Memoirs and proceedings of the Manchester Literary & Philosophical Society

FORTHE PEOPLE

FOK EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

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MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

MANCHESTER

LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY

(MANCHESTER MEMOIRS.)

Volume LXI. (1916-17.)

MANCHESTER :

36, GEORGE STREET.

1918.

k"fe -'^■A3\'^- ^Uoc^.C

NOTE.

The authors of the several papers contained in this volume
are themselves accountable for all the statements and reasonings
which they have offered. In these particulars the Society must
not be considered as in any way responsible.

CONTENTS.

MEMOIRS.

I. South African Gorgonaceu. By J. STUART THOM-
SON, M-iSc, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. With 5 Plates and
5 Text-figs pp. 1—56

(Issued separately, May 2oth, igiy.)

II. The "Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects
from the Coal Measures of Commentry (AUier),
Central France. By HERBERT BOLTON, M.Sc,

F.R.S.E., F.G.S. With 5 Plates pp. 1—32

(Issued separately, May nth, IQI7-)

III. Note on the Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid.

By Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

With I Text-fig pp. 1—3

(Issued separately, February 2Tth, JQIJ-)

IV. An Egyptian Meteorite. By HENRY WiLDE, D.Sc,

D.C.L., F.R.S pp. 1—2

(Issued separately. March 23rd, igi7.)

V. On the Contents of a Herbarium of British and
Foreign Plants for; Presentation lo the N'ictoria,
University of Manchester. By CHARLES BAILEY,
M.Sc, F.L.S pp. 1—18

(Issued separately, July 12th, iQiy.)

VI. An Ethnological Study of Warfare. By W. J.

PERRY, B.A pp. 1—16

(Issued separately, June 6th, IQ17.)

VII. Observations on the Nesting tiabits of the Palm
Swift made by Mr. Arthur Loveridge in German
East Africa. By T. A. COWARD, F.Z.S., F.E.S. pp. 1—3

(Issued separately, May 17th, tgry.)

VIII. On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium in Relation to
the Multiple Proportions of the Atomic Weights
of other Simple Bodies. By HENRY WiLDE,
D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp. 1—3

(Issued separately, June iSth, 1917.J

VI.

Contents.

IX. Recent Work on Overvoltage. By EDGAR NEW-
BERY, D.Sc ... pp.

(Issued separately Dec. i^th, 1917.)

1—20

PROCEEDINGS i.— xxiv.

Annual Report of the Council, 1917, with obituary notices of
Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D.,

F. R.S., and Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For. Mem. R.S. xxv.-xxx.

Treasurer's Accounts ... . . .. ... ... ... xxxi.-xxxiii.

List of the Council and Members of the Society ... ... xxxiv.-xliv.

List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal ... ... ... xliv.

List of the Wilde Lectures ... ... ... ... ... xlv.

List of the Special Lectures ... ... ... ... xlv.

List of the Presidents of the Society xlvi.

INDEX.

M. = Memoirb. P. = Proceedings.

Accessions to Library. P. i., ix.,, xiv., xxiii.

Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. By F. Jones. M;; 3. P. xiv.

Angell, John, Reference to the Death of. P. ii.

Annual General Meeting. P. xxiii.

Annual Report. P. xxiii., xxv*.

Arsenic in Baking Powder. By 'FI.! Ei. Bradley. P. ix.

in Food. By F. E. Briadley. P. vii.

Atomic Weight of Tellurium. By II. Wilde. M. 8.

Auditors. P. xviii.

Awards of the Dalton Medal. P. xliv.

Bailey, C. Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. M. 5. P. xxi.
Bananas, Amounts of Sugar and Starcilii in. By J. Barnes. P. vii.
Barclay, A. E. Gift af Microscope. P. xix.
Barnes, C. L. Galvanit. P-. Xjvii^

J. Amounts of Sugar ajid Stardh in Bananas. P. vii.

Behaviour of a Blackbird, Note on. By W., H. Todd. P. x.
Bolton, II. Mark Stirrup Collection of Fossil Insects. M., 2. P'. x.
Bomb, Exhibition of a German. P. vi.

Boskop Skull, Endocranial Cast of. By G. Ellioit Smith. P. xv.
Bradley, F. E. Arsenic in 'Baking Powder. P. ix.

Arsenic in Food. P. vii. ^^

British Association, Discussion at the Ntrwcastle Meeting of. P. ii.
British and Foreign Plants, Flerbarium of. By C. Bailey. M. 3.
P. xxi.

Castration -parasitaire in Insects. By A. D. Imms. P. xix.
Copisarow, M. Trinitrotoluene. P. vi.
Council, Election of. P. xxiii.

List of Members. P. xxxiv.

Coward, T. A. Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. M. 7. P. xxiv.
— — < Undescribed Habit of the Field Vole. P. xiv.
Cramp, W. Breaking of Glass Tubes. P. vii.

Dalton, John, Gift of Microscope whicJi belonged to. P. xix.

Medal; Awards of. P. xliv.

Dawkins, W. Boyd. P. xvii.

viii Index.

Egyptian Meteorite. By H. ,Wilde. |M,. 4. P. xix.
Election of Officers. P. xxiii.

Ordinary Members. P. iv., viii., xxi.

Elliot Smith, G. See Smith, G. Elliot.

Eoantliropus Dawspni. By G. Elliot S(miih. P. xix.

Endocranial Cast of 'the Boskbp S,kull. By G. Elliot Smitli. P. xv.

Ethnological Survey of Warfare. By W. J. Perry. M^, 6. P. xxiv.

Field Vole, I'ndescribed Habit of. B[v T. A. Coward. P. xiv.
Fishenden, R. B. Illustration Processes used in Scientific Publica-
tions. P. xxi.
Foraminifera. By S. J. Hickson. P. xvii. ^

Fossil Human Skulls. By G. Elliot Smith. P. v.

Insects, Mark Stirrup Collection of. By H. Bolton. M. 2., P. x.

Galvanit. By C. L. Barnes. I^. xvii.
Glass Tubes, Breaking of. By W. Cramp. P. vii.
Gorgonacca, South African. By J. S. Thomson. M. 1. P. vii.
Gwyther, R. F. Specification of Stress. Part v. P. xxiv.

Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants. By C. Bailey. M. 5. P. xxi.
Hickling, G. See British Association. P. ii., iii.

Skull of a Permian Shark. P. xvi.

Sun-Spots. P. xvii.

Hickson, S. J. Polytrema and allied foraminifera. P xvii

Honorary Members, List oif. P. xlii.

Hydrogen, Action of, on Sulphuric Acid. By F. Jones. M'. 3. P. xiv.

Illustration Processes used in Scientific Publications. By R. B. Fisih-

enden. P. xxi.
Imms, A. D. Remarks on " Castration-parasitaire " in Insects. P. xix.
Insects, Mark Stirrup Collection of. Byi H. Bolton. Mj. 2. P. x.

Jackson, J. W. Exhibition of Faceted Pebbles. P. ix.

Jones, F. Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. M. 3. P. xiv.

Lamb, H. Deflection of the VerticaJ by Tidal Loading of the Earth's

Surface. P. xui.
Lang, W. H. Mode of Preservation and Structure of Rhynia Gwynne-

Vaughani. P. iv.
Library Accessions. P. i., ix., xiv., xxiii.
Loveridge, A. Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. M. 7. P. xxiv.

Index. ix.

Makower, W. The Photographic Action of a -Rays. P. xvii.

Manchester Museum. See Museum.

Manure, Manufacture of, from Peat. By F. E. Weiss. P. vii.

Mark Stirrup Collection of Fossil Injects. By H. Bolton. Mi. 2. P. x.

Meteor in Northern 9ky. By E. L. Rhead. P. v.

Meteorite, A'n Egyptian. By H. Wilde. M. 4. P. xix.

Metschnikofi, E., Obituary Notice of. P. xxix.

Reference to Death of. P. ii.

Microscope of John Dal ton, Gift of. P. xix.

Museum, Place of the (Manchester — in a general scheme of Education.
By W. Boyd Dawkins. P. xvii.

Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift. See Coward, T. A., and Love-
ridge, A.
Newbery, E. Recent Work on Overvoltage. M. 9. P. xxiv.
Newcastle Meeting of the British Association. P. ii.
Noton, J. Gift of Microscope. P. xix.

Officers, Election of. P. xxiii.

Ordinary Members, Election of. P. iv., viii., xxi.

List of. P. XXXV.

Overvoltage, Recent Work on. By E. Newbery. M'. 9. P. xxiv.

Palm Swift, Nesting Habits of. See Coward, T. A., and Loveridge, A.
Peat, Exhibitions of Specimens Illustrating the Resiults of Pressure on.
By J. Barnes. P. vii.

' 1 Manufacture of Manure from. By F. E. Weiss. P. vii.

Pebbles, Exhibition of Faceted. By J. W. Jackson. P. ix.

Pemberton, W. Specific Gravity Balance. P. xi.

Permian Shark, Skull of. By G. Hickling. Pxvi.

Perry, W. J. An Ethnological Study df Warfare. M;. 6. P. xxiv.

Photographic Action of a Rays. By W. Makower. P. xvii.

Polytrema. See Foraminifera. By S. J. Hickson. P. xvii.

Presidents of the Society, I^ist of. P. xlvi.

Ramsay, Sir William, Obituary Notice of. P. xxvii.

Reference to Death of. P. li.

Rays, Photographic Action of n. By W. Makower. P. xvii.
Recent Work on Overvoltage. By E-. Newbery. M. 9. P. xxiv.
Rhead, E. L. Meteor in Northern Sky. P. v.
Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani. By W. fL Lang. P. iv.
Rutherford, Sir E. See British Association. P. ii., iii.

X. Index.

Skull of a Permiaai Shark. By G. HLckling. P. xvi.

Smith, G. Elliot. Endocranial Cast of the B'oskop Skull. P. xv.

Eoantliropus Dawsoni. P. xix.

Recently Discovered Fossil Human Skulls. P. v.

South African Gorgonacea. By J. S. Tliomson. iM, 1. P. vii.

Special Lectures. P. xlv.

Specification of Stress. Part v. By R. F. Gwyther. P. xxiv. ,

Specific Gravity B'alance. By W. G. Pemberton. P. xi.

Square Roots, Method of Extracting. By C. E. Stromeyer. P. iv.

Starch and Sugar, Amounts of, in Bananas. By J. "Barnes. P. vii.

Stress, Specification of. See Gwyther, R. F.

Stromeyer, C. E. Method of Extracting Square Roots. P. iv. .

Sugar and Starch, Amounts of, in Bananas. By J. Barnes. P. vii.

Sulphuric Acid, Action of Hydrogien on,., By F. Jones. M,. 3. P: xiv.

Sun-Spots. See Hickling, G. P. xvii.

Tellurium, Atomic Weig'ht of. By H. Wilde. M. 8.

Termites. See '' Castration-parasitaire."

Thomson, J. S. South African Gorgonacea. M. 1. P. vii.

W. See British Association. P. ii., iii.

Exhibition of Parts of a German Bomb. P. vi.

Todd, W. H. Behaviour of a Blackbird. P. x.
Treasurer's Accounts. P. xxxi.

Trinitrotoluene. By M. Copisarow. P. vi.

Undescribed Habit of Field Vole. By T. A. Coward. P. xiv.

Warfare, An Ethnological Survey of. By W.: J. Perry. M. 6. P. xxiv.
Weiss, F. E. See Bailey, C. P. xxi.

Siee British Association. P. ii.

Manufacture of Manure from Peat. P. vii.

Wilde, H. Atomic Weig'ht of Tellurium. M. 8.

Egyptian Meteorite. M. 4. P. xix.

Lectures. P. xlv.

Mancliestcr Meuioiis, Voi Ixi. (191 61, No. 1.

I. South African Gorgonacea.

By J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc, Ph.D , F.R.S.E,

[Lecturer and Soiiur Demonstrator in Zoology, in. the Victoria
University of Ma>ichcster).

(Read N ovcinbcr i-/.t/i, KjiO. Received for publication^ Ueceniber

iSthj IQ16.)

This paper concludes my report on the South African
Gorgonacea, collected by the Government of the Cape of Good
Hope, during the years i8g8 to 1907.

In 1900 and 1904, Hickson published two pai>ers on the
Alcyonaria of the Cape of Good Hope, m which he recorded
the following Gorgonacese : — Family Briareidae, Sub-family
Spongioderminfe — Spongioclerma verruca sum, Mobius. Family
Melitodidae — Melilodes clichotoma, Pallas; Wrightella coccinea,
Gray. Family Dasygorgiidas — Trichogorgia fiexilis, Hickson.
Family Isidie — Ceratoisisis rauiosa, Hickson. Family Muriceidas
— Villogorgia viaiiritiensis, Ridley; Acanthogorgia raniosa^
V'errill. Family Plexaurida? — Eiinicella -papulosa, Esper;
Euplexaiira capensis, ? Verrill. Family Malacogorgiidae, Hick-
son; Malacogorgia cafcnsis, Hickson. Family Gorgoniida? —
Gorgonia flannnea, Ellis and Solander; G. capensis, Hickson;
G. albicans, KoHiker; Eiigorgia gilchristi, Hickson; Gorgonia
sp. (?), Gorgonia ? crista, Mobius. Family Gorgonellidae —
Gorgonella stricta, Lamarck; J/incella elongata, Pallas; ]un-
cella spiralis, Hickson.

In 191 1 I described in a paper to the Zoological Society the
following species from South Africa: — Family Briareid,ae, Sub-
family Bnareinae — Suberia capensis, St. Thomson; Sub- family
Spongioderminas, Spongiodernia verrucosian, Mobius. Family
Melitodiclse — Melitodcs esperi, Wright and Stucler; Melitodcs
nodosa, Wright and Studer; Melitodcs clichotoma, Pallas.
Family Isid?e — Ceratoisis rainosa, Hickson. Family Muriceid,as
— Muriceides fnsca, St. Thomson; Acanthogorgia arniata,
Verrill. Family Plexauridae — Eiinicella fapillosa, Esper;
Psauvnogorgia pulchra, St. Thomson; Euplexaitra media, St.
Thomson. Family Primnoidas — Stachyodes gilchristi, St.
Thomson; Thouarella hicksoni, St. Thomson. Family Gor-
goniidre — Gorgonia capensis, Hickson; G. flammea, Ellis and
Solander. Family Gorgonellidae — Scirpearia jurcata emend,
Simpson; Scirpearia flagellinn emend, Simpson; Hicksonclla
spiralis, Simpson = J iincella spiralis, Hickson.

My present paper contains descriptions or records of the
following 29 species, of which 11 are new: — ■

May 20th, igiy.

2 Thomson, South African (jorgonacea.

Section Scleraxonia.

Family Briareidae, Sub-family Briaremas — Anthothcla parvi-

jlora, sp.n. Off Cape Recife.
Family Mclitodidae — Meliiodes Fanni, sp.n. Off Kuskamma
Point.

Melitodes grandis, sp.n. Off Cape Seal.

Mo-psella singidarisy sp.n. Oft Cape Morgan.

Acaharia sp. Off Vasco da Gama Peak.

W rigkiella irUineata, sp.n. Off Umkomass River mouth.

Wrightella fragUis, sp.n. Off Lion's Head.

Wrigktella furcata, sp.n. Off Scottsburgh Lighthouse.

Wrightella, sp. Off Tugela River mouth.

Section Holaxonia.

Family Isida?, Sub-family Ceratoisid^e — AcaneUa eburnea,

Pourtales. Off Buffels River.
Family Muriceidse — Acanthogorgia armata, Verrill. Off Vasco

da Gama Peak.
Acanthogorgia sp. Off O'Neill Peak.
Acanthogorgia sp. Off Cape Vidal.
Muricella rajnosa, Thomson and Henderson. Off Dum-

ford Point.
Family Plexauridae — Eiinicella papdlosa, Esper. Off East Lon-
don and False Bay.
Euplcxanra parciclados, Wright and Studer. Oft' Stalwart

Point.
Family Primnoidiie, Sub-family Pnmnoinse — Stachyodes capen-

sis, sp.n. Off Sandy Point, and off Cape Morgan.
Family Gorgoniida? — Leptogorgia africana, sp.n. Off Cove

Rock.
Leptogorgia alba, Verrill. 7iar. capcnsis, off Dumford

Point.
Leptogorgia rigida, Verrill. Off East London.
Leptogorgia aurata, sp.n. Off Durnford Point.
Leptogorgia sp. juv. Off Umhloti River mouth.
Lophogorgia lutkeni, Wright and Studer. Off Gordon's

Bay.
Gorgoniaflauintca, Ellis and Solander — Lat. 33° — 53' — 15",

Long. 25^;— 51'— 45".
Gorgonia albicans, Kolliker. Off Gordon's Bay.
Gorgonia sp. Off Robben Island.
Eugorgia Gilchristi, Hickson. Off Cape Recife.
Engorgia lineata, sp.n. Off Nanquas Peak.
Stenogorgia capensis, sp.n. Oft Algoa Bay.
Family Gorgonellidae — Verntcella bicolor, Nutting. Off Tugela

River mouth.

Manchester Memoirs, V oL Ixi. (igi6), No. 1. 3

Section Scleraxonia.

Family Bricircidrc, Sub-family Briarcma?.

Atitliothela purvtflora, sp.n.

Pla/e II.. Fig. 5; Plate V., Fig. 4.

Diagnosis of Genus. — Colonies creeping or more usually
upright and branched. Polyps large projecting, with a calyx
not completely retractile. The upper part of the polyp com-
pletely retractile within the calyx, and the latter usually marked
out into eight rays or lappets. The coenenchyme of the cortex
with large canals, smaller canals present in the medulla.
Spicules : thorny spindles, spinous clubs, and rods.

This new species is represented m the collection by three
colonies or parts of these. The most complete example has an
expanded base, from which a branch arises at a low level, which
divides into a larger and smaller s-econdary. The main stem
continues in an upward direction, and gives rise firstly to a
branch with a single poly]>. and then on the other side to an
offshoot with nine piolyps. The main axis has then three polyps
arranged in a tri-radiate manner around it, and then divides
dichotomously into two branches of equal length, the one with
se\'en, the other with ten polyps. The branches are not straight,
but are twisted or curved, and they usually come off at an angle
of about 4S degrees. The outer surface of the colony is fairly
hard and firm, and has a somewhat stony and slightly silvery
appearance. When the general surface of the main stem and
branches is examined with a lens, a granular appearance is
observed, which is due to the spicules. The size of the most
complete specimen was S6mm. in height and 50mm. in the
other direction. The polyps are very prominent, and the calyces
have eight grooves and ridges. The position of the polyps
relative to one another is varied owing to the curving and twist-
ing of the branches on which they are situated ; as a rule they do
not stand opposite to one another, but at one point, however,
three polyps originate at the same level around the stem.

A rough transverse section through the primary shoot of
the colony shows a dense outer part with numerous small
spicules very thickly disposed, within this an area with fewer
spicules, and with about twenty-four canals arranged in a more
or less circular manner, and in the centre a part of compara-
tively large diameter, with long spicules and yellowish fibres,
surrounding a few small canals.

The branches are approximately cylindrical, the expanded
base is about g by S mrn. in diameter. In the most complete
specimen the intervals between the branches (starting from the
base) are as follows: — 5 mm., 16 mm., 3 mm., 3.5 mm., g mm.,
zj.gmm., 6 mm. The branches vary in length, the two terminal
branches are 4.9 mm. and 4.5 mm. The branches terminate in

4 Thomson. South Africa}? Gorgonacea.

a polyp or polyps. The diameter of the main stem at a slight
distance from the base is 3 mm. ; near the apex 2 mmi The
polyps vary considerably in size; this is partly due to the vary-
ing degree of expansion and contraction. They range from
about 2.5 mm. in length and 1.5 mm. in diameter to 7 mm. and
2 mm. respectively. The calyx of any one polyp may decrease
in diameter to the extent of i mm. between base and apex.
The polyps are distinctly constricted at the bases of the ten-
tacles, thus the apex is clearly delineated. The tentacles are
in some cases fairly well extended but not fully, the pinnules
may be seen with a lens. The polyps are cylmdrical, rays of
longitudinally directed spindles are easily seen on the surface
of the calyx. These spicules have a glistening appearance. At
the base of the calyces the longitudinal areas of spicules arc
discontinued, and after a short intervening free space the
spicules of the general surface of the coenenchyme commence.
The spicules are disposed in eight longitudinal areas on the
calyx, and also on the polyp crown ; on the former, spicules
clearly project beyond the surface. Wy specimens agree with
the diagnosis of the genus AnthDthela, as given by Broch and
by Studer. Anthothcla grandifiora (Sars), Verrill, occurs oft
the coast of Norway, Newfoundland and North America, as far
south as Martha's Vineyard, in the upper part of the abyssal
zone. Anthothela argentea, Studer, was collected during the
dredging operations of the Steamer " /-Vlbatross," in Lat. 23°- —
i6'N., Long. 107° — 31'E., at a depth of 852 fathoms. Professor
S. J. Hickson has handed me a type specimen of Briar euni {^An-
thothela) grandijloritm from Trondhjem Fjord, and there is
an excellent recent description of this species by Broch, the
latter author also giving a useful list of synonyms. In regard
to Anthothela argentea, Studer, a detailed description is want-
ing. The general shape of the colony of my species dift"ers con-
siderably from that of Anthothela grandifiora, (Sars) Verrill.
A. grandifiora is much more bushy or shrublike, and has anas-
tomosing branches and a plumper appearance, my specimens
being of a more slender and tree-like build. The polyps are
in my form not so thickly distributed on the stem and branches.
The stem and branches of Anthothela grandifiora are not so
cylindrical. Studer writes of a chief trunk in Anthothela
argcntea ; Broch states that in Anthothcla grandifiora, a princi-
pal stem does not occur, and that the branches anastomose with
one another so frequently as to form a thick colony, which
sometimes reaches the size of a man's head. In Anthothcla
grandifiora several polyps frequently originate at about the
same level on the branches, in my specimens this is rarely the
case, as the polyps may be separated from one another by con-
siderable intervals. The polyps is as in A. grandifiora, formed
of a distinct calyx, and an upper part which can be invaginated
into the former. As in Anthothela grandifiora, the calyx seems
to have to some extent the power of contraction, and in those

Mauclicstcr Memoirs, Yol. Ixi. (igi6\ No. I. 5

few cases it appears as a small rounded swelling. In A. grandi-
■flora and in my form when the polyp is contracted into the
calyx, one sees a small pit, and usually the surface is very
distinctly marked out into eight lappets or rays. The spicules
of the rind or cortex are of two types or sizes, as in A. grandi-
■fiora. The larger spicules are straight or curved, and somewhat
irregularly spindle-shaped. They have a fairly large number
of projecting spines, the number of these spines appearing to
be larger in my specimens than in Aniltothcla grandiflora.
These spicules, however, appear as a rule to be larger than those
of Anthothela grandillora, thus many are i.i 10 or 1.8 mm. long,
and 0.276mm. broad, while those of A. grandtillora are only
about half this length, namely, 0.5 or 0.6 mm. 7\part from this
difference m size, these spicules resemble those of .4. grandiflora
very much in shape. As in .4. grandiflora, there is in the cortex
a number of spicules of a smaller and different type. These
are rods and clubs, which are much better provided with pro-
cesses than those of the last type; the latter spicules are also
larger than the corresponding ones in Anthothela grandiflora,
ranging from about o. i to 0.2 mm. The spicules of the calyx
are mostly of one type, namely, broad spindles with numerous
large and prominent processes. There are only a few of the
longer type of spicule, they are similar in shape to those figured
by Broch for .4. grandiflora. The first type varies considerably
in size from about 0.1380 x 0.368 to 0.644 x 0.276 mm. The
second type of spicule (which is rare) varies from about 0.644 x
0.276 to 1.840 X 0.276 mm. The spicules of the tentacles are
mostly long, thin spindles or rods, with few processes. These
tentacular spicules are fairly similar in form to those of A.
grandiflora, but apparently in some cases at least are much
longer. They vary in size from about 0.460 x 0.092 to 1.656 x
0.184 mm. The spicules of the medulla or central part of the
stem and branches are usually long, slender rods or spindles,
with few processes. They resemble those of the tentacles and
the long spicules of the cortex very much m form. They range
in size from about 0.462 x 0.0Q2 to 2.1 16 x 0.276 mm. It will
thus be noted that the spicules in my form tend to be larger
than those of A. grand ill or a; and further, the predominance of
one type of spicule m the calyx is noteworthy. While it is a
simple matter to distinguish my species from A. grandiflora, it
is not so easily compared with A. argcntea, Studer. It re-
sembles A. argentea in its arborescent form, slender branches
and slightly silvery spicules. It differs from .4. argentea m
the branches not arising at nearly right angles, in the tenta-
cular crown being retractile within the calyx, and in the polyps
being apparently less abundantly disposed than those of that
species, for Studer writes: — " Ics branches .... couvertes
de polypes qui sont poses sur la l)ase sous des angles droits."
From the briefness of the description and the absence of a
figure of Anthothela argentea, it is almost impossible to be

6 Thomson, South Africa)! Gorgonacea.

certain that my specimens do not belong to this species, but
this appears to me to be a new form.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 655, S.S.W., off Cape Recife.
De^jth, 256 fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bottom,
rocks. November 14th, 1898.

P. F. 524. Off Algoa Bay. Depth, 100 fathoms. By
dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, November ist, i8q8.

Family AIelitodid.-e.
Mcl'itodes Faitrii. s]).n.

General Characters. — The branching is usually from the
nodes, rarely from the internodes. The spicules of the cortex
are spindles or spinous clubs. The nodes are penetrated by
endodermal canals. At one part the polyps are predominant
on three surfaces of the branches, and are there thickly dis-
tributed; they are not biserial in arrangement. The branching
is almost entirely in one ]ilane. The cortex is thin at the base,
thicker near the apex. The polyps are retractile within con-
spicuous calyces,.

Specific Characters. — The nodes are large and prominent.
The internodes are shorter near the base, longer near the apex
of the colony. There is a considerable amount of anastomosis.
The branches have a slightly sinuous course. The branches
frequently originate at angles of 45". There is a slight amount
of flattening of the branches near the base, but in the upper
parts they are cylindrical. The internodes are from 4 mm. in
length near the base, to 13 mm,, in the upper parts of the colony.
The presence of endodermal canals in the internodes is not
certain. The nodes are expanded at all j:)arts of the colony;
they are brownish or yellowish in colour, the calyces stand at
right-angles, or at slightly less than right-angles to the surface,
in the lower part they are arranged on three sides of the stem
and branches, more apically they are arranged on all sides.
The polyps are comparatively hit;h, the anthocodi^ show the
8-rayed arrangement very clearly; the calyx is also very dis-
tinctly S-partite. The polyps frequently originate from the
nodes. The spicules of the tentacles are straight spindles,
curved spindles, curved spindles with more and larger processes
along the outer side of the curve, spinous clubs, clubs with
expanded processes, a few of which are nearly of the foliaccous
type. The spicules of the calyx are simple and curved spindles,
clubs with expanded broad processes, clubsayjproachine- the foli-
accous type, a few heads with expanded processes and irregular
spicules.

Notes.- — The specimen is very fragile, and the upper parts
have become broken into a number of pieces; it is white, only
relieved by the yellow or brown colour of the nodes. The
coenenchyme is slightly rough owing to the spicules. There

Manchester Memoir:'

)l. Ixi. (iQi6), No. I.

7

are faint lines or grooves runnint^ oblicjucly longitudinally on
the surface of the ccenenchyme of ihe lower steins and branches.
The base is large and encrusting, and the first polyps occur
iSmm. from it. To some extent the main branches, with
branchlets, ascend m parallel planes to one another. The nodes
at the base are extremely prominent, one is 6 mm. in length
and 5 by 4 in diameter. Near the base the polyps are separated
by an interval of 1-3 mm. ; in the upper branches and twigs they
are practically in contact with one another. A polyp in which
the pinnules can be seen is 2-3 mm. in length, the anthocodia
I mm. The spicules of the polyps are arranged in eight longi
tudinal areas, witli a circular band at the base of these, then a
slight free space intervenes, and beneath the latter the spicules
of the calyx are prominently disposcxl over its surface.

l',-xt-fig. I. Spicules of Melilodes Faurii^ sp. n., upper, from polyp;
lower, from ccenenchyme near base.

The spicules and their dimensions in millimetres are as fol-
lows : — A. : Spicules from the ccenenchyme near the base of
the colony; (i) straight spindles (a few) with simple processes,
from 0.081 X 0.023 to 0.108 X 0.054; (2) curved spindles with
simple processes from 0.063 x 0.023 to 0.144 x 0.054; curved
spindles with larger processes on the outside of the curve, from
0.126 X 0.072 to 0.144 x 0.081 ; clubs with expanded processes,
from 0.072 X 0.063 to 0.144 X 0.081 ; clubs fa few) approaching
very closely to the foliaceous type, about 0.126 x 0.054; heads
which have lost or nearly lost the shaft, about 0.126 x 0.072.
B. : The spicules from the ccenenchyme of the central nodes.
(i) Straight spmdles, from 0.108 x 0.036 to 0.288 x 0.054;
curved spindles, from 0.18 x 0.036 to 0.270 x 0.036; spinous
clubs with exi)anded processes from 0.08 1 x 0.036 to 0.144 x
0.072; clubs very nearly foliaceous, about 0.144 x 0.072, and
a few heads and irregular spicules. C. : The spicules of the

8 Thomson, South Africaji Ciorgonacea.

tentacles are as stated previously, with a great Dreponder-
ance of simple and straight curved spindles, the largest
of which are about 0.36 x 0.036. D. : The spicules of the calyx
as stated previously, with a greater predominance of clubs, the
largest about 0.18 x o.ogo. E. : Smooth rods, with rounded
ends from the axial part, from 0.063 x 0.006 to 0.104 x o.cog.
Locality, etc. P.P. 13,549. Kuskamma Pt. N.E. by E. 5 mi.
Depth, 33 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, broken
shells and rocks Date, August 27th, igoi.
. P. F., No. 11,315. Tugela River mouth, N. by W., J W., 15.^
miles. By shrimp trawl. Depth, 40 fathoms. Nature of
bottom, mud. Date, January loth, 1901.

I name this species after Sir Pieter Fauie, who as Minister
of Agriculture at the Cape, showed great interest in the de-
velopment of the Fisheries, and in the Marine Investigations,
and after whom the Government trawler — the " Pieter Faure"
was named.

Melitodes grandis, sp.n.

Generic Characters. — The polyps have projecting calyces.
The branching is most frequently from the nodes, sometimes
from the internodes. The large basal nodes are penetrated by
canals, the internodes are not perforated by channels. The
polyps are not widely separated, but are close together. The
branching is dichotomous, and the branches spread out to some
extent in parallel rows over one another. The polyps arise
on three sides of the lower stem and shoots, on all sides of
the upper branches; the calyces are low. The arrangement of
the polyps is not bi.serial. The upper branches are not flat-
tened.

. Specific characters. — The specimen has from its mode of
branching a bushy appearance. There is a slight amount of
anastomosis. The lower stem and branches are slightly flat-
tened, the upper are more cylindrical. The internodes are
5-12 mm. in length, the longer being in the higher branches.
The larger nodes near the base are as much as g mm. in length
and 8 by 6mm. in diameter. The nodes are smaller in the
upper parts of the colony, in the upper branches they are
scarcely visible externally, partly because the brown colour is
not present. The polyps vary in size according to the degree
of extension, some are i mm,, in height, and about the same
in diameter; the calyces are -0 to f mm. high.

Notes. — This is one of the largest specimens of Melitodes
on record; it is at least 24cm. in height, 12cm. broad, and
4 cm. wide. It is very strong in habit near the bas.e, but the
upper branches are more slender and fragile, many of the latter
being broken off in the preserved specimen. The general
ground colour is white, the nodes arc brown, especially near the

MancJicstcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. g

base, and covered by a thin while coencnehyme. The latter
coencnchyme has a finely granular appearance. The basal
stems have a slightly quadrangular appearance. Short branches,
which are often expanded at iheir tips, fairly frequently arise
from the internodcs above the basals.

The anthocodias have the spicules, which are mainly
spindles arranged m eight longitudinal areas, and at the base
of these lies a circular hand of spindles (with almost entire

^^J^.

'rcxt-fig. 2. S;)iculcs of Mc/i/oiics gramiix, sp. n., upjier, from
coenenchyiiie of nodes ; lower, fioni polvps.

margins), with about three spicules at any one place, counting
in a vertical direction. The calyx is densely protected by
spicules, mainly spindles and clubs, which cross and overlie
one another in an intricate manner. The basal attachment is
large and reptant. it is 3 by 2 cm. in diameter. Three large
shoots originate from the base, one of which is g by 8 mm. in
diameter. The upper branches are very much curved, and are
sometimes 2 mm. in diameter, the polyps arc there closely adja-
cent to one another, with less than a millimetre between them.
The mternodes, when deprived of the coc^nench_\'me, are white

10 Thomson. So///// Afr/can (jorgon-tcea.

The coencnchymc covering the axis is sometimes about i lOth
of a millimetre in thickness.

The sj)icules of the coencnchymc covering the nodes are:
(i) straight, curved and kneed spindles, (2) clubs without folia-
ceous processes, (3; a few irregular spicules, (4) rods with
simple processes, and from the inner axial part, rods without
processes. The spindles are from 0.000 x 0.018 to 0.252 x
0.072 mm.; the clubs from 0.072 x 0.018 to O.126 x 0.072 mm. ;
the irregular spicules smaller than the last; the rods of the
inner axial parts, from 0.036 x 0.0036 to 0.108 x o.oi8mm. ;
The spicules of the polyps including the calyces and antho-
codipe are fairly similar to the above, they appear as a rule to
be larger, and some of the straight s[)inclles arc bifurcated at
the end. The spindles are from 0.072 x 0.018 to 0.252 x
0.054 mm.; the clubs, from 0.072 x 0.054. to 0.198 x 0.054. mm.
The spicules of the coenenchyme from the internodes are simi-
lar to those of the nodes in shape, except that many of the
spindles and clubs having a larger number of and better de-
veloped processes. Some of these larger spindles are 0.270 x
0.072 mm. in size, and the clubs are about 0.216 x 0.090 mm.
The rods without ])rocesses from the axial parts of the inter-
nodes are from ac72 x 0.009 to 0.108 x o.OT8mm. The sneci-
men in some respects approaches MeUtodes fiahellifera, var.
cylindrala, Kiik.

Locality, etc — Pieter Faurc, No. t8.78S. Ca}>e .*^eal W.
by N., \ ^■. 7 miles. By large travvd. Depth. 30 fathoms.
Nature of bottom, mud. Date, April 20th, 1906.

Mopsella singulans sp.n.

Plate II., Fig. 4.

Diagnostic Characters. — The polyps have small projecting
calcyes. Foliaceous clubs are present. The branching is from
the nodes, several branches arise from a prominent encrusting
base, which diverge in i:)lanes crossing one another, but in each
of these the branching is in one plane. The distinction be-
tween nodes and internodes is well marked, the former are
yellov/, the latter white, the anthocodic-e yellow. The lower
internodes are shorter and stouter than the upper, the unT>cr
nodes become correspondingly smaller. The coenenchyme
covering the nodes and internodes is rough and granular, due
to the slightly protruding spicules. There arc not many polyps
on the basal stems, those on the upper branches are mainly
arrangc^d in a biserial manner; a few, however, occur on the two
remaining sides. The distribution of pohn>s, except on the
most apical branches, is rather sparse, and there is some in-
terval between them. The polyps are not confined in their
origin to the internodes, a number arise from the nodes even

Manchester Mevioirs, Vol. Ixi. (i(;i6\ No.

1 1

near the base. A few faint longitudinal lines occur on the
basal stenrjs, but they are never well marked. The specimen is
very fragile.

Notes on the Specimen. — The size, when complete, must
have been about 7 cm. high, gem. broad, and i cm. wide. The
basal part is bulky and encrusting, and is 10 by 7 mm. in
diameter and 12 mm. in height. The basal nodes are from
3-5 mm. in height, and about the same in diameter, but they
are slightly flattened. The basal internodes are from 3-8 mm.,
the upper about 8-10 mm. in height; their diameter is about
2-3 mm. basally, i mm. apically. When deprived of the
coenenchyme, the axis is white, and has traces of spicules.

The calyces arc sometimes reduced to very minute risings
on the surface of the coenenchyme. The polyps, with calyces
and anthocodiae, arc sometimes 1.5 mm. in height, and I mm.

^\ .SJ^

7>.t/-A"v'. 3- Spicules from tlie nodes of A/o/'SL-Z/a siiti;;ii!aris, sp. n.

in diameter. The inter\al between the polyi)s is al)i)ut 2mm.
near the base, but on some of th(^ apical branches they are
sometimes almost in contact.

The branching is more or less dichotom.ous, the branches
do not run in the straight manner characteristic of such genera
as Acanella, but have a slightly twisted or curved course. A
striking character is the flattening of the upper branches
in a lateral direction, that is, in the reverse plane to that
commonly found in Melitodidae.

The spicules slightly protruding on the surface of the
coenenchyme arc seen with a lens as being mass^rd together.
The spicules covering the axial part of the nodes are yellow,
and the latter a lighter yellow.

The i)olyps are very well |)rotecte(l by spicules. The an-
thocodiae have eight longitudinal areas of fairly long, dark
yellow spindles, with simple processes, basally to these areas
lies in a circular band of the same type of spicule, with 3 to 4
spicules at any one place counting in a vertical direction;
beneath this ring the calyx is mainly protected by foliaceous
clubs.

12 Thorison, South African (jorgoii'icea.

The yellow^ spicules of the anthocodiae are fairly long-,
straight, narrow spindles with simple processes, a few yellow
club-like spicules occur among these spindles. These spicules
vary in size from about 0.072 x 0.018 to 0.270 x 0.072 mm.
Ihe white spicules of the calyx are mainly foliaceous clubs,
approximately 0.108 x 0.054 to 0.198 x 0.072 mm. in size.
Spinous clubs and spindles are also present, though not nearly
so abundantl>^^ and are of about the same size as those of the
anthocodias. L he spicules of the coenenchyme covering the
nodes are: (i) mainly yellow, more rarely white foliaccous
clubs, in many of these the stalk portion is reduced, and the
spicule thus becomes more equally foliaccous in all directions;
the foliaccous clubs are from 0.108 x 0.090 to 0.216 x 0.144 mm.
in size; (2) spheres with foliaccous processes, about 0.072 x
0.090 mm.; (3) double spheres, about 0.18 x 0.014 mm.; fd.)
clubs reduced to heads, about 0.144 x 0.108 mm. ; (0 spindles,
with simple processes, about 0.126 x 0.036 mm.; (6) spinous
clubs, about 0.198 x 0.054 ""^n^- \ C7) simple usualh^ curved rods,
without processes, and rounded at the ends, from 0.054 x 0.012
to 0.144 ^ 0.018 mm. The spicules from the coenenchyme of
the internodes are similar to the preceding, differing mainly
in being white.

Locality, etc. — P. F., 13,122. Cape Morgan, N.N.E., 9f
miles. By dredge. Depth, 47 fathoms. Nature of bottom,
broken shells. Date, July 25th, 1901.

Acabaria sp.
Plate v., Fig. 5.

This description is taken from an incomplete specimen,
which is of a yellow colour, but darker at the nodes. The
branching is in one plane, and the specimen is 93 mm. high,
70 mm. transversely, and 8 mm. thick. The axis, which is
brown near the base and yellow near the apex, is horny and
calcareous, giving stiffness and rigidity to the specimen. The
branches apparently usually originate at the nodes. The
coenenchyme on the surface of the axis is thin, and shows faint
superficial lines. The nodes near the base are about 5 mm. in
height, 7 mm wide, and 6 mm. thick, and are separated from ad-
joining nodes by intervals of about 3 mm. The nodes are
smaller and longer m the ufiper parts of the specimen, thus
these nodes are sometimes 2 by 2 by 2 mm., and the
internodes 13 by 2 mm. No calcyces are found on the colony,
this is therefore presumably only the basal part. The branching
is nearly clichotomous, but not regular, rarely branches may
be seen originating from the internodes, and there is sometimes
a slight anastomosis.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), Xo. I. 13

A rough transverse section through the nodes shows (i) a
fairly thick cortex, densely crowded with yellow spicules, (2)
the great mass of the section consisting of fairly soft brown
fibrous tissue, with large canals, and with some small, white,
rod-like spicules, and (3) a central part, not very well defined,
with a few^ yellow spicules, and with while rods. The struc-
ture of the internodes resembles the last, but the second area
is replaced by hard, white, calcareous tissue, without canals,
and the central part is better defined.

A'lost of the spicules are yellow spindles and clubs, but
there are also short, narrow, white rods, without processes.
The spicules of the nodes consist of a dense mass of clubs,
spindles, and more irregular forms, as well as smooth rods.
The spindles may be approximately straight, or much curved,
their ends are not much pointed. The clubs have broad, ex-
panded processes, and lead on to more irregular spicules, which
have lost the lower part of the club, or the latter has become
broadened out. The spindles are from 0.075 "^ 0.027 to o. iqS x
0.057 m.m. The clubs are from 0.081 x 0.041 to o.iSg x
0.081 mm. The irregular spicules are from 0.075 ^ 0.063 '^^
0.135 ^' 0.086mm. The rod-like spicules of the outer part of
the axis of the nodes has chiefly rod-like spicules aboiit 0.108
in length, and about 0.013 ^^ breadth. The inner part of the
axis has a few yellow spindles, clubs, irregular spicules, and
many small white rods. In the mternodes the spindles are fewer,
and the clubs and irregular spicules are the most conspicuous
forms. .l\s in the nodes, there are rod-like spicules in the inter-
nodes. The spindles are from 0.063 x 0.039 to 0.162 x
0.054 mm.; the clubs from 0.108 x 0.104. to 0.081 x 0.063 mm.;
irregular spicules from 0.079 ^ 0.054 to 0.I/.17 x 0.072 mm. The
rods are approximately the same size as those of the nodes.
On account of the incompleteness of the specimen, and the
absence of polyps, it appears unwise to give the examj^lc a
specific name.

Locality, etc. — Vasco da Gama, N.W., v N., 8 miles.
Depth, 41 fathoms. Collected by dredge, Nature of bottom,
rocks. Date of collection, April 27th, igoo.

Wrightelia trilineaia, sp.n.
Pla/e /!'., Fig. i ; Plate 1'., Fig. 3.

The specimen is small, mainly red in colour, but with
reddish-brown nodes, and white or yellowish polyj)s. The
colony is 66 mm. in height, and about 53 mm. in breadth.

The branching is nearly dichotomous, but is not com-
pletely so, as for example, a slight anastomosis occurs near the
base. The branching is almost entirely m one plane, and the
distinction between nodes and internodes fairly prominent.
The distance between the base and the first node is about

14 Thomson;, South African Corgonacca.

10 mm., and the diameter of the primary stem about 3 mm.,
that of the branches near the middle of the colony about 2 mm.
The axis of the internodes is solid, hard and dense, with-
out canals, and almost entirely composed of calcium carbonate,
with only a trace of fibrous or horny matter; it contains short
rod-like or needle-like spicules towards the outside. The axis
of the internodes is pink, that of the nodes dark brown m
colour. The nodes have no canals, they are composed of: (i;
spicular coenenchyme at the outside, \2) a thick area of horny
or fibrous tissue, and (3) a spicular or limy part in the centre.
The polyps mainly originate from three sides of the stem
and branches, leaving the fourth or ventral side free,
although those of the lateral and dorsal surface are seen from
this side. The arrangement of the polyps on the stem and
branches is not quite uniform, but the general disposition is
that of a series of polyps along each lateral surface, and a
somewhat intermittent and irregular row between them. They
are situated both on the nodes and internodes, and are
more numerous on the apical branches. The tentacles are
usually almost completely retracted within the calyces, the
latter then having an 8-partite dome-shaped appearance, with
a small circular opening, within which the minutest portion of
eight tentacles can sometimes be seen. The spicules project
very much on the surface of the calyces, especially near the
apices and are roughly arranged in rings. The polyps are
about 2 by 1.3 mm. in diameter, and 1.5 mm. in height. The
interval between the polyps varies, some are i millimetre apart,
others are almost in contact.

The coenenchyme is thin, has a granular appearance, due
mainly to the presence of red spicules^ but partly to a few white
ones. Minute longitudinal, sinuous ridges and grooves occur
on the external surface of the coenenchyme, more especially on
that from which no polyps originate.

The lower nodes are more distinct than the upper ; the
first from the base is 4 mm. in height, and 3 by 2 mm. in
diameter. One of the upper nodes is 2.5 mm. in height, and 2.5
by 2 mm. in diameter. The base of the colony expands into an
enlargement, the exact limits of which it is difficult to deter-
mine, owing to the presence of an encrusting Polyzoan.

The spicules of the polyps are mostly white, they are as
follows: — ia) straight spindles, {b) very much curved spindles,
(r) spindles produced outwards at one end into two or three
prongs, tending to become cross-shaped, (.</) clubs, much shorter
than the spindles, (<?) clubs, approaching the foliaceous type.
The spicules of the coenenchyme are mainly red in colour,
they are as follows: — {a) straight spindles, (Jo) curved spindles,
(c) short clubs, {d) approximately foliaceous clubs, {e) oblong
spicules with processes, (/) spicules resembling foliaceous clubs,
but which have lost the shaft, they are heads or irregular
spheres.

Manchester Monoifs, Vol. Ixi. vi(;i6^\ Xo I. 15

The spicules from ihe outer part of the axis are small
.rods, without processes, and usually slightly more expanded
,at their centres than at the ends. The dimensions of the
spicules of the polyps "in millimetres are as follows :^ — {a)
straight spindles, from 0.04 x 0.013 to 0.0 10 x 0.013; (/;)
curved spindles, from 0.04 x 0.0 13 to 0.0 ! x 0.04; (r) clubs,
from 0.045 x 0.02 to o.oS x 0.03 mm.; the spicules from the
coenenchyme of the internodes are from 0.04 x 0.03 to 0.07 x
0.04; those of the nodes are similar. This specimen comes
near W . vanahilts, Th. & Hend. ; but is of a stronger build,
and the polyps appear different.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No 11,125. Unikomass River
mouth, N.W. by \V., I \V., 5J miles. Depth, 40 fathoms. By
large dredge. Nature of Ijottom, broken shells and stones.
Date, December 31st, igoo.

WrigJitella jragilis, sp.n.
Vlate II., Fig. 2; Plate 1'.. Fig. i

The specimen is extremely fragile, and the upper branches
have unfortunately become broken, but a good drawing had
been prepared, and there is sufficient material for a fair descri])-
tion of the species. The colony is white, with yellowish
nodes. The surface of the stem and branches has a white,
granular appearance, and where this has been rubbed off the
axis is ivory-like white. The colony has at the base a slightly
shrub-like appearance, owing to the branching of the main
shoots not being m one plane, and there is also a slight anas-
tomosis. Above the comparatively thick main shoots, the
branches are apparently mostlv in one plane, though it is im-
possible to say from the broken specimen whether the apical
branches remain in one plane. The branches usually originate
from the nodes, very rarely from the internodes. The nodes
and internodes are clearly marked out, and the branching
approaches dichotomy, but it is not (]uite regular. Some of
the basal shoots are compressed, the apical are more cylindrical.
Longitudinal lines may sometimes be observed on the surface
of the branches. The nodes break up when scraped with a
needle, and the colony is more liable to break at these parts
than at the internodes. The structure of the nodes as seen in
rough transverse section is: (i) an external layer with spicules,

(2) a thick area within the last, consisting mostly of fibres, and

(3) a central axial pillar, built of consolidated spicules. Thc^
structure of the internodes is similar to that of the nodes, but
the fi-brous layer is more sparsely, and the calcareous part more
prominently developed. The surface has a mass of spicules,
which are disposed horizontallv or radially to it, and form a
feltwork, without leavins" any intervening spaces. Within this
outer layer of spicules the axis is much consolidated, appear-
ing like a solid limy pillar. This consists of: (i) closely

i6 Thomson, Souili Ajricmi (jorgonacea.

interwoven needle-like limy bodies, (2) a part with amorphous
crystals, and (3) a very slight hbroiis part. The axis may thus
be regarded as mainly of lime. There are no endoderm canals.

No polpys occur close to the base of the colony, the first
being about 25 mm. from it. The anthocodi?e arc retracted in
all cases. The size of the calyces varies considerably, but they
stand out very distinctly from the surrounding surface; a large
calyx is about i.Smm. in diameter, and 1.5 in height. The
calyx, which is slightly yellow as compared with the rest of
the coenenchyme, is 8-partite, and has a very dense layer of
white or yellow spicules, producing a rough granular appear-
ance. ■■ As regards the arrangement of polyps on the stem and
branches, their origin from all the lower basal shoots is con-
lined to three sides, the fourth side being free, though the
lateral polyps may be seen from this side. Apparently there
is not any regular arrangement of the polyps on the main
shoots and minor branches ; this is probably due to the fact that
the growth of the shoots and branches is not straight, but is
curved or even twisted. The calyces may be opposite or alter-
nate, well remote from or closely adjoining one another;
they usually arise from the intcrnodes, but sometimes from the
nodes.

The spicules of the coenenchyme are: '^\) long, narrow,
curved spindles, (2) long, narrow, curved spindles, (3) clubs
approaching the foliaceous type, (4) clubs, (5) rod-like spicules,
with two pairs of blunt processes on each side, (6) spicules,
which with their broad processes, have an almost spherical
shape, (7) simple rods, with rounded ends, but no processes.

The dimensions of these spicules is as follows: — (i)
curved spindles, from 0. 139 x 0.054 to 0.2y5 x 0.071; straight
spindles, from 0.085 x 0.032 to 0.112 x 0.047 mm.; clubs, from
0.095 x 0.054 to 0.234 X 0.085 mm.; rod-like spicules with pro-
cesses, from 0.081 X 0.040 to 0.1 1 90 X C.068 mm. ; spicules
almost spherical, 0.126 x o.io8mm. ; simple rods without pro-
cesses, on an average, 0.090 x 0.0 13 mm.

In the polyps there are more long, narrow spindles than
in the coenenchyme, and fewer clubs. The spindles are larger
than those of the coenenchyme, namely, curved spindles, from
0.340 X 0.064 mm.; straight spindles, from 0.329 x 0.051mm.

The specimen differs from Wrightella coccmea, Gray, re-
corded by Hickson, from South African waters, in its mode
of growth, in the clubs not having such leaf-like processes and
in the size and structure of the polyps. There is only a very
brief description of Wrightella clirysanthos, Gray, collected by
Dr. Percival Wright, from the Seychelles, but my specimen
agrees with the diagnosis so far as that goes, and rather than
create a new species, I hold it as belonging to the above.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 15,010. Lion's Head,
S.E. j^- E., 49 miles. Depth, 210 fathoms. By shrimp trawl.
Bottom, green sand. Date, April 2nd, 1902.

Mauc/ies/cr Memoirs^ Vol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I.

17

W rigJitclla f areata, sp.n.

Plate II., Fig. I.

The specimens are so fragile that it is ahnost impossible
to prevent their bemg broken, but fortunately a good figure
had previously been prepared. The ground colour of the stem
and branches is white, the nodes are yellow, the calcyces white
or yellowy the tentacles red. The branching is almost entirely
in one plane, is mostly dichotomous, with an occasional anasto-
mosis. The main stem and branches have externally a hard,
limy appearance. The colony has two mam surfaces, one in
which the polyps are well exposed, and the other in which
the coenenchyme is mostly free from polyps, and in which the
latter are only seen projecting as it were from the other side.
The main stem and branches are mostly cylindrical, but the
upper branches tend to become slightly flattened. The branches

Text- fig. 4. .Spicules of Wrighteila furcata, sp.n., upper, from
polvps ; lower, from external part of coenencliyme.

orginate, as shown m the figure in a forked manner from the
nodes, and here and there a branch arises from a node and
becomes connected with that from an adjoining node; m other
parts, more especially in the upper parts of the colony, short
simple branches may originate from the internodes. The in-
ternodes are white, finelv granular on the surface, with faint
longitudinal lines, and are shorter and thicker near the base
of the colonv than apically. At the base the main stem ex-
pands into a "limy expansion, and the nodes are more prominent
slightly above this lower extremity.

The polyps are mostlv retracted, they consist of slightly
dome-shaped 8-lobed calvces, with the tentacles which are pro-
vided with spicules, folded down over the openings. The polyps
are arrancred in two lines on the stem and branches, with a few

1 8 Thomson, South African (jorgonacca.

intervening polyps between the two lines ; ihey are shown m
the figure fairly lateral in position, but so placed as to be sc^en
better from the third than from the fourth side. The length
of the interno'des near ihe base of the colony is sometimes
7.5 mm., its diameter 2.8 mm., and apically the corresponding
dimensions are about 12 mm. and i mm. The length of a basal
node may be 3 mm., and its diameter the same; the size of an
apical node is about 1.5 by 1.3 mm. The nodes are partly
fibrous, partially spiculose, showing numerous small rod-like
spicules. The older internodes seem entirely calcareous, but
the younger have a fibrous axis.

The axis is not perforated by longitudinal canals. The
internodes show small rounded rod-like spicules and other
forms of spicules, and a solid calcareous part. The polyps
are separated from one another by various interxals, sometimes
about 1.5 mm. The calyces are about 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in
height and diameter.

The spicules of the tentacles are narrow,, red sjiindles, with
spines; in one branch the spicules producing the colour of the
tentacles are green. They are 0.072 x 0.018 to 0.288 x 0.036 mm.

The spicules of the calyx are (a) spindles similar to those
of the tentacles but white, (^b) broadened clubs, (r) ordinary
clubs, and (('Z) irregular spicules. The broadened clubs are
from 0.072 X 0.024 mm. to 0.144 X 0.081 mm. The spicules of
the external part of the coenenchymc are {a) straight and curved
spindles, with small processes, {JA broadened clubs, {c) approxi-
mately spherical spicules with broadened processes, (<'/) ordinary
clubs, and {e) a few rod-like spicules without processes and
rounded at each end. The spindles are from 0.108 x 0.027 mm.
to 0.198 X 0.036 mm. The broadened clubs arc from 0.054 ^
0.036 mm. to 0.144 X 0.063 mm.; spherical spicules about
0.072; clubs from 0.090 x 0.036 to 0.126 x 0..054 mm. ; rod-like
spicules with processes about 0.072 x 0.036 mm. ; rod-like
spicules without processes about o.ogo x 0.009. There are
small spicules similar to the last in the nodes, but in the inter-
nodes they are much more numerous.

After some deliberation I believe these specimens to be a
new species of Wrightella, Gray. Six species of this genus
have been previously recorded, namely, VJ . coccinea. Gray; IT.
erylhroea, Gray ; {Mopsea erytJiroea, Kllinzinger) ; ir. variabilis,
Th. and H. ; TT. chrysanthos. Gray; W. tongaensis, Kiik. ; and
IF. robusta, Shann; the localities of which are the Red Sea,
South Africa, Zanzibar, Seychelles, Tonga, and Singapore.
Kiikenthal holds that W. 'Coccinea and W. chrysanthos are the
same,, and that W. erythroea and IT. variabilis belong to the
genus Acabaria.

Localities, etc. — F. P., 12,238. Scottsburgh Light House,
N.W. by N., 8 miles. Depth, 92 fathoms. By dredge. Nature
of bottom, sand and shells. Date of collection, March 7th,
1 901.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igib), No. I. IQ

P. F., 13,158. Cape Morgan N. I W., 10^, miles. By
dredge. Depth, 77 fathoms. Nature of bottom, rocks and
broken .shells. Date of co>llcction, July 26di, igoi.

Wrighlella, s]x

I have identified several fragments as belonging to this
genus, the more detailed characters do not agree with other
species of Wrightella which I have examined. I have made a
number of preparations from these fragments, but in view of
the incompleteness, prefer for the present neither to give a de-
scription nor to append a specific name.

Locality, etc. — P. F., 11,276-7. Tugela River mouth. N.
by W., 4 W., 2\\ miles. Collected by large dredge. Depth,
79 fathoms.. Nature of bottom, rocks. January gth, igoi.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 10,525. Cape St. Blaize.
N. by E., lOj miles. Depth, jg fathoms. Collected by large
dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, October 24th, igoo.

