MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER
Pe eRARY a: ‘PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
$06.¢2
MZ“
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY
FOURTH SERIES
wa 2 oF ‘ q ~ |
FOURTH VOLUME
MANCHESTER
36 GEORGE STREET
1891.
/ PS 8d 9
NOT E-
The authors of the several papers contained in this volume are
themselves accountable for all the statements: and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.
CONTENTS.
MEMOIRS. PAGE
The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the dry and in the
moist states. By HAROLD B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry; and Mr. J. A. HARKER, Dalton Chemical Scholar in
Owens College. ny, 3 ai :
On the determination of the Thermal Conductivities of bad conductors.
By CHARLES H. Legs, M.Sc., Bishop Berkeley Fellow of Owens
College. Communicated by R. F. GwyTHER, M.A....
~ On the Specific Heat of Non-Conductors. Parti: Caoutchouc. By W.
W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S., and’ HUBERT L. TERRY, F.I.C.
On the Entomostraca and Annelida in the Levenshulme Mottled Lime-
stones. By WM. BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S.
General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the Author’s Collective
Memoirs on the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. Part I. By
WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., Foreign
Member of the Royal Swedish Acad. Sc., ‘tid of the Royal cc.
of Gottingen Eh xr $ ant aH Pe ;
The History and Present Position of the Theory of Glacier Motion.
By H. H. HowortTu, M.P., F.S.A.
On the Intensity of Transmitted Light when the co-efficient of trans-
mission of the medium is a functionof time. By JAMES BOTTOMLEY,
BAS, BSe., FCS:
IH{ymenopterological Notices. By P. CAMERON. Communicated by
John Boyd....
Description of Drosera intermedia (Hayne), forma subcaulescens, with
remarks on the Geographical distribution of the family. By JAMzEs
Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S. ie bai ;
A New Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. By JosEPH JOHN
MurRpPHy. Communicated by the Rev. RoBERT HaRLEy, M.A.,
F.R.S., Corresponding Member...
On the Source of some Remarkable Boulders in the Isle of Man. By
Percy F. KENDALL, F.G.S. Communicated by THoMAsS Kay. ...
On Two Harmonic Analysers. By OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.,
M.Inst., C.E., Professor of Engineering, Owens College
Thoughts on Credit Money, and on the Function of the Precious Metals as
Distributors of Wealth. By F. J. Farapay, F.L.S., F.S.S...
38
47
53
69
ny he
56a
» 195
. 201
217
/ 823
age
Vi. CONTENTS.
PAGE
On the action of different Metals, Metallic Salts, Acids, and Oxidising
Agents on India-rubber. By WILLIAM THomsON, F.R.S. Ed., etc.,
and FREDERICK LEwiIs ... as a ses re ae os Zou
Notes on the Geological Section exposed in the Railway Cutting from
Levenshulme to Fallowfield. By WiILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.G.S.,
F.L.S., and C. E. DE RANcE, Assoc. Inst. C.E., tC Eee
PER; M. S., of H.M. Geological Survey. Part 1. 3 date vox 202
On New Forms of Stereometers. By W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S.,
and ARTHUR HARDEN, M.Sc., Ph.D. ... is a be ve GOL
On the number and formation of many valued Functions of x,x2x3 — —X,,
which of any degree can be constructed upon any Group of those
elements, with exhibition of all the values of the Functions. By
THos. P. KIRKMAN, MLA., FURS” jg. ei i bss cam LS
Notes on the Geological section exposed in the Railway Cutting from Levens-
hulme to Fallowfield. By Wm. BROCKBANK, F.G.S., F.L.S., and
C. E. DE RANCE, Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., ERGS., FR. Mise
of H.M. Geological Survey. Part II. ... ven - Soe mre io |
On the Comparison of Thermometers. By THos. Ewan, Ph.D., B.Sc.,
and W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S. ... Sie oF sis Se
An Historical Account of the genus La¢zvus (Montfort) and its dependencies,
with descriptions of Eleven new species, and a Catalogue of Latirus .
and Peristernia. By JAMES CosMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S. “es, 905
On the Occurrence of the Permians, Sfzxorbzs Limestones, and Upper Coal
Measures at Frizington Hall, in the Whitehaven District. By
WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S. +... ve ae aoe Ales
On the discovery of a new species of Fossil Fish (Stvepsodus Brockbank),
in the Upper Coal Measures Limestone of Levenshulme, No. 6
Group, from the Railway Cutting at Levenshulme, near Manchester.
By JAMEs W. Davis, F.G.S., &c. Communicated by WILLIAM
BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Saar as ae Sa ass RST,
Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a Knowledge of the Hymen-
optera of the Oriental Zoological Region. By P. CAMERON.
Communicated by JOHN Boyp. Part III. ... dike Kus re!
PROCEEDINGS.
BAILEY, CHARLES, F.L.S.—On Boussingaultza baselloides We a Se
On the genus /edzcularis ... bis yee oom sei bik ois BS
BAILEY, Alderman W. H.—On Artificial Flowers from the Canary Islands 180
On William Sturgeon... site san ee ae a ... 180
BARCLAY, ROBERT.—On the Philosophic Study of Money woe =» 230
CONTENTS. vii.
PAGE
BOTTOMLEY, JAMES, D.Sc., B.A., F.C.S.—On the discovery of a direct
combination of Nickel and Carbonic Oxide by Mr. Ludwig
Mond and others___.... Ra ae wes ay a aaa:
BROCKBANK, WILLIAM, F.L.S., F.G.S.—On the discovery of Zstheria
minuta, var. Brodieana of Prof. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., by Mr.
C. E. de Rance, F.G.S., in the Lower Keuper sandstone of
Alderley Edge pe ae ree ue ar ie ee Oe
On a cutting, 12 feetin length, bearing numerous tubers and flowers, of
Boussingaultia basselloides, Humb. et Kunth, from a plant which
he had had growing for about six years, and which had Sd
flowered in the preceding month ... as a ao pn dg
Additional note on the discovery of 2stheria minuta, var. Brodieana
by Mr. de Rance, F.G.S.; <:: vse ivi ue fuk mk oe
Additional Note on the occurrence of the Permians, Sfzvordzs Lime-
stones, and Upper Coal Measures at Frizington Hall, in the
Whitehaven District ... Sy at as io be eae Se
Supplementary Note on the Axnelida and Lxtomostraca in the
Levenshulme Limestones _.. = as wi oe so 353
DE Ranceg, C. E., F.G.S., &c.—On the late George Waring Ormerod ... 178
On deep borings in the Keuper Marls ... zs oe cet a. DOI
Dixon, H. B., F.R.S.—On the discovery of Nickel Carbonic Oxide by
*Mr. Ludwig Mond and others “~ ie wa sais fs Fe
On Glacier Motion i me a his we a me £38
On the Authorship of the Law of Equal Dilation of Gases known on
the Continent as that of Gay Lussac and in England and
America as that of Charles ... ais as oe Aah ava 0
FARADAY, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S.-—On the order of rarity of the Metals... 16
On the Phenomena of Protective Vaccination and Non-recurrent Disease 181
On a specimen of Crystallised Bismuth presented by Mr. George
Freemantle .., = ine ass ee eo ise eee aS
On the value of Gold in terms of Labour si sp aa cas AUS
Gre, W. W. HALDANE, B.Sc., &c.—On two electrical platinum ther-
mometers, for use in the exact determination of temperatures as
high as the boiling point of mercury “a mis aa ty
GwyTHER, R. F., M.A.—On the discovery in Canada of a large deposit
of Nickel aa eats ua a are aes sak ao TO
HowortuH, H. H. M.P., F.S.A.—On the Path of Migratory Birds ... 36
Vili. CONTENTS.
PAGE
KENDALL, Percy F., F.G.S.-—On the Whitehaven Borings ae e298
On the North-West of England Boulder Committee ... ra ‘con ee
PocHin, H. D., F.C.S.—On an exceptionally heavy rainfall in the
Conway valley se ae ts ue ah hit Bepinh
REYNOLDS, OsBoRNE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.—On Electro-Magnetism... 1
On Glacier Motion wee ae wih on at Les ee
On Low. Temperature, 2... 4 ie 43 eee Pe S
On the collection of Dirt from the Atmosphere by new belting run at
a high speed ... ox ek net ae fh We se ee
On the value of Gold in terms of Labour an zi aS Jeane
SINGTON, THEODORE.—On Carboniferous Rocks exposed in the new
Railway Cutting at Levenshulme ... Be te nh i ee ane
SCHUNCK, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.—On the late Mr. James
Platt Holden ... res ane coe Aa a et He ee
On the new compound of Nitrogen __... ae aie i,
Proposed gift of a Bronze Bust of Dr. Angus Smith .. a at 4a5
SCHUSTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.—On the refractive index
of Glass Prisms an we eae es ie ee ee
On Glacier Motion Sat ae Be ie a ad a
SHAW, GEORGE.—On a new method of estimating Chlorine in Organic
Compounds ... ne HB aN we se vs pee
TAYLOR, ALBERT.—On a new method of estimating Chlorine in Organic
Compounds ... a a Shs oh os ae ie ES
TERRY, HusBert L. —On the action of Nitric Acid on Polyterpenes' ... 416
THOMSON, WILLIAM, F.R.S.Ed., &c.—On Tobacco Smoke and Chloride
of Sulphur... bed uid wut “si Hi td in ae
On the action of different substances on India-rubber... bie rie
On experiments on Surface Tension _... ave * Jen wa, 22S
WILLIAMSON, W. C., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.—On the discovery of four
Stigmarian Trees near Osnabriick vile he aif Gs one
General Meeting nes ye : ne aes st es win ae
Annual General Meeting ae eit SOR 6 it as ... Gad
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Meetings of the Microscopical and Natural History Section :—
Annual ot Apr ce = uae elt ones ie ee
Ordinary ... rf ie a se d20. Opi 2Ou- 95s EV On 2215 F14
Meetings of the Physical and Mathematical Section :—
Annual Be re ne aa ae ie aes Gish ee Ae
Ordinary... ast bak re ay rep By 20; 177,216
Report of the Council, April, 1891, with Obituary Notices of James Platt
Holden, John Barrow, and Charles Norrish Adams ae +. 482
Treasurer’s Accounts... ne ne se aaa ae be i SAO
Report of the Microscopical and Natural History Section, and Accounts 493, 495
List of the Council and Members of the Society... er ~ 25 400
PLATES.
I,—To illustrate Mr. CaMERON’s “ Hymenopterological Notices.” ... 182
II.—To illustrate Mr. MELVILL’s paper on ‘‘ The genus Za¢zrus.” 2 305
III.—To illustrate Mr. CAMERON’s paper on ‘‘ Hymenoptera Orientalis.”
—Part III. ... 4 i my 5 “is ee in ASE
IV.—The paper which this Plate was intended to illustrate not having
been yet submitted to the Society, the Plate is omitted.
V.—(In three sections).—To illustrate Mr. BROCKBANK and Mr. DE
RANCE’s paper on ‘‘ The Levenshulme Limestones.” ... py 2Oe
ERR ADA:
Page 51, line 29, for Daphne read Daphnia.
5 THO ree oll wad. OL.
(Us!) (Us!)?
(U,') read (Up)
5 ROQ; Hay veRelng ee eenzeda tO. oe:
39 164, »b) If, 2)
9 173; ”) 3°; 39 read
5 183 5, Di, 5, Watkers 7ead makers.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Ordinary Meeting, October 7th, 1890.
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
A letter from the President apologising for his inability
to be present at the opening meeting was read.
The thanks of the Society were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
Dr. BOTTOMLEY mentioned the recent remarkable and
unexpected discovery by Mr. Ludwig Mond, Dr. C. Langer,
and Dr. F. Quincke, of a direct combination of nickel and
carbonic oxide, forming a colourless liquid, and a conversa-
tion ensued, in which Mr. W. THOMSON and Professor H. B.
DIXON took part, attention being directed to the proba-
bility that the discovery would provide a useful method of
separating nickel from cobalt.
Professor REYNOLDS referred to Professor Ewing’s
demonstration at the recent meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Leeds, by means of a working model, that Weber’s
theory would explain the phenomena of electro-magnetism.
Professor H. B. DIXON, F.R.S., read a paper by himself
aad Mr J. A. HARKER “On the rate_of explosion of
hydrogen and chlorine in the dry and the moist state.”
The paper described experiments in continuation of re-
searches dealt with in a memoir read before the Society
2 | PROCEEDINGS.
during the previous session, and published in the last
volume of its Memoirs and Proceedings. Diagrams of the
apparatus were exhibited and explained. Referring to the
authors’ conclusion that chlorine and hydrogen are capable of
direct combination at a high temperature, Dr. BOTTOMLEY
pointed out that the experiments seemed to negative an
hypothesis which had lately been promulgated to the effect
that no two bodies combine except in the presence of a
third body—an electrolyte. |
Mr. P. CAMERON read a paper entitled “ Description of
a new genus of European Tenthredinide and of some unde-
scribed Chalcidide.”
A conversation on the possibility of holding injurious
insects in check by the introduction of such parasites ensued.
The Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine. 3
The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in
the dry and in the moist states. By Harold B.
Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry ; and
Mr. J. A. Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar in the
Owens College.
(Received October 21st, 1890.)
This research, a continuation of our previous work on
the combination of chlorine and hydrogen, was made with
the object of ascertaining whether, in the explosive com-
bination of these gases, the action was a direct one, or
whether the union was brought about by the interaction of
water-vapour present. Wehave already shown (confirming
Pringsheim’s statement) that the gases, when thoroughly
dried, were not nearly so sensitive to light as when in the
moist condition ; about 25 times more light being necessary
to explode the dry gas, than that saturated with moisture.
The question remained : When once the explosion is started
in a portion of the mixed gases (either by light or by a
spark), is the propagation of the explosion through the
unburnt gases dependent on the presence of water-vapour ?
The method employed to solve this problem was the same
as that previously used to determine whether the com-
bustion of carbonic oxide and of cyanogen by oxygen was
effected by the interaction of water-vapour. In the case of
carbonic oxide and oxygen the rate of propagation of the
combustion is increased by adding water-vapour until it
amounts to about 5 per cent of the mixture; in the case of
4 PROFESSOR DIXON and MR. HARKER oz
cyanogen and oxygen the rate of propagation of the com-
bustion is diminished by the addition of vapour-water to
the dry gases. The burning of cyanogen, at all events as far
as the initial combustion to carbonic oxide is concerned,
seems to be independent of the presence of water ; whereas
the combustion of carbonic oxide to carbonic acid seems
to depend upon the presence of water-vapour. A measure-
ment of the rate of explosion of hydrogen and chlorine,
firstly in the dry state, and, secondly, when saturated
with water-vapour seemed, therefore, likely to answer the
question.
A knowledge of the velocity of the explosion-wave in
hydrogen and chlorine is also of great theoretical interest
in view of Berthelot’s conclusions regarding the nature of
explosions: for hydrogen and chlorine combine without
condensation, and the gas formed approximates to a perfect
gas.
The gas used in the experiments was made by the
method so minutely studied by Bunsen and Roscoe, namely,
the electrolysis of hydrochloric acid. The acid used (of
specific gravity about 1°20) was partly saturated with chlorine
gas, to save the long preliminary electrolytic saturation
otherwise necessary. The electrolytic cell was of glass and
contained about 3 litres of acid. It was provided with two
carbon electrodes, about 10 mm. thick, cemented by paraffin
into glass tubes, which dipped below the level of the liquid.
The upper ends of these tubes were filled with mercury,
making contacts for the battery wires. The delivery tube
contained a series of bulbs holding about 5 cc. of water.
This retained the greater part of the hydrochloric acid
carried over by the chlorine and hydrogen. From this the
gas was conducted through a Winckler worm, a series of
bulbs, and finally a large U-tube, all filled with Jdozled
sulphuric acid. Attached to the U-tube was a threeway
tap, one limb of which led to the explosion tube, and the
The Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine. 5
other to a tower filled with lime and charcoal. The whole
apparatus was mounted on a stand, and the glass tubes
were fused together after filling. The current used was
supplied from seven large secondary cells, giving a voltage
of about 15. It passed through two adjustable resistances ;
one, iron wire; the other, carbon; then through a small low-
resistance Kohlrausch ammeter; then to the electrolyser.
About 4 amperes was the greatest current we could use
without heating the liquid too much.
We first experimented with a view to discover a
material suitable for the explosion tube. Pieces of pure
lead sealed up in dry chlorine are not much acted on, the
colour of the gas being visible after some weeks. We,
therefore, thought that a lead tube, after a certain time
would become coated internally with chloride and so be
available at least for the experiments with dry gases. After
many hours of saturation with dry chlorine, we found that
the gas continued to be absorbed with formation of a white
volatile solid decomposed by water, which analysis shewed
to be chloride of tin. This issued as a white cloud from the
end of the explosion tube. The best electrolytic mixture
we could obtain from the end of the explosion tube con-
tained not more than 80 % combustible gas (H.+ Cl,).
We, therefore, proceeded to have drawn some strong
glass tubing in long lengths. We succeeded in getting two
lengths of 30 and 34 feet respectively. These were slung
from a long ladder fixed against the wall of a dark corridor.
One end of each tube was then bent and fastened to the
other, so that the whole tube was about 21 yards long.
Various joints were used, plaster of Paris, certain cements,
and also fused chloride of silver, but none of these held so
well as a piece of strong rubber, slipped over the ends which
were previously ground smooth and pressed close together.
The rubber, being coated on the inside with paraffin,
was acted on very slowly by the chlorine. Fastened
6 PROFESSOR DIXON and MR. HARKER on
to the two free ends of the tubes were steel flanges with
eround faces. Their interior was lined with glass.
The gas passed directly from the electrolytic cell through _
the drying tubes into the long explosion tube—driving out
the air before it: at the further end it passed through an
“analyser,” which served to determine the composition of
the gas issuing from the tube. This consisted of a large
bulb holding 80 c.c., provided at the bottom with a three-
branch tap leading to a funnel containing dilute KI solution
and to a small bottle containing water. At the upper end
was a tail-tap leading to a pipette and to a lime and coke
tower. The pipette, which was constructed of narrow tubing»
about 6 mm. diameter, was provided with a millimetre scale
and calibrated by mercury. The tube between the three-
way tap and the pipette was very fine, less than 1 mm. bore.
The dry gas was passed from the explosion tube through
water into the bulb, which had been previously dried ; then
the excess passed into the tower. After collecting the
sample, the taps were all closed, the gas-pipette being
completely full of water.
‘The bulb was first exposed for some time to diffused
daylight and then to sunlight or to some magnesium flashes.
The tap below was then opened to the KI reservoir, and
the liquid allowed to rush up. A small residue generally
remained, which was measured in the pipette. This small
residue was found to be hydrogen ; it was never more than
I per cent of the whole, and in most of the experiments
varied between *2 and ‘4 per cent.
To ensure complete combination between the hydrogen
and chlorine in the bulb by the action of light, it was neces-
sary to moisten the gases. The gases as used in the dry
experiments may be exposed for days to sunlight without
complete combination taking place. The potassium iodide
serves to show that there is no chlorine left. .
The filling of the explosion tube took generally two to
The Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine. 7
three hours with the average current. The whole of the
generating and drying apparatus was protected from light
by being covered with black cloth, and the corridor was
only illuminated by one or two small gas flames, which did
not have the least perceptible action on the mixture.
The method used to measure the rate of the explosion-
wave was similar to that used for other gaseous mixtures,
viz.: to make the explosion break two silver or platinum
strips or “bridges” stretched across the tube, one near each
end. These bridges carried currents, which actuated two
electro-magnetic styles making traces on a moving plate.
The bridges were fitted to two separate tubes, which could
be rapidly joined up to the long glass explosion tube by
means of steel flanges. These separate “end tubes” were
charged with a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. When
the long tube was completely filled with the electrolytic
hydrogen and chlorine, the two “end tubes” carrying the
bridges were fastened to it, the electric connections were
made to the chronograph, and the gases fired by sending
a spark through the oxygen and hydrogen in the firing tube.
~The flame travelled down this tube, which was about
4 feet long, breaking the silver bridge at the end of it, and
communicating the explosion to the hydrogen and chlorine.
On reaching the end of the glass tube, the explosion broke
the silver bridge fitted to the second end tube. In the few
seconds which elapsed between joining on the end tubes and
firing the mixture, but little diffusion of the gases was pos
sible ; and the silver bridges, being coated with paraffin, were
hardly acted on by the chlorine. Between each experiment
all the connections of the chronograph were reversed ; so
that whatever error was due to the defects of the chronograph
and connections was reversed in the second experiment. The
results are therefore grouped together in pairs ; the means
of the several pairs being closely concordant. The following
are the results obtained in the first series of experiments :—
8 The Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine.
H.+Cl,.
Rate of Explosion in Metres per Second.
Dry. WET.
ih \ 1798 ies bins7
ris: eae
rr p 1787 vine f 1782
83 fr
ae 1800
(Meanit7o5 Mean..1770
Difference due to water present=25 met. per sec.
It appears, therefore, that the explosion, once started,
travels slightly faster in the dry gases than in the wet; the
moisture appearing merely to act as a diluent. We propose
to repeat the experiments, using a longer explosion tube.
PROCEEDINGS. _ 9
[ Microscopical and Natural Hrstory Sectzon.|
Ordinary Meeting, October 13th, 1890.
ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc., President of the Section,
in the Chair.
There were exhibited:—By Mr. T. ROGERS, a new moss,
FHomata densa, from Oahu ; by Mr. CAMERON, a number of
insects, some new to science, which he proposed to describe
later, also a specimen of /sostoma Losciz, which he had
taken in his garden at Sale.
Mr. THEODORE SINGTON showed a diagram drawn to
a horizontal and vertical scale of eight feet to the inch,
prepared from careful measurements of each bed, of the in-
teresting section of the Carboniferous rocks exposed in the
new railway cutting adjoining Burnage Lane, Levenshulme.
Mr. Sington stated that the section extended from a
point 100 feet from the western face of the brickwork of
Burnage Lane Bridge, where the Carboniferous rocks dis-
appear under the overlying Permian red sandstones, to
about 312 feet from the eastern face of the brickwork of
the bridge. When first exposed the section consisted of
richly coloured blue, greenish, purple, red, and yellow clays,
which subsequently lost their brilliant colours, interbedded
with numerous layers of limestone, corresponding with those
occurring at Ardwick. The limestone beds vary in thick-
ness from 4 inches to 4 feet 6 inches; the principal bed
occurs at the eastern end of the section. It is the one now
being worked at Ardwick and made into an hydraulic
mortar. The first limestone layer on the eastern side of
the bridge has the appearance of a breccia cemented by
carbonate of lime. Some of the beds are fossiliferous.
The dip is 20 degrees. A remarkable point in connection
10 PROCEEDINGS.
with the section is the occurrence of numerous blocks of
the limestone mingled with the overlying clay on the
eastern side of the section, none being found to the west.
A careful search was made for fragments of Permian or
New Red Sandstone rocks which may have been carried in
the same direction, but none were noticed.
Dr. HODGKINSON made a communication on “ Micro-
scopical examination by mono-chromatic light, polarized
light; etc)”
Ordinary Meeting, October 21st, 1890.
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
The thanks of the Society were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
Professor H. B. DIxon, F.R.S., exhibited some of the
nickel carbonic oxide recently described by Mr. Ludwig
Mond, Dr. Langer, and Dr. Quincke, referred to at the
previous meeting. The liquid is extremely volatile, and
Mr. DIxon showed the effect of the vapour on a Bunsen-
burner flame ; he also exhibited nickel deposited from the
vapour on a glass tube. It was pointed out that the dis-
covery may lead to both new methods of research and more
accurate determinations of the physical constants of nickel
and cobalt. ,
Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S., referred to a
communication which he had received from the Berg-
Akademie of Berlin, giving details of the discorvery of four
Stigmarian trees similar to the huge specimen in the Owens
PROCEEDINGS. II
College Museum, but smaller. The German specimens
were found in collieries near Osnabriick. Two only were
preserved, one of which is in the Osnabriick Museum, while
the other has been placed in the museum of the Berg-
Akademie. The longest root of the German specimens
measures 13ft., while the longest root of the Owens College
specimen measures nearly 21ft. The diameter of the stem of
the latter is 4ft. against 2ft. that of the former. But while the
Owens College specimen of an older tree has no cortical .
markings, the specimen in Berlin has markings showing
where the vascular bundles passed through the bark to the
leaves. The German specimens afford further evidence that
the plants were Lepidodendroid. The dichotomous structure
of the roots is clearly shown.
ir CHARLES HH. Lees, M.Se; read a paper “On a
method of determining the Thermal Conductivity of bad
conductors, with the results of experiments on Flint and
Crown Glass.” Mr. LEES referred to experiments by Pro-
fessor Kundt, of Strassburg, apparently showing that in
certain metals the refractive index is, roughly speaking,
inversely proportional to the electric and thermal conduc-
tivities. Mr. LEES instituted the series of experiments
described in order to see whether the same holds good as
regards other substances. The results obtained for glass ap-
peared to support Professor Kundt’s result, that the thermal
conductivity is proportional to the velocity of light in the
substance experimented on.—A discussion ensued, in which
Mr. C. N. ADAMS, Professor SCHUSTER, Mr. WILLIAM
THOMSON, and Professor REYNOLDS took part. Professor
SCHUSTER, while admitting the value of experiments so
carefully carried out as those described by Mr. LEEs,
expressed doubt as to whether what was taken as the
refractive index of Professor Kundt’s metallic prisms could
be safely regarded as corresponding to the refractive index
of a glass prism.
I2 PROCEEDINGS.
General Meeting, November 4th, 1890.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.; F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
Mr. EDWARD SIDEBOTHAM, Bowdon; Mr. MAURICE
JuLiIus LANGDON, Ph.D. (Munich), Manchester; Mr.
WALTER . TAYLOR, .A.M_LCOR. EB lixton =-and > Wise
HAMMERSLEY HEENAN, Manchester, were elected ordinary
members of the Society.
Ordinary Meeting, November 4th, 1890.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
The PRESIDENT referred to the |loss sustained by the
Society through the death of Mr. JAMES PLATT HOLDEN,
who was elected a member in 1846.
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S.,« exhibited
Estheria Minuta, var. Brodieana of Prof. Rupert Jones,
F.R.S., discovered by Mr.’C. E. de Rance, F.G:S., im the
Lower Keuper sandstone of Alderley Edge, and read the
following note on the subject :—
“The occurrence of this fossil is new to the Triassic
sandstones of Britain in Cheshire. These have been
largely exposed of late in the cuttings of the new Ship
Canal and the railway at Fallowfield, but at Fallowfield a
diligent search was made for fossils, without result, in the
PROCEEDINGS. 13
numerous lenticular pockets which occur in the Middle-
Bunter sandstones, and which are filled with hematite red,
fine, sandy marls. The pockets nearly always contained
one or more pebbles of quartzite, which were stained and
coated with hematite. A great many of these pockets were
very carefully examined by Mr. de Rance and myself, but
no fossils were found, although we felt, before the discovery
at Alderley, that they were likely to occur in such a posi-
tion. The £stherze now exhibited were found in similar
lenticular-shaped, clay-filled patches in the Lower Keuper
sandstones of Alderley Edge; and the discovery is one of
great interest at this time; no Esther1e having previously
been found in the Triassic series below those occurring in
the Keuper marls. Mr. de Rance has sent specimens to
the Geological Survey Museum in jermyn-street and to
the British Museum. The specimens have been examined
by Professor Rupert Jones, who has written to Mr. de
Rance that they are almost fac-similes of Fig. 9, Pl. 12, of
the ‘Monograph of Fossil Estheriz’ (Pal@on. Soc., 1862).
Professor Jones states that the form had not previously been
found in England out of the Rhetic, in which it was dis-
covered by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S., at Wainlode Cliff,
Gloucestershire. The type form, Fstheria minuta, found
high up in the Keuper marls of the Midland Counties, has
not occurred yet in the Lower Keuper sandstone of Britain
or the Continent.”
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S.,F.G.S., also exhibited
a cutting, 12 feet in length, bearing numerous tubers and
flowers, of Boussingaultia basellotdes, Humb. et Kunth, which
he had cut from a plant which he had had growing for
about six years, and which had only flowered in the pre-
ceding month, when Mr. Leo H. Grindon named it for him.
He had received the plant from Australia, but it was really
a native of South America, and was rarely seen in the
neighbourhood of Manchester. Mr. CHARLES BAILEY
14 PROCEEDINGS.
observed that the plant was a native of the Andes, and
that only three members of the genus were known, all
South American, Mexican, or belonging to the Galapagos
archipelago. It was figured in the Botanical Magazine
(plate 3620) more than 50 years ago. It was named by
Humboldt and Kunth, in honour of the celebrated chemist
Boussingault, whose researches in botanical physiology
and chemical agriculture are the foundation of much
of the successful practice of modern agriculturists
and horticulturists. The plant is often to be seen in
the court-yards of Parisian and other French houses,
but as it flowers there in late September or October
it does not attract the special attention of the summer
tourist. It is grown for its profuse flowering racemes of
whitish flowers, the odour of which is not unlike that of the
common meadow-sweet or hawthorn. It is a climbing
plant, with very slender branches and large glossy heart-
shaped leaves, and being of rapid growth it soon covers over
trellis-work, balconies, and the like with its convolvulus-
like leaves, and its graceful spikes of flowers. The least
frost cuts it down, but with a little top covering it stands
the winters of the south of France; about Paris the
gardeners keep it in caves or other cover as soon as frost
sets in. It has frequently flowered in this country when
grown in the open ground with a favourable® aspect, but it
comes on best in the greenhouse. The special peculiarity
of the plant is its habit of producing tubers in the axils
of its leaves; these tubers have only a fragile attach-
ment to the stem and a mechanical shock will often
cause them to fall. A healthy plant will have many
fallen tubers at its base, each one of which is capable of
originating an entirely new plant. Some of our common
British plants produce analogous organs; the pilewort
(Ranunculus Ficaria, L.) frequently produces them, and
such plants are to be collected in the Bollin Valley, near
PROCEEDINGS. | 15
to Cotteril Clough, generally without flowers; the coralwort
(Dentaria bulbifera, LL.) presents another instance. Besides
the smaller bulbils, the Bousszngaultza puts out some of its
branches from the stem, which, instead of elongating like
the other branches, have their upward growth arrested, but
at the same time increased laterally ; there is thus produced
a mass of fragile thickened branching tubers, of the size of
a walnut or small turnip, from which in due time fresh
growths of climbing stems and flowering branches will
proceed. In their native condition these tubers doubtless
act as storehouses of food for use when the plants are not
able to derive sufficient food through their roots, at such
times as the rapid upward growth of the plant compels it to
draw upon its reserves. Such tubers, therefore, are analogous
to those of the common potato, only instead of their being
subterranean, as in the latter, they are aérial. Like the potato,
also, each of the leaf buds or “eyes” in these tubers is
capable of producing a new plant ; in other words, they can
be cut into fragments for propagating purposes. These
tubers are edible, as might be expected from a plant which
is allied to the spinach, beet-root, and other Chenopodiacee ;
indeed, they have been cultivated for the table in France,
but they are too mucilaginous and insipid for most palates.
Mr. W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S., exhibited and
described two electrical platinum thermometers, for use in
the exact determination of temperatures as high as the
boiling point of mercury. One of the thermometers was
designed and constructed by Mr. E. H. Griffiths, of Sydney
College, Cambridge, and was used in the investigations of
Messrs. Heycock and Neville. (See Journal of the Chemical
Society, July, 1890, p. 656.) The special construction
consists in wrapping a very fine platinum wire in insulating
material in the smallest possible compass. The resistance
of this coil is measured, and from this the temperature is
calculated. The other one had been made for Mr. GEE’S
16 PROCEEDINGS.
experiments by Mr. Thomas, of Jesus Lane, Cambridge, the
plan of insulation with asbestos being that described by
Mr. Griffiths in a communication to the Royal Society,
read June 19th, 1890. For lower temperature thermometers
Mr. Griffiths has recently used anthracene as the insulating
material. (See Reports of Section A of the British Associa-
tion at Leeds.) Mr. GEE has made with them a number of
determinations of melting points and of the resistance of
fused salts at different temperatures. Mr. BROCKBANK
remarked that a thermometer to be trusted in measuring
the temperature of a blast furnace was much needed.
Dr. SCHUNCK called attention to the new compound of
nitrogen, which seems to act as an acid, instead of being a
base or neutral. Dr. SCHUNCK also remarked on the new
method of making indigo, which he described as compara-
tively simple, and one that seemed likely to lead to
important results. Dr. BOTTOMLEY and Mr. FRANCIS
JONES took part in the discussion.
Mr.GWYTHER called attention to the discovery inCanada
of a large deposit of nickel, and pointed out the value of
such a deposit, if it could, by lowering the price and in-
creasing the amount, be brought into general commercial
use. Mr. FARADAY inquired, with special reference to the
gold and silver monetary controversy, whether chemists or
physicists regarded any change in the ordef of rarity of
the metals, or in their approximate quantitative proportions
in nature, as at all probable?
a
Thermal Conductivities. 7
On the determination of the Thermal Conductivities
of bad conductors. By Charles H. Lees, M.Sc.,
Bishop Berkeley Fellow of Owens College. Com-
municated by R. F. Gwyther, M.A.
| (Recezved December 2nd, 1890.)
The experiments of Senarmont and others* have shewn
that anisotropic bodies possess different thermal conductivi-
ties in different directions, and that in the majority of
transparent bodies the conductivity in any direction in-
creases as the index of refraction of light in that direction
diminishes. The methods by which these results have been
obtained, differ little from that of Senarmont, which
depended on the melting round a central heated point, of a
thin layer of wax previously spread over the surface of a
crystal. In general, the area melted is an ellipse, the ratio
of the axes of which is equal to the square root of the ratio
of the conductivities along them. Such methods, therefore,
give no information with respect to the absolute values of
the conductivities, and a glance at the different results
obtained in successive experiments on the same crystal
shews that even the comparative values cannot be trusted
except as rough approximations.
The recent determination by Prof. Kundt of the indices
of refraction} of a number of metals, and the fact that he
finds they stand in the same order with respect to
* References may be found in any text book, ¢.g., Wiillner, Lehrbuch der
Experimentalphysik iii., p. 310.
+ Strictly we can only speak of an index of refraction of a substance when
Snell’s Law sin z/siny=constant, is obeyed. Kundt therefore defines the
index fora metal as the limit when z=o of sin z/sinx. The recent experi-
ments of Du Bois and Rubens (PAz/. Mag. [5] XXX. 365) have shown that for
iron, cobalt, and nickel, Snell’s Law is approximately true, but that there is
considerable deviation from it in silver and gold.
B
18 Mr. C. H. LEEs on
velocity of transmission of light and thermal conductivity,
make it important to determine the conductivities of
crystals in different directions with greater accuracy and in
absolute measure, in order to compare different crystals with
each other. At the suggestion of Prof. Kundt, I commenced
some time ago at Strasburg a series of experiments with this
end in view. Although these experiments are not yet com-
pleted, I propose in this paper to give a short account
of the methods tried and the approximate results obtained.
The desirableness of dealing with small pieces of crystals,
and the impossibility of making temperature observations in
the crystals themselves, point at once to placing a thin plate
of a crystal between the ends of two bars of metal, one
heated and the other cooled at the ends away from the plate,
and observing the temperature along each bar. These
observations, if the conductivity of the bars were known,
would furnish data for a determination of the conductivity
of the crystal.
Difficulties arise, however, from the imperfect nature of
the contacts between metal and crystal. Lodge* proposed
to improve them by inserting pads of tin-foil, but this I
found not to answer. Eventually a metal which would
amalgamate was used for the bars, and the amalgamated
ends made contact extremely well.
As the bars and crystal lose heat by convection, conduc-
tion, and radiation to the surrounding air, a method (that
of Angstrom) was first tried which gives by one experiment
both the internal and external conductivities. One end of
the arrangement of bars and crystal was alternately heated
for six minutes by steam and cooled for six minutes by
water till the temperature throughout was a periodic function
of the time.
* Prof. O. Lodge proposed in 1878 (Phi. Mag. [5] V. p. 110) to deter-
mine the conductivities of crystals by the above method, but I am not aware
that he has published any results.
Thermal Conductivities. 19
If
v=excess of temp. at point x over that of air.
g=area of section of bar.
=perimeter of section of bar.
o = density.
c= specific heat
k& = internal conductivity
h=external conductivity supposed to follow Newton’s law.
\ supposed constant.
the equation to the motion of heat in the bar, the isothermal
surfaces being supposed plane, is
ee
Cos, = ka rhea (1)
the steady periodic solution of which is :—
v=9(x) + 2A ber *eosdne(m— 5 a an) (2)
where T =period, A, p, A are constants and
OSs.
~ 2Tu,
¢ Ann?
h= it Mate ma see
From these equations it is evident that observations of
temperatures at two points of one bar give X, and mu, and
thence the internal and external conductivities of the bar, and
observations at two points on opposite sides of the crystal
plate and as close as possible to it, give similarly the conduc-
tivities of the crystal.
Temperatures were determined by three thermo-electric
couples of iron and German silver wire soldered into the bars
near the crystal, and in circuit with a galvanometer. By
taking two additional thermo-junctions in the metal bar, the
solution (2) was tested, and found not to represent the varia-
tion of temperature throughout the bar. I have since shown
that this is toa great extent due to the great increase of £ with
(3)
20 j Mr. C. H. LEES on
the temperature,* and that Angstrém’s solution (2) can only
be taken as a rough approximation to the actual variation
of temperature throughout the bar.
To get rid of this difficulty of the variation of % with the
temperature, and at the same time to do away with the
necessity for a knowledge of the values of ¢ and o for the
crystal, I began experiments with the bars and crystal
packed in a cylinder of saw-dust, and used only the “steady
state.” The bars were of brass, 2 cms. diam. and 26 cms.
long. The ends of each bar were amalgamated, and along
the curved surface four thermo-junctions of iron and brass
wire were soldered, two being as near the ends as possible.
The two bars were held in position within a vertical paper
cylinder 8 cm. diam. by means of six set-screws, which
enabled the two amalgamated surfaces, between which the
crystal disc was to come, to be set parallel. After putting in
the crystal, the space between the bars and paper cylinder
was packed with saw-dust, the screws withdrawn, and con-
tacts made at top and bottom with a water and a steam
can respectively. The ends of the wires from the thermo-
junctions came outside the paper cylinder and could be put
in succession in circuit with a galvanometer. Observations
of deflections of the galvanometer and a previous determina-
tion of the constants of the junctions, give the temperatures
at eight points of the bars, and from these the values of du/dx
below and above the crystal respectively can be calculated.
These, combined with a knowledge of the conductivity £ of
the brass bar, give the flow of heat into and out of the
crystal disc respectively through its plane surfaces. From
the eight observations of temperature, the temperatures of
* It is evident, moreover, that the solution (2) can only apply to a bar of
infinite length heated and cooled at one end. For a finite bar, and especially
for the case of a bad conductor interposed between two lengths of bar,
it is necessary to add to the expression (2) a corresponding expression in which
the sign of x is altered. This makes the calculation of 2 and 4 much more
complicated.
Thermal Conductivities. 21
the two surfaces of the crystal can also be found.* We thus
have a determination of the conductivity of the crystal in a
direction parallel to the axis of the disc by a method which
follows very closely the definition of conductivity. If the
saw-dust were an absolute non-conductor the method
would agree exactly with the definition.
In the above the isothermal surfaces have been assumed
plane and perpendicular to the axis of the bar, but in the
experiments the temperature at five points of the outer |
cylinder were also determined, so that each experiment
gives sufficient data for determining the distribution of
heat throughout the whole space within the outer cylinder.
I did not consider, however, that the accuracy obtained in
the observations would warrant the carrying out of the
calculations on these rigid lines, especially as no tables exist
of one of the functions which enter into the calculation.
The conductivity of the brass bar was determined by
Forbes’s method, with the modifications suggested by me in
a previous paper.{| Two experiments are necessary, one
determining the outer and the other the relation between
the outer and inner conductivity.
CooLING EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE OUTER
CONDUCTIVITY.
In these experiments one of the bars used in the crystal
apparatus is heated to 100° in an air bath and then allowed
to cool in air, the temperature being observed by thermo-
junctions soldered to the middle of the bar.
Writing m for the mass of the bar cooled, s its surface,
* The main features only of the calculations are entered into here. In the
actual calculation corrections are applied for the thin layer of mercury between
the crystal and the bar, for the variation of dv/dx within the crystal, &c., the
amount of these corrections being determined by special experiments.
+ I refer to the Bessel’s function of the second kind and zero order for
unreal values of the argument.
£ Phil. Mag. (5) xxviii. p. 442.
22 Mr. C. H. LEES on
and assuming the temperature of the bar to be constant
throughout, we can put (1) in the form
em = — sf(v)
where /(v) is a function of v determined by experiment to
be of the form uv” where # and ~ are constants. If the
temperature of the surrounding air is not constant the
equation takes the form
ov 2
om = — sh(v — V)
where V is the temperature of the air.
Multiplying both sides of this equation by d¢ and integrating
we have
t.
sh
V-U,= -* fw—vyae
Z,
where v, is the temperature at time /,.
The following table gives the mean result of three
experiments :-—
—_———— | | |
88°55°C/15°62°C
82°50
77°08
72°24
67°78
63°81
60°00
56°77
53°78
50°93
48°29
45°92
43°84
41°79
39°95
38°25
36°79
35°29
34°00
32°68
31°65
39°59
29°64
28°72
27°76
27°05
26°17
25°14
24°31
23°20
22°03
21°24
20°50
Thermal Conductivities.
TABLE I.
23
t t
Vie | @=V)"| fv-Vy7"dt| fv- V)i*"dt/(w-»
t=79 t=79
15°51
15°48
15°49
15°49
15°54
15°58
15°58
15°56
15°58
15°59
15°59
15°61
15°63
15°64
15°64
15°62
2D 59
i 30
1555
Lb 52
15‘50
15°44
15°40
15°44
15°40
1542
15°41
15°47
15°52
15°53
15°47
15°46
MEANS.
48°24 |
48°08
48°05
48°22
48°63
- 48°38
47°79
MEAN 48'18
24 Mr. C. H. LEES ox
From this it is seen that the cooling is represented with —
great accuracy by the above equation if 7=1'17, the specific
heat of the bar being supposed constant.
We have
mc
aa 48°18 per minute.
Now m=644 grams.
c= 092
s=160 sq. cms.
Hence / = ‘000,128 calorics per sq. cm. per second for 1°C excess.
STATICAL EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE &.
In these experiments the uncut bar of about one metre
length is heated at one end, and the temperature along it
in the “steady state” determined by means of thermo-
junctions.
The equation (1) reduces for this experiment to the form
d dv\ p e
har ho) = ay hiv == V)
where & represents the conductivity at a temperature v;
and V is the temperature of the air under any section.
Multiplying through by ax and integrating we have -
where 7, % are the coordinates of any two points on the bar.
The following table gives the mean of three experiments,
the integration being performed by mechanical quadrature.
25
10S.
t
2U2
Thermal Conduct
“Ajoyewrxoidde pourwssajap
aq ATUo uvo ‘a “wv aaind ay} Jo spua oY} Je ep/ap se “uTe}ZI0UN oIv SULUNTOO YJUTU pUe Y}XIS OY} UT sIaquUINU jSv] pu ysIy OUT,
EE EA rea ae ee Cae ene Ree Se PRET Ree Rae pwr a EP By SE ble a
(S9z.) 066 1.0922 (go€.z) L.ebez $9.601 11.91 1Z.28 zb.gor
Lvz. z£6 §.zQQI VgL.1 oreo TE.9L 19.91 Ze.LS Sr, Lor
zbz. £16 Z.1Z11 Qzz.1 Z.OQOI 06.37 19.91 ob.bh 9.26
| | roe. S6 §.699 bgol, $.9z9 69.92 0S.91 6£.€£ | 96.64
: 192. 996 1.698 6rLs. | Lges oor | £8.or |> 26.5e bose
a ZO. 996 S.9gI Qggl, G,S1 61.9 0z.91 VE.1z Chav
ZQz. £36 9.48 £390. 9.9F 19.2 Lao 19.91 06.¢z
(9z.) $86 0.1 (Ovo. ) LV.1 ‘y SOOr | Germs °
xp oO te)
ot a (1+ Pilaf) THF eP reel Of o Pals Of inlA ®) A a %
26 Mr. C. H. LEES ox
From the approximate value of 4, which can be
obtained from the 5th and 6th column of this table,
ai ; :
the approximate value of ghey when x=o0 is determined
to be 41. Hence column 7 is calculated ; and the numbers
in it are
dv :
= ( 2) + | phlo—V) dx.
z=0 0
The numbers in the column headed %, are calculated
from the equation
ph{ J — V)'"dx + 41} Sv —~V)'"da+ 4]
k at o ts o
me a ace 000,265 ZF
qlee dx
CONDUCTIVITIES OF CROWN AND FLINT GLASS.
Taking ‘250 as the conductivity of the brass bars the
following results are deduced from several experiments on
crown and flint glass discs, the temperatures in each disc
being supposed represented by the equation v=ar+ 62’, the
origin of 4 being taken at the cooler surface of the disc and
the temperature of that surface being taken as zero.
Crown glass ‘16 cm. thick.
By v Hee
da
Oo Oo "222
"16 16°02 "250
LD) fine P
hoz being the amount of heat which crosses a surface
of contact of disc and bars, as calculated from the observa-
tions of temperatures in the bars
From this I find & for crown glass =‘00235.
Thermal Conductivities. a7
Flint glass ‘177 cm. thick.
x Vv kes
da
@) 1) 12ET
‘177 | 18°98 "234
From this I find & for flint glass = ‘00208.
Taking the index of refraction of crown glass as about
15, and of flint glass as about 1°6, it is seen that the
thermal conductivity of glass increases as its index of
refraction diminishes, as Kundt found to be the case in
metals.
The numbers ‘00235 and ‘00208 may be relied on to
a greater degree relatively to each other than absolutely,
owing to change of Electromotive Force of the thermo-
junctions, produced by an unavoidable straining of the
wires in packing the saw-dust between the bars and the
outer cylinder. On this account the apparatus has been
modified, and I am at present engaged in re-determining
the conductivities of the glass discs used in the above
experiments, and in determining the conductivities of
quartz and Iceland spar in different directions. The results
of these experiments I hope shortly to communicate to the
Society.
28 PROCEEDINGS.
[Microscopical and Natural History Sectzon.|
Ordinary Meeting, November roth, 1890.
ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc., President of the Section,
in the Chair.
Mr. THOS. ROGERS exhibited three fossil Bvachzopoda,
viz.:—Athyris Camillosa, Athyris plano-sulcata,and Spinifera
striata, showing the internal structure laid bare by the
Rev. Norman Glass’s process of preparation.
Mr. CHAS. BAILEY, F.L.S., exhibited a series of Euro-
pean specimens of the genus Pedzcularis, and for comparison
with these Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL sent a number of extra-
european species of the same genus. Mr. BAILEY pointed
out that the peculiarity of their geographical position is the
large number of endemic species, as four-fifths of the
whole occupy restricted areas of the surface of the globe.
Thus Maximowicz has shown that no less than sixty-seven
species are confined to China, but this figure is being
increased by the researches of French botanists in Yunnan;
Europe has thirty-three endemic species ; India thirty-three ;
Siberia and Turkestan twenty-nine ; America twenty-two ;
Western Asia fourteen ; and Japan five. Whilst there is great
superficial resemblance between individual species, there is
little tendency to gradation between them, such as is seen in
flieractum, Rosa, Rubus, Salix, and other Polymorphic
genera. Analytical botanists, like Jordain and Boreau,
have not created a single species out of any variations in
the fifteen species which are found in France—a significant
fact when it is remembered what this school of botanists
have made out of the Linnean Dvaba verna. The fixity of ©
the species in Pedicularis is brought into strong relief by
the consideration of the circumstance, that botanists have
PROCEEDINGS. 29
not sensibly changed the mode of grouping and separating
the species which was adopted by Stevens, the first serious
monographer of the genus, who so recently as 1822
described only forty-nine species then known to science.
The names which he then gave to some of the groups may
be altered, but the relative values of the characters on
which they are based remain without any great modifica-
tion, and the classification which Stevens proposed for less
than fifty species is found equally applicable to five or six
times that number. Mr. BAILEY showed a set of diagrams
demonstrating the striking differences which exist between
allied European species in the size, form, colouration, and
sculpturing of the seeds. The life history of these plants
is but little known, nor is it settled whether the two
ubiquitous British species are annual, or perennial, or both.
There is little doubt, however, that they are semi-parasitic
in habit, living to some extent on the roots of grasses
and other plants, and attention was drawn to the sucker—
the organ by means of which they attach themselves to the
subterranean organs of other living plants.
30 PROCEEDINGS.
[Physical and Mathematical Sectzon.|
Ordinary Meeting, November 12th, 1890.
WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S. Ed., F.C.S., F-.I.C., Vice-
President of the Section, in the Chair.
Mr. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S. Ed., made a commu-
nication on the influence of tobacco-smoke in reproducing,
after some hours, the smell and taste of chloride of sulphur.
Mr. THOMSON stated that some time ago he visited an
india-rubber factory,in which vulcanizing by the cold process
was carried on by the use of a mixture of chloride of sulphur
and bisulphide of carbon. This mixture has a pungent and
disagreeable smell. An hour and a half after leaving the
works, on smoking a cigar, he again noticed the smell and
pungency of the chloride of sulphur at each inhalation of
smoke. He then learned from the owner of the works that
when he himself visited, for any length of time, the cold
vulcanizing room he could not smoke on that day, because
of the disagreeable odour of the chloride of sulphur, which
was produced by the smoke. Mr. THOMSON had that day
visited the works early, and, two hours afterwards, after
luncheon, while smoking a cigar which he had not in his
possession at the works, found that the same pungent effect
was produced, although he breathed apparently very little
of the substance, which had not caused him to experience
in the interval any unpleasant effect.
Mr. THOMSON also communicated to the Section the
results of some experiments he had recently made on the
action of different substances on india-rubber. He employed
fine layers of india-rubber attached to paper, and kept at a
temperature of 130° (Fahr.). Very minute quantities of
copper salts applied, in solution or mixed with water, and.
PROCEEDINGS. 31
allowed to dry on the rubber, soon destroyed its elasticity.
Rubber is rapidly destroyed by oxidation ; but the Chro-
mates and even Chromic acid, powerful oxidising agents,
regarded by chemists generally as fatal to rubber, had, he
found, little or no effect on it. The oxides and salts of
manganese had an injurious, and nitrate of silver a most
injurious, influence on rubber. There are many other salts
which have more or less destructive influences, but the
above are a few of the most curious examples.
Ordinary Meeting, November 18th, 1890.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
The following note from Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK,
F.L.S., F.G.S., was read :-—
“At the last meeting of the Society I communicated
the interesting discovery, by Mr. de Rance, of Estheria
minuta, var. Brodieana, at Alderley Edge. Mr. de Rance
has since pointed out to me that Professor Rupert Jones
states that the variety Brodzeana occurs in the ‘Lettenkohl’
of the Baden Trias. This formation is on the lowest
horizon of the German Keuper, as is the Cheshire Keuper
‘Building Stone,’ and in this relation it is of great interest
to note that this is the formation in which the oldest known
mammal, Wicrolestis, occurs on the Continent, the presence
-of which in England was first made known, by Professor
Boyd Dawkins, in the Rhetics of the West of England.
32 PROCEEDINGS.
The small mammal and the minute crustacean occurring
both above and below the Keuper marls, may it not be
hoped that the mammal may be added to the fossil fauna
of Cheshire? The discovery points to a recurrence of
conditions, and supports the view expressed in 1847, by
the late Professor Edward Forbes, that the beds now called
Rheetic are really part of the Trias. This view was also
held by the late Sir Philip Egerton, on the evidence of the
fish remains.”
Mr. HENRY H. HOworTH, M.P., F.S.A., read an
elaborate paper on the history and present position of the
theory of glacier motion, in which, after reviewing the
various hypotheses which have been put forward to account
for the phenomena, he arrived at the conclusion that
Forbes’s theory is in the main the right one, and that
glaciers move down the valleys much as a river flows. A
discussion ensued, in which Dr. BOTTOMLEY, Professor
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, Professor SCHUSTER, Professor
DrIxoOn, and Mr. HARRY GRIMSHAW took part, the general
conclusion being that while glaciers are viscous and move
by gravity, the various phenomena are explainable by a
combination of the several physical conditions on which the
various theories have been based. Professor REYNOLDS
supposed that all who have lived in the neighbourhood of a
glacier must have known that it flowed down the valley,
and there is no doubt that it flows under deformation, by
gravity; and any one may have noticed from the bending of
ice at the edge of a pond that ice is plastic. Dr. SCHUSTER
agreed in general with Professor REYNOLDS. In his own
observations on glaciers he had been more struck by the
irregularities of the motion than by the regularity—and, in
fact, the motion is very uneven, and only regular on the
average. With regard to the origin of the curious glacier
crystals, it was urged that the difficulties are largely those
of crystal formation generally. In this view Dr. BOTTOMLEY
PROCEEDINGS. 33
and Mr. GRIMSHAW agreed. Professor DIXON thought
there was pressure in a glacier much greater than that due
to the superincumbent ice. Professor REYNOLDS said that
at every crack heard in a glacier there was at some place a
pressure of over thirty atmospheres. Any obstruction
causes a great local intensity of pressure.
Ordinary Meeting, December 2nd, 1890.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Mr. H. D. PocHIN, F.C.S., alluded to the exceptionally
heavy rainfall in the Conway valley during the previous
month, and a discussion on the recent heavy fall also in this
district ensued, in which Mr. Alderman BAILEY, Mr. C. E.
DE RANCE, F.G.S., and others took part.
Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S., read the
introduction to the first part of a “ General, Morphological,
and Histological Index” to his memoirs on the Fossil
Plants of the Coal Measures which he is compiling, at the
request of the Council, to enable palzo-botanists to refer to
any details of importance in the long series of memoirs in
question. ZThe PRESIDENT and members expressed grateful
appreciation of the value of this completion of Dr. WILLIAM-
SON’S long and arduous researches, and the author stated
in reply that he had arranged for the transfer of his
collection of illustrative specimens to the Manchester
Museum, now located at Owens College.
¢
34 PROCEEDINGS.
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., exhibited a
series of polished surfaces of the Levenshulme mottled
limestones and thin sections of each group prepared for the
microscope, and read a paper on “The Axtomostraca and
Annelida in the Levenshulme Mottled Limestones.” |
Mr. W. W. H. GEE, Bbc, F.CS., read a paper iby
himself, and Mr. H. L. TERRY, F-1.C., on “The Specific
Heat of Non-conductors. Part I—Caoutchouc.”
PROCEEDINGS. _ 35
[JZ icroscopical and Natural History Sectzon.|
Ordinary Meeting, December 8th, 1890.
ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc., President of the Section,
in the Chair. :
Mr. ARNOLD UMFREVILLE HENN was elected an
associate.
There were exhibited :—
By Mr. H.. HYDE, a number of curious foreign fruits ;
Mr. CHAS. BAILEY, F.L.S., the cones of Pzuus pinea, and
the edible seeds taken from them; the PRESIDENT, a
remarkable illustrated work on Botany, Natural History,
and Petrology, dated 1492, in which were described and
figured a number of strange creatures still unknown to
science ; and by Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL, F.L.S., a series of
very beautiful Coleoptera of the genus Cavabus, section
Ceroglossus, from Chili and Patagonia.
Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL, F.L.S., read a paper describing
Drosera intermedia (Hague) var. subcaulescens, from Wybun-
bury Bog, Cheshire, illustrated by a drawing, and exhibited
specimens of this and other Drosere for comparison.
Mr. MARK STIRRUP, F.G.S., read a letter from one of
the associates of the section, Mr. W. LADD TORRANCE, Java,
describing some experiences when hunting for natural
history and geological specimens; and exhibited a photo-
sraph of a range of volcanoes in Java, with a plain of sand
at their base,and a number of so-called “lucky stones,”
which Mr. TORRANCE had sent home.
C2
36 PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, December 16th, 1890.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S., intro-
duced the subject of the low temperatures lately registered,
and warned observers who use spirit thermometers that
they frequently show too low a temperature through the
spirit being present at the top of the thermometer.
Mr. H. H. Howortu, M.P., F.S.A., attempted to deduce,
from a path of migratory birds, the result that the mammoth
and animals living with it may have reached Italy from
Dalmatia by an ancient coastline.
Professor H. B. DIXON, F.R.S., discussed the authorship
of the law of equal dilation of gases known on the Continent
as that of Gay Lussac, and in England and America as that
of Charles. Nothing seems to have been published by
Charles, but his work is referred to in the paper by Gay
Lussac, read February Ist, 1802, and published in the
Annales de Chimie, August, 1802. Dr. Dalton read before
the Society a long paper, entitled “ Experimental essays on
the constitution of mixed gases,” on October 2, 1801, which
was published in Vol. V., Part II., of its MWemmozrs in 1802, in
which paper experiments with air and other gases are
described, from which the author concludes that “ a// elastic
fluids under the same pressure expand equally by heat.”
Professor DIXON remarked that the method and apparatus
described in text books as that of Gay Lussac bear no
resemblance to those given in his papers, and expressed a
desire to learn the origin of the method usually described.
Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., F.C.S., read a paper on
PROCEEDINGS. | 37
“The intensity of transmitted light when the coefficient of
transmission is a function of the time.”
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., and Mr. C,
E. DE RANCE, F.G.S., read the first part of a paper on
“The Geological Section exposed by the railway cutting at
Levenshulme.” The paper was illustrated by an elaborate
coloured chart of the whole section drawn to scale. A dis-
cussion ensued, in which Mr. PERCY F. KENDALL, Mr. J. W.
GRAY, and Dr. G. H. BAILEY took part.
Mr. WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S. Ed., F.C.S., read a
paper by himself and Mr. FREDERICK LEWIS on “The
action of various chemical compounds and metals on india-
rubber,” and exhibited samples illustrating the remarkably
deleterious influence of copper salts.
38 Mr. HALDANE GEE AND MR. TERRY ox
On the Specific Heat of Non-conductors. Part 1:
Caoutchouc. By W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc.,
F.C.S., and Hubert L. Terry, F.I.C.
(Recezved December 2nd, 1890.)
Comparatively few determinations have been made of
the specific heat of non-conductors, and, since a knowledge
of this constant has become of some technical importance,
we have made a number of experiments with different sub-
stances. The present paper will be devoted to Caoutchouc.
Fine Para rubber ;3, of an inch thick was generally
used, and the following figures represent fairly its composi-
tion :—
Caoutchouc 2.9 a)... 9663
PROSTAR eM me 1°25
WN Aen whe oh Ml 177
OAD, CG... cen aencsee ae
10060
Since the water is driven off when the rubber is heated
to 100° C. the substance actually used contained about 98°5°/
of caoutchouc and about 1°37 of a material whose specific
heat would be little different from that of caoutchouc. It
may be considered then that we have been dealing with
pure caoutchouc of the formula (C,,Hj.)+. For the supply of
material and for assistance generally we are much indebted
to Messrs. Chas. Macintosh and Co., Limited, of Man-
chester.
As Regnault’s method of mixtures was employed, not
much description of the process is necessary. At first
sight the determination presents the difficulty that the
rubber being an exceedingly bad conductor of heat, the
The Specific Heat of Non-conductors. 39
time of the mixture attaining its maximum temperature
will be prolonged, and the correction for cooling large and
its calculation uncertain. We find, however, by applying
the correction formule, that the error from this source
becomes unimportant, and certainly less than the errors
incident to the variation in the composition of the sub-
stance, or to the difficulty of ascertaining its exact tempera-
ture when heated.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS.
Calorimeter.
This was made of thin hard-rolled brass 62” diam. and
152” long. It was enclosed within an outer zinc can
120” diam. and 188”” in depth, separated by corks. This
zinc can was soldered to an outer can filled with water
200” diam. and 255" deep. Finally, the whole was
enclosed within a box packed with wool.
The outer can was provided with an annular stirrer,
while the calorimeter had a smaller stirrer with a glass
handle. A baize curtain divided the calorimeter from the
heating apparatus.
Three different kinds of stirrers were used :—
(1) Perforated bucket of very thin sheet’ with a
wooden handle. The roll of rubber was
dropped into this.
(2) A glass handle was fixed to a zig-zag piece of
brass which was fixed in the rubber.
(3) A thermometer was fixed in the centre of the
roll of rubber.
In the latter two cases the stirrer was also in the
heating vessel.
Hleating Apparatus.
In the earlier experiments a steam oven, having a
constant temperature of 98°C., was employed. The rubber
40 Mr. HALDANE GEE AND MR. TERRY oz
was enclosed in a wide test-tube plugged with cotton wool,
and surrounded with a cloth. Later we used a steam-
jacketed copper vessel, into which the test-tube fitted.
The loss of material during the two hours’ heating, start-
ing with rubber exposed to a saturated atmosphere as
tested by means of a hygrometer, amounted to 0°64 per
cent.
Thermometers.
For the estimation of the temperature of the calorimeter
two thermometers by Hicks were used :—
(1) No. 430296 had a range from 13° to 23° C. and was
divided into 10%’, each degree being about 25””.
Hence :—
1 = Qhmm
oo 9-jmm
‘01° a “2D hmm
a quantity which was readily estimated with the naked eye.
(2) No. 430298.
1° = 35
-]=3:5
each’ “1° —5 parts — "0a — "7"
by estimation = ‘001 = 14”.
For ascertaining the temperature of the hot rubber, a
thermometer divided into degrees whose boiling point had
been determined, was used.
The temperature of the enclosure was ascertained by
means of a thermometer by Heintz, estimating to ‘ol’.
METHOD OF EXPERIMENT.
It was thought desirable to inter-roll the sheet of rubber
with metallic foil, so as to hasten the time of cooling.
This was accordingly done in most of the experiments,
though we found afterwards that it lessened the time of
mixture by no large amount. The foil employed through-
The Specific Heat of Non-conductors. 4I
out the experiments, though sold as “tin” foil, was found to
contain 80/ of lead, and the determination of its specific
heat gave as a mean of several estimations ‘035, which
value has been used in the calculations. In all cases the
roll of rubber was completely encased in the foil, to prevent
it from sticking to the test tube in the heating chamber.
About 20 grams of rubber as a rule were employed.
This was inter-rolled with the foil and heated for about
two hours in the chamber described, and then quickly
transferred to the calorimeter, the rubber being easily
slipped out of the glass tube.
The readings of the temperature of the calorimeter
were noted at 4 minute intervals, the calorimeter being
continuously stirred by hand.
METHOD OF CALCULATION.
The following formula was used :—
where
M =mass of rubber.
wW= ,,. ° tinfoil.
W= __,, _ water in calorimeter.
K = water equivalent of calorimeter, stirrer, and thermometer.
T =temperature of the rubber.
¢ = initial temperature of the water.
6=final temperature of the water.
o =specific heat of the foil.
— es rubber.
The value of C, which represents the loss due to cooling,
may be obtained from one of the three following formulz :—
CORRECTION FORMULA.
(1) Regnault-Pfaundler (Aun de Chim. et de Physique,
4° Serie xi., p. 248, 1867.)
42 Mr. HALDANE GEE AND MR. TERRY on
In this formula a graphic method of correction is
employed, or the formula
Le 0,+6
Can + (20+ “9 < - nt);
may be employed
where C is the quantity to be added to the observed maximum 8,
which is taken as that temperature after which the difference
of the successive readings remains constant ;
v=rate of loss of temperature before the introduction of the hot
body into the calorimeter, the mean temperature being ¢
v= the corresponding quantity after the introduction of the hot
body, and when the rate of cooling becomes constant, the
mean temperature being 7’;
O 6: 0,....6, are the observed temperatures at the successive
time intervals from the time of introducing the hot body to
that of obtaining the maximum.
II. Pape (Pogg. Aun., CXX, p. 579, 1863) gives finally
Vm — Vi a VmyyT
= Vin = Vim
in which
_ logy, — logon
oe loge
and
Vm =max temperature of Calorimeter.
V; = initial ce ‘5
V =temp. in heater.
T =time reaching maximum temperature.
Si= sp. ht. of fluid in Calorimeter.
v, and v4, being successive temperatures during
the period of regular cooling.
or, in its most approximate form, using the notation of the
preceding formula,
C=n0 log 9 — log on-+1)
_ loge
where C is the quantity to be added to the actually-observed
maximum 6 attained in z time intervals ; whilst 6,, and 0in41)
are successively observed temperatures in the period during
which the cooling is regular.
The Specific Heat of Non-conductors. 43
III. Founded on the same differential equations used
by Pape, Dr. Schuster has independently arrived at the
following formula :—
AO t,—tloi tn ;
C=" a ee «oa +O
where AO is the fall of temp. in time AT during the period of
steady cooling at the temperature ¢”.
t= Maximum temperature reached in nm time intervals.
t,= temperature of enclosure.
z’ = observed temperature made after a lapse of time T’ after the
introduction of the hot body.
o, and o,= water values of the hot body and of the calorimeter
and contents respectively.
6),= time of reaching maximum.
We now give an example where the value of C is calcu-
lated by these three different formulz :-—
Mass of rubber ... =38-70
4. woul Le eS
3) WOteDL +: Fen 2902
K=3°674+°14+°5=4:3,
Mass of perforated brass holder used as stirrer 12°30.
6=16°97
x’ = 21°62 Room temp. 17°:5
T=99° after two hours’ heating
6@—t=22°
T=6=(7T. Rise= 5°03.
Thermometer in water to length of 3 inches.
The value of v was negligable.
Readings at 4 minute intervals.
0 zéading: <... i... 16Si=0)
in) ssioh peta Vine SOR =
ale pak 2 nee a Op
=a le duds’ seen ee Ue
4,4, he leon OO,
ae Sek iat aes
6 9 sosial 4 ele 21°78 =6¢
Ces Hd soe lt Sy
44. Mr. HALDANE GEE AND MR. TERRY oz
8 ” shale, We tietele 21:80 = 0,
Oysters ae eeRBO pe,
10g. a ee
14 ey eee a
Le. as veil, eye *O2
20. iG eel Spee OG
9300 ee pa
An Lt ee neaete 6) a
Bg.) oe Th Ute ay
Hence v'= :021
Substituting these values in Pfaundler’s formula we get,
after simplifying,
021
C= 795 (1702+ 19-4 — 152-7),
whence
C="17,
and substituting the above figures for the corresponding
letters in Pape’s formula we get
log21°50 — log21-48
C=n0
loge
whence
C='18
and by Schuster’s formula we get
C="18.
We may here remark that this formula may be much
simplified for our purpose by using the form
Ad
C= {pn
as the rest of the formula generally only affects the third
place of decimals.
If now we take ‘2° as the value of C, putting this value
into Regnault’s equation, we get in the above example
299°2+4:3. (21°8+°2)-16:97 ‘75
oS BRT ao 09 LONes een) On eeT
w= “bigs — 0194
=. 498
The Specific Heat of Non-conductors. 45
That the correction is a very necessary one is seen if
we calculate the above, ignoring C, when we obtain for x the
value 0471. About the same value for C, viz. ‘2°, was
obtained by Pape and Pfaundler, in a large series of
experiments made on various earths and salts.
The results agree as well as can be expected, considering
the nature of the substance. From the mean of the best
experiments, shown in the following table, we obtain the
figure ‘480, which, with a possible variation of about 2//, may
be considered as the specific heat of caoutchouc :—
SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
Caoutchouc.
F 200007 68 | 27°04) “Ost ). G53 | 15°36) 1O'26| "12 | “471
27 | 29040) GT) too2) “GB~| 970: | 14°34) 17°25 |,"16 | °486
3- |295°4 | 5°E| 18°35] ror G5°2.. |). EAs s2) 1G°G4r 12, | 474
4. |293°3 | 51) 19°55] “85 | 98'5 | 15°01 | 17°74) ‘12 | “483
5- | 250°0 | 4°0| 18°76] °44 | 98:0 | 16°35| 19°18] "12 | “484
6. | 298°3 | 5°7| 41°28] ‘06 9970 |) 16°72) 23°30 |"24| “478
EXPERIMENTS WITH OILS.
Some preliminary experiments have been made with the
oils distilled from Caoutchouc. The caoutchouc was dis-
tilled in an iron retort, and the vapours condensed, then the
liquid was shaken up with sulphuric acid, washed well with
water, and re-distilled into different fractions. The lightest
fraction—a pale yellow colour—was used, and as the oils are
all polymeric, the same results would be obtained from all
the fractions. The oils are isomeric with oil of turpentine,
46 The Specific Feat of Non-conductors.
whose specific heat is ‘46. For calculating the specific heat
some fragments of copper were heated and plunged intoa
known weight of the oil in a small calorimeter, the equation
being now as follows
Mo(T — 6) = (Mix + £)(0 — ¢),
and
y_Mo(T-6) &
M(0—¢) ~ M?
where +=specific heat of oil.
M = mass of copper.
M'= mass of oil.
k= water equivalent of Calorimeter and stirrer.
a = specific heat of the copper.
Temperatures denoted as before.
EXAMPLE-—65 c.c. oil (sp. gr. =*93)=60°45 grm. Copper=
21°63. T=98'0. ¢=18'45. 0=23'10; whence by above
formula we get
x= r404.
The results obtained with vulcanized rubber in the
form of sulphured cut sheet, were very similar to the pure
rubber. There would be about 57/ of sulphur present; of
which the specific heat is :202.
Some preliminary experiments made with gutta percha
may also be recorded. This body, however, is difficult
to deal with, as it changes its condition when heated, and
again when plunged into the calorimeter, taking a very
long time to reach the maximum temperature ; gutta percha
contains about 30/ of two peculiar resins, to which its
physical properties are chiefly due. We propose to give
some figures concerning this and some allied substances on
a future occasion.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 47
On the Entomostraca and Annelida inthe Levenshulme
Mottled Limestones. By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S.,
F.G.S.
(Recezved December 2nd, 1890.)
The British fossil E7tomostraca from the Carboniferous
formation have been described and figured, by Professor
Rupert Jones and others, in the monograph issued by the
Palzontographical Society in 1884.
All the figures there given were taken from fossils
collected from the ironstones, limestones, and shales of the
coal measures ; chiefly from Carluke in Scotland. In one
case 300 were found in a fish coprolite, and in another a
large number were collected from the débris of decomposed
limestone in a crevice traversing the rock, which had formed
a subterranean water course; the limestone having been
disintegrated by the solvent and mechanical action of the
water. A few had been collected from the limestones of
Settle and Bolland. I cannot, however, find any instance
of microscopical examinations of limestone for Extomostraca,
except a brief reference in the anniversary address of
Mr. Sorby to the Geological Society in’ 1879. He there
describes the microscopical structure of different limestones,
and states that “the Burdie-house limestone is mainly
composed of fine grained particles, the exact origin of which
cannot be proved ; but scattered through it are many
Entomostraca with well-preserved structure.” “The lime-
stone of Ardwick, near Manchester,’ he says, “is very
similar, but, in addition, it contains many entire or broken
shells of Muzcroconchus, with a well-preserved laminar
structure, clearly showing that it is an annelid.”
This paragraph was shewn to me by Mr. de Rance after
I had completed the investigation of the structure of the
48 MR. BROCKBANK oz
Levenshulme limestones. It will be seen that Mr. Sorby’s
description falls very short of the reality, if we are to take
the Levenshulme limestones to represent those of Ardwick.
In communicating my first notes on the Levenshulme
railway section to the Society last year, I made especial
reference to the circular greenish spots which we had found
everywhere present throughout the Triassic, Permian, and
Carboniferous shales, sandstones, marls, and limestones, and
which went by the name of “fish eyes.” I stated that it
would form a very interesting subject for enquiry, and I
believed it would be found that these green spots were
caused by the presence of Extomostraca. The “fish eyes”
puzzle was ever before me, and I have been engaged upon
it since. The solution of this question in the mottled lime-
stones will, I think, govern all the rest; for they all appear
to me to have similar conditions and appearances through-
out the section from Trias to Coal Measures.
The whole of the Levenshulme limestones are more or
less mottled. The basis colour is always grey, tinged pink
with hematite; and this very sensitive pink colour is so
readily discharged by an acid, that it forms a very delicate
test if we can only follow out its indications. I very soon
came to the conclusion that the cause of the greenish
mottlings had a connection with animal life. In addition to
the green mottlings, however, there were also smaller deep
purple ones. A very simple examination of these tiny circles
shewed them to be Sfzvorbzs shells, cut through in all
directions, this giving a dark purple mottling to every one
of the limestones. In the upper beds the Szvordzs is less
abundant, but in the middle beds the limestone is almost
made up of its tiny shells. There is a polished sample of
marble on the table from a bed in group No. 2, which shews
about 300 Sfzvorbis shells in the square inch, giving the
amazing number of 90,000 in one cubic inch. The mass of
limestone is thus nearly built up of the remains of this
The Levenshulme Limestones. 49
small annelid, which probably lived and died quietly near
the spot. The Sfzvorbis has its like in the Sevpule now
living on our shores, feeding on seaweed.
Another mottling, and that to which the workman’s
name of “fish eye” more properly belongs, hasa dark spot,
or nucleus, in the centre of each green spot; the green
fading gradually from the centre to the outside. The same
thing occurs in all the shales as well as in the limestones,
and especially so in the Permian red clays. I noticed in my
workshop when the tables were covered with slabs of red
marls, that the droppings of spiders and other large insects
discharged the red colour and left a circular whitish mark
permanently at the spot. This is, I believe, the explanation
of the “fish eye” mottlings. They are produced by copro-
lites. There are examples of these upon the table. One
of them shows in the centre of the dark nucleus a pink
spot, which indicates organic matter,—as it is generally
found hematite-stained in the limestone fossils. In the
uppermost limestone, where the pink colour is very slight,
coprolites occur as dull mottled circles, and in one of these
is to be seen a small tooth, quite visible to the naked eye,
and probably it will be found to have belonged to an
amphibian. There can be little doubt about these coprolites,
as a large number have been collected from the shales and
marls, as well as these occurring in the limestones.
Returning to the simple green mottlings, which really
present to us the greatest interest, it will be found that they
are produced by organic remains, entombed in the lime-
stones.
It is quite impossible to detect the delicate fossils which
produced them in a limestone fracture, even with the most
powerful lens. Spzvorbzs you see at once, and green mottling,
but no trace of shells, so completely have they been absorbed
into the stone.
I had a complete set of examples of the eight groups
50 Mr. BROCKBANK ox
into which these limestones may be classed polished by a
marble mason—and there were then to be seen some in-
dications of shells and coprolites, but still none of the
Entomostraca. Next I had a set of thin sections of each
of the limestone groups ground down. and prepared for
the microscope—a difficult operation with a limestone of
a very fossiliferous and brecciated structure. The ex-
periment was successful, and the result exceeded my
expectations.
The following are my notes of a few examples of the
eight or ten sections of limestones now produced :—
No. 3 group limestones shows the marble to be made up of
small organisms, amongst which are beautiful sections of oval
shells cut through at varying angles, some shewing the
hinges and the overlapping of the bivalve shells. The
thinness of the substance of the shells points to Ezto-
mostraca, and of these there are several forms present. One
form appears to be Cypridina Primoeva (see Prof. Rupert
Jones’ monograph—* Entomostraca of the Coal measures ”’).
Of this variety some have oval carapace valves, and some
pyriform, and both these occur here. There are also many
filiform objects, which may be either antennz, or very small
bones—some show a tubular structure under a high power,
others have a cellular structure.
In another example from No. 3 group I note on the
marble polished surface :—This is spotted all over with
Spirorbis in great profusion, and with pale yellow circular
markings, varying from half an inch diameter to tiny round
spots, allindicating the presence of fossil organisms—some
thousands to the cubic inch. The microscope reveals many
interesting shells of Extomostraca, but having more sub-
stance and more oblate curves than in the former examples;
the overlap of the valves is beautifully shewn (probably
Cytherella). Many other small organisms are crowded into
the field of view.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 51
No. 4 group limestone has a very different appearance,
both polished and microscopic, and shews the value of the
microscope in examining one of these limestones. It does
not take a good polish—has dark liver-coloured purple
colour with yellow stain-lines and purple blotches—veins of
Calcite ‘run across it and the S#zvordis is rare, if at all pre-
sent. It has a brecciated appearance, the fragments
cemented with calc spar. It appears to have been formed
in troubled waters, under disturbed circumstances. A thin
section looks like a smear of hematite on the glass slide.
Under the microscope it is seen to be made up of minute
angular fragments everywhere iron stained. The shells of
Entomostraca are here, but no two shells together, and many
broken into fragments.
The 5th group limestone is again Nia to have an
irregular constitution, being made up of curved lines of
deposition and crowded with organic remains. Exzio-
mostraca are in profusion, and a fine “fish eye” centre is
there with a red patch in it. The Extomostraca in this
section are filled with crystals, probably of calc spar, which
form very beautiful objects under the polariscope. The
Yin. power reveals curiously jointed tubular organisms,
which may be serpulae, or small corals. In many respects
this limestone differs from all the others. No more in-
teresting object could be found for the polariscope, and it
is absolutely crowded with organic remains, which are
almost perfect. The Entomostracan which bears the name
of Daphnia Primoeva, here present, so precisely resembles
the Daphne of our ponds that Mr. Brothers thought he was
looking at that object in the microscope. The coprolite
also is extremely interesting under the polariscope, as it
shows great diversity of structures and small oval and
curved objects, as if the food of the animals which dropped
it had been these Extomostraca.
The 6th group limestones are again extremely in-
52 The Levenshulme Limestones.
teresting, being much mottled in large blue and pink patches
and teeming with organic remains. True fossil shells and
bones occur in these limestones, and the microscopic view
is crowded with small bone fragments, mixed up with
Entomostraca.
The 7th group marbles have a dark purple colour,
veined with black, yellow, and red. They are thickly
spotted with Sfzvorbzs, and under the microscope are
crowded with bi-valve shells in true positions—there are also
many of the tubular organism—the %in. power showing
clearly the jointings and the central tube. A _ small
shell with spiral’ centre occurs in this slide. The last
group (No. 8) limestones are by far the most beautiful
objects as marbles, the colour being of a lovely deep pink-
erey, mottled with paler pink spots, and the polish is perfect.
No microscopic slide has been prepared from this group,
but one is in hand. The SZzvordzs is present here, as it was
in the first bed, and nodoubt the Aztomostraca will abound,
as indicated by the mottling.
It will thus be seen that the microscope reveals to us the
exact formation of these limestones, and that they abound
in objects of extraordinary interest, in great profusion. The
fact that chalk was made up of animal remains used to be
cited as wonderful, but the variety and beauty of the
organisms of which these Levenshulme limestones are made
up are far more wonderful, and they open out a new field
of research tothe naturalist. The subject of their geological
position, and all the details of the section which contains
them, will shortly be laid before the Society by Mr. de Rance
and myself.
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 53
General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the
Author’s Collective Memoirs on the Fossil Plants of
the Coal Measures. Parti. By William Crawford
Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., Foreign Member
of the Royal Swedish Acad. Sc., and of the Royal
Society of Gottingen.
(Received December 2nd, 1890.)
INTRODUCTION.
My systematic study of the organisation, external and
internal, of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures, may be
regarded as dating from 1851, in which year I published in
the Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society my paper “On the structure and affinities of the
plants hitherto known as Sternbergie.’ Since the appear-
ance of that memoir, a long series of similar publications
have embodied the results of my continued researches.
The magnitude of the subject, and the scantiness of our
information respecting it, led me to adopt a definite line of
procedure in publishing my results. Had it been possible,
the best method would have been to have worked out
whatever appeared to be discoverable about each form of
plant, and then to have published the results in a series of
special monographs.
But two difficulties attended the adoption of this method.
Firstly, it was impossible to know, at any given point,
whether or not I had obtained all discoverable information ;
and secondly, what were the chances of life being sufficiently
prolonged, after such researches had been completed, to
secure the publication of all the results. On the latter
point I may express my conviction that even the year 1890
would not have seen the commencement of such a publica-
D
54 Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
tion. I judged it wiser, therefore, to issue from time to
time, memoirs which should contain whatever definite facts
I succeeded in discovering about any of the Paleozoic types
of vegetation ; filling up the gaps in the record whenever
further researches threw additional light on any of these
types. But this method is also attended by some serious
drawbacks. Even when published in successive volumes of
the same journal, as in the case of the seventeen memoirs
that have appeared in the Phzlosophical Transactions from
1871 to the present year 1890, the labour of hunting
through numerous big volumes, and then piecing together
my detached observations on each special plant, has become
very serious. The difficulty becomes still more serious,
when such memoirs have been published in different jour-
nals. Yet the number of new facts which I have recorded
makes it indispensable that Palzeo-botanists, who are my
contemporaries, or who may be my successors in similar
labours, should have those facts put as easily as possible
within their reach. Living Palzontologists have already
felt the difficulties to which I have referred ; I have received -
many communications, both from my fellow-countrymen
and from foreign correspondents, expressing the wish that
I would prepare a collective index to the entire series of
my Palzo-botanical publications. Having recognised the
reasonableness of the demand, I now commence my response
to it.
The Council of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester having kindly invited me to prepare a series
of such indexes for publication in their Memoirs and Pro-
ceedings, | lay before the Society the first part of such a series.
Each succeeding part will embrace one or more of the great
families of Paleozoic plants that have been the subjects of
my researches. The descriptions and figures of each special
organ of such plants will, as in my present contribution,
be classified morphologically and histologically. Hence the
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 55
student will, in future, see, at a glance, where to find any
information he requires respecting them. In my present
contribution I have dealt with the large family of the
Calamarig, using that term in the comprehensive sense in
which it has been adopted by my late friend Professor
Weiss, of Berlin, and other recent writers on the subject.
In 1828 Adolphe Brongniart pointed out some of the
affinities of the fossil Calamites with the living Equisetums.
In his Classic “Prodrome d’une Histoire des Végétaux
Fossiles,’ he included such Calamites as he was then
acquainted with along with the true fossil Equisetums in
the family Eguzsetacee. At the same time he left a large
number of other plants, which we now know to be closely
allied to the Calamites, in a group which he entitled
“ Vegetaux dont la classe est incertaine.” In his “ Tableau
des genres des Végétaux fossiles,” published in 1849, he still -
placed some of the Calamites in his family of “ Equisétacées,”
but he transferred others to his “ Troisieme Embranchement
Phanérogames Dicotylédones,” grouping them along with
some of his previous uncertain plants, such as Sphenophyllum,
Annularia, Hippurites, Astérophyllites, and Calamodendron,
in his “Sous-embranchement, Dicotyledones Gymnos-
permes ; Famille des Astérophyllitées.”
At an early period of my researches it became evident
to me that these arrangements could not be accepted. I
soon arrived at the conclusion that some, at least, of the
above genera, along with others more recently established,
must all be placed along with the Calamites in the Crypto-
gamic division of the vegetable kingdom, and that the
recent Equisetums must also be included in the same
division. The idea that first suggested itself was to include
them all in the natural order Eguzsetacee ;—making the
living Equisetums the type of the order. But little reflection
was needed to show me that more than this was required.
It soon became evident that the Palzeozoic forms represented
56 Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
a comprehensive, highly organised, and ancient family, that,
for a long period, held its head high in the vegetable kingdom,
whilst the living Equisetums can only be regarded as sub-
ordinate and extremely degenerate descendants of that
illustrious family of which they are now the sole represen-
tatives. Influenced by these views, I wrote in November,
1871, “After fairly weighing the evidence for and against
the admission of the Calamites amongst the true Aguz-
setace@, it appears to me that the reasons against doing so
preponderate over those which favour such a course. To
disturb the generally accepted definitions of a family of
living plants for the sake of doing this seems to me unwise.
I should therefore propose the recognition of a distinct
family of Calamitacee, which, from their complex organi-
sation, must necessarily stand high up in the great Crypto-
gamic division of the vegetable kingdom. (“On the
Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures:
Part I. Calamites.” Phzl. Trans., 1871). My suggestion has
now been acted upon in the wide recognition of such a
family, but with the name of Calamarie.
Some years ago the specimens in my cabinet had become
- so numerous that the convenience of reference made it
necessary to arrange them numerically, as well as to prepare
a systematic catalogue of them. This latter, in its present
form, fills two large folio volumes, in which, not only the
peculiarities of each numbered specimen are noted, but any
special significance which those peculiarities seemed to
possess are recorded. The attainment of these objects made
another movement possible. In my Part XIII., published in
1887, in the four subsequent memoirs, and in my monograph
on Stzgmaria ficoides, published by the Palzontographical
Society, I have attached to each figure and description
the symbol C.N., along with the number which the specimen
so described bears in the cabinet and folio catalogue. I
believe that the adoption of this method will be found to
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 57
have a practical value. So far as the above six memoirs
are concerned, any future students can know where to find
the originals of the figures and descriptions therein published.
The obvious advantages afforded by such a record of the
location of some of my type-specimens made it desirable
that the method should somehow or other be extended to
the other specimens described in all my earlier memoirs,
and the preparation of this Index has made the realisation
of this object easy. Throughout its pages, the symbolic C.N.,
with its appropriate number, will be associated with nearly
every figure and description quoted. Ere long, as is well
known, my cabinet and its descriptive catalogue will find their
permanent resting-place in the Botanical Museum located at
the Owens College, where it will be accessible to Palzo-
botanical students in all future time. Hence, such students
will have no difficulty in examining for themselves the facts
upon which my various hypotheses have been based, as well as
in testing the accuracy or otherwise of my figures and
descriptions. But I have further availed myself of the
opportunity afforded by the publication of this Index to
remedy some other defects and omissions in the original
memoirs. Thus in some of the earlier publications no pro-
visional names were attached to the type-forms figured.
There was also, in some cases, a want of a more condensed
definition of those types. In some other instances suggestions
were made which my later investigations have failed to
sustain. I have also neglected in several cases to indicate
what names of the types emanate from myself and what
have been adopted from other writers. Most of these
defects will be remedied as my present work proceeds. The
whole will, I trust, not be without some little additional
influence in advancing our knowledge of Palzo-botanical
Science.
58
Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
LIST OF WORKS AND GENERAL INDEX
ON THE ORGANISATION OF THE
FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE COAL MEASURES.
Symbols. Parts.
A.
1%
iB%
Vi.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Calamites and suggested genus Calamopitus (not subsequently
insisted upon). Figs. 16 & 17 do not belong to Calamites
but to the subsequently adopted genus Astromyelon.
Phil. Traus., 1871.
Lepidodendron selaginoides, Diploxylon (Corda), Ulodendron,
Favularia, Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Lepidodendroid Cone (?)
ultimately Lepidodendron parvulum. (J@emotr XVI.)
Anabathra. PAz/. Trans., 1872.
Lepidodendron brevifolium. (Burntisland form) and_ its
Lepidostrobus. Restoration of Lepidodendron. Phd.
Trans., 1872.
Lyginodendron Oldhamium; MHeterangium Grievii. Phil.
Trans., 1873.
Asterophyllites with Sphenophylloid axis. Sphenophyllum.
Volkmannia (subsequently Bowmanites) Dawsoni, Strobilus
of Asterophyllites (subsequently Paracalamostachys
Williamsoniana; Weiss) Asterophyllites fruit (subsequently
Paleostachya pedunculata. (See Weiss. Steinkohlen-
Calamarien). Calamostachys Binneyana, Calamites verti-
cillatus. Root of Asterophyllites (afterwards Amyelon).
Phil. Trans., 1874.
Rachiopteris aspera (afterwards petiole of Lyginodendron
Oldhamium)Rachiopteris Oldhamium, Rachiopteris duplex,
Rachiopteris Lacattii, Rachiopteris bibractensis, Anacho-
ropteris Decaisnii. Phz/. Trans., 1874.
Myelopteris (Medullosa of Cotta), Psaronius Renaultii, Kalo-
xylon Hookeri. /Phzl. Trans., 1876.
Rachiopteris corrugata, Fern Sporangia, Gymnospermee,
Dadoxylon, Gymnospermous Seeds, Lagenostoma ovoides,
Lagenostoma physoides, Conostoma oblonga, Conostoma
ovalis, Conostoma intermedia, Malacotesta oblonga,
Trigonocarpon oliveeforme, Hexapterospermun Noggerathi,
Cardiocarpon anomalum, Cardiocarpon compressum, Car-
diocarpon acutum, Cardiocarpon Butterworthii, Polyptero-
spermum. fhz/. Trans. 1877.
Astromyelon, subsequently A. Williamsonis, Calamites, Aste-
rophyllites, Lepidodendron selaginoides, Lepidostrobus,
Macrospores, Rachiopteris rotundata, Rachiopteris cylin-
drica, Cordaites (?) epiderm, Lyginodendron (?) anomalum,
Lepidodendroid cortex, Oidospora anomala, Volkmannia (?)
parvula. hl. Trans., 1878.
sO
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 59
X.
XI.
bd
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
SVE.
XVII.
XVIII.
Arran Lepidodendron, subsequently L. Wunschianum, Hetero-
sporous Lepidostrobus, Calamostachys Binneyana, Rachiop-
teris insignis, Tylosis, Rachiopteris robusta, Sporocarpon
elegans,Sporocarpon pachyderma, Sporocarpon asteroides,
Sporocarpon ornatum, Traquaria, Zygosporites (subse-
quently shewn to be spores), Dadoxylon, Lagenostoma
ovoides, Cardiocarpon anomalum, Calcisphzera (Radiolarize
of Judd). Ll. Trans., 1880.
Lepidodendron selaginoides, Lepidodendron Harcourtii. (The
plant so named here is now designated L. fuligino-
sum. See Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. XLIL.,
p- 6.) Stigmarian rootlets, Medullary rays of Lepido-
dendron selaginoides, Calamostachys Binneyana and
C. Casheana, Fungi. Phz/. Trans., 1881.
Astromyelon Williamsonis, Psaronius Renaultii, Zygosporites
(in a Sporangium), Calamites, Lepidodendron, Halonia,
Sporocarpon ornatum, Salisburia Adiantifolia. Pz7.
Trans., 1881.
Heterangium Tilizoides, Kaloxylon Hookeri. Phz/. Trans.,
1887.
True fructification of Calamites. Phzl. 77 YaNS.5 1888.
Rachiopteris Grayii. Rachiopteris Lacattii ; Calamostachys Bin-
neyana, Rachiopteris hirsuta, Rhizonium verticillatum,
Rhizonium reticulatum, Rhizonium lacunosum.
Lepidodendron Harcourtii, Lepidodendron mundum, Lepido-
dendron Spenceri, Lepidodendron parvulum, Rachiopteris
ineequalis. Phzl. Trans., 1889.
Lyginodendron Oldhamium, Bowmanites (Volkmannia) Daw-
soni. Calamites. 1890.
Bowmanites Dawsoni. Rachiopteris ramosa, possibly R.
hirsuta var. ramosa. [Wot yet published.
** On the structure of the woody Zone of an undescribed form
of Calamite.” Zemoirs of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, 3rd Series, Vol. IV., Session 1868-9.
‘On a new form of Calamitean Strobilus.” Memoirs of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 3rd Series,
Vol. IV., Session 1869-70.
‘On some Anomalous Oolitic and Palzeozoic forms of vegeta-
tion.” Royal Institution of Great Britain, Weekly Evening
Meeting, Feb. 16, 1883.
‘On the relations of Calamites to Calamodendron,” with
description of an intermediate form. Jfemozirs of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 3rd Series,
Vol. X., 1886-7.
A Monograph on “ the Morphology and Histology of Stigmaria
ficoides.” Paleontographical Society, Volume for 1886.
**On the Structure and Affinities of some Exogenous stems
from the Coal measures.” Monthly Microscopical Journal,
Aug. I, 1869,
Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
SPECIAL INDEX
TO THE DESCRIPTIONS OF
MORPHOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
DEALT WITH IN THE MEMOIRS.
FAMILY CALAMARIA. £xdlicher.
GENUS CALAMITES. Suchow.
Calamites. Arthropitus. Calamodendron. Calamopitus. Cala-
modendroxylon. Calamodendrophloyos. Calamodendrea. 4Azctorum
AXIAL TISSUES.
MEDULLA.
ee 479 Fig. 9b, C.N. 9. Fig. 10ob, C.N. 11. p. 488, Fig. 20b,
N. 36. . Fig: 24b, see C.N. 39. ‘p. 487, Fig. I5b, C.N, 63.
‘ “490, Big. 23, (C.N.-42. “Fig: 24b, (CN. Zo:
Primary Medulta.
A.—p. 480.
Tp. 322, Fig. 8,-C.N. 1. Fig. 9, °C.N. 2,
Absorbtion of Medulla.
A.—p. 479-80, Fig. 10a, C.N. 11. Fig. 24a, C.N. 39. p. 4890, Fig.
2ta, C.N. 35. p. 492-3-4.
I.—p. 322-3, Fig. 10, C.N. 4. Fig. 11, see C.N. 1085.
CON} 12, Wigs 13, C.N.@.
Nodal Medullary Diaphragm.
A.—p. 480, Fig. ton, C.N. 11.
I.—p. 324, Fig. 15, C.N. 80.
XYLEM.
Fig. 10.
Fig, 32;
In Transverse Sections.
A.—p. 480, Fig. 9f, C.N. 9. p. 487, Fig. 14, see C.N. 908. pp. 488,
Big 19, CAN; 35. .Fig’20, C.N.. 36.
I.—p. 323.
T.—p. 159-60, Fig. 3, C.N. 52. p. 164, Fig. 13, C.N. 53.
X.—Figs. 2 and 3.
Longitudinal Sections.
A.—p. 480, Fig. 2 and 5, Fig. 25, C.N. 37.
X.—Fig. 2.
At Luternodes.
A.—p. 483, Fig. 10f, C.N. 11. p. 490, Fig. 23g.,C.N.42. Fig. 24¢.
C.N. 39.
T.—p. 165.
X.—Figs. 2-3.
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 61
At Nodes.
A.—p. 483, Fig. 101, C.N. 11. Figs. 2 and 3, p. 490, Fig. 24, C.N. 39.
Pins 25, C.N. 37.
I.—p. 325-26, Fig. 23, C.N. 24. Fig. 24, C.N. 25. Fig. 29, C.N. 23.
T.—p. 162, 163-6, 177.
Component Trachezds.
A.—p. 480-481, Figs. 4 and 12, C.N. 20, 20A, 208.
T.—p. 160-161, Fig. 12, C.N. 58.
Exogenous growth.
A.—p. 485, 502, 506.
I.—p. 323, Fig. 14, C.N. 79. Fig. 15, C.N. 80.
X.—Figs. 2 and 3.
Medullary Rays.
Primary. A.—p. 483, Fig. 1c, Fig. 2c, Fig. 9c, C.N. 9. Fig. 8,
C.N.33.. p. 486, Fic. 11b,C.N. yr. . ps 489; Fig. 20, C.N. 36.
I.—p. 323-25, Fig. 23, C.N. 24. Fig. 24, C.N. 25.
T.—p. 161, Fig. 6d, C.N. 54. Fig. 8d, C.N. 54. Fig. ge, C.N. 58.
X.—Figs. 2g, 3g, 4g.
Secondary. A.—p. 482, Fig. 5d, Fig. 6d, Fig. 11, p 485-87, Fig. 14d.
I.—p. 323, Fig. 16, C.N. 80.
T.—p. 161, Fig. 7e, C.N. 54. p. 165, Fig. 16, C.N. 57:
X.—Fig. 4].
Nodes and Internodes.
A.—p. 483, Fig. 1of andi, C.N. 11.
T.—159-162.
Lnternodal Canals.
A.—p. 480, fig. 9e¢, C.N. 9. Fig. 11e, C.N. 11. Fig. 24e, C.N. 40;
see also C.N. 39, p. 485, fig. Ile.
Rhizomes.
A.—p. 497.
CORTEX.
A.—p. 486, Fig. 9, C.N.9. Fig. 10., C.N. 11.
Primitive p. 322, Fig, 3, C.N. 31: . Fig. 10, C.N. 11. . Fig. 13, C.N..9.
Varieties ee eee 324-25, Fig. 14, C.N. 79. Fig. 1 C.N. 80. Fig. 18,
N. 79. Fig. 19,.C.N. 30... Fig. 20,;,€C.N. 8
eats aoe. Fig. 19a-b, C.N. 62.
BRANCHES.
Nodal positions and development.
A.—Fig. 1b., p. 484 and 489, Figs. 13 and 22, C.N. 38. p. 498, Fig. 33.
In the Owens College Museum. Fig. 38, C.N. 57.
I.—p. 327, Fig. 26, C.N. 96. Fig. 27, C.N.97. Fig. 28, C.N. go.
Pp. 328-29-30, Fig. 31B, C.N. 102.
T.—p. 166-7, Fig. 15, C.N. 57. p. 320, Fig. 30.
X.—Fig. 3i.
62 Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
Verticzls of
See C.N. 129*, 130*, 133*, 134", 135%.
Roots.
A.—p. 498, Fig. 35, Mr. Wild’s Cabinet, Bardsley, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Lnfranodal Canals.
A.—p. 490-491, Fig. 221, C.N. 38 Fig. 231, C.N. 42, Fig. 25],
C..N. 37.) :p.*495.
I.—p. 325-26-27, Fig. 24, C.N. 25. Fig. 25, C.N. 25. Fig. 31.
Museum of Owens College.
T.—p. 156, Fig. 1, p. 163-4, Fig. 6f, C.N. 59. Fig. 1of, C.N. 60.
Fig. 13f, C.N. 53.
X.—Fig. 2h. 3h.
LEAVES.
A.—p. 500.
_ FRUCTIFICATION OF CALAMITES:
AXIS OF STROBILUS.
MEDULLA.
O.—p. 48, Fig. 1b,C.N. 110. 2b, C.N. 1583. Fig. 3b, oe Fig. 4b,
C.N. 1564. Fig. 5b, C.N. 1573. Fig. 6b, C.N. 1569
Medullary Cavity.
O.—p. 48, Fig. 1a, C.N. 110. Fig. 2a,C.N. 1583. Fig. 3a, C.N. 1567.
Fig. ga, C.N. 1564. 5a, 1573.
Internodal Canals.
p. 49, Figs. Ic-2c, 3c, 4c, 6c.
Aylem bundles.
p. 49, Figs. 2d-4d, 5dd’, 6dd’.
Peduncle of.
p- 51, Fig. 11, C.N. 1567.
Cortex.
O.—p. 50, Fig. toe, C.N. 1570.
PERIPHERAL APPENDAGES.
Nodal Disk.
O.—p. 50-1, Fig. th, C.N. 110. Fig. ge, C.N. 1564. Fig. 5hh, C.N.
1573. Fig. 20h.
Lacune of Disk.
O.—p. 50, Fig. 11, C.N. 110. Fig. gi, C.N. 1564. Fig. 18i, fig. 201.
Marginal Disk Rays.
O.—p. 50, Fig. 3k’, C.N. 1567. Fig. rok’, C.N. 1550. Fig. 13k, C.N.
1579. Fig. 14k, C.N. 1563. Fig. 20k.
Sporangtophores.
O.—p. 52, Fig. rll’, C.N. r10, Fig. 21, C.N. 1583. Fig. 3l, CN,
1567. Fig. iol’ C.N, i570... Fig. 125 Wig. r3ll’) “C.No aeaee
Fig. 2ol.
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 63
Sporangia.
O.—p. 52-3, Fig. 2m, C.N. 1583. Fig. 3m, C.N. 1567. Fig. 13mm’,
C.N. 1579. Fig. 14mm’, C.N. 1563.
Spores.
O.—Fig. 150.
INORGANIC CASTS OF THE MEDULLARY CAVITY OF CALAMITES.
A.—p. 490, Fig. 23a, C.N. 42. Fig. 24a, C.N. 39. p. 492, 494,
496-98, Figs. 27; 28, 29, 39, 31; 32, 33, 34, 36.
T.—p. 164, Fig. 13, C.N. 53.
R.—p. 102, Fig. 22, C.N.
X.—Fig. 1a, C.N. 1933.
Lmpressions on Shale.
I.—p. 329, Fig. 30.
Casts of young branches.
A.—p. 493:
R.—p. Io1, Fig. 21, C.N. 1934.
Carbonaceous investments of Casts.
A.—p. 494.
Longitudinal grooves and ridges of Casts.
A.—p. 489, 493, Fig. 26, p. 495, Figs. 29-30.
R.—p. 101-2, Figs. 20, C.N. 114, 21, C.N. 1934. Fig. 22, C.N. 1933-
See also 1944.
Transverse Constrictions of Casts.
A.—p. 480. Fig. 10, C.N. 11. Fig. 24, C.N. 39.
I.—p. 324, Fig. 15n, C.N. 80.
T.—p. 162, Fig. Io.
X.—Fig. 1a, Fig. 3f.
RELATIONS TO CALAMODENDRON.
A.—50I-2, 506.
I.—p. 322, 331.
T.—p. 174.
See also Memoir K.
EQUISETACEOUS RELATIONS.
A.—p. 502-6, Figs. 41, 42, 43, p. 500.
I.—p. 331.
O.—p. 47.
CALAMITINA. Weiss.
CALAMITES. Auctorum.
CALAMITINA VERTICILLATA.
CALAMITES VERTICILLATUS. Lindley & Hutton.
E.—p. 66-67, Fig. 45. Owens College Museum.
64 Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
PALAZVOSTACHYA. Weiss.
ASTEROPHYLLITES. Will, VOLKMANNIA. Sternberg.
CALAMITES. Svrongniart and Lindley and Hutton.
PALAZOSTACHYA PEDUNCULATA. Will.
See Weiss. ‘“‘Abhandlungen Zur Geologischen Specialkarte von
Preussen und den Thuringischen Staaten.” Band V., Heft. 2, p. 182.
E.—p. 57-58, Fig. 32, C.N. 1060.
PARACALAMOSTACHYS. Weiss.
ASTEROPHYLLITES. Will.
PARACALAMOSTACHYS WILLIAMSONIANA.
Weiss, ut supra p. 193.
Stem.
E.—p. 57, Fig. 44, C.N. 1058.
Strobilus.
E.—p. 57, Fig. 31, see C.N. 1057.
ASTEROPHYLLITES (in part). LBvong.
ASTEROPHYLLITES SPHENOPHYLLOIDES. Will.
AXIS.
Vascular Bundle. Primary. Transverse.
E.—p. 42, Fig. te, C.N. 871. p. 42, Fig. 2c.
Secondary Exogenous Zones. Transverse.
E.—p. 43, Fig. 2d, C.N. 872. Fig. 3d, Fig. 4, C.N. 871. p. 45, Fig. 9,
C.N. 891. Fig. 10, p. 46, Fig. 11, C.N. goo. Fig. 12, C.N. goo.
Trachezds.
E.—p. 44, Fig. 6; see C.N. 893.
Medullary Rays.
E.—p. 46-7, Fig. 13, C.N. 891.
CORTEX.
Transverse inner.
p- 43, Fig. 4, C.N. 871. p. 45, Fig. 9, C.N. 891. p. 46, Fig. 10;
see C.N. 894. Fig. 16 g-h.
Outer.
E.—p. 4b, Fig. 1, C.N. 871. p. 43, Fig. 2, C.N. 872. Fig. 4, C.N.
871. Fig. 16k”, C.N. 874.
CORTEX. LONGITUDINAL.
Lnner.
E.—p. 44, Fig. 5g-h, C.N. 871, Fig. 7.
Outer.
E.—p. 44, Fig. 5k, C.N. 871, p. 45, Fig. 8.
