In  the  year  1876  an  act  similar  to  the  Alkali  Act, 
though  of  a less  stringent  character,  was  passed,  styled 
the  Hivers  Pollution  Prevention  Act.^^  Under  this  Act 
Dr.  Smith  was  appointed  to  examine  polluted  waters,  more 
especially  the  state  of  effluent  fluids  from  sewage-works, 
and  he  presented  two  reports  to  the  Local  Government 
Board  as  an  inspector  under  the  Act.  To  the  results  set 
forth  in  the  second  of  these  reports,  presented  shortly 
before  his  death.  Dr.  Smith  attached  the  greatest  import- 
ance. It  will  be  for  others  to  judge  of  the  value  of  these 
results,  but  he  himself  considered  that  the  discoveries 
described  in  the  report  would  open  up  a wide  field  of 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


H 


98 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK.  — MEMOIR 


research,  throwing  quite  a new  light  on  the  relations 
between  disease  and  water  and  soil.  To  those  who  take 
an  interest  in  sanitary  science  it  must  be  a matter  for 
vivid  regret  that  his  labours  in  this  novel  field  of  research 
were  cut  short  just  when  they  seemed  to  promise  impor- 
tant results. 

It  remains  to  say  a few  words  on  such  of  Dr.  Smith’s 
publications  as  are  not  of  a strictly  scientific  or  profes- 
sional character.  These  are  partly  philosophical  in  their 
tendency,  partly  literary,  or  simply  popular  in  character, 
and  in  part  treat  of  antiquarian  and  historical  subjects, 
for  which  Dr.  Smith  had  a great  liking,  and  seem  often  to 
have  been  hastily  penned  to  fill  up  a leisure  hour  or  at  the 
request  of  friends.  Many  of  them  were  anonymous,  but 
Dr.  Smithes  style  and  the  current  of  his  thought  were  so 
original  that  to  those  who  knew  him  the  disguise  was  only 
a thin  one.  One  of  the  works  belonging  to  this  class 
must  not,  however,  be  passed  over  without  special  notice. 
During  several  years  of  the  latter  portion  of  his  life  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  spending  his  autumn  vacation  on  the 
shore  of  Loch  Etive  in  Scotland,  where  he  employed  him- 
self— his  active  mind  never  being  satisfied  without  some 
special  object  to  occupy  it — in  exploring  this  part  of  his 
native  eountry  with  a view  of  throwing  some  light  on  its 
state  in  prehistoric  times.  The  result  was  a work  which 
is  not  only  instructive,  but  highly  entertaining  in  the  best 
sense,  called  ‘‘  Loch  Etive  and  the  Sons  of  Uisnach,'’^  a 
work  which  all  should  read  who  are  interested  in  pre- 
historic research  and  ethnology.  Dr.  Smith  paid  great 
attention  to  Celtic  languages,  and  made  a large  collection 
of  works  in  Gaelic.  These,  with  the  rest  of  his  books, 
have,  since  his  death,  been  presented  to  the  library  of 
Owens  Collegv^. 

Dr.  Smith  was  elected  a member  of  this  Society  in  the 


OF  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH.  99 

year  1844.  several  years  he  acted  as  one  o£  the 

Secretaries  of  the  Society^  subsequently  he  was  elected  a 
Vice-President^  and  during  the  sessions  1864  1865  he 

filled  the  post  of  President.  He  at  all  times  took  a lively 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  Society^  and  was  always 
ready  with  advice  and  active  assistance  when  such  were 
required  in  the  transaction  of  business. 

In  connection  with  this  Society  he  will,  however,  be 
chiefly  remembered  by  two  works,  the  ^Life  of  Dalton 
and  the  Atomic  Theory’  and  Centenary  of  Science  in 
Manchester,^  which  were  written  at  our  request,  and 
form  two  volumes  of  our  series  of  Memoirs.  The  ^Life 
of  Dalton^  was  a work  written  con  amove,  as  it  gave  the 
author  an  opportunity  of  setting  forth  his  ideas  on  two 
favourite  subjects — the  rise  and  development  of  scientific 
thought  among  civilized  nations,  and  the  consideration  of 
the  metaphysical  notions  out  of  which  the  theory  of 
atoms  has  sprung.  The  other  of  the  two  works  named 
shows  the  original  turn  of  thought  and  terseness  of  style 
found  in  all  his  writings,  though  undertaken  at  a time 
when  his  health  was  declining  and  he  was  overburdened 
with  other  work.  To  the  same  class  of  writings  belongs 
the  preface  to  the  beautiful  edition  of  Graham^’s  ^ Chemical 
and  Physical  Researches,^  undertaken  at  the  cost  of  the 
late  James  Young.  In  this  preface  he  gives  a short 
history  of  the  atomic  theory,  beginning  with  its  rise  in 
the  schools  of  Greece  and  tracing  its  development  in 
modern  times. 

Dr.  Smith  was  a Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of 
the  Chemical  Society  of  London,  and  a member  of  several 
learned  societies  on  the  continent.  Had  he  been  more  of 
a specialist  it  is  probable  that  the  list  of  societies  that 
sought  to  honour  him  by  membership  and  in  other  ways 
would  have  been  longer.  In  the  year  1881  the  degree  of 

h2 


100 


DR.  EDWARD  SCHUNCK. MEMOIR 


LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
a distinction  which,  coming  from  his  alma  mater,  the  seat 
of  learning  in  his  native  town,  he  valued  highly.  The 
same  degree  was  awarded  to  him  by  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  in  1882. 

Dr.  Smithes  health  had  evidently  been  declining  for 
some  years.  Not  endowed  with  a very  robust  constitution, 
and  unable,  as  it  appeared  to  some,  to  take  the  amount  of 
sustenance  required  for  so  active  an  existence  as  his,  the 
great  labours  which  were  partly  imposed  on  him,  and 
partly  undertaken  voluntarily,  began  in  time  to  tell  on  his 
health.  To  the  entreaties  of  his  friends  to  allow  himself 
some  rest,  he  did  not  reply  by  a direet  refusal,  but  con- 
tinued to  work  on  with  unabated  zeal,  as  if  the  stock  of 
vigour  he  had  to  draw  on  were  inexhaustible. 

Various  ehanges  of  scene  were  tried,  but  without  effect, 
and  he  gradually  sank,  the  bodily  strength  declining,  but 
the  mind  remaining  clear  to  the  last.  He  died  at  Colwyn 
Bay,  in  N.  Wales,  on  the  12th  May,  1884.  His  remains 
were  interred  in  the  churchyard  of  St.  PauFs,  Kersal. 

This  notice  would  not  be  complete  without  some  refer- 
ence to  Smithes  moral  characteristics.  To  those  who  knew 
him  these  were  familiar,  but  those  who  come  after  us 
should  know  that  in  his  case  an  intellect  of  high  order 
was  united  to  a eharacter  of  the  purest  and  noblest  type. 
The  most  marked  trait  in  his  character,  it  always  seemed 
to  me,  was  a wide,  to  some  it  might  seem  an  almost  incon- 
ceivably wide  benevolence,  a benevolence  which  seemed 
capable  of  embracing  all  except  the  unworthy  within  its 
folds.  It  was  this  that  led  him  to  associate  with  men  of 
the  most  diverse  character  and  aims,  extracting  from  each 
specimen  of  humanity  a something  with  which  he  could 
sympathize,  putting  on  one  side  or  excusing  what  was 
uncongenial  to  his  nature  in  each,  and  establishing  bonds. 


OF  ROBERT  ANGUS  SMITH. 


101 


some  stronger  some  weaker^  which^  in  their  totality^  gave 
him  a sense  of  relationshij)  to  humanity  at  large.  This 
wide  toleration  may  serve  to  explain  the  fact  which  may 
sometimes  have  been  observed^  that  two  men  mutually 
repellent  and  unwilling  to  associate  together  might  both 
have  been  warm  friends  of  his.  He  appeared,  indeed,  to 
be  the  centre  of  a system  or  constellation,  the  individual 
members  of  which  knew  little  of  each  other,  but  were  all 
united  to  him  by  bonds  of  sympathy.  His  extreme  con- 
scientiousness and  high  sense  of  honour  appear  even  in 
his  works,  leading  him  scrupulously  to  weigh  all  that  could 
be  said  on  either  side  of  an  argument,  and  to  give  every 
man  his  proper  share  of  merit,  refusing  sometimes  even 
to  credit  himself  with  what  was  manifestly  his  due.  This 
great  conscientiousness  was  occasionally  even  injurious  to 
himself  by  preventmg  his  arriving  at  positive  and  precise 
conclusions,  such  as  the  world  requires  even  when  there  is 
no  thorough  conviction. 

Of  the  charms  of  Hr.  Smith’s  conversation,  only  those 
are  able  to  form  an  idea  who  had  the  pleasure  of  his  per- 
sonal acquaintance,  for  it  was  not  of  a kind  to  be  literally 
reproduced.  Without  being  at  all  eloquent  or  indulging 
in  harangue,  and  always  giving  due  weight  to  everything 
his  hearers  had  to  say,  he  was  able,  from  the  fulness  of 
his  knowledge  and  the  originality  of  his  views,  to  throw 
a new  light  on  almost  every  subject  he  touched  on,  and 
thus  he  would  sometimes  continue  to  instruct  without 
dogmatizing,  and  entertain  without  wearying,  until  it  Avas 
found  that  not  minutes  but  hours  had  slipped  away  in 
listening. 

One  trait  in  Smith’s  character  must  not  be  passed  over, 
though  to  mention  it  in  this  age  of  materialism  may 
seem  to  require  some  apology — he  was  a firm  believer  in 
a spiritual  world,  that  is  of  a world  above  and  beyond  the 


102 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  A PROPERTY  OF 


senses^  of  the  reality  of  whieh^  whether  we  can  communi- 
cate with  it  directly  or  not  (and  of  this  he  never  seemed 
quite  sure)  he  was  firmly  convinced.  Those  who  remain 
to  lament  his  loss,  and  who  share  the  same  belief,  may 
unite  in  the  fervent  trust  that  in  the  world  of  which  he 
thought  much,  but  spoke  little,  his  spirit  may  have  found 
not  merely  rest  and  satisfaction,  but  also  a continuance 
of  that  mental  activity  and  development  which  to  him 
were  life. 

Dr.  Smith  was  never  married,  but  for  many  years  his 
niece.  Miss  Jessie  Knox  Smith,  was  his  constant  com- 
panion and  confidante,  ministering  to  him  with  a zeal 
and  devotion  which  could  not  have  been  exceeded  had  the 
relationship  been  that  of  father  and  daughter. 


VII.  On  a Property  of  the  Magneto-electric  Current  to 
control  and  render  Synchronous  the  Rotations  of  the 
Armatures  of  a number  of  Electro-magnetic  Induction- 
machines.  By  Henry  Wilde,  Esq.* 

Read  December  15th,  1868. 

The  discovery  of  the  property  which  I am  about  to  describe 
arose  out  of  the  efforts  which  have  been  made,  during  the 
last  two  years,  to  reduce  the  internal  heat  generated  in  an 
electro-magnetic  machine  by  the  induction- currents  set  up 
in  the  electro-magnet  and  armature  by  the  rapid  magnet- 
ization and  demagnetization  of  the  latter.  This  heating 
of  the  armature,  as  is  well  known,  was  first  observed  by 

* The  subjects  treated  of  in  this  and  the  two  following  papers  having 
acquired  great  interest  in  recent  years,  it  is  believed  that  the  papers  woidd 
be  increasingly  useful  if  they  were  embodied  in  the  more  permanent  records 
of  the  Society. 


THE  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  CURRENT, 


103 


Dr.  Joule  in  1843,  the  result  of  a delicate  investigation 
on  the  quantitative  relation  existing  between  ordinary 
mechanical  power  and  heat*.  In  the  electro-magnetic 
machines  of  my  invention  this  phenomenon  unfortunately 
manifests  itself  on  an  alarming  scale_,  so  much  so  that  the 
armature  of  the  lO-inch  machine  rises  in  the  course  of  a 
few  hours  to  300°  F.  and  upwards ; and  were  the  action 
of  the  machine  to  be  continued  for  any  lengthened 
period^  the  insulation  of  the  armature- coils  would  be  en- 
dangered. 

One  method  of  mitigating  this  evil  was  to  construct  the 
machine  of  smaller  dimensions,  so  as  to  afford  greater 
facilities  for  the  dissipation  of  the  heat  by  radiation  and 
conduction.  But  even  in  the  smaller  machines  an  incon- 
venient residuum  of  heat  still  remained  when  they  were 
worked  continuously  for  a considerable  time,  so  as  to 
render  it  desirable  to  adopt  some  means  for  abstracting 
the  heat  more  rapidly.  By  means  of  a current  of  water 
circulating  in  the  hollow  brass  segments  which  form  part 
of  the  magnet-cylinder,  Mr.  Charles  E.  Byder,  the  skilful 
manager  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Elkington  and  Co.,  has 
happily  succeeded  in  so  far  reducing  this  heating  as  to 
permit  of  the  machines  being  worked  for  days  and  nights 
together  without  intermission,  and  without  any  sensible 
diminution  of  the  power  of  the  current. 

The  machines  which  have  been  found  to  be  the  most 
efficient  and  economical  in  their  working  are  those  which 
have  armatures  from  3f  to  4 inches  in  diameter.  The  ar- 
matnres  are  driven  at  about  2000  revolutions  per  minnte  ; 
and  the  water,  after  having  passed  through  the  magnet- 
cylinder,  is  used  for  supplying  the  boilers  which  furnish 
the  power  for  driving  the  machines. 

I have  already  shown  elsewhere  that  the  current  from  a 
* Phil.  Mag.  S.  3.  vol.  x.xiii.  p.  264. 


104 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  A PROPERTY  OF 


small  magneto -electric  or  electro-magnetic  machine  is 
sufficient  to  excite  the  great  electromagnet  of  the  lo-inch 
machine ; and  it  has  been  further  founds  by  my  friend 
Mr.  Gr.  C.  Lowe^  that  the  current  from  one  small  machine 
is  sufficient  to  excite  simultaneously  the  electromagnets 
of  several  small  machines.  In  a number  of  3i-inch  ma- 
chines which  have  been  constructed  under  my  direction 
for  Messrs.  Elkington  and  Co.^  for  the  electrodeposition 
of  copper  on  a large  scale,  the  currents  from  two  3 f -inch 
electro-magnetic  machines  are  made  to  excite  the  electro- 
magnets of  twenty  similar-sized  machines  to  a degree 
sufficient  to  bring  out  the  maximum  dynamic  effect  of 
each  machine.  The  electromagnets  of  the  two  3f-iuch 
exciting  machines  are  charged  by  the  current  from  a small 
2f-ineh  magneto-electric  machine;  but  I have  found  that 
nearly  as  good  a result  may  be  obtained  from  the  twenty 
machines  by  dispensing  with  the  small  magneto-electrie 
machine,  and  employing  the  residual  magnetism  of  the 
two  3f-inch  exciting  machines  in  a manner  similar  to  that 
deserihed,  almost  simultaneously,  by  Mr.  Farmer*,  Messrs 
Varleyt,  Mr.  Siemens  J,  and  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  §. 

So  far  I have  adverted  principally  to  the  means  by 
which  a very  serious  defect  in  the  practical  working  of  the 
new  induction  machine  was  remedied,  a defect  which  many 
of  my  friends,  who  were  unacquainted  with  the  efforts 
which  have  been  made  to  overcome  it,  have  considered  to 
be  fatal  to  the  success  of  what  seemed  likely  to  he  a use- 
ful invention.  But  while  the  difficulty  arising  from  the 

* Letter  to  the  Author,  November  2,  1S66,  Salem,  Mass.  U.S.,  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester,  February  19, 
1867. 

t Spe<ufication  filed  at  the  Office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  Decem- 
ber 24,  1866. 

t Specification  filed  at  the  Office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  Janu- 
ary 31,  1867. 

§ Proceedings  of  the  Koyal  Society,  February  14,  1867. 


THE  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  CURRENT. 


105 


heating  was  now  obviated^  the  subdivision  of  the  materials 
of  one  large  machine  into  a number  of  small  ones  gave 
rise  to  another  defect  which  it  was  also  found  necessary  to 
overcome ; for  although  the  armatures  of  several  machines 
might  be  driven  nominally  at  the  same  speed  from  the 
same  drifting-shaft,  by  means  of  straps,  yet  when  the 
combined  direct  current  from  several  commutators  was 
required,  the  want  of  perfect  synchronism  in  the  revolution 
of  the  armatures  operated  to  produce  a diversion  of  the 
currents  of  some  of  them  through  the  coils  of  others 
at  the  neutral  point  of  their  revolution ; and  consequently, 
the  maximum  useful  effect  of  the  combined  currents  could 
not  he  obtained. 

As  the  high  speed  at  which  the  machines  were  driven 
precluded  the  employment  of  toothed  gearing,  the  only 
method  which  seemed  at  all  feasible  for  producing  the 
requsite  synchronism  of  the  armatures  was  to  place  a 
number  of  the  machines  in  a straight  line,  and  connect 
them  together  by  means  of  a clutch  fixed  on  the  end  of 
each  armature-spindle.  The  chief  objection  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  this  arrangement  was  the  difficulty  of  providing 
the  requisite  means  for  preserving  the  synchronism  of  the 
system,  when  any  of  the  intermediate  machines  were 
disabled  by  accident,  or  stopped  for  repairs ; so  that, 
practically,  it  would  not  have  been  found  convenient  to 
work  more  than  two  machines  geared  together  in  the 
manner  described. 

It  was  while  experimenting  with  a pair  of  machines  so 
geared  together,  that  I first  observed  the  phenomenon 
which  forms  the  subject  of  this  communication.  These 
machines  were  arranged  for  producing  the  electric  light, 
with  a view  to  their  application  to  lighthouse  illumination. 
The  armatures  were  4 inches  in  diameter,  and  each  of 
them  was  coiled  with  a copper-wire  conductor  280  feet 


106 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  A PROPERTY  OF 


long  and  a of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  currents  were 
taken  from  the  armatures  by  means  of  copper  brushes 
rubbing  against  metal  rings  eonnected  respectively  with 
the  ends  of  the  armature- coils,  and  were  therefore  in  alter- 
nate directions.  It  has  been  found  that  alternating  cur- 
rents are  much  better  adapted  for  the  production  of  a 
constant  electric  light  at  a fixed  point  in  space  than  the 
current  which  has  been  rectified  by  means  of  a commu- 
tator. 

The  clutch,  by  which  the  armatures  were  connected, 
consisted  of  two  iron  disks  about  4 inches  in  diameter, 
having,  in  the  face  of  one,  two  iron  pins  which  could  be 
guided  into  two  corresponding  holes  in  the  face  of  the  other. 
These  disks  could  be  engaged  or  disengaged  either  when 
the  machines  were  at  rest  or  in  motion.  The  relative 
positions  of  the  pins  and  holes  in  the  disks  were  such  that 
the  armatures  might  be  engaged  in  reversed  positions  of 
half  a revolution  when  required. 

Each  of  these  4-inch  machines,  when  making  about 
2000  revolutions  per  minute,  was  of  itself  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a very  efficient  electric  light ; and  when  the  two 
armatures  were  clutched  together  in  such  a position  that 
the  united  positive  currents  from  both  machines  proceeded 
from  one  polar  terminal  simultaneously  with  the  united 
negative  currents  from  the  other  polar  terminal,  the  sum 
of  the  currents  of  the  two  machines  was  obtained.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  armatures  were  clutched  together 
in  the  reverse  position  without  any  change  being  made  in 
the  armature  connexions,  no  current  was  produced  outside 
the  two  machines. 

These  experiments,  besides  exhibiting  the  necessity  of 
synchronous  rotation,  further  showed  that  the  armatures 
must  also  occupy  the  same  relative  position  in  the  magnet- 
cylinders  in  order  that  the  combined  current  from  the  two 


THE  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  CURRENT. 


107 


machines  be  obtained.  It  now  occurred  to  me  to 

see  to  what  extent  the  want  of  synchronism  in  the  arma- 
tures would  affect  the  magnitude  of  the  current.  The 
armatures  were  therefore  unelutched  and  allowed  to  re- 
volve independently  of  eaeh  other^  in  the  same  manner  as 
when  the  attempt  was  made  to  take  the  combined  direct 
eurrent  from  the  eommutators.  After  the  alternating 
current  had  been  transmitted  through  the  electric  lamp 
for  some  time^  I was  surprised  to  find  that  there  was  no 
perceptible  diminution  in  the  amount  of  light  produeed 
from  the  carbon  points^  and  that  the  current  would  fuse 
very  nearly  the  same  quantity  of  iron  wire  as  when  the 
armatures  were  clutched  together.  On  examining  into 
the  circumstances  attending  this  unexpected  phenomenon^, 
I first  observed  that,  whenever  the  machines  were  stopped, 
the  pins  and  holes  in  the  respective  disks  were  exactly 
opposite  each  other,  and  that,  while  the  armatures  were 
revolving,  the  two  disks  could  at  all  times  be  engaged  and 
disengaged  with  the  greatest  facility.  Moreover,  even 
when,  before  starting  the  machine,  the  disks  were  set  a 
quarter  or  half  a revolution  out  of  the  position  in  which 
the  maximum  amount  of  current  was  obtained,  it  was 
found  that,  after  the  armatures  had  been  revolving  for  a 
few  moments,  the  disks  resumed  their  normal  position 
with  respect  to  each  other  (as  indicated  by  the  action  of 
the  clutch) — thereby  exhibiting  not  only  the  synchronous 
rotation  of  the  armatures,  but  also  that  the  machines 
contained  a principle  of  self-adjustment  to  the  position  in 
which  the  maximum  effect  of  the  combined  current  was 
obtained.  It  will  therefore  be  evident  that  this  property 
of  the  current,  to  maintain  the  synchronism  of  the  arma- 
tures, renders  it  unnecessary  to  employ  mechanical  gear- 
ing of  any  kind  for  that  purpose. 

Proceeding  further  in  this  investigation,  I found  that, 


108 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  A PROPERTY  OP 


in  order  to  produce  synchronous  rotation_,  it  was  not  at  all 
essential  that  the  circuit  which  conveyed  the  combined 
currents  for  producing  the  light  should  be  completed, 
provided  that  the  ends  of  the  coils  of  each  armature  were 
connected  respectively  with  the  same  metal  plates  which 
formed  the  polar  terminals  of  the  machines.  In  this  case 
the  armatures  adjusted  themselves  to  their  normal  posi- 
tions even  more  readily  than  when  the  current  was  produ- 
cing the  light.  The  accompanyiug  diagram  will  assist 
in  explaining  these  observations  more  fully. 


Let  D and  D represent  the  two  armature-coils,  which, 
though  each  280  feet  long,  may  virtually  be  represented 
by  a single  turn ; EE  the  two  outer  extremities  of  the 
coils,  both  connected  by  means  of  the  metal  rings  and 
brushes  with  the  metal  terminal  plate  F ; GG  the  inner 
extremities  of  the  same  coils,  similarly  connected  with  the 
terminal  plate  H.  The  synchronous  rotation  of  the 
armatures  and  coils  D and  D,  as  I have  said,  occurs  either 
when  the  light  is  produced  by  the  combined  currents 
transmitted  from  the  polar  terminals  E and  H,  or  when 
the  circuit  which  conveyed  these  combined  currents  is 
broken. 

The  synchronism,  however,  is  no  longer  preserved  when 
a short  circuit  is  made  between  the  terminals  F and  H by 
substituting  a good  conductor  for  the  carbon  points,  or 
for  the  long  piece  of  iron  wire  which  was  fused.  Nor, 
again,  was  the  synchronism  preserved  when  contact  be- 
tween the  metal  plate  H and  one  of  the  ends  (G)  of  the 
coil  was  broken.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  observed  that. 


THE  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  CURRENT. 


109 


whenever  eontact  between  G and  H was  made  and  broken^ 
a bright  spark  appeared  at  the  point  of  disjunction  so  long 
as  the  rotation  was  not  synchronous ; but  when  the  syn- 
chronism was  reestablished^  only  a trifling  residual  spark 
was  visible. 

Although  the  synchronous  rotation  was  preserved  when 
the  terminals  from  which  the  combined  current  was 
transmitted,  were  disconnected  from  the  electric  lamp,  yet 
it  will  he  seen,  from  an  inspection  of  the  diagram,  that  a 
complete  metallic  circuit  was  in  fact  always  formed  between 
these  terminals  through  the  coils  themselves.  Now,  when 
the  coils  DD  happen  to  be  at  the  same  moment  in  that 
position  during  their  revolution  in  which  they  are  produ- 
cing the  maximum  and  minimum  amount  of  current 
respectively,  as  must  often  be  the  case  where  there  is  no 
synchronism,  that  current  which  is  at  the  maximum  rushes 
through  the  coil  which  is  producing  the  minimum  current, 
as  is  shown  by  the  spark  at  the  point  where  contact  is 
broken  between  G and  H.  The  effect  of  this  passage  of 
the  current  from  one  coil  to  the  other  is  to  accelerate  or 
retard  the  rotation  of  the  armature  (according  to  the 
direction  of  the  current)  until  synchronism  is  established. 

That  this  influence  of  one  coil  upon  the  other  operates 
in  the  manner  described  was  easily  shown  by  the  following 
experiment : — The  driving-strap  of  one  of  the  armatures 
was  removed,  so  that  only  one  of  the  armatures  should  be 
producing  a current,  while  the  magnetism  of  the  electro- 
magnets of  both  machines  was,  as  usual,  maintained  to 
the  same  degree.  On  placing  the  stationary  armature 
with  its  coil  in  a suitable  position  in  relation  to  the 
magnet-cylinder  for  producing  electromagnetic  rotation, 
and  setting  the  other  armature  in  motion,  the  stationary 
armature  with  its  coil  oscillated  rapidly  in  arcs  of  very 
small  amplitude,  the  oscillations  corresponding  in  number 


110 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  A PROPERTY  OF 


with  the  alternations  of  the  current.  As  the  amplitude 
of  the  oscillations  in  this  experiment  was  limited  by  the 
vis  inertias  of  the  armature^  and  in  order  that  the  effect  of 
one  pulsation  only  on  the  armature  might  be  observed^ 
contact  was  made  and  broken  suddenly  between  the  plate 
H and  the  end  G of  the  coil^  when  the  stationary  arma- 
ture was  suddenly  jerked  round  nearly  a quarter  of  a 
revolution^  sometimes  in  the  direction  in  which  it  would 
have  been  driven  by  the  strap^  and  at  other  times  in  the 
opposite  direction^  according  as  the  alternating  electrical 
wave  which  happened  to  be  passing  at  the  instant  of 
making  contact  was  positive  or  negative. 

We  have  now  seen^  in  the  results  obtained  with  the 
rotating  and  stationary  armatures^  a cause  sufficient  to 
account  for  their  synchronism  when  revolving  together, — 
the  absence  of  synchronism  observed  when  the  terminals 
F and  H were  bridged  over  by  a conductor  having  com- 
paratively little  or  no  resistance  being  occasioned  by  the 
controlling  current  traversing  the  short  circuit  established 
between  the  terminals  F and  H,  instead  of  the  280  feet  of 
resistance  presented  by  either  of  the  coils  when  approach- 
ing the  neutral  point  of  their  revolution.  The  absence  of 
synchronism  observed  when  the  direct  current  was  taken 
from  the  machines  by  means  of  commutators,  is  caused 
by  the  direction  of  the  current  being  coincident  with  that 
which  they  would  receive  by  induction  from  the  electro- 
magnets, and  consequently  opposite  to  that  which  tends 
to  impart  an  accelerating  or  retarding  impulse  to  the 
armatures. 

Having  obtained  the  full  effect  of  the  combined  alter- 
nating currents  from  the  two  machines  without  any 
mechanical  gearing,  it  yet  remained  to  obtain  the  combined 
direct  currents  from  the  machines  in  the  same  manner. 
A pair  of  rings  and  a commutator  were  therefore  fitted 


THE  MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  CURRENT. 


Ill 


upon  one  of  the  armature-spindles,  which  was  made 
sufficiently  long  for  the  purpose,  and  metallic  connexion 
was  established  between  the  rings  of  each  machine  and 
the  commutator  on  the  prolongation  of  the  armature-axis. 
As  the  commutator  necessarily  revolved  synchronously 
with  the  two  armatures,  it  was  found  that  the  combined 
alternating  currents  were  rectified  just  as  if  they  had 
proceeded  from  only  one  machine,  and  were  consequently 
available  for  electro-deposition,  or  for  any  other  purpose 
for  which  a direct  current  might  be  required. 

Although  this  property  of  synchronous  rotation  has  as 
yet  been  observed  only  in  the  case  of  several  pairs  and  a 
triple  combination  of  machines,  yet  there  is  no  reason  for 
supposing  that  it  may  not  be  extended  to  anj'^  number  of 
machines  that  may  be  conveniently  worked  together  from 
the  same  prime  mover.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe 
that  as  the  controlling  power  of  the  current  is  only  calcu- 
lated to  correct  such  minute  deviations  from  synchronism 
as  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  mechanical  skill  to  prevent, 
the  driving  and  driven  pulleys  should  be  respectively  as 
nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  diameters,  as  the  correction 
of  any  considerable  difference  in  the  number  of  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  armatures,  caused  by  differences  in  the  dia- 
meters of  the  pulleys,  must  necessarily  be  attended  by  a 
corresponding  diminution  of  the  useful  effect  of  the  current 
outside  the  machines. 


112  MR  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  GAS-  AND 


VIII.  On  the  Influence  of  Gas-  and  Water-pipes  in 
Determining  the  Direction  of  a Discharge  of  Lightning. 
By  Henry  Wilde^  Esq. 


Read  January  9th,  1872. 


Although  the  invention  of  the  lightning-conductor  is  one 
of  the  noblest  applications  of  science  to  the  wants  of  man, 
and  its  utility  has  been  established  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  by  the  experience  of  more  than  a century,  yet  a 
sufficient  number  of  instances  are  recorded  of  damage  done 
by  lightning  to  buildings  armed  with  conductors  to 
produce  in  the  minds  of  some  an  impression  that  the 
protective  influence  of  lightning-conductors  is  of  but 
questionable  value. 

The  destruction,  by  fire,  of  the  beautiful  church  at 
Crumpsall,  near  Manchester,  during  a thunderstorm  on 
the  morning  of  the  4th  instant,  has  induced  me  to  bring 
before  the  Society,  with  a view  to  their  being  known  as 
widely  as  possible,  some  facts  connected  with  the  electric 
discharge  which  have  guided  me  for  some  years  in  the 
recommendation  of  means  by  which  disasters  of  this  kind 
may  be  averted. 

For  the  proper  consideration  of  this  subject,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  a distinction  between  the  mechanical 
damage  which  is  the  direct  effect  of  the  lightning-stroke, 
and  the  damage  caused  indirectly  by  the  firing  of 
inflammable  materials  which  happen  to  be  in  the  line  of 
discharge. 

Instances  of  mechanical  injury  to  buildings  not  provided 
with  conductors  are  still  sufficiently  numerous  to  illustrate 


WATER-PIPES  ON  A DISCHARGE  OP  LIGHTNING.  113 

the  terrific  force  of  the  lightning  stroke,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  ignorance  and  indifference  which  prevail  in  some 
quarters  with  respect  to  the  means  of  averting  such 
disasters ; for  wherever  lofty  buildings  are  furnished  with 
conductors  from  the  summit  to  the  base  and  thence  into 
the  earth,  damage  of  the  mechanical  kind  is  now  happily 
unknown. 

Even  in  those  cases  where  lightning  conductors  have  not 
extended  continuously  through  the  whole  height  of  a 
building,  or  where  the  lower  extremity  of  the  conductor 
has,  from  any  cause,  terminated  abruptly  at  the  base  of 
the  building,  the  severity  of  the  stroke  has  been  greatly 
mitigated,  the  damage  being  limited  in  many  cases  to  the 
loosening  of  a few  stones  or  bricks. 

The  ever  extending  introduction  of  gas-  and  water-pipes 
into  the  interior  of  buildings  armed  with  lightning  con- 
ductors has,  however,  greatly  altered  the  character  of  the 
protection  which  they  formerly  afforded ; and  the  con- 
viction has  been  long  forced  upon  me  that,  while  buildings 
so  armed  are  effectually  protected  from  injury  of  the 
mechanical  kind,  they  are  more  subject  to  damage  by 
fire. 

The  proximity  of  lightning-conductors  to  gas-  and  water- 
mains,  as  an  element  of  danger,  has  not  yet,  so  far  as  I 
know,  engaged  the  attention  of  electricians ; and  it  was 
first  brought  under  my  notice  at  Oldham  in  i86i,  by 
witnessing  the  effects  of  a lightning  discharge  from  the 
end  of  a length  of  iron  wire  rope,  which  had  been  fixed 
near  to  the  top  of  a tall  factory  chimney,  for  the  purpose 
of  supporting  a long  length  of  telegraph-wire.  The 
chimney  was  provided  with  a copper  lightning-conductor 
terminating  in  the  ground  in  the  usual  manner.  In  close 
proximity  to  the  conductor  and  parallel  with  it  the  wdre 
rope  descended,  from  near  the  top  of  the  chimney,  for  a 


SER.  HI.  VOL.  X. 


I 


114  MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  GAS-  AND 

distance  of  lOO  feet^  and  was  finally  secured  to  an  iron 
bolt  inserted  in  the  chimney  about  lo  feet  from  the 
ground.  During  a thunderstorm  which  occurred  soon 
after  the  telegraph-wire  was  fixed,  the  lightning  descended 
the  wire  rope,  and,  instead  of  discharging  itself  upon  the 
neighbouring  lightning-conductor,  darted  through  the  air 
for  a distance  of  1 6 feet  to  a gas-meter  in  the  cellar  of  an 
adjoining  cotton  warehouse,  where  it  fused  the  lead-pipe 
connexions  and  ignited  the  gas.  That  the  discharge  had 
really  passed  between  the  end  of  the  wire  rope  and  the 
lead-pipe  connexions  was  abundantly  evident  from  the 
marks  made  on  the  chimney  by  the  fusion  and  volatilization 
at  the  end  of  the  wire  rope  and  by  the  fusion  of  the  lead 
pipe.  As  the  accident  occurred  in  the  daytime,  the  fire 
was  soon  detected  and  promptly  extinguished. 

Another  and  equally  instructive  instance  of  the  inductive 
influence  of  gas-pipes  in  determining  the  direction  of  the 
lightning  discharge  occurred  in  the  summer  of  1863,  at 
St.  PauTs  Church,  Kersal  Moor,  during  divine  service. 
To  the  outside  of  the  spire  and  tower  of  this  church  a 
copper  lightning-conductor  was  fixed,  the  lower  extremity 
of  which  was  extended  under  the  soil  for  a distance  of 
about  20  feet.  The  lightning  descended  this  conductor, 
but,  instead  of  passing  into  the  earth  by  the  path  provided 
for  it,  struck  through  the  side  of  the  tower  to  a small  gas- 
pipe  fixed  to  the  inner  wall.  The  point  at  which  the  light- 
ning left  the  conductor  was  about  5 feet  above  the  level  of 
the  ground,  and  the  thickness  of  the  wall  pierced  was 
about  4 feet ; but  beyond  the  fracture  of  one  of  the  outer 
stones  of  the  wall  and  the  shattering  of  the  plaster  near 
the  gas-pipe,  the  building  sustained  no  injury. 

That  the  direction  of  the  electric  discharge  had  in  this 
case  been  determined  by  the  gas-pipes  which  passed  under 
the  floor  of  the  church,  was  evident  from  the  fact  that  the 


WATER-PIPES  ON  A DISCHARGE  OF  LIGHTNING.  115 

watches  of  several  members  of  the  congregation  who  were 
seated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  gas-mains  were  so  strongly 
magnetized  as  to  he  rendered  unserviceable. 

The  ehurch  at  Crumpsall  is  about  a mile  distant  from 
that  at  Kersal  Moor ; and  the  ignition  of  the  gas  by 
lightning,  which  undoubtedly  caused  its  destruction,  is  not 
so  distinctly  traceable  as  it  is  in  other  cases  which  have 
come  under  my  observation,  beeause  the  evidences  of  the 
passage  of  the  electric  discharge  have  been  obliterated  by 
the  fire.  From  information,  however,  communicated  to  me 
by  the  clerk  in  charge  of  the  building  as  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  gas-pipes,  the  most  probable  course  of  the  electric 
discharge  was  ultimately  found. 

The  church  is  provided  with  a copper  lightning- 
conductor,  which  descends  outside  the  spire  and  tower  as 
far  as  the  level  of  the  roof.  The  conductor  then  enters  a 
large  iron  down-spout,  and  is  carried  into  the  same  drain  as 
that  in  whieh  the  spout  discharges  itself.  Immediately 
under  the  roof  of  the  nave  and  against  the  wall,  a line  of 
iron  gas -pipe  extended  parallel  with  the  horizontal  lead 
gutter  which  conveyed  the  water  from  the  roof  to  the  iron 
spout  in  which  the  conductor  was  enclosed.  This  line  of 
gas-piping,  though  not  in  use  for  some  time  previous  to 
the  fire,  was  in  eontaet  with  the  pipes  connected  with  the 
meter  in  the  vestry,  where  the  fire  originated,  and  was  not 
more  than  three  feet  distant  from  the  lead  gutter  on  the 
roof.  As  no  indications  of  the  electric  discharge  having 
taken  place  through  the  masonry  were  found,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  church  at  Kersal  Moor,  it  seems  highly  probable 
that  the  lightning  left  the  conductor  at  the  point  where 
the  latter  entered  the  iron  spout,  and  by  traversing  the 
space  between  the  leaden  gutter  and  the  line  of  gas-piping 
in  the  roof  found  a more  easy  path  to  the  earth  by  the  gas- 
mains  than  was  provided  for  it  in  the  drain. 


116  MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  GAS-  AND 

In  my  experiments  on  the  electrical  condition  of  the 
terrestrial  globe^  I have  already  directed  attention  to  the 
powerful  influence  which  lines  of  metal^  extended  in  contact 
with  moist  ground^  exercise  in  promoting  the  discharge  of 
electric  currents  of  eomparatively  low  tension  into  the 
earth^s  substance,  and  also  that  the  amount  of  the 
diseharge  from  an  electromotor  into  the  earth  increases 
conjointly  with  the  tension  of  the  current  and  the  length 
of  the  conductor  extended  in  contact  with  the  earth.  It  is 
not,  therefore,  surprising  that  atmospheric  electricity,  of 
a tension  suffieient  to  strike  through  a stratum  of  air 
several  hundred  yards  thick,  should  And  an  easier  path  to 
the  earth  by  leaping  from  a lightning-conduetor  through  a 
few  feet  of  air  or  stone  to  a great  system  of  gas-  and  water- 
mains,  extending  in  large  towns  for  miles,  than  by  the 
short  line  of  metal  extended  in  the  ground  which  forms  the 
usual  termination  of  a lightning-conductor. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  in  the  cases  of  lightning 
discharge  which  I have  cited,  the  lightning-eonductors 
acted  effieiently  in  protecting  the  buildings  from  damage 
of  a meehanical  nature,  the  trifling  injury  to  the  church 
tower  at  Kersal  Moor  being  directly  attributable  to  the 
presenee  of  the  gas-pipe  in  proximity  to  the  conductor. 
Nor  would  there  have  been  any  danger  from  fire  by  the 
ignition  of  the  gas  if  all  the  pipes  used  in  the  interior  of 
the  buildings  had  been  made  of  iron  or  brass  instead  of 
lead ; for  all  the  eases  of  the  ignition  of  gas  by  lightning 
which  have  come  under  my  observation  have  been  brought 
about  by  the  fusion  of  lead  pipes  in  the  line  of  discharge. 
The  substitution  of  brass  and  iron,  wherever  lead  is  used 
in  the  construction  of  gas-apparatus,  would,  however,  be 
attended  with  great  inconvenience  and  expense,  and  more- 
over would  not  avert  other  dangers  incident  to  the 
disruptive  discharge  from  the  conductor  to  the  gas-  and 


WATER-PIPES  ON  A DISCHARGE  OF  LIGHTNING.  117 

water-pipes  within  a building.  I have  therefore  recom- 
mended that  in  all  cases  where  lightning-conductors  are 
attached  to  buildings  fitted  up  with  gas-  and  water-pipes, 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  lightning-conductor  should  be 
bound  in  good  metallic  contact  with  one  or  other  of  such 
pipes  outside  the  building.  By  attending  to  this  precaution 
the  disruptive  discharge  between  the  lightning-conductor 
and  the  gas-  and  water-pipes  is  prevented,  and  the  fusible 
metal  pipes  in  the  interior  of  the  building  are  placed  out  of 
the  influence  of  the  lightning  discharge. 

Objections  have  been  raised  by  some  corporations  to  the 
establishment  of  metallic  connexion  between  lightning- 
conductors  and  gas-mains,  on  the  ground  that  damage 
might  arise  from  ignition  and  explosion.  These  objections 
are  most  irrational,  as  gas  will  not  ignite  and  explode 
unless  mixed  with  atmospheric  air,  and  the  passage  of 
lightning  along  continuous  metallic  conductors  will  not 
ignite  gas  even  when  mixed  with  air.  Moreover,  in  every 
case  of  the  ignition  of  gas  by  lightning,  the  discharge  is 
actually  transmitted  along  the  mains,  such  objections 
notwithstanding.  A grave  responsibility  therefore  rests 
upon  those  who,  after  introducing  a source  of  danger  into 
a building,  raise  obstacles  to  the  adoption  of  measures  for 
averting  this  danger. 


118 


MR  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


IX.  On  the  Origin  of  Elementary  Substances,  and  on  some 
new  Relations  of  their  Atomic  Weights.  By  Henry 
WiLDE^  Esq. 


Read  April  30th,  1878. 


The  hypothesis  that  the  solar  system_,  as  at  present  con- 
stituted, was  formed  by  the  successive  condensations  of  a 
gaseous  substance  rotating  under  the  influence  of  a 
central  force,  has  so  much  evidence  in  its  favour  that  it 
may  be  aflirmed  to  equal  the  best  of  that  obtained  from 
the  geological  record  of  the  changes  which  in  past  times 
have  taken  place  on  the  surface  of  the  terrestrial  globe. 
That  this  gaseous  or  primordial  substance  consisted  of  a 
chaotic  mixture  of  the  65  elements  known  to  chemists  is  a 
notion  too  absurd  to  be  entertained  by  any  one  possessing 
the  faculty  of  philosophic  thinking,  as  the  regular 
gradation  of  properties  observable  in  certain  groups  of 
elements  clearly  shows  that  elementary  species  are  not 
eternal,  but  have  a history,  which  it  is  the  proper  object 
of  physical  science  to  unfold. 

One  of  the  principal  facts  which,  to  my  mind,  establishes 
the  nebular  theory  of  the  formation  of  planetary  systems 
on  a firm  basis,  is  Bode^s  empirical  law  of  the  distances 
of  the  members  of  the  solar  system  from  each  other  and 
from  the  central  body,  as  in  this  law  is  comprehended  the 
idea  of  nebular  condensation  in  definite  proportions. 
Now,  if  elementary  species  were  created  from  a homo- 
geneous substance  possessing  a capacity  for  change  in 
definite  proportions,  it  is  probable  that  the  greater  number 
of  elements  would  be  formed  during,  or  after,  the  transition 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


119 


of  the  nebular  matter  from  the  annular  to  the  spheroidal 
form.  Moreover,  as  great  cosmie  transitions  are  not 
made  per  saltum,  it  might  be  expeeted  that  some  modifi- 
cation of  the  law  of  nebular  condensation  into  planetary 
systems,  as  exhibited  in  Bode^s  law,  would  be  found  on  the 
further  condensation  of  the  primitive  matter  into  elemen- 
tary species. 

That  relations  such  as  I have  indicated  exist  between 
the  nebular  and  elementary  condensations,  represented  by 
the  planetary  distances  on  the  one  hand,  with  the  atomic 
weights  of  well-defined  groups  of  elementary  substances 
on  the  other,  will  be  evident  on  comparing  the  numbers 
in  the  following  Tables  : — 


I. 


0.0.4=  4 Mercury. 

1X3+4=  7 Venus. 

2X3+4=  10  Barth. 
4X3+4=  16  Mars. 

8x3  + 4=  28  Ceres,  Pallas,  &c. 
16x3+4=  52  Jupiter. 

32  X 3 + 4 = 100  Saturn. 

64  X 3 + 4 = 196  Uranus. 


In  the  above  Table  the  numbers  expressing  the  relative 
distances  of  the  planetary  bodies  from  the  sun  and  from 
each  other  are  obtained  by  multiplying  successively  the 
difference  (3)  between  the  distance  of  the  first  and  second 
members  of  the  system  by  a geometric  series,  and  adding 
to  the  products  the  constant  distance  (4)  of  the  first 
member  from  the  sun.  Now,  if  the  atomic  weight  of  the 
second  member  of  the  alkaline  and  silver  group  of  metals 
(Na=23)  be  multiplied  successively  by  an  arithmetical 
series,  then  will  the  products,  minus  the  atomic  weight  of 
the  first  member  (Li=7),  be  the  atomic  weights  of  all  the 
elements  belonging  to  that  group. 


120 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


II. 

0.0.7  Li  7 

1 X 23  . o = Na  = 23 

2 X 23  - 7 = Ka  = 39 

3 X 23  — 7 = Cu  = 62 

4 X 23  — 7 = Rb  = 85 

5 X 23  — 7 = Ag  = 108 

6X23  — 7 = Cs  =131 

7 X 23  - 7 = — =154 

8 X 23  — 7 = — =177 

9 X 23  — 7 = Hg  = 200 


Again,  by  multiplying  in  like  manner  the  atomic  weight 
of  the  second  member  of  the  alkaline-earth  and  cadmium 
group  of  metals,  the  products,  minus  the  atomic  weight 
of  the  first  member  (Gl  = 8),  are  the  atomic  weights  of  all 
the  elements  of  this  group. 


III. 

0.0  . 8 ==  Grl  = 8 

1 X 24  — o = Mg  = 24 

2 X 24  — 8 — Ca  = 40 

3 X 24  — 8 = Zu  = 64 

4X24  — 8 = Sr=  88 

5 X 24  — 8 = Cd  = 112 

6 X 24  - 8 = Ba  - 136 

7X24—  8i=  — =160 
8x24—  8 = — =184 
9 X 24  — 8 = Pb  = 208 


The  further  relations  observable  between  interplanetary 
voids  and  atomic  condensations  of  the  natural  groups  of 
elements  in  Tables  II.,  III.,  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  regular  geometric  series  of  the  planetary  dis- 
tances commences  at  the  second  member  of  the  system, 
and  the  regular  arithmetical  series  of  atomic  weights 
commences  at  the  second  and  corresponding  member  of 
each  group. 

2.  As  the  atomic  weight  of  the  second  element  in  each 
group  is  half  the  sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  first 
and  third  elements,  so  is  the  distance  of  the  second 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


121 


member  of  the  solar  system  an  arithmetical  mean,  or  half 
the  sum  of  the  distances  of  the  first  and  third  members. 

3.  The  atomic  weight  of  the  fourth  member  in  each 
group  of  elements  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  atomic 
weights  of  the  second  and  third ; and  the  distance  of  the 
fourth  member  of  the  solar  system  is  also  equal,  within  a 
unit,  to  the  sum  of  the  distances  of  the  second  and  third 
members. 

4.  As  the  smallest  planetary  distance  is  a constant 
function  of  the  distances  of  the  outer  planetary  bodies,  so 
is  the  smallest  atomic  weight  in  each  group  a similar 
function  of  all  the  higher  members  of  the  series  to  which 
it  belongs.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  plus  and 
minus  signs  of  these  constants  are  correlated  respectively 
with  the  interplanetary  spaces,  and  the  elementary  con- 
densations. 

5.  Each  of  the  atomic  weights,  after  the  third  in  th& 
groups,  is  an  arithmetical  mean  of  aiiy  pair  of  atomic 
weights  at  the  same  distance  above  and  below  it ; and  the 
distance  of  each  member  of  the  solar  system  (minus  the 
constant  4)  is  a mean  proportional  of  the  distances  of  any 
two  members,  externally  and  internally  to  it,  from  the 
central  body. 

6.  The  geometric  ratio  of  the  planetary  distances  from 
each  other  terminates  at  the  two  members  nearest  the 
central  body,  and  approaches  to  an  arithmetical  one ; and 
a similar  departure  is  also  noticeable  from  the  regular 
arithmetical  series  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  first  two 
members  of  the  groups,  which  renders  the  third  less  than 
an  arithmetical  mean  of  the  atomic  weights  of  the  second 
and  fourth  members. 

While  most  of  the  atomic  weights  in  Tables  II.,  III., 
excluding  fractions,  agree  with  those  generally  received 
by  chemists,  the  remainder,  except  C8esium=i33,  do  not 


122 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


vary  more  than  a unit  from  the  classical  numbers.  When 
it  is  considered  that  some  of  these  numbers  have  been 
obtained  by  doubling  the  fractions  of  the  old  atomic 
weights^  and  that  slight  differences  in  the  determinations 
may  arise  from  the  latent  aflSnity  which  some  elements 
have  for  minute  quantities  of  another^  the  numbers  in 
the  tables  are  remarkably  near  to  those  determined  by 
experiment — more  so  in  fact^  than  is  Bode^s  law  to  the 
actual  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  gaps  to  be  occupied 
by  two  elements  in  the  first  group^  with  atomic  weights 
154  and  177^  and  by  their  homologues  of  position  in  the 
second  group^  with  atomic  weights  160  and  184,  which 
remain  to  be  discovered. 