Melitodid Fragments.

A few small fragments of a species of Melitodid which are
not sufficiently complete for purposes of identification.

Pieter Faure, No. 12,063. O'Neil Peak. N.W. ] W., gi
miles. Depth, go fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bot-
tom, broken shells. Date, Feb. 28th, igoi.

From this locality there are nine small fragments of one
of the MelitodidiEc, but the pieces are so^ small that any attempt
at identification would only be like a shot in the darkness.

Pieter Faure, No. 852^. About 25 miles E. of East Lon-
don. Depth, 22 fathoms. By shrimp trawl. Nature of bottom,
mud. Date, Jan. nth, i8gg. From this locality there is a
small fragment of a Melitodid, somewhat similar in superficial
appearance to the last so far as the fragments allow one to
judge, but it remains impossible to accurately identify the
species.

Section Holaxonia.

Family, Isidae — Sub-family, Ceratoisidae.

Acanella ebnrnca , Pourtales.

Plate /., Fig. i .

The specimen is unfortunately broken, and the base is
absent. The mode of branching m the lower part differs from
that higher up, namely, m the former it is not in one plane,
but in the latter this is approximately the case From a node
some little distance from the base three branches originate, equi-
distant from one another, which diverge outwards, forming as
it were an inverted tripod, and from the first node of each of
these, three secondary branches arise. In a few cases four

20 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

branches come off from a node. In the upper parts of the colony
m which the branches arc thinner, the nodes smaller, and the
internodes larger, the branching is nearly in one plane, and
from the nodes only one or two branches originate.

The lowest internode present in my specimen is 5.5 mm. in
length and 2.8 mm. m diameter ; a node from the same part is
2.5 mm. in length and 2 mm. in diameter. One of the upper
internodes is 12 mm. in length and 1.5 mmi in diameter, and a
node .5 mm. by .1 mm.

The polyps are large, usually originating from the inter-
nodes, and at wide intervals from one another, but m rare cases
they may arise from or very near the nodes. The distance
between them varies, it is sometimes 6 to 8 mm. ; there is a
slight tendency to their arrangement in a very wide spiral
round the central cylindrical axis. The polyps do not origin-
ate from the axis at right angles, but m a slightly oblique
direction, with their apices projecting upwards ; their size varies
according to the degree of extension from i mm. in height and
2 mm. in diameter near their bases to 3 mm. in height and 1.8
in diameter; in each case they are narrower at their apices.
The pinnules of the tentacles can in a few cases be seen, but
it is impossible to state their numbers.

The internodes are ivory white, marked by fine longitudinal
lines, and with a thin coenenchyme ; the nodes are horny, yel-
low or bronze, with a metallic lustre, and the polyps are white,
brownish or pinkish v/hite. The polyps are densely covered
with long fusiform spicules, which seem to curve round their
bodies, and eight specially large spicules project as points at
the bases of the tentacles; the latter are provided with smaller
spicules.

The spicules from all parts seem similar in shape, only
differing in size ; they may be grouped into long spindles and
short spindles. These spicules have no processes such as have
been figured by Wright and Studer for Acanella arbuscula,
A. chiliensis, A. rig'ula and .4. simplex. The spicules of my
specimen are spine-like, not pointed at either end, and with
almost entire margins. The size of the long spindles on the
outside of the polyps is about o.g6 x 0.06 mm.; the short
spindles from the tentacles and coenenchyme are about 0.24 x
0.04 mm. There can be little doubt that the spicules of my
specimen and those of A. ebiirnea, as figured by Wright and
Studer, are very similar; their margins are, however, more
entire.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,850. Buffels River, N.
15 miles. Depth, 310 fathoms. Collected by shrimp trawl.
Bottom, coral and mud. Date, April 24th, igoi.

From another locality at about the same depth, I have a
second specimen of this species, which confirms my previous
identification. In the first specimen I had some doubt about
the identity of the spicules, as their margins appeared more

Manchester Me jiioirs, I't;/. /.I'i. (1916), No. 1- 21

entire. The second specimen has the majority of tlic spicules
with marj^ins exactly resembling those figured by Wright and
Studcr, but the interesting point is that some of them resemble
those of the first example in having almost entire margins.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,658. Bashee River
beacon, N. I E., about 15 miles. Depth, 300-400 fathoms.
By shrimp trawl. Nature of bottom, rocksi Date, April gth,
igoi.

Family, Aiuriceidee.
Acanthogorgia aniiata., Verrill.

This sj>ecics has previously been recorded from South Afri-
can waters by Hickson and by myself. The specimens are
rather fragmentary, as they are brittle, and tend to become
broken. A point to which I will give further attention later
on IS the occurrence of blackish spherical masses within the
body of some of the polyj)s. The specimens were found in
about the same locality as Hickson's specimen..

Locality, etc. — P. F., No. 2,567. Vasco da Gama. S.75''
E. 132- milesi. Collected by large dredge. Depth, 166 fathoms.
Nature of bottom, black specks. Date of collection, April 25th,
I goo.

Acanthogorgia, sp.

Plate IV., Fig. 4.

The specimen is only fragmentary, and has been much
rubbed. The axis is horny, yellow or brown. The polyps are
long, cylindrical, and expanded towards the mouth. The
spicules arc usually curved spindles or club-like forms, form-
ing eight longitudinal rows on the body wall of the polyp,
each row consisting of pairs of spicules. At the base of the
polyp, each spicule of these pairs is arranged at acute angles
with the other, but higher up this changes to an obtuse angle,
and finally the position of the spicules becomes altered so that
they run round the periphery. The tentacles on retraction are
bent over the mouth, and external to them are the circles of
protective spicules already mentioned, and then eight far-
projecting spicules forming an outermost circle.

The branching, so far as one can ascertain from the incom-
plete specimen, is in one plane. The central axis is about
I mm. in diameter; the covering coenenchyme with its project-
ing spicules is very thin, and the axis can be seen through the
tissue. The polyps at some {>arts are arranged in a spiral
round the axis, and are usually closely adjacent to one another,
with an interval of about a millimetre, but they are still more
closely massed together at the apices of the branches. They
are placed perpendicularly on their support, and are about
2.5 mm. in length, and 1.5 mm. in diameter.

22 Thomson. Soufli African Gorgon:Jcea.

The spicules are {li) simple curved spindles with only a
few processit^s, about 0.34 x 0.02 mm. in size; {b) short club-like
spicules, about 0.56 in length, and 0.16 mm. in diameter at the
expanded end, and 0.02 at the narrow end, the broad end only-
bearing processes ; (r) long spindles or club-like spicules pro-
jecting prominently at the apices of the polyps, with a long
handle or shaft, without processes, and an expanded head armed
with projections. This type of spicule is sometimes 1.14 mm.
in length, o.iomm. in diameter at the expanded, and 0.04 at
the narrow end ; {d) various shaped spicules.

Owing to the fragmentary nature of the specimen, I have
not been able to give this form a specific name.

Locality, etc. — P. F., ii,q6i. Cape Vidal, N.N.E. \ N..
9^, miles. Depth, So to 100 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of
bottom, rocks. Date, February 27th, 1901.

Acanthogorgia, sp.

This specimen only consists of a small forked twig, and
even this is not complete as part of the coenenchyme, and some
of the polyps have been rubbed away, but there can be little
doubt that it belongs to the genus Acanthogorgia. The
sf)icules are similar to those of Picter Faurc, No. ii,q6i, but
rather smaller. It would be rather incautious to give a specific
name to this fragment. The specimen had also become dried
during transit from South Africa.

Pieter Faure, No. 12,064. O'Neil Peak. N.W. j W., ()%
miles. Depth, qo fathoms. By dredge. Nature of lx)ttom,
broken shells. Date, February 28th, 1901.

Muricella ramosa, Thomson and Henderson.
Syn. M. ceylo)icnsis, Thomson and Henderson.

The axis is brown or black, and is covered by a fairly
soft coenenchyme with slightly protruding spicules, the base
is expanded, and of a woody texture. The branching is in one
plane. The polyps are thickly distributed, but they are irregu-
lar, as sometimes they are close together, at other parts separ-
ated by a wide interval. The anthocodiae are in many cases
extended beyond the calyces, the latter are minute. There is a
slight degree of anastomosis between the branches. The mode
of branching is very variable; as a rule the branches do not
arise opposite one another, but are alternate, adjoining branches
are very unequal in size. The colony is slightly fan-shajx^d.
The upper branches are flexible.

The height of the specimens is about 14 cm., the breadth
locm. The large branches have almost as great a height and
thickness as the main stem. The lower part of the main stem
is cylindrical, the median very slightly flattened, and the upper
similar to the lower, but reduced in size. The branchlets gener-

Manchester Memoirs, \ol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. 23

ally come off on two sides- of the mam stem or of the primary-
branches. The branchlets are cylmdrical. The maui stem
and chief branches ascend in an undulating way. The branches
commence to come off at 6 nmi. from the base. The branchlets
often arise at right angles. Short unbranched twigs arise from
\ arious parts, these are generally expanded at the end. The ter-
minal twigs are blunt at the apices, and have two or more
ix)lyps at the extreme summits.

The length of the main stem is at least 12.5 cm., the diame-
ter at the base 2.5 cm., the length of a terminal twig 18 mm., its
diameter 1-1.5 mm.

The polyps on the smaller branches and twigs are more
thickly distributed on two sides, although they also occur to
some extent on the other; still, one can distinguish a central
area on which the polyps are less abundant — on the terminal
tuigs they are almost entirely bi-lateral. The polyps are
usually ])laced at right angles to the surface, the larger are
i.Smm. in height and I mm. in diameter. At the base of the
polyps on the surface of the coenenchyme there are long
spindles, easily seen with a lens; these are specially prominent
on the upper branches and twigs, but apparently do not occur
to any extent at the bases of the mam stem and branches.
The polyps consist of a minute calyx and a tentacular part, the
former is hardly distinguishable from the superficial coenen-
chyme.

The arrangement of the spicules of the polyps consists of
spindles arranged '' en chevron " in eight longitudinal areas,
beneath which spindles are arranged m a circular manner, and
basally much larger and broader spindles are arranged in a
vertical or oblique manner.

The axis is 3 mm. near the base of the main stem, and
i/ioth of a millimetre m diameter m the apical branches; it
is black near the base, brown towards the centre, and yellow at
the apex of the colony.

The spicules of the polyps (including anthocodia and
calyx) are small narrow spindles and larger broader spindles,
the former range in size from 0. 144 x 0.018 to 0.414 x
0.054 mm.; the latter from 0.360 x 0.090 to 0.630 x 0.108 mm.,
both of these types of spicules may be straight or curved.

The spicules from the coenenchyme of a main branch are
also small and large spindles, straight or curved, the former
ranging in size from 0.18 x 0.018 to 0.360 x 0.036 mm., the
latter from 0.396 x 0.090 to 0.774 ^ 0.144 mm. The spicules
from the superficial coenenchyme of the upper and smaller
branches are similar to the last in shaj:>e, some of the larger
spindles are as much as 1.080 x 0.162 mm. I have no hesitation
in naming these specimens Muricella ramosa, Syn. M.
ceylonensis. This species has been recorded from the Andaman
Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Manaar. off Galle and onwards u[)
the West Coast of Cevlon.

.;24 Thomson, South Ajncan i'lorgonacea.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,165. Durnford Pt.,

N.W. by N. II miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge.

Nature of bottom, shells and stones. Date, February 28th,
igoi.

Family, Plexauridae.
Eunicella papulosa, Esper.

This IS an mcomplete specimen which I did not at first
recognise as Eunicella p'jpillosa, which has been previously re-
corded from South African waters.

The spicules of the calyces are (i) characteristic torch-like
spicules, (2) double spindles, and (3) a very few long simple
spindles. The torch-like spicules and the double spindles seem
to be about equally abundant. The double spindles are usually
larger than the torch-like spicules. The spicules of the coenen-
chyme are all or nearly all torch-like spicules. A few double
spindles are seen in my slides, but they are comparatively few
in number. The dimensions of the spicules are as follows: —
From the calyces: (i) The torch-like spicules, from 0.0782 x
0.034 to 0.0952 X 0.0442 mm.; (2) Double spindles, from o.iiQO
X 0.0476 tO' 0.1598 X 0.0646 mm. From the cocnenchyme : (i)
Torch-like spicules, from 0.0816 x 0.034 to 0.0918 x 0.0374mm.;
(2) Double spindles, from 0.0782 x 0.0442 to 0.1020 x
0.0408 mm.

Locality, etc. — Pieter F^aure, No. 907. Off East London.
Depth, 85 fathoms. By dredge. Date, June 28th, 1899. Pieter
F^aure, No. 457. Buffels Bay, False Bay. Collected l^y means
of tangles. Date, October 13th, 1898.

Euplexaiira parczclados, Wright and Studer.

This description is based on one specimen. It is slender
throughout, has few branches, and is 10 cm. in height. A short
slender stem, originating from a small encrusting base, divides
into two secondary branches, from one of the latter four ter-
tiary branches are given off, namely, firstly a short branch
passing towards the outer side, then two branches arising
almost opposite one another, and lastly a fourth branch towards
the inside. The one secondary branch, after giving off these
tertiary branches as described above, is continued on for a short
distance in an upward direction, the other secondary shoot is
apparently incomplete, owing to its being covered by epiphytic
barnacles. The branches are mainly in one plane, and have a
fairly uniform diameter throughout, though they sometimes
expand slightly at their apices, and some have a medianly
situated pointed part at the extremity.

The height of the central stem from the encrusting base
to the origin of the first branch is 1.6 cm., the diameter of the
same 2 mm. The tertiary branches (excepting those which are
opposite one another) are separatee! by an interval of from

Manchester Meiiioirs, Vol. Ix'i. (1916), No. I. 25

1.8 cm. to 2.4 cm. The encrusting base is small, 6 by 3 mm.
in diameter, and the merest fraction of a millimetre in height,
and is attached to a fragment of shell.

The axis is brown near the base, and yellow at the apex,
it is about a millimetre m diameter in the main stem near the
base, and very narrow in the highest branches. The coenen-
chyme is thin, rough and granular, with white spicules.

The polyps are numerous, thickly distributed on all sides
of the branches, and commence at a low level on the main stem ;
they are sometimes separated from one another by an interval
of I mm. The polyps and tentacles are brown, and have eight
bands of needle-like spicules. The anthocodiae can be re-
tracted within the calyces, which are white, and only slightly
raised above the surface until there is only a slight brown
swelling, bounded by the calyx. The detailed structure of the
stem and axis is as described by Wright and Studer for the
genus Euplexaura.

The spicules of the" coenenchyme and calyx arc spindles,
usually with two rows of warts, and a very few (juadriradiate
forms. The spicules of the polyps are needles or rods, with
simple processes. The spicules are smaller than those described
by Wright and Studer for this species. The spindles are from
0.06 X 0.05 to 0.14 X 0.06 mm. The needles arc about o. 13 x
0.014 "^ro-

This species was collected during the voyage of the " Chal-
lenger," at two stations near Kobe, Japan, at depths of 8 and
50 fathoms. My specimen and its spicules are much smaller,
but it otherwise agrees in all essential points with the " Chal-
lenger" specimen, leading me to regard this as a young form
of Euplexaura parciclados, W. and S.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 13,581. Stalwart Point,
N.N.W., Q miles. Denth, 33 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of
bottom, sand and shells. Date of collection, August 2gth, IQOI.

Family, Primnoidae- Sub-family, Primnoin^x.

StacJiyocles ca pen sis, sp.n.

riaie III.

The polyps are arranged in verticils of seven to nine usu-
ally. In most cases there is an interval between the verticils.
The oral openings face downwards. The branching is nearly
dichotomous. Only rarely do the opercular scales of one verticil
come in contact with the sclerites of the lower row of polyps.

This species is represented in the collection by one speci-
men and ssveral fragments. The axis of the complete specimen
is 8 cm. in height, about 2.8 mm. in diameter near the base, and
I mm. near the apex. It is horny, yellow and iridescent, its
surface has small grooves running in a circular direction, and
its interior has a few calcareous particles. One of the two
primary branches into which the main stem divides is dichoto-

26 Thomson, South African dor gon-.icca.

mous, the other not so regular. The verticils are closer to one
another near the apices than basally ; generally 5 verticils
occur in a length of 15 millimetres. A point about some of
the verticils is that they do not run straight round the axis,
but in an irregular or slightly spiral manner. The coenenchyme
between the lower verticils, and covering the basal stem, has
scale-like spicules of varying shape and size, which fit closely
into one another; some of the larger are I millimetre in length.
The base of the colony is large, namely, 8 mm. in height and
diameter. An interval of about a millimetre occurs between
the lower verticils, the upper verticils being closer to one another.

The larger ])olyps are about 3 mm. in height, and 1.75 mm.
in diameter. The body or dorsal surface is enveloped by three
series of paired scale-like spicules, which overlap one another.
The two ad-axials are thick, and hollowed out to form a hood-
like part, those of right and left sides form a deep median,
wavy, slightly oblique groove, where they meet one another.
The median pair of sclerites is smaller, partly hidden by the
ad-axials, and their outer borders are slightly sinuous but entire.
The ab-axial pair is longer than the last, each sclerite slightly
overlaps the other in the median line, and has an entire but
slightly wavy margin, sometimes in contact with the polyp
lying basal to it. The ad-axials only connect latcrallv with
those of the polyps on either side. There are no sharp projec-
tions or spines on any of those sclerites. The exposed parts of
the ad-axials are about 1.2, of the medials .75, of the ab-axials
I.I mm. in length. These three pairs of plates correspond to
the basal, medial, and buccal sclerites of Versluys. At the
base of the polyp, and partly hidden by the ab-axials, are the
opercular spicules, which are generally seven in number, and
have frequently a wa\y semi-triangular appearance; in some
cases they almost come in contact with the upper spicules of
the polyp beneath, but do not project beyond the ab-axial
sclerites to any extent. The sclerites of the inner or ventral
surface of the polyp and surrounding the axis are large, thick,
and stone-like, they are very hard, and differ considerably in
size. In one verticil of 8 polyps, 21 of these sclerites lay sur-
rounding the axis. This layer of spicules is sometimes i mm.
in thickness, and has i or 2 spicules at any one place, counting
in a transverse direction.

The spicules of the coenenchyme near the base form a
well-marked layer, a little less than a millimetre in thickness.
1 hey differ in shape and size, being quadrilateral, oval, pear-
shaped, etc. and ranging from about 0.270 x 0.234 to 0.720 x
0.576mm. At some parts they slightly overlap one another,
at others there is a space on one side between them. The
sclerites from the coenenchyme between the verticils are some-
what similar to the last, but are slightly more irregular, and
more frequently with spaces between them ; they range in size
from about 0.270 x 0.324 to o.go x 0.54 mm. The opercular

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iqi6\ No. 1.

27

spicules vary in shape and size, some have a pointed, spear-like
part projecting downwards ; the larger, which are situated to-
wards the outer side of the polyp, are about 1.53 x 1.17 mm.,
the smaller about 0.5Q4 x 0.360 mm.

This species belongs to Kinoshita's Group I. of the genus
Stachyodes, but I have been unable to identify it as belonging
to any of the species already described.

7'ext-/li;. 5. Sclerites of Stachyodes captnsis, sp. n., upper, from
operculum o( polyp ; lower left, from tlie coenenchynie near
the base ; lower right, from the coenenchynie covering the
axis between the verticils in ihe iipyier jmrt.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faurc, No. I3,i5q. Cape }*lorgan,
N., I W., lOo miles. Depth, yy fathoms. By dredge. Nature
of bottom, rocks and broken shells. Date, July 26th, 1901.

I have also identified some fairly large fragments as be-
longing to this new species, which show a considerable amount
of variation from the above.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 134QO. Sandy Point,
N., \ E., 10 miles. By dredge. Depth, 05 fathoms. Nature
of bottom, rocks. Date, August 14th. 1901.

28 Thomson, Sont/i Ajncaii Gorgonacea.

Family Gorgoniidas.
Leftogorg'ia africana, sp.n.
Plate v., Fig. 7.

The specimen is yellowish or brownish in colour, and has
numerous, densely distributed polyps, usually with prominent
calyces. From the colour of many of the spicules of the coenen-
chyme, I am inclined to think that during life the colour was
brighter, probably approaching red. The branching is mostly
in one plane, and there is at one part a slight anastomosis.:
The coenenchyme is fairly thick, finely granular, and has a
line or groove on two' of the surfaces, which is more pronounced
on the lower part of the colony.

The axis, which is fairly cylindrical throughout, is brown
near the base, and yellow at the apices. It is com]:)osed of
very closely interwoven fibres, but also' gives a slight effer-
vescence with hydrochloric acid. It is not perforated by canals,
but the latter are present in the surrounding coenenchyme. In
the centre of the axis of the apical branches, internal to the
longitudinal fibres, there is a series of small oblong or square
areas, arranged one beneath the other, in a vertical direction.
No spicules occur in the axis.

The main shoots are compressed in one plane, so that there
are two broad and two narrow surfaces; the diameter of one
chief stem near the apparent base is 1.5 by 2 mm. At this
more basal part the polyps are disposed up each side of the
broad surfaces, and abundantly along the narrow sides, leaving
a fairly bare space in the centre. In the more apical branches,
however, the polyps are thickly distributed on all sides. The
apical branches are sometimes 1.7 by i mm. in diameter.

The minor branches originate in a series from a central
axis, and are either opposite or alternate to one another; they
may have a slightly pinnate appearance. These minor branches
varying considerably in length, some being half that of others,
arise either at rieht angles or at slightly less than rieht angles,
and do not terminate in a polyp, but in a small slightly pointed
cone.

The polyp consists of raised calyces, out of which extend
white fentacles, and beneath the latter a part of the anthocodia
with red spindles. In cases in which the tentacles are with-
drawn, the red portion only is seen at the apex of the calyx,
and on further contraction a mere slit is seen surrounded by the
calyx, the latter having sometimes a slightly two-lippcd appear-
ance. The calyces, which are usuallv prominent, being as much
as three-quarters of a millimetre in height and diameter, give
the specimen a slightly papillated appearance. It has, however,
to be noted that thev are also sometimes very small, being then
reduced to minute elevations of the surface coenenchyme. The
long diarnetcr of the calvces in the contracted condition of the
anthocodias is usually parallel with the long axis of the branch.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQiOj, No. I. 29

In my specimen the pulvps arc frequently expanded so that
the tentacles are visible, and such zooids are about I mm. in
height, and 0.8 mm. in diameter. They have on their external
surfaces narrow, red spindles, which are placed longitudinally
"en chevron" in eight groups. At about the centre of each
of these eight groups there are four or five spindles, counting
in a transverse or circular direction. At the bases *of these eight
groups there is a ring of red spindles, pjlaced with their length at
right angles to the length of the polyp, and forming a band
round it. This ring consists of about 4 to 6 spindles at any one
place, counting in a \ertical direction. It was not possible to
count the number of pinnules in the tentacles.

The distribution of the polyps varies in different parts of
the specimen. As previously stated, near the base, where the
stems are more flattened, the [X)lyps are more abundant on two
sides. At this part also there is a tendency to an arrangement
of the polyps in a row along each side of the broad surface,
with some polyps situated medianly and irregularly between
the two rows, but this arrangement cannot be traced any dis-
tance. Near the apices there is a tendency towards a wide
spiral arrangement, but it is rather irregular and indefinite.

The coenenchyme is fairly thick on the surface of the axis,
near the base it is sometimes slightly less than a millimetre in
thickness.. It is slightly corky in texture.

The spicules of the coenenchyme are (i) double spindles,
(2) simple spindles, straight or curved, (3) irregularly shaped
spicules, such as quadri-racliate forms (rare), (4) a larger form
of spicule more or less oblong, slightly scale-like, and provided
with processes (this form is too' rare to be taken into account,
it may even be extraneous). The double spindles are from
0.032 X 0.030 to 0.102 X 0.047 mm; the simple spindles are
from 0.095 ^ 0.040 to 0.164 X 0.051 mm.; the irregular spicules
are about 0.06 .t x 0.037 "^ri''-

The spicules of the calyces are of the same form and ap-
proximate size as those of the general surface of the coenen-
chyme. The red spindles or rods of the anthocodise are from
0.047 ^ 0.023 to 0.146 X 0.030 mm. The general dimensions
are not given, as the specimen is incomplete.

This species has some resemblance to Le-ptogorgia florcFy
Verrill, and also with L. fulchra, Verrill; but is apparently dis-
tinct from both.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 13,235. Cove Rock, N.,
4 E., 5 A miles. Depth, 43 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of
bottom, stones and broken shells. Date, August 2nd, igoi.

Lepfogorgia alba, Verrill ; var. capensis.

There is one specimen of this species in the collection which
is 15 cm. in height, and 10 cm. in breadth. The branching is in
one plane. A cylindrical stem, rising from an expanded base,

30 ThOMSOJN, South African Gorgonacea

divides at a low level into two ])rimanes, both of which give
rise to branches of a second, third, or even fourth order m an
irregular pinnate manner; the secondaries may be almost as
strongly developed as the primaries ; the branchlets may be
opposite or alternate.

The main stem is cylindrical and the two primaries also,
but above those the .branches are clearly flattened in the plane
of expansion, with the exception of the apical, which are almost
round. The branches are generally not pointed at the apices,
but are blunt or slightly rounded, and in most cases expand in
diameter towards their apices. The secondary branches fre-
quently arise from the primaries at angles of about 45°, and
curve outwards, and then upwards and inwards, in a slightly
sinuate manner. The secondaries are frequently separated from
one another at their origin by intervals of about | of an inch.
At various points on the secondaries there are short tertiaries
only about 5 mm. in length, which have a stunted, almost club-
like appearance. The upper branches are flexible, but the
specimen has a certain rigidity towards the base.

The axis is strongly developed, is brown or black near the
base, and yellow towards the apex. The coenenchyme covering
the axis is white and granular, but the colour of the axis shows
through it.

The coenenchyme on the lower main stem is i 'loth to
I /20th of a millimetre in thickness, on the apical branches it
is, comparatively speaking, thicker. The presence of longitu-
linal lines or grooves is very clearly marked on most of the
two flattened surfaces of the stem and branches except at the
apices. Five or six of these grooves occur on each of the
flattened sides of the basal stem, but higher up they gradually
become reduced in number.

The distribution of the polyps varies to some extent at
different parts, but is mainly bilateral. On the lower stem and
branches along each of the narrowed sides, there are usually
two rows of polyps disposed in each of these, alternate to one
another, but polyps also occur here and there on the flattened
sides in a more irregular manner. The lateral polyps are
separated from one another by an interval of \ to i mm. On
the apical branches, which frequently have a slightly curved
or twisted course, the polyps are irregularly distributed on all
sides.

The polyps are small, even when the tentacles are extended
beyond the calyces, which is usually the case in my specimen ;
when they are retracted the opening of the calyx has a slightl}-
oblong, two-lipped appearance.

The diameter of the basal stem is about 2.5 mm., that of a
primary branch 2.5 by 1.2 mm., of an apical .5 mm.

The spicules are mainly double spindles, with large ex-
panded processes; their size is from about 0.054 ^ 0.027 to
0.081 X 0.036 mm. They do not appear to be so markedly

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (hji6\ Nc. 1. 31

sci)aratcd into two kinds as those described and figured by
Verrill.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,164. Durnford Point,
N.W. by N., 1 1 miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge. Nature
of bottom, shells and stones. Date, February 28th,, 1901.

Leptogorgia rigida, Verrill.
Plate IV., Fig. 3.

This form consists of (i) a large, basal, encrusting part,
with a massive brown axis, (2) a short main stem, which divides
at a height of 1 8 mm. into (3) two primary branches, the lattci
giving rise to secendary and tertiary branches. The branching
is in one plane. The specimen is reddish-yellow in the upper
branches, but red in the main stem, and the branches immedi-
ately above that. The calyces differ in shade from the general
superficial coenenchymc, and the tentacles arc white, or pale
yellow. The specimen has a slightly fleshy appearance, though
the coencnchyme is not thick, as in such forms as (lorgonia
-fiannnea.

The height of the specimen is about 8.3, the breadth 6.5 cm.
The basal encrusting part is 6.5 mm. in height- — resting on a
stone, and is 1 1 by 8 mm. in diameter. The main stem is 3 by
2 mm., and its axis is 1.75 by i mm. in diameter. A branch
about the middle of the colony is 2 by 1.2 mm. in diameter,
and slightly larger at the apex.

The main stem and branches are flattened in one plane,
and this compression is specially well marked on the lower part,
but towards the apices it is not so obvious. The branches are
rather brittle, though fairly thick, and their apices are not
pointed, but broad and almost straight at the extreme end.
Three or four polyps generally occur near the apices of the
branches. There is apparently no rule as to the mode in which
the minor branches are disposed in regard to one another, they
are not systematically cither opposite or alternate. There is no
anastomosis in this specimen.

The coenenchyme is about i /6th to i/ioth of a millimetre
in thickness on the surface of the axis, but varies slightly ''n
different parts, and appears to be thinner on the surface of the
primary stem. The surface of the coenenchyme is studded with
partially projecting spicules.

The axis is horny, brown in colour throughout, and remains
fairly thick, even at the apices of the branches.

The calyces are fairly prominent, but vary according to the
degree of contraction ; sometimes they are reduced to minute
elevations of the superficial coenenchyme. The aperture at
the apex of the calyx generally remains open, and is oval in
shape. These openings are generally i mm. in length, and
slightly less in breadth. In some cases the tentacles, which are
white or yellow, are still .seen projecting beyond the calyx.

32 Thomson, South Ajncivi Gorgonacea.

On all the lower parts of the colony, the polyps are dis-
posed on the two narrower sides of the stem and branches,
and a space free from polyps is thus left on the two broader
and flatter sides, which is sometimes 2 mm. in breadth; on the
latter two surfaces there is a faint longitudinal line or groove.
Nearer the apices of the branches, the polyps tend to be dis-
posed on all sides, though they are still mainly bi-lateral in
arrangement. The lateral polyps are sometimes separated from
one another by an interval of .5 to .75 of a millimetre.

The spicules of the coenenchyme are small double spindles,
with wart-like processes or tubercles. They are almost in-
variably of this type, but exceptionally there are crosses and
simpler forms of spindles. The size of the double spindles is
from 0.05 X 0.04 to 0.08 X 0.054 n^ni. These spicules of the
coenenchyme are usually red.

The spicules of the calyces are also mostly double spindles,
very similar to those of the coenenchyme, but with slightly
more rounded processes, and yellow in colour.

The spicules of the tentacles and anthocodire are narrow
spindles or rods, with a few simple processes; they are about
0.08 X 0.02 mm. in size, and yellow^ in colour. Verrill has re-
corded this species from the West Coast of America, near Cape
St. Lucas.

Locality, etc.- — Pieter Faure, No. 907. Off East London.
Depth, 85 fathoms. By dredge. Date, January 2Sth, iSgg.

Leftogorgi'i aurata, sp.n.

Plate I., Fig. 5; Plate IV., Fig. 2.

The colony is fairly flexible, and the branching in one
plane. The main axis, which is expanded at the base, divides
at a low level into two. The smaller of these two primary sub-
divisions gives rise on one side only, firstly to simple non-
divided branches, and then to a compound branch. The
branches have two more or less rounded or blunt lobes, which
may be due to regrowth after injury to the part. The second
of the two main sub-divisions divides into two, each of which
gives rise to simple and to forked or compound branches. The
upper branchlets of this second part of the colony are connected
with one another at rare intervals, by a simple anastomosis.
The branching is neither dichotomous nor regular, as apparently
any lateral offshoot may grow to greater dimensions than the
others. The branches rarely arise opposite one another, they
tend to originate mostly on one side towards vacant space.
The axis is brown or black in colour, and cylindrical in that
part of the colony immediately above the slightly expanded
base, which is free from polyps. The axis of the colony is
hard and horny, and its expanded base is light brown in colour.
Above the main shoot the branches are slightly flattened but
towards the apex of the colony the branchlets tend to become

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (i9i6\ No. I. '^J^

more cylindrical. On the lower branches the ix)lyps are mainly
confined to two sides (the smaller or lateral sides), and thus
there is a fairly large median area without polyps. Towards
the apex of the colony, the polyps tend to become more uni-
formly disposed on all sides, especially is this the case m the
smallest terminal branches. Clearly defined grooves or lines
(5 or 6) are present on the lower part of the colony, on those
surfaces free from polyps. These grooves become much less
obvious towards the apices of the branches, and there only one
or two lines occur, or they may be absent. These lines are
clearly visible tO' the naked eye, especially on the lower part
of the colony.

The colony is about 13.2 cm. in height, and 14.2 cm. in
breadth. The height of the main axis previous to the origin
of any branches is 2.65 cm., and its diameter at the middle
2.5 mm. The primary branches which originate from this have
a diameter of 4 mm., including the polyps, and 2 mm. without
the polyps. The bare areas without polyps on the lower
branches are about 2 mm. wide. The apical branches are about
2 mm. in diameter, including the polyps.

The distribution of polyps is as stated above, but even
near the base polyps occur occasionally on the surface of the
coenenchyme, which is usually free from polyps ; on the other
two surfaces the calyces are slightly elongated in the direction
of the long axis of the colony, and the openings are slightly
slit-like in appearance. In most cases the polyps are not com-
pletely retracted, and the tentacles may be seen in white, re-
lieving the yellow ground colour of the calyces and coenen-
chyme.

The distance between the polyps varies, sometimes they are
separated by an interval of i millimetre, at other times they
are so closely adjacent as to be only a fraction of a millimetre
apart. The polyps may measure 2 mm. in one diameter, 1.2 mm.
in another, and 1.2 mm. in height. In the polyps situated on
the apical branches the opening is easily seen lying longitudinal
to the long axis of the branch. The longitudinal grooves or
lines on the lower part of the colony are about i mm., and the
slight elevations between them about .7 mm. in breadth. The
encrusting base measures 1 1 mm. in diameter and 3 mm. in
height. The coenenchyme covering the central cylindrical axis
is about 0.1 mm. in thickness, and does not increase to any
extent in the higher reaches of the colony.

The surface of the colony is densely covered with small
spicules. On close examination it is seen that the longitudinal
grooves have a smaller number of spicules than the elevations
between them. Two of the branches end in apical swellings,
on which the polyps are thickly distributed ; one of the swell-
ings is 7 by 6 mm., the other g by 6 mm. ; these may possibly
be due to regrowth after injury.

On that part of the basal column which has no polyps

34 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

there is a curious cup-like swelling. This is 8 mm. m length,
6 mm. in breadth, and 4 mm. in height. The wall of the cup
is fairly hard, and evidently an out-growth of the axis. The
entire structure is probably an abnormality. The spicules of
the cortex are as follows : — Spindles from the cortex with wart-
like processes in whorls, from 0.075 x 0.041 to 0.090 x 0.036
mm. ; spindles from the cortex with wart-like processes irregu-
larly disposed, from 0.072 x 0.037 to 0.090 x 0.037 mm.; smaller
spindles with irregular wart-like processes, from 0.037 ^ 0.027
to 0.055 x 0.037 mm. The spicules of the polyps are fairly
similar in size.

The original diagnosis of the genus Leptogorgia, by Milne
Edwards, was: — " Les especes a axe non calcifere, dont le
coenenchyme est pelliculaire c'est-a-dire tres mince, et d'un tissu
serre et dont les calyces n'ont pas les bords sai Hants. El les se
distingue done des Gorgones proprement dites, par I'absencc de
verrucs calci feres et s'eloigne des Plexaures par la disposition
du coenenchyme; qui, ches ces derniers est remarquablement
epars et d'une texture subereuse." Verrill (1867-71) defined the
genus as follows: — " Spicula of the coenenchyma mostly small
double spindles of two forms, longer and shorter. Branches
usually slender, sub-dividing in various ways; often reticulate,
pinnate or bipinnate. Cells usually prominent, sometimes flat,
mostly m lateral rows or bands." In the " Challenger" Report
Wright and Studer give the following definition of this
genus: — "The colony varies greatly in form, but is more or
less ramified in one plane. It often exhibits a net-like structure
from an anastomosis of the branches. The polyps sometimes
form short verrucas, and sometimes are completely retracted into
the coenenchyma. They are usually disposed in two lateral
rows, having between them the naked coenenchyma. Upon the
surface of the latter the courses of the larger tubes are indicated
by longitudinal depressions. The spicules are usually minute
double spindles of variable length."

Close on forty species of the genus Leptogorgia have been
recorded, and I have felt reluctant to add another to the long
list, but I hold this to be a new species. Thomson and Hender-
son give a description of Leptogorgia ochracea which in some
respects is similar to this species. The apices of the branches
are, however, more pointed in Leptogorgia ochracea, the calyces
are smaller, and the spicules are larger than in my form.
Thomson and Henderson's description and figure are taken
from a dried specimen, but on drying part of my example it
is still obvious that it does not agree with their species.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 12,164. Durnford Point,
N.W. by N., II miles. Depth, 45 fathoms. By dredge. Nature
of bottom, shells and stones. I3ate, February 28th, igoi.

Leptogorgia, sp., juv.
A young specimen which belongs to the genus Leptogorgia.

McDichestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. 1. 35

The characters are those of the genus, but I hold that it would
be a mistake to give this small specimen a specific name.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 10,880. Umhloti River
mouth, N. by W., A W., 8A miles. Depth, 40 fathoms. Taken
by large dredge. Nature of bottom, sand and shells (hard
ground). Date, December i8th, 1900.

Lophogorgij lit t kern, Wright and Studer.

Plate I., Fig. 2.

The specimen is not complete, but there is a main axis from
which branches arise on two sides, some of which remain
simple, and others divide and re-divide. There is a sinuous
line running up the flat side of the mam stem and on most
of the branches, but it is never very prominent, and on the
terminal branches becomes indistinct or disappears. The
polyps are situated on each side of this line, and v/hen re-
tracted form a slit. The main stem and branches are flattened
in the plane of expansion, but the terminal ones are more
rounded, and the polyps tend to be distributed on all sides.
On the flattened sides, the polyps frequently stand opposite
one another. There is a slight anastomosis of the branches,
and the terminal ones are slightly expanded at the tips, where
two or more polyps are situated. The coenenchyme covering
the axis is not thick, and it is finely granular. The
axis is brown and flattened near the base, but yellow and
more rounded in the upper parts of the colony. The main
stem is not, but the upper parts are distinctly flexible. The
branches from the main axis do not as a rule originate opposite
one another. The main stem is not straight, but has a more
or less sinuate form. The calyces are only very slightly raised
above the surface of the coenenchyme.

The spicules agree exactly in shape (even to the needles,
with short processes in the tentacles) with these described for
this species by Wright and Studer in the " Challenger " volume.
The specimen is a more typical example oi Lophogorgia Inikeni
than that described by Thomson and Henderson from Ceylon.
The spicules are, however, smaller than in Wright and Studer's
example. The smaller spindles are from 0.034 x 0.030 to
0.044 ^ 0.030 mm. The larger spindles are from 0.075 ^ 0.040
to 0.087 X 0.054. Ii^ Wright and Studer's specimen the spicules
of the coenenchyme are from 0.2 x 0.04 to 0.34 x 0.02 mm. It
IS necessary to give a further description, as the specimen
essentially agrees with that of Wright and Studer.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 15,724. Off Gordon's
Bay, 6-14 fathoms. By dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks.
This species has been previously recorded from Prince Edward
Island, Zanzibar, Ceylon, and the Gulf of Kutch TKathiawar
Peninsula).

36 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

Gorgonia -fiavimea, Ellis and Solander.

Flate /., Figs, j and 7; Plate IV., Fig. 6.

The specimen is incomplete. The basal branches are
flattened, the upper branches cylindrical, the white polyps
occurring profusely on all sides. The branching is m one
plane, and the branches do not as a rule stand opposite one
another ; they arc flexible, and do not anastomose. The speci-
men is well expanded, the mouths of the polyps are frequently
open, and the tentacles and pinnules are well extended. The
coenenchyme is thick, and this gives the colony a fleshy appear-
ance. The surface of the coenenchyme is only very slightly
granular. The horny axis is black near the base, but brown
in the upper parts of the colony. The specimen is only part
of a colony, and therefore general measurements are not given,
but we know that this species may grow to an immense size.
The coenenchyme is sometimes about 1.5 mm. in thickness.
The distance between the expanded polyps varies slightly, in
some cases it was about i mm. The apices of the branches are
not pointed to any extent, but are more or less rounded, about
four polyps usually occur at the apex of a branch. The polyps
are apparently arranged in close-set spirals, and the openings
through which the white polyps protrude are circular or oval
in shape. There are, apparently, no spicules in the polyps,
about ten pairs of pinnules occur in each tentacle. The calyces
are only minute non-differentiated elevations of the surface
coenenchyme, which cannot be distinguished with the naked
eye. The horny axis apparently remains flat throughout the
different parts of the colony. The spicules are double spindles,
and their length is about 0.06 mm.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faurc, No. 706. Lat., 33° 53' 15" S.
Long., 25° 51' 45" E. Depth, 26 fathoms, by large trawl.
Nature of bottom, sand. December 6th, 1898. P. F., 18,381.
Flesh Point N., f- W., 6^, miles. By large trawl. January
15th, 1904.

As there are no really good figures of well-preserved
examples of this species I have pleasure in using the beautiful
sketches made by the late Mr. Davidson at the LTniversity of
Aberdeen.

Gorgonia albicans, Kollikcr.

From Gordon's Bay. Depth, 6-14 fathoms. Collected
by dredge. Nature of bottom, rocks. Date, October 20th,
1902.

This species has already been recorded by Hickson from
Port Alfred and Cape St. Blaizc.

Gorgonia, sp.
Plafc IV., Fig. J.
A single incomplete specimen of a yellow Gorgonia. It

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. I. 37

has a soft, fleshy appearance, due to the thick coenenchyme.
The tentacles are white, and are in some cases extended beyond
the calyces. The lower main branches are slightly flattened,
the upper are rounded, and with small apices. The axis is
horny, and yellow or brown in colour. The calyces are prom-
inent and very numerous, being scattered over the surface of
the coenenchyme with little interval between them, except in
the lower part of the colony. The base has unfortunately been
broken away and lost, but a line or groove is seen in the centre
of two' of the lower main branches for a short distance. The
branching is mainly in one plane, and there is no anastomosis.
As far as one can judge from the incomplete specimen, the
mode of branching is as follows : — Two main primary branches
give off secondary branches on either side, which may be
simple and unbranched, or they may divide up and give rise
to tertiary branches, the latter also- in some cases sending out
quaternaries. The surface of the coenenchyme is yellow, and
has a granular appearance produced by the yellow spicules.
Any statement as to general size is in this case of little value,
as the colony is obviously incomplete. The diameter of one
of the two main stems is 3.5 by 2 mm. ; the diameter of a branch
near the apex less than i mm. ; the calyces may be i mm. in
height and 1.5 mm. in diameter. The calyces, are separated
from one another by the merest fraction of a millimetre, the
tentacles in some cases extend .75 mm. beyond the calyx.
Ihe coenenchyme covering the horny axis near the base is
about .8 mm. in thickness. The spicules from all parts of the
colony are fairly similar, namely, double spindles, spicules of
a club-like form, simple spindles (a few), and irregular spicules
(rare). The double spindles range from 0.075 ^ 0.045 to 0.117
X 0.0396 mm. The club-like spicules of the coenenchyme from
O.io X 0.065 fo 0.127 X 0.054 mm. The irregular spicules and
simple spindles are about 0.099 x 0.081 mm. This species
comes near Gorgonia diihia. Th. and Mac. These authors
write, " There is no trace of anything resembling the ' scaphoid '
spicules described as characteristic of the genus Gorgonia. In
this respect our genus comes nearest to Gorgonia oppositipinna,
Ridley, and G. anstraliensis, Ridley, where the spicules are
mainly whorled spindles, the scaphoids being only slightly
developed." G. chibia resembles my species in the calyces
occurring all over the stem and branches irregularly and in
spirals, both are shallow water forms, but the coenenchyme of
G. diibia is described as thin and white ; in my species it is
fairly thick and yellow in colour. As my specimen is incom-
plete, I do not give it a specific name, but as it w^as collected
near Table Bay probably another example will be found later,
and the doubt as to its identification will be settled.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 2,887. Robben Island,
N.E., f N., 3 miles. Depth, 27 fathoms. By large dredge.
Nature of bottom, coral, sand, shells and rocks. Mav 30th,
1900.

38 Thomson, SontJi African iiorgonacea.

Eiigorgia Gilchristi, Hickson.

At first I thought that these specimens belonged to the
genus Euplexaura, but the absence of canals round the axis led
me to revise my first identification.

The specimens are yellow or orange red, they are branched
in one j)lane, and are fairly fl-exiblc. A main stem, arising
from a slightly expanded base, after a short upward course
divides into two, and these in their turn give rise to branches,
and the latter to branchlets. The branches are not straight,
but irregularly curved or twisted, they would- be cylindrical
except that the polyps originate on all sides, and give them
a papillated appearance.

The axis is dark brown near the base, and covered by a
thin coenenchyme, higher up it is light brown or yellow, and
covered by a thicker coenenchyme.

The specimens vary in appearance at different parts, owing
to the degree to which the polyps are contracted ; at some parts
the branches appear papillated, owing to well developed
calyces showing on all sides, with minute longitudinal slits at
their apices, at other parts the surface of the coenenchyme
appears much more uniform, owing to the calyces being more
depressed, and in some such cases deep red blotches of colour
'may be seen, which are due to the red spicules of the tentacles.
The polyps or calyces are crowded over the entire surface of
the coenenchyme of the branches, and there is some indica-
tion of a spiral arrangement, which is, however, of too close a
nature to trace out.

The coenenchyme is finely granular, and has apparently
no lines or grooves on its external surface, but the calyces are
so closely approximated that there is little free intervening
space.

The branches expand at their apices sometimes to quite a
considerable extent, they do not end in a pointed manner, but
are blunt or rounded. As previously stated, the calyces vary
in size, according to the degree of contraction from minute
almost imperceptible elevations to fairly prominent mound-like
swellings; in the first case, their openings with the tentacles
are about i/20th of a millimetre in diameter, in the second
case their diameter is about 2 mm., and their height from \ to
1 mm.

The larger specimen was about 8 cm. in height and 6.2 cm.
in the plane of expansion. The diameter of a branch, includ-
ing the calyces, near the centre of the specimen is about 2 mm.
The horny axis is flexible, and its centre is of a different
colour from the periphery. The axis of the main stem is i '20th
of a millimetre m diameter, the axes of the terminal branches
are thin and thread-like, and have a comparatively thick
coenenchyme covering them. The second specimen is smaller,
and pure yellow in colour, it is approximately 6 cm. in height.

Majicliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi6), No. I. 39

and 4 cm. in diameter; both of the specimens were to some
extent concealed by a growth of Porifera and Polyzoa.

Rough transverse sections through a branch show the
yellow circular axis in the centre, and surrounding this, three
or four cavities contaming the anthocodiae. These cavities are
closely protected by spicules which extend inwards towards
the axis, but do not invest the latter. The anthocodiae are
completely retractile within the calyces, and the tentacles are
marked out by prominent narrow, red spindles, which differ
from those of all other parts of the specimen.

The spicules of the outer and inner coenenchyme, and of
the calyces, are similar m shape. They have the following
forms and dimensions in millimetres: — (i) spindles, with five
transverse rows of broad tubercles, about o. 12 x 0.04; (2)
spmdles of about the same size, but instead of broad tubercles
having simpler spines or i;)rocesses ; (3) spindles of the first
kind, but with only two rows of broad tubercles, and measur-
ing about 0.08 X o.oA: (4) double wheels (only a few), .04 x
.06; (5) a few crosses or stars, and double crosses; (6) long,
narrow spindles of the tentacles, with simple processes, about
0.26 x 0.02. The spicules of this specimen are difficult to
classify, they vary so much.

In spite of the difference in colour and some other points,
I identify these specimens as young forms of Eugorgia Gil-
christi, Hickson. They were found at the same depth, and in
similar ground to those of Hickson.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 618. S.S.W., from Cajx"
Recife, 52 fathoms. Taken by dredge. Nature of bottom,
rocks and coral. Date, November 14th, 1898.

Eugorgia line.ata , sp.n.

Plate II., Fig. 3; Plate Y ., Fig. 2.

This descri])tion is based on six white specimens. The
branching is in one plane, but neither dichotomous nor regular.
The axis is thick, horny, non-calcified, brown or black in
colour, and the coenenchyme covering it is thin. Longitu-
dinal slightly wavy lines occur on the surface of the coenen-
chyme of the lower and chief shoots, which are only slightly
de'veloi>ed on the upper branches. Anastomosis is rare, l^eing
confined to only a few of the branches. The upper branches
of the colony arc slightly flexible, and their axes when stripped
of the white coenenchyme, yellow in colour. The calyces of
the polyps occur only as very minute elevations, and the latter
are not numerous near the base of the coloriy. The
lower main branches arc slightly flattened, but the apical are
rounded; on the flattened ones the polyps are slightly more
numerous on the narrowed sides. On the more flattened basal
In-anches, the number of longitudinal lines appears to be about
£lvc in number, higher up this number decreases, and the polyps

40 Thomson, SoutJi African Gorgonacca.

also become more equally distributed on all sides towards the
apices of the colony.

The axis of the colony expands into a basal attaching part,
which is 7 by 7 mm. in diameter, above this it gives off later-
ally disposed branches almost at once. The axis near the base
is brown or black in colour, and extremely hard. Its surface
IS very smooth, and shows very faint longitudinal lines or
striae. In the flexible apical branches the axis is extremely
thin, and has a thickness of less than i/ioth of a millimetre.
There is no clear distinction into nodes and internodes.

The branches vary considerably as to their mode of origin,
their length, and the number of polyps. They may be simple
or compound. One distinguishes in the colony several pre-
dominant shoots, which give rise to simple and com[>ound
branches, the latter giving rise to undivided branchlets, or
to branchlets which may in their turn divide. There is also
a rare anastomosis between branches which are fairly remote
from one another in point of origin. The simple may come
off opposite one another, or nearly opposite one another, or
they may be alternate, and the same holds for the compound
branches. The simple branches vary in length from 2 mm.
up to 34 mm. The longer branches are not as a rule expanded at
the end, but the shorter ones are, and thus ha\e a knob-like
appearance at the apices.

The dimensions of a colony may be 16 cm. in height by
10.5 cm. transversely. The polyps are very numerous and
thickly distributed, the better expanded appear as oval (white)
elevations (the calyces) whose long diameter is as a rule in
the direction of the long axis of the branch or shoot on which
they are situated, though this is not always the case; the
opening surrounded by the apex of the calyx appears open in
many cases, and the tentacles may be seen within as a whitish
or yello'Adsh mass. The calyces project only very slightly
beyond the general surface of the coenenchyme. The distance
between adjoining calyces varies considerably, sometimes it is
about I mm. A fairly well expanded polyp is about 2 by
1.5 mm. in diameter, and i mm. in height.

The coenenchyme covering the axis is about o. i mm. in
thickness. The entire surface of the colony is covered with
small white spicules. The spicules of the polyp are spindles
with tubercles, double wheels, rough stars, warted spheres,
crosses, and some more irregular spicules. The spicules of the
coenenchyme are similar, but there are not so many, or any of
the longer narrow spindles. The long spindles are o.og x
0.02 mm. The double wheels are about 0.063 mm. in length,
the stars or warted spheres are about 0.045 mm.

This species is distinguished from Eugorgia Gilchristi by
the calyces being here very much less prominent, by the basal
branches being compressed, by a thinner coenenchyme, and
other characters. It does not appear to agree with any of the

Mancliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi6), No. I. 41

species of Eugorgia described by Verrill. Verrill's diagnosis
of the genus is as follows: — " Coenenchyma composed chiefly
of three forms of small spicula, which are naked at its surface.
There are two kinds of warty double spindles — longer and
usually sharper ones, and stouter and blunter ones. These
are intermingled with numerous double-wheels, which are
usually shorter; sometimes one of the wheels is shorter than
the other, or rudimentary, frequently there are four wheels
developed. The polyp-spicula are small, slender spindles.
The axis is horny. Branches either round or compressed, vari-
ously sub-divided, much as in Leptogorgia, surface finely
granulous. Cells mostly m a band along each side of the
branches, sometimes prominent, usually flat."

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 210. Cape St. Blaize,
S.W. by W., i W., 6} miles. Depth, 15-18 fathoms. By
dredge. Date of collection, July 15th, 1898.

A large example of this species measuring 30 cm. in height
and ii-i2cm. in breadth. The specimen is not complete, and
shows that this species grows to a large size. The spicules
agree with those from the Cape St. Blaize specimens.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 14,080. Nanquas Peak,
N. f E., yl miles to Nanquas Peak, N.E. by N. f N., 7 miles.
By large trawl. Depth, 50 fathoms. Bottom, mud and sand.
Date, November 13th, igoi.

Stoiogorgia capensis, sp.n.

Pla/c I., Figs. ^ and y ; Plate /!'.. Fig. 5.

This species is represented in my collection by two speci-
mens from Algoa Bay. The axis is entirely homy, showing
concentric layers of fibre in transverse section. The specimens
are red or pink, with yellow polyps. The colony consists of
a main stem, flattened near the base, which gives off branches
on either side. In the larger specimen the primary branches
are fairly equal on each side of the main stem, but in the
smaller specimen they are much more developed on one side
than on the other. These primary branches may be simple or
undivided, but more usually they give off a series of second-
ary off-shoots, the latter in a few cases giving rise to others
of a third or fourth order. Polyos are situated on the main
stem, but for about half its length these are chiefly confined
to two sides, namely, those from which the branches arise, the
other two sides remaining more or less free from polyps. In
the upper part of the colony, however, the polyps are more
uniformly distributed on all sides, the bilateral arrangement
disapjjearing. The branches from the main stem do not, as
a rule, arise opposite one another. The apices of the branches
are frequently slightly pointed, several of the secondary
branches, however, have rather a stunted appearance, and ter-
minate in a lobe-like manner. In the lower part of the colony,

42 Thomson, South African (jorgonacea.

the mam stem is flattened, but in the upper parts it tends to
become more and more rounded. The lower primary branches
are also flattened, but this flattening rarely occurs among the
branches of the upper part of the colony.

The calyces are prominent on all parts on which polyps
occur, and their spicules arc redder and more abundantly dis-
posed than on the rest of the surface. The polyps can be
retracted almost entirely within the calyces, but in most cases,
even when the opening is reduced to a small slit, a little of
the tentacles can still be seen within the aperture. In the con-
tracted condition the openings of the polyps are grooves, whose
long axes are usually parallel to the long axes of the stem or
branches on which they are borne. These grooves, when the
})olyp IS contracted, are bounded by lip-like swellings. The
polyi:)S vary in my specimens in the degree to which they are
expanded, in the best cases the tentacles are not completely
extended; they are dark yellow, brown, or red in colour. The
polyps on the branches are fairly closely approximated to one
another, especially near the apices.

The branches are slightly flexible, the coenenchyme is
thin, with a granular appearance, due to the spicules, which
are easily seen with a lens lying scattered on its surface. The
two specimens differ slightly in colour, one having white and
the other red s{>icules. The spicules are large, and there are
usually slight spaces between them.

The dimensions of the specimens are as follows: — The
larger colony, 8.5 by 6.5 cm.; horny axis near the base, 1.5 mm.
m diameter; the calyx, from 0.5 to 0.75 mm. in diameter; the
smaller colony, 6.8 by 5.0 cm.

The spicules of the coenenchyme are spindles, clubs, and
minute irregular spicules. The spicules of the tentacles are
long spindles arranged in eight areas, giving the colour to the
tentacles. The spicules of the calyces are double spindles,
clubs, and small irregular spicules.