The Fossil Plauts of the Coal Measures. 65
NODAL CORTICAL DIsks.
Transverse.
E.—p. 48. Fig. 16k”, C.N. 874.
I.—p. 332, Fig. 32, C.N. 908.
Longitudinal,
E.—p. 47, Fig. 5. C.N. 971. Fig. 15, C.N. 875. See also C.N. 904.
LEAVES.
Longitudinal.
E.—p. 47, Fig. 14m”, Fig. 15m, C.N. 875. See also C.N. 904.
Transverse.
E.—p. 49, Fig. 14m’, Fig. 17.
Fig. 32mm’, C.N. 908.
Verticillate arrangement.
E.—p. 47.
I.—p. 333, Fig. 32mm’ C.N. 908.
ASTEROPHYLLITES INSIGNIS. Wil.
BURNTISLAND (PETTICUR) PLANT.
Younc Twice.
Primary Xylem.
E.—p. 49, Figs. 18, C.N. 909. Fig. 19, C.N. 917.
OLDER BRANCHES.
Secondary Xylem.
E.—p. 49, Fig. 20. See C.N. 919. p. 50, Fig. 21. C.N. 913.
Tracheids.—p. 51, Figs. 23, 24, 25, for transition from barred to
reticulate Tracheids see C.N. 922 and 923.
Medullary rays.—p. 51, Fig. 22, C.N. 892.
CorRTEX.
E.—p. 49, Fig. 19, C.N. 917. Fig. 21h, 50, C.N. 913.
No leaves or Nodal Developments of this plant have yet been discovered.
Divergent Tracheides ; to a branch ?
E.—p. 52, Fig. 27x, C.N. 926.
Roots of Asterophyllites ?
See Amyelon E.—p. 67 et seq. p. 71.
Relations to Sphenophyllum.*
E.—p. 73-75:
I.—p. 332-5.
R.—p. 97-98.
*The Lycopodiaceous affinities of Asterphyllites and Sphenophyllum dwelt upon by me
in Memoir E must now be withdrawn, as not in accord with our more recent knowledge.
66 Dr. W. C. WILLIAMSON oz
SPHENOPHYLLUM. Svonguiart.
E.—p. 42, Fig. 26, Owens College Museum.
CALAMOSTACHYS BINNEYANA.
CALAMOSTACHYS. Schimper. -
CALAMOSTACHYS BINNEYANA. Schimper.
CALAMODENDRON COMMUNE. Szinney.
VOLKMANNIA BINNEYI. Carruthers.
VASCULO-CELLULAR AXiIS.*
Medulla.+
CN: too1. .'C:N. 1016,
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13a, C.N. 1039. p. 503, Fig. 15a, C.N. 1043.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 7a, C.N. 1004. Fig. 8a, C.N. 1008.
Tracheids.— Longitudinal Section.
K.—Fig. 13a.
Transverse Section.
E.—p. 61, Fig. 38, C.N. 989. p. 72.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 7b, b, C.N. 1004. Fig. 8a, C.N. 1000.
Exogenous growth of ?
E.—p. 72, Fig. 38.
K.—p. 504-5, Fig. 16, C.N. 1016.
ALTERNATION OF NODES.
Sterile.
E.—p. 59, Fig. 33, C.N. 1045*. Fig. 34, C.N. 994.
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13e.
Fertile.
E.—p. 60, Fig. 36, C.N. 991.
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13d, C.N. 1039.
* Vascula-medullary axis. There has been much difficulty in defining the structure
of this axis, which varies much in different specimens. In Memoir E, Figs. 37-38, we have the
axis of the specimen C.N. 989. Its centre is probably cellular, not vascular as described in
the Memoir; but it is surrounded by a zone of radially disposed Tracheids, of which the
orientation is specially related to the three points d, d, d, as described in the Memoir, and
indicating some relationship to the triquetrous vascular axis of the Asterophyllites, described
in the same Memoir. Similar conditions are seen in other specimens in my cabinet—markedly
so in C.N. rorq and 1016, in which the central medulla is distinctly cellular, but in which the
peripheral vessels are as distinctly arranged in three externally convex groups. An identical
arrangement appears in the Calamostachys Ludwigi figured by Herr Weiss in his ‘‘ Steinkohlen
Calamarien II.” Taf. 24. In another transverse section (C.N. 1094) these tracheids are clustered
at four angles of asomewhat quadrate section. Other minor features suggest that more than
one species may be comprehended under the name of Calamostachys Binneyana.
+ When writing Memoirs E and K, I had failed to discover this organ. The central
axis was erroneously described as wholly vascular, the elongated medullary cells being
mistaken for Tracheids.
The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures. 67
Internode.
E.—p. 61, Fig. 37, C.N. 989.
K.—Fig. 13, spaces between c and d, C.N. 1039.
CORTEX.
E.—p. 60, Fig. 36k, C.N. 991. p. 61, Fig. 37k, C.N. 989.
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13b, C.N. 1039. Fig. 14b, C.N. 1020.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 8k, C.N, 1000.
DISKS.
Sterile.
a 59, i 33k”, C.N. 1045.* p. 60, Fig. 34k, C.N. 994. p. 59-60,
ig. 35.
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13c, C.N. 1039. Fig. 14c, C.N. 1029.
L. —p. 299, Fig. 27t.
Disc-rays.
E.—p. 59, Fig. 33, C.N. 1045*. p. 60, Fig. 34tt”, C.N. 904. p. 59-60,
Fig. 35t,t’,t”, p. 60, Fig. 36t,t’, C.N. 991. p. 61, Fig. 37t, C.N.
909. |
K.—p. 503, Fig. 13, C.N. 1039. Fig. 14c-f, g, C.N. 1029.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 27¢’.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 8g, g’, C.N. 1000.
Fertile Discs (Lateral extension small).
E.—p. 60, Fig. 36k, C.N. 991.
K.—p. 503, Fig. 15d, C.N. 1043.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 8k, C.N. 1000.
ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.
Sporangiophores.
E.—p. 60-61, Fig. 36v, C.N. 991. Fig. 37v, C.N. 980.
L.—p. 298, Fig. 23v, C.N. 1017.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 8v, v’, v”, C.N. 1000.
Attachment of Sporangia to Sporangiophores.
L.—p. 298, Fig 23, v’, v’”, C.N. 1017.
Sporangia.
E.—p. 60-61, Fig, 36u, C.N. 991. Fig. 37, C.N. 989.
K.—p. 505, Fig. 18, C.N. 1011. See also C.N. 1008.
P.—p. 160, Fig. 8u, C.N. 1000.
Sporangium wall.
E.—p. 62, Figs. 39, 40, 41, 42. See C.N. 1029-1031.
Spores.
E.—p, 62-63, Fig. 43.
K.—P. 505, Fig. 17, C.N. 1018. See also 15809.
Supposed Lycopodiaceous Affinities.
L.—p. 299. These suggestions have not been sustained by my later
researches.
68 The Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.
CALAMOSTACHYS CASHEANA. Wii.
(Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1886.)
Cortex.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24k, C.N. 1024.
Sterile Disk. .
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24t, C.N. 1024.
Disk-rays.
L,—p. 299, Fig. 24t’, C.N. 1024.
Fertile Disk.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24v’, C.N. 1024.
Sporangtophores.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24v, C.N. 1024.
Micro-sporangia.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24u, C.N. 1024.
Macro-sporangia.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 24u’, C.N. 1024.
Microspore.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 25.
Macrospore.
L.—p. 299, Fig. 26.
Additional examples of C. Casheana, C.N. 1025, 1587 and 1588.
POTHOCITES. faterson.
POTHOCITES GRANTONI. faterson.
W.—p. 9-10, Fig. 9, C.N. 1056.
Bowmanites Dawsoni, Will. belongs to the group of the
Calamariz, but since a memoir recording my more recent
researches respecting it is in preparation, the Index relating
to it will appear in Part IT.
EE eee
The Theory of Glacier motion. 69
The History and present position of the Theory of
Glacier motion, By H. H. Howorth, M.P., F.S.A.
(Recewwed December r2th, 1890.)
It is not usual to read papers before this Society which
contain neither new facts nor new inferences. I neverthe-
less hope that the following memoir, which embodies the
results of considerable labour, may be acceptable on
grounds which I will state.
The theory of Glacier motion has involved a long and
difficult polemic, in which nearly all the distinguished
physicists of the last century have taken part, and in the
course of which many hypotheses have been forthcoming and
been in turn discarded. In this it shares the fate of many
other theories. Where it differs from the rest is in that,
whereas at one time opinion gradually converged upon one
explanation, namely, that of Forbes, as alone meeting the
facts, that explanation was in turn sharply challenged on
empirical and @ priorz grounds, and for many years it had to
give place to other theories which seemed more plausible.
Quite recently again, more accurate and careful experiments
have shown that Forbes was substantially, if not entirely,
right. This fact has scarcely yet permeated scientific
opinion, and is certainly hardly yet appreciated, and as it is
of the first moment in settling questions of far-reaching im-
portance in general physics, and especially in theoretical
geology, and as it forms the basis of an attack which I have
long been preparing upon what I venture to style the Glacial
Nightmare of modern geology, I trust I may claim your
considerate attention for what I have to say. I have tried
to make the paper as complete a monograph as possible,
E
70 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ou
and have thought it best and most honest to state each
man’s views in his own words. The general argument and
arrangement are of course my own.
As we rise in the atmosphere the cold increases and we
speedily reach a height when the temperature is always
below the freezing point of water all the year round. It is
clear that above this line no rain falls, but only snow, and
further that this snow when it falls remains in the condition
of snow, and does not melt, except a thin superficial layer
due to the influence of the direct rays of the sun, which is
very slight. Above this line, then, not only does the snow
remain as snow, but also as dry snow, and in a loose;
powdery condition, on which no ordinary pressure will alter
its structure or convert it into ice. This is the case on the
higher Himalayahs and the Andes. Below this line the
temperature is at some seasons of the year above the
freezing point of water, and the snow is consequently more
or less melted annually, and is also in a more or less
damp and moist condition. This line, therefore, marks
an important frontier in the meteorological features of the
high-lands.
Let us now turn to another such frontier, namely: the
line separating the zone where all the snow which annually
falls is melted away and that in which only a portion of
it is melted: this is known as the snow line. This line
varies in height according to the latitude. At the Equator
it is about 16,000 feet above the level of the sea, and it sinks
to about the sea level near the Poles. Above the snow line
and below the line where the temperature is always under
the freezing point of water, a certain portion of the snow
which falls annually is melted by the summer heat, while
another portion gradually augments in thickness from
the snow line upwards. Tyndall describes one portion of
the process in his usual graphic manner: “The sun first
raises the superficial snow to 32° and then melts it. The
Le.
The Theory of Glaccer motion. 71
water thus formed percolates through the cold mass below
and expels the air entangled in the snow, the liquid trickles
down and gets frozen on to the granules which it meets
with colder than itself, augments them in size, and cements
them together.” By this process, assisted by the consoli-
dating influence of pressure, there is formed a mass of
white, opaque, frozen and consolidated, half snow half ice,
the whiteness and opacity being due to the myriad air
bubbles which it encloses.
This white opaque mass is what the French call névé
and the Germans fzrz. Its superficial layers are more
snowy and white, and consist of nearly pure snow, while the
deeper ones have more colour and consistence, and break
on the larger scale into vast fragments, which are called
seracs. The upper part of the mzévé is stratified, each
stratum representing a considerable distinct snow-fall, but as
we pass down into the more condensed and more solid ice,
these signs of stratification disappear, and it assumes a
homogeneous and more or less granular consistency.
“The granulated structure of the ~évé,” says Forbes, “is
accompanied with the dull white of snow passing into a
greenish tinge, but rarely, if ever, exhibiting the transparency
and hue of the proper glacier. The crevasses in the névé
are wider and more irregular than in the proper glacier ;
the colour transmitted by them is green ; the substance of
the zévé is much more easily fractured than ice, and is also
more readily thawed and water worn, and it often contains
huge caverns, in which are pendent icicles ten and twenty
feet in length.” Gradually the ~évé passes, as we descend
into true glacier-ice, blue in colour, and close and trans-
parent in texture.
It is important to note, and to remember, that glacier
ice is, in internal structure, very different to ordinary ice
made by freezing water in a pond or laboratory. It is
formed out of granulated zévé, and it never loses the
72 Mr. H. H. HOWorRTH ox
characteristic of granulation. As Messrs. McConnell and
Kidd say in their recent paper, “Glacier ice is a sort of con-
glomerate formed of glacier grains ( Gletscherkorner ), differ-
ing, however, from a conglomerate proper in that there is
no matrix, the grains fitting each other perfectly. In the
winter, at any rate, the ice on the sides of the glacier caves
looks quite homogeneous. But, when a piece is broken off
and exposed to the sun’s rays, the different grains become
visible to the naked eye, being separated probably by thin
films of water. Though the optical structure of each grain
is found under the polariscope to be perfectly uniform, the
bounding surfaces are utterly irregular, and are generally
curved. The optic axes too of neighbouring grains seem
arranged quite at random” (Proceedings, Royal Society,
XLIV. 333—334).
M. Forel, who has devoted much labour to the elucidation
of the internal structure of glaciers, thus defines this curious
feature of glacier ice: “ The mass of the glacier is formed of
an agglomeration of crystals pressed against each other, and
so interlocked and intertwisted that it is difficult to separate
them, and forming a piece of compact masonry of ice
crystals. The crystals are irregular in shape, some with
their parts curved, and their axes apparently lie in all direc-
tions. These glacier crystals it has been shewn (vide znfra)
grow from the size of a small lentil near the zévé to that of
a hen’s egg at the base of the glacier.” M. Forel succeeded
in imitating glacier ice by alternately allowing snow to freeze
and pouring over it water above 0° centigrade in tempera-
ture. In this way, ice of the granular texture of glacier
ice was produced, and it apparently follows that a glacier
is formed by the periodical melting of its surface by
the sun, rain, etc., and its subsequent freezing, a process
assisted by the presence of the two containing walls of the
valley in which it lies. It is most important in this discussion
to remember what most of those who have treated of glacier
The Theory of Glacier motion. 73.
motion have overlooked, namely, that this granular structure
of glacier ice separates it in a very important respect from
other ice.
A glacier, then, consists of a solid mass of frozen water,
the upper part of loose snow, the middle of semi-consoli-
dated ice, and the lower of ice, properly so-called, which
mass is either embowelled in a single mountain valley, or
formed of several converging portions, filling several radia-
ting subsidiary valleys, and uniting in one mass in the main
depression.
The fact that a glacier is not stationary, but moves in
its bed, must have been known at a very early date to the
mountaineers of Switzerland. They were witnesses of the
gradual progression of its lower part, called the ice foot, which
in many cases has overwhelmed meadows and fields and
even houses. They must also have noticed the gradual
movement of the great masses of stone on the glacier’s back,
which could be seen year after year to alter their position
relatively to the sides. This homely evidence must have
made it plain in very early times to the Swiss shepherds
and hunters, that glaciers are not reservoirs of stationary
ice, but are rather frozen streams in motion. Facts of a
more dramatic kind must also have occurred similar to
those named by more recent travellers. Thus :-—
Toussaint de Charpentier tells us how he was assured by
Jacques Balmat, a native of Chamounix, when he was
travelling there in 1818, that once in the summer months the
Savoyard peasants went with their sheep to graze on a kind
of oasis on the Mer de Glace known as “le Jardin,” when
one of these animals fell into a crevasse and was killed. Some
years afterwards the animal came to the surface some
distance down the valley, and the flesh had been preserved
quite fresh (WMaturwissenschaftlicher Anzeiger der All.
Schwersz. Gesell. fiir die Ges. Naturwiss. for 1821, page 78).
In 1832 Forbes discovered, near the Moulins, portions of
74 Mr. H. H. HOWoRTH ox
a ladder which De Saussure had lost on the Aiguille de la
Noire, in the year 1788. The distance it had travelled in
the 44 years was about 16,500 feet, giving an average of
375 feet per annum as the mean rate of progression
(Travels, 87).
On September 25th, 1842, the same traveller lost a
hammer, which fell into the great Moulin, opposite the ice
cascade, du Taléfre. This hammer was recovered on
June 22nd, 1858, “not far below the Tacul” (orbes’s
Life and Letters, 297). On the 209th of July, 1836) mie
guide Michel Dévouasson lost a knapsack on the Glacier du
Taléfre, in a crevasse into which he had fallen. Fragments
of this knapsack were found on the Glacier du Lechaud on
the 24th of July, 1846, at a distance of 4,300 feet from
where it had been lost, which showed an annual pro-
gression of 430 feet (“Thirteenth Letter on Glaciers,” Ed.
Phil. Journ., 1847). |
While facts like these must have made the motion of
glaciers well known to the Swiss peasants from early
times, it was apparently first published to the scientific
world by Simmler in his work “De Alpibus,” published in
the middle of the sixteenth century.
When it was established that glaciers actually move, men
began to try and find an adequate explanation of their
movement. The various theories which have been sug-
gested all appeal to one of two forces, namely, heat or
gravity. We will examine them in turn, and in doing so
shall find it convenient not to follow a chronological order,
but to first examine the various theories which more
or less exclude gravity as a factor in glacier motion and
which appeal to the action of heat in various ways. |
In his so-called “Itinera Helvetiz Alpinas Regiones,”
1723 (pp. 287—8), J. J. Scheuchzer, referring to the motion
of glaciers, says: “The cause of this motion is not owing to
any miracle, as those ignorant of physics suppose, but is
!
The Theory of Glacier motion. 75
to be ascribed to natural causes. The water flowing from
the sides of the mountain on to the glacier enters its fissures.
and interstices, freezes again, and as it needs more space
when thus frozen, as experiments have shown, it causes the
glacier to thrust forward, and to carry with it sand and stones,
some of them of great size,’ etc. He goes on to say that his
opinion in the matter had been confirmed by observations
made by two of his friends.
The theory thus hinted at was revived by Toussaint de
Charpentier and Canon Biselx in 1819, and was published
in “The Transactions of the Swiss Natural History Society”
for 1821, p. 77, where it is stated that rainwater as well as
water from the melted snow finds its ways into the cracks
and cavities of the ice-mass. The water which thus
percolates freezes again, swells out, and causes the ice to
split and to move. The theory was worked out in
detail by T. de Charpentier’s more famous brother, J. de
Charpentier, and by Agassiz, and is known as the Dilatation
theory.
Agassiz, its best known advocate, states his case thus :
“Ce mouvement parait plutdt étre di a la dilatation de la
glace résultant de la congélation de l’eau qui s’infiltre con-
tinuellement dans les fissures capillaires que présente la
elace, dans toute son épaisseur, et surtout a la partie la plus
voisine de la surface ou elle est moins compacte. Cette eau,
dont la température est constamment voisine du point de
congélation, se transforme en glace au moindre abaissement
de température, et tend a dilater le glacier dans tous les
sens. Cependant, comme il est contenu des deux cétés pas
les flancs de la vallée, et en amont par le poids des masses
supérieures, toute l’action de la dilatation, aidée d’ailleurs
de celle de la gravitation, se porte dans le sens de la pente,
vers le seul cété qui offre une libre issue” (“ Notice sur les
glaciers,” published with Desor’s Journal d’une course aux
glaciers, etc., 1840).
76 Mr. H. H. HoworRTH ox
The position is thus stated with his usual clearness and
fairness by Principal Forbes: “The snow is penetrated by
water, and gradually consolidated. It remains, however,
even in the state of ice, always permeable to water by
means of innumerable fissures which traverse the mass;
these are filled with fluid water during the heat of the day,
which the cold of the night freezes in these fissures,
producing, by the expansion which freezing water undergoes
in that process an immense force, by which the glacier tends
to move itself in the direction of least resistance—in other
words, down the valley. This action is repeated every night
during summer, in winter the glacier being assumed to be
perfectly stationary” (Forbes’s Travels, 34).
When J. de Charpentier read a paper in 1838 before the
Helvetic Society of Natural Science on the dilatation theory,
M. Merian replied that if the theory were true, glaciers ought
to augment in height alone, since the direction of least resist-
ance would be vertically. In this he was supported by M.
Studer, who quoted what takes place when anhydrite is con-
verted into gypsum, or lime into dolomite, when the mass
swells upwards. This view was also pressed by Hopkins. But
the notion that a glacier swells upwards is quite contrary to
the careful observations of Forbes. Studer also pointed out
that the nocturnal cold only freezes a very superficial layer of
the glacier, and that in order that the water should freeze in
the crevasses or cracks the temperature must be below zero of
Réaumur, which is lower than we know the temperature to
be at the base of glaciers (/émozres, op. ctt., pages 113114).
Hopkins argued that while it is true that water freely
percolates through certain kinds of glacier ice, it cannot be
proved that it freezes in the interstices. “The tempera-
ture of the upper portion of a glacier,’ he says, “where
the percolation has been observed, is very little below that
of freezing, and does not appear to be sufficiently low to
convert water into ice while moving with the freedom with
The Theory of Glacier motion. 7k
which it descends through the glacier. Wherever congela-
tion does take place, the capillary pores must be filled up,
and where it does not, the percolating water must proceed
till it meets with the larger fissures, through which it will
descend freely to the bottom of the glacier.”
Forbes’s refutation of the theory of dilatation was two-
fold. He replied to it on a priovz and on experimental
grounds. Thus he says, “ The dilatation theory is founded
on a mistake as to a physical fact..... The maximum
temperature which a glacier can have, observes M. de
Charpentier (Essaz, pp. g and 104), is 0° centigrade or
32 Fahr., and the water in its fissures is kept liquid only dy
the small quantity of heat which reaches it from the surface
water and the surrounding air. Take away this sole cause
of heat, z.¢., let the surface be frozen and the water in the
ice must congeal. Now this is a pure fallacy; for the fact
of the latent heat of water is entirely overlooked. The
latent heat of water expresses the fact that where that fluid
is reduced to 32° it does not immediately solidify, but that
the abstraction, not of a small quantity but a very large
quantity indeed, is necessary to convert the water at
a2 mito ice at 32°. Not a great’ deal less heat must be
abstracted than the difference between the heat of boiling
water and that at common temperatures. The fallacy, then,
consists in this: Admitting all the premises, the ice at 32°
(it is allowed that in summer during the period of infiltration
it cannot be lower) is traversed by fissures extending to a
great depth (for otherwise the dilatation would be only
superficial) filled with surface water at 32° Night
approaches, and the surface freezes, and water ceases to be
conveyed to the interior. Then, says the theorist, the
water already in the crevices and fissures of the ice, and in
contact with ice, instantly freezes. Not at all ; for where is
it to deposit the heat of fluidity, without which it cannot
under any circumstances assume the solid form? The ice
78 . Mr. H. H. HOwWoRTH on
surrounding it cannot take it; for being already at 32°, it
would melt it. It can, therefore, only be slowly conveyed
away through the ice to the surface, on the supposition that
the cold is sufficiently intense and prolonged to reduce the
upper part of the ice considerably below 32°. The progress
of cold and congelation in a glacier will therefore be, in
general, similar to that in the earth, which, it is well known,
can be frozen to the depth of but a few inches in one night,
however intense the.cold. Such a degree and quantity of
freezing as can be attributed to the cold of a summer’s night
must therefore be absolutely inefficient on the mass of the
elacier” (Forbes’s Travels, 36—37.)
This reasoning seems unanswerable. Forbes elsewhere
refers to an experimental proof. He says, “The most
direct observation shews that the nocturnal congelation
which is so visible at the surface, drying up the streamlets
of water, and glazing the ice with a slippery crust, extends,
but to the most trifling depth, into the mass of the glacier.
This is so evident upon consideration that, when fairly
placed before him, M. de Charpentier has been obliged to
abandon the idea that the diurnal variation of temperature
produces any effect. In truth there is positive evidence
that no internal congelation takes place during the summer
season, when the motion is most rapid, and when, therefore,
the cause of motion must be most energetic” (2d. 358).
He then goes on to describe how on one occasion he traversed
the Mer de Glace up to the higher part of the Glacier de
Lechaud, while it was covered with snow to a depth of
six inches at Montanvert, and three times as much in the
higher part. It was snowing at the time, and for a week the.
glacier had been in the same state nearly, the thermometer
having fallen, meanwhile,to 20° Fabr. . . . All the superficial
rills were frozen over, there were no cascades in the
“ Moulins,” all was as still as it could be in mid-winter ; yet
even on the Glacier de Lechaud my wooden poles sunk to.
The Theory of Glacier motion. 79
a depth of less than a foot in the ice, were quite wet, literally
standing in water, and consequently unfrozen to the walls,
and in the hollows beneath the stones of the moraines, by
breaking the crust of ice, pools of unfrozen water might be
found almost on the surface” (Theory of Glaciers, 32—33,
Travels, 359—360). Forbes goes on to say that “if the
dilatation theory were correct, a sudden frost succeeding wet
weather must inevitably cause the glacier to advance
far more rapidly than in summer, or indeed at any other
season, for there could never possibly be more water to be
frozen or could cold ever act with more energy than at
the time in question, but the contrary was found to be
the case, and directly the severe weather passed and
the little congelation which had taken place thawed,
and the snow was reduced to water, then the glacier,
saturated in all its pores, resumed its march nearly as
in the height of summer.’ Thirdly, he urges that
the well-established motion of glaciers in winter is directly
inconsistent with the views of those who urge dilata-
tion as the result of alternate congelation and thaw, and
as the motive force which impels them, since, when the
glacier is completely frozen, this cannot occur. The
fact that the motion of the glacier during the day and
night is sensibly uniform points the same way. If the
theory were true, again, the motion of the glacier ought to
vanish near its origin and increase continually towards its
lower extremity. “I have found,” he says, “the motion of
the higher part of the Mer de Glace to differ very little from
that several leagues further down; while in the middle,
owing to the expansion of the glacier in breadth, its march
was slower than in either of the other parts” (Zheory of
Glaciers, 33—34, Travels, 363—A).
In addition to these arguments Heim urged that, since
water only expands to the extent of one-ninth of its volume
in freezing, the total motion which ensues from the
80 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH oz
freezing of the water in the capillaries of a glacier is very
slight, and, further, that as the glacier gets consolidated,
these capillaries gradually disappear, and with their dis-
appearance disappears also the przmum mobzle postulated
by the dilatationists. He also urged that if the dilatation ©
theory were true, the maximum of motion in a glacier
should be greatest in the evening, when the water in
the capillaries freezes, or in the morning when it should
melt, which is not found to be the case (Heim, Gletscherkunde,
294—5, see also Mousson Gletscher der Jetztzett, 155, etc.).
Mr. Bonney, in regard to this theory, says it fails to
explain the motion of glaciers in the coldest winters, and
the fact that it is not liable to any marked change when
there is a sudden alteration in the temperature of the
surrounding air. Nor have its advocates proved the exist-
ence of the fine capillaries necessary for it to work
upon. On the contrary, Huxley and Tyndall shewed that,
except at the surface, a glacier is formed of compact ice
impenetrable to coloured liquids.
In addition to these various converging and irresistible
difficulties, the dilatation theory does not account for the
fact that the motion of glaciers has been shewn to exist in
the deep blue ice, where there are no fissures, as well as in
the superficial ice. Nor for the fact of the continuously
differential motion which has also been shewn to pervade
all parts of the glacier. It has long been discarded, and
was, I believe, discarded by its greatest champion, Agassiz,
before he died.
We will now turn to a development of the dilatation
theory, which still has some supporters.
As early as 1822 Hugi had noticed the granular structure
of glacier ice to which I have referred, and he urged that
if we examine the most compact ice of glaciers when it is
melting, this granular structure is displayed. (Hugi, Der
Gletcher, etc., 8, etc.) He further showed that the size of these
The Theory of Glacier motion. 81
glacier crystals increases progressively from the higher part
of the glacier to the lower, and that they are in a state of
gradual growth. This observation has been amply confirmed
(/d.9.,etc.),and notably by Bertin and Grad, who employed the
-polariscope for the purpose. It must be confessed that the
process here described presents some very great puzzles
and difficulties for the physicist. How the crystals in a
compact mass of ice can grow from the size of small nuts
to that of a hen’s egg, granting even that the growth takes
centuries to develope, is a very great puzzle. They clearly
can only grow by in some way attracting fresh water to
themselves. Hugi supposed that the water which they
enlist comes to them in the form of atmospheric vapour,
since his experiments had shewn him that the mass of the
glacier was not permeable to liquids, a result in which, as
we have seen, he was confirmed by Huxley, and he further
went on to urge that it was by this growth that the
movement of ice in glaciers is in fact produced.
Grad contended that in his own experiments infiltration
of water was shewn to be possible (Comptes-Rendus, CXIX.
957), and went on to urge that the cause of glacier move-
ment is the infiltration of water into the capillary fissures
and its subsequent freezing on the crystals of ice forming
the glacier, which are consequently enlarged and made to
assume a constant instead of a heterogeneous direction like
those of frozen water. The expansion thus caused developes
a general movement of the ice in the direction of least
resistance, in other words, he says, “la masse méme du
glacier s’accroit par intersusception, et c’est ce developpe-
ment ou cette croissance qui provoque le mouvement”
(Comptes-Rendus for 1867, Vol. LXIV. 46—47).
Practically the same views were pressed at greater length
and with greater elaborateness by Forel, who, in 1882,
published a paper in the Archives des Sciences physiques et
naturelles of Geneva entitled, “ Le Grain du Glacier.” He
82 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ex
contended that while the glacier crystals are very compact,
they are bounded by capillary fissures in which water cir-
culates freely when the glacier zs at melting temperature,
and he explained that Hugi’s results were consistent with
this view. They were made with ice at lower temperatures.
He urged with Grad that the crystals increase from the
water which melts in summer and permeates the glacier,
and freezes in winter. He distinguished between his own
view and that of Charpentier. The latter, he urged, attributed
the movement of the glacier to the dilatation caused by the
passage of water into ice in the capillary fissures. According
to this alternative theory, the continuous increase in bulk of
the glacier is due to the continuous growth of the small
crystals which compose it, the growth of the various
parts combining in a growth and therefore in a movement of
the whole.
Hagenbach, in order to account for the growth of the cry-
stals, instead of postulating an infiltration, urged that the cry-
stals absorb each other,and thus grow at each other’s expense.
In regard to Hagenbach’s view, Forel urged that, if true,
we ought to find in the “glacier grains” a marked inequality
of size, some growing and some diminishing in size, whereas
the mass of the glacier is formed of grains of virtually the
same size in the same district (Le Grain du Glacier, 334).
M. Hagenbach to some extent concedes this objection as
a valid one, but suggests that the infrequency of the
occurrence of small crystals may only mark the surface layers.
In regard to Forel’s view, it involves equal, if not
greater, difficulties. In order that crystals of ice may
increase in size in the interior of a glacier, its temperature
must fall considerably below zero. Forel himself has calcu-
lated that if there is to be an annual increase of 0043 in
volume, or o’O14 in length, in a glacier crystal, its interior
must sink to —7, a conclusion which is certainly not borne
out by the experience we have of the temperature of
The Theory of Glacier motion. 83
glaciers. Again, so far as we know, the crystals forming a
glacier are in contact with each other when its temperature
is below zero. Capillary fissures only develop between the
crystals when the ice beginsto melt. These fissures do not
apparently exist at all, nor is ice permeable to liquids when
below the freezing point, and at a temperature therefore
where the growth of the crystals can alone take place, and
if we limit the actual growth of the glacier crystals to the
winter when the temperature may perhaps be sufficiently
low, we cannot appeal to that growth to explain the motion
of glaciers, which is greatest in summer.
If we are to attribute the continuous motion of the
glacier to this growth of its crystalline components, we must
also remember how very slight the motion would be.
The-water which permeates the capillaries merely fills
spaces already in existence, and cannot, therefore, by itself
cause any thrust, while in freezing its bulk is only increased
by one-ninth of itself; nor can we well see how, when
the fissures and capillaries are filled by the infiltration of
water in the spring, they can re-open again. No force is
available for the purpose. Itis not enough to appeal to the
water and to the effect of freezing in dilating it—we must
also find some force by which the separate crystals of ice
shall each year be pulled asunder so as to again cause voids
(zd@., 364). Heim, in criticising the theory to which in a
measure he was favourably inclined, urged first on broad
grounds that if, as Forel argued, the growth of the glacier
was due to. the freezing in winter of the water which per-
meates it in summer, it is hard to see why in Greenland,
where the summers are so short and the winters so long, the
ice should nevertheless move much faster than that of the
Alpine glaciers (Zezm, 299).
Again, according to Forel, the external cold must first
freeze the water in the superficial capillaries, and gradually
freeze up those in the lower depths of the glacier. If this
84. Mr. H. H. HOWoRTH ox
were so, then we ought to find that in the early winter the
surface layers move faster than the bottom ones, whereas
later on, when the surface water has been some time sealed
up and the frost operates deeper and deeper, the motion of .
the deeper layers ought to be greater than that of the
surface ones, which seems contrary to experience.
Again, if the glacier motion is due to a general swelling
of its bulk, due to the enlargement of its component grains,
how is it that it does not swell upwards in the direction of
least tension, as well as downwards in the direction of the
most compact ice. Its behaviour ought assuredly to be that
of quicklime, etc., when charged with water, which swells and
pushes out in the direction of least resistance.
Again, if the motion of the glacier is due to growth of
its grains, how are we to account for its moving more
quickly in the centre than at the sides? The walls of the
elacier no doubt act as adrag on the movement of the glacier
by means of friction, but that they exercise a crushing
influence on the ice near the sides so as to prevent the
creation of fissures or the infiltration of water there more
than in the centre, seems an assumption at issue with the.
evidence.
Again, as Heim says, if the size of the glacier grains is a
function of the number and rate of the cooling and melting,
and also of the time during which the process has continued,
the grains near the sides, which move much more slowly
than those in the middle, ought to be ten, or twenty, or
thirty times larger, which they are not.
Heim again makes an elaborate calculation to shew that
if the movement of the glacier is merely the sum of the
movements caused by the growth of the crystals, then the
observed rate of melting of a glacier would not compensate
for the growth, but would be very much too small, so that
we ought to find glaciers continuously and rapidly growing
in length and size. He concludes, in fact, that the swelling
The Theory of Glacier motion. 85
of the glacier caused by the growth of the grains must be
very slight, if any.
For these reasons and for the further reason that it
seems impossible to correlate the differential motion of
elaciers,as observed by Forbes and others, with any process of
mere general swelling of its bulk, it seems to me that we
cannot assign to this cause any but a slight influence in the
movement of glaciers.
Let us now turn to another theory which involves dila-
tation and contraction in another form, namely, that of Mr,
Moseley. He had noticed that the lead upon the roof of a
church at Bristol gradually descended owing to alternate
variations of temperature, and arguing from this, he urged
that a glacier’s motion was best explained by the alternate
expansion and contraction of the ice which forms it, due to
variations of temperature, which motion should take place
in the direction where it is easiest, namely, down the valley;
where expansion would be assisted by gravity, while contrac-
tion would be resisted by the same force: thus expansion
would gain somewhat uponcontraction in every alternation of
temperature, and the general centre of gravity of the mass
would move down somewhat. Mr. Moseley defended this
theory in several papers.
In criticizing it, we must in the first place remember
that ice cannot expand with heat when above the
freezing point, and, if so, as Mr. Croll pertinently says,
how are we to account at all for the motion of glaciers
in summer on this theory. When the temperature of ice
is below freezing point, the rays which are absorbed will
no doubt produce dilataticn ; but during summer, when the
ice is not below freezing point, no dilatations can take
place. All physicists agree that the rays that are then
absorbed go to melt the ice and not to expand it (Phi,
Mag., XL. 166).
If Moseley’s theory be correct we cannot understand
F
86 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
why the glaciers in the Arctic regions should advance in
winter, and we ought to find proofs of retrogression due to
winter contraction as well as of summer progress. On this
theory again, why should the advance of a glacier be greater
both at the top and the bottom than half way up, why more
rapid in its medial portion than near its edges? Again, to
quote an argument of Mr. Blake’s, a glacier for purposes of
this experiment is like a piece of ordinary ice, and “if one will
flatten out under the influence of heat, the other ought to do.
But whoever saw a block of ice bulge out under the influence
of heat? If anyone has seen such a thing, or has made any
experiments upon it, it would be far more to the point than
theory, or if these molecular changes could go on even ina
large mass of ice without any v7s-d-tergo, surely some
tendency to a definite shape ought to have been observed
in icebergs which should, as the mass widens out, grow
thinner and thinner.”
Forbes pertinently urges that in order to account for
the observed rate of the motion of glaciers by this theory,
the entire mass of the Mer de Glace of Chamounix must
have an average range of temperature of 44% Réaumur or
9% Fahrenheit, which is quite contrary to experience. The
expansion and contraction of ice by heat and cold can only
take place when it is below its freezing point. If it is
percolated by water it cannot rise above 32° or expand,
and, as we know it is so percolated during the daytime, we
cannot believe that during the night the temperature can
be lowered throughout to a depth of from 300 to 600 feet
of ice through a range of 9% degrees. As a matter of fact,
according to the observations of De Saussure and others,
the actual range of temperature attributable to a glacier is
between limits absolutely incapable of effecting the expan-:
sion of the ice in the smallest degree (zd, 41).
Mr. Matthews, in a paper published in the Alpine
Journal for 1870, says :—“ The whole superstructure of the
The Theory of Glacier motion. 87
crawling theory is founded cn the hypothesis of the varia-
tion in temperature of the interior of glacier ice, and until
that hypothesis. is verified experimentally the theory cannot
be translated from the region of speculation into that of
reality. To Mr. Moseley’s statement, that ice if opaque to
non-luminous is transparent to luminous heat, he urges that
this cannot apply to those portions of a glacier above the
snow line, nor to those portions of it below that line which
belong to the region of #évé which share in the movement
of the general mass. Even in the region of the glacier,
when the substance is actual ice itself, it is doubtful if the
sun’s heat penetrates many inches. The surface bears a
great resemblance to the upturned edges of a pack of slates,
and it becomes very opaque as it disintegrates with the
sun’s heat. Nor would the sun’s rays reach those portions
of a glacier covered with moraine and rubbish. In such parts,
therefore, the motion ought to be greatly diminished or to
be entirely arrested. If ice dilates with heat like lead, there
must be a point above which it does not expand, and where
its own motion will be nil. Above this point, if it is below
the summit level, the glacier will move uphill or be crushed
in its attempt to do so, and below it, each point will move
with a velocity proportional to its distance from the point
at rest, which is contrary to all experience” (Alpine Journal,
1870, 421).
Mr. J. Ball, in the Phzlosophical Magazine for July, 1870,
urges that a glacier cannot move ez masse by expansion
and contraction, since it is not a solid mass, but cut up into
sections by crevasses much deeper than the depths affected
by external changes of temperature. Again, all the experi-
ments (notably those of Agassiz) point to the interior of a
glacier having a more or less constant temperature, and not
being subject to great variations ; its surface being coated with
a nearly opaque crust, protects its interior from any but
trifling influences of luminous heat. The winter cold does not
88 Mr. H, H. HOWORTH ox
penetrate the surface more than a moderate number of feet,
and that of the night scarcely as many inches. Again, if his
theory be true, a glacier ought to progress at a rate propor-
tional to its length, which it does not. In winter glaciers
are covered with snow, which protects them against the
effect of radiant heat, but in winter, glaciers move on as
they do in summer, only at half the pace. How, again, by
such a theory, can we account for the differential motion
between the centre and the sides of a glacier? (Ball, P/z/.
Mag., XL. I—I0). °
After Canon Moseley’s death his theory was revived by
Mr. Brown, in a paper read before the Royal Society (Pro-
ceedings, Vol. XXxX.). In this he somewhat modified the
original view, in order to meet objections, and urged that
the contraction and expansion of the surface layers of a
glacier drag the lower layers after them, and cause the
upper layers to shear over those below them. To this par-
ticular argument it may be urged that the notion, that the
contraction and expansion caused by diurnal variation of
temperature on an Alpine glacier, which directly affects
only two or three feet of its surface, can influence its motion
for a thickness of several hundred feet, is assuredly ex-
travagant. Again the recurrence of crevasses must prevent
the contraction between portions of the surface layer at
any considerable distance from one another (Trotter,
Proceedings Royal Society, XXXVUI1., 93). This concurrence
of evidence seems to put Mr. Moseley’s theory, which a few
years ago was advocated with so much pertinacity and
success, out of court altogether, nor do I know that it
retains any supporters. Let us now turn to another theory,
which still has some adherents.
In the year 1845 Mr. Sutcliffe communicated to the
Philosophical Magazine a paper on a theory of glacier
movement. In this paper he proposed to reconcile the
apparent contradiction between the observed action of
The Theory of Glacier motion. 89
glaciers and the apparently rigid nature of ice by postulating
that heat is actually developed in glaciers by the intense
local pressure in their interior. This heat, he urges, must
create temporary fluidity at points and surfaces where the
compressing force is a maximum, thereby allowing the
particles to slide into new positions, until when, released
from the excess of pressure, the mass instantly resumes its
rigidity. He argues also that pressure without heat may
tend to reduce ice to fluidity. From the fact of water being
denser than ice it follows that, if water were cooled down
below the freezing point while subjected to pressure, it
might be found to remain permanently fluid, whence it
would be fair to presume that pressure sufficiently great
would restore ice to the more compact form of fluid water.
He concludes by suggesting this fact as a possible vera
causa of the motion of glaciers (Phzl. Mag., XXVI. 495—7).
This paper, which is very interesting and suggestive, has
been largely overlooked. It in fact propounds as an
hypothesis a view put forward by Professor James Thomson
many years later with considerable force. .
That investigator argued in a paper published in 1849,
that the lowering of the freezing point of water ought
to amount to ‘0075° centigrade for every additional atmo-
sphere of pressure. His conclusion was experimentally
proved by Sir Wm. Thomson in 1850.
On the basis of this as a postulate, Professor Thomson,
in 1857, went on to argue that, “if a mass of slightly porous
ice containing water diffused in it at 0° centigrade, be
subjected to forces tending to change its form, it will have
its melting point lowered below 0° centigrade, and will there-
fore begin to melt and in liquefying evolve cold; the liquefied
portions being subjected to squeezing of the compressed
mass in which they originate, will spread themselves out
through the pores of the general mass by dispersion from
the regions of greatest to those of least fluid pressure. This
90 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
will relieve the pressure where the compression and lique-
faction of the ice takes place; on the removal of the
pressure the water will be frozen by the cold liberated, as
already mentioned; the water thus freezing in a new
position will cause a change of form, and a plastic yielding
of the mass of the ice. The yielding of one part leaves
another part free from pressure, and that acts in a similar
manner, and on the whole a continual succession goes on of
pressures being applied to particular parts, liquefaction in those
parts—dispersion of the water so produced, in such directions
as will relieve its pressure, and recongelation by the cold
previously evolved, of the water on its being relieved from
this pressure. The parts recongealed after having been
melted must in turn, through the yielding of other parts,
receive pressures from the applied forces, thereby to be
again liquefied and to enter again on a similar cycle of
operation.”
Professor Thomson adds a note to the effect that the
case is not limited to ice originally porous. If ice be kept
at or above 0° centigrade, then as soon as pressure is applied
to it, pores occupied by liquid water must immediately be
formed in the compressed parts, and no part of the ice,
however solid, can resist being permeated by the water
squeezed against it, which by its pressure must cause
melting to set in, thereby reducing it to a porous condition
(Phil. Mag., 4th ser., XIV. 549—550).
The objections to this theory, countenanced as it has.
been by some great names, including Helmholtz, are in-
superable. Thus, as Mr. Brown urges, “its advocates
hardly seem to consider how very small the lowering
of the freezing point is for any ordinary pressure. It
is only ‘0075 per atmosphere. In other words, it will
require a pressure of 2,000 lbs. per square inch to liquify
ice at 31° instead of 32°. This is equivalent to the weight
of a column of ice about 5,000 feet high. It is needless
The Theory of Glacier motion. gI
to ask whether such a pressure can exist within an ordinary
glacier, while, on the other hand, glaciers undoubtedly move
at temperatures far below the freezing point, in the arctic
regions below zero” (Proceedings Royal Society, XXXIV.
21I—212).
Professor Tyndall has also proposed some acute criticisms
of this theory. He first urges that the water in the supposed
case, when escaping, would escape upwards as surely as down-
wards, since the tendency to flow down by its own gravity
would be slight compared with the other forces acting on it,
and the ice above the melting portion would be less dense
and more permeable than that below it, and the glacier ought
to move uphill instead of down. Again,as Tyndall says: “The
difference between the length of the Mer deGlace at Montan-
vert, and at the summit of its principal tributary, the Col du
Géant, is about 4,846 feet. An atmosphere of pressure is
equivalent to about 40 feet of ice, which, according to
Professor Thomson, would lower the freezing point of
water by 0075 of a degree Centigrade. This being so, the
pressure of the whole column of ice referred to, 4,846 feet,
would lower it nine-tenths of a degree. “Supposing then,’ as
Tyndall says, “the unimpeded thrust of the whole glacier, from
the Col du Géant downwards, to be exerted on the bed at
the Montanvert, or in other words, suppose the bed of the
glacier to be absolutely smooth and every trace of friction
abolished, the utmost the pressure thus obtained could per-
form would be to lower the melting point of the Montan-
vert ice by this quantity. Taking into account the actual
state of things, the friction of the glacier against its sides
and bed, the opposition which the three tributaries encounter
in the neck of the valley at Trélaporte, the resistance en-
countered in the sinuous valley through which it passes ;
and, finally, bearing in mind the comparatively short length
of the glacier, which has to bear the thrust, and oppose the
latter by its friction only, I think it will be evident that
92 Mr. H. H. HowortTH on
the ice at Montanvert, cannot possibly have its melting point
lowered by pressure more than a small fraction of a degree.”
Tyndall then goes on to urge that his experiments in the
winter on the surface ice of the Mer de Glace shewed con-
siderable movement at — 5° centigrade, when it would require
667 atmospheres of pressure to melt it, equivalent toa column
of ice 26,680 feet, or to a height two and a half times that of
Mont-Blanc above the Montanvert,whose portentous summit
must have been connected with it by a continuous glacier,
with its bed absolutely smooth to secure the requisite pres-
sure (Glaczers of the Alps, 342—345).
Lastly, it seems to me, Professor Thomson’s theory
fails to meet the difficulty that the motion of a glacier
is differential, that its centre moves faster than its sides, and
its surface more than its base; that is, that the motion is
greatest where the pressure, and therefore the postulated
liquidation, is least.
Let us now turn to Dr. Croll’s theory, which, like all his
theories, has the advantage of being ingenious and of en-
deavouring frankly to meet the conditions of the problem.
In a paper he published in 1870 he took for granted that
Mr. Moseley’s experiments on the shearing of ice, to which
reference will be made presently, were conclusive against
the notion that ice is a plastic substance. His words are,
“Unless some very serious error could be pointed out
in the mathematical part of his investigation, it would
be hopeless to overturn his general conclusion as regards
the received theory of the cause of the descent of glaciers,
by searching for errors in the experimental data on which
the conclusion rests” (Phz/. Mag. XL. 154).
He,on the other hand, saw clearly that none of the theories
already described would account for the differential motion of
glaciers as proved by numerous experiments, and that unless
this difficulty could be explained it was useless to produce
a theory, however ingenious. He accordingly appealed toa
The Theory of Glacier motion. 93
modification of the theory of Sutcliffe and of Thomson,
which I had better state in hisown words. “It is found,” he
says, “that the rate at which a glacier descends depends upon
the amount of heat which it is receiving..... heat assists
gravitation to shear the ice not by direct pressure but by
diminishing the cohesive form of the particles, so as to
enable gravitation to push the one past the other.... There
seems to be but one explanation, namely, that the motion
of the ice is molecular. The ice descends molecule by
molecule... :. The passage of heat through ice, whether by
conduction or radiation, is in all probability a molecular
process, that is, the form of energy termed heat is trans-
mitted from molecule to molecule of the ice, a particle takes
the energy from its neighbour and passes it on, but a particle
must be in a different condition when in possession of the
energy, to what it is before and after. Before it was ina
crystalline state it was ice, and after it will be ice, but at
the moment it is in possession of the passing energy it
becomes water. We know that the ice of a glacier in the
mass cannot become possessed of energy in the form of
heat without becoming fluid. May not the same thing hold
true of the ice particle” (Pz. Mag., XL. 168—9).
He urges, in effect, that the shearing force of the particles
of ice when heat is passing through them is not constant, and
“that while a molecule of ice is in the act of transmitting
the energy received, it loses for the moment its shearing
force if the temperature of the ice be not under 32° F.”
Consequently a molecule, directly it assumes the fluid state,
is completely freed from shearing force, and can descend by
virtue of its own weight without anyimpediment. All that
the molecule requires is simply room or space to advance
in. If the molecule were in absolute contact with the
adjoining molecule below, it would not descend unless it
could push that molecule before it, which it probably would
not be able to do. But the molecule actually has room in
94. Mr. H. H. HOWORTH on
which to advance; for in passing from the solid to the liquid
state its volume is diminished by about one-tenth, and it con-
sequently can descend. But when it again assumes the solid
form, it will regain its former volume; but the question is.
will it go back to its old position. If there were only this
one molecule affected by the heat, this molecule would
certainly not descend ; but all the molecules are similarly
affected, although not all at the same moment of time. At
the lower end of a glacier a molecule receives heat from the
sun, melts, losing its shearing force, descends by its own
weight, and contracts. The next molecule above it is then
at liberty to descend, and will do so as soon as it assumes.
the liquid state. The former molecule has meanwhile
become solid, and again fixed by shearing force, but it is.
not fixed in the old position, but a little below where it was
before. If the second molecule has not meanwhile melted
from heat derived from the sun, the additional supply it will
receive from the solidifying of the first one will melt it.
It will then immediately descend till it reaches the first
molecule, when it in turn becomes solidified, and so the
process goes through the glacier, which is consequently in
a state of constant motion downwards” (P&i/. Trans.,
XXXVII. 20I—204).
To this exposition of Mr. Croll’s theory, Mr. J. Burns.
replied in the Geological Magazine for 1876: “It seems.
strange,” he says, “that a molecule A should on freezing give
its heat to B, from which it is some distance removed, and
should impart none to the molecule on which it rests, or to
those on either side, but supposing the molecules to be
perfectly accommodating in this respect, their downward
progress is only helped by heat passing along the glacier
from its lower end upwards. Let us take the molecules
A, B, and C, somewhere within or on the surface of the
glacier. Supposing B now is melted by the sun. Whena
solid, it was in contact with both A and C, and therefore on
The Theory of Glacier motion. 95
melting it cannot move. True, when liquid it is reduced
about one-tenth in size, and in consequence its centre may
move a small fraction of its diameter towards A; but on
freezing again it must resume its original position. A or C
now gets the heat, melts, oscillates, and freezes in its old
position; and soon. From such heat there is plainly no
molecular motion.” Even if we were to modify Mr. Croll’s
theory so as to make the freezing of one particle synchronous
with the melting of its neighbour, we should secure only the
smallest imaginable molecular motion. In reference to the
denuding power of glaciers, which Mr. Croll explains as
due directly to the stones and other hard matters embedded
in them and propelled along by the molecular movement
he appeals to, Mr. Burns replies forcibly there could not
be a weaker denuding agency than a great glacier which as
a solid mass is stationary, but on whose interior and on
whose surface liquid molecules are here and there moving
through infinitesimal distances . . . . and will a stone that is
held in the crystalline grasp of millions of ice molecules be
forced along by a few dozen water molecules trickling
through a fraction of their diameter along its surface. A
stone thus ‘forced along, may be supposed to scoop out
valleys if the exigencies of geologists demand it, but the
force that moves the stone would not serve to tickle the
sole of a mite .... The motion of the molecules within a
glacier can no more cause a thrust than the rise of the sap
within a tree in spring can pull it up by the roots.”
Dr. Croll did not answer this attack, but in a subsequent
paper he professes to have abandoned the views he originally
propounded on the subject, and to have modified his position
considerably. Inthis paper he says: “Ice is not absolutely
solid throughout. It is composed of crystalline particles,
which, though in contact with one another, are however not
packed together so as to occupy the least possible space,
and even though they were, the particles would not fit so
96. Mr. H. H. HOWORTH on
closely together as to exclude interstices. The crystalline
particles are however united together at special points
determined by their polarity, hence, as Professor Tyndall
remarks, the reason why volume for volume ice is less dense
than water . . . Whenacrystalline molecule melts, capillary
attraction will cause it to flow into the interstices between
the adjoining molecules. The moment it parts with the
heat received it will resolidify, but not so as to fill the cavity
it occupied in the fluid state. The liquid molecule in
solidifying assumes the crystalline form, and as the interstice
in which it solidifies will be too narrow to contain it, the
result will be that the fluid molecule, in passing into the
crystalline form, will press the two adjoining molecules aside
in order to make sufficient room for itself between them,
and this it will do, no matter what amount of space it may
possess in all other directions. The crystal will not form to
suit the cavity, the cavity must be made to contain the
crystal, and what holds good of one molecule holds true of
every molecule which melts and resolidifies. The process is
therefore going on incessantly in every part of the glacier,
and in proportion to the heat which the glacier is receiving.
This internal molecular pressure, resulting from the solidify-
ing of the fluid molecules in the interstices of the ice, acts
on the mass of the ice as an expansion force, tending to
cause the ice to widen out in all directions.”
This is the theory of the mechanism of ice motion as
finally developed by Dr. Croll. It has been sifted with
critical skill and acumen by the Reverend J. F. Blake, in
the 3rd volume of the Geological Magazine, p. 493, and so
far as we can see has been completely shattered by him.
At all events his analysis has never been met in any way.
As Mr. Blake so well shewed, in speaking of crystalline
molecules and liquid molecules of the same substance as if
they were different in size or shape, Dr. Croll used language
without meaning in physical science; a molecule is the
o
The Theory of Glacier motion. Q7
ultimate factor to which we can reduce any piece of matter,
and being so, is absolutely unalterable in shape and in size,
we cannot divide it or alter it without constituting a new
substance altogether. The different forms assumed by
each substance are not due in any way to an alteration in
its ultimate factors, namely, its molecules, but to the re-
arrangement of these same molecules. We cannot, as Dr.
Croll does, speak of the melting of a crystalline molecule,
and of its flowing into the interstices between adjoining
molecules, nor can we speak of a liquid molecule solidifying
and assuming the crystalline shape. This language, and the
whole induction based upon it, ignores entirely the real nature
of molecules. If we put aside this fundamental contradiction,
and understand Dr. Croll as referring not to molecules but
to the minute particles which are aggregated together in al
masses of ice, each particle consisting of a congeries of
molecules, which when it melts are loosened, we are no
nearer a rational solution of our difficulty.
Suppose we grant that, in melting, these particles lose
their polarity and arrange themselves so that they get better
into the spaces between those forming part of the crystalline
substance, and better also among themselves, so that on the
whole they occupy less room than before, Mr. Croll seems
to argue that in solidifying these particles will find the
spaces or interstices in which they solidify too narrow for
them, and must consequently squeeze their neighbours
asunder, and thus cause the ice to expand. To this Mr.
Blake replies: “Is the fragment or particle of ice to which
the argument is applied divisible or indivisible under the
ordinary forces of nature? If divisible, why does it not
flow into several interstices, and get squeezed into more in
the act of solidifying, and make several small crystals
instead of one bigger one? If indivisible the main mass
would remain in the original cavity, and could only crys-
tallise by coming back together, or by the main mass
98 2 Mr. H. H. HOWoRTH ox
coming after the minute portion that had got entangled in
an interstice. Again, why should not in every case the
molecules whose attachment is loosened by melting go back
to their old place in solidifying?” “Unless some new force
is brought into play,” says Mr. Blake, “on the instant,
whatever old forces they overcame originally in the act of
crystallising the first time, they can certainly overcome again
none that Mr. Croll mentions. Gravity always acted, and
the molecular forces of crystallization are just as competent
to push back the molecules against it as they were before
when first the ice was formed” (Geol. Mag., 1876, 495—6).
“There is nothing,” he continues, “in Mr. Croll’s theory,
to distinguish a glacier from an ordinary piece of ice, and if
one will flatten out as he supposes, the other ought to do
so too. But, whoever saw a block of ice bulge out under
the influence of heat? Again, Mr. Croll, in arguing about a
small portion of ice melting and then resolidifying, and
passing its heat on to the next, and so on, seems to ignore
the elements of latent heat and of conductivity in ice.
Before a particle of ice can melt, it must first be brought to
the melting point, after which so many units of heat must
be added to it in order to melt it. Suppose a melted
particle in the midst of ice colder than at melting point, its
heat would be distributed in raising the temperature of the
surrounding ice, according to its conductivity, and what
was left would be insufficient to melt any other particle of
its own size. Hence, before the solidifying of one particie
could be sufficient for melting another, the whole surround-
ing mass must be at melting point, and there must further
be some cause for the devotion of the spare heat to one
particular particle, to say nothing of the cause which is to
bring about a perpetual doing and undoing of the same
operation. If there could be any such passing on of a
melted state through a body to the other end, we ought to
see a glass rod held in the fire melting at the end away
The Theory of Glacier motion. 99
from the fire, or does the outside particle refuse to melt?
A candle, too, ought to melt in the socket instead of near
the lighted wick, and to bulge out into abnormal obesity.
When heat is applied to ice the heated side is first raised to
the melting point, and as we recede from that side the
temperature gradually diminishes. If more heat is applied
it is spent in keeping up this state of the ice as to tem-
perature against all possible losses, and in melting that part
of the ice nearest to it. No amount of this additional heat
will alter the state of the interior, except so far as it may
alter the other conditions on which it depends..... No
amount of internal heat could possibly bring about internal
melting in a uniform mass of ice. It is simply a myth”
(1d. 497).
Again, as Heim says, Croll neglects the fact that ice is
transparent to heat rays to some depths ; but when we have
considerable thickness, as on a glacier at 0° of temperature,
the heat rays are not transmitted, but go to melt the surface
layers. Croll’s theory does not account for the quicker pro-
gress of the centre than the sides of a glacier, nor for
crevasses, etc., etc. (Heim, 308). )
Again Croll’s theory requires that his glacier shall
be at the temperature of 32°, whereas we have every
reason to believe that it is much below that temperature
during a large part of the year, not only on account of
the rarefied atmosphere in which it lives but the continual
radiation from its surface at night and evaporation at all
times, and except in its lower layers, when the glacier is
constantly passing into a liquid form, it is most improbable
that the temperature in any part of a glacier is so high as 32,
It cannot be urged that when a minute crystal of ice
melts, the liquid thus formed drains away between the
interstices of its neighbours, or we should have every slab
of ice subject to solar rays sweating away its substance
from its nether surface, which is not the case. So far as
100 _ Mr. H. H. HOWorRTH oz
we can experiment, we find that the sun’s rays acting on a
mass of ice melt its surface layers, and they flow away by
gravity, or remain as tightly enclosed by the nether ice
where gravity cannot work as water in a _ well-puddled
reservoir does. But Dr. Croll ignores this every-day melting
of ice altogether, and introduces us to a transcendental
method.
This completes the roll of the various theories which
have been forthcoming to account for the motion of glaciers.
independently of gravity, and it must be admitted that they
all fail to reconcile themselves to the ordinary laws of physics,
and fail, therefore, to secure for themselves a place among
the postulates of empirical science. Let us now turn to the
theories which in various ways invoke gravity as the chief
motor in glacier motion.
We will begin with the earliest of these theories, namely,
the sliding hypothesis.
It was first scientifically stated by G. S. Gruner, ina
work published at Berne in 1760, entitled Beschretbung
des Eusgebirges der Schweizerlandes. In this he refers to
the fact of stones on the back of the glacier at Grindelwald
having been seen to move gradually down, so that a stone
had been noticed to advance 50 paces in six years, and.
urges that the whole mass of ice which is embowered in the
valley moves down ex masse by its own weight. This
movement, he argues, is assisted by the greater humidity of
the nether surface of the glacier.
Deluc the elder somewhat modified Gruner’s position.
He argued that great caverns and hollows are formed under-
neath glaciers which are thus supported on a kind of ice
pillars, when they give way the ice mass gives way, and its
tendency is to move down the slope on which it rests. “This,”
he says, “‘causes the march down of great masses of ice called
glaciers. They do not slide down ex masse, but piecemeal,
the pieces or fields of ice being separated by crevasses
The Theory of Glacier motion. IOI
which close up as the hinder field overtakes the one in front,
and the one in front pushes before it the earth as it advances.”
Our author writes very modestly, however, and confesses
that the subject is full of difficulty (Lettres Physiques, etc.
The Hague, 1778, vol i. 140—142).
De Saussure, to whom the sliding theory is generally
attributed, no doubt discovered and published it indepen-
dently, but later, in his work, Voyages dans les Alpes, of
which the first volume was published in 1779. His state-
ment of it I translate as follows: “Another cause which
prevents the excessive growth of the snow and ice is their
_ weight, which presses them more or less rapidly into the
valleys where the heat of the summer melts them. The
descent of the snow in the form of an avalanche is a known
phenomenon to which we shall return. That of the ice,
which is more gentle and generally with less noise, has been
less observed. Nearly all glaciers, as well of the first as of
the second kind, rest on inclined beds, and all those of more
than a certain size have beneath them, even in winter,
currents of water which flow between the ice and the bed
which supports it. It can be understood, therefore, that
these frozen masses, following the inclined bed on which
they rest, separated by the water from their attachment to
the ground and sometimes supported by the water, must
slide little by little and descend, following the inclination of
the valleys. It is this gradual but continuous sliding of the
ice on its inclined bed which moves it into the low valley.”
These sentences contain what De Saussure had to say
about the motion of glaciers, and it will be seen that both he
and his predecessor, Gruner, contented themselves with the
supposition, to use the words of Principal Forbes, “ that the
mass of the glacier is a rigid body sliding over its trough or
bed in the manner of solid bodies.”
This view was maintained by De Saussure’s followers,
notably by Ramond, Kuhn, etc., who all apparently treated
G
102 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH oz
glacier motion as a motion ez masse caused by gravity, due
partially to their own weight, partially to the pressure of
the higher ice and névé (see Stud@&, Lehrbuch, 1844).
Forbes summed up his arguments against this theory —
thus: “If the glacier slides down its bed, why is not its motion
continually accelerated, z.e., why does it not result in an
avalanche? and is it not inconceivable that a vast and irregu-
lar mass like a glacier, having a mean slope of only 8° and
often less than 5°, can s/zde, according to the common laws
of gravity and friction, over a bed of uneven rock, and
through a channel so sinuous and irregular that a glacier is
often embayed in a valley, whence it can only escape by an
aperture of half its actual width? On all mechanical
principles, we answer, that is impossible. We may add that
many small glaciers are seen to rest upon slopes of from
20° to 30° without taking an accelerated motion; and this
is conformable to the known laws of friction. It is known,
for instance, to architects that hewn stones, finely dressed
with plane surfaces, will not slide over one another until the
slope exceeds 30° (Forbes’ Travels, 35).
He says further “there is no reason to suppose that either
Gruner or De Saussure thought it necessary to take into
account the varying form of the channel through which the
glacier had to pass, and the consequently invincible barrier
presented to the passage of a rigid cake of ice through a
strait or narrowed aperture where it occurred” (Phd.
Trans., 1846, p. 137). |
Hopkins, who resuscitated De Saussure’s theory in
another form, in replying to Forbes, denied that the bed of
a glacier is rough and rugged ; “how,” he says, “could the
hardest rocks resist for thousands of years the increasing
effects of infinitely the most powerful polisher that nature
has put in action; the fact of the existence of voches polies
at the end of a glacier and the continuation of glacier
valleys proves uncontrovertably that there is some sliding
The FF heory of Glacier motion. 103
in glaciers,’ and he urges that the surfaces of rocks
forming the beds of glaciers must necessarily be free from
asperities.
. He further showed, experimentally, that, while it is per-
fectly true that a smooth hard body will not descend down
an equally smooth hard plane at angles considerably greater
even than that at which some glaciers are formed, ice
nevertheless does so; and he argues that whereas the
particles of ice in contact with the plane are capable, so long
as they remain a part of the so/zd mass, of exerting a consi-
derable force to prevent sliding, they are incapable of
exerting any sensible force when they become detached
from the mass by the liquefaction or disintegration of its
lower surface, and he contended that the essential condition
of glacier motion is that its lower surface is kept continually
at or near zero by the conduction of heat from the earth’s
crust, which is proved by the flow of water from underneath
all points of glaciers (Phzl. Mag. XXVI. I—16).
Hopkins also proved experimentally that the argument
of Charpentier and Forbes as to the motion of a glacier,
if it moved ez masse, being an accelerated motion, is only
true of angles greater than that whose tangent determines
the co-efficient of friction between the glacier and its bed;
and he further shewed that, for inclinations not exceeding
9 or 10°, the motion of a moving mass of ice is approxi-
mately proportional to the inclination of the slope on which
it rests, and that such velocity is increased by increase of
weight, and he succeeded in establishing that slzding due to
gravitation is a real and very important element in glacier
motion. It seems quite clear that the scratching of the
bed and sides of the valley by stones enclosed like planes
in the mass of the ice, and the polishing of large surfaces
and the rounding of inequalities, shows that in regard to a’
portion, at all events, of its work, a glacier acts as a rigid
body propelled by gravity.
104 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
The chief substantial objection against the theory that
it moves entirely ez masse is, that the motion of its differ-
ent parts is not uniform, but, on the contrary, there is a
differential motion by which its centre moves faster than its
sides, and its surface layers faster than the bottom, and this
motion is continuous from day to day, and is not made by
fits and starts; so that, granting that a certain movement ez.
masse takes place, this can only explain one portion of the
problem, the greater portion of it remains unexplained. A
similar objection applies to the modifications of the sliding
theory propounded by Mr. Mallet and M. Martins.
The first of these was published in a paper read before.
the Geological Society of Dublin in 1838 by Mr. Robert
Mallet. He affirms that the przmum mobile which causes
the movements of glaciers is hydrostatic pressure acting
between them and the rocky bed on which they rest,
and thus at intervals lifting them up and floating them, or,.
as it were, transferring them upon liquid rollers from a
higher to a lower level. He goes on to argue that the bed
on which a glacier rests is always warmer than the glacier
itself, whence the bottom of the glacier is always melting,
thus accounting for the torrents which underlie it. This
sub-glacier melting, he urges, goes on irrespective of season
or climate. In summer the stream is also fed by the
melted snow and ice of the surface, the water from which
finds its way below by the many fissures. These waters
find a ready vent in summer, and, according to Mr. Mallet,
the glacier would not move at all in that. season but for
certain disturbing causes. But to give his own words:
“When winter has covered its whole expanse many feet
deep in snow, and when the embouchure of the sub-
glacial streams is also gelid, and partially, or sometimes
wholly stopped, the waters rising and pent up beneath the
bed of the glacier, lift its mass more or less from off the base on
which it rests, and with more or less regularity according to
The Theory of Glacier motion. ‘105
the variety and size of the several segments into which it -
is divided by the crevices, until at length a sufficient change
of position is effected to permit the escape of the imprisoned
waters, when these, rushing forth, empty the icy caverns
which they had filled, and the mass of the glacier, whole or
in parts, descends by a certain distance into the valley. The
- motion cannot hence be uniform, but fer saltum, which is
found to be the general fact, though often difficult of ob-
servation” (Zvans. Dub. Geol. Soc. I. 319—320). This
operation, Mr. Mallet argued, was facilitated by the ice
being of less specific gravity than water, and he urges that,
when the glacier was raised by hydrostatic pressure, it
was so in a direction perpendicular to its bed, but, when by
the withdrawal of the water it was again deposited, it would
rush in a direction perpendicular to the horizon ; hence the
cause of its motion (zd, 321). By means of this theory
Mallet professes to account in an ingenious way for many
of the phenomena of glaciers. The theory, I need not say,
is no longer held by anyone, although it hardly deserves
so severe a criticism as was passed upon it by Charpentier,
when he says of it :—“ Voila une explication quia besoin
de commentaire, mais non pas de refutation” (ssaz sur les
Glaciers, 38 note.) This sharp phrase is due to the fact that
he altogether misunderstood the argument of the ingenious
Irish writer. It is answered completely, however, by an
appeal to the fact that glaciers have been clearly shewn not
to move by jerks and jumps, but continuously in winter
and in summer, and also that they have a continuously
differential motion. While his main theory no longer lives,
we must not forget that it was Mallet who first, in the paper
just cited, noticed that the transverse crevasses in glaciers
have a curved form with their convex side presented
downwards, and in the direction of the glacier motion
(op. cit., 321), and he urged that the central parts of a
glacier must descend much more rapidly than its lateral
106 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH on
ones (z@., 328). This most important generalization, which
has been amply confirmed since, was the first step in
a truly scientific theory of glaciers based upon experimental
and not upon a priorz methods.
M. Martins proposed another modification of De Saussure’s
theory. He states his theory thus: “In summer, immense
transverse crevasses divide the entire mass of the glacier
vertically into so many secondary wedge-shaped masses ;
consequently its surface is increased by the sum of all the
spaces which the crevices leave between them at their upper
part. The glacier resting firmly against the mountain
cannot be pushed backward ; it is, therefore at its lower
part when nothing arrests it, that it becomes displaced and
moves forward. The winter following, these crevices are
filled with snow, blown into them by the winds, or falling in
the form of avalanches. This snow becomes ice under the
alternate influences of melting and freezing during the
months of May, June, September, and October. In the
succeeding summer months new crevices are formed, the
glacier advances, and so on successively. This progression
is therefore neither a slipping nor a sinking (both of which
it is difficult to admit, since the ice must adhere to the
ground), but a successive dismemberment (Za. Phil. Jour.,
30. 294).
Besides the objection that we now know, that the move-
ment of glaciers is continuous and not by jerks, Forbes.
adds, that it is universally admitted that the glacier proper
does not grow by the consolidation of snow in its fissures
(Lheory of Glaciers, 101).
The views of De Saussure were fonees and modified, as
I have mentioned, by a physicist of the first rank, in the
person of Mr. W. Hopkins. In his modification of the
theory, he got over the difficulty of the differential motion
by a somewhat ingenious argument. In his paper published
in the eighth volume of the Cambridge T: ransactions, he
The Theory of Glacier motion. 107
pressed the view that the friction of the ice against the
sides of the valley produces a dislocation of the glacier into
longitudinal stripes, and as a result the central portions
slide past those adjacent to them, and so on for successive
strips as we approach the sides, the more rapid retardation
near the sides being rendered mechanically possible by the
increased number of these longitudinal dislocations. The
result in such a case, it was argued by Hopkins, would be
that the ice would advance by échelons, or that strips. of ice
of a certain number of feet, or yards, or fathoms, would
move either suddenly or by gradual sliding, but at all events
so as to mark by an abrupt separation at the longitudinal
fissure, that the one portion of the ice had slipped past the
other by a distinct measurable quantity.
In regard to this notion of a glacier being a congeries of
moving masses, Forbes maintains that a rugged channel
like that of a glacier being packed with angular solid
fragments would speedily be choked, and that further
pressure from behind would tend to wedge the fragments
more tightly. ... and if the figure of the channel be irregular
z.¢. have expansions and contractions, however smooth
its surface, and however small the sliding angle, the
choking of a strait or contraction by the piling of the
fragments will be as complete as if the lateral friction were
excessive. This points to the impossibility of the discharge
of a fragmentary solid through a gorge by long strips
fractured parallel to its length, and constituting parallelo-
pipedons of a certain breadth ; secondly, he urges that actual
observation proves that a glacier is not a mass of fragments
or parallelopipedons, as some have supposed. Most of the
crevasses at a small depth shrink to mere slits, and perhaps
disappear altogether, and the area they occupy is small
_ compared with that of the unbroken ice, and when viewed
as a whole, is capable of conveying strains as thrusts, its
cohesion is no more destroyed than a parchment sieve is
108 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
incapable of being stretched because it is covered with fine
slits. Again, it is seldom the crevasses intersect even when
most numerous, and they do not therefore separate the whole
mass into blocks or fragments, and when they do so, it would
seem that they are very shallow, causing only a surface dis-
location or they would fall away in avalanches.
Were, he says, the inequality of the central and lateral
movement of the glacier mass to be attributed to longitudinal
fissures or discontinuities, by means of which broad strips
of ice slide past each other, we should have to demonstrate
the existence of such fissures, which could not be always
close unless either (1) the surfaces were mathematically
adapted to slide over one another, or (2) the ice possessed
sufficient plasticity to mould the surfaces to one another’s
asperities, in which case the plasticity would alone be
sufficient without the discontinuity, to explain the motion of
the ice. These longitudinal fissures, cutting the common
transverse fissures perpendicularly, would divide the glacier
even where most level into trapezia, and no transverse cre-
vasse could be straight edged, but must be jagged like a saw,
or cut ez échelon. Such a phenomenon never occurs unless
where a glacier is moving ¢orrentially or with great distur-
bances, and down a steep. Z%ere such longitudinal fissures
may occasionally be seen, but they form the exception and
not the rule. It has been demonstrated by an elaborate
proof, that the only trace of longitudinal discontinuity in the
normal condition of the glacier is to be found in the veined
structure, which, being caused by a partial discontinuity at a
vast number of points, admits of an insensible deformation
of the glacial mass without sudden or complete rents, or slips,
or the formation of zigzag crevasses (Phzl. Trans., 1846, 197).
In the course of this controversy Mr. Hopkins urged
that both the sliding and the viscous theories, that is
his own and Forbes’s theories, agree in assigning gravity
as the primary cause of glacier motion, but in the one
The Theory of Glacier motion. 109
case the efficiency of gravity is principally due to the
state of disintegration of the lower surface of the glacier,
while in the other it is maintained that its efficiency is
due to the plasticity of the general mass. He does not
deny that ice may be partially plastic, but while admitting
this he urges that much the greater portion of the move-
ment is due to sliding. He also, with singular fairness,
appeals to further experiment as the real test, and he states
that the observations required are such as will determine,
as far as possible, the relative motions of the upper and
lower surfaces of a glacier, and he admits that if experiment
proves the motion of the upper part of a glacier to bear a
large ratio to that of the lower surface, the claims of the
viscous theory must be at once admitted (Phil. Mag., 1845.
XXVI. 247—250). The test last mentioned was again
appealed to by Mr. Hopkins in a later paper, in which he
says: “The ultimate test of the sliding and plastic theories
must be sought in observations on the relative motions of
the upper and lower surfaces of a glacier. The claims of
the two theories would thus be decided beyond dispute.
Accurate observations are also required to ascertain
the form which a continuous straight line drawn on
the surface of a glacier and perpendicular to its axis will
assume by the more rapid motion of its central portion.
Will it be deformed into a@ continuous loop or into a
a discontinuous one. Such observations would decide the
degree in which the greater central motion is due to the
flexibility or plasticity of glacial ice, and the degree in
which it is attributable to the dislocation of the general
mass. Observations of both kinds are become essential in
the present state of glacial theories, and would do much
more towards settling the question at once respecting the
cause of glacial motion, than any further controversy.”
(Phil. Mag., XXV1. 599). The appeal was not declined by
Forbes.
1IO Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
In 1845, he made some detailed experiments upon the
respective motion of glaciers at their surface and base. He
made elaborate measurements on the terminal face of the
Glacier des Bois at points 8, 54, and 143 feet respectively,.
above the bed or floor of the glacier. The result confirmed
his anticipations, that the effect of friction in retarding
motion is most sensible the nearer one gets to the base. The
measured motion of the three points was as follows :—
Feet. Feet. Feet.
BL 4°18 4°66
being after the ratio of 1°00 246 \and T-G2:
These results were confirmed by measurements made by
MM. Dollfuss and Martins, and published in the Comftes-.
Rendus of the Academy, for October 26th, 1846. Their
measurements were made on the lateral face of the glacier, .
and the two sets of measurements combined exactly with
the demand made by Mr. Hopkins in the paper already
cited. Forbes also shewed, by careful measurements with the
theodolite, that the motion of a glacier is perfectly regular
and continuous from point to point, and leaves no room for
jerks and jumps, such as Hopkins had postulated. :
Forbes’s experiments may be supplemented by an easy
appeal to another kind of evidence. As Dr. M. Williams.
says: “Crevasses of considerable magnitude are commonly
formed without severing one part of a glacier from another.
They are usually V-shaped in vertical section, and in many
the rupture does not reach the bottom of the glacier. Very
rarely indeed does a crevasse cross the whole breadth of a
glacier in such a manner as to completely separate, even
temporarily, the lower from the upper part of the glacier”
(Quarterly Journal Sc. VU. 221). This shews that the
upper part of the mass of ice has a greater tension, and.
moves faster where the tension is removed than the lower.
In fact, a glacier is literally a frozen river, and just as the
water near the banks of a river is dragged and stopped by
The Theory of Glacier motion. — III
friction, its chief motion being in its surface layers, so is a
glacier. No doubt the subjacent streams tend to lubricate
the ice mass in a measure, doing it more in the day than at
night, in summer than in winter, there being then more
water available from the melting of its surface. They would
do so more if they occupied the whole of its foundation
instead of only a part, but this is largely counterbalanced by
the tremendous weight of the mass.
It is time that we should now turn to Forbes’s own view,
namely, the theory that ice, notwithstanding its apparent
rigidity, is really of a plastic nature, and that a large part
of its motion is due to this quality.
The first person who suggested this was apparently
Bordier, who, in 1773, published a work, entitled, Voyage
pittoresque aux glaciers de la Savoie, in which he compared
ice to soft wax, flexible and ductile to a certain point,
and he attributed to it sufficient ductility to enable it
to move down from high ground to low (see Tyndall,
Glaciers, 133-4). He was followed many years after by
Captain Basil Hall, who, in his work called “ Patchwork,”
describes the glaciers of Miage. He argues that when the
successive layers of snow, often several hundred feet thick,
are half melted by the sun, and by the innumerable torrents
which are poured upon them from every side, to say nothing
of the heavy rains of summer, they form a mass, not liquid,
indeed, but such as has a tendency to move down the highly
inclined faces on which it lies (of. cé¢. 1, 104). Later, in
the same work, he compares a glacier with a lava stream,
and says, they are more or less frozen rivers; they both
obey the law of gravitation with great reluctance, being
eventually so sluggish that, although they both move along
the bottoms of valleys with a force well nigh irresistible,
their motion is sometimes scarcely perceptible (2d., III., 118).
Canon Rendu in his Théorie des Glaciers de la Savoie,
published at Chambery, in 1840, was the next to adopt this
112 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
theory. “The mass of the glacier,” he says, “is in inverse
proportion to the slope over which it flows. When the
trough is steep, the ice is thin, and its surface is contracted ;
when the slope decreases and approaches to the horizontal
line, the glacier fills out—it becomes like a sea, or a lake
between two streams. ... Nothing shows better to what an
extent the glacier adapts itself to the spot on which it
happens to be than the form of the glacier of Mont Dolent, in
the valley of Feriet.” The highest plateau is a great amphi-
theatre surrounded by lofty flakes of granite of pyramidal
form; thence the glacier descends by a gorge, into which
it is compressed ; but as soon as it has passed beyond it, it
widens out anew and opens like a fan: it has therefore, as a
whole, the form of a sheaf contracted in the middle and spread
out at the two extremities (Voyage dans les Alpes, I. 247).
“There are a host of facts that would seem to induce the belief
that the substance of glaciers enj oysa kind of ductility which
allows it to mould itself upon the locality which it occupies—
to thin out, to swell, to contract, and to spread as a soft
paste would do. Nevertheless, when we deal with a piece
of ice, when we strike it, we find in it a rigidity which is in
direct opposition to the appearances of which we have just
spoken. Perhaps experiments made upon larger masses
would give other results” (Rendu, trans. by A. Wills, edited
by J. Forbes, 70—71).
Again, the same author writes, “The fact of motion
exists, the progression of glaciers is demonstrated ; but the
mode of motion is entirely unknown. Perhaps with long
observations, with experiments upon ice and snow carefully
made, we shall succeed in grasping it; but we are still in
want of first elements...... Nothing seems to me more
clearly demonstrated than the progressive motion of glaciers
towards the bottom of the valleys, and nothing at the same
time seems to me more difficult to conceive than the manner
in which this movement is executed—a movement so slow,
The Theory of Glacier motion. Liz
so unequal, carried out on slopes of different inclination, on
ground studded with irregularities, and in channels whose
width varies at every moment. This is in my opinion the
least explicable of the phenomena of glaciers. Does it
advance in a mass like a block of marble on an inclined
plane? Does it advance in broken bits like the stones
which come down one after another in mountain gullies ?
Does it sink down upon itself to flow along the slopes, as
lava would do, at once ductile and liquid? Do the portions
which detach themselves at the edges of steep slopes
suffice to impress motion upon those which repose upon a
horizontal surface? I know not. Perhaps, again, we might
say that in times of great cold the water which fills the
numerous transverse crevasses of the glacier becoming frozen,
receives its accustomed movement of volume, gives a push
to its containing walls, and thus produces a motion towards
the bottom of the channel in which it flows” (zd, 80—82).
Lastly, he says: “there is between the Glacier des Bois and
a river a resemblance so complete that it is impossible to
find in the glacier a circumstance which does not exist in
the river. In currents of water the velocity is not uniform
throughout their width, nor throughout their depth; the
friction of the bottom, that of the sides, the action of
obstacles cause a variation in the velocity, which is undi-
minished only towards the middle of the surface. Now the
mere inspection of the glacier is sufficient to prove that the
velocity of the centre is greater than that of the sides. The
whole surface is cut by crevasses, which are in general
transverse to its direction. If the motion were the same
throughout the mass these crevasses which cut the surface
in parallel rifts would form a straight line which would
be always nearly perpendicular to the two banks, but this
is not so: ¢he general line ts a curve whose convexity advances
towards the bottom of the valley, a fact which can only be
attributed to the greater velocity of the ice at this point”
(zd., 85—86).
114 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
These passages which I feel bound to quote, in conse-
quence of the fierce polemics which have arisen about them,
prove that the learned Canon, who afterwards became Bishop
of Annecey, fairly grasped the main feature of glacier motion,
which had been hitherto neglected, namely, its differential
motion. With the modesty of a real student, he does not
claim to have proved his case experimentally, but appeals
to future observers, who should do so to settle the question.
It was not long before the necessary experiments were made.
In the summer of 1841, Principal Forbes was invited by
M. Agassiz, who was then studying the Aar glacier, to pay
him a visit there. In the course of this visit he realised the
necessity of applying precise measurements at different
points to the movement of glaciers, so as to definitely settle
what the nature of the movement was. The next year he
paid a second visit to the Alps, and having made his way to
the Mer de Glace at Chamounix, and having pierced a hole
in the ice, and planted his theodolite in it, he proceeded to
determine its position with respect to three fixed co-ordinates.
These having been obtained, three marks were made on
rocks, thus giving the absolute position of the point. experi-
mented upon. On returning the next day he found that
the red mark first made, showed that the glacier had advanced
16°5 inches during the previous 26 hours. Thus the diurnal
motion of a glacier was obtained for the first time from
direct observation (Zvavels through the Alps of Savoy, 129);
During the next four days Forbes satisfied himself by
similar methods, (1) that glacier motion is approximately
regular and continuous ; (2) that it is nearly as great during
the night as during the day ; (3) that an increase of motion
observed on the 20th, 29th, and 30th was due to the heat of
the weather ; and (4) and most important, that the centre of
glaciers moves quicker than the sides, quite contrary to what
had been supposed previously. These conclusions he com-
municated to Professor Jamieson in his “ First Letter on
The Theory of Glacier motion. II5
Glaciers,” dated July the 4th, 1842 (see Ed. New Phil. Jour.,
XXXII, p. 338—341), and they were amply confirmed
in later experiments (zd@., 341—345), from which it more
clearly appeared that the motion was not the same from
day to day and week to week. He also shewed that
this variation is common to all parts of the glacier,
whether compact or fissured, and that the dispropor-
fon in the’ movement ‘of the centre and sides of, a
glacier is greatest in the lower and faster moving part
of it, where it varies from one-third to one-half of the
smaller velocity, and least near the origin of the glacier,
where it is only one-quarter or one-fifth, The similar
variation also affects the centre more than the sides. The
greatest daily motion he measured was 27°1 inches.
The veined structure in ice was apparently first described
by M. Guyot, in 1838, on the Glacier of Gries. He noticed
below, under his feet, he says, furrows an inch or an inch-
and-a-half wide, separated by ridges of harder and more
transparent ice; the ice consisted clearly of two kinds, one
white and melting early, the other more perfect, crystalline,
and hard. Their unequal swelling caused the furrows. On
looking down a crevasse, which cut the furrows at right
angles and shewed a transverse section of 30 to 40 feet, the
ice seemed everywhere composed of layers of white opaque
and transparent ice, as regularly stratified as certain cal-
careous rocks, (see Huber, des Glacier, p. 107, quoted by
Moseley, Phzl. Mag., 4th Ser., XXXIX,241). Forbes described
this structure, which he independently discovered, as the
ribboned structure of ice.
The general course of the bands, as pictured on the
surface of the glacier, isa succession of oval waves passing
into hyperbolas with the greater axis directed along the
glacier. The actual shape of the curves depends very much
on the configuration of the glacier. In narrow canal-shaped
glaciers, the lines are nearly parallel and vertical, inclining
116 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH oz
upwards and outwards where the ice is supported by the
lateral rocks. When the glacier acquires a rounded or oval
contour, the lines become more or less oval in curve, and
dip inwards at angles more nearly perpendicular as the
centre of the glacier is approached, and may be compared
to sections of inverted cones, having a common apex
pointed downwards with its angles continually diminished
towards the centre (7vavels in the Alps of Savoy, 29, 160,.
372, etc.).
The course of the bands being vertical they crop out at
the surface, and wherever that surface is intersected and
smoothed by superficial watercourses, their structure appears.
“with the beauty and sharpness of a delicately-lined chalce-
dony.” This structure Forbes proved pervaded the whole
_ body of the glacier,and wherever avertical section was eroded
by the action of water, the harder seams of ice stood pro-
tuberant, while the immediate ones, partaking of a whitish
green in colour, were washed out. He subsequently found
that the blue bands are due to compact ice, and the inter-
mediate ones to the ice being frothy and full of bubbles. The
structure was apparent throughout the length of the glacier,
but was more developed in the neighbourhood of moraines
and the walls of the glacier. That it was not the product
of a single season, Forbes showed by tracing the bands
across the gaping glaciers. Throughout the greater part of
the glacier the bands are parallel to the enclosing walls,
but near the lower extremity they change their direction
and become transverse, and lean forward in the direction
in which the glacier moves at a very considerable angle.
Forbes argued that “the veined or ribboned structure
of the ice is the result of internal forces, by which
one portion of ice is dragged past another in a manner
so gradual as not necessarily to produce large fissures
in the ice, and the consequent sliding of one detached.
portion on another, but rather the effect of a general
The Theory of Glacier motion. 117
brutse over a considerable space of the yielding body.
According to this view, the delicate veins seen in the
glacier, often less than a quarter of an inch wide, have
their course parallel to the direction of the sliding effort of
one portion of the ice over another.” He goes on to quote
the case of the Glacier of La Brenva, which at a point where
the ice is forcibly pressed against the naked rocky face of an
opposing hill is turned into a new direction, and in thus
shoving and squeezing past a prominence of rock the ice
developes a veined structure so beautiful that it is impos-
sible to resist the wish to carry off slabs, and to perpetuate
it by hand specimens. This perfectly-developed structure
was visibly opposite the promontory which held the glacier
in check, and past which it struggled, leaving a portion of
its ice completely embayed in a recess of the shore behind it.
Starting from this point as an origin, the veined laminz
extended backwards and upwards into the glacier, but did
not spread literally into the embayed ice. They could,
however, be traced from the shore to some distance from
the promontory into the icy mass. The direction of lam-
ine exactly coincided with that in which the ice szus¢
have moved if it was shoved past the promontory at all.
Having proved experimentally that it had so moved, he
continues, “No rigid solid body can advance in such a
manner, it is therefore plastic, and the veined structure is
unquestionably the result of the struggle between the
rigidity of the ice and the guasit-fluzd character of the
motion impressed upon it. That it is so, is evident not only
from the direction of the lamine, but from their becoming
more distinct exactly in proportion to their nearness to the
point from where the bruise is necessarily strongest.”
In regard to the state of the crevasses formed by the
laminz, Forbes shewed them to be owing to the differential
motion of the parts retarded by lateral friction, and to the.
fact that the friction being least where the motion is fastest,
H
118 Mr. H. H. HOWoORTH oz —
there will be a natural tendency to molecular dislocation in a
direction sloping towards the middle of the glacier. As we
near the centre of the glacier, the friction due to the bed of the
glacier will more and more modify the effects of that due to
its walls, until the lamination will take place entirely in the
vertical plain, causing the spoon-shaped arrangement of the
surfaces of dislocation as observed. He then goes on to show
how the phenomenon of the frontal dip is explainable by
the same notion that the glacier really moves as viscous
bodies move (Article, G/aczery, in E.B., for 1855).
He urges (1) that it accords with the view of the origin of
the bands, that the glacier actually does move fastest in the
centre, and that the loop of the curves described coincides
by observation with the line of swiftest motion. (2) That
the bands are least distinct near the centre, for there the
difference of velocity of two adjacent strips parallel to the
length of the glacier is nearly nothing, but near the sides
where the retardation is greatest, it isa maximum. (3) The
less elongated form of the loops in the upper part of the
glacier corresponds with the observed fact, that the differ-
ence in velocity between the centre and sides is greatest
near the lower end of the glacier, and that the velocity is
most uniform in the upper part. (4) In the highest parts
of such glaciers, as the curves become less bent, the structure
also vanishes. (5) In wide glaciers, where the velocity is
nearly uniform across their breadth, no vertical structure
is developed, while the friction of the base developes an
apparent stratification parallel to the slope down which
they fall. (6) It also follows that the frontal dip of the
structural planes of all glaciers diminishes towards their
- lower extremity. (7) When two glaciers meet, the structure
immediately becomes more developed ; this is due to the
increased velocity as well as friction of each, due to lateral
compression. (8) The veined structure invariably tends to
disappear when a glacier becomes so crevassed as to lose
The Theory of Glacier motion. eve)
horizontal cohesion, as when it is divided into pyramidal
masses. This of course destroys any determinate inequality
of motion, each mass moving singly (Edin. New Phil. ieee
‘October, 1842).
In his famous fourth letter, published in the Aazn. New
Phil. Journ., January, 1848, Forbes urges most emphatically
that ice moves like a plastic body,and after quoting a number
of facts in regard to the change in crevasses, inequalities, &c.,
he says, “all these facts, attested by long and invariable
experience, prove that the ice of glaciers is insensibly
and continually moulding itself under the influence of
external influences, of which the principal, be it remarked,
is its own weight affecting its figure, in connection with the
surfaces over which it passes, and between which it struggles
onwards. It is in this respect, absolutely comparable to the
water of a river, which has here its deep pools, here its
constant eddy, continually changing in substance, yet ever
the same in form” (zd. 34, 4). “The centre of the glacier
stream,” he again says, “is urged onward by pressure from
above, which is there resisted less than at the sides and bottom,
owing to the comparative absence of friction. The lateral
parts are dragged onwards by the motion of the centre,
and move also, but it is quite compatible with this
idea of semi-fluid motion that the bottom of the glacier
should remain frozen to its bed, as some writers have
supposed to be the case, though I am far from asserting
this to be the fact, or even supposing it probable.”.....
“The motion of a glacier resembles that of a viscid
fluid, not being uniform in all parts of the transverse
section, but the motion of the parts in contact with the
walls being determined, mainly, by the motion of the
centre.” And he concludes this famous letter by urging
that the admission of some fluid motion in a glacier
seems to explain the chief facts of glacier movement :—~—
(1) That it is more rapid at the centre than at the
120 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
sides, and (2) for the most part, most rapid near the lower
extremity of glacier, but varying rather with the transverse
section than the length. (3) That it is more rapid in summer
than in winter, in hot than in cold weather, and especially
more rapid after rain, and less rapid in sudden frosts. (4) It
is farther in conformity with what we know of the plas-
ticity of semi-fluids generally, especially near their point of
fusion). such as sealing-wax, for example, exposed for
a long time to a temperature far below their melting heat,
and which have moulded themselves to the form of the sur-
faces on which they rest. (5) When the ice is very highly
fissured, it yields sensibly to the pressure of the hand,
having a slight determinate play, like some kinds of lime-
stone, well known for this quality of flexibility. (6) Such
a condition of semi-rigidity accounts for the remarkable
veined structure which pervades it.
Meanwhile the observations of Forbes, and especially his
claims to have discovered the veined structure of ice, were
contested by Professor Agassiz, in a memoir published in
the same magazine (Vol. XXXIII., 265, etc.); and thus began
a scientific feud which was not only deplorable in itself, but
eventually led to a very serious injury to science itself. I
would here remark, that in this paper Agassiz reiterates his
adhesion to the dilatation theory, and to the conclusion that
glaciers do not move in winter, but only in summer.
_ Forbes continued to press his views as to the viscosity
of glacier ice, and notably in his well known “Travels,”
published in 1843. In this work he writes, “A glacier ts
an imperfect fluid, or a viscous body, which 1s urged down
slopes on a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of tts
parts.’ Hecompares glacier ice to a moderately thick mortar
or the contents of a tar barrel poured into a sloping channel.
“Either of these substances,” he says, “without actually
assuming a level surface will zezd to do so. They will
descend with different degrees of velocity, depending on
The Theory of Glacier motion. I2I
the pressure to which they are respectively subjected. The
friction occasioned by the nature of the channel or
surface over which they move, and Zhe viscoszty, or mutual
adhesiveness, of the particles of the semi-fluid, which
prevents each from taking its own course, but subjects
all to a mutual restraint..... The quantity of viscidity or
imperfect mobility in the particles of fluids may have every
conceivable variation ; the extremes are perfect fluidity on
the one hand, and perfect rigidity on the other. A good
example is seen in the process of consolidation of common
plaster of Paris, which, from a consistency not thicker than
that of milk, gradually assumes the solid state, through
every possible intermediate graduation. Even water is not
completely mobile ; it does not run through capillary tubes,
and a certain inclination or fall is necessary to make it flow.
Water will run freely on a slope of 6 inches in a mile, or a
fall of one 10,000th part ; another fluid might require a fall
of I in 1,000; whilst many bodies may be heaped up to an
angle of several degrees before their parts begin to slide over
one another.
“Thus a substance apparently solid may, under great
pressure, begin to yield; yet that yielding or sliding of the
parts over one another may be quite imperceptible upon
the small scale, or under any but enormous pressure. A
column of the body itself is the source of the pressure of
which we have now 'to speak.
“Even if the ice of glaciers were admitted to be of a
nature perfectly inflexible so far as we can make any
attempt to bend it by artificial force, it would not at all
follow that such ice is rigid, when it is acted on by a column
of its own material, several hundred feet in height. Pure
fluid pressure, or what is commonly called hydrostatical
pressure, depends not at all for its energy upon the s/ofe of
the fluid, but merely upon the difference of level of the two
connected parts or ends of the mass under consideration,
122 Mr. H. H. Howortu on
If, the body be only semi-fluid, this will no longer be the
case; at least the pressure communicated from one portion
(say of a sloping canal) to the other, will not be the whole
pressure of a vertical column of the material, equal in height
to the difference of level of the parts of the fluid considered ;.
the consistency or mutual supports of the parts opposes a
certain resistance to the pressure, and prevents its indefinite
transmission. It must be recollected that in the case of
glaciers, the pressing columns are enormous, the origin and
termination of many of the largest having not less than
4,000 feet of difference of level ; were they, therefore,
perfectly fluid, or suddenly converted into water, the lower
end would begin to move with the enormous velocity of
506 feet a second, or would move over 44 wzllions of feet in
24 hours.. Now the velocity of the Mer de Glace is only
about 2 feet in that time, a difference so enormous that the
fluidity of a glacier compared to water will not appear so
preposterous as it might at first sight do, considering the
small degree of transmitted pressure required to be effectual.
“ Again, it has been attempted to be shewn that a glacier
is not coherent ice, but is a granular compound of ice and
water, possessing under certain circumstances, especially
when much saturated with moisture, a rude flexibility
sensible even to the hand. Farther, it has been shown that
the glacier does fall together and choke its own crevasses
with its plastic substance.” gc!
_ Forbes then proceeds to argue that—
(1) From the proved result that the centre flows faster
than .the sides and bottom there follows a suggestive
corollary. “I have no doubt,’ he says, “that glaciers.
slide over their beds, as well as that the particles of ice rub
over one another, and change their mutual positions: but,
I maintain that the former motion is caused by the latter,
and that the motion impressed by gravity upon the super-
ficial and central parts of a glacier (especially near its lower
The Theory of Glacier motion. 123
end), pull the lateral and inferior parts along with them.
One proof, if I mistake not, of such an action is, that a
deep current of water will flow under a smaller declivity
than a shallow one of the same fluid.” And this consideration
derives no slight confirmation in its application to glaciers,
from a circumstance mentioned by M. Elie de Beaumont,
which is so true, that one wonders it has not been insisted.
on, namely, that a glacier, where it descends into a valley, is
like a body pulled asunder or stretched, and not like a i
forced on by superior pressure alone.
(2) The comparatively slight difference between. the:
motion of the centre and sides of a glacier is in accordance:
with the law prevailing with viscous bodies, that the retarda-
tion due to friction will be more completely distributed over
the whole section in proportion as the matter is less yielding.
(3) The greatest variation of velocity in a glacier takes
place, as it should in a viscous body, near’ the sides’ and:
bottom, while the higher and more ceninal parts: move most,
nearly together. 3 | sy neelt :
(4) Forbes confirmed, Sn paca. in Bea ves Du
buat’s law in regard to the flow of streams, namely, that their
velocity at the top and bottom depends upon the actual.
velocity of the stream, and the amount of lateral retardation
depends also upon the actual velocity of the stream.
(5) A glacier, like a stream, has its still pools and its
rapids. When it is embayed by rocks it accumulates—z/s
declivity diminishes and its velocity at the same time; when
it passes. down a steep, or issues by a narrow outlet, its,
velocity increases. The central velocities of the lower,
middle, and higher regions of the Mey de Glace, are
11398 ‘574 "925 ast
and if we divide the length of the glacier into three parts,
we shall find something like these numbers for its declivity,:
sgh) cutiothsig MaMURey ah lee Sie
Lastly, when the semi-fluid ice inclines to solidity, during
124 _ Mr. H. H. HowortTuH oz
a frost, its motion is checked ; if its fluidity is increased by
a thaw, the motion is instantly accelerated. Its motion is
greater in summer than in winter, because the fluidity is
more complete at the former than at the latter time. The
motion does not cease in winter, because the winter’s cold
penetrates the ice as it does the ground, only to a limited
extent. It is greater in hot weather than in cold, because
the sun’s heat affords water to saturate the crevices: but
the proportion of velocity does not follow the proportion of
heat, because any cause, such as the melting of a coating of
snow by a sudden thaw, as in the end of September, 1842,
produces the same effect as great heat would do. Also,
whatever cause accelerates the movement of the centre of the
ice, increases the difference of central and lateral motion.
Meanwhile, Agassiz continued his researches, and in
Desor’s elaborate report of his experiments on the Aar
Glacier, we find a reiteration of most of his views, and an
elaborate defence of the infiltration theory, with many
experiments cited to prove it. On one point he had to
give way, however, and to confess that the experiment made
by driving a series of six stakes in a line across the glacier
as a test of its motion, shewed that the advance of the
glacier caused them to arrange themselves in a curve whose
convexity was inclined downwards. This, as M. Desor
reports, far from confirming the opinion which M. Agassiz
had previously hazarded, that the margins advance more
rapidly than the middle, shewed that the centre advances.
more rapidly than the sides, almost to even double the extent, _
being in the ratio of 245 feet to 125 in one case and of 269
to 160 in the other (Zain. Phil. Jour., XXXVI. 155, Bzblio-
theque Universelle de Geneva, 1843, Nos. 88 and 89).
He, however, still maintained, apparently, that the upper.
part of a glacier moves more slowly than the lower, and that
in winter a glacier is virtually stationary (zd.).
In the autumn of 1843, Forbes was again in Switzerland,
The Theory of Glactwer motion. 125
and, with the assistance of his guide, Auguste Balmat,
satisfied himself, by marking rocks, etc., that glaciers move
with considerable velocity even in winter (Z. P. /., XXXVI.
217, 218). A few months later, on visiting the South of
Italy, he was able to compare the motion of glaciers with
that of a lava stream. He pointed out that in two respects
the comparison fails: (1) In respect of the great liquidity
of the lava near its source; (2) From its unequal rate of
consolidation a crust is soon formed more massive than
the subjacent mass, and the fluidity is thus not distributed
through the mass, “but a tolerably perfect fluid struggles
with the increasing load of its ponderous crust, which it
tears and rends by the mighty energy of hydrostatic
pressure,” and thus the crust gets broken, and the whole
becomes more like a torrent loaded with blocks of ice than
the regulated progress of a glacier, with a graduated
retardation towards the sides. In other respects the
analogy is more complete, as he shews in considerable
detail. In all these comparisons we must remember that the
analogy is not quite complete, or the results would probably
be identical ; but, as Forbes remarks, “ice passes from a
brittle solid into limpid fluid by heat, while lava passes like
sealing wax through every intermediate degree of viscidity.”
In the experiments he made in 1844 on the Mer de
Glace, which were conducted with great care and minutely
measured, he showed by the convexity and regularity of
the curves made by the moving points that the movement
of the ice is molecular, and, as he says, “ proving a regular
plastic action of gravity or other propelling force, acting
from point to point on the mass of the glacier” (Phz/. Trans.
1845).
In July, 1844, Forbes applied his methods of observation,
which had proved to him the molecular movement of
the greater glaciers, to the smaller ones reposing in the
cavities of high mountains or on the cols, which De
126 » Mr..H. H. HOWorRTH oz
Saussure called glaciers of ‘the second: order, and he
especially experimented on a small glacier perched on a
kind of niche. in the northern face of the Schonhorn, about
an hour’s steep climb above the hospice of the Simplon..
These experiments proved that the conclusions as to.
plasticity drawn from the larger glaciers were amply borne
out. by the smaller ones, the only difference being that
the. amount of movement is eae yoneneey smaller
(Phil. Trans. 1846).
The first person to scianttaeatls: estimate the rate of
motion of glaciers was Hugi, on the Aar Glacier, between
1827 and 1836. He shewed that where the measurements
were made, the rate of movement was about .2,L10 feet per
annum..,.Forbes’s own measurements were eventually sup-.
plemented by those of his Swiss assistant, Balmat, who, in
1844 and 1845, finally put to rest the question as to the
movement taking place both in winter and summer. Four
posts were inserted in four different positions, with the
following result :— |
) I 2 3 a Ge
Motion for 365 days, Noy.,1844, Feet-
to Nov. 1845) 2.4 di 9 i192 847°5 «220'8 657/83; -Aagme
Inches.