The  numerical  relations  subsisting  among  the  atomic 
weights  in  Tables  11.,  III.^  and  their  resemblance  to 
homologous  series  in  organic  chemistry^  afford  further 
evidence  in  support  of  the  theory  that  elementary  species 
are  formed  by  the  successive  condensations  of  a primordial 
substance  of  small  specific  gravity  and  low  atomic  weight. 
The  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  hydrogen^, 
especially  its  low  atomicity  and  its  exact  multiple  relations 
with  many  elementary  substances^  long  since  suggested  to 
Prout  that  this  element  might  be  the  ponderable  base  of 
all  the  others  *.  Prout^s  hypothesis  has  not_,  however, 
made  much  progress,  as  chemical  knowledge  was  not 
sufficiently  advanced  in  his  time  to  enable  the  intermediate 
steps  to  be  perceived  by  which  elements  of  high  atomicity 
could  be  built  up  from  hydrogen ; and,  besides  this,  the 
hypothesis  afforded  no  explanation  of  the  widely  diverging 
properties  of  elements  having  nearly  the  same  atomic 

* ‘ Annals  of  Philosophy,’  toI.  vi.  p.  330  (1815)  ; vol.  Tii.  p.  113  (1816). 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


123 


weights.  If,  however^  it  be  assumed  that  a particle  of 
hydrogen  combines  successively  with  one,  two,  three  or 
more  of  its  own  particles,  to  form  the  molecules  H2,  H3, 
H4,  H5,  H6,  H7,  and  that  each  of  these  molecules  forms 
the  type  of  a group  of  elements  under  it,  the  intermediate 
steps  between  the  low  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  and 
the  high  atomic  weights  of  other  elements  are  perceived, 
and  the  diiferent  properties  of  elements  of  approximately 
equal  atomic  weights  admit  of  a rational  explanation. 

Although  it  is  herein  assumed  that  hydrogen  is  the 
ponderable  base  of  all  elementary  species,  it  is  probable 
that  this  element  itself,  as  further  maintained  by  Prout, 
may  have  been  evolved  from  an  ethereal  substance  of 
much  greater  tenuity  *.  Further  knowledge  of  the  outer 
regions  of  the  solar  atmosphere  and  of  the  zodiacal  light 
may  possibly  indicate  the  steps  by  which  hydrogen  was 
formed. 

I would  also  observe  that  the  term  “ molecule  is 
here  used  only  in  the  sense  of  a larger  or  denser  particle 
of  matter,  and  does  not  imply  the  idea  of  a composite 
aggregation  of  the  separate  particles,  each  preserving  its 
distinctive  character  after  the  molecule  is  formed,  any 
more  than  rain-drops  preserve  their  distinctive  character 
after  falling  into  the  ocean.  It  appears  to  me  much  more 
in  accordance  with  the  truth  of  nature  to  suppose  that  the 
smallest  conceivable  particle  of  a chemical  substance  or 
compound  has  the  same  physical  properties  absolutely  as 
the  mass.  If  it  be  objected  that  such  a union  of  particles 
would  have  relations  of  infinity,  and  is  therefore  incon- 
ceivable, it  may  be  answered  that  the  central  particles  of 
a rotating  body  have  mathematical  and  physical  relations 
of  a similar  kind,  and  as  the  instrument  of  thought  is 
incapable  of  forming  a distinct  conception  of  the  magnitude 

* Prout’s  ‘Chemistry  and  Meteorology,’  8th  Bridgewater  Treatise,  p.  130. 


124 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


of  the  infinitesimals  involved  in  a centre  of  rotation^  still 
less  is  it  capable  of  comprehending  the  mode  of  union  of 
the  unknowable  essences  on  which  the  physical  qualities 
of  chemical  substances^  after  combination^  depend. 
Philosophical  chemists^  I apprehend^  will  hereafter  be  able 
to  refer  the  origin  of  the  theory  of  the  composite  structure 
of  matter,  after  chemical  union,  to  the  influence  of  ideas 
derived  principally  from  the  mechanical  mixtures  employed 
in  pharmacy  and  in  the  culinary  art. 

In  the  present  hypothesis  it  is  assumed  that  a mass  of 
hydrogen,  of  a curvilinear  form,  acquired  a motion  of 
rotation  about  a central  point,  which  caused  it  to  take  a 
spiral  or  convolute  form.  As  each  successive  spiral  or 
convolution  was  formed,  the  particles  of  hydrogen  com- 
bined with  themselves  as  far  as  the  septenary  combination, 
to  constitute  the  type  of  each  group  of  elements — the 
number  of  types  or  groups  being  equal  to  the  number  of 
convolutions  of  the  rotating  gas.  According  to  this  view, 
the  elementary  groups  may  be  represented  as  forms  of  H%, 
H2w,  H3/1,  Hqw,  H5^^,  H6w,  Hyw;  the  internal  convolu- 
tions forming  the  highest  type  and  the  outer  con- 
volution the  type  hln.  That  on  a further  condensation 
of  the  elementary  matter  a transition  from  the  spiral  to 
the  annular  form  occurred,  during  or  after  which  the 
group  or  species  under  each  type  was  generated  in  con- 
centric zones  and  in  the  order  of  their  atomic  weights, 
until  the  highest  member  of  each  species  was  formed. 
That  as  the  elementary  vapours  began  to  condense,  or 
assume  the  liquid  form,  their  regular  stratification  would 
be  disturbed  by  eruptions  of  the  imprisoned  vapours 
from  the  interior  of  the  rotating  mass.  This  disturbance 
would  be  further  augmented  by  the  subsequent  combina- 
tion of  the  negative  with  the  positive  elements,  and  also 
by  the  variable  solubility  of  their  newly  formed  com- 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


125 


pounds ; so  that  the  evidence  of  such  stratification  of  the 
elementary  vapours  as  I have  indicated  must  necessarily 
be  more  fragmentary  than  that  of  the  geological  record. 
The  constant  association  in  nature,  however,  of  several 
elements  belonging  to  the  same  group,  a remarkable 
example  of  which  is  the  presence  of  lithium,  potassium, 
rubidium,  and  caesium  in  a single  mineral,  lepidolite, 
appears  to  confirm  this  view  of  the  primitive  arrangement 
of  elementary  vapours. 

In  the  annexed  table  are  arranged  all  the  known  ele- 
ments in  natural  groups,  wherein  gaps  appear,  as  in  Tables 
II.  and  III.,  which  indicate  the  existence  of  missing  ele- 
ments. The  atomic  weights  of  other  elements  which  have 
not  been  snfficiently  investigated  are  also  determined. 

If  the  theory  which  I have  enunciated  of  the  evolution 
of  elementary  substances  from  hydrogen  in  definite  pro- 
portions be  correct,  the  numbers  representing  the  atomic 
weights  also  represent  the  number  of  particles  of  hydrogen 
from  which  the  elements  were  formed.  Where  these 
numbers  do  not  coincide  exactly,  as  in  the  case  of  Cn=62, 
and  its  homologne  of  position,  Zn=64,  which  are  each  a 
unit  less  than  the  classical  numbers,  it  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  these  discrepancies  are  due  to  errors  of  experi- 
ment, but  to  some  unknown  cause  which  prevents  their 
true  atomicity  from  being  ascertained. 

Although  the  ideas  of  chemists  on  the  classification  and 
quantivalence  of  elements  have  greatly  changed  during 
recent  years,  there  is  no  question  that  the  alkaline  metals, 
lithium,  sodium,  potassium,  rubidium,  and  caesium  belong 
to  the  group  which  I have  classified  under  H?^.  Chemists 
are  also  agreed  that  silver,  notwithstanding  the  great 
divergence  of  some  of  its  characteristics  from  those  of  the 
alkaline  metals,  also  belongs  to  the  same  group.  Now 
some  of  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  copper 


126 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


and  mercury  are  more  nearly  allied  to  those  of  silver  than 
to  metals  of  other  groups,  and  recent  investigations  have 
shown  that  silver  may,  like  copper,  he  regarded  as  biva- 
lent, since  many  of  its  compounds  can  he  represented  by 
formulae  exactly  analogous  to  those  of  cuprous  compounds 
with  which  they  are  isomorphous  The  position  of  Hg, 
Ag,  and  Cu,  as  alternate  members  of  the  series  H?2,  indi- 
cate their  relationship  with  sodium,  and  are  thereby 
brought  into  still  closer  connexion  with  Li,  K,  Rb,  and 
Cs.  That  a relationship  exists  between  sodium  and  silver 
by  the  isomorphism  of  their  anhydrous  sulphates  and 
in  other  ways,  has  already  been  pointed  out  by  Odling. 
The  greater  specific  gravity  of  sodium,  while  possessing  a 
lower  atomic  weight  than  potassium,  its  passivity  in  the 
liquid  state  to  the  action  of  chlorine  L and  its  inferior 
volatility  and  oxidability  to  K,  confirm  the  relationship  of 
Na  to  the  heavy  metals  of  the  series. 

From  what  cause  elements  possessing  physical  proper- 
ties so  widely  different  should  be  associated  alternately  in 
regular  order  in  the  same  series,  can  only,  in  the  present 
state  of  knowledge,  be  a subject  of  speculation ; but,  if 
the  views  which  I have  enunciated  on  the  formation  of  the 
types  Hw — Hy/i  be  correct,  it  may  be  conceived  that  after 
the  transition  of  the  cosmical  vapours  from  the  spiral  to 
the  annular  form,  the  gaseous  material  of  each  pair  of 
members  might  rotate  in  concentric  zones,  separate  from 
each  other  by  an  interval  of  space.  It  may  be  further 
conceived  that  the  rotating  zones  of  elementary  matter 
were  of  sufficient  thickness  to  cause  a difference  of  density 
between  their  upper  and  lower  regions.  That  the  zones 
were  in  a highly  electrical  condition,  and  that  their  mu- 

* “ Quantivalence  of  Silver,— Wislicemis,”  Watts , Die.  Cliem.,  2nd  Suppl. 
1088. 

t Watts,  Die.  Chem.,  Suppl.  1030. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


127 


tual  influence  on  each  other_,  through  the  annular  space 
bet-vreen  them^  would  induce  opposite  electrical  conditions 
in  their  external  and  internal  regions^  all  the  inner  and 
denser  regions  of  the  zones  being  in  a negative^  and  the 
outer  and  rarer  regions  in  a positive  electrical  condition. 
Each  zone  would  then  be  in  a condition  to  form  an  electro- 
positive and  an  electro-negative  element,  which,  on  a 
subsequent  condensation,  would  separate  and  form  two 
zones  of  elements  having  dissimilar  properties  alternating 
with  the  other  members  of  the  same  series. 

Just  as  silver  and  sodium  are  the  connecting  links 
between  Hg  and  Cu  and  the  alkaline  metals  Li,  K,  Rb, 
and  Cs,  so  do  cadmium  and  magnesium  connect  lead  and 
zinc  with  the  alkaline-earth  metals  glucinum,  calcium,  stron- 
tium, and  barium,  which  I have  classified  as  forms  of  Hzw. 

The  classification  of  glucinum  with  the  alkaline-earth 
metals  has  only  recently  been  made ; but  chemists  are  not 
yet  agreed  upon  the  atomic  weight  of  this  element,  as  it 
has  been  fixed  at  Gl=  7(Awdejew)  and  Gl=g‘4  (Reynolds). 
It  may,  however,  be  suspected  from  the  anomalously  high 
specific  gravity  assigned  to  glucinum  (2‘io)  as  compared 
with  that  of  magnesium  (sp.  g.  i'74);  and  with  their  homo- 
logues  of  position  Li  (sp.  g.  0*59),  and  Na  (sp.  g.  0‘97), 
that  this  element  has  not  yet  been  isolated  in  a state  of 
purity*.  By  assigning  to  glucinum  the  atomic  weight 
Gl=8,  it  enters  as  a multiple  into  all  the  members  of  the 
series  H2n,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  product  of  the 
first,  second,  or  third  powers  of  H2. 

* Since  this  paper  was  written,  MM.  Nilson  and  Petterson  have  com- 
municated to  the  French  Academy  the  results  of  their  researches  on  the 
physical  properties  of  glucinum,  and  have  found  for  the  metal  a density 
equal  to  i'6^,  which,  although  still  too  high,  the  theoretical  density  being 
about  I '3,  is  less  tlian  that  of  magnesium,  and,  consequently,  stands  in  the 
same  order  of  density  as  lithium  and  sodium.— Ecndus,  April  ist, 
1877,  p.  825. 


128 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


While  the  property  of  quantivalence  would  appear  to 
be  correlated  with  the  number  of  hydrogen  particles  in 
the  typical  molecules  from  which  the  elements  were 
evolved,  and  is  a valuable  aid  in  the  classification  of  ele- 
mentary species,  this  property,  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge,  is  not  in  many  cases  sufficient,  of  itself,  to 
indicate  the  group  to  which  an  element  belongs.  This 
will  he  seen  from  the  recognized  bivalency  of  copper  and 
mercury,  and  by  the  doubtful  quantivalence  of  silver,  and 
by  analogy  of  sodium,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  series 
Hre,  That  tetratomic  lead  = 208,  is  a member  of  the 
group  H2?^,  is  shown  by  the  isomorphism  of  its  oxide, 
carbonate,  and  sulphate,  with  the  oxides,  carbonates,  and 
sulphates  of  barium,  strontium,  and  calcium  ; besides 
which  there  is  no  other  place  vacant  in  the  system  of  ele- 
ments where  one  with  the  atomic  weight  and  physical 
properties  of  lead  would  fit. 

Were  it  not  for  the  analogous  physical  properties  and 
the  numerical  relations  subsisting  among  the  elements 
grouped  as  forms  of  H3W,  their  classification  from  the 
property  of  quantivalence  alone  would  hardly  have  been 
possible.  There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  alumi- 
num, yttrium,  erbium,  and  thorium  are  rightly  classified 
together,  and  that  indium  and  thallium  are  true  analogues 
of  each  other.  As  considerable  interest  attaches  to  this 
group  at  the  present  time,  on  account  of  the  recent  addi- 
tions which  have  been  made  to  it  by  the  aid  of  spectral 
analysis,  I here  show  the  atomicities  of  its  members  in  a 
separate  Table,  calculated  on  the  same  principle  as  those 
in  Tables  II.,  III. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


129 


IV. 

0.0  , 12  = C =12 

1 X 27  . o = A1  = 27 

2 X 27  —12  = — = 42 

3 X 27  —12  = — =69 

4 X 27  —12  = — = 96 

5 X 27  — 12  = Yt  =123 

6 X 27  —12  = In  =150 

7 X 27  —12  = E =177 

8 X 27  — 12  = T1  =204 


9 X 27  —12  = Th  =231 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  three  elements  missing 
in  this  group,  the  atomie  weights  of  which  can  be  pre- 
dicted in  like  manner  with  those  of  the  missing  elements 
in  the  preceding  groups.  The  Table  also  affords  the  means 
of  correcting  and  determining  the  atomicities  of  elements 
of  the  series  which,  from  their  rarity,  have  not  been 
sufficiently  investigated.  It  will  be  further  observed  that, 
besides  the  similar  numerical  relations  of  the  members  of 
this  group  with  those  shown  in  Tables  II.,  III.,  the  atomic 
weights  are  all  multiples  of  3,  and  are  classified  accordingly 
as  forms  of  H3«. 

The  spectral  reactions  of  this  series  of  elements  are 
remarkable  from  the  oxides  of  carbon  and  of  erbium  giving 
a spectrum  of  lines  at  low  temperatures,  and  by  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  spectral  lines  of  indium  and  thallium  in  the 
more  refrangible  parts  of  the  spectrum.  The  atomic 
weights  of  C,  Al,  Tl,  and  Th,  are  identical  with  those 
generally  received,  and  afford  presumptive  evidence  that 
the  atomic  weights  of  the  intermediate  members  are  equally 
correct.  It  will,  however,  be  observed  that  the  atomic 
weights  of  yttrium  and  indium  are  double  the  accepted 
numbers  (Yt  = 6i7,  In=  75-6);  but  in  regard  to  the  latter 
element,  it  has  not  yet  been  definitely  agreed  ivliicli 
multiple  of  37‘6j>  the  original  determination,  shall  be  the 
classical  one,  as  the  atomicity  has  been  fixed  by  diff’erent 
chemists  at  75'^j  ’'^3;  ^50;  tbc  number  assigned  to 

SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


K 


130 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


it  in  the  Table.  The  relations  whieh  the  double  atomic 
weights  of  In  and  Yt  have  to  each  other,  and  with  their 
homologues  of  position  Cs,  Ba,  and  Ag,  Cd,  in  Tables  II., 
III.,  render  it  highly  probable  that  the  atomic  weights  of  Yt 
and  In  in  the  table  are  correct.  For  similar  reasons  it  is 
probable  that  the  atomic  weight  of  erbium  will  be  found 
to  be  177.  It  is  only  very  recently  that  any  investigations 
of  the  atomic  weight  of  this  rare  element  have  been  made, 
from  the  difficulty  attending  its  isolation  from  yttrium, 
with  which  it  is  found  associated  in  nature.  According 
to  some  chemists,  the  atomic  weight  of  erbium  is  ii2'6, 
which,  in  relation  to  177,  is  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  5 to  8. 
The  more  recent  researches  of  M.  Cleve  on  the  quanti- 
valence  of  this  element  have,  however,  raised  its  atomic 
weight  to  i70'55  *,  which,  considering  the  wide  difference 
between  it  and  the  previous  determination,  is  a near 
approximation  to  the  number  in  the  Table.  The  researches 
of  the  same  chemist  have  also  raised  the  atomic  weight  of 
yttrium  from  61  *7,  the  accepted  determination,  to  89' 5, 
or  three  fourths  the  calculated  value.  Now  the  history 
of  chemical  science  abundantly  shows  that  it  is  only  after 
long  and  repeated  investigation  that  the  highest  quantiva- 
lence  of  an  element  can  be  ascertained,  and  the  result  of 
M.  elevens  researches  is  a further  confirmation  of  the 
correctness  of  the  atomic  weights  of  yttrium  and  erbium 
given  in  the  Table. 

By  comparing  the  electro-positive  members  of  the  series 
Hn  with  those  of  H2?2,  it  will  be  seen  that  a complete 
parallelism  exists  between  them ; the  light  alkaline,  and 
alkaline-earth  metals  alternating  with  the  heavy  members 
in  homologous  positions  in  both  series.  Odling  has 
already  indicated  that  this  is  the  natural  order  of  the 
dissimilar  members  of  the  zinco-calcic  group  of  elements  f, 

* Bull.  Societe  Ohemique,  Paris,  tome  xxi.  p.  344  (1874). 

t Watts,  Die.  Ohem.  1865,  yoI.  iii.  p.  963. — “Classification  of  Metals.” 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


131 


and  similar  alternations  in  other  natural  groups  have  been 
recognized  in  the  arrangement  of  elements  proposed  by 
Mr.  Newlands  * and  MendeleeflF  f. 

Just  as  Cu=62,  Ag=io8j  and  alternate  with 

Rb  = 85j  Cs  = 131^  and  x=  177,  in  the  series  Hw;  and  Zn 
= 64^  Cd  = 1 12,  and  x=  160,  alternate  with  Sr  = 88^  Ba= 
136,  and  ^=184;  so  in  the  series  H3/ij  do  x=6g,  Yt  = 
123,  and  Eb=i77,  alternate  with  x = ()6,  In=i50,  and 
T1=204.  Again^  just  as  K,  Rb^  Cs,  and  ^=154,  are 
analogues  of  each  other  in  the  series  Hn,  so  are  x = 42, 
^ = 96^  In,  and  Tl,  analogues  of  each  other  in  the  series 
H3»^,  and  are  in  homologous  positions  with  the  alkaline, 
and  alkaline-earth  metals  in  the  series  Hw,  and  H2n.  The 
specific  gravities  of  analogous  members  of  these  two  series, 
except  glucinum,  which  is  anomalous,  increase  in  the  order 
of  their  atomic  weights,  and  so  far  as  the  specific  gravities 
of  the  members  of  the  series  H3«  have  been  ascertained, 
they  follow  the  same  order.  Now,  M.  Lecoq  de  Boisbau- 
dran  has  shown  that  the  new  metal  which  he  has  discovered, 
and  named  gallium  is,  from  its  spectral  reactions  and 
other  properties,  the  analogue  of  indium  and  thallium. 
The  position  of  the  new  metal  in  the  series  H3re,  should 
therefore  be  either  — =42,  homologous  with  Ca,  and  K, 
or  — =96,  homologous  with  Sr  and  Rb.  In  comparing 
the  alkaline  metals  of  the  series  Hn,  the  specific  gravity  of 
sodium  (o‘97),  as  will  be  seen,  is  greater  than  that  of 
potassium  (o’ 8 6),  although  Na  has  a less  atomic  weight; 
and  the  same  inversion  of  specific  gravities  in  relation  to 
atomic  weights  is  observable  in  their  homologues  of  jiosi- 
tion  Mg  (sp.  g.  174),  and  Ca  (sp.  g.  i‘58),  in  the  series 

* Ohem.  News,  vol.  xii.  p.  83  ; vol.  xiii.  p.  113. 

t Die  periodische  Gesetzmafsigkeit  dex*  clieniischen  Elemeixte. — Ann.  Cheui. 
Plxai’ni.  Siippl.  Band.  viii.  pp.  133-229  (1872);  Phil.  Mag.  5th  ser.  vol.  i. 
P-  543- 

J Coniptes  Rendiis,  tome  Ixxxi.  pp.  403,  1000  (1865). 

K 2 


132 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


Haw.  It  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  the  missing 
member  .2?  = 42,  H3W,  would  have  a less  specific  gravity 
than  A1  (sp.  g.  2’56),  probably  2*5 . Now,  the  specific 
gravity  of  gallium,  as  determined  by  M.  Lecoq  de  Boisbau- 
dran,  is  5*9  *,  and  its  analogues  indium  and  thallium  have 
specific  gravities  of  7^42  and  ii‘9  respectively,  conse- 
quently a? =42  is  not  gallium.  If  gallium  were  x = 6c)  it 
would  be  the  analogue  of  Yt,  E,  and  Th,  and  homologous 
in  position  with  Zn  and  Cu,  whereas  it  has  been  shown  to 
be  the  analogue  of  In  and  Tl,  and  homologous  in  position 
with  Sr  and  Bb.  There  is  then  no  other  place  for  a metal 
having  the  physical  properties  of  gallium  but  the  one 
assigned  to  it  in  the  series  H3W,  with  the  atomic  weight 
= 96,  and  forming  a triad  with  indium  and  thallium.  If, 
however,  the  experimental  determination  of  the  atomicity 
of  gallium  pass  through  the  same  stages  as  the  atomicities 
of  indium,  yttrium,  and  other  members  of  the  series,  its 
atomic  weight  will  be  represented  by  the  submultiple  and 
proportional  numbers  48  and  72  f. 

Just  as  silver  and  copper  are  analogues  of  each  other, 
and  are  frequently  associated  in  nature  ; and  just  as  their 
homologues,  cadmium  and  zinc,  are  analogues,  and  are 
also  found  together,  so  is  yttrium  the  analogue  of  ^ = 69, 
and  will  be  found  associated  with  it  in  nature.  Now,  if 
x=6g  be  not  the  terbium  of  Mosander  and  Delafontaine, 
and  the  researches  of  Bahr  and  Bunsen  render  the  existence 
of  this  element  doubtful,  it  is  probable  that  x — 6g  is 

* Phil.  Mag.  5th  ser.  vol.  ii.  p.  398. 

t From  a calcination  of  the  gallo-ammoniacal  alum,  M.  Lecoq  de  Bois- 
baudran  has  recently  found  for  gallium  the  equivalent  70'03,  and  from  a 
calcination  of  the  nitrate,  6g‘6. — Comptes  Bendus,  15th,  1878.  The 

researches  of  M.  Berthelot  on  the  specific  heat  of  gallium  indicate,  however, 
a higher  equivalent  for  the  metal  than  70-03,  as  the  atomic  heat  calculated 
from  this  determination  (5-55  solid)  is  lower  than  that  of  any  other  metal 
except  silicium. — Ibid.  April  15th,  1878. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


133 


cerium^  as  this  element  and  yttrium  are  nearly  always 
found  assoeiated  in  the  mineral  species  cerite  and  yttroce- 
rite.  Moreover^  it  will  he  observed  that  x=6()  is  just  i*5, 
or  0.75  the  atomic  weight  of  cerium^  according  as  it  is 
regarded  as  46  or  92.  Mendeleeff  and  other  chemists  have 
already  proposed  138  as  the  atomic  weight  of  cerium*, 
which  is  double  that  of  x = 6().  MM.  Hildebrand  and 
Norton  have  recently  obtained  cerium,  lanthanum,  and 
didymium  in  a massive  state,  and  have  thereby  been  able 
to  investigate  some  of  the  physical  properties  of  these  rare 
metals  f.  According  to  these  experimenters  the  specific 
gravities  of  Ce,  La,  and  Di,  range  between  6 and  6-7, 
Bearing  in  mind  that  elements  of  approximately  the  same 
atomic  weights  and  specific  gravities  generally  belong  to 
diflerent  series,  and  that  the  specific  gravities  of  analo- 
gous members  in  each  series  increase  in  the  order  of  their 
atomic  weights,  it  would  appear  that  cerium  does  not 
belong  to  the  same  series  as  lanthanum  and  didymium. 
Moreover,  consid'Cring  the  important  position  which  ,27=69 
occupies  in  relation  to  its  analogues  Al,  Yt,  and  the  posi- 
tion which  these  three  elements  occupy  in  relation  to 
their  homologues  Mg,  Zn,  Cd,  and  Na,  Cu,  and  Ag,  it  may 
be  doubted  if  x = 6g  should,  up  to  the  present  time,  have 
remained  undiscovered,  especially  as  all  its  analogues  of 
the  series  Th,  E,  Yt,  and  Al,  are  well  known.  If,  there- 
fore, 37  = 69  be  cerium,  the  only  element  missing  in  the 
series  llSn  is  37  = 42,  the  analogue  of  Ga,  In,  and  Tl.  As 
these  elements  have  been  discovered  by  spectrum  analysis, 
it  is  probable  that  37=42  will  also  be  found  by  the  same 
means.  It  may,  however,  be  observed,  that  the  character- 
istic lines  of  the  alkaline  metals  in  the  series  Hw,  and  of 
their  homologues  H32^,  advance  in  the  blue  or  violet  end  of 

* Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  Suppl.  viii.  pp.  185-190. 

t Chem.  Soc.  Journal,  1876,  vol,  ii.  p.  276. 


134 


MJl.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


the  spectrum,  towards  the  more  refrangible  parts  in  the 
inverse  order  of  their  atomic  weights.  The  spectral  lines 
of  ^=42  must  therefore  be  sought  for  in  the  violet  or 
ultra  violet  part  of  the  spectrum.  The  high  refrangibility 
of  the  lines  which  the  missing  element  will  have,  may  he 
the  reason  why  it  has  hitherto  escaped  detection,  as  from 
the  wide  distribution  in  nature  of  its  homologues  of  posi- 
tion Ca,  and  K,  in  relation  to  their  respective  analogues 
Sr  and  Plb,  a?  = 42  ought  to  be  more  abundant  in  nature 
than  gallium  *. 

From  the  physical  and  chemical  relations  which  subsist 
among  the  halogens  F,  Cl,  Br,  I,  and  the  alkaline  metals 
Li,  Na,  K,  Rb,  Cs,  chemists  have  already  justly  considered 
these  elements  as  positive  and  negative  analogues  of  each 
other  and  of  hydrogen.  In  accordance  with  this  view,  I 
have  classified  the  halogens  as  negative  forms  of  the  series 
H7^.  By  assigning  to  these  elements  the  positions  shown 
in  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  besides  the  triad  of  atomic 
weights  formed  by  Cl,  Br,  and  I,  there  is  a common 
diffence  of  4 between  the  atomic  weights  of  the  halogens 
and  their  positive  homologues  of  position  Na,  K,  Rb,  and 
Cs.  Now  if  the  groups  of  oxygen  elements  O,  S,  Se,  Te, 
be  considered  as  negative  forms  of  H2^^,  homologous  in 
character  and  position  with  the  negative  forms  of  H^^,  it 
will  be  seen  that  besides  the  triad  of  atomic  weights  formed 
by  S,  Se,  and  Te,  there  is  a common  difierence  of  8 between 
them  and  their  positive  homologues  Mg,  Ca,  Sr,  and  Ba ; 
or  double  the  common  difference  between  the  positive  and 
negative  members  of  the  series  The  oxygen  elements 

are  multiples  of  2,  4,  8,  and  16,  and  may  accordingly  be 

* Nilson  discovered  in  1879  (Oomples  Eendus,  Ixxxviii.  p.  645)  a metal 
with  an  atomie  weight  of  44,  which  he  regards  as  trivalent,  and  has  named 
scandium.  This  metal,  from  several  of  its  properties,  would  appear  to  be 
^7=42,  H3W,  and  as  all  its  homologues  of  position  are  well-known  elements, 
I have  placed  scandium  (symbol  80=42)  in  the  Table. — H.  W.  1886. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


135 


considered  as  products  of  the  firsts  second,  third  or  fourth 
power  of  H2I^.  Whichever  view  be  taken  of  the  formation 
of  the  first  negative  member  of  the  series  H2I^,  it  is  probable 
that  both  fluorine  and  oxygen  were  not  formed  direct  from 
and  H2i2,  but  from  members  homologous  in  position 
with  Li,  and  Gl,  but  which  have  become  extinct  by  absorp- 
tion into  F and  O. 

Another  numerical  relation  subsisting  among  the  halo- 
gens which  it  may  be  of  interest  to  point  out  is,  that  the 
difference  of  a unit  in  their  atomic  weights  will  make  them 
mnltiples  of  3 and  9,  and  these  numbers,  commencing  with 
01=36,  are  all  respectively  three  times  the  atomic  weights 
of  the  first  three  members  of  the  series  H3I^.  These  rela- 
tions would  indicate  that  the  halogens,  usually  regarded 
as  monatomic,  are  also  built  up  in  multiple  proportions, 
and  may  also  throw  some  light  on  the  variable  quantiva- 
lence  which  Wanklyn  and  other  chemists  have  shown  the 
alkaline  metals  and  halogens  to  possess. 

The  recent  researches  of  chemists  leave  no  doubt  that 
all  the  elements  which  I have  classified  as  forms  of  H5W, 
except  boron,  belong  to  the  same  group.  Now,  boron 
bears  a greater  resemblance  to  phosphorus  in  its  combi- 
nations and  occurrence  in  nature  than  it  does  to  other 
elements,  and  whether  the  first  three  members  of  the 
series  be  considered  as  forms  of  H5W,  or  H5I^+I,  they 
form  a triad  as  well  defined  as  their  homologues  of  position 
in  H3W,  H2I^  and  HI^.  Triads  are  also  formed  by  anti- 
mony, arsenic,  and  phosphorus, — bismuth,  antimony,  and 
phosphorus, — tantalum,  niobium,  and  boron, — ^^=140, 
As  = 75,  and  B=io, — x=i\o,  Nb=95,  and  V=50. 
The  atomic  weights  of  boron,  phosphorus,  and  vanadium 
have  been  so  carefully  determined  by  chemists,  as  to 
preclude  any  doubt  of  their  being  represented  by 
Bsn  -f  I,  rather  than  H5?^ ; but  the  fact  that  arsenic. 


136 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


antimony,  and  bismuth  are  better  represented  by  the 
formula  H5%,  and  that  Cu,  and  Zn,  in  the  series  Hw, 
and  H2n,  exhibit  the  same  constant  minus  difference  from 
the  classical  atomic  numbers  as  B,  P,  and  V,  are  further 
indications  of  some  unknown  property  of  the  elements 
which  conceals  their  exact  multiple  relations  from  view. 
If  the  discovery  of  two  new  elements  of  this  group  by 
Hermann  to  which  this  chemist  has  given  the  names  of 
neptunium  and  illmenium,  be  confirmed,  the  former  element 
will  have  an  atomic  weight  of  140,  and  the  latter  element 
an  atomic  weight  of  165,  as  shown  in  the  table. 

Although  the  numerical  relations  of  the  members  of  the 
series  H5W  are  very  interesting,  yet,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  ratios  are  not  so  simple  as  those  of  the  series  H7^,  Hzw, 
H3W,  as  multiples  of  the  second  member,  minus  the  first, 
do  not  give  the  atomic  weights  of  the  other  members  of 
the  series. 

The  series  H4W  is  incomplete,  not  only  by  reason  of  the 
absence  of  several  of  its  members,  but  also  because  the 
atomicity  of  lanthanum  and  didymium  is  not  yet  agreed 
upon  by  chemists.  There  can,  however,  be  no  question  as 
to  the  position  of  titanium  as  the  third  member  of  this 
series,  as  there  is  no  other  place  vacant  where  an  element 
with  an  atomic  weight  of  48  would  fit,  while  the  isomor- 
phism of  rutile  with  cassiterite  and  zirconia  indicates  the 
relation  of  tin  and  zirconium  with  the  same  series. 

The  classification  of  uranium  presents  some  difiiculty 
on  account  of  the  fewness  of  its  analogies  with  other 
elements,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  atomic 
weight  assigned  to  U=  120,  until  recently,  is  much  too 
small,  as  there  are  no  elements  with  atomic  weights  so 
low,  correlated  with  specific  gravities  so  high  as  that  of 

* ‘Nature,’  April  12th,  1877.  H.  Kolbe’e  ‘Journal  fur  praktische 
Cbemie,’  Feb.  1877,  pp.  105-150. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


137 


U,  sp.  gr.  = i8’3.  From  a study  of  the  chemical  combina- 
tions of  this  element^  Mendeleef  has  assigned  to  it  the 
atomic  weight  of  240*,  or  double  the  number  formerly  re- 
ceived, and  which  number  I have  adopted.  The  admission 
of  this  high  atomic  weight,  however,  separates  uranium 
from  chromium,  molybdenum,  and  tungsten,  with  which  it 
has  been  classified,  as  there  are  no  elements  of  approximately 
the  same  high  specific  gravities  as  tungsten=  i8‘26,  and 
uranium  = 1 8’3,  correlated  with  so  great  a difference  of 
atomic  weights  as  11  = 240,  and  W=i84,  From  the  fact 
that  the  highest  places  in  all  the  series,  except  that  in 
H4W,  are  filled  up  with  their  highest  members,  and  that 
uranium  is  generally  found  in  combination  with  the 
mineral  species  yttrotantalite,  fergusonite,  polykrase,  pyro- 
cJilore,  pyrrhite,  containing  elements  of  the  series  H3W  on 
the  one  side,  and  in  combination  with  minerals  containing 
elements  of  the  series  H5%  on  the  other,  I have  classified 
uranium  as  the  highest  form  of  H4W.  The  two  lower 
forms  of  H4W,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  are  missing  f; 
but,  assuming  that  titanium  is  the  highest  member  in  a 
triad  with  the  missing  elements,  the  atomic  weights  of 
the  latter  are  16  and  32,  isomeric  with  oxygen  and  sulphur. 
It  may,  however,  be  surmised  that  no  elements  now  exist  to 
fill  the  gaps  in  the  series,  as  they  may  have  become  extinct 
by  absorption  into  titanium  and  its  analogues,  or  by  trans- 
formation into  the  negative  forms  of  H2%. 

The  el6ments  which  I have  classified  as  forms  of  \l6n 


* Ann.  Chem.  Pharm.  Suppl.  Tiii.  pp.  178-184, 

t Prof.  Winkler  of  Freiberg  has  recently  discovered  a new  element 
which  he  has  named  “Germanium”  (symbol  Ge).  (‘Nature,’  March  4, 
1886  ; ‘ Berichte’  of  the  Berlin  Chemical  Society,  No.  3).  Germanium  was 
first  considered  by  Winkler  to  belong  to  the  antimony  and  bismuth  group ; 
but  the  subsequent  determinations  of  its  specific  gravity  S‘469,  and  atomic 
weight  7275,  place  the  new  element  in  the  vacant  position  x=^-jz  in  the 
series  Il4«,  and  in  the  group  of  titanium  and  tin. — H.  W.,  1886. 


138 


MR.  H.  WlLDli  ON  THE 


are  ouly  three  in  number,  and  the  atomic  weight  of 
chromium  = 52‘2  establishes  its  position  as  the  third 
member  of  the  series,  and  there  is  no  other  place  for  an 
element  with  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of 
chromium  vacant  in  the  table.  For  like  reasons  the 
positions  in  the  series  of  molybdenum  and  tungsten  (the 
analogues  of  chromium)  are  also  determined.  By  assign- 
ing to  chromium  the  constitution  9 H6,  it  forms  a triad 
with  the  missing  elements  <*’  = 36,  and  a?=i8,  which  are, 
within  a nnit,  the  atomic  weights  of  fluorine  and  chlorine. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  elements  which  I have 
classifled  as  H7%,  little  assistance  is  derived  from  known 
analogies,  when  nitrogen  and  silicium  are  admitted  in  the 
same  series  with  the  iron  and  platinum  groups  of  metals  ; 
yet,  it  might  be  expected  that  elements  so  abundant,  and 
so  widely  diffused  in  nature  as  nitrogen,  silicium,  and 
iron,  would  occupy  important  positions  in  any  rational 
classiflcation  of  elementary  species.  We  have  seen  that 
the  first  three  places  in  the  preceding  series  Hw,  H2n, 
H'^n,  H5W,  are  all  occupied  by  elements  with  atomic 
weights  which  exclude  nitrogen,  silicium,  and  iron,  while 
the  latter  element  is  excluded  from  the  series  H4W,  and 
H6w,  by  chromium  and  titanium.  The  atomic  weights  of 
N,  Si,  and  Fe,  besides  being  whole  numbers,  are  exact 
multiples  of  7.  N and  Si  are,  consequently,  excluded 
from  the  vacant  homologous  positions  in  the  series  H4W, 
H6/^. 

Since  the  investigation  of  the  properties  of  silicium  by 
Berzelius,  who  regarded  silicic  acid  as  a trioxide,  much 
discussion  has  arisen  as  to  whether  the  atomic  weight  of 
silicium  be  21  or  28  ; or  the  formula  for  its  oxide  SiOj 
or  SiOj.  Chemists  are  now  generally  agreed  upon  the 
latter  formula  for  silicic  acid,  and  have  accordingly 
classified  silicium  with  titanium,  as  the  oxide  SiO^,  agrees 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


139 


with  titanic  acid  TiO^.  Now,  if  siliciura  were  the  true 
analogue  of  titanium,  the  oxides  of  these  elements  should 
be  isomorphous,  whereas  the  erystalline  form  of  quartz  is 
hexagonal,  while  rutile,  anatase,  brookite,  zirconia  and 
tinstone  (similar  oxides  of  members  of  the  series  H4W), 
are  tetragonal ; consequently,  silieium  does  not  belong  to 
the  series  H4vz. 

By  assigning  to  silieium  the  atomie  weight  35,  it  forms 
with  nitrogen  and  iron  a triad  similar  to  the  first  three 
members  of  H^,  H2w,  H3%,  H5W.  The  position  of  Si=  35, 
as  the  seeond  member  of  the  series  H7W,  not  only  throws 
new  light  on  the  disputed  atomieity  of  this  element,  hut 
also  explains  the  anomalous  atomic  heat  which  has  been 
assigned  to  it. 

Through  the  classieal  researehes  of  Regnault  the  speeific 
heat  of  silieium  was  found  to  be  O' 176*.  The  determi- 
nation was  made  with  speeimens  of  the  metal  of  consi- 
derable size,  and  in  a state  of  compactness  and  purity  to 
receive  a polish  whieh  formed  a perfeet  mirror.  The 
above  number  multiplied  by  28,  the  highest  atomic  weight 
assigned  to  Si,  gives  the  produet  4*93,  while  the  law  of 
Dulong  and  Petit  requires  the  value  6' 25. 

In  diseussing  the  eause  of  the  anomalous  atomic  heat 
of  silieium,  Begnault  pointed  out  that  in  order  that  it 
might  enter  into  the  law  of  the  specifie  heat  of  other 
elements,  it  would  be  necessary  to  write  the  formula  of 
silicic  acid  Si^Oj ; it  would  then  resemble  that  of  nitric, 
phosphoric,  and  arsenic  acid.  The  atomic  weight  of 
silieium  would  then  be  35,  and  the  prodnet  of  this  number 
and  the  speeific  heat  would  be  nearly  6' 25,  whieh  agrees 
with  the  analogous  products  which  other  simple  bodies 
give.  By  assigning  to  silieium  a higher  atomic  weight 


* ‘ Annales  de  Chimic  et  de  Physique,’  tome  Ixiii.  pp.  24-31  (1861). 


140 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


and  a polyhasic  character  like  that  of  phosphorus  or 
nitrogen^  Regnault  remarked  that  it  is  easy  to  explain  the 
existence  of  the  great  number  of  silicates  which  nature 
presents  in  well-defined  and  beautiful  crystals^  and  to 
understand  the  existence  of  the  natural  hydro-silicates. 

Whichever  view  chemists  may  ultimately  adopt  in 
regard  to  the  constitution  of  silicic  acid^  or  whether  its 
atomic  weight  be  fixed  at  3H7J  4H7,  or  5^7^  silicium 
will  still  retain  its  position  as  the  second  member  of  the 
series  Yi'jn. 

The  chief  properties  which  distinguish  the  elements  of 
the  series  are  their  high  fusing-point,  their  occlusive 
affinity  for  hydrogen,  and  their  passivity  in  the  presence 
of  ordinary  reagents,  to  which  iron,  under  peculiar  con- 
ditions, forms  no  exception.  In  regard  to  their  occlusive 
affinity  for  hydrogen,  the  relation  of  nitrogen  to  iron 
and  palladium  may  explain  the  existence  of  the  ammonium 
amalgam,  in  which  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  are  held 
together  in  the  nascent  state  by  means  of  mercury.  The 
formation  of  silicium  hydride  by  electrolysis,  in  a manner 
analogous  to  that  of  the  ammonium  amalgam,  would  also 
indicate  for  silicium  a similar  occlusive  affinity  for  hydro- 
gen to  that  possessed  by  nitrogen. 

Although  gold  in  some  recent  classifications  of  elements 
has  been  separated  from  the  platinum  metals,  yet,  in  its 
primary  qualities,  it  exhibits  closer  analogies  with  them 
than  with  the  members  of  any  other  series,  and  there  is 
no  other  place  vacant  in  the  groups  which  an  element 
with  the  atomic  weight  and  physical  properties  of  gold 
would  fit.  The  constant  association  in  nature  of  quartz, 
hematite,  and  specular  iron  ores  with  gold  and  platinum 
is  a fact  fully  recognized  by  chemical  geologists*,  and 

* BischofFs  ‘ Cliemical  and  Physical  Geology,’  vol.  iii.  p.  5 34.  Cavendish 
Soc.  Works.  Murchison’s  ‘Siluria,’  chap.  xvii.  pp.  433-439. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


141 


confirms  the  positions  assigned  for  Si,  Fe,  and  An,  in  the 
table  as  forms  of  H7^^. 

The  remarkable  resemblance  which  the  members  of  the 
iron  group  have  to  one  another,  while  their  atomic  weights 
are  nearly,  if  not  exactly  the  same,  has  long  been  a subject 
of  much  interest  to  philosophical  chemists,  and  if  the 
views  which  I have  enounced  respecting  the  formation  of 
elementary  species  by  condensation  be  correct,  the  cause 
of  these  resemblances  admits  of  a possible  explanation. 
From  the  great  abundance  and  wide  distribution  of  iron 
in  nature,  it  is  probable  that  the  vapour  of  this  element 
would  form  a zone  of  considerable  depth ; the  upper  and 
lower  regions  of  whieh,  by  differences  of  pressure  and 
temperature,  might  produce  allotropic  varieties  before  a 
definite  change  to  the  next  higher  members  in  the  series 
occurred.  When  once  varieties  of  an  element  were 
formed,  these  varieties  would  be  propagated  through 
suecessive  condensations  into  the  next  higher  members  of 
the  series,  just  as  they  are  found  in  the  palladium  and 
platinum  groups  of  metals.  Chemists  have  already  obser- 
ved that  eaeh  of  the  metals  of  the  palladium  group 
appears  to  be  more  especially  correlated  with  some 
particular  member  of  the  platinum  group,  and  all  are 
found  associated  together  naturally  in  the  metallic  state. 
If  the  four  members  of  the  platinum  group  be  considered 
the  analogues  of  the  corresponding  members  of  the  iron 
and  palladium  groups,  it  will  be  seen  that  one  of  the 
members  of  the  latter  group  is  missing.  M.  Sergius 
Kern,  a Russian  chemist,  has  recently  discovered  a new 
metal  which  he  classifies  with  the  platinum  group,  and 
has  given  to  it  the  name  of  davyum*.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  new  metal  was  found  to  be  9‘39,  and  pre- 


Comptes  Eencliis,  teme  Ixxxv.  pp.  72,  623,  667  (1877). 


142 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


liminary  experiments  on  its  equivalent  show  that  it  is 
greater  than  loo  and  supposed  to  be  150-154.  Now  the 
specific  gravity  and  atomic  weight  of  the  new  metal 
exclude  it  from  the  platinum  group,  and  also  from  the 
iron  group  of  metals;  davyum  is  therefore  the  missing 
element  in  the  palladium  group,  and  will  have  a specific 
gravity  of  about  ii,  and  an  atomic  weight  of  105  ; or  the 
same  density  and  equivalent  as  the  other  members  of  the 
group.  The  state  of  aggregation  of  the  small  quantity  of 
the  new  metal  obtained  by  M.  Kern,  may  have  prevented 
the  same  specific  gravity  being  found  for  it  as  for  the 
other  members. 

Although  I have  designated  the  highest  members  of  the 
series  H7W,  as  the  platinum  group,  yet  if  the  slight 
differences  in  their  atomic  weights  and  physical  properties 
admit  of  explanation  by  the  assumption  of  their  being 
allotropic  varieties  of  each  other,  then  gold,  palladium,  and 
iron,  may  stand  at  the  head  of  their  respective  groups, 
and  determine  the  species  to  which  the  varieties  belong. 
It  is  no  objection  to  the  theory  of  the  members  of  the 
respective  groups  being  varieties  of  each  other,  that  they 
cannot  by  any  known  power  of  analysis  be  resolved  into 
their  primaries,  as  the  same  objection  would  apply  to  the 
natural  varieties  of  organic  species  determined  by  natura- 
lists. 

We  have  seen  that  the  quantivalence  of  most  of  the 
members  of  the  preceding  groups  Hw,  H6I^,  is  in  some 
way  correlated  or  dependent  on  the  construction  of  the 
typical  molecules  at  the  head  of  each  series ; but  in  the 
series  the  only  element  which  is  known  to  he  septi- 
valent  is  manganese,  but  the  relation  which  this  metal 
has  to  the  iron  gronp,  and  bearing  in  mind  that  the 
determination  of  the  highest  quantivalence  of  elements  is 
limited  by  the  knowledge  of  chemists  at  particular  times. 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


143 


and  is  only  arrived  at  after  mueli  researeh^  the  septivalency 
of , manganese  indicates  a much  higher  quantivalence  for 
the  other  members  of  the  series  Hyw  than  has  up  to  this 
time  been  accorded  to  them. 

I have  hesitated  to  introduce  hypothetical  elements 
alternating  with  the  iron,  palladium,  and  platinum  groups, 
as  the  regular  sequence  of  elementary  forms  is  broken  by 
varieties,  and  from  the  density  of  the  typical  molecule 
Hy,  it  may  be  that  the  members  of  this  series  are  limited 
to  those  shown  in  the  table.  The  density  of  the  typical 
molecule  H6/^  may  also  explain  the  absence  of  members 
alternating  with  Cr,  Mo,  and  W,  and  I have  therefore 
only  introduced  one  hypothetical  element  in  this  series, 
the  analogue  of  Cr,  with  the  atomic  weight=i44. 

Considering  how  nearly  the  numbers  representing  the 
molecular  constitution  and  atomic  weights  of  the  members 
in  homologous  positions  in  the  higher  groups  approximate, 
the  idea  occurs  that  the  subsequent  condensations  of  these 
higher  groups  are  in  some  way  influenced  or  determined 
by  the  antecedent  condensations  of  homologous  members 
of  the  lower  groups,  and  may  be  the  cause  of  the  departure 
in  the  higher  groups  from  the  simple  ratios  and  multiple 
relations  observed  amongst  the  elements  of  the  series  H/* 
and  H2I^.  Such  perturbations  would  appear  to  be  similar 
to  those  which  the  planetary  bodies  exercise  on  each  other 
to  produce  modifications  in  the  forms  of  their  orbits,  but 
I leave  this  question  to  the  further  consideration  of  physi- 
cists and  astronomers. 