The size of the spicules is as follows: — {a) The spicules
of the coenenchyme: spindles, from 0.0756 x 0.045 to o. 11 70 x
o.03g6mm. ; clubs, from o.io x 0.0658 to 0.127 x 0.054 mm.;
irregular spicules, from O.ogg x 0.081 mm. {b) Spicules of the
calyces and polyps : double spindles, from 0.054 x 0.027 to
0.126 X 0.03c} mm; clubs, from 0.081 x 0.054 to 0.121 x 0.054
mm.; simple spindles of tentacles, from 0.072 x 0.021 to 0.126
X 0.027 mm.; small irregular spicules, about 0.054 x 0.0342
mm. The type of this genus was described by Verrill under
the name Stenogorgia casta. N. Lat., 31° 48' 50". W. Long.,
7f 51' 50"- i'ive other species have been described, namely,
Stenogorgia rosea, by Grieg, from Norway, in 1887; Steno-
gorgia mtniata, Studer, from the Azores, in igoi — Syn. Gor-
gonia rniniata, Valenciennes, 1855 — Syn. Gorgonia mtniata,
Milne-Edwards et Haime, 1857 — Syn. Gorgonia miniata,
Pourtales, 1868; this species has also been recorded by Nutting,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 6), No. I. 43

from the Antilles, in igio. Stcnogorgia ceylonensis, Thomson
and Henderson, from the Indian Ocean, in 1905; Stenogorgia
Kofoidi, by Nutting (1Q09), from the Calif ornian coast, off
Point Pmos Lighthouse ; Stenogorgia Siiideri, by Nutting (19 10),
from the Siboga Expedition, Station 310-Lat., 8° 30' S. Long.,
119° 7' 5" E., 7^ metres. Verrill's diagnosis of the genus is
as follows: — " Axis horny, branched. Coenenchyme thin, con-
sisting chiefly of small, warty fusiform spicula, with a few
smaller, short, irregular, rougn, granule-like spicula next the
outer surface, but not forming any regular layer. Calicles
scattered or two-rowed, more or less prominent, eight-rayed at
summit, and filled with spicula, like those of the coenenchyma.
Tentacles filled with fusiform spicula and mostly incurved,
commonly not retracted within the calicles, but capable of it."
Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 608. Near Roman Rock,
Algoa Bay. By dredge. November iith, igo8.

Family, Gorgoncllidae.

Yerrucella hicolor. Nutting.

Plate v., Fig. 6.

The specimens are yellow, orange yellow, or almost red
in colour. The branching is nearly in one plane. The size
varies from about 3.2 cm. by 1.5 cm. to 4 cm. by 4.5 cm. The
s])ecimens expand at the base into an encrusting part, from
which a short main stem ascends, and gives rise to primary
branches, mostly m one plane; the primary branches give rise
to secondary, and these to tertiaries, but the branching is not
quite uniform in different specimens. The main stem is about
2 mm. in diameter, and has no polyps. The diameter of the
upper branches is about the same as that of the primary stem.
The branches usually originate at acute angles. The axis is
expanded at the points at which the polyps originate, and
when the latter are retracted, as is usually the case in my speci-
mens, then the colony has a nodular appearance. The calyces
have the shape of low' domes when the polyps are retracted,
but are blunt cones when the latter are expanded. The jx)lyps
usually originate on two sides, leaving two bare areas, which
sometimes show two faint lines on the surface, the third side,
however, sometimes has polyps. At the apices of the branches
the calyces are closer together, and more thickly distributed
on all sides than farther down, where they may be separated
by an interval of i mm. ; the branches terminate bluntly. The
larger calyces are about i mm. in height and diameter, in some
cases the tentacles may be seen as an 8-rayed star projecting
above the calyx. The polyps do not appear to originate quite
perpendicularly from the branches. The axis, when treated
with acid, effervesces very freely, and a white lamellar part is
left behind, which consists of a darker coloured central and

44 Thomson, Sonth Afncan GorgouLJcea.

a lighter external part, the latter showing a fine thread-like
netted structure.

The colony is slender and slightly flexible, and with a
fairly thin coenenchyme. Anastomosis either does not or only
rarely occurs. At the apices of the branches the polyps may
lie opposite one another, but as a rule further down they are
not so disposed. In the basal stem the axis is fairly thick,
but in the apical branches it diminishes to a thin filament.
The main stem is nearly cylindrical, but the branches are
slightly compressed in the plane of expansion.

The spicules are frequently of an ochre colour. They are
after the same types as those figured by Kolliker for Verrucella
guadelufensis, but differ in detail. It appears possible to re-
cognise three types, but these are not sharply differentiated from
another, and it seems possible to pass from one to another.
In the cortex one finds {a) double spheres, {h) double spindles,
{c) simple spindles, and {d) a few double stars.

The same types of spicules occur in the polyps, but there
is a greater predominance of the simple spindle. The double
spheres are from 0.044 ^ 0.027 to 0.085 x 0.044 mm. The
simple spindles are from 0.074 x o.oi to 0.129 x 0.027 mm.
The double spindles are from 0.071 x 0.030 to 0.102 x 0.391
mm.

My s]>ecimens were slightly dried during transit from
South Africa, but apparently without causing much injury.
I am convinced that the genus Verrucella is a very variable
one, and that the eleven species which ha^'e been described are
not all true species : the genus stands in need of revision.
My specimens show affinities with T. gitadehipensis, Duch. and
Mich., with V. guernei, Studer, with F. granifcra, Koll. and
others. From the size of the spicules and other points, I
might easily have constituted this a new species; several of the
species described by other authors are probably only varieties
of y. guadclu-pensis. It is unfortunate that Nutting gives no
figures of the spicules of Verrucella bicolor from the Hawaiian
Islands.

Locality, etc. — Pieter Faure, No. 11,352. Tugcla River
mouth, N.W. by N., i~N., 24 miles. Depth, 65 to So fathoms.
Collected by large dredge. Nature of bottom, hard ground.
Date, July nth, 1901.

Pieter Faure. No. 11,586. Amatikulu River mouth, N.W.,
f N., 20 miles. By large dredge. Depth, 62 fathoms. Nature
of bottom, rocks and sponges (hard ground). Date, January
30th, 1 90 1.

I must in conclusion express my indebtedness to Miss A.
Dixon, of Manchester University, who kindly made a number
of preparations of spicules.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1916^ No. 1. 45

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Wright, E. P., and Studer, Th. (1889). "Report on the
Scientific Results of the voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger.'
— Alcyonana." Vol. XXXI.

INDEX.

Ac ab aria, sp.

Acanella eburnca, Pourtales
Acanthogorgia armata, X'errill ...
Acanthogorgia, sp. ...
Anthothela -parvi flora, sp. n.
Eugorgia Gilchristi, Hickson

,j lineata, sp. n.

Eunicella fafillosa, Esper.
Eu-plexaura farciclados , Wright and Studer
Gorgonia albicans, Kolliker
Gorgonia flanunea, Ellis and Solander
Gorgonia sp. ...
Lcptogorgia africana, sp. n.

,, alba, var. capensis

,, aiirata, sp. n.

,, rigida, Verrill

,, sp., juv ...

Lophogorgia lutkeni, Wright and Studer
Mclitodes Faurii, sp. n.
,, grandis, sp. n.

Mopsella singularis, sp. n.
Muricclla ramosa, Thomson and Henderson
Stachyodes capensis, sp. n.
Stenogorgia capensis, sp. n.
Verrucella bicolor. Nutting
Wrightella fragilis, sp. n.
,, jurcata, sp. n.

sp- .

,, trilincata, sp. n.

PAGE

12

19

21

21

3

35^

39

24

24

36

36

11

28

29

32

ji

35

0?

b

8

ID

22

27

41

43

15

17

19

13

48 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. I. — Aca7iella eb'urnea, Pourtales, 5 /6th nat. size.

Fig. 2. — LofJwgorgia lutkeni, W. & S., part of, 5 /6th nat. size.

Fig. 3. — Gorgonia Haunnea, E. & S., part of, 5/6th nat. size.

Fig. 4. — Stenogorgia cafensis, sp. n., 5 /6th nat. size.

Fig. 5. — Lcptogorgia aiirata, sp. n.. part of, 5 /6th nat. size.

Fig. 6. — Gorgonia fuivimea, E. & S., part of, 6 times nat. size.

P^S- 7- — SlC7Wgorgia cafcnsis, sp. n., jiart of, 7 times nat. size.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI. {No. 1)

50 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

Plate IL

Uig. I. — Wrig/ifclla furcala, sp. n. part of, 5/6th nat. size.

Fig. 2. — W right ella jragilis, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

^^^- 3- — Eitgorgia lineata.

Fig. 4. — Mo f sella singular is, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

Fig. 5. — Anthothda farvifiora, sp. n., 5 /6th nat. size.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI. {No. 1).

Plate II

52 ■ Thomson, Sonth Alriau Corgonacca.

Plate III.
SiacJiyodes capensis, sp. n., nat. size.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXL, No, 1.

Plate III.

54

Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

Plate IV.

Fig. I. — W right dill trilineata, sp. n., spicules of.

Fig. 2. — Leptogorgia aiirata, sp. n.

Fig. 3. — Leptogorgia rigida, Verr.

Fig. 4. — Acanthogorgia, sp.

Fig. 5. — Stenogorgia capensis, sp. n.

Fig. 6. — Gorgonia fLanunea, E. & S.

Fig. 7- — Gorgonia, sp.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. LXL, No. 1.

Plate IV.

> / ■ \ ' ?

■•* 6

H,-^

/' ^'^

-^^ '-^'-i C"V

4^ e^ ht

56 Thomson, South African Gorgonacea.

Plate V.

Fig. I. — VC right ell a fragilis, sp. n., spicules of

Fig. 2. — Eiigorgia lineata, sp. n ,,

Fig. 3. — Wrighiella trilineata, sp. n. ,,

Fig- 4. — Anthothela farviflora, sp. n. ,,

Fig. 5. — -Acaharia, sp. ,.

Fig. 6. — Verrucella bicolor. Nutting ,,

I'ig- 7- — Leftogorgia africana, sp. n. ,,

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI., No. 1,

Plate V.

x"

r^ "fr'^yp X-^^^

A C4

',i¥

m

i

d

V

5 ■- . 'g'

,/l

V'

3

^:^ ^

Manchester Mcuioirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7), No. "Z-

II. The "Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects from
the Coal Measures of Commentry (Allier), Central
France.

By Herbert Bolton, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,

The Bristol /Ihtseit/n.
{Received (7/id read November 28t]i, IQ16.)

The collection of fossil insect remains from the Coal
Measures of Commentry (Allier), Central France, which are now
the property of the Manchester Museum, were presented by the
late Mark Stirrup, and form the " Mark Stirrup Collection."
They are representative of the largest insect assemblage known
to occur in any of the Palaeozoic rocks of Europe, the late
Charles Brongniart having recorded no less than 1,300 speci-
mens, and to this number must be added many more discovered
since his death. Brongniart's researches upon the fossil insects
of Commentry resulted in the publication in 18Q4 of his now
classical memoir, " Recherches pour servir a I'histoire des In-
sectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires.''

x-\ll the important discoveries of insect remains in these
Coal Measures of Commentry were made later than 1878.

The late Mark Stirrup (Notes on the Carboniferous. Insects
found at the Commentry Mines (Allier), France, Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc, Part IIL, Vol. XXI.) has given a brief description
of the character of the coalhcld, from which it would appear
that the coal seams and associated rocks were laid down in
long narrow depressions formed in schistose and massively
crystalline rocks of a much older period. Monsieur Henry
Fayol, the director and engineer of the mines, has by observa-
tion and experiment, satisfied himself that the coal seams arc
made up of drifted vegetation. The rock in which the insects
occur is a very fine grained mudstone, which may well have
accumulated by the deposition of fine sediment in enclosed or
lake-like waters.

During the period in which Brongniart was actively en-
gaged in his studies of the Commentry insects, and indeed until
his death. Stirrup was one of his closest friends. The interest

May nth, iQiy.

2 Bolton, " Mark Stimrp " Colic ct'wu of Fossil hi sects.

of the latter found expression m the short papers^ which he
contributed to the Transactions of t/te Manchester Geological
Society, and in his review in the Geological Magazine of Brong-
ni art's work.

There can be little doubt therefore but that the collection
of fossil insects now in the Manchester Museum was fonnecl by
Brongniart himself, and given to his friend, Stirrup.

Inasmuch therefore as Brongniart's researches, even more
than those of Scudder or Goldenberg, served to establish the
study and classification of Palaeozoic insects upon a firm basis,
and the Mark Stirrup Collection having been brought together
by him, it naturally possesses something more than an ordinary
\'alue.

That these fossil insects have found a ])crmanent home in
the Manchester Museum is a matter for satisfaction.

The Collection consists of nine specimens, of which five
are blattoids. Brongniart in his first monograph, "Les Insectes
des Temps Primaires," did not fully deal with the blattoid
group, reserving them, according to .Stirrup, for a special and
more exhaustive study in a later work. The early death of
Brongniart m i8qq, when only forty years of age, prevented
this design being carried out, and probably also accounts for
the fact that the collection given to Stirrup included species not
hitherto described.

Later v^'orkers, especially Messrs. Leriche and Meunier,
have added to our knowledge of the Commentry blattoids, but
I do not know that they had access to the Stirrup Collection.

All the insect remains occur in a compact and thin, flaggy
mudstone, containing very little mica, and hnely laminated.
The rock is one which was evidently deposited in quiet, or
stagnant water. The only other fossils found in association
with the insects in the Mark Stirrup Collection are fragments
of Pecopteris.

Megagnatha odonatifonnis. gen. et. s}). n. PL I ; hgs. I — 4.

Generic diagnosis. — Antennae of medium length, thorax
much elongated, wings broad and delicate, legs long, widely
separated, and not adapted for leaping. Abdomen long and
broad.

1. " The Fossil Insects of the Primary Rock?,'' by Charles Brong-
niart of Paris, translated by Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. Transactions of
the Manchester Geological Society, Vol. XVIII., pp. 269-292.

" Notes on the Carboniferous Insects found at the Commentry
Mines (AUier), France," by Mark Stirruix Trans. Manchester Gcol.
Soc, pt. Ill, Vol. 21.

'' The Carboniferous Insects of Commentry, France," bv Mark
Stirrup, F.G.S. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc.,_ pi. XXI., Vol. 22.

" On the Fossil Insects of the Primary Periods," a review of M.
Charles Brongniart's book, by Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. Trans. .Man-
chester Geol. Soc., pt. v., Vol. 23.

See also Geological Magazine, Decade IV., Vol. i ^, p. 233, iSo^.

Manchcsler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. i.igi/), No.%. 3

Specific Diagnosis. — Head small, elongated; wings
a little shorter than length of body. Sub-costa united with
radius in outer third of wmg. SuJD-costa, radius and radial
sector occupy outer third of wmg. Wing apex blunt. Median
vein much divided, and occupying outer half of inner
wing margin. Cubitus small. Anal area small.

One of the most important insects in the .Stirrup Collection
is an almost comi>lete insect which cannot be referred to any
known genus. The insect lies upside down upon the stone, and
has a total length of 3g mm. The head is elongated, rounded
behind, and bears a jiair of diverging antennae, g mm. long.
Within the antenna?, a pair of mandibular-like structures are
discernible. These are 4 ram. in length. The prothorax is
much elongated, and widest posteriorly, anteriorly it is marked
off from the head by a slight constriction. The mesothorax
IS much broader than the prothorax, and bears the remains of
the wings. The right jjair of wings has been broken away near
their base and lost, whilst of those on the right side, little more
than the costal margin of the antenor wing is visible.

Fragmentary traces of the chief veins of the wings of the
left side can be made out by means of enlarged ])hotographs.

All three pairs of legs are present, the fore and hind legs
being well preserved, and the middle pair fragmentary.

The abdomen is broad, well segmented, and about igmm.
long. A short backward prolongation on the right side may
represent a portion of the last segment, or one of a pair of
cerci.

Wings. — The venation of the wings presents considerable
difficulty. Careful enlargements of the right forewing have
been made, and every portion of a vein traced off. By this
means, the course of the principal veins can be determined,
and portions of the smaller twigs. The junction of most of
the latter to the former is not clear. An exact analysis of the
wing structure is thus no easy matter. Notwithstanding the
fragmentary condition of the veins and associated twigs, cer-
tain features are very evident, and I think the following con-
clusions may be safely drawn.

The costal margin is almost straight, and gently curves
into a well rounded and broad apex. The sub-costa is a feeble
vein, passing out parallel to the wing margin over two-thirds
of the wing, when it joins on to the radius. The radius is a
simple structure parallel to the sub-costa, and only separated
from it by a very narrow area. It reaches the wing margin at
the outer edge of the wing apex. The relations and character
of the radial sector, median and cubitus are not so easily
understood.

Fragmentary portions of a few principal veins can be
traced across the middle of the wing, and portions of a numer-

4 Bolton, "Mark SHrrup'' Collcciion of Fossil Insects.

ous series of twigs are shown in the outer apical area, and
between the middle Ihie and the inner margin.

The precise relationship of all these is a matter largely
of conjecture. A radial sector is undoubtedly present, and it
may possess one to three sub-di\'isions. In any case the radial
sector arises close to the base of the radius, and in all proba-
bility gives off the median in the basal fourth of the wing. An
important vein giving off three twigs in the middle of the apex
of the wing is apparently the innermost division of the radial
sector. The median vein bends inwards from its junction with
the radial sector, and then passes along the middle line of the
wing towards the apex, where it curves inwards and ends upon
the margin. From the fragmentary portions of twigs which
remain, it clearly gave off a numerous series of parallel and
curving simple twigs, which occupied the whole of the outer
third of the inner margin of the wing. The cubitus apparently
consisted of two or more branches passing hrst inwards and
then outwards in sigmoidal curves. A little beyond the middle
of their length, the cubital veins fork, and end upon the wing
margin in 8-9 twigs.

Traces of a few anal veins arc present. The anal area
appears to have been small. The chief features of the wing
may be summarised as follows: — Outer and inner wings, mar-
gins almost straight and parallel to each other. Apex of wing
bluntly rounded. Sub-costa feeble, and joining on to the
radius distally. Radius straight, and giving off radial sector
low down. Intercostal and radial areas narrow, so that the
sub-costa, radius and radial sector lie in the outer third of the
wing. Radial sector consisting of two, possibly three, divi-
sions, the innermost giving off a few simple twigs to the wing
apex. Median vein large, much divided, and arising in union
with the radius and radial sector. Cubitus of two-three
branches. Anal area small.

Legs. — The fore and hind pair of legs are fairly well
preserved. The middle pair are represented iDy the femora only.
The hind legs are the longest, and as they now lie, have the
femora bent back close to the abdomen, and the tibiae are at
right angles. The tarsal segment of the right hind leg seems,
long, but it IS not well defined. That of the left leg is missing.
The fore legs show the femora placed at right angles to the pro-
thorax, whilst the tibiae are directed forwards, and the tarsi
bent a little outwards. The tarsi are slender, and the femora
show no trace of thickening, such as is characteristic of the'
Locustidcc.

Abdomen. — The general appearance of the abdomen has
been already noted. Its segments are clearly discernible. The
ventral surface of each bears two low ridges, disposed longi-
tudinally, and placed midway between the middle line and the
sides of the segments. It is not quite clear whether the sides
of the segments were carried out into blunted tubercles or not.

I

Manclicster Memoirs, Vol. l.xi. (1917), No. *Z. 5

In two places something of the kind seems present. The cerci-
likc termination of the abdomen may or may not be actual
cerci, or the appearance may be caused by a surface film of
the matrix being- broken away at this point.

Affinities. — The salient facts of structure which need to be
borne in mind in seeking to identify the insect are well marked,
and distinctive, notwithstanding its fragmentary structure. I
have already summarised the details of wing structure, and
they need not therefore be repeated. The general details are
as follows :—I"Iead small and bearing well-developed antennae,
and powerful mandibles, thorax large and much elongated,
especially the prothorax; legs well developed, wings long and
delicate; abdomen long.

This assemblage of characters is not unlike those of certain
of the Proto-orthoptera, and it may be that better preserved
examples will definitely settle the question of Proto-orthopteron
affinities. Should the insect belong to this class, it will prob-
ably be found closely related to the family Sfanioderidee, or
that of the Sthenar o podiel cc .

With the family Spanioderidie, the specimen agrees in its
elongated prothorax, and legs not adapted for jumping. It is
still more closely in agreement with SthenaropodidiC , in which
the head and thorax are elongated, the legs slender, with the
hind pairs the longest, and the wings have a broadly rounded
apex. In this family also, the outer branch of the median
unites with the inner branch of the radial sector, and separates
again. The cubitus gives off many branches to the inner wing
margin. Transverse veins are well developed. Whether the
radial sector and the median unite in the Commentry specimen
which we are considering is not actually demonstrable, owing
to its fragmentary condition. Yet a close study of the vein
fragments shows that it is quite likely, and we have assumed
such to be the case. Before we, however, class the specimen
as belonging to^ the Sthenaropodidce, it may be well to point
out that this insect, and certain others classed with the Proto-
orthoptera, may possibly yet jirove to be neuropterids, some-
what nearly related to the family Perlidec. Brongniart has
already shown (Insectes Fossiles, p. 407, 1893) that some justi-
fication exists for the supposition that forms allied to. the
Perlick-e existed in Coal Measure times, and has descril>ed a
wing under the name of Protoperla Westuwodi. The existing
forms of Pcrlidce have a well-developed and elongated thorax;
four membranous wings, of which the hinder are the largest,
and well-developed and widely separated legs. The venation
of the wing in such a living form as Pteronarcys frigida is but
little removed from that of the Commentry insect, whilst the
latter also shows a close resemblance to the wing described
under the name of Protoperla Westurood-i, by Brongniart. It
differs from the latter in that the sub-costa is clearly attached
at its distal end to the radius, and does not reach the costal

6 Bolton, "Mark S/imip" Collection of Fossil Insects.

margin at all. The characters of the radial sector, median
and cubitus are radically different from those of P. Westzvoodi.

I am of opinion that the ncuro])tcroid evidences of struc-
ture are more evident than any which may be considered proto-
orlhopteroid, and therefore assign it to a new genus of the
family Pcrlida\ under the name of ''''Mega gnat hc7 odonatiformis.

\ Dr. A. D. Imms, who has kindly read my jiaper whilst
in manuscript form, has suggested that the specnnen may pos-
sibly come nearer to the SialidiC than to the Perlid<c; noting
that whilst the possession of great mandibles is a unique feature
amongst living and fossil Perlida?, they are, nevertheless, a
prominent feature amongst certain Sialidu\ This is certainly
the case, but I have attached more importance to the apparent
wing structure, and to the extremely long thorax than to the
size of the mandibles, the detailed structure of which it is im-
possible to make out. My own studies have led me to regard
the families of the Sialidcc and Perlidw as somewhat closely
allied in origin. Had the venation of the wings been more
complete, something more could probably have bcx^n said upon
the question of relationships.]

Genotype. — ^lanchester ^luseum ; Register No., L5,56o.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. — -Commentry (Allier), Central France.
Mark Stirrup Collection.

Sycoptero}i synijnetrica, gen. et. sp.n. PI. II.; figs, i and 2.
Deri\ation: Sycopteron, a-cvos = a fi.g; 7rre/7oi'= a wing.

Generic diagjiosis. — Small insects in which the head is
large, rounded, and convex dorsally; wings fig-like in outline;
principal veins well developed, with few branches.

Specific diagnosis.- — Wings g-io mm., costal margin almost
straight, sub-costa reaching the inner side of the wing apex.
Radius a powerful vein, to which the median and cubitus are
attached at the base. Median and cubitus veins simple.

Amongst the insects in the Stirru]:) Collection is one of
special interest. It is a small insect, showing the head, thorax,
and the first pair of wings. In all probability it is whole, with
the hind wings concealed under the first pair, and the legs and
body below. Its total length is 1 1 mm. from the front of the
head to the end of the wings, and its greatest diameter (at the
free end of the wings) is not more than 5 mm. Its extreme
smallness makes its difficult to determine many details of struc-
ture, yet the princijial veins are clearly marked. The front of
the head is rounded and the sides almost straight. The upper
surface is convex, the convexity gradually diminishing to the
front margin, and ]>assing down into two flattened postero-

*This generic name has been substituted for that of " Pseudoperhi.""
Avliich I first used.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. fiQi/), 'No. %. /

lateral areas, whilst in the middle of the hinder border, the
convexity of the surface is carried out into a short, blunt, peg-
like prolongation, which just overhangs the prothorax. The
prothorax is short, low, and slightly ridged from side to side.
The mesothorax is large, its upper surface raised and slightly
convex, and bearing three low boss-like elevations, arranged
at the points of a triangle, the posterior one marking the apex
of the triangle, and being the most prominent. A small portion
of the flattened metathorax lies behind, in a triangular area not
covered by the wings. The forewings are folded in a posi-
tion of rest upon the body, and almost entirely overlap at their
free ends.

The wings are \cry narrow at the point of attachment, and
broaden out rapidly to the wing apex. The length of the wings
is () mm., and their greatest breadth about 4 mm.

The principal veins of the right wing are the more perfect,
those of the left wing, so far as they are discernible, being in
agreement. For pur^50ses of description we have therefore
selected the right wing.

The wing structure of the insect is widely removed from
that of all known Palaeozoic forms, the nearest approach to a
similar wing structure that we know of being found amongst
the recent Scorpion-flies (/^rt«6'//zV/r<?), or the genxxsOrthophlebia,
established by Westwood and including several species found
in the Lower Lias of England, and the Upper Lias of Mecklen-
liurg.

The Commentry insect has a simple structure, and less
branched principal veins than the Liassic forms, but is sub-
stantially the same. All the veins app)ear to spring from a
common root, and with the exception of the third vein, none are
sub-divided. The costal margin seems to have been extremely
delicate, and to have left very faint traces of its presence. In-
dications of It are present at the base of the wing, and upon
enlarged photograi)hs it is possible to distinguish fragmentary
portions along its whole length.

The first vein, which one may regard as the sub-costal,
separates from the common root in the proximal third of the
wing, and passes straight out as an undivided vein to the wing
apex. It diverges very slightly from the outer margin along
Its course, and does not meet the latter until the well-rounded
end of the wing is reached.

The next vein, which corres})onds to the radius, is the
most powerful of all. It follows a ]:)arallel course to the sub-
costal, giving off a radial sector at the end of the first third of
its length, and forks before reaching the margin.

The radial sector diverges inwardly from the radius, and
divides up into three branches, which occu})y the inner portion
of the wing apex.

Midway between the point of origin of the wing and the
division of the sub-costal and radius, arises a third vein, divid-

8 Bolton, "Mark S/imip" Collection of Fossil Insects.

ing immediately into two equal branches, which diverge slightly
as they pass to the outer end of the inner wing margin. Traces
of two other simple and parallel veins are clearly evident, the
innermost either coinciding with the inner wing margin, or being
but little removed from it.

On the evidence and character of the [principal veins, we
cannot but regard the specimen as an archaic type of the
family FanorpicLc. Regarded as a member of this family,
the outermost branch arising from the common root, is the sub-
costa, the second the radius, the third the median vein, and
the last simple vein is the cubitus. The remaining vein may
represent the anal, or be on the wing margin; the evidence is
too indefinite to decide.

In Orthoplilehia couuuunis, Westw. , the sub-costa does not
proceed quite so far out before reaching the costal margin as in
the Commentry insect, the radial sector has seven twigs in place
of five, but occupies the same wing area. The median divides
in the middle of the wing, giving off three, possibly four twigs.
It is unlikely that the median in the present instance is wholly
undivided, its course o\er the free margin of the wing being
indistinguishable. The anal veins in Orthophlchia communis
are few, and the anal area small. The latter corresponds to
that area in the Commentry specimen, which cannot be made
out. It is inevitable that a new genus be made to receive this
specimen, and to this genus we give the name Sycopteron, with
the species name of '^ symmctricaT

Genotype.— Manchester ]\Iuseum, Mark Stirrup Collection;
Register No., L5,559.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. — Commentry (Allier), France.

Goldcnbergia (Microdiciya) Iiamyi, Brong. PI. I.; fig. 5.
Genus Goldenbergia, Scudder, Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XX.,

p. 172, 18S5.
Heeria Hamyi, Brongniart, Insectes Fossiles des Temps Prim-

aires, 1893, p. 3Q0, pi. 39 (23), fig. 3.
Microdictya Hamyi (Brong.), Handlirsch, Die Fossilen Insek-

ten, 1906, p. 66, taf. IX., fig. 7.
Genus Sagenoptera, Handlirsch, Die Fossilen Insekten, p. 72,

1 906.

Charles Brongniart (Insectes Fossiles des Temps Primaires,
p. 388, 1893) created a new genus ''Heeria''' for a group of in-
.sects closely related to Stenoclictya, and described a new species,
H. Hamyi, of which a wing fragment occurs in the ^lark Stirrup
Collection.

Handlirsch (Die Fossilen Insekten, p. 65) notes that Brong-
niart aftervk-ards replaced the name of ''Heeria" by "'Micro-
dictya" owing to the former being pre-occupied. (Brong.
Insectes P'ossiles des Temps Primaires, 1893, footnote to text
description of pi. 39 (23)).

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), A'^;. !4. g

For reasons which will appear later, we have removed it to
th2 genus Goldenbergia, Scudder (Proc. Amer. Acad., Vol. XX.,
p. 172. 1885), as that generic name takes precedence of Micro-
diet ya (1Q06) and of Sagcnoptcra, a genus created by Hand-
hrsch in IQ06 (Die Fossil Insektcn, p. 72), for forms which are
indistinguishable from species of Goldenbergia.

The wing fragment in the Stirrup Collection consists of
the distal half only, and is most excellently jjrcserved. Brong-
niart's figure is on too reduced a scale to do justice to what
•was one of the most beautiful of insect wings from the Coal
Measures. The wing examined In' him had a length of 80 mm.,
with a breadth of 22 mm.

The length of the wing fragment in the Stirrup Collection
is 56 mm., and its greatest diameter 28 mm. The length of
the complete wing must have been about Q5 mm., with a breadth
of 30 mm., so that it belonged to a larger insect than Brongniart
was aw^are of.*

The wing fragment shows that the costal margin slopes
rapidly backwards to the wing apex, which is bluntly acute,
and narrower than in the ty])e figure. The wing apex might
be described as a bluntly rounded angle, formed by the union
of the inner and outer wing margins. The distal portion of
the sub-costa is a well-marked vein, which reaches the costal
margin at a point 2Q mm. from the extreme tip of the wing.

The radius follows a course parallel to the sub-costa, cui-v-
ing inwards when beyond the point at which the latter reaches
the wing margin, and joining the wing margin at the outer
side of the wing apex. The radial sector was given off from
the radius at about the hrst third of the latter's length. It
diverges slightly from the radius, continuing as a single stem
until the distal third of the wing is reached, in which it gives
off four inwardly directed twigs, and ends on the- wing apex
in a short fork. The first or most proximal twig bifurcates
12 mm. from its point of origin, the two twigs diverging slightly
as they pass to the inner wing margin.

The remaining three twigs follow a parallel course, passing
in a wide sweep inwardly, so that only the two most distal
twigs and the end of the main stem reach the wing apex.
Brongniart's figure only shows three twigs arising from the
radial sector, the proximal one forking as in the j)resent case.

The main stem of the median vein must have ])assed
almost straight out from its point of origin to near the middle
of the wing, where it divides, giving off a wide, sweeping,
outward loranch. which remains simple, and an inner shorter
branch, having a somewhat similar curve, and forking into
two t^qual twigs, the proximal of which forks again before the
wing margin is reached.

*Prof. A. Lamccrc, of the 1 'nivcrsity of l^russcls, has suK^ested to
mo that this increased size mav be a sexual difference.

10 Bolton, " Mark Slirru[) " Collectlov of Fossil Insects.

A portion of the cubital area on the wing margin is de-
stroyed, so that the whok: course of the cubitus vein is not
shown. Parts of the anterior branch of the cubitus are present,
and its general course can be determined. The inner branch
oi the cubitus was probably forked, and but two fragments
are left. No anal veins are shown.

The surface of the wing seems to have been slightly coria-
ceous, whilst the intercalary venation is beautifully preserved
ox'cr the whole structure.

The mtercalary venation consists of a fine reticulated
mcshwork, enclosing small polygonal cc^lls, which assume a
somewhat linear arrangement in the intercostal, sub-costal, and
radius areas. A casual glance gives the impression of cross
\ eining passing obliquely between the sub-costa and the costal
margin. The mnior differences existing in the sub-divisions
of the rachal sector are not, in my opinion, of specific im-
jiortancc, and I regard the specimen as a beautiful example of
Brongniart's species.

Affuiitics. — A com[)arison of Microdictya liauiyi. with
other forms shows that a close relationship exists between it
and Sagenoptera fonnosa, Goldenberg. The latter species
was first described by Goldenberg (PaL'eontogr. IV., p. 30, taf.
5, fig. 2, 1854), nnder the generic name of Ternies {Enter-
iiiopsis). and afterwards removed by him to the Dictyoneura
(Goldenberg, Fauna saraep, foss. 11, p. 50, 1877), whilst in
1885, it was removed to Goldenhergia by Scudder. {Froc.
Avier. Acad., Vol. XX., jx 172, 1885). Still later (1906, Die
Fossilen Insekten, p. yi, taf. IX., hg. ig), Handlirsch removed
the species to a new genus Sagcnoptera.

An examination of the figure of Sagenoplcra foniiosa shows
that the character of the sub-costa, radius, radial sector, and
cubitus veins are almost identical with those of M. hamyi. The
sub-costa runs out on the costal margin at the same point, the
radius is a simple vein dividing in the first third of the wing ;
the radial sector has few (five) divisions, ending on the wing
tip, and the distal portion of the inner wing margin, and the
cubitus has a long, undivided outer twig. Specific differences
are jiresent, but generically, we sec nothing to se]-)arate the
two genera. Neither Sagcnoptera fonnosa, nor Microdictya
liauiyi, arc far removed from the genus Dictyoneura. 1 hey
differ in possessing a closer and more highly develo]>ccl inter-
calary venation, the cubitus is simple and less divided, and
the anal area is larger, with more oblique veins.

From the foregoing, it seems clear that Scudder's genus
name of (loldcnhcr gia must be retained, and that the later
generic names of Heeria, Microdictya and Sagenoptera be
dropi)ed, and that Sagenoptera fonnosa must be transferred to
the genus Cioldenber gi'i.

Brongniart's "Heeria Vaillanti" (Insectes Fossiles des
Temps Primaires, ]i. 380, ])1. XXXVII. . 22. fig. 12; pi.

Manclicster Mrinoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/). No. *i. 1 1

XXXIXX., fig. 1 and 2, i8g4), must also be classed as
" Goldenbergia Vaillanti."

Manchester Museum, Mark Stirrup Collection; Register
Xo., L5.557.

Horizon. — Stcphanian.

Locality. — Commentry (Allicr), Central France.

Necy///}'Ioc/'i.\- Metiuieri. sp.n. PI. II.; figs. 3 — 5.

This specimen has becomcd entombed with the j)ronotum
and wmgs still attached to the body. The latter is almost
wholly concealed, and but few traces of the segments of the
body can be distinguished. The ajiical portions of both
tegmina have been broken away, and the venation is somewhat
obscured by their overlapping in the middle line, and by a few
veins of the hind wings showing \\\\ through the tegmina.

The total length of the insect from the front edges of the
pronotum to the broken edges of the v.'ing is 35 mm. About
one-sixth of the wing apex is missing, so that the total length
of the complete insect would be about 41 mm.

The Pronotinu. — The pronotum at first sight is a most
unusual structure. It appears to be sub-rotund in outline, and
di\ isible into three parts, two stout reniform lateral areas show-
ing a surface ornament of transverse and anastomosing wrinkles,
and a somewhat circular central area, evidently much thinner
and membranous, and now much wrinkled, possibly by crushing.
The wing shoulders abut closely against the pronotum, the
latter appearing to have a well-clehned groove, into which the
wing bases fit closely. So closely are the wing bases apj)lied
to the ridges upon the pronotum that it would appear impossible
for them to be opened, except by thrusting the sides of the pro-
notum bodily forward. As the lateral sections of the pronotum
do not meet in the middle line, being separated by a short
interval, into which the thinner and probably yiliable central
j)ortion extends, this seems quite feasible. Nothing of this
character is known in any blattoid, living or fossil, and I was
wholly unable to regard this view of the structure as a correct
one. I therefore submitted the specimen to Prof. E. B. Poulton,
of the Hope Museum, Oxford, who, with his assistants, has
kindly subjected the s]>ecimen to a critical examination. As
a result of their examination and of experiments with the
tegmcn of PcripLaneta americana, they are satisfied that the
pronotum is complete with a rounded posterior border, which
underlies the bases of the wings, and has been crushed down
by them. The apparent socketting of the wings into the pro-
notum has been brought about by the wings being first dragged
backwards, and then thrust forward over the edges of the
pronotum. upon which they have since become impacted. This
certainly seems the most reasonable interpretation, and it is one
with which I agree. The [ironotum is therefore normal in shape,

12 Bolton, ''Mark Shmip" Collection of Fossil lusecls.

and traces of its hinder border can be seen across the anal area
of the left tegmen.

The Tegniina. — Of the two tegmina, the left is the most
perfect, and has a length of 28 mm. The right tegmen has
a length of 32 mm. The total length of the whole tegmen
in each case is about 37 millimetres. The left tegmen is selected
for detailed description. The costal margin is gently convex,
and passes imperceptibly into the apex of the wing. The sub-
costal vein is widely separated from the costal margin at its
ba.se, and follows an oblique course outwards. Two-thirds of
the costal margin are occupied by the sub-divisions of the sub-
costal vein. These sub-cli visions arc few in number (6-7), the
first four dividing into three twigs, whilst the hfth and sixth
are single.

The radius divides at the first fourth of its length into
two equal veins. The outer branch gives off a forward twig,
which divides twice by forking into four twigs, which reach
the margin. About the middle of the wing, a single unbranched
twig is given off, and two, possibly three, others further out.

The inner branch gives off two long unbranched twigs,
which })ass almost straight outwards to the wing apex. The
divisions of the radius occupy the outer part of the wing apex.
The median vein arises close to the radius, diverging inwardly
as it passes onwards to the inner side of the middle of the wing
apex, giving off three forward branches, which go to the wing
apex parallel to the inner divisions of the radius. On its inner
side, the median gives off a series of hve twigs, which go down
to the inner wing margin. The first two fork once, whilst the
third crosses the fourth, uniting with the latter for a very
short distance, and then passing on in front of it to the margin,
the fifth twig divides up into four branches.

The anal furrow is strongly marked, and portions of eight
anal veins are distinguishable. The anal area occupies one-
third of the inner wing margin, the remainder of the margin
being occupied by the inner divisions of the median. The ven-
ation of the right wing agrees in general character with that of
the left, but is simple and less sub-divided. The sub-costal
is a little more sub-divided dn the wing margin, and the radius
has a slightly smaller area. The median and cubitus have few
sub-divisions. The anal veins are better shown, and no less
than fourteen can be determined. The surface of the tegmina
is somewhat coriaceous, and at first sight presents a scaly ap-
pearance, owing to the well-developed intercalary venation,
consisting of a reticulated meshwork, which becomes transverse
where it crosses the divisions of the radius and median.

Hind wings. — Clear traces are present under the tegmina. of
the main stem of the (?) cubital element of both hind wings,
and of a few of their more distal divisions, but nothing of a
definite character can be determined.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1Q17), ISo. *J. 13

Body. — That the body of the insect still lies underneath
the wing is clearly evident. The metanotum shows up through
the thin anal areas, and there are also visible a few of the
anterior segments of the abdomen. In enlarged photographs,
at least two segmental furrows can be distinguished. The area
occupied by the abdomen seems to be nidicated by a darker
area of colour, which is also slightly elevated above the level
of the tegmina. This dark area has a breadth of 14 mm.

Affinities. — The salient features of the tegmina of this
insect are very clearly marked. The sub-costal area is tri-
angular, whilst the subsidiary twigs tend towards a pectinate
arrangement. The radius takes little part in the wing apex.
The median is an important vein, occupying most of the wing
apex, and giving off all its twigs on the outer side. The
cubitus is even more developed than the median, occupies the
greater |)art of the inner wing margin, and gives off twigs
on its outer and inner sides. Its extension to the wing tip is
a strong feature. This assemblage of characters is in agree-
ment with Scudder's genus, Necyviylacris,'^ and Handlirsch's
genus Eiiniorphoblatta?

Scudder's definition of the genus seems sufficiently good to
warrant the retention of his genus.

The specimen differs from yV. Lafittei, Pruvost, and N.
Godoni, Pruvost, and appears to be more nearly related to N.
heros, Scudder. It differs from the latter in the presence of
a reticulated venation, in a more sub-divided median vein,
and in the greater development of the outer branches of the
cubitus. We do not know of any other species to which it can
be referred, and therefore attach to it the name of Monsieur
F. ]\Icunier. who has done so much good work upon the French
fossil insects.

Type. — Manchester ]\Iuseum, ]\Iark Stirrup Collection ;
Register No., L5, 5 5 5.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France.

Necyniylacris Lcrichci, sp.n. PI. III.; figs. I — 5.

The remains of this insect have proved to be of a most
tantalising character. The greater part of the pronotum is
present in a smashed up condition, the fore and hind wings
are partially superposed upon one another, so that the venation
can only be unravelled with great difficulty, whilst the hind
legs and possibly a part of the abdomen lie beneath all the
rest.

Fronotiini. — The pronotum is circular, with a small rounded
projecting lobe in the median line on the front margin. The

2. Necymylacris, Scudder, Palaeozoic Cockroaches, Mcui. Boston
Soc. Sat. Hist., Vol. iii, part i, p. 52, 1S7Q.

3. Eumorphoblatta, Handlirsch, Proc. U.S. National Museum,
Vol. 20, p. 273, 1Q06.

14 BOLTOX, " Mark Stirrup " Collection of Fossil Insects.

ornament consists of a series of low irregular ridges running
from the centre to the margin, becoming feebler as the margin
is reached.

Teguiina. — The tegmina are clearly distinguishable, that
of the left side being almost ]>erfect, and 33 mm. long. The
right tegmen has lost the basal third, owing to the matrix being
broken away.

Left Teguicn. — The costal margin is convex, and slopes
inwards from the sub-costal area back to the wing ay)ex, the
latter being more acutely rounded than in most blattoids.
The sub-costa is a short vein passing obliquely forwards at
an acute angle to the costal margin, and cutting ofi a triangu-
lar costal held. The sub-costal vein is small, and breaks up
into three branches, the first forking twice into three twigs,
the second giving off two undivided twigs and then forking,
whilst the third is long and remains undivided. The costal
field occupies about one-third of the outer margin, and is
triangular, being especially wide at the base. The character
of the sub-costa, and the shape of the costal area are typically
Necymylacrid. The radius is a large much divided vein,
occupying the outer two-thirds of the costal margin, and reach-
ing almost to the middle of the tip of the wing. It divides
near the base into two main branches, both of which repeatedly
fork, ultimately forming ten twigs each, so that the radius
ends upon the margin in twenty twigs. The median vein with
its sub-divisions lies along the middle of the wing, and ends
upon its apex. Owing to the venation of the hind wing having
become impressed upon the forewing, the ultimate branching
of the median is very difficult to trace. The basal half of the
vein is fairly clear, and it is possible to distinguish that it
bends inwards along its course to the inner side of the wing
apex, apparently giving off three branches, which pass straight
out to the wing apex. The outer of the three branches seems
to fork once, and the next, twice, so that the branch ends in
three twigs. The third branch forks into two equal-sized twigs.

The cubitus is a large vein, going in a long concave sweep
from the base of the wing to the inward side of the wing apex.
It gives off eight branches on its inner side, all of which divide,
except the fifth and eighth. These all pass off obliquely from
the main stem, the first, second, and third, forking several
times, whilst the fourth, sixth, and seventh, fork once only.
The whole of the inner margin of the wing beyond the anal
area is occupied by these divisions of the cubitus. The anal
area is large, and crossed by about eight-ten veins, two of which
fork. The inner margin appears to have been more straight
than rounded.

Riglit tegmen. — The basal portion of the right fore wing
being broken away, the course of only the distal divisions of
the veins can be distinguished. These are substantially simi-

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1Q17), No. 'Z. 15

lar to those of the left wing. The divisions of the radius
occupy the outer wing margin beyond the sub-costal area, the
median ends upon the tip of the wing in nine twigs, whilst
the cubitus has the same inner curve as that of the right.

Hind 'Wing.':. — Our attempts to determine the structure of
the hind wings have not been successful. A few twigs of what
seem to be the sub-costa are shown in the left hind wing, to-
gether with terminal twigs of the radius, median and possibly
cubitus, the outer third of the radius, and a few twigs of the
median. The radius would appear to occu])y the whole of the
wing apex. Of the right hind wing, only a ])ortion of the
radius is distinguishable.

Legs. — Traces of the hinder pair of legs show up through
the wing. The left hind leg exhibits the femur, tibia, and
tarsus J the elements of the latter cannot, however, be made out.
The femur is flat, the tibia more rounded, and only about half
the diameter of the femur, and it is clothed with numerous short
stiff bristles. The tarsus is attenuated, and appears almost
claw-like. The right hind leg shows very little of the femur,
whilst the tibia and tarsus add nothing further to that seen
upon the right leg. The two legs evidently still remain at-
tached to the iDocly, and a slight elevation at the junction of
the legs probably marks the end of the abdomen. The latter
appears like a broad flat structure, tapering from the sides to a
central blunted end.

The whole body of the insect did not exceed a length of
24 mm., measured from the front edge of the pronotum to the
end of the abdomen. Thc^ width of the abdomen is 10 mm.

Affinities. — Notwithstanding the fact that the sub-costal
area of the specimen does not seem to extend over more than one
half of the outer margin, in this respect disagreeing with the
generally accepted condition in Necymylacris, I refer the speci-
men to that genus. There is close agreement with the genus
in the grouping of the branches of the sub-costa, and in their
\'ery oblique direction. The radius forks near the base of the
wing, the outer branch and its divisions going to the front
margin, whilst the innermost divisions of the inner branch of
the radius pass out in almost a straight line to the wing a]>ex.
The median, the course of which can only be traced with diffi-
culty, occupies the tip of the wing, and its inner border. In
its position, and in sending off 3 — 4 horizontal and simi)ly
divided twigs, it differs very little from .V. heros, Sccl. The
cubitus, with its many divisions occupying all the inner wing
margin outside the anal area, is essentially Necymylacrid. The
divisions in the cubitus are more forked than in N. Villeti, Pru.,
or N. Lafittee, Pru., and somewhat similar to what obtains in
.V. Godoni, Pru. From the latter, the w'ings differ m the simpler
form of the sub-costal, and in the more numerous divisions of
the radius, and in the basal branching of the latter.

1 6 Bolton, ''Mark Stirrup"' Collection of Fossil Insects.

The species appears to be a new one, and we attach to it
the name of Monsieur M. Leriche, who has added considerably
to our knowledge of the insect fauna of the Northern French
Coal Measures.

Type. — Specimen in the Manchester }*Iuseum, Mark Stirrup
Collection; Register No., L5,552.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France.

FJiylloblatta Brongniartu Handlirsch. PI. I\^. ; figs, i — 5.

Etoblattina sp. Brongniart, Insectes Fossiles des Temps
Primaires, t.48, Fig. 4, 1893.

This specimen is one of more than usual interest, owing to
the fact that a portion of the hinder pair of wings, as well as
the tegmina are preserved. Usually the hind wings are absent,
or so obscured by the overlying tegmina as to be impossible
of elucidation. A circular area has been impressed upon the
base of the tegmina, and may indicate where the pronotum lay.
If such were the case, the pronotum was unusually large. The
right tegmen and right hinder wing lie with their lower surfaces
upwards, those of the left showing the upper surfaces. The
hinder pair of wings appear to have been imperfect before en-
tombment, whilst the tegmina have lost the apical portions since
the specimen was found. This at least may be inferred from
the presence of a broken edge w^hich cuts across the two tegmina,
and still retains traces of cement. No definite portions of the
body or legs are distinguishable, although an ill-defined mass
lies in front of the right hind wing.

Tegmina. — The right tegmen is 29 mm. long, and has lost
its outer third, whilst of the left tegmen little more than the
basal third is present. The latter shows but minor points of
difference, the chief being in the proximal twigs of the sub-costa,
two of which fork three times, whilst those of the right in the
same region are undivided. It will be sufficient therefore if
the right wing is described in detail.

Right tegmen. — The costal margin is regularly and gently
convex, merging distal ly into the blunted rounded apex of the
wing. The sub-costa is a strong vein, widely separated from
the costal margin, and parallel to it. It gives off a series of
simple twigs, three of which are forked. The whole series of
twigs, sixteen in number, pass obliquely outwards to the costal
margin. The sub-costal, with its numerous divisions, occupies
four-fifths of the outer margin. The radius arises close to the
base of the sub-costa, and gradually diverges from it in its
course to the middle point of the wing apex. It gives off two
forwardly directed branches, both of which fork before reach-
ing the broken edge of the wing. Whether additional forking
takes place further out cannot be determined, owing to the
absence of the apical portion.

Manchester Meuioirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No. % ij

The median vein follows a course fairly parallel to that
of the radius, and m the portion of wing preserved, gives off
an inwardly directed branch, which soon divides by forking
into two equal twigs. The divisions of the radius and median
together occupy the whole of the wing apex.

The cubitus is an important and well-developed vein.
Enough of it is present to show that its final divisions must
have occupied the whole of the inner wing margin outside the
anal area. The main stem of the cubitus curves inwards, des-
cending low down towards the inner margin, and then con-
tinuing towards the wing apex. It gives off on its inner side,
a series of long twigs, wliich pass obliquely inwards to the
wing margin. Of these, all shown on the wing fragment are
simple and undivided except the first, which gives off three
short divisions on its inner side. The anal furrow is well
marked, and forms an almost complete semi-circle. Seven
anal veins are distinguishable, the second and third being forked
in the middle of their length.

The inner margin is almost straight. The intercalary
venation consists of a fine reticulation, with a tendency to a
transverse arrangement between the veins.

Hind wings. — Both left and right hind wings are very
fragmentary. As contrasted with the tegmina, they are ex-
tremely thin and membraneous, so that the general wing struc-
ture outside the veins is not readily determinable. The two
wings are not alike, the left wing fragment being best pre-
served, and the largest.

Left hind iving. — The costal margin is straight. The sub-
costal is a feeble vein, giving off a few twigs, which pass out
obliquely to the costal margin. It lies somewhat close to the
latter, so that the costal area is narrowly strap-shaped. The
radius is a strong vein arising close to the sub-costal, and pass-
ing straight outwards. Just before reaching the end of the
wing fragment, it forks into two branches, both of which again
fork. There can be no doubt from the direction in which the
main stem continues, but that other divisions of the radius
arose further out. The radial sector arises from the radius
near its base,' and passes obliquely inwards, diverging some-
what widely from it. Four twigs are shown arising outwardly
from it, the first of which forks twice.

The median divides near its base into two unequal
branches, the outermost of which remains simple for a good
portion of its length, forking into two twigs on the broken edge
of the wing. The inner branch, by repeated forking, gives rise
to live twigs.

The cubitus follows a straight course towards the distal
end of the inner wing margin. On its outer side, a single twig
is given off, whilst on the inner side, six twigs arise at regular
intervals, the third one of the series forking. The next two

1 8 Bolton, ''Mark Stirmp" Collection of Fossil Insects.

veins may form part of the cubitus, but this cannot be deter-
mined, as both the proximal and distal portions are missing.
Outside these is a small rectangular fragment of the wing
bearing a close series of five parallel veins, which are apparently
anal in character. How much of the wing is missing it is diffi-
cult to conjecture.

The right hind wing differs from the left, and is not so
easily understood. The sub-costal vein is much the same, as
its fellow of the right side.

The radius gives off a feeble twig outwardly, and a longer
and more important one from its inner side, which forks. It
diverges obliquely from the radius.

The radial sector arises near the base of the radius, and
diverges widely from it. It remains undivided for a length
double that of its fellow of the left wing, and then gives off
an outward twig which forks as it reaches the broken edge of
the wing.

The median vein seems to be united to the radius at its
point of origin, but the wing area is partially obscured at this
point, and the conditions are not clearly determinable. Unlike
its fellow the left wing, there is no long undivided outer branch,
the main stem remaining undivided for some distance before
it gives off the first outer branch, which lies parallel to the
main stem of the radial sector and forks. A second outer
twig arises a little further out, following a course parallel to
the first.

The cubitus seems to consist of two separate parts : an
outer stem giving off two forwardly directed veins, and three
which pass down tO' the inner margin. In this respect it does
not differ much from the cubitus of the left wing. Lying,
however, inwards to the main stem just described, are a series
of long veins which may have been given off from an inner
division of the main stem of the cubitus, although proximally
the two are somewhat widely separated now. This separation
may be due to the same cause which has broken away the anal
area, and folded two forked veins underneath the hinder branch
of the cubitus. If our interpretation of the cubitus be correct,
it must have occupied the greater part of the inner half of the
wing, and have occupied a greater area than the radius and
median veins combined.

The intercalary venation consists of a fine reticulated mesh-
work, similar to that of the tegmina. The hind wing frag-
ments are 30 mm. long, and 20 mm. wide.

Affinities. — Brongniart figured a somewhat similar form
under the name of Etoblattina sp. (Brong. Insectes Fossiles
des Temps Primaires, pi. XLVII (31), Fig. 4, 1893), and still
more recently M. Pruvost has recorded wings of a similar type
from the neighbourhood of Lens in the North of France.
(P. Pruvost, " Les Insectes Houillers du Nord de la France,"
Annales de la Societe Geol. du Nord T. XLL, p. 323, igi2.

Maiic/icstei- Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/). No. *i. Kj

pi. X., Fig-s. 5, 6 and 7). Alonsieur Pruvost has, and wc think
correctly, placed the forms described by him in Handlirsch's
genus PJiylloblatta. The genus was founded by Handlirsch
in igo6 (Handlirsch, Revision of American Pal3?ozoic Insects,
No. 1 44 1, Proc. United States Nat. Mus. p. 731) to hiclude
many species previously recorded by Scudder under the names
of Etoblattina and Gerablattina. Phylloblatta is one of the
best defined genera of the Archimylacrid group, with the fol-
lowing general characters. The wings are elliptical in form,
two and a half times as long as wide. Costal area narrowly
strap-shaped, and extending to three-fifths or two-thirds along-
the outer margin. Radius in outer half of wing with few
outwardly directed branches. Median vein curving down to
inner apical margin.

Cubitus extending over the greater part of the inner wing
margin, and giving off a numerous series of straight twigs.
Intercalary venation rugose-leathery, or more cross-wrinkled.
x\ll these general characters are possessed by the tegmina of
the specimen now under consideration, and there can be no
doubt that the specimen is referable to the genus Phylloblatta.

Of the nine species of Phylloblatta recorded from Com-
mentry and Lens by Messeurs. Handlirsch and Pruvost, that of
P. Brongniarti, Hancll., is so closely in agreement with our
specimen that no difference of specific importance can be recog-
nised, and we have no hesitation in assigning it tO' that species.

Locality. — Commentry (Allier), Central France.

Florizon. — Stephanian.

Figured specimen in the Manchester Museum, Stirrup
Collection; Register No., L5,554.

Phylloblatta obsatra, sp.n. PI. III. ; figs. 6 — 8.

Species diagnosis .—\ied\d.n vein dividing beyond the
middle of the wing with few branches; diverging widely from
the radius. Cubitus large, with 5 — 6 oblique undivided
branches. Anal veins 6 — 7 in number.

The body of this insect probably floated out upon the
water almost whole, and was not completely broken up before
it was silted over by mud. The specimen shows the greater
part of the pronotum, the two tegmina, and traces of two,
possibly three legs. The details of the specimen are more
obscure than is usual with the blattoids found at Commentry,
and the pronotum and tegmina have suffered loss. In the
former, portions, of the surface have been carried away, and
the latter have lost the outer portions of the wing margin.
A few traces of the hind wings show up through the tegmina.