‘ Wiean daily motion...) ... 4i.. 27'S 3 | 296 © Ose
Mean daily motion, summer
period, April to October... 37°7 99: +), 28°03 Bake
Mean daily motion, winter | | je
} period, October to April.... 1971 4°77 15°38... 107
. Ratio summer to winter motion 2°0-1 21-7 18-1 21-1
‘Forbes says justly that these figures, compared with the
records of temperature as observed, confirm his conclusions.
of 1842, that the movement of the ice is more rapid in
summer than in ‘winter, in hot than in cold weather,.
and especially more rapid after rain and less rapid in sudden
frosts ; and he further urges that the velocity of a glacier is.
largely dependent upon the completeness of its infiltration
The Theory of Glacier. motion. 127
with water, rendering the whole an imbibed mass, like a
sponge, and consequently depends not only on the tem-
perature of any period, but upon the wetness of the surface,
whether derived from mild rain, thawing snow, or any
meteorological accident (za. ). pies
He thus sums up the various facts presented by.
crevasses in support of his plastic theory: “The general
convexity of the crevasses upwards, notwithstanding the
excess of motion in the centre; the general verticality. of
the crevasses, notwithstanding the retardation of the
bottom ; the perfect state of the crevasses every spring
succeeding their visible collapse in autumn ; the ascertained
velocity of different parts of the glacier, and the diversity
of the annual changes which their velocities present ; the
seemingly opposed facts showing the glacier to be subjected
to powerful tension, producing crevasses, and yet to be
under a compression which produces in some places the
Srontal dip; and finally, the renewal of the level of the ice
during winter, which has been lost partly by superficial
melting, but as much or more so by the attenuation and
collapse of the glacier during summer” (P/z/. Trans., 1846).
The experiments of M. Agassiz’s staff on the glacier of
_ the Aar continued, and it was with some natural exultation
that Forbes declared, as these experiments became more
precise, so did their results accord more and more with his.
Inter alia, they established, he says, that “the movement of
the centre of that glacier was to that of a point five metres
from the edge as 14 to 1. Such is the effect of plasticity.
Thirteen-fourteenths of the motion of the glacier of the
Aar are due to the sliding of the ice over its own sutface;,
and one-fourteenth only to its motion over the soil” (Ed:
Phil. Jour. XXXV1I1.339). Shortly after the publication of
these words M. Agassiz apparently abandoned the dilatation
theory, of which he had been so long the champioti.. We
find this change of view reported in the Bd/othéque
128 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH on
Universelle de Geneve, for 1845, p. 347, as follows :—M.
Agassiz consideére le glacier comme formé d’un assemblage
de fragments angulaires de glace, entre lesquels circule de
eau dans laquelle on voit nager les animalcules vivants,
Si l’on jette sur le glacier des liquides coloriés on les voit
apparaitre a de grandes distance au fond des crevasses,
mais ils ne peuvent pénétrer dans l’intérieur des fragments
de glace. La guantité deau qui gorge le glacier parait
étre la cause de son mouvement, en raison de la pression
hydrostatique qwelle exerce sur la masse. En effet ce mouve-
ment devient plus rapide lorsque l’eau abonde, et il se
ralentit lorsqu’elle vient a diminuer par une cause quel-
conque ; par exemple une chite de neige pendant trois a
quatre jours de gelée, ce qui oppose a ce que l’eau arrive a
la surface du glacier: pendant ce temps il se vide d’eau
comme une eponge pressée.”
As Forbes says, this passage clearly shows that Agassiz
had abandoned the dilatation theory, and accepted that
according to which a glacier is a compound of ice and water
moving under the impulsion of its own hydrostatic pressure,
a view which Forbes himself had constantly pressed as
explaining the cause of viscosity in glacier ice. As he says:
“The hydrostatic pressure within the veins and crevices
of the glacier itself can only produce motion by a plastic
change in the figure of the mass, and the ductility of the
glacier on the great scale becomes a corollary from the
admission of internal pressure as a cause of motion” (ed.
XL.154—I57). |
Forbes, meanwhile, continued to press fresh experiments
into his favour. M. Person is quoted by him as having shewn
and published in the Compies-Rendus for April 29th, 1850,
that ice does not pass abruptly from the solid to the fluid
state; that it begins to soften at a temperature of 2° centi-
grade below its thawing point ; that consequently between
28°4 and 32° of Fahrenheit, it is actually passing through
The Theory of Glacier motion. 129;
various degrees of plasticity within narrower limits, in
the same manner that wax, for example, softens before it
melts. M. Person deduces this from the examination of
the heat requisite to liquefy ice at different temperatures.
The following sentences contain his conclusions in his own
words: “I] parait d’apres mes experiences que le ramollis-
sement qui précede la fusion, est circonscrit dans une.
intervalle d’environ 2 degrés. La glace est donc un des
corps dont la fusion est la plus nette; mais cépendant
le passage de I’état solide a létat liquide s’y fait encore par
degres, et non par un saut brusque.” Forbes adds, that
from his own experiments and those of Agassiz, it is
clear that the normal temperature of the great mass of
a glacier is between 28° and 32° Fahrenheit, that the coldest
nights only affect the temperature of its superficial layers,
that the lower parts which are habitually saturated with
water in summer are seldom reduced below the freezing
point, even by the prolonged cold of winter, since it is
then covered with snow which has the property of prevent-
ing any profound congelation in common earth; and as ice
is probably a better conductor of heat than the ground,.
it is incredible that a thickness of many hundred feet
of ice, saturated with fluid water, should be reduced
much below the freezing point, or should even be frozen
throughout. The fact that water continually flows from
under glaciers in winter shews that they are not so frozen.
While the fact that, even in February, the source of the
Arveiron becomes whitish and dirty as in summer before a
change of weather, proves that in the middle of winter a.
temporary rise of temperature over the higher glacier
regions, not only produces a thaw there, but finds the usual
channels still open for transmitting the accumulated snow-
water. It thus appears quite certain that ice, under the
circumstances in which we find it in the great bulk of
glaciers, is in a state more or less softened even in winter ; and
130 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox |
that during nearly the whole summer, while surrounded by
air above 32°, and itself at that temperature, it has acquired
a still greater degree of plasticity, due to the latent heat
which it has then absorbed (Forbes “ Sixteenth Letter on
Glaciers,” Ed. New Phil. Jour., Jan., 1851).
His opponents continued, however, to appeal to the
experience of hand specimens of ice, which are so brittle,
and whose behaviour seems so remote from that of plastic
bodies. In answer to them he writes:
“TI certainly never expected, when promulgating the
viscous theory, that it would have met with so much opposi-
tion on the ground that the more familiar properties of ice
are opposed to the admission of its plasticity: and that the
fragility of hand specimens should be considered as con-
clusive against the plastic effect of most intense forces
acting on the most stupendous scale upon a body placed in
‘circumstances which subject it to a trial, beneath which the
most massive constructions of the pyramid building ages
would sway, totter, and crumble. . . . in these days
when the barriers of the categories are so completely beaten
‘down, I had not expected to meet with so determined an
opposition to the proposition that the stupendous aggrega-
tion of freezing water and thawing ice called a glacier,
subjected to the pressure of thousands of vertical feet of its
own substance might not under these circumstances possess
a degree of yielding, moulding, self-adapting power,
sufficient to admit of slight changes of figure in long periods
of time. Still less could I have anticipated that when the
plastic changes of form had been measured, and com-
pared and calculated and mapped, and confirmed by
independent observers, that we should still have had men
of science appealing to the fragility of an icicle as an
unanswerable argument. More philosophical, surely, was
the appeal of the Bishop of Annecy from what we already
know to what we may one day learn if willing to be taught.
The Theory of Glacier motion. 131
Quand on agit sur un morceau de glace, qu’on le frappé, on
lui trouve une regidité qui est en opposition directe avec
les apparences dout nous venons de parler. Peut-étre que
les expériences faites sur de plus grandes masses donneraient
@ autres résultats” (Phil. Trans., 1846).
In 1855, when Forbes wrote the article on glaciers in
the Enc. Britt., he spoke in very emphatic terms about his
theory, which he said was then very generally accepted. In
answer to the obvious fact that ice is superficially a brittle
solid, and does not seem readily plastic, he urged that sealing
wax, pitch, and other similar bodies adapt themselves wth
time to the surfaces on which they lie even at atmospheric
temperatures, while they maintain at the same time the
quality of excessive brittleness under a blow or a rapid
change of form. He went on to press that ice does not
pass at once and fer saltum from the solid to the liquid
state, but absorbs its latent heat throughout a small range
of temperature (between 28°4 and 32° of Fahrenheit) which
is precisely that to which the ice of glaciers is actually
exposed; that a glacier is not a crystalline solid like ice
tranquilly frozen in a mould, but possesses a peculiarly formed
and laminated structure, through which water enters (at
least for a great part of the year)into its intrinsic composition.
Putting together these facts, and admitting the differential
motion of the parts, which no one now contests, the quasi
fluid or viscous motion of the ice of glaciers is not a theory
but a fact ; a substance which is seen to pour itself out of
a large basin through a narrow outlet, without losing its
continuity, the different parts of which, from top to bottom,
and from side to centre, possess distinct though related
velocities, which moves over slopes inconsistent with the
friction between its surface and the ground on which it
rests—which surmounts obstacles, and even if cleft into two
streams by a projecting rock, instead of being thereby
anchored as a solid would necessarily be, re-unites its streams
132 | Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
below, and retains no trace of the fissure, leaving the rock an
islet in the icy flood; a substance which moves in such a
fashion cannot in any true sense of the word be termed a
rigid solid, and must be granted to be ductile, viscous, plastic,
or semi-fluid, or to possess qualities represented by any of
these terms which we may choose to adopt as least shock-
ing to our ordinary conception of the brittleness of ice,”
and it was no doubt with some satisfaction that Forbes
quoted the words of Mousson in his Dze Gletscher der
Jetstzett, p. 162, speaking of the plastic theory “Er steht
noch heute unangefochten da,” and that he numbered among:
his warmest supporters Darwin and Whewell. |
While it was generally admitted that the phenomena
accompanying the motion of glaciers had been shown by
Forbes to exactly reproduce the conduct of a plastic body
which can mould itself to its boundaries when in motion, and
which has a continuous differential motion, the conduct of
hand specimens continued to be a stumbling block. As.
Tyndall urged, a slight blow, if properly directed, will split
open a block of ice 1oor 15 cubic feet in volume, and as Mr.
McGee says, “on a cold, still night the steel runner of a boy’s.
skate initiates a fracture miles in length in the ice bridging
a river, which shews that if ice is plastic that it is also very
rigid under some conditions,” butthe fact which weighed most
with observers was the experimental test applied by Professor
Moseley,of Cambridge. These experiments were described in
a paper read before the Royal Society in 1869, in which
he published some very interesting results on the shearing
force of ice, in which, according to one experiment, the shear
per square inch, or unit of shear, was 72°433|b., and in another
case 76°619lb., the mean being about 751b., while, according
to his calculations for a glacier to move by its own weight,
as Tyndall had seen it move in the Mer de Glace, the unit
of shear should not have been more than 1°3193lb., whence.
he concluded that the weight of a glacier alone is insuffi-
The Theory of Glacier motion. 133
cient to account for its descent” (Phil. Mag.,XXXVI. 233-235).
These experiments had a very great effect on the scientific
mind of Europe. They seemed conclusive against Forbes’s
views. As Mr. Trotter says, “granting that the shearing
strength of ice as deduced from his (Moseley’s) experi-
ments represents even approximately the resistance
to shearing under the actual circumstances of glacier
motion, his objection to Forbes’s view is fatal.”
Mr. Moseley did not fail to use the weapon he had dis-
covered, and pressed with great persistency the view that
his experiments had proved the viscous theory to be
untenable. On Mr. Moseley’s death, Mr. W. R. Brown, who
championed his views, (Proceedings of the Royal Society,
vol. XXXIV.) adduced fresh arguments against Forbes,
from more general considerations. He urged that the
existence of ice cliffs, such as those in the crevasses
in South America, 300 feet thick, which ought to flow
over if Forbes’s view be right, seem to militate against
it. Putting aside Forbes’s own experiments about crevasses
themselves being short-lived, the argument of Mr. Brown
had been already answered by anticipation by Dr. Whewell.
He says: “Soft pitch will stand on cliffs some inches high,
soft clay will stand on cliffs many feet high; clay may
stand on cliffs hundreds of feet high, and yet be plastic, if
the mass be very large, and the pressure distributed
through it be powerful enough to make one part move past
another. We cannot doubt that clay might be hard enough
to stand on such cliffs, and yet soft enough to slide down a
sloping valley as a plastic substance, if the valley were
filled with it for many miles long and hundreds of feet
thick ; and still more if there were streams of water running
through all parts of the mass” (Phil. Mag., XXVI. 172 and 3).
Again, as Mr. Trotter says, “the spreading out of a
_ glacier like the Rhone glacier when it emerges from a gorge
on to a comparatively open space, is in itself a convincing
I
E34 Mr... H. HOWORTH on
proof that ice at o° C. will not stand permanently. on a
vertical cliff of any considerable height. It gives way
gradually, but still it gives way” (Proc. Roy. Soc.
XXXVIII. 103). 4A) ee ;
These were, however, subsidiary issues. The main one
converged upon Mr. Moseley’s famous experiments, and no
wonder that they led to a wide revolt against the plastic
theory, and that a great impetus was given to various
transcendental views, such as those of Thomson and
Croll, already described, and when these were answered
led to another suggestion, namely that of Tyndall.
Tyndall’s most importantpronouncement in criticism of
Forbes’s views is contained in the following sentence, pub-
lished as an obzter dictum. “The very essence of viscosity,” he
says, “is the ability to yield to a power of ¢enszon, the texture
of thesubstance, after yielding, being in a state of equilibrium,
so that it has no strain to recover from.” ... He then goes on
to urge that ice will not stretch like well-known plastic
bodies, and while it yields to pressure it does not do so to
tension (Proe., Roy. Inst., 1858, 551—553). “ Viscosity,”
he says elsewhere, “consists in the power of being drawn out
when subjected to a force of tension, the substance, after
stretching, being in a state of molecular equilibrium, or in
other words, devoid of that elasticity which would restore it
to its original form” (Glaczers of the Alps, 312). He then
goes on to urge that on dislocated slopes, where tar or
treacle would flow without breaking across, ice breaks, and
he cites certain cases in the Alps. He similarly refers to
crevasses as breaks inconsistent with a viscous character,
since the maximum strain upon the ice is comparatively so
small; and he further adds, that no single experiment on
great masses or small shows that ice possesses in any sensible
degree that power of being drawn out which seems the very
essence of viscosity. Professor Tyndall carefully guards him-
self, however, against being supposed to believe that a glacier
The Theory of Glacier motion. 138
acts otherwise than conformably to the law of semi-fluid
motion ; all he denies is that ice is of a gluey tenacity, _
will Jace like a plastic substance.
We will now turn to Tyndall’s own theory. This
theory, which he applied to the motion of glaciers,
was based upon a fact first published by Faraday in a
lecture at the Royal Institution as early as 1855, according
to which “when two pieces of ice with moistened surfaces are
brought into contact they become cemented together by the
freezing of the film of water between them, while, when the
ice is below 32° Fahr., and therefore dry, no effect of the
kind can be produced” (See Glaciers of the Alps, 357).
“A generalization from this interesting fact,’ says
Tyndall, “led me to conclude that a bruised mass of ice, if
closely confined, must recement itself when its particles are
brought into contact by pressure” (zd.). He therefore appeals
to certain experiments which had, in fact, been made in a
different way by others.
In a letter addressed to Forbes, on April 4th, 1846, by
Mr. Christie, Secretary of the Royal Society, that gentleman
instanced the experiment of filling a hollow iron shell with
water, and exposing it to frost with the fuze hole upper-
most, when the water will freeze, and protrude a cylinder of
ice from the fuze hole, and as the experiment is continued
the fuze continues to grow, in proportion as the water
freezes. “No thawing takes place in the process. Does not
this show plasticity even in very small masses of ice?” says
Mr. Christie. The experiment was repeated by Forbes in
glass vessels which could be closely watched. He first put
a ring of a greasy matter of a red colour round the inside of
the vessel, keeping the aperture clean. When the ice pro-
truded it was found incased with red, in some cases in the
form of a red ring, which, as he says, could not have been
unless the plastic substance of the ice had been forced
laterally, and, by a converging pressure from all sides, up
136 _ Mr. H, H. HOWORTH ox
even to the particles in contact with the interior of the
glass, so as to be forced through the contracted outlet as a
tenacious fluid under its own pressure, or a plastic solid
subjected to a considerable force would do under like
circumstances. The success of these experiments Forbes
attributes to the slowness of the process of congelation
employed, which lasted several hours, or, in Mr. Christie’s
case, several days, and which therefore affords analogies
with the gradual internal movements of a glacier (The
Theory of Glaciers, 161 and 168).
To turn to Tyndall’s experiments, he tells us how in the
course of them, moulds of various forms were hollowed out
in boxwood, and pieces of ice were placed in them and
subjected to pressure. In this way spheres of ice were
flattened into cakes, and cakes formed into transparent
lenses. A straight bar of ice, six inches long, was passed
through a series of moulds augmenting in curvature, and
was finally bent into a semi-ring. A small block of ice was
placed in a hemispherical cavity, and was pressed upon by
a hemispherical protuberance, not large enough to fill the
cavity ; the ice yielded, and filled the space between both,
thus forming itself into a transparent cup. In short, he
says, every observation made upon glaciers and adduced by
writers on the subject in proof of the viscosity of ice was
shown to be capable of perfect imitation with hand speci-
mens of the substance (Glaciers of the Alps, 321). So
far there was nothing on the surface to traverse
Forbes’s views in regard to ice being viscous, but
the contrary,.as Tyndall himself says. “The experi-
ments prove to all appearances that the substance is
even much more plastic than it was ever imagined to be by
the founders of the viscous theory” (zd@.); but in the case of
these experiments the inference would not have been quite
correct. The process by which the ice was moulded into
shape in them did not involve a continuous flow of semi-
The Theory of Glacier motion. 137
fluid particles over each other, thus adapting the ice to its
new shape, but the crushing by force of the ice into an
incoherent state, and then the process of refreezing it intoa
solid mass.
Tyndall himself describes it as a process of bruising and
regelation, and denies that ice is viscous at all. On the
contrary, he says emphatically, that a mass of ice at 32° is
very easily crushed, but it has as sharp and definite a
fracture as a mass of glass (zd. 551).
I am bound to say that I can find nebBides in the
machinery by which glaciers are formed at all analogous to
these experiments, except the initiatory stage, when damp
snow is converted into continuous zévé by pressure. From
that point down to the foot of the glacier I can find evidence
only of the ice being more and more condensed as the
pressure is exerted upon it by its walls, until it acquires the
character of blue ice. I can nowhere trace evidence of the
pressure being sufficiently great, and such as to crush the
ice into powder, or to assimilate it in any way to the dis-
integrated condition which ice assumes in a Bramah press.
When the pressure is the greatest, and the blue veins are
produced, that is, when the great mass of the ice is detained
by some projecting obstacle, there we have the least sign of
disintegrated ice. On the contrary, there the ice is most
transparent, and where the ice is embayed, and has there-
fore to spread itself and accommodate itself the most, then
the signs of internal strain in the form of blue bands are
conspicuously absent.
Similarly, if we examine the ice at the base of a glacier
by entering one of the well-known ice caves, instead ot
finding its internal structure filled with cloudy lines, and
more or less opaque, as Tyndall himself shewed to be the
case when incipient crushing is in progress (Glaczers of the
Alps, 409 and 10), we find the ice to be most blue and
most transparent. On this matter Professor Bonney writes;
138 _ Mr, H, H. HowortTH ox
“On entering ice caves, etc., underneath glaciers, where
ice fills up cavities, the ice appears to enter these
cavities not by fracture and regelation, but by change of
form, as in the case of a plastic body, for it is remarkably
clear and solid looking” (Jour. Geol. Soc., XII. 199).
Professor Tyndall himself allows that, according to his own
view, “it is manifest that the continuity of the fractured sur-
facescannot be completelyand immediately reclosed after rup=
tnre. It is not the same surfaces that are regelated, and hence
the coincidence of the surfaces cannot be perfect. They will
enclose for a time capillary fissures” (Proceedings Royal
Inst., 1857, p. 322 note), but the existence of such capillary
fissures in the deep ice is absolutely denied by Professor
Huxley, who accompanied Professor Tyndall to Switzerland.
_ Professor Huxley’s words are: “All deep ice,that is, all ice
situated more than a few inches below the surface, is as solid!
as glass or marble and as devoid of any but accidental
fissures. The glacier, however, where exposed to the
atmosphere, presents what may be called ‘a superficial
layer’ of very different character. It is composed of larger
or smaller granules of exceedingly irregular form, separated.
by very obvious fissures, but nevertheless so fitted into one
another as to cohese with firmness. The thickness of the
superficial layer varies a good deal, seven or eight inches.
being rather above the average depth. Wherever you clear
away this superficial layer you find beneath it what J |
have termed deep ice, that is, ice in which neither fissures.
nor granules are visible.” Professor Huxley did not
content himself with a microscopic examination of glacier
ice, but he tested its porosity by making cavities, some
of them with very thin walls, and filling them with
coloured liquids, and thus testing its permeability; and he
says; “I can only conclude from these experiments that the
chief substance of a glacier is as essentially impermeable as
a mass of marble or slate; and that, though it may be
The Theory of Glacier motion. 1.39
traversed here and there by fissures and cracks, these no
more justify us in speaking of glacier ice as porous than the
joints and fissures in a slate quarry give us a right to term
slate porous. We do not call iron porous because water
runs out of a cracked kettle” (P/z/. Mag. ath ser. XIV. 250).
This conclusion of Professor Huxley seems absolutely
fatal to Professor Tyndall. As Dr. J. Ball says, “If we a:e
to adopt his conclusion, then we must cease to believe with
Professor Tyndall, that glacier ice is enabled to advance in
conformity with the law of viscous motion, by fracture and
regelation” (Phil. Mag., 4th ser., XIV. 502). :
When we turn from these to another series of facts,
whose lesson is ignored by Professor Tyndall, namely, the
proved differential motion by which every point from. the
centre of a glacier to the side, from its summit to its base
has a different motion, we have a condition which seems
to me compatible only with semi-fluid motion, and utterly
unexplainable by any theory of crushing and regelation.
Referring to Moseley’s argument on the shearing force
of ice, Mr. Trotter says :—“ It seems to be decisive against
the belief that the ordinary comparatively undisturbed
motion of a glacier along a moderately sloping bed takes
place by fracture and regelation. Moseley’s value of the
shearing strength of ice, which has been shown to be
enormously too great as a measure of the resistance of ice
to slow shearing, would appear on the other hand to be an
inferior limit to the resistance to:the shearing fracture which
must precede regelation” (Proc. Roy. Soc., XXXVIII. 108).
Again, Professor Tyndall refers to experiments of his
own upon the Mer de Glace, showing its motion iu winter
when the-estimated temperature was 5 degrees below zero
centigrade. How, at such temperatures, can regelation
occur at all? The ice surfaces would be all dry and incapable
of freezing: together. We must remember that it is only
damp surfaces that will freeze together again. Professor
140 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
Tyndall acknowledges that below 32° ice does not possess
the property of regelation, and it has been proved that a
glacier is always moving in all its parts in winter as well as
in summer, below as well as above. It means that the
interior of a glacier must, in order to justify Professor
Tyndall’s theory, be above the freeing point or at the
freezing point in winter, which is completely contrary to the
facts as we know them, in the glaciers of Greenland and
high latitudes, which have been shewn to have a considerable
winter motion.
These considerations seem fatal to Professor Tyndall’s
theory, and its breakdown made men revert again to Forbes’s
views, notwithstanding the apparently insuperable objection
contained in Moseley’s experiments. Among these cham-
pions of the Scotch philosopher was Dr. M. Williams.
“We have direct evidence that ice of great thick”
ness,’ he says, “actual glaciers, may bend to a consi-
derable curvature before breaking. This is seen very
strikingly when the uncrevassed ice-sheet of a slightly
inclined zévé suddenly reaches a precipice and is thrust
over it. If Mr. Geikie were right (ze., if ice were a rigid
and not a plastic body) the projecting cornices thus formed
should stand straight out, and then when the transverse
strain due to the weight of this rigid overhang exceeded
the resistance of tenacity, it should break off short, exposing
a face at right angles to the general surface of the supported
body of ice, .., ». » » » Some very fine examples jor
such ice cornices are visible from the ridge separating the
Handspikjen Fjelde from the head of the Jostedal, where a
fine view of the great zévé or sneefornd is obtained, This
side of the zévé terminates in precipitous rock walls; at the
foot of one of these is a dreary lake, the Styggewand. The
overflow of the zévé here forms great bending sheets that
reach a short way down, and then break off and drop as
small icebergs into the lake.” (Quart. Journ. of Sctence,
VII. 220—221),
The Theory of Glacier motion. I4I
The position in which the problem now stood was
remarkable. It was admitted by everybody that the general
phenomena of the motion of a glacier exactly reproduces
that of a viscous body moving through a channel under the
influence of its own weight, and that Forbes’s view seemed
incontrovertible, and every attempt to explain the motion
of glaciers by other processes had failed. But for the
experiments of Moseley, which went to shew that the shear-
ing resistance of ice is not sufficiently low to allow us to
treat a glacier as a viscous mass, and that consequently
gravity is not strong enough to do the work demanded
from it, there would have been no hesitation among scientific
men in accepting the plastic theory as alone valid.
It had not occurred to enquirers to call in question
Moseley’s experiments. This was now to be done, with the
result of completely vindicating Forbes’s view.
Mr. Ball objected, on theoretical grounds, to experiments
like Mr. Moseley’s upon artificially formed ice being applied
to ice of another kind altogether, namely, glacier-ice, a con-
‘clusion for which, as we shall see, he had full warrant. He
also urged that while the shearing in a glacier, whatever its
amount, takes place very slowly, in Mr. Moseley’s experiment
it was very fast. Moseley’s own experiments show, that if we
want to shear ice quickly, a weight of 120 lbs. is required,
while, if the thing is done more slowly, 75 lbs. will suffice,
and this gives point to Mr. Ball’s criticism, that to ascertain
the resistance opposed to very slow changes in the relative
position of the particles, so slight as to be insensible at short
‘distances, Mr. Moseley measures the resistance opposed to
rapid disruption between contiguous portions of the same
substance (Phil, Mag., XL. 158).
Mr. Matthews and Mr. Reilly, by careful experiments,
emphasized this argument of Mr. Ball, and showed how
important an element time is in the shearing of ice; the
actual differential motion of a glacier ranging for molecules |
142 ~ Mr. H. H. HowortTuH oz
‘the tenth of an inch apart, and at an interval of 24 hours,
‘from the z7s55 to the zoieo Of an inch, while Mr. Moseley
‘inferred the shearing force in ice to be 75 lbs. from
experiments in which he caused a solid cylinder of ice to:
‘shear an inch in half an hour (PAz/. Mag., XLII. 420).
It was in 1870 that Mr. Matthews tried his famous
‘experiment upon the shearing of ice, which gave an entirely
-different result to that of Mr. Moseley. A plank of ice,6 inches
wide 23% inches thick, was sawn from the frozen surface of a
pond, and supported at each end by bearers 6 feet apart..
The whole weight of the plank could not have exceeded
37% \bs, and its cross-section was nowhere less than 14
inches. From the moment the plank was placed in position
it began to sink, and continued to do so until it touched the
surface over which it was supported. At the point of
contact it appeared bent at a sharp angle, and was perfectly
rigid in its altered form. The total deflection was 7 inches,
which had been effected in about as many hours, under the
influence of a thaw, during which the plank diminished very
slightly in thickness. It was thus shewn that ice can
‘change its form under strains produced by its own gravita-.
tion (Adpine Journal, 1870, 426).
The meaning of this experiment was very plain. Mr.
Moseley himself says of this bending, “when the ice takes a
distinct set, every particle,except those at the points of
support, is made to move in the direction in which the plate:
is bent, those particles which are at the point of greatest.
inflation being made to move furthest, and those nearer to:
dt being always made to move further than those most
remote, so that every particle moves over that which is.
alongside towards the nearest point of support ; and being
assumed to have taken a set, it must have sheared over it.”
That is to say, the motion of the plank is precisely such a.
amotion as Forbes’s theory requires. Mr. Matthews per-
tinently :asks :—If the shearing force of. ice be 75|bs. as.
The Theory of Glacier motion. 143,
Mr. Moseley requires, and the cross section of the ice plank
‘is 14 inches, it must require a pressure of 1,050lbs. in order
‘to shear it. How then does it come about that it shears
under a pressure of 371%4lbs? The experiments shewed that,
even if the whole weight of the plank were at work in
shearing it only along the supporting edges,instead of a por-
tion of it being taken off by the bearers and being otherwise
extended, it could not exceed 37 Yalbs. for the whole area,
which, for the two surfaces, would be 378 ,or about 1% bs. to
the square inch (Phil. Mag., XLII. 33 iis
In March, 1871, Professor Bianconi published a paper
in the Memoirs of the Bologna Academy, ser. U1., vol. I.
p. 156, entitled, “ Esperiénze intorno alla flessibilita del
Ghiaccio.” In this paper he refers to experiments which he
tried from 1866 onwards upon beams of ordinary ice
suspended on points and weighted in between. In these
experiments he found that the beam acquired a curved
flexure, and when it was reversed, and the weight
again attached, it curved in the opposite direction. In
another set of experiments he showed that after some hours
a beam of ice is susceptible of torsion. In other experi-
ments which he tried with granular ice, formed from
snow, the results were more marked. To his memoir are
attached plates in which the amount of bending and torsion
are shown. The general result is summed up in the following
words: Conchiudo, il ghiaccio possiede una flessibilita, o
pieghevolézza assai lente, ma bene spiegata, alla temperatura
di +2, +3 etc. mentre rimane in ogni momento presente
la somma ma fragilita (of. cz¢. 165). |
In the 4th volume of ature Professor Tyndall published
some experiments he himself made on ‘ice from the
Morteratsch Glacier in 1871. In these experiments it was
clearly shown that a stout rectangle of clear and continuous
ice cut from the glacier, when properly supported and
weighted,showed signs of bending after twelvehours. Similar
144 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
experiments were made upon bars of ice from the harder
and firmer ice of the sand cones. When not too large these
showed similar signs of bending very quickly, and the
flexure in each case was permanent and not due to elasticity
(Nature, vol. IV. 447).
More remarkable were the experiments of Mr. John
Aitken, described in the 7th volume of the same periodical
(287—288), from which he deduced the conclusion that the
plasticity of ice depends largely on the amount of air it
contains. Having dissolved a large quantity of air in water,
he filled some tubes with it. When frozen he withdrew the
ice in the form of rods, which he then placed on supports
eight and a half inches apart, and hung a pound weight in
between. The beam, he says, at once began bending, and
continued bending so long as the weights were left on them,
thus proving the viscosity of the ice. In further experi-
ments with rods made from compressed snow, afterwards
frozen in a freezing mixture, and therefore more like glacier
ice, the results were even more marked, one of the beams
bending an inch in five minutes. Eventually Mr. Aitken
succeeded in twisting such ice rods round cylinders, and thus
forming solid ice rings from straight beams of ice.
In 1877, Professor Pfaff published the results of some
careful experiments, which went to show that even the
slightest pressure when applied continuously, and when the
temperature of the ice is near the melting point, is sufficient
to displace the particles of ice. “It follows,” he says, “that ice
near its melting point behaves zzdeed Like wax.” Again he
says, “It is still constantly assumed, on the ground of some
of Tyndall’s experiments, that ice is destitute of extenszbzlity
and flexibility, although repeated observations recently
made compel us to ascribe to ice some flexibility. The
oldest observation of this kind known to us originated
with Kane, who remarked that a large lump of ice with
its edges resting on two others became curved in the
The Theory of Glacier motion. 145
course of some months.” Professor Pfaff then details some
experiments confirming this one, and like others I have
already quoted. “I next endeavoured,” he says,“to determine
the amount of extension of ice by traction, and he attached a
weight to a prism ofice. After seven days, signs of stretching
were clearly visible. It is therefore shown,” he says, “that
a pull continued for a long time, even when it is slight,
stretches ice, that near its melting point it shews itself like
other bodies yielding to pressure as well as to pull, and
at a temperature in the vicinity of zero, it is to be regarded.
as an eminently plastic substance” (Phzl. Mag., L.
333—336).
In 1883, Mr. C. Trotter tried some experiments on the
shearing of ice in an ice grotto at Grindelwald, the apparatus.
being placed about 18 metres from the edge of the glacier,
25 or 30 metres below its upper surface, and about the same
above its bed, so as to have conditions of temperature like
those of an actual glacier, and the ice used was cut from
the glacier itself. The result was to show that under a
shearing force rather more than double that which, according
to Canon Moseley’s calculations, is exerted by gravity in
the Mer de Glace, near the Tacul, but #,th only of his
smallest value of the shearing force of ice, the amount of
shear was actually larger than that implied in any of the
ordinary cases of glacier motion, and he concludes that
there is little doubt that under conditions closely resembling
those of the interior of a glacier, and under the influence of
forces comparable with those of gravity, hand specimens. of
ice shear in the same manner as a truly viscous solid would
(Pro. Roy. Soc. XXXVIII. 100O—I01).
The observations of Tyndall upon crevasses do not
prove that ice is not extensible, but that it is incapable of
any appreciable elastic extension before it gives.
“T believe, therefore,” says Mr. Trotter, “that the rons of
146 MR. HoH. HOWORTEH. 07: °
evidence tends to shew that ice at or about 0°C. is just as truly
viscous as pitch or sealing wax at temperatures at which
they are brittle, but yet capable of yielding to the continuous
application of'a very moderate force. The viscosity of ices
however, probably diminishes very rapidly with the tem-
peratures ior.,t. This is in complete accordance with the
facts of the changes which take place in a glacier during the
winter. The terminal melting ceases, but the advance of
the end of the glacier into the valley is very slow, and
probably ceases altogether in the depth of winter. Higher
up, the forward movement of the surface continues, though
at a slower rate than in summer, and though the glacier
does not lengthen much in winter, it thickens considerably,
-and the surface rises, often through many feet, so as to
‘make up the enormous waste of the summer.”
In May, 1887, Dr. Mann read an important paper before
the Royal Society upon some experiments he performed in
the Engadine upon the shearing of ice. In these experiments,
as he tells us, in order to eliminate the influence of regelation,
the experiments were carried on at low temperatures, the
highest being —2°6 C., number 2 —1'0°C., and number 3
—o'5°C. The ice was frozen in a cylindrical mould, and
in order to exclude air the water was boiled. Without
giving the details the result obtained by Dr. Bain was that
“ice subjected to tension stretches continuously by amounts
which evidently depend on the temperature and on the
tension stress. When the stress is great, and the temperature
not very low, it amounted to as much as I per cent of the
whole length per day. When the temperature is lower and
the stress is less, the extension is less, but still such as can
be measured. So continuous and definite is the extension
that it can even be measured from hour to hour.....
Hence differential motions resulted in the ice. These motions
and extensions took place at temperatures which preclude
The Theory of Glacier motion. 147
all possibility of melting and regelation. . . . . That there is
such extension, and that it goes on continuously with all
‘stresses above 1 kilo. per square centimetre and -at all
temperatures between — 6° C. and freezing point, is shewn by
the above experiments. . . . In the discussion, for the most
part @ priorz, on the extensibility of ice, sufficient im-
portance has not usually been assigned to the necessity of
distinguishing between the effect of even a small blow or jar,
and that of a much greater force applied gradually and
steadily during a long interval. A bar of ice may beara
stress of 4 and 5 kilos per square centimetre if the load is
steady, which would fracture at once with a much smaller
sudden stress, especially if not uniformly distributed” (Pro.
Roy. Soc., XLII. 491-501). area
In the following year similar experiments were repeated
by Messrs. Mc.Connell and Kidd, “who established,” to use
their own words, “that not merely.the rate, but even the
very existence, of the extension, depends on the structure
of the ice.” They shewed that when the ice consists of a
single crystal, no extension takes place, thus, fro tanto,
explaining the results of some of the earlier experiments.
Thus clear ice cut from the surface of a bath, which proved
to be a rough regular crystal, shewed hardly any extension ;
ice of irregular structure made in a mould, shewed consider-
ably more. This made it obvious, that for the purpose of
testing the question as applied to the motion of glaciers,
actual glacier ice must be used. “And the experiment was
next tried upon actual glacier ice, taken from the natural
caves at the foot of the Morteratsch Glacier.” To use the
actual words of the experimenters :—
“We tested three pieces, which were quite sufficient to
disprove the common notions, that glacier .ice.is only plastic
under pressure not under tension, and that regelation is an
essential part of the process. They showed at the same time
the extremevariability of thephenomenon. The first extended
148 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH ox
at a rate of from 0.013 mm. to 0°022 mm. per hour per length
of 10 cm., the variation in speed being attributable to the
temperature. The second piece began at a rate of 07016
mm. and gradually slowed down till it reached, at the same
temperature, a rate 00029 mm., .at which point it remained
tolerably constant, except for temperature variations, till a.
greater tension was applied. The third piece, on the con-
trary, began at the rate of o';012 mm., increased its speed.
with greater tension to 0'°026 mm., and stretched faster and
faster with unaltered tension till it reached the extraordinary
speed of 1°88 per hour per length of 1ocm. We put ona
check by reducing the tension slightly, whereupon the speed.
fell at once to 0°35 mm., and gradually declined to 0043.
mm. . . . During twelve hours, with a maximum tem-
perature —9° and a mean temperature probably —10°5, the
rate under the light tension of 1°45 kilo. per sq. cm. was.
o70065. mm.” .'. . . “We tried further experimreme:
on compression of ice, the pressure being applied to
three nearly cubical pieces at once. Of three pieces of
glacier ice, under a pressure of 3:2 kilos per sq. cm., the
mean rates of contraction during five days were respectively
0035 mm., 0'056 mm., and o'007 mm. per hour, per length
of 10 cm. These figures show that while the plasticity
varies enormously in different specimens, the rate of dis-
tortion is of the same order of magnitude, whether the force.
applied be a pull or a thrust. . . . . We have now
shewn by direct experiment that ordinary ice, con-.
sisting of an irregular aggregation of crystals, exhibits.
plasticity both under pressure and under tension, at
temperatures far below the freezing point—in the case of
tension at any rate down to —g° at least, and probably
much lower..... It will be interesting to make some
comparison between the figures we have given and the
plasticity actually observed in. the motion of glaciers.
Perhaps the most striking proof of the existence of plasticity
The Theory of Glacier motion. 149
is the great increase of velocity from the side to the centre
of a glacier. The most rapid increase mentioned by Heim
(Gletscherkunde, 147) among the glaciers of the Alps is on
the Rhone glacier on a line 2,300 metres above the top of
the ice fall. At 100 metres from the Western bank, the
mean yearly motion, 1874 to 1880, was 12’9 metres; at 160
metres from the bank it was 43°25 metres. This gives an
increase of velocity in each metre across the glacier of
0700058 metres per hour.’ Having calculated out what
this means, our authors proceed : “Thus the maximum rate
of extension in the case we have taken on the Rhone
glacier is 00029 mm. per hour per length of Iocm. This,
be it remembered, is the most rapid extension selected from
a large number of measurements on different glaciers and at
different times, and yet only one of the three specimens
of glacier ice showed a rate less than this, and that was
under one-third of the breaking tension. The larger the
specimen the greater average plasticity would it display.”
In some still more recent papers read before the Royal
Society by Mr. Thomas Andrews, he shows experimentally
that the shearing force of ice is largely dependent on its
temperature. “In the majority of instances,” he says, “it was
found that if the plasticity of the ice at —35 F. be called 1
at Oo F. it would be about twice as much, and at 28 F. the
plasticity would be about four times as great as at 0’ F., or
eight times as much as at —35 F..... This is in accord
with the practical cessation of motion in glaciers during the
cold of winter. It was also noticed that the plasticity of the
naturally frozen pond ice was manifestly greater than that
of the prepared pure ice.”
These experiments have shewn conclusively that Mr.
Moseley’s tests which misled so many scientific men were
based on a mistake, and with the disappearance of Moseley’s
experiment, disappears the only evidence that has been
forthcoming against the splendid induction of Forbes,
J
‘150 Mr. H. H. HOWORTH oz
We may take it, therefore, as clearly proved, that glacier-
ice is not a rigid body, but a plastic one; and that its
movements may be compared with those of pitch or other
plastic substances, whose several parts can roll over one
another. When ice moves under the influence of gravity,
except on very rapid slopes, it acts like other plastic
substances act.. Its lower surface, in contact with the ~
ground, is dragged by friction, and moves very little,
while its upper part flows faster. If we pour pitch on a
table, we find that it spreads out, not by the bottom of the
mass spreading, but by the edges rolling over; the upper
stratum curling round to form the lower one, which is
dragged by the surface of the table. Just as a drop of
water rolls down a plain, leaving in its track the successive
bottom layers of itself.
In claiming ice as a plastic substance I do not mean that
it is completely plastic, but that it behaves like sealing wax
and other similar bodies, which mould themselves with
time to the surfaces on which they lie, even at moderate
atmospheric pressures, and maintain, meantime, the
quality of excessive brittleness under a blow or rapid
change of form. The very fact of its cracking and forming
crevasses shows that it is not perfectly plastic, but under
certain conditions of tension will snap like a brittle sub-
stance. Its viscosity doubtless also varies both with its
temperature, as Forbes urged, and also with the character
‘of its molecular structure; and we may conclude as the
result of our inquiry, that the motion of a glacier is due
in the main to the actual flow of its substance, which
goes on continuously, and, secondly, to a certain sliding over
its bed, and certain more sudden movements due to large
masses cracking asunder under great tension, the first being
no doubt much the most potent and influential of these
causes. So far as we can judge, none of its motion is due to
molecular movements other than those induced by gravity,
The Theory of Glacver motion. I5t
If ice were contained in a basin, like water in a lake, or
spread out ona level plain, it would neither crack nor move
unless thrust out by external pressure, and such pressure in
nature can, so far as we see, only be derived from gravi-
tation.
As Mr. Trotter puts it: “ The fuller consideration of the
physical properties of glacier ice leads to essentially the
same conclusions as those to which Forbes was led Al
years ago, by the study of the larger phenomena of glacier
‘motion, that is, that the motion is that of a slightly viscous
mass, partly sliding upon its bed, partly shearing upon
itself under the influence of gravity 3 sieoie Koy. Soc.,
XXVIII. 107).
This conclusion is a very important one. It baer
a great deal of ingenious and in some cases transcendental
reasoning on the nature and phases of ice, with which the
writings of very distinguished men have been sophisticated
in the last quarter of a century ; and it effectually disposes
of the theories of great ice sheets which the current school
of glacial geologists has imposed on the credulity of men
of science.
152 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
On the Intensity of Transmitted Light when the co-
efficient of transmission of the medium is a function
of time. By James Bottomley, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S.
[Rececved December 16, 1890.]
In this investigation I suppose that we have a cylinder
containing in solution some colouring matter which is.
undergoing chemical change, and that in consequence its.
absorptive power varies. Let the side of the cylinder be
opaque so that light is admitted by the base and is trans-
mitted parallel to the axis; to simplify the formulae let
this light be homogeneous (or white light if the absorption
be the same for every species). Let P be the mass of the
colouring matter, «“ the coefficient of transmission of its
solution, and I, the intensity of the incident light, then if I
denote the intensity of the transmitted light, we shall have
initially
T=I,.7*? (1)
Now suppose the original body, which we may denote by
A, to be gradually changed into another body which we
may denote by B, and that «is the coefficient of trans-
mission of its solution ; let f and g be the masses of A and
B existing at any time. .Now A must be changed into B
in one of three ways, (1) by simple molecular change ; in
which case the mass of A will be the same as the mass of
B, (2) or by the addition of matter (3) or by the sub-
traction of matter; all these three cases are however
included in the formula
q=n(P — p). (2)
mn being some constant, which in the first case is equal to
unity, in the second case greater, and in the third case less
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 153
than unity. At any instant the intensity of the transmitted
light will be
Ble she (3)
Substituting from (2) this becomes
Ja 18S
Pa. *e ic Bie /
As the composition of the medium is undergoing gradual
change, g must be some function of the time, let this be
¢ (2), then the last equation may be written
Iai. ee (4) .
The constant ¢ may be either positive or negative, for
the transparency of the solution may either diminish or
increase ; if c have the value 9, then a change in chemical
composition will have no influence on the nature of the
transmitted light. If g be given as a function of the time,
then by means of the above formula the intensity of the
transmitted light may be determined, and conversely by
observations of the intensity we may determine at any time
the quantity of B existing in the solution.
There is another enquiry which seems to have more
mathematical interest than the preceding, and which was
suggested to me some years since when engaged in
making experiments with various coloured solutions in
order to establish some simple rule for determining
quantities by colorimetry, I had occasion to try a solution
of potassium ferricyanide, but the action of light on it was
so decided, that in a short time, a rule which was satisfactory
in some other cases could not be applied to determine the
quantity of salt present. The action of light in this and
other instances which might be adduced is not of a sudden
character, as in the case of the explosion of a mixture of
hydrogen and chlorine, but gradual and continuous ; when
placed in the dark the action is reversed, and the fluid
nearly regains its original appearance. What becomes of
154 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY ox
absorbed light has long been an interesting question to
physicists ; from our present knowledge of the transmuta-
tion of energy it seems likely that in many cases it is
converted into heat, but there are cases in which the
transmission of light seems to be attended with structural
change of the medium, and this I suppose not to be effected
without expenditure of energy. It seems not unlikely that
in the case of light we have here something analogous to the
disgregation of Clausius in the theory of heat. This action.
of light on the absorptive power of a medium has suggested
the investigation of the following problem: A cylinder
contains tn solution a body A unalterable in the dark, but con-
verted by exposure to light into another body B, of different
absorptive power ; what will be the intensity of the light at any
instant transmitted through any section, supposing the light
absorbed by A to be spent in converting it intoB? As we
shall have to deal with partial differential equations, it will
facilitate the investigation to suppose the change taking
place in a cylinder having opaque sides, and that light of
constant intensity is incident on one extremity of the
cylinder ; by this limitation we shall have to deal with only
one dimension of space. Let I, be the intensity of the
incident light, L the whole length of the cylinder, let the
body A be initially uniformly distributed through the
cylinder ; then if P’ denote the quantity existing initially in
a column of length x measured from the extremity admitting:
light, we shall have |
i, | a)
Let g and g be quantities of A and B co-existent at any
instant in the column 4; now the quantity of B formed.
must be proportional to the quantity of A which. has dis-
appeatedin in the column; therefore we must have the equation
qg=n(P’—p); A)
or by substitution frem (5) |
Lhe Intensity of Transmitted Light. 155
q=n (Fx -p). (7)
In this investigation it is supposed that the matter in any
section of the cylinder remains in that section after chemical
change ; it is easy to see that this condition may not always
be fulfilled, for the new matter may be of different density
from the old, and may rise or sink, so as to pass into a
different section; such cases would require a different in-
vestigation. I have spoken previously of the bodies being
in solution, though this condition is not absolutely necessary ;
for in a previous paper published in these memoirs, on the
absorption of light by turbid media, I have pointed. out
that in media containing finely divided matter in suspension,
the extinction of light by absorption follows the same law
as in the clear solutions. Also we might have the body A
initially distributed through the cylinder not uniformly,
but so that the density in any section shall be some function
of the distance of that section from the base of the cylinder ;
the arbitrary functions of the integral of the differential
equation must be adapted to each particular case.
It is supposed that the light absorded by A is spent in
converting it into B; from what is known of physical
laws it would seem reasonable to infer that the quantity of
B produced would be proportional to the quantity of light
absorbed. It will therefore be necessary to have some
expression for quantity of light ; let this be denoted by Q.
If light of constant intensity fall for a given time on a
given area, it seems reasonable to consider the quantity
proportional to the product of the intensity and the time ;
hence, £ being some constant, we shall have the equation
Q=HIT, : (8)
T denoting the time that the area has been exposed to
the light ; if the intensity vary during the time T, then if
I be the intensity at any instant, for the above equation we
must substitute
156 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
Q=k f Ide (9)
If we have a series of coloured plates, and allow light to
pass through them, the result will be the same in whatever
order the plates are arranged; this we may apply to
determine the intensity of the light passing through the
cylinder at any instant ; for in each section at any cime ¢
after the commencement of the experiment, we shall have
the absorbing bodies A and B in different proportions ;
if we supposed no further change to take place, then at this
instant, the intensity of light transmitted through a column
of length + would be the same if there were to be a redis-
tribution of A and B, so that all A were collected in one
portion of the cylinder, and all B in the other portion ;
I, being the initial intensity of the light, after traversing A,
the intensity will become <-»?, p being the quantity of A
existing at that instant in the length +, then this light after
traversing B will have the intensity I,«“?-”4, g being the
quantity of B existing at that instant in the column 7;
therefore for the transmitted light we shall have the equation
be Oe. (10)
On account of the variability of p and qg with the time,
I will vary and at the end of a short time é¢ will become
I+6I. Now consider a section if the cylinder distant x
from the extremity admitting light, and of thickness a1, also
let 6g and & be the quantities of B and A simultaneously
present in the thin section; since these quantities are
variations due to the variation of x,we may, when convenient,
substitute for them
dy dp
ae oz and dee
After the expiration of a short time of, the quantities &
and é¢ will be subject to small variations due to the lapse
of time; let these variations be denoted by de and 8éq ;
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 157
then during the short interval d¢, the intensity of the light
transmitted through the thin plate will lie between
te aod (+ she ee Sip) — ml 3q+ 839) .
and the loss of intensity will lie between
a end) (L + Syke te ee,
If none of the body A were present in the section the loss
of intensity would lie between
Hise) and (14d Sec a):
hence the loss of intensity due to the presence of A in the
section will lie between
pl ee) anh (Eee Pt).
now the formation of B is by hypothesis due to the absorp-
tion of light by A, the quantity of B present in the thin plate
at time ¢ was 6g and at time ¢+6¢, 67+60g, hence the
increment due to time 6¢ is 60g, which we may also write
in the form
g as before remarked may be written in the form
dq...
noe
so that for 607 we may substitute the expression
d’q
dida?
this will denote the quantity of B formed in the section
‘during the short interval 64. Since quantity of light is
proportional to the product of the intensity and the time,
from equation (9) it will follow that if we multiply the
expressions obtained for the loss of intensity by 4d¢ we shall
obtain the limits between which the quantity of light
absorbed by the body A in the thin plate during the time
dt falls ; hence 4 being some constant, we have
158 - Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
FY ey chate 41 — Pat
dadt :
Shh(Ea-8le Od lg — Pt Ph a
The lower of these expressions may be put in the form
bale the Pye + Ri,
where the letter R denotes a sum of products and powers.
of small quantities of the third and higher orders ; hence
the smaller we make 6x and 64, the smaller will be the error
involved in the equation
d? —md =
<uaet = bile ™9(1 — @ “Par, (11)
«4 may be written in the form
med
}.
ie Hen,
or if we expand
dq dy
1- me Tne + ce ay, ox? — &e.
and 1 —«-“%? may be written in the form
dp
wit eS
ete eae
or if we expand
dh
pee K(S,) 08+ eC. 5
therefore (11) may be written
£1 suit = ail - niin + ee ae te.)
( i E(2) bu? + be. )ae; (3p
if we effect the multiplication of the two polynomials on
the right side, then divide both sides of the equation by
éxot, and then suppose éx and é¢ to be diminished indefinitely,
we arrive at he following oe differential equation
dq 13)
dxdt = bhTy be ( )
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 159:
From (7) by differentiation we obtain
dq d*p ape
pS eS ae = © 14
dadt "dads : Ce?)
substituting for
dq
dxdt
in (13), and replacing I by its value from (10), equation (13)
assumes the form
now replace g by its value in terms of p by (7), then the
equation may be presented in the form
ap _ dp pe—bax
poe ede? Fey.
in which for brevity a has been written for
Eh op » 6 for a ’
[aoe L
and ¢ for mn— jt.
The last equation may = transformed i in several ways ;
it may be written in the form
-—log + = — ae 3 | (16)
by differentiation with respect to x this becomes
Ap dp pe— oP
log—= = —b
dedi “ap. ) (17)
by substitution from (16), the last equation may be written
ad. dp d 3
Gaede © 78 (ce ee ie
integrating with respect to 4, and adding an arbitrary
function of z, we obtain the following equation in which ¢
does not appear
—
rns otha
a zee 2 — tog? P + 9(e)) on ee
160 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
this equation does not seem to be further integrable,
Reverting to (15), assume the following equation
p= Uo + Uyer + Unu? + Uz? + U,x' + Xe. ; (20)
wherein the coefficients Uo, Ui, Uz &c., may be functions of 2.
Differentiating with respect to + we obtain
He =U, + 2Ugx + 3U sa? + 4U a? + 5U pat + he; (21)
denoting differentiation with respect to ¢ by using accented
letters, from the last equation we obtain
EP U's + QU ye + BU ga + AU ga + SU'ant + doo. (22)
Equation (15) may be written in the form
d*p dp
log os log. =log(-—a)+cp—ba ; (23)
substituting from (20), (21), and (22) in the last equa we
obtain
log(U's + 2U’,2 + 3U’32? + &e.) — log(U; + 2U ga + 3U 42" + ke.)
= log( — a) + cUp + #(cU, — b) + cUgu? + cUa* + cU,at — &e. (24)
Expand log(Ui+2U.++3U,27*+ &c.) in a series of powers
of x; put V for 2U,++3U,77+&c. ; then when + vanishes
V also vanishes, hence the first term in the expansion of
log(U,+ V) will be logU, ; the en of x will be
Eau oe ae
Ue 2 ee i ev Bits
and generally the coefficient of att will be
1
ln + 1 erizeas Ui+V 319
= Ao + Ayx + Agr? + Aga + A,ax* + &e. ; (25)
assume
3 ]
U,+V
if An be the coefficient of x” in this expansion we shall
have | j
bel ae Ave) (26)
From the equation :
V = 2U en + 3U 52? + 4U a? + SU sa! + he., (27)
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 161
we shall obtain by differentiation
ad”’V ‘
Unuilat+l= eae (28)
To find the value of
d" bee ec As
dz\U,+V Eat,
we may apply the theorem of Leibnitz for finding the z*
differential coefficient of the product of two functions of
ax; if in this result we make r=o we obtain the equation
Fa ae¥ Fe) \_g= MlAln + De + 2)0 ni
+ Ayn(n + 1)U ny + Ac(n —1)2U, 4+ &
+A(n—7r+1)(n—r+2)Un_p+2
+A,i(n—7r)(n—7+1)U,_-41+ &.+A,2U2]. (29)
Hence the coefficient of 2”*1 in the expansion of log(Ui+ V)
will be
[Aol + 1) (0+ 2)U nga + Arn(n + 1)U nas
+ Agn(n = 1)U, ia &e. + A,2U, >
giving to ~ the values 0, I, 2, 3, 4, we shall obtain the
following results—
Coefficient of
x=2A,U,
{|
y= 5(Ao3-2U, + AUVs)
” r= 3 (Aot3U, = A,3°2U; + A22Uz2)
1
pth 7(Ag54Us + Ad BU, + AgS-2U, + Ag2U2)
1
B= 3 (Ag6DUs + ArD-AUs + Ard BU, + Ag8-2U5 + A,2U;) ;
by a continuation of the process expressions might ne
found for the remaining coefficients.
To determine the values of the letters Ao, A1, As &c. in
terms of U:, Us, Us &c., we may proceed as follows; sub-
stituting for V its value in terms of x from (27), then from
162 - DR. JAMES BOTTOMLEY on ~
(25) we shall get
1=(Ui+ aU an + 3U 32? + 42 +, d&c.)
(Ao + ia + Apu? + Aga? + &e.); (30)
effecting the multiplication, and arranging the result in
ascending powers of x we shall obtain
1 = AcU, + v(Ao2U, + AyU;)
+ (ASE, + A12Us + AgU1) + 2°(Ao4U, + Ar3U, + Ag2U2 + AsU;)
+ a*(AodUs + Ai4U0, + AgdUs + Ag2U2 + A,U;)
+ 0°(Ao6U6 + Ai5Us + AstU, + AgdU3 + Ay2U, + A;U;)
+, &e. ; . | (31)
as this equation holds for all values of x we shall have
Aged | (32)
2U2Ao =i A,U, =!) (33)
3U,Ao a 2U,Aiz + U, A, — 0 (34)
4U,Ao + 3U,Ai ar 2U.A, ae U,A, = 0 (35)
5U;Ao + AU,A, ae 3U3Ae + 2U,As + U,A, =0 (36)
‘The general equation being
NU ,,Ao + (2 — 1)U,_1Ai + (2 — 2)U,_2Ae+ &e. +U,A,1=0 (87)
From (32) we obtain
1
Ao= =}
0 Us 5)
substituting this value in (33) we obtain
2U
Ay= - U2?
substitute these values of A,, A,, in (34), then
402 3Ue
(ia
these values of A,, Ay, Ay, being substituted in (35), thew
4U, A 12U sUe _ 8U,?
U2 U; Us"
substitute these values of Aj, A, As, Az in (36), then:
j,_ _5Us , 16U,U, | 36U,Us 90s 16Us
Begs) RE Geos Of i DP
By a continuation of this process the values of the
oe
The Intensity of Transmitted Light.
163
succeeding letters A;, A, &c., may be found in terms of the
letters Uj, U., U3 &c.
These values of A,, A, &c.,
being
substituted in the expressions previously obtained for the
various powers of %, we obtain the following results
4
coefficient of x= ys
U,
5 0 ard OP
” ia, Png OEE
Uy 18U,U. " ah)
” xe => =o U2 U:
pel 1/20Us _ 32U,U2 “ 18U;" 48U,U.? a woh)
os ig 4 eee U? U? UP Ui
Ze i Cz » 50U;U, . 60U,U, 80U,U22
” — 5 Go U? U? U;
90U,27U, 120U,U.3 a)
Ue Uy Ur
by a continuation of the process the coefficients of the other
powers of « may be determined.
If we expand
eo? or log(U;'+ 2U.)x + 3U,)2? + &e.
dadt e
in powers of x, the result will differ from the result already
obtained in this respect only, for the letters U,, U., Us, &c.
the accented letters U,!, U,!, U,!, &c., must be used ; hence
we shall have the equation—
ke
Fok pee Ene Ge al Us _Us
log roe log a ate —logUi + (Fa - i)
Oo (U2)? Ue? Us U
2fo(Us _ Us (Us) Us’ Us
i (3(u3 a.) ~ (oy cyt 3 3(!2(qa uw)
UU.) _U;U; (0? eee ee Ua sd
-18( Top Us ae a 03 -pa)fta {20( Gi ~
U Fal ae U? Ww 1\2 2 1 1\2 %
~ 32 aaa =—-3 :)-1 (‘ pn) +48 ee -*)
UR eres bi" (Ugh) sae (U;’) Ui
DR. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
pf eae oh te (zs ae a) 23 FE 0 (Gin ae
oa (Ty U, "Us
(Uy')’
U2(U)? UU, eu Uae
a (uaF 8). 00( ae Ue)
(U;7)?U," UU, U,(U,")° | “V)
+ 90 (uy i, U; )- 20( (U;)4 U
i 1\5 U 5
+ 32( sa = a) + &e.
By (24), this expansion is equal to
log( — a) + cUp + a(cUi — 6b) + cUgz? + cU gz? + cU,a* + cUsx’ + &e.;
hence if we equate the coefficients of corresponding powers
of x we shall obtain the following equations—
logU,' — logU, = log —a+cUo
Ue U; (U,') a)
: U; U1, “cs U? ail
if aa(OE- 2) —1( HD) Ta
120( cs t,) -2°( aye Ue) 1 oe we)
+48 ae ae) 1 (a ai) pas
(U oe Cope = U?
1(,./Ue Us U;'U;' -2) (“a “3')
5{30(ua- a) ~5° (op SEO es
2U;) an +90 (U,')?Us" *)
(Uz)? = (U; Ns Te UL
eat 1 ODL) (U1) ue :
120 Tee 30(Cay- Tp Ue
In a similar manner the relationship of the coefficients of
higher powers of + may be determined ; the expressions
so obtained become more complicated.
Now consider the first of this series of equations
logU,! — logU = log —a + cUo
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 165
by the accent differentiation with respect to ¢ is denoted so
that for U,! we may write
log( = ahs a) a Us
1
integrating this equation we obtain
U,= rena =e ce
v, denoting some arbitrary constant, also Uyis by hypothesis
some function of the time, but as yet undetermined, hence
for simplicity the last equation may be written in the form
(oS ee o(t) (38)
Next consider the second equations of the series
Ua U
if in this equation we write
Us EMA LVF :
aE for U,}, and ie for U,’,
we shall obtain on integration
Us= u(5 [= a cU,- b) dt + rs), (40)
y, being some arbitrary constant; if the integration be
completed we shall obtain
ep v,( ae % rs) (41)
but U,, has already been obtained as a function of U,,
hence by substitution U, will be obtained as a function
of U, Next consider the third equation of the series
a U; ) 2 (U,3)? US
tao) - (ae si
166 - Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY on
if in this equation we substitute differential coefficients
with respect to ¢ for the accented letters U,!, Uj, U, and
integrate we shall obtain the equation
(ir) 3
dlogU U,?
=U (sf {= Bh'l9 (ane Ue + U,} den), (43)
We may write
oy Wy | |aU,
UP es dt Osi dt) age
2 my U; ;| in the form 2 dU; i, | a, +7, ;
dt dt dt
by means of (39) and (41) this may be put in the form
cU,—5b
2
hence equations (43) may be transformed into
1 ot
pe v.{5 iF (es + ra)(BeU, — 2b)
cU, —b)?\dU
1 th
2
(cU, = b) (cU, = blogU, == 27e oe
Hence Us; has been transformed into an integrable function
of U,; by a continuation of the process U,, Us, &c., may be
obtained as functions of U:,and the method seems generally
applicable ; for if we equate the coefficient of x”*! in the
expansion of
with the coefficient of the same power in the expansion
cUo + (cUi — b)a + cU nx? + cUgx? + cU4x* + &e.,
we shall obtain an equation which may be put in the form,
(n+ Dens mis ei) + function of
(U* uth we miei Ue, ’ Uy ; , Usa5, U;; sis ts Us, U;) =cU ns )
this equation may for brevity be written
a
The Intensity of T: ransmitted Light. 167
Bee te Uns _ Fase . (44)
U; U, r+ meg?
F,,,. denoting cU,.:_ function of
(oes Ue ee Ls U4 U4. Ue Oe
Integrating (44) we obtain
aor eis me
Une =U; gues “BEET —wto dt + Pa42)) (45)
Pea DEMIS some arbitrary constant. Hence U,,,. has been
obtained in terms with smaller suffixes, and these in their
turn will have been obtained in terms with suffixes still
smaller; so that finally U,42 will be obtained as a complex
function of Uj.
Now give to z the values of 0, I, 2, 3, &c. in succession,
and substitute the expressions so obtained for Us, Us, &c.
in the expansion = Uo+ Uyr+ U22r?+ &c. ; then we obtain
p= U4 Ufere! (4 pare +73) + 3 ( [2 +n)
B; dU, FP; dU,
vn Ds) a 5 Tit) tee}. (46)
Now by equation (37) U, is a known function of U, for
— o(E) ;
+at(
U; SS 1
a fae;
if we substitute for U, its value in U,, the undetermined
quantities in (46) will be this letter, and the letters 1, ™, 7
&c. ; the values to be assigned will depend upon the initial
condition of cylinder with respect to the distribution of the
body A, but it was supposed to be initially uniformly
distributed, so that at time <=0 we have
g(t) standing for
fue
P a a |
also when + vanishes / also vanishes ; making x and ~ each
0 in (46), we obtain 0 for the value of U,, hence we have
168 - Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
a MR «°° dt=at, (47)
and for U, we have the value % «~-”; by substitution in
(46) we obtain
F
p= ne" xL- a{( I zit aa rs)
F
+a( fan) vat( J an) +60}}
The values of “%, “, 7%, &c., are to be determined as
follows: let the integration with respect to ¢ be effected,
and then in the last expression make ¢=0; then if we
substitute for # its initial value we shall have
= TL,
L
and the coefficients of the remaining powers of + take the
value 0; hence 7,73, &c., will be the values of the integrals
F, F,
iB dt, [Rae &e.
when ¢has the value 0. Finally we obtain as a solution
of (15)
P 2 t r> t 4 t
payee f wat-S [war Sf F,dt ~ &e. )
I shall now consider some particular cases, depending
upon special values given to the letters a, 0, c.
In the first case, consider a to have the value 0 ; putting
this value in the last equation we obtain,
Pap
The relation, @=0,. implies the relation, w=0; in this
case the body A absorbs no light ; as B is supposed to be
formed by the light absorbed by A, in this case it is plain
that no B will be produced, and that the distribution
of A through the cylinder will be the same at all time, as
it was initially ; in this particular problem it was considered
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 169
to be uniformly distributed. A similar result might have
been obtained from a consideration of the differential
equation, for if we make a=0 in (15), we obtain the result,
d?p
dxdt 0; (48)
of which the integral is
p= $(t) + Vz) ; (49)
if we now apply the conditions =o, when +=o, and
ee
ae
initially, we find 0 for the value of ¢ (4), and
Pp
—o&
L
for the value of (7).
The next case that I shall consider, is when d=0; and
first it may be remarked that this condition implies #—0,
and therefore implies that the body A by the absorption
of light is converted into a body B which is perfectly
transparent. We are, as far as I am aware, acquainted
with no form of matter which is perfectly transparent, so
that the investigation might not be strictly applicable to
actual experience, but it is well known that the action of
light on many organic colours is of such a nature as to
discharge the colour; to such cases the present investiga-
tion will apply approximately ; making J=0 in (15) we
obtain
ap." ap
ae ae (98)
Integrating with respect ¢ x and adding an arbitrary
function of ¢, we obtain
to integrate a second time, substitute U for 2°; also since
when m=0,c takes the value—yp, let this value be used,
then we obtain
‘170 - Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY ox
the integral of this equation is
g— feria
Ue ae (51)
a fe Ma ese)’ |
the arbitrary functions (2) and /(#) may be so chosen as
to satisfy given conditions ; suppose that when +=0, p=0,
in (51) substitute «? for U xa then give these yee to +
and ~, we shall obtain
a fe POM 40) _ fed
differentiating and dividing by
; o fH r(é)at
we find
— pot) =a
by substitution, from (51) we shall obtain
at
pth a
a et = He (52)
to determine f (x), suppose that the body A was initially
uniformly distributed through the cylinder, giving to p the
value
PY
1g pe.
and to z the value 0, from (52) we shall obtain
Lie
fle)=L" -1;
substituting in (52) we obtain as the solution of (50)
4 Lee et
ae ie (53)
ae —l+ Pie
We may now consider a third special case of (1 5)
in | that equation make c=0, — we get
. 69
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 171
this equation may be written in the form
integrating with respect to 4, and adding an arbitrary
function of x we get
dp
log = —ae *t+/(x),
which may also be put in the equivalent form
dp _ \ hie
de = F(a e ’
integrating with respect to x and adding an arbitrary
function of ¢ we obtain
—bxr
p Fe ae da +t); (55)
if, as in other cases, we suppose that g=0, when +=0, and
that when ¢=0
p=7%
L
we may determine the arbitrary functions F(x) and ¢(Z) ;
from the last condition, we obtain from (55)
Fa is : F(x)de + 9(0);
from this equation we derive by differentiation,
: P
F(x) = hy
from the condition =0, when +=0, it follows that (2) is
the value which the quantity under the integral sign would
have if the integration were effected and 0 substituted for
x, hence the solution of (54) will be
78) pete
pp fe* dx ; (56)
if the quantity of, A in the whole length of the cylinder is
required, the limits of the integration will be 0 and L. The
172 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY on
condition c=0 implies the condition z=, and therefore
e “=_-”™"; consequently, if we have a cylinder containing in
solution a body A of which the coefficient of transmission
is s—“ and this body is converted into a body B, so that
each unit of A furnishes z units of B of which the
coefficient of transmission is.e~”, then if 7zz= there will
be no visible evidence of any structural change, the intensity
of the transmitted light depending on the length of the
absorbing column, but being independent of the time.
This may be merely a mathematical refinement, but in
the present state of our knowledge respecting the intimate
constitution of material combinations, I do not think that
we should be justified in saying that no internal change
has taken place, because none is visible.
Another variety of the problem which is the subject
of this paper arises from the following consideration ;
suppose the change from A to B to be so slow, and the
contents of the cylinder kept in such a state of brisk
agitation, that the absorbing medium may be considered
homogeneous, what will be the intensity of light at any
time. In this case,f and g being at any time the quantities
of A and B coexistent in in the entire length of the
cylinder, the intensity of the emergent light at the same
time will be given by the equation
T=I,e “7%;
therefore the loss of intensity will be
I,(1- NE ie 2
at the end of the short interval d¢ the intensity of the
emergent light will be
Lites (p+ 0b) — mg + °9)y,
and the loss of intensity at that time,
Lise (p+ op) — meg + °2))
if the body B only were in solution, the loss of intensity
Oo
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 17
at time 7, would be
E(k ete t= 1)
and at time 7+ d4,
1,(1 ae: pe fet) :
hence the loss due to the presence of A will be at time /,
Ree elie oe
and at time ¢+6¢
Tie tay ‘i er Pee) P
hence the quantity of light absorbed by A during the short
interval é6¢ will lie between
Ble 2 (16 Pye, and, bly MO PG eo (Pt Phys;
hence, since 6g the quantity of B formed is supposed to be
proportional to the quantity of light absorbed by A during
the short interval 64, we shall have
6g<hklpe— ™2(1 — “P 6t
>hklge (1+ 9901 — HP + *P)) at,
‘The lower of these expressions may be written in the form
7 hkloe~ ™4(1 — e~ #P)8t + RB,
where R denotes a sum of products and powers of small
quantities of the second and higher orders ; hence ultimately
we obtain
2 pee Ys (57)
in this equation the letter % denotes some constant ; we
may now substitute
dy
dt
by differentiating the equation g=n(P—/) ; hence we obtain
by eliminating g, an equation of the following form
dp
7 for
ge =~ He? —e), (58)
wherein, for brevity, @ has been written for
k p I.e —mnP
n b]
174 Dr. JAMES BOTTOMLEY oz
6 for mn, and c for mn—p. Since P, the value of # at time
¢=0 is supposed to be known, if # be expanded in powers
of ¢ by Taylor’s theorem, it will be easy by means of (58)
to obtain the coefficients of the successive powers of ¢; the
following is the expansion as far as the fourth power
{2
p=P—-a(e — &*)t + ar(e — °°) (be? - ce)
< t
=v ar( (ie a Cee zo e?)? a (be”” ~ esa) (aus = ig
ae ae” te a) (ee oo e?)?(B%e? ial Ge)
t4
+ 4(e° — ?)(b2e"" — e%e°F) (be? — ce) + be”? — cee) + &e.
As in. previous examples particular values may be
assigned to the three parameters a, 0, ¢, giving rise to
distinct solutions of (58). Suppose that the action of light
on the body A is of such a nature as to discharge the colour
and convert it into a perfectly colourless medium, in such a.
case
kal,
nN
m=a0 a= ,6=0, c= —p,
and equation (58) may be written in the form
d
ID —ep |
gi ne (59)
of which the integral is
| e“P —14+Ce™ site
or if the constant C be determined by the conditions p= 1”
when ¢=0, we may write it in the form
| oP ea oh .
Another variety of the problem will be as follows : suppose:
the solution of A to be perfectly transparent for the kind
of light under consideration, then p will have the value 0,
and the letters 6 and ¢ in (58) will have the same value wzm,.
hence (58) will now have to be written
The Intensity of Transmitted Light. 7s
ee
whence we have #=constant ; a result which is in agreement
with the hypothesis that B is formed from A bythe absorption
of light, for if no light is absorbed no change will take place
in the contents of the cylinder.
If the conversion from A to B is attended wane no
visible Change, then c=0, and (58) may be put in the form
dp _
dé 1) 3
of which the integral is
—ale —
—_ — Kab
lee P2Ce ™;
if the value of the constant c be determined by the condi-
tions £=0, =P, we may put the last equation in the form
SY Aas cy
be
Throughout this investigation it has been considered
sufficient to proceed only so far as to determine #; for the
value of g may then be deduced by (2) or by (7); then these
values of # and qg substituted in the equation
at
f —
5 = — MG
Pade, Pe,
will give the intensity of the light transmitted at any instant
through any section of the cylinder.
If the light be not homogeneous, or if the absorption
be not the same for every species, in place of the last
equation we must use the equation
pA eco) WY meee uh
In this case the letters » and w will have different values
for rays of different wave length. Objection may be raised
to those results in this paper which postulate the existence
of perfectly transparent media, on the ground that no such
medium has yet been discovered ; in reply, it may be stated
that in this, as in other branches of science, a limitation of
176 The Intensity of Transniitted Light.
the conditions under which the investigation is conducted,
leads to a clearer perception of the problem to be solved.
For instance, in the theory of heat the imaginary engine of
Carnot, which involves conditions incompatible with our
received notions of matter has nevertheless assisted in the
development and definite expression of an important law in
thermodynamics. Also, if mathematicians had waited for
the discovery of a perfectly rigid solid, we should not yet
have any treatises on statics and dynamics. Also, in the
profound treatise of Fourier on heat, the solids considered
involve conditions of conductivity and specific heat not
exactly fulfilled by physical solids.
The subject of this paper manifestly admits of several
practical applications; for instance, the quantitative determi-
nation of colouring matter undergoing change, in cases
where the balance could not be used, on account of the
minute quantity of the body to be estimated, or on account
of its instability. It may also be applied to the determina-
tion of quantities and intensities of light.
PROCEEDINGS. 177
[Mathematical and Physical Section.]
10th December, 1890.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., President of the -
Section, in the Chair.
Dr. BOTTOMLEY gave the following differential equation
arising from the consideration of a problem relative to the
absorption of light :—
pe—bx
Cy dp
dxdt ~ dx
Ordinary Meeting, December 30th, 1890.
JamEs BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors:
of the books upon the table.
Mr. J. Cosmo MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., read a paper.
entitled: “Description of Drosera intermedia (Hayne)
forma subcaulescens, with remarks on the geographical
distribution of the family.”
A paper on “A New Symbolic Treatment of the Old
Logic,” by Mr. JOSEPH JOHN MURPHY, communicated by
the Rev. ROBERT HARLEY, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., was read
by Dr. J. FW. TATHAM.
178 PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, January 13th, 1891.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Reference was made to the death of Mr. GEORGE
WARING ORMEROD, who was elected a member of the
Society in 1841, succeeded Sir BENJAMIN HEYWOOD as
treasurer, and continued in connection with the Society
until he removed from the district. Mr. DE RANCE pointed
out that Mr. ORMEROD published the first detailed account
of the Cheshire salt district in 1847, and continued to take
an active interest in geological work up to his death.
A discussion on Lancashire and Cheshire boulders
ensued, in the course of which the formation of a boulder
committee to record the localities and other characteristics
of the boulders of the district was suggested.
Mr. DE RANCE then read the second part of the detailed
account by himself and Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK of the
geological section exposed in the Levenshulme and Fallow-
field railway cutting.
Mr. W. H. GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S., read a paper by himself
and Mr. ARTHUR HARDEN, M.Sc., Ph.D., on two new
instruments for ascertaining the volumes of bodies.
PROCEEDINGS. 179
[Microscopical and Natural History Section.|
Ordinary Meeting, January 19th, 1891.
ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc., President of the section,
in the Chair.
Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL exhibited four land shells of
great curiosity, interest, and beauty, recently described, all
from the Old world, viz. :-—
Diaphora Moellendorfiana (Hidalgo) from Cebu I.
Felix retisculpta (v Mart.) from Ussal, Damaraland.
Opisthostoma grandispinosum (Godwin-Austen), from
Borneo.
Cyathopoma aries (v. Moellendorf) from Cebu I.
Phillipines.
There were also exhibited by the PRESIDENT the remark-
-able fungus on the caterpillar of the New Zealand Swift
moth, which is eaten by the Maoris; and by Mr. SCOWCROFT,
a number of flowers dried by a new method soas to preserve
their form and colour.
180 PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, January 27th, 1891.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
A letter from Professor SYLVANUS THOMPSON, stating
that he was engaged in writing a memoir of William
Sturgeon, the electrician and former member of the
Society, and asking for any information concerning him in
the Society’s possession, was read. A conversation ensued,
during which Mr. Alderman BAILEY stated that he believed
that the Salford Corporation had some material relating to
the life and work of Sturgeon in its possession.
Mr. Alderman BAILEY exhibited specimens of artificial
flowers which his son had brought home from the Canary
Islands. The flowers exhibited were very beautiful,
representing myrtle, fuchsia, and other natural flowers, and
were made of fish scales, feathers, and silver wire. Alderman
BAILEY regretted the want of house industries in this.
country, and suggested that in many ways such industries
might be lucrative. A discussion on the possibilities as
regards the revival and extension of handicraft industries
ensued.
PROCEEDINGS. I8I
Ordinary Meeting, February toth, 1891.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Mr. C. E. DE RANCE, F.G.S., called attention to some
deep borings recently made through the keuper marls, in
which the cores were remarkably variegated, in some
instances being divided by a layer of gypsum, the
marls being green on one side of the gypsum and red on
the other. It was suggested that on one side of the gypsum
the iron had been dissolved out and carried away, leaving
the colour green, while the gypsum prevented the same
action on the other side. The formation of the gypsum in
this and other cases was discussed by Mr. W. BROCKBANK,
Mr. P. F. KENDALL, and Mr. H. GRIMSHAW.
Mr. FARADAY called attention to the fact that an
opinion expressed in a paper read before the Society early
in 1884, that the phenomena of protective vaccination and
non-recurrent disease must be interpreted as due to a
vaccine educational influence, developing resisting vigour
in the living cells of the body attacked, is now the apparently
accepted doctrine, in preference to the old idea of the
invading microbe using up some material only rarely
elaborated.
Mr. PERCY F. KENDALL. read a paper “On the source
of some remarkable boulders in the Isle of Man,” and
exhibited specimens of a peculiar blue hornblende rock,
found scattered as travelled blocks all over the Isle of Man,
and identified by him with the rock of Ailsa Craig.
182 ' Mr. P. CAMERON on
Hymenopterological Notices. By P. Cameron.
(Recetved February 11th, 1891.)
I. On some Hymenoptera parasitic in Indian injurious tisects.
For the examination of the insects here noticed and
described, I am indebted to Mr. E. C. Cotes, of the Indian
Museum, whose good work in connection with Indian
Economic Entomology is well known and appreciated. All
the new species described are small, if not minute ; and one
of them, Aphelinus thee, is a very remarkable little insect.
PLATYGASTER ORYZA, sf. nov. (Pl. 1. f. 7 & 7a).
Brownish, shining, impunctate ; the legs pallid yellow ;
the antenne yellow; wings hyaline; mesonotum with a
large, somewhat roundish, fovea in the middle near the
scutellum, which is convex and rounded at the apex [this
fovea is present in two examples, and may be accidental] ;
abdomen subpetiolate, as long as the head and thorax
united, the base of abdomen apparently not striolate 9°.
Length barely 1 mm, |
Foerster divides the sub-family Platygasterina into 21
“genera, Thomson into 11. I cannot make the present —
species fit into any of the divisions, and therefore place it in
Platygaster, sensu lat. The “generic” characters are as
follows: Antennz with the 4-jointed club in ? subabrupt,
the club joints longer than the others; the last joint conical,
nearly twice the length of the penultimate, the other club
Hymenopterological Notices. 183
joints somewhat moniliform. Abdomen subpetiolate.
Parapsidal furrows obsolete. Scutellum convex, rounded
at the apex, glabrous. Ocelli almost forming a triangle,
wings without nervures, deeply fringed. Tarsi 5-jointed.
Vertex immarginate.
Bred from Cecidomyia oryz@, Wood-Mason, a midge
which proved destructive to paddy in Moughyr in October,
1880. See Notes on Indian Economic Tae No. 2,
@ 103, pl. vi. £ 6.
The species of Platygaster greatly affect species of
Cecidomyza, most of which are gall markers.
APHELINUS THEA, sf. mov. (Pl. I. f. 5 & 52a).
Yellow ; the legs pallid, with apex of the hinder tibie
and tarsal joints infuscated. Head dilated behind the eyes.
The second antennal joint small; the third large, thicker
than the second or fourth ; the fourth and fifth not half the
size of the third, and equal in length; the club abrupt,
longer than the preceding four joints united ; the last joint
conical, apparently thinner than the penultimate. Hinder
tarsal spur as long as the metatarsus. Wings with a long
hair fringe.
Length not y% millim.
The only specimen I have seen is mounted in balsam
and has got flattened, so that its exact shape cannot be seen
satisfactorily. Apparently there are two broad triangular
processes projecting from the thorax to near the middle of
the abdomen; but their precise relationship or structure
cannot be correctly made out. They seem to proceed from
the base of the mesonotum. The sutures of the thorax
cannot be observed. Iam not aware of any similar structure
being known in the family. It is so peculiar that I have no
doubt that it will be proved, on further examination, from
fresh specimens, of generic value—that the species forms the
L2
184 Mr. P. CAMERON on.
type of a new genus. Otherwise the species compares fairly.
well with Aphelinus. | am |
Bred from the tea scale insect Asfzdiotus thee from
Janygo, where it was bred by Mr. F. W. H. Mills. The
group of Aphelinine are parasitic in those destructive pests,
the Coccide.
PTEROMALUS ORYZA, sp. nov. (PI. I. f. 2 & 2a).
Coppery-green, the scape and legs yellow, the femora
with a more testaceous tinge; the mandibles rufo-testa-
ceous. Head and thorax closely, and somewhat strongly,
punctured ; the antennal groove transversely striated ; the
mesopleure more strongly punctured than the mesonotum;
the metapleurze shining, impunctate; median segment
finely punctured, except at the apex, and with a stout keel
down the centre. Abdomen shining, as long as the thorax;
the apical segment conical. Wings hyaline, with a very
faint fulvous tinge; the nervures yellowish. In some
examples the femora are infuscated ; the coxe punctured,
green ; the flagellum of the antennze may be blackish to
testaceous.
Length nearly 3 mm.
This species belongs to the sub-tribe Pteromalides of
Thomson (Hymenoptera Scandinavia, IV.) ; but to what
particular genus, as defined either by the learned Swede or
to the more numerous genera of Foerster, it passes my wit
to determine ; and in this my valued correspondent, Prof.
G. L. Mayr, of Vienna, agrees with me. I have, therefore,
referred it to the old genus Pteromalus. The ringlet is
2-jointed ; the succeeding joint is as long as it united; the
club is 3-jointed (but the joints can only be with difficulty
seen); the antennz have thus 13 joints. The parapsidal
furrows are obsolete. ,
A parasite on the destructive rice weevil Calandra
Fymenopterological Notices. 185:
oryse@. Cf. A preliminary account of the wheat and rice
weevil in India, by E. C. Cotes, p. 5. |
COTESIA, gen. nov.
Antenne 17-jointed, the third joint longer than the fourth,
First abscissa of radius is longer than the thickness of the
stigma, originating somewhat beyond the middle ; the other
abscissz obsolete. First abscissa of the cubitus originating
from the transverse praebrachial, and becoming obsolete
beyond the curved transverse first cubital nervure ; the other |
and anal nervures obsolete. The recurrent nervure received
before the middle of the cellule. Axillary nervure not
divided. Radius and cubitus in hind wings obsolete.
Parapsidal furrows obsolete. Abdomen curved ; ventre
convex ; Ovipositor curved. 7
Apparently comes nearest to Pygostolus ; but differs in
having the antenne 17-jointed ; in having no radius, and
only one cubital cellule.
COTESIA FLAVIPES, sf. nov. (Pl. I. f. 3 & 32).
Black, shining ; the antennz for the greater part testa-
ceous beneath ; the legs yellow, the ventral surface and
sides yellowish-testaceous; the ovipositor short, black.
Thorax covered with a whitish pubescence ; wings hyaline,
the nervures fuscous; stigma large. Head well developed
behind ; the base of abdomen piceous-black ; the abdomen
shorter than the thorax, the segments edged with yellow.
Median segment aciculate. The antennz longer than the
body.
Length 234 mm.
A parasite of the moth, whose larva proved injurious to
Gorghum vulgare at Poona. See Judian Museum Notes,
Ne... 1.
Mr. Cotes sends two species of Pzmpla.
186 Mr. P. CAMERON oz
1. PIMPLA PUNCTATOR, Linn, Syst. Vat, ¢. 1, p. 935-38 ;
Vollenhoven, S¢ett. Ext. Zett., 1879, p. 143=P.
pedator, Fab., Syst. Piez., p. 114-6.
Vollenhoven, Zc., records the rearing of this ichneumen
from Papilio Pammon ; and says further, “.Wahrscheinlich
kommt Puuctator parasitisch in verschiedenen Insecten vor.”
The specimens sent by Mr Cotes were bred from the cater-
pillars of Crzcula trifenestrata in Hazanbugh. The parasite
has a very wide distribution, being found widely distributed
in the Oriental region and in Celebes.
2. PIMPLA ZEBRA, Vollenhoven, Szezt. Ent. Zezt., 1879.
p. 147. This has also been bred from Cricaula tri-.
fenestrata, Vollenhoven describes it from Java.
II. Two New Species of EUCHARIN~.
The group of Eucharine is one of the most remarkable
in the family Chalcrdid@. Not only are they much larger
- than usual, but they are remarkable for the extraordinary
development of the thorax, the scutellum especially showing
many curious developments. Until recently the history of
these interesting insects was quite unknown. We now,
however, are acquainted with the habits of two species from
widely remote regions ; and, as the various groups of Cha/-
cidide confine themselves, with remarkable uniformity, in
their attacks to the same class of insects, I think that we
are justified in concluding that their prey is the ant tribe.
The discoverer of this interesting fact is Prof. Forel, of
Zurich, who, receiving some cocoons of the huge Australian
“ Bull-dog ” Ant MWyrmecia forficata, Fab., from Bull Creek,
South Australia, had the curiosity to open some of them
and founda ¢ and @ of the species I have called Eucharis
myrmicié in two of them, and ina perfect condition, except
that their wings had not yet developed.
So far as I am aware only one other Hymenopterous
Hymenopterological Notices, 187
insect is parasitic on ants, this being the European Braconid
Llasmosoma berolinense.
EUCHARIS MYRMICIA, sf. nov. (Pl. I, f. 10 a—c).
Cuprea; scapo antennarum, pedibus abdominegue rufo-
Serruginers ; flagello antennarum nigro; apice scutelli tnerso.
Long. fere 10 millim. 7
Hab. Bull Creek, South Australia.
Occiput margined above, slightly concave; ocelli in a
straight line ; front broadly excavated ; clypeus transverse
at the apex. Head coarsely transversely striolated; the
front with the striae much more widely apart and more
regular ; clypeus impunctate, smooth and shining ; convex,
and broadly furrowed along the sides, Mandibles long,
curved, and without teeth and testaceous. Antenne not
much longer than the thorax, not much thickened towards
the apex ; the third joint distinctly longer than the fourth,
the others becoming gradually shorter and very slightly
thicker ; in ¢ as long as the body, tapering towards the
apex; densely micropilose. Thorax coarsely rugosely
punctured, the space outside the parapsidal furrows more
finely than the central portion. Parapsidal furrows diverging
in front ; a broad furrow runs from them to the tegule;
there is a depression in the centre at the base of the
scutellum which is coarsely rugosely reticulated ; the apex
projecting into a lamina with a curved incision in the centre;
in the 2 it does not form a lamina and is more deeply curved ;
and in the ¢ there is, in the centre, a stout keel which is
not so conspicuous in the 9. Pro- and mesopleure in front
coarsely rugosely reticulated, the rest of the mesopleurz
finely rugosely punctured ; metapleurz rugosely reticulated.
Petiole oblique ; in 2 shorter, in ¢ longer than hind femora ; |
dark coppery-green with varying tints ; the legs and abdo-
men, except at the base, rufo-testaceous ; petiole coppery ;
antenne black ; wings apparently hyaline. |
188 -. Mr. P. CAMERON .on”
CHALCURA BEDELI, sf. nov. Cam. (Pl. I. f. 8, 9, a—d)..
Dark blue; the antennz black, dark testaceous at the
apex’ beneath, the. legs testaceous, the coxz, the base of
anterior femora, the middle more broadly at the base and
the posterior to near the apex, black ; abdomen piceous, the
base and apex of the second, and the others. broadly
blackish ; wings hyaline, a light fulvous cloud in the middle,
and which becomes cleft before the base of the. humerus ;
tthe upper branch running along the ulna; the lower along
‘the lower edge of the wing; the nervures testaceous. - An-
ttennz about as long as the thorax, serrate; the joints of the
flagellum (except the last) sharply produced in front; the
basal . joints with the apices very sharp; the first joint
of the flagellum nearly twice the length of the second.
-Head shining, the front broadly depressed ; the vertex and
clypeus transversly ; the front obliquely striolated. Thorax
shining, irregularly striolate ; except a large space on the
lateral lobe of the mesonotum in front of the tegule.
Parapsidal furrows distinct ; and there is an indistinct furrow
between them. The middle of mesopleuree excavated
transversely ; the metapleure obliquely. There is a trans-
verse narrow furrow in front of the scutellum ; its base is
‘hollowed, the hollow with stout longitudinal keels; the
scutellum finely longitudinally striolated ; the apex pro-
-duced obliquely ; the apex scarcely truncated ; the median
‘segment aciculate. Petiole a little more than twice longer
‘than broad. rae 12 td
The $ has the antennz flabellate ; the branches curved;
-the penultimate joint has the branch much shorter than the
others ; the last joint does not carry a branch, and is sharply
produced at top and bottom. The thorax is more strongly
striolate than in the 9; the depression at the base of the
scutellum is obsolete, and the apex of the scutellum is more
deeply incised ; the median segment is irregularly reticulated,
F[ymenopterological Notices. 189
and bears two keels down the centre. The petiole is more
than twice the length of the female’s, being not much
shorter than the rest of the abdomen ; irregularly.aciculate
at the base. The wings are entirely hyaline, and want
the forked cloud found in the 9..
This species belongs to Kirby’s genus Chalcura (Jour.
Linn. Soc. Zool. XX. 30), of which only one species is
known, namely, Eucharis deprivata, Walker from Ceylon.
It differs from the other groups of Eucharzs with simple
apex of scutellum in having the antennz flabellate in the
6,except from Rhipipallus, which: has the antenne in the
$ biramose. .
_ Found by the. well-known French Ae tee ME,
Bedel, at Edough in Algeria, living in the nests of
Myrmecoystus viaticus. For the examination of the speci-
mens I am indebted to Prof. E. Emery of Turin, so noted
for his studies on ants. |
Ill. Two New Species of TELENOMUS reared from Flemt-
ot Liges wee the Amazon Valley.
one MELANOGASTER, Sp. nov.
Yellowish-testaceous, the vertex and abdomen black, the
scape of the antennz wanting the testaceous hue found on
thorax ; two fuscous streaks on the mesonotum; wings
ae with a fuscous tinge ; the fringe long; the hinder
femora a little infuscated:in the middle. Front punctured ;
mesonotum finely punctured. Ocelli situated quite close to
the eyes. Scape elongate, nearly as long as the three follow-
ing joints united ; joints 2—5 elongate, the third and fourth
longer than the second and fifth ; the sixth and following
joints moniliform, not half the length of the fifth ; the base
of abdomen striolate, sordid testaceous. Parapsidal furrows
absent ; scutellum subconvex, aciculate. 6. |
Length 1% millim.
190 Mr. P. CAMERON on
This, and the following species, belong to Thomson’s
Telenomini and, apparently from its punctured front, to
Telenomus ; the difference between 7elenomus and Phanurus
lying in the latter having the front smooth and the
ovipositor exserted. I can hardly look upon Phanurus
as distinct from Zelenomus.
Bred from the eggs of a bug from the Amazon Valley.
TELENOMUS (PHANURUS) AMAZONICA, Sp. nov.
(Pl. I. f. 4—4, @).
Black, the six basal joints of the antennz pallid yellow.
Head and abdomen shining, impunctate; mesonotum
opaque, alutaceous, almost punctured; base of second
segment striolate; scutellum shining. Antenne with a
four-jointed abrupt club, its last joint thinner and smaller
than the penultimate; the second and third joints sub-equal.
Ocelli situated close to the eyes. Second abdominal
segment larger than all the others united. Ovipositor
exserted. 9. Length1¥% millim.
Amazon Valley.—Bred from the eggs of a bug.
It is remarkable that most of the species of Telenomus
whose habits have been investigated are parasites in the
eggs of bugs.
IV. A New Genus of European Tenthredinide.
HENNEDYIA gen. nov. ( Tenthredinide.)
Antenne filiform, 22-jointed. Fore wings with two radial
and four cubital cellules ; the second and third of the latter
receiving each a recurrent nervure ; lanceolate cellule with
an oblique cross nervure; hind wings with two cubital
cellules. Spurs not reaching to the middle of metatarsus ;
patellz obsolete ; claws simple.
This genus belongs to the Tribe Zenxthredznma and sub-
tribe Selandriades of Thomson and of my JZonograph of
HHymenopterological Notices. IQI
the British Phytophagous Hymenoptera. From any of the
described genera of that group it is to be at once recognised
by the great number of joints in the antennz, being six
more than in PhyMotoma the genus known up till now
with the most numerously jointed antenne, namely, sixteen.
Phyllotoma, however, has (like all its allies, the leaf-mining
Sawflies) only three cubital cellules, while further there are no
cubital cellules in the hind wings. In the form of the antennz
undoubtedly it agrees best with Phylotoma ,; and, in fact,
there is no other genus, except Phyllotoma with which, as
regards the antenne, it can be compared. In the neuration
-of the wings and in bodly structure it almost agrees with
Athaha; but Athalia has the antennez at the outside not
more than 10—I1I jointed, while further they are sub-clavate
in both sexes. On the whole I should consider Hennedyza
‘more nearly related to Athalia than to Phyllotoma ; but its
relationship can only be finally settled by the discovery of
the ¢:
The genus I dedicate to the memory of my first mentor
in natural history, Mr. Roger Hennedy, the author of the
Clydesdale Flora.
HENNEDYIA ANNULITARSIS, sf. nov. (Pl. I. f. I—1,a.)
Nigra, nitida, pronoto, tigulis abdomine pedibusque rufo-
testacets ; apice tibiarum articulisque tarsorum nigris ; alts
Suscis, nervis nigris. 6.
Long. fere 5 mm.
Antennz longer than the body, filiform, tapering towards
the apex, almost bare ; the basal two joints globose, of almost
equal length ; the third joint nearly one-fourth longer than
the fourth ; the other joints becoming gradually shorter to
the apex ; the third joint slightly curved. Cheeks emarginate,
the occiput almost convex; frontal area not clearly defined ;
a fovea below the ocelli and there is a smaller one immediately
above the antennz. Clypeus convex, a broad and mode-
192 ~ Mr. P.: CAMERON on >
rately deep furrow at its base; the apex almost transverse.
Eyes slightly converging beneath ; not reaching to the base
of the mandibles. . Thorax shining, impunctate; the central
and lateral furrows on the mesonotum wide, deep ; a narrow,.
shallow, indistinct furrow on the scutellum. © Cenchri clear
white ; the hollow separating them wide, deep ; blotch large,
pale. Radial nervure received a little beyond the middle
of the third cubital cellule ; transverse basal nervure received
quite close to the base of the cellule; the first transverse
cubital somewhat beyond the basal third ; the second at the:
basal third ;: the cubital nervures being angled where the
recurrent nervures are received. . There is a horny point at
the apex of the second cubital cellule. The accessory
nervure in hind wings received beyond the middle. Legs.
bearing a white microscopic down: the coxe, trochanters,,.
apex of tibiz, more than the apical third of the metatarsus;.
the apical three-fourths of the second joint, and the whole:
of the other joints on the hind tarsi (the anterior and
middle ‘tarsi with the black less extended) and the base of
the fore femora, black.
It will be noticed that the tarsi are annulated with black.
as in most of the species of Athadza.
Taken at Gibraltar by Mr. J. J. Walker, R.N.
V. A New Indian Species of RHINOPSIS.
RHINOPSIS CONSTANCEA, sp. nov. (PI. I. f. 6).
Black, the mandibles, clypeus, pronotum, the mesothorax,,
except a line on the sternum, the apex of the mesonotum.
and its sides before the tegule, the median segment, and
the antennz ferruginous ; the narrowed basal half of the
petiole white; the coxe beneath, more or less of the
trochanters ; a broad line on the base of the femora and the:
tarsi reddish ; the base of the tibize and the apex of the:
femora, obscure reddish. Wings hyaline, a broad smoky
Hymenopterological Notices. 193
band originating at-the middle of the stigma ;~nervures
obscure testaceous, paler at the base ; the stigma fuscous,
pale at the base. Head finely rugosely punctured, semi-
opaque. Eyes slightly diverging beneath. Ocelli- hardly
forming a triangle, the anterior being too far in front,
separated by a greater distance from the posterior than
these are from each other. The posterior separated from
each other by half the distance they are from the eyes.
Clypeus convex, keeled in the middle, the apex triangular.
Apex of mandibles piceous. Prothorax finely and closely
punctured, somewhat convex above, the sides concave,
furrowed in the centre, the lower part of the concavity
projecting more than the upper, the edge of the latter being
furrowed and margined; prosternum furrowed, widely in
front, narrowing behind. Mesothorax finely punctured ;
parapsidal furrows wide, parallel ; there is a large shining
keeled depression below the tubercles, the pleurze behind
this being convex ; mesopleure widely furrowed, keeled
in the centre. Median segment with a straight central and
two lateral curved converging keels in the centre; and, on
the edge, are two other keels ; the interstices transversely
striolate ; the apex semiperpendicular, transversely striolate
and keeled above.
Rhinopsis ruficornis,Cam.is nearly related to. Constancee,
but differs in having the hinder ocelli separated from the
eyes by more than twice the distance they are from each
other ; in the mesonotum being without black at the base.
in the scutellum being ferruginous ; in the pronotum being
deeply furrowed in the middle, in the apex of the median
segment being tuberculate laterally before the curve; in
the lateral central keels being less distinct and more widely
apart ; in the narrow part of the petiole being longer, the
apex nodose; while in Constancee it becomes gradually
developed from the middle ; the legs are stouter,and have the
femora not so attenuate at the apex ; the wings are shorter
194 Hymenopterological Notices.
and have the second recurrent nervure interstitial, while in
the present species it is received in the basal third of the
cellule, the wings further being deeply smoky before the
middle. :
Hab. Poona (Wroughton).
Explanation of Plate.
FIG.
. Hennedyia annulitarsis, 1* antenna.
. Pteromalus oryz@, 2* antenna.
Cotesia flavipes, 3® antenna.
& HH
Telenomus anazonicus, 4® antenna.
Aphelinus thee, 5* antenna.
Rhinopsis Constancea.
Out
Platygaster oryz@, 7* antenna
. Chalcura Bedeli &.«
as », antenna 55 g* antenna 3 5 9» scutellum.
. Eucharis myrmicie, scutellum 9, 1o* scutellum, 10° antenna 9,
10° antenna ¢ .
bo
of o&
Mp Senien Vol. HYMENOPTERA.— Plate 1,
Constance Hoskyns-Abrahall, Lith. ad. Nat.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL. SOC.
a
A form of Drosera intermedia. 195.
Description of Drosera intermedia (Hayne), forma
subcaulescens, with remarks on the Geographical.
distribution of the family. By James Cosmo Melvill,
M.A., F.L.S.
(Received December 16th, 1890.)
I have been requested by several botanists to give a
more detailed account of this curious state or variety of the
long-leaved Sundew of our marshes and moors than has.
hitherto been afforded. The varietal name was appended,
at my instance, to D. zutermedza in the 8th Edition of the
London Catalogue of British Plants, published May, 1886,
and a few specimens from the original locality where it was
first detected have been distributed through the medium of
the Botanical Exchange Club, but as yet no proper des-
cription has been given of the form. :
Drosera subcaulescens differs from the type mainly in
having a very decided and leafy stem, varying in height
from ¥% inch to two inches ; in the Cheshire (Wybunbury)
specimens the stem is leafy to the base, the leaves, which have
long petioles, projecting almost at right angles to the stem,
while towards the upper part of the stem, at the point where
it emerges from the water, or watery mud in which it has
grown, the usual tendency to form a rosette of leaves is
noticeable. The specimens when growing were of a pale
grass-green colour, differing much in outward appearance
from the other Drosere inhabiting the sphagnaceous turbaries
in quantities around. It grew plentifully in three or four
deep clear water trenches that had some time or other been
cut straight across the bog, towards the N.E. corner mainly,
and not far from the principal station for Lastrea cristata
196! ‘Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL ox. -
(Presl), for which Wybunbury is one of the nine localities
in this country,
Drosera intermedia (Hayne),
forma :—subcaulescens (J//vz/?),
from deep clear peat-ditches, Wybunbury Bog, Cheshire.
It was on July 4th, 1878, in company with Mr. and Mrs.
Edward W. Nix, that this was first gathered, and since
then it has been noticed in several parts of Great Britain
A form of Drosera intermedia. 197
and Ireland. The leafy stem gives it a curious appearance
when growing, and would almost suggest, superficially, a
link between the species with leafless scapes, and the truly
caulescent, such as D. peltata (Sm.) and D. auriculata (Back-
house) from Australia. |
In the Phytologist, New Series, Vol. Il. p. 25 sqq., 1857,
an account is given by the Rev. Dr. Hind, formerly Rector
of Pinner, and now of Honington, Ixworth, Suffolk, of Irish
Botany, and amongst interesting plants observed he has
given a sketch of what is evidently the identical form now
under discussion.
He came across it in a muddy ditch close to the high-
way, crossing the north shoulder of the “ Purple Mountain,”
Killarney, and mentions these specimens as all being of a
faint yellowish green, and not showing any signs of
flowering.
Dr. Hind also alludes to the fact that Dr. Hull, in his
“ British Flora,” Vol. L, 1799, seems to have observed and
placed on record this caulescent form, saying that he had
in some cases found it growing amongst Sphagnum, and
that the stem occasionally reached two inches, with numerous
leaves. He did not notice, nor have subsequent observers,
the other two British species assuming this condition.
Upon the publication of these remarks of Dr. Hind,
four or five additional localities were soon afforded by
various contributors to the Phytologist, viz.: New Forest,
Hants, by Mr. Pamplin; Lancashire, Mr. John Hardy ;
‘Taylor’s Hill, Galway, Mr. Kirk, who also gave Tolchmoor,
Devon, and Connemara, Ireland.
Dr. Boswell (Syme), Eng. Bot, 3rd Ed., Vol. 2. p. 33,
mentions the fact of D. zwtermedia sometimes producing a
short leafy stem, with the internodes slightly developed.
The only other specimens I have observed of the same
state in American collections were gathered by myself on
May oth, 1872, in pine barren swamps about four miles
198 Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL oz
N.W. of Wilmington, North Carolina, U.S.A., when I had
the satisfaction at the same time of gathering the far more
extraordinary member of the same order, the Venus’ Fly
Trap, Dzonea muscipula, (Ell.), for which Wilmington and
the neighbourhood of the Santee River in the neighbouring
state of South Carolina are the only two known localities.
The Rev. Edward F. Linton has forwarded me this summer
specimens from the New Forest ; Mr. F. J. Hanbury informs
me he has gathered it at Thursley Common, Surrey, June
28th, 1890, and possesses it in the Boswell (Syme) British
Herbarium from Woking Common, Surrey, and Tolchmoor
Common, Devon, 1850, the latter being very fine specimens.