The  complete  parallelism  of  the  halogens  and  oxygens  to 
each  other,  and  their  intensely  electro-negative  character, 
point  irresistibly  to  the  conclusion  that  at  one  period  of 
their  history  these  elements  existed  in  a state  of  isolation 
from  all  the  others.  How,  and  under  what  conditions, 
they  acquired  their  electro-negative  properties  can  in  the 


144 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE 


present  state  of  knowledge  be  only  a matter  of  conjecture ; 
but  it  may  be  conceived  that  these  elements  may  have 
existed  originally  in  the  form  of  a ring  or  rings  revolving 
within  the  moon^s  orbit,  but  high  above  the  incandescent 
terrestrial  surface,  probably  before  the  lunar  substance 
changed  from  the  annular  to  the  globular  form.  These 
intra-lunar  rings  may  have  gradually  acquired  their  electro- 
negative properties  by  lunar  and  terrestrial  induction,  and 
by  the  loss  of  their  primitive  heat  by  radiation  into  space. 
Their  orbits  being  too  near  the  earth  to  permit  the  rings 
to  assume  the  spheroidal  form,  they  would  upon  rupture 
become  incorporated  with  the  positive  terrestrial  elements, 
and  remain  dissociated  till  the  temperature  of  the  mass 
was  sufficiently  reduced  to  enable  chemical  combination 
to  take  place.  If  Draper^s  discovery  of  oxygen  in  the  sun 
be  confirmed,  the  hypothesis  of  the  existence  of  an  intra- 
mercurial ring  of  negative  elements  which  subsequently 
united  with  the  solar  positive  elements  is  at  least  as 
probable  as  the  assumption  of  an  intra-mercurial  planet 
which  has  recently  been  discussed  by  astronomers.  May 
not  the  sudden  increase  in  the  brightness  of  variable  stars 
like  T Coronse,  Nova  Ophiuchi,  1848,  and  Nova  Cygni, 
1876,  be  due  to  the  intense  heat  generated  by  the  union 
of  rings  of  negative  elements  with  the  central  bodies 
round  which  they  revolve,  or  by  the  condensation  of  lower 
into  higher  forms  of  elementary  species. 

All  the  positive  forms  of  H2w,  except  glucinum  and  lead, 
are  well-ascertained  solar  elements,  and  the  remarkable 
relations  which  the  members  of  this  group  have  to  those 
of  render  it  highly  probable  that,  besides  sodium  and 
copper,  other  members  of  Hw  are  present  in  the  solar 
atmosphere.  From  the  fact  that  aluminum,  titanium^ 
chromium,  and  the  irons  are  solar  species,  higher  forms  of 
these  elements  may  also  be  expected  to  be  found  in  the  sun. 


To  face  p.  144] 


H4w  I H6/ 


H6»  I H7-; 


[2  — — lb 


7 — = 32 


.2  ! Ti  = 48 


9 Ge  = 72 


B = 10 


P = 30 


V = 


As  = 


50 


75 


= 18 


= 36 


Cr  = 54 


N = 14 


Si  = 35 


Fe  --  56 
Mn  = 56 
Ni  = 56 
Co  — 56 


56 

55 

58 

58 


Zr  92 


Sn  =116 


La  = 140 


— =165 


D =188 


V = 240 


Nb=  95 


Sb  ==  120 


— = 140 


— =165 


Ta  .=  185 


Bi  =210 


Mo  = 96 


= 144 


Pd  =105 
Eh  105 
Eu  = 105 
Da  = 105 


106 

105 

105 


W =186 


Au  = 196 
Pt  = 196 
Ir  = 196 
Os  =196 


196 

197 

197 

198 


To  face  p.  144] 


I 

+ Hrt  - 

+ H2w  - 

i 

13.371 

H4ra 

H5» 

H6n 

1 H.7n 

2 

Li  = '7 

1 

G1  = 8 

C = 

[2 

— =16 

B = 10 

— = 18 

N = 14 

3 

Na  = 23 

F - 19 

Mg  = 24 

0 = 16 

A1  = 

— = 32 

P = 30 

— = 36 

Si  = 35 

4 

K = 39 

Cl  = 35 

Ca  = 40 

S = 32 

Sc  = 

1-2 

Ti  = 48 

V = 50 

Cr  = 54 

Fe  = 56 

Mn=  56 

Ni  = 56 

Co  = 56 

5 

Cu  = 62 

Zn  = 64 

Ce  = 

39 

Ge  = 72 

As  = 75 

6 

Rb  = 85 

Br  = 81 

Sr  = 88 

Se  = 80 

Ga  = 

)6 

Zr  = 92 

m=  95 

Mo  = 96 

7 

Ag-  =108 

Cd  =112 

Y =i 

23 

Sn  =116 

Sb  =120 

Pd  = 105 

Rh  =105 

Ru  = 105 

Da  = 105 

8 

Cs  =131 

I = 127 

Ba  - 136 

Te  = 128 

111  = I 

50 

La  = 140 

— = 140 

— =144 

9 

— =154 

— = 160 

E =1 

77 

— =165 

— =165 

10 

— =177 

— = 184 

T1  =2 

D =188 

Ta  =185 

W =186 

Au  = 196 

Pt  = 196 

Ir  =196 

Os  =196 

1 1 

Hg  =200 

i 

Pb  =208 

Th  =21 

31 

U =240 

Bi  =210 

56 

55 

58 

58 


ro6 

105 

105 


196 

197 

197 

198 


ORIGIN  OF  ELEMENTARY  SUBSTANCES. 


145 


The  numerical  relations  of  the  atomie  weights  to  which 
I have  directed  attention^  and  the  brief  outline  of  a theory 
of  the  origin  of  elementary  species  which  I have  founded 
upon  them^  give  new  force  to  the  doctrine  of  the  trans- 
mutable  nature  of  elementary  substances.  But  when  the 
synthetical  formation  of  organic  compounds  is  regarded  as 
the  greatest  triumph  of  modern  chemical  science^  the  prob- 
lem of  building  up  the  higher  elements  from  the  lower  may 
well  be  deemed  insoluble^  as  they  have  been  formed  under 
cosmical  conditions  of  which  we  have  little  or  no  acquaint- 
ance. Very  different,  however,  is  the  aspect  of  the  problem 
of  resolving  the  higher  elements  of  each  series  into  their 
respective  types  or  into  hydrogen.  For  just  as  by  the 
application  of  heat  the  higher  members  of  homologous 
series  are  resolved,  through  their  lower  members,  into 
their  ultimates,  so  may  it  be  expected  that  the  elements 
themselves  will,  in  their  turn,  give  way  to  more  powerful 
instruments  of  analysis. 

When  it  is  considered  that  through  the  investigations 
of  Dumas,  Cooke,  Odling,  Mendeleeflf  and  others,  nearly 
all  the  mathematical  relations  of  the  atomic  weights  to 
each  other  have  been  unfolded  during  the  brief  interval  of 
thirty  years,  so  that  but  few  steps  are  now  required  to 
render  the  natural  classification  of  the  elements  complete, 
the  resolution  of  elementary  species  into  their  primordial 
ultimates  would  not  appear  to  be  far  off. 


SER.  TII.  VOL.  X. 


L 


146 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


X.  On  the  Velocity  with  which  Air  rushes  into  a Vacuum, 
and  on  some  Phenomena  attending  the  Discharge  of 
Atmospheres  of  Higher  into  Atmospheres  of  Lower 
Density.  By  Henry  Wilde,  Esq. 

Read  October  20th,  1885. 


Considering  the  present  condition  of  our  knowledge 
respecting  the  mechanical  properties  of  air  and  other 
gases,  some  apology  might  appear  to  be  needed  in  bringing 
before  this  Society  the  results  of  an  investigation  touching 
some  fundamental  principles  in  pneumatics  which  for 
more  than  a century  have  been  considered  to  rest  on 
foundations  as  secure  as  the  law^s  of  gravitation  of  the 
heavenly  bodies.  A survey  of  the  history  of  the  dynamics 
of  elastic  fluids  will,  however,  show  that,  great  as  are  the 
advances  which  have  been  made  in  this  branch  of  science, 
the  laws  of  the  discharge  of  elastic  fluids  under  the  varied 
conditions  of  elasticity  and  volume  are  still  left  in  much 
obscurity.  The  several  circumstances  which  have  combined 
to  produce  this  anomalous  state  of  our  knowledge  of  this 
subject  are: — (i)  The  application  of  the  laws  of  discharge 
of  inelastic  fluids,  without  any  modification,  to  those  which 
are  elastic;  (2)  the  confusion  of  the  quantity  of  the 
discharge  of  elastic  fluids  after  leaving  the  vessel,  with  the 
velocity  of  discharge  through  the  aperture  in  the  vessel ; 
and  (3)  the  want  of  a sufficient  number  of  experiments, 
under  varied  conditions  and  through  sufficient  range  of 
pressure,  to  compare  with  the  deductions  derived  from 
theory. 

It  has  hitherto  been  assumed,  as  a leading  proposition 
in  pneumatics,  that  air  rushes  into  a vacuum  with  the 


WITH  WHICH  AIll  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


147 


velocity  which  a heavy  body  would  acquire  by  falling  from 
the  top  of  a homogeneous  atmosphere  of  the  same  density 
as  that  on  the  earth^s  surface;  and  since  air  is  about  840 
times  lighter  than  water,  if  the  whole  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  he  taken  as  equal  to  support  33  feet  of  water, 
we  have  the  height  of  the  homogeneous  atmosphere  equal 
to  27,720  feet,  through  which,  by  the  free  action  of  gravity, 
is  generated  a velocity  of  1332  feet  per  second.  This, 
therefore,  is  the  velocity  with  which  air  is  considered  to 
rush  into  a vacuum,  and  is  taken  as  a standard  number 
in  pneumatics,  as  16  and  32  are  standard  numbers  in 
the  general  science  of  mechanics,  expressing  the  action 
of  gravity  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

Now,  so  far  as  I am  aware,  no  experiments  have 
hitherto  been  made  directly  proving  this  important  pro- 
position. It  is  true  that  attempts  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  initial  velocity  by  discharging  air  at 
extremely  low  pressures  into  the  atmosphere ; but,  apart 
from  the  conditions  of  the  discharge  into  the  air  and  into 
a vacuum  being  different,  the  history  of  physical  science 
shows  that  it  is  unphilosophic  to  predicate  absolute 
uniformity  of  any  law  through  the  order  of  a whole  range 
of  phenomena  of  the  same  kind ; as  nature  is  full  of 
surprises  when  pushed  to  extremes,  or  when  interrogated 
under  new  experimental  conditions. 

It  was  long  ago  shown  by  Faraday*  that,  in  the  passage 
of  different  gases  through  capillary  tubes,  an  inversion  of 
the  velocities  of  different  gases  takes  place  under  different 
pressures,  those  which  traverse  quickest  when  the  pressure 
is  high  moving  more  slowly  as  it  is  diminished.  Thus, 
with  equal  high  pressures,  equal  volumes  of  hydrogen  gas 
and  olefiant  gas  passed  through  the  same  tube  in  57"  and 
^35"' 5 respectively;  but  equal  volumes  of  each  passed 

* Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  1818,  vol.  yii.  p.  106. 

L 2 


148 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


through  the  same  tube  at  equally  low  pressures  in  8'  is" 
and  8'  1 1"  respectively.  Again,  while  the  velocities  of 
discharge  of  inelastic  fluids  are  as  the  square  roots  of  the 
heads,  some  mathematicians  have  justly  considered  that 
this  law  does  not  apply  to  those  which  are  elastic,  and 
have  assumed  with  good  reason  (though  what  appears 
unlikely  at  first  sight)  that  the  velocity  of  air  discharged 
into  a vacuum  is  the  same  for  all  pressures.  But  whatever 
differences  of  opinion  there  may  be  amongst  natural 
philosophers  on  this  point,  all  are  agreed  in  estimating  the 
quantity  of  air  discharged  from  a higher  into  air  of  a 
lower  density,  from  the  difference  between  the  two 
densities,  as  in  the  similar  case  of  the  discharge  of  inelastic 
fluids,  by  the  difference  or  effective  head  producing  the 
pressure.  This  mode  of  determining  the  amount  of  the 
discharge  from  a higher  to  a lower  density,  like  that  of  the 
velocity  of  the  atmosphere  into  a vacuum,  has  not,  so  far 
as  I know,  been  made  the  subject  of  experiment  through 
any  considerable  range  of  pressure.  It  therefore  appeared 
to  n;e  that,  as  each  gas  has  its  specific  velocity  of  discharge, 
such  a series  of  experiments  might  be  useful  in  confirming 
and  extending  our  knowledge  of  the  dynamics  of  elastic 
fluids.  In  the  course  of  these  experiments  1 have  met 
with  some  results  which  I thought  of  sufficient  importance 
to  bring  before  the  Society. 

The  apparatus  employed  in  this  investigation  consisted 
of  two  strong  cylinders  of  cast  iron,  shown  in  the 
engraving.  The  small  cylinder.  A,  had  an  internal 
capacity  of  573  cubic  inches,  while  the  large  cylinder,  B, 
had  a capacity  of  8459  cubic  inches,  or  about  fifteen  times 
the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  A.  To  the  top  of  this  cylinder 
was  fitted  a syringe  for  condensing  the  air  up  to  nine 
atmospheres,  and  also  a Bourdon^s  pressure-gauge  of  an 
improved  construction,  graduated  through  every  pound  of 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


149 


the  above  pressure.  The  aceuracy  of  this  gauge  was 
tested  in  my  presence  by  the  constructors,  Messrs. 
Budenberg  and  Co.,  through  the  whole  range  of  pressure. 


by  comparing  its  readings  with  a column  of  mercury  of 
equivalent  height.  For  pressures  of  15  pounds  above,  and 
for  pressures  below  the  atmosphere,  a mercurial  gauge  and 


150 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


a Bourdon^s  vacuum-gauge  were  employed,  the  readings 
of  which  were  compared  with  each  other : 30  inches  of 
mercury  were  considered  equal  to  one  atmosphere,  and  2 
inches  of  mercury  to  one  pound  of  pressure.  The  upper 
part  of  the  glass  tube  of  the  mercurial  gauge  was  fitted 
with  a brass  cap  and  screw-stopper,  so  that  it  could  readily 
he  used  as  a pressure-gauge,  or  as  a vacuum-gauge  when 
required.  The  diseharging  arrangement  on  the  cylinder 
A consisted  of  a stopcock  and  union  for  securing  a thin 
plate,  through  which  the  discharge  was  made.  The  orifice 
’^u  the  plate  opened  as  required,  either  directly  into  the 
atmosphere  or  into  the  end  of  a short  iron  tube  two  and 
a half  inches  internal  diameter,  eommunicating  with  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder.  The  thin  plate  was  a small  disk 
of  tinned  iron,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
one  hundredth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  centre  of  the 
disk  was  pierced  with  a circular  hole  two  hundredths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  size  of  the  hole  was  accurately 
determined  by  means  of  a wire  expressly  drawn  down  to 
the  above  diameter;  the  wire  being  calibred  by  one  of 
Elliott’s  micrometer-gauges,  divided  into  thousandths  of  an 
inch.  The  hole  in  the  plate  was  enlarged  so  as  to  fit 
tightly  the  gauged  wire,  and  the  burrs  on  each  side  of  the 
hole  were  carefully  removed,  as  this  small  amount  of 
projection,  as  Dr.  Joule  has  shown*,  exercises  a notable 
influence  on  the  rate  of  discharge  through  apertures  in 
thin  plates. 

The  general  reasonings,  and  the  inferences  drawn  from 
the  experiments  to  be  described,  are  based  on  Boyle  and 
Mariotte’s  law  of  the  density  of  a gas  being  as  the  pressure 
directly,  and  the  volume  as  the  pressure  inversely  for 
constant  temperatures. 

Memoirs  of  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  vol.  xxi. 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM.  151 

I have  said  that  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  A was  573 
cubic  inches^  which  represents  the  same  number  of  cubic 
inches  of  air  in  the  vessel  at  atmospheric  pressure  of  1 5 lb. 
on  the  square  inch ; and,  generally,  n times  573  cubic 
inches  of  air  forced  into  the  cylinder  would  be  the 
equivalent  of  n atmospheres  of  absolute  pressure. 

In  converse  manner,  5 lb.  of  pressure,  or  one  third  of 
an  atmosphere,  is  the  equivalent  of  one  third  of  573  cubic 
inches,  or  the  equivalent  of  19 1 cubic  inches  of  air  at 
atmospheric  pressure ; and,  generally,  5 lb.  of  pressure  is 
the  equivalent  of  191  cubic  inches  of  air  at  atmospheric 
pressure  and  for  all  the  higher  pressures.  The  mode  of 
experiment  was  as  follows  : — Air  was  forced  into  the 
cylinder  to  the  required  density,  and  after  the  heat  of 
compression  had  subsided,  the  time  of  each  5 lb.  reduction 
of  pressure  was  taken  by  means  of  a half-seconds  pendu- 
lum, commencing  its  oscillations  at  the  moment  of  dis- 
charge; and  the  stopcock  was  suddenly  closed,  and  the 
number  of  oscillations  noted  for  every  definite  discharge 
and  reduction  of  5 lb.  of  pressure.  In  my  earlier  experi- 
ments, it  was  found  that  when  the  air  was  compressed  to 
nine  atmospheres,  and  successive  reductions  of  5 lb.  were 
made  to  the  lowest  pressure,  the  cooling  of  the  air  pro- 
duced a notable  effect  in  diminishing  the  rate  of  discharge. 
By  commencing  the  experiments  with  the  lower  pressures 
and  increasing  them  by  10  lb.  successively  after  each  dis- 
charge of  5 lb.,  the  changes  of  temperature  attending  the 
changes  of  density  of  the  air  were  kept  within  the  limits 
of  5 lb.  of  pressure  till  the  highest  density  was  attained. 
The  small  changes  of  pressure  attending  each  discharge  by 
the  addition  and  abstraction  of  heat  to  and  from  the 
cylinder  were  after  a little  practice  easily  corrected,  so 
that  each  discharge  may  well  be  considered  as  having  been 
made  under  conditions  of  constant  temperature.  The 


152 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


large  cylinder  B was  first  used  as  a vacuum-cliamber  to 
receive  the  discharge  from  the  small  cylinder.  The 
chamber  was  fitted  with  an  exhausting  pump  and  suitable 
vacuum-gauges^  and  the  pressure  within  the  chamber  was 
reduced  to  six  tenths  of  an  inch  of  mercury  ; and  that 
degree  of  vacuum  was  maintained  during  the  experiments. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  velocity  of  air  flowing 
into  a vacuum^  as  deduced  from  the  time  and  difference  of 
pressure  for  every  5 lb.  from  135  lb.  to  5 lb.  absolute 
pressure.  The  velocities  of  the  first  column  are  deduced 
from  actual  experiments,  and  in  the  next  column  the 
velocities  are  calculated  from  the  difference  of  the  area  of 


Table  I. — Discharge  into  a Vacuum  o*6  inch  Mercury. 
Barometer  29*42.  Thermometer  54°  F. 


Absolute  pres- 
sure, in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Time  of 
discharge,  in 
seconds. 

Velocity,  in 
feet  per 
second. 

Velocity 

coefficient 

■62. 

135 

7'5 

750 

1210 

130 

775 

753 

1214 

125 

8*0 

759 

1225 

120 

8-5 

743 

1198 

”5 

9-0 

734 

1184 

no 

9‘5 

726 

II7I 

105 

10*0 

724 

1168 

100 

io'5 

722 

1165 

95 

I 1*0 

725 

1169 

90 

12*0 

703 

1134 

85 

13-0 

688 

I 109 

80 

14*0 

678 

1094 

75 

15-0 

675 

1089 

70 

16-5 

657 

1060 

65 

i8'o 

650 

1048 

60 

20*0 

632 

1020 

55 

22*0 

628 

lOI  I 

50 

24' 5 

620 

1000 

45 

27*0 

624 

1007 

40 

31-0 

613 

985 

35 

36-0 

602 

971 

30 

43'o 

589 

950 

25 

53'o 

573 

924 

20 

bq'o 

550 

887 

15 

97-0 

522 

842 

10 

1700 

446 

720 

WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


153 


the  discharging  orifice  and  the  vena  contracta  by  applying 
the  hydraulic  coefficient  •62. 

From  this  Table  it  muII  be  seen  that  the  time  of  discharge 
of  5 lb.  from  135  lb.  absolute  pressure  is  7*5  seconds. 
Now,  as  5 lb.  pressure  is  the  ~ part  of  the  total  pressure. 


^ 7 ^ 

we  have  = cubic  inches  of  air  from  135  lb. 

27 

pressure  discharged  into  the  vacuum  chamber  in  7*5 
seconds  : or,  in  another  form,  since  5 lb.  and  19 1 cubic 
inches  of  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  are  equivalents,  so 

19 1 cubic  inches  condensed  at  9 atmospheres  =2i'22 


cubic  inches  of  discharge,  as  in  the  above  calculation. 
Again,  we  have  for  a cubic  inch  extended  into  a cylinder 
0’02  of  an  inch  in  diameter  (the  size  of  the  dis- 
charging orifice),  265-25  feet  x 21-22  = 5628  feet.  Hence 

y_^628^eet  _ second  for  the  discharge  of 

7-5  seconds  ' 

air  from  135  lb.  to  130  lb.  into  a vacuum  through  a hole  in  a 


7^0 

thin  plate.  Or  V = ^^=i2io  feet  per  second  when  the 

orifice  is  formed  to  the  contracted  vein.  By  the  like 
method  of  calculation  the  velocities  for  the  discharge  of 
of  each  5 lb.  of  pressure  from  135  lb.  to  10  lb.  have  been 
found. 

The  velocity  with  which  air  rushes  into  the  vacuum,  as 
seen  from  the  table,  is  considerably  less  than  that  which 
has  hitherto  been  assigned  to  it  by  theory,  and  is  not 
constant  for  all  pressures,  as  might  have  been  expected 
from  the  known  ratio  of  elasticity  and  density  : the 
difference  in  the  velocities  between  each  discharge  for  the 
higher  pressures,  as  will  be  seen,  is  so  small  as  to  be 
exceeded  by  experimental  errors.  The  amount  of  this 
difference  will,  however,  appear  more  clearly  when  we  are 


154 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


considering  tlie  velocity  of  air  discharged  into  the  atmos- 
phere. Meanwhile  I may  remark  that  the  velocities 
increase  with  the  pressures  by  small  asymptotic  quantities^ 
so  that  the  theoretic  velocity  of  1332  feet  per  second 
would  he  obtained  at  a pressure  of  40  atmospheres  if  the 
law  of  Boyle  and  Mariotte  held  good  for  so  high  a density. 

While  the  rate  of  each  discharge  may  he  considered 
approximately  uniform  for  the  higher  pressures,  the  initial 
and  terminal  velocities  of  each  discharge  of  5 lb.  for  the 
lower  pressures  would  he  much  different.  This  is  specially 
noticeable  for  the  velocity  (842  feet  per  second)  assigned 
to  atmospheric  pressure  of  15  lb. ; and  as  it  was  a matter 
of  much  interest  that  this  important  constant  of  nature 
should  be  determined  with  all  the  accuracy  attainable, 
experiments  were  made  to  ascertain  the  velocity  of  dis- 
charge for  every  pound  of  pressure  from  15  lb.  to  2 lb. 
In  these  experiments  the  readings  were  taken  from  the 
mercurial  gauge,  and  the  vacuum  in  the  chamber  was 
reduced  to  0’4  of  an  inch  of  mercury. 

The  results  obtained  are  shown  in  the  Table. 

Table  II. — Discharge  into  a Vacuum  0*4  inch  Mercury. 

Barometer  29’q6.  Thermometer  60°  F. 


Absolute  pres- 
sure, in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Time  of 
discharge,  in 
seconds. 

Velocity,  in 
feet  per 
second. 

Velocity- 

coeiBcient 

•62. 

15 

i6‘o 

633 

102  1 

14 

17-5 

621 

lOOX 

13 

19*0 

614 

990 

12 

21*0 

606 

977 

1 1 

23-0 

600 

968 

10 

25-5 

596 

961 

9 

28-5 

593 

956 

8 

32’5 

584 

942 

7 

37'5 

577 

931 

6 

45-0 

563 

908 

5 

55-0 

559 

901 

4 

70*0 

542 

874 

3 

102*0 

497 

802 

2 

i8o'o 

421 

679 

WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


155 


By  a calculation  similar  to  that  for  the  higher  pressures, 
we  obtain  for  the  initial  velocity  with  which  the  atmos- 
phere rushes  into  a vaeuum  through  a hole  in  a thin  plate 

V = X = 622  feet  per  second, 

15  16  ^ 


or 


()22 

V = 1021  feet  per  second  for  the  contracted  vein. 

•62  ^ 

That  the  dilferenees  between  the  theoretic  and  experi- 
mental velocities  was  not  caused  by  the  friction  of  the 
stream  of  air  against  the  circumference  of  a smaller  orifice 
being  greater  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  eireumference 
of  a larger  orifiee,  was  proved  by  diseharging  air  of  15  lb. 
pressure  through  a hole  one  hundredth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  in  another  similar  thin  plate,  when  the  times  of 
discharge  through  the  short  range  of  i lb.  of  pressure 
were  found  to  be  in  the  ratio  of  4 to  i,  or  inversely 
as  the  areas  of  the  orifices. 

Taking  into  further  account  the  difference  between  the 
initial  and  terminal  velocities  due  to  the  reduction  of 
pressure  from  15  lb.  to  14  lb.,  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments show  that  with  an  absolute  pressure  of  30  inches  of 
mercury,  and  at  a temperature  of  60°  Fahrenheit,  the 
atmosphere  rushes  into  a vaeuum  with  a velocity  not 
greater  than  1050  feet  per  second,  or  less  than  the  velocity 
of  sound. 


Some  anomalous  rates  of  diseharge  which  I obtained 
when  air  of  different  densities  was  discharged  into  the 
atmosphere,  induced  me  to  repeat  the  experiments  with 
the  same  apparatus  and  under  precisely  the  same  con- 
ditions as  those  which  had  been  made  into  a vacuum  as 


156 


MR.  H,  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITV 


Table  III. — Discharge  into  the  Atmosphere. 
Barometer  30*1  7.  Thermometer  59°  F. 


Effective  pres- 
sure, in  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

Time  of 
discharge,  in 
seconds. 

Apparent 
velocity,  per 
second. 

Velocity- 

coefScient 

•62. 

15 

8*0 

1266 

2043 

14 

8-25 

1318 

2126 

13 

8-5 

1373 

2214 

12 

9-0 

1413 

2280 

11 

9‘5 

1454 

2345 

10 

10*0 

1519 

2450 

9 

10-5 

1609 

2595 

8 

II-5 

1652 

2664 

7 

I2'5 

1734 

2797 

6 

13-5 

1876 

3026 

5 

15-5 

1985 

3202 

4 

17-5 

2110 

3403 

3 

22'0 

2300 

3710 

2 

29*0 

2616 

4219 

above  described.  The  results  are  shown  in  Tables  III. 
and  IV. 

On  comparing  the  times  of  discharge  in  Table  III.  and 
the  velocities  calculated  therefrom  with  the  times  and 
velocities  in  Table  II.,  a remarkable  difference  will  be 
observed  in  them  for  the  same  effective  pressures.  Thus, 
the  velocity  of  discharge  from  15  lb.  to  14  lb.  appears  to 
be  double  that  assigned  to  the  same  pressure  when  the 
discharge  is  made  into  a vacuum ; while  in  the  discharge 
from  2 lb.  to  I lb.  (the  lowest  pressure  in  the  Table)  the 
velocity  appears  to  be  more  than  six  times  greater,  or 
4219  feet  per  second.  No  less  remarkable  than  this 
apparent  increase  in  the  rate  of  discharge  is  the  complete 
inversion  of  the  order  of  the  velocities  as  compared  with 
those  when  the  discharge  was  made  into  a vacuum  for  the 
same  effective  pressure.  Now,  we  have  knowledge  of 
several  causes  competent  to  diminish  the  velocity  of  air 
of  constant  temperature  flowing  into  the  atmosphere,  but 
none  to  increase  the  velocity  except  the  form  of  the  aper- 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


157 


ture^  which  in  this  case  remained  unchanged.  Recogniz- 
ing the  fact  that  when  air  of  15  lb.  effective  pressure  was 
discharged  into  the  atmosphere  the  cylinder  actually  con- 
tained two  atmospheres  of  absolute  pressure^  we  are  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  phenomenal  increase  in  the  rate  of 
discharge  observed  is  caused  by  the  external  atmosphere 
acting  as  a vacuum,  and  offering  no  resistance  to  the  dis- 
charge into  it  of  air  of  15  lb.  pressure,  which  thereby  be- 
comes 30  lb.  effective  pressure.  The  velocity  of  air  of  1 5 lb. 
effective  pressure  discharged  into  the  atmosphere  based  on 
this  conclusion  is  1021  feet  per  second,  the  same  as  the 
velocity  found  for  the  discharge  into  a vacuum.  For 
effective  pressures  below  15  lb.  the  velocities  are  com- 
pounded of  the  rate  of  discharge  into  a vacuum,  and  the 


Table  IV. — Discharge  into  the  Atmosphere. 
Barometer  29’64.  Thermometer  58°  F. 


Effective  pressure, 
in  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Time  of  dis- 
charge, in 
seconds. 

Apparent 
velocity,  per 
second. 

Velocity- 

coefficient 

•62. 

120 

7'5 

843 

1360 

"5 

775 

852 

1374 

I 10 

8-0 

862 

1390 

105 

8-5 

852 

1374 

lOO 

90 

843 

1 360 

95 

9‘5 

842 

1 360 

90 

lO'O 

843 

1360 

85 

io'5 

851 

1372 

1 80 

I i‘o 

863 

1392 

75 

IZ'O 

844 

1362 

70 

13*0 

836 

1348 

65 

i4‘o 

833 

1344 

60 

15-0 

843 

1 360 

55 

i6'5 

837 

1350 

50 

i8'o 

843 

1360 

45 

20‘0 

843 

1360 

40 

22'0 

863 

1392 

35 

24-5 

886 

1429 

30 

z7'o 

935 

1509 

25 

3ro 

980 

1581 

20 

36-0 

1053 

1699 

15 

43-0 

1178 

1900 

1 10 

58*0 

j 1311 

21 14  I 

158 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


resistance  of  the  atmosphere  without  any  regular  ratio^  but 
approximating  to  the  square  roots  of  the  pressures. 

That  the  atmosphere  acts  as  a vacuum  to  the  discharge 
of  air  into  it  of  15  lb.  effective  pressure^  is  further  evident 
from  the  results  obtained,  and  shown  in  Table  IV. 

In  this  Table  it  will  be  observed  that  the  times  of  each 
discharge  from  120  lb.  to  15  lb.  effective  pressure  into  the 
atmosphere  are  identical  with  the  times  of  discharge  from 
135  lb.  to  30  lb.  absolute  pressure  into  a vacuum.  Hence 
we  are  able  to  formulate  and  prove  the  general  proposition 
that  the  atmosphere  acts  as  a vacuum,  and  offers  no  resist- 
ance to  the  discharge  of  air  of  all  pressures  above  two 
absolute  atmospheres. 

Although  the  times  of  discharge  for  each  reduction  of 
5 lb.  of  pressure,  as  we  have  seen,  are  the  same  as  those 
for  pressures  one  atmosphere  higher,  when  the  discharge 
was  made  into  a vacuum,  yet  it  seemed  to  me  that  a table 
showing  the  apparent  velocities  due  to  the  effective  pressure 
would  be  useful  as  exhibiting  some  further  points  of 
interest,  and  revealing  the  fallacy  involved  in  estimating  the 
velocities  from  the  effective  pressures.  On  comparing  the 
velocities  of  each  discharge  from  120  lb.  to  40  lb.,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  theoretic  velocity  of  133^  second 

is  as  nearly  attained  as  the  units  of  pressure  and  time 
adopted  in  these  experiments  would  permit.  We  have 
therefore  in  the  Table  a measure  of  the  difference  of  the 
theoretic  and  experimental  velocities  with  which  air  rushes 
into  a vacuum  by  the  same  method  of  calculation.  This 
difference,  as  will  be  seen,  amounts  to  exactly  one  atmos- 
phere of  pressure. 

For  each  reduction  of  5 lb.  from  120  lb.  to  40  lb.  the 
times  of  discharge  are  inversely  as  the  pressures  ; and  as 
the  density  of  the  issuing  stream  of  air  diminishes  in  the 
same  proportion,  the  velocity  of  discharge  is  the  same  for 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


159 


all  the  pressures  from  120  lb.  to  40  lb.,  as  shown  in  the 
Table.  Hence  it  appeared  to  me  at  the  commencement  of 
this  investigation,  that  the  theoretic  and  experimental 
velocities  with  which  air  rushes  into  a vacuum  were 
rigorously  exact.  The  anomalous  and  apparent  increase 
in  the  velocities  from  40  lb.  to  10  lb.,  however,  led  me  to 
suspect  that  the  atmosphere  in  some  manner  affected  the 
results,  and  induced  me  to  make  the  discharge  into  a 
vacuum  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  I. 

That  the  phenomenal  rate  of  discharge  which  I have 
described  should  not  hitherto  have  manifested  itself  in 
some  form,  or  be  associated  with  some  facts  explanatory 
of  it,  would  indeed  be  surprising  considering  the  varied 
circumstances  in  which  the  discharge  of  elastic  fluids 
comes  into  play.  Hence,  it  has  long  been  known  that  a 
jet  of  air  issuing  from  an  aperture  in  a vessel  produces  a 
rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere  near  to  the  discharging- 
orifice.  This  phenomenon  was  first  observed  on  a large 
scale  by  Mr.  Eichard  Roberts  in  the  year  1824,  and  is 
described  in  a paper  read  before  this  Society  in  1828*, 
Roberts  noticed  that  when  a valve  was  placed  over  an 
aperture  in  a pipe  used  for  regulating  a strong  blast  of 
air  for  blowing  a furnace,  the  valve,  instead  of  being  blown 
off  by  the  force  of  the  blast,  remained  a short  distance 
from  the  aperture,  and  required  considerable  force  of  the 
hand  to  remove  it  to  a further  distance.  Subsequent 
experiments  showed  that  the  adhesion  of  the  valve  was 
caused  by  the  partial  vacuum  formed  between  the  valve 
and  its  seating  by  the  expansion  of  the  issuing  air.  These 
experiments  were  repeated  and  extended  by  Mr.  Peter 
Ewart  to  similar  effects  produced  by  the  discharge  of  steam 

* Memoirs  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  2nd  series,  vol.  v. 
p.  208. 


160 


MR.  II.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 


through  various  apertures.  Some  of  these  experiments 
were  deseribed  before  this  Society^  and  afterwards  published 
in  the  Philosophieal  Magazine  in  1829*.  The  degree  of 
rarefaetion  produced  by  the  discharge  of  air  and  high- 
pressure  steam  was  carefully  measured  by  Ewart  by  means 
of  gauges  inserted  in  different  parts  of  the  jet.  He  also 
noticed  the  sudden  fall  of  temperature  from  292°  to  189° 
F.  in  the  rarefied  part  of  the  jet  when  steam  of  58  lb. 
pressure  was  discharged  into  the  atmosphere. 

Sir  William  Armstrong  also,  in  his  experiments  on 
Hydro-electricity  in  the  year  i842t,  described  a singular 
effect  of  a jet  of  steam  by  which  a hollow  globe  made  of 
thin  brass,  from  tw'o  to  three  inches  in  diameter,  remained 
suspended  in  a jet  of  high-pressure  steam  issuing  from  an 
orifice;  and  when  the  ball  was  pulled  on  one  side  by 
means  of  a string,  a very  palpable  force  was  found  requi- 
site to  draw  it  out  of  the  jet. 

It  is  abundantly  evident  from  these  experiments,  that 
whenever  elastic  fluids  escape  into  the  atmosphere  a 
partial  vacuum  is  formed  near  to  the  discharging  orifice, 
the  degree  of  vacuum  depending  on  the  density  of  the 
issuing  stream.  EwarEs  ingenious  explanation,  that  the 
vacuous  space  formed  near  the  discharging  orifice  is  caused 
by  the  joint  action  of  elasticity  and  momentum  of  the 
suddenly  released  particles  repelling  each  other  beyond 
the  distance  necessary  to  produce  equilibrium  with  the 
external  pressure,  has  a high  degree  of  probability ; but 
that  this  vacuous  space  should  have  the  effect  of  increas- 
ing the  rate  of  discharge  could  only  be  ascertained,  as  we 


^ “ Experiments  and  Observations  on  some  of  the  Phenomena  attending 
the  Sudden  Expansion  of  Compressed  Elastic  Fluids.” 

t “ On  the  Efficacy  of  Steam  as  a Means  of  producing  Electricity,  and 
on  a Curious  Action  of  a Jet  of  Steam  upon  a Ball,”  Phil.  Mag.  ser.  3. 
Tol.  xxii.  p.  I. 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM.  161 

have  seen^  by  a direct  comparison^  under  like  conditions, 
with  the  amount  of  the  discharge  into  a vacuum. 


Having  established  the  fact  that  the  atmosphere  acts  as 
a vacuum  to  the  discharge  of  air  of  all  pressures  above 
two  atmospheres  within  the  range  of  my  experiments,  it 
appeared  to  me  that  this  phenomenon  might  only  be  a 
particular  case  of  a general  law  of  the  discharge  of  elastic 
fluids,  and  that  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  through 
what  range  of  relative  pressures  in  two  vessels  the  one 
would  act  as  a vacuum  to  the  other.  With  this  object  air 
was  compressed  into  the  large  receiving  cylinder  from  two 
up  to  eight  atmospheres  absolute  pressure,  while  air  was 
condensed  into  a small  discharging  cylinder  up  to  nine 
atmospheres  of  absolute  pressure.  The  air  was  discharged 
from  the  same  orifice  as  in  the  former  experiments,  and 
the  time  of  discharge  recorded  for  each  atmosphere  was 
for  a reduction  of  5 lb.  of  pressure.  The  results  obtained 
are  shown  in  the  Table. 

Table  V. 


In  this  Table  the  first  vertical  column  to  the  left  shows 
the  number  of  atmospheres  in  the  small  cylinder  from 
which  each  discharge  of  5 lb.  was  made  into  the  receiver. 

:^i 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


162  MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  VELOCITY 

The  ordinal  numbers  at  the  bead  of  the  table  indicate  the 
atmospheres  in  the  receiver  when  the  discharge  was  made, 
eommencing  with  vaeuo ; and  the  time  of  each  discharge, 
in  seconds,  is  shown  against  the  pressure  in  the  discharg- 
ing and  receiving  cylinders  respectively.  The  times  in  the 
second  and  third  vertical  columns  are  obtained  from  those 
in  Tables  I.  and  IV.,  when  the  discharge  was  made  into  a 
vacuum  and  into  the  atmosphere.  On  examining  these 
results,  commencing  with  the  lower  pressures,  it  will  be 
seen  that  for  two  atmospheres  of  absolute  pressure,  the 
time  of  discharge  (43  seconds)  was  the  same  for  a vacuum 
as  it  was  when  made  into  the  atmosphere,  as  has  already 
been  demonstrated.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  a pressure 
of  two  atmospheres  in  the  receiver  acts  as  a vacuum  to 
four  atmospheres  in  the  discharging  cylinder.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  the  equality  of  the  time  (20  seconds)  when  the 
discharge  was  made  into  one  atmosphere  or  into  a vacuum. 
The  like  ratio  will  also  be  observed  up  to  three  atmo- 
spheres in  the  receiver,  which  act  as  a vacuum  to  the  dis- 
charge of  six  atmospheres  of  pressure  from  the  small 
cylinder.  As  the  pressure  in  the  receiver  was  increased, 
the  diminution  of  resistance  of  the  recipient  atmospheres 
becomes  still  more  marked,  till  for  the  highest  pressures 
we  have  the  remarkable  phenomenon  of  six  atmospheres 
acting  as  a vacuum  to  the  discharge  of  nine  atmospheres 
of  pressure.  That  this  peculiar  relation  of  the  discharg- 
ing and  receiving  atmospheres  has  not  reached  its  full 
limit  will  be  obvious  from  a comparison  of  the  numbers  in 
the  Table,  from  which  it  would  appear  that,  for  pressures 
exceeding  those  used  in  these  experiments,  the  resistance 
of  the  recipient  atmospheres  would  be  still  further  dimin- 
ished correlatively  with  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
discharge. 


WITH  WHICH  AIR  RUSHES  INTO  A VACUUM. 


163 


With  the  object  of  giving  more  completeness  to  this 
research,  experiments  were  made  to  ascertain  through 
what  range  of  relative  densities  the  air  in  two  vessels 
would  act  as  a vacuum  to  the  other  for  pressures  below 
that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table 
VI.,  which  are  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  those  in 
Table  V.  The  times  in  the  second  vertical  column  are 
taken  from  those  shown  in  Table  II.  Arhen  the  discharge 
was  made  into  a vacuum  for  each  pound  of  pressure,  and 
the  other  times  in  the  Table  are  those  obtained  for  suc- 
cessive discharges  into  air  of  different  densities  below  tlie 
atmosphere,  the  larger  cylinder  being  again  used  as  a 
receiver. 

Table  VI. 


As  equality  in  the  times  indicates  equality  in  the  quan- 
tities and  velocities  of  the  discharge  for  constant  pressures, 
a simple  inspection  of  the  Table  shows  that,  for  discharg- 
ing pressures  as  low  as  6 lb.,  the  recipient  air  still  acts  as 
a vacuum  up  to  half  the  density  of  the  discharging  stream, 
and  the  regularity  of  this  law  is  maintained  within  the 
limits  of  6 lb.  and  go  lb.  absolute  pressure,  as  shown  in 
Table  V.  For  discharging  pressures  below  6 lb.  the  rela- 
tive times  of  discharge  and  the  resistance  of  the  recipient 
air  increase  •,  and  as  we  have  already  seen  that  the  similar 


M 


164 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


times  and  resistances  for  discharging  pressures  above  six 
atmospheres  diminish,  the  continuity  of  regular  law  is 
broken  at  both  ends  of  the  series  of  pressures^  just  as  it  is 
in  the  series  of  planetary  distances  and  some  other  quauti- 
tative  phenomena  of  nature. 


XI.  On  the  Flow  of  Gases. 

By  Professor  Osborne  Reynolds,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


Read  November  17th,  1885. 


I.  Amongst  the  results  of  Mr.  Wilders*  experiments  on 
the  flow  of  gas,  one,  to  which  attention  is  particularly 
called,  is  that  when  gas  is  flowing  from  a discharging 
vessel  through  an  orifice  into  a receiving  vessel,  the  rate 
at  which  the  pressure  falls  in  the  discharging  vessel  is 
independent  of  the  pressure  in  the  receiving  vessel  until 
this  becomes  greater  than  about  five  tenths  the  pressure 
in  the  discharging  vessel.  This  fact  is  shown  in  tables 
iv.  and  v.  in  Mr.  'NYilde's  paper  : thus,  the  fall  of  pressure 
from  1 35  lbs.  (9  atmospheres)  in  the  discharging  vessel  is 
5 lbs.  in  7'5  seconds  for  pressures  in  the  receiving  vessel, 
ranging  from  one  half-pound  to  nearly  5 or  6 atmospheres. 

With  smaller  pressures  in  the  discharging  vessel  the 
times  occupied  by  the  pressure  in  falling  a proportional 
distance  are  nearly  the  same  until  the  pressure  in  the 
receiving  vessel  reaches  about  the  same  relative  height. 

What  the  exact  relation  between  the  two  pressures  is 
when  the  change  in  rate  of  flow  occurs  is  not  determined 

* Proc.  Manchester  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.  Oct.  zo,  18S5,  or  present  vol.  of 
Mem.  p.  146. 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


165 


in  these  experiments.  For  as  the  change  comes  on  slowly, 
it  is  at  first  too  small  to  be  appreciable  in  such  short  in- 
tervals as  7'5  and  8 seconds.  But  an  examination  of  Mr, 
Wilde’s  table  vi.  shows  that  it  lies  between  ‘5  and  '53. 

This  very  remarkable  fact,  to  which  Mr.  Wilde  has  re- 
called attention,  excited  considerable  interest  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  ago.  Graham  does  not  appear  to  have 
noticed  it,  although  on  reference  to  Graham’s  experiments 
it  appears  that  these  also  show  it  in  the  most  conclusive 
manner  (see  table  iv.,  Phil.  Trans.  1846,  vol.  iv.  pp.  573- 
632  ; also  Beprint,  p,  106).  These  experiments  also  show 
that  the  change  comes  on  when  the  ratio  of  the  pressures 
is  between  ’483  and  ’531. 

R.  D.  Napier  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  make 
the  discovery*.  He  found,  by  his  own  experiments  on 
steam,  that  the  change  came  on  when  the  ratio  of  pressures 
fell  to  *5  (see  Encyc.  Brit.  vol.  xii.  p.  481).  Zeuner, 
Fliegner,  and  Him  have  also  investigated  the  subject. 

At  the  time  when  Graham  wrote,  a theory  of  gaseous 
motion  did  not  exist.  But  after  the  discovery  of  the 
mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  and  thermodynamics,  a 
theory  became  possible,  and  was  given  with  apparent 
mathematical  completeness  in  1856.  This  theory  ap- 
peared to  agree  well  with  experiments  until  the  particular 
fact  under  discussion  w^as  discovered.  This  fact,  however, 
directly  controverts  the  theory.  For  on  applying  the 
equations  giving  the  rate  of  flow  through  an  orifice  to 
such  experiments  as  Mr.  Wilde’s,  it  appears  that  there  is 
a marked  disagreement  between  the  calculated  and  exjoe- 
rimental  results.  The  calculated  results  are  even  more 

* The  account  of  E.  D.  Napier’s  expei’iments  is  contained  in  letters  in  the 
‘ Engineer,’  1867,  xxiii.  January  4 and  2 5.  They  were  made  with  steam 
generated  in  the  boiler  of  a small  screw- steamer  and  discharged  into  an 
iron  bucket,  the  results  being  calculated  from  the  heat  imparted  to  a constant 
volume  of  water  in  the  bucket  in  which  the  steam  was  condensed. 


166 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


remarkable  than  the  experimental ; for  while  the  experi- 
ments only  show  that  diminishing  the  pressure  in  the 
receiving  vessel  below  a certain  limit  does  not  increase 
the  flow,  the  equations  show  that  by  such  diminution  of 
pressure  the  flow  is  actually  reduced  and  eventually  stopped 
altogether. 

In  one  important  respect,  however,  the  equations  agree 
with  the  experiments.  This  is  in  the  limit  at  which 
diminution  of  pressure  in  the  receiving  vessel  ceases  to 
increase  the  flow,  which  limit  by  the  equations  is  reached 
when  the  pressure  in  the  receiving  vessel  is  ‘527  of  the 
pressure  in  the  discharging  vessel. 

The  equations  referred  to  are  based  on  the  laws  of 
thermodynamics,  or  the  laws  of  Boyle,  Charles,  and  that 
of  the  mechanical  equivalence  of  heat.  They  were  inves- 
tigated by  Thomson  and  Joule  (see  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  May 
1856),  and  by  Prof.  Julius  Weisbach  (see  ^ Civilingenieur,^ 
1856) ; they  were  given  by  Rankine  (articles  637,  637  a. 
Applied  Mechanics),  and  have  since  been  adopted  in  all 
works  on  the  theory  of  motion  of  fluids. 

Although  discussed  by  the  various  writers,  the  theory 
appears  to  have  stood  the  discussion  without  having  re- 
vealed the  cause  of  its  failure;  indeed.  Him,  in  a late 
work,  has  described  the  theory  as  mathematically  satis- 
factory. 

Having  passed  such  an  ordeal,  it  was  certain  that  if 
there  were  a fault,  it  would  not  be  on  the  surface.  But 
that  by  diminishing  the  pressure  on  the  receiving  side  of 
the  orifice  the  flow  should  be  reduced  and  eventually 
stopped,  is  a conclusion  too  contrary  to  common  sense  to 
be  allowed  to  pass  when  once  it  is  realized ; even  without 
the  direct  experimental  evidence  in  contradiction,  and  in 
consequence  of  Mr.  Wilders  experiments,  the  author  was 
lead  to  reexamine  the  theory. 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


167 


2.  On  examining  the  equations,  it  appears  that  they 
contain  one  assumption  which  is  not  part  of  the  laws  of 
thermodynamics  or  of  the  general  theory  of  fluid  motion. 
And  although  commonly  made  and  found  to  agree  with 
experiments  in  applying  the  laws  of  hydrodynamics,  it 
has  no  foundation  as  generally  true.  To  avoid  this 
assumption,  it  is  necessary  to  perform  for  gases  inte- 
grations of  the  fundamental  equations  of  fluid  motion 
which  have  already  been  accomplished  for  liquids.  These 
integrations  being  effected,  it  appears  that  the  assumption 
above  referred  to  has  been  the  cause  of  the  discrepancy 
between  the  theoretical  and  experimental  results,  which 
are  brought  into  complete  agreement,  both  as  regards  the 
law  of  discharge  and  the  actual  quantity  discharged.  The 
integrations  also  show  certain  facts  of  general  interest  as 
regards  the  motion  of  gases. 