The pronotum is thin, circular, and was apparently slightly
convex, the hinder third covering the attachment of the fore-
wings to the mesonotum. Little more than the marginal rim
of the pronotum is left anteriorly, whilst the hinder edge has
impressed a groove upon the anal area of the wing&.

20 BOI.TON, " Mark Stirrup " Collcctioi of Fossil bisects.

Tegjiiiiia. — The base, and about one-quarter of the distal
or free end of each wmg has been lost, and the outer and inner
margins of the right tegmen are not defined. The portion of
wing present has a length of 21 mm., and a greatest breadth
of 14 mm. The complete tcgmina had a probable length of
29 mm.

The costal margin is preserved in the left tegmen. It is
gently convex. The sub-costa is widely separated from the
costal margin, to which it sends about ten twigs, only one
showing forking. The costal field is strap-shaped, and the
sub-divisions of the sub-costa occupy the greater part of the
outer margin. The radius in both wnigs is a relatively unim-
portant vein, running parallel to the sub-costa. In the right
wing, the radius forks about the middle of its length, each
branch forking again before the broken edge of the wing is
reached. The radius of the left wing divides about the middle
of its length like its fellow, the outer branch forking again
twice. The median vein passes along the middle line of the
wing, diverging widely from the radius, and giving off two or
more outward branches beyond the middle of the wing. Its
final twigs ran out upon the apex of the wing. The cubitus
is a large and important vein. Following a course but little
divergent from the mam stem of the median, it passes down
to the extreme end of the inner wing margin, giving off on its
mner side, a series of 5 — 6 simple oblique undivided branches,
followed by a branch which forks twice before reaching the
margin. The cubitus of the left wing shows that a single
outwardly directed branch is also given off at a point beyond
the origin of the undivided inner branches. The course of this
was probably parallel to the outer part of the median vein.
The cubitus with its sub-divisions occupies the outer two-thirds
of the inner margin of the wing. The anal area is well defined
in each wing, having partially broken away along the line of
the anal furrow, and iDecome pressed down upon the body of
the insect. The anal veins are 6 — 7 in number, the fourth in
each wing being forked. The intercalary venation is nowhere
clearly marked. The pitted condition of the wirigs rather
indicates a reticulate venation. Traces of the venation of the
hind wings are present, more especially under the distal por-
tion of the left wing. It is, however, too fragmentary for
description, and the vein fragments cannot be definitely identi-
fied.

Legs. — Special interest is added to the specimen by the
presence under the wings, of portions of the legs of the left
side of the body. Remains of two, or of all three legs are
present. The anterior leg lies under the main stem of the sub-
costal vein, and has resulted in that structure being elevated
into a ridge Lying between the fore and hind legs, are the
tibia-tarsus elements of the middle one. Possibly a portion
of the femur is present also, lying upon the basal part of the

Manchester Mci/iotrs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), No. 't. 21

lemur of the hind leg. The tibia has short stout bristle-like
hairs, and still remains attached to the tarsus, of which three
segments can be disthiguishcd. Of the hind leg, the femur,
tibia, and a small j>ortion of the tarsus are distinguishable.
The femur is twice as l)road as the tibia, and is now flattened.
The tibia appears to be a well-rounded structure, (if even
diameter throughout, and clothed with numerous short stout
bristle-like hairs.

Affinities. — The general characters of the wings are clearly
those of the genus Phylloblatta, and the relationship to V.
reniforniis, Handl., is somewhat close. From that species how-
ever, the wings differ in the character of the median vein. The
latter vein does not divide until a point beyond the middle of
the wing has been reached, and its branches arc few in number,
whereas in P. rcuiformis, the median divides before the middle
of the wing is reached, and the branches are at least twice as
numerous. The character of the sub-costa, radius and cubitus
is much similar. The anal veins are more numerous in F.
reniforniis than in this specimen. As my work upon fossil
Ijlattoids has increased, I have become impressed with the
variability of the wing venation, and am convinced that when
it is better understood, it will be necessary to merge several
now recognised species into one. Whether this specimen must
ultimately be classed as an example of I-Iandlirsch's species,
P. reniforniis, it is not possible to say. For the present it seems
desirable to mark its differences by the creation of a new species.
We therefore style it P. obs citrus.

Type. — Specimen in the Manchester Museum, Mark Stirrup
Stirrup Collection; Register No., L5,553.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. — Commcntry (Allier), France.

Phylloblatta Stirni pi^ nov. sp. PI. V. ; figs. I — 3.

Species diagnosis. — Radius confined to outer half of wing,
relatively feeble; radial sector large, much branched; branches
of median occupy whole of outer half of inner margin. Anal
area extending over one-third of length of wing.

A thin dark grey slab of shale bears upon its surface two
wings, the right underlying the left and destitute of the anal
area. The right wing has also the underside uppermost. The
U^ft wing, which is almost perfect, lacks only a little of the
apical margin, and the inner end of the sub-costal lobe. It
lies at right angles to that of the right, and overlies the inner
third of it. The venation of both wings is clearly defined.

The outer margin of each wing is gently convex, the apex
bluntly rounded, and the inner margin almost straight. The
general form is that of "an elongated oval. The length is
42mm., in both wings; the greatest breadth is across the left
wing, just behind the anal area where it is ig.5 mm.

22 Bolton, '' Mark Stin-np " CoLlcctioji of Fossil Insects.

Left tegiiicn. — The sub-costal vein is widely separated
from the costal margin, and runs parallel to it along almost
the whole of its length, its final twigs bending outwards and
reaching the costal margin at a point near the beginning of
the distal fourth of the wing's length. A considerable number
of twigs are given off to the costal margin, the proximal ones
being simple, whilst those in the middle and most distal por-
tion are one, and in some instances thrice branched. The gene-
ral form of the sub-costal is strap-shaped, a typical archimy-
lacrid feature, whilst the multiple division of the distal twigs
is suggestive of Necymylacris.

The radius is undivided for the first fourth of its length,
and then gives origin to the radial sector, beyond v^-hich it
divides into two twigs, the outer of which forks just before
reaching the outer margin, and the inner forks twice, ending
upon the margin in three divisions. This portion of the radius
takes but a small share in the wing apex.

The radial sector passes to the outer half of the wing tip,
forking three times during its course; two of the secondary
twigs and two of the tertiary twigs also fork, so that this divi-
sion of the radius ends u]:)on the margin in eight divisions.

The main stem of the median vein curves inwards, and
gives off four branches outwardly. The first branch divides
intO' three twigs before reaching the wing apex, and the second
divides into four. The remaining branches are undivided.
The divisions of the median occupy the inner half of the wing
apex. The main branch of the cubitus follows a parallel course
to that of the median, giving off" inwardlv a series of 8 — lo
twigs, of which the first, fourth, seventh and eighth again sub-
divide. These divisions occupy the whole of the inner margin
of the wing, outside the anal area. The anal area is best
described as an oval, bluntly pointed at both ends. It is
crossed by ten veins, one only of which is forked 1<jw down
against the wing margin.

Right tcgmen. — The right wing presents only minor differ-
ences. The sub-costal vein is not nearly so well developed as
in the right. The sub-divisions of the radius and radial sector
are sixteen in number against thirteen in the left wing, and
the median has seven divisions as against ten in the right wing.
The cubitus of the right wing is somewhat more developed
than in the left, taking a distinct share in the wing apex.

The anal area has been destroyed, two small traces only
being left of the first pair of veins. The intercalary venation
appears to consist of a fine meshwork, but this, is by no means
clear; certainly there is no trace of straight cross veins.

Affinities. — The beautiful condition of preservation of these
wings renders generic determination less difficult than usual.
The following assemblage of characters is at once characteris-
tic of these wings, and also of the genus Vhylloblatta. Wings

Manchester Mono'irs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. "l. 23

little over twicc^ as lony as broad, sub-costal area strap-shaped ;
radius confined to outer half of wing, radial sector much
branched. Alcclian vein curving down to the inner end of apex
of wing, and sending off a series of straight outer branches,
whose divisions end in the inner half of the wing apex.
Cubitus occupying almost the whole of the free inner margin,
its distal branches reaching to the apical margin of the wing.
Anal area extending over one-third the length of the wing.

In the branching of some of the distal divisions of the
sub-costa, there is a resemblance to what obtains in Necymy-
lacris, but in the latter, the sub-costal area is markedly triangu-
lar. A comparison of the two wings with blattoids described
and figured by Brongniart from the Stephanian of Commentry
is instructive.

Brongniart figures a number of forms under the name
of " Etohlattina sp." and of these, four at least are now classed
as Fhylloblaita by Handlirsch. That author has named the
species as follows: — ■Pliylloblatt'ina agnnsi (Brong. Insectes
Fossiles des Temps Primaires, t.48, Fig. 7); P. ^Brongniarli
(op.cit. t.48. Fig. 4): P. Stefhanensis (op.cit., t.46, Fig. 5);
P. reniformis (op.cit., t.47, Fig. g).

To these Handlirsch has also added two more species
from the Stephanian of Commentry, viz. : PJiylloblatta gallica
(Fossilen Insekten, p. 205, pi. XXL, Fig. 17), and P. ahitacea
(op.cit. p. 206, pi. XXL, Fig. 21).

More recently, M. Pruvost (Les Insectes Houillers du Nord
de la France. Annales de la Societe Geologique du Nord,
191 2) has described three new species of Phylloblatta from the
neighbourhood of Lens and Lievin.

The wings now under consideration differ in many details
from all of these, and in the present state of our knowledge,
these differences are sufficient to rank as of specific value.

It is therefore desirable to give these wings a name, and
we adopt that of Stirrupi, in honour of Mark Stirrup.

Type. — .Specimen in the Manchester Museum, Mark Stirrup
Collection; Register No., 1^5,551.

Horizon. — Stephanian.

Locality. Commentry (Allier), France.

Incertie sedis. — The ninth specimen in the collection is one
which shows traces of a small head, broad thorax, and narrow
abdomen, with fragmentary legs. No traces of wings are dis-
tinguishable. Its character and relationships cannot be deter-
mined.

The preparation of enlarged photographs, which have alone ren-
dered the study and description of these insects possible, has been
assisted by a Royal Society Grant. The photographs have been pre-
pared by Mr. J. W. Tutchcr.

24 Bolton, ''Mark Stirrup'' Collection of to.<sil bisects.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Megaguatli'i odonaiij orniis, gen. et. sp. nov. Bolton.

Fig. 2. — Megaguatha odoiiatifoniiis, as seen lying ujion surface
of matrix. Mag. 2.15.

Fig. 2. — Drawing showing pinccr-likc jaws, legs and position
of wings. Mag. 1.5.

P^S- 3- — Drawmg of left fore-wing showing portions of veins
distinguishable. Mag. 1.5.

Fig. 4. — No. 4. — Restoration of venation of left fore-wing.

Fig. 5.- — Goldeubcrgi.i Hamyi. ^lag. 1.13.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXI. No. 2,

Plate J.

26 Bolton, ''Mark Stirrup'' Collect (0)1 of Fossil bisects.

Plate II.

Syco'pteron symmetrica, gen. et sp. nov. Bolton.

Fig. I. — Enlarged direct photograph of Sy copter on symvietrica.
Mag. 5.47.

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic restoration of Sycopteron symmetrica,
showing the character of the wing venation. Mag.
547-

Necymylacris Mennieri, n. sp. Bolton.

P^S- 3- — Direct photograph of insect lying upon matrix. Mag.
1.66.

Fig. 4. — Restoration and venation of right tegmen. Mag. 1.66.

Fig. 5. — Restoration and venation of left tegmen. Mag. 1.66.

Ma)ichester Memoirs, Vol. LXI., No. 2.

Plate II.

28 Bolton, "Mark Stimip'' Collection of Fossil bisects.

Plate III.

Necymylacris Lerichei, n. sp. Bolton.

Ftg- I- — Direct photograph of insect lying upon matrix. Mag.
I.oo.

Fig. 2.- — Right tegmen restored, and showing venation. Mag.

2.1.

^ig- 3- — Left tegmen, showing the venation. Mag. 2.1.

Fig. 4. — Fragment of right hind wing, showing radius? Natu-
ral size.

^"^■g- 5- — Fragment of tip of left hind wing. Natural size.

FJiyllohlatta obscura, n. sp. Bolton.

Fig. 6. — Direct photogra|)h of insect lying upon matrix. Mag.
2.0.

Fig. 7. — Fragment of left tegmen showing venation. Mag. 2.0.

Fig. 8. — Fragment of right tegmen showing venation. Mag. 2.0.

Manchester Memoirs. Vol. LXL, No. 2.

Plate III.

30 Bolton, " Mark Stirm-p " Collection of Fossil Insects.

Plate IV.

Phylloblatta Brongniarti, Handlirsch.

Fig. I. — Direct photograph of insect lying upon matrix. Alag.
1.90.

Fig. 2. — Right tegmen restored. -Mag. 1.8.

Fig. 3. — Left tegmen restored. ]\Iag. i.S.

Fig. 4. — Fragmentary remains of right hind wing. Mag. 1.36.

Fig. 5. — Fragmentary remains of left hind wing. Mag. 1.36.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXL, No. 2.

Plate IV.

^ 1 1 I I I "^^

A \ \ 1 M / / / / I ' / /»
/, / / ; , \ I /\

L I ' I ^ ' /}

32 Bolton, ''Mark Sthntp" Colleclion of Fossil Insects.

Plate V.

Plivlloblalta Stirrirpi,_ n. sp. Bolton.

Fig. I. — Direct photograph of insect wings lying upon matrix.
Mag. 2.0.

Fig. 2. — Restored right tegmen showing venation. Mag. 1.85.

F^E- 3- — Left tegmen, slightly restored, and showing venation.
Mag. i.Ss.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LXL, No. 2

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (19 1/), l^o. ^.

III. Note on the Action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid.

By Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., Y.CS.

{Read January (jth, kj//. k'ccc'n'cd for fuhUcatioii January 15th, iQi?-)

Many years ago, when working with hydrogen prepared
by electrolysis, I noticed that the gas, after being left in con-
tact with strong sulphuric acid, had a distinct odour of sulphur
dioxide. It appeared obvious that the hydrogen had reduced
the sulphuric acid, and I proceeded to ascertain what work, if
any, had been done on the subject. I found that Faraday
(Phil. Trans., 1834) had examined the action of nascent
hydrogen on sulphuric acid. He stated that strong sulphuric
acid is a very bad conductor of electricity, but if subjected
to the action of a powerful current, oxygen a[3pears at the
anode, and hydrogen and sulphur at the cathode. These
results were confirmed by Gladstone and Tribe in a paper
communicated to the Chemical Society in 1879. They give
a detailed account of their study of the behaviour of nascent
and occluded hydrogen on sulphuric acid, and arrived at the
opinion " that these hitherto supposed different states of the
element are very closely related, if not identical — that in fact,
the activity of the so-called nascent hydrogen is only the
consequence of its intimate association with the metals em-
ployed to bring about the liberation of the element." They
decomposed strong sulphuric acid (98 per cent. H. SO4) with
variable battery power, and obtained results agreeing with
Faraday's, but when they used one cell only, they obtained
very little gas at the anode in ten days, and not a trace of
sulphur or gas at the cathode, but the liquid there contained
an appreciable amount of sulphurous acicl. A similar reduc-
tion of sulphuric acid was effected by occluded hydrogen.

G. T. Warner, in 1873.(6"/^^;;/. Isleivs, XXVIIL, 13) found
that sulphur dioxide was evolved in quantity when sulphuric acid
was distilled in a current of hydrogen, and that the reaction
began at a temperature of 160° C. He also found that sul-
phuric acid and hydrogen, when treated together for twelve
hours in a sealed tube to 205° C. also yielded sul})hur dioxide.

Berthelot, in the Compt. Rendu for 1897, also examined
this reaction. He found that a slow current of hydrogen passed
for an hour through concentrated sulphuric acid at the ordinary
temperature did not produce sulphur dioxide, but that pro-
longed contact between the acid and the gas brought about
the reaction. Further, that no reaction occurred with the dilute

Fcl>ruary 2jfh, 1^17.

2 Jones, Action of Hydrogen on SiiLphiuic Acid.

acid heated to 250° C, whereas at that temperature the con-
centrated acid was rapidly acted on. lie also found there
was no reaction between hydrogen and sulphur dioxide heated
either to 100° or 280° C.

The last paper to which I will refer is one by Jaroslav
Milbauer (Zeit. Phys. Chem., IQ07, 649) who maintains that
impure hydrogen bubbled through sulphuric acid at the ordin-
ary temperature contains appreciable quantities of sulphur
dioxide, while pure hydrogen gives none. Further, the rate

of oxidation of pure hydrogen by sulphuric acid was studied
in detail at 174° C. at constant pressure. For a given rate of
jiassage of the hydrogen the amount of sulphur dioxide per
minute is constant for acid containing gi to 97 per cent, of
Ho SO4. Also, that the amount of sulphur dioxide produced
is increased by catalytic agents, notably by the presence of
metals of the platinum group. These results are in close agree-

Manchesler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. \i. 3

iiicnt in so far as the action of nascent hydrogen is concerned,
they chffer as to the action of free hydrogen on sulphuric acid
particularly in two ways : (c?) as to temperature, ih) as to the
effect of impurities in the gas.

It seemed to me worth while to endeavour to dc\'ise an
experiment that would settle the ponits at issue.

The bulb A of the non-tubulated retort {see sketcli) con-
tains strong sulphuric acid, and the rest is filled with pure
hydrogen, tlic point dips under water in the test glass B, and
the whole is left at the ordinary temperature for several days.
If sulphur dioxide is produced, it will be dissolved by the
water, which ought to rise slowly in the neck of the retort.
This is exactly what occurs. The reaction is slow but steady.
Even a slight impurity in the hydrogen would not account
for the gradual diminution in the volume of the gas, which
can only be accounted for by the supposition that hydrogen
acts on the sulphuric acid at the ordinary temperature in the
way suggested by the equation —

The height of the liquid in the neck of the retort {see
sketch) represents approximately the result of an experiment
continued for twenty days.

MancJiester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), iNo. 4.

IV. An Egyptian Meteorite.
By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S.

{Received and. read March 6th, igij.)

In the month of October last year an interesting communi-
cation was made to me by Capt. Cyril Norbury, of the 7th
Manchester Regiment, respecting the fall of a meteorite which
he observed in August, 1916, while engaged in military opera-
tions in Egypt at the extreme north of the Sinai Peninsula.

The fall occurred in the early afternoon, and was attended
by a loud whizzing followed by a great thud. It was at once
decided that the sounds were caused by an enemy bomb that
had failed to explode, but on further search of the spot with a
spade where the body had disappeared it was unearthed.

That the body was an erratic was evident from the fact
that no stones of any kind are found in that part of the track-
less desert. Capt. Norbury noticed that a portion of the meteo-
rite was missing, but although a careful search was made, the
missing portion could not be found. He also mentioned in
this connexion as a singular coincidence that a similar occur-
rence took place at the same time 14 miles away, though the
meteorite in that case was never found, but the 6th Manchesters
heard a similar buzzing through the air. Capt. Norbury re-
turned to England in the autumn of last year, when he kindly
placed the meteorite at my disposal.

I was able to confirm his statement respecting the separa-
tion of its parts after entering the atmosphere from the irregu-
larity of its natural lines of curvature. The weight of the
meteorite is nearly 3.5 lbs., and the missing parts would be
about the same weight. The thin pellicle on the surface of the
stone (o.02in. deep) through which it becomes vividly incandes-
cent during its passage through the atmosphere, is indubitable
evidence of its identity with those in the collection of similar
meteorites in the British Museum.

The Egyptian Meteorite is an amorphous silicate, grey
in colour, and contains microscopic particles of iron which are
diffused throughout the mass, and cause a magnetised needle
to adhere to any part of its surface.

March 2^r(L 191 7.

2 Wilde, An Egyptian Meteorite.

A spectroscopic examination of chippings from the meteo-
rite was made with the arc light and the direct vision spectro-
scope of five prisms with which I discovered the new lines of
thallium* and oxygen. The following experimental results for
some of the principal lines, in wave lengths, were obtained: —

Iron. — 4414, 4404, 4382, 4250, 4186,4045.
Magnesium. — 5183, 5172, 5167, 5527.

The spectral lines of magnesium were probably derived
from the resolution of olivine into its ultimates, silicon, oxygen
and magnesium, as this crystalline mineral is frequently found
in meteoric stones.

* Proc. Roy. Soc, Vol. 53. April 20, 1893.

Manchester Mcinoii'S^ Vol. Ixi. (iQl/J, No. 5.

V. Oa the Contents of a Herbarium of British and foreign
Plants for presentation to the Victoria University,
Manchester.

By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S.

{Received, and read March 20th ^ igij.)

Every herbarium represents part of the autobiography of
its founder. It will show his weakness and strength; his pre-
ferences, idiosyncrasies, and fads. It will disclose his accu-
racy, or otherwise, in the records which it includes ; his acumen,
or the lack of it, in appreciating the facts and ways of nature.
It embalms the friendships of his life, the botanical stimulus
which he has received, the countries which he has visited ; it tells
of hairbreadth escapes by land and water; it reminds him of
threatened arrests for trespassing or poaching. Its accumula-
tions testify to the life-giving and life-sustaining pursuits with
which its collections have been brought together. It has un-
doubtedly introduced him to a long roll of the most worthy
and lovable of his fellow-creatures.

The foundations of a good herbarium rest upon a thorough
grounding in the main facts of structural and physiological
botany. And of this particular herbarium it may truly be said
to have been laid, more than sixty years ago, in the dingy
lecture-room of the late Professor W. C. Williamson, in the
old Owens College, in Quay Street, Manchester. My revered
teacher was therefore its mainspring, and it is fitting, that when
I have done with it, it should revert to the University of which
Owens was the forerunner. Some particulars, therefore, of its
composition will be of interest to future users of this herbarium.

It consists of four portions : —(i^) British plants, with ex-
amples of many non-native plants cultivated in this country;
{b) native European and Mediterranean plants, with some plants
cultivated on the Continent; U) mosses and lower cryptogams,
British and foreign; and {d) American, East Indian, and exotic
plants.

During the course of its formation its ultimate destination
had been the subject of frequent consideration with my friend.
Dr. J. Cosmo Melvill, formerly of Manchester, now of Meole
Brace Hall, near Shrewsbury, who possessed a like
extensive herbarium. At one time we were in the habit
of subscribing for the same sets of plants from botanists who
were collecting in European and other countries, but as we had
resolved to present our respective herbaria to the University of

July i2th, igiy.

2 Bailey, Herbarimn of British and Foreign Plants.

Manchester, it was needless for both to continue acquiring the
same sets of plants; from that time, now many years ago, we
resolved to work on different lines.

Dr. Melvill's herbarium contained large numbers of type
specimens of well-known botanists, collected in all parts of the
world, of which details were given in " A Brief Account of the
General Herbarium formed by James Cosmo Melvill, 1867-
1904," upon the occasion of its presentation to the Victoria
University, Manchester, on the 31st October, 1904. It also
containeci an extensive collection of British plants, many of
which came from the same sources as my British herbarium.
Dr. Melvill, therefore, decided that the British portion of his
herbarium should go to Harrow School, on the understanding
that my British plants would find their resting place in the
Victoria University.

As the other portion of Dr. Melvill's herbarium contained
large collections from all parts of the world, while mine was
mainly confined to the plants of European and Mediterranean
countries, we resolved that any subsequent additions to our
respective herbaria should be in the following directions: —
That my additions should be confined to plants from Great
Britain and Ireland, from the European Continent, and from
the African countries bordering upon the Mediterranean ; while
Dr. Melvill's additions should be restricted to plants from all
countries other than European and North African. This course
would obviate much overlapping, and increase the value of the
two collections when they became united.

In my own herbarium the method of housing the speci-
mens has been to adopt a uniform size of sheet, measuring
i/i X 11^ inches. The sheets are enclosed in boxes with wooden
frames and pasteboard lids; the boxes measure, externally,
18 X 12 inches, and the lids are made as deep as the boxes.
The boxes stand on shelves 13 inches above each other, and are
enclosed in cupboards 10 feet in height; a separate room
attached to the house at Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, and measur-
ing 42 feet by 25 feet, has been built to accommodate the her-
barium. The cupboards stand seven inches from the walls, to
admit a set of hot-water pipes, which runs, round the room ; a
space of a quarter of an inch being left free from the floor, to
admit a constant current of air between the walls and the
cases. Only a small portion of the herbarium has been
mounted, but ;£'500 has been offered to the University
towards the cost of mounting the plants comprised in this
herbarium. Every six or eight years the growth of the her-
barium has necessitated the renumbering of the boxes, to pro-
vide for the additional material which had accumulated in the
interval ; the revision which it is now receiving (on the com-
pletion of my 78th year) will be the last before it reaches its
final destination.

The herbarium has been in the course of formation since

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No 5 3

the year 1861. The British portion is arranged according to
the sequence of species adopted in Druce's " List of British
Plants"; each box is labelled with Druce's numbers (Oxford,
January, IQ08), and with the numbers in the loth edition
of the " London Catalo'gue " ; the Continental portion
follows the sequence of Nyman's " Conspectus Floras
Europaeas " (Orebro, 1878- 1882), and its supplements (1883-
1890). The various numbers which occur on the labels,
etc., of individual plants are the numbers of Natural
Orders adopted in Balfour's "Class Book of Botany" (pub-
lished in 1859); thus 28 stands for Caryophyllaceas, 74 for
Leguminosas, 120 for Compositas, 161 for Labiate, 209 for
Salicaceas, 273 for Lichenes, etc.

Non-localised plants have generally been destroyed, but
when any such are included it is either because their source was
expected to be traced, or because they furnished good charac-
ters of an infrequent form or species. Undated plants, though
undesirable, could not always be deleted when such excellent
examples as those issued in the " Flora Exsiccata Austro-
Hungarica " were sent out without any record of the month
or year of their collection.

In the British portion of the herbarium a large use has
been made of printed labels recording the localities where the
plants were collected, and the surplus — often large — has been
distributed to botanists and botanical exchange clubs, in this
country and on the Continent. The principal aim sought was
to get together, from as many different localities as possible,
the common British and European species, rather than to accu-
mulate the less frequent plants. At the close of each season,
after supplying home wants, the rest of the plants were disr-
p'^'tched to Continental exchange clubs, which returned me
Continental species in exchange for British, lists of obtata, or
desiderata, being rarely exchanged on either side.

Besides this feature of the growth of the herbarium, it has
been increased by purchase, especially of the published exsic-
cata of special groups of plants, or of selected European coun-
tries. When these exsiccata occur in the herbarium in duplicate
or triplicate, it has generally been through presentation, or by
purchase of other herbaria incorporated with my own. Some
species were duplicated intentionally on account of their excel-
lence; the scrappy character of others frequently necessitated
a double or larger supply ; while there were some that promptly
found their way to the fire for unreliability as to locality, or
fraud, or other circumstance. The sources from which most
of the plants have been drawn are summarised on pages ii to
16, but such summary does not profess to be a full record of its
varied sources.

The British species, and named varieties and forms, in
Druce's "List," and the sequence of the sheets under each
species, follows the order of counties, or vice-counties, adopted

4 Bailey, Herbariitm of British and Foreign Plants.

by H. C. Watson, in his "Topographical Botany"; while the
Irish localities follow the divisions of the Irish flora adopted by
D. Moore and A. G. More in their " Cybele Hibernica." A
nearly complete set of plates contained in the second edition of
Sowerby's " English Botany," is included in the herbarium, as
well as the plates of " Fryer's Potamogetons," " Hanbury's
Hieracia," etc.

Some attempt has been made to catalogue the contents of
the British portion of the herbarium, but a busy life has not
lent itself to furthering this intention. Whether I shall have
the time to do so now is doubtful. One volume only has been
compiled, bringing up the data to the end of the Caryo-
fhyllacece.

A record has been kept of every British plant which I have
collected during the last fi.fty-fi.ve years, the entries being con-
tained in two volumes, of foolscap size, lettered, " Dated Col-
lections of British Plants," Vol. I. being from 1862 to 1898, and
Vol. II. from 1899 to the present time. The plants have been
entered in the exact sequence in which they were gathered, the
use of a collecting book in place of a vasculum facilitating
this arrangement. At the end of every year a systematic sum-
mary is given of all the British gatherings of the year.

In the Continental portion of the herbarium the species
stand in the exact order of Nyman's " Conspectus," and their
position is shown by the numbers stated on the outside of the
boxes; thus, box 1,825 contains Achillea, species Nos. 18
to 20, on page 368, viz. : — Achillea Gerberi, M.B., A. micranthuy
M.B., and A. le-pio-phylla, M.B. A copy of Nyman's " Con-
spectus " is marked with the corresponding numbers of the
boxes, and of their contents. Nyman's index of species would
have been greatly increased in usefulness if the names of the
authorities for the species had been given ; their absence necessi-
tates the making of an independent index for all the larger
genera. Nor does Nyman print at the beginning of each
page the name of the genus indexed, a fact which often
renders the references very irritating, and time consuming.

When the species, native or cultivated, belong to a genus or
species not included in the "Conspectus," a place has to be
found, by intercalating such plants according to the position
assigned to them in Bentham and Hooker's ''Genera Plantantin'^'
(London, 1 862-1 883), as summarised in Th. Durand's "Index
Generum Phanerogamerum " (Bruxelles, 1888). Use has also
been made of De Candolle's "Prodromus"; Ascherson and
Graebner's " Synopsis der mitteleuropaischen Flora " (Leipzig,
1896-1913); Richter and Gurke's " Plantas Europaeas" (Leipzig,
1890-1903); Boissier's "Flora Orientalis " (Geneva and Basle,
1867-1888); W. D. J. Koch's "Synopsis der deutschen und
Schweitzer Flora" (Leipzig, 1890-1906); Rouy's "Flore de
France," Vols. I.-XIV. (Asnieres, 1893-1913); Willkomm and
Lange's "Prodromus Florae Hispaniae " (Stuttgart, 1870-1893);

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (igiy), No. ;>. 5

Coste's "Flore de France" (Paris, 1901-1906); Battandier and
Trabut's "Flore de I'Algerie" (Paris, 1888-igio); Gandoger's
" Novus Conspectus Florae Europae " (Paris, 1910); and any
other standard floras.

Where no sufficiently comprehensive list of European
species was available, a manuscript list has been compiled,
especially of such polymorphic genera as Kiibus, Rosa, Hiera-
ciuin, Salix, etc. Even these, however, require expanding when
they do not include all the European and Mediterranean coun-
tries professing to be represented in the herbarium, as also when
new forms are described. To meet such cases, the most com-
plete flora, or monograph, is made the basis of a manuscript
linear arrangement of the species of the genus, and into it are
dovetailed additional species in their approximate places. In
many cases where the additional names occur in works where
the arrangement of species differs from that of Ny man's funda-
mental list, no special care hasi been taken to fix their exact
places in the manuscript list ; the main point ensured being
that the names are included and indexed, and are made readily
accessible under the sequence of the numbers assigned to them
in the manuscript index. Many of the additions consist of
geographical forms which are practically endemic in their
districts, and such names must be duly indexed if the full
value of an alphabetical index is to be made available.

Where no manuscript index has been made, the first box of
each genus contains a rough alphabetical list of the species not
contained in Nyman, and such lists indicate the positions of
the intercalated species. The leisure of the past few years has
been spent in putting the herbarium in the exact sequence of
Nyman's species.

The catalogue of the Continental portion of the herbarium
was originally intended to have expressed, in a condensed form,
the data furnished by the herbarium itself, by giving the coun-
try, locality, published numbers of theexsiccata, date collected,
and the collector's name. The time which this method of
making records entailed was, however, more than could be
found for it, and it was subsequently abandoned. It was,
however, followed for all the families from RanuncidacecE to
Ftimariacere, for the whole of the Cyperacece and Characece,
and for the following genera: — Alyssum, Viola, Cerastium,
Medicago, Trifoliiim, Symphytum, Primula, Alectorolophus,
Euphrasia, Salvia, Teucrium, Ajuga, Thymus, Mentha, Statice,
Cyperacece, and Equisetum. Altogether there are fifteen
volumes of these indices, belonging to this herbarium, and
there are others partially completed.

In such catalogues the entries are made on alternate lines
or pages, according to the size of the page, the alternate lines
or pages being reserved for later entries. The rotation number
adopted for the species precedes the name of the species and
the synonyms follow immediately after. The collector's name.

6 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

when known, is given in the last column of the page, the next
to it being reserved for the date when the example was col-
lected. The column which precedes these two is reserved for
the abbreviated titles, and published numbers, of such exsiccata
as are included in the herbarium. When there is more than
one sheet of a species, collected at the same station and date,
the number of sheets in the herbarium, is expressed by a
small figure in brackets, thus (2), (3), (4), etc.

A shortened form of the larger size of catalogue was
adopted for such extensive genera as Rubus, Rosa, and Hiera-
ciiim, and may yet be carried out for Salix. Here the syste-
matic list is first made out, and then the alphabetic list, but
the other detailed information of collectors' names, dates,
numbers of the exsiccata, are omitted. It will give some idea
of the labour involved in preparing even this shortened form of
catalogue, by stating that the number of entries of the m.ere
names in my manuscript catalogues is, for —

Kubus, 4,000, with 6,900 separate entries, occupying 377 pages.
Rosa, 2,700, ,, 10,500 ,, ,, ,, 507 ,,

Hieracimn, 5,200, ,, 17,600 ,, ,, ,, 663

Whether catalogued or not, with Nyman's marked " Con-
spectus " at hand, the position of any box in the herbarium is
found without loss of time. All the boxes are arranged sun-
wise, and the numbers of the boxes in each compartment of the
herbarium are painted on the doors of the cases which hold
them.

When the linear arrangement of the species has been com-
pleted, an alphabetical list is drawn up of all the specific
names which it contains, together with those of any sub-species,
varieties, forms, and the like to which a separate number has
been applied. Besides the usual binary names imposed upon
the plants, the tertiary, quaternary, and quinary names are also
included in the alphabetical arrangement. The inclusion of
such varietal names very largely increases the length of the
alphabetical list; thus, to take the instance of, say, Hieraciiim
onosmoides, Fries — a sub-species of H. saxifragiim, fully stated
it would stand as H. {saxifragum) onosmoides. Fries; and its
variety siibnuda, Arv. Touv., or its sub-variety forfhyritce, F.
Schultz, would require entering under the letters S, O, S, and
P in their respective places, to meet the cases where the collect-
ing botanist uses the shortened name, viz., H. forphyritce, F.
Schultz. The only varietal names excluded from this index
would be those of such frequent names as genuinum, normale,
iypicum, vermn, and the like, which are not worth the labour
of indexing alphabetically.

In the alphabetical arrangement every individual name
corresponds with the number given to it in the linear arrange-
ment. This enables it to be immediately traced in the her-
barium, as the external label on each box gives the name of

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), A^c. 5. 7

the genus, and the progressive numbers of the manuscript cata-
logue. As new, or other unenumerated, forms come to hand,
they are arranged a place in the serial list which belongs to
them, when their relationships are known; failing this informa-
tion they are put at the end of the section to which they appear
to belong, and often in alphabetical order, their indexed number
and name making them readily accessible. Every named form
is not necessarily written up in the linear series; but each can
be traced in the alphabetical list of the forms belonging to
the genus. At whatever point in the linear series at which they
are intercalated in the herbarium, they take the same numeral
as the form which precedes them, with a, b, c, or other dis-
tinguishing letter.

The distinction between super- species, sub-species, race,
variety, form and the like, although recognised in the catalogue,
is not maintained in the index. All the names are thrown into
one alphabetical order, designed to find quickly their position
in the herbarium, and, as is explained further on, its representa-
tion in the herbarium of the different areas in which the species
occurs.

The index includes the chief synonyms, but the indexing
proper is, in the main, confined to the names under which the
species is most generally circulated by collecting botanists.
Its purposes are to ensure easy reference tO' the place of any
plant in the boxes ; to record the geographical areas from which
the examples in the boxes have been derived ; and to show at a
glance what lacunae require filling up when any species is
offered.

Besides the sequence of species, a sequence of the geo-
graphical areas has been observed throughout the entire her-
barium. As has been already indicated, Watson's divisions
have been followed for the British areas; and all Continental
species are arranged in the like sequence. In such large genera
as Rifbits and Rosa, where the number of boxes is considerable,
it would take up too much time to hunt for any species sought
unless the county areas were strictly followed ; in the British
section alone there are 1 1 1 boxes of R?fbi, and 65 of Roses, and
in the European section gi and 8g respectively.

The same principle of maintaining a geographical sequence
for all the species included in the herbarium has been followed
in the Continental portion of the collection. Every species is
marshalled in one geographical sequence, which is maintained
throughout the herbarium. To effect this in the simplest man-
ner, Europe and the Mediterranean countries have been broken
up into sections according as their centres stand west or east
of the nth degree of west longitude, and north or south of the
50th degree of north latitude, Germany and Austria being
placed by themselves in a central group. Each area is repre-
sented by a numeral, or letter, to economise space when index-
ing the areas represented in the herbarium.

8 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

These areas stand in the following sequence, viz. : —

NORTH-WEST GROUP.

1. Iceland.
Arctic regions.

2. Norway (except Lapland).
[3 to 5. The British Isles, in

separate catalogue.]

6. Denmark.

7. Holland.
Belgium.
Luxembourg.

NORTH-EAST GROUP.

15-
16.

17-

Sweden.

Lapland.

White Sea.

Finland.

Russia.

Poland.

Crimea.

Caucasus.

Siberia.

CENTRAL GROUP.

18. A. Schleswig, Holstein, Lauenburg, Hamburg, Altona, and
Lubeck.

B. Hanover, East Friesland, Osnabruck, Oldenburg, Brunswick,

Lippe Detmold, and Lippe Schomburg.

C. Westphalia, Waldeck, Hessen Cassel, Hessen Darmstadt, and

Nassau.

D. Rhenish Provinces, Palatinate-Rhenish Bavaria, Alsace, and

German Lorraine — ^Lothringen.

E. Baden and Wurtemburg.

F. Bavaria.

iQ. G. Mecklenberg Schwerin, and Mecklenburg Strelitz.
H. Brandenburg.

I. Saxony Province, Anhalt, Weimar, Coburg, Gotha, Meiningen,
Altenburg, Schwarzburg, and Reuss — collectively, Thur-
ingia.
J. Saxony Kingdom — Leipzic, Zwichau, Dresden, and Bautzen.
K. Pomerania.
L. Prussia, West and East.
M. Posen.
N. Silesia, including, Siebenburgen (Silesian Bohemia).

20. O. Bohemia.
P. Moravia.

Q. Austria, Upper and Lower.

R. Vorarlberg, and Tyrol.

S. Salzburg.

21. Hungary.

22. Galicia, Bukowina, and Transylvania.

SOUTH-WEST GROUP.

8. Switzerland.

Q. F'rance, north of the Loire.

10. France, south of the Loire.

11. Portugal.

12. Spain, north and central.

13. Spain, east and south.
Balearic Isles.

14. Corsica.
Sardinia.

23-
24.

25-

26.

27.

28.
29.

30.

SOUTH-EAST GROUP.

Italy, north and central.

Calabria, Sicily, and Malta.

Croatia, Slavonia, and Istria.

Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herze-
govina, Montenegro, and
Servia.

Moldavia
garia.

Albania,

Wallachia, Bul-

Thessaly, Mace-
donia, and Roumelia.

Greece.

Crete, Cyprus, Cilicia, and
Syria.

North Africa, Madeira, and
the Canaries.

Manchester Memoirs^ Vol. Ixi. (igi/), No. 5. 9

To facilitate quick indexing these areas are thrown into a
shortened alphabetical index of countries, provinces or other
areas, as is shown in the following table, these numbers or
letters being frequently used for the various areas named.

All the geographical data belong to a period in use prior
to the year igoo.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF COUNTRIES, PROVINCES,
OR OTHER AREA.

.30 Africa, N.

27 Albania.

D Alsace.

I Altenburg.

A Altona.

I Anhalt.

I Arctic Regions.

Q Austria, Lr.

Q Austria, Upr.

E Baden.

13 Balearic Isles.
E Bavaria.

7 Belgium.

0 Bohemia.

H Brandenburg.

B Brunswick.

22 Bukowina.

26 Bulgaria.

24 Calabria.
S Carinthia.

5 Carniola.

C Cassel, Hessen.

17 Caucasus.

2Q Cilicia.

I Coburg.

14 Corsica.
2g Crete.
17 Crimea.

25 Croatia.
2g Cyprus.
25 Dalmatia.

C Darmstadt, Hess.

6 Denmark.

B Detmold, Lip.

16 Fennia.

16 Finland.

Q France, N.

10 France, S.

B Friesland.

22 Galicia.

I Gotha.

.28 Greece.

A Hamburg.

B

Hanover.

L

Prussia, W.

C

Hessen Cassel.

I

■ Reuss.

C

Hessen Darmst.

D

Rhenish Prov.

B

Hessen Schombg.

D

Rhine, Palatinate

25

Herzegovina.

0

Ricseng., Bohem.

7

Holland.

N

Rieseng., Silesia.

A

Holstein.

27

Roumelia.

21

Hungary.

17

Russia.

I

Iceland.

S

Salzburg.

25

Istria.

14

Sardinia.

24

Italy, Calabria.

J

Saxony, King.

23

Italy, Central.

I

Saxony, Prov.

23

Italy, North.

B

Schaumburg.

S

Krain.

A

Schleswig.

]6

Lapland.

B

Schomburg H.

16

Lapponia.

I

Schwarzburg.

A

Lauenburg.

G

Schwerin, Mk.

B

Lippe Detmold.

25

Servia.

B

Lippe Schom.

17

Siberia.

17

Livonia.

24

Sicily.

D

Lorraine.

22

Siebenbergen.

A

Lubeck.

N

Silesia.

7

Luxembourg.

25

Slavonia.

27

Macedonia.

12

Spain, N. & C.

24

Malta.

13

Spain, S. & E.

H

Mark Brandenb.

S

Steiermark.

G

Meckl. Schw.

G

Strelitz, Meckl.

G

Meckl. Strelitz.

S

Styria.

I

Meiningen.

N

Sudeten.

25

Montenegro.

IS

Sweden.

P

Moravia.

8

Switzerland.

S

Mountfort.

29

Syria.

c

Nassau.

27

Thessaly.

30

North Africa.

I

Thuringia.

•7

Norway.

22

Transylvania.

B

Oldenburg.

R

Tyrol.

B

Osnabruck.

R

Vorarlberg.

D

Palatinate.

C

Waldeck.

17

Poland.

26

Wallachia.

K

Pomerania.

I

Weimar.

1 1

Portugal.

C

Westphalia.

M

Posen.

16

White Sea.

L

Prussia, E.

E

Wurtemburg.

Explanation of Signs Used in Compiling the Index.

The entry of a number, or letter, in its appropriate column indi-
cates that the species is represented in the herbarium from the area

10 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

assigned to such number or letter. If the sign is not underlined it-
means that there are specimens from i or 2 localities, or gathering's;
if underlined once — 3 to 5 localities; if underlined twice, 6 to S locali-
ties; if underlined thrice, g to 11 localities; and so on.

These sections are by no means of equal area; in fixing
their boundaries regard was had to the relative frequency with
which plants from these areas would be likely to be available.
Thus, nearly the whole of European Russia and Siberia is
represented by a single number (17), whilst Germany and
Austria, to which numbers 18, 19, and 20 are assigned were,
from the greater accessibility of the plants therefrom, subse-
quently broken up into smaller areas; Western Germany (18)
into six divisions (A to F) ; Eastern Germany (19) into eight
(G to N) ; and portions of Austria (20) into five (O to S). It
would have been more symmetrical to have re-numbered the
areas from 18 onwards, but so much use had been made of them,
as originally planned, as to render it undesirable to change
them, and it is immaterial whether letters or numbers are
adopted, as they are merely symbols of the areas represented
in the herbarium.

In the index each of these 43 geographical areas has a
separate column assigned to it, the columns being distinguished
from each other by coloured ruled lines. When the herbarium
contains a plant from any of the allotted areas, its presence
is indicated by the symbol assigned to it, every symbol being
entered under its own column in the index. If there are three
sheets of examples from the same area, its symbol is under-
lined once; when there are from four to six sheets from the
same area, it is underlined twice, and so on, each underline
representing three sheets.

When an index of species has been made, it is used in two
sizes; in one the page measures 8 x 5|- inches, in the other
12 X 10 inches, according to the length of the index, the octavo
size being the one generally adopted. In the smaller size the
species are entered in the first part of the index in systematic
order on the left-hand page, the right-hand page being reserved
for later additions. Then follows the alphabetical part, which
is written up across both pages on alternate lines, so as to allow
of any additional entries being made in their proper places.

When the quarto page is used no detailed list is given of
the localities from which the examples have been derived. But
when the alphabetical list is made out, each page is indepen-
dent of the other, and runs on continuously, the alternate lines
being left for additional entries.

It may be as well to put on record the principal sources
from which the plants have been derived. They are arranged
alphabetically, the British portion being separated from the
Continental, and both these from the exotic section. The dates
specified are either those of publication, or when they came into-
my possession. The list does not profess to be a complete one.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 5- i r

BRITISH PLANTS.

Andrews's Saxifrages, 1805 and later.

Baker's Roses, 1865.

Baker's North Yorkshire, 1866.

Bailey's English, Welsh, Scotch, and Irish.

Barrow's plants, 1879, and later.

Bickham's cultivated plants, i8q8 — iqoo.

Bladon's Pontypool, 1876.

Bloxam's Roses and Rubi, 1866, and 1875 — 1876.

Botanical Exchange Club, London, 1860 — 1878.

Botanical Exchange Club of the British Isles, 187Q — 1Q17.

Braithwaite's Sphagnaceae, 1877.

Brody's Kent, 1892.

Carrington and Pearson's Hepaticas Britannicas, Fasc. I. — V., 1878 —

1890.
Cooke's Fungi Britannici, Cent. I. — VII., 1864 — 1872; Ed. 2, 1875 — ■

1879.
Crespigny's herbarium, chiefly of the southern counties (Cos. 15 — 17^

20, and 21.)
Fisher's Lancashire and Cheshire plants.
Friedlander's Hepaticae, 1870.
Fryer's Cambridgeshire plants, 1888 — 1889.
Groves's Characeas, Fasc. I., 1892; II., 1900.
Hardy's herbarium, mostly Yorkshire localities, 1884.
Irvine's Middlesex, 1864.
Kentish Orchids (L.C.'s), 1866.
Leefe's Salices, Fasc. I.— III., 1869 — 1874.

Lewis's herbarium, mostly from Lancashire and Cheshire, 1895.
Lewis's Rubi, 1876; Fasc. I. — IV., 1891 — 1894.
Linton's Hieracia, Fasc. I. — VII., 1896 — 1905.
Linton's Rubi, Fasc. I. — IV., 1892 — 1895.

Linton's V\ illows, Fasc. I — IV., 1894 — 1898. Supp. i — 2, 1912 — 1913.
London Botanical Exchange Club, 1866 — 1868.
Lucas's Derbyshire and other plants, 1868.
Molincux's (Mrs.) Ipswich and other plants, 1864.

Moseley's (Miss H.), about 1836 — 1844, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham.
Mott's herbarium, of flowering plants.
Notcutt's herbarium, Fareham, Fakenham, and Cheltenham plants,

1844 to 1 87 1.
Rimington's plants, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham.
Robinson's Frodsham and other plants, 1866.
Science Gossip Exchange Club, 1878 — 1880.
Sidebotham's Llandudno, 1865.
Sole's Mints, about 1798.
Stratton's Isle of Wight, 1S66.
Tempere's plants, per Mr. Spencer H. Bickham.
Thirsk Botanical Exchange Club, 1864 — 1865.

Ward's herbarium, mostly Yorkshire plants in the early sixties, 1904.
Waters's Cheshire, 1885.
Waterfall's Britishj 1879.
Windsor's Derbyshire and Settle, 1865.

CONTINENTAL PLANTS.

Ahlberg's Scandinavian, 1899 (per Dr. Boswell Syme).

Austro-Hungarian exsiccata. Cent. I. — XXXV., 1885 — 1899.

Baenitz's Dalmatian, 1899.

Baenitz's European herbarium. Cent. I. — CXXIL, 1868 — 1900.

Baenitz's Herbarium Dendrologicum, I. — XXX., 1906 — 1910.

Baenitz's Juncaceae and Cyperacese, 1875.

Bailey's Norwegian (1865), Rhenish (1872), and Swiss (1909).

12 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

Baker's Critical plants of Continental Europe, Fasc. I., 1865.

Balducci's Italian, iSqo.

Barrow's, 1879, and later years to i8qo.

Becker's Violae exsiccata, Fasc. I. — VIII., iqco — igog.

Berlin Botanical Exchange Club, 31st to 3Qth years, igoo — igoS.

Billot's Flora Gallise et Germanioe, Fasc. I. — XLL, 1S68 — 1883. (Con-
tinued by Bavoux, Guichard, Paillot, and Vendrely.)

Bordere's Pyrenean, 1870, etc.

Bornmuller's Anatolian, Asia Minor, Persian, Syrian and Trojan,
i88g— i8g8.

Boswell's Scandinavian, i8gg (chiefly Ahlberg's).

Boulay's Ronces Vosgiennes, Livr. I. — VII., 1868 — 1880.

Boulay's Rubi praesertim Gallici, Fasc. I. — III., i8g5 — i8g7.

Bove's Algerian, i83g.

Braun's Herbarium Rosarum, Lief. I. — X., 1882.

Braun's Herbarium Ruborum, Fasc. I. — VII., 2nd Ed., 1877 — 1881.

Brotherus's Caucasian, 1882.

Bubela's Moravian, 1884.

Burchurd's Canaries, igo4.

Callier's Crimean, iSgs — igo2.

Carrier's Arabian, Cicilian, European, Kurdistan, and Russian, 1876 —
1877.

Charrel's Plantae orientales, 1876 — 1877.

Chevallier's Plantae Saharae Algeriensis, Fasc. I.— V. , i8g7 — 1905.

Conrad's Norwegian, 1884.

Cornaz's Roses of Switzerland, i8gi — i8g3.

Costa's Catalonian, 1864.

Coste's Herbarium Rosarum, Fasc. I. — VI., i8g4 — igoo.

Coward's Leguminosse (Hurst's herbarium), 1868.

Crespigny's European herbarium, iSgs.

Cuerca's Spanish, igoo.

Dahlstedt's Hieracia.

Dorfler's Herbarium Normale, Cent. XXXI.— LIV., 1894 — 191 1.

Dorfler's Spitzbergen, 1896.

Dulau's European Artemisiae, 1877.

Du Parquet's French and Lazistan (named by Boissier), 1868.

Durando's Flora Atlantica, 1852 — 1866.

Duthie's Maltese, 1874.

Enwald and Knabe's Flora Lapponica, Fasc. I. (1-50), 1881.

Favrat's Swiss Rubi, 1883— 1884.

Fontanesium, herb., about iS^q.

Friderichsen and Gelert's Rubi exsiccati Daniae et Slesvigias, Fasc.
I.— III., 1885—1888.

Friediander's Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, 1874.

Gandoger's European Roses, 1881.

Gandoger's Tunisian, igoS.

Gautier's Narbonne, 1878.

Giraudias's, 2nd to 20th years, i8g2 — igio.

Goiran's Plantae Veronensi, 1875.

Haglund and Kallstrom's, Swedish, i8g7 — igo2.

Hamond (The Misses Susan Maria Hamond, and Almeria Hamond),
collected at Geneva, 1834 (90 sheets).

Hamond (Miss Almeria), Madeira Plants, 1836 (50 sheets).

Hardy's Californian, 1884.

Hayek's Flora Styriaca, Fasc. I.-XIV. , igo6 — igo8.

Heldreich's Greek, Cent. I. -XV., 1877— i8g8.

Helvetique, Societe, 1892 — 1897.

Herbarium Umkraute, 1882.

Hohenacker's Cerealia, 1880.

Hunt'3 Azores, 1846 — 1848.

Hurst's Egyptian, 1876 — 1877.

Hurst's Gibraltar, 1868.

Hurst's herbarium of Leguminosae, 1878.

Manchester Memoir s. Vol. Ixi. {igifj, 'No 9- 13.

Hurst's Madeira ferns, 1S68.

Hurst's Maltese, 1877.

Huter's Adriatic and Dalmatian, iSGS, 1S72, 1876, and 1S86.

Huter's ^gean, i8gi.

Huter's Balearic and Dalmatian, 1886.

Huter's European, 1868 — i8g8.

Huter's Italian, 1S80.

Huter's Spanish, 1880 — i8gi.

Huter's Tyrolese, 1870, 1875, 1879, 1881 — i8q8.

Huter's Venetian, iS/g.

Huter, Porta, and Rigo's Spanish and other collections, 1878 — i88g.

Hyltcn-Cavallius's Swedish (" Linnaea "), 1882 — i8g2.

Irvine's South European, 1864.

Jensen's Danish and Slesvvig Rubi, 1887.

Jujuvensis, Horti, igog.

Karo's Polish and Siberian, 1883 — ^i8g2.

Kheck's Balkan, i8g2.

Kheck's Centuria Normale, Cent. I. -XXX., i87g — i8g3.

Kerner's Austrian Willows, Ease. I. -IX., 1863 — i86g.

Kneucker's Carices exsiccatse, Lief. I.-X., i8g2 — igo2.

Kneucker's Caricum Badensis, Lief. I. -VII., i8g2 — igoo.

Kneucker's Cyperacese et Juncacea;, Lief. I. -VIII., igoo — 1903.

Kneucker's Gramineae, Lief. I.-X., igoo — igog.

Koehne's Herbarium Dendrologicum, Lief. I.-V.. i8g5— igos.

Kronig's Algerian. (Ex H. A. Hurst. Reed. 13th Sept., i87g).

Kuczynski's South European, i865 — 1867.

Kumzerow's Russian, 1883 — igo8.

Lerou's French and Algerian, 1855 — 1S61.

Letourneaux's Egyptian, 1877 — 1878.

Lewis's Continental herbarium, i8gs.

Lindberg's Herbarium Ruborum, Ease. I., 1882.

Lindbergh's Hieracia Scandinavise, Ease. I. -III., 1868 — 1878.

Lindberg's Hieracia Scandinavise, Ease. I. -III., i8g3 (Ed. 2.).

Lindberg's Norwegian, 1884.

Linnasa, Swedish, 1882 — 1892.

Lo Jacono's Plantse Siculaj, Ease. I. -VI., 1S80 — 1886.

Loscos's Aragon, Cent. I., 1875.

Lowne's Palestine, 1864.

Mabille's Herbarium Corsicum, 1868 — 1873.

Magnier's Elora Selectas, Ease. I. -XVI., 1881—1897.

Magnier's Plantse Galliae et Belgii, i8g7.

Malinvaud's Menthag, Ease. I-IV., 1881.

Martini and Van Heurck's Belgian, 1866 — 1868.

Munby's Plantse algerienses.

Murray's Canary Islands, 1882 — 1898.

Murray's Portuguese, i88g.

Naegli and Peters's Hieracia, Cent. I. -IV., 18S4.

Neuman, Wahlstedt, and Murbeck's, Violae suecica, 1886 — i8g3.

Nurnberger Botanischen Tauschverein, igo4 — igog.

Ohl's Holstein, Hamburg, 1907.

Orphanides's, Greek, 1872 — 1887.

Paillot's Flora Sequaniae, Ease. I. -III., 1861 — 1868.

Paillot's Herbarium Eontanesium, 1868.

Palmer's (Miss) South European, igo4.

Payot's Mont Blanc plants.

Phytological Society of Antwerp; Danish and Belgian, 1862 — 1867..

Pichler's Bulgarian, 1890.

Pichlcr's Dalmatian, 1880— 1882.

Pichler's Greek, 1876.

Pons's Herbier des Roses de France, Ease. I. -VI., 1894 — igoo.

Porta and Rigo's Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1868.

Porta and Rigo's Spanish and Balearic, i8go.

Pyrenean Association, ist to 20th years, iSgo- — igog.

14 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

Rabenhorst's Equisetaceje, Lycopodiacese, etc., i8q5.

Ragowitz's Russian, iqoi.