Some of these may more approach the less developed form
characterised by F. Schultz as f ramosa, of which I have
specimens collected near Berlin, where the stem is simply
prolongated, without any cauline leaves.
I am much indebted to Mr. Charles Bailey, F.L.S., for a
long list of the British and European Dvosere contained in
his extensive Herbarium : my own collection also possesses
many specimens from widely distant localities. Of our three:
British (and European) species D. zutermedia (Hayne) has.
the widest distribution, extending from Arctic Europe to
Western Asia, also from Canada and North America to
Brazil ; absent, however, according to Nyman, in Lapland
and Finland. JD. anglica (Huds.) is more restricted, being
very rare in the south of England, absent from Portugal,.
probably also not occurring in Spain, Greece, Turkey, etc.,.
and only found, so far as the New World is concerned, in
Arctic America.
_, D. rotundifolia (L.), the most generally diffused species.
in this country, is found throughout the whole length and
breadth of Europe, with the exception of S. Spain, S. Italy,.
Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, and Turkey ; also is abundant in
many parts of the Northern United States ; in Georgia and
Florida, however, D. capillaris (Poir.) and D. brevifolia:
A form of Drosera intermedia. 199
(Pursh) allied species, (the latter, however, with large white
flowers and more slender build,) are apt to be mistaken for
it. The variety distachya (DC. Prodromus 1. p. 318) with
bifid scape, two spiked at apex, is a luxuriant state found
occasionally in both countries. D. obovata (M. and K.) is
evidently a hybrid between rotundifolia and anglica. 1
have gathered this in Wybunbury Bog, growing with its
probable parents. This Cheshire locality, therefore, may
be considered one of the richest in this country for Drosere,
as all the species and forms hitherto recorded as being
native occur there. The finest specimens of D. obovata I
have seen, however, came from Sligachan, Isle of Skye,
collected in the summer of 1888 by the Revs. E. F. and W.
R. Linton. Mr. C. Bailey possesses it from Thorne Moor,
Yorkshire (J. Hardy, 1846); Boat of Garten, Easterness;
July, 1887 (G. C. Druce); Crewe of Kintail, West Ross,
J y, 1881 (G. C. Druce); and European specimens from
Lac de Lispach (Vosges), France: Billot Exsiccata No.
2,023, Wirtgen 172, Gérardmer, F. Schultz 435?; Bergzabern,
Palatinate, F. Schultz 435 ; and Schwarzsee, Reichenbach
to7e. ‘I have it from. the Lae de Lispach (v: supra)
collected by Buchinger, prope Salisburgiam (Salzburg)
1835, C. B. Lehmann—these two from the Boswell (Syme)
Herbarium of Europe and North temperate zone, purchased
by me in 1889.
In conclusion, the following remarks about the general
distribution of this interesting family (the Droserace@) may
be interesting.
In addition to the three European species just alluded
to, which get rarer or altogether absent in the Mediter-
ranean region, while in Spain and Portugal the handsome
and local Dyrosophyllum Lusitanicum alone is found, we
find the genus unrepresented in N. Africa, south of the
Sahara ; only two or three species have as yet been detected
in Tropical Africa ; six, however, occur in the more southern
200 A form of Drosera imtermedia.
(Cape) regions of that continent, of which by far the most
conspicuous is the beautiful D. czs¢zfora (Linn.). | Only three
species occur in India, one being very widely diffused ; very
few or none in Central Asia ; China five, of which two occur
in Japan. North America boasts of seven, as well as Dzonea
muscipula (EIl.); Central and South America twelve or
fourteen, of which D. unzflora (Willd.) is peculiar to Fuegia ;
New Zealand seven, four of which are also found in
Australia. In this latter continent all the remaining species,
some of them very handsome, are found, 48 in all, and very
nearly all peculiar to this region. The two small genera,
Roridula and Byblis, each containing two species, occur in
the Cape district and Australia respectively.
I exhibit specimens of this genus from most of the regions
above-named, which will give a.very good idea of its
salient points.
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 201
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. By
Joseph John Murphy. Communicated by the
Rev. Robert Harley, M.A., F.R.S., Corresponding
Member.
(Recewed January 14th, 1891.)
“ All knowledge is relative :” that is to say, all knowledge
is knowledge of relations; and every proposition is the asser-
tion of a relation. The old logic is the theory of the formal
properties of a particular set of relations, which have been
variously defined as those of inclusion and exclusion— ~
those of identity and difference—and those of coexistence
and non-coexistence. All these are in effect the same—
the three following propositions are evidently synonymous
expressions, though expressed in three different ways:—
The species Man is included in the class Rational.
The species Man is indentical with part of the class Rational,
The other attributes of Man coexist with the attribute
Rationality.
In the present essay, the first of these three expressions
of the relation is adopted. The relations treated of are
defined to be those of total and partial inclusion and exclu-
sion as between classes, and between groups of cases.
In logic, as in mathematics, literal symbols may be used
both for the terms between which the relations subsist, and
for the relations themselves. The former are called absolute,
the latter relative terms. We cannot do without symbols
for the former, if we are to use notation at all ; but whether
we use relative symbols will depend on our immediate
¥ M
202 Mr. J. J. MURPHY ox
purpose in exposition. Every proposition and process known
to the old logic may be shown with equal clearness without,
or with, the use of symbols of relation, but not with equal
neatness and conciseness.
The “logic of relatives” is not a distinct branch of the
science, but only a distinct treatment of it. This is so at
least within the limits of the old logic, though the higher
branches of the science can scarcely be studied at all
without using such symbols.
I use Roman letters for the absolute terms, and italics
for the relative ones ; and, following De Morgan, I use
capitals for positive terms, and the corresponding small
letters for the corresponding negatives. Thus if A, for
instance, is taken to signify matter, a signifies whatever is
immaterial.
Following Boole, I use 1 as the symbol for everything—
not necessarily the entire universe, but the totality of
things that form the subject of discourse; and o as the
symbol for nothing, or that which has no existence, though
it may be described, ¢g.,a dragon or a centaur. Thus the
equations
ama wi 10
signify respectively “ A is coextensive with the universe,”
and “A does not exist.” But if we use, as we may do, our
absolute terms to signify not things but propositions, these
equations will respectively assert “A is true” and “A is false.”
As implied above, the copula = signifies indentity or
constant coexistence. The copulas < and > signify in-
clusion within a class ; thus, the inequation
A<B
states that A is included in B. But if, as before, we take A
and B as the symbols not of things but of propositions, it
states that the case of A being true is included in the case
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 203
of B being true ; or, in simpler language, that if, or when,
A is true, B is true also.*
Before going any further, we have to consider the
question, which is important as one of procedure though it
is not one of fact or law, whether we assert the existence of
whatever we make the subject of a proposition. In common
discourse we usually do so, unless we guard our meaning; but
anything corresponding to parenthetical clauses for such a
purpose would be unmanageable in logic; and the implica-
tion that existence is generally asserted of every term would
lead to false results. The following instance, though not
in this precise form, is mentioned in Mill’s Logic:—“A
dragon is a serpent; a dragon breathes flame: therefore
some serpents breathe flame.” This is in form exactly similar
to the following, which is a valid syllogism according to the
usual rules :—“ Butterflies are insects; butterflies have
wings: therefore some insects have wings.”
Here are two syllogisms where the conclusion of one is
true and that of the other false, for a reason which does not
appear in the premises, viz.: that the subject of the premises
is in the one case existent and in the other non-existent.
The best way is to make no implication at all as to the
existence of our subjects ; and, in such propositions as the
above, to substitute for the word “some,” such an expression
as “an undetermined quantity of,’ and, to represent it in
notation by the algebraic expression =, which Boole some-
times uses in this sense. With this convention, the conclusion
about the dragon is seen to be right, though without signi-
ficance ; a portion of the class serpents, undetermined by the
premises of the syllogism, breathes flame ; but in fact this
portion is without extent, so that the proposition is neither
true nor false. If the necessity for such a convention is
* This is the meaning constantly assigned to the symbols in MacColl’s
** Calculus of Equivalent Statements.”
204. Mr. J. J. MURPHY .oz
called a weakness in the system, it is a sufficient reply that
logical science has never been expected to guarantee the de
facto truth of premises ; and it is equally unreasonable to
ask it to guarantee the reality of terms.
When the absolute terms are taken to signify proposi-
tions, it would afso be convenient to express “A is
uncertain” by
fo)
A=--
oO
When we thus leave it undetermined whether any term,
or name, represents an existing thing, it follows that the
existence of its negative is left equally undetermined, and
all our terms and their negatives are taken as equally real.
As Jevons says, “Every term has its negative in thought.”
This conduces much to the symmetry of the system.
We have now to fix on our use of relative terms. I use
E (the initial of enclosure) as the symbol of inclusion ; so
that the equation
ASD) or inversely BHA.
asserts that A is included in B, or is an enclosure of B;
and B includes A, or is an includent of A. The symbol
that I use for exclusion is WV (the initial of zot), so that the
two equivalent equations
A=NB and B=NA
signify that nothing is both A and B. In this case I call
A and B excludents of each other.
As with absolute terms, the corresponding small letter
signifies the negative of the term. The negative of a
relative term is called its contradictory. Thus the contra-
dictories of
A=ZB and A=/VB
are
A=eB and A=nB,
signifying respectively “Some A is not B” and some “A is
Be
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 205
These are respectively identical with the four relatives
of the old logic, namely
Universal affirmative. Universal negative.
Partial negative. Partial affirmative.
which are, in the language and notation used here,
£ Enclosure. JV Excludent.
e Non-enclosure. n Non-excludent or Participant.
These four relations between any two absolute terms A and
B are set forth below in the old language and in the
language used in this paper, with two corresponding
notations, the one without, and the other with, relative
terms :—
No A is B; or
All A is B A<B | JNothing is both A & B, A<d
A is an enclosure of B. A is an excludent of B
A=£B A=B
Some A is not B ag, ae ies oe
| e Some things are both A & B
°
A is a non-enclosure of B A is a participant of B A=nB
A=eB
De Morgan has shown that the symmetry and complete-
ness of the system demand the recognition of four other
relations, contrapositive to these. The contrapositive of a
relation is the relation that subsists between the negatives of
its absolute terms; and the truth of the contrapositive
necessarily follows from the truth of the proposition from
which it is derived. I propose to indicate the contrapositive
by the original relative term with V (the initial of versed) as
an index.* Indicating the negatives of Aand B byaandb
+ De Morgan proposes this index, but as a mere synonym of the index — I.
206 Mr. J. J. MURPHY ox
as already proposed, the contrapositives of the foregoing
four propositions are as follows :—
All b is a; or All that is not a is b; or
all thatis not Bis not A b<a| | Everything is either not A or
not B a<b
a is an includent of b. a= £"b| \aisanalternativeofb,a=W"<b
A ’ :
§ Some b is not a. °b vat Some things are neither ‘7 b
a is a non-includent of b. a is a non-alternative of b.
a=e"<b. a=n’<b
It follows from the nature of a relation, that if
A=£B, then inversely B=£7'A,
that is to say, if A is an enclosure of B, B is an includent of
A. But we have seen that if
A= ZB, then a=£7,
that is to say, not-A is an includent of not-B; so that in
this case the contrapositive relation is of the same form
with the inverse relation. Symbolically,
ED ihm
This is true of the relation & (inclusion) and its derivatives
by contradiction and contraposition ; but it is not true of the
relation WV (exclusion), and its derivatives.
N and its derivatives are invertible. Symbolically,
ace ave
E and its derivatives are not so. Those properties of the Z
§I have found it difficult to make this contraposition clear to myself
without an example, and the following may be serviceable. Animals are
either vertebrate or invertebrate, and animals, except those which have nothing
analogous to blood, are either red-blooded or white-blooded. Some red-
blooded animals are not vertebrate ; and the contrapositive of this proposition
is, that some invertebrate animals are not white-blooded.
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 207
group and of the VV group, which are expressed by these
two equations respectively, make it unnecessary to use the
index —1 in the present system.
It is to be observed that the negative of a contrapositive
is identical with the contrapositive of the negative.
Contraposition is an invertible operation. It is true of
any relation R, that |
(Ay Xe.
The formal properties of any two propositions contra-
positive to each other are the same, at least in all relations
treated of in this paper.
We have now got eight relations, which are to be divided
into two groups of four each in four different ways. I
proceed to tabulate, thus arranged, in parallel columns, the
propositions asserting these relations, in language and in
my notation.
They are divided as opposites, into the & group and the
WV group. The relatives of the former group are uninvertible,
those of the latter invertible.
All A is B Nothing is both A and B
_A is enclosure of B A and B are excludents
A=£ZB A=NVB
Some A is not B Some A is B
_A is non-enclosure of B A and B are participants
ies A=nB
All not A is not B ; whence Everything is either A or B
All Bis A
_A is includent of B. A and B are alternatives
A=E‘B A=V"B
Some not A is B; whence Some things are neither A nor B
‘Some B is not A
A is non-includent of B | A and B are non-alternatives
|
A=e¢B | A=n"B
208 Mr. J. J. MURPHY on
The eight relations are also arranged as contrapositives:
to’each other; these differ in phase:—
# Enclosure. E* Includent.
NV Excludent. NV’ Alternative.
e Non-enclosure. e’ Non-includent.
n Participant. n* Non-alternative.
They are also arranged as contradictories to each
other.:—these differ both in guantity, total or partial, and
in. sign, positive or. negative. A proposition is positive, or
affirmative, when its terms are of the same. sign, and
negative when they are of opposite signs. Thus: the
relation of alternative is a negative one, because its form is
“not-A is B”:—but that. of non-alternative is positive,
because its form is “some not-A is not-B.” The. relation
which we call includent is, in the present system, doubly
negative, and therefore positive, being here treated as the
contrapositive of enclosure :—
A= E"B
primarily means “All not-A is not-B.” We also call
syllogisms positive when the relations expressed in their
premises are of the same sign ;—negative, when they are
of opposite signs. The conclusion of a positive syllogism
is a positive proposition, and vzce versa.
In the following, the positives are in the left column and.
the contradictory negatives at the right :—
# Enclosure. e Non-enclosure.
* Includent. é& Non-includent.
ma Participant. NV Excludent.
n° Non-alternative WV’ Alternative.
They are also arranged with each partial opposite to its.
total.
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 209°
£ Enclosure m Participant
(All A is B) (Some A is B)
WV Excludent é Non-enclosure
(No A is B) (Some A is not B)’
EY” Includent n° Non-alternative
(All not-A is not-B) (Some not-A is not-B)
N’ Alternative éY Non-includent
(All not-B is A) (Some not-B is A)
There are'some other relative terms which I shall have
to use.
When 1 is used asa relative, it signifies identity :—the
equation
A=r8
asserts that A is one with B. The equation
A=(-1)B
asserts that B is defined as whatever is not A, so that (—1)
has the meaning of exclusive alternative.
The use of I as a relative term makes it necessary to use
U (the initial of Uzverse) in the sense that
A=UB, andconversely B=T0'A
signify that A is co-extensive with the universe which
contains B. And
A=OQOB, andconversely B= OA
assert that A does not exist in the same universe with B.
Before we go on to the subject of syllogisms, we have to
consider the combination into a resultant relation of two
simultaneous relations between the same terms.
We have four total relative terms; and four objects
admit of being combined into six pairs. The six pairs in
this case, with the resultant relations into which they
combine, are as follows :—they are stated both in language,
and in “canonical equations” wherein the relations only
are expressed.
210 Mr. J. J. MURPHY on
All A is B A=EB | Nothing is bothAand B, A= VB
All Bis A A = E’B | Everything is either A
Therefore A and B are identical.
EHV =1
All Ais B
No Ais B
or B, A=N'B
Therefore A and B are
exclusive alternatives
N:N*=(-1)
All Bis A
A=E*B
All not-B is A (or,
everything is either
Therefore A does not exist. B or A) A=N‘B
Therefore everything is
A.
E.N=0 EY. N= U0
All B is A A='B| All A is B A= EB
No Bis A A=WNB | All not-A is B (or,
Everything is either A or B)
A= l'B
Therefore B does not exist. | Therefore everything is B.
YL a. ae E-NY =U"
In the foregoing combinations, there is no middle term!
and no elimination. A syllogism is defined as a combination
of two propositions into one, with elimination of a middle
term, and it may be treated as a multiplication of the two
relations asserted by the two premises. Every two pairs
of factors R and S admit of two multiplications
Rx S and Sx R
and when & and S represent any two of the eight relations
which we have considered, the two multiplications in no case
give the same result. This however is not true of all
logical relations :—e.g. let I mean the whole and : a part,
then
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 211
Before we consider syllogisms of the ordinary kind, let
us consider a set of syllogisms whereof one premise asserts
one of the eight relations expressed above, and the other
asserts the relation of exclusive alternative, expressed by
(—1). As the symbol of the combination of the two
propositions into a syllogism, let us use the sign of
multiplication x. The forms of such syllogisms, in
language and in notation, are the two following :—
All A is B; or, A is that which is not B; or,
A is enclosure of B. Aand Bare exclusive alternatives.
B is that which is not C; or, All B is C; or,
B and Care exclusivealternatives,| B is enclosure of C.
‘Therefore no A is C; or, Therefore allthat is not AisC; or,
A and C are excludents. A and C are alternatives.
Ex(-1)=WN. (-1)x H=V".
In all such multiplications, or syllogisms, when the
relative (—1) comes sccond it transforms the other relative
into its opposite :—when it comes first, it transforms the
other relative into the contrapositive of its opposite. The
following is a tabular view of the sixteen possible syllogisms
of this kind.
Ex(-1)=M (-1)x Z=V"
EY x(-1)=NV" (-1)x#H=N
Nx(-1)=# (-1)x V=E"
NV’ x (-1)=£”" (-1)xW°=£
ex(-1)=2 (-1)xe=n"
ex (-1)=n" (-—1)xe"+n
nx(-1)=e (-1)xn=e"
n’ x (—1) =e" (-—1)xn"=e
The relation expressed by (- 1) is by definition negative.
‘The equation A={—1)B is equivalent to A=b, and both
mean that A is defined as all which is not B. It will be
seen in the multiplication shown above, and it is invariably
true in logic as in arithmetic, that the multiplication of
212 Mr. J. J. MURPHY oz
terms of like sign gives a positive product, and that of terms.
of unlike sign a negative one. Thus also
(-1)*(-1)=2
We now come to syllogisms of the usual kind.
Following De Morgan, I: write these with the “minor:
premise” (so called in the old: logic) first. . In any case this.
is an improvement, and the method of treating the syllogism
as a multiplication makes it necessary.
We have seen that there are eight relations of total and.
partial inclusion and exclusion between any two absolute:
terms and their negatives, each of which may be.asserted in
a proposition; and as a syllogism consists of two proposi--
tions which constitute its premises, it is possible to state
sixty-four forms of syllogism. Of these, however, only half-
are in the technical sense conclusive—that is to say, only
half give results of similar form to any of the eight forms of
premise. A syllogism with two partial premises is in no
case conclusive. A syllogism with two total premises is.
always conclusive. A syllogism with one total and one
partial premise is conclusive in half the number of cases.*
The following is a tabular view of the sixteen possible:
forms of proposition with two total premises, and the thirty-
two forms with one total and one partial premise. The
syllogisms are arranged in pairs:—those of the same pair
are alike in all formal properties, and differ only in that
their premises, and consequently their conclusions, are of
opposite phases, being of mutually contrapositive forms.
Where the syllogism yields no conclusion, the right
hand side of the equation is left vacant.
The relatives E and ZY alone are equal to their own
second powers ; this is the expression in the present system
* These thirty-two syllogisms are indentical with the thirty-two stated in
De Morgan’s ‘‘ Syllabus of a proposed system of Logic,” though both the
notation and the arrangement are different.
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. 213
of the canon of the “syllogism in Barbara,” namely, that
inclusion is a transztive relation :—if.A is included in B, and
B in C, then A is included in C,.and conversely; so that
the first two of the syllogisms are thus expressed in
language :—
Ais B: Bis C: —therefore A is C.
A contains B : B contains C : —therefore A contains C.
The syllogisms of the first column have two total pre-
‘mises ; those of the second column are derived from the
first. by substituting a partial for a total in the second
premise, and those of the third column by the same substi-
tution in the first premise ; with the result, that where the
conclusion of the first column is total, there is no conclusion
in the second, and in the third the conclusion is the partial
of that in the first ; when the conclusion in the first column
is partial, there is the same conclusion in the second column,
and none in the third. The rationale of this will be best
seen by taking as typical cases, and expressing in words,
the syllogisms of the first and fourth lines of the tabular
statement.
In line 1, column 1, the middle term is related offosztely
to the extreme terms. B zucludes A, and ts included
gn C. The conclusion is total:—A is C. In the second
column of the same line, the premises are altered by
substituting the partial for the total in the second premise,
so that the syllogism becomes “B includes A, and (only)
some B is included in C.” This yields no conclusion.
In the third column, the partial is substituted for the total
in the first premise, so that the syllogism becomes “ Some
A is B, and Bis C.” This yields the conclusion “Some A
is C,” which is the partial of the first conclusion.
In line 4, column 1, the middle term is related szzlarly
to the extreme terms. “Not-B is included in A, and
not-B is included in C; consequently, some things are
both B and C.” (This, of course, implies our postulate
214 Mr. J. J. MURPHY ox
that every term has its negative). In the second column,
the partial is substituted for the total in the second premise,.
and the premises become “ All not-B is A ;—Some not-B
is C”:—with the same conclusion as before, that “some
things are both A and C.” In the third column, the
partial is substituted for the total in the vst premise, and
the syllogism becomes “Some B is not A:—all not B
is C;” which premises yield noconclusion. Every syllogism
in the following statement may be reduced to one of these
six typical forms.
Same sign—same phase.
te ee py Ds Exn= nx H=n
Exh =f TO wx =n
NX N= Nxe=n" ex V=
WS IV H NY xe=n ex N=
Same sign—opposite phases.
Exh*=n* HEX = nx HY =
ExE=n EY xn=n wx =
Nx N= LE Nxev= ex WV’=n
Nx Ne We xe ex NV=n"
Opposite signs—same phase.
ExN=N Exe= nx iV=e
E*x NW=N* EYxe&= i xd =e
UVixele =e" IN =e ex —
Nx E*=e IY xn*=e exch
Opposite signs—opposite phases.
fe ed ET ee nx iV =
LE cai =e Ee 2 nxN=
Die ay DN a e+ H*¥ =e
IV" & ve ay NY xn= vx hae
215
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic.
ee SD
‘JUSPNOUI-UOU SI dINSO[IUS JO JUapN[OUI-UON ‘QATIVUIO}][V SI OINSO[OUS JO DATILUIOILY
‘QINSO[IUI-UOU SI JUSPNIOUT JO dINsO[OUS-UON, ‘JUIPNIOXa SI JUIPNOUI JO JUIPNOX|
‘QINSOTOUI-UOU SI dINSO[OUd-UOU JO JUSpNIOUT |'94nso[oUs-UOU SI JUSPN]oxe Jo JUpNpouy
‘JUSPNOUI-uOU SI JUNPN[OUL-uOU Jo dInsopoU' |"JUSPN[OUL-UOU STIATILULI[L JO IINSO[IUY
‘INSO[OUD-UOU SI 9AIJVUIO][V-UOU Jo DATJLUIOITY |‘9INSO[IUI-UOU SI JUIPNISU! JO 9ATPVUIIIT VV
‘yuapnypour-uou st Juvdrionsed jo yuOpnox’y |‘JUOPN[OUL-UOU SI aANsOIU JO JUSPNOXY
.JUIPNOUI-UOU ST 9ATJVUIO}V JO DANVUIII[V-UON ‘DATJCUIOYY SI OATIVUIOIe JO JUAPNIUT
‘QINSO[DUS-UOU SI JUIPNOxd jo juvdioeg ‘JUIPNOXa SI JUSpNoxe jo sinsopuy
‘QAIJCUIO}|V-UOU SI JUIPN]OXS Jo JUNpNjoUL-uON ‘JUIPNIOUL SI JUIPNIOXa JO VATCUIIITV
‘yuediorjied st 9A1}VUI9}[8% JO a1NSO[DUd-UON ‘QINSOTOUD SI DATJVUIOIV JO JUSPNOXY
‘yuedionsed st yuvdionaed jo yuepnpouy|) ‘juedionszed st sinsopous jo yuepnpouy
‘QA1JVUIO}[V-UOU SI 9A1JCUIO][v-UOU JO dINSOPOU |9AlVUIO}[v-UOU SI JUIPNOUI Jo oinsopoUy
‘yuediorjaed si yuspnjoul-uou jo saljeusoyY | yuvdiorjsed si sAljVUIO}[e JO dATJCUIOYV
‘JAIJCUIO}[V-UOU SI dINSO]OUd-UOU JO JUSPN]OX| /9AIVUIO}[V-UOU SI JUIPNIOXa JOJUIPNOX|
‘QAIJCUIO}[C-UOU SI JUIPNIOU! Jo dAI]VUIO}[v-UON ‘JUIPNIOUL SI JUOPNOUI JO JUspNoUT
‘yuvdionied st ainsojous jo yuedioniwg ‘QINSOTOUA SI dINSOTIUD JO sINSO[OUY
—: dagug sty ut pasn Asojourutsag ap ut passargxa ‘susi.sopjds aus ay aso Surrogjof ay [,
216 PROCEEDINGS.
[Physical and Mathematical Section.]
January 14th, 1891.
James BoTToMLEY, B.A, D.Sc, F.C.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.
Mr. THOMSON showed some experiments with respect
to surface tension, and drew special attention to the
following :—(a) In which a bubble was attached to an ©
aluminium wire ring by a thread so as to float in the air as
a captive balloon. (6) In which ¢kvee bubbles were blown
on the top of one attached to a wire ring ; on the surfaces
of the four coming together very definite outlines showed
themselves, ¢.g., three planes where the three bubbles rested
on the fourth, and three planes where the three bubbles
came together. (¢) In which, with two bubbles of unequal
size, the size of one gradually, by blowing into it, approxi-
mated to that of the other, the junction of the two bubbles
becoming a flat surface or film.
Some remarkable Boulders in the Isle of Man. 217
On the Source of some remarkable Boulders in the
Isle of Man. By Percy F. Kendall, F.G.S. Com-
municated by Thomas Kay.
(Recetved March 26th, 1891.)
The determination of the source whence the erratic
blocks of any given area have been derived has always
appeared to me to be the first, and at all times the most
important, part of the work of a student of Glacial
Geology. In comparison with it such details as the
character, and, especially, the colour of the deposits, must
be assigned an altogether subordinate importance. The
erratics of Lancashire and Cheshire have long been well-
known, so far as regards their general grouping ; and the
labours of such investigators as Mr. DeRance, Mr. Mackintosh,
and Mr. Mellard Reade, have made geologists familiar with
the fact that, in the area in question, the far-travelled
erratics, with some half-dozen of individual exceptions, are
traceable to a source within the area draining into the
Northern and North-eastern portion of the Irish Sea. The
exceptions to this rule are, certain Ophicalcites which have
been met with on the Ship Canal near Barton, and two
specimens of a coarse Ophitic Dolerite—one found near
Congleton, and recorded by Messrs. Coutts-Antrobus and
Hatch,* and the other found by myself on the Ship Canal, at
Bob’s Bridge, near Moore. The flints, which are to be found
in almost every section in the Lancashire lowlands, are—
so far as I can ascertain—invariably beach- or river-worn
pebbles, and, therefore, not of any value as indications of
the direction of transport.
* Brit. Assoc. Report, 1890.
N
218 | Mr. P. F. KENDALL on
In the Isle of Man many of the rocks which occur in the
Lancashire Glacial deposits are to be found, though in widely
different proportions ; thus, the Eskdale Granite, which is
so common on the mainland, is very rare in the Island, or
possibly absent, and the same is the case with the other Lake
District rocks, but their place is taken by Granites, Quartz-
porphyries, and other igneous rocks, which are clearly trace-
able to the great intrusive masses of Galloway. Intermingled
with these, to me, familiar rocks are many which were
entirely strange, and most prominent amongst them a fine-
grained granitic rock, which contained patches of a blue
mineral, presenting cleavages, which suggested to me that it
might be Riebeckite, the rare blue variety of Hornblende.
As this mineral was known in the British Isles only as a
constituent of a rock at Mynydd Mawr, in Carnarvonshire,
I submitted a specimen to Mr. Alfred Harker, of Cambridge,
who has described the Welsh rock, but he did not consider
that the Manx boulders could have been derived from the
Mynydd Mawr mass, as its structure and appearance were
different.
In view of this opinion, I allowed the question to remain
undecided, until a new stimulus was given to my curiosity
by the discovery of a pebble of the same rock on Moel
Tryfan, Carnarvonshire, a hill about 2 miles distant from
Mynydd Mawr. From the occurrence of the rock in great
abundance in the Isle of Man, I was convinced that it
could not be of Welsh origin, and its absence from Lan-
cashire rendered it very improbable that it could be a
Galloway rock.
I therefore sent a specimen to Professor Cole, of Dublin,
who confirmed my determination of the Riebeckite, but
could not recognise any similarity to any Irish rock. He
considered the rock of such interest as to be worthy of
description, and accordingly prepared some notes upon. it
to be presented to the Mineralogical Society at their
Some remarkable Boulders in the Isle of Man. 219
January (1891) meeting. Meantime, I sent another speci-
men to Mr. J. G. Goodchild, of Edinburgh, and received from
his colleague, Mr. A. Macconochie, a letter in which he
expressed the opinion that the boulder resembled a rock
found in Ailsa Craig, an opinion with which Mr. B. N. Peach
concurred. |
By a singular coincidence, Mr. J. J. H. Teall, of H.M.
Geological Survey, described the Ailsa Craig rock at the |
same meeting as that at which Professor Cole’s note was
read. Mr. Teall points out four several particulars in which
my rock resembles that of Ailsa Craig, and differs from the
Mynydd Mawr examples.
In view of the concensus of opinion in favour of the
identification of the rock with the Scottish granite and
against its allocation to North Wales, I cannot resist the
conclusion that boulders from Ailsa Craig were actually
carried to the Isle of Man and North Wales during the
Glacial Epoch. This is the first example of the occurrence
of rocks from the Clyde Basin as erratics in the basin of the
Irish Sea.
The discovery throws a remarkable light upon the
speculations of those able investigators, Mr. John Horne
and Professor James Geikie.
Mr. J. Horne long ago* showed that the Isle of Man had
been glaciated by a great sheet of ice coming down from
the mountains of Galloway, and aided by contingents from
the Lake District and Ireland. He pointed out that a
deep submarine rock-channel existed round the N.E. coast
of Ireland, from Rathlin Island down to about the latitude
of Dublin, and he suggested that this might be a “deflection
basin” cut out by ice which came down the Firth of Clyde,
was cleft by the Antrim coast line, and flowed, one element
westward into the Atlantic, and the other southward,
through the North Channel into the Irish Sea.
* Trans. Geol, Soc. Edin. Vol. ii., part 3.
220 ©©Some remarkable Boulders in the Isle of Man.
Professor James Geikie* developed this idea, and
showed that the strize upon glaciated surfaces in Ayrshire,
and down to the Mull of Galloway, showed a deflection
coastwise, as they were traced down from the hills, and
that they furnished clear proof of the flow of ice from the
Firth of Clyde into the Irish Sea.
This evidence was perfect so far as such evidence could
be, but there has been lacking the testimony of boulders,
which I now supply. It must be distinctly understood
that I do not express any opinion whatever on the vexed
question of the origin of lake-basins, but merely point out
the corroboration of Mr. Horne and Professor Geikie’s
opinion that ice came from the Clyde into the Irish Sea.
There is a further point to which I would allude, viz :—
the altitudes attained by these boulders. In the Isle of
Man, foreign boulders are traceable only to a very moderate
height, and the highest point to which I have traced the
Ailsa Craig rock is at the dam of the Ramsey Waterworks,
in Ballure Glen. The altitude reached on Moel Tryfan is
about 1,350 feet, whereas the total height of Ailsa Craig is
only 1,097 feet, so that, assuming that the Riebeckite rock
attains to the actual summit, it must have undergone an
uplift of 250 feet in its transit to Moel Tryfan.
* Great Ice Age (2nd ed.) p. 294.
PROCEEDINGS. 221
[Microscopical and Natural History Section.]
Ordinary Meeting, February 16th, 1891.
ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc., President of the Section,
in the Chair,
Mr. P. CAMERON exhibited a number of galls, and gall-
making insects.
The PRESIDENT and Mr. R. E. CUNLIFFE exhibited
volcanic dust, from Krakatoa and New Zealand.
222: PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, February 24th, 1891.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
Mr. FRANCIS JONES, F.R.S.Ed., F.C.S., and Mr.
SAMUEL OKELL, F.R.A.S., were appointed auditors of the
Society’s accounts for the current year.
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS gave an account of a
phenomenon observed in the engineering laboratory of the
Owens College in connection with the dense fog which had
prevailed during the day. Some new belting had been.
kept running from eleven to three o’clock at the rate of
about 40 to 50 miles per hour. The belting was new and
bright when started, but on being stopped was found to be
quite black, being loaded with dirt collected during its rapid-
passage through the foggy air. It was much the dirtiest
thing in the laboratory. Professor REYNOLDS pointed out’
the analogy to the dirtiness of an express train, the pheno-
menon in both cases being due to the fact that a rapidly
moving body comes in contact with a greater quantity of
air in a given time than a stationary body, and. therefore
picks up a greater quantity of atmospheric pollution.
Professor REYNOLDS also exhibited two harmonic
analysers affording a means of ascertaining the periods of
free vibration of structures,.ormembers of structures, and
communicated the substance of a paper on the subject.
Mr. FARADAY read the first portion of a paper entitled,
“Thoughts on Credit Money, and on the function of the
Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth.”
Two Harmonic Analyzers. 223
On Two Harmonic Analyzers. By Osborne Reynolds,
LL.D.,F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering,
the Owens College. |
(Recetved April 2nd, 1891.)
The object of these instruments is to afford a ready
means of ascertaining the Zeriods of free vibration of struc-
tures or members of structures. Ifany portion of a material
structure (ze, an elastic structure) is disturbed from its
normal position of equilibrium and suddenly released, the
structure is thrown into a complex state of vibration, which
gradually subsides. While the vibration lasts each point in
the structure goes through movements which may be very
complex, but which are, nevertheless, compounded of simple
periodic or harmonic movements, each simple movement
taking place ina definite direction as well as having a definite |
period.
The art of measuring and recording the complex move-
ments at a point of the earth during an earthquake has
long been a study, and the seismometer of Professor Ewing
has been applied to record the movements of points of
various structures when subjected to disturbances. The prin-
ciple of these seismometers consists in attaching a weight
to the point of the structure to be examined, by attachments
of such slight elasticity, that the disturbances communicated
to the weight are insensibly small, and the weight remains
sensibly steady amid the surrounding vibrations, and forms
a steady observatory from which the vibrations may be
measured. This measurement is effected by causing pencils
vibrating with the structure todescribe lines on cards attached
to the steady weight, or vice versa, the cards being fixed, or
224 Dr. OSBORNE REYNOLDS on
having atime movement. In this way the complex motions
of the points are beautifully recorded, as in Prof. Ewing’s
experiments on the Tay Bridge, and Prof. J. Milne’s numer-
ous experiments in railway carriages, &c.
Such curves represent the complex movements of the
point of the structure examined ; and any analysis of the
motion into its simple periodic components remains to be
accomplished by mathematical reduction—or by such
instrumental synthesis as that which may be effected in Sir
William Thomson’s “ Harmonic Analyzer.”
The Harmonic Analyzers about to be described differ
essentially from the seismometer in that they do not
measure or record the actual motions of the structure,
while they single out and exaggerate any component
periodic motion according to its perzod and direction, which
are defined in the instruments. The principle of these
Harmonic Analyzers is that of the accumulation of motion
which takes place,when a weight is subject to a periodic
disturbance which coincides in period and direction with
that of free vibration of which the weight is susceptible.
If asmall weight zw be elastically attached to a much
heavier weight so that it requires a definite force (E/) to
disturb the weight (w) through a distance 4 the large
weight remaining at rest; then, if released after any dis-
turbance, the small weight w will vibrate in the direction of
disturbance, and with a constant period
(2= yh mn in seconds )
z.e. in the period of free vibration of the small weight.
If the small weight be at rest and the large weight be
1 teat ae 1
subject to a periodic disturbance having a period (-) : then,
if this period is larger than the period of free vibration of
the small weight, z.¢., if
ives w
;, is smaller than 27 wf ce
Two Harmonic Analyzers. 225
the small weight will follow essentially the movements of
the larger weight as if rigidly attached, while if the period
of motion of the larger weight is smaller than that of the
period of free vibration of the small weight, the small
weight will remain virtually at rest. But when the period
of motion of the large weight coincides with the period of
free vibration of the small weight, the small weight will
take and accumulate the disturbance, oscillating with in-
creasing amplitude until it reaches such an extent that the
energy dissipated is equal to that received from the dis-
turbance. If the elasticity of the connections be fairly
perfect, the amplitude of the small weight will be very
‘considerable, although the disturbing motion is otherwise
insensible.
If the small weight (w) has only one degree of freedom,
z.¢.. if the elasticity of the connections is not equal in all
‘directions, there will be three axes of elasticity, and if the
elasticities along two of these directions are much greater
than the third this is the direction of freedom ; then,
when the period of free vibration along the third axis, z.e,
in the direction of freedom, coincides with the period of
disturbance, the small weight will only take up the dis-
turbance when this has a component in the direction of
freedom; that is, if the direction of the disturbance is at
right angles to the direction of freedom, there will be no
vibration. So that in this way the direction of the dis-
turbance may be ascertained, or wzce versa.
Similar results follow if, instead of the disturbance
coming through the elastic supports, the body be subject
to a synchronous periodic force. If the period of the force
were not synchronous with any of the three periods of free
‘vibration corresponding respectively to the three axes of
elasticity, the resulting vibration would, as before, merely
correspond with the time effect of the force, but on
coincidences with any one of these, unless the direction of
226 Dr. OSBORNE REYNOLDS ox
the disturbance were at right angles to that of the axis of
elasticity, the body would accumulate the disturbance.
It thus appears that, if a structure is in a state of
vibration, the periods of free vibration and their directions
may be ascertained by an Harmonic Analyzer consisting
of asmall weight with elastic attachments, so adjustable
that the period of free vibration of the weight can be varied
to any required extent, and the direction of such free
vibration turned through all requisite angles.
This may be accomplished in many ways. That which
I have so far adopted with satisfactory success has been
very simple.
Fig. I.
It consists, as shown in Fig 1, essentially of a base formed.
of a bar of hard wood, one-and-a-half inches square, and.
Two Harmonic Analyzers. 22%
two feet long, a cross notch being cut in one end to enable
this end to be held against any point of the structure with
less chance of slipping. About four inches from the
notched end, right across the axis of this bar, is a hole, in
which is fitted, with moderate tightness, a piece of straight
steel wire, one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and 18 inches.
long. On one end of the wire is a ball of lead, about 2 oz.,
through the centre of which is a small hole at right angles
to the wire, in which is fixed a small graphite pencil. On
the other end of the wire is a carrier, to afford handhold for
the purpose of adjusting the wire in the hole.
When the carrier is pushed right up to the wood, the
ball, if disturbed, will vibrate in any direction perpendicular
to the wire so as to make about 200 oscillations a minute,
which is slower than any period it is required to measure.
As the carrier is pulled back, and the wire between the base
and the ball shortened, the rate of vibration increases, until,
when the wire is only 1% inches long, the ball, when dis-
turbed, gives out an audible note of about 2,000 vibrations a
minute.
The instrument is used by holding in one hand the
longer end of the wood and pressing the notched end hard
against the point of the structure of which the motion is to
be analyzed, the carrier having previously been pushed up
to the wood, then, with the free hand, the carrier is pulled
steadily back, the ball being carefully watched. As by the
shortening of the wire between the base and the ball the
free period of vibration of the ball is diminished, and comes
near to any period amongst the vibrations in the structure,
the ball is seen to take up the vibration in beats with
intervals of rest; anda very little more careful adjustment
is sufficient to bring the period into coincidence, when the
ball continues vibrating with the structure, having the
appearance in Fig. 2.
228 DR. OSBORNE REYNOLDS on
The period of the Analyzer having been thus adjusted
to that of one of the periods of free vibration of the
structure, the period is ascertained either by adjusting the
Analyzer so that the pencil in the ball may oscillate in con-
tact with the paper on a chronograph, or by measuring
the distance of the ball from the wood on a scale, previously
adjusted by aid of the chronograph to give the number of
vibrations per minute.
Extreme accuracy of determining the periods has not
so far been an important consideration. The readings on the
chronograph were only taken to about 107%. But that the
Analyzer is susceptible of much greater accuracy is shown
by the fact that several different adjustments to the same
period in the structure brought the wire into exactly the
same position.
Its power of analyzing complex vibrations is so far
unqualified. It was invented for the purpose of determining
the period of a particular vibration—in a very stiff iron
structure subject to the periodic disturbance of the belts
from two engines running at high speed, and the centrifugal
action of such want of balance as there might be in heavy
pulleys, three feet in diameter, and running at 500 revolutions
per minute. The vibration was very slight—nothing more
than a slight tremor could be felt with the hand. The
periodic disturbances were about 500 per minute, and these
came out clearly, but small, in the Analyzer when adjusted
to these periods—but the periods of free vibration of one
of the members, 720 per minute, caused an amplitude of
Two Harmonic Analyzers. 229
half an inch in the ball, and that of another, 1,270, was
easily identified.
The instrument already described can clearly only be
used on a structure while it is so disturbed as to set its
members vibrating. Such disturbances can generally be
set up by a shock of some sort, but when it is necessary to
cause artificial disturbance, it is better to adopt a periodic
disturbance of such varying period as will come gradually
into coincidence with the periods of free vibration, bringing
these vibrations out separately, when they will be readily
identified with the Analyzer, if not otherwise perceptible.
For this purpose, in 1887, I adopted the following
method :—A small cast-iron pulley, 6 inches in diameter, very
much out of balance, was mounted on a small frame that
could be clipped on to any part of the structure, and a cord
passed over this pulley on to a larger wheel, which was
turned by hand. In this way the unbalanced wheel was
driven at a gradually increasing rate until steady vibrations.
in the structure were observed, then these coincided with the
period of the unbalanced wheel, and this was ascertained to
be about 1,200 by counting the revolutions of this hand-
wheel. At this speed the disturbing force resulting from
the unbalanced weight, 2lbs. on a radius of 2 inches, would
be 40 Ibs. The structure thus under examination was an
iron standard, very stiff. A theodolite was adjusted, with
the cross curves on a mark on the top of the standard, which,
when the period of the small unbalanced wheel coincided
with that of free vibration, was seen to move as much as one-
twentieth of an inch. Chains were then attached to the top
of the standard, and by means of blocks, a horizontal force
of aton was thrown on to the top of the standard, when it did
not yield more than two-hundredths of an inch. So that
the deviation caused by the periodic force of 4o lbs., in such
coincidence with the period of free vibration as could be
attained with the hand-wheel, was three times as great as
that which resulted from a direct statical force of one ton.
230 PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, March roth, 1891.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., read the first
portion of a paper on “The Occurrence of Sfzvorbis lime-
stone in the West Cumberland Coal-field, near Whitehaven.”
Mr. PERCY F. KENDALL, F.G.S., remarked on the
peculiar. character of the grit from the boring, which, he
said, seemed to indicate that the rock had been at some
time exposed; he also considered that the volcanic ash
fragments furnished no evidence of contemporary volcanic
action, and preferred to regard them as carried pebbles,
as are the felspar and quartz. Mr. C. E. DE RANCE, F.GS.,
considered that Mr. BROCKBANK’S discovery was one of
great importance, and noticed that it corroborated to a
large extent the opinion long ago held by Professor
HARKNESS of the geology of the Whitehaven district.
The Rev. T. P. KIRKMAN, M.A., F.R.S., communicated
a paper on “Functions from Groups.”
Mr. FARADAY read the concluding portion of a paper
entitled “Thoughts on Credit Money, and on the function
of the Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth,” of
which the first portion was read at the previous meeting.
In the discussion which ensued, Mr. ROBERT BARCLAY
observed that the philosophic study of money had
been strangely neglected by writers on economics, and that
much good would be done if scientific men would
apply their methods to it. The amount of metallic:
PROCEEDINGS. 231
money in relation to credit money is almost insig-
nificant, yet it is all important. He was much struck
with the author’s definition of credit as “the moneti-
sation of commodities.” It was undoubtedly correct.
The leaders of economic thought, whose writings are still
authoritative in England, say the school of John Stuart
Mill, never gave the subject of money full consideration.
They never asked the question, how it was that silver money
and gold money, in their days, maintained such a steady
relation to each other, but seem to have rested in the belief
that supply and demand accounted for it, overlooking
the fact that the supply of the two metals had varied
very greatly, and being unconscious of the enormous
influence of specific national laws then in operation. This
only became apparent from the effects of the closing
of the French mint to the free coinage of silver.
In his chapters on international trade, John Stuart Mill
always speaks of “the precious metals” as the basis for
adjustment, and repeatedly reminds his readers that by
“the precious metals” he means silver and gold. In his
days silver and gold were one thing, unitedly they formed,
to apply Mr. Faraday’s term, for all the world true
monetary “ions.”
242 Mr. FARADAY ox
Thoughts on Credit Money, and on the Function of
the Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth.
By F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.S.S.
(Received April 7th, 1891.)
Toutes les théories sociales peuvent et
doivent s'inspirer de trois idées: Tidée de
qustice, Vidée dutilité, et Lidée de liberté
individuelle.—PauL LEROY-BEAULIKEU.
ifs
The inequality in the distribution of wealth has become
the peculiar economic problem of the age. It is not denied
that the position of the working-classes has improved with
the progress of science and its application to industrial pro-
duction ; and no scientific mind dreams of the possibility of
an absolutely equal distribution of wealth. The natural
inequalities of mankind will continue to exist ; a complete
levelling would be in the economic world what the dissipa-
tion of energy would be in the physical universe. In
a former paper, read before the Society (Proceedings,
Vol. XXv1., 1887), I remarked that different qualities of
labour might be regarded as different quantities of labour ;
and, adopting the idea of a unit of labour, which seems
to underlie the teachings of Rodbertus and Karl Marx, as
the measure of payment, the skilled labourer would still,
necessarily, receive a greater reward than the unskilled in
proportion to the greater quantity, or number of units, of
his labour, and would, therefore, be a relatively wealthier
man.
But, while rejecting the illusions of the collectivists, and
admitting that the position of the working-classes has
improved, all thoughtful men are disposed to ask the
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 238
question whether there is not a greater tendency to the
congestion of wealth in the hands of a section of the
community than can be regarded as a necessary consequence
of the varying qualities of mankind, or of that hereditary
transmission of wealth, which is one of the conditions of
the accumulation which makes possible the general
advancement of the community? In other words, bearing
in mind the vast increase in productive power due to
the advancement and application of science, has the
position of the labourer improved in a reasonably pro-
portionate ratio? The conviction that it has not done
so, and the desire to remedy the anomaly, are at the base, not
merely of the various present-day State-help movements,
but of trades unionism, and especially of what is known as
the new trades unionism, co-operation, profit-sharing, and
other economic experiments; and it really inspires the
further studies of economists and all would-be social
reformers.
The problem, as it presents itself to sober minds, may
be stated as follows: Is it possible, without undue in-
terference with individualism, to diminish the inequalities
in the distribution of wealth? Is a distribution approxi-
mately proportionate to the quantitative (or qualitative)
relations of the services rendered—the value of such services
being still estimated strictly according to what they can
freely command in exchange in the market—consistent
with the free play of natural economic laws, including the
law of supply and demand? If so, then what are the
conditions which check such distribution ?
In the consideration of these questions, we may leave out
the doctrine of Malthus. Up to the present the means of
subsistence have increased in a far greater ratio than popu-
lation. Moreover, the problem immediately in hand is not,
as I view it, concerned with the consequences of mere
individual imprudence, recklessness, or vice. These are
O
234 Mr. FARADAY oz
questions which, though they have a bearing on the general
question of the distribution of wealth, are not involved in
the particular case of the distribution of the wealth
produced between those having some direct proprietary
right to a share of the product, whether for services
effectively rendered or as the lenders of the materials and
the implements or agents of production, including land. An
increase of capital in a greater ratio than population implies
an increased competition for labour and a consequently
higher proportionate reward for labour, other things remain-
ing equal. This is involved in John Stuart Mill’s theorem
that “increase of capital gives increased employment to
labour without assignable limit”; and also in Adam
Smith’s teaching that increase of capital tends to lower
the profits of the capitalist.
Assuming, then, the fundamental “rights” of labour;
defining labour as the exercise of personal qualities, whether
of mind or body, resulting in production or services to the
community; admitting the qualitative differences of services
(as for instance between those of the capitalist employer, the
opera-singer, the painter, the speculator, or the man who
follows the plough) as quantitative differences determined by
their respective values in exchange; and even putting the
service of the lenderof the agents or implementsof production
(the landowner or the lender of capital who receives a fixed
interest and takes no risk) in the same category; and
granting that free competition, and the unrestricted play of
the law of supply and demand tend to an equitable propor-
tionate distribution of wealth in accordance with the best
interests of each member of the community and of the
community as a whole—then it is clear that any excessive
congestion of wealth must be due to some conditions which
result in what has been described as “an unearned
increment.”
I do not think that, after due consideration of the
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 235
admissions in the last paragraph, anybody will take
exception to my employment of the term “unearned
increment.” Those admissions concede the rights of in-
heritance, the right of each member of the community to
obtain the largest reward he can for the judicious employ-
ment of his capital or of the faculties, knowledge, or skill
which he possesses. They imply the free play of in-
dividualism, recognition of the full rights of property, and
they characterise all personal action, even that of the mere
lender or investor, as labour or service of a certain quality, the
quantitative value of which depends on the quantity of the
labour, or the products of labour, which it can secure in
exchange under the unrestricted operation of the law of
competition.*
How, then, can an “unearned increment” arise ?
Hitherto it has been regarded as arising most conspicu-
ously from what John Stuart Mill has described as the
“natural monopoly” of land; and its remedy in this case
is the object of the proposals of Mill and Mr. Henry
George for the taxation or nationalisation of land. I do
not propose to discuss the land question; but, in
passing, it is necessary to make one or two remarks as
part of the line of thought which I am following. The
monoply of land by the State would not necessarily be a
violation of what we understand by natural economic laws ;
it would be merely an extended application of the joint-
*T willingly admit that the term ‘‘ unearned increment” is objectionable ;
it is not sufficiently neutral as an economic expression, for it seems to imply a
conclusion which may be a matter of argument. I have adopted it, however,
because it is more generally understood than the terms ‘‘ plus valeur,” ‘‘ plus
value,” or ‘‘surplus value.” Moreover I donot think that Sir Louis Mallet,
who has so vigorously denounced Mill’s employment of it, would have objected
to its application in the particular case which I am about to consider, that of a
‘‘surplus value” arising, not from a natural, but from an artificial monopoly.
His enthusiasm for the principles of ‘‘ free exchange” made Sir Louis Mallet,
the disciple, friend, and successor of Cobden, an opponent of gold-mono-
metallism and an advocate of the joint standard of gold and silver.
236: 7 Mr. FARADAY ox
stock principle. The real question, then, in regard to land
is whether (omitting from the consideration all idea of
confiscation) nationalisation would be more economical —
than private ownership ; that is, whether it would pay the
shareholders. The difference between a huge corporation
like the Great Western Railway Company,owning about 2,500
miles of railway, and the Indian Government, owning about
12,000 miles, is merely one of degree ; and the desirableness
of one or the other proprietorship obviously depends on local
circumstances. There can be no cast-iron rule; that which
might be truly economical in India would not necessarily
be so in this country. It is too often overlooked that the
proverb “circumstances alter cases,” has a very serious
application in economics. In his book “Le Collectiv-
isme,’ M. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu has advanced very co-
gent arguments tending to show that the cessation of
private ownership in land would not be economical ; in
short, that it would tend to diminish the general wealth of
the community. Though benevolently disposed towards
some of the ideas of the collectivists, M. Emile de Laveleye
has given, in his various writings on Continental agriculture,
very forcible illustrations of the economic advantages of
peasant proprietorship, which is, after all, an extreme form
of private ownership. In his posthumous essay on “The
Law of Value and the Theory of the Unearned Increment,”
Sir Louis Mallet has also vindicated the economic theory
of property in land.. (/vee Exchange. By the Right
Honourable Sir Louis Mallet, C.B. Edited by Bernard
Mallet.) If State ownership resulted in a decline of
economic efficiency—that is, if the land became less
productive, the lower classes might be poorer than at
present, even though the aggregate wealth were more
equally distributed. Now, it would surely be no satisfaction
to the working-man to know that his share of the produc-
tion bore a greater ratio to the share of the capitalist than.
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. aa7
before, if the absolute quantity received by him were less
than before.
A close study of what are known as the natural laws of
economics—such as that of supply and demand—reveals
the fact that their saving, and, indeed, essential principle is
that of an automatic compensatory action. An extreme
tendency in any direction calls into operation a checking or
balancing movement. Thus, an increased demand for any
article, by raising its price and increasing the profits of the
capitalist engaged in its production, stimulates an increased
supply of that article by attracting capital to the industry ;
this movement tends to make good the relative deficiency,
and thus to check the advance of prices. Again, the in-
creasing employment of capital in a highly profitable
industry increases the demand for labour in that industry,
and, therefore, tends to raise wages ; hence, the appearance
of a higher profit for the capitalist, analogous to the “un-
earned increment” of the landowner, calls intoplayconditions
which promote its distribution. It may be said that the
true test of the soundness, or naturalness, of any economic
arrangement is its subservience to such compensatory
action in accordance with a ruling principle of nature.
Now there is grave reason to doubt whether the State mono-
poly of land, any more than any other monopoly, would be
consistent with the possibility of such action and reaction.
On the other hand, it is quite clear that the “unearned in-
crement” arising from the private ownership of land is to
some extent under the law of compensatory action which
tends to promote distribution. A rise of rents in this
country induces, for instance, the cultivation of the
cheaper lands of the colonies, the United States, and other
regions of the globe; and the competition of the grain and
other agricultural produce received thence has tended to
reduce rents again by lowering the profits of farming and
diminishing the competition for farms. The demand for
238 Mr. FARADAY oz
manufactured products in exchange for the produce im-
ported has tended to draw labour from the rural estates to
the manufacturing districts, and it would appear that the
natural consequence would, in the end, be higher agricultural
wages ; the payment of such wages should imply more
efficient labour, and, consequently, increased production
from the land. This has avowedly been the result in the
north of England, where agricultural wages are higher than
they are in the east and south, and farming is, nevertheless,
more profitable. Such a process, though it may be slow,
clearly tends to promote the distribution of wealth.
It is, probably, in consequence of the attention given to
Mill’s “natural monopoly” of land and to Anderson and
Ricardo’s theory of rent, before the development of
railways, steam navigation, and ocean telegraphy had, by
practically annihilating distance, brought new factors into
play, that the influence of monetary law on the distri-
bution of wealth has been so generally overlooked. I have
been led to inquire into this influence. We have seen
that such undue congestion of wealth as that under con-
sideration arises, according to collectivist theories on the
subject, from the development of an unearned increment
from capital or land; that is, an increase of value due
to circumstances or conditions which the recipient has
had no part in bringing about, or, in other words, an income
which is not in any sense the payment of additional services
rendered. With such services I would include the service
of the speculator, who stores the surplus abundance of
to-day to provide for the deficiency of to-morrow. Such
increment is, of course, based on an increase in the exchange-
able, or loanable, value of the thing possessed, caused
by arbitrary influences of a temporary or permanent
character. . Thus, meteorological conditions, in bringing
about a failure of growing crops in the United States
and India, may greatly enhance the exchangeable
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 239
value of grain produced in England. Such arbitrary
influences on the value of commodities have the most
permanent effect on articles not producible at _ will,
because such commodities are sheltered from the law of
automatic compensation, according to which a rise in value
stimulates supply sooner or later.* Land is not producible
at will; but the opening up of previously uncultivated
areas of the surface of the globe operates within certain
limits in the same way as an increase in the supply of
commodities producible at will, by checking the advance
of rents. In gold, however, we have a commodity not
producible at will, or, in only a very restricted sense of the
word, the present ‘exchangeable value of which is largely
dependent on the function of legal tender conferred on
it by law. When, therefore, the demand for gold as money
increases with the demonetisation of silver, the growth
of population, and the expansion of the production of
commodities producible at will, such production being
promoted by the progress of science and the opening
up of new lands, we have a case of unearned increment,
which is; so far, apparently independent of compen-
sating influences. Moreover, the unearned increment in
this case is much more extensive than any which arises
*The reader will, I hope, pardon me for not treating the subject of value
historically. To have reviewed the various definitions and sub-divisions which
have been introduced by different writers would have encumbered the paper
unnecessarily. It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between com-
modities which can be indefinitely multiplied and those which cannot be
increased at all, or between commodities on which competition operates and
those which are absolute monopolies. In practice the differences are very
largely mere differences of degree. The anxiety which has been manifested in
South Africa in consequence of the alleged discovery of the new ‘‘ Wesselton ”
diamond mine suggests that even diamonds may become, for a time, things
practically capable of indefinite multiplication. I have adopted the term
“* producible at will” as giving a sufficiently simple distinction for the purpose
of the paper. Everyone can recognise the difference between the producible-
ness of commodities like wheat, or woollen, or cotton goods, and of a rare
metal like gold.
240 Mr. FARADAY oz
from a direct increase in the value of land, because an
appreciation of the standard legal tender (or, in other
words, a fall of prices) not only increases fixed rents in
terms of the commodities produced, but all debts whatever,
and all interest payable on such debts, and especially on
permanent investments; in short, all payments for past
services, such as are represented by the National Debt or
the existence of the very machinery essential to the life of
the State, such as railways, waterworks, and other public
and private undertakings. Thus, an appreciation of the
standard legal tender not only creates a purely arbitrary
unearned increment for the land-holder who has let his
land on long leases, but for every bondholder and creditor
who can demand payment in terms of the standard metal.
Now, is there anything which tends to counteract an
arbitrary appreciation in the exchangeable value of gold as
money? Sir Thomas Farrer, adopting the theory of Mr.
Henry Dunning Macleod that credit is money or “currency,”
practically contends that there is. An appreciation of the
standard money is the same thing as a fall of general
prices; and Sir Thomas Farrer, assuming, for the sake of
argument, the truth of the quantitative theory of prices,
according to which prices in the long run are governed
by the relation between the volume of commodities and
the volume of money, submits that the volume of money
includes credit as well as gold. “Credit,’ says Mr.
-Macleod, “is circulating medium exactly as money is.”
“Credit,” says Sir Thomas Farrer, “is not merely an
economy of gold—it takes its place (in the form of bills,
&c.) as a circulating medium ” and, further, “it is not to
gold but to credit that we must look as the immediate
regulator of prices” (What do we Pay With? or, Gold,
Credit, and Prices. By Sir T. H. Farrer, Bart.). |
Now a little consideration will, I think, show us that
credit is really the monetisation of commodities. The bills
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 241
drawn against shipments really represent the commodities ;
the credits allowed on securities represent commodities in
the fixed form, for which the securities stand, such as Brazil-
ian railways. The credits allowed against Consols represent
the accumulated assets of the nation. And even accom-
modation bills, so far as they are in any sense legitimate,
may be said to represent potential commodities. Cheques,
when not drawn against actual cash deposits, also represent
commodities which are monetised, for they are drawn against
‘discounted bills backed by bills-of-lading, which are mere
warrants against goods, or they are overdrafts guaranteed
by securities representing certain assets. Even in the case of
-over-drafts against which no securities are actually deposited,
the banker, in trusting the solvency of his customer,
believes that the credits are utilised for the purchase or
holding of commodities. Credits which have not some sub-
‘stantial backing of this kind may be classed with spurious
bank notes or false coin. Sir Thomas Farrer’s contention,
therefore, really is, that instead of bi-metallism (the mone-
tisation of two commodities), what I may describe as a kind
-of poly-metallism (the monetisation of many commodities)
actually exists. This monetisation of commodities is
effected, so far as the documents are in terms of gold, by
the bankers and other gold capitalists, and it is monetisa-
tion in a fixed ratio; for when a bill is drawn for £1,000
against a given shipment of goods, and circulates as credit
money, the meaning is that those goods have, for the time
being, been monetised in a given ratio to one thousand
sovereigns. A bank is a kind of commodity mint; and
just as notes issued against an equivalent reserve of gold
are gold-notes circulating instead of the gold, so a bill,
or other credit form, is a circulating commodity note.
But this circulation is of a very limited kind. The
credit money, for instance, does not, generally speaking,
-diffuse itself amongst the consumers of commodities, and it
242 Mr. FARADAY on
does not, in any influence it may have on prices, affect all
prices equally. As the French would say, its “ liberatory ”
or paying power is limited: particular bills are known only
in particular trades. Moreover, the duration of the liberatory
power is brief: for the credit money is liable to periodical
demonetisation. Thus, as Mr. Goschen pointed out in his.
Leeds speech, we were, during the recent Baring crisis, on
the brink of a collapse of all British credit, which would have:
meant the instant demonetisation of all the commodities and
securities represented by the credit money afloat, gold
remaining as the only commodity which would have
retained its paying power. The effect on prices would have
been the same as the effect on the gold price of silver of the
demonetisation of that metal ; the prices of all commodities
and securities would have fallen enormously in terms of
gold, or, in other words, the value of gold in commodities
would have risen enormously, the “ unearned increment ” of
the fortunate holder of gold being proportionately increased.
Toa certain extent, something like this happens regularly
as bills approach maturity, or the date on which the com-
modities they represent will be demonetised. As the
period of commodity demonetisation approaches, the holder
of the commodities becomes a more pressing seller, and a
seller against gold, just as the German Government became:
a seller of silver at declining gold prices when it demonetised
the white metal. If a bill is drawn in terms of gold, it is,.
practically, against gold money that the merchant sells his
goods, for even if he sells in the first instance for silver
rupees, he must re-sell his rupees before he can discharge
his debt. I do not deny that the continuance of a volume
of credit money, the disappearing portions of which are
speedily replaced by fresh bills, and which is never wholly
withdrawn, does tend to keep up prices, or to lessen the
buying power of gold money; the admission that a
ruinous fall of prices would have inevitably followed a.
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 243
‘collapse of credit with the downfall of the Baring firm ©
implies this. No doubt the fact that the seller of the
demonetised commodities remits other credits in payment
of his gold debt, rather than the actual metal, lessens the
strain on gold, and, therefore, to some extent controls its
value. But, making allowance for these influences, what I
wish to point out is that the periodical demonetisation of the
commodities represented by particular credits does counter-
act the influence of credit money on prices. And it has
even a very special influence in depressing prices; for the
monetisation of commodities by the issue of credit money
against them tends to call additional commodities into exist-
ence, thus increasing the supply. On the other hand, their
demonetisation, on the expiration of the currency of the
credit instruments drawn against them, is, practically,
according to Sir Thomas Farrer’s own argument, a contrac-
tion of the currency. Thus we have an expanding currency
calling goods into existence, and a contracting currency
when the goods come to be sold for gold money. So that
the influence of credit in assisting gold as currency, and
therefore lowering its value, tends to cease and to leave the
gold without a partner in the presence of an enlarged supply
of commodities when they are sold. The world is, of course,
richer in proportion to the increase of commodities ; but
clearly in such circumstances the increase of wealth tends
to go to the gold owner.
With reference to this point, there is a noteworthy
passage in Sir Thomas Farrer’s treatise. “If,” says Sir
Thomas Farrer, “ prices of goods fall, not by reason of any
change in the measure of value, but by increased abundance
of the things sold, what considerations of justice or of
convenience are there which call for an alteration of the
measure of value?” The reply is, that the measure of
value is also the ultimate medium of payment, and if the
distribution of commodities is to continue in a given pro-
244 Mr. FARADAY 07
portion to the relative services rendered, then the measure
of value and the medium of payment should be approxi-
mately subject to the same increasing influences which
affect the quantity of commodities ; the ratio between them
should remain unchanged. For it is clear that, if the
producer has certain payments to make to the creditor class
in the standard of value, and, by the exercise of genius, or
even increased labour, he so improves his production that
the yield is doubled and prices fall proportionately, then a
portion of his increased production, greater or less accord-
ing to the proportion of his debt in the standard to the
total value of his production, passes over as unearned
increment to the creditor. An equivalent change in the
volume or value of the standard, by leaving prices un-
changed, would leave the reward of increased or more
efficient labour in the hands of the producer without robbing
the creditor. We may put it that steady prices are most
conducive to equitable distribution. According to Sir
Thomas Farrer’s contention, the value of the standard is
altered by the addition of credit to the volume of gold
money; it must therefore be altered by its withdrawal ;
and both operations are dependent on the interests and
convenience of the gold-owning class.
In dealing with this point, Sir Thomas Farrer falls into
error in an illustration of the “strange results” which
might follow an alteration in the value or quantity of the
standard or legal tender commodity proportionate to that
of the non-legal tender commodities. . “Suppose, for
instance,” he says, “that the price of labour remains the
same, but that the price of all articles consumed by workmen
falls in consequence of improvements in production, the
effect of lowering the measure of value in accordance with
the average of prices would be to diminish money wages,
and at the same time, in addition, by raising prices, to
diminish real wages.” The argument overlooks the fact,
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 245
that if wages remained unchanged with falling prices, they
would, for the same reason, rise with rising prices under
the assumed conditions, and, as a certain portion of the
workman’s expenditure is of the nature of a fixed charge
unaffected by a variation in the measure of values, he
would clearly be a gainer.
Again, the influence of credit money on prices is partial
and arbitrary: it is not diffused. As I have said, the
creation of credit money is in the hands of the capitalist
financier, or banker. He is able to monetise any commodity
he pleases, and to charge any seignorage he likes for the
service. Now, when this power of monetisation is distinctly
used for the purpose of advancing prices, it is, as a rule,
employed on securities, or on raw materials in the operations
known as “corners.” The particular articles are monetised at
a rising ratio to gold, and so long as the “corner” lasts the
operator obtains in exchange for his monetised commodity or
bonds a proportionately greater quantity of gold, or of other
wealth measured ingold. I am not discussing the utility or
justification of these operations; I merely wish to cite
unmistakeable illustrations of the fact, that the quantitative
influence of credit money on prices, as a partner with gold,
does not diffuse itself over labour and commodities
generally. In this respect a credit inflation of prices isa
very different thing from an advance of prices due to an
increase in the volume of metallic money of full liberatory
power throughout the world, as such money, in accordance
with the natural economic laws on which the whole science
is based, does tend to search out all commodities and all
labour throughout the world and affect them proportionately.
Finally, the volume of credit money depends on the
volume of gold under a gold monometallic system, or, to
speak in more general terms, on the volume of money of
full, universal, and permanent liberatory power. The precise
relation cannot be stated ; it is sufficient to say that there
246 Mr. FARADAY ox
zs a critical point when the volume of credit money feels the
pull of real money, and its elasticity is checked. A familiar
demonstration of this was the borrowing of French and
Russian gold by the Bank of England during the recent
Baring crisis in order to prevent a contraction of credit
money. There is a proportion of reserve which bankers, in
practice, find it necessary to hold, and, therefore, admitting
that credit money does substitute gold and affect general
prices as an effective addition to the volume of money, its
own volume, and therefore its effect on prices, is still con-
ditioned by the abundance or scarcity of gold. The relation
varies according to the facilities of communication and
transport, or according to the rapidity of circulation or
greater intensiveness in the working of gold, for it is not
denied that an increase in the number of exchanges effected
by a given piece of gold in a given time may be equivalent
in its effect on prices to an increase in the quantity of
gold. But, so far as the theory goes, it is sufficient for
those who contend that the fall of general prices has
been due to a scarcity of gold, resulting from diminished
out-put from the mines and increased demand for
the metal as money and as the basis of credit in consequence
of the demonetisation of silver, to establish the fact, that the
volume of credit money has a relation to the volume of
metallic money of continuous and international liberatory
power. This being admitted, the question becomes simply
whether the vast diminution in the volume of the ultimate
measure of value, brought about by the establishment of
gold mono-metallism, has been made good by the more
intensive working of the units composing that volume, due
allowance being made for the increase of population and
the vast increase of commodities which, in themselves,
demand increased distributive work from those units.
What I wish to bring out clearly is that, granted a relative
absolute scarcity of gold, the influence of credit in prevent-
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 247
ing a fall of prices is itself checked by the very scarcity of
gold which is the primary condition inducing the fall.
Credit money does not imply the effective action of the
principle of compensation ; because credit money does not
expand as gold money contracts, but, on the contrary,
other things remaining equal, tends to contract in some
ratio with the contraction of gold money. In this respect,
though I have spoken of credit money as a kind of poly-
metallism, it is fundamentally different from true bi-metal-
lism based on the bestowal of full liberatory power on the
two precious metals; because, if the theory be sound, true bi-
metallism implies the effective action of the principle of
compensation under the assumed conditions, a monetary
strain on one metal being instantly and automatically
counteracted by a corresponding inflow of the other. The
precious metals would be equal and competing monies,
permanently exercising their liberatory functions in their
own right independently ; whereas, credit money has, at
the best, only a temporary currency, and its power is to
some extent derivatory from the full legal tender, gold, to
which it is, therefore, subservient.
IT.
To summarise, we have seen that circulating credit
impliesthe monetisation of commoditiesin a fixed ratio, and so
far resembles bi-metallism as to be describable as poly-metal-
lism; that within certain limits it affects prices, according to
the quantitative theory, by proportionately increasing the
volume of money for the time being ; that its circulation is,
however, limited—a circumstance due to the fact that it is
not legal tender—and that it does not circulate, for instance,
amongst consumers of commodities ; that the commodities
represented are demonetised, not merely in periods of panic
when credit collapses, but periodically as the instruments of
credit approach maturity ; that the commodities have then
248 Mr. FARADAY oz
to be sold against international legal tender money, or
effectively, gold, under conditions analogous to a contraction
of the currency as regards the prices realised.
It will not be supposed that, in pointing out these differ-.
ences between credit-money and a permanently monetised
commodity like gold, with the attribute of international legal
tender, I am condemning credit money. Circulating credit
fulfils a very important function in the movement of com-
modities, and its growth and use are not merely a demon-
stration of a true economic origin, but also, incidentally, imply
the recognition by mankind of the necessity for an extension
of monetisation beyond one rare commodity, such as gold.
When, however, credit-money is put forward as being
practically efficient in remedying the defects of an in-elastic
supply of real money, which is at once a standard of value
and currency, it becomes important to define the differences,
in order that we may arrived at a truly scientific remedy.
Now, in pursuing the comparison between credit-money
and real money, and more especially with reference
to the influence of monetary law on the distribution of
wealth, I have found it more and more necessary to define
some ideal form of money, or at least to adopt some
abstract term which shall be held to be representative of
those powers which a perfect money, or, if I may so
express it, distributor of wealth, should possess. In
connection with the currency controversy, and particularly
in pursuing the present series of thoughts, I have felt a diffi-
culty similar to that which Professor Faraday experienced
in constructing his theory of electro-chemical decomposition,
that. of using terms which were already current with a
certain accepted meaning. In order to avoid “confusion
and circumlocution,” and “for the sake of greater precision
of expression,” the great physicist invented a new termi-
nology. Some of the terms of electrical science previously
employed were, he said, “ much too significant” for the use
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 249
to which he would have to put them, and, he added,
“through a very imperceptible, but still very dangerous,
because continual, influence, they do great injury to
science by contracting and limiting the habitual views
of those engaged in it.’ Now so many, and more or
less restricted, meanings have been acquired in the minds
of different persons by the words “money,” “ coin,”
“currency,” “standard,” and so on, that I have at times
found it quite impossible to convey my meaning as
an advocate of ome standard consisting of the ‘wo
metals, gold and silver, minted in a fixed ratio, when
using terms which my opponents have persisted in inter-
preting merely according to their own conventional habit.
A very great amount of misunderstanding arises from this
tyrannous influence of words. I have, therefore, been bold
enough to borrow the term zonfrom my distinguished relative’s
electrolytical terminology, and propose to speak of monetary
zons instead of currency, or standard, or legal tender, as a
term including the attributes of all these things. In
the “Experimental Researches in Electricity” (Seventh
Series), zows are defined as those bodies which “can pass”
to the electrodes. The monetary zoz, then, is that which
“can pass,” and in the act of passing distributes wealth.
I am the more in favour of this term because my predecessor
tells us that, in his conception of electrolysis, “the deter-
mining force, is zo¢ at the poles, but wzthzz the body under
decomposition.” And my idea of a monetary zox is that of
a something which, though deriving its liberatory or paying
power from the quality of legal tender conferred on it by
the Legislature—as the chemical zo is liberated by the
electrolytical arrangement—yet contains its va/ue or deter.
mining force within itself* As inthe case of the electro-
*T hope this assumption of inherent value will be allowed to pass for the
purpose of the argument. Those economists who deny the labour basis of
value may interpret it as value other than mere /a¢ value.
P
250 Mr. FARADAY oz
lytical zo, my perfect monetary zoz should have an invarying
quantity of force ; that is, it should always be in exactly
the same exchangeable relation to commodities, which would
then be the corresponding zozs passing in the opposite direc-
tion ; unit for unit their respective values should be approxi-
mately as invariable as the force of electrolytical anions and
cations. In developing his electrolytical theory, Michael
Faraday found it desirable to have a “natural standard”
of electric direction, and he took the earth as that standard.
In the present case I take, with Adam Smith, labour as the
natural determining standard in relation to all questions
involved in the consideration of monetary zous ; the labour
being estimated quantitatively acccording to its efficiency,
Thus a monetary zoz should always bear the same propor-
tionate relation to labour that the commodity zovs produced
by labour bore to labour. Increase of efficiency, asa result of
scientific discovery or the application of natural power,
_ would increase the commodity zozs produced by a given
labourer in a given time; this, in my view, would be an
increase in the quantity of labour. Michael Faraday points
out that any change in our views of the nature of electricity
and electrical action must affect equally his natural standard
and the decomposing substances. Pursuing the analogy
which I am setting up in order to make my views clear, my
monetary zous, deriving their force from labour, should be
affected by the change which affected the commodity zons ;
that is the more efficient labour, producing an increased
quantity of commodity zozs, should command a propor-
tionately increased quantity of monetary zozs, the relation
between the commodity zovs and the monetary zozs (or the
price) remaining undisturbed. I pointed out in my former
paper (Proceedings, Vol. XXVI., 1886-7) that labour-saving
discoveries tend to extend their influence to the production
of all commodities, the efficiency of all labour being propor-
tionately increased, The monetary zovs must not be
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 251
exempt from the influence of this tendency, if the assumed
steadiness of relation to the commodity zous is to be
maintained.
In various writings on the subject Sir Thomas Farrer
has put forward the argument that gold has not appreciated
in value, but that commodities have fallen because their
production has been increased. As an illustration, he cites
(What we Pay With) an apple tree which suddenly pro-
duces 24 apples instead of 12, the labour, or human effort
of cultivation or production, remaining the same. Now
it is quite clear that, in such a case, assuming that the
monetary zovs remained unaffected in their quantity, and
that, therefore, the price of apples fell one half, the landlord
and other fixed creditors payable in monetary zovs would
receive the equivalent of double the number of apples
formerly received by them ; and, perhaps, if the increment
were as accidental as Sir Thomas Farrer assumes, the
creditors might be as well entitled to it as the labourer.
But a general increase of commodities implied in a general
fall of prices is not due to such accidental causes; it
depends either on an increase of labour or on the increased
efficiency of labour; and if labour is to get the full reward
of its increase in quantity or efficiency it is to me perfectly
clear that the relative value of the monetary ions in which
the fixed charges are paid must remain unchanged. This
can only be by a proportionate increase in their quantity
under the action of the same law which affects commodities,
by which labour seeks the most remunerative field of
production, or in their efficiency by rapidity of exchange
increased by a highly organised system of banking,
which means, practically, the same result as an
addition to quantity. If commodities generally increase,
and the monetary zovs remain practically unchanged
in quantity, then a fall of prices is an appreciation of
the monetary zous. Their labour cost of production
252 Mr, FARADAY ox
has remained unchanged, which means that the efficiency
of the labour employed in their production has not in-
creased, as in the case of all other labour. It also means
that there has been no diminution in the cost of production
in consequence of the cheapening of every material which
enters inta that cost, which is an absurdity unless the labour
has become correspondingly less efficient. This, of course,
might happen in the case of gold, for instance, through the
diminished richness or greater depth of the mines. In any
case, it is clear that, either through what John Stuart Mill
calls a “natural monopoly,” or through an artificial
monopoly, the exchangeable value of the monetary
zons having increased to exactly the extent of the fall
of prices, this value has received an addition which may
or may not be an unearned increment in the case of
the producer, but is certainly an unearned increment in the
case of all creditors. They are then no longer perfect
monetary zovs. Sir Thomas Farrer’s notion of a standard
money which can remain stationary, while all other things.
are increasing in quantity, and that, therefore, it is the
“other things” which have depreciated, and not the standard
which has appreciated, is illusory. The medium of pay-
ment in such a case has been sheltered from the influences.
affecting all other commodities, and it has received an
arbitrary addition to its exchanging power. It ought to be
considered, therefore, as great an anomaly in economics.
as an electrolytical zow with a variable exchanging power
would be in physics.
I do not go so far as to suggest that any commodity can
be named which will be absolutely unchangeable in value
relation to other things. Still there are commodities which,
as monetary zovs, would, on the average, bear a steady relation
to most other commodities. Adam Smith perceived this.
when he said that the exchangeable value of corn-rents would
be likely to be more steady from century to century, though
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 253
more variable from year to year, than money (that is gold
or silver) rents. Ricardo was also evidently influenced-by a
similar thought when he wrote to Malthus on October 17th,
1815, “I think with you, that, on the whole, silver would be
a better standard than gold” (Letters of David Ricardo to
Thomas Robert Malthus, r81o to 1825. Wetter XXXVIII).
Wheat owes its relative steadiness, in terms of other
commodities, to the fact that it is one of the class of
commodities producible at will, but it is liable to sudden
temporary variations in exchangeable value, in consequence
of natural causes, such as failures of the crops. For this
reason, and also because of its bulk, its perishable nature,
and other conditions, on which I need not dwell, wheat
and many other commodities, however steady they might
be on the average, are not suitable for the payment of
debts, for storing value, or for easy world-wide circulation,
functions which must be fulfilled by true monetary zous.
It would be going over old ground to proceed to
show how peculiarly suitable to these several purposes
the precious metals are by reason of their peculiar
_ qualities as metals. But when we consider their special
appropriateness as monetary zoms, it is necessary to call
attention to the fact that their suitableness in con-
tradistinction to credit-money rests on the fact that
they have a force within themselves. Now that natural
force is derived from the labour spent in their produc-
tion and their utility as metals. There is a good deal
of philosophy in a remark made by a delegate at the
Canadian Trades and Labour Congress held in London,
Ontario, in 1888. A proposal was brought forward that
in future the Dominion Government should no longer
borrow money for the construction of public works, but
should meet the cost by an issue of legal tender notes. Mr.
A. F. Jury, in opposing the motion, observed pithily that
he did not believe in exchanging the product of his labour
254 Mr. FARADAY on
for money which did not represent the labour of some other
man. The fact is, that payment by Government notes
would be merely a monetising of the labour of the men
embodied in the public works, and the exchange would have
to be effected afterwards for what it was worth. The mere
monetising of a given construction or commodity does not
imply exchange ; because if there were no other labourers
or no other commodities in the world, the notes representing
their own work merely might still be paid to the labourers ;
and such notes would not be convertible in the product of
the particular labour monetised, and would not therefore
have the inherent force of true monetary zovs.*
The payment of gold and silver money, however, does
involve exchange, because such money is in itself other
labour and other consumption. A piece of gold or silver
now circulating may have been produced in the time of
Solomon, but it still replaces certain commodities definitely
consumed in its production; it implies a certain vacuum
created which it has itself filled, a certain quantity of labour-
energy converted into the latent form; and in every
exchange in which it takes part the void, so to speak,
created by its movement is filled by an equivalent modicum
of labour-energy represented by some other commodity
or service.
But if any given monetary zoz is to remain in practically
*Mr. H. D. Macleod (Zheory of Credit, Vol. II., Part 2) urges that the
real weakness of what he calls ‘‘ Lawism” (the paper money theory of Law)
is the idea that money ‘‘represents” commodities. Is not the real weakness.
of ‘‘Lawism” the fact that notes issued against land, for instance, do not
effectively represent commodities, being inconvertible in the commodity against
which they are issued? The holder of a particular note under Law’s scheme
could not redeem it in the particular fragment of land represented, nor would
that particular fragment be capable of circulation or have any value or utility if
exchanged. Notes, or credit instruments in any form, are only so far sound as’
they effectively represent or are convertible into commodities or services having
the full value in exchange expressed by the denomination of the particular note
or instrument.
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 255
unchanged relation as regards its inherent force with all
commodity zovs; in other words, if it is to remain a per-
fectly steady standard of value, it must not derive an incre-
ment of value merely from the bestowal upon it of the
quality of legal tender by the Legislature. The bestowal
upon any one commodity, not capable of indefinite multi-
plication, of the function of legal tender, does undoubtedly
tend to increase its value by giving it an additional utility ;
my view is that, theoretically, the Legislative effect should
eane,furtier ‘than, the, setting free of the zov.* In
proportion as there is any effect beyond this, that effect
is an artificial interference with natural economics, and,
therefore, necessarily, with the equitable distribution of
wealth involved in the free play of natural laws. <A
theoretically invariable monetary zoz may be unattainable
in practice, but in examining the conditions which interfere
with its attainment we may at least see how to realise the
ideal zox approximately, on the average.
Now, one way in which the value of a commodity is
increased by the bestowal upon it of the function of legal
tender is by converting the producer or holder instantly
into a buyer. “The situation of the producers of gold,” says
M. Cernuschi,truly,“is quite different to that of the producers
of any kind of merchandise. The producer of any kind of
merchandise does not knowhowhis profit and loss stands until
he has realised in gold, that is to say, sold his merchandise
for money. The producer of gold himself directly produces
* In his very thoughtful little book, entitled ‘‘ Bi-metallism; or, a Fixed
Ratio between the Two Metals, Gold and Silver,” recently published, Mr.
Councillor W. T. Rothwell, of Manchester, speaks of the ‘‘ money-power” as
a property which can be added to or taken from gold or silver ; any commodity
invested with this property being merely “the raw material out of which
money is manufactured.” It will be seen, I hope, from what I have written
above, that, according to my view, in a perfect monetary system, this ‘‘ money-
power” should not be an addition in the sense of an added value, but rather
the mere conversion of the natural economic energy of the material from the
potential to the kinetic form.
256 Mr. FARADAY ox
money. His realisation is ready made.” And again: “The
producer of any kind of merchandise is not always able to
dispose of it. The market may be glutted. There may be
no outlet. Things happen quite otherwise with the producer
of gold. Whatever the quantity produced, the gold hasa
full right to enter into circulation. All the grammes of new
gold are exactly equal to all the grammes of old gold. All
have the same power. The old metal cannot bar the way
to the new metal.”
It is sometimes argued that each party to an exchange
is at the same time botha buyer and aseller. But we know
that, in practice, the real buyer, the man in possession of legal
tender money, has a balance of advantages over the man
with commodities which are not legal tender, and if the
number of the selling-class is increased, the greater is his
advantage. As I have already pointed out, it is in conse-
quence of this fact that credit money fails to act as a
permanent check on any arbitrary ‘increase in the buying
power of gold money ; because the holder of credit-money
sooner or later becomes a seller of his demonetised commo-
dities. In much the same way the demonetisation of silver
has increased the number of sellers proportionately to
buyers, and has thus brought about the greater part of that
depression of prices which Sir Thomas Farrer supposes to
be entirely due to other causes. Prior to 1873, the Lanca-
shire shipper of goods to the East really became added to
the buying class the instant he had sold his goods for silver,
which was practically international: money equally with
gold, in consequence of the operation of the French bi-
metallic monetary law. At the present time, after selling
his goods for silver, he becomes a mere seller of silver.
Thus he appears as a seller twice over, the number
of the transactions against gold being proportionately
increased. The equation is thus enormously disturbed. It
has been strangely overlooked that the depression of the
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 257
price of silver in the London market and of the Eastern
exchanges is not due alone to the small supply of
American silver which finds its way to London, but is
also attributable to the potential offer for sale there of
450,000,000 of silver, against which British goods are every
year sold in the East. The silver is really not offered for
sale ; but there is no limit to the decline in the Eastern
exchange, except the price at which the rupee could be
sold as demonetised metal if actually sent to London.
It will, I know, be said that the influence of this
potential offer of Eastern silver money as a demonetised
commodity is off-set by the demand of the Mincing
Lane produce importers, who require the same silver
as money to pay for Indian produce. But a more searching
-examination of the actual operations will show that this
is not fully so. Letus assume that last autumn the coined
rupees of India had become full and permanent international
legal tender at the exchange rate temporarily quoted—say
1s. 9d.,—the India mints remaining open. In that case the
Lancashire exporter, rather than accept a lower price—
allowance being made for the cost of shipping and insuring
the specie—for bills convertible into rupees, would bring
home the coin for deposit in the banks and for the pay-
ment of his liabilities, and it would be absorbed into the
general circulation, or rest as a cash balance in the banks ;
-and the Indian Government would also pay the home
charges with rupees rather than sell Council drafts. On
the other hand, the Mincing Lane importer, so long as there
was any uncoined silver in the market to be had at a
sufficiently lower price than the drafts to off-set the cost of
shipping and insuring the metal to India, would buy such
silver to discharge his liabilities in India. Now the stock
-of silver in London is always relatively insignificant; even
the stock in New York, accumulated under quite exceptional
conditions by speculative operations prior to the passing
258 MR. FARADAY on
of the American Silver Act of July 14, 1890, and
consisting partly of coined metal drawn from the
currencies of the Central and South American States,.
did not exceed 13,000,000 ounces at the maximum, and at
the present time is reported less than 6,000,000 ounces ;.
that is, there has been a floating surplus stock of from
£ 1,000,000 to, at the outside, £ 2,500,000 worthof silver in New
York. But the Mincing Lane men alone would require from
£ 34,000,000 to 440,000,000 of silver to pay for their
own imports, to say nothing of the demands for the
payment of Indian exports to other parts of the world,
amounting in all to about 490,000,000 in round figures.
Even with the aid of the Council drafts in settling the
balance of trade there has been an average export of
$7,500,000 of silver per annum to the East during the
last ten years vza Southampton, Venice, and Marseilles.
There would, therefore, be far more buyers of silver than
sellers, a demand vastly beyond the available surplus of
uncoined silver; nay more, the demand would greatly
exceed the total production of new silver from all the
mines in the world. The price would, therefore, necessarily
rise until it became worth while to take the rupees from
the banks for shipment back to India, and, this stage being
reached, the Lancashire exporter, the Indian Government,
and the Mincing Lane importer, would of course proceed to.
save the cost of moving the rupees from India to London,
and from London to India, by selling and buying drafts on
the basis of the par value of the rupee. The only difference:
from the existing conditions would be that the Lanca-
shire exporters and the India Council would no longer be-
practically forced sellers of rupees in a market where they
are demonetised, any more than the holder of Australian
sovereigns is at present a forced seller; and the Mincing
Lane man would no longer be in the position of the buyer
of a commodity which is of no use to the seller.
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 259
It is not difficult to demonstrate the soundness of this
argument. Ifthe silver bullion market is not depressed by
the potential offer of the vast stock of coined silver to the
silversmiths of London, but only by the surplus stock of
newly-produced silver, then, as I pointed out to Mr. Goschen
during the conference at the Treasury on February 11th,
1891, it would have paid the Indian Government to have
bought up the American stock of one or two millions’ worth,
and thrown it into the sea, for the loss by exchange to the
Indian Government in consequence of the decline has.
already exceeded the value of that stock.
But this “depression” of demonetised silver is really the
same thing as an appreciation of gold, and it is for the same
reason common to all commodities in relation to gold.
Admitting then that gold money is artificially appreciated,
In consequence of the special power conferred on it by its
practical adoption as the sole international legal tender
money, we have to devise some legal arrangement which
would counteract this influence, in order to obtain true
monetary zozs, such as I have defined. The sufficiently
approximate solution of the problem will be found in
controlling the gold zoxz by placing it in definite monetary
relation with a suitably representative commodity zomn—
silver. I speak of silver as a representative commodity,
because, during the trying period since the closing of
the French mint, it has fully justified Ricardo’s opinion
as to its relative steadiness of exchangeable value,
and its submission to what I have referred to as the
economic law tending to maintain steadiness of mutual
exchangeable value between all commodities producible at
will. This will be seen from a glance at the following table,
showing the buying power of silver and gold respectively
during the last 20 years (embracing the period of the
demonetisation of silver) and at the present time in terms
of wheat :—
260 4 Mr. FARADAY 0x
Table showing weights of silver and gold respectively which would
exchange for one guarter of wheat in the undermentioned
years, calculated according to the average prices in the London
market in each year, gold being taken at the Bank of England
price of £3. 175. 9a. throughout,
Average Gazette average fs Tore te x of ait to
sen ee | ‘gold price of | "Ctr of wheat. | atn of wheat
wes
1871 602 57/- 11°3058 02. 0°7 3431 0z.
1872 607% 57/- 11°3409 0°7331
1873 59¢ 59/- 11°9494 0°75 88
1874 58355 56/- Il°5241 0°7202
1875 565 45/2 9°5297 0°5809
1876 523 46/2 10°5024 0°5938
1877 5476 56/9 12°4242 0°7299
1878 52765 46/5 10°5968 0°5970
1879 51¢ 43/10 10°2634 0°5638
1880 524 44/4 10°1812 0°5702
1881 5143 45/4 10°5248 0°5831
1882 513 45/1 10°4794 0°5798
1883 5075 41/7 9°8689 05348
1884 503 35/8 8°4543 0°4587
1885 482 32/10 8°1028 0°4223
1886 455 gxy- 8°1983 0°3987
1887 443 32/6 8°7394 04180
1888 42% 31/10 8°9096 0°4094
1889 422 29/9 8°3631 0'°3826
1890 Al1& 31/9 7°9895 0°4083
1891 445 34/5 9°2549 0°4426
(March 31)
I have taken wheat as the standard, in accordance with
Adam Smith’s opinion that corn rents would be more
steady from century to century than money rents, and
because wheat, being a primary necessary of life, producible
at will, is perhaps more than any other commodity subject
to the law of supply and demand, the acreage placed under
wheat varying according as it is a more or less profitable
crop. From year to year, of course, the exchange value of
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 261
wheat has varied according as the crops have been good or
bad; but it will be seen from the table, that, compared
with gold, the value of silver in wheat has been remarkably
steady. Both metals have appreciated, a fact which may
seem rather startling to those who talk of silver as a de-
preciated and rejected metal. But, whereas the appreciation
of silver, if we take last year’s silver price of wheat and
compare it with the first year in the table, has been only
about 29 per cent., the appreciation of gold has been
upwards of 44 per cent. Last year was, however, an
exceptional year, silver having been enhanced temporarily,.
by the American speculative operations, without any
corresponding possible influence on general prices resulting
from an addition to the quantity of money consequent on
the monetisation of the silver purchased under the new
Silver Act, which could, of course, only affect the prices
of commodities gradually and after a certain lapse of time,
as the silver or the representative Treasury notes got into
circulation. If wetake present prices as more representative,
we find that silver shows an appreciation of 18 per cent only,
against an appreciation of 40 per cent in gold. But if we
compare this year with 1875, which introduces us to a
period when the changes in the cost of transport due
to the opening of the Suez Canal, the extension of railways.
in India and the United States, and the vast improvements
in marine engineering have combined to cheapen commo-
dities generally, we find still more remarkable steadiness.
Silver has still appreciated, and that is explainable, as
the improvements in transport to which I have referred
must be expected to tell more in the case of bulky commo-
dities, like wheat, than in the case of rare and precious
metals ; in other words, some fall of prices under any.
suitable metallic standard would naturally follow such
improvements. But, comparing the price of silver to-day.
with 1875, we find an appreciation in terms of wheat of:
262 MR. FARADAY o7
less than 3 per cent., against an appreciation of nearly 24 per
cent., in gold.
Nowif gold has appreciated in consequence of its artificial
monopoly privilege as a legal tender, it has also appreciated
because it has more the character of a natural monopoly
than silver, its production being proportionately more pre-
‘carious. This will be apparent from the following table,
showing the world’s production of the two precious metals
during each of the last twenty years :—
Production of silver and gold throughout the world,
Year. Silver. Gold,
Oz. Oz.
1871 ) Av.
1872 per 63,267,000 5,264,000
1873 ) ann,
1874 5 51300,000 4,879,000
1875 62,262,000 53242,000
1876 67,753,000 535 75,000
1877 62,648,000 6,129,000
1878 - 73476,000 6,397,000
1879 74,250,000 5,000,000
1880 74,791,000 59725,000
1881 78,890,0Cc0 53537,000
1882 88,470,000 5»483,000
1883 89,177,000 5,129,000
1884 81,597,000 5,467,000
1885 91,652,000 5,027,000
1886 93,276,000 5,098,000
1887 96,189,000 5,061,000
1888 110,086,000 5:910,000
1889 126,000,009 6,388,000
1890 I 30,650,000 6,675,000
From this table we see that, while the annual production of
silver has steadily increased year by year, and is now about
double what it was twenty years ago, the out-put of gold has
tended to remain stationary, and although some expansion
has occurred during the last three years, in consequence of
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 263
the opening up of the South African gold fields, the total
for last year is only 27 per cent more than in 1871, while
the increase in the out-put of silver is upwards of 100 per
cent, The fact, that though the out-put of silver is now
double what it was even in 1875, the metal shows an
appreciation of 3 per cent in value, while, with an increase
of about 27% per cent in the out-put of gold against the same
year, its buying power has risen 24 per cent, isa justification
of Ricardo’s prediction of the relative steadiness of silver.
On the other hand, the fact that silverhas appreciated in terms
of commodities notwithstanding the great increase in the
out-put, is a sufficient answer to the “ wheel-barrow ” argu-
ment that its re-monetisation would imply a vast rise of
prices, a supposition which was effectively met in the follow-
ing passage by Ricardo eighty years ago: “ Coffee, sugar, and
yndigo are commodities for which, although there would be
an increased use if they were to sink much in value, still, as
they are not applicable to a great variety of new purposes,
the demand would necessarily be limited ; not so with gold
and silver. These metals exist in a degree of scarcity, and
are applicable to a great variety of mew uses; the fall in
their price in consequence of augmented quantity would
always be checked, not only by an increased demand for
those purposes to which they had before been applied, but
to the want of them for entirely new employments.”
The facts also afford a sufficient answer to Jevons’s con-
tention that the monetisation of silver in a fixed ratio to gold
would result in our getting to silver money, gold disappearing
from circulation, and that we should thus retrograde from a
more convenient to a less convenient form of currency. If
this were true, the answer is, that the tendency is to sub-
stitute for metal the most convenient form of currency, paper
notes or certificates representing the metal. It is to this
method that economists look forward, and it is in progress in
America, and in the development of our own cheque system,
264. Mk. FARADAY ox
Its latest expression is Mr. Goschen’s proposal to issue one-
pound and ten shilling notes. In the passage already
quoted, Ricardo foresaw this, and says, “I think with you that,.
on the whole, silver would be a better standard than gold,
particularly if paper only were used. All objections against
its greater bulk would be removed” (Letters to Malthus).
But it is inconceivable that gold could disappear from
circulation ; its major use is as money; and the relatively
small consumption for the arts, which falls considerably
short of an annual production of only 421,000,000, could
as little expand so as to absorb the £700,000,000 used as
currency, as the consumption of iron for nails could deprive
the market of the supplies of that metal required for
railway and engineering purposes, and lead to the sale of the
railway lines themselves to the manufacturers of tacks. The
annual out-put of gold from paying mines would not be
checked by a decline in its exchange value as money due
to the remonetisation of silver beyond any decline which—
for the reasons given by Ricardo—is ‘at all likely to be
seen. And even if its production were likely to be checked
by a special increase in the cost of production due to in-
creasing rarity, it is contrary to all sound economic theory
to encourage its production by the taxation of the
producers of all other commodities, which is what the
continuance of its monopoly value as money implies. The
influence of an international monetary law declaring both
metals legal tender in a fixed ratio would therefore be
simply to control the artificial enhancement of the value of
gold due to the exclusive currency power conferred on it
legislatively. In claiming for credit money this utility, —
Sir Thomas Farrer practically admits the danger of
exclusive dependence on gold, and sees a remedy in what
I have described as a kind of temporary poly-metallism.
I have shown that such a system not only fails to remedy
the admitted evils, but, under given circumstances, tends to
Credit Money and the Precious Metals. 265
increase them. I advocate the permanent international
monetisation of the two precious metals as a remedy based
on the same principle, but free from the defects,and automatic
initsaction. Such an arrangement would not interfere with
the function of credit money ; on the contrary, by steadying
prices, it would increase the steadiness of credit. It would
in no sense interfere with the movement of the gold zoz
except to the extent of regulating it; a free path would be
allowed to it, but it would be, so to speak, a mean free path ;
instead of being liable, as at present, to fly off into space,
it would swing in a certain steady relation, on. the average,
to commodity zous in general.
I feel that I, perhaps, owe an apology to the Society for
bringing beforeit these researches in thedomain of economics.
It has been the glory of the Society, however, to lay the
foundation of that sanitation which is doing so much to
improve the health-conditions of the masses, and to produce
two great teachers, Dalton and Joule, whose discoveries
have vastly increased the efficiency of the labourer, by
increasing his use of the forces of nature. It will be not
less honourable to the Society, to encourage inquiries
tending to promote the equitable distribution of the wealth
hus produced.
266 Mr. WM. THOMSON AND Mr. F, LEWIS ox
On the action of different Metals, Metallic Salts, Acids,
and Oxidising Agents on India-rubber. By William
Thomson, F.R.S.Ed., etc., and Frederick Lewis.
(Received April 20th, 1891.)
A few years ago one of us studied the influence of
different oily and greasy matters on india-rubber.. (Journal
of the Soc. of Chemical Industry, 29th December, 1885),
and at the last meeting of the British Association in Leeds
we called attention to the distinctive effect which both
metallic copper and all the salts of copper exercised on
india-rubber. In the present paper we have carried these
experiments further, with a view of obtaining more accurate
information as to the effect of copper and its salts, and also
that of other metals and their salts, and other agents, on
india-rubber, |
- The method we adopted was to take a fine sheet of
india-rubber spread on paper and vulcanized by the cold
process with a mixture of chloride of sulphur dissolved in
bisulphide of carbon. By this arrangement it was easy to.
tell the effect of different substances on the rubber; on
breaking the paper between the fingers the fine sheet of
caoutchouc being left free so that it could be stretched, and
a fair idea obtained as to whether its elastic properties had
been damaged.
Action of Metals on Rubber.
The first series of experiments was made with different
metals reduced, by means of a file, to a fine. statewon
EE
The Action of Metals, &c., on India-rubber, 267
division, the file employed being first thoroughly cleansed,
and then washed with ether, to remove any oily or greasy
matters from it. Small pieces of 3 inches square were
cut from a large piece of the above-mentioned fine sheet
pure Para rubber, and thin layers of the filings of the
different metals were spread over about 1% inches square
-of the centre. These were then placed together in an
incubator, kept constantly at a temperature of 140° Fah.
by means of a thermostat, night and day, on glass
shelves, and every day the positions of the pieces so treated
~ were altered, so that those in the middle were placed nearer
the sides, which we thought might possibly communicate
more heat than might be received in the middle. After
ten days the rubber on each square was tested in the manner
above indicated. This series of experiments was repeated,
and the following results were obtained :-—
One of the metals had a destructive effect on rubber
far beyond any of the others, and that was copper. As
compared with copper the following metals had a com-
paratively slight effect, although they exercised an injurious
influence. They are given in the order cf the injurious
influence they exercised :—
- 1, Platinum. ag 3. Aluminium.
2. Palladium. : 4. Lead.
The following metals were tried, and found to have no
effect. whatever :—
Magnesium. Tim.
Zinc. Arsenic.
Cadmium. Antimony.
Cobalt. Bismuth.
Nickel. Silver.
Iron. Gold.
Chromium.
~268 . Mr. WM. THOMSON AND Mr. F. LEWIS ox
Action of Metallic Salts on Rubber.
Saturated solutions of a number of metallic salts were
made and painted over part of each small sheet of
rubber (equivalent to about 1% inches square), allowed
to dry, and put into the incubator as above described.
Along with each series several untreated small sheets of
the same rubber were exposed for comparison, because, after
some weeks, the pure rubber will itself become oxidised and
_lose its elasticity. Some insoluble or difficultly soluble coms.
pounds were also employed. These were mixed into thin
pastes with water and painted on to the rubber sheets. The
following substances entirely destroyed the rubber :—
Copper Sulphate. Silver Nitrate.
F Chloride. Strontium Chlorate.
the Nitrate. Vanadium Chloride.
is Ferrocyanide. Red Oxide of Manganese..
» sOxide, Black - ., i
» sulphide. Bismuth Chloride.
Arsenic Iodide.
The following substances considerably damaged the
elasticity of the rubber but did not entirely destroy it :—
Ferrous Nitrate. Uranium Nitrate.
Sodium Nitrite. Ammonium Vanadate.
The following substances only slzghtly damaged the
elasticity of the rubber :—
Lead Chromate. Tin Peroxide,
Ferrous Sulphate. », Perchloride.
Zinc Acetate. Chromic Acid.
», Chloride. Lead Borate.
The following substances were found to have no action
whatever on india-rubber :—
—
The Action. of Metals, &c., on India-rubber, 269
Ammonium Sulphate.
a Chloride.
n Carbonate.
Potassium Chromate.
es Bichromate.
‘ Cyanide.
ss Acetate.
= Carbonate.
‘ Chlorate.
Se Todide..:
‘is Nitrate.
- Sulphate.
Sodium Sulphate.
» | sulphite:
» Chloride.
.35_ Carbonate.
Lithium Carbonate.
wo Chiloride.
4 malicylate:
Rubidium Chloride,
Barium Nitrate.
i.) Chilonde.
Magnesia.
Magnesium Sulphate.
ae Chloride.
Calcium Carbonate,
a Chloride.
Strontium Chloride.
- Acetate.
Aluminium Sulphate.
Aluminium Chlorate,
Zinc Chromate.
» Nitrate.
» Oxide.
», sulphate.
Ferric Chloride.
54. eRCerate:
Manganese Chloride.
Cobalt Chloride.
Nickel Chloride.
Nitrate.
Thallium Chloride.
Mercury Bichloride.
J) hedide:
Arsenious Acid.
Arsenic Acid.
Bismuth Nitrate.
- Oxide.
’ Cadmium Bromide.
ue Morade,
yi Iodide.
a Nitrate.
| SULDRAte. |.
Lead Chloride.
Oxalate:
Tin Protochloride.
», Protoxide.
Palladium Chloride.
Gold Chloride.
Effects of Minute quantities of Copper Salts on
India-rubber.
_ We next directed our attention to the influence of minute
quantities of the salts of copper on india-rubber. We took.