When  gas  flows  from  a reservoir  sufficiently  large,  and 
initially  (before  flow  commences)  at  the  same  pressure 
and  temperature,  then,  gas  being  a nonconductor  of  heat 
when  the  flow  is  steady,  a first  integration  of  the  equation 
of  motion  shows  that  the  energy  of  equal  elementary 
weights  of  the  gas  is  constant.  This  energy  is  made  up 
of  two  parts,  the  energy  of  motion  and  the  intrinsic 
energy.  As  the  gas  acquires  energy  of  motion,  it  loses 
intrinsic  energy  to  exactly  the  same  extent.  Hence  we 
have  an  equation  between  the  energy  of  motion,  i.  e.  the 
velocity  of  the  gas,  and  its  intrinsic  energy.  The  laws  of 
thermodynamics  afford  relations  between  the  pressure, 
temperature,  density,  and  intrinsic  energy  of  the  gas  at 
any  point.  Substituting  in  the  equation  of  energy,  we 
obtain  equations  between  the  velocity  and  either  pressure, 
temperature,  or  density  of  the  gas. 

The  equation  thus  obtained  between  the  velocity  and 
pressure  is  that  given  by  Thomson  and  Joule  ; this  equation 


168 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


holds  at  all  points  in  the  vessel  or  the  effluent  stream. 
If,  then,  the  pressure  at  the  orifice  is  known,  as  well  as 
the  pressure  well  within  the  vessel  where  the  gas  has  no 
energy  of  motion,  we  have  the  velocity  of  gas  at  the 
orifice  ; and  obtaining  the  density  at  the  orifice  from  the 
thermodynamic  relation  between  density  and  pressure, 
we  have  the  weight  discharged  per  second  by  multiplying 
the  product  of  velocity  with  density  by  the  effective  area 
of  the  orifice.  This  is  Thomson  and  Joule^’s  equation  for 
the  flow  through  an  orifice.  And  so  far  the  logic  is 
perfect,  and  there  are  no  assumptions  but  those  involved 
in  the  general  theories  of  thermodynamics  and  of  fluid 
motion. 

But  in  order  to  apply  this  equation,  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  pressure  at  the  orifice ; and  here  comes  the 
assumption  that  has  been  tacitly  made  : that  the  pressure 
at  the  orifice  is  the  pressure  in  the  receiving  vessel  at  a 
distance  from  the  orifice. 

3.  The  origin  of  this  assumption  is  that  it  holds,  when 
a denser  liquid  like  water  flows  into  a light  fluid  like  air, 
and  approximately  when  water  flows  into  watei. 

Taking  no  account  of  friction,  the  equations  of  hydro- 
dynamics show  that  this  is  the  only  condition  under  which 
the  ideal  liquid  can  flow  steadily  from  a drowned  orifice. 
But  they  have  not  been  hitherto  integrated  so  far  as  to 
show  whether  or  not  this  would  be  the  case  tvith  an  elastic 
fluid. 

In  the  case  of  an  elastic  fluid,  the  difflculty  of  inte- 
gration is  enhanced.  But  on  examination  it  appears  that 
there  is  an  important  circumstance  connected  with  the 
steady  motion  of  gases  which  does  not  exist  in  the  case  of 
liquid.  This  circumstance,  which  may  be  inferred  from 
integrations  already  effected,  determines  the  pressure  at 
the  orifice  irrespective  of  the  pressure  in  the  receiving 
vessel  when  this  is  below  a certain  point. 


THE  PLOW  OF  GASES, 


169 


4.  To  understand  this  circumstance,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  a steady  narrow  stream  of  fluid  in  which  the 
pressure  falls  and  the  velocity  increases  continuously  in 
one  direction. 

Since  the  stream  is  steady,  equal  weights  of  the  fluid 
must  pass  each  section  in  the  same  time ; or,  if  u be  the 
velocity,  p the  density,  and  A the  area  of  the  stream,  the 
joint  product  upk.  is  constant  all  along  the  stream,  so  that 

gpu 

W . 

where  — is  the  mass  of  fluid  which  passes  any  section  per 
second. 

In  the  case  of  a liquid  p is  constant,  so  that  the  area  of 
the  section  of  the  stream  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
velocity,  and  therefore  the  stream  will  continuously  con- 
tract in  section  in  the  direction  in  which  the  velocity 
increases  and  the  pressure  falls,  as  in  flg.  i,  also  flg.  2 a. 


In  the  case  of  a gas,  however,  p diminishes  as  the 
velocity  increases  and  the  pressure  falls  ; so  that  the  area 
of  the  section  will  not  be  inversely  proportional  to  u,  but 
to  u X p,  and  will  contract  or  increase  according  to  Avhether 
u increases  faster  or  slower  than  p diminishes. 

As  already  described,  the  value  of  pu  may  be  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  pressure.  Making  this  substitution,  it 
appears  that  pu  increases  from  zero  as  p diminishes  from 
a definite  value  until  p=‘S^7Pi  j after  this  pu  diminishes 
to  zero  as  p diminishes  to  zero.  A varies  inversely  as  pu, 


170 


PROP.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


and  therefore  diminishes  from  infinity  as  jo  diminishes 
from  jo,  till  p=’S'^7Pi  then  A has  a minimum  value  and 
increases  to  infinity  asjo  diminishes  to  zero,  as  in  fig.  2. 


The  equations  contain  the  definite  law  of  this  variation, 
which,  for  a particular  fall  of  pressure,  is  shown  in  fig.  2 a. 


For  the  present  argument  it  is  sufficient  to  notice  that 
A has  a mimimum  value  when  p=' ^2"] ; since  this  fact 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


171 


determines  the  pressure  at  the  orifice  when  the  pressure 
in  the  receiving  vessel  is  less  than  '527^0,,  that  being  the 
pressure  in  the  discharging  vessel. 

5.  If,  instead  of  an  orifice  in  a thin  plate,  the  fluid 
escaped  through  a pipe  which  gradually  contracted  to  a 
nozzle,  then  it  would  follow  at  once,  from  what  has  been 


already  said,  that  when  was  less  than  *5277?,,  the  nar- 
rowest portion  of  the  stream  would  be  at  N,  for  since  the 
stream  converges  to  N the  pressure  above  N can  be  no- 
where less  than  '5277?,;  and  since  emerging  into  the 
smaller  surrounding  pressure  the  stream  would  expand 
laterally,  N would  be  the  minimum  breadth  of  the  stream, 
and  hence  the  pressure  at  N would  be  *5277?,.  In  a broad 
view  we  may  in  the  same  way  look  on  an  orifice  in  the 
wall  of  a vessel  as  the  neck  of  a stream.  But  if  we  begin 
to  look  into  the  argument,  it  is  not  so  clear,  on  account  of 
the  curvature  of  the  paths  in  which  some  of  the  particles 
approach  the  orifice. 

Since  the  motion  with  which  the  fluid  approaches  the 
orifice  is  steady,  the  whole  stream,  which  is  bounded  all 
round  by  the  wall,  may  be  considered  to  consist  of  a 
number  of  elementary  streams,  each  conveying  the  same 
quantity  of  fluid.  Each  of  these  elementary  streams  is 
hounded  by  the  neighbouring  streams,  but  as  the  boun- 


172 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


daries  do  not  change  their  position  they  may  be  considered 
as  fixed. 

The  figure  (4)  shows  approximately  the  arrangement  of 
such  stream.  But  for  the  mathematical  difficulty  of  inte- 
grating the  equations  of  motion,  the  exact  form  of  these 


streams  might  be  drawn.  We  should  then  be  able  to 
determine  exactly  the  necks  of  each  of  these  streams. 
Without  complete  integration,  however,  the  process  may 
be  earried  far  enough  to  show  that  the  lines  bounding  the 
streams  are  eontinuous  curves  which  have  for  asymptotes 
on  the  discharging-vessel  side  lines  radiating  from  the 
middle  of  the  orifice  at  equal  angles,  and,  further,  that 
these  lines  all  curve  round  the  nearest  edge  of  the  orifice, 


THE  FLOW  OP  GASES. 


173 


and  that  the  curvature  of  the  stream  diminishes  as  the 
distance  of  the  stream  from  the  edge  increases. 

These  conclusions  would  he  definitely  deducible  from 
the  theory  of  finid  motion  could  the  integrations  be 
effected,  but  they  are  also  obvious  from  the  figure  and  easily 
verified  experimentally  by  drawing  smoky  air  through  a 
small  orifice. 

From  the  foregoing  conclusions  it  follows,  that  if  a 
curve  be  drawn  from  A to  B,  cutting  all  the  streams  at 
right  angles,  the  streams  will  all  be  converging  at  the 
points  where  this  line  cuts  them,  hence  the  necks  of  the 
streams  will  be  on  the  outflow  side  of  this  curve.  The 
exact  position  of  these  necks  is  difficult  to  determine,  but 
they  must  be  nearly  as  shown  in  the  figure  by  cross  lines.' 
The  sum  of  the  areas  of  these  necks  must  be  less  than  the 
area  of  the  orifice,  since,  where  they  are  not  in  the  straight 
line  A B,  the  breadth  occupied  on  this  line  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  neck.  The  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  necks  may 
be  taken  as  the  effective  area  of  the  orifice;  and,  since 
all  the  streams  have  the  same  velocity  at  the  neck,  the 
ratio  which  this  aggregate  area  bears  to  the  area  of 
the  orifice  may  be  put  equal  to  K,  a coefficient  of  con- 
traction. 

If  the  pressure  in  the  vessel  on  the  outflow  side  of  the 
orifice  is  less  than  •527^9,,  this  is  the  lowest  pressure 
possible  at  the  necks,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  and 
on  emerging  the  streams  will  expand  again,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  the  pressure  falling  and  the  velocity  increasing, 
until  the  pressure  in  the  streams  is  equal  to  p^,  when  in 
all  probability  the  motion  will  become  unsteady. 

If  p^  is  greater  than  '527791,  the  only  possible  form  of 
motion  requires  the  pressure  in  the  necks  to  be  p^,  at 
which  point  the  streams  become  parallel  until  they  are 
broken  up  by  eddying  into  the  surrounding  fluid  (fig.  5), 


174 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


6.  There  is  another  way  of  looking  at  the  problem, 
which  is  the  first  that  presented  itself  to  the  author. 

Suppose  a parallel  stream  flowing  along  a straight  tube 
with  a velocity  u,  and  take  a for  the  velocity  with  which 
sound  would  travel  in  the  same  gas  at  rest,  the  velocity 
with  which  a wave  of  sound  or  any  disturbance  would 


move  along  the  tube  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  gas 
would  be  a—u.  If  then  a — u,  no  disturbance  could  flow 
back  along  the  tube  against  the  motion  of  the  gas ; so 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


175 


thatj  however  much  the  pressure  might  be  suddenly  dimi- 
nished at  any  point  in  the  tube^  it  would  not  atfect  the 
pressure  at  points  on  the  side  from  which  the  fluid  is 
flowing.  Thus_,  suppose  the  gas  to  be  steam,  and  this  to 
be  suddenly  condensed  at  one  point  of  the  tube,  the  fall  of 
pressure  would  move  back  against  the  motion,  increasing 
the  motion  till  u = a,  but  not  further;  just  as  in  the 
Bunsen^s  burner  the  flame  cannot  flow  back  into  the 
tube  so  long  as  the  velocity  of  the  explosive  mixture  is 
greater  than  the  velocity  at  which  the  flame  travels  in  the 
mixture. 

According  to  this  view,  the  limit  of  flow  throiigh  an 
orifice  should  be  the  velocity  of  sound  in  gas  in  the  con- 
dition as  regards  pressure,  density,  and  temperature  of 
that  in  the  orifice ; and  this  is  precisely  what  it  is  found 
to  be  on  examining  the  equations. 

7.  The  following  is  the  definite  expression  of  the  fore- 
going argument. 

The  adiabetic  laws  for  gas  are  : p being  pressure,  p 
density,  r absolute  temperature,  and  y the  ratio  of  specific 
heats  at  constant  pressure  and  constant  density. 


The  equation  of  motion,  u being  the  velocity  and  x the 
direction  of  motion,  is 


Y-» 


. . (I) 


or 


(2) 


Substituting  from  equations  (i), 

C’’dp  _ 7 Po  r ^ 


'o  P 7-^  Po 


176 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


O' 


PoropJpV 

PoT^  \pi/  ’ 


(4) 


(5) 

Hence  along  a steady  stream,  since  W is  constant, 

equation  (5)  gives  a relation  that  must  hold  between  A 

and  JO. 

dA. 

Differentiating  A with  respect  to  p and  making  zero, 

it  appears 

y-»  y-i 

2/>,  y ={y+l)p  y , ....  (6) 

or 

(7) 

p,  V7+1/ 


For  air  7=1 ’408. 


^=-527. 

Pi 


(8) 


It  thus  appears  that  as  long  as  p falls,  the  section  con- 
tinuously diminishes  to  a minimum  value  when  jo  = ’527jo,, 
and  then  increases  again.  Substituting  this  value  of  p in 
equation  (3), 

(9) 

(10) 

(11) 


/ ^yppoT, 


(7+i)PoTo 


= A / (Pi^~w 

^ (7+l)/^oVj0o/  ’ 

= A / ^ydPo  ( p^-^ ( F Ay 

V (^yj^l)p\pj  \p) 


Hence  by  equation  (6), 


'=\/' 


'igpoT 
JoTo  ’ 


(12) 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


177 


which  is  the  velocity  of  sound  in  the  gas  at  the  absolute 
temperature  r. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  velocity  of  gas  at  the  point  of 
minimum  area  of  a stream  along  which  the  pressure  falls 
eontinuonsly  is  equal  to  the  velocity  of  sound  in  the  gas 
at  that  point. 

8.  From  the  equation  of  flow  (5)  it  appears  that  for 
every  value  of  A other  than  its  minimum  value,  there 
are  two  possible  values  of  the  pressure  which  satisfy  the 
equation,  one  being  greater  and  the  other  less  than 

'527i>i. 

It  therefore  appears  that  in  a ehannel  having  two  equal 
minima  values  of  section  A and  C,  as  in  flg.  6,  the  flow 


from  A to  B may  take  place  in  either  of  two  ways  when 
the  velocity  is  such  that  the  pressure  at  A and  B is 
•527^0,,  i.  e.  the  pressure  may  either  he  a maximum  or  a 
minimum  at  C.  In  this  respect  gas  differs  entirely  from 
a liquid,  with  whieh  the  pressure  ean  only  he  a maximum 
at  C. 

9.  For  air  through  an  oriflee,  since  1*408,  when  the 
pressure  in  the  receiving  vessel  is  less  than  '527^9,,  the 
numerical  value  of  U„,  the  velocity  in  the  neek  of  the 
oriflee,  is 

U„  = 997  (feet  per  sec.)  ; . . . (13) 

* Tq 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


N 


178 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


and  if  the  temperature  is  57°  F.,  as  in  Mr.  Wilders  expe- 
rimentSj 

Vn=I022.  (14) 

Reducing  this  in  the  ratio  of  the  density  at  the  neek  to 
the  density  in  the  discharging  vessel_, 

I 

Pn={-5^7y\ 

^,=•6345  i’ 

We  have  the  reduced  velocity 

U„—  =650  (feet  per  sec.) (16) 

Pi 

Therefore  the  discharge  will  be  given  in  cubic  inches 
per  second,  KO  being  the  effective  area  of  the  orifice,  by 

PjQ — i2TJ„p,jKO  1 (17) 

= i2x65oKOJ 

Or,  since  the  actual  area  in  square  inches 

0 = *000314  sq.  inches, 

Q = 2*44K  (cubic  inches  per  sec.).  . (18) 

10.  In  order  to  compare  the  experimental  discharges 
with  those  calculated,  it  is  necessary  to  know,  besides  the 
size  of  an  orifice  and  the  pressure  and  temperature  of  the 
discharging  vessel,  the  coefficient  of  contraction  or  the 
effective  area  of  the  orifice.  To  obtain  this  from  the 
equations  requires  that  the  terms  depending  on  viscosity 
should  be  introduced,  which  renders  the  integration  so  far 
impossible.  The  only  plan  is  to  obtain  this  coefficient  by 
comparing  the  theoretical  results  with  the  experimental. 
Such  comparisons  have  been  made  by  Prof.  Weisbach  for 
air ; and  in  the  case  of  short  cylindrical  orifices  such  as 
that  used  by  Mr.  Wilde  (a  cylindrical  hole  through  a 
plate  having  a radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  plate). 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


179 


the  value  of  K,  the  eoefficient  of  eontraetion^  given  by 
Weisbach  The  Steam  Engine/  p.  324^  E-ankine)  is  from 
•73  to  ’833,  Whether  these  are  the  real  coefficients  of 
contraction  may^  however,  well  be  doubted,  as  it  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  determine  the  experimental  quantities 
of  gas  discharged  owing  to  the  great  eflFect  of  slight  varia- 
tions of  temperature  on  the  relations  between  changes  of 
pressure  and  changes  of  temperature,  such  changes  of  tem- 
perature being  almost  necessarily  incidental  on  changes  of 
pressure. 

1 1 . In  Mr.  Wilders  experiments  the  pressure  was  allowed 
to  fall  in  the  discharging  vessel  during  the  discharges ; 
this  would  cause  a corresponding  fall  of  temperature, 
which  would  again  cause  heat  to  flow  from  the  metal 
vessel  into  the  gas  within. 

It  is  difficult  therefore  to  say  what  the  change  of  tem- 
perature was  except  in  the  extreme  cases.  With  the 
experiments  on  the  highest  pressure,  however,  the  times 
7'5  seconds,  and  the  greatest  possible  falls  of  temperature 
5°’5,  were  so  small  that  the  communication  of  heat  from 
the  walls  of  the  receiver  would  have  been  very  slight ; and 
hence  we  might  expect  that  the  discharges,  calculated  on 
the  assumption  of  no  communication  of  heat,  would  agree 
with  the  theoretical  discharges  multiplied  by  the  real 
coefficient  of  contraction.  This  would  be  shown  by  an 
agreement  in  the  successive  coefficients  obtained  from  the 
experiments  with  the  higher  pressures.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  the  lowest  pressures  the  times  were  so  con- 
siderable, 1 70  seconds,  and  the  greatest  possible  falls  of 
temperature  (assuming  no  conduction,  94°)  so  great,  that 
the  communication  of  heat  would  have  been  very  great 
and,  considering  the  comparatively  small  mass  to  be 
heated  (only  one  thirteenth  of  what  it  is  in  the  highest 
experiments),  might  maintain  the  temperature  approxi- 

n2 


180 


PROF.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS  ON 


mately  constant  after  falling  some  considerable  amount 
below  tbe  initial  temperature.  In  these  last  experiments, 
therefore,  it  would  be  expeeted  that  the  discharge  might 
be  estimated  as  taking  place  at  nearly  constant  tem- 
perature. 

The  intermediate  experiments  would  give  intermediate 
results. 

According  to  this  view,  for  the  high  pressures,  since 


and 


(19) 

(20) 


or  putting  V for  the  volume  573  eub.  in.  of  the  discharg- 
ing vessel. 


dp  . 
Pi 


(21) 


where  t is  the  time.  Or,  since  tdp=$  lbs., 


K = 


Pit 


(22) 


Substituting  the  value  of  pj,  in  the  first 

six  experiments. 

we  have : — 

v„ 

Y P” 

T n — • 

p- 

K.  Velocity 

at  orifice. 

9 

135 

•825  1022 

650 

130 

•826  „ 

>> 

125 

•83s 

>> 

120 

•820  „ 

”5 

•810  „ 

no 

790 

>> 

For  the  first  three  of  these  experiments  K is  nearly  con- 
stant, showing  that  the  conduction  of  heat  eould  have  but 
slight  if  any  effect,  but  the  effect  is  decidedly  apparent  in 
the  next  three. 


THE  FLOW  OF  GASES. 


181 


Proceeding  now  to  the  other  extreme,  and  assuming 
that  the  temperature,  after  undergoing  some  diminution, 
remains  constant,  we  have 

dp  _Ql 

or,  integrating. 


log,^=Vi, 


l0gPi-l0gPz  = 


from  which,  taking  the  last  three  experiments  in  Table  II., 


T- 

K. 

v„. 

V — 

V n — • 

Pi 

4 

•95 

1022 

650 

3 

•98 

„ 

2 

•89 

,, 

,, 

In  these  it  appears  that  the  values  of  K are  approxi- 
mating to  the  value  ‘825 ; but  the  great  differences  show 
that  the  temperature  effect  is  far  from  having  become 
steady,  and  are  quite  sufficient  to  explain  the  discre- 
pancies in  the  actual  values  of  K.  There  is  thus  no 
reason  to  doubt  but  that  '825  is  about  the  real  value  of 
the  coefficient  of  contraction  for  the  orifice,  and  that  the 
experimental  results  are  quantitatively  in  accordance  with 
the  theory. 


Pipe  No.  I. — Water  (see  fig.  2 a,  page  170). 

Vb=  \J 


Pipe  No.  2. — Gas. 

Vb=\/ 

^W=\/^ 


T,  + 4bi 
32  + 461' 


182 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  EFFLUX  OF  AIR  AS 


Air. 

■41 3 (feet  per  second) 


997  (feet  per  second) 


XII.  On  the  Efflux  of  Air  as  modified  by  the  Form  of  the 
Discharging  Orifice.  By  Henry  Wilde,  Esq. 


In  my  former  paper  on  the  efflux  of  air,  the  hydraulic 
coefficient  ‘62,  as  commonly  applied  to  the  discharge  of 
elastic  fluids  through  an  oriflce  in  a thin  plate,  was  taken 
as  the  value  of  the  contmction  of  such  orifice,  and  from 
this  coefficient  the  highest  velocities  shown  in  the  several 
Tables  were  deduced.  A review  of  the  results  of  my  expe- 
riments hy  Prof.  Osborne  Beynolds*  led  me  to  doubt  the 
value  of  this  coefficient,  and  to  make  further  experiments 
with  the  object  of  determining  the  maximum  rate  of 
discharge  from  an  orifice  of  the  best  form. 

Five  disks  of  brass  had  each  a hole  drilled  through  its 
centre  two -hundredths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Equality 
in  the  size  of  the  holes  was  accurately  determined  by 
means  of  a standard  cylindrical  gauge.  These  disks  I 
shall  designate  A,  B,  C,  D,  E. 

* Proceedings  Manchester  Lit.  and  Phil.  Society,  vol.  xxv.  p.  55,  or 
present  voh  of  Mem.  p.  1 64. 


Read  March  23rd,  1886. 


MODIFIED  BY  THE  DISCHARGING  ORIFICE. 


183 


The  disk  A was  three  diameters  of  the  orifiee  in  thiek- 
ness^  and  was  equal  to  a plain  eylindrical  tube  three 
diameters  in  length. 

Disk  B was  the  same  thickness  as  A,  but  the  hole  was 
coned  out  on  one  side  to  a depth  of  one  diameter  and  a 
half. 

C was  six  diameters  in  thickness,  and  was  coned  out  on 
one  side  to  a depth  of  three  diameters. 

D had  a thickness  of  twelve  diameters  of  the  ori- 
fice, and  was  coned  out  on  one  side  to  a depth  of  six 
diameters. 

E was  eighteen  diameters  of  the  hole  in  thickness,  and 
was  coned  out  on  both  sides  to  a depth  of  six  diameters, 
which  left  a plain  tube  in  the  centre  of  the  disk  six 
diameters  in  length. 

The  wide  sides  of  the  coned  orifices  were  equal  to  two 
diameters,  and  their  outer  edges  were  rounded  off  to  a 
conoid al  form. 

The  thin  iron  disk  O was  *007  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
or  nearly  one  third  the  diameter  of  the  orifice,  which  was 
two-hundredths  of  an  inch.  One  side  of  the  orifice  was 
chamfered  to  reduce  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  hole  as 
much  as  possible  to  a sharp  edge.  The  effect  of  the 
chamfering  had,  however,  so  small  an  effect  in  diminishing 
the  rate  of  discharge  that  the  determinations  might  have 
been  taken  from  the  cylindrical  orifice  without  interfering 
with  the  general  accuracy  of  the  results. 

The  mode  of  experimenting  was  similar  to  that  already 
described.  Air  of  an  initial  absolute  pressure  of  135  lbs. 
was  discharged  into  the  atmosphere  through  the  orifice  in 
the  thin  plate  O,  and  through  the  orifices  in  A,  B,  C,  D,  E 
successively,  and  the  times  were  recorded  for  the  reduction 
of  10  lbs.  from  each  of  the  atmospheres  of  pressure,  as 
shown  in  the  following  Table  ; — 


184 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  EFFLUX  OF  AIR  AS 


Table  I. — Discharge  into  the  Atmosphere. 


Lbs.  per 
square 
inch 
absolute 
pressure. 

Orifice 
in  thin 
plate. 

0 

Plain 

tube 

orifice. 

A 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

B 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

0 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

D 

Double 

conoidal 

orifice. 

E 

Coeffi- 
cient for 
orifice. 

0 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

135 

i5'5 

14-5 

i4'5 

i4'5 

15-0 

i5’5 

•935 

120 

17-5 

i6'5 

i6'5 

i6'5 

17*0 

i7‘5 

•943 

105 

20‘5 

19*0 

19*0 

19*0 

20*0 

20*5 

•927 

90 

25’0 

23'5 

23-5 

23'5 

24-5 

25’0 

•940 

75 

3i'5 

29-5 

29-5 

29-5 

3°'5 

3i'5 

•936 

60 

42*0 

39'5 

39'5 

39‘5 

41  "O 

42*0 

•940 

45 

58'o 

54‘5 

54' 5 

54'5 

56-5 

58‘o 

•940 

Mean  coefficient  for  orifice  in  thin  plate  '937. 


An  examination  of  this  Table  will  show  that  the  form  of 
the  orifice  has  very  little  infiuence  on  the  rate  of  discharge 
of  elastic  finids  compared  with  what  it  has  on  those  which 
are  inelastic. 

No  difference  was  observable  in  these  experiments  in 
the  rates  of  discharge  through  the  orifices  A^  and  C, 
notwithstanding  that  A was  a plain  cylinder,  and  B and  C 
were  coned  to  a depth  of  half  their  thickness  and  formed 
tubes  from  three  to  six  diameters  in  length.  Moreover, 
although  the  results  shown  in  the  Tables  were  obtained 
with  the  coned  sides  of  the  orifices  inside  the  vessel ; yet, 
when  the  sides  were  reversed,  the  rate  of  discharge  through 
A,  B,  and  C was  only  diminished  by  one-thirtieth  part, 
and  there  was  no  difference  in  the  rate  of  discharge 
through  D whether  the  coned  side  of  the  orifice  was  inside 
or  outside  the  vessel. 

Taking  A,  B,  and  C as  the  orifices  producing  the  maxi- 
mum rate  of  discharge,  we  have  '935  as  the  value  of  the 
coeflScient  of  discharge  from  an  orifice  in  a thin  plate  for 
the  highest  pressure  of  135  lbs.  This  value,  as  will  be 
seen,  is  the  same  for  all  the  pressures  in  the  Table  within 


MODIFIED  BY  THE  DISCHARGING  ORIFICE. 


185 


errors  of  observation  and  experiment,  and  the  mean  value 
of  the  coefficient  for  all  the  pressures  is  "937. 

Applying  this  coefficient  to  the  velocity  deduced  in 
Table  I.  of  my  former  paper  for  an  orifice  in  a thin  plate, 
we  have  for  the  maximum  velocity  with  which  air  of 
135  lbs.  pressure  rushes  into  a vacuum,  before  expansion, 
7 

V = =800  feet  per  second. 

'937 


Some  anomalous  rates  of  efflux  from  the  same  orifice 
which  were  obtained  when  air  of  less  than  15  lbs.  effective 
pressure  was  discharged  into  the  atmosphere,  induced  me 
to  make  a series  of  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  air  of 
an  initial  pressure  of  15  lbs.  through  the  same  orifices  as 
in  the  last  experiments,  and  the  times  were  recorded  for 
each  reduction  of  2 lbs.  of  pressure. 

All  the  discharges  were  made  with  the  conoidal  orifices 
inside  the  vessel,  but  they  were  also  made  through  C and 
D with  these  orifices  outside  the  vessel.  The  results  are 
shown  in  the  following  Table  ; — 


Table  II. — Discharge  into  the  Atmosphere. 


Lbs. 

per 

square 

inch 

effec- 

tive 

pres- 

sure. 

Orifice 

in 

thin 

plate. 

0 

Plain 

tube 

orifice. 

A 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

B 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

C 

Conoidal 

orifice 

outside. 

C 

Conoidal 

orifice 

inside. 

D 

Conoidal 

orifice 

outside. 

D 

Double 

conoidal 

orifice. 

E 

Coeffi- 

cients 

for 

orifice. 

0 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

.sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

15 

i6'o 

135 

14*0 

i4'o 

14*0 

14-5 

14-5 

15-0 

•829 

13 

17-5 

H'5 

15-0 

15-0 

15-0 

16-5 

i6'o 

i6'o 

•829 

I I 

195 

1 6*0 

16-5 

i6'5 

16-5 

i8-5 

i8’o 

17-5 

•820 

9 

22'5 

i8'o 

iS'5 

i8-5 

i8-5 

20*5 

19-5 

19*0 

•818 

7 

26'0 

21*0 

21'5 

22*0 

21-5 

24*0 

21-5 

22*0 

•808 

5 

330 

260 

26'5 

27-5 

26'5 

30-0 

25-5 

27*0 

•788 

3 

51-0 

39-0 

40-5 

42-5 

40-5 

47-0 

38-5 

42-5 

•765 

186 


MR.  H.  WILDE  ON  THE  EFFLUX  OF  AIR  AS 


On  comparing  the  times  of  discharge  through  the  several 
orifices  among  themselves,,  and  with  those  in  Table  I.,  a 
marked  difference  is  observable  in  them.  Thus  the  ratio 
of  discharge  through  the  tube  orifice  A and  the  orifice  in 
a thin  plate  is  greater  than  that  for  the  same  orifices  in 
Table  I.,  the  coefficients  for  the  highest  and  lowest  pres- 
sures in  this  Table  being  "935  and  '940  respectively ; 
whereas  the  coefficients  for  the  same  orifices  in  Table  II. 
are  "829  and  *765  respectively.  Again^  while  there  is 
little  difference  in  the  times  of  discharge  from*  the  tubular 
orifices  among  themselves^  a remarkable  change  occurs 
duriag  the  fall  of  pressure  from  15  lbs.  to  i lb.,  when  the 
discharge  is  made  through  C and  D with  the  conoidal 
orifices  outside  the  vessel. 

The  discharge  through  D from  15  lbs.  to  13  lbs.  is  the 
same  whether  the  conoidal  orifice  is  inside  or  outside ; 
but  in  the  latter  position,  as  the  pressure  diminishes,  the 
rate  of  discharge  increases,  till  at  the  lowest  pressure  this 
increase  amounts  to  8*5  seconds,  and  exceeds  the  maximum 
discharge  from  the  tube  orifice  A.  A similar  change  is 
also  noticeable  in  the  rate  of  discharge  through  reversing 
the  orifice  C ; but  as  the  change  does  not  come  on  before 
the  pressure  is  below  7 lbs.,  it  is  less  marked  than  when 
the  discharge  is  made  through  D. 

Suspecting  that  the  phenomenal  change  in  the  rate  of 
discharge  for  the  same  orifice  was  due  to  the  varying 
resistances  of  the  discharging  and  receiving  atmospheres 
of  pressure  described  in  my  former  paper,  the  discharges 
from  the  orifices  O,  A,  and  D were  made  into  a vacuum 
of  I ’5  inch  of  mercury  instead  of  into  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  times  of  discharge  were  recorded  for  each  reduc- 
tion of  I lb.  of  pressure. 

The  results  are  shown  in  the  Table  : — 


MODIFIED  BY  THE  DISCHARGING  ORIFICE. 


187 


Table  III. — Discharge  into  a Vacuum  1*5  inch 
Mercury. 


Lb.  per 

Hole 

Plain 

Conoidal 

Conoidal 

Coefficient 

in  thin 

tube 

orifice 

orifice 

for 

absolute 

plate. 

orifice. 

inside. 

outside. 

orifice. 

pressure. 

0 

A 

D 

D 

0 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

sec. 

15 

i6’o 

15-0 

i6‘o 

i6‘o 

•937 

14 

17-5 

16-5 

i8'o 

i8’o 

•943 

13 

19*0 

17-5 

20*0 

20'0 

*921 

12 

21*0 

i9‘5 

22*5 

22*0 

•928 

II 

zyo 

21’5 

24-5 

24*0 

•935 

10 

25-5 

24*0 

27-5 

27*0 

•941 

9 

28-5 

27*0 

31-0 

3°'5 

■947 

8 

32-5 

31-0 

35’5 

35‘o 

•954 

7 

37'5 

35'5 

41*0 

4o’o 

•947 

6 

45-0 

42-5 

49‘S 

48-5 

•944 

5 

55’o 

52-5 

63'o 

6i’o 

•955 

4 

7o'o 

67-0 

8 1'o 

79'° 

mean 

3 

102*0 

I01‘0 

I25’0 

120*0 

coefficient 

2 

i8o’o 

1920 

241‘0 

224-0 

•941 

A comparison  of  the  times  of  discharge  through  D with 
the  conoidal  orifice  in  both  positions  will  show  that  they 
approach  nearly  to  a ratio  of  equality.  The  phenomenal 
change  in  the  rate  of  discharge  from  the  same  orifice 
was  consequently  due  to  the  diminished  resistance  of  the 
external  atmosphere^  the  conoidal  form  of  the  orifice  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  rarefaction  above  that  obtained 
with  a plain  tube  orifice.  This  conclusion  is  further 
evident  on  comparing  the  times  of  discharge  from  D in 
reversed  positions  from  a pressure  of  3 lbs.  to  i lb. ; for  as 
the  rarefaction  in  the  vacuum-chamber  was  only  reduced 
to  I '5  inch  of  mercury the  phenomenal  change  in  the 
rate  of  discharge  again  presents  itself,  making  a difference 
of  17  seconds  in  the  times  of  discharge  between  the 
reversed  position  of  the  orifice  for  the  lowest  pressure. 

Comparing  the  times  of  discharge  through  the  tube 
orifice  A and  the  orifice  O in  the  thin  plate^  it  will  be  seen 
that  there  is  much  less  difference  between  them  than  for 


188  EFFLUX  OF  AIR  MODIFIED  BY  THE  DISCHARGING  ORIFICE. 

the  same  orifiees  in  Table  II.,  the  ratio  agreeing  very 
closely  with  those  shown  in  Table  I.  for  similar  times  of 
discharge.  The  approaching  equality  in  the  times  of  dis- 
charge through  the  tube  orifice  A and  the  orifice  in  the 
thin  plate  for  the  lower  pressures  is,  no  doubt,  due  to  the 
friction  of  the  issuing  stream  of  air  against  the  sides  of 
the  tube  orifice.  The  effect  of  this  friction  for  the  lowest 
pressure,  as  will  be  seen,  reduces  the  rate  of  discharge 
from  the  orifice  A below  that  from  the  orifice  in  the  thin 
plate. 

From  the  results  of  my  previous  experiments  on  the 
discharge  of  atmospheres  of  higher  into  atmospheres  of 
lower  density,  the  times  and  coefficients  in  Table  I.  and 
Table  III.  for  the  higher  pressures  may  well  be  considered 
as  having  been  obtained  for  discharges  into  a perfect 
vacuum,  the  difference  in  the  coefficients  for  pressures 
below  10  lbs.  in  Table  III.  being  entirely  due  to  fric- 
tion of  the  issuing  stream  of  air  against  the  sides  of  the 
orifices. 

From  the  results  shown  in  Tables  I.  and  II.  the  maxi- 
mum rate  of  effiux  is  obtained  from  the  orifices  A,  B,  and 
C,  and  taking  the  efflux  from  these  orifices  as  unity,  the 
value  of  the  coefficient  for  the  efflux  of  air  into  a vacuum 
through  an  orifice  in  a thin  plate  is  '937. 

These  experiments  also  prove  conclusively  that  the 
coefficients  which  have  hitherto  been  applied  to  the  efflux 
of  air  below  15  lbs.  effective  pressure  derive  nearly  the 
whole  of  their  value  from  the  phenomenal  changes  of 
resistance  between  the  discharging  and  receiving  atmo- 
spheres, and  not  from  the  forms  of  the  orifices  and  lengths 
of  the  adjutages,  as  in  the  discharge  of  inelastic  fiuids. 

Applying  the  coefficient  '937  to  the  velocity  with  which 
the  atmosphere  of  15  lbs.  absolute  pressure  rushes  into  a 
vacuum,  before  expansion,  as  deduced  in  Table  II.  in  my 


ON  THE  MORPHOLOGY  OF  PINITES  OBLONGUS.  189 


former  paper^  we  have  V 


633 

•937 


= 677  feet  per  seeond, 


or  approximately  one  half  the  veloeity  due  to  the  height 
of  the  homogeneous  atmosphere. 

The  following  approximate  velocities  with  which  atmo- 
spheres of  several  gases  of  15  lbs.  absolute  pressure  rush 
into  a vacuum  through  an  orifice  of  the  best  form,  before 
expansion,  have  been  calculated  on  the  basis  of  Graham^s 
law  of  the  velocities  of  efflux  for  equal  pressures  being 
inversely  as  the  square  roots  of  the  specific  gravities : — 


Air  I'ooo  X 677  = 677  feet  per  second. 

Oxygen  o'950  X 677  = 643  „ „ 

Nitrogen i‘oi5  X 677  = 687  „ „ 

Hydrogen  3'8oo  X 677  = 2572  „ „ 


Saturated  steam...  i’445  X 677  = 978 


XIII.  On  the  Morphology  of  Pinites  oblongus  (Abies 
oblonga  of  Lindley  and  Hutton) . By  W m.  Crawford 
Williamson,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Botany  in 
Owens  College. 

Eead  April  6th,  1886. 


(Plate  IX.) 

The  question  of  the  range  of  the  Coniferse  in  time,  and 
its  important  bearing  upon  the  problem  of  evolution, 
sufficiently  accounts  for  the  interest  attached  to  the  dis- 
covery of  cones  belonging  to  that  order  in  the  various 
stratified  rocks.  Several  such  have  already  been  met 
with,  but  amongst  these  a few  objects  have  been  obtained 
from  the  Palaeozoic  and  other  Mesozoic  rocks  that  are 


190 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


either  not  eones  of  any  kind^  or  are  those  of  Cycadean 
plants.  At  present  the  only  remains  which  present  a 
claim  to  Coniferous  rank  found  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks 
are  the  Dadoxylons ; and  even  of  these^  assuming  that, 
as  is  most  probable,  they  are  Coniferous  stems  and  not 
Cycadean,  their  affinities  appear  to  be  with  the  Taxinese, 
rather  than  with  the  more  highly  developed  Ahietinese. 
Of  the  latter  we  discover  no  indisputable  examples  until 
we  approach  the  base  of  the  Cretaceous  rocks  *.  Mr. 
Carruthers  has  expressed  his  conviction  that  no  truly 
Coniferous  cone  has  been  found  below  the  Kimmeridge 
clay. 

For  evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  true  Coniferous  cones 
in  rocks  of  Mesozoic  age,  we  are  mainly  indebted  to 
Lindley  and  Hutton,  Dr.  Pitton,  Dr.  Mantell,  and  Mr. 
Carruthers. 

In  a memoir  published  by  the  last-named  author  in 
vol.  hi.  p.  534  of  the  'Geological  Magazine,^  he  reviewed 
those  previously  described  by  other  observers,  and  added 
some  new  ones.  Mr.  Carruthers  also  described  additional 
ones  in  vols.  vi.  and  viii.  of  the  same  Magazine. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  cones  thus  recorded 
it  that  figured  by  Lindley  and  Hutton  in  vol.  ii.  plate  137 
of  the  'Fossil  Flora  of  Great  Britain,^  under  the  name  of 
Abies  oblong  a.  The  interest  of  this  specimen  resides  in  the 
fact  that,  in  it,  the  large  seeds  are  all  preserved  in  their 
normal  positions  in  the  cone. 

A few  weeks  ago  Professor  Boyd-Dawkins  showed  me 
the  half  of  a waterworn  silicified  cone,  cut  through  longi- 
tudinally, which  had  been  submitted  to  him  by  the  Bev. 
H.  H.  Winwood,  F.G.S.,  of  Bath,  but  was  the  property  of  a 
Miss  Flood.  Mr.  Winwood  has  since  entrusted  this  spe- 

* The  Timis  primava  of  Lindley  & Hutton,  from  the  Inferior  Oolite,  is 
in  all  probability  a Cycadean  cone. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  PINITES  OBLONGUS. 


191 


cimen  to  mOj  accompanied  by  a second  half  of  the  same 
specimen^  for  the  purpose  of  description  and  publication. 

The  speeimen  was  originally  obtained  from  the  beach 
at  Sidmouth^  where  it  has  most  probably  been  washed  out 
of  the  Lower  Greensand^  as  was  supposed  to  have  been  the 
case  with  Lindley  and  Hutton'’s  specimen,  found  on  the 
shore  near  Lyme  Regis 

I at  onee  saw  that  the  seetions  placed  in  my  hands 
were  identical  with  the  Abies  oblonga  of  Lindley  and 
Hutton ; but  since  they  show  some  details  of  structure 
and  morphology  not  mentioned  by  the  above  authors,  they 
deserve  an  independent  examination. 

Fig.  I represents  a vertical  section  through  the  centre 
of  Miss  Flood’s  speeimen,  twice  its  natural  size.  It  ex- 
hibits a small  portion  of  the  central  axis  at  a,  the  super- 
ficial zone  of  whieh  is  obviously  woody,  being  traversed 
horizontally  by  numerous  parallel  lines,  which  are  evi- 
dently medullary  xylem  rays;  its  more  central  portion 
consists  of  narrow,  vertically  elongated  fibres,  in  which  no 
special  structure  can  be  discerned.  From  this  axis  nu- 
merous lignified  carpellary  scales,  b,  c,  are  given  oflP,  as  in 
modern  cones.  Sections  of  these  seales  show  a difference 
between  their  superior  and  inferior  component  tissues. 
The  former,  b' , is  composed  of  large,  thiek-w ailed,  sclerous 
parenchyma,  the  cells  of  which  are  generally  a little  elon- 
gated parallel  to  the  long  axis  of  the  cone.  In  Lindley 
and  Hutton’s  description  this  tissue  is  vaguely  deseribed 
by  the  term  corky.”  Cork  it  certainly  is  not.  The 
inferior  layer  is  much  more  dense,  being  composed  of 
vertieally  elongated  and  very  narrow  fibres.  The  peri- 

* Lindley  and  Hutton  speak  of  this  specimen  as  from  “\heBresent  shore.” 
Mr.  Starkie  Gardner  informs  me  that  after  an  exhaustive  search  he  can  find 
no  such  place,  and  is  inclined  to  assume  that  “ Dresent  ” is  a misprint  for 
some  other  word. 


]92 


PROP.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


pheral  extremities  of  these  earpellary  seales  do  not  become 
so  thin  as  Lindley  and  Hutton  affirmed  to  be  the  case  with 
their  example.  Though  rolled  and  waterworn,  the  exterior 
of  our  specimen  rather  suggests  a slight  thickening  of  those 
extremities^  resembling  what  is  seen  in  Firms  Strbbus  and 
P.  Cembra. 

In  fig.  2,  Plate  IX.,  which  represents  portions  of  two 
earpellary  scales,  b and  c,  from  the  second  section  en- 
trusted to  me  by  Mr.  Winwood,  the  distinctions  between 
the  two  woody  layers  are  obvious  at  b'  and  b" , c and  c". 
The  several  seeds,  d,  are  borne  on  the  upper  surfaces  of 
the  basal  portions  of  the  earpellary  scales,  each  having  its 
micropilar  extremity  pointed  downwards  and  inwards. 
Each  seed  is  invested  by  a firm  testa,  fig.  i,  e,  Plate  IX., 
within  which  we  have,  in  several  of  them,  a thin  nucellar 
membrane  ; small  fragments  of  this  membrane  are  seen  in 
the  two  seeds,  fig.  i,/, /;  the  almost  unbroken  membrane 
is  seen  in  the  seed,  fig.  i,/',  and  its  concave  half  is  lodged 
within  the  concavity  of  the  testa  of  fig.  i,  e.  In  each  of 
two  other  seeds,  g,g,  of  fig.  i,  a narrow  tubular  structure 
extends  from  the  outer  end  of  the  seed  to  its  inner  or 
micropilar  extremity.  This  is  obviously  the  emhryo-sac. 
The  large  wing  of  the  seed  is  more  or  less  conspicuous  in 
nearly  every  instance.  Thus  it  is  nearly,  if  not  wholly, 
coextensive  with  the  length  of  the  subjacent  earpellary 
scale,  as  at  h,  h,  whilst  its  opposite  or  lower  portion  covers 
the  upper  surface  of  each  seed,  as  far  as  its  micropile. 

In  most  cases  the  wing  is  slightly  bifid  where  it  touches 
the  outer  apex  of  the  seed,  as  in  h',  h\  a very  narrow  mar- 
gin of  it  overlapping  the  sharply  angular  edge  of  the  latter 
organ.  These  wings  therefore  were  very  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  seed. 

In  fig.  2,  which  represents  a portion  of  Miss  Plood^s 
second  half  of  the  cone,  enlarged  six  diameters,  we  have 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  PINITES  OBLONGUS.  193 

evidence  that  each  carpellary  scale  bore  two  seeds,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  true  Abietinese.  Most  of  the  features 
seen  in  fig.  i are  repeated  in  these  two  seeds,  which  are 
intersected  in  an  obliquely  transverse  manner,  the  section 
being  tangential  to  the  surface  of  the  entire  cone.  We 
have  the  testa  of  each  seed  at  e.  Each  intersected  embryo- 
sac  appears  at  g,  g.  The  wings  are  at  h,  h,  extending 
over  the  entire  upper  surface  of  each  seed  so  completely 
as  to  invest  their  two  contiguous  surfaces ; whilst  the  thick- 
ened portions,  already  referred  to,  are  very  obvious  at  h' , h'. 
The  testa  of  each  seed  in  this  section  is  fringed  at  its  in- 
ferior surface  with  some  detached  flocculent  tissue. 

In  the  interior  of  the  nucellar  cavity  of  some  of  these 
seeds  a number  of  small  and  very  delicate  spheres,  of 
various  sizes,  are  visible ; these  may  be  products  of  minera- 
lization, but  how  produced  is  not  easy  to  determine.  As 
already  observed,  Lindley  and  Hutton  placed  their  cone 
in  the  modern  genus  Abies  in  consequence  of  the  ajDparent 
absence  of  the  terminal  thickening  usually  seen  in  the 
carpellary  scales  of  the  cones  of  Pinus.  But  the  relatively 
large  size  of  the  seed  is  more  suggestive  of  affinities  with 
Firms  than  with  Abies  ; the  more  so  since  in  such  cones 
as  those  of  Pinus  Strobus  and  Cembra  the  terminal  por- 
tions of  these  scales  are  only  thickened  in  a small  degree 
beyond  what  occurs  in  those  of  Abies.  But  apart  from 
these  facts,  Mr.  Carruthers,  in  one  of  the  memoirs  re- 
ferred to*,  has  given  excellent  reasons  for  avoiding  the 
use  of  such  ill-defined  general  terms  as  Pinus  and  Abies, 
hence  he  has  placed  Lindley  and  Huttoffis  cone  in  the 
provisional  genus  Pinites,  and  I have  followed  his  ex- 
ample. 

This  name  sufficiently  indicates  the  general  affinities  of 
such  specimens  as  the  one  under  consideration,  without 
* Geological  Mngazine,  vol.  iii.  p.  536. 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


O 


194  MESSRS,  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 


suggesting  closer  relationsliips  than  can  be  affirmed  with 
certainty  to  exist. 

DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  FIGURES. 

Fig.  I.  Internal  surface  of  one  half  of  the  cone:  enlarged  two  diameters. 
a.  Part  of  the  axis  of  the  cone. 

h,  c.  Carpellary  scales. 

b',  c',  the  upper;  b",  c",  the  lower  tissues  of  these  scales. 

d.  The  seeds  in  situ. 

e.  The  testa  of  the  seed. 

/.  The  nu  cellar  membrane  of  the  seed. 

g.  The  embryo-sac. 

li.  The  wing  of  the  seed. 

Fig.  2.  Transverse  section  of  portions  of  two  carpellary  scales,  enlarged  six 
diameters,  the  lower  bearing  two  ovules,  as  seen  in  a tangential 
section  of  the  exterior  of  the  cone.  The  reference  letters  as  above. 

i.  Portion  of  a seed  belonging  to  a collateral  cai’pellary  scale. 


XIV.  On  the  Hymenoptera  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
By  the  Bev.  T.  Blackburn^  B.A.,  and  P.  Cameron. 


Read  before  the  Microscopical  and  Natural-History  Section, 
January  i8th,  1886. 