Reichenbach's Artemisiae.

Reichenbach's Flora Germaniae, Cent. I. -XXIII., 1830 — 1843.

Reineck's European, 1Q07 — igog.

Reuss's Austrian, 1872.

Reverchon's Algerian and Kabylie, 1896 — i8q8, igo/.

Reverchon's Andalusian, 1866 — 1867.

Reverchon's Balearic, 1885.

Reverchon's Corsican, 1872 — 1873, 1878 — 1883, 1886.

JReverchon's Cretan, 1883 — 1885.

Reverchon's French, 1867 — 1907.

Reverchon's Hautes Alpes, 1867 — 1871.

Reverchon's Sardinian, 1881 — 1882.

Reverchon's Spanish, 1883 — 1907.

Richter's, K., Austrian, 1877 — 1880, 1887 — i8g2.

Richter's, L., Algerian, Persian, 1881.

Richter's Austrian and German, 1877 — 1880.

Rigo and Porta's Abruzzi, 1875 — 1876.

Ritter's Austrian, 1872.

Rostan's Piedmontese, 1864, i86g, 1897.

Ruhmer's Cyrenaican, 1884.

Schemman's Hieracia, 1882.

Schemman's Ronces Europ., 1882.

Schemman's Ruborum Europ., 1882.

Schemman's Salices Europ., 1882.

Schonach's Tyrolese, 1886 — 1887.

Schultz-Bipontinus's Cichoriacetheca, 1862 — 1866.

Schultz's Herbarium Normale, Cent. I.-LIV. , 1855 — igii. (Continued

by Winter, Khek, Scriber, and Dorfler.)
Schultz's Flora istriaca, 1875.

Schultz's F.T. Tauschvermettung, 4th and sth lists, igo3 — igo4.
Schwoders Herbarium, 1883; chiefly Austrian and Moravian,
^ennen's Spanish, igo6 — 1914.

Siegfried's Bormio, .Swiss, and Istrian, i8g6 — i8gg.
Siegfried's Filices, Equisetaceae, and Lycopodiaces, igoo.
Siegfried's Potentillas, 1893 — i8g8.
Siehe's Cilician, igo2 — 1903.

Silesian Botanical Exchange Club, i8th to 26th years, 1879 — i8go.
Sintenis's Armenian, 1886, i8gg — igo2.
Sintenis's Asia Minor, i88q.
Sintenis's Cyprus, 1880 — 1887.
Sintenis's Greek, i8g6.
Sintenis's Mesopotamia, i8go.
Sintenis's Paphlagonia, 1893.
Sintenis's Thessaly, 1897, igo7.

Sintenis's Transcaspia, Cent., I. -VI., 1901 — 1Q03.
Sintenis's Trojan, 1884.

Sintenis's Turkish and Armenian, 1892, i8g5.
Steinitz's Hungarian, 1883.

Stribny's Bulgarian, Fasc. I. -III., 1894 — 1903.

Strobl's Flora Nebrodensis, 1874 — 1886, and Flora setnensis, 1875.
Sudre's Batotheca Europaea, Fasc. I.-X., igo3 — igi2.
Sudre's Rubi rari vel minus cogniti exsiccati, Nos. i — 140, igo8 — igio.
Swiss Plants (unknown collector) (250 sheets).
Syme's Scandinavian, 1899 (chiefly Ahlberg's).
Taylor's (Miss) Icelandic, 1896.

Tampere's French, about 1879 (ex herb. Rimington and Bickham).
Thompson's French and Italian, igog.
Thuringian Exchange Club, Lists 4 to 22, i8go — igog.
Tiselius's Scandinavian Potamogetons, Fasc. I. -III., i8g4 — i8g7.
Todaro"s Flora Sicula, Cent. I.-X.IV., 1879.
Toepffer's Salicetum, Fasc. I. -VII., igo6 — 1912.

Manchester Mejjioirs, Vol. Ixi. {igiy), No. 5. 15

Tccpffer's Silesian Exchange Club, 1S81.

Toepffer's Tyrolean, 1884.

Treffer's Tyrolean, Lists IX. -XXII., 1888— 1902.

Tripet's Swiss, 1894 — i8q6.

Uechtritz's Silesian, 1866.

Van Heurck's Herbier des plantes de Belgique, F'asc. I. -VIII. , 1864 —

1867.
Van Heurck's French, 1865.
Van Heurck's Spanish and Italian, 1866 — 1870.
Van Heurck's Tuscan, 1865 — 1866.
Wagner's Rhodopean, 1893 — 1S04.
Waters's Swiss and Italian, 1885.
Weiss's European, 1883 — 1886.
AViener Botanischen Taucshverein, 1895 — 1905.
Wimmer's Salicetum Europaeum, 1858 — 1867.
Winslow's Herbarium Rosarum Scandinaviae, 1880 — 1883.
Wirtgen's Herbarium Mentharum Rhenanae, Fasc. I. -III., 1855, 1866,

1879, 1893.
Wirtgen's Herbarium Rhenanorum, Edit. 2, Fasc. I. -XII., 1866 — 1873.
Wirtgen's Herbarium Ruborum Rhenanorum, 1866, 1881 — 1882.
Wittrock's Erythra:ae, Fasc. I. -IV., 1885, 1886.
Zahn's Hieraciotheca Europaea, Cent. I. -VI., 1906 — 191 1.
Zettersttedt's, Russian and Lapponian, 1S73.
Zetterstedt's, Swedish and Norwegian, 1871.

CRYPTOGAMIC PORTION OF THIS HERBARIUM.
(British and Foreign.)

Ahlberg's Scandinavian Characeae, Fasc. I.-IV. , 1899.

Allen's American Characeas, Fasc. I.-IV., 1899.

Austin's Hepaticae boreali Americanae.

Baenitz's Characeae, 1890.

Bauer's European Mosses, Series i — 16 (Nos. i — 800), 1906 — 191 1.

Braun, Rabenhorst and Stizenberger's, Fasc. I.-V., 1857 — 1878.

Brebisson's Algae of France, 2nd Series, 1865 (100 sp.).

Brebisson's Mosses of Normandy, 1825 — 183^ Fasc. I. -VI. (150 sp.).

Carrington and Pearson's British Hepatica;, Fasc. I.-IV. (i — 293), 1878

— 1890.
Closter's New Jersey Hepaticas, 1873.

Cooke's Fungi Britannici, 8vo. series. Cent I. -VII., 1865 — 1873.
Cooke's Fungi Britannici, 4to series, with lithographed dissections.

Cent. I. -VII., 1875—1879.
Dietrich's Mosses, and other cryptogams, Jena, 1861 — 1864.
Friedlander's British Hepaticae (136 sp.).
Hardy's (John) Mosses, Sphagnaceas, and Hepaticae, 1884.
Hardy's (J. Ray) Algae of the Pacific Coast of North America, 1872.
Hcrpell's German Agarics, Fasc. I. -VI., N'os. i — (35, 18S0 — 1892.
Hulme's Scarboro Algae, 1S42 (31 species).
Jersey Algae (45 species, collector unknown).

Larbalestier's Lichens of Jersey, Fasc. I. -II., 1867 — 1868 (100 sp.).
Leighton's British Lichens, 1869, Nos. 1—380.
Lewis's British Desmids.

Migula, Sydow, and Wahlstedt's Characeae, 1889 — 1906.
Mott's Lichens, British and Foreign.
Mott's Mosses, 1908.

ATott's Seaweeds and other cryptogams, 1908.
Mudd's British Cladoniae, 1865 (80 sp.).
Mudd's British Lichens, Fasc. I.-III. (300 sp.), 1861.
Nordstedt and Wahlstedt's Characeae Scandinaviae, Fasc. I.-III.

(i — 120), 1871 — 1874.

1 6 Bailey, Herbarhnn of British and Foreign Plants.

(and 2 additional copies of
1854—1855, Lief. I.-IV.

Pearson's British Hepaticae, 187S — 1904.

Plowright's Sphaeriacei Britannici, 1873 (100 sp.).

Frost's Mosses of the Lozere (260 sp.).

Ralf's Marine and Freshwater Algae, Desmids and Diatoms, Vol. 1

(40 sp.).
Schasrer's Lichenes Helvetic!, Bern, Fasc, i — 12, ]\os. i — 250, 1823 —

1836.
Schserer's Lichenes Helvetici, Bern, Ed. 2, i — 26, 1842 — 1852.
Schimper's Swiss and other Mosses, 1865.
Schopke's Algae and Sphagna, 1886.
Sydow and Migula's Characeas, 1892.

Unknown collectors, British, 142 sp., 15 sp., 30 sp., 14 sp., and 108 sp.
Vize's Fungi Britannici, Parts I. -II., 1873 — 1875 (3 copies of I., and 2

of II.).
Vize's Microfungi Britannici, Fasc. I. -VI.

I. -III.).
Wagner's German Cryptogams, Bielefeld,
Westwood's Algae of the Isle of Wight (49 sp. ).
Wyatt's Algae of the Devonshire and Cornwall Coasts, Vols. I.-V. , and

Index (236 sp.).

AMERICAN, EAST INDIAN, AND OTHER EXOTIC SPECIES.

Billing's Canadian, 1865 — 1S68.

Calcutta Botanical Gardens, East Indian, 1884.

Clarke's Australian, 1868.

Crespigny's East Indian herbarium, 1895.

Eggers's Argentine, 1880 — 1882.

Hall and Harbour's Rocky Mountains, 1864.

Hardy's Californian, 1884.

Hurst's East Indian, 1878.

Hurst's Indian Leguminosse, 1878.

Kirk's New Zealand, 1884.

Kuczynski's Cape and Swan River, 1880.

Lewis's American, 1895.

Lewis's Chinese, 1895 (Ex herb., Dr. Shearer).

Lindstedt's East Indian, 1884.

Lloyd's Cincinnati, 1884.

MacOwan's South African, 1866.

Maiden's (J. H.), Sydney, 1884.

Port Elizabeth (East African), ex herb., F. T. Mott.

Pringle's Arizona and Oregon, 1881 and 1884.

Pringle's Californian, 1881 and 1884.

Pringle's Mexican, 1885— 1888.

Pringle's Pacific Slope, 1881.

Ravenel's South Carolina, 1866.

Richter's Cape and Australian, 1881.

Richter's East Indian, 1878.

Richter's North American, 1877 — 1878.

Zeyher's Cape of Good Hope, 1866.

SUMMARY OF BRITISH, CONTINENTAL. AND EXOTIC
PLANTS, NATIVE AND CULTIVATED.

British.

Boxes Nos.

Boxes.

Boxes (

lontaining.

Phanerogams .

I to 714 .

.. 710 ..

. 72,699 sheets

Mosses

. 3,o6q to 3,088 .

20 ..

• 7,735

packets or sheets

Hepatics

.. 3,116 to 3,122

7 ..

1,637

,, 5,

Lichens

. 3,125 to 3,136 .

12 ..

1,814

Fungi

. 3,144 to 3,150 .

7 ••

3,832

1, 1,

Algae

. 3,156 to 3,159 .

4 ..
760 ..

1,105

,' 11

88,822

,, ••

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), Islo. 5.

17

Phanerogams
Mosses ...
Hepatics
Lichens ( + 3)
Fungi
Algae

Continental,
Boxes Nos.

716 to 3,068
3,o8g to 3,115
3,123 to 3,124
3,137 to 3,143
3,151 to 3,155
3,160 to 3,162

Boxes containing Swiss, Mont Blanc,
Payot's French plants, and Dr.
W'allich's East Indian plants

oxes.

Boxes containing.

353 •
26 .

. 197,368 sheets

6,322 packets or sheets

->

729

10 .

1,177

5 •

9QO ,, ,,

3 •

1,431

18

580

2,417

208,597

Exotic.

South African —
General

Cape of Good Hope
East African ...

Natal

South-east African

East Indian —
Crespigny's herb.
Calcutta
Hurst's Leguminosje,

etc.
Himalayas
South Indian & Ceylon

2,ogo

2,182
447

282

5Q3
481

3,985

Chinese —

Lewis's herb.

495

Java, Sumatra, etc. ...

271

766

Australian —

General

1,078

Swan River, Van

Die-

man's Land ...

621

New Zealand

Q79
2,678

Canadian —

General

742

North American —

742

Rocky Mountains

553

Mott's herb.

346

Pringle's Arizona,

etc.

063

Pringle's Pacific Slope

171

Pringle's Mexico

508

South Carolina

315

North American, Contd, —
Lewis's herb.
Lloyd's Cincinnati
Hardy's California, etc.
Crespigny's herb.

Utah

Isthmus of Panama ...

South American —
General
Argentine

Jamaica, West Indies,
Oceania, etc.
(Parcels, 3, 164 to 3,267.)

Summary.
South Africa
East Indies
China

Australia ...
Canada

North America
South America
Jamaica, Oceana, etc.

Sheets.

2,816
7q8

1,04s
959
648

99
9,221

90s
17s

1,080
677

677

2,OQO
3,98s

766
2,678

742
9,221
1,080

677

(In 119 parcels, 3,174 to 3,267)

General Totals.
British

Continental

Exotic

21,239

88,822
208,597

21,239

318,658

Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill, near Cheltenham.
26th February, 1917. •

1 8 Bailey, Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants.

It may be as well to put on record what will become of the
duplicates of this herbarium. All the duplicates of Continental plants,
amounting to about 6,000 sheets, were sent to the Queen's University of
Belfast, as per my letter to Professor R. H. Yapp, of the iQth June,
1917. By " deed of gift," dated 3rd of June, 1917, I have conveyed to
the University of Manchester my British, Continental and other dried
plants, library, microscopical slides, diagrams, models of plants, etc.
The herbarium was dispatched to Manchester on the 3rd July, 1Q17, and
three following days. Of the duplicates of British j^lanis there may be
20,000 sheets; some of which may, later on, be offered to the Universi-
ties of Birrningham, Cardiff, Liverpool, Louvam, Oxford, etc. ; but
there will still be a residue to be dealt with if strength permits. [Note
added during the course of printing, 6th July, 1Q17.]

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 0.

VI. An Ethnological Study of Warfare.
By W. J. Perry, B.A.

(Coniiuiiiiicatcd by /'rofessor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.)
(Received and read April 24.th, IQ17.)

The world is accustomed to think that warfare is a normal
feature of savage life. It is conjectured that the struggle for
existence between human societies has been partly conducted
by this means, the stronger aud better organised community
enslaving, exterminating, or driving out the weaker. The
earliest records of history tell of wars and conquests, and it
is inferred that warfare was also a feature of pre-historic times.

The assumption that warfare is the result of the natural
pugnacity of mankind is made so universally and confidently
that it may seem rash to endeavour to approach the study of
human v/arfare from any other standpoint.-"^ Mr. William
McDougall says, " the instinct of pugnacity has played a part

second to none in the evolution of social organisation a

little reflection will show that (pugnacity) far from being wholly
injurious, has been one of the essential factors in the evolution
of the higher forms of social organisation, and, in fact, of
those specifically social qualities of man, the higher develop-
ment of which is an essential condition of the higher social
life."^ This is an authoritative and representative opinion re-
garding the effect of human pugnacity on the development of
society. Mr. McDougall also says, " The races of men cer-
tainly differ in respect to the innate strength of this instinct."'^
In other words, the pugnacious instinct of certain peoples has
led them to advance in culture, while races less endowed with
this instinct have been left behind, and have not developed
"specifically social qualities." The relations of savages to-day,
according to Mr. McDougall present the phenomenon of " the
uncomplicated operation of the instinct of pugnacity.'"* He

1. In dealing with the so-called instinct of pugnacity, I am not
concerned with sporadic examples of personal combat, as iri the case of
two males who struggle for the possession of a female, but with organ-
ised conflicts into which the element of personal grievance does not
necessarily enter.

2. "An Introduction to Social Psychology," Qth ed., London, 1015,
pp. 27g, 281-2.

3. Op. cit., p. 27Q, 117, e.s.

4. Op. cit., p. 280.

/?/ne 6th, igry.

2 Perry, An Ethnolo^cal Study of War jar e.

speaks of " perpetual warfare, like the squabbles of a room of
quarrelsome children."^

Many people still exist on the earth who do not indulge
in the "uncomplicated operation of the instinct of pugnacity,"
or in "perpetual warfare." The negrito tribes of Africa live
generally on friendly terms with their neighbours ; they are
peaceful, and, when kindly treated, are very useful to their
friends. Gifts of food placed by the sides of gardens will
result in a strict watch being kept by these small people.^ The
Bushmen of Africa, who formerly, with the Negritos, occupied
vast areas of the continent, were peaceful i>eople.'^ The Lapps
squabble, but do not use the knives which they carry ; the
Eskimo, as a rule, are ignorant of warfare.^ Dr. Rivers records
that warfare was unknown in the Polynesian islands of Tikopia.^
This was also the case in the Lu Chu islands south of Japan.
The natives told the traveller Hall that they knew nothing
whatever of warfare, and the sight of a Malay kns caused
them great astonishment. ^° The warlike tendencies of New
Guinea tribes vary greatly. Many of the peoples of the coast
are cannibals, and exhibit extreme ferocity towards their cap-
tives. But the British and German expeditions of 1896-8
found " intelligent, peaceful, and friendly tribes in the in-
terior." Sir W. Macgregor found Papuans on Mt. Scratchley
who, " showed themselves amiable and peaceful, and the state
of their arms showed that they had not been engaged in any
warlike undertaking for years."^^ Similar examples could be
found in Indonesia.

Therefore pacific peoples still exist in various parts of the
earth, and it is possible that such peoples once occupied regions
where only warlike tribes are now found. For example, the
history of Africa shows that the group of peoples of warlike
habits, called the Bantu, have swarmed over much of southern,
western and eastern Africa, enslaving and exterminating weakex
tribes, and driving others in front of them.

It is curious that those tracts of the earth which are least
touched by outside influences, central New Guinea, Greenland,
and elsewhere, should be inhabited by unwarlike peoples.
This distribution can be explained by the pressure exerted by
warlike peoples, but it causes a definite question to be put : —
How is it that some peoples are warlike, while others are pacific ?
Why should branches of the same people differ in their pug-
nacity ? Why should Papuans of central New Guinea be
peaceful, while their kinsmen of the coast are truculent and

5. Ibid.

6. Keane, "Man, Past and Present," p. 117, c.s.

7. Haddon, " Races of Man," p. 32.

8. Letourneau, "Sociology," p. iqq; Joyce. "Handbook to the
ethnographical Collections (British Museum), p. 248.

0. "History of Melanesian Society," Cambridge, ]gi4 I., 32Q.

10. Letourneau, loc. cif.

11. Keane, pp. 132-4.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), No. 6. 3

ferocious ? It is easy to say that races differ in pugnacity,
but variations in the pugnacity of different groups of the same
race present a difficult problem.

Mr. McDougall discusses the variations in the pugnacity
of different branches of the same people in Borneo : — " As one
travels up any of the large rivers, one meets with tribes that
are successively more warlike. In the coast region are peaceful
communities which never fight, save in self-defence, and then
with but poor success; while in the central region, where the
rivers take their rise, are a number of extremely warlike tribes,
whose raids have been a constant source of terror to the com-
munities settled m the lower reaches of the rivers. And between
these tribes at the centre and those in the coast region are others
that serve as a buffer between them, being decidedly more belli-
cose than the latter, but less so than the former It

might be supposed that the peaceful coastwise people would be
found to be superior in moral qualities to their more warlike
neighbours ; but the contrary is the case. In almost all resj-vects
the advantage lies with the warlike tribes Their houses are
better built, larger, and cleaner, their domestic morality is
superior ; they are physically stronger, are braver, and physic-
ally and mentally more active, and in general are more trust-
worthy. But, above all, their social organisation is firmer and
more efficient, because their respect for and obedience to their
chiefs, and their loyalty to their community, are much greater
the moderately warlike tribes occupying the interme-
diate region stand midway between them and the people of
the coast as regards these moral qualities.

" Yet all these tribes are of closely allied stocks, and the
superior moral qualities of the central tribes would seem to be
the direct result of the very severe group-selection to which
their innate pugnacity has subjected them for many genera-
tions. And the greater strength of their pugnacious habits,
which displays itself unmistakably in their more martial bear-
ing and more fiery temp)er, is probably due ultimately to the
more bracing climate of the central region, which by favouring
a greater bodily activity, has led to more frequent conflicts,
and a stricter weeding-out of the more inoffensive and less
energetic individuals and groups."^^

The statements of Mr. McDougall are clear and precise.
The superior mental and moral qualities of the central tribes
are ascribed to the " severe group-selection " to which the effects
of their innate pugnacity have subjected them for many genera-
tions. Since these words were written. Dr. Hose and Mr.
McDougall have published a work on the Pagan Tribes of
Borneo, where they describe a tribe called the Punan, who live
" in the central highlands wandering through the upper parts

12. Op. cit., pp. 2.SQ-Q0. These statements are to be found in the
ninth edition of Air. McDougall's work, published in 1Q15.

4 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare.

of the basins of all the large rivers."^^ The authors tell us
that "From the point of view of physical development, the
Punan are among the finest of the peoples of Borneo," yet,
" the Punan is a likeable person, rich in good qualities, and
innocent of vices. He never slays or attacks other tribes
wantonly ; he never seeks or takes a head, for his customs do
not demand it." In spite of this lack of pugnacity, " he will
defend himself and his family pluckily .... courage is rated
highest, and a woman looks, especially for courage in her
husband." Morals are good ; " public opinion and tradition
seem to be the sole and sufficient sanction of conduct. • . • •
Marriage is for life, though separation by the advice or direc-
tion of the chief, or by desertion of the man to another com-
munity occurs. Sexual restraint is probably maintained at
about' the same level as among the other peoples, the women
being more strictly chaste after than before marriage." Sum-
ming up, the authors say, " Yet, although in culture (the Punan)
stands far below all the settled agricultural tribes, there is no
sufficient reason for assuming him to be innately inferior to
them in any considerable degree, cither morallv or intellectu-
ally."

The account of the Punan shows that a people physically
" among the finest of Borneo " exist in the country at the head-
waters of the rivers. These people have had no severe " group-
selection," yet they are " rich in good qualities," intellectually
as good as any tribe in Borneo, and harmless as long as they
are treated properly. The warlike tribes, such as the Kayan,
are therefore superior only in material culture, for the authors
have demonstrated the high standard of physique, behaviour,
and morality of the Punan. It consequently seems that " group-
selection " has been inoperative as a civilising factor, since a
peaceful nomadic jungle tribe has qualities, law-abidingness,
courage, morality, all of them " specifically social qualities of
man, the higher development of which is an essential condition
of the higher social life." The Punan and Kayan live on
perfectly friendly terms; the warfare of central Borneo is
therefore not incessant, nor does the pugnacity of either people
seem to cause strife. If the least advanced people of Borneo
is pacific, how comes it that warfare ever began in Borneo?

Most people are aware of the nature of the " warfare" of
the Borneo tribes. It is head-hunting. This is the chief form
of warfare among many peoples, including those of the Hima-
layan region, Assam, Upper Burma, South-west China, the
East Indian Archipelago, Formosa, New Guinea, and parts
of Oceania. Heads are also taken in America, and the North
American custom of scalping is akin to head-hunting. Not
only are heads sought by these peoples, but slaves are some-
times brought back from head-hunting expeditions. The

13. Op. cit.. II., pp. 178, e.s., for the quotations concerning tlie
Punan.

Manchesler Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), t^o. 0. 5

method of gcttinj^ heads is similar among many of the head-
hunting tribes. Small parties of warriors set oiit and either
ambush people, men and women indiscriminately, or rush a
village just before dawn. Little open fighting takes place, for
directly a few heads are taken the party at once sets off for
home. The Kay an of Borneo go out to seek heads on the
occasion of the death of a chief, and sometimes they take
revenge at the same time for some injury or insult. But they
generally leave an injury unavenged for years, and wait
until it IS necessary to procure heads for ceremonial purposes.

The Kayan differ from the Punan m that they need heads
for the funeral ceremonies of their chiefs., and formerly they
sacrificed slaves on these occasions. The Punan have no here-
ditary chiefs, they do not keep slaves, neither do they hunt
for heads. A profound difference therefore exists between the
social organisation of the Punan and that of the Kayan, and
it is a striking fact that only the chiefly class of the Kayan
should need heads and human sacrifices for their funerals.
Some of the Kayan chiefs differ from the commoners in that
they claim to be descended from people from the sky. Not
only are Kayan chiefs distinguished from the commoners, but
warriors who die fighting, and women who die in childbirth, go
to live in the more desirable parts of the land of the dead, and
become rich there without working.

One Borneo tribe says that a frog told them first to get
heads. ^"^ Many may consider this a frivolous reason, but it
would not be so to some Indonesian peoples. Men have,
according to them, been petrified for laughing at frogs.^^

The Borneo people therefore claim to have been taught their
head-hunting, in which case it would not necessarily be due to
innate pugnacity. This claim is not fanciful; the Bontoc of
Luzon in the Philippines also say that they were taught war-
fare by a being, Lumawig, who came from the sky and taught
them many things in addition to warfare. The Bontoc say
that the ghost of a warrior whose head has been taken goes up
to the sky, and there has a head of flames; the ghosts of all
others go tO' the mountains. In a tale concerning the first
Bontoc man whose head was taken, the "children of the sun"
are the authors of the deed.

The Bontoc are therefore quite definite about the matter;
they once had no warfare, and someone came who taught them
to get heads. The two cases, Bontoc and Kayan, are similar
in that a warrior is considered to go to a special home of the
dead. Since Kayan chiefs are descended from the sky, and
since the Bontoc got their knowledge of warfare from the sky,
it would seem that the existence of a sky-born chieftainship

14. The Seboij, a Klemantan tribe. Hose and MrDougall. Op.
cit.^ II., pp. 138-Q.

15. The story of the frog as an element of comparative religion has
yet to be told, arid the telling w'\\\ reveal many curious things.

6 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare.

among the Kayan is of importance m relation to their head-
hunting.

Who are the "children of the sun" who took the first
Bontoc head ? The traditions of Indonesia tell of the coming
into various places of people who claimed to be descended from
the sun. These "children of the sun" produced a tremendous
cultural upheaval in Indonesia.^^ Our knowledge of Indonesia
is still scanty, but such facts as we have show that the " children
of the sun " formed a chiefly class in several places. The social
organisation in these places consists of sacred chiefs, nobles
who are warriors, commoners and slaves. These chiefs and
nobles are descended from the sky, and they return there at
death, while the commoners go elsewhere. It is an invariable
belief in Indonesia that the descendants of these immigrants
go to the sky, and the only commoners who can go to the sky
after death are warriors. It is the prerogative of sky-descended
people to return to the sky at death, and the fact that warriors
alone of the commoners share this privilege is suggestive of the
relationship between warfare and these immigrants.

In referring their head-hunting to the sky people, the
Bontoc are making a claim in accordance with the results of
the examination of the influence of the "children of the sun"
in Indonesia, for it can be shown that head-hunting has been
introduced by these people into Indonesia. Such an explana-
tion accounts satisfactorily for the pacific nature of the Punan ;
they have not learned the practice of warfare because they have
not acquired the requisite social organisation.

It is now conceded that cultural influences have moved from
Indonesia into Melanesia. Dr. Rivers, m his great work.^'^ has
given good reason to conclude that migrations (not necessarily
of any considerable numbers) have produced profound changes
in the cultures of the peoples of Melanesia. In this region
hereditary chiefs and slavery are found in those parts where
warfare is constant: the western Solomons, Fiji, and New
Caledonia. The social organisation of Fiji consists of sacred
chiefs, war chiefs, commoners, and slaves. Only those who
die a violent death can gain admittance to the land of the
dead. Human sacrifices formerly were common in this island. ^^
In New Caledonia a sacred chief is found at the head of each
tribe. He is a priest rather than a chief, and when he dies it
is said that " the sun is set.'' Then comes a warrior aristocracy,
then commoners and slaves.-^^ In the rest of ^lelanesia no
hereditary chiefs are found, and there are no aristocracy or
slaves. Dr. Rivers has found no record of any serious fighting
in Tikopia, although the people have hereditary sacred chiefs.

16. I propose shortly to put forward a detailed examination of the
effects of these people upon the indigenous cultures of Indonesia.

17. Op. cit.

18. Joyce, of. cit., pp. 127, 131.

iQ. M.' Glaumont, Rev., d'ethnographie, VII.. 1S8S, pp. 75, 12Q.

Manchester Memoirs, \ol. Ixi. (iQi/), No. i». /

In the Banks Islands no definite warfare seems to be carried
on.-^

The old communities of Polynesia, New Zealand, Tonga,
Samoa, Tahiti, Hawaii, Nme, and so forth, were warlike. At
the head of the community was a sacred chief; then came a
nobility who governed and fought; then commoners, and some-
times slaves. The nobility went to a special land of the dead,
while the commoners usually died outright, and had no future
lifc.'^^ Human sacrifices were common. The chief occupation
of the men m New Zealand was. warfare, the more desirable
parts of the land of the dead being reserved for great warriors,
who spent their time in fighting, which was only interrupted
by feasts.^"

Students are agreed that the ancestors of the Polynesians
were immigrants. Dr. Rivers has given good reason to believe
that head-hunting and the institution of chieftainship were in-
troduced into Melanesia by people who, he supposes, arrived
there later than the previous immigrants, who had penetrated
still more widely into Melanesia; also that the wave of culture
which brought in head-hunting did not reach the New Hebrides
or the Banks Islands.

The conditions in the Pacific therefore suggest that the
institutions connected with warfare, sacred chiefs, nobles who
are warriors, and slavery, were brought into Oceania. This
would explain the pacific nature of the peoples of the interior
of New Guinea, for the migrants would have missed them;
also that of the Tikopians, for they have no hereditary warrior
class, and no war chiefs.

The social constitution of Peru under the Incas was some-
what similar to that of the Polynesians.. Ai the head of the
State was the Inca, a sacred being, descended from the sun.
He was the chief priest of the sun-cult, and also the head of
the army. Then came nobles of royal blood, who held all the
chief offices in the State, and the chief military commands.
After death the Inca returned to the sun, and warriors went
to the heavenly plains. Human sacrifices were made on the
death of an Inca.^^

The Aztec of Mexico had a social organisation " similar
in its principal features to that of ancient Egypt." The king
was at the head of the State, as the representative of the sun-
god. Then came the hereditary aristocracy, whose principal
occupations were governing and warfare. Below them were
the commoners, and finally slaves. HuiPxan sacrifices took
place on an immen.se scale. 60,000 victims were slaughtered
on the occasion of the dedication of a new temple to the war

20. Rivers, op. cit., 11., i:.p. 86, lod, 452: T., p. 320-
27. Letourneau, op. cit., p. 259.

22. Jo>'ce, op. cit.. p. 176; Letournenu, p. 250.

23. Letourneau, " Sociology," p. 470; Prescott, '" Conquest of Peru,"
Cha]:). I-III. ; Trior, •' Primitive Culture," II., pp. 301-2.

8 Perry, An EtJinologkal Study of Warfare.

god, and 20,000 victims were sacrificed annually to the same
god.^'^ The ghosts of Mexicans, high and low, went to Mictlan,
the underground world ; but warriors and women who died in
child-birth went to the sky, and accompanied the sun on his
daily journey.^^ The same social hierarchy without the king
was found in the states tributary to Mexico.

Some of the less developed peoples of America had similar
social organisations. For example, the Natchez of Louisiana
had a solar hierarchy, headed by a great chief called the Sun.
Then came a hereditary nobility, whose ghosts, together with
those of warriors, went to the sun after death. Human sacri-
fices accompanied the funerals of nobles.^^ The social organi-
sation of the peoples of the north-west coast of America consists
of hereditary chiefs, commoners and slaves. Sun worship is
found among some of these tribes, and slaves were formerly
sacrificed. ^'^

Agreement has not yet been reached with regard to the
immigrant nature of the cultural influence which has been re-
sponsible for the pre-Columbian civilisations of America, and
the battle between opposing views is still being fought. But
the similarity between the social constitutions of America and
those of Polynesia is striking and suggestive.

The constitution of the Japanese Empire was similar to
those of other warrior peoples. The Alikado is at the head
of the State. He is sacred, being descended from Jimmu
Tenno, who entered Japan about 600 B.C., Jimmu Tenno l^eing
descended from the sun-goddess. The Mikado is the high
priest of the national religion. Then came a hereditary nobility,
which governed and fought ; then commoners and slaves.
Human beings were formerly sacrificed in Japan.^^

The caste system of India seems to have developed out
during and after the struggles between the Aryan invaders of
India and the peoples whom they found there. The chief caste
was that of the Brahmans, who were priests; then came the
Kshattriyas, rulers and warriors; then Vaisyas or traders, and
finally the Sudra, who w^ere the descendants of the captives
made by the conquer ors.^^ The Kshattriyas were descended
from the sun; Manu, who gave the code of laws, was a Kshat-
triya, and so was the Buddha.

The history of Africa is one of conquest. On the arrival
of the Europeans at the Cape of Good Hope, they found only
Hottentots and Bushmen. '^° But further to the north, in

24. Prescott, " Conquest of Mexico," Chap. I.

25. Brinton, " Myths of the New World," 1806, p. 286.

26. Tvlor, ''Prim. Cult.," II., pp. 69, <S8 ; Letourneau, np. cit., p.
475-

27. Joyce, of. cit.., pp. 261-2.

28. Keane, of. cit., p. 308, e.s.[ Letourneau, " L'evolution de
I'csclavage," Paris, 1897, p. 242, c.s.

2g. A. A. Macdonnell, " Imperial Gazetteer of India, The Indian
Empire,'' vol. II., p. 220.

30. Haddon, " Races of Man," London, p. 32.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), No. 6. 9

Rhodesia, dwelt people of the Bantu race which has spread
over such an immense area, owing to its military prowess. The
land between the Zambesi and the southern coast was once
peopled by Bushmen and Hottentots, but they were driven
away or reduced to slavery by the Bantu peoples. The Mash-
onas and Makalaka were the first to achieve suj^remacy ni
South-cast Rhodesia, but ever since the history of this part of
Africa has been one of conquest. The military tribes of the
southern Bantu had a social organisation, consisting of a chief,
who was regarded only by such warrior people as sacred ; a
warrior nobility, commoners, and slaves. '^■'- Such people as the
Bushmen and the Hottentots had no hereditary chiefs.

The numerous stone forts in the Rhodesian hills were built
by people, probably from Arabia, who were working the gold
mines at a very remote period. ^^'^ Prof. Keane tells us that
" the Makalakas, with the kindred Banyai, Basenga, and
others, may well have been at work in the mines oi this auri-
ferous region, in the service of the builders of the Zimbabwe
ruins " (p. 102), and this is probably true, for the Mashonas
and Makalakas are skilled in metal working and mining. The
stone forts of the gold-mine region show that the country was
held under military tenure, and it is not risking much to claim
that the builders of the forts would have pressed the neigh-
bouring peoples into their service as warriors. The miners
were sun-w'orshippers, and they have left their traces on the
peoples of Rhodesia in that the chiefly houses sometimes claim
descent from the sun. The presence of sun-worshipping, war-
waging people at Zimbabwe and elsewhere is quite sufficient
to account for the warlike tendencies of the military Bantu
tribes, and the localisation of these tribes is such as to make
it j^robablc that they acquired their knowledge of warfare in
this way.

It may be claimed that the Bantu peoples spread from
North-east Africa. The Bantu are negro in type, but in the
north the military tribes are ruled by an alien aristocracy of
Galla stock, the Gallas being Hamites.'^'^ The warrior states
are ruled by sacred chiefs; then comes a warrior aristocracy,
commoners and slaves. Only the warrior states have sacred
chiefs, and in British East Africa are numerous tribes without
this form of social organisation, these tribes in some cases
being serfs.^'^ The peoples with Hamitic aristocracies, or
mixed Hamitic and Bantu peoples, also differ from other
Bantu peoples in another remarkable way. Mr. A. C.
Hollis says, " As a general rule it may, I think, be said, that
prayer and sacrifice to the sun or deities in the sky arc un-

31. Joyce, p. 214.

32. Sir H. Johnston, ••The Opening up of Africa," p. 86, e.s.;
Schoff, ■■ The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea," London, iqi-, p. 07) ^-S-

33. Keane, p. Q3.

34. Keane, p. 94.

10 Perry, .4;/ Ethnological Study of Warfare.

known among the Bantu tribes of Eastern Africa, whilst this
form of worship is followed bv all the Nilotic or Hamitic
tribes."^^

The past history of the Bantu j>eoples and their social
organisation are such as to suggest that the northern group at
least learned the art of warfare and acquired their religion
from the Gal la, who formed their hereditary fighting aristo-
cracy, for Hamitic peoples have formed many of the fighting
tribes of Africa. The southern group perhaps learned their
fighting from those who originally introduced the methods of
architecture represented in the Zimbabwe ruins. The possession
of the knowledge of the art of warfare would explain the ability
of the Bantu to conquer the greater part of Southern Africa,
and to found in many ])laces warrior empires of similar social
constitution.^^

The warlike nature of the Hamitic peoples of Africa thus
seems to have effected immense changes in the ethnography of
that continent. How comes it that such a powerful social
ferment was at work in the north-cast, whence the Galla came ?
Whence had the Galla peoples acquired their social organisa-
tion ? From the headwaters of the Nile southwards we find
a succession of warlike peoples who possess similar social
organisations and religious beliefs, these peoples alone having
such organisations. In the Nile valley the Egyptian ci\ili-
sation persisted for thousands of years. The social organisa-
tion of Egypt under the Pharoahs consisted of the king, who
was descended from the sun, and was the high priest of the sun-
cult; then came a military and governing aristocracy, com-
moners and slaves. Have we any reason to believe that the
Egy{:)tians taught the African peoples to fight and to overrun
the continent with a military organisation similar to their own?
Prof Elliot Smith has lately published evidence which puts the
matter beyond doubt.-^"^ He has shown that some of the Bantu
peoples who possess hereditary chiefs, i.e., the warrior peoples,
subject the bodies of their deceased chiefs to a process of pre-
servation, and the methods employed are directly copied from
those practised in Egypt. Only hereditary chiefs are so treated
in Africa, and, as the institution of hereditary chiefs is accom-
panied so closely by the warrior nobility and a sky-cult, the
presumption that the social organisation of the warrior peoples
was ultimately derived from Egypt becomes very strong. Since
the bodies of the chiefs of the Baduma and Barotse in Rhodesia
are mummified, we have further evidence for the Egyptian origin
of the civilisation of the builders of the Zimbabwe ruins, and
therefore of the social organisation of the warrior tribes of the
southern Bantu peoples.

.35. " The Religion of the Xandi," Proceedings nf the hiteniatioiinl
Congress of Religions, Oxford, iqoS, p. go.

36. See Sir H. Johnston, " The Opening up of Africa,'' p. i34- " A
Sketch of the Ethnography of Africa." Jonrl. Roy. .Anth. Inst., XLTII.

37. "The Migrations of Early Culture,'' Manchester, IQ15.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. \1g17). No. 6. 11

The great kingdoms of West Africa, Bene, Dahomey,
Ashanti, with sacred kings, a warrior nobility, commoners and
slaves, and a sun-cult, were in a region which has most prob-
ably been subjected to Egyptian influence, both directly and
by sea round the west coast. Human sacrifices were common
in these states.

The evidence gained from Oceania, America, Asia, and
Africa, affords support for the results obtained from the con-
sideration of Indonesia. All over the world warfare is bound
up with a social organisation consisting of sacred chiefs or kings,
a hereditary governing and warrior aristocracy, commoners, and
slaves captured in war ; it is also accompanied by a sun-cult
or a sky-cult. In these communities slaves are sacrificed, often
on the death of chiefs, and heads are sometimes sought for the
funerals of chiefs, and for other purposes. Warfare among
many of these peoples is also the means of entering a specially
desirable home of the dead, generally situated in the sky.
We have found that it is not possible to explain the warlike
or pacific spirit of peoples by postulating an instinct of pug-
nacity. We have now seen that a warlike spirit is associated
with a military aristocracy. We also see that the social organi-
sation connected with warfare was introduced into Indonesia,
Oceania, perhaps America, Japan, India, Africa, by immigrants
who, in India. Africa. New Caledonia, Indonesia, and perhaps
America (native traditions tell of the coming of culture heroes),
were called the " children of the sun." Warfare was introduced
among the Bontoc and Luzon and other Indonesian peoples by
the "children of the sun"; it was also introduced into South
Africa, and probably elsewhere. The facts suggest, there-
fore, that the practice of warfare was introduced into various
parts of the world by peoples, sometimes claiming to be des-
cended from the sun, and possessing a sun or sky cult, who
introduced a form of social organisation consisting of sacred
chiefs, a hereditary governing and warrior aristocracy, com-
moners, and slaves, who also caused a special prestige to be
attached to the practice of warfare.'^^

If these statements are true, it will follow^ that warfare
IS not a natural thing among mankind. Before the arrival of
the " children of the sun " savage peoples would be at the stage
of the Punan, Bushmen, Tikopians, Eskimo, and others — peace-
ful, without hereditary chiefs or warriors, nobles or slaves.

The conclusion suggested by the facts is that a people
will be warlike or peaceful, according as they have or have not
a hereditary warrior aristocracy; if a warlike community loses
its military aristocracy, it will become peaceful, and if a peace-
ful community acquires a warrior aristocracy, it will become
warlike.

38. It does not follow that the same people took the culture all
over the earth. Doubtless different races acquired it and then in their
turn influenced others. One of the tasks of the future will be to follow
up these secondary movements.

12 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare.

The contrast between the Japanese and the Chinese illus-
trates this. The Japanese are warlike, while the Chinese are
pacific. The social constitution of the Japanese has already
been described. The Chinese have for centuries been governed
by successive dynasties ; but these dynasties have never estab-
lished themselves, and in the course of time China has become
a republic. China has no^ hereditary nobility; all the high
offices of the State are reached by competitive examination.
The difference in social constitution is accompanied by an en-
tirely different attitude towards warfare ; what is an honourable
thing in Japan is despised in China. The Chinese look down
upon warfare and those who practise it, and their army was
formed of Manchu Tartars, who are of a typical warrior race.'^^
Therefore the contrast between the two countries is still further
emphasised ; the " children of the sun " have gained complete
control in Japan, and have infused a warlike spirit into the
nation; in China the "children of the sun" have not formed
an aristocracy, and the people have remained peaceful, the
fighting being done by the " children of the sun."

India for centuries was ravaged by wars. Mr. ]\IcDougall
says that, " the mass of the people have been subjected for

long ages to the rule of the dominant castes The bulk

of the people are deficient in the pugnacious instinct."'*'^ They
may never have been warlike, and the pacific nature of the
country may be due to the fact that " the warrior caste of
Kshattriyas is conspicuous by its absence.""*^ Kings of solar
descent still exist in the warlike states, Ne])al and so forth, '^^
and the Rajputs have succeeded to the Kshattriyas as a mili-
tary caste. The Todas and other tribes of the Nilgiri Hills
are peaceful. The Todas possess weapons, Vk'hich are now only
used ceremonially, but there is evidence that they were once
used for fighting. The culture of the Todas shows that they
have been influenced by the " children of the sun," but the
latter have not imposed a hereditary chieftainship or w^arnor
caste, so the Todas have once again become peaceful.'^'^

An example from Europe will show the effect of the pres-
ence of a warrior aristocracy upon a community. After the
break-up of the Roman Emj)ire, Northern Italy was overrun by
successive waves of barbarians; Lombards, Germans, Goths and
Franks. Many of the noble Italian families became extinct,
and cities such as Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Venice, freed from
the incubus of a class whose sole profession was warfare, grew
and prospered. These cities banded themselves together for
protection against " the brigandage of the barbarian armies,
which invaded their countries and treated them as enemies,"

3Q. Letourneau, " Sociolotry," p. 200; Oldham, "The Sun and the
Serpent," London, IQ05, p. 202.

40. Op. cit.^ 201.

41. R. Sewcll, ■■ [mp. Gaz. India,"' II., 1Q08, p. 323.

42. Oldham, op. c'lt., p. mcj.

43. A\'. H. R. Rivers, '■ The Todas,'" pp. 586, 716.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (IQI/), 'No. 0- 13

and also against the " robberies of the other barbarians who
called themselves their masters.""*'^ The old Italian nobility
which remained soon discovered that these cities were deter-
mined to be left alone to develop their resources in peace.
Nobles managed in time to gain a footing in some towns, but
their turbulence caused the peaceful citizens to eject them.
Sometimes they established themselves, and the contrast be-
tween the towns which were purely republican and those which
were governed by nobles is striking.

Florence was republican and democratic at a time when
Venice was governed by an aristocracy. Sismondi describes
the difference between the two places. " Florence was the
Athens of Italy. The genius displayed by some of its citizens —
the talent and intelligence in business to be found in the men
of the people — the generosity which seemed the national char-
acter, wherever it was necessary to protect the oppressed or
defend the cause of liberty— raised the city above every other."
The Florentines " pursued for themselves the noble policy of
opposing all usurpation or conquest by any who pretended
to domination in Italy.'"^^ Sismondi then describes the effect
of the superposition of an aristocracy, of who'm he says that
" war was their sole occupation. '"^^

" The virtue and elevation of soul, which had done such
honour to the Italian nation became obscured, even in the
republics of Genoa, Lucca, Pisa, Sienna, Perugia, and Bologna.
These republics, in the course of the fourteenth century, had
all more than once fallen under the power of some tyrant;
accordingly, the examples of cruelty, perfidy, and the success
of these usurpers to whom they had been forced to submit,
had had a corresponding effect upon their citizens. Neither
had Venice presented the true Italian virtue; its citizens often
gave proofs of an unbounded submission to its most severe
ordinances, but it was a narrow-minded and jealous aristocracy,
which, according to the spirit of that government, substituted
national selfishness for patriotism. The Venetians took not
into the least consideration any other people; they fancied they
gave proofs of heroism, when the advantage of their republic
was in question, in suppressing every human sentiment, in
silencing every moral duty. Venice was governed by secret
councils, where the voice of the people was never heard; its
foreign policy was administered by the Council of Ten, which
in its mysterious meetings took interest only for a guide.'"^^

If the warlike temper of a people depends upon the pres-
ence or absence of a class which follows war as a profession,
it is reasonable to suppose that warfare forms part of a system;

44. Sismondi, " Italian Rejiublics," London, p. 2;.

45. Op. cit., p. 130.

46. Ibid., p. 25.

47. Sismondi, op. cit., p. 185. The description of \'cnice under
an aristocracy is strikingly similar to that of Germany at the present
dav.

14 Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare.

that it must perform some useful function. Why is war useful
to certain forms of social organisation, and not to others?

The social organisation of warrior peoples is such that one
class — the nobility — is parasitic. It demands work from the
lower classes, and commoners and slaves will supply the dif-
ferent forms of labour needed. How did the Pharoahs of
Egypt build their pyramids ? By slave labour. Whole popu-
lations were enslaved by Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, in order to
toil for their rulers, and the gigantic works of antiquity were
only made possible by the fact that the Egyptians and others
could wage war upon peoples and enslave them. If the savages
of early times were pacific, it is easy to understand how the
Egyptians and other peoples could have enslaved them.

Does not this need of labour and wealth explain the utility
of warfare to a governing class ? It is a means of ensuring
their own luxury and ease. Much of the warfare of Africa
and other continents has been of the nature of slave-raiding,
and whole tribes have been made slaves by warrior peoples
such as the Masai, so that such warrior peoples might be saved
the trouble or working.

Warfare formerly supplied another need. We have seen
how constantly slaves were sacrificed by warrior peoples.
Human victims were needed for the sun-cult, and for other
purposes, and the existence of human sacrifices among warrior
peoples is in keeping with the frequent presence among these
peoples of the sun-cult. Head-hunting is therefore explicable
on the hypothesis that it is a search for victims for the chiefs
of the warrior peoples, and for their cults; that, in fact, it is
a modification of human sacrifice. Head-hunting can indeed
exist along wath human sacrifice, as among the Kayan of
Borneo.

Slaves are only found among peoples who practise war-
fare. Unwarlike peoples have no hereditary chiefs, no slavery,
and no human sacrifices; on the other hand, slavery and human
sacrifices are associated with a hereditary warrior aristocracy.

The hypothesis that warfare originated among a sun-
worshipping aristocracy is therefore in accordance with the
facts. The enslavement of humanity has not proceeded from
any innately cruel motive, but from that powerful stimulant
which, once at work, will drive men to extremes — greed. It
can be shown that the motive which led the " children of the
sun " to the ends of the earth, was that of the exploitation of
wealth,'*^ and examples could be quoted of the manner in which
they enslaved whole populations to work in their mines.

The history of slavery is one of the saddest, and the
motives at the back of the practice are still powerful to-day.
The exploitation of human labour still continues, and only

48. " The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of
Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," Proceedings of the Man-
chester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, 1915.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917), A^c". 6. 15

the gathering strength of the people is ameliorating the lot
of industrial slaves. Human beings are never so cruel as when
they are bitten with the desire for wealth and ease, and pos-
sibly this desire has been the driving-force at the back of the
movement towards civilisation. Man has not emerged from a
state of savagery to civilisation and dropped his pugnacious
habits; his pugnacious habits are rather the result of civilisation,
of the exploitation of man by man, of the desire for wealth and
luxury. The motives which gave rise to the wars of the Egyp-
tians, Assyrians, and other nations of antiquity are still as
powerful and active to-day as they were thousands of years
ago ; perhaps they are more active. The desire to exploit
humanity has not decreased with advancing civilisation.

What is the bearing of all this upon the problem which
now confronts Christendom ? The Prussian military aristoc-
racy is waging war. This aristocracy supplies practically all
the chief officers in the German army, and holds the principal
offices in the State. At the head of the State is a king, who,
if not sacred, claims to rule by Divine right. What is the
history of this organisation, which is similar to that of the
typical warrior state? Have the "children of the sun" also
taught the Germans to fight, to seek for a " place in the sun " ?

The old Teutons were sun-worshippers, and they had a
social organisation consisting of a priest-king, supported by
a military aristocracy. Slaves were kept and sacrificed. As
among many other warrior peoples, warriors were specially
honoured ; they only went to Walhalla ; " to the old Norsemen,
to die the straw death of sickness or old age was tO' go down
into the dismal loathy house of Hela, the Death-Goddess; if
the warrior fate on the field of battle were denied him, and
death came to fetch him from a peaceful couch, yet at least
he could have the scratch of the spear, Odin's mark, and so
contrive to go with a blood-stained soul to the glorious
Walhalla.""^^ Captives of war were thrown into the graves of
chiefs.

The evidence quoted goes to show that the source of the
social organisation of the old Germanic peoples was similar to
that of the other warrior peoples; the German culture displays
many of the typical traits : sun-cult, priest-kings, warrior
nobility, slavery, human sacrifices, and a special home of the
dead for warriors ; and it is possible that this organisation has
been introduced. The Prussian warrior aristocracy, in re-
garding war as a splendid thing, as a means of obtaining
wealth and p)ower, are simply furnishing another example of a
typical w^arrior state; and their Kaiser in claiming Divine
Right is completing the picture. The warlike organisation of

4Q. Tylor, n-p. cit., II., 88. The introduction of warfare into the
north of Europe is a matter of conjecture at present. Nilsson states
that the cult of Odin and Walhalla was introduced among the Teutons
of Scandinavia by the Asar, a princely priest-caste. '' The Primitive
Inhabitants of Scandinavia,'' London, 1S68, p. 237.

1 6 Perry, An EthnoLogical Study of Warfare.

the Prussians is deeply rooted in the past, and they are the
latest, and one would like to hope the last, and most formid-
able representatives of the warrior-state system. The Prussians
may well claim that they are the bearers of a Kultur, but they
are wrong in supposing that their Kultur represents an advance
upon that of the rest of Europe. If the thesis of this article
be correct, the truculence, perfidy, and other qualities which we
ascribe to modem Germany are the direct outcome of the grow-
ing power of the Prussian military aristocracy. Just as the
nobility caused a degeneration in the character of the Venetian
state, so the Prussian military and governing aristocracy has
transformed the Germans. The military successes of the last
century have enhanced the prestige and multiplied the power
of the military aristocracy, and the present war is the outcome
of the desire of that class for domination. This war is to be
ascribed to the working of social processes, the roots of which
lie in the past. But fortunately mankind is not faced wath a
sittration that has been produced by a process of evolution,
by the struggle for existence between various societies, the
effects of which have been to produce " specifically social quali-
ties."' The evidence brought forward here goes to show that
warfare has nothing whatever to do with the development of
the higher social qualities. It was in the beginning a means
whereby one group of human beings exploited another, and
far from producing good qualities, it has created mental appe-
tites and ways of thinking and acting which have led to the
death of millions. Fortunately other social forces have been
at work. Countries such as France and England, once under
the yoke of a warrior aristocracy, have freed themselves, and
now direct their own destinies more and more for the profit,
not of a class, but of the people. Great democracies are grow-
ing up in all parts of the world — America, Africa, Australia —
and these democracies, freed from the incubus of a sabre-
rattling, war-desiring aristocracy, are devoting their entire ener-
gies to peaceful advancement. These democracies are peaceful;
they lack the presence of a class whose interest is warfare.^°

The leaven of the "children of the sun" is working itself
out. This war, let us hope, represents the last struggle of a
system which has held mankind in its clutches for centuries.
Once this system is shattered, once the leaven is dead, mankind
will settle down to a new phase of development. Warfare as
we know it will perhaps be absent, but the motives which gave
rise to it will be present. Greed will always press men to
exploit their fellow-creatures, and it is only possible to hope
that mankind will learn the lesson of the past : that the ex-
ploitation of a community for the sake of one class is fraught
with grave and continual dangers.

50. Their behaviour in warfare is well exemplified in the case of
the United States, who beat Great Britain, but neither made this a pre-
text of aggression ; a contrast to the Prussian method.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQi/), '^'o- '^■

VII. Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Palm
Swift, Tachornis parva (Licht.), made by Mr. Arthur
Loveridge in German East Africa.

By T. A. Coward, F.Z.S:, F.E.S.

{Received and read April 24th ^ 1917.)

A skin and nest of the Palm Swift, Tachornis parva, were
recently sent to the Manchester Museum by Mr. A. Loveridge,
who is serving with the forces in the country which a short time
ago was German East Africa. A letter, telling me about the
specimens, contained some interesting notes on the nesting
habits of the bird, as observed at Morogoro, in January, 1917.
Certain details observed by Mr. Loveridge are, I believe, new
facts, whilst others confirm points in the extraordinary habits
of the species, which have apparently been doubted by some
writers on African birds.

The Palm Swift has a wide range in Africa, occurring from
Nubia and Madagascar to the Gold Coast, and southward to
the Cape. It has long been known to nest in the leaves of the
palms, but apparently, as the bird is numerous wherever it
founds a colony, it has been sufficient for most people either
to take for granted statements copied from book to book, or
to omit any mention of habits which appeared to differ from
those of other birds.

The following are Mr. Lov^eridge's notes.

"Nest and Eggs. — When out collecting this morning I
came across a small colony of Swifts nesting in the banana
palms which line the sides of the road. The lowest nests were
12 to 15 feet from the ground, and were attached to the frond
of the leaf just below its union with the mid-rib of the leaf.
The inner side of the leaf being concave, a few downy feathers
are gummed to its surface over an area of 4A inches in length
and 2 inches in width, which is the width of the frond. At the
lower end of the patch the shallowest of cups is formed, and
the two white eggs rest upon this and are gummed to the back
of the nest. These eggs will not fall out though the nest be
turned completely topsy-turvy, and the branch that bears it
be roughly shaken. The eggs in the first nest could be seen
whilst standing directly underneath.

Incubation — The incubating parent grasps the back feathers
of the nest with its claws, and presses itself against the eggs;

May 17th, IQ17.

2 Coward, Nesting Habits of the Palm Sivijt.

of seven nests examined to-day, in three cases it was the male
incubating the eggs, and in the remaining four, females. There
is always more or less of a breeze here, and frequently a strong
wind, rising to a gale after sunset. As may be imagined, the
fronds are swaying up and down nearly all the time, and the
back of the brooding bird is often underneath.