270 #Mr. WM. THOMSON AND Mr. F. LEwIs oz
small square sheets of the fine sheet rubber, adhering to paper,
and painted one with a solution containing IO per cent of
sulphate of copper. On weighing the amount applied to
the rubber it was found to be equivalent to 3°34 grains of
crystallised sulphate of copper per square foot. This solution
was then diluted with its own bulk of distilled water and a
second sheet painted with the diluted solution. This second
solution was again diluted with its own bulk of water, and
a third sheet painted with it, and so on. There were thus
prepared 6 pieces, containing the following quantities of
copper salt per square foot of thin sheet rubber :—
Grains of Sulphate Equal to grains
of Copper - of Coppcr Oxide
(CuSO,4,5H,0). (CuQ).
SESE (iB). nt dundee se uene ot. oboauts 3°840 1°218
Mad seuciuc sivwas ce eeeenees 1°920 0609
WO) eae can os sce eenn leds (OOOO 0°305
CED retest weeds anveancs 0480 o*"1gs
(ONC) Cc a nee ne EE PE 0'240 0°076
CU reece Al aaeashiae Boaes o°120 0°038
COS hess seen tenons Bos without copper.
All these pieces were placed in the incubator at 140°
Fah. for g days, when it was found that the sample (/)
which contained the smallest quantity of copper, had
entirely lost its elasticity and become quite rotten, whilst
the piece (g), which contained no copper, was perfectly
sound ; on examining the others they were all found to
. have entirely lost their elasticity, and to be hardened exactly
in proportion to the quantity of copper salt placed upon
their surfaces (a) being the hardest. It is, therefore, evident
that an extremely small quantity of a copper salt has a
highly injurious influence on rubber with which it comes into
The Action of Metals, &c. on India-rubber. 271
intimate contact. In speaking on this subject to Mr.
Thomas Rowley, of Manchester, he informed one of us that
when he was an india-rubber manufacturer he had proofed
large quantities of cloth with rubber, and had a book in
which he kept samples of all he produced, many of which
were now 15 years old. It struck us that it would be
interesting to find whether any of the cloths which had been
so proofed, and which had remained good for so long, con-
tained copper, and Mr. Rowley very kindly placed his
pattern books at our disposal. These patterns were
arranged in numbers, describing the nature of the cloth and
kind of proof, etc.,and dates. We selected 7 samples, all of
which, except one, had been steam vulcanized (z.), sulphur
had been mixed with the rubber composition before proof-
ing, and the combination between the two brought about
by heating with steam afterwards. These patterns were
perfectly sound, although about 16 years old.
We also selected one pattern of a brown cloth, in which
the rubber proofing was decomposed and hardened, and
which broke on the cloth being folded or bent. The follow-
ing is the list of the samples taken :
Private sae Results \ Condition in
Numbers. Date. Description. is Gets. J Sr es
No. 110 | 19 Nov., 1874 | Black al copper, d
O. 9 NOV., 74 ack alpaca. eae | goo
99 222 | 18 Jany., 1875 | Black alpaca. is »
gat EAE e2 a: ss Black Paramatta. - a3
ae! AY 2 Apmis: \ 55 Blue black Paramatta. i ey
» 7 May, hag Black fine sheeting “ m
(cold vulcanized).
ga. O82); 28: ANS ys g, Brown fine sheeting. ‘" Pe
i ESO Y 24 Sep... 4, Drab stout twill 7 =
(black proofing).
s 635 |'25 June, 4; Brown cambric trace | quite de-
(black proofing). composed
and hard.
All these samples were steam-vulcanized, except the
272, Mr. WM. THOMSON AND MR. F. LEWIS oz
one marked 7th May, 1875, which was_ cold-vulcanized
with chloride of sulphur dissolved in bisulphide of carbon.
We carefully tested the whole of these for copper, and
found that all those which were quite sound were perfectly
free from it, whilst the sample which had become hard con-
tained a trace of that metal. It appeared, therefore, that
this trace was sufficient to bring about the complete:
destruction of the rubber after a number of years.
It may be well to give, as follow, the results of a series
of experiments and analyses of some cloths, the rubber
proofing on which was found to be destroyed within a few
weeks or months after they were proofed. We pasted
together, end to end, 19 samples of cloth, taken pro-
miscuously, in one long line, and had the whole of them cut
along the line into five equal parts. Each line of samples.
was then covered with a continucus sheet of different india-
rubber mixtures, and one with pure Para rubber. Strips of
each series were cut along the whole line, and then were
looped and fixed so as to hang from stretched threads in
the incubator kept constantly at a temperature of 150° Fah.
They were examined from time to time, but, finally, after
25 days, they were removed, and their condition noted ; and,
simultaneously, the analyses of unproofed pieces of the same
cloths were made to find whether they contained copper,
and the quantity of copper was estimated in some of them ;
the quantities of oily or greasy matters present were also
estimated. The following table gives the results of the
observations. and analyses, and shows that the rubber
remained good in all the samples of cloth which were
free from copper, whilst it was more or less seriously
damaged in all the samples which contained copper, and,
still further, the damage sustained was, as nearly as could
be observed, in direct proportion to the quantity of copper.
present :-—
The Action of Metals, &c., on India-rubber. 273
Per Cent. Appearance of rubber or
rubber composition after
Description of being heated in the incu-
Cloth. Oily and Copper bator at 150° F. for 25
LrEasy Cu0 days, in each of the jive
matters. ; Series.
1. White and Black Star Check.} 0*260 absent | Good condition
present,
2. Dark Brown Ring Check .../ 0°384 peng res g quite: Hes
estimated
2. Piphkt 4, on - .. | 0°499 ditto | Ditto .
* Dark) ,, ‘Check aw thet Omrze,- [> Umee cone but not quite
ar
5. oy »» Broken Check ...| 0°516 | present | Hard and quite des-
troyed
6. Gold Check ... ...| 07548 | absent | Good
7. Blue Pin Head Check . ...| 0°648 | present | Hard and quite des-
troyed
S: Raby Mar Eine...) «. ...) GF30r absent | Good
9. Drab Fine Sheeting... 0°264 aa i.
10. Black and White Small Check
Sheeting... 0°206 ey, ss
11. Black and White Large C Check
Sheeting ... . : 0°445 ve ay
12-, Slate Shiceting).. ... 1... i:.|, O1SI os a
13. Blue Check Sheeting tes) nan|) OZSS trace | Damaged, but not quite
hard
14. Crimson Sheeting ... ... ...| 0°471 |nottested} Good
15. Black Fine Twill ... ... ...| 1°500 | 0°332 | Very much damaged,
rubber quite hard
Won tise Broad? oho ly a) at 252“) present de e pe
fe Cs CCE a ses ses)! L852 O°150 a - os
a bs dic, eae ash) 2 OOS,. | Present i a; “s
19. Black Plain Muslin... _....}_ 2°360 | 0°0157 | Slightly damaged
The following pieces of cloth were analysed by one of
‘us, because the rubber proofing had perished within a few
weeks or months after being applied to them. Besides
being analysed, a piece of each was taken, and one-third of
it cut off and put aside. The oily and greasy matters
were then removed from the other two-thirds by washing
with ether: the part so washed was next divided into two
equal parts, one put aside and the other boiled with 1%
hydrochloric acid solution and washed till all the copper
was removed and dried. These three pieces were then
joined together, end to end, in a line, and attached to
another black cloth similarly divided into three parts, one
274 Mr. WM. THOMSON AND Mr. F. LEwIs oz
being left in its original condition, one having all the oily
and greasy matters removed, and the third having both
oily and greasy matters and copper removed ; these were
again joined in a line to a piece of grey cloth in its original
condition, and to a piece of the same from which the
oily and greasy matters were removed. It was, of course,
unnecessary to use a third piece of this cloth, as it was.
free from any trace of copper. The eight pieces thus.
arranged in one line were divided along the line into two
parts ; one was covered with a continuous sheet of pure
Para india-rubber, the other piece was covered with a
rubber composition. Both were vulcanized by the cold
process, and afterwards arranged in loops, and hung in
an incubator at 140° Fah. for eight days. After that
time the rubber on both pieces of grey cloth and the two:
pieces of black cloth, from which both grease and copper
had been removed (in both series), was found to be
perfectly sound, whilst the rubber on the two black cloths
in their original condition, and on the two from which the-
oily and greasy matters had been removed, but in which
the copper remained, were completely destroyed, the effect
of the oil and grease in contact with the copper. (Some
of the copper contained in cloth is usually found in
solution in the oily or greasy matters also present). The
effect is to reduce the rubber to the condition of a soft
sticky substance, resembling grease in consistency, and to:
this condition the proofing is soon brought when the oily
matter present in copper mordanted cloths exists in con..
siderable quantity. The mixture thus produced is often
absorbed into the fibre of the cloth, leaving it in a some-
what limp and sticky condition; when, however, the oily
and greasy matters are removed, the rubber simply
becomes hard. It is curious, therefore, to find that the
presence of copper, even when oily and greasy matters are
absent, is almost as destructive to the rubber, on rubber
The Action. of Metals, &c., on India-rubber. 275
proofed cloth, as when they are also present. The following
table gives the proportions of oily and greasy matters
present in the two samples of dyed cloth above-mentioned,
and also the percentages of copper contained in them,
and also the proportion of copper contained in two cloths,
marked “E” and “C,” which had been proofed, and become
hard within a few weeks or months :—
Per cent.
Oily and Copper Oxide.
Greasy Matter. (CuO).
Balak MONG (Py ns. bb) ae Sones dices et 3°38 0°29
*Decomposed Proofed Cloth,
said to be same as above é +
after proofing (“Ti")}....10252:
ES ele 6 Test NE) ot disctecepintake 2a 3°14 1°30
*Decomposed Proofed Cloth,
O°12
said to be same as above
diter Prooine (TC). cas sas
0°33
Within the last few years a bright blueish black has been
produced by means of copper salt with logwood, or more
commonly by dyeing, first with logwood, using iron salts as
a mordant, and finishing the dyeing with the use of a
copper salt as a mordant, and it will be found that if cloth
so dyed be proofed, the rubber will rapidly perish. It is
remarkable that cloths proofed with a mixture of india-
rubber containing a large quantity of “india-rubber sub-
stitute” (vulcanized oil) are not so easily affected by copper
salts as those proofed with pure india-rubber. A curious
piece of evidence as to the action of copper on rubber came
into the hands of one of us, after proofing the above-
mentioned pieces which had been divided into 3 parts as
above described and obtaining the results just given. A
chemist placed in our hands two pieces of the same black
* These pieces were prepared by the same manufacturer, and said by the
proofer to be from the same lots respectively as the unproofed cloths marked
ak and 2M?
276 Mr. WM. THOMSON AND Mk. F. LEWIs on
dyed cloth, which, he said, were produced by the same manu-
facturer, and proofed by two different proofers. He said he
had heated part of them to 150° Fah. for a week, and they
had not become injured in any way. Both pieces were
analysed and found to contain—
Percentage of
Copper Oxide.
-
India rubber water-proofed cloth ............... (2) o'1g90
3 Re nal i Ro ene gear oe (2) o*r08
— ++ cloth before proofing........0:-.0-c+0cseeeee (c) “378
The oily and greasy matter in cloth before
POON? AIMOUNTEG tOves-2. -s2 saws -ts «st wee ae 4°200 7%
Wishing rapidly to arrive at a conclusion as to the
influence of the copper oxide on the rubber, we heated
pieces of both at the temperature of boiling water for 12
hours along with two other pieces which were 2 and 5
years old respectively, and at the end of that time the
rubber on the cloth containing copper was in the one
damaged and in the other destroyed, whilst that on the
two free from copper was quite sound.
We might give still another instance in which some
black, brown and white check proofed cloth, the rubber on
which had become oxidised and hard, was analysed by one
of us and found to contain 0°24 per cent of copper oxide:
he afterwards obtained some unproofed cloth of the same
kind, which he divided into three parts, one he left in its
original condition, from one he extracted oily and greasy
matters, and from the third he removed the copper as well
as the oily and greasy matters; the three were joined
together and covered with a continuous sheet of pure Para
india-rubber by one proofer, and a second portion of these
three pieces, joined end to end, was covered with a continuous
sheet of ordinary rubber composition, containing lampblack,
zinc oxide, and other mineral compounds, by another
proofer. On heating these for 14 days in the incubator at
The Action of Metals, &c., on India-rubber. 277
a temperature of 150° Fah. the pure rubber and the rubber
composition on the cloth from which the oily and greasy
matters and copper were removed remained quite sound,
whilst the proofed cloth, in its original condition, and in
that from which the oily and greasy matters had been
removed (leaving the copper), both the rubber and rubber
composition had become quite hard.
The following gives the proportion of oily and greasy
matters, and of copper contained in the unproofed cloth :—
Per cent.
Oily and Copper Oxide
Greasy Matters. (CuO).
Unproofed black, brown, sed Te 0°68
white check cloth ;
0'076
We think no stronger proof is necessary to shew the
enormous influence which a very small quantity of copper
contained in cloth has upon india-rubber or rubber com-
position with which it may be covered or proofed.
We were under the impression that the action of copper
on rubber had never been noticed by practical men
employing rubber which requires sometimes to come into
contact with copper. Speaking, however, to an electrical
engineer and copper wire manufacturer who covers his
wires with india-rubber, he informed one of us that the
injurious action of copper on rubber was well recognised in
his trade, and that to prevent this injurious action it was
necessary to have the copper wire tinned, which was always
done. We mentioned the matter to other electrical
engineers, and found that all were quite cognisant of the
injurious effects of copper wire on india-rubber. We found
that copper filings also exert a highly injurious influence on
thin sheets of gutta percha when placed together in a warm
place.
In looking at the effects of various chemical substances
on india-rubber, it will be observed that the oxides of
278 .MrR. WM. THOMSON AND Mr. F, LEWIS ou
manganese have also a destructive effect on rubber, although
not to such an extent as the copper salts; still it is im-
portant to india-rubber water-proof manufacturers, who
are anxious to remove all possible causes of ultimate
damage to their rubber or rubber composition covered
cloths, to observe that the lamp black, ivory black, or other
similar black, is free from the oxides of manganese, for
one of us has found that in samples of such black compounds
the heavy qualities sometimes contain a considerable
proportion of these compounds.
The very curious nature of india-rubber is further
shown by studying the tables of the actions of different
chemical compounds on it. Some chemists have condemned
cloths containing oxides of chromium for rubber proofing
purposes, and they would regard the presence of evena
trace of chromate or bichromate of potash, as fatal, and
the presence of free chromic acid in cloth would be
regarded by them as an agent likely almost immediately
to oxidise and destroy the rubber. Our experiments have
shown that these bodies have little or no injurious effect
on rubber, even when employed in large quantities and in
concentrated solutions. It, therefore, leaves the logwood
chrome blacks as available for use in the dyeing of cloths
intended for rubber proofing. We observed a remarkable
property of the iodide of arsenic, which we found might be
used as a reagent to determine whether rubber sheet had
been cold or steam-vulcanised. When a solution of this
substance is put upon india-rubber, vulcanised by the cold
process, which consists in the application to the rubber of
a mixture of chloride of sulphur and bisulphide of carbon,
the chlorine from the chloride of sulphur, which remains
in combination with the rubber, liberates the iodine from
the iodide of arsenic solution, producing a dark stain, whilst
no such effect is produced by unvulcanized india-rubber, or
by rubber which has been steam vulcanized.
The Action of Metals, &c., on India-rubber. 279
Action of Acids on India-rubber,
We have heard it asserted, from time to time, that a
trace of sulphuric acid contained in india-rubber would soon
determine its decay and decomposition. With a view to
testing this point we took different acids, which were all ©
brought to the same strength, viz., that 100 parts of the
different acid solutions neutralized 100 parts of a IO per
cent solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate. These acids
were placed in stoppered bottles, two bottles being half-filled
with each acid solution, into each of which was immersed a
thin sheet of rubber on paper as above described, about 2%
inches square ; one of each was placed in the incubator and
kept at 140° Fah. for a month, and the other kept during
that time in the cold, the rubber in each being tested from
time to time to ascertain whether the acids had any effect
upon the sheets. The following acids were employed :—
Hydrochloric Acid.
Sulphuric
Nitric
Chromic
Citric
‘Tartaric
3)
In the first four, the paper in the heated samples to
which the fine sheet rubber was adhering was soon reduced
to a pulp, leaving the sheet of rubber intact. After a few
hours it was evident that the rubber in the nitric acid placed in
the incubator had been seriously damaged, and after a few
days it was so acted upon that its elasticity was destroyed,
and after a month the whole of the rubber was reduced to a
pulp, whilst at the end of the month the sheets of rubber in all
the other acids remained as strong and elastic as they were
on being first immersed, The sulphuric acid solution
which had been heated in the incubator had darkened the
colour of the rubber, but so far as we could judge by
280 Mr. WM. THOMSON AND MR, F. LEwIs oz
stretching, it seemed to be stronger and more elastic than
the original rubber. With a view to finding the effect of a
minute quantity of sulphuric acid on india-rubber, we
soaked a piece of thin sheet rubber in solutions containing
yoth, 1, 2, and 5 per cent of sulphuric acid respectively, until
the solution had thoroughly penetrated the sheet, which then
appeared white. This was allowed to dry, and heated for
some days to a temperature of 140° Fah., but the small
quantity of acid exerted no injurious effect on the rubber.
When, however, the rubber was taken from the strongest
sulphuric acid solution containing 10 per cent of acid, dried
and heated to 212° Fah. in a similar manner, it was soon
destroyed. The sheets left in the cold for a month were
likewise all sound except that placed in nitric acid, which
was rendered quite friable, the elasticity having entirely gone.
Effects of Over Mastication on the life of India-rubber.
It has been so often asserted by india-rubber manufac-
turers that over mastication seriously damages india-
rubber and leads to its rapid decay afterwards, that it seems
extremely heterodox to say anything tothe contrary. Still
the results which we have obtained lead us to this opinion.
In preparing rubber for spreading on cloth in the manufac-
ture of water-proof fabrics, it is first passed between heavy
rollers with a stream of water pouring over it, to remove
stones or dirt which might be associated with it; it is then
dried thoroughly and masticated between large heavy smooth
rollers for a few minutes, these being gradually screwed ~
closer and closer together during the operation. This
softens the rubber, and enables it afterwards to be brought
into a uniform solution when mixed with the naphtha, and
the longer it is masticated the less naphtha is afterwards
required to bring it to the proper uniform consistency for
spreading. It is highly improbable that over-mastication
would ever be done in practice, because the workman has
ae — a
The Action of Metals, &c., on India-rubber. 281
to collect the rubber under the rollers and pass it repeatedly
through them till it attains the necessary degree of softness,
so that as it becomes over-masticated it becomes soft and
sticky, a point to which any experienced workman would
not bring it. About four minutes is required for proper
mastication, but one of us prepared some rubbers which were
masticated for 15 and 21% minutes respectively, and after
spreading these on cloth we had a piece of the same cloth
covered with properly masticated rubber (masticated during
4 minutes). All these were then placed in an incubator at
150° Fah. for a fortnight, but the sample of over-masticated
rubber did not shew any sign of decay after that time, and
to-day, six months after the experiment was made, the one
appears quite as good as the other. The over-masticated
rubber, had, when first produced, a slightly greater “tacky”
feel than the properly masticated rubber, and this tackiness
appeared not to have become greater or less after the lapse
of six months.
Peroxide of Hydrogen.
The curious effect, or rather absence of effect, which
chromic acid had upon india-rubber led us to make an
experiment to find whether peroxide of hydrogen would
oxidise and destroy it. We placed sheets of rubber both in
alkaline and in acid solutions of that reagent for one month,
and found that after that time the elasticity and strength of
the sheets so treated remained unimpaired, a result which
appears quite as surprising as the chromic acid result.
Some years ago one of us found that ozone exercised a
most injurious influence on india-rubber, especially when it
was left in a stretched condition, and it might naturally be
expected that peroxide of hydrogen would have exercised
an equally injurious influence on it.
282 Mr. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
Notes on the Geological section exposed in the Railway
Cutting from Levenshulme to Fallowfield. By Wm.
Brockbank, F.G.S., F.L.S., and C. E. de Rance,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., of
H.M. Geological Survey.*
(Received December 16, 1890.)
PART. 1.
Lhe Upper Coal Measures.
The Levenshulme section exhibits the “upper measures
of the Lancashire Coal Field ”—a description first used by
Elias Hall, in the key to his Geological Map of Lancashire
and Cheshire, where he adopts the term “Manchester Coal
Field” for these Upper Coal Measures. Mr. Binney again
used it in his paper on the Lancashire and Cheshire Coal
Fields, read in 1839 (Zvans. Manchr. Geol. Socy. Vol. 1., p. 69).
He there states that the limestones of Ardwick and Whiston
are the highest portion known, and therefore may be con-
sidered the upper boundary of the field. These were
considered to be of fresh-water origin. He also clearly
pointed out in his sketch of the Geology of Manchester,
that the “Lower New Red Sandstone” (Permian) is
unconformable to the coal measures beneath.
The Collyhurst section was that which Mr. Binney had
before him, and it long remained the only illustration of the
junction of Upper Coal Measures with the Permians, and
was visited by many geological enquirers accordingly. It
was, however, a very unsatisfactory illustration, as the actual
contact was never well shewn, and the passage beds were
much covered up by drift clays. When the British Asso-
ciation visited Manchester in 1861 an excavation was made
at the junction of the Permian sandstone with the Coal
* Communicated with the permission of the Director General.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 283
Measures at Collyhurst, and a report upon this by Mr. Binney
was published in the British Association reports, 1862.
This excavation was visited by many of the leading
geologists of that day, as it opened out a section not
otherwise to be seen in England, and helped to clear up a
very interesting problem in geology, which was afterwards
fully solved by Sir Roderick Murchison. Previously to the
excavation of this deep cutting, made, purposely, at Tinker’s
Brow, Collyhurst, the absolute point of contact had not been
seen. The Permian strata were found to be dipping at an
angle of 18°, and the Coal Measures at an angle of 24°.
What was thus indistinctly seen at Collyhurst in 1861,
has been most fully displayed in the railway cutting at
Levenshulme, and has afforded an opportunity which may
mMever occur again of seeing a complete section of Coal
Measures underlying the Permians. The latter consists at
Levenshulme of the “Lower Red Sandstone,” of Tinker’s
Brow, Collyhurst, as it was called in Mr. Binney’s time.
The beds in contact with it belong to a somewhat
higher portion of the Upper Coal Measures, and are,
therefore, of great interest, being possibly the highest Coal
Measures known in England. Leaving the description of
the junction with the Collyhurst Sandstone of the Permians
for our next paper, we will proceed at once with the purple
beds which underlie them, and which, though undoubtedly
of Upper Coal Measures age, are to some extent of a
transitional character. »
The purple beds which immediately underlie the Permian
Strata near Slade Lane, and which are the uppermost of the
Upper Coal Measures, remind one of us of the dveccia or
brockram, which always forms the lowest member of the
Permians in the North of England. Here, however, the
Permians commence otherwise, but the uppermost
member of the Carboniferous strata has the brecciated
character strongly marked. It has a deep purple colour,
284. Mr. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE ox
and is very hard when freshly quarried, but breaks up into
angular fragments, very readily, when exposed to weather,.
and afterwards becomes harder and harder under exposure
to the atmosphere. It appears to have been formed by the
destruction of the adjacent Upper Coal Measures, which
consisted of alternating marls, hematite iron, clays, and
limestones. These, all triturated and mixed together,
would form a very strong natural cement, and this would
exactly describe these purple beds. It is, possibly, open to:
question, in the opinion of one of us, whether these
“brecciated marls” may not really belong to the Permians,
if they are not a transition zone, representing the “ brock-
ram,’ “breccia,” or “crab rock” of the North of England
and South of Scotland.
The first limestones are tilted a little by slight step faults
which occur at Slade Lane, the strata there being also bent
over in a curve to the southwards, but the general parallelism
of the beds is very marked, and the whole section, when
viewed from end to end, shows a very parallel set of strata,
without a break, and with only very slight faults to disturb.
its perfect regularity. These brecciated marls abound in
nodules, termed by Warwickshire workmen “ fish-eyes,”
[See H. T. Marten, M.I.C.E., F.G.S.,in Underground Water
Report, drawn up by C. E. de Rance—Aritish Association
Report, 1882] from their likeness to the eye of a fish, but
for no other reason. They form round green spots in the
purple beds, and with dark centres; varying in diameter
from %-inch upto 1%-inches. These “fish-eyes ” are every-
where present in the strata of the whole section, and are
believed to be coprolites, as the central nucleus has been
tested by Mr. Fowler, of Owens College, and found to
yield carbon and phosphoric acid. The microscopic
examination of these spots reveals their coprolitic character.
The bedding is extremely irregular, and is marked by
green partings of sandy marl. The mass is also broken up
The Levenshulme Limestones. 285
by joints and cross-fractures into roughly cubical blocks,
and these joints are also filled with green sand. The
inclination ‘of the beds is about 36° west, 20° south, and the
bedding assumed a very strong curve southwards across
the railway excavation, probably on account of the fault
which is seen near Slade Lane and which has tilted the lime-
stones atthat point. There are many pockets of green sands in
these beds. These and the green partings frequently contain
geodes of crystals of calcareous spar. A diligent search was
made for fossils, both in the beds,and from the material loaded
into trucks as the excavations proceeded, but none were
found It is probable that the conditions under which these
brecciated beds were formed were unfavourable to shell
life, and that no fossils except the coprolites are likely to be
found in them. These, however, furnish abundant evidence
of animal life, possibly amphibian. These coprolites were
very abundant throughout the marl. The brecciated marls
are altogether 72 feet in vertical thickness, and they rest
upon the uppermost limestones, which are reached under
Slade Lane bridge. These limestones are very flaglike,
being quite evenly bedded, and varying in thickness from .
Iin. to 6in. The slab faces are always covered with
greenish laminated shale, which splits off in thin wafers on
exposure to the atmosphere, and yields beautiful bright
red fish scales and many small spines, always stained with
hematite. The jointings in the limestone are frequently
marked by beautiful dendritic and “fernlike” crystals,
probably manganese, which always commence at the
natural edge (jointing) of the slab. The cracks in the
limestones are frequently filled with orange-coloured calc-
spar, probably stained by hematite. It also sometimes
occurs in cavities, and in bright orange spots in limestone.
The same colouring matter has also probably given the
grey limestone its pinkish tinge of colour. The fractures
of this group of limestones—or marbles they might be
286 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
called—are conchoidal, and frequently the broken surfaces.
have a waved appearance, like rounded creases. The grain
is beautifully regular, and it takes a high polish. It is in
fact a marble of a beautiful pinkish grey colour. It is mottled
all over with greenish circular spots, some with dark centres.
These spots pervade every bed, but there are fewer in the
upper, whilst the lower marbles are so thickly mottled as to
be almost made up of mottlings. These green spots.
appear to be indications of the presence of organic remains.
Some are certainly coprolitic, and others are produced by
Entomostraca, Annelida, or other minute organisms, whose
shells make up the mass of the limestone. One of the
thicker beds of this first group contains large numbers of
grey nodules, which are clearly coprolitic, and which, under
the microscope, are seen to contain reddish specks, hematite-
stained, as in the case of the fish remains which abound in
the same rocks. In one remarkable instance a small tooth
is to be seen in the coprolite. The small annelid Spzvorbis
Carbonarius—formerly known as Microconchus Carbonaria—
is present in all these limestones, but more sparingly in the
upper beds. It becomes more and more abundant in the
lower beds, until in some instances the rock appears to be
absolutely made up of its remains.
This first group of limestones has a very different
appearance in every way, except colour, from those that
follow. It was evidently formed in.very quiet waters,.
where small fishes fed on the tiny annelids and crustaceans,
and where the currents were gentle and recurrent. The
beds are perfectly regular, and the limestones contain the
remains of the small fish, always in fragments—single scales,
and odd detached spines ; as if they had been entombed in
this fragmentary state. The green shales which coat the
limestone are similar, and contain the same fragmentary
remains of fish—hematite-stained, and always beautifully
preserved. Leata Leidyz var. Williamsonia was found in these
The Levenshulme Limestones. 287
thin shales. Annelids like the Sfzvorbzs,which here abounds,
are to be found on our sea coasts, feeding on seaweed, and
the Extomostraca are likewise existing now in sea water
and stagnant pools, where they furnish food for small fish
such as are found in these limestones. When polished this
first group of limestones takes a beautifully even surface of a
pinkish grey, upon which a few Spzvorbis may readily be seen
with the naked eye, but no distinct trace of other fossils.
No fossils were found on breaking up a large quantity of
the stone. When, however, a thin section is prepared for
the microscope it is at once seen that the solid rock abounds
in organic remains ; and it is clear that the tiny crustaceans
which built up the mass with their thin shells are not to be
seen by the naked eye. Extomostraca abound in these
limestones as well as the Spzvorbis; and there are many
spines visible which may be the antennz of some shrimp-
like crustaceans.
The beds of limestone vary in number at different
points ; the thin flag-like members part and re-unite in the
course of a few yards. The sections on the north and south
sides of the railway cutting were as follow :—
Summary of Group No. i.
NorrTH. SOUTH.
ft. in. ft. in.
Limestone ... 0 234 Limestone ... o 6 to 8in.
” eee O 434
Green Shale... o «1 Green Shale... 0 %
Limestone’... 0. 2 Limestone <<. 0, 2%
Shale ... o YY Stile: “eae ooo" Se
Limestone’ ..2). o0%3 Limestone ... 9 4
(.Spzrorbis)
Green Shale... o 1 Shale say awe a 3G
Limestone ... 0 4 Limestone ... o 7
- Saat SO Green Shale.. o 2
Green Shale... o 2
Red Rubbly Red Rubbly
Rock Foes 6.25
288 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
The thin seam of green marl, which underlies. the lowest
of this group of limestones, is very fossiliferous with
minute organisms. Sfzrvorbis shells abound in it, and
there are to be seen under the microscope minute and
very delicate bivalve shells, detached and often much
broken up. The marl is frequently cellular, but the white
partings are probably merely calcareous fillings of the
spaces round the sandy grains. ‘There are, however, small
sponges and Extomostraca; in fact, the minute fossils
here present are similar to those seen under the microscope
in sections of the limestones which overlie them. A large
quantity of this interesting green marl has been saved for
future examination, as it appears likely to yield the
organisms which are found in the substance of the
limestones.
Under the green marls come g inches of red rubbly
rock, deeply stained by hematite, and containing about Io
per cent of iron.
The next measures consist of variegated marls, purple
and green, from 5 to 7 feet thick, which are full of plant
remains. Coprolitic nodules (fish-eyes) are also abundant.
The plant stems vary from %in. to an inch in diameter, and
are always flattened. A large number have been examined,
but they are always filled in with a fine micaceous marl, and
no trace of structure can be made out, except the outward
bark and the form of the stems. . Leaf-like markings occur
in plenty, but no distinct leaf forms have been detected. Nut-
like objects occur, with the stems and leaves, in abundance,
but always filled in with a micaceous matter, without any
trace of shell. It has been suggested that these plant-
remains represent seaweeds, or water plants, and that the
nut-like ovals have been the air vessels. The general
appearances are those of seaweeds. A large quantity of
this clay with plant-remains has been reserved for future
examination.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 289
Following this plant bed comes a long series of variegated
shales, purple at first, and becoming redder towards the
base. These are again followed by variegated bright purple
and green marls, and again a mass of purple shales with
dark bands, becoming red towards the base, where bright
hematite red clays terminate the series. The total thick-
ness of marls and clays between the Ist and 2nd groups of
limestones is thus 28’ 9”, or say about 30 feet.
The occurrence of hematite iron in the Upper Coal
Measures is generally well marked over England, and it is
-exemplified in this section. At several points the beds are
very strongly marked by hematites. It was pointed out by
the late Sir R. I. Murchison that the hematite ores of
Furness had been produced at the close of the Carboni-
ferous epoch, and the deposits. which had then been made
in the fissured rocks of the coal measures and limestones had
been sealed in by the breccias of the Permians. It is the
same here in a lesser degree. We find all the strata tinged
with hematite, and several of the clays, which have been
analysed by Mr. Bone, of Owens College, yielded as much
as 10/ of iron. All the fossils are coated red with hematite
and bits of pure ore are found in many positions. The
section, therefore, furnishes this fresh evidence of the pre-
valence of hematite in the closing period of the carboni-
‘ferous epoch. |
The hematite band at this point was a very striking
feature in the section, and strongly impressed us with the
possibility of its marking the impending change of condi-
tions here which obtained in the North of England just
before the Permian conglomerates were formed.
2nd Group of Limestones.
The second group of limestones commences go feet east
-of Slade Lane Bridge,.and is a great contrast to the first
290 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
group. It commences with a very rough limestone, 4 inches.
thick. When polished it has a pinkish brown colour, mottled.
over with bright spots, which prove to be Szrorbis shells
cut through in every direction. The number of individuals,.
roughly counted, amount to 300 to the square inch, which
would give about 5,000 to the cubic inch.. The limestone:
is, in fact, almost made up of this tiny annelid. The second
limestone of this group is 10% to 14 inches thick, with a
very irregular surface, the hollows filled in with green shale.
It has a deep purple fracture, and shews nearly as great an
abundance of Spzvorbzs when polished. In addition, it is.
mottled with oval and circular greenish spots ; under the-
microscope these are shewn to be produced by Extomos-
traca—beautiful oval shell sections are everywhere present..
The third limestone of No. 2 group is 8% inches thick,,
and has the same appearance; when polished it has a.
beautiful dark marble lustre, much mottled with dark and
light oval patches. The dark mottlings have a granulated
substance, and are probably coprolitic. It is also dotted
over with an immense number of Spivordis shells. A
microscopic cutting taken from another block shews the
marble to be completely made up of small organisms and
beautiful oval shells of Ostracoda, cut through at varying
angles, some showing the overlapping of the bi-valve
shells. The delicate shells are so completely absorbed into-
the substance of the limestone that it is impossible to detect
their presence except by the green mottling which they
produce, and which is very noticeable. There are also.
present many minute filiform objects, probably Ser-.
pulites and other annelids—many tiny bones are also:
visible. The 4th limestone of No. 2 group is 1 foot
1 inch thick, and a thin parting of brown shale sepa-
rates it from the 5th limestone, which is 1 foot 5 inches.
thick. They are frequently conjoined, forming huge blocks,.
so they may be here taken together. They have the same-
The Levenshulme Limestones. 291
purple fracture, mottled all over with green oval spots, and
are thickly spotted with Sfzrordzs. They take a good
marble polish—and would be of great value for decorative
purposes if they could be quarried in large blocks. Un-
fortunately this is not the case—they have extremely
irregular surfaces, and altogether a roughly brecciated
appearance. Under the microscope they again reveal the
presence of Extomostraca in great abundance, which Prof.
Rupert Jones considers to be of the Carbonza group of the
Ostracoda. There are also many curved spine-like objects,
which may be annelida of the Dztrupa class. It will be
seen, therefore, that all the members of the second group
bear a strong family resemblance, and that they differ
altogether from the first group in their construction,
although the fossils are similar.
Summary of No. 2 Group.
i> jin.
Purple and green marls 9 72
1st Limestone rough a ts See te OR ©
Purple calcareous marls with green t oiits o 8
2nd Limestone purple fracture o 10% to 14
Very irregular surface, the hollows filled in with the green
shale above it.
Yellow parting . een ease a rey
3rd Limestone, aan acbes o 8%
Brown marl with Limonite aug
Green marl shale Co ie
4th Limestone, often dames in one a
block, but always showing the parting 1 1
Brown pantime Hot keg. Soe ee ee
ud ormestone’ i.) sae hia oo eee aes ES
The next measures are very irregular, and have not been
so carefully examined. They are as follow :—
292 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE ox
ft... my
Wellow nan. "ae see Asta ten: aeerevieseee 3
Purple shaley marl . Sant She (ea |
Limestone nodular nid inegular ‘beep
purple fracture: T+..,/~ 0 50
Sandy purple marl, in the bas oe it one
stone nodules, resting on the green
War ss. ote © 10
Green marl, nai Seon cee pebble
alt the dso Or 1% oes ices phe oe Cun a
Sot purple marls! !7ti. 7a. ° 10
Hard purple and variegated oe sti
plant stems and fish-eyes, probably
COpPHOLibES!/) wege) Nabe ahepe hreall] (Rew h, ieee AE ERO
(In this bed the plant remains were numerous, the pipe-
like stems passing through the beds, but no definite
structure, and no clearly defined leaves, were found.
They were not very carefully examined.)
Purple shales, with green partings ... ... 5 3
3rd Group of Limestones.
The thick marls and shales are followed by the 3rd
group of limestones. The Ist limestone is Sin. thick, and
after a thin marl parting a 2nd limestone appears, 5 to 7
inches thick. This has a deep purple fracture—another
Y% inch parting brings us to the 3rd limestone, 7in. thick.
These three limestones are similar in their characteristics.
When polished they have a beautiful marble surface of
pinkish grey colour, of the shade now called “ Esterhazy,”
spotted all over with Spzvorbis in great profusion, and also
mottled with yellow-green circular markings, varying from
iin. to tiny round dots, All these indicate the presence of
organic remains, of which there must be thousands in a cubic
inch. A thin cutting, under the microscope, reveals large
numbers of delicate shells of Extomostraca, and others with
more substance and of more oblate curves. They are in
perfect condition, the overlapping in the bivalves being
The Levenshulme Limestones. 293
clearly shewn. Many other small organisms are crowded
into the field of view.
These three limestones are succeeded by a 7in. band of
yellow marl, and again by 11 inches of purple marl, after
which we have a (4th) bastard limestone, 6in. thick, which
has not been carefully examined. This is followed by
purple marl, abounding with “fish-eyes,” and then a (5th)
bastard limestone, 8in. thick. A mass of variegated marls,
4ft. thick, follows, much mixed with hematite, the lowest
bed being of a deep red.
Summary of No. 3 Group.
(1) Limestone aa, x.
marl parting
(2) Purple limestone
marl parting
(3) Limestone
Yellow marl...
Purple marl...
(4) Bastard limestone
Deep purple fracture
Purple marl with ‘“‘ fish-eyes ”
(5) Bastard limestone
Marls with hematite
h 010 0 0 6 6 OO 6 6 0 =
Lae
The 4th Group of Limestones.
Immediately under the red marls, the 4th group com-
mences with
ft. in
(1) Limestone Bite ton Ge
Green and purple shale o 1%
(2) Limestone (purple fracture) o 4%
Purple marl... ae CPA Sai
(3) Limestone sae : abs ahs HO 79
which form a small initiate group, being separated from
the next by a mass of marls and shales. These limestones
are very rough in surface, as they are also in substance, and
they will not take a good marble polish, being much pitted
294 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
with small holes. The colour also is peculiar, being a dark
liver-coloured purple—with yellow stain lines, and deeper
purple blotches. Veins of calcite run across the blocks,
and Sfirvorbis is not visible, if at all present. The lime-
stones have a brecciated appearance, the fragments cemented
by calc-spar. This group of limestones appears to have
been formed in troubled waters, and under very disturbed
conditions. The presence of the hematite iron resting upon
them is of interest, as shewing the transition period at
which these beds were deposited and formed just before the
Permians. A thin section of this limestone looks like a
smear of hematite on the glass slide, and when viewed under
the microscope it is seen to be made up of small angular
fragments, everywhere iron-stained. Many comminuted
shells are present, but no perfect shells, or Extomostraca,
although abundant fragments of both. It is interesting
thus to observe in the microscope the characteristic
evidences seen in the outward appearance of the rock and
its surroundings. These limestones rest upon a series
of shales and marls, 17 ft. thick, commencing with a
violet purple, and passing in distinct beds of varying
colours, gradually, toa deep rosy red. The beautiful grada-
tions of colour in these beds interested us much, so that we
used to call them the “A‘sthetic” marls. In the section,
Plate V.,as nearly as possible, the exact colours taken from
actual samples of the marls are reproduced. These marls
were evidently formed by the grinding down of the lime-
stones and red clays, and were re-deposited under very
quiet conditions, in still waters. The beds were perfectly
regular, the colours varying like the leaves of a book, green
grey, brown, and pink alternating in beautiful sequences,
the mass gradually deepening in redness towards the base,
as is usual in this section. The red hematite clay at the
base of these marls was found by Mr. Bone to contain
10°55 per cent of iron, and was highly calcareous.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 295
5th Group of Limestones.
The 5th group of limestones succeeds these red marls,
and commences with a bed of limestone, 3 ft. 6 in. thick, but
with half-inch partings at 6 inches from the base, and at
1 ft. 10in. from the base. There was an inch of brown
limonite on the surface between the limestone and the
hematitic red marl. The limestone had a green shale
coating, and all the crevices were filled with it. A fine fish-
eye nodule(coprolite)was found in one of these shale partings.
The upper member of this group is a very pink lime-
stone, which polishes badly, being pitted with small holes. It
has an extremely irregular surface, and a thin section shows
the same irregularity in the substance of the stone; wavy
lines pass through the mass as in an agate. It is almost
entirely made up of Sfzvorbzs and other small shells, and
there are many tiny bones. A section under the micro-
scope shews clearly the irregular constitution of this lime-
stone. It is all curved lines of deposition, crowded with
organic remains. Extomostraca are present in great
numbers. It also contains the fish-eye circles, with dark
centres. In one of these the central spot was granulated, ©
and contained a pink spot. Red patches are always
found with organic remains in these limestones, hematite
having been absorbed by the tissues. The Exztomostraca in
this section are entire, and the cavities filled with crystals
of calc spar, which form beautiful objects with the polari-
scope. They have been identified as of the Carbonza group.
The Yin. power shows curiously jointed tubular organisms,
probably Ortona Carbonaria, a tubicular annelid. Another
series of variegated marls succeeds this group, about 16 ft.
thick—purples, greens intermixed, followed by a bright red
hematite band, which is again followed by brown, purple
and green marls. Thesebands are full of the fish-eye nodules,
which are noticeable all along the face of the cutting, and they
296 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
are fossiliferous, as a vertebra about 1in. diameter, probably
amphibian, was picked up by a visitor near one of the beds.
from the material scattered in loading the railway trucks.
The exact spot where it occurred could not be ascertained,
and although diligent search was made on several occasions.
nothing else of the kind was found. It is, however, a very
fossiliferous horizon, as is shewn by the prevalence of the
fish-eye nodules of large size representing animal life of
some sort—fishes, turtles, or amphibians. The next band
of limestones also is the most fossiliferous of any, and it
immediately underlies these marls.
6th Group of Limestones.
t. in.
Green marl, on the Limestone... ... oO I
(1) Limestone. The last Y%in. separate
forming the bonehead“... ... °-.:. \ OME
Green parting 0 0
(2) Limestone, nodular aru very wen °o 4
Green calcareous shale ong
Purple marls.. : : seedy ape th) SER
(3) eee: blotched Oe ©
Mar ote. Gee's Se nt) Oumieae
(4) Limestone—very ae eed Fish
and Done Bed i. nce!) ee sess oes LOE
Vellouw maar. 1005). te aes Macey) seek On ce
Purple aid? 3. ae Cal Ce, a oa
(5) Limestone, fossiliferous... ... ... ... © 03%
Reddish marls- 4... 44.2 oy ee eM scat RANE
This No. 6 Group contains - far the most interesting
fossiliferous limestones. We gave them the name of the
“blue limestones,” but they were somewhat piebald, portions
of the same block being pinkish grey in one part, and dark
blue grey in the other. The pinkish part was crowded with
Spirorbis, and the blue frequently one mass of shells. Some
of these have been examined by Mr. E. T. Newton, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey, who recognized amongst them
the Axthracomya (modiola) figured by Sir R. Murchison in
a
The Levenshulme Limestones a ee
his “Silurian System,” p.84,as having been found at Ardwick,
Manchester. Poszdonomya and several other shells have been
found, but the names have not yet been settled. Fragments
_ of bone were seen in almost every block, as well as on the
surface, under the green marly coating, but fast to the blue
limestone. The fish remains are in the hands of Mr. J. W.
Davis, F.G.S., F.L.S., of Halifax, for identification. They
include ribs, teeth, spines, and scales, and will probably befound
to belong to the Wegalichthys and Strepsodus. Unfortunately
all these fish remains occur in detached fragments, owing to
the thinness and irregular composition of the blue limestone
in which they generally occur, the rock itself being frequently .
not over an inch in thickness. Sometimes it varies in the
same slab from 1 inch to 4 inches in a foot length, and with
a most uneven, undulating surface. Thin sections of this
No. 6 group of limestones shew an amazing variety of
organic remains. Firstly, they are crowded with fragments
of the shells of molluscs, intermingled with the more
delicate shells of crustaceans, and with spines, bones, and
other fragments of fishes in profusion. The small organisms
which fill up the field of view are of a blue grey colour, and
amongst them, cris-cross, are bones of a reddish brown
colour. The in. power gives the cellular substance of
these small bones perfectly. They belong to tiny fish, which
probably fed upon the Extomostraca, and whose presence
attracted the larger fishes, which in turn preyed upon them.
The identification of some basis, from which the true
position of the Ardwick limestone beds can be ascertained,
with reference to the Levenshulme series, has had our careful
attention. We have come to the conclusion that: the
Ardwick bed, whichcontained the remains of the Wegalichthys
Hibbertzz, is the same as this No.6 Group. It is a very
marked and peculiar bed, consisting of two colours, the
pink containing SZzvordzs, and the blue containing shells of
the Axthracomya. The fossils of the Ardwick limestone
S
298 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE oz
were first described by Prof. Phillips in 1836. He was the
first to recognise the Spzvorbzs, and he recorded the discovery
of the Megalichthys Hibbertiz in these beds. A fine set of
Ardwick limestones with scales of this large fish is in Peel
Park Museum, and a large slab of the same is now before
us; it is of this piebald stone; the pink portion is full of
Spivorbis and dotted over with large scales of Megalchthys,
whilst the other portion is of the blue limestone, covered
with shells, amongst which are the Axthracomya above
referred to. We have had thin sections cut from the two
varieties in this Ardwick limestone, and under the microscope
_ they are almost identical with our No. 6 Group, the same
shells, bones, Extomostraca,colours,and the generalagreement
being undeniable. Here, then, we appear to havea datum, all
the groups from Nos.1 to 5 inclusive being above the Ardwick
limestones of Prof. Phillips, Mr. Binney, and Prof. Williamson,
and Nos. 6, 7, and 8 being the old Ardwick beds, as they
reappear slightly different in thickness, etc., at Levenshulme.
The piebald colours in this group are very peculiar, and
not easily to be accounted for, neither is it easy to account
for the extreme irregularity of the beds. The only separa-
tion between No.6 and No. 7 Group is a band of reddish
marl, 10in. thick.
7th Group of Limestones.
(1) Limestone
Bright green marl ae
Compact hematite red marl ...
Earthy ironstone—olive brown
Purple marl wat
Calcareous nodules in yellow ‘marl
Purple marl Sai
(2) Limestone, very rough, lumpy with
purple fracture il
Green marl
Purple marl ere
Green and red marls ... bes
Dark purple and grey marls ...
(3) Limestone fish bed
Green marl) “2. eee
rO0O000007
=
to 1°6
Oo Onny = OO
PBPHOOR NW
The Levenshulme Limestones. 299
These (No. 7) limestones have all dark purple fractures,
with irregular wavy surfaces, 2 in. deep in the undulations,
which are filled in with green shale and limonite. When
polished, the surfaces are beautifully bright and veined like
a fine “Sienna marble” of a reddish-purple tint, the veinings
being yellow and red. Sfzvorbis spots are dotted all over,
and there are curious angular patches of a deeper colour.
A thin microscopic slide furnishes a very beautiful subject,
being crowded with perfect Extomostraca, the shells in
pairs, and many tubular organisms of the annelida amongst
which is the annulated tube of the Ovtona Carbonaria.
The ¥% in. power shows the jointings and the central
tube. A shell of Planorézs-like form is present in this as
in several other slides, which is probably the larger form of
Spirorbis—S. Ambiguus. The lower g in. bed has the Exzfo-
mostraca, but not the other items.
8th Group of Limestones.
Limestone ... 2 0
ditto Eto
Green marls : ea ate He ea,
Red marls. Proved oe jee! a Ae
The red marls were not clearly seen on the north side, as
the deep cutting stopped abruptly at the last limestone,
but the red clays were seen for some 50 yards further east-
ward at the base of the boulder clay. The No. 8 Lime-
stones are the most massive of all, the two making 3 ft.
1oin. thickness, and frequently conjoined. The eastern
face of the blocks was much striated by glacial action, the
termination of the limestone edge having evidently felt the
force of the glacial drift; large detached masses of the
limestone were found in the clay for many hundred yards
eastwards. The blocks shewn in our section (Plate V.) are
from actual measurements, as also the drag of the coloured
marls from the same cause.
300 The Levenshulme Limestones.
These last limestones (No. 8) are, from a marble mason’s
point of view, the most valuable of all, being, when polished,
the most beautiful of the series. They have a lovely deep
colour, mottled with paler pink spots, and the marble polish
is perfect. The Sfzvorbzs with which we started is here in
abundance. A thin section under the microscope shows
the red markings to be hematite stains, mottled further
with hosts of Sfzvorbzs. There are many shells of Aztomo-
straca and fragments of shells, and long curved tubular
objects, probably Serpulites Carbonarius. The veining is
most noticeable under the microscope; it runs across the
subject like rivers filled in with clear crystals of calc spar,
as if the whole limestone were brecciated, the intervening
spaces having been filled in by subsequent crystallization.
ee ee Ne ee ee
—— ——— i a
PLATE V4 IN THREE SECTIONS:
LEVENSHULME LIMESTONES. SECTION 1.
PEFM/AN
sth Series, Vol. IV:
ZL EE V E NV Ss H
SLADE LANE SRIDCE.
x CAR BON/IFEROUS
Ce eee : E iis -
PURPLE MARLS. PURPLE AND CREEN PURPLE SHALES WITH DARK BANDS.
10K, thiek, MARLS. ‘iit. thick. HEMATITE RED TOWARDS BASE-
CMe? Purple and Green Marts
Bestard Rough Limestone
Purple Caleureces Marl.
Limestone (deep purple fractir
terepular surface, thi
A R L Ss.
g
a a
COLLYHURST SANDSTONE. oh .
cl PLANT BED. :
Ife. thick.
The Green Sandy Partings usp shurply te the south in carved lines across the Railwwy Cutting.
4 (cpirorbis)
a. Green Sands, much intermixed, gradually passing
ito purered Collyhurst sands.
Finer Grained, with pal
Coarse Red
(spivorbis)
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER IIT. AND PHIL. SOC.
i ee ES el le al
ea —— een -
ea a aT
= . 5 7 - r ps) = : . - — nie 7
SE eS SS SS al ee SS Ree ee Se ce: ae eee nr rosie st ge = ee — -
- me . — rnmeis - a ~ bene =i - - = peer Pi = me a ee a a afi —— = yr — >
rl sedi a Mita 4 a 2 #3 +
last 1
2 Ee .
ee .
e es e
e 8
ee
Veet e
oe .
e
sos :
gth Series, Vol, IV. PLATE V, IN THREE SECTIONS:
LEVENSHULME LIMESTONES. SECTION- 2.
gee 2
se A <a oft
HARD PURPLE AND VARIECATED MARLS. VARIECATED MARLS.
MARLS WITH CUB/CAL FRACTURES. PURPLE & CREEN
peers PURPLE & CREEN MARLS. GROUP 6. ae
- GROUP 4. att. thiek. © tm MARLS. Bit. thick. Green Marl ns. ie o's
5 Limestone Lnmestone, with hin. Shale Parting at Gin. Limestone, the last Vin. « separate bed (fish bed) -v.2.. OU 02
ft. in. fe to. + Green anit Prerple Shale a Shale Part 0 Ob oL
1} Limestone, modular and irepular (purple 7 oe er es from base and at It. Win. from basen... 3 6 a4 ne
Cinco eoeciet poke Be remenieniecac °| * of Purple Mart «. Tametiately absee it, Hematite Red Marts, with ae ren a
‘one, ae Perple imestone med ie Limestone eeytun 0 Purple Marl Oo.
anne Fis eS at base .. 010 oH Purple Shale meet ings oo Limestone,
‘ue parting. HIGHS csesssssesses 010 = wt lin, of Limonite betieeea the Red Marts and the 9 u ‘ 16
Yellow Mart... . 0 s Hand Purple and Variegated M Purple Marls (fsheyes) 2 Livuestone. o2
Purple Shaly Start 0 1 plant steus and“ faheye” warkings 40 Favacdit eats aaa) aa a4
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHI. SOC ol 20
Sa
free,
ae as
ct aad
ee
amg,
a
id
wh Series, Vol. WW. PLATE WV, IN THREE SECTIONS:
LEVENSHULME LIMESTONES. SECTION 3.
Monty RED AND PURPLE MAALS PURPLE MARLS. aN sroNfer MARY men wares CONTINUING .
: snow yore © BEDALE EREEN 1 sem nOM SLADE LANE
j pemanité Tye oR pur are?
J Surveyed by O.E-de RANCE, Atsoe Lul.C.8., FS, BRGS. of HM. Geol. Surcey, ho
; and WM. BROOKBANK, F.G.S., LS.
Prawn by WM. BROOKBANK, 1890,
Scale, Horizontal and Vertical, 8 feet to 1 inch,
Tha Colouring represents tho actual tints of the Clays, Marle, &e,
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL. $0
New- Forms of Stereometers. 301
On New Forms of Stereometers. By W. W. Haldane
Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S., and Arthur Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D.
(Received March 13th, 1891.)
The problem of experimentally determining the volume
of a body to which the usual hydrostatic methods are
inapplicable was first attacked in 1797 by Capt. H. Say
(Annales de Chimie, XXIII, 1), who described an instrument
(Fig. 1) devised for the purpose of ricci the specific
gravity of gunpowder.
I TY LETTE) mY
MUTT HIM p
L
wll
302 MR HALDANE GEE AND DR. A. HARDEN ox
The vessel A, the stem of which is graduated and
calibrated, so that both the distance, and also the internal
volume of the tube is known between any two graduations,
is immersed in mercury up to a fixed mark (C) on the stem.
A ground-glass plate is then applied so as to close the
vessel air-tight. The apparatus is now raised to a con-
venient extent, and the level of the mercury inside at D,
and outside at E of the stem noted.
The body of unknown volume is then placed in A and
the experiment repeated.
I. To find the volume V of the air_in the vessel?A.
Let the ‘atmospheric pressures.) 0. | 4a =n
The pressure after lifting, 2¢.,7—-DE... ... =”
The increase of volume CD due to diminution
Ol epreSSUTe! nce ites sew: lak). Sane Oars Need
Then
Va
V+0=—
n
and
nv
II. Let x= the volume of the substance,
Then in the second experiment V-—x must, be
written for V, its value calculated and the value of
x found by subtraction. :
A very similar apparatus (Fig. 2) was described by Leslie
in 1826 (Quarterly Journal of Science and Arts, XX1, 374),
and was used by him to ascertain the specific gravity of
various powders, such as charcoal, flour, volcanic ashes, etc.
To obviate the error arising from absorption of air he
determined the volume with different degrees of dilatation.
W. H. Miller (P/il. Mag., 1834, V, 203), in 1834, intro-
duced a considerable improvement in the construction of
Say’s instrument, which will readily be understood from the
New Forms of Stereometers. 303
accompanying diagram (Fig. 3). Greater accuracy in
reading off the height of the mercury, and freedom from the
error due to capillary depression, are attained by the use of
two parallel tubes. The apparatus was specially designed
for determining the volume of a standard weight, which
could not be treated in the usual way. (Cf. Phil. Tran.,
1856, 800).
In 1840, H. Kopp (Aun. Chem. Pharm, XX XV, 17), con-
structed a volumenometer (Fig. 4) in which the pressure of
the air is increased, instead of being decreased, as in the
previous instruments. The ground-glass plate (M) closing
the vessel (R), is held in position by a screw L and cork Q,
and the volume of air is then diminished by moving the
304 Mr. HALDANE GEE AND DR. A. HARDEN ox
piston in the cylindrical tube (T) until the mercury in C
has reached a fixed position marked by needle points in the
DUTT
mi)
vessel C (a,0,c,d.). The pressure required to effect this dimi-
nution is read off on the gauge S S. The constants of the
instrument were determined by placing distilled water in R,
and no allowance was made for the deviation from Boyle’s
law shown by air saturated with moisture. The results
thus obtained with substances such as tin and lead were
exceedingly accurate. It was observed that substances
which absorb air, such as charcoal, cannot be employed
with this instrument.
New Forms of Stereometers. 305
Fig. 4.
Another form of steréometer (Fig. 5) somewhat re-
sembling that of Miller, was described in 1845 by Regnault
(Annales de Chimie et de Physique (3), X1V, 207).
In this instrument either decrease or increase of pressure
can be employed, and the apparatus is so arranged that it
can be filled with dry air. Notice is also made here of the
fact that some porous substances absorb air. This is detected
by the fact that they give different results according as the
pressure is increased or diminished.
306 MR. HALDANE GEE AND Dr. A. HARDEN o7
A number of determinations has been made by means
of this instrument, or an allied form by Grassi, Annales de
Pharmacie et de Chimie (3), XI, 184.
d=
AE
|
Ans
i |
min ae
= nl
PY “
2 |
he eee
Fig. 5.
Buignet, Ibid (3), XL, 164.
Fillol, Axnales de Chimie et de Physique (3), XXI, 417.
Other forms of the stereometer have been designed by :—
Baumhauer, Archives Néerland, III, 385 (1868),
Riidorf, Wzedemann’s Annalen, VI (1879) 288.
Tschaplowitz, Zezt. fiir Analytische Chemie, 1879,
XVIII, 440.
New Forms of Stereometers. 307
Paalzow, Wiedemann’s Annalen, XIII (1881) 332.
Raikow, Chem. Zezt., 1888, 525.
A curious instrument of this character was also invented
by Harting (Archives Néerland, 1872, VII, p. 289), to
determine the volume of the air chambers of living fish.
Notwithstanding the numerous forms of volumenometer
which have been described it is curious that none of them
has come into general use for density determinations.
With the object of designing a simple and fairly accurate
form of volumenometer, wecommenceda seriesofexperiments
in the physical laboratory of the Owens College in 1883.
It was first of all found that there were so many practical
difficulties to be overcome in constructing Kopp’s volume-
nometer that any idea of employing it as a laboratory
instrument had to be given up. The chief difficulty was
the construction of a glass cylinder and piston tight to
mercury under the pressure of one or two atmospheres.
This form of the apparatus was therefore abandoned, and
an instrument (which is figured in Stewart and Gee’s Practical
Physics, Vol. I.) constructed on the type of Miller’s stereo-
meter. The pressure was altered, as in the instruments
of Regnault and Miller, by running mercury in and out of
the apparatus. This process is very objectionable in an
apparatus intended for general use, and, moreover, is liable to
error on account of the difficulty of getting rid of air bubbles
in the narrow parallel tubes.
At this point our experiments were interrupted, and
were not resumed until the long vacation of 1889. An
instrument was then arranged as shewn in Fig. 6.
A glass tube, about 15 mm. in diameter, was constricted
at four points, at each of which a cross was etched with
hydrofluoric acid. This tube(A) was firmly clamped on to
a vertical wooden stand, and was connected by thick india-
rubber tubing (B) with a piece of straight tubing (C) which
could be moved up and down ina groove, a millimeter scale
308 Mr. HALDANE GEE AND DR. A. HARDEN on
being placed between the two tubes. (Another instru-
ment, in which the stereometer tube consisted of a wide tube
sealed on to a graduated and calibrated stem, was first
employed, but did not give quite such good results). The top
of tube A was ground, and could be closed by a small plate
of ground glass, which was covered with a thin layer of a
mixture of vaseline and bees’ wax. By. unscrewing the
clamps, and adjusting the tube A at the bottom of the stand,
the instrument also could be employed with increase of
pressure.
New Forms of Stereometers. 309:
The volumes of the several portions of the tube (1, 2,
3, 4) were accurately determined by calibration with
mercury. They were as follow :—
1st Instrument: (1) 16°39 cbc.
‘(2) 10°97 reading on the graduated stem.
2nd Instrument: (1) 15°10 cbc.
(2)? SiG6 *
(3) 12°15 5
(4) Meroo™ ,;
In order to test the accuracy of these instruments, the
volume of a brass cylinder was determined by their aid,.
and compared with that found by weighing in water.
To carry out a dilatation experiment the cylinder is.
placed at the uppermost portion of the tube, the sliding
tube adjusted so that the mercury stands exactly at the
intersection of the two arms of the etched cross, and the
well-greased glass plate then applied, care being taken that
the level of the mercury is not altered by this operation.
The height of the mercury in the movable tube is then read
off on the scale.
_ The movable tube is then lowered, and adjusted so that.
the mercury in the other branch is exactly at the level of
the second constriction, and the height of the mercury read
off as before (in the movable tube). The distance between
the two constrictions can be read off once for all, and is, of
course, constant. Finally, the height of the barometer is:
taken.
If
Vi be the volume of the air in the top compartment
of the tube, and
V. be the volume of the tube down to the second
constriction.
P, the height of the barometer in mms.
P, the pressure of the air after dilatation, and
x the volume of the cylinder introduced,
310 MR. HALDANE GEE AND Dr. A. HARDEN oz
then
(V,—+)Pi1=(Ve—x)Ps
_WiPL-ViP:_y _ Pi(Vi- Va)
See ee P,-—P,
The volume of the cylinder employed was ascertained
by the hydrostatic method to be 11°828 cb. cms.
Experiments with rst Instrument.
Vi Ve Py Pi -—P, x
(2) 346-39 27°66 762°9 541°2 11°78
(2) 16°39 33°01) | -7oz9 503.) ae
(3) 16:39 37°36 = 762.9 6269 1°73
Mean, 11-33
—_—a
The error here is ‘o6 cbc, or ‘5 per cent.
Dilatation experiments with second instrument.
Vi Va P, P, — Py *
(a) 15°50 26°16 764 5882 11°80
(2) 15°10 26°16 764 588'9 11°82
1: Maen ime to) 26°16 764 588°3 11°80
(4) )" 15°10 26°16 764 5886 =—s-11°81
Mean 11°81
The’ error here is only ‘o2 cbc, or *17 per cent.
The pressure experiments were carried out in a similar
manner, the glass plate being secured in its position by the
screw E (Fig. 6). In this case, of course, the mercury was
set at the lowest constriction, and then forced up to the
next, and so on. ;
P, being greater than P,, and V, than V,., the equation
becomes :—
P,(Vi — Ve)
2 ee
fe Gt a ee
Vi, Wii P,-P, Ey x
(1) 48°31 38°31 287°7 764 11°75
(2) 48°31 38°31 287°6 764 11°74
(3) 38°31 26°16 644°0 764 11°75
(4) 38°31 26°16 644°4 764 11°76
Mean 11°75
The error in this case is ‘08 cbc, or *7%.
New Forms of Stereometers. 311
This form of the apparatus is therefore fairly satisfactory,
The adjustment of the mercury in the constricted
portion of the tube can easily be effected, and the capillary
error is removed by making all the readings on the wide
tube (the diameters of the various constricted portions
being approximately equal).
It was found impossible to diminish the pressure to less
than about 100 mms., as air then passed rapidly through
the walls of the india-rubber tubing, although the latter
was specially thick, and had been soaked in paraffin (Cf.
Roscoe and Lunt, Journ. Chem. Soc. 1889, p. 564).
A few experiments were made to determine the sp. gr. of
water by this method, 711225 grms. of water at 17° were
introduced into the apparatus in a small glass tube of
volume = 4'097 germs.
In calculating the results of these experiments it is
necessary to allow for the aqueous tension (Cf. Grassz. loc.
cit.).
As before let V,, V2, P;, Ps, be the actual vols. and
pressures. Then
a=
PP;
For P, substitute_P! = Barometer — Aqueous tension.
Then P,—P!= Bar. — Aq. ten. — diff. of level — (Bar. —- Aq.
ten.), and the equation becomes
(V.—Vi)P?
y,— Pr
The water was freed from air by the air pump.
E=17,) B= 76s.
x=V.2-
x=V.2-
x Observed. x Calculated.
(1) 7°18
(2) 7°21
CS) ocr
Mean 7°17 7h 42
Error = °038 = *5 37%.
In Grassi’s experiments with Regnault’s apparatus the error
was "447.
312. Mr. HALDANE GEE AND Dr. A. HARDEN on
Another principle of obtaining the volume of a sub-
stance, which, so far as we are aware, has never before been
applied, is embodied in the apparatus of Fig. 7.
C Hh
Fig. 7.
The glass vessel A and its tubes up to B and B, (Fig. 7)
are calibrated. The substance of unknown volume is then
placed in A, the air of the vessel displaced by pure, dry
carbon dioxide, which is led in at the three-way tap B
and out at B,, and the weight of carbon dioxide in the
apparatus determined by sweeping the gas out by a current
of dry air passed in at D, and absorbing it in a weighed
solution of caustic potash. The vessel A is immersed in
water, which keeps its temperature constant, and the latter
and the height of the barometer are both noted. From these
data the volume of carbon dioxide present is calculated, and
hence by subtraction from the known volume of the vessel,
the volume of the substance introduced. |
The experiments hitherto made show that the volume
of carbon dioxide can be easily estimated to within °3 per
cent of its calculated value, no allowance being made for
the small proportion of air always present (the gas was
generated by the action of diluted hydrochloric acid on
marble and dried by sulphuric acid), The following results
were obtained by gauging the volume of a vessel by this
New Forms of Stereometers. zi2
method, the volume being altered by the introduction of
brass eylinders of known volume :—
Calculated Vol. Found. , %, Error.
279'13 278°7 eLts
230°47 2312 +°32
27779 2791 + °47
30145 301°9 +°T5
313°27 313°0 = (09
The method is only adapted to the determination of
specific gravities when the volume of the substance bears a
large proportion to the whole capacity of the apparatus, as
otherwise the experimental error is enormously multiplied.
Taking the last number of the above series for example,
we have :— )
Vol. of apparatus, 3251; Cylinder introduced, 11.83
Vol. of Cylinder.
Vol. of CO, (calctd.) Found. Calctd. Found.
13°27 313'0 11°83 12°43
Error 7% = ‘09 Error 7 = 2°28
Neither this method, nor the ordinary stereometric one
can be used for a substance such as glass wool. A long series
of experiments made by us with this substance shows that its
power of condensing gases on its surface is an insuperable
obstacle in the way of the determination of its specific
gravity by these methods.
The conclusions to be drawn from our experience of
these instruments are:
(1) Their accuracy is inferior to that of the hydrostatic
method, which should therefore always be employed
when possible.
(2) Porous substances cannot be employed.
(3) The methods of pressure and dilatation should always
be both applied.
(4) The air in the stereometer should either be dry or
saturated with moisture.
314 PROCEEDINGS.
[Microscopical and Natural History Section.
Ordinary Meeting, March rith, 1891.
Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., Vice-President of the
section, in the Chair.
Mr. J. DODGSHON was elected a member of the section.
Mr. WATSON, introduced by Mr. ROGERS, made a
communication on some experiments he had made on the
reproduction of injured or lost limbs in the Lepzdoptera.
Mr. MELVILL read a paper entitled “An_ historical
account of the genus Laztirus and its dependencies, with
descriptions of eleven new species of Latzrus (Montfd.), and
Pertsternia (Morch).”
Functions given by Groups. 315
On the number and formation of many-valued Functions
of x:x.x,;— -x,, which of any degree can be con-
structed upon any Group of those elements, with —
exhibition of all the values of the Functions. By
Thos. P. Kirkman, M.A., F.R.S.
(Recetved May 8th, 1891.)
1. My object in what follows is a double one. One aim
is to communicate a new theorem of remarkable power in
the search of many-valued functions of z letters, which adds
an elegance, though nothing of rigour or completeness, to
my solution worked out over thirty years ago, of the Prize-
Question proposed at Paris early in 1858 for the competition
of 1860.
Another aim is to expand, so as to make them more
intelligible to readers not supposed to have seen their
way through the preceding chapters, and who know only
the simplest elements of the Theory of Groups, the two
pages, 342 and 343, of the treatise Ox Groups and many-
valued Functions, which this Society did me the great
honour to print at once, in Vol. I. Ser. 3, 1862, of its Wemozrs.
To that treatise I shall refer by J7.17.; and I hope to
convince the reader, who knows how to define a substitution
and a group, and who can perform the operations in
substitutions,
AB=C, BA=D AA=A%, &c.,
(A.M. p. 275), that in the propositions of those two pages
is given a complete and demonstrated answer to the above-
mentioned Prize-Question of the Institute.
ig
316 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN ox
2. The question—what are all the possible groups of z
elements ?—is exceedingly difficult.
The question—how many distinct functions, with their
values,are constructible on the groups when given ?—is trivial
in comparison with the former.
When I have said what I think needful for the second
aim, I have no doubt that my new theorem, although it is-
nothing but rigorous algebra, will have for the reader, who
loves analysis, a charm of magical surprise.
3. The data for the discussion of a definite case of the
problem of many-valued functions are three.
First, any system of Q equivalent maximum groups
(IW.M. p. 280, 283, 334) of z elements 44,%,——+%,. For
these elements let I 2 3... stand in what follows.
Second, any chosen system = of z exponents, not all
alike (IZM. 57, p. 341), viz. :—
n=A, +4 tC += +p =atbrt+ = + page
which is to be read aa’s, 6 (’s, cy’s, &c., or a atimes, 3 dtimes,
y ctimes, &c., repeated.
Third, an Index group I, determined, as we shall see,
by the system &.
4. A maximum group G has, and can have, no derived
derangement GP = PG (M/W. 8, p. 281) by a substitution P.
If L be the order of G, z.e., the number of its substitutions,
and Q be that of its equivalents (17.1. p. 280)
G, AGA“, BGB", &c.,
G is also defined as maximum by the condition
| OL=2!
For example of an equivalent (= 4)
(1234=G and 1234=G'
2341 3142
3412 4321
4123 2413
Functions given by Groups. 317
are equivalent. If 1342 be A, and 1423 be A; 1= AA”,
AGA ?=G’. By the operation AG we get four substitutions,
abcd; and then the four operations aA7, 6A™, cA, dA”,
give G’. Thus we can always find G’ when A and G are
given. But we can mostly label and identify our equivalents
in practice by far less cumbrous means, than such double
operation on the entire column of a group of high order.
We suppose our Q equivalents to be either written out,
or so given that we can readily write them out, each in a
column or rectangle of L terms, followed by Q—1 parallel
columns of its Q—1 derivates (AZIZ. 7, p. 279), each derivate
having L terms, thus:
G, + 1AiG, + 2AiG; + 3AiGi + ...... + 9-1Ai1Gi=N,;
Ge + 1AgGe + pA2Ge + 3AcGe+...... + 9-1A2Ge = No ;
G, + 1A3Gz3 + 2AzGz + sAzG3+...... + 9-1A3;G3= Ns; (An)
Gg + 1AgGe + 2AgGe + sAQGa t «+. + 9-1A9gGe= No.
Here N is the group of order ~! arranged in Q different
ways, being exhausted by each group with its Q — 1 derivates.
The derivant ,,A, of G, is any substitution not in G, nor
in any previous derivate of G,. It is thus impossible that
two derivates of any group can be alike.
The Q maximum groups are supposed to be so given,
that we can readily find in our table (A,) any one of them,
G,, when presented to us only by a known substitution 6
as an equivalent of a known group Gy, as G,=0,G 6z', or
G,=0;'G,6..
How this finding is to be readily done can best be
explained when a definite case of our problem is before us.
5. The index-system > is
L=aPyyod... cee... 0000... ; (2)
which is read, one a, one (3, two y’s, two o's, three ¢’s, &c.
This 5, when we turn our group G into a function G, is
written over unity in the group that we are placing, as we
say, under &, and over the first term of every derivate of G.
318 THE Rev. THos. P. KIRKMAN on
For z=5, = may have the following forms only :—
X= aPBy60, or aByyy, or aBByy, or aaBGG, or aBBBPB.
No two functions G and G’, with their Q—1 values each,
are allowed as different functions, when one is obtained
from the other by a different arrangement of the indices of
the same 3%, whether with or without breaking of the
repeating clusters aa, ces, &c.; much less when one is obtained
from the other by altering the numerical values of afv....
It is proved in IZM. p. 344, that no additional functions
can be won by permuting indices of © in (A,).
The proof given in p. 344 is that the writing of B’=ayf...
for 3 = ay... over %1%2%;...gives no additional function 6=G@’.
‘Here is one transposition only made of two different indices.
This is proof sufficient, because every permutation of aSy...v
can be effected by a succession of such transpositions. In
that page 344, lines 11 and 12, A and B should be A’ and
B’; and, in lines 12 and 14 G should be G’, an equivalent
of G, namely ae Vide Note A at the end.
_ 6. The Index group, I,,,, which is always determined by
>, is of the order
tti=albte!...p}. (3)
If 2=6, [441 for S=aByydd or S=aBByyy, is
aPyyoo abByyy
Tia = L,= 123456 or iyi = Tie = 123456
124356 123564
123465 123645
124365 123465
123654
123546
132456
132564
132645
132465
132654
132546
of which the orders are 1! 1! 2! 2!, and 1! 2! 3!
Functions given by Groups. 319
The bars under = show that the terms in Ii are purely
tactical, the elements being merely permutable positions,
not of necessity magnitudes or quantities of any kind ; and
the terms are not yet algebraic products, such as
172938475767 4 17293776747 4 172° 3°67 4%e7 + 172738496757 +
etc., products of powers of 1% %2%3..%p.
Such products arise out cf the substitutions of a group
only when the group is placed, as we say, under 3, and
thus is made suddenly into a function of algebraic quantities.
The Index group is always a woven group (AZ_JZ. p. 331),
in which no element under any repeating cluster ever
changes place with one under a different exponent. It is
" never a grouped group, nor a woven grouped group (AZM.
p- 304—331). And it is never transitive, ze, no element
can be found in every vertical row.
7. Every group G, in (A,) becomes instantly an algebraic
function G,, of Q values, G, included, when placed under,
Or, as we say, crowned with, almost any =. The very few
cases in which the number of values is <Q need not here
be noticed.
We need not, in reading a function G,, so formed by &
Q times written, repeat the indices in all the L terms of the
rectangle ; but we ascribe to every element, from top to
bottom of each vertical row, the exponent standing in 5 over
the row, and this in each of the Q rectangles. Wecan thus
dictate the function G, and all its Q—1 values, which are
the Q—1 derivates under 3 of G,. Thus every rectangle
of the line G, under & in (A,), is a sum of L products of
powers. We often speak of G, and its Q-1 values as the
Q values of the function G,, or of G, under %.
When & has z different exponents, each of our Q
equivalents in (A,) under % becomes a Q-valued function
distinct from the Q—-1 others, and the Q? values of these O
functions are all different. Thus functions are easily
320 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN oz
enumerated and dictated when there are indices, no one
repeated. It is only when some are repeated that difficul-
ties begin; for the number of different functions is ee
and then only, <Q. :
8. Our problem is correctly stated (ZW. p. 342), thus:
to determine how many of the Q groups Gi G, &c., give,
under 3%, distinct Q-valued functions ®;= Gi, ®:=@:z, &c., of
which no function is a value of another.
When our selected & is written over the sroups of (A,)
and over their derivates, or supposed so written, (A,) be-
comes (H,), z.c., A, under S. -Our first business is to erase
in (Z,) all the functions G that have fewer than Q values.
If G, has fewer, it has gQ values (g>1), and G, will be
algebraically identical with g—1 derivates of G, under 3,
and will be read in the line of G, g—1 times. Thus
simple inspection of (#,) enables us to exclude the
Q-—v, functions that have fewer than Q values ; and the
remaining 7 groups of (A,)under 3 (AZM. p. 342, line 1)
are all that we have to handle.
It is thus to be understood that when we speak of (A,),
we are dealing only with the x functions in it that have Q
values.
It will appear in our handling of a definite table (A,) of
maximum equivalents, that this sifting out of the Q—7
functions in (Al,) that have fewer than Q values, can be
done without actually writing out the groups and their
derivates; but that G, above is sufficiently given for this
purpose in the form
| Gr = ¢Gap™,
G, and @ being known.
I regret that I did not use in pp. 342, 343, the symbol
G, to denote what there is called ©, the function given by
G, under ; nor use © and @ for distinction as below
used in -I)41.
Functions given by Groups. 325
We read G,, “ G, under 3”; 0G,, “that value which
6G, the derivate of G, becomes under 5”; 6,@,0,71, “that
function which the equivalent 0G,0,~1 of G, becomes under
>.” In 6G, is no operation of 6 on G, denoted: such
tactical operation on a sum of algebraic products is for-
bidden, both in the order 0G, and G,0.
In solving our problem, then, if we can prove of two
groups G, and G, in (A,), that
; Gi=6.6., . aa! (5)
we thus prove that the distinct groups G, and G, do not
give under our selected = distinct functions, because one
function is what a derivate of the other group algebraically
becomes under 5, merely by a changed order of elements
under the same index.
If, then, Gz is our standard of comparison, we are bound
by (5) to mark: G, out of our table (A,), as useless to us
under our selected &. |
We come to handle G, thus. Having our It4:, which
is determined by our selected 3, written in a column as in
art. 6, we seek a group in (A,,) which has 7+ 1 substitutions
in common with our index-group under the barred 4, so that
no group has more than #+1 of them. Many G’s may
have such a greatest subgroup Ji: in common with I... We
take one, Gz. Let the subgroup be .
Jmpi=1+0,+Og+ ... +On5 (6)
We find these 6©’s in I,,,, and name them so where they
stand in it. Its remaining ¢—7 substitutions we call its 6’s,
none of which is in eh which has all the 6’s. I,,, can be
written thus :
Tiji= 1+ Ot Ont... +On+014+62.-. +Om3 (7)
9. The next proposition in IZM. p. 342 is double,
affirming what had been proved in preceding pages.
G.=G.0;; and G.= G.9;; (3)
whichever among the above-written be 9; or 9;.
322 THE REv. THOS. P. KIRKMAN oz
The second is clearly true; because, 0; being in Gy,
G,0;=Ga, |
and this identity can be placed under any &.
The former has to be proved in spite of the inequality
GagtG,6;,
a true negation, because 9; is not in Gg, and no group is
identical with its derangement by a substitution not in the
group.
But this required demonstration of the first is easy, if it
be granted that when two substitutions to be multiplied
together are placed under barred %, and the product is
equated to the tactical result under barred 2, that equation,
if the bars are at once suddenly removed, must be algebrai-
cally true.
Let H be any substitution of the group Gg, and let 6; be
any substitution of the index-group which is not in Gg, also
let barred = be written over both H and 6,.
We have to perform, without regard to exponents, by the
rule for sinister multiplication (IZM. art. 3, p. 275) the
operation 2 iene
H'6;=K.
Looking now at the clusters under the repeated indices of
=, we see that, by the rule, the final cluster on the right of
H is deposited in K in the places and order of the final
cluster of 6;, as well as, by the form of Ii4: (art. 6), under the
final cluster of unity. But what change, if the bars be at
the same moment removed, has been made in the algebraical
value of that final cluster, in unity, in 0; or in H, by its
reading in K? None; the cluster is in all four the same
product of powers. The like is true of the eth cluster,
whatever it be. We have nothing before us but
‘1hé; = h,
where the left member stands only for what the derange-
ment H.0; becomes under %.
Functions given by Groups. 323
Or thus: let the reader write over 123..7 any = he
pleases ; under that unity let him write any permutation 6;
he pleases made within the clusters, so as to exchange no
two elements not in the same cluster, and therefore not
carrying the same index. Let him now write any permuta-
tion whatever of the z elements, calling it H ; and next let
him perform, without regard to indices, the tactical operation
H@; upon 96; and call the result K. If, now, he writes over
both H and K his selected 3, he will find them algebraically
identical.
Hence, it is clear, that if every substitution of G,in turn
be taken for H, we have it demonstrated that
G.=G.0;; (9)
whichever among the ‘¢—7z 0@’s of I,,, 6; may be.
10. The two sides of (9) are the same rectangle of L
products of powers. No man, therefore, will deny that, if
both sides be multiplied by unity, their algebraic identity
will remain visible. Let us multiply (9) on left and right
by
1—68, .
G.z= 6(6;'G.0;) = 6,G., | (10)
whichever of the 6’s of I,,, 0; may be; where G, is a group
to be readily found in (A),, art. 4, by the known 6; and the
known G,, in the definition
G, = 0;'G0;, (11)
and (10) reads, Gg under & is algebraically identical with
the derivate 4,G, under = of the given group G,.
That 0,G, is a derivate of G,, follows from the truth that,
as 6; is not in G, (for if it were (11) would give
6,G.0;'=G,=Gz,, Q.E.A.)
but is in N, in (A,), it must occur in some derivate of G, ;
and that derivate, whether 6; be or be not the first of its L
substitutions, is the derivate 0,G, of G, (IZM. p. 280).
We get
324 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN on
N ow, the derivate under & of any group G, has instantly
become under 3 a value of G,, z., of G, under >
Equation (11) represents ¢— groups,
Ga = 07°G 481; Ge = 03"Gab2, G.3 = 05 1G 48s, + &c.5 a 2)
to nih correspond ¢—z equations
06a= Gz, .G62.= Ga 6,623 = Ga &c. (13)
among which is the above, (10), |
: Ga=9,G.;- - i
Whether these ¢- 2 groups (12) Ga, Gis .:. + Gog are
all different, we shall discover presently. We shall see that
there are only # <¢-m of them different. Hence we are
bound to mark out this G, from our table (A,), along with
¢—m—1 others, as in art. 8 under (5).
11, This we may conceive as follows. Our standard
group G, comes forward with equations 12 and 13 in his
hand, to make ¢— 7m charges against certain of our Q equiva-
lents in CS) The charge in each case is, that the accused
under & has a value algebraically identical with Gz.
We ask—which of the O- I groups do you first call up?
Gq answers—“my first equivalent by 6,, 6:G,0,-.” We
look into (A,) and remark—that is our group G;; which of
the values of G;do youaccuse? “That given by the derivate
under 2, 6,G;” We examine that, and see that, under &, 6,G; is
nothing else algebraically than the L products of Gy. We,
therefore, write @ opposite in the line G,, to show that G; has
been expelled by the standard Gy.
In the same way we proceed to listen to G,’s other
charges, and are compelled by the truth of them to mark
out with d a number of other groups in (A,). Presently,
we hear a like accusation against 8,,G,6;,', and on finding it
we exclaim,—that is our friend G, again. “Very likely,”
says Gy, “look at the derivate 90,,G;.” We look, and see
that it is none other than 0,G; above found, a derivate con-
Functions given by Groups. 325
taining both 6, and 0, so that 6:G;=0mnG,, is under %, the
same column of. L products.
If
0,6,-= G, and 6, 8= Ga
_ were two values of G,, obtained from two different derivates
of G,, the function G, having two values alike would have
fewer than Q values, which is contrary to our hypothesis in
aiicle+s.’
_ We deposit a second d@ in the line G,, and are prepared
for the necessity of writing a third d if it arises.
After hearing thez—m charges of Gy, we find the number
? of different groups, marked out by them, to be less than
t—m. Wethen release G, with thanks from the post of
standard.
What the exact number “# is, it would be a question no
less absurd to reply to in general symbols than to ask. We
are handling perfectly general terms, where z and. % are
anything you please, so that their meaning remains the
same during our discussion of table (A,,) of definite equiva-
lents. The author of the two pages proved himself to be
something of a dunce, in forsaking the path of symmetric
analysis, in order to turn his clear ¢—# into something
clearer. The talkee about # and 4 does neither good nor
harm, and the ‘we conclude’ (article 59) is nothing more
than the wise decision, that, # and #’ being neither of them
either given or found,
ie P
Nee mee
_ Wecan predict, with assurance, that when our work is
done on our table (Poop every ¢ for every standard under
every = will be exactly recorded in it, and numerically
given when Gi, Ge, &c., are actual groups, and not mere
symbols. ;
12. Our next step is to select from the unmarked
equivalents in (A,) any group G,, that has, in common with
326 THE REv. TuHos. P. KIRKMAN oz
our unaltered I,,,, determined by our unchanged 3, a
largest subgroup Jn» (YS0), Of #—v+1_ substitutions.
These we find in I,,,, and name them where they stand. So
that our index group is now, (vo),
L.4=14+0 4 O44 ...+0',, 7 +6: + Oyt 2. + On ee
We care not to enquire whether or no, if v=o, our
new @’s, and therefore our new @’s, are identical with our
former (6) in J,,4, and G, For even if they are the same,
the equivalents
0:Gqq97", 2G aa6z", &c.,
that we shall have to handle and mark out, will not be the
same that
6,G,0;', 0.G,0;", &c.,
were in equation (12), because we know that G,and G4, are
different groups in (A,).
Our new standard G,g next prefers his charges against
t—m+v of our unmarked equivalents in (A,), from the
equation 7
Gaa = 99; *Gaa9;) = 9:Gee,
for every @ in I,,;, These are verified by inspection and
recorded by das before by d@, in the proper places. Gaga,
Gada +++ May in turn become standards, and do the like
on the yet unmarked groups in (A,'*). By the increase of v
we get at last #—v=o. There is now no © in I,,,; no
~ unmarked group in(A,) has more than unity in common
with I,,,, which is now
Tgp =1+01+ 02+... + 0, (15)
We choose any unmarked group Gp for standard, and
have to hear ¢ charges brought by it, one for every @ in
(15), from the equation
G, = 9,(0;'G,9;) = 6.65, (16)
against groups yet unmarked in (A,). The requisite out-
markings are made by D in the proper places.
Functions given by Groups. 327
If there are still unmarked equivalents in (A,), they
must be £(¢+1) in number: for if not, our last standard
G, will find that two or more of the groups that he
~ accuses, defined by 6, and @,, . . . , are the same one in our
table (A,). Let us suppose that
0.G )95*=0,,G ,On (17)
are identical. It follows that .
On OG pA=GpOn'Op, te.
6,6, =G,6,, (18)
because in, I,41, 0;,°0; = 6,.
This (18) is possible only on condition either that
OGrA=Gra=Gr%,
showing that 6, is in G,, or that 6,G, is a derived de-
rangement of G,. The first is absurd, because G, has no
substitution of I,,, but unity. The second is absurd, because
G, isa maximum group. Therefore the unmarked groups
in (A,), from which we have to choose Gp, Gpp. . . Ga, are
in number /(¢+ 1).
Therefore all the ¢ groups accused by G, will be found
distinct among the unmarked in (A,). We mark out each
with a A ; and there are now no groups unmarked in our
table, besides our standards
ee ey GC in
If the number of these is R, we have learned how to.
construct R distinct many-valued functions under the
same 3, and by help of the same index-group I,,,.
The number ‘of groups marked out as useless under
this = is Q—R, which carry the marks d, @*, d*. . , not of
necessity in equal numbers, where Q is the 7 of JAM.
Ps 342. |
We have it now in our power to dictate, with all their
values, R different functions, of which no one is a value of
328 THE .REv. THOs. P. KIRKMAN on
another, from the above groups G,, Gz, &c., in our table
under 2, which are turned by that 3 into the functions
GC.BaBas--- Gr Bry.--By-
The above proof that no two of G,’s ¢ charges fell on
the same group, is equally valid concerning the ¢ charges of
GpGp,... The reader may ask, why not valid concerning
the ¢—m charges of G,, or the —m-+-v charges of Gag, &c.
The reason is, that when there is no ©, there can be none of
the reductions of the form (7M. p. 342, in the equation
below (e) )
G.0;= G.0,0; = G.9;, &c.,
in which we are to remember that G,0.=@,, and that I,,,
contains 6;, the product ©,6,.
13. We have now, retaining our table (A,) cleared of
outmarkings, to choose another 3, which will determine
another index-group I,,,. The processes for determining
the number of distinct functions that our table (A,,) will give
under its-new 3, are in all things the same as above in art. 8,
&c.; and thus we can obtain all possible many-valued
functions constructible on (A,) under every different 3.
If we then proceed so to deal with every other table of
maximum equivalent transitive groups of z elements, we
shall obtain, without omission or repetition, the entire
number with all their values, of functions possible of z letters
that cannot be obtained as products of smaller functions.
There are always, for ~>5, several, and very soon many,
maximum transitive groups of various orders <4!
We have next to consider the number of terms in our
won functions. This is determined in JZ.M. p. 343, by the
comparison of G_ with Gy.
1 may also be shown as follows :—
Since Ji, common to Gq and Ii; is .
Jngi=1+O0,+O,.+...+90,, (cz)
Functions given by Groups. 329
a subgroup of G,, we can write
Ga=Jmirt Pima t PeJmgit- - ++ Pramas, (0)
where /.(-+1)=L is the order of Gy, which under & is
Ga= Fst PrFmir+ PeFmya + + PraFmar 5 (c)
here by P.Fn4; is meant what P.J,,,, becomes under &.
It is plain that, in I,,, under its 3, all the ¢+1 products
are algebraically identical. Wherefore
Fn = (m+ 1) Po — (4)
is the first term on the right of (c), [P. being unity under.
To find by an example the other terms of (c), let
n=4, S=aaPB, L=2(m+1)=2°4, ©
and let —
Gg=1234 3412=Jmit+ PaJny3 (Pa= 3412).
2143 4321
1243 3421
2134 4312
Then we have
aap aapp
G.= 1234+ 3412 = $ingit PiFmiiy (¢)
+ 2143 + 4321
+1243 +3421
+ 2134+4312
ie. Bax 4'(1%273°4" + 3%4%1%2") = (m+ 1)(o+ Bs), (B>0)-
or every term in G, is (#+1) times repeated ; so that, if
G, has L terms, the number of different products in the
function G, is always L: (m+1), (m0) ; and every value
of @, has the same number of products. »
It is not to be supposed that, in obtaining the equivalents
in (A,) that we compare, we have to operate on entire
columns of substitutions. In all cases the groups of our
table (A,,) can be labelled, in many cases by three substitu-
tions at most, and frequently by one (/) only, so that, instead
of the column 6G6-1, 6/6-' in one line often suffices for
330 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN oz
definition and identification. Thus the work goes rapidly
on.
There is an inelegance in the repeated out-markings
which cannot be avoided in the symmetrical handling of the
subject in perfectly general terms; but in practice this
inelegance completely disappears. In all the definite cases
that I have studied, of ~<9, the Index-group can be so
written as a product of two or more groups, that, by using
not all the 6’s, but only the substitutions of a factor group,
we can avoid all repetition of outmarkings. The inelegance
affects not the validity of the preceding symmetrical general
demonstration.
On these transformations of the Index-group, it would
be useless to say more until we have a definite table (A,)
before us. I have worked through many such tables, and
hope to present the results to this Society.
14. I may now exhibit my new theorem. Let Gg be our
standard group, and 6, be any substitution of the index-
group determined by our 3%, which @, is not a substitution
of Gy. Let
G, =0,G49,* (2)
be an equivalent of G, which contains, not 6,, but an equiva-
lent 0,Jm4192' of the subgroup
Jmpi=I1+O01+ Ogt+... On (m>0),
which is common to Gg and our index-group I14.
Let Gj °: and G? °° stand for the two lines in our table
(A,,), which exhibit Gz and G, with their Q - 1 derivates, and
let Gi -: and Gt -: stand for those lines under 3, viz., for the
functions Gz and G, followed by their Q-1 values. Then
1S
G?° ‘= G, ae iA,G, Pe 2A.G, ro “an, + AG,
on pu AG. ty ae yoiaeG ay N. > (2)
which by (@) is
G+: = 0,Gg07) + 1A.0,Ga0g7 + ** + -1A.0.G a0"
+ ,A.0,Ga9z" + pi A.0gGqg6o* + ne "=N,; (c)
Functions given by Groups. 331
Since 67! is in N, and not in G,, it must. be in some
derivate of G,; let this be A,G, in (6): then we read, art. 10,
7A00,= 076, 7, me 3 (2)
Wherefore (c) becomes
Ge = 6,640; a7 14.0,G 495" mail *,-1A.0,G¢05"
+ Gg6z* 4+ pyA.0,.Gq8g'+°°°=N.3 —s ()
The left multipliers of G in (0) are
ui ) 1A., eG Sets yhiey priAe,’ we feeds
The left multipliers of G, in (c) are
(a. iA,, oA., eee peulte, ple puiA. + ats g—1A.) 6,
or the preceding each multiplied on the right by 6,.
We know that the first set are all different by article 4 ;
therefore, the second set 9,, 1A.0., &c., are all different, and
consequently, by (d@), all the sinister multipliers of G, in (e)
are different.
Put now G}", in (e) under 2; it becomes
Gt =0,G205' + 1:A.0,6200' + * --7A.8.G6202"
+ G6e + pyAG.G20e'+...=N. (/)
We have demonstrated in article 9, equation (9),
G.= Ga0;= Gaz". (3)
For 0; in article 9 means any 8, ¢.g., 62’, of the index-
group, whereby (7) becomes my new theorem,
Gi =0,62+1A.0.G2+ °° +71A8.G2+ Ga
"=k pn A-6,.G6et : ‘e1A.0,62= Gi° (h)
This is Gt +: in an order different from that of Gf‘: under
% in table (A,). We see Gz and Q-1 values of it, the
values of Q—1 different derivates of Gz; for we have proved
that these derivates are made by Q-1 multipliers of Gg, as
different from each other as are those of G, in (A,).
Thus in (%) it is demonstrated of G, and G, in (a) that
Gi++=Gi--,
U
332 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN on
and the charges brought by the standard G, against cértain
of its equivalents in what precedes, instead of being, that
each had under 2 a value algebraically identical with G,,
might as truly have been, that none had a value not a
value of Gy, or lacked any value of Gz But I am not sure
that the wider form of the charges made would better have
fixed the ideas of the student. Certainly it would have made
no difference in the steps of demonstration or in the result
concerning the number and definitions of functions to be
found.
15. No allusion to groups was made in the Question
proposed by the Academy of Paris, in'1858, for the com-
petition of 1860.
“ Quels peuvent etre les nombres de valeurs des fonctions
_ bien définies, quicontiennent un nombre donné de lettres, et
comment peut on former les fonctions pour lesquelles il
existe un nombre donné de valeurs?”
I soon discovered, on making in 1859 my first acquaint-
ance with groups and their functions, that the groups were
themselves the functions. All possible finite functions of z
letters with their values, & being the order of any group.
G of z elements, are before us when every G is written out with
OPN ; > P A
its ae derivates under every Zinturn. If Gis maximum,
n!=kQ=LQ, as inarticle 4. If G of order & is not maxi-
mum, it is a subgroup g of some maximum G’, whose Q
columns under 3%, each of L products, have for equal sub-
k
/
being g. And these - values can be dictated from those
QO columns of the maximum G’, which G’ can be written
((0x 1)=L),
Say sf
divisions the = values of the subgroup g, one subdivision
G=9+agtagt+.. tag
Thus it was clear to me that, to attempt to answer
Functions given by Groups. 333
questions about many-valued functions before the study
and formation of their groups, was to put the cart before
the horse.
I have most convincing proofs that in the very highest
places of European science, this cart before the horse is
analytical orthodoxy. Again and again I have been told
by mathematicians of the foremost repute in foreign seats of
learning, where these subjects are really studied, that what
I have done in groups, in the Memozrs and Proceedings of
this Society, will be very useful when once we have learned
how to form the right functions. Functions before Groups
is the opinion in fashion ; one can then amuse one’s self by
finding the groups.
In English, I have never even indirectly heard one word
of any opinion on my handling of either groups or their
functions.
The cart before the horse is certainly the correct method,
where you prefer pottering behind an orthodox wheel-
barrow to doing the work like an Englishman. :
16. The only result in these functions for z>5 that I
know of, as won in the path of genuine orthodoxy, is the
six-valued function of six letters given in the admirable
Algéebre Supérieure of M. Serret, p. 515, Paris, 1854. Its
form is a product in one line of five similar factors, one of
which is (ab+cd+éf).
The Academy, after this success in 1854 of one of their
most eminent members, were naturally desirous, in 1858, to
encourage further effort in the same orthodox direction.
That Algebre says nothing of groups.
In this year, 1891, I have, for the first time, had the
courage to unpack and lay in readable order all the con-
tents of this hard little bale of M. Serret. I have found
in it eight functions,
AA’A”BCDD'E.
334 THE REv. THos. P. KIRKMAN ox
A, as well as each of its duplicates, A’ and A”, is a one-
valued function of six terms.
B is a one-valued function of 15 terms. 5,
C is a one-valued function of 60 terms: freed from the
common multiplier abcdef, C is the sum of 60
triplets, a~ 08 c8, &c.
D, as well as its duplicate D’, is a six-valued function of
60 terms under 2=aPyydo"
E is a six-valued function of 30 terms under 2=aaBPyy.
Of the 243 terms of this six-valued product of five
factors, 153 are wasted on a tight and baffling twist of
useless symmetricals and duplicates,
The function D is my Y (AZM. p. 351), and the function
E is my U, (p. 352).
These functions, U and Y, are read in my pages, along
with the full tale of the eleven other possible six-valued
functions of six letters ; they are not hidden away in clumsy
packing, out of sight and guessing, but are all really given
with their values, rapidly readable in the columns of the six
equivalent maximum groups, one of which, J (p. 350), is
fully written out; the others being given in the same page
as its equivalents. All the functions given in my § 11. (p.
344), are “des fonctions bien définies,” of the Prize-question.
How far my complete accounts of the possible functions of
four and of five letters were new, I know not.
All this over 30 years ago. A forgotten story now. I
have had the sense, of course, to keep my peace. For, in
these islands, a thinker has often to be content with
“audience fit though few,” himself, and his guardian angel.
We have had some private fun together; but is it very
wicked in me to be heard laughing one little laugh before
I die?
The Academy were not content, arid saw no reason to
award their prize. I thought, 30 years ago, that I had done
Functions given by Groups. 335
with demonstration the work required. And to-day, heretic
that I am, I actually believe that I had done it all.
The Academy have never denied this. But the Academy
were not content. Would you know why? Well, look at
the shocking way in which I did it all; so utterly destitute
even of the vulgar grace of orthodoxy! Nowhere—nowhere
was my cart ever seen trotting before my horse!
17. To sum up. For this problem of many-valued
functions we require the necessary data, and the necessary
~ algebra.
We have the first when there is before us a table (A,) of
O equivalent maximum groups Gi:G....Gg made with z
elements, with all their derivates.
By writing over the Q columns of each line any the
same selected 3, we turn them into Git: +, Gat **,...Gar "+; QO
functions with all their values. It is easy by art. 8 to
reduce the Q functions in (A,) to 7< Q, which have all
under the chosen = Q values. We have only to determine
how many of these ¢ are distinct functions Git **, &c.
Form the index-group I,4: given by 3% Take any one
G, of the 7 groups, and to the +1 substitutions (#50) in
I,,, which are also in Gg, give in I,,, the names I, ©1, @2,..,
®,,; naming the other ¢— substitutions of Iij:, 61, ,...
0, Let 6, stand for any one of these ¢— 7.
The algebra is completed by—
G.= G.9, = 0,(0,7G.0,) = 0,6 fp
where G,0,, 6.°'G.0., 0,G,, stand for nothing but what G,#.,
6, G02, 0,G,, become under 3.
We find G, in our table (A,,) and mark it out by a d, as
useless, because the value 0,G, is identical algebraically with
@.z And we have ¢-m such outmarkings with d to per-
form, one for every 0,. We have then done with Gg: Gg is
one of our sought functions,
We take next any group Gg, in (A,,) which is not marked
336 THE REv. THOS. P, KIRKMAN oz
out by @, and we deal with I... compared with Gyg, just as
we dealt with it (m0) compared with G, We have next
to mark out, by @? (¢- mm) times, other groups, each of which
gives a function that has a value identical with G", The
same group may be more than once marked by d, and more
than once by @’; it matters not for how many reasons we
reject it as useless under 3. We have now done with Ga,
and G,, is one of our sought functions. |
We take next any group Gygg that is not marked out
either by @ or d?, and repeat the same process till there is
no group in our table (A,,) that is not marked out, except
Ge, Gian. Gagan OCC,
that we have handled and done with.
If there are R of these so done with, our table (A,,) has
given us R distinct Q-valued functions G,, &c., all under
the same 3, which will differ in the number of their terms,
(article 13). |
When we have thus used every 3 under which 7
groups in (Z,) have Q values, and have dealt in like manner
with every table (B,) (C,) &c., of which there are always
more than one for z>5, of equivalent maximum transitive
groups, we have found, and can dictate with all its values,
every possible finite many-valued function of z letters (as
shown in article 15), which is not a mere product of simpler
functions.
The cases of 3 under which Q-r groups in our tables
(A,,) &c. give functions of fewer than Q values, are all
simple, and the Q -, are easily laid aside. The proof will
appear in practice upon definite values of , the number of
letters to be handled.
I have tacitly assumed in what precedes, that there is no
k-valued whole and rational function of z letters that cannot
be formed by writing a certain = over a group and its 2-1
derivates. Instead of piling up. words to prove this nega-
tive, I content myself with promising that, being given
Functions given by Groups. 337
any one value, F., of a £-valued function F of z letters, I
will so write F, that, when exponents are all effaced, it
shall be exactly a group containing unity, whose derivates
under & just effaced shall be the remaining k-1 values
of F.
I am inclined to believe that the only datum really
necessary for the finding all such functions F, whatever
- they ‘may be, is one only written out of the Q equivalent.
maximum groups, say the cyclical group containing
234...(2—1) z 1; but, that the method from such datum,
if practicable, would be briefer in exposition and easier in
practice than that given in the preceding expansion of
M.M. pp. 342, 343, requires to be proved.
338 PROCEEDINGS.
[ Physical and Mathematical Section.]
Annual Meeting March 11th, 1891.
JAMES BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., President of the
Section, in the Chair.
The Treasurer's accounts for the year 1890-91 were
presented, and showed :—Balance from last year, £ 3. 19s. 7d.,
cash received during the current year 44. Ios. 4d., making
a total of £8. 9s. 11d. ; against which were payments during
the current year 45. 3s. 7d.; leaving a balance in favour of
the Section of £3. 6s. 4d.
It was moved by Mr. WM. THOMSON, seconded by Mr.
J. A. BENNION, and resolved :—“That the Treasurer's
accounts be received and passed.”
The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Section for the ensuing year :—
President—J. A. BENNION, M.A., Barrister-at-Law.
Vice-Presidents—J AS. BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc. F.C.S.;
Won. THOMSON, F.R.S.Ed., F.C.S., F.I.C.
Secretary—T. W. BROWNELL, F.R.A.S.
Treasurer—JOHN ANGELL, F.C.S., F.LC,
The following constitute the Section :—
Members—JOHN ANGELL, F.C.S., F.I.C.; JAMES
BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S.; T. W. BROWNED
F.R.A.S.; F. J. FARADAY, F.L.S., F.S.S.; A. HODGKINSON,
M.B., D.Sc.; Wm. MATHER, M.P.; WM. THOMSON,
F.R.S.Ed., F.C.S., F.LC. Assoctate—J. A. BENNION, M.A.
The Levenshulme Limestones. 339
Notes on the Geological section exposed in the Railway
Cutting from Levenshulme to Fallowfield. By Wm.
Brockbank, F.G.S., F.L.S., and C. E. de Rance,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., of
H.M. Geological Survey.*
(Recezved January 27th, 1891.)