The  investigation  of  the  natural  history  of  oceanic 
islands  is  now  rightly  regarded  'as  a subject  of  great 
interest  and  importance.  Not  only  do  their  fauna  and 
flora  throw  much  light  on  the  manner  in  which  species 
have  been  distributed  over  the  globe,  but  many  of  the 
species  themselves  are,  from  the  peculiarities  of  their 
structure,  of  extreme  value  in  throwing  light  on  the  origin 
of  species.  The  natural  history  of  oceanic  islands  ought, 
furthermore,  to  be  seriously  investigated  without  delay; 
for  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  introduction 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS, 


195 


of  cultivated  plants,  and  the  changes  caused  in  the  ground 
by  their  cultivation,  as  well  as  the  introduction  of  Old- 
World  weeds  and  insects,  must,  before  long,  lead  to  the 
extermination  of  many  of  the  native  species.  This  is  the 
more  likely  to  be  the  ease  from  many  of  them  being  of 
extreme  rarity.  In  fact,  according  to  Mr.  Blackburn,  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  connection  with  the 
insects  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  is  “ the  extreme  rarity  of 
specimens  in  comparison  of  the  number  of  species,  the 
common  insects  being  very  few  indeed,  and  the  rather 
common  ones  almost  none  at  alP^*.  We  know  that  many 
of  the  animals  of  oeeanic  islands  have  become  extinet 
within  comparatively  recent  times  ; and  in  my  mind  there 
is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  many  more  will  be  driven 
out  of  existence  within  the  next  generation  or  two.  Every 
endeavour,  therefore,  ought  to  be  made  to  induce  resi- 
dents in  these  remote  islands  to  collect  and  preserve  their 
insect  inhabitants.  That  good  results  would  be  obtained 
from  their  doing  so  can  be  proved  by  the  remarkable 
discoveries  made  by  the  late  Mr.  Wollaston  in  St.  Helena, 
and  by  Mr.  Blackburn  in  the  Hawaiian  Archipelago, 
discoveries  of  the  greatest  morphological  and  biological 
importance. 

In  all  countries  where  the  Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera 
have  been  equally  studied,  it  is  found  that  the  latter  in 
numbers  equal,  if  they  do  not  surpass  the  former.  Mr. 
Blackburn  collected  in  the  islands  428  species  of  beetles, 
whereof  352  species  are  at  present  only  known  from  the 
Archipelago.  As  there  is  not  one  fourth  of  this  number 
known  of  Hawaiian  Hymenoptera,  I think  we  may  conelude 
that  very  many  more  species  have  yet  to  be  discovered, 
even  although  it  may  ultimately  be  proved  that  they  are 
scarcer  relatively  than  the  beetles. 

Scient.  Trans,  of  the  Eoy.  Dubl.  Soc.  iii.  p.  202. 


o 


196  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

Dr.  Sharp*  divides  the  coleopterous  fauna  of  the  islands 
into  three  divisions  : first  species  (chiefly  cosmopolitan) 
introduced  in  stores,  ballast,  &c.,  by  commerce ; secondly 
species  introduced  by  natural  currents  in  drift-wood,  &c. ; 
and  thirdly  endemic  or  autochthonous  species,  the  latter 
being  distinguished  from  the  second  by  structural  pecu- 
liarities, being  to  all  appearance  forms  of  great  antiquity, 
the  distinction  between  the  two  groups  being  owing,  no 
doubt,  to  the  fact  that  the  autochthonous  species  were 
introduced  into  the  islands  at  a much  more  remote  period 
— so  remote,  indeed,  that  their  nearest  allies  have  become 
extinct,  or  nearly  so,  on  continents,  where  the  struggle  for 
existence  has  been  much  keener. 

My  knowledge  of  the  Hymenoptera  is  not  sufficient  to 
enable  me  to  separate  the  species  which  belong  to  Dr. 
Sharpes  two  last  categories ; yet  I have  no  doubt  at  all 
that  most  of  the  species  of  Crabro,  Odynerus,  and  Prosopis 
have  originated  in  the  islands  by  evolution  from  one  or 
two  species  introduced  at  some  remote  period  into  the 
islands  by  currents  on  drift-wood.  The  aculeate  species 
found  in  the  Archipelago  belong  to  genera  which  we  might 
a priori  expect  to  find  there,  being  species  which  form 
their  nests  in  or  on  wood,  the  genera  which  nidificate  in 
the  ground  being  absent. 

The  following  species  have,  I believe,  been  introduced 
by  man^s  agency  ; — Camponotus  sexguttatus,  P oner  a con- 
tracta,  Monomorium  specularis,  Tetramorium  guineense, 
Prenolepis  longicornis,  Pheidole  megacephala,  Sotenopsis 
geminata,  all  ants  of  wide  range.  Pelopceus  cmmentarius, 
Polistes  aurifer,  P.  hebraus,  Xylocopa  (sneipennis,  Evania 
Icevigata,  Metacoelus  femoralis,  and  Spalangia  hirta. 

It  is  possible  that  P.  liebrneus  may  belong  to  Sharp’s 
second  group,  hut  I have  no  doubt  that  P.  aurifer  and  the 
* Scient.  Trans,  of  the  Eoy.  Dubl.  Soc.  iii.  p.  z6i). 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


197 


Xylocopa  have  been  introduced  in  timber  from  America. 
Metaccelus  and  Spalangia  are  parasites  on  the  house-fly. 
Neither  of  them  is^  I believe,  common  in  Europe;  nor  am 
I aware  if  they  inhabit  America.  A species  of  Spalangia 
has  been  found  in  the  Galapagos  Archipelago. 

The  genera  Prosopis,  Megachile,  Odynerus,  Leptogenys, 
Pimpla,  Ophion,  Limneria,  Chelonus,  Epitranus,  Chalcis, 
Eupelmus,  and  Evania  have  a wide  range  over  the  earth. 
The  genus  Echthromorpha  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  confined 
to  oceanic  islands,  the  five  known  species  being  from 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  and  Tahiti, 
Society  Isles,  in  which  latter  island  a new  species  has 
recently  been  discovered  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Walker,  R.N.  The 
genera  Sierola,  Moranila,  and  Solindenia  are  only  known 
from  the  Archipelago,  but  our  knowledge  of  the  Chalci- 
didse  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  me  to  say  anything  very 
definite  about  the  affinities  of  the  island  species.  Sierola 
and  Scleroderma  belong  to  a group  of  much  interest, 
being  one  which  is  intermediate  between  the  Terebrant 
and  Aculeate  sections  of  Hymenoptera.  A species  of 
Scleroderma,  it  may  be  noted,  is  found  in  St.  Helena. 

Smith  offers  the  opinion  that  the  Hymenoptera  are  most 
nearly  related  to  the  American  fauna.  On  this  point  I 
am  not  prepared  to  offer  an  opinion  at  present;  and  I 
rather  think  that  Smith  formed  his  conclusion  on  the 
occurrence  of  Xylocopa  ceneipennis,  Polistes  aurifer,  &c., 
which  have  been  introduced,  as  I believe,  by  many’s 
agency,  and  consequently  must  not  be  taken  into  account 
in  judging  of  the  affinities  of  the  endemic  species. 

The  following  is  the  literature  relating  to  the  Hyme- 
noptera of  the  Archipelago  : — 

Fabricius,  Ent.  Syst.  ii.  p.  269  {Odynerus  radulci). 

F.  Smith,  Cat.  of  Hymen.  Ine.  i.  p.  23  {Prosopis  Jlavipes  and  P.  anthra- 
cina). 


198  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 


F.  Smith,  1.  c.  iv.  p.  421  {Crabro  unicolor  and  C.  distinefits  and  Mimesa 
antennatd). 

Holmgren,  Eugenics  Eesa,  Zool.  yi.  pp.  406  & 441  {Echthromorpha  maculi- 
pennis  and  Bhynchium  nigripenne  = Odynerus  mauncs,  Smith). 

F.  Smith,  “ Descriptions  of  New  Species  of  Aculeate  Hymenoptera  col- 
lected by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Blackburn  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,”  Proc. 
Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  pp.  674-685  ; also  described  in  his  ‘Description  of 
New  Species  of  Hymenoptera,’  1879. 

Thomas  Blackburn  and  W.  F.  Kirby,  “Notes  on  Species  of  Aculeate 
Hymenoptera  occurring  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,”  Ent.  Month.  Mag. 
xvii.  pp.  85-89. 

P.  Camei’on,  “Notes  on  Hymenoptera,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species,” 
Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1881,  pp.  555-562  [Sierola  (g.  nov.)  testaceipes,  Che- 
loiius  carinatus,  Monolexis^i  palliatiis,  Chalets  polynesialis,  Crabro 
Polynesians'). 

P.  Cameron,  “Descriptions  of  New  Genera  and  Species  of  Hymenoptera,” 
Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  pp.  187-193  (Epitranus  lacteipennis,  Moranila 
testaceipes,  Solindenia  picticornis,  Eupelmus  jlavipes,  Evania  sericea, 
Limneria  polynesialis,  L.  Blackburni,  Ophion  Imeatus,  0.  nigricans). 


The  descriptions  of  new  species  of  Prosopis,  Odynerus, 
and  Crabro,  and  the  remarks  thereon  are  by  Mr.  Black- 
burn. All  that  I have  done  in  these  genera  is  to  cata- 
logue and  bring  together  the  references  to  the  species ; 
also  I have  made  certain  alterations  in  synonymy.  I have 
likewise  to  thank  Mr.  G.  F.  Matthews^  B.N.^  for  some 
specimens  from  the  islands. — P.  C. 

As  I have  in  my  collection  of  Hawaiian  Hymenoptera 
a considerable  number  of  undescribed  species^  and  made 
various  observations  of  habits  &c.^  at  periods  subsequent 
to  the  description  by  Messrs.  F.  Smithy  W.  F.  Kirby^  and 
P.  Cameron^  of  certain  new  species^  I think  that  it  will  be 
desirable  for  me  to  put  forth  a paper  on  these  insects  in 
which  I shall  endeavour  to  include  the  hitherto  undescribed 
species^  and  add  such  remarks  as  may  seem  profitable  con- 
cerning those  that  have  already  been  described. 

The  Hymenopterous  fauna  of  the  Hawaiian  Archipelago 
is,  I believe,  a rich  one.  It  held  a claim  on  my  ento- 
mological energies  so  decidedly  second  to  that  of  the 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


199 


Coleoptera^  that  I think  the  fact  of  its  being  represented 
in  my  collection  by  considerably  more  than  a hundred 
species^  to  be  very  conclusive  on  the  pointy  that  a specialist 
studying  the  group  would  reap  a great  harvest  were  he  to 
visit  the  locality. 

I have  published  (in  the  Scientific  Trans,  of  the  Royal 
Dublin  Soc.  1884^  pp.  87  et  seq.)  some  general  remarks  on 
the  climate  &c.  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  their  relation 
to  the  insect-fauna,  to  which  I will  venture  to  refer  for 
the  generalities  that  might  perhaps  be  looked  for  as  an 
introduction  to  such  a paper  as  the  present,  merely  adding 
that  (so  far  as  I can  judge)  Maui  is  not,  in  respect  of  this 
group  of  insects,  so  clearly  the  metropolis  of  the  islands  as 
it  is  in  respect  of  other  groups.  It  has  produced  (as  will 
appear  from  what  follows)  one  or  two  of  the  most  striking 
and  specialized  types,  it  is  true ; but,  nevertheless,  I am 
inclined  to  think  that  it  must  yield  to  Hawaii  the  claim  to 
be  the  Hymenopterous  centre,  as  that  island  has  yielded 
the  most  numerous  and  most  strongly-marked  forms  in 
every  family  but  two,  viz.  Apidse  and  Sphegidae.  The 
species  (Prosopis  rugiventris,  mihi)  of  the  former,  on 
which  this  remark  is  founded,  very  probably  is  confined 
to  Maui  (and  the  closely  adjacent  island  Lanai),  while  the 
occurrence  there,  either  solely  or  in  much  greater  numbers 
than  elsewhere,  of  P.  Blackburni,  Sm.,  and  P.  hilaris,  Sm. 
(two  of  the  most  striking  species  of  the  genus),  confirms 
the  probability  that  Maui  really  is  peculiarly  rich  in  these 
insects.  The  occurrence  in  very  small  numbers  of  Mimesa 
antennata,  Smith,  of  which  no  close  ally  has  occurred  in 
other  localities,  may  possibly  be  due  merely  to  insufficient 
observation  on  my  part,  and,  therefore,  will  not  count  for 
much ; while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the  Vespidfe 
and  Crabronidse  of  Hawaii  are  so  much  more  striking  in 
appearance  and  specialized  in  structure  than  those  of  any 


200  MESSRS,  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

other  island  is,  I feel  no  doubt  whatever,  due  genuinely  to 
the  Hymenopterous  wealth  of  the  island. 

ANTHOPHILA. 

Andrenid.®. 

In  this  family  the  indigenous  species  are  not  improbably 
confined  to  the  genera  Megachile  and  Prosopis.  Apis 
mellifica,  Linn.,  is  of  course  introduced,  and  it  can  hardly 
be  thought  likely  that  Xylocopa  (uneipenms,  De  Geer,  is  a 
true  native  of  the  islands.  It  may  fairly  be  questioned 
whether  the  destructiveness  of  the  latter  does  not  more 
than  counterbalance  the  profitableness  of  the  former.  The 
habits  of  the  single  Hawaiian  species  of  Megachile  noticed 
by  me  have  been  fully  reported  by  Mr.  F.  Smith.  The 
descriptions  &c.  of  the  species  of  Prosopis  found  on  the 
Archipelago  are  so  scattered,  and  contain  so  many  slight 
inaccuracies,  that  I think  it  might  be  well  for  me  to  review 
them  seriatim,  adding  descriptions  of  certain  additional 
species,  and  furnishing  a Table  of  their  distinctive  cha- 
racters, as  follows : — 

I.  Prosopis fuscipennis. 

Prosopis  fuscipennis.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  682 ; Kirby,  Ent. 
Month.  Mag.  xyii.  p.  85. 

I have  nothing  to  add  to  the  excellent  description  of 
this  species  in  Mr.  P.  Smithes  two  papers.  I have  never 
taken  it  elsewhere  than  on  Oahu,  and  there  only  rarely. 

2.  Prosopis  satellus,  sp.  n. 

Niger;  confertim  punctatus;  clypeo  (antice  rotundato), 
antennarum  articuli  basalis  fronte,  tarsis  tibiarum- 
que  anticarum  fronte,  testaceis,  antennarum  articulo 
basali  valde  compresso ; alis  fuscis. 

Long.  1 1 millim. 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


201 


This  species  is  allied  to  P . fuscipennis,  Sm.^  from  which 
it  differs  as  follows  : — The  clypeus  is  yellow,  the  anterior 
margin  of  the  thorax  is  not  testaceous,  the  tegulse  are 
paler,  the  punctuation  throughout  is  finer  and  closer 
(especially  so  on  the  metathorax,  which  is  a little  rugose 
only  in  front  and  on  the  hind  body).  The  basal  joint  of 
the  antennae  is  much  more  strongly  compressed,  being  on 
its  flat  face  as  wide  as  long,  and  has  its  front  side  more 
strongly  rounded  than  the  hinder  side. 

I have  seen  only  a single  male  of  this  insect,  which 
occurred  in  September  on  Haleakala,  Maui,  at  an  elevation 
of  about  5000  feet. 

3.  Prosopis  BlacJcburni. 

Prosopis  BlacTchurni,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  682  ; Kirby,  Ent. 

Month.  Mag.  xvii.  p.  85. 

The  original  description  of  this  insect  was  founded,  I 
believe,  on  a single  individual  of  each  sex,  the  male  being 
an  unusually  brightly  coloured  one.  At  a subsequent 
period  I met  with  the  species  plentifully,  and  the  exami- 
nation of  something  like  a hundred  specimens  has  satisfied 
me  that  it  is  subject  to  much  variation.  I think  there- 
fore that  it  will  be  well  to  supplement  the  description 
with  a further  one,  somewhat  more  in  detail.  The 
distinctive  characters  seem  to  be  as  follows  : — Head  un- 
usually elongate  in  both  sexes,  the  width  across  and 
including  the  eyes  being  scarcely  equal  to  the  total  length. 
The  clypeus  is  abruptly  truncate  or  even  gently  concave 
at  the  apex.  In  the  male  the  whole  space  below  the 
antennae  is  yellow,  and  this  colour  is  produced  in  a trian- 
gular form  between  the  base  of  the  antennae,  and  also 
runs  back  as  a gradually  narrowing  vitta  adjacent  to  the 
eyes  on  either  side  of  the  head.  The  extent  of  this  colour- 
ing is  subject  to  occasional  variety;  I have  a specimen  in 


202  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

which  the  small  plate  between  the  clypeus  and  the  antennse 
is  blacky  and  several  specimens  in  whieh  the  lateral  yellow 
vittae  are  abbreviated^  but  none  in  which  the  yellow  eolour- 
ing  is  confined  to  the  space  in  front  of  the  antennae.  The 
least  brightly  coloured  specimens^  moreover,  differ  from 
P.  facilis,  Sm.,  in  having  the  entire  space  between  the 
eyes  and  the  clypeus  yellow.  The  seape  of  the  antennae 
is  not  much  dilated  in  the  male,  being  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  wide,  and  moderately  arched ; it  is  generally 
black,  and  rarely  displays  the  yellow  line  mentioned  in  the 
original  description.  In  both  sexes  the  flagellum  is  yellow 
(or  at  least  ferruginous)  beneath ; in  some  instances  the 
whole  flagellum,  and  even  the  scape,  is  red,  the  underside 
of  the  former  being  then  of  a vivid  yellow.  The  colouring 
of  the  legs  varies,  even  in  the  male,  from  that  described 
by  Mr.  Smith,  to  an  almost  uniform  pitehy  colour,  save 
that  the  front  of  the  front  tibim  is  always  pale,  and  the 
tarsi  are  seldom  obseured.  The  wings  have  scarcely  any 
trace  of  fuscous  colouring  in  the  male  and  not  much  in 
the  female.  The  size  of  the  male  varies  from  7—10  millim. 
long,  that  of  the  female  from  8-1 1 millim.  long.  I have 
this  species  from  Maui,  Lanaii,  and  Hawaii.  Specimens 
from  Hawaii  seem  to  be,  as  a rule,  more  obscurely  coloured 
than  those  from  other  loealities.  The  brightly  eoloured 
type  occurs  on  Maui,  near  the  sea-coast. 

4.  Prosopis  facilis. 

Prosopis  facilis,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  683  ; Kirby,  Ent.  Month. 

Mag.  xvh.  p.  85. 

Of  this  insect  I have  examined  about  50  examples.  It 
is  not  very  elose  to  any  other  of  the  genus,  nor  does  it 
vary  much.  The  original  description  is  a good  one,  but 
may  advantageously  be  amplified  a little.  P.  Bluckburni, 
Sm.,  is,  I think,  its  nearest  ally.  The  head  is  moderately 


HYMENOPTERA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  203 

elongate^  but  decidedly  less  so  than  in  P.  Blackburni,  the 
width  from  eye  to  eye  in  front  of  the  base  of  the  antennae 
being  about  the  same  as  the  length  from  the  base  of  the 
antennae  to  the  apex  of  the  clypeus.  The  apex  of  the 
clypeus  is  rounded.  There  is  a very  distinct  elongate 
depression  on  either  side  of  the  head  close  to  the  eyes. 
The  clypeus  and  the  plate  between  it  and  the  antennae  are 
yellow  in  the  male^  as  also  is  a narrow  space  on  either  side 
of  the  clypeus^  but  the  yellow  colouring  extends  laterally 
to  the  eyes  only  in  the  extreme  fronts  and  does  not  extend 
at  all  behind  the  antennae^  so  that  the  head  even  in  front 
of  the  antennae  is  only  partially  yellow.  The  antennae  are 
uniformly  of  a blackish  col  our,  the  basal  joint  being  not 
much  dilated  but  very  strongly  arched  in  the  male.  The 
punctuation  does  not  differ  mnch  from  that  of  P.  Black- 
burni, the  upper  surface  of  the  hind  body  showing  no 
distinct  punctures.  The  legs  are  of  a blackish  colour, 
except  the  front  tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  male,  which  are 
more  or  less  testaceous  in  front.  The  size  of  the  male 
varies  from  6f-io  millim.  long,  that  of  the  female  from 
7-1  of  millim,  long. 

The  original  types  of  P.  facilis,  Sm.,  were  from  the 
Pauoa  Valley,  Oahu  (not  from  Maui  as  stated  by  Mr. 
Smith).  The  insect,  however,  occurs  on  Maui  and  also 
on  Hawaii. 

The  only  colour  vars.  I possess  of  the  male  have  the 
plate  between  the  clypeus  and  the  antennae  black. 

5.  Prosopis  flavifrons. 

Prosopis  Jlavifrons,  Kirby,  Ent.  Month.  Mag.  xvii.  p.  85  (S)- 

Allied  (but  not  very  closely  I think)  to  P.  Blackburni, 
Sm.,  and  P.  facilis,  Sm.  This  insect  may  be  readily  iden- 
tified by  the  following  characters : — The  yellow  mark  on 
the  face  occupies  the  whole  space  in  front  of  the  antennae. 


204  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

but  does  not  extend  behind  them.  The  clypeus  is  rounded 
in  front.  The  basal  joint  of  the  antennae  is  extremely 
compressed,  being,  on  the  flat  faee,  scarcely  longer  than 
wide,  and  of  subcordiform  shape ; the  anterior  margin  of 
this  joint  is  narrowly  testaceous.  Near  its  apex  the 
flagellum  is  testaceous  beneath,  while  the  legs  are  of  an 
obscure  colour  except  the  front  tibiae,  which  are  testaceous 
in  front.  The  head  does  not  differ  much  in  shape  from 
that  of  P.  facilis,  Sm.,  nor  is  the  punctuation  of  the 
insect  much  different.  The  length  is  about  millim. 
I have  found  this  species  only  on  Kauai,  and  have  not 
seen  the  female. 

6.  Prosopis  Kona,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  flavo-variegatus,  hand  crebre  punctatus ; capite 
minus  elongate,  clypeo  antice  rotundato  •,  alls  hya- 
linis. 

. Antennarum  articulo  basali  fortiter  compresso. 

Long.  ^ 5 millim.,  •$  7 millim. 

This  is  a very  distinct  species.  In  the  male  the  face 
is  coloured  as  in  typical  P.  Blachburni.  The  anterior 
margin  of  the  thorax  and  a spot  under  the  tegulae  are 
yellow;  the  tibiae  are  yellow  with  a black  spot  on  the 
posterior  face  of  the  front  pair,  and  a similar  spot  on  each 
side  of  the  others ; the  first  joint  of  each  tarsus  is  yellow, 
the  remainder  are  fuscous ; of  the  antennae  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  flagellum  is  testaceous,  and  the  basal  joint  is 
much  compressed  (considerably  more  so  than  in  P.  Black- 
burni),  but  the  dilated  face  is  quite  evidently  not  so  wide 
as  long,  and  its  sides  are  strongly  rounded.  The  hinder 
portion  of  the  head  is  closely  and  very  finely  punctured ; 
the  surface  of  the  thorax  is  opaque  with  excessively  miuute 
punctuation,  and  has  also  some  larger  punctures  (but  even 
these  are  fine),  the  cavities  of  which,  under  a strong  lens. 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


205 


are  shining;  on  the  postscutellum  the  system  of  larger 
punctures  seems  to  fail ; the  metathorax  is  more  shining, 
and  its  sculpture  seems  to  consist  of  a mixture  of  very  fine 
granulation  and  some  oblique  wrinkles ; the  upper  surface 
of  the  hind  body  is  not  very  shining,  and  its  sculpture 
consists  of  excessively  minute  punctuation  invisible,  except 
under  a very  strong  lens ; while  the  undersurface  is  simi- 
larly punctured  with  the  addition  of  a system  of  much 
larger  but  very  feeble  shallow  punctures. 

The  female  (save  in  the  usual  respects)  does  not  differ 
much  from  the  male ; it  is  larger,  however,  and  the  colour- 
ing of  its  head  consists  in  a slender  yellow  line  along  the 
internal  margin  of  the  eyes. 

I obtained  three  specimens  of  this  little  insect  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Manna  Loa,  Hawaii,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  6000  feet,  in  May. 

7.  Prosopis  coniceps,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  flavo-variegatus,  punctatus ; capite  brevi  pone  an- 
tennas tumidulo;  clypeo  antice  rotundato;  alis  hya- 
linis. 

^ . Antennarum  articulo  basali  compresso,  minus  elongate. 
Long.  6f  millim. 

In  this  species  the  markings  on  the  head  are  peculiar, — 
the  anterior  third  of  the  clypeus  is  entirely  yellow,  the 
posterior  quarter  entirely  black,  the  apical  yellow  being 
produced  backwards  in  the  middle  of  the  intervening  space 
as  a broad  band,  while  the  basal  black  is  narrowly  pro- 
duced forwards  on  either  side  of  it ; there  is  also  a large 
yellow  triangle  on  either  side  between  the  clypeus  and  the 
eye.  The  yellow  colouring  does  not  extend  as  far  back- 
wards on  the  head  as  to  the  base  of  the  antennse.  The 
front  side  of  the  front  tibiae  is  yellow  ; the  tarsi  are  tes- 


206  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

taceous  at  the  base^  becoming  fuscous  towards  the  apex ; 
the  rest  of  the  insect  is  black.  I find  no  very  noticeable 
difference  between  this  species  and  P.facilis,  Sm.,  in  re- 
spect of  punctuation,  except  that  the  head  is  rather  more 
roughly  punctured  behind  the  antennae.  The  head  is  very 
short,  the  distance  from  eye  to  eye  across  the  front  of  the 
base  of  the  antennae  being  very  considerably  greater  than 
from  the  base  of  the  antennae  to  the  base  of  the  clypeus. 
The  portion  of  the  head  behind  the  antennae  is  tumid,  so 
that  the  ocelli  seem  to  be  placed  on  a rounded  swelling. 
The  apex  of  the  clypeus  is  rounded.  The  underside  of  the 
hind  body  is  sparingly  and  not  strongly  punctured.  The 
basal  joint  of  the  antennae  is  rather  strongly  dilated  in  the 
male,  its  length  being  hardly  twice  its  width. 

A single  specimen  occurred  on  Mauna  Kea,  Hawaii,  at 
an  elevation  of  about  7000  feet,  in  February.  A female 
taken  in  the  same  neighbourhood  probably  belongs  to  this 
species,  as  its  head  is  similarly  formed,  though  it  is  less 
roughly  punctured.  It  is  quite  black,  except  the  legs, 
which  are  dark  pitchy,  and  the  wings  are  much  clouded 
with  fuscous. 

8.  Prosopis  rugiventris,  sp.  nov. 

Niger  obscure  punctatus  ; antennarum  flagello  apicem 
versus  ferrugineo ; abdomine  plus  minusve  rufe- 
scente;  clypeo  antice  subtruncato. 

^ . Fronte  testacea ; tibiis  anticis  dilutioribus ; anten- 
narum articulo  basali  fortiter  compresso,  vix  quam 
latus  longiore  abdominis  segmentis  ventralibus 
nitidis,  insequalibus. 

Long.  S millim.,  ? 7 millim. 

The  punctuation  does  not  appear  to  differ  much  from 
that  of  P.  Blackburni,  Sm.,  which  this  insect  resembles 
also  by  its  scarcely  less  elongate  head  and  the  only  slightly 


HYMENOPTERA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


207 


rounded  apex  of  the  clypeus.  In  the  male  the  face  is  en- 
tirely (or  almost  entirely)  yellow  in  front  of  the  antennse, 
but  the  yellow  colouring  does  not  pass  the  antennae  back- 
wards. The  flagellum  is  testaceous  on  the  underside^  in 
some  specimens  entirely  ferruginous.  The  front  tibiae  of 
the  male  are  testaceous  in  front.  In  both  sexes  the  hind 
body  is  reddish  (in  some  specimens  quite  red) . The  basal 
joint  of  the  antennae  in  the  male  is  strongly  compressed, 
its  flat  face  being  scarcely  longer  than  broad.  The  hind 
body  beneath  is  almost  impunctate  and  very  shining  in 
the  same  sex,  while  across  each  segment  runs  a transverse, 
rounded,  and  sinuated  ridge,  more  strongly  developed  in 
some  specimens  than  in  others. 

I possess  two  specimens  of  this  insect  from  Maui  and 
five  from  Lanai.  One  of  them  (taken  in  company  with 
the  males)  is  a female,  and  closely  resembles  the  female  of 
P.  Blackburni,  Sm. 

9.  Prosopis  hilaris. 

Prosopis  hilaris,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  683  ; Kirby,  Bnt.  Month. 
Mag.  xvii.  p.  85. 

The  male  has  been  well  described  by  Mr.  Smith.  The 
female  closely  resembles  it,  being,  however,  somewhat 
larger  (9-9!  millim.  long).  The  colouring  is  precisely 
similar,  save  that  bright  yellow  is  replaced  by  obscure 
testaceous.  The  basal  joint  of  the  antennae  is,  of  course, 
not  dilated,  and  the  apical  segments  of  the  hind  body 
present  the  usual  sexual  differences. 

10.  Prosopis  volatilis. 

Prosopis  volatilis,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc,  xiv.  p.  683  ; Kirby,  Ent.  Month, 
Mag.  xvii.  p.  85. 

This  species  (the  male  of  which  has  been  well  described 
by  Mr.  Smith)  was  taken  on  Oahu  (not  Kauai,  as  stated  in 
the  original  description).  I have  not  seen  the  female. 


208  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 


Table  of  Species  of  Prosopis. 


1 . Anterior  margin  of  thorax  yellow z 

Anterior  margin  of  thorax  not  coloured  yellow  3 

2.  Upper  surface  of  hind  body  distinctly  punctured  fuscipennis,  Sm. 

Upper  surface  of  hind  body  not  distinctly  punctured.  Kona,  mihi. 

3.  Ventral  segments  even  in  both  sexes 4 

Ventral  segments  transversely  ridged  in  the  male rugiventris,  mihi. 

4.  Upper  surface  of  hind  body  not  distinctly  punctured 5 

Upper  surface  of  hind  body  with  well-defined  punc- 
tuation   satelles,  mihi. 

5.  Hind  body  black  6 

Hind  body  red 9 

6.  Head  short  (i.  e.  distance  from  eye  to  eye  in  front  of 

antennffi  considerably  greater  than  from  anteniiEe  to 

apex  of  clypeus) coniceps,  mihi. 

Head  elongate  {i.  e.  the  former  of  these  distances  not, 

or  scarcely,  exceeding  the  latter)  7 

7.  Apical  margin  of  clypeus  distinctly  rounded  8 

Apical  margin  of  clypeus  truncate  Blackbiirni,  Sm. 

8.  Basal  joint  of  antennae  not,  or  scarcely,  longer  than 

wide  in  male  flavifrons,  Sm. 

Basal  joint  of  antennae  much  longer  than  wide facilis,  Sm. 

9.  Yellow  markings  on  face  of  male  extending  behind  the 

antennae  hilaris,  Sm, 

Y'ellow  markings  on  face  of  male  not  passing  behind 

the  antennae  volatilis,  Sm. 


The  following  two  species  have  been  described  by  Mr. 
P.  Smith  in  his  Cat.  of  Hymen.  Ins.  pt.  i.  p.  23,  from  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  they  are 
identical  with  some  of  the  species  described  above^  but^  as 
the  descriptions  are  not  very  clear,  and  as  I have  not  spe- 
cimens of  all  the  species  for  comparison,  I have  not  been 
able  to  satisfy  myself  as  to  this.  To  make  the  descriptions 
of  Prosopis  complete,  I give  a copy  from  Smithes  work  of 
those  of  P.  anthracina  and  P.  flavipes. — P.  C. 

II.  Prosopis  anthracina. 

“Female.  Length  2 f lines.  Entirely  black,  head  and 
thorax  very  finely  punctured,  the  apical  joints  of  the  an- 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


209 


tennse  testaceous  beneath.  Thorax,  the  tegulie  testaceous, 
the  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  dark  testaceous ; the  en- 
closed portion  of  the  metathorax  longitudinally  irregularly 
sulcate  at  its  base.  Abdomen  very  smooth  and  shining, 
beneath  it  is  dark  fusco-ferruginous,  as  well  as  the  legs  ; 
the  claws  ferruginous. 

‘‘Male.  The  clypeus  and  a space  on  each  side  not 
touching  the  eyes,  forming  together  an  oval,  bright  yellow; 
the  scape  dilated,  triangular ; the  flagellum  testaceous  be- 
neath. Thorax,  the  anterior  tibiae  in  front,  and  the  claws 
testaceous ; otherwise  as  in  the  other  sex. 

“ Hab.  Sandwich  Islands. 

12.  Prosopis  jiavipes. 

“ Male.  Length  2|  lines.  Black ; the  face  yellow,  the 
colouring  is  continued  upwards  on  each  side  nearly  to  the 
vertex  of  the  eye ; the  scape  cylindrical,  black,  the  rest  of 
the  antennae  orange,  yellow  beneath.  Thorax,  the  meta- 
thorax has  no  distinctly  enclosed  space,  and  is  subrugose ; 
the  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  dark  fuscous,  all  the  tibiae 
and  tarsi  bright  yellow,  the  former  have  a ferruginous 
stain  behind.  Abdomen  smooth  and  shining,  the  margins 
of  the  segments  narrowly  rufo-testaceous. 

“Hab.  Sandwich  Islands.” 


ApidvE. 

13.  Megachile  diligens. 

Megachile  diligens.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  684 ; Kirby,  Ent.  Month. 

Mag.  xvii.  p.  86. 

Not  uncommon.  “ Forming  nests  of  leaves  of  a species 
of  Acacia  rolled  up  into  cylindrical  cells,  which  are  joined 
one  at  the  end  of  another  to  the  length  of  several  inches, 
and  are  placed  in  crevices  of  masonry. — T.  B. 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


p 


210  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

14.  Xylocopa  (Eneipennis. 

Xyhcopa  aneipennis,  De  Geer,  Memoires,  iii.  p.  573,  tab.  28.  f.  8 ; St. 
Fargeau,  Hym.  ii.  p.  186 ; Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  684. 

Very  common  and  extremely  destructive  to  wood  by 
forming  its  nests  in  it^  the  nests  being  long  galleries  and 
made  in  dead  or  living  trees. 

FOSSORES. 

VeSPIDjE. 

15.  Polistes  aurifer. 

Polistes  aurifer,  Saussure,  Mon.  GuSpes  Soc.  p.  78. 

Common,  forming  its  nests  in  wood. 

16.  Polistes  hebr<Bus. 

Vespa  hebrcea,  Fab.  Mant.  Ins.  i.  p.  292. 

Polistes  macaensis,  Fab.  Syst.  Piez.  p.  272. 

Common  in  Oahu.  The  specimen  I have  is  nearly 
identical  with  the  figure  given  by  de  Saussure  of  the  var. 
macaensis  in  his  Mon.  Guepes  Soc.  pi.  vii.  f.  i.  The  species 
has  a wide  range  over  Asia  &c. 

17.  Odynerus  radula. 

Vespa  radula,  Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  ii.  p.  269. 

Odynerus  localis.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  678  ; Kirby,  Ent.  Month. 
Mag.  xvi.  p.  86. 

Common  on  Kauai. 

18.  Odynerus  extraneus, 

Odynerus  extraneus,  Kirby,  Ent.  Month.  Mag.  xvii.  p.  86. 

Hah.  Kauai. 

19.  Odynerus  nigripennis. 

Bhygchiunt  nigripenne,  Holmgren,  Eugenies  Resa,  Zool.  vi.  p.  441. 
Odynerus  maurus.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  679. 

Common  at  Honolulu. 


HYMEVOPTBRA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


211 


20,  Odynerus  dromedarms , sp.  nov. 

? . RobustuS;,  subnitidus,  subtiliter  pubesceas,  puuetatus, 
niger ; fronte  rubro-maculato  j alis  Isete  cseruleis ; 
clypeo  leviter  emarginato ; abdominis  segmento  primo 
fortiter  transverso,  antice  verticali,  segmento  secundo 
fortiter  tuberculato-elevato ; metatborace  baud  ru- 
goso. 

Long.  15  millim. 

The  bead  is  ratber  closely  and  coarsely^  but  not  deeply, 
punctured ; tbe  protborax,  mesotborax,  and  scutellum  have 
two  systems  of  punctuation, — one  very  fiae  aud  close,  tbe 
other  larger  and  sparing, — tbe  larger  punctures  being 
almost  non-existent  on  tbe  scutellum  and  postscutellum. 
Tbe  metatborax  is  finely  alutaceons,  and  bears  a few 
ratber  large,  but  not  deep,  punctures.  Tbe  bind  body  is 
finely  and  sparingly  punctured  to  near  tbe  apex  of  tbe 
second  segment,  where  tbe  punctuation  becomes  (and  it 
continues  over  tbe  next  three  segments)  coarse  and  rather 
close.  The  wings  are  of  a very  beautiful  bright  blue 
colour.  Tbe  elevation  of  tbe  second  segment  of  the  bind 
body  gives  tbe  insect  a most  remarkable  appearance,  the 
summit  of  the  “^bump^^  into  which  tbe  segment  is  gathered 
up  appearing  (when  viewed  from  tbe  side)  to  be  abruptly 
raised  above  tbe  first  segment  by  about  a third  tbe  total 
height  of  the  segment.  Tbe  pubescence  (of  a whitish 
colour)  is  very  fine  and  is  dense  enough  to  prevent  tbe 
surface  from  being  very  shining. 

A single  specimen  of  this  most  distinctive  insect  occurred 
in  February  on  Mauna  Loa,  Hawaii,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  4000  feet,  near  tbe  crater  Kilauea,  flying  in  tbe 
forest.  Another  (much  dilapidated)  specimen  taken  at  the 
same  time  and  place,  is  probably  couspecific,  but  if  so  has 
lost  tbe  beautiful  colour  from  the  wings.  It  is  devoid  of 

p 2 


212  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

pubescence,  and  therefore,  I think,  more  shining  and  more 
conspicuously  punctured.  This  dilference,  however,  is  so 
strongly  defined  on  the  metathorax  that  I hesitate  to 
associate  the  two. 

21.  Odynerus  vulcanus. 

O.  vulcanus,  sp.  nov.  ? . Robustus,  vix  nitidus,  subtiliter 
pubescens,  fortiter  punctatus,  niger ; alis  violaceis 
clypeo  vix  emarginato ; abdominis  segmento  primo 
fortiter  transverse,  antice  verticali,  secundo  fortiter 
tuberculato-elevato ; metathorace  rugoso. 

Long.  15-16  millim. 

This  species  is  allied  to  the  preceding,  from  which  it 
difiers  as  follows : — The  apex  of  the  clypeus  is  scarcely 
emarginate;  there  is  no  red  spot  on  the  forehead;  the 
punctures  on  the  head  are  much  deeper,  and  therefore 
more  distinct ; the  system  of  larger  punctures  on  the 
prothorax,  mesothorax,  and  scutellum  is  much  closer  and 
deeper ; the  metathorax  is  opaque  and  strongly  rugose ; 
the  first  segment  of  the  hind  body  is  very  strongly  and 
rather  closely  punctate ; the  second  segment  of  the  same 
is  a little  less  conspicuously  elevated,  and  the  wings  are 
violet  rather  than  blue. 

Two  specimens  occurred  at  the  same  time  and  place  as 
the  preceding. 

N.B.  In  my  collection  are  two  males  and  one  female  of 
an  Odynerus,  taken  on  Mauna  Kea,  Hawaii,  which  I am 
unable  to  separate  from  O.  vulcanus,  although  they  appear 
somewhat  more  shining  than  a little  rubbing  would  account 
for.  The  length  of  these  males  is  13  millim.  Their  diflPer- 
ences  from  the  female  do  not  seem  to  call  for  remark, 
being  only<  the  usual  structural  differences.  The  small 
apical  joint  of  their  antennae  is  of  a testaceous  colour. 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


213 


22.  Odynerus  hawaiiensis. 

O.  hawaiiensis,  sp.  nov.  Minus  robustus^  subopacus^  sub- 
tiliter  pubescens,  niger;  mandibulis  rufis;  alis  vio- 
laceis ; clypeo  vix  emarginato ; capite  abdomineque 
obscure,  tborace  vix  evidenter  punctatis;  abdominis 
segmento  primo  vix  transverso,  antice  subverticali, 
secundo  tuberculato-elevato. 

Long,  d 12  millim,,  ? 13-131- millim. 

Katber  an  obscure-looking  species.  The  head  is  some- 
what closely  punctured,  but  the  punctures  are  faintly 
impressed  ; the  rest  of  the  trunk  appears  impunctate,  but 
opaque;  when  examined  with  a lens,  however,  it  is  seen 
to  have  a double  system  of  punctuation,  but  it  is  all  so 
faintly  impressed  as  to  be  hardly  noticeable.  The  meta- 
thorax is  delicately  alutaceous  rather  than  punctured. 
The  basal  segment  of  the  hind  body  is  about  as  long  as  its 
greatest  width,  somewhat  (but  not  abruptly)  vertical  in 
front,  and  thickly  covered  with  large  shallow  punctures; 
the  next  two  segments  have  fine  punctures  in  front  and 
large  ones  behind;  the  remainder  (except  the  last)  are 
coarsely  but  not  deeply  punctured.  The  apical  joint  in 
the  antennae  of  the  male  is  testaceous.  Allied  to  0.  vul- 
canus.  This  species  is  easily  distinguishable  by  its  man- 
dibles, more  or  less  red,  and  by  the  shape  of  the  first 
segment  of  the  hind  body,  which  is  especially  noticeable  if 
looked  at  from  the  side,  when  it  is  seen  to  be  longer  (from 
the  apex  of  the  petiole)  than  high,  whereas  the  proportion 
is  reversed  in  O.  vulcanus. 

I have  taken  this  insect  several  times  on  the  mountains 
of  Hawaii.  It  is  somewhat  variable ; I have  several  spe- 
cimens that  I attribute  to  it,  in  which  the  punctuation  is 
even  more  faintly  impressed  than  in  the  type,  and  one  in 
which  the  metathorax  is  slightly  rugose.  I have  also  a 


214  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

male  (possibly  a distinct  species)  which  seems  a little  more 
strongly  punetured,  and  has  the  basal  segment  of  the  hind 
body  margined  with  testaceous  behind.  I have  also  a 
female  differing  from  the  type  in  having  the  apex  of  the 
clypeus  (as  well  as  the  mandibles)  red.  One  specimen 
departs  from  the  type  in  having  the  clypens  somewhat 
more  deeply  emarginate,  in  one  or  two  the  tubereulate 
form  of  the  second  segment  of  the  hind  body  is  only 
feebly  developed^  in  another  the  wings  are  almost  devoid 
of  colouring,  and  in  another  one  mandible  is  black. 

23.  Odynerus  haleakalcB. 

0.  haleakal(B,  sp.  nov.  Subnitidus,  subtiliter  pubescens, 
niger;  mandibulis  plus  minus ve  ruhs ; alis  violaceis  ; 
clypeo  minus  emarginato  •,  capite  thoraceque  crebre 
fortiterque  punctatis ; abdominis  segmento  primo 
transverso,  antice  parum  verticali,  crassius  nec  fortiter 
punctato ; segmento  secundo  tuberculato-elevato. 
Long.  S 12.  millim.,  ¥ 15  millim. 

Both  head  and  thorax  have  a double  system  of  punctu- 
ation. On  the  head  the  larger  punctures  are  so  close  and 
deep  that  the  finer  ones  need  looking  for;  on  the  thorax 
(including  the  scutellum)  the  larger  ones  are  more  sparing, 
while  the  smaller  ones  are  more  noticeable  on  the  pro- 
thorax, but  become  less  so  backwards,  being  scarcely 
discoverable  on  the  metathorax.  The  first  segment  of  the 
hind  body  is  rather  strongly  transverse,  much  rounded 
off  [i.  e.  not  vertical)  in  front,  and  is  only  sparingly, 
though  rather  strongly,  punctate.  The  second  segment  is 
rather  strongly  elevated  into  a tubercular  shape ; it  is  very 
finely  and  sparingly  punctate  to  near  the  hind  margin, 
where  the  punctuation  becomes  coarse.  The  next  three 
segments  are  coarsely  punctate.  The  apical  joint  of  the 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


215 


antennae  in  the  male  is  testaceous.  The  wings  are  of  a 
bright  violet  colour. 

The  general  resemblance  of  this  insect  is  to  the  pre- 
ceding species,  from  which  it  differs  in  being  much  more 
shining  and  much  more  strongly  punctate,  as  well  as  in 
the  shape  of  the  first  segment  of  the  hind  body  &c.  &c. 
From  0.  congruus,  Sm.,  it  differs  in  the  shape  of  the  second 
segment  of  the  hind  body,  the  punctuation  of  the  head, 
&c. ; from  0.  dubiosus,  Sm.  (which  has  a faint  development 
of  the  tubercular  form  of  the  second  segment  of  the  hind 
body),  by  its  considerably  stronger  and  closer  punctua- 
tion, and  by  the  much  less  vertical  front  of  the  basal 
segment  of  the  hind  body;  from  0.  maurus,  Sm.,  by  the 
much  less  crowded  punctuation  of  the  head  and  thorax. 

I have  taken  this  insect  occasionally  on  Haleakala, 
Maui,  always  at  a considerable  elevation  (4000-6000  feet 
above  the  sea) . 


24.  Odynerus  congruus. 

Odynerus  congruus,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  680. 

Hab.  Honolulu  : not  rare. 

25.  Odynerus  dubiosus. 

Odynerus  dubiosus,  Smith,  1.  c.  p.  68 1. 

Hab.  Honolulu. 

26.  Odynerus  rubritinctus . 

Odynerus  rubritinctus,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  679. 

Not  uncommon  on  Kauai. 

27.  Odynerus  Blackburni. 

Odynerus  Blackburni,  Kirby,  Ent.  Month.  Mag.  xvii.  . 87 

A succession  of  accidents  have  resulted  in  the  publica- 


216  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

tion  of  this  name  without  any  insect  having  been  described 
under  it.  Some  time  in  1878  I presented  to  the  British 
Museum  a small  collection  of  Hymenoptera  containing, 
among  other  things,  two  red-spotted  Odyneri  (male  and 
female),  one  specimen  of  each.  Mr.  F.  Smith  described 
them  as  the  sexes  of  a new  species,  which  he  called 
O.  rubritinctus.  As  I possessed  the  other  sex  of  each,  I 
knew  that  the  differences  were  not  sexual.  Mr.  Smithes 
lamented  death  prevented  any  further  communication  with 
him  on  the  subject,  but  soon  afterwards  I wrote  to  his 
successor  at  the  museum  (Mr.  W.  F.  Kirby)  regarding 
this,  and  others  of  Mr.  Smithes  determinations,  and  the 
result  was  that  Mr.  Kirby  published  in  the  ^Entomologist's 
Monthly  Magazine,^  a paper  to  which  he  attached  my  name 
as  well  as  his  own,  initialing  each  constituent  part  thereof. 
In  this  paper  he  published  what  I had  written  to  him 
regarding  O.  rubritinctus,  Sm.,  and  added  a note  of  his 
own,  in  which  he  proposed  a new  name  for  the  male 
mentioned  above  (paying  me  the  compliment  of  calling  it 
O.  Blackburni),  and  proposed  to  leave  the  female  (on  the 
ground,  I suppose,  that  Mr.  Smith  described  it  before  the 
male)  in  sole  possession  of  the  name  O.  rubritinctus,  Sm. 
Hence  of  0.  Blackburni,  Kirby,  the  only  description  exist- 
ing is  one  of  less  than  five  lines  under  the  heading 
“ O.  rubritinctus’’  (Linn.  Soc.  Journ.  vol.  xiv.  p.  674,  and 
“Descriptions  of  New  Species  of  Hymenoptera  in  the 
Collection  of  the  British  Museum,  1879^^),  pointing  out 
its  supposed  sexual  differences  from  its  (supposed)  female. 
I think,  therefore,  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  me  now  to 
describe  0.  Blackburni,  Kirby,  as  follows  : — 

Subnitidus,  parce  subtiliter  pubescens,  punctatus,  niger, 
rufo-maculatus ; alls  fuscis  (nec  violaceis)  •,  clypeo 
vix  emarginato ; abdominis  segmento  primo  fortiter 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


217 


transversOj  antice  verticali ; segmento  secundo  vix 
tuberculato-elevato,  postice  baud  ru£o-marginato. 
Long.  ? 1 1 millim. 

Head  closely  set  with  large  but  shallow  punctures ; 
thorax  punctured  as  much  as  the  head,  but  with  the  punc- 
tures becoming  more  sparing  backwards,  the  metathorax 
strongly  rugose.  The  first  segment  of  the  hind  body  is 
rather  elosely  and  strongly  punctured,  very  transverse  and 
somewhat  abruptly  vertical  in  front,  the  second  segment 
has  fine  and  deep  punctures  at  the  base,  which  become 
gradually  larger  and  shallower  towards  the  apex ; the  seg- 
ment itself  only  slightly  approaches  the  tubercular  form, 
but,  viewed  from  the  side,  is  seen  to  have  a decidedly 
greater  longitudinal  convexity  than  the  rest ; the  following 
three  segments  are  punctured  mueh  as  the  apical  part  of 
the  second.  The  insect  is  black,  with  the  following  parts 
red : the  mandibles,  a spot  between  the  eyes,  the  tegulse, 
two  spots  below  the  tegulae,  the  scutellum,  the  postscu- 
tellum,  the  first  segment  of  the  hind  body,  a large  spot  on 
either  side  of  the  second  segment.  These  markings  are 
probably  variable,  as  some  of  them,  in  one  or  other  of  my 
two  specimens,  are  more  or  less  obscured  with  blaek  spots 
or  clouds.  The  wings  are  shining  fuscous,  without  any 
coloured  iridescence.  The  legs  are  blackish,  with  shining 
fuscous  pubescence.  The  apical  joint  of  the  antennae,  in 
the  male,  is  obscurely  testaceous. 