Young. — When hatched, the young cling tenaciously to the
feathery wall, and on my disturbing two, they actually lowered
themselves down, and as far as possible into, their old egg-
shells, which, of course, continued to occupy the cup-part of
the nest. The latter swarmed with bird-lice and several other
species of minute parasites. Two youngsters, which were in
the downy stage, could scarcely be distinguished from the
feathers which comprised the nest.

Contents of Nest —

1. Single egg, highly incubated.

2. Two eggs, one incubated or bad, the other almost

fresh.

3. Two eggs, both highly incubated.

4. One egg broken and bad, and one newly fledged

bird.

5. Two young birds only a couple of days old.

6. Two downy young.

7. Empty except for crushed eggshells, the young

having flown.

Though the palms bearing these nests were just outside the
hut occupied by my boy, on having them pointed out to him
he insisted they were the work of insects, and would not believe
them to be the work of birds till he saw the eggs. Certainly
at a little distance they appeared as a cobwebby mass.

The bird, though of much the same colour as the English
swift {Cypselns apns), is considerably smaller, measuring
6 inches over all, about half of which is due to the long tail.

Morogoro, 13/1/ 191 7.

Arthur Loveridge."

Palm Swifts of the genus Tachornis, occurring in Africa,
Southern Asia, and the West Indies, differ from the other Swifts
— Micro-pus, Aeronaiites, and Panyphilia — in having their toes
in pairs, " the outer and middle toe directed to the right, and
the inner and hind toe to the left." Hartert. (" Catal. of the
Ficarice in the Coll. of the Brit. Mns!' Birds, XVI., 1892, 462)
says : " No doubt this has some relation to their habits, and
probably to the manner in which they cling to the leaves of
palm trees, or to grass roofs of the Naga houses in Cacha and
Assam." It appears to me that it is more closely related to the
clinging to the nests when affixed to an unstable foundation.

Manchester Memoirs, Yol. Ixi. (191;), A^^. T- 3

•such as the wind-swayed palm leaves referred to by Mr. Love-
ridge.

The great interest of Air. Loveridge's observations lie in
the statement that the two eggs are glued or cemented to the
nesting material — " gummed to the back of the nest," he says.
I would call special attention to the words " back of the nest."

Stark, " The Birds of South Africa "— cont. by W. L.
Sclater, Vol. III., 29, 1913) says: " Heuglin (Orn. Nordost-
Afrika's, 1869, 145) gives a good account of the habits of this
bird in the Upper Nile Valley ; he states that they build their
nests in the leaf sheaths, or against the folds of the downward

hanging leaves of the ' Dom ' palms {Hyphene thebaicd)

They are untidy-looking objects, and sway about in the wind ;
the cup of the nest is not very deep, and it is difficult tO' under-
stand how the eggs are prevented from tumbling out. Brehm
suggests that they are glued by the secretion to the nest."

Stark's (or Sclater's) account seems to be taken entirely
from Heuglin, but it is an error to say that Brehm " suggests "
— Brehm {Jour. f. Orn., 1853. Extra. 95 — not 1854, as in
Sharpe's B.M. Catalogue), makes quite a definite statement.

" They " (the eggs) " stood on the point, and were likewise
glued. In some nests young were found, and these also were
cemented with the mucilage " (slime or mucus). " Truly the
wind, which shakes the whole leaf to and fro, cannot shake
them out of the nest. Whether the rest" (the attachment of the
young to the nest) " only happens so long as the young carry
the down feathers, or usually so long as they are incapable of
clinging firmly, and how they later come loose I know not."*

Comparing Mr. Loveridge's account with this, apparently
the first and only accurate description of the nesting economy,
and with the illustration Brehm gives of the shape of the nest,
which he likens to a spoon, and the position within it of the
two eggs — we see that his " stood on the point," and Mr.
Loveridge's " gummed to the back of the nest " mean one and
the same thing. The eggs are not lying in the shallow cup,
but stand on end in it, and are fastened to the upright " back "
of the long ladle-shaped nest.

Brehm found young similarly fixed to the sticky nesting
material, but Mr. Loveridge noticed them clinging to the
feathers attached to the wall. Brehm's observations may have
been of younger birds than those seen by Mr. Loveridge; he
may have been mistaken, or the habit may vary. In any case
it is most interesting to learn that these unattached young, when
disturbed, actually made use of the fragile cup of eggshell
which still remained in one of the nests Mr. Loveridge found.

*My thanks are due to Miss Wigglesworth for this translation as
literal as possible.

Minic/ics/cr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (iQt/J. 'No. S.

VIII. On the Atomic Weight of Tellurium in Relation to the
Multiple Proportions of the Atomic Weights of
other Simple Bodies/

By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S.

[Received May 22nd ^ irjij.)

The recent determination of the atomic weight of tellurium
by AI. R. Metzner (Comptes Rendus, 13th June, i8q8) affords
me the opportunity of again directing the attention of savants
to the present anomalous condition of theoretical chemistry, and
to the obstacles that stand in the way of its future progress.

The experiments made by M. Metzner show for tellurium
an atomic weight equal to 127.9 as the mean of one series, and
128.01 for the second scries. These results indicate a nearer
approach to the theoretical number 128, adopted by Dumas and
other chemists, than any previously recorded.

The classical memoir of Dumas^ upon the cqun'alents of
simple bodies embodied all our real knowledge of the numerical
relations among the atomic weights until the publication of my
own memoir on the origin of elementary substances, "" wherein
the triads and other multiple relations of the atomic weights
revealed by the illustrious Dumas were greatly extended. I
also found that the common numerical difference between the
atomic weights of the oxygen series and the alkaline-earth
metals observed by Dumas was exactly paralleled by a common
difference in the atomic weights of the halogens and alkaline
metals of half the amount shown in the series of oxygen and
alkaline -earth metals. This new relation only became manifest
after the work of Dumas by the discovery of rubidium and
caesium, and by the adoption of the atomic weights of Canniz-
zaro.

The absolute ]:)arallelisni of the positive and negative series
of elements Hn and H2n, as seen in my table (Comptes Rendus,
8th November, 1897), in their numerical, chemical and physical
relations, leaves no doubt that, for these four natural and best
known series, the multiple projiortions of their atomic weights
represent the truth of nature. The small differences observable
between the experimental and a few of the theoretical atomic
weights, when distributed among the twenty-four numbers com-

1. Comptes Rendus De L'Academie Des Sciences, i8q8, tome 2.

2. Comptes Rendus, tome XLV., p. 70Q, XLVL, p. 051, XLVII., p.
1,1126.

3. Manchester Memoirs, 187S, 1S86, 1894.

June iSth^ J 9 ^7-

2 Wilde, (7;/ //le Atoimc Weight of TcUur'iinii.

posing the four series, only amount to 0.0046 of the actual
determinations.

The atomic weights are also in much closer agreement with
expcrmiental results than is the fundamental law of atomic
heats formulated by Dulong and Petit for these same series. No
one doubts the general accuracy of this law, because it does not
hold good for carbon, boron and silicon, or to fractional f|uan-
tities throughout the whole number of the elements. Dalton's
law of chemical combination in definite and multiple propor-
tions was founded on approximations differing for the princi]:ial
elements more than thirty per cent, from later determinations,"*
and through the adoption of the atomic weights of Cannizzaro,
these differences are largely increased.

I would also emphasise the fact, hitlierto ignored by
chemists, that as the atomic weights of the two positive series
of elements, Hn and Fl2n, are the products of the large multiple
numbers, 16, 23 and 24 respectively, correlated also by the
common differences 4 and 8 with the large multiple numbers 46
and 48 of the two negative series of elements, the exact multiple
proportions subsisting among these higher atomic weights have
an immensely greater validity in determining the question of
their being whole numbers of hydrogen, than when all the
equivalents were compared directly with the unit or half-unit of
hydrogen by Stas and the older chemists.

I liaxe now the honour to bring before the Academic a new
argument in favour of the exact multiple proportions of the
atomic weights, which, while helpful to earnest students of the
natural sciences, will be a permanent check to the pretensions
of those chemists who set up their laboured approximations
of the atomic weights as the absolute truth of nature and the
measure of the power of future investigators.

In the memoir referred to, Dumas formulated the proposi-
tion that " in three simple bodies of the same natural family,
the ^-quivalent of the intermediate body, is always half the sum
of the equivalents of the two extreme bodies." This proposition,
as will be evident, 'is the rigorous expression of the definite
and exact multiple proportions of the atomic weights.

The first example of this law givt^n by Dumas is the triad
of sulphur, selenium and tellurium, with the old ecjuivalents, 16,
40, 64, e(]ual to 32, 80, 128 of the atomic weights of Cannizzaro.
Now, in the geometry of solids, we have a triad of numerical
proportions similar to those found in the atomic weights, since
a cone, sphere and cylinder, of equal diameter and altitude,
have the ratios of i, 2, 3, respectively, and the intermediate
body is half the sum of the two extreme bodies, as in the triad
of sulphur, selenium and tellurium. The mental attitude of
those chemists who make their determinations of the atomic
weights the absolute truth of nature, would therefore be strictly

4. Dalton's New S\ stem of Chemical Philosophy, Vol. II. )3. 35^

(lcS27).

Mcjucliestcr Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. 'igi/), -Vi^. H. "-,

paralleled by that of an ingenious artist who should endeavour
to prove, by mechanical means, the ratios of the cone, sphere,
and cylinder, but, Ending that after the expenditure of much
time and labour the exact ratios, by weight and measure,
could not be obtained, owing to the unequal density of the
material operated upon and other causes, should set the results
of his labours above the demonstrations of the geometer, and
declare, in the hyperbolic ■ language used by Stas resi>ecting
the multiple proportions of the atomic weights as modified by
Dumas, that the exact ratios of the cone, sphere and cylinder
are " a mere illusion, a pure hypothesis, absolutely contradicted
by experience."^

Applying the foregoing reasonings to the determinations
of the atomic weight of tellurium by M. Aietzner, and accepting
the theoretical value of 128 as correct, it will be seen that M.
Metzner, by taking the mean of the results of his first series
of experiments with the sulphate, and making the final atomic
weight 127.Q, has hardly clone himself justice, as the second
series with telluric acid shows a mean atomic weight of 128.01.
Moreover, three of the seven determinations made by M. Metzner
show the actual theoretical atomic weight 128, which is the
criterion of the experimental results.

5. Bull. Acad. Sci. Hcl.t^iquc, X., p. 212, i860.

Manchester Me?noirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9

IX. Recent Work on Overvoltage.

By Dr. E. Newbery.
{C ommunicated by Professor A. Lapzvorth, D.Sc, F.R.S., F,I,C)

Read May 8t/i, igiy. Received for Publication May 22nd, igij.

Since the author's last communication to this journal, ^^ a
considerable amount of further work has been carried out on the
same subjecjt, and certain facts have come to light which neces-
sitate some modification of the theory then proposed.

This work has bieen done along three Unes —

r. (Measurement of cathodic oyervoltages of metals and
alloys i|n dilute acid ,and in alkali, under varying conditions of
time and current density, hydrogen being liberated in all cases.

2. Measurement of anodic overvoltages under similar con-
ditions, oxygen being liberated.

3. 'Measurement of " metal " overvoltages during electro-
lytic deposition or dissolution of a metal in a solution containing
a salt of that metal.

Altogether about 12,000 measurements have been made

partly with the objeqt of supplying a broad basis on which to

found a theory of overvoltage, and partly to supply data which
will be generally useful in edectrolytic work.

In the following tables current densities in milliamperes per
sq. cm. are given in the first column. Columns headed A. ghow
the first sets of rteadings obtained witli the given electrodes
immiediately after immersion in the electrolyte, whilst those
'headed B.: show the averages of at least four sets taken subse-
quently. By comparing the two columns, the combined effect
of tinae and subjection to a high current density may be
observed, whilst further information as to the effect of time
alone may be obtained from the later tables.

T'he test electrode was in all cases a rod or strip of metal
having an exposed surface of i sq. cm., and the secondary elec-
trode was a sheet of platinum, 10 sq. cms. area, except when
measuring metal overvoltages, when a similar sheet of the metal
under examination was used.

* Vol. 60 (1916), No. II.

Decemder ijth, IQ17.

2 TSfEWBERY. Recefit Work oji Overvoltage.

The standard electrodes used were—

Hg. HgO. N . NaOH for alkali solutions.

Hg. Hg^'SO^. N. H2SO4 for acid or sulphate solutions.

Hg. HggClg. N . KCl for chloride or nitrate solutions.

Cathodic (hydrogen) overvoltages are calculated on the
basis of the hydrogen electrode as zero; anodic (oxygen) over-
voltages, with the oxygen electrode as zero, the difference be-
tween the two being taken as 1.13 volt.

MetaJ overvoltages (during metal deposition) are all calcu-
lated from the single poltential of the metal itself, taken as zero
in the given electrolyte.

For comparison 0(f results the following values were taken : —

Hg. HgO. N. NaOH. ... N. NaOH. Hg ... 0.93 volt.

Hg. HggSO^. N. H0SO4 ... N. H2SO4. H2 ... 0.70 „

Hg. HggCls. N. KCl.
Hg. N. H2SO4 ...

N. H2SO4. H,

Absolute

Absolute

0.56
0.27

Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Cu.

Cu.

Ag.

Ag.

Au.

Au.

Zn.

Zn.

Cd.

Cd.

Hg.

Hg.

2

0.37

0.34

0.27

0.33

0.31

0.38

0.68

0.70

0.50

0.50

0.21

0.61

4

0.38

0.35

0.28

0.33

0.32

0.39

0.69

0.70

0.52

0.50

0.21

0.63

6

0.38

0.35

0.28

0.33

0.32

0.38

0.69

0.71

0.54

0.50

0.21

0.65

10

0.39

0.36

0.27

0.32

0.32

0.38

0,.69

0.71

0.55

0.50

0.21

0.66

20

0.40

0.35

0.25

0.31

0.31

0.36

0.70

0.72

0.56

0.50

0.21

0.66

50

0.39

0.34

0.24

0.30

0.31

0.36

0.71

0 74

0.55

0.50

0.21

0.66

100

0.38

0.33

0.23

0.29

0.30

0.36

0.71

0.75

0.54

0.50

0.36

0.53

200

0.37

0.33

0.23

0.28

0.29

0.36

0.71

0.75

0.54

0.50

0.38

0.46

400

0.35

0.32

0.23

0.25

0.28

0.34

0.72

0.75

0..53

0.50

0.30

0.37

1000

0.32

0.30

0.22

O.lfi

0.26

0.30

0.72

0.76

0.50

0.49

0.22

0.29

2000

0.30

0.28

0.11

0.10

0.24

0.24

0.72

0.75

0.48

0.48

0.19

0.26

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B..

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Al.

Al.

TI.

Tl.

CI.

CI.

C2.

C2.

Sn.

Sn.

Pb.

Pb.

2

0.44

O.IS

0.53

0.55

0.38

0.33

0.44

0.32

0.62

0.44

0.74

0.45

4

0.48

0.14

0.53

0.55

0.42

0.37

0.44

0.34

0.66

0.45

0.75

0.46

6

0.49

0.13

0.53

0.55

0.45

0.44

0.44

0.36

0.67

0.46

0.73

0.46

10

0.50

0.11

0.53

0.55

0.48

0.49

0.43

0.35

0.66

0.47

0.71

0.47

20

0.49

0.12

0.53

0.55

0.54

0.56

0.42

0.35

0.66

0.48

0.67

0.46

50

0.49

0.15

0.53

0.55

0.60

0.62

0.40

0.35

0.65

0.49

0.64

0.44

100

0.48

0.19

0.54

0.55

0.67

0.67

0.39

0.35

0.63

0.49

0.59

0.42

200

0.47

0.22

0.54

0.55

0.71

0.71

0.38

0.37

0.60

0.48

0.58

0.39

400

0.40

0.20

0.54

0.54

0.75

0.76

0.38

0.40

0.54

0.41

0.54

0.35

1000

0.16

0.14

0.54

0.54

0.77

0.80

0.38

0.39

0.34

0.33

0.53

0.30

2000

0.11

0.08

0.53

0.53

0.76

0.78

0.38

0.39

0.30

0.29

0.50

0.28

CI

gas carbon,

C2

artificial graphite

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917) No. 9

Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid — Continued.

Current A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B.
density. Sb. Sb. Ta. Ta. Bi. Bi. Cr. Cr. Mo. Mo. W. W.

2

0.44

0.38

0.50

0.39

0.49

0.41

0.41

0.41

0.28

0.25

0.32

0.28

4

U.4.3

0.41

0.5;)

0.40

0.51

0.42

0.42

0.41

0.31

0.27

0.32

0.28

6

0.45

0.42

0.49

0.40

0.5^

0.43

0.42

0.41

0.32

0.28

0.32

0.29

10

0.45

0.42

0.49

.0.40

0.53

0.44

0.42

0.41

0.33

0.29

0.32

0.29

20

0.44

0.42

0.48

0.40

0.54

0.44

0.42

0.41

0.33

0.30

0.32

0.28

50

0.44

0.42

0.46

0.41

0.53

0.43

0.42

0.41

0.33

0.30

0.31

0.28

100

0.43

0.43

0.45

0.42

0.52

0.42

0.43

0.41

0.32

0.30

0.31

0.27

200

0.42

0.42

0.45

042

0.51

0.37

0.43

0.42

0.32

0.30

0.31

0.26

400

0.41

0.41

0.44

0.42

0.49

0.32

0.43

0.42

0.31

0.29

0.30

0.26

1000

0.40

0 40

0.43

0 41

0.36

0.19

0.44

0.43

0.29

0.29

0.26

0.22

2000

0.38

0.37

0.42

0.41

0.12

o.os

0.44

0.43

0.28

0.28

0.20

0.19

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A..

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Mn.

Mn.

Fe.

Fe.

Ni.

Ni.

Co.

Co.

Rh.

Rh.

Pd.

Pd.

2

0.60

0.58

0.27

<).24

0.16

0.29

0.27

0.23

0.03

0.01-

-0.09

0.00

4

0.60

0.58

0.27

0.25

0.17

0.30

0.27

0.24

0.04

0.01-

-0.07

0.02

6

0.61

0.58

0.27

0.26

0.17

0.31

0.28

0.24

0.04

0 01-

-0.06 0.03

10

0.61

0.58

0.27

0.26

0.18

0.30

0.28

0.24

0.04

001-

-0.05

0.04

20

0.59

0.58

0.28

0.27

0.18'

0.29

0.27

0.2.T

(».03

0.02-

-0.04

0.05

50

0.58

0.58

0.29

0.27

0.18

0.26

0.27

0.25

0.03

0.02

-0.02

0.06

100

0.58

0.57

0.30

0.27

0.19

0.24

0.26

0.26

0.03

O.Oj!

0.00

0.07

200

0.58

0.56

0.30

0.27

0.19

0.21

0.26

0.26

0.03

0.02 + 0.01

O.OS

400

0.57

0.55

0.31

0.28

0.18

0.18

0.25

0.25

0.03

0.02

0.08

0.08

1000

0.55

0.54

0.29

0.27

0.17

0.11

0.25

0.24

0.03

0.01

0.08

0.05

2000

0.53

0.52

0.27

0.26

0.15

0.06

0.23

0.20

0.01

0.00

0.02

0.02

Current

A.

B.

.-/.

B.

density

Ir.

Ir.

I't.

Pt.

2

0.01

0.18

0.05

0.20

4

0.02

019

0.06

0.19

6

0.02

0.19

0.06

0.18

10

0.03

0.18

0.06

0.16

20

0.03

0.18

0.06

0.15

50

0.04

0.18

0.07

0.1:?

100

0.05

0.17

0.07

0.12

200

0.05

0.17

0.08

0.11

400

0.05

0.16

0.09

0.07

1000

0.05

0.14

0.08-

-0.01

2000

0.08

0.12

0.01

0.02

Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid.
Time Experiments.

Copper.

Time

in Minutes.

Current
density.

1

2

3

4

5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.31

0.32

0.32

0.31

0.30 0.30

0.30

0.29

0.29-

0.29

10

0.29

0.29

0.29

0.29

0.29 0.28

0.28

0.27

0.27

0.27

100

0.28

0.28

0.28

0.27

0.27 0.27

0.27

0.27

0.26

0.26

1000

0.17

0.16

0.15

0.15

0.15 0.14

0.13

0.13

0.13

0.14

Silver.

Current
density.

Time(

in Minutes.

^\

2

3

4

5 10

15

20

25

30

1'

0.28

0.29

0.29

0.29

0.29 0.31

0.31

0.31

0.32

0.32

10

0.29

0.29

0.29

0.30

0.30 0.31

0.31

0.32

0..32

0.33

■100

0.27

0.26

0.25

0.24

0.23 0.22

0.2.3

0.23

0.23

0.22

1000

0.15

0.14

0.14

0.15

0.15 0.17

0.16

0.17

0.17

0.16

Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage.

Cathodic Overvoltages in Normal Sulphuric Acid.
Time E.kperiments^C^«/2«?/^^.

Afnalgamated Zinc.

Current
density.

Time in Minutes.

1

2

3 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.82

0.83

0.84 0.85 0.86 0.86

0.87

0.88

0.88

0.88

10

0.88

0.88

0.88 0.88 0.88 0.88

0.88

0.88

0.88

0.88

100

0.88

0.88

0.88 0.88 0.87 0.87

0.86

0.86

0.86

0.86

1000

0.82

0.82

0.83 0.83 0.83 0.84

0.84

0.84

0.84

0.84

First series

repeated 3 days later with same electrode.

1

0.78

0.80

0.80 0.80 0.80 0.82
Mercury.

0.83

0.84

0.83

0.83

Current
density.

Time{ in Minutes.

^\

2

8 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.51

0.64

0.60 0.58 0.58 0.59

0.55

0.56

0.54

0.56

10

0.39

0.30

0.30 0.29 0.32 0.40

0.45

0.49

0.49

0.50

100

0.45

0.48

0.54 0.48 0.49 0.52

0.48

0.46

0.44

0.45'

1000 -

-0.02

0.00

0.04 0.01 0.04 0.06

0.12

0.12

0.17

0.19

* Fell to 0.08 after further 30 minutes.

Graphite.

Time in Minutes.

Current

density.

,

1

2

3 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1 -

-0.01

+ 0.02

0.05 0.07 aiO 0.15

0.18

0.20

0.22

0.23

10

0.42

0.48

0.49 0.48 0.49 0:48

0.47

0.47

0.46

0.46

lOO

0.44

0.45

0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43

0.43

0.42

0.42

0.43

1000

0.41

0.45

0.47 0.49 0.50 0.60
Lead.
Time in Minutes.

0.61

0.62

0.62

()-6l

Current
density

^

^1

2

3 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.72

0.78

0.80 0.82 0.84 0.76

0.75

0.74

0.72

0.71

IQ

0.72

0.73

0.72 0.71 0.70 0.69

0.69

0.69

0.69

0.68

100

0.64

0.64

0.64 0.62 0.61 0.58

0.56

0.55

0.55

0.52

1000

0.38

0.36

0.35 0.35 0.35 0.34

0.34

0.35

0.36

0.36

First series repeated after the last, without cleanin!

g electrode.

1

0.36

0.45

0.49 0.52 0.52 0.55
Tin.
Time in Minutes.

0.54

0.52

0.52

0.54

Current
density

^

^\

2

3 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.25

0.54

0.56 0.59 0.60 0.60

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

10

0.50

0.57

0.59 0.59 0.60 0.60

0.60

0.60

0.61

0.62

100

0.55

0.57

0.55 0.54 0.51 0.45

0.41

0.39

0.40

0.39

1000

0.35

0.33

0.32 0.31 0.31 0.30

0.30

0.30

0.31

0.31

Platiiiwin .
Time in Minutes.

Current ,

density 1
1 0.01

2
0.02

3 4

0.02 0.02

5 10 15 20 25

0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

10 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06

100
1000

0.02 0.03 0.03 0 03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08
0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.08

30
0.04
0.07
0.09
0.02

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ix'i. (191 7) No. 9 5

Cathodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide.

Current

A.

B.

A. B. A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Cu.

Cu.

Ag. Ag. Au.

Au.

Mg.

Mg. :

Zn.

Zn.

2

0.50

0.43

i 0.43 0.35 0.44

0.38

0.56

; 0.57 (

3.59

0.56

4

0.52

0.46

i 0.44 0.37 0.46

0.39

0.57

' 0.58 (

).60

0.58

6

0.53

0.47

■ 0.45 0.38 0.46

0.40

0.58 0.58 0.60

0.69

10

0.53

0.49

1 .0.4.5 0 39 0.47

0.40

0.5S

1 0.59 0.60

0.59

20

0.52

0.5C

t 0.45 0.39 0.48

0.41

0.6]

. 0.59 0.60

0.60

50

0.51

0.5C

» 0.44 0.39 0.48

0.41

0.64 0.59 (

3.59

0.60

100

0.51

0.51

0.43 0.40 0.48

0.42

0.67

' 0.60 (

3.59

0.60

200

0.50

0.51

0.43 0.40 0.48

0.42

0.6^

7 0.59 (

3..58

0.60

400

0.49

0.51

0.42 0.40 0.47

0.41

0.68 0.58 (

3.57

0.59

1000

0.49

0.50

' 0.41 0.39 0.4Y

0.41

0.67 0.58 (

3.56

0.58

1200

0.48

0.50

0.40 0.38 0.45

0.40

0.66 0.57 (

3.56

0.57

Current A. B.

A.

B.

density. Cd. Cd.

Hg.

Hg.

2 0.51 0.55

0.92

0.67

4 0.53 0.60

0.96

0.67

6 0.54 0.62

0.97

0.68

•

10 0.54 0.64

0.98

0.69

20 0.53 0.65

0 99

0.69

50 0.52 0.66

1.02

0.69

100 0.52 0.66

1.05

0.70

200 0.51 0.67

1.02

0.71

400 0.52 0.67

1.01

0.79

1000 0.56 0.66

0.99

0.88

1200 0.61 0.65

0.95

0.95

Current

A.

B.

A. B. A. B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density

AI.

Al.

Tl. Tl. CI. CI.

02..

02.

Sn.

Sn.

PI).

I'b.

2

0.52

0.48

0.4.1 0.42—0.17 0.37-

-0.31

0.42

0.57

0.57

0.57

0.58

4

0.52

0.49

0.4.-, 0.44—0.1,5 0.41-

-0.28

0.47

0.57

0.60

0.5.7

0.64

&

0.52

0.49

0.46 0.45—0.12 0.46-

-0.24

0.49

0.57

0.62

0.57

0.65

10

0.52

0.49

0.48 0.47—0.02 0.53-

-0.17

0.54

0.57

0.63

0.57

0.67

20'

0.52

0.49

0..^0 0.49 + 0.19 0.62-

-0.04

0.56

0.57

0.64

0.57

0.68

50

0.52

0.50

0.54 0.52 0.42. 0.66

+ 0.64

0.60

0.58

0.65

0.60

0.69

100

0.52

0.50

0.56 0.53 0.65 0.70

0.67

0.64

0.59

0.65

0.61

0.69

200

0.51

0.50

0.56 0.54 0.74 0.72

0.69

0.G7

0.59

0.63

0.63

0.69

400

0.51

0.50

0.55 0.55 0.79 0.73

0.70

0.69

0.60

0.63

0.64

0.68

1000

0.51

0.49

0.54 0.56 0.78 0.77

0.71

0.71

0.61

0.63

0.64

0.67

1200

0.51

0.49

0.54 0.55 0.77 0.77

CI gas carbc
C2 graphite.

0.71
)n.

0.71

0.61

0.62

0.65

0.67

Current

A.

B.

A. B; A. B.

A,

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Sb.

Sb.

Bi. Bi. Cr, Cr.

W.

W.

Mn.

Mn.

Fe.

I'e.

2

0.59

0.62

0.59 0.59 0.46 0.37

0.31

0.27

0.29

0.27

0.27

0.28

4

0.63

0.64

0.66 0.65 0.46 0.37

0.21

0.37

0.31

0.29

0.30

0.31

6

0.64

0.65

0.70 0.68 0.46 0.38

0.31

0.27

0.31

0.29

0.31

0.32

10

0.65

0.66

0.73 0.71 0.45 0.38

0.31

0.27

0.32

0.30

0.32

0.33

20

0.65

0.67

0.75 0.74 0.45 0.39

0.30

0.28

0.33

0.31

0.33

0.34

50

0.65

0.67

0.77 0.75 0.44 0.39

0.29

0.28

0.34

0.32

0.34

0.34

100

0.65

0.67

0.77 0.76 0.42 0.39

0.28

0.28

0.35

0.33

0.34

0.35

200

0.64

0.66

0.77 0.76 0.42 0.39

0.28

0.29

0.37

0.34

0.34

0.35

400

0.63

0.65

0.77 0.76 0.41 0.39

0.28

0.29

0.39

0.35

0.34

0.35

1000

0.61

0.63

0.77 0.74 0.40 O.o9

0.28

0.29

0.42

0.37

0. .33

0.34

1200

0.60

0.61

0.76 0.73 0.39 0.39

0.28

0.28

0.45

0.37

0.33

0.34

PCewbery, Rece7it W ork on Overvoltage.

Cathodic Overvoltage in Nor.mal Sodium

Hydroxide — Continued.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Ni.

Ni.

Co.

Co.

Rh.

Rh.

Pd.

Pd.

Ir.

Ir.

Pt.

Pt.

2

0.18

0.23

0.25

0.48

0.0^

0.01

0.25

0.38

0.43

0.46

0.16

0.21

4

0.20

0.28

0.27

0.53

0.03

0.05

0.27

0.43

0.43

0.54

0.17

0.22

6

0.20

0.21

0.28

0.56

0.03

0.05

0.28

0.45

0.43

0.59

0.19

0.24

10

0.20

0.24

0.28

0.61

0.04

0.06

0.31

0.47

.0.44

0.62

0.20

0.25

20

0.20

0.24

0.29

0.67

0.04

0.06

0.32

0.49

0.44

0.64

0.21

0.26

50

0.21

0.24

0.29

0.69

0.04

0.07

0.34

0.53

0.44

0.65

0.22

0.28

100

0.21

0.24

0.29

0.69

0.05

0.08

0.36

0.58

0.45

0.65

0.22

0.28

200

0.21

0.25

0.30

0.69

0.06

0.09

0.36

0.57

0.62

0.65

0.22

0.28

400

0.22

0.24

0.30

0.68

0.07

0.08

0.36

0.58

0.64

0.64

0-21

0-28

1000

0.21

0.24

0.29

0 6")

0.08

0.08

0-37

0.58

0.64

0.64

0.20

0.27

1200

0.21

0.23

0.29

0.64

0.08

0.07

0.39

0.57

0.63

0.63

0.19

0.27

Cathodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide.
Time Experiments.

Amalgamated

Lead.

Current
density

Time

in Minutes.

1

2

3 4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.89

0.89

0.88 0.87

0.86

0.85

0.79

0.76

0.74

0.73

10

1.09

1.08

1.05 1.00

0.96

0.87

0.79

0.76

0.74

0.72

100

1.10

1.06

1.00 0.95

0.91

0.76

0.72

0.70

0.71

0.72

1000

1.16

1.11

1.08 1.06

1.03

0.'95

0.88

0.85

0.81

0.76

Lead.

Time

in Minutes.

Current
density

*

'~l

2

3 4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.48

0.47

0.47 0.46

0.46

0.44

0.44

0.43

0.43

0.42

10

0.49

0.50

0.50 0.51

0.51

0.51

0.51

0.51

0.51

0.51

100

0.53

0.55

0.58 0.61

0.63

0.67

0.70

0.72

0.73

0.73

1000

0.65

0.69

0.70 0.70

0.71

0.72

0.71

0.71

0.71

0.71

►

Nickel.

Current
density

Time

in Minutes.

'~l

9

3 4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.15

0.15

0.15 0.15

0.15

0.16

0.16

0.16

0.16

0.16

10

0.16

0.16

0.16 0.16

0.16

0.16

0.16

0.17

0.1i7

0.17

100

0.17

0.17

0.17 0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

0.17

1000

0.19

0.19

0.19 0.19

0.19

0.19

0.19

0.20

0.20

0.20

Anodic <

Overvoltage in Normal

Sulphuric Acid.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

den.sity.

Ag.

Ag.

Au.

Au.

CI.

Cl.

C2.

C2.

2

0.86

0.87

0.25

6.45

0.75

0.67

4

■ —

0.87

0.87

0.32

0.53

0.84

0.69

6

—

. —

0.86

0.88

0.37

0.57

0.88

0.71

10

—

-^

0.85

0.87

0.43

0.61

0.91

0.75

20

—

—

0.84

0.86

0.52

0.66

0.94

0.81

50

0.75

0.73

0.81

0.84

0.71

0.77

1.00

0.88

100

0.75

0.74

0.80

0.82

0.85

0.83

1.05

0.92

200

0.76

0.74

0.79

0.81

0.'90

0.87

1.08

0.96

400

0.76

0.74

0.77

0.80

0.'91

0.91

1.12

1.01

1000

0.76

0.74

0.75

0.77

0.89

0.90

1.14

1.08

2000

0.76

0.73

0.74

0.75

0.88

0.88

1.14

1.10

Cl gas carbon.

C2 artificial graphite.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9
Anodic Overvoi.tage in Normal Sulphuric Acid — Continued.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Pb.

Pb.

Fe

Fe.

Ni.

Ni.

Pt.

Pt.

2'

o.so

0.91

0.73

0.75

—

0.81

0.85

4

0.83

0.94

0.74

0.75

—

—

0.83

0.85

6

0.85

0.96

0.74

0.76

—

—

0.84

0.86

10

0.88

0.98

0.75

0.75

—

—

0.85

0.86

20

0.91

0.99

0.74

0.75

—

—

0.85

0.86

50

0.95

1.04

0.74

0.74

—

—

0.86

0.86

100

0.98

1.05

0.73

0'.73

0,62

0.62

0.86

0.86

200

1.00

1.06

0.72

0.73

0.65

0.65

0.86

0.86

400

1.01

1.06

0.71

0.70

0.67

0.67

0.86

0.86

1000

1.00

1.05

0.68

0.(!7

0.68

0.68

0.85

0.86

2000

0.98

1.04

0.63

0.63

0.68

0.68

0.85

0^5

Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sulphuric Acid.
Time Experiments.

Graphite.

Time in Minutes.

Current
density.

r

1

2

3

4 5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.31

0.34

0.41

0.45 0.46

0.56

0.61

0.65

0.67

0.68

10

0.79

0.84

0.86

0.87 0.88

0.87

0.86

0.84

0.83

0.83

100

0.95

0.94

0.93

0.93 0.92

0.91

0.90

0.89

0.89

0.89

1000

1.02

1.01

1.00

0.99 0.9S
Lead.

0.97

0.96

0.96

0.96

0.96

Current
density.

Time in Minutes.

1

2

3

4 5

10

15

20

25

30

1 ' -

-0.09

+ 0.44

0.59

0.62 0.62

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

10

0.93

0.93

0.94

0.95 0.96

0.99

0.99

0.99

0.99

0.99

100

1.02

1.04

1.06

1.07 1.07

1.07

1.07

1.07

1.06

1.06

1000

1.07

1.07

1.07

1.07 1.07 .
Iron.

1.07

1.07

1.07

1.07

1.07

Current
density.

Time in Minutes.

^\

2

3

4 5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.21

0.20

0.20

0.20 0.21

0.20

0.21

0.21

0.26

0.28

10

100

1000

0.69 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.72

0.66 0.67 0.68 0.(

0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.69

0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.67

Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Cu.

Cu.

Ag.

Ag.

Au.

Au.

Zn.

Zn.

2

0.53

0.57

-—

0.71

0.96

^ —

4

0.57

0.61

0.10

0.60

0.76

0.96

—

6

0.59

0.62

0.35

0.69

0.87

0.96

—

—

10

0.61

0.63

0.36

0.70

0.91

0.96

—

—

20

0.62

0.63

0.58

0.71

0.92

0.96

0.83

0.87

50

0.62

0.62

0.60

0.72

0.93

0.96

0.85

0.97

100

0.62

0.61

0.63

0^.72

0.94

1.01

0.91

1.00

20.0

0.61

0.60

0.65

0.73

0.94

1.16

0.94

1.00

40.0

0.60

0.59

0.70

0.72

0.93

1.20

0.93

0.96

1000

0.58

0.58

0.70

0.71

0.93

1.17

0.76

0.78

1200

0.58

0.57

0.69

0.60

0.93

1.16

—

—

Newbery, Recent Work on Overvo/tage.
Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide — Contimied.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

CI.

CI.

C-2.

C±

Sn.

Sn.

Ph.

Ph.

2

0.05

0.26

0.53

0.52

1.17

1.22

0.60

0.86

4

0.11

0.34

0.56

0.54

1.27

1.27

0.64

0.93

6

0.1(5

0.38

0.56

0.56

1.34

1.31

0.66

0.94

10

0.24

0.47

0.60

0.58

1.34

1.35

0.69

0.95

20

0.32

0.54

0.62

0.60

1.35

1.37

0.82

0.96

50

0.4S

0.70

0.65

0.71

1.35

1.33

0.83

0.96

100

0.65

0.79

0.69

0.89

1.34

1.33

0.84

0.95

200

0.74

0.83

0.71

0.96

1.34

1.32

0.84

0.94

400

0.88

0.9U

0.83

1 00

1.29

1.30

0.86

0.93

1000

0.90

0.88

0.96

0.97

1.25

— .

0.84

0.92

1200

0.85

0.86

0.94
CI i

0.94
gas carbon.

—

—

0.83

0.90

C2 artificial graphite.

Current

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

density.

Fe.

Fe.

Ni.

Ni.

Co.

Co.

Pt.

Pt.

2

0.44

0.44

0.45

0.49

0.58

0.54

0.56

0.85

4 .

0.46

0.46

0.48

0.53

0.60

0.55

0.57

0.86

6

0.48

0.48

0.49

0.54

0.60

0.56

0.59

0.87

10

0.49

0.49

0.51

0.57

0.59

0.57

0.62

0.87

20

0.49

(1.49

0.53

0.60

0.58

0 57

0.72

0.88

50

0.50

0.51

0.54

0.64

0.58

0.57

0.75

0.99

100

0.51

0.51

0.55

0.65

0.57

0.56

0.80

0.98

200

0.51

0.52

0.56

0.66

0.57

0.56

0.82

0.97

400

0.51

0.52

0.57

0.66

0.56

0.56

0.85

0.94

1000

0.51

0.52

0.57

0.65

0.54

0.55

0.86

0.90

1200

0.50

0.51

0.57

0.64

0.54

0.54

0.85

0.88

Anodic Overvoltage in Normal Sodium Hydroxide.
Time Experiments.

Graphite.

Current
density.

Time

in Minutes.

1

1

2

3

4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.55

0.57

0.58

0.58

0.58

0.59

0.59

0.60

0.60

0.60

10

0.93

0.95

0.96

0.96

0.95

0.95

0.96

0.97

0.98

0.98

100

0.92

0.92

0.93

0.93

0.93

0.93

0.94

0.94

0.94

0.95

1000

0.82

0.84

0.84

0.84

0.84

0.84

0.83

0.83

0.83

0.82

Lead.

Current
density.

Time

in Minutes.

1

2

3

4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

0.61

10

0.65

0.66

0.68

0.70

0.70

0.75

0.84

0.90

0.92

0.94

100

0.75

0.92

0.93

0.94

0.94

0.97

1.01

1.02

1.02

1.03

1000

0.93

0.95

0.97

0.98

0.99

1.00

1.00

1.00

0.99

0.99

Iron.

Current
density.

Time

in Minutes.

1

9

3

4

5

10

15

20

25

30

1

0.51

0.51

0.52

0.52

0.52

0.5

0.53

0.53

0.53

0.53

10

0.54

0.54

0.54

0.54

0.54

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

100

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.55

0.56

0.56

0.56

0.56

0.56

1000

0.57

0.56

0.56

0.55

0.55

0.56

0.56

0.56

0.56

0.56

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 7) No. 9

Anodic Overvoi.tagk in Normal Sodium Hydroxide.
Time Exprrimicnts — Cotithiued.

A^ic/^el.

Current
density.

Time in Minutes.

^^

2

3 4 5 10

15

20

25

30

1

0.40

0.42

0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

0.42

10 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.54 0.55 0.55

100 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.69

1000 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.70 0.71 072 0.72 0.72

Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Sulphates.

Current

Co

pper.

Zini

Cad:

iniuni.

Thai

Hum.

den.^ity

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

//.

A.

B.

2

0.04

0.02

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

4

0.04

0.02

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

6

0.03

0.02

0.03

002

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

10

0.03

0.02

0.03

0 02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

20

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

+ 001 -

-002

50

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

+ 0.02 -

-0.01

100

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

—0.02

0.00

200

012

0.03

0.04

O03

0.02

0.01

—0.03

0.00

400

0.12

0.04

0.06

0.04

0.03

<1.02

0.00

0.00

Current

I

ri^n.

Nickt

^1.

Nickel. *

Cobalt.

density.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

2

0.30

0.23

0.58

077

0.45

0.45

0.50

0.34

4

0.30

0.24

0.62

0.80

0.63

0.55

0.49

0.35

6

0.30

0.25

0.63

0.81

0.68

0.62

0.48

0.35

10

0.30

0.26

0.65

083

0.72

0.66

0.48

036

20

0.31

0.28

0.76

0.83

0.74

0.72

0.48

0.37

50

0.32

0.29

0.79

082

0.77

0.77

0.50

0.40

100

0.34

0.30

0.80

082

0.78

0.79

0.51

0.46

200

0.34

0.30

0.80

0.81

0.77

0.78

0.51

0.54

400 0.33 0.32 0.80 0.81 0.75 0.75 0.49 0.52
* In nickel ammonium sulphate solution.

Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Nitrates.

Current Copper,
density. A. B.

2 0.02 0.01 0.00 0 00 002 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.40 0.47 0.26 0.31

4 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.1.") 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.52 0.35 0.36

6 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.55 0.38 0.41

10 0.01 0.02 0.00 0 00 001 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.60 0.45 0.46

20 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.27 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.52 0.66 0.57 0.49

50 0.02 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.28 035 0.00 0.00 0.70 0.7^ 0.73 0.83

100 0.02 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.33 0.01 0.00 0.91 0.86 0.72 0.80

200 0.06 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.32 O.Ol 0.00 0.94 0.86 0.69 0.74

400 0.60 059 0.01 0.01 0.30 0.29 0.01 0.01 0.88 0 85 0.64 0.67

Silver.

Zinc.

Lead.

Nickel.

Cobalt.

A. B.

A. B.

A. B.

A. B.

A. B.

lo Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage.

Cathodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Chlorides.

Current

Copper.

Zinc.

Tin.

Iron.

Nic

kel.

c:obalt.

density.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

. A.

B.

2

0.01

0.04

0.01

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.35

0.25

0.71

0.80

0.31

0.23

4

0.06

0.05

0.02

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.35

0.27

0.72

0.84

0.31

0.24

6

0.07

0.05

0.03

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.34

0.28

0.74

0.87

0.30

0.25

10

0.07

0.06

0.04

0.04

0.01

0.00

0.34

0.29

0.75

0.90

0.31

0.26

20

0.08

0.07

0.04

0.04

0.01

0.01

0.34

0.31

0.77

0.92

0.32

0.27

50

0.09

0.09

0.05

0.05

0.03

0.01

0.34

0.33

0.81

0.94

0.35

0.28

100

0.10

0.10

0.05

0.05

0.03

0.01

0.36

0.35

0.87

0.96

0.38

0.29

200

0.11

0.10

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.02

0.40

0.36

0.95

0.96

0.44

0.32

400

0.14

0.14

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.41

0.40

0.96

0.96

0.53

0.47

Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Sulphates.

Current

Co)

3per.

Z

inc.

Cadmium.

Thallium.

density.

A.

B,

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

2

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.30

4

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.43

6

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.65

10

0 0!)

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.70

20

0.00

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.72

50

0.00

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.01

0.01

1.06

100

0.01

U.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.02

1.68

200

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.02

1.78*

1.78

400

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.03

—

—

Current

I

ron.

N'

icke'.

Nickel, t

Cobalt.

density.

A.

B

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

2

0.02

1.66

0.15

1.60

0.04

1.56

0.02

0.02

4

0.05

1.71

1.61*

1.63

0.08

1.59

0.02

0.02

6

0.06

1.74

1.64

1.65

0.09

1.61

0.03

0.02

10

0.06

1.79

1.67

1.68

0.13

1.62

0.03

0.02

20

0.07

1.84

1.69

1.69

0.16

1.64

0.04

0.03

50

0.08

1.90

1.72

1.72

0.22

1.67

0.05

0.04

lOp

0.09

1.88

1.73

1.72

1.65=^

1.68

0.06

0.05

200

0.12

1.87

1.74

L73

1.68

1.69

0.06

0.05

400

1.85^

1.85

1.73

1.72

1.69

1.70

0.08

0.07

* Metal became passive.

t In nickel ammonium sulphate solution.

Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Nitrates.

Current

Copper.

Silver.

Zinc.

Lead.

Nick

el.

Cobalt.

density.

A

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

A.

B.

2

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.01

0.06

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.12

1.57

0.11

0.07

4

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.01

0.05

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.13

1.59

0.12

0.07

6

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.05

0.03

0.00

0.00

0.15

1.61

0.11

0.04

10

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.05

0.04

0.00

0.00

1.60*

1.62

0,09

0.03

20

0.00

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.05

0.06

0.00

o.oo

1.64

1.64

0.06

0.03

50

0.01

0.02

0.00

0.01

0.05

0.06

0.00

0.00

1.67

1.66

0.00

0.00

100

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.04

0.05

0.00

0.01

1.68

1.68

0.00

0.00

200

0.02

0.03

0.01

0.01

0.04

0.04

0.01

0.01

1.69

1.69

0.02

0.03

400

0.04

0.04

0.02

0.02

0.13

0.06

0.01

0.01

1.71

1.70

0.02

0.04

* Metal became passive.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (191 ?) No. 9 11

Anodic Metal Overvoltages in Solutions of Metallic

Chlorides.

Current Copper. Zinc. Tin. Iron. Nickel. Cohalt.

density. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B. A. B.

2 0.02 0.0;3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.06

4 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.()i2 0.09 0.08 0.02 0.07

6 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.03 0.09 0.08 0.00 0.07

10 0.03 O.Oi 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.04 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.06

20 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.09—0.02 0.06

50 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.10—0.03 0.05

100 0.02 - 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.10—0.02 0.05

200 — — 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.10 + 0.03 0.07

400 — — 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.09

Cathodic (hydrogen) overvoltage.

It was previously suggested that overvoltage is due to four
factors : —

1. Supersaturation of the electrode surface witih non-electri-
fied gas under high pressures.

2. Formation of a series of alloys or solid solutions of the
discharged ion, or a piroduct of the discharged ion. with the
electrode surface.

3. Deficiency or excess of non-hydrated ions in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the electrodes.

4. Inductive action of the escaping ionised gas on the
electrode.

A study of thle tables given will soon show that the above
theory is inadequate to explain all the observed phenomena.

An amalgamated zinc cathode shows the remarkably high
and constant value of 0.88 volt. If factor (i) above, were the
true cause of overvoltage, we should have to assume pressures
greater than vcr'^ atmospheres, in the soft surface of this alloy.
Such pressures are incredible, and hence this factor cannot be
the main cause of overvoltage. The remarkable constancy Of
the values for certain electrodes, notably thallium and rhodium,
shows that factor (3) can only exert an inappreciable effect upon
the total, since the eff'ect, if any, must be proportional to the
current density. Factor (3) may therefore be safely omitted
from the general theory.

The very small fall of overvoltage observe(d in most cases
iat the highest current densit,ies also shows that factor (4) cannot
in general reduce the values by more than 20 or 30 millivolts,
and therefore, although the effect is real, it is of little import-
ance, specially as these very high current aensitles are seldom
or never used in practical work.

We are left, therefore, with factor (2), or some modification
of it, to account for all of the main facts of overvoltage.

On examining the tables more closely, it is evident that in
spite o!f the variations due to time and current density, certain

12 Newbery, Recent Work on Ovcrvoltage.

metals show one, and only one, definite \alue in a given elec-
trolyte, with small variations above and below this value.
Thallium, chromium and rhodium in acid electrolyte show this
property well. Others show two such values with rapid changes
from one to the other. Thus, iridium, when first used, shows
low values approaching zero, but on subjection to the highest
current density employed, a rapid rise to about 0.18 volt occurs,
and this value persists throughout the range of current density
used, although a small fall is produced at the highest current
densities. In alkali, again, this metal shows two very distinct
values, with a sudden change from the lower to the higher
when the current density is raised from 100 to 200 milliamperes
per sq. cm., and a similar sudden fall when the current density
again reaches a low value. By maintaining the current density
at about 200 milliamperes per sq. cm., the overvoltage rises to
0.7 volt or higher. Thus iridium shows four quite definite values
for the hydrogen overvoltage.

By proceeding in this way with all the electrodes used,
certain more or less definite average values for the cathodic
hydrogen overvoltages may be assigned to all the Inetals.

•When these values are placed with the metals in the periodic
table a new law at once becomes evident — Ele?nents in the same
group of the periodic systei7i show the same overvoltage.

The following table illustrates this law : —

Cathodic Overvoltage in the Periodic System.

Carbor
— 0.44

0.70

Mag- Alu-

Sodium nesium minium
3 0.34? 0.70 0.50

<0.I0

Copper Zinc

0.34 0.72
0.60

Chro- Manga-

mium nese Iron Nickel Cobalt

0.38 0.30 0.18 0.18

0 42 0.48 0.60 0.25 0.33 0.24 0.30 0.25 0.67

Moly-

denum Rhodium Palladium

032 — — 0.19 0.05

002 0.34 0.65

Anti-
Silver Cadmium Tin mony
0.30 0.66 ^— 0.45 0.42
0.06 0.50 0.66 0.66

Tantalum Tungsten Iridium Platinum

— 0.41 0.30 — — 0.18 0.04 01 8 0.06

0.50 0.45 0.67 0.45 0.65

Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth
II 0.32 0.70 0.52 0.46 0 43

0.50 0.00 0.72 e.52

Manchester Mejnoirs. Vol. Ixl. (191 7) No. 9 13,

It is evident from the above table that each group has .what
we may term a "typical overvoltage." Further than this, we
may now explain the multiple values shown by most metals as
merely due to change of valency. Thus, lead, which readily
forms two series of compounds, in which it is divalent and tetra-
valent respectively, can easily change its overvoltage from 0.72
to 0.46 volt. Almost without exception, all the multiple over-
voltages will be found to correspond with definite changes of
valency, which are indicated by the existence of compounds, in
which the metal in question has the required valency. Since it
is 'difficult, if not impossible, to conceive of valency apart from
co-mpounds. we are forced*, to the conclusion that ovc\r-
voKage is due to the presence of coinpounds of the electrode
with the discharged ion. or some product of the discharged ion.

The values approaching zero, observed with many metals
are therefore due to the absence of these compounds, and it is
noteworthy that the metals which most easily show these low
values are the platinum metals. This is undoubtedly due to
the well-known reluctance of these metals to form any com-
pounds. The zero value may therefore be considered as typical
of group o, which contains the inert gases.

The followmg table shows the distribution of the metals
in the groups, those which have the overvoltage of a group to
which they do not properly belong being placed in brackets : —

Cathodic Overvoltages of the Periodic Groups.

Group o. — Typical overvoltage, 0.0 volt ; (silver), (mercury), (aluminium),
(bismuth), (nickel), (rhodium), (palladium), (iridium), (platinum).

Grottp I. — Typical overvoltage, 0.35 volt ; sodium, copper, silver, gold.

Group II. — Typical overvoltage, 0.70 volt; magnesium, zinc, cadmium, mercury,
(carbon), (tin), (lead), (antimony), (bismuth), (manganese), (cobalt), (palladium),
(iridum), (platinum),- (copper).

Group III. — Typical overvoltage, 0.50 vnlt : aluminium, thallium, (antimony),
(tantalum), (bismuth), (gold).

Group IV. — Tvpical overvoltage, 0.45 vf)lt ; carbon, tin, lead, (iridium),
(platinum).

Group V. — Typical overvoltage, 0.42 volt : antimony, tantalum, bismuth,
(chromium).

Group VI. — Typical overvoltage, 0.32 volt ; chromium, molybdenum, tungsten,
(iron), (nickel).

Group VII. — Typical overvoltage, 0.25 volt ; manganese, (iron), (nickel), (cobalt),
(palladium), (platinum).

Group VIII. — Typical overvoltage, 0.18 volt; iron, nickel, rhodium, iridium,
platinum.

'The only metals in this table which do not appear in their
proper groups are cobalt and palladium. Values for cobalt as
low as 0.18 volt have not been obtained. Palladium shows
values above and below the group value, but in the neighbour-
hood of the group value the overvoltage is indefinite and
changing rapidly.

14 Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage.

Reviewing the table as a whole, a rise of overvohage of
two equal steps is observed from Group o to Group II., followed
by a gradual fall through the rest of the table.

Anodic (oxygen) overvoltage.

The overvoltages so far discussed have all been cathodic
hydrogen overvoltages.

Anodic overvoltages do not show so great regularity for
two .reasons : —

(i) It is impossible to obtain an aqueous electrolyte having
only one .anion, whilst any dilute acid gives only one cation.

(2) The true potential of the oxygen electrode is stilj
doubtful, land further, it is not clear as to whether this poten-
tial should be taken as the standard from which to measure
anodic overvoltages, since in .any aqueous solution hydroxyl
ions are far more plentiful than oxygen ions. Hence, anodic
overvoltages calculated from an oxygen electrode as standard
are abnormally high, compared) with cathodic overvoltages.

Caspari, using an indefinitely low current density, obtained
a value for the anodic overvoltage of platinum about 0.3 volt
lower 'than the average of those given in these tables. Under
the experimental conditions of Caspari's work, the oxygen ions
piresent were probably sufficient to carry the small current used,
whilst in the present work other ions certainly took part.

If the anodic overvoltages are recalculated on the assump-
tion that the potential of the normal standard is 0.3 volt above
that of an oxygen electrode, we obtain a series of values which
in many cases sh!ow a considerable resemblance to cathodic
lovervoltages of the same metal. The parallelism is, however,
very rough, and in many cases an anodic overvoltage measured
in alkali only corresponds; with a cathodic overvoltage found
in acid.

A few of the best examples are given below, where column
I. shows the average anodic overvoltage, generally in alkali,
and column II. the corresponding cathodic overvoltage.

I. Anodic. II. Cathodic.

Metal. Volt. Volt.

Copper 032 0-34

Silver 0.41 0.43

Zinc 0.63 0.60

Lead 0.64 0.67

Nickel 0.27 0^24

Cobalt 0.27 0.25

Palladium 0.35 0.34

Iridium 0.18 0.18

Platinum 0.60 0.65

Manganese 0.62 0.60

It may be noted here that the anodic overvoltage of lead
Ciovered with peroxide corresponds with the cathodic over-
voltage of a bivalent metal. According to Liebenou's theory of

Manchester lUemoirs, Vol. (xi. (1917) j^o. 9 15

the lead accumulator, lead peroxide ionises 'directly, giving a
PbOg" ion and forming plumbites in which the lead is definitely
bivalent.

Overvoltage iji different electrolytes.

Generally speaking, anodic overvoltages measured in alkali
are more ireliable than those measured in acid, since we only
have two ainions, O" and OH" present, while in acid the four
anions O", OH', SO4", and HSO/ may all take part.

Similarly, cathodic overvoltages in acid, where only one
cation is present, are more reliable^ than those in alkali where
two 'exist. How far we are justified in assuming those in alkali
, to 'be hydrogen overvoltages is somewhat doubtful, although in
viiew taf the fact that in the greater number of cases the values
are almost the same in both electrolytes, the assumption is
probably correct in most cases. Mercury is certainly exceptional,
owing to its affinity for metallic sodium. Hence mercury and
amalgamated electrodes may show abnormally high values in
alkali, due to the visible formation of sodium amalgam.