PART II.
It was intended to have dealt with the Permian strata
in this communication, but since Part I. was laid before
you, a very important exposure of the beds, lying below
those described on that occasion, has been disclosed by
the cutting of a sewer on the south side of the railway,
which has proved the Upper Coal Measures to extend
eastward to a distance of 1,072 feet, from Slade Lane
Bridge, and it appears desirable to complete this portion of
the subject before entering into the details observed of the
later formations, and also to compare the results obtained
as to the thickness and character of the Upper Coal
Measures exposed in the section, with those proved in
borings in the Manchester District, and the same sub-
formation elsewhere, and the bearing of the facts observed
on the probable mode of deposit of these very interesting
beds.
The beds exposed in the section described in our last
communication, amount to a vertical thickness of 230 feet,
and contain eight groups of limestone of a united thick-
ness of 30 feet, but, eliminating the marl and shale partings,
the thickness of pure limestone is 24 feet, down to the
base of the eighth group.
* Communicated with the permission of the Director General,
340 Mr. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
The beds since exposed extend eastwards, towards the
London and North Western Railway, for a distance of
about 734 feet, the average dip is about 16 degrees,
the maximum inclination being to the S.W., or an angle
to the line of railway, the thickness of the beds exposed
is not less than 244 feet. They consist of bright purple marls
occasionally mottled.
The most interesting portion of the stotitn eee
the following beds in descending order :—
ft, ins
Red marls ... 86 ©
Mottled marls £\'6
Limestone (No.IX) °o I0
Mottled marls 200
Purple marls 2G
Hard red shale ... fo) ae
7
Limestone nodules aie
Light purple marl q* 8
Indurated green marl OLE
Purple marls 180 oO
The number IX. limestone is remarkable for containing
large patches of nearly pure hematite; on microscopic
examination the grey portions of it prove to be wholly
made of fragments of Exztomostraca and bone, curiously
intermingled, and closely mixed up, with the atoms of
hematite.
Details of Levenshulme Railway Cutting in Upper
| Coal Measures.
Depth. Thickness.
ft, in. ( ft. ims
Lower Permian, or Collyhurst sandstone,
coarse, loosely aggregated grit, with peb-
bles of quartz, Lydian stone, and Jasper
25) 16 Purple shales, brecciated tga dud a of
the same. aa One) ten) a
20 °°G Ditto green rota arid spe ce aan Ces
40: © Purple hard ‘maris’\ 0.0 4q Ng PA a eee
1)
66° 6.,.... Ditto, hgbter ‘with: plants (2), “a. ais st 8
86
112
116
116
118
6
744 \Green shale..
5% (Bastard vsti ee
"| Limestone ( Goecer Des rH
| Limestone purple fracture...
\
The Levenshulme Limestones.
FAULTS.
Dark hard purple marl, green partings ...
Green sandstone, with plants (?) ...
Purple marls ae
Limestone o 6too
tem Sate aed Sel’ ie ae
Limestone
Shale. .
Shale ...
Limestone ( Soares rae
OPO OF 0:0) 6
Red rubbly —) mS
Purple marls (Spzvorbis) ...
Greyish purple marls ...
Purple and green marls > aud
Purple shale, with dark bands ...
Hematite red marl
Green marl..
Purple calcareous marl
Limestone, very irregular o 10 to
Yellow parting
OP OF Org. |
Brown marl and limonite ...
Green shale
fn er re ee |
Brown parting ... . emer re >:
Limestone, brecciated pink...
Dark yellow marl
Purple shaley marl
Limestone, nodular, irregular ee
ture, pure nae fe)
Sandy purple marl, loose se
AG MARE es) ease vant act Oh e
Green marl with Spirorbis...
Soft purple marl ..
La |
0%
ov
7
2
fe)
os etl
8
Hard purple and ees apd, anes (2)
Purple shales, green partings
341
Thickness.
i=. in;
aie
£8
6.0
‘2°14
a 9
4 9
8 9
&. ‘a
.
eS
fe 3
(apeiry
Lal
wm fp 0 O
Io
342 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
La
pen.
Pan Limestone , ©
Marl a ante een
Limestone . 100" 5-10"
Marl oh)
Limestone 0
ate Yellow marl... Be)
Purple ,, : eo)
Bastard Rage 16
Purple marl .. oe)
135 3% \Bastard tinedone = as
138 9% Variegated marl scares) “i
Limestone... a. . 2 2 tO
Green and purple chile . Oo
IV.4 Limestone purple... . 0
Purple marl... ae
141 7% \Limestone fo)
146 7% Purple shale, with ub ical bacure Mf
149 74 Brown ,, - ‘9
153 TA Purple 39 39 9
160 14% Crimson ,, ., zs
160 2% Limonite ,, - ¥ .
V. (Limestone with 1%" of shale at 6"
163 84 1’ 10” from base soe Oa ee oN
Purple and green marls
Hematite marl
Brown marl...
Purple and green marls
181 o% Purple marl
181 034 Green Marl... si
181 1134 {Limestone ; We
F. \ Ditto, with fish remains : 16
Shale 25% 1)
Nodular Tiestias cae)
Green calcareous shale P<)
184 8% \Purple marls ss ey |
G. (Zimestone (hematite Kigeties ee
Marl sete sey dee as ae
Limestone, very baa ceiaee ie
Yellow marl... .., ee)
Purple aia) Beat, meee ee)
185 5 Limestone ... - 0
and )
°
Thickness.
ft. 4
in.
5%
834
The Levenshulme Limestones. 343
Depth. Thickness.
ft. in. ft. in.
186 3 Peceisiy MANS... (<8! | Sad ee age ee ae
H. { Lemestone
Bright green marl
Compact hematite marl
Earthy ironstone—olive brown ...
Purple marl..
Cal. Gives in yellow at
ioe | 3 Purple marl...
waa | Le Lzmestomeyvery tough... 2.2) 60. wee ene LG
0. 0.0).070 6: a
NS w
Ne ee ee
N
°
Green marls... Oe
Purple marl... : <n A
Green and red marls ... eae: a
19% 3 Purple and grey marls ae
3 { Limestone (Fish bed) ... ord \ :
193 8 Green marl... Me 5
Limestone . avg
{dimen ey Wire. 2 FO
£07. 6 Limestone {ES
198 6 Green marl... ie ih oN ait > 76
254.6 ee en i, oer eh ae ai) SO - Os
250 0 Mottled marl an so &
256 10 Limestone, with hematite ... ° 10
258 I0 Mottled marls zz ©
260 10 Purple |, Peer ates sy"! act’! ane vane eee
261° § Maca iareh Guat. Aer sa | et eel ee 2 EF
26r 4 Limestone nodules a.3
262 4 Light purple marl es
BO3 3 Indurated green marl... OE eee Te a
4A 8 Purple mars, wun ees - 180 o(t)
The section here dips aa Glacial Drift
The Limestones occurring in the Upper Coal Measures
of Western Britain, appear to have been first noticed by Mr.
Francis Looney, F.G.S., in the key to Elias Hall’s Geological
Map, at Ardwick, near Manchester, who described, early
in the century, fish remains from that horizon and from
the Bradford Coalfields, but Professor Williamson was
the first to fully describe them, in a memoir (London and
344 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
Edinburgh, Phil. Mag., 3rd Series, Vol. IX. p.p. 241-348.
1836) on the Limestones found in the vicinity of Manchester,
and at the first meeting of the British Association in the
county of Lancaster, held at Liverpool in September,
1837 (Report Brit. Assoc., 1837, p. 81), a paper was read
“On the Coal Measures of West Lancashire,” by Mr. (now
Professor) W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., in which he describes
the Fossil Fish of the Lancashire Coalfield, and refers
to those occurring in the Ardwick Limestones, the Bradford
Coalfield, and the Black and White Mine at Peel,
Palenoniscus, Holoptychius, and other genera being described.
It is worthy of note, that the late Sir Philip Egerton, F.R.S.,
and Dr. Dalton, F.R.S., were Vice-Presidents of this
meeting. In 1837, Sir Roderick Murchison made a careful
examination of the Shropshire Upper Coal Measures
Limestone, which he found charged there and in Manchester
with a shell he named Spzvorbis (Microchonchus) Carbonaria,
which has since proved to be an annelid. In the
Shrewsbury and Coalbrook Dale Coalfields he describes
the limestone as varying from 2 to g feet, and occurring
associated with mottled clays, greenish grits, and a
calcareous breccia, resembling volcanic ashes.
In 1839, Mr. Binney adopted Elias Hall’s term of “the
Manchester Coalfield,” for the Upper Coal Measures, and
described the fishes of what he called the Coal Measures
freshwater limestones of Ardwick and Uffington, and Lee-
botwood, in Shropshire, and refers to Sir Roderick Mur-
chison’s discovery of the Sfzvorbis, the Mucroconchus
Carbonaria in these beds ; and describes his own investiga-
tion of the fish remains occurring in the limestones, which
he considered belong to the genera :—Ctenoptychius, Mega-
lichthys, Diplopterus, Paleoniscus, Platysomus, Dzplodus, and
large long rays, resembling those found at Burdie House in
Scotland. The thickness of these strata (River Medlock),
he states, “from the turn in the river to the Beswick Toll
The Levenshulme Limestones. 345
Bar, is about 150 yards (450 feet). From the last-named
place to the Openshaw Coal, the highest Mine that has been
worked in the district, must be near I00 yards. The
Bradford and Clayton Mines next succeed here, and seven
seams have been worked.”
Mr. Binney then goes on to describe the so-called
boundary fault of the Coalfield, bringing in the New Red
Sandstone, and adduces evidence to show that the latter
abuts against an old short line of the former, and is not
a fault in the geological acceptance of the term. It is
of interest to note that the Permians at Levenshulme lie
naturally on the Coal Measures, in the manner suggested
by Mr. Binney, east of Manchester.
Mr. Edward (now Dr.) Hull, F.R.S., in 1864, gave a
detailed description of the Manchester Upper Coal Measures,
in the Geological Survey Memoir, “On the country around
Oldham.” He states, “In no other part of Britain have
calcareous beds been so strongly developed in the upper part
of the Carboniferous rocks. In most other districts where
they are represented, a single band of limestone, a few inches
in thickness, is all that occurs. Here, however, there are at
least six beds, with an aggregate thickness of about 15 feet
of limestone ; but it is to be recollected that this is not the
entire amount that has been formed, for as the Coal
Measures dip unconformably under the Permian Sandstone,
it is highly probable that still higher bands of limestone lie
concealed under the Triassic and Permian rocks of Man-
chester.”
Professor Hull describes the Ardwick Limestones as
“grey, white, or reddish,” as “unevenly bedded, and having
often the appearance of breccia cemented by carbonate of
lime,” all of which are familiar characteristics of the Lime-
stones that have passed under your review from Levens-
hulme, where his forecast as to higher beds being discovered
has been amply verified.
346 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
He estimates the vertical distance from the lower lime-
stone at Ardwick to the Openshaw coal, in the Bradford
and Clayton coal series, as 200 yards, which consists of the
following :—
ft. in ft: via:
Openshaw Mitte | vss coe. its eet (2 0 1) ee
MGdaSUres:...- “ste ses. fake | eta BOUL 135-76
Charlotte Mine)’. hee a i eke TE 1 FC)
DAR ASUIEERY.55: Vencie asec Peceteney eae 210. 78
Tissitivier Binele cout teehe (ofan Cy
Measures ....0 4..: 15 6
Four Feet ae (iiloan Canis = ore 4. Feet 2.56
At Ardwick, the section recorded by Professor Hull,
F.R.S., is as follows :—
fe." ) in, ft. ving
36.0 ‘Boulder clay and sand. \( i...) ..::. (1.0) (ee
120 0 Red sandy loam, shale and fog a2) 2. or
E23) 3° LAMestOne VATA MME os nan) see | xeny) nn
720. © Brown shaley clay... 0c) wos sea, ee
130. © | Limestone Hlalf-yard ming ss. 0. te et
745 9 ‘Reddish shale and clay- 2: -... .. -.. gee
wg sot, Bigerclay! is. \ hae ek Oth (Eas A
£76) 16. Sandstone \esiege set) ek Geet)
194 6 Shale, with joints ee 18 6
195 o Black bandzronstone(d nthraconye Prt o 6
196. 0. Coaliand bass: <:.)..... , ss
200.0. UOne Clay. ss, ewe. cangiy bes. | ete) een | oe
212 .6 Limestone, Great Mine vec poiy tan Se
At a still lower level occurred a Limestone 18 in. in thickness.
Since the publication of the Survey Memoir, a very
important boring has been carried out in search of
coal, in Openshaw, attention to which was drawn,
whilst it was in progress, by the late Mr. Binney, and
numerous fossils were collected from the Permian marls,
and ferns from the Coal Measure shales, and a careful
section was made, the results of which below the Permian
marls here follow. The upper beds will be described with
The Levenshulme Limestones. 347
the Permians of Levenshulme in the third and concluding
part of this communication.
Clayton Vale Boring, Openshaw, near canal.
Depth from the
Surface. Strata. Thickness.
ft. in. . fe. in.
1042 0 Dark-grey shale ... ae
1058 o o> 1 apes Guilty shale 16 o
1075 o Purple shale cy See.
1080 o Dark-grey shale, rather titty 5 oO
1080 6. Grey sandstone ... sv GoG
1084 o. Purple shale Eden:
1088 o Dark-grey and purple gle 4 ©
Teor” 6 95 sandstone a) Oo
1147 0 Pirple shale, very dark purple .. 46 6
1149 11 Grey earthy limestone... 2 4
1350), 1. AGrey shaid.... O, 1.2
1177. 2 Purple shale 27 I
1186 6 Grey limestone aoe 9 4
1192 6 Purple shale, with green hte ae 6 o
1194 2 Grey limestone e ES
1196 o Grey and purple shale LEO
1196 4 Purple shale oA
1199 0 Srown limestone... etd naa 28
1201 8 Purple shale A De: oe ere BS
1205 0 Grey limestone A £
1214 4 Purple shale ‘ ss 9 4
1219 4 Red shale and limestone eee 0
1224 4 Variegated shale... 5 6
1224 10 Limestone breccia aa o.- G
nazo.. .4y7 Red shale} ick) det See See 5 6
1232 2 Limestone, earthy diet Wy aeakttrged'z ees I 10
1237. 2 Wariesated shaley.elag A a4 ee) a0 iS
many & Gite Wee oie ida ee a eh ae cS
225 6 62) 6Shale’... of
1239 8 Grey Limestone ea
1241 2 Purple shale 1 6
1241 11 Limestone PaeP eee Rete Peal aaae sa +e
aeareses 2) SAT cee ee ata She = chee! teem ke,
Vv
348 MR. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE oz
Depth from the
Surface. Strata. Thickness.
ft. as fe; iis
1243 (8° Grey Demestoe sy once)” tee ees |
1245. 2° Shale’and ‘Clay cc ives ven ecg eee
i259. 5. Vaniesated purple sale’... /... 2s. Ge
1265 2 Purple shale, lenticular zvomstone’ ... ... ae
12062 “Red sandstone, very finmec. © 1.4.5. sae
1277, 6 Ked and grey sandstone, very fine’... ... "Sx
1280 9g Purple shale = ae
1281 6 Calcareous band, with ae a's
1289 6 Sandstone and shale... ... ioe)
1299 oO Red and grey sandstone a Newraptri ) 9 6
r300 0 Red shale ... I
The vertical thickness of the Coal Measures here pene-
trated amount to 263 feet, of which about 34 feet consist of
limestone, limestone breccia, and ironstone.
At Messrs. Deakin’s (now Manchester Brewery Com-
pany) well at Ardwick, the Upper Coal Measures occurred at
a depth of 483 feet from the surface, thus :-—
Hard red marl, with limestone and hema-
489 6 2
tite bands
4eo 9 ' Red und grey shale” 20.) s.0 ne cee es, SO
At Messrs. Fryers and Co.’s Sugar Works the Upper Coal
Measures occurred at a depth of 420 feet, the section being :
Eaiiae ae and ‘purple marls, with bands of} eee ee
Spirorbis limestone... One ark ek
At Messrs. Worrall’s.. Dye Works, Ordsall, near Salford,
the Coal Measures were reached at a depth of 1,230 feet;
6 feet 6 inches of hard grey rock, resting on red marl, was
only proved, thé total depth being 1,236 feet.
The Permians were not penetrated at Messrs. Grove and
Whitnall’s Brewery, Regent-road, at 666 feet from the
surface, or at Messrs. Holt’s Brewery, Cheetham Hill, at
526 feet.
The Levenshulme Limestones. — 349
At Mr. Wood’s boring, in Medlock Vale, near Water-
bourne, the base of the Permians was reached at a depth of
718 feet 10 inches, and 143 feet 7 inches of Coal Measures
were proved beneath; no limestones occurred, the beds
consisting of red, grey, and black sandstones, shales, marls,
and fire-clays. These beds are probably below the Ardwick
Limestones, and there appears to be little doubt that the
Levenshulme Limestones are above those of Ardwick,
though belonging to the same physical group. It may,
hereafter, be convenient to describe them as the Ardwick
and Levenshulme Limestones ; these portions of the Upper
Coal Measures obtaining their maximum development in
England in the districts so named.
West of Manchester, the Upper Coal Measures have
been proved at several points ; our knowledge of them is
largely due to the late Mr. Binney, but has been usefully
supplemented by Professor Hull.
At Patricroft, under the Permian, occurred :—
eS is
Red and grey shales beet ley eee eG: °C
CT AB ew, bee} 5k Shy V8. SO 27:@
Bilaies AGG SANGStONE! VS. noc) do, ues), TPH.
ee Ne cen igus, cons I IO
Shale and sandstone ee cians fain ga ea ee
Worley Pour feet Coal. si.) ee. aes a. 8
The total depth was 1,324 ft. 3 in.
The ironstone was identified by Binney as that occurring
at Beswick Lodge, just referred to, and he remarks “that
both occur in shales containing the bivalve shell Axthra-
comya Phillipst.” [Named after Dr. Phillips, of Manchester,
by Mr. (now Professor) Williamson, in 1836.]
This calcareous ironstone (22 to 26 per cent of metallic
iron) has recently been identified by one of us in a boring
for water at Monton, and it doubtless lies over a large area
underlying the Manchester Ship Canal. It is worthy of
350 Mr. BROCKBANK AND MR. C. E. DE RANCE on
note that only 396 yards of measures intervened between it
and Worsley Four Feet Coal, and that the Limestones
Measures have been removed by denudation before the
Permian era, and it appears highly probable that westwards
this denudation has been even more extreme, and that
workable coals are still nearer the surface; but still
further westward the Upper Measures are again in
force, the Sfzrvorbis Limestone appearing at Whiston
four feet in thickness. It is there overlaid by a purple
sandstone. : |
The Spzvorbzs Limestone is present in nearly all the
western Coalfields extending from the Abberley Hills to
Ayrshire, a distance of 250 miles, with a mean width of 50
miles, so may be assumed to have been deposited over an
area of not less than 12,500 square miles. In several dis-
tricts there is evidence that before the deposition of these
Upper Measures great denudation of the Middle and Lower
Coal Measures had taken place, the Upper Coal Measures,
in an extreme case, resting directly on the Old Red Sand-
stone. And there is also good evidence that extensive
denudation took place before and during the Permian
epoch, rocks of the latter resting on every member of the
carboniferous series from the carboniferous limestones up
to the highest Upper Coal Measures known, which occur in
the Manchester district. Especially is this the case at
Levenshulme, where the actual junction of the two series
has been carefully studied by us, the base of the Permian
containing well-rounded and travelled pebbles of jasper,
limestone, Lydian stone, and vein quartz. The surface of
the Coal Measures beneath is a clear, well-marked division
of the most defined character, the uppermost beds con-
sisting of indurated dark, greyish-purple marls, with
numerous angular fragments of the same material, arranged
in a manner that would be called a breccia were the
material harder, and suggesting sub-aerial waste of an old
The Levenshulme Limestones. 351
land surface, and that here no pre-Permian denudation of
the carboniferous rocks has taken place.
Many tons weight of the limestone beds from Levens-
hulme have been conveyed to Brockhurst, where the
various horizons have been kept carefully apart, and are
available for future study; the effect of frost, and weathering,
has disclosed many interesting fossil forms, which were
not at firstapparent. The fish and possibly reptilian remains
are being studied by Mr. Wm. Davis, F.G.S. F.LS,,
of Chevinedge, Halifax; the mollusca by Mr. Newton,
F.G.S., F.L.S., of the Geological Survey; and Professor
Rupert Jones, F.R.S., has undertaken the microscopic
organisms.
Studying the fauna as a whole, it reproduces, in a
remarkable degree, the forms occurring in the Burdie
House Limestones, and points to a striking recurrence of
conditions, the one occurring at the commencement of the
Carboniferous Epoch, the other at its close. It is worthy
of note that the first appearance is in the more northern
area, just as coal seams and their attendant flora preceded
the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestones in the
South of Scotland; in the North of England they only
appear in the millstone grits, while in the South of England
the latter are called the Farewell Rocks, the coal seams
only coming in the true Coal Measures overlying. It is of
interest, also, to note, that in the Arctic regions the coal
seams of the “Ursa Stage” are older than the Car-
boniferous Limestones, and are about equivalent to the
Burdie House series.
The recurrence of these early conditions is most marked
in the Ardwick and Levenshulme series, where many
microscopic slides of the limestone are undistinguishable,
in the character of the minute fauna, from the forms present
in those from Burdie House.
It is a source of satisfaction to bring before the Society
352 The Levenshulme Limestones.
a detailed description of these beds, the earliest description
of which it fell to the lot of one* of us to lay before you in
1883, when the nature of the underlying deposits were then
unknown. It was, however, pointed out that whatever age
they might be, they were cut off to the east, by a downthrow
fault bringing in the New Red Sandstone. The truth of
this has since been well established by numerous borings in
that direction.
* W. Brockbank, F.G.S., ‘*On the Levenshulme Limestone.”—J/emozrs
Man. Lit. and Phil. Soc., Third Series, Vol. VIII.
PROCEEDINGS. 353
Ordinary Meeting, March 24th, 1891.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors
of the books upon the table.
Mr. FARADAY exhibited a specimen of crystallised
bismuth, presented to the Society’s collection by Mr. GEORGE
FREEMANTLE, of Manchester, and the thanks of the
members were accorded to Mr. FREEMANTLE for his in-
teresting gift.
Mr. WM. BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., read the following
“Supplementary Note on the Aznelda and Entomos-
traca in the Levenshulme limestones” :—
“On examining the microscopic sections of these lime-
stones, many objects were seen which were not fully described,
or named, in my paper of December 2nd, 1890. The
Entomostraca cannot well be identified when thus seen, cut
through by the section. All the published plates of the
Entomostraca represent the exterior forms of the objects.
Many similar fossils to those seen in the limestones have
since been found in the shales and clays at Levenshulme
which are interbedded with the limestones, and they
probably represent the same varieties as those entombed
in the solid rocks. A good many of these small objects,
which are about the size of bird seeds, have been washed
out of the shales and clays by Mr. Roeder and others, with
infinite care and much trouble, and a collection of these
tiny Entomostraca has been submitted to Prof. T. Rupert
Jones and Mr. L. W. Kirby, whose description of the
varieties has been published in the TZyvansactions of
the Manchester Geological Society for the present
354 PROCEEDINGS.
session, together with an excellent plate, shewing the
objects magnified about 30 diameters. They are all
described as belonging to the genus Carbonia, and the
number of species, six. Messrs. Jones and Kirby say the
Carbonia are rarely found associated with truly marine
fossils—but they swarmed in muddy waters of the coal
period with fish, amphibia, Azthracosza, and shells of that
family, the ubiquitous Sfzvorbzs Carbonarius, and coal plants
(ferns excepted), and are probably indicative of Estuarine
habitats. The old name for these fossils was Ostracoda. It
is interesting to have these illustrations, but they do not
compare successfully with the beauty of the same objects
when seen under the microscope, as preserved in the lime-
stones, where every detail of the shell construction is
beautifully shewn. The microscope sections exhibited to
the Society have also been examined in London by
Professor Jones, Mr. Newton, and others, who believe the
Entromostraca therein to be the same as those submitted by
Mr. Roeder. The various forms of Aznelzda seen in the
limestone sections may be understood by comparing them
with a plate published in the Geol, Mag. for 1880. That
volume contains a series of Articles by R. Etheridge, Junr.,
on the British Carboniferous tubicular Aunelzda. There are
several forms of Spzvorbis described and shewn, two
of which occur in the Levenshulme limestones. Mr.
Etheridge says the living Spzrorbzs is a marine insect.
The two varieties of Spivorbis which I believe to be
represented in our limestones, are (1) S. Pusillus and
(2) S. Ambiguus. S. Pusillus is stated by Mr. Etheridge
to occur in the Ardwick Limestone, and to be the species
described by Phillips, Binney, and Salter. The range of
strata through which this tiny annelid existed is enormous
as it was found by Dr. Hibbert, at Burdie House, in a lime-
stone at the very base of the Coal Measures—as well as
in our limestones at the uppermost portion. At least 10,000
PROCEEDINGS. 355
feet of Coal Measures intervene between the Burdie House
and the Ardwick Limestones, and we have practically the
same Sfzrorbis in both. It is the simplest of all the species,
the coil being open, lax, and imperfect. A great peculiarity
of this form, noticed by many observers, was its power of
burrowing, or making an impression on the surface of any
object to which it became attached. It was also solitary in
its habit, and is frequently found upon the fronds of.
fossil ferns. The other variety which occurs in our micro-
scopic sections, S. Ambiguus, has a nautilus-like section
when cut through the centre. Mr. Etheridge says S.
Ambiguus appears in the marine limestones to take the
place of the burrowing form SS. Puszllus, which is so
essentially characteristic of the brackish water deposits
of the same epoch. In S. Ambdbiguus the tube is globose,
dextral, whorls one to one and a half, but concealed by the
last volution. This species is decidedly gregarious, living
in small clusters. The form certainly appears in all
the lower Levenshulme limestones where the mollusca
and fish remains are present, and it is not seen in the upper-
most limestones. In estuarine formations, where fresh water
alternated with brackish and salt waters at certain periods,
the varieties of Szvorbis may thus help us to judge whether
the bed of limestones is of fresh water or marine origin.
Many examples of S. Ambiguus are to be seen in the
microscopic sections submitted to the Society. Another
form of Annelid seen in our sections is the Serpulztes
Carbonarius tubes of thin shelly material from 1%
to 3 lines in width. It is distinguished from the Serpula
by its narrow elongated form. Of the Sevpu/a there are
many examples, and they are generally attached to other
objects. Vermilia are also very common, tiny tubes of
wavy form, covering shells ; such are to be seen on our sea
coast at this time. There are also many tubular objects
with annulations like tiny encrinital stems. These belong
356 PROCEEDINGS.
to the genus Orvtona, which was originally proposed for
the Silurians. There is, however, Ortona Carbonaria, a
tubicular annelid with small tube, slightly conical, straight,
or slightly curved, with circular sections ornamented by
sharp continuous undulations or rings, which agrees nearly
with our objects. L astly, we find in our sections tiny curved
spine-like objects, which may be taken to belong to the
sixth class of the annelids, viz., Dztrupa. Tubes, small,
elongate, curved, plain, smooth, hollow, tapering gradually.
This is the tiniest annelid of all, and it is now living on the
coast of Madeira. It is found in the Scotch Coal Measures.
It will be seen, therefore, that all these forms of annelids
are characteristic of the Carboniferous Epoch. A correct
knowledge of these tiny objects is of value, as it enables us
to recognise an Upper Coal Measure limestone by a very
simple microscopic test.”
Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., read a paper
entitled “ An Historical Account of the genus Latzvus and
its dependencies, with descriptions.of eleven new species,”
and presented a catalogue of Latzrus and Peristernia,
embodying the results of his re-classification. A collection
of the shells was exhibited.
A paper by Mr. W. W.-H. GEE, B.Sc. FCS, amd
THOMAS EWAN, Ph.D., B.Sc, on “The Comparison of
Thermometers,” was read by the last-named gentleman,
who was introduced by Mr. GEE.
The Comparison of Thermometers. 357
On the Comparison of Thermometers. By Thos. Ewan,
Ph.D., B.Sc., and W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S.
(Received March 24th, 1891.)
The experiments described in the following paper were
undertaken with the object of finding a practical method
for standardizing platinum resistance thermometers and
comparing them with mercurial thermometers.
The platinum thermometer, as suggested by Siemens,
has been improved by Callendar,* who found that, if
the ratio ©
ro00( ia )
Ryoo cis R, :
be taken as ‘temperature by platinum thermometer’=f¢
[where R,, R,, and Ry are the resistances at 7°, 0°, and
100° respectively], then the differences between the readings
of an air thermometer and those of the platinum ther-
mometer are represented by the equation
py 5 =) é
io ia { 100 - =}
For the specimen of platinum wire used by Callendar
the constant 6 was found to be 1°57. This formula agreed
with the results within 17/ through a range of 700 degrées.
Griffithst has confirmed these results, and has shown
that the 6 formula represents the differences between the
* Phil. Trans. 1887. A.
+ Brit. Ass., Leeds Meeting, 1890. (Zvectrician, Oct., 1890.)
Proc. Roy. Soc., June, 1890.
Callendar and Griffiths, Proc. Roy. Soc., Dec., 1890.
358 Dr... T. EWAN AND Mr. HALDANE GEE ox
readings of air thermometer and the platinum thermometer
with even greater accuracy than Callendar had supposed.
Under these circumstances we thought it desirable to
elaborate a method which would allow of the platinum
thermometer being standardized and then used for com-
parison with mercury thermometers, and especially to find
what degree of accuracy could be attained without the use
of elaborate precautions or special apparatus.
To determine the fixed points on the scale of the plati-
num thermometer we immersed it in the vapour of water
boiling under diminished pressure. The same apparatus
served for the comparison with the mercury thermometer.
Regnault’s tables of the pressures of aqueous vapour
ST
The Comparison of Thermometers. 359
have already been used by Shaw* for measuring tempera-
tures. He aspirated a known volume of air saturated with
moisture at a temperature ‘7, through tubes filled with
pumice moistened with strong sulphuric acid. The increase
in the weight of these tubes gave the data necessary for
calculating ¢ This method is, however, only applicable to
ordinary temperatures.
The platinum thermometer (Fig. 1.) which we used was
made under the direction of Mr. E. H. Griffiths, by Mr.
Thomas, of Cambridge. It consists of a platinum wire
coiled on a roll of asbestos paper. The ends of this wire
are soldered to thick copper leads, which communicate
with binding screws. The coil is protected by a thin glass
tube closed at the lower end. The copper leads are in-
sulated by narrower glass tubes. The resistance of the
coil at 0 was 10°637 ohm.
The mercurial thermometer used was one by Hicks, and
was graduated in 4% degrees. The calibration of the stem
gave the following corrections :—
Correction at 100°......06. + °38
F EOE BOK diet aaa +°32
» $i. OD dacialon's + ‘27
i A |S. eee +°22
9 EP KIO: aseaaces +15
” 99 HO eweseveee +14
” 99 4 accvceces + “12
” a AOn cabs igacn + °o8
» by EO dom acune +06
rP) 99 LO sovveeeee ga Se
” Si Oh seat seds +0'O
The measurements of the resistance were made by
means of a post-office resistance box, by Elliot, and a sensi-
tive galvanometer. The resistances were read directly on
the box to ‘or ohm, and the numbers in the third decimal
* Cambridge, Phil. T, vans., 1885.
360 Dr. T. EWAN AND Mr. HALDANE GEE on
place obtained by interpolation from the deflections of the
galvanometer.
The resistance coils were of German silver, and were
correct at 19°C. The temperature was taken by a ther-
mometer (graduated in tenths of a degree) placed inside
the box, but owing to the construction of the latter the
thermometer could not be in actual contact with the coils,
which introduces a considerable uncertainty into the correc-
tion for the temperature of the coils. Most of the
irregularities in the measurements of temperature by
platinum thermometer are probably due to this. The
correction was applied by the formula
Rio = R{1 — 0°0004433 (19 - 4)]
An error of 1° in taking the temperature of the coils may
make an error of 02° in the temperature measured by
platinum thermometer.
The platinum coil was connected with the resistance
coils by thick leads, consisting of bundles of copper wires.
Three or four Leclanché cells were used, and a commutator
‘was included in the circuit.
After several unsuccessful attempts the apparatus shown
in Fig. 2 for boiling water under diminished pressure was
found to give satisfactory results. .
It consists of a copper vessel A, such as is used for
determining the boiling point of thermometers. The
upper end is closed by an india-rubber stopper, through
which two glass tubes pass. One of them terminates shortly
below the stopper, and through it the stem of the platinum
thermometer passes, the joint being closed air-tight by a
piece of india-rubber tubing slipped over both tubes. The
other is long enough to admit the mercurial thermometer,
and is closed at the lower end, and filled with water covered
by a layer of paraffin, or better, with mercury.
The Comparison of Thermometers. 361
It is necessary to protect the mercury thermometer in this
way, as the exposure of its bulb to the diminished pressure
inside the apparatus may produce a very sensible error in
its indications (vzde Guzllaume Thermométrie de Précision.
Paris, 1889).
Regnault,* in his experiments on the Vapour Tension of
steam, made use of a similar arrangement. Some experi-
ments which he made on this point showed that the readings _
of the thermometer at 100° were the same whether it was
directly exposed to the steam or not.
The steam issuing from the opening C is condensed by
an ordinary Liebig’s condenser. It is important that there
should be no narrow tubes in this part of the apparatus,
otherwise the pressure in the boiler may be higher than that
indicated on the gauge.
The gauge (G) was of the simple barometer form, the
tube being 12mm. internal diameter. The height of the
mercury was read on a brass meter scale, placed behind the
tube, by a telescope at a distance of about 6ft.
The pressure regulator D was of the form described by
Nicol,+ and Stadel and Schummann,{ and was found to give
satisfactory results. The pressure could be kept constant
within o'5mm. for half an hour at a time.
The pressure regulator, the gauge, and the receiver E,
communicate with one another through the reservoir F,
which consisted of a Winchester quart bottle standing in
_a large vessel full of water.
The first experiments were made with a glass boiling
apparatus, but at temperatures below 100’, the indications of
the thermometer were o'I° to 0'2° too high. The boiling
point of the platinum thermometer was found practically
* (Mém: de l’acad: t.21.)
+ Nicol. Phil: Mag: (5) xxiii, 3809. |
~ Stadel and Schummann. Zez¢tschrift f. Instrumenten Kunde 391. 1882.
362 Dr. T. EWAN AND MR. HALDANE GEE ox
the same in both the glass and the copper apparatus. The
difference at lower temperatures is probably due to the fact
that water does not boil regularly in a glass vessel under
diminished pressure. This irregular boiling gives rise to
sudden alterations in the pressure, and to overheating of
the steam. 2 :
In making the measurements of temperature by the
platinum thermometer, the greatest error was (as has
already been mentioned) in the correction for the tempera-
ture of the resistance box. To eliminate this as much as
possible, we took readings of the resistance at 0° and 100°
before each set of observations, and then kept the tem-
perature of the coils as constant as possible, while the
readings at intermediate temperatures were made.
In determining the zero point, the platinum thermometer
was left in the ice for at least an hour, and the current only
closed momentarily (the first swing of the galvanometer
needle being read), in order to avoid heating the wire.
The current was also reversed in order to eliminate
thermal effects. No correction was made for the resistance
of the copper leads.
The zero point was found at different times.
Difference
Resistance at o°. Mean. | from
| Mean.
i g5e Bea eS eo NES ALE Ee ie
10°6388 10°6372 + *oo16
10°6401 + 0029
10°6343 — *0030
10°6360 —‘"ool2
It is possible that the alteration in the resistance is due
to slight strains in the wire, as the protecting glass tube was
not rigidly attached to the wooden part of the thermometer.
The following are the determinations of the resistance
at 100° in the order in which they were made, and it is
curious that they increase and decrease regularly.
Lhe Comparison of
Thermometers.
363
Mean Difference from mean.
14°3369 ‘ hhgeas
14°3230 14°3212 + ‘oo18
In glass J} 14°3149 — ‘0063
14°3168 — ‘0044
apparatus. 14°3183 — *0029
14°3225 + ‘0013
Mean.
14°3226 + "0024
In copper \14°3243 + “Oo4!
14°3209 14°3202 + ‘0007
apparatus. | 14°21 76 — 0026
14°3154 — *0048
The ratio from the experiments
0
in the glass
apparatus is 1°3463, from those in the copper apparatus
1°3462. These numbers agree very closely with those
obtained by Callendar (1°3464), and by Griffiths (1°3462).
The following numbers will serve to show the degree of
accuracy which may be reached in measuring the tempera-
ture by platinum thermometer.
pt is Temperature by Platinum Thermometer.
R.T. is the boiling point of water according to Regnault,
corresponding to the observed pressure.
Resistance.
14°0414
138206
L4“Ds7 =
1378168
1375516
14°0934
14°1178
13°8947
136523
pt. | Pressure.
g2°40 BLA a
86°47 456°22
Ryo = 14°3209
95°15 636°79
86°45 | 454°98
79°24 339°75
Rico = 14.3154
93°78 | 603°71
94°40 | 619703
88°34 | 490°59
81°76 376°38
Ri = 14°3243
Yee ge Ft. Corr.
92°33 92°30
86°32 86°29
R, = 10°6395
95°13 95°08
86°25 86°26
78°92 78°98
R, = 10°6360
93°69 | 93°68
94°36 94°32
88°20 83°18
81°46 81°53
— R,=10°6395
l+++
364. The Comparison of Thermometers.
The column /2. Corr. contains the readings of the
platinum thermometer reduced to air thermometer degrees
by Callendar’s formula, viz :—
where 6 was 1°57, agreeing with the number found by
Callendar and Griffiths.
The following table contains the results of a comparison
between the readings of (a) the Platinum Thermometer
(6) the Mercurial Thermometer, (c) the number from
Regnault’s Tables (calculated by Broch, Zvav. Bur. Poids et
Meés. I.)
Error by
a. bd 6 c—b. c—a. atrect
calibration.
I00°L7 | 100°55 + °38 +38
100°00 | 100°398|] +°398
95°08 94°83 | 95°13 | +°30 7G ap se
Lee 02°02 1) so 33 ao 7 ae
86°26 86°00 | 86°25 +°25 +°26 + °30
78°98 78°67 78°92 +°25 + °31 +°26
These numbers show that as far as the experiments
have been carried the method is accurate within o°°I.
If a greater degree of accuracy be desired, the coils may
be kept at a constant temperature by means of a
thermostat, which is the method used by Griffiths, or the
measurements may be made with a slide meter bridge, the
comparison being made with reference to coils immersed in
water. It would also be advantageous to increase the
resistance of the thermometer.
Genus Lattrus. 305
An Historical Account of the genus Latirus (Montfort)
and its dependencies, with descriptions of Eleven
new species, and a Catalogue of Latirus and
Peristernia. By James Cosmo Melvil, M.A., F.L.S.
(Received March 24th, 1891.)
(I.) Early History and Classification—When Linneus
first drew distinctions between the various marine Gastero-
pods, and assigned them to families and genera, he, and his
immediate successors, until, indeed, the time of Cuvier and
Lamarck, relied entirely upon the form of the shell alone,
and usually took some one prevailing characteristic, such as
a straight prolonged canal for instance, or a rounded mouth,
however different in other respects the shells were from
each other, dismissing their inhabitants in one terse sentence,
“ Animal a Limax.’ Manifestly, by this rule, certain ranges
of molluscs, the salient characters of which were not dis-
cernible without considerable study, especially of the animal,
fell together into a heterogeneous “ olla podrida,” from which
it has taken much time and patience for subsequent authors
to extricate them.
Accordingly, it is not surprising to find, under the
Linnean system, the few types then known of the genera
we are about to discuss found in Murex (L.), in company
with what are now considered /urex proper, Ranella, Triton,
Purpura (pars), Phos, Struthiolaria, Pleurotoma, Fusus,
Neptunea, Pyrula, Ficulide, Hemifusus, Mangilia, and
Cerzthide. They are placed in the ninth of the twelve
divisions by the late writers on the Linnean system (e¢.,
Mawe, 1823), in which the subdivision into two families is
recommended, the first, consisting of shells turreted, outer
WwW
366 Mr. CosMO MELVILL ox the
lip having a notch at the summit, ze, Pleurotoma; the
second, with the column plaited, Latzrus (Montf.) and
Fasciolaria (Lam.). But, in justice to those who came
before Lamarck, it must be recorded that Linnzus had
placed in the genus Voluta, as opposed to Murex, the true
Turbinellide, those large ponderous Molluscs with con-
spicuous twisted columella, and with lingual dentition very
different from the Latzvz and Fasciolaride. It was Lamarck,
who in 1799, founded the genus 7urbinella, and took the
first false step in uniting shells which had so few characters
in common, save the columellar plaits.
Denys de Montfort,* indeed, in 1810, differentiated the
genus Latirus,not,however,on account of the true distinctions
as now understood, but simply because of the infundibuli-
form umbilicus, which occurs more or less in many of the
species, and the extent and depth of which varies exceedingly
in specimens of the same kind. |
I quote his original description (Conch. System II,
pp. 531 sqq.) :—
“ Coquille libre, univalve, a spire turriculée ou fusiforme,
bouche allongée, columelle avec impression de plis, tran-
chante vers lombilie, lévre exterieur tranchante, base
canaliculée, ombiliquée.
“Espéce servante de type au genre :—
“Le Latire orange.
“L. aurantiacus = Murex jfilosus (Latnk.).” cf. Magee
4. t. 140., fig. 1308, 1309 et. t. 141., f. 1314—1316.
*Many genera of Denys de Montfort, prepared in his Conchyliologie
Systématigue,’ 1810, often upon insufficient grounds, have notwithstanding,
survived to the present day, we signatize such well-known names as 7yfhzs,
Trophon, Triton, Phos, Cylinder, and Hermes (two subgenera of Conus)
Calpurnus, Pyrazus, Lanistes, Clithon, Clanculus, Helcion, Scaphander, Atys,
Zonites, Gibbus, Melampus, and Cyclophorus. An interesting note by Dr. J.
E. Gray, F.R.S. in Aun. and Mag. of N. Hist., 1869, p. 319, touching on the
-melancholy end of de Montfort, neglected and in most abject poverty, and also
of the reduction in circumstances of the great Lamarck in his latter days, is
worth perusal.
Genus Latirus, 367
A most deplorable figure of the 7. filosus is added, which
only a reference to Martyn’s plates can construe into
possessing the slightest resemblance to the shell now termed
Lativus gibbulus (Gmelin), this name (Syst., Nat. 1790)
having priority over Lamarck’s.
Taking this, however, as the type, we and associated
with it a more or less attractive assemblage of Molluscs,
one indeed, that it is marvellous has not received more:
due attention, for many of the members of it are singularly
beautiful, both in structure, colour, and variety of form.
(Il.) General characteristics—The Lativi proper are
mostly shells of a somewhat massive build, fusiform, whorls
turreted, six to eight whorled, usually longitudinally
ribbed or noduled, often smooth (Z. xodatus) but more
frequently transversely sulcated, filleted, or striated, canal
very short (¢.g. Roust, brevicaudatus, spadiceus, prismaticus),
or produced and deeply umbilicated (zxfundibulum), very
long and fusoid (ancea) mouth sub-triangular, canal short,
(ceratus) inner lip more or less with a tooth-like projection
(cingulatus and leucozonalis). The interior in some cases
is finely coloured, with pale violet or pink (xodatus). This
is more frequent, however, in the Perzsterniina, (e.g.
Nassatula, violacea, whilst the mouth is yellow in the
striata and crocea sections. The Perzsternizne are more
like Masse in outward appearance, with their short,
sometimes slightly recurved beaks, while the Lazzrz, to
sum up, often assimilate species of the genera Fasczolaria,
Fusus, Mitra, Monoceros, Columbella and Murex.
The platting of the columella occurs as a strong family
distinction, not only in this, but in several other leading
families of Prosobranchiate gasteropods: e.¢., Wztra, Mar-
ginella, Cancellaria, Voluta, Turbinella (Mazza and Vasum,
Bolten), also, zwternally, in most of the Columbellide, and
to some extent in the Cerzthide.
368 Mr. CosMO MELVILL ox the
The order Fasciolariine, as at present understood,
embraces, altogether, species which possess these plaits,
excepting the Fusz veri, Clavella, Taron, and Buccinofusus,
genera, at the present day, associated with Fasciolaria in
consequence of the similarity of dentition. Of this we
shall speak shortly, as also of the animal. The Ogercula
are similar throughout, being horny, oblique, with nucleus
apical.
To return to the plaiting of the columella, Latrus
Syracusanus (L.), Peristernia Brazieri (Angas) and one or
two others do not possess them, so far as is discernible; nor
Peristernia nassoides (Reeve) a species abnormal in many
ways. Owing, however, toa considerable amount of deposit
of enamel on the columellar side of the labrum, it is probable
the plaits get covered over and so obliterated, especially
just at the orifice. This is certainly the case with the type
of the genus L. ezbbulus (Gmel.).
Reeve* well remarks on the oddzgue tendency of these
plaits in the true Fasciolariine (e.g., F. trapezium, salmo),
also noticeable, but to a lesser extent, in the Lativi and
Peristerniine, this compared with the straighter, more promi-
nent convolutions of the true 7uvrdznellide.
(III.) Existeng Monographs of the genera.—T hese genera
have been monographed by Kiener, Reeve, and Kobelt in
Kiister’s Conchylien-Cabinet, the latter being the most
perfect in arrangement of the three; Lovell Reeve, for
instance, having taken the whole group in Vol. IV. Conch.
Icon., 1847, under the name Zurbznella (Lam.) includes not
only 7. pyrum and its allies, as was natural at the time of
writing, but also so distinct a form as Cuma tectum (Gray)!
His figures were produced with rare fidelity and unsurpassed
execution by the late Mr. Sowerby, and many species were
then described by Mr. Reeve for the first time.
* Conch., Icon. Vol. 1V. Turbinella, prefatory remarks.
Genus Latirus. 369
In 1881 the late Mr. George W. Tryon, junr., treated of
the genera in Vol III. of his Manual of Conchology, adopting
Kobelt’s treatise as the basis of his work; but in many
ways drawing his own conclusions. To this I will refer
later, in a separate paragraph.
IV. Derivation of Name.—LATIRUS.—* Le Latire,” as
de Montfort himself, the author, calls it, has been spelt (by
P. P. Carpenter, for instance), Lathirus or Lathyrus—on the
assumption that it was derived from AaSupoc, a pea, the
brown shells perhaps suggesting a faint likeness to a ripe
pod. A new solution has proposed itself to me, which I
mention with all reserve, “lateritius,’ of or belonging to a
brick, from the warm, sundried brick colour of some species,
especially the type, LZ. Gzbbulus* (Gmelin).
PERISTERNIA is evidently derived from wéou oréovog, in
allusion to the banding round the whorls, the same idea
being intended in the names Fasciolaria and Leucozonia.
(V.) Fosszl Forms.—Only twenty or thirty fossil forms
of this genera are known to Woodward: first making their
appearance in the chalk, and, more abundantly, in the
Tertiary Deposits of some parts of the world. A great
many have been recently described by Prof. Ralph Tate, in
his Treatise on the Gasteropods of the older Tertiary of
Australiat; and likewise by Von Kznen.t According to
Fischer, all the various forms of the genus, as at present
known, in the recent state, have their fossil analogues.—
Doubtless many species at present called Fusus, Murex, or
Fasciolaria, of. F .uniplicata from the Eocene (Germany),
* It is curious that in all the editions of Woodward’s Manual, this species,
figured rightly as the representative of the genus, should invariably be misspelt
Gilbulus, both in the letter-press and plate-reference. Errata seldom run
through several editions without being detected.
+ Trans. Royal Socs. Australia X., pp. 91—176, with 15 plates, 1889.
+ Das Nord Deutschen, Unter Oligocdn, u. Seine Mollusken Faune, 1889,
370 Mr. CosMO MELVILL on the
Fusus confusus, Eocene, Barton, belong properly to Latzrus,
and a further revision of these is much needed.
(VI.) Further Historical Account: Classification, Den-
tition, &c.—We have said that de Montfort’s reasons for
describing his new genus, Latzrus, were inadequate, as he
simply relied upon the presence of an umbilicus, as opposed
to the true 7urbznellide.
In his type (Z. gtbbulus) the infundibuliform umbilicus
varies greatly. I have seven specimens, and in none is
there much sign of columellar plaits, yet, as I have lately
remarked, there can be no doubt as to this being an
admirable type for a genus. The specimen has an umbilicus
I5 mm. wide, whilst two are nearly closed. This shell is
conspicuous for its ponderosity, bright warm chestnut
colour, smooth with transverse lines running ribbon fashion
‘across in pairs.
The same variation in the depth of the umbilicus may be
found in L. xodatus, infundibulum, etc.; small wonder, then,
that Dr. G. P. Deshayes, writing in the Dict. Univ. d@ Historie
Naturelle, Tom. VI1., characterized the genus thus :—
“ Latirus—Genre inutile établi par Montfort, dans sa
Conchyliologie Systématique, pour le Fusus, dont le columelle
est ombiliquee.” :
But, though in this sense useless, in other ways it has
become one of the most abiding genera; for when the
characters of the animal, and especially the Operculum and
Odontophore, began to be studied and revealed, it was found
‘necessary to remove these molluscs entirely away from the
Muricide and Turbinellide proper: and place them in a
family, proposed to be called Fasciolariine for their reception
- with the genus Fasczolaria (Lam).
And, after Dr. J. E. Gray had still further separated the
Leucozonie in 1847, and Morch the Peristerniine in 1852,
it was left for Messrs. H. and A. Adams (Gen..of Recent
Genus Latirus. | 371
Mollusca) to tabulate the genera, with a more minute
description: of the dentition than had been previously given.
I think it well to quote their differentiation :—
FAM. FASCIOLARIINA.
Teeth on lingual membrane in three series (1.1.1.), the
central recurved, toothed at the tip, the lateral not versatile;
lateral teeth very broad, linear, with many equal teeth,
central tooth narrow, small. Jfané/e enclosed, witha straight
siphon. The operculum ovate acute, nucleus apical. Shell
fusiform, aperture with a straight canal in front, and with
plaits on the fore part of the pillar.
Genus FASCIOLARIA (Lamarck).
Shell fusiform, spire acuminated ; aperture oval, elon-
‘gated, as. long as the spire ; siphonal canal straight, columella
smooth, with a few oblique plaits at the fore part, outer lip
internally crenate.
*23 sp., nearly all of large size. F. gzgantea (Kien.)
being the largest Gasteropod known, reaching sometimes
over two feet in length. _
[Genus BUSYCON. (Bolten) Fulgur (Montfort).
8 species. Removed to 7urbinellida, as now revised].
cf. Fischer Man. Con. p. 20.
Genus TUDICLA (Bolten).
3 species. Removed to Turbinellide].
cf. Fischer ut supra.
Genus LATIRUS (Montfort) ve ‘
Shell turreted, fusiform, umbilicated ; spire produced,
whorls nodulous ; aperture oval-oblong, outer lip thin,
crenulated ; idence straight, with two or three small
oblique plaits i in front.
* Many were synonyms. Fasczo/aria at the present day is computed to
contain 17 to 18 sp. only...
372 Mr. CosMO MELVILL ox the
Subgenus PLICATELLA (Swainson).
Spire moderate, whorls angular, concavely depressed
round the upper part. |
*30 sp. Latirus. 6 sp. Plicatella.
Genus PERISTERNIA (Morch).
Shell subturreted, not umbilicated ; whorls longitudinally
ribbed ; aperture oval, canal moderate and recurved; outer
lip thin and crenulated ; columella with one or two slight
plaits anteriorly, |
21 sp. :—
Genus LEUCOZONIA (Gray).
Shell oval, subglobose; spire moderate; aperture
oblong: canal short; columella sub-flexuous, with small
oblique, unequal plaits ; outer lip subacute, with a tooth or
tubercle at the fore part.
15 sp. (including Lagena, Schum: in which the species are
smooth).
Genus FASTIGIELLA (Reeve).
I sp. now removed to Cerithide.
The old genus Yurbinella, with Cynodonta (Schum)
Vasum (Bolt.), being separated owing to the completely
different dentition, the lateral teeth possessing one single
large denticle only.
As recently as 1865, Mr. Crosse ( Journ. Conch. XIII., p.
317, pl. 14, f. 1) in describing one of the species, mentions,
“This shell has the general appearance of Lativus (Montf.),
but no umbilicus, consequently it shows that the separation
of Latzrus from the other 7urbinellide is not natural.” I
take it Mr. Crosse meant here, Leucozonia, Peristernia, and
Fasctolaria, speaking of the order by its old name.
About the same time Dr. Troschel, of Bonn, examined
and reported upon the radulze of these four genera (Gebzss
* Many of these are mere synonyms,
Genus Latirus. 373
der Schneck \1., pp. 60—66, pl. 5, figs. 12—20, pl. 6, figs.
I—3), confirming the opinion that they all had three plates
in each series, the lateral being transversely elongated and
many cuspidate, the middle tooth square with three to five
cusps. He placed Fusus Syracusanus (L.) an inhabitant
of the Mediterranean, since it possessed the identical
dentition of the Lazzrz but not the columellar plaits, in a
new genus AZstyxis (amrvé), which, perhaps, it would be
convenient to retain, at all events as a section, at present—
although in the accompanying catalogue I have merged it
altogether in Latzrus.
In the year 1867, Stimpson removed Peristernia from
the Latzride for the obscure reason that one specimen (not
named) did not agree with the lingual dentition, but more
resembled Buccinzde. Probably this species has been long
since ousted the genus—(v. as re Conch, 1 Di 53,
sqq.). = 7) abo neptun Ch ¥)
In 1869 Prof. E. von Martens in to unite the
whole series under one name Fasciolaria (Nachr. Mal. Ges.
Jif LOO),
The same year Dr. John Denis Macdonald, F.R.S:
(Ann. and Mag. of N. Hist., Vol. IIL. sec. iv., p. 113), ina
dissertation upon the dental plates and teeth of Proboscidi-
ferous Gasteropods, remarks: “Being well aware of the
existence of certain fusiform species having neither plaits
nor folds upon the columella of the shell, but with lateral
combs in the odontophore, I conclude that these would form,
with Cyrtulus (Hinds), a well-marked family.”
* * * % *
“ Fasciolaria and Mitra form the types of two distinct
families, the former with its lengthy ribbon and narrow
median series, differing remarkably from the latter, which is
short and broad.”
The Revd. R. Boog Watson, F.R.S.E., in 1873 (P. Z. S.
P-p. 363, 364), established a genus Chascax, founded on a
4
7 A
fos fe
77
ra
374 Mr. CosMO MELVILL on the
dredged specimen of Latirus armatus (Ad.) with abnormally
large infundibuliform umbilicus. It has subsequently (Rep.
Voy. “ Challenger” Gasterop. p. 243) been abandoned by
him, and relegated to a synonym. I have examined the
original shell in the Brit. Mus. which is much corroded by
external growths (nullipores, &c.), and perforated by
annelids, and there can be no doubt as to its identity, and,
considering how, as I have already remarked, the infundi-
buliform character varies in typical Lazzrz, I could hardly
continue the use of the varietal name Maderensis, for this.
specimen. I may add that, in treating of these shells as
dredged by the “Challenger” Expedition, the six species
found, three Fasczolaria proper (one being F. vutz/a, Watson
n. sp.), and three La#iri, are all named as belonging to
Lamarck’s genus Fasczolarza. |
As already noticed, Tudicla spirillus (L.) had been
originally included by Messrs. H. and A. Adams in Fas-
-ctolartine, but subsequently expunged owing to the denti-
tion, and removed to Turbinellide. In P.Z S., 1874, p. 582,
pl. Ixix, fig. 2, Mr. Henry Adams attempted to defend his
actions, especially laying stress upon the Latzroid operculum,
but there can be no doubt that this genus is better located ~
where it is. |
It is different with Cyrtulus (Hinds), Clavella (Swainson),
the latter name having priority of eight years. Judging
from Dr. Macdonald’s sketch of the dentition, in the article
lately’ referred to, the fine comb-like laterals, and the
tricuspidate central tooth, shew great kinship with
Fasciolaria; and I note that M. Paul Fischer has in his
invaluable Manual (1887), p. 616, placed it in this family,
also including the Co/us Section of Fusus, the dentition of
which, as proved by Schako, firstly, in 1874, was found to
agree in all its details with the Pasciolarie, F. inconstans
(Lischke), from Japan being the original species experimented
upon. This arrangement is also now confirmed. About the
Genus Latirus. 375
same time the Ptychatracti type:—P. ligatus(Mighels), Fusus
olim, were moved by Troschel to the Turbinellide, in
company with Meyerza (Dkr.) It is to this latter genus
that the Latirus albus (Jeffreys) belongs, known only to us
by the figure in “ Depths of the Sea,” by Wyville Thomson,
from the Shetland Isles. -The shell is apparently of
Latirus form, and the plicz on the columella are present.
It is similar to Peristernia scabrosa (Reeve), with few
longitudinal ribs. Shell of thin substance, but the dentition
proves its alliance with the Melongene. :
In 1878, Fusus Berniciensis(King),under the generic name
of Loreofusus (G. O. Sars.) was proved to have the identical
lingual dentition as Latirus,and though in the form of its shell
approximating more nearly the Vegéunea, with which it had
been formerly associated, must in future occupy a place in
this family. In this shell there are no plice to the columella,
the form is ventricosely fusiform, pale pink, with brown
epidermis more or less omnipresent, lightly concentrically
ridged, every third ridge being more prominent, whorls
somewhat effuse, canal slightly inclined, mouth ovate—a
rare inhabitant of the North of England and Norwegian
Seas. Fora full description vzde Sars. Moll. Arct. Norweg.
p. 278, pl. xiv., fig. 2. Plate of vadula, pl. x, fig. 26, and
also wzde Jeffreys. .
The Rev. A. H. Cooke has just informed me that asczo-
laria lignaria (L)=Tarentina (Gmel.) is more a Latirus
than a Fascolaria by its dentition. I had thought that,
perhaps, the whole might be merged in Fasciolaria, as every
gradation, between the large F. gzgantea (Kien.), which
measures sometimes, as already noticed, over two feet in
length, to the small Peristernia of 10 mm. may be traced,
but I am assured by Mr. Cooke that Mr. Gwatkin and he
have studied the radule of many members of this group,
and that not only do all the Fasciolarie (with the exception
of F. ignaria) retain the)self-same characteristics, but the
376 Mr. COSMO MELVILL ox the
Latirus are distinct from Peresternza in many particulars,
Mr. Cooke, to whom I am much indebted, has lent me some
very beautiful magnified photographs of the dentition of
two species— Fasciolaria trapezium (Lam.) and Latirus
ceraius (Wood). The dentition appears to vary as follows
between the three genera :—
Fasciolaria (Lam.). Latirus* (Mtft.). Peristernia (Morch).
Central tooth tricuspi- | Central tooth tricuspi- | Central tooth tricuspi-
date, close together. date. date.
Lateral denticles, about | Lateral denticles about | Lateral denticles irregu-
21 in number, long 10, broader at base, lar in size, about 8
comb - like, equal not so long as in /as- large teeth, 5 small
length to base. ciolaria. ones.
Mr. Cooke considers the dentition sufficiently distinct in
Peristernia to keep that genus distinct from Latirus ; but
he has examined only four species of the genus, and it is
very difficult to draw a hard and fast line, unless the
odontophore of each is known and examined.
A small shell, Zavon dubius (Hutton), from New Zealand,
of which the Rev. A. H. Cooke very kindly forwarded me
specimens, has been discovered by the dentition to belong
to the Latirideg. The shell is not unlike a small Cosmzxella,
fusiform, with short canal, columella smooth, lip simple,
ornamented with transverse ribs, often semi-nodulous.
Length 15m. Breadth 7 m.
Apart from the lingual riband, the general aspect of the
Animal of Latirus and Peristernia resembles the Muricide.
The head is somewhat broader, eyes less protuberant, foot
rather shorter than in typical Murex. The operculum is
distinct, all the Fasctolariine possessing unguiform opercula,
with the nucleus apical. When on the coral reefs of the
Gulf of Mexico, in 1872, where I noticed L. cengulifera
* With Aptyxis (Troschel), Zavon (Hutton), Boreofusus (Sars).
Genus Latirus, 377
(Lam.) var. Kuorriz (Desh.) the animal was dark red,
of the colour of raw beef, and I believe all the animals
of this genus that have been examined, are of that appear-
ance. So far as I recollect, however, Fasciolaria distans
(Lam.), which I found at Charleston, So. Carolina, commonly,
did not possess this peculiarity, but was of a grey mottled
colour, as also /. tulzpa (Lam.), and its transversely ribbed
var. Scheepmakert (Dh.) which I found commonly on the
coral reefs in the south. Good representations of the
animals of this family may be found in Adams Genz. Recent
Mollusca, Vol. Ill, pl. xvi, f. 1. Latirus (Fasciolaria)
lignarius (L.) copied from Chiagni Poli. ZL. turrztus (Quoy
and Gaimard) Voy. Astrolabe Moll, pl. xxxv., fig. 14.
Peristernia mnassatula, original sketch by A. Adams.
Latirus (Leucozonia) smaragdulus (Quoy and Gaimard)
ut supra fig. 21.
Mr. Cooke writes that the following species have passed
under the critical observation of himself and Mr. H. M.
Gwatkin, of Cambridge, and conclusively proved to be
Latiri, Peristernie, or Fasciolarie, by their dentition.
Latirus castaneus
ceratus Peristernia crocea
cingulatus incarnata PERIS-
knorrit nassatula {| TERNIINA,
lignarius ustulata
polygonus LATIRI.
rudis
smaragdulus Fasciolaria filamentosa
Syracusanus trapezium \ FASCIO-
an peer LARIINA
Boreofusus Bernictensts tulipa
Taron dubius
Many of these identifications have never as yet been
published.
It is, naturally, almost impossible that during the life-
time of this generation, we can hope to obtain accurate
knowledge of the dentition of all the species included in these
378. Mr. COSMO MELVILL ox the
genera. The above, however, are some of the more leading,
common, and conspicuous members of the various groups,
and therefore a considerable substratum of knowledge is
formed by this valuable aid, armed with which, he who ven-
tures on framing a line of sequence may, with some measure
of confidence, forge the links of connection here and there,
and unite the whole array in a congruous chain.
I would therefore propose to group the members of this
family Fasczolariine thus :—
I. Fusus (Lamarck). Types F. colus (L.), F. znconstans
(Lischke).
II. Clavella (Swainson), Cyrtulus (Hinds). . Types
C. serotina (Hinds).
III. Fasciolaria (Lam.). Type F. tulipa RPE
Subg. Pleuroploca (Fisch.). Type F. trapezium
(Lam.).
IV. Zavon (Hutton). Type 7. dubzus (Hutt.).
V. Buccinofusus (Conrad).
Boreofusus (Sars.). Type B. Bernicienszs (King).
VI. Laterus (Montfort). Type ZL. gzbbulus (Gmelin).
Syn. in part Aptyxis (Troschel).
Do. Leucozonia (Gray).
VII. Peristernta (Morch). Type P. xassatula (Lam.).
It is with the four last genera we alone have to do
at present: the /wsz proper and Fasciolarie, whose dentition
is almost identical, may form the subject of a future paper.
In both these genera, the denticles of the laterals are larger
and far more numerous than in the Latzrz.
It will be noted that the old genus Leucozonza of Gray
is dispensed with in this new arrangement. The shells
seemed to fall naturally into their places, in the centre of the
sequence. The presence of a labial tooth, which is of
extreme prominence in ZL. cemgulatus (Lam.) does not, to
Genus Latirus. f 379
my mind, raise the question of generic distinction on that
score alone, Ina more or less undeveloped state, signs of
such a tooth appear on many shells. The shell is almost
more noteworthy on account of its bold sculpture, squarrose
aperture, and transverse thread-like marking on the whorls,
and I revert to it more fully in another part of this paper.
The Peristerniiné were separated from the Latirz by
Morch, principally on account of the want of umbilicus,
moderate and narrowed canal, and ‘lighter plications of
the columella, but there are many species which, pending
the working out of the dentition, must be doubtfully placed
in either genus. PP. Caledonica (Crosse) is an undoubted
Perzsternia, but I have a specimen with a decided umbilicus ;
P. annulata (Bolten), allied to P. favida and P. infraczncta,
is, perhaps, better placed in Latzrus, near L. Syracusanus
(L.), and so on. | |
The species are nearly all small, and highly coloured,
especially as regards their mouths and columella; and their
form is more like the Masse or Nassarie than is Latirus,
which more assimilates members of the Muricide.
Indeed, I know several conchologists who are of opinion
these two genera should be merged, and, as I have already
observed, it is only on account of the irregularity in size of
some of the lateral denticles, and especially in deference to
Mr. Cooke and Mr. Gwatkin’s strongly expressed opinion,
that I have not done so at the present opportunity.
(VII.) Lridescence of Epidermis in certain species—In
three or four species the epidermis, when wetted or oiled,
shows prismatic reflections. I do not know this peculiarity
in any other genus, nor does it exist in many Latiri. It is
most conspicuous in the still uncommon JL. prismaticus of
Martyn, who, under its old title, Bucccnum prismaticum,
figured it in his Unzv. Conch. Vol. II., p. 2. This work,
begun in 1784, is more noteworthy on account of its
380 Mr. CoSMO MELVILL ox the
beautifully executed plates than its letterpress, and the
representation of 1. przsmaticus leaves nothing to be
desired, as it was taken from a very fine specimen. At the
sale of Mr. G. F. Angas’ collection, in 1870, I acquired a
beautiful example, with operculum, which shows the dark
cobalt to indigo reflections to perfection—and have three
others, which shew it in greater or less degree. The
epidermis removed, all chance of obtaining these radiant
results vanishes. Mr. W. Harper Pease (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1865, pp. 53—54) gives full details of the exact localities for
the above (see Catalogue), and compares with it L. semmatus
(Reeve) [L. peristernia], violaceus (Reeve) and gibbus (Pease),
the latter being then described for the first time. In his
opinion the four are nearly allied, though differing some-
what in form, from the fact that this prismatic iridescence
is present in the epidermis of each. As we have said, the
reflections in the type species are of a deep azure blue,
L. violaceus possesses gold and silvery shades of purple and
green, semmatus* and gibbus a fainter and not very con-
spicuous radiance. This only, in every case, when the
epidermis is wetted or oiled.
I have often noticed, in deep tidal pools round our coasts,
and likewise in those of other countries, certain marine
Algz, appearing beautifully prismatic in the water, steel
blue or sea-green being the predominant reflections, the effect
of which vanishes, however, entirely and immediately they
are withdrawn from their native element into the open air.
Such are the British Rhodymenia palmata (Grev.) and,
above all, Wztophyllum laceratum, (Grev.) Chondrus crispus
(Lyngbye), and Cystoseira ericotdes (Agardh). It is possible
that the Lat:rus prismaticus, and the other species with
iridescent epidermis, feed exclusively on Algz possessing
this peculiarity, and so a colour resemblance has been given
* While these pages were in the press, Mr. J. R. Hardy, of Owens
College Museum, has shewn me a beautiful specimen of Z. gemmatus, showing
prismatic reflections almost equal to Z. prismaticus, from the collection of
Mr. Lionel Adams, of Penistone, nephew of Messrs. H, and A. Adams.
Genus Latirus. 381
them for purposes of protection. This seems not an
improbable theory.
(VIII.) Ox Latirus cingulatus (Lam.).—This extra-
ordinary, though not infrequent species, is not so isolated as
would at first sight appear. The solid angularity of its
uncouth whorls,and great extension of the outer labial tooth,
distinguish it atonce. It was originally placed by Lamarck
in his genus Monoceros, with certain Purpuroid shells which
are, likewise, ornamented with a more or less conspicuous
tooth. Finally, Dr. J. E. Gray made it the type of his
genus Leucozonia, having discovered its true affinities. The
columellar plaits are well developed ; the dentition is pre-
cisely that of Latzrus. As to be noticed in the remarks
concerning the sequence here adopted, I have transposed
this shell, with the other Leucozonie, to Latirus proper :—
there are signs of the labial tooth in several of the allied
forms, and Latirus amplustris, though untoothed, has inti-
mate affinity in other ways with cingulatus.
The species is littoral, living on rocky coasts of Western
and Lower California, Mexico, to Panama, the Rev. P. P.
Carpenter, Prof. C. B. Adams, and other collectors having
noticed it in many places. Specimens are almost invariably
covered with nullipores and other growths, rendering them
most unsightly till these are removed. What the use of the
labial tooth can be is mere conjecture. It cannot be for
purposes of spearing or securing its prey—a Molluscan
Narwhal—nor for digging food out of the recesses of
the rocks, for it is not placed in such a position as to give
the shell any leverage, and, moreover, were it of any use, we
might expect to see in it signs of wear and tear, epecially in
old specimens, (I have one aged well-grown form with the
tooth ¥% inch long), but it always looks sharp and strong
in any shells that have been procured alive.
The shells of the subgenus Cerostoma of Murex (L.),
also Monoceros (Lam.),and Chorus(Gray),all possess a similar
_tooth, but in none is so high or typical a development
_reached as in Latzrus cingulatus (Lam.)
X
382 Mr. COSMO MELVILL ox the
Another interesting point about this shell is its slightly
raised and rough olive brown bands, from which it takes its
specific name: these are regular and equidistant; and,
speaking generally, the species presents but little variation.
(1X.) Geographical Distribution.—W hen, three years ago,
I gave some notes upon the genus Cyprea,* I prepared a
slightly modified version off Mr. A. R. Wallace’s six regions,
which, considering the very wide range of certain shells, 2..,
Peristernia nassatula, causes the small alterations proposed
advisable, especially as these regions were devised more witha
view toelucidate the distribution of terrestrial than marine life.
Several species are of doubtful locality, and, actually, a
few, even now their area is extended, fall into two or more
sections, and are thus counted twice.
LATIRUS AND PERISTERNIA.
”
: No. of ; No. of
Region. Species. Region. Speci es,
(a) Nearctic ; z.e., United 8 (zZ) Ethiopian ; including 38
States & Canadian Coasts, African Coast, Madagas-
Atlantic, and Pacific. car and the Mascarene
; | Islands in the Pacific, C.
de Verdes and Canaries
in the N. Atlantic, also
S. Helena and Ascension
Isles in S, Atlantic.
(6) Neotropical ; 7.e.,Mexico, | 16
and Central American
Coasts, Gallapagos Isles,
W. Indies and South
America, Atlantic and (e) Australian ; here sig- 25
PHS. nifying Australia, Tas-
mania, New Zealand, and
the Fiji Isles.
(c) Palearctic ; here simply 3
including European Seas
proper, with both shores
of the Mediterranean,
(f) Oriental ; embracing
Chinese Seas and Japan- 35
ese, E. Indies, Polynesia,
Persian Gulf, and Red
Sea, also all Indian Seas
and Ceylon.
Madeiras and Azores.
: * Vide Vol. I., 4th Series, Mem. and Proc. Manchester L. & Phil. Soc. pp.
164, sqq.
+ Vide The Geographical Distribution of Animals, 2 Vols., by Alfred
Russel Wallace.
Genus Latirus. 383
It is curious how deficiently represented in local lists of
collectors’ findings, the genera under discussion are. For
instance, in the list of shells found in the Mergui Archipelago,
Bay of Bengal, described by Prof. E. von Martens, none
are mentioned (Proc. Linn. Soc. XXI., pp. 155 sqq.), the
Taron dubtus had not then been discovered. None occur in
either Prof. Martens’ or Mr. Hutton’s Lists of New Zealand
shells.* None occur in either the lists compiled by Mr.
Sylvanus Hanley in “Ceylon,” by SirJ. Emerson Tennent, nor,
again, in Mr. A. W. Langdon’s lists of the shells of the same
Island (Journ. Conch. 1., p. 71). Mr. Brazier, in the same
publication (Vol. II., p. 186 sqq.,), only mentions one species
P. incarnata (Desh), in his account of the marine Fauna of
Fitzroy Island, Australia. The Rev. Philip P. Carpenter,
in 1853, names 4 species as occurring in the Gulf of
California, 5 on Central American Coasts (Pacific), 6, in-
cluding the unique ZL. ¢umens (Cpr.), from Panama, 3, viz.,
L. ceratus, tuberculatus, and varicosus, from the
Gallapagos Isles.t The total number of species on
the North and Central Pacific Coasts of America being
II, some found of very wide distribution. In the
Gulf of Mexico but few occur; at the Island of Curagoa,
north of Dutch Guiana, Dr. Epp has lately found two
species, L. dzstinctus (A. Ad.) and a new form, L. Effz.
When I was on the coral reefs, off the south coast of
Florida, in 1872, I only collected two species of Ladirus, t
one being L. cinguliferus (Lam.), var. Knorriz (Desh.), the
*Cat. Marine Moll. of N. Zealand, 1873, by F. Wollaston Hutton,
Crit. List Moll. of N. Zealand contained in European collections by Prof.
Edouard von Martens, M.D., etc., 1873.
tcf. C. B. Adams, Ann. N.H. Lyceum of New York, 1882, p. 355 sqq-y
in which a list of Panama and Taboga Marine Shells is given.
fof. Bulletin, U.S.A. Nat. Museum, No. 37, by W. H. Dall, 1889, who
enumerates in this Catalogue of the Marine Molluscs of the South Eastern
Coast of N. America, 5 sp. of this genus, viz.: ocellatus, brevicaudatus,
cinguliferus, Cayohuesonicus, and znfundibulum.
384. Mr. CosMo MELVILL on the
other a very interesting new form, like L. tnxfundibulum
(Gmelin) in miniature, called by me in MSS. and
afterwards described by Mr. G. B. Sowerby (Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1878), as L. Cayohuesonicus, after the Island of Cayo
Hueso or Key West. Of this small species I give a figure
(Fig.2). No species occur in Europe proper, excepting the
Mediterranean Fusus,now A piyxis Syracusanus(L.),and Latz-
rus lignarius(L.)(= Fasciolaria Tarentina),though other Fusi
occur there, which are not dealt within this paper. Boreofusus
Bernicwensts (King) occurs on the Norwegian and North
British coasts, and Latzrus armatus (Ad.), having occurred
both at Madeira and Teneriffe, may probably reward the
future dredgers still further north—as, now that we hear of
Cassidaria Tyrrhena, for instance, dredged off the S. coast of
Ireland, there is no saying what treasures are only await-
ing the man, and the opportunity. Our British lists will, in
time, probably be largely increased. The L. armatus (Ad),
is a most exceptionally interesting species, and one long
misunderstood. Consult the Rev. R. Boog Watson’s full
report of it (Voy. Challenger Zool. Vol. XV., p. 243) under
the name of Fasciolaria armata (A. Ad.), formerly ZL. or
Chascax Maderensis (Watson). Only three Zativus proper,
L. Strange (A. Ad.), L. contemptus (Ad.), and the above Z.
armatus (Ad.), were dredged in this expedition, during the
whole of its protracted wanderings, and in two out of the
three (for I have examined the specimens) they are most
meagrely and poorly represented.
The bulk of Latérus and Peristernia are found in the
E. African and Asiatic Islands—notably Mauritius, where,
on Barkly Island,* beautiful specimens, especially of the
smaller kinds, with many new species, have been obtained,
mainly by the exertions of M. Robillard, Sir H. Barkly, Sir
*¢c.f. Subtropical Rambles in Mauritius, by Mr. N. Pike, where an
account of this recently-formed island, named after the then Governor of
Mauritius, Sir H. Barkly, is given.
Genus Latzrus. 385
David Barclay, and Mr. Nicholas Pike. New Caledonia,
the Fiji and Society Islands, also supply a great many;
and one very beautiful little species, of which there are two
specimens in the British Museum, is being described in this
paper under the name of Perzsternia Iniuensts, from Iniue or
Savage Island, where it was collected many years since by
Mr. Perry.
The coasts of Africa proper are strangely deficient in
species: though Mr.G.B.Sowerby has recently, in the Journal
of Conchology, 1886, described L. Bairstowz and L. Rousi,
both good species from Port Elizabeth—and one from Natal
(P. leucothea) is described in this paper. The Philippine
Islands, of course, supply a fair quota; but I have never
seen a full list of species obtained from that extremely pro-
lific quarter.
Some of the finest species occur there, e.g. cratcculatus
(L.) Zanceolatus (Reeve), polygonus (Gmel.), recurvirostris (S.
and W.), Perzsternia castanoleuca (T. C.), spinosa (Mart.),
nassatula (Lam.), etc., but many of these are of very wide
distribution. Indeed, it is quite remarkable how the areas
of a few kinds extend thousands of miles,* while others are
very restricted in their distribution. Japan boasts of the
fine L. Nagasakiensis (E. A. Smith), nearly allied to
craticulatus, but I think distinct. A few are found in
Australia proper, P. Brazderd (Angas), a species of slightly
doubtful affinity, L. ezbbulus (Gmel.), smaragdulus (L.),
etc. In the Rev. A. H. Cooke's report on the Mollusca
dredged by the late R. Macandrew, Esq., in the Gulf of
Suez, only Latzvus turritus (Gmel.) is mentioned besides
L. pulcher (Reeve) = Engzna pulchra.
(X.) Habcts and Localities where found.—tThe localities
in which these molluscs usually congregate, are in rocks
* Since writing this paper, Mr. G. B. Sowerby has forwarded me, for
identification, a specimen of Peristernia Smithiana (described in this paper as
new, from the island of Mauritius) as having come from Aden.
386 Mr. CoSMO MELVILL ox the
and amongst algz at low water mark; some of them are
predaceous, living on smaller molluscs. Not many, indeed,
are found at any depth. The few specimens brought home
by the “Challenger” expedition, were obtained at the
following soundings :—
Latirus armatus (Ad.), 75 fathoms, off Tenerife.
contemptus (A. Ad.),15 to25 fathoms, Amboyna.
- Stranget (A. Ad.), 12 fathoms, Levuka, Fiji.
and of these three, L. contemptus (A. Ad.), is probably one of
the AZurzczde, and ought to be expunged from this series.
The extreme brightness and gay colouring of some of the
smaller species are noteworthy, and they no doubt live more
freely, and in greater variety and beauty in shallow coral
lagoons, where the water is more or less still. Many of the
larger Latzrz are unsightly objects, being, as a rule, covered
with nullipores and various growths—in fact, several of the
)
species have to be cleaned to reveal their real beauties.
As is often the case with gaudily-painted shells, they are
taken possession of by certain Pagurz and other Hermit
crabs, and several specimens I have of P. castanoleuca
(Tapp.-Canefri.) and other Perzsternide, though in very
good condition, have their labial columella quite worn away
from this cause.
(X1.) Cretecesms on Mr. Tryon’s Monograph.—The latest
monograph of these genera is that of the late Mr. G. W.
Tryon, junr., (Wan. Conch., Vol. III., pp. 79—97, 1881), in
which he treats of three genera Lat:rus, Peristernia, and
Leucozonia. He has, unfortunately, fallen into many errors,
which have mainly arisen through his attempting to do too
much, and in too great haste, and not seeking collaboration
more frequently. This latter course he adopted only in
Cyprea and Solarium, and with very beneficial results in
both cases. So far as he was able to consult the impor-
tant collections under his charge at the Museum of the
Genus Latirus. 387
Academy of Science, Philadelphia, he has usually judged
correctly, and, at all events, his conclusions are worthy
attention ; but the off-hand way in which, without having
even taken the trouble to exguzre about the type specimens
in the Museums of Europe, he merges forms unknown to
him, as synonyms or varieties of species altogether unlike, or
ignores them altogether, militates much against the abiding
usefulness of his ambitious work—a work, in which there
are many good points, with much to recommend it.
For instance, he strings together, as mere ‘nomina
nuda, without a word, the following species, as unidentifi-
able, afl of which I have found in the British Museum
collection, and have figured one or two of them in the
accompanying plate.
Latirus Zea(Mor.). A variety of L. sanguifluus (Reeve).
There is a specimen in the British Museum, almost typical
with sanguzfluus. It should, therefore, be perhaps, rather
considered a synonym.
L. neglectus (A. Ad.)=Peristernia neglecta, near P. nas-
Ssoides (Reeve).
L. armatus (A. Ad.)=Chascax (Watson). A most well-
marked species, and the omission of which from any mono-
graph tends much to injure that treatise. It seems a link
between Latzrus proper and the Leucozonze. It is the same
as Latirus spinosus (Gray), which Mr. Tryon mentions under
Pertsternia, as a doubtful form.
L. elegans (A. Ad.) near attenuatus, which I do not, as
Tryon does, consider a variety only of zxfundibulum. L.
distinctus (A. Ad.), (fig. 3), a well-marked ponderously
sculptured shell, dark orange colour, from the Gulf of
Mexico, bearing some relation to Z. armatus on the one
hand, and LZ. rudzs on the other. It is very extraordinary
that this shell had not, in 1881, reached Philadelphia.
L. Strangez (Ad.). Figured in the “Challenger” Report,
Vol. XV., allied to P. scabrosa (Reeve).
388 Mr. COSMO MELVILL ox the
Turbinella striata (Gray), another species unidentified
by Mr. Tryon, is P. crocea (Reeve and Gray).
Turbenella sulcata (Gray) is a synonym of P. scabrosa
(Reeve).
* * * * *
Again, Latzrus candelabrum (Reeve), merged as a variety
of Polygonus (Gmel.) by Mr. Tryon is, in my opinion, a
sufficiently good species.
L. modestus (Anton). It may be difficult to trace Anton’s
species from mere descriptions, but it is certainly not safe,
without more evidence, to place it as equalling L. spadiceus ©
(Reeve), and to sink the latter name as synonymic only.
Turbinella castanea (Gray). The specimen is a variety
of 7. congulzfera (Lamarck).
Latzrus tumens (Carpenter) (Fig. 14). If Mr. Tryon had
seen the unique specimen in the National Museum, South
Kensington, from Mr. H. Cuming’s collection, and also
examined L. gracilis (Reeve) at the same time, he would
never have committed himself in the way he has done in
his remarks.
L. brevicaudatus (Reeve) and filamentosus (Koch). Two
distinct species, judging by specimens I have examined, in
the British Museum.
Of two species, Latérus annulatus (Bolten) and L. vexel-
lulum (Reeve), Tryon makes no mention—he has, therefore,
accidentally omitted them.
Leucozonia rudis (Reeve) is, 1 think, sufficiently distinct
from L. cengulifera (Lamarck), though I agree with Mr.
Tryon in the other subspecies. Nor do I think Lagena
subrostrata (Gray) otherwise than a Cantharus : the den-
tition alone will tell for certain. .
Peristernia Forskalli (T. C.) seems, at all events, a good
species, though allied to P. nassatula (Lamarck).
Mr. Tryon has fallen into strange mistakes too, with
regard to the Exgzna-like forms I have excluded from the
Genus Latirus. 389
genus. He makes Ricinula pulchra (Reeve), or Peristernia
pulchra of some authors a variety of P. zzcarnata (Desh.),
one of the most extraordinary conclusions that has ever
been drawn by any writer, and also describes Perzsternia
Caroline (Kien) twice, once under Perzsternza, and again
under Eugina (Gray), where I agree it had better find a
location.
Peristernia chlorostoma (Sowb.). Mr. Edgar Smith has.
given me the benefit of his valuable opinion as to this
perplexing species and its allies; marking out four species
(vide Catalogue), all of which have been unhesitatingly -
‘swamped by Mr. Tryon under this name.
I think P. Caledonica (Petit) and zzfracincta (Kobelt),
also Marquesana (A. Ad.) distinct. They, again, are all
grouped as synomyms of P. ustulata (Reeve) in the Manual.
I am almost inclined to agree with Tryon that P.
nassovdes (Reeve) may turn out a Wassarza.
The columellar plaits are absent, and the ‘ facies’ of the
‘shell is more like that genus. P. pulchella (Reeve) is,
however, nearly allied, and as that is a true Perzsternza, it
‘would not be well to sever them at present.
I hope it will not be thought that I have been wanting
in charity towards the memory of Mr. Tryon by the fore-
going remarks. I fully recognize the difficulties he had to
contend with, and only wish he had consulted the museums
‘on this side before entering on his work, more assiduously.
The later volumes seem more carefully compiled, and freer
from such errors as I have been expatiating on, than the
‘former.
(XII.) Remarks on the Sequence adopted—Taking
firstly L. aureocinctus (Sowb.), as the simplest form of the
genus with elongated spire, many whorled, canal very short,
we pass at once to craticulatus (L.) and its congeners,
Squamosus (Pease), being the only alien form possessing
390 Mr. CoSMO MELVILL ox the
what is an unique occurrence in the genus, a thick white
band below the sutures, producing at regular intervals a
strong, short white spine. This is allied in other ways to
L. prismaticus (Mart.), whose iridescent epidermis is dis-
cussed in another place. The ancient and widely-spread
L. turritus (Gmel.), of brick-dust colour, only slightly
noduled, and decorated with regular transverse lines, affords
many links of kinship with L. brevicaudatus (Reeve), an
elegant shell with extremely short beak, and transverse
brown-lined painting, showing, however, a marked transition
through L. Syracusanus (L.), (formerly Fusus),and L. filosus
(Gmel.), to one of the most conspicuous of the genus, L.
enfundibulum (Gmel.) Here the acme of the species with
whitish ground colour and red varied transverse lines seems
to be attained. In close proximity to this must be placed
the most fusoid of the group, L. /axcea (Gmel.), a shell with
a very prolonged canal, and all the external attributes of a
Fusus of the “Colus” section, though its texture and ribbing
are markedly Latiroid, let alone the presence of columellar
plaits, while LZ. angustus (Sm.), and Cayohuesonzcus (Sowb.),
(fig. 2.) are much like zxfundzbulum in miniature. A
natural sequence now brings us to three or four species from
the Western Coast of N. America, all much alike: Z.
castaneus (Reeve) being the type. Heavy shells are they,
with more or less prolonged canal, and a peculiar obliquity
or rather sinuosity of the outer lip, and more or less obscure
transverse ribbing, ZL. castaneus being smoother than varz-
cosus and acuminatus, and standing next to L. nodatus
(Martyn), that large and beautiful species, so conspicuous for
its pink or pale violet mouth, and fawn coloured epidermis,
smooth with rounded concentric nodules. The /asczolaria
lignarta [L.\ place by this, a thinner shell it is true, but
with, to some extent, the same characters ; the canal in this
species is similar to the ZL. folygonus (Gm.) and its allies,
all of which come next. This shell (folygonus) is perhaps
Genus Latirus. 395
the earliest learnt by the student, being of extremely wide
distribution, and a handsome, large, brightly variegated
form. It forms the type of Swainson’s subgeneric P/zcatella,
based upon characters which it is impossible to maintain :
a few forms analogous to this, bring us to L. vecurvirostris
(Schub. and Wagner), which is a good link with L. gzbbulus
(Gmel.), to which we have already fully alluded as Mont-
fort’s type of the genus.
Closely allied to this, is the large and still unique ZL.
tumens (Carpenter), so grievously misunderstood by Tryon,
who thinks it must be a variety of Graczlzs (Reeve). Of
this, since it has never been figured, I am pleased to be able
to give a representation (fig. 14).
Through L. carinzferus (Lamk) and dstznctus (A. Ad.),
a very beautiful form, till lately misunderstood, and also
figured now for the first time (fig. 3), we are brought to
armatus (A. Adams), well pourtrayed in Vol. XV. of the
Zoology “Challenger” Expedition, (pl. 13, fig. 1), and which
I have already alluded to, this leading to L. ceratus (Reeve),
a very conspicuous W. American species with short canal, and
angled whorls with large white concentric nodules, closely
allied to LZ. tuberculatus (Brod), the first of the series
hitherto included in Leuwcozgonza (Gray). Through ¢rzserzales
(Lam.), with rows of sharp nodules ornamenting its whorls,
we pass to ocellatus (Gmel.), and its elongated form zzgellus
(Chemnitz). JL. cinguliferus (Lam.) is the most variable
of the genus ; some forms are angulated approaching rudzs
and other species, but this variation only strengthens the
line of sequence here, and the very smooth rounded L.
smaragdulus (L.) and L. leucozonalis (Lamk.) closely show
their affinity. A slight hiatus might be thought by some
to occur between smaragdulus L. and cingulatus (Lamk.),
but I think the shells bear exactly the same principia
of character through J/eucozonalis, as there is an evident
sign of a labial tooth, though I do not perceive any such
392 Mr. COSMO MELVILL oz the
attempts in L. smaragdulus. L. amplustre (Mart.) naturally
follows, by an easy transition through some species hitherto
placed in Pevzsternza, closing the genus with L. vercllulum
(Reeve), which, in its turn, has some connection with one of
the first species, on the list of Perzsternza, e.g. castanoleuca
(Tapperone-Canefri), better known by the superseded name
Philbertz (Recluz).
This very attractive little shell has affinities on the one
hand with P. spznosa (Martyn), and xassatula (Lamk.), and
on the other with Australienszs (Reeve), placed last almost
in the series. |
Through sfzzosa (Martyn) in which the spires on the
transverse riblets are very prominent, we come to the
beautiful and variable zassatula and its allies. This shell, the
most beautifully delicate, perhaps, of all the species is, when in
good condition white, occasionally variegated with fuscous-
brown, the interior of the mouth and columella varying from
rose pink to pale purple. P. lzvata (Pease), gemmata
(Reeve), are shells which it is not very easy to assign to
quite a natural place. Indeed, it has occurred to me there
may be a closer connection with Lativus prismaticus than
one would admit at present. I have spoken about the
similarity of the epidermis characters in these two species,
and we have yet to learn the dentition of them all.
In P. decorata (Adams), well redescribed by Mr. Edgar
Smith, in P.Z.S., 1878, p. 812, and the newly-described
mannophora, hilaris (figs. 4 and 5), and allies, we have a
beautiful moniliform arrangement of the beading of the
whorls just below the sutures, and these forms naturally
lead to that group of which P. pulchella (Reeve) maculata
(Reeve), S7zthiana (sp. nov.) may be considered the types.
P. nassoides (Reeve) is a somewhat anomalous kind, allied
nearly to pulchella, but possessing certain Massarioid
peculiarities, suggesting the possibility of relegating it
eventually to the genus Hzndsza. There is no sign here of
Genus Latirus. 393
columellar plaits. Through P. flavida (Ad.) (fig. 5) and
Martet (Crosse) we approach P. zzcarnata (Desh.), a well-
marked species of gaudy coloration, also 7ufracincta
(Kobelt), so allied to it that I cannot but place it here,
though for both it and annzulata (Bolten) (fig. 1) some
conchologists might, and perhaps with good reason, find a
place in Latzrus, near Syracusanus L. P. Brazitert (Angas)
like zufracencta in form, is conspicuous for absence of.
columellar plaits. |
Now begin the range of mostly small species allied to.
ustulata (Reeve), the majority of which have an indigo or
brown stain at the base; there is more variety here, and’
more difficulty, than in other sections of the genus.
Lastly come P. chlorostoma, striata, and allies; a very
beautiful little assemblage of shells, and extremely variable.
One form, Se/zne@ (fig 7), I have given a separate description
to in this paper, a very beautiful form, allied closely to.
stigmataria(Ad.), which seems near P. Australzensts (Reeve)..
in its disposition of markings. VP. /uzuwensts and Wagneri,
which come last, both have crenulated outer lips; I there-
fore admit them as true Per¢sternze with a little diffidence,
there being many points, it is true, in common, but also
certain Ezgzna relations which we wait for the knowledge.
of the lingual ribbon to verify.
I am sure, however, that Pauluccze (Kobelt), pulchra
(Reeve), Caroline (Kien)= Ricinula bella (Reeve), and
others formerly included in this genus are Exgzve, and so.
exclude them here. :
One instance will suffice. P. Caroline (Kiener).
It will be noticed that by the Ricinula-like or colum-
belloid mouth, and the distinctly different line of painting
and ribbing, that there is much more affinity between
them and say Eugzna histrio, than with any Perzsternza.
The dentition of Exugzna is widely distinct, and it is to be
wished that some student would make a special study of
394 Mr. COSMO MELVILL ox the
these small, often very beautiful, forms, at present arranged
haphazard under the genera Murex, Purpura, Ricinula,
Szstrum, Columbella, Peristernia, and Engzna.
(XIII1.) Descriptions of New Species.
1. LATIRUS EPPI, sp. nov, (Fig. 11).
L. testé ovato-fusiformt, crassa, fulvo-brunned, anfractibus
leribus, longitudinaliter costatis, nitentibus, transversim
obscuré filo-liratis, livis ad suturas adistinctiorzbus, canals sub-
producté, sptraliter liratd, aperture fauce sulcaté, albescente,
columellé quadriplicata, alba.
Long. 24 mill.
ate’ 10 *.,,
flab. Insula Curacoa (Dr. Epp.)
This very interesting addition to the genus, is at present
an unique shell, and forming part of the collection of the
Leyden Museum, Holland. It has been kindly forwarded
me by Mr. M. M. Schepmann, of Rhoon, Rotterdam, with the
request that I would describe it, at the same time wishing
that it should bear the name of its discoverer. In fact, Mr.
Schepmann unites with me in joint authorship. The nearest
approximations to this species are undoubtedly L. castaneus
(Reeve) and acuminatus (Kiener) from both of which,
however, it can easily be differentiated. Though so small
for one of this section, the specimen is full grown, and
slightly worn, the transverse lirz would, in a younger
specimen, be regularly distributed over every portion of the
whorls.
2. LATIRUS FORMOSIOR, sf, xov. (Fig. 16).
L. testé gracili-fustformt, fulvo-ochraced, apice rosed,
anfractibus octo, rotundatis, elevato-striatis, strits arcté et
vegulariter tranversim cingulatis, longitudinaliter plicato-
Genus Latirus. 395
costatts, costts rotundatis, canalé subrecurvd, apertura intus
. Livatd, columella quinqueplicaté albescente.
Long. 30 mill.
iat. 15.505,
Fab, ?
A very beautiful shell, more so than its nearest congener,
L. fastigium (Reeve), the comparison with which in this
respect is hinted at in the specific name. It differs from
this species in the more rounded whorls, greater regularity —
of the longitudinal ribs, fewer whorls (there are nine in my
specimen of /fastzgzum) and less slender attenuation of
form.
I fancied I had, at one time, seen another specimen in
the National collection, but Mr. E. A. Smith assures me I
must have been mistaken.
The type is in my collection,
3. PERISTERNIA MANNOPHORA, Sf. xov. (Fig. 4).
P. testé subfustformt, ochraced, anfractibus septem, angu-
latis, longitudinaliter regulariter costatis, costis transversim
livatis, livis infra suturas dudbus, ultimo anfractu tribus,
nitidé moniliformibus et albotuberculatis, apertura ovatéa,
labro simplicz, columella triplicata.
Long. 20 mill.
Lat. 8 2
flab. Madagascar.
Though allied to the next species (P. Xz/arzs), this little
shell is, in several particulars, quite different. The transverse
lirze are not so close nor so deeply sulcated between, and
the first lire below the sutures are more irregularly beaded
with necklace-like nodules, and the mouth is more ovate.
Represented at present by a unique specimen, in the
National Collection, South Kensington.
396 Mr. COSMO MELVILL on the
4. PERISTERNIA HILARIS sf. xov. (Fig. 6).
P. testa subfuscformz, fulvo-aurantid, anfractibus septem,
conspicué ad suturas angulatzs, longitudinaliter mutticostatzs,
lives transversim candidts arcté complexis, infra suturas dua-
bus, ultzmo anfractu tribus, monitformibus ,—sphorulis eqguts,
nitidts, labro simplict, aperturd subangustd, oblonga, columella
plicis tribus tnstructa.
Long. Ig m.
| a 2 re
FHlab. Mauritius.
One of the most beautiful of the smaller members of
the genus. The ground colour is a deep orange, and the
clean cut and close-lying white lire transversely cross the
whorls, affording a pleasing contrast. The two or three
lire immediately below the sutures are decorated with
shining white round beads, of almost equal size, regularly
concentrically disposed.
One specimen in the National Collection, South Ken-
sington, P. Kobeltiana (Tapp. Can.),a very beautiful form
from Mauritius, is a larger ally of this species.
5. PERISTERNIA CANTHARIFORMIS, sf. zov. (Fig. 12).
P. testi gracili, elongato-fusiformi, ad basin subrecurva,
anfractibus octo, longitudinaliter trregulariter costatis, lirts,
bints transversim multicinctts, albtdé, ad costas hic tlic
aurantio-suffush, apertura simplict, columella quadriplicata,
albescente.
Leng. 30 mill,
Rat: Ts a
Hab. Mauritius.
A most graceful and delicate species, unlike any other
known to me, though slightly resembling the next to be ©
described, from which it abundantly differs in many par-
ticulars. The extremely attenuated and graceful form,
superficial character of the ribs, the delicate orange chestnut
colouring, impart a very lively bright appearance to the
Genus Latirus. 397
shell, which is not unlike Cantharus gracilis Reeve) in form
superficially suggesting the trivial name.
Type at present unique in my collection.
6. PERISTERNIA CREMNOCHIONE Sf. nov. (Fig. 9).
P. testé subattenuata, fustformi, anfractibus septem, angu-
liferis, longitudinaliter costulates, ad angulis costarum pre-
copué albofusis sulculis plus minusve binis, transversim
rugulosis, fascia fulvo-brunned ad suturas et in medio ultimo
anfractu insignt, columella triplicatd, aperturd pallida, ovatd,
labro subangulato.
Long. 24 m.
Lat. 11m.
Hab. Mauritius.
This seems a variable little species, of which I have seen
a good many specimens—the central brown fascia is,
however, present in them all, the number of ribs, and their
more or less angularity vary immensely: the ribs of one
specimen I have—and which at one time was thought to be
new—are quite destitute of any angles whatsoever, and the
style of painting differs, giving the semblance of pseudo-
varices. This may be called variety B. photzformis, the
general appearance resmbling Phos roseatus (Hinds), in
miniature. Of this species the type figured is one of two in
the British Museum, South Kensington. I have received,
through Mr. G. B. Sowerby, four other specimens mostly
differing, as I have said, in the style of painting. This
species and the last belong to the same section of the genus
as P. pulchella (Reeve) and P. maculata, also of Reeve.
7, PERISTERNIA SMITHIANA, sf. nov. (Fig. 8).
P. testi fustforimit fulvo-ochraced, ad angulos costarum
pallidiore, anfractibus septem, interdum octo, longitudinaliter
forticostats, livres et costis tranversim alternantibus, ad suturas
rugulosis, im medio angulates, canalz brevi, subrecurvé,
yy
398 Mr. CoSMO MELVILL ox the
apertura intus striata, labro simplict, columellé obscuré
triplicata.
sp. Maxime. sp. minime.
Long. 38 m. — 28 m.
Lat. 16, 1
Hab. Mauritius. Aden.
Of uniform tawny ochreous colour, paler at the points
where the ribs are crossed at the angle of the whorls by the
transverse riblets. It varies a good deal in size, and the
five specimens I have, embrace all the differences between
the extreme measurements here given. It seems to belong
to the same group as the last species described.
I have had six specimens of this till now undescribed
shell for many years, obtained at the sale of the collection
of Mr. W. J. Hamilton, in March, 1870. One of these
specimens, the type figured, is now in the National
Collection, South Kensington. I have unusual pleasure in
associating with this species the name of Edgar A. Smith
Esq., F.Z.S., Curator of the Molluscan Department, British
Museum, who has given me much valuable and valued
assistance in the preparation of this historical account of
Latirus and Peristernza.
8. PERISTERNIA RETIARIA, SP. nov. (Fig. 13.).
P. testé fustformi, pallidé flavo-ochraced, crasstusculd,
anfractibus septem, rotundatis, subventricosts, longitudinalitér
costatis, costis subangulatis, endistencté fulvo-punctatis, costulis
transversim cingulates, labro tenuz, apertura oblonga, bast
nigro-ceruled. }
Long. 20 m.
Toate) Ba,
Hab. Mauritius,
A delicate looking, though non-transparent shell, and of
rather thicker substance than one would imagine, of a pale
ochraceous colour, with indigo blue base, the ribs are very
Genus Latirus. 399
numerous, and crossed in a somewhat latticed style of
network with smaller riblets, the main longitudinal ribs
being dimly spotted with fulvous dots, hardly visible without
the aid of alens. There is alsoadark line at the sutures. It
comes under the wstulata section, but is distinct from any of
the group. |
Two specimens, one operculated, collected by M. Robil-
lard at the locality. just mentioned above, are in the
National Collection.
Q. PERISTERNIA LEUCOTHEA, sf. nov. (Fig 15).
P. testa subpyramidali, ad apicem multum attenuata,
anfractibus septem, longitudinaliter multicostatis, transversim
Liris tenutbus arcté cingulatis omniné albescentibus, apertura
efust simplict, alba, labro intus sulcato, columella obscuré
traplicaté.
Long. 18°50 m.
Lat. & m.
Hab. Port Natal, S. Africa.
A curious and very neat little shell, of chaste device.
I have found a specimen very nearly resembling my own,
in a tablet in one of the drawers underneath the table cases
in the National Collection, where it had been mounted years
ago with a specimen of P. crocea, and the locality given
‘Natal,’ and several specimens have recently been received
from the same locality.
10. PERISTERNIA SELINA, sp. uov. (Fig. 7).
P. testi fustformtz, subpellucida, elegantissima, anfractibus
septem, rotundatzs, albis, ad suturas castaneo-suffusis, longt-
tudinaliter costatis, lirulis transversim cingulatis, in medio
enter costas macults castanets cincto, apice nigro, columella
quadriplicata, bast castaneo-suffusa, labro intus sulcato.
Long. 27 mill.
Lat. 14 ¥
400 Genus Latirus.
flab. Ins. Sandvichenses.
This is an extreme form of P. stzgmataria(A. Ad.), from
which it differs in its greater elegance of form, delicacy of
appearance, and more regular transverse liration. It is
impossible, in any figure, to do justice to the extreme
beauty of this shell. I have two specimens in my collec-
tion, from the larger of which the figure in the plate is taken,
and there are some specimens in the National Collection,
from the locality mentioned above.
II. PERISTERNIA INIUENSIS, sp. xov., (Fig. 10).
P. testi ovato-fustformt, roseo-tincté, anfractibus sex,
subventricosis, longitudinaliter plicato-costatis, tranversim
crassisulcatis, apice roseo, labro tntus crenulato, apertura ovata,
columella forteter triplicata.
Long. 7°50 mm.
Lat. 3 .
Fab. Iniue I. (or Savage Isld.), W. W. Perry, Esq.
An exceedingly minute, but extremely beautiful little
species, and quite unlike any hitherto described, although
it approaches some forms hitherto included in Perzsternia,
which we are inelined to refer to Eugzna (Gray) it yet
possesses characteristics which would point at the suitability
of its retention in this genus. Both the specimens known,
are on a tablet in the National Collection, labelled as above,
and both are alike in the exquisite pink suffusion which
renders it, though the smallest, quite one of the gems of a ,
very beautiful genus. ;
(XIV). TZotal Number of Speczes—In the last Cata-
logue of the late F. Paetel (Berlin, 1887), the whole
of the three genera are united under the title Latrus
(Montfort) and 144 species, besides varieties and synonyms,
are mentioned. Of these we expunge 46, either as
reduplications, mistakes, synonyms, or as belonging to
~Describers of Latzrus. 401
other genera, or, as unidentifiable. A list of the chief of
these will be given at the end of this paper, after the
Catalogue. Suffice now to say that to the 98 good species,
two are added, viz. Lat:rus lignarius and Syracusanus,
formerly Fasciolaria and Fusus respectively, and II new
species, bringing up the total to 111 species, or the segregate
Latirus 62, Peristernia 49.