Very  elosely  allied  to  0.  rubritinctus,  Sm.,  but  differs  in 
the  colour  of  the  wings  and  in  the  absence  of  a red  hind 
margin  to  the  second  segment  of  the  hind  body.  Of 
fifteen  specimens  of  0.  rubritinctus  in  my  collection  not 
one  varies  in  either  of  these  respects. 

Occurred  on  Kauai  in  August. 


218  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

28.  Odynerus  montanus. 

Odynerus  montanus,  Smith,  1.  c.  p.  680. 

Common  on  mountains  of  Oaliu. 

29.  Odynerus  cardinalis. 

0.  cardinalis,  sp.  nov.  Robustus^  nitidus,  parum  pubes- 
cens^  perniger ; alis  splendide  purpureis,  capite  for- 
tius confertim^  tborace  sparsim  subtilius_,  punctatis ; 
clypeo  vix  emarginato ; abdomine  sparsim  subsequa- 
liter  punctato,  segmento  primo  fortiter  transverso, 
antice  baud  verticali,  segmento  secundo  vix  tubercu- 
lato-elevato. 

Long,  d 9 millim.j  ? 12-14  millim. 

Though  not  a large  insect,  nor  structurally  isolated,  this 
is  by  far  the  handsomest  of  the  Hawaiian  Odyneri.  The 
body  is  of  a deep  shining  black,  the  wings  of  a really 
gorgeous  purple  colour.  The  head  is  closely  and  deeply 
punctured,  but  the  punctures  are  small.  The  whole  thorax 
is  brightly  shining,  the  punctuation  on  the  prothorax  and 
metathorax  being  far  from  crowded,  that  on  the  scutellum 
extremely  sparing ; the  metathorax  is  almost  impunctate, 
and  is  quite  smooth.  The  hind  body  is  brilliantly  shining, 
sparingly  set  with  fine  punctures,  which  are  rather  evenly 
distributed,  but  become  a little  coarser  near  the  apex. 
The  first  segment  is  very  strongly  transverse,  and,  viewed 
from  the  side,  its  upper  outline  forms  a continuous  gently 
rounded  ascent  from  the  petiole  to  the  apical  margin,  no 
part  being  at  all  vertical.  The  second  segment  has  but 
little  indication  of  tendency  to  a tubercular  form.  The 
apical  joint  of  the  antennse  in  the  male  is  obscurely 
testaceous. 

The  nearest  ally  of  this  insect  is  0.  montanus,  Sm.,  from 
which  it  may  be  at  once  distinguished  by  the  richer  colour- 


HY'MENOPTBRA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


219 


in^  of  the  wings,  the  smooth  metathorax,  and  the  form  of 
the  first  segment  of  the  hind  body  (which  in  O.  montanus 
is  subvertical  in  front). 

I have  taken  this  fine  species  in  several  localities  on 
Oahu.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  confined  to  the  moun- 
tains. 

30.  Odynerus  pacificus. 

0.  pacificus,  sp.  nov.  Parnm  nitidus,  punctatus,  subtiliter 
pubescens,  niger ; abdomine  antice  rufo ; alis  fuscis, 
obscure  violaceis ; clypeo  antice  fortius  emarginato ; 
abdominis  segmento  primo  transverso,  antice  verti- 
cali. 

Long.  (3'  ? 1 1 millim. 

Scarcely  shining,  the  clypeus  quite  strongly  emargi- 
nate.  The  head  and  thorax  rather  roughly  and  closely 
punctured,  the  punctures  large,  confused,  and  faintly 
impressed.  The  punctuation  of  the  hind  body  resembles 
that  of  the  preceding  species ; the  basal  segment  is  en- 
tirely red  above,  but  obscured  with  black  beneath;  the 
second  segment  is  entirely  red  beneath,  but  on  the  upper 
surface  it  is  black  at  the  base,  and  (in  some  specimens) 
more  or  less  obscure  or  blackish  at  the  apex ; the  remain- 
ing segments  are  blackish.  In  two  of  my  specimens  the 
apex  of  the  clypeus  is  reddish.  The  apical  joint  of  the 
antennse  in  the  male  is  testaceous.  The  wings  have 
scarcely  any  violet  iridescence.  This  is  not  closely  allied 
to  any  other  species  I have  seen.  I have  taken  it  singly 
on  Maui  and  Hawaii. 

3 1 . Odynerus  ruhro-pustulatus. 

0.  rubro-pustulatus , sp.  nov.  Nitidus,  punctatus,  parum 
pubescens,  niger ; abdomine  rubro-maculato ; alis 


220  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

fuscis,  cseruleo-iridescentibus ; clypeo  antice  trun- 
cato;  abdominis  segmento  primo  transverso,  antice 
verticali. 

Long.  7-9  millim. 

Rather  brightly  shining,  the  pubescence  scarcely  dis- 
cernible. The  head  and  thorax  are  rather  strongly  and 
closely  punctured  (but  gradually  less  closely  backwards), 
the  metathorax  is  not  very  rugose.  There  is  a red  spot 
(absent  in  some  specimens)  behind  the  base  of  the  an- 
tennae. The  sides  (broadly)  and  the  apical  margin  (nar- 
rowly) of  the  basal  segment  of  the  hind  body  are  red,  its 
undersurface  is  red,  more  or  less  clouded  with  fuscous  or 
black ; the  second  segment  is  red,  except  an  abbreviated 
central  line  on  the  underside,  and  so  much  of  the  upper 
surface  that  the  red  appears  as  a rounded  patch  on  either 
side,  not  extending  to  the  base  or  apex;  the  remaining 
segments  are  black.  The  apical  joint  of  the  antennae,  in 
the  male,  is  testaceous.  The  basal  segment  of  the  hind 
body  is  extremely  strongly  punctured,  the  punctures  being 
rather  elongate;  the  punctuation  of  the  remaining  seg- 
ments does  not  differ  much  from  that  in  the  preceding 
two  species.  The  legs  are  of  an  obscure  colour,  with 
fuscous  pubescence. 

This  insect  occurs  on  the  higher  mountains  of  Hawaii, 
at  elevations  5000-7000  feet  above  the  sea. 

N.B.  I regard  as  probably  the  female  of  this  species 
some  individuals  of  that  sex  taken  in  the  same  locality, 
which  differ  in  being  larger  (long.  lo-ii  millim.),  in 
having  the  wings  of  a rich  blue  (rather  than  violet)  colour, 
and  the  upper  surface  of  the  basal  segment  of  the  hind 
body  more  broadly  red  at  the  sides. 


HYMENOPTBRA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


221 


32.  Odynerus  obscure-punctatus. 

O.  obscure-punctatus,  sp.  nov,  Subopacus,  subtiliter  pu- 
bescens,  niger ; mandibulis  rufis ; abdomine  rufo- 
maculato ; alis  caeruleo-iridiscentibus ; clypeo  vix 
emarginato,  capite  thoraceque  vix  punctatis ; abdo- 
mine punctato  minus  opaco^  segmento  primo  trans- 
verso,  antice  verticali. 

Long.  (3^  8-12  millim.,  ? 12  millim. 

Less  shining  than  the  preceding,  which  it  resembles. 
The  head  and  thorax  are  very  faintly  punctured,  the  punc- 
tures being  not  at  all  close  to  each  other,  and  hardly 
observable  without  the  help  of  a lens.  The  metathorax 
is  only  slightly  rugose.  The  pubescence  is  easily  seen 
with  a lens.  The  first  two  segments  of  the  hind  body  are 
red  at  the  sides  on  both  the  upper  and  undersurfaces.  The 
hind  body  is  evidently  more  shining  than  the  thorax ; its 
structure  and  punctuation  are  much  as  in  the  preceding 
species.  The  wings  of  a rich  bluish  purple  colour.  The 
apical  joint  of  the  antennae,  in  the  male,  is  obscurely 
testaceous. 

This  species  is,  in  most  respects,  perplexingly  close  to 
the  preceding.  It  is  difficult  to  specify  any  colour  diflFer- 
ence  beyond  that  the  mandibles  are,  in  this,  red,  occasion- 
ally varying  to  reddish  pitchy,  while  in  the  former  they 
are  black  varying  to  pitchy ; and  that  the  red  markings 
on  the  hind  body,  though  similar  in  form  and  distribution, 
are  generally  smaller  in  this  than  in  the  other;  the  pro- 
portions of  the  red  and  blaek  on  the  underside  of  the  hind 
body  vary  in  both  species.  The  punctuation  of  the  head 
and  thorax,  however,  is  so  entirely  different  in  the  two, 
without  appearing  to  vary,  that  I must  consider  them 
distinct. 

Not  rare  on  the  higher  mountains  of  Hawaii. 


222  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURiV  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 
33.  Odynerus  diver sus. 

O.  diversus,  sp.  nov.  . Subnitidus,  crasse  punctatus, 
niger^  rufo-maculatus ; alis  hyalinis,  harum  nervulis 
et  parte  anteriori  nigro-fuscis ; clypeo  antice  fortiter 
emarginato;  abdomine  dense  fusco  pubescente,  seg- 
mente  primo  fortiter  transverse,  antice  hand  verticali, 
secundo  vix  tuberculato-elevato. 

5 . Clypeo  vix  emarginato. 

Long.  12-14  millim. 

Black,  with  the  following  parts  red,  viz. : — A spot  behind 
the  base  of  the  antennae,  the  greater  portion  of  the  pro- 
thorax, some  spots  on  the  tegulse  and  a spot  below  them, 
some  spots  on  the  scutellum  and  postscutellum,  the  hind 
margin  of  the  basal  segment  of  the  hind  body,  the  hind 
margin  of  the  second  segment  and  an  oblique  spot  on  each 
side  of  the  same,  and  the  hind  margin  of  the  third  seg- 
ment. The  head  is  closely  and  coarsely  punctured ; the 
thorax  has  a double  system  of  punctuation,  the  smaller 
punctures  not  very  close,  the  larger  very  coarse ; the 
metathorax  is  coarsely  punctured,  but  scarcely  rugose ; the 
hind  body  is  sparingly  punctured,  the  punctures  obscure 
and  lightly  impressed,  but  becoming  stronger  in  the  apical 
half,  the  basal  segment  very  strongly  transverse,  and  not 
at  all  vertical  in  front.  The  fuscous  pubescence  on  the 
hind  body  is  fine  and  quite  dense,  giving  the  insect  a silky 
appearance. 

I have  one  male  and  three  females  of  this  distinct 
species;  all  were  captured  on  the  mountains  of  Oahu. 
The  difference  between  the  clypeus  of  the  male  and  of  the 
female  is  so  exceptionally  strong,  that  I suspect  the  male  of 
being  a variety,  though  I notice  a slight  (indeed  scarcely 
discernible)  difference  of  the  same  kind  in  most  species  of 
the  genus  in  my  collection. 


HYMENOPTERA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


2.23 


34.  Odynerus  agilis. 

Odynerus  agilis,  Smith,  l.c.  p.  681. 

To  this  species  I attribute  numerous  individuals  cap- 
tured by  me  in  various  localities  on  Maui,  Lanai,  and 
Hawaii.  If  I am  right  in  doing  so,  this  is  one  of  the  most 
variable  species  of  the  genus,  and  the  original  description 
needs  the  addition  of  the  following  note  ; — 

The  degree  of  intensity  with  which  the  punctuation  on 
the  thorax  is  impressed  differs  in  almost  every  two  speci- 
mens, until  in  the  extreme  form  no  punctuation  is  visible 
without  the  use  of  a lens,  by  means  of  which,  however,  it 
is  seen  that  the  punctures  of  the  type  are  present,  only 
with  the  appearance  of  having  been  very  nearly  oblite- 
rated. The  mandibles  vary  in  colour  to  pitchy,  and  even 
red.  The  yellow  spot  behind  the  base  of  the  antennae 
is  generally  absent.  The  postscutellum  is  occasionally 
spotted  with  yellow.  One  or  other,  or  both,  of  the  yellow 
rings  on  the  hind  body  may  be  extremely  indistinct  or 
wanting.  The  length  varies  from  12-16  millim.  The 
female  does  not  noticeably  diflPer  from  the  male,  except  by 
the  usual  sexual  characters. 

The  distinctive  features  of  the  species  are  its  whitish 
pubescence  and  the  extremely  strong  emargination  of  the 
apex  of  the  clypeus,  the  edges  of  the  emargination  being 
more  or  less  strongly  produced  forwards  in  an  almost 
cylindric  shape. 

35.  Odynerus  insulicola. 

O.  insulicola,  sp.  nov.  Subnitidus,  pubescens,  minus 
crebre  punctatus,  niger,  flavo-notatus  ; alis  subhya- 
linis  obscure  cseruleo-iridescentibus ; clypeo  antice 
emarginato ; abdominis  segmento  basali  transverso, 
antice  verticali. 

Long,  d ? 9~^  I millim. 


224  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

The  punctuation  of  the  head  and  thorax  is  rather  deep, 
but  not  coarse,  and  is  somewhat  sparsely  distributed, 
becoming  even  more  sparing  on  the  scutellum  and  post- 
scutellum.  The  metathorax  is  feebly  rugose.  The  basal 
segment  of  the  hind  body  is  strongly  and  moderately 
closely  punctate,  while  the  punctures  of  the  second  seg- 
ment are  fine,  becoming  coarser  towards  the  apex,  and  the 
punctuation  so  continues  on  the  other  segments.  The 
tibice  and  tarsi  are  much  clothed  with  ashy  pubescence, 
and  there  is  a good  deal  of  whitish  pubescence  on  the 
body. 

The  male  has  the  following  parts  yellow,  viz. : — The 
clypeus  (wholly  or  in  part),  the  front  of  the  scape  and  the 
apical  joint  of  the  antennae,  some  spots  on  the  prothorax, 
on  the  tegulse,  and  on  the  tibiae,  and  the  dorsal  hind 
margin  of  the  basal  two  segments  of  the  hind  body. 
Some  or  other  of  these  markings  are  wanting  in  most 
specimens,  but  I have  seen  none  in  which  the  clypeus  is 
not  entirely  (or  very  nearly  so)  of  a bright  yellow  colour. 
The  female  is  quite  devoid  of  colour,  save  that  in  some 
specimens  the  apical  dorsal  margin  of  one  or  both  of  the 
basal  two  segments  of  the  hind  body  is  obscurely  tes- 
taceous. 

This  insect  occurs  on  the  sandy  isthmus  forming  the 
middle  of  the  island  Maui,  and  on  the  adjacent  lower 
slopes  of  Haleakala. 

N.B.  I possess  a single  male  specimen  of  an  Odynerus 
captured  on  Oahu,  which  is  probably  distinct  from  the 
species  last  described,  but  is  too  closely  allied  to  be  treated 
as  new  without  the  examination  of  a series  of  examples, 
especially  in  consideration  of  my  knowledge  of  the  extent 
to  which  the  coloured  markings  of  the  Hawaiian  Odyneri 
vary.  It  has  all  the  yellow  markings  of  a male  0.  insult- 
cola  (except  those  on  the  flagellum),  with  the  addition  of 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


225 


the  following : — a spot  on  the  head  behind  the  base  of  the 
antennse,  the  scutellum  and  postscutellum,  and  a large 
spot  below  the  tegulse.  The  posterior  margin  of  the  basal 
segments  of  the  hind  body  is  more  broadly  yellow,  the 
basal  segment  itself  apjiears  a little  more  strongly  trans- 
verse, and  the  punctuation  of  the  whole  insect  a little 
more  sparing. 

Crabronid^. 

Crabro. 

As  it  seems  desirable  to  furnish  some  further  remarks 
on  the  species  of  this  genus  already  described,  I think  it 
will  be  well  for  me  to  make  a brief  review  of  them, 
interpolating  descriptions  of  the  new  species  in  my  col- 
lection.— T.  B. 

36.  Crabro  affinis. 

Crabro  affinis,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  677. 

In  this  species  the  eyes  are  only  moderately  separated 
in  front,  and  the  space  between  them  is  not  (as  compared 
with  same  space  in  C.  mandibularis)  strongly  concave  near 
the  base  of  the  antennae.  The  punctuation  of  the  head  is 
quite  evidently  (though  not  at  all  strongly)  rugose,  espe- 
cially in  the  male,  and  there  are  very  distinct  traces  of 
longitudinal  strigosity.  The  eyes  are  facetted  excessively 
finely  in  both  sexes.  The  hind  body  is  rather  wide  in  the 
middle,  thus  being  strongly  rounded  laterally. 

I possess  a single  male  taken  in  company  with  the 
female  I sent  to  Mr.  Smith,  and  clearly  conspecific.  The 
sexual  differences  here  are  very  similar  to  those  in  C.  man- 
dibularis, Smith.  The  mandibles  of  the  male  are  pitchy 
black,  the  face  and  clypeus  silvery,  the  basal  joint  of  the 
antennae  reddish  pitchy  (paler  at  the  base),  and  a little 
dilated  in  the  middle.  The  sexual  character  in  the  sixth 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


Q 


226  MESSRS.  T.  BL4CKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

joint  of  the  antennae  consists  in  little  more  than  an  emar- 
gi nation,  the  apex  of  the  joint  being  scarcely  dentate. 
The  second  ventral  segment  is  not  at  all  flattened,  the 
third  scarcely,  the  fourth  quite  evidently  so ; the  remain- 
ing segments  are  concave.  The  yellow  bands  on  the  hind 
body  are  all  entire,  the  basal  one  very  broad,  the  second 
narrow,  the  last  broad. 

I have  no  doubt  the  yellow  markings  in  this  species  are 
subject  to  great  variety, 

37.  Crabro  mauiensis. 

C.  mauiensis,  sp.  nov.  5 . Subnitidus,  pubescens,  crebre 
subtiliter  punctatns,  niger,  flavo-ornatus ; clypeo 
anreo-piloso ; alis  hyalinis,  infnscatis ; abdomine 
nitido,  in  medio  lato,  vix  evidenter  pnnctato. 

Long.  9 millim. 

The  yellow  markings  are  as  follows : — The  basal  two 
thirds  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  mandibles,  the  anterior 
face  of  the  basal  joint  of  the  antennae,  the  sides  of  the 
prothorax  and  a spot  near  the  tegulse,  the  postscntellum, 
an  interrupted  band  on  the  second  dorsal  segment  of  the 
hind  body,  a band  on  the  fourth  segment,  and  a spot 
on  the  fifth.  The  eyes  are  moderately  facetted  and  not 
strongly  separated  (as  compared  with  other  species),  and 
the  forehead  is  strongly  concave.  The  head  is  closely, 
finely,  and  smoothly  punctate.  The  punctuation  of  the 
mesothorax  is  obscure,  that  of  the  scutellum  and  meta- 
thorax extremely  fine,  these  parts  being,  however,  rather 
strongly  strigose  longitudinally.  The  pubescence  is 
whitish,  but  there  is  not  much  of  it  in  my  specimen, 
which  is  possibly  abraded. 

Though  this  insect  is  closely  allied  to  C.  affinis,  Smith, 
the  much  smoother  punctuation  of  the  head,  on  which 


HYMEXOPTERA.  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


227 


there  is  no  distinct  strigosity,  the  evidently  coarser  facets 
of  the  eyes  and  the  more  strongly  concave  forehead  indi- 
cate^  I think,  that  it  is  a distinct  species. 

A single  female  occurred  on  Maui,  near  Wailuku,  flying 
over  flowers. 

38.  Crabro  distinctus. 

Crahro  distinohis,  Smith,  Oat.  of  Hymen.  Ins.  iv.  p.  422. 

This  seems  to  he  diff’erent  from  any  of  the  species 
described  by  Mr.  Blackburn.  The  following  is  SmitVs 
description  (P.  C.)  ; — 

“^Female.  Length  3 lines.  Black;  the  head  and  thorax 
opaque ; the  stemmata  in  a curve  on  the  vertex  ; the  face 
canaliculated ; the  inner  orbit  of  the  eye,  halfway  towards 
the  vertex  and  the  clypeus,  covered  with  golden  pube- 
scence ; the  scape  and  mandibles  yellowish  white,  the  tips 
of  the  mandibles,  and  a narrow  stripe  on  the  scape  within, 
black.  Thorax  : an  interrupted  line  on  the  collar,  the 
tubercles  (and  a spot  behind),  the  scutellum,  and  post- 
scutellum  yellowish  white ; wings  faintly  coloured  and 
iridescent.  Abdomen  : the  basal  segment  with  a large 
transverse  irregularly-shaped  spot,  which  is  somewhat 
arched  in  front,  and  with  two  deep  rounded  emarginations 
behind,  which  have  a wide  outside  extending  to  the  apex 
of  the  spot;  the  second,  fourth,  and  fifth  segments  have 
an  uninterrupted  fascia  at  their  base  of  a yellowish  white ; 
the  apical  segment  shining  and  punctured. 

“Hah.  Sandwich  Islands.’^ 

39.  Crahro  mandibularis. 

Crabro  mandibularis,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  677  ( 2 ). 

Crabro  denticornis.  Smith,  Pi’oc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  678  (d*);  Kirby,  Eat- 
Month.  Mag.  xvii.  p.  87. 

I feel  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  the  specific  identity  of 
these  two  forms,  separated  with  considerable  hesitation  by 


228  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

Mr.  Smith.  As  the  female  was  described  before  the  male, 
and  the  latter  (as  compared  with  most  of  its  Hawaiian 
congeners)  does  not  deserve  the  name  C.  denticornis,  the 
species  had  better  be  called  C.  mandibidaris . 

The  space  between  the  eyes  is  exceptionally  narrow  and 
strongly  concave.  The  head  is  very  finely  and  smoothly 
punctured,  with  scarcely  any  traces  of  strigosity.  The 
eyes  are  facetted  finely  in  the  male,  by  no  means  finely  in 
the  female.  The  hind  body  is  narrow  and  not  at  all 
strongly  rounded  laterally.  The  ventral  segments  of  the 
male  resemble  those  of  the  same  sex  in  C.  affinis. 

This  species  varies  in  colour.  I have  a male  in  which 
there  is  no  yellow  tint  on  the  postscutellum. 

40.  Crabro  polynesialis . 

Crahro  polyne&ialis,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1881,  p.  562. 

Mr.  Cameron^s  description  requires  no  supplement  be- 
yond a word  as  to  the  differences  between  this  and  other 
species  (not  in  Mr.  C.^s  possession),  and  a remark  on  the 
male. 

The  eyes  are  rather  close  to  each  other  in  front,  though 
a little  more  separated  than  in  C.  mandibularis , Smith, 
and  are  quite  strongly  facetted,  much  more  so  than  in 
C.  affinis.  The  hind  body  is  similar  in  shape  to  that  of 
C.  mandibularis. 

In  the  male  the  antennal  sexual  characters  are  almost 
as  in  C.  mandibularis,  while  the  ventral  depression  extends 
quite  evidently  from  the  middle  of  the  third  segment  to 
the  apex. 

Hab.  Mauna  Loa,  Hawaii,  at  an  elevation  of  4000  feet. 

41.  Crabro  abnormis. 

C.  abnormis,  sp.  nov.  . Minus  nitidus,  pubescens,  cre- 
berrime  subrugoso-punctatus,  niger ; clypeo  fronteque 


HYMENOPTERA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


229 


liicide  argenteo-pilosis,  femoribus  anticis  antice  tes- 
taceis ; alis  hyalinisj  parum  infuscatis ; abdomine  sat 
nitido^  subtiliter  minus  crebre  punctato  ; antennarum 
articulo  primo  subfusiformi,  quinto  abrupte  incras- 
sato^  sexto  valde  acute  dentato^  dente  quam  articulus 
vix  breviori. 

Long.  II  millim. 

The  space  between  the  eyes  is  much  as  in  the  preceding 
species,  the  granulation  of  the  eyes  being  a little  coarser 
than  the  male  C.  mandibularis , Smith.  The  head  is  very 
finely  and  closely  punctured,  and  is  clothed  with  longisli 
fuscous  hairs.  The  prothorax  and  mesothorax  are  finely 
and  closely  (but  not  very  smoothly)  punctured,  and  are 
clothed  with  fuscous  hairs.  On  the  scutellum,  postscu- 
tellum,  and  metathorax  the  punctuation  becomes  shallow, 
sparing,  and  decidedly  coarse  (while  there  is  also  a fine 
and  close  punctuation),  and  the  hairs  are  long  and  whitish. 
The  basal  segment  of  the  hind  body  is  clothed  with  long 
whitish  hairs,  the  remaining  segments  and  near  the  apex 
are  devoid  of  hairs  (in  my  specimen  possibly  abraded),  and 
on  the  penultimate  and  apical  segments  there  are  traces 
of  golden  pubescence.  The  punctuation  of  the  hind  body, 
even  to  the  apex,  is  almost  obsolete.  The  apical  third  of 
the  second  ventral  segment  is  strongly  flattened  or  even  a 
little  concave  in  the  middle,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  third 
segment  is  distinctly  concave,  and  the  remaining  segments 
are  all  strongly  flattened. 

A single  specimen  of  this  very  distinet  insect  occurred 
on  Konahuanui,  Oahu,  at  an  elevation  of  about  2500  feet. 

My  collection  contains  a specimen  of  a female  Crabro 
with  yellow  mandibles,  taken  at  Oahu,  tliat  may  possibly 
prove  to  be  a female  C.  abnormis,  with  the  punctuation 
not  quite  in  its  typieal  condition.  It  resembles  the  male 


230  MESSKS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

in  the  brilliancy  of  the  silvery  pilosity  on  the  clypens_,  and 
in  other  points.  Its  eyes  are  considerably  more  strongly 
facetted.  The  punctuation  differs  slightly ; on  the  meso- 
thorax  it  appears  a trifle  more  sparing  and  rugose^  while 
the  metathorax  is  smoother  and  more  evenly  punctured. 

42.  Crabro  unicolor. 

Crabro  unicolor,  Smith,  Cat.  of  Hymen.  Ins.  iv.  p.  421. 

I have  not  seen  the  original  description  of  this  insect ; 
my  own  examples  were  named  by  Mr.  Smith.  As  com- 
pared with  other  Hawaiian  species^  the  eyes  appear  to  be 
sepal ated  by  about  the  usual  space  (or  even  a little  more) 
and  to  be  facetted  rather  coarsely.  The  shape  of  the  hind 
body  is  similar  to  that  of  C.  mandibularis , being  evidently 
longer  and  narrower  than  in  C.  a'ffinis  and  C.  stygius  and 
their  allies.  The  bright  steely-blue  colour  of  the  wings  is 
a conspicuous  character.  In  the  male  the  sixth  joint  of 
the  antennm  is  distinctly  but  not  strongly  dentate,  and  the 
flattened  or  concave  space  on  the  ventral  segments  begins 
near  the  apex  of  the  third  segment. 

I have  met  with  this  insect  on  Oahu  and  Maui.  It 
appears  to  be  the  commonest  of  the  Hawaiian  Crabronidse, 
probably  occurring  on  all  the  islands. 

43.  Crabro  stygius. 

Crabro  stygius,  Kirby,  But.  Month.  Mag.  xvii.  p.  88. 

The  extremely  wide  separation  of  the  eyes  (between 
which  the  forehead  is  scarcely  concave),  which  is  exagge- 
rated to  the  utmost  in  the  female,  is  the  striking  feature 
of  this  and  the  following  two  species.  The  eyes  are  rather 
finely  facetted,  the  hind  body  resembles  in  shape  that  of 
C.  affinis,  Smith,  and  in  the  male  the  sixth  joint  of  the 
antennae  is  feebly  dentate.  In  this  sex  the  character  of 
the  ventral  segments  is  rather  peculiar,  consisting  of  a 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


231 


concavity  (feeble  as  a whole)  eommeneing  at  the  fourth 
segment^  but  being  deepened  near  the  middle  of  each 
individual  segment.  In  the  female  the  penultimate  dorsal 
segment  of  the  hind  body  is  densely  punctured  and  set 
with  close  red  pubescence,  I think^  too^  that  the  surface 
of  the  segment  itself  is  reddish.  The  wings  are  almost 
absolutely  devoid  of  colour  in  both  sexes. 

Hab.  Oahu. 

44.  Crabro  adspectam. 

C.  adspectans,  sp.  nov.  Subnitidus_,  pubescens,  distincte 
minus  crebre  punctatus,  niger,  flavo  ornatus ; tibiis 
anticis  rufo-hirsutis ; alis  inf uscatis ; abdomine  pube- 
scentij  nitido,  in  medio  lato^  vix  evidenter  punctato. 

^ . Antennarum  articulo  sexto  dentato^  abdominis  seg- 
mentis  duobus  ultimis  supra  rufo-pubescentibus. 

$ . Abdominis  segmento  penultimo  supra  dense  rufo- 
hirsuto. 

Long.  12  millim. 

The  yellow  markings  are  placed  on  the  prothorax^  scu- 
tellum^  and  postscutellum  (in  the  female  there  is  a large 
yellow  spot  on  the  second  ventral  segment  of  the  hind 
body)  ; they  are  much  less  conspicuous  (judging  by  my 
specimens)  in  the  male  than  in  the  female^  but  are  pro- 
bably subject  to  variation  in  both  sexes.  The  head  is 
shining  and  very  distinctly  punctured,  the  punctures  being 
rather  crowded  behind  the  base  of  the  antennse  and 
becoming  gradually  more  sparing  backwards ; the  meso- 
thorax  is  shining  and  is  distinctly  and  evenly  punctured  ; 
the  punctuation  of  the  metathorax  is  rather  coarse.  The 
hind  body  is  quite  shining,  but  its  brightness  is  hidden  by 
close  short  whitish  pubescence.  In  the  male  the  apical 
half  of  the  penultimate,  and  the  whole  of  the  apical  seg- 
ment, are  rather  densely  covered  with  rather  long  golden- 


232  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

red  pubescence^  which  is  still  more  conspicuous  on  the 
whole  of  the  penultimate  segment  in  the  female ; in  this 
sex  the  elongate  apical  segment  also  having  a dense  fringe 
of  long  golden-red  hairs.  In  both  sexes  the  clypeus,  front 
of  the  headj  and  front  tibiae  are  set  with  long  golden-red 
hairs.  In  the  male  the  tooth  on  the  sixth  joint  of  the 
antennae  is  only  moderately  developed^  and  the  ventral 
segments  resemble  those  of  C.  stygius,  Kirby. 

This  beautiful  species  is  allied  to  C.  stygius,  Kirby^ 
which  it  resembles  in  having  the  eyes  widely  separated 
and  the  space  between  them  but  little  concave.  The  eyes 
are  excessively  finely  facetted,  and  the  hind  body  is  shaped 
as  in  C.  stygius  &c. 

A single  pair  occurred  on  Haleakala,  Maui,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  5000  feet. 

45.  Crabro  rubro-caudatus . 

C.  rubro-caudatus , sp.  nov.  $ . Vix  nitidus,  pubescens, 
obscure  punctatus,  niger ; alis  late  caeruleis ; abdo- 
mine  in  medio  lato,  segmentis  sexto  et  septimo  dense 
aureo-pilosis. 

Long.  I o millim. 

The  head  and  thorax  are  excessively  finely  punctured, 
and  are  obscurely  and  confusedly  sprinkled  with  a larger 
system  of  punctures.  The  punctuation  is  rougher  and 
more  obscure  on  the  metathorax  than  on  the  anterior 
parts,  and  there  are  some  conspicuous  oblique  wrinkles 
about  its  sides.  The  first  five  segments  of  the  hind  body 
are  brightly  shining,  and  are  distinctly  finely  and  rather 
closely  punctured,  without  much  pubescence ; the  apical 
two  segments  are  very  conspicuously  and  densely  clothed 
with  long  golden-red  hair.  The  pubescence  of  the  head 
and  thorax  is  rather  dense,  but  not  conspicuous,  being  of 
a dark  colour.  The  wings  are  of  a beautiful  clear  blue 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  233 

(it  is  remarkable  in  how  many  of  the  Hymenoptera  taken 
near  the  crater  of  the  active  volcano  this  colour  appears) . 
The  eyes  are  separated  in  the  last  two  species  named  above, 
and  are  excessively  finely  facetted.  The  face  is  little  con- 
cave. The  denticulation  of  the  sixth  joint  of  the  antennm 
is  only  moderate.  The  ventral  segments  resemble  those 
of  C.  stygius  and  C.  adspectans. 

In  the  same  locality  as  the  male  C.  rubro-caudatus  I 
procured  two  examples,  which  are  probably  its  female. 
As,  however,  they  differ  rather  exceptionally,  I hesitate 
to  assign  them  to  this  species  with  certainty,  for  the  wings 
are  entirely  devoid  of  the  blue  tint.  In  other  respects 
they  might  well  be  the  female  C._  ruhro-caudatus.  The 
penultimate  and  apical  segments  in  the  hind  body  of  these 
specimens  do  not  seem  to  differ  much  from  the  same  parts 
in  the  female  C.  adspectans. 

.Occurred  on  Maun  a Loa,  Hawaii,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  4000  feet,  in  close  proximity  to  the  burning  crater. 

Larrid^e. 

46.  Pison  iridipennis. 

Pison  iridipennis.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiy.  p.  676. 

Hah.  Honolulu. 

47.  Pison  hospes. 

Pison  hospes,  Smith,  lib.  cit.  p.  676. 

Hah.  Oahu,  Kauai,  and  Maui.  Not  uncommon. 

Sphegid^. 

48.  Pelopceus  ccementarius. 

Sphex  ccementaria,  Drury,  Exot.  Ins.  i.  p.  105. 

Pelopeus  Jlavipes,  Fab.  Syst.  Piez.  p.  202 ; Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv, 
p.  676. 

A common  species  in  the  islands,  and,  according  to 


234  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

Mr.  Blackburn^  provisions  its  nest  with  spiders.  The 
var.  flavipes,  Fab.^  sec.  Saussure,  and  var.  limatus,  Fab.^ 
sec.  Sauss.  {cf.  Hymen,  der  Novara  Reise^  p.  30),  both 
oceur,  the  latter  being  distinguished  from  the  former  by 
the  greater  extension  of  the  yellow  on  the  thorax^  the 
metanotum  being  nearly  all  yellow.  The  speeies  has  a 
wide  range  in  North  America^  but  does  not,  I think, 
extend  further  south  than  Mexico. 

49.  Mimesa  antennata. 

Mimesa  antennata,  Smith,  Cat.  of  Hymen.  Ins.  iv.  p.  431. 

Hah.  Maui. 

HETEROGENA. 

Formicid^. 

50.  Camponotus  sexguttatus. 

Formica  sexguttatus.  Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  ii.  p.  354. 

Hab.  Honolulu,  in  a house.  Common  in  South  America, 

51.  Tapinoma  melanocephala. 

Lasius  melanoceplialus,  Fab.  Syst.  Piez.  p.  417. 

A few  specimens  in  a house  at  Lahaina,  Maui. 

The  only  locality  from  which  this  species  has  been 
recorded  is  Cayenne. 

52.  Prenolepis  longicornis. 

Formica  longicornis,  Latr.  Hist.  Nat.  d.  Fourm.  p.  113. 

Hab.  Honolulu, 

A widely-distributed  species ; found  in  Europe,  in  hot- 
houses. 

53.  Prenolepis  obscura,  Alayr. 

Frenolepis  obscura,  Mayr,  Verb,  zool.-bot.  Ues.  Wien,  1862,  p.  698  ; For- 
micidifi  der  Novara  Eeise,  p.  52,  pi.  ii.  figs.  15  & 15a. 

Smith  records  this  species  as  Prenolepis  clandestina, 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  235 

Mayr,  but  it  is^  I believe,  P.  obscura,  for  I cannot  find 
any  traee  of  pubeseence  on  the  mesonotura.  Mr.  Black- 
burn has  taken  the  male,  which  has  not  been  described. 
It  is  dark  brown  the  antennse  are  testaceous,  the  seape  a 
little  darker  than  the  flagellum ; the  mouth,  base  of  the 
legs,  and  tarsi  pale  yellowish  testaeeous,  the  femora  and 
tarsi  fuscous,  pale  beneath.  Head  and  thorax  shining, 
finely  shagreened,  and  bearing  some  longish  (compara- 
tively) blackish  hairs.  Abdomen  shining,  impunetate,  the 
apieal  half  bearing  longish  black  hairs.  Wings  brownish 
yellow,  but  not  deeply,  the  nervures  pallid  testaeeous. 
The  apex  of  the  abdomen  is  pale  yellow.  The  only  speci- 
men I have  appears  to  be  somewhat  immature. 

The  species  has  only  been  recorded  from  Australia. 

PoNERIDAi, 

54.  Ponera  contracta. 

Formica  contracta,  Latr.  Hist.  Nat.  d.  Eourm.  p.  195,  t.  7.  f.  40. 

Rare  in  Oahu.  A widely-distributed  species  over  the 
world. 

55.  Leptogenys  insularis. 

Leptogenys  insularis,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  xiv.  p.  675. 

Smith  only  describes  the  worker  of  this  species.  The 
male  (the  female  I have  not  seen)  is  black,  the  antennae 
on  lower  side  of  scape  incline  more  or  less  to  fuscous, 
the  spurs  and  trophi  pale  testaceous ; tips  of  mandibles 
fuscous  ; apex  of  abdomen  (broadly)  and  antennae  rufo- 
testaceous ; anterior  tarsi  inclining  to  testaceous  at  apex. 
Head  and  thorax  opaque,  alutaceous,  covered  with  a fine 
close  ashy  pile;  apex  of  abdomen  with  long  pale  hairs. 
Head  narrower  than  thorax,  clypeus  almost  transverse  at 
apex ; eyes  reaching  a little  below  the  base  of  antenme 
and  not  far  from  the  base  of  the  mandibles ; ocelli  pronii- 


236  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

nent;  there  is  a fine  A-shaped  furrow  over  the  antennae. 
Antennae  with  a short  pedicle  at  the  base,  13-jointed, 
microscopically  pilose;  the  basal  joint  three  times  as  long 
as  the  second  (a  little  longer  than  the  basal  joint  of  the 
flagellum,  which  is  shorter  than  the  second ; the  other 
joints  longer,  the  last  is  longer  than  the  twelfth ; a fine 
keel  runs  down  the  centre  of  the  mesonotum,  the  sutures 
dividing  the  front  lobe  shallow ; sides  of  scntellnm  behind 
shining,  obliquely  striated  ; the  apical  half  of  the  meta- 
notum  with  several  stout  transverse  keels.  Abdomen 
opaque,  finely  alutaceous,  longer  than  the  head  and  thorax 
united,  hirst^segment  shorter  than  the  second ; its  suture 
at  base  smooth  and  shining,  the  apex  striated ; the  tooth 
on  lower  side  short,  thick,  slightly  curved  (the  node  as 
in  worker).  Wings  hyaline,  the  apex  in  front  of  stigma 
smoky  ; nervures  testaceous,  stigma  fuscous. 


Myrmicid.e. 

56.  Monomorium  specularis. 

Monomorium  specularis,  Mayr,  Sitz.  d.  Math. -Nat.  Wien,  1866,  p.  509. 

Hab.  Honolulu. 

This  is  a South-Sea  Island  species;  also  found  in  Brazil. 

57.  Tetramoriwn  gaineense. 

Formica  guineense,  Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  ii.  p.  357. 

Hab.  Oahu.  Common  in  the  tropical  parts  of  America, 
in  Manilla,  and  Australia,  and  in  hothouses  in  Europe. 

58.  Pheidole  megacepJiala. 

Formica  megacephala,  Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  ii.  p.  361. 

(Ecophthora  pusilla,  Heer,  Ueber  die  Haiisameise  Madeiras. 

Hab.  Honolulu,  One  of  the  commonest  ants  in  the 


HYMENOPTERA  OP  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  237 


Archipelago.  The  nests  are  formed  under  stones.  A 
very  widely-distributed  species.  Found  in  hothouses  in 
Europe. 

59.  Solenopsis  gemhiata. 

Atta  geminata,  Fab.  Syst.  Piez.  p.  423. 

Hab.  Honolulu^  in  palm-trees. 


OXYUEA. 

60.  Scleroderma  'polynesialis. 

Scleroderma  polynesialis,  Saunders,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  i88r,  p.  116. 

Hab.  Haleakala,  Maui,  at  an  elevation  of  4000  feet. 

61.  Sierola  testaceipes. 

Sierola  testaceipes,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  i88i,  p.  556. 

62.  Sierola  monticola,  sp.  nov. 

Black;  anterior  tibiae  and  tarsi  testaceous,  the  tips  of 
the  latter  black ; the  base  and  apex  of  hind  tibiae  fusco- 
testaceous,  the  tarsi  fuscous,  paler  in  the  middle;  the 
extreme  base  and  apex  of  basal  joint  of  antennae  and  the 
second  to  fourth  joint  testaceous.  Antennae  scarcely  so 
long  as  the  thorax  ; the  basal  joint  pear-shaped,  narrowest 
at  the  base,  a little  longer  than  the  third  and  fourth 
united;  second  joint  a little  longer  than  third,  and  of  the 
same  thickness ; second  to  fourth  longer  and  thicker  than 
the  other  joints ; the  apical  seven  more  moniliform  than 
the  others,  and  a little  longer  than  broad ; the  last  longer 
and  thinner  than  the  penultimate.  Head  smooth  and 
slightly  alutaceous ; mandibles  piceous  at  tip,  faintly  stri- 
ated ; thorax  smooth,  a little  alutaceous.  The  abdominal 
segments  laterally  at  their  junction  narrowly  milk-white. 


238  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

Wings  hyaline,  stigma  and  prostigma  fuscous ; nervures 
testaceous.  Female. 

Length  4 millim. 

Differs  from  S.  testaceipes  in  being  longer  and  stouter; 
in  the  antennm  being  longer,  the  basal  joint  being  longer 
and  more  pear-shaped,  the  other  joints  also  not  being  so 
thick  nor  so  moniliform ; in  the  abdomen  being  shorter 
and  broader,  it  being  almost  shorter  than  the  bead  and 
thorax  united,  the  segments,  too,  not  being  broadly  tes- 
taceous at  their  edges ; the  femora  are  black ; the  head  is 
more  narrowed  in  front  of  the  eyes  ; the  wings  are  longer, 
and  the  nervures  are  darker. 

Hab.  Mountains  of  Flawaii  (no.  134). 

63.  Sierola  leuconeura,  sp.  nov. 

Black  ; the  knees,  tibiae,  tarsi,  and  basal  half  of  antennae 
testaceous ; the  hind  tibiae  fuscous  in  the  middle ; antennae 
scarcely  so  long  as  the  thorax,  the  basal  joint  shortly 
pedunculated,  double  as  long  as  wide,  double  the  length 
and  thickness  of  the  second,  which  is  thinner  and  shorter 
than  the  third,  the  third  to  sixth  thicker  than  the  follow- 
ing, broader  than  long,  the  apical  two  joints  subequal. 
Head  and  thorax  smooth,  faintly  alutaceous.  Abdomen 
shining,  longer  than  the  thorax.  Wings  semifuscous ; 
stigma  and  prostigma  fuscous,  nervures  lacteous. 

Length  2 millim. 

The  nervures  are  so  colourless  that  I cannot  make  out 
if  the  small  oval  cellule  uniting  the  humeral  cellules  is 
present  or  not ; if  absent  the  species  would  form  the  type 
of  a new  genus,  as  genera  are  now  considered. 

Hab.  Lanai. 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 


239 


TEREBRANTIA. 

ICHNEUMONID^. 

PimpUdes. 

64.  Echthromorpha  maculipennis . 

Echthromorpha  maculipennis,  Holmgren,  Eugenies  Resa,  Zoologi,  vi.  p.  406, 
tab.  Tiii.  f.  3. 

Hah.  Honolulu. 

65.  Echthromorpha  Jiavo-orbitalis,  sp.  nov. 

Tills  species  differs  from  E.  maculipennis  as  follows ; — 
The  face  is  entirely  yellow,  the  eyes  are  narrowly  bordered 
with  yellow  except  at  the  top,  the  scape  beneath,  and  the 
anterior  coxte  and  trochanters,  the  basal  half  of  the  scu- 
tellum,  and  the  postscutellum  are  yellow ; the  wings  are 
much  more  darker  tinted,  the  nervures  and  stigma  are 
quite  black ; the  metanotum  is  more  strongly  punetured, 
and  the  oblong  depression  found  near  the  base  in  E.  macu- 
lipennis is  absent;  the  punctuation  on  the  abdomen  is 
stronger,  there  being  also  a distinct  punctuation  on  the 
second  segment,  and  the  transverse  impressions  are  more 
conspicuous.  Possibly  an  examination  of  a large  series 
of  specimens  may  prove  that  E.  flavo-orhitalis  is  only  a 
variety  of  E.  maculipennis. 

The  maxillary  palpi  in  this  genus  are  5-,  and  the  labial 
3 -jointed. 

66.  Pimpla  hawaiiensis , sp.  nov. 

3^  Black;  legs  red,  the  anterior  tibiae  inclining  to  yel- 
lowish in  front,  the  hind  tibiae  and  tarsi  black,  the  extreme 
base  of  hind  tibiae  and  a broad  band  above  the  middle  and 
the  spurs  white ; the  tips  of  four  anterior  tarsi  black ; 
extreme  base  of  posterior  testaceous.  Antennae  scarcely 
so  long  as  the  thorax  and  abdomen  united,  stoutish,  taper- 


240  MESSRS,  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 

ing  towards  the  apex ; inclining  to  brown  on  the  lower 
side,  covered  with  microscopic  pile.  Head  as  wide  as 
the  thorax,  shining,  impnnctate,  the  face  somewhat  pro- 
tuberant, covered  sparsely  with  white  hairs ; front  a little 
depressed  above  the  antennse  ; clypeus  clearly  separated  ; 
maxillary  palpi  testaceous,  labial  fuscous.  Thorax  shining, 
impnnctate,  the  mesonotum  sparsely,  sternum  and  meta- 
pleurse  densely  covered  with  longish  white  hair;  meta- 
notum  without  any  keels,  the  thoracic  spiracle  oblong. 
Abdomen  about  double  the  length  of  the  thorax,  covered 
with  a longish  white  pubescence ; base  of  petiole  exca- 
vated, the  middle  portion  sparsely  punctured ; apical  part 
shining,  impnnctate,  separated  from  the  part  in  front  by 
being  a little  raised.  The  other  segments  (except  the 
apical)  are  closely  and  rather  strongly  punctured ; the 
second  is  longer  than  broad;  the  others  to  the  seventh 
broader  than  long ; the  seventh  is  longer  than  broad ; the 
eighth  is  narrowed  gradually  to  the  apex;  the  cerci  are 
three  times  longer  than  broad,  stout,  pilose.  The  edges  of 
the  second  segment  are  testaceous  at  the  base  and  apex. 
Wings  hyaline,  shorter  than  the  thorax  and  abdomen ; the 
nervures  and  stigma  black;  areolet  4-angled,  angled  on 
lower  side ; the  lateral  nervures  uniting  at  top ; the  recur- 
rent nervure  angled  a little  above  the  middle. 

Hub.  Oahu. 

Tryphonides. 

67.  Metacoelus  femoratus. 

Exochus  femoratus,  Grav.  Europ.  Ich.  ii.  p.  346. 

Hah.  Oahu. 

Ophionides. 

68.  OpMon  lineatus. 

Ophion  lineatus,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  p.  192. 

Hub.  Hawaii,  Lanai. 


HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  241 

69.  Ophion  nigricans. 

Ophion  nigricans,  Cameron,  c.  p.  193. 

Hah.  Hawaii. 

70.  Limneria  polynesialis . 

Limner ia  Polynesians,  Cameron,  c.  p.  191. 

Hah.  Haleakala,  Maui,  at  an  elevation  of  about  4000 
feet. 

7 1 . Limneria  Blackhurni. 

Limneria  Blaokburni,  Cameron,  1.  c.  p.  192. 

Hah,  Mauna  Kea,  Hawaii,  at  an  elevation  of  at  least 
13,000  feet,  on  the  snow  near  the  summit. 

72.  Limneria  hawaiiensis , sp.  nov. 

Very  similar  in  coloration  and  size  (except  that  it  is 
somewhat  smaller)  to  L.  Blackhurni,  but  differing  from 
it  in  the  head  and  thorax  being  densely  covered  with 
silvery- white  pubescence,  on  L.  Blackhurni  (especially  on 
the  thorax)  it  being  very  sparse  and  the  pleura  almost 
glabrous ; the  posterior  median  area  of  the  metanotum 
is  narrower  and  longer ; the  femora  are  of  a much  paler 
red,  the  four  posterior  trochanters  are  entirely  yellow, 
there  is  no  black  at  the  base  of  the  hind  femora,  the  black 
on  the  tibiae  is  lighter,  the  four  anterior  tarsi  are  pale 
testaceous  without  any  black,  and  the  areolet  is  not  only 
longer,  but  is  also  somewhat  wider ; the  postpetiole  is 
more  strongly  punctured,  as  are  also  the  second  and 
third  segments,  and  the  apical  segments  are  more  densely 
covered  with  white  hair,  the  hair  heing  also  longer.  The 
apex  of  the  second  segment  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
third  segment  externally  are  testaceous. 

Hah.  Oahu. 

The  three  species  of  Limneria  known  from  the  islands 
are  so  closely  allied  to  each  other  that  I have  no  doubt 
that  they  have  been  evolved  from  one  stem ; in  fact,  I am 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


R 


242  MESSRS.  T.  BLACKBURN  AND  P.  CAMERON  ON  THE 


not  sure  but  that  if  we  had  a long  series  of  eaeh,  it  would 
be  found  that  they  were  varieties  of  one  speeies.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  they  are  all  from  the  mountains.  The 
three  species  may  be  known  as  follows  ; — 

I (2).  Stigma  and  nervures  pallid  testaceous;  areolet  nearly 
pedunculated ; first  transverse  humeral  nervure  not 
interstitial  polynesialis. 