Since the cathodic overvoltage of a given metal depends to
some extent upon the electrolyte, the table of values g'iven must
:n|ot be looted lipon as complete. There seems to be no reaso'n
why jany metal should not acquire the typical overvoltage of any
group if it is capable of showing the valency characteristic of
that group. P'urther determinations under certain conditions,
specially in difTercnt electrolytes, will undoubtedly supply new
values for many of these metals. Nickel, for example, in nickel
suJiphate solution, shows a hydrogen overvoltage of 0.7 volt,
which is typical of a divalent metal, and it may be noted that
the metal actually ha^s this valency in the given compound.
Iron, again, in ferrous sulphate solution, shows the high value
typical of a divalent metal, while in ferric sulphate solution the
value 0.5 volt typical of a trivalent metal is shown.

Metal overvoltages.

Metal overvoltages arc remarkable as being generally so
low that they might ble nearly all put down as approximately
zero, compared with gas overvoltages. Iron, nickel, and cobalt
are striking exceptions to the above rule, but in all three cases
hydrogen is evolved in quantity at the cathodes, specially at hig^h
current densities.

■With some of the other metals (copper, in copper sulphate
solution, for example), if a very high current density is em-
ployed, hydrogen is also liberated, owing to the inability of the
copper ions to 'dififuse fast enough to carry all the current. At
the same time the overvoltage rises to the high values shown (by
divalent metals. This effect, is increased by further hindering
diffusion of copper ions by the addition of glue, gum, etc.

1 6 Nevvber\\ Recent Work on Overvoltage.

It as evident, therefore, that the liigh values obtained in
such cases are true hydrogen over voltages, and are due^ to the
formation of metallic hydrides on the electrode surface.

The occlusion of hydrogen in almost all electro-deposited
metals is a well-estabhshed fact. It is only reasonable, therefore,
to conclude that the very small cathodic overvoltages usually
observed during metal deposition, are due to the presence of
small quantities of hydrides, wrhich form a dilute solid solution
in the deposited metaJ. Similarly the small anodic overvoltages
observed are probably due to the formation of traces of higher
oxides on the electrodes. The large values obtained when the
electrode becomes passive will be referrea to later.

The mechanis?n of electrolysis.

We are now in a position to attempt an explanation of the
exact mechanism of electrolysis as far as the electrodes are con-
cerned at least.

When a current is passed between two electrodes in an
•aqueous electrolyte, the ions carrying electrical charges are
attracted towards the electrodes, and move at first with uniform
velocity, owing to frictional resistance. When very close to the
electrode, however, they must move very rapidly, and probably
strike the electrode with! considerable force. The continuous
rain of ions On the electrode will thus produce great pressure
on the surface. Under the influence of this pressure the chemic-
ally active discharged ion tends to combine with the electrode
material, and the resultant compound dissolves in the solid —
more easily in the amorphous cementing material between the
crystals of the metal than in the crystals themselves.

On releasing the applied pressure by cutting ofif the current,
these compounds will tend to separate from the metal in two
ways : —

(i) By ■spontaneous decomposition within the electrode,
liberating gas which forces its way through the surface and pro-
duces the craters, photographs of which have been shown.

(2) By direct ionisation, that is, by taking an electrical
charge from the electrode and passing into the solution in
exactly the same way as any metal does.

It is the second action which gives rise t'o o\'ervoltage.

We may therefore state more definitely than before that—
(i) Overvoltage is caused by the high single potential differ-
ences of hydrides, higher oxides, etc., formed on or in the
electrode surfaces. (2) Variations of overvoltage are caused
by changes (a) in the chemical constitution of the above co?n-
pounds and (b) in the co7ice?itratinn of the solid solutions
formed by these compounds in the electrode surfaces.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixi. (1917) No. 9 17

By careful search through the data obtained from the
12,000 measurements made, the author has been unable to find
any point which is inconsistent with this theory.

Further evidence of the existence of metallic hydrides, etc.

Most of the metallic hydrides formed on the cathodes appear
to exist only under the influence of the high pressures prevailing
at the time. Their rapid and ready decomposition accounts for
their high solution potentials, and the fact that they are good
electrical conductors is e\adence in favour of the idea that they
ionise like a metal.

In all cases where a metallic hydride is capable of inde-
pendent existence in presence of water, that hydride is formed
at a cathode of the given metal in an iaqueous electrolyte. Thus
the formation of arsine on a zinc cathode containing arsenic ha?
long been utilised in the detection and estimation of arsenic
Similarly, an antimony cathode liberates stibine, and a carbon
cathode gives hydrocarbon mixed with the hydrogen in an acid
electrolyte. A copper cathodq,, after use for a few seconds,
acquires a difference of potential from an unused plate of the
same metal which persists for many hours, and this is certainly
due to the formation of copper hydride, which is but slowly
decomposed by the acid present. Nickel behaves similarly.

These hydrides also exist at high temperatures, a fact which
gives additional support to the suggestion that they are endo-
thermic compounds. Fowler (Trans. Roy. Soc, 1909, 2og, 447)
proved the existence of magnesium hydride in an arc of mag-
nesium in hydrogen, and Evans (Phil. Mag., 191 6 [VI.] j/, 55)
showed the presence of cadmium hydride in a hydrogen-filled
tube containing cadmium heated to 800° — 1,000° C.

The higher oxides are frequently produced in quantity on
certain anodes; for example, lead dioxide on a lead anode, and
chromium trioxide on a chromium anode, and the ionisation of
lead dioxide giving the anion PbOg" ;is proved by the existence of
plumbites such as NagPbOa. The actual composition of these
■hydrides^ etc., is to some extent a matter of speculation at
present, but suggestions have been made having a certain
degree of probability ,(J. Chem. Soc, 191 6, lOQ, 1363).

Passivity and valve action.

The phenomena fof passivity find a jteady and complete
explanation with Ithe aidi of the overvoltage theory. If the higher
oxides formed fon an anode are good electrical conductors, and
are also insoluble, ot nearly so, in the electrolyte, the metal itself
will be protected from the action of the deposited anions, and
plassivity will fee produced. At the same time the electrode
acquires the liigh positive potential of these higher oxides.
Passivity is more readily produced in alkali than in acid, partly

1 8 Newbery, RecenI Work on Overvollage.

owing to the lesser solubility of most oxides in the former,
and partly flbecause the presence of the hydroxylion is more
favourable to oxide production.

If the surface oxides are insulators, and also insoluble in
the electrolyte, valve action is produced. Thus two electrodes
of tungsten and platinum respectively in nitric acid will allow no
appreciable cunent to pass if the tungsten is made the anode,
although the cell conducts well when the platinum is the anode.
No visible change occurs on the tungsten surface, so that the
oxide film must fee a very good insulator, and may be only of
molecular thickness.

Stability oj the overvoltage compounds.

The chemical stability of (t(he hydrides formed on cathodes
is of great importance in certain types of electro-chemical
reduction.

A considerable amount of worlc is still to be done in this
direction, since very iittle( is known on the subject, although
for s<ome reductions it is more important ro use a cathode
which gives a stable hydride than one which has a high over-
voltage.

Up to the present, it appears that copper, nickel, and
possibly cobalt from hydrides of exceptional stability, and since
electrolytic reduction consists in most cases merely of reduction
by. these hydrides, it is evid(ent that greaitly dncreased curranit
efficiency, etc., may 'be obtained by the use of these electrodes
in many cases.

Thus oleic acid is easily reduced by a copper cathode to a
saturated acid under certain conditions, while a lead or zinc
cathode has little or no effect. This is evidently due to the fact
that 'the slowly reacting oleic acid requires a definite time
for reduction to take, place, which is afforded by the slowly
decomposing copper hydride, whilst the mor'e active lead or zinc
hydrides are decomposed before they can effect any appreciable
reduction.

The reduction of nitrates to ammonia by copper, and to
hydroxylamine by amalgamated lead is probably due to similar
causes.

Metal overvoltage and ion hydration.

We have still to explain why the cathodic metal over-
voltages of iron, nickel, and cobalt are so markedly different
from those of the other metals given.

Lapworth (Trans. Chem. Soc, 191 5, loy, 857) has shown
that the hydrogen ion is probably strongly hydrated, that is,
combined with the solvent in aqueous or alcoholic solution,
while other ions, N,a", NH"^, K', Ag", NO3', CI', etc., are either
non-hydrated or their affinity for the solvent is of a quite
different order from that of hydrion.

Manchester Memoirs, Vol. Ixl. (191 7) No. 9 19

If iron, nickel and cobalt ions are hydrated in the same
w,ay as hyldrion, their high overvoltages are readily understood.
Since the process of hydr,ation takes place automatically, work
must I'be done in the dehydration of these ions. Hence a resisting
force will be produced tending to prevent the separation of these
ions, which \vill increase with increasing current density. If a non-
hydrated ion such as, zinc ion be present in an acid solution, this
ion will not he subject to the resisting force, and at high current
densities will separate in much greater quantity than the, hydrogen
ion, in spite of the lower potential necessary to separate the
latter.

If, however, a hydrated ion such as ferrous-ion be present,
this will be subject to a similar resisting force to that opposing
the hydrion, with the result that both will deposit together in
an ideal condition for hydride formation.

If an acid solution containing zinc and iron sulphates is sub-
jected to a high current density, zinc will deposit readily. Iron
and hydrogen will deposit in much smaller quantity, and some
of these will re- enter the solution in the form of iron-hydride-ion,
which having a high solution potential will readily reduce zinc
out of the solution. As a result nearly pure zinc may be
deposited from a very impure electrolyte, and this process is
being worked on the large scalei in South Africa', with consider-
able success. It is evident th!at the method may also be applied
in the separation of many other metals from iron, nickel and
cobalt.

The single potentials of these three metals in contact with
solutions containing the same ions are greatly altered by stirring
the liquid or moving the metal in the electrolyte. When the
inetal is first placed in the liquid, hydrated ions deposit on the
metal, discharge and lose their water of hydration. At the same
time, non-hydrated ions will be thrown off, and will hydrate before
returning. The speed of the returning ions is therefore much
less than that of the outgoing ions, and when equilibrium i?
established, the potential of the electrode will be greatly lowered
by this action. On rapidly moving the electrode, the speed of
the incoming ions is increased, while that of the outgoing ions
is 'almost unaltered, with the result that in some cases the poten-
tial rises by over o.i volt. j

A copper plate treated in the same way shows a barely
detectable rise of 0.002 volt.

This behaviour again supports the proposition that the ions
of iron, nickel and cobalt are hydrated.

Further, it has been found that colloids are carried into the
electrode surfaces only by hydrated ions. In this way it ha?
been shown that the hydroxyl ion is also hydrated.

20 Newbery, Recent Work on Overvoltage.

Summary.

I. — The overvoltages, anodic and cathodic, of a number of
electrodes have been measured in acid, in alkali, and in certain
solutions of metallic salts undej varying conditions of time and
current density.

2. — Elements in the same group of the periodic system
show the same cathodic (hydrogen) overvoltages.

3. — Overvoltage lis due to the high solution potentials of
compounds of the electrode material with the discharged ion,
or with a product of the discharged ion. These compounds
(hydrides, higher oxides, etc.), form solid solutions in the elec-
trode substance, and are usually stable only under the influence
of high pressures or high temperatures.

4. — -Metal overvoltages are due to the presence of the same
compounds which produce gas overvoltages, and are in most
cases very low, compared with gas overvoltages. Iron, nickel, and
cobalt are exceptions to this rule.

5. — Changes of overvoltage are produced {a) by change?
of constitution of the above compounds, and [b) by changes of
concentration of the Solid solutions formed.

6. — Passivity ds due to the insolubility and good electrical
conductivity of certain of the above compounds, which form a
protective coating over the attackable metal surface.

7. — The chemical stability of the hydrides or higher oxides
formed 'on the electrode surfaces is of great importance when
dealing with substances which are only reduced or oxidised
with a low velocit)^

8.— The ions H', OH', Fe", Ni", Co" are hydrated (com-
bined with the solvent) in aqueous solution.

9— The ions Na", NH'^, K', Cu", Ag", Zn", Cd", Hg',
TV, Sn", Pb-, CI', NO3', and SO/ are either non-hydrated, or
have !an affinity for the solvent of a quite different order from
that of H-, OH', etc.

In conclusion, the author wishes to express his thanks to
Prof. iLapworth for his continued interest and encouragement
throughout this work.

Electro-Chemical Laboratories,

Manchester University.

6". Clarke Limited, Printers, Manchester.

PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, October 3rd, 191 6.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., drew attention to the recent acces-
sions to the Society's Library, and a vote of thanks was accorded
the donors of the books upon the table. The following were
amongst the recent accessions to the Society's Library : —
''Results of Observations made at the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory at Cheltenham,
Maryland, igis and 191 4" by D. L. Hazard (Se;:ial No. 19)
(4to., Washington, D.C., 191 5), presented by the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington ; " La Science Fran-
gaise {Exposition Universelle et Internationale de San Fran-
cisco)" Tomes i and 2 (8vo., Paris, 191 5), presented by the
Mmistere franyais de I'lnstruction publique, Y2x'\%-/Wn Intro-
duction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language ....," by
S. C. Das (4to., Darjeeling, 191 5), presented by the author;
" Echoes from East and; West . . . .," by Roby Datta (8vo.,
Cambridge, 1909), presented by the author; " Refonse au Livre
blanc Allevuind du 10 Mai, 191 5, ' Die volkerrechtswidrige
Fiihrung des Belgischen V olkskriegs' " (io\., Paris, 1916), pre-
sented by the Belgian Foreign Office; " Results of Observations
iimde at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic
Observatory near Honolidu, Hazvaii, iQi ^ and 1914" by D. L.
Hazard (Serial No. 21.), (4to., Washington, D.C., 1916),
and " Results of Observations nuide at the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observatory near Tucson,
Arizona, 191 ^ and 191 4," by D. L. Hazard (Serial No. 23), (4tOi.,
Washington, D.C., 19 16), presented by the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey, Washington; "Check-List of Books and
Pamphlets relating to the History of the Pacific Northzvest," by
Charles W. Smith (8vo., Olympia, Washington, 1909), pre-

ii PrOCEEULNGS. [October ^rd, igi6.

sented by the Washington State Commission, Alaska-Yukon-
Pacific Exposition; "Geologic Atlas of the United States"
Folios Nos. ig5-ig8 (fol. .Washington, D.C., 1915), presented by
the United States Geological vSurvey, Washington; ''The
Physical Anthropology of tlie Lenape or Delaivares..." by Ales
Hrdlicka (Bulletin 62.) (8vo., Washington, 1916), presented
by the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington; ''Results
of Rainfall Observations in Java" with Atlas, by W. van Bem-
melen. (Foh, Batavia, 1914 and igi5), and "Results of
IZegistering Balloon Jlscents at Batavia " by W. van Bemmelen.
fVerhandelingen No. 4.) (8vo., Batavia, 1916), presented by
the Koninklijk Magnetisch en Aleteorologisch Observatorium te
Batavia,, Batavia; "The Medieval Popular Ballard" by E. G.
Cox (University of Washington Publications in English. Vol.
III.) (8vo., Boston, etc., 1914), presented by the University of
W^ashington, Seattle; "Results of Observations made at tfte
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Magnetic Observa-
tory at Sitfsa, Alaska, IQ13 and 1914" by D. L. Hazard (Serial
No. 27) (4to., Washington, D.C., 1916), and "Determination of
tfte Difference in Longitude betiueen eacfi Tzvo of the Stations
Washington, Cambridge, and Far RocJzaivay " by F. Morse and
O. B. French. (Special publication. No. 35.) (8vo., Washing-
ton, D.C., 1916), presented by the United States Coast and
Geodetic .Survey; and a set of the Works of Linnaeus, com-
prising twenty-five volumes, presented by Dr. William
Carruthers, F.R.S., F.L.S., Honorary Member of the Society.

The President referred to the death of Mr. John Angell,
F.C.S., F.LC, on September gth, 1916, who was a member of
the Society for over forty-five years. He also drew attention to
the death, on July 15th, 1916, of Professor Elie Metschnikoff,
and to the death, on July 23rd, 1916, of Sir William Ramsay,
K.C.B., Sc.D., F.R..S., both Honorary Members of the Society.

" The Discussions at the Newcastle Meeting of the
British Association," were dealt with by Professor F. E.
Weiss, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor SiR Ernest Rutherford,
M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E.,
F.LC, and Dr. George Hickling, F.G.S.

Professor Weiss confined his remarks to two of the com-
munications made to the Botanical Section. In the first place,
he dealt with the address of Professor F. O. Bower, on " Leaf-
architecture," in which Prof. Bower showed within the group
of Ferns that the pinnate leaves were to be considered as an
advanced type which could be derived from a bifurcating con-
dition, in which one of the lobes became arrested while the
other underwent further bifurcation. The conclusion was based
upon evidence afforded by early stages in the development of
the ferns in question and as confirmatory evidence numerous
instances of bifurcations of pinnate fronds might be cited.

October jrd, igi6.] PROCEEDINGS. iii

Dr. Willis' paper on the Distribution of Plants in New
Zealand dealt with the question of endemic forms, which the
author was inclined to consider as largely forms of compara-
tively recent origin. His view that the range of distribution of
endemics varies directly as the age of these plants, he con-
sidered to be confirmed by the evidence obtainable from the
distribution of plants in New Zealand. ;

Sir Ernest Rutherford gave a brief account of the pro-
ceedings of Section A, and of the discussion on Gravitation.
Attention was drawn to the important theoretical deductions of
Einstein and of the possible experimental methods of testing
his theories.

Mr. William Thomson dealt with the proceedings of
Section B (Chemistry), and pointed out that the subject of
economy of coal was discussed at considerable length. He was
afraid we could not hope for much from these discussions. The
problem for both steam raising and household purposes is so
complicated that it is unlikely that anything of a final nature
can be reached in the near future.

The question of Air Pollution by smoke is occupying
attention at present. An organised attemy^t has been made to
determine the relative degrees of impurity of the atmosphere
in different towns throughout the kingdom, bv collecting rain
water in large glazed open vessels and analysing the water col-
lected therein, each month. This attempt was commenced by a
Smoke Prevention League and it has received general acceptance
by a number of eminent scientific men, who evidently acquiesced
in the decision of the members of the League and tried tO' help
them. The results obtained however are ridiculous and the
time and money expended on it wasted.

A discussion took place on the x'Xniline Dye Industry. One
reader of a paper tried to show that the present English
Industry in dyes is not far behind that of Germany. This
might be .so in certain common colours, but Mr. Thomson
thought it must be admitted that the Germans are far ahead
of us in the manufacture of fast delicate colours.

Dr. George Hickling, referring to the proceedings of
Section C (Geology), stated that by far the most important
subject dealt with in that section was the proper investigation
and utilisation of our coal resources, which formed the principal
theme of the presidential address, and was the matter of a joint
discussion with Section B (Chemistry). Various speakers dealt
with the importance of systematic enquiry, of the investigation
of the potentialities of different coals as sources of by-products,
of the study of the origin and distribution of the ash-content,
of the questions of chemical constitution, of the structure as
revealed in microscopic section, and of the study of the vari-
ation of seams vertically and horizontally. All speakers agreed

iv Proceedings. [Oc/obcr ij/h, iq/6.

as to the necessity for close co-operation among various
researchers and as to the vital importance to the nation of the
c]ucstions inxolved, the adequate solution of which was a matter
for nnmediate government action.

Ordinary Meeting, October i/th, igi6.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HlCKSON, i\I.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., m the Chair.

Professor WILLIAM II. Lang, M.B., D.Sc, F.R.S., gave a
demonstration of a series of lantern slides illustrating the
mode of preservation and the structure of Khyma G-ii'vnne-
Vaiighani, from the Old Red Sandstone of Rhynie, Aberdeen-
shire.

The chert in which the plant occurs was discovered by Dr.
Mackie, of Elgin, and the plant-remains are being studied by
Dr. R. Kidston, F.R.S., and Professor Lang, the results being
published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

The slides showed the underground rhizomes attached to
the peaty soil by rhizoids, the branched cylindrical aerial stems
which were leafless, and the large cylindrical sporangia. The
internal structure is well preserved, so that our knowledge of
this ancient land plant is pretty complete.

Khyjiia differs so much from other Vascular Cryptogams
that a new class, the Psilophvtales, has been founded to contain
it.

General ^Nlceting, October 31st, igiC.

Professor W- W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc.Tcch.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mrs. M. Badger Craven, M.Sc, Demonstrator in
Chemistry, The Municipal School of Technology, 10, Birch
Grove, Ritsholnie, Manchester; and Mr. WILFRID ROBINSON,
M.Sc. (Mane), B.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Economic Botany in
the Victoria University of Manchester, The Umversity, Man-
chester, were elected Ordinary ^vlembers of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, October 31st, igi6.

Professor W.^W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.ScTech.,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, M.Inst.CE., AI.Inst.M.E., made a
short communication on a method of extracting square roots by

October jisl, igiO.] PROCEEDINGS. V

means of division with whole numbers. Let irhc the number
to be dealt with and a + h^^ii a whole number. Obtani ;// by
dividing- ii into ar. Then

// - i/i I (;/ - ///")' I I

/; -. . + ■ , +

4 (// + m) 4 fi\n + ///)

on squaring /;, subtracting- from a- and again dividing by the
whole number n and the approximate root is half the sum of
the divisor and the dividend.

Mr. E. L. Rhead, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C., called the attention
of the meeting to an extremely bright meteor which he observed
in the Northern sky on October 20th, at 10-38 p.m. Its path
was eastward from a point immediately under the Great Bear.
The period of visibility was approximately 4 seconds, the
brightness increasing to a maximum and then fading. Its
motion was somewhat slow. About the middle of the flight an
explosion took place and .some five fragments were detached
and fell almost vertically, the main body proceeding in the
original direction.

The appearance was a more or less conical sheet of flamr
with jagged edges, and the direction in which it was observed
was a little E. of magnetic North.

Professor G- ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., i\I.D., F.R.S., gave some
" Observations on Recently Discovered Fossil Human

Skulls."

The announcements made in ' Nature ' last ye^ar of the
discovery of fossil human skulls m Australia (Talgai) and
South Africa (Boskop) suggest certain observations concerning
the problems relating to early mankind. P'or not only do they
add to the number of the distinct types of early humanity with
which we are acquainted, but also they force upon us the
further consideration of the question of early migrations, of
the reality of which the wiclespread distribution of certain
definite types of stone implements already afforded convincing
testimony for all who were willing to accept the i)lain
significance of positive evidence.

There are reasons for believing that when Homo sapiens
first became differentiated from other human species many
human strains other than those which made their way into
Western Europe in the Upper Palaeolithic (or as I prefer tO' call
it the Early Neoanthropic) Age were also budded off from the
original parent stock. Some of these diversely specialised
strains were the ancestors of the Australians, others of Negroes,
others again of the Mongolian race, and yet others of the
brachycephalic types of humanity, none of which were repre-
sented in Europe, excepting possibly the last of the groups
mentioned, which began to filter into Eastern Europe in
Solutrean times, but did not become at all common in the West

vi Proceedings. [IsJoveuiber i^th, igi6.

until the closing phases of the Neolithic. Some of these various
strains wandered far from their area of characterisation ; and
when brought into contact with other stocks were able to
transmit their culture. Thus it is possible to explain how, even
in the remote period usually called palaeolithic, identical
methods of chipping stone implements in widely separated
localities can be regarded as certain evidence of the derivation
of the technique from a common source, though the actual
makers of the weapons may be of different races.

Further, a particular culture-complex may have been built
up of practices and customs derived from varied sources; and
the particular set of them which became intermingled in one
area, and the type of culture which develops as the result of
the blending of these ingredients is peculiar to and distinctive
of that area. For example, the well-defined culture complex
which is commonly called neolithic, is characteristic of Europe
and the immediate neighbourhood : nor in fact was it
synchronous or of similar composition in different parts of
Europe. But when one passes to the East or the South,
although all the ingredients out of which the European
neolithic was compounded may be found, there is no phase of
culture which can justly be labelled neolithic in the same sense
that the term is applied in Europe.

Mr. Maurice Copisarow, M.Sc, read a paper entitled
** Trinitrotoluene."

The paper, dealing with Trinitrotoluene, comprised the
study of: —

1. Its chemistry, with special reference to its i)hysical and
chemical properties and use as an explosive.

2. Its manufacture and formation of intermediate and by-
products.

3. Purification methods.

4. Peculiarities of acidity-determinations.

5. Recovery and utilisation of residues as explosives and
dyes.

6. The action of alkalis on trinitrotoluene and the forma-
tion of addition, substitution, and condensation products.

This paper wilf be printed in the Memoirs after the war.

Ordinary Meeting, November 14th, igi6.

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., exhibited and
described parts of a German bomb.

'November i^ili, /p/6.] PROCEEDINGS. vii

Mr. Jonathan Barnes, F.G.S., made a short communica-
tion on the amounts of sugar and starch in bananas. The
fruit of Musa paradisuva (banana) when in green or unripe
condition contains only a small amount of glucose, but has an
abundance of starch. The fruit in the green state has an un-
pleasant bitter taste, and is hard. During the process of ripen-
ing, which goes on after the fruit has been removed from the
trees, the starch becomes changed into sugar. The analyses
given below show the changes Vv'hich took place during six
weeks. On the 3rd of August, 1916, six pieces of fruit in a
very green state were obtained, an estimation of the amount
of sugar was made, this estimation was repeated at intervals
of a week. At the end of the sixth week the fruit was com-
pletely ripe, the whole of the starch having changed into
glucose.

Aug. 3rd, 0.72% glucose, 17-315?/. starch.
,, loth, 1.76% „ 10.463% „

,, 17th, 2.18% „ 6.811% „

,, 24th, 7.60% „ 1.445% „

,, 31st, 11.29% ., 1-029% „

Sept. 7th. 18.21% „ absent

The unripe fruit is very acid, whilst the fully ij[)cnLd is
only slightly acid.

Mr. Barnes also exhibited some specimens illustrating the
results of pressure on peat.

A short communication was made by Dr. WILLIAM CRAMP,
on the breaking of glass tubes.

It has been frequently noticed by engineers that a boiler
gauge glass which has been in use, and is then cleaned by
pushing waste through it on the end of a wire is very liable
to break on being put to work again. Further experience seems
to show that this is only the case if the wire has in the clean-
ing process touched the glass; and that if the waste be drawn
through by means of a string subsequent breakage seldom
occurs. The breakage which takes place is very marked, the
tube often being shattered ; and it does not seem to matter
whether steel or copper wire is used. Scratching of the glass
by the wire seems insufficient to account for the effect, and
no adequate explanation has as yet been put forward.

Dr. F. E. Bradley, M.A., F.R.S.E., communicated a note
on the presence of arsenic in various forms of food.

Dr. J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., read a paper
entitled "The Gorgonacea of the Cape of Good Hope. "

This paper is printed in thi- Memoirs.

Professor Y . E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S., read a paper entitled
"The Manufacture of Manure from Peat.'

viii Proceedings. [November 28th, iqi6.

Professor WEISS brought: to the notice of the members a
pamphlet published in Edinburgh in 1815, entitled "Directions
for Preparing Manure from Peat." The anonymous author of
this pamphlet, a Scottish landowncn-, conducted a series of ex-
periments with considerable insight, and succeeded in utilising
with great benefit for agricultural purposes a mass of peat moss
which had been dug out ni the making of an artificial lake.
The method consisted in spreading alternate layers, about
6 inches deep, of peat and fairly fresh dung, until a heap of
about four or five feet was constructed. The whole was then
covered with peat and left for some months. After a short
time the heap got into heat, and when this had passed off the
peat had been transformed into a perfect compost as effective
weight for weight as farmyard manure.

Peat made up in the same way with seaweed became
similarly heated and underwent decomposition. It was found
that it was unnecessary to add lime in the preparation of this
manure. In all probability, in the method recommended by
the author, the acidity of the peat becomes neutralised by the
ammonia contained in the dung, while decay-producing bac-
teria may percolate mto the peat m addition to those normally
contained in it, but whose activity is inhibited by the presence
of humic acid.

Professor Weiss then referred to more recent experiments
made in America, with a view to determining in how far bog-
water retards or stimulates the growth of plants. In these
experiments Dachowski has shown that while untreated bog-
water inhibits the normal growth of plants, neutralised bog-
water stimulates more particularly the development of roots,
and hence increases the absori)tive capacity of the plant.

The method of preparation of " bacterised peat " (humogen)
was also explained, and ^'arious experiments which have been
made to test the value of this manure, were discussed.

General Meeting, November 28th, 1916.

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair.

Mr. Frederick Maurice Rowe, M.Sc, Research Chemist
HI Dyestuffs, The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester,
5, Woodbine Terrace, Latchford, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.

November 2:Si/i, igiO.] PROCEEDINGS. ix

Ordinary Meeting, Noxembcr 28th, 191 6.

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., Vice-President,
m the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table. Among these were : " Science as Enemy and
Ally,'' by E. Crocker (8vo., Birmingham, 191 5), presented by the
Birmingham and Midland Institute; and " The Weather Map,"
by N. Shaw (i6mo., London, 19 16), presented by the Meteoro-
logical Office, London.

Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, F.G.S., exhibited a number of
faceted pebbles from Pendleton. Ho stated that almost 200
of these had been collected within the last six months from
near the top of a section of current-bedded and faulted Glacial
sand and gravel, at an altitude of about 200 feet O.D.

The specimens occur in sitii some two or three feet below
Ihe capping of darker subsoil, which contains cores and flakes
of flint, including pigmies. They are composed of slate,
granites (Eskdale and Shap), Ennerdale granophyre, Bor-
rowdalc volcanic tuffs, piorphyries, quartzites, millstone grit,
sandstones, chalk flints, carboniferous chert, and other rocks.

The facets are mostly concave, grooved, or fluted. Some
stones have but one facet; others, two or more. One, with a
flat top, exhibits five incipient facets. The dimensions of the
largest faceted pebble are 11^, by 8| inches by 7 inches high;
and the smallest is but half an inch in diameter.

Differentiation, according to varying hardness and compo-
sition, is well displayed.

The pebbles are of Glacial origin. Some occurred in the
sand completely inverted. Of those orientated in situ, \\\c
facets faced north-westwards, westwards, and south-westwards,
I.e., the directions of the present prevailing winds.

Dr. F. E. Bradley, M.A., MCom., F.R.S.E., made a fur-
ther communication as to the presence of arsenic in baking
powder. In some cases the amount of arsenic detected was
about 25 times the amount permitted by the authorities, but
was nevertheless practically negligible, because of the small
f)roportion of the powder which passed into the ultimate food
product. Dr. Bradley's investigations showed that the arsenic
I)resent in samples of baking powder recently sold was con-
tained only in the acid phosphate of lime lately used in these
powders in place of the tartaric acid or cream' of tartar more
generally employed, and only in those cases where the phos-
phoric acid used in the preparation of the acid phosphate had
been made by means of pyrites-prepared sulphuric acid. He
suggested that only brimstone-prepared sulphuric acid should
be i)ermitted to be used in the preparation of any phosi)horic
acid which entered into the manufacture of foodstuffs.

X Proceedings. [Novejnber zSth, igi6.

The Secretary communicated the following note from Mr.
W. Henry Todd.

In a communication to this Society on the 30th April, 191 5,
Mr. T. A. Coward records the behaviour of a blackbird in re-
peatedly fighting its own reflection in a pane of glass. This
conduct, Mr. Coward suggests, is due to sexual excitement,
which induces the bird to drive away any rival from what he
regards as his " sphere of influence."

A case of a blackbird flghting his own reflection has re-
cently occurred at my house at Flixton. On the 24th October,
igi6, my wife heard a repeating noise in the cellar, and found
it was occasioned by a blackbird attacking a window in the
cellar, the upper part of which is about 12 inches above the
level of the ground.

On the loth November the blackbird again visited the win-
dow and repeated the performance.

On the nth, about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, on going
into the cellar, I found the blackbird fighting its reflection in
the same window. My wife observed the bird at about the
same time of day on the previous occasion.

The window faces due west, and, being near the ground,
gets splashed with dirt. On each occasion when the bird was
observed by my wife, the window had been cleaned in the
morning, making the reflection clearer. It is possible that there
may have been other window visits, and contests, with the phan-
tom enemy.

The fact of these incidents having occurred in October and
November appears to contradict Mr. Coward's theory that the
pugnacity of the bird is due to sexual excitement. On the
other hand, as the temperature on the loth and iith November
was very high for the time of the year, and the character of
the weather remarkably spring-like, it may be contended that
the climatic conditions had stimulated sexual excitement.

Mr. Coward, in reply, pointed out that in many species
the period of sexual excitement, and in some cases of actual
pairing, begins in autumn, and that male blackbirds are, this
year, already displaying. Probably the weather influences the
time at which displays begin. The female birds appear to
be less excited than the male.

Miss Laura Start confirmed the fact that display had
begun; she recently watched two males displaying before one
female.

Mr. Herbert Bolton, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., read a paper en-
titled "The Mark Stirrup Collection of Fossil Insects
from Commentry, Central France."

This paper is printed in the Memoirs.

December i2ih, iQi6.] PROCEEDINGS. xi

Ordinary IMeeting, December 12th, 191 6.

Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., AI.Sc. Tech.,
Vice-President, m the Chair.

Mr. W. G. Pemberton made a short communication on
**A direct reading Specific Gravity Balance for Solid Bodies
heavier than water."

If a penduhim be furnished with a circular head, and be
swung' on a pivot passing through the centre of the circular
headpiece, it may be used, with a suitable scale, as a direct
reading Specific Gravity Balance.

The body under examination is hung on a thread which
passes round a groove in the circular head, and a sliding weight
is adjusted along the pendulum arm until equilibrium is ob-
tained with the latter horizontal. {Fig. /.)

A vessel of water is then introduced around the sample,
and the pendulum falls back through a certain angle to a
position of rest.

Now from Fig. i.
Where M is the mass of the sample.
And K is the radius of the circular head.

Where W is the mass of the pendulum and sliding weight.
And L is the distance from the pivot at which it may be

assumed to act.

MR = WL :. M^- /^^.

R

And from Fig. 2.
Where Mj is the weight of the sample in water.

;i/, A' = ; FZ cos 9 M^ = ^^ cos (^.

Now the specific gravity of any body

weight in air

weight in air - weight in water

WL

M _ R I

M - Af, WL WL cos 0 ~ 1 - cos i)

R /<

Therefore the specific gravity varies only as the angle 0
and the mass or position of the sliding weight will cause no
difference in reading, if a scale be constructed from the equa-
tion.

c P _ I - cos9
I
giving- direct readings of the .S. G. from the angle fi.

xn

Proceedings. {December 12th, igi6.

I

"ill

'2 H ('0

December 1 2th, igi6.\ PROCEEDINGS. xiii

It will be found that the readings of Specific Gravity from
i.O to 2.0 occupy 30° of the scale, and the graduations between
i.o and about 3.0 are conveniently large and open, giving accurate
results.

Above about 5.0, however, the graduations become much
closed up, and the balance is of no practical use. It is, how-
ever, particularly suitable for the determination of the Specific
Gravity of samples of rubber, which rarely rises above 2.5.

It may be shown, also, that exact counterpoise to the hori-
zontal in the first adjustment is by no means necessary, since
an error of 5° or 10° from the horizontal hardly affects the
subsequent reading. This is very convenient where an economy
of time is important. In fact, the chief advantage of such an
appliance is the speed with which a large number of determina-
tions can be made.

Professor W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc, M.Sc, Tech., made
a short communication on a simple method for converting de-
grees Fahrenheit intO' degrees Centigrade, and back again from
C. to F.

Professor HORACE Lamb, M.A., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., read
a paper entitled "The Deflection of the Vertical by Tidal
Loading of the Earth's Surface."

The paper gave an account of some investigations in the
theory of elasticity bearing on the above subject. The observa-
tions of Hecker, Orloff, and Michelson on lunar deflection of
gravity exhibit an inconsistency between the results for the
E.-W. and N.-S directions respectively. This has been
attributed to the attraction of the tides, which have the same
periodicity as the direct lunar influence, and to the tilting which
their varying pressure produces in the solid earth. Some
calculations illustrative of the effect which the tides might pro-
duce in this way have recently been made, but various
modifying influences have been left out of account. The author
had attempted to make an estimate of these corrections.
Though of slight amount in many cases, they may under
certain conditions attain considerable relative importance, Their
general effect is to diminish the deflections as calculated on
previous theories.

Professor Haldane Gee, Mr. W. G. Pemberton, Mr. W. D.
Evans and other members took part in the discussion which
followed this paper.

xiv. Proceedings, ]^ January gth, igiy.

Ordinary Meeting, January 9th, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. HiCKSON, 'M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donors of the books upon
the table.

Mr. Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., read a paper entitled
" Note on the action of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid."

This paper is printed in the Memoirs.

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., read a paper entitled
"An Undescribed Habit of the Field Vole."

Mr. Coward stated that at the end of December, 191 6, he
found three Field Voles occupying nests at an elevation above
the groiind varying from three to six feet. The first was in a
round ball-like nest of grass, apparently entirely constructed by
the mouse, similar in shape and size tlo the summer nest of a
dormouse. It was placed at a height of about five to six feet,
in the branches of a willow, in an osier-bed at the edge of Ros-
therne Mere, Cheshire. The other two mice we're in nests made
in the hollows of the old nests of birds, and a third nest of this
character was found without occupant. These three nests were
in the hedge bordering the osier-bed. All three voles were dead,
and the first one found — on December 26th — had died so recently
that the fleas had not left its body.

The Field Vole is far more terrestrial in its habits than its
relative, the Bank Vole, Evotomys glareolus, which constantly
climbls to secure hedge fruits or to bark tender twigs. Barrett-
Hamilton says of Field Voles that " although not incapable of
climbing, they never under normal circumstances leave the
ground." The nests, collections of dry grass, are placed in a
hollow on the surface of the ground, or, especially in winter, in
chambers in their long subterranean runs or burrows. No writer
on British mammals records other situations for nests. The Bank
Vole usually nests in the same manner, but Collett mentions as
an exception a nest which he found in Norway within that of a
Fieldfare, six feet above the ground in a spruce. One of the
nests (exhibited at the meeting), is similar in character to this
nest of the Bank Vole described by Collett — domed, and with
an entrance hole at the side. This nest is built over the old nest
of some passerine bird, probably a greenfinch.

Barrett- Hamilton and Hinton say that Field Voles " are
very hardy, and never hibernate, although they may be com-

January 2jrd, igiy.'] PROCEEDINGS. XV.

paratively inactive in cold, damp weather," but Lydekker states
that " durino; the hardest weather they fall into uninterrupted
hibernation," rousing at the return of milder condition. Which
of these contradictory statements is correct Mrt Coward could
not say, but he has frequently seen and captured voles in snow
and during severe frosts, and has never, until this winter, come
across anything suggestive of hibernation.

The osier-bed in which the first nest was found is frequently
fliooded, and underground burrows would be death-traps for the
voles, but it is only occasionally that the water rises so high as
to flood the base of the boundary hedge.

Towards the end of December, 191 6, the weather was
severe, but changeable, and the snow, thawing and freezing again,
would have made the ground unsafe for a burrowmg mammal.
This probably explains why the voles had constructed nests as
retreats in elevated positions, but whe'thei: this above-ground
nesting habit is usual m similar situations remains to be proved".
The cause of death of the three voles is difficult to explain, for
the weather was not more severe than obtained when the mice
have been met with abroad. Possibly in dryer situations they
would be protected iix underground nests, but the elevated nests
were too much exposed, and the mice had not had time or chance
to giather sufificient material in wihich to protect themselves.

The matter requires further investigation, and Mr. Coward
hoipfes to make further observations under varying weather con-
ditions.

Oi^dinary Meeting, January 23rd, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a
paper entitled " The Endocranial Cast of the Boskop Skull."

Professor Elliot Smith stated that Dr. Peringxiey, Director
of the 'South African Museum, has submitted for examination
and report an endocranial cast obtained from the fossil human
skull found near Boskop, in the Transvaal, in 191 3. Apart
from ithe right temporal bone, the| base of the skull is missing;
but sufficient of the calvaria has been recovered to show that
the capacity of the cranial cavity must have been well above
1800 c.c, perhaps even as much as 1900 cc. — greater than that
of the philosopher Kant's skull, and alm^ost as large as
Bismarck's.

Ulnfortunately it reveals only the slightest indications of
the positions of the cer'ebral sulci ; but a very definite idea is

xvi. Proceedings. [January 2^rd, igiy.

afforded of the general form and relative proportions of those
parts of the brain that were covered by the frontal and parietal
bones respectively. The flatness of the cast and certain of its
features suggest affinities of the Boskop man with the Nean-
derthal race. But the| larger size, and especially the form, of
the prefrontal bulging indicates, an even closer kinship with the
peoples found in Europei in Aurignacian and later times.

But it would ble incorrect to regard the Boskop man as a
piietmber of either the Neanderthal or Cro-Magnon i^aces. For
he represents a variety of mankind that never intruded into
Europe— probably a divergent branch of the species sapiens,
which sprang from the parent stock S'oon after its separation
from the so-called species neanderthalensis. In confirmation of
this sUjggestion is the fact thaft, though the prefrontal area is
larger than that of Neanderthal man, and has assumed the^ form
distinctive of the modern type of man, it is smaller, both actually
and relatively, than that of the Cro-Magnon race.

The great size of the Boskop cast is due mainly to the excep-
tional dimensions, and especially the great lateral expansion, of
the parietal area.

The conclusion that seems to emerge from a comparison
of the cranial casts of these extinct varieties of mankind is that
the chief factor which above all others determines brain supe-
riority is not so much mere bulk a^ the size of the prefrontal
area.

It is perhaps not without some significance that the Strand-
loopers, hitherto regarded as fthe most primitive and the least
negroid race of South Africa, were distinguished by an excep-
tionally large cranial capacity, a remarkable prominence of the
piarietal eminencies, and a full forehead (Shrubsall). It is pos-
sible that these early ;cave- dwellers may represent the descendants
of the Boskop race, modified both by development and admix-
ture.

Dr. G. HiCKLiNG, F.G.S., read a paper entitled " The
Skull of a Permian Shark."

A preliminary statement was made concerning the results
of a te-examination of certain remains of the skull of Diacrano-
dus texensis, Cope, sp., now in thei [Manchester Museum. The
material is sufficient for a practically complete restoration of
the cranium and jaws, while there is some indication of the
character of the branchial apparatus, not hither'to described.
Cope's original description appears to be on the whole more
accurate than some of the later accounts, though his reference
to distinct "frontal" aind "parietal," etc., elements cannot be
Maintained. The comparison, also, with Chlamydoselache
appears to be much less dose thah that with Heptanchus.

February 6tli, njij.] PROCEEDINGS. xvii.

Ordinary Meeting, February 6th, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. C. L. Barnes, M.A., made a short communication on
" GalVanit," a preparation 'brought out some years 'ago Tor
depositing silver, nickel, or cadmium on a surface of copper
or br;ass. The active ingredients were powdered magnesium
and a salt oi the metal to be deposited, but the method soon
fell into disuse, through the layer not proving sufficiently adhe-
rent. A tin of the silver mixture w'as placed in the Society's
keeping.

Professor BOYD Dawkins conveyed to the Society his deep
regret that Oiwing to illness, he was unable to be present to re^d
his paper Oiu "The Place of the Manchester Museum in
the General Scheme of Education."

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., then took the chair, and
the President made a coimmunication on " Polytrema and
allied foraminifera," and e.xhibited some specimens and a series
of lantern slides to show their structure.

Ordinary Meeting, February 20th, 191 7.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
"F.R.S., in the Chair.

Dr. HiCKLiNG referred to. the very large group of sun-spots
which has recently been visible, and so.me discussion took place
on this subject.

Dr. W. Makower, M.A., then read a paper on " The
Photographic action of a Rays."

Djr. Makoiwer stated that although the discovery oT the
radio-activity of uranium was. made by the photographic action
of uranium salts as long ago a|s 1896, the nature of this effect
was noit studied in detail for many years. The first importanit
investigation of the photographic action of a pai'ticles was made
in 1 910 by Kinoshita, who succeeded in showing that whenever
an a particle strikes a grain of silver hahde in a photographic
plate, that grain is subsequently capable of photographic de-
ve,lopment; moreover, this was true throughout the range of the
a particle. Later it was isho.wn by Reinganum and others that
when a particles are projected tangentially tO' a photographic
plate after development the film shows definite trails of grains
of silver hahde, which can readily be distinguished under the
microiscope. These trails are produced by the impact of the

xviii. Proceedings. [Febnimy 20th, icjij.

a particles on the 'halide grains as they pass through the film,
and their length represents the rangle oif the a particles in the
film of gelatine. It is evident, therefore, that we are dealing
Avith an extremely delicate method of detecting and studying
the emission of a rays, for each single a particle produces a
record of its passage through the photograp'hic film, and the
path taken by each particle can be studied in detail.

Microphotographs showing the paths of a particles through
phoitographic films were first piublished by Walmsley and
MakoiWer, and soon afterwards 'by Kinoshita and Ikeuti. The
method adopted by the latter was to activ;ate the tip of a sewing
needle by gently rubbing it on a surface coated with the active
deposit of radium or isome other source of a radiation. In this
way .a trace of active matter was transferred toi the point of
the needle, which was then placed for a short time in contact
with a p'hotog'raphic film. The grains affected by the « particles
can be clearly seen radiaJting out in straight lines from centres
representing the points at' which the needle had been brought
into contact with the films.

A defect of the method when applied to quantitative measure-
ments is the difficulty' of obtaining photographic plates capable
of development without showing under the microscope a number
of blackened grains, even when the plate has not been exposed
to light or any radio-active source. For some reason most photo-
graphic plates, if developed without exposure to light or other
stimulus, though showing noi visible fogging to the naked eye, are
found on examination under the microscope to be covered with
blackened silver grains. It is, therefore, important to use a plate
which, when suitably developed, is free from this defect. After
a' careful search it was found by Sahni that this condition is well
satisfied by Wratten and Wainwright's lantern plates. Later ex-
periments ha,ve shown that iSchumann plates are even more suit-
able, and by this means the photographic method has been used
to attack a number of problems such as the determination of the
ranges of a particles, and the variatiion in the number of
particles near the end of their range.

Ordinary Meeting, March 6th, 191 7.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. G. P. Varley, M.Sc, and Mr. W. C. Jenkins, F.R.A.S.,
were nominated Auditors of the Society's Accoimts for the
Session 191 6-1 7.

\

March 6th, igij.] PROCEEDINGS. xix.

The folloaving resolution was passed unanimously: "That
the best thanks of the Society be accorded to Dr. A. E. Barclay,
and to Mr. Noton, for their generous and valuable gift of a
microscope which formerly belonged to John Dalton.

Professor G. Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., made a
shojrt communication on the <discovery of the 'remains of a
second representative of Eo an thro pus Dazvsoni, which was made
by the late Mr. Charles Dawson. By the courtesy of Dr. Smith
Woodward, F.'R.S., he was permitted to exhibit models of the
newly-found fragments.

Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., conveyed to the Society his
regret that owing to the state of his health he was unable to' be
p^resent to read his paper on "Am Egyptian Meteorite."

The paper which was read by the Honorary Secretary is
printed in the Memoirs.

Dr. A. D. IMMS, M.A., F.L.S., then read a paper entitled
" Remarks on ' castration-parasitaire ' in Insects with
special reference to Termites."

Dr. A. D. Imms referred to the occurrence among diverse
g'rioups of animals of 'the phenomenon known as " castration
piarasitaire." This designation was applied by the French
biologist Gia'rd to a particular phase of parasitism, in which the
parasite suppresses, or inhibits |the reproductive function of its
liost. In a se'ries of some twenty papers, published between 1869
and 1902, Giard elucidated a variety of cases ■ selected from
both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. One of the best known
is the infestation of Decapod Crustacea with cirriped and bopyrid
pfarasites pertaining to such genera as Sacculina Peltogaster,
Bopyrus, etc. In addition to destroying the gonads of its host,
Sacculina, for example, profoundly alifects the secondary sexual
characters. In the case of ipfested males of Inachus mauri-
tatiicu., this parasitism induces them to assume the characters
of the female as regards the form, of the abdomen, the pleopods,
and the chelse. Among 'insects several remarkable cases were
dealt with: (i) The infestation of bees of the genus Andrena,
and the wasp Polistes, through the agency of the aberrant para-
site Stylops and its allieis ; (2) The effects of the parasitism of
bumble bees through the. agency of the Nematode worm, Sphceru-
laria bombi; (3) Wheeler's discovery of the remarkable indi-
viduals found among Pheidole, and other an,ts, and termed by
him mermithagates — individuals which lose their reproductive
function, and possess an enormously enlarged abdomen, harbour-
ing a Nematode of the genus Merniis; (4) Kunckel d'Herculais'
discovery of the effects of the larva of the Dipteron Sarcophaga
upon the grasshopper Stauroiwtus, which they parasitise. By

XX. Proceedings. \^March 6th, igij.

devouring the fact-body, and labsorbing the oxygen of the blood-
plesma, atrophy of the gonads resuhs; (5) The lefifects of the larvae
of the dryinid hymenopterun Aphelopus, and those of the pipun-
cuhid fly Chalarus, upon leaf-hoppers of the genus 2'yphlocyba ;
(6) The supposed occurrence of " castration-parasitaire " among
Termites. Grassi and Sandias (1893) pointed out that, in certain
Itahan Termitids, the soldiers and workers harbour vast num-
bers of Pro(tozoa in the specially enlarged hind intestine. In
Termites infected with these Protozoa the gonads are very greatly
reduced an-d the sexual function lost. In the very young larvae,
and the sexual form,s, which are feid on saliva, the Protozoa are
absent. These zoologists regard /the development of the sterile
soldier and worker castes are 'being correlated with infection by
piarasitic Protozoa. Brunelli (1905) regards this as a case of
"castration-parasitaire," and says that (jn certain queen Termites
which he examined Protozoa, were present, and the ovarie's of
their hosts were degenerating. This conclusion has been dis-
puted recently by Feytaud, who states that the appearances of
tihe oyJaries, w'hich Brunelli interprets as being indicative of
degeneratioin, are in reality only artifacts resulting from the re-
agents ■employed. Dr. Imms then dealt with his own researches
which were conducted on the Himalayan Termite Archoter-
'mopsls. In this primitive form, the gonads in the so-called
sterile castes, are as well developed as in the sexual forms, never-
theless Protozoa are e.xtremely abundant in the hind intestine in
every instance. They were also found in the gut of the sexual
fdrnxs on several occasi(ons, ;a;nd were, furthermore, present in
g!rieat qua,ntiities in ah iegg-layin^g worker-like individual. Dr.
Imms pointed out that the evidence was in favour of the Pro-
tozoa not being parasites at all, and that very possibly they were
symbiotic in their relations with their host. It is a significant
fact that, so far, they are only known to occur in the intestine of
wood-feeding Termites, and there is good reason to believe that
these minute organisms act upon the lig"nin in their digestive pro-
cesses, and render it capable of ready assimilation by the host
Termites. The Protozoa appear to have no influence at all upon
caste production, as soldiers and workers are ^ present in numerous
Termites which do nojt harbour these organisms. Similarly they
exert no apparent influenjce on the gonads, as can be readily seen
in Archotermopsis, Ei/fer//ies. and other forms. In the first-
named genus the gonads are highly developed, and Protozoa
occur in prodigious numbers, while in certain species of Etilermes
Protozoa are totally wanting, nevertheless the gonads are so
degenerate as to be almost absent. In conclusion, Dr. Imms re-
ferred briefly to the presence of Infusoria in the digestive system
of the Ruminantia and Equidae, and to their possible symbiotic
role as agents, which render the cellulose of the food capable of
being digested by these animals.

I

March 20th, ipiy.] PROCEEDINGS. xxi.

Ordinary Meeting, March 20th, 191 7.

The President, Professor SYDNEY J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Professor "Weiss presented a paper " On the contents of
a herbarium of British and foreign plants for presentation
to the Victoria University of Manchester.'" By Mr. Charles
Bailey, MjSc, F.L.S.

Professor Weiss exhibited some sample sheets, showing the
method of arrangement observed by Mr. Bailey in his herbarium,
and emphasised the great ^value which sO' well ordered and exten-
sive a collection would be to all students of ^botany in the district.

This paper is printed in full in the Memoirs.

General Meeting, April 3rd, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Herbert Edward Soper, M.A., Electrical Enoineer,
of 81, Moston Lane, Failsworth, was elected an ordinary member
of the Society.

Ordinary Meeting, April 3rd, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc.
F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. R. B. FiSHENDEN, M.ScTech., read a paper cntided
" Illustration Processes used in (Scientific Publications."

Mr. Fishenden stated thati although type is almost invariably
used fojr printing the letterpress portion of a book or paper,
theire exist other essentially different printing processes — litho-
glraphy a(nd intaglio^ printing— which are occasionally use'd for
{Dtrinting type characters. Illustrations are commonly printed by
all three processes, acoordiing to the nature of the result desired,
but if both type [and illustration are prinited in one operation, the
cost is less thain if either of the other two processes is used for
" supplement " illustrations.

Suitable printing surfaces may be prepared from the original
drawings or photographs by trained craftsmen, who engrave the
siJlbjects, ojr, in the f;ase of lithographic work, re-draw them.
These processes are relatively slow and costly and have been
largely superseded by photographic processes of reproduction ;
the latter, however, demand that the original drawings shall be

xxii. Proceedings. [April jrd, igij.

90 prepared as to b'e suitable for oieproduction without the need
of any further work by a draughtsman. In special cases line-
work. \h re-drawn, but the majority pf scientific writers prefer a
direct reproduction of their own 'drawings.

In the case of diagrams and other drawings in pure line, the
most satisfactory results are obtained by 'the Xise of a waterproof
Indian or Chinese ink tipon a Simooth, hard-surfaced paper, or
Bristol board. All the lines must be equally black and firm; if
Ithey are broken, or have serrated edges, the defects generally
become more pronounced in the reproduction. Unless it is im-
practicable for iiQther reasons, the original drawings should be
made to be reproduced to half or two- thirds their lineal dimen-
sions. Lines, dots, or irregular stipples may be applied to the
printing block by the 'engraver if indications axe given in blue
pencU on the correspondinjg portions of the original drawing.

Photographs may conveniently be converted into line draw-
ings by drawing over the outlines with waterproof ink and then
bleaching out the original print.

For rapid effects the use of " scraper-boards " is sometimes
convenient. These boards have a chalk coating and are obtain-
able in a variety of forms ; they are covered With printed and
lembossed lipes. The shadows of the drawing are made with a
carboin pencil, the high lights being scraped away with a knife.

Photographs for reproductiofi by .collotype or by the half-
tone process are preferably black, glossy " bromide " prints, or
■' gelatimo-chloride " prints of a purple-brown tone. If a number
of separate prijnts are to be reproduced together as a page, they
should, as far as possible, be similar in strength and colour.

Sepia wash drawi;ngs are more satisfactory for photographic
reproduction than those made in pure black and gray. The
quality of the reproductioin of a suitable drawing by the collo-
tyfpe process, or by the half-tqne process under satisfactory con-
ditions is indubitable); a,nd it is questionable whether the expense
O^ preparing a chalk lithograph can be justified.

The correct translation of coloured objects or drawings into
monochrome reproductions by photography is not possible by
means of the ordinary silver bromide dry plate, for the sensi-
tiveness of the latter includes only the violet and blue re^ons
of the visible spectrum. The applications of photography to
scientific purposes and to reproduction work have been greatly
increased by thje commercial production of panchromatic dry
plates, which are sensitive to^ the entire visible spectrum. By the
Use 'of tbes'e plates, in conjunction with suitable colour light
fitters, wthich tra^nsmit only light of the required spectral regions,
it is possible to obtaiji photographs of coloured objects which
reproduce thdix true colour values or secure, maximum contrast.

April 2p/i, 1 91 7.] Proceedings. xxiii.

Colour sensitive plates are used in the various modifications
of the three-colour process, iiicruding the semi-automatic colour
processes iji six or piore cofours, which are printed in collotype
c^r lithography.- 'It is probable that such processes will largely
Replace existing processes of chromo-lithography.