(XV.) LIST OF THE DESCRIBERS OF RECENT SPECIES
AND VARIETIES OF LATIRUS AND PERISTERNIA.
Apams, H. & A. KING PHILIPPI, R. A.
Anton, H. E. KoBELT, W. REEVE, LOVELL A.
ANGAS, G. F. Kocu. SCHEPMANN, M. M.
BERNARDI, A. C. Kuster, H. C. SCHUBERT. |
BRODERIP, W. J. LAMARCK, J. B. DE SCHUMACHER, C. F.
CARPENTER, P. P. LESSON SMITH, EDGAR A.
CHEMNITZ, J. H. LINNZUS, C. SOUVERBIE.
CrossE, H. MartTENS, E. voN SoOweErsy, G. B. (Sen.)
DESHAYES, G. P. Martini, F. H. W. Sowersy, G. B.
D’Orzieny, A. MARTYN. ‘TAPPARONE-CANEFRI,
DUNKER, W. MAweE. e. a
FISCHER, P. MELVILL, J. C. TROSCHEL, F. H. :
GouLp, A. A. _ Montrort, Denys DE Tryon, G. W. (Jun).
Gray, J. E. Morcy, O. A. VALENCIENNES, A.
HOMBRON. NUTTALL, T. WAGNER.
Hutron, F. W. PrEasE, W. H. Watson, R. Booc.
JEFFREYS, J. GwyYN. PETIT DE LA SAUS-
KIENER, L. C. SAYE, S.
402 Mr. CosMo MELVILL’S
XVI.
A CATALOGUE
OF THE SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF 3
LATIRUS [Montfort 1810] and immediate allies.
Revised to March, 1891.
By JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
I. TARON [Hutton, 1882].
1. Z. dubius (Hutton). Zool. Rec. XX., Urosalpinx dubius. New Zealand.
Moll. p. 42. 1882. sec. Tryon.
II. BUCCINOFUSUS [Conrad., 1867].
Syn.: BorEorusus [Sars.], 1878.
1. B. Berniczensis (King). Ann. Mag., p. 246, 1846. FUusus sp. Anglia et
Norvegia.
Ill. LATIRUS [Montfort, 1810].
Syn.: Murex (pars.) (Linn.) 1767. TuRBINELLA (Lam.) 1790.
Potycona (Schumacher), 1817.
PLICATELLA (Swainson), 1842. LEucozonia (Gray), 1847.
LaGENA (Schum), 1817.
. Synonynis.
1. L.. Noumeensis (Crosse). J. de Conch, XVIII., 247, 1870, XIX. 1871. N. Caledonia.
2. L. scaber (Souverbie). J. de Conch, XVII., 1869, XVIII., 1870. as
3. LZ. oust (Sowb.). Journ. of Conch., Vol. V., p. 8, 1886, Vol. VI., Port Elizabeth,
ps 1,4. 13: Africa Mer.
4. L. aureocinctus (Sowb.). Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875, p. 12q t. 24, f: 2. Mauritius.
5. L. lautus (Reeve). Conch. Icon. IV., f. 73, 1847.
6. LZ. craticulatus (Linn.). Murex craticulatus (Linn.). Mare Erythrzum,
Syst. Nat., Ed. XII., 1224, 1767. Oc. Ind. et
Pacificus,
Borbonia,
Polynesia.
7. L. Nagasakiensis (E. A. Smith). Proc. Zool. Soc., 482, t. 48, Japonia.
f. 7, 1880.
B. . sanguifluus (Reeve). Zea (Morch). Guinea.
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 58, 1847.
8. fallax (Kobelt) sp. nodulatus (Pease, W. H.) Ins. Marquesas.
Kiister Conchyl. Cab.
30;"t. “10; @.52.
Q. L. sguamosus (Pease). Proc. Zool. Soc., 240, 1862. Baker’s I. Poly-
nesia.
Io.
II.
12.
5.
14.
- 15.
16.
17:
18.
19.
20.
2I.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
L.
Z..
L. filamentosus (Koch).
. turritus (Gmelin) Syst. Nat., 3456,
Catalogue of Latirus.
Buccinum prismaticum
prismaticus (Martyn).
(Mart.).
Univ. Conch., Vol. II., p. 2.
c.f. Reeve Conch. Icon. IV., f. 25.
subfuscus (Martini).
1796. teeniatus (Desh).
8B. L. lineatus (Lamk.). Hist., VII., p. 109.
Conch. Icon. IV., f. 50, 1847.
intermedius (Koch ?)
Kiister, Conch., cab. 69, t.9, f. 8
brevicaudatus (Reeve).
403
Ralick & Radick
Ins
Ins., Kinga
et Tonga.
(W. H. Pease.)
Suez. (c.f. A. H.
Cooke), Mac-
andrew Cata-
log., Mare
Erythreum,
Australia,
Mauritius, In-
sulze Philip-,
pinenses. $°../ ¢
Masbate I.
Brasilia, Florida
L. spadiceus (Reeve). Conch. Icon., Vol. IV., f. 44, 1847, Panama, Aca-
pulco,
Fernando
Noronha,
(Ridley).
L. lyratus (Reeve). Conch. Icon., Vol. IV., f. 13, 1847. I. Camaguing,
Ins. Philip
pinenses.
L. Syracusanus(L.). Syst. Nat., XII., | Aptyxis [Troschel.] Gebiss der
1224, 1767 [FUSUS sp. ]. Schnecken. 1868.
L. filosus (Schubert and Wagner). ambustus (Gould). Sierra Leone,
Conch., Cab. XII., 100, t. 227, f. 4019, Tater (Gray), 1838.
4020, cab.
L. formostor (Melvill), 1891.
L. fastigium (Reeve).
. rhodostoma (Dunker).
. concentricus (Reeve).
. Paetelianus (Kobelt).
. elegans (Adams).
. alternatus (Reeve).
. mnfundibulum (Gm.).
. dancea (Gmelin).
Conch. Icon., f. 72, 1847.
Mal. Blatt., VI., 238, 1860.
Conch. Icon., Vol. IV., f. 2, 1847.
Kiister Conch., Cab. 71, t. 18.
Proc. Zool. Soc., 315, 1854.
gracilis (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 53, 1847.
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 69, 1847.
Syst. Nat., p. 3554, 1790. Fusus ve
aculeiformis
acus (Sowb. & Reeve)
Syst.
lanceola (Reeve).
Nat.,
3556, 1790.
Goree, I,
Prince, Sene-
gal, Africa,
occ.
? ‘
Ceylon et Ins.
Andaman,
(Wilmer)[Ind.
occid., Swift?]
Japonia.
St. Elena, Cos
lombia, occid.
Acapulco.
Mare Indicum.
?
Ad Oras Occid.
Americe Bore-
alis.
Murex infundibulum (Gmlin). Tortugas.
Enc. Math.
Polygona fusiformis (Schum).
[Fusus].
Ind. occident.
404
28. L. angustus (E. A. Smith).
29. L. Cayohuesonicus (Sowb.).
. L. Bairstowd (Sowb.).
pl.
Mr. COSMO MELVILL’S
J. of Conch.,
Dit: aa.
. L. varicosus (Reeve).Conch. Icon. IV.,
f. 6, 1847.
f, 32.
. L. castaneus (Reeve).
. L. acuminatus (Kiener).
Conch. Icon.,
DV. f. 26, 1647.
of es
Fay, ts GT:
EV. f. 12,'2
modatus (Martyn).
. L. lanceolatus (Reeve).
Univ. Conch.,
ce. 28,4. 15,
Conch. Icon.
847.
Zool, Coll, Alert, p..62, &. V5.4. Fi,
Proc. Zool. Soc., 796, 1878.
vol, V.,p. 8, 18865 vol. VL.
sanguineus (Mawe)
(Wood)
99
. L. Eppi (Melv. and Schepmann), 1891.
Queensland.
Key West (Cayo
Hueso) Florida
mer. detexit J.
C. Melvill, 1872;
S. Themas
(Swift).
Port Elizabeth,
Africa mer.
Ins. Gallapagos.
acuminatus (Wood). Ins. Philippinenses
(Cuming. )
I. Curagoa,Sinus
Mexicanus,
(Dr. Epp).
acuminatus (Wood) non. G. California.
Kiener. Panama.
Buccinum nodatum (Mart.)
Murex rigidus (Wood). Ins. Sandwich-
Turbinella rigida (Gray). enses,
Murex nodatus (Gmel.). Viti.
Dillwyn cat.
>
Ad. and Reeve, Voy. Samarang, 42, t. 7, 1848
37. L. Robillardi (Tapp.
Canefri).
Conch., 1879, f. 318.
Ann. Soc. Mal. Belg., 1880, XV. pl. 2, f. 12, 13.
L. lignarius (Linn. ).
i224, 1767.
- 38.
39-
Syst. Nat., XII.,
L. polygonus (Gmelin). Syst. Nat., 3555-
B. cessellatus (Kobelt).
40. L. Barclayi (Reeve).
41. L. candelabrum (Reeve).
42. L. Amalie (Kobelt).
J. de
FASCIOLARIA (Lam.)
F. Tarentina (Lam.), 1790.
Savignyi (Tapp. Canefri).
unifasciatus (Wood).
Murex polygonus (Gmelin.).
Fusus polygonus(Encycl. Meth. ).
Coch. Jcon., TV.,; & 20, 1847.
Kiister Conch.
‘Conch. Icon., IV., f. 9, 1847.
Cab,, Si t. 10; f. 4, 5.
43. L. recurvirostris (Schubert and Wagner). Conch., XII.,p. 100, f. 227.
MUREX filosus (Lamk.)
Ins. Philipinen-
ses.
Mauritius.
Mediterra-
neum.
M.
Ticao et Luzon,
Ins. Philippinen-
ses.
Mascarenses,
Mare Eryth-
reeum, ad. Ins.
Perim,
J. x Walker,
N.).
Cae Upstart
(J. B. Jukes),
Rodriguez I.
Vavaw, Ins.
Tonga. (Mus.
Brit. ).
Mauritius.
St. Elena,
Columbia occ,
Luzon I. (Mus.
Brit. ).
Catalogue of Latirus.
44. L. gibbulus (Gmelin). Syst. Nat., 3557.
45. L. tumens (Carpenter).
46. L. cariniferus (Lamk.).
47. L. distinctus (A. Adams).
48. ZL. armatus (A. Ad.).
314, 1854.
8. Maderensis (Watson).
49.
50.
et.
52.
53-
54.
Proc. Zool. Soc.,
ee coe Se
Boog Watson, Zool. Challenger
Exped., XV., p. 243.
L. rudis (Reeve).
L. ceratus (Gray).
L. tuberculatus (Brod.).
L. triserialis (Lam.).
8. Hidalgoz (Crosse).
y. Stokestz (Gray).
d. dubius (Petit).
L. ocellatus (Gmelin).
Hist.
Zool,
, WEE, TG.
“*Le Latire Orange.”
LATIRUS TYP. MONTFORT,
Proc. Zool. Soc., 315, 1854.
Hist., VII., 108.
Proc. Zool. Soc., 315, 1854.
trochlearis (Iiister).
CHASCAX (Watson).
Turbinella
gen.
1810.
propr.
spinosa
(Gray), Ann. and Mag. N.H.
1838, I. p. 28.
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 51, 1847.
Zool., Beechey’s Voyage, p. I14.
Proc. Zool. Soc., VII., 1833.
J. de Conch., XIII., p. 414, t. 14, f. I.
» Beechey’s Voy., p. 114, 1839.
J. de Conch., IV., p. 75, t. 2, f. 9, 10, 1853.
Syst. Nat.,
8. nzgellus (Chemnitz).
L. cinguliferus (Lam.).
8B. Knorriz (Desh.).
Vert.
y. Brasilianus (D’Orb.). Voy. Amer. angulatus (Kobelt).
Hist., VII.,
108.
Anim. Sans.
jd aly, 395
mer. 449, t. 77.
3 angularis (Reeve).
«. Riiseanus (Dunker).
55. L. leucozonalis (Lam.).
X.5 748.
Fasiolaria cingulifera, Enc.
meth., incultus (Gould)
Murex nassa (Gmel). (pars.)
Turbinella castanea (Gray).
fuscatus (Gmel).
Ci leon, IV.; £ 49, 1847.
[Kobelt, 83].
Eisst., VIL, 107.
Buccinum smaragdulus (Linn).
33 _-‘rusticum (Gmelin).
405
Australia.
America centr.
Ins. Viti.
Curacoa I. Sinus
Mexicanus
(Dr. Epp.).
Goree, Sierra
Leone, Africa
occ., Ind.occid.
Madeira. .
Ind. occidentales
Ins. Gallapagos,
Panama, Ma-
zatpan (R. B.
Hinds).
Ins. Gallapagos,
Ind. occident.
I. S. Vincent,
Africa occident :
Bahia, Brasilia,
Porto Praya, C.
de Verde Ins.
Fernando No-
ronha I. (Rid-
ley), Ind. occi-
dent.
Cedar Keys, Flo-
rida occ.:—ad
Ind. : occident :
Floridas.
Fernando, No-
ronha I, (H.
N. Ridley), St.
Vincent I.(Mus.
Brit.), Gambia,
Senegal, et Ind.
occidentales.
Key West, Flo-
rida mer (J. C.
Melvill, 1872).
Honduras.
Brasilia, Ins. oc-
cidentales.
39
3°
Honduras.
NE AP
406
56.
57:
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
609.
70.
Mr. CosMo MELVILL’S
L. smaragdulus (L.). Mus. Ulric., Lagena crassa (Schum). Ins. _ Philippi-
610. Turbinella rustica (Lam). nenses, Poly-
nesia, Viti Is.
Pt. Essington,
Australia
(Mus. Brit.)
LEUCOZONIA, sp. (Gray).
L. cingulatus (Lamk.). Ed., X., MONOCEROS, c. (Auct). Or. occidentales,
118. pseudodon (Burrow, 1815). Amer. Bor.,
Porto Praya
(Sinclair), Pa-
nama (Kellett).
L. amplustre (Martyn). Univ. Conch., Buccinum amplustre (Mar- I. Annaa, Ins.
Bote g. tyn). aplustre (Martyn). Ascension.
Murex aplustre(Chemnitz).
L. Belchert (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 22, 1847. Cargados Gara-
jos. Ind. Liu-
; kiu Ins.
L. pictus (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 19, 1847. Ins. Viti.
L. -Californicus (A. Ad.). Gen. I., 153, nom. nud. California.
L. vexillulum (Reeve). Conch. System, Vol. II., p. 229, f. 1.
IV. PERISTERNIA. [Morch] Yoldi Cat. 99, 1852.
LatTirus § PERISTERNIA [Morch] Paetel Cat, 1887, etc.
P. despecta (A. Adams), Proc. Zool. Soc., 315, 1854. China.
P. castanoleuca (Tapp. Canefri). Philberti (Recluz) Insulze.
Beechey’s Mag. Zool. t. 91, 1844. nom. przocc. sp. fossilis. Philippinenses:
tessellate (Recluz). é.g., I. Ticao &
Panay
P. spinosa (Martyn). Univ. Conch., Murex columbarium (Chem.). Ins. Viti.
t. 4, 1789.
B. zostoma (Nuttall). Kiister C. Turbinella fasciata (Sowb.).
Cab., p. 36,4. 0, 2.1, :2;
Buccinumspinosum(Martyn) California ?
P. gibba (Pease). Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 54, 1855. Ins. Howland.
(Pease).
P. violacea (Reeve). Conch. Icon., f. 59, 1847. Ae
P. microstoma (Kiister). Conch. Cab. III. t. 26 f. 8, 9. ?
an. var., sqq. ?
P. Forskallez (Tapp. Canefri), 26, f. 6 7. Mare Erythrzeum.
L. nassatula (Lamk.). Hist. VII., 11o. Mare Erythr.,
(J. J. Walker,
R.N.)Oc. Ind.,
Ins. Philipp.
Nov. Guinea,
Nov. Caledonia
Paumotus. Ins.
I. Annaa, An-
daman, etc.
B. Deshayestz (Kobelt). Ins. Seychellen-
ses, Amirantes,
Mascarenes
(Mus. Brit. ).
y. subnassatula (Sowerbie). Nov. Caledonia.
71. -P. Lobbechii (Kobelt).
72,
73-
74.
75.
76.
77°
78.
79-
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
. £. infracincta (Kobelt).
~ Catalogue of Lattrus.
P. elathrata (Val.). Kiener, 46, t. 18, f. 4.
P. gemmata (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV.
f. 5, 1847.
P. lirata (Pease). Am. J. Conch. IV., 152, 1868. gemmata
(Reeve var.)
L. decorata (A. Ad,). Proc. Zool. Soc., 316, 1854.
P. Kobeltiana (Tapp. Can.). Zealandica (A. Ad.)?
P. mannophora (Melvill), 1891.
P. hilaris (Melvill), 1891.
P. granulosa (Pease).
P. canthariformis (Melvill), 1891.
P. cremnochione (Melvill), 1891.
B. photiformis (Melv.), 1891.
L£. Smithiana (Melvill, 1891.
P. maculata (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 70, 1847.
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 67, 1847.
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 71, 1847.
PP. nana (Reeve).
P nassoides (Reeve).
P. pulchelia (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 65, 1847.
B. neglecta (A. Ad.).
y. sutorzs (Kuster).
P. flavida (A. Ad.). Proc. Zool. Soc.,
p+ 314, 1854.
P. Mariez (Crosse). - I. de Conch.,
MVIL , 177; t. 3, f3 2,) 1869,
P. tncarnata (Desh.). Voy. Laborde, t. 65, f. 20, 22.
Proc. Zool. Soc., 314, 1854.
Conch, Cab. 106, t. 25, f. 20, II.
. P. annulata (Bolten).
P. Braziert (Angas). Proc. Zool. Soc., 171, t. 26, f. 4, 1877.
Kiister’s Conch. Cab., 104, t. 20, f. 4, 5.
Latirus flavidus (A. Ad.)
Kuster Conch: Cab. 92;.¢. 22, f 16,17.
407
Ins, Pacificee.
>)
Oery Ind.
Ins. Marquesas.
Nov. Zealandia
(Mus. Brit.)
Ins. Andaman.
(Capt. W. Wil-
mer).
N. Zealandia ?
’ Mauritius.
Madagascar.
Mauritius.
Paumotus I.
Mauritius.
35 Aden.
99
Java.
Ceylon, Ticao,
I. Philippin.
(Cuming).
Zanzibar, Africa,
Oc., N. Cale-
donia.
China.
Nov. Caledonia.
Ins. Philippinen-
ses, Oc. Ind.
Mare Erythree-
um). Ins. Sand-
wichenses, Ins.
Andaman(Capt.
W. Wilmer),
Ceylon (E. W.
H. Holdsworth),
SwankR., Austra-
lia. (Mus. Brit.).
?
_ Red Bank FL,
Australia, Or
(Angas).
408
93-
94.
95-
96.
97-
08.
99.
IOO.
IOI.
102.
103.
104.
105.
‘106.
107.
108.
109.
IIo.
Iit.
Mr. COSMO MELVILL’S
P. Caledonica (Petit). J. de Conch.,
I, 307, t..00, 4, 6, L551.
P. Marquesana (A. Adams).
P. retiaria (Melvill), 1891.
P. Carotiana (Tapp. Canefri). ustulata (Kobelt, non Reeve).
J. de Conch,s,.-£382;) p.' 31.
Soc. Mal. Belgique, 1880, XV., pl. 3, f. 15, 16.
P. becolor (Kobelt). Kiister C. Cab. 75, f. 18, f. 8, 9.
P. Rollandi (Bernardi and Crosse).
P. ustulata (Reeve). Conch. Icon.,
IV ., & 62,9827.
Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 315, 1854.
P. concinna (Tapp. Canefri).
Pl. x.y 1 10, TF,
P. melanorhyncha (Tapp. Canefri). J. de Conch.
fol. II. fie.°6, 7:
P. Strangei (A. Ad.). Proc. Zool. Soc., 316, 1854.
P. leucothea (Melvill), 1891.
P. sulcata (Gray). Zool. Beechey’s
scabrosa (Reeve).
Voyage, 116.
B. crocea (Gray), non Reeve, Zool. skis Tig.
y. gractlior (Kobelt).
P. chlorostoma (Sowb.). solida (Reeve).
. clathrata (Kiister).
B. Mewcombii (A. Ad.) craticulata (Schubert).
P. striata (Gray). Zool. Beechey Voy., crocea (Reeve).
114, 18309. chlorostoma (Nuttall).
crenulata (Kiener).
P. stigmataria (A. Ad.)
Soc., $13, 1654:
8. Samoenszs (Anton).
P. Seline (Melvill), 1891.
P. Australiensis (Reeve).
Proc. Zool. stigmaria (Pease).
Conch. Icon., IV., f. 56, 1847.
P. Lniuensts (Melvill), 1891.
bucciniformis (Kiener).
crenulata (Reeve).
P. Wagneri (Anton).
1839.
Verzeich, 71, craticulata (Wagner).
tigrina vars (Hombr. and
Jacquin).
J..de‘Conch., 1X, 50; t. iia;
iricolor (Homb. and Jacq.).
Ann. Soc. Mal. Belg., 1880, XV.,
EOB2,. Dp. "Sas
Nov. Caledonia,
Ins. Marquesas.
Ins. Mauritius.
99
Nov. Caledonia.
N. Caledonia,
Tongataboo,
Ins. Viti, Mau-
ritius, Ins.
Salomon(Mus.
Brit.), (Bra-
zier).
Mauritius.
Levuka I., Fiji,
(Challenger ex-
ped.). Sydney
et. Port Jack-
son. Australia
(Angas).
Natal.
Tongataboo I.
Tahiti. ad. oc. fl.
Brunei, Borneo,
(Mus. Brit.)
Ins. Sandwich.
Ins. Aru.
Natal.
Caroline Isles.
I. Sandwich.
I. Samoa.
I. Sandwich.
P. Essington,
Australia.
Iniue vel. Savage
Ins. (W. W.
Perry, Esq.).
Capul I., Philip:
pinensis. _
Mauritius (Rob-
illard).
————s,
Catalogue of Latirus. 409
XVII.—SPECIES UNIDENTIFIABLE, OR REFERRED IN ERROR TO
LATIRUS AND PERISTERNIA.
afer (Gmel.). Syst. Nat., 3558. est Fusus (Afer) afer.
agrestes (Anton.). Verzeichn, 71, 1839. », forma Leucozonize cujusdam ?
albellus (Dunker & Metzger). LatTHyRus, 1874. », Meyeria alba (Jeff.).
albus (Jeffreys). Be a aa
ananas (Chemnitz). bs ?
bella (Reeve). Conch. Icon. III., Ricinula, f. 15, 1846. ,, Engina Carolinze (Kien.).
Bonasia (Mart.). », Engina sp.
canaliculatus (Gray). Zool., Beechey’s Voy., 116. By ?
Caroline (Kein). », Engina bella (Reeve).
Chemmnztzzz (Anton). Verzeichn, 1839. i ?
cinereus (Reeve). Conch. Icon., IV., f. 68.
concinna (Reeve).
contemptus (A. Ad.). Pro. Zool. Soc., 315, 1854.
Crosseanus (Sowerbie).
», Fusus cinereus (Reeve).
»» Engina concinna (Reeve).
», Murex sp., c.f. badius (Reeve).
>, Vasum Crosseanum (Sowerbie).
elegans (Dunker). », Engina pulchra (Reeve).
Jenestratus (Anton.). Verzeichn, 71, 1839. fe ?
Jenestrata (Gould). PERISTERNIA, Bost. Proc., VII.,
327, 1860. oa
Fischerianus (Tapp. Canefri). », Engina (Gray), sp.
Jragaria (Wood) », Engina bella (Reeve), Carolinze
(Kiener).
funiculatus ,, a 33 Re
Juscozonatus (Angas). P. Z. S., 56, t. 2, 1865. », Siphonalia sp.
eranatus (Koch). », Fusus sp.
tmpressus (Anton.). Verzeichn, 71, 1839. ?
levigatus (Anton.). Pe “e ?
luculentus (A. Ad.). P. Zool. Soc., 429, 1863. . Siphonalia luculenta (A. Ad.).
multangula (Phil.). Zeit. Mal., 20, 1848. Fusus sp. ?
nodulosa (A. Ad.) Proc. Zool. Soc., 313, 1854. Coralliophila sp.
Paulluccie (Tap. Canefri). Engina Paullucciz (T. C.).
pulchra (Reeve). Conch. Icon., III., Ricinula f. 20,
1846. »» pulchra (Reeve).
purpurorides (Lesson). Rev. Zool., 211, 1842.
recurva (Reeve). Engina recurva.
rosa ponti (Lesson). =e 104, 212, 1842. i:
Spinosus (Phil.). Arch, fiir Naturg., I., 68, 1845. ?
spirobolus (Menke). ?
“~~
Tahettensis (Lesson). Rev. Zool., 211, 1842.
Thersites (Reeve). C. Icon., f. 21, 1847. fortasse sp. juv., Fasciolarize cujusdam,
vel Tudiclee.
Troschelt (Hr.). an Fusus?
PATS Genus .Latirus.
This list does not call for especial remark. Systematists
despair of tracing most of the species described by Anton
and Lesson, and two or three of Chemnitz are also im-
possible to fathom. It will be noticed that I have removed
Peristernia pulchra, Caroline, and Panluccie to Engina,
and it may be that all the species with crenulated denticu-
jations on the outer lip, and tessellated arrangement of
painting referred hitherto to Perdsternia, may find their
place there ultimately. Latzrus contemptus (Ad.) is,
according to Mr. E. A. Smith, a Wurex allied to WZ. badius
(Reeve). Percsternia nodulosa (A. Ad.), a white, chalky
looking shell, with no sign of columellar plaits, is repre-
sented by two specimens in the British Museum, it is
evidently a Coralliophila, and the Turbinella Thersttes of
Reeve, of which I have examined the unique specimen also
in the British Museum, is a young specimen of some
unknown species of Fasczolarza, or, perhaps, Tudzcla.
(XVIII.) Museums, &c., Consulted—The material on
which I have mostly relied in giving this account and
revision of the genus, is to be found either in the National
Museum, S. Kensington, or my own collection. For the
last twenty-four years I have endeavoured to make my
series as perfect as I could, and with the result that over
two-thirds of the species described are now contained
therein. The National Collection has, excepting in a few
cases, supplied the deficiencies, and I have. several times
carefully examined the large stores contained there, being
befriended and aided in every possible way by Mr. Edgar
A. Smith. There are a few mostly large, but fine species
contained in the Museum, Owens College, Manchester,
mainly from the Cholmondeley and Walton collections,
and the Derby Museum, Liverpool has some good type
shells. One or two of the more select species contained in
the Leyden Museum, Holland, I have been able to examine
Las
— Plaga
LATIRUS
av Series Vol IV.
imp.
~ Mintern Bros.
Mintern Bros. del. et lith.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS, MANCHESTER LIT.AND PHIL.SOC.
Explanation of Plate. 4II
through the kindness of Mr. M. M. Schepmann, and lastly,
to the Rev. Alfred H. Cooke, of Cambridge, and Mr. H. M. |
Gwatkin, for valuable information concerning the dentition
of the genus, I have already expressed my great indebtedness.
A few of the shells described by M. Tapparone-Canefri, 1
have been sorry not to have been able to examine, in these
cases I have had to draw my conclusions from plates and
descriptions.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
. Peristernia annulata (A. Ad.).
. Latirus Cayohuesonicus (Sowb.).
Do. distinctus (A. Ad.).
. Peristernia mannophora (Melvill).
Do. fravida (A. Ad.).
Do. = hilaris (Melvill).
Do. —-Seline (Melvill).
Do. ‘Smithiana (Melvill).
Do. —cremnochione (Melvill).
10. Do. Iniuensts (Melvill).
11. Latirus Eppi (Melvill).
12. Peristernia canthariformis (Melvill).
£3. Do. _ vetiaria (Melvill and Schepmann),
14. Latirus tumens (Carpenter).
15. Peristernia leucothea (Melvill).
16. Latirus formosior (Melvill).
CHOWAN RY DH
412 PROCEEDINGS.
Ordinary Meeting, April 7th, 1891.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in
the Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
A communication from Mr. PErcy F. KENDALL, F.G.S.,
the Secretary of the newly-formed North-West of England
Boulder Committee, was read, in which it was stated that
the Committee invited co-operation in the work of recording
the fast-vanishing erratic blocks of the North-Western Coun-
ties of England. It is felt that, by concerted action, many
priceless pieces of evidence regarding the Glacial Epoch
can be rescued from destruction. The admirable work
which has been done by the Yorkshire Committee furnishes
an example of what can be accomplished. The Committee
will operate in concert with the British Association Boulder
Committee, and will report to that body ; and, in addition,
it is proposed to prepare.a large scale map upon which all
boulders, ice-scratched surfaces, and other evidence of glacial
action, will be recorded. Descriptions of a// exposures of
glacial deposits, but more especially such as are of a tem-
porary character, will be welcomed by the Committee, and
arrangements made for their publication. The Committee
has already at its command the nucleus of a collection of
rock specimens, which will be available for comparison with
boulders, and any donations of localized specimens from
the Lake District, Galloway, the North-East of Ireland, or
North Wales, would be valuable.
Mr. FARADAY exhibited and explained specially com-
piled tables in support of the conclusions in his paper
PROCEEDINGS. 413
entitled “Thoughts on Credit Money and on the Function
of the Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth.” The
tables, forming part of the paper, showed the weight of
gold and silver respectively exchangeable for one quarter of
wheat in the London market at the end of March, 1891,
and at the average prices in each of the preceding twenty
years, and the production of gold and silver in each year of
the same period. A discussion ensued, in the course of which
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS suggested that the value
of labour, as expressed in terms of gold, should be taken
as a test, and Dr. SCHUNCK remarked that labour had
become a more costly item in production than formerly.
Mr. FARADAY contended that if labour were taken as
a standard for testing the value of the precious metals,
its increased efficiency, or intensity, must be treated as an
increase of quantity in accordance with the argument of
his paper.
414 PROCEEDINGS.
Annual General Meeting, April 21st, 18091.
- EpwarD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., in the Chair.
Mr. JOHN H. BUXTON, of Manchester, was elected an
ordinary member.
The annual report of the Council was presented, and
it was moved by Mr. WM. THOMSON, F.C.S.,seconded by
Mr. J. J. ASHWORTH, and resolved, “That the Annual
Report be adopted and printed in the Society’s Memoirs
and Proceedings.” ;
- Jt was moved by Mr. Wm. BrocKBANK, FE.GS.,
seconded by Mr. FRANCIS JONES, F.R.S.Ed., and resolved,
“That the system of electing Associates of the Sections
be continued during the ensuing session.”
- The following gentlemen were elected officers of the
Society and members of the Council for the ensuing
year :—
President—EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidents—WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON,
LL.D., F.R.S., Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish
Acad. Sc., and of the Royal Society of Gottingen, &c.;
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.; ARTHUR
SCHUSTER, Ph.D, F:RS, FRAS., &c.;° fae
BOTTOMLEY, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S.
Secretaries—FREDERICK JAMES FARADAY, F.LS.,
F.S.S.; REGINALD F. GWYTHER, M.A.
Treasurey—CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.
Librarian—FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
Other Members of the Council—WILLIAM HENRY
JOHNSON, B.Sc.; JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.LS. ;
HAROLD B. Drxon, M.A., F.R.S.; ALEXANDER
HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.; JOHN BoyvpD; JOHN F. W.
TATHAM, M.A., M.D.
PROCEEDINGS. 4I5
Ordinary Meeting, April 21st, 1891.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., President, in the
Chair.
The thanks of the members were voted to the donors of
the books upon the table.
It was announced by one of the Secretaries that Dr.
Schunck had offered to present to the Society a bronze bust
of the late Dr. R. ANGUS SMITH, and that the offer had
been gratefully accepted by the Council ; and it was moved
by Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.G.S., seconded by Mr.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S., and resolved, “That the
members of the Society do give their hearty thanks to the
PRESIDENT for his proposed memorial of their late dis-
tinguished member.”
The following note, “On a New Method of estimating
Chlorine in Organic Compounds,” by Mr. ALBERT TAYLOR
and Mr. GEORGE SHAW, of the Stockport Technical School,
communicated by Mr. THOMAS KAY, was read by Mr.
GEORGE SHAW :— “In the course of certain experiments
made by us in the laboratory of the Stockport Technical
School, with a view to the simplification of the existing
methods of quantitatively determining the halogens in
organic compounds, it was found that when such compounds
as chloral hydrate were passed in the form of vapour,
mixed with hydrogen, through a tube filled with broken
quartz or other inert substances, and heated to redness,
they were completely decomposed, the whole of the
chlorine being given up in the form of hydrochloric acid,
the carbon being deposited in the tube. It is proposed
to continue the investigation over a wide range of com-
416 PROCEEDINGS.
pounds, so as to ascertain if it might not be developed into
a process of general applicability for the determination of
chlorine, and, possibly, of the other halogens in organic
bodies, and we hope at some future date to have the honour
of bringing before the members of this Society the result of
our continued experiments and researches.”
Mr. JOHN BOYD communicated the third of Mr. P.
CAMERON’S papers entitled “Hymenoptera Orientalis.”
Mr. WILLIAM BROCKBANK, F.L.S., F.G.S., read the
second part of his paper “On a discovery of Spirorbis
Limestones near Whitehaven,” and also communicated a
paper by Mr. J. W. DAVIS, F.G:S., &c., “On the discovery
of a New Species of Fossil Fish (Stvepsodus Brockbankz) in
the Upper Coal Measures Limestones of Levenshulme.”
A paper “On the action of Nitric Acid on Polyterpenes,”
communicated by Mr. W. W. H. GEE, B.Sc., F.C.S., was read
by the author, Mr. H. L. TERRY, F.I.C. The author has
studied the action of nitric acid of different strengths on
the bodies known as polyterpenes, viz., caoutchouc, gutta
percha, etc., and finds that although the ultimate action of
the acid is to oxidise the substance into oxalic and carbonic
acids, yet that a nitro-compound is formed as an inter-
mediate product. This body, which is best prepared by
allowing thin sheets of india rubber to stand in nitric acid,
diluted with an equal volume of water, for some weeks, is a
yellow amorphous powder. It exhibits the properties of a
nitro-compound, and when heated to 105°C. decomposes
suddenly, giving off nitric vapours, and leaving a mass of
free carbon. It is partially soluble in alcohol, but quite
insoluble in ether, chloroform, benzene, and carbon bisul-
phide. It is easily soluble in alkalies, forming a red
solution, although this is not a case of hydrolysis, as the
substance liberated from the solution by acids is insoluble
in ether. No crystalline body has, as yet, been obtained for
‘analysis, but the ultimate analysis of the yellow substance
PROCEEDINGS. AIT
gave the following figures, which point to its being a
mixture of a nitro with an oxidised body :—
CAL ht) sss | ke! | aides! a, Oe,
EXVELOGEH i. aes. Toseei pate) | OES
Cayeeme o..° oa ea bese Vee OF
INMEOBEIR en. ace) eet de | XESS
I00‘0O
The nitrogen is too low and the oxygen much too high
for such a body as CywHuNO. A similar substance has
been obtained by acting on caoutchouc with fuming nitric
acid in a freezing mixture, and also by the action of the
higher order of nitrogen. The investigation is being con-
tinued.
418 Mr. BROCKBANK oz
On the occurrence of the Permians, Spirorbis Lime-
stones, and Upper Coal Measures at Frizington —
Hall in the Whitehaven District. By William
Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S. ,
(Rececved March roth and April 2st, I89I.)
Professor HULL describes the Whitehaven Coal Field
in three divisions. (1) Upper Series: Purplish grey sand-
stones of Whitehaven. (2) Middle Series: Developed at
Cleator Moor, where seven workable seams occur. (3)
Lower Series: Containing four or five inferior seams. He
adds that ‘It has been a matter of some dispute whether
the Whitehaven Sandstones should be classed as Permian or
Coal Measures.” The Middle Series are now being worked
at Cleator Moor, the measures being cut off by the Weddi-
ker Hall fault. To prove the strata beyond this fault a
bore hole is being put down near Frizington Hall, in the
expectation of finding the same strata to the north-east as
those now being worked on the westerly side of the fault.
The bore-hole commenced in surface clays, &c., con-
glomerate being reached at 22ft—it was 2oft. thick. This
was succeeded by red and mottled shales and sandstones
for 50ft. when limestone was passed through. Cores
representing these beds have not yet reached me, but I
should expect to find them Permian and Upper Coal
Measures. This, I hope, will shortly be cleared up.
The reddish limestone occurred at 114ft. Ioin. from
the surface, and was 3ft. gin. thick. It was followed
by grey sandstones, conglomerates, and red shales, for
148ft. 8in., when a bed of white limestone was reached,
Ift. thick, at a total depth of 263ft. 6in. from the surface,
The Whitehaven Linestones. 419
These limestones were not expected, and it was feared
that the coal-bearing strata had been passed, and that
here were the lower carboniferous limestones, such as
occurred at Aldby and Hensingham, in the immediate
neighbourhood ; and the bore-hole was stopped accordingly.
At this point of the operations samples of the limestones
were forwarded to me, and I at once found them to be
Spirorbis limestones, such as have recently been found at
Levenshulme in the Upper Coal Measures, just below the
Permian strata. This was reported to my Whitehaven
friends on November 18th, 1890. I stated in my letter that
I believed the upper portion of the section to be Permian,
and the two limestones to be Spzrorbis limestones of the
Upper Coal Measures, and I advised that the boring should
be proceeded with, as coal would probably be reached at
a moderate depth. This course was adopted, and coal
was reached at a depth of 297ft. 8in., and again at
317ft and 4o7ft, all thin seams, but in true Upper Coal
Measures. At 477ft. Ioin.a very hard grit was reached,
at 542ft. red conglomerate, and the bore-hole is now
stopped in conglomerates and hard sandstones at 573ft. 3in.,
the bed being a fine hard grit like the first grit 1ooft.
above it. These I take to be the Whitehaven sand-
stones. * |
Now there are some very interesting points arising
out of the above recital, which I wish to. lay. before
the Society very briefly, reserving a full description
for a future paper, when the boring is completed and the
cores of the upper portion reach me. Cores of the lowest
borings are now exhibited to show their resemblance to
the Whitehaven sandstones. The section undoubtedly
represents the Upper Coal .Measure series; (probably)
commencing with the Permians, and continuing down to
the sandstones and conglomerates, which, I take to be the
same as the Whitehaven sandstones which Prof. Sedgwick
420 Mr. BROCKBANK on
and Mr. Binney held to be Permians. If I am correct in
my identification they thus become Middle Coal Measure
Sandstones beyond doubt, as they are 214 feet under the
Lowest SZzrvorbzs limestone. Mr. Binney dealt with this
subject in a paper read before the Society, October 2oth,
1863, and printed in the Wemozrs, 3rd Series, Vol 2, p. 375.
The Whitehaven sandstone, he says, is about 14oft. thick,
and he considered it a Coal Measures rock many years
ago. Then he had only examined the upper portion of it,
and had not seen the lower parts, which for 3oft. are of a
conglomerate character, containing white quartz pebbles
the size of a common bean, and much peroxide of iron, and
decomposed felspar, and not to be distinguished from Mill-
stone Grit. It also contains traces of volcanic ash (p.371).
Hesums up the question thus :—“If not classed as Permian
it must be upper and unconformable Coal Measures. The
chief reason which has induced me to remove them from the
Carboniferous strata is the conglomerate character of the
lower part of the sandstone, which, as previously stated, is
more like Millstone Grit than an Upper Coal Measure rock.
For the present, it appears to me desirable to retain it, as
Professor Sedgwick first designated it, by the name of
Lower Red Sandstone, or my name of Lower Permian.”
This conglomerate, which is a portion of the Whitehaven
sandstone, is so singular a rock and so strongly marked, as
to be almost unmistakeable.
The Whitehaven sandstone occurs for a considerable
distance along the coast, all the strata above it having been
denuded—so that this is the first time of its recorded
occurrence in its true position, so far as I am aware.
The Sfzvorbis limestone has not been previously found in
the Whitehaven coal field, though it occurs at Cannobie,
just over the Scottish border. Its discovery is, therefore,
of special interest. The first bed is 3ft. gin. thick, of a
pinkish colour, and has the following constituents :—
The Whitehaven Limestones. 421
lie! ee Ney te Bae eke 2°8 .
Alumina with Iron eel HS ft Meh ee 1°2
Carnonaté of Maonesia: 3.\:! ix)! das!) cen | 42
Do. Pame! (bia? bab gidtel aaa as
100°00
Two examples were sent, and in each of them Sfzvorbzs
was to be found with a lens. I had thin sections
cut, which showed their structure to be very similar
to that of the Levenshulme limestones. They take
the same marble polish, and are mottled. Under the
microscope the reddish colour is seen to be produced by
numerous red crystals, probably hematite stained. The
sections now exhibited are full of Spzvorbzs and Ento-
mostraca—probably Ostracods of the Carbonia groups—
and there is one small shell of a brachiopod. The ostracods
are frequently in pairs and very perfect—but there are
many detached and broken shells. The white limestone
which occurs at the greater depth is a very beautiful object
under the microscope. Veins run across the section in
roughly parallel lines, and of these there are two distinct
sets, the later series being darker coloured and cutting
through the lighter veins. The Sfzvordzs and Ostracods are
abundant, and some of them beautifully perfect. The veins
cut through these fossils, which have evidently been broken
through long after they were calcified. It will thus be
seen that the limestones exactly resemble those from
Levenshulme, which were recently exhibited to the Society,
and the whole series of strata resembled those in which the
Stirorbis limestones occurred. There can, therefore, be no
doubt that they belong to the uppermost of the Upper
Coal Measures which have not previously been rccognised
in the West Cumberland coal field.
At the time of communicating the foregoing to the
Society (March toth), the cores from the Diamond rock
422 Mr. BROCKBANK on |
boring at Frizington Hall, from the surface down to the
Spirorbis Limestone, at.114° 10", had not reached me; but
I assumed that they would prove to be Permian and
Upper Coal Measures. . I have since that .date visited the
spot, and carefully inspected the whole of the cores, which
are preserved at the colliery. As this section will probably
be considered a typical one for the Permians and Upper
Coal Measures in West Cumberland, a full account of the
strata thus proved will be appended to this communication.
It agrees in a remarkable way with the section recently
exposed in the railway cutting at Levenshulme, a full
account of which has recently been laid before the Society.
But for the experiences gained at Levenshulme, the Frizing-
ton Hall section would probably not have been understood.
In the bore hole at Frizington Hall, after passing
through the surface clays for 22 feet, a mass described as
“Conglomerate” was met with. This proves. to have been
the Breccia, which occurs generally at the base of the Per-
mians. These Permian breccias are always made up of
angular fragments of the rocks which occurred in the
immediate neighbourhood, and at Frizington the volcanic,
or Borrowdale series of the Ennerdale district, and the
Skiddaw slate rocks of Dent, hem in the coal field. The
breccia at Frizington is made up of these, cemented together
with hematite. Owing to the extremely hard nature of
the fragments, the cores brought up by the boring tools
were in a fragmentary condition, no perfect cores being
obtainable. I therefore made a careful examination of the
aébris, which represented this 20 feet of “ conglomerate,” and
selected some excellent samples therefrom. Many lime-
stone fragments were intermixed with these older rocks,
and I have had slices prepared from them for the micro-
scope. To my great surprise I found these limestones,,
which were thus included in the breccia, contained fragments.
of fossils, identical with those found in the Spirorbis
The Whitehaven Limestones. A423
limestones which occurred in the bore hole at 114 feet and
263 feet depth, and it was probably the lower limestone of
the two which furnished the fragments. The Permian sea
had evidently broken up the outcrop of this limestone, and
it became thus curiously intermixed with the Silurian
slates and porphyries in the Permian breccia. Fragments
of Ostracoda shells and Sfirorbis are clearly visible under
the microscope. |
The remainder of the borings between the Permian breccia
and the S#zvorbzs limestone reminded one of similar strata
at Levenshulme. There were the red and mottled shales,
the soft red micaceous sandstones, the laminated red and
grey shales, and the brecciated red marls, everywhere
hematite stained—just as we found those at Slade Lane,—
and the small green “ fish-eye” mottlings were also present,
but not to so marked an extent. Just beyond the Frizington
Hall Estate there is a deep ravine through which Dub Beck
runs, and I felt sure the outcrop of this breccia might be
- found there. It was about one-third of a mile from the
bore hole. We, therefore, examined this valley, and soon
found the breccia in the brook course, with the St. Bees
sandstone above it, forming a bold escarpment to the north-
east. A little further on, at Mill Yeat, we found that
hematite ore had been worked as a surface deposit many
years ago, just overlain by the Permian breccia, thus con-
firming most precisely the whole position. I had a section
cut for the microscope from the breccia, taken at. the
outcrop near Mill Yeat, and to my great surprise again
found it fossiliferous. The limestone fragments in it con-
tain the Fifeshire variety of the Spzrorbis (S. Heliceres), and
there is a most beautiful spiral shell of a gasteropod, which
I should have taken to be a Luwxonema but for its tiny size.
It is probably Turba or Turritella. J have no doubt that
this Frizington Hall section will furnish the explanation of
a good deal of the geology of the eastern portion. of the
424 Mr. BROCKBANK on
Whitehaven coalfield, which has not hitherto been correctly
described, but this aspect of the question I leave for a future
paper. I found the same breccia occurring in a bore hole
now being made at Messrs. Ainsworth’s mines at Winder
to the last. I also traced it for above a mile in the neigh-
bourhood of Gosforth, where it is not shown on the Geological
Survey Map. It isa most important matter, as wherever
the Permian breccia occurs, there is a probability, in this
Whitehaven district, of the occurrence of hematite ore
beneath it. In the Gosforth district it holds out a promise
of a workable coal field between that village and the sea.
SECTION AT FRIZINGTON HALL, CLEATOR MOOR,
By Bore Hole made by Vivian Boring Co., 1890-2.
Thickness of Depth from
Strata. Surface.
Feet. Feet.
22-0. Sutface Clays. 23.0 «:.. Spee a eae
20'°0 Permian breccia made up iy Rasalan frag-
ments of Silurian and Volcanic rocks,
and Limestone cemented with Hema-
tite. The Limestones contained fossils
similar to those seen in the Sfzvordis
LAMMeStONeS Mertis.k) aoc ae titeegh! attey eee
O'4; Red Shales pie San ticee yee peas fee ge
7-0 . Mottled Shales ......... nos) | Sena
9'2 Soft purple eactone Ls Mica specs . 67°6
4°0 Mottled, Purple and Green Shales... ... 71°6
12°8' Rotten Red Shales 1... "...0 2.2: .i.° 40) (Bar2
26°11 Red Shales Sascha ne ST
3°9 Reddish pirrectome ih, Gak and
Ostracoda (Upper Coal Measures) ... 114°10
~10°8 Purple Sandy Shales vials) Here .»)) £256
11'°0 Conglomerate—like the Hieeeoeed “Marls
at Slade Lane, Levenshulme, with
Limestone Pebbles and cherty frag-
ments, cemented with Hematite wae. EZ6°O
60 Grey and Pink Mottled Shaley Sandstones 142°6
The Whitehaven Limestones. 425
Thickness of Depth from
Strata. Surface.
Feet. Feet.
39°1 Shaley Conglomerate, of very dark Purple
laminated Marls, with fine Mica... 181°7
6:0 Red Shales 187°7
5°6 Red and Grey Sands epeaea
coal measure sandstone with fine white
mica 193'I
20°3) . Grey Banditone: : 213°4
17°0 Grey Sandstone, very jointy 230°4
14°11 Grey Sandstone ee 245°3
5°9 Red Shale.. = 251'0
116 No Sic alairs of these betls - 262°6
170 White Limestone with Sfirorbis and
Ostracoda 263°6
2°6 Red Sandy Shales 266°0
16°0 Mottled Shales—Dark Ghoul Bae
with brecciated fragments of pale
Greenish Limestone e- 282°0
5°0 Dark Purple Brecciated Marls... ae 2076
16 Grey Sparry Sandstones—the joints with
Carbonate of Lime, Spar and Hematite 288°6
1‘'to. Red and Grey Shales 290°4
770 Blue Metal with Red ines (Bookieat
Marls with calcareous partings) .. 297°4
04 Brassey Coal 297'8
2°9 Blue Metal with Red aes aa ‘abd
remains, probably Stzgmarie—strap-like
leaves ... 300'5
to Grey Sandstones 301°5
to‘1o ©6Blue Metal with Red nee diet rane
remains as above... ico Pawey hier te ema
3°10 Blue Metal—Fire Clay 316°1
So... Coal :.; ately Yeats 257%
11°00 ©Blue Metal 328°1
50 Fire Clay (Grey) : 333°!
5°8 Red Shale, with small eee of Biie Metal 338'8
15°4 Indurated Greenish Marl... 354°1
eae. Pine Clay «.. 362°0
426 The Whitehaven Limestones.
Thickness of Depth from
Strata. Surface.
Feet. Feet.
33°2 Bide* Metab Wf Sa eee Ae eee
Sot: Pre Clays, lth eae ee ee ee
7°t Blue Metal tach aed SRR) ae: Sk
io Soft Blue Metal}: ii) Sinise OS eae
1°32 Coal. ae er ane eh ee ee
7°6 Soft Blue Metal ce ee a ae
ge: Sandy Blue Metal ou) 24° 2DOM. COE age
rd ‘Broken Red Shale 3.) oe ee 7 ee
G3%° Red Sandstone 2 se 128025) ae | ee
mo Red Shalenie 42 8 sso les ace UA eee
7°2 Red Grey Shales ema lt ted a ay.
6°4 Red Grey Sandstones, very ihm: » 4444
eo Red Gandy Shales: 3° 222 oe 4
06 Reddish Coarse Grained sander dde: « 450°%0
g'o Reddish Grey Coarse Grained Sandstone 45910
o°10 Reddish Fine Grained Sandstone ... ... 460°8
17°2 Very hard Fine Grit Sandstones (White-
haven Sandstones 1st bed), with beds
of soft Furple Shales 200 250 iss age
15°2. Mottled Sandy Shales... . i iy AQ ane
5‘ Red Shale, with small beds of Gavidistoiaes 498°1
5°2 Red Shale, with beds of Sandstone ic SOsg
Be” Mottled Sialic nie vie a at” eas) BOC
21°7. Purplish Fine Grained Sandstone, very
F513, Mae nets - 5306
11°10 Conglomerate. ‘Dark Purple Hamitte,
-- stained with large Quartz Pebbles, and
- angular white fragments of Silica, or
possibly Volcanic Ash, as described by
? Mr. Binney (Whitehaven Sandstone)... 542°4
$6: Red Grey Sandstomes.' 2d. 02) ais) sa ee
3°0.. .Reddish Grey Sandstone ::.0 i: as: 2/4 55320
70. Dark Smooth Purple Shales ..2. 2:.' | 42-5006
#2. Reddish Grey Sandstone ... 0 ..,; ... on 5680
5°3 Reddish Grey Sandstone like the first grit
at 447°10, with beds of Shale.) 1... 5973°3
New Species of Fossil Fish. 427
On the discovery of a new species of Fossil Fish (Strep-
sodus Brockbanki) in the Upper Coal Measures
Limestone of Levenshulme, No. 6 Group, from
the Railway Cutting at Levenshulme, near Man-
chester. By James W. Davis, F.G.S., &c. Com-
municated by William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
(Recezved April 21st, 1591.)
A number of fragmentary remains have been found in
the hard Limestone, which it is proposed to notice in detail.
No. 1, exhibits the section of a tooth split in the
matrix longitudinally. The tooth is apparently exhibited
from the apex to the base, and has a length of oo15 m.;
of this the crown of the tooth occupies oo1l0 m. It has a
thick external coating of dentine, and the internal cavity
is moderately large, wide at the base of the crown, diminish-
ing towards the point. The root, as exposed in this
specimen, has a width of 0009 m.; and appears to have
been of a more or less spongey character, with. distinct
lacune interspersed in its substance. The under surface
of the root exhibits a peculiar notch or incision of the surface
which is not ordinarily observed in teeth of this species.
No. 2 exhibits a portion of one of the large teeth;
the base is broken away, and the point is hidden in the
matrix. The surface of the tooth is exhibited, and is the
ordinary form exhibited by Stvepsodus, the twist in the
upper part being clearly indicated. The concave inner
surface is covered with deeply incised striations, which
become gradually effaced towards the convex outer surface,
which is quite smooth. |
No. 3. exhibits a broken portion of another tooth
Similar to the last, but not so well preserved.
No. 4 is a more important example. It consists of a
portion of one of the jaws, exhibiting a section from the
428 Mr. DAVIS on a
alveolar surface to the base, which is o‘o1o m. in diameter ;
in the opposite direction the diameter is equal to half the
height. The basal, or under surface of the jaw is exhibited,
and from its peculiar curvature appears to indicate that
the part preserved is the anterior portion of the right ramus
of the lower jaw, with the symphisial extremity slightly
exposed. The surface of the bone is smooth, with the
exception of a few moderately large punctures. Attached
to the upper surface of the jaw is a small tooth, probably
intermediate between the large lamiary tooth, which has
a length of o1004 m. It has similar characters to the
larger ones, and its surface is distinctly striated. In the
matrix adjoining there is the impression of a second
similar small tooth.
No. 5. Large bone exhibiting internal structure. The
external surface, where exposed, is of the same character
as the exposed part of the jaw in No. 4, and in other
respects it may be possible that this bone is a larger jaw
of the same species, but there are no distinct indications
of teeth. The part preserved is about 005 m. in length,
and 0'022 m. in breath.
No. 6. Dermal bones, probably from the cranium.
No. 7 is a bone similar to No. 5, broken into four
separate pieces, but exhibiting no well-defined character.
Nos. 8, 9, and 10 are apparently more or less frag-
mentary remains of small ribs, which, being found associated
in the same bed with the specimens already named, may
naturally be inferred to have belonged to the same species,
if not to the same fish. The best preserved specimen
(No. 8) is 0.03 m. in length, and is 0002 m. in diameter ;
both ends are broken off. The portion preserved exhibits
a gentle curvature.
No. II is a specimen of a rib which is probably
complete, and is o'06 m. in length, and is about the same
diameter as the others. It has a bold curvature, the distal
New Species of Fossil Fish. 429
extremity is buried in the matrix, but its extent is indicated
by the red colour of the fossil in the grey matrix, a
character which is exhibited in all these remains. The
proximal end of the rib is more or less expanded, apparently
for attachment to the vertebral column.
Though the remains described are fragmentary, quite
sufficient evidence is afforded of the generic identity of
the fish remains, and there can be no hesitation in placing
them in the genus Strvepsodus ; with respect to the specific
determination, however, the position is not so well defined.
The teeth differ from Stvepsodus sauroides, Young,* in the
greater breadth in proportion to the length; the surface
striation is similar in the two, with the exceptions that in
this species the strize are larger, and there is no evidence of
bifurcation, and whereas in S. sauvoides, the base of the
crown is ovoid, and laterally compressed, and the apex
twice bent nearly at right angles, in this species the base
of the crown is circular, and the point is not twisted to
the same extent. A second species has been described
by Dr. Traquair, from the limestone of Borough Lee, near
Edinburgh, under the name of Strepsodus striatulus.+
It is a smaller species than S. saurvozdes, is compressed, oval
in transverse section, incurved, hardly geniculated at the
apex, the base having relatively coarse plications. The
shaft of the tooth is ornamented with very delicate, closely
placed, sub-parallel raised striz. The absence of a figure
of this species renders a comparison somewhat difficult,
but the characters of the teeth are readily distinguished.
I prefer, therefore, to regard this species as hitherto
undescribed, and suggest the momen triviale, Strepsodus
Brockbanki, derived from the name of its discoverer, who
has done so much for the elucidation of the fauna, as well
as the general stratigraphical arrangement of these beds,
the highest in the carboniferous series hitherto described.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxii, p. 602, woodcut 3, 1866.
+ Geol. Mag., Sec. 11., Vol. ix., p. 544, 1882.
430 PROCEEDINGS.
[Wicroscopical and Natural Hzstory Sectzon.|
Annual Meeting, April 27th, 1891.
Mr. J. CosMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S., in the Chair.
There were exhibited by Mr. H. HYDE a dried specimen
of Szgarctus enclosing the shell, and a J7uvex covered by
_ the ova of some mollusc ; by Mr. E. PYEMONT COLLETT,
F.E.S., Pletsthenes scutellatus (Dist.), recently described as
new to science, from S.W. New Guinea; also nineteen
species of Ants’ nest beetles with their hosts.
Mr. P. CAMERON, F.E.S., read Part III. of his “ Zymen-
optera Orzentalts.”
The Secretary read the thirty-third annual report of
the Council of the Section, and the Treasurer submitted the
annual balance sheet and statement of accounts.
On the motion of Mr. CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S., seconded
by Mr. T. ROGERS, the report of the Council and the
accounts were approved.
The following gentlemen were elected officers and
members of the Council for the ensuing session :—
President :—ALEX. HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.
Vice-Presidents :—CHAS. BAILEY, F.L.S., J. Cosmo
MELVILL, M.A., F.LS., W. C. WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.
Treasurer :—MARK STIRRUP, F.G.S.
Secretary :—JOHN BOYD.
Other Members of the Council :—P. CAMERON, F.E.S.,
E. PYEMONT COLLETT, F.E.S., H. C. CHADWICK, R. E.
CUNLIFFE, R. D. DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S., F. NICHOLSON,
F.Z.S., THOMAS ROGERS, THEODORE SINGTON.
Hymenoptera Orientalts. 431
Hymenoptera Orientalis; or Contributions to a know-
ledge of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological
Region. By P. Cameron. Communicated by John
Boyd.
Recewed May rst, 1892.
PART III.
POMPILID.
I have experienced considerable difficulty in identifying
the numerous species of this large family, described by the
late Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum. This is more
particularly the case with the black species, and with those
related to Salus flavus, Fab. These latter I find to be
especially puzzling, from the fact that the same type of
colouration is found in two of the sections of Sa/zus and in
Pompilius. J have myself, with the aid of numerous
examples, come to definite conclusions as to the limits of
the species with those of the favus-colouration ; but I am
in so much difficulty about the nomenclature, that I have
decided to leave them over until I have had an opportunity
of examining Smith’s types. I am the more inclined to do
so from finding in Mr. Rothney’s collection a Pompzlus, and
a Salius named dorsalis, Lep., by Mr. Smith.
As regards the genera, I have adopted them as defined
by Kohl in his paper “ Die Guttungen der Pompiliden” in
Verh. 2.-b. Ges. Wien, 1884. .
The species of Pompzlde, as a rule, store their nests with
spiders; but very little is known about the habits of the
Indian species. Major Bingham describes the nest of
Pompilus bracatus as a “burrow in the ground at the foot
of a large fern,” and he observed it provisioning its nest
Al
432. Mr. CAMERON oz
with a small cockroach. P. Greenz was reared by Mr. Green
from a cocoon in what had evidently been a large spider’s
nest between two leaves; and he surmised that the grub
had been feeding on the spider’s eggs.
CEROPALES.
Ceropales, Latreille, Prec. caract. gen. Ins. 1796, p: 1232
Kohl, Verh. 2.-b. Ges. Wzen, 1884, p. 51.
I. CEROPALES FUSCIPENNIS.
Ceropales fucipennis, Smith, Catz. Hym. Ins., iii., p. 179.1
Had. \ndia:!
This agrees with Orzentalis closely in the colouration of
the head, thorax, and legs, but differs in having the abdomen
ferruginous, black at the base.
2. CEROPALES ORIENTALIS, sf. zov. (Pl. III. f. 4).
Black, pruinose, the abdomen with a bluish tinge; the
clypeus, except a triangular black mark in the centre, the
mandibles except at the apex, the inner orbits broadly to
the ocelli, the outer orbits from near the top of the eyes to
the mandibles, a broad line on the pronotum, narrowly
incised in the middle, and broadly at the sides in front, two
elongate marks on the scutellum, a small mark on the
propleure, a large one immediately over the middle coxe;
the fore coxz broadly beneath, the middle coxze with a
small and a large mark beneath and two broad bands on
the base of the second abdominal segment, clear whitish-
yellow; the trochanters, femora, tibiz, and tarsi red; the
spurs and a line on the four hinder tibiz yellow; the middle
tibie entirely, the hinder black and yellow behind; the
tarsal joints black at the apices, the anterior with the
joints whitish at the base. Eyes slightly curved above,
reaching to the base of the mandibles, diverging slightly
beneath. Ocelli in a curve, the vertex depressed in
on
Hymenoptera Orientals. 433.
front of them, and a minute furrow runs down from
them to the antenne; the hinder separated by a
somewhat greater distance from each other than they.
are from the eyes. Clypeus at the apex margined, forming
a rounded curve. Antennz stout, brownish beneath, the
joints curved beneath; the third joint a little shorter than the
fourth. Pronotum obliquely rounded at the sides. Meta-
notum densely covered with long whitish hairs; median
segment with a bluish tinge; and a gradually-rounded slope ;
alutaceous, sparsely covered with long white hairs. There
is a longitudinal furrow in the centre of the mesopleure. .
Abdomen sessile, granular, the basal segment covered
thickly with stout white depressed hair, the rest of the
abdomen pruinose. Legs thickly pruinose; the tibiz
sparcely spined ; the long spur of the hind tibiz fully two-
thirds of the length of the metatarsus. Wings iridescent,
hyaline at the base ; from the basal nervure suffused with
dark fuscous, darkest at the apex ; the second cubital cellule
at the top and bottom a little longer than the third; the
nervures blackish.
Length Io mm.
Hab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
4. CEROPALES CLARIPENNIS, sf, 20v.
Black, shining, the mandibles, clypeus, face, orbits, except
narrowly interrupted at the top; a line on the pronotum
behind, the angles.in front, a broad line at the apex of the
mesonotum, a line on the scutellum, the metanotum, a
narrow line down the middle of median segment ; the pro-
pleuree beneath, a broad oblique band on the mesopleure
above and two smaller ones on the lower half, and two large
marks on the metapleure, clear yellow. Abdomen ferru-
ginous, the extreme base black. Legs reddish; the fore
coxe yellow, with a black mark behind ; the four hinder
coxe black, yellow and red beneath, the tarsi black; the
434 Mr. CAMERON oz
spurs pale, the hinder about two-thirds of the length of the
metatarsus. Wings clear hyaline, the second cellule half
the length of the third above and beneath ; the first recurrent
nervure received slightly past, the second slightly in front of
the middle of the cellules. Antennz moderately thick ;
brownish beneath at the base; the third and fourth joints
subequal. Eyes with a distinct curve at the top, distinctly
converging at the apex ; they being there separated by a
little more than half the length they are at the top. Clypeus
with the sides oblique, the apex transverse. Ocelli ina
triangle, separated from the eyes by twice the length they
are from each other. Pronotum semi-transverse behind,
quadrate ; the sides at the base projecting into triangular
teeth. Mesonotum flattish, with two longitudinal furrows ;
the furrow on the mesoplure narrow ; metanotum gibbous ;
median segment with a gradual slope. Except on the
median segment the body is almost glabrous.
Length, 8—g millim.
Hab. Poona (Wroughton).
5. CEROPALES FLAVOPICTA.
Ceropales flavopicta, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. U1., p. 178, 5}.
Fab. India.
6. CEROPALES ORNATA.
Ceropales ornata, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. 11, p. 179}.
flab. India.
7. CEROPALES ANNULITARSIS, sf. ov.
Yellow, a stripe across the vertex behind the eyes, a
broad one leading down from it on the front, with a small
‘yellow mark on its centre, a broad band in front of the
pronotum, from which an oblique one runs up the pleure,
the mesonotum, except along the sides, and a large squarish
mark in the centre, this latter having a large black triangular
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 435
mark in the centre, the mesosternum, a large oblique mark
on the base of the mesopleurz, the base of the scutellum
and the metanotum, black ; the greater part of the meso-
and meta- pleure and the median segment, reddish. Abdo-
men yellow; the first segment black at base and apex, the
centre reddish ; the second segment black and red at the
apex; the third broadly black: the fourth black at the
apex, the black in the middle being continued to the base
of the segment ; the fifth black at the base, the black being
continued in the middle to the apex ; the ventral segments
broadly black. Legs ferruginous; the coxze yellow and
red ; the trochanters blackish ; the apex of the hinder tibize
and of the four hinder tarsal joints black. Wings yellowish
hyaline; the apex of both wings infuscated; the second
cellule at the top and bottom longer than the third; the
second and third transverse cubital nervures elbowed at the
middle, thus narrowiug the second cubital cellule at the
top; the first recurrent nervure is received in the apical
third, the second a little before the middle. Antenne
ferruginous, longish ; the joints curved ; the third and fourth
joints sub-equal. Apex of clypeus bluntly rounded; the
sides rounded. Head, pronotum, and median segments
bearing long white hair. 6.
Long. 14 mm.
Hab. Poona (Wroughton).
How far the ferruginous colour is natural or discoloured
by cyanide of potassium, I can’t well make out. Certainly
some parts of the body are so discoloured.
| MACROMERIS, Le.
Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, Guér., Mag. Zool, XIV,
| pl 29,1831; Kohl, Z ¢. 41,
1. MACROMERIS VIOLACEA, Lep.
Lep., Wat. Hest. d. Ins. Hym. 11., 463.
A common Indian species.
450° Mr. CAMERON ox
Hab. Barrackpore, Poona, Madras, Myssoure, China,
Malacca, Borneo, Java, Gilolo, New Guinea,
Celebes, Key, Aru, Floris.
_ 2, M. SPLENDIDA, Lep.
| Lep..2. 4. 407"
Fab. Java.
_ 3..M. ARGENTIFEROUS, Smith.
Smith, Jour. Inn. Soc. I., 97.
Hab. Borneo, Malacca, Singapore, Java’.
In Jour. Linn. Soc., 1867, p. 556, only Borneo is given
as a habitat.
PSEUDAGENIA, Kod.
Verh, 2-b. Ges. Wien, 1884, 38=Agenza. Dbm. non
Schiddte, which = Pogonzus, Dbm.
The basal nervure is said by Kohl to be interstitial ; but
this is not the case with many of our species.
I, PSEUDAGENIA AEGINA, Smith, Proc. Lenn. Soc. 11, 94, 9.
Hab. Borneo.
- 2. P. ALARIS, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Reise, 52}.
Hab. Ceylon! |
3. P. ARIEL, Cam., Zostea.
Hab. Barrackpore (Rothney ).
4. P. ATALANTA, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. I1., 94, 8'.
Hab. Borneo, Singapore, Malacca, Bachian, Celebes!.
5. P. BIPENNIS, Saussure, Hy. d. Novara Reise, 52".
Hab. Ceylon.
6. P. BLANDA, Guérin, Voy. d. Cog. I1., 260; Smith, Proc
Linn. Soc. 11., 94, 7. |
fTab, India, Malacca, Borneo, Celebes, Ceram, Key,
Flores!, : |
7. P. CHRULEA, Smith, Catz. Hym., IIL, 147, 141.1
fab. India.!
10.
ie
12.
13.
14.
Pe
‘16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Hymenoptera Orientals. 437
. P. CELAENO, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc., 11., 96, 152
Hab. Singapore!
. P. CONCOLOR, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Rezse, 5, 4.1
ffab, Ceylon.
P. DAPHNE, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc., I1., 95, 102
Hab. Borneo.
P. FLAVOPICTA, Smith, /c, 96, 13.1
Hab. Singapore
P. FESTINATA, Smith, Zvaus. Ent. Soc., 1875, 37.
Hab. Barackpore (Rothney).
P. FRAUNFELDIANA, Saussure, Aym. d. Novara
ezse,53) £. 3h.
FHTab. Java, Batavia.) |
P. HIPPOLYTE, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. IL., 96, 14.)
Hab. Singapore! |
P. INSULARIS, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Rezse, Bc,
Hab. Ceylon.
P. LAVERNA, Smith, Proc. hoy AF ates N Neg stn By
Fab. Borneo.
P. MACULATA, Tashenberg, Zezts. f. Gess. Wessen., 45, 1.
Hab. Java..
P. MELAMPUS, Smith, Proc. Lenn Soc. I1., 95, 12°.
Had. Borneo.
P. MICROMEGAS, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Rezse, 51,
SS. 35 a-b.
fTab. Ceylon.
P. MUTABILIS, Sm.,
Agenia mutabilis, Smith, Trans. Linn. Soc. VII. 186."
ffab. Mainpuri, North-West Provinces.
P. TINCTA, Smith, Caz. alesis III. 145, 152.1
ffab, India.’
438 Mr. CAMERON ox
22. P. VARIPES, Dahlbom, Aym. Eur. I. 455, 7.2
Ffab. India. ©
23. P.. NANA, Saussure, Hym. d, Novara Reise, 55.1
Tab. Ceylon.
24. P. OBSOLITA, Saussure, 7 c. 56, f. 37.’
FTab. Ceylon."
25. P. PLEBEJA, Sauss.
Saussure, Hym. ad. Novara Retse, 57.
Fab. Ceylon. |
26. P. VEDA, Cam. postia.
flab. Poona (Wroughton).
PSEUDAGENIA CAERULEUS, Swzzth.
A specimen from Barrackpore is probably this species ;
but the description is rather incomplete. The clypeus at
the apex is broadly rounded, the sides obliquely truncated ;
the ocelli in a triangle and separated from the eyes by a
somewhat greater distance than they are from each other ;
occiput slightly concave; sides of pronotum rounded; shorter
than the head; second and third cubital cellules subequal ;
the first recurrent nervure received shortly before the
.middle of the cellule ; the second about half the length of
the transverse cubital nervure from the base. I cannot see
the “fuscous cloud transversing the externo-medial nervure,”
nor “a faint cloud” in the second submarginal cellule. The
apex of the hind femora is black, a fact not mentioned by
Smith for his cerulea. It is possible that my specimen
may be cyaneus, Lep., but that has the third cubital cellule
“plus grande que la deuxiéme.” The median segment at
the apex rounded, transversely striated, and having a
gradually-rounded slope to the apex ; the apex also having
a tuft of white hair on either side; the upper part of
metapleurz obliquely striated ; the long spur of the hind
tibiz does not reach the middle of the metatarsus; the
ee
flymenoptera Orientals. 439
base of the latter with a thick hair brush; the other joints
with short spines beneath ; the fore tarsi pilose beneath,
PSEUDAGENIA FESTINATA, Smith. (Pl. III. f. 3).
This species, I consider, identical with P. alaris, Sauss.
Smith’s type is smaller, and the wings have not the yellowish
tint quite so marked.
PSEUDAGENIA CELANO, Smzth.
A ¢ from Barrackpore, is, perhaps, this species—at least
it agrees fairly well with the description so far as that goes.
The eyes distinctly converge towards the apex ; the clypeus
is transverse at the apex ; the sides being oblique ; the ocelli
form a triangle, and are separated from each other by a
perceptibly less distance than they are from the eyes; the
second and third cubital cellules at the top and bottom are
subequal ; the first recurrent nervure is received a little
before the middle; the second in the basal third of the
cellule; the nervures are pale testaceous. From a/arvs it is
easily known by the truncated apex of the clypeus. The
long spur of hind tibize does not reach the apex ; the meta-
tarsal brush slight.
PSEUDAGENIA ARIEL, Sf. “ov.
Black, shining, pubescent, eyes distinctly converging
beneath, the space separating them at the top being
distinctly greater than at the bottom. Ocelli in a triangle ;
the hinder separated from each other by a less distance
than they are from the eyes. Clypeus convex, the basal half
laterally oblique ; the apical curved, terminating in a blunt
point. Occiput bluntly rounded. An indistinct furrow
runs from the ocelli to the antennez. The head is convex
in front, shining, finely punctured, sparsely covered with
long silvery hairs; the cheeks and clypeus bear a silvery
pubescence; antennz longish, stout, pruinose, tapering
440 Mr. CAMERON oz
towards the apex. Mandibles at the base finely rugose.
Pronotum broad, broadly rounded in front, behind concave.
Median segment short, with a rather abrupt slope, trans-
versely striated. The thorax above in front is shining,
minutely punctured,laterally opaque, alutaceous, the median
segment transversely striated. Abdomen shining, pruinose ;
the apical segment above shining, impunctate, sparsely
covered laterally with long pale hairs. Wings sub-hyaline;
the second cubital cellule above slightly longer than the
third ; below a little shorter ; the first recurrent nervure is
received a little before the middle ; the second in the basal
third. Legs.pruinose ; the long spur of the hind tibiae does
not reach the middle ; tarsi with a few fulvous spines.
PSEUDAGENIA VEDA, Sf. nov.
Black, wings clear hyaline ; a small fuscous cloud below
and touching the stigma. Eyes a little converging, the
hinder ocelli separated from each other by a very slightly
less distance than they are from the eyes. Clypeus short,
convex, the apex broadly rounded. Occiput slightly
concave in the middle. The front strongly aciculate; the
vertex shining, almost impunctate. The head, except on
the vertex densely covered with a silvery pubescence; the
vertex with a few fuscous hairs; the lower and outer orbits
with some long silvery ones. Pronotum shorter than the
head, roundly narrowed towards the head, shallowly concave
behind. Pro- and meso- thorax alutaceous; the median
segment with a rounded slope, irregularly transversely
striated; deeply furrowed down the centre, the sides
covered with long whitish hairs. Abdomen shining;
pruinose, having an olive tint, the petiole with a distinct
neck. Radial cellule wide, angled where the cubital
nervures are received ; the second cubital cellule at the top
distinctly shorter than the third, especially on the lower
side ; the first and second transverse cubital nervures with
Hymenoptera Orientalts. 441
‘a slight oblique curve ; the first recurrent nervure is received
a little beyond the middle ; the second at a less distance
from the base. Legs densely covered with a silvery pile;
the long spur of the hind tibiz not much more than a third
of the length of the metatarsus ; the front spurs pale, the
front tarsi fuscous ; the tibize with short eet the meta-
tarsal brush slight.
This species differs from the others in having the basal
nervure interstitial ; but in other respects it agrees with the
generic character.
Length 7mm.
PSEUDAGENIA TINCTA, S7uzth.
Black, densely pruinose, the hinder femora red, wings
hyaline, the nervures black. Eyes curved, converging
‘beneath and at top. Ocelli separated from the eyes by a
somewhat greater distance than they are from each other.
Clypeus broadly convex, broadly rounded at the apex.
Occiput slightly convex, the sides rounded. A shallow
furrow runs down from the ocelli. Head opaque, aluta-
‘ceous; the clypeus and cheeks densely covered with a
silvery pubescence; the front and vertex sparsely silvery
pubescent, shewing fuscous hairs. Antenne stout, involute.
Thorax alutaceous, covered with a silvery pubescence ; the
pleurae and median segment with long soft white hairs ;
the pronotum short, bulging out roundly laterally,
behind slightly curved, angled in the middle. Median
segment obscurely transversely striolate, indistinctly
channelled down the centre. Petiole with a distinct neck,
‘becoming gradually widened towards the apex ; the abdo-
men shining, laterally, and at the apex densely pruinose ;
the apical segment impunctate, the apex with fulvous hairs.
Radial cellule elbowed slightly where the first and third
transverse cubital nervures are received ; the second cubital
cellule a little shorter than the third at top and. bottom ;
442 Mr. CAMERON oz
the first recurrent nervure is received a little in front of the
middle of the cellule; the second in the basal third. Legs
elongated, pruinose ; the long spur of the hind tibiz does
not reach the middle of the cellule. The abdominal seg-
ments are testaceous at the apex.
It is probable that this is P. ¢zzctus, Smith, with which it
agrees in colouration (the only point noted in the descrip-
tion), except that I fail to notice any trace of “green tinge”
about the head and thorax. The four anterior femora may
be entirely black, or more or less reddish..
It is probably varzpes, Dbm.
SALIUS, fab., sec. Kohl.
Salius, Fab., Syst. Piez., 124; Kohl, Verh. 2-0, Ges. Ween,
1884, 43.
Procnemis, Schiddte, Mon. Pomp. Kroyer T: sasskr., [, 1837.
Flemipepsis, Dbm., Lym. Eur., 1., 462.
Hlomonotus, Dbm., ¢. c. 441, pt.
Entypus, Dbm., Zc. 442.
Pallosoma, Smith, Cat. Hym., I11., 181.
The following species are in all Aa baie, referee to
Hemupepsis.
1. SALIUS ZRUGINOSA, Sm.
Mygnimia eruginosa, Smith, Cat. Hym. I11., 184, 8.
Tab. Sumatra’. me?
2. S. ALBIPLAGIATA.
Mygnimia albtplagzata, Smith, Zc. 183, 67.
fTab, Java’.
S. AUDAX, Smith.
Mygnimia audax, lc. 182, 4’; Bingham, ie Bows
Nat. Hist. Soc. V. 2392.
Had. Silhet'; Kumaon?,
3. S. ANTHRACINA, Sm.
Mygnimia anthracina, Smith, lc, 183, 5.1
fab. Malacca, Borneo, Singapore, Sumatra.!
10.
II.
12.
fTymenoptera Orientalis. 443
. S. AUREOSERICEA, Guér.
Pompilus aureosericus, Guér., Voy. Cog., I1., 256.
Mygnimia aureosericea, Smith, Cat. Hym., I11., 182, 3.2
Hab. Java.
. S. AVICULUS, Sauss.
Mygnimia avicula, Saussure, Novara Reise, 64, fig. 28:
Hab. Java.
. SALIUS BELICOSUS, Sm.
Mygnimia belicosa, Smith. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1873,
2562
flab. Bengal.
. SALIUS CEYLONICUS, Sauss.
Mygnimia ceylonica, Saussure, Novara Retse, 64.1
fab. Ceylon."
. S. CYANEUS, Lep.
Pallosoma cyanea, Lep., Nat. Hist. iy, das FT;
493."
Fab. Java."
joe DUCALIS; Sim.
Mygnimia ducalis, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. 11., 983."
Fab. Malacca, Sumatra.’
S. EXCELSUS, Cam. :
Mygnimia atropos, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1875, 36,
non., Smith, 1855.
Hab. Barrackpore! (Rothney).
S. FLAVUS, Fab. . )
Pompilus flavus, Fab., Syst. Pzez., 197, 2; Lep. Nat.
dats, Siym, das, I11., 430, 2.) A
Sphex flava, Drury, [/. Exot. Ins., III. t., 42, f. 4, 2
Hemipepsis flavus, Dbm., Hym. Ent., 1., 123.
Hab. Borneo, Singapore, Gilolo, Sumatra (¢este Smith).
S. FLAVICORNIS, Fab.
Pepsis flavicornis, Fab. Syst. Pzez. 216, 44’.
Hab. Malabar.’
A44 Mr. CAMERON ox
13. S. FUNESTUS, Cam.
Mygnimia fenestrata, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., 111. 184, 10%
(zon Smith, Zc. p. 147).
Hab, Sithet'
14. S. GROSSUS, Fab.
Pepsis grossa, Fab., Syst. Pzez. 214, 321; Lep. Maz. Hast.
Hym. Ins., 111. 487 ; Dbm. Hym. Eur. I. 464.
Hab. India.
15. S. HERCULES, Cam. fostea.
Hab. Naga Hills.
16. S. FULVIPENNIS, Fab. (PI. III. f. 28).
Sphex fulvipennis, Fab., Ent. Syst. I1., 218, 84.
Pompilus fulvipennis, Fab., Syst Pzez, 189, 57.
Hemipepsis fulvepennis, Dbm., Hym. Eur. 1., 462, 2.
Pompilus fulvipennis, Saussure, Novara Reise, 58.
Hab. Madras (Rothney), Ceylon’.
17. S. INDICUS, Cam. postea.
Hab. Tavoz.
18. S. INTERMEDIUS, Smith.
Mygnimia intermedia, Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist,
1873, 257°
Hab. North India!, Ceylon.
I9. S. IRIDIPENNIS, Smith.
Mygnimia tridipennis, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. Il. 98, 5%.
Hab. Malacca', Borneo!, Ceram’, Timor’.
20. S. LUSCUS, Fab.
Pepsts lusca, Fab., Syst. Pzez. 215, 38°.
Priocnemis luscus, Dbm., Hym. Eur., 1., 45. 7°.
Hab. Tranquebar’, Port Natal? (?). |
21. S.°UTA; Sm,
Mygnimia leta, Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1873, 256.
Hab. Burma}!
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
29.
28.
29.
30.
Hymenoptera Ortentalis. 445
S. MEG&RA, Cam.
Mygnimia perplexa, Sm.. Cat. Hym., II1., 185, 1 sitaba2 Le,
p. 147).
Hab. Madras!
S. MOMENTOSUS, Sm.
Mygnimia momentosa, Sm., Lc, 258.
Hab. Borneo!
S. NIGRITUS, Lep.
Pallasoma nigrita, Lep., Nat. Hest. Hym. Ins., 111., 493.
Hab. Java}
S. PRINCEPS, Sm.
Mygnimia princeps, Smith, Proc. Linn. Soc. Il. 98, 4.1
Hab. Borneo.
S. PURPUREIPENNIS, Smith. |
Mygnimia purpurecpennis, Smith, Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist,
1873, 258.
Hab. Java.
S. RUBIDA, Bing.
Mygnimia rubcda, Bingham, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soe,
¥V. 238. ,
Hab. Ceylon.
S. SZHVISSIMA, Sm.
Mygnimia sevissima, Smith, Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist,
kay? 250" |
Hab. Bombay Presidency.!
S. SEVERUS, Drury.
Sphex severus, Drury, [ll. Exot. Ins., l11., t. 42, f. 42
Mygnimia severa, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., I11., 182, 1.
Hab, India.’
S. VEDA, Cam.; postea.
Hab. Poona (Wroughton).
446 Mr. CAMERON oz
31. S. VITRIPENNIs, Sm.
Mygnimia vitripennis, Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist,
1873, 257:
fTab. Sumatra.)
To this section is probably referrable :—
PEPSIS DISELENE, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 200, 51.
Hab. India, Singapore.
SALIUS (MYGNIMIA) EXCELSUS, Cam.
Has the typical Hemzpepszs wing. Head slightly convex
in front and behind. Eyes not arcuate at top, parallel or
nearly so; ocelliin a curve; the posterior separated from
each other by a distinctly greater distance than they are
from the eyes; the ocellar region raised, a depression on
either side of it. Clypeus convex, the apex depressed,
waved inwardly in the centre. Pronotum a little shorter
than the head, the sides rounded, narrowed towards the
base ; the apex roundly concave. Pronotum short, sharply
oblique from base to apex, there being no break in the
surface from the base to the apex; the lateral tubercles
distinct. Abdomen subsessile ; the apex with a thick tuft
of hair. The third cubital cellule at the top is a little
longer, at bottom considerably shorter than the second ;
the second recurrent nervure received a little before ae
middle—a little less than the length of the second transverse
cubital nervure ; the anal nervure in hind wings interstitial.
‘The long spur of the hind tibiz reaches beyond the middle
of the metatarsus.
There is another larger species (22 mm.) which resembles
excelsus in colouration, except that the body has a bluish
tinge, and the wings have a deep purple iridescence. - This
is probably uvztrzpennis, Sm., from Sumatra. From excelsus
it is easily known by the median segment having an oblique
slope to the apex, when it curves down obliquely; the
anal nervure in hind wing is received beyond the cubital—
the ocelli are larger.
a
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 447
SALIUS (HEMIPEPSIS) ANTHRACINA, S72.
This species has the head in front concave, but with the
antennal tubercles large, projecting ; the eyes parallel from
the top; the ocelli large, separated from the eyes by one
and a half times the distance the posterior are from each
other ; the pronotum rounded in front; concave behind:
base of abdomen subsessile ; apical segment covered with
stiff blackish pubescence,roughened. Tibiz and tarsi thickly
spurred; the long spur of the hind tibize not one-fourth the
_ length of the metatarsus ; thick, obliquely narrowed towards
the apex ; claws with two stout spines. In the hind wings
the anal-nervure is received a little beyond the cubital.
Clypeus transverse at apex, projecting.
SALIUS HERCULES, sf. zov.
Black ; the face, orbits, tibia and tarsi dull brown, the
flagellum dull ferruginous, blackish above at the base;
wings at the base (to a little beyond the basal nervure),
deep blackish-violaceous, the rest brownish-yellow, except
at the apex which is infuscated. Head almost transverse
in front, behind slightly convex, piceous. Eyes parallel, very
little arcuate above; ocelli large, in a curve, the hinder
separated from the eyes by a perceptibly less distance than
they are from each other. Clypeus moderately convex,
below the eyes projecting nearly as much as half the length
of the mandibles; broader than long; transverse at the
apex ; labrum rounded at the apex, nearly half the length
of the clypeus. The ocellar region slightly raised, a furrow
at the sides of the region, the inner orbits narrowly edged
with obscure testaceous; the head thickly covered witha
black to fuscous pubescence. Thorax opaque, thickly
covered with a blackish pubescence ; the prosternum and
anterior coxz with long blackish hairs. Pronotum as
long as the head, rounded and narrowed in front, behind
convex. Scutellum gibbous, becoming gradually raised
m2
448 Mr. CAMERON ox
and narrowed to the apex which is rounded ; metanotum
forming a longer tubercle, oblique, haired at the sides, the
top rounded, glabrous, and brown. Median segment with a
slight straight slope to the apex, which is oblique ;_ traus-
versely striolate; the basal tubercles not very distinct.
Metapleure shining, impunctate, almost glabrous. Abdomen
subsessile, smooth, shining, obscurely pruinose ; the apical
segments with long hairs. Legs long, stout, the hinder
jonger than the body, their tibia with a row of sharp
moderately long spines; the tarsi also spined; the
metatarsus with the brush distinct ; the long spur of the
hind tibiae reaching somewhat beyond the middle of the
metatarsus ; the tarsal joints blackish at the apex; the
claws bidentate. Antennz stout, bare; the third joint a
little longer than the fourth. The second recurrent nervure
is received the length of the second transverse cubital
cellule from the base of the cellule; the first interstitial ;
the anal nervure in hind wiles interstitial. ¢.
Length 33 mm.
Nearly related to S. axthracina, Sm., which differs from
it in the ocelli being smaller, and separated from the eyes
by a greater distance than they are from each other ; in
the clypeus being rounded, and in the form of the scutellum,
metanotum and median segment.
flab. Naga Hills.
SALIUS (MYGNIMIA) INDICUS, sf. “ov.
Black: the antennz, abdomen and legs ferruginous ;
the basal half of petiole and coxe and trochanters, black ;
the mandibles ferruginous, piceous at the apex ; wings deep
violaceous. Head transverse before and behind, the eyes
projecting beyond the face in front; eyes parallel; at top
very slightly arcuate; the ocelli large, in a triangle, the
posterior separated from the eyes by a greater distance than
they are from each other ; a distinct furrow runs down from
Hymenoptera Orientales. 449
them. Clypeus with the sides oblique, the apex shining,
smooth, slightly arcuate; apex of labrum with a slight
inward curve. Antenne short, thick, involute; the third
joint nearly twice the length of the fourth. Prothorax
shorter than the head, narrowed and rounded towards the
base, in front broadly convex. Median segment with a
gradually rounded slope to the apex which is almost
transverse, transversely striolated; the sides at the base
broadly depressed laterally and with a broad raised margin ;
the lateral tubercles elongate. Abdomen subpetiolate, a
little longer than the head and thorax united ; acute at the
apex, the apical segment with scattered punctures and
(especially at the apical half) bearing long black hairs ;
beneath it is punctured, except at the base. Legs of
moderate length, stout, the tibiz and tarsi with golden
pubescence, the hind tibiz sparsely spinose ; the long spur
of the hind tibize does not reach the middle of the metatarsus,
metatarsal brush incomplete; the other jointsspined. The
second recurrent nervure is curved, and is received about
the length of the second transverse cubital nervure from the
base of the cellule ; at the top the second cubital cellule is
much shorter than the third ; at the bottom they are sub-
equal. In the hind wings the anal nervure is received
beyond the apex of the cubital.
Length 23 mm.
Hab. Tavoz, Mus. Cal.
A well marked species.
SALIUS (MYGNIMIA) VEDA, sf. nov.
Black ; the abdomen and legs rufous ; the scape beneath
and orbits and the face obscure yellowish ; the flagellum
brownish beneath ; wings dark smoky-fuscous. Eyesa little
converging beneath ; ocelli separated from each other by a
greater distance than they are from the eyes, situated on a
raised space ; a narrow furrow surrounding them, and with a
450 _MR. CAMERON ox
depression in front of the anterior. Clypeus broadly convex ;
the apex rounded; the labrum projecting beyond it; a
deepish depression on the sides of the clypeus at the base ;
occiput transverse in the middle, the sides rounded. Pro-
notum shorter than the head, a little narrowed anteriorly.
Median segment with a slight slope to the apex, when it
becomes oblique; apex bluntly rounded. Head and thorax
alutaceous, bearing a pale thick whitish pile, the median
segment having also some fuscous hairs. Antenne stout,
shorter than the body, the joints dilated beneath ; the third
and fourth subequal. Abdomen shining, slightly pruinose ;
the basal 2-joints black. Wings large; the basal abscissa of
radius short, a little oblique; the second straight, the third
sharply oblique; the first transverse cubital nervure very
oblique, the second nearly straight, the third curved, roundly
elbowed at the top: the second cubital cellule at the -top
distinctly shorter than the third, at the bottom fully longer
than it: the first recurrent nervure almost interstitial; the
second received a little before the middle ; the first discoidal
nervure bullated; the basal nervure elbowed at the middle.
Legs elongate, stout ; the tibize with a few spines ; the coxe
and trochanters black, the greater part of the hind tarsi
fuscous ; the long spur of the hind tibize does not reach the
middle of the metatarsus ; claws with a tooth in the centre,
tibize sparsely spined.
Length slightly over 9 mm.
Hab. Poona (Wroughton).
The following are all referrible, no doubt, to Priconemzs,
Kohl’s section 2.
30. S. CANIFRONS, Sm,
Pompilus cantfrons, Smith, Cat. Hym., III., 146, 138.
Hab. Sumatra’, Poona (Wvroughion).
31. S. CONCOLOR, Saus.
Priconemzs concolor, Saussure, Novara Rezse, 54.
Hab. Ceylon.*
nd
Hymenoptera Orientals. 451
33. S. CONVEXUS, Bingham.
Priconemis convexus, Bingham, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist.
S6n, Vis 237.
Hab. Ceylon!
32. S. CONSANGUINEUS, Sauss. |
Priconemis consanguineus, Saussure, Hym. Novara
Rezse, 622
Hab. Ceylon.
34. S. COTESI, Cam., ostea.
Had. S. India.
35. S. CRINITUS, Bing.
Priconemis crinitus, Bingham, Jour. Bomb. Soc. Nat.
est. ¥., 238.
Hab. Ceylon.*
36. S. FULGIDIPENNIS, Sauss.
Priconemis fulgidipennis Saussure, Hym. Novara.
Rezse, 61.
Hab. Ceylon.
37, S. GIGAS, Tasch.
Priconemis gigas, Taschenberg, Zezts. Gess, Naturwiss.
XXXIV., 40."
Hab. Java.
38. S. HUMBERTIANUS, Saus.
Priconemis humbertianus, Saussure, Hym. Novara Rezse.
Hab. Ceylon
39. S. JUNO, Cam., Juzfra.
Hab. Barrackpore.
40. S. MADRASPATANUS, Smith.
Pompilus Madraspatanus, Smith, Cat. Hym., Il. 144,
130."
Hab. Madras; Nicobar Islands.
452 Mr. CAMERON on
4i.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Sas
S. MELLERBORGI, Dbm.
Priconemis Mellerborgz, Dbm.., sai Hur, 1, Ass:
FTab, Java
S. MIRANDA, Cam. fostea.
flab. Barrackpore.
S. PEDESTRIS, Sm.
Pompzlus pedestris, Smith, Cat. Hym., II1., 147, 139.
Hab. Sumatra.’
S. PERPLEXUS, Sm.
Pompilus perplexus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. I1., 147, 140.
fTab. Sumatra.!
S. PEDUNCULATUS, Sm.
Pompilus pedunculatus, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins., IIL. 145,
i3i.
India.?
S. PEREGRINUS, Sm. (PI. III. f. 19.)
Priconemis peregrinus, Smith, Trans. Ent. Soc., 1875.
Fab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
S. ROTHNEYI, Cam., Lufra.
ffab. Barrackpore.
S. SERICOSOMA, Sm.
Pompilus sericosoma, Smith, Cat. Hym., III1., 146, 1372
flab. Sumatra.’
S. OPTIMUS, Sm..
Priconemis optimis, Smith, Jour. Linn. Soc., LE 503; 5
Hab. Singapore."
S. VERTICALIS, Sm.
Priconemis verticalis, Smith, Proc. Bie Soc., I1., 94, 6.
Hab. Borneo, Malacca.
S. WAHLBERGI, Dbm.
Priconemis Wahlbergi, Dom, Hym, Eur., I., 458.1
Hab. Java.’
Hymenoptera Ortentalis. 453
SALIUS ROTHNEYI, sf. xov.
Black, pruinose; eyes a little diverging beneath, straight-
Ocelli in a triangle, separated from the eyes by a somewhat
greater distance than they are from each other. Clypeus
a little projecting towards the apex, which is broadly
rounded and margined. Occiput transverse, rounded at the
sides. There are two broad ridges above the antenne,
having a smooth, shining fovea between them. Head
opaque, finely and closely punctured ; the clypeus has the
punctures distinctly separated, and it is more shining. The
cheeks and clypeus bear a close silvery pubescence and
some long silvery hairs; the vertex bears long fuscous
hairs. Mandibles finely punctured at the base; the apex
piceous. Pronotum short, in front obliquely transverse
laterally ; behind arcuate. Median segment shorter than
the mesothorax, broadly and gradually rounded ; thorax
opaque, finely and closely punctured; median segment
towards the apex transversely striolate ; the central furrow
indistinct. Abdomen shining, indistinctly pruinose; the
apical segments finely punctured and covered with longish
fuscous hairs; the terminal segment acute at apex; the
petiole at the base about one third of the width of the apex.
Antenne shortish, pruinose. Wings hyaline, with a slight
fuscous tinge ; a cloud at the basal nervure; a broader one
extending from the apex of the stigma to near the apex of
the radial cellule. Second cubital cellule obliquely quadrate ;
at the tep one-half longer than the third at the top; at the
bottom a little shorter. The first recurrent nervure is
received in about the apical third of the cellule ; the second
distinctly before the middle. Legs pruinose; the long
spur of the hind tibiz reaching to the middle of the meta-
tarsus; the tibial spines stout, the central very thick,
somewhat triangular at the apex, the metatarsal brush long,
454 Mr. CAMERON on
thick, the tarsal joints spined and pilose beneath ; the front
tarsi without a brush.
Length, 1o mm.
SALIUS COTESI, sf. zov. (PI. III. f. 3).
Similar in the colouration of the body to S. vothneyz, as
also in having in the wings three clouds, but abundantly
distinct in structure. The clypeus at the apex is shining,
and transverse in the middle ; the elongated ridges above the
antennz, so prominent in Rothneyz, are absent, as is also the
shining fovea, but there is a small carina there ; the eyes dis-
tinctly diverge beneath ; the ocelli are in a triangle, and closer
to each other ; the hinder being separated from the eyes by
twice the distance they are from each other; the median
segment at the apex is more abrupt; the abdomen is longer,
being as long as the head and thorax united, and its apical
segments are not so thickly haired ; the form of the second
cubital cellule is very different ; the first transverse cubital
nervure is elbowed at the middle, and bends towards the
second, making the top of the cellule there about one-fourth
of what it is at the bottom, and about one-third of the length
of the top of the third; at the bottom, the second cubital
cellule is about three-fourths of the length of the third ; the
second transverse cubital nervure is sharply elbowed at the
top, making the cellule much narrower at the top than at
the bottom, where it is rounded broadly at the apex, instead
of acutely angled as in Rothneyz, while the cubital nervure
terminates completely there; the first recurrent nervure
is received a very little beyond the middle; the second at a
less distance from the transverse cubital nervure than is the
first ; the radial nervure becomes elbowed about the basal
third (and also more sharply), while in Ro¢imeyz it turns up
at the middle of the cellule. S. cotesz also is larger, being
13 mm. in length. The long spur of the hind tibiz does
not reach the middle of metatarsus; the tibial spines are
shorter and fewer.
Fymenoptera Orientalis. 455
SALIUS (PRICONEMIS) PEREGRINUS, Sm. (PI. III. f. 4).
Eyes curved above, slightly converging beneath. Ocelli
almost in a triangle, the posterior separated from the eyes
by a somewhat greater distance than they are from each
other. Clypeus convex, transverse at the apex, the sides
rounded. Prothorax shorter than the head; the sides
obliquely dilated towards the head, convex above, the centre
furrowed, the dilated part narrowing towards the base of
the furrow; behind concave. Median segment at apex
transverse, the apical part obliquely sloped, depressed in
middle, and striolate. Radial cellule lanceolate at apex,
elongate, narrow ; third cubital cellule at top shorter, at
bottom longer than the second. The second recurrent
nervure is received shortly before the middle. In the hind
wings the anal nervure is interstitial. The long spur of the
tibiz hardly reaches to the middle of the metatarsus,
In the ¢ the antenne are nearly as long as the body,
stout, tapering towards the apex; the third and fourth
joints subequal. In the ¢ the apical abdominal segment
bears a thick longish tuft of black hairs.
SALUIS PEDUNCULATUS,: Sz.
I have a number of specimens which are probably
referrible to this species. Head alutaceous, the eyes curved,
a little converging beneath ; ocelli in pits, small, the hinder
separated from the eyes by a greater distance than they
are from each other. Head almost transverse in front, a
little convex behind. Clypeus piceous and transverse in
the middle at the apex; the sides rounded; mandibles
yellow at the base. Pronotum slightly shorter than the
head ; slightly narrowed towards the head ; rounded at the
base ; the apex a little curved inwardly. Median segment
gradually rounded to the apex, as long as the mesothorax,
456 Mr. CAMERON oz
transversely striated. Abdomen subpetiolate, the petiole
becoming gradually dilated to the width of the second
segment ; the apical segments smooth, glabrous, except at
extreme apex. The long spur of the hind tibiz does not
reach to the middle of the metatarsus, tibize sparsely spined.
The second cubital cellule at top and bottom distinctly
longer than the third ; the first recurrent nervure is received
a little beyond the middle; the second a little beyond the
basal third. In the hind wings the anal nervure is received
before the termination of the cubital. In length my speci-
mens average I2 mm. |
SALUIS JUNO.
Black ; the abdomen reddish, black at the base; the
knees and fore tarsi rufo-testaceous ; wings subhyaline, the
apex smoky. Eyes curved, converging a little at the
‘bottom. Ocelli separated from the eyes by nearly the same
distance that they are from each other. Clypeus broadly
convex ; the sides at the apex oblique, the middle rounded.
Occiput slightly concave. Prothorax nearly as long as the
head, not much, if at all, narrowed towards the base.
Median segment as long as the mesothorax, gradually
rounded to the apex, irregularly transversely striated. Head
and thorax alutaceous, covered with a pale pile. Abdomen
pruinose; the petiole with a distinct neck at the base.
Antennz moderately elongate, microscopically pilose. The
second cubital cellule at top and bottom considerably longer
than the third ; the first and third transverse cubital ner-
vures obliquely curved ; the second straight, slightly oblique;
both the recurrent nervures received a little beyond the
middle. The wings are rather short. Legs elongate,
moderately stout, pruinose, the coxz white with a silvery
pile, the tibial spurs sparse, golden-fulvous; the apex of the
hind tibiz and the base of the tarsus bearing a thick fulvous
Hymenoptera Orientals. 457
pile ; the long spur of the hind tibiz does not quite reach
to the middle of the metatarsus.
Length, 8 mm.
ffab. Barrackpore SRotiney:
POMPILUS.
Pompilus, Fab., Ent. Syst. Supp. 246.
Ferreola, Smith, Cat. Hym. II1., 167.
I. POMPILUS ANALIS, Fab.
Pompilus analis, Fabricius, Syst. Pzez., 188, 4; Dbm.,
Hym., Eur. 1..47; Lep. Nat. Hist. d. Ins. Hym.,
ITT., 439, 35-
Hab. Common and widely distributed over our region,
Singapore, Java, Bachian, Celebes, Aru.
2. POMPILUS ARIADNE, Cam., fostea.
ffab. Barrackpore.
3. P. BEATUS, Cam., fostea.
fZab. Bungalore.
4. POMPILUS BRACATUS, Bingh., Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist.
Soc., V., 236.
Tab. Pegu Hills.
5. POMPILUS BUDDHA, Cam, zu/fra.
fTab. Poona (Wroughton.)
oe eer eam Pi. TIT. f 5.
Ferreola fenestrata, Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. IIl., 169%.
non Smith, Zc. p. 144.
fTab. Madras’, Poona (Wroughton).
+f P. COMPTUS, Lep.
Nat. Hest. Ins. Hym. I11., 425, 3%.
Hab. India.
8. P. COTESI, Cam. zu/fra.
Fab,
458 Mr. CAMERON oz
9. P. CORIARIUS, Tasch.
Zeit. f. gess. Natur. Wessen. XXXIV., 49, I.
Hab. Java, Singapore’.
10. P. DEHLIENSIS, Cam., zzfra.
Hab. Dehli (Rothney).
11. P. DETECTUS, Carn:
Ffab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
12,.P. DORSALIS, Jeep.
Nat. Hist. d. Ins. Hym., 111, 407, 13+
Hab. India.
13. P. DIMIDIATIPENNIS, Sauss.
Ferreola dimidiatipennis, Saussure, Hym. Novara Reise,
47."
fTab. Ceylon.
14. P. ELECTUS, Cam. fostea.
flab, Barrackpore (Rothuey).
15. P. FENESTRATUS, Sm.
Cat.. Fiym. Tns., (11., 144, 1284
fab. Bengal.!
16. P. FASCIATUS, Bingh.
Ferreola fasciata Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc V.,
2AT, 12.
Ffab. Burmah.
17. P. GRAPHICUS, Sm.
Cat. Hym. Ins., I11., 148, 143.
Fab. Phillipines."
18. P. GREENII, Bingh.
Ferreola Greeniz, Bingham, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist.
Soc, V., 240,112
FTab. Ceylon.!
19. P. HECATE, Cam., fostea.
flab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
20.
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 459
P. HONESTUS, Sm.,
Smith, Cat. Hym. Ins. U1. 144, 129.
Had. India.
21. P. HERO, Cam. Zostea.
22.
23.
24.
25.
20.
27.
28.
20.
30.
31.
ffab. Barrackpore.
P. IGNOBILIS, Saussure.
Hymen. d. Novara Reise, 60:
ffab. Ceylon! Sikim.
P. INCOGNITUS, Cam. Zostea.
flab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
P. LASCIVUS, Cam. fostea.
ffab, Barrackpore (Rothney).