2(1).  Stigma  fuscous,  nervures  black ; first  transverse  humeral 
nervure  interstitial. 

3 (4).  Head  and  thorax  densely  covered  with  white  pubescence, 

four  anterior  tarsi  and  middle  tibiaa  without  black ; 

the  base  of  hind  femora  without  black kawaiiensis. 

4 (3).  Head  and  thorax  not  densely  pilose,  four  anterior  tarsi 

and  middle  tibiae  marked  with  black ; base  of  hind 

femora  black  BlacJcbumi. 


Braconidas. 

73.  Chelonus  Blackburni. 

Chelonus  carinatt(s,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soe.  1881,  p.  559  (non  Cresson). 

Hab.  Oahu. 

74.  Monolexis  ? palliatus. 

Monolexis  1 palliatus,  Cameron,  l.c.  p.  560. 

Hab.  Near  Honolulu.  Not  common. 

Evaniidas. 

75.  Evania  sericea. 

Evania  sericea,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  p.  19 1. 

Hab.  Hawaii  and  Oahu. 

76.  Evania  IcBvigata. 

Evania  Icsvigata,  Latr.  Gen.  Crust,  et  Ins.  iii.  p.  251. 

Hab.  Common  about  Honolulu. 

Chalcidid^. 

77.  Epitranus  lacteipennis. 

Epitranus  lacteipennis,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  p.  187. 

Hab.  Oahu. 


HYMENOPIERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  243 


78.  Chalets  poly nesialis. 

Chalcis  polynesialis,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1881,  p.  561. 

Hab.  Near  Honolulu. 

79.  Spalangia  hirta. 

Spalangia  hirta,  Haliclay,  Enfc.  Month.  Mag.  i,  p.  334. 

In  an  outhouse  near  Honolulu.  Probably  introduced, 
being  a parasite  on  the  house-fly.  It  is  a European 
species. 

80.  Moranila  testaceipes. 

Moranila  testaceipes,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  p.  188. 

Hab.  Oahu. 

8 1 . Solindenia  picticornis. 

Solindenia picticornis,  Cameron,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  1883,  p.  189. 

Hab.  Oahu. 

82.  Eupelmus  flavipes. 

Eupelmus  Jlavipes,  Cameron,  1.  c.  p.  190. 

83.  Encyrtus?  insular  is,  sp.  nov. 

Dark  blue ; the  anteunse,  apex  of  fore  femora,  apical 
third  of  middle  and  apical  half  of  hind  femora,  the  tibiae 
and  tarsi  yellowish  testaceous,  base  of  four  anterior  tibiae 
fuscous;  club  of  antennae  darker  than  scape;  abdomen 
more  or  less  green.  Wings  hyaline,  nervures  testaceous. 
Head  covered  with  large,  distinctly  separated  punctures ; 
thorax  more  closely  punctured,  the  punctures  being  also 
smaller  than  those  on  the  head ; scutellum  closely  and 
more  finely  punctured  than  the  mesonotum ; abdomen 
shining,  impunctate.  Head  and  mesothorax  finely  and 
sparsely  pilose ; scutellum  densely  pilose  ; abdomen  gla- 
brous. 

Scape  of  antennse  longer  than  the  flagellum,  nearly 
cylindrical,  but  slightly  thickened  towards  the  apex,  the 
flagellum  7 -jointed,  the  first  six  broader  than  long,  the 

E 2 


244  ON  THE  HYMENOPTERA  OF  THE  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS. 

edges  projecting,  forming  a serration  broader  tban  long, 
becoming  gradually  broader  until  the  sixth  is  double  as 
wide  as  long ; last  joint  (forming  a club)  longer  than  the 
preceding  six ; the  apex  produced  laterally^  the  elongation 
forming  about  one  fourth  of  the  total  length,  and  half  the 
thickness  of  the  eentral  part ; the  club  becomes  gradually 
thickened  towards  the  apex.  The  flagellum  is  covered 
with  longish  stiff  hairs,  directed  towards  the  apex.  Head 
broad,  rather  large ; eyes  large,  converging  above ; ocelli 
in  a wide  triangle,  widely  separated,  the  upper  two  nearly 
touching  the  eyes;  occiput  concave.  Face  deeply  exca- 
vated, the  excavation  reaching  laterally  to  the  mouth  ; 
epistoma  projecting,  broadly  keeled.  Thorax  large,  broad, 
without  sutures ; scutellum  large ; metathorax  small. 
Abdomen  shorter  than  the  thorax,  the  apex  narrowed, 
transverse.  Wings  scarcely  so  long  as  the  body:  cubitus 
more  than  double  the  length  of  ulna,  which  is  very  short ; 
radius  absent ; edge  of  wing  shortly  ciliated.  The  cubitus 
does  not  reach  to  the  middle  of  the  wing.  Hind  tibiae 
almost  one-spnrred,  the  inner  being  a mere  stump. 

The  above-described  species  is  certainly  not  an  Encyrtus 
as  now  understood.  I cannot  make  it  fit  into  any  of  the 
genera  as  defined  by  Mayr  and  Foerster;  but  having  only 
a single  example  (a  male),  I do  not  care  to  found  a new 
genus  for  its  reception.  The  sculpture  of  the  head  and 
thorax  is  pretty  much  as  in  Bothriothorax. 

Taken  on  several  of  the  islands. 

Obs.  Mr.  Blackburn  {antea,  p.  199)  states  that  he  has 
taken  in  the  Archipelago  over  one  hundred  species  of 
Hymenoptera ; but  I am  only  acquainted  with  eighty- 
three  (or  eighty-four  with  Apis  mellifica).  I believe 
there  are  two  or  three  un described  species  in  the  British 
Museum,  which  were  sent  by  Mr.  Blackburn  some  years 
ago. — P.  C. 


ON  THE  POLLUTION  OP  THE  RIVER  IRWELL. 


245 


XV.  The  pollution  of  the  River  Irwell  and  its  Tributaries. 
By  Charles  A.  Burghardt_,  Ph.D. 


Bead  February  23rd,  18 86. 

[Plates  X.,  XI.,  XII.,  & XIII.] 

I HAVE  thought  it  would  be  interesting  to  the  Members 
of  this  Society  perhaps^  if  I laid  before  them  the  results 
of  many  analyses  of  the  water  of  the  Biver  Irwell  extending 
over  a period  of  two  years,  and  also  analyses  of  some  of  the 
most  important  tributaries  of  the  Irwell  above  Manchester, 
inclnding  at  the  same  time  the  Irk  and  the  Medlock  within 
the  boundary  of  Manchester.  There  have  been  several 
investigations  already  into  the  condition  of  the  Irwell  &c., 
the  first  being  that  of  Lyon  Playfair,  in  1844.  Undoubtedly 
at  that  time  the  river  was  extremely  filthy,  but  I am  quite 
certain  from  my  own  investigations  that  it  was  inaccurate 
to  state  that  large  quantities  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
phosphoretted  hydrogen,  and  other  dangerous  gases  were 
evolved  from  the  waters.  Most  certainly  it  could  never 
have  evolved  phosphoretted  hydrogen,  because  this  gas  can 
only  be  prepared  by  the  reduction  of  phosphates  under 
difficult  chemical  circumstances,  which  could  not  obtain  in 
a river,  but  assuming  for  the  sake  of  argument  that  this  gas 
did  succeed  in  forming  after  immense  effort,  and  arrived  in 
the  shape  of  a bubble  at  the  surface,  if  it  consisted  of  the 
very  inflammable  modification,  it  would  immediately  take 
fire  in  the  air,  and  burn  at  once  to  phosphorus  pentoxide, 
and  this  latter  body  being  one  of  the  most  hydroscopic 
bodies  known  to  the  chemist,  would  immediately  vanish 
into  the  river  again,  now  in  the  form  of  phosphoric  acid. 
After  this  it  might  recombine  with  calcium  or  magnesium, 
and  await  a second  metamorphosis.  Begarding  the  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  at  the  period  of  Lyon  Playfair^s  investi- 


246  DR.  C.  A.  BTJRGHARDT  ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF 

gation,  I cannot  of  course  dispute  it  directly,  but  I state 
most  emphatically,  that  if  the  river  bed  were  of  the  same 
composition  as  it  is  at  the  present  day,  and  if  the  vegetable 
dyes  &c.,  turned  into  the  river  then,  were  at  all  like 
those  turned  into  the  river  to-day,  it  would  be  almost 
impossible  for  sulphuretted  hydrogen  to  be  given  off  in  the 
form  of  gas  from  the  water,  because  it  is  now  a well-known 
fact  that  the  oxide  of  iron  largely  present  in  the  mud  of  the 
Irwell  and  its  tributaries,  coupled  with  the  large  amount  of 
iron  present  in  solution  in  the  water  (derived  from  dye- 
works,  chemical  works,  paper  works,  &c.),  combines  with  it 
when  in  the  “ status  nascendi,’^  forming  ferrous  sulphide. 
This  black  compound  enters  largely  into  the  constitution  of 
the  mud  of  sewage-polluted  streams,  and  I know  from  a 
long  series  of  examinations  of  the  mud  of  the  Irwell  at 
Throstle  Nest,  that  ferrous  sulphide  is  largely  present  in 
the  mud. 

I have  analysed  repeatedly,  at  various  times  in  the  year, 
gas  collected  from  the  Irwell  at  spots  immediately  above 
the  weir  at  Throstle  Nest,  below  it  at  the  place  where  all 
the  water  samples  were  taken  during  1883,  1884,  1885^ 
and  at  Barton  above  the  locks.  At  the  first- mentioned 
locality  an  immense  evolution  of  gas  is  to  be  often  seen 
during  the  summer  months,  but  I can  say  without  hesita- 
tion that  it  contains  no  trace  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
having  tested  it  many  times  for  that  gas,  and  never  detected 
the  slightest  trace.  The  gas  thus  rising  to  the  surface 
varies  very  much  in  composition  at  different  places.  That 
coming  to  the  surface  at  the  Throstle  Nest  weir  containing 
a large  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide  and  a small  quantity  of 

marsh  gas  (CHJ,  whereas  the  gas  rising  near  Barton 
often  contains  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  “ marsh  gas,^^  the  rest 
being  mostly  carbon  dioxide.  The  river  water  is  nearly 
saturated  with  carbon  dioxide  gas  (at  the  atmospheric 
temperature),  a very  bad  state  of  things,  because  it  prevents 


THE  RIVER  IRWELL  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES. 


247 


to  a very  great  extent  that  further  special  self-purification 
of  the  water  by  oxydation.  The  carbon  dioxide  is  mostly 
formed  by  the  oxydation  of  the  sewage  and  other  carbon- 
aceous contaminations  present  in  the  water.  I have  made 
a great  number  of  determinations  of  the  amount  of  free 
carbon  dioxide  gas  in  solution^  in  the  Irwell  water,  and 
always  found  that  on  allowing  the  same  water  sample  to 
stand  for  a week  (or  even  a day  or  two  in  summer),  a 
further  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  had  been  formed  and 
dissolved  in  the  water.  This  further  amount  was  entirely 
derived  from  the  oxydation  of  the  carbonaceous  impurities 
of  the  water.  I ascertained  on  making  further  experiments 
that  an  increase  of  temperature  had  a very  great  influence 
upon  the  formation  of  carbon  dioxide  in  sewage-polluted 
water.  The  way  I ascertained  this  was  very  simple.  I 
first  determined  very  carefully  the  amount  oifree  carbonic 
acid  gas  (carbon  dioxide)  dissolved  in  the  Irwell  water,  by 
gently  warming  it  in  a flask  to  about  94°  C.,  and  drawing 
all  gas  evolved  through  a standard  solution  of  barium 
hydrate.  When  no  further  amount  of  gas  was  thought  to 
be  coming  ofi*,  the  barium-hydrate  flask  was  removed  and 
the  amount  of  baryta  still  remaining  not  saturated  deter- 
mined by  standard  oxalic  acid  solution ; then  another 
flask  containing  a further  charge  of  the  barium  hydrate 
solution  was  attached  to  the  apparatus  as  before,  and  the 
water  sample  again  heated  in  its  flask  for  half  an  hour  at 
94°  C. ; if  no  more  gas  came  off  I at  once  proceeded  to 
heat  the  flask  to  100°  C.,  when  a copious  generation  of 
carbon  dioxide  always  took  place.  If  the  carbon  dioxide 
came  off  during  the  second  heating  to  94°  C.,  then  this 
heating  was  continued  for  a considerable  time  until  I 
assumed  nothing  more  did  come  off  (and  in  actual  practice 
it  was  not  at  all  difficult  to  be  quite  sure),  then  I titrated 
the  barium  hydrate  solution  as  before.  From  the  experi- 
ments thub  made  lam  very  strongly  of  opinion  that  determina- 


248  DR.  C.  A.  BURGHARDT  ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF 

tions  of  the  amount  of  free  carbon  dioxide  dissolved  in 
river  waters,  are  valuable  indicators  of  the  state  of  that 
river  as  regards  organic  pollution. 

I consider  the  Irwell  the  best  possible  example  of  the 
saturation  of  a water  with  the  gaseous  products  of  the 
decomposition  of  its  carbonaceous  constituents^  and  I am 
quite  certain  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  remove  at 
once  the  large  quantity  of  sewage  pollution  from  the  river 
so  that  the  other  organic  matters^  which  are  less  easily 
oxydized^  may  have  a chance  of  being  changed  and  des- 
troyed by  further  oxydation.  Owing  to  the  rapid  falling 
movement  of  the  river^  from  its  source  above  Bacup_,  at 
an  altitude  of  1300  feet;,  to  Manchester^  which  may  be^  on 
the  bed  of  the  riverj  about  150  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea;,  there  is  a first-rate  chance  for  an  ordinary  river  to 
purify  itself.  It  will  he  at  once  apparent  on  consulting 
the  Table  ” that  the  IrweU  at  Bury  is  half  as  much 
polluted  as  it  is  at  Throstle  Nest^  in  Manchester.  Again, 
on  consulting  Table  “ D/^  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Irwell 
at  the  Salford  Boundary  is  far  purer  than  the  Irwell  at 
Throstle  Nest.  Making  a calculation  from  the  analytical 
data  given  in  the  Table,  it  appears  that  the  water  at 
Throstle  Nest  contains  76  per  cent,  more  albuminoid  am- 
monia, and  36  per  cent,  more  oxydizable  organic  matter 
than  the  same  water  as  it  arrives  at  the  Salford  boundary. 
How  can  this  tremendous  increase  in  pollution  be  ac- 
counted for  ? It  is  almost  entirely  due  to  pollution  of  the 
Irivell  by  its  tributaries,  the  Irk  and  the  Medlock,  the 
sewage,  being  mostly  that  poured  into  the  rivers  by  the  Man- 
chester sewers,  because  the  sewage  of  Salford  has  been 
diverted  from  the  Irwell  altogether,  I believe.  On  refer- 
ring to  Table  “ D it  will  be  seen  that  the  river  Medlock 
is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a filthy  sewer.  It  is  a 
burning  disgrace  to  a civilized  community  to  allow  such 


THE  RIVER  IRWELL  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES. 


249 


a stream  to  flow  through  a town  like  Manchester  in  its 
present  condition.  The  table  mentioned  above  shows 
that  on  comparing  the  Irwell  at  the  Salford  boundary 
with  the  Medlock  (just  before  it  joins  the  Irwell),  that 
the  Medlock  contains  89  per  cent,  more  albuminoid 
ammonia,  49  per  cent,  more  free  ammonia,  75  per  cent, 
more  oxydizable  organic  matter,  and  86  per  cent,  more 
filth  in  suspension  (flocculent  matter),  in  short,  it  contains 
about  80  per  cent,  or  so  more  sewage  pollution  than  the 
Irwell  at  the  Salford  boundary.  The  Irk  is  very  little 
better  than  the  Medlock.  On  going  up  the  river  towards 
Bury  it  will  be  seen  that  the  principal  tributary  of  the 
Irwell  is  the  river  Roach.  This  river  rises  at  a height  of 
about  1500  feet  above  ordnance  datum  and  on  arriving  at 
the  place  of  junction  with  the  Irwell  it  has  only  a height 
of  197  feet  above  the  ordnance  datum,  consequently  the 
Roach  is  a river  which  can  easily  purify  itself,  if  it  has  a 
proper  chance  given  to  it,  owing  to  the  rapid  flow  of  the 
water.  The  Roach  is  a purer  stream  than  the  Irwell, 
although  it  is  largely  polluted  with  sewage  and  other 
contamination  still,  and  could  and  ought  to  be  far  cleaner 
than  it  is.  The  streams  flowing  through  Elton  and  Bury 
are  highly  polluted  with  dye- water,  bleaching  refuse, 
sewage,  &c. ; they  flow  through  sewers  into  the  Irwell, 
but  the  Bury  Corporation  intends  to  treat  all  its  sewage 
outside  the  town,  and  divert  it  from  the  river  in  its  crude 
condition ; and  they  will  also  doubtless  insist  upon  all 
manufacturers  purifying  their  waste  waters  to  such  a state 
of  purity  as  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Rivers 
Pollution  Act.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  much  reason 
for  this  action  on  the  part  of  the  Bury  Corporation,  for 
on  consulting  Table  “ and  comparing  the  analysis 
there  of  the  Tottiugton  Brook  before  it  joins  the  Irwell, 
with  the  analysis  of  the  Irwell  (taken  on  the  same  occasion. 


250  DR.  C.  A.  BURGHARDT  ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF 

before  being  joined  by  the  Tottington  Brook)  in  Table 

C/’  it  will  be  at  once  seen  that  the  Irwell  is  a pure 
stream  in  comparison. 

I have  analysed  other  small  streams  flowing  through 
Bury  into  the  Irwell,  and  found  all  were  largely  polluted 
with  manufacturer's  waste  water.  Between  the  junction 
of  the  Roach  and  the  Irwell  there  is  a pollution  of  the 
Irwell  by  the  River  Croal.  This  river  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  several  brooks,  of  which  the  principal  is  the 
Bradshaw  Brook,  flowing  near  Bolton.  This  brook — and, 
in  fact,  all  of  them — are  largely  polluted  with  manufac- 
turer’s waste  waters  and  sewage,  but  all  of  them  are  much 
purer  than  the  Irwell  at  the  Salford  boundary.  From 
my  examinations  of  the  river,  and  the  curves  plotted  from 
the  weekly  analyses  of  1884,  compared  with  the  analyses 
of  1885,  I cannot  draw  any  other  conclusion  than  this  : 
that  about  One-half  the  total  pollution  of  the  Irwell, 
before  it  arrives  at  the  weir  at  Throstle  Nest,  is  due  to 
manufacturer’s  waste  water — in  other  words,  to  avoidable 
pollution.  This  conclusion  is  supported  by  looking  at  the 
oxygen  curves  produced  by  calculating  on  100  parts  of 
the  total  matters  in  solution  (Curve  No.  6).  It  will  be 
seen  that  there  was  a continuous  rise  in  the  amount  of 
oxygen  required  to  oxydize  the  organic  matter  in  100 
parts  of  the  total  soluble  matters,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the 
long  drought  in  1884  (extending  from  March  to  July  4th; 
see  rainfall  in  Table  “ A ”) ; but  suddenly,  on  June  6th,  the 
curve  drops  from  about  47  grains  to  22.  This  diminution 
is  due  to  the  whole  week  being  a universal  holiday  in 
Lancashire,  viz..  Whit-week.  The  same  fact  is  observed 
on  examining  Curve  No.  6 (for  the  Christmas  and  New 
Year  holidays  in  1884-85)  in  quite  as  striking  a manner. 
Again  in  the  Easter  holidays  and  Whit-week  in  1885  the 
same  improvement  is  observed,  proving  conclusively  that 
the  pollution  of  the  river  is  very  much  less  when  manu- 


THE  RIVER  IRWELL  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES. 


251 


facturers  are  doing  nothing.  In  Table  “ B I give  the 
percentage  of  volatile  organic  matter  present  in  lOO  parts 
of  the  respective  amounts  of  total  matter  in  solution.^^ 
By  treating  the  analytical  data  in  this  manner  a very  fair 
opinion  can  be  obtained  as  to  the  pollution  of  a stream 
like  the  Irwell.  I have  made  similar  calculations  in  re- 
gard to  streams  which  were  only  polluted  with  what  is 
known  as  “ domestic  sewage/^  and  always  found  that  the 
total  matter  in  solution  in  the  water  contained  from  27  to 
60  per  cent,  of  volatile  organic  matter ; and^  further_,  that 
this  excessive  amount  of  organic  matter  rapidly  preci- 
pitates out  on  being  exposed  to  the  air.  This  precipitation 
of  the  organic  “ sewage  matter  in  solution  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  analysis  of  the  Irwell  at  Throstle  Nest  and 
the  Irwell  at  Barton  (in  Table  ‘‘D”).  It  will  be  seen, 
on  calculating  out  the  percentages,  that  the  Irwell  at 
Throstle  Nest  contains  27'5  per  cent,  of  volatile  organic 
matter  in  100  parts  of  its  total  matter  in  solution,^^ 
whilst  at  Barton  the  same  water  contains  only  I7‘6i  per 
cent,  of  volatile  organic  matter  in  lOo  parts  of  its  total 
matter  in  solution.^^  Exactly  one-half  of  the  organic 
contamination  has  been  'precipitated  out  of  the  'water  in  the 
flow  from  Throstle  Nest  to  Barton. 

Regarding  the  method  of  analysis  of  the  waters,  I may 
say  that  I consider  Frankland^s  process  quite  useless  by 
itself  in  ascertaining  the  state  of  the  pollution  of  a river 
in  a manufacturing  district,  because  it  cannot  discriminate 
between  the  pollution  by  sewage  and  the  pollution  by 
manufacturer’s  waste  waters.  By  adopting  a parallel  test- 
ing of  the  water  by  the  processes  of  Wanklyn  and  Tidy, 
a very  good  idea  is  obtained  of  the  state  of  the  water, 
especially  if  these  two  processes  are  supplemented  by 
the  determination  of  the  amounts  of  chlorine,  volatile 
matter  in  both  ‘‘  suspended  matter  ” and  “ matter  in  solu- 
tion.” I always  filtered  the  water,  and  considered  the 


252  DR.  C.  A.  BURGHARDT  ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF 


residue  dried  at  ioo°  C.,  obtained  on  evaporating  the 
filtered  water^  to  be  total  matter  in  solution/^  but  I was 
of  course  aware  that  much  loss  arose  by  the  decomposition 

Fig.  I. 


MANCHESTER 


SU/l^^'ONANDPEN□LEBURV 

PRESTWICH 


LITTLE  LEVER 
RADCLIFFE 

WHITEFIELD 


RAMSBOTTOM 


HASLINCDEN 


RAWTENSTALL 


of  the  sewage  matter  in  the  water  into  carbon  dioxide  at 
about  100°  C.  The  oxygen  tests  were  applied  directly  the 
water  arrived  in  my  laboratory  ; also  the  ammonia  deter- 


the  river  irwell  and  its  tributaries. 


253 


RflWTENSTALL 


BACUP 


HASLINCOEN 


RAMSBDTTOM 


TOTTINCTON 


RADCLIFFE 


\i 

'ilTUE  lEUERl 


FARNWORTH 


WHITEFIELD 


RERSLEV 


PRESTWICH  [I 


.(fiWINTON  AND  PENDLEBURY 


SALFORD 


Manchester 


FROM  ITS  SOURCE  TO  MANCHESTER. 


254 


ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF  THE  RIVER  IRWELL. 


minations,  I do  not  wish  to  make  comparisons  between 
Wanklyn’s  or  Tidy^s  methods,  because  both  are  excellent; 
but  it  would  appear  from  the  curves  that  the  first-men- 
tioned method  is  more  reliable  in  its  indications  of  real 
sewage  contamination  than  the  method  of  Tidy.  Having 
now  shown  the  state  of  the  Irwell  and  some  of  its  tri- 
butaries, I ask.  What  is  to  be  done  to  cleanse  it  or  improve 
it  ? The  answer  to  this  question  is,  “ Insist  sternly  upon 
the  sewage  of  all  towns  and  local  authorities  abbutting  on 
the  river  being  treated  in  a proper  manner  and  removed 
in  the  crude  state  from  the  rivers ; see  that  the  so-called 
^sewage  processes^  or  ^ schemes^  of  the*  various  local 
authorities  on  the  map  appended  to  this  paper,  are 
thoroughly  carried  out,  and  not  shams,  as  some  of  them 
are  to  my  knowledge  at  the  present  time ; have  the  powers 
of  the  Rivers  Pollution  Act  put  into  force  in  a reasonable 
but  determined  manner  against  the  disgraceful  and  selfish 
pollutions  at  present  caused  by  manufacturers  on  the 
banks  of  the  Irwell  and  its  tributaries,  and  at  once  do 
away  with  the  dangerous  and  abominable  practice  of  cast- 
ing ashes  and  cinders  upon  the  banks  in  order  to  be 
washed  away  at  the  first  flood/^ 

I know,  from  personal  knowledge,  that  the  Rivers 
Pollution  Act  is  an  absolute  dead  letter,  not  being  applied 
at  all  on  the  Irwell,  and  might  never  have  been  passed. 

I must  not  conclude  my  paper  without  acknowledging 
the  very  valuable  assistance  I have  received  throughout 
this  inquiry  from  my  assistants,  Messrs.  A.  E.  Easnacht 
and  W.  J.  Rowley ; also  from  my  friend  Mr.  Cartwright, 
the  Borough  Surveyor  of  Bury,  who  has  prepared  for  me 
the  map  of  the  Irwell  showing  all  the  Sanitary  Authorities 
on  its  banks,  and  the  vertical  section  of  the  same  districts 
giving  the  inclination  of  the  River  Irwell  from  its  source 
to  Manchester. 


Good  Friday  Holidays.  t Whitweek  Holidays.  | Holidays. 


Results  of  Analysis  of  Samples  of  Irwell  Water,  taken  weekly  from  25th  January,  1884,  to  16th  January,  1885. 
The  Samples  were  taken  at  a spot  situated  on  the  right  hank  of  the  river,  about  200  yards  below  Trafford  Bridge. 
The  results  are  given  in  grains  per  gallon. 


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PROP.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  CALAMODENDRON.  255 

XVI.  On  the  Relations  of  Calamodendron  to  Calamites. 
By  Professor  W.  C.  Williamson,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


Read  October  5th,  1886. 


[Plates  XIY.,  XV.,  & XVI.] 

The  relations  in  whieh  the  genus  Calamodendron  of 
Brongniart  stands  to  that  of  Calamites,  originally  estab- 
lished by  Suckow,  and  adopted  by  Brongniart  and  later 
authors,  are  involved  in  a considerable  amount  of  confusion; 
this  confusion  is  partly  due  to  some  indefiniteness  in  the 
statements  of  Brongniart  himself  on  the  subject,  and 
partly  to  differences  of  opinion  existing  amongst  palseo- 
botanists  as  to  what  those  relations  really  are. 

In  1828  Brongniart  published  his  ^Prodrome  d^une 
Histoire  des  Vdgetaux  Fossiles,'’  in  which,  for  the  first  time, 
a serious  attempt  was  made  to  classify  the  various  types 
of  fossil  vegetation.  In  that  volume  Brongniart  divided 
the  family  of  the  Equisetacees  into  the  two  genera  Equi- 
setum  and  Calamites,  thus  recording  his  opinion  that  the 
latter  plants  were  true  members  of  the  Equisetaceous 
family. 

But  in  1849  Brongniart  published,  in  the  ‘ Dictionnaire  ‘ 
universel  d^  Histoire  naturelle,^  his  “ Tableau  des  Genres 
de  V%etaux  Fossiles.”  In  the  interval  he  had  become 
acquainted  with  some  fossils  from  Autun,  belonging  to 
deposits  occupying  the  boundary-line  between  the  upper- 
most beds  of  the  Carboniferous  series  and  the  lowest 
Permian  ones.  These  fossils  had  meanwhile  been  studied 
by  M.  Cotta,  who  gave  to  them  the  generic  name  of 
Calamitea. 

It  appears  that,  under  this  generic  term.  Cotta  compre- 
hended some  Conifers ; two  plants,  however,  to  which  he 


in  100  parts  of  the  Solid  Matters  in  Solution  (see  Tables  A and  C), 


1885. 

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S5  S S I 5 S I S I 


256  PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 

gave  the  names  of  Calamitea  striata  and  C.  bistriata^ 
seemed  to  have  true  Equisetiform  affinities.  Specimens 
of  the  former  of  these  species  in  which  the  internal  organi- 
zation was  preserved,  were  obtained  by  Unger,  and  were 
described  by  that  palaeontologist  in  Petzholdt’s  work  *. 

Brongniart  concluded,  from  UngePs  observations,  that 
the  two  plants  referred  to  above  were  distinct  from  the 
true  Catamites and  he  also  objected  to  Cottar’s  generic 
term  Calamitea  as  approximating  too  closely  to  Suckow"s 
Catamites ; he  therefore  substituted  for  it  the  term  Cala- 
modendron.  Describing  the  C.  striata  of  Cotta,  he  says  : — 
“ Cette  tige,  comme  toutes  les  autres  de  ce  genre,  presente 
une  moffile  tres  volumineuse,  souvent  reduite  par  la 
compression  a une  forme  elliptique  ou  meme  lineaire, 
entouree  par  une  zone  ligneuse  de  quelques  centimetres 
d^epaisseur,  sans  zones  d^accroissement  distinctes,  mais 
formee  de  bandes  rayonnantes  alternatives  fort  differentes 
de  couleur  et  d^ aspect,  presque  egales  en  largeur  dans  le 
Cal.  striatum,  alternativement  larges  et  etroites  dans  le 
Cal.  bistriatum.  On  croirait  au  premier  abord  que  ce 
sont  de  tres  larges  rayons  medullaires  alternant  avec  des 
faisceaux  ligneux  k peu  pres  de  meme  dimension.  Mais 
Panatomie  microscopique  a montre  dans  le  Cal.  striatum, 
que  la  moitie  des  lames  rayonnantes  sont  formees  par 
des  vaisseaux  rayes,  ou  plutot  par  de  larges  fibres  rayees 
comme  celles  des  Psaronius  et  des  Stigmaria,  s^parees  par 
des  rayons  medullaires  tres  etroits,  dffin  seul  rang  de 
cellules,  et  peu  etendus  en  hauteur ; les  lames  qui  alter- 
nent  avec  celles-ci  sont  formees  de  fibres  ligneuses,  plus 
fines,  tres  nombreuses,  dispos^es  aussi  en  series  rayonnan- 
tes, et  chaque  lame  est  partagee  dans  son  milieu  par  un 
rayon  medullaire  plus  large,  continue  et  compose  de  deux 
ou  trois  rangees  de  cellules  dirigees,  comme  dans  les 
* Ueber  Kalamiten  und  Steinkohlen. — Bildimg.  8vo.  Dresden,  1841. 


RELATIONS  OE  CA LAMODKNDRON  TO  CATAMITES.  257 

rayons  medullaireSj  clu  centre  k la  circonference 
The  above  description  agrees  with  sections  in  my 
cabinet,  for  whieh  I am  indebted  to  Professor  Edouard, 
Graf  von  Solms,  of  Gottingen,  with  the  exception  of  the 
continuity  of  the  central  medullary  ray  last  referred  to.  I 
find  that  this  ray  is  not  regularly  continuous,  but 
decidedly  irregular  and  interrupted  in  its  continuity : 
indeed  tangential  sections  of  these  fibrous  zones  exhibit 
rather  numerous  narrow,  vertically  elongated,  lenticular, 
medullary  rays,  composed  of  one,  two,  or  three  vertieal 
rows  of  cells ; those  rays  nearest  the  centre  are  un- 
doubtedly the  largest  and  most  conspicuous,  but  they  are 
not  continuous,  merely  primi  inter  pares. 

Had  the  above  description  stood  alone,  no  confusion 
would  have  resulted ; but  on  p,  48  of  his  Tableau, 
M.  Brongniart  makes  the  following  observations  : — 

Je  serais  done  porte  a penser,  qu^on  a confondu  sous 
le  nom  des  Calamites  deux  groupes  des  vegetaux  tr6s 
diff'drents.  L^un,  comprenant  les  Calamites  k ecorce 
minee,  reguliere,  recouvrant  le  noyau  central  d^une  couche 
charbonneuse  qui  en  suit  tous  les  contours,  qui  montre  a 
sa  surface  externe  des  stries  et  des  articulations  tres  nettes 
des  insertions  de  rameaux  appliques  sur  des  articulations 
depourvues  de  gaines  ou  en  oflrant  quelquefois  une  etalee. 
Leur  strueture  est  celle  que  je  viens  de  decrire. 

autre,  comprenant  les  Calamites  h ecorce  charbonneuse, 
epaisse,  qui,  exterieurement,  ofire  h peine  des  traces  de 
stries  longitudinales  et  d^ articulations,  dont  le  noyau 
interne  correspondant  h la  tige  est,  au  contraire,  profonde- 
ment  sillonne  et  presente  des  articulations  tres  marques. 
Ces  tiges,  lorsque  leur  partie  centrale  a conserve  sa  struc- 
ture, paraissent  ofiFrir  celle  deerite  par  MM.  Cotta,  Petz- 
holdt  et  Unger  dans  les  Calamitea,  c^est-a-dire  une  moelle 
* Loc.  cit.  p.  50, 


SER.  III.  VOL.  X. 


258  PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 

centrale,  un  cylindre  ligneiix^  partage  par  de  nombreux 
rayons  medullaires  tres  reguliers^  en  faisceauxrayonnants, 
composes  eux-memes  de  lames  rayonnantes,  de  tissu 
vasculaire  strie,  analogue  k celui  des  Fougeres,  des 
Lepidodendron,  des  Sigillaria  et  des  Stigmaria^  et  de  tissu 
plus  fin^  sans  stries  ou  ponctuations/’ 

As  I shall  show  directly,  this  latter  description  includes 
within  M.  Brongniarfs  genus  Calamodendron  the  group 
of  objects  which  for  many  years  past  I have  demonstrated 
to  be  true  Equisetiform  Calamites,  but  which  M.  Brong- 
niart  thus  unites  with  objects  which  he  believed  to  be 
dicotyledonous  Gymnosperms.  I may  observe  here  that 
M.  Brongniart  had  no  conception  of  the  existence  of  an 
enormous  number  of  Carboniferous  Cryptogams  which 
possess  largely  developed,  exogenous,  vascular  or  xylem 
zones  within  their  cortical  layers ; he  believed  such  a 
combination  to  be  impossible ; therefore  the  fact  that  a 
plant  possessed  such  a zone  was  to  him,  as  it  has  long 
been  to  some  of  his  disciples,  a clear  proof  that  it  could 
not  possibly  be  a Cryptogam. 

In  1869 1 published,  in  the  ' Transactions  of  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester"*,  a memoir 
^^On  the  Structure  of  the  Woody  Zone  of  an  undescribed 
form  of  Calamite,""  in  which  I demonstrated  the  existence 
of  an  exogenous  woody  zone,  and  also  I arrived  at  the 
conclusion,  that  the  Calamites  constitute  essentially  one 
large  group  of  plants,  with  some  considerable  range  of 
variation  in  the  details  of  their  internal  organization [loc. 
cit.  p.  179).  This  conclusion,  as  might  be  expected,  was 
rejected  by  many  who  had  been  trained  in  the  school  of 
Brongniart.  A few  remain  who  still  reject  it. 

Like  myself,  M.  Goppert  obtained  specimens  of  Cala- 
mites with  distinct,  exogenously  developed,  vascular  zones, 
^ Vol.  iv.,  3rd  ser. 


RELATIONS  OF  CALAMODENDRON  TO  CATAMITES.  259 

such  as  had  been  found  in  Brongniart’s  Calamodendron, 
but  he  saw  that  the  radiating  masses  of  cellular  tissue 
(the  primary  medullary  rays  of  my  memoir)  whieh  alter- 
nated with  the  vascular  wedges,  differed  from  those  of 
Cottars  plant ; therefore  he  left  the  latter  in  Brongniart’s 
genus  Calamodendron,  whilst  for  the  reeeption  of  the 
others  he  instituted  the  new  genus  Arthropitus  Brong- 
niart^s  genus  Calamodendron,  as  defined  on  p.  256,  un- 
doubtedly eomprehended  Goppert^s  new  genus ; the  Freneh 
author  had  been  misled  by  his  ignoranee  of  the  faet  that 
both  these  genera  possessed  an  exogenous  vaseular  zone, 
whieh  zone  he  obviously  regarded  as  the  ehief  feature 
distinguishing  his  Calamodendron  from  Calamites.  M. 
Grand^Eury  has  followed  Goppert  in  aeeepting  his  genus 
Arthropitus ; but  eonsistently  with  the  Brongniartian  views 
whieh  he  adopted  when  he  published  his  ^ Flore  Carbonifere 
du  Departement  de  la  Loire,^  he  there  placed  the  genus 
along  with  Calamodendron  in  his  “ Famille  des  Calamoden- 
drees,”  regarding  both  as  Gymnospermous  genera. 

From  1869,  the  time  of  the  publication  of  my  Cala- 
mitean  memoir  already  referred  to,  I have  eontinued 
to  demonstrate  that  all  the  Carboniferous  Calamites 
began  to  develop  exogenously  a vaseular  zone  even  in 
their  youngest  state,  and  that  the  supposed  non-exogenous 
Equisetiform  type  existed  only  in  the  minds  of  a few 
men,  unbelievers  in  exogenous  Cryptogams.  UngeFs 
Arthropitus  is,  I have  long  been  eonvineed,  merely  an 
ordinary  Calamite,  in  whieh  the  development  of  the 
exogenous  zone  has  made  some  conspieuous  progress. 
M.  Grand"’Eury  himself  has  advaneed  so  far  as  to  reeognize 
this  faet.  In  his  *'  Determination  Speeifique  des  Empreints 
vegetales  du  terrain  houilleF^  he  says  : — J^ai  assez  bien 

* ‘ Die  fossile  Flora  der  Permischen  Formation,"'  p.  179. 

t ‘ Comptes  Eendus,’  Seance  du  22  fevrier,  1886. 

s 2 


260 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


reconnu  que  les  Calamites  cann(Eformis  et  varians  vont  avec 
les  Asterophyllites  du  type  EquisetiformeSj  SchL^  et  les 
Volkmannia  gracilis^  Pr.^  que  le  moule  des  tiges  de  ees  vege- 
taux  est  Pempreint  de  la  structure  du  bois  di  Arthropitus 
and  in  a private  letter  to  myself,  that  eminent  geologist 
says,  “ Comme  vous,  j^ai  reconnu  que  le  bois  A.’ Arthropitus 
appartient  aux  Calamites  du  type  C.  cannceformis.”  Since 
the  contrary  idea  prevailing  in  the  French  school  of  palae- 
ontologists has  chiefly  rested,  of  late  years,  upon  the  dis- 
coveries of  M.  Grand^Eury  himself,  I presume  we  shall 
now  hear  no  more  of  that  mistaken  hypothesis. 

The  identity  of  Calamites  and  Arthropitus  being  thus 
established,  the  latter  genus  disappears ; but  there  yet 
remains  for  consideration  the  relationship  subsisting 
between  Calamites  and  Calamodendron,  regarding  the 
latter  genus  as  identical  with  the  Calamitea  of  Cotta. 

On  this  point,  I think,  some  light  is  thrown  by  a study 
of  the  plant  which  I described  in  1869*,  under  tbe  pro- 
visional name  of  Calamopitus.  The  figures  in  the  accom- 
panying Plates  will  facilitate  an  apprehension  of  what 
I propose  saying  on  this  subject. 

Eig.  I represents  an  ordinary  form  of  a fossil  Cala- 
mite,  with  its  transverse  nodal  constrictions,  a,  and  its 
longitudinal  internodal  ridges  and  furrows,  b.  When 
covered  with  a very  thin  film  of  coal  moulded  upon  the 
contours  of  figure  i,  this  form  represents  the  ordinary 
Eqnisetiform  Calamite  of  the  Brongniartian  school.  But 
all  parties  now  see  in  such  a specimen  something  more. 
I long  ago  pointed  out  that  these  fossils  were  merely  the 
inorganic  casts  of  the  fistular  medulla  of  a Calamite, 
in  which  a nodal  medullary  septum  extended  more  or 
less  completely  across  the  medullary  cavity  at  each  node, 
and  to  the  presence  of  which  the  transverse  constrictions 
* Trans.  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.  Manchester,  3rd  ser,  vol.  iv.  Session  1868-9. 


RELATIONS  OF  CALAMODBNDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  261 

of  the  cast,  fig.  i,  a,  are  due.  In  like  manner,  the  origin 
of  the  longitudinal  grooves  and  ridges,  b,  running  verti- 
cally along  each  internode  is  illustrated  by  fig.  2,  which 
represents  a fragment,  including  a node  and  parts  of 
two  internodes,  of  a decorticated  Calamite.  Here  a is 
the  fistular  medullary  cavity ; b a thin  film  of  medullary 
parenchyma  which  surrounds  the  fistular  cavity  ; c c is 
a ring  of  vascular  wedges  ; the  sharp  apex  of  each  wedge 
projects  inwards,  encroaching  upon  the  medullary  zone, 
at  Avhich  latter  point  a narrow  vertical  canal  *,  d,  is  present. 
All  the  wedges  of  each  internode  extend  vertically  in 
parallel  lines,  e' , as  do  the  homologous  vascular  bands  of 
living  Equisetums,  through  the  entire  length  of  the  inter- 
node ; but  those  of  each  internode  alternate  at  each  node, 
/,  with  the  corresponding  wedges  of  the  next  internode 
above  and  below.  Each  of  these  vascular  wedges  origin- 
ated in  a few  vessels  in  contact  with  the  longitudinal 
canal,  d ; but  as  each  wedge  grew  exogenously,  its  peri- 
pheral, tangential  diameter  increased. 

Viewed  in  transverse  section,  as  in  the  upper  part  of 
fig.  2,  we  see  that  these  wedges  were  separated  widely 
from  one  another  in  their  youngest  state  by  a broad  radi- 
ating band,  g,  of  the  fundamental  parenchyma,  connect- 
ing the  medulla  with  the  cortex,  exactly  as  the  proto- 
xylems  of  any  young,  vascular,  exogenous  growths  are 
separated  from  one  another.  In  1870  I applied  to  these 
cellular  bands  in  the  young  Calamite,  the  name  of  primary 
medullary  rays  f,  to  distinguish  them  from  those  which 
instead  of  commencing  in  the  bark  commence  in  the 
wedges,  and  to  which  latter  I applied  the  term  secondary 

* In  my  various  writings  I have  designated  this  the  internodal  canal, 
regarding  it  as  the  homologue  of  the  canals  that  accompany  the  vascular 
bundles  in  the  recent  Equisetums. 

t “ On  the  Oi-ganization  of  the  Fossil  Plants  of  the  Coal-Measures. — 
Part  1.,”  Phil.  Trans.  (1871),  p.  479. 


262 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


medullary  rays.  As  the  vaseular  wedges  grew  radially^ 
they  also  enlarged  tangentially^  and  as  they  did  so  they 
encroaehed  laterally  upon  the  peripheral  prolongations  of 
the  primary  medullary  rays  {g,g),  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
ran  parallel  to,  and  on  either  side  of,  each  wedge,  through- 
out the  length  of  the  internode.  In  this  way  the  primitive 
medullo-cortical  origin  of  each  such  ray  was  lost  sight  of, 
its  peripheral  extension  becoming,  both  in  its  camhial 
development  and  in  its  aspect,  like  an  ordinary  secondary 
ray.  It  results  that,  when  we  examine  the  exterior  of  a 
young  decorticated  Calamite,  such  as  is  represented  in 
the  lower  part  of  fig.  2,  we  find  the  longitudinally 
extended  vascular  wedges,  c',  separated  throughout  their 
entire  length  by  tangential  sections,  g\  of  the  parallel 
primary  medullary  rays.  In  stems  with  a more  developed 
vascular  growth,  these  alternations  of  tissue  disappear, 
as  shown  in  fig.  3 g. 

The  alternations  of  these  vertical  lines  of  cellular 
and  vascular  tissue  in  contiguous  internodes  are  brought 
about  in  exactly  the  same  way  in  living  Equisetums 
and  in  fossil  Calamites.  As  each  end  of  a vascular  wedge 
approaches  the  node  above  and  below  the  internode 
to  which  it  belongs,  it  splits  into  two  short  diverging 
branches  (fig.  2,  e) . Each  one  of  these  meets  a similar 
branch,  derived  from  the  contiguous  vascular  wedge  of 
the  same  internode,  and  the  two  halves  thus  derived 
from  two  distinct  wedges  form  a third  one,  which  con- 
tinues its  upward  or  downward  course  through  the  next 
internode,  but  in  a line  midway  between  those  from  which 
it  sprang,  as  in  the  living  Equisetums;  the  internodal 
canals,  d,  branch  and  recombine  at  the  nodes  of  some 
of  the  fossil  Calamites  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
vascular  wedges  do. 

Fig.  3 represents  a restoration  of  a Calamite  like  fig.  2, 


RELATIONS  OF  CALAMODENDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  263 

only  corticated  and  in  a more  advaneed  stage  of  growth. 
Here^  again^  we  have  the  eentral  eavity^  a,  the  thin  medulla^ 
b,  and  the  vascular  wedges  c,  represented  by  the  same  alter- 
nations of  blaek  and  white  as  in  fig.  2 ; but  by  detaching 
the  vascular  zone^  we  have  also  represented^  at  b,  U , the 
causes  of  the  alternating  ridges  and  grooves  of  specimens 
like  fig.  I ; at  c the  exteriors  of  the  vascular  wedges  project 
externally  as  their  inner  angles  project  inwardly  into  the 
medullary  cavity  *.  At  d a vascular  lamina  of  one  of  these 
wedges  is  seen  in  radial  vertical  section^  showing  the  char- 
acteristic arched  arrangement  of  its  vessels  where  they 
cross  the  node  /.  At  h”  is  one  of  the  infranodal  canals 
passing  out  from  the  pith  to  the  bark,  through  the  upper 
end  of  each  primary  medullary  ray,  as  at  h,  and  at  fig.  2,  h, 
whilst  at  i,  i',  as  at  i,  i of  fig.  2,  we  have  lines  of  cellular 
tissue  passing  outwards  through  both  wood  and  bark,  being 
apparently  lines  of  communication,  doubtless  containing 
some  vessels,  between  the  interior  of  the  plant  and  each 
of  its  verticillately  arranged  leaves.  At  k we  have  the  bark 
with  its  absolutely  smooth,  ungrooved,  and  unconstricted 
exterior  at  k',  its  nodes  being  prominent,  rather  than  con- 
stricted, as  they  are  at  fig.  i,a. 

Independently  of  the  bark  which  encloses  them,  we 
have  here  a complex  series  of  structures  : — a,  the  fistular 
cavity;  b,  medulla;  c,  vascular  wedges;  d,  internodal 
eanals  ; /,  node ; g,  primary  cellular  medullary  rays, — 
besides  which  each  vascular  wedge,  c,  is  composed  of 
a number  of  thin,  parallel,  radiating,  vertical  laminse  of 
vessels,  between  which  are  numerous  secondary  medullary 

* On  the  right  hand  of  this  figure  the  vascular  zone  has  been  removed  from 
the  interval  between  the  two  stars,  showing  the  undulating  outline,  b,  of  the 
very  thin  medulla,  which  has  adapted  itself  to  the  corresponding  undulating 
contours  of  the  medullary  angles  of  the  vascular  wedges,  c,  the  intervening 
primary  medullary  rays,  a,  and  upon  which  the  inorganic  cast,  fig.  i,  of  the 
medullary  cavity,  a,  was  moulded  in  its  turn. 


264 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


rays.  Now  this  very  complicated  arrangement  of  parts 
is  admitted  by  all  to  exist  alike  in  Catamites  and  Cala- 
modendron,  and  the  inorganic  cast  of  the  interior  of  the 
medullary  cavity  of  a Calamite  also  reappears  unchanged 
in  the  Calamodendron.  This  remarkably  detailed  iden- 
tity in  the  morphological  features  of  two  plants^  the  former 
of  which  is  admitted  to  be  a Cryptogam,  whilst  the  latter 
is  assumed  to  he  an  Gymnospermous  Phanerogam,  is,  in 
itself,  sufficient  to  suggest  the  strongest  doubt  as  to  the 
accuracy  of  this  assumption ; but  fig.  3 carries  us  further. 
Abundance  of  specimens  in  my  cabinet  prove  the  absence 
from  the  hark  of  all  the  nodal  constrictions,  as  also  of 
the  longitudinal  ridges  and  furrows,  formerly  supposed 
to  be  characteristic  of  the  exterior  of  the  bark  of  a 
true  Cryptogamic  Calamite.  We  possess  little  evidence 
respecting  the  hark  of  Calamodendron,  but  M.  Brongniart 
inclined  to  the  belief  that  it  also  had  a smooth  exterior. 