Ajnnual General Meeting, April 24th, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

The Annual Report of the Council and the Statement of
Accounts were presented, and it was resolved :—" That the
Annual Report, together with the Statement of Accounts, be
adopted, and that they be printed in the Society's Proceedings."

Mr. Melland and Dr. L. Balls were appointed Scrutineers
of the balloting papers.

The following members were elected Officers of the Society
and Members oif the Council for the ensuing year : —

Presidefit: William Thomson, F.R.S.E., F.I.C., F.C.S.

Vice-Presidents: G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.;
T. a. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S.; W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc,
MJSc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.; SYDNEY J. HiCKSON, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.'S.

Secretaries: R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.iS., F.I.C.; GEORGE HiCK-
LING, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Treasurer: W. Henry Todd,

Librarian: C. L. BARNES, M.A.

Other Members of the Council: Francis Jones, M.iSc,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ; Mary McNicol, M.Sc; D. Thoday, M.A.;
Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.; H. R. Hasse, M.A., D.Sc;
E. L. Rhead, M.ScTech., F.I.C.

Ordinary Meeting, April 24th, 191 7.

The President, Professor Sydney J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S., in the Chair.

A vote of tha^iks was accorded the donors of the books
upon the table.

xxiv. Proceedings. [May 8th, ipiy.

A Paper by Mr. J. W. Perry, B.A., entitled "An Ethno-
logical Study of Warfare," was then read by Professor G.
Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

This paper is printed in full in the Me?noirs.

Mr. T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S., then read the short notes
of Mr. A. Loveridge, on " The Nesting Habits of the Palm
Swift, Tachornis parva (Liicht)," from observations he made on
a colony of thip species at Morogoro, German East Africa.

These notes are printed in the Memoirs.

Ordinary Meeting, May 8th, 1917.

The President, Mr. William Thomson, F.R.S. E., F.I.C., F.C.S.,

in the Chair.

A vote of thanks was accorded the donor of the book upon
the table.

Mr. R. F. GWYTHER read a paper entitled " The Speci-
fication of Stress." Part V. " The formal Solution of the
Statical Stress Equations, and a Theory of Displacement
as consequent on Stress."

This paper will be printed in the Me?noirs.

A paper was afterwards read by Dr. E. Newbery, entitled
" Recent Work on Overvoltage."

This paper is also printed in full in the Memoirs.

Annual Report of the Council. xxv.

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

Annual Report of the Council, April igi'/.

The Society had at the beginning of the Session an ordinary
membership of 138. Since thein four new members have joined
the Society, and three membejrs have resigned. There are,
therefore, at the end of the Session 139 ordinary members of
the Society.

The Society has lost, by death, three honorary members, viz..
Dr. Ehe Metschnikoff, For.Mem,.R.S.; Sir Wilham Ramsey,
JCC.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D., F.R.S.; Sir Edward Burnett Tylor,
DjC.L., LLp., F.R.S. Memorial notices of Dr. Metschnikoff
and Sir William Ramsay appear with this Report.

Twenty-six papers have been read at the meetings during
the year; fifteen shorter communications have also been made.

The (Society commenced the session with a balance in hand,
fjrdm all sources, of ;^329 8s. 4d., made up as follows : —

At credit of General Fund ^27 19 i

„ „ Wilde Endowment Fund 224 12 o

„ „ Joule Memorial Fund 76 17 3

Balance 31st March, 1916 ^^329 8 4

The balance in hand at the close of the Session amounted
to ;^232 8s. od., the amounts standing at credit of the various
accounts on the 31st March[, 191 7, being: —

At credit of General Fund ^'69 4 3

„ ,, Wilde Endowment Fimd 81 6 9

„ „ Joule Memorial Fund 81 17 o

Balance 31st March, 1917 ^232 8 o

The Wilde Endowment Fund, kept as a separate banking
account, shows a balance due to the Fund of ^81 6s. 9d. in
Its favour, as against a balance in hand of ^224 12s. od. at the
fend of the last financial year. The receipts for the' yeiar 191 6- 17
shoA\^ a slight decrease as compared with those for the previous
year.

xxvi. Annual Report of the Council.

^142 I OS. od. of the Wilde Endowment Fund has been
invested in the purchase of ^150 of the new 5 per cent. War
Loali Stock; and the ^200 (^195 i6s. od.) of the 41/2 per cent.
iWar Loah Stock purchased last year has been converted into
;£200 of the new 5 per cent. War Loan 'Stock.

The Libraria'n reports that during the Session 348 volumes
have been stamped, catalogued and pressmarked; 314 of these
were serials, a'nd 34 were separate works. 79 catalogue! cards
were written: 25 for serials, and 54 for separate works. The
total 'number of volumes catalogued to date is 37,387, for which
13,935 cards hlave been Mo-itten.

T'he liibrary co'ntinues to be satisfactorily used for reference
piurpolses. I284 volumes have been borrowed from the library,
during the past year. The number of books (borrowed (during the
pirevioius year was 184, aiid diiring 1913-14, 201.

During the year 132 volumes have been bound in 130
covers. I'n the previous Session the corresponding numbers were
220 volumes in 163 covers.

The additio'ns to the library for the Session amounted to
580 volumes: 523 serials, and 57 separate works. The donations
(exclusive of the usual exchanges) were 103 volumes; 2 volumes
were purchased in addition to those regularly subscribed for.

The do'nations to the Society's library during the Session,
iticlude gifts of books by the Trustees of the British Museum
(Natural History), the Meteorological Office, London, Mr.
Edward Mella'nd, and Dr. William Carruthers.

The publication of the Slociety's Memoirs and Proceedings
{has been continued under the supervision of the Editorial Com-
mittee.

Tlie Society is indebted to Dr. A|. E. Barclay and Mr. John
Noiton for the gift of a microscopte which formerly belonged to
John Dalton.

Thle Assistant Secretary (Mr. R. F. Hinson) was called)
away from Manchester for military service on January 2nd,
1 91 7, since which date his duties have been undertaken by Miss
A. McK. Crabtree.

Tbe Committees appoihted by the Council during the year
were as follows : —

House and Finance.

The PRESIDENT Mr. FRANCIS NICHOLSON.

Mr. C. L. BARNES. Mr. W. H. TOt)D.

Mr. FRANCIS JONES. Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.
Mr. R. L. TAYLOR.

Annual Report of the Council. xxvii.

Editorial.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. FRANCIS NICHOLSON.

Mr. R. F. GWYTHER. Mr. R. L. TAYLOR.

Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING. The ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Wilde Efidowment.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. W. H. TODD.

Mr. FRANCIS JONES. Mr. R. L. TAYLOR.

Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.

Special Library Committee.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. FRANCIS NICHOLSON.

Mr. C. L. BARNES. Mr. R. F. GWYTHER.

Prof. W. W. HALDANE GEE. Mr. FRANCIS JONES.

Mr. R. L. TAYLOR. Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.

The ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

Publications Cotnmittee.

The PRESIDENT. Mr. C. L. BARNES.

Dr. W. M. TATTERSALL. Dr. H. G. A. HICKLING.

Sir Wiliiam Ra/nsay, K.C.By^ — By the death of Sir Wilham
Ramsay, which occurred on July 22nd, 191 6, the Society has
lost one of its most distinguished honorary members!. He was
borti in Glasgow on October 2nd, 1852, the son lof Willianl
Ramsay, C.E., and nephew of Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay,
.F.R.S,, the well-known geologist. He was educated, up to This
eighteenth year, in Glasgow, first at the Academy, and then at
the , University, proceeding afterwards to Germany, where he
studi,ed undie|r B'unseln at Heidelberg, and under Professor Fittig
at Tubingen. Returning to Glasgow in 1872, he became Tutorial
Assistant in the University. In 1880 he was appointed Professor
of Qhemistry in University College, Bristol, where a yicar after-
wards he became Principal of the College. In 1887 hJe succeeded
the veteran chemislt, Williamson, in the Chair of Chemistry at
University College, London. '

Ramsay has been described by Tilden as a "born physical
chemist," nearly the whole of his published work belonging .'tp the
physical side of chemistry He first casme prominently before jthe
chemical world when he joined Lord Rayleigh in the endeavour to
discover the explanation of the remarkable fact, first noticed by
Rayleigh, that nitrogen obtained from air was sensibly heavier
than the same element isolated from various chemical compounds

xxviii. Annual Report of the Council.

containing it. The result was the discovery of a n'ew constituent
of the atmosphere, the element argon, with its strange' proper-
ties. Almost immediately after the discovery of the new element
had bjeen announced, Ramsay discovered terrestrial helium, the
hitherto hypothetical solar element, distinguished by the charac-
teristic line Dg in the solar spectrum^ in the gases from tlie
mineral cleveite. Subsequently Ramsay isolated three other
elements, companions of argoni, from the atmosphere, namely,
■neon, krypton, and xenon, all belonging, like argon, to the zero
group in the periodic scheme. As Tilden has remarked, " to
have added an entire group of new elements to the periodic
scheme is an achievement both unexpected and unparallelexi"

Shdrtly 'after the discovery of radium by Madame Curie in
1902, Ramsay and Soddy added a fact of fundamental import-
ance when they identified the gaseous product of the disintegra-
tion of radium as helium. Later, Ramsay placed the radium
iem.anation, which he called niton, in the list of inactive gases,
and, in conjunction with Dr. Whyttlaw Gray, actually determined
its density, and hence its molecular and atomic weig'ht, working
wi'th a volume of the gas which only oneasured one-fifteenth of
a cubic millimetre!

Ramsay wa|s a most distinguished and successful investigator
and a wonderful manipulator. He had a remarkable command
of foreign languages. He gave lectures to large audiences in
German in Berlin, and in French in Paris, and; at the opening
meeting of the Internationa] Congress of Applied Chemistry
in London in 1909 the readiness with which he addressed the
audience in thje four ofifi'cial languages successively, English,
Prejich, Gerinan, and Italian, attracted great interest and
admiration. 1

Naturally, Ramsay was the recipient of many honours and
distinctions. iHe was elected a member of most of the scientific
societies in the world, and many universities conferred honorary
degrees on him. He received the Davy Medal from the Royal
Society in 1895, the Longstaffe Medal from the Chemical Society
in 1897, and in 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Chemistry. He was elected President of the Socielty of Chemical
Industry in 1903, landjof the Chemical Society in 1907. On March
28th, 1899, Ramsay gave the Wilde Lecture for that year before
ou'r Society, on " The newly-discovered Elements and their rela-
tion to the Kinetic Theory .of Gases." This wa{s not long after
the announcement of the discovery of the new elements, and
many of the present members of the Society will remember the
great interest which was taken in that lecture. The lecturer was
elected an Honorary Member of the Society in April of the
same year. R. L. T.

Annual Report of the Council. xxix.

Dr. Elie Metschnikoff. — Sixteen years ago the members of the
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society had the privilege of
hearing the Wilde lecture delivered by Dr. Metschnikoff entitled,
" Sur la Flore du Corps Humain."

In this lecture the distinguished Russian biologist gave us a most
in,teresting summary of our knowledge of the microbes that are found
under normal conditions in the human skin and alimentary canal.
He expounded in a masterly manner the reasons for believing that
many of these organisms are definitely the cause of disease and are
responsible for the infirmities of old age that ultimately end in death.

This lecture gives us a clear insight into the thesis that occupied
the mind and absorbed the indefatigable labours of the last period of
his distinguished career.

A follower of the great Pasteur, and for many years the most dis-
tinguished investigator in the famous Pasteur Institute in Paris, he
believed that the method of the study of micro-organisms that are
associated with the animal body is the method which will yield the
most valuable results not only in the cure and prevention of disease
but also in the prolongation of the normal human life. But although
a follower of Pasteur and for six years his colleague in the Pasteur
Institute he must not be regarded as a pupil of Pasteur, for he came to
Paris in 1888 with a reputation already well established by his writings
on Phagocytosis and his ideas and lines of research, although ultimately
concerned with micro-organisms and their relation to disease, were the
result of his own independent investigations.

He was born in 1845 at Ivanaka near Kharkoff, his father being
an officer in the Russian Imperial Guard. He took his degree
examination in 1864 and after a brief visit to Heligoland went to
Leuckart's laboratory in Giessen in order to extend his knowledge of
the Biological Sciences. Before going to Germany he had already
shown his ability in zoological research work by two short papers on
the stalk of Vorticelia and on the nematode worm Diplogaster, but in
Leuckart's laboratory he made his first great discovery which was
published in a paper, that has become famous in the literature of
Zoology, on the life history of the Ascaris nigrovenosa, parasitic in
the Frog. From this time (1866) onwards he continued to make
investigations on a variety of subjects in Zoological Science, and the
number of papers he published in rapid succession showed his
extraordinary faculty for investigation and untiring industry.

In 1870 he was appointed Professor Ordinarius of Zoology in the
University of Odessa, and during the twelve years that he occupied that
chair he published several important memoirs on the embryology of
Chelifer, of Myriapods and of the Annelid worms.

In 1882 he resigned his chair in Odessa, owing to political
disturbances, and migrated to Messina where he devoted his time to
researches on the marine fauna of the straits. It was from Messina

XXX. Annual Report of the Council.

that he pubHshed a remarkable series of papers on the process which
he called " Sporogony " in the development of certain jelly-fishes,
and the curious kind of parasitism of the larva of one kind of jelly-fish
(Cunina) on the swimming-bell of another (Carmarina).

The remarkable wandering habits of the microscopic sporogenetic
broods of the Cunina specially attracted his attention and interest as
he was at the same period beginning his important investigations on
the wandering amoeboid corpuscles found in the blood and tissues of
the higher Invertebrates and the phenomena of intra-cellular digestion
which they exhibited. As a result of the interest excited in these
researches on the marine fauna at Messina he came to devote himself
almost entirely to the functions of the wandering cells of the animal
organism and more particularly to their powers of ingestion and
destruction of the poisonous microbes that so frequently cause disease
and death. To him we are indebted for the introduction of the term
" Phagocytes " which he applied to these scavenger cells that, as he
was the first to demonstrate, play such an important part in the
maintenance of health.

In 1888 he went to Paris, and being heartily welcomed by Pasteur
who gave him every facility for continuing his investigations on his own
lines, he plunged at once into the problems of animal health and disease
that arose from his work and theory of phagocytosis, and in 1901, the
year that he came over to deliver the Wilde lecture in Manchester, he
published his important book entitled, " L'Immunite contre les malades
infectieuses." The importance of MetschnikofiPs researches on the
problems of disease and on inflammation received recognition by
the reward of medals and foreign membership of many of the learned
Societies of Europe, and in 1908 he received the Nobel Prize for his
medical discoveries.

Metschnikoffwas twice married. His second wife, Olga Belocoyitoff,
who was married to him in 1875, ^^^ herself a trained zoologist. She
was his constant companion in his travels abroad and many of our
members will remember her visit to Manchester in 1901, when she
accompanied her husband on the occasion of his Wilde lecture. She
was able to assist him in the laboratory, and herself published some
contributions to scientific knowledge. During his visits to England
she frequently acted as his interpreter as she was an excellent linguist
and he was not fluent in the English language.

The end of his long and valuable career came in the residence
attached to the Pasteur Institute on July isth, 191 6.

S. J H,

Treasurer's Accounts. xxxi.

NOTE. — The Treasurer s Accounts of the Session
igrS-igiy have been endorsed as follozvs :

April I2th, 1917. Audited and found correct.

We have also seen, at this date, the Certificates of the following Stocks
held in the name of the Society : — ;^i,225 Great Western Railway Company
5% Consolidated Preference Stock, Nos. 12,29^, 12,294, ^"d 12,323 ;
£T,S00 Gas Light and Coke Company Ordinary Stock (No. 8/1960) ; ;^ioo
East India Railway Company's 4% Annuity Stock (No. 4032) ; and the
deeds of the Natural History Fund, of the Wilde Endowment Fund,
those conveying the land on which the Society's premises stand, and the
Declarations of Trust.

Leases and Conveyances dated as follows : —

22nd Sept., 1797.

23rd Sept., 1797.

25th Dec, 1799.

25th Dec, 1799.

22nd Dea, 1820.

23rd Dec, 1820.

Declarations of Trust : —

24th June, 1801.

23rd Dec, 1820.

8th Jan., 1878.

Appointment of New Trustees : —
30th April, 1851.

We have also seen Bankers' acknowledgment of the investment of
^400 in the 4^% War Loan : — i Bond for ;i^2O0, No. 1964 ; and 2 Bonds
for ;{J' 1 00 each, Nos. 6594/5; and ^^150 from the Wilde Endowment Fund
in the 5% War Loan.

We have also verified the balances of the various accounts with the
bankers' pass books.

j" William C Jenkins.
(Signed) <

I George P. Varley.

XXXll,

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xxxiv. The Council.

THE COUNCIL and MEMBERS

OF THE

MANCHESTER
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Corrected to October 7.0th, 1917.

Thie Council met 10 times.

IPtesiOent.

SYDNEY J. HICKSiONt M.^.,, D.Sc, F.R.S.

ItJtccsprcsi&ents.

FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.

G. ELLIOT SMITHS M.A.^, M.D'., F.R.S.

T. A. COWARX>, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

W. W. HALDANE GEE, B.Sc., M.Sc.Tech., A.M.I.E.E.

Secrctartes.

R. L. TAYLOR, F.C.S., F.I.C.
GEORGE HICKLING, D.Sc, F.G.S.

treasurer.

W. HENRY TODD;.

Xtbrartan.

C. L. BARNES, M.A.

©tbec Members of tbe Council.

R. F- GWYTHER, M,.A.

W. M> TATTERSALL, D.gc.

FRANCIS JONES, M,.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.

WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

MARY McNiCOL, M.Sc.

D. THODAY, M;.A.

asststant Secretary anJ) librarian.

R. F. HINSON.

acting assistant Secretary an& ILibrarian.

A. McK. CRABTREE.

Ordinary Members. • xxxv.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election

1911, April 4. Adamson, Arthur, M.Sc.Tech., A.R.C.S., Lecturer in

Physics in the Municipal School of Technology, Man-
chester. The Municipal School oj Technology, Sackville
Street, Manchester.
1901, Dec. 10. Adamson, Harold. Oaklands College, Godley, near Man-
chester.

1912, Oct. 15. Adamson, R. Stephen, M.A., B.Sc, Lecturer in Botany in

the Victoria University of Manchester. The University,
Manchester.
1914, Dec. I. Atack, F.W., M.Sc. Tech. (Mane), B.Sc. (Lend.), F.LC,
Demonstrator in Chemistry, The Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester. 88, Claude Road, Chorlton-
ville, Manchester.

1865, Nov. 14. Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S., Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill,
S.O., Gloucestershire.

1916, Feb. 2. Balls, W. Lawrence, Sc.D., Research Botanist to the

Fine Cotton Spinners' Association, St. James's Square,

Manchester. Bramhall, Cheshire.
1895, Jan. 8. Barnes, Charles L., M.A., 151, Plymouth Grove,

Manchester.
1903, Oct. 20. Barnes, Jonathan, F.G.S., South Cliff House, 301, Great

Clowes Street, Higher Bi'oughton, Manchester.

1917, Oct. 16. Barwick, Fred Wilkinson, Manager of the Manchester

Chamber of Commerce Testing House, Royal Exchange,
Manchester. Parkfield, Woodville Road, Bowdon.
1 9 10, Oct.. 18. Beattie, Robert, D.Sc, M.LE.E., Professor of Electro-
technics in the Victoria University of Manchester. The
University , Manchester.
1895, Mar. 5. Behrens, Gustav. Holly Royde, Withington, Afanchester.
1868, Dec. 15. Bickham, Spencer H., F. L. S. Underdozvn, Ledbury.
1914, Nov. 17. Bohr, Neils, Ph.D. (Copenhagen), Reader in Mathematical
Physics, in the Victoria University of Manchester. The
University, Manchester.
1914, Dec. I. Bowman, Frank, B A. (Camb.), M.Sc.Tech. (Mane),
Assistant Lecturer in Mathematics, The Municipal School
of Technology, Manchester. 21, Whalley Road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

1914, Feb 10. Boyd, A. W., M.A., F.E.S. The Alton, Altrincham,

Cheshire.
1875, Nov. 16. Boyd, John, Barton House, il, Didsbury Park, Didsbury,
Afanchester.

1915, Oct. 19. Bradley, F. E., M.A., M.Com., LL.D., F.R.S.E.,

Barrister-at-Law, Stormarn, IVilbrahatfi Road, Chorlion-
cum-Hardy, Manchester, and Bank of England Chambers,
Manchester.
1886, April 6. Brown, Alfred, M.A., M.D. Beech Hill, Hale, Cheshire.

1913, Qe.c. 2. Brown, T. Graham. M.D., D.Sc, Lecturer in Experimental

Physiology in the Victoria University of Manchester,
The University, Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15, Budenberg, C. F., M.Sc, M.LMech.E. Boivdon Lane,
Marple, Cheshire.

XXXVl.

Ordinary Members.

Date of Election
191 1, Jan. 10.

1906, Feb. 27.
1894, Nov. 13.

Burt, Frank Playfair, B.Sc. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Bristol),
Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the Victoria University
of Manchester. 15, Oak Road, Withington, Manchester.

Burton, Joseph, A. R.C.S., Dublin. Tile Works, Clifton
Junction, near Manchester.

Burton, William, M.A. , F. C. S. Carisbrook, Victoria
Park, Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 31. Butterworth, Charles F. IVaterloo, Poynton, Cheshire.

1904, Oct. 18. Campion, George Goring, L.D. S. 264, Oxford Street,

Manchester.
1899, Feb. 7. Chapman, D. L. , M.A., F.R.S., Fellow and Tutor of

Jesus College, Oxford, lesus College, Oxford.
190 1, Nov. 26. Chevalier, Reginald C. , M. A.. Mathematical Master at the

Manchester Grammar Schof)!. 3, Fort Road, Sedgley

Park, PrestTdich, Manchester.

1907, Nov. 26. Clayton, Robert Henry, B.Sc, Chemist. I, Parkfield

Road, Didsbitry, Manchester.
1906, Oct. 30. Coward, H. F.. D.Sc, Chief Lecturer in Chemistry in

the Municipal School of Technology, .Manchester.

15, Great George Street, IVest/ninster, London, S.M^.i.
1906, Nov. 27. Coward, Thomas Alfred, F.Z.S., F.E.S. Rrentwood,

Bowdon, Cheshire.

1908, Nov. 3. Cramp, William, D.Sc, M.LE.E., Consulting Engineer,

33, Brazennose Street, Manchester.

1916, Oct. 31. Craven, Mrs. M., M.Sc, Demonstrator in Chemistry, in
the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.
10, Birch Grove, Rnsholme, Manchester.

1915, Nov. i6. Cutler, Donald Ward, M.A. (Cantab.), Scholar of Queen's
College, Cambridge ; Assistant Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Zoology, in the \'ictoria University of
Manchester. 69, Mauldeth Road, Withington,

Manchester.

1895, April 9. Dawkins, W. Boyd, M.A. , D.Sc, F. R.S.. Honorary
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of
Manchester. Fallozvfield House, Falloxvf eld, Manchester.

1894, Mar. 6. Delepine, A. Sheridan, M.B., B.Sc, Professor of
Pathology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Public Health Laboratory, York Place, Manchester.

1887, Feb. 8. Dixon, Harold Baily, M.A., Ph.D., M.Sc, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry in the \'^ictoria University of
Manchester. The University , Manchester.

1906, Oct. 30. Edgar, E. C. , D.Sc, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry in the

Victoria University of Manchester. The University,

Manchester.
1914, Nov. 3. Edwards, C. A., D.Sc, Professor of Metallurgy and

Metallography in the Victoria University of Manchester.

26, Lyndhurst Road, Withington Manchester.
19 10, Oct. 18. Evans, Evan Jenkin, D.Sc (Lond.), B.Sc (Wales),

A. R.C. Sc , Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in

Physics in the University of Manchester. The University

Manchester.
1914, Feb. 24. Evans, William David, M.A., Richardson Lecturer in

Mathematics, The Victoria University of Manchester.

22, Chatham Grove, Withington, Manchester.

Ordinary Membp:rs. xxxvii.

Date of Election

1912, Oct. 15. Fairlie, D. M., M.Sc. 232, Burton Road, West Didsbury,
Manchester-.

1914, Oct. 20. Field, Allan B., M.A., B.Sc, M.I.E E., Professor of

Mechanical Engineering, The Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester. Kingslea, Strines Road,
Marple, Cheshire.
1912, Feb. 6. Forder, H. G., B. A. St. Olave's Grammar School, Tower
Bridge, London.

1908, Jan. 28. Fox, Thomas William, M.Sc. Tech., Professor of Textiles

in the School of Technology, Manchester University,
Gledfield, 15, Clarendon Crescent, Eccles.

1912, Oct. 15. Garnett, J. C. Maxwell, M.A., Principal of the Municipal

School of Technology, Manchester. The Mtinicipal
School of Technology, Sackville Street, Manchester, and
Westfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

1909, Mar. 23. Gee, W. W. Haldane, B.Sc. M.Sc.Tech., A. M.I.E.E.,

Professor of Pure and Applied Physics in the School of
Technology, Manchester. Oak Lea, Whalley Avenue,
Sale.

1907, Oct. 15. Gravely, F. H., M.Sc. Natural History Dept., Lndian
Museum, Calcutta.

1907, Oct. 29. Gwyther, Reginald Felix, M.A., Secretary of the Joint
Matriculation Board of the Universities of Manchester,
Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield and Birmingham. 24, Dover
Street, Manchester, and I-,<y Cottage, Lymm, Cheshire.

191 5, Nov. 2. Hamlyn, G. A., B.A. (Oxon.), Assistant Lecturer and

Demonstrator in the Fermentation Industries, The
Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The
Municipal School of Technology, Sackville Street,
Manchester.

1913, Dec. 16. Handley, Maiion, M.A. (Birm.), Lecturer in the Municipal

Day Training College, Manchester. Himmel, Burnage
Garden Village, Afanchester.
191 1, Oct. 3. Hasse, M. R., M..-\., D.Sc, Lecturer in Mathematics in
the University of Manchester. 22, Chatham G^-ove,
Withington, Afanchestei-.

1914, Mar. 10. Hibbert, Eva, Assoc. M.S. T., Demonstrator in Chemistry,

The Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. The
Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.
1907, Oct. 15. Ilickling, H. George A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer in
Palaeontology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Dalegarth, Romiley, near Stockport.

1895, Mar. 5. Hickson, Sydney J., M.A.. D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of

Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester. The
University, A/afichester.
1905, Nov. 14. Holt, Alfred, M.A., D.Sc. Research Fellow of the Univer-
sity of Manchester. Dowsejield, Allerton, Liverpool.

1896, Nov. 3. Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Ferns,

Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1909, Feb. 9. Howies, Frederick, M.Sc, Analytical and Research

Chemist. Glenluce, Waterpark Road, Broughtott Park,

Manchester.
1889, Oct. 15. Hoyle, William Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Director of

the Welsh National Museum, Cardiff. City Hall, Cardiff.
1907, Oct. 15. Hiibner, Julius, M.Sc.Tech., F.I.C., Lecturer in the

Faculty of Technology, in the University of Manchester,

Linden, Cheadle Hultne, Cheshire.

xxxviii. Ordinary Members.

Date of Election

1913, Oct. 21. Imnis, A. D., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Reader in Agricuhural

Entomology in the Victoria University of Manchester.
Departiitoit of Agriculttaal Entomology, The University,
Manchester.

1914, [an. 13. Jenkins, William Charles, F.R.A.S., Curator of the Godlee

Observatory, The Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. The Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 3. Johnstone, Mary A., B.Sc. (Lond.), Headmistress of the

Municipal Secondary School for Girls, Whitworth Street,
Manchester. 43, Hill Top Avenue, Cheadle Hjilme,
Cheshire.
1878, Nov. 26. Jones, Francis, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Manchester
Grammar School, and 17, IVhalley Road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

1915, Mar. 9. Kearns, Henry Ward, B.Sc, J. P. Boothroyd, Brooklands,

near Manchester.
191 7, Oct. 16. \\mg, Whed]., Elleray, Windermere, z.r\A Claretidon Club,
Manchester.

1903, Feb. 3. Knecht, Edmund, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the

School of Technology, Manchester University. Beech
Mount, Marple, Cheshire.

Lamb, Horace, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, ScD., F.R.S.,
Professor of Mathematics in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 6, Wilbrahani Road, Fallmvfield, Manchester.

Lang, William 11., M. B., CM., D.Sc, F. R.S. , F.L.S.,
Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany in the University
of Manchester. 2, Heaton Road, Withington, Manchester .

Lange, Ernest F., M.I.Mech.E., A. M.Inst C.E., M.I. & S.
Inst., F.C.S. IVestholme, I'he Firs, Bowdon, Cheshire.

Lankshear, Frederick Russell, B.A. (New Zeal.), M.Sc.
(Mane), Demonstrator in Chemistry in the Victoria
University, of Mancliester. The University, Manchester.

Lap worth, Arthur, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.I.C., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in the ^"ictoria University of
Manchester. 26, Broadway , Withington, Manchester.

Lee, Kenneth, of Messrs. Tootal Broadhtirst, Lee Ss' Co.
Ltd., Oxford Road, Manchester, and The Old House,
Ashley Heath, Hale, Cheshire.

Lees, S., M.A., Assoc. M.S. T., Reader in Applied Thermo-
dynamics in the Faculty of Technology, The University
of Manchester. The Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester, and Brierfield, Ashley Road, Hale, Cheshire.

Leigh, Harold Shavvcross. Brentwood, Worsley.

Lindsey, Marjorie, M.Sc, Research Student in the
Victoria University of Manchester. 3, Dernesne Road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

1912, May 7. Loewenfeld, Kurt, Ph.D. Fern Bank, Ogden Road,

Bramhall, Cheshire.

1 9 10, Oct. 18. McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. City Flour Mills, German

Street, Manchester.
1905, Oct. 31. McNicol, Mary, M.Sc, 182, Upper Chorlton Road,

Manchester.

1904, Nov. I. Makower, Walter, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer in Physics

in the University of Manchester. 37, Mares field Gardens,
Lo7tdon, N. W.J.

'^93.

Nov.

14.

1909,

Nov.

2.

1902,

Jan.

7-

191 1,

Jan.

10.

1910,

Oct.

18.

1917,

Oct.

16.

1914,

April

I 7-

1907,

Oct.

29.

1912,

Nov.

12.

Ordinary Members. xxxix.

Date of Elect iott

1902, Mar. 4. Mandleberg, Goodman, Charles. Redely fe, Victoria Park,

Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 31. March, Margaret Colley, M.Sc. The University,

Edinburgh.
1901, Dec. 10. Massey, Herbert. Ivy Lea, Burnage, Didsbury, Manchester.
1864, Nov. I. Mather, Sir William, P.C, M.Inst., C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

Iron Works, Salford.

1912, Nov. 26. Melland, Edward. Kia Ora, Hale, Cheshire.

1873, Mar. 18. Melvill, James Cosmo, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Meole Biace
Hall, Shrewsbury.

1915, Nov. 30. Miers, Sir Henry Alexander, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Vice-
Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester.
Birch Heys, Cromwell Range, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1894, Feb. 6. Mond, Robert Ludvvig, M. A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Winning-
ton Hall, ISiorthwich, Cheshire.

1915, Oct. 19. Munro, John Clegg. Clough House, Whaley Bridge.

1912, Nov. 26. Myers, J. E., M.Sc, Beyer Fellow and Assistant Lecturer

in Chemistry in the Victoria University of Manchester.
7, Station Road, Cheadle Htdme, Cheshire.
1908, Jan. 28. Myers, William, Lecturer in Textiles, in the School of
Technology, Manchester University. 7, Station Road.
Cheadle Huline, Cheshire.

1873, Mar. 4. Nicholson, Francis, F.Z.S. Ravenscroft, Windermere,

Westmorland.

1884, April 15. Okell, Samuel, F. R.A.S. Overley, Langham Road,
Bowdon, Cheshire.

191 5, Oct. 19. Pemberton, William Granville, Technical Chemist, 49,

Acresfield Road, Pendleton.
1901. Oct. 29. Petavel, J. E., B.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., Professor of Engi-
neering in the Victoria University of Manchester. The
University, Manchester.

1903, Dec. 15. Prentice, Bertram, Ph.D., D.S., Principal, Royal Technical

Institute, Salford. Isca Mount, Manchester Road,
Swinton.

1901, Dec. 10. Ramsden, Herbert, M.D. (Lond.), M.B., Ch.B. (Vict.).
Sunnyside, Dobcross, near Oldham, Lancashire.

1913, Jan. 7. Renold, Hans, M.I.Mech.E. Priestnall Hey, Heaton

ALersey, near Manchester.

1910, Oct. 4. Rhead, E. L., M.ScTech., F.I.C., Lecturer in Metallurgy

and Assaying, The Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester. Stonycroft, Polygon Avenue, Levenshulme,
Manchester.

1914, Nov. 3. Richardson, Harry, M.Sc, Demonstrator in Physics, The

Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. 98,
Dudley Road, Whalley Range, Manchester.

1912, Oct. 29. Roberts, A. W. Rymer, M.A. The Common, Windermere.

1880, Mar. 23. Roberts, D. Lloyd, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P. (Lond.).
Ravenswood, Broughton Park, Manchester.

1911, Jan. 10. Robinson, Robert, D.Sc. (Vict.), Professor in the University

of Liverpool. The University, Liverpool.

19 16, Oct. 31. Robinson, Wilfrid, M.Sc. (Mane), B.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer

in Economic Botany in the Victoria University of
Manchester. 23, North Avenue, Garden Village,

Levenshulme, Manchester.
1897, Oct. 19 Rothwell, Alderman William Thomas, J. P., Heath
Brewery, Newton Heath, near Manchester.

xl. Ordinary Members.

Date of Election

1916, Nov. 28. Rowe, Frederick Maurice, M.Sc. , Research Chemist in
Dyestuffs, The Municipal School of Technolog)-,
Manchester. 5, Woodbine Terrace, Latchford.

1907, Oct. 15. Rutherford, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Langworthy
Professor of Physics in the University of Manchester. '
17, Wilinslow Koad, Withington, Manchester.

1909, Jan. 26. Schmitz, Hermann Emil, M. A., B.Sc, Physics Master at

the Manchester Grammar School. 15, Brighton Grove,

Rushohne, Manchester.
1873, Nov. 18. Schuster, Arthur, Sc.D., Ph.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.,

Honorary Professor of Physics in the Victoria University

of Manchester. Yeldhall, Twyford, Berks.
1898, Jan. 25. Schwabe, Louis. Hart Hill, Eccles Old Road, Pendleton,

Manchester.
1890, Nov. 4. Sidebotham, Edward John, M.A., M.B., M.R.C.S.,

Erlesdene, Bozvdon, Cheshire.
1915, Nov. 28. Simon, Councillor Ernest Darwin. Moorlands, Fog Lane,

Didsbitry, Manchester.

19 10, Oct. 4. Smith, Grafton Elliot, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of

Anatomy in the University of Manchester. The

University, Manchester.
1906, Nov. 27. Smith, Norman, D.Sc. Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry in

the Victoria University of Manchester. The University,

Manchester.
19 1 7, April 3. Soper, Herbert Edward M.A., Electrical Engineer. 81,

Aloston Lane, Failsivorth.
1895, Feb 18. Spence, David. Lozvood, Hindhead, Haslemere, R.S.O.,

Surrey.
1901, Dec. 10. Spence, Howard. Cjo Messrs. Peter Spence &^ Sons, Ltd.,

Manchester Alum Works, Manchester.

191 1, Oct. 17. Start, Laura, Lecturer in Art and Handicraft in the

University of Manchester. Moor View, Mayfield Road,
Kersal, JManchester.
1897, Nov. 30. Stromeyer, C.E., M.Inst.C.E.,M.Inst.M.E., M.L&S.Inst.
Steam Users'" Association, 9, Mount Street, Albert Square,
Manchester, and Lancejield, West Didsbury.

1910, Oct. 18. Tattersall, Walter Medley, D.Sc, Keeper of the

Manchester Museum. llie Manchester Museum, The
University, Manchester.

1895, April 9. Tattoo, Reginald A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the Mersey

and Irwell Joint Committee.
1893, Nov. 14. Taylor, R. L., F.C.S., F.LC. Central High School for

Boys, Manchester, and 37, Mayfield Road, Whalley

Range, Manchester.
i9ii,Oct. 17. Thoday, D., M.A., Lecturer in Plant Physiology in the

University of .Manchester. The University, Manchester.

1911, Jan. 10. Thomson, J. Stuart, M.Sc. ( Mane), Ph. D.(Bern),F.R.S.E.,

F.L.S., Senior Demonstrator in Zoology in the Victoria
University of Manchester. The University, Manchester.
1773, April 15. Thomson, 'William, F.R.S.E., F.LC, F.C.S. Royal
Institution , Manchester.

1896, Jan. 21. Thorburn, \VilIiam, M.D., B.Sc. 2, St. Petei' s Square,

Manchester.
1899, Oct. 17. Todd, William Henry. Greenfield, Parsonage Road,
Flixton, near Manchester.

Ordinary Members. xlL

Date of Election.

1909, Jan. 26. Varley, George Percy, M.Sc. (Vic. ), Central High School

for Boys, Manchester. 19, JMayfield Road, Whalley

Kani;e, Manchester.

1912, Oct. 15. Walker, Miles, M.A., M.I.E.E., Professor of Electrical
Engineering, the Municipal School of Technology,
Manchester.
1873, Nov. 18. Waters, Arthur William, F.L.S., F.G.S. AlderUy,

McKinley Road, Bournemouth.
1906, Nov. 13. Watson, D.M.S., M.Sc, Dye House. School of Technology,.

Manchester.
1892, Nov. 15. Weiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.S., Professor of
Botany in the Victoria University of Manchester. Easedale,
Disley, Cheshire.
1909, Fel). 9. Weizmann, Charles, Pli.D., D.Sc, Reader in Bio Chemistry
in the Victoria University of Manchester. The University ,
Manchester.
Welldon, Rt. Rev. j. E. C, D.D., Dean of Manchester.

The Deanery. Manchester.
West, Tom, R.Sc, Chemist and Metallurgist. loi. Spring

Bank Street, .Stalyhridge, near Manchester.
Wigglesworth, Grace, M.Sc, Botanical Department of the

Manchester Museum. 7'he University, Manchester.

Wild, Robert B., M.D., M.Sc. F.R.C.P., Professor of

Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the Victoria

University of Manchester. 96, Mosley Sti-eet, Manchester.

Wilde, Henry, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley

Edi^e, Cheshire.
Wolfenden, John Henry, B.Sc (Lond.), A.R.S.C. (Lond.),.
Assistant Master in the Central High School for Boys,
Whitworth Street, Manchester. 5, Ashton Road East,
Failsworth.
Woodall, Herbert J., A. R.C.S. 32, Market Place, Stockport.
Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E. Kirkstyles,
Duffield, near Derby.

1908, May

12.

irii, Oct.

17-

1917, Oct.

16.

1901, Oct.

I.

1859, Jan.

25-

1909, Jan.

26.

1905, Oct.
i860, April
1895, Jan.

17-

8.

N.B. — Of the above list the following have compounded for their
subscriptions, and are therefore life members.

Bailey, Charles, M.Sc, F.L.S.

Worthington, Wm. Barton, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E.

xlii. Honorary Members.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Date of Election

1892, April 26. Abney, Sir William de W., K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S.

RatliDiore Lodge, Bolton Gardens South, South Kensington^

London, S. IV.

1894, April 17. Appell, Paul, Membre de I'lnstitut, Professor of Theoretical

Mechanics. Faculti des Sciences, Paris.

1892, April 26. Baeyer, Adolf von, For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Munich, i, A7-cisstrasse, Munich,

1886, Feb. 9. Baker, John Gilbert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 3, Cumberland
Road, Kczv.

1889, April 30. Carruthers, William, F. R.S., F.L.S. 44, Central Hill,
Norwood, London, S.E.

1903, April 28. Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, D.Sc. United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1866, Oct. 30. Clifton, Robert Bellamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Oxford. 3, Bardtvell Road, Banbury Road, Oxford.

1892, April 26. Curtius, Theodor, Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Kiel. Uni7,<ersitat, Kiel.

1892, April 26. Darboux, J. Gaston, Membre de I'lnstitut, Secretaire per-
petuel de I'Academie des Sciences, Doyen honoraire de
la Faculte des Sciences. 3, Rue Mazarine, Paris.

1900, April 24. Dewar, Sir James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,V.P.C.S.,
FuUerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.
Royal Lnstitution, Albemarle Street, London, IV.

1892, April 26. Edison, Thomas Alva. Orange, N./., U.S.A.

1895, April 30. Elster, Julius, Ph.D. 6, Lessingstrasse, Wolfenbiittel.
1900, April24. Ewing, Sir J. Alfred, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,

Director of Naval Education to the Admiralty. 16,
Moray Place, Edinburgh.

1889, April 30. Farlow, W. G., Professor of Botany at Harvard College.
Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass, U.S.A.

1900, April 24. Forsyth, Andrew Russell, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Professor of Mathematics at the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. The Lniperial College of
Science and Technology, S. Kensington, London.

1892, April 26. Ftirbringer, Max, Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Heidelberg. Universitiit, Heidelberg.

1895, April 30. Geitel, Hans. 6, Lessin^strasse, Wolfenbiittel.

1894, April 17. Glaisher, J. W. L., Sc.D., F.R.S. Trinity College,

Cambridge.
1894, April 17. Gouy, A., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor

of Physics in the University of Lyons. Faculti! des

Sciences, Lyons.

Honorary Members. xHii.

Date of Election

1900, April 24. Haeckel, Ernst, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology in the

University of Jena. Zoolooisches Institut, Jena.
1894, April 17. Ilarcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.X., D.C.L., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

St. Clare, Kyde, Isle of Wight.
1894, April 17. Heaviside, Oliver, Ph.D., F.R.S. Homefield, Lower

Warbeny, Torquay.
1892, April 26. Hill, G. W. West Nyack, N. V., U.S.A.
1888, April 17. Hittorf, Johann Wilhelm, Professor of Physics at Miinster,

Polytechnicum , Miinster.

1892, April 26. Klein, Felix, Ph.D., For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb. Inst.

Fr. (Acad. Sci. ), Professor of Mathematics in the

University of Gdttingen. 3, Wilhelm Weber Strasse,

Gdttingen,
1894, April 17. Konigsberger, Leo, Professor of Mathematics in the

University of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelberg.

1902, May 13. Larmor, Sir Joseph, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. ,

F. R. A. S. St. John'' s College, Cambridge.
1892, April 26. Liebermann, C, Professor of Chemistry in the University

of Berlin. 29, Mat thai- Kirch Strasse, Berlin.
1887, April 19. Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. ,

Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.). Hill Observatory,

Salcombe Regis., Sidmouth, Devon.
1902, May 13. Lodge, Sir Oliver Joseph, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal

of the University of Birmingham The University,

Birmingham .
1900, April 24. Lorentz, Henrik, Anton, For. Mem. R.S., Corr. Memb.

Inst. Fr. (Acad. Sci.), Professor of Physics in the

University of Haarlem. Zijhveg, 76, Haarlem.

1862, April 26. Marshall, Alfred, M.A., formerly Professor of Political

Economy in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft,

Madingley Road, Catnbridge.
189s, April 30. Mittag-LefHer, Gosta, D.C. L. (Oxon.), For. Mem. R.S.,

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Stockholm,

Djursholm, Stockholm.

1910, April 5. Nernst, Geh. Prof Dr. Walter, Director of the Physikal-
Chemisches Institut in the University of Berlin. Am
Karlsbad 26a, Berlin, W. 35.

1902, May 13. Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Professor of Vertebrate Paleon-
tology at Columbia College. American Museum of
Natural History, W. T] Street, New York, U.S.A.

1902, May 13. Ostwald, W., Professor of Chemistry. Groszbotheti, Kgr.
Sachs en.

1899, April 25. Palgrave, Sir Robert H. Inglis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Henstead

Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.
1894, April 17. Pfefifer, Wilhelm, For. Mem. R. S., Professor of Botany in

the University of Leipsic. Botanisches Institut, Leipsic.

1892, April 26. Quincke, G. H., For. Mem. R.S., Professor of Physics in
the University of Heidelberg. Universitdt, Heidelbero.

xliv. Honorary Members.

Date of Election

1886, ?'eb. 9. Rayleigh, Right Hon. John William Strutt, Lord, O.M.,

M.A., D.C.L. (Oxon.), Sc.D. (Cantab.), LL.D. (Univ.

McGill), F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Corr. Memb. Inst. Fr.

(Acad. Sci. ), Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.

Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
1900, April 24. Ridgway, Robert, Curator of the Department of Birds, U.S.

National Museum. Brook/and, District of Columbia,

U.S.A.

1902, May 13 Scott, Dukinfield, Henry, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. East Oakley House, Oakley, Hants.

1892, April 26. Thi.stleton-Dyer, Sir William T., K.C. M.G., CLE., M.A.,
Sc.D., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Lately Director Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. IVie Ferns, Witcombe,
Gloucester.

1895, April 30. Thomson, Sir Joseph John, O.M., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics in the
University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1894, April 17. Thorpe, Sir T. Edward, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc, LL.D.,
F. R. S. , V. P. C. S. Whinfield, Salcombe, S. Devoti.

1894, April 17. Vines, Sidney Howard, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S. ,
Sherardian Professor of Botany in the University of
Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

1894, April 17. Warburg, Emil, Professor of Physics at the Physical
Institute, Berlin Physikalisches Institut, Neue Wilhelm-
strasse, Berlin.

CHANGES OF ADDRESS.

Members are particularly requested to inform the Secretaries
of any errors in their addresses or descriptions.

AWARDS OF THE DALTON MEDAL.

1898. Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.R.S.

1900. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S.

1903. Prof. Osborne Reynolds, LLD., F.R.S.

The Wilde Lectures. xlv.

THE WILDE LECTURES.

1897. (July 2) " On the Nature of the Rdntgen Rays." By

Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart, F.R.S. {28 pp.)

1898. (Miar. 29.) " On the Physical Basis of Psychical

Events." By 'Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S.,
(46 pp.)

1899. (Mar. 28.) "The newly discovered Elements; and

their Irelation to the Kinetic Theory of Gases." By
Professor William Ramsay, F.R.S. (ig pp.)

1900. (Feb. 113.) " The Mechanical Principles of Flight."

By the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. (26 pp.)

190,1. (April 2,2.) " Sur la Flore du Corps Humain." By

Dr. Elie MetschnikoFF, For.Mem.R.S. (38 pp.)

1902. (Feb. 25.) " On the Evolution of the Mental Facul-

ties in relation to some Fundamental Principles of
Motion." By Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S. (34 pp.,
3 pis.)

1903. (May 19.) "The Atomic Theory." By Professor

F. W. Clarke, D.Sc. (32 pp.)

1904. (Feb. 23.) "The Evolution of Matter as revealed by

the Radio-active Elements." By Frederick
Soddy, M.A. C42 pp.)

1905. (Feb. 28.) " The Early History of Seed-bearing

Plants, as recorded in the Carboniferous Flora."
By Dr. D. H. ScOTT, F.R.S. C32 pp., 3 pis)

1906. (March 20.) "Total Solar Eclipses." By Professor

H. H. Turner, D.Sc, F.R.S. (32 pp.)

1907. (February 18.) "The Structure of Metals." By Dr.

J. A. EwiNG, F.R.S., M.lnst.C.E. (20 pp., 5 pis.,
5 text -figs.)

1908. (March 3.) " On the Physical Aspect of (the Atomic

Theory." By Professor J. Larmor, Sec. R.S.

C54 PP-)

1909. (March 9.) " On the Influence of Moisture on

Chemical Change in Gases." By Dr. H. Brereton
Baker, F.R.S. (8 pp.)

1910. (March 22.) " Recent Contributions to Theories

Regarding the Internal Structure of the Earth."
By Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I./E., D.Sc,
F.R.S.

SPECIAL LECTURES.

1913. (March 4.) "The Plant and the Soil." B^y A. D.

Hall, M.A., F.R.S.

1914. (March 18.) "Crystalline Structure as revealed by

Z-rays." By Professor W. H. Bragg, M.A., F.R.S.

191 5. (May 4.) "The Place of Science in History." By

Professor JULius MacLeod, D.Sc

xlvi.

List of Presidents of the Society,

LIST OF PRESIDENTS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of Election

1781.

782-1786
787-1789
789-1804
805-1806
807-1S09

1809.
809-1S16
816-1844
844-1847
848-1850
851-1854

855-1859
860-1861
862-1863
864-1865
866-1867
868-1869
870-1871
872-1873

874-1875
876-1877
878-1879
880-1S81
8S2-1S83
884-18S5
1886.
1887.

1888-1889.

1890-1891.

1892.1893.

1894-1896.
1896.

1897-1899.

1899-1901.

I 901 -1903.

1903-1905.

1905-1907.

1907-1909.

1909-1911.

1911-1913.

1913-1915.

1915-1917.
1917.

peter MAINWARING, M.D., JAMES MASSEY.
JAMES MASSEY, THOMAS rERCTVAL, M.D., F.R.S.
JAMES MASSEY.

THOMAS PERCIVAL, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. GEORGE WALKER, E.R.S.
THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.
*TOHN HULL, M.D., F.L.S.
THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S.
JOHN DALTON, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD HOLME, M.D., F.L.S.
EATON HODGKINSON, F.R.S., F.G.S.
JOHN MOORE, F.L.S.

Sii'r WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
ROBERT ANGUS SMITH, Ph.D.. F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD WILLIAM BINNEY, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir HENRY "ENEIELD ROSCOE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
WILLIAM CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.
ROBERT DUKINFIELD DARBISHIRE, B.A., F.G.S.
BALFOUR STEWART, LL.D., F.R.S.
OSBORNE REYNOLDS, LL.D., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
ARTHUR SCHUSTER Ph.D., F.R.S.
HENRY WILDE, D.C.L., F.R.S.
EDWARD SCHUNCK, Ph.D., F.R.S.
JAMES COSMO MELVILL, M.A., F.L.S.
HORACE LAMB, M.A., F.R.S.
CHARLES BAILEY. M.Sc, F.L.S.
W. BOYD DAWIvlNS, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Sir WILLIAM H. BAILEY, M.I.Mech.E.
HAROLD BAILY DIXON, M.A., F.R.S.
FRANCIS JONES, M.Sc, F.R.S.E.
F. E. WEISS, D.Sc, F.L.S.
FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S.
SYDNEY J. MICKSON, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
WILLIAM THOMSON, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., F.I.C.

* Elected .\pril aSth ; resigned office May 5th.

Vol. 6 1 : Part I.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OK

THE MANCHESTER
LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 1916-1917.

CONTENTS.
Memoirs :
I. South African Gorgonacea. By J. Stuart Thomson, M.Sc,

Ph.D., F.R.S.E. With S Plates and S Text-figs. - - pp. 1—56.

{hsiieti se/>ayately., May 20i/i, IQIJ.)

II. The " Mark Stirrup" Collection of Fossil Insects from the Coal
Measures of Commentry (AUier), Central France. By
Herbert Bolton, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.. With ^ Plates pp. 1—32.

(Issued separalety. May nth, IQIJ-)

III. Note on the Acticn of Hydrogen on Sulphuric Acid. By

Francis Jones, M.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. W,th 1 Text-
fig- - - - PP- 1—3-

{fssued sc/'arately, Vehriiary 2-jtJi, 1917.)

IV. An Egyptian Meteorite. By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L.,

F.R.S. pp. 1—2.

{^Issued separately, Marrli. 2jn/, iqij.)

Proceedings -----------pp. i.— xiii.

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July lyth, igiy.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented.
Barnes, C. L. Parallels in Dante and Milton. Manchester, 1917. {Reed.

Coward, T. A. Notes on the Vertebrate Fauna of Cheshire and S. Lan-
cashire. Darwen, 1916. [KecJ. 26IX.J16).

Crocker, E. Science as Enemy and Ally. Birmingham, 1915. {Reed.

7lxi./f6).

Garnett, J. Maxwell. Part Time Secondary Education. Manchester,
191 7. {Reed. 22lin.li7).

London.— British Museum (Natural History). Catalogue of the
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{Reed. 22Jxii.ji6).

. — Guide to Insects Brit. Mus. (Special Guide,

No. 7). By W. G. Ridewood. London, 1916. {Reed. 23Jxii.li6).

. — The Louse and its Relation to Disease. (Econo-
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. — Determination of the Difference in Longitude

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And a set of the Works of Lihnaeus, comprising 25 volumes, presented by
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jPurc/iased.

London.— Ray Society. The Principles of Plant Teratology. Vol. IL
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. — Royal Society. Catalogue of Scientific Papers (1884-1900).

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Vol. 6i : Parts II. and III.

MEMOIRS AND PROCEEDINGS

OF

THE MANCHESTER

LITERARY & PHILOSOPHICAL

SOCIETY, 19 16-19 1 7.

CONTENTS.

Memoirs :

V. — On the contents of a Herbarium of British and Foreign Plants
for presentation to the Victoria University of Manchester.
By Charles Bailey, M.Sc, F.L.S pp.

(Issued separately July I2th, IQIJ.)

VI.— An Ethnological Study of Warfare. By W. J. Perry, B.A.... pp.

{Issued separately June 6t/i, IQIJ.)

VII. — Observations on the Nesting Habits of the Palm Swift, made
by Mr. Arthur Loveridge in German East Africa. By
T. A. Coward, F.Z.S., F.E.S. pp.

{Issued si:parately May ijth, igij.)

VIII. — On the Atomic "Weight of Tellurium in Relation to the Multiple
Proportions of the Atomic Weights of other Simple Bodies.
By Henry Wilde, D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S pp.

(Issued separately Jjine iSth, iQiy.)

IX.

-Recent Work on Overvoltage. By Edgar Newbery, D.Sc.

(Issued separately December /^th, igij.)

-18.

-16.

pp. I — 20.

Proceedings

pp. XIV. — XXIV.

Annual Report of the Council, with Obituary Notices of Sir
William Ramsey, K.C.B., Ph.D., Sc.D., M.D.,
F.R.S. ; Dr. Elie Metschnikoff, For. Mem. R.S. pp. xxv.-

Treasurer's Accounts

List of the Council and Members of the Society
List of the Awards of the Dalton Medal

List of the Wilde Lectures

List of the Special Lectures

List of the Presidents of the Society
Title Page and Index

pp-

pp-

XXXI XXXUl

xxxiv. — xliv.

p-

p-

p-

p-

xliv.
xlv.
xlv.
xlvi.

pp-

1. X.

MANCHESTER :
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RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY.

Presented,

Barraclough, S. H, E. — The War Australia and the Engineer. Sydney,
1915. {Reed. 2^lix.li7.)

Bolton, H. — Insects from the British Coal Measures. London, 1917. {Kecd.
28jvi. Ii'j. )

Breinl, Anton. ^Report of the Institute of Tropical Medicine, 1910.
Sydney, 1911. {Reed, sjlix.!/"/.)

Carslaw, H. S. — Teaching of Mathematics in Australia. Sydney, 1914.
{Reed. 2jjix.li7.)

Dean, B. — A Bibliography of Fishes. Vol. i. (American Museum of
Natural History.) New York, 1916. {Reed. iSlvii.lij.)

Elliot, D. G. — A Check list of Mammals of the North American Continent,
West Indies and neighboring seas. (American Museum of Natural
Historj'. ) ( Reed, solvii. \ij. )

London. — Library Association and Athenaeum. Athemeum Subject
Index to Periodicals. Theology and Philosophy, 19 16. London,
1917. {Reed. sSlvi.!!-/.)

Manchester. — List of Books on Engineering and Allied Subjects in the
Christie Library, Manciiester. Manchester, 1917. {Reed, s'/lvi.jjy.)

Ripley, H. Ernestine. — Bibliography of the Published writings of H.
Fairfield Osborn. 1877-1915. New York, 1916. {Reed. iSlvii. jiy.)

Start, L. E. — Burmese Textiles. — -Bankfield Museum Notes. (No. 7)
Halifax, 1917. {Reed. Sjv.jiy.)

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AMNH LIBRARY

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