P. LEUCOPHAUS, Sm.
Proc. Linn. Soc. I1., 9212
f7ab. Malacca.
P. LUCIDULUS, Sauss.
Homonotus lucidulus, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Reise, 50.
Hab, Ceylon.
P. MACULIPES, Sm. (PL. II, f. £6).
Trans. Linn. Soc. ViI., 186 12
Had. Manipuri, North West Provinces.
P. MIRANDA, Sauss.
Ferreola miranda, Saussure, Hym. d. Novara Reise, 49.1
Had. Ceylon, Trincomalia.?
P. PARTHENOPE, Cam., zzfra.
Hab. South East Provinces.
P. PEDALIS, Cam., zz/fra.
Hab. Barrackpore (Rothney ).
P. PULVEROSUS, Smith.
Proc. Linn. Soc. 11., 93, 3?.
Hab. Borneo.
460 Mr. CAMERON 0%
32. P. ROTHNEYI, Cam. foséea.
Hab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
33. P. RUFO-UNGUICULATUS, Tasch.
Zetts f. ges. Natur. Wissen XXXIV., 5, 4, 9.
Tab. Java.
34. P. UNIFASCIATUS, Smith,
Proc. Linn. Soe, V1.5 145.1337
Hab, India,’ Sumatra.’
35. P. VAGABUNDUS, Sm. (PI. III. f. 23).
Proc. Linn, Soc. I1., 92, 2.1
fab, Borneo,’ Barrackpore, Mussoure, (Rothney).
36. P. TRICOLOR, Sauss.
Ferreola tricolor, Saussure, Hymen. d. Novara Reise, 48.
flab. Singapore."
37. P. VISCHNU, Cam., poséea.
fTab. Barrackpore.
38. P. VIVAX, Cam., fostea.
Ffab. Barrackpore.
39. P. WRouGHTONI, Cam., postea.
Fab. Poona (Wvroughton).
40. P. ZEBRA, Cam., ostea.
ffab. Shellong.
41. P. ZEUS, Cam., posted.
FfTab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
Sectzon—FERROLA.
FERROLA FENESTRATA, Bzngham,
This is a distinct species from /enxestrata, Smith, which
has only the prothorax reddish. It is probably undescribed.
ffab. Burmah.
Flymenoptera Orientalis. 461
POMPILUS CIRCE, Cam. (Pl. III f. 5).
This is the most conspicuous species of the section.
The collar is more elongated, is transverse at the apex in
the middle, but curves round to the tegule at the sides; the
clypeus is rounded; the ocelli small, in a curve, and
separated from each other by a much greater distance than
they are from the eyes.
POMPILUS PEDALIS, sf. ov.
Black, the basal two segments entirely, and the basal
two-thirds of the third, red ; the head and thorax densely
covered with grey pile; the wings fusco-violaceous, the base
to the transverse basal nervure subhyaline. Eyes arcuate,
distinctly converging beneath. Ocelli large, in a curve,
separated from each other by a much greater distance than
they are from the eyes; the anterior in a pit; and an
oblique short furrow runs from the posterior. Clypeus
short, subarcuate. The head almost hoary with a greyish-
white pubescence ; on the top it is shorter, convex in front,
concave behind. Occiput convex. Prothorax longer than
the head, longer than broad, narrowed towards the head ;
at apex angled in the centre. Median segment as long as
the prothorax ; with a very slight slope above, the sides at
the apex projecting into a longish sharp triangular tooth.
Abdomen sessile, longer than the head and thorax united ;
pruinose, the apical segment impunctate. Antenne short,
about as long as the thorax, stout. Legs densely pruinose ;
the hinder tibiz sparsely spined; the hind tibize not much
longer than the metatarsus; the long spur of the hind
tibiz reaches to the middle of the latter. For wings see
fig 6, pl. III. Claws bifid at apex ; the tarsi without a brush.
This species differs from the other species here noticed,
in the eyes being more arcuate at the top and converging
much more at the bottom.
462 Mr. CAMERON oz
POMPILUS (FERREOLA) ARIADNE, sf. nov. (P1. ill. f. 7, 7a).
Black, the spurs white, palpi yellow, mandibles reddish,
wings subhyaline. Head smooth and shining, sparsely
pubescent; eyes arcuate, equally converging at top and
bottom ; ocelli large, in a curve; the posterior separated
from each other by more than twice the distance they are
from the eyes. Head convex in front, concave behind ;
antennz placed immediately over the clypeus, over which
the front projects; clypeus rounded at the apex. Prothorax
quadrate, longer than the head, not narrowed towards the
head ; behind almost transverse. Pleurze compressed,
impunctate, almost glabrous. Median part of scutellum
broad, a little narrowed towards the apex ; median segment
longer than the mesothorax ; depressed in the middle at
the apex; the lateral projections acutely triangular; the
apex bearing depressed longish hairs. Abdomen sessile,
compressed laterally; the third and following segments
covered with dense silvery hairs. Legs stout; the tarsi
testaceous ; the long and stout calcaria longer than the
metatarsus ; claws bifid. For wingssee fig. 7, pl. III.
Length, 6 mm.
flab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
A very distinct little species.
POMPILUS (FERREOLA) HECATE, sf. mov. (PI. III. f. 8).
Black, pruinose, the face densely covered with a silvery
pile, the wings hyaline, the apex infuscated. Eyes broadly
arcuate, a little converging beneath; ocelli large, almost
forming a triangle, the posterior separated from each other
by a greater distance than they are from the eyes. Clypeus
short, transverse, the sides rounded. Head behind very
little developed, and almost transverse. Prothorax not
much longer than the head ; almost transverse behind, not
much narrowed in front. Median part of scutellum narrowed
a
fTymenoptera Orientals. 463
distinctly toward the apex; median segment longer than the
mesothorax, depressed in the middle at apex ; the laterally
produced angles broad, short. Abdominal segments with
a broad belt of silvery pruinose pubescence. Legs
moderately long ; the hinder tibieze with few spines—longish
and black. The transverse basal nervure is not interstitial ;
for neuration, see pl. III. f. 8.
Length, 7 mm.
ffab. Barrackpore.
From P. Wroughtoni which it resembles in aula eta it
may be known by being stouter, by the head being longer,
by the eyes being nearer each other at the top; by the
pronotum not having such a gradual slope to the head, and
almost transverse behind, by the abdomen being shorter
and broader and stouter.
POMPILUS (FERROLA?) ROTHNEYI, sf. zov. (PI. III. f. 9).
Black, pruinose with a plumberous hue, the apex of the
abdominal segments broadly black, not pruinose, the pruin-
osity giving the insect a greyish hue; wings yellowish
hyaline, the apex infuscated. Eyes a little converging
beneath, ocelli moderate, not in a triangle ; the posterior
separated from each other by a somewhat greater distance
than they are from the eyes. Clypeus equally convex all
over, short, broad, the sides obliquely truncated, the apex
almost transverse ; labrum half the length of the clypeus,
bluntly rounded. Occiput transverse, very little developed
behind the eyes. Antennze moderately stout, the scape
greyish pruinose. Prothorax longer than the head, not
much narrowed towards the head, the sides a little
convex, at apex arcuate. Median segment concave
at the apex; the sides terminating in stout, somewhat
triangular projections, the apex with a thick fringe of
pale hair. Abdomen: subsessile. Radial cellule short,
A 3
464 Mr. CAMERON oz
broad in the middle, the basal abscissa of the radius a
little longer than the second, which is straight, oblique and
not curved. The second cubital cellule at the top more
than twice the length of the third; at bottom not much
longer than it ; the third cellule very much narrowed at the
top ; the transverse cubital nervures being almost united ;
the first recurrent nervure received quite close to the apex
of the wing; the second a little before the middle; it is
elbowed in the middle. Legs densely pruinose ; the spines
long ; the long spur of the hind tibiz reaching before the
middle of the metatarsus: the claw with a blunt, thick
subapical tooth,
This species forms a transition to ferreola, the apex of
the median segment being only moderately concave and
hardly dilated at the sides; the antennae, too, are higher
up over the clypeus, and the anal nervures in the hind wings
are received beyond the cubital. In one example the third
cubital cellule is distinctly petiolated.
Length 12 mm.
P. Wroughtont has the apex of the median segment
more as in the typical Fevreola, z.e., it is produced laterally,
but not quite so much as in, say, Czrce, it forming, in fact, a
regular curve, and it is also depressed in the middle ; the
abdomen is compressed, the anal nervure in the hind wing
is interstitial; the antennz are placed immediately over
the clypeus; the head is very little developed behind the
eyes ; the basal nervure is not interstitial; the centre of
scutellum not much, if any, narrowed towards the apex—
the pubescence on the edge of the pronotum forms a
whitish band.
POMPILUS WROUGHTONI, sf. mov. (Pl. III. f. 10).
Very similarto P. Rothneyz, having the same grey pruinose
vesture, with the abdominal segments grey and black; and
the apex of the median segment concave, the head very
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 465
little developed behind the eyes and the abdomen subsessile ;
but is smaller, narrower, and more slender; the wings are
subhyaline throughout, not yellowish or infuscated at the
apex; the second cubital cellule is much longer at the
bottom compared with the third; the third being of the
length of the space bounded by the first transverse cubital
and the first recurrent, the latter being received at a greater
distance from the transverse cubital; the second recurrent —
is received in the apical fourth of the cellule, not before the
middle, and lastly the long spur of the metatarsus reaches
-almost close to the apex of the metatarsus.
POMPILUS DELHIENSIS, sf. zov. (Pl. III. f. 11).
Black, densely covered with a silvery pubescence, espe-
cially thick on the face, median segment and on the apices
of the abdominal segments ; wings yellow, a broad fuscous
band at the radial cellule. Head slightly convex in front,
more deeply concave behind. Eyes slightly arcuate at top,
at bottom almost parallel; ocelli large, forming almost a
triangle ; the hinder separated from each other by a greater
distance than they are from the eyes. The front with an
obscure furrow. Clypeus rounded bluntly and rufous at
apex; the centre with a minute incision; mandibles
ferruginous, black at top; palpi fuscous. Prothorax
a little shorter than the head, the sides slightly convex.
Median part of scutellum not much narrowed towards
the apex. Median segment shorter than the mesothorax,
above with a gentle slope; the apex oblique, with
a slight inward curve. Abdomen subsessile; curved,
a little longer than the head and thorax united; the
segments with a silvery band at the apices: the apical
segment acute, shining, impunctate, and bearing a few long
blackish hairs. Legs stout, densely pruinose, the tibiz and
tarsi thickly spined ; the base of hind tibiz with a white
mark behind. The spurs white, reaching to the middle of
466 ~ Mr. CAMERON on
the apex ; claws with a narrow subapical tooth. The basal
nervure interstitial ; the anal nervure in hind wings received
before the termination of cubital. (For neuration, see pl III.
f 74.)
Length 9 mm.
fTab. Delhi, (Rothney).
Is very nearly related to P. Rothneyi, which it also
resembles in having the apex of the median segment sub-
concave ; but differs in the wings having the apex hyaline,
the cloud not extending to it; the third cubital cellule is
much wider at the top, in the radial cellule being longer
and much narrower; in the prothorax having the sides
convex, in its apex being transverse, not arcuate; in the
scutellum being shorter, broader, and not much narrowed
towards the apex, and in the white spurs and base of hinder
tibiz, the tarsi, too, being much more ee spined and
fringed beneath.
POMPILUS HERO, sf. mov. (PI. III. f. 12).
Black, densely pruinose, a white belt of pubescence on
the pronotum and on the abdominal segments, the meta-
notum, apex of median segment and base of abdomen tufted-
with thick greyish hair; the scape yellow beneath; the
flagellum ferruginous ; the 2-4 tarsal joints white, black at
the apex; the edge of pronotum and tegule yellowish, wings
yellowish-hyaline, infuscated at the apex. Head distinctly
convex in front, indistinctly so behind ; the clypeus covered
with a silvery pubescence, the rest with a short pile and with
longish soft pale hairs. Clypeus arcuate in the centre, the
sides obliquely truncated. Eyes slightly arcuate at the top,
converging a little at the bottom; ocelli separated from
each other by a greater distance than they are from the
eyes, not forming a triangle. Prothorax shorter than the
head, gradually narrowed towards it, behind arcuate.
Scutellum gradually narrowed towards the apex. Median
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 407
segment shorter than the mesothorax, with a gentle slope,
the apex oblique. Abdomen sessile; the apical segment
citron-yellow, densely covered with a pale pubescence, and
at the apex with longish black hairs. Legs stout; the tibize
and tarsi with few spines ; the claws bifid, the shorter claw
much thicker than the other. Antenne longish, stout, the
apical joints dilated beneath. Basal nervure interstitial ;
the anal in hind wing being received beyond the cubital.
(For neuration see pl. III. f. 12). Length 11 mm. ¢. Claws
with the basal tooth stout, not reaching to the apex.
In one specimen the hinder tibiz are whitish-yellow at
the base, the spurs being also of this colour.
POMPILUS INCOGNITUS, sf. mov. (PI. III. f. 13).
This species agree in the colouration of the body, legs;
and wings with P. pedestris, Smith —having the body
densely cinereous pruinose, the hind femora and tibie red,
the wings fusco-hyaline, deeply infuscated at the apex, and
the abdomen with cinereous bands ; but it must be, I should
think, distinct, ¢,¢., although the apex of the median seg-
ment is truncated, yet it can hardly be said to be “ produced
laterally, forming obtuse tubercles” ; and the third cubital
cellule is called “subtriangular,’ while here it is distinctly
petiolated and not sub-triangular.
Eyes distinctly converging beneath; ocelli separated
from the eyes by about the same distance they are
from each other. Clypeus a little convex, short, broad ;
the apex transverse. Head very little developed behind
the eyes: the occiput a little concave. Prothorax
a little longer than the head, having a gradually rounded
slope towards the head, and sub-quadrate behind, arcuate,
angled in the middle. Median segment with a slight slope
to near the apex, when it becomes oblique; the apex
transverse, bearing a thick silvery pubescence ; the meta-
pleure projecting sharply at the apex into tubercles [this
468 Mr. CAMERON on
may be the obtuse tubercles of Smith]. Abdomen elongate,
narrow, sessile, longer than the head and thorax united ;
sharply pointed at the apex, and bearing some long black
hairs; the apical segment very smooth and _ shining.
Antennz shorter than the abdomen, tapering perceptibly
towards the apex, not convolute. Wings comparatively
short ; the radial cellule about twice longer than wide ; the
radial nervure curved at both ends ; second cubital cellule
at top half the length of the bottom, where it is a little
longer than the third; the third with a petiole as long as
three-fourths of the top of the second cubital cellule ; the
third cellule narrowed at the top, but not forming a triangle,
both the nervures being distinctly curved; the first recurrent
nervure very oblique and received near the apex of the
cellule ; the second in the middle. Legs pruinose; the
spines long, black ; the base of the hind femora and apex
of the tibiz black ; the long spur of the hind tibiz reaches
to the middle of the metatarsus. The cloud in the fore
wings commences at the apex of the radial cellule.
What is probably a variety has the hind tibize black ;
this form being also smaller.
Length, 12 mm.
POMPILUS VIVAX, sf. mov. (Pl. III. f. 14).
Black, pruinose, the scape beneath, the edge of the prono-
tum and tegulz yellowish, the face, the scutellum, apex of
median segment, coxz, and base of abdomen densely covered
with a thick greyish silvery pubescence ; wings subhyaline,
the apex infuscated ; second cubital cellule petiolate. Eyes
a little converging beneath ; ocelli in a curve, the hinder
separated from the eyes by a distinctly less distance than
they are from each other; apex of clypeus in the middle
forming a shallow curve; the sides oblique ; occiput trans-
verse ; the sides rounded. The pubescence below the
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 469
antennz is very dense; on the front sparser. Prothorax a
little longer than the head; the sides straight, a little
narrowed in front, the apex acutely incised against the
mesonotum. Median segment with a very gentle slope to
the apex which is rounded. Abdomen sessile. Legs long,
densely pruinose; the tibial spine long; the spurs pale,
reaching to near the apex of the metatarsus; claws bifid.
Radial cellule not much longer than deep, narrowed rather
sharply in the middle. The first transverse cubital nervure
roundly elbowed in the middle, at top three-fourths of the
length of the bottom ; second cubital cellule shortly pedun-
culated, subtriangular ; the first recurrent nervure received
near the apex, the second a little beyond the middle.
Antennz stout, the apical joints dilated in the middle; the
scape yellow, joints three and four brownish beneath.
Length, 8 mm.
flab. Barrackpore (Rothney).
POMPILUS VISCHNU, Sf. nov.
Identical in the colour of the body and wings to P. vzvaz ;
differing in the second cubital cellule not being petiolate ;
the scutellum and apex of median segment not bearing a
dense pubescence ; in the ocelli forming a triangle and the
posterior being, if anything, separated from the eyes by a
somewhat greater distance than they are from each other ;
in the clypeus being rounded ; in the occiput being slightly
convex ; in the median segment being widely and deeply
furrowed down the centre, in the spurs being shorter (three-
fourths of the length of the metatarsus) and black. The
abdominal segments have a broad belt of greyish pruinose
pubescence on the apex. The legs are pruinose ; the spines
short, petiole moderately narrow at the base, becoming
gradually wider towards the apex.
Length, 6 mm.
470 Mr. CAMERON ox
POMPILUS UNIFASCIATUS, Sm.
A specimen in Mr. Rothney’s collection is thus named
by Smith. The type has the head entirely yellow ; but this
example has a broad black band on the vertex and front.
Head convex in front, transverse, with the sides rounded
behind. Ocelli almost in a triangle, the posterior separated
from the eyes by about the same distance that they are
from each other; eyes arcuate above, beneath parallel ;
clypeus transverse at the apex, the sides obliquely rounded.
Prothorax shorter than the head, the sides rounded, narrowing
towards the head; behind arcuated, bluntly angled in the
centre; there isa furrow in the middle of the pronotum.
Legs sparsely spinose; the spines long ; the long spur of the
hind tibize reaches beyond the middle of metatarsus. The
second recurrent nervure received in the apical third of the
cellule; the anal in hind wing received beyond the termi-
nation of the cubital.
POMPILUS ELECTUS, sf. mov. (Pl. III. f. 15).
Black ; the basal two and the greater part of the third
segment red ; the greater part of the front and the base of
the four posterior tibiz reddish; the tarsi inclining to
fuscous; wings hyaline, a small band along the basal
nervure, and a broad one extending from the base of the
stigma to the third transverse cubital nervure, fusco-
violaceous. Head as broad as the thorax; moderately
convex in front, almost transverse behind. Eyes broadly
arcuate above, almost diverging below; ocelli hardly
forming a triangle, separated from each other by a
slightly greater distance than they are from the eyes.
Clypeus projecting a little; the sides oblique, straight, the
apex bluntly rounded. The head closely punctured; the
clypeus and cheeks densely covered with silvery pubescence,
the frontal furrow indistinct. Antennz longish, filiform.
Hymenoptera Orientalis. , 471
Prothorax shorter than the head ; the sides almost straight,
not much narrowed towards the head. Median segment
short, rather abruptly rounded towards the apex ; there is
a patch of white silvery hair on either side at the apex.
The thorax can hardly be said to be aciculate, and has an
olive tinge in parts. Abdomen longer than the head and
thorax united, subpetiolate ; the apical segment glabrous
and impunctate at the base; the rest bearing long hairs and
the apex a depressed rufous stiff pile. Legs longish, the
hind tibiz serrate ; the long spur of the hind tibiz reaches
to a little beyond the basal third of the metatarsus; the
legs densely covered with a silvery pile. Wings longer
than the body; radial cellule elongate, narrow, lanceolate
at base and apex ; the second cubital cellule at top, about
one-third longer, at bottom not much longer than it; the
first recurrent nervure received beyond the middle, about the
same distance that the second is received from the base of
the cellule.
Length, 7—8 millim.
The serrated tibiz are pretty much as in Przconemts ;
but the transverse basal nervure is interstitial, and there is no
furrow at the base of abdomen beneath. The wings and
antenne are longer than in any. other Indian species known
to me from autopsy.
POMPILUS BUDDHA, sf. nov. (PI. III. f. 20).
Black ; the abdomen and legs red; the clypeus, inner
-orbits somewhat widely, and the outer narrowly ; three lines
-on the pronotum (a large central and a somewhat shorter
lateral) and two lines on it behind, yellow ; wings hyaline,
deeply infuscated from the base of the stigma to the apex,
which is pale. Eyes almost parallel; ocelli separated from
each other by a somewhat greater distance than they are
from the eyes. Occiput transverse. Clypeus short, broad,
projecting a little, the apex broadly rounded. Prothorax
472 Mr. CAMERON ox
shorter than the head, the sides rounded. Head and thorax
alutaceous, pruinose. Petiole without a neck, gradually
enlarged towards the apex. Antennz elongate, moderately
stout. The radial cellule moderately wide, the apex sharply
lanceolate ; the first cubital cellule hardly twice longer than
the second, the first transverse cubital nervure broadly
curved, the second straight ; the third elbowed sharply at
the middle; the top of the cellule being thus much narrowed ;
the first recurrent nervure is received in the apical third ;
the second almost in the middle of the cellule. Legs
elongate, pruinose, the tibial spines few; the long spur of
the hind tibiz reaches to the middle of the metatarsus.
Claws with a short stout sub-basal tooth.
Length 7-8 mm.
POMPILUS ZEUS, sf. xov. (Pl. IIT. f. 21).
Black ; the basal three abdominal segments, the hind
femora and tibiz, the middle femora, except at the base,
red ; the spines glistening white, wings fusco-hyaline, with
fuscous nervures, tegulze yellowish. Head a little wider
than the thorax; eyes very slightly arcuate above, con-
verging beneath; ocelli separated from each other by a
distinctly greater distance than they are from the eyes.
Clypeus gaping, the sides rounded, the apex almost trans-
verse. Antennz stout, brownish beneath, the third and
fourth joints subequal. Prothorax scarcely so long as the
head, the sides straight to the base, behind almost trans-
verse. Median segment somewhat longer than the pro-
thorax ; the base with a very gradual slope, the apex much
more abrupt; the surface hid by a short close white
pubescence. Abdomen longer than the head and thorax
united, subsessile; the apical segment impunctate. Legs
densely covered with a silvery pile; moderate, the tibie
and tarsi sparsely spined. The long spur of the hind
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 473
tibiz reaches beyond the middle of the metatarsus. Wings
two-thirds of the length of the body. For nervures see
PEA, fig> 27:
Length, 8 mm.
The third cubital cellule is shorter than in any other
Indian species I have seen.
POMPILUS BEATUS, sf. mov. (Pl. III. f. 22).
Black, the pronotum with a broad yellow band; the
three basal segments of the abdomen, except the apex
laterally of the third, red; wings fusco-violaceous. Head
small, narrower than the thorax, convex in front, and to a less
extent behind. Eyes sharply arcuate at the top, reaching well
back behind laterally ; converging a little below. Ocelliina
curve, separated from the eyes by a less distance than they
are from each other. Head longish from the front view, the
clypeus being produced below the eye; its apex transverse.
Clypeus and cheeks densely covered with a dense silvery
pubescence. A narrow furrow on the front. Prothorax a
little longer than the head, broadly arcuate behind, narrowed
a little towards the head. Median segment with a gradual
slope, and with a transverse ridge at the apex. Abdomen
sessile, very gradually and slightly narrowed towards the
apex, pruinose ; the two apical segments densely covered
with silvery pubescence. Legs stout, the hinder tibize with
the spines of moderate thickness and length ; the long spur
of the hind tibize reaching close to the apex of the metatarsus.
Antenne short, stout, tapering towards the apex. Second
cubital cellule sub-petiolate. For neuration see pl. III. fig. 22.
Length, 12 mm.
Hab. Bangalore, South India (Mus. Caz.).
POMPILUS VAGABONDUS, Sz. (PI. III. f. 23).
Eyes arcuate above, parallel, not converging beneath.
Ocelli in a curve, separated from each other by a greater
474 Mr. CAMERON oz.
distance than they are from the eyes. Clypeus transverse,
the sides rounded. Head slightly convex in front. Pro-
thorax shorter than the head, rounded in front. Median
segment short, gradually rounded to the apex, not furrowed,
obscurely aciculated. Abdomen subsessile; the pygidium
elongate, sharply pointed at the apex, longitudinally
rugosely striolate. The first transverse cubital nervure
slightly curved, oblique; the second and third straight,
converging at the top; the second cubital cellule at top
and bottom twice the length of the third; both recurrent
nervures received towards the apical third of the cellules.
POMPILUS FENESTRATUS, Szzzth (PI. III. f. 24).
Eyes arcuate, converging a little at the base. Ocelli
in a curve, separated by about the same distance from each
other that they are from the eyes. Clypeus short, broad,
the sides rounded, the apex very slightly arcuate. Head in
front convex ; the occiput transverse. Prothorax as long
as the head, the sides not convex. Median segment
aciculated ; broadly furrowed down the centre. Abdomen
subsessile ; pygidium coarsely rugose, covered with long,
stiff black hairs. Radial cellule acute in the middle; the
third cubital cellule narrowed to a point above, the trans-
verse cubital nervures almost touching there. The first
transverse cubital nervure broadly curved; the first recurrent
nervure is received a little beyond the middle; the second
about the middle.
POMPILUS DETECTUS, sf. zov. (PI. III. f. 25).
Black, the basal two, and the greater part of the third
abdominal segment, red; densely pruinose ; the wings fusco-
violaceous. Eyes arcuate above, slightly converging beneath.
Eyes in a triangle, separated from each other by about the
same distance they are from the eyes. Clypeus short, sub-
arcuate at the apex. Occiput transverse. Clypeus and
Hymenoptera Orientals. 475.
cheeks covered with a dense short whitish pile. Front and.
vertex obscurely alutaceous. Prothorax a little shorter than
the head ; and with a rounded slope to the head. Median
segment with a gradually-rounded slope to the apex.
Abdomen subsessile, as long as the head and thorax united ;
pruinose, the apical segment coarsely rugose, covered with
long bristly stout hairs. Legs stout, the hinder tibize with
five rows of long stout spines ; the long spur of the hinder:
tibiz reaches beyond the middle. (For wings see pl. III.
fig. 25.) Claws with a short submedian tooth.
POMPILUS LASCIVUS, sf. zov. (PI. III. f. 26).
Black ; the head, prothorax, mesonotum, with scutellum
and metanotum, red ; the wings with the basal half hyaline,
the apical fusco-violaceous, except the extreme apex. Head
wider than the thorax ; the eyes almost parallel ; the ocelli
hardly forming a triangle; separated from the eyes by a
distinctly greater distance than the hinder are from each
other. Clypeus convex, the apex rounded. Prothorax
shorter than the head, arcuated behind. Median segment
with a gradually rounded slope, longer than the pro-
thorax, transversely striolate. Abdomen subsessile, as
long as the head and thorax united; with an olive
tint, pruinose; the apical segment shining, impunctate.
Antenne stout. Legs stout, the tibiz sparsely spined ;.
covered with a silvery pubescence; the long spur of the
hind tibize reaches a little beyond the middle. (For wings
see pl. III. f. 26.) The entire body is more or less pruinose;, .
the head and thorax semi-opaque, coarsely aciculate.
Length, 7 mm.
POMPILUS ZEBRA, sp. ov. (Pl. III. f. 27).
Black, the mandibles, apex of clypeus, inner orbits of
the eyes to near the top broadly, the outer narrowly, a
broad band on the pronotum, tegule, the abdomen with a
476 Mr. CAMERON on
band on the base of the second segment, the third entirely
on the others,except a band on the base of the fourth, the apex
of the femora broadly, the tibize and tarsi and the antennz
dull ferruginous ; the head and thorax bearing long white
hairs. Head a little wider than the thorax; the eyes arcuate
above, the rest parallel ; ocelli ina triangle, separated from
each other by about the same distance they are from the
eyes. Clypeus short, rounded at the apex. Prothorax a
little longer than the head, narrowed gradually towards
the base. Median segment about as long as the prothorax,
gradually rounded to the apex; the apical half bearing
a dense covering of white hair. Abdomen semisessile,
a little longer than the head and thorax united ; its apex
moderately acute; the apical segment aciculate. Legs
densely pruinose, stout ; the tibiz with reddish spines, widely
separated ; the three middle being the longest; the long
white spur of the hind tibiz reaches beyond the middle of
the metatarsus. Claws with a thick basal tooth. There is no
apparent sculpture on the body ; there is a narrow furrow in
the centre of the front; the occiput convex. The stigma is
obscure testaceous ; the hind wings are only infuscated at
the apex.
Length, 1o—1II mm.
FfTab. Shillong.
POMPILUS PARENTHOPE, sp. nov.
Black ; the wings fusco-violaceous. Eyes almost parallel.
Ocelli separated from the eyes by a distinctly greater
distance than they are from each other. Clypeus with the
sides rounded; the middle slightly waved and margined.
Head moderately well developed behind the eyes; the
occiput a little concave. Pronotum hardly so long as the
head ; the sides rounded. Median segments a little longer
than the prothorax, having a gradually rounded slope to
the apex ; the middle with a wide shallow furrow; aluta-
Hymenoptera Orientaits. 477
ceous, covered with a fulvous down. Abdomen shining ;
the petiole becoming gradually wider towards the apex, so
that it is there more than twice the width of the base.
Apical segment rugose, thickly covered with stiff hairs;
the sides and lower surface with long pale soft hairs,
The second cubital cellule at the top more than twice
the length of the third ; at the bottom equal in length to it;
the third at the top about one-third of the length of the
bottom ; third transverse cubital nervure with a gradual
curve to the top; the first recurrent nervure is received
near the apex; the second a little beyond the middle.
Legs pruinose ; the spines sparse; the long joint of the
hind tibiz short, not reaching to the middle of the metatarsus.
Length, 15 mm.
Hab. South-East Provinces.
Planiceps and Aporus, distinguished from Pompzlus,
Sensu str., by having only two cubital cellules, are treated
by Kohl as sections of Pompilus.
PLANICEPS ORIENTALIS, sf. zov. (Pl. III. f. 1).
Black, shining, pruinose; the wings fusco-violaceous,
with subhyaline clouds. Clypeus at apex, subarcuate,
short, the sides obliquely truncated. Clypeus and cheeks
to the antennz thickly covered with a pale silvery pubes-
cence ; the rest of the head, shining, impunctate, very
sparsely pilose. Ocelli ina curve, the hinder separated from
the eyes by a distinctly less distance than they are from
each other ; behind them is a longitudinal furrow. Occiput
transverse. Prothorax longer than the head, arcuate behind,
laterally slightly convex. Median segment short, the base
with a moderately rounded slope; the apex oblique. On
_either side towards the base is a deep semicrescentic
short furrow. Abdomen longer than the head and thorax
united, subsessile, acutely pointed; the apical segment
478 Mr. CAMERON on
shining, impunctate, bearing a few hairs. (For wings see
pl. IIL. fig. 1.) The hind wings subhyaline, smoky at apex.
The legs are stout, the two hinder tibiz and tarsi stoutly
spined. Antenne stout, short, the third joint: about one-
quarter longer than the fourth.
APORUS COTESI, sp. ov. (PI. III. f. 2).
Black, the scape beneath, palpi, the abdomen, except the
two apical segments and the femora beneath, reddish ; the
tegulz yellow ; wings subhyaline, deeply infuscated from
the second transverse cubital nervures. Head transverse
behind, the sides rounded ; eyes straight, slightly converging
-beneath ; ocelli in a triangle, separated from the eyes by a
greater distance than they are from each other; clypeus
bluntly rounded at the apex. Vertex and front in the
centre shining, almost glabrous ; the rest of the face covered
with a dense silvery pubescence. Mandibles yellow, piceous
at the apex. Occiput transverse. Prothorax nearly as long
as the head, angulated in the middle, not semicircular at
the apex. Median segments as long as the mesothorax
laterally ; broadly furrowed down the centre, and having a
gradual slope to the apex. The entire thorax covered witha
white thick pubescence. Abdomen a little longer than the
head and thorax united, subsessile ; impunctate, shining,
sparsely covered with a pale pubescence. (For wings, see
pl. III.,f. 2.) Legs moderately long; the tibia and tarsi with
few spines ; the long spur of the hind tibie reaching to the
middle of metatarsus.
ApoRUS BENGALENSIS, Sf. 70v.
Black; the head and thorax appearing plumbeous,
through being pruinose ; the base and apex of the first and
the apex of the second with a broad pruinose band ; wings
subhyaline, infuscated from the second transverse cubital
Hymenoptera Orientalis. 479
nervure. Head almost transverse in front, concave behind.
Eyes arcuate at top, almost converging at bottom. Ocelli
in a triangle, the hinder separated from each other by a
distinctly greater space than they are from the eyes.
Antennz longish, brownish underneath. Clypeus convex,
almost transverse at the apex in the middle; the sides
obliquely rounded. Prothorax a little longer than the head ;
almost transverse behind ; the pleurz bulging out on the
lower side; and excavated broadly behind this bulge;
the sides at top straight, not much narrowed till near
the head. Median segment longer than the mesothorax,
with a gradual slope to the apex; towards the apex
with some indistinct waved strie. Abdomen subsessile.
Legs moderately long, the tibize with a few spines; the
tarsi without them except at the apices of the joints; the
long spur of the hind tibiz reaches a little beyond the
middle of the metatarsus. Wings short.
Length, 6 mm.
Apart from colouration, this species is very distinct from
A. cotest 9. The head is concave behind, the collar is longer
than the head, the prothorax almost transverse behind ; the
medium segment distinctly longer than the mesothorax,
and the wings are shorter; the apical segment is rugose,
densely covered with a stiff reddish pile, and at the apex
with some longish hairs. It is a true Aforus.
(Recezved June 23rd, 1891.)
To the above are to be added the following, mostly
very inadequately, described species of Mr. F. Smith in his
posthumous work, “New Species of Hymenoptera in the
British Museum.”
Pompilus clotho, p. 146. Sumatra.
“ lachests, p. 146. Sumatra.
A4
480 Mr. CAMERON on
Pompilus atropus, p. 146. Sumatra.
A familiaris, p. 147. Sumatra.
- pruniosus, p. 147. India.
m capitosus, p. 147. Burma.
” mitts, p. 148. Bombay District.
3 ephippiatus, p. 148. Bombay District.
- multtfasciatus, p. 148. Bombay.
x decoratus, p. 149. Bombay.
. simiullimus, p. 149. Calcutta.
¥ elegans, p. 150. India.
The following species has been omitted from the
alphabetical list :—
HEMIPEPSIS ? SYCOPHANTE.
Gribodo, Ann. Mus. Genoa, 1., 359.
fTab, Burma.
One of the species belonging to flava group.
DOLICHURUS.
This genus is usually placed in the Pompzlide, but there
can be little doubt but that its true location is with Ampulex
and Rhinopsis. .
1. DOLICHURUS TAPROBAN.
Smith, Zvans. Ent. Soc., 1869, 304.
Hab, Ceylon.
4ih Series Wale HYMENOPTERA— Plate
Constance Hoskyns-Abrahall, Lith. ad. Nat. J.Galloway & Son, Man” Imp.
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS MANCHESTER LIT. AND PHIL. SOc.
Hymenoptera Orientalzs.
Explanation of Plate.
. Planiceps orientalis, wing,
. Aporus cotest, wing.
. Pseudagenia festinata, g.
. Ceropales orientalis, .
. Pompilus circe, wing.
pedals, wing.
ariadne, £8
hecate, wing.
Rothneyz, wing and head.
Wroughtoni, wing.
Dehliensis, wing.
hero, wing and antenna.
tncognitus, wing.
vivax, wing, head and antenna.
electus, Wing.
maculipes, wing.
leucopheus, head.
do. wing.
Salius peregrinus, 2.
I
2
3
4
J
6°.) Da;
riage 23
Sg 273
o; “Da:
10, '~ Pe:
it PAA 0
i. 08,
Ege: | Da:
ig. Da,
Ey + 2a.
16, Do.
i Pane 2/7
1G. + La:
19.
20
2%) Da:
22;-; Do;
Pte. Oe
24. Do.
25. Do:
26; Do.
27.4 Do.
. Pompilus Buddha, wing.
zeus, Wing.
beatus, wing and head,
vagabundus, wing.
Jenestratus, wing.
detectus, wing.
lascivus, wing.
zebra, head.
28. Salius fulvipennis, 2.
481
482 Annual Report of the Council.
Annual Report of the Council, 1st April, 1891.
During the past session nine members have resigned, in
consequence mainly of removal from the district ; three
have died, viz., Messrs. C. N. Adams, B.A., John Barrow,
F.S.A., and J. P. Holden ; and four new members have
been elected, leaving 133 members on the roll on the 31st
March, 1891, as against 141 at the corresponding period
last year.
The accompanying balance sheets set forth the receipts
and expenditure of the various accounts, and it will be seen
that a balance stands at the credit of each, the total balance
in the Society’s favour being represented by the cash lying
in the hands of the Society’s bankers on the 31st March,
1891, viz. £353. Os. 3d.,as against £277. 5s. 10d. at the
corresponding period last year. The general balance is,
however, larger than it otherwise would have been in con-
sequence of the non-receipt of the usual account for —
printing the Society’s Memoirs, &c.; when this account is
passed and paid the balance of 4114. 2s. 6d. now standing
at the credit of the general account will disappear. This
fact, taken in conjunction with the diminished membership
and expenses incurred (but not yet discharged) in the
recataloguing and rearrangement of the library, brings into
prominence the desirableness of increasing the number of
members.
The other accounts do not call for any special ex-
planation.
The Council recommends the continuance of the system
of electing Associates of Sections by the usual annual
resolution.
The Librarian reports that during the past year the
whole of the Library has been gone through, and the titles
Annual Report of the Council. 483
of the books placed on slips, in order that they may be
catalogued. The Library has been found to contain 16,700
books, and out of these 2,200 require binding. As far as
possible where sets of Transactions, &c., were incomplete,
the missing volumes have been obtained. Owing to the
rapid increase in the number of books annually received
by the Society, it will be necessary in the near future to
consider the provision of additional shelving accommoda-
tion. Beginning with January Ist of this year a manuscript
catalogue for additions to the Library has been started,
with slips of all books in the Library placed in alphabetical
order and arranged in cases. By this means the books can
be easily found by anyone desiring to consult them.
Amongst the works presented to the Library by authors or
compilers during the year are :-—
The Clerk Maxwell Memorial Committee: The Scientific
Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, Vols. L, II. ; Professor W. G.
Farlow: A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of the United
States, by W. G. Farlow and A. B. Seymour, Part 2; Professor
Arthur Cayley, F.R.S., &c. : Collected Mathematical Papers, Vol.
III. ; Professor M. Foster, F.R.S., &c. : Text-book of Physiology,
Part 3; The Canadian Government : Dictionary of the Language
of the Micmac Indians, by the Rev. Silas T. Rand, D.D., LL.D.;
H. Stopes: Indications of Retrogression in Pre-historic Civiliza-
tion in the Thames Valley ; The Bombay Government: Brief
Sketch of the Meteorology of the Bombay Presidency in 1889-90 ;
George Waring Ormerod : Annals of Teignbridge ; William Sharp:
Experiments with Drugs as a Question of Science; J. F. La
Trobe Bateman; History and Description of the Manchester
Waterworks ; Marquis de Caligny : Académie Royale de Belgique,
Four Papers ;-John Eliot, M.A.: On the Occasional Inversion of ©
the Temperature Relation between the Hills and Plains of
Northern India ; John Gardiner: Provisional List of the Plants of
the Bahama Islands ; The Indian Government : Memorandum on
the Snowfall in the Mountain Districts of Northern India: Re-
port on the Meteorology of India in 1888; Lothar Meyer:
Grundziige der Theoretischen Chemie; The Mulhouse Hirn
Memorial Committee : Manifestation en ’honneur de G. A. Hirn ;
484 Annual Report of the Council.
Joseph Prestwich, D.C.L., F.R.S.: On the Relation of the Westle-
ton Beds or Pebbly Sands of Suffolk to those of Norfolk, Parts 1,
2, and 3; Jonathan Salt: List of Plants collected chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Sheffield ; The Victorian Government: Pro-
dromus of the Zoology of Victoria, by Frederick McCoy, Decade
I; The Italian Ministry of Public Instruction: Le Opere di
Galileo Galilei, Vol. I.; Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., and C.
Schorlemmer, F.R.S.: A Treatise on Chemistry, New Edition,
Vol. III., Part 3; Robert Barclay: The Silver Question and the
Gold Question ; Councillor H. T. Rothwell: Bimetallism.
While the Council considers it advisable to call attention
to the fact that the usefulness of the Society is restricted
by the comparative narrowness of its financial resources,
it has to record that there has been a considerable
increase in the number of papers communicated to the
Society during the past session, the number being larger
than for many years past. The Council rejoices in this
eratifying indication of increasing interest in the work of
the Society.
Mr. JAMES PLATT HOLDEN, who died on October 2oth,
at his residence, Smedley Lane, Cheetham, near Manchester,
was, at the time of his death, one of the oldest members of ©
the Society, having been elected on January 27th, 1846,
under the presidency of Dr. Holme. He was also one of
the oldest architects and surveyors in Manchester. He was
born in Liverpool, in August, 1806, and served his time as
a bricksetter. He subsequently emigrated to the United
States, where he worked successively as a_bricksetter,
builder, and eventually as an architect and surveyor, in
partnership with his brother, Isaac. Returning to this
country the two brothers began business as architects and
surveyors in Manchester, in 1838, but dissolved partnership
in 1852, each continuing in practice on his own account.
Mr. James P. Holden held the office of surveyor to the
Dean and Chapter for about thirty-five years, and of
architect to the Cathedral for about twenty-eight years,
Annual Report of the Council. 485
during which time a considerable portion of the fabric was
restored and the new tower rebuilt. Retiring from practice
in 1870, he still retained his connection with the profession
through the Manchester Society of Architects, of which he
was one of the original members. Though taking little
part in the work of the Society, he continued his connection
with it until his death, at the ripe age of eighty-five years,
and is remembered for the kindliness of his disposition and
his readiness to assist others. |
Mr. JOHN BARROW, F.S.A., had been a member of the
Society since 1867. The bent of his studies lay in chemistry
and in natural history, and, except for the last year or two
of his life, he was a diligent frequenter of the meetings of
the Natural History and Microscopical Section, on the
council of which he sat for many years. He was a good
field botanist, a patient observer of the phases of growth
and the structure of plants, and was distinguished for the
assiduity with which he would follow up any special line of
research. He was not very ready with his pen and so
presented few papers to the Society, but his natural history
communications were at times of considerable value. He
was specially interested in the medullary rays, and adjacent
tissues, as the depositories of starch ; the distribution of the
nutritive elements in seeds ; the development of the flower
in the Conzfere; parthenogenesis in the hive-bee; &c. He
took great pains to illustrate any special subject of vege-
table physiology, or structure, by employing large series of
progressive microscopic sections, which represented the
same organ at different parts of the axis, or at different times
of theyear. Inthe display of such sections to audiences too
large for sitting round a table of microscopes, he manifested
considerable ingenuity. In 1869, finding it difficult te
describe with precision certain structures which puzzled
him, he was led to devise a lantern arrangement by which
he could project upon a large screen of finely-ground
486 Annual Report of the Counczl.
glass, enlargements of microscopic sections, capable of being
seen by forty or fifty persons at once. Though successful
to a certain extent, the reflection of the object from the
polished surface of the thick plate-glass interfered with the
definition, except to those who were in the direct line of
vision. In succeeding years he experimented with oiled
silk, tracing paper, and the like, and by the use of good
object glasses, coupled with a front lens of special construc-
tion and a smaller screen of tracing paper, he ultimately
achieved considerable success in this direction. He was also
an adept in the double staining of vegetable tissues. He
was at one time the honorary secretary of the Manchester
Scientific Students’ Association, and was one of the founders
of the Leeuwenhceck Microscopical Club. For the latter
Club he prepared more than twenty-five subjects since its
foundation in 1867, many of which were also communicated
to our Natural History Section. He was the first to intro-
duce to microscopists the use of benzole as a solvent for
Canada balsam, and of a mixture of naphthaline and
stearine for embedding purposes. Just before his death he
had devised a new form of microtome in which the cutting
edge was fixed, and by means of which continuous sections
of the object operated upon were produced in their proper
sequence. His scientific collections have been presented by
his family to personal friends ; his herbarium to Mr. Charles
‘Bailey ; and his microscopical slides to members of the
Leeuwenhceck Microscopical Club, and a few to our own
Society. He was born April 1oth, 1822, and died 19th.
October, 1890.
In CHARLES NORRISH ADAMS, B.A., the Society has
_lost one of its youngest and most promising members.
Mr. Adams was born at Exeter, in 1864, and received his.
school education at the Grammar School there from 1875
to 1882. He left in the latter year with a School Exhibition
for Christ’s College, Cambridge, having obtained an open
Annual Report of the Councdl. 487
scholarship in Natural Science. In 1884, he was placed in
the First Class, First Part of the Natural Science Tripos,
and, in 1886, in the Second Class of the Second Part. He
came as Science Master to the Hulme Grammar School, in
April, 1888. Asa schoolmaster he was a marked success,
bringing enthusiasm and no ordinary skill to bear on all his
work, and his thoroughly unselfish nature made him a
universal favourite. After a short illness, he succumbed to
an attack of pneumonia on Sunday, March 8th, 1891.
The following is a list of the papers and short com-
munications which have been brought before the Society,
or will be before the close of the session :—
OCTOBER 7th, 1890.
‘*The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the dry and in the
moist states.” By Harold B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of
Chemistry; and J. A. Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar in the
Owens College.
“‘ Hymenopterological Notices.” By P. Cameron. Communicated by
John Boyd.
OCTOBER 2Ist, 1890.
‘On the discovery of Nickel Carbonic Oxide by Mr. Ludwig Mond and
others.” By H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
“On the discovery of four Stigmarian Trees near Osnabriick.” By W.
C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.
“‘On the determination of the Thermal Conductivities of bad conductors.”
By Charles H. Lees, M.Sc., Bishop Berkeley Fellow of Owens
College. Communicated by R. F. Gwyther, M.A.
NOVEMBER 4th, 1890.
**On the discovery of Estheria minuta, var. Brodieana of Prof. Rupert
Jones, F.R.S., by Mr. C. E. de Rance, F.G.S., in the Lower Keuper
sandstone of Alderley Edge.” By William Brockbank, F.L.S.,
fG.S.
‘‘On a cutting, 12 feet in length, bearing numerous tubers and flowers, of
Boussingaultia basselloides, Humb. et Kunth, from a plant which he
had had growing for about six years, and which had only flowered in
the preceding month.” By William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘* On two electrical platinum thermometers, for use in the exact determina-
tion of temperatures as high as the boiling point of mercury.” By
W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S.
NOVEMBER 18th, 1890.
‘* Additional note on the discovery of Zstheria minuta, var. Brodieana by
Mr. de Rance, F.G.S.” By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
““The History and present position of the Theory of Glacier Motion.”
By H. H. Howorth, M.P., F.S,A. '
488 Annual Report of the Council.
DECEMBER 2nd, 1890.
**General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the Author’s
Collective Memoirs on the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures.
Part I.” By William Crawford Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., &c.,
Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Acad. Sc., and of the Royal
Society of Gottingen.
“On the Zxtomostraca and Annelida in the Levenshulme Mottled Lime-
stones.” By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
**On the Specific Heat of Non-Conductors. Part 1: Caoutchouc.” By
W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S., and Hubert L. Terry, F.C.
DECEMBER 16th, 1890.
“*On Low Temperatures.” By Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.
‘*On the Path of Migratory Birds.” By H. H. Howorth, M.P., F.S.A.
**On the Authorship of the Law of Equal Dilation of Gases known on the
Continent as that of Gay Lussac, and in England and America as
that of Charles.” By H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
‘On the Intensity of Transmitted Light when the co-efficient of trans-
mission of the medium is a function of time.” By James Bottomley,
B. As, Di Ses, aC. S;
*“‘On the Geological Section exposed by the railway cutting at
Levenshulme. Part I.” By William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.,
and C. E. de Rance, F.G.S.
**On the Action of various Chemical Compounds aad Metals on India-
rubber.” By William Thomson, F.R.S.Ed., F.C.S., and Frederick
Lewis.
DECEMBER 30th, 1890.
**Description of Drosera intermedia (Hayne), forma sudbcaulescens, with
remarks on the Geographical distribution of the family.” By James
Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S.
**A New Symbolic een of the Old Logic.” By Joseph John
Murphy. Communicated by the Rev. Robert Harley, F.R.S.,
Fy. RAYS:
JANUARY 13th, 1801.
**On the late George Waring Ormerod.” By C. E. de Rance, F.G.S.
Communicated by William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
“On the Geological Section exposed in the Levenshulme and Fallowfield
railway cutting. Part II.” By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S., and
G.. EF. de Rance, Assoc. ‘Inst. C.E., F.G:S., ERGs. ay OE H. M.
Geological Survey.
“On Stereometry.” By W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S., and
Arthur Harden, M.Sc., Ph.D.
JANUARY 27th, 1891.
“*On Artificial Flowers from the Canary Islands.” By Alderman W. H.
Bailey.
FEBRUARY Ioth, 1891.
“On deep borings through the Keuper Marls.” By C. E. de Rance,
F.G.S. Communicated by Wm. Brockbank, F. ‘@ 5.5 HatGa oe
‘On the Phenomena of Protective Vaccination and Non-recurrent Disease.’
By F. J. Faraday, FS.
Annual Report of the Council. 489
‘On the Source of some Remarkable Boulders in the Isle of Man.”
By Percy F. Kendall, F.G.S., President of the Stockport Society of
Naturalists. Communicated by Thomas Kay, J.P.
FEBRUARY 24th, 1891.
**On the collection of Dirt from the Atmosphere by new belting run at a
high speed.” By Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.
‘On a Harmonic Analyser.” By Osborne Reynolds, LL.D., F.R.S.
‘“Thoughts on Credit Money and on the function of the Precious Metals
as Distributors of Wealth. Part I.” By F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.S.S.
MARCH Ioth, 18o1.
**On a discovery of S#zvorbis Limestones near Whitehaven.” By William
Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘On Functions from Groups.” By the Rev. Thomas Penyngton Kirk-
man, M.A., F.R.S.
‘* Thoughts on Credit Money and on the function of the Precious Metals
as Distributors of Wealth. Part II.” By F. J. Faraday, F.L.S.,
F.S.5.
MARCH 24th, 1891.
‘* Additional Note on the occurrence of the Permians, Sfzvorbzs Lime-
stones, and Upper Coal Measures at Frizington Hall, in the White-
haven District.” By William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘Supplementary Note on the Aznelida and Entomostraca in the Levens-
hulme Limestones.” By William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘* Historical Account of the genus Lazzrus (Montford) and its dependencies,
with descriptions of eleven new species and a catalogue of Latirus
(Montford) and Peristernia (Morch).” By James Cosmo Melvill,
MLA. FOL.S.
**On a Method of Comparison of Thermometers.” By W. W. H. Gee,
B.Sc., F.C.S., and Thomas Ewan, Ph.D., B.Sc.
APRIL 7th, 1891.
‘Tables in illustration of the Author’s paper on Credit Money and the
Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth.” By F. J. Faraday,
EELS... F.S.8. Beccles
APRIL 2Ist, 1891.
‘‘ Note on a new method of estimating Chlorine in Organic Compounds.”
By Albert Taylor and George Shaw, of the Stockport Technical
School. Communicated by Thomas Kay, J.P.
‘< Hymenoptera Orientalis. Part III.” By P. Cameron. Communicated
by John Boyd.
‘*On the Occurrence of Permians, S#zvorbis Limestones and Upper Coal
Measures at Frizington Hall, in the Whitehaven District.” By
William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘*On a new species of Fossil Fish, Strepsodus Brockbanki, in the Upper
Coal Measures of Levenshulme.” By James W. Davis, F.G.S., &c.
Communicated by William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G.S.
‘¢On the action of Nitric Acid on Polyterpenes.” By Hubert L, Terry,
F.I.C. Communicated by W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., FC.5;
490 Treasurers Accounts. |
:|
MANCHESTER LITERARY AN
Charles Batley, Treasurer, in Account with the Socit
Dr. : Statement of the Accor (
1890-91. 1889-90.
1891.—Mareh 31st: Bs» de $5, ere 5.
To Cash in hand, 1st April, 1890 om ae as 277 5 x0 335 3
‘To Members’ Contributions :— J
Old Members, 1887-8, 1 Subscription at 42s.
|
|
oe sce een te
nr 1888-9, 5 Subscriptions ss aC «. 1010 0 4
2 1889-90, 3 Admission Fees ,, ue se SO Od |
A », 16 Subscriptions at 42s. .. eel) Suz) lO
ac 53 it Half-Subscription at 21s. are) RE ar es |
a 1890-91, 93 Subscriptions at 42s... «. 195 6 © |
New Members, _,, 3 Admission Fees at 42s. .. s+ 0) :6l¥o
+ is 3 Subscriptions Sairats 6 0
” r891-2 1 Subscription OS ee oot, 2 2 > |
263 Ir oO 306 12!
To Library Subscriptions :— x |
One Natural History Associate at ros... At seh late © 10 © ° 10)
To Contributions from Sections :— |
Microscopical and Natural History Section, 1889-o sel Were, 1s 5 5 3 ;
Physical and Mathematical Section 1889-90 > (@ 46 220
al o oOo T= 7 7
To Use of the Society’s Rooms :— |
Manchester Geological Society to 31st March, 1890 ¥s OOO 30 0 0 i
Manchester Medical Society to 30th September, 1890 2 250 © 25 00 - |
Manchester Photographic Society to 30th Sept., 1890 62 25, Oo 25 0 3 1
Manchester Scientific Students’ Asso, to 31st Dec., 1890 .. 9 © o 9 9 0
——-——59 9 0 ae of
To Sales of the Society’s Publications, 1890-1 .. “i oe 20 5 5 1 |
To Natural History Fund, 1890-1 :— i |
Dividends on £1225, Great Western Railway Co. Stock .. 59 14 4 59 34 q
To Bank Interest, less Bank Postages, 1890-1 HA a Re 618 3 4 8 |
To Joule Memorial Committee for Postages, &c.. ae ae Fe i @ o'po
| |
|
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To. = £
4674 O11 4808 x
1891.—April 1. To Cash in Williams, Deacon, Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited.. -» £353 ©
a
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o> OPHICAL SOCIETY.
a
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Sesston 1889-1890.
5
891—March 31st —
tharges on Property :—
Uhief Rent (Income Tax deducted) .. ae me oe
‘ncome Tax on Chief Rent ie Se oe ae a
—_ against Fire .. Ay He 45 ae as
Repairs, &e.. ‘‘. By “ “i 35 pe
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a Expenditure :—
eal, Gas, Candles, Water, &c... of - ais af
ea, Coffee, &c., at Meetings.. ae ep va wa
Bein, Brushes, &c. .. es sie ee Sc aS
ninistrative Charges :—
wlerk and Housekeeper .. Pe a ae
Yostages and Carriage of Parcels ae 4G “6 ae
#tationery, Printing Circulars, Receipts, and Engrossing..
Distributing ‘Memoirs’ .. ae sc er Se AS
\ublishing :—
‘onorarium for editing the Society’s publications ..
‘rinting and Binding ‘ Memoirs and Proceedings,’ new series
Vood Engraving and Lithography .. or se Se
ibrary ;—
inding Books in Library.. ae <i Pe me oe
ks and Periodicals .. ~ sé ath pate acis ae
sistant im Library. s. 3e : ne
ontographical Society for the year at a ae ee
ay Society for the year 1890 .. nc ota sie
oological Record, Vol. 26 nie a ae a
ural History Fund :—
forks on Natural History ae os ae + ee
t to Microscopical and Natural History Section ats
ates for Natural History Papers in ‘Memoirs’ .. ote
ce 31st March, 1891 .. bra ie ve a ve
Treasurer's Accounts.
Ist April, 1890, to 31st March, 1891, with a Comparative
1890-91 1889-90.
G Sv de 1B sade 4 sind PEEVE ers |
I2 12 0 1212 0
oO, 16) o 6 3
23 17° G Ta E 716
4 8 2 8) 16 3
© 0 0 24 14 0
31 311 —— bo 0 o
346 5 33 6 9
12 7 13/36 7
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62 8 o 62 8 o
26 8 6 27 CLE
2 4 II 15 It
oe) 6.7 9
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50 0 50 0 O
room) co 3040
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° 00 52 2 8
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9 18 6 i lahiemtatiials
—-— 3117 5 -—-— 68 rr 2
35e:) Os 277 5 10
4674 0 11 £808 « 6
491
Nore. —The Accounts (of which the shots § is a summary) have been audited, and found correct, by
Mr. Francis Jones, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., and Mr. Samuel Okell, F.R.A.S.
492 Aide Treasurer's Accounts.
Summary Balance Sheet, Session 1890-1.
General Account :—
Balance in favour of this Account, 1st April, 1890..
Receipts during the Session, 1890-1, Ordinary
2 an Joule Memorial Committee
Expenditure during the Session, 1890-1 we
Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1891
Compounders’ Fund :—
Balance in favour of this Account, rst April, 1890
Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1891
Natural History Fund :—
ee
Balance in favour of this Account, rst April, 1890
Dividends on Gt. Western Railway Co.’s Stock during the es 1890-1
Expenditure during the Session 1890-z os
Balance in favour of this Account, 31st March, 1891
Cash in Williams, Deacon, and Manchester and Salford Bank, Limited, 31st March, 1891
= 5. iE ae
433 10 10
459 14 4
93 52
3317 5
177 10
61
is
-. 95a ee
Microscopical and Natural History Section. 493
Annual Report of the Council of the Microscopical
and Natural History Section.
The usual monthly meetings of the Section have been
held during the session, and the attendance has been fairly
maintained. Several important papers have been con-
tributed, notably Mr. J. COSMO MELVILL’s on Drvyosera
zntermedia, var. subcaulescens, and on the genus Latzrus, with
descriptions of eleven new species, and Mr. P. CAMERON’S
third part of his Hymenoptera Orientalis, which are being
printed in extenso in the Society’s Wemozrs and Proceedings.
Very interesting exhibits have also been made at all the
meetings.
Our numbers, however, it will be noted, have fallen off
somewhat. One of our oldest members, Mr. JOHN BARROW,
died in October, three members and four associates have
resigned, being no longer able to attend our meetings, and
we have only elected one new member and one new associate.
It is, therefore, much to be desired that steps should
be taken to enrol a number of new members and associates
in our ranks. It is felt that, if the advantages the Section
offers were only better known, there are a number of
naturalists and others, in Manchester and the neighbour-
hood, who would be glad to join us.
The following is a list of members and associates of the
Section :—
Members :—J. J, ASHWORTH, CuHas. BalLey, F.L.S., JOHN
Boyp, HENRY BRoGDEN, F.G.S., ALFRED Brown, M.D., SAMUEL
CotraM, F.R.A.S., EpDwARD CowaRD, ROBERT ELLIS CUNLIFFE,
R. D. Darsisuire, B.A., F.G.S., Prof. W. Boyp Dawkins, M.A,,
ERS, F.G.S., Hasrincs C. Dent, F.L5., W.. K. DEANE,
FREDERICK JAS. FaRaDAy, F.L.S., CHAs. JAMES HEYwoop, ALEX.
494 Microscopical and Natural History Section.
HODGKINSON, B.Sc., M.B., J. ARTHUR Hutton, HENRY HOYLE
HowortnH, F.S.A., M.P., Prof. A. Mitnes MarsHaz, M.A.,
M.D., D.Sc., F-R.S., J. Cosmo MELviILL, M.A., F.LSe ae
Morcan, M.D., M.A., Francis NicHoLson, F.Z.S., EDMUND
Satis Scuwase, B.A. J. Tatuam, M.A., M.D., Prat Wace:
WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S., Joun DopcsHon.
Associates :-—WILLIAM BLACKBURN, F.R.M.S., E. S. BLEs,
M.B., PETER CAMERON, HERBERT C. CHADWICK, E. PYEMONT
CouLett, PETER CuNLIFFE, F. R. Curtis,.H. L. Hames
Joun Ray Harpy, ARNOLD V. HENN, FRANK HUET, L.D.S.,
R.C.S., Henry Hypr, Lest Jones, M.D., H. L. -Kiyeoe,
J. B. PETTIGREW, THomas ROGERS, GEORGE NASH SKIPP, MARK
STIRRUP, F.G.S., THEODORE Sincton, W. Lapp ‘TORRANCE,
EDWARD WarD, F.R.M.S., W. R. SCOWCROFT.
Total 25 members and 22 associates, against 27 mem-
bers and 27 associates at the corresponding period of last
year.
Microscopical and Natural History Section Accounts. 495
The Microscopical and Natural History Section of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society in account with the Parent Society for Grant
from the Natural History Fund.
Dr, from March 31st 1890, to April 16th, 1891. tts
1890. ho Suds 1890. Fa 8
To Balance of Grant unexpended ...... 38 go 11 | Aug. 2, By Fauna and Flora, d. Golfes
v., Neapel, vol: 9)...-<->-: 3 966
1890-91. ,, Fowler's Coleoptera, 8
' Parts, 40-47 2.2500 Sisiowe, ann ee
$9; DAIANCE 5 Jaleseectalemvis clears 3316) 7s
438 9 11 438 gir
SS
To Balance of Grant unexpended .... £33 16 1
Mark Stirrup, Treasurer, in account with the Microscopical and Natural History
Section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Soczety.
Dr. Session 1890-91. Cr.
1890. & s. d.| 18g0. 4 Sos
Dec. 20. Yo Balance in Manchester July 31. By J. E. Cornish, ‘‘ Naturalist,
and Salford Bank (St. Micro. Journal,” &c..... 116 4
Ann Street Branch) .... 95 7 2 | Aug. 2. ,, Williams and_ Norgate,
5) bank Interest .2.2.-...- I 319 9 ‘*Fauna and Flora G. v.
», Subscriptions and Arrears Neapel oeiidcatasmens 3 0 6
from March 28th, 1890, Dec. 4. 5, West Newman and Co.,
to April 16th, 1891 .... 27 10 o *« Journal of Botany, 1890” 0 12 o
s 9» Je E. Cornish, ‘‘ Fowler's
Coleoptera & Naturalist” o 9g 5
% », Charles Simms and Co.,
Circulars and Cards.... 014 ®
1891.
Jun 10. ,, Gurney and Jackson, “‘Ibis
ESOLE «'-s.c his. aavs Peis aire eke LENG
3 », Thos. Armstrong and Bro.,
Stand Condenser ...... O19 0
Mar.18. ,, Charles Simms and Co.,
Circtlars (iecciccsece ri fete.
24. 5, Je E. Cornish, ‘* Fowler’s
Coleoptera & Naturalist” 013 9
Apl. 7. ,, Parent Society, Sectional
Subscriptions. «2. ccmeneee Sic Sino
14. ,, Chas. Hargreaves—
Teas .........42. 14S. od.
Postages, &c., £1.38. 11d. 3 17 11
16. ,, J: E. Cornish, ‘‘ Fowler’s
Coleoptera”: .\. cncse~ sn ON gee
- », Do., ‘‘ Naturalist,” January
to March, 20s. cence Or.re 4
By Balance in Manchester and Salford
Bank (St, Ann Street Branch) ...... 104 9 7
#124 16 11 4124 16 11
To Balance to Credit of Section...... £504.97 24th April, 1891,
Examined and found correct,
GEO. NASH SKIPP,
W. R. SCOWCROFT,
A5
496 — The Council.
THE COUNCIL AND MEMBERS.
APRIL 21, 1891.
President.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Pice-Presidents,
WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.,
FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SWEDISH ACAD. Sc., AND OF THE
RoyAL SOCIETY OF GOTTINGEN.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
ARTHUR SCHUSTER, PH.D... F.E.S., F. RAS:
JAMES. BOTTOMLEY; B:A., DSc, FCs.
Secretaries,
FREDERICK JAMES FARADAY, F.L.S., F.S.S.
REGINALD F. GWYTHER, M.A.
OCreasurer.
CHARLES BAILEY, F.L.S.
Pibrarian.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
Of the Council.
JOHN BOYD.
HAROLD B. DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.
WILLIAM HENRY JOHNSON, B.Sc.
JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.LS.
ALEXANDER HODGKINSON, M.B., B.Sc.
J. W. F. TATHAM, M.A., M.D.
Date of Election.
1847, April 20.
1843, April 18.
1887, April 19.
1886, Feb. 9.
1886, Feb. 9.
1886, Feb. 9.
1886, Feb. 9.
1860, April 17.
1888, April 17.
1889, April 30.
1859, Jan. 25.
1886, Oct. 30.
1889, April 30.
1887, April 19.
1886, Feb. 9.
1888, April 17.
1889, April 30.
Honorary Members. 497
HONORARY MEMBERS.
adams; ; John? ‘Couch, -UL.D:, Fes. 7 VP EAS.
F.C.P.S., Director of the Observatory, and Lowndsean
Prof. of Astron. and Geom. in the Univ. of Cambridge.
Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. Zhe Observatory,
Cambridge.
Airy, Sir George Biddell, K.C.B., M.A., D.C.1., LE.D:,
Fen. Mein. ROS.B. RTA. F.C. P.S.. For, Mem
Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. Zhe White House, Croom’s
fill, Greenwich Park, S.E.
Armstrong, Sir Wm. George, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D. New-
castle-on-Tyne.
Baker, Sir Benjamin, LL.D., M. Inst. C.E.
Square Place, Westminster, S.W.
Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S. ew.
Berthelot, Prof. Marcellin, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de
VInstitut. Fars.
Buchan, Alexander, F.R.S.E.
Ldinburgh.
Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Prof.
of Chemistry at the Univ. of Heildelberg. Hezdelberg.
>
2, Quecn’s
72, Northumberland Street,
Cannizzaro, S., Prof. of Chemistry.
Carruthers, William, Pres. L.S.,
Botanical Dept., British Museum.
Cayley, Arthur, M.A;,; LL.D., D.C.L.,. V.P.R.A.S.,
F.C.P.S., Sadlerian Prof. of Pure Maths. in the Univ.
of Cambridge, Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Garden House, Cambridge.
Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Prof.
of Natural Philosophy, Oxford. Mew Museum, Oxford.
Cohn, Ferdinand, Professor of Botany. 26, Schwecdnitzer
Stadtgraben, Breslau.
Cornu, Professor Alfred, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de
VInstitut. cole Polytechnique, Paris.
University of Ronie.
F.R.S. —“ Keeper “of
Dawson, Sir John William, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D.,
F.G.S. McGill College, Montreal.
Dewalque, Gustave, Professor of Geology. University of
Liége.
Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany. Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
498
Date of Election.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1860, Mar. 9.
1889, April 30.
1848, Jan. 25.
1881, April 17.
1886, Feb. 9.
1866, Jan. 23.
1869, Jan. 12.
1872, April 30.
1552, Oct. 16.
1886, Feb. 9.
1887, April 19.
1887, April 19.
1887, April 19.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1887, April 19.
1844, April 30.
Honorary Members.
Flower, William Henry, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.
of Nat. Hist. Dept., British Museum.
Foster, Michael, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Professor
of Physiology. Trinkty Colleg 2€, Cambridge.
Frankland, Edward, <h.D., M.D.,.. LL.D, WaieeS
V.P.CS., BRS. Cor. eae ae Fr. (Acad: pe,
Wc. The Yews, Reigate Hill, Reigate.
Director
Hertz, H., Professor of Physics. Sonn.
Hind, John Russell, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Superin-
tendent of the Nautical Almanac. Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.) 3, Cambridge Park Gardens, Twickenham.
Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics. Polytech-
nici, Minster.
Helmholtz, Geheimrath Herman von, LL.D., For.
Mem. R.S. Prasident der Physikalisch - technischen
Reichsanstalt. Berlzz.
Hofman, A. W., Pi:D.; M.D. - ELD,
Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c.
Berlin.
Huggins, William, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., FL. RsACS,
Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). 90, Upper Tulse Hill,
Brixton, London, S.W.
Huxley, Thomas Henry, M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Bae
P.P.R.S., Hon. Prof. of Biology in Royal School of Mines,
Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. 4, Marlborough
Place, Abbey Road, N.W.
F RS.) een
10, Dorotheenstrasse,
Kirkman, Rev. Thomas Penyngton, M.A., F.R.S., Croft
Rectory, near Warrington.
Kopp, Prof. Hermann. ezdelberg.
Langley, Prof. S. P., Alleghany Observatory, Pittsburg, U.S.
Laveleye, Emile de, Zzége University.
Lockyer, Norman, F.R.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.
Sci.). Sczence School, Kensington.
Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D, #eee
15, Lombard Street, E.C.
(Acad.
Mendeléeff, D., Professor of Chemistry. St. Petersburg.
Meyer, Lothar, Professor of Chemistry. Z2bzngen.
Newcomb, Prof. Simon, For. Mem. R.S. eis Hopkins
University, Baltimore, U.S.
Owen, Sir Richard, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., FoRoae
F.L.8:, F.G.S.,: V.P:Z.S., F,RiG.S.,° Ireland) aes
M.R.S.E., For.: Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci), ae
Sheen Lodge, Richmond.
—e ee -*
Date of Election.
1866, Feb. 9.
Flonorary Members. 499
Pasteur, Louis, For. Mem. R.S., Membre de l’Institut. Parzs.
1851, April 29. Playfair, Rt. Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D.,F.R.S.,
1866, Jan. 23.
1866, Jan. 23.
1849, Jan. 23.
1866, Feb. 9.
1887, April 19.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1872, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1889, April 30.
1869, Dec. 14.
1851, April 29.
1886, Feb. 9.
1s61, fan, 22..
18 3, April 28.
1851, April 22
1872, April 30.
1886, Feb. 9.
HeGes., DEP. ViP.CISs | &e:
London, S. W.
Prestwich, Joseph, F.R.S., F.G.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr.
(Acad. Sci.) Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.
68, Onslow Gardens,
Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
15, Cromwell Crescent, South Kensington, London.
Rawson, Robert, F.R.A.S. Havant, Hants.
Rayleigh, John William Strutt, Lord, M.A., D.C.L.,
(Oxon.), LE D., (Univ. McGill), Sec, RJS., F:RA-S.
Lirling Place, Witham, Essex.
Romer, Dr. Fred. Aveslau.
Résal, Professor Henri, Membre de |’Institut.
technique, Paris.
Roscher, Dr. Wilhelm, K. Geheimer Rath, and Professor of
Political Economy. Lezfsvc.
Routh, Edward John, Sc.D., F.R.S. Newnham Cottage,
Cambridge.
Ecole Poly-
Sachs, Julius von, Ph.D. Wairzburg.
salmon, eva. ‘George, (D.D.,.D.C.L.;. LED, FORS:,
Regius Professor of Divinity. Provost’s House, Trinity
College, Dublin.
Siemens, Dr. Ernst Werner von, Geheimer Rath. 94,
Markgrafenstrasse, Berlin,
Sorby, Henry Clifton, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &ce. Aroom-
field, Sheffield.
Stokes, Sir George Gabriel, Bart., M.A., M.P,, LL.D.,
D.C.L., Pres. R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathem.
Univ. Cambridge, F.C.P.S., Cor. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad.
Sci.), &c. Lezsfield Cottage, Cambridge.
Strasburger, Professor. ovz72.
Sylvester, James Joseph, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R-S.
Savilian Prof. of Geom. in the Univ. of Oxford, Cor.
Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), &c. Mew College, Oxford.
Tait, Peter Guthrie, M.A., F.R.S.E., &c., Professor of
Natural Philosophy, Edinburgh.
Edinburgh.
Thomson, Sir William, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.S.
L. and E. Prof. of Nat. Phil. in Univ. of Glasgow. For
Assoc. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), 2, College, Glasgow.
Trécul, A., Member of the Institute of France. avs.
Tylor, Edward Burnett, F.R.S., D.C.L. (Oxon), LL.D.
(St. And. and McGill Colls.), Keeper of University
Museum, Oxford,
38, George Square,
500
Date of Election.
1868, April 28.
1889, April 30.
1886, Feb. 9.
1888, April 17.
Honorary and Corresponding Members.
Tyndall, John, LL.D., M.D., D-C.L., Ph.Ds (eae
F.C.S. Aind Head House, Haslemere, London, W.
Williamson, Alexander William, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec.
R.S., Corr. Mem. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Aigh Pitfold,
Shottermill, Haslemere.
Young, Prof. C, A. Princeton: College, N.J., U.S.
Zirkel, Ferdinand, Professor of Mineralogy.
Letpsic.
Oniversity of
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Date of Election,
1860, April 17.
1870, March 8,
1866, Jan. 23.
1861, April 2.
1849, April. 17.
1850, April 30.
1882, Nov. 14.
1862, Jan. ~ 7.
1859, Jan. 25.
1057, Jam 27.
1869, Feb. 5.
Ainsworth, Thomas. Cleator
Whitehaven.
Mills, near Egremont,
Cockle, The Hon. Sir James, M.A., V.R.S... HRSae
F.C.P.S. 12, St. Stephen’s Road, Bayswater, London.
De Caligny, Anatole, Marquis, Corresp. Mem. Acadd. Se.
Turin and Caen, Socc. Agr. Lyons. Sci. Cherbourg,
Liége, Wc.
Durand-Fardel, Max, M.D., Chev. of the Legion of
Honour, &c. 36, Aue de Lille, Paris.
Girardin, J., Off. Legion of Honour, Corr. Mem. Instit.
France, &c. Lz/le.
Harley, Rev. Robert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Square, Oxford.
Herford, Rev. Brooke.
17, Wellington
Arlington Street, Boston, U.S.
Lancia di Brolo, Frederico, Duc, Inspector of Studies, &c.
Palermo.
Le Jolis, Auguste-Francois, Ph.D. Archiviste perpétuel
and late president of the Soc. Nat. Sc. Cherbourg, &c.
Cherbourg.
Lowe, Edward Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Mem.
Brit. Met. Soc., &c. Shizvenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
Schonfield, Edward, Ph.D., Director of the Mannheim
Observatory.
Dat of Election.
ta73, fan... 7:
$e70; Dec. 13.
1861, Jan. 22.
1885, Nov. 17.
Eos7, Aug. 11.
1881, Nov. I.
1887, Nov. 16.
1865, Nov. 15.
1888, Nov. 13.
1305, Heb. 7.
1876, Nov. 28.
1889, Jan. 8.
1868, Dec. 15.
1861, Jan.
1889, Jan. 22.
1875, Nov. 16.
1889, Oct. 15.
1855, April 17.
1861, April 2.
1844, Jan. 22.
1889, April 16.
1860, Jan. 23.
1886, April 6.
1846, Jan. 27.
1889, Jan. 8.
1880 Oct. 15.
1872, Noy. 12.
1891. April 21.
1854, April 18.
1841, April 30.
Ordinary Members.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
Allmann, Julius. 70, Deansgate.
Aneel; ‘John, F.C.iS:,- Pe:
Road, Fallowfield. .
Anson, Ven. Archd. George Henry Greville, M.A., Birch
Rectory, Rusholme.
Armstrong, Thomas,
Deansgate.
Ashton, Thomas. 36, Charlotte Street,
Ashton Thomas Gair, M.A. 36, Charlotte Street.
Ashworth, J. Jackson. 39, Spr7zg Gardens, City.
6, Beacons-Field, Derby
F.R.M.S. Brookfield, Urmston ;
Bailey, Charles, F.LS.
Range, Manchester.
Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Zhe Owens College.
Bailey, Alderman W. H. Swmmerfield, Eccles New Road.
Barratt, Walter Edward. <Xersal, Higher Broughton.
Beard, J. R. Richmond Grove, Longsight.
Bickham, Spencer H. Oakwood, Alderley Edge.
Battomley,, James,.D.Se., ., B.A.,; E.C.Se | 220,
Broughton Road.
Bowman, George, M.D. Monzfieth, Stretford Road, Old
Trafford.
Boyd John. Sarton House, Didsbury Park, Didsbury.
Bradley, Nathaniel. 65, Mosley Street, Czty.
Brockbank, William, F.G.S., F.L.S. Chapel Walks.
Brogden, Henry, F.G.S. Hale Lodge, Altrincham.
Brooks, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart., M.A., M.P. Sanh,
92, King Street.
Brooks, Herbert S. Stade House, Levenshulme.
Brothers, Alfred F.R.A.S. 12, Swz2ton Avenue.
Brown, Alfred, M.A.,M.B. Claremont, Higher Broughton.
Browne, Henry, M.A. (Glas.), M.R.C.S. (Lond.), M.D.
(Lond.).. Heaton Mersey.
Brownell, T. W. School Board Offices, Deansgate.
Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc. 25, Demesne Road, Alexandra
Road.
Burghardt, Charles Anthony, Ph.D. 35, Fozntain Street.
Buxton, John H. Guardian Offce, 3, Cross Street.
Ashfield, College Road, Whalley
Lower
Christie, Richard Copley, M.A., Chancellor of the Diocese,
The Elms, Roehampton, S. W.
Clay, Charles, M.D., Extr. L.R.C.P. (Lond.), M.R.C.S.
(Edin.). Zower Lodge, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lanc.
502
Date of Election.
1886, Dec.
1884, Nov.
1853, Jan.
1859, Jan.
1861, Nov.
1849, Jan.
1871, Nov.
1853, April 19.
1878, Nov.
1869, Nov.
1861, Dec.
1879, Mar.
1878, Feb.
1886, Mar.
1883, Oct.
1886, Feb.
1881,
1875, Feb.
1889, Nov.
1889, Nov.
1890, Feb.
Jan.
1862, Nov.
1890,
1873, Dec.
1890, Mar.
1890, Nov.
1828, Oct.
1889, Jan.
Nov.
1874, Nov.
1888. Feb.
14.
4.
25.
an,
12.
25.
1876, April 18.
8.
26.
10.
18.
Se RS oa ae =)
Ordinary Members.
Cohen, J. B., Ph.D. Zhe Owens College.
Corbett, Joseph. 9, Albert Square.
Cottam, Samuel, F.R.A.S., F.R. Hist.-S., F.CoAy
Spring Gardens.
Coward, Edward.
49,
Fleaton Mersey, near Manchester.
Coward, Thomas. Azgher Downs, Altrincham.
Crowther, Joseph Stretch. LZudsleigh, Alderley Edge.
Cunliffe, Robert Ellis. Halton Bank, Pendleton.
Dale, Richard Samuel, B.A., 1,
Road.
Darbishire, Robert Dukinfield, B.A., F.S.A., F.G.S., 26,
George Street.
Davis, Joseph. zgzneer’s Offices, Lancashire and YVork-
shire Railway, Hunts Bank.
Dawkins, William Boyd, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.S.,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., Hon. Fellow yess Colles! Oxford ;
Professor of Goatees in Owens College. The Owens
College.
Deane, William King. Almondbury Place, Chester Road.
Dent, Hastings Charles, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 20, Zharloe
Square, London, S.W.
Dixon, Harold B., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
The Owens College.
Dodgshon, John. Moorside, Davenport, Stockport.
Chester Terrace, Chester
Faraday, Frederick James, F.L.S., F.S.S. Ramsay Lodge,
Slade Lane, Levenshulme.
Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. Zhe Owens College.
Greg, Arthur. Zagley, near Bolton.
Grimshaw, Harry, F.C.S. Zhornton View, Clayton.
Grimshaw, William. Stoneleigh, Sale.
Gwyther, R. F., M.A., Fielden Lecturer in Mati
Owens Walieze, Ti he Owens College.
Hadley, H. E. Zhe Owens College.
Hall, Charles John, Mus. Doc. AHawkesmoor, Southport.
Harker, Thomas. Svook House, Fallowfield.
Harrison, Fred., B.A. Zhe Grammar School.
Hart, Peter dZessr. Peoenanis. @ iCa:,
Clayton N., Manchester.
Heelis, James. 71, Princess Street.
Henderson, H. A. 60, Upper Jackson Street, Hulme.
Heenan, R. H., Engineer, Chapel Walks.
Henry, William Charles, M.D., F.R.S.
Ledbury, Herefordshire.
Heywood, Charles J. Chaseley,, Pendleton,
Mill Street,
Haffield, near
Date of Election.
1833, April 26.
1864, Mar. 22.
1884, Jan. 8.
Eao2, Oct, 17.
fogs, Dec. 2.
1889, Oct. 15.
1884, Jan. 8.
1888, April 17.
1870, Nov. I.
1878, Nov. 26.
1890, Jan. 7.
1886, Jan. 12.
$552, Jan. 27.
1890, Nov. 4.
1863, Dec. 15.
1884, April 15.
1850, April 3o.
1857, Jan. 27.
1870, April 19.
1866, Nov. 13.
1859, Jan. 25.
| 1875, Jan.
1879, Dec. 2.
1864, Nov. 1.
1873, Mar. 18.
1879, Dec.
1881, Oct. 18.
29.
1861, Oct.
Ordinary Members. 503
Heywood, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.
Palace Gardens, London, W.
Heywood, Oliver. Bank, St. Ann’s Street.
Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc. 18, St. John Strect.
Holt, Henry. Zhe Cedars, Didsbury.
Howorth,, Henry H., F.S.A., MP:
Eccles.
Hoyle, W. E., M.A., Keeper of the Manchester Museum.
25, Brunswick Road, Withington.
Hurst, Charles Herbert.
Hutton, James Arthur.
26, Kensington
Benicliffe House,
Rosney, Brighton Grove, Rusholme.
29, Church Street, City.
Johnson, William H., B.Sc. 26, Lever Street.
Jones, Francis, F. R,5.E., F.C.S. Grammar School.
Joseland, H. L., B.A. Zhe Grammar School.
Kay, Thomas, J.P. Jloorfield, Stockport.
Kennedy, John Lawson. 47, Mosley Street.
Langdon, Maurice Julius, Ph.D., Chemist.
Victoria Park.
Leake, Robert, M.P. Zhe Dales, Whitefield.
Leech, Daniel John, Professor, M.D. Zhe Owens College.
Leese, Joseph. Messrs. S. & £. Leese, Fylde Road Mill,
Sunbury,
Preston.
Longridge, Robert Bewick. Yew Tyree House, Tadley,
Knutsford.
Lowe, Charles, F.C.S. Stmmerfield House, Reddish,
Stockport.
McDougall, Arthur, B.Sc.
Greenheys.
Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S. Whalley Range.
Mann, John Dixon, M.D., M.R.C.P., Lond. 16, St. Johuz
Street.
Marshall, Arthur Milnes, M.A., M.D.,.D.Se, F-R.S:,
Professor of Zoology, Owens College. Zhe Owens
College.
Mather, William, M.P. ron Works, Salford.
Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., F.L.S. <Kersal Cottage,
Prestwich.
Millar, John Bell, M.E., Assistant Lecturer in Engineering,
Owens College. Zhe Owens College.
Mond, Ludwig, F.C.S. Winnington Hall, Northwich.
Morgan, John Edward, M.D., M.A., F.R.C.P., Lond.,
F.R. Med. and Chir. S., Professor of Medicine in the
Victoria University. 1, St. Peter's Sguare.
Clifton Lodge, Gore Street,
504
Date of Election.
1889, April 16.
1673, (Mar. (4,
1889, April 16.
1862, Dec. 30.
1884, April 15.
L601, Jan, 22.
1844, April 30.
1861, April 30.
1876, Nov. 28.
1885, Nov. 17.
1854, Jan. 24.
1854, Feb. 7.
1859, April 19.
1888, Feb. 21.
1869, Nov. 16.
1884, April 3.
1880, Mar. 23.
1889, April 6.
1864, Dec. 27.
1858, Jan. 26.
1890, Jan. 21.
1851, April 29.
1670, Dec. 13.
1642, jan. - 25.
1873, Nov. 18.
1881, Nov. 20.
1890, Jan. 21.
1890, Nov. 4.
1886, April 6.
1889, Oct. 15.
Ordinary Members.
Moultrie, George W. Bank of England, King Street.
Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. 62, Fountain Street.
Norbury, George. Azllside, Prestwich Park, Prestwich.
Ogden, Samuel. 10, Mosley Street, West.’
Okell, Samuel, F.R.A.S. Overley, Langham Road, Bowdon.
O’Neill, Charles, F.C.S., Corr., Mem. Ind. Soc. Mulhouse.
Glen Allan, Manley Road, Whalley Range.
Ormerod, Henry Mere, F.G.S. 5, Clarence Street.
Parlane, James. Azusholie.
Parry, Thomas, F.S.S. Grafton House, Ashton-under-Lyne.
Phillips, Henry Harcourt, F.C.S. 183, Moss Lane East,
Manchester.
Pochin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, Conway.
Ramsbottom, John, M. Inst. C.E. Fernhill, Alderley Edge.
Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Cantab., F.R.S., M.R.C.S.
1, S¢. Peter's Square.
Rée, Alfred, Ph.D.,
Middleton.
Reynolds, Osborne, LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., M. Inst: Cie
Professor of Engineering, the Owens College. Lady-
barn Road, Fallowfield.
Rhodes, James, M.R.C.S. Glossop.
Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.Ed., F.R.C.P. (London);
Ravenswood, Broughton Park.
Robertson, W. J., Marley Lodge, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
Robinson, John, M. Inst. C.E. Westwood Hall, Leck.
Roscoe, Sir Henry Enfield, B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.RiS:,
F.C.S., M.P. 10, Bramham Gardens, Wetherby Road,
London, S. W,
F.C.S. 121, Manchester Road,
Sacré, Howard C., Breeze House, Higher Broughton.
Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, near Perth.
Schorlemmer, Carl, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Zhe Owes
College.
Schunck, Edward, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Kersadl.
Schuster, Arthur, Ph.D., F.R.S:, F.R.A:S. 7%eOaees
College.
Schwabe, Edmund Salis, B.A. 41, George Street.
Sidebotham, James. Nasmyth. farkfield, Groby Place,
Altrincham.
Sidebotham, Edward, Zarlsdene, Bowdon.
Simon, Henry, C. E. Darwin House, Didsbury.
Tatham, John F. W., M.A., M.D., Medical Officer of
Health. Zown Hall, Manchester.
Date of Election.
1890, Nov. 4.
1884, Mar. 18.
1873, April 15.
1889, April 30.
1860, April 17.
1879, Dec. 30.
1873, Nov. 18.
1859, Jan. 25.
1859, April 19.
1889, Nov. 12.
1888, April 17.
1851, April 29.
1889, April 16.
1860, April 17.
1863. Nov. 17.
1865, Feb. 21.
Ordinary Members. 505
Taylor, Walter, A.M.I.C.E. Zhe Hollies, Flixton.
Thompson, Alderman Joseph. <zversdale, Wilmslow.
Thomson, William, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.LC. Royal
Institution.
Thornber, Harry. ookfield Avenue, Sale.
Trapp, Samuel Clement. 88, A/osley Street.
Ward, Thomas. Srookfield House, Northwich.
Waters, Arthur William, F.G.S. Villa Vecchia, Davos
Dorflt, Switzerland,
Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. Zhe Hurst, Alderley Edge.
Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Manchester and Salford Bank,
Mosley Street.
Willans, J. W. Woodlands Park, Altrincham.
Williams, E. Leader, M. Inst. C.E. Bowdon, Cheshire.
Williamson, William Crawford, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor
of Botany, the Owens College, M.R.C.S. Engl., L.S.A.,
For. Mem. Swed. Acad., and Royal Society, Gott ngen.
Egerton Road, Fallowfield.
Wilson, Thomas B. 37, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary’s Gate.
Woolley, George Stephen. 69, Market Street.
Worthington, Samuel Barton, M. Inst. C.E. Mzl/ Bank,
Bowdon.
Worthington, Thomas, F.R.I.B.A. 40, Brown Street.
——
N.B.—Of the above list the following have compounded for their sub-
scriptions, and are therefore Life Members :
Brogden, Henry.
Johnson, William FH... B.Sc:
Sandeman, Archibald, M.A.
Lowe, Charles, F.C.S.
Bradley, N.
Noise
:
t
6
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T. SOWLERK AND CO.,
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FouRTH SERIES. VOL. * 4" sNiounin
MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
1890-91.
CONTENTS.
Proceedings - - - - - - - = << pp: 4,510; 72
Microscopical and Natural History Section - = ee peg
Memoir :—
The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Chlorine in the
dry and in the moist states. By Harold B. Dixon,
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry; and Mr.
J. A. Harker, Dalton Chemical Scholar in the Owens
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a at OF
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
& 1890-91.
CONTENTS.
Proceedings - - - - - - = = pp. 31, 33, 36
i Microscopical and Natural History Section © - = pp. 28, 35
a Physical and Mathematical Section - - - - ~- p. 30
4 Memoirs :—
. On the determination of the Thermal Conductivities of
bad conductors. By Charles H. Lees, M.Sc., Bishop
Berkeley Fellow of Owens College. Communicated
by R. F. Gwyther, M.A. - - - - - - p. 17
On the Specific Heat of Non-conductors. Part 1: )
i -Caoutchouc. By W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc.,
* F.C.S., and Hubert L. Terry, F.I.C. - - = p. 38
Be On the Entomostraca and Annelida in the Levenshulme
mes tf Mottled Limestones. By Wm. Brockbank, F.L.S., |
ae F.G.S. Sey hap tlie 1 pete fal mw 20 me el ee oat
ae General, Morphological, and Histological Index to the
4 Author’s Collective Memoirs on the Fossil Plants of
q the Coal Measures. Part1. By William Crawford
y _ Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., Foreign Member
of the. Royal Swedish Acad. Sc., and of the Royal
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Presented.
The Mexican Government. Informes y Documentos relativos 4 Comercio Interior
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The Clerk Maxwell Memorial Committee. The Scientific Papers of James
Clerk Maxwell. Vols. I1., IJ. Cambridge. 1890.
Professor W. G. Farlow. A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of the United ch
States. By W. G. Farlow and A. B. Seymour. Part 2. Cambridge,
U.S.A. 1890.
Professor Arthur Cayley, F.R.S., &c. Collected Mathematical pase Vol.
III. Cambridge. 1890. .
Prof. M. Foster, F.R.S., &c. Text-book of Physiology. London. Part 3. 1890.
The Canadian Government. Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians.
By the Rev. Silas T. Rand, D.D., LL.D. 1888. Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Arthur Sloman, M.A. Some Thoughts on Education. 1890.
Mark Stirrup, F.G:S. On the Red and Variegated Marls of the Upper Dyas, ey f
Manchester. By Dr. H. B. Geinitz, of Dresden. 1889. Part 3.
H. Stopes. Indications of Retrogression in Pre-historic Civilization in the Thames
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The Bombay Government. Brief Sketch of the Meteorology of the Bombay
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The Indian Government. Records of the Geological Survey of iti Voliirg
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The Victorian Government. . Statistical Register of the Colony of Victoria. 1888.
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The United States Government. Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey.
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The United States Government. Monographs of the U.S. Geological Survey.
Vols. XV., XVI. Washington. 1889.
The United States Government. 8th Annual Report U.S. Geological Survey. |
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Adelaide. - - - - - Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia.
Vol. XIII. Part 1. 1890. ,
Agen - - - - - - Recueil des Travaux de la Société d’Agriculture, &c.
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OF
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SOCIETY.
1890-91. ©
CONTENTS.
Proceedings RR ely) arc (a dal J vim (yh
| Microscopical and Natural History Section - =
Physical and Mathematical Section -
_ Memoirs :—
“i ae 2a History and present position of the Theory of mais
. motion. By H. H. Howorth, M.P., F.S.A. -
On the Intensity of Transmitted Light whenjthe co-
efficient of transmission of the medium is a function ite
of time. By James Bottomley, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. Peers: !
Hymenopterological Notices. With Plate. By P. Cameron +p. 182° ar
Description of Drosera intermedia (Hayne), forma subcau-
lescens, with remarks on the Geographical distribu- oR
tion of the family. By James Cosmo Melvill, M. = ps,
F.L.S. a a team ef ane pe Sa ee
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London. 1890. :
H.H. Hayter. Victorian Year Book. Melbourne. 1889—90. Vol. I.
Wm. Sharp. Experiments with Drugs as a Question of Science. 1890. London.
Amsterdam - - - - Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute. An attempt to
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Baltimore - - - - - Johns Hopkins University Circulars. Vol. X. Part 85.
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Basle - - - - - - Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft. Vol.
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Birmingham - --- - Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
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Boston - - - - - - Proceedings of the Society of Natural History. Vol.
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Calcutta - - - - - Records of the Geological Survey of India. Vol, XXIII.
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Cambridge, U.S.A. - Annual Report. Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Harvard College. 1889—90.
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es Ks - Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at
Harvard College. Vol. XX. Part 4—7. 1890.
Christiania - - - - Norwegian North-Atlantic Expedition. Zoology. Vol.
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(Continued on 3rd page of cover.) i
OF
THE MANCHESTER
SOCIETY.
Memoirs :—
A new Symbolic Treatment of the Old Logic. By Joseph
John Murphy. Communicated by the Rev. Robert
On the Source of some remarkable Boulders in the Isle
of Man. By Percy F. Kendall, F.G.S. Communi-
On the action of different Metals, Metallic Salts, Acids,
and Oxidising Agents on India-rubber. By William
Notes on the Geological section exposed in the Railway
Cutting from Levenshulme to Fallowfield. By Wm.
Brockbank, F.G.S., F.L.S., and C. E. de Rance,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., of
On New Forms of Stereometers. By W. W. Haldane
Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S., and Arthur Harden, M.Sc.,
MANCHESTER: Fan;
36, GEORGE STREET. — ||
~ afi
Price Seven Shillings. “sS
pGmking 280) | i WoL 4:
Harley, M.A., F.R.S., Corresponding Member _ - p.
cated by Thomas Kay : - 2 ; : - p-
On Two Harmonic Analyzers. By Osborne Reynolds,
LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst. C.E., Professor of En-
gineering, the Owens College - - : - - p.
Thoughts on Credit Money, and on the Function of
the Precious Metals as Distributors of Wealth. By
F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.S.S. - : - - p.
Thomson, F.R.S. Ed., etc., and Frederick Lewis - p.
aay H.M. Geological Survey. With Plate in three sections - p.
Tt ins mi! hoo Si musts ee a ed
No. 4
_ MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL
1890-91.
CONTENTS.
Proceedings gee sO th rhe Ne pees
Microscopical and Natural History Section - = pp. 221, 314
Physical and Mathematical Section Sf Var a) te ee Se ae
223
232
266
Presented.
The Mexican Government. Informes y Documentos relativos 4 Comercio Interior
y Exterior. Mexico. Vol. 1891. Parts 67—68. ees Nees
Sir H. E. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer. A Treatise on Chemistry. ‘Vol. IL i.
Part 3. London. 1891. Pi
: Edgar Hewitt. Cephren. King of Egypt. 2 Copies. London. ar
H. Resal. Exposition de la Théorie des Surfaces. 1891.
W. T. Rothwell. Bimetallism. Manchester. 1890.
Robert Barclay. The Silver Question and the Gold Question.
1891.
Sir William Dawson. On Fossil Plants from the Similkameen Valley. Montre
1890.
Adelaide - - - - - Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia’
Volk XT: > Bartr2.;" 18903 ae is a
Amiens- - - - - - Julletin de la Société Linnéenne du Nord de la Frane
tes Vol. X. Nos. 211—222. 1890. 4
Amsterdam - - - - Niew Archief voor Wiskunde. Vol. XVII Part 1 :
1891. ey
Baltimore - - - - - Johns Hopkins University Circulars. Vol. X. Part 8
1891.
Batavia- - - -- - Nederlandsch-Indisch Plakaatboek. - Bataviaasch Geno
schap. Vols. VI.—VII. 1889-90, | Deh
» te oe) Notulen.. Vol. XXVITI. Parts 1—4. 1890; > nS
tier tee Noch oe Raa o Vol. XXVIIL. | Parts 1—2!) (sgor-s eae
Dover eta ime te oa aschrit. «Vol OCx XIE aa Sea: pie.
pc Mega ace Eye ., Vol. XXXIV. Parts 1—2. 1890,
is - - - - - - Register op de Notulen der Vergaderingen. Bataviaasch
. Genootschap. 1879 —88. ge ae
De Derde Javaansche Successie-Oorlog. 1889. al
Sie tein Sp) Vie aph-IRepister, » TOOK AN
N Shea G= - - Rejenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch: Indié. Vol.
1890.
4 - - - = - - Qbservations made at the Mueneticas and Meteorologies |
Observatory. Vol. XII. 1890. . a
Berlin - - - - - - Atlas deutscher Meeresalgen. Kommission zur Wi:
schaftlichen Untersuchung. Vol I. Vol, IL. Part
I—2. 7S Arre
“A - - - - - += Ergebnisse. 1873—89. ot
2 - - - - + + Zur Physik des Meeres. 1874.
ie - - + - - + Jahresbericht der Kommission, &c.
ea - - + - - - Die Expedition zur Physikalisch-Chemischen Gnd
gischen der Ostsee. 1873.
As - - = - - - Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen Ak
| der Wissenschaften. Nos. 41—53. 1890. —
me - - - + + = Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesell
XXIV, Parts 1—6. 1891
a - - - - - - Verhandlungen Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
Parts I—3. 1891.
0 - - - - .,.. Polytechnisches Centralblatt. Vol. III.
Besancon - -.- - - Memoires de la Société D’Emulation du D
IV. 1890.
Bombay - - - - - Magnetical and Meteorological Otiserratins
Bonn - - - - - - Verhandlungen des Naturhistorischen Ve.
VII. Part 2. 1890. }
Brussels - - - - - Bulletin de Académie Royale de Medics e. \
PartsI—3. 1891.
Buckhurst Hill - - - The Essex Naturalist. Vol. IV. Nos. 10— me
(Continued on 3rd page of cover.)
~
"MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS. ee
| THE MANCHESTER - _ :
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL |
SOCIETY.
1890-91. Ag
CONTENTS.
ay Proceedings - - - - ~ - Pp. 353, 412, 424, 415 7
Microscopical and Natural ‘History Section - - -. - - p. 430 ae:
Physical and Mathematical Section -_ - ae PI ee, tO ae ae P. 338 es
Memoirs :— Bg
On the number and formation of many-valued Functions of ie
*,X_X; — — Xn, which of any degree can be constructed upon
any Group of those elements, with exhibitions of all the
tk values of the loge ea one By rhein Ss haan. M.A.,
F.R.S. - - - - - p. 315
Notes on the Geological section sve: in the Seliteray Cutting | |
from Levenshulme to Fallowfield. By Wm. Brockbank, ; ee
F.G.S., F.L.S., and C. E. de Rance, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Reh ag
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., of H.M. Geological Survey Pp. 339 .
Bo On the Comparison of Pherhen meee: By Thos. teahai o D.,
ae B.Sc., and W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., F.C.S. - p. 357
com An Historical Account of the genus Winns (Montfort) aay its
be dependencies, with descriptions of Eleven new species, and
a Catalogue of Latirus and Peristernia. sy, = Cosmo ;
Melvill, M.A., F.L.S. With Plate - 2 - p. 365
- On the occurrence of the Permians, Spirorbis Litelbunes and
ve Upper Coal Measures at Frizington Hall in the Whitehaven
‘gee District. By William Brockbank, F.L.S.,F.G.S. - - p. 418
On the discovery of a new species of pose Fish (Strepsodus
Brockbanki) in the Upper Coal Measures Limestone of
a Levenshulme, No. 6 Group, from the Railway Cutting at es
Be Levenshulme, near Manchester. By James W. Davis,F.G.S., Ses
ae &c. Communicated by William Brockbank, F.L.S., F.G. Ss. P. A275 Tee
Hymenoptera Orientalis ; or Contributions to a teastvitdete of 4734
the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological Region. eit
P. Cameron. Communicated by John Boyd. With Plate - p. 431
_ Annual Report of the Council - - - = - - - - =p. 482
ie: _ Treasurer’s Accounts - - : - z r - Pp. 490 |
_ Annual Report of the Council “e es Microscopical and ae
_. History Section -— - - P- 493
List of the Council and Members SAS Sok at Re ere an
| Title Page and Contents for the Volume. ae
. : Pgs \ athe head fa ph.
{fo IES CG Aas
aa Ree MANCHESTER: — way AS i otek
Baye: : 36, GEORGE STREET. \ UROL a 1509 7 ;
. hs Sf . 7 4 »
ir ee eSlign a) om cee VF
: Price Five Shillings. Saalegal aust Ke
a ee er
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY DURING | Bet
MAY, JUNE, AND JULY,1891.
Presented. ae ag
Alderman W. H. Bailey. Outside the Class-room. Manchester. 1891. as
Russo-Jewish Committee. The Persecution of the Jews in Russia. London.
1890. .
S. C.dr Michele Rajna. Lul Metodo Grafico Nel Calcolo Delle Eclissi Solari. ~
1891. ‘Set
‘William Sharp. The Repetition of the Same Dose. London. 1891. pe
Sanford Fleming. Time Reckoning for the zoth Century. Washington. 1889. 3
a
a
Joseph Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. On the Age, Formation, and Drift —
Stages of the Darent Valley. London. 1891. a
H. H. Hayter. Victorian Year Book. Melbourne. 1889—g90. Vol. II.
Frank Vincent. Around and About South America. New York. 1890.
: Norsk, Lapp, and Finn. aA ay
In and Out of Central America. Pe, Bi
Through and Through the Tropics. Me 1875.
by)
Amsterdam - - - - Wiskundige Opgaven. Leden van het Wiskundig. -
Genootschap. Vol. V. Part 1. 1891.
| - - = - - = Jaarboek van de Koninklijke Akademie van Weten- 3
pe schappen. 1890. .
3 - - - - - - Vertlagen en Mededeelingen der Akademie van Weten-—
schappen Letterkunde. Vol. VII. Part 3. 1891.
- - > - - - Verhandelingen der Akademie van Wetenseae a '
Letterkunde. Vol. XIX. 1890.
- - - - - + WVerhandelingen der Akademie van Wetenschappen ~
Natuurkunde. Vol. XXVIII. 1809c.
‘r - > + + + = Prijsvers. Maria Virgo in Monte Calvariae. 1891. —
Baltimore - - - - - Johns Hopkins DE Studies. 8th Series. Parts —
5—12. 1890. ri
Berlin - - - - - - Berichte der Deutschen Giemisehen Gesellschaft. Vol.
XXIV. Parts 7—11. 1891. Be
- - - + + Verhandlungen Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Vol. XVIII. “i
Parts 4—5. 1801. G
- - = - ~ + Polytechnisches Centralblatt. Vol. III. 14—18. 1891.
: - - - - - - Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Vol. XXVI.
% Part 2. 1891. wo
| - - - - - - Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde. Vol. XXV.
Part 6. 1890.
Birkenhead - - - - Report of the Literary and Philosophical Society. Vol.
XXXIV. 1801.
Bologna- - - - - - Memorie della R. Accademia Delle Scienze. Vol. at |
Parts i—4. 1890. And Index, 1880—8g. tas
9» = + + = + + Del Meridiano Iniziale E. Dell’ora Universalle. 1890.
Bombay - - - - - Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Vol. V.
; Part 4. 1891. :
Boston - - - - - - Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts a Xs:
Sciences. Vol. XVII. 1890.
Bremen - - - - - Abhandlungen vom Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins. Vol. <
XII. Parti. 1891.
Brisbane - - - - - Proceedings and Transactions of the OQuecnemen panels ‘
of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia.
Vol. VEE Patt ts. 1891.
Brussels - - - - - Bulletin de l’Académie Royal de Médicine. Vel. v8
Parts 4—5. 1891. .
(Continued on 3rd page of cover.) ae
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