There  being  such  a remarkable  identity  in  the  general, 
as  well  as  in  the  minute  morphology  of  Catamites  and 
Calamodendron,  let  us  now  see  what  value  may  be  assigned 
to  the  differences  of  detail  that  are  supposed  to  distinguish 
the  two  plants. 

To  facilitate  an  apprehension  of  this  part  of  the  subject, 
I have  prepared  diagrammatic  outlines  of  three  cubical 
wedges.  One  of  these  (fig.  4)  is  cut  out  of  the  stem  of 
a Calamite,  fig.  5 is  from  my  so-called  Catamopitus,  and 
fig.  6 is  from  a Calamodendron  from  Chemnitz.  Each 
of  these  blocks  comprehends  superiorly,  a portion  of  the 
horizontal  transverse  section,  and  inferiorly,  of  a vertical 
tangential  section.  In  like  manner  in  each  block  the  two 
outer  portions,  g,  g,  represent  two  primary  medullary  rays, 
and  the  central  area,  c,  is  part  of  a single  vascular  wedge. 
In  each  of  these  figures  the  further  margin,  c,  of  each  cube 
is  supposed  to  be  the  portion  nearest  to  the  medulla. 


RELATIONS  OF  CALAMODENDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  265 

In  fig.  4 {Calamites)  we  find  that  the  cells  of  the 
broad  medullary  ends  of  the  two  primary  medullary  rays 
g,  g,  are  larger  in  size  and  less  regular  in  their  arrange- 
ment than  those  of  the  narrower,  more  peripheral  portion 
g^,  of  each  ray,  where  the  cells  are  smaller  in  size  and  dis- 
posed in  regular  radial  rows,  parallel  to  those  of  the  vessels 
of  the  vascular  wedge,  c.  Turning  to  the  tangential  side 
of  the  block,  we  see  that  the  vertical  extensions  of  the 
same  rays,  g’’ , g’’,  are  still  composed  of  parenchyma,  the 
component  cells  of  which  tend  to  assume  an  arrangement 
in  vertical  lines. 

Between  these  two  rays  we  have  part  of  a vascular 
wedge,  c,  narrower  at  its  medullary  end  than  at  its 
opposite  one.  It  is  composed,  as  is  most  usual,  of  barred 
vessels  or  tracheids,  not  always  easily  distinguishable  in 
transverse  sections  from  the  cells  of  the  more  peripheral 
extremities  of  the  primary  medullary  rays.  In  the  tan- 
gential section,  we  see  the  secondary  medullary  rays,  /,  of 
the  wedge,  each  being  composed  of  variable  numbers  of 
cells  arranged  in  vertical  rows. 

Turning  to  a similar  diagram  of  a cubic  block  from  my 
Calamopitus,  fig.  5,  we  find  the  general  arrangements  to 
be  identical  with  those  of  fig.  4.  The  differences  between 
them  are  chiefly  twofold.  In  this  plant,  the  transverse 
section  shows  the  cells  g,  g,  of  the  two  primary  medullary 
rays  to  be  more  uniform  in  size  and  more  regular  in  their 
linear,  radial  arrangement  than  is  usual  amongst  the 
Calamites.  This  exceptional  condition  exists  close  to  the 
medullary  axis  as  well  as  more  peripherally,  as  will  be 
seen  on  contrasting  fig.  4,  g,  g,  with  fig.  5,  g,  g.  But  the 
most  striking  feature  in  this  second  type  is  seen  in  tan- 
gential sections  of  these  rays,  as  at  fig.  5,  g',  g\  Instead 
of  being  composed  of  an  aggregation  of  parenchymatous 
cells,  these  rays  consist  of  a very  marked  prosenchymatous 


266 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


form.  At  the  same  time  these  are  merely  fusiform 
cells,  not  lignified  fibres.  The  difference  between  them 
and  what  are  found  in  fig.  4,  g",  is  merely  a morpho- 

logical one,  probably  of  small  physiological  import ; 
nevertheless  we  have  here  a true  Calamite  possessing 
one  of  the  distinctive  morphological  features  supposed  by 
Brongniart  to  be  characteristic  of  Calamodendron. 

The  vessels  of  the  vascular  wedge,  c,  c,  are  identical  in 
their  arrangement,  and  in  the  distribution  of  their  secondary 
medullary  rays,  I,  with  what  we  find  in  ordinary  Calamites. 
Structurally,  however,  these  vessels  present  a peculiarity. 
Instead  of  their  walls  being  transversely  barred  round 
their  entire  circumference,  they  are  reticulated,  and  appa- 
rently only  on  those  sides  of  each  vessel  that  are  parallel 
to  the  secondary  medullary  rays.  There  is,  however, 
nothing  in  these  reticulations,  beyond  their  positions,  to 
identify  them  with  the  true  bordered  pits  of  the  Gymno- 
sperms.  These  reticulated  tracheids  are  very  common  in 
other  Carboniferous  Cryptogams. 

At  fig.  5,  g"  g" , we  see  traces  of  special  parenchymatous 
rays  passing  outwards  through  the  prosenchymatous  tissue. 

Turning  to  fig.  6,  where  we  have  a similiar  cubic  block 
from  the  Calamodendron  striatum  of  Autun,  we  have 
further  peculiar  features  of  resemblance  and  of  differ- 
entiation. 

As  before,  the  central  division  of  the  transverse  section, 
c,  is  the  vascular  wedge,  made  up  of  numerous  radial 
lamellae  consisting  of  very  large  vessels  separated  by  very 
conspicuous  secondary  medullary  rays,  I,  the  latter  usually 
consisting  of  two  rows  of  cells  which  frequently  separate 
isolated  single  vascular  lamellae  from  one  another.  A 
little  less  frequently  we  have  two  and  occasionally  even 
three  such  rows  of  vessels  between  each  two  medullary  rays. 
Turning  to  the  longitudinal  section,  c',  we  find  the  vessels 


RELATIONS  OF  CALAMODENDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  267 

to  be  barredj  as  we  have  seen  to  be  the  case  with  those  of 
ordinary  Calamites ; the  medullary  rays_,  V,  consisting  of 
parenchymatous  cells_,  are  as  conspicuous  here  as  they  are 
in  the  transverse  section.  This  greater  development  of  these 
secondary  medullary  rays  distinguishes  C alamo dendr on 
striatum  from  ordinary  Calamites,  but  this  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a generic  feature,  much  less  as  an  ordinal  one- 

On  each  side  of  this  vascular  wedge  we  have  the  two 
radial  zones  g,  g,  corresponding  to  the  primary  medullary 
rays  of  figures  4 and  5.  The  transverse  section  shows 
these  rays  to  be  composed  of  cells  whose  diameter  is 
very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  vessels  composing  the 
vascular  wedge  on  each  side  of  which  they  are  grouped. 
Their  appearance  in  this  section  closely  corresponds  with 
that  of  a Coniferous  wood.  Turning  to  their  longitudinal 
and  tangential  sections,  g^ , g\  we  find  that  these  cells  are 
prosenchymatous  and  partially  sclerenchymatous.  They 
are  long  fibrous  structures  such  as  we  find  abundantly  in 
many  Equisetiform  and  other  Cryptogamic  plants.  In 
the  transverse  section,  g,  we  see  some  parenchymatous 
medullary  rays,  as  at  g\  g\  and  at  g" , g”,  in  the  tangential 
surface,  we  see  vertical  prolongations  of  these  rays  as 
described  by  Brongniart  (see  page  257).  These  have  a len- 
ticular vertical  section,  and  those  near  the  centre  of  the 
fibrous  zone  are  unquestionably  longer  and  broader  than 
those  in  its  more  lateral  portions ; but  these  central  ones 
are  far  from  being  continuous  though  the  internode,  as  they 
are  described  by  Brongniart. 

In  my  transverse  sections  of  Calamodendron  striatum  the 
radial  length  of  what  I call  the  primary  medullary  rays 
(fig.  6,  g)  is  much  greater  than  is  common  amongst  Cala- 
mites. In  the  latter  plants  these  rays  generally  diminish 
rapidly  in  diameter  as  they  proceed  outwards,  and  their  ulti- 
mate external  prolongations  become,  in  the  most  matured 


268 


PROF.  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


stemSj  almost  undistinguisliable  from  those  of  the  secondary 
medullary  rays  (fig.  3_,  g) . At  the  same  time  ordinary 
Calamites  vary  extremely  in  the  length  of  these  primary 
raySj  and  I have  transverse  sections  in  my  cabinet  which^ 
in  this  respect^  approximate  very  closely  to  what  I find  in 
my  sections  of  C alamo dendr on. 

Comparing  the  three  forms  of  organization  illustrated 
bv  figs.  4,  5 and  6 we  find  them  unmistakeably  con- 
structed upon  a common  plan^  even  as  regards  the  most 
important  of  the  details.  The  differences  between  the 
vascular  or  xylem  elements  of  the  three  examples  have  no 
more  than  specific  value.  The  chief  distinctions  between 
figures  4 and  6 are  to  be  found  in  what  I term  the  primary 
medullary  rays.  What  in  the  ordinary  Calamites  we 
have  seen  to  be  entirely  composed  of  parenchyma_,  in  the 
Calamodendron  consists  of  prosenchymatous  fibres  largely 
intermingled  with  radial  parenchymatous  laminae.  My 
numerous  examples  of  very  young  and  minute  Calamites 
show  me  that^  in  them^  these  primary  medullary  rays  origi- 
nate in  exactly  the  same  way  as  they  do  in  the  first  year’s 
growth  of  any  ordinary  exogenous  stem  * ; whilst^  as  is 
also  the  case  in  these  Exogens^  the  peripheral  ends  of  these 
primary  rays  become  undistinguishable  f rom  the  secondary 
medullary  rays  in  the  more  external  layers  of  older  stems. 
These  identities  justify  my  designating  both  medullary 
rays.  The  only  question  of  importance  therefore  to  be 
asked  is.  Does  the  alteration  of  their  composition  seen  in 
Calamodendron,  compared  with  what  we  find  in  Calamites, 
materially  alter  the  character  of  these  organs  ? I con- 
clude that  it  does  not.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  indisputable 
that  fig.  5,  my  so-called  Calamopitus,  is  but  a very  slightly 

* De  Bary  applies  to  these  oi-gans  iu  Phanerogams  precisely  the  same  terms 
that  I have  for  years  applied  to  those  of  the  Calamites.  See ‘Comparative 
Anatomy  of  the  Phanerogams  and  Ferns,’  English  Translation,  p.  235. 


RELATIONS  OP  CALAMODENDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  269 

modified  form  of  aCalamite ; yet,  in  it,  the  parenchymatous 
constituent  cells  of  these  primary  rays  are  replaced  by 
prosenchymatous  ones,  without  disturbance  of  any  of  the 
other  Calamitean  features  of  the  plant ; the  further  modi- 
fications of  these  prosenchymatous  cells  merely  involve 
questions  of  size,  and  of  a slight  degree  of  lignification  in 
Calamodendron,  which  are  surely  not  features  of  any  ordinal 
value ! De  Bary,  speaking  of  the  difference  between 
parenchymatous  and  prosenchymatons  structures,  says. 
We  find  cells  whose  protoplasm  and  contents  are  reduced 
relatively  to  the  strongly  thickened  and  often  lignified 
membrane,  and  which  accordingly,  without  giving  up  the 
properties  of  typical  cells,  or  their  part  in  the  process  of 
assimilation,  obviously  participate  in  the  mechanical  func- 
tions, i.  e.  the  strengthening  of  the  parts  to  which  they 
belong  [op.  cit.  p.  28).  In  accordance  with  the  clear 
common  sense  of  the  above  quotation,  I conclude  that  the 
substitution  of  a mixture  of  parenchymatous  and  pro- 
senchymatous elements  in  the  primary  medullary  rays  of 
Calamodendron  for  the  solely  parenchymatous  ones  con- 
stituting the  same  organs  in  the  commoner  Calamites,  is 
utterly  insuflScient  to  justify  the  separation  of  these  two 
plants  intoCryptogamic  and  Gymnospermous  groups.  My 
plant,  represented  in  fig.  5,  which  is  obviously  an  inter- 
mediate form  connecting  these  two  extremes,  reduces  yet 
further  the  value  of  the  small  differences  that  distinguish 
them,  and  at  fig.  S>9"  9^’}  already  find  traces  of  the  same 

combination  of  parenchymatous  and  prosenchymatous 
elements  that  appears  to  he  characteristic  of  the  primary 
medullary  rays  of  Calamodendron. 

But  one  more  point  yet  remains  to  be  dealt  with  : M. 
Renault  considers  that  he  has  obtained  clear  proof  that 
Calamodendron  was  a Gymnospermous  Phanerogam,  inas- 
much as  he  believes  that  he  has  obtained  its  male,  or  anthe- 


270 


PROF.  W,  C.  WILLIAMSON  ON  THE 


ridial  organs^  and  that  its  supposed  anthers  are  filled  with 
true  pollen-grains.  To  this  I make  but  two  answers: — 
first,  even  supposing  it  true  that  these  objeets  were  polleni- 
ferons  structures,  we  have  no  evidence  whatever  that 
they  belong  to  Calamodendron.  Their  doing  so  is  a pure 
assumption.  But  even  could  it  be  proven  that  they  were 
so  related,  I deny  altogether  that  these  objects  are  either 
antheridial  or  polleniferous. 

My  friend  Mr.  Cash,  of  Halifax,  has  received  from 
M.  Renault  two  sections  of  these  objects,  which  he  has 
kindly  allowed  me  to  examine.  These  sections  being 
inscribed,  in  the  handwriting  of  the  French  savant,  “ Epi 
de  Calamodendron,  Pollen  divise,^^  there  is  no  doubt  as  to 
their  being  really  the  objects  to  which  I have  just  referred. 
I have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  these  are  nothing  more 
than  sections  of  a very  distinct  form  of  Calamostachys,  of 
which  the  supposed  pollen-grains  are  merely  the  spores, 
enclosed  within  their  mother-cells,  exactly  as  I have 
figured  similar  ones  from  the  sporangia  of  Calamostachys 
Binneyana,  in  my  memoirs  “ On  the  Organization  of  the 
Fossil  Plants  of  the  Coal-measures,’^  Phil.  Trans,  pt.  ii. 
plate  15,  fig.  17,  From  all  these  combined  facts  I once 
more  conclude  that  Calamodendron  striatum  is  an  Equise- 
tiform  plant,  closely  allied  to  the  true  Calamites*. 

INDEX  TO  THE  PLATES. 

, Plate  XIV. 

Fig.  I.  Inorganic  cast  of  the  medullary  canal  (fig.  z,a)  of  a Calamite,  with 
the  transverse  nodal  constrictions,  a,  produced  by  the  projection 
inwards  of  the  nodal  tissues  at  that  point.  The  longitudinal 
furrows  produced  by  the  similar  inward  projection  of  the  inner 
angles  of  the  longitudinal  vascular  wedges  (fig.  2,  c). 


^ I need  scarcely  remind  Palseo-botanists  that  in  1881,  Vom  c.  M.  D. 
Stur,  of  Vienna,  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion,  in  his  valuable  memoir 
“ Zur  Morphologic  der  Calamarien.”  Aus  dem  Ixxxiii.  Bande  der  Sitzb. 
der  k.  Akad.  der  Wissensch.  I.  Abth.  Mai-Heft,  Jahrg.  1881. 


RELATIONS  OF  C ALAMODENDRON  TO  CALAMITES.  271 


Fig.  2.  Diagram  of  a young  decorticated  Calamite.  a,  medullary  canal ; b, 
thin  layer  of  medullary  parenchyma ; c,  circle  of  vascular  wedges, 
each  commencing  internally  at  the  internodal  canal,  d ; e',  longi- 
tudinal extensions  of  these  wedges  through  each  internode ; /,  a 
node ; g,  g',  primary  medullary  rays ; h,  external  orifices  of  the 
vertically  elongated  variety  of  infranodal  canals ; i cellular,  and 
probably  also  vascular,  extensions,  apparently  connected  with  a 
verticil  of  leaves. 


Plate  XV. 

Fig.  3.  Diagram  of  an  older  stem  of  a Calamite.  a,  medullary  canal ; b,  b', 
exterior  of  the  medullary  cellular  layer ; c',  radial  section  through 
a vascular  wedge ; c,  exterior  surface  of  the  vascular  zone ; /,  the 
node ; g,  primary  medullary  rays ; h”,  an  infranodal  canal  extend- 
ing from  the  exterior  of  the  medulla  {b)  to  the  inner  surface  of 
the  bark,  Jc-,  i,  i',  verticil  of  radial  organs  identical  with  i of  fig.  2. 

Fig.  4.  A diagram  of  a cube  cut  out  of  a stem  like  fig.  2.  c,  portion  of  a 
vascular  wedge ; g,  g,  portions  of  two  primary  medullary  rays ; 
I,  secondary  medullary  rays. 

Plate  XVI. 

Fig.  5.  Similar  cube  to  fig.  4,  from  a rare  form  of  Calamite,  in  which  the 
primary  medullary  rays,  g g,  eonsist  of  prosenchyma  instead  of 
parenchyma,  c,  vascular  wedge.  I,  secondary  medullary  rays. 

Fig.  6.  Similar  cube,  from  a stem  of  a Calamodendron.  c,  vascular  wedge  ; 

g,  g',  tissues  occupying  the  positions  of  the  primary  medullary 
rays,  g",  g",  vertical  layers  of  parenchyma  separating  some  of  the 
prosenchymatous  layers  which  represent  the  primary  medullary 
rays  of  Galamites. 

Botanical  Laboratory, 

Owens  College, 

Oct.  ist,  1886. 


A.  BRO'VHmiS,  Photo. 


■5iia7ic/o6s6Gr,  3rd  Ser.  '■Yol.  x.  dPi.  7 


A.,  brothers,  Photo. 


[it  t\  >t 


(^iq. 


5. 


9, 


(^1/^  / / . 


70. 


Soo., 


•3Ha7ic7i'6st6rj  3rd  Se?\ 


a>.  3Pl. 


A BROTHERS,  Photo 


9 . 


Sflem.  ^ ^Ail.  Soo.,  e^/ancAosier,  3rd  S’er.  ^^ol.  x.  ^l. 


<^i^.  70.  A BROTHERS,  Photo 


J^iL  So&.,  eS^ianc/iester^  Srr7y  S&r.  'Y'ol.  TPl.  ->vi 


75. 


A.  BROTHERS,  Photo. 


-/•?•/.  •'/'  fy‘7vv7.  S'oe-.,  SiianeJifisfe'r^ 


’’^(7  <§6r. 


A.  BR0THEE8,  Photo. 


Memoirs,  Manchester  Ziteimy  anA Philosophical  Society . 


Jo  ILLUSTRATE  J*APER  BY  ^1r.  pHARLES  JSaILEY. 


Plate  PVl 


Naias  graminea,  Delile, 

from  Lower  JEffi/pf. 

Jo  ILLUSTRATE  JaPER  BY  JVTr.  JhARLES  jSAlLEY. 


Me?noirs,  Manchester  Ziterarj  and  Fhilosophical  Society . 


Plate  W 


Organography  of  Naias. 

Jo  ILLUSTRATE  JaPER  BY  JVIr,  JhARLES  _pAlLEY. 


V : 


.V. 


Memoirs,  Manchester  Mterajy  and  Philosophical  Society . Plate  WI. 


Organography  of  Naias. 

Jo  ILLUSTRATE  JaPER  BY  jMr.  JhARLES  ^^AILEY. 


mnci 


'/ledtei,  Sui  ^el. 


06.  <x. 


dU66. 


C.  racemosus. 
(Sovvb.) 


2 C.  gloria  maris.  3 C.  euetrios.  4 C.  Paulucciae. 
(Chem.)  (Sowb.  & Melvill.)  (Sowb.  i 


Me^v.  LvbAPh2L.So&Mom^te;r.3'^,:^Ser.Voh.X.  Ph.IX. 

Fig.  1. 


W.C  'Wiffiainson  dd.  AT.HolIick  lith. 


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PRINTED  BY  THE  AUTOMATIC  ENGRAVING  CO..  LIMITED. 


Mem.  Lit.  &=  Phil.  Soc.  Manchester, ^rd  Sez.,  Vol.  X,  PI.  X J 


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Mem.  Lit.  Phil.  Soc.  Manchester  ,;^rd  Ser.,  Vol.  X,  PI.  XVI. 


w.  c.  WILLIAMSON.  D»-l. 


PKlSin>  »Y  THK  AUTOMATIC  E.MCR^V|N^;  (0..  LIMITED. 


THE  COUNCIL 


OF  THE 

MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


ApRa  20,  1886. 


ISris’ititnt. 

ROBEET  DUKINFIELD  DAEEISHIRE,  B.A.,  P.S.A.,  F.a.S. 

2Utcc;3^rc;gtI(cutg. 

WILLIAM  CEAWFORD  WILLIAMSON,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Sir  henry  ENFIELD  ROSCGE,  B.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S. 
JAMES  PRESCOTT  JOULE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  P.R.S.,  F.C.S. , 
CoRR.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sc.)  Paris,  and  Roy.  Acad.  Sc.  Turin. 
OSBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

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BALFOUR  STEWART,  LL.D.,  F R.S. 

HENRY  WILDE,  F.R.S. 


2 


HONORARY  MEMBERS. 


DATE  OE  ELECTION. 

1847,  Apr,  20.  Adams,  John  Couch,  F.R.S.,  V.P.R.A.S.,  F.O.P.S., 
Lowndsean  Prof,  of  Astron.  and  Geom.  in  the  Univ. 
of  Cambridge.  The  Ohservatory,  Cambridge. 

1843,  Apr.  18.  Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell,  K.C.B.,  M.A.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.,  V.P.R.A.S.,  Hon.  Mem.  B.S.E.,  R.I.A., 
M.C.P.S.,  &c.  The  White  House,  Groom's  Hill, 
Greenwich  Park,  S.P, 


1886,  Feb.  9. 
1886,  Feb.  9. 
1886,  Feb.  9. 
1886,  Feb.  9. 
1860,  Apr.  17. 


Baker,  Benjamin. 

Baker,  John  Gilbert,  F.R.S.  Hew. 

Barthelot,  Prof.  Marcellin,  F.R.S.  Paris. 

Buchan,  Alexander,  F.R.S.E. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.,  For,  Mem.  R.S., 
Prof,  of  Chemistry  at  the  Univ.  of  Heidelberg. 
Heidelberg. 


1859,  Jan.  25.  Cayley^  Arthur,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.  Garden 
House,  Cambridge. 

1886,  Feb.  9.  Clausius,  Professor  Rudolph,  F.R.S.  University  of 
Bonn. 

1866,  Oct.  30.  Clifton,  Robert  Bellamy,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S,, 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Oxford.  Neiv 
Museum,  Oxford. 


1884,  Mar.  18. 

1886,  Feb.  9. 

1886,  Feb.  9. 
1844,  Apr,  30, 


Dancer,  John  Benjamin,  F.R.A.S.  11  Greenhill 
Street,  Ch-eenheys,  Manchester, 

Dawson,  Sir  John  William,  C.M.G.,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
LL.D.,  F.G.S.  McGill  College,  Montreal. 

De  Bary,  Professor,  F.R.S.  Strasburg. 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptiste,  Gr.  Off,  Legion  of  Honour, 
For.  Mem.  R.S.,  Mem.  Imper.  Instit.  France,  &c. 
42  Pue  Grenelle,  St.  Germain,  Paris. 


3 


DATE  OF  ELECTIOlf. 

1869,  Mar.  9.  Frankland,  Edward,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,Prof.  of  Chemistry 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  Mem.  Inst.  Imp. 
(Acad.  Sci,)Par.,&c.  The  Yeim,  Reigate  Hill,  Rei- 
gate. 

1843,  Feb.  7.  Frisiani,  nobile  Paolo,  Prof.,  late  Astron.  at  the  Ob- 
serv.  of  Brera,  Milan,  Mem.  Imper.  Roy.  Instit.  of 
Lombardy,  Milan,  and  Ital.  Soc.  Sc.  Milan, 


1853,  Apr.  19. 
1848,  Jan.  25. 


1886,  Feb.  9. 
1886,  Feb.  9. 

1866,  Jan.  23. 

1869,  Jan.  12. 
1872,  Apr.  30. 


Hartnup,  John,  F.R.A.S.  Observatory,  Liverpool. 

Hind,  John  Russell,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  Superintendent 
of  the  Nautical  Almanack.  3 Verulam  Buildings, 
Gray' s-Inn,  London. 

Him,  Gustav  Adolph.  Colmar. 

Helmholtz,  Geheimerath  Herrman  v.  University  of 
Berlin. 

Hofmann,  A.  W.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.O.S.,  Ord. 
Leg.  Hon.  S™“  Lazar,  et  Maurit.  Ital,  E(j.,  &c. 
10  Dorothee)istrasse,  Berlin. 

Huggins,  William,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.  Upper  Tulse 
Hill,  Brixton,  London,  8.  W. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  LL.D.  (Edin.),  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  Royal  School 
of  Mines,  South  Kensington  Museum, F.G.S.,  F.Z.S., 
F.L.S.,  &c.  School  of  Mines,  South  Kensington 
Museum,  S.  W.,  and  4 Marlborough  Place,  Abbey 
Road,  N.  W. 


1852,  Oct.  16.  Kirkman,  Rev.  Thomas  Penyngton,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Croft  Rectory,  near  Warrington. 

1886,  Feb.  9.  Kopp,  Prof.  Hermann.  Heidelberg. 

1844,  Apr.  30.  Owen,  Sir  Richard,  K.C.B.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  V.P.Z.S.,  F.R.C.S.  Ireland,  Hon. 
M.R.S.E.,  For.  Assoc.  Imper.  Instit.  France,  &c. 
Sheen  Lodge,  Richmond. 


1886,  Feb.  9. 
1851,  Apr.  29. 


1866,  Jan.  23. 


Pasteur,  Louis,  F.R.S.  Paris. 

Playfair,  Rt.  Hon.  Lyon,  C.B.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S., 
M.P.,  F.C.S.,  &c.  68  Onslow  Gardens,  London, 

S.W. 

Prestwich,  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  Shoreham,  near 
Sevenoaks. 


4 


BATE  OF  ELECTIOTT. 

1866,  Jan.  23.  Ramsay,  Sir  Andrew  Crombie,F.It.S.,F.G.S., Director 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  Professor 
of  Geology,  Royal  School  of  Mines,  &c.  15  Crom- 
ivell  Crescent,  South  Kensington,  London. 

1849,  Jan.  23.  Rawson,  Robert,  F.R.A.S.  Havant,  Hants. 

1886,  Feb.  9.  Rayleigh,  John  William  Strutt,  Lord,  M.A.,  D.C.L. 

(Oxon.),  LL.D.  (Univ.  McGill),  Sec.  R.S.,  F.R.A.S. 
Terling  Place,  Witham,  Esse.v. 


1872,  Apr.  30, 
1869,  Dec.  14. 

1851,  Apr.  29. 


1886,  Feb.  9. 
1861,  Jan.  22. 


Sachs,  Julius,  Ph.D.  Wiirzhurg. 

Sorby,  Henry  Clifton,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c.  Broomfield, 
Sheffield. 

Stokes,  George  Gabriel,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  Pres.  R.S., 
Lucasian  Professor  of  Mathem,  Univ.  Cambridge, 
F.C.P.S.,  &c.  Lensfield  Cottage,  Cambridge, 
Strasbiu'g’er,  Professor.  Bonn. 

Sylvester,  James  Joseph,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  ■ 
Mathematics,  New  College,  Oxford. 


1868,  Apr.  28. 

1851,  Apr.  22. 

1872,  Apr,  30. 
1886,  Feb.  9. 

1868,  Apr.  28. 


Tait,  Peter  Guthrie,  M.A.,  F.R.S.E.,  &c..  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Edinburgh.  38  George  Square, 
Edinburgh. 

Thomson,  Sir  William,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.SS. 
L.  and  E,,  For.  Assoc.  Imper.  Instit.  France,  Prof, 
of  Nat,  Philos.  Univ.  Glasgow.  2 College,  Qlasgoio. 

Trecul,  A,,  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.  Paris. 

Tylor,  Edward  Burnett,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L.  (Oxon.), 
LL.D.  (St.  And.  and  McGill  Colls.). 

Tyndall,  John,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.,  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution  and 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  Royal  Institution,  London, 
W. 


1886,  Feb.  9.  Young,  Prof.  A.  C.  Princeton  College,  Penn.,  U.  S, 


CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS. 


DATE  OF  ELECTION. 

1800,  Apr.  17.  Ainsworth,  Thomas.  Cleator  Mills,  near  Egremont, 
IMiitehaven, 


1861,  Jan.  22.  Buckland,  George,  Professor,  University  College, 
Toronto.  Toronto, 


1870,  Mar.  8. 
1806,  Jan.  23. 

1801,  Apr.  2. 

1849,  Apr.  17. 

1850,  Apr.  30. 
1882,  Nov.  14. 

1862,  Jan.  7. 
1859,  Jan.  25. 

1857,  Jan.  27. 

1802,  Jan.  7. 
1867,  Feh.  5. 


Cockle,  The  Hon.  Sir  James,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,F.E,.A.S., 
F.C.P.S.  12  St.  Stephen’s  Road,  Baysioater,  London, 

De  Caligny,  Anatole,  Marquis,  Corresp.  Mem.  Acadd. 
Sc.  Turin  and  Caen,  Socc.  Agr.  Lyons,  Sci.  Cher- 
hoiu’g,  Liege,  &c. 

Durand-Fardel,  Max,  M.D.,  Chev.  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  &c.  30  Rue  de  Lille,  Paris, 

Girardin,  J.,  Off.  Legion  of  Honour,  Corr.  Mem.  Im- 
per.  Instit.  France,  &c.  Lille, 

Harley,  Eev.  Robert,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S,  17  Wellington 
Square,  Oxford. 

Herford,  Rev.  Brooke.  Arlington  Street  Church,  Bos- 
ton, U.S, 

Lancia  di  Brolo,  Federico,'  Due,  Inspector  of  Studies, 
&c.  Palermo. 

Le  Jolis,  Auguste-Frangois,  Ph.D.,  Archiviste  per- 
petuel  and  late  President  of  the  Imper.  Soc.  Nat. 
Sc.  Cherbourg,  &c.  Cherbourg. 

Lowe,  Edward  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  F.G.S., 
Mem.  Brit.  Met.  Soc.,  &c.  Shirenetoton  Hall,  near 
Chepstotv. 

Nasmyth,  James,  C.E.,  F.R.A.S.,  &c.  Pmshurst,  Tun- 
bridge. 

Schfinfeld,  Edward,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  Mannheim 
Observatory. 


6 


ORDINARY  MEMBERS. 


DATE  OF  ELECTION. 

1881,  Jan.  11.  Adamson,  Daniel,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  F.G.S.  The  Towers, 
Didshury. 

1861,  Jan.  22.  Alcock,  Thomas,  M.D.,Extr.L.K.O.P.Lond.,M,E,.O.S. 

Engl.,  L.S.A.  Oakfield,  Ashton-on-Mersey. 

1884,  Nov.  4.  Allen,  Bulkeley.  West  Lynn,  Altrincham. 

1873,  Jan.  7.  Allmann,  Julius.  70  Deansgate. 

1870,  Dec.  13.  Angell,  John,  F.C.S.,  F.I.O.  Manchester  Grammar 


1861,  Jan.  22. 

1885,  Nov.  17. 
1837,  Aug.  11. 
1881,  Nov.  1. 
1874,  Nov.  3. 


School. 

Anson,  Ven.  Archd.  George  Henry  Greville,  M.A. 
Birch  Bectory,  Rusholme. 

Armstrong,  Thomas,  F.R.M.S.  Broohjield,  TJrniston. 
Ashton,  Thomas.  36  Charlotte  Street. 

Ashton,  Thomas  Gair,  M.P.,  M.A.  36  Charlotte  Street. 
Axon,  William  E.  A.,  M.R.S.L.,  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  Society  of  Natural  and  Physical 
Sciences  of  Caracas,  and  of  the  Numismatic  and 
Archaeological  Society  of  Philadelphia.  66  Murray 
Street,  Higher  Broughton. 


1865,  Nov.  15. 

1883,  Oct.  16. 
1876,  Nov.  28. 
1867,  Nov.  12. 
1858,  Jan.  26. 


1878,  Nov.  26. 

1847,  Jan.  26. 
1868,  Dec.  15. 
1861,  Jan.  22. 

1875,  Nov.  16. 

1856,  Apr.  17. 


Bailey,  Charles, F.L.S.  Ashjield,  College  Road,  Whalley 
Range,  Manchester. 

Baker,  Harry,  F.C.S.  262  Plymouth  Grove, 

Barratt,  Walter  Edward.  Kersal,  Higher  Broughton. 
Barrow,  John.  Beechjield,  Folly  Lawn,  Swinton. 
Baxendell,  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  Corr.  Mem.  Roy. 
Phys.  Econ.  Soc.  Konigsberg,  and  Acad.  Sc.  & Lit. 
Palermo.  14  Liverpool  Road,  Birhdale,  Southp>o7’t. 
Bedson,  Peter  Phillips,  D.Sc.  Durham  College  of 
Science,  Newcastle-upon-  Tyne. 

Bell,  William.  51  King  Street. 

Bickham,  Spencer  H.  Oakwood,  Alderley  Edge. 
Bottomley,  James,  D.Sc.,  B.A.,  F.C.S.  220  Lower- 
Broughton  Road. 

Boyd,  John.  Sandiway  House,  Palatine  Road,  Dids- 
hury. 

Brockbank, William,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S.  Prince's Chainhers, 
20  Pall  Mall, 


7 


DATE  OF  ELECTION. 


1861,  Apr.  2. 
1844,  Jan.  22. 


1886,  Apr.  6. 
1846,  Jan.  27. 

1872,  Nov,  12. 


Brogden,  Henry,  F.G.S.  Hale  Lodge,  Altrincham. 
Brooks,  Sir  William  Cunlifte,  Bart.,  M.  A,,  M.P.  Bank, 
92  King  Street. 

1860,  Jan.  23,  Brothers,  Alfred,  F.R.A.S.  Swinton  Avenue,  Man- 

chester. 

Brown,  Alfred,  M.A.,  M.B.  Higher  Broughton. 
Browne,  Henry,  M.A.  (Glas.),  M.R.O.S.  (Bond.), 
M.D.  (Bond.).  Heaton  Mersey. 

Burghardt,  Charles  Anthony,  Ph.D.  110  King  Street. 


1885,  Nov.  17. 
1854,  Apr.  18. 

1841,  Apr.  30. 

1886,  Dec.  14. 
1884,  Nov.  4. 
1853,  Jan.  25. 

1859,  Jan.  26. 
1861,  Nov.  12. 
1848,  Jan.  25. 
1876,  Apr.  18. 


Carrington,  Benjamin,  F.R.S.E.,  M.D.  Eccles. 
Christie,  Richard  Copley,  M.A.,  Chancellor  of  the 
Diocese.  Glemoood,  Virginia  Water,  Staines. 

Clay,  Charles,  M.D.,  Extr,  B.R.C.P.  Bond.,  M.R.C.S, 
Edin.  39  Queen  Street  (North),  Blackpool. 

Cohen,  J.  B.,  Ph.D.  The  Owens  College. 

Corbett,  Joseph.  9 Albert  Square. 

Cottam,  Samuel,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.  Hist.  S.,  F.C.A,  49 
Spring  Gardens. 

Coward,  Edward.  Heaton  Mersey,  near  Manchester. 
Coward,  Thomas.  Higher  Hoions,  Altrincham. 
Crowther,  Joseph  Stretch.  Endsleigh,  Alder  ley  Edge. 
Cunliffe,  Robert  Ellis.  62  Eccles  Old  Road,  Eccles. 


1854,  Feb.  7. 
1871,  Nov.  8. 
1853,  Apr.  19. 
1878,  Nov.  26. 
1869,  Nov.  2. 


1861,  Dec.  10. 
1879,  Mar.  18. 

1887,  Feb.  8. 

1886,  Mar.  9. 


Dale,  John,  F.C.S.  Cornhrook  Chemical  Works, 
Chester  Road. 

Dale,  Richard  Samuel,  B.A.  Cornhrook  Chemical 
Works,  Chester  Road. 

Darbishire,  Robert  Dukinfield,  B.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S. 
26  George  Street. 

Davis,  Joseph.  Enginee>''s  Office,  Lancashire  and 
Yorkshire  Railway,  Hunt's  Bank. 

Dawkins,  William  Boyd,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. , F.S.  A,, 
Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  Hon.  Fellow  Jesus  College, 
Oxford;  Professor  of  Geology  in  Owens  College, 
Curator  of  the  Manchester  Museum.  The  Owens 
College. 

Deane,  William  King,  25  George  Street. 

Dent,  Hastings  Charles,  F.B.S.,  F.R.G.S.  20  Thurloe 
Square,  London,  S.  W. 

Dixon,  Harold  B.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Che- 
mistry. The  Orvens  College. 

Dodgshon,  John.  The  Grove,  Didshiry, 


8 


DATE  OF  ELECTION. 

1883,  Oct.  2.  Faraday,  Frederick  James,  F.L.S.  Ramsay  Lodge, 
Burnage  Lane,  Levenshuhne. 


1886,  Feb.  9. 
1881,  Nov.  1. 

1874,  Nov.  3. 

1875,  Feb.  9. 


1878,  Apr.  30. 

1862,  Nov.  4. 

1873,  Dec.  16. 
1828,  Oct.  31. 

1833,  Apr.  26. 

1864,  Mar,  22. 

1881,  Nov.  1. 

1884,  Jan.  8. 
1846,  Jan.  27. 

1882,  Oct.  17. 
1884,  Jan.  8. 
1873,  Dec.  2. 

1884,  Jan.  8. 


Gee,  W . W.  Haldane,  B.Sc.  The  Otvens  College. 

Greg,  Arthur.  Eagley,  near  Bolton. 

Grimshaw,  Harry,  F.C.S.  Thornton  Vieio,  Claytcm. 

Gwyther,  R.  F.,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Mathematics, 
Owens  College.  The  Oivens  College. 

Harland,  William  Dugdale,  F.C.S.  25  Acomb  Street, 
Greenheys,  and  48  King  Street,  Manchester. 

Hart,  Peter.  Messrs.  Tennants  Co.,  Mill  Street, 
Clayton,  N.,  Manchester. 

Heelis,  James.  71  Princess  Street. 

Henry,  William  Charles,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Haffield,  near 
Ledbury,  Herefordshire. 

Heywood,  James,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.  26  Ken- 
sington-Palace- Gardens,  London,  JV. 

Heywood,  Oliver.  Bank,  St.  Ann's  Street. 

Higgin,  Alfred  James,  22  Little  Peter  St?'eet,  Gay- 
thorn. 

Hodgkinson,  Alexander,  M.B.,  B.Sc.  18  St.-John 
Street,  Manchester. 

Holden,  James  Platt.  3 Temple  Bank,  Smedley  Lane, 
Cheetham. 

Holt,  Henry.  The  Cedars,  Didsbury. 

Hopkinson,  Charles.  29  Princess  Street. 

Howortli,  Henry  H.,  F.S.A.,  M.P.  Bentcliffe  House, 
Eccles. 

Hurst,  Charles  Herbert.  The  Owens  College. 


1872,  Feb.  6. 
1870,  Nov.  1. 
1878,  Nov.  26. 
1885,  Dec.  1. 
1848,  Apr.  18. 

1842,  Jan.  25. 


Jewsbury,  Sidney.  39  Princess  Street. 

Johnson,  William  H.,  B.Sc.  26  Lever  Street. 

Jones,  Francis,  F.R.S.E.,  F.C.S,  Grammar  School. 
Jones,  Henry,  B.A.  Norman  Road,  Rusholme. 

Joule,  Benjamin  St.  John  Baptist.  12  Wardle  Road, 
Sale. 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S., 
Hon.  Mem.  C.P.S.,  and  Inst.  Eng.  Scot.,  Corr.  Mem. 
Inst.  Fr.  (Acad,  Sc.)  Paris,  and  Roy.  Acad.  Sc. 
Turin.  12  Wardle  Road,  Sale. 


1886,  Jan.  12.  Kay,  Thomas,  J.P.  Moorjield,  Stockport. 
1852,  Jan.  27.  Kennedy,  John  Lawson.  47  Mosley  Street. 


9 


DATE  OP  ELECTION. 

1884,  Apr.  29.  King,  Alfred  J.  Ingersley  Vale,  Bollington,  near 
Macclesfield. 

1862,  Apr.  29.  KAowles,  Andrew.  Swinton  Old  Hall,  Swinton. 


1886,  Mar.  9. 

1884,  Jan.  8. 
1863,  Dec.  15. 
1884,  Apr.  15. 

1850,  Apr.  30. 

1884,  Jan.  22. 
1857,  Jan.  27. 

1870,  Apr.  19. 

1850,  Apr.  30. 


Lamb,  Horace,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Mathematics 
at  the  Owens  College.  \0Q>  Palatine  Hoad,  Didshury. 

Larmuth,  Leopold.  96  Mosley  Street. 

Leake,  Robert,  M.P.  The  Dales,  Whitefield. 

Leech,  Daniel  John,  Professor,  M.D.  The  Owens 
College. 

Leese,  Joseph.  Messrs.  8.  ^ E.  Leese,  Fylde  Road 
Mill,  Preston. 

London,  Rev.  Herbert,  M.A.  PocMington,  Yorkshire. 

Longridge,  Robert  Bewick.  Yew-Tree  House,  Tabley, 
Knutsford. 

Lowe,  Charles,  F.C.S.  Summerfield  House,  Reddish, 
Stockpot  t. 

Lund,  Edward,  F.R.C.S.,  Professor  of  Surgery  at  the 
Owens  College.  22  St.  John  Street. 


1866,  Nov.  13. 
1859,  Jan.  25. 
1875,  Jan.  26. 
1879,  Dec.  2. 

1864,  Nov.  1. 
1873,  Mar.  18. 

1879,  Dec.  30. 

1881,  Oct.  18. 
1877,  Nov.  27. 

1861,  Oct.  29. 
1887,  Feb.  8. 


McDougall,  Arthur,  B.Sc.  Oakfield  House,  Ashton- 
on-Mersey,  near  Manchester. 

Maclure,  John  William,  M.P.,  F.R.G.S.  Whalley 
Range. 

Mann,  John  Dixon,  M.D.,  M.R.O.P.  Lond.  16  St. 
John  Street. 

Marshall,  Arthur  Milnes,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S., 
Professor  of  Zoology,  Owens  College.  The  Owens 
College. 

Mather,  William.  Iron  Works,  Salford. 

Melvill,  James  Cosmo,  M.A.,  F.L.S.  Kersal  Cottage, 
Prestwich. 

Millar,  John  Bell,  B.E.,  Assistant  Lecturer  in  Engi- 
neering, Owens  College.  The  Owens  College. 

Mond,  Ludwig,  F.C.S.  Winnington  Hall,  Northwich. 

Moore,  Samuel,  B.A.  25  Dover  Street,  Chorlton-on- 
Medlock. 

Morgan,  John  Edward,  M.D.,  M.A.,  F.R.C.P.  Lond., 
F.R.  Med.  and  Chir.  S.,  Professor  of  Medicine  iu 
the  Victoria  University.  1 St.  Peter's  Square. 

Moseley,  Charles.  Grangethorpe,  Rusholme,  Maii- 
chester. 


1873,  Mar.  4.  Nicholson,  Francis,  F.Z.S.  62  Fountain  Street. 


10 


DATE  OF  ELECTIOK. 

1862,  Dec.  30. 
1884,  Apr.  15. 
1861,  Jan.  22. 

1844,  Apr.  30. 


Ogden,  Samuel.  10  Mosley  Street  West. 

Okell,  Samuel,  F.R.A.S.  Orange  Road,  Bowdon. 
O’Neill,  Charles,  F.O.S.,  Ooit.  Mem.  Ind.  Soc.  Mul- 
house.  72  Denmark  Road. 

Ormerod,  Henry  Mere,  F.G.S.  5 Clarence  Street. 


1861,  Apr.  30. 
1876,  Nov.  28. 

1881,  Nov.  29. 

1874,  Jan.  13. 

1885,  Nov.  17. 
1854,  Jan.  24. 


Parlane,  James.  Rusholme. 

Parry,  Thomas,  F.S.S.  Grafton  House,  Asliton-under- 
Lyne. 

Peacock,  Richard,  M.P.,  M.  Inst.  O.E.  Gorton  Hall, 
Manchester. 

Pennington,  Rooke,  LL.B.,  F.O.S.  14  Acresjield, 
Bolton. 

Phillips,  Henry  Harcourt,  F.C.S.  18  Exchange  Street. 
Pochin,  Henry  Davis,  F.C.S.  Bodnant  Hall,  Conway. 


1861,  Jan.  22. 
1864,  Feb.  7. 
1869,  Apr.  19. 
1869,  Nov.  16. 

1883,  Apr.  3. 
1880,  Mar.  23. 

1860,  Jan.  24. 

1864,  Dec.  27. 

1858,  Jan.  26. 


Radford,  William,  M.  Inst.  C.E.  177  WithingtonRoad, 
Wlialley  Range. 

Ramsbottom,  John,  M.  Inst.  C.E.  Fernhill,  Alderley 
Edge. 

Ransome,  Arthur,  M.A.,  M.D.  Cantab.,  F.R.S., 
M.R.C.S.  1 St.  Peter's  Square. 

Reynolds,  Osborne,  LL.D.,  M.A.,F.R.S.,  M.Inst.C.E., 
Professor  of  Engineering,  the  Owens  College. 
Ladyharn  Road,  Fallowfield. 

Rhodes,  James,  M.R.C.S.  Olossop. 

Roberts,  D.  Lloyd,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  F.R.C.P. 

(London).  Ravensxvood,  Broughton  Park. 

Roberts,  Sir  William,  M.D.,  B.A.,  F.R.S.,  M.R.C.P. 
Lend.  89  Mosley  Street. 

Robinson,  John,  M.  Inst.  C.E.  Atlas  Works,  Great 
Bridgeioater  Street. 

Roscoe,  Sir  Henry  Enfield,  B.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
F.C.S.,  M.P.  64  Queen's  Gate,  London. 


1861,  Apr.  29. 

1870,  Dec.  13. 
1842,  Jan.  25. 

1873,  Nov.  18. 
1881,  Nov.  29. 
1886,  Oct.  5. 


Sandeman,  Archibald,  M.A.  Garry  Cottage,  near 
Perth. 

Schorlemmer,  Carl,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  The  Owens  College. 
Schunck,  Edward,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  Kersal, 
Manchester. 

Schuster,  Arthur,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.  The  Owens  College. 
Schwabe,  Edmund  Sails,  B.A.  41  George  Street. 
Sidebotham,  George  William,  M.R.C.S.  Hyde. 


11 


DATE  OF  ELECTION. 

1886,  Apr.  6. 
1876,  Nov.  28. 

1869,  Jan.  25. 

1870,  Nov.  1. 

1884,  Jan.  8. 


Simon,  Henry,  C.E.  Darwin  House,  Didshury. 
Smith,  James.  35  Cleveland  Road,  Crumpsall. 
Sowler,  Thomas.  24  Cannon  Street. 

Stewart,  Balfour,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of 
Physics.  The  Owens  College. 

Swanwick,  Frederick  Tertius.  The  Owens  College. 


1884,  Mar.  18. 
1873,  Apr.  15. 

1860,  Apr.  17. 


Thompson,  Alderman  Joseph.  Riversdale,  Wilmslow. 
Thomson,  William,  F.R.S.E.,  F.C.S.  Royal  Institu- 
tion. 

Trapp,  Samuel  Clement.  88  Mosley  Street. 


1879,  Dec.  30. 

1873,  Nov.  18. 

1857,  Jan.  27. 

1859,  Jan.  25. 
1859,  Apr.  19. 

1874,  Nov.  3. 
1851,  Apr.  29. 


1860,  Apr.  17. 

1863,  Nov.  17. 

1865,  Feb.  21. 

1864,  Nov.  1. 


Ward,  Thomas.  Brookfield  House,  Northivich. 

Waters,  Arthur  William,  F.G.S.  Care  of  Mr.  J.  West, 
Microscopical  Society,  King's  College,  London. 

Wehh,  Thomas  George.  Glass  Works,  Kirby  Street, 
Ancoats. 

Wilde,  Henry,  F.R.S.  The  Hurst,  Alderley  Edge. 

Wilkinson,  Thomas  Read.  Manchester  and  Salford 
Bank,  Mosley  Street. 

Williams,  William  Carleton,  B.Sc.,  Professor  of 
Chemistry.  Firth  College,  Sheffield. 

Williamson,  William  Crawford,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany,  the  Owens  College,  M.R.C.S. 
Engl.,  L.S.A.  Egerton  Road,  Fallowfield. 

Woolley,  George  Stephen.  69  Market  Street. 

Worthington,  Samuel  Barton,  M.  Inst.  C.E.  12  York 
Place,  Oxford  Street. 

Worthington,  Thomas.  110  King  Street. 

Wright,  William  Cort,  F.C.S.  Oakfield,  Boynton, 
Cheshire. 


N.B. — Of  the  above  list  the  following  have  compounded  for  their 
subscriptions,  and  are  therefore  Life  Members: — 

Brogden,  Henry. 

Johnson,  William  H.,  B.Sc. 

Sandeman,  Archibald,  M.A. 


Printed  by  Tatloe  and  Peancis,  Bed  Lion  Court,  Fleet  Street. 